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REPORT 


OF THE 


THIRTY-THIRD MEETING 


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BRITISH ASSOCIATION 


FOR THE 


ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; 


HELD AT 


NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE IN AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER 1863. 


LONDON: 
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 
1864, 


PRINTED BY 


TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. 


) 
ALERE FLAMMAM,. 


CONTENTS. 


Oxsrers and Rules of the Association....................00000e bie 
Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement .............. xx 
ame mvcodng if 3 21... SPP UTS, iP eee ev al XX1V 
Members of Council from commencement ..........-.....-.-+.- XXV 
Meoarsand Council, 1863-64 oot). cc serd. on cee ee aside oer XXVill 
Officers of Sectional Committees............0. 0.0.00... 0e beeen Xx1X 
I EES i hn i dd BY anes ooh aes XXX 
Report of the Council to the General Committee ................ XXXi 
Report of the Kew Committee, 1862-63+ ..........0000 0.00000. XXxi 
Report of the Parliamentary Committee...............00...0.0. XXXVlil 
Recommendations of the General Committee for Additional Reports 
Semereenourches in Science .. ... 25... ae ysis osiiy seen ccvis vows XXXIX 
EMRMSUGGRTEG esis Scie as od ee ss Hea eee a dee wie xiii 
General Statement of Sums paid on account of Grants for Scientific 
DIE A. he ST Toe verte PES ae Mae See era eae xly 
Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee ............ 


1 
Arrangement of the General Meetings ......................5. 1 
Address of the President, Sir Wu. G. Arwstrone, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S. li 


REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. 


Report on the Application of Gun-cotton to Warlike purposes. By a 
Committee, consisting of J. H. Grapsronz, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor 
W. A. Mitrer, M.D., F.R.S., and Professor E. Franx1anp, Ph: D., 
F.R.S., from Section B.; and W. Farrsarrn, LL.D., F.R.S., Josepx 
Waitworrn, F.R.S., James Nasmyra, ©.E., F.R.A.S., J. Scorr 
Russett, C.E., F.R.S., Jomn Anperson, C.E., and Sir W. G. Aru- 
strone, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., from Section G. (Plates By i ga 1 


lv CONTENTS. 


Report on the Chemical Nature of Alloys. By A. Marrnaressgn, F.R.S., 
Lecturer on Chemistry in St. Mary’s Hospital. (Plate V.)........ 


On the Chemical and Mineralogical Constitution of the Granites of 
Donegal, and of the Rocks associated with them. By a Committee, 
consisting of Rosrrr H. Scorr, Sir R. Grirrira, Bart., and the Rev. 
SS LUAG ETON MSD) USEC Ss ce, sk ave alc a's & ctdyare wu ele 5) eres sete eee 


Report of the Committee appointed for Exploring the Coasts of Shetland 
by means of the Dredge. By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, F.RS........... 


Report on the Physiological Effects of the Bromide of Ammonium. By 
Georce D. Gres, M.D., M.A., F.G.S., F.A.8., Physician to the West 
London Hospital, and Assistant-Physician and Medical Registrar to 
the: Wesuumeier Hospital, Tandon... ccc. ose cos hee oe one 


On the Transmutation of Spectral Rays.—Part I. By Dr. C. K. Axi, 


Report of the Committee on Fog Signals. By the Rey. Dr. Roxrnson. . 


Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance. By a Committee, consist- 
ing of Professor Wueatstone, Professor’ Witttamsoy, Mr. C. F. 
Vartry, Professor Tuomson, Mr. Batrour Srewarr, Mr. C. W. 
Sremens, Dr. A. Matrutessen, Professor Maxwett, Professor MILLER, 


Dr. Joutz, Mr. Fireemrne Jenxrtn, Dr. Essenpacu, and Sir C. Brien. | 


Mate VL). Fo eas ce. ical ae y+ 2s son dt hevnize Neots viene) Mapes 


Abstract of Report by the Indian Government on the Foods used by the 
Free and Jail Populations of India. By Epwarp Suirn, M.D., LL.B., 
F.R.S., Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, Assistant Physician 
to the Hospital for Consumption at Brompton, &c. .............. 


Synthetical Researches on the Formation of Minerals, &e. By M. 
IATPHONSE GAGES fied voc hele ceo tara tia tat at Tule eee ce ele ass Neieme 


Preliminary Report on the Experimental Determination of the Tempe- 
ratures of Volcanic Foci, and of the Temperature, State of Saturation, 
and Velocity of the issuing Gases and Vapours. By Roperr Matter, 
aes eG... ae Maer e Tas cle es ss ss see hare ogee 


Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1862-63. By a Com- 
mittee, consisting of James Graisper, F.R.S., of the Royal Observa- 
tory, Greenwich, Secretary to the British Meteorological Society, &e. ; 
Rozert P. Gree, F.G.8., &c.; E. W. Brayrey, F.R.S., &.; and 
ATX ANDER: Sty PERRSOEENS Wb aA werd erodetei ere “yah Sie ibys sl cares oe me ve 


Fifth Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance (Plates VII. 
de WEL ye et 2 Sa terereres! os Lats ceniecie ae sain 


Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Reproductive 
System in the Hydroida. By Grorcr J. Atuman, M.D., F.R.C.S.1., 
F.RS., F.R.S.E., M.R.1.A., Regius Professor of Natural History in 
the University of Edinburgh ........,....- sees cece eeen serene 


Page 


111 


176 


203 


208 


209 


339 


CONTENTS. 


-An Account of Meteorological and Physical Observations in Five Bal- 


loon Ascents in the year 1863 (in continuation of Eight made in the 
preceding year), under the auspices of the Committee of the British 
Association for the Advancement of Science, by James GuaIsHER, 
F.R.S., at the request of the Committee, consisting of Colonel Sykes, 
The Astronomer Royal, Lord Wrottesley, Sir D. Brewster, Sir. J. Her- 
schel, Dr. Lloyd, Admiral FitzRoy, Dr. Lee, Dr. Robinson, Mr. Gassiot, 
Mr. Glaisher, Prof. Tyndall, Dr. Fairbairn, and Dr. W. A. Miller 


Supplementary Report on the Present State of our Knowledge with 
regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North America. By 
MPREEL EOARPENTER. B.A A ED), cc, seca 'e dors ops eie pl te ons) 61s ays. aie 


Report on Steam-Boiler Explosions. By Professor Arry, F.R.S., Astro- 
RRRERPR UROL, Ltt bx. 220 stk sitd-capiat opetu sn! tiulaes olanttpgs te ap loy 4 «sree ene 


Observations on the Electrical Resistance and Electrification of some 
Insulating Materials under Pressures up to 300 Atmospheres. By 
SIDER INGE Yee Welt .9o. 2 <2 5 ce erties se x ete Mattia es Caw c ee ee 


On the Construction of Iron Ships and the Progress of Iron Shipbuilding 
on the Tyne, Wear, and Tees. By Cuartes M. Parmer .......... 


On the Chemical Manufactures of the Northern Districts. By Tomas 
Ricwarpson, M.A., F.R.S.E.; J. C. Srevenson, F.C.8S.; and R. C. 
UPEEEA MEL Oy, Shscs 2, Py dns chats Sica oo) EAS ie lei eae eth 


On the Local Manufacture of Lead, Copper, Zinc, Antimony, &c. By 
T. Sopwirn, F.R.S., and T. Ricwarpson, M.A., F.R.S.E., &e....... 


On the Magnesian Limestone of Durham. By Jomn Daeuisn, F.GS., 
MEGEC a eR GRATER. MG Aes rs ols sis, o:a/ae <.ayepeteeatagsugiecals sMeieteunie «(aie 


On the Manufacture of Iron in connexion with the Northumberland and 
Durham Coal-field. By Isaac Lowrn1an Bett, Mayor of Newcastle. 


On the Manufacture of Steel in the Northern District. By Tuomas 
SS ERONECTERS VIC NUD oh che ozo) oI. «5 2) u buel sek sing ss Be Ooi SBabey vipat *nghaeL east ae, 28 


Report on the Theory of Numbers.—Part V. By H. J. Srernen Surru, 


M.A., F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry in the University of 


BIOL e ghee oo Gangs ns RRR OOG CR ee OA EL) 


v 
Page 


517 


686 


688 


694 


768 


vi CONTENTS. 


NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS 


OF 


MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. 


MATHEMATICS anp PHYSICS. 


Martuemarics. 


Page 
Address by Professor W. J. Macquorn Ranging, LL.D., F.R.S., President 


AED EMSECLIOM! fs ieeieierc'ale soit eioleielstlsss 1b ayeislle volels eles elo.nla) efecnitiels neti mUaCiatele 
Mr. W. H. L. RussExu on a certain Class of Mathematical Symbols........ 


Professor SYLVESTER on the Quantity and Centre of Gravity of Figures given 
in Perspective, or Homography...........0eceeeseeeeercceterceereres 


Mr. J. J. WALKER on the Conditions of the Resolvability of Homogeneous 
Algebraical Polynomials into Factors .........: sec eee eee e eee eens 


ASTRONOMY. 


Mr. STEPHEN ALEXANDER on the Augmentation of the Apparent Diameter of 
a Body by its Atmospheric Refraction. ..........cceeeeeeeeeeee erences 


Mr. W. R. Birt on the Selenographical Relations between the Chain of Lunar 
Mountains the Alps with the Mare Imbrium and the Mare Frigoris. (Com- 
municated by, Dr. TuEE.)... 222%. ote 62 sie o's.sine os ojo vielen «nein Bele iae chee s 


Mr. R. S. Brownz on the relative Distances of the Planets from the Sun 
Mr. A. CxaAupET on the Star Chromatoscope. ... 0.00.20 vcuaceemecnceee 


Rey. Dr. E. Hrycxs on the Relationship between the Variation of the Excen- 
tricity of the Earth’s Orbit and the Moon’s Mean Motion in Longitude. ... 


Description of a Solar Eyepiece invented by the Rey. W. R. Dawes. (Com- 
pay resb (ery ratal ahd Dad D2 ota VE 5 crs Oar cH DO Oe Cod yay MOI ry or Sone 


Dr. Lex on the Lunar “Mare Smythii,” the walled Plain “ Rosse,” the “ Perey 
Mountains,” and the newly named Craters, ‘ Phillips,” “ Wrottesley,” 
CO heyallliter-? xd yee MAA ZU UNV LINE vaiarayore/esols ios bio(ors .'s. 0) 6°0)a,01 0/01 ae tegseearets 


Mr. J. J. Murpuy on the Distribution of Heat on the Sun’s Surface, and the 
(Often asinine died) 4p AOU OROOD SC OOROOT OOO TOON OOO a 2cci-c- 


Professor Puinires’s Researches on the Moon ..........0eesseeeeeeeeees 
Professor C. Prazzt SmytTH on the Changing Colour of the Star 95 Herculis. . 


My. B. Stewart on Sun-spots and their connexion with Planetary Configu- 
IOS os Sioa s acne aE NG 4 sino a,x 20> Win, eae Gani einen 


CONTENTS. 


Ligut ann Heat. 


Dr. C. K. Axrn’s Account of Preliminary Experiments on Calcescence...... 


Mr. A. CLauDET on some Phenomena produced by the Refractive Power of 
iLLy LOT. 2a SRR bist 2 RP ces dot se Gee pCr CoD on Bim RO ee PDe sic aaie 


Dr. J. H. Guapstone and Rey. T. P. Daxe on Specific Refractive Energy . . 
Mr. W. Lapp on a New Form of, Syren. 0) 0's, sje <0 os soul pein cveeeeeees 


M. SoxEm’s Tenebroscope, for illustrating the Invisibility of Light. (Exhi- 
bited and described by the Abbé MOIGNO.)..........eseceeeneeseeceees 


M. Sorem on a New Micrometer. (Exhibited and explained by the Abbé 
MORRRES ORIENT SS j0e OEE yea sot oa sins, v0 a a,< aigea dl ans! sie raat edie ara diane Re eae 


Professor Puickur on Spectral Analysis... ......cccncncseccnsescevnce 
Mr. Barnarp 8. Proctor on the Focal Adjustment of the Eye .......... 


Mr. H. Swan on a new kind of Miniature possessing apparent Solidity by 
ean GT se Combi etn Of PTISMAS: sar. a jauce.e ox «wy ald a WP « ididveyninialaiarets a0.8 0/0 


Exectricity, MaGnerism. 


Mr. W. Coox on Bonelli’s Printing Telegraph ........c..ceeeeeeeeceees 
Mr D> H. Hoaues ona Printing Telegraph 065.000 cers e cies oie siereeg ats om 
mr.  W. Lapp on an Acoustic Telegraph... .. 00.4 jne01ee sce dd bipviae ae as bate 

— on an Electromotive Engine.........c. sees nsec ne cece eens 


M. Oupry on Galvanic Copper and its Applications. (Communicated by the 
PaMiALIAEIUCSECEN (DG) tala hs faces. > ala SRC aiavhs, Zia, ¢.a.0, See APC © nates ccka 9 cect 9 «UR 


Specimens of Telegraphic Facsimiles, produced by Caselli’s Method. (Ex- 
hibited and explained by the Abbé MOIGNO.) ....... ccc cece cence nes 


Merrorooey, ETC. 


Professor Buys-BaLLor on the System of Forecasting the Weather pursued 
IEE Pr nieriar sn ssc cle tamed s Cure en Sac tetas ejdaw tiie ates 


Professor CHEVALLIER’s Description of an Instrument for ascertaining the 
peeaneh aeGlioted air Sas, SUES te: US a ee, Soa eee Pn eeN lime coke 


Eee Corriy on the Path of a Meteoric Fireball relatively to the Earth’s 
MEDEA» No -tidd) At DbLTAD Aes). Doe. Pe wea ODOT AE 


DEE reataArnrors or Pope sei) os. Perea, ee ae 
Mr. E; J. Lowx'on Ozone and Ozone Tests ..........cccceccccccccscccs 


Dr. Morrar on the Connexion that exists between Admiral FitzRoy’s “ Cau- 
tion Telegrams ” and the Luminosity of Phosphorus ...............05- 


Abbé Jeannon’s Free Air Barometer and Thermometer, exhibited and ex- 
RE ine “MHERT WEOTONO Once. cose res vee ee roe ke ce ee 


M. Navupet’s Metallic or Holosteric Barometer, exhibited and explained by 
Re PAneenUNGrhns ts hacr irises cs ie eh rs ees sss eet eae ey ge Fe 


Rey. THomas Ranxrn’s Meteorological Observations recorded at Huggate, 
Workshire Yercisews. bias. aoxrioes c 


Mr. H. Scutagintwetr on a new Revolving Scale for Measuring Curved Lines 


i 


yil 


vill CONTENTS. 


P. 
Professor C. Prazzt SmyTuH on a Proof of the Dioptric and Actinic Quality of 
25 


the Atmosphere at a High Elevation .........sccccetsecncecsceevnves 


Mr. Batrour Stewart on the Comparison of the Curves afforded by Self- 
recording Magnetographs at Kew and Lisbon, for July 1863 ............ 


Mri J Was wan one Mercurial Air-bPumpetess<seists sclr ene == celan emanate 


Mr. G. J. Symons’s Description of the Experimental Series of Rain-Gauges 
erected at Calne .......... Ahimpradnnenr neti gixo cain aera tants ctiac yo ie. cory 


Mr. W. Symons on a New Marine and Mountain Barometer ...........+.+ 
on a Maximum Thermometer with a New Index.......... 


Professor W. THoMson on the Result of Reductions of Curves obtained from 
the Self-recording Electrometer at Kew ............0sccereuevesocenens 


CHEMISTRY. 


Address by Professor A. W. WiLt1AMson, F.R.S., President of the Section. . 


Professor ABEL on some Results of Experiments on Lucifer Matches and 
others ieaiped By EMeh On 0, 6. i:u nine 0 si ais.niu 5-00 domme weron Sig oe a aS 


Mr. W. Baker on the Impurities contained in Lead, and their Influence in 
ptseNecbnicalldU Sess. > eve te aaah stata joe a Neuei pie Kieu abode desoroucen beadbdorsiuAclole etols 


Ovid Heal LNT +"; selves Sears eater renee: ae ese eb ren betas eyeraseee tenets 


My. R. Catvertr CrapHam and Mr. Jonn DacuisH on Minerals and Salts 
OTM utnAG © Op DLUS css rey ors, s-ayairessarelvt ther sy Glebe of al cbris lovee dees weerees stele aleve ate ainirat ns 


Mivhiests) COND YSON sIsIaTeCtANTS «;.are rials ieivis Oe nre's\y  ehvllewin tbe othr oleate 
Mr. JoserH Cowen, Jun., on Fire-clay Goods ........ ccc ee eee neeeevees 


Mr. W. Crooxes on the Extraction of Thallium on a large scale from the 
lwe-dust ofp yrites-BUTHOLS*. .tcealaiem sien) apuskers 2 clcisle\ cain eis lelertis Ae. Riaieate 


Mr. Duncan C. Datuas on Photelectric Engraving, and Observations upon 
sundry Processes of Photographic Engraving 


Dr. Joun Davy on the Slacking of Quicklime ...........ssseeereeevenes 


Mr. G. Gorr on a new Gas-Furnace for melting Gold, Silver, Copper, Cast 
Tron, Glass, &c., by means of Coal-gas, without the aid of a bellows or tall 
CHAT AS o.com noo OD hin hark aE Deer o Oto BOR esbentigitocta hy tray 


M. L. Kesster on the Commercial Advantages of a new Carbonate of Soda. 
on Glass-engraving by Hydrofluoric Acid .........+00000. 
on a New System of Evaporating Liquids................ 


Mr. H. Kingour, Are Nitrogen and Carbonic Oxide the Oxide of Carbon in 
different Allotropic or Isomeric States? .........cecsceeceeevessvowes 


Mr. C. T. Maine on the Manufacture of Earthenware at Newcastle ...... 


Dr. A. MATTHTESSEN and Mr. G. C. FosTER on the Constitution and Rational 
Honma vor Nave Obes; ssstercaies leis, ciel le aheldlctass diets SEEN area eke ee aa 


Short Communications on Galvanic Copper, Photolithography, and Photo- 
microscopic Specimens, By the Abbé MoIGNO.............. eee eee ees 


Mr. J. Parrryson on a Deposit in the Gas-tubes of the Cleveland Blast Fur- 
TRIG ae in recite recto Ons NOSE NRA RRR MURR AS cyto. 2 once. 


2 Y 


on Zine, Nickel, and Cobalt in the Cleveland Ironstone .. 


on the various kinds of Pyrites used on the Tyne and 
Neighbourhood in the Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid , 


CC 


‘age 


25 
26 


CONTENTS. ix 


Page 
Dr. T. L. Pureson on a New Method of Measuring the Chemical Action of 
cua Siite TR Re Ber oc or ot > enc Canepa eae. ae kine ba cc ea i 50 
on Musical Sounds produced by Carbon.............45: 50 
——____———— on the Constant Increase of Organic Matter in Cultivated 
litt 2 Uo lo ipoc te Une .c nic epic as Goo cain ois rah d ranenr a heen 51 
The late Mr. Joun Lex’s, and Dr. THomas RicHarpson’s Researches on the 
Manufacture of Prussiate of Potash ........2-.2-e2cc rr cccnasercsevens 51 
Dr. Tuomas RicHarpson on the Separation of Lead and Antimony ...... 52 
and Mr. T. W. Bunnine on the Use of Fuel in 
VIG RETO LGN Seta cst oye)' o's are ofayn'o Kale 6 0\0'S 4 gieig gis a'k5 4 Srepe een RMS Oar 53 
——, Analysis of a Deposit from a Colliery Water con- 
taining Sulphate of Baryta ........ecceeee eect eee e ene nnce ees eenees 54 
Dr. Orro RicHTeER on the Chemical and Physical Principles in connexion 
with the Specific Gravity of Liquid and Solid Substances .............. 54 
Sibel FRING OTe LUGATIUTIN ITE GET OT Fs e; ah oisic) ojevesels are) eletshers)oie)s)aetelolalstatolelel sa olale\els 55 
Mr. R. W. SwInBOURNE on Glass ......:cccsccceccevcveeeersetensenee 55 
Mr. W. Symons on a New Form of Gas-Battery ....... 0c: cscs eee cece 56 
Dr. Murray THomson on the Composition of some New Zealand Lignites.. 56 
M. G. Vitx, Définer par la Végétation l’état moléculaire des Corps. Ana- 
lyser la Force végétale par des Essais raisonnés de Culture ...........+.. 57 
Professor WANKLYN on the Oxidation of Beta-Hexylic Alcohol............ 57 
——____________ 9n Fractional Distillation ....7 2.0.1... .seesseeeees 58 
ireienWw oop on Oxidanion by OZONE .1..:.. . ceame ocjas v0.0 Wle,6.s,0,0,0)0 ofere )oesale 58 
Dr. ZENNER on Impurities in Lead and Molecular Motion ..............+. 58 
GEOLOGY. 
Address by WarineTon W. Smyrtu, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., President of the 
SIRUED a a Se RR PRE De Se Comes mi a ae TEI 59 
Professor D. T. ANsTED on the Metamorphic Origin of the Porphyritic Rocks 
PHMOMA MED TO US ORCRG cris crevete ctacsnt wlats areleleceeelee Aehateevelece o.ecesdvenes ober pitels 64 
—_—_— on a Deposit of Sulphur in Corfu ............00- 64 
Mr. C. Arrwoop on some Facts observed in Weardale ..........-.+0e0e 64 
Mr. W. BaryeripGe on the Pennine Fault in connexion with the Volcanic 
Rocks at the foot of Crossfell ; and with the Tyndale Fault, called “ The 
meee, LPH: oi wcis noite ae. bs sine eypinse 8 geo atime abun SeNede lols 64 
Rey. James Bropie on the Physical Condition of the Earth in the Earlier 
PACH BEE: EADSUOT Yo. oo a on win snssibe eng: P anaynnn apielp ile mala Wis iaie[tialales ob 9. 67 
Mr. ALEXANDER Bryson on Artificially produced Quartzites.............. 67 
Mr. J. AtexanpER Davies on the Causes of Harthquakes and Volcanic 
PRINTS, ori oa» ojninyann ss, o)8iss0ye,#)2» 0) 0,0;5-4.9,5 + nin orulfuipy ee aisle ara.) shesalalnyo/ a auale TR 67 
Dr. Dawson on two new Coal-plants from Nova Scotia .............0006. 67 
Mr. W. Marruias Dunn on the Relations of the Cumberland Coal-field to the 
RUSHES AMOS terre re sue tye ia oa 8 oe. 3 94-000 0s, ane taiace ake cis) ein, elofshensh he shivers) aleid 68 
Dr. Gernitz on a Salamander in the Rothliegendes .................00 0 68 


Mr. R. A. C. Gopwin-AvsTEN on the Alluvial Accumulation in the Valley 
of the Somme and of the Ouse 


x CONTENTS. 


Professor HARKNESS on the Reptiliferous and Footprint Sandstones of the 
North-east, of Scotland) 5 1. oe cere oe coco atin hele elo ee ere vay an terete 


_—_____ onthe iossilsiofithe Staddaw Slates; “F.0y...00..<e- 


on the Hornblendic Greenstones, and their relations to 
the Metamorphic and Silurian Rocks of the County of Tyrone .......... 


Mr. Jonn Hoge on the Fossil Teeth of a Horse found in the Red Clay at 
LOCK LOnmeercee rt Cee eS naira fists ois/s.e ctl aeree seth etnies wie eva'e' soe) eel 


Dr. Harvey B. Hott on the Metamorphic Rocks of the Malvern Hills .. 


Dr. HutBurt on some Facts relating to the Hydrography of the St. Lawrence 
anid siherGmeahWaakesies yy sci tas ace Selects vie ec die ele eielpish dee ela intte omeraererehe 
Mr. J. Gwyn JEFFREYS on the Upper Tertiary Fossils at Uddevalla, in Sweden 
Professor T. Rupert Jones and Mr. J. W. Kirxey, Synopsis of the Bivalved 
Entomostraca of the Carboniferous Strata of Great Britain and Iveland.... 
Sa and Mr. W. K. Parker on some Fossil and 
Recent Foraminifera, collected in Jamaica by the late Lucas Barrett, F.G.S. 
Mr. J. Beers Juxes on certain Markings on some of the Bones of a Megaceros 
hbernicusiately found: im, Irelands .i08)..caile vs lcs 2 Rtas de Cithelals Oetemiee ee 


Professor W. Krye on the Neanderthal Skull, or Reasons for believing it to 
belong to the Clydian Period, and to a Species different from that repre- 
sented by Man 


awe © ae AS 8l 6, a alo 8, % ipen, 6 aie) ere. og vs OC ale 6 \€ 6/6 the a) 6 wre pO 6 ONS S CLeLe hie 


Mr. J. W. Kirxpy on some Fossil Fishes from the Permian Limestone of 
Batlwell Tear SUNGErlANnG |. 4 :s:..s:cieis0s,5s0 days) spaie'a\idis, ss ae ejsi's oleae) a SeenON 


Mr. J. P. Lestery on the Coal-measures of Sydney, Cape Breton .......... 


Mr. Joun Marury on the Discovery of Rock-salt in the New Red Sandstone 
Bip VMAACIES DOU: » xi Ainets ses)e*s s/s. 2 ee ctolate s pee a elsleterelahtae tte dsree atid via meiemeett 
Mr. Cuartes Moore on the Equivalents of the Cleveland Ironstones in the 
\ WSO 10124 CC Pat I RR On Mbarara bh Go cra ac ci = 
—— on the Organic Contents of the Lead Veins of Allen- 
heads,vand other Lead; Veins, of Yorkshire: | ih. .s,.i. «a. cau le saves eee 


Sir R. I. Murcutson’s Observations upon the Permian Group of the North- 
west of England, in communicating the outline of a Memoir thereon by 
iprotnh. HARKNESS and himsell-.:kiavasaes scans ss Ses seme ara eee 


Mr. W. PrncGELLy on the Chronological Value of the Triassic Rocks of De- 
BVOTUSINTE) ss ysve vats ove)d's ‘avec « efetas se MMe ts Ste alate 6/aot ate ny pisreena es aie ore eae 


Professor Puriires on the Drift Beds of Mundesley, Norfolk.............. 


—_——— on the Deposit of the Gravel, Sand, and Loam with Flint 
Implements at St, Acheul. .. 65 ..{s) 20h <Wueiclwth olds ls die out) 2 Geena 


Mr. T. A. Reapwrw on the Recent Discovery of Gold near Bala Lake, Merio- 
ISEASIRED 5's. yerals + G Sobre 00 oot Vk Na wes Boe 8 eee eee 


Mr. G. E. Roperts on some Remains of Bothriolepis ....... 0.00 cece ee eee 


on the Discovery of Elephant and other Mammalian Re- 
mains, in Oxfordshire:\700 4s 2777 20 Sk Re eet ee 


Mr. H. SEELEy on a Help to the Identification of Fossil Bivalve Shells . 
Myr. T. Sopwiru on a Section of the Strata from Hownes Gill to Cross Fell. . 
Mr. H. C. Sorsy on Models illustrating Contortions in Mica-Schist and Slate 


Mr. Groree Tarr’s Description of a Sea-star, Cribellites carbonarius, from the 
Mountain Limestone Formation of Northumberland, with a notice of its 
association with Carboniferous Plants 


Professor J. THomson on the Origin of the Jointed Prismatic Structure in 
Basalts and other Igneous Rocks 


Page 


89 


CONTENTS. X1 


Page 
Mr. NicHotas Woop and Mr. Epwarp F. Boyp on “the Wash,” a remark- 
able Denudation through a Portion of the Coal-field of Durham.......... 89 
ZOOLOGY anv BOTANY, tnctupine PHYSIOLOGY. 
Address by Professor BaLFour, F.R.S., President of the Section .......... 91 
Botany. 
Professor BatFrour’s Description of the Fruit of Clerodendron Thomsone (Balf.), 
from Old Calabar ..... Seen 95 
Mr. T. BewLry’s Description of a New Plant-house. (Communicated by Mr. 
MARY Dake ang ieee Higa me hse ohe'n Fie ous gee eynciale dep. n,2 p's als aside 95 
Mr. Joun Hoge on Proliferous Cones of the Common Larch.............. 95 
—_____—,, List of rarer Phenogamous Plants discovered in the South- 
east of Durham since 1829......... 0. cc cece cere center e neve neenans 96 
Dr. Hutsurt’s Notes on Canadian Forests ......6se sees eeee eee e ee eeeee 96 
Dr. Maxwety T. Masters on certain Influences regulating the Forms of 
BRIO OUC. far revis sass a win, BigiY Dp) male, Hae) ofS ae in bla ie Bes a ee ke Shen B 97 
ZooLoey. 
Mr. Josuua ALDER’s Descriptions of New British Polyzoa, with Remarks on 
some imperfectly known Species ....... 6. sessed ee sere eee eee eee eenes 97 
Mr. C. Spence Bare on a New Species of Lone. .......0 sess eeneseennes 98 
Mr. C. Carter Braxe on the Syndactylous Condition of the Hand in Man 
and the Anthropoid Apes .......-. sees cece ence nee e eee ee teen en eenne 98 
Mr. Grorae 8. Brapy on the Marine Cyclopoid Entomostraca (Calanide), 
with Notices of some Species new to Britain... 1.1.1... s+ sees eee eee eees 99 
on the Zoology of Hylton Dene, near Sunderland.... 100 
Mr. Henry B. Brapy’s Notes on Foraminifera new to the British Fauna .. 100 
Mr. W. Harver Pease on the principal Divisions of the Pacific Fauna. 
(Communicated by Dr. P, P. CARPENTER.) «1.6.6 esses cee eect teen ees 101 
Dr. Jon Davy on the Colour of the Salmon .........se cess ee sereenees 102 
Mr, Grorcr Honee’s List of the British Pycnogonoidea, with Descriptions 
of several New Species .....-. 0 eee ceee eee sense tenet nent e eee eens 102 
Mr. Joun Hoge on the Roman Imperial and Crested Eagles.............. 104 
Mr. T. Jounson on the Attempts to Transport Salmon to Australia ........ 105 
Professor T. Rupert Jones and Mr. W. K. Parker on some Foraminifera 
dredged by the late Mr. Lucas Barrett at Jamaica.......-.-+++++eseeees 105 
Mr. J. Leckensy’s Abstract of the Report of a three-weeks’ Dredging-Cruise 
off Scarborough .........ee reece eee eee e eens e tence eneneneensenes 105 
Mr, A. NewTon on the Irruption of Syrrhaptes paradoxus 2.0.0.2 00eeeees 105 
Rey. AtFreD Mertz Norman on the Morphology of the Ophiuroidea...... 106 
_____—- on British Holothuriadz with reference to 
POW, OPOCICR. oe pe ee ee tne es ns sae tg eens ane sc eces orn noua 106 
Mr. C. W. Peacu on the Occurrence of the Sperm Whale (Physeter macro- 
cephalus) near Wick, N. B. ... 1. cece eee eee eee e eee nenaes 106 
Mr. C. W. Rose on a Monstrosity ina Whiting ......... ss essen eee nee 106 


Mr. H. T. Sraryron on the Generic Characters furnished by the different 
Modes of mining Leaves adopted by the Larvee of Micro-Lepidoptera .... 106 


xii CONTENTS. 


Rey. H. B. TristRAM on some Elucidations of the Geological History of North 
Africa, supplied by its lacustrine Fauna ..........00+ essere eee ee rnnes 
—_______—_——- on certain Facts on the Variation of Species, which point 
to Western Asia as the centre of Creation for the Palearctic Region...... 
Mr. Atrrep R. Waxiace on the Physical Geography of the Malay Archi- 
THENEOY Enno atonn eae Modis ab So DD Dn © HOOD OO DMI EaOn rs mo cid hoor 
on the Geographical Distribution of Animal Life . 


PuHysIoLoay. 


Address by Professor Rotieston, F.R.S., President of the Subsection...... 
Mr. Stewart Cxark on the Ventilation of Barracks and other Public Build- 
iol er.) DONE Ries o's Heneaptins bose eMeRME Haier icicentermr an mintrticks quit 
Dr. CLELAND on the Ligamentous Action of the Long Muscles in Man and 
CHAS? AV IIPIK) dicg MEETS COOH S SBMS SLOG OO oId OU ASHE IG, boop 
on the Change of Attitude which takes place in Infants begin- 

(aay eae) VNU Bn 8 Coruna ei Sind LAM ORE AL ES SOCIO hots Ba 

' Dr. Jomn Davy’s Observations on the Eggs of Birds ...............0000- 


Dr. Emptrton’s Notes on certain Parts of the Anatomy of a Young Chim- 
PTI ce gc he jst erect ela hw\ “ova aye v1dGG ar teegghtoLs 'asearks 07a gis ei. ere ee 


Mr. R. Garner on the Reciprocal Action between Plants and Gases ...... 
on a Parasitical Acarus of the Anodon ...........sss000 


Dr. Grorce D. Grsp’s further Observations on the Normal Position of the 
ISI ELOULUStarcaetors fereiets cyets o.oo) o's sic ynsacte be aycto, orenepels eke wer aRappl cle etodett Le aloes aaa 
———— on Voluntary Closure of the Glottis, independently of 

PHCEA CH OlPEPCAL MIMI whet, ablated decade lala eidiecals « «lhjalesn «tei aeeeinah ta ane 


Mr. A. Hancock on the Renal Organ (the so-called Water System) in the 
NudibranchieteMiollusks 92'Ri22)A oo. e. tins 2k Selita. coe ee eee 


Dr. Junop on the Physiological Effect produced by Apparatus contrived for 
the purpose of causing a Vacuum upon the entire Body, or a part thereof. . 


Dr. Cartes Kipp on how to Restore Drowned Persons, Patients in Chloro- 
POMMVACCLOSM ES: SECS te iacs ole Biotech ON ose nem fatness yeas Wea cies) Speen eee 


Dr. W. Murray on the Investigation of Instinctive Actions .............. 
fo) 


Dr. G. Roprnson on the Practicability of Arresting the Development of Epi- 
demic Diseases by the Internal Use of Antizymotic Agents.............. 


on the Nature and Varieties of Organic Effluvia.......... 


Professor RoLLESTON on the Condition of the Uterus after Delivery in certain 
of the Mammalia: 2.325: o'.4 5255 «a ree dene ee eee ee ee 


Dr. J. SAMUELSON on Life in the Atmosphere ................0seeeseaee 
Dy. E. SmirH on the Dietary of the Lancashire Operatives ................ 
on the Dietaries of the Labouring Classes ................4. 


Dr. Witi1AM TurNER on Cranial Deformities, more especially on the Scapho- 


cophatic Siwy agi: hansen ct ue ton oe k eae e eee as ae a ee 
Mr. Joun Wuire on the Means of passing unharmed through Noxious Gases 
er Vapour: vii te ASQeeGee oe cs ce | sie eae oes eens 2 oe 
Dr. Wi1son on the Coal-Miners of Durham and Northumberland, their Habits 
Mate DSCASENS ela sesso wee en ae cen ny en ne ne 


Page 


107 
107 


107 
108 


109 
AU 
111 


112 
112 


112 


113 
118 
114 


114 
115 
116 
116 


116 
119 


119 
120 


CONTENTS. : x1 


GEOGRAPHY ann ETHNOLOGY. 


Page 
Address by Sir Roprericx I, Murcutsoy, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Pre- ap 
RilenmOtihe SCHON Pot sh phe ciiet ec cc cs on eetcerWewaldsnelneecee ees 126 
Professor ANSTFD on some Curiosities of Physical Geography in the Ionian 
Pe tT 3 STL em cee etched tia 'e lee wielere wi etsinials ales vce se ese 135 
Mr. C. Carrer Buake on some Points in the Cranioscopy of South American 
nae . 20) Ra Ae as Be eieinacecramte cco panticr Go tis nich Com aeacecae icine eR 153 
Mr. R. S. Coarnocx on Celtic Languages........... ccc eee tee cee eens 134 
MrOranr ona. Visit.to Dahomey, 0.2... cece tsp ceee weer see apie sae 155 
Mr. Joun CRAwFuURD on the Commixture of the Races of Man, as affecting 
the Progress of Civilization in Eastern Asia and the Malay and Polynesian 
‘el SES: RRR aI OR aR ORE SNGES SENG eR nmiie iS ACCT Ie in ncino race 135 
—- on the Origin of the Gipsies ...........eeeeeeeeeee 155 
——_ on the so-called Celtic Languages, in reference to the 
MM TTERE UGE CL ERFUCO Ls, cco. e.ese eysue s eoete afelakn ahs tba) olny cid loiatelelehatae aboleioksloqyhayete eke ve)s 135 
a on Sir Charles Lyell’s ‘ Antiquity of Man’ .......... 136 
Mr. Henry Duckworrts on a Human Cranium from Amiens ............ 136 
Captain G. FLemrne on the Ethnology of Eastern Mare bCH UNIS cis'ehs's) ajase'a.a ae 136 
—________——’s Journey from Tientsin (North China) to the Capital of 
PAM i stecissicle bes ota cee ects ee sree ste nnneaneet nen reas ances es 136 
Captain J. A. Grant on the Discovery of the Sources of the Nile.......... 157 
Rey. G. R. Hatt on the Aboriginal Occupation of North Tynedale and Western 
Northumberland: an Illustration of the Social Life of the Northumbrian 
pL eee as. tate atte op er SPREE «Fa oes ehsket =e MMERT oR eToie © pig valsiceie/29S Tn lat ape, 137 
Captain Henprrson on Routes between India and China ............+++5 137 
Baron von Hrvexrn on his Exploration of certain Affluents of the Nile .... 188 


Mr. Joun Hoce on some Old Maps of Africa, placing the Central Equatorial 
Lakes (especially Nyanza and Tanganyika) nearly in their true positions . . 138 


Dr. James Hunt on Anthropological Classification ......... 00sec eee ees 139 
—_____———- on the Physical and Mental Characters of the Negro...... 140 
Mr. J. A. Lapua on some Facts respecting the Great Lakes of North America 140 
Mr. R. Lez on the Extinction of Races ......... cece erent eee e eens 140 
Lord Lovarner on the recent Discovery of Lacustrine Human Habitations in 
MUS ONANILS oo so has Spas mo 3)n hie? eh Arras opneales eR 22 a's nee 141 
The Hon. R. Marsuam on Two Ascents of the Volcano of Misti .......... 143 
Signor Mrant on his Travels towards the Sources of the Nile.............. 145 
Colonel Petty on the Tribes, Trade, and Resotirces around the Shore-line of 
Heme raat Chal, 75 cpdsars <intucnataeioyst isha see MN eUS Blots on» aie fe Bethy whe fds Hhcbake: 145 
Mr. G. Prrrre on the Antiquities of the Orkneys.......... 006s ese ee eens 148 
Captain Beprorp Prm’s proposed Interoceanic and International Transit 
Route through Central America ....... 0. secre eect et eee een n eens 143 
Rev. J. L. Proctor on the Marganza........ cece ese cette eee e eee enes 146 
Mr. E. Roperts and Professor BusK on the Opening of a Cist of the Stone 
Age near the Coast of the Moray Firth «10... se sseeseev eens eens ences 146 
Mr, O. Satvin on the Physical Geography of Guatemala........+..++0+005 146 


Mr. Hermann ScutaGintwetr on Ethnographical Casts .........0eseeee 146 


X1Vv CONTENTS. . 
age 
Mutu Coomara Swamy on the Ethnology of Ceylon, referring especially 
to its Singalese and Tamil Inhabitants ........- 0+ sees seen eee e ee eens 146 


Mr. Wiri1am TurNeER on the Anatomical Characters of the Skull found by 
Pie Drelecwy Ortbic “5s gna e nipivneteyua pheipys = yc ieltes # Tels) opedavgre’ nies rolsyale opadetalslonohat=ds 147 


Mr, ALFRED R. Wawuace on the Varieties of Men in the Malay Archipelago 147 


Mr. W. WHEELwricHr on the Central Argentine Railway from Rosario to 
Cordova, and across the Cordillera of the Andes ..........-+eeeeeeeees 


Professor D. Wixson’s Notice of the Discovery of Three additional Runic In- 
‘scriptions in St. Molio’s Cave, Holy Island, Argyleshire ..........+++++5 148 


Rev. J. E. Woop on the Rivers of the Interior of Australia ............55 148 


ECONOMIC SCIENCE anp STATISTICS. 


Address by Wii11aM Tire, M.P., F.R.S., President of the Section ........ 149 


Lieut.-Colonel Henry C, ALLHUSEN on the Volunteer Force; its Comparative 
Cost, Development, present State and Prospects ..........eseeeeeeeees 
Dr. James Brep on the Vital and Sanitary Statistics of our European Army - 
in India, compared with those of the French Army under like conditions of 


(Clvimamvevenats hi tote ling Glad eos Geb OnE Seaton olrdnocdoneen iain ads 151 
Mr. C. H. BracEsrincE on the Coventry Freehold Land Society.......... 151 
Dr. Camps on the Sanitary Condition of the Troops in India .............. 152 
Mr. W. H. Cuarxiron’s Statistical Account of the Parish of Bellimgham.... 153 
Mr. W. Faxxows on the Origin of the Stockton and Darlington Railway ... 153 
Dr. Hancock on the Difference between Irish and English Poor-law ...... 153 


Mr. James Hrywoop on the Opening and Extension of Durham University 
Academical Endowments 


Gre Vere ely ale) si be 0/0 wpe sins we Ol Wipe bisa es was) es pis) ka erelte 


Remarks.on Native Colonial Schools and Hospitals, from the Sanitary Statistics 
of the Aborigines of British Colonies, collected by Miss NigHTINGALE. (Pre- 
sented, by Jamus Hmywoon, M.A., F.RAS.) 0 oc ce eee etn cece cows sane 155 


Mr. Joun Lams on the Reduction of the Death-rate in Gateshead by Sanitary 
Measures 


Ce 


Mr. FrepErick Purpy on the Decrease of the Agricultural Population of 


Iriel el ela] (oy Be anderen actdsin ood a SUG 6 naOe Bs eS BOR URIoUnS cae 156 
—_____—_————— on the Mortality of Lancashire, &c., during the year 
endedrat/ Mad sum mMenslBos\ je aactetlels oes Cleerctete inet cheat aN Selo RIee Ne. 159 
The late T. C. ANGus’s Statistics of the Tanning Trade of Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne. (Communicated by Mr. JAMES POTTS.) ........... cece ee eeeeees 161 
Colonel Syxxs’s Comparison of the Organization and Cost in detail of the 
English and French Armies for 1863-64 ......... 0... c cece eee cents 163 
Mr. THomas Rosrns’s Observations on Criminals.................0.00005 166 
Mr. W..TrrE on the Paris Improvements and their Cost .................. 168 


MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 


Admiral Sir Epwarp BeLcuer on an Improved Caisson Gate ............ 170 


——_—_——_—__—————’s Description of a Spirit-level Telescope for 
observing Altitudes and obtaining Latitudes Ghdspahdentig of siete = 
artificial Horizons 170 


Ea en. Cl Ue Sf ee 


CONTENTS. XV 
‘ Page 
Amiral Sir Epwarp Bricuer on a Mode of rendering Timber-built Ships Im- 

pregnable and Unsinkable under Moderate Crew Power, as in Leaky Vessels 171 


Mr. Rosert Davison on the Decortication of Cereals...........-..+e0 005 171 
—_—_______——- on Improvements in Machinery and Apparatus for 
ienasmp and Purifying Cask ....0 00.608 e seco ecient cere ven ssenceens 172 
Mr. GrorGce Fawcvs on Improvements in Waggons and Gun-Carriages .... 172 
—_—___________— 9n a New Method of Constructing Boats............ 172 
Captain Doveias Gatton’s Remarks on Armour-Plating for Ships........ 173 
Mr. J. Jameson on Air-Engines and an Air-compressing Apparatus ........ 173 
Mr h sinc on Hxtinguishing Wires... 6. ies we eet wejeiee sielk oe wleleleia'e 174 
Mr. D. D. Mary on the Newcastle and Gateshead Water-Works .......... 175 
Mri eAGw on Bridoe Houndations 5.60.6. cages ve oc sami see) evlne ae 176 
Mr. R. A. Pracocr’s New Plan for Hanging Dock-Gates ................ 177 
Professor W1Lt1amM Potn’s Description of the Large Gyroscope used by Sir 
William G. Armstrong in his investigations on Rifled Projectiles ........ 177 
Mr. C. T. Porter on Richards’s Indicator for Steam-Engines ............ 178 
Mr. ID. Pusrtey on Thompson’s Universal Stopper for Bottles, &e. ........ 180 


Professor W. J. Macquorn Ranxinr’s Investigation on Plane Water-lines . 180 
Mr. Grorer Reprorp’s Description of Corrugated Armour of Steel or Iron 


EIS PEW AE oc cca ic ss ope Sah ar Knee mh Rab MALE, Molo Meeld GE ee oe oes 182 
MrmG a hrcrAnos s hitted: Ordrmanco ts cess nee vcs aes ecient ate vies 182 
My. W. H. Rrcuarpson on the Paper Manufactures of Northumberland and 

eT EI eC Tas) Aa tute: ein seael stator take Shay Ley stakal ooWlenhtalmncme Male A MunketeTS aakd 2. * « 183 
Mr. J. Rosrnson on an Improved Manufacture of Biscuits ................ 183 


Mr. E. Satmon’s Reports and Sections relating to Captain B. Pim’s projected 
Transit Route through Central America, showing the modus operandi of 


Surveying in the Forests of that Country .........ceseee een e ene eees 183 

Mr. W. Smiru’s Portable Machinery or Apparatus for Riveting, Chipping, 
&c., the invention of Mr. J. M‘Farlane Gray, of Liverpool .............. 184 
on a novel Arrangement of Direct-acting Steam-Engines .. 186 


——_—__——— on a novel Method of covering Boilers, Pipes, and Cylinders of 
Steam-Engines for preventing the Radiation of Heat, the invention of Mr. 


James Spence, of H.M. Dockyard, Portsmouth ..............eeeee eens 187 
on an improved Valve and A pparatus for Atmospheric Railways 188 

Mr. Joun SturGEoN on Self-acting Valve Motion for Steam Hammers .... 189 
Mr. R. Taytorson on the Diagonal Principle of Iron Shipbuilding ........ 189 
Dr. WuITE on the Prevention of Fouling of Ships’ Bottoms .............. 189 


List of Papers of which the Abstracts were not received ...............055 191 


ERRATA. 


Page 95, line 3 of note, for was very faint ead is very faint. 
» 96, line 18, for so far as read as far as. 
% 97, 5th line of par. 8, for states read state. 
,, 100, line 12, for takes read take. 
Frame aee telah line of note, for Phil. Mag. xxiv. 2. read Phil. Mag. xxiy. p. 2. 
101, line 20, for colouring-matter or its combustion vead colouring-matter and 
its combustion. 
»» x» in note **, 6th line from bottom of page, for Mr. Wedgwood read Th. 
Wedgwood. 
,, 103, line 12, for were read was. 
,, 9339, middle of page, for Fourth Report read Fifth Report. 


OBJECTS AND RULES 


OF 


THE ASSOCIATION. 


OBJECTS. 


Tue Assocration contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by 
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the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind 
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RULES. 


ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES. 


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1 53, b 


XVill RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. 


The Association consists of the following classes :— 

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GENERAL COMMITTEE. 

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RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. xix 


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OFFICERS. 
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Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the General Committee. 


COUNCIL. 
In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be 
managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council 
may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the 
Meeting. 
PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS. 
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve 
his right of property therein. 
ACCOUNTS. 
The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors 
appointed by the Meeting. 
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MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 


XXV 


Il. Table showing the Names of Members of the British Association who 
have served on the Council in former years. 


Aberdeen, Earl of, LL.D., K.G., K.T., 
F-.R.S. (deceased). 
Acland, Sir Thomas D., Bart., M.A., D.C.L., 
ERS. 


Acland, Professor H. W., M.D., F.R.S. 

Adams, Prof. J. Couch, M.A., D.C.L., FE.R.S. 

Adamson, John, Esq., F.L.S. 

Ainslie, Rey. Gilbert, D.D., Master of Pem- | 
broke Hall, Cambridge. 

Airy,G. B.,M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Astronomer 
Royal. 

Alison, ProfessorW. P.,M.D.,F.R.S.E. (dec). 

Allen, W. J. C., Esq. 

Anderson, Prof. Thomas, M.D. 

Ansted, Professor D. T., M.A., F.R.S. 

Argyll, George Douglas, Duke of, F.R.S. 
L. & E. 


Armstrong, Sir W. G., F.R.S. 

Arnott, Neil, M.D., F.R.S. 

Ashburton, William Bingham, Lord, D.C.L. 

Atkinson, Rt. Hon. R., late Lord Mayor of 
Dublin. 

Babbage, Charles, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. 

Babington, Professor C. C., M.A., F.R.S. 

Baily, Francis, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Baines, Rt. Hon. M. T., M.A., M.P. (dec). 

Baker, Thomas Barwick Lloyd, Esq. 

Balfour, Professor John H., M.D., F.R.S. 

Barker, George, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Beamish, Richard, Esq. .. ERS. 

Beechey, Rear-Admiral, F.R.S. (deceased). 

Bell, Isaac Lowthian, Esq. 

Bell, Professor Thomas, V.P.LS., F.RS. 

Bengough, George, Esq. 

Bentham, George, Esq., Pres.L.S. 

Biddell, George Arthur, Esq. 

Bigge, Charles, Esq. 

Blakiston, Peyton, M-D., F.R.S. 

Boileau, Sir John P., Bart., F.R.S. 

Boyle, Right Hon. D., Lord Justice-General 
(deceased). 

Brady, The Rt. Hon. Maziere, M.R.1.A., Lord 
Chancellor of Ireland. 

Brand, William, Esq. 

Breadalbane, John, Marquis of, K.T., F.R.S. 
(deceased). 

Brewster, Sir David, K.H., D.C.L., LL.D., 
FE.RS. L. & E., Principal of the Uni- 
versity of Edinburgh. 

Brisbane, General Sir Thomas M., Bart., 
K.C.B., G.C.H., D.C.L., F.R.S. (dec*). 

Brodie, Sir B. C., Bart., D.C.L., V.P.R.S. 
(deceased). 

Brooke, Charles, B.A., F.R.S. 

Brown, Robert, D.C.L., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Brunel, Sir M. I., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Buckland, Very Rey. William, D.D., F.R.S., 
Dean of Westminster (deceased). 

Bute, John, Marquis of, K.T. (deceased). 

Carlisle, George Will. Fred., Earl of, F.R.S. 

Carson, Rev. Joseph, F.T.C.D. 

aan Lt.-Gen., Earl of, K.C.B., F.R.S.E. 
(deceased). 

Challis, Rey. J., M.A., F.R.S. 


Chalmers, Rey. T., D.D. (deceased). 
Chance, James, Esq. 

Chester, John Graham, D.D., Lord Bishop of. 
Chevallier, Rev. Temple, B.D., F.R.A.S. 
Christie, Professor S. H., M.A., F.R.S. 
Clapham, R. C., Esq. 

Clare, Peter, Esq., F.R.A.S. (deceased). 
Clark, Rey. Prof., M.D., F.R.S. (Cambridge.) 


| Clark, Henry, M.D. 


Clark, G. 'T., Esq. 

Clear, William, Esq. (deceased). 

Clerke, Major S., K.H., R.E., F.R.S. (dec*). 

Clift, William, Esq., FRS. (deceased). 

Close, Very Rev. F., M.A., Dean of Carlisle. 

Cobbold, John Clievalier: Esq., M.P. 

Colquhoun, J. C., Esq., M.P. (deceased). 

Conybeare, Very Rev. W. D., Dean of Llan- 
daff (deceased). 

Cooper, Sir Henry, M.D. 

Corrie, John, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased) 

Crum, Walter, Esq., F.R.S. 

Currie, William W. allace, Esq. (deceased). 

Dalton, John, D.C. L., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Daniell, Professor J. F, F.R.S. (deceased). 

Darbishire, R. D., Esq., B.A., F.G.S. 

Dartmouth, William, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Darwin, Charles, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. 

Daubeny, Prof. C. G. B., M.D.,LL.D., F.R.S. 

DelaBeche, Sir H. T., C.B., F.R.S., Director- 
Gen. Geol. Surv. United Kingdom (dec*). 

De la Rue, Warren, Ph.D., F.R.S. 

Derby, Earl of, D.C. L., Chancellor of the 
University of Oxford. 

Devonshire, William, Duke of, M.A., D.C.L., 
FE.R.S 


Dickinson, Joseph, M.D., F.R.S. 

Dillwyn, Lewis W., Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Donkin, Professor W. F., M.A., F-.RB.S. 

Dr inkwater, J. E., Esq. (deceased). 

Ducie, The Barl oe FE.R.S. 

Dunraven, The Earl of, F.R.S. 

Kgerton, Sir P. de M. Grey, Bart., M.P., 
F.R.S. 

Eliot, Lord, M.P. 

Ellesmere, Francis, Earl of, F.G.8. (dec*). 

Enniskillen, William, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Estcourt, T. G. B., D.C.L. (deceased). 

Fairbairn, William, LL.D., C.E., F.R.S. 

Faraday, Professor, D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Ferrers, Rey. N. M., M.A. 

FitzRoy, Rear-Admiral, F.R.S. 

Fitzwilliam, The Karl, D.C.L., F.R.S. (dec). 

Fleming, W., M.D. 

Fletcher, Bell, M.D. 

Foote, Lundy E., Esq. 

Forbes, Charles, Esq. (deceased). 

Forbes, Prof. Edward, F.R.S. (deceased). 

Forbes, Prof.J. D., Eh. E.RB.S.,Sec. R.S.E. 
Principal of. the University of St. An- 
drews. 

Fox, Robert Were, Esq., F.R.S. 

Frost, Charles, F.8.A. 

Fuller, Professor, M.A. 


' Galton, Francis, F.R.S., F.G.S. 


xxXvyi 


Gassiot, John P., Esq., F.R.S. 

Gilbert, Davies, D.C. iL, E.R.S. (deceased). 

Gladstone, J. {ekyige D, ERS. 

Goodwin, "The Very Rev. H., D.D., Dean of 
El 


y: 

Gourlie, William, Esq. (deceased). 

Graham, T., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Master of 
the Mint. 

Gray, John E., Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S. 

Gray, Ji onathan, Esq. (deceased). 

Gray, William, Esq., F.G.S. 

Green, Prof. J oseph Henry, D.C.L., F.R.S. 
(deceased). 

Greenough, G. B., Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Griffith, George, M. A., F.C.S 

Griffith, Sir R. Griffith, ‘Bt., i, D., M.R.1.A. 

Grove, W. R., Esq., M.A., "ERS. 

Hallam, Henry, Esq., M. A, F.R.S. (dec!). 

Hamilton, W. J., Hsq., FERS. Sec. G.S. 

Hamilton, Sir Wm. R., LL.D., Astronomer 
Royal of Ireland, M.R.I. A, E.R.AS. 

Hancock, W. Neilson, LL.D. 

Harcourt, Rev. Wm. Vernon. M.A., F.R.S. 

Hardwicke, Charles Philip, Earl of, F.R.S. 

Harford, J. 8., D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Harris, Sir W. Snow, F-.R.S. 

Harrowby, The Earl of, F.R.S. 

Hatfeild, William, a, F.G.S. (deceased). 

Henry, W. C., MD., S. 

Henry, Rev. P. S., D. De President of Queen’s 
College, Belfast. 

Henslow, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.L.S. (dec). 

Herbert, Hon. and Very Rey. 'Wm., LL.D., 
F.1L.S., Dean of Manchester (dec). 

Herschel, Sir John F. W., Bart., M.A., D.C.L., 
E.RB.S. 


Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., F.R.S. 

Heywood, James, Esq., F.R.S. 

Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S. 

Hincks, Rey. Edward, D.D., M.R.T.A. 

Hincks, Rev. Thomas, B.A. 

Hinds, 8., D.D., late Lord Bishop of Norwich 
(deceased). 

Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D. 

Hodgkinson, Professor Haton, F.R.S. (dec®). 

Hodgson, Joseph, Esq., F.R.S. 

Hooker, Sir William J., LL.D., F.R.S. 

Hope, Rev. RS W., M.A. ERS. 

Hopkins, William, Esq., M.A., L.D., F.R.S. 

Horner, Leonard, Esq., F. RS. (deceased). 

Houghton, Lord, D.C.L. 

Hovenden, V. F., Esq., M.A. 

Hugall, J. W., Esq. 

Hunt, Aug. H., Esq., B.A., Ph.D, 

Hutton, Robert, Esq., F.G.S. 

Hutton, William, Esq., F.G.S. (deceased). 

Ibbetson,Capt.L.L. Boscawen, K.R.E.,F.G.S. 

Inglis, Sir R. H., Bart., D.C. Ti M.P. (dec!) 

Inman, Thomas, M. D. 

Jacobs, Bethel, Esq. 

Jameson, Professor R., F-R.S. (deceased). 

Jardine, Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.E. 

Jeffreys, John Gwyn, Esq., FRS. 

Jellett, Rey. Professor. 

Jenyns, Rev. Leonard, F.LS. 

Jerrard, H. B., Esq 

Jeune, The Right bey, F., D.C.L. 


REPORT—1863. 


Johnston, Right Hon. William, late Lord 
Provost of Edinburgh. 

Johnston, Prof. J. F. W., M.A., FBS. 
(deceased). 

Keleher, William, Esq. (deceased). 

Kelland, Rev. Prof. P., M.A., F.R.S. L. & E. 

Kildare, The Marquis ‘of, 

Lankester, Edwin, M.D., F.R.S. 

Lansdowne, Hen. , Marquis of, D.C.L.,F.RB.S. 

Larcom, Major, RE,, LL.D., F.RB.S, 

Lardner, Rey. Dr. (deceased), 

Lassell, William, Esq., F.R.S. L, & E. 

Latham, R. G., M.D., E.B.S. 

Lee, Very Rev. John, a) D., F.R.S.E., Prin- 
cipal of the University of Edinburgh 
(deceased). 

Lee, Robert, M.D., F.R.S. 

Lefevre, Right Hon. Charles Shaw, late 
Speaker of the House of Commons. 

Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., F.R.S. 

Liddell, Andrew, Esq. (deceased). 

Liddell, Very Rey. H. G D., Dean of 
Christ Church, Oxford. 

Lindley, Professor J ohn, Ph.D., F.R.S. 

Listowel, The Earl of. 

Liveing, Prof. G. D., M.A., F.C.8. 

Lloyd, Rey. B., DD. Provost of Trin. Coll., 
Dublin (deceased). 

Lloyd, Rev. H., D.D., D.C.L., F.B.S. L.&E., 
M.R.LA. 

Londesborough, Lord, F.R.S. (deceased). 

Lubbock, Sir John W., Bart., M.A., F.R.S. 

Luby, Rev. Thomas. 

Lyell, Sir Charles, Bart., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., 
E.R.S. 

MacCullagh, Prof., D.C.L., M.R.1.A. (dec*). 

MacDonnell, Rey. R., D.D., M.R.I.A., Pro- 
vost of Trinity College, Dublin. 

Macfarlane, The Very Rev. Principal. (dec*). 

MacGee, William, M.D. 

MacLeay, William Sharp, Esq., F.L.S. 

MacNeill, Professor Sir John, F.R.S. 

Malahide, The Lord Talbot de. 

Malcolm, Vice-Ad. Sir Charles, K.C.B. (dec*). 

Maltby, Edward, D.D., F.R.S., late Lord 
Bishop of Durham (deceased). 


| Manchester, J. P. Lee, D.D., Lord Bishop of. 


ar eg Duke of, pee 

Marshall, J. G., Esq., M.A., F.G.S. 

May, Charles, Esq., ERAS. (deceased). 

Meynell, Thomas, Esq., F.L.8. 

Middleton, Sir William F. F., Bart. 

Miller, Professor W. A, M.D., Treas. and 
V.P.R.S. 


Miller, Professor W.H., M.A., For. Sec.R.8. 

Moggridge, Matthew, Esq. 

Moillet, J. D., Esq. (deceased). 

Monteagle, Lord, F.R.S. 

Moody, J. Sadleir, Esq. 

Moody, T. H. C., Esq. 

Moody, T. F., Esq. 

Morley, The Earl of. 

Moseley, Rey. Henry, M.A., F.R.S. 

Mount-Edgecumbe, ErnestAugustus, Ear! of. 

Murchison, Sir Roderick I.,G.C. St.8., D.C.L., 
LLD., E.R.S. 

Neild, Alfred, Esq. © 


MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 


Neill, Patrick, M.D., F.R.S.E, 
Nicol, D., M.D, 
Nicol, Professor J., F.R.S.E., F.G.S8. 
Nicol, Rey. J. P., LL.D. 
Noble, Capt. A., R.A. 
Northampton, Spencer Joshua Alwyne, Mar- 
; quis of, V.P.R.S. (deceased). 
Northumberland, Hugh, Duke of, K.G.,M.A., 
F-.R.S. (deceased). 
Ormerod, G. W., Esq., M.A., F.G.S. 
Orpen, Thomas Herbert, M.D. (deceased). 
Orpen, John H., LL.D. 
Osler, Follett, Esq., F.R.S. 
Owen, Professor Richd.,M.D.,D.C.L.,LL.D., 
FE.R.S 


Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce, D.D., Lord 
Bishop of, F.R.S., F.G.S. 

Palmerston, Viscount, K.G., G.C.B., M.P., 
E.R.S. 

Peacock, Very Rev. G., D.D., Dean of Ely, 
F.R.S. (deceased). 

Peel, Rt.Hon.Sir R.,Bart.,M.P.,D.C.L.(dec*). 

Pendarves, E. W., Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Phillips, Professor John, M.A., LL.D.,F.R.S. 

Phillips, Rev. G., B.D., President of Queen’s 
College, Cambridge. 

Pigott, The Rt. Hon. D. R., M.R.1.A., Lord 
Chief Baron of the Exchequer in Ireland. 

Porter, G. R., Esq. (deceased). 

Portlock,'Major-General,R.E.,LL.D., F.R.S. 

Powell, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.R.S. (dec*). 

Price, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.R.S. 

Prichard, J. C., M.D., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Ramsay, Professor William, M.A. 

Ransome, George, Esq., F.L.S. 

Reid, Maj.-Gen. Sir W., K.C.B., R.E., F.R.S. 
(deceased). 

Rendlesham, Rt. Hon. Lord, M.P. 

Rennie, George, Esq., F.R.S. 

Rennie, Sir John, F.R.S. 

Richardson, Sir John, C.B., M.D., LL.D., 
ERS 


Richmond, Duke of, K.G., F.R.S. (dec*). 

Ripon, Earl of, F.R.G:S. 

Ritchie, Rey. Prof., LL.D., F.R.S. (dec*). 

Robinson, Capt., R.A. 

Robinson, Rey. J., D.D. 

Robinson, Rev. T. R., D.D., F.B.S., F.R.A.S, 

Robison, Sir John, Sec.R.S.Edin. (deceased). 

Roche, James, Esq. 

Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., F.R.S. 

Rolleston, Professor, M.D., F.R.S8. 

Ronalds, Francis, F.R.S. (deceased). 

Roscoe, Professor H. H., B.A., F.R.S. 

Rosebery, The Harl of, K.T., D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Ross, Rear-Admiral Sir J. C., R.N., D.C.L., 
E.R.S. (deceased). 

Rosse, Wm., Harl of, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.L.A. 

Royle, Prof. John F., M.D., F.R.S. (dec*). 

Russell, James, Esq. (deceased). 

Russell, J. Scott, Hsq., F.R.S. 

Sabine, Major-GeneralEdward,R.A., D.C.L., 
LL.D., President of the Royal Society. 

Sanders, William, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S. 

Scoresby, Rev. W., D.D., F.R.S. (deceased). 

ee Rey. Prof. Adam, M.A., D.C.L., 


XXVil 


Selby, Prideaux John, Esq., E.R.S.E. 


| Sharpey, Professor, M.D., Sec.R.8. 


Sims, Dillwyn, Esq. 

Smith, Lieut.-Colonel C. Hamilton, F.R.S. 
(deceased). 

Smith, Prof. H. J. S., M.A., F.B.S. 

Smith, James, F.R.S. L. & E. 

Spence, William, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Spottiswoode, W., M.A., F.R.S. 

Stanley, Edward, D.D., F.R.S., late Lord 
Bishop of Norwich (deceased). 

Staunton, Sir G. T., Bt., M-P., D.C.L., F.B.8. 

St. Dayid’s, C.Thirlwall,D.D.,LordBishop of. 

Stevelly, Professor John, LL.D. 

Stokes, Professor G.G., M.A.,D.C.L.,Sec. B.S. 

Strang, John, Hsq., LL.D. 

Strickland, Hugh E., Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Sykes, Colonel W. H., M.P., F.R.S. 

Symonds, B. P., D.D., Warden of Wadham 
College, Oxford. 

Talbot, W. H. Fox, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. 

Tayler, Rey. John James, B.A. 

Taylor, Hugh, Esq. 

Taylor, John, Hsq., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Taylor, Richard, Hsq., F.G.S. 

Thompson, William, Esq., F.L.S. (deceased). 

Thomson, A., Esq. 

Thomson, Professor William, M.A., F.R.S. 

Tindal, Captain, R.N. (deceased). 

Tite, William, Esq., M.P., F.R.S. 

Tod, James, Hsq., F.R.S.E. 

Tooke, Thomas, F.R.S. (deceased). 

Traill, J. S., M.D. (deceased). 

Trevelyan, Sir W. C., Bart. 

Turner, Edward, M.D., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Turner, Samuel, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.8. (dec*). 

Turner, Rev. W. 

Tyndall, Professor John, F.R.S8. 

Vigors, N. A., D.C.L., F.L.8. (deceased). 

Vivian, J. H., M.P., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Walker, James, Esq., F.R.S8. 

Walker, Joseph N., Esq., F.G-S. 

Walker, Rey. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.S. 

Warburton, Henry, Esq.,M.A., F.R.S.(dec*). 

Ward, W. Sykes, Esq., F.C.S. 

Washington, Captain, R.N., F.R.S. 

Webster, Thomas, M.A., F.R.S. 

West, William, Hsq., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Western, Thomas Burch, Esq. 

Wharncliffe, John Stuart, Lord, F.R.S.(dec*). 

Wheatstone, Professor Charles, F.R.S. 

Whewell, Rey. William, D.D., F.R.S., Master 
of Trinity College, Cambridge. 

White, John F., Esq. 

Williams, Prof. Charles J. B., M.D., F.R.S. 

Willis, Rey. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.S. 

Wills, William, Esq., F.G.S. (deceased). 

Wilson, Thomas, Hsq., M.A. 

Wilson, Prof. W. P. 

Winchester, John, Marquis of. 

Wood, Nicholas, Hsq. 

Woollcombe, Henry, Esq., F.S.A. (deceased). 

Wrottesley, John, Lord, M.A.,D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Yarborough, The Earl of, D.C.L. 

Yarrell, William, Hsq., F.L.S. (deceased). 

Yates, James, Hsq., M.A., F.R.S. 

Yates, J. B., Esq., F.8.A., F.R.GS. (dec). 


OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1863-64. 


TRUSTEES (PERMANENT). 


Sir RopErRtcK I. Murcuison, K.C.B., G.C.St.S., D.C.L., F.R.S. 
Major-General EDWARD SABINE, R.A., D.C.L., Pres. R.S. 
Sir PHILIP DE M. GREY EGERTON, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. 


PRESIDENT. 
Sir WILLIAM G. ARMSTRONG, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS. 


Sir WALTER C. TREVELYAN, Bart., M.A. NicHOLAS Woop, Esq. 
Sir CHARLES LYELL, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S. Rey. TEMPLE CHEVALLIER, B.D., F.R.A.S. 
HvuGu TAYLor, Esq. WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S. 


Isaac LowrHIAN BELL, Esq. 
PRESIDENT ELECT. 
Sir CHARLES LYELL, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.8., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.8. 
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT. 


Lorp PORTMAN. ARTHUR WAY, Esq., M.P. 
MARrQuis OF BATH. TP. H. Dickinson, Esq. 
Lorp NELSON. WILLIAM SANDERS, I’sq., F.G.S. 


WILLIAM TITE, Esq., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S8., F.S.A. 


LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT BATH. 


CHARLES Moore, Esq., F.G-S. 
C. E. Davis, Esq. 
The Rey. H. H. Winwoop. 


LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT BATH. 
THOMAS GILL, Esq. 


ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 


BABINGTON, Prof. C. C., F.R.S. GLapstonE, Dr., F.R.S. PuHILxIiPs, Professor, M.A.,F.R.S. 
BATEMAN, J. F., Esq. GRAHAM, Professor, F.R.S. SHARPEY, Professor, Sec.R.8. 
CRAWFURD, JOHN, Esq., F.R.S. | GROVE, W. R., Esq., F.R.S. | SMirH, Professor Henry, F.R.S. 


DE LA RUE,WARREN, Bsq., F.R.S. | HEYwoon, JAMES, Esq., F.R.S. | SmyTH, Prof. WARINGTON,F.R.S. 
FitzRoy, Admiral, F.R.S. Hoee, Joun, Esq., M.A., F.L.S. | WHEATSTONE, Professor, F.R.S. 

FostrEer, PETER LE NEVE, Esq. Hurron, RoBeErR?, Esq., F.G.S. | WEBSTER, THOMAS, Esq., F.R.S. 
Gassior, J. P., Esq., F.R.S. MILLER, Prof. W. A., M.D., F.R.S. | WILLIAMSON, Prof. A.W., F.R.S. 


EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 


The President and President Elect, the Vice-Presidents and Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and 
Assistant-General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presidents of former years, 
viz.—Rey. Professor Sedgwick. The Duke of Devonshire. Rey. W. V. Harcourt. Rey. W. Whewell, D.D. 
The Earl of Rosse. Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. Sir Roderick I. Murchison, K.C.B. The Rey. 
T. R. Robinson, D.D. Sir David Brewster. G. B. Airy, Esq.,the Astronomer Royal. General Sabine, 
D.C.L. William Hopkins, Esq., LL.D. The Earl of Harrowby. The Duke of Argyll. Professor Dau- 
beny, M.D. The Rey. H. Lloyd, D.D. Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. The Lord Wrottesley. William 
Fairbairn, Esq., LL.D. The Rey. Professor Willis. 


GENERAL SECRETARIES. 


WILLIAM Hopkins, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., St. Peter’s College, Cambridge. 
FRANCIS GALTON, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8., 42 Rutland Gate, Knightsbridge, London. 


ASSISTANT-GENERAL SECRETARY. 
GEORGE GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Deputy eis a eS Experimental Philosophy in the University of 
ord. 


GENERAL TREASURER. 
WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8., 50 Grosvenor Place, London, 8.W. 


LOCAL TREASURERS. 


William Gray, Esq., F.G.S., York. John Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq., F.R.S., Swansea. 

Prof. C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S., Cambridge. Robert Patterson, Esq., F.R.S., Belfust. 

William Brand, Esq., Edinburgh. Edmund Smith, Esq., Hull. 

John H. Orpen, LUD., Dublin. . Richard Beamish, Esq., F.R.S., Chelfenhain. 

William Sanders, Esq., F.G.8., Bristol. John Metcalfe Smith, Esq., Leeds. 

Robert M‘Andrew, Esq., F.R.S., Liverpool. John Forbes White, Esq., Aberdeen. 

W. R. Wills, Esq., Birmingham. Rey. John Griffiths, M.A., Oxford. 

Robert P. Greg, Esq., F.G.8., Manchester. Thomas Hodgkin, Esq., Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
AUDITORS. 


J. P. Gassiot, Esq. Robert Hutton, Esq. James Heywood, Esq. 


OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. XXiX 


OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE 
NEWCASTLE MEETING. 


SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 


President.—W. J. Macquorn Rankine, C.E., F.R.S., L. & E., Professor of Engineer- 
ing in the University of Glasgow. 

Vice-Presidents.—Major-General Sabine, President R.S.; Professor Sylvester, 
F.R.S. ; W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R.S., General Treasurer of the British Asso- 
ciation. 

Secretaries.—Professor Stevelly; Rev. C. T. Whitley, M.A.; Professor Fuller ; 
Rey. N. Ferrers, M.A.; Fleeming Jenkin, C.E. 


SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, INCLUDING THEIR APPLICATIONS 
TO AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTS. 


President.—Alex. W. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in Uni- 
versity College, London, President of the Chemical Society. 

Vice-Presidents.—Dr. Andrews; I. L. Bell, Mayor of Neweastle; J. P. Gassiot, 
F.R.S.; Dr. Gladstone, F.R.S.; Professor W. A. Miller, F.R.S, ; Dr. T. Richard- 
son. 

Secretaries.—Professor Liveing, M.A., F.C.S.; H. L. Pattinson; J. C. Stevenson, 
F.C.S, 


SECTION C,— GEOLOGY. 


President.—Warington W. Smyth, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Mining and 
Mineralogy at the Royal School of Mines, London. 

Vice- Presidents. W. Binney, F.R.S.; Dr. Falconer, F.R.S.; R. Godwin-Austen, 
F.R.S.; J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S.; Professor Phillips, F.R.S. 

Secretaries—H. F. Boyd; John Daglish, F.G.S,; H. C. Sorby, F.R.S,; Thomas 
Sopwith, F.R.8. 


SECTION D.— ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY. 


President.—Professor Balfour, M.D., F.R.S. 

Vice-Presidents—Joshua Alder; Albany Hancock, F.L.S.; John Hogg, M.A., 
FE.R.S.; Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.; J. Gwyn Jefireys, F.R.S.; Richard 
Owen, D.C.L., F.R.S.; Robert Patterson, F.R.S. 

Secretaries—E. Charlton, M.D.; A. Newton, M.A., F.L.S.; Rey. H. B. Tristram, 
M.A., F.L.S.; E. Perceval Wright, M.D., F.R.C.S.L 


SUB-SECTION D.—PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCE, 


President.—Professor Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S. 

Vice-Presidents—John Davy, M.D., F.R.S.; F. W. Pavy, M.D., F.R.S.; Edward 
Smith, M.D., F.R.S8. 

Secretaries— Dennis Embleton, M.D. ; William Turner, M.B., F.R.S.E. 


SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. 


President.—Sir Roderick I. Murchison, K.C.B., G.C.St.S., D.C.L., F.R.S., President 
of the Royal Geographical Society, Director-General of the Geological Survey. 
Vice-Presidents.—J. C. Bruce, LL.D., F.S.A.; J. Crawfurd, F.R.S.; Francis Gal- 
ton, M.A., F.R.S.; Sir John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.; General Sabine, Pre- 
sident R.S. 

Secretaries.—Clements R. Markham, F.S.A., F.R.G.S.; R. S. Watson; C. Carter 
Blake, F.G.S. ; Hume Greenfield, Assistant-Secretary R.G.S. 


Xxx 


REPORT—1863. 


SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS, 


President.—W illiam Tite, M.P., F.R.S. 


Vice-Presidents.—Christian Allhusen ; Neilson Hancock, LL.D.; James Heywood, 
E.R.S.; Sir John Ogilvy, Bart., M.P.; Colonel W. H. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S. 
Secretaries—Frederick Purdy ; Edmund Macrory; Thomas Doubleday; James 


Potts. 


SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 


President.—Rev. Robert Willis, M.A., F.R.S., Jacksonian Professor of Natural and 
Experimental Philosophy in the University of Cambridge. Bi says 
Vice-Presidents.—Professor 8. Downing; J. G. Appold, F.R.S.; W. Fairbairn, 
F.R.S.; J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S.; J. Scott Russell, F.R.S.; James Nasmyth, 
F.R.S.; R. S. Newall; G. W. Rendel; Professor James Thomson, M.A.; 


Thomas Webster, F.R.S. 


Secretaries.—P, Le Neve Foster, M.A.; P. Westmacott, C.E.; J. F. Spencer. 


CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 


Professor Agassiz, Cambridge, Massa- 
chusetts. 

M. Babinet, Paris. 

Dr. A. D. Bache, Washington. 

Dr. D. Bierens de Haan, Amsterdam. 

Professor Bolzani, Kasan. 

Dr. Barth. 

Dr. Bergsma, Utrecht. 

Mr. P. G. Bond, Cambridge, U.S. 

M. Boutigny (d’Evreux). 

Professor Braschmann, Moscow. 

Dr. Carus, Leipzig. 

Dr, Ferdinand Cohn, Breslau. 

M. Antoine d’Abbadie. 

M. De la Rive, Geneva. 

Professor Wilhelm Delffs, Heidelberg. 

Professor Dove, Berlin. 

Professor Dumas, Paris, 

Dr. J. Milne-Edwards, Paris. 

Professor Ehrenberg, Berlin. 

Dr. Eisenlohr, Car/sruhe. 

Professor Encke, Berlin. 

Dr. A. Erman, Berlin. 

Professor A. Escher yon der Linth, 
Zurich, Switzerland. 

Professor Esmark, Christiania, 

Professor A. Fayre, Geneva. 

Professor G. Firchhammer, Copenhagen. 

M. Léon Foucault, Paris. 

Professor E. Fremy, Paris. 

M. Frisiani, Milan. 

Dr. Geinitz, Dresden. 

Professor Asa Gray, Cambridge, US. 

Professor Henry, Washington, U.S, 

Dr. Hochstetter, Vienna. 

M. Jacobi, St. Petersburg. 

Prof. Jessen, Med, et Phil. Dr., Griess- 
wald, Prussia. 

Professor Aug. Kekulé, Ghent, Belgium. 

M. Khanikoff, St. Petersburg. 

Prof. A. Kolliker, Wurzburg. 

Professor De Koninck, Liége. 

Professor Keil, Vienna. 


Dr. A. Kupffer, St. Petersburg. 

Dr. Lamont, Munich. 

Prof. F, Lanza. 

M. Le Verrier, Paris. 

Baron yon Liebig, Munich. 

Professor Loomis, New York. 

Professor Gustay Magnus, Berlin. 

Professor Matteucci, Pisa. 

Professor P. Merian, Bale, Switzerland. 

Professor yon Middendorff, St, Petersburg. 

M. VAbbé Moigno, Paris. 

Professor Nilsson, Sweden. 

Dr. N. Nordenskiold, Finland. 

M. E, Peligot, Paris. 

Prof. B. Pierce, Cambridge, U.S. 

Viscenza Pisani, Florence. 

Gustav Plaar, Strasburg. 

Chevalier Plana, Turin. 

Professor Pliicker, Bonn. 

M. Constant Prévost, Paris. 

M. Quetelet, Brussels. 

Prof. Retzius, Stockholm. 

Professor W. B. Rogers, Boston, U.S. 

Professor H. Rose, Berlin. 

Herman Schlagintweit, Berlin. 

Robert Schlacintweit, Berlin. 

M. Werner Siemens, Vienna. 

Dr. Siljestrom, Stockholm. 

Professor J. A, de Souza, University of 
Coimbra. 

M. Struvé, Pulkowa. 

Dr. Svanberg, Stockholm. 

M. Pierre Tehihatchef. 

Dr. Van der Hoeven, Leyden. 

Professor E. Verdet, Paris, 

M. de Verneuil, Paris. 

Baron Sartorius yon Waltershausen, 
Gottingen. 

Professor Wartmann, Geneva. 

Dr. H. D. Buys Ballot. 

M. Des Cloizeaux. 

Professor Adolph Steen, Copenhagen. 

Dr. Otto Torell, University of Lund, 


REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXXi 


Report of the Council of the British Association, presented to the 
General Committee, Wednesday, August 26, 1863. 


1. The Report of the Kew Committee has been presented at each 
of the Meetings of the Council, and the General Report for the year 
1862-63 has been received, and is now presented to the General 
Committee. 


2. The Report of the Parliamentary Committee has been received 
for presentation to the General Committee this day. 

3. It will be in the recollection of the General Committee that at 
the Cambridge Meeting, when Professor Phillips resigned the office of 
Assistant-General Secretary, which he had held from the beginning of 
the Association, he was prevailed upon to join Mr. Hopkins as Joint- 
General Secretary until the present Meeting. The attention of the 
Council was called to this arrangement on the 5th of June last by Pro- 
fessor Phillips, who, in claiming permission to retire from office, recom- 
mended that in filling this office permanently at the Newcastle Meeting, 
regard should be had to the advantage of having one of the General 
Secretaries resident in London. 

On this a Committee was appointed, consisting of the General Se- 
cretaries, and the gentlemen who had formerly filled that office, for the 
purpose of reporting a recommendation to the Council of a successor to 
Professor Phillips. The Council have received the following Report :— 

« Professor Phillips, F.R.S., having kindly consented, at the re- 
quest of the General Committee of the British Association, to hold, 
in conjunction with Mr. Hopkins, F.R.S., the office of General Se- 
eretary, and being now desirous of retiring from the office; We, the 

undersigned, having been requested by the Council to suggest a 

suitable successor to Professor Phillips, beg to express our unanimous 

opinion that Mr. Francis Galton, M.A., F.R.S., of Trinity College, 

Cambridge, is well qualified to fill the office of Joint-General Secre- 

tary of the Association. « W. V. Harcourt. 

«* R. I. Murcuison. 
“¢ K. Same. 

« W. Hopxrs. 

“ J. Purtrips.” 


4, The Council have been informed that invitations will be presented 
to the General Committee, at its Meeting on Monday, August 31st, 
from Birmingham, Bath, Nottingham, Dundee, Southampton, and the 
Potteries. 


Report of the Kew Committee of the British Association for the 
Advancement of Science for 1862-1863. 


The Committee of the Kew Observatory submit to the Association the 
following statement of their proceedings during the past year. 

It was mentioned in last Report that the Director of the Lisbon Observa- 
tory had requested the Committee to superintend the construction of a set of 
Self-recording Magnetographs. This request has been complied with by the 
Committee, and a set of Self-recording Magnetographs have been constructed 
by Adie under their direction. These, along with a tabulating instrument by 
Gibson, have been verified at Kew, where Sefior Capello, of the Lisbon Obser- 
yatory, resided for some time, in order to become familiar with the working of 
his instruments, 


XAXX1l REPORT—1863. 


This verification was completed in December last, and Sefior Capello then 
left England for Lisbon, taking his instruments with him. These arrived 
safely at their destination ; and so rapid was the progress made with the Ob- 
servatory, that on the 1st of July the building was finished, and the Magneto- 
graphs in continuous operation. 

Mr. Stewart has lately received from Sefior Capello copies of the tracings 
furnished by these instruments from July 14th to 16th, during which period 
a magnetic disturbance occurred simultaneously at Lisbon and at Kew. 
These tracings, along with the corresponding Kew curves, are exhibited to 
the Association. 

When the two sets are viewed side by side, features of resemblance become 
manifest, which appear to show that very great advantage to magnetical 
science will ultimately be derived from the intercomparison of such photo- 
graphic traces taken simultaneously at different localities. 

Mr. Stewart has likewise heard from Sefor De Souza, of the University of 
Coimbra, who writes that, after many preliminary difficulties, his Observatory 
is now making rapid progress towards completion. 

Before his departure from this country, Sefior Capello addressed the follow- 
ing letter to the Chairman of the Kew Committee :— 


“Kew Observatory, November 28, 1862. 

«¢ My prar Srr,—I should much desire to obtain for the Lisbon Observa- 
tory some memorial of my visit to Kew, where I have received much valuable 
instruction in Magnetism, as well as great kindness from yourself, from 
General Sabine, and from other Members of the Kew Committee. 

* Might I request of you, dear Sir, to endeavour to obtain for me a set of 
the ‘ Transactions of the British Association,’ wherewith to enrich our Library 
at Lisbon ? 

«¢ Will you also at the same time kindly permit us to continue sending to 
your Library, as a slight token of our goodwill, the monthly records of our 
Observatory ? 

**T remain, 
“ Dear Sir, 
«Yours sincerely, 
(Signed) “J. C. Barro CapExto.” 
“J. P. Gassiot, Esq., F.RS., 
Chairman of the Kew Committee of the 
British Association.” 


The request of this letter has been complied with by the Council of the 
Association, and a complete set of the ‘ Transactions’ have been despatched 
to Lisbon. 

The Committee have likewise been requested to superintend the construe- 
tion of a set of Self-recording Magnetographs for Prof. Kupffer, of the 
St. Petersburg Central Observatory. These were constructed as before, the 
Magnetographs by Adie, and the tabulating instrument by Gibson; and, 
after having been verified at Kew, they were despatched to St. Petersburg. 

Prof. Kupffer desired also a Differential Vertical-force Magnetometer for 
Pekin, which has likewise been constructed by Adie, and verified at Kew; it 
remains in readiness to be forwarded by the first suitable opportunity to its 
destination. 

In addition to these instruments, Prof. Kupffer is obtaining from Adie a 
Barograph and a Self-registering Anemometer, both of the Kew pattern. 


REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXX 


Prof. Kupffer proposes visiting Kew in October, for the purpose of acquaint- 
ing himself with the mode of working the instruments adopted there. 

Tt was mentioned in last Report that Lieut. Rokeby, of the Royal Marines, 
was desirous of making magnetical and meteorological observations in the 
Island of Ascension during his term of service at that station, and that the 
Board of Trade had sanctioned the expenditure of £60 to provide a suitable 
Observatory. 

Lieut. Rokeby has since been zealously engaged with his observations, and 
has already transmitted the records to General Sabine. 

In order to complete his meteorological equipment, a Self-recording 
Anemometer was necessary, and one of these on the Kew pattern has been 
constructed by Adie, and forwarded to Ascension, for the cost of which 
application has been made to the Government Grant Committee of the Royal 
Society. 

It a be allowed to use this opportunity of stating, that already no fewer 
than nine Self-recording Anemometers on Beckley’s or the Kew pattern 
have been made for different Observatories. 

The Observatory of the M°Gill College at Montreal has been completed, 
and Dr. Smallwood writes that the absolute determination of the three mag- 
netic elements and hourly observations of the Declinometer were to have 
been commenced there in July last. 

The usual monthly absolute determinations of the magnetic elements 
continue to be made at Kew, and the Self-recording Magnetographs are 
in constant operation as heretofore, under the zealous superintendence of 
Mr. Chambers, the Magnetical Assistant. 

Advantage has been taken of these automatic records of the earth’s mag- 
netism by the Committee engaged in the preparation of electrical standards, 
who have found it desirable for some of their experiments to ascertain the 
contemporaneous readings of the Declination Magnetograph. 

The extensive use of iron in the construction of modern ships has rendered 
a careful determination of its effect upon ships’ compasses essentially re- 
quisite to safe navigation. A demand has consequently arisen for the aid of 
persons who have made the subject one of special study, in order to make the 
observations that are most desirable, and to supply the required information, 
the process generally adopted being to swing the vessel round with her head 
towards the different points of the compass in succession. ‘lhe needs of the 
Royal Navy in this respect are amply provided for; but hitherto Govern- 
ment has taken no steps towards extending the system adopted in that de- 
partment to ships of the Mercantile Marine. On this account the Committee 
have much pleasure in reporting that Mr. Chambers has practically taken up 
the subject, and has obtained from the Director of the Observatory occasional 
leave of absence, when this shall be necessary, to enable him to attend at 
the swinging of ships. In this work his long experience of accurate and 
varied magnetic observations at Kew, and his familiar acquaintance with the 
‘‘ theory of deviations of the compass,” must prove to be of great value; and 
the Committee desire to record their opinion that in thus affording to the 
observers at Kew an excellent training, which is capable of most useful appli- 
cation in the public service, the maintenance of the Observatory is shown to 
be attended with indirect advantages scarcely less important than the valuable 
results of observations which it is the more immediate province of the Obser- 
vatory to secure. 

Major-General Sabine, President of the Royal Society, has communicated to 
wort a paper on the “ Results of the Magnetic Observations at the Kew 

1863. ¢ 


XXXIV REPORT—1863. 


Observatory, from 1857 to 1862 inclusive.” In this communication the fol- 
lowing subjects are discussed :— 

1. The disturbance-diurnal variation of the declination. 

2. The solar-diurnal variation of the declination. 

3. The semiannual inequality of the solar-diurnal variation of the decli- 
nation. 

4, The lunar-diurnal variation of the declination. 

5, The secular change, and the annual variation of the declination, dip, and 
total force. 

The values of these changes at Kew are compared with those at the dif- 
ferent Colonial Magnetic Observatories, and results of much interest and im- 
portance are obtained. 

A copy of this paper will be sent to each Member of the Committee 
of Recommendations of the Association as soon as it is out of the printer’s 
hands. 

At the request of the Astronomer Royal, the Kew curves of declination and 
horizontal force for 14th December last (a time of disturbance) were for- 
warded to Greenwich, in order that Mr. Airy might compare them with the 
records of earth-currents obtained there at the same date. 

In return Mr. Airy kindly sent copies of these latter records to Kew, and 
a comparison of these with the indications afforded by the Kew Magneto- 
graphs forms the subject of a short communication by Mr. Stewart, which is 
published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society. 

Mr. Stewart has likewise communicated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh 
a paper on “ Earth Currents during Magnetic Calms, and their Connexion. 
with Magnetic Changes,”’ which is about to be published in the Transactions 
of that body. He has likewise communicated to the Royal Society of London 
an account of some experiments made at Kew, in order to determine the 
increase between 32° Fahr. and 212° Fahr. of the elasticity of dry atmospheric 
air, the volume of which remains constant, and also to determine the freez- 
ing-point of mercury. 

This communication will be published in the Transactions of the Royal 
Society. The experiments were made by means of an air-thermometer, in 
the construction of which great assistance was derived from Mr. Beckley, 
Mechanical Assistant, while Mr. George Whipple, Meteorological Assistant, 
was of much use in observing. 

Mr. Chambers has communicated to the Royal Society a paper “ On the 
Nature of the Sun’s Magnetic Action upon the Earth,’”’ in which it is argued 
that, in causing the daily variation, the sun does not act as a magnet. 

The Meteorological work of the Observatory continues to be performed 
satisfactorily by Mr. George Whipple, and all the Staff interest themselves 
much in the business of the Observatory. 

During the past year 

130 Barometers, 
296 Thermometers, and 
22 Hydrometers 


have been verified; and Mr. Kemp, philosophical instrument maker, Edin- 
burgh, has been furnished with a standard Thermometer. 

The self-recording Barograph has been in constant operation since 8th 
November last. A suggestion by Mr. Beckley to put two papers at the same 
time upon the cylinder, the one under the other, has proved successful; and 
two traces haye thus been secured, one of which has been regularly forwarded 


a 


REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXXV 


to Admiral FitzRoy, at his request, while the other has been retained at the 
Observatory. 

On 30th December, the Superintendent received the following letter from 
Admiral FitzRoy :— 

‘Meteorological Department, 2 Parliament Street, London, 
30th December, 1862. 

«« Str,—I have the honour of addressing the Kew Committee of the British 
Association, through yourself, as Superintendent at their Magnetic and 
Meteorologic Observatory, to request, on behalf of the Board of Trade, that 
daily meteorologic communications may be again made to this Office, as for- 
merly. 

ff iieyins extended our operations, and therefore incurred greater responsi- 

bility, it is considered advisable to acquire, if possible, the best strengthening 
support available. 

** On account of economical reasons solely, as you are aware, the Board of 
Trade asked for discontinuance of those Kew telegrams (which were then re- 
ceived as regularly as satisfactorily); but now, being able to add their expense 
(comparatively small) to the current charges of this Office, it is my pleasing 
duty to make this application. 

“The Kew Observatory is so well situated for Meteorologic purposes, be- 
cause separated from all local causes of error—neither on a hill nor in a 
valley, surrounded by grass land, on a level only about 35 feet above the 
sea, and to windward of our extensive Metropolis during the greater part of 
the year—that a better locality for reference and intercomparison need not 
be desired. 

“Tt is sufficiently far from London to be uninfluenced by its heated air, 
smoke, or other peculiarities of atmosphere (inseparable from such an area of 
fires, population, and altered radiation), while it is within an easy railway 
tri 


“But while such are the well-known exterior recommendations of the 
Kew Observatory for its specialities of Magnetism and Meteorology, there are 
sterling advantages obtainable within its walls not to be found elsewhere. 
Scrupulously careful, exact, and truly-principled observations (inseparably 
connected with the names of Ronalds and Welsh) gave character and initiated 
proceedings of which results are now patent—not only in improvements of 
many kinds, affecting instruments and methods, but in general instruction. 

** Nowhere else is there a Cathetometer by which barometric instruments 
can be perfectly verified. Other methods used elsewhere are inferior as to 
range, principle, and practice. To that instrument much more is due than 
may be yet generally recognized. ; 

* Persons aware of these facts are naturally desirous that Kew should have 
a place in the reports now published daily in most of the newspapers, and 
as the Board of Trade will defray such small contingent expenses as may be 
requisite, I am led to believe that the Kew Committee will consent to the 
necessary steps, through your obliging attention. 

“With this letter is a copy of the arrangements existing now, which are 
somewhat altered from those already known to yourself. 

“It may be convenient to permit morning observations to be made, soon 
after eight, by a resident at the Observatory, and to employ a special mes- 

Senger to carry them to the Telegraph Office, in order that we may receive 
_ them here early. The contingent charge would be borne by this Office. 
__ Lists of the places with which we now communicate, and forms for our 
daily Weather Reports, are enclosed—all which may help to show what im- 
c2 


XXXV1 REPORT—1863. 


portance should be attached to the cooperation and prestige of the Kew Obser- 
vatory. 
«TT have the honour to be, 
“ec Sir, 
« Your obedient Servant, 
(Signed) * Rogr. FrrzRoy.” 
“ Balfour Stewart, Esq., F._RS., 
“ Superintending Kew Observatory.” 


In compliance with the request of this letter, telegrams were regularly 
furnished up to the end of May; but at that date the Superintendent received 
another letter from the Admiral, thanking the Observatory for the regularity 
and accuracy of its telegrams, but mentioning that, in consequence of two 
additional Foreign Stations being added to his list, there would not be space 
available for Kew, which really gave nearly the same indications as London. 
In consequence of this, telegrams were discontinued after the end of May. 

The self-recording Electrometer of Prof. W. Thomson continues in con- 
stant operation. 

The arrangements at the Observatory for testing Sextants remain as 
before without alteration, but it has been thought advisable to reduce the 
verification-fee from 5s, to 2s. 6d. for ordinary instruments, leaving that for 
an extremely accurate verification of a superior instrument the same as 
before. 

Eleven sextants and one altitude and azimuth instrument have been yeri- 
fied at Kew since the last Meeting of the British Association. 

The Chairman has procured a Spectroscope affording very great angular 
separation, which remains at Kew, and he has also ordered a Heliostat from 
Paris ; by those means it is hoped that the minutiz of the solar spectrum may 
soon be capable of being examined with great facility. 

The solar spots are now regularly observed at Kew, after the method of 
Dr. Schwabe, of Dessau, who has been communicated with, and will be 
written to from time to time, in order to ensure that both observers pursue 
exactly the same method of observation. 

It will be remembered that in the Report of the Committee at the Cam- 
bridge Meeting, it was stated that Mr. De la Rue had taken 177 photographs 
of the sun, and that the number of available days from February 7 to 
September 12, 1862, was 124. The Kew Heliograph was worked at Cranford 
up to February 7 , 1863, and photographs were procured on 42 other days 
between Sept. 12, 1862, and February 7, 1863, making 166 working days in 
the whole year. The series of negatives are now in course of measurement 
and reduction by Dr. Von Bose ; the micrometer employed is the same as that 
constructed for and used in the measurements of the eclipse-pictures obtained 
in Spain in 1860, a detailed description of which instrument is given in Mr, 
De la Rue’s paper in the Phil. Trans. vol. clii. pp. 373 to 380. 

Of the 1862-1863 series, the measurements are finished up to the end of 
June, and the reductions to the end of April 1862; both will be completed at 
the end of this year. 

In February of the present year the Heliograph was removed from Cranford 
to the Kew Observatory, and erected again in the dome. A new and com- 
modious photographic-room has been built on the roof of the Observatory, 
close to the dome, and has been fitted up with the requirements necessary for 
the successful prosecution of astronomical photography. The expense of this 
room has been defrayed out of the sum of £100 granted for that object at the 


xxxvil 


REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. 


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XXXVill REPORT—1863. 


Cambridge Meeting. The actual sum expended up to the present time 
amounts to £89, leaving a balance of £11, which will cover the outlay for a 
few pieces of apparatus which are still required. 

Between February 7 and May of the present year pictures of the sun were 
occasionally procured at Kew; but the Heliograph could not be fairly got to 
work until the completion of the photographic-room and the final adjust- 
ment of the instrument itself. From the lst of May to the present time the 
Heliograph has been continuously worked by a qualified Assistant, under the 
immediate supervision of Mr. Beckley. Two photographs are taken on every 
working day, one to the east, and the other to the west of the meridian, when 
atmospheric conditions permit of this being done. From May Ist to August 
14th inclusive, there have been fifty-four working days. Four positive copies 
are made regularly from each negative, one of which it is proposed to retain 
at Kew, and it is in contemplation to distribute the others. 

Mr. Stewart, after an inspection of all the sun-pictures obtained by the 
Kew Heliograph, is inclined to think that the behaviour of solar spots with 
respect to increase and diminution has reference to ecliptical longitudes, and 
is possibly connected with the position of the nearer planets; but it will re- 
quire a longer series of pictures to determine this, than that which has yet 
been obtained. 

The Heliograph constructed by Mr. Dallmeyer for Wilna, under Mr. De la 
Rue’s superintendence, has been completed, and will be shortly sent to Russia, 
together with a micrometer and protractor constructed by Messrs. Troughton 
and Simms, which will be employed in the measurement and reduction of the 
sun-pictures. 

Of the £150 granted by the Association in 1861 for the purpose of 
obtaining a series of photographic pictures of the solar surface, a sum of 
£137 3s. has been expended from February 1862 to February 1863, and the 
balance, £12 17s., has been returned to the Association. 

In 1860 a sum of £90 was voted for an additional Photographic Assistant, 
of which £50 was received and expended in that year. The balance, £40, 
was again granted in 1861, out of which £20 2s. 10d. have been expended. 

The working of the Kew Photoheliograph during the year, commencing 
in February 1863, will be defrayed out of a grant placed in the hands of 
Mr. De la Rue by the Royal Society for that purpose. : 

It will be seen from the Statement appended to this Report, that the expen- 
diture of the Observatory has exceeded its income by £7 8s. 6d.; but there 
is £30 to be received from the Russian Government for the verification of 
instruments. The Committee recommend that a sum of £600 should be 
granted for the expenditure of the current year. . 


Kew Observatory, Joun P. Gassror, 
14 August, 1863. Chairman, 


Report of the Parliamentary Committee, to the Meeting of the British 
Association, at Newcastle-on-Tyne, in August, 1863. 

The Parliamentary Committee have the honour to report as follows :— 

“The Earls of Rosse and De Grey, Lord Stanley, and Sir Joseph Paxton 
have vacated their seats; but your Committee recommend that Lords Rosse 
and Stanley be re-elected. 

«Your Committee also recommend that two of the vacancies be supplied 
by the election of Lord Houghton and Mr. N. Kendall. 


RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. XXXiX 


« A Committee of the House of Commons haying reported in favour of the 
adoption of the Metrical System of Weights and Measures, and it being un- 
derstood that a Bill to carry into effect such recommendation will be intro- 
duced in the ensuing Session of Parliament, your Committee venture to 
suggest that the expediency of such a measure might be discussed at the 
ensuing Meeting. 

«No subject has been referred to your Committee since the last Meeting 
at Cambridge.” 

Wrorrrstey, Chairman. 


24 August 1863. 


RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL CoMMITTEE AT THE NEWCASTLE- 
upon-Tynz Meerine my Aveust AND SEPTEMBER 1863. 


[When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the Secretary, 
except there is a specific nomination. ] 


Involving Grants of Money. 


That the sum of £600 be placed at the disposal of the Council for main- 
taining the Establishment of the Kew Observatory. 

That the Committee on Luminous Meteors and Aérolites, consisting of 
Mr, Glaisher, Mr. R. P. Greg, Mr. E. W. Brayley, and Mr. Alexander Her- 
schel, be reappointed ; and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal 

for the purpose. 

' hat the Committee on the Connexion of Vertical Movements of the 
Atmosphere with Storms, consisting of Professor Hennessy, Admiral FitzRoy, 
and Mr. Glaisher, be reappointed ; and that the sum of £30 be placed at 
their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. G. J. Symons be requested to report on the Rain-fall of the 
British Isles during the years 1862 and 1863; and that the sum of £20 be 
placed at his disposal for the purpose of constructing and transmitting Rain- 
guages to districts where observations are not at present made, The Gauges 
to be sent within the British Isles, and the loan to be cancelled should the 
observations not be satisfactorily made. 

That the Committee on Electrical Standards, consisting of Professor 
Williamson, Professor Wheatstone, Professor W. Thomson, Professor Miller, 
Dr. A. Matthiessen, Mr. Fleeming Jenkin, Dr. Esselbach, Sir C. Bright, 
Professor Maxwell, Mr. C. W. Siemens, and Mr. Balfour Stewart, be re- 
appointed, with the addition of Dr. Joule and Mr. C, F. Varley; and that the 
sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose; and that the co- 
operation of the Royal Society be requested in the construction of Standard 
Electrical Instruments. 

That Mr. Griffith and Dr. Akin be a Committee for the purpose of execu- 
ting the experiments suggested by Dr. Akin in his paper on the Trans- 
mutation of Spectral Rays; and that the sum of £45 be placed at their 
disposal for the purpose. 

That the Balloon Committee, consisting of Colonel Sykes, Professor Airy, 
Lord Wrottesley, Sir David Brewster, Sir J. Herschel, Dr. Lloyd, Admiral 
FitzRoy, Dr. Lee, Dr. Robinson, Mr, Gassiot, Mr. Glaisher, Dr. Tyndall, 
Mr. Fairbairn, and Dr. W. A. Miller, be reappointed; and that the sum of 
£200 be placed at their disposal for the following purposes:—I1st. To ex- 


xl REPORT—1863. 


amine the Electrical Condition of the Atmosphere at different heights. 2nd. 
To verify the law of decrease of temperature obtained by Mr. Glaisher, and 
to compare the constants obtained in different states of the Atmosphere. 

That Dr. Matthiessen be requested to investigate the Chemical Consti- 
tution of Cast Iron; and that the sum of £20 be placed at his disposal for 
the purpose. 

That Dr. Dupré be requested to continue his Researches on the Action of 
Reagents on Carbon under pressure ; and that the sum of £10 be placed at 
his disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. Alphonse Gages be requested to continue his examinations of the 
Mechanical Structure of Rocks and Artificial Formation of Minerals; and 
that the sum of £10 be placed at his disposal for the purpose. 

That Professor Huxley and Sir P. Egerton be a Committee for the pur- 
pose of enabling Mr. Molyneux to continue his Researches into the Fossil 
Contents of North Staffordshire; and that the sum of £20 be placed at their 
disposal for the purpose. 

That Sir W. Armstrong, Professor Phillips, Professor Warington Smyth, and 
Professor Pole be a Committee for the purpose of inquiring into the probable 
duration of those seams of coal upon which the prosperity of the country 
depends; and that the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for the 
purpose. 

That Professor Huxley and the Rev. Mr. Macbride be a Committee for the 
purpose of conducting Experiments on the Artifical Fecundation of the 
Herring ; and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Dr. Carpenter, Professor Huxley, and Professor T. Rupert Jones, 

assisted by Mr. Parker, be a Committee for the purpose of constructing a 
Series of Models showing the External and Internal Structure of the Fora- 
minifera ; and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the pur- 
pose. 
That Sir W. Jardine, Mr. A. R. Wallace, Dr. J. E. Gray, Professor 
C. C. Babington, Dr. Francis, Dr. P. L. Sclater, Mr. C. Spence Bate, Mr. 
P. P. Carpenter, Dr. J. D. Hooker, Professor Balfour, Mr. H. T. Stainton, 
Mr. J. Gywn Jeffreys, Mr. A Newton, Professor T. H. Huxley, Professor 
Allman, and Mr. Bentham, with power to add to their number, be a Com- 
mittee to report on the changes which they may consider it desirable to 
make, if any, in the Rules of Nomenclature drawn up at the instance of the 
British Association in 1845 by Mr. Strickland and others, with power to 
reprint these Rules, and to correspond with Foreign naturalists and others, 
on the best means of ensuring their general adoption; and that the sum of 
£15 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Dr. B. W. Richardson, Dr. George Rolleston, and Dr. George Gibb 
be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the Physiological Action of 
Nitrite of Amyle ; and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for 
the purpose. 

That Dr. Allman be requested to complete his Report on the Hydroida, 
and that Dr. Allman and Dr. E. Perceval Wright be a Committee for that 
purpose; and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for that purpose. 

That Mr. J. Gywn Jeffreys, Mr. Joshua Alder, Mr. H. T. Mennell, Mr. J. 
8. Brady, and Mr. Albany Hancock be a Committee for the purpose of ex- 
ploring the coasts of Durham and Northumberland by means of the Dredge ; 
and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Rev. A. M. Norman, Professor Allman, Rev. 
Thomas Hincks, and Mr. J. Leckenby be a Committee for the purpose of 


RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. xli 


dredging the coasts of Shetland by means of the Dredge ; and that the sum 
of £75 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. : 

That Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Mr. Robert McAndrew, Mr. G. C. Hyndman, 
Professor Allman, Dr. Collingwood, Dr. Edwards, Professor Greene, Rev. 
Thomas Hincks, Mr. R. D. Darbishire, Mr. C. Spence Bate, Rev. A. M. 
Norman, and Dr. E. Perceval Wright be reappointed as a General Dredging 
Committee; and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the 
purpose. 

That Mr. John Crawfurd, Mr. John Lubbock, Professor Huxley, and Mr. 
Francis Galton as Secretary, be a Committee for the purpose of aiding the 
Researches of Mr. George Busk on Typical Crania ; and that the sum of £50 
be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Professor Rankine, Mr. James R. Napier, and Mr. Scott Russell be a 
Committee for the purpose of experimenting on the difference between the 
resistance of floating bodies moving along the surface of the water and similar 
bodies moving under water; and that the sum of £100 be placed at their 
disposal for the purpose. 

That the Committee on Steamship Performance, consisting of the Duke of 
Sutherland, The Earl of Gifford, The Earl of Caithness, Lord Dufferin, Mr. 
W. Fairbairn, Mr. J. Scott Russell, Admiral Paris, The Hon. Captain Egerton, 
R.N., The Hon. L. A. Ellis, Mr. J. E. McConnell, Mr. W. Smith, Professor 
J. Macquorn Rankine, Mr. James Napier, Mr. Richard Roberts, Mr. Henry 
Wright to be Honorary Sceretary, be reappointed, and requested to continue 
their labours and report in a more condensed form than heretofore the returns 
of Steamship Performance received by them; and that the sum of £60 be 
placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That the Committee for Tidal Observations in the Humber, consisting of 
Mr. J. Oldham, Mr. J. F. Bateman, Mr. J. Scott Russell, and Mr. Thomson, 
be reappointed ; and that the grant of £50 made last year and not drawn be 
renewed. 

That the Joint Committee on Gun-Cotton, consisting of Mr. W. Fairbairn, 
Mr. Joseph Whitworth, Mr. James Nasmyth, Mr. J. Scott Russell, Mr. John 
Anderson, Sir W. Armstrong, Dr. Gladstone, Professor W. A. Miller, and 
Dr. Frankland, be reappointed, with the addition of Mr. Abel; and that the 
sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That in consideration of the long and valuable services of the late Mr. 
W. Askham, and the insufficient provision made for his family, the sum of 
£50 be presented to his widow. 


Applications for Reports and Researches not involving Grants of 
Money. 


That Mr. Fleeming Jenkin be requested to continue his Report on Thermo- 
Electrical Phenomena. 

That the Committee on Fog Signals, consisting of Dr. Robinson, Professor 
Wheatstone, Dr. Gladstone, and Professor Hennessy, be reappointed and 
requested to continue their labours. 

That Professor Foster be requested to continue his Report on Organic 
Chemistry. 

That Dr. J. E. Gray, Dr. Sclater, Mr. A. Newton, and Mr. A. R. Wallace 
be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the subject of the Geogra- 
phical Distribution of Domestic Animals. 


xhi REPORT—1863. 


That Mr. S. Gregson, M.P., Dr. Neilson Hancock, Mr. James Heywood, 
Mr. W. Tite, M.P., Mr. Thomas Wilson, and Mr. F. Purdy as Seeretary (with 
power to add to their number), be a Committee for the purpose of considering 
and reporting on the subject of Agricultural Statistics. 

That Mr. Francis Galton be requested to report on Systems of Weights 
and Measures, other than purely decimal, suitable for general adoption. 

That Professor Rankine, Sir William Armstrong, Lord Wrottesley, Sir 
John Herschel, The Astronomer Royal, General Sabine, Dr. Lee, The Rey. 
Dr. Robinson, Mr. W. Tite, M.P., Colonel Sykes, M.P., Sir John Hay, Bart., 
M.P., the Right Hon. C. B. Adderley, M.P., Mr. W. Ewart, M.P., Mr. James 
Heywood, Professor Williamson, Professor Miller, and Mr. F. Purdy, as 
Secretary (with power to add to their number), be a Committee to prepare 
a Report on the best means of providing for a: Uniformity of Weights and 
Measures with reference to the interests of Science. 

That the Committee on Scientific Evidence in Courts of Law, consisting 
of the Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, Right Hon. Joseph Napier, Mr. W. Tite, 
M.P., Professor Christison, Mr. J. Heywood, Mr. J. E. Bateman, Mr. T. 
Webster (with power‘to add to their number), be reappointed, and that Dr. 
Miller, Professor Williamson, and Sir B. C. Brodie, Bart. be added to the 
Committee. 


Involving Applications to Governments. 


That the President of the British Association be requested to transmit the 
thanks of the Association to the English and Austrian Governments for the 
facilities they have afforded for the investigation into the properties and 
applications of Gun-Cotton contained in the Report of the Committee. 

That it appears from the Report presented at this Meeting by the Joint 
Committees of the Chemical and Mechanical Sections, and by the discussions 
which have followed its presentation, that the subject of Gun-cotton is possibly 
one of very great public interest and importance, and that whilst the General 
Committee have taken measures to continue on their own account the 
inquiries which have been prosecuted in the last year, they are sensible that 
the British Association does not possess means for its adequate examination ; 
they are desirous therefore of drawing the attention of Her Majesty’s Govern- 
ment to the importance of a full and searching inquiry, conducted by a Royal 
Commission, into the various practical applications connected with the public 
service for which this material may be suitable, and that with this view the 
Assistant-General Secretary be requested to cause the Report, with its 
accompanying documents, to be printed with as little delay as possible, and 
copies presented (accompanied by the Resolution) to the Right Honourable the 
Secretary of State for War by a deputation consisting of the President and 
Officers of the Association, accompanied by the Presidents of the Chemical 
and Mechanical Sections. 


Communications to be printed entire among the Reports. 


That the General and Assistant-General Secretaries ascertain, in reference 
to the papers which have been provisonally passed for printing in ewtenso, the 
probable extent of the printing involved, and the probable extra cost in tables, 
diagrams and plates, and the suitability of the paper in other respects, before 
ordering the printing of them ; the Secretaries being authorized to obtain any 
assistance from the Presidents of Sections or other competent persons. 


RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. xii 


That an Account of the Newcastle-on-Tyne Time-gun, by Professor Piazzi 
Smyth, be printed entire among the Reports. 

That the Report on the Metallurgy of the District, by Messrs. Bell, 
Richardson, Sopwith, and Spencer, be printed a ewtenso in the Proceedings of 
the Association. 

That the Report on the Chemical Manufactures of the Northern District, by 
Messrs. J. C. Stevenson, R. C. Clapham, and T. Richardson, be printed zm 
extenso in the Transactions of the Association. 

That the Paper by Messrs. Daglish and Foster, on the Magnesian Lime- 
stone of the County of Durham, be printed in full in the Report. 

That Mr. Palmer’s Paper on Iron Ship-building on the Tyne and the 
neighbouring districts be printed in full in the Transactions. 

That Dr. Allman’s Report on Hydroida be published in extenso, with illus- 
trations, in the Proceedings. 

That an abstract by Dr. Edward Smith of the Report by Civil Medical 
Officers on the nature, growth, and mode of preparation of the various alimen- 
tary articles consumed as food by the industrial and labouring population in 
the several districts of Bengal, be printed entire among the Reports. 

That Mr. C. W. Siemens’s Paper on the Electrification of Gutta Percha be 
printed in extenso. 

That Dr. Akin’s Paper on the Transmutation of Spectral Rays be printed 
in extenso. 

That Professor Airy’s Paper on Steam-Boiler Explosions be printed in 
full in the Transactions. 

That the Address of Sir Roderick Murchison, the President of Section E, 
be printed. 

That the Address of Professor Williamson, President of Section B, be 
printed in ewtenso. 


Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes by 
the General Committee at the Newcastle Meeting in August and Sep- 
tember 1863, with the name of the Member who alone, or as the 
First of a Committee, is entitled to draw the Money. 


Kew Observatory. 


ini Bagnths 

Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Observatory ........ 600 0 0 
Mathematics and Physics. 

Glaisher, Mr.—Meteors............. 2s eee eee eee ee eens 20 0 0 
Hennessy, Prof.—Vertical Atmospheric Movements ......... 30 0 0 
Symons, Mr.—Rainfall in 1862-63 ......-..---- eee ee eee 20 0 O 
Williamson, Prof.—Electrical Standards ..............+--. 100 0 0 
Griffith, Mr—Transmutation of Spectral Rays ............ 45 0 0 
Sykes, Col—Balloon Ascents ........ esses ee eereennnes 200 0 0 


xliv REPORT—1863. 


Chemistry. 
2S 
Matthiessen, Dr.—Cast Tron... 00... ee ee eee ce eee ee 20 0 
Dupré, M.—Carbon under pressure .... 6.2.0.2... 0000 eee eae 10 0 
Gages, Mr.—Mechanical Structure of Rocks ............4. 10 0 
Geology. 
Huxley, Prof.—Fossil Contents of the Staffordshire Coal Field. 20 0 
Armstrong, Sir W.—Quantity of Coal................008. 100 0 
Zoology and Botany. 
Diamieyy 1 rol.——ienrities t21; la yess. ss ov xs 3 ale a eae 10 0 
Carpenter, Dr.~-Foraminifera 13. Ji. ue ny eee 25 0 
Jardine, Sir W.—Nomencelature ’ . 12. 00. cm et ees 15 0 
Richardson, Dr.—Nitrite of Amyle ..................0... 10 0 
Allman, Beets SH ydigida rie vo. betas, 2x0. SE Fe A 10 0 
Jeffreys, Mr.—Dredging (coast of Durham and Northumberland) 25 0 
Jeffreys, Mr.—Dredging (Shetland) ........,......00e0ees 75 0 
Jeffreys, Mr.—General Dredging Committee .............. 10 0 
Geography and Ethnology. 
Grawturd, Mr. J—Crantaiaccdemctsite cs os os o> one buratataeee 2 50 «(0 
Mechanics. 
Rankine, Prof.—Resistance of Moving Bodies.............. 100 0 
Sutherland, Duke of.—Steamships ...............2+eee- 60 0 
Oldham, Mr.—Tidal Observations...............ceeceeees 50 0 
Boithaicn, Mr. Wo mn=Cotton. ost osewse.e Grae sca wie nee ale 50 0 
1665 0 
PASicheme IMirge 3.3 sxe ets ihe Geek ae eontae eee aloe ate Cage SPS RSVAL Seen 50 0 
Totals wisead. 1715 0 


cooom 


oo 


oococococe 


So1oolcooodso 


GENERAL STATEMENT. xlv 


General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants 
for Scientific Purposes. 


cai Sea 2 7 go ae 
1834. Meteorology and Subterranean 
Tide Discussions .........se0.00 20 0 0 Temperature .....seeeseee caseuccneciighite 10 
1835 Vitrification Experiments arr Pee eee: Nae 
eae Wiscussions 9 62 0 0 | Cast Iron Experiments.....+.++.+ 100 0 0 
Britis oF Sa aap ey wa tas Railway Constants ...++.. Acroues eees! Pe 
ritish Fossil Ichthyology .....+ 105 0 0 a ANA TR eaabe Rozier eek ur 
£167 0 0 | Steam-vessels’ Engines......+« eee 100 8 : 
Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... a. dol 18 
1836. Sp ae aS * 
eminartstgiiy C., 203,..0..) 163 0 0 Stars in Biacale ssucacass spans ss 11 0 0 
Britis 2 Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue......... 616 6 
ritish Fossil Ichthyology ...... 105 0 0 Aol Serena 10 10 0 
Thermometric Observations, &c. 50 0 O ane seat Fam aelh et a 50 0 0 
Experiments on long-continued At ae Air peers 161 0 
Heat ...... Rea set te 17/10 Pe cg Bayh a eta cio a eo 
eee teens seteeeeeeeesenneees 913 0 Heat on Organie Bodies ........ Baedel ah tere | 
efraction Experiments ......-+ =) io ao 0 Gaia Mais en eeein 292 0 0 
Mariar Nitation.......ssccccscscease 60 0 0 Hi done eee tie Fy 
Petanidcibters 15 6 0 ourly Meteorological Observa- 
ee ? gage 40 | p aie] poysraeee and Kingussie ae , a 
ossil Reptiles ........+0++ Reese nag . 
Mining Statistics ......... Sans canncg U4: Ou. 
1837. —_____ 
Tide Discussions .........00000. 284 1 0 £1595 11 _0 
Chemical Constants .........++ oo. 24 13 6 
Lunar Nutation.........ccsceseseeee TOME 0 1840. 
Observations on Waves...ese.sseee 100 12 0O Bristol Tides ........sseeceess dccovee! LOO. 50:.20 
Tides at Bristol........cccccesseeeee 150 0 0 | Subterranean Temperature ...... 13 13 6 
Meteorology and Subterranean Heart Experiments weesetccccccace 18 19 0 
Temperature .....sseseeeeees wee 89 5 © | Lungs Experiments ......++ vee 8 13 0 
Vitrification Experiments...... .- 150 0 © | Tide Discussions .........+ seeeee - 50 0 0 
Heart Experiments gies eiteewdee 8°42 6 Land and Sea Level ........ceeeee 1 
Barometric Observations ......... 30 0 0 | Stars (Histoire Céleste) 0 
Barometers .......... Rea Btuee eh 11S. 1G ae oa 5 Hesveee aaeead ae ; 
‘ tars (Catalogue) ......... eeeeeeece 
RUE LE 6 Atmospheric Air .,....... swereeanerecl Dulles 10 
1838. Water on Iron ......... Ramades epee 10 0 0 
Tide Discussions ..........0ee0... 29 0 0 | Heat on Organic Bodies ......... 7 0 0 
British Fossil Fishes ............ 100 0 0 | Meteorological Observations...... 5217 6 
Meteorological Observations and Foreign Scientific Memoirs ..... o ht2 eh 6 
Anemometer (construction)... 100 0 0 bbe eden seeeeenereseees 0 A : 
Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... ses 60 0 0 | School Statistics......sessssrerssreee 
Animal oes Vegetable er Forms of Vessels ...sccesesseseveee 184 7 O 
(Preservation of) ....... He. 19 1 10 | Chemical and Electrical Pheno- 
Railway Constants ..........0.... 41 12 10 MENA «2.64 teens eeerereesenees . 40 0 0 
_ Bristol Tides......... seetene ce eevee 50 0 0 | Meteorological Observations at 
Growth of Plants ......s0e.se000... 75 0 0 Plymouth . sesseseresesseeeee 80 0 0 
Mud in Rivers ........seeseee000..6 3 6 6 | Magnetical Observations sereseeee 185 13 9 
Education Committee ............ 50 0 0 £1546 16 4 
Heart Experiments ....0+...eeee0e Ties 10 SS 
Land and Sea Level............. Bs OT fa Sen. i 1841. 
Subterranean Temperature ..... - 8 6 0 | Observations on Waves............ 30 0 0 
REGAIN-VESSEIS.c.ceceseccosocsens +++» 100 0 0 | Meteorology and Subterranean 
Meteorological Committee ...... 31 9 5 Temperature .........+6+ sceeseonssis GMmOn WO 
Thermometers .,...scccccsessseseee 16 4 0 | Actinometers......cse.e: Senssscacscs LOsgON 0 
£956 12. 2 | Earthquake Shocks ...,. dopeencodced Iginiade 0 
Acrid Poisons..........s0.008 aaeee ce mura Ot 10 
? 1839. Veins and Absorbents ............ 38 0 O 
Fossil Ichthyology.........sss0ee06. 110 0 © | Mud in Rivers ........ senemamaesea aa LouniOs (0 
Meteorological Observations at Marine Zoology.....seccceessssoevee 15 12 8 
Plymouth ..sseeceeesseeeseeserees 63 10 0 | Skeleton Maps .....ccscscssossseeee 20 0 O 
Mechanism of Waves ....0....... 144 2 0] Mountain Barometers ........... 618 6 
Bristol Tides ,...ss,sscsvsestyevsegee, 89 18 6] Stars (Histoire Céleste).......0000. 185 0 0 


xlvi 

& 8. d. 
Stars (Lacaille) .........seeee esecest MEO oO 
Stars (Nomenclature of) ......:.. 17 19 6 
Stars (Catalogue of) .........0 40 0 0 
Water on Iron ....ccceeseeeveesoees 50 0 0 

Meteorological Observations at 
TMVeXIKess Wiivecsscccsctescessesss ZO0' -0 

Meteorological Observations (re- 
duction Of) tawvecrssssscsesacssts 25750" 0 
Mogsil epics! sesceresscsesstecers - 50 0 0 
Foreign Memoirs ......+0+..+008 ee One ue 
Railway Sections .......+«« Sesscecs 38 1 6 
Forms of Vessels .....+++ copes 193 12 0 

Meteorological Observations at 
Plymouth ...... wehaddnensensecnce 55 0 0 
Magnetical Observations ......... 6118 8 
Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone 100 0 0 
Tides at Leith .i.Joccccccc...ecee 50 0 0 
Anemometer at Edinburgh . LE) aged Coe 3) 
Tabulating Observations ........- pe aie 
Races of Men ....... Nstracchesseee’ | Or WU UO 
Radiate Animals ............ “Coca ee iD 
£1235 10 11 

1842. 

Dynamometric Instruments ...... 113 11 2 
Anoplura Britanniz ....... Saeeeecs 52 12 0 
Tides at Bristol............+++ areca ihe) AU 
Gases on Light ...........5++ eee 30 14 7 
Chronometers ........05- Seat seesce 26 17 6 
Marine Zoology.......csceccseeeeers aero 
British Fossil Mammalia ......... 100 0 0 
Statistics of Education ............ 20° 0” 0 
Marine Steam-vessels’ Engines... 28 0 0 
Stars (Histoire Céleste)............ 59 0 0 
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of) ...... 110 0 0 
Railway Sections .........+6 seeoees LEDIO''O 
British Belemnites....... Wats caress 50 0 0 

Fossil Reptiles (publication of 
HUCPOFE) |. srcettecesee areeeeieat «210 0 0 
Forms of Vessels .......sseecseeess 180 0 0 
Galvanic Experiments on Rocks 5 8 6 

Meteorological Experiments at 
Plymouth! *trstissesssnetcsesersee 68 0 0 

Constant Indicator and Dynamo- 
metric Instruments .........6+ - 90 0 0 
Worcelarew ind woccescwerevess es o AO OF 0 
Light on Growth of Seeds ...... SO NO 
Wital SLAtStlcs! Seecvcoceseeee esses nef MOUHO* 0 
Vegetative Power of Seeds ...... 6) pall 
Questions on Human Race ...... iy 9510 
£1449 17 8 

1843, 

Revision of the Nomenclature of 
Stars! <.;cesessuswanmesvisvardicOrtt 2 0 0 

Reduction of Stars, British Asso- 
ciation Catalogue ........ attics 25 0 0 
Anomalous Tides, Frith of Forth 120 0 0 

Hourly Meteorological Observa- 
tionsat KingussieandInverness 77 12 8 

Meteorological Observations at 
PLY MOU, sscdesdssceversst eet ~- 55 0 0 

Whewell’s Meteorological Ane- 
mometer at Plymouth ..,..... 10 0 0 


REPORT—1863. 


£ s. d. 
Meteorological Observations, Os- 
ler’s Anemometer at Plymouth 20 0 0 
Reduction of Meteorological Ob- 
SEFVAtiONS ......ceeeees. sscssesses OO OD 
Meteorological Instruments and 
Gratuities iiest.cescesestenseaenstay ©) 0) U8 
Construction of Anemometer at 
INVeENESS , 5, .ccnscccssnsscesesmmpameOnl a hee 
Magnetic Cooperation ............ 10 8 10 
Meteorological Recorder for Kew 
Observatory ....ccscresescscocses 50 0 0 
Action of Gases on Light......... 18 16 1 
Establishment at Kew Observa- 
tory, Wages, Repairs, Furni- 
ture and Sundries ..........0+0. . 1338 4 7 
Experiments by Captive Balloons 81 8 0 
Oxidation of the Rails of Railways 20 0 0 
Publication of Report on Fossil 
Reptiles ...... aeaucv oie aMNee? Pr ee ee) ee) 
Coloured Drawings of Railway 
SectlOns oc cacsasesencacnecrsss. (ea 147 18 3 
Registration of Earthquake 
SHACKS aca apccasssscose acestepaases 30 0 0 
Report on Zoological Nomencla- 
TARE, Piseessosseesesnsesnseaeat eveses 10) ) 0) 20 
Uncovering Lower Red Sand- 
stone near Manchester ......... 4 4 6 
Vegetative Power of Seeds .... 5 3 8 
Marine Testacea (Habits of ) 10 0 0 
Marine Zoology..+sesseevess cdnaevea on LO).0..20 
Marine Zoology.....-.sscesceserens aban Ay 11 
Preparation of Report on British 
Fossil Mammalia ....sccseeeree - 100 0 0 
Physiological Operations of Me- 
dicinal Agents ......++. eeccecece 20,0: 50 
Vital Statistics agent onsrecauaaestaien 36 5 8 
Additional Experiments on the 
Forms of Vessels .sisscsess.s00s 70 0 0 
Additional Experiments on the 
Forms of Vessels ....0..ss0«sess 100 0 0 
Reduction of Experiments on the 
Formsof Vessels sess.seseceuscs 100 0 0 
Morin’s Instrument and Constant 
Indicator . csssssetsns-atiensees +. 69 14 10 
Experiments on the Strength of 
Materials ....2..cccsesssesssasnse OOM LO sO 
£1565 10 2 
1844. 
Meteorological Observations at 
Kingussie and Inverness ...... 12 0 0 
Completing Observations at Ply- 
mouth ....... est emeeserihires anes 35 0 0 
Magnetic and Meteorological Co- 
OPETAtlON § ssccrecsceccecssernces 25 8 4 
Publication of the British Ass 
ciation Catalogue of Stars...... 35 0 0 
Observations on Tides on the 
East coast of Scotland ......... 100 0 0 
Revision of the Nomenclature of 
Stars .s.caes Ce tereceesececece 1842 2 9 6 
Maintaining the Establishment in 
Kew Observatory cscscesesseeee i jot! Ay ade 3 


Instruments for Kew Observatory 56 7 3 


GENERAL STATEMENT, 


£ 8. d. 
Influence of Light on Plants...... 10 0 0 
Subterraneous Temperature in 

REPAY eicascices-scccessseotereee TO OS 0 
Coloured Drawings of Railway 

BSECHIONS) sntho.-.-csccussers tetse 15 17 6 
Investigation of Fossil Fishes of 

the Lower Tertiary Strata i100 0 0 
Registering the Shocks of Earth- 

KUUAKES) ...2 cece scsocescenes 1842 23 11 10 
Structure of Fossil Shells......... 20 0 0 
Radiata and Mollusca of the 

ZEgean and Red Seas.....1842 100 0 0 
Geographical Distributions of 

Marine Zoology........+++- 1842 010 0 
Marine Zoology of Devon and 

Cornwall  ......seeeeeeees Secceee 10 0 0 
Marine Zoology of Corfu ...... ase De Ua O 
Experiments on the Vitality of 

Seeds ........ccssecceeescestroeces iy ALD as 
Experiments on the Vitality of 

Seeds «...........+ seecssceces 1842 8 7 3 
Exotic Anoplura ........ peppandnes 15 0 0 
Strength of Materials ............ 100 0 0 
Completing Experiments on the 

Forms of Ships ....... Sub daa caus 100 0 0 
Inquiries into Asphyxia ......... ili} ate 
Investigations on the Internal 

Constitution of Metals ......... 50 0 0 
Constant Indicator and Morin’s 

Instrument, 1842 .......se...0++ 10 3 6 

£981 12 8 
1845. 
Publication of the British Associa- 

tion Catalogue of Stars ...... oo. ool 14 6 
Meteorological Observations at 

UMVETNEES eee Sess atest cecees 30 18 11 
Magnetic and Meteorological Co- 

DPETAtION \ 25sstisieier nc cceeees. 1616 8 
Meteorological Instruments at 

Edinburgh....... CesceEEbWcebbene 18 11 9 
Reduction of Anemometrical Ob- 

servations at Plymouth ..,...... 25 0 O 
Electrical Experiments at Kew 

Observatory ....eccescecseseeees . 4817 8 
Maintaining the Establishment in 

Kew Observatory ..........00+ -« 149 15 0 
For Kreil’s Barometrograph...... 25 0 0 
Gases from Iron Furnaces ...... 50 0 0 
The Actinograph ...........s000e 15 0 0 
Microscopic Structure of Shells... 20 0 0 
Exotic Anoplura ............1843 10 0 0 
Vitality of Seeds..............1843 2 0 7 
Vitality of Seeds... Seine 1844 7 0 0 
Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0 
Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 0 
Statistics of Sickness and Mor- 

RAMEY In YON: eves ctenesecenes 20 0 0 
Earthquake Shocks ..........1843 15 14 8 

£830 9 9 


1846. 
British Association Catalogue of 


Stars Graccheatexcacstencrsbelpee 211 15 0 


oN asras 
Fossil Fishes of the London Clay 100 0 0 
Computation of the Gaussian 
Constants for 1839............ 50 0 0 
Maintaining the Establishment at 
Kew Observatory ....++..sssse0e 146 16 7 
Strength of Materials...........+.. 00 0L 0 
Researches in Asphyxia............ 616 2 
Examination of Fossil Shells...... 10 0 0 
Vitality of Seeds ............ 1844 2 15 10 
Vitality of Seeds ............ 1845 712 3 
Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0 
Marine Zoology of Britain ...... 10 0 0 
Exotic Anoplura ..........++ 1844 25 0 0 
Expensesattending Anemometers 11 7 6 
Anemometers’ Repairs ............ Poe o 
Atmospheric Waves .,.....0++++... 3.3 3 
Captive Balloons ............ 1844 8 19 3 
Varieties of the Human Race 
1844 7 6 3 
Statistics of Sickness and Mor- 
tality inh YOrk)jkssderospsteccsne) bea, ue 0 
£685 16 0 
1847. 
Computation of the Gaussian 
Constants for 1839 ..........+. 50 0 0 
Habits of Marine Animals ...... 10 0 0 
Physiological Action of Medicines 20 6 0 
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0 
Atmospheric Waves ....ss.sesesees GOs 
Vitality of Seeds ......1.....2c000+ cE aes | 
Maintaining the Establishment at 
Kew Observatory ..-.csssceesees 107 8 6 
£208 5 4 
1848. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 
Kew Observatory ......s0000+ Ec rk Wai dpa 
Atmospheric Waves ..........-++ Rey OOS 
Vitality of Seeds © ............00c000 915 0 
Completion of Catalogues of Stars 70 0 0 
On Colouring Matters ........+0+ 5, -O!°0 
On Growth of Plants............... 15 0 0 
6275 1° 8 
1849. 
Electrical Observations at Kew 
Observatory .......000.. cosceceee 00 O O 
Maintaining Establishment at 
ditto cceans Dan vuieessecsesdves sess 76 2.5 
Vitality of Seeds ........... eetgsae in a (0. Ome 
On Growth of Plants..............- 200 0 
Registration of Periodical Phe- 
NOMENA ve...c.scceccvcsesccerssene 10° 0) 0 
Bill on account of Anemometrical 
Observations cecseesecsseseeees eas lisigs 9) (0 
£159 19 6 
1850. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 
Kew Observatory .......... Bees DOU Pree 
Transit of Earthquake Waves... 50 0 0 


xlviii 
£ s. d. 
Periodical Phenomena ............ 15 0 0 
Meteorological Instrument, 
AZOLES) \c.cusicscsiesssectscaneetee W200 10) 0 
£345 18 0 
1851 
Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory (includes part 

of grantin 1849) ......sseeeeees 309 2 2 
Theory of Heat .......ssscsseereeeee 20 od 
Periodical Phenomena of Animals 

SLO DAHINES sen naacesaesenp swaesneh ln i) 
Vitality of Seeds ..... SSeS ages sit) aD age 
Influence of Solar Radiation...... 30 0 0 
Ethnological Inquiries .........-+ 2 On 0 
Researches on Annelida .......++ 10).0 0 

£391 9 7 
1852. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory (including 

balance of grant for 1850) ... 233 17 8 
Experiments on the Conduction 

MELCAL tens cesiacaecusscacseavoesees 5 Ze 
Influence of Solar Radiations ... 20 0 0 
Geological Map of Ireland ...... 15 0 0 
Researches on the British Anne- 

Cae omascatanenedvacisvsiss esis sn0ig PLD ew 
Vitality of Seeds ........04 Sesvane LOW IG? 
Strength of Boiler Plates ......... 10 0 0 

£304 6 7 
1853. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory ........sseeeee 165 0 0 
Experiments on the Influence of 

Solar Radiation...... corccscrree 15 0 O 
Researches on the British ‘Anne- 

Nal tee Waecics sess enag eesncaccasantce 10 0 0 
Dredging on the East Coast of 

COHAN wesccesesncss dnesneasseves suet OBOE 
Ethnoiogical Queries ........0068 5, LAO 

£205 0 0 
1854. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory (including 

balance of former grant) ...... 330 15 4 
Investigations on Flax .....+.. sees) kL Om O 
I'ffects of Temperature on 

Wrotght Tron’ (...% 2.0. ccc0ce os 10 0 0 
Registration of Periodical Phe- 

MGXHON A rearetsiardesveesaesestess 107000 
British Annelida ............. were 10 0 0 
Vitality ofSeeds! ciiivssescesesaces: 5, 2 8 
Conduction of Heat .......0...0. 4 2 0 

£380 19 7 
1855. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory ........s0000s - 425 0 0 
Earthquake Movements ......... 10.10. 0 
Physical Aspect of the Moon... 11 8 5 
Vitality of Seeds ...........c0e eee 10 7 11 
Map of the World........s0000008 15 0 0 
Ethnological Queries ........46.6 5 0 0 
Dredging near Belfast ,,,......68 A050 

£480 16 4 


REPORT—1863. 


£654 111 


£s. d. 
1856. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 
Kew Observatory :-— 
1854. ..0< £75 
asso eras . plivhagem 4 
Strickland’s Ornithological Syno- 

TLYIUS! ass ese ows erase cee seenceces -. 100 0 0 
Dredging and Dredging Forms,. 913 9 
Chemical Action of ‘Light suasecas 2. 205.0. 3:0 
Strength of Iron Plates. -vosesiant 10 0 0 
Registration of Periodical Pheno- 

MC MANs bs aed tends vosemcewskaranetven 10. 06.0 
Propagation of Salmon ...seseee.ss 10 0 0 

£734 13 9 
1857. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory .0........s0006 350 0 0 
Earthquake Wave Experiments.. 40 0 0 
Dredging near Belfast .......+.... 10 0 0 
Dredging on the West Coast of 

Scotland.......... Seo weeny a CO Oe 0 
Investigations into the Mollusca 

of California. ish sccessveetecen 10 0 0a 
Experiments on Plax “sccmesccsse, D0 0 0 
Natural History of Madagascar... 20 0 0 
Researches on British Annelida 25 0 0 
Report on Natural Products im- 

ported into Liverpool ......... 10 0 0 
Artificial Propagation of Salmon 10 0 0 
Temperature of Mines ............ TBO 
Thermometers for Subterranean 

Observations w.ssenceescecenuaass sien Da fll ee 
Wife=Bantsivcascs.0-so=easpueneseaeece 5 0 0 

£507 15 4 
1858. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory ..... nereee «- 500 0 0 
Earthquake Wave Experiments... 25 0 0 
Dredging on the West Coast of 

Scotland! — .esscsmasseseereees oe 10 0 0 
Dredging near Dublin eaten sasedd Or OSD 
Vitality of Seeds ........... Jeceas mea ONO 
Dredging near Belfast ............ 18 13 2 
Report on the British Annelida... 25 0 0 
Experiments on the production 

of Heat by Motion in Fluids... 20 0 0 
Report on the Natural Products 

imported into Scotland......... 10 0 0 

£618 18 2 
1859. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory ...... seseeeeee 000 0 0 
Dredging near Dublin .......... sepeO nO eaO 
Osteology of Birds,........ss-.s0s0s 50 0 0 
Irish Tunicata .......... he eee 5. 0" 0 
Manure Experiments ........+... 20 0 OU 
British Medusidz ..............0.06 5 0 0 
Dredging Committee.............. ey Og rUL 
Steam-vessels’ Performance ..... ceeno (O000 
Marine Fauna of South and West 

of Ireland «..c.sescses wsstevevese 10 “O50 
Photographic Chemistry ......... 10 0 0 
Lanarkshire Fossils ...s00sss000. 20 0 I 
Balloon Ascents,,:.sccecrerséeseres, 00 Ma eaO 

1 


GENERAL STATEMENT. 


1860. & sid. 
Maintaining the Establishment 

of Kew Observatory.........00 - 500 0 O 
Dredging near Belfast............ 16 6 0 
Dredging in Dublin Bay....... Rtas oy OO 
Inquiry into the Performance of 

Steam-vessels........ecssseesses - 124 0 0 
Explorations in the Yellow Sand- 

stone of Dura Den.............++ 20 0 0 
Chemico-mechanical Analysis of 

Rocks and Minerals......... vee 2H SOLO 
Researches on the Growth of 

AVES cog eect cncncesroccosesens 10 0 0 
Researches on the Solubility ‘of 

MAN ESees ren ieee 2 HOARSE OREO 30 0 0 
Researches on the Constituents 

MR DLAMIUTES 0 0,..iccccsccascceeeece 256030 
Balance of 25 Aa Balloon Ac- 

COUNIES...ceccessecscesscvcsscecceces 113 6 

S124. OC 
sour eiseee & 
1861. 
Maintaining the Establishment , 

of Kew Observatory ............ 500 C 0 
Earthquake Experiments.,....... 25 0 0 
Dredging North and East Coasts 

of Scotland...... wesacess aeeesccenes fume Oe. 10 
Dredging Committee :— 

1860 ...... £50 0 0 e 

1861... £22 0 a felons = 
Excavations at Dura Den......... 20 0 0 
Solubility of Salts ............. aarpete 20° 0 70 
Steam-vessel Performance ...... 150 0 0 
Fossils of Lesmahago ............ 15 0 0 
Explorations at Uriconium ...... 20 0 0 
Chemical Alloys ...........0008... 20 0 0 
Classified Index to the Transac- 

EIQWS ades<ssssbersssacsvtvccsssexano 100 0.0 
Dredging in the Mersey and Dee 5 0 0 
PUMCHECLC races si ccscecepssasvsesese 30°. 0 (0 
Photoheliographic Observations 50 0 0 
ROM IICE | sacececceccsovescocssaes 20 0, 0 
Gauging of Water............. casos LO). 0. 0 
Alpine Ascents ...... seossccescccree 6 5 1 
Constituents of Manures .,....... 25 0 0 

£1111 5 10 
[a 
1862. 
Maintaining the Establishment 

of Kew Observatory ............ 500 0 0 
PPALENE AWS) .......0c0ceceeeee ecesca) (2b OFT O 
Mollusca of N.-W. Aanexica., 100-40 
Natural History by Mercantile 

Marine .,...... ciuiectitersscae o 0 10 
Tidal Observations wi... 25 0 0 


1863. 


xlix 


Glas ds 
Photoheliometer at Kew ....... 40 0 O 
Photographic Pictures of the Sun 150 0 0 
Rocks of Donegal ...........ssss00e 25 0 0 
Dredging Durham sl North- 

MPADSELANG sgegadsetescsectoroeest. 2500.0) 5.0 
Connexion of Storms.........s00+.. 20 0 0 
Dredging North-East Coast. of 

Scotland asc Sage cecceece Se aeaeena 6 9 6 
Ravages of Teredo  .........c00ee8 311 0 
Standards of Electrical Resistance 50 0 06 
Railway Accidents .............6. 10 0 0 
Balloon Committee ............... 200 0 0 
Dredging Dublin Bay ............ 10 0 0 
Dredging the Mersey ...........+ 5 0 0 
Prison, ‘Diet {/iiie.d.hia dc eee tevin JOA OKO 
Gauging of Water................6 12 10 0 
Steamships’ Performance ......... 150 0 O 
Thermo-Llectric Currents ...... 7 0-70 

£1293 16 6 
1863. 
Maintaining Establishment of 

Kew Observatory.............65 600 0 O 
Balloon Committee deficiency... 70 0 O 
Balloon Ascents (other expenses) 25 0 0 
HMtOzZOa ss. cosdascsesesabccteradsees 25w OO 
Coal Fossils .aedeseesase<sa0 coven 20% (0150 
ELE REVISMSi.0 seueeeiepatuccsiaateraaesons 20 0 0 
Granites of Donegal........ Peco yea! 
Prison Diet...........- seeeneee 20 0 0 
Vertical Atmospheric Movements 13 0 0 
Dredging Shetland ............... 50 0 0 
Dredging North-east coast of 

Neotland pemeuseeascessceetaerss - 25 0 0 
Dredging Northumberland and 

Durrhanvinae sess es eecacest aden 3 10 
Dredging Committee superin- 

TendenCe yer case scenes maeeuadces dss 10 0 0 
Steamship Performance ......... 100 0 0 
Balloon Committee ............... 200 0 0 
Carbon under pressure...........+ 10 0 0 
Volcanic Temperature ............ 100 0 0 
Bromide of Ammonium ......... 8 0 0 
Electrical Standards............... 100 0 0 

Construction and distribu- 

tOliy Tiiipeatccerecocstetmones 40 0 0 
Luminous Meteors .......,....... 17 0 0 
Kew Additional Buildings for 

Photoheliograph .............4+ 100 0 0 
Thermo-Electricity ...... eed ve OO 
Analysis of Rocks ...........0005 8 0 0 
Hydroidgeisitias.eduereen 10, 0), 0 

£1608 3 10 


vies " REPORT—1863. 


Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee. 


Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money for scientific pur- 
poses have been entrusted, are required to present to each following meeting 
of the Association a Report of the progress which has been made; with a 
statement of the sums which have been expended, and the balance which re- 
mains disposable on each grant. 

Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific purposes from the funds of the Asso- 
ciation expire at the ensuing meeting, unless it shall appear by a Report that 
the Recommendations have been acted on, or a continuation of them be 
ordered by the General Committee. 

In each Committee, the Member first. named is the person entitled to call 
on the Treasurer, William Spottiswoode, Esq., 59 Grosvenor Place, London, 
S.W., for such portion of the sum granted as may from time to time be re- 
quired. 

In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate 
the payment of personal expenses to the members. 

In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua- 
tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named shall be 
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, the specified balance which may 
remain unpaid on the former grant for the same object. 


General Meetings. 


On Wednesday Evening, August 26, at 8 p.m., in the Town Hall, the Rev. 
R. Willis, M.A., F.R.S., resigned the office of President to Sir W. G. Arm- 
strong, LL.D., F.R.S., who took the Chair, and delivered an Address, for 
which see page li. 

On Thursday Evening, August 27, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place in the 
Central Exchange News Room. 

On Friday Evening, August 28, at 8.30 p.m., in the Town Hall, Professor 
Williamson delivered a Discourse on the Chemistry of the Galyanic Battery 
considered in relation to Dynamics. 

On Monday Evening, August 31, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place in the Cen- 
tral Exchange News Room. 

On Tuesday Evening, September 1, at 8.30 p.u., Mr. Glaisher gave an 
account of the Balloon Ascents made for the British Association. 

On Wednesday, September 2, at 3 p.m., the concluding General Meeting 
took place, when the Proceedings of the General Committee, and the Grants o: 
Money for Scientific purposes, were explained to the Members. , 

The Meeting was then adjourned to Bath*. 


* The Meeting is appointed to take place on Wednesday, September 14, 1864. 


| 
| 


ADDRESS 


BY 


SIR WILLIAM G. ARMSTRONG, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., &c. 


GENTLEMEN OF THE Britisn Assocration,—lI esteem it the greatest honour of 
my life that I am called upon to assume the office of your President. In that 
capacity, and as representing your body, I may be allowed to advert to the 
gratifying reception which the British Association met with on their former 
visit to this region of mining and manufacturing industry, and, as a member 
of the community which you have again honoured with a visit, I undertake to 
convey to you the assurance of a renewed and hearty welcome. A quarter of 
a century has elapsed since the Association assembled in this town, and in no 
former period of equal duration has so great a progress been made in physical 
Imowledge. In mechanical science, and especially in those branches of it 
which are concerned in the application of steam power to effect interchange 
between distant communities, the progress made since 1838 has no parallel 
in history. The railway system was then in its infancy, and the great 
problem of transatlantic steam navigation had only received its complete 
solution in the preceding year. Since that time railways have extended to 
every continent, and steamships have covered the ocean. These reflections 
claim our attention on this occasion, because the locality in which we hold 
our present meeting is the birthplace of railways, and because the coal-mines 
of this district have contributed more largely than any others to supply the 
motive power by which steam communication by land and water has been 
established on so gigantic a scale. 

The history of railways shows what grand results may have their origin in 
small beginnings. When coal was first conveyed in this neighbourhood from 
the pit to the shipping-place on the Tyne, the pack-horse, carrying a burden 
of 3 ewt., was the only mode of transport employed. As soon as roads 
suitable for wheeled carriages were formed, carts were introduced, and this 
first step in mechanical appliance to facilitate transport had the effect of 
increasing the load which the horse was enabled to convey from 3 cwt. to 
17 ewt. The next improvement consisted in laying wooden bars or rails for 
the wheels of the carts to run upon, and this was followed by the substitution 
of the four-wheeled wagon for the two-wheeled cart. By this further appli- 
cation of mechanical principles the original horseload of 3 cwt. was aug- 
mented to 42 cwt. These were important results, and they were not obtained 
without the shipwreck of the fortunes of at least one adventurous man whose 
ideas were in advance of the times in which he lived. We read, in a record 
published in the year 1649, that “‘one Master Beaumont, a gentleman of 
great ingenuity and rare parts, adventured into the mines of Northumberland 
with his £30,000, and brought with him many rare engines not then known 
in that shire, and wagons with one horse to carry down coal from the pits to 
the river, but within a few years he consumed all his money and rode home 
upon his light horse.” The next step in the progress of railways was the 
attachment of slips of iron to the wooden rails. Then came the iron tram- 

d 2 


li REPORT— 1863. 


way, consisting of cast-iron bars of an angular section : in this arrange- 
ment the upright flange of the bar acted as a guide to keep the wheel on the 
track. The next advance was an important one, and consisted in transferring 
the guiding flange from the rail to the wheel: this improvement enabled 
cast-iron edge rails to be used. Finally, in 1820, after the lapse of about 
200 years from the first employment of wooden bars, wrought-iron rails, rolled 
in long lengths, and of suitable section, were made in this neighbourhood, 
and eventually superseded all other forms of railway. Thus, the railway 
system, like all large inventions, has risen to its present importance by a 
series of steps; and so gradual has been its progress, that Europe finds itself 
committed to a gauge fortuitously determined by the distance between the 
wheels of the carts for which wooden rails were originally laid down. 

Last of all came the locomotive engine, that crowning achievement of me- 
chanical science, which enables us to convey a load of 200 tons at a cost of fuel 
scarcely exceeding that of the corn and hay which the original pack-horse 
consumed in conveying its load of 3 ewt. an equal distance. 

It was chiefly in this locality that the railway system was thus reared 
from earliest infancy to full maturity, and amongst the many names associated 
with its growth, that of George Stephenson stands preeminent. 

In thus glancing at the history of railways, we may observe how promptly 
the inventive faculty of man supplies the device which the circumstances of 
the moment require. No sooner is a road formed fit for wheeled carriages to 
pass along, than the cart takes the place of the pack-saddle: no sooner is 
the wooden railway provided than the wagon is substituted for the cart: and 
no sooner is an iron railway formed, capable of carrying heavy loads, than 
the locomotive engine is found ready to commence its career. As in the 
vegetable kingdom fit conditions of soil and climate quickly cause the appear- 
ance of suitable plants, so in the intellectual world fitness of time and circum- 
stance promptly calls forth appropriate devices. The seeds of invention exist, 
as it were, in the air, ready to germinate whenever suitable conditions arise, 
and no legislative interference is needed to ensure their growth in proper 
season. 

The coal-fields of this district, so intimately connected with the railway 
system, both in its origin and maintenance, will doubtless receive much at- 
tention from the Association at their present meeting. 

To persons who contend that all geological phenomena may be attributed 
to causes identical in nature and degree with those now in operation, the 
formation of coal must present peculiar difficulty. The rankness of vegeta- 
tion which must have existed in the carboniferous era, and the uniformity of 
climate which appears to have prevailed almost from the Poles to the Equator, 
would seem to imply a higher temperature of the earth’s crust, and an atmo~ 
sphere more laden with humidity and carbonic acid than exist in our 
day. But whatever may haye been the geological conditions affecting the 
origin of coal, we may regard the deposits of that mineral as vast magazines 
of power stored up at periods immeasurably distant for our use. 

The principle of conservation of force and the relationship now established 
between heat and motion, enable us to trace back the effects which we now 
derive from coal to equivalent agencies exercised at the periods of its forma- 
tion. The philosophical mind of George Stephenson, unaided by theoretical 
knowledge, rightly saw that coal was the embodiment of power originally 
derived from the sun. That small pencil of solar radiation which is arrested 
by our planet, and which constitutes less than the 2000-millionth part of the 
total energy sent forth from the sun, must be regarded as the power which 


ADDRESS, hii 


enabled the plants of the carboniferous period to wrest the carbon they re- 
quired from the oxygen with which it was combined, and eventually to deposit 
it as the solid material of coal. In our day, the reunion of that carbon with 
oxygen restores the energy expended in the former process, and thus we 
are enabled to utilize the power originally derived from the luminous centre 
of our planetary system. 

But the agency of the sun in originating coal does not stop at this point. 
In everyzperiod of geological history the waters of the ocean have been lifted 
by the action of the sun and precipitated in rain upon the earth. This has 
given rise to all those sedimentary actions by which mineral substances have 
been collected at particular localities, and there deposited in a stratified form 
with a protecting cover to preserve them for future use. The phase of the 
earth’s existence suitable for the extensive formation of coal appears to have 
passed away for ever; but the quantity of that invaluable mineral which has 
been stored up throughout the globe for our benefit is sufficient (if used 
discreetly) to serve the purposes of the human race for many thousands of 
years. In fact, the entire quantity of coal may be considered as practically 
inexhaustible. Turning, however, to our own particular country, and con- 
templating the rate at which we are expending those seams of coal which 
yield the best quality of fuel, and can be worked at the least expense, we 
shall find much cause for anxiety. The greatness of England much de- 
pends upon the superiority of her coal in cheapness and quality over that of 
other nations; but we have already drawn from our choicest mines a far 
larger quantity of coal than has been raised in all other parts of the world 
put together, and the time is not remote when we shall have to encounter 
the .disadvantages of increased cost of working and diminished value of 
produce. 

Estimates have been made at various periods of the time which would be 
required to produce complete exhaustion of all the accessible coal in the 
British Islands. These estimates are extremely discordant; but the discre- 
pancies arise, not from any important disagreement as to the available quan- 
tity of coal, but from the enormous difference in the rate of consumption at 
the various dates when the estimates were made, and also from the different 
views which have been entertained as to the probable increase of consumption 
in future years. The quantity of coal yearly worked from British mines 
has been almost trebled during the last twenty years, and has probably in- 
creased tenfold since the commencement of the present century; but as this 
increase has taken place pending the introduction of steam navigation and 
railway transit, and under exceptional conditions of manufacturing develop- 
ment, it would be too much to assume that it will continue to advance with 
equal rapidity. The statistics collected by Mr. Hunt, of the Mining Record 
Office, show that at the end of 1861 the quantity of coal raised in the 
United Kingdom had reached the enormous total of 86 millions of tons, and 
that the average annual increase of the eight preceding years amounted to 
23 millions of tons. Let us inquire, then, what will be the duration of our 
coal-fields if this more moderate rate of increase be maintained. 

By combining the known thickness of the various workable seams of coal, 
and computing the area of the surface under which they lie, it is easy to 
arrive at an estimate of the total quantity comprised in our coal-bearing 
strata. Assuming 4000 feet as the greatest depth at which it will ever be 
possible to carry on mining operations, and rejecting all seams of less than 
2 feet in thickness, the entire quantity of available coal existing in these 
Islands has been calculated to amount to about 80,000 millions of tons, 


liv REPORT—1863. 


which, at the present rate of consumption, would be exhausted in 930 years, 
but, with a continued yearly increase of 2? millions of tons, would only 
last 212 years. It is clear that long before complete exhaustion takes place, 
England will have ceased to be a coal-producing country on an extensive 
scale. Other nations, and especially the United States of America, which 
possess coal-fields 37 times more extensive than ours, will then be work- 
ing more accessible beds at a smaller cost, and will be able to displace the 
English coal from every market. The question is, not how long our coal 
will endure before absolute exhaustion is effected, but how long will those 
particular coal-seams last which yield coal of a quality and at a price to 
enable this country to maintain her present supremacy in manufacturing 
industry. So far as this particular district is concerned, it is generally 
admitted that 200 years will be sufficient to exhaust the principal seams 
even at the present rate of working. If the production should continue 
to increase as it is now doing, the duration of those seams will not reach half 
that period. How the case may stand in other coal-mining districts I 
have not the means of ascertaining; but as the best and most accessible 
coal will always be worked in preference to any other, I fear the same rapid 
exhaustion of our most valuable seams is everywhere taking place. Were 
we reaping the full advantage of all the coal we burnt, no objection could 
be made to the largeness of the quantity, but we are using it wastefully and 
extravagantly in all its applications. It is probable that fully one-fourth 
of the entire quantity of coal raised from our mines is used in the pro- 
duction of heat for motive power; but, much as we are in the habit of 
admiring the powers of the steam-engine, our present knowledge of the 
mechanical energy of heat shows that we realize in that engine only a small 
part of the thermic effect of the fuel. That a pound of coal should, in our 
best engines, produce an effect equal to raising a weight of a million pounds 
a foot high, is a result which bears the character of the marvellous, and 
seems to defy all further improvement. Yet the investigations of recent 
years have demonstrated the fact that the mechanical energy resident in a 
pound of coal, and liberated by its combustion, is capable of raising to the 
same height 10 times that weight. But although the power of our most 
economical steam-engines has reached, or perhaps somewhat exceeded, the 
limit of a million pounds raised a foot high per lb. of coal, yet, if we take the 
average effect obtained from steam-engines of the various constructions now 
in use, we shall not be justified in assuming it at more than one-third of 
that amount. It follows therefore that the average quantity of coal which 
we expend in realizing a given effect by means of the steam-engine is about 
30 times greater than would be requisite with an absolutely perfect heat- 
engine. 

The causes which render the application of heat so uneconomic in the 
steam-engine have been brought to light by the discovery of the dynamical 
theory of heat ; and it now remains for mechanicians, guided by the light 
they have thus received, to devise improved practical methods of converting 
the heat of combustion into available power. 

Engines in which the motive power is excited by the communication of 
heat to fluids already existing in the aériform condition, as in those of 
Stirling, Ericson, and Siemens, promise to afford results greatly superior to 
those obtained from the steam-engine. They are all based upon the principle 
of employing fuel to generate sensible heat, to the exclusion of latent heat, 
which is only another name for heat which has taken the form of unprofitable 
motion amongst the particles of the fluid to which it is applied. They also 


” ADDRESS. lv: 


embrace what is called the regenerative principle—a term which has, with 
reason, been objected to, as implying a restoration of expended heat. The 
so called “‘ regenerator ” is a contrivance for arresting unutilized heat rejected 
by the engine, and causing it to operate in aid and consequent reduction of 
fuel. 

It is a common observation that before coal is exhausted some other motive 
agent will be discovered to take its place, and electricity is generally cited as 
the coming power. Electricity, like heat, may be converted into motion, and 
both theory and practice have demonstrated that its mechanical application 
does not involve so much waste of power as takes place in a steam-engine ;_ but 
whether we use heat or electricity as a motive power, we must equally depend 
upon chemical affinity as the source of supply. The act of uniting to form a 
ehemical product liberates an energy which assumes the form of heat or 
electricity, from either of which states it is convertible into mechanical effect. 
In contemplating, therefore, the application of electricity as a motive power, 
we must bear in mind that we shall still require to effect chemical combina- 
tions, and in so-doing to consume materials. But where are we to find mate- 
rials so economical for this purpose as the coal we derive from the earth and 
the oxygen we obtain from the air? The latter costs absolutely nothing; 
and every pound of coal, which in the act of combustion enters into chemical 
combination, renders more than two and a half pounds of oxygen available 
for power. We cannot look to water as a practicable source of oxygen, for 
there it exists in the combined state, requiring expenditure of chemical 
energy for its separation from hydrogen. It is in the atmosphere alone that 
if can be found in that free state in which we require it, and there does not 
appear to me to be the remotest chance, in an economic point of view, of being 
able to dispense with the oxygen of the air as a source either of thermo- 
dynamic or electrodynamic effect. But to use this oxygen we must consume 
some oxidizable substance, and coal is the cheapest we can procure. 

- There is another source of motive power to which I am induced to refer, 
as exhibiting a further instance in which solar influence affords the means 
of obtaining mechanical effects from inanimate agents. I allude to the 
power of water descending from heights to which it has been lifted by 
the evaporative action of the sun. To illustrate the great advantage of 
eollecting water for power in elevated situations I may refer to the water- 
works of Greenock, where the collecting-reservoirs are situated at an 
elevation of 512 feet above the river Clyde. The daily yield of these 
reservoirs is said to be nearly 100,000 tons of water, which is derived from 
the rainfall on an area of 5000 acres. The power obtainable from this quantity 
and head of water is equal to that of a steam-engine of about 2000 horse- 
power, and the whole effect might be realized on the margin of the river by 
bringing down the water in a pipe of sufficient capacity, and causing it to 
act as a column on suitable machinery at the foot of the descent. But the 
hydraulic capabilities of the Greenock reservoirs sink into insignificance when 
compared with those of other localities where the naturally collected waters 
of large areas of surface descend from great elevations in rapid rivers or ver- 
tical falls. Alpine regions abound in falls which, with the aid of artificial 
works to impound the surplus water and equalize the supply, would yield 
thousands of horse-power ;. and there is at least one great river in the world 
which in a single plunge developes sufficient power to carry on all the ma- 
nufacturing operations of mankind if concentrated in its neighbourhood. 
Industrial populations have scarcely yet extended to those regions which 
afford this profusion of motive power, but we may anticipate the time 


lvi REPORT— 1863. 


when these natural falls will be brought into useful operation. In that day 
the heat of the sun, by raising the water to heights from which to flow in 
these great rapids and cascades, will become the means of economizing the 
precious stores of motive power, which the solar energy differently directed 
has accumulated at a remote period of geological history, and which when 
once expended may probably never be replaced. 

T have hitherto spoken of coal only as a source of mechanical power, but 
it is also extensively used for the kindred purpose of relaxing those cohesive 
forces which resist our efforts to give new forms and conditions to solid sub- 
stances. In these applications, which are generally of a metallurgical nature, 
the same wasteful expenditure of fuel is everywhere observable. In an ordi- 
nary furnace employed to fuse or soften any solid substance, it is the excess 
of the heat of combustion over that of the body heated which alone is ren- 
dered available for the purpose intended. The rest of the heat, which in 
many instances constitutes by far the greater proportion of the whole, is 
allowed to escape uselessly into the chimney. The combustion also in common 
furnaces is so imperfect, that clouds of powdered carbon, in the form of smoke, 
envelope our manufacturing towns, and gases, which ought to be completely 
oxygenized in the fire, pass into the air with two-thirds of their heating 
power undeveloped. 

Some remedy for this state of things, we may hope, is at hand, in the gas 
regenerative furnaces recently introduced by Mr. Siemens. In these fur- 
naces the rejected heat is arrested by a so-called “ regenerator,” as in Stirling’s 
air-engine, and is communicated to the new fuel before it enters the furnace. 
The fuel, however, is not solid coal, but gas previously evolved from coal. A 
stream of this gas raised to a high temperature by the rejected heat of com- 
bustion is admitted into the furnace, and there meets a stream of atmospheric 
air also raised to a high temperature by the same agency. In the combina- 
tion which then ensues, the heat evolved by the combustion is superadded 
to the heat previously acquired by the gases. Thus, in addition to the ad- 
vantage of economy, a greater intensity of heat is attained than by the com- 
bustion of unheated fuel. In fact, as the heat evolved in the furnace, or so 
much of it as is not communicated to the bodies exposed to its action, con- 
tinually returns to augment the effect of the new fuel, there appears to be no 
limit to the temperature attainable, except the powers of resistance in the 
materials of which the furnace is composed. 

With regard to smoke, which is at once a waste and a nuisance, having 
myself taken part with Dr, Richardson and Mr. Longridge in a series of ex- 
periments made in this neighbourhood in the years 1857-58 for the purpose 
of testing the practicability of preventing smoke in the combustion of bitu- 
minous coal in steam-engine boilers, I can state with perfect confidence that, 
so far as the raising of steam is concerned, the production of smoke is unne- 
cessary and inexcusable. The experiments to which I refer proved beyond 
a doubt, that by an easy method of firing, combined with a due admission of 
air and a proper arrangement of firegrate, not involving any complexity, the 
emission of smoke might be perfectly avoided, and that the prevention of 
the smoke increased the economic value of the fuel and the evaporative power 
of the boiler. As a rule, there is more smoke evolved from the fires of steam- 
engines than from any others, and it is in these fires that it may be most 
easily prevented. But in the furnaces used for most manufacturing opera- 
tions the prevention of smoke is much more difficult, and will probably not 
be effected until a radical change is made in the system of applying fuel for 
such operations, 


ADDRESS. lvii 


Not less wasteful and extravagant is our mode of employing coal for 
domestic purposes. It is computed that the consumption of coal in dwelling- 
houses amounts in this country to a ton per head per annum of the entire 
population; so that upwards of twenty-nine millions of tons are annually 
expended in Great Britain alone for domestic use. If any one will consider 
that one pound of coal applied to a well-constructed steam-engine boiler eva- 
porates 10 Ibs. or one gallon of water, and if he will compare this effect with 
the insignificant quantity of water which can be boiled off in steam by a 
pound of coal consumed in an ordinary kitchen fire, he will be able to appre- 
ciate the enormous waste which takes place by the common method of burn- 
ing coal for culinary purposes. The simplest arrangements to confine the 
heat and concentrate it upon the operation to be performed would suffice to 
obviate this reprehensible waste. So also in warming houses we consume in 
our open fires about five times as much coal as will produce the same heating 
effect when burnt in a close and properly constructed stove. Without sacri- 
ficing the luxury of a visible fire, it would be easy, by attending to the prin- 
ciples of radiation and convection, to render available the greater part of the 
heat which is now so improvidently discharged into the chimney. These are 
homely considerations—too much so, perhaps, for an assembly like this ; but I 
trust that an abuse involving a useless expenditure exceeding in amount our 
income-tax, and capable of being rectified by attention to scientific principles, 
may not be deemed unworthy of the notice of some of those whom I have 
the honour of addressing. 

The introduction of the Davy lamp was a great event in the history of 
coal-mining, not as effecting any great diminution of those disastrous acci- 
dents which still devastate every colliery district, but as a means of enabling 
mines to be worked which, from their greater explosive tendencies, would 
otherwise have been deemed inaccessible. Thus, while the Davy lamp has 
been of great benefit both to the public and the proprietors of coal, it has been 
the means of leading the miners into more perilous workings, and the fre- 
quency of accident by explosion has in consequence not been diminished to 
the extent which was originally expected. The Davy lamp is a beautiful 
application of a scientific principle to effect a practical purpose, and with 
fair treatment its efficiency is indisputable; but where Davy lamps are en- 
trusted to hundreds of men, and amongst them to many careless and reck- 
less persons, it is impossible to guard entirely against gross negligence 
and its disastrous consequences. In coal-mines where the most perfect 
system of ventilation prevails, and where proper regulations are, as far as 
practicable, enforced in regard to the use of Davy lamps, deplorable accidents 
do occasionally occur, and it is impossible at present to point out what addi- 
tional precautions would secure immunity from such calamities. The only 
gleam of amelioration is in the fact that the loss of life in relation to the quan- 
tity of coal worked is on the decrease, from which we may infer that it is also 
on the decrease taken as a percentage on the number of miners employed. 

The increase of the earth’s temperature as we descend below the surface 
is a subject which has been discussed at previous Meetings of the British 
Association. It possesses great scientific interest as affecting the computed 
thickness of the crust which covers the molten mass assumed to constitute 
the interior portions of the earth, and it is also of great practical importance 
as determining the depth at which it would be possible to pursue the work- 
ing of coal and other minerals. The deepest coal-mine in this district is the 
Monkwearmouth Colliery, which reaches a depth of 1800 feet below the 
surface of the ground, and nearly as much below the level of the sea, The 


vii REPORT—1863. 


observed temperature of the strata at this depth agrees pretty closely with 
what has been ascertained in other localities, and shows that the increase 
takes place at the rate of 1° Fahr. to about 60 feet of depth. Assuming the 
temperature of subterranean fusion to be 3000°, and that the increase of heat 
at greater depths continues uniform (which, however, is by no means certain), 
the thickness of the film which separates us from the fiery ocean beneath 
will be about thirty-four miles—a thickness which may be fairly repre- 
sented by the skin of a peach taken in relation to the body of the fruit which 
it covers. The depth of 4000 feet, which has been assumed as the limit at 
which coal could be worked, would probably be attended by an increase 
of heat exceeding the powers of human endurance. In the Monkwearmouth 
colliery, which is less than half that depth, the temperature of the air in the 
workings is about 84° Fahr., which is considered to be nearly as high as is 
consistent with the great bodily exertion necessary in the operation of mining. 
The computations therefore of the duration of coal would probably require a 
considerable reduction in consequence of too great a depth being assumed as 
practicable. 

At the last Meeting of the British Association in this town, the import- 

ance of establishing an office for mining records was brought under the notice 
of the Council by Mr. Sopwith, and measures were taken which resulted in 
the formation of the present Mining Records Office. The British Association 
may congratulate itself upon having thus been instrumental in establishing an 
office in which plans of abandoned mines are preserved for the information of 
those who, at a future period, may be disposed to incur the expense of bringing 
those mines again into operation. But more than this is required. Many of 
the inferior seams of coal can be profitably worked only in conjunction with 
those of superior quality, and they will be entirely lost if neglected until the 
choicer beds be exhausted. Although coal is private property, its duration 
is a national question, and Government interference would be justified: to 
enforce such modes of working as the national interests demand. - But to 
enable Government to exercise any supervision and control, a complete 
mining suryey of all our coal-fields should be made, and full plans, sections, 
and reports lodged at the Mining Records Office for the information of the 
legislature and of the public in general. 
- Before dismissing the subject of coal, it may be proper to notice the recent 
discovery by Berthelot of a new form of carburetted hydrogen possessing 
twice the illuminating power of ordinary coal-gas. Berthelot succeeded in 
procuring this gas by passing hydrogen between the carbon electrodes of a 
powerful battery. Dr. Odling has since shown that the same gas may be 
produced by mixing carbonic oxide with an equal volume of light carbu- 
retted hydrogen and exposing the mixture in a porcelain tube to an intense 
heat. Still more recently, Mr. Siemens has detected the same gas in the 
highly heated regenerators of his furnaces, and there is now every reason to 
believe that the new gas will become practically available for illuminating- 
purposes. Thus it is that discoveries which in the first instance interest 
the philosopher only almost invariably initiate a rapid series of steps leading 
to results of great practical importance to mankind. 

In the course of the preceding observations I have had occasion to speak of 
the sun as the great source of motive power on our earth, and I must not omit 
to refer to recent discoveries connected with that most glorious body. Of all 
the results which science has produced within the last few years, none has 
been more unexpected than that by which we are enabled to test the materials 
of which the sun is made, and prove their identity, in part at least, with those 


ADDRESS. ~ lix 


of our planet. Thespectrim experiments of Bunsen and Kirchhoff have not 
only shown all this, but they have also corroborated previous conjectures as 
to the luminous envelope of the sun. I have still to advert to Mr. Nasmyth’s 
remarkable discovery, that the bright surface of the sun is composed of an 
aggregation of apparently solid forms, shaped like willow-leaves or some well- 
known forms of Diatomacez, and interlacing one another in every direction. 
The forms are so regular in size and shape, as to have led to a suggestion 
from one of our profoundest philosophers of their being organisms, possibly 
eyen partaking of the nature of life, but at all events closely connected 
with the heating and vivifying influences of the sun. These mysterious 
objects, which, since Mr. Nasmyth discovered them, have been seen by other 
observers as well, are computed to be each not less than 1000 miles in length 
and about 100 miles in breadth. The enormous chasms in the sun’s photo- 
sphere, to which we apply the diminutive term ‘‘spots,” exhibit the extremities 
of these leaf-like bodies pointing inwards, and fringing the sides of the cavern 
far down into the abyss. Sometimes they form a sort of rope or bridge 
across the chasm, and appear to adhere to one another by lateral attraction. 
I can imagine nothing more deserving of the scrutiny of observers than these 
extraordinary forms. The sympathy also which appears to exist between 
forces operating in the sun and magnetic forces belonging to the earth merits 
a continuance of that close attention which it has already received from the 
British Association, and of labours such as General Sabine has with so much 
ability and effect devoted to the elucidation of the subject. I may here notice 
that most remarkable phenomenon which was seen by independent observers 
at two different places on the 1st of September 1859. A sudden outburst of 
light, far exceeding the brightness of the sun’s surface, was seen to take place, 
and sweep like a drifting cloud over a portion of the solar face. This was 
attended with magnetic disturbances of unusual intensity and with exhibitions 
of aurora of extraordinary brilliancy. The identical instant at which the 
effusion -of light was observed was recorded by an abrupt and strongly 
marked deflection in the self-registering instruments at Kew. The pheno- 
menon as seen was probably only part of what actually took place, for the 
magnetic storm in the midst of which it occurred commenced before and 
continued after the event. If conjecture be allowable in such a case, we may 
suppose that this remarkable event had some connexion with the means by 
which the sun’s heat is renovated. It is a reasonable supposition that the 
sun was at that time in the act of receiving a more than usual accession 
of new energy; and the theory which assigns the maintenance of its 
power to cosmical matter plunging into it with that prodigious ‘velocity 
which gravitation would impress upon it as it approached to actual contact 
with the solar orb, would afford an explanation of this sudden exhibition of 
intensified light in harmony with the knowledge we have now attained that 
arrested motion is represented by equivalent heat. Telescopic observations 
will probably add new facts to guide our judgment on this subject, and, taken 
in connexion with observations on terrestrial magnetism, may enlarge and 
correct our views respecting the nature of heat, light, and electricity. Much 
as we have yet to learn respecting these agencies, we know sufticient to infer 
that they cannot be transmitted from the sun to the earth except by com- 
munication from particle to particle of intervening matter. Not that I speak 
of particles in the sense of the atomist. Whatever our views may be of the 
nature of particles, we must conceive them as centres invested with surround- 
ing forces. We have no evidence, either from our senses or otherwise, of these 
centres being occupicd by solid cores of indivisible incompressible matter 


lx REPORT—1863. 


essentially distinct from force. Dr. Young has shown that even in so dense 
a body as water, these nuclei, if they exist at all, must be so small in relation 
to the intervening spaces, that a hundred men distributed at equal distances 
over the whole surface of England would represent their relative magnitude 
and distance. What then must be these relative dimensions in highly rarefied 
matter? But why encumber our conceptions of material forces by this unneces- 
sary imagining of a central molecule? If we retain the forces and reject the 
molecule, we shall still have every property we can recognize in matter by 
the use of our senses or by the aid of ourreason. Viewed in this light, matter 
is not merely a thing subject to force, but is itself composed and constituted 
of force. 

The dynamical theory of heat is probably the most important discovery of the 
present century. We now know that each Fahrenheit degree of temperature 
in a pound of water is equivalent to a weight of 772 Ibs. lifted 1 foot high, 
and that these amounts of heat and power are reciprocally convertible into 
one another. This theory of heat, with its numerical computation, is chiefly 
due to the labours of Mayer and Joule, though many other names, including 
those of: Thomson and Rankine, are deservedly associated with its develop- 
ment, I speak of this discovery as one of the present age because it has 
been established in our time; but if we search back for earlier concep- 
tions of the identity of heat and motion, we shall find (as we always do in 
such cases) that similar ideas have been held before, though in a clouded and 
undemonstrated form. In the writings of Lord Bacon we find it stated 
that heat is to be regarded as motion and nothing else. In dilating upon 
this subject, that extraordinary man shows that he had grasped the true 
theory of heat to the utmost extent that was compatible with the state of 
knowledge existing in his time. Even Aristotle seems to have entertained 
the idea that motion was to be considered as the foundation not only of heat, 
but of all manifestations of matter; and, for aught we know, still earlier 
thinkers may have held similar views. 

The science of gunnery, to which I shall make but slight allusion on this 
occasion, is intimately connected with the dynamical theory of heat. When 
gunpowder is exploded in a cannon, the immediate effect of the affinities by 
which the materials of the powder are caused to enter into new combinations, 
is to liberate a force which first appears as heat, and then takes the form of 
mechanical power communicated in part to the shot and in part to the pro- 
ducts of explosion which are also propelled from the gun. The mechanical 
force of the shot is reconverted into heat when the motion is arrested by 
striking an object, and this heat is divided between the shot and the object 
struck, in the proportion of the work done or damage inflicted upon each, 
These considerations recently led me, in conjunction with my friend Captain 
Noble, to determine experimentally, by the heat elicited in the shot, the loss 
of effect due to its crushing when fired against iron plates. Joule’s law, and 
the known velocity of the shot, enabled us to compute the number of dyna- 
mical units of heat representing the whole mechanical power in the projectile, 
and by ascertaining the number of units developed in it by impact, we arrived 
at the power which took effect upon the shot instead of the plate. These ex- 
periments showed an enormous absorption of power to be caused by the 
yielding nature of the materials of which projectiles are usually formed ; but 
further experiments are required to complete the inquiry. 

Whilst speaking of the subject of gunnery, I must pay a passing tribute of 
praise to that beautiful instrument invented and perfected by Major Navez of 
the Belgian Artillery, for determining, by means of electro-magnetism, the 


ADDRESS. lxi 


velocity of projectiles. This instrument has been of great value in recent 
investigations, and there are questions affecting projectiles which we can 
only hope to solve by its assistance. Experiments are still required to clear 
up several apparently anomalous effects in gunnery, and to determine the con- 
ditions most conducive to efficiency both as regards attack and defence. It is 
gratifying to see our Government acting in accordance with the enlightened 
principles of the age by carrying on scientific experiments to arrive at know- 
ledge, which, in the arts of war as well as in those of peace, is proyerbially 
recognized as the true source of human power. 

Professor Tyndall’s recent discoveries respecting the absorption and radi- 
ation of heat by vapours and permanent gases constitute important additions 
to our knowledge. The extreme delicacy of his experiments and the remark- 
able distinctness of their results render them beautiful examples of physical 
research. They are of great value as affording further illustrations of the 
vibratory actions in matter which constitute heat; but it is in connexion with 
the science of meteorology that they chiefly command our attention. From 
these experiments we learn that the minute quantity of water suspended as 
invisible vapour in the atmosphere acts as a warm clothing to the earth. The 
efficacy of this vapour in arresting heat is, in comparison with that of air, 
perfectly astounding. Although the atmosphere contains on an average 
but one particle of aqueous vapour to 200 of air, yet that single par- 
ticle absorbs 80 times as much heat as the collective 200 particles of air. 
Remove, says Professor Tyndall, for a single summer night, the aqueous 
vapour from the air which overspreads this country, and you would assuredly 
destroy every plant incapable of bearing extreme cold. The warmth of our 
fields and gardens would pour itself unrequited into space, and the sun would 
rise upon an island held fast in the grip of frost. Many meteorological phe- 
nomena receive a feasible explariation from these investigations, which are 
probably destined to throw further light upon the functions of our atmosphere. 

Few sciences have more practical value than meteorology, and there are 
few of which we as yet know so little. Nothing would contribute more to 
the saving of life and property, and to augmenting the general wealth of the 
world, than the ability to foresee with certainty impending changes of the 
weather. At present our means of doing so are exceedingly imperfect, but, 
such as they are, they have been employed with considerable effect by 
Admiral FitzRoy in warning mariners of the probable approach of storms. 
We may hope that so good an object will be effected with more unvarying 
success when we attain a better knowledge of the causes by which wind and 
rain, heat and cold are determined. The balloon explorations conducted 
with so much intrepidity by Mr. Glaisher, under the auspices of the British 
Association, may perhaps in some degree assist in enlightening us upon 
these important subjects. We have learnt from Mr, Glaisher’s observations 
that the decrease of temperature with elevation does not follow the law pre- 
yiously assumed of 1° in 300 feet, and that in fact it follows no definite law 
at all. Mr. Glaisher appears also to have ascertained the interesting fact 
that rain is only precipitated when cloud exists in a double layer. Rain- 
drops, he has found, diminish in size with elevation, merging into wet mist 
and ultimately into dry fog. Mr, Glaisher met with snow for a mile in 
thickness below rain, which is at variance with our preconceived ideas. He 
has also rendered good service by testing the efficiency of various instruments 
at heights which cannot be visited without personal danger. 

The facility now given to the transmission of intelligence and the inter- 
change of thought is one of the most remarkable features of the present 


Ixii REPORT—1863. 


age. Cheap and rapid postage to all parts of the world—paper and printing 
reduced to the lowest possible cost—electric telegraphs between nation and 
nation, town and town, and now even (thanks to the beautiful inventions of 
Professor Wheatstone) between house and house—all contribute to aid that 
commerce of ideas by which wealth and knowledge are augmented. But 
while so much facility is given to mental communication by new measures 
and new inventions, the fundamental art of expressing thought by written 
symbols remains as imperfect now as it has been for centuries past. It seems 
strange that while we actually possess a system of shorthand by which words 
tan be recorded as rapidly as they can be spoken, we should persist in writing 
a slow and laborious longhand. It is intelligible that grown-up persons who 
have acquired the present conventional art of writing should be reluctant to 
incur the labour of mastering a better system; but there can be no reason why 
the rising generation should not be instructed in a method of writing more in 
accordance with the activity of mind which now prevails. Even without 
going so far as to adopt for ordinary use a complete system of stenography, 
which it is not easy to acquire, we might greatly abridge the time and labour 
of writing by the recognition of a few simple signs to express the syllables 
which are of most frequent occurrence in our language. Our words are in a 
great measure made up of such syllables as com, con, tion, ing, able, ain, ent, 
est, ance, &c. These we are now obliged to write out over and over again, as 
if time and labour expended in what may be termed visual speech were of no 
importance. Neither has our written character the advantage of distinctness 
to recommend it: it is only necessary to write such a word as “ minimum ” 
or “ammunition” to become aware of the want of sufficient difference be- 
tween the letters we employ. I refrain from enlarging on this subject, 
because I conceive that it belongs to social more than to physical science, 
although the boundary which separates the two is sufficiently indistinct to 
permit of my alluding to it in the hope of procuring for it the attention 
which its importance deserves. 

Another subject of a social character which demands our consideration is 
the much-debated question of weights and measures. Whatever difference of 
opinion there may be as to the comparative merits of decimal and duodecimal 
division, there can, at all events, be none as to the importance of assimilating 
the systems of measurement in different countries. Science suffers by the 
want of uniformity, because valuable observations made in one country are in 
a great measure lost to another from the labour required to convert a series 
of quantities into new denominations. International commerce is also im- 
peded by the same cause, which is productive of constant inconvenience and 
frequent mistake. It is much to be regretted that two standards of measure 
so nearly alike as the English yard and the French metre should not be made 
absolutely identical. The metric system has already been adopted by other 
nations besides France, and is the only one which has any chance of becoming 
universal. We in England, therefore, have no alternative but to conform 
with France, if we desire general uniformity. The change might easily be 
introduced in scientific literature, and in that case it would probably 
extend itself by degrees amongst the commercial classes without much 
legislative pressure. Besides the advantage which would thus be gained 
in regard to uniformity, I am convinced that the adoption of the decimal 
division of the French scale would be attended with great convenience, 
both in science and commerce. I can speak from personal experience of 
the superiority of decimal measurement in all cases where accuracy is re- 
quired. in mechanical construction. In the Elswick Works, as well as in 


; ai 


; 


ADDRESS. ~ Lxili 
some other large establishments of the same description, the inch is adopted 
as the unit, and all fractional parts are expressed in decimals. No difficulty 
has been experienced in habituating the workmen to the use of this method, 
and it has greatly contributed to precision of workmanship. The inch, how- 
ever, is too small a unit, and it would be advantageous to substitute the metre 
if general concurrence could be obtained. As to our thermometric scale, it 
was originally founded in error; it is also most inconvenient in division, 
and ought at once to be abandoned in favour of the Centigrade scale. The 
recognition of the metric system and of the Centigrade scale by the numerous 
men of science composing the British Association, would be a most important 
step towards effecting that universal adoption of the French standards in this 
country which sooner or later will inevitably take place; and the Association 
in its collective capacity might take the lead in this good work, by excluding 
in future all other standards from their published proceedings. 

The recent discovery of the source of the Nile by Captains Speke and 
Grant has solved a problem in geography which has been a subject of specu- 
lation from the earliest ages. It is an honour to England that this interest- 
ing discovery has been made by two of her sons, and the British Association, 
which is accustomed to value every addition to knowledge for its own sake, 
whether or not it be attended with any immediate utility, will at once appre- 
ciate the importance of the discovery and the courage and devotion by which 
it has been accomplished. The Royal Geographical Society, under the able 
presidency of Sir Roderick Murchison, was chiefly instrumental in procuring 
the organization of the expedition which has resulted in this great achieve- 
ment, and the success of the Society’s labours in connexion with this and 
other cases of African exploration shows how much good may be effected by 
associations for the promotion of scientific objects. 

The science of organic life has of late years been making great and rapid 
strides, and it is gratifying to observe that researches both in zoology and 
botany are characterized in the present day by great accuracy and elaboration. 
Investigations patiently conducted upon true inductive principles cannot fail 
eventually to elicit the hidden laws which govern the animated world. Neither 
is there any lack of bold speculation contemporaneously with this painstaking 
spirit of inquiry. The remarkable work of Mr. Darwin promulgating the 
doctrine of natural selection has produced a profound sensation. The novelty 
of this ingenious theory, the eminence of its author, and his masterly treat- 
ment of the subject have perhaps combined to excite more enthusiasm in its 
favour than is consistent with that dispassionate spirit which it is so necessary 
to preserve in the pursuit of truth. Mr. Darwin’s views have not passed 
unchallenged, and the arguments both for and against have been urged with 
great vigour by the supporters and opponents of the theory. Where good 
reasons can be shown on both sides of a question, the truth is generally to be 
found between the two extremes. In the present instance we may without 
difficulty suppose it to have been part of the great scheme of creation that 
natural selection should be permitted to determine variations amounting even 
to. specific differences where those differences were matters of degree; but 
when natural selection is adduced as a cause adequate to explain the produc- 
tion of a new organ not provided for in original creation, the hypothesis must 
appear, to common apprehensions, to be pushed beyond the limits of reasonable 
conjecture. The Darwinian theory, when fully enunciated, founds the pedi- 
gree of living nature upon the most elementary form of vitalized matter. One 
step further would carry us back, without greater violence to probability, to in- 


organic rudiments, and then we should be called upon to recognize in ourselves, 


lxiv REPORT—1863. 


and in the exquisite elaborations of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, the 
ultimate results of mere material forces left free to follow their own unguided 
tendencies. Surely our minds would in that case be more oppressed with a 
sense of the miraculous than they now are in attributing the wondrous things 
around us to the creative hand of a Great presiding Intelligence. 

The evidences bearing upon the antiquity of man have been recently pro- 
duced in a collected and most logically-treated form by Sir Charles Lyell. It 
seems no longer possible to doubt that the human race has existed on the 
earth in a barbarian state for a period far exceeding the limit of historical 
record ; but notwithstanding this great antiquity, the proofs still remain un- 
altered that man is the latest as well as the noblest work of God. 

I will not run the risk of wearying this assembly by extending my remarks 
to other branches of science. In conclusion I will express a hope that when 
the time again comes round to receive the British Association in this town, its 
members will find the interval to have been as fruitful as the corresponding 
period on which we now look back. The tendency of progress is to quicken 
progress, because every acquisition in science is so much vantage ground for 
fresh attainment. We may expect, therefore, to increase our speed as we 
struggle forward ; but however high we climb in the pursuit of knowledge we 
shall still see heights above us, and the more we-extend our view, the more 
conscious we shall be of the immensity which lies beyond. 


REPORTS 


ON 


THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 


Report on the Application of Gun-cotton to Warlike purposes. By a 
Committee, consisting of J. H. Guavsrone, Ph.D., F.R.S., Prof. W. 
A. Mitirr, M.D., F.R.S., and Prof. E. Franxiann, PA.D., F.R.S., 
from Section B.; and W. Fairzairn, LL.D., F.R.S., Josern 
Wauirtworts, F.R.S., James Nasmytu, C.EL., F.R.A.S., J. Scorr 
Russeiu, C.E., F.R.S., Joon Anperson, C.H., and Sir W. G. 
Armstrone, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., from Section G. 


Sryce the invention of gun-cotton by Professor Schénbein of Basle, the 
thoughts of many have been directed to its application to warlike purposes. 
Many trials and experiments have been made, especially by the French 
Government ; but such serious difficulties and objections presented themselves, 
that the idea seemed to be abandoned in every country but one. That 
country was Austria. From time to time accounts reached England of its 
partial adoption in the Austrian service—though no explanation was afforded 
of the mode in which the difficulties had been overcome, or the extent to 
which these attempts had been successful. 

This was the state of the case when the present Committee was appointed. 

During the year your Committee have been put in possession of the fullest 
information on the subject, mainly from two sources, F. A. Abel, Esq., F.R.S., 
the Chemist to the War Department, and Baron William von Lenk, Major- 
General of the Austrian Artillery, who is the inventor of the system by which 
gun-cotton is made practically available for warlike purposes. 

Mr. Abel, by permission of the Secretary of State for War, has communi- 
cated the information g*ven by the Austrian Government to the Government 
of this country, and the results which he has himself arrived at during the 
course of an elaborate series of experiments. 

General von Lenk, on the invitation of your Committee, and by permission 
of the Emperor of Austria, paid a visit to this country, with the object of 
answering any inquiries the Committee might make, and explaining his sys- 


_ tem thoroughly ; and for this purpose he brought over drawings and samples 


from the Imperial factory. 
1863, 3 


2 . REPORT—18638. 


In addition to these principal sources of information, your Committee would 
mention the services rendered by two of their own number. Prof. Frank- 
land was able to corroborate by his own experiments most of the statements 
made in the earlier communications of Mr. Abel. Mr. Whitworth has made 
experiments on the application of gun-cotton in mines, and has sent over to 
Austria rifles and ammunition, to be experimented with by Baron yon Lenk, 
with a view of obtaining results, which he has promised to communicate to 
the Committee. 

The following documents form part of this Report, and contain the infor- 
mation received. 

I. Report by Mr. Abel, received February 1863, on the system of manu- 
facture of gun-cotton, as carried on in the Imperial Austrian Establishment. 

II. Report by Mr. Abel, dated February 20th, 1863, 01 the composition, 
and some properties, of specimens of gun-cotton prepared at the Austrian 
Government Works. 

III. Memorandum by Mr. Abel, with reference to experiments in progress 
bearing upon the manufacture of gun-cotton. Received August 27th, 1863. 

IY. General von Lenk’s replies to the questions put to him at the Mectings 
of June 22 and July 14. 

VY. Extracts from a report on Baron Lenk’s gun-cotton by Profs, Redten- 
bacher, Schrétter, and Schneider. Dated June 1863. 

On the data afforded by these documents, and other information com- 
municated personally by Baron Lenk, your Committee have founded their 
present Report. It must therefore be regarded in the light of a preliminary 
inquiry. Should the Committee be reappointed, they will be happy to un- 
dertake some experiments with the view of clearing up those points which 
are still more or less obscure. 

These communications are broken into paragraphs, which are numbered 
for convenience of reference ; those of Mr, Abel are indicated by the letter 
A, those of Baron Lenk are distinguished by the letter L, whilst the extracts 
from the Austrian chemists are marked C. 

The following is a summary of the more important matters referred to in 
this evidence, with the main conclusions which your Committee haye drawn 
from them. The subject may naturally be divided into two parts, the che- 
mical and the mechanical, 


1. Chemical Considerations. 


Under this head are included the manufacture of the gun-cotton itself, and 
the answers to such inquiries as those which refer to its liability, or non- 
liability, to deterioration by keeping, the possibility of its spontaneous decom- 
position, and the nature and effects of the products into which it is resolved 
on explosion. 

As to the chemical nature of the material itself, Baron Lenk’s gun-cotton 
differs from the gun-cotton generally made, in its complete conyersion into a 
uniform chemical compound. It is well known to chemists that, when cotton 
is treated with mixtures of strong nitric and sulphuric acids, compounds may 
be obtained varying considerably in composition, though they all contain the 
elements of the nitric acid, and are all explosive. The most complete com- 
bination, or product of substitution, is that described by Mr. Hadow as 
C,,H,, (9NO,)0,,,which is identical with that termed by the Austrian chemists 
Trinitrocellulose, C,, H, (3NO,)0,,. (C. 2.) This is of no use whatever for 
making collodion, but it is Baron Lenk’s gun-cotton, and he secures its pro- 
duction by several precautions. Of these the most important are— 


ON THE APPLICATION OF GUN*-COTTON TO WARLIKE PURPOSES, 3 


1st, The cleansing and perfect desiccation of the cotton, as a preliminary 
to its immersion in the acids. 

2nd, The employment of the strongest acids attainable in commerce. 

3rd, The steeping of the cotton in a fresh strong mixture of acids, after 
its first immersion and partial conversion into gun-cotton. 

4th, The continuance of the steeping for forty-eight hours. 

5th. The thorough purification of the gun-cotton so produced, from every 
trace of free acid. This is secured by its being washed in a stream of water 
for several weeks. Subsequently a weak solution of potash may be used, but 
this is not essential. 

The prolonged continuance of these processes appears at first sight super- 
fluous, but it is really essential ; for each cotton-fibre is a long narrow tube, 
often twisted and even doubled up, and the acid has first to penetrate into the 
very furthest depths of these tubes, and afterwards has to be soaked out of 
them. Hence the necessity of time. It seems to have been mainly from 
want of these precautions that the gun-cotton experimented on by the French 
Commission gave irregular and unsatisfactory results. (C. 1.) 

From the evidence before the Committee, it appears that this highest 
nitro-compound, when thoroughly free from acid, is not liable to some of the 
objections which have been urged against that mixture of compounds which 
has been usually employed for experiments on gun-cotton. 

These advantages may be classed as follows :— 

1st. It is of uniform composition, and thus the force of the gases generated 
on explosion may be accurately estimated. (C. 2.) 

2nd. It will not ignite till raised to a temperature of at least 136° C. 
(277° F.), a heat which does not occur unless artificially produced by means 
which would render gunpowder itself liable to ignition. (C. 5.) 

3rd. It is almost absolutely free from ash when exploded in a confined 
space. 

4th, It has a very marked superiority in stability over other forms of gun- 
cotton, It has been kept unaltered for fifteen years, and is not liable to 
that spontaneous slow decomposition which is known to render lower products 
worthless after a short time. (C. 4,6.) Yet there are still some reasons for 
suspecting that even the gun-cotton produced at the Imperial works suffers 
some gradual deterioration, especially when exposed to the sunlight. (A. 20, 
C. 3.) 

The details of the process of manufacture at Hirtenberg are given at length 
in Mr. Abel’s first report, in General von Lenk’s replies (L. 21), and in a 
patent (No, 1090) taken out by Mr. Thomas Wood Gray, and sealed Oct. 10, 
1862. 

The course of proceeding recently adopted at the Royal Gunpowder 
Works, Waltham Abbey, is fully described in Mr, Abel’s third memorandum. 

A. 10-16.) 

: There is one part of the process not yet alluded to, and the value of which 
is more open to doubt, namely, the treatment of the gun-cotton with a solu- 
tion of silicate of potash, commonly called water-glass. Mr. Abel (A. 15) 
and the Austrian chemists think lightly of it; but Baron Lenk considers 
that the amount of silica set free on the cotton by the carbonic acid of the 
atmosphere is really of service in retarding the combustion. He adds that 
some of the gun-cotton made at the Austrian Imperial Works has not been 
silicated at all, and some but imperfectly; but when the process has been 
thoroughly performed, he finds that the gun-cotton has increased permanently 
about 3 per cent. in weight. A piece of one of the samples left by the 

B2 


4 REPORT—1863. 


General was indeed found to contain 2:33 per cent. of mineral matter, con- 
sisting chiefly of silica*, 

Much apprehension has been felt about the effect of the gases produced by 
the explosion of gun-cotton. It has been stated that both nitrous fumes and 
prussic acid are among these gases, and that the one would corrode the gun, 
and the other poison the artillerymen. Now, though it is true that from 
some kinds of gun-cotton, or by some methods of decomposition, one or both 
of these gases may be produced, the results of the explosion of the Austrian 
gun-cotton, without access of air, are found by Karolyi to contain neither of 
these, but to consist of nitrogen, carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, water, and a 
little hydrogen, and light carburetted hydrogen. (C. 7.) These are compara- 
tively innocuous; and it is distinctly in evidence that practically the gun is 
less injured by repeated charges of gun-cotton than of gunpowder, and that 
the men in casemates suffer less from its fumes. (L. 13.) The importance of 
this latter property in a fortress, or a ship, will be at once apparent. 

It seems a disadvantage of this material as compared with gunpowder that it 
explodes at a lower temperature, possibly at 136°C (277° F.); but against the 
greater liability to accident arising from this cause may be set the greatly 
diminished risk of explosion during the process of manufacture, since the gun- 
cotton is always immersed in liquid, except in the final drying; and that 
may be performed, if desirable, at the ordinary temperature of the air. Again, 
if it should be considered advisable at any time, it may be stored in water, 
and only dried in small quantities when required for use. 

The fact that gun-cotton is not injured by damp like gunpowder, is indeed 
one of its recommendations. It is not even so liable to absorb moisture from 
the atmosphere, 2 per cent. being the usual amount of hygroscopic moisture 
found in it; and should that quantity be increased through any extraordinary 
conditions of the air, the gun-cotton speedily parts with its excess of mois- 
ture when the air returns to its ordinary state of dryness, (A. 5 & 8.) 

But a still more important chemical advantage which gun-cotton possesses, 
arises from its being perfectly resolved into gases on explosion, so that there 
is no smoke to obscure the sight of the soldier who is firing, or to point out 
his position to the enemy; and no residue left in the gun to be got rid of 
before another charge can be introduced. 


2. Mechanical Considerations. 


At the outset of this inquiry the Mechanical Members of the Committee 
found it difficult to believe that greater effects are produced by a given volume 
of gases generated from gun-cotton than by an equal volume of gases 
generated from gunpowder; nevertheless, from the facts as brought before 
the Committee, such contradiction would at first sight appear to exist. 

The great waste of force in gunpowder constitutes an important difference 
between it and gun-cotton, in which there is no waste. According 
to the experiments of Bunsen and Schischkoff+, the waste in gunpowder 
is 68 per cent. of its own weight, and only 32 per cent. is useful. This 
68 per cent. is not only waste in itself, but it wastes the power of the 
remaining 32 per cent. It wastes it mechanically, by using up a large por- 
tion of the mechanical force of the useful gases. The waste of gunpowder 
issues from the gun with much higher velocity than the projectile; and if it 


* Two combustions of it, made by Dr. Gladstone, gave respectively 2°27 and 24 per 
cent. of ash. It was mainly insoluble silica in a state of very fine division, but acids 
dissolved out of it an appreciable amount of lime, 

t Pogg. Annal, 4th Series, vol. xii. p. 131, 


ON THE APPLICATION OF GUN-COTTON TO WARLIKE PURPOSES. 5 


be remembered that in 100 Ibs. of useful gunpowder this is 68 Ibs., it will 
appear that a portion of the 32 lbs. of useful gunpowder gas must be employed 
in impelling a 68 lb, shot composed of the refuse of gunpowder itself. 

There is yet another peculiar feature of gun-cotton : it can be exploded in 
any quantity instantaneously. This was once considered its great fault ; but 
it was only a fault when we were ignorant of the means to make that velocity 
anything we pleased. General von Lenk has discovered the means of giving 
gun-cotton any velocity of explosion that is required, by merely varying the 
mechanical arrangements under which it is used. Gun-cotton in his hands 
has any speed of explosion, from 1 foot per second to 1 foot in zoos of a 
second, or to instantaneity. The instantaneous explosion of a large quantity 
of gun-cotton is made use of when it is required to produce destructive effects 
on the surrounding material. The slow combustion is made use of when it 
is required to produce manageable power, as in the case of gunnery. It is 
plain, therefore, that if we can explode a large mass instantaneously, we get 
out of the gases so exploded the greatest possible power, because all the gas 
is generated before motion commences, and this is the condition of maximum 
effect. It is found that the condition necessary to produce instantaneous 
and complete explosion is the absolute perfection of closeness of the chamber 
containing the gun-cotton. The reason of this is, that the first ignited gases 
must penetrate the whole mass of the cotton; and this they do (and create 
complete ignition throughout) only under pressure. This pressure need not 
be great. For example, a barrel-load of gun-cotton will produce little effect 
and very slow combustion when out of the barrel, but instantaneous and 
powerful explosion when shut up within it. 

On the other hand, if we desire gun-cotton to produce mechanical work and 
not destruction of materials, we must provide for its slower combustion. It 
must be distributed and opened out mechanically, so as to occupy a larger 
space, and in this state it can be made to act even more slowly than gun- 
powder ; and the exact limit for purposes of artillery General yon Lenk has 
found by critical experiments. In general it is found that the proportion of 
11 Ibs. of gun-cotton, occupying 1 cubic foot of space, produces a greater 
force than gunpowder (of which from 50 to 60 lbs. occupy the same space), 
and a force of the nature required for ordinary artillery. But each gun and 
each kind of projectile requires a certain density of cartridge. Practically 
gun-cotton is most effective in guns when used as 1 to 1 weight of powder, 
and occupying a space of 11,th of the length of the powder cartridge, and 
of such density that 11 lbs. occupy a cubic foot. 

The mechanical structure of the cartridge is of high importance, as affecting 
its ignition. The cartridge is formed of a mechanical arrangement of spun 
cords; and the distribution of these, the place and manner of ignition, the 
form and proportion of the cartridge, all affect the time of complete ignition. 
(A. 19. L. 22.) It is by the complete mastery he has gained over all these 
minute points that General Lenk is enabled to give to the action of gun- 
cotton on the projectile any law of force he pleases. 

Even at the present high price of cotton, its cost of production is said 
to be less than that of gunpowder, the price of quantities being compared 
which will produce equal effects. (L. 20.) 


Practical Applications. 


Gun-cotton is used for artillery in the form of thread or spun yarn. In 
this simple form it will conduct combustion slowly in the open air at a 
rate of not more than 1 foot per second. This thread is woven into-a 


6 REPORT—1868. 


texture or circular web. These webs are made of various diameters; and it 
is out of these webs that common rifle cartridges are made, merely by cutting 
them into the proper lengths, and enclosing them in stiff cylinders of paste- 
board, which form the cartridge. In this shape its combustion in the open 
air takes place at a speed of 10 feet per second. In these cylindrical webs 
it is also used to fill explosive shells, as it can be conveniently employed in 
this shape to pass in through the neck of the shell. Gun-cotton thread is 
spun into ropes in the usual way, up to 2 inches diameter, hollow in the 
centre. This is the form used for blasting and mining purposes; it combines 
great density with speedy explosion, and in this form it is conveniently coiled 
in casks and stowed in boxes. The gun-cotton yarn is used directly to form 
cartridges for large guns, by being wound round a bobbin, so as to form 
a spindle like that used in spinning-mills. The bobbin is a hollow tube 
of paper or wood. The object of the wooden rod is to secure in all cases the 
necessary length of chamber in the gun required for the most effective 
explosion. The gun-cotton circular web is enclosed in tubes of india-rubber 
cloth to form a match-line, in which form it is most convenient, and travels 
with speed and certainty. 

Conveyance and storage of gun-cotton.—It results from the foregoing facts 
that 1 Ib. of gun-cotton produces the effect of more than 3 Ibs. of gunpowder 
in artillery. This is a material adyantage, whether it be carried by men, by 
horses, or in waggons. It may be placed in store and preserved with great, 
safety. (L.7,&16.) The danger from explosion does not arise until it is con- 
fined, as it simply burns intensely in the open air. It may become damp, and 
even perfectly wet without injury, and may be dried by mere exposure to the 
air. This is of great value in ships of war; and in case of danger from fire, 
the magazine may be submerged without injury. 

Practical use in artillery.—It is easy to gather from the foregoing general 
facts how gun-cotton keeps the gun clean, and requires less windage, and 
therefore performs much better in continuous firing. In gunpowder there is 
68 per cent. of refuse, or the matter of fouling. In gun-cotton there is no 
residuum, and therefore no fouling. 

Experiments made by the Austrian Committee proved that 100 rounds 
could be fired with gun-cotton against 30 rounds of gunpowder. 

In firing ordnance with gun-cotton, the gun does not heat to any important 
extent. Experiments showed that 100 rounds were fired with a 6-pounder 
in 34 minutes, and the gun was raised by gun-cotton to only 122° Fahrenheit, 
whilst 100 rounds with gunpowder took 100 minutes, and raised the tem- 
perature to such a degree that water was instantly evaporated. The firing 
with the gunpowder was therefore discontinued; but the rapid firing with 
the gun-cotton was continued up to 180 rounds without any inconvenience, 
(L. 9.) The absence of fouling allows all the mechanism of a gun to have 
more exactness than where allowance is made for fouling. The absence of 
smoke promotes rapid firing and exact aim. 

The fact of smaller recoil from a gun charged with gun-cotton is established 
by direct experiment; its value is two-thirds of the recoil from gunpowder 
—the projectile effect being equal. (L. 5.) To understand this may not be 
easy. The waste of the solids of gunpowder accounts for one part of the 
saving, as in 100 Ibs. of gunpowder 68 lbs, have to be projected in addition 
to the shot, and at much higher speed. The remainder General von Lenk 
attributes to the different law of combustion; but the fact is established. 

The comparative advantage of gun-cotton and gunpowder for producing 
high velocities is shown in the following experiment with a Krupp’s cast 


ON THE APPLICATION OF GUN-COTTON TO WARLIKE PURPOSES. 7 


steel gun, 6-pounder. An ordinary charge, 30 ounces powder, produced 
1338 feet per second. A charge of 134 oz. gun-cotton produced 1563 feet. 

The comparative advantage in shortness of gun is shown in the following 
experiments with a 12-pounder :— 


Charge. Length of gun. _— Velocity. 


Gunpowder ........4..... 49-0 oz.* 134 calibres. 1400 
PPAMMCOMOD 6. 6 co 6 os a's 159) og 10 . 1426 
ES ae ea ee Bly ia | A 9 9 1402 


Advantage in weight of gun.—The fact of the recoil being less, in the ratio 
of 2: 3, enables a less weight of gun to be employed as well as a shorter gun, 
without the disadvantage to practice arising from lightness of gun. (L. 5.) 

Endurance of gun.—Bronze and cast iron guns have been fired 1000 rounds 
without in the least affecting the endurance of the gun. 

Application to destructive explosions. Explosion of Shells——From some 
unexplained difference in the action of gun-cotton, there is an extraordinary 
difference of result as compared with gunpowder ; namely, the same shell is 
exploded by the same quantity of gas into more than double the number of 
pieces. This is partly to be accounted for by the greater velocity of explosion 
when the gun-cotton is confined very closely in very small spaces. It is also 
a peculiarity, that the stronger the shell the smaller the fragments into which 
it is broken. (L. 17.) 

Mining uses.—The fact that the action of gun-cotton is violent and rapid 
in exact proportion to the resistance it encounters, tells us the secret of its far 
higher efficacy in mining than gunpowder. The stronger the rock the less 
gun-cotton comparatively with gunpowder is necessary for the effect; so 
much so that, while gun-cotton is stronger than powder as 3 to 1 in artil- 
lery, it is stronger in the proportion of 6:274:1 in a strong and solid rock, 
weight for weight. It is the hollow rope form which is used for blasting. 
Its power of splitting up the material can be regulated at will. 

Against the gates of a city—It is a well-known fact that a bag of gun- 
powder nailed on the gates of a city will blow them open. In this case 
gun-cotton would fail; a bag of gun-cotton exploded in the same way is 
powerless. If 1 ounce of gunpowder is exploded in scales the balance is 
thrown down ; with an equal force of gun-cotton the scale-pan is not de- 
pressed. To blowup the gates of a city, a very few pounds of gun-cotton 
carried in the hand of a single man will be sufficient ; only he must know its 
nature. In a bag it is harmless; exploded in a box it will shatter the gates 
to atoms. 

Against the palisades of a fortification—A small square box containing 
25 Ibs. merely flung down close to them, will open a passage for troops. In 
an actual experiment on palisades a foot diameter and 8 feet high, driven 3 
feet into the ground, backed by a second row of 8 inches diameter, a box of 
25 Ibs. cut a clean opening 9 feet wide. On this three times the weight of 
gunpowder produced no effect whatever, except to blacken the piles. 

Against bridges.—A strong bridge of oak, 12 inches scantling, 24 feet span, 
was shattered to atoms by a small box of 25 lbs. laid on its centre: the bridge 
was not broken, it was shivered. 

Under water.—Two tiers of piles 10 inches thick, in water 13 feet deep, 
With stones between them, were blown up by a barrel of 100 Ibs. gun-cotton 
placed 3 feet from the face, and 8 feet under water. It made a clean sweep 
through a radius of 15 feet, and raised the water 200 feet. In Venice, a 


* Ordinary charge of powder. 


8 REPORT—1863. 


barrel of 400 Ibs. placed near a sloop in 10 feet water at 18 feet distance, 
shattered it to pieces and threw the fragments to a height of 400 feet. 

All experiments made by the Austrian Artillery Committee were conducted 
on a grand scale—36 batteries of 6- and 12-pounders having been con- 
structed for gun-cotton, and practised with that material. The reports of 
the Commissioners are all based on trials with ordnance from 6-pounders to 
48-pounders smooth-bore and rifled cannon. The trials with small fire- 
arms haye been comparatively few, and are not reported on. The trials 
for blasting and mining purposes were also made on a large scale by the 
Imperial Engineers Committee, and several reports have been made on the 
subject. 

The Committee desire to put upon record their conviction that the subject 
has neither chemically nor mechanically received the thorough investigation 
which it deserves. There remain many exact measures still to be made, and 
many important data to be obtained. The phenomena attending the explo- 
sion of both gun-cotton and gunpowder have to be investigated, both as to 
the temperatures generated in the act of explosion, and the nature of the 
compounds which result from them under circumstances strictly analogous 
to those which occur in artillery practice; and until these are accurately 
ascertained, it is impossible to reconcile the apparent contradictions between 
the mechanical phenomena which result from the employment of gun-cotton 
gases and gunpowder gases, when employed to do the same kind of me- 
chanical work. 


APPENDIX. 


I.—System of Manufacture of Gun-cotton as carried on in the Imperial Austrian 
Establishment. By F. A. Asut, F.R.S. 


(1) The cotton employed is of superior quality, tolerably free from seed ; 
it is carded loosely, twisted, and made up into skeins before conversion. The 
strands of the cotton composing the skeins are of two sizes—the larger being 
intended for cannon-cartridges, and the other for small-arm cartridges and 
bursters. 

(2) Preparatory Preparation of the Cotton—The cotton, made up into 
skeins weighing about 3 ounces each, is washed in a solution of pure carbo- 
nate of potassa of the specific gravity 1-02, being immersed in the boiling 
solution for a short time. Upon removal from the alkaline liquid, the skeins 
are placed in a centrifugal machine, by which the greater portion of the 
liquid is separated. The skeins are now washed in clear running water, 
either by allowing them to remain in it for three or four hours, or else by 
washing each skein by hand for a few minutes. They are then again 
worked in a centrifugal machine and afterwards dried—in summer by the 
rays of the sun, but during winter in a drying-house heated by air-pipes to 
between 30° and 38° C.; the latter plan usually takes four or five days. 

(8) Production of the Gun-cotton.—The nitric acid employed has a spec. grav. 
of 1:53, and the sulphuric acid a spec. gray. of 1:82. They are mixed in the 
ea of three parts by weight of sulphuric acid and one part of nitric 
acid. 

Two skeins (about 6 ounces) of the cotton are immersed at one time in 
the mixed acids, and moved about for a few moments with iron paddles. 
They are then raised upon a grating above the level of the acids and submitted 
to gentle pressure; thence they are transferred to covered stone jars, each of 


ON THE APPLICATION OF GUN-COTTON TO WARLIKE PURPOSES. 9 


which receives six skeins of known weight. The jars are then weighed, 
_ some of the mixed acids being added if necessary, to bring the proportion 
of acids up to 104 Ibs. to 1 lb. of cotton. 

The jars are set aside for forty-eight hours in a cool place ; in summer they 
should be placed in cold water. When that period has elapsed, the acid is 
separated from the cotton as far as possible by means of a centrifugal machine, 
as before described. The men working the machine are protected from the 
fumes of the acids by a wooden partition. The acids removed from the 
cotton are not used again in the preparation of gun-cotton. 

The skeins of gun-cotton are at once removed from the centrifugal machine 
to perforated receptacles, which are immersed in a stream, where they are 
allowed to remain at least three weeks. Each skein is afterwards separately 
rinsed in the stream to remove mechanical impurities, and the water is then 
separated by the centrifugal machine. 

The gun-cotton is next submitted to treatment with a solution of carbonate 
of potassa, as in the preliminary process, and again washed after the alkaline 
liquid has been expressed. When the skeins have been allowed to dry 
tolerably by simple exposure to air, they are placed in a large wooden tub 
containing a solution of silicate of soda, the temperature of which is about 
15°C. This solution should have a specific gravity of 1-072, and is prepared 
as required from a solution of spec. grav. 1-216. The cotton remains one 
hour in the solution of silicate of soda, which is supposed to exercise two 
functions :— 

(a) That of protecting the cotton by acting as a varnish upon the fibres. 

(6) That of retarding its combustion. 

Upon removal of the gun-cotton from the bath of water-glass, the liquid is 
partly expressed by hand, and afterwards more fully by means of the centri- 
fugal machine. The skeins must then be thoroughly dried. They are 
afterwards immersed in running water for five or six hours, and each skein 
subsequently washed by hand. The water having been extracted by the 
centrifugal machine, the gun-cotton is removed to the drying-house, where it 
remains eight or ten days. Its manufacture is then completed. 

The gun-cotton is packed in ordinary deal boxes lined with paper, and kept 
in dry magazines until required to be made into cartridges, &c. 

Well-organized arrangements are employed for mixing the sulphuric and 
nitric acids, immersing the cotton, and for conducting the various other opera- 
tions connected with the manufacture. 


II.—On the Composition, and some Properties, of Specimens of Gun-cotton pre- 
pared at the Austrian Government Works. By F. A. Anut, F.R.S. 


(4) Several specimens of gun-cotton prepared at the Imperial Factory at 
Hirtenberg near Vienna*, being the descriptions manufactured for cannon, 
for shells, and for small arms, were submitted to chemical examination, to 
determine the following points :— 


(a) The proportion of hygroscopic moisture existing in them, under 
normal conditions, 

(6) The composition of the different specimens of gun-cotton. 

(c) The proportion and nature of their mineral constituents. 
(5) I. The proportion of moisture expelled from the samples of gun-cotton, 


* Several of these specimens were taken from ammunition, &c., which were being used 
at the time, for experimental practice, by the Austrian authorities, 


10 REPORT—1863. 


by exposure to desiccation in vacuo over sulphuric acid, was very uniform. 
The specimens were examined both in the condition in which they were 
found on opening the parcel containing them, and after their exposure for 
some time to a temperate and moderately dry atmosphere. The mean pro- 
portion of hygroscopic moisture found in the gun-cotton was 2 per cent. 
Further experiments, relating to the hygroscopic properties of the gun-cotton, 
will be described hereafter. 

(6) II. The composition of the specimens of Austrian gun-cotton, 7. e. the 
proportion of hydrogen-atoms which had been replaced, in the original cotton, 
by hyponitric acid, was determined by the synthetical method first employed 
by Mr. Hadow, in his examination of the substitution-products obtained by 
the action of nitric acid upon cotton*. The dried specimens of gun-cotton 
were digested in the cold, for twenty-four hours, in an alcoholic solution 
of sulphhydride of potassium (KS, HS), prepared as described by Mr. 
Hadow; and the reduced cotton thus obtained in each case was thoroughly 
washed and dried. These products, after weighing, were proved to be free 
from nitrogen-compounds, by the ignition of portions with hydrate of 
potassa, when no indications of the existence of nitrogen in the specimens 
were obtained. 

The percentage*of cotton obtained by this synthetical method from four 
specimens of the gun-cotton were as follows :— 


I. 55:20 per cent. 
II. 55-07 per cent. 
III. 55:13 per cent. 
IV. 54:97 per cent. 


These results show, as might have been predicted from the method of 
treatment of the cotton adopted, that the products obtained at the Austrian 
works consist, very uniformly, of the most highly explosive variety of gun- 
cotton, represented by the formula C,, H,, O,,, 9 NO,, as is shown by a com- 
parison of the above numbers with Mr. Hadow’s results, and with the theo- 
retical percentage number :— 

By synthesis. 

———— + —~ By analysis. By 
Cotton foundin Hadow. Hadow. calculation. 
Austrian samples. 

55°20 

55:07 59°13 54:6 55-19 54:54 

55°13 

54:97 


(7) I. The proportions of non-volatile matter or ash contained in the 
specimens of gun-cotton were determined in the following manner. The 
weighed gun-cotton was thoroughly moistened with distilled water; it was 
then cut into small fragments, and these were projected from time to time 
into a deep platinum vessel heated to dull redness. In this manner the gun- 
cotton was decomposed very gradually, the expulsion of the volatile portions 
being placed under such complete control as to exclude the possibility of any 
mechanical dispersion of portions of the ash. The heat was finally raised 
sufficiently to burn off any small quantity of residual carbon. From the 
ash thus obtained, the proportion was calculated upon the dry gun-cotton. 
Results obtained by this method from several determinations, with the same 


* Quart. Journ. Chem. Society, vol. vii. p. 201. 


—— 


ON THE APPLICATION OF GUN-COTTON TO WARLIKE PURPOSES. 11 


specimen of gun-cotton, were closely concordant; but those furnished by 
different specimens varied slightly. 
The following were the mean percentage results obtained :— 


Per cent. 
(a) From a specimen of gun-cotton prepared for cannon ...... 1:14 
(5) From a specimen of gun-cotton prepared for small arms and 
Peels iin Ura. teat oe apie egies Chahs Bete duin) 3 0:42 


(c) From aspecimen of gun-cotton prepared for blasting-purposes 1-90 

(This specimen was slightly discolored, made from a lower quality of 
cotton, and not so perfectly washed as (a) and (b).) 

The analysis of the ash furnished by the gun-cotton in these experiments, 
demonstrated the existence of some differences in the proportions of the 
several mineral constituents of the different specimens. The ash from (a) 
consisted of 


Silicic acid........ 0-71 per cent. in the cotton. 
WEG es Sas a ee ees 0:13 Y, re 
Marnedia” 2.53... % trace 

Oxide of iron...... trace 

PIKAINOR oc Sadie 0:25 35 Bd 
Sulphuric acid .... trace 


That furnished by specimen (4) consisted principally of lime; it contained 
besides traces of magnesia, oxide of iron, and alkalies, and only a small trace 
of silicic acid. 

The ash from (c) consisted of— 


Sand and clay ...... 0-75 per cent. in the cotton. 
Silicic acid, soluble .. 0°53 3 cf 
cal i 0-27 PP 7 
Ralies THR S25 0°30 me 5 
Magnesia ........ 

Oxide of iron oo... p traces. 

Sulphuric acid 


The ash was determined for comparison in a specimen of cotton obtained 
from the Austrian Works, which had been submitted to the preparatory 
purifying processes (treatment with carbonate of potassa and long-continued 
washing). The results obtained furnished a mean of 0-63 per cent. of ash, 
which consisted principally of lime and magnesia, and contained a small pro- 
portion of insoluble matter (clay and sand), traces of soluble silicic acid, and 
of alkalies, 

The above determinations and analyses of the ash in the gun-cotton and 
in the unconverted cotton, show that no result of the slightest practical im- 
portance, in the direction supposed to be aimed at, is obtained by the treat- 
ment with solution of soluble glass, to which the purified gun-cotton is sub- 
mitted, according to the Austrian system of manufacture. 

It is evident that, by the washing in running water for five or six hours, 
and subsequent rinsing of each skein, after the treatment with silicate of 
soda, the proportion of the latter which had in the first instance been 
introduced into the cotton is again extracted, only traces being retained by 
the cotton, besides a very small proportion of silica in the form of pulveru- 
lent silicate of lime, resulting from the decomposition of the soluble glass 
by the lime-salts in the spring- or river-water. It will be observed that, in 
specimen (6) of gun-cotton, the proportion of non-volatile constituents is 
actually even less than that found in the purified but unconverted cotton,—a 


12 REPORT—1863. 


fact which is evidently due to the solvent action of the acids upon portions 
of the mineral matter in the cotton. In the place of the comparatively large 
proportions of lime and magnesia in the original cotton, the product which, 
after separation from the acids by very long-continued washing, &e., has 
been submitted to treatment with soluble glass and again washed, contains 
some small quantities (necessarily variable in a product of manufacture) of 
impurities (clay and sand) derived from the water used, and of silicic acid in 
combination with lime and also with soda, minute quantities of the soluble 
glass having escaped removal or decomposition i in the final washing process. 
Supposing that the maximum proportion of silicates (1 per cent.) found in 
the above determinations existed entirely in the form of soluble glass in 
the finished gun-cotton, a piece of twist 12 feet 10 inches in length, and of 
the size used for Artillery purposes (4 inch thick), would contain only one 
grain of soluble glass. It is evident therefore that no protective effect nor 
retardation in the explosion of the gun-cotton can result from the treatment 
with soluble glass to which it is submitted. 


Experiments on the Hygroscopic Properties of the Austrian Giun-cotton. 


(8) It has already been stated that the proportion of moisture contained, 
under normal conditions, in the specimens of Austrian gun-cotton was found 
to be very uniform, the mean proportion being fixed at 2 per cent. by the 
results of several experiments. 

Some gun-cotton prepared from ordinary cotton-wool, and haying the same 
composition as the Austrian samples—but not having been submitted to the 
preparatory or subsequent treatment with alkali, nor to the very long-con- 
tinued washing—was examined with regard to its hygroscopic properties, 
in comparison with the Austrian gun-cotton. The proportion of moisture 
existing in the former, under ordinary conditions, was found to be almost 
identical with the average proportion in the Austrian samples. 

Some experiments were instituted to ascertain the rate at which the 
Austrian gun-cotton would absorb moisture, on exposure to a damp atmo- 
sphere. 

The specimens experimented with were first thoroughly dried in vacuo 
over sulphuric acid, and then exposed for successive periods, together with a 
shallow vessel containing water, under a capacious bell jar placed in a 
moderately warm room. The following results were obtained :— 


Specimen. Period of exposure to a damp atmosphere. 
1 hr. 2hrs. 4hrs. 20hrs. J30Ohrs. 72 hrs. 
Nos lari. . -aeop ae w. 3:15 .. 3°87 
Ans ap,ee= 100 ae Se 3-21 Ke 3°65 
fae 1:89 2:15 ae 3°55 
4. $i 1:73 2:00 ve 3:21 36 
5. 1-77, ~ 221 be Re ‘. 3:90 


These results show that the rate of absorption of moisture by the gun-cotton 
is uniformly rapid up to the point where 2 per cent. (the normal proportion 
of hygroscopic moisture) have been absorbed, and that, when this point has 
been attained, the absorption of further moisture proceeds comparatively 
very slowly*. Several experiments were made to determine, as far as possible, 

* Several determinations of the moisture in cotton rovings, both before and after treat- 
ment with alkali (and repeated washing), show that the proportion of hygroscopic moisture 


in the cotton amounts to between 6 and 7 per cent., this amount being reabsorbed by the 
dried cotton, within twenty-four hours, on exposure to air. 


ON THE APPLICATION OF GUN-COTTON TO WARLIKE PURPOSES. 13 


the maximum amount of moisture which the gun-cotton would absorb from a 
damp confined atmosphere. The great rapidity with which the specimens 
operated upon parted with the water absorbed, on exposure to the ordinary 
atmosphere, after the experiments had been proceeded with for some days, 
rendered the attainment of accurate numbers very difficult. The results, 
however, showed very definitely that no important increase in the amount 
of water absorbed took place when it had reached from 5:5 to 6 per cent. 
When these specimens had ceased to absorb moisture, they were, after the 
last weighing, exposed to the atmosphere at the ordinary temperature for 
one hour, and again weighed, when they were found to have parted with 
very nearly one-half of the total proportion of water absorbed. After 
further exposure to air for about four hours, the proportion of moisture re- 
tained had fallen to the average normal percentage (2 per cent.), and after- 
wards evinced no further tendency to decrease. 

Two specimens were kept confined as described, together with a vessel of 
water, for several weeks in a modcrately warm room. The water had then 
condensed, in numerous minute globules, upon the projecting filaments of the 
gun-cotton ; the specimens were therefore very highly charged with mois- 
ture. In this condition they were exposed to the air at the ordinary tem- 
perature ; within one hour and a half they contained only about 4:5 per 
cent. of moisture. After the lapse of a second similar period, the moisture 
had decreased to about 3 per cent. (3:16 in one specimen and 2:78 in the 
other). When again weighed, after a lapse of about four hours, the percen- 
tage of water had fallen, in both, to the average proportion, 

Experiments corresponding to the above were made with the specimen of 
gun-cotton referred to above as having been prepared from common cotton- 
wool. The rate of absorption of moisture of this specimen was found to be 
decidedly more rapid than that of the Austrian gun-cotton ; but they very 
closely resembled each other as regardedithe rapidity with which they again 
parted, spontaneously, with the moisture absorbed from a damp atmosphere, 
and the average proportion ultimately retained. The differences noted in the 
rate of absorption of moisture between the two varieties of gun-cotton, is 
most probably due to the difference in their mechanical condition. Some of 
the specimens of Austrian gun-cotton used in these experiments were picked 
asunder, as loosely as possible, instead of being exposed in the form of twists ; 
the difference thus established in the mechanical condition of the specimens 
did not affect, to any great extent, their relative hygroscopic properties. 
It was found impracticable, however, to reduce the gun-cotton rovings to the 
same mechanical condition as the gun-cotton prepared from finely carded 
wool, , 

It appears from the results above described, that— 

(a) The proportion of moisture absorbed and retained, under ordinary 
circumstances, by the gun-cotton, is about double that contained under similar 
conditions in good gunpowder (which averages one per cent.). 

(6) Gun-cotton possesses no tendency to absorb moisture beyond that’pro- 
portion, unless in very damp situations; and even under those circumstances 
the proportion of moisture absorbed is limited. Moreover its capacity for re- 
taining water (beyond the normal proportion) is so feeble that, however 
highly it may have accidentally become impregnated with moisture, it will 
return spontaneously to its original condition of dryness by simple exposure 
to the open air for a few hours. In these respects it possesses important 
advantages over gunpowder ; for although the latter contains, under normal 
conditions, less moisture than gun-cotton, it exhibits great tendency to absorb 


14 REPORT—1863. 


water from a moist atmosphere, which it continues to exert until it actually 
becomes pasty. Moreover gunpowder, when once damp, cannot be restored 
to a serviceable condition without being again submitted to the incorporating 
and subsequent processes, 


TII.—Memorandum with reference to Experiments in progress bearing upon the 
Manufacture of Gun-cotton. By F. A, Anrt, F.RS, (Received Aug. 23, 
1863). 

Experiments of a preliminary character. 


(9) The experiments on a manufacturing scale, instituted on the Austrian 
system of preparing gun-cotton for military purposes, were preceded by an 
examination into some of the regulations laid down for the treatment of the 
cotton—the objects of these preliminary experiments being partly the attain- 
ment of direct proof of the necessity of a strict adherence to certain details 
(relating to the strength of the nitric acid, the duration of the treatment of 
the cotton with the mixed acids, and the rejection of the mixture after being 
once used), and partly the acquirement of experience in the treatment of 
the cotton. 

It was important, before proceeding with these experiments, to determine 
upon some method, both expeditious and trustworthy, for submitting the 
products of the numerous experimental preparations of gun-cotton to compara- 
tive examination with the highest substitution-product, 7. e. the Austrian gun- 
cotton. 

Mr. Hadow’s synthetical method of examination, which had been success- 
fully employed in determining the composition of the Austrian gun-cotton, 
though valuable for finally controlling the composition of any particular pro- 
duct, is not sufficiently expeditious for the particular object in view, 7. e. the 
examination of small samples from products of manufacture before their 
entire bulk is submitted to the final (purifying) processes *. 

The first method tried for submitting the products of manufacture to com- 
parative examination was as follows :—The weighed gun-cotton was soaked 
in water, the excess being afterwards expressed ; and it was then placed in 
a glass tube about 18 inches long and open at both ends. Into one extre- 
mity was fitted a delivery-tube, dipping into mercury or water; the other 
was connected with a gas-holder containing nitrogen; the communication 
between the latter and the tube could be cut off by means of a stopcock. 
Air was expelled from the tube by means of the nitrogen, and the wet gun- 
cotton was then heated as quickly as possible by an Argand flame, the tube 
being slightly inclined. The gun-cotton was rapidly decomposed, though not 
with explosive violence; the gases isstiing from the tube were collected and mea- 
sured. The volume of gas furnished by different specimens of the Austrian 


* Many experiments were instituted with this method of examination, and it was found 
that although the results obtained corresponded closely to theoretical requirements, when 
the starting-point in the examination was the gun-cotton, results of similar precision were 
not furnished by it when the original cotton itself was taken as the starting-point. That 
is to say, in commencing with a known weight of dry cotton, submitting it to proper treat- 
ment with the mixed acids, washing the product as carefully as possible, so as to avoid 
mechanical loss, drying the pure gun-cotton, digesting it with sulphhydride of potassium 
solution, and proceeding, with all possible care, exactly according to the prescriptions 
given by Mr. Hadow, the reduced cotton is always somewhat lower in amount than the 
cotton originally employed, the deficiency varying within the limits of 1 per cent. This 
deficiency is unquestionably due to the abstraction, by the mixed acids, of portions of 
the mineral constituents and of small proportions of organic matter from the cotton, and 
also, to a slight extent, to mechanical logs in the washing operations, which it appears im- 
possible to guard against altogether. : 


ON THE APPLICATION OF GUN-COTTON TO WARLIKE PURPOSES. 15 


gun-cotton, and of several specimens of gun-cotton-twist papers, according 
to the prescribed method, were sufficiently uniform to furnish reliable com- 
parative results; but the liability of the glass tube to fracture during the 
application of heat, by the water present, led to the abandonment of this 
method of proceeding in favour of the following more simple one. A capa- 
cious glass globe, fitted with a stopcock and copper wires passing to the 
interior, is attached to an air-pump, which is also in communication with the 
upper end of a barometric tube. A weighed quantity of the gun-cotton is 
wrapped round a platinum wire, stretching from one copper wire in the globe 
to the other. The globe, being again attached to the air-pump, is exhausted 
until the mercury in the tube stands at about 29 inches, The gun-cotton is 
then inflamed by the aid of a voltaic current, and the depression of the column 
of mercury is noted when the apparatus has thoroughly cooled, By this 
method, perfectly concordant indications were obtained in employing dif- 
ferent specimens of the Austrian gun-cotton, and of products prepared ac- 
cording to the precise method for producing the most explosive gun-cotton, 
which had furnished proper results when examined synthetically *, 

Experiments have been made with quantities of cotton-wool varying 
from one to two ounces, to ascertain how far‘the long-protracted contact (for 
forty-eight hours) of the cotton with the mixed acids, as prescribed in the 
Austrian system, is essential to the complete conversion of the cotton-wool 
into the most explosive gun-cotton. The products obtained by immersion 
of the cotton even for thirty minutes were found to be almost perfectly con- 
verted; the volumes of gas furnished by them and their synthetical exami- 
nation showed, however, that they still probably contained small quantities 
of unconverted cotton, Continuous immersion for twenty-four hours was 
found in all cases to furnish products completely up to the theoretical standard. 
Considering that the quantity of cotton immersed in one quantity of acid 
in the actual process of manufacture is much more considerable than that with 
which these experiments could be made, and that it is in the form of skeins 
of a somewhat compact roving or yarn, it appears a safe and not unnecessary 
precaution, in order to ensure perfect uniformity, to submit the cotton to as 
long a period of immersion as that adopted in Austria. 

A considerable increase in outlay being involved in the employment, on a 
manufacturing scale, of a nitric acid of any specific gravity higher than 1:5, 
comparative experiments have been made on the production of gun-cotton 
with acid of that specific gravity, and of the spec. grav. 1:52 prescribed in the 
Austrian system, both acids being mixed with the proper proportion of 
strong sulphuric acid. In all the experiments, the resulting products were 
found to be identical in their nature. Considering therefore that, accord- 
ing to the directions laid down, the mixed acids are only to be employed for 
the treatment of one quantity of cotton, there appears to be no advantage 
derivable from the employment of nitric acid of a higher specific gravity 
than 1:5. 

Several experiments have been instituted for the purpose of ascertaining 
whether the rejection of the acids as of no further value, after the immersion in 
them of one quantity of cotton, was likely to be indispensable to the produc- 
tion of uniform results, In one instance, four equal quantities of the same 

* In carrying on experiments to test the mode of examination, some interesting results 
were obtained bearing importantly upon the influence exerted over the rapidity and nature 
of decomposition of the gun-cotton by its position relatively to the source of heat, and by 
other variable conditions. These results have led to experiments now in progress. 

_t Asample of the nitric acid employed at Hirtenberg was collected on the spot ; its spe- 
cific gravity was found to be 1°515, 


16 REPORT—1863. 


description of cotton were successively submitted for equal periods (forty- 
eight hours) to treatment with one and the same quantity of the mixed acids. 
The specific gravity of the latter, at the commencement of the experiment, 
was 1°82. The acid was separated from each quantity of the cotton at the 
expiration of the above period, by means of a small centrifugal machine. 
After two quantities of cotton had been immersed in the acid, its specific 
gravity was reduced to 1°81. The original mixed acids were examined by 
means of a standard solution of carbonate of soda; a known quantity of the 
mixture neutralized 148-3 measures of the solution. After immersion of the 
first quantity of cotton, 147-5 measures were neutralized by an equal quantity 
of the acid, and 146°3 measures after immersion of the second quantity of 
cotton. The reduction in the strength of the acid appeared therefore to be 
very uniform. The four products successively obtained were carefully purified 
and dried. The volumes of gas which they furnished upon ignition cor- 
responded very closely with each other and with that obtained from a specimen 
of the Austrian gun-cotton. 

In a second similar experiment, five different quantities of cotton were 
submitted successively to treatment for forty-eight hours with one and the 
same mixture of acids. The first three products furnished, upon comparative 
examination by the exploding method, almost identical results; the fourth 
and fifth afforded indications of less complete conversion. Examined syn- 
thetically, there was a difference of not quite 1 per cent. between the amount 
of recovered cotton obtained from the first and the fifth products. 

The results of these experiments indicated, therefore, that products cor- 
responding closely in composition can be obtained by the treatment of even 
more than two quantities of cotton successively with the same acid. It 
should be observed, however, that the above results were obtained with 
cotton in the unspun condition, and that the proportion borne by the mixed 
acids to the cotton was higher than that prescribed in the Austrian system 
of manufacture, 


Experiments instituted upon a manufacturing scale at the Royal Gunpowder 
Works, Waltham Abbey. 


(10) Very considerable difficulties were experienced in procuring the small 
quantity of cotton (two to three ewts.) required for these experiments, in a 
condition resembling sufficiently closely that employed at Hirtenberg, as its 
production in the form of the thick and the thin loose rovings, or yarn, ne- 
cessitated some deviation from the ordinary method of spinning, which it 
was difficult to induce manufacturers to attempt without the promise of an 
extensive order. Eventually I succeeded, through the kind assistance of Mr. 
Whitworth, in obtaining the requisite quantity of coarse and fine yarn or 
roving, resembling closely in character, and quality of cotton, the specimens 
obtained from Hirtenberg, though in the subsequent operations with the 
coarse or thicker kind no ineonsiderable proportion of it was found to be in 
a much less compact or more lightly twisted form than the Austrian samples. 
The comparatively open condition of this portion, and the impossibility of 
placing it under a sufficient strain to wind it compactly into cartridges, in 
consequence of the weakness of the yarn, must exert considerable influence 
upon the rapidity of its combustion in its employment in ordnance (as a few 
rough experiments at Waltham Abbey have indeed already shown); the 
gun-cotton prepared from these portions will therefore be carefully separated 
from the remainder, and will doubtless furnish instructive comparative re- 


ON THE APPLICATION OF GUN-COTTON TO WARLIKE PURPOSES, 17 


sults in the preliminary artillery experiments to be instituted with the gun- 
cotton. , 

The acids of the prescribed specific gravities were readily obtained at 
moderate prices—the sulphuric acid having a specific gravity of 1:34, and 
that of the nitric acid (a ight amber-coloured acid) being 1°52, 

The apparatus and implements employed, and the modes of conducting the 
various operations, were, as closely as practicable, in accordance with those in 
use at Hirtenberg—a slight deviation only, in the form or material of some 
of the implements, being adopted where it was decidedly advantageous and 
could not in any way influence the nature of the results. The following 
is an account of the details of manufacture :-— 

(11) a. Preparation of the Cotton.—The cotton was made up into skeins, 
those of the stout yarn weighing from four to six ounces each, and those of 
fine yarn from three to four ounces. It was then boiled for about fifteen 
minutes in a dilute solution of carbonate of potassa (of specific gravity 1-02, 
containing one pound of the salt to three gallons of water), and transferred 
thence to a centrifugal machine, which was maintained for about five mi- 
nutes at a speed of 500 to 600 revolutions per minute. The alkaline liquid 
was thus very effectually separated from the cotton, which was then washed 
thoroughly, first by hand in a large tank, and afterwards by submersion in 
a stream for forty-eight hours. At the expiration of that period, the water 
was separated from the skeins by the aid of the centrifugal machine, and the 
purified cotton was then dried: Although the cotton was of good quality and 
very fairly cleaned from seed (being quite equal in these respects to the Austrian 
samples), it was found to sustain a loss of about 5 per cent. by the treatment 
with alkali and washing. The potassa solution in which it was boiled 
acquired a coffee colour. Portions of seed were still retained by the purified 
cotton, which were subsequently dissolved out perfectly by the acids. 

(12) b. Preparation of the Acids—The proportions of acids (three parts by 
weight, or 2-45 by volume, of sulphuric acid to one part of nitric acid) were 
weighed off and transferred to stoneware barrel-shaped vessels provided with 
taps, two of these receiving the sulphuric acid and a third the nitric acid. The 
barrels were so arranged upon a suitable table that the acids could be delivered 
from the taps into a deep and very capacious stoneware vessel, fitted with an iron 
lid with suitable apertures and a tap; this vessel was raised from the ground 
sufficiently to allow of the acids being transferred from it to well-stoppered 
stoneware bottles. While the acids were flowing slowly and uniformly from 
the barrels into the covered mixing-vessel, the resulting mixture was kept 
continuously stirred by means of a large iron paddle, and after they had been 
entirely transferred (which occupied about ten minutes), the stirring was 
continued for about twenty minutes before the mixture was drawn off into 
the bottles. The product of this operation had a specific gravity of 1:82. 
The elevation of temperature resulting from the mixture of the acids was 
considerable ; in one observation the temperature of the acids before mixture 
was found to be 20° C., while that of the mixture, when complete, was 
38°C. The acid thus prepared was set aside in a cool place, and never em- 
ployed until at least twenty-four hours after the mixture had been made. 

The mixing process and all the other operations with the acids were con- 
ducted in the open air, the workmen selecting their positions with reference to 
the direction of the wind. Thus no injurious effects, nor even inconvenience, 
Were experienced by those employed. 

(13) ce. Treatment of the Cotton with the mixed Acids.—About twelve hours 
; asia in the acids, the skeins to be operated upon at one time 

; c 


18 REPORT—1863, 


(which had previously been dried in the air) were suspended in a capacious 
and well-ventilated drying-chamber, the temperature of which was main- 
tained, for the above period, at not less than 49° C, They were then trans- 
ferred, while in the chamber, to stoneware jars with tightly closing lids 
(the same as were used for keeping the cotton immersed in acid), and were 
allowed to become perfectly cold in these before submission to treatment 
with acid. 

The vessels which were found most suitable for use in treating the 
cotton with the acid were large and rather deep stoneware pans: one, 
provided with an iron lid, contained the quantity of mixed acids required 
for the treatment of a certain number of skeins; a second, which was fitted 
with a perforated ledge of iron, and was surrounded by cold water, served 
for the treatment of the cotton, which was conducted as follows :—a propo- 
tion of the acid haying been transferred to the second pan, two skeins were 
thoroughly immersed in it, and stirred about for two or three minutes ; 
when saturated with acid they were raised upon the shelf ard pressed 
together with the paddle, so as to allow the superfluous acid to flow off; the 
quantity of acid absorbed by these skeins was replaced in the pan by an 
addition of fresh acid, and further skeins were immersed, those which had 
drained being transferred to a jar while tke freshly immersed ones were 
soaking, In this way the operation of immersion was continued until the 
whole of the skeins to be treated at one time had been transferred to tue 
jars, six of the large yarn or nine of the fine being introduced into one of 
these. 

The skeins were pressed down in the jars by means of the paddle, and 
sufficient acid was added just to cover the cotton completely. The jars were 
then closed and placed into vessels containing water, in a cool building, 
where they remained for forty-eight hours. 

It was found an important precaution to keep the vessel in which the 
cotton was first immersed surrounded with water, especially in the warm 
season during which these experiments have been conducted, as the evo- 
lution of heat during the first action of the acids upon the cotton is con- 
siderable. The contents of the jars to which the gun-cotton was transferred 
were not found to become heated to any important extent, even wien not 
surrounded by water. The proportion of acid to cotton said to be contained 
in the jars, as the process is carried out at Hirtenberg, is that of ten to one ; 
but it was found necessary, in order to cover the cotton completely as di- 
rected, to employ at least fifteen parts of acid to one of cotton, This pro- 
portion would doubtless be much diminished if means were employed for 
compressing the cotton in the jars more highly than was the case in these 
experiments. 

The precaution of adding a fresh supply of the acids to that which remains 
in the immersing-vessel after the withdrawal of each quantity of cotton 
treated, was proved by experiment to be of the greatest importance in 
securing the uniformity of the product. In one of the first operations, 
no fresh quantity of acid was added before immersing the skeins treated 
last. In other respects these skeins were submitted to precisely the same 
treatment as the remainder (2. ¢. an additional quantity of acid was added 
to them in the jar, they were allowed to remain for forty-eight hours, &c.). 
When examined synthetically, they furnished at least one-half per cent. 
more cotton than the skeins first treated in the same operation; and when 
fired in the proof-mortar, a decidedly lower range was obtained with the 
cotton last treated. 


ON THE APPLICATION OF GUN-COTTON TO WARLIKE PURPOSES. 19 


(14) d. Purification of the Gun-cotion.—At the expiration of forty-eight 
hours the jars were conveyed toa centrifugal machine, by which the principal 
quantity of acid was separated from the cotton. The machine employed at 
Hirtenberg for this purpose is made of copper, the one used by me was 
constructed entirely of iron, the sides of the revolving cylinder consisting of 
coarse iron-wire gauze, rendered sufficiently rigid by an iron framework. 
After each operation the machine was washed out with an abundant supply 
of water, and thus the corrosive action of the acids upon it has really been 
very trifling. The oxide dissolved by the acid when the skeins were placed 
in the machine was sufficient to colour the liquid, and also to stain the cotton 
in places, but these stains disappeared entirely in the first washing which 
the product received. The skeins were rapidly transferred, by means of 
an iron hook, to the machine, and the latter was then set in motion, at first 
slowly, and ultimately at a speed of 800 revolutions per minute. Within 
ten minutes the acid was so far separated from the cotton that the skeins 
were only damp. 

Some precautions were necessary in effecting the first transfer to water 
of the skeins, with acid still clinging to them. If they were simply thrown 
into water so that the latter would penetrate them only gradually, the heat 
resulting from the union of the free acids and the water immediately esta- 
blished a violent action of the nitric acid upon the cotton, quantities of nitrous 
vapours being disengaged, At Hirtenberg the gun-cotton, when taken from 
the machine, is quickly placed under a small caseade, where its saturation 
with water is effected with very great rapidity. As this arrangement was not 
attainable at Waltham Abbey, the skeins, directly they were removed from 
the machine, were plunged singly, as rapidly as possible, and moyed about 
violently, in a large body of water. They were then washed by hand in a 
stream until no acid taste whatever was perceptible in the cotton, and were 
afterwards immersed in the stream for a period of not less than forty-eight 
hours. For this purpose they were arranged in rows upon poles fixed in 
frames, which were so placed in the water that the skeins. were in a vertical 
position, the water circulating among them freely, The current of the 
stream used at Waltham Abbey (at the only available place for these ex- 
periments) was not so rapid as could have been desired, and the dryness of 
the season had rendered it unusually sluggish; still it was sufficient to 
afford a continual change of the water surrounding the cotton, The cha- 
racter of this water is by no means such as to render it specially fitted for the 
purification of the gun-cotton. The bed of the stream is always thickly 
covered with luxuriant vegetable growth, and the water itself is conse- 
quently so highly charged with vegetable matter, that, although light was 
excluded as far as possible from the cotton during its immersion, the skeins 
became covered in many places, within a few days, by vegetable growth, 
which in time attached itself so firmly to the cotton as to be very difficult 
of removal by hand-washing. 

The system of purification, as carried on at Hirtenberg, differs very consi- 
derably from that described in General Lenk’s process as patented in this 
country. At the above-named establishment, the gun-cotton is in the first 
instance left in the stream for three weeks and upwards; it is afterwards 
washed in a dilute solution of carbonate of potassa, again washed in water, 
dried, and then treated with a solution of soluble glass. After this treatment 
it is dried, washed for six hours in the stream, and finally by hand. 

In the patented process, it is directed that the gun-cotton in the first in- 
stance should be immersed in running water for forty-eight hours and up- 

" O24 


20 rePport—1863. 


wards ; it is not submitted to any treatment with carbonate of potassa, but is 
boiled, after the first washing, in a weak solution of soluble glass, and on its 
removal from this, without any intermediate desiccation, it is immersed in the 
stream for about six days. 

The process of purification which I adopted differed from that in use at 
Hirtenberg only in the postponement of the long-continued washing until 
after treatment of the gun-cotton with alkali. At the expiration of forty- 
eight hours the skeins were removed from the stream, the water was separated 
from them in the centrifugal machine, and they were then boiled for a tew 
minutes in a solution of carbonate of potassa of spec. gray. 1°02. Having 
been returned to the centrifugal machine, for the separation of the alkaline 
liquor, they were again placed in the washing-frames and left in the stream 
for a period of fourteen to eighteen days. On subsequent removal from the 
stream, each skein was washed by hand, to separate mechanical impurities, 
and one-half of each quantity of gun-cotton prepared was finally left in soak 
in distilled water for some hours, I found that, in consequence of the very 
large quantity of salts of lime in the river-water, the proportion of mineral 
matter in the gun-cotton was notably increased (it varied from 1 to 1:5 per 
cent.); this final washing was consequently adopted (there being a good 
supply of distilled water at hand) for the purpose of reducing the propor- 
tion of mineral matter added to the gun-cotton by the long-continued im- 
mersion in the stream. The gun-cotton thus finally purified was dried in 
the open air. 

(15) e. Lhe treatment of the purified Gun-Cotton with Soluble Glass, which 
forms one of the features of the Austrian system of manufacture, was stated by 
the officials at Hirtenberg to effect two important objects,—first, a retardation 
of the combustion of the gun-cotton; and secondly, its protection from atmo- 
spheric influences, by the formation of a coating upon the fibres of the cotton. 
In my account of the results of examination of the specimens of Austrian 
gun-cotton, I have entered fully into the reasons and facts which lead me to 
the conclusion that the treatment with soluble glass, the subsequent desicea- 
tion, and the final washing of the gun-cotton for five or six hours do not prac- 
tically exert any effect upon the properties of the material, the only result 
being the addition to the mineral constituents of a small proportion of sili- 
cate of lime. 

In Gencral Lenk’s process, as described in the English patent, the soluble 
glass is applied, as already stated, to the gun-cotton which, after the removal 
from the acids, has undergone no further treatment than an immersion in 
running water for forty-eight hours or thereabouts; when removed from 
the bath of silicate, the gun-cotton is not dried, but at once immersed 
for a period of six days in running water. It is at once obvious that this 
treatment cannot exert any effect upon the cotton, beyond possibly the neu- 
tralization of a minute trace of free acid still retained by it after the first 
washing. That the treatment with soluble glass is not intended to exert any 
other than a purifying effect upon the gun-cotton, appears also to have been 
understood by Professors Redtenbacher, Schrotter, and Schneider, in their in- 
quiry into Baron Lenk’s system of manufacture ; for the only allusion which 
in their joint report they make to this point, is as follows, “the treatment 
with soluble glass has no influence on Baron Lenk’s gun-cotton, it being pre- 
viously free from acids.” 

In order to test, as nearly as possible in its integrity, the system of manu- 
facture as carried on at Hirtenberg, it was determined to submit one-half of 
each quantity of gun-cotton produced in one operation to the treatment with 


ON THE APPLICATION OF GUN-COTTON TO WARLIKE PURPOSES. 21 


soluble glass, the other half being dried, as a finished product, after the im- 
mersion in distilled water/above-mentioned. 

The purified skeins to be treated with silicate of soda were first exposed to 
air until moderately dry, and then soaked for one hour in a boiling solution of 
the silicate, containing ten per cent. of that substance. When the excess of 
the liquid had been subsequently removed by means of the centrifugal ma- 
chine, the gun-cotton still retained about 80 per cent. of the solution, which, 
by evaporation, left therefore about 8 per cent. of soluble glass in the material. 
The skeins were thoroughly dried in air, and then immersed in the stream for 
about forty-eight hours, A longer period of immersion was adopted than in 
use at Hirtenberg, on account of the comparatively sluggish current of the river. 
The skeins were finally washed by hand and dried, this operation completing 
the manufacture of the gun-cotton. A comparative examination of the ash of 
a “ silicated” product with that of gun-cotton prepared at the same time, 
which had not undergone this treatment, exhibited a difference amounting to 
about one-fourth of the ash existing in the gun-cotton not treated: the latter 
furnished 1:45 per cent., the silicated left 1°85 per cent. of ash. The pro- 
portion of silica left in the gun-cotton was decidedly greater than that found 
in the Austrian specimens ; but the portion not treated with soluble glass also 
contained a very notable amount of silica, derived from suspended matter 
in the water. A portion of gun-cotton treated with soluble glass has been 
washed for a few hours only, for comparative experiment. 

(16) Artificial heat was not employed in drying any portion of the purified 
gun-cotton, This operation was accomplished by suspending the skeins 
during the day upon lines in the open air, or in a well-ventilated shed in wet 
weather and at night. 


Miscellaneous Memoranda. 


(17) 1. Samples of the products of manufacture obtained at Waltham Abbey 
have been submitted to synthetical examination, and furnished results as 
uniform as could have been anticipated, and corresponding to those demanded 
by the formula 


H, 
C,, { 9NO, } 0,,. 


In the course of the manufacture the increase of weight actually sus- 
tained by the cotton has been directly determined, and it has been found that 
100 Ibs. of cotton, purified by the treatment with alkali, furnished about 
177 pounds of gun-cotton (not silicated). The amount which theoretically 
100 lbs. of cotton should furnish, of gun-cotton of the above composition, is 
183-3 Ibs. The discrepancy between these numbers is certainly not great 
when allowance is made for mechanical loss in the various washings, and for 
the foreign matters dissolved out of the cotton by the acids. 

(18) 2. Several experiments have been instituted for the purpose of exami- 
ning the characters of the product resulting from the treatment of cotton with 
the mixed acids which have already been used once, The quantities of cotton 
treated at one time, and the various steps in the manufacture, did not differ 
in any way from those adopted in the regular system in use. The product 
obtained from the coarse yarn, by means of the once-used acid, has been ex- 
amined synthetically, and found to correspond very nearly in composition to 
gun-cotton of the formula 

H 
©. | si, | Ou» 


or the next lowest substitution-product to that obtained in the ordinary pro- 


22 REPORT—1868. 


cess of manufacture. It was found, moreover, that the cotton yarn obtained 
in this experiment was very decidedly weaker (7. ¢. could sustain only consi- 
derably less strain) than the ordinary product—a result which must be ascribed 
to the greater predominance of sulphuric acid in the mixture which has been 
once used. 

Experiments with this mixture and the finer yarn, furnished a different re- 
sult to the foregoing. The products corresponded closely in composition to 
the theoretical result attained by the original or first employment of the acids. 
The rotting or weakening effect noticed above was much less apparent in these 
products than in the case of coarse yarn. 

It would appear from these results that the mechanical condition of the 
cotton (7. ¢. the thickness of the yarn) exerts an important influence upon the 
nature of the product furnished by the once-used acid. Further operations 
are in progress in which this acid is employed; and the explosive effects of 
the resulting products will be carefully compared with those of the material 
obtained in the ordinary way. 

(19) 3. No systematic artillery experiments or others illustrative of the ex- 
plosive effects of gun-cotton prepared at Waltham Abbey have as yet been in- 
stituted, beyond a few trials of small charges in the mortar employed at the 
Gunpowder Works for purposes of proof. Even these results, however, as far 
as they go, are possessed of considerable interest, as demonstrating some of 
the most important points of difference between gun-cotton and gunpowder, 
when used in cannon, and as illustrating to some extent the value of the simple 
mechanical means devised by Baron Lenk for regulating the explosive action 
of the gun-cotton. 

A quantity of the coarse roving, corresponding in weight to one-third of the 
proof-charge of gunpowder, was wound round a conical wooden plug, with the 
application only of a slight strain (equal to two ounces). The range obtained 
by this charge, or cartridge, was fully equal to that furnished by a full-proof 
charge of Enfield-rifle powder. The same weight of gun-cotton, wound upon 
a cone of the same dimensions, but kept during the winding under a strain of 
one pound, gave a range which was materially shorter than that furnished by 
the loosely wound charge, but quite equal to the average proof range (or three 
times the weight) of ordinary cannon-powder. Results agreeing with the 
above, and in very good accordance with each other, were obtained in frequent 
repetitions of those experiments. 

The variation in composition of exceptional or special products, such as have 
been referred to in the preceding, manifested themselves in a corresponding 
variation in the range obtained with them, when tried under the same condi- 
tions as the ordinary products. Thus the skeins which in one particular 
operation had, as above described, been immersed finally, without addition 
of fresh acid, and which furnished synthetically a somewhat high proportion 
of cotton, did not yield so long a range as the ordinary products, nor as the 
first skeins obtained in the same operation. Again, the coarse yarn which 
had been treated with acid already once used, when wound into cartridges 
with a strain of two ounces on the yarn, did not furnish as long ranges as the 
ordinary products wound under a strain of one pound; and when made into 
cartridges under the latter conditions, the ranges it furnished were very con- 
siderably below the average results obtained with the ordinary product. 

The absence of any appreciable residue in the mortar, and of any but the 
most trifling amount of smoke, only noticeable if watched for, were, it is hardly 
necessary to say, novel and important features in these few proof experiments. 
- (20) 4. Some observations made during the drying, and in the preservation 


ee Oe re 


ON THE APPLICATION OF GUN-COTTON TO WARLIKE PURPOSES, 23 


in store, of the finished gun-cotton, can hardly be passed over altogether with- 
out notice in this communication, though the precise nature and cause of the 
result which has manifested itself are still undetermined. 

by far the larger proportion of the gun-cotton prepared at Waltham Abbey 
was dried in the open air, being exposed to strong daylight, and very fre- 
quently to powerful sunlight. When dry, it was packed into ammunition- 
boxes—large wooden cases containing an internal casing of tinned copper and 
with very tightly closing double lids. In opening some of these boxes con- 
taining gun-cotton, a faint but peculiar odour was accidentally observed, which 
was more distinct in some boxes than others. This observation led to the 
introduction of some pieces of litmus-paper among the skeins in different 
boxes, and these were found in some instances to change, after the lapse of 
time, to rose-colour, some merely at the edges, others more or less perfectly 
throughout. The change of colour was like that produced by carbonic acid 
upon litmus; and if the boxes were left open for some time, the paper gra- 
dually regained its original colour. If they were again closed for twenty-four 
hours or longer, the reaction upon the litmus-paper was again observed in 
those instances in which it had first been decidedly manifest, but it has been 
noticed to become gradually weaker. It was subsequently found that the 
gun-cotton, after it had been for some time exposed to strong daylight, and 
particularly to sunlight, in the open air, exhibited the same slight acidity, and 
that the reaction noticed in the boxes was always more marked in those which 
contained the gun-cotton most recently exposed for drying. 

As above stated, no satisfactory explanation can as yet be afforded of the 
occasional exhibition of this slight acidity in the thoroughly purified gun- 
cotton under the circumstances described ; to whatever causes it may be due, 
it appears evident, on a perusal of the report of Drs. Redtenbacher, Schrotter, 
and Schneider upon Baron Lenk’s gun-cotton, that those chemists have no- 
ticed a similar occasional acidity as occurring in the Hirtenberg cotton, and, 
indeed, that this acidity has been dwelt upon as a cause for alarm by persons 
who have feared the spontaneous decomposition of the gun-cotton. The sur- 
mises as to its possible origin, put forward in the report above referred to, are, 
it must be confessed, not very satisfactory ; neither, in the face of the extra- 
ordinary precautions adopted for effecting the complete purification of the 
gun-cotton, is the force of the following concluding paragraph of that part of 
the report which refers to this subject, very apparent :—“ These acid traces 
should the less evoke surprise when we bear in mind that the gun-cotton in 
process of manufacture had been exposed for forty-eight hours to a strong acid 
bath ; moreover, if the subject of comparison, viz. gunpowder, be tested with 
equal severity, similar evidence of chemical action will be forthcoming.” It is 
in a material in which, in the first instance, the most delicate tests fail to de- 
tect the slightest evidence of free acid, that this slight acidity occasionally be- 
comes evident. That exposure to light will, after some time, induce decom- 
position in the most carefully purified gun-cotton, is beyond dispute: as the 
latest of many proofs, which I myself have had of this, I may mention that 
some litmus-paper which has been for a few weeks exposed to light in a stop- 
pered glass bottle, together with a piece of the Hirtenberg cotton, has become 
already perfectly bleached. But that an indication of change, such as has 
been dwelt upon above, should be afforded by so brief an exposure to light as 
five or six hours, and continue to be afforded after the cotton has been removed 
from light, appears to me to favour one of the conjectures put forward in the 
report referred to,—namely, that the gun-cotton may contain traces of high 
nitro-compounds which are much more liable to decomposition than it is itself 


os. REPORT—1863. 


—a conjecture which may receive some support from the fact of the cotton 
being exposed for a very long period to the action of the acids. Under any 
circumstances, this is a matter which may be most intimately connected with 
the question of the keeping qualities of the gun-cotton, and which therefore 
requires the strictest investigation. 

(21) 5. While referring to the question of the stability of gun-cotton, it may 
be important to record the following fact. It is pretty generally known that, 
soon after the discovery of gun-cotton by Schénbein in 1846, Messrs. Hall and 
Son, the extensive gunpowder-manufacturers at Faversham, entered upon the 
manufacture of this material, but were, after a time, so unfortunate as to have 
a very disastrous explosion of gun-cotton at their works, which, after a 
careful inquiry, was ascribed, by the jury and by all connected with the ma- 
nufacture, to the spontaneous combustion of the material. The manufacture 
was stopped on the occurrence of this accident, and a considerable quantity of 
gun-cotton, which existed in the works, was buried by Messrs. Hall’s direction 
(in July 1847), being simply thrown into a hole in the ground and covered 
up with earth. At my request, Messrs. Hall have been so kind as to have a 
sample of this gun-cotton, which has been buried for sixteen years, dug up and 
forwarded to me. This cottdn, after being freed from dirt by washing, pre- 
sented a discoloured appearance, and is stained in many places with oxide of 
iron, but it exhibits not the slightest evidence of haying undergone change. 
The fibre is perfect throughout, and there is, as might have been anticipated, 
no trace of acidity manifest in any portion. It is not a rapidly burning gun- 
cotton, and leaves, upon ignition, a considerable carbonaceous residue ; it does 
not therefore consist, or at any rate not entirely, of the most explosive sub- 
stitution-product. A specimen, purified in the first instance by treatment 
with dilute hydrochloric acid, has been examined synthetically, and yielded 
59-63 per cent. of cotton,—a result which agrees most closely to that which 


would be furnished by a product of the composition C,, { He } O,, (which 
4 


would furnish 60-66 per cent. of cotton). Messrs. Hall manufactured the 
gun-cotton by Schénbein’s original process, which consisted, as far as I can 
learn, in the treatment of the cotton for about one hour with a mixture of one 
part of nitric acid of spec. grav. 1-45 to 1:5, and three parts of sulphuric acid 
of 1:85 spec. grav. The cotton was washed in running water until no acid 
was detected by litmus-paper, and afterwards dipped in a very weak solution 
of carbonate of potassa. The finished cotton was sometimes soaked in a weak 
solution of nitrate of potassa. 

The examination of Messrs. Hall’s buried gun-cotton appears to afford 
an interesting and important proof of the permanence of gun-cotton when 
excluded from air and light, but not protected from moisture—though it is 
necessary to bear in mind that this particular material does not correspond 
in composition to the regular Austrian product. 

(22) 6. Referring once more, in conclusion, to the manufacturing experi- 
ments which form the main subject of this communication, it only remains to 
be stated that the very high price paid for the cotton for these experiments, the 
necessarily temporary arrangements, and the impossibility of fully economi- 
zing labour and material in carrying out the manufacture with such accommo- 
dation as could be furnished without any important outlay at Waltham Abbey, 
rendered the formation of any reliable estimate regarding the cost of the 
gun-cotton out of the question. But the scale upon which the manufacture 
was conducted has been quite sufficient to demonstrate most satisfactorily 
that, with a properly organized system of operation, the production of tne gun- 


ON THE APPLICATION OF GUN-COTTON TO WARLIKE PURPOSES. 25 


cotton is certainly not more difficult or complicated, and is attended with con- 
siderably less risk of accident to the workmen and the manufacturing esta- 
blishment, than the production of gunpowder. 


IV.—Information given by Baron Lrnx on June 22 and July 14, 1863. 


1. What weight of gun-cotton and gunpowder give equal effects?—In ac- 
cordance with experience, gun-cotton produces the same effect as three times 
its weight of gunpowder, which proportion, under certain circumstances, may 
be increased to six times its weight of gunpowder ; for the effect of gun-cotton 
in proportion to gunpowder is the greater the more resistance is offered to 
the charge by the sides which enclose it, and_the less gas can escape at the 
beginning of the explosion. 

2. What bulks of each give equal effect ?—The space required for a gun- 
cotton cartridge, to produce an equal effect, is scarcely half as large as that of 
a gunpowder cartridge; and it is only made equally large or slightly larger, 
if secondary circumstances should demand it. 

3. Is the effect more constant with gun-cotton or with gunpowder.—The 
effect of small fire-arms and of artillery in general is considerably more 
uniform and constant with the use of gun-cotton than with gunpowder, 
provided the proper charge and cartridge has been taken. 

That superiority gun-cotton partly owes to the chemical process by which 
I have produced it, and partly to the uniform formation of the cartridge, 
which can only be attained by its regular texture, using it in the shape of 
cotton-yarn. 

4, Which admits of more precise aim ?—On account of the more constant 
effect of gun-cotton, and because its use prevents fouling of the gun, which 
further admits to reduce the space between shot and barrel, and on account of 
less heating of the gun, as well as by the uniform position of the cartridge, 
there must be a more precise aim of shot with gun-cotton—which, moreover, 
has been fully proved by experience. 

5. Which occasions least recoil ?—Chiefly on account of the smaller space of 
time the projectile requires to pass through the barrel of a gun to attain a 
certain initial velocity, the recoil of the gun is less than with the use of 
gunpowder. It may be stated that, by the official trials of the Commissioners 
in the year 1860, the recoil of the gun with gun-cotton was found to be 
0-68 of that with gunpowder. 

6. What is the relative effect as to fouling ?—Except an extremely small 
residuum of carbon, there is no deposit with the use of gun-cotton. The 
barrel of a gun requires no cleaning out; there is no chemical effect upon 
cast- and wrought-iron, steel, or bronze barrels by using gun-cotton car- 
tridges. 

7. Is gun-cotton liable to decay when stored ?—Gun-cotton has been stored 
like gunpowder for twelve years, usually packed in wooden boxes; and no 
trace of alteration has been discovered. My own experiments go back as 
far as 1846, and have given most favourable results in this respect. 

8. How is it affected by water or damp ?—Gun-cotton placed under water 
is unalterable. By the transformation of ordinary cotton into gun-cotton, it 
loses the greater part of its hygroscopic property, so that gun-cotton, properly 
manufactured, resists the influence of damp much better than gunpowder ; and 
moreover it cannot, like gunpowder, get permanently spoiled thereby. Gun- 
cotton, if dried in the open air, contains 2 per cent. moisture ; ordinary cotton 
about 6 per cent. Gun-cotton, placed in a room completely saturated with 


26 REPORT—1863. 


moisture, after thirty-three days of exposure contained 8 per cent. moisture, 
whilst under the same circumstances gunpowder was saturated with 79-9 per 
cent. of water ; some weeks afterwards the whole saltpetre of the gunpowder 
was converted into a concentrated solution of saltpetre, whilst gun-cotton 
took no more than 8 per cent. of water as a maximum saturation. 

9. Which admits of most rapid firing ?—The gun being heated considerably 
less by using cotton-cartridges, the absence of a noteworthy residuum and 
smoke admits of a more easy manipulation and sighting of the gun, and 
thereby secures a more continuous and rapid fire. 

It may be stated that 100 rounds with gun-cotton were fired in thirty- 
four minutes, and the barrel was heated to fifty degrees Cent.; whilst 100 
rounds with gunpowder-cartridge in 100 minutes heated the gun so much 
that water dropped on the barrel immediately evaporated with noise, though 
three times as much time was required with the powder charges. The 
Commissioners continued the trials with gun-cotton up to 180 rounds without 
any danger from heating being apprehended, whilst the Commissioners 
thought it advisable, for the sake of safety, not to continue firing with 
powder charges under the above circumstances. 

10. What effect has gun-cotton on the coolness and cleanness of the gun?— 
It has been already mentioned that, with the use of gun-cotton, fire-arms 
remain considerably cooler than with gunpowder; and the slight residuum 
has no influence upon the effect of the gun. 

11. How far is it adapted for breech-loading.—There being no fouling of 
the gun, it follows that with the use of breech-loaders the construction of the 
breech may be kept quite tight. 

12. How is it for precision of aim ?—Under all circumstances the aim is 
not disturbed or interrupted, there being no smoke attending the discharge 
of the gun. 

13. Has it any special advantages in forts, ships, and casemates ?—From 
many experiments, but especially from the official trials made in the case- 
mates of the fortress of Comorn in the year 1853, it results that under 
circumstances which would render the firing with powder difficult or even 
impossible, there was no trouble or molestation in any way to those serving 
the guns with the use of gun-cotton cartridges. 

The trials in the fortress of Comorn were made in casemates, ventilation 
being intentionally obviated. After fifteen rounds with powder cartridges, 
further sighting of the gun was impossible; after forty-six rounds, one of 
the men serving the gun fell into convulsions of suffocation ; a second man 
being ordered in the place of the first disabled man, got immediately sick on 
entering the casemate; the rest of the men were more or less stupefied ; 
it was necessary to stop firing after fifty rounds given in eighty minutes. By 
using gun-cotton cartridges, on the contrary, after fifty rounds the men 
serving the gun felt not the least molestation, and the aim was always 
clearly visible. 

14. How is it adapted for mining?—The more accelerated effect of gun- 
cotton, and the possibility of enclosing in the same space more than double the 
quantity of gases, especially direct us to employ gun-cotton where it is desired 
to attain an energetic effect for mining-purposes, for example, to secure 
harbours by means of sea-mines. 

15. What ts the relative danger of manufacture?—In the manufacture of 
gun-cotton every manipulation, up to its final accomplishment, is without any 
danger whatever, whilst with the manufacture of gunpowder danger of ex- 
plosion exists from the beginning of the operation. 


ON THE APPLICATION OF. GUN-COTTON TO WARLIKE PURPOSES. 27 


16. What is the comparative risk in conveyance?—The smaller weight of 
gun-cotton, as well as the smaller volume of it for an equal effect, favours the 
conveyance of gun-cotton considerably ; and it may be taken moreover into 
consideration that the dangerous “ getting to dust” of powder cannot take 
place with gun-cotton. 

The transport of gun-cotton to the most distant parts of the empire of 
Austria under intentionally difficult circumstances, has always been effected 
without difficulty. 

17. How is it adapted for shells?—Shells filled with gun-cotton hold a 
considerably larger quantity of material for the production of gases; at the 
same time, it is in the nature of both compounds that gun-cotton developes 
far quicker the gases of combustion than gunpowder ; for this reason, shells 
filled with gun-cotton burst into at least double the number of pieces. 

18. Js ut lable to spontancous explosion ?—From the last Report, dated June 
1863, of the Professors of Chemistry appointed by the Minister for War to 
report on that subject, and to give their opinion, and which is submitted to 
you, the apprehension of self-explosion has in no way any foundation what- 
ever. 

Without direct ignition, gun-cotton may detonate between iron and iron 
if a heavy blow be struck; but it is known that only that part explodes which 
was hit, without communicating ignition to the surrounding particles. If, 
however, even with an iron hammer, gun-cotton be struck a heavy blow upon 
bronze or other soft metals, or upon stone, no detonation can take place. In 
every report of the Austrian Empire Commissioners, that subject was con- 
sidered and disposed of as not impairing the safety of manipulation. 

19. How far is it possible to requlate its explosive power?—It has been 
established by experience that it is possible to moderate the force of gun- 
cotton within very extensive limits, and thereby to suit it to the different 
purposes without having ground for apprehension that variable effects would 
be the consequence ; that valuable property of gun-cotton, however, requires 
that the trials be made under the superintendence of an expert, which will 
secure the desired effects to a certainty. 

20. What is its cost of manufacture ?—Supposing quantities which would 
produce equal effects, then its cost is considerably less than that of gun- 
powder ; under ordinary circumstances and normal prices of cotton, the cost 
of manufacture of gun-cotton is under fourteen pence per pound, but at the 
present high price of raw cotton its cost will be under twenty pence per 
pound weight*. 

21. Give us what in your opinion are the essential points in the manufacture 
of gun-cotton. 

a. Ootton.—Any sort of cotton may be used for the production of gun- 
cotton, provided it be tolerably free from seed-capsules and oleaginous 
matter. Absence of the latter is indeed imperative; hence factory cotton, as 
ordinarily obtained, must be digested in a weak alkaline solution, as is usual 
in such cases. 

Other forms of lignine can be substituted for cotton to produce an explo- 
sive material—viz. flax, hemp, bog-grass, maize, straw, rags, sawdust, &c. 
I have given rules so as to meet the case of either of these; however, it 
is only in some extraordinary cases that any of these materials are to be 
preferred to cotton ; further, ulterior applications of the explosive material 
are much facilitated by the device of spinning into threads. 


* Baron Lenk subsequently reduced this estimate. 


28 REPORT—1863. 


b. Nitric acid.—The nitric acid employed must be in the highest possible 
degree of concentration ; and here the remark should be made, that an impurity 
of hyponitric acid imparted to the acid by concentration, and which is difficult 
to climinate, does not prejudice the acid for this special application. 

c. Sulphuric acid.—The ordinary commercial sulphuric acid of spec. grav. 
1:84 answers perfectly. 

d. Mixture of the acids——This consists of one part by weight of nitric acid, 
and three parts (weight) sulphuric acid,—assuming the nitric acid employed to 
possess an average specific gravity of 1-485. If, however, the specific gravity 
should differ from the above, then cognizance of the amount of anhydrous 
acid supplies the data necessary for regulating the mixture. 

The mixture is effected by means of an apparatus represented by fig. 1.* 
The vessel C is filled with the predetermined quantity (equivalent to the re- 
quired weight) of nitric acid; Band D with sulphuric acid. This being done, 
the acids from the three vessels are allowed to run very slowly into F, in which 
is an agitator T, set in motion by the handle L. As soon as a portion of the 
two acids has been mingled in this manner, the mixture is allowed to run from 
F to G, and the operation resumed as before. 

The reservoir G being completely filled, its contents must be set aside in 
closed vessels. It is advantageous to preserve the mixed acids a considerable 
time in the above vessels ; in no case must the mixture be used until it has 
become quite cold. 

e. Process of steeping—Cotton-wool ordinarily absorbs about 6 per cent. 
of atmospheric moisture, which must be dissipated in a drying-room heated 
to 95° F. previous to dipping the cotton. 

Steeping is effected in an apparatus represented by figs. 2, 2a, and 2b. The 
apparatus, during the process, is kept cool by a constant change of cold water 
poured into the vessel F. The chamber A contains a store of acid, B sixty 
pounds of the acid mixture, D represents the vessel in which the cotton is 
stored after dipping is accomplished. Two skeins (about 3 ounces) of dried 
cotton are dipped at one operation in the mixture contained in B, the spatula 
G being used to effect, by pressure, complete incorporation between acid and 
cotton ; in the next place, the cotton is to be removed from the bath, laid 
upon the rack C, and pressed to such extent that the amount of mixed acids 
left absorbed by the cotton. be in the ratio of 103 lbs. of the former to 1 1b. 
of the latter. The cotton being now lifted into the vessel D, this is to be 
filled with mixed acids, and the portion of acid absorbed made good by 
means of the tared spoon E, in such manner that the surface in B may 
always maintain the same level for every additional portion of cotton dipped. 

The vessel D filled in the manner prescribed, is at length set aside, the 
due proportion of its contents being regulated, if necessary: the regulation 
is easily accomplished after a little practice, but it is seldom requisite. The 
cotton is next compressed by the handle H in such manner that it is wholly 
covered by acid, to the further action of which it is left exposed for the space 
of forty-eight hours; it must be cooled during that exposure, thus guarding 
against the violent action of the acids resulting in decomposition. 

f. Removal of acid from the gun-cotton.—This is performed by means of a 
centrifugal machine, the drum of which is of copper, a material which 
lasts a considerable time; after this manipulation, there still remain 3 lbs. 
of acid in the gun-cotton manufactured from 1 lb. of ordinary cotton. This 
must be got rid of by rapid water affusion applied in some convenient 
manner, 

* This refers to a drawing exhibited at the time. Sec Plate III. 


ON THE APPLICATION OF GUN-COTTON TO WARLIKE PURPOSES. 29 


Mere affusion, however, does not suffice to get rid of all the adherent acid, 
hence the cotton must remain for a yet longer period in a stream of water, 
natural or artificial. 

g. Impregnation of gun-cotton with soluble glass—The object of this process 
is to close the pores of the gun-cotton fibre by silica precipitated within them, 
by which the velocity of explosion of gun-cotton is hereafter retarded ; 
moreover any lingering traces of acid that may remain are neutralized by 
combination with soda liberated from the soluble glass. This operation is 
performed by means of a centrifugal machine, into which a central tube 
passes for supplying the glass solution. By this arrangement the liquid is 
driven in very minute division through the gun-cotton ; the glass solution 
employed has a density of 12° Baumé. The material having been treated 
as described, has next to be dried by atmospheric exposure: as drying pro- 
ceeds, decomposition of the soluble glass goes on. Atmospheric carbonic acid 
uniting with soda, forms carbonate of soda, whilst silica is precipitated. 

The carbonate of soda thus produced being soluble in water, can be got 
rid of hereafter by washing, whereas the precipitated silicic acid not being 
soluble, remains attached to the cotton fibres, protecting them from de- 
composition under atmospheric influences, however high the temperature 
may be. 

h. Dreatment with soap.—F or many purposes it is desirable to retain the 
fibres of gun-cotton soft, in order to guard against the contingency of explo- 
sion from very violent friction, gun-cotton being somewhat harsh to the touch. 

This is readily effected by dipping the material, already treated with 
soluble glass and washed, previous to final drying, into a soap ley, the excess 
of which is to be hereafter squeezed out, and the gun-cotton finally dried. 

22. Have you any special information to give the Committee respecting the 
practical applications of gun-cotton? 

a. In general.—The proper utilization of gun-cotton presupposes a thorough 
knowledge of the nature of its energy and the bearing of its mechanical ad- 
vantages, in order that the object proposed may be gained through a favour- 
able choice of circumstances. These influences are more perceptible with 
gun-cotton than with gunpowder, inasmuch as gun-cotton admits of variation 
from a point of inefficiency to one of highest energy. 

Ignited in an open space (i. ¢. not under pressure), the explosive effect of 
gun-cotton is trifling, very much less than that of gunpowder. Ignited in 
spaces more or less closed, then in proportion as the closure is perfect does 
the explosion assimilate itself to that of gunpowder, the force of which under 
certain circumstances it considerably surpasses ; 7. ¢. it is dependent on the re- 
sistance met with. The maximum of the explosive effect of gun-cotton is 
attamed when the charge is so regulated, as to dimensions and form, that 
the whole of it becomes ignited before the yielding of any side of a vessel in 
which it is enclosed. 

The products of combustion of gun-cotton are wholly gaseous, whereas 
gunpowder by combustion yields only 31 per cent. of gas, whence it would 
seem that the energy of a charge of gunpowder should be nearly equalled by 
a charge of gun-cotton only one-third of its weight. The available power 
of one part of gun-cotton by weight, may, under certain circumstances, be 
raised to the effect of six parts by weight of gunpowder. 

b. Application of gun-cotton as a charge for smooth-bore guns.—The 
standard of reference was furnished by experiments conducted with a twelve- 
pounder bronze field piece, which gaye results as follows ;— 


BO REPORT— 18638, 


The weight of shot, solid round, used was 12 lbs. 

Diameter of shot 4°5 inches. (English weight and measure.) 
Diameter of bore for gun-cotton 4:56 inches. 

Diameter of bore for gunpowder 4°67 inches, 


Gun. Cartridges. Initial 


Result. No, | Length of Bore. Material of Charge. | Length. vologity: 


| | 


General Observations. 


in 13% calibres, Powder 3 lbs. 1 oz. 7Din, | 1400 ft. | Normal. 

II. 2 113 A Gun-cotton, 15°6 oz.} 5:1 1375 Cartridges slightly 
EEE | ae " 148 Fr 1407 compressed, filling 
ed Mae Pe eee ” 136 9» 1358 the whole space. 
Vi 1 lly» ” 148 83 1400 Follow cartridges re- 
ya 1 10 ” » 159 ¥ 1426 presented at Plate 
vate | et 5 split: 5 age ek 1402 IL fig, 2, 


The normal performance of ordinary powder-guns gives result I., as com- 
pared with gun-cotton. With gun-cotton, when compressed charges were used, 
each of 13:6 oz., result II., gun 2; the gun was not injured; while with 
14-8 oz. of charge, after a few rounds, a considerable enlargement of the bore, 
where the shot lies, took place. A similar result happened to a second gun, 
No. 3, even with a charge of 13°6 oz., after the first few shots. 

When one of the enlarged cartridges, represented at Pl. II., fig. 2, was 
used, occupying 1:1 of the powder-space, the gun’s endurance was perfect, 
and no loss of effect was sustained, and its practice remained good, as proved 
by results set forth at III. and V., since equal charges in very different spaces 
(i. e, in the ratio of 5 to 8) still produced equal results. 

In proportion as the tube is shorter, an increased charge is required 
(shown by results V., VI., VII.); yet the effect of a normal powder-gun and 
charge may be attained by a tube shortened from 13} to 9 calibres: it follows 
that guns to be used with gun-cotton may be constructed much shorter than 
if intended to be charged with gunpowder*. 

With the largest charge used, 7.¢. 17 ounces, about 1000 shots were 
fired from the same gun, without affecting the piece in the slightest—an en- 
durance very satisfactory, and considerably greater than has been experienced 
with gunpowder. 

This experiment was further continued for arriving at results by empirical 
means as to the strength of metal in various parts of the tube. 

The original tube, formed as depicted at Pl. I. fig. 2, was gradually turned 
off until it assumed the shape figured in broken lines, but without any dis- 
advantageous effect. The metallic strength of 3:7 inches close behind the 
seat of the ball, where, according to experience, the greatest strain takes place, 
and 1:6 at the muzzle, were so moderate that for practical uses no further 
diminution was desirable; hence the experiments in this respect were dis- 
continued. 

Finally, I turned my attention to the object of flattening the trajectory of 
projectiles with this gun, and succeeded to such an extent that a projectile 
fired from the gun horizontally pointed at targets set up at 100 yards from 
each other as far as 1200 yards struck at an even height at 3 feet from the 
eround, and fell without ricochet at about 3200 yards. 

An experiment made with a Krupp cast-steel 6-pounder, demonstrated 


* No details are given as to precision. 


ON THE APPLICATION OF GUN-COTTON TO WARLIKE PURPOSES. 31 


that with harder and more resisting metal than bronze, the great power of 

gun-cotton might unhesitatingly be made use of to obtain a more energetic 

projectile force than would have been compatible with the use of gunpowder, 
The results are as follows:— 


A Krupp 6-pounder, cast steel, charged ‘with | 1338 feet per second initial 
30 oz. of normal powder ...,....---++:,-+> velocity of shot. 

A Krupp 6-pounder, cast steel, charged with | 1563 feet per second initial 
134 02. of gun-cotton ........-.+eeeeees } velocity of shot. 


In practice it is necessary with the use of gun-cotton to reduce the 
“ windage” to a minimum ; otherwise larger charges must be used, and with 
no corresponding advantage. 

c. Application of gun-cotton to rifled ordnance.—The time may have ar- 
rived for breech-loaders, which have lately come into use under such good 
auspices, to be set aside in favour of muzzle-loaders, for the service of which 
gun-cotton offers such facilities, because of its leaving no solid residue after 
combustion, and because windage admits of reduction to a minimum, 

The method of determining the condition of charge differs from the data 
given for smooth bores, in so far that the vehemence of explosion may be 
decreased by mechanical means—such as variation of length of chamber, 
regulating the mode of ignition so as to attain a sufficiently favourable con- 
dition of starting of the projectile from rest. This result was easily achieved 
(as demonstrated by experiments conducted in Austria) within the degrees 
of velocity hitherto deemed sufficient, as by the gun shown, Pl. I. fig. 1, 
and cartridges, Pl. II. fig. 1. 

To what extent these deductions may hold good ai higher velocities, must 
be determined by further experiments, which may be expected, judging from 
present data, to give fayourable results. 

The Austrian breech-loading guns (cast iron) of three service calibres 
(6, 12, and 24-pounders charged with 13, 30, and 60 lbs. weight projectiles 
respectively) answer perfectly when charged with gun-cotton, provided the 
chambers are enlarged to 1-1 of the original capacity for powder. For larger 
charges, cartridges made in the form of a hollow rope, similar to those used for 
blasting, would answer; however, I have to remark that it is more necessary 
in rifled than in smooth-bore guns to reduce the windage to a minimum; 
this, on account of the surprising exactness of work in English factories, would 
_ be easy of accomplishment, and would raise the effect of gun-cotton. Expe- 
riments performed with a cast-steel gun of 3 inches diameter, weighing only 
50 Ibs., firing hollow projectiles with effect to 3000 yards, demonstrate that, on 
account of the short length of tube necessary and the slight recoil, very light 
pieces can be made, Pl. I. fig. 3; the carriage was about 40 lbs. weight. 

d. Application of gun-cotton to small arms.—In this respect it is important 
to observe that the plasters used with the old round-ball rifles were com- 
pletely torn so long as short cartridges were used. When I elongated the 
cartridges the plasters resisted perfectly, and practice was very accurate ; 
hence it is demonstrated that length is a very important element in the con- 
struction of small-arm cartridges. Experiment only can determine the ro- 
per length. 

One circumstance is not to be lost sight of—that w'th a very long cartridge 
the ignition of it in proper time may be difficult to achieve. Fractice in the 
application of mechanical means is requisite to secure the proper explosion 
of long cartridges by igniting them well in front. Lastly, experience proves 
that in small-arm cartridges separation of the cotton into several layers, by the 


82 REPORT—1863. 


interposition of paper, influences the result. Small-arm cartridges which have 
auswered best are composed of three layers of flat woven gun-cotton with 
paper interposed. For the small-bore long range rifles used in England, the 
cartridges most suitable may be those represented at Pl. II. fig. 3, the precise 
dimensions of them being fixed experimentally. On the 4th and 5th of 
July 1863, there was a preliminary trial at Manchester, during which it was 
found that no distortion of the projectiles ensued even when the proper 
conditions of charge were departed from by using too heavy charges. 

e. Application of gun-cotton to purposes of mining.—Gun-cotton is more 
appropriate to this use than gunpowder, which it surpasses in proportion as 
the mass to be blasted is more compact. Assuming a solid rock to be blasted, 
and that the proper condition of charge together with the proper distribution of 
holes have both been heeded, the relative proportions of gun-cotton and of 
gunpowder for producing an equal effect are 1 gun-cotton to 6-274 gunpowder 
(weight by weight), whilst the relative proportions for wall-blasting (masonry) 
are 1 gun-cotton to 2:25 gunpowder ; however, here the point must be noted, 
that when these experiments were performed the best shape of charge had 
not been determined. According to experiments more recently conducted, the 
form of charge for blasting which best answers is that of a hollow twisted rope, 
according to sample ; the operation of charging is rendered thus very easy and 
safe—wooden tamping-rods being used until the charge is covered. Accord- 
ing to repeated experiments, the strongest friction of gun-cotton between 
stone is unattended with the slightest danger. Yor large charges, it is to be 
remembered that complete ignition is more difficult than the complete ignition 
of large powder charges; to accomplish this result satisfactorily for mining- 
purposes, it is indispensable to fasten up the gun-cotton in tightly closed 
vessels—which afford the necessary resistance, not yielding until the whole mass 
of gun-cotton has become ignited. Experiments have proved that little barrels 
with strong hoops answer best. The proper construction of these restraining 
cases can be learned experimentally from models, when it will be remarked 
that no smoke results from explosion, and very little fire is seen. 

As a charge for hollow projectiles, gun-cotton substituted for gunpowder 
will produce similar effects ; but then the space of shell is only partly filled, 
even when the bursting powder charge is raised to its maximum. An in- 
creased charge of gun-cotton may be employed with advantage, which thus, 
in comparison with gunpowder, will give an additional effect, partly referable 
to additional material used, and partly to the occurrence of a more rapid ex- 
plosion. 

With projectiles having very small holes for filling, the accompanying 
samples were used, because of the ease with which filling could be conducted. 
When projectiles with cylindrical bore, capable of being thrown open, have 
to be filled, it would be advisable to insert cylindrical charges of gun-cotton 
previously compressed. A soft layer of felt is recommended to be laid in- 
teriorly against the base of the projectile—though this precaution does not 
seem to be imperative, no premature bursting having taken place in the 
course of any experiments, 

f. Application to fuse-purposes.—For fuses gun-cotton is woven (according 
to pattern given), then steeped in saltpetre and covered with a jacket of india- 
rubber. In this manner the progress of combustion is rapid (over 30 feet 
per second) ; the line will bear considerable pressure, and may even be folded 
crossways without fear of the fire leaping from one fold to the other. 

If ordinary gun-cotton thread be fired in a train loosely, ignition is very 
slow, about 1 foot per second. 


ON THE APPLICATION OF GUN-COTTON TO WARLIKE PURPOSES. 33 


V.—Extracts from a Report on Baron Lenx’s Gun-cotton, by Professors Dr. 
ReprenpacHer, Dr. Scurorrer, and Dr. Scunerer, to His Excellency 
Field-Marshal Jonann Fretmerr Kempen von Ficurenstamm, President of 
the Royal Imperial Commission on Giun-cotton, June 1863. 


(1) “ Difference between the French Gun-Cotton and Baron Lenk’s.—Ac- 
cording to the method pursued by the French Commission, the raw cotton was 
immersed in the acid mixture for one hour. Baron Lenk leaves his cotton 
forty-eight hours in the acid bath. The French cotton was afterwards 
dipped in running water for an hour or an hour anda half. Baron Lenk’s 
gun-cotton lies four, six, or eight weeks in astream. The French cotton 
had, after washing, so much free acid left, that wood-ash lye (a solution of car- 
bonate of potash, therefore) was neutralized by contact with it, and after long 
use became sour. Baron Lenk’s cotton is so freed from acid by long immersion, 
that a two per cent. solution of potash, in which two ewt. of gun-cotton 
had been boiled, has lost none of its alkaline properties—that is to say, that 
the cotton was completely free from acids, as experiments wholly accordant 
with those of the Imperial (Austrian) Engineers’ Committee fully demon- 
strated. The French gun-cotton having been prepared in a manner so 
different, it must necessarily have had a different composition to that of Baron 
Lenk’s ; hence it is clear that the French experimental results cannot, without 
considerable reserve, be accepted as precedents.” 


(2) “ Analysis of Austrian Gun-cotton. Laboratory of Engineers’ Committee, 


1861. 
Trinitro-cellulose 
In 100 parts. | a ET No. 4. | 
NT ee | 24-3 25:1 
Eiydrogen..... 0... ve. 23 3:0 
University Laboratory, 1863. 
No. 3. No. 6. No. 14, Dinitro- 
In 100 parts 1856. 1860. 1862. cellulose, 
ee ee ee eee Veal einiated. 
iP td tty a 8 | 23.5) Sat id Teaeah da: 
Carbon ......| 244] 245 | 246 | 242 936| 9391 o41| 086 
Hydrogen ...., 27| 28] 26) 27| 26| 24| 94 3-2 


“Tf this analysis differs somewhat from the theoretical formula of the tri- 
nitro-cellulose, the circumstance must be remembered that cotton is not pure 
cellulose, but that it consists of long-extended vegetable cellules, in which 
there is always a little albuminous substance containing over 50 per cent. 
carbon, and 7 per cent. hydrogen, the presence of which even in such quan- 
tities easily increases the percentage of carbon and hydrogen. ‘The treat- 
ment with soluble glass has no influence on Baron Lenk’s gun-cotton, it 
being previously free from acids. Gun-cotton is always put into comparison 
as an explosive compound with gunpowder; but it must be remembered 
ai of the component parts of gunpowder (charcoal) is most irregular 

. D 


84 REPORT—1863. 


in quality, especially where the primitive method of preparing it is followed. 
Still, in theoretical disquisitions upon gunpowder, charcoal is taken into 
account as pure carbon.” 

(3) “In the magazines of gun-cotton at the Neustadter Haide, there are 
stores of various years. Inthe laboratory of the University there are samples 
of Hirtenberg gun-cotton of three several years, which haye been examined 
by the above named artillery officers, and they have been found not to differ 
materially in their composition from trinitro-cellulose. For instance— 


Trinitro- No. 3. No. 6. No, 14, 1862 
In 100 parts. | cellulose, 1856. 1860. 1862. ; 
calculated. —--——_--_--_, ——, __ |—_—— 
| eat ee al tb: Miia ide, yor <cosen tae 2 
Carbon ..2).. 24-3 94:4 | 24-5 | 24:6 | 24:2 | 23°6 |-23:9 | 24-1 
Hydrogen 2:3 27 2:8 2°6 2:7 2°6 2-4 2°4 


*‘ Tf these results are compared with each other, there can be no right to 
say that Hirtenberg gun-cotton alters by keeping. They agree as far with 
each other as analyses of the same material usually do. It is to be regretted, 
on this as on many other accounts, that during the last twelve years such 
analyses were not frequently repeated. If the opponents of gun-cotton, in 
performing an adverse experiment, heat the substance in a test-tube up to 
100° C., and holding litmus-paper over it, deduce from redness of the latter 
that gun-cotton changes after long keeping, they merely prove thereby that 
gun-cotton changes at 100°C. Of an explosive compound, it can only be 
required that it shall not deteriorate within certain limits of temperature,—a 
requisition amply fulfilled by Lenk’s gun-cotton. 

‘Some varieties of gun-cotton, if enclosed together with litmus-paper in a 
tube, often manifest an acid reaction at ordinary temperature. This may 
arise from various causes. There may exist, for example, free acids. These 
acids may be the result of nitrogen partially oxidized, and may result from 
imperfectly worked cotton. This assumption granted, the phenomenon is 
explained, and the cause easily avoided. It may arise from decomposition of 
the gun-cotton, atmospheric dampness having brought about a partial recon- 
stitution of the cellulose.” 

(4) “ But some specimens of Lenk’s cotton do not even yield traces of de- 
composition. A parcel of Hirtenberg cotton was laid for six weeks in a pond, 
and not subsequently treated with potash. It was then deposited in a 
running stream, afterwards exposed for one month to the air, being sub- 
jected to all the various influences of dew, rain, and sun, day and night con- 
tinuously. It retains all its original explosive qualities, and fails to redden 
litmus-paper, even though the latter be wrapped in a mass of this cotton and 
allowed to remain for many days. ‘The results of an analysis of this cotton 
were almost identical with the calculated elements of trinitro-cellulose, as 
the following Table makes apparent :— 


Calculated. Found. 
Carboniorived hal ssataath. 88 2452. ostionwat 24-4 
Hydrogen. |. «asad Sri 14 att 23. fo tabi. ak 28 


(5) “ Temperature at which Gun-cotton ignites.—The rejection of gun-cotton, 
in consequence of the changeable nature or explosive quality of the material 
at low temperatures, is so thoroughly and decidedly contradicted in the Re- 


ON THE APPLICATION OF GUN-COTTON TO WARLIKE PURPOSES. 985 


port of Baron von Ebner, that it would be superfluous to go any further into 
this question—the lowest explosive temperature of the Hirtenberg gun-cotton 
being therein fixed at 136° C., a temperature which, practically, cannot raise 
any doubts against the use of gun-cotton.” 

(6) “ Experimental proofs demonstrate that Lenk’s Gun-cotton is not sponta- 
neously combustible.—The history of gun-cotton, as chronicled by chemists and 
artillerists, short though the history be, is so full of records of explosion under 
unexpected circumstances, that an unbiased mind can hardly fail to be 
impressed with the belief that, amongst the ordinary conditions of military 
practice, there may be some competent to induce the spontaneous combus- 
tion of this material. Nevertheless the experience of Baron Lenk, acquired 
during a period extending over more than ten years, is more pregnant with 
reliable testimony than can be found in the entire remaining history of this 
material. 

“The manufacture of gun-cotton in Hirtenberg consists of a number of 
perfectly harmless operations ; and it is remarkable that, contrary to what 
happens with gunpowder, if fire be not actually applied, explosion is impos- 
sible. All operations are so arranged that the material acted upon is in a 
moist or wet condition—hence not explosive. Drying takes place in a 
capacious building, on every side open to the air. “The last process of drying 
is carried out in the drying-chamber, where it is effected by a stove situated 
on the outside, distributing its heat to the building by earthenware pipes— 
drying being thus ensured through a gentle warmth. © The gun-cotton next 
goes either into a magazine to be packed away in chests, or is at once pre- 
pared for ammunition. In this magazine, Hirtenberg cotton has been stored 
for a period of twelve years, and not a single instance of explosion has taken 
place. How many powder-mills have exploded in that time? In Prussia, 
however, a drying-chamber has lately blown up. Your Excellency has 
officially been informed, that in Prussia they have worked for eight years 
with gun-cotton, and not a single explosion has occurred except the last- 
named. In the Prussian drying-chamber referred to, a stove with iron 
smoke-pipe was used—a sufficient explanation of the misfortune. : 

“ During twelve years we have prepared gun-cotton at Hirtenberg for 
ammunition—that is, for yarns, spun. ropes, and threads twisted and woven. 
One single case of explosion has occurred in the course of Baron Lenk’s manu- 
facture, the result of improper speed of working the spinning machinery. Now, 
the circumstance hardly need be insisted on, that gunpowder as well as gun- 
cotton can be exploded by friction. Gun-cotton has been used for military 
purposes now more than twelve years; it has also been employed for mining 
and blasting. It has been subjected to every variety of transport. Packed 
in black wooden chests, it has been exposed to sunshine for months together— 
all this without one single accident. In the face of such testimony, it cannot 
be said that gun-cotton manifests any tendency to explode spontaneously.” 

(7) “ Lieutenant von Karolyi’s analysis of the gases of combustion of Lenk’s 
gun-cotton, which he made in the Chemical Laboratory of the Engineers’ Corps 
Committee, may be seen in the ‘ Report of the Imperial Academy of Science,’ 
vol. xlvii. Mathematical and Physical Part, p. 59, and is given in the following 
_ Table, in which the gases of combustion of powder according to Bunsen (vide 
_ Poggendorff, 4th series, vol. xii. p. 181) are cited in comparison with those 
_ of gun-cotton. 


p2 


36 REPORT—1863. 
Gases of Combustion, asia Repel 
Volume per cent. Qs : I 
Sporting) Rifle Ordnance! + 
powder. powder. | powder. ees: 
Nitrogen N....| 41-1 | 353 | 376 |] 12-7 
*| Carbonic acid oe | 82-7 48°9 42:7 20°8 
Carbonic oxide co. 39 5:2 10-2 29:0 
Hydrogen H.. 12 6:9 59 3-2 
Sulphuretted hydrogen HS . 0-6 0°67 0-86 |Carbon 1° 
Oxyg Bis ‘52 -—— — |Water 25:37 
Fiat oiGarbtiaa ne So ae 3°02 | 2:7 7:2 


‘If we compare the gases of gunpowder with those of gun-cotton, we easily ~ 


see that the chemical action of the product of combustion of gun-cotton on 
the sides of the barrel, if there exists any action at all, must be smaller than 
with the use of gunpowder, because they are less oxidizing gases than those 
of gunpowder. Should, therefore, bronze barrels be ‘‘ burnt out” by the use 
of gun-cotton, cast steel may be then used instead of bronze, which, in fact, 
has been successfully dong. Moreover bronze gun-barrels have withstood a 
sufficient number of rounds by using an adequate charge of gun-cotton with 
elongated cartridges. In this way no alteration of the bore prejudicial to 
the correctness of aim has taken place. From the steel barrel of a rifle, 
forty rounds have been fired with gun-cotton cartridges, which have hit the 
target 300 yards distant in an unexceptionable manner. After the said 
number of rounds, the barrel was internally as clean and polished as a mirror. 
It appears, then, that this problem is solved in a general and satisfactory 
manner.” 

(8) ‘ Application of Gun-cotton to Mining Warfare.—Gun-cotton is also 
used for mining-purposes and mining warfare. On this subject nothing but 
what is favourable has been reported by the Imperial Engineers (vide Commu- 
nications of the R. I. Engineers’ Committee, 1861, vol. i., by Moritz Baron 
von Ebner, Colonel of the Engineers), However, it is said that the gases of 
gun-cotton were more poisonous in mines than those of gunpowder, and there- 
fore the use of gun-cotton for mining warfare is not to be recommended. If 
we compare the result of Lieutenant Karolyi’s analysis of the combustion-gases 
of gun-cotton with those of gunpowder as above given, we observe that both of 
them contain irrespirabie gases; further, that they contain qualitatively the 
same sort of irrespirable gases ; and although the relative quantities of some of 
the gases from powder and gun-cotton are different, the effect of those gases 
leads to the same practical result, viz. that, after blowing up a mine, one cannot 
without danger approach the spot of the explosion before renewing the air 
by ventilation. In this respect, we may say that the gases of gun-cotton will 
be more quickly removed by ventilation than those of gunpowder, because 
the first-named contain a greater quantity of gases easily dissipated, since 
100 pounds of gunpowder contains 68 pounds of fixed solid matter, which 
alone suffices to make respiration almost impossible. It is not probable that 
an explosive compound will be found which will produce any other but irre- 
spirable gases. It is one and the same in practice, whether a cellar contains 
40 per cent. of carbonic acid and 10 per cent. carbonic oxide, or 30 per cent. 
carbonic oxide and 20 per cent. carbonic acid, inasmuch as no one could, 
without danger of suffocation, enter such a cellar. Both the gases of gun- 
cotton and of gunpowder, according to Karolyi, may be ignited by a match.” 


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ON THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF ALLOYS. 37 


Report on the Chemical Nature of Alloys. By A. Mattutsssen, F.R.S., 
Lecturer on Chemistry in St. Mary’s Hospital. 


Ovr knowledge of this subject is at present very limited; and, as far as we 
can ascertain, a liquid alloy of two metals may be either 

1. A solution of one metal in another, or 

2. A chemical combination, or 

3. A mechanical mixture, or 

4, A solution or mixture of two or all of the above. 


On the contrary, an alloy in the solid state may be either 


1. A solidified solution of one metal in the other, or 

2. A chemical combination, or 

3. A mechanical mixture, or ; 

4. A solidified solution or mechanical mixture of two or all of the above. 


Under the term solution of one metal in another, I understand one like that 
of ether and alcohol; for these two liquids may be mixed in any proportion, 
and they will not separate, by standing, into two layers. Oil and water, on the 
contrary, when shaken up well together, present for a moment a homogeneous 
mass, and as such may be considered a mechanical mixture of the two. The 
case of mixing ether and water together is somewhat different; for ether 
dissolves a certain amount of water, and water a certain amount of ether: when 
these liquids, say in equal parts, are shaken well together, then, as with oil 
and water, for a time a homogeneous mass will exist ; such a one, however, is 
not a mechanical mixture of ether and water, but a mechanical mixture of a 
solution of ether in water and of water in ether. Again, when sulphuric 
acid is added to a large quantity of water, the solution is not a simple 
one of sulphuric acid in water, but a solution of a chemical combination of 
sulphuric acid and water in water. 

Under the term solidified solution, I understand a most intimate mixture, 
such as would occur in the sudden conversion of a solution into a solid, and a 
much more intimate mixture than can be obtained by ordinary mechanical 
means—in fact a perfectly homogeneous diffusion of one body in another. An 
excellent example of a homogeneous diffusion is furnished by glass, which is 
formed in the liquid state at a high temperature, and solidifies on cooling 
without separation of the different silicates. But how are we to find out 
what an alloy is? Chemistry only affords us means (by analysis) by which 
we are enabled to determine whether an alloy is a homogeneous mass or not, 
thereby indicating the presence or absence of mechanical mixtures. 

This is not enough for us to determine the chemical nature of alloys; we 
must therefore look elsewhere and see whether we cannot gain information 
on the subject ; and in doing so we shall find that the study of their physical 
properties offers a means whereby the chemical nature of an alloy may be 
ascertained. 

The physical properties may be divided into two classes— 


I. Those which do not indicate the chemical nature of the alloy. 
Il. Those which do indicate the chemical nature of the alloy. 


To the first belong, for instance— 

1. Specific Gravity —On comparing those observed with those calculated, 
very little difference will be found between the values ; take as example those 
of the bismuth-lead alloys, and those of the metals tin and gold*, 


* Phil. Trans. 1860, p. 177. 


38 REPORT—1863. 


Bismuth-lead Series. 


Mean of Calculated 
Alloy specific gravity, 
Specific gravity from volume. 
found 
LL 5 eee a 9-844 21:7 9:845 
IBIOME Dahe.t he yon hae 9-845 21°6 9-850 
Bib ice oan 9-850 21:3 9-856 
Bi SP i ion te ee 9:887 20-6 9-877 
Ta at Wai evo alee 9-893 19:5 9-887 
Hips shee a 9-934 211 9-902 
Big die ay, bt Us 58.028 9-973 15:0 9-927 
Bei Scr he ee Y 10-048 10:7 9-974 
Bs ey he EE Re 10-235 12:5 10-098 
Fe keg Sagat Se eogtaonaa 10-538 14-0 10-290 - 
2 Gg ae ge ak a 10-956 14-9 10-541 
12 Tage, Rng el ama le 11:141 12:7 10:805 
OLS i ape at tad 11-161 148 10-942 
Mag st eA ep gap 11-188 20°8 11-026 
Bi 1 SLi aah ae 11°196 20-2 11-083 
Picepe toe wee 11-280 92-5 11-238 
Bi 1 ol Pete Bieiicsca/ate 11:331 23:0 11°340 
Tin-gold Series. 
Mean of Calculated 
Alloy. specific gravity, 
Specific gravity from volume, 
found. 
Barra. drdertien. bas 7-441 22:9 7-446 
BD NRE sxe asi. Pak 7801 22:8 7-786 
Bair AM 4 ste lewex'ens § 8-118 22°4 8-092 
eA ith fa ay ONG 8-470 © 23-1 8-452 
ene Am tiaiatae ian k 8931 25°6 8-951 
Ra what: Bente Je 9:405 23-7 9-407 
BRERA Ta! cidiats sia e's x2 9°715 92-4 9-743 
Rie etiy lala de fale lts x 10:168 23°7 10-206 
BI hts big athe ala etal 10-794 23°6 10-885 
DHt Baul emetic sala 11:833 14-6 11-978 
Sn CANS. ue). seeing 14-244 14:2 14-028 
Si “We ee eas 16367 15:4 15-913 


Now I do not think it possible from such small differences as the above to 
deduce anything definite respecting the chemical nature of the alloys ; still, 
as we shall see, they help in some cases to confirm deductions from other 
properties. 

2. Crystalline Form.—When zine and antimony are fused together in 


ON THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF ALLOYS. 39 


different proportions* and allowed to crystallize, the alloys containing from 
20-33 per cent. zine crystallize in silver-white rhombic crystals, P: P (P: P 
at the terminal edges 118° 24’ and 95° 24’, at the lateral edges 115° 30’), and 
those containing from 43-70 per cent. zinc in rhombic prisms of 117° 63’ 
truncated at the edges. Further, it has been shown that the alloys of tin 
and gold containing from 25-43:5 per cent. gold crystallize all in the same 
formt. ‘This is therefore an important point to bear in mind, for it follows 
that alloys of a definite crystalline form are not necessarily chemical com- 
binations. 

3. Points of Fusion.—It is a matter of common observation that the fusing- 
point of a mixture is lower than the mean fusing-point of the constituents. 
The fluxes so well known in metallurgy exemplify this, as also do the alloys, 
as well as mixtures of the solid fatty acids. There is I believe no case known 
where the fusing-point of a mixture is higher than the mean fusing-point, 
of the components. 

This fact admits of explanation as follows :— 

It is generally admitted that matter in a solid state exhibits excess of attrac- - 
tion over repulsion, whilst in the liquid state these forces are balanced, and in 
the gaseous state repulsion predominates over attraction. Let us assume that 
similar particles of matter attract each other more powerfully than dissimilar 
ones attract each other. It will then follow that the attraction subsisting 
between the particles of a mixture will be sooner overcome by repulsion than 
will the attraction in the case of a homogeneous body ; hence mixtures should 
fuse more readily than their constituents. : 


To the second class of properties belong 

Conducting-Powers for Heat and Electricity According to some experi- 
menters the values obtained for the conducting-power of the metalst and 
alloys§ for heat and electricity are the same; so that, if either of these pro- 
perties be determined for a series of alloys, we shall then be able to deduce 
their chemical nature: but before going into this subject more widely let me 
say a word respecting the other physical properties. To which of the two 
elasses many belong it is at present impossible to say ; for the results obtained 
by different observers vary so much, and in most cases only a very few 
alloys have been experimented with. There is, however, no doubt that the 
determination of some of the other physical properties would materially aid 
us in ascertaining the chemical nature of the alloys; but in order to obtain 
such results as will aid us in the inquiry, it is absolutely necessary to employ 
only purified metals. I do notsay chemically pure ; for no chemist would give 
much credit to anyone stating that he had prepared 5 to 10 kilogrammes of 
any metals in a state of chemical purity, such being the quantities required 
to carry out one such research. The only manner to proceed in such cases is 
to satisfy oneself, by repeatedly purifying and by using metals of different 
preparations by different methods, that the amount of impurity remaining 
with the metal has no influence on the results obtained. For of what use is 
a research into the physical properties of the metals and their alloys made 
with impure metals, when we know that traces of impurity materially affect 
and alter them ? 

I will now proceed to show how we may deduce the chemical nature 


* J. P. Cooke, Journ. Amer. Acad., New Series, vol. v. p. 337. 

+ Matthiessen and v. Bose, Proc. Royal Soc. (1861) vol. xi. p. 433. 
+ Wiedemann and Franz, Pogg. Ann. vol. Ixxxix. p. 497. 

§ Wiedemann, Pogg. Ann. vol. cviii. p. 393. 


40 REPORT—1863. 


of alloys in a solid state, from the determination of their conducting-powers 
for electricity*. 

The number of alloys experimented with was upwards of 250; they were 
all made of purified metals, and their conducting-power determined with a 
modification of Wheatstone’s balance, arranged by Kirchhoff, under whose 
direction the first results were obtainedt. The method of observation 
emanating from such a distinguished physicist is a sufficient proof of its 
accuracy and trustworthiness. And here a great difficulty in carrying out 
such researches may be mentioned ; for one is apt to fall into one of two errors: 
either the metals used for the experiments are not pure, or the method em- 
ployed for the determinations is faulty. Thus, for instance, compare the 
experiments on the influence of temperature on the electric conducting-power 
of the metals between 0° and 100°. Calling the conducting-power of each 
at 0° 100, at 100° it is, according to 


Conducting-power at 100° 


Saunt aie Lenz tf. Arndtsen §. Becquerel |. Ae Rar 
Silver .... 100 74:5 74:5 71:3 71:6 
Copper .... 100 rire ea lore 70°8 70:3 
CTOl disc fs 100 84:9 5 iting 74:6 rage 
PAG sha a ‘ae 100 te sctpats 731 71:2 
Cadmium .. 100 Lbs bisa 71:2 70-7 
irons, « <: 100 «cee 68:3 67°9 61:2** 
SP dons 100 71:8 ee 61:8 70-1 
Platinum .. 100 nh te 75°4 84-3 
Lead;...... 100 71:4 72°6 69-7 70-4 
Antimony... 100 he 5 wate a: 705 
Arsenic.... 100 ee ayat4 eee 69:9 
Bismuth .. 100 as sais Be 70:7 


Now Lenz and Arndtsen experimented with commercially pure metals. 
Arndtsen remarks at the end of his paper, ‘‘ From the foregoing data it is 
very probable that the influence of temperature on the conducting-power of 
all metals in the state of absolute purity would be found to be in all cases 
the same.’”’ Becquerel, on the contrary, used pure metals for his experiments, 
but his method of observation was very indifferent. The results given in the 
last column were obtained by the employment of Kirchhoff’s arrangement of 
Wheatstone’s balance, as well as pure metals. On looking at the above, it 
is obvious that from the last series we may deduce the law that the conduct- 
ing-power of pure metals (iron excepted) decreases between 0° and 100° in 
the same degree ; whereas from the others the existence of the law is only 
problematical. 

The conclusions drawn from the research on the electric conducting- 
power of alloys were as follows :— 

That in respect to this property the metals may be divided into two classes. 

A. Those metals (lead, tin, zine, and cadmium) which when alloyed with 
each other conduct electricity in the ratio of their relative volumes. 

B. Those metals (bismuth, antimony, platinum, palladium, iron, aluminium, 
gold, copper, silver, and probably most of the other metals) which when 


* Phil. Trans. 1860. + Phil. Mag. Dec, 1859. 

t Pogg. Ann. vol. xxiv. p. 418, and vol. xlv. p. 105. § Pogg. Ann, vol. civ. p. 1. 
|| Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. (3) vol. xvii. p. 242. 

“| Phil. Trans. 1862, p. 1. ** Proc. Royal Soe. vol. xii. p. 472. 


ON THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF ALLOYS. 4] 


alloyed with one another, or with one of those belonging to Class A, do not 
conduct electricity in the ratio of their relative volumes, but always in a lower 
degree than that calculated from the mean of their volumes. In the above 
statement I have assumed the theoretical conducting-power of an alloy equal 
to that of the components, under the supposition that each of them is a separate 
wire, lying side by side, and soldered together at the ends. 

If we now look at the curves representing the conducting-power of the 
different series of alloys, we shall find that (see Plate V.)— 

I. Those belonging to the alloys made of the metals of Class A with one 
another are almost straight lines. As type the lead-tin curve is given. 

II. The curves of those made of the metals of Class A with those of Class B 
show a rapid decrement on the side beginning with the metal belonging to 
Class B, and then turning and going in a straight line to the other side, 
namely to the Class A metal. As type the tin-copper curve is given. 

III. The curves of those made of the metals of Class B with one another 
show a rapid decrement on both sides of the curve, and the turning-points 
connected with each other by nearly straight lines. As type the gold-silver 
curve is given. 

The curves, then, representing the conducting-powers of the alloys having, 
according to the class of metals of which they are made, almost always the 
same form, we may, if we know to which class the metals composing them 
belong, draw a curve which will approximately represent the conducting- 
power of a series of alloys. Of the exceptions to this rule I shall presently 
speak. 

Let us now examine the first group of alloys, and see what grounds there 
are for supposing that the solid alloys belonging to it are only solidified 
solutions of the one metal in the other. In order to do this, I shall show that 
they are neither mechanical mixtures (with exception of the lead-zinc alloys) 
nor chemical combinations. 

First. If they were mechanical mixtures, the metals composing them, if 
their specific gravities were not the same, would separate into two layers 
when fused and cooled slowly, as in the cases of the lead-zine alloys*; for 
when these two metals (say equal parts) are fused together and allowed to 
cool slowly, they separate into two layers, the upper one (zinc) containing 
1-2 per cent. lead, and the lower one (lead) with 1:6 per cent. zinc. Now if, 
instead of cooling the mixture slowly, it had been cooled rapidly, such an 
alloy might be regarded as a mechanical mixture of a solidified solution of 
lead in zine and zinc in lead, or if well mixed in a liquid state, such a 
mixture would be analogous to one of ether and water when shaken up well 
together, and not as one of lead and zine analogous to oil and water. 

A true mechanical mixture of two metals, either in the liquid or solid state, 
is I believe not known. 

That the alloys of lead and tin, for instance, are not mechanical mix- 
tures, is proved by their not separating into two layers on being slowly 
cooled after fusion ; for, if they were, they would behave like lead and zine, 
as tin and zinc have nearly the same specific gravities, that of tin being 7-293 
and that of zinc 7-148. 

2ndly. If these alloys were mechanical mixtures of the metals composing 
them, we should not be able to press homogeneous wires; now it has been 
proved that wires of the same alloy have the same conducting-power, whether 
tested at the end coming first or last out of the press, or whether pressed at 
different times. 

. * Matthiessen and y. Bose, Proc. Royal Soc. yol. xi. p. 430. 


42 ' REPORT—1868. 


That these alloys in the solid state are not chemical combinations is 
indicated, First, by their having the theoretical conducting-power, as well 
as the theoretical percentage decrement * in their conducting-power between 
0° and 100°C. ; for the following law has been found to hold good for all 
alloys of the first and third groups, as well as for a part of those belonging 
to the second: The observed percentage decrement im the conducting-power of 
an alloy between 0° and 100°C, ts to that calculated between 0° and 100° C, as 
the observed conducting-power at 100°C. is to that calculated at 100°C, 
Secondly. It may be urged that the solidifying point not always being the 
same as the point of fusion (for instance, in the lead-tin alloys), and the 
existence of the so-called stationary points, is a sign of chemical combination. 
They certainly do point to the probable existence of chemical combinations in 
the liquid alloy, but not in the solid. That chemical combinations may exist 
at high temperatures in a fused mass, which suffer decomposition on cooling 
or solidifying, becomes very probable from the following experiment :—When 
iron and excess of iodine are heated together in a stout glass tube, the iodine 
combines with the iron to form a compound, which decomposes with eyolu- 
tion of iodine on being cooled, the protiodide of iron remaining behindt. 
Wanklyn and Carius, who made the above observation, suppose that at the high 
temperature the periodide of iron is formed, and that, on cooling, this salt 
splits up into the protiodide of iron and free iodine. May we not assume that 
what has been shown to occur with iodine may also occur with other elements 
—oxygen, for instance, it forming with some bodies at high temperatures 
oxides which suffer decomposition with evolution of oxygen at lower. ones, 
This would then give us the explanation of the spitting of silver. Supposing, 
therefore, that chemical combinations can exist at high temperatures which 
suffer decomposition on cooling, we can then understand why some alloys 
fuse at one temperature and solidify at a lower one: for example, the tin-lead 
alloys, according to Pillichodyt, 


Sn,Pb. Sn;Pb. Sn, Pb. SnPb. SnPb,. SnPb,. Sn Pb, 


Fuse.... 187 181° 197 235 270 2838 998 
Soldify: 27182 181"! 181 aga eget int da nL 


who makes the following remarks on them :—‘‘ When the points of solidifica- 
tion are observed by immersing the thermometer in the melted alloy, it 
usually exhibits, during the passage of the mass from the liquid to the solid 
state, two stationary points. This effect is due to the separation of one or other 
of the component metals, while an alloy of constant composition still remains 
liquid. This alloy has the composition of Sn, Pb. An alloy richer in lead 
would first deposit lead, and an alloy containing a larger proportion of tin 
would first deposit tin,—the alloy Sn, Pb remaining liquid for a longer or 
shorter time, and ultimately solidifying at 181°. This temperature therefore 
corresponds to the lowest melting-point that can be exhibited by an alloy of 
tin and lead, a larger proportion of either metal causing the melting-point to 
rise.” 

These low fusing-points are no proof of the existence of chemical combina- 
tions in the solid alloy, but admit of explanation by assuming that chemical 
attraction between the two metals comes into play as soon as the temperature 
rises, and the moment the smallest portions melt, then the actual chemical 
compound is formed which fuses at the low temperature, and then acts as a 


* Matthiessen and Vogt, Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xii. p. 652. 
t Liebig’s Ann. vol. cxx. p. 69. ¢ Journ. Chem. Soe. vol. xy. p. 30. 


ON THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF ALLOYS, 43. 


solvent for the particles of metal next to it, and so promotes the combination 
of the metals where this can take place. When the alloy Sn Pb,, for instance, 
solidifies, it must not be strictly regarded as a homogeneous diffusion of tin 
and lead in one another, if Pillichody’s statement be correct (although it will 
not be far from it, as all the tin-lead alloys have the theoretical conducting- 
power), but rather as a homogeneous diffusion of tin and lead in one another 
from the formation of the alloy Sn, Pb, with the excess of lead mechanically 
diffused through the mass, as this, according to him, separates out before the 
alloy Sn, Pb solidifies. 

With respect to the chemical nature of these and other alloys in a liquid 
state little is known; it is, however, very necessary to draw a line between 
the solid and the liquid alloy, when speaking of their chemical constitution. 
No doubt the determination of the electric conducting-power of the liquid will 
throw much light on their chemical nature. The investigation of those 
where the so-called stationary points have been observed, and where the 
melting and solidifying points do not coincide, will be especially interesting. 
As yet, I believe, no such observations haye been made. 

Passing on now to the alloys of the second group, the question for consider- 
ation will naturally be, what is the cause of the rapid decrement in the 
conducting-power of Class B metals when alloyed with traces of one of the 
Class A metals (in the solid alloy) ? 

That it is not due to the formation of chemical combinations, is proved by 
the following :— 

I. At the turning-points of the curves representing the conducting-power 
of this group of alloys they contain only very small percentages of the Class A 
metal. Thus, at those of the alloys 

Percentage of 


IBisma th =ftTs cop ce RTRs tin 0:6 
Bismuth-lead!< So Masse lead 2:0 
Silver-tin. -'});. orbenateets - tin 2°6 


II. The great similarity of the curves of this group speaks greatly against 
the existence of chemical combinations in the solid alloy. The curves of the 
following series show this in a very marked degree :—the bismuth-lead, bis- 
muth-tin, copper-tin, copper-zinc, silver-lead, silver-tin. 

III, On examination of that part of the curve where the rapid decrement 
takes place, we find that it requires about twice as much lead as of tin to 
reduce the conducting-power of the Class B metal to the same extent: thus, 
to reduce that of silver to 67, it would require 0-9 vol. per cent. of lead, or 0-7 
per cent. of tin; and to reduce it to 47-6, 1-4 vol. per cent. lead, or 0-7 per 
cent. tin. Again, to reduce bismuth to 0-261, it would require 0-4 vol. per 
cent. lead, or 0-62 per cent. tin; and to reduce it to 0-255 with lead, or to 
0-245 with tin, it requires 1-76 vol. per cent. lead, or 0°85 per cent. tin *, 

From these facts we can hardlyassume that the rapid decrement in the curve of 
the Class B metal is due to the existence of chemical combination. The reason 
of this great decrement in the conducting-power might be looked for in the pro- 
cess of solidification, for it is well known what a great effect traces of foreign 
metals have on the crystalline structure of some metals, Cooke has, I think, 
stated that absolutely pure antimony crystallizes with great difficulty,—an ob- 
servation which I can corroborate ; for, when trying to obtain crystals of that 
metal for thermo-electric experiments, I found that the purer the antimony 
the smaller the crystals, in fact I could not obtain any for my purpose. 


* Phil. Trans. 1860, p. 171. 


4A REPORT—1863. 


Again, Mr. W. Baker (of Sheffield) informs me that just the converse takes 
place with lead; for the purer the lead the larger the crystals. Now, these 
facts being known, it seemed possible that in alloying some metals with traces 
of others, either the crystalline form of the alloy might be altered or the 
tendency to crystallize increased or decreased, and thus cause the great change 
in the conducting-power. This supposition is, however, proved wrong by the 
following experiments* :— 

I. If to melted tin traces of lead or bismuth be added, a decrement in the 
conducting-power is observed which increases with each successive addition of 
metal. 

II. If to melted lead traces of tin be added, an increment in the conducting- 
power is observed ; if, on the contrary, bismuth be added, a decrement. 

IIL. Ifto melted bismuth traces of tin or lead be added, a decrement ; but on 
further addition, an increment in the conducting-power will be observed. This 
behaviour corresponds with that of these metals in the solid state ; in fact, if 
the conducting-powers of a series of these alloys in a liquid state were deter- 
mined, the curve representing them would in all probability be similar to 
that of the alloys in a solid state. 

The explanation which I would offer of the cause of this behaviour is as 
follows :— 

Let it be assumed that the metals belonging to Class B, when they are 
alloyed either with one another or with one of Class A, undergo a change (in 
other words, are converted into an allotropic modification), and that this change 
is brought about by a small quantity of the other metal, the quantity of the 
metal required to complete the conversion being dependent on the metal em- 
ployed. With the help of this hypothesis, we are able to explain many of the 
phenomena which occur when making the alloys, as well as the reason of the 
marked change in most of the physical aig oa of some metals when alloyed 
with traces of another. 

A few examples will show this clearly. Take, for instance, the case of the 
zine-copper alloys, the curve representing the conducting-power of these 
alloys has the same form as those of the other alloys belonging to this group, 
and the percentage decrement in their conducting-power between 0° and 100° 
is exactly that which would have been deduced from the law which regulates 
this property. From these results it may be deduced that solid alloys of zine 
and copper are only solidified solutions of zinc and of an allotropic modifica- 
tion of copper in one another. 

Some experimenters have expressed their opinion that there exist chemical 
compounds in these alloys; and they base their supposition on the following 
facts :— 

I. When zinc is added to copper in the melted state, a great evolution of 
heat is observed. 

II. That some of the zinc-copper alloys crystallize more readily than others. 

Storer,in his paper? “On theCopper-zinc Alloys,” states, “It is awell-known 
fact that the combination of copper with zinc is attended with ebullition of 
considerable violence, so that portions of the melted mass are often thrown to 
a distance of several feet from the crucible. Yet it does not appear to have 
been previously noticed by chemists that this action is much more energetic 
while the first portions of zinc are being added to the copper, and that the 
loss of zinc by volatilization is far greater at this time than at any subsequent 
stage of the operation.” This fact may be explained by assuming that the specific 
heat of the allotropic modification of copper is less than that of copper in its 


* Matthiessen and Vogt, Phil. Mag., March 1862, 
+ Memoirs of the American Academy, vol. viii. p. 26. 


ON THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF ALLOYS. 45 


ordinary state; hence the great evolution on the addition of the first portions 
of zinc to the melted copper, for it only requires a small quantity of zine to 
convert copper into its allotropic modification. Person has already proved that 
heat is evolved when melted lead is added to melted bismuth, and he explains 
it by assuming that the specific heat of the alloy is less than that of the com- 
ponent metals. The great evolution of heat might possibly be an indication 
of the existence of chemical compounds in the liquid alloy ; but of this we 
have at present no data upon which we can go, as very little is known as to 
the behaviour of these alloys in a liquid state. 

Storer in the same paper* states, ‘“ Upon the assumption that the crystals 
of the alloys of copper and zinc belong to the regular system, as well as upon 
the fact that none of the crystals have been found to contain any larger 
quantity of the component metals than was contained in the remainder of the 
molten liquid from which they were separated, I have based my conclusion 
that the alloys of copper and zinc are isomorphous mixtures of the two metals ; 
on this hypothesis it is of course presumed that both copper and zine are 
capable of crystallizing in the regular system.” And, further on, “ Indeed 
these fibres, although described by Calvert and Johnson as prismatic crystals 
indicating that the alloy CuSn is a definite chemical compound, are evidently 
nothing more than a collection of octahedral crystals, similar to those which 
form the fibres of sublimed sal-ammoniac and of several metals.” 

This answer, respecting the existence of chemical compounds in these alloys, 
is sufficient to prove their non-existence, more especially when it has been 
shown, which I have already pointed out in this Report, that alloys of a de- 
finite crystalline form are not necessarily chemical compounds. 

Storer, as will be seen from the above, has arrived at nearly the same con- 
clusions with regard to the chemical nature of these alloys as I have done, 
the main difference being that he has not taken into consideration the marked 
change in most of the physical properties of copper when it is alloyed with 
traces of zinc. 

It has been shown that the action of reagents on these alloys is different to 
their action on the two metals in contact with one another, and that this 
is an indication of the existence of chemical compounds. By the above 
hypothesis, this behaviour may be explained by assuming that the action of 
reagents on the allotropic modification of copper is not the same as their action 
on ordinary copper; when, therefore, we try the action of different reagents 
on alloys, we cannot expect to find the same results as when experimenting 
on the metals unalloyed in contact with one another. Another reason for 
the different action of reagents on alloys and on the metals in contact with 
one another is, that in every case one metal is attacked more easily than the 
other, so that after a certain time the mass of the alloy becomes covered with 
a coating of the more difficultly soluble metal, whereby it is protected from 
the further action of the reagent (gold-assaying). 

What was said of the lead-zine alloys may also apply to those of bismuth- 
zine ; for when these metals are fused together, they do not mix with each 
other, but separate into two layers, the upper one (zinc) containing 2-4 per 
cent. bismuth, and the lower one (bismuth) with from 9 to 14 per cent. zine. 
Here then, again, we have another example of mechanical mixture ; for if these 
metals were mixed together in a liquid state, such a mixture would be one of 
a solution of the allotropic modification of bismuth in zinc, and one of zinc in 
the allotropic modification of bismuth ; or if the mixture were cooled rapidly, 
it would be a mechanical mixture of a solidified solution of the allotropic 


* Memoirs of the American Academy, vol. viii. p. 29. 


46 REPORT—1863. 


modification of bismuth in zine, and of zinc in the allotropic modification of 
bismuth. 

The above hypothesis explains also why bismuth, when alloyed in the 
liquid state, with traces of lead or tin shows a decrement, but on further 
addition an increment in the conducting-power ; for it may be assumed that 
the metals of Class B, when alloyed in the liquid state with traces of 
another, are also converted into an allotropic modification. This is an import- 
ant deduction ; for it shows that the hypothesis will hold good, not only for 
alloys in a solid, but also for alloys in a liquid state. Passing on to another 
series of alloys belonging to this group—namely, the tin-gold series,—it will 
be seen that the curve representing the conducting-power of these alloys has 
not the typical form of this group. If it be examined, it will be found that 
the causes of the irregularities are chemical combinations. Beginning at the 
tin side of it, we find a slow decrement in the conducting-power to the alloy 
Sn, Au, then a gradual increment to Sn, Au, and from this point a slow de- 
crement to SnAu,. Owing to the brittleness and infusibility of the alloys 
between Sn Au, and that containing 2°7 per cent. tin, no alloy within these 
limits could be pressed or drawn into wire. From the alloy containing 2°7 per 
cent. tin to pure gold, the curve becomes a straight line. 

That the alloys at these turning-points may be regarded as chemical 
combinations, is proved by the following facts (see Plate V.):— 


I. That these points represent alloys of definite chemical composition. 

II. That they represent alloys containing large percentages of each metal, 
Sn, Au containing 60 per cent., Sn, Au 37 per cent., and Sn Au, 13 per cent. 
tin. 

III. That the specific gravity of the alloy Sn, Au is almost equal to that 
calculated, whereas Sn, Au expands, and Sn Au, contracts more than any of 
the other tin-gold alloys experimented with. 

IV. That the percentage decrement in conducting-power of these alloys 
between 0° and 100° does not follow the before-mentioned law. 

VY. That tin and gold dissolve in one another with great readiness; for if 
to melted tin gold be added, it dissolves in the tin immediately, and evolves 
so much heat that it is necessary not to add too much at once for fear of 
losing the contents of the crucible. Copper, on the contrary, placed in melted 
tin, takes a long time to dissolve in it. Assuming that some of the solid gold- 
tin alloys are chemical compounds, we then have examples of solid alloys 
which are solidified solutions of a metal (tin) and a chemical compound 
(Sn, Au) in one another, represented by the part of the curve between pure 
tin and Sn, Au—or solidified solutions of two chemical combinations in one 
another (Sn, Au and Sn, Au), represented by that part of the curve between 
Sn, Au and Sn, Au, and between Sn, Au and Sn Au,. 

After what has been already stated, the third group of alloys will require 
yery little to be said with regard to their chemical nature; it is only 
necessary to point out that most of them are only solidified solutions of the 
allotropic modifications of the metals in one another. The curves repre- 
senting the conducting-power of the different series of alloys all have the 
typical form ; and the conducting-power decreases between 0° and 100° ac- 
cording to the theoretical amount. 

The alloys of copper-silver, however, form an exception ; for some of these 
alloys may be regarded as mechanical mixtures. According to Levol, when 
silver and copper are fused and well stirred together*, if allowed to cool 


* Journ. de Pharm. vol. xvii. p. 111. 


J3M Report British Assoc 1863. Plate B. 
te 


rad Volurnes per cont 


Vohanes per cant 


> > > 
= = Ps 
8. i Ss 
z = Hy 
3 i 3 5 
3 : 
H ; 3 3 
Tin) 
HOV head 
Volumes per cent Volumes per cent 
4 2 
a Vohunes percent. ’ Volumes percent. 


wand Begone 


Temod Binnie 


Volumes per cent. 


ON THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF ALLOYS. 47 


slowly, different parts of the alloy will be found to contain different percent- 
ages of metal. 

Having shown, by examples taken from different groups of alloys, how 
their chemical nature may be indicated by the determination of their con- 
ducting-power for electricity, I will proceed to classify the solid alloys com- 
posed of two metals, according to their chemical nature :— 

1. As solidified solutions of one metal in another, we have the lead-tin, 
cadmium-tan, zinc-tin, lead-cadmium, and zine-cadmium alloys. 

2. As solidified solutions of one metal in the allotropic modification of the 
other, the lead-bismuth, tin-bismuth, tin-copper, zinc-copper, lead-silver, 
and tin-silver alloys. 

3. As solidified solutions of the allotropic modification of metals in one 
another, the bismuth-gold, bismuth-silver, palladium-silver, platinum-silver, 
gold-copper, and gold-silver alloys. 

4, As chemical combinations, the alloys the composition of which is re- 
presented by Sn, Au, Sn, Au, and Au, Sn. 

5. As solidified solutions of chemical combinations in one another, the alloys 
whose composition lies between Sn, Au and Sn, Au, and Sn, Au and Au, Sn. 

6. As mechanical mixtures of solidified solutions of one metal in another, 
the alloys of lead and zinc when the mixture contains more than 1-2 per cent. 
lead or 1-6 per cent. zinc. 

7. As mechanical mixtures of solidified solutions of one metal in the allotropic 
modification of the other, the alloys of zinc and bismuth when the mixture 
contains more than 14 per cent. zinc or 2-4 per cent. bismuth. 

8, As mechanical mixtures of solidified solutions of the allotropic modifi- 
cations of the two metals in one another, most of the silver-copper alloys. 

With regard to the hypothesis which I have brought forward in this Report, 
I would point out that it serves to explain the phenomena which take place 
when some metals are alloyed with others. The assumption of the existence 
of the allotropic modifications of the metals explains the turning-points of the 
curves which represent alloys containing very small percentages of the one 
metal ; for at these points it is assumed that the conversion into the allotropic 
condition is complete, It must be borne in mind that most of the other phy- 
sical properties of the metals belonging to Class B are also altered in a marked 
degree by the addition of a small percentage of another metal: take, for 
instance, the case of gold or silver, and alloy them with traces of tin or lead, 
and how altered are the tenacity and ductility of the alloy so formed ! 

Until, however, the allotropic modifications have been isolated, the assump- 
tion made in this Report must remain an hypothesis. A fact may be mentioned 
in its support ; namely, sulphur:when heated to a temperature of 60°, and 
then cooled rapidly, is converted into an allotropie modification. Dietzenbach 
has observed that this conversion is brought about at 120° if ,1, of iodine be 
added to the sulphur, showing that the presence of a small quantity of iodine 
has a marked effect on the conversion of sulphur into an allotropic condition. 

It may be asked, How can we deduce the chemical nature of a series of 
alloys from the determination of a physical property such as their conducting- 
power for electricity? We reply, from this property taken alone it is impos- 
sible to draw any conclusion of the kind, but that since, in the case of those 
-alloys whose constitution is known by direct chemical and other evidence 
(silver-copper (Levol), zinc-copper (Storer), gold-silver), their conducting- 
_power is found to be such as their chemical constitution would lead us to ex- 
pect, this property may legitimately be taken in evidence as to the nature of 
those alloys which have not been examined chemically, and that in this respect 


48 REPORT—1863. 


the property in question stands exactly upon the same footing as other physical 
properties, such as specific volume, specific heat, isomorphism, &c., which do 
not directly indicate anything with regard to the chemical properties of 
bodies, but which, after having been found to bear a relation in very many 
cases to those properties, are safely taken as guides in drawing conclusions as 
to the nature of bodies whose chemical character is as yet unknown. 


On the Chemical and Mineralogical Constitution of the Granites of 
Donegal, and of the Rocks associated with them. 


By a Committee consisting of Robert H. Scott, Sir R. Griffith, Bart., and the 
Rev. 8S. Haughton, M.D., F.R.S8., appointed at the Manchester Meeting, 
1861. 


Tue county of Donegal consists to a great extent of metamorphic rocks, 
However, in its southern portion there is a district in which strata belonging 
to the Carboniferous period are found. The granites of the county, which 
are the main subject of this report, are found in several localities. The most 
extensive appearance of rocks of this nature is in a tract whose longer dia- 
meter is about 30 miles in length, and coincides nearly exactly with the axis 
of the valleys of Gweebarra and Glenveagh, which traverses the county in a 
direction from N.E. to S.W. In Glenveagh the granitic district is confined 
to the valley itself, and is flanked on each side by other rocks ; but as soon as 
we reach the head of that glen, we find that the granite extends over the 
whole country to the westward, and forms almost the entire coast from 
Bloody Foreland to the mouth of the Gweebarra River. 

Closely connected with this tract of granite are the isolated patches of the 
same rock which are found at several points, such as Ardara, Urrismenagh 
(near Dunaff Head), and Ardmalin—all of them situated nearly along the line 
of the great valleys before mentioned. Granite also appears in small quantity 
in Fanad and Rossguill, and on the south coast of Arranmore Island. The 
granite of the Bluestack and Barnesmore Mountains, in the 8.E. of the county, 
is very dissimilar in its appearance to that of the western district ; and although 
they may be generalized in a map sufficiently under a common designation, yet, 
from internal evidence, we are not disposed to consider them to be connected 
with each other. 

The other rocks which occur in the district which comes under our notice 
are gneiss, mica slate, quartz-rock, grit, crystalline limestone, and a variety 
of syenitic* rocks, which do not differ much from each other in chemical 
constitution, although they are very dissimilar in texture. The true gneiss 
(as distinguished from gneissose granite) and the mica siate are found chiefly 
in the south of the county. 

Before we proceed to discuss the chemical composition of the granites, it 
may be well to give a sketch of the geological features of the district, as 
observed during the several tours made by the members of the Committee in 
pursuit of this investigation. On one of these Mr. Jukes, Local Director of 
the Irish Geological Survey, was kind enough to accompany us and give us the 
benefit of his valuable assistance and experience of similar rocks in New- 
foundland. 

* The term syenite is used for any coarsely crystalline rock containing, as its most im- 


portant constituent, a hornblendic mineral, associated with a feldspar, and occasionally 
with quartz or mica, or both, Some analyses of these rocks are given in Table YI. p. 62. 


ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE GRANITES OF DONEGAL. 49 


We shall commence the description of the county with an account of the 
rocks observed in Innishowen, and proceed in a 8.W. direction from that 
barony. In the north of Innishowen the rocks consist of grits, crystalline 
limestones, mica-slate, and a variety of igneous rocks (greenstones and 
syenites). The whole of these rocks are contorted considerably about Culdaff, 
and from that to Malin Head they exhibit a consecutive section, of which the 
dips increase as you go westward, the beds being nearly horizontal at Culdaff 
and along the shore towards Glengad Head. 

The grits of this part of the county are true grits, not having been suffi- 
ciently metamorphosed to form quartzites until we reach a more westerly 
point. There are a few beds of potstone and soapstone scattered through 
the argillite beds, but they are not of so much importance as those found at 
Convoy, Crohy Head, and in other parts of the county. 

There is also found in the mica-slate a series of beds of chalcedonic 
conglomerate, which is very characteristic of this district. Of this conglo- 
merate the cement is micaceous, and the pebbles are mainly siliceous (of the 
chalcedonic variety), but consist also of feldspar and of portions of the mica- 
slate itself. Similar conglomerates to these are described by Mr. MacFarlane* 
as a characteristic feature of the Huronian Series of Canada, and of their 
Norwegian equivalents, called by Naumann the Tellemarken Quartz-formation, 
from the district of that name in the south of Norway. Keilhauf says of 
them, that they occur in repeated alternations with hornblende rock; the 
cement is micaceous, and the pebbles sometimes feldspathic, sometimes 
quartzose, and sometimes of still more varied natures. In some places, he 
says, the concretions are apparently imbedded fragments of the rock itself, 
as if it had been broken up and the pieces had been irregularly joined 
together. 

A description of conglomerates similar to these is to be found in the Reports 
of the Geological Survey of Canada; and we are of opinion that similar conglo- 
merates have been discovered by two of our number in Scotland, viz. by Sir R. 
Griffith at Anie, not far from Callander, and by Professor Haughton at the 
summit-level of the Crinan Canal. 

It is very remarkable that the igneous rocks, which, as has been said before, 
are very abundant in the county, are undoubtedly cotemporaneous with the 
sedimentary rocks of Innishowen. This fact is observable along the coast, 
but it is noticeable in the most striking manner between Buncrana and Carn- 
donagh, about five miles from the former place, the whole of the hills lying 
between Slieve Snaght and the Raghtin Mountains being composed of 
alternating beds of quartz-rock and syenite, dipping at a low angle to the 
eastward. This is beautifully exhibited in the mountain of Binmore, lying 
in the district of the Barr of Inch, close to the Mintiagh Lakes. This hill 
with the mountain Bulbin are terraced like the trap hills of Antrim; but on 
a close examination it is found that, although the whole face of the rock 
appears to be columnar, it consists of alternate beds of quartz-rock and 
syenite, as before described. The columnar structure of the former is due to 
the simultaneous development in it of three series of joints inclined to each 
other at angles approaching those of a regular hexagon. These joints are all 


* We should here express our acknowledgments for the assistance we have derived 
from Sir W. Logan’s and Dr. T. Sterry Hunt’s “ Report on the Rocks of Canada,” now 
in process of publication by the Geological Survey of that country; and from Mr. Mac- 
Farlane’s two papers “On the Primitive Formations in Norway and Canada,” ‘ Canadian 
Naturalist and Geologist’ for 1862. 

+ Grea Norvegica, pp. 430, 432. 

1863, E 


50 REPORT—1863. 


of them traceable in other parts of the county, but it is only here that hey 
assume a development of such importance. 

On passing west from Buncrana towards Dunaff Head, through the gap of 
Mamore, it is found that, as we approach the granite at Urrismenagh, the 
dip of the beds increases from 45° to nearly absolute verticality. The granite 
of Urrismenagh does not present many features of interest, as the rocks in 
immediate contact with it are quartzose, and therefore unlikely to yield 
accidental minerals. 

The rocks lying between Rathmullen and Milford are similar to those 
which have been already described as occurring in Innishowen; however, 
the granite of Kindrum in Fanad deserves a special notice, as it is somewhat 
remarkable in its character, resembling the variety which is found at Ardara 
and also in the island of Arranmore, as will be noted hereafter. It is, in 
general, white, and contains a large quantity of black mica and of sphene ; 
but there is a considerable quantity of a reddish granite found disseminated 
through it. The nature of this granite differs materially from that of the 
typical granite of the central valley. It is a remarkable fact, that all the 
localities in which this white ‘‘sphene-granite ” (as we call it, from the great 
abundance of that mineral in it) occurs are situated at a distance from the 
central granitic area. 

At Glen, which is situated close to the head of Sheephaven, and at the 
northern extremity of the lake of that name, the central granite ends rather 
abruptly ; it is flanked on the east side by a very peculiar, highly micaceous 
gneiss, called in the district “black granite.” Of this rock there are two 
varieties, one of which contains a reddish feldspar, the other a grey one, this 
latter exhibiting the strie of an anorthic feldspar. The granite itself is very 
similar in its appearance to that which occurs near Doocharry Bridge in the 
Guibarra valley, and is characterized by the presence of the two feldspars, 
orthoclase and oligoclase, the orthoclase being of a flesh-red colour. 

Close to Glen, at Lackagh Bridge, on the road to Creeshlagh, we meet with 
a very remarkable illustration of the nature and relations of the rocks 
throughout the whole county. A series of quartzites and hornblende slates 
are met with, the latter passing gradually into syenites. Their strike is 
E. 5° N., and their bedding vertical. They are traversed, along the strike, 
by a series of veins of granite, which rarely cross a bed, but still preserve the 
character of veins, not of beds, as they are decidedly not lenticular. 

Appearances precisely similar to this have been observed at Toberkeen, 
and at Stackamore, about half a mile north of Leabgarrowin Arranmore. The 
bearing of this fact on the geology of the county will be again referred to. 

The chief point noticeable about the neighbourhood of Dunfanaghy is the 
extreme development of a highly crystalline syenite, containing a large 
proportion of titaniferous magnetic iron. The octahedral crystals of this 
mineral are very noticeable on the weathered surface of the rock. The best 
specimens are obtainable close to M‘Swyne’s Gun, at Horn Head. The mag- 
netite also occurs in a rock composed mainly of black mica—an occurrence 
very similar to that which it has in some parts of Norway. 

The quartz-rock of Horn Head is highly characteristic, being eminently 
flaggy in its nature, and splitting into long fluted blocks resembling Sigillarie 
at first sight. This variety of the rock contains a considerable quantity of 
feldspar disseminated through it in grains, as if ina porphyry. The same 
sort of rock is found also at Crohy Head. There is another variety of quartz- 
rock, which contains mica in large quantity as extraneous element, and is 
found to occur extensively in Arranmore. These two varieties of quartz-rock 


ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE GRANITES OF DONEGAL, 51 


have been noticed as occurring both in Norway and in Canada. In the former 
locality Keilhau especially refers to the feldspathic variety as being easily 
disintegrable into sand. It is a remarkable confirmation of this, that on the 
flat summit of Muckish Mountain, which is itself composed of this quartz- 
rock, there is a very large deposit of siliceous sand in a condition of nearly 
absolute chemical purity. 

The other variety is mentioned in the Report of the Geological Survey of 
Canada before referred to, in the following words :—*The quartzites have some- 
times the aspect of sandstones, and at other times lose their granular texture 
and become a vitreous quartz. Not unfrequently the quartzite is thin-bedded 
and even schistose in its structure; and it sometimes holds a little mica, 
passing into a variety of mica-schist.” In Mr. MacFarlane’s paper, he alludes 
to both varieties as occurring in Norway. 

There is found throughout the county a considerable quantity of highly 
crystalline metamorphic limestone, which is usually of a bluish colour. No 
traces of fossils have as yet been discovered in it, although at one locality, 
Culdaff, concretions have been found which have been supposed by some 
persons to be the half-obliterated remains of corals. We do not see any 
reason for attributing an organic origin to them. The limestone-beds which 
occur in immediate proximity to the granite, but not in actual contact with 
it, are converted into white marble. Those which are found in contact with 
the granite have undergone a further alteration, several minerals having been 
generated in them. Among these we may mention garnet, idocrase, epidote, 
tremolite, &c. 

Tn almost all the localities where the limestone occurs in the granite, we 
find, in immediate contact with the limestone, a rovk which we have termed 
“‘sphene-rock,” as it is characterized by the great abundance of that mineral, 
It consists of orthoclase, green pyroxene, and quartz; and in it we have 
discovered minute crystals of blue apatite, and in one locality (Glenleheen) a 
great abundance of white scapolite. 

Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, on seeing our sphene-rock, recognized it at once as an 
old friend. He says of it, «‘ Associated with the Laurentian limestones, there 
are frequently found beds of a coarse-grained rock made up of white feldspar 
and dark-green pyroxene with brown sphene, and occasionally with quartz. 
The feldspar is found to be orthoclase.” The rock is also well known to the 
quarrymen in Canada as the next bed to the limestone. 

Although this seems to point to a certain similarity between the limestones 
of Donegal and those of the Laurentian rocks of Canada, we should say that 
we have not been able to discover any deposits of either apatite or graphite in 
appreciable quantity. These minerals are stated to accompany the Laurentian 
limestones, and to be an important feature in the rocks belonging to that series. 

In order to examine the granite more thoroughly, we have crossed it several 
times, and have found the results of all the sections to be nearly identical. 
The granite is, in general, fine-grained ; but there is one important district to 
which this statement will not apply, viz. that on the west coast, which 
comprises Dunglow, Annagary, and Arranmore Island. In this part of the 
county the rock is coarsely crystallized; and it is a remarkable fact that the 
same district is further characterized by the appearance in it of a series of 
joint-planes, which do not coincide with those observed in other parts of the 
county. Attention has already been drawn to this fact by Professor Haughton, 
in a paper in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, vol, 
xviii. p. 405. 

In the very heart of its area, the granite, judging from hand-specimens, is 

E2 


52 REPORT—1863. 


true granite ; but when seen in the field, it is found to be stratified, the strike 
of the beds agreeing with that of the uncontorted sedimentary strata of the 
country, and the dip being nearly constant in amount, and uniformly to the 
eastward. In addition to these granitic beds there are numerous others 
(which become more abundant as you approach the edge of the district) which 
would be pronounced gneiss even from an examination of hand-specimens. 
This fact, which has been abundantly confirmed by observations in various 
localities, places the gneissose character of the rock, as a whole, beyond a 
doubt. The gneiss on the eastern cdge of the granite, especially near 
Fintown and near Trawenagh Bay, is remarkable for the extraordinary 
development of crystallized orthoclase, of a red colour, which is to be seen in 
it, giving it an appearance very similar to that of the feldspar-veins at Castle 
Caldwell, which will be mentioned further on. 

As a further illustration of the gneissose character of the granite, we may 
draw attention to the fact that, in numerous localities, portions of highly 
contorted gneiss are found actually within the granite. ‘his is the case at 
Bunbeg, Lough Anure, Annagary, at the head of Glenveagh, above Gartan 
Abbey, at Toberkeen, Lough Pollrory, near Trawenagh Bay, Glenleheen, and 
near Lough Errig. These fragments of gneiss are sometimes of slight extent ; 
sometimes, as at Lough Errig, they extend for 40 or 50 yards. Such an 
appearance as this is usually accompanied by the presence in the granite of 
highly crystalline limestones. . These occur at the head of Glenyeagh, again 
under Altahostia, halfway down the lake, at Glenveagh Bridge, and at the 
Gap of Barmesbeg. At Glenleheen we found that the limestone occurred in 
four distinct beds, possessing a strike of E. 5° N., which is coincident with that 
obtained from the rocks at Lackagh Bridge. The appearance in each locality 
is not absolutely continuous ; but their identity of strike in different localities 
points to the existence of four distinct parallel beds. The three deposits of 
limestone in Glenveagh probably belong to the same bed, of which the con- 
tinuity has been interrupted. 

It is worthy of notice that this occurrence of non-granitie rocks in the 
granite is not strictly confined to the district where the texture of the rock is 
most decidedly gneissose, as in some of the localities (such as Toberkeen, 
Annagary, and Lough Anure) the limestone is found in contact with very 
coarse-grained granite. However, in this district there is ajseries of small 
patches of limestone extending in a curved line from Bunbeg towards Crohy 
Head and apparently bounding the district of Dunglow, in which the coarse- 
grained granite occurs. 

In illustration of this relation of the rocks to each other I may again quote 
Mr. MacFarlane, who says, after giving a synopsis of the rocks to be met 
with in the Primitive Gneiss of Norway, which he compares to the Laurentian 
Series of Canada :— 

‘«« As to the mode in which these rocks are associated with each other, the 
whole of them are arranged in parallel layers or zones, side by side, under- 
lying or else overlying each other. Hitherto no regular succession of rocks 
has been marked; they appear to be interstratified with each other without 
rule. The granitic masses are partly conformable with the parallel masses of 
the schistose rocks, and partly occur irregularly. It has been remarked that, 
when the granite becomes more or less gneissoid, its masses are regularly 
interstratified with the other schistose rocks; but where the granite is totally 
free from all traces of gneissoid texture, the form in which it occurs deviates 
more or less from that of layers or beds. A remarkable instance of this is 
described by Keilhau as occurring near Norefield*, There he saw a mass of 


ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE GRANITES OF DONEGAL. 53 


granite, which on the whole was gneissoid and bedded, gradually change at.a 
certain place into a perfect granite, and then, in complete uninterrupted 
continuity, pierce the rock in the form of a dyke. Another instance is men- 
tioned of a granite rock occurring in the schistose rocks ‘ partly in very regular 
layers, partly as isolated knolls and lumps, and partly as a multitude of veins, 
which in several places run through large portions of the neighbouring moun- 
tains as a close network.’ In spite of this, however, this granitic rock showed, 
in many places, a gneissoid structure. The relations of the hornblende schists 
and greenstones resemble those of the granite. The hornblende schist is 
regularly interstratified with the gneiss, mica-schist, and other rocks.” 

We have been induced to make this long quotation, owing to the great 
analogy which it shows to exist between the district which comes under our 
notice and the Scandinavian peninsula. We have learnt from Mr. Jukes 
that he has observed similar phenomena on the coast of Newfoundland ; .and 
they were observed and noticed by Sir R. Griffith upwards of twenty years 
ago, when he was examining the county of Donegal for the purpose of pub- 
lishing his Geological Map. 

The fact that in Donegal this gneissose granite is apparently intrusive in 
many places is abundantly proved by the occurrence of granite dykes cutting 
across the limestone at Drumnaha Gap, near Fintown, and in Dunlewy 
marble-quarry. It appears also in a striking manner at Pollnacally, near 
Trawenagh Bay, where the granite is intrusive into quartz-rock, and sends 
veins into hornblende-rock ; and also at several localities on the south shore 
of Arranmore Island. 

Among the argillaceous beds which lie near the granite are found several 
of anthophyllite slate, which pass gradually into soapstone and potstone, as at 
Crohy Head, Gartan Abbey, Convoy, and elsewhere. At Crohy they are 
associated with a mass of light-green serpentine, which unfortunately does 
not occur in a sufficiently massive condition to be available for commercial 
purposes. The soapstone too is rendered impure by the presence of iron 
pyrites, to such an extent that its utility as a lubricating agent is seriously 
impaired, 

Arranmore Island consists mainly of quartz-rock of the micaceous variety, 
with interstratified and intrusive igneous rocks. At the S.E. corner of the 
island, from Leabgarrow to the chapel at Ilion, we find a coarse-grained red 
granite, which takes a fine polish, and is remarkably free from joints. One 
block, measuring superficially 90 x 20 feet, is exposed on the sea-shore. 
Between this point and Torboy at the S.W. corner of the island, a considerable 
portion of the coast is formed of white sphene granite, like that at Ardara, 
At Tordhu it contains some syenite and gneiss, the whole forming in places 
a network of veins, as was so well described by Keilhau in the quotation we 
have already made from ‘ Gea Norvegica.’ 

This granite, as well as the other rocks of the island, and the granite near 
Dunglow, is penetrated by numerous dykes, some of ordinary trap, others of 
amygdaloidal pitchstone, and some of felstone-porphyry. 

In the 8.W. part of the county, extending down to Teelin Head, we meet 
with mica-slate, abounding with iron-pyrites. Through this rock, especially 
in the neighbourhood of Ardara, there is disseminated a large quantity of 
syenite passing into hornblende rock. 

The granite of Bluestack and Barnesmore, as has been said before, differs 
in its character from that of the Gweebarra Valley, as it appears to consist of 
red orthoclase and quartz, with very little mica. It is traversed by numerous 


* Gea Norvegica, p. 367. t Ibid. p. 348. 


54 REPORT—1863. 


dykes of pitchstone, some of which are amygdaloidal, and also by veins of 
amethyst and of smoky quartz, the latter in very large crystals. No lime- 
stone has as yet been found in contact with it, nor have we been able to detect 
any non-granitic rocks within its area. 

The district to the S.E. of the town of Donegal, extending to the shore of 
Lough Erne, near Belleek, and comprising part of the county Fermanagh, con- 
sists of a gneiss which is different in texture from that of other parts of the 
county. Along its northern edge we find mica-slate, abounding with large gar- 
nets, kyanite, schorl, and in some places sphene. In another locality, Agha- 
doey, we find dark-green serpentine with garnet rock ; and the whole district 
is penetrated by numerous veins of granite referable to two distinct types :— 

A. Veins containing quartz, pink orthoclase, white mica, black mica, and 

schorl, Crystals large. 

B. Veins containing quartz, pink orthoclase, yellowish-green oligoclase, 

black mica, with garnets, molybdenite, and copper pyrites. Crystals 

. moderately large. 

As regards the probable age of the Donegal metamorphic strata, the Com- 
mittee do not wish to bring forward any statements in this Report, as we are 
of opinion that the district is too limited in extent for any safe reasoning of 
this nature to be based on its examination. It appears certain that rocks of 
the same nature occur in part of Connaught and in the west of Scotland; 
and it is to be hoped that the labours of the Irish Geological Survey in the 
one case, and of the Scotch Survey in the other, will put us in possession of 
data which they alone are in a position to ascertain, and which will finally 
determine the relation of these strata to the overlying fossiliferous rocks. 

Before we conclude this portion of our Report, we are bound to express the 
obligations of the Committee to William Harte, Esq., C.E., the county sur- 
veyor of the western district of the co. Donegal, who has been indefatigable 
in his exertions in aid of the researches which haye been carried on ; and also 
to J. Vandeleur Stewart, Esq., D.L., of Rock Hill, near Letterkenny, and to the 
Rey. Frederick Corfield, of Templecrone, from both of whom the Committee 
have derived valuable assistance. 


Chemical Constitution of the Granites. 


In investigating the chemical constitution of the granites of Donegal, we 
have analyzed fifteen specimens of granitic rocks from that county, and, in 
addition to these, we are enabled to lay before the Association the analyses 
(Nos. XVI., XVIL., Table V.) of two specimens selected from a series of Scotch 
granites, for which we are indebted to the kindness of Sir R, I. Murchison. 
These specimens were selected in consequence of their close resemblance to 
some of those which we findin Ireland. We have further analyzed some of the 
syenites, and seyeral specimens of the simple minerals found in the granites 
and the other rocks. . 

The result of most of these analyses have already been published in the course 
of last year by one of our number, Prof. Haughton, in the ‘ Quarterly Journal 
of the Geological Society of London’ (vol. xviii. p. 403), as a portion of his 
«« Experimental Researches on the Granites of Ireland.” We shall first speak 
of the individual minerals, then give the analyses of the rock-masses, and 
finally give the results of the mathematical investigation of the mineralogical 
constitution of the granites. ; 


Minerals of the Granite of Donegal. 


The minerals of the granite of Donegal may be divided into Constituent 
-and Accidental Minerals. 


ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE GRANITES OF DONEGAL, 55 


The Constituent Minerals (A) are— 


1. Quartz. 3. Oligoclase. 5. White Mica. 
2. Orthoclase. 4, Black Mica. 6. Hornblende (sometimes). 


Of these the first four are always present, and easily distinguishable from 
each other ; the fifth mineral, white mica, is found locally abundant, particu- 
larly in veins, associated with special accidental minerals; and the sixth 
mineral, hornblende, is found intimately mixed with black mica [as in lepi- 
domelane, Soltmann] in the more basic varieties of the granite. 
The Accidental Minerals (B) are— 

1, Sphene. 3. Beryl. 5, Molybdenite. 

2. Schorl. 4, Garnet. 6, Copper pyrites. 
Of these latter we may say that sphene is the most characteristic, as it is 
found throughout the county. It also occurs in considerable quantity in the 
granite of Galway, which resembles that of Donegal in many respects, 


A. Constituent Minerals. 

1. Quartz —The quartz entering into the composition of the granite is of 
the usual grey yariety; when found in yeins, it sometimes forms fine black 
erystals, as at Brown’s Hill, Barnesmore, and sometimes smaller crystals of a 
rose-colour, as at; Barnesmore and Sheskina-roan, sometimes of amethyst, as 
in Tawnawully Mountain. 

2. Orthoclase—The orthoclase of the Donegal granite is generally red, but 
sometimes white: the following analyses show its composition ;— 


Taste I.—Orthoclase of the Donegal Granite. 


2 3. 

“ty Th eee 62:80 63-60 — 
PAMEDTINATA GS po Sicte av aee «so 16°84 19-32 
Tron (peroxide)* 0-96 0:80 
Wie. 4 ee eee 4:95 0:72 
Magnesia ........,. 0-11 0-14 
SOO GO. 5 a Ria a 6-46 1:84 
IBataSliNe aio 4508 AUS. OY 14:91 13°55 

Totals........ 101-03 “| 99:97 — 


No. 1. Glenveagh.—White, opaque, milky, forming crystals in the granite. 

No. 2. Croaghonagh, near Lough Mourne, above Barnesmore Gap.—Found in 
great bunches, isolated, in the middle of a very close-grained mica- 
schist, or gneiss of yery fine grain. The feldspar is bright red, and 
associated with milky quartz, containing specular micaceous iron- 
oxide and chlorite. The diameters of some of the bunches are 5 ft, 
They are probably the terminations of veins 2 ft. wide, ending in 
carbonas in the gneiss, and haye all the appearance of having been 
filled by aqueous action at a high temperature. 

No. 3, Castlecaldwell_—Found associated with white mica, quartz, black mica, 
and oceasionally schorl and iron-pyrites, in veins penetrating the 
fine-grained gneiss of the district. The feldspar of these veins is 
worked for the manufacture of china, and burns white, although 
pink and red in the vein, 


* Tn all cases the determination of the protoxide of iron, if present, has been effected by 
Margueritte’s method, 


56 REPORT—1868. 


3. Oligoclase.—The oligoclase of Donegal is of a honey-waxy-greenish 
grey colour, and is easily distinguished from the orthoclase which accompanies 
it by its colour and by the fine striated lines that mark certain of its sur- 
faces of crystallization, and prove it to be an anorthic feldspar. The following 
analyses give its composition :— 


Taste II.—Donegal Oligoclase. 


NO: a's No. 2. No. 3. 
BHHOa. hay ee SE Wes 60°56 59-28 62:40 
Aluntina’ se Ve 24-40 22-96 23-60 
Tron (peroxide) ...... 0-40 1:94 ; 
dame |; aoe hl eh ot 5:96 4:65 5°62 
Maonesia fetes fingers 0-04 0-21 0-08 
Soda (0, salersettaccs «© 6°46 6:48 7:04 
Potdslt iy teers 1:76 2:38 1-66 
Iron (protoxide)...... a Ane 0:10 
Manganese (protoxide) o. 3% 0°32 


99-58 98°32 100-40 


No. 1. Garvary Wood, near Castlecaldwell, Co. Fermanagh.—Pearl-grey, 
translucent; in veins in gneiss; associated with black mica, some 
orthoclase (pink), copper-pyrites, and molybdenite. 

No. 2. Precise locality wnknown.—The specimen from which it was taken 
belongs to that variety of granitic syenite into which the granite of 
Donegal sometimes passes, as at the Black Gap, Pettigo. 

No. 3. Knader, near Ballyshannon.—This analysis has been made by Pro- 
fessor Apjohn, and was communicated by him to the authors. The 
specimen is more opaque than that from Garvary, and of a lighter 
colour. 

4, Black Mica.—Black mica forms in Donegal, as in the Mourne Moun- 
tains, a constant and important constituent of the granite; it is always 
present, and becomes green when decomposition sets in. 

The following analyses show its chemical composition :— 


Taste III.—Black Mica of Donegal. 


No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. 

Sie More eae 36:16 36:20 44-40 31:60 

ee aS 19-40 15-95 21:52 19°68 

Iron (peroxide) ...... 26°31 27:19 10°72 23°35 
Dae ae on Gee es 0:58 0:50 2:70 0:45 
Masoneaia OP 4:29 5:00 6:14 7:03 
Oda \, Ask eee eee 0:48 0-16 0-74 0-74 
Potash...) sae te 9:00 8°65 6:18 3:90 
Iron (protoxide)...... 0°62 0:64 3°96 4:04 
Manganese (protoxide) 0-40 1:50 1:28 1:20 
Loss by ignition...... 2-40 3°90 1:20 8-68 


Totals: . cee 99-64 99°69 98°84 100-67 


ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE GRANITES OF DONEGAL. 57 


No. 1. Glenveagh.—Occurs in coarse gneiss, containing also orthoclase and 
oligoclase. 

No. 2. Ballygihen.—Occurs in granite, in 3-inch plates, } inch in thickness. 

No. 3. Garvary Wood.—Associated with oligoclase, orthoclase, and molyb- 
denite, in veins in gneiss. 

No. 4. Castlecaldwell_—Associated with orthoclase and schorl in veins in 
eneiss. This mica is green, and is obviously the black mica much 
decomposed. 


The differences between these analyses are very great, and it is evident 
that No. 4 is decomposing; it therefore cannot be considered as a fair spe- 
cimen of the mineral. As to the discrepancies between the other three 
analyses, we find that Rammelsberg (‘ Mineralchemie,’ 1860, p. 668) gives, in 
his list of magnesia-micas, minerals in which the amount of magnesia ranges 
from 3 to 30 per cent. For the purposes of the future investigation of the 
mineralogical composition of the granites, we shall take the mean of the two 
analyses Nos. 1 and 2, each of which represents the constitution of a mica 
taken from the central granitic area in Glenveagh and its vicinity. 

5. White Mica—This mineral, although not a constituent mineral of the 
granite of Donegal, occurs frequently in veins, and is always associated with 
orthoclase, sometimes with schorl and beryl. It is biaxial, and resembles 
the margarodite of Leinster already described (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond. 
vol. xii. p. 171). 

The following analyses show its composition :— 


Tasre [V.— White Mica of Donegal. 
| No.1. | No.2. 


MEIC. 505429 wider 44:80 45:24 
MAAS AS. SE 29°76 35°64 
Tron (peroxide) ...... 8:80 2:24 
Barner. 6. 6 os 0°45 0-51 
Warnesia 60... 900% 0-71 0-71 
Oe ee 0-32 0-54 
LL) er ee, 2 12°44 10°44 
Tron (protoxide)......) ...... 0-70 
Manganese (protoxide) 0:48 0-24 
Loss by ignition...... 2:00 4:00 

Totals,.....+. 99-76 - | 100-26 


No. 1. Castlecaldwell.—Found in veins of quartz and pink orthoclase, 
containing schorl and decomposing plates of black mica. Biaxial 
(72° 20’). Angle of plate=125°. 

No, 2. Near Ballygihen, in Dooish Mountain.—In veins in the granite, not 
associated with black mica; in plates 2 inch wide, 1 inch thick. 
Biaxial (62° 10’ to 65° 10’). Angle of plate=120°. 


6. Hornblende—The granite of Donegal varies much in texture and 
appearance, as might be expected from its gneissose character. It occasion- 
ally passes into a granitic syenite, composed of hornblende, oligoclase, and a 
little quartz and sphene. The composition of the feldspar of this rock has 
been already given; that of its hornblende is as follows :— 


58 ; REPORT—1863. 


Hornblende of Donegal Granitic Syenite. 


1 TG? gee hol aa A i a Aa 47:25 
2. STE eae ce ea a leis MORALE ac 5°65 
run permempye. oe... te eee 19°11 
remo r e  ss spi oy See Ley 
MBE BOUIN Oe Ses sak ss oa ee 11°26 
MAGE. Soke ner se tee ses eee 0-98 
Potash yr. ccstoebis ate o Rites ik eke 1:04 
Tron (pretomide os iitsicas vase des 0-94 
Manganese (protoxide) ...,....,. ingame bio 
99°69 


B. Accidental Minerals. 


1. Sphene.—This mineral is very like the clove-brown sphene of Norway : 
it is found in the granite, when the latter becomes basic, containing much 
black mica and oligoclase; but it is principally found in a rock formed of a 
paste of quartz and feldspar, that often lies between the granite and limestone 
of the metamorphic rocks of Donegal. This is especially observable at An- 
nagary and Barnesbeg, where this rock is so abundant as to become entitled 
to the name of sphene-rock; and it cannot be distinguished from similar 
rocks from Norway. 

2. Schorl—This mineral accompanies orthoclase in veins, and is often 
curved and cracked, showing the wider openings of the fissures next the 
convex side, and filled with quartz, as if the curvature of the schorl and the 
filling of its fissures with quartz were the result of an action that took place 
after the deposition of the mineral. 

3. Beryl.—The only known locality for beryl in Donegal is Sheskina- 
roan, near Dunglow. It is green, with occasionally a shade of blue, and 
occurs both in reefs of quartz traversing the granite along its leading joints 
and also in the granite itself, which, in this case, becomes very quartzose, and 
its black mica disappears, giving place to fine rhombs of margarodite. 

The beryl of Donegal has neyer, so far as we know, been analyzed—a cir- 
cumstance which may give some additional value to the following analysis :— 


Beryl, from Sheskina-roan, Co, Donegal. Sp. gr.=2-686. 


Babe ee Se Oe Wn ike 65:52 
Alumina ..... A): Sls. Geer ha 17°22 
pgs... 4.5. MH Ross «lye sas Vee 13:74 
Ayan BPA EN A hoists Moma teyrteion 1:53 
Dee GGL. 3.2). NERO Ricks: dco ncetehe 0:43 
BCT cTe TE te Gan ce ee et 0-13 
Gh 2) eae te eee ame? ear ;. » 0:80 

99-47 


4. Garnet.—This mineral, in bright ruby-coloured crystals, is found in the 
granite of Glenties, Annagary, and other localities. Form dodecahedral. 
' 5. Molybdenite and Copper-pyrites——These minerals are found in yeins of 
apis. Garvary Wood, near Castlecaldwell, associated with oligoclase and 
ack mica. 


Minerals occurring in the Non-granitic Rocks of Donegal. 


By reference to the Appendix to this Report, it will be seen that the minerals 
which have been hitherto observed in the county are about sixty in number, 


ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE GRANITES OF DONEGAL, 59 


Of these a great number are of minor importance, and only a few have been 
analyzed, in consequence of the difficulty of obtaining them in a sufficiently 
pure state for that purpose. This has been the case with the sphene and the 
scapolite. Allusion has been made to the frequency with which potstone and 
soapstone are met with in the county, and we have therefore considered it to 
be of interest to analyze both it and the silky crystals which are found in it, 
especially at Crohy Head. 


No. I, No, I. 
Crystals, Massive 
soapstone. 

STUER, Ateie excocarae ne ae aE a Ni GaSa th: Pe ae 60°24. 
PAV TUTTI Pete al dane apie ina.sa a pi3 ORs ct BO aaeRr es 1-12 
Hiren (VerORIde) ..-..0-.... it, ee ta prea 1-48 
Bae R CG es 5 et ugaleateay > PEACR., vrinevelting een trace 
Line Siete ee ee eee meet TPO CO a ee a cus 0:00 
(FET Ea ee EOS 6 iia gate bein 35°14 
Sera) 5 ee et RRP Po eG ae tte Te 5 0-41 
MRED ee f8 scl ss 2m fn up taas daflans E01 RP er kee 0-07 
WROD iis as so, st rsce eh 36.0 OAD we eo ter ores ths 1-00 
99°53 99-46 


From these analyses it will be seen that the mineral is a true anhydrous 
tale; and this fact is the more interesting inasmuch as we can trace, both at 
Gartan Abbey and at Crohy, the gradual passage of this mineral into antho- 
phyllite, with the crystalline form of which mineral the radiated silky crystals 
of that under examination are evidently closely connected, 

* Rammelsberg does not include among his analyses of the hornblende family 
any which is absolutely free from lime, although Scheerer’s analysis of the 
asbestus from St. Gotthardt (Mineralchemie, p. 475, No. 7) is nearly so, and 
this mineral accompanies tremolite. On the other hand, the presence of the 


Taste V,—Chemical Composition of Donegal Granites. 


o 
é | 3] 8 SE 

0. 3| # g So B| # 7 

% 2/2 leet e/a] 4/4/28) 2) 4 

= eSlPelS i318) 8 isk g 

oi S4 Fea Bla lala BBE] a 
I. Ardmalin .,,.,.,,./70°00 |16°36 |2°80 |0-08 |1:12 \0°71 |4°13 |4°66] ... | ... | 99°86 
II. Urrismenagh...... 65°80 |12°80 |6°64 |0°18 |2-92 |1°78 |4°16 |4°40| .,. |1:20| 99°88 
MA GIEN, aececisp ales 68°96 |17°40 |2°52| ... 12°80 |0°41 13:08 15°25} ... | ... 1100-37 
TV. Glen’. ....6.5ii a 58:44 |20°00 |6:44 |2°05 |4-'72 |1°57 13°81 12°82 | ... |... | 99°85 
V. Glenveagh......... 69°36 |16-00 |3'03 |0°80 |2°29 |0°54 |4°17 |4°47| ... | ... |100°16 
VI. Glenveagh......... 68:00 |16°80 |3°68 |0°65 |4°05 |0°95 |4°32 |2°04] ... | ... |100°49 
VII. Poison Glen ...... 68:20 |15°96 |3°69 |1:00 |2°92 |0°78 |3°75 |4°14| .., |... |100°44 
VIII. Poison Glen ...... 70°64 |15°64 |2°64.| ... |2°4°7 (0°15 [3°81 |4°53) ... |... | 99°88 
IX. Doocharry Bridge 72°24 |14°92 |1°63 |0°23 |1°68 |0°36 |3°51 [5:10 |0°32| ... | 99°99 
X. Barnesmore ...... 73°60 |18°80 |2°00| ... |0:79 |0°50 |4-29 |5°22| ... | ... |100°20 
XI. Arranmore........: 68°80 |16°40 |2°60 |0°65 |1°75 |0°85 |3°78 |5°31|] ... | ... |100°14 
XII. Tory Island ...... 69°20.|16°40 |2:09 |1:00 |1:03 |0°85 |4°20 |5°22] ... | ... | 99°99 
XIII. Ardara ............ 55°20 |19°28 |6:08 |0°46 |5-08 |3°66 |4-63 |3°17 |0-96 |0°64| 99°16 
XIV. Dunlewy ........... 75°24 |13°36 10°60] ... |2°25 |0°14 |4°86 |3-27] ... | ... |-99:72 
XV. Annagary ......... 73-04.|15-20| ... | ... [1:60 |0-07 |2°88 |7:82| ... | ... {100-12 
XVI. Strontian........... 62:09 |1'7-60 |4-'78 |0:'74 14°95 |3°17 |4°08 13°25 |0-40} ... |101:06 


XVII. Tobermory, Mull (70°60 16°40 {1°52 |0°36 |2°47 |1°00 |4°14 |4°29 |0'48| ... |101-26 


a 


60 REPORT—1863. 


manganese, which was clearly detected in both analyses, would tend to bring 
the Crohy specimen out of the type of tale and into that of hornblende. 

Among the other more interesting minerals which have been found, we 
may mention molybdenite in crystalline plates, fibrolite, kyanite, schorl (ex- 
tremely abundant), and the minerals which have been already mentioned as 
occurring in the altered limestones. 


I. Ardmalin, near Malin Head.—Coarse-grained granite, composed of 
(a). Quartz; very conspicuous (1 in. crystals). 
(). Red orthoclase feldspar (1 in. crystals). 
(c). Green mica; in small nests, resembling chlorite. 


II. Urrismenagh, near Dunaff Head.—Medium-grained granite, containing— 
(a). Quartz; not very visible. 
(6). Pink feldspar ; probably orthoclase (+ in. crystals). 
(c.) Grey feldspar ; probably oligoclase (1 in. crystals). 
(d). Black mica; ;4, in. crystals; occasionally passing into a dark 
' blackish-green mica, in small nests and resembling a mix- 
ture of chlorite and hornblende. 


III. Glen.—Coarse-grained gneissose granite, containing— 

(a). Quartz; scarcely visible, broken, transparent, grey. 

(6). Red feldspar; probably orthoclase, forming large crystals (partly 
made up of pink translucent feldspar, with bright reflexion), 
dull waxy lustre, opaque. 

(c). Whitish translucent feldspar; probably oligoclase, and quite 
distinct from (6). 

(d). Green mica; abundant in streaks alternating, as in gneiss, 
with crystalline sheets of red and pink feldspar. 


IV. Glen.—Coarse-grained gneissose granite, apparently in beds in the gra- 
nite No. III., and containing— 
(a). Whitish feldspar; anorthic, semiopaque, and sometimes in 
macles, probably oligoclase (crystals 4 in, by 1in.). 
(6). Jet-black mica; in great abundance, probably equal to the 
feldspar, which occurs in rounded masses imbedded in the 
black mica, which itself occurs in streaks as in gneiss. 


V. Glenveagh.—Beautiful, coarse-grained, porphyritic granite :— 
(a). Feldspar ; conspicuous, pink (crystals 4 in. to 2 in.), orthoclase. 
(5). Quartz; inconspicuous, grey, transparent, with rounded an- 
gles. 
(c). Mica; jet-black, abundant in minute grains; the black mica 
and pink feldspar give character to the rock. 


VI. Glenveagh.—Fine-grained gneissose granite :— 
(a). Quartz, scarcely visible, grey. 
(4). Feldspar; white, sugary, facets rare, and, when they do occur, 
semitransparent—probably oligoclase. 
(c). Mica; perfectly black, high lustre. 


VII. Poison Glen.—Medium-grained granite :— 
(a). Quartz; grey, not prominent. 
(6). Feldspar; pink, in large crystals (Lin. by } in.), semitranspa- 
rent, predominant ; orthoclase. 
(c). Mica; jet-black, bright lustre. 


ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE GRANITES OF DONEGAL. 61 


VIII. Poison Glen.—Coarse-grained granite. 

(a). Quartz; conspicuous, grey. 

(b). Feldspar ; pink, in large crystals (4 in. by 4 in.), transparent, 
bright calespar lustre, set in a paste of quartz and pinkish 
feldspar. 

(c). Mica; an occasional speck of green mica, probably not } per 
cent. 


IX. Doocharry Bridge——Medium-grained granite, tending to become por- 
phyritic. 
(a). Quartz. 
(6). Feldspar ; orthoclase, pink, in 3 in. crystals. 
(c). Feldspar ; oligoclase, grey, in } in. crystals. 
(d). Mica; black, in small grains or specks, and in small quantity. 


X. Barnesmore Gap.—Coarse-grained reddish granite, of platy structure, 
one-inch slabs. 
(a). Quartz; very prominent, grey, occupying a surface only infe- 
rior to the red feldspar. 

' (0). Feldspar; pale red, uniform in texture, with some well-deve- 

loped cleavages, not very brilliant. 
(c). Mica; green, very compact, with few leaves, passing into 
chlorite-earth : this chloritic earth covers the joint-surfaces 
2, in. to 7; in.), and is visible in all such partings. It is 
very difficult to distinguish the green mica from hornblende, 


XI. Arranmore Island.—Porphyritic granite; feldspar predominating. 

(a). Quartz ; easily visible, abundant, grey. 

(b). Feldspar ; reddish, in distinct crystals (4 in. by } in.), cleavage- 
planes distinct, with bright lustre, semitransparent. 

(c). Mica; black; when seen on the edge, it resembles hornblende, 
of which, however, there is not a particle in the rock: facets 
of mica difficult to see, but having a very brilliant reflexion ; 
subordinate to both the quartz and feldspar. 


XII. Tory Island—Coarse granite, almost entirely composed of quartz and 
feldspar, platy structure, one-inch slabs. 
(a). Quartz; conspicuous, crystals (4 in.), grey. 
(b). Feldspar; uniform red, with cleavage-planes of dull lustre, 
orthoclase. 
(c). Mica; greenish, sometimes white, in occasional very small 
plates. 


XIII. Ardara.—Coarse-grained gneissose granite :— 
(a). Quartz; small grains. 
(6). Feldspar; pink orthoclase 
(c). Feldspar; grey oligoclase 
(d). Mica; black, in large quantity, giving a gneissose appearance 
to the rock. 
Sphene occurs disseminated in small crystals. 


} in lumpy masses. 


XIV. Dunlewy.—Consists of quartz and feldspar intimately blended together 
and very similar in colour, whitish grey. In this paste are nume- 
rous crystals of feldspar (orthoclase) with definite (4 in.), lustrous, 
smooth faces, Also occasional stains of greenish mica, looking like 


62 aX REPORT—18638. 


chlorite, and small crystals of garnet. This granite occurs imme- 
diately beside the limestone marble of Dunlewy quarry. 


XV.—Annagary.—A feldspathic paste, with large crystals of orthoclase and 
fragments of quartz: contains also crystals of sphene, locally 
abundant (and occasional hornblende(?) in 1 in. crystals). It is 
found beside the limestone, whenever the latter comes in contact 
with the granite, as at Annagary, Glenleheen, and Barnesbeg. 


XVI. Strontian, Argyllshire.—This granite is somewhat like that of Ardara 
in appearance, and also like the black gneissose granite, which 
is found asa variety at Glen. It is medium-grained, and con- 
tains :-— 

(a). Quartz. 
(4). Feldspar ; white (oligoclase), having the characteristic strie. 
(c). Black mica; abundant. 


XVII. Tobermory, Mull—aA coarse-grained granite, resembling the coarser 
varieties of the typical granite of Donegal. It contains— 
(a). Quartz; abundant. 
(6). Pink orthoclase ; large crystals (4 in. by 1 in.). 
(c). White oligoclase ; striated. 
(d). Black mica; not abundant. 
(e). Sphene facets; occasional. 

The rocks whose analyses are contained in the above Table are hardly to be 
considered as all true granites. Nos. [V. and XIII. are rather to be considered 
gneiss than granite, and No. XV. is a feldspathic paste ; but in the mode of 
their occurrence they do not differ from the granites, and it is impossible to 
say exactly where the granite begins and the gneiss ends. 


Tasrs VI.—Chemical Composition of Donegal Syenites*. 


Alumina. 
iron, 

| peroxide. 
Tron, 
protoxide 
ime 

Magnesia. 

da, 

Potash 
Manganese, 
protoxide. 
Water, 
Totals 


| Silica. 


I. Lough Anure....../49-20|18'82 7°12 1:95 | 9°72 7-11 1°92 1-72 [1-00 [120] 99:26 
TI. Kilrean, near } |4 4.40 |25-00 \6-45 |2-11 110-17 '3°51 |2'58 2-66 0°84 [1-08 | 98:80 


SATS ook tves 5 
III. Doonan Hill...... 50:08 |18-84 |7-05 |1°03 |12°37 6°57 |2°39 |0°57 0°88 (0°80 |100°58 
TY. Locality unknown 58-04 |16:08 |8:27 0°45 6°52 |2:94 |4°65 j2°21 |1°12] ... |100°28 


I. A medium-grained syenite or crystalline greenstone, composed of small 
plates of black mica with hornblende aggregated together, and of 
a feldspar which seems to be oligoclase, 
II. A coarse-grained syenite, containing— 
(a). Long crystals of green hornblende. 
(b). White feldspar. 
(c). Specks of iron-pyrites. 
In addition to the composition given in the analysis, the rock 
contained 1-078 per cent. of sulphur, which no doubt was present 


in the form of pyrites. 


* For a description of the relations of these rocks to the other rocks of the county, see 
p. 48 e¢ seq. 


ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE GRANITES OF DONEGAL. 638 


III. A crystalline greasy trap rock, forming @ dyke which penetrates the 
lower arenaceous Carboniferous limestone, and expands into a mass 
on the top of the hill, close to the town of Donegal. It contains 
black hornblende and a green feldspar. 


IV. The analyses of the feldspar and hornblende of this rock have already 
been given. The precise locality of the specimen analyzed is 
unknown; but it resembles very closely the syenites of the Black 
Gap and Ballykillowen. It forms a link between the granites and 
the syenites. It contains— 

(a). Quartz. 

(6). Oligoclase of a pinkish-yellow colour; large crystals, brilliant 
cleavage. 

(c). Hornblende, dark glossy blackish green, passing into black 
mica : 


(d). Occasional crystals of sphene. 


Determination of the Mineralogical Composition of the Donegal Granites*. 


The determination of the mineralogical constitution of a granite is a pro- 
blem whose solution has been frequently attempted; and at first sight it does 
not seem to present features of extraordinary difficulty. It may be stated as 
follows :— 

Given the chemical composition of a rock and of its supposed constituent 
minerals, it is required to find the proportions in which these minerals are 
associated in it. 

In the case which is now under our consideration, we assume that the four 
minerals, quartz, orthoclase, oligoclase, and black mica, all of which have 
been observed in the granite, are its constituents, and we take their chemical 
composition as ascertained by the analysis of specimens obtained exclusively 
within the county Donegal. 

The principle of this investigation has already been published by Professor 
Haughton, in the paper already referred to (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond. 
vol. xviii. p. 403), and its complete discussion will be laid by him before the 
Geological Society of London at an early date. It may, however, be of 
interest to lay before the Association the results at which he has arrived. 

By the conditions of the question, we obtain four equations to determine 
the same number of unknown quantities, as will be seen by a reference to the 
paper. From the coefficients of the several quantities we obtain, by actual 
multiplication, the following ten constants:— 


Bx 69077. Bp =—188220. y = 196708. 

a’ =—113443. p= 211768. y=") -7Ol6r: 

Boss 1702: p"=— 24442. y"=—163140. 
K=34131692. 


Once these constants have been determined, nothing but simple multipli- 
cation and division is required, in order to ascertain at once with absolute 
certainty the percentage of each of the four minerals, whose analysis has been 
given, in the granite, ¢. g.:— 

Percentage of orthoclase=10000 { se a ‘ 


The results of the application of these constants to each of the seventeen 
granites whose analysis is contained in Table Y. is given in Table VII. 


* This portion of the Report is solely due to Professor Haughton. 


64 REPORT—18638. 


Taste VII.— Mineralogical Composition of Donegal Granites. 


Orthoclase. | Oligoclase. Mica. Quartz 
2°51 71:03 0:93 25°39 
122-87 —1415 —8:33 —0:51 
—12-45 75°95 8:13 28-74 
38°28 71°75 —2°01 —8:17 
17-98 55°58 2°69 23°91 
22°41 75°60 —10°28 12°76 
36:13 52°38 —3°92 15°85 
5°83 5402 8°70 31:33 
25°45 41°50 2°74 30°30 
16°48 46°31 2°05 35°36 
29°12 37:02 8:77 25°08 
29°45 48:07 1:69 20°78 
158-22 12°83 — 29°48 —42°41 
—541 90°69 —15'02 29°46 
33°58 32°25 2°63 31°65 
125°94, 47-96 —43°79 — 29°14 
39°71 86°50 —19°87 —5'08 


According to this Table, it appears that eight of the granites (those marked 
with an asterisk in the Table) give positive values for all the unknown quan- 
tities, while the remaining nine have one or more of them negative. Hence 
it follows that more than one-half of the granites in question are certainly 
not composed of the four minerals which have been assumed to be in them. 
In the case of eight of the granites it has been proved that they might be com- 
posed of four minerals, having the oxygen-ratios of those which have been 
analyzed ; but it still remains to be proved whether they are so composed or 
not. 

It is well known to be the opinion of many petrologists that it is unsafe to 
draw conclusions as to the constitution of a crystalline rock, like granite, from 
the analyses of crystals picked out from those portions of the rock which are 
coarse-grained enough to allow of such a process of extraction of minerals. 
Here we may be allowed to remark that if there be this doubt as to the 
validity of reasoning based on the analysis of minerals picked out of the very 
rock to which that reasoning is applied, it is @ fortiori much more rash to call 
to our aid analyses of minerals from other localities, which have never been 
proved to exist in the district under examination, and the evidence of whose 
existence depends at best on the results of a microscopic examination. 

In order to ascertain how far this suspicion is founded on truth in the case 
of the granites of Donegal, we must call to our aid the auxiliary equations 
which have not yet been employed. These depend on the iron, lime, soda, 
potash, &c., and have hitherto been grouped together in the equation con- 
taining the oxygen-ratio of the protoxides. 

It is evident that, before we can say that a granite is really composed of 
the minerals whose composition has been given in the preceding part of the 
Report, we must be certain that all the equations of condition furnished by 
each;constituent are fulfilled, as well as those depending on the oxygen-ratios 
of the protoxides, peroxides, and silica. 

On applying these test equations, it is found that not a single one of the 
eight granites which have satisfied the first test fulfils these conditions accu- 
rately, and therefore that not a single granite of those which have been 
examined can be composed of quartz, orthoclase, oligoclase, and black mica 
haying the precise composition which has been assumed for them, 


ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE GRANITES OF DONEGAL. 65 


The test is a very severe one, and in order to show the degree of approxi- 
mation which has been attained by the method, we take the instance of the 
granite of Doochary Bridge, No. IX., and give the value of each constituent 
as calculated from the result given in Table VII., and as obtained by actual 
analysis of the rock. 


Composition of Granite of Doochary Bridge. 


Observed. Calculated. 

BNC Aes cst AGT aaswate casttcfere ebay svenuts (4 72°24 .,... 72:24 
PARTING e8 okay cnanc) y=) ohovoua tara bite 14°92. et phos0D 
Tron and manganese oxides .... 218 .... 1:52 
Ley 2 Oe ee ee ae Soe GS ics ary. 2°91 
SERIA ais oys, «fahaieynin sh ailt oehe #)9y 4 aie oh’ ciafiy: oy OED 
Sai. MAES OM five BPou eels dates 315) ee ae 2:89 
GEAR Ore a aoe Serene SO wo deere: 4-90 

99-99 99-99 


Hence we see that, although we may assume that a considerable proportion 
of the granites of Donegal are composed of the four minerals in question, yet 
the constitution of these minerals, when present in the mass of the rock, must 
differ slightly from that ascertained by the analysis of the larger crystals. 

In conclusion, we may state that complete series of the minerals and rocks 
described in this Report are preserved in the Geological Museums of Trinity 
College, Dublin, and of the Royal Dublin Society, the actual specimens 
which were subjected to analysis being in the first-mentioned collection. 


APPENDIX. 


The following catalogue of localities has been compiled, partly from the 
published accounts of the tours undertaken by Sir Charles Giésecke, in the 
years 1826-27, at the expense of the Royal Dublin Society, and partly from 
the results of the explorations carried out in the preparation of the preceding 
Report. Much valuable information has been derived from the gentlemen 
whose names have been already mentioned, and from an examination of spe- 
cimens collected by the late R. Townsend, Esq., C.E., who resided in the 
county for some years. 

The names of Messrs. Greg and Lettsom are given as authority for loca- 
lities given in their ‘Manual of Mineralogy,’ which we cannot otherwise 
identify. We regret to say that much reliance cannot be placed on these 
localities, as they have not been personally identified by the authors of that 
work (see under Analeime and Gypsum). 

All localities which have been identified by the British Association Com- 
mittee, in the progress of their investigations, are marked with an asterisk. 


CATALOGUE. 
Sracete ELements. 
Grapnire, Found in rolled pieces on the shore of Sheephayen, near Ards 
House; in the Burndale, Conyoy; i situ at Fintown. 
SuLpHuRets, dc. 
Garena, Has been worked in several localities, the chief of which are 
ey ; Marfagh; Ards; Fintown; Drumnacross; Kilrean; Mullanti- 
' F 


66 REPORT<1863. 


boyle; Welchtown; Malinbeg; Abbey Lands and Abbey Island, Bally- 
shannon; Ballymagrorty ; Finner; Tonregee ; Glentogher, Carndonagh ; Cas- 
tlegrove, Letterkenny. (Griffith’s “‘ Mining Localities of Ireland,” Journ. 
Geol. Soc. Dub. vol. ix. p. 148.) 

Motyspentre. In hexagonal plates with actynolite, disseminated through 
elvan at Lough Laragh*, near Glenties; at Lough Anure. 

Note.—Molybdenite also occurs in the oligoclase veins at Garvary*, near 
Castlecaldwell, two miles from the county of Donegal. 

Brenpe. Occurs with galena at several of the localities mentioned for that 
species, especially Kilrean* and Fintown. 

Copprr-Pyrires. Not very common; occurs crystallized at Kildrum. 

Tron-Pyrires. Cubes of iron-pyrites are abundant in the mica-slate and 
accompanying rocks, in various parts of the county, particularly near Killy- 
begs* and at Culdaff* and Malin. At Crohy Head* large crystals occur in 
the soapstone. 

Macenettc Pyrrres. Occurs in detached crystals in the metamorphic rocks 
about the Barnesmore Mountains, and at Leaght; at Doorin Rock*. The 
variety found at Barnesmore contains traces of nickel and cobalt. 

Frvor Spar. Occurs in the limestone near Donegal; the variety is phos- 
phorescent; at “the Pullans”; at Rathmullen. 


OxipEs (Merarric). 


Rurite. Prisms of this species occur in quartz-pebbles in the River Dale, 
and in mica-slate in Arranmore; at Malinbeg, large prisms in quartz (Greg 
and Lettsom); at Ards. 

Sappuire. A few rolled crystals were brought from the county of Donegal 
by R. Townsend, Esq., and given by him to Professor Apjohn. Precise 
locality not known. 

Maennric Iron. Octahedral crystals occur in the syenite at Horn Head*, 
and throughout the Dunfanaghy district. Also in serpentine at Aghadoey*, 
and in anthophyllite at Crohy Head*. 

Inmentre. Plates of this species, called rutile by Sir C. Giésecke, occur in 
quartz at Woodland Dooish, near Stranorlar; and at Edergole, near Corabber 
Bridge, Lough Eask; at Breaghy Head. 

SpecutaR Iron. At Glenkeeragh and Fox Hall. 

Micacrovs Iron. Near Malin*, and at Croaghonagh Quarry*, Lough 
Mourne. 

Rep Hamarire. At Innishkeel; pseudomorphous in cubes, replacing iron 
pyrites, at Woodland Dooish, near Stranorlar. 

Brown Hamarrrse. At Malinbeg, in a lode. 

Bog Iron Ore.—Very abundant throughout the mica-slate district of the 
county. 
~ PsrtomEtANE. Impure psilomelane occurs in Arranmore and in the Slieve 
League district. 

Oxipxs oF Srrtcon, &e. 

Quartz. Rock Crystals—Leabgarrow*, Arranmore Island (very fine) ; 
Slieve League. 

Rose Quartz.—Bradlieve Mountain, near Ballintra; in veins in granite, 
Pollakeeran Hill, near Lough Mourne; Maghery. 

Amethyst.—In veins in granite, at the Waterfall in Barnes River*, half a 
mile above Barnes Lough, and on Edergole Mountain. 

Smoke Quartz—Very fine crystals, with graphic granite in a yein at 


ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE GRANITES OF DONEGAL. 67 


Brown’s Hill*, Barnesmore Mountains; Slieve League; Barnesbeg Gap ; 
Knockastoller. 
- Cuatcepony. In rolled pieces at St. Peter’s Lough, Mountcharles; in 
amygdaloidal trap at Doorin Rock* ; Cloghan (Greg and Lettsom); Ards. 
Very abundant in micaceous conglomerate in the baronies of Raphoe and 
Innishowen. 

Orat. At Mountcharles. 

Smiicrous Sanp. In great abundance, and extremely pure, on top of 
Muckish Mountain. 

Lypran Sronz. Common in the Carboniferous Limestone between Donegal 
and Ballyshannon. 

Anuyprovs SILIcaTEs. 


ANDALUSITE SECTION. 


AnpatusitE. In mica-slate, at Clooney Lough*, near Narin; on Scalp 
Mountain, four miles W.N.W. of Muff (Greg and Lettsom); at Barnesbeg 
Gap. 

rescue, Barnesbeg Gap. 

Kyanire. In mica-slate, with garnets, schorl, and sphene, in the reef of 
rock which runs from Fin M‘Coul’s Pan, Ballykillowen*, to Lough Derg; at 
Altnapaste ; near Doocharry Bridge. 

Frsrorire. In gneiss, in several localities, where that rock occurs in the 
granite, Croaghnamaddy*, near Dunglow; Lough Anure*, at the north end; 
Annagary Hill*, behind the pound. The best crystals are at Lough Anure. 

Beryt. In quartz veins and in granite, at Sheskinarone*, one mile north 
of Dunglow, on the road to Annagary. 

- Beryl occurs also, disseminated through the granite, at the same locality, 
in a subcrystalline condition, forming beryl granite. 

Tovrmattine. Schorl is very abundant in the gneiss in the neighbourhood 
of Ballyshanon and Donegal, especially about Ballintra*, and at Knader; 
with garnets and kyanite at Ballykillowen* and Golard*, near Donegal; in 
garnet-rock at Aghadoey*; in granite at Annagary*; at Cloghan; at Kil- 
madoo, parish of Clondehorkey; and at Glinsk, in Fanad. 

Indicolite—Some dark-coloured prismatic crystals, from the county of 
Donegal, occurring in granite, and labelled augite, proved on examination by 
Dr. Aquila Smith to be indicolite. 

Senuenn. Very abundant in granite throughout the county, especially in 
the white granite of Narin*, and Aphort*, Arranmore. 

In gneiss, with kyanite, schorl, and garnets, at Ballykillowen*. 

In a peculiar rock, consisting of orthoclase, green pyroxene, and quartz 
(sphene rock), which occurs in contact with the highly crystalline limestone 
of the granitic district of the country. 

It is most abundant at Annagary*, where there are two types of sphene 
rock—one containing small crystals of sphene, with dark green prisms of 
pyroxene, the other containing sphene in larger crystals, and in much greater 
abundance, and in it the pyroxene is of a light green colour and less distinctly 
crystallized. Also at Barnesbeg* Gap, near Kilmacrenan, where large nests 
of sphene are found; in Glenleheen*; and in the neighbourhood of Lough 
Nambradden*, near Fintown; at Cloghercor, parish of Innishkeel; and at 
Tirlyn, near Creeshlagh. j 

AUGITE SECTION. 
Pyroxenr. Two varieties, coloured light and dark green, occur with or- 


thoclase and quartz, forming sphene rock, at most of the localities where 
F2 


68 REPORT—1863. 


limestone is found in the granite, e. g. Annagary*, Glenleheen*, and Barnes- 
beg*; Knockastoller and Derryloaghan. 

Sahlite.—Occurs in quartz at Lough Nambradden, near Fintown; at Glen- 
ties. 

Augite.—In prisms, imbedded in greenstone, at Tory Island. 

Tremotire. Abundant in crystalline limestone, with idocrase and garnet, 
especially at Annagary* and Bunbeg*. 

Antnoppytuire. At Finmore; the Craigs, Raphoe; Crohy Head*, in the 
cliff, 200 yards from the eastern extremity of Aghnish Lough; at the mill 
near Gartan Abbey*, close to the soapstone. 

Acrynorire. In elyan, with molybdenite, at Lough Laragh, near Glenties*; 
at Gartan and Drumsallagh. 

Asbestiform Actynolite—At Tirlyn; Aghalative, near Ards; Glenaboghill ; 
and Fintown. 

Hornstenve. Abundant in syenite throughout the county, especially at 
Loughrosmore; Horn Head*; at the Black Gap*, and in the townland of 
Golard* ; Lough Anure. 

Hornblende Rock.—Is found at Kilrean*, near Ardara; Raneany Bridge*, 
near Laghy. 

Aspestus. At Kilrean, near Ardara*; at Crohy Head; at Rathmullen ; 
in potstone, at Leaght, parish of Donaghmore. 


Cuonpropvire. In crystalline dolomite near the Guidore (Greg and Lett- 
som). 
Olivine.—In a trap-dyke at Drumnalifferny, parish of Gartan. 


GARNET SECTION. 

Garner. Occurs disseminated through gneiss and mica-schist in the 8.E. 
part of the county, especially at Golard* and Ballykillowen*, parish of Tem- 
plecarne ; at Aghadoey*, it occurs in the gneiss in such quantities as to form 
garnet-rock. Clear varieties occur in granite at Shallogan Bridge, and on the 
south side of the Guibarra valley; in the Poison Glen; at Tirlyn and Kil- 
loughecarran, near Creeshlagh; and in limestone at Aphort, Arranmore*. 

Opake varieties occur, with hair-brown idocrase, epidote, and tremolite, in 
crystalline limestone in many places, e.g. Glenleheen*; Derryloaghan ; 
Toberkeen*, near Dungloe ; Annagary*; Lough Anure* ; Bunbeg* ; Barnes- 
beg Gap*, near Kilmacrenan; Tirlyn. 

At Toberkeen, loose crystals, many of them pitted and worn by the action 
of the sea-water, are found on the beach. They are frequently 2 inches or 
more in diameter. 

Cinnamon-stone.~At Trawenagh Bar. 

Grossular.—At Annagary*; at Bunbeg. 

Ipocrast. The bacillar variety occurs in limestone at most of the localities 
above mentioned for opaque garnets ; also at Madavagh, near Lettermacaward. 
On the promontory, at the north end of Lough Anure*, it is found in four- 
sided crystals; also at Toberkeen. 

Eriporz. Occurs pretty commonly, with garnet and idocrase, in the altered 
limestone. At Drumnaha, Glenleheen*, it is found well crystallized; at 
Aphort*, Arranmore, in great abundance ; in gneiss close to the limestone at 
Pollnacally* ; Crohy, in a vein in syenite ; at Woodquarter, parish of Mevagh ; 
at Muckamish and Rathmullen, parish of Killygarvan; at Lough Laragh, 
near Glenties. 

e yoke In sphene rock at the Cross Roads, in Glenleheen*; at 
irlyn, 


ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE GRANITES OF DONEGAL, 69 


FELDSPAR SECTION. 

Ortnoctase. Of a pinkish colour, very abundant in gneiss along the 
southern edge of the granite, about Lough Errig* and Glenleheen*; at 
Lough Barra; also in veins in the granite at other localities, especially at 
Pollnacally*, and near Lettermacaward; at Breaghy Head; white in Glen- 
veagh*; at Knockastoller; crystallized specimens occur with the beryls at 
Sheaskin na Rone*, and also in the neighbourhood of Lough Nambraddan*, 
near Fintown. 

In a quartz vein, with chlorite and micaceous iron, at Croaghonagh* 
Quarry, near Lough Mourne. 

Oxieocrasr. Abundant in granite, accompanying orthoclase, throughout 
the county, especially at Annagary* ; in gneiss at Glen*, near Creeshlagh* ; 
in syenite, at Black Gap*, near Pettigo, and at Ballykillowen* ; at Knader, 
near Ballyshannon. 

Note.—The veins of greenish oligoclase and black mica, containing molyb- 
denite and copper-pyrites, which were discovered by the Rev. S. Haughton, 
occur at Garvary Wood, near Castlecaldwell, county of Fermanagh, about two 
miles from the border of the county Donegal. 

Lasraporire. Opalescent feldspar, supposed to be labradorite, occurs in 
boulders of granite in the Gweebarra valley, and along the shore of the Rosses. 

Aventurine feldspar.—Was found by Sir C. Giésecke in the Doochary dis- 
trict. 

Pircustonz. Dykes of this rock, some of which are amygdaloidal, pene- 
trate the granite of Barnesmore*, and are also found in other parts of the 
county. 

Frtstonz. Felstone porphyry occurs in a columnar dyke in granite be- 
tween Tordhu and Cladaghillie, in Arranmore*, 

Hattoysirze. At Drumsallagh. : 


MICA SECTION. 

Waurre Mica. This occurs in considerable quantities in the granite, toge- 
ther with black mica. It is common at Sheaskin na Rone*, near Dunglow, 
with the beryls; also at Ballaghgeeha Gap*, Dooish Mountain; in gneiss 
(speckled) at Breesy Mountain* ; at Madavagh, near Lettermacaward. 

Brack Mica. This occurs in small plates throughout the whole area of 
the granite, and also in the gneiss on its flanks, especially at Glen*, near 
Creeshlagh. It is also found in nests in the granite, as is the case at Newry ; 
also in syenite and hornblende rock, but sparingly, at Kilrean*, near Ardara. 

Large crystals are found in quartz at Annagary*; also at Ballaghgeeha 
Gap*, Dooish Mountain, and at Doochary Bridge. 

Green Mica, produced by weathering from the foregoing, is found in a 
remarkable granite-vein which penetrates the gneiss near the Black Gap*; 
also radiated, on quartz, near Rockhill. 

Cutorire. In quartz at Malin*; with orthoclase and quartz at Lough 
Mourne* ; at Killybegs* ; Ards, 

Hyprovs Sizicates, 


TALC SECTION. 
Tarc. At Crohy Head*, crystallized, with iron pyrites; Foxhall; Glen- 
keeragh ; at the Reelan Bridge. 
Soarstonz. At Crohy Head*; at the mill, near Gartan Abbey* ; at Ards; 
at Glinsk, in Ross Guill. 
Porstonr. Called ‘“‘Cambstone” in the neighbourhood, at Convoy*; at 
Leaght, parish of Donaghmore ; near Killygordon; at Culdaff *, 


70 REPORT—1863, 


SERPENTINE. Common serpentine, with magnetic iron, occurs at Agha- 
doey*, near Donegal, close to the garnet rock; at Rossnakill*, in Fanad ; 
near Dunfanaghy (Greg and Lettsom). 

Noble serpentine.—Occurs near Drumbo. 

Verde antique marble—Occurs at Crohy Head*, near the coast-guard 
station. 

ZEOLITE SECTION. 


Natroxite. In the cavities of the amygdaloidal trap-dyke called Doorin 
Rock*, near Mountcharles; also in Barnesmore Mountain*, in pitchstone 
dykes ; in trap-dykes at Lough Barra, and in the Poison Glen. 

Awatcrmme. In opaque crystals, with garnet and idocrase, near the Guidore 
(Greg and Lettsom)[?]}. _ 


CaRBONATES, SULPHATES, &c. 


Caxcrre. At Cloghan; in the neighbourhood of Donegal, at Lacken and 
Laghy quarries (phosphorescent when heated). 

Black.—At Rathmullen and Culdaff*. 

Pink.—At Ards; at the Reelan Bridge. 

Arraconire. In limestone at “the Pullans,” near Brown Hall. 

Marsxe, white (statuary marble), at several localities, especially Dunlewy*; 
Marble Hill* ; Glenveagh* ; Dunfanaghy*; Croaghanarget*, parish of Kil- 
lymard. 

W"Pinknht Ards; at Muckish Mountain. 

Srarry Iron. At Glentogher, Innishowen ; at Tircallan, near Stranorlar. 

Catammye. Near Ballyshannon. 

Leap, Carnsonate or. At Keeldrum mine, 

Heavy Spar. Occurs as a gangue at Fintown*. 

Gypsum. A quantity of fibrous gypsum is lying at Woodhill, Ardara, which 
is said to have been found by Major Nesbit, the late owner, on the property, 
about thirty years ago: no person is able to give any information about it. 
The locality given by Gregg and Lettsom, yiz. Ballintemple Glen, parish of 
Errigal, appears to be incorrect, as Errigal parish is not in the county of 
Donegal, 

PyromorpHite, At Keeldrum mine, 

Avatits. In brownish-black mica near Annagary; in sphene rock at 
Barnesbeg. 


Report of the Committee appointed for Exploring the Coasts of Shetland 
by means of the Dredge. By J. Gwyn Jurrreys, F.R.S. 


Or all the objects connected with natural history which have been promoted 
by the Association, and which particularly engage the attention of a large 
class of its members, probably no one is more useful and interesting than the 
exploration of the British seas by means of the dredge. In a zoological point 
of view, such investigations are absolutely necessary for the study and 
elucidation of our marine fauna. Comparatively but few of the Invertebrata 
are met with on the shore or between tide-marks; the great bulk of them 
are found seawards. Every “zone,” or bathymetrical district, has some 
characteristic or peculiar species of its own,—although these zones cannot be 
precisely defined, and many species inhabit more zones than one. Every- 
thing in nature is gradual, and merges one into the other. There are in 


DREDGING ON THE COASTS OF SHETLAND. 71 


reality no sharp and abrupt lines in the picture, such as the inventive but 
partially instructed mind of man is apt to conceive when he frames what he 
considers a perfect system of classification. Marine animals do not seem to 
care so much whether there are five or five hundred fathoms of water over 
them, as whether they have a sufficient supply of food and the requisite 
shelter. It is extremely desirable to know more about the conditions of their 
habitability and the limits of depth within which each species can thrive or 
exist. In a geological point of view, the importance of this subject cannot be too 
highly estimated, especially as regards the last-mentioned subject of inquiry. 
At present we have no satisfactory information as to the depth of the primeval 
seas. It was at one time conjectured that the absence of colour was a test of 
depth ; but it has now been ascertained that the most brilliant and variegated 
hues are not wanting in living creatures obtained from the abysses of the 
ocean, My friend Dr. Otto Torell informs me that during his last expedition 
to the Arctic seas, which was undertaken at the instance and cost of the 
Swedish Government, he found a large and undescribed kind of coral, on which 
were three live specimens of an Actinia of a bright red colour. The coral and 
its appendages were entangled in the machine which was sunk to the bottom 
of thesea. The depth was 1480 fathoms, being more than a mile and two- 
thirds in vertical measurement. Dr. Wallich has also given, in his valuable 
work ‘The North-Atlantic Sea-bed,’ a highly interesting account of the 
capture of living and full-grown star-fishes (Ophiocoma granulata), of a dusky- 
brown colour, at a depth of 1260 fathoms. It is beyond all doubt that the 
coral, sea-anemones, and starfishes actually lived on the sea-bottom whence 
they were taken, and that they had not been accidentally transported to the 
spot by any current, much less that any of them could have been swimming 
or floating, so as to become thus entangled in the sounding-apparatus or rope 
on its passage upwards through the water. Dr, Wallich has clearly refuted 
the objection, which was at one time made to his statement, that the star- 
fishes might either have been drifted to the position in which they were 
discovered by a superficial or deep-seated current, or else that they might 
have propelled themselves to it from some distant coast-line, The habits of 
these animals, and the nature of the organisms found in their digestive cavities, 
would render the latter proposition extremely improbable, if not impossible ; 
while the direction of the only upper current which is known to flow in that 
course, and the conditions resulting from a lower current (if any such exists), 
would show that the phenomenon could not be explained in this way. In 
our own seas, and especially in that part which washes the coasts of Shetland, 
I have frequently dredged, at depths between 80 and 90 fathoms, living 
Mollusca whose shells were marked with stripes, bands, and spots of the 
most vivid colour; and these were of species which also inhabit shallow 
water on other parts of our coast, and which are often in the latter case 
colourless. Pectunculus glycymeris was here found to be variegated by rich 
streaks and zigzag blotches of reddish-brown; Yellina pusilla had bright rosy 
trays; Psammobia costulata exhibited delicate pink markings; Zrochus zizy- 
phinus had a uniform brick-red hue; and Natica marochiensis was spotted with 
purplish-brown. The animal of Marginella levis also was beautifully painted, 
and displayed its gaudy tints of green, pink, and flake-white. Other geological 
problems of equal interest may be solved by the use of the dredge; and some 
of them will be presently noticed. 

There is likewise another aspect in which these researches may be regarded 
in connexion with the British Association, The first object of the Association, 
as declared by its promoters and accepted as the basis of the institution, is 


72 REPORT—1863. 


“to give a stronger impulse and a more systematic direction to scientifig 
inquiry.” This object is especially promoted by means of the votes granted 
for dredging on the British coasts. Such undertakings, if properly conducted, 
are very expensive, and tax heavily the private resources of members who 
pursue them on their own account and unaided. To make a short trip now and 
then in a small sailing- or rowing-boat, going out after breakfast and dredging 
for a few hours in the shallow bays on our southern and western coasts—the 
weather being fine, and the amateur dredgers not very sea-sick—is a very 
pleasant and inexpensive affair. ‘To make an expedition to the most northern 
part of our seas in a steamer or good-sized sailing-vessel, occupying several 
weeks, for the purpose of exploring the open and deep sea at a distance of not 
less than twenty miles from the land—the weather heing most capricious and 
often stormy—involves a considerable outlay and some personal risk, to say 
nothing of the preparatory work, or of the toil, discomfort, and anxiety which 
attend such an undertaking. In the latter case the naturalist is sometimes 
obliged to leave the shore (where he must have quarters in order to work out 
the results of his dredging) in the evening or at dead of night, when the wind 
generally lulls: he finds himself in the morning in the spot which he has 
marked for his operations ; he has the dredges put out and all ready for action ; 
the wind suddenly and without any warning rises, and increases from a stiff 
breeze to half a gale; it is useless to persevere, as the dredges will not lie on 
the bottom; and immediate return is unavoidable. If a sailing-vessel is 
employed, much time is lost in getting to the ground; and I have been cruising 
for eighteen hours in a smart and fast yacht before I could reach the desired 
spot, only 45 miles distant from the land. Sometimes a dead calm would ensue 

and last for two or three days together ; it was impossible even to get out of 
harbour. Having experienced this difficulty on former occasions, I chartered 
this year a steamer from Scarborough, and proceeded to Aberdeen, where I 
was joined by Mr. Robert Dawson of Cruden, a most zealous and intelligent 
conchologist. We there attempted to dredge, remaining a week for that 
purpose ; but the weather was too coarse, and the sea far too rough, to admit 
of our doing anything. At the end of that time we were joined by 
Mr. Edward Waller and the Rey. Alfred Merle Norman, both of them 
excellent naturalists, and the last well known by his numerous contributions 
to the study of our marine Invertebrata. From Aberdeen we all went straight 
to Shetland, and anchored in Balta Sound, Unst, which is the most remote of 
this northern group of islands. ‘To indicate its whereabouts might be said by 
some to be a work of supererogation ; but when it is recollected that Byron 
confounded the Orkneys with the Hebrides*, and that many otherwise well- 
informed persons have an indistinct idea that the Shetland Isles are either 
Scotch or else lie somewhere near Scotland, I trust I may be excused for 
saying a few words as to the position of these sea-girt isles that stud “the 
unadorned bosom of the deep.” To show the comparatively high latitude in 
which Unst, the most northern of this group, is situate, I would observe that 
the lighthouse erected at its northern extremity lies in nearly 60°N., and within 
7 degrees of the Arctic circle. Itis 10 degrees north of the Scilly Isles. At 
Balta wewere most kindlyreceived and hospitably entertained by Dr. Edmonston 
(a name honoured in the annals of science) and by Mrs. Spence of Hammer, 
But we were again doomed to be baffled by the weather, and therefore we could 
not do as much as we had fondly anticipated. The results will be hereafter 


* “The fair-hair’d offspring of the Hebrides, 
Where roars the Pentland, with its whirling seas.” 
The Island, Canto 2. 


DREDGING ON THE COASTS OF SHETLAND. 73 


shown. The expense of this expedition was about £300. It cannot be denied 
that the present case is one in aid and furtherance of which the funds of the 


¥ Association may be properly applied. The grants amounted to £75; and the 


remainder of the expense was borne by myself and friends, including 
Mr. Leckenby, of Scarborough, who liberally contributed his money in the 
cause of science, although he was unfortunately prevented from personally 
assisting in the work of the expedition. The marketable value of all the 
objects of natural history which were procured by means of this expedition 
cannot be estimated at more than £5. It was purely a scientific inquiry ; 
and the British Association gave a stronger impulse to it than if it had been 
undertaken by any naturalist for the mere sake of enriching his collection, 
The grant and prestige attached to it encouraged the Committee, and they 
endeavoured to the best of their ability to fulfil the charge with which they 
were entrusted. These grants supply to a certain extent the shortcomings 
of Government in respect of exploring-expeditions, such as used to be 
undertaken, and by means of which our present first-rate school of naturalists 
has been formed. Some fears must be confessed for the future. In the 
Belfast and Doggerbank dredging-excursions, which were liberally assisted by 
grants from this Association, many young and rising naturalists have been 
trained, and a taste inculeated for the study of marine zoology. Good fruit 
always follows good cultivation. I believe the Association has benefited in a 
pecuniary as well as scientific sense, by increasing the number of subscribers, 
and recruiting its ranks from local naturalists who take an interest in these 
pursuits. 

The exploration of the Shetland seas has long been an object of mys- 
terious and high ambition to British naturalists. In “An Account of 
some new and rare Marine British Shells and Animals,” published in the 
‘Transactions of the Linnean Society’ for 1811, Col. Montagu first described, 
as indigenous to our seas, Zerebratula cranium (Miiller), Crania anomala 
(Miller), and Rissoa Zetlandica (Montagu), all of which had been discovered 
on the south coast of Shetland by Dr. Fleming, when minister of Bressay. 
The two first-named species had previously been known only as inhabiting 
the Scandinavian seas ; and the third was new to science. In 1828 Dr. Fleming 
published some more discoveries in his ‘History of British Animals,’ 
Terebratula caput-serpentis (Linné), Spirialis Flemingii (Forbes and Hanley), 
and Scissurella crispata (Fleming), besides several Nudibranchs, were the 
result of his further investigations. In the autumn of 1839 Professor Edward 
Forbes visited Lerwick, and did his usual good work, chiefly in the Echino- 
dermata and Acalephe, by dredging in the bays and fiords. The following 
extract from his note-book* will show his opinion of this district as a hunting- 
field:—We haye done very well, on the whole, in our visit to Shetland, 
especially considering how short our time has been. To add eleven or twelve 
new animals to the British fauna, and to see as many more exceedingly rare 
species, confined to this locality, is no small harvest for a naturalist to reap 
in a fortnight, especially when it is considered that six days of that fortnight 
were lost, in a manner, at sea.” And then follows a characteristic nota bene :-— 
“ Must go back to Shetland.” In 1841 I went to Lerwick, and dredged there, 
not being aware of Forbes haying preceded me. Twenty-one species of 
testaceous Mollusca, none of which had been noticed by Fleming as Zetlandic, 
were the fruits of that excursion. Thracia villosiuscula (Macgillivray), Rissoa 
rufilabrum (Alder), and Mangelia? nana (Lovén) were added by me to the 
British fauna on that occasion. Forbes accompanied his friend Mr. M‘Andrew, 


* ©Life of Edward Forbes, by Wilson and Geikie, p. 245. 


74 REPORT—1863. 


in the year 1845, in a yachting voyage to the west coast of Shetland; and he 
was enabled to make another addition to the list, in ZYrochus occidentalis 
(Mighels and Adams), Cerithiopsis metula (Lovén), and Aporrhais pes-carbonis 
(Brongniart?). This excursion occupied some time. Besides the last-men- 
tioned Mollusca, Forbes discovered many new species of Medusa and two new 
Echinoderms, In 1848 I again took my dredge to Lerwick, in order to 
complete a monograph on the British and Irish species of Odostomia for the 
Meeting of the Association held that year at Swansea. I found one more 
novelty in the way of Mollusca, viz. Cylichna conulus (8. Wood), which was 
then known only as a coralline-crag shell. My late friend, Mr. Barlee, went, 
at my suggestion, to Lerwick in 1857, and to the Whalsey or Outer Skerries, 
on the east coast of Shetland, in 1858, dredging for many weeks each year. 
I was by his means enabled to increase the list of indigenous Testacea by the 
goodly number of nine, viz. Pecten wratus (Gmelin), Arca nodulosa (Miiller), 
Poromya? subtrigona (Jeffreys), Skenea nitida (Jeffreys), Jeffreysia globularis 
(Jeffreys), Hulima stenostoma (Jeffreys), Odostomia minima (Jeffreys), and a 
shell belonging to a new genus allied to 7'richotropis, and which I provisionally 
named Recluzia aperta. A good yacht having been lent to me in 1861 bya 
relative, I revisited Shetland for the third time, being accompanied by my 
friends Waller and Norman. We took up our quarters at the Out-Skerries 
Lighthouse. In spite of storms and calms, we were tolerably successful; and 
I presented to the Association, at the Manchester Meeting in that year, a 
communication relative to the deep-sea dredging of Mollusca. Mr. Norman 
followed suit with regard to the Crustacea and Echinoderms. The Report 
for 1861 will testify to the amount of work done. Among the Mollusca were 
two quite new to science, viz. Aclis Walleri (Jeffreys) and A, septemradiatus 
(Jeffreys), and nine other species which had not before been found or noticed in 
our seas, viz. Leda pernula (Miiller), Newra rostrata (Chemnitz), Oleodora 
pyramidata (Eydoux and Souleyet), Dentalium abyssorum (Sars), Margarita 
maculata (Searles Wood), Cerithiopsis costulata (Miller), Plewrotoma nivale 
(Lovén), Fusus Islandicus (Chemnitz), and Cylichna alba (Brown). The 
Cithara is unusually interesting in a geological point of view. It is an un- 
described fossil of the upper miocene, and has not been discovered in any 
newer formation. I lately detected two specimens (one adult and the other 
young) in the extensive collection of M. F. Cailliaud at Nantes from the 
“faluns” of Touraine ; and he most obligingly presented them to me for the 
sake of comparison. I afterwards showed these specimens to the great 
paleontologist, Deshayes ; but he was unacquainted with the species. Even 
the animal of the genus to which it belongs (Cythara, Schumacher) was 
previously unknown to science. With respect to the Margarita I may 
remark that the recent shell is of a pure and delicate pearl-white, with 
an iridescent gloss, and so unlike in appearance to the small and dingy 
fossil specimens found in the Coralline Crag that I had at first no 
suspicion that they were the same species, and I proposed to give to the 
recent shell the name of elegantula. The name of maculata is derived 
from ferruginous blotches which disfigure some of the fossil specimens, 
However, I am now satisfied that the Shetland specimens do not differ 
specifically from those of the Crag, and I must relinquish the name of 
elegantula in favour of the name given by its first discoverer, although the 
latter is exceedingly inappropriate and likely to mislead. The animal, as well 
as the shell, are exquisitely beautiful objects. Many novelties were also 
discovered among the Nudibranchs, Crustacea, Echinoderms, and Hydroid 
Polypes, for which I must refer to the valuable communications of Mr. Alder 


DREDGING ON THE COASTS OF SHETLAND. 75 


and Mr. Norman. I could not resist the temptation of repeating my visit, last 
year, to the “ultima Thule” (if the ancients knew Shetland and called it by 
that name) ; and I was much pleased to have Professor Allman as my colleague, 
This-time we stayed at Balta. The vessel I hired, although neat to the eye, 
turned out to be a poor and unseaworthy craft, and consequently was not of 
much use. We were greatly disappointed; and our dredging was cut short 
by the rudder-post being broken in a heavy sea. I succeeded, nevertheless, 
im procuring a live specimen of Limopsis aurita (Brocchi), only known before 
as a miocene fossil and from the Coralline Crag; and Mr. Waller detected in 
some of the dredged sand, which I sent to him for examination, two fresh 
valves of Lima Sarsii (Lovén), a new species of Rissoa (to which he proposes 
to give my name), and Cleodora infundibulum (8. Wood), the latter also a 
Coralline Crag species, and hitherto unnoticed as recent. This year were 
obtained two more species of Mollusca new to the British fauna, viz. 
Arca obliqua (Philippi) and Scaphander librarius (Loven), besides four 
perfect specimens of Limopsis aurita (three of them living), three speci- 
mens of Lissoa Jeffreysi, the same number of Cithara haliaéti (one living), 
and a few very rare species, such as Spirialis Macandrei and Avinus Crouls. 
nensis, Two species (Aclis unica and Odostomia cylindrica), which had 
been considered southern forms, occurred for the first time in these northern 
latitudes, I had likewise an opportunity of confirming and extending some 
observations which I had made on former occasions as to the nature of the 
sea-bottom and bathymetrical conditions, as well as with respect to the 
bearing of these dredging-operations on certain geological phenomena. 

The detailed result of all the explorations during the last few years in 
the Shetland seas, so far as they relate to the Mollusca, will be stated at 
the end of this Report. The first Table contains a list of species which 
I have added from this source to the British fauna since the publication of 
Forbes and Hanley’s work. They are twenty-two in number. The second 
gives only a single species, which is as yet unknown elsewhere, either as recent 
or fossil, The third comprises the species (seven in number) which areunknown 
elsewhere, except in a fossil state; and the fourth such as are confined to this 
part of the British seas, being twenty-three innumber. All these last-mentioned 
species are Scandinavian—a result which might have been expected from 
the geographical situation of the dredging-ground. The distance between 
the Whalsey or Out-Skerries and the opposite coasts of Norway is scarcely 
150 miles; and this is reduced by from 20 to 50 miles where the dredgings 
were mostly carried on. 

Besides the Mollusca, some of the rarest and finest Echinoderms (e.g. 
Astrophyton Linkii, Echinarachnus placenta, and Cidaris papillosa) are only 
to be found as British in this part of our seas. Mr. Spence Bate and Mr. 
Norman have described from this source several new Crustacea, Mr. Alder 
some Nudibranchs and Zoophytes, and Professor Busk species of Polyzoa 
which had been previously considered as belonging only to the Coralline 
Crag; and Mr. Brady has noticed a great many forms or species of Forami- 
nifera heretofore said to be peculiar to the chalk and tertiary strata. 

Beyond twenty miles seaward of Unst the tides are scarcely, if at all, felt ; 
and the dredgings afforded no evidence of any marine current. In calm 
weather, the rope when hauled up was perpendicular, or (as sailors call it) 
* straight up and down.” The depth was about 85 fathoms, and it varied 
but little for several miles further out to sea or in a parallel line. Here and 
for many square leagues north, east, and west there seems to be a still or 
quiescent region at the bottom of the ocean, unaffected by the storms which 


76 REPORT~1863. 


so often vex the surface. From this part of the sea-bed were often brought 
up loose boulders, stones, and pebbles, of various sizes; some of them were 
rounded, and others angular, but all more or less covered with Zoophytes. 
Some of the so-called corals attached to these stones were exceedingly fragile 
and delicate; and if the sea-bottom from which they were taken had been 
subject to the action of tides or currents, however feeble, the corals would 
assuredly be broken to pieces by the stones being rolled and coming into con- 
tact with each other. Even the underside of the smallest pebbles was usually 
encrusted with exquisitely fine living Polyzoa, which had not suffered any 
injury by lying loose on the ground. But, of course, the sea at such depths 
never stagnates ; it has a constant and free circulation throughout, and a 
ceaseless interchange of particles. In this region now live the species pre- 
viously known only in a fossil state and occurring in the middle and upper 
tertiary strata, and which might therefore be supposed to have become extinct 
on the advent of the glacial epoch. Considering the vast extent of sea-bottom 
which has never been touched by the dredge, the exceedingly limited space 
measured in square acres which can be explored by means of it, and the in- 
finite variety of ground comprised within any given area, I would suggest that 
great caution should be used, and further inquiries made, before the common 
expression is hazarded that certain species are now “ dying out,” whether 
slowly, gradually, or rapidly. I do not believe that such is the case. The 
fact of finding only dead shells in a particular spot is no proof that living 
ones cannot be met with in the same district. There may be, and often is, 
an accumulation of dead shells in one place, like bones in a grave-yard, in 
consequence of the shell-fish having deserted it for some reason with which 
we are not acquainted, while the living brood migrates or shifts its quarters. 
The proportion of dead to living specimens, even of common species which 
are not supposed to be “dying out,” is often remarkable. Among many 
hundred single valves of Lima subauriculata which were this year dredged 
in Shetland, there was only one live specimen. Scalaria Turtoni has lately been 
dredged in considerable numbers off the Yorkshire coast ; but all the speci- 
mens were dead. No one has yet found a live Adeorbis subcarinatus, although 
it is by no means uncommon in the greater part of the European seas. The 
late Professor Forbes described, in his admirable contribution to the Memoirs 
of the Geological Survey for 1846, what he called “a boreal outlier,” or 
isolated assemblage of northern shells, which he found while dredging with 
Mr. M‘Andrew in the deeps of Loch Fyne. He said, “The dead Mollusks 
taken were Abra Boysii, a species of similar range with Nucula nucleus ; 
Cardium Lovéni, a Scandinavian species; and Pecten Danicus, a Norwegian 
species found only in the British seas, in the lochs of the Clyde, and then 
rarely alive, though dead shells are abundant, as if the species thus isolated 
were now dying out.” Having had peculiar opportunities of studying the 
geographical distribution of the British Mollusca, I may mention that the 
species first named (Abra Boysii, or Scrobicularia alba) inhabits the Mediter- 
ranean, as well as the western coast of France ; Cardium Lovéni, or C. Sueci- 
cum, is identical with C. minimum of Philippi, and is also a Mediterranean 
species; and Pecten Danicus (or P. septemradiatus, alias P. adspersus) has 
an equally southern range, although it is known in France and Italy by 
names differing from those which have been given to the same species in the 
north. P. septemradiatus is taken alive in considerable numbers by the fisher- 
men in Loch Fyne, during the herring-season. Mr. Barlee obtained from them, 
ten years ago, two or three hundred perfect specimens during a short stay at 
Inyerary ; the principal shell-dealers continually receive supplies of this 


DREDGING ON THE COASTS OF SHETLAND. 77 


pretty shell, and the stock seems to be inexhaustible. ‘Mr. Norman reminds me 
of Pomatoceros arietinus, Caryophyllia clavus, Comatula Sars, and Echinus 
Norvegicus as occurring under similar conditions. I am confident that if my 
distinguished friend were now alive, he would candidly acknowledge that 
his first impression had not been confirmed, or at least that it was modified 
by subsequent observations. 

No species appears to be confined to any limited district, although it may 
be locally distributed. The circumstance of its not having been found else- 
where is by no means a satisfactory proof that it does not exist beyond the sup- 
posed boundary. The more the bottom of the sea is explored, the greater 
will be the known extent of distribution. Instances in support of this pro- 
position are so numerous that it is hardly necessary to adduce them, Among 
the bivalves, Lepton squamosum, and among the univalves, Rissow abyssicola, 
may be cited as examples. Both of them were at one time said to be pecu- 
liar to our seas ; but it has now been ascertained that they have a wide range, 
north as well as south of Great Britain, in other parts of the Atlantic 
Ocean. 

The sea-bed is often greatly diversified within the same district, both as regards 
its shape and composition. Whenever the vessel was of sufficient size, I have 
had two dredges put out at the same time ; so that directly one has been taken 
up the other is being hauled in. It has more than once happened that the 
contents of the second dredge were quite different from those of the first, the 
one consisting of shell-sand and the other of stones, or vice versd. The 
depth of water remained the same. This change of ground must have taken 
place in the interval of a few minutes, when the first dredge was being 
taken up, and during which the vessel could not have drifted more than a 
couple of hundred yards. The vessel’s head is always kept nearly to 
windward while she is dredging, so that she may not have too much way. 
A mile an hour is reckoned quite fast enough to keep her steadily at work. 

Vast numbers of Gilobigerine abound everywhere in the dredged shell- 
sand. Dr. Wallich says*, “ It is evident that there is an intimate associa- 
tion between the Gilobigerina-deposits and the Gulf-stream ; for wherever 
we trace the one sweeping across the surface of the ocean, we are almost sure 
to detect the other resting on the sea-bed; and when we fail to trace the, 
one, we almost as surely fail to detect the other.” But it does not appear 
that the Gulf-stream impinges on the northern or eastern coasts of Shetland. 
No seeds, no Janthine, Velelle, or driftwood from the tropics have ever 
been picked up on these shores. On the contrary, the only driftwood 
which is here found floating or cast ashore consists of pine-trees from Nor- 
way—sometimes with their roots, and usually drilled by Teredo nana, being 
the same species that attacks fixed and submerged wood or boats lying long at 
anchor on the Shetland and Scandinavian coasts. Wood is too scarce and 
valuable a commodity in the treeless isles of Shetland to be disregarded by 
the natives. A Norway log is one of their chief prizes. It would seem 
from the foregoing facts that the Globigerina-deposits are generally distri- 
buted over the floor of the deep sea throughout a very extensive tract, irre- 
spective of the course of the Gulf-stream. 

Occasionally a little world of living animals is seen to occupy a single 
dead shell. An instance of such a microcosm was observed on a specimen 
of Buccinopsis Dalei, var. eburnea. Far within the shell an Annelid took up 
its abode. This may have been the first occupant after the true inhabitant 
had been cleared out, and it probably assisted in the evacuation. A Hermit 


* The North Atlantic Sea-bed, p. 137. 


78 REPORT—1863. 


Crab (Pagurus Prideauxii) kept possession of the body or last whorl; and a 
Sea-anemone (Adamsia palliata) enveloped the whole surface of the shell 
with its slimy mass, This group of various animals formed “a happy 
family,” and did not seem to interfere in the least with one another. 

There is good reason to believe that the sea-bed in this district has sunk 
considerably since the close of the glacial epoch. Single valves of Rhyn- 
chonella psittacea, Pecten Islandicus, Astarte borealis (or arctica), Tellina cal- 
carea (or prowima), and Mya truncata, var. Uddevallensis, as well as dead 
shells of Trophon clathratus (or scalariformis), are occasionally brought up 
by the dredge from depths of between 75 and 85 fathoms, and in various 
parts of our northern sea, All the specimens have an unmistakeably fossilized 
or dull appearance, compared with that which distinguishes dead shells of 
other species still existing in the same locality. They are very different in 
that respect from the shells of Columbella Holbéllii, and other species dredged 
off the coast of Antrim but not alive. These last are quite fresh-looking, 
and may never have been exposed to the air or parted with the animal matter 
which permeates the shell. None of the species first enumerated have ever 
been found in a living or recent state in the British seas. All are essentially 
Arctic forms. Their usual habitat is in rather shallow water ; and the variety 
of Mya truncata lives between tide-marks. Other species of Mollusca, which 
are common in our seas, and inhabit the sublittoral or laminarian zone on 
the southern coasts, are found only in deep water off the Shetland Isles. 
Such are Lamellaria perspicua, Nassa inerassata, and Cyprea Europea. 
Not one of these last is an Arctic form. I have already noticed the pecu- 
larity of their occurrence at the above-mentioned depths, in the Report 
which I had the honour to present to the Association in 1861, and I ven- 
tured to express an opinion that it was owing to this part of our northern 
sea-bed having sunk within a comparatively recent period. Dr. Wallich 
has since confirmed this impression on my part by his history of the “ sunken 
land of Buss,” in the North Atlantic, not far from which supposed tract he 
found several specimens of Ophiocoma granulata living at the enormous depth 
of 1260 fathoms, the same species inhabiting on the opposite coast of Iceland 
from 10 to 20 fathoms only. Now, inasmuch as Pecten Islandicus and the 
other Arctic species above named are large and conspicuous forms, as well as 
gregarious in the places where they are now found, the question naturally 
arises, ““ Why has not a single living individual ever been discovered in that 
part of the British sea where the dead shells are not uncommon, although 
it has been sufficiently explored?” It cannot be said that they have died 
out, or become extinct, in consequence of the water having become of a 
higher temperature than it was during the period when they formerly in- 
habited the same part of the sea, or because some other conditions, unfa- 
vourable to their existence, have supervened. We have no proof or reason 
to believe that the temperature of the sea at a depth exceeding 75 fathoms 
has been at any time since that period different from what it is at present. 
Very many species of Mollusca, which are natives of the Polar sea, are also 
inhabitants of our coasts, where they apparently have not suffered the least 
diminution in number or vigour, although they may have dwindled in size. 
Several of the peculiarly Arctic forms above referred to, and which no longer 
live in the British seas, continue to exist in a parallel latitude on the 
coast of Norway; and two of them (Astarte borealis and Tellina calearea) 
survive in Kiel Bay, more than 5° south of Unst, at a depth not exceeding 
25 fathoms. I therefore can only account for this apparent extermina- 
tion in our seas of the six species in question by suggesting that the 


DREDGING ON THE COASTS OF SHETLAND. 79 


bed which they once inhabited was raised and became dry land; that it 
remained in that state for a period sufficiently long not only to destroy the 
entire brood, but also to semifossilize the shells by exposure to the action of 
the open air; that subsequently the tract was submerged, and again formed 
the sea-bed; and that it is still sinking by slow and perhaps imperceptible 
degrees. In this way the shallow-water species, as Nassa incrassata, would 
be gradually habituated to greater and greater depths, like the North At- 
lantic Starfishes. 

Living Mollusca, procured from a depth of 75 fathoms and upwards, being 
placed in a shallow vessel of sea-water taken from the beach, did not seem 
to be in the slightest degree affected by the sudden change of bathymetrical 
conditions. With a solitary exception (that of Cithara haliaéti), all continued 
for a long time vigorous and active. They fed, crawled, leapt, and swam or 
floated immediately below the surface of the water in an inverted position. 
One pair of Marginella levis was actually engaged for several hours together 
in celebrating the rites of “alma Venus”! It was not necessary to renew 
often the supply of water in order to ensure this state of liveliness. I kept 
many of them, and observed their habits, for three days, when they were 
killed for the sake of their shells. 

I consider all marine beds, of comparatively recent formation, to be 
necessarily fossiliferous, assuming that the same causes which now exist were 
in operation during that period. Evenif these beds do not contain the shells 
of Mollusca, the remains of other animals, or certainly some microscopic 
organisms (such as Foraminifera and Diatoms), can be detected by a careful 
examination. I am aware that this opinion is opposed to that of some able 
geologists. Mr. Geikie says, in his recent treatise ‘On the Phenomena of 
the Glacial Drift of Scotland’ (p. 126), ‘«I believe the greater part of this 
drift, though it is unfossiliferous, to be of marine origin. Its occurrence on 
water-sheds or on the sides of mountains and hills far out of the reach 
of any stream seems sufficient evidence that in such cases fluviatile action 
must have been impossible. And in these situations the mounds of sand and 
gravel are exactly comparable with others which occur in lower parts of 
the country. It is difficult, therefore, to avoid regarding the whole as due 
to the operation of some one general agency. This agency was, in all like- 
lihood, the waters of the ocean.’ The non-existence of fluviatile action in 
the places above referred to, at the time when the so-called drift was de- 
posited, does not seem to me proved, taking into consideration the changes 
of level which may have since taken place. In certain inlets or arms of the 
sea, rivers flowing into them may have a sufficient velocity to sweep the 
middle of the channel, and prevent the deposit of any mud or sediment 
which would shelter certain animals. Indeed the continual action of the. 
eurrent might preclude the possibility of any animal living within the pro- 
hibited area ; and in that case the central bed of the channel might be partly 
covered with clear sand, devoid of any organized structure. An illustration 
_ of this phenomenon will be found in Dr. Wallich’s account of Hamilton’s 
Inlet, Labrador. Butsuch cases are rare, if not exceptional ; and not only are 
the limits of such lifeless areas very circumscribed, but the absence of marine 
organisms may be attributable to the destructive property of fresh water. 
* Many kinds of animals are known to exist and flourish in the most rapid 
tideways and even in whirlpools; and the water of the ocean everywhere 
teems with life. The dredge has never yet failed to bring up organic re- 
mains from every part of the sea-bed which has been explored, however un- 
promising it may appear to the naturalist. Even in the cleanest-looking 


80 REPORT—1863. 


sand, taken from any spot beyond the reach of fluviatile action, some ma- 
rine débris may be found. Having these facts and some experience to 
guide us in the inquiry, I think we ought not to call any strata which are 
unfossiliferous marine, unless there are sufficient grounds for supposing that 
the absence of fossils is caused by chemical absorption or decomposition. 

The subjoined Appendix will show the additions made to the list of British 
Mollusca in consequence of the Shetland dredgings. 

Mr. Norman and Mr. Brady will give in subsequent papers the results as 
regards other departments of the marine Invertebrata; and we hope to com- 
plete and publish next year a full catalogue of all the species. 

I submitted to the inspection of Mr. Prestwich a sample of small gravel 
dredged up from 85 fathoms, and about 25 miles off Unst; and that eminent 
geologist has favoured me with the report which will be also found appended 
to thiscommunication. One of these specimens deserves especial notice. It is 
& piece of conglomerate, composed of granitic and other fragments cemented 
by carbonate of lime. There is no calcareous rock within a considerable 
distance from the spot where this piece of conglomerate was found, It may 
be doubted whether the cement could have arisen from the re-solution of 
dead shells. The probability is that the specimen in question may have 
been carried during the glacial epoch by an iceberg or coast-ice from Nor- 
way. I have a large mass of conglomerate, composed principally of recent 
shells of a southern form, which was dredged between Jersey and the oppo- 
site coast of France; but this may haye been formed by a submarine spring, 
charged either with carbonate of lime derived from the underlying chalk, or 
with carbonic acid sufficiently strong to dissolve any calcareous matter within 
the range of its action. The shells contained in the last-mentioned piece of 
conglomerate have not undergone any dissolution. I agree with Dr. Wal- 
lich as to the probability that “‘the demand for carbonate of lime at the 
bottom of the sea is limited only by the supply,” and that there is no evi- 
dence of supersaturation as regards a material so essential to the construc- 
tion of shells and similar organisms. For the elucidation of such minor pro- 
blems as this we invite the attention of chemists and geologists, 


APPENDIX. 
Moxtvsca. 


1. Species found in Shetland, and added to the list since the publication of 
Forbes and Hanley’s work. 


Pectenaratus, Gmelin. (P. sulcatus, Mill.) | Rissoa Jeffreysi, Waller. 


Lima Sarsii, Lovén. Odostomia minima, Jeffreys. 
Leda pernula, Miiller. Aclis Walleri, Jeffreys, MS. 
Limopsis aurita, Brocchi. Eulima stenostoma, Jeffreys. 
Arca nodulosa, Miiller. Cerithiopsis costulata, Moller. (Cerithium 


A. obliqua, Philippi. (A. Korenii, Daniels- niveum, Jeffreys.) 
sen. ? aperta, Jeffreys (as Recluzia aperta). 


Newra rostrata, Chemnitz. Pleurostoma nivale, Lovén. 

Cleodora infundibulum, 8. Wood. Cithara haliaéti, Jeffreys, MS. 

C. pyramidata, Zydoux and Souleyet. Fusus Islandicus, Chemnitz. 

Dentalium abyssorum, Sars. Scaphander librarius, Lovén. 

Margarita maculata, 8. Wood. (M.elegan- | Cylichna alba, Brown. (C. triticea, Cou- 
tula, Jeffreys, MS.) thouy.) 


2. Species unknown elsewhere, either as recent or fossil, 
Jeffreysia globularis, Jeffreys, 


PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF THE BROMIDE OF AMMONIUM. 8l 


3. Species unknown elsewhere, except as fossil. 


Limopsis anrita. Miocene and Pliocene. 

Cleodora infundibulum. Coralline Crag. 

Margarita maculata. Coralline Crag. 

Skenea nitida, Philippi. (S. levis, Forbes 
and Hanley.) Sicilian Tertiaries. 


Odostomia minima, : 
Aporrhais pes-carbonis, Brongniart? Mio- 


cene. 
Cylichna conulus, S. Wood. Coralline Crag. 


Coralline Crag 


4, Species confined to this part of the British seas, but also Scandinavian. 


Terebratula cranium, Miller. 
Pecten aratus. 

Lima Sarsii. 

Leda pernula. 

Arca nodulosa. 

A. obliqua (Sicilian). 

Nezra rostrata (Mediterranean). 
Cleodora pyramidata (North Atlantic). 
Chiton albus, Linné. 

Dentalium abyssorum. 
Scissurella crispata, Fleming. 
Rissoa Jeffreysi. 


Odostomia ? eximia. 
Aclis Walleri. 
Eulima stenostoma. 
Cerithiopsis costulata, 
C. metula, Lovén. 

C. ? aperta. 
Pleurotoma nivalis. 
Cithara haliaéti. 
Fusus Islandicus. 
Scaphander librarius. 
Cylichna alba. 


5. Description of small rock-fragments or gravel dredged up from 85 fathoms 
off the north coast of Shetland. 


4 fragments of white quartz-pebbles. 
2 angular fragments of white (vein) quartz. 
2 subangular fragments of dark grey quartz- 


ite. 

1 subangular fragment of light brown cal- 
careous sandstone. 

2 subangular fragments of brown micaceous 
sandstone, slightly calcareous. 

1 subangular fragment of argillaceous black 
limestone. 

4 angular fragments of hornblende rock. 

1 subangular fragment of red syenite. 

2 angular fragments of red syenite. 

3 angular fragments of light red granite. 

2 pebbles of light red granite. 


1 subangular fragment of red pygmatite. 

2 subangular fragments of light red quartz- 
ose sandstone. 

1 subangular fragment of white quartzose 
sandstone, 

2 subangular fragments of red porphyry. 

2 angular fragments of light-coloured gra~ 
nite 


1 subangular fragment of dark red porphyry. 

1 angular fragment of grey quartzite. 

1 small pebble of grey granite. 

1 fragment of pebble of hornblende rock. 

1 fragment of conglomerate, composed of 
the above materials, with a calcareous 
cement. 


N.B. Mr. Prestwich remarks that these rock-fragments are so small that 
it is possible, or rather probable, that the fragments designated « pygma- 
tite,” “porphyry,” and “hornblende” may in fact all belong to one granite 
rock. He is of opinion that the cement of the conglomerate may be derived 
from the calcareous matter of shells or Bryozoa. 


Report on the Physiological Effects of the Bromide of Ammonium. By 
Grorce D. Gis, M.D., M.A., F.G.S., F.A.S., Physician to the 
West London Hospital, and Assistant-Physician and Medical 
Registrar to the Westminster Hospital, London. 


Bromine and its salts have been known for many years to possess con- 
siderable virtues, and some remarkable instances of their peculiar effects, 
physiological and medical, have been placed upon record. Amongst others, 
the power of absorbing hypertrophied structure has been observed, especially 
enlargements of the spleen and liver, lymphatic glands, and scirrhous 
growths, 

1863, G 


- 82 REPORT—1863, 


In an excellent essay by Dr. R. M. Glover (at one time a resident in 
Newcastle and afterwards in London), published in the Edin. Med. and 
Surg. Journ. for October 1842, there is a list of the diseases in which either 
bromine or some one of its preparations has been employed, but amongst 
the latter the bromide of ammonium is not mentioned. 

The salt hitherto, it may be said almost solely, in use has been the bro- 
mide of potassium, considered by many physiologists analogous in its effects 
to the iodide of the same base, only that it is slower in its action. The persons 
whose names are deserying of mention in relation to the potassium salt, are 
the late Dr. T. Williams of London, who found it of great benefit in enlarged 
spleen; Pourché, who treated bronchocele and scrofula with success; and in 
a number of cases of pseudo-membranous disease, including a few of croup, 
M. Ozanam found it of especial value, Cancer is another disease successfully 
treated with it by Mr. Spencer Wells, in doses of five to ten grains three 
times a day, with cod-liver oil (Med. Times, July 1857, p, 31). 

In the course of its use M, Huette observed that anesthesia of the fauces 
was a result which its administration caused; and this circumstance, at first 
looked upon as objectionable, I have endeavoured to turn to account, as a 
physiological result of extreme value and importance in the practice of medi- 
cine, either in examinations of the throat and nostrils, or for the perform- 
ance of operations upon either, or in the interior of the windpipe from above, 
by means of the laryngeal mirror, 

To effect this object the bromide of potassium was freely given internally 
in large doses, but it failed to bring about this result, unless in a very few 
instances, its action varying according to the idiosyncrasy possessed by the 
individuals experimented upon, Its local action, although perhaps a little 
more certain and decided, was not to be relied upon. 

On looking through the other salts of bromine, none seemed likely to 
possess more of the anesthetic power than that of potassium; haying had 
some experience, nevertheless, of the reliable yalue of the preparation known 
as the iodide of ammonium, it struck me that the analogous substance (bro- 
mide of ammonium) might prove more efficacious than the potassium salt, 
from the union of bromine with a base of great power, ready absorption, 
exerting a decided influence upon the fluidity of the blood, and moreover 
the remedy for poisoning by bromine, as recommended by Mr. Alfred Smee, 
namely ammonium, I was not aware at the time that it was employed for 
photographic purposes, probably more or less impure, but had the salt care- 
fully prepared for my experiments by Messrs. Fincham of Baker Street, 
London. 

The bromide of ammonium when pure is perfectly white and amorphous, 
with a feeble odour of sea-weeds. Under the microscope the salt is clear 
and transparent, and not crystalline nor deliquescent. It can, however, be 
crystallized in cakes or quadrangular prisms. It possesses a slightly pungent 
saline taste, not so sharp as that of common salt, nor so acrid as the bromide 
of potassium. 

Agreeably to the request of the General Committee, I have performed a 
large number of experiments since bringing the subject before the Association 
last year at Cambridge, but the present Report combines the whole of the 
more important of my experiments from the first use of the salt, and from 
which are deduced its physiological and therapeutical properties. 

In pursuing this inquiry, the salt has been administered in small doses at 
interyals more or less long-continued, in large doses frequently repeated or 
given at intervals, and in single daily doses. A comparison is also instituted 


PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF THE BROMIDE OF AMMONIUM. 83 


between the relative effects of this salt and the bromide of potassium, It 
may be mentioned that in these different experiments healthy persons were 
selected; and according to the results obtained, so were certain diseases sub- 
mitted to treatment to more fully bear out and confirm the physiological 
effects noticed, 

Effects of small Doses—About one hundred healthy persons, male and 
female, of various ages, were given small doses of the salt, ranging from one 
to five grains, three times or more a day, in water as a vehicle, and in some 
combined with a simple colouring agent, such as the tincture of alkanet 
root or other substance. The period of its continuance varied from three 
weeks to several months, and the results were carefully noted. All were in 
tolerably good health, or nearly so; or if affected with any particular ailment, 
it did not appear to be likely to interfere with the action of the drug, 

Two striking results were soon noticed in the greater number; namely, 
increase in the power of the appetite, and improvement of the complexion, 
With regard to the former, its action was that of a decided tonic; for whilst 
the persons ate more food than had been their custom, they were able to 
digest it well; the drug appeared to impart a soothing and comfortable sensa- 
tion, There neyer was any tormina nor the slightest tendency to intestinal 
relaxation; but the general functions appeared to be regularly and con- 
sistently performed, The tongue assumed a natural and clean appearance, 
and was moist; the skin and mucous membrane (presently to be noticed) 
performed their functions well ; the circulation was not increased nor lessened ; 
the heart’s action continued regular, the pulse possessing good power and 
volume, and comfort was experienced after meals. If there were indications 
of indigestion or dyspepsia before the use of the salt, they yielded to the 
small doses given, In six or seven cases, a mild diuretic effect was observed, 

If the small doses were continued for some time these effects were not 
always continuous, and in a few persons slight nausea was produced, with 
an impairment of the appetite; this was especially so if the drug was given 
in four- or five-grain doses. In three cases only was there a little headache, 
with giddiness and light-headedness, but the intellectual faculties were 
unimpaired, 

Coincident with the increase of appetite was a marked clearing of the 
complexion, particularly observable if the face was naturally florid or the 
skin very red, This redness or floridity became paler, decidedly paler, and 
the skin assumed a fine transparent freshness, indicative of healthy function. 

Dinginess, slight sallowness, or a heightened complexion became modified 
or altered, so that a more healthy, slightly pink colour was assumed, These 
effects were noticed sometimes when the salt had been taken but a few days ; 
and the improvement in the skin was so apparent, that it has attracted the 
notice of the friends of the persons under experiment. 

Applying this result pathologically, I found the salt very serviceable in a 
variety of cutaneous affections, the eruptions fading away reasonably fast, 
and the individuals looking as clean and as clear about the complexion as if 
they had just come out of a bath. The results were very striking, and posi- 
tiyely beneficial upon the skin. They are produced also by the other salts 
of bromine, but perhaps not in the same degree; I therefore feel justified in 
denominating the bromide of ammonium, amongst its other properties, as a 
beautifier of the complexion and cleanser of the skin, It appears to act by 
gently stimulating the capillaries of both the skin and mucous membrane ;. 
and secretion is excited in both by small doses of the salt, independently of 
exercise and increased diet. 

a2 


84 REPORT—1863. 


Local and Constitutional Effects on the Mucous Membrane.—If the mucous 
membrane of the mouth and throat has been dry, or secreted less than natural, 
a healthy moisture is produced by small doses internally, which has proved 
yery agreeable. In an instance wherein the taste was blunted and impaired, 
so that the sapid character of the solution employed locally was not noticed, 
it almost immediately improved, and became more sensitive to impressions. 
This is known to be the reverse with salts of iodine, which often produce a 
disagreeably bitter taste, pervading in some instances almost everything 
swallowed. 

Although it will improve sensation in small doses or single applications, its 
essential property is exerted upon the sensation of the minute nerves of the 
mucous membrane of the soft palate and pharynx, the former especially. 
When locally applied, dissolved in water, or glycerine and water, a remark- 
ably tranquil soothing influence is brought about, which continues for a 
certain period of time, and then passes off. 

If the strength of the solution is increased, the perhaps heretofore dry 
membrane has its follicles stimulated; and whilst secretion is increased, 
sensation is somewhat diminished; but this last property varies in different 
individuals. If now topical application be resorted to through the aid of a 
tolerably strong solution of the salt, say from two to eight drachms, or even 
more, in six ounces of water, used either as a gargle or a paint every half- 
hour, the throat will become in a condition of mild local anesthesia, that is 
to say, loss of sensation confined to the fauces, which will be more or less 
complete according to the susceptibilities of the individual and the period 
during which the solution is employed. I have seen it occur from the first 
to the ninth day; and the continuance of the anesthesia will afterwards 
depend upon the amount of the salt locally absorbed, but generally diminish- 
ing after the first twenty-four hours, and not unfrequently continuing as 
long as three days. 

Knowing that this anesthetic property was attributed to the bromide of 
potassium by M. Huette, and applied by M. Gosselin in staphyloraphy*, I 
was prepared for its occurrence with the salt of ammonium, but the result of 
my experiments warrant me in saying that, whilst the anesthesia is more 
complete and certain, it produces less inconvenience in relation to the sense 
of taste than does the bromide of potassium. The importance of this anes- 
thetic property cannot indeed be over-estimated in its application to a num- 
ber of subjects connected with the throat especially, as modifying degrees of 
natural irritability, pain, sensation, secretion, mobility, and absorption. 

Effects of large Doses.—It may be as well to mention here that the ex- 
periments of M. Huette with the sister salt, the bromide of potassium, went 
to show that headache was sometimes observed on the third day, but ordi- 
narily occurred from the fourth to the seventh day, when the daily dose of 
the salt had reached from two to five drachms t. 

According to its continuance in large doses, so were produced torpor and 
drowsiness, lowering of the pulse (40 to 48), vomiting and continued sleep, 
and finally a form of peculiar intoxication, characterized by impaired sight 
and hearing, utter helplessness and insensibility. Weakness of the mind and 
torpor of the genitals were other effects noticed. Among the special effects 
of the salt, one of the most remarkable, even from a feeble dose, observes 
M. Huette, is profound insensibility of the yelum and pharynx, which persists 
throughout the duration of the treatment. How far the bromide of ammo- 

* Gazette Médicale, April 14, 1860, p. 223. 
t Annuaire de Thérapeutique, 1851, p. 216, 


PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF THE BROMIDE OF AMMONIUM. 85 


nium resembles the potassium salt, the following experiments will determine. 
Huette’s experiments with the latter show well its influence upon various 
parts of the mucous tract, although he says nothing about the skin; M. 
Rames, however, observed an instance wherein the skin was so completely 
insensible that its puncture with a needle was not felt, and tickling of the 
conjunctiva or fauces with a feather produced neither winking nor desire to 
yomit*, 

Jt was soon apparent in my own experiments with the bromide of ammo- 
nium that the entire mucous tract could be greatly influenced for good or 
for evil, according to the desire of the physiologist. And yet with proper 
care and judgment, we are furnished with an agent in this salt that promises 
to be of immense benefit to suffering humanity in many obscure and hereto- 
fore intractable diseases. 

Experiment 1.—A man aged 27, in robust health, was given half a drachm 
of the bromide of ammonium in an ounce of water, with a little syrup, every 
four hours. The first dose was given at eight, the next at twelve, the third 
at four, and the fourth at eight p.w. Nothing unusual was observed at 
night beyond an alteration in the sense of taste. Next day the dose was 
continued, and the taste gradually diminished until, at night, there was com- 
plete loss of it, and insensibility of the throat and fauces. The application 
of metallic or other substances was not felt, and apparently anything could 
have been done with the individual. The sense of smell was affected; the 
nose, however, did possess some sensation, and also the conjunctive. The 
mucous membrane was pale, watery, and not congested. Although taste 
was gone, he felt he had a tongue, and could swallow as usual, for the 
muscles retained their contractile power. Nothing else was specially ob- 
served, and in three days all the natural functions were restored, and sensa- 
tion was quite regained. 

Exp. 2.—The same experiment was repeated with the bromide of potassium 
in another man aged 32; and beyond some amount of nausea, slight head- 
ache, and very slight impairment of sensation and taste, nothing further was 
observed. 

Exp.3.—A man aged 37, in good health, with the exception of chronic 
hoarseness, was ordered half a drachm of the bromide of ammonium three 
times a day; this was regularly taken for three days, in all nine doses, equal 
to four and a half drachms. On the fourth day, although sensation was 
blunted, it was not absent, for the man had had a bilious attack just before 
commencing the salt, followed by vomiting. I now gave him thirty grains on 
the spot, and ordered two other similar quantities during the afternoon. 
These latter he did not take; nevertheless I succeeded in passing a little 
instrument into his windpipe with comparatively little or no sensation until 
it touched the epiglottis, when it was at once rejected. I now ordered him 
four doses of half a drachm each for the next day, beginning at three p.m, so 
that on the morning after he would have just swallowed the fourth before 
coming to me. This he did most punctually; and when he was examined, 
there was complete anesthesia of the mucous membrane of the fauces, nose, 
eyes, and eyelids. He had little or no taste, and no sensation in swallowing 
food, impaired smell, looked a little pale, but otherwise said he was well. 
Several times were instruments passed into the larynx without sensation, 
until they touched the epiglottis, and reflex action compelled their with- 
drawal. He was now given chloroform to insensibility; and on recovering 
from it, the anesthesia of the mucous membrane still remained, so that the 


* Journ. de Pharm., Dec. 1849, 


86 : REPORT—1863. 


whole of the eye could be touched with perfect impunity without winking. 
Two days after this most of these effects had disappeared, a previously 
hageard look had gone, and he felt all right again. Four days later he was 
perfectly well. He had taken altogether seven drachms of the salt. 

Exp. 4.Male, aged 42, health good. For three weeks the salt was given in 
doses of from four to eight grains thrice a day, which diminished the sensi- 
bility of the fauces. In the next two days half-drachm doses were given 
thrice a day; and as insensibility was not complete, a scruple was given 
every three hours for two days more. The result of this was complete 
angsthesia, so that bodies could be introduced into the larynx; but, as in 
the previous experiment, when coming into contact with the epiglottis, they 
had to be withdrawn from the excitation of reflex action. In from five to 
seven days sensation was quite regained, and all the functions restored with- 
out any inconvenience. 

Exp.5.—Male, aged 51, health good, excepting a laryngeal voice. For fifteen 
days he was given at first 24 and then 5 grains of the salt twice a day, with 
no noticeable effect beyond improving the appetite, voice, and complexion. 
He was then given twenty grains of the bromide four times a day for four 
days ; and on the morning of the fifth day there was anesthesia of the fauces, 
hose, mouth, and tongue; and all the special senses were somewhat affected. 
The stomach likewise, for he had no desire for food, although feeling well 
in health ; and he had little or no sensation in micturition. The countenance 
was paler than usual, the skin very clear, and the tongue clean. Differing 
from previous cases, the epiglottis was almost completely insensible, and but 
feebly influenced by the contact of instruments passed into the trachea. 
Next day he felt a little giddy and stupid; but in the three following days 
the senses of taste and smell were returning, appetite indifferent, tongue 
much furred, intestinal and renal secretions regular and normal in quantity, 
and sensation restored to the urethra. 

Fight days later he was sleepless, and had no desire for food nor for sleep ; 
a bitter taste was present in the mouth, with an odour of ptyalism; the 
prime vie were disordered: throat was now sensitive. In a few days all 
these symptoms disappeared; but it must be stated that they were partly 
due to an attack of cold from which he was then suffering. 

Exp. 6.—As in the first experiment, half a drachm of the salt was given 
to & man aged 35, in good health, every two hours, using chiefly a tea and 
bread diet: During the first day he took four drachms, the second the same 
quaiitity, and the third a similar quantity, when it had to be stopped. The 
syifiptoms the first day were very mich like those in Exp.1; on the 
second there was some giddiness and stupor, with impairment of sensation 
both in the skin and mucous membrane, but not amounting to complete 
anesthesia; on the third day he had passed a restless night, and towards 
evening he was like a man intoxicated; he felt light-headed and drowsy ; 
speech, hearing, and sight were materially affected ; he had no sense of smell 
not taste, nor any sensation in the mucous membrane of the throat, nose, 
ears, eyelids, and alimentary canal. Pressure was scarcely felt over the 
stofiach ahd bowels; there was no sensation in the urethra, and but little in 
the rectum; and the bladder would have been distended if he had not been 
requested to empty it; its contractile power was unimpaired. The sensibility 
of the skin was blunted, but not gone. 

General atiesthesia of the entire mucous tract, moré or less, had beet 
here produced, and it was deemed prudent not to catry out the administra-= 
tion of the salt further; the pulse was slow and regular, and forty-four per 


PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF THE BROMIDE OF AMMONIUM. 87 


tiinute; the breathing quiet and tranquil; the membrane of the fauces was 
secreting a transparent fluid, and there was no congestion. The symptoms 
were allowed to subside sua sponte. The salt was readily detected in the 
urine the first and subsequent days, and also in the saliva. In four days 
sensation had returned in the upper mucous tract, and then in the lower. 
Some natisea and anorexia remained for a week or ten days, and he regained 
his normal condition. All his powers were wholly unimpaired. 

Exp. 7.—Precisely similar steps were followed out with the bromide of 
potassium in a man aged 42 in good health, but the general results were by 
no means similar as affecting sensation. It was impaired, and slight anes- 
thesia was produced in the fauces. Yet the stupor was not so great, but 
headache was a prominent symptom, subsequently followed by giddiness and 
derangement of the digestive organs. 

Estimating the power of the two agents, the ammonium salt appeared to 
be more active, and produced the peculiar effects of bromine quicker than the 
potassium salt. 

In Experiments 6 and 7, four drachms of the respective salts were taken 
each day for three days, equivalent to 13 ounce. In the following the 
quantity was increased. 

Exp. 8.—A young man, aged 23, ruddy complexion, health good, voice 
weak, was given half a drachm every hour for twelve hours, beginning at 
seven in the morning. It was regularly taken with a drachm of the tincture 
of cardamoms to each dose. By the seventh dose, nausea and headache were 
produced ; these were lessened by the ninth, and at the tenth stupidity and 
drowsiness were manifest. When the twelfth was taken, intoxication 
seemed to be present, with incoherency of speech. It was difficult to say 
whether there was complete anxsthesia from the man’s condition, but he 
seemed to feel nothing, and the conjunctive could be touched with the end 
of the finger without winking. Pricking of the skin was not felt each time 
it was done. Breathing was slow, and the pulse fifty-two, quite regular. 
He slept very sound that night, and the next few days he felt giddy and 
confused, with impaired sensation of the mucous membrane of the fauces 
for two or three days, but recovered well. The quantity taken in twelve 
hours was six drachms. 

Exp. 9.—The same experiment was repeated in a female of 32, in fair 
average health. Nothing particular was observed whilst taking the drug 
beyond a little pallor, and reduction of the pulse from eighty to sixty-four. 
At night she felt more drowsy than usual, and faucial sensibility was dimi- 
nished. After a sound sleep of some hours during the night, she awoke 
with a furred tongue and offensive breath, and some nausea. On the third 
day the catamenia set in very profusely, and continued for some days. In 
the foregoing experiment, and also in Exp. 8, the bromide was readily detected 
in the urine. — 

Exp. 10.—Male, aged 78, in good general health, but seldom sleeping at 
night, was given ten grains twice a day for four days, then fifteen grains for 
six days, aiid then twenty grains for twelve days. The digestive functions 
continued good throughout, and the pulse remained constantly at seventy-six, 
regular, and with the hardness of old age. His strength was considerably 
increased, but no other change occurred deserving of note. He was a thin 
spare man. 

Exp. 11.—Twenty grains were given to a female aged 27 twice a day for 
fourteen days, without any inconvenience beyond losing flesh, and impaired 


sensibility of the throat. 


88 REPORT—1863. 


Exp. 12,.—The same quantity was given three times a day to a man of 35, 
and persisted in for five weeks. At the end of that time he had anorexia 
and chronic anesthesia of the throat, 7. e. impaired sensibility, which had 
been present for ten days. It was also diminished in the conjunctive and 
nostrils; rhinoscopy was very easy. 

Exp.13.—Thirty grains were given to a woman twice a day for a fort- 
night, and the symptoms produced were not unlike those in the previous 
experiment. 

Exp. 14,—A similar quantity, three times a day, was given to a young 
man of 26. He took it well for six days, when it had to be stopped, for he 
felt light-headed and queer, with some restlessness of the limbs. The 
mucous membrane of the fauces was feebly sensible, and could be freely 
touched without any inconvenience or resistance. 

Exp. 15.—In another person, thirty grains given three times a day for ten 
days produced no decided change whatever beyond altering the complexion. 

Exp. 16.—Half a drachm was injected into the rectum of a male aged 31 
every four hours for two days. It was readily detected in the urine, and 
exerted its influence chiefly in diminishing sensation in the genito-urinary 
tract of mucous membrane and lower part of the alimentary canal, which 
felt benumbed. It seemed also as if sensation was diminished in the fauces. 

Exp. 17.—The same experiment, repeated upon another man, caused a 
slight attack of diarrhcea, but sensation was nevertheless sensibly impaired. 

Exp. 18.—A scruple in half an ounce of water was injected into the male 
bladder, and repeated twice at intervals of two hours. It was quickly ab- 
sorbed, for reagents indicated the presence of but a small quantity in the 
urine voided before each recurrence of the injection. Very slight anesthesia 
was experienced at the neck of the bladder; and in seven hours from the 
first injection there was copious diuresis. 

Exp. 19.—An eight-ounce mixture, containing half a drachm of each of 
the iodide and bromide of ammonium, was ordered in tablespoonful-doses 
twice a day to a healthy female aged 22. The first dose caused severe sickness 
and vomiting, with great prostration and syncope; severe abdominal pain, 
but no diarrhea. She remained very poorly the remainder of the day. 

Exp. 20.—A similar mixture, containing a drachm each of the two salts, 
was ordered for a female aged 28, with aphonia—on the same day as in the 
preceding experiment. The first dose was swallowed at the chemist’s, and on 
her way home she was seized with sickness and vomiting, great pain in the 
bowels, prostration and diarrhoea. Next day she was well again. 

Although the symptoms were the same in each experiment, excepting the 
presence in one and absence in the other of diarrhcea, yet they clearly 
proved that the salts of iodine and bromine are incompatible. I did not 
like to repeat the experiment. In Exp. 19 the quantity of each salt taken 
was about two grains, whilst in Exp. 20 it was about four grains, The 
general symptoms were certainly seyerer in the latter, which may account 
for the presence of the diarrhcea. 

I have performed several experiments upon animals with bromide of am- 
monium, and have given various quantities by the stomach, with compara- 
tively no inconvenience, and they rather go to prove that tolerably large 
doses may be given even to very young children without any ill effect ; in- 
deed I have administered pretty large doses to infants and children for 
hooping-cough and other diseases, with the most satisfactory results. 

I have not injected solutions of the salt into the circulation in animals, for 
the reason that no valuable or practicable inferences would have been fur- 


. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF THE BROMIDE OF AMMONIUM. 89 


nished, beyond the mere fact that death would have ensued from almost any 
quantity, as in Dr. Glover’s experiments with the sister salt, the bromide of 
potassium. Nor have I destroyed one single life, nor caused a pang of misery 
to any dumb creature,—not that I disapprove of such experiments if impera- 
tively demanded by the exigencies of science. 

In some of the foregoing experiments it will be observed that whilst large 
doses, frequently repeated, produced certain specific results in the majority 
of persons, in some these were comparatively slight, depending most pro- 
bably upon some idiosyncrasial influence, antagonistic to the bromine salt. 

The skin is seldom devoid of sensation, unless large and poisonous doses are 
persisted in; the same may be said of the gastro-intestinal tract of mucous 
membrane, which I infer to be equally in a state of anesthesia from insen- 
sibility to pressure over the abdomen, and the presence of anorexia. Two sets 
of nerves are evidently influenced, those of special sensation, and some of the 
branches of the sympathetic supplying the intestinal mucous tract; why this 
should be so I shall not undertake to explain, but the fact is patent that the 
entire mucous tract of the body is more or less affected in sensation by large 
and continuous doses. The respiratory tract I also infer to be included in 
this, from the subsidence of any irritation giving rise to cough or spasm; no 
impediment to breathing has ever been noticed. 

It may not be out of place to mention here that the sister salt, bromide of 
potassium, is given at the hospital for epilepsy and paralysis in London, in from 
ten to twenty, and sometimes thirty grains, three times a day, as I learn from 
Dr. Jackson, one of the physicians. He further informs me that the patients 
there have not been observed to get notably thinner, nor has he noticed any 
special symptoms after the use of the salt, beyond the alleviation of their 
maladies, 

Effects on Atheroma, Cholesterine, and Fat in the general economy.—Whe- 
ther,given in small, frequently repeated (two to five grains thrice a day), or 
in moderately large, less frequent doses (five to ten or fifteen grains once to 
three times a day), a distinct influence was noticed upon the various agents 
which more or less constitute the adipose element throughout the body—a 
result that at first was quite unexpected upon my part. 

Various degrees of rotundity, increasing to positive corpulence or poly- 
sarcia, in persons otherwise in good health, yet in whom there was a decided 
and positive indication of excess of atheroma and cholesterine in the system 
as manifested by the presence of the atheromatous expression*, were sensibly 
affected according to the period of administration, the dose, or the combina- 
tion of the drug with a certain moderate dietetic regimen. 

Of some five-and-thirty cases, in which corpulence may be said to have been 
present in various degrees, in all, with some five or six exceptions, did the 
bromide of ammonium exert a decided effect in diminishing weight and im- 
proving the general comfort. That is to say, when this agent was persisted in 
for some months, and in doses of three or four grains twice or three times a day, 
several pounds in weight were gradually lost, and the individuals seemed to get 
thinner ; nevertheless the general health continued unimpaired, or improved 
_ still further under its use, the adipose development became decidedly less, the 
secretion from the oily sudoriparous glands, seen in a shining face, was modi- 
fied and diminished, and altogether there was an improved appearance in the 
countenance, which the persons themselves were fully sensible of. But when 
the diet was moderately regulated, and the drug given in the mornings only 
before breakfast, the reduction in weight was more speedy, more decided and 


* For a doscription of this, see a paper by the author in ‘ The Lancet’ of May 12, 1860. 


90 REPORT—1863. 


permanent, and the general health continued excellent. In most of my 
earlier experiments the pure bromide of ammonium was used to bring about 
these Various fesults. I am now in the habit, however, of directing from one 
to three (of more) teaspootfuls of the effervescing bromide, an elegant and 
most agreeable salt prepared by Messrs. Fincham, of Baker Street, London, 
to be taken before bréakfast, in water, to neutralize or combine with the 
various fatty agents in the economy, which so materially aid in shortening 
the period of human existence. It may be here mentioned that a drachm of 
the effervestitig bromide contains two grains of the salt, and that this quantity 
is equivalent to a teaspoonful. If it is desired to give this agent but once daily, 
no better form could be chosen, as four or six grains of the pure salt may be thus 
administered with great comfort and certainty. - It does not undergo decom= 
position in the stomach, but is absorbed or acts in its condition of bromide. 

Before giving 4 few illustrative cases, it may be further mentioned that 
the general use of this agent in many hundreds of different individuals de- 
monstfated some retiarkable and striking facts, which an experience of some 
years, pathologically, will determine the value of, and they are as follows :— 
When the atheromatous or calcareo-atheromatous expressions have been 
present, not necessarily associated with corpulence, but where the proneness 
to adipose changes or development was apparent ; and in examples of persons 
undergoing atheromatous conversions, besides the changes last mentioned, 
there was noticed a marked clearness in the fatty eye, the arcus or annulus 
adiposus vel senilis, if present, became less yellow and oily-looking, the face 
was brighter, the integument not being so greasy; the mental faculties seemed 
to become more active and the mind sharper, and the bodily energy was 
certainly greater. 

The foregoing changes were significant of others not less important going 
on within ; for although the general health was good, it was quite evident in 
some that the expression already referred to was an index of atheromatous 
deposits, aid a preponderance of cholesterine in the great blood-vessels 
springing from the heart, and also in the smaller vessels at the base of the 
brain. In sorie there could be no doubt of the coexistence of a large and 
flabby heart, with true fatty degeneration of its muscular structure, indicated 
by physical signs which it is not necessary to enter into here. 

If the effects of this salf were so manifest in its external aspects, it is but 
reasonable to assume that the internal were not the less positive and certain. 
And this seemed to me powerfully confirmed by the increased vigour of the 
intellect, the increased power in the rhythm of the heart, the soundness in 
breathing, and the softness of the pulse, with an apparent decrease of the 
rigidity 4nd hardness of the coats of the blood-vessels at the wrist and some 
other places. 

Exp. 21.—J. F., aged 43, health good, moderately polysarcious, athe- 
fomatous expression well marked, annulus adiposus, appetite indifferent, 
weight 173 lbs. Took three grains bromide of ammonium for seven months: 
For the first thirteen weeks lost a pound a week, and afterwards from half to 
three-qtiarter pound per week, until his weight was reduced to 157 Ibs., when 
it appeared to be stationary: His health continued excellent, and his appe- 
tite was better, although he ate a smaller quantity of food. 

Ewp. 22.—A, D. K., aged 57, a stout corpulent person, weighing 227 lbs.; 
a good example of polysarcia. Health moderate; face red and greasy; eyes 
congested and fatty, with fo areus; cracked voice from deposit of atheroma 
in the vocal chords ; sweet tasté in the mouth constant; no glucosuria ; faucial 
mucous menibrane congested, red and oily-looking ; appetite at times inordi- 


4 


PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF THE BROMIDE OF AMMONIUM. 91 


nate. Five grains bromide administered twice a day, and his diet regulated. 
No change for the first fortnight; in third week 3 lbs. were lost, and then 
the diminution went on pretty regularly for about four months, averaging 
about a pound a week; atthis time he weighed 208 lbs. The bro- 
mide was giveh in ten-grain doses every morning before breakfast for six 
weeks, and the decrease in that period was 11 pounds; it now caused a little 
nausea, and was intermitted for a short time, and yet diminution still went 
on, and the health became very good. It was resumed in four-grain doses in 
the morning, and after the lapse of ten months from the commencement he 
had lost 53 pounds; which brought him, he said, to something like his normal 
standard. He has latterly been taking the effervescihg bromide, which he 
finds exceedingly grateful to the stomach, but with no very sensible diminu- 
tion in his weight now. All the other symptoms improved, asin Exp. 21. 
This person had previously given a long trial to the Fucus vesiculosus, until 
“his vitals turned against it,’’ and without the slightest benefit. 

Exp. 23.—Major J., aged 44, very corpulent, with reddish face and stout 
limbs. Palpitation of the heart and feeling of fulness in the chest, very fond 
of puddings and port wine, which he said he digested well. Weight 198 lbs., 
which was uncomfortable, as he was a short man. Hight grains of bromide 
given twice a day: the puddings were stopped and the port wine changed. In 
five months there was a loss of 23 1bs., and in another three months 83 lbs. 
more, so that he was reduced to 1663 lbs. 

Exp. 24.—Mrs. St ——, aged 47, moderately stout, but with all the expres- 
sion of great deposit of atheroma and cholesterine in the vessels. Weight 
182 lbs. The bromide was given in the mornings before breakfast only, in 
doses of six grains. One of the first effects noticed was the subsidence of a 
most irritable temper, and improvement in the facial expression ; this was 
followed by slow and giadual loss of weight, until in five months she was 
reduced to 163 lbs. The diet was regulated here as well. 

Exp. 25.—Rev. P. J., aged 64, getting so stout that it was a cofistant source 
of discomfort; weight 213 lbs. The bromide was given pretty regularly, at 
first in small doses, then in larger, without any appreciable benefit. An effort 
was at the same time made to regulate the diet, but great difficulty was ex- 
perienced in effecting this. The diminution therefore was comparatively slight, 
more especially as milk was freely indulged in. 

Exp. 26.—Mary P ; aged 36, inclined to be stout, with a large flabby 
heart, and from the facial expression and general appearance, the subject 
most probably of disease of the large blood-vessels at the heart and base of 
the brain, taken together with a family history which seemed strongly to 
confirm it: Weight 162 lbs. The bromide here was most invaluable, for a 
marked improvement followed, atid the weight was fediti¢ed sétisibly and 
comfortably; although not more than 11 Ibs. 

Hep. 27.—Tulia D.; aged 28, with the atheromatous expression, slight 
dyspnea, fair embonpoint, good digestion and exeéllent health, Three-grain 
doses of the bromide twice a day, taken for many weeks, most sensibly acted 
on the first three, aiid she became a little thinner; Which was shown by the 
general loosening of her garments. 

Expts. 28, 29,30.—Three males, aged 27, 32; aid 41, who were moderately 
stout, and in whoni from 7 to 14 lbs: Were reduced in Weight by five grains of 
the bromide twice a day for seven months. 

Expis; 31 and 32.—Two females, aged 39 and 43, also moderately stout, 
Whose weight Was likewise diminished in the same ratio, by a similar quan= 
tity Of the salt takeii for six months. 


92 REPORT—1863. 


Exp. 33.—Man, aged 37, inclined to become very stout, and an imbiber of 
much malt liquor, reduced himself in weight 15 Ibs. in eight months, by small 
doses of the salt, almost constantly taken. 


Of the remaining dozen cases the diminution in weight was mostly a few 
pounds, but they were not good examples of polysarcia as in some of the first 
experiments related. Moderate corpulence or inclination to stoutness were 
the prevailing features, and the quantity of adipose or other matter therefore 
to be got rid of was necessarily not large. In some the weight was increased 
instead of being diminished, which I attributed to increased appetite and the 
consumption of more food. 

The foregoing experiments prove that some peculiar property is possessed 
by the ammonium salt, through the agency of the blood, in resolving some of 
the constituents of the adipose element. Whether this is of a chemical na- 
ture or otherwise I am not prepared to say, but am disposed to favour the 
former, for the potassium salt does not appear to possess this property, else it 
would have attracted attention ere this. And although the ammonium salt 
alone will in some persons absorb fat as an abnormal element, it is ably 
assisted by regulating the diet, and prohibiting such articles of food as keep 
up the tendency to its deposition. Dr. Glover has asserted that the bromides 
of potassium and sodium have little action of a corrosive character, but I will 
say of the bromide of ammonium that it has none at all, and assimilates 
better than either, seldom or never disagreeing even with the food when 
taken immediately before or after meals. Its influence upon the disease of 
the inner coats of the blood-vessels I attribute more to its direct chemical 
agency than to its absorbent powers. Nevertheless, whatever may be the 
rationale of its operation, it is an agent calculated to prolong life to a good 
old age, from the remarkable properties it possesses in this respect. 

It does not cause atrophy of healthy organs, and curiously enough when 
given to thin people in small doses, its tonic properties increase the appe- 
tite, and thus adds to the weight of the body, which some might consider a 
physiological paradox, but the circumstance readily explains itself. 

The use of the Bromide of Ammonium in Medicine.—The length of the pre- 
sent Report will permit of a brief notice only of the value of the salt in the 
treatment of disease. 

As is the case with the salts of iodine in absorbing hypertrophied structure, 
so is it with those of bromine, and the bromide of ammonium is not inferior 
to any other preparation in its powers in this respect. The iodide and 
bromide of ammonium possess this property, and possibly the chloride of 
ammonium hereafter may be found also to possess it; for it is well known 
that between chlorine, bromine, and iodine and their compounds, exact and, 
as it has been said, beautiful chemical relations subsist. With regard to 
chlorine, the fact is deserving of remembrance, that persons employed in 
bleaching-factories lose their fat or other hypertrophied tissues, and become 
thin without impairment of their general health. 

As an absorbent and resolvent, the bromide of ammonium has been used in 
hypertrophy of the tongue, liver, spleen, heart, thyroid and other glands, and 
other parts of the body with fair results, and it is strongly recommended for 
trial, more especially in hypertrophy of the spleen, heart, and early bron- 
chocele. 

In various cerebral or nervous affections, such as epilepsy, some forms of 
mild paralysis, neuralgia, especially of the uterine organs, nervousness, and 
tremors, and mild forms of cervical neuralgia, it will be found to possess 


ON THE TRANSMUTATION OF SPECTRAL RAYS. 93 


various degrees of usefulness. It here seems to act as an antispasmodic, for 
it calms irritation and allays nervous excitability. 

Fatty disease of the heart and diseases of the blood-vessels are amenable 
to it. 

Bronchitis, asthma, pertussis, affections of the trachea, throat, antrum, and 
nose, in fact wherever the mucous membrane is implicated will the salt be 
found to possess some degree of usefulness. 

Some forms of chronic rheumatism and diseases of the skin are benefited 
by it. And amongst other properties it occasionally possesses that of an 
emmenagogue, and has proved useful in amenorrhcea. 

Administered in certain ways, it may be found hereafter valuable in diseases 
of the genito-urinary mucous membrane. 

In these few remarks I prefer to point out the direction in which the agent 
may be made useful, than to say much at present upon the subject. 

To obtain its good effects it should be given with comparatively few com- 
binations, for the union of its constituents, although by no means readily 
broken, is at any rate influenced by certain substances which negative its 
properties. Incompatible substances must especially be avoided, and the 
antagonism between it and salts of iodine must not be forgotten. 

Not the least of its advantages is, that it can be given in those constitutions 
wherein the preparations of iodine disagree. 

General conclusions.—These may be stated as follows :— 

1. In small doses, more or less long continued, bromide of ammonium acts 
as a tonic and absorbent, and exerts its peculiar properties upon the skin and 
mucous membrane. 

2. It diminishes the weight of the body in polysarcia, causing the absorption 
of fat, cholesterine, and atheroma, when combined with a regulated diet ; and 
this is effected with greater certainty than by any other known substance. 

3. It improves the intellectual powers, increases the bodily capacity, and 
promotes healthy function. 

4, Locally it possesses a soothing influence on the mucous membrane, and 
according to the strength and mode of its application, so does it diminish 
sensibility. 

5. In large, frequently repeated doses, or given at intervals, it influences 
the entire mucous tract; it affects all the special senses, and produces 
anesthesia or impaired sensibility of the various mucous outlets. 

6. All the poisonous effects are produced by very large doses as from the 
bromide of potassium, but in smaller doses it is more certain and reliable, 
causes no diarrhoea or diuresis, nor anaphrodisiasis, and its special properties 
are exerted sooner and with less inconvenience. 


On the Transmutation of Spectral Rays.—Part I. 
By Dr. C. K. Axin. 


Tne discovery of fluorescence, by Professor Stokes, has opened to science a new 
and wide field of research of the greatest promise; nevertheless, though a 
few persons have more or less clearly perceived the existence of outlying 
ground*, no one has actually attempted to carry cultivation beyond the ex- 
tent from which Prof, Stokes, by his labours, has derived such remarkable 


* See Appendix, p. 97. 


94 REPORT—1863. 


results; nor has it been but tried to subject the whole field to a systematic 
survey, by which future investigators might be guided in their researches, 

1, The discovery of Prof, Stokes is well known to haye consisted in this :— 
He found that very many substances, upon the incidence of invisible rays of 
greater refrangibility than the violet, scattered visible rays, and were thence 
rendered perceptible to the eye, in what would otherwise have been complete 
darkness; and also, that most of such substances, upon the incidence of ordinary 
visible rays, had the power to produce, in the diffused (or re-emitted) beam, 
other visible rays, of less refrangibility than the incident, Such substances 
Prof. Stokes called fluorescent, Now the above facts naturally suggest several 
questions, to explain which briefly and clearly it is necessary to advert to 
the constitution of the solar or other similar spectra as evolved by a neu- 
tral or non-absorbent prism. Every such spectrum consists of three com- 
partments, distinguished by physiological—or generally, extrinsic—rather 
than intrinsic peculiarities, but which it is yet necessary for present purposes 
to consider separately. In order to avoid the mischievous ambiguity attendant 
on the adoption of the terms actually in use, it is proposed to employ in the 
sequel the following new nomenclature as applied to the three compartments 
of the spectrum, and the species of rays which each of them contains. The 
medium compartment, and the visible rays of which it consists, will be called 
Newtonic; the compartment bordering on the red end of the Newtonic, and 
the invisible rays composing it, will be called Herschellic ; finally, the com- 
partment bordering on the violet end of the Newtonic, and the similarly in- 
visible rays of which it is composed, will be called Aitteic—the name given 
being formed in each case from that of the first discoverer of the given species 
of rays, 

2. Considering the different nature of rays as just described, and the con- 
vertibility of some of them into others of a different refrangibility exhibited 
in the phenomena of fluorescence, the question, implying seyeral distinct pro- 
_ positions, must naturally arise in the mind whether, upon the whole, changes 

in regard to wave-length and refrangibility, or transmutations of rays corre- 
sponding in number and kind to the following list, may not either spon- 
taneously occur in nature, or be capable of production by experiments specially 
directed to the purpose, yiz, :— 


Transmutations 
1. of Ritteric rays into less refrangible Ritteric rays, 
2. a ne | Newtonic rays, 
3 foi) Herschellic rays, 


3. } 
4. of Newtonic ” 9 Newtonic rays, 
” 5) Herschellic rays, 


6. of Herschellic 5 Herschellic rays ; 


9) 
also 7. 5 » more refrangible Herschellic rays, 
8. » ” (G;) Newtonic rays, 
9. ” » (,:) Ritteric rays, 
10. of Newtonic A Newtonic rays, 
: ” 33 (;) Ritteric rays, and 
12. of Ritteric 2 3, Ritterie rays. 


8. Of the enumerated list, the transmutations (2) and (4) belong to fluo- 
rescence; the question of feasibility extends, hence, only to the remaining 
ten. Of these, the transmutation(8) deserves most attention, as being, at once, 
the counterpart of (2), and implying, equally with the latter, a conversion of 
invisible rays into visible. But, since both the species of transmutations ac- 


ON THE TRANSMUTATION OF SPECTRAL RAYS. 95 


tually effected belong to the first series only, extending from (1) to (6), any 
one of the transmutations from (7) to (12), which, instead of as the former a 
diminution, imply an increase of refrangibility in the transmuted beam, would. 
possess an interest of its own if accomplished, More particularly would this 
be so in the case of the transmutation (10), which is the counterpart or con- 
verse of the transmutation (4) occurring in fluorescence, and which, from its 
concerning exclusively visible rays, would be, at once, easiest to prove, and, 
next to (8), practically most important. _ 

It is the object of this paper to propose three several experiments, which, 
it is supposed, would be found capable of realizing the two transmutations (8) 
and (10) spoken of above. The mode of conducting each of them, as applica- 
ble to the transmutation (8), is described in what follows. 


Experiment I, 


4, The oxyhydrogen flame is well known to excite in lime, chalk, and 
other similar substances a most brilliant light, if brought into contact with 
them. The flame by itself, on the contrary, is but sparingly visible, and hence 
deficient in Newtonic rays; whilst, from the experiment mentioned below*, it 
appears similarly poor in Ritteric rays. Considering these circumstances, 
and the high ecalefactory power of the oxyhydrogen flame, it seems fair to 
conclude that the rays principally emitted by it are of the Herschellic species, 
Now the Newtonie rays emanating from the flame upon the introduction of 
lime, &c.,—which, there is reason to believe, are accompanied also by a strong 
beam of Ritteric rays,—cannot but be owing to a transmutation, in statu 
nascenti so to speak, of the rays originally emitted 7 the flame when free | 
from foreign matter, and therefore most probably evidence a phenomenon of 
the kind which it is intended to produce. But, to render the experiment com- 
pletely similar to those of fluorescence, the following arrangement would have 
to be adopted. , 

Let two conjugate mirrors of large size be placed opposite to each other, one 
containing in its focus the oxyhydrogen flame, the other a piece of chalk or 
lime. Let, further, absorbents be employed to cut off as many of the Newtonic 
and Ritteric rays as the flame may be found to emit, from access to the focus 
wherein the lime is placed. If the mirrors are of sufficient size to render the 
temperature at the distant focus approximately equal to that of the flame 
itself, there is eyery reason to believe that the lime therein contained will 
begin to shine out, or, in other words, will emit Newtonic rays consequent 
upon the incidence of Herschellic rays, in the same way as a fluorescent sub- 
stance emits Newtonic rays consequent upon the incidence of Ritteric rays, 
The possible duration of the luminosity thus produced beyond the time of 


* Prof. W. A. Miller has observed (see Chem. News, March 21, 1863) that the photo- 
graphic impression produced by an oxyhydrogen flame, after twenty seconds’ exposure of 
the sensitive paper, was very faint; the impression produced by lime-light, after the same 
time, being, on the contrary, yery strong. Seeing that the chemical action of Newtonic rays 
is generally less than that of Ritteric rays, this observation tends to demonstrate the defi- 
ciency of the oxyhydrogen flame in Ritteric rays when in its natural state, and at the same 
time to indicate that the transmutations taking place in the flame upon the introduction of 
lime are of the nature supposed in the text. 

[On the reading of the present Paper at Newcastle, Prof. Miller, being present, mentioned 
the following further fact, of similar tendency :—The rays of the oxyhydrogen flame, if con- 
centrated by a glass lens upon an ordinary thermoscope, produce little or no effect before 
the introduction of lime, but a considerable effect after its introduction. This seems to be 
owing to the diminished absorption which glass exercises upon the more refrangible rays 
as compared with the less refrangible.] ; 2 


96 REPORT—1863. 


incidence of the rays of the flame would in no way subvert the similarity just 
pointed out*. 
Experiment II. 


5. The foregoing experiment recommends itself for the reason of the almost 
total absence of Newtonic and Ritteric rays from the ray-producing source, 
whose presence, at least for the production of the transmutation (8), is not 
wanted. On the other hand, the execution of the experiment would be liable 
to considerable practical, if not other, difficulties ; and hence that next to be 
described may be considered as, upon the whole, perhaps, more hopeful. 

Let, as radiating source, the sun be chosen, and, as test-object, a piece of 
metal—best of all a thin piece of platinum-foil, which place in the focus of a 
large mirror exposed to the sun. If the mirror be of sufficient size, the pla- 
tinum will become incandescent, and may even meltt. Let the former result 
only be supposed to happen. All the three kinds of rays, Ritteric, Newtonic, 
and Herschellic, being present at the focus of the mirror, each will have con- 
tributed a certain share to the production of the temperature of incandescence 
of the piece of platinum exposed to their joint calorific action. Let this 
action, so far as the Ritterie and Newtonic rays jointly are concerned, be re- 
presented by a, and that of the Herschellic rays, by themselves, be denoted 
by @. If the two former species of rays be prevented by absorbents from 
reaching the platinum, but the deficiency of calorific action caused by their 
withdrawal be replaced, either by employing a mirror capable of concentrating 
a pencil of Herschellic rays of the separate calorific action («+/), or by some 
other independent means, then there does not appear any reason why the 
platinum should not be rendered incandescent, or made to emit Newtonic 
rays upon the sole incidence of Herschellic rays, as heretofore upon the inci- 
dence of the unsifted solar beams. An experiment of this nature would bear 
the closest similarity to those by which fluorescent phenomena were first of 
all discovered. - 


Experiment III. 


6. The third and last experiment to be proposed is founded upon the fol- 
lowing considerations :— 

Fluorescence Prof. Stokes is inclined to consider as owing to the vibrations 
of the material molecules of matter when acted upon by incident rays §. 
Adopting this view of the matter, and recollecting that each substance by 
itself constitutes a distinct source of rays, the efficiency of which depends on 
temperature or on impressed molecular motion, it is natural to suppose that, 
in the rays emitted in the act of fluorescence, the spontaneous and incident 
become blended in a certain manner by some kind of interference. That this 
is true to some extent seems to result, among others, from the observed influ- 
ence of temperature on the power of substances to fluoresce ||; consequently, 
the law established by Prof. Stokes with reference to all fluorescent pheno- 
mena may be shown to be capable of a different construction from that usually 
put on it. Remembering that the incident rays, in fluorescence, are either 


* Cf. Part IT. Art. 4, p. 102. 

t Cf. e. g. the accounts of experiments with burning-mirrors in Phil. Trans. 1686, (vol. 
xvi.) p. 852, and 1719, (vol. xxx.) p. 976, some of which refer, if not actually to platinum, 
to silver, which is almost equally refractory. 

¢ For simplicity, the absorption which the Herschellic rays would, practically, undergo 
simultaneously with the remainder has been left out of consideration. 

Phil. Trans. 1852, p. 548. 

I ysl. Stokes) Phil, Trans, 1852, p. 532 and ; (M. O. Fiebig) Pogg. Ann. yol. exiv. 

p. 202 ; 


ON THE TRANSMUTATION OF SPECTRAL RAYS, 97 


Ritteric or Newtonic ; whilst the spontaneous rays of substances, at the tem- 
peratures at which their fluorescent nature has been investigated, are of the 
Herschellic species; the transmuted or resultant rays, finally, being of the 
Newtonic species; the law adverted to, which requires the transmuted rays 
to be of inferior refrangibility to the incident, may be interpreted also as im- 
plying that the transmuted ray should be of a mean between the incident 
and spontaneous in regard to refrangibility*. Assuming such to be the case, 
the question becomes natural whether, if the order of the rays employed in 
ordinary fluorescence were reversed, by taking for test-object a substance 
naturally emitting Ritteric rays (either alone or in sensible proportion with 
others), and allowing Herschellic rays to be incident on it, the result might 
not be the same as in fluorescence—namely, an emission of Newtonic rays, 
seeing that the circumstances of the experiment, though reversed, are essen- 
tially the same in the two cases. 

7. As objects of experiment, many different kinds of flame might be em- 
ployed, as, likewise, the electric vacuum-discharge. Upon the whole, however, 
of the three experiments proposed, least reliance should perhaps be placed on 
the present, as having the least basis of fact, but principally conjecture, to rest 
upon. The views upon which it is founded imply also a contradiction of the 
principles by which the preceding two experiments are supported, and, if 
pushed to extremes, would similarly be in opposition to certain facts of fluo- 
rescence; nevertheless they will probably be found to accord with truth 
within limits. 


8. The question which has been advanced for solution in this paper, and 
the experiments proposed, might naturally lead to the- consideration of some 
incidental subjects, the most important of which may be worthy of mention. 
The first experiment suggests an investigation of the mode of action of foreign 
matter, whether in the solid or gaseous states, upon comburescent gases or 
flames with reference to the rays emitted by the same ; the second experiment 
involves some discussion of the incandescence of matter in its relations to 
various other similar phenomena ; whilst the third might throw some light on 
the action of gaseous incandescent matter upon rays in general. The bearing 
of all the three experiments, and the considerations which they imply, on the 
subject of ray-absorption are too evident to need pointing out. 


Appendix. 


9. In this Appendix it is intended to present a short historical review of 
the several publications on the collateral phenomena of fluorescence, alluded 
to in the beginning of this paper, which have come to the knowledge of the 
author. They almost all owe their origin to the following observation by 
Fusinieri, which, however, is generally, though erroneously, ascribed to Mel- 
loni. Fusinieri had noticed, and published his observation as early as the 


* The account of the origin of fluorescence given by Prof. Stokes (see Phil. Trans. 1852, 

p. 584) seems to leave it doubtful whether fluorescence depends on the cooperation of the 

spontaneous rays with the incident, or not; for, though some kind of interference is men- 

tioned, the expression seems to refer to the successive impulses given to a molecule by a con- 

tinually impinging ray, rather than to the mutual action of the incident and spontaneous rays. 

On the other hand, though independently formed, the speculations put forth in the text bear 

some similarity to the theory of fluorescence suggested by M. Lommel, in Pogg. Ann. 

vol. cxvii. p. 642 (Dec. 1862). This writer, however, mistakes in stating that the wave- 

length of the transmuted beam is necessarily equal to the difference of the waye-lengths of 

_the incident and spontaneous rays, which is not in accordance with facts, 


HE 


98 , j REPORT—1863, 


year 1831*, that snow shaded by trees, or generally by objects suspended 
from the ground, melted more rapidly than snow freely exposed to the radi- 
ating action of the sun or skies. To explain this apparently anomalous fact, 
Melloni thought it sufficient, in his commentst on a later paper by Fusinieri 
on the same subject+, to ascribe to snow a difference of absorptive powers for 
different rays, which he attempted also to prove by direct experiment. He 
denies that a conversion of light into heat—or, as we should more correctly 
express it, of Newtonic into Herschellic rays—can account for the effects ob- 
served, thinking the assumption to be disproved by the following experiment. 
The incidence of the rays emanating from some lamp produced in a thermo- 
electric pile § a current which, measured by the galvanometer attached, was 
equal to 15° when the rays passed freely through the air, but of 30°5 when 
the rays were first transmitted through a sheet of paper. When the rays were 
first of all transmitted through glass rendered opake by lamp-black, the re- 
sultant current was as 18°-19° to 10°-11°, according as the paper also was 
interposed or not. As the increase of calorific effect upon the interposition 
of the paper sheet thus occurred in the absence as well as in the presence of 
light—that is to say, of visible or Newtonic rays,—Melloni concludes that a 
conversion of the latter into heat—or, as we should say, into Herschellic rays 
cannot be the cause of the augmentation observed. This argument, however, 
as well as the explanation attempted by Melloni himself, is evidently falla- 
cious. To the latter, already Fusinieri very reasonably objected || that, since 
the direct beam issuing from a radiating source must necessarily contain all 
the rays to be found in the same after diffusion or reflection {]—besides, gene- 
rally, others,—the diffused or reflected beam could never offer to any substance 
more rays absorbable by it than the direct beam. On the other hand, Mel- 
loni’s experiment, so far from disproving the conversion of visible into other 
rays, tends rather to prove that, besides this conyersion, a transmutation of 
invisible rays also into others, probably of less refrangibility, is possible ; 
since the interposition of the paper sheet, in the absence of visible rays, still 
produced an increase of calorific action of 8°, against the 18°-5 which it caused 
in the presence of light**., As for Fusinieri’s own speculations on the subject, 
it is unnecessary to advert to them, since, besides not being clear, his expla- 
nation involves the materiality of rays, and proceeds from a negation of the 
discoveries of Melloni with reference to radiant heat. 

10. In 1861, Prince Salm called attention to Fusinieri’s observation, as 
the author of which he names Mellonitt. Without entering further into 
the matter, M. Salm considers the fact as proving the fluorescence of heat,— 
leaving it doubtful to some extent what the meaning is which he attaches to 
the expression. 

11. Induced by the above, M. Emsmann published in 1861 a note tt, in 
which he quotes a paragraph from an article contributed by him, in 1859, to 

* Annali delle Scienze, vol. i. p. 196. 

+ Comptes Rendus, vol. vi. p. 801 (1838). 

+ Annali delle Scienze, vol. viii. p. 38 (1838). 

§ It may be useful to mention that the exposed face of the thermo-electrie pile was 
covered with white-lead. 

|| Annali delle Scienze, vol. viii. p. 227. 

€{ Cases of ray-transmutation excepted, the occurrence of which Melloni strives to dis- 

rove. 
f ** Another instance in which the interposition of a screen produced an augmentation of 
ealorific effect was mentioned by Melloni, upon an earlier occasion, in Ann. de Chim. et de 
ae vol. ly. p. 387 (1834) Also Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs, yol. i. p. 68 (1837). 
t Pogg. Ann. vol. cxiii. p. 54 (1861). 
$t Pogg. Ann, vol. exiv. p. 651 (1861). 


ON THE TRANSMUTATION OF SPECTRAL RAYS. 99 


Cornelius and Marbach’s ‘ Physikal. Lexicon,’ showing that he then enter- 
tained the question of the possibility of phenomena the reverse of fluorescence, 
or of the transmutation of Herschellic into Newtonic rays. In the sequel, how= 
ever, M. Emsmann adduces facts which in his opinion exemplify phenomena 
of this kind, rendering thereby his estimation of what constitutes fluorescence, 
or its conyerse, of doubtful clearness. Iodide of mercury, which is commonly 
scarlet, upon sublimation becomes transformed into yellow crystals, which 
may be preserved for some time; several other substances exhibit similar 
changes of colour. Steel also alters its colour by heating. In all these in- 
stances, according to M. Emsmann, by the action of heating, that is to say, 
by heat-vibrations,” substances are made to reflect rays of higher refrangi- 
bility than would otherwise happen. Similarly, the rays emitted by incan- 
descent matter increase in refrangibility with the increase of temperature. 

Now it is easy to show that none of these facts in the least exemplify what 
they are intended for. In the first place, substances which change their 
colour in consequence of heating do so, generally, by selecting different rays 
for simple diffusion in their several states; if the incident beam was deficient 
in the rays which are reflexible, or consisted merely of invisible rays, then 
such a substance would turn black. ‘This is the case with the iodide of mer- 
cury for instance. Such substances, on the other hand, which, being self- 
luminous, assume different tints at different temperatures, as, for instance, 
incandescent metals, do so independently of incident rays, or, at any rate, not 
in a manner proving obviously or necessarily the transmutation of Herschellic 
into Newtonic rays. Nor does this fact show that, similarly as ‘‘ the dark 
chemical (or Ritteric) rays may produce modifications of one kind in the 
colour of the luminous (or Newtonic),” so also the dark heat (or Herschellic) 
rays may modify the colour of the same rays in an opposite direction—in 
which way M. Emsmann defines fluorescence and its converse in one place, 
As for steel, its coloration is generally supposed to be simply an instance of 
the coloration of thin plates; so that, upon the whole, none of the phenomena 
adduced can be considered as bearing any resemblance to those of fluorescence, 
or those which might be conceived as its counterpart. 

12, Another publication is by M. Dammer*, who observed in the winter of 
1862 a fact already noticed by Fusinieri, if not in exactly the same way, that 
ice beneath leaves, whether imbedded on the surface or in the midst of the crust, 
melts sooner than ice freely exposed to the rays of the sun. This, according 
to M. Dammer, is a phenomenon analogous to that adverted to by M. Salm. 
The fact, however, may be dependent rather on conduction than on radiation, 
and hence capable of explanation without the aid of assumed transmutations. 
It is, besides, to some extent similar to one of Franklin’s observations T, which, 
though directed to show differences dependent on colour, incidentally proved 
also that snow beneath strips of cloth melted more rapidly than if uncovered, 

13. In conclusion, it will be but just to state that Prof. Stokes, in his 
paper on fluorescencet, had adverted to the probability that transmutations of 
visible (Newtonic) into invisible (Herschellic) rays might account for the dis- 
appearance of light in cases of ray-absorption which cannot be classed under 
fluorescence. 


* Pogg. Ann. vol. cxy. p. 659 (1862), 

‘} ‘Letters and Papers on Philosophical Subjects’ (Appendix to ‘Exp. and Obs. on Elec- 
tricity’), London, 1769, p. 465. 

{ Phil. Trans. 1852, p. 554. 


H2 


100 REPORT—1863. 


Part II. 


In the first part of this paper three experiments were described, having 
for purpose the production of the converse phenomenon of fluorescence. It 
is the object of this second part to discuss in greater detail one of the experi- 
ments proposed, viz. the second, in its relations especially to the subjects of 
phosphorescence and incandescence. 

1. The luminosity of matter, or the emission (in the language explained in 
the preceding part) of Newtonic rays—as well as radiation upon the whole— 
may arise in a twofold manner, which it seems important to distinguish. In 
the first case, there is a production of light by certain processes which do not 
imply pre-existing radiations ; whilst, in the other, only a reproduction and 
communication of rays actually takes place. Above and beyond these, a third 
case, of what, for the present at least, must be called spontaneous radiation, 
may be distinguished; to which has to be referred the luminosity of the sun 
for instance, and of the fixed stars. In these latter instances, no adequate 
cause can be, or has hitherto been, assigned for the ight emitted, except (if 
we suppose the radiascent state to indicate molecular vibrations) a certain 
velocity impressed on the molecules from all beginning and certain inter- 
molecular relations, corresponding in some degrce to the tangential tendency 
and gravitating force which rule the motions of the heavenly bodies*. 

2. The causes of production of light, as of rays generally, may be con- 
sidered as threefold, viz.—1, morphological and chemical; 2, electrical; and 
3, mechanical. The cases of reproduction, on the other hand, appear separable 
into two classes, according as the matter whose radiascence is considered is in 
immediate contact with the primarily radiating source, or not. The first kind 
of reproduction—to make our meaning clear—is exemplified principally in 
the phenomena of ignition exhibited by foreign matter, such as precipitated 
carbon-particles or certain vapours, mixed with comburescent gases or flames ; 
or by such instances as the incandescence of platinum wire in the common 
gas-flame, or of lime in the oxyhydrogen flame. The second kind of repro- 
duction, on the other hand, comprises all such appearances of light as are 
caused by the incidence of radiations emanating from distant sources, as, for 
instance, the sun, and presents to our consideration two different orders of 
phenomena, which require to be kept apart. The necessity,of this distinction 
is, first of all, suggested by the fact that the rays reproduced by the secondary 
radiator are sometimes identical with, but at others different from, those 
emitted by the primary radiator as to the characteristic of wave-length or 
refrangibility ; but there are cases which, without implying any such change, 
belong yet to the same class as those which do. As the operative cause of 
this distinction, the best authorities seem to be agreed in considering the 
compound nature of matter; the one kind of reproduction, ordinarily termed 
diffusion, being ascribed to the agency of ether, whilst the other kind, which 
is generally if not always accompanied by transmutation (in the sense of the 
word explained in the preceding part), and for which the term renovation 
might perhaps be suitably adopted, is assumed to arise from the intervention 
of the ponderable molecules of matter t. 

3. The mode of reproduction which has been noticed in the first place, and 
which occurs on the contact of radiascent substances of different natures, may 


* The above simile was employed already by Sir H. Davy, in his 7Essay on Heat, Light, 
and the Combination of Light’ (see Works, vol. ii. p. 15), though not quite consistently ap- 
plied throughout. : 

t Cf. (Prof. Stokes) Phil. Trans. 1852, p. 548; also (Dr. Young) Phil. Trans. 1802, 


p. 47. M. Angstrém (see Phil. Mag. xxiv. 2. 1862) seems to entertain a different opinion. 


ON THE TRANSMUTATION OF SPECTRAL RAYS. 101 


with great probability be considered as coming under the head of renovation. 
The most remarkable instances of this kind are those in which light is en- 
gendered by the contact of two non-luminous substances, generally of different 
temperatures. The earliest well-substantiated instance of this description 
seems to be afforded by Boyle’s experiments on the celebrated Clayton diamond, 
which became luminous in a dark room by contact with an iron plate heated 
to a temperature below redness, or with warm parts of the human body *. 
A similar though perhaps not quite the same phenomenon was noticed by 
Canton, whose artificial phosphorus, after exposure to light and subsidence 
into apparent darkness, had its light restored by the application of heated 
non-luminous mattert. In the case of Canton’s phosphorus, the necessity of 
a previous exposure to light in order to produce the phenomenon just described 
seems to be rigorously established, but with regard to diamonds it is perhaps 
still doubtful. It is equally undecided whether some kind of morphological 
change, or combustion, or nothing of the kind, causes or accompanies this 
evolution of light upon the contact of dark unequably heated bodies. The 
observations of Sir D. Brewster on the loss of colour which green fluor-spar 
exhibits after calcination, simultaneously with the loss of ability to shine by 
subsequent exposure to light or to high temperatures§, at first sight would 
indicate that colouring-matter or its combustion are the cause of the lumi- 
nosity observed before calcination, which ceases of course after the expulsion 
of the colouring-matter, which takes place at the higher temperatures. But 
the observations of Dessaignes|| on the revival of the phosphorescent power 
through electrical shocks, which, according to Pearsall J, is attended by a resto- 
ration of colour, do not seem to countenance such an opinion, but rather to 
point to molecular disarrangement as the cause both of the phosphorescence 
and its destruction. 

Other though less clear examples of ray-renovation on the contact of two 
radiators of different descriptions have been alluded to in that part of the 
preceding paragraph which refers to the phenomena of flame. These appear 
to show that matter, whether in the solid or gaseous state, introduced into 
gaseous comburescent substances, may change the rays emitted by the same, 
as it were in statu nascenti; or take upon itself, seemingly, the function of 
principal radiator. One of these phenomena has suggested the speculations 
contained in the present paper, and serves as foundation for one of the three 
experiments proposed in the preceding part ; a full consideration of the whole 
subject, however, is reserved for a future occasion**, 

4, The renovation and transmutation of rays incident from distant radi- 


* Appendix to ‘ Considerations, &c., touching Colours,’ London, 1764, p.416. The phos- 
phorescence of diamonds, consequent on insolation, was first noticed by Dr. Wall (see Phil. 
Trans. 1704-5, p. 69). 

+ Phil. Trans. 1768, p. 342. 

¢ Cf. Priestley’s ‘History, &c., of Light, &.,’ p. 373; and (M. O. Fiebig) Pogg. Ann. 
vol. exiv. p. 292 (1861). 

§ Edinb. Phil. Journ. vol. i. p. 286 (1819). 

|| Journ. de Phys. vol. lxxi. p. 67 (1810); also bd. vol. Ixviii. p. 465 (1809). 

{| Journ. Roy. Inst. vol. i. p. 277 (1831). It should be observed that the colour given 
to fluor-spar by electricity is not generally the same as possessed by the mineral before 
calcination. 

** A remarkable example of a phenomenon in many respects similar to those of flames, 
adverted to in the text, is exhibited in the ingenious experiment performed by Mr. Wedg- 
wood (see Phil. Trans. 1792, p. 271), in which, by a hot stream of non-luminous air, a piece 
of gold-foil was rendered incandescent. In the same paper, Wedgwood advances also the 
question, remarkable for its time, ‘ Whether a body can be made red-hot by concentrated 
rays of other colours.” It should be recalled, however, that Wedgwood’s views on the 
nature of, and relation between, light and heat are not those now prevailing. 


102 ; REPORT— 1863. 


ating bodies, by the agency of certain kinds of matter, has been principally 
brought into notice through Prof. Stokes’s discovery of fluorescence. Itis true 
that already Benjamin Wilson contended, against Beccaria*, that the light of 
phosphorescent substances is generally independent as to colour, of the colour 
of the incident light. It is true also that Wilson sagaciously remarked that 
the emission of the light of phosphorescence must take place during as well 
as after action on the part of the active incident light, though it may ordi- 
narily be hidden from observation by the greater intensity of the non-reno- 
vated, non-transmuted, diffused light+; both which facts, that referring to 
colour as well as that referring to time, were clearly proved by the later ex- 
periments of Grosser on diamondst. It is true, finally, that Seebeck had 
noticed phosphorescence produced by rays near the violet border of the spec- 
trum, of doubtful visibility, and hence pertaining, perhaps, to the Ritteric 
compartment§; that M. Matteucci and M. E. Becquerel, later, actually ob- 
served phosphorescence to occur in regions of the spectrum undoubtedly 
forming part of the Ritteric compartment||; as also, lastly, that M. E. Bec- 
querel, in one or two instances, noticed the occurrence of such phosphorescence 
during the time;’of incidence of the active Ritteric rays. Still, phospho- 
rescence, before the time whence Prof. Stokes’s experiments date, was princi- 
pally considered as a phenomenon interesting in so far as showing an emission 
of light, without reference to colowr, consequent upon and after exposure of the 
given substance to incident light. It was Prof. Stokes’s discovery, arrived at 
from quite a different and apparently unpromising starting-point, which first 
drew general attention to the change of refrangibility which Newtonic as well 
as Ritteric rays may undergo whilst incident on properly selected matter**. 
This, in the end, taught us to consider phosphorescence as only a species of the 
phenomena just described, distinguished for the protraction of the state of 
emission by renovation beyond the duration of incidencet?. But this quality, 
to which at first had attached the principal interest, now may be considered 
as of secondary importance. 

The most general law relating to fluorescence, including phosphorescence, 
has been already adverted to in the preceding part, and is generally expressed 


* (Beccaria) Phil. Trans, 1771, p. 212. (Wilson) Journ. de Phys. vol. xv. p, 93 (1780). 
The same fact which Wilson maintains, had been experimentally established in 1728 by 
Ae acting upon the suggestion of F. Zanotti (see Comment. Bonon. vol. i. p. 203). 

(Wilson) 7. c. p. 95. The original work of Wilson on phosphorescence, of which two 
editions seem to have been published, the author has not been able to consult. 

t Journ. de Phys. vol. xx. p. 277 (1782). 

§ Ibid. Comptes Rendus, vol. xiv. p. 903; being the translation, by Arago, of a passage 
from the Appendix to the original edition of Goethe’s ‘ Farbenlehre.’ 

|| (Matteucci) Bibl. Univ. vol. xl. p. 161 (1842). (H. Becquerel) ibid. p. 360; also Tay- 
lor’s Scientific Memoirs, vol. iii. p. 552 (1843). 

Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. vol. ix. p. 320 (1843). 

** The fact, likewise, that liquids, like solids, may act as ray-renovators, was first of all 
established through the discovery of Prof. Stokes. 

+t Cf. Engl. Cycl. (Arts and Sciences) vol. iv. p. 124. Now that the identity, in the main, 
between phosphorescence and fluorescence has been pointed out, some further facts may be 
adduced in support of the theory of fluorescence advanced in Part{I. Art. 6. Of these new 
facts, the most interesting (which was first observed by Benjamin Wilson, and later again 
by Seebeck and others) is the negative or extinguishing action of little-refrangible Newtonic 
rays upon the state of luminosity of phosphorescent bodies. Another observation, by Can- 
ton (see Phil. Trans. 1768, p. 341), has shown the influence which temperature, and hence 
the spontaneous rays of bodies, have on the duration of phosphorescence ; which influence, 
according to M. E. Becquerel (see Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. vol. ly. p. 102, 1859), extends 
also to the colour of the light emitted. All these facts tend to prove that the rays emitted 
by renovation are owing to a kind of interference between the incident and spontaneous ; 
but it would not be difficult to test this view by some more direct experiments. . 


ON THE TRANSMUTATION OF SPECTRAL RAYS. 103 


as requiring the rays emitted by renovation to be of less or, at the utmost, of 
equal refrangibility to that of the incident*. If this law, of which, however, 
a different interpretation was proposed in Part I. Art. 6, held good with re- 
spect to ray-renovation upon the whole, itis evident that, of the transmutations 
enumerated in Art, 2 of the previous part, only the first six would be feasible, 
whilst the remainder would be impossible by the nature of things. Several 
experiments have been adduced in the preceding part, both to show the pro~ 
bability that phenomena the converse of fluorescence may occur, and to provide 
for their realization in a way analogous to the ordinary form of fluorescent 
appearances. The remainder of this paper is devoted to the detailed consi- 
deration of some of the circumstances relating to that of the proposed ex- 
periments which were designated before as the most hopeful. 

5. According to Prof, Draper’s experiments}, the incandescent state of 
metals, and the order of Newtonic rays which they emit, are strictly determined 
by their temperature, and independent of their nature. Other substances, 
however, such as chalk, marble, and fluor-spar, become luminous at different 
temperatures from the metals, which is also the case with gases. Now with 
respect to metals, if, as stated, their incandescent state is conditional upon a 
certain temperature alone, it is evident that, in whatsoever manner this tem- 
perature be imparted, the result will always be the same, viz. an emission 
of Newtonic rays. One means for the production of high temperatures is to 
be found in the concentrated rays of the sun, which produce an effect com- 
pounded of the aggregate effects of the different species of rays coexistent in 
each solar beam. The heating effect of any given kind of rays depends— 
1, on their amplitude; 2, on the absorptive power of the substance on which 
they are incident for the particular kind of rays. The calorific power of the 
solar rays as evolved by a non-absorbent prism and absorbed by lampblack, 
which has been found to absorb (Newtonic and Herschellic rays at least) more 
equably and completely than any other known substance, has been investigated 
in a masterly manner by Mellonit, and more recently again by Prof. Miiller, 
of Fribourg §. Both these philosophers agree in assigning the greatest calorific 
action to the rays situated in the Herschellie part of the spectrum, at some 
distance from the red border of the Newtonic; and though the greater 
erowding which dispersion causes in this part of the spectrum may partially 
account for this result, it is not liable to any doubt that, independently of 
that circumstance, the Herschellic bands of the spectrum separately, and still 
more in the aggregate, possess considerable heating power in comparison with 
the remainder of thespectrum. Again, the reflective power of the metals for 
Herschellic rays, though great, is not absolute; and, considering that the 
supply of Herschellic rays from the sun is almost unlimited, it cannot be 
doubtful that if the rays of the sun were concentrated by means of a very 
large mirror, but only their Herschellic components allowed to be incident 
on a piece of platinum-foil, for instance, placed in the focus, the platinum 
would be rendered incandescent, in the same way as a cone of unsifted solar 
beams reflected by a smaller mirror would make it. 

At the same time, if, instead of excluding all the Newtonic and Ritteric 
rays from the focus, some of the less refrangible among the Newtonic were 
sflowed to accompany the Herschellic rays which meet there, there is every 
reason to believe that, by a suitable adjustment, incandescence might be pro- 


* M.E: Becquerel (see Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. vol. lvii. p. 85, 1859) mentions an excep- 
tion to this law, which, however, as M. Becquerel also considers, is only an apparent one. 

+ Phil. Mag. vol. xxx. p. 347 (1847). ¢ Bibl. Univ. vol. xlix. p. 141 (1844). 

§ Pogg. Ann. vol. ey. p. 350 (1858) ; also Phil. Mag. vol. xvii. p. 233 (1859) : 


104 REPORT—1863. 


duced, characterized by rays of greater refrangibility than the most refrangible 
among the incident Newtonic; so that, by this means, the converse of what 
may be called the second phenomenon of fluorescence—the transmutation of 
Newtonic rays into other but less refrangibleNewtonic rays—might be effected. 

6. Supposing that, by means of the experiment proposed, the transmutation 
of Herschellic into Newtonic rays, and of Newtonic into more refrangible 
Newtonic rays, had been successfully performed, there would still remain 
some difficulties, which, in the opinion of some perhaps, would mar the paral- 
lelism between the class of phenomena thus realized and those of ordinary 
fluorescence. As the most important of these differences the following may 
be mentioned :—According to Prof. Draper*, incandescent metals emit rays 
forming an unbroken spectrum, which, with the increase of temperature, ex- 
tends more and more through the Newtonic in the direction of the Ritteric 
compartment, whilst retaining all the rays previously emitted. But in fluo- 
rescence or phosphorescence, on the contrary, the spectrum of the rays emitted 
is very often broken in a manner perfectly characteristic of the substance by 
which they are emittedt. Again, in fluorescence, all the transmuted rays 
appear of less refrangibility than the active incident; but in incandescence, 
supposing it was produced by rays of a certain mean refrangibility, most 
probably both more and less refrangible rays than the incident would be 
found amongst those of the transmuted beam. The fact also that fluorescence 
may be excited by rays of comparatively small intensity, whilst the produc- 
tion of incandescence, in any case, requires rays of unusually great intensity, 
may appear asan objection ; but, in regard to this, (besides the doubtful com- 
parability of rays of different quality) it should be considered that the intensity 
of the active rays required to produce either phenomenon necessarily varies 
from substance to substance, according to the absorptive powers of each. 

Some further discrepancies of a similar nature to the last may yet be in- 
stanced. The production of incandescence by irradiation may possibly require 
time, or, so to speak, a repetition of the irradiation; its duration may be 
protracted beyond the time of incidence, and its extent not strictly confined 
to that of the actually irradiated spot. But fluorescence is instantaneous in 
its appearance and disappearance, as well as definite and limited in regard 
to extent. As, however, phosphorescence, which outlasts irradiation, seems 
now to be allowed as a variety of fluorescence, and the other two differ- 
ences, besides being of doubtful occurrence, also refer to questions of degree 
rather than of kind, perhaps not too much weight need be attached to them. 

7. But, whether incandescence produced by irradiationt and fluorescence be 
parallel phenomena or not, the production of the former, either by means of 
Herschellic rays only, or by Herschellic and slightly refrangible Newtonic rays 
(to be exceeded in refrangibility by the transmuted), in a manner analogous to 
ordinary fluorescent experiments, as described in this paper, cannot but de- 
serve a practical trial. The requirements for such an attempt, in the way of 
apparatus, consist principally of a large concave mirror, best of all of metal ; 

* Phil. Mag. vol. xxx. p. 349. 

+ Cf. (Prof. Stokes) Phil. Trans. 1852, p. 517; (M. E. Becquerel) Ann. de Chim. et de 
Phys. vol. lvii. tab. 2 (1859). 

t The term éncandescence is probably best employed as, in many respects at least, the 
counterpart of phosphorescence, both in its wider and in its more limited meaning. To 
designate the phenomenon which is the principal subject of the present paper, or the coun- 
terpart of fluorescence as defined in Art. 6, the term calcescence has been suggested to the 
author—from calciwm, the name of the characteristic chemical element of the substance 


whose action on the oxyhydrogen flame has first of all given rise to the speculations con- 
tained in this paper, 


ON FOG SIGNALS. 105 


a contrivance for viewing the incandescence produced in exterior darkness ; 
and several absorbents, partly for the sifting of the incident beams, and partly 
for the intercomparison of the transmuted rays with the incident. 


Report of the Committee on Fog Signals. By the Rev. Dr. Rozrnson. 


Turs Committee, consisting of Dr. Robinson, Professor Wheatstone, Dr. Glad- 
stone, and Professor Hennessy, was appointed at Manchester “to confer as to 
experiments on fog-signals, and to act as a deputation to the Board of Trade 
in order to impress on that body the importance of inquiries on the subject.” 

The matter was discussed by them at several meetings of the Committee, 
both in reference to what is practically known of it, and to methods which, 
though yet untried, seem to promise better results than any now in use. After 
mature deliberation, in which they have to acknowledge the valuable aid of 
Admirals FitzRoy and Washington, it was considered most advisable to embody 
in a Memorial to the President of the Board of Trade the facts which we had 
collected, to point out how defective is our knowledge of many things con- 
nected with the efficiency of these signals, and to indicate the nature of the 
experiments which are necessary to complete that knowledge. 

In accordance with this decision, I drew up the following Memorial, which, 
being approved of by the other Members of the Committee, was forwarded to 
the Right Honourable T. Milner Gibson, M.P., on June 18, 1863. 


Memorial. 

“‘Srr,—In consequence of an application from the Belfast Chamber of 
Commerce and several of the leading merchants of that important city, re- 
questing the British Association to cause experiments to be made with a view 
to determine what kind of signals are best for indicating to sailors in foggy 
weather the vicinity and position of a danger, that body, after careful delibe- 
ration, came to the conclusion that, from the momentous bearings of such an 
inquiry on the preservation of property and still more of life, it ought to be 
regarded as of national importance, and as such was a fit subject for investi- 
gation by the Government. 

“Tt therefore appointed a Committee, consisting of 

Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D., F.R.S., Chairman, 

Charles Wheatstone, F.R.8., 

J. H. Gladstone, Ph.D., F.R.S., 

H. Hennessy, F.R.S., 
and directed them to bring the matter under your consideration,—to point out 
the defects of the existing fog-signals, and to express a hope that under 
your auspices some methods may be devised which will, if not entirely 
remove, yet greatly diminish the chance of such fearful calamities as that 
which within the last few days has spread sorrow through the land*. 

“ Nearly all that is known about fog-signals is to be found in the Report 
on Lights and Beacons; and of it much is little better than conjecture ; its 
substance is as follows :— 

“Light is scarcely available for this purpose. Blue lights are used in 
the Hooghly; but it is not stated at what distance they are visible in fog: 
their glare may be seen further than their flame. It might, however, be 
desirable to ascertain how far the electric light or its flash can be traced. 

‘Sound is the only known means really effective ; but about it testimonies 


* The loss of the ‘ Anglo Saxon,’ with most of her crew and passengers, in a fog. 


106 REPORT—1863. 


are conflicting, and there is scarcely one fact relating to its use as a signal. 
which can be considered as established. Even the most important of all, the 
distance at which it ceases to be heard, is undecided. But it is the more 
necessary on this account to lose no time in obtaining results which shall 
come with such authority that they may command respect and acquiescence. 

“Up to the present time all signal-sounds have been made in air, though 
this medium has grave disadvantages: its own currents interfere with the 
sound-waves, so that a gun or bell which is heard several miles down the 
wind is inaudible at more than a few furlongs wp it. A still greater evil is 
that it is least effective when most needed; for fog is a powerful damper of 
sound: it is a mixture of air and globules of water, and at each of the innu- 
merable surfaces where these two touch, a portion of the vibration is reflected 
and lost. This has a familiar illustration in a glass of champagne, which 
when struck will only give a dull sound while effervescing, but rings clearly 
when the gas has escaped. Snow produces a similar effect, and one still 
more injurious. 

‘‘ Water transmits sound with great power, and seems to possess in some 
other respects a decided superiority over air, but has been so little studied 
in this point of view that we can neither pronounce on the best mode of 
applying its powers or the practical difficulties which we may have to 
encounter. 

«“ The signal which (judging from the Report referred to) is most approved 
by sailors is a gun stationed at or near the danger, and fired at intervals, 
mostly of half an hour; in the case of the Holyhead mail-steamers, of fifteen 
minutes, when they are expected, The gun must be heavy, and the cost of 
ammunition is about £200 a year. The Holyhead gun is said to be ‘ heard 
in all weathers at Skerries, nine miles off ;’? but this distance is greater than 
any other which appears in the evidence. It must be remarked that half- 
hour intervals are much too long for rapid steamers, which in that time might 
run seyen or eight miles—a space through which the gun could not be heard 
in thick fog. Against gun-signals there are also the objections that they de- 
pend on the punctuality of the signal-men, and that they are often fired by 
ships in distress. 

«Bells and gongs are also extensively used ; but we have no exact infor- 
mation as to the proper size, the force of blow required, or the distance at 
which they can be relied on. In many cases they have been abandoned for 
guns. The most effective one described is at the Copeland Light, in Belfast 
Lough, which is tolled by machinery, and is stated to have been heard at 
thirteen miles’ distance. But it must be noted that this very spot is notorious 
for wrecks in foggy weather ; so that even this powerful bell is of little avail. 
The gong of the Warner has been heard at the Nab, three miles off; but 
several instances are given where bells or gongs could not be heard at a 
quarter of a mile. The gong is said to be heard best down the wind, the 
bell wp it. An ingenious contrivance to intensify the sound of a bell, and at 
the same time to send it in a given direction, has been tried at Boulogne : the 
bell is put in the focus of a parabolic reflector made of mason-work, which 
ought to concentrate the sound in the direction of its axis. It seems not to 
have succeeded well; the sound-rays diffuse more than those of light, and 
probably the reflexion is imperfect. On the whole, the evidence leaves an 
impression on the mind that sounds excited by percussion cannot universally 
be trusted for half a mile. Drums seem not to have been tried. 

«The third class of signals is made by wind instruments, including in that 
category those blown by steam, These seem the most promising, but their 


ON FOG SIGNALS. 107 


efficiency can only be imperfectly estimated in the absence of authentic data. 
The steam-whistle is the best-known of them, and is stated to act well. It 
is said that one used in the Bay of Fundy had been heard eight miles against 
the wind (the velocity of which, however, is not given), One witness thinks 
that in rough weather it is heard further than a gun. It is possible that 
some loss of sound may take place with it where the steam comes into con- 
tact with the air. 

* An air-whistle, by Wells, is reported as ‘ very feeble at 2,5, miles ;’ it was 
blown by bellows. Horns and trumpets are preferred by some: blown by 
men, they are said to be heard in Noya Scotia from two to three miles, and 
probably with steam or condensed air will be much further, The instru- 
ments of Holmes* (so well known by his electric light) and of Daboll are said 
to have great power. 

“This summary shows how little is known of the facts on which the 
efficiency of fog-signals depends, even of that which is the most important 
—the distance at which they can surely be heard under those circumstances 
where they are most necessary. 

“A. At the outset, it is obvious that, to make experiments comparable, we 
must haye some measure of the fog’s power of stopping sound, without 
attending to which the most anomalous results may be expected. It seems 
probable that this will bear some simple relation to its opacity to light, and 
that the distance at which a given object, as a flag or pole, disappears may be 
taken as the measure. It is easily ascertained, and should be noted both at 
the signal-station and the observing one: the fog may have many fluctua- 
tions of density between them; so that this will only be an approximate 
estimate, but one which will aid in insuring that the signals shall have suf- 
ficient power to pass the minimum of efficiency, That minimum is when a 
ship, putting down her helm on hearing the signal, can just come round clear 
of the danger. For very large steamers this cannot be done in less than 
two miles; and, allowing for sea and currents, that limit should at least be 
doubled ; so that it may be assumed as a law, that (except in harbour) all fog- 
signals should be distinctly audible for at least four miles under every eircwm- 
stance. 

« B. The range of sound depends on causes not thoroughly understood, and 
sometimes is very different from what might be expected. Some sounds which 
near at hand are very loud, as the explosions of fulminating compounds, reach 
buta very little way. Others fail from want of intensity, though the quantity 
of sound is enormous: thus thunder, however violent, is not heard at twenty 
miles’ distance, while heavy ordnance is said to haye reached two hundred. 
Experiment can alone decide. It should therefore be ascertained by trial, 
first, what source of sound (of course among those already mentioned as suitable 
to this particular object) has the greatest space-penetrating power in still and 
clear air. Secondly, besides the natural decay of sound due to distance alone, 
it is, in the case which interests us, stifled by other sounds near the listener. 
The movements of the crew, the noise of the engines, the rush of the vessel 
through the sea, the murmur of winds and waves are close at hand to prevent 
it from being noticed (though still of sufficient power to be heard), unless it 
have some peculiar character which prevents it from blending with them. 


* Holmes’s trumpet has a strong reed, and is blown by steam of about 20 lbs. pressure. 
He thinks low pitch is heard the furthest, and compound sounds still better. One at 
Dungeness has been heard in fog at five miles, when a bell of 8 cwt. was inaudible at little 
more than two. One larger, and an octave lower, was heard certainly at nine and a half 
miles. These require less steam than the whistle. 


108 REPORT—1863. 


Such character must be in its pitch and in its peculiar quality of tone (tim- 
bre), both of which should differ as much as possible from those which con- 
tend with it. The effect of interrupted sounds should also be tested. 

«‘ This is the most important portion of the inquiry. 

«©, All this is of still more moment when the air is made a discontinuous 
medium by the presence of fog, rain, or snow; and it is probable that the 
origin and quality of the sound may in such cases exert a still greater in- 
fluence than in clear weather. The remarkable power of fog to deaden the 
report of guns has often been noticed, but it should be carefully studied for 
each of the three classes of signals which have been mentioned. It is also 
possible that the signals which are best in clear weather may not be so under 
these conditions. 

«TD. Experiments are required on the degree of accuracy with which the 
direction of a sound can be ascertained; and whether such estimation can be 
assisted by a hearing-trumpet, a tense membrane, or other acoustic aids. 

«“E. It is of even greater importance to try the transmission of sound 
through water, which seems to offer peculiar advantages, if we may judge from 
the few experiments which have been made by Colladon and others, some of 
the details of which are given in a report furnished by one of us to the Bri- 
tish Association (a copy of which is transmitted with this). It may be ex- 
pected that greater distances will be commanded, that there will be fewer dis- 
turbing causes, and that the direction will be more easily determined. Such 
conclusions, at least, follow from two facts observed by Colladon. A small 
bell struck by a hammer under water was heard easily across the Lake of Ge- 
neva, at nine miles’ distance ; and its sound diverged much less behind a screen 
than it would have done in air. These subaqueous sounds, however, do not 
easily pass out from water into air, being reflected at the surface of junction ; 
and they must be listened to with a kind of hearing-tube dipped in the water. 
This presents little difficulty, and (at least in iron ships) the hull of the vessel 
may perhaps itself serve as the sound-catcher. A bell, however, is not the 
only nor even the best means of making these sounds. Small cartridges of 
powder fired under water at regular intervals would correspond to guns, and 
would undoubtedly be heard at very great distances. The Siren is still more 
promising: it isa box whose lid is made to revolve by the passage of a stream 
of some fluid through a number of oblique apertures, which are thus alter- 
nately opened and closed. This instrument gives under water a musical 
tone of extraordinary fulness and power, which could not be easily mistaken 
for any other sound. And, lastly, one of us (Professor Wheatstone) has found 
that tubes fitted with the embouchures of organ-pipes, and made to speak 
under water by a current of that fluid, produce a sound of exceeding inten- 
sity. The success of any of these subaqueous signals depends on the power 
of distinguishing them from sounds due to the vessel itself. In particular, 
the paddles or screw, and the impact of waves on the bow, must be powerful 
generators of submarine sounds; but it is highly probable that the character 
of the signal-sounds will be entirely different from them. 

“< Tf, as we hope, you feel sufficient interest in the matters above mentioned 
to direct such an investigation of them as may lead to practical results, we 
would further take the liberty of suggesting what seems to us likely to be 
the most effective and economical way of carrying it out, at the same time 
offering whatever further information we may be able to afford. 

“The experiments might centre in the flag-ship at Spithead. One of its 
officers might probably be found who would take an interest in the research, 
or a supernumerary might be appointed for this special object. He should 


ON FOG SIGNALS. 109 


be charged with the general control, and in particular with making the sig- 
nals. These should be observed from various points, at Portsmouth and on 
the Isle of Wight, so disposed as to give a series of distances from two to ten 
miles, if possible—and so distributed that some may always have the signal 
up, others down the wind, which is an essential condition. 

* Portland seems also to be very suitable, or perhaps Weymouth. 

“‘Coast-guards or other local officials can probably be found at any of 
these stations to observe the signals; but, in any case, it is necessary that 
the persons engaged should be habitually on the spot, so as to profit by the 
occurrence of a fog without any delay. 

«The process would be of this sort :— 

** When the fog seems to the directing officer sufficiently thick, he sends 
word to the different observers of the time and nature of the intended sig- 
nals; he and they then measure the fog by the means already suggested, or 
some equivalent. 

«<The signals, if fully carried out, should be— 

“1. Guns. 

«2. Bells, gongs, drums. 

«3. Steam-whistle, blown by steam from a small boiler, and by air con- 
densed to the same pressure (unless it be found that both sounds are equally 
audible). The pressures should be recorded. 

“‘4, Two organ-pipes, one whose pitch can be varied at pleasure, the other 
with a reed, connected so that they can be blown together or separately. 

**5, Holmes’s trumpet, Daboll’s, or any other which appears to deserve a 
trial. 
«6, A Siren of 8 inches diameter, supplied with water by a hand-pump 
under a head of about 30 feet (which head must be recorded): by increasing 
the pressure, the pitch rises. 

“7, An organ-pipe of variable length, to be sounded under water as the 
Siren. 

*‘ The chief points to be attended to in these signals are— 

“1. The relative efficiency of guns of various calibre, and with varied 
charges of powder. 

* 2. Weights of bells, and force of blows, measured by the weight and fall 
of the hammers. 

«3. In the wind instruments, the effect of varying the pressure. It is 
probable that each will have some appropriate force of blast which will give 
a maximum result. 

«<4. The two pipes are first to be sounded separately on the same note, to 
ascertain if the reed have any advantages. Then the variable one is to be 
gradually sharpened through a considerable range, to find what pitch is best 
for distance; and lastly, both sounding in unison, one is to be sharpened, so 
as to examine the influence of concords and discords through a large portion 
of the scale. They should be sounded not only continuously, but also with 
short interruptions. 

“5. The Siren should be tried in a metallic cylinder, to learn if this will 
intercept its sound. If so, by making apertures in the cylinder and causing 
it to revolve, it may be as possible to identify such signals as revolving lights. 

“Each observer, when he hears these signals, should note the time and his 
impression as to their distinctness. He should also try how near he can 
estimate their direction. For this purpose (unless he can thoroughly depend 
on his freedom from bias) he should be blindfolded and turned about to lose 
his bearings. He should also try, as above suggested, the aid of acoustic 


110 REPORT—1863: 


tubes. A common speaking-trumpet will in the first instance be the most 
convenient. The direction and velocity of the wind should be recorded. 

“ The returns from each station should be sent, without delay or comparison, 
to the directing officer. 

‘‘ When a series of these experiments shall have given the comparative 
values of the above-mentioned signals, and their ranges as found by observers 
at rest, the work would be incomplete unless it were extended to the con- 
ditions which must occur in practice; and it should be tried, the observer 
being in a steam-ship under way, both in calm and rough weather. The pre- 
liminary trials will have sifted out much uncertainty, and only those cases 
which give good promise need be examined ; so that, with a moderate expen- 
diture of money and labour, we should possess a complete collection of the 
facts on which this element of nautical safety must be founded. 

“The money value of any one of the hundreds of ships which perish 
yearly through the inefficiency of the present fog-signals would far more 
than pay the cost of the experiments proposed; but who will price the gal- 
lant men who perish with them ? 

«T have the honour to be, 
‘Your obedient Servant, 
s Armagh Observatory, «T, R. Rosryson, Chairman.” 
May 22, 1863.” 


On the 6th of July, the Secretary of the Marine Department acknowledged 
the receipt of this letter, and informed me that ‘ Their Lordships are in 
communication with the Trinity House of London on this subject, with the 
view of haying experiments made.” 

On August 6th I wrote to Mr. Farrer, inquiring if any further steps had 
been taken; and on the 14th received an answer, enclosing a letter from the 
Secretary of the Trinity House, and Dr. Faraday’s report referred to in it. 
Its substance is, “That though the Elder Brethren entertain the opinions so 
ably enunciated in Professor Faraday’s letter, they are earnestly desirous of 
obtaining an elucidation of the important and comprehensive questions in- 
volved in the proposed inquiry, and will be ready to cooperate in any measures 
which their Lordships may desire to adopt for the attainment of that result.” 

I fear this implies that the Trinity House will make no great exertion for 
such “ attainment”—the “ opinions enunciated by Professor Faraday” being, 
in fact, that no attempt should be made by that Corporation to carry out the 
researches which we recommended to the Board of Trade. These opinions 
Dr. Faraday seems to have formed, not from any doubt of the importance of 
the subject, to which he bears the fullest testimony, nor from any conviction 
that the proposed experiments are useless or impracticable—for he does not 
discuss them at all,—but from a dread of the difficulty, the magnitude, and 
the expense of the investigation. These we believe he exaggerates ; but even 
taking them at his estimate, we think they will not be accepted by the public 
as a satisfactory excuse for the inertia of this powerful body in a matter which 
touches so deeply, not merely the commercial interests of the nation, but even 
the common instincts of humanity. 

I have not replied to the Secretary of the Board of Trade, as, before I 
could learn the opinions of my colleagues (to whom I at once forwarded the 
papers) our commission would have expired by the meeting of the Association. 
If it be its pleasure to reappoint us with instructions to persevere in seeking 
a more favourable result, I can answer for myself and the rest of the Com- 
mittee that our best efforts shall be directed to fulfil our trust. 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 111 


Report of the Committee appointed by the British Association 
on Standards of Electrical Resistance. 


The Committee consists of—Professor Wheatstone, Professor Williamson, 
Mr. C. F. Varley, Professor Thomson, Mr. Balfour Stewart, Mr. C. W. 
Siemens, Dr. A. Matthiessen, Professor Maxwell, Professor Miller, Dr. 
Joule, Mr. Fleeming Jenkin, Dr. Esselbach, Sir C. Bright. 


Tue Committee on Electrical Measurements, appointed in 1862, have not 
confined their attention to determining the best unit of electrical resistance, 
the point to which the duties of the Committee of 1861 were nominally re- 
stricted, but have viewed this comparatively limited question as one part only 
of the much larger subject of general electrical measurement. The Committee, 
after mature consideration, are of opinion that the system of so-called abso- 
lute electrical units, based on purely mechanical measurements, is not only 
the best system yet proposed, but is the only one consistent with our present 
knowledge both of the relations existing between the various electrical phe- 
nomena and of the connexion between these and the fundamental measure- 
ments of time, space, and mass. The only hesitation felt by the Committee 
was caused by doubts as to the degree of accuracy with which this admirable 
system could be or had been reduced to practice. 

The measurement of voltaic currents, electromotive force, and quantity 
would offer little difficulty, provided only electrical resistance could be mea- 
sured in absolute units, and for this purpose it would be sufficient that the 
resistance of a single standard conductor should be so determined, since copies 
of this standard could be multiplied at will with any desired precision, and 
from comparison with these copies the absolute resistance of any circuit what- 
ever could be obtained by methods requiring comparatively little skill and 
well known to all electricians. The practical adoption of the absolute system 
was felt therefore to depend on the accuracy with which the absolute resist- 
ance of some one standard conductor could be measured; and while doubts 
existed on this point, it was thought premature to make any extended expe- 
riments on the application of the absolute system to voltaic currents, electro- 
motive force, or quantity. The Committee are happy to report that these 
doubts have been dispelled by the success of the experiments, made for the 
Committee by Professor J. Clerk Maxwell, Mr. Balfour Stewart, and Mr, 
Fleeming Jenkin, according to the method devised by Professor W. Thomson. 
These experiments have been actively prosecuted at King’s College for the 
last five months with continually increasing success, as, one by one, successive 
mechanical and electrical improvements have been introduced, and the various 
sources of error discovered and eliminated. 

The Sub-Committee are confident that considerably greater accuracy can 
yet be obtained by the further removal of slight defects, the importance of 
which only became apparent when the main difficulties had been overcome. 
In order, therefore, to secure the best attainable result, and still further to 
test the accuracy and concordance of the experiments before taking any irre- 
vocable step, the Committee have decided not to issue standard coils at the 
present Meeting; but the results already obtained leave no room for doubt 
that the absolute system may be adopted, and that the final standard of re- 
sistance may be constructed without any serious delay. Over-haste might 
eventually entail corrections as inconyenient as those which would follow an 
arbitrary and unscientific choice of units, and the very experiments made by 
the Sub-Committee prove that the hesitation of many to adopt the absolute 


112 REPORT—-1863. 


units as hitherto determined was well founded. It is certain that resistance- 
coils purporting to have been constructed from previous absolute determina- 
tions do not agree one with another within 7, 8, or even 12 per cent. 

Before further alluding to the results obtained by the Sub-Committee, it is 
desirable that the experiments themselves should be understood, and to this 
end the Committee have thought fit that a full explanation of the meaning of 
absolute measurement, and of the principles by which absolute electrical units 
are determined, should form part of the present Report, especially as the only 
information on the subject now extant is scattered in detached papers by 
Weber, Thomson, Helmholtz, and others, requiring considerable labour to 
collect and understand. In order to make this account as clear as possible, it 
has been thought best to disregard entirely the chronological order of the 
discoveries and writings on which the absolute system is founded, and this 
has rendered it very difficult to refer to the original source of each statement 
or conclusion. In the Appendix (C.) this want is, it is hoped, remedied. 

The word “ absolute” in the present sense is used as opposed to the word 
“relative,” and by no means implies that the measurement is accurately 
made, or that the unit employed is of perfect construction ; in other words, it 
does not mean that the measurements or units are absolutely correct, but only 
that the measurement, instead of being a simple comparison with an arbitrary 
quantity of the same kind as that measured, is made by reference to certain 
fundamental units of another kind treated as postulates. An example will 
make this clearer. When the power exerted by an engine is expressed as 
equal to the power of so many horses, the measurement is not what is called 
absolute ; it is simply the comparison of one power with another arbitrarily 
selected, without reference to units of space, mass, or time, although these 
ideas are necessarily involved in any idea of work. Nor would this measure- 
ment be at all more absolute if some particular horse could be found who was 
always in exactly the same condition and could do exactly the same quantity 
of work in an hour at all times. The foot-pound, on the other hand, is one 
derived unit of work, and the power of an engine when expressed in foot- 
pounds is measured in a kind of absolute measurement, 7. e. not by reference 
to another source of power, such as a horse or a man, but by reference to the 
units of weight and length simply—units which have been long in general 
use, and may be treated as fundamental. In this illustration, chosen for its 
simplicity, the unit of force is assumed as fundamental, and as equal to that 
exerted by gravitation on the unit mass; but this force is itself arbitrarily 
chosen, and is inconstant, depending on the latitude of the place of the 
experiment. 

In true absolute measurement the unit of force is defined as the force 
capable of producing the unit velocity in the unit of mass when it has acted 
on it for the unit of time. Hence this force acting through the unit of space 
performs the absolute unit of work. In these two definitions, time, mass, and 
space are alone involved, and the units in which these are measured, 7. e. the 
second, gramme, and metre, will alone,in what follows, be considered as funda- 
mental units. Still simpler examples of absolute and non-absolute measure- 
ments may be taken from the standards of capacity. The gallon is an arbi- 
trary or non-absolute unit. The cubic foot and the litre or cubic decimetre 
are absolute units. In fine, the word absolute is intended to convey the idea 
that the natural connexion between one kind of magnitude and another has been 
attended to, and that all the units form part of a coherent system. It appears 
probable that the name of “ derived units” would more readily convey the re- 
quired idea than the word “ absolute,” or the name of mechanical units might 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 113 


have been adopted ; but when a word has once been generally accepted, it is 
undesirable to introduce a new word to express the same idea. The object 
or use of the absolute system of units may be expressed by saying that it 
avoids useless coefficients in passing from one kind of measurement to 
another. Thus, in calculating the contents of a tank, if the dimensions are in 
feet, the cubic contents are given in cubic feet, without the introduction of any 
coefficient or divisor ; but to obtain the contents in gallons, the divisor 6:25 
is required. If the power of an engine is to be deduced from the pressure on 
the piston and its speed, it is given in foot-pounds or metre-kilograzimes per 
second by a simple multiplication ; to obtain it in horse-power, the coefficients 
33,000 or 550 must be used. No doubt all the natural relations beiween 
the various magnitudes to be measured may be expressed and made use of, 
however arbitrary and incoherent the units may be. Nevertheless the intro- 
duction of the numerous factors then required in every calculation is a very 
serious annoyance, and moreover, where the relations between various kinds of 
measurement are not immediately apparent, the use of the coherent or ab- 
solute system will lead much more rapidly to a general knowledge of these 
relations than the mere publication of formule. 

The absolute system is, however, not only the best practical system, but 
it is the only rational system. Every one will readily perceive the absurdity 
of attempting to teach geometry with a unit of capacity so defined that the 
contents of a cube should be 61 times the arithmetical cube of one side, or 
with a unit of surface of such dimensions that the surface of a rectangle 
would be equal to 0:000023 times the product of its sides; but geometry so 
taught would not be one whit more absurd than the science of. electricity 
would become unless the absolute system of units were adopted. 

In determining the unit of electrical resistance and the other electrical 
units, we must simply follow the natural relation existing between the various 
electrical quantities, and between these and the fundamental units of time, 
mass, and space. ‘The electrical phenomena susceptible of measurement are 
four in number—current, electromotive force, resistance, and quantity. The 
definitions of these need not now be given, but will be found in the Appen- 
dix (C. 14, 15, 16, and 17). Their relations one to another are extremely 
simple, and may be expressed by two equations. 

First, by Ohm’s law, experimentally determined, we have the equation 


E 
C=, o 8 OP de he Sloe oe wo Ch) 


where C=current, E=electromotive force, and R=resistance. From this 
formula it follows that the unit electromotive force must produce the unit 
current in a circuit of unit resistance ; for if units were chosen bearing any 


: E 
other relation to each other,C would be equal to RP where « would be a useless 


and absurd factor, complicating all calculation, and confusing the very simple 
conception of the relation established by Ohm’s law. 

Secondly, it has been experimentally proved by Dr. Faraday that the 
statical quantity of electricity conveyed by any given current is simply pro- 
portional to the strength of the current, whether electromagnetically or 
electrochemically measured, and to the time during which it flows; hence, in 
mathematical language, we have the equation 

QC no 2.8 botnets aon emia Le) 

where t=time, and Q=quantity. From this equation it follows that the unit 
of quantity must be the quantity conveyed by the unit current in the unit of 
I 


. 


114 REPORT—1863. 


time; otherwise we should have Q=yCt, where y would be a second use- 
less and absurd coefficient. From equations (1) and (2) it follows that only 
two of the electrical units could be arbitrarily chosen, even if the natural 
relation between electrical and mechanical measurements were disregarded. 
Thus if the electromotive force of a Daniell’s cell were taken as the unit of 
electromotive force, and the resistance of a metre of mercury of one milli- 
metre section at 0° were taken as the unit of resistance, it would follow from 
equations (1) and (2) that the unit of current must be that which would be 
produced by the Daniell’s cell in a cireuit of the above resistance, and the 
unit of quantity would be the quantity conveyed by that current in a second 
of time. Such a system would be coherent; and if all mechanical, chemical, 
and thermal effects produced by electricity could be neglected, such a system 
might perbaps be called absolute. But all our knowledge of electricity is 
derived from the mechanical, chemical, and thermal effects which it pro- 
duces, and these effects cannot be ignored in a true absolute system. Che- 
mical and thermal effects are, however, now all measured by reference to the 
mechanical unit of work; and therefore, in forming a coherent electrical 
system, the chemical and thermal effects may be neglected, and it is only 
necessary to attend to the connexion between electrical magnitudes and the 
mechanical units. What, then, are the mechanical effects observed in con- 
nexion with electricity? First, it has been proved that whenever a current 
flows through any circuit it performs work, or produces heat or chemical 
action equivalent to work. This work or its equivalent was experimentally 
proved by Dr. Joule to be directly proportional to the square of the current, 
to the time during which it acts, and to the resistance of the circuit ; and it 
depends on these magnitudes only. In mathematical language this is ex- 
pressed by the equation W=C" Re, 2 2)... fs ns ode Gl slae de « (3), 
where W=the work equivalent to all the effects produced in the circuit, and 
the other letters retain their previous signification. This is the third funda- 
mental equation affecting the four electrical quantities, and represents the 
most important connexion between them and the mechanical units. From 
equation (3) it follows (unless another absurd coefficient be introduced) that 
the unit current flowing for a unit of time through a circuit of unit re- 
sistance will perform a unit of work or its equivalent. If every relation 
existing between electrical and mechanical measurements were expressed by 
the three fundamental equations now given, they would still leave the series 
of units undefined, and one unit might be arbitrarily chosen from Which the 
three other units would be deduced by the three equations; but these three 
equations by no means exhaust the natural relations between mechanical and 
electrical measurements. For instance, it is observed that two equal and 
similar quantities of electricity collected in two points repel one another with 
a force (F) directly proportional to the quantity Q, and inversely to the 
square of the distance (¢) between the points. This gives the equation 

F Sa a a 2 rains) 
from which it would follow that the unit quantity should be that which at 
a unit distance repels a similar and equal quantity with unit force. The 
four equations now given are sufficient to measure all electrical phenomena 
by reference to time, mass, and space only, or, in other words, to determine 
the four electrical units by reference to mechanical units. Equation (4) at 
once determines the unit of quantity, which, by equation (2), determines the 
unit current ; the unit of resistance is then determined by equation (3), and the 
unit electromotive force by equation (1). Here,then, is one absolute or coherent 


x 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 115 


system, starting from an effect produced by electricity when at rest. The 
units based on these four equations are precisely those called by Weber elec- 
trostatical units, although it may be observed that he chose those units 
without reference to what is here called the third fundamental equation, or, 
in other words, without reference to the idea of work, introduced into the 
system by Thomson and Helmholtz*, 

The four equations are sufficient to determine the four units, and into this 
system no new relation can be introduced. The first three equations may, 
however, be retained, and a distinct absolute system established by substi- 
tuting some other relation between electrical and mechanical magnitudes 
than is expressed in equation (4); and, indeed, the electrostatical system just 
defined is not that which will be found most generally useful. It is based on 
a statical phenomenon, whereas at present the chief applications of electricity 
are dynamic, depending on electricity in motion, or on voltaic currents with 
their accompanying electromagnetic effects. Now the force exerted on the 
pole of a magnet by a current in its neighbourhood is a purely mechanical 
phenomenon. This force (f) is proportional to the magnetic strength (m) of 
the pole of the magnet, and to the strength of the current C; and if the con- 
ductor be at all points equidistant from the pole, or, in other words, be bent 
in a circle of the radius k round the pole, the force is proportional to the 
length of the conductor (L): it is also inversely proportional to the square of 
the distance (/) of the pole from the conductor, and is affected by no other 
circumstances than those named. Hence we have 


faces salle 3°18 lesGrar futrbalane Cy 


From this equation it follows that the unit length of the unit current must pro- 
duce the unit force on a unit pole at the unit distance. Ifthe equations (1), (2), 
(3), and (5) are adopted as fundamental, they give a distinct absolute system 
of units, called by Weber the electromagnetic units. Equations (4) and (5) are 
incompatible one with another, if equation (2) be considered fundamental ; but 
the electromagnetic units have a constant and natural relation to the elec- 
trostatic units. It will be seen that in the fundamental equation (5) of the 
electromagnetic system, besides the measurements of time, space, and mass, 
alone entering into the other equations, a fourth measurement (m) of a mag- 
netic pole is required; but this measurement is in itself made in terms of the 
mechanical units, forthe unit pole is simply that which repels another equal 
pole at unit distance with unit force. Thus in the electromagnetic as in the 
electrostatic system all measurements are ultimately referred to the funda- 
mental units of time, space, and mass. The electromagnetic units are found 
much the more convenient when dealing, as we have now chiefly occasion te 
do, with electromagnetic phenomena, 

The relations of the electromagnetic units one to another and to the 
mechanical units may be summed up as follows :—The unit current conveys 
a unit quantity of electricity through the circuit in a unit of time. The unit 
current in a conductor of unit resistance produces an effect equivalent to the 
unit of work in the unit of time. The unit current will be produced in a 
circuit of unit resistance by the unit electromotive force. The unit current 
flowing through a conductor of unit length will exert the unit force on a unit 
pole at aunit distance. (In the electrostatic system all the above propositions 
hold good except the last, for which the following must be substituted :—the 
unit quantity of electricity will repel a similar quantity at the unit distance 
with a unit force.) 

. * Vide Appendix C. § 31. 3 

I 


116 REPORT—1863.— 


It remains to be explained how electrical measurements can be practically 
made in electromagnetic units. Of all the magnitudes, currents are the most 
easily measured, provided the horizontal force (H) of the earth’s magnetism be 
known. Let a length (L) of wire be wound so as to form a circular coil of 
small section as compared with its radius (/). 

Let a short magnet be hung in the centre of the coil placed in the 
magnetic meridian, as in the ordinary tangent galvanometer, and let the 
deflection produced by the current C be called d, then it is easily* proved from 
the fundamental equation (5) that 


P) 
rae dan «dies Seem 


Thus, where the value of H is known, a tangent galyanometer only is required 
to determine the magnitude of a current in electromagnetic absolute mea- 
surement, although neither the resistance of the circuit nor the electromotive 
force producing the current may be known. The measurement of quantity 
ean be obtained from that of a current by a make-and-break apparatus, or 
«‘ Wippe,” in a well-known manner, or by measuring the swing of a galvano- 
meter needle when a single instantaneous discharge is allowed to pass through 
it (Appendix C. $25). If, therefore, we could measure resistance in abso- 
lute measure, the whole system of practical absolute measurement would be 
complete, since, when the current and resistance are known, equation (1) 
(Ohm’s law) directly gives the electromotive force producing the current. 
The object of the experiments of the Sub-Committee (made at King’s College, 
by the.kind permission of the Principal) was therefore to determine the re- 
sistance of a certain piece of wire in the absolute system, in order from this 
one careful determination to construct the material representative of the 
absolute unit with which all other resistances would be compared by well- 
known methods. 

There are several means by which the absolute resistance of a wire can 
be measured. Starting from equation (3), Professor Thomson, in 1851, deter- 
mined the absolute resistance of a wire by means of Dr. Joule’s experimental 
measurement of the heat developed in the wire by a current}; and by this 
method he obtained a result which agrees within about 5 per cent. with our 
latest experiments. This method is the simplest of all, so far as the mental 
conception is concerned, and is probably susceptible of very considerable 
accuracy. 

Indirect methods depending on the electromotive force induced in a wire 
moving across a magnetic field have, however, now been more accurately 
applied; but, before describing these methods, it will be necessary to point 


* The resultant electromagnetic force (f) exerted at the centre of the coil by a current (C) 
will, by equation (5), be f= 7p’ and the short magnet hung in the centre will experience a 


CLil 

we where 
ml=the product of the strength of one of the poles into the length of the magnet, or, in 
other words, its magnetic moment. The strength of the couple acting perpendicularly 
to the axis of the magnet, when it has deflected to an angle d under the influence of the 


: CLint ° : 
current, will be cos d = , at the same time the equal and opposite couple exerted 


on the magnet by the earth’s magnetism will be sin d Hm, hence 
out sind HE 
we cd LS 
t Phil. Mag. vol. ii. Ser. 4, 1851, p. 551. 


couple acting in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the coil equal to 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 117 


out the connexion between the electromotive force induced in the above 
manner and the fundamental equations adopted for the absolute system. The 
exact sense in which the terms are employed is defined in the accompanying 
foot-note, along with some simple corollaries from those definitions *. 

A current (C) in a straight conductor of length (L) crossing the lines of 
force of a magnetic field of the intensity (S) at right angles will experience the 
same force (/) as if all the points of the conductor were at the unit distance 
from a pole of the strength (8). The force in this case exerted on the magnet 
is, by equation (5), equal to SLC, and, conversely, an equal force is exerted by 
the magnet on the current. Hence we have equation (7), expressing the value 
of the force (f) exerted on a current crossing a magnetic field at right angles, 

FO Oe © gla LA ee WARS (7) 

Let us imagine this straight conductor to have its two ends resting on two 
conducting rails of large section in connexion with the earth, and let the whole 
sensible resistance (R) of the circuit thus formed be constant for all positions 
of the conductor. Let us further imagine the rails so placed that when the 
conductor slips along them it moves perpendicularly to the magnetic lines of 
force and to its own length. By experiment we know that when the con- 
ductor is moyed along the rails cutting these lines of force, a current will be 
developed in the circuit, and that the action of the magnetic force on this 
current will cause a resistance (f) to the motion (due to electromagnetic 
causes only); and, by equation (7), we find that this resistance f=SLC. 

Let the motion be uniform, and its velocity be called V; and let the work 
done in the unit of time in overcoming the resistance to motion due to elec- 
tromagnetic causes be called W; then W=YVSLC. But this force produces 


* Definition 1—A magnetic field is any space in the neighbourhood of a magnet. 

Definition 2.—The unit magnetic pole is that which, at a unit distance from a similar 
pole, is repelled with unit force. 

Definition 3.—The intensity of a magnetic field at any point is equal to the force which 
the unit pole would experience at that point. 

Corollary 1.—A pole of given strength (8) will produce a magnetic field which (if un- 
influenced by other magnetic forces) will at the unit distance from the pole be of the in- 
tensity S, 7. e. numerically equal to the strength of the pole; for, at that distance, the force 
exerted on a unit pole would, by def. 2, be equal to 8, and hence, by def. 3, the intensity 
of the magnetic field at that pomt would be equal to 8. 

Definition 4.—The direction of the force in the field is the direction in which any pole 
is urged by the magnetism of the field; this is the direction which a short-balanced, freely 
suspended magnet would assume. 

Rtemark.—The properties of a magnetic field, as shown by Dr. Faraday, may be con- 
veniently and accurately conceived as represented by lines of force (each line representing 
a force of constant intensity). The direction of the lines will indicate the direction of the 
force at all points ; and the number of lines which pass through the unit area of cross sec- 
tion will represent the magnetic intensity of the field resolved perpendicularly to that area. 

Definition 5.—A uniform magnetic field is one in which the intensity is equal through- 
out, and hence, as demonstrated by Professor W. Thomson, the lines of force parallel. 

Example.—The earth is a great magnet. The instrument-room, where experiments are 
tried, is a magnetic field. The dipping-needle is an instrument by which the direction of the 
lines of force is found. The intensity of the field is found by a method described in the 
‘Admiralty Manual,’ 8rd edit., article “Terrestrial Magnetism.” The number of lines of 
force passing through the unit of area perpendicularly to the dipping-needle in the room 
toust be conceived as proportional to this intensity, and the direction to correspond with 
_ that of the dipping-needle. The magnitude and direction of the earth’s force at a point 
are generally expressed by resolving it into two components, one horizontal and the other 
yertical. The mean horizontal component in England for 1862 was at Kew = 3°8154 
British units, or 1°7592 metrical ; 7. e. a unit pole weighing one gramme, and free to move 
_ in a horizontal plane, would, under the action of the earth’s horizontal force, acquire, at 
ee end 3 a second, a velocity equal to 1‘7592 metres per second. (Vide also Appendix C. 

to 12. 


118 REPORT—1865. 


no other effect than the current, and the work done by the current must 
therefore be=W, or equivalent to that done in moving the conductor against 
the force f; but, by equation (3), W=C°R, and hence 

VSL 


ar ins See OM ofl ella test RIS he, 2 (8) 


It has already been shown that C and S can be obtained in absolute mea- 
sure; hence the second member of equation (8) contains no unknown quantities, 
and, by the experiment described, the absolute resistance (R) of a wire might 
be determined. One curious consequence of these considerations is, that the 
resistance of a conductor in absolute measure is really expressed by a velo- 
city ; for, by equation (8), when SL=C we have R=V, that is to say, the 
resistance of a conductor may be expressed or defined as equal to the velocity 
with which it must move, if placed in the conditions described, in order to 
generate a current equal to the product of the length of the conductor into 
the intensity of the magnetic field ; or more simply, the resistance of a circuit 
is the velocity with which a conductor of unit length must move across a mag- 
netic field of unit intensity in order to generate a unit current in the circuit. 
Moreover it can be shown that this velocity is independent of the magnitude 
of the fundamental units on which the expression of the magnetic intensity of 
the field or strength of the current is based, and hence that electrical resist- 
ance really is measured by an absolute velocity in nature, quite independently 
of the units of time and space in which it is expressed. (Appendix C, § 39.) By 
equation (8) we have cake , but by equation (1) at hence 

i= VSG ge ele oe 5 ont ae (9) 
that is to say, the electromotive force produced between two ends of a 
straight conductor moved perpendicularly to its own length and to the lines 
of force of a magnetic field is equal to the product of the intensity of the 
field into the length of the conductor and the velocity of the motion ; or, more 
simply, the unit length of a conductor moving with unit velocity perpendicu- 
larly across the lines of force of a magnetic field will produce a unit electro- 
motive force (or difference of potential) between its two ends. This was by 
Weber made a fundamental equation, in place of equation (3), first shown 
by Thomson and Helmholtz to be consistent with Weber’s electromagnetic 
equation. These simple and beautiful relations between inductive effects and 
the simple voltaic effects first described are well adapted to show the rational 
and coherent character of the absolute system. 

The experiment last described, as a method of finding the absolute resistance 
of a conductor by measuring the velocity of motion of a straight wire, would 
be barely practicable; but it will be easily understood that we can, by cal- 
culation, pass from this simple case to the more complex case of a circular 
coil of known dimensions revolving with known velocity about an axis in a 
magnetic field of known intensity. Weber, from these elements, determined 
the absolute resistance of many wires; but this method requires that the in- 
tensity of the magnetic field be known ; and the determination of this element 
is laborious, while its value, for the earth at least, is very inconstant. A 
method due to Professor Thomson, by which a knowledge of this element is 
rendered unnecessary, has therefore been adopted in the experiments of the 
Sub-Committee at King’s College. In this plan a small magnet, screened 
from the effect of the air, is hung at the centre of a revolving coil, which is 
divided into two parts to allow the suspending fibre to pass freely. 

By calculation it can be shown that when the coil revolves round a vertical 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 119 


axis, the couple exerted on a magnetic needle of the moment ml, when deflected 
2 
to the angle d, will be “ys 
The equal and opposite couple caused by the earth’s magnetism will be 
Hmlsind. Hence 


ml cos d. 


1’? V 
4k? R 
LV 

THiAdidGt “oi | kok te Rw tinea (10) 
an equation from which the earth’s magnetic force and the moment of the sus- 
pended magnet have been eliminated, and by which the absolute resistance 
(R) can be calculated in terms of the length, L, the velocity, V, the radius, &, 
and the deflection, d. The resistance thus calculated is expressed in electro- 
magnetic absolute units, because equation (10) is a simple consequence of equa- 
tions (1), (3), and (5)—fundamental equations in the electromagnetic system. 
The essence of Professor Thomson’s method consists in substituting, by aid 
of the laws of electromagnetic induction, the measurements of a velocity and 
a deflection for the more complex and therefore less accurate measurements 
of work and force required in the simple fundamental equations. But, how- 
ever simple in theory the method may be, the practical determination of the 
absolute resistance of a conductor by its means required great care and very 
numerous precautions,—some of an obvious character, while the need of others 
only became apparent during the course of the experiments. 

The apparatus consisted of two circular coils of copper wire, about one foot 
in diameter, placed side by side, and connected in series ; these coils revolved 
round a vertical axis, and were driven by a belt from a hand-winch, fitted 
with Huyghens’ gear to produce a sensibly constant driving-power. A small 
magnet, with a mirror attached, was hung in the centre of the two coils, and the 
deflections of this magnet were read by a telescope from the reflection of a scale 
in the mirror. A frictional governor controlled the speed of the revolving 
coil. The details and a drawing of the apparatus are given in Appendix 
D. and Plate VI.; but a short account may fitly be given here of the points 
of chief practical importance, the difficulties encountered, and the improve- 
ments still desirable. 

It is essential that the dimensions of the coil be very accurately known, 
that the axis round which it revolves should be truly vertical, and that, except 
in the coil itself, no currents affecting the position of the magnet be induced in 
any part of the apparatus. To measure the angular deflection the distance 
of the scale from the mirror is required, and the scale must be truly parallel 
to the mirror when the magnet is undeflected, or, in other words, when the 
coil is at rest. All these conditions were fulfilled without difficulty; but 
the scale by the reflection of which the deflections were measured was, 
towards the end of the experiments, found not to be very accurately divided ; 
and although a correction for this inaccuracy has been applied in the caleu- 
lations, an improvement can in future experiments be effected by the use of 
a more perfect scale. The magnet was suspended by a single silk fibre, eight 
feet long, inside a wooden case, and by suitable adjustments was brought very 
carefully to the centre of the coils. The whole suspended system was so 
screened from currents of air, and so well protected from vibration, that when 
the coil revolved at its full speed of 350 revolutions per minute, the reflection 
in the mirror was as clear and undisturbed as when the coil was at rest. 
The torsion of the long fibre was determined by experiment, and the slight 


tan d= 


or 


120 REPORT—1863. 


necessary corrections applied in the calculations. The Huyghens’ gearing for 
the driving hand-winch was somewhat roughly constructed, and could certainly 
be improved; nevertheless there was little difficulty in maintaining a sensibly 
constant driving-power for twenty minutes at a time. The speed of the coil 
was controlled by a frictional governor of novel form, designed by Mr. Jenkin 
for another purpose, and lent for the experiments in question. The action of 
this governor, combined with that of the driving-gear, was such that in many 
experiments the oscillations in deflection due to a change of speed were not 
so great as those due to the passage of steamers in the river when all parts of 
the apparatus were at rest; so that the deflections during twenty minutes 
could be quite as accurately observed as the slightly imperfect zero-point 
from which they were measured. Still better results are expected with a 
larger governor, made specially for the apparatus, on the joint plans of Pro- 
fessor Thomson and Mr. Jenkin. The oscillations produced by the passage 
of steamers on the Thames at no great distance from the place of experiments 
were of very sensible magnitude; and although by carefully observing the 
limit of every oscillation during every experiment the error due to this cause 
was in great part eliminated, it is desirable that any future experiments should 
be conducted in some spot free from all local magnetic disturbance. 

The speed of the coil was determined by observing on a chronometer the 
instant at which a small gong was struck by a detent released once in every 
hundred revolutions. Mr. Balfour Stewart’s skill in this kind of observation 
enabled him thus to determine the velocity with great accuracy, especially 
as the observations frequently lasted for twenty minutes without material 
alteration in the speed. 

Some error was apprehended in the necessary measurement of the length 
of the copper wire used, owing to the extension that would be caused by the 
strain usually required to straighten the wire. This really serious difficulty 
was eluded almost by accident, in a manner amusing from its simplicity. 
At the conclusion of the experiments, the wire to be measured was uncoiled 
in the Museum at King’s College and lay in awkward bends on the planked 
floor. The straight planks formed an obvious contrast to the crooked wire, 
and a joint between the planks was found where the opening was just suffi- 
cient to hold the wire when pushed into this little groove. Held in this way, 
the wire when measured was quite straight, and yet was never stretched. 

No other measurements than those already described are required by the 
simple theory ; but this theory, as hitherto stated, stands in need of various 
slight corrections. The currents induced by the earth’s magnetism are modi- 
fied by the currents induced from the little suspended magnet, and also by 
the induction of the coil on itself. The force deflecting the magnet is also 
modified by the lateral distance of the coils from the vertical axis. An ela- 
borate analysis of the corrections required on these grounds was made by 
Professor Maxwell (Appendix D.) ; and to allow of these corrections, the mo- 
ment of the suspended magnet was measured, and the position of every turn 
of the copper coil carefully observed. An experimental determination of the 
induction of the coil on itself, by a method due to Professor Maxwell, agreed 
with the calculated correction within one quarter per cent. 

The resistance of the copper coil measured by these laborious experiments 
varied each day, and during each day, according to the temperature; and, 
moreover, this temperature could at no time be determined with sufficient ac- 
curacy. It was therefore intended that at each experiment a small German- 
silver coil, at a known temperature, should have been prepared exactly equal 
in resistance to the copper coil during that experiment, and these small coils 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 121 


were to have been kept as permanent records of the resistance’of the copper coil 
on each occasion; but this resistance was found to vary so rapidly that the 
little copies could not be accurately adjusted with sufficient rapidity, and the 
resistance of the copper coil was therefore simply measured at the beginning 
and end of each experiment, in terms of an arbitrary unit. This propor- 
tional measurement was made with rapidity and precision by a new method, 
which, it is believed, is superior to the usual plan depending on the division 
or calibration of a comparatively short wire in the Wheatstone balance. (Ap- 
pendix D. Part II.) 

One unforeseen difficulty was caused by the change of direction of the 
earth’s magnetic force during each experiment. Our method is indeed inde- 
pendent of the intensity of the earth’s magnetism, but depends essentially on 
its direction, since it depends on the value of a deflection from the magnetic 
meridian. When this source of error was discovered by the continual and 
gradual change of zero observed, the absolute time of each experiment was 
noted, and a continuous correction obtained from the contemporaneous records 
at Kew, which agreed closely with the total changes observed at the beginning 
and end of each experiment. As the change of zero frequently reached three 
or four divisions in the course of the day, and as the whole deflection seldom 
exceeded 300 divisions, the importance of this correction is apparent. 

The presence of stationary masses of iron does not affect the experiments 
injuriously, so long as the uniformity of the magnetic field in which the coil 
resolves is undisturbed—a point carefully tested before the experiments 
began ; but a change in the position of iron in the neighbourhood during any 
experiment produces a corresponding error in the result, and the serious 
effect of moving very small masses of iron at a great distance from the coil 
was only fully appreciated in the later experiments. 

When it is considered that the method described is the simplest known, the 
discrepancy between the few determinations hitherto made in absolute mea- 
surement will cause no surprise. The time, labour, and money required 
could hardly be expected to be given by any one person, and in researches of 
this kind the value of the cooperation secured by the committees of the 
Association is especially evident. 

The absolute unit of the Sub-Committee is about eight per cent. larger than 
the unit as derived from a German-silver coil lately measured by Professor 
Weber. It is about six and a half per cent. larger than the unit as derived 
from a value published by Professor Weber of Dr. Siemens’s mercury units. 
It is about five per cent. smaller than the unit as derived from coils issued by 
Professor Thomson in 1858, based on Jacobi’s standard and a previous deter- 
mination by Professor Weber. It is about five per cent. smaller than Thom- 
son’s determination from Joule’s silver wire. It agrees most closely with an 
old determination of a copper standard made by Weber for Professor Thomson, 
which it exceeds by only a very small fraction. 

The experiments of the Sub-Committee agree much better than the above 
one with another. Owing to the gradual improvement in the method and 
apparatus, the experiments of the last three days are alone considered satis- 
factory. On the first day the maximum deviation in six distinct experiments 
from their mean result was 2:4 per cent. On the second day the maximum 
deviation in four experiments from their mean was 1:3 per cent. On the 
third day the maximum deviation in five experiments from their mean was 
1-15 per cent. The maximum deviation in the means of the three days’ ex- 
periments from the mean of the whole is only four-tenths per cent. 

These results are not unsatisfactory, and are perhaps more accurate than 


122 REPORT—1863. 


any measurement yet made of the relative values of heat and work—a mea- 
surement corresponding to a great extent in its nature with that undertaken by 
the Committee. Nevertheless, considering the discrepancy of the various 
independent results, the Committee are of opinion that it is essential that 
the results of the Sub-Committee should be checked by a fresh series of expe- 
riments with a new coil in a distinct place, when every separate measure- 
ment will necessarily be repeated. The Sub-Committee especially urge the 
repetition of the experiments, as with the improvements already enume- 
rated, and other minor alterations, they confidently expect a considerably closer 
approximation to the absolute unit than they have hitherto obtained. It will be 
well here to remark that, according to the resolution of the Committee of 1861, 
the coils, when issued, will not be called absolute units, but the units of the 
British Association; so that any subsequent improvement in experimental 
absolute measurement will not entail a. change in the standard, but only a 
trifling correction in those calculations which involve the correlation of the 
physical forces. 

It is now time to leave the question of absolute measurement and pass to 
some of the other points under the consideration of the Committee. Dr. 
Matthiessen has, by careful experiment, proved the permanence for a year at 
least of the electrical resistance of certain wires; but he has detected a change 
in others, due, apparently, to the influence of time. Certain specimens of sil- 
ver, gold, and copper have varied; but other specimens of the same metals 
have remained constant. All the specimens of platinum and gold-silver alloy 
have remained constant, and all the specimens of German silver have changed 
considerably. It is proposed to continue and extend these experiments, and 
it is much to be hoped that the defect observed in the German silver tested 
will not be found common to all the varieties of this alloy, in other respects so 
well adapted for the construction of resistance-coils. Dr. Matthiessen found 
no difference in the resistance of wires of any of the above metals before and 
after the passage of a powerful current transmitted through them continually 
for a fortnight. The details of these experiments are given in Appendix A. 
Dr. Matthiessen has also continued his experiments with the object of find- 
ing an alloy with a minimum variation of resistance due to change of tem- 
perature, but has been unable to produce a wire superior in this respect 
to the silver-platinum alloy mentioned in Appendix A. of the Report of 
last year, as decreasing in conducting power 3-1 per cent. between 100° and 
0° Centigrade. German silver was found to decrease under the same circum- 
stances 4:4 per cent. 

The valuable experiments by Mr. Sabine, for Dr. Werner Siemens of Berlin, 
on the reproduction of standards by means of mercury, although not under- 
taken for the Committee, yet bear so directly on the subject before them that 
the results cannot be allowed to pass unmentioned. Dr. Siemens has con- 
clusively proved that he can, in his laboratory, reproduce a standard by means 
of mercury with an error of less than 0-05 per cent. This admirable result, 
while it seriously affects the question of the best material for the construction 
and reproduction of the standard, leaves, of course, the question of the best 
magnitude for the standard quite untouched. Dr. Matthiessen thinks that 
several of the solid metals are equally fitted for the purposes of reproduc- 
tion, and, if aided by the Association, is disposed to put his conviction to 
experimental proof. It is especially desirable that the various methods pro- 
posed should be tested by the concordance of the results obtained from a 
number of independent observers. 

With reference to the construction of the material standard, it is proposed 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 123 


that the British Association units shall be represented by several equal stan- 
dards made of the different metals, which, so far as our limited experience 
goes, show the greatest signs of constancy. Two at least of those standards 
would be made of mercury, in the manner proposed by Dr. Siemens. The 
permanent agreement between several of these standards would afford the 
strongest possible proof of their constancy. 

Passing to other electrical measurements, the Committee have to report that 
Professor W. Thomson has successfully constructed a material standard gauge 
by which electromotive force or difference of potentials can be directly mea- 
sured. This instrument is founded on a measurement of the electrical attrac- 
tion exerted on a small moveable portion of a large conducting-plane by 
another large parallel plane fixed at a constant distance, and electrified to a 
different potential. The force exerted is ultimately measured by the torsion 
of a platinum wire ; but the difference of potential corresponding to any one 
gauge is simply indicated by the motion of an index to a sighted position. 
If the planes are brought sufficiently close, with a given torsion in the 
platinum wire, the moveable’ piece will be in a condition of unstable equili- 
brium when its index is in the sighted position, but if moved to a greater 
distance the equilibrium will be stable; hence, by a correct choice of the 
distance between the two planes, or initial torsion in the platinum wire, as 
compared with the difference of potential to be measured, any required 
delicacy of indication is obtained. The constancy of the gauge, like that 
of all standards, depends simply on the constancy of the materials of which 
it is constructed, and there is no reason to apprehend any special difficulty 
in the present case. 

Professor Thomson has also on the same principle constructed an electro- 
meter in which the distance between the parallel planes is made variable, 
and is adjusted by a micrometer-screw. The plane conductor, of which the 
small moveable index forms part, is in this instrument permanently main- 
tained at a high potential by connexion with the inner coating of a Leyden 
jar, and the other plane is connected with the body to be tested. Calcula- 
tion, confirmed by experiment, shows that in these instruments the difference 
of potentials between any two bodies, successively tested, is directly pro- 
portional to the difference of the distances between the parallel planes 
required in each case to bring the index to its sighted position. This 
difference of distance is the same whatever be the charge of the Leyden 
jar, provided only it remains constant during the comparison of the two 
bodies. With this limitation, the indications of the instrument may be 
called independent of the charge of the Leyden jar. There can be little 
doubt that gauges of electromotive force and electrometers, fulfilling the 
above conditions, will shortly become as necessary to all practical electricians 
as standards of resistance and sets of resistance-coils. 

No progress has been made in the measurement of currents, and much 
remains to be done in this respect. The method already described, depending on 
the use of a tangent galvanometer, requires a knowledge of the horizontal force 
of the earth’s magnetism, and is, therefore, in most cases beyond the reach of 
observers where greater accuracy is required than can be obtained by taking 
their value from the scientific almanacs. Next year it is hoped that this 
Want may be remedied, and the present Report may fitly conclude by the 
enumeration of objects to be pursued by the Committee, if reappointed at the 
present Meeting :— 

ist. The experiments on the determination of the absolute unit of resist- 
ance will be continued. 


124 REPORT—1863. 


2nd. Immediately on the conclusion of these experiments, equal standards, 
constructed of such metals as promise the greatest constancy, will be depo- 
sited at Kew, where the permanence of their equality will be ngorously tested. 

3rd. Unit resistance-coils of the best known construction will be issued to 
the public. 

4th. The experiments already begun on the permanence of the electrical 
resistance of wires and alloys under various circumstances will be continued 
and extended. 

5th. The experiments on the reproduction of standards by chemical means 
will be continued. 

6th. Experiments on the best construction of gauges of electromotive force 
or difference of potential, and on electrometers, will be continued. 

7th. A standard galvanometer, for the measurement of currents in absolute 
measure, will be constructed, and electro-dynamometers for the same purpose 
compared with the standard instrument, and issued to the public. 

8th. Experiments on the ratio between the electrostatic units and the 
electromagnetic units will be undertaken. 

9th. Experiments will be made on the development of heat in conductors 
of known absolute resistance with currents of known absolute magnitude, 
The results of this experiment will give, by equation (3), a new and very 
accurate determination of the mechanical value of the unit of heat. 

The conclusion of the experiments on absolute resistance, and the adoption 
of the absolute system as the basis of all electrical measurement, will, it is 
hoped, allow considerable progress to be made in most of these researches, 


Apprenprx A.—On the Electrical Permanency of Metals and Alloys. 
By A. Marrutessen, F.R.S, 


Tur following are the results obtained with the metals and alloys described 
in Appendix B. of the Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance by your 


Committee :-— 
The wires to be experimented on were— 


Johnson and Matthey. 


1. Silver: hard drawn........ see 
2. Silver: annealed ......«..- } Caniroun ssp Soe eee 
3. Silver: hard-drawn........ Cut from the same piece, but different 
4, Silver: annealed.,......). ..+ from 1 and 2; pure. 
5. Copper: hard-drawn ...... , ‘ Pet i 
6. Copper: annealed.......... ciara tg ay igs ing : 
7. Copper: hard-drawn ...... Cut from the same piece, but different 
8. Copper: annealed.......... from 5 and 6; pure. 
lag ea ae Onktnomaele ea emma 
11. Gold: hard-drawn ........ Cut from the same piece, but different 
12. Gold: annealed .......... from 9 and 10; pure. 
13, Platinum: hard-drawn Cut from the same piece; commercial. 
14. Platinum: hard-drawn .... ‘ 
15. Gold-silver alloy: hard-drawn | Cut from same piece. Made by Messrs. 
16. Gold-silver alloy : hard-drawn e 

. Cut from the same piece. No. 19 ar- 
17. German silver: Pome a, ranged with longer connectors, and 
18, German silver: ememed 7 used as normal wire with which the 
19. German silver: annealed.... rest were compared. 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 125 


date and June 14th, 1863, when they were last tested. During the time 
when not used, they were hung up in a room where in the winter a fire was 
kept all day, so that the temperature may have varied at times some 10 or 
12 degrees in the twenty-four hours. 

The following Table contains the results of the first and last comparisons. 
I have taken the conducting power in the first in all cases equal to 100 as 
compared with No. 19; in the last I have assumed that the conducting 
power of No. 15 has remained unaltered :— 


Conducting 
Conducting powers found, as__| power found, as 
compared with No. 19= 100. compared with 


No. 15=100. 
if 2. 3. 
May 9, June 14, 
is62,.| © |" i863,°| 7 T. 

1. Silver: hard-drawn ............ | 100-00 | 20:2 | 103-700 | 20-0 | 103-915] 20-0 
2. Silver: annealed ............... 100-00 | 20-2 | 99-740 | 20:1 | 99-947] 20-1 
3. Silver: hard-drawn ............ 100-00 | 20:2 | 102:590 | 20-2 | 102-807} 20:2 
4. Silver: annealed ............... 100:00 | 20°2 | 99-825 | 20:0 | 100:031| 20-0 
5. Copper: hard-drawn ......... 100:00 | 20-1 | 100-040 | 20:2 | 100-248} 20-2 
6. Copper: annealed............... 100:00 | 20:1 | 99:807 | 20:0 | 100-015} 20-0 
7. Copper: hard-drawn ......... 100:00 | 20:0 | 99-941 | 19-8 | 100:149| 19-8 
8. Copper: annealed............... 100:00 | 20:0 | 95:358 | 20-4 | 95:556| 20-4 
9. Gold: hard-drawn ............ 100:00 | 20:0 | 99-838 | 20-2 | 100-045] 20-2 
10. Gold: annealed ............... 100:00 | 20:0 | 99-855 | 20-0 | 100-062} 20-0 
11. Gold: hard-drawn .. ......... | 100:00 | 20:0 | 99-662 | 20:2 | 99-869] 20-2 
12. Gold: annealed ...,........... 100:00 | 20:0 | 99-670 | 20°33 | 99:877| 20:3 
13. Platinum: hard-drawn ...... 100:00 | 20:0 | 99°744 | 20:2 | 99-951} 20:2 
14. Platinum: hard-drawn ...... 100:00 | 200 | 99-792 | 20:2} 99-999} 20-2 
15. Gold-silver alloy: hard-drawn) 100-00 | 20:0 | 99-793 | 20:2 | 100-000} 20-2 
16. Gold-silver alloy: hard-drawn| 100:00 | 19:9 | 99-756 | 20:3} 99-963] 20:3 
17. German silver: annealed...... 100:00 | 20°3 | 99-955 | 20-0 | 100°162| 20-0 
18. German silver: annealed...... 100-00 | 20:3 | 99-938 | 20:0 | 100-145! 20-0 
Weeererman silver: annealed......| ..:ce. | cscsce | aseoee | secene 100:217| 20-2 


From the above it would appear that if the conducting power of No. 19 
has remained constant, that of all the others has altered; but supposing 
such to be the case, it will be found on comparing the values that the con- 
ducting powers have all altered in a like extent. Is this probable? Is it 
not more probable that the conducting power of the German silver has 
changed, than that that of all the others should have altered in the same 
degree? IPfthat o: the gold-silver alloy, No. 15, be called 100-00 instead of 
99-793, then, as will be seen from column 3, very few show any change in 
their conducting power. Those which show no sensible change are as follows :— 


Values taken from column 8. 


No. 2. Silver: annealed.............; 99-947 
No; @4. Silver: annealed. . ...rccves: so » 0's 100-031 
No. 6. Copper: annealed ............ 100-015 
No. 9. Gold: hard-drawn............ 100-045 
Nor 10:sGold = annealed .ioivejsc... sc. 100:062 
No. 18. Platinum: hard-drawn........ 99-951 
No. 14. Platinum: hard-drawn........ 99-999 


No. 15. Gold-silver alloy: hard-drawn .. 100-000 
No, 16. Gold-silver alloy: hard-drawn .. 99-963 


126 REPORT—1863, 


The differences in the above are probably due to temperature; for as the 
wires are in tubes filled with carbonic-acid gas, we can never be absolutely 
sure that wire has exactly the same temperature as the bath. In properly 
made resistance-coils this source of error is materially diminished, and in 
some experiments which are about to be made to further test the electrical 
permanency of metals and alloys this source of error will be almost entirely 
obviated. It may be here again mentioned, that the reason of placing the 
wires in glass tubes filled with carbonic-acid gas was to obviate the oxidation 
of the metal or alloy by the oxygen of the air, or from the acids produced by 
the oxidation of the oil or fat with which the wires are covered when drawn, 
as the holes in the draw-plates are generally oiled or greased, &c. 

Those whose conducting power has changed are as follows :— 


Values taken from column 38, 


No. 1. Silver: hard-drawn .......... 103:915 
No. 3. Silver: hard-drawn .......... 102-807 
No. 5. Copper: hard-drawn.......... 100-248 
No. 7. Copper: hard-drawn .......... 100-149 
No. 8. Copper: annealed ............ 95°556 
No. 11. Gold: hard-drawn............ 99-869 
INO. [2. Gold. “annealed ©... omen ect 99-877 
No. 17. German silver: annealed ...... 100:162 
No. 18. German silver: annealed ...... 100:145 
No. 19. German silver: annealed ...... 100-217. 


The cause of the change in the conducting powers of the alloys Nos, 1, 3, 
5, 7 is undoubtedly due to their becoming somewhat annealed by age*, With 
No. 8 the alteration may be attributed to faulty soldering. That the con- 
ducting power of the German silver experimented with has altered is not a 
proof that all German silver will do so; for we find the gold wires Nos. 9 and 
10 not altered, but Nos. 11 and 12 (which were cut from the same piece, 
but of a different one from the one from which Nos. 9 and 10 were taken) 
have altered. Further experiments are, however, required to prove whether 
the metals and alloys given above as constant in their conducting power 
are so or not. 

Schroder van der Kolk statest that the conducting power of copper wire 
undergoes a change when even weak currents are allowed to pass through it. 
In order to see whether that of the above wires would suffer any change, 
the following experiment was arranged :—Nos. 1, 2, 5, 6, 9, 10, 18, 15, 17 
were connected together, and a current from two Bunsen’s cells was allowed 
to pass through them day and night for six days. The cells were cleaned 
every morning and evening, and the dilute sulphuric acid renewed. The ex- 
periment was carried out soon after, June 14, 1863. In the subjoined Table 
the conducting powers are given as found before and after the trial, com- 
pared with No, 19. 


Conducting power observed, as compared 
with No. 19=100. 


Before. AVS After. We 
No. 1........103°700 20-0 103:775 20-2 
Won 2 skein 99:740 20-1 99-733 20:2 
INOS Pe cre fatator ste 100:040 20:2 100:045 20-2 
No: “6 vateutetez 99-807 20:0 99:865 20-0 
Noi 9c nccnaare: 99-838 20-2 99-860 20-2 


No: TOs. eee 99°855 20:0 99:807 20:2 
* Brit. Assoc, Report, 1862, p. 189. + Pogg. Ann. 110, 452. 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 127 


Ov er .. 99°744 20:2 99-766 20-2 
eas... cet 99-793 20-2 99-762 20-2 
Mee LT... AG 99:955 20-0 99:926 20-2 


From the above numbers it will be seen that the conducting power has not 
changed, the differences in the values being in all probability due, as above 
stated, to temperature. 

If the passage of a current really altered the conducting power of a wire, 
then of what use would resistance-coils be? The above experiments prove 
that a much stronger current than is used for testing the resistance of a wire 
has no effect on it. 


Apprnvix B.—On the Variation of the Electric Resistance of Alloys due to 
Change of Temperature. By A. Marruressen, F.R.S. 


Iy the Appendix to the Report of your Committee read at the Meeting 
held last year, I gave a Table containing the results of experiments with 
some alloys, made with a view to find out the alloy whose conducting power 
decreases with an increase of temperature in the smallest degree. With the 
same apparatus, &c., I haye, in conjunction with Dr. C. Vogt, experimented 
with the following alloys. 

(With each series the formula deduced from the observations for the cor- 
rection of the conducting power for temperature is given, where is equal 
to the conducting power at the temperature ¢° C. Silver (hard-drawn) is 
taken at 0°=100. ) 


Composition of alloy by weight. Length den mm.; diameter 0-470 mm. 


(1) LS 95:3 ’ Conducting power. 
BREE adie iss bk 4:7 12 0 2°3573 
Made from pure metals. 56:0 2:3138 
Hard-drawn. 100-0 2-2798 


A=2-3708—0-0011555¢+ 0:0000024542. 
Length 4 mm,; diameter 1:217 mm. 


(2) Cote 95:0 . ’ Conducting power, 
ee 5:0 5 0 2-0819 
Hard-drawn. 57:5 2-0424. 
100-0 2-0067 


A=2-0967—0-0010057¢ + 0:00000105227. 

This and the two following alloys were made by Messrs. Johnson and 
Matthey. No. 2 was made to check the results obtained with No. 1; for 
those given with Nos. 3 and 4 appeared to show that some mistake had been 
made with No.1. That this was not the case is proved by No.2. It is, how- 
ever, a very curious fact that the percentage decrement increases in this 
manner, for in no other series of alloys has this behaviour been noticed. Its 
cause may be attributed to the existence of chemical combinations in the 
solid alloys of gold and iron. 

Nos. 3 and 4 are very brittle, and therefore difficult to draw. 


Length 184 mm.; diameter 0-943 mm. 


(3) Gold $3. 23548 90:0 T. Conducting power. 
meee 55 PTY 10-0 14:0 1:9822 
Hard-drawn. 57:0 1:7951 
100-0 1:7010 


A=2:0632 —0:0061367¢+ 0:000025137. 


128 REPORT—1863. 
Length 145 mm.; diameter 0-758 mm. 


(4) Golder. oa 85-0 T. Conducting power. 
Hronmys. S32". 15:0 15:0 2-6239 
Hard-drawn. 57°65 2:2732 
100-0 1/9926 


A=2°7645—0-0096586¢+ 0:000019402. 
Length Pat mm.; diameter 0-802 mm. 


(5) VED Are ares ike 6 75:0 ” Conducting power. 
Palladium ...... 25-0 1 ‘0 8:4846 
Made by Messrs. Johnson and 555 8:3577 
Matthey. 100-0 8°2256 
Hard-drawn. 


A=8°5152—0-0027644t—0-000001313#. 


This alloy was formerly used by dentists on account of its elasticity. It 
was tested, as it appeared to answer some of the conditions required. 


Length arn 6mm.; diameter 0:576 mm. 


(6) Cappers. !.63 0% 63:3 Conducting power. 

ANOS SOCIO ATE 36:7 15 73 21:807 

Made from pure metals. 23°7 21:562 
Hard-drawn. 39-28 21-116 
54:38 20°693 

69°31 20-300 

84:63 19°897 

99-43 19-327 


A=22-274—0-030601¢+ 0-000029802?. 
Length 190 mm.; diameter 0:381 mm. 


(7) Copper is euae. 75:0 i Conducting power. 
Wane > ors ees 25-0 13:47 ‘704 
Made from pure metals. 24:07 21-413 
Hard-drawn. 39°21 21-020 
53°65 20-647 
69:03 20-268 
83°71 19-915 
98-97 19-565 


A=22-076—0-028100¢+ 0:00002945?. 


These alloys are given, as they approach in composition to that of brass. 
It seemed very desirable to test the influence of temperature on the alloy, as 
it was proposed by Jacobi as a unit of electric resistance. 


Length eet 5mm. ; diameter 0-524 mm. 


Varstotets te, 3 3 ‘Conducting ower. 

ee ae "97 15:43 19-058 
Made from pure metals. 23:40 11-990 
Hard-drawn. 40°35 11-852 
54:75 11-737 

69-78 11-619 

84:66 11-499 

98-70 11:391 


—=12-186—0:0084168¢+ 0:0000037002, 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 129 


Length ‘“ mm.; diameter 0-627 mm, 


(9 Copper ........ 89-7 ” Conducting power. 

DMS ca c's Os b 10:3 Li: 0 10-1386 
Made from pure metals. 55°) 9:8710 
Hard-drawn. 100-0 9:6526 


A=10-212—0-0068043¢+ 0-000012102. 


These alloys are given, as they approach in composition to that of ordinary 
gun-metal. 


(10) Gun-metal (Austrian). Length es 5mm.; diameter 0650 mm, 
Copper. ” Conducting power. 
Zine. 1 0 26°336 
Tron. 56:5 24-056 
A specimen obtained through 100-0 22-121 
the kindness of Mr. F. Abel. 
Hard-drawn. 
A=27-084—0-058750¢ + 0:00009116#. 


The conducting power of this alloy increased by heating to 100° for one 
day 5*7 per cent.—a larger increment than has been observed with any alloy. 
Generally, the conducting power of an alloy either remains constant or only 
varies 0-1 or 0-2 per cent. under the same conditions. 


Length 1564 mm. ; diameter 0-525 mm. 


(11) Proof gold. ay Conducting power, 
Hard-drawn. 15:0 68-969 
57°5 60179 
100-0 53°387 


A=72:548—0-24692¢+ 0:00055312, 
Length 2328 mm. ; diameter 0:525 mm. 


(12) Standard silver. su * Conducting power, 
Hard-drawn. 12:0 78015 
56:0 69-301 
100-0 61-949 


A= 80-628—0:22196¢+ 0:00035182?, 


In the following Table I have given the results here obtained, with those 
of last year, in such a manner that they may be easily compared :— 
Conducting | Percentage de- 


power crement in con- 

at 0°. ducting power 
: between 0° & 100° 
TES. 2% Siattag ciel ol éralsa, ahd sale del « fdlale 16°81 39-2 
EMMA or Ale .'si5 Shales Geese aed oa 9-16 31-4 
Other pure metals in a solid state .......... aster. 29°3 
Bebe With 1S p.c. on i. ove Lie cease 2°76 27-9 
MRED. 0.252 Pin) Lcdets (erate tetaidte & Sialy W GLa a's aes 72-55 26-4 
MMMPREO SUVER xi 5k fed ode) Hel edd clad wot ele #2 80-63 23:2, 
Gun-metal (Austrian) ............000 eee 27-08 18:3 
mere VO. p.c.cIPOM si iedeia le fbd hele a obatanks 2-06 17-5 
Gold, with 14-3 p.c. silver and 7-4 p.c. copper| 44:47 15:5 
Mopper, with 36-7 p.c. zinc .......6...6..-- 22:27 12-4 
‘Copper, with 25 p.c. zinc. ....66.80 0.2. e eee 22-08 11:5 


* Proc. Roy. Soe, xii. 472, 1863. 
1863. K 


180 REPORT—1863. 


TABLE (continued). 


Conducting | Percentage de- 
power crement in con- 
at 0°. ducting power 

between 0°& 100° 
Saver Wil o p-c. platimum™ » 2... sv. sles ss 31:64 11:3 
Silver, with 9-8 p.c. platinum*® ............ 18:04 * fot 
Copper, with 9°7 p.¢. tim ...0.. 0 se eeeeeree 12:19 6-6 
ie eold-ailver alloy * : ccc oss see os 15:03 6:5 
Platinum, with 33°4 p.c. iridium....,....... 4:54 5:9 
Copper; With US pict tin ee Aa Oks soe 10°21 5:2 
Gold, with 18-1 p.c. silver and 15-4 p.c. copper* 10°6 5:2 
Gold, with 15:2 p.c. silver and 26-5 p.c. copper* 12:02 4:8 
GPM I peti en sidlete see gy poo dod od a ste © oho 7°80 4-4 
Gold, willl pt UEOR- Ue ie tsicc scales dee eee 2°10 43 
Goldy sptiRaery 6 fats a Geis a aloe ee 2:37 3°8 
Silver, with 25 p.c. palladium.............. 8°52 34 
Silver, with 33-4 p.c. platinum+............ 6:70 31 


It will be observed that I have not yet been able to find an alloy whose 
conducting power decreases between 0° and 100° less than that of the alloy of 
silver with 33-4 p.c. platinum; and from results obtained in this direction 
in conjunction with Dr. Vogt, I am of opinion there will be great difficulty 
in doing so. We have already tested upwards of 100 alloys, and it is curious 
how few we haye found whose conducting power varies less than that of Ger- 
man silver between 0° and 100°. 


Apprnpix 0.—On the Elementary Relations between Electrical Measurements. 
By Professor J, Crerk Maxwein and Mr. Freemine Jenkin. 


Part I.—Lyrropucrory. 


1.- Objects of Treatise.—The progress and extension of the electric telegraph 
has made a practical knowledge of electric and magnetic phenomena necessary 
to a large number of persons who are more or less occupied in the construc- 
tion and working of the lines, and interesting to many others who are un- 
willing to be ignorant of the use of the network of wires which surrounds 
them. The discoveries of Volta and Galvani, of Oersted, and of Faraday are 
familiar in the mouths of all who talk of science, while the results of those 
discoveries are the foundation of branches of industry conducted by many 
who have perhaps never heard of those illustrious names. Between the 
student’s mere knowledge of the history of discovery and the workman’s 
practical familiarity with particular operations which can only be communi- 
cated to others by direct imitation, we are in want of a set of rules, or rather 
principles, by which the laws remembered in their abstract form can be 
applied to estimate the forces required to effect any given practical result. 

We may be called on to construct electrical apparatus for a particular 
purpose. In order to know how many cells are required for the battery, and 
of what size they should be, we require to know the strength of current 
required, the electromotive force of the cells, and the resistance of the circuit. 
If we know the results of previous scientific inquiry, and are acquainted with 
the method of adapting them to the case before us, we may discover the 
proper arrangement at once. If we are unable to make any estimate of what 
is required before constructing the apparatus, we may have to encounter 


* Proc. Roy. Soc. xii, 472, 1863, Tt Brit, Assoc, Report, 1862, p. 187. 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 131 


numerous failures which might have been avoided if we had known how to 
make a proper use of existing data. 

All exact knowledge is founded on the comparison of one quantity with 
another. In many experimental researches conducted by single individuals, 
the absolute values of those quantities are of no importance; but whenever 
many persons are to act together, it is necessary that they should have a 
common understanding of the measures to be employed. The object of the 
present treatise is to assist in attaining this common understanding as to 
electrical measurements. 

2. Derivation of Units from fundamental Standards.—Every distinct kind 
of quantity requires a standard of its own, and these standards might be 
chosen quite independently of each other, and in many cases have been so 
chosen; but it is possible to deduce all standards of quantity from the 
fundamental standards adopted for length, time, and mass; and it is of great 
scientific and practical importance to deduce them from these standards in 
a systematic manner. Thus it is easy to understand what a square foot is 
when we know what a linear foot is, or to find the number of cubic feet in a 
room from its length, breadth, and height ; because the foot, the square foot, 
and the cubic foot are parts of the same system of units. But the pint, 
gallon, &c., form another set of measures of volume which has been formed 
without reference to the system based on length; and in order to reduce 
the one set of numbers to the other, we have to multiply by a troublesome 
fraction, difficult to remember, and therefore a fruitful source of error. 

The varieties of weights and measures which formerly prevailed in this 
country, when different measures were adopted for different kinds of goods, 
may be taken as an example of the principle of unsystematized standards, 
while the modern French system, in which everything is derived from the 
elementary standards, exhibits the simplicity of the systematic arrangement. 

In the opinion of the most practical and the most scientific men, a system 
in which every unit is derived from the primary units with decimal subdivi- 
sions is the best whenever it can be introduced. It is easily learnt; it 
renders calculation of all kinds simpler; it is more readily accepted by the 
world at large; and it bears the stamp of the authority, not of this or that 
legislator or man of science, but of nature. 

The phenomena by which electricity is known to us are of a mechanical 
kind, and therefore they must be measured by mechanical units or standards. 
Our task is to explain how these units may be derived from the elementary 
ones ; in other words, we shall endeavour to show how all electric phenomena 
may be measured in terms of time, mass, and space only, referring briefly in 
each case to a practical method of effecting the observation. 

3. Standard Mechanical Units——In this country the standard of length is 
one yard, but a foot is the unit popularly adopted. In France it is the ten 
millionth part of the distance from the pole to the equator, measured along 
the earth’s surface, according to the calculations of Delambre, and this mea- 
sure is called a metre, and is equal to 3:280899 feet, or 39°37079 inches. 

The standard unit of time in all civilized countries is deduced from the time 
of rotation of the earth about its axis. The sidereal day, or the true period 
of rotation of the earth, can be ascertained with great exactness by the ordi- 
nary observations of astronomers; and the mean solar day can be deduced 
from this by our knowledge of the length of the year. The unit of time 
adopted in all physical researches is one second of mean solar time. 

The standard unit of mass is in this country the ayoirdupois pound, as we 
received it from our ancestors. The grain is one 7000th of a pound. In the 

K 2 


132 REPORT—1863. 


French system it is the gramme derived from the unit of length, by the 
use of water at a standard temperature as a standard of density. One cubic 
centimetre of water is a gramme=15'43235 grains= 00220462 Ibs. 

A table, showing the relative value of the standard and derived units in the 
British and metrical system, is given in § 55, 

The unit of force adopted in this treatise is that force which will produce 
a unit of velocity in a free unit mass, by acting on it during a unit of time. 
This unit of force is equal to the weight of the unit mass divided by g, 
where g is the accelerating force of gravity 


=32-088 (1+0-005133 sin* \) in British units at the level of the 
or =9-78024 (1+0-005133 sin?) in metrical units sea, 


\ being the latitude of the place of observation. A unit of force still very 
generally adopted is the weight of the standard mass. The value of the new 


unit is — times the old or gravitation unit. 
g 


The unit of work adopted in this treatise is the unit of force, defined as 
above, acting through the unit of space (vide § 55). 

4. Dimensions of Derived Units —Every measurement of which we have to 
speak involves as factors measurements of time, space, and mass only ; but 
these measurements enter sometimes at one power, and sometimes at another. 
In passing from one set of fundamental units to another, and for other pur- 
poses, it is useful to know at what power each of these fundamental measure- 
ments enters into the derived measure. 

Thus the value of a force is directly proportional to a length and a mass, 
but inversely proportional to the square of a time. This is expressed by 
saying that the dimensions of a force are = ; in other words, if we wish to 
pass from the English to the French system of measurements, the French 

- " ‘ 28 5.AS 
unit of force will be to the English as TAG KADES: 1, or as 50°6 to1; be- 


cause there are 3-28 feet in a metre, and 15-43 grains in a gramme. If the 
minute were chosen as the unit of time, the unit of force would, in either 


3 5 of that founded on the second as unit. 
A table of the dimensions of every unit adopted in the present treatise is 
given in § 55, 


system, be 


Part I1.—Tue Messvrement or Macnreric PHENOMENA. 


5. Magnets and Magnetic Poles—Certain natural bodies, as the iron ore 
called loadstone, the earth itself, and pieces of steel after being subjected to 
certain treatment, are found to possess the following properties, and are 
called magnets. 

If one of these bodies be free to turn in any direction, the presence of 
another will cause it to set itself in a position which is conveniently described 
or defined by reference to certain imaginary lines occupying a fixed position 
in the two bodies, and called their magnetic axes. One object of our magnetic 
measurements will be to determine the force which one magnet exerts upon 
another. It is found by experiment that the greatest manifestation of force 
exerted by one long thin magnet on another occurs very near the ends of the 
two bars, and that the two ends of any one long thin magnet possess opposite 
qualities, This peculiarity has caused the name of “poles” to be given to 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 133 


the ends of long magnets; and this conception of a magnet, as having two 
poles capable of exerting opposite forces joined by a bar exerting no force, is 
so much the most familiar that we shall not hesitate to employ it, especially 
as many of the properties of magnets may be correctly expressed in this way ; 
but it must be borne in mind, in speaking of poles, that they do not really 
exist as points or centres of force at the ends of the bar, except in the case of 
long, infinitely thin, uniformly magnetized rods. 

If we mark the poles of any two magnets which possess similar qualities, 
we find that the two marked poles repel each other, that two unmarked poles 
also repel each other; but that a marked and an unmarked pole attract each 
other. The pole which is repelled from the northern regions of the earth is 
called a positive pole; the other end the negative pole. The negutive pole is 
generally marked N by British instrument-makers, and is sometimes called 
the north pole of the magnet, whereas it is obviously similar to the earth’s 
south pole. 

The strength of a pole is necessarily defined as proportional to the force it 
is capable of exerting on any other pole. Hence the force f exerted between 
two poles of the strengths m and m, must be proportional to the product m m,. 
The force, f, is also found to be inversely proportional to the square of the 
distance, D, separating the poles, and to depend on no other quantity ; hence 
we have, unless an absurd and useless coefficient be introduced, 


mm, 
— D2 . . . . . . . . « . . (1) 


From which equation it follows that the unit pole will be that which at unit 
distance repels another similar pole with unit force; f will be an attraction 
or a repulsion according as the poles are of opposite or the same kinds, The 


L? MP 


dimensions of the unit magnetic pole are 


6. Magnetic Field.—It is clear that the presence of a magnet in some way 
modifies the surrounding space, since any other magnet brought into that 
space experiences a peculiar force. The neighbourhood of a magnet is, for 
convenience, called a magnetic field; and for the same reason the effect pro- 
duced by a magnet is often spoken of as due to the magnetic field, instead of 
to the magnet itself. This mode of expression is the more proper, inasmuch 
as the same or a similar condition of space may be produced by the passage 
of electrical currents in the neighbourhood, without the presence of a magnet. 
Since the peculiarity of the magnetic field consists in the presence of a certain 
force, we may numerically express the properties of the field by measuring 
the strength and direction of the force, or, as it may be worded, the intensity 
of the field and the direction of the lines of force. 

This direction at any point is the direction in which the force tends to move 
a free pole; and the intensity, H, of the field is necessarily defined as propor- 
tional to the force, f, with which it acts on a free pole ; but this force, f, is also 
proportional to the strength, m, of the pole introduced into the field, and it 
depends on no other quantities ; hence 
; STEEL, (ine tal oie ey Ue ot Cee 
and therefore the field of unit intensity will be that which acts with unit 
force on the unit pole. 

M? 
1aT 


The lines of force produced by a long thin bar-magnet near its poles will 


The dimensions of H are 


184 REPORT—1863. 


radiate from the poles, and the intensity of the field will be equal to the 
quotient of the strength of the pole divided by the square of the distance 
from the pole; thus the unit field will be produced at the unit distance from 
the unit pole. In a uniform magnetic field the lines of force, as may be 
demonstrated, will be parallel; such a field can only be produced by special 
combinations of magnets, but a small field at a great distance from any one 
pole will be sensibly uniform. Thus, in any room unaffected by the neigh- 
bourhood of iron or magnets, the magnetic field due to the earth will be 
sensibly uniform ; its direction will be that assumed by the dipping-needle. 
7. Magnetic Moment.—In reality we can never have a single pole entirely 
free or disconnected from its opposite pole, and it is time to pass to the con- 
sideration of the effect produced on a material bar-magnet in a magnetic field. 
In a uniform field two equal opposite and parallel forces act on its poles, and 
tend to set it with the line joining those poles in the direction of the force of 
the field. When the magnet is so placed that the line joining the poles is at 
right angles to the lines of force in the field, this tendency to turn or * couple,” 
G, is proportional to the intensity of the field, H, the strength of the poles, mm, 
and the distance between them, 7; or 
Gomis os (3) 


ml, or the product of the strength of the poles into the length between them, 
is called the magnetic moment of the magnet ; and from equation (3) it follows 
that, in a field of unit intensity, the couple actually experienced by any 
magnet in the above position measures its moment. The dimensions of the 
L? M? 

1 
8. Intensity of Magnetization.—The intensity of magnetization of a magnet 


may be measured by its magnetic moment divided by its volume. 


unit of magnetic moment are evidently 


The dimensions of the unit of magnetization are therefore rt 
the same as in the case of intensity of field. 

9. Coefficient of Magnetic Induction—When certain bodies, such as soft 
iron, &c., are placed in the magnetic field, they become magnetized by “ induc-’ 
tion”; so that the intensity of magnetization is (except when great) nearly 
proportional to the intensity of the field. 

In diamagnetic bodies, such as bismuth, the direction of magnetization is 
opposite to that of the field. In paramagnetic bodies, such as iron, nickel, &c., 
the direction of magnetization is the same as that of the field. 

The coefficient of magnetic induction is the ratio of the intensity of mag- 
netization to the intensity of the field, and is therefore a nwmerical quantity, 
positive for paramagnetic bodies, negative for diamagnetic bodies. 

10. Magnetic Potentials and Equipotential Surfaces—If we take a very 
long magnet, and, keeping one pole well out of the way, move the other pole 
from one point to another of the magnetic field, we shall find that the forces 
in the field do work on the pole, or that they act as a resistance to its motion, 
according as the motion is with or contrary to the force acting on the pole. 
If the pole moves at right angles to the force, no work is done. 

The magnetic potential at any point in a magnetic field is measured by the 
work done by the magnetic forces on a unit pole during its motion from an 
infinite distance from the magnet producing the field to the point in question, 
supposing the unit pole to exercise no influence on the magnetic field in 
question. The idea of potential as a mathematical quantity having different 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 135 


values at different points of space, was brought into form by Laplace*. The 
name of potential, and the application to a great number of electric and 
magnetic investigations, were introduced by George Green, in his Essay on 
Electricity (Nottingham, 1828). 

An equipotential surface in a magnetic field is a surface so drawn, that the 
potential of ail its points shall be equal. By drawing a series of equipotential 
surfaces corresponding to potentials 1,2,3...... nm, We may map out 
any magnetic field, so as to indicate its properties. 

The magnetic foree at any point is perpendicular to the equipotential sur- 
face at that point, and its intensity is the reciprocal of the distance between 
one surface and the next at that point. The dimensions of the unit of mag- 
L? we 

v 

11. Lines of Magnetic Force-—There is another way of exploring the 
magnetic field, and indicating the direction and magnitude of the force at 
any point. The conception and application of this method in all its com- 
pleteness is due to Faradayt. The full importance of this method cannot be 
recognized till we come to electromagnetic phenomena (§§ 22, 23, & 24). 

A line, whose direction at any point always coincides with that of the force 
acting on the pole of a magnet at that point, is called a line of magnetic force. 
By drawing a sufficient number of such lines, we may indicate the direc- 
tion of the force in every part of the magnetic field; but by drawing them 
according to rule, we may indicate the intensity of the force at any point 
as well as its direction. It has been shown? that if, in any part of 
their course, the number of lines passing through unit of area is proportional 
to the intensity there, the same proportion between the number of lines in 
unit of area and the intensity will hold good in every part of the course of 
the lines. 

All that we have to do, therefore, is to space out the lines in any part of 
their course, so that the number of limes which start from unit of area is 
equal to the number representing the intensity of the field there, The 
intensity at any other part of the field will then be measured by the number 
of lines which pass through unit of area there ; each line indicates a constant 
and equal force. 

12. Relation between Lines of Force and Equipotential Surfaces.—The lines 
of force are always perpendicular to the equipotential surfaces; and the 
number of lines passing through unit of area of an equipotential surface is 
the reciprocal of the distance between that equipotential surface and the next 
in order—a statement made above in slightly different language. 

In a uniform field the lines of force are straight, parallel, and equi- 
distant ; and the equipotential surfaces are planes perpendicular to the lines 
of force, and equidistant from each other. 

If one magnetic pole of strength m be alone in the field, its lines of 
force are straight lines, radiating from the pole equally in all directions ; 
and their number is 47m. The equipotential surfaces are a series of spheres, 
whose centres are at the pole, and whose radii are m, 3m, 14m,4m, &. In 
other magnetic arrangements these lines and surfaces are more complicated, 
but in all cases the calculation is simple; and in many cases the lines and 
surfaces can be graphically constructed without any calculation. 


netic potential are 


* Mécanique Céleste, liv. iii. 
+ Experimental Researches, vol. iii. art. 3122 e¢ passim. 
{ Vide Maxwell on Faraday’s Lines of Force, Cambridge Phil. Trans. 1857. 


136 REPORT—18693. 


Part ITIl.—Merssvrement oF Exrecrric PHENOMENA BY THEIR ELECTRO- 
MAGNETIC EFFECTS. 


13. Preliminary.—Before treating of electrical measurements, the exact 
meaning in which the words “ quantity,” ‘‘ current,” ‘ electromotive force,’ 
and “ resistance” are used will be explained. But, in giving these explana- 
tions, we shall assume the reader to be acquainted with the meaning of such 
expressions as conductor, insulator, voltaic battery, &e. 

14, Meaning of the words “ Electric Quantity.””—When two light conduct- 
ing bodies are connected with the same pole of a voltaic battery, while the 
other pole is connected with the earth, they may be observed to repel one 
another. The two poles produce equal and similar effects. When the two 
bodies are connected with opposite poles, they attract one another. Bodies, 
when in a condition to exert this peculiar force one on the other, are said to 
be electrified, or charged with electricity. These words are mere names given 
to a peculiar condition of matter. Ifa piece of glass and a piece of resin are 
rubbed together, the glass will be found to be in the same condition as an 
insulated body connected with the copper pole of the battery, and the resin 
in the same condition as the body connected with the zine pole of the 
battery. The former is said to be positively, and the latter negatively 
electrified. The propriety of this antithesis will soon appear. The force with 
which one electrified body acts on another, even at a constant distance, varies 
with different circumstances. When the force between the two bodies at a 
constant distance, and separated by air, is observed to increase, it is said to 
be due to an increase in the quantity of electricity ; and the quantity at any 
spot is defined as proportional to the force with which it acts, through air, on 
some other constant quantity at a distance. If two bodies, charged each 
with a given quantity of electricity, are incorporated, the single body thus 
composed will be charged with the sum of the two quantities. It is this fact 
which justifies the use of the word “ quantity.” 

Thus the quality in virtue of which a body exerts the peculiar force 
described is called electricity, and its quantity is measured (ceteris paribus) 
by measuring force. 

The quantity thus defined produced on two similar balls similarly circum- 
stanced, but connected with opposite poles of a voltaic battery, is equal, but 
opposite ; so that the sum of these two equal and opposite quantities is zero ; 
hence the conception of positive and negative quantities. 

In speaking of a quantity of electricity, we need not conceive it as a sepa- 
rate thing, or entity distinct from ponderable matter, any more than in 
speaking of sound we conceive it as having a distinct existence. Still it is 
convenient to speak of the intensity or velocity of sound, to avoid tedious 
cireumlocution ; and quite similarly we may speak of electricity, without for 
a moment imagining that any real electric fluid exists. 

The laws according to which the force described varies, as the shape of the 
conductors, their combinations, and their distances are varied, have been 
established by Coulomb, Poisson, Green, W. Thomson, and others. These 
will be found accurately described, independently of all hypothesis, in papers 
by Professor W. Thomson, published in the Cambridge Mathematical Journal, 
vol. i. p. 75 (1846), and a series of papers in 1848 and 1849. 

15. Meaning of the words “ Electric Current.”—When two balls charged by 
the opposite poles of a battery, with opposite and equal quantities of elec- 
tricity, are joined by a conductor, they lose in a very short time their pecu- 
liar properties, and assume a neutral condition intermediate between the 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 137 


positive and negative states, exhibiting no electrical symptoms whatever, and 
hence described as unelectrified, or containing no electricity. But, during the 
first moment of their junction, the conductor is found to possess certain new 
and peculiar properties: any one part of the conductor exerts a force upon 
any other part of the conductor; it exerts a force on any magnet in the 
neighbourhood; and if any part of the conductor be formed by one of those 
compound bodies called electrolytes, a certain portion of this body will be 
decomposed. These peculiar effects are said to be due to a current of elec- 
tricity in the conductor. The positive quantity, or excess, is conceived as 
flowing into the deficiency caused by the negative quantity ; so that the whole 
combination is reduced to the neutral condition. This neutral condition is 
similar to that of the earth where the experiment is tried. If the balls are 
continually recharged by the battery, and discharged or neutralized by the 
wire, a rapid succession of the so-called currents will be sent; and it is 
found that the force with which a magnet is deflected by this rapid sncces- 
sion of currents is proportional (ceteris paribus) to the quantity of electricity 
passed through the conductor or neutralized per second ; it is also found that 
the amount of chemical action, measured by the weights of the bodies decom- 
posed, is proportional to the same quantity. The currents just described are 
intermittent ; but a wire or conductor, used simply to join the two poles of a 
battery, acquires permanently the same properties as when used to discharge 
the balls as above with great rapidity ; and the greater the rapidity with 
which the balls are discharged, the more perfect the similarity of the con- 
dition of the wire in the two cases. The wire in the latter case is therefore 
said to convey a permanent current of electricity, the magnitude or strength 
of which is defined as proportional to the quantity conveyed per second. 
This definition is expressed by the equation 

c=2, . . . . . . . . . . (4) 
where C is the current, Q the quantity, and ¢ the time. A permanent current 
flowing through a wire may be measured by the force which it exerts on a 
magnet; the actual quantity it conveys may be obtained by comparing this 
force with the force exerted under otherwise similar conditions, when a 
known quantity is sent through the same wire by discharges. The strength 
of a permanent current is found at any one time to be equal in all parts of 
the conductor. Conductors conveying currents exert a peculiar force one 
upon another; and during their increase or decrease they produce currents 
in neighbouring conductors. Similar effects are produced as they approach 
or recede from neighbouring conductors. The laws according to which 
currents act upon magnets and upon one another will be found in the writings 
of Ampére and Weber. 

16. Meaning of the words ‘ Electromotive Force.’’—Hitherto we have spoken 
simply of statical effects ; but it is found that a current of electricity, as above 
defined, cannot exist without effecting work or its equivalent. Thus it 
either heats the conductor, or raises a weight, or magnetizes soft iron, or 
effects chemical decomposition ; in fine, in some shape it effects work, and 
this work bears a definite relation to the current. Work done presupposes 
a force in action. The immediate force producing a current, or, in other 
words, causing the transfer of a certain quantity of electricity, is called an 
electromotive force. This force is necessarily assumed as ultimately due to 
that part of a circuit where a “degradation” or consumption of energy takes 
place; thus we speak of the electromotive force of the voltaic or thermo- 


188 REPORT—1863. 


electric couple; but the term is also used independently of the source of 
power, to express the fact that, however caused, a certain force tending to do 
work by setting electricity in motion does, under certain circumstances, 
exist between two points of a conductor or between two separate bodies. But 
equal quantities of electricity transferred in a given time do not necessarily or 
usually produce equal amounts of work ; and the electromotive force between 
two points, the proximate cause of the work, is defined as proportional to the 
amount of work done between those points when a given quantity of elec- 
tricity is transferred from one point to another. Thus if, with equal currents 
in two distinct conductors, the work done in the one is double that done in 
the second in the same time, the electromotive force in the first case is said 
to be double that in the second; but if the work done in two circuits is 
found strictly proportional to the two currents, the electromotive force acting 
on the two currents is said to be the same. Defined in this way, the electro- 
motive force of a voltaic battery is found to be constant so long as the 
materials of which it is formed remain in a similar or constant condition. 
The above definitions, in mathematical language, give W=EC¢, 


or Hee Riyia va aild st Tarastgaegegee om 


where E is the electromotive force, and W the work done. Thus the elec- 
tromotive force producing a current in a conductor is equal to the ratio 
between the work done in the unit of time and the current effecting the 
work. This conception of the relations of work, electromotive force, current, 
and quantity will be aided by the following analogy :—A quantity of elec- 
tricity may be compared to a quantity or given mass of water; currents of 
water in pipes in which equal quantities passed each spot in equal times 
would then correspond to equal currents of electricity ; electromotive force 
would correspond to the head of water producing the current. Thus if, with 
two pipes conveying equal currents, the head forcing the water through the 
first was double that forcing it through the second, the work done by the 
water in flowing through the first pipe would necessarily be twice that done 
by the water in the second pipe; but if twice as much water passed through 
the first pipe as passed through the second, the work done by water in the 
first pipe would again be doubled. This corresponds exactly with the 
increase of work done by the electrical current when the electromotive force 
is doubled, and when the quantity is doubled. 

Thus, to recapitulate, the quality of a battery or source of electricity, in 
virtue of which it tends to do work by the transfer of electricity from one 
point to another, is called its electromotive force, and this force is measured 
by measuring the work done during the transfer of a given quantity of 
electricity between those points. The relations between electromotive force 
and work were first fully explained in a paper by Professor W. Thomson on 
the application of the principle of mechanical effect to the measurement of 
electromotive forces published in the Philosophical Magazine for December 
1851. 

17. Meaning of the words “ Electric Resistance.” —It is found by experiment, 
that even when the electromotive force between two points remains constant, 
so that the work done by the transfer of a given quantity of electricity 
remains constant, nevertheless, by modifying the material and form of the 
conductor, this transfer may be made to take place in very different times ; 
or, in other words, currents of very different magnitudes are produced, and 
very different amounts of work are done, in the unit of time, The quality of 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 139 


the conductor in virtue of which it prevents the performance of more than a 
certain amount of work in a given time by a given electromotive force is 
called its electrical resistance. The resistance of a conductor is therefore 
inversely proportional to the work done in it when a given electromotive 
force is maintained between its two ends; and hence, by equation (5), it is 
inversely proportional to the currents which will then be produced in the 
respective conductors. But it is found by experiment that the current pro- 
duced in any case in any one conductor is simply proportional to the electro- 


motive force between its ends; hence the ratio C will be a constant quantity, 


to which the resistance as above defined must be proportional, and may with 
convenience be made equal; thus 


E 
Bigger thtcansntiilly theo taalesniet «if 


an equation expressing Ohm’s law. In order to carry on the parallel with 
the pipes of water, the resistance overcome by the water must be of such 
nature that twice the quantity of water will flow through any one pipe when 
twice the head is applied. This would not be the result of a constant me- 
chanical resistance, but of a resistance which increased in direct proportion 
to the speed of the current; thus the electrical resistance must not be looked 
on as analogous to a simple mechanical resistance, but rather to a coefficient 
by which the speed of the current must be multiplied to obtain the whole 
mechanical resistance. Thus if the electrical resistance of a conductor be 
called R, the work, W, is not equal to CRt, but Cx CR xt, or 


W=C*Rt * . . . . ° . . . . . (7) 


where C may be looked on as analogous to a quantity moving at a certain 
speed, and CR as analogous to the mechanical resistance which it meets with 
in its progress, and which increases in direct proportion to the quantity con- 
veyed in the unit of time. 

18. Measurement of Electric Currents by their Action on a Magnetic 
Needle.—In 1820, Oersted discovered the action of an electric current upon 
a magnet at a distance, and one method of measurement may be based on 
this action. Let us suppose the current to be in the circumference of a 
vertical circle, so that in the upper part it runs from left to right. Then a 
magnet suspended in the centre of the circle will turn with the end which 
points to the north away from the observer. This may be taken as the 
simplest case, as every part of the circuit is at the same distance from the 
magnet, and tends to turn it the same way. The force is proportional to 
the moment of the magnet, to the strength of the current as defined by 
§ 15, to its length, and inversely to the square of its distance from the 
magnet. 

Let the moment of the magnet be ml, the strength of the current C, the 
radius of the circle &, the number of times the current passes round the 
circle n, the angle between the axis of the magnet and the plane of the 
circle @, and the moment tending to turn the magnet G, then 


G=mlC.2enk >,0088,- 2. 2... (8) 


which will be unity if m/,C,%, and the length of the circuit be unity, 
and if @=0°. 


* By equation (5) we have W=CEz; but by equation(6)R =e hence W =C?R¢,—Q.E.D. 


140 nerort—1863. 


The unit of current founded on this relation, and called the electromag- 
netic unit, is therefore that current of which the unit of length placed along 
the circumference of a circle of unit radius produces a unit of magnetic force 
at the centre. 

The usual way of measuring C, the strength of a current, is by making it 
describe a circle about a magnet, the plane of the circle being vertical and 
magnetic north and south. Thus, if H be the intensity of the horizontal 
component of terrestrial magnetism, and G the moment of this on the mag- 
net, G=mlH sin 6, whence the strength of the current— 


ke? 


Qrn 


C= 


tan. 0,50 ah (surisleneat ae, en 


where & is the radius of the circle, n the number of turns, H the intensity 
of the horizontal part of the earth’s magnetic force as determined by the 
usual method, and @ the angle of deviation of the magnet suspended in the 
centre of the circle. As the strength of the current is proportional to the 
tangent of the angle 6, an instrument constructed on this plan is called a 
tangent galvanometer. The instrument called a sine galyanometer may 
also be used, provided the coil is circular. The equation is similar to that 
just given, substituting sin 6 for tan @. 

To find the dimensions of C, we must consider that what we observe is 
the force acting between a magnetic pole, m, and a current of given length, L, 
mCL 

3 
TMi 

aE 

19. Measurement of Electric Currents by their mutual action on one another. 
—Hitherto we have spoken of the measurement of currents as dependent on 
their action upon magnets; but this measurement in the same units can as 
simply be founded on their mutual action upon one another. Ampére has in- 
vestigated the laws of mechanical action between conductors carrying currents. 
He has shown that the action of a small closed circuit at a distance is the 
same as that of a small magnet, provided the axis of the magnet be placed 
normal to the plane of the circuit, and the moment of the magnet be equal 
to the product of the current into the area of the circuit which it traverses. 

Thus, let two small circuits having areas Aand A, be placed at a great distance 
D from each other in such a way that their planes are at right angles to each 
other, and that the line D is in the intersection of the planes. Now let cur- 
rents C and C, circulate in these conductors; a force will act between them 
tending to make their planes parallel, and the direction of the currents op- 
posite. The moment of this couple will be 


pe aa 8d) ch, y 
Dp? 
Hence the unit electric current conducted round two circuits of unit area 


in vertical planes at right angles to each other, one circuit being at a great 
distance, D, vertically above the other, will cause a couple to act between the 


at a given distance, L,, and that this force= Hence the dimensions of C, 


an electric current thus measured, are 


5s eee see 


1 ic A f: ity 
circuits of a magnitude Dp" The definition of the unit current (identical with 


the unit founded on the relations given in § 18) might be founded on this 
action quite independently of the idea of magnetism. 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 141 


20. Weber's Electro-Dynamometer.—The measurement described in the last 
paragraph is only accurate when D is very great, and therefore the moment to be 
measured very small. Hence it is better to make the experimental measure- 
ments in another form. For this purpose, let a length (/) of wire be made into 
a circular coil of radius /; let a length (/,) of wire be made into a coil of very 
much smaller radius, &,. Let the second coil be hung in the centre of the 
first, the planes being vertical and at the angle 6. Then, if a current C tra- 
verses both coils, the moment of the force tending to bring them parallel 
will be 


lk 
G=4C? + sin 0. apne? a dan deitireuate S| 


This force may be measured in mechanical units by the angle through 
which it turns the suspended coil, the forces called into play by the mecha- 
nical arrangements of suspension being known from the construction of the 
instrument. Weber used a bifilar suspension, by which the weight of the 
smaller coil was used to resist the moment produced by the action of the 
currents. 

21. Comparison of the Electro-magnetic and Electro-chemical action of 
Currents.—Currents of electricity, when passed through certain compound 
substances, decompose them; and it is found that, with any given substance, 
the weight of the body decomposed in a given time is proportional to the 
strength of the current as already defined with reference to its electromagnetic 
effect. The voltameter is an apparatus of this kind, in which water is the sub- 
stance decomposed. Special precautions have to be taken, in carrying this 
method of measurement into effect, to prevent variations in the resistance of 
the circuit, and consequently in the strength of the current. This subject is 
more fully treated in Part V. $$ 53, 54. 

22. Magnetic Field near a Current.—Since a current exerts a force on the 
pole of a magnet in its neighbourhood, it may be said to produce a magnetic 
field ($ 6), and, by exploring this field with a magnet, we may draw lines of 
force and equipotential surfaces of the same nature as those already described 
for magnetic fields caused by the presence of magnets. 

When the current is a straight line of indefinite length, like a telegraph- 
wire, a magnetic pole in its neighbourhood is urged by a force tending to turn 
it round the wire, so that this force is at any point perpendicular to the plane 
passing through this point and the axis of the current. 

The equipotential surfaces are therefore a series of planes passing through 
the axis of the current, and inclined at equal angles to each other. The 
number of these planes is 47 C, where C is the strength of the current. 

The lines of magnetic force are circles, haying their centres in the axis of 
the current, and their planes perpendicular to it. The intensity of the mag- 
netic force at a distance, /, from the current is the reciprocal of the distance 


between two equipotential surfaces, which shows the force to be a 


The work done on a unit magnetic pole in going completely round the 
current is 47 C, whatever the path which the pole describes. 

23. Mechanical Action of a Magnetic Field on a closed Conductor conveying a 
Ourrent—When there is mechanical action between a conductor carrying a 
current and a magnet, the force acting on the conductor must be equal and 
opposite to that acting on the magnet. Every part of the conductor is there- 
fore acted on by a force perpendicular to the plane passing through its own 
direction and the lines of magnetic force due to the magnet, and equal to the 


142 . REPORT—1863. 


product of the length of the conductor, into the strength of the current, the in- 
tensity of the magnetic field, and the sine of the angle between the lines of 
force and the direction of the current. This may be more concisely expressed 
by saying, that if a conductor carrying a current is moved in a magnetic field, 
the work done on the conductor by the electromagnetic forces is equal to the 
product of the strength of the current into the nwmber of lines of force which 
it cuts during its motion. 

Hence we arrive at the following general law, for determining the mecha- 
nical action on a closed conductor carrying a current and placed in a magnetic 
field :— 

Draw the lines of magnetic force. Count the number which pass through 
the circuit of the conductor, then any motion which increases this number 
will be aided by the electromagnetic forces, so that the work done during the 
motion will be the product of the strength of the current and the number of 
additional lines of force. 

For instance, let the lines of force be due to a single magnetic pole of 
strength m. These are 47m in number, and are in this case straight lines 
radiating equally in all directions from the pole. Describe a sphere about 
the pole, and project the circuit on its surface by lines drawn to the pole. 
The surface of the area so described on the sphere will measure the solid 
angle subtended by the circuit at the pole. Let this solid angle =w, then 
the number of lines passing through the closed surface will be mw; and if C 
be the strength of the current, the amount of work done by bringing the 
magnet and circuit from an infinite distance to their present position will be 
Cmw. This shows that the magnetic potential of a closed circuit carrying a 
unit current with respect to a unit magnetic pole placed at any point is equal 
to the solid angle which the circuit subtends at that point. 

By considering at what points the circuit subtends equal solid angles, we 
may form an idea of the surfaces of equal potential. They form a series of 
sheets, all intersecting each other in the circuit itself, which forms the boun- 
dary of every sheet. The number of sheets is 42 C, where C is the strength 
of the current. The lines of magnetic force intersect these surfaces at right 
angles, and therefore form a system of rings, encircling every point of the 
circuit. When we have studied the general form of the lines of force, we can 
form some idea of the electromagnetic action of that current, after which the 
difficulties of numerical calculation arise entirely from the imperfection of our 
mathematical skill. 

24. General Law of the Mechanical Action between Electric Currents and 
other Electric Currents or Magnets.—Draw the lines of magnetic force due to 
all the currents, magnets, &c., in the field, supposing the strength of each 
current or magnet to be reduced from its actual value to unity. Call the 
number of lines of force due to a circuit or magnet, which pass through 
another circuit, the potential coefficient between the one and the other. This 
number is to be reckoned positive when the lines of force pass through the 
circuit in the same direction as those due to a current in that circuit, and 
negative when they pass in the opposite direction. 

If we now ascertain the change of the potential coefficient due to any dis- 
placement, this increment multiplied by the product of the strengths of the 
currents or magnets will be the amount of work done by the mutual action of 
these two bodies during the displacement. The determination of the actual 
value of the potential coefficient of two things, in various cases, is an import- 
ant part of mathematics as applied to electricity. (See the mathematical dis- 
cussion of the experiments, Appendix D.) 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 143 


25. Electromagnetic Measurement of Electrie Quantity.—A conducting body 
insulated at all points from the neighbouring conductors may in various ways 
be electrified, or made to hold a quantity of electricity. This quantity ($ 14) 
is perfectly definite in any given circumstances ; it cannot be augmented or 
diminished so long as the conductor is insulated, and is called the charge of 
the conductor. Its magnitude depends on the dimensions and shape and 
position of the insulated and the neighbouring conductors, on the insulating 
material, and finally on the electromotive force between the insulated and the 
neighbouring conductors, at the moment when the charge was produced. The 
well-known Leyden jar is an arrangement by which a considerable charge 
can be obtained on a small conductor with moderate electromotive force be- 
tween the inner and outer coatings which constitute respectively the ‘“‘insu- 
lated” and ‘‘ neighbouring” conductors referred to in general. We need not 
enter into the general laws determining the charge, since our object is only 
to show how it may be measured when already existing ; but it may be well 
to state that the quantity on the charged insulated conductor necessarily im- 
plies an equal and opposite quantity on the surrounding or neighbouring 
conductors. 

We have already defined the magnitude of a current of electricity as sim- 
ply proportional to the quantity of electricity conveyed in a given time, and 
we have shown a method of measuring currents consonant with this definition. 
The unit quantity will, therefore, be that conveyed by the unit current as 
above defined in the unit of time. Thus, if a unit current is allowed to flow 
for a unit of time in any wire connecting the two coatings of a Leyden phial, 
the quantity which one coating loses, or which the other gains, is the electro- 
magnetic unit quantity*. The measurement thus defined of the quantity in 
a given statical charge can be made by observing the swing of a galvanometer- 
needle produced by allowing the charge to pass through the coil of the galva- 
nometer in a time extremely short compared with that occupied by an oscil- 
lation of the needle. 

Let Q be the whole quantity of electricity in an instantaneous current, then 


A ese csr nh cer il hi 54 
Tv 


where C,=the strength of a current giving a unit deflection (45° on a tangent 
or 90° on a sine galyanometer), t= half the period or time of a complete 
oscillation of the needle of the galvanometer under the influence of terrestrial 
magnetism alone, and i= the angle to which the needle is observed to swing 
from a position of rest, when the discharge takes place; C, is a constant 
which need only be determined once for each instrument, provided the hori- 
zontal force of the earth’s magnetism remain unchanged. In the case of the 
tangent galvanometer, the formula for obtaining it has already been given. 
From equations (9) and (12) we have for a tangent galvanometer 


aE ye EOS MOY ots Si egy 
wn 
where, as before, = the radius of the coil, and n= the number of turns 
made by the wire round the coil. 
The quantity in a given charge which can be continually reproduced under 
fixed conditions may be measured by allowing a succession of discharges to* 
pass at regular and very short intervals through a galvanometer, so as to pro- 


* Weber calls this quantity two units—a fact which must not be lost sight of in com- 
paring his results with those of the Committee. 


144 REPORT—1863. 


duce a permanent deflection. The value of a current producing this deflection 
can be ascertained, and the quotient of this value by the number of discharges 
taking place in the “second,” gives the value of each charge in electromag- 
netic measure. 

To find the dimensions of Q, we simply observe that the unit of electricity 
is that which is transferred by the unit current in the unit of time. Multi- 


plying the dimensions of C by T, we find the dimensions of Q are L? M?. 

26. Electric Capacity of a Conductor —It is found by experiment that, 
other circumstances remaining the same, the charge on an insulated conductor 
is simply proportional to the electromotive force between it and the surround- 
ing conductors, or, in other words, to the difference of potentials (47). The 
charge that would be produced by the unit electromotive force is said to 
measure the electric capacity of a conductor. Thus, generally, the capacity 


of a conductor S= where Q is the whole quantity in the charge produced 


by the electromotive force, E. When the electromotive force producing the 
charge is capable of maintaining a current, the capacity of the conductor may 
be obtained without a knowledge of the value either of Q or E, provided we 
have the means of measuring the resistance of a circuit in electromagnetic 
measure. For let R be the resistance of a circuit, in which the given elec- 
tromotive force, E, will produce the unit deflection on a tangent galvanometer, 
then, from equations (6) and (12), we have 


tsin 47 
S=2 = e . . . . . . . 14 
; wh, z see 


where ¢ and 7 retain the same signification as in equation (13) ($ 25). 

27. Direct Measurement of Electromotive Force.—The meaning of the words 
“ electromotive force” has already been explained ($16); this force tends to 
do work by means of a current or transfer of electricity, and may therefore 
be said to produce and maintain the current. In any given combination in 
which electric currents flow, the immediate source of the power by which the 
work is done is said to produce the electromotive force. The sources of power 
producing electromotive force are various. Of these, chemical action in the 
voltaic battery, unequal distribution of temperature in circuits of different 
conductors, the friction of different substances, magnetoelectric induction, 
and simple electric induction are the most familiar. An electromotive force 
may exist between two points of a conductor, or between two points of an 
insulator, or between an insulator and a conductor,—in fine, between any 
points whatever. This electromotive force may be capable of maintaining a 
current for a long time, as in a voltaic battery, or may instantly cease after 
producing a current of no sensible duration, as when two points of the atmo- 
sphere at different potentials (§ 47) are jomed by a conductor; but in every 
case in which a constant electromotive force, E, is maintained between any two 
points, however situated, the work spent or gained in transferring a quantity, 
Q, of electricity from one of those points to the other will be constant; nor 
will this work be affected by the manner or method of the transfer. If the 
electricity be slowly conveyed as a static charge on an insulated ball, the work 
-will be spent or gained in accelerating or retarding the ball; if the electricity 
be conveyed rapidly through a conductor of small resistance, or more slowly 
through a conductor of great resistance, the work may be spent in heating 
the conductor, or it may electrolyze a solution, or be thermoelectrially or 
mechanically used; but in all cases the change effected, measured as equiva- 


: 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 145 


lent to work done, will be the same, and equal to EQ. Hence the electro- 
motive force between two points is unity, if a unit of mechanical work is spent 
(or gained) in the transfer of a unit of electricity from one point to the other, 
This general definition is due to Professor W. Thomson. 

The direct measurement of electromotive force would be given by the mea- 
sure, in any given case, of the work done by the transfer of a given quantity 
of electricity. The ratio between the numbers measuring the work done, and 
the quantity transferred, would measure the electromotive force. This mea- 
surement has been made by Dr. Joule and Professor Thomson, by determining 
the heat developed in a wire by a given current measured as in (§ 18)*. 

28. Indirect Measurements of Electromotive Force.—The direct method of 
measurement is in most cases inconvenient, and in many impossible ; but the 
indirect methods are numerous and easily applied. The relation between the 
eurrent, C, the resistance, R, and the electromotive force, KE, expressed by 
Ohm’s law (equation 6), will determine the electromotive force of a battery 
whenever RK and C are known. A second indirect method depends on the 
measurement of the statical force with which two bodies attract one another 
when the given electromotive force is maintained between them. This me- 
thod is fully treated in Part IV. (43). The phenomenon on which it is based 
admits of an easy comparison between various electromotive forces by electro- 
meters. This method is applicable even to those cases in which the electro- 
motive force to be measured is incapable of maintaining a current. The laws 
of chemical electrolysis and electromagnetic induction afford two other indirect 
methods of estimating electromotive force in special cases (54 and 31). 

29. Measurement of Electric Resistance—We have already stated that the 
resistance of a conductor is that property in virtue of which it limits the 
amount of work performed by a given electromotive force in a given time, 


and we have shown that it may be measured by the ratio ro the elec- 


tromotive force between two ends of a conductor to the current maintained 
by it. The unit resistance is, therefore, that in which the unit electromotive 
force produces the unit current, and therefore performs the unit of work in 
the unit of time. If in any circuit we can measure the current and electro- 
motive force, or even the ratio of these magnitudes, we should, cpso facto, 
have measured the resistance of the circuit. The methods by which this 
ratio has been measured, founded on the laws of electromagnetic induction, 
are fully described in Appendix D. Other methods may be founded on the 
measurement of currents and electromotive forces, described in 18, 19, 20, 27, 
and 28. Lastly, a method founded on the gradual loss of charge through very 
great resistances will be found in Part IV. (45). The equation (25) there 
given for electrostatic measure is applicable to electromagnetic measure when 
the capacity and difference of potentials are expressed in electromagnetic units. 

30. Electric Resistance in Electromagnetic Units is measured by an Absolute 
Velocity.—The dimensions of R are found, by comparing those of E and C, 


to be 2 or those of a simple velocity. This velocity, as was pointed out by 


Weber, is an absolute velocity in nature, quite independent of the magnitude 
of the fundamental units in which it is expressed. The following illustration, 
due to Professor Thomson, will show how a velocity may express a resist- 
ance, and also how that expression may be independent of the magnitude of 
the units of time and space. 


® Phil. Mag. vol. ii, 4th Ser, 1851, p. 551. 
1863, L 


146 REPORT—18638. 


Let a wire of any material be bent into an are of 574° with any radius, k. 
Let this are be placed in the magnetic meridian of any magnetic field, with a 
magnet of any strength freely suspended in the centre of the are. Let two 
vertical wires or rails, separated by a distance equal to /, be attached to the 
ends of the arc; and let a cross piece slide along these rails, inducing a current 
in the arc. Then it may be shown that the speed required to produce a 
deflection of 45° on the magnet will measure the resistance of the circuit, 
which is assumed to be constant. This speed will be the same whatever be 
the value of &, or the intensity of the magnetic field, or the moment of the 
magnet. In this form the experiment could not be easily carried out ; but 
if a length, 7, of wire be taken and rolled into a circular coil at the radius /, 

a2 
and the distance between the vertical rails be taken equal to fe then if the 
resistance of the circuit be the same as in the previous case, the deflection of 
45° will be produced by the same velocity in the cross piece, measuring that 


resistance ; or, generally, if the distance between the rails be p sn then p 


times the velocity required to produce the unit deflection (45°) will measure 
the resistance. The truth of this proposition can easily be established when 
the laws of magneto-electric induction haye been understood (31). 

31. Magneto-electric Induction.—Let a conducting cireuit be placed in a 
magnetic field. Let C be the intensity of any current in that circuit; E the 
magnitude of the electromotive force acting in the circuit. Let the circuit 
be so moved that the number of lines of magnetic force (11) passing through 
it is increased by N in the time ¢, then (23) the electromagnetic forces will 
contribute towards the motion an amount of work measured by CN. Now 
Q, the quantity of electricity which passes, is equal to Ct; so that the work 
done on the current is EQ or CEt. By the principle of conservation of 
energy, the work done by the electromagnetic forces must be at the expense 
of that done by the electromotive forces, or 


CN +CE:=0 "4 
or dividing by Ct, we find that 
E= — 2 > ° e . . , . . . . (15) 
or, in other words, if the number of lines of force passing through a circuit 
be increased, an electromotive force in the negative direction will act in the 
circuit measured by the number of lines of force added per second. 
If R be the resistance of the circuit, we haye by Ohm’s law (equation 6) 
E=CR; and therefore 
N=—Et=—RCi=—RQ; , 2 os» tp ee ho? 


or, in other words, if the number of lines of magnetic force passing through 
the circuit is altered, a current will be produced in the circuit in the direc- 
tion opposite to that of a current which would have produced lines of force 
in the direction of those added, and the quantity of electricity which passes 
multiplied by the resistance of the circuit measures the number of additional 
lines passing through the circuit. 

The facts of magneto-electric induction were discovered by Faraday, and 
described by him in the First Series of his ‘ Experimental Researches in 
Electricity,’ read to the Royal Society, 24th November, 1831. 

He has shown* the relation between the induced current and the lines of 


* Experimental Researches, 3082, ke. 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 147 


force cut by the circuit, and he has also described the state of a conductor in 
a field of force as a state the change of which is a cause of currents. He calls 
it the electrotonic state, and, as we have just seen, the electrotonic state may 
be measured by the number of lines of force which pass through the circuit 
at any time. 

The measure of electromotive force used by W. Weber, and derived by him 
(independently of the principle of conservation of energy) from the motion of 
a conductor in a magnetic field, is the same as that at which we have arrived ; 
for, from equation (15), we find that the unit electromotive force will be pro- 
duced by motion in a magnetic field when one line of force is added (or sub- 
tracted) per unit of time, and this will occur when in a field of unit intensity 
a straight bar of unit length, forming part of a circuit otherwise at rest, is 
moyed with unit velocity perpendicularly to the lines of force and to its own 
direction, 

To W. Weber, whose numerical determinations of electrical magnitudes are 
the starting-point of exact science in electricity, we owe this, the first defini- 
tion of the unit of electromotive force; but to Professor Helmholtz* and to 
Professor W. Thomsont, working independently of each other, we owe the 
proof of the necessary existence of magneto-electric induction and the deter- 
mination of electromotive force on strictly mechanical principles. 

32. On Material Standards for the Measurement of Electrical Magnitudes.— 
The comparison between two different electrical magnitudes of the same na- 
ture, e. g. between two currents or between two resistances, is in all cases 
much simpler than the direct measurements of these magnitudes in terms of 
time, mass, and space, as described in the foregoing pages. Much labour is, 
therefore, saved by the use of standards of each magnitude ; and the construc- 
tion and diffusion of those standards form part of the duties of the Committee, 

Electric currents are most simply compared by ‘‘electro-dynamometers” (20) 
—instruments which, unlike galvanometers, are practically independent of the 
intensity of the earth’s magnetism. When an instrument of this kind has 
been constructed, with which the values of the currents corresponding to 
each deflection haye been measured (19, 20), other instruments may easily 
be so compared with this standard, that the relative value of the deflections 
produced by equal currents on the standard and the copies shall be known, 
Hence the absolute value of the current indicated by each deflection of each 
copy will be known in absolute measure. In other words, in order to obtain 
the electromagnetic measure of a current in the system described, each obser- 
ver in possession of an electro-dynamometer which has been compared with 
the standard instrument will simply multiply by a constant number the de- 
flection produced by the current on his instrument (or the tangent or sine of 
the deflection, according to the particular construction of the instrument). 

Electric quantities may be compared by the swing of the needle of a gal- 
yanometer of any kind. They may be measured by any one in possession of a 
standard electro-dynamometer, or resistance-coil, since the observer will then 
bein a position directly to determine C, in equation (12), or R, in equation (14). 

Capacities may be compared by the methods described (26); and a Leyden 
jar or condenser (41) of unit capacity, and copies deriyed from it, may be pre- 
pared and distributed. The owner of such a condenser, if he can measure 
electromotive force, can determine the quantity in his condenser, 


* Paper read before the Physical Society of Berlin, 1847 (vide Taylor’s Scientific 
Memoirs, part ii. Feb. 1853, p. 114). 
+ Transactions of the British Association, 1848; Phil. Mag. Dec, 1851, ; 
L 


148 REPORT—1863. 


The material standard for electromotive force derived from electromagnetic 
phenomena would naturally be a conductor of known shape and dimensions, 
moving in a known manner in a known magnetic field. Such a standard as 
this would be far too complex to be practically useful: fortunately a very 
simple and practical standard or gauge of electromotive force can be based 
on its statical effects, and will be described in treating of those effects (Part 
IV. 43). A practical standard for approximate measurements might be 
formed by a voltaic couple, the constituent parts of which were in a standard 
condition. It is probable that the Daniell’s cell may form a practical stand- 
ard of reference in this way, when its value in electromagnetic measure is 
known. This value lies between 9 x 107 and 11 x 10". 

Resistances are compared by comparing currents produced in the several 
conductors by one and the same electromotive force. The unit resistance, 
determined as in Appendix D, will be represented by a material conductor ; 
simple coils of insulated wire compared with this standard, and issued by the 
Committee, will allow any observer to measure any resistance in electro- 
magnetic measure. 


Part [V.—Measvrement or Execrric Puenomena By Sratican Errecrs. 


33. Electrostatic Measure of Electric Quantity.—By the application of a 
sufficient electromotive force between two parts of a conductor which does 
not form a circuit, it is possible to communicate to either part a charge of 
electricity which may be maintained in both parts, if properly insulated (14). 
With the ordinary electromotive forces due to induction or chemical action, 
and the ordinary size of insulated conductors, the charge of electricity in 
electromagnetic measure is exceedingly small; but when the capacity of the 
conductor is great, as in the case of long submarine cables, the charge may 
be considerable. By making use of the electromotive force produced by the 
friction of unlike substances, the charge or electrification even of small bodies 
may be made to produce visible effects. The electricity in a charge is 
not essentially in motion, as is the case with the electricity in a current. 
In other words, a charge may be permanently maintained without the per- 
formance of work. Electricity in this condition is therefore frequently 
spoken of as statical electricity, and its effects, to distinguish them from 
those produced by currents, may be called statical effects. The peculiar pro- 

_perties of electrically charged bodies are these :— 

1. When one body is charged positively (14), some other body or bodies 
must be charged negatively to the same extent. 

2. Two bodies repel one another when both are charged positively, or both 
negatively, and attract when oppositely charged. 

3. These forces are inversely proportional to the square of the distance of 
the attracting or repelling charges of electricity. 

4. If a body electrified in any given invariable manner be placed in the 
neighbourhood of any number of electrified bodies, it will experience a force 
which is the resultant of the forces that would be separately exerted upon it 
by the different bodies if they were placed in succession in the positions 
which they actually occupy, without any alteration in their electrical con- 
ditions. 

From these propositions it follows that, at a given distance, the force, f, 
with which two small electrified bodies repel one another is proportional to 
the product of the charges, g and q,, upon them, But when the distance 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 149 


varies, this force, f, is inversely proportional to the square of the distance, d, 
between them; hence 


eT i, 
Pages Chet aseatied 4 Phato, CB 
When g and q, are of dissimilar signs, f becomes negative, 7.¢. there is an 
attraction, and not a repulsion. ‘This equation is incompatible with the 
electromagnetic definitions given in Part III., and, if it be allowed to be 
fundamental, gives a new definition of the unit quantity of electricity, as 
that quantity which, if placed at unit distance from another equal quantity 
of the same kind, repels it with unit force. 

34, Electrostatic System of Units—This new measurement of quantity 
forms the foundation of a distinct system or series of units, which may be 
called the electrostatic units, and measurements in these units will in these 
pages be designated by the use of small letters; thus, as Q, C, &c., sig- 
nified quantity, “current, &c., in electromagnetic measure, so g, ¢, ¢, and 7, &e., 
will represent the electrostatic measure of quantity, current, electromotive 
force, resistance, &c. 

The relations between current and quantity, between work, current, and 
electromotive force, and between electromotive force, current, and resistance, 
remain unchanged by the change from the electromagnetic to the electro- 
static system. 

30. Ratio between Electrostatic and Electromagnetic Measures of Quantity. 
—NSince the expression forming the second member of equation (17) represents 


LM L?M? 


a force the dimensions of which are —, the dimensions of q are —T" The 


fie 
dimensions of the unit of electricity, Q, in the electromagnetic system are 
A (25). Hence, since in passing from the one system to the other we 


must employ the ratio ef , this ratio will be of the dimensions 2 that is to 


say, the ratio Z is a velocity. In the present treatise this velocity will be 
Q J Pp 


designated by the letter v. 

The first estimate of the relation between quantity of electricity measured 
statically and the quantity. transferred by a current in a given time was made 
by Faraday*. A careful experimental investigation by MM. Weber and 
Kohlrauscht not only confirms the conclusion that the two kinds of measure- 


ment are consistent, but shows that the velocity v= a is 310,740,000 metres 


per second—a velocity not differing from the estimated velocity of light more 
than the different determinations of the latter quantity differ from each other. 
v must always be a constant, real velocity in nature, and should be measured 
in terms of the system of fundamental units adopted in electrical measure- 
ments (3 and 55). A redetermination of v (46) will form part of the present 
Committee’s business in 1863-64. It will be seen that, by definition, the 
quantity transmitted by an electromagnetic unit current in the unit time is 
equal to v electrostatic units of quantity. 

36. Electrostatic Measure of Currents.—In any coherent system, a current 

* Experimental Researches, series iii. § 361, &c. 


+ Abhandlungen der Konig. Sachsischen Ges. Bd. iii. (1857) p. 260; or, Poggendorff’s 
Annalen, Bd. 99. p. 10 (Aug. 1856), 


150 REPORT—1863. 


is measured by the quantity of electricity which passes in the unit of time 
(15) ; if both current and quantity are measured in electrostatic units, then 


at re ¢(:) 


2 Ve i 

qe and in order to reduce a current 

from electromagnetic to electrostatic measure, we must multiply C by v, or 
GERD OY a EET POE ORR ORY 


37. Electrostatic Measure of Electromotive Force ——The statical measure of 
an electromotive force is the work which would be done by electrical forces 
during the passage of a unit of electricity from one point to another. The 
only difference between this definition and the electromagnetic definition 
(16 and 27) consists in the change of the unit of electricity from the electro- 
magnetic to the electrostatic. 

Hence if ¢ units of electricity are transferred from one place to another, 
the electromotive force between those places being e, the work done during 
the transfer will be ge; but we found (27) that if E and Q be the electro- 
magnetic measures of the same quantities, the work done would be expressed 
by QE; hence 


The dimensions of ¢ are therefore L 


| Oa aoe 
but (35) q=Q, 
therefore — i aN Sa 


Thus, to reduce electromotive force from electromagnetic to electrostatic 
measure, we must divide by v. 


rw? 


The dimensions of ¢ are eee 


38. Electrostatic Measure of Resistance—If an electromotive force, e, act 
on a conductor whose resistance in electrostatic measure is r, and produce a 
current, c, then by Ohm’s law 


neBare dias! ianealy: ahh banwinlaast ay 


Substituting for ¢ and ¢ their equivalents in electromagnetic measure (equa- 
tions 19 and 20), we haye 


fod Be 
ere bid 
but (eq. 7) = 
and therefore ees os gover 2 4 + laa | 


To reduce a resistance measured in electromagnetic units to its electrostatic 
value, we must divide by v*. 


The dimensions of 7 are a or the reciprocal of a velocity. 


39. Electric Resistance in Electrostatic Units is measured by the Reciprocal 
of an Absolute VelocityWe have seen from the last paragraph that the 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 151 


dimensions of 7 establish this proposition ; but the following independent de- 
finition, due to Professor W. Thomson, assists the mind in receiving this con- 
ception as a necessary natural truth. Conceive a sphere of radius /, charged 
‘vith a given quantity of electricity, Q. The potential of the sphere, when 


at a distance from all other bodies, will be : (40, 41, and 47). Let it now 


be discharged through a certain resistance, 7, Then if the sphere could col- 
lapse with such a velocity that its potential should remain constant, or, in 
other words, that the ratio of the quantity on the sphere toits radius should 
remain constant, during the discharge, then the time occupied by its radius in 
shrinking the unit of length would measure the resistance of the discharging 
conductor in electrostatic measure, or the velocity with which its radius 
diminished would measure the conducting power (50) of the discharging 
conductor. Thus the conducting power of a few yards of silk in dry weather 
might be an inch per second, in damp weather a yard per second. The re- 
sistance of 1000 miles of pure copper wire, 54; inch in diameter, would be 
about 000000141 of a second per metre, or its conducting power one metre 
per 000000141 of a second, or 708980 metres per second. 

40, Electrostatic Measure of the Capacity of a Conductor.—The electrostatic 
capacity of a conductor is equal to the quantity of electricity with which it 
can be charged by the unit electromotive force. This definition is identical 
with that given of capacity measured in electromagnetic units (26). Lets 
be the capacity of a conductor, q the electricity in it, and ¢ the electromotive 
force charging it ; then ; 

SRE eka eK seth hn nash ake fi b¥ inci EEE 


From this equation we can see that the dimension of the quantity s is a 
length only. It will also be seen that 

Syl. dori’ odes (24) 
where § is the electromagnetic measure of the capacity of the conductor with 
the electrostatic capacity, s. 

The capacity of a spherical conductor in an open space is, in electrostatic 
measure, equal to the radius of the sphere—a fact demonstrable from the 
fundamental equation (17). 

Experimentally to determine s, the capacity of the conductor in electro- 
static measure, charge it with a quantity, qg, of electricity, and measure in any 
unit its potential (47) or tension (49), ¢. Then bring it into electrical con- 
nexion with another conductor whose capacity, s,, is known. Measure the 
potential, ¢,, of s and s, after the charge is divided between them; then 


g=v=(sts,), 


and hence ete “ts, ert ake he BX atc ai bag 
1 

In this measurement we do not require to know ¢ and ¢, in absolute measure, 
since the ratio of these two quantities only is required. We must, how~- 
ever, know the value of s,, and hence we must begin either with a spherical 
conductor in a large open space, whose capacity is measured by its radius, 
or with some other form of absolute condenser alluded to in the following 
paragraph. 

41. Absolute Condenser. Practical Measurement of Quantity.—As soon as 
the electromotive force of a source of electricity is known in electrostatic 
measure, the quantity which it will produce in the form of charge on simple 
forms is known by the laws of electrical distribution experimentally proved 


152 REPORT—1863. 


by Coulomb. Simple forms of this kind may be termed absolute condensers. 
A sphere in an open space is such a condenser, and the quantity it contains 
is se (eq. 23). A more convenient form isa sphere of radius a, suspended 
in the centre of a hollow sphere, radius y, the latter being in communication 
with the earth. The capacity, s, of the internal sphere is then, by calculation, 


=a 
‘Tyee > oii, ltt US ide my 

By a series of condensers of increasing capacity, we may measure the capacity 
of any condenser, however large. The comparison is made by the method 
described above (40). Thus, the practical method of measuring quantity in 
electrostatic measure is first to determine the capacity of the conductor con- 
taining the charge, and then to multiply that capacity by the electromotive 
force producing the charge (43). 

42. Practical Measurement of Currents.—The electrostatic value of currents 
can be obtained from equation (21), when ¢ and rv are known, or from equa- 
tion (19), when v and C are known, or by comparison with a succession of 
discharges of known quantities from an absolute condenser. 

43. Practical Measurement of Electromotive Force.—The relations expressed 
by eq. (17) and (23) show that in any given circumstances the force exerted 
between two bodies due to the effects of statical electricity will be proportional 
to the electromotive force or difference of potential (47) between them. This 
fact allows us to construct gauges of electromotive force, or instruments so 
arranged that a given electromotive force between two parts of the apparatus 
brings an index into a sighted position. In order that the gauge should serve 
to measure the electromotive force absolutely, it is necessary that two things 
should be known: first, the distribution of the electricity over the two attract- 
ing or repelling masses (or, in other words, the capacity of each part); secondly, 
the absolute force exerted between them. For simple forms, the distribution, 
or capacity of each part can be calculated from the fundamental principles 
(33); the force actually exerted can be weighed by a balance. By these 
means Professor W. Thomson* determined the electromotive force of a 
Daniell’s cell to be 0:0021 in British electrostatic units, or 0:0002951 in 
metrical units. This proposition is equivalent to saying that two balls of a 
metre radius, at a distance d apart in a large open space, and in connexion 
with the opposite poles of a Danicll’s cell, would attract one another with a 
0-0002951 0:0000239 

i re 

An apparatus by which such a measurement as the foregoing can be carried 
out is called an absolute electrometer. It will be observed that, although 
the definition of electromotive force is founded on the idea of work, its 
practical measurement is effected by observing a force, inasmuch as when 
this force exerted between two conductors of simple shape is known, the work 
which the passage of a unit of electricity between them would perform may 
be calculated by known laws. 

44. Comparison of Electromotive Forces by their Statical Effects.—This 
comparison is simpler than the absolute measurement, inasmuch as it is not 
necessary, in comparing two forces, to know the absolute values of either. In- 
struments by which the comparison can be made are called electrometers. 
Their arrangement is of necessity such that the force exerted between two 
given parts of the instrument shall be proportional to the difference of potential 


* Paper read before the Royal Society, February 1860. Vide Proceedings of the Royal 
Society, vol. x. p- 318, and Phil. Mag, vol. xx, 4th Ser. 1860, p- 233. 


force equal to absolute units, or gramme weight. 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 153 


between them. This force may be variable and measured by the torsion of a 
wire, as in Thomson’s reflecting electrometer, or it may be constant, and the 
electromotive forces producing it may be compared by measuring the distance 
required in each case between the two electrified bodies to produce that 
constant force. The latter arrangement is adopted in Professor Thomson’s 
portable electrometer, first exhibited at the present meeting of the Association. 
The indications of a gauge or electrometer not in itself absolute may be re- 
duced to absolute measurement by multiplication into a constant coefficient. 
45. Practical Measurement of Electric Resistance—The electrostatic resist- 
ance of a conductor of great resistance (such as gutta percha or india rubber) 
might be directly obtained in the following manner :—Let a body of known 
capacity, s (40), be charged to a given potential, P (47), and let it be gradually 
discharged through the conductor of great resistance, r. Let the time, ¢, be 
noted at the end of which the potential of the body has fallen to p. The rate 


in SS t P 
of loss of Bcobricrly will then be 2 - Hencep=P, rand = log, e Hence 


t 
ERT EI SS RGR EC 
P 


from which equation x can be deduced, if s, ¢, and the ratio = be known, ¢ can 


be directly observed, s can be measured (40), and the ratio sa can be measured 


by an electrometer (44) in constant connexion with the charged body. This 
ratio can also be measured by the relative discharges through a galvanometer, 
first, immediately after the body has been charged to the potential P, and 
again when, after having been recharged to the potential P, it has, after a time 
t, fallen to potential p. (This latter plan has long been practically used by 
Messrs. Siemens, although the results have not been expressed in absolute 
measure. 

Unfortunately, in those bodies, such as gutta percha and india rubber, the 
resistance of which is sufficiently great to make ¢ a mensurable number, the 
phenomenon of absorption due to continued electrification* so complicates the 
experiment as to render it practically unavailable for any exact determination. 
The apparent effect of absorption is to cause 7, the resistance of the material, 
to be a quantity variable with the time ¢, and the laws of the variation are 
very imperfectly known. 

46. Experimental Determination of the Ratio, v, between Electromagnetic and 
Electrostatic Measures of Quantity—In order to obtain the value of v, it is 
necessary and sufficient that we should obtain a common electrostatic and 
electromagnetic measure of some one quantity, current, resistance, electro- 
motive force, or capacity. There are thus five known methods by which the 
value can be obtained. 

1°. By a common measure of quantity. Let a condenser of known capacity, 
s, be prepared (40). Let it be charged to a given potential P (47). Then 
the quantity in the condenser willbe sP in electrostatic measure. The 
charge can next be measured by discharge through a galvanometer (25) in 
electromagnetic measure. The ratio between the two numbers will give the 
value of v. The only difficulty in this method consists in the measurement 


* Vide Transactions of British Association, 1859, p. 248, and Report of the Committee of 
Board of Trade on Submarine Cables, pp. 136 & 464. 


154 REPORT—1863. 


of the potential P, entailing the measurement of an absolute force between 
two electrified bodies. This method was proposed and adopted by Weber*. 

2°. By a comparison of the measure of electromotive force. The electro- 
motive force produced by a battery, in electrostatic measure, can be directly 
weighed (43). Its electromotive force, in electromagnetic measure, can be 
obtained from the current it produces in a given resistance (28). The ratio 
of the two numbers will give the value of v. This method has been carried 
out by Professor W. Thomson, who was not, however, at the time in pos- 
session of the means of determining accurately either the absolute resistance 
of his circuit or the absolute value of the currentf. 

3°. By a common measure of resistance. We know (29 and 45) how to 
measure resistances in electromagnetic and electrostatic measure. The ratio 
between these measures is equal to v?. The measure of resistance in electro- 
static measure is not as yet susceptible of great accuracy. 

4°, By a comparison of currents. The electromagnetic value of a current 
produced by a continuous succession of discharges from a condenser of capacity 
s can be measured (18, 19). The electrostatic value of the current will be 
known if the potential to which the condenser is charged be known. The 
ratio of the two numbers is equal to v. 

5°. By a common measure of capacity. The two measurements can be 
effected by the methods given (26 and 40). The ratio between the two | 
measurements will give v*. This method would probably yield very accurate 
results. 


Part V.—EecrricAL MEASUREMENTS DERIVED FROM THE FIVE ELEMENTARY 
MEASUREMENTS ; AND CoNCLUSION. 


47. Electric Potential—The word “ potential,” as applied by G. Green to the 
condition of an electrified body and the space surrounding it, is now coming 
into extensive use, but is perhaps less generally understood than any other 
electrical term. Electric potential is defined by Prof. W. Thomson as follows t: 

«‘ The potential, at any point in the neighbourhood of or within an electrified 
body, is the quantity of work that would be required to bring a unit of posi- 
tive electricity from an infinite distance to that point, if the given distribution 
of electricity remained unaltered.” 

It will be observed that this definition is exactly analogous to that given 
of magnetic potential (10), with the substitution of the unit quantity of 
electricity for the unit magnetic pole. (Analogous definitions might be given 
of gravitation potential, heat potential, and every one of these potentials 
coexist at every point of space quite independently one of the other.) In 
another paper§ Professor Thomson describes electric potential as follows :— 
‘The amount of work required to move a unit of electricity against electric 
repulsion from any one position to any other position is equal to the excess 
of the electric potential of the first position above the electric potential of the 
second position.” 

The two definitions given are virtually identical, since the potential at 
every point of infinity is zero, and it will be seen that the difference of 


* Pogg. Ann. Aug. 1856, Bd. 99. p. 10. Abhandlungeu der Kon. Sachsischen Gesell- 
schaft, vol. ili. (1857) p. 266. 
y t Paper read f bay the Royal Society, February 1860. Vide Proceedings of the Royal 

ociety, vol. x 

t ae read Be British Association, 1852. Vide Phil. Mag. 1853, p. 288. 

§ Paper read before the Royal Society, February 1860. Vide Proceedings of the Royal 
Society, se x, p. dd4. 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 155 


potential defined in the second passage quoted is identical with what we 
have called the electromotive force between the two points (16 and 27). 

When, instead of a difference of potentials, the potential simply of a 
point is spoken of, the difference of potential between the point and the 
earth is referred to, or, as we might say, the electromotive force between the 
point and the earth. 

The potential at all points close to the surface and in the interior of any 
simple metallic body is constant; that is to say, no electromotive force can be 
produced in a simple metallic body by mere electrical distribution; the 
potential at the body may therefore be called the potential of the body. The 
potential of a metallic body varies according to the distribution, dimensions, 
position, and electrification of all surrounding bodies. It also depends on the 
substance forming the dielectric. 

In any given circumstances, the potential of the body will be simply pro- 
portional to the quantity of electricity with which it is charged; but if the 
circumstances are altered, the potential will vary although the total amount 
of the charge may remain constant. ‘ 

In a closed cireuit in which a current circulates, the potential of all parts 
of the circuit is different ; the difference depends on the resistance of each 
part and on the electromotive force of the source of electricity, 7. ¢. on the 
difference of potentials which it is capable of causing when its two electrodes 
are separated by an insulator or dielectric. The different parts of a conductor 
moving in a magnetic field are maintained at different potentials, inasmuch 
as we have shown that an electromotive force is produced in this case. The 
potential of a body moving in an electric field (7. e. in the neighbourhood of 
electrified bodies) is constantly changing, but at any given moment the 
potential of all the parts is equal. The use of the word “ potential” has the 
following advantages. It enables us to be more concise than if we were 
continually obliged to use the circumlocution, ‘‘ electromotive force between 
the point and the earth ;”’ and it avoids the conception of a force capable of 
generating a current, which almost necessarily, although falsely, is attached 
to “ electromotive force.” 

Equipotential surfaces and lines of force in an electric field may be con- 
ceived for statically electrified bodies; these surfaces and lines would be 
drawn on similar principles and possess analogous properties to those described 
in a magnetic field(10). It is hardly necessary to observe that the magnetic 
and the electric fields are totally distinct, and coexist without producing any 
mutual influence or interference. 

The rate of variation of electric potential per unit of length along a line of 
force is at any point equal to the electrostatic force at that point, 7. e. to the 
foree which a unit of electricity placed there would experience. The unit 
difference of potential is identical with the unit electromotive force ; and the 
electrometer spoken of as measuring electromotive force measures potentials 
or differences of potential. 

48. Density, Resultant Electric Force, Electric Pressure.—The three fol- 
lowing definitions are taken almost literally from a paper by Professor W. 
Thomson *. Our treatise would be incomplete without reference to these 
terms, and Professor Thomson’s definitions can hardly be improved. 

* Electric Density.—This term was introduced by Coulomb to designate the 
quantity of electricity per unit of area in any part of the surface of a con- 


* Paper read before the Royal Society, Feb. 1860. Vide Proc. R. 8. vol. x. p. 319 (1860), 
_ and Phil. Mag. vol. xx. Ser. 4 (1860) p. 322. 


156 REPORT—~1863. 


ductor. He showed how to measure it, though not in absolute measure, by 
his proof-plane. 

« Resultant Electric Force—The resultant force in air or other insulating 
fluid in the neighbourhood of an electrified body is the force which a unit of 
electricity concentrated at that point would experience if it exercised no 
influence on the electric distributions in the neighbourhood. The resultant 
force at any point in the air close to the surface of a conductor is perpen- 
dicular to the surface, and equal to 4 zp, if p designates the electric density of 
the surface in the neighbourhood. 

“ Electric Pressure from the Surface of a Conductor balanced by Air.—A 
thin metallic shell or liquid film, as for instance a soap-bubble if electrified, 
experiences a real mechanical force in a direction perpendicular to the sur- 
face outwards, equal in amount per unit of area to 27p*, p denoting as before 
the electric density at the part of the surface considered. In the case of a 
soap-bubble its effect will be to cause a slight enlargement of the bubble on 
electrification with either vitreous or resinous electricity, and a corresponding 
collapse on being perfectly discharged. In every case we may consider it as 
constituting a deduction from the amount of air-pressure which the body ex- 
periences when unelectrified. The amount of deduction being different at 
different parts according to the square of the electric density, its resultant 
action on the whole body disturbs its equilibrium, and constitutes in fact the 
resultant electric force experienced by the body.” 

49, Tension.—The use of this word has been intentionally avoided by us 
in this treatise, because the term has been somewhat loosely used by various 
writers, sometimes apparently expressing what we have called the density, 
and at others diminution of air-pressure. By the most accurate writers it 
has been used in the sense of a magnitude proportional to potential or differ- 
ence of potentials, but without the conception of absolute measurement, or 
without reference to the idea of work essential in the conception of potential. 
We believe also that it has not been generally, if ever, applied to that con- 
dition of an insulating fluid in virtue of which each point has an electric 
potential, although no sensible quantity of electricity be present at the point. 
The expression ‘‘ tension” might be used to designate what we have termed 
the potential of a body. The tension between two points would then be 
equivalent to the electromotive force between those points, or to their differ- 
ence of potentials, and would be measured in the same unit. 

50. Conducting Power, Specific Resistance, and Specific Conducting Power. 

Conducting Power, or Conductivity.—These expressions are employed to sig- 
nify the reciprocal of the resistance of any conductor. Thus, if the resistance 
of a wire be expressed by the number 2, its conducting power will be 0-5. 

Specific Resistance referred to unit of Mass—The specific resistance of a 
material at a given temperature may be defined as the resistance of the unit 
mass formed into a conductor of unit length and of uniform section. Thus 
the specific resistance of a metal in the metrical system is the resistance of a 
wire of that metal, one metre long, and weighing one gramme. 

The Specific Conducting Power of a material is the reciprocal of its specific 
resistance. 

Specific resistance, referred to unit of volume, is the resistance opposed by 
the unit cube of the material to the passage of electricity between two opposed 
faces. It may easily be deduced from the specific resistance referred to unit 
of mass, when the specific gravity of the material is known. 

Specific Conducting Power may also be referred to unit of volume. It is of 
course the reciprocal of the specific resistance referred to the same unit, 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 157 


It is somewhat more convenient to refer to the unit of mass with long 
uniform conductors, such as metal wires, of which the size is frequently and 
easily measured by the weight per foot or metre ; and it is, on the other hand, 
more convenient to refer to the unit of volume bodies, such as gutta percha, 
glass, &c., which do not generally occur as conducting-rods of uniform section, 
while their dimensions can always be measured with at least as much accu- 
racy as their weights. 

51. Specific Inductive Capacity*.—Faraday discovered that the capacity 
of a conductor does not depend simply on its dimensions or on its position 
relatively to other conductors, but is influenced if amount by the nature of 
the insulator or dielectric separating it from them. The laws of induction 
are assumed to be the same in all insulating materials, although the amount 
be different. The name “inductive capacity’’ is given to that quality of an 
insulator in virtue of which it affects the capacity of the conductor it sur- 

rounds, and this quality is measured by reference to air, which is assumed 
to possess the unit inductive capacity. The specific inductive capacity of a 
,material is therefore equal to the quotient of the capacity of any conductor 
insulated by that material from the surrounded conductors, divided by the 
capacity of the same conductor in the same position separated from them by 
air only. It is not improbable that this view of induction may be here- 
after modified. 

52. Heat produced in a Conductor by a Current.—The work done in driving 
a current, C, for a unit of time through a conductor whose resistance is R, byan 
electromotive force E, is EC=RC* ($17). This work is lost as electrical 
energy, and is transformed into heat. As Dr. Joule has ascertained the 
quantity of mechanical work equivalent to one unit of heat, we can calculate 
the quantity of heat produced in a conductor in a given time, if we know 
C and R in absolute measure. In the metrical series of units founded on 
the metre gramme and second, if we call the total heat ©, taking as unit the 
quantity required to raise one gramme of water one degree Centigrade, we 


have | RC% 
8 => *4157° . . * ° . . > : . . 


In the British system, founded on feet, grains, seconds, with a unit of heat 
equal to the quantity required to raise one grain of water one degree Fahr., 
we must substitute the number 24°861 for 4157 in the above equation. 

53. Electrochemical Equivalents—Dr. Faraday has shown + that when an 
electric current passes through certain substances and decomposes them, the 
quantity of each substance decomposed is proportional to the quantity of 
electricity which passes. Hence we may call that quantity of a substance 
which is decomposed by unit current in unit time the electrochemical equi- 
valent of that substance. 

This equivalent is a certain number of grammes of the substance. The 
equivalents of different substances are in the proportion of their combining 
numbers ; andif all chemical compounds were electrolytes, we should be able 
to construct experimentally a table of equivalents in which the weight of 
each substance decomposed by a unit of electricity would be given. The 
electrochemical setae of water, in electromagnetic measure, is about 
0-02 in British, 0-0092 + in the metrical system. The electrochemical equi- 
valents of all other electrolytes can be deduced from this measurement with 
the aid of their combining numbers. 


(28) 


* Experimental Researches, series xi. + Experimental Researches, series vii. 
} ‘009375 by Weber and Kohlrausch. 


158 REPORT—1863. 


54, Electromotive Force of Chemical Affinity.—When two substances 
haying a tendency to combine are brought together and enter into combina- 
tion, they enter into a new state in which the intrinsic energy of the system 
is generally less than it was before, that is, the substances are less able to 
effect chemical changes, or to produce heat or mechanical action, than before, 

The energy thus lost appears during the combination as heat or electrical 
or mechanical action, and can be measured in many cases *, 

The energy given out during the combination of two substances may, like 
all other forms of energy, be considered as the product of two factors t—the 
tendency to combine, and’ the amount of combination effected. Now the 
amount of combination may be measured by the number of electrochemical 
equivalents which enter into combination; so that the tendency to combine 
may also be ascertained by dividing the energy given out by the number of 
electrochemical equivalents which enter into combination, Ry 

If the whole energy appears in the form of electric currents, the energy of 
the current is measured by the product of the electromotive force and the 
quantity of electricity which passes, Now the quantity of electricity which 
passes is equal to the number of electrochemical equivalents which enter on 
either side into combination. Hence the total energy given out, divided by 
this number, will give the electromotive force of combination. Thus, if N 
electrochemical equivalents enter into combination under a chemical affinity 
I, and in doing so give out energy equal to W, either as heat or as electrical 
action, then 


NIE W. 


But if W be given out as electrical action, and causes a quantity of electricity 
Q to traverse a conductor under an electromotive force E, we shall have 


WHO: 
By the definition of electrochemical equivalents, E=N, 
therefore I=E; 


or the force of chemical affinity may in these cases be measured as electro- 
motive force. 

This method of ascertaining the electromotive force due to chemical com- 
bination, which gives us a clear insight into the meaning and the measure- 
ment of ‘¢ chemical affinity,” is due to Professor W. Thomson t. 

The field of investigation presented to us by these considerations is very 
wide. We have to measure the intrinsic energy of substances as dependent 
on volume, temperature, and state of combination, When this is done, the 
energy due to any combination will be found by subtracting the energy of 
the compound from that of the components before combination, 

As the tendency to increase in volume is measured as pressure, and as the 
tendency to part with heat is measured by the temperature, so in chemical 
dynamics the tendency to combine will be properly measured by the electro- 
motive force of combination. . 

55,—Tables of Dimensions and other Constants :— 


Fundamental Units. 
Length=L, Time =T, Mass=M. 


* Report British Association, 1850, p. 63, and Phil. Mag. vol. xxxii. Ser. 3. See papers 
by Prof. Andrews, and Favre and Silbermann, ‘On the Heat given out in Chemical Action,” 
Comptes Rendus, vols. xxxvi. and xxxvu. 

+ See Rankine “ On the General Law of Transformation of Energy,” Phil, Mag. 1853. 

{ “On the Mechanical Theory of Electrolysis,” Phil, Mag, Dec. 1851. 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 159 


Derived Mechanical Units. 
LM 


7 Forces Fa 


1 
Derived Magnetical Units. 


Work=W= Velocity =V= 


Strength of the pole of a magnet 


Moment of a magnet ...........-+: m=L2 T M* 
Intensity of magnetic field.......... H=L?T 'M* 
Electromagnetic System of Units. 

Quantity of electricity ............0. Q=1? x Mi 
Strength of electric current .......... c=? Tut 
Mveniromotiye force... esse es tee ne E=1? TMi 

Resistance of conductor ...........++: R=L T’ 
Electrostatic System of Units. 

Quantity of electricity ....,........- q=lL? TMi 

Strength of electric currents .......... c=L? T > M? 

Electromotive force ...........+005- e=Li Ty? 

Resistance of conductor..,..,,.....++ r=L 'T 


Let v be the ratio of the electrostatic to the electromagnetic unit of quantity 
(35 and 46); then v=310,740,000 metres per second approximately, and we 
have 

se 


e= HE ] 
v 


q=vQ c=vC | r=—R s=v'8 
v 
Table for the Conversion of British ( foot-grain-second) System to Metrical 


(metre-gramme-second) System. 


aa of Number of 
tri its British units 
caiatact ie a ea Log: acacia a 
British unit. metrical unit, 
Se , | 0°0647989 || 2:8115678 | 11884321] 15-43235 
. |2° for L, - ie and V..| 0°3047945 || 1-4840071 | 0-5159929)| 3-280899 
3°for F (also for foot-grains| 0-0197504 || 2 2955749 | 1-7044250) 50-6320 
and metre-grammes). 
SA 0:0060198 || 3:7795820 | 22204179) 166-1185 
5° for H and electro-|0-461085 || 16637804 | 0-3362196|| 216880 
chemical equivalents. 
meron, C, ande ...... 0:140536 || 1-1477874 | 0-8522125| 7-11561 
7 for E, m, q, and c .. , .| 0°0428346 | 2-6317949 | 1:3682051) 23-3456 
oo) 0:0359994 || 2-5562953 | 1-4437046| 27-7782 


160 REPORT—1863. 


British System.—Relation between Absolute and other Units. 


One absolute unit of { ms = 0:0310666 ae grain } in London. 
fo) 
force. 


work. 


In London { — of a grain _ 39.1889 absolute units of { 
fo} 


force _1 f{ unit weight 
work“ g | unit weight x unit length 


g in British system =32-088 (1+ 0-005133 sin? \), where A=the latitude of 
the place at which the observation is made. 

Heat.—The unit of heat is the quantity required to raise the temperature of 
one grain of water at its maximum density 1° Fahrenheit. 

Absolute mechanical equivalent of unit of heat=24861=772 foot-grains 
at Manchester. 

Thermal equivalent of an absolute unit of work =0-000040224., 

Thermal equivalent of a foot-grain at Manchester =0°0012953, 

Electrochemical equivalent of water =0-02, nearly. 


One absolute unit of { } everywhere. 


Metrical System.—Relation between Absolute and other Units, 


One absoliite unit bf { force _ y.ogogsa1 Weight of a gramme } bit Paris, 
work metre-gramme 


{ force. 


At Pach { the weight of a gramme _.gog¢g absolute units of oe 


or metre-gramme 


: force _1 unit weight 
One absolute unit of { Ears. re ann wien Esc ante lanestle } everywhere, 


g in metrical system = 9-78024 (1+ 0-005133 sin’ d), where \ =the latitude 
of the place where the experiment is made. 

Heat.—The unit of heat is the quantity required to raise one gramme of 
water at its maximum density 1° Centigrade. 

Absolute mechanical equivalent of the unit of heat=4157-25=423-542 
metre-grammes at Manchester. 

Thermal equivalent of an absolute unit of work =0-00024054. 

Thermal equivalent of a metre-gramme at Manchester=0-00236154. 

Electrochemical equivalent of water =0-0092, nearly. 

56. Note to the Table of Dimensions, by Professor Clerk Maxwell.—All the 
measurements of which we have hitherto treated are supposed to be made in 
the same medium—ordinary air; but Faraday has shown that other media 
have different properties. Paramagnetic bodies, such as oxygen and salts of 
iron, when placed in media less paramagnetic than themselves, behave as 
paramagnetic bodies; but when placed in media more paramagnetic than 
themselves, they behave as diamagnetic bodies. 

Hence magnetic phenomena are influenced by the nature of the medium in 
which the bodies are placed, and the system of units and of measurements 
which we adopt depends on the nature of the medium in which our experi- 
ments are made. If we made our experiments in highly condensed oxygen, 
magnets would attract each other less, and currents would attract each other 
more, than they do in common air; and the reverse would be the case if we 
worked in a sea of melted bismuth. 

Now if we take into account the “ coefficient of magnetic induction ” of the 
medium in which we work, and instead of assuming that of common air to be 
unity, assume it proportional to the density of that part of the medium to 


ol 
ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 161 


which the magnetic action is due, we shall have the repulsion of two 
mm 
7? 


poles = , Where m m' are the two poles, « the density of the magnetic 
medium, and r the distance. Now a density is a mass, M,, divided by L’, the 
unit of volume. Hence the dimensions of m are at or if we can 
measure the density of the magnetic medium in the same unit of mass as that 


employed for other purposes, the dimensions of m would be simply = Those 


of H would then be = or a velocity. 


If we suppose the density of the magnetic medium to be taken account of 
in the electromagnetic units, their dimensions become 


Quantity of electricity. .Q=L’, or equivalent to an area. 
2 


Strength of current ....C =a 
Electromotive force .. . aS 
: M 
f conductor R= 
Resistance of conductor Fal 


_ The electromagnetic unit of quantity of electricity is equal to the electro- 
static unit multiplied by a certain velocity, depending on the elasticity of the 
magnetic medium, and proportional or probably equal to the velocity of pro- 
pagation of vibrations in it. Hence the dimensions of 


Electrostatic quantity ........ qg=LT 
Electrostatic current.......... c=L 
Electrostatic electromotive force e= 8 
IRESISLATICE, 4.33 5.%, «eierh Meee a oti a 


As we have no knowledge of the density, elasticity, &c., of the magnetic 
medium, we assume it as having a standard state in common air ; and sup- 
posing all measurements to be made in air, the original table of dimensions is 
sufficient for expressing measurements made according to one system in terms 
of any other system. 

51. Magnitude of Units and Nomenclature.—In connexion with the system 
of measurement explained in this treatise, two points hitherto unmentioned 
deserve attention—first, the absolute magnitude of the units, and secondly, 
the nomenclature. 

_ The absolute magnitude is in most cases an inconvenient one, leading to 
the use either of exceedingly small or exceedingly large numbers. Thus the 
units of electromagnetic resistance and electromotive force and quantity, and 
of electrostatic currents, are inconyeniently small; the unit of electrostatic 
resistance is inconveniently large. Decimal multiples and submultiples of 
these units will therefore probably have to be adopted in practice. The 
choice of these multiples and submultiples forms part of the business of the 
Committee. 

The nomenclature hitherto adopted is extremely defective. In referring 
to each measurement, we have to say that the number expresses the value in 
electrostatic or electromagnetic absolute units: if a multiple is to be used, this. 
Poa will also have to be named; and further, the standard units of length,” 

63. M 


162 REPORT—1863. 


mass, and time have to be referred to, inasmuch as some writers use the pound 
and some the grain, some the metre and some the millimetre, as fundamental 
units. This cumbrous diction, and the risk of error imported by it, would 
be avoided if each unit received a short distinctive name in the manner pro- 
posed by Sir Charles Bright and Mr. Latimer Clark, in a paper read before 
the British Association at Manchester, 1861. 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


Part I.—lyrropucrory. 


1. Objects of treatise. 3. Standard mechanical units. 
2. Derivation of units from fundamental | 4, Dimensions of derived units. 
standards. 


Part I1.—Tue Measurement oF Macnetic PoenoMENa. 


5. Magnets and magnetic poles. 10, Magnetic potentials and equipoten- 
6. Magnetic field. tial surfaces. 

7. Magnetic moment. , 11. Lines of magnetic force. 

8. Intensity of magnetization. 12, Relation between lines of force and 
9. Coefficient of magnetic induction. equipotential surfaces. 


Part I1J,—MerasvremMent or Exrectric PHENOMENA BY THEIR 
ELEcTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS. 


13, Preliminary. on a closed conductor conveying 
14, Meaning of the words “electric a current. 
quantity.” 24. General law of the mechanical action 
15. Meaning of the words “electric between electric currents and 
current.” other electric currents or magnets. 
16. Meaning of the words “electro- | 25, Electromagnetic measurement of 
motive force.” electric quantity. 
17, Meaning of the words “electric | 26. Electric capacity of a conductor. 
resistance.” 27. Direct measurement of electromotive 
18, Measurement of electric currents by force. 
their action on a magnetic needle. | 28, Indirect measurements of electro- 
19. Measurement of electric currents by motive force. 
theirmutual actionononeanother. | 29. Measurement of electric resistance. 
20. Weber's Electro-dynamometer. 30. Electric resistance in electromagne- 
21, Comparison of the electromagnetic tie units is measured by an abso- 
and electrochemical action of lute velocity. 
currents. 31. Magneto-electric induction. 
22. Magnetic field near a current. 32. On material standards for the mea- 
23. Mechanical action of a magnetic field surement of electric magnitudes. 


Part [V.—MrEaAsvrEMENT OF Exectric Poenomena BY Sraticat EFFEcts. 


83. Electrostatic measure of electric ) 41. Absolute condenser—practical mea- 
quantity. surement of quantity. 


34, Electrostatic system of units. 42. Practical measurement of currents. 

35. Ratio between electrostatic and elec- | 43. Practical measurement of electro- 
tromagnetic measures of quantity. motive force. 

86. Electrostatic measure of currents. 44, Comparison of electromotive forces 

87. Electrostatic measure of electromo- by their statical effects. 
tive force. 45. Practical measurement of electric 

38. Electrostatic measure of resistance. resistance. 

39, Electric resistance in electrostatic | 46, Experimental determination of the 
units is measured by the recipro- ratio v between electromagnetic 
cal of an absolute velocity. - and electrostatic measures of 

40. Electrostatic measure of the capacity quantity. 


of a conductor. 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 163 


- Part V.—Eercrricat MsasvREMENTS DERIVED FROM THE Five ELEMENTARY 
MEASUREMENTS, 


47. Electric potential. 53. Electrochemical equivalents. 
48. Density—resultant electric foree— | 54, Electromotive force of chemical 


electric pressure. affinity. 
49, Tension. 55. Tables of dimensions and other con- 
50. Conducting power, specific resist- stants. 

ance, and specific conducting | 56, Note to the table of dimensions, by 

power. Professor Clerk Maxwell. 
51. Specific inductive capacity. 57. Magnitude of units and nomen- 
52 Heat produced in a conductor by a clature, 

current, 


Apprnvix D.— Description of an Experimental Measurement of Electrical 
Resistance, made at King’s College. By Professor J, Cherx Maxweut and 
Messrs, Banrour Srewarr and Fiermine Jenxxn. 


Parts I., IIT., and IV., by Professor Maxwett. 
Part II., by Mr. Freemine Jenxry. 


Part I. General description of the method employed.—In the general 
Report of the Committee, and in Appendix OC, it has already been shown that 
the most important aid to the exact science of electricity would be the de- 
termination of the resistance of a wire in absolute measure, and the publica- 
tion of standards of resistance derived from this wire. This has already 
been done by Weber*; butit is desirable that the determination of a quantity 
so important should not be left in the hands of a single person. 

Weber has employed two methods. 

Ist. By suddenly turning a coil of wire about an axis so as to alter its 


_ position relatively to the terrestrial magnetic lines of force, he produced an 


electromotive force acting for a short time in the coil. This coil was con- 


‘nected with another fixed coil having a magnet suspended in its centre. The 


current generated by the electromotive force passed through both coils and 
gave the magnet a sudden impulse, the amount of which was measured by 
its extreme deflection. 

Thus an electromotive force of short duration produced a current of short 
duration. The total amount of electromotive force depended on the size of 
the moveable coil and on the intensity of terrestrial magnetism. The total 
amount of the current is measured by the impulse given to the magnet, and 
the mechanical value of the impulse is measured by the angle through which 
it swings. The resistance of the whole circuit, consisting of both coils, is 
then ascertained by dividing the electromotive force by the current. 

2nd. Weber’s second method consisted in causing a powerful magnet to 
oscillate within a coil of wire. By the motion of the magnet currents are 
ee in the coil, and these, reacting on the magnet, retard its motion. 

e rate of diminution of the amplitude of the oscillations, when compared 
with the rate of diminution when the circuit is broken, affords the means of 
determining the resistance of the circuit. 

Professor W. Thomson has designed an apparatus by which the resistance of 
a coil can be determined in electromagnetic measure by the observation of 
the constant deflection of a magnet, and his arrangement has been adopted 
for the experiments made by the Committee. 

* Pogg. Ann. Bd. 82. p. 337 (March 1851); Electrische Maasbestimmungen, Leipzig, 
Wiedemann ; Memoirs of the Royal Society of Sciences of Saxony, vol. i. p. 197; and 
Phil. Mag. 1861. 5 

M 


164 REPORT—1863. 


The coil of wire is made to revolve about a vertical diameter with constant 
velocity. The motion of the coil among the lines of force due to the earth’s 
magnetism produces induced currents in the coil which are alternately in 
opposite directions with respect to the coil itself, the direction changing as 
the plane of the coil passes through the east and west direction. If we con- 
sider the direction of the current with respect to a fixed line in the east and_ 
west direction, we shall find that the changes in the current are accompanied 
with changes in the face of the coil presented to the east, so that the absolute 
direction of the current, as seen from the east, remains always the same. If 
a magnet be suspended in the centre of the coil, it will be deflected from the 
north and south line by the action of these currents, and will be turned in 
the same direction as the coil revolves. The force producing this deflection 
is continually varying in magnitude and direction, but as the periodic time 
is small, the oscillations of the magnet may be rendered insensible by in- 
creasing the mass of the apparatus along with which it is suspended. The 
resistance of the coil may be found when we know the dimensions of the 
coil, the velocity of rotation, and the deflection of the magnet. The intensity 
of terrestrial magnetism enters into the measurement of the electromotive 
force, and also into the measurement of the current; but the measure of the 
resistance, which is the ratio of these two quantities, is quite independent of 
the value of the magnetic intensity. 

Part II. Description of the Apparatus—For convenience of description, 
the apparatus with which the experiments were made may be divided into 
five parts:—1°, the driving gear; 2°, the revolving coil; 3°, the governor ; 
4°, the scale, with its telescope, by which the deflections of the magnet were 
observed; 5°; the electric balance, by which the resistance of the copper coil 
was compared with a German-silver arbitrary standard. 

The general arrangement of the first four parts is shown in the diagram, 
fig. 4, Plate VI. 
~ The driving gear consisted of a leaden flywheel X on a shaft A, turned 
by hand, and communicating its motion by a band, 66, 6,...., arranged in 
a way equivalent to Huyghens’s gearing, to a shaft B, a pulley on which drove 
the revolving coil by a simple bandaa,a,..... The arrangement of the band 
bb, b,.... communicating the motion of shaft A to shaft B may be easily 
understood from the diagram. CC are two guide-pulleys running loose on 
pins attached to the main framing. DD are two loose pulleys maintained at 
a constant distance by the strut E, to which the weight W is hung. 

When the rotation of shaft B.is opposed by a sufficient resistance, the 
effect of turning the flywheel in the direction shown by the arrow is to lift 
the weight W from the ground, tending to turn the shaft B with a definite 
force, which will be sensibly constant so long as the weight is kept off the 
ground and the band 46, 6,.... remains unaltered in length. Wherever, as 
in the present experiments, the resistance increases with the speed of rota- 
tion, the speed of the driving-wheel can easily be regulated by hand, so as to 
keep the weight from falling so low as to touch the ground, or rising so high 
as to foul the gear, and thus, with a little care, a constant driving force can 
be applied to the shaft B, and to the machinery connected with it. 

The revolving coil formed the most important part of the apparatus. It is 
shown one-fifth full size in figs. 1 and 2, Plate VI. 

A strong brass frame H H was bolted down by three brass bolts F F F, 
dowelled into a heavy stone. It could be accurately levelled by three stout 
screws GGG, The brass rings II,, on which the insulated copper wire 
was coiled, were supported on the frame by a pivot J, working in lignum 


4.163. ON APPARATUS, 
on of Electiteal Resistance ur 


Plate 6. 


CTRO-MAGNETIC UNITS. 


33"? Report Frituady Asroo- 1868 


INDUCTION APPARATUS, 


fa Plate 6 
Sor the determination: of Electrical Resistance tn 


ABSOLUTE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC UNITS 


Figs 1& 2 
Fig 3 
Fig 4 ahour 


Govan 


£ full size 


int 
7 


20 


hevolving | 


fol 


Seale & Telescope 


IWLowry feulp? 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 165 


vite, and by a hollow bearing K, working in brass: this bearing worked in 
a kind of stuffing-box & (fig. 3), which by three screws and a flat spring 
washer between it and the frame at 7, could be adjusted to fit the collar e 
with great nicety, preventing all tendency to bind or shake. Supported in 
this way the coil revolved with the utmost freedom and steadiness. 

The coil of copper wire was necessarily divided into two parts on the two 
rings II,, to permit the suspension of the magnet 8. The two brass rings 
were each formed of two distinct halves, insulated from one another by vul- 
canite at the flanges ff,. This insulation was necessary to prevent the in- 
duction of currents in the brass rings. These rings, after being bolted 
together, were turned with great accuracy by Messrs. Elliott Brothers. The 
insulated copper wire was wound in one direction on both rings; the inner 
end of the second was soldered to the outer end of the first; the two extreme 
ends of the conductor thus formed were soldered to two copper terminals hh’, 
insulated by the vulcanite piece x bolted to the brass rings. Each terminal 
was provided with a strong copper binding screw, and had a mercury-cup 
drilled into its upper surface. The two coils could be joined, so as to form a” 
closed cireuit, by a short copper bar between the binding screws. The bar, 
binding screws, and nuts were amalgamated to ensure perfect contact. When 
the copper coils were to be connected with the electric balance, the short 
copper bar was removed and the required connexions were made by short 
copper rods, one quarter of an inch in diameter, dipping at one end into the 
mereury-cups on the terminals hh’, and at the other end into the mercury- 
cups of the electric balance. The absence of all induced currents influencing 
the suspended magnet when the circuit was broken at hh’ was repeatedly 
proved by experiment. 

Rotation was communicated to the coils by a catgut band simply making 
half a turn round the small V-pulley 7. The band could be tightened as 
required by the jockey pulley z and weight w (fig. 4). 

A short screw of large diameter, n, gearing into a spur-wheel of one hun- 
dred teeth, 0, formed the counter from which the speed of rotation was 
obtained, as follows. A pin p on the wheel o lifted the spring g as it 
passed ; this spring in its rebound struck the gong M. The blow was of 
course repeated at every hundred revolutions, and the time of each blow was 
observed on a chronometer. The arrangement was equally adapted for rota- 
tion in either direction. 

A second V-pulley r served for the band ¢¢, communicating motion to the 
governor by which the speed was controlled. 

The manner in which the suspended magnet was introduced to the centre 
of the coil is best seen in fig. 3. A brass tripod N, bolted to the main 
frame, supported the long brass tube O, which passed freely through the 
hollow bearing at K. A cylindrical wooden box P slipped on to the end of 
the tube O. The magnet hung inside this box, the lower part of which 
could be removed to allow the exact position of the magnet to be verified. 
The support N also carried a short brass tube R, on which the glass case 
T could be secured by a little sliding tube. The mirror t, attached to the 
magnet S by a rigid brass wire, hung inside this glass case by a single 
cocoon fibre about eight feet long. This fibre was protected against currents 
of air by a wooden case (not shown in the Plate), extending from the point 
of support down to the glass case. A little sliding paper prolongation of the 
Wooden case made it nearly wind-proof by fitting at the bottom against the 
main brass frame. An opening in the case allowed the mirror to be seen.. 
The fibre at the top was suspended from a torsion head, by which it could 


166 REPORT— 18638, 


be turned ; it could also be raised and lowered by a small barrel, and was 
adjustible in a horizontal plane by three set screws. The care taken in sus- 
pending the magnet and in protecting it both against currents of air and 
vibration was repaid by success, for the image of the scale reflected in the 
magnet was as clear and steady when the coil was making 400 revolutions 
per minute as when it was at rest. 

The governor used was lent by one of the Committee and will not be 
described in detail, as an improved governor on the same principle will be 
adopted in future experiments, in describing which an account of its construc- 
tion will be given. It may be said, however, that the little instrument actually 
employed generally controlled the speed to such uniformity as allowed the 
deflections to be observed with as much accuracy as the zero-point. 

The scale and telescope hardly require special description; they were 
arranged in the usual manner for this kind of experiment, at about three 
metres from the mirror. The scale was an engine-divided paper scale nailed 
to a wooden bar. This plan will in future experiments be abandoned, as 
variations in the weather had a very perceptible influence on the scale. 

The annexed diagram shows the electric balance by which the copper coil 


B 
ce “7 


4. S 8 y 4 Dw & 2 
| 4 ‘ oy ny SRS > ¢ a, 
wo) B ° x 3 
K f Ss / a, * 

, we s 


TM a 
K 


Vv 
C was compared with an arbitrary German-silver standard § before and 
after each induction experiment. The arrangement is that of the ordinary 
Wheatstone’s balance, as described in Appendix H of the Report of your 
Committee for 1862. A and C represent the arms of the balance as there 
described, 8 the German-silver standard, and R the copper coil to be mea- 
sured. JJ,, HH,, MM,, and LL, are four stout copper bars with mercury- 
cups at aa, d,.., 6b, b,..,¢¢,, anddd,. Twoshort copper rods F and F, can 
be used to connect a with 6 and ¢ with d. When this is done the arrange- 
ment is exactly that of the simple Wheatstone balance with the keys at K 
and K,, as deseribed in Appendix H of the last Report. A and C were coils 
formed of about 300 inches of No. 31* German-silver wire, and were adjusted 
to equality with extreme nicety, and each assumed equal to 100 arbitrary 
units. If Ron any occasion had been exactly equal to S, the galvanometer G 
would have been unaffected on depressing the keys K K,, when a was joined 


* Diameter =0'01 inch, 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 167 


to b and ¢ to d by F and F,, rods of no sensible resistance, This exact equality 
between R and § could never be obtained, owing to slight changes in tempera- 
ture which affected the two coils very differently. The object of the modifica- 
tions introduced was to allow the ratio between S and R, differing by a 
small amount only, to be measured with great accuracy. 

For this purpose a number of German-silver coils were adjusted, represent- 
ing 1, 2, 4,8....512in the arbitrary units, equal to the hundredth part of A 
or C. These coils were so arranged that any one or more of them could be 
introduced between the bars HH, andJJ,. A single coil, equal to 1 in the 
same arbitrary unit, could be introduced between the bars LL, and MM,. 
In the diagram this coil is shown in its position and the rod F, withdrawn, 
Similarly F is withdrawn from between H and G, and the coil 1 joins a, and 
6, in the bars HH, andJJ,. If no other coils were placed between H H, and 
JJ,, the arms of the balance would now be 101 and 101 respectively, instead 
of 100 and 100; but the ratio would still be that of equality. Let us now 
suppose that, when the circuit with the battery is completed, the galvanometer 
by its deflection shows that R is bigger than S, we can reduce the resistance 
of the arm between D and Y by various small graduated and definite amounts 
by introducing the coils 2, 4, 8, &c. between HH, andJJ,. Let us first 
suppose the coil 2 introduced. The resistance between H and J will be the 
reciprocal of 1-5 or 0°6667; for where various resistances are added in 
multiple arc, the resistance of the compound ar¢ is the reciprocal of the 
sum of their conducting-powers, and the conducting-power of a wire is the 
reciprocal of its resistance. The ratio between the two arms will now be 
101 ; 100-6667. Let us suppose that on completing the circuit the galvano- 
meter still deflects in the same direction as before, the arm between D and Y 
must be still further reduced by including fresh coils between H H, and J J,. 
It is very easy by trial to find the combination which maintains the galvano- 
meter at zero when the circuit is completed. Let us suppose that, as in the 
diagram, the coils included were 1, 2, 4, 8, and 64. The reciprocals of 
these numbers are 1, 0-5, 0:25, 0-125, and 0:015625. The conducting-power 
between H and J is therefore 1-890625 the sum of these numbers. The 
resistance between H and J is 052893, the reciprocal of the last number, and 
the ratio between the arms will be 101 : 100°52893. A little consideration 
will show that with the coils named any ratio between 101 to 100-5, and 101 
to 101 can be obtained by steps not exceeding 0:00195, the reciprocal of 512, 
the largest coil or smallest conducting-power which can be included between 
the copper bars HH, and JJ,. By substituting the rod F for the coil 1 be- 
tween LL, and M M,, the observer can obtain a fresh series of ratios with the 
same steps between 101 to 100 and 100-5 to 100. In this way it will be seen 
that unless the coils R and § differ by more than one per cent., their ratio 
can be measured in the manner described within 0-002 per cent. 

It should further be observed that extreme accuracy in the coils 1, 2, 4, 
&c. is not necessary, since an error of one per cent. in the sum of these, as 
compared with their true relative value to the coil C, would only affect the 
final result 0-01 per cent. 

The position of R and § in the balance relatively to A and C, &c. is of course 
interchangeable. 

The diagram is not intended at all to represent the practical arrangement, 
but simply to show the connexions. The electric balance described in Ap- 
pendix H of last year’s Report (Plate I. figs. 1 to 6, Report 1862) was used 
with a stout copper rod between the cups ¢ ¢,, and two additional boards with: 
the copper bars H H,,JJ,, LL,, and M M,, fitted as in the above diagram. The 


168 REPORT—1863. 


coils 1, 2, 4, &c. had amalgamated copper terminals which simply dropped 
into mercury-cups on the copper bars. The observations could be made very 
rapidly and accurately, as the galvanometer was sensitive enough with four 
Daniell’s cells to indicate the addition or subtraction of the 512 coil with per- 
fect distinctness. The reduction of the observations to find the ratio seems 
somewhat complicated at first, but with the aid of a table of reciprocals it 
takes but little time. No improvement seems necessary in this part of the 
apparatus. The idea of using large coils combined with small ones in mul- 
tiple are to obtain extremely minute differences of resistance, was suggested 
to the writer by Professor W. Thomson, and will be found useful in very 
many ways. 


Part I17.—Maruemarican THEORY oF THE EXPERIMENT. 


A circular coil of copper wire is made to revolve with uniform velocity 
about a vertical diameter. A small magnet is suspended by a silken fibre in 
the middle of the coil. Its position is observed when the coil is at rest, and 
when the coil revolves with velocity w the magnet is deflected through an 
angle g, Currents are induced in the coil by the action of the earth’s mag- 
netism, and these act on the magnet and deflect it from the magnetic meri- 
dian. By observing the deflection and the velocity of rotation, we can deter- 
mine the resistance of the coil in electromagnetic units. 

In determining the strength of the current we may neglect the motion of 
the suspended magnet, as it is found, both by theory and by experiment, to 
be insensible. We have therefore, in the first place, to determine the elec- 
tromagnetic potential of the coil with respect to the earth’s magnetism, with 
respect to the suspended magnet, and with respect to itself. 


1st. Let H be the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetism. 
y the strength of the current in the coil. 
G the total area enclosed by all the windings of the wire. 
@ the angle between the plane of the coil and the magnetic meri- 
dian. 
Then the potential of the coil with respect to the earth is 
—HyG sin 0. 
2nd. Let M be the magnetic moment of the suspended magnet. 
@ the angle between the axis of the magnet and the magnetic 
meridian. 
K the magnetic force at the centre of the coil due to unit current 
in the wire. 
Then the potential of the coil with respect to the magnet is 
—MyK sin (0—¢). 
3rd. Let 1L be the potential of the coil on itself for unit current. 
Then the potential due to a current y is 
ALy? 
ral 9 
Let P be the electromotive force, and R the resistance, then the work 
spent in keeping up the current is Py in unit of time; or, since P=Ry, the 
work spent in keeping up the current for a time 6¢ is 
Ry’ ot. 
If the current is at the same time increased from y to y+6y, the work 
spent in increasing the current will be 
Ly dy. 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 169 


If the angular motion of the coil be 30, the work spent in keeping up the 
rotation against the electromagnetic force is 
; HyG cos ad8+MyK cos (@—¢) dé. 
Since this work is exactly consumed in keeping up or increasing the current, 
we must have 
HyG cos 0d6+MyK cos (6 —9)d0=Ry’ dt+Lydy. 


Since 6=wt and a the solution of this equation is 


y= Pile => = {GH (R cos 6+ Lw sin 6)+ KM (R cos (0@—¢)+ Lw sin (6—¢)) } 
4 Ce-te > 
the last term becoming insensible soon after the beginning of the experiment. 
We can now find the equation of motion of the magnet. 
_ Let A be its moment of inertia, MH; the torsion of the fibre per unit of 
angular rotation, then 
es $ —<MKy cos (—6)—MH (sin $ +79). 
Substituting the value of y and separating terms in 0, we find 
@y 1 MKw 
A Wes SR 4 La? { GH cos (+ Lw sin 6) +kur —MH (sin ¢— 1) 
1 MKw 
2R?4 1a? 1 
4KM(R cos 2(0—9)-+ Iw sin 2 (0—»)) | 
Tn order that ¢ may continue as it does nearly constant, the part indepen- 
dent of @ must vanish, or 
oR { GH(R cos ¢ +Lw sin ¢) +kuR| _MH (sin ¢ + Tg) =0. 
This gives the following quadratic equation for R, 
1 


+ { GH(Rcos(20—$)+ Lwsin(20—9)) 


GK KM\ 1 GKI.? 
oa» aie a we 
: reer Ce a oo oe 7 


sin 
The solution of this equation may be expressed to a sufficient degree of accu- 
racy as follows :— 
GK 
- —1)t 
+See fae nt Ee ) ar “yt. 


To determine the quantities occurring in this equation, we must measure 
the dimensions of the coil, the strength of the magnet, and the force of ten- 
sion of the fibre. 


~ 1st. Dimensions of the coil. 


Let a=mean radius of the coil.... 6.1.0.6... 2.0. eee = 0:1566 metre. 
m=number of windings of wire ............6: =307 
1 =effective length of wire=2rna.............. =302-063 metres. 


b=breadth of section of coil perpendicular to the 
plaumiak the: coil: ical micte wailed oi os oi eat = °0185 metre. 


170 REPORT—18683. 


c=depth of section in the plane of the coil ...... = ‘0132 metre. 
b'=distance of mean plane of coil from axis of 
AO LOM Set: ins: dis shor aatard aed) ees CR — a 


a=angle subtended at axis by radius of coil=83° 1’, 
cos a= ='12245 ; 


2 
Then Garna(1 +75 5a) 
K=2" ee ii: 4 i fQ-15 sin® qos" 2) 


te A a cos” 4 —3 sin® ol, 


GK=7nl sin’ a { 1+i fy 2hS ©'sin?acos ta — =o sin? al. 
If the dimensions of the en are eit in metres, GK will be ex- 
pressed in metres. 
Let T be the time of 100 revolutions of the coil, expressed in seconds, then 


Tw =200n, 
or oe OOF 


Let D be the distance of the scale from the mirror, 6 the scale-reading mea- 
sured from the point of the scale which is nearest to the mirror, then 


tan 292 ; 
1 D 1 & 
‘Saag s tap}: 


To determine MHr, the coefficient of torsion, let the magnet be turned 
round so as to twist the fibre nearly 360°. Let the difference of reading due 
to the torsion be 4’, then 


the = il 
r= 4aD ‘i af 8 
4D 
To determine KM let the suspended magnet A be removed, and let another 


GH’ 
magnet, which we shall call B, be put in its place. Let the magnet A be now 
placed east or west of B, at a ‘distance equal to the mean distance of the coil, 


or Va?+b", Let the deflection of B when the north or south end of A is 
directed to it be », then 


M 
Gut fe 
The determination of the quantity L, the electromagnetic capacity of the 
coil, requires a more complex calculation which must be explained separately. 
In the actual experiment the deviation @ was always small, and therefore 


tan* # was very small, so that the term depending on L was never important. 
We may now write the value of R, 


Hi 2007? Dual sin’ a 


Ts { t 55 corrections}, 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 171 


In this expression the quantities Dnlaare determined before the experi- 
ment is made. The only quantities to be observed are T, the number of 
seconds in 100 revolutions, and 6, the deviation in millimetres of the scale. 


Part [V.—Derarzs oF THE EXPERIMENTS, 


In the experiments at King’s College, June 1863, 
m, the number of windings, was 307. 
1, the effective length of wire, 302-063 metres. 
sin’ a=1—-+021756. 
D, the distance from the mirror to the scale, 2-9853 metres. 


Determination of Velocity. 


A wheel of 100 teeth turned by an endless screw caused a bell to be struck 
every 100 revolutions of the coil. The times of the bells, as observed with 
a chronometer, serve to determine T. 


Determination of Deviation. 


5 is the difference between the reading of the scale when the magnet is 
acted on by the earth only, and when it is acted on also by the induced cur- 
rents in the coil. ‘To determine 6, the reading of the scale is made when the 
coil is at rest, or when the circuit is broken, Another reading is taken with 
the connexion complete and the coil in motion. If the earth’s magnetism 
remains the same, the difference of these readings is the true value of 3; but 
since the direction of the earth’s magnetic action is continually varying, we 
must find the difference of declination between the times of the two readings, 
and calculate what would have been the undisturbed reading of the scale at 
the time when the deviation was observed. 

In our experiments this correction was made by comparison with the pho- 
tographic registers of magnetic declination made at Kew at the same time 
that our experiments were going on. 


Corrections. 


The corrections being small may be taken separately. Each has to be 
multiplied by the factor already considered, 


pa 2002" Dalsin’ 447 444 B4+O04DFE+4+F+6+H + he}. 


Té 
A. Correction for the dimensions of the section of the coil. 
2 Pal A a, 
A=te4e ‘ = sin? a@cos? a—e* sin? @ 


B. Correction for level. Let the axis of rotation be inclined to the vertical 
at an angle measured towards the north, and let the angle of the dipping- 
needle with the horizontal be I, then there will be a correction, 


B= —tan I sin f. 


In the actual experiment the level was taken with a spirit-level reading to 
12", and found correct to at least that degree of accuracy. 

C. Correction for the induction of the suspended magnet on the coil. The 
strength of the magnet, as compared with that of the magnetic field, was mea- 


172 REPORT—1863. 


sured by means of a magnetometer from Kew by the ordinary method. The 
correction found was 

C=-+tan p 

='00780. 

The small magnet generates induction currents in the coil which react on 
the magnet, and tend to turn it in the direction in which the coil revolves. 
If there were no horizontal magnetic force due to the earth, the coil would 
drag the magnet round after it. In the actual case it makes the deviation 
greater than it should be by :0078. 

D. Correction for torsion of the fibre 


ey taal 


= —:00132. 


This correction depends on the relation between the stiffness of the fibre 
and the directive force of the suspended magnet. The fibre was a single 
fibre of silk 7 feet long; the magnet was a steel sphere ,5, inch diameter, 
and not magnetized to saturation. The correction for torsion was therefore 
much larger than if a stronger magnet had been used. 

KE. Correction for position of suspended magnet. 

Let the centre of the magnet be at a distance £ above or below the centre 
of the coil, » north or south of the axis of motion, and & east or west of the 
axis, then there will be a correction, 

3 ra)sinta {43 ®) 
7. (1—4 cot? a) sin! a {45-435 
Here a=156-6 millimetres, and the place of the magnet was so adjusted that 
it could not vary one millimetre in any direction without the error being 
observed. Hence this correction is negligible. 

F. Correction for irregularity in the magnetic field due to iron or magnets 
near the instrument. 

Let ¢ be the time of oscillation of a magnet at the centre of the coil ¢,, and 
t, at distances z above and below that point, then 


eat eceaM 
Sil) So raee ene 


E=-+ 


F=+4 


This correction may also be neglected. 
G. Correction of scale-reading. The quantity observed is tan 2g, the quan- 
tity to be found is tang. The correction to the value of R is 
ies 
ar D 
H. Correction for electromagnetic capacity of the coil. 
Let L be the value of the electromagnetic capacity, the correction is 
_182L(2L_, 
4D°GK\GK J 
In the actual coil L was found by calculation =397750 metres, and by a 


rough experiment=398500 metres, 
Now GK=560245 metres. 


The correction is therefore—F = (0°596234)=H. 


This correction is of the same form with G, and may be taken along with it. 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 173 


The complete expression for R is therefore 


Bi pe 
R=a5 5381455817307 3055°5. 


The nature of the electrical action in the experiment may be stated as 
follows :— 

Suppose the plane of the coil to coincide with magnetic north and south, 
and that the coil is revolving in the direction of the hands of a watch. Then 
the north side of the coil is moving from west to east, and therefore expe- 
riences an electromotive force tending to produce an upward current. The 
south side of the coil is moving from east to west, and therefore there is a 
tendency to produce a downward current in it. If the circuit is closed there 
will be a current upwards on the north side, and downwards on the south side 
round the coil. 

Now this current will tend to turn the north end of the suspended magnet 
towards the east. But the earth’s magnetic force tends to turn it towards 
the north, so that the actual position assumed by the magnet must depend on 
the relation between the strength of the current and the strength of the 
earth’s magnetism. But the strength of the current depends only on the 
velocity of rotation, the resistance of the coil, and the strength of the earth’s 
magnetism. Hence the position of the magnet will not depend on the strength 
of the earth’s magnetism, but only on the velocity and the resistance of the 
coil. 

We must remember that the coil in its revolution comes into other posi- 
tions than that which we have mentioned. As the north side moves towards 
the east, the current continually diminishes till it ceases when it is due east. 
The current then commences in the opposite direction with respect to the 
coil ; but since the coil itself is now in a reversed position, the effect of the 
current on the suspended magnet is still to turn the north end to the east. - 
The action of the current on the magnet is therefore of an intermittent 
nature, and the position of the magnet is not fixed, but continually oscillating. 
The extent of these oscillations, however, is exceedingly small. In fact, if T 
be the time of vibration of the magnet from rest to rest under the action of 
the earth, and if ¢ be one quarter of the time of revolution of the coil, and if 


8 be the deviation as read on the scale, then the same amplitude of these 
oscillations will be 


?? 
C= é. 
In the actual experiment poabout ae and 6 less than 400 millimetres, 


so that the whole extent of vibration would be less than ;1, of a millimetre 
on the scale. This vibration was never observed and did not interfere with 
the distinctness of vision. 

The only oscillations observed were the free oscillations of the magnet. 
They arose from accidental causes at the beginning of the experiment, and 
were subject to slight alterations in magnitude due to changes of speed of 
rotation, the passage of iron steamers in the Thames, &c. The time of one 
vibration was about 9-6 seconds, and by reading the scale at the extremities 
of every vibration a series of readings was obtained, the intervals between 
which were approximately equal. 

Now since the deviation is proportional to the velocity 


174 REPORT—1863. 


and if we take values of 6 at small intervals dt and sum them, we shall get 
fidt=C fv dt=Ca, 


where w is the whole distance travelled in the time. 

Hence all we have to do is to observe the deviation at every oscillation, 
and to ascertain the whole number of revolutions during the time of observa- 
tion, and the exact beginning and ending of that time. This was done in the 
following way. 

The coil was made to revolve by means of the driving machine, and its 
velocity was regulated by the governor. While the required velocity was 
being attained, the oscillations of the magnet were reduced within convenient 
limits by means of a quieting bar at a distance. The quieting bar was then 
put in its proper place and the observation commenced. 

One observer, A, took the readings of the scale as seen in the telescope, 
writing down the deviation at the extremity of every oscillation, and thus 
obtaining a reading every 9°6 seconds. 

Another observer, B, with a chronometer, wrote down the times of every 
third stroke of the bell. The times thus found were at intervals of 300 
revolutions. When the observer B noted the time, the observer A made a 
mark on his paper, so that after the experiment the readings of deviation 
could be compared with the readings of the chronometer taken at the same 
time. 

The mean time of revolution between any two times of observation could 
thus be found and compared with the mean deviation between the same 
limits of time, and any portion of an experiment accidentally vitiated could 
be rejected by itself. 

The experiments of each day commenced with a comparison by means of 
an electric balance* between the resistance of the experimental coil and that 
of a German-silver coil (called «June 4”). 

Then a series of readings of the scale was taken to determine the undis- 
turbed position of the magnet. The times of beginning and ending this 
series were noted, and called Times of 1st Zero. 

Then the coil was made to revolve, and readings of deviation and of time 
were taken as already described, and called Ist Spin+. 

Then the direction of rotation was reversed and a second set of readings 
obtained, and called*2nd Spin—. 

Then the undisturbed position was again observed with a note of the time. 
This was called 2nd Zero. 

Lastly, the resistance was compared again with the standard coil. This 
series of experiments was then repeated if there was time. 

From the values of Ist zero and 2nd zero, together with the information 
obtained from the photographic registers at Kew, the true value of the un- 
disturbed reading during the 1st spin and 2nd spin was obtained. The dif- 
ference between this and the actual reading is the deviation 6 due to the elec- 
tric currents. T was got by the chronometer readings. Now let r be the 
resistance of the standard coil at standard temperature, R the resistance of 
the experimental coil during the experiment, then by the comparison of re- 
sistances we find ~ 

R=av, 


where w is the ratio observed by means of the electric balance. But we also 


* Vide Report, 1862, p. 159, and present Appendix, p. 166. 


ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 175 


know that R= 2 + correction, where N is a known number given at p. 146. 


Hence r, the resistance of the standard coil, may be found in absolute measure 
by the formula 
pan +a small correction ; 
xT 
the value of wT should therefore be nearly constant. 

Thus, on June 23rd, 1863, the experiments were made as follows :— 

At 12" 15™ the resistance of the copper experimental coil was compared 
with that of standard coil “ June 4” taken at 101, and found to be 101:26. 

From 12" 36™ to 12" 45™ the undisturbed position of the suspended mag- 
net was observed, and found to be 590-28 scale-divisions as the mean of all 
the readings. 

The position of the declinometer at Kew at the same time was 7-689 of its 
own scale-divisions. 

From 12" 47" 51*5 to 1" 3" 138 the position of the magnet was again 
observed while the coil was revolving; 104 readings of the scale were taken, 
of which the mean was 930:59. This, when corrected for scale-error, gives 
931-48 as the true reading. The position of the declinometer at Kew during 
the same time was 7-679. The resistance, measured after the experiment, 
was 101-28, 

The number of revolutions was 6300 during the time of observation, so 

that the time of 100 revolutions was 14°464. 
_ By comparing the Kew apparatus with that at King’s College, it appears 
that 1-0 of the Kew scale=19-137 of the King’s College scale. The undis- 
turbed readings at King’s College were found actually to vary very nearly in 
this proportion to those at Kew. 

Hence it is easy to find the undisturbed reading during any given experi- 
ment by comparison with the Kew numbers. 

Thus, for the first experiment on 23rd June we get 


Corrected undisturbed reading .......... 591:54 
emenvcd gondii 2) eae aie tne 931-48 
DBM CCEOD Ottis itm Layee ois ee =-+ 339:94 
Time of 100 revolutions=T ...........4. = 14-464 
STE Ss reign gD tie 2 op ape pete = 4916-90 
Resistance at time of experiment # ...... =e LOL aS 
MOS PA SRO ty, Bey Ott wom = 4979-75 


Three other experiments were made on June 23rd. The result of the four 
experiments was as follows :— 
Ist experiment. Positive Rotation,... T.d.v=4979-75 


2nd he MICRSIVE Sean eck. : T.d.u +... =5071°18 
3rd a IP OSTEO ass ass, os 0% 2 T.6.v=5093°35 
4th ” a T.d.a .... =5007°66 
Mean Positive result .........0ccceceeee 5036-55 ~* 
Mean Negative result..............005005 1+. $=5089-42 
Mean result of June 23rd.......... 5037-98 
Mean result of June 19th.......... 5075:°77 
Mean result of June 16th.......... 5046:18 


ediean; of three days, asigs.scne oejs x0 5053-32 


176 REPORT—1863. 


It will be observed that the mean results of each day are more concordant 
than the individual experiments made on the same day. The errors, there- 
fore, which we have hitherto been unable to get rid of are not of a kind 
which would have the effect of making the result depend on the arrange- 
ments adopted on the day of experiment, but are rather such as would de- 
stroy one another in any long series of experiments. 

Dividing N by the number just found, we get for the resistance called 100 
provisionally, 106493470 + 61100= 10655470, 
the second term being the correction for self-induction and for scale-reading. 

Since the coil of German silver, marked June 4th, was called provisionally 
101, we find as the result of the experiments for the resistance of “ June 4” 
in absolute measure 

107620116 metres per second. 

Knowing the absolute resistance of “June 4,” we may construct coils of 

given resistance by known methods. 


Abstract of Report by the Indian Government on the Foods used by 
the Free and Jail Populations of India. By Evwarp Smita, M.D., 
LL.B., F.R.S., Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, Assistant 
Physician to the Hospital for Consumption at Brompton, &c. 


Tur Meeting of the British Association held at Manchester in 1861 re- 
quested Dr. John Davy and myself to represent to the Secretary of State for 
India the advantage which would accrue to science if a Report were obtained 
on the dietary of jails throughout India, on the plan pursued by Dr. Mouat in 
his Report on the jails in Lower Bengal. The Secretary of State was pleased to 
accede to this request, and during the early part of the year 1863 copies of | 
the Report so obtained were courteously sent to me, and probably to others 
interested in the matter; and as so valuable a collection of facts could not be 
duly appreciated by the members of the British Association in the volumi- 
nous form in which they were presented, I thought it might add to the service 
which the Report will render if I prepared an abstract of it which should 
contain the most important facts. My proposition to do this was accepted by 
the Meeting of the British Association held at Newcastle in 1863, and it was 
directed that the abstract should be printed amongst the Reports * . 

The Report contains information from more than one hundred military and 
civil surgeons, and comprehends the districts of Bengal, the North-western 
Provinces, the Punjab, Oude, and British Birmah. Some of these reports are 
of considerable length, and offer much information on the natural history, 


* Whilst preparing this abstract, I have been much impressed with the desirability, I 
may almost say the necessity, of a calculation being made of the nutritive elements con- 
tained in the following extensive series of dietaries, since, without this, the reports are of 
comparatively little value, and may be likened to a bill of parcels with the prices omitted ; 
but as the calculations would have occupied fully a month, I felt that it would not be just 
to myself to undertake them, in addition to the great labour necessarily involved in 
abstracting upwards of 100 reports ; and, moreover, so important a public service should 
be performed under the direction of some department of the Government. It is a curious 
coincidence that the medical department of the Privy Council has, during the present 
year, desired me to make a similar inquiry in reference to the British Islands; and these 
are the only serious attempts which have been made in any country to determine the nature 
and nutritive value of the national dietary. The absence of the calculations just referred 
to renders the Indian returns valueless for comparison with the British inquiries. 


ON FOODS OF FREE AND JAIL POPULATIONS OF INDIA. 177 


preparation, and use of foods, with descriptions of the several classes and 
castes of the people and their habits with regard to dietary. Many give explicit 
answers to one of the questions which seem to have been proposed to the 
writers, viz. the daily diet of an adult labourer; but many, unfortunately, omit 
this return altogether ; whilst others mention the quantity of the several foods 
which would be eaten daily, when used, but do not select, out of the number re- 
ferred to, those articles which together constitute the daily dietary. Hence, 
whilst much physiological, botanical, ethnological, and social information has 
been given by the reporters when thus left to their own discretion, it is certain 
that an exact form of report upon this essential question of the daily dietary 
would have added greatly to the value of the inquiry. In abstracting the 
returns, I have almost limited myself to the two questions upon which infor- 
mation was especially desired—the food and daily dietaries of the free and 
imprisoned populations; but have added information respecting the inhabitants, 
and their selection and preparation of food, with the effect of this food on their 
health and strength. When the remarks were important, I have usually stated 
them almost in the words of the reporters. As there are great numbers of 
both vegetable and animal foods the names of which are unknown here, I have * 
seldom transcribed them ; and in reference to weight, I have given them in 
English ounces and pounds, reckoning 1 seer=2lbs., and 1 chittak=2 ozs., 
except in two or three localities where the weight was stated to differ from 
that standard. 

The reports in reference to jail dietaries have been obtained at an unfor- 
tunate period, since a new scheme of jail dietary was promulgated by Dr. 
Mouat in 1862, and time had not been given to ascertain its effect. Several 
schemes have been devised and ordered to be adopted within the last twelve 
years: viz., the old scale, 1857; the Medical Board scale; Mr, Lock’s scale, 
1854; Dr. Mouat’s scale, 1858 ; another seale, 1860; and Dr. Mouat’s new 
seale,in 1862. When the new scale had been adopted at any jail, I have not 
considered it necessary to quote the older ones, or to refer to their effect upon 
the prisoners. The tables which are issned with the different reports have a 
formidable appearance to the reader ; but, on careful scrutiny, I find that they 
may be referred to about twenty-five types, and I have arranged them in an 
Appendix, and referred to them by number at the end of each report. 


Beneat.—Dacoa Crrcrs, 


1. Dr. H. M. Davrss, of Noakhally, states that rice is the principal food 
in use, and that it is eaten with dal (leguminous seeds), chillies, garlic, onions, 
and other vegetables, as cucumbers, melons, plantains, beans, and pulse, with 
fish and milk and flesh occasionally. All are usually boiled together and 
made into curry. The food is of low nutritive quality, and the inhabitants 
are not robust. He gives the dietary at Noakhally Jail. (Diet No. 1 in the 
_ Appendix.) 

- 2. Dr. R. C. Cuanpra, of the district of Tipperah, states that rice is the 
staff of life, and is eaten twice or thrice a day, in a total quantity of 1 to 1} 
Seer=32 ozs. to 40.028. The two ordinary meals are taken at 10 or 11 a.m. 
and after sunset, whilst the third, when eaten, is taken early in the morning, 
before going to work. Vegetables are made into curry and eaten once a day. 
Fish, fresh or salted, is eaten twice or thrice a week. Dal is rarely eaten 
—only five to seven times a month. Meat (fowl, beef, and goat) is rarely 
eaten by Hindoos, and only eight or ten times a month by Mahomedans. 
The condiments are mustard-oil, salt, ginger, turmeric, and chilli; and among 


a anda onions and garlic, vegetable acids, and mangoes. Indian 
LOVDU, N 


178 REPORT—1863. 


plum and tamarinds are eaten eight or ten times a month. There is but 
little nitrogen in the food, but it is sufficient. The spare use of dal and 
vegetable acid is significant. He gives the dietary at the jail, divided into 
that of the labouring and non-labouring classes, and remarks that it is suffi- 
cient in quantity, but deficient in quality. Dal is given too often, as it is 
difficult of digestion and causes bowel-complaint. There is a deficiency of 
vegetable acid. (Diet No. 13.) 

3. Dr. R. Bunsury, of Mymensing, states that at the early morning, mid- 
day, and evening meals from 2 lbs. to 3 Ibs. of rice is eaten, with dal 4 ozs. to 
8 ozs., fish from 2 ozs. to 1 Ib., vegetables (foliaceous or succulent) 4 ozs. to 
8 ozs., oil or ghee, with various condiments. The very poor eat 3 Ibs., and 
others 4 Ibs. to 8 lbs., of solid food daily. Dal produces bowel diseases, and fish 
cutaneous or bowel diseases, particularly on the eastern side of the district, 
where 1 lb. of fish is eaten daily. He gives the jail dietary, both old and 
new, and states that less than the ordinary quantity, but more than the 
ordinary quality, of food is needful in confinement. Prisoners, when young 
and robust, lose weight after a few months’ incarceration; and the quality 
(animal food) does not restore the loss. (Diet No. 1.) 

4. Dr. A. Snreson, of Dacca, states that 14 lb. to 2 Ibs. of rice (8 kinds) is 
required at each of the meals. It is simply boiled, when it is called bhdt, or 
is prepared into choora, mooree, khoi, or moorkee ; but bhdt is the only whole- 
some form as a daily food. Rice should be kept three years before it is used, as, 
when new, it is not easily digestible, and causes dyspepsia and diarrhoea. Dal 
(7 kinds) 8 ozs., or 1 poa, are eaten daily. It is boiled with turmeric until it 
is quite soft, when condiments are added, and it is eaten with rice or bread. 
Dals are very nutritious, but differ in digestibility. They grow and are used 
universally in the district, and the cost varies from 1 anna to 2 pice per 
21bs. Barley is rarely used, except on the last day in the year, when it is 
parched and finely powdered, and 8 to 24 ozs. eaten: it is digestible and nutri- 
tious, and is sold in the husk at from 12 annas to 1 rupee per maud. Wheat 
is eaten chiefly by natives of the Upper Provinces, and is imported from 
Malda and Patna. Fine flour, costing 2 annas per 2Ibs., is made into 
sweetmeats and fermented or unfermented bread. The only baked bread of 
the Hindoos is prepared at home, and is the chapattee; it is made into 
small biscuits, and eaten, when hot, with ghee or clarified butter. The rich 
Hindoos eat another preparation, malpooah. In the towns both Hindoos 
and Mahomedans eat two principal meals, consisting of rice, fish, and curries, 
the Mahomedans eating meat also, whilst bread and mithias (sweetmeats) 
are eaten between meals. He mentions twenty-one kinds of vegetables, 
besides leaves, stalks, and fruits (including potatoes, cabbage, cauliflower, 
lettuce, turnips, carrots, beetroot, celery, radishes, French beans, cresses, &c.), 
of which about 8 ozs. are eaten at ameal. They are generally digestible and 
nutritious; they grow in the district, and cost 1 pice to 1 annaper 21lbs. He 
gives the mode of cooking. Forty-five kinds of fish, with cow’s, buffalo’s, 
and goat’s milk, and various kinds of meat, eggs, and game, are quoted; and 
of these about 8 ozs. are taken at the two meals. Fish is fried in oil, with 
condiments, and added to the prepared vegetables. Milk is eaten simply 
boiled, or boiled until it becomes a semi-solid mass; or is curdled by heat 
or acid, and eaten with the curd separated or otherwise. Butter is gene- 
rally made from the douhee (milk curdled with acid), and sometimes from milk ; 
it is rarely eaten by the natives, who prefer ghee or clarified butter, and fry 
their food in it. Shor or malai is milk kept at a low heat for six hours, 
until the cream rises (as in making the clotted cream in Devon), Hindoos 


ON FOODS OF FREE AND JAIL POPULATIONS OF INDIA. 179 


may eat only the flesh of the he-goat offered to some god or goddess. They 
eat pigeons and ducks occasionally, and turtle during the two first months 
of the cold season. They also eat ducks’ and turtles’ eggs, but not fowls’ 
eggs. The Mahomedans eat all kinds of meat, except that of swine and 
turtle. Fish is cheap; milk is dear (14 anna per 2lbs.), Meat costs from 
13 to 3 annas per 2 Ibs. Fruits are largely eaten at each meal; they are 
cheap, and for the most part nutritious and digestible ; twenty-nine kinds are 
named, The dietary in the jail varies with duration of imprisonment (one, 
two, or three months) and labour. (Diets Nos. 5, 6, and 7.) 

5. Dr. E. J. Gaver, of Burrisaul, states that the industrial classes eat two 
meals daily, costing 6 pice each, and each consists of rice 1lb., fish 6 ozs., 
dal 4 ozs., and vegetables 6 ozs. The food is prepared only from the best rice 
(the cheaper kinds being eaten by those who can only afford 4 to 5 pice a 
day), and is made into curry. The foods are all wholesome. The jail dietary 
is very poor—only about half of the dietary in freedom. It is monotonous 
and injurious to health. The weight of the prisoners in 183 cases lessened, 
and on the whole 273 the average loss was 9ozs. The rice is boiled sepa- 
rately, and the fish, dal, &c, made into curry, as in freedom, The kind of 
food varies somewhat with each month. There is no variation in food with 
duration of imprisonment, and on Sunday it is in all cases that of the non- 
labouring class. ; 

6. Dr. J. H. Tuornton, jail at Cherra Poonjee, states that the better class 
live upon rice and fish, the latter fresh (yet decomposed) in the cold season 
and dried in the sun in the rainy season. They also eat boiled vegetables, 
opium, bhang, &c., drink strong spirits, and smoke tobacco. Afterwards they 
eat meat. The poorer Hill-class find rice too expensive, and live upon potatoes 
and other vegetables. In the interior they eat millet, maize, &c. Where 
very poor, they live chiefly upon roots. The diet and habits are most injurious 
to health. The mortality is very great, and fevers, bowel-complaints, rheu- 
matism, &c., prevail. The jail dietary is varied only with the labour. 
(Diet No. 3.) ; 

7. Dr. J. G. Frencu, of Assam, gives an account of the various kinds of 
rice, and of its harvesting and cooking. The poorer class eat from 13 to 2 lbs. 
daily, but the wealthier persons eat only from 10 to 16 ozs., and obtain other 
foods not procurable by the poor. Dal is eaten by the higher classes to the 
extent of 2 to 3o0zs. daily, whilst the poor do not obtain it, or get only the 
coarser kinds. Some kinds are unwholesome, and produce bowel-complaints. 
Fish is very plentiful, except in the heavy rains ; and the small ones, ina state 
of decomposition, are eaten by the poor. The daily quantity is about 4 ozs. 
for the poor and 6 ozs. for the higher classes. Milk is not much used, except 


_by the better classes. Mustard-oil is eaten to the extent of 4 oz. by the poor, 


and loz. by the rich, or the latter obtain ghee. Meat is not eaten by 
Hindoos. Salt to the extent of 3 to 1 oz. is eaten daily, orin its absence the 
ashes of the plantain. Vegetables and fruits are used largely, and a long list 
of them is given, under the heads of, first, leaves and stems ; second, roots and 
fruits ; and third, acid or seasoning articles ; and about 8 ozs. of them a day is 
eaten. 

- Mussulmen eat the same food as the Hindoos, and in addition eat the flesh 
of goats, kids, cows, buffaloes, &c.; but there are not many Mussulmen 
there. Hill-men take food similar to that of the Mussulmen ; and in addition 
eat pigs’, pups’, and leopards’ flesh. They also drink much moad, an intoxi- 
eating drink obtained from rice. The following is the scheme of quantity, 
and cost of food, 


w2 


180 ad ; REPORT—1863. 


Poorest Class—Hindoo Labourers. Better Class. 


Quantity. | Cost. | Quantity. | Cost. 


ch. "Kk. ~|-a. p. ch. k. p. 
ies OU Pee, See 12 0 1i {10 0 1} 
Weretablos™ | 3% SoRawie se 4 0 4 3.0 2 
Fishy... (Gt fits be ae ee oe 2 0 4 2 0 2 
DON) PAE IR ORT RAS 2 el 1 1 2 4 
Mustard-oil (not oftenused)| 0 1 ra Org Zz 
Balt Eee Pred TUL f p. Cat + 0 2 Zz 
Massalahs....,,......., we ft a | Zz 
GHEGHE | ESS 4 Se ae 0 3 Zz 

19 SO @ 17 23| 33 

or 39 ozs. or 353 02s. 


The Assamese are stronger than other Hindoos; but the Hill-men and 
Mussulmen eating flesh are superiorin muscular development, activity,strength, 
and courage. Opium-eating prevails, and renders the victims susceptible to 
attacks of epidemics and malaria. Rice and curries compose the meals. He 
thinks the new jail dietary sufficient, viz. 28 ozs. for non-labouring, and 24 ozs. 
for labouring prisoners; and approves the plan of putting all prisoners on the 
first to begin with, until accustomed to the regular dietary of the jail and in 
full work. He gives the present scale of diet, which varies with the race 
and labour. (Diets Nos. 1 and 3.) 

8. Dr. W. B. Brarson, of Chittagong, states that rice to the extent of about 
27 ozs. is the daily food. New rice is generally eaten, and is cheaper than 
old, but not so nutritious. It is said to be productive of rheumatism, per- 
haps from the formation of excess of lactic acid. The rice-water is not 
always thrown away. Labourers take an early breakfast of the rice left from 
yesterday, and two other meals of rice and vegetables. Chillies are eaten so 
largely as 3 Ibs. per month. Oil or ghee and dals are too expensive, and 
therefore but little eaten. The skins of seeds are rejected as indigestible, and 
some of the dals are unwholesome. Vegetables are eaten abundantly, and 
cooked with condiments, fish, and shrimps. A loathsome compound for 
human food is made from the refuse of fish dried in the sun, and mixed with 
the excrements of the crows feeding upon it. The Mussulmen eat animal 
food in considerable quantity when they can afford it. A boat’s crew of 
twelve men ate the fore quarter of a large hog-deer, with oil and rice, at 
one meal; and would eat at a meal 10 Ibs. of pumpkin, 18 lbs. of rice, 8 ozs, 
of shrimps, 2 ozs. of chillies, 4 ozs. of salt, with sometimes 2 Ibs. of dal 
cooked with salt and chillies. Milk is highly appreciated, and particularly 
by the Hindoos. The Feringhees eat more largely of poultry, pork, and 
other animal foods. The Mughs are almost carnivorous, eating snakes, 
lizards, &e. Spirits and intoxicating drugs are largely taken. The Mughs 
in the hilly districts are the finest race of men, and then the Hindoos of the 
fishermen caste. The Feringhees are a weak and degenerate class, and as a 
race the Mussulman and Hindoo natives are anything but robust. Hygienic 


conditions are very defective, and miasma is rife. The new jail system of — 
dietary had been too recently introduced to enable him to show the effect of : 


| 
| 


-—- ee a I IT I 


ON FOODS OF FREE .AND JAIL POPULATIONS OF INDIA. ~- 181 


it, but he thinks it will improve the condition of the prisoners. The former 
seale was also sufficient. 

9. Dr. B. Bosr, of Furreedpore, enters largely into the general value and 
influence of vegetable and animal aliments. Among the amylaceous ali- 
ments he includes rice, wheat, barley, sweet and common potatoes, yams, 
maize, ole, and green plantains. Rice is the national Bengalee food, and the 
others are only supplements. The daily quantity is 26 ozs. among the 
labourers, and 20 to 22 ozs. among the higher classes. © Various modes of 
cooking it are given. Fish, flesh, dals, vegetables, and condiments are eaten 
as largely as the means will allow; but they never supplant rice. Legu- 
minous seeds are treated as under the head of amylo-albuniinous aliments, and 
Dr. F. Watson’s analyses are quoted. The daily consumption is 3 ozs. Of 
oleaginous aliments, mustard-oil is particularly referred to, and its external 
use in rendering the skin soft, in protecting it from heat, in restraining evapo- 
ration*, and in various other ways, is pointed out. The cocoa-nut, both in its 
fluid and kernel, is treated of. About 1 oz. of oil is eaten daily. Sugars are 
eaten to the extent of about 2 ozs. a day, and are made into sweetmeats or 
festive aliments. The sweet fruits and other sources of sugar are largely con- 
sidered. Mucilaginous substances are eaten to the extent of 4 ozs. daily ; 
also acidulous and bitter foods and condiments in an unascertained quantity. 
Fish is a most important part of the diet, and is almost the only source of 
animal aliment. Milk is used not uncommonly. Butter is used only on 
special oceasions. Ghee is simply butter melted by heat, and will keep good 
for many months; it is less digestible than butter. Skimmed milk and 
buttermilk are eaten, and he describes various preparations of milk. Flesh, 
being dear, is seldom used by the working classes, whether Hindoos or Maho- 
medans : the latter consume fowls, beef, and mutton. Eggs are rarely eaten, 
but are sold. Hindoos eat he-goats, kids, turtles, pigeons, and ducks, and 
their eggs; but the kids must be sacrificed to their gods. Palaows, kaleeas, 
kormas, koptas, and katee-kababs are the most common dishes, and their pre- 
paration is described. The daily consumption of animal food, including fish, 
milk, and flesh, is 7 ozs. The jail dietary is varied with labour and duration 
of imprisonment, and is described. (Diets Nos. 5, 6, 7, and 8.) 

10. R. Brown, Esq., of Sylhet,states that flesh is eaten verysparingly. Fowls 


are eaten occasionally. Fish is plentiful, and is a most important and staple 


animal food. The kinds of fish and the modes of cooking are described. Rice, 
from its cheapness, constitutes a large part of the dietary, and next in im- 
portance is dal. He names the vegetables and fruitsin use. Milk, ghee, &e. 
are very little used except by the ryots, who keep cows, and they use them 
in considerable quantities. A quarter-ounce of ghee is used toa half-pound of 
dal. Sweetmeats are eaten very sparingly by the poor. Spices and onions 
are used largely. Opium-eating prevails among Mussulmen and Hindoos, 
and drinking of spirits by those living in the hills. There are usually three 


meals daily, the chief of which is that at midday. The following are the 


quantities (see Table, p. 182). 
In some places fish is almost the only article of diet. The jail dietary 


_ Varies with race and labour, and is given. (Diets Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4.) 


BARRACKPORE. 


11. Dr. R. Fryer, Bancoorah, divides the inhabitants into two classes, of 


* As shown in my work, ‘ Health and Disease as influenced by the cyclical Changes in the 
Human System.’ “London, 1860. é 


| i: REPORT—1863. 


Morning. | Midday. Evening. 
OZ. OZ. OZ. 
LATER Me eee ei eae ea aes 8 14 12 
Wish or urry ..........- 4. . Ph 
SSE Partha sneer «eaitte i 3 
al ys wy b-0 ie ho eee, Sota 2 
RUSHTON Gal) ete va, ss aot ee oe Ae 
IBMT. se seaemiiere ocieetete eters fs 4 
WOE WLS tie ike unio ee tals at 2 
Ot begets Sener set ore. c eas 3 
TCG ea accrsi eis ists oeiatens 6.5) ¢ 4 
MASS ANS tc the fececiste ste = 1 
IUGKECENIIK: «ss saale eis <3 4 
Wiki eo ee Sere 
PRICE rsvelireiepeis 8.8 618 wheres 
121 275 92 


= 3lbs.13j 02. 


whom the Chasa, Salee, Khoibut, Sorak, Sooree, and Agoree castes are in 
tolerably good circumstances. They eat thrice a day. The morning meal 
consists of somewhat less than 2 ozs. of rice, which they eat parched. The 
midday meal consists of rice 1 lb., vegetables 2 ozs., dal 1 oz., salt  tolah, 
and oil 1 tolah. The evening meal is composed of rice 8 ozs., vegetables 
1 oz., dal 1 oz., salt 4 tolah, and oil 1 tolah. A quarter of a pice worth of 
massalah is eaten with the midday and evening meal. The second class, 
consisting of the Khoira, Lohar, Bagdee, Majee, Baoree, Santhal, Koorme, - 
Bhoomig, Bhooea, Mall, and Khariah castes, are in inferior circumstances, 

‘and live chiefly upon animal food. They rarely eat much rice, and only 

during six or seven months of the year. During the remainder of the year 

they live upon jungle-leaves, fruits, and seeds, with almost all kinds of 

jungle animals and fowls. The jail dietary varies with labour, the Sunday’s 

food containing 2 ozs. of rice and 2 ozs. vegetables less than that of the other 

days, and the non-labouring classes have the Sunday’s food daily. The food 

of the labouring prisoners on six days of the week contains 33 ozs. more food 

than that of the free population, and upon it the prisoners keep up their 

health and weight. (Diet No. 9, nearly the same as No. 4.) 

12. Bazoo K, C. Cuarrerszz, Baraset, states that the ordinary food of the 
labouring population consists of rice (both varieties, aoos and amun), fish, 
vegetables, dal, oil, salt, condiments, and occasionally acidulous fruits, milk, 
curd, whey, and flesh. The vegetables are of the indigenous and cheap 

‘ kinds; the fish fresh, dry, and salted. Dals are eaten once or twice a week. 
The Hindoos eat only the he-goat among animal foods, and then only on 
festive occasions; whilst the Mahomedans eat goat, sheep, fowl, d&c., and 
eggs; but, though not prohibited by their religion, they seldom eat beef. ° 
The Kaorahs and Domes eat pigs, and the Moochees the flesh of buffaloes and 
dead cows. Mustard-oil, turmeric, sea-salt, chillies, black pepper, and mus- 
tard-paste are eaten by all classes, but onions and garlic by the Mahomedans 
and lower orders of Hindoos only. The farmers occasionally eat milk, curd 
and whey, and molasses is largely eaten by both Hindoos and Mahomedans. 
The jail dietary differs from the free dietary only in the absence of milk; 


ON FOODS OF FREE AND JAIL POPULATIONS OF INDIA, 183 


and the following Table shows the weekly quantity and kind of food, varying 
with duration of imprisonment, and compared with the free dietary. 


Free Labourers. Prisoners. 
Mahome-| Above | From | From ithin 
Hindoos.|" qans, |3months| 7” 3 1 to2 Balas 
months, | months. 

s. ch. a eh. | 8 GD. lanSae Civile Sp Ch please Gu. 
Lule tre eee 6 8 Forel, hod, ‘aba il eb Tt 3 14 
Linloee eee 0 4 (Yow: (Oped 5: Ors 0 8 0 5 
Vegetables .... | 2 0 2 ihe! 0 8 0 4 ( 
Lich 3a 0, 2 0. 2 0 6 rr 0 0 0 0 
HGR ec «sie, 0.0, 0 0 0 3 0 6 O06 0 0 0 0 

MEMS os, coe > « 0 38 OT us 0 23) O 18; 0 18] 0 13 
uo“ aes 0 2 0 2 ell a 0 2 0 2 
Massalahs...... tee et |, Meee Cee) OO Lg 
Onionsand garlic | 0 1/0 4/0 24}0 2/|0 3) 0 @ 
MI Te isip-s «os 0 8 0) 0 0 0 Cy gal, 0 O 0 O 
es QO-"2 | (4 ae 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 


The rice used is the coarse kind only. The varieties of dal are limited, Goat’s 
flesh is given when fish is scarce. Two meals daily are given, at 11 a.m, and 
after 5 p.m. Mahomedans are stronger and healthier than Hindoos because 
of intermixture of races and more nutritious food. The locality is low and 
marshy, and induces endemic diseases. The prisoners suffer from bowel-com- 
plaints, mental despondency, &c, ; and, from confinement, the digestive powers 
cease in a few months to take or digest the allowed quantity of food. 

13. Dr. A. J. Suerman, of Beerbhoom, gives a detailed account of the foods, 
and their preparation, in use there; and, after stating that it is difficult to 
get reliable information, shows that at the two meals daily the following 
food is eaten :—rice 24 ozs., dal 3 ozs., parched rice (moorhee) 4 ozs., vege- 
tables 6 ozs., oil 1 oz., massalah 1 oz., salt 1 oz. = 40 ozs. daily. Sometimes 
3 or 4 ozs. of fish is substituted for the dal and vegetables ; and when more 
food is required, the dearer kinds are omitted, and the cheaper increased, 
The poor food renders them liable to endemic, sporadic, and epidemic diseases, 
The jail dietary varies with the labour, and on Sundays it is that of the non- 
labouring classes, He deprecates the cooping-up of the prisoners by high 
double and triple walls, and the deficient supply of fresh air. (Diet No.1.) . 

14, Dr. A. A. Manrett, of Balasore, describes in detail the several foods 
in use, as well as their modes of preparation, and includes spirits and intoxi- 
cating drugs. The inhabitants not addicted to the latter enjoy good health ; 
but the smallness of the quantity of protein-compounds prevents a high state 
of vigour among the Hindoos. The sedentary become fat. Fever and bowel- 
complaints prevail. The long intervals between meals predispose to endemic 
disease. The jail dietary varies with labour and duration of imprisonment, 
and is sufficient for health. The mortality has doubled since 1859, and is due. 
to the confinement of the prisoners within the walls instead of being employed 
on the roads. (Diets Nos. 5, 6, 7, and 8.) \ 

15. Dr. H. J. Wrir1ams, Burdwan, after describing the foods under the. 
heads of rice (two kinds, hona and rokum), dal (seven kinds), fish, flesh (very, 
rarely eaten), milk (eaten by all classes), vegetables (twenty kinds), acid 


184 REPORT—1863. 


fruits (six kinds), rire fruits (thirteen kinds), with sweetmeats, pawn, and 
tobacco, states that the average health is good, and the people are well 
nourished. The jail dietary varies with labour and duration of imprison- 
ment, The sameness of food and the small quantity of animal food and phos- 
phates lead to phthisis, and the lowest and poorest classes think life scarcely 
worth possessing in the absence of pawn and tobacco. (Diets Nos. 5, 6, 7, 
and 10. 

16. Br. R. Prrvete, Cuttack, states that among the coolies and the lowest 
class, rice, with watercresses and the small crabs found in tanks and jheels, 
is almost the sole food. The quantity of rice is 3 seer (= 79 tolahs), two- 
thirds eaten at the morning and one-third at the evening meal. The natives 
generally add 1 chit. of dal and perhaps 2 chit. of vegetables to the evening 
meal. When wood is dear, the evening meal is the only hot one. The 
natives are almost exclusively Hindoos, and eat very little animal food. On the 
sea-coast fish constitutes half the diet, whilst inland they consume an increased 
quantity of vegetables, rice, and dal; and in the independent States, at a dis- 
tance from rivers and cultivation, rice is almost the sole food. The inhabitants 
of the coast are in the best health. Only the lowest class of Hindoos take 
opium and spirits. Mussulmen are well fed, since, in addition to the food of 
the Hindoo, they take from 2 to 3 chit. of flesh daily. The jail dietary varies 
with labour and duration of sentence, and is the best on Sundays. The diet 
is sufficient. (Diets Nos. 5, 6, and 7.) 

17. H. Corus, Esq., Darjeelung, states that in the hills there are four 
distinct races, viz., Lepehas (natives of Sikkim), Bootias (natives of Bootan), 
Nepaulese, and Plains-men of all castes. The Lepehas, Bootias, and Nepaulese 
eat twice in the day, the two former 11 ozs., the last 12 ozs. to 16 ozs. of 
rice; the two former 8 ozs. of meat, chiefly pork, with a small quantity 
of salt, 2 to 4 ozs. of vegetables, and 13 pint of a fermented liquor (murrua), 
whilst the latter, in addition to the rice, take 6 ozs. to 8 ozs. of dal and a small 
quantity of salt and vegetables, chiefly potatoes. The last also sometimes 
eat goat’s meat, mutton, pigeons and fowls, and bread made of wheat, millet, 
or Indian corn. The two former take tea instead of murrua in the morning, 
if they can afford it. The higher castes of Nepaulese do not eat meat after 
their marriage, and never drink fermented liquors; whilst the lower castes 
indulge in both, when they can procure them. The Lepehas and Bootias, 
and particularly the former, are remarkably healthy, and have well-developed 
leg-muscles, but have not great powers of endurance. The Nepaulese are 
short, active, and wiry, with little muscular development, but great powers of 
endurance. They are moderately healthy, but liable to disease of the lungs 
and bowels, the latter due to the farinaceous food, and the former to insuffi- 
cient clothing. The Lepehas and Bootias wear woollen clothing. The jail 
dietary varies with labour, duration of sentence, and day of the week, and is 
insufficient to maintain health and weight, especially for the Lepehas and 
Bootias. (Diets Nos. 5 and 11.) 

18. Dr. S. C. Amszspury, Dinagepore, states that rice, vegetables, fruit, 
massalahs, fish rarely, and meat occasionally, constitute the dietary. The 
daily quantity is, rice 24 ozs., and vegetables, including dal 3 a pice worth. 
There are three meals a day, the first consisting of the food left from the 
former meal. The respectable classes, with food of good quality and well 
cooked, are in good health, whilst the poorer, having the opposite conditions, 
are liable to scurvy, diarrhcea, and general debility. The jail dietary is suffi- 
cient, as the prisoners gain weight. He agrees with Dr. Mouat that fresh 
vegetables are better food than dal. The dietary varies with labour, and 


ON FOODS OF FREE AND JAIL POPULATIONS OF INDIA. 185 


somewhat with the day of the week, and on Sundays it is that of the non- 
labouring class. (Diet No. 4.) 

19. Dr. J. Exxior, Hooghly, states that the dietary of the free labourer is 
much Jarger than that of prisoners, and that the occupation of the former in 
the open air improves the appetite and digestion. The dietary in jails varies 
with labour, and somewhat with the day of the week, and on Sundays is that 
of the non-labouring prisoners. The prisoners are as healthy as the same 
elass when free. He gives two tables showing the dietary in various classes 
or castes of the people, with their occupations, and the kind, quantity, and 
price of foods. Cowherds and milk-sellers eat 24 lbs. of rice, 3 lb. of dal, 
and 1 lb. of milk, costing six pice, whilst numerous others supplant the milk 
by 2 ozs. of fish or the flesh of dead cattle or other meat, the daily cost vary- 
ing from four to six pice. The Hindoo labourer takes no animal food but 
fish, whilst the Mahomedan always eats meat. (Diet No. 11.) 

20. Basoo H. Mooxersex, Ooterparrah Dispensary, states that the food 
consists of cereals, as rice, grain, &c., eaten with milk, rancid butter, fish, 
mustard- and linseed-oil, vegetables and leaves ; roots and tubers, as potatoes, 
carrots, onions, turnips, radishes, dc. ; fruits, as plantains, water-melons, 
mangoes, tamarinds, &c.; peas, beans, and other varieties of pulse; molasses 
and sugar. The effect of the dietary is salutary. 

21. Dr. T. W. R. Amessury, Jessore, states that-at two meals daily some 
or all the following are eaten :—rice 24 ozs., dal 8 ozs., vegetables 8 ozs., fish’ 
12 o7s., oil 12 ozs. (?), salt 4 0z., spices 4 oz., milk 2 lbs., ghee 6 oz., and to 
these the Mahomedans add flesh. They regard quantity rather than quality, 
and consider the quantity of rice as the measure of the meal. Vegetable food 
is more adapted to the climate than animal food, and the latter of inferior 
kind is the cause of skin-disease among the Mahomedans. Ghee is less eaten 
than oil by the well-to-do people, and too much of it leads to hepatic disease. 
The Hindoos take only milk and fish among animal foods. All classes, ex- 
cept strict religionists, eat intoxicating drugs. Those who live without the 
latter and on vegetable food thrive well, but cannot resist disease. The jail 
dietary varies with race, labour, and day of the week, that of Sunday being 
that of the non-labouring class. (Diets Nos. 1 and 2.) 

22. Dr. R. F. Toompson, Maldah, states that wheat and rice are eaten in 
equal proportion by the descendants of the Hindostanee stock, but rice only 
by the pure Bengalee. Barley-meal or parched barley is much relished 
when seasoned with milk and sugar. Barley bread and wheaten bread and 
confectionary are used. Dal, fish (which is cheap and abundant), meat (not 
in general use), milk, and dhoe (used universally), ghee (a great favourite), 
mustard-oil, vegetables, particularly the potato, salt, mangoes, and river 
water constitute the dietary. The jail dietary varies with labour. Thus, 
with labour, the oldest rice 20 ozs., dal 4 ozs., vegetables 4 ozs. (fish 4 ozs., 
in lieu of vegetables, twice a week), salt, chillies, and oil 1 oz. The diet of 
the free labourer is, the cheapest rice 20 ozs., dal, fish, or vegetables 4 to 6 
ozs., or perhaps only dhoe. The jail dietary is as good as the free dietary, 
and the health of the convicts is good. ; 

23. W. J. Ex1is, Esq., Manubhoom, states that the working-classes are 
mostly low-caste Hindoos, as the Bowrees ; yet they will eat almost all kinds 
of flesh, as that of tigers, rats, serpents, and even the cow. The principal 
diet is rice and Indian corn, on which they live entirely for six months of 
the year. Vegetables of even inferior kinds, and fish, which is scarce, con- 
stitute the food. Those who work in the Mofussil live on gruel made with 
rice steeped in much water, with or without vegetables boiled with salt. 


186 REPORT—1863. 


They do not eat dal or curry, and the oil is used only for anointing their 
bodies. The town labourers take three meals daily, the first consisting of 
the remnants of the last evening’s meal, and all classes take the rice-gruel 

_with their other food. Such labourers earn from six to twelve pice a day; 
but where only three or four pice are obtained, the midday meal is dispensed 
with. The Indian corn is parched or ground into meal, and eaten with water. 
The lower classes are dissolute and drunken. The jail dietary is ample, and 
the labour exacted is small. Compared with free labour, it is as follows :— 
Convicts, rice 24 ozs., dal 6 ozs., vegetables 4 ozs., salt 1 0z., oil 1 0z., massalah 
1 oz.; whilst the free labourer has 4 ozs. of dal and 1 oz. of massalah, and 
2 ozs. of fish alternating with the dal. (Diet No. 12.) 

24. Dr. B. Knnpart, Midnapore, gives the daily free dietary as follows :— 
rice 24 ozs. to 28 ozs., vegetables 4 ozs. to 6 ozs., dal 2 ozs. to 4 ozs. once 
or twice a week, and fish when they catch any. Besides these two meals, 
parched rice and molasses or sweetmeats are eaten once a day. Most of the 
farm-labourers have cows or goats, and take milk and ghee in small quan- 
tities, whilst in towns they buy a little duhee and buttermilk. The Mus- 
sulmen also eat flesh, but irregularly. The Sonthals and Dhanghurs eat rats, 
squirrels, and some species of snakes. Bowrees eat cats and decomposing 
animals which have died in any way. The Swalghur or Kucher caste eat 
jackals, crows, and carrion. The jail dietary of 1858 (diet No. 13 appended) | 
was deficient in fresh vegetables, and caused much sickness and mortality ; 
and that of 1862 is insufficient in rice. The dietary varies with the race, 
labour, and day of the week, that of Sunday being the non-labouring scale. 
(Diets Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4.) 

25. J. H. Gursz, Esq., Moorshedabad, states that the free dietary is as 
follows :—coarse rice 24 ozs. to 32 ozs., dal 4 ozs., vegetables 2 ozs, to 4 ozs., 
and fish 2 ozs., besides condiments ; and with 4 ozs. of onions for the Maho- 
medans. In the eastern districts attah is used with rice. There is the 
morning meal of 4 ozs. of rice, and the two regular meals at one to two P.M. 
and eight to nine p.m. They smoke tobacco before and after eating. They 
are undersized and unhealthy. Many suffer from disease of the spleen and 
diarrhea, due probably to the ill-ventilated huts and badly located dwellings, 
The jail dietary is sufficient ; for although less than the free dietary, the pri- 
soners generally gain in weight. It varies with duration of sentence, and 
on Sundays the short-term prisoners have more food. (Diet No. 8.) 

26. Dr. J. J. Durant, Pooree, states that rice is the staple food, then vege- 
tables, and then dal. Animal food, except fish, is too expensive. They are 
indolent and unenterprising people, living in low, dirty places, and covering 
their skins with turmeric paste as a safeguard against the bad effects of the 
sea air, which causes it to be of a yellow or jaundiced colour. All ages and 
sexes smoke, and drink narcotics. A detailed account of the various foods is 
given; and the daily dietary consists of from 16 to 18 chit.* of rice, or even 
double that quantity, at three or four meals, vegetables 1 to 2 chits., dal or fish 
1 to 4 chits. once or twice a week, parched grain 2 to 4 chits. about noon, and 
salt and massalahs 3 chit. This is sufficient in variety and quantity for an 
inactive people in an equable climate. They are very weak and anemic, and 
should live better, particularly on animal food, and reside in more healthy 
localities. The jail dietary is insufficient in quantity, if not in nutriment, and 
leads to bowel-complaints. The allowance for the labouring convicts is, rice 12 
chits., dal 3 chits., salt 4 chit., oil 1 chit., massalahs 1 chit., vegetables 2 chits., 
fish 2 chits. = 193 chits. (Diet No. 9.) 

* 'Phis is the Cuttack seer = 223 chittaks. 


ON FOODS OF FREE.AND JAIL POPULATIONS OF INDIA, 187 


27. S. M. Surrcore, Esq., Rajshahye, states that 2 Ibs. of rice, 4 ozs. of 
dal, 4 ozs. to 6 ozs. of vegetables, 10 ozs. of fish, 14 oz. of oil, 14 oz. of mas- 
salahs, 2 ozs. of milk, 8 ozs. of dhoi, and 8 ozs. of julpaun constitute the daily 
dietary of the labouring classes. The dal and dhoi are, however, obtained 
only ten or twelve times a month, and the milk only occasionally. Julpaun 
consists of parched rice, peas, and grain, with salt, and is taken as the early 
morning meal. The class are, on the whole, pretty healthy; but they suffer 
from ague, enlarged spleen, dyspepsia, and bowel-diseases. The jail dietary 
now varies with labour and the day of the week, that of Sunday being of 
the non-labouring class. (Diets Nos. 9, 1, and 14.) 

28. Dr. E. J. Rozerts, Rajmahal, states that rice is the staple food, and 
the leguminous dals next. Vegetables are invariably eaten ; fish is plentiful ; 
and kids and pork are eaten by certain castes. Cakes are made from barley, 
oats, maize, or dals in a powdered state, and, with cold water, salt, and chilli, 
are eaten uncooked. Dry parched grain is eaten without further cooking. 
Daugahs eat flesh, including rats; and the Sonthals and Pahareas eat almost 
any kind of flesh, as that of buffaloes, bullocks, deer, pigs, rats, snakes, tigers, 
leopards, game, and birds of all kinds. The poorest eat 14 lb. of rice, and 6 
to 8 chits. of vegetables, with salt and condiments, or substitute wild 
herbs for vegetables. Few can afford dal or fish. This costs 9 pice to 1 anna ; 
but when 14 to 4 annas can be spent, dal and fish or flesh are added, and 
then the rice may be reduced to 10 chits. Some low-caste Hindoos eat pigs. 
The new jail dietary varies with labour and day of the week, the latter 
substituting 4 ozs. of vegetables for 4 ozs. of fish on certain days. (Diet 
No. 8, B. 

29. ak. Pootz, Esq., Rungpore, states the free daily dietary as follows :— 
coarse rice 20 ozs., dal 2 ozs., vegetables 8 ozs., mustard-oil, salt, and 
massalahs 4 oz. each. Old rice is dearer, and is preferred. Rice under six 
months old is unwholesome. The mustard-oil is the only fat used, and when 
used in large quantities causes irritation of the bowels. Fish and meat are 
taken once in ten or fifteen days, and are not cheap or abundant. Milk 
and duhee are used occasionally. Bread or attah is not used. Tobacco is 
smoked. Betel-nuts are chewed, and as an astringent promote digestion. 
The diet, when the food is good, keeps them in health. The former jail dietary 
was insufficient, and the present one varies with labour and day of the week. 
(Diet No. 11.) 

30. Dr. A.V. Bust, Raneegunge, states that the people work in the coal-mines 
or on the land. Animal food of all kinds is eaten largely by the mining and 
jungle castes, except by the Brahmins. Fish, especially small shrimps, is a 
favourite article of food. Ghee and duhee from buffalo-milk are eaten by 
the better classes, and mustard-oil by the poorer ; but some do not obtain any. 
Rice is the staple food, and dals are largely used. Maize is eaten, and attah is 
too expensive. Fruits, roots, leaves, fungi, and a common spirit are used, 
‘The prisoners are allowed three pice per day, and live as at home. They do 
not suffer in health. 

31. A.J. Meyer, Chyebarra, states that it is a hilly district, and the coolies, 
being mountaineers, differ in their dietary from the other classes. In their 
jungles they eat rice and vegetables, and the flesh of all animals, birds, and ants, 
eyenif dead, and drink much strong drink. The latter in certain forms fortifies 
the constitution against disease. One meal a day, with the spirits (hurreah), 
suffices, and keeps them in excellent health. It consists of 1 Ib. of rice, with 
dal or vegetables, seasoned with salt and chilli, but without fat, oil, onions, 
or garlic. Meat is rarely eaten. The other races eat two or three meals 


188 ; - REPORT—1863. 


daily, including 1 Ib. or 1} 1b. of rice, with vegetables, milk, or dal. A list 
of the different vegetables which are used is given. The jail dietary varies 
with labour, duration of sentence, and day of the week. That for short sen- 
tences is abundant; but long-sentenced prisoners lose weight, and nine out of 
twelve (Coolie or Sonthal) fall victims to the diseases of prisons. (Diets 
Nos. 11, 5, 6, and 7.) 

32. Dr. N. Jackson, Sumbulpore, states that twelve chittaks of rice are 
eaten daily. Wheat is eaten occasionally; dal, vegetable, and fish univer- 
sally. Maize, three or four chits., occasionally. Meat, six or eight chits., 
once a week by the well-to-do classes. Milk, 1 Ib. daily by the higher, and 
every four or five days by the lower class. Cheese, oil, ghee (2 0z.) by the 
better classes, ‘ til’ oil by the lower. Sugar or molasses 1 to 4 ozs. when 
chapattees are eaten. Massalahs from 3 to 1 oz. daily. Spirits are in gene- 
raluse. The total weight of food daily is 3 lbs. The jail diet is too same 
and uniform, and there is no surer way of extinguishing an unhealthy man 
than by lengthened confinement in jail. 

33. Dr. G. M. Govan, Ranchee, states that tribes and sects differ much in 
dietary, and he describes them. The coolies work hard, and (a man, or a 
man and his wife?) eat, thirteen out of fourteen days, 8 lbs. of rice, 8 ozs. of 
vegetable, and 1 oz. of salt daily ; on the remaining day they eat 6 Ibs. of rice, 
4 ozs. of dal, 1 oz. of vegetable oil, and 2 lbs. of flesh at two meals (midday 
and 6 p.m.) daily. They drink fermented beer and spirits. They are very 
healthy. The jail dietary is a good one, and consists of coarse rice 24 ozs., 
dal 6 ozs., vegetables 4 ozs., salt and seasoning + oz,, and 4 ozs. of flesh once a 
week for such as choose to have it. 

34. Dr. W. W. Henps, Nagpore, shows that the dietary differs with caste, 
and gives the following as the daily food, in ounces, taken at two meals :— 


ear g 4 
- 2 |Se "3 sla 
: S fae] od , Idgl|S Oo Pals 

2/8 \/a)2lfa\2)2/5 Sessile 

SiBI/AlA iIpeoC}O |e Olea rOotljas 

Brahmins ........60+ se 16 | 16) 4 2 a 32 }8)...'8) 1 6 

LIN COGOS von nc ounce se seen eor 24 8| 4 sat Fl 4] 1618|/6\/8| 13) 4 

Mahomedans............ 24 A gl here see ee 4 | 32 6,8, 14 | 6 
Dheers and other 

ean ae 4 | fo tay epee ane js] 4| 4 


but all these foods are not eaten on the same day. The jail dietary varies with 
labour; the highest mortality with sentences of under one year. Both jail 
and free populations suffer from fever and bowel-complaints. (Diet No. 15.) 

35. Dr. W. R. Gryxts, Chindwarrah, states that the Gonds proper and Koor- 
koos eat daily 2 lbs. of coarse wheat-flour, unleavened, 4 or 5 ozs. of dal, one 
or two chillies, salt, vegetables, and condiments. They are fond of any kind 
of flesh, and drink intoxicating fluids. The Goojwrs eat only vegetable food, 
and do not drink spirits. The Megrahs are apathetic, and will eat and drink 
anything. All eat vegetable oil; but ghee is too dear. Rice is almost un- 
known. The jail dietary varies with labour and sex, and rice is substituted 
for wheat-flour twice a week. (Diet No. 16, and in another Report, No. 15.) 

36. Dr. 8. J. Wynpow¥, Bhundarrah, states that the Mahomedans eat 16 ozs. 
of rice, 16 ozs. of attah, 4 ozs. of meat, 8 ozs. of vegetables, and } oz. of eurry- 
stuff daily; the Brahmins the same quantity of rice. attah, vegetables, and 
curry-stuff, with 6 ozs. of dal, 8 ozs. of milk, and 2 ozs. of ghee; the Hindoos 
8 ozs, of rice, 16 ozs. of attah, 4 ozs. of dal, 4 ozs. of vegetables, 2 ozs. of ghee, 


ON FOODS OF FREE AND JAIL POFULATIONS OF INDIA. 189 


and 4 oz. of curry-stuff; whilst the low castes, Dheers, &c. eat 4 ozs. of dal, 
16 ozs. of jowaree, 4 ozs. of vegetables, 4 oz. of curry-stuff, 4 ozs. of fish, 
and 1 oz. of oil. The jail dietary varies with labour and day of the week. 
The food is cooked for the midday meal, and is eaten cold at the five p.m. meal. 
The people are spare and weakly, and stomach and bowel diseases with fever 
are common. (Diet No. 15.) 

37. Dr. C. E. W. Benstey, Raepore, states that both rice and wheat are 
largely grown there, and the latter sometimes supplements the former. He 
gives two scales of free dietary, one containing rice 24 to 32 ozs., attah 6 to 
8 ozs., dal or vegetables 6 to 8 ozs.; fish or meat once a fortnight, in lieu 
of dal and vegetable, 8 ozs.; milk, dhye, or buttermilk 12 to 16 ozs., with a 
little ghee or oil and condiments. The other contains the same quantity of 
rice, dal, and vegetables, with buttermilk every three or four days 16 ozs. 
Fish or meat only once a month, and milk or dhye once in two or three 
weeks, The labouring classes are agriculturists and possess cows. Those 
liying on the second scale are not so strong as the others. The whole district 
is miasmatic. Dyspepsia prevails among all classes. The jail dietary varies 
with labour. The improved dietary had been beneficial. (Diet No. 17.) 

38. J. H. Carr, Esq., Belaspore, states the kind of foods used, and the 
quantity eaten at a time, but does not give a complete daily dietary for any 
class. The jail dietary consists of 184, ozs. of wheat-flour (or 15 ozs. of 
rice), 33 ozs. of dal, or 73 ozs. of green vegetable, with a little salt, oil, and 
condiments. 

39. T. Krve, Esq., Kowtah, states that the dietary of the industrial popu- 
lation is as follows :—attah or wheat, with the bran partly removed, 24 to 
32 ozs., rice 16 to 24 ozs., dal 2 to 4 ozs., Indian corn, roasted between 
meals, 2 to 4 heads, and gram 2 to 4 ozs. The labouring classes eat 24 to 
40 ozs. of jowaree (a species of imphey-seed), 2 to 4 ozs. of dal (lauk), and 
4 to 6 heads of Indian corn. The jail dietary varies with labour and day of 
the week. (Diet No. 18.) 


DINApoRE. 


40. Dr. J. B, Auten, Behar, gives a list of the various kinds of foods and 
tobaccos in use, and the following is the quantity of the former which is 
eaten by the free labouring classes at one meal, but he does not state whether 
more than one meal is eaten daily, viz. :—rice 8 chits.* or flour 12 chits., 
dal 2 chits., vegetables 3 chits., mustard-oil and spices 4 chit. each, salt 
g chit., and occasionally 8 chits. of meat. The jail dietary is less than the 
home dietary, and the prisoners are dejected and depressed from confine- 
ment and absence of tobacco, yet they increase in weight. It consists of 
rice 24 ozs., or an equivalent in flour, dal 6 ozs., vegetables 4 ozs., ghee, salt, 
and massalahs 4 oz. each. (Diet No. 13.) 

41. Dr. T. B. Farncomse, Bhangulpore, states that the food, except rice, of 
the agricultural classes varies much with the season and locality. The jail 
dietary varies with labour and length of sentence. (Diets Nos. 11, 5, 6, 
and 7. 

42. Dr, N. C. Macnamanra, Tirhoot, divides the inhabitants into four classes, 
and largely describes them and their dietary. The Brahmins eat 1 to 12 Ib. 
of bread, 1 to 14 Ib. of rice, 6 ozs. of dal, with butter, vegetables, and salt, 
and sometimes 3 1b. of fish or flesh daily. Some take 1 to 14 pint of milk once or 
twice a day. Gwallas and Koormees, who are shepherds, eat 1 to 14 Ib. of 


* The seer here = 2 Ibs. 12 drachms when bought in quantities of 5 seers and upwards, 
but only = 1 Ib. 13 ozs. 9 drachms at the bazaar-rate below 5 seers. 


190 REPORT—18683., 


Indian corn and barley-bread, 14 lb. of rice, 5 ozs. of dal, 1 to 2 ozs. of butter, 
2 lb. of duhee, with vegetable and salt, and 3 lb. of fish or flesh thrice a week. 
The jail dietary now varies with labour, and is also divided into classes. 
(Diet No. 14.) 

43. Dr. J. M. Coatrs, Chumparum, states that about 2 Ibs. of rice, 1 1b. of 
dal or fish, 4 lb. of vegetables, and 3 oz. of oil, spices, and salt each, is the or- 
dinary free dietary ; and describes the mode of cooking them. Some oils are 
eaten in the cold and others in the hot season, whilst but little dhoe and ghee 
are obtained. The jail diet varies with labour and day of the week. The 
Sunday’s diet is that of the non-labouring class, and it suits the prisoners. 
[As I think it probable that there is an error in the report, in quoting ounces 
instead of chittaks, I do not transcribe the table. ] 

44. Dr. J. Suraertann, Patna, shows that the jail diet varies with labour, 
and describes at length the various kinds of food eaten by the population, 
with the cost, and with remarks added. (Diet No. 19.) 

45. Dr. T. Duka, Monghyr, states that his information has been derived 
at second-hand. The lower classes eat three meals a day. The jail dietary 
varies with labour. The free dietary is not given in daily combination. 
(Diet No. 20.) 

46. Dr. R. F. Hurcutyson, Shahabad, shows that the total weight of food 
obtained by the free labourers varies from 18 to 24 chits. daily ; but he does 
not state of what it is composed, and the weight of each kind. He shows 
the evils of the jail system, and states that scurvy and diarrhea are the jail 
pests. The jail dietary varies with labour and day of the week, and perhaps 
with race. (Diets Nos. 11 and 2.) 

47. Dr. A. G. Crews, Purneah, states that the dietary of the free popula- 
tion consists of rice 20 ozs., dal 4 to 6 ozs., fish 4 to 8 ozs. sometimes, and 
vegetables 4 to 8 ozs.; milk and curd are much used. The new jail dietary 
varies with labour. (Diet No. 14.) 

48. Dr. W. F. Goss, Sonthal Pergunnahs, states that the Hindoos use but 
little animal food, and that is fish, milk, kid, and ghee. Only the lower classes 
eat pigeons, mutton, water-fowl, and pork. The Sonthals eat all kinds of 
flesh. Vegetables, fruits, and various kinds of grain are eaten. The jail 
diet consists of rice 24 ozs., dal 4 ozs., salt, massalahs, and oil 4 oz. each, daily, 
and sustains the health. 

49. Dr. 8S. Detrrart, Hazareebaugh, states that the daily quantities of 
food obtained by the free labourers consists of 28 ozs. of various kinds of 
grain, dal or vegetables 12 ozs., with salt and condiments, and sometimes 
parched rice, gram, wheat, or Indian corn in addition. They eat three 
meals daily. The jail diet varies with labour, the non-labouring receiving 
no meat, and 2 ozs. less of rice and vegetables than the labouring. The mor- 
tality was excessive, but the health is now better. (Diet nearly like No. 11.) 

50. Dr. C. J. Jackson, Sarun, states that the constant food of the free 
labourer is the cerealia and their allies, leguminous seeds, and condiments. 
The occasional additions are tubers and succulent roots, leaves, fruits, and 
melons. He states the chemical and botanical characters and the price of 
each. The jail dietary varies with labour and day of the week. (Diet No. 14.) 


BENARES. 


51. Dr. A. H. Curxer, Benares, states that the foods in ordinary use are 
flour, rice, dal, curds and whey, goor or treacle-cakes, with acid mixtures, as 
tamarinds and other spices. The flour is prepared from wheat, barley, Indian 


ON FOODS OF FREE AND JAIL POPULATIONS OF INDIA. 191 


corn, &c., and is ground between stones. Dal is used daily, but rice is not 

-much appreciated. The weight of food is 2 lbs. at the principal meal, 
but the daily quantity is not given. The jail dietary is composed of barley, 
ground gram, flour, rice, dal, vegetables, oil, and salt; and parched gram is 
given at noon, instead of prepared food. The health of the convicts is better 
than that of free labourers. 

52. Dr. W. R. Hoover, Azimghur, states that rice is dear and but little used. 
Wheat is dear, but is eaten more largely than rice; whilst barley is the staple 
food, as rice isin Bengal. Dals, curries, molasses, fish, and fruits are extensively 
and largely eaten. Animal food is not obtained by the poor, but is exten- 
sively consumed by the higher classes. Beef is eaten only by Mahomedans; 
mutton and goat’s flesh only by the better classes ; whilst pigs are kept in 
large numbers, and eaten by the labouring classes. Arrack is consumed in 
very large quantities, except by high-caste Hindoos. The poor, as a rule, 
take only one substantial meal daily, and that in the evening; others take 
two meals. The daily weight of food is 2 lbs. The jail dietary varies with 
labour and day of the week. The prisoners enjoy very good health. (Diet 
No. 21. 

53. A. J. Datz, Jounpore, informs us that there is much variation in 
the statements of the quantities of food eaten. About 14 Ib. (23 Ibs. to 22 lbs.) 
of cereals, dal, and vegetables is eaten daily, and meat, fish, and fowl occasion-= 
ally. The jail dietary varies with the day of the week. (Diet No. 21, B.) 

54. Dr. A. Garprn, Ghazeepore, describes at great length the various articles 
of food, with their price, in use there. The dietary is chiefly vegetables, from 
want of means, or inclination, and from religious prejudices. Two classes and 
eastes only abstain from meat entirely, viz. Brahmins and Bhugguls; but 
they take milk, Mussulmen, Kaeths, Chuwmars, Domes, and all very low-caste 
Hindoos eat meat whenever they can get it, whilst Boonhars,.Chuttrees, and 
Aggur-wallahis eat it only occasionally. High- and middle-caste Hindoos eat 
only mutton and goat’s flesh; whilst mutton, beef, buffalo-flesh, goat’s flesh, 
and fowls are eaten by the Mahomedans. The quality of meat varies much ; 
and if the animals die naturally, some eat the flesh. Milk of the cow, buffalo, 
and goat is the most important and largely consumed animal food by all 
classes. Ghee and oil are eaten largely by the well-to-do classes, but the 
poor obtain but little. Wheat and barley, with Indian corn, are the 
staple cereals; dals, gram, vegetables, and spices are eaten largely and uni- 
versally ; salt is eaten by all; sugar is largely eaten; pickles are luxuries ; 
spirits are largely consumed by some, and detested by others; tobacco is 
much more used than bhang or opium. There are two meals daily, except 
by the very poor, who have one in the evening, and take suttoo and water 
and parched grain at other parts of the day. The amount is very imperfectly 
Stated. Diseases of low type abound among the worst-fed. The jail dietary 
varies with labour and day of the week. (Diet No. 21.) 

55. Dr. J. A. Jackson, Allahabad, gives the jail dietary, which varies with 
ee and day of the week. The prisoners enjoy excellent health. (Diet 

o. 21.) 

56. T. T. Sxertock, Esq., Futtehpore, states the kinds of food in use, with 
the quantity of meat which is consumed by an adult prisoner, but does not 
give the daily dietary. 

57. Dr. J. Jones, Cawnpore, states that the foods in general use are wheat, 
barley, maize, &c. among the cereals, pulses, dals, and spices. Rice is rarely 
used, Ghee is eaten by the well-to-do classes; fish is eaten by all classes. 


192 REPORT—1863. 


Mahomedans refuse pork, and think beef indigestible. Hindoos, except those 
who believe in transmigration, eat fish and kid. The daily quantity eaten . 
by a labourer is 2 lbs. of attah, 4 ozs. of dal, and 8 ozs. of vegetables. When 
ghee is used, 2 ozs. suffices. The health is sustained on these quantities if 
the foods are properly prepared. Diarrhcea and cholera prevail in the melon- 
season. The jail diet consists of 20 ozs. of wheat attah, 4 ozs. of dal, 4 ozs. 
of parched corn, and 674 grains of salt; 90 grains of oil and 8 ozs. of vege- 
tables are given twice a week. The prisoners enjoy average health, but 
suffer from emaciation, impaired assimilation, and sloughing of the cornea, as 
the result of a deficient supply of oil; also boils and skin-diseases from defi- 
ciency of fresh vegetables. 

58. Dr. G. Grant, Futtehgurh, states that vegetable food is the staple 
dietary, and that animal food is rarely consumed. The dietary contains 
cereals, legumes, fresh vegetables, fruits, milk, with its preparation of ghee, 
dhy, rubree, and sugar; the two latter are not obtained by the very poorest. 
Fish are not eaten, except when they can be readily caught, as during the 
rains. The daily quantity of food for an outdoor labourer is 24 to 32 ozs. 
of attah (flour from the cereals) and legumes, 4 ozs. of pulse, and 8 to 
12 ozs. of vegetables: artisans and indoor labourers eat less. There are two 
meals daily, at about noon and sunset. The flour is made into unleavened 
cakes or into porridge. Parched unground grain is eaten when travelling, or 
when unable to cook. The dals are split, and then boiled, and eaten with 
ghee or garlic, &c.; vegetables are stewed with water, ghee, or oil, salt, and 
condiments ; meat is boiled with salt and condiments; fish is fried with oil, 
salt, and condiments; curds are produced by curdling warm milk; ghee is 
obtained by constantly agitating curdled milk; rubree is produced by evapo- 
rating milk. Wheat is regarded as wholesome and nutritious ; dals as heating ; 
potatoes as hot and very digestible ; onions and garlic as hot and stimulating, 
and purifying the blood; carrots, turnips, &c. as cold and strengthening, but 
not of easy digestion; melons as hot, and increasing appetite ; milk and its 
preparations as heating, nutritious, and constipating ; animal food as heating, 
nutritious, and digestible; and fish as more heating than meat. The jail 
diet resembles the free labourers’ diet, and varies with labour and day of the 
week ; the effect upon health and strength is good. (Diet No. 21.) 

59. Dr. G. Bernarp, Mynpoorie, quotes the kinds of food which are eaten, 
and the average quantity, but does not give a daily dietary. The Mussul- 
man population is in good health. The very poor are liable to scurvy, bowel- 
complaints, and skin-disease. The jail diet varies with labour and day of 
the week, and the prisoners keep in health and strength. (Diet No. 21.) 

60. Dr. J. Saerrz, Etawah, states that about 2 lbs. of wheat-flour is eaten 
daily, except by the very poor, who eat grains inferior to wheat in gluten, as 
jowar and bajra, and then fall into ill-health, as shown by the coarse and 
scaly epidermis, pale conjunctiva, large abdomen, and deficient muscular 
development. The jail dietary varies with sex and labour. (Diet No. 21.) 

61. Dr. H. 8. Sarru, Goruckpore, states that the neighbourhood is very 
fertile, and produces all tropical and European vegetables. The natives eat 
two meals daily, at noon and at eight or nine p.m., the former consisting of 
parched corn or young maize, and the latter of rice, jowar, or chapattees, made 
from wheat- and barley-flour, with dal, mustard-oil, or eurry-powder, fish, 
ghee, and milk. Fish is very abundant, and yet is often eaten when putrid, ~ 
also raw vegetables (Cucurbitaceze), causing epidemics. 8 ozs. of Indian corn 
is eaten at the morning meal; and 24 ozs. of rice, wheat, or barley is enough 


ON FOODS OF FREE AND JAIL POPULATIONS OF INDIA. 193 


for the day. The jail dietary varies with labour and day of the week; it is 
ample. (Diet No. 21.) 

62. Dr. J. H. Locu, Mirzapore, states that in cities the first and second 
classes eat 12 to 16 ozs. of wheat-flour, 4 ozs. of rice, 4 to 6 ozs. of dals, 4 to 
8 ozs. of vegetables, and 1-1 oz. of pickles and ghee. The richer the man, the 
more ghee and rice he consumes. The third class eat bread of barley-flour, 
and not soaked in ghee; some have only one meal daily. The dietary con- 
sists of 24 ozs. of flour and 6 to 8 ozs. of dal ; and when parched grain is eaten, 
the quantity is 8 to 16 ozs.; and when they have rice, they eat about 8 ozs. 
at each meal. The fourth class have still coarser food; and the quantity is, 
flour 2lbs., dal 4ozs., and parched grain 8 to 16 ozs. Nearly all eat meat 
and fish occasionally, when they can afford it; and the Kayasts (Hindoos) eat 
about 1 1b. of goat’s flesh daily. In the country, the first and second classes 
use wheat-flour ; and the daily quantity is, flour 1 lb., dal 4 ozs., rice 8 ozs., 
ghee 4ozs., milk 11b., vegetables 20zs. The third class eat barley-bread, 
and consume, daily, flour 24 ozs., dal 6ozs., ghee (when used) 2 ozs., rice 
20 ozs., and vegetables 80zs. The fourth class live very poorly, and the food 
consists of flour 24 to 32 ozs. and dal 4 ozs. The jail diet varies with 
labour and day of the week; and the prisoners gain weight upon it. (Diet 
No. 21.) 

63. R. Cocksurn, Esq., Allahabad, states that wheat, barley, bajra, jowar, 
&c. are the principal grains; rice is but little eaten; maize is seldom eaten 
as bread, but is roasted whole in the ear before it is quite ripe; dals are 
generally used. The daily dietary is not given. 


OupeE. 


64. Dr. J. C. Wutsnaw, Oude, describes at great length the various foods 
in use. He remarks upon the difficulty of obtaining exact information. 
Poverty is common, but destitution very rare. A very large proportion of the 
poor scarcely ever cook, but live for weeks on suttoo, cheap fruits, with such 
seeds as they collect. Some keep pigeons, which, having collected grain, are 
made to vomit it up for human use. The unchanged grain is washed out of 
the dung of oxen when treading out the corn. This class is very liable to 
disease. Kuwnjers, living in jungles, will eat jackals, snakes, wild cats, and every 
kind of animal and vegetable food. Mussulmen eat all ordinary food, except 
pork. Buffalo-flesh is cheap, and the animal must be killed with the proper 
ceremonies. The low-caste Hindoos eat the flesh of animals dying naturally, 
and pork largely. Brahmins, &c., may eat any game, as deer, porcupines, 
birds, and flesh. Some Ohuttrees eat goat’s flesh. The high-caste Hindoos 
do not eat onions, and some refuse garlic or turnips. Among all castes there 
are Bhaghuts, who swear not to eat meat or drink intoxicating liquors. The 
Chuttrees, earning from 5 to 8 rupees a month, eat daily from 14 to 2 lbs. of 
wheat or barley, unleavened bread, with 4 ozs. of boiled dal and some chillies. 
They cook only once a day, and eat only parched grain at other periods ; 
very few eat meat daily; fish is a more common diet; milk is not a uni- 
versal food ; ghee is always eaten when it can be obtained. Some of the rich 
drink half a pint to 3 pints of milk a day, and become very fat. Eggs are eaten 
by Mussulmen, and chiefly by the rich; they attach great importance to 
water, and will say that one is light and wanting in strength, whilst another 
18 good and full of body. Salt is indispensable; lime is eaten daily, either 
mixed with tobacco or otherwise. There is no well-detailed daily dietary. 


oe jan dietary varies with sex and labour, and to some extent with day of 
. o 


194 REPORT—1863. 


the week, and is better than that usually obtained in freedom.’ The pri- 
soners are liable to diarrhcea and dysentery, but it is not due to the dietary. 
(Diet No. 22.) 

65. J. W. H. Connon, Esq., Hurdin, describes the various native races and 
castes, under the heads of their religion, manner of living, and food. The 
Hindoos are a much more energetic race than the Mahomedans. The lower 
castes, as Parsees, &c., pursue agriculture, and take but one substantial meal 
daily, and that is after sunset. They may eat perhaps a little cold bread in the 
early morning, and at midday they have a handful of parched gram. The 
lower classes of the Mahomedans are weavers, &c., and eat two meals daily. 
Mahomedans will eat any flesh but pig, on account of its uncleanly habits, 
provided the animal had its throat cut; whilst many castes of Hindoos, as 
Brahmins and Bunneahs, live entirely upon vegetable food. All Hindoos eat 
chapattee, which is a thin flat cake baked from flour of various grains. The 
cultivator of the land eats about 24 ozs. of this bread, with an ounce of ghee, a 
handful of dal, and vegetables ; but when very poor, they have scarcely any food 
but the chapattee. All like sweetmeats, and all eat milk plentifully. There is 
great want of muscular development ; but they are well-formed and have great 
powers of endurance. They are patient in suffering ; wounds readily heal, 
and yet the people readily sink under severe disease. The jail diet varies 
with labour, and to some extent with the day of the week. The health of 
the prisoners is good. Ophthalmia prevails; and yet the diet is better than 
the majority obtain when free. (Diet No. 22.) 

66. Dr. E. Srrons, Pertabghur, experienced difficulty in obtaining the 
information. Some castes (rarely the poorest classes), as Aheers and Gurereas, 
occasionally get a little milk, ghee, or buttermilk. Parsees, when rich 
enough, keep and eat pigs. The food is chiefly vegetables, and varies with 
the three harvest seasons—September, November, and aie The daily 
quantity of the labourer is 13 Ib. of attah, 4 ozs. of dal, 2 ozs. of ghee, or a 
little oil, with salt and pepper; green vegetables are eaten instead of dal, in 
their season. When meat is regularly eaten, the quantity is about 1 Ib. per 
day ; but Hindoos, who eat it only rarely, then take a much larger quantity. 
The labouring classes eat only one meal, and that in the evening; but they 
have 2 to 6 ozs. of chabena, or gram, at other periods. The better classes 
eat two meals daily. The meat is eaten as stew or curry. Various kinds of 
corn and legumens are ground into flour and made into chapattees; they are 
smeared with oil or ghee, and eaten with dal or green vegetables, which are 
boiled with oil or ghee. The diet is deficient in fat and flesh : the legu- 
minous seeds are very important. The large quantity of food eaten at one 
meal is injurious, leads to chronic dyspepsia, and retards convalescence 
from disease. ‘The jail diet is varied with labour and somewhat with the 
day of the week. (Diet No. 22.) 

67. Dr. G. W. Bonayra, Durriabad, states that a labourer, working in the 
fields from eight to ten hours daily, eats of wheat or other flour 3 to 1} seer*, 
rice 4 to 2 seer, dal 2 to 4 chits., ghee 4 to 3 chit., salt } chit., condiments ty 
chit. Wheat is preferred, and the coarse bran only j is taken out ; the flour is 
made into chapattees. Some grains are used both as flour and as dal, and are 
eaten as the latter, with 1 or *2 ozs. of ghee, by all but the poorest. Goat’s 
flesh or fish is eaten from three to twelve times a year in quantities from 4 
to 2seer. Most villagers keep cows or buffaloes, and take the milk, ghee, or 
butter for their own use, the latter if quantity of 1 to 1 seer daily, or two 


* Pukka-weight. 


ON FOODS OF FREE AND JAIL POPULATIONS OF INDIA. 195 


or three times a week. They use about 1 of a seer of vegetables three or four 
times a month, and parched corn, to the extent of + seer, is eaten every third 
or fourth day. The above are the standard quantities; but less is taken by 
the coolies, who are very poor and seldom able-bodied. 

68. Dr. C. Lowprtt, Gonda, states that the customary food is fish (abun- 
dant all the year), goat’s flesh, mutton, and other meats, with vegetables. 
Dal and rice are the staple food; fish and flesh are cooked in one mess with 
the vegetables, dal, condiments, and ghee or oil. The cost of foods is given. 
The jail dietary varies with labour, and somewhat with the day. The attah 
is composed of half wheat and half barley. The prisoners have been healthy. 
(Diet No. 21, nearly.) 

69. E. C. Benstey, Esq., Baraitch, experienced difficulty in obtaining the 
information. He does not give a daily dietary. The jail dietary varies 
with sex and labour, and somewhat with the day. (Diet No. 22.) 

70. Dr. J. Exx1s, Oonao, states that the food is almost entirely vegetable, 
and is derived from the Graminez and Leguminose. Wheat, barley, rice, 
maize, peas, and vetches enter into it. About 14 to 131b. of wheaten bread 
is used, and this is the staple food. The jail diet varies with sex and labour, 
and somewhat with the day. (Diet No. 22.) 

71. Dr. F. Carrer, Lukhimpore, gives a list of the various grains, vegetables, 
and fruits in use. Wheat is most used by the better, and barley and Indian 
corn by the poorer classes. Of fresh vegetables, potatoes and yams are most 
abundant. Diarrhcea, dysentery, goitre, enlarged spleen, dropsy, and fever 
prevail. The diet varies with sex, labour, and day of the week, and is well 
suited to the prisoners. (Diet No. 22.) 

72. A. W. Barrtre, Esq., Seetapore, states that the agricultural labourers 
constitute the mass of the people, who are Hindoos, and receive their pay 
chiefly in kind. Grain is almost the whole food of the lower classes ; green 
vegetables are little used by the lower classes, though they grow freely, and 
meat is not eaten. They are tall, vigorous, and frequently powerful men. 
Their diseases are not those of nutrition. The jail dietary varies with age, 
labour, and day of the week, and maintains health. (Diet No. 22.) 

73. Dr. H. M. Caxnon, Inspector of Prisons, Oude, offers observations upon 
the diet and diseases of prisoners, and considers that the Punjab prison dietary 
is as complete and wholesome a scale as can well be followed. It contains 
3°7 of carboniferous to 1 of nitrogenous food. (Diet No. 22.) 

74. Dr. W. Constant, Sultanpore, gives a short description of the district, 
and then states that the diet is essentially a vegetable one. Wheat is abundant 
and fine, and is the staple food ; rice is very little eaten; various other grains 
are made into bread. Ali dals, if eaten in excess and with their skins, cause 
diarrhea, &c. Vegetables and fruit abound. All Mussulmen eat the meat 
of the cow, buffalo, camel, goat, sheep, hare, wild-fowl, game, and fish. All 
Hindoos, except Brahmins and Bhagats, eat the flesh of sheep and goats when 
they can get it, and are fond of fish and fowl. Stigar-cane is chewed, and 
fattens ; spirits are drunk largely, and intoxicating drugs are eaten by low- 
caste Hindoos. The Talookdars usually eat meat, thin chapattee, and the 
finest dal, and take two meals daily. . The landholders and tradespeople 
live chiefly on vegetable food, and eat at two meals much more than that 
eaten by a European; but they do not drink generally, and their health is 
good, ‘The agricultural labourers and the very poor live on inferior grains, 
pulse, and vegetables, and eat flesh when they can get it; they are very 
insufficiently fed and sheltered. Such eat but once a day, and that at noon ; 
and their health is not good. He cannot give a daily dietary. The jail diet 

02 


196 REPORT—1863. 


varies with sex, labour, and somewhat with the day of the week, and main- 
tains health. (Diet No. 22.) 


Srepunp AND Meervr. 


75. G. Harver, Esq., Umballa, states shortly the foods in use. The quan- 
tity of flour or rice consumed daily varies from 1 to 2 Ibs. ; and the health is 
good. He does not give a daily dietary. The jail diet consists of 48 ozs. of 

attah daily, 4 ozs. of dal weekly, and 1 oz. of ghee thrice a week. 
' 76. Dr. W. P. Harris, Budaon, gives a statement of the kind of food, with 
the quantity of each, and the effect upon the body; but it is not stated 
whether the quantity is per day or per meal, and no daily dietary is given. 
The jail dietary varies with labour. (Diet No. 21.) 

77. Dr. C. T. Paske, Saharumpore, enters largely into the consideration of 
the various animal and vegetable foods in use, with their modes of prepara- 
tion and effects upon the body. Chapattee is the staple food, as bread is in 
England, and is eaten with ghee by the wealthier classes. The poor cannot 
obtain ghee. The quantity of this “‘ attah’’ which is eaten daily is from 1 to 
13 lb.; barley is less eaten than wheat; oats are not used by men; maize 
is largely grown and used ; rice is largely eaten ; the refuse of sugar, “‘ gour,” 
is much eaten, as is also the sugar-cane itself; potatoes are cheap, and uni- 
versally used ; onions and garlic are used in making curry ; spices are used 
extensively, and are a remedy for their weak digestive powers, induced by 
long fasts and badly cooked food; animal food is occasionally eaten, but not 
nearly so much as in cold climates ; the flesh eaten is that of the cow, pig, goat, 
sheep, and some kinds of game; ghee is eaten with every food, and even 
alone, and the more rancid the better. Asa man can afford it, he becomes fat. 
Salt, milk, and eggs are also largely used. The water used is usually from 
wells; spirits and intoxicating drugs are largely used. The jail dietary 
varies with labour and the day of the week, and agrees with the prisoners. 
(Diet No. 21 very nearly.) 

78. Dr. Issac Newron, Kurnaul, shortly describes the various grains in 
use, and states that wheat, barley, and rice are the most valued. He does 
not give a daily dietary, but states that 2 Ibs. of all the foods together is the 
daily quantity, eaten at two meals. The jail dietary varies with labour, and 
consists of 16 to 20 ozs. of attah and 4 ozs. of dal; vegetables twice a week, 
instead of dal; oil 45 grains, salt 67 grains, and chillies 37 grains. The 
imprisonment does not exceed one month, and the health is not injured. 

79. J. M. Cunnryeuam, Esq., Bareilly, refers only to jail dietary, and shows 
that it varies with sex, labour, and day of the week. Attah is made with 
three-fourths wheat (of second quality) and one-fifth barley, and the husks of 
both remain in the flour. He says, “It is one of the great sources of com- 
plaint among prisoners that the unsifted flour disagrees with them ; but the 
complaint is unjust, as itis very unusual for any free man, unless in easy cir- 
cumstances, to have his flour sifted before using it.’’ 20 ozs. of attah should 
make 28 ozs. when cooked into chapattees. In addition to the regular diet, 
which is prepared at 34 p.m., when work is over, he has 4 ozs. of parched 
grain, which he eats in the morning. Women and boys under et. 15 
have the diet of the non-labouring class. The jail dietary is sufficient. 
(Diet No. 21.) 

80. Dr. J. Hurcurnson, Dehra Doon, states that 28 ozs. of attah is consumed 
daily (16 ozs. in the morning and 12 ozs. in the evening). Some prefer 14 ozs. 
of rice for the morning meal; also 6 ozs. of dals (when not supplanted by 
vegetables); 1to 4b. of meat is eaten occasionally by Mahomedans and low- 


ON FOODS OF FREE AND JAIL POPULATIONS OF INDIA. 197 


caste Hindoos, and fish when procurable. Milk and curdled milk (‘ dahee ”’) 
are largely consumed, and chiefly by the Hindoos ; vegetables are freely eaten ; 
parched grain and oil are much desired, and this food maintains health. The 
diet of the poorer classes varies much, as their income and the prices of food 
vary. The jail dietary varies with labour and day of the week, and main- 
tains health and strength. (Diet No. 21.) 

81. Apam Taymor, Esq., Rohtuck, quotes the different kinds of food in use, 
but does not give the daily quantities. The jail dietary varies with sex and 
labour, and somewhat with the week. Barley may be mixed with the wheat 
in the proportion of 4 to 35 parts. 1 part of bran out of every 40 parts of 
attah is taken out. Labouring prisoners have 4 ozs. of parched gram daily, 
except on Sundays. (Diet No. 22.) 

82. Dr. F. Parsons, Hissar, states that wheat is given most abundantly, 
and is preferred to many other grains; barley stands next in order. Rice is 
eaten by all classes; curdled milk, ghee, and buttermilk are also eaten. 

83. W. B. Burr, Esq., Loodiana, gives four valuable tables of the daily 
quantities of food. The field-labourers eat daily, in the hot weather, flour, 
made into unleavened chapattees, about 2 lbs., gram dal 10 ozs., parched gram 
4 ozs., melons, sugar-cane, and buttermilk in large quantities, and ghee 4 oz. 
In the cold weather, about 3 lbs. of flour from inferior grains, 8 ozs. of moth 
dal, 4 ozs. of parched grain or Indian corn, 8 ozs. of fresh vegetables, 3 oz. of 
ghee, and much buttermilk. The ordinary diet of caste-men, Ohwmars and 
Sweepers, &c., consists of flesh, including pork, largely stewed with vegetables 
and condiments, 3 oz. of ghee, 2 lbs. of flour of wheat and other grain, 4 ozs. 
of parched grain, and large quantities of raw vegetables and of buttermilk. 
That of the Cashmeeres is flesh, except pork, about 8 ozs., milk half-pint, 
cream 1 oz., rice 1lb., green tea 1dr., large quantities of fresh vegetables, 
1 lb. of wheaten bread, and 1 oz. of mustard-oil. The Jat Siekhs are strong, 
hardy, and industrious, and live chiefly on vegetables, eating flesh only a few 
times yearly; they do not usually drink spirits. The Punjabee Mussulmen 
are similar, but eat flesh two or three times a month. The Chumars are 
inferior; they eat less bread and dal, but more meat, and often that of dying 
animals; they eat opium and drink spirits. The Sweepers are rough and 
strong, and eat flesh, particularly that of a lizard, “Sanda.” The Cashmeeres 
are of good height, well made, and muscular; when they work out of doors 
they are healthy, but they generally are shawl-makers and of dirty habits ; 
they live well, and do not take opium or spirits. They are liable to ophthal- 
mia, scrofula, and diseases of the lungs. The jail diet varies with labour 
and day of the week, and the prisoners are healthy. (Diet No. 22.) 

84. J. Braxe, Esq., Simla, states that the daily dietary of a strong 
man is wheat or Indian flour 2 Ibs. and dal 4 ozs., or rice 24 ozs. and dal 4 ozs., 
with a variable quantity of vegetables. An old man eats 16 ozs. of the cereals 
and 4 ozs. of dal; milk and ghee are eaten sparingly on account of the cost ; 
wild birds, wild pigs, and goats are eaten freely when obtainable. The jail 
diet is attah 16 ozs., dal 4 ozs., salt 44 murhas; but the prisoners are detained 
only a few days. 

85. Dr. R. A. Mrs, Bhutty Territory, states that the district is arid, and 
the crops small and uncertain; hence the poor often subsist on wild fruits, 
bark, and seeds, and seek for quantity rather than quality. Wheat is the 
staple food, and about 200oz. of it is eaten. When rice is preferred, the 
quantity consumed is 1lb. He describes numerous articles of food, but does 
not give a daily dietary. The jail dietary varies with sex and labour. The 
bran is carefully taken from the wheat to the extent of 1 to 13 seer ina 


» 


198 REPORT—1863. 


maud, to prevent the occurrence of diarrhcea. The chapattees are cooked 
in oyens sunk in the ground; 5 parts of barley may be added to 35 of 
wheat. Ghee is given, instead of oil, to prisoners sentenced to more than six 
months’ imprisonment ; and vegetables are given twice a week. The pri- 
soners are better fed than free labourers. The jail manual contains some 
valuable directions. (Diet No. 22.) 

86. Dr. J. L. Srewarr, Bijnour, gives a lengthened and interesting account 
of the locality, and of the various foods in use. The consumption of wheat, 
pulse, &c. is much greater in spring and summer, when they are abundant 
and cheap. Of all cereals, wheat and rice are in the highest repute, and are 
the staple food. It is to be regretted that, with so much information, the 
daily dietary and quantity of food is not given. It is only stated that with 
20 or 24 ozs. of bread or rice, with pulse, the Hindoo will eat 3 to 4 ozs. of 
flesh ; also, that the average daily food is 20 to 24 ozs. of the cereals and 
4ozs. of pulse. The average weight of prisoners is, Hindoos 100 lbs., Mus- 
sulmen 96 lbs. 

87. Dr. C. O. Dantetz, Hoshyarpore, gives a list of numerous foods in 
use; their local,-English, and scientific names; the extent of their cultivation 
and mode of preparation, and, in some instances, the amount of them which 
is eaten daily. There is not, however, a daily dietary given. 

88. Dr. C. N. Bosz, Thung, states that wheat and other grains are made 
into thick cakes. The bread is eaten with dal and sag, with vegetables and 
condiments. Meat is eaten only very occasionally, or when a diseased 
animal is killed. They drink water or buttermilk. There are two meals 
daily, viz. at 7 A.M. and 7 P.M. in the hot, and 9 a.m. and 8 p.m. in the cold 
season, and they consist of about 40 ozs. of food. The people are generally 
healthy, but liable to diarrhea from the use of fruits and coarsely ground 
grains. The industrial classes obtain more animal food, and take from 24 to 
32 ozs. of food daily. The jail dietary varies with sex, labour, and day of 
the week, and consists of attah 20 ozs., dal 2 ozs., salt 674 grains, and chillies 
37 grains, daily, with 8 ozs. of vegetables and 4 tollah of oil weekly, besides 
2 ozs. of parched grain given to the labouring prisoners. Women have the 
diet of the non-labouring class. The food is not prejudicial to health. 
(Diet No. 22 nearly.) 

89. Dr. C. F. Orpnam, Googaira, states that the inhabitants are Mussul- 
men, and consist of the pastoral tribes, who wander about and live in reed huts 
in the jungle, and also of the agricultural and trading classes. Milk, fresh or 
curdled or as buttermilk, is the most important food of the pastoral tribes ; 
and when they can, they obtain attah, with ghee. They say, “ A man may 
live without bread; but without buttermilk he dies.” They do not cultivate 
vegetables, but eat them when they get them. Curries are not common, and 
chillies are not much used. The daily quantity of food is, milk or butter- 
milk 4 to 6 Ibs., attah 12 to 16 ozs., and ghee 2 to 4 ozs.; dal is seldom used, 
and beef and mutton only occasionally; sugar or molasses is mixed with 
milk; alcohol is seldom, and opium never, used. Among the industrial tribes 
milk is still used to the extent of 2 lbs., attah from 16 to 22 ozs., and 2 to 4 
ozs. of ghee. Vegetables are eaten in large quantities, and chillies daily ; dal is 
seldom used ; spirits and tobacco are largely consumed, and opium is taken 
chiefly in towns. Another class, Chhwra, do the dirty work of the commu- 
nity; they eat much milk and attah, besides the flesh of snakes, lizards, and 
reptiles, wolves, jackals, horses, and cattle, which have died naturally. They 
cut the flesh into strips, and dry it in the sun when not required for use. 
The pastoral tribes are one of the finest races in India, tall, straight, muscular, 


ON FOODS OF FREE AND JAIL POPULATIONS OF INDIA. 199 


handsome, active, enduring, and braye; they regard the agricultural class 
with contempt. The agricultural class are also a fine race and healthy. The 
Chhura or Sweeper class are very healthy and robust. The jail dietary varies 
with sex, labour, and day of the week; it is sufficient, although less than 
that to which they are accustomed. The chief diseases are those of the 
bowels and lungs. (Diet No, 23.) 

90. Dr. W. A. Gruen, Leia, states that the food of the labouring and in- 
dustrial classes is chiefly farinaceous, and a never-changing sort of meal. 
Animal food is a dainty luxury, eaten only on special days. Wheat, maize, 
barley, jowar, and sirwar are usually made into cakes. The quantity of 
grains or pulses eaten is 2 lbs. to 3 lbs. daily. Dals are seldom or never used: 
by these classes. Turnip is the favourite vegetable, and vegetables and fruits 
are largely eaten. Milk, butter, and buttermilk are very extensively used ; 
the latter is regarded as indispensable, and they prefer it to a meal. Those 
living on the Thull (the sandy and unproductive districts) live solely upon 
milk, especially camel’s milk, which is brackish, has but little fat, and is drunk 
diluted with water. It is laxative to those unaccustomed to its use. The 
people are hearty and vigorous, sturdy and robust. The sameness of food has 
no bad effect. In jails the diet is too little and too limited, leaving out the 
indispensable buttermilk (which is antiscorbutic) and fruits, and forcing upon 
the prisoner the dals to which he is not accustomed. Want of free exercise 
is also another cause of evil. It is a great misfortune that the daily quan- 
tity of food is not given, seeing that the dietary is peculiar. 

91. Dr. T. M¢Suany, Dera Ismail Khan, gives a table showing the kinds 
of food in use, and the daily quantity of each which is eaten; but as all are 
not eaten on the same day, the daily dietary cannot be inferred from it. The 
daily ration of rice is 2 lbs., but itis seldom eaten; of the usual grains 22 lbs.; 
of meat 1 to 2 lbs., but only eaten very occasionally ; of buttermilk 10 lbs., 
used as drink; of milk 2 lbs.; of ghee 4 ozs. ; and of various vegetables from 
2 to 4 lbs. Onions are seldom eaten. The jail dietary varies with sex, 
labour, and day of the week. (Diet No. 23.) 

92. Dr. S. A. Homan, Tallunder, states the nature of the diet of the dif- 
ferent classes in hot and cold weather, with the quantity of each eaten daily, 
the mode of preparation, and the frequency of their use ; and supplies the daily 
dietary of the different classes. The higher-class Hindoos at all seasons take 
16 ozs. of attah of wheat, or 12 ozs. of khichree, with 4 ozs. of dal and 2 ozs. 
of ghee, daily; also 12 ozs. of rice and 8 ozs. of vegetables now and then; 
and a few eat occasionally 8 ozs. of meat. The lower-class Hindoos take in 
cold weather 2 lbs. of Indian corn or other grain for making rotee, 4 ozs. of 
dal (or 8 ozs. of vegetables now and then), 1 oz. of ghee, and some of them 
24 ozs. of attah of wheat, if procurable. In hot weather, 2 lbs. of attah of bar- 
ley, &c. is substituted for Indian corn, &c. The higher-class Mussulmen eat, 
in both hot and cold weather, 16 ozs. of attah of wheat in chapattees, 8 ozs. of 
rice, 8 ozs. of meat (for boiling), 8 ozs. of vegetables, 4 ozs. of various dals, 
and the ghee used in frying the food. The lower class in cold weather eat 
2 Ibs. of Indian-corn attah or other grain, or 24 ozs. of attah of wheat, with 
4 ozs. of various dals, 8 ozs. of vegetables and some ghee, with 8 ozs. of meat. 
now and then. In hot weather 2 lbs. of attah of barley, or Baisnee rotee, is 
substituted for other grain. The jail dietary varies with labour and day of 
the week ; it consists of 20 ozs. of attah of wheat for making chapattees, or 
12 ozs. of rice, 4 ozs. of dal, or 8 ozs. of vegetables twice a week, 1 oz. of 
ghee, 80 grains of salt, and 2 massalahs of chillies. his is a very valuable 
report. (Diet No. 23 nearly.) F ; 


200 REPORT—1863. 


93. Dr. J. C. Penny, Madhapore, gives a list of the articles of food in use, 
with the daily average quantity of each which is eaten (when they are eaten), 
the mode of preparation, and other remarks upon them, but does not give a 
daily dietary. Barley is used chiefly by the poor, and is surreptitiously mixed 
with the attah of wheat; but there is much prejudice against its use. Rice 
is not a common food. Dal is used universally. The cow yields but little 
milk ; so that the supply of milk is chiefly from buffaloes and goats, and it is 
eaten by the prosperous elasses only. Ghee is sometimes used externally as 
an inunction. Beef is confined to Mahomedans, and pork to the Seikhs. 
Mutton is plentiful, and generally enjoyed. The jail dietary varies with 
sex, labour, and day of the week. (Diet No. 23.) 

94. Dr. G. A. Watson, Shahpore, gives in detail the articles of diet used 
in the jail, The dietary varies with duration of imprisonment. Oil is given 
only to those sentenced to less than six months’, and ghee to those sentenced 
to more than six months’ imprisonment. He also supplies a long list of the 
articles of food, and of the nitrogenous substances eaten by the free inhabit- 
ants, with a statement of the eultivation, consumption, and mode of prepa- 
ration ; but he does not give a daily dietary. 

95. Dr. H. N. Etron, Sealkote, gives a similar list of foods, with a state- 
ment of the daily quantity of each when eaten, the mode of preparation, and 
the effect upon the health, &c., but does not quote a daily dietary. Attah of 
wheat is eaten by all classes, at 10 a.m. and 8 p.m., in a quantity of 2 lbs. daily. 
It is made into cakes, baked in an oven or pan, and smeared with ghee. 
Gram, barley, &e. are generally eaten by the working zemindars. Dal and 
certain vegetables are eaten by all classes. Rice is not a daily food, but is 
used at entertaimments. Goats, sheep, fowls, and fish, in quantity of 1 1b., 
are eaten by all classes, but not daily by the poor. Milk and buttermilk are 
used in quantities of 24 ozs. daily. The jail dietary varies with sex, labour, 
and day of the week. (Diet No. 23.) 

96. Dr. G. HenpErson, Thelum, gives a list of foods eaten by the inhabit- 
ants, both free and in jail, with a short statement of the mode of prepara- 
tion, but does not quote the daily dietary. 

97. Dr. R. Parker, Kangra, states at length the various foods eaten in his 
district, with the daily consumption, mode of preparation, influence upon 
health, &c., but does not give a daily dietary. Rice is eaten by all classes at 
midday ; wheat-flour by the higher class, and by Cashmeeres and Mussul- 
men all the year, and by Hindoos in the hot and rainy seasons. Maize is 
principally eaten by the zemindars, except in the hottest season; millet only 
by the poorer classes; barley-flour chiefly by the zemindars; dal and condi- 
ments by all classes, and vegetables by all classes at times. Meat is eaten in 
all seasons ; carrion in quantities of 1 Ib. at a time ; and all flesh, except that 
of jackals and dogs, agrees with them. Tea is sometimes used, morning and 
evening. The jail diet varies with sex, labour, and day of the week, and is 
ample in quantity and excellent in quality. Weevil and bran should be, and 
are, excluded from the wheat-flour. 

98. Dr. T. 8. Neate, Goojranwallah, gives a very similar report, and does 
not cite a daily dietary. Wheat-flour and the best kinds of rice are eaten by 
the opulent classes ; this, with barley-meal, maize, and inferior rice, by the 
inferior classes. Milk is drunk in enormous quantities by the Sheikhs, and 
’ these, with the Mahomedans, are the chief consumers; it is scarcely attain- 
able by the poor. Ghee is not obtained by the poor except in very small 
quantities—once in ten or fourteen days, and often not for a year. The poor 
obtained damaged, but not sound, meat. The quantity of each, when eaten, 


ON FOODS OF FREE AND JAIL POPULATIONS OF INDIA. 201 


is 2 Ibs. of the cereals, 6 to 8 ozs. of dals, 2 to 4 ozs. of milk, 2 to 4 ozs. of 
ghee, 8 ozs. of butter, 16 ozs. of meat. 

99. M. L. Hue, Pindadun Khan, supplies a list of the articles of food, 
with their cultivation, consumption, and mode of preparation, but does not 
give a daily dietary. Wheat is the principal food of all classes; rice is eaten 
by the rich, and barley by the poor. Indian corn is not usually eaten by 
the poor, but is given to horses. The sugar-cane is used by all classes for 
its juice, and vinegar is made from it. Cauliflowers, cabbage, and potatoes 
are neither cultivated nor eaten; turnips, radishes, mustard, onions, garlic, 
carrots, &ec., are used by all. Mutton is only of middling, whilst beef is of 
bad quality: both are eaten by Mahomedans, and the former by some Hindoos 
(not Hindoo women), and much is consumed. Fowls and eggs are scarcely 
used, Ghee and milk are plentifully consumed by all. Fish is very scarce. 
The higher-caste Hindoos live totally on vegetable food, excepting milk and 
ghee, and are healthier than others. The agriculturists live on chapattees 
(from grain-flours), raw onions, and Jussee. The middle classes take all kinds 
of food. 


BurMAu. 


100. B. Hooxrr, Esq., Tavoy, Burmah, states that rice is the most important 
and the principal aliment, and is not of the best quality, and induces obsti- 
nate constipation, with its consequences. Masticated rice is given to infants, 
and destroys nearly all which are not strong and healthy born. The ordinary 
flesh in use is from the elk, and is fresh or dried; but the Burmese will eat 
the flesh of elephant, tapir, and rhinoceros, and the Karens that of monkeys 
and some kinds of snakes. Fish is very plentiful, and is kept closely packed 
in yessels until it decomposes, causing choleraic symptoms. There is no en- 
demic disease. Tea is used at every meal when it can be afforded. The 
Chinese eat more meat than the Burmese, and take a glass of spirits before 
meals. The daily dietary of a Chinese consists of rice 24 ozs., pork 8 ozs., 
fish or flesh 4 ozs., vegetables 8 ozs., condiments 13 0z., ghee or oil 3 oz., 
pickles 3 oz., salt 1 oz., tea 1 oz., and arrack 8 ozs.: that of a Burmese con- 
tains rice 2 lbs., fish or flesh 8 ozs., vegetables 6 ozs., condiments 1 oz., ghee 
or oil 14 oz., salt 14 oz., tea 4 oz., and gnapé 3 ozs. The jail dietary varies 
with labour and day of the week. (Diet No. 24.) 

101. R. T. Surrrem, Esq., Tounghoo, states that the natives there consist 
of Burmese, Shans, and Karens, the dietary of the latter differing from that 
of the two former. The Burmese live on rice and vegetables seasoned with 
‘eurry-stuffs, with considerable quantities of fish, and the flesh of animals 
dying naturally, except that of the dog and cat. Their religion prohibits 
them from taking away life. Fish is dried, salted, or smoked. Prawns and 
small fish are beaten to a paste, and are an important article of diet. Fruits, 
both ripe and unripe, are eaten largely. The Burmese are muscular and en- 
during, and are very temperate. The Karens eat chiefly rice and vegetables, 
besides large quantities of beef, pork, poultry, and game, with a little fish. 
They are intemperate, and a less robust race than the Burmese, although eat- 
ing more nutritious food. The jail dietary is similar to that in freedom, and 
causes increase of weight. The daily diet in freedom consists of rice 29 ozs., 
fish, flesh, or gnapé 11 ozs., vegetables 14 ozs., ghee 1 oz., oil 1 oz., salt 1 oz., 
eurry-stuff 1 oz.: that in jail contains rice 26 ozs., fish, flesh, or gnapé 3 ozs., 
vegetables 14 ozs., oil 1 oz., salt 1 oz., and curry-stuff 1 oz., and does not vary 
with labour. 


202 REPORT—1863. 


102. A, Tuomas, Esq., Kyouk Phyoo, states that the dietary is similar to that 
in Lower Bengal, but is prepared differently. ice is the chief food, and is 
eaten in quantities of 14 to 2 Ibs. daily; their gnapé having an abominable 
smell, and made by pounding shrimps, prawns, crabs, or fish. Fish and 
vegetables are eaten generally. The curries will weigh 13 lb, to 2 Ibs. daily; 
and besides these, they eat sweets and fruits at all hours. The people are 
muscular, robust, and enduring. The jail dietary varies with labour and 
day of the week. (Diet No. 11.) 

103. C. E. Pysrer, Esq., Sandoway, states that the daily dietary of a 
labouring man consists of rice 2 lhbs., fish or flesh 3 ozs., gnapé 1 oz., vege- 
tables 10 ozs., salt 4 0z., chillies &c. } oz.: that of the Bengalese contains 
rice 24 ozs., dal 4 ozs., or fish 4 ozs., vegetables 2 ozs., mustard-oil 1 oz., 
spices 1 oz., and salt 1 oz. The jail dietary varies with labour, and in part 
with day of the week. Very little, if any, ill-effects can be attributed to it. 
(Diet No. 11.) 

104. Dr. G. Marr, Moulmein, in reference to the daily dietary of the free 
population, has evidently made an error in reducing the native weight to 
ounces, and instead of dividing by 2 should have multiplied by 2, as may be 
inferred from the jail dietary. With this correction, the daily dietary of 
natives of India contains rice 28 ozs., dal 4 ozs., fish or flesh 4 ozs., vegetables 
5 ozs., ghee 2 ozs., oil 2 ozs., salt 1 oz., condiments 13 oz.; whilst that of the 
Burmans contains rice 40 ozs., fish or fiesh 24 ozs., vegetables 24 ozs., oil 
4 ozs., with salt and condiments. Rice is the staple food. Dal is not given 
there. Fish is abundant, and is eaten alternately with flesh of all kinds. 
Vegetables and oil gengelli are in daily use. The Burmese are short and mus- 
cular, and inclined to obesity. They are well fed and contented. Those 
living in jungles and forests are not so well fed. A Burman will not kill an 
animal for food, but will eat any dead one. The jail dietary varies with 
labour, and to some extent with the day of the week. (Diet No. 25.) 

105. A. J. Cowin, Esq., Akyab, states that two meals daily are taken. 
The well-to-do classes eat daily as follows :—best rice 20 ozs., dal 4 ozs., 
vegetables 4 ozs., oil or ghee 2 ozs., fish 3 ozs., sweetmeats and sugar 3 ozs., 
salt and spices 3 oz. each. Wheat-flour 16 ozs., cow’s or goat’s milk 24 pints. 
A labourer eats daily, rice 24 ozs., dal 4 ozs., fish 4 ozs., vegetables 6 ozs., salt 
and spices 4 oz. of each, and meat occasionally 8 ozs., and milk 1 pint daily. 
Wheat-flour is used sometimes, instead of rice, to the extent of 10 ozs. in the 
latter class; and I am doubtful whether in the first.class both rice and wheat 
are eaten on the same day, although it so stands in the table. Mussulmen 
eat meat instead of fish; those of the first class on alternate days. Rice is. 
washed and boiled, and the water thrown away. Dal is boiled with spices, 
ghee or oil, and salt; fish is generally fried first, and then boiled with spices, 
ghee or oil, and salt. Vegetables are first fried in oil or ghee, and then 
boiled; they are sometimes made into curry with meat. Flour is made into 
chapattees. Meat is fried in ghee or oil, and then boiled with spices and 
salt. The Arracanees eat daily, rice 28 ozs., fish or flesh 4 ozs., salt, oil, and 
gnapé 4 oz. each, spices 1 oz., vegetables 4 ozs. They eat much fruit and un- 
cooked vegetables ; and more than the above, with any other digestible sub- 
stance which they can obtain. He states that 167 varieties of rice are 
cultivated. The jail dietary varies with labour and day of the week. The 
Sunday’s diet is that of the non-labouring class. There are also here two 
scales of hospital-jail dietary. The jail diet is sufficient and wholesome. 
Fever, intestinal worms, and dyspepsy prevail. Dr. Snow’s views as to the 


| 


the Scales of 


[To face page 202. 


. 
No.6 No. 12. No. 13. | 
B. A. B. 
Without With Without With 
labour. labour. labour. labour. 
Senteni . Mouat’s, 1858. 
One to Two } Mester nal 
OZ. Zz. 
Daily. |Mond.| Tues. | Mond.| Tues. 

aks ae { ae <he ane bee aoe) jaxttal. 
17 22 | 24 22 22 24 24 | Rice. 

2 4 6 4 4 4 6 | Dal. 

nas Kee je Peer 2 ..» | Fish or Flesh. 

: 1 4 2 2 2 2 | Vegetables. 

: se es ae ae aes ... | Gnapé. 

a 4 3 u 1 3 4 | Oil. 

oe i Bieta 4 | Salt. 

Fs t i / t 4 3 + | Massalahs. 

| Chillies and 
condiments. 


B. 


With 
labour. 


Mond. 


A. 


Without 


labour. 


tol 


to 


OZ. 


| 
| 98 


B. 


With 
labour. 


7 


te 


bie 


! 
| 
| 


Tues. | Mond. | Tues. 


Attah. 
28 Rice. 
4 Dal. 
aa Grain. 
4 Fish or Flesh. 
5 | Vegetables. 
4} Oil. 
4 | Salt. 


‘ Chillies and 
condiments. ; 


— 


. —————— 4 


APPENDIX.—Showing the Seales of Jail Dietary referred to in this Report. [To face paye 2 
= aa I NRRL <a | 7 No. 4. No. 5. No. 6. No. 7. No. 8. No. 9. No. 10. No. 11. Seale 1851. || No. 12, | No. 13. | 
(mace ee a leas ees || ee Ez | B A. B. A. B. Kk B. re B. iv B B. A. B. 
| || I = re a A A 5 = : 5 = F = 
= = | = | = " Without With Without With Without With Without With Without With With : Without With || With Without With 
ee ie eae He ince ae labour. labour. labour. labour. labour. labour. labour. labour. labour. labour. || _—_Iabour. Hemulex, labour. labour. |) labour. labour. labour. 
| = . = And Sunday’s | 
in For natives of Behar, North-|/For Coles, Sonthals, Garrows, ‘5 Sent Sent Ss * ¢ 
Fe ealese, O s, and 1 > : entence entence entence Non-labouring have the - ,, 5 
‘or Bengals Oey an ae pBSariutes) and the anda Hill-men and Jungle- For Mughs and Chinamen. Que Monthtauililesa One tatreva Manihe: Two to Three Months. Long term Sentences. | pasralael Suda? abraticnt diet ae | | Dr. Mouat’s, 1858. 
a Wetec an eo as | oz. oz. oz. oz. 02. | 07. 02. oz. 0z, 02 oz. 
I | I | 
] | | 
i | | | Six Six | ¢ Six Six | Six Six deol hove eA ae Four | Seve ‘1 Three | Three | : 
|Mond. Tues. Mond. | Tues. | Mond./ Tues. |Mond.) Tues. ||Mond. |Tues. pu Tues. || All. Mond.| Tues. |} gays,| Sund- gays, | Sumd- |) days, | Sand. | gays, | Sumds || days, | Sumd-| gays, | Sund. | Daily. ates Daily. ce || Daily. | Suna. caval |hiaees Daily. | ire’ | dope, | Dally- |) Mond.| Tues. | fond, | Tues 
! | | (i a 
| | 
| | | | } 
A — an a: | 8 8 10 10 =r a rs se: | orth aa a8 es ee ne car Ris nee Maeve||| ase oa Pe ver pe et 0 “10 oe ae oe St eae wa see £5 ero art cee a. =| Attah. 
= eed 3801 Ne: | 20) I) 20 20! feer0: size ere 20 | 18 | 20 | 20 | 22 Pye || py Ne ||) |) oe |) BS Ole Neree | aey ) p2 is |) ee | ah | 22 i | es a | a |] ey ee 18 22 24 | 24 24 | 22 | 22 | 24 | 24 | Rice. 
mee Seeteve || 2) iil a ||| ca" ll) caval) 76; || (real ae sell |e ro (he el ze) at ee He ee ea et ee a Ih a Se It see 2 | 2 4 6 2 || 76 G |) 2 i) 24) ell Got 
Fish or Flesh esa: 4 || eal ot |e |) 4 4] 2 eet |] ce I son AUlsestcen pastaes ‘ : : Tes eel 2) | eee | tao Fresh 
A = 7 sil «6 4 4 4 4 | 2 al ie 2 4, (MI) ox 5 ieee 1 1 1 | 1 1 n 2 1 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 4 4 4 2 2 | 2 | 2 | Vegetables. 
: Hime) <. # ees 3 3 Fl Sze cose leotes ea || lieeeew lll ess ds! ||) ea tin oa wi a = ee nel ess = Gere eee || nese. || ress || Ghiapes 
| 4i) t] 4 yl) PSV a ie | = b) os ain | > |e t + ee) 4 4) 4] 4] 4 lon 
; } 4 +| t } Hi SR a OF Oe] OF] ; li eal) Sa aa EES] os) oll say 38 t| 4] { t| 4 t + t| 4 { | 4+] ¢] 4] 4] sat. 
$) a) 3] 2 a SH at al a) a ] i eel +] | call ee t| 7 $ i f| ¢ | | FL 4) E | Mastatahs 
| | | | } | Cuilies and 
| aoe if ae | ee oo condiments. 
| || | || | 
15 7 15 | 15 17 | ne | ae | | | . | 
No. 14. No. 15. No. 16. | No. 17, No, 18. | No, 19, | No. 20, No. 21, | No, 22. No. 23. No. 24. | No. 25. 
(ie B. | A. B. A. | B. A B. A. B. A. B. | A. Bra || A. | B. A. B. A. B. A. S| A B. 
| | [= | 
Without With Without With Without With Without With Without With | Novlabour Tabour. Without With Without With Without With 
labour. labour. labour. | labour. labour. labour. labour. labour. | labour. labour. | | E z labour. labour. labour. labour. labour. labour. 
| F | 
Dr. Mouat’s, 1862. Women, and boys under Women | I \ Womentendl | | 
15 years. only. | | boys under 15 years. | 
oz. oz oz. oz. oz. | oz. | oz. 02. oz. oz. oz. oz. oz. 
) 2 
I | — - / 
Mond. Tues. |Mond. Tues. | } | Mond.| Tues. |Mond.| Tues. |) Mond.) Tues. | Mond.) Tues. 
|| | || | 
| | | || | 
Atteh ee |e | 8 10 ebiess |ccowieaks 1. “19 2 | 10 12000 || eG) ne hieees 24 || {sae ae 16 20 16 20 ee ERG celles | ool | area 
| Substituted for Substituted for | | | | | | P 
1g | 18 22 22 8 10 fiour twice a) flour twice a) 8 | 10 | 8 once a week in lieu of attah 22 24 | 22 24 | 4 l4 28 28 || 24 24 28 28 | Rice. 
week 16 ozs. | week 12 ozs. | | | | i| 
4 6 2 6 4 4 4 5 || 6 | 6 4 4 6 6 | 6 6 4 4 4 4 4 oz. 5 times weekly 2 oe 4 arene es 2 4 -» | Dal. 
| ~ one eos oy oe oo ee on ane | ae one asa ase ans. | are on wee 4 mt 4 eeeeee nee oF oe ere fea os oan Grain. 
| Fish or Flesh) =. |<. 4 | - oo om os oe BE | on am 4 once a week |4 thricea week)... 4 || oe on 5 ma 2 4 |] os 3 4 | Fish or Flesh. 
: Vegetables...| 6 | 4 |) 4 4 8 twice a week | 8 twice a week | 6 8 secven 8 twice a week instead of dal 6 6 2 4 | aie Bthriceaweek) 8 thrice a week 8 twice a week 25 23 5 || 5 5 5 | Vegetables. 
| | = = Ghee 1 oz. k. 3 4 | . 
4) -3 4 5 45 grs. 90 grs. orghee 90 grs.or ghee 135 grs.) { Ef ie Bae comctiog: | } 46 grs. twice a week. Ghee } t 5 + || vy as 45 grs. 46 grs. twice a week } } ; PT 4 : 4 | Oil. 
7 180 grs. - i 
ieee: Maecenas Heads ete consietona 67d ars. 4 4 #) 4 || 100 ges. | 100 grs. O74 ers. 678 grs. t] 2] af a} af af a] a4] sme 
: = Tamarind, tur-!|opities 2 Chilli Chillies 2. sas 1 | | 
Memaths..| 3/ 3/ 3] 3 Tamarind, tor meri chilis (ee eet ee Geka | } I i 4 
limes. re Turmeric 10grs|Turmericl0grs,| + 9% Afterconviction. || meric 10 gra, || an 
6 Br. is 
Chabene 4. | Tamarind 1 oz. | illi 
Challies and | | | No.1 No. 1 ators a6 { 1] 4 Chillies and 
isan | ozs Sere os il as ha See | aires on fe cti0 ~ | 0. 1. 0. 1. grs. grs. t $ 4 3 | i 4 condiments. 
| 


On Sunday all have the non-labouring rations of Monday. 


ON THE FORMATION OF MINERALS. 203 


spread of cholera are supported by facts here: all the outbreaks of cholera 
have been preceded by a murrain in cattle. (Diet No. 11.) 

106. J. J. Herrernan, Thyet-Myo, states that the daily dietary of the free 
population contains rice 1 to 1} Ib., dal 2 to 3 ozs., fish or flesh 2 to 4 ozs., 
vegetables 4 to 5 ozs., oil 1 oz. (seldom used), gnapé (nearly always used in- 
stead of salt), and condiments. The Burmese, except those addicted to the 
use of intoxicating liquors and drugs, enjoy average health. 


Synthetical Researches on the Formation of Minerals, &c. 
By M. Aurnonse Gaces. 

Sixce my last Report my experiments have been chiefly directed to the 
synthesis of serpentine and some other magnesian minerals,—to the action of 
animal organic matter in the production of minerals (a subject which has 
been often discussed, but is always worth being more fully studied from an 
experimental point of view),—and lastly, to the action which solutions con- 
taining the materials of felspar may have had in altering the composition 
and structure of Cambrian and other ancient rocks. The results which I 
propose to give here must necessarily be fragmentary, both from the nature 
of the investigation itself, and the fact of its being still in progress. 


My first object has been to ascertain the kind of action which alkaline solu- 
tions exert on the hydrated silicates, of magnesia, iron, and lime, and to 
endeavour to determine synthetically the formation of serpentine and some 
other rocks allied to it. 

The composition of the mineral known as serpentine is almost constant, 
while the rock known by that name, though essentially agreeing in composi- 
tion with the mineral, contains nevertheless various foreign matters. The 
circumstances under which serpentine-rocks are found and their general 
character indicate that they are not generally derived from the gradual alter- 
ation of a preexisting rock, but have been produced by the direct deposition 
of silicates which accidentally enclosed foreign substances, and which by 
dialysis lost alkalies, and by subsequent infiltration may have gained some 
other constituents and led to the formation of other minerals in the mass. 

The process I have employed to arrive at the synthesis of serpentine is 
based on the solubility of the hydrated silicate of magnesia (2Mg0O,3S8i0, +4HO) 
im alkalies, and on the precipitation which results when a diluted solution of 
bicarbonate of magnesia is added. 

1st Experiment.—A given quantity of silicate of magnesia in the gelati- 
nous state was introduced into a muslin bag and held in suspension in a 
diluted solution of caustic potash. After some days the silicate enclosed in 
the bag was found entirely dissolved. This solution, left in repose in a glass 
cylinder for some months, deposited a transparent colloid, which, after being 
Washed and dried, presented the following composition :— 


Geltga 2), SOR gehts 50:036 
MGeTOSIA | oc. vt ie 19-419 
POPERE ase cents 17:642 
Water... wivigecumnenind 12-980 


100:077 


204 , REPORT—1868. 


This substance, when dried, had a semivitreous transparent aspect. Heated 
to a dull red, it becomes insoluble in acids. 

2nd Experiment.—A saturated solution of the hydrated silicate of mag- 
nesia (2Mg0,3 SiO, + 4HO) in caustic potash, treated by a dilute solution of 
bicarbonate of magnesia, gives a gelatinous precipitate, which, after having 
been washed till the action of acids no longer disengages carbonic acid, had 
the following composition :— 


DURCH eta ne nals ae 40°285 
Magnesia ........ 38°250 
Waters isc os 5% ws 19-428 
Carbonic acid ...... 1-450 

99-413 


The substance thus obtained would represent a serpentine with three equiva- 
lents of water; it has the composition of the Deweylite of Thompson, which 
is, in fact, a variety of serpentine. 

As the bicarbonate of magnesia which remains in solution with the silicate 
of potash has a tendency to form with the latter double salts but slightly soluble, 
it is well to employ only dilute liquors. This tendency of magnesia to replace 
the alkalies in silicates is exemplified in a great number of hydrated magnesian 
compounds. On the other hand, the zeolites are in general remarkable by 
the absence of magnesia; and in one or two exceptional cases, such as the 
Picrothomsonite for example, in which magnesia enters into the constitution 
of the mineral, the augmentation of magnesia is attended by a corresponding 
diminution of the alkalies. Thus serpentine should have been the result of 
the action of water containing alkalies on magnesian rocks. The same phe- 
nomenon is shown on a small scale in certain basaltic tufas, in which we meet 
with a deposit of magnesian silicate, accompanied often by arragonite and 
calcareous spar, containing more or less magnesia, while the alkalies of the 
basalt have completely disappeared *. 


Solubility of Silicate of Hydrated Protowxide of Iron. 


The silicate of the hydrated protoxide of iron is soluble in the cold in 
alkalies, if we take care to exclude air; this solution is more readily effected 
in presence of magnesia, which appears to protect the liquor from further 
oxidation. We can obtain compounds in which magnesia and protoxide of 
iron exist in various proportions. 

The solutions in potash of the silicates of protoxide of iron, magnesia, and 
alumina, left exposed to the air on a plate, dry and acquire a gelatinous state 
without undergoing alteration, the iron remaining in the state of protoxide ; 
the potash separates itself partially from the compound; the substance, then 
washed and dried, has the form of green scales. Weak hydrochloric acid re- 
moves the bases, leaving the siliceous skeleton unaltered, in the shape of soft 
and nacreous scales like certain chlorites. 

The following analysis will give an idea of the solubility of the silicate of 
protoxide of iron, and of the number of bases which can thus be dissolved and 
precipitated by evaporation, or by the action of Co, :— 


* Besides the artificial Deweylite, of which I have just given the analysis, I have 
obtained a great number of other precipitates of variable composition, which strikingly 
represent the composition of many serpentine-rocks, to which I shall return on another 
occasion. 


ON THE FORMATION OF MINERALS. 205 


Siliéa S>ica Pap Shrek. 59-004 
FeO? 22 /0RROe 13-836 
MoO SPRL See Mi 10: 8-351 
AA OU: be nuaioiie: E 8-103 
BOO"! sostiel Ie oie. | 11-800 

101-094 


The slow metamorphosis which some slates appear to have undergone, and 
their insensible transition from slate to chloritic slate, show, as I think, the 
latent part that alkalies have had in that transformation, by their reaction on 
alumina, protoxide of iron, and magnesia, and also by their faculty of partially 
separating from the combination once formed. Chlorite always contains more 
or less alkalies ; and even Andalusite found in these rocks often retains traces 
of alkalies as the last evidence of its mode of formation. 

The colloid condition assumed by these aluminous silicates, obtained at a 
moderate temperature, may lead to the conclusion that the foliated structure 
assumed by chloritic schists is more or less connected with phenomena of this 
Jind. 

Silicate of protoxide of iron dissolved in caustic potash is not precipitated by 
the alkaline sulphides, and the solution acquires the well-known green tint 
which the slight traces of sulphide of iron remaining in solution give it when 
we precipitate a salt of iron by an alkaline sulphide. 

Some drops of acid added to the solution of the silicate in the alkaline sulphide 
give an emerald-green precipitate, which is decomposed with evolution of 
sulphide of hydrogen on the addition of an excess of acid. The green sub- 
stance loses its colour as soon as it ceases to be under the influence of the 
sulphides. A porous body saturated with this solution loses its green tint by 
desiccation ; the colour reappears with a bluish tinge if the substance be 
exposed to the vapours of sulphide of ammonium. The colour may be thus 
revived for a certain number of times, after which the phenomenon no longer 
takes place. 

This phenomenon has relation to the natural formation of ultramarine, a 
substance which is always accompanied by pyrites of iron. The silicate of 
iron dissolved in the sulphides of potassium leaves upon the side of the glass 
an ultramarine blue tint; but other circumstances may lead us rather to 
suspect that this blue colour is due to a molecular condition of the sulphur 
itself, since a sulphide left to the air in a vase exhibits on the sides of the 
glass a fugitive blue tint. 


Action of the Alkalies on Silicate of Lime. 


The direct action of the alkalies, when carbonic acid is not present, on the 
hydrated silicate of lime is very simple, and may be briefly stated thus :—If 
the hydrated silicate of lime, 2 S10, CaO, 2 HO, be treated with caustic potash, 
it loses an equivalent of silica, and becomes transformed into 810, CaO, HO; 
this silicate loses its equivalent of water at a dull red heat, and is then found 
to have the composition of tabular spar, CaO, Si0,,. 


IL. Propucrion or SunpHuret or Zinc, Brenve, SELENITE, AND CaLAMINE, 
UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF PUTREFACTION oF ANIMAL MArrer. 


The reaction of sulphate of zinc on carbonate of lime or magnesia easily 
explains the production of Smithsonite, or carbonate of zinc; but when we 


) 
| 
| 


206 REPORT—1863. 


inquire into the production of blende and galena in fossiliferous formations, 
we have to seek this reaction in the compounds of sulphur produced by the 
decomposition of animal matter, or in the reduction of the sulphates under the 
same influences. The hydrated silicates of zine which accompany these 
minerals prove that other forces were in action at the same time; and the 
hydrated argillaceous clays which form the metalliferous beds further attest 
these last reactions. 

The sulphides of zinc and lead, the former found in mammillated masses 
and often in transparent lamelle, have evidently been formed at the expense 
of organic matter. 

200 grammes of sulphate of zinc, dissolved in two litres of water in which 
were suspended the fleshy parts of twelve oysters, were enclosed in a bag; with 
this liquor were introduced some shells, in order to obtain the conversion of 
the sulphate of zinc into carbonate. The mixture was kept for several months, 
till putrid fermentation had ceased. The liquor no longer contained zinc ; the 
shells were partially transformed into carbonate of zinc, accompanied by 
erystals of selenite; the surface of parts of the shells had acquired a trans- 
parent rosy tint, produced by a deposit of blende permeating the shell. Left 
for some time in weak acetic acid (strong acid would decompose it), the trans- 
parent rosy tint became more developed; a part of this substance examined 
was dissolved in hydrochloric acid, with evolution of sulphide of hydrogen, 
and had the composition and characters of Blende. 

Conversion of Carbonate of Lead into Galena.—Some grammes of carbonate 
of lead recently precipitated were placed in a bag and suspended in two litres 
of water saturated with carbonic acid; putrid fermentation was kept up in 
the liquid for some months, in the manner indicated in the last experiment. 
The shells introduced into the liquid were soon covered with a metallic layer 
of sulphuret of lead. 

A weak solution of chloride of lead treated in the same way gave no 
result. 

Double Sulphate of Copper and Iron.—The double sulphate of iron and 
copper, by the reaction of carbonate of lime, and under the influence of putre- 
faction, gave, as the final result, carbonate of iron, blue carbonate of copper 
in distinct rhomboidal prisms, and semitransparent crystals of selenite. 

One of the shells, after treatment by weak acetic acid so as to uncover the 
surface, left exposed after suitable washing, and on some parts only, spots 
presenting the metallic grey and the iridescence of the sulphide of copper, 
and presenting its characters to the blowpipe. The quantity of sulphide 
found in the mixture was extremely small. The ammonia which is deve- 
loped during the fermentation must tend to decompose the sulphide of copper 
and transform it into ammoniacal sulphate. It is what takes place when 
the sulphide of copper is exposed to the vapours of sulphide of ammonium. 

The decomposition of putrescible organic matter of the nature of that 
employed in contact with sulphate of iron and earthy carbonates leads to 
different results according to the conditions in which we operate. If we 
employ a very deep vase and an abundant quantity of water, we obtain sul- 
phide of iron, free sulphur, and carbonate of the protoxide, the sulphate of 
lime which is formed remaining in the solution. If the vase, on the contrary, 
present a large surface, the sulphide of iron disappears, and the oxide of iron 
passes at the maximum of oxidation, and organic matter is consumed, In 
neither case is the iron pyrites formed, which appears to be the result of a 
slow reduction of the sulphate of sesquioxide of iron in presence of carbonates. 


——— ee i 


ON THE FORMATION OF MINERALS. 207 


III. InFivence oF THE FELsPATHiIc SOLUTION ON THE STRUCTURE OF SOME 
CamBrian Rocks. 


The schistose deposits of Bray Head, regarded as the lowest stratified beds 
of the Cambrian system, containing the fossil Oldhamia, considered as the 
most ancient vestige of animal life on the globe, exhibit a well-marked example- 
of felspathic metamorphism effected by the agency of water. This*rock is 
specially remarkable by the system of joints which it possesses, these joints 
separating into rhomboidal prisms, presenting the angles of cleavage of the 
orthoclase felspar, the planes of bedding corresponding to the planes of cleavage 
of the felspar. Nevertheless, as we might expect in a rock which has been 
submitted to the influence of other mechanical forces, the angles do not pre- 
sent that exactitude which a crystal of pure felspar would present. Hydro- 
chlorie acid does not alter the structure of the rock; after the action of the 
acid, it can be divided into plates as thin as paper. These plates, examined 
by the microscope, exhibit a felspathic paste in crystals often distinct, and 
enveloping grains of sand. 

We have here a felspathic solution which has modified a sedimentary rock 
containing fossils, the existence of which is not contested, and has com- 
municated to it its physical characteristics. Whatever may be the first origin 
of the felspathic solution, the rock could not be deposited except under the 
action of water, having its fossils disposed in horizontal layers. The system 
of joints which this rock presents is not a simple mechanical accident ; it is 
evidently due to the natural arrangement which the molecules of the felspar 
have assumed when deposited from the solution. It is, in fact, a simple 
phenomenon of crystallization ; that is, the jointing was guided by the planes 
of cleavage, as being the direction of least resistance. 

Microscopic examination after the treatment by acid shows almost always 
carbonaceous matter in the neighbourhood, or accompanying the prints of 
fossils, that matter being often enveloped by the felspathic paste. 

Metamorphosed Arenaceous Rocks of the same Formation.—As in the pre- 
ceding rocks, the felspathic solution has sensibly influenced the form which 
the quartz-rock affects ; the crystalline forms of orthoclase predominate at all 
points. This latter mineral has impressed its mineralogical characters on the 
rock in a rude manner, it is true, but still sufficiently sensible not to escape 
observation. 

By an analogous phenomenon to that which takes place in the sandstone 
of Fontainebleau, but in a manner less striking, the active solution percolating 
through the arenaceous matter has communicated to it its crystalline charac- 
ters. The prints of felspar, which often show themselves on the surface of 
these rocks, are sometimes identical in form and in size with the large ones 
found in the granite locality of Dalkey. 

It is not always easy to follow the transition of these felspathic rocks, and 
there is a moment when they are nearly indistinguishable from rocks con- 
sidered as granite veins. There is, in reality, no great difference between some 
of the Cambrian rocks containing a felspathic paste sensibly crystalline and 
enclosing grains of quartz, and the veins of Kurite filling the cracks and 
erevices of the Dalkey granite, this paste of Eurite often containing Garnets, 
and always isolated grains of quartz which could not be developed in it, 
Logically, I do not see why these veins should not be due to causes analo- 
gous to those which have produced the felspar of the Cambrian rocks, 


208 REPORT—1863. 


Preliminary Report on the Experimental Determination of the Tempe- 
ratures of Volcanic Foci, and of the Temperature, State of Saturation, 
and Velocity of the issuing Gases and Vapours. By Ropert Mauer, 
C.E., F.R.S., F.G.S. 


Ar the Cambridge Meeting of the British Association a grant of £100 was 
made, at the joint recommendation of the Physical and the Geological Sec- 
tions, to the Reporter, in furtherance of the above-stated research. Since that 
period a like sum has been granted to him by the Royal Society of London, 
with the same object. 

The estimated cost of the investigation, as carefully calculated as the sub- 
ject admits, has been found to amount to £350—a sum which so largely ex- 
ceeds that derived from both grants, that the author felt some hesitation at 
further pursuing the matter. In view, however, of the fact that the rare 
occurrence of the peculiarly favourable form of secondary crater existing on 
Vesuvius might alter at any moment, and perhaps never again present the 
same facilities for pyrometric experiment, he resolved not to risk the oppor- 
tunity by losing further time, and to take upon himself whatever pecuniary 
risk may be involved in performing the task he has proposed, presuming that, 
should his work prove satisfactory in adding to our positive knowledge of 
vulcanology, he may be indemnified in some way for such necessary ex- 
penditure as may be incurred in excess of the two grants made. 

He has, therefore, arranged the whole of the apparatus and instruments 
required, and their construction is now in progress. These consist of the 
mechanical arrangements for suspending, passing in over, and lowering into 
the crater, and again withdrawing, various instruments of greater or less 
weight; and of the instruments themselves, both for pyrometry and for de- 
termining the velocity and state of the issuing blast of steam and gases. 
The pyrometers finally adopted consist of resistance-coils, with their various 
electrical arrangements, which are being prepared by Messrs. Siemens, 
Halske & Co., of London and Berlin, with the able assistance of the author’s 
friend Mr. Charles T. Siemens (C.E., of London); and, as a means of con- 
trol as well as of separate and distinct determination, instruments have been 
devised by the author dependent upon Peclet’s mode of determining specific 
heats. By a modification of the arrangements to be employed, the author 
anticipates being enabled to make the fused lava itself become the means of 
revealing its own temperatures at points that cannot be directly reached 
even instrumentally. The latter pyrometric instruments, as well as some of 
the suspension apparatus, are being prepared by Messrs. Siebe, engineers, of 
London. A series of thermometers and other minute apparatus are in hand, 
by Mr. Casella and by Mr. Adie, both of London. For the observation of 
the velocity of the issuing vapours and gases, the anemometer of Dr. Ro- 
binson has been modified in construction and in its metallic material, so as 
to work satisfactorily at a bright red heat ; and the instrument in this form 
has been already completed in a skilful manner by Mr. Casella. 

Of other remaining instrumental or other arrangements made or in pre- 
paration it does not seem necessary here to give any detail. The author 
expects to have everything complete and forwarded on to Naples before the 
end of 1863; and hopes to start himself for Vesuvius about the commence- 
ment of next year. 

If successful there to the extent he anticipates, he may possibly try to 
extend his observations to some other volcanic vents, more especially to 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 209 


Lipari or Etna, though the limitation of the funds placed at his disposal 
renders this less probable. 

The author proposes to himself collaterally to examine some other dynamical 
and physical questions relative to the superficial phenomena of volcanic action 
that appear to him as yet not to have engaged sufficient attention, and is 
anxious to receive from vulcanologists suggestions as to such subjects for 
inquiry, with a view to which he has addressed himself by letter to a few of 
the leading minds in this branch of terrestrial physics. 


Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1862-63. By a 
Committee, consisting of James GuatsHeR, F.R.S., of the Royal 
Observatory, Greenwich, Secretary to the British Meteorological 
Society, &c.; Ropert P. Gree, F.G.S., &c.; E. W. Bray ey, 
F.R.S., &c.; and ALEXANDER S. HERscuHEL, B.A. 


In presenting this Report upon the Luminous Meteors of the past year the 
Committee have much pleasure in drawing attention to the marked advance 
in the number of coincident observations of meteors, regarding it as a most 
satisfactory proof of increased vigilance on the part of observers. Thus, of 
one meteor, viz., that of November 27th, 1862, no less than thirty-eight ac- 
counts have been received, of which ten of the most trustworthy have been 
used for the determination of the path of this detonating meteor. (See Ap- 
pendix No. II.) Of many other meteors also, have duplicate accounts been 
received. 

To several meteors, of which accounts have been printed in previous 
Reports, satisfactory tracks have been assigned, which appear in the series of 
papers forming No. I. of the Appendix. 

For the better determination of the heights and velocities of meteors during 
the August epoch, many observations were made on the 10th of August, 1863, 
in the 8. and E. of England, and the paths and magnitudes of twenty have 
been calculated. (See Appendix No. V.) 

_ Respecting the Catalogue itself no change of form has been made from 
that followed in preceding years, but it is enriched by the addition of several 
ancient observations, collected from uncommon, and generally inaccessible 
sources. In selection of the observations, meteors inferior to the 3rd mag- 
nitude of stars have generally been excluded from the Catalogue. 

In the Appencix (following the papers bearing more immediately upon the 
observations contained in the Catalogue) will be found abstracts from some 
of the most important papers upon Meteoric Science which have appeared 

during the past and previous years. 


1863. bd 


Date. 


_— 


1761. 


Feb. 7 


1763. 


Apr. 29 


Oct. 17 


19 


1769. 
Jan. 12 


1854, 
Oct. 


1859. 


Aug.20| 6 40 p.m.\Amoy, China ...Globe 4 or 5 in. in Light blue 


REPORT—1863. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIO 


Position, or 


Place of : - é 
Hour. é Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and 
Observation. Aesth: 
hm 

8 30 p.m.|Winbourn, Dor-\........2-ssseeeeeeeeres Light enough|Lasted at least|.........-+secereree 
setshire, to pick aj 5 minutes 

pin from the| (while leav- 

ground. ing the car- 
riage to run 
into the 
house). 

2 48 a.m.|Observatory; (Globe of fire ; one-/Bright red ...\40 seconds {12° .......... ooeess 
Hotel Cluny,| third diameter of failing. ; 
Paris. moon. 

7 © p.m.|Scotland ......... Splendour equal to........ 3 ste Seine With great ve-|.........sssececcsess 

that of broad locity. 
day. 

7 45 p.m.|St. Neots, Hunt-|9 in. in diameter...|....essssseeseee 26 seconds ...|Began immedi 
ingdonshire, S. of Capella. 
and at London. 

1 30 a.m.|High  Hlborn,]........csccsccsesceeces|scoccseceecccoeser|easecssenecssecees It appeared 
Tower Hill, come from t 
andat London. S.E. 

9 11 p.m.;/Hurworth, Dar-)2 x full moon at)Vivid flame-/Lasted a few)...........0+0+-008 3 

same hour| lington, Dur-| rising. colour, dark} seconds. ; 

toaminute| ham. red over- x] 

as that o head. ri 

August 18, 

1783. 

5 


diameter to size| 
of a man’s head. 


...-|Half a minute; Rose a very 1 


height above 
water in theh 
bour ; disap 
ed overhead. 


grew swifter 
as it rose. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


LUMINOUS METEORS. 


211 


and its Duration. 


ike two pillars on the 
top of the house. 
When it disappeared, 
it seemed to move for- 
ward and to sink down 
below the roof. The in- 
teriors of the rooms were 
plainly visible from the 
outside by the diffused 
light. 

‘ith long tail like a rocket 


ppearance; Train, ifany,| Length of 


Path. 


2 extraordinary luminous 
) appearance. 


eball 


golden - coloured 
Tail _ silvery, 
vaporous, full of amber- 
coloured sparks from 
one side of the sky to 
he other; lasted a few 
seconds; much ex- 


ed at first, send- 
off sparks at a 
pod height like foun- 
in jets from the 
in column of the 


ight; then decreased 
, Left a 
the first, 
emaining overhead 
€n minutes, becoming 
igzag. 


seen eeeeeeeeees 


Direction ; noting also 
whether Horizontal, 
Perpendicular, or 
Inclined. 


Fell perpendicularly ... 


N. to S. 


Course directed towards 
the E. 


pretty low down and 


N.E. to S.W. Appeared|Tail very extraordinary. 


‘Intensely dark night. It 


sun had not yet set. 


Remarks. 


was also seen 6 miles 
from this, _ lasting 
apparently half a 
minute. ? Aurora. 


The moon greatly di- 
minished in bright- 
ness. 

entirely 
Wind S.E. 
A similar meteor ob- 
served in France. 


overcast. 


Silent.  Providentially 
no person received 
any hurt. 


resembling thunder. 


Seen also at Durham, 


passed exactly over-- Dundee, Sheffield 
head. Set below the (Dr. Dick). 
horizon. 

Rose vertically .......... Many persons observed 


the trail of light, 
which was like a rent 
in the blue sky. The 


Sky almost) - 


Observer. 


Annual Register, 
1761. 


M. Messier, As- 
tronomer at 
Paris. 


Annual Register, 
1763. 


Id. 


. Was attended with noise Annual Register 


1769. 


E. Collins. 


7 


212 REPORT—1863. 
Pl f Position, or 
Date. Hour. ieeraon, Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Acinic 
8159. | h m 
Oct. 4| 9 5 p.m.|Roorkee,N.India|Far brighter than].......ccccesssee- Slow motion|Appeared at alti 
any star then at beginning] tude 12°, d 
visible in the sky. and end,| E.; passed 
quick in the} within 5° 
middle. the zenith, a 
disappeared at 
altitude 20°, 25° 
S. of W. j 
1860. | 
Aug.1l]....... ee Newhaven, Con-|46 shooping-stars...|.....csesecesssceeleceeneeereeeenes de |sseeessassacsecvenst Z 
necticut. 
1861. 
July 16/10 10 p.m.|Vauxhall, Lon-|Beautiful meteor...|.......... eee secdouveneeties .-./Descended towards 
don. the earth in t 
northerly direc 
tion. . 
24) 7 10 p.m.|Lat. 22° 21’ S.,|=3rd mag.# ...... White ......... 1:2second ...|From Saturn 
Long. 3° 17’ E. towards th 
horizon, _alony 
axis of the zodi 
acal light. 
27| 7 55 p.m.|Lat. 19° 44’ S.,|=3rd mag.* ...... White .........|2 seconds....../From near 3 
Long. 0°18’ W. tauri to west 
ern side 0 
Crater. 
Aug.10/About 10 |Dieppe (France))Very brilliant — |.....sseesseeeeee- Considerable |Disappeared behin 
p.m. shooting-star. duration. hills in W. : fron 
altitude 45°, 
10)......,..06-...| Newhaven, Con-/95 shooting-stars...|..... Roaaitveesscs| toes edeenmeuppenlenemeeaae oncsesma ve 
necticut, N. si 
America. > 
10].............--|Burlington, New|289 shooting-stars..|.........++ Valevs|ucavessantterenacclossesnees+ees same conse 
Jersey. 
15] 7 0 p.m./Lat. 6° 19’ N.,'@ Cygni ............|Slightly red-|1 second ...... a Cephei tov 
ane. 25° 43/ dish. a@Cygni. 
19| 7 49 p.m.|Lat. 9° 48’ N.,/=I1st mag.#......... Bluish white...|2 seconds......|Through Cepheu 
Long. 17° 10’ 4 
Wie a: 
20| 7 35 p.m.|Lat. 10° 6’ N.,/> Ursa Major ...|White .........)..:eeseeeeeereness a Draconis 
Long. 28° 15’ Ursz Majoris. 
Ww. ; 
2119 5 p.m.|Lat. 10° 46’ N.J> 2  .cecseeeecsseee White ......... Not >0°5 sec.|@ to » Dracom 
Long. 29° 28’ and onwards. 
w. | 
Sept.25) 8 30 p.m.|Lat. 50° 37’ N.,|=2nd mag.x ...... Deep rose-red|Not>0°25sec.\u Serpentis to th 
Long. 0° 16’ N.E. . 
E. . 
25) 8 32 p.m.|Ibid........... vosee| = 18t MAG.%......04. Winite sco cpeees Not > 0:5sec./From near yx Ce 
towards S. hi 
rizon. ? 
| 


‘a 


- 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 213 


ppearance; Train, if any,) Length of 


whether Horizontal, 
and its Duration. Path. 


Perpendicular, or 
Inclined. 


———. —___ | __. 


most brilliant at the 
centre of its course; a 
tail began to follow it as 
it rose. A fine meteor 


Ween e rene enees 


Direction; noting also 


Remarks. 


pression of a bod 
becoming 


Observer. 


E.N.E. to W.S.W. ......|Gave irresistibly the im-|J. Herschel. 


y 


luminous 


on entering the at- 


from first to last. mosphere. 

ach sesasnnvvehuessnccous|aveodecee seeree(36 Or 80 per Cent.|...cec...sseceeseeseeeeseseees(Ee Cy Herrick. 
emanated from a 
point; R.A. 48° 6’, 
N. Decl. 50° 57’. 

a long and bril-|............... [ts Courseyg was pineal ..evivivescecsscceessoschoce ‘Tilustrated Lon- 
jant tail behind it; northerly direction. don News,’ 
ear the horizon 
he head burst and 
mitted a light 
imilar to what we 
ee when a sky-rocket 
ursts. 
track left; no sparks...|............4.- Along axis of the zodi |.............05 cavragsewoene se T. Halis, 

acal light. 
ee ee Meee ee roe | hme en ee ae Id. 
SEMIS MEANGOUINE-BLATS|....000s00eee0s|screcnnscogesscessseosavereces A fog then filled the/Jas. Philp. 
verhead in all di- sky ; calm air. 
ections. Some lasted 
me or two seconds. 
Ste ceeeee/80 per cent. radiated'6 Camel.; R. A. 48° 6/,/E. C. Herrick. 
from R. A. 47° 56’,| N. Decl. 50° 57’. 
N. Decl. 47° 56’. 
--coodss SSBSORE ASE Sevixes|ossenecdasses< 88, per jcents” radliated|2-t0as.cs-ssonccoece athe cobees V. Marsh and 
from R. A. 48° 6%, — Gummen. 
N. Decl. 50° 57’. 
ht train seen through)......... Steenc|oats+cescencdusscceussescccees|-coadesesenseurearssaeeeserees T. Halis, 
ilight. 
n disappearing at same].............+. S..t0 Nui ccosscacssscossese[sosocoacne gee ee eeemaieeetee: Id. 
€ as meteor. 
EDIE cc hnaetd ai ganenns-]n5.5.. Seth dea ids Shodeisaness| e+e ekdvaoeneed cosceeseeeeses (Id. 
ek left; no sparks...|......... missin | py vin bia chs eee SeRRSW ANE ck «he oa eee wo MOREA es Re Id. 
SEIT Ee See ee Mery rapid. cves.scssectos: Id. 
Pete eee eaeee PO vee eee e eel cere eerertere Celoccpencaseveseesese wiules Ciaiee Be See eeeeeeccesss Pee eee reoeeees Id. 


214 REPORT—1863. 
- £ Position, or 

Date Ob are G Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and 

servation. ‘Azimuth. a 

1861.|h m 

Nov.19} 9 45 p.m./London ......... Very surprising (Colour a fine About 60° ...|.........++ Pe 

meteor. sky-blue. 

Dec. 5| 7 15 p.m.|Lat. 6° 2’ N.,|=1st mag.#.........|..ccccesseessesees 15 sec. «.....|From — Cassiopél 
Long. 17° 45' through Lynx, 

8| 8 20 p.m. Seacombe (near|Half diameter of WE dicks dh saad sl eenwsceteweneimenien It disappeare) 
Liverpool). full moon. Light about 40° aboy 
like the sun, the horizon, 
casting deep the three bri 
~ shadows on all stars of Draco, 
objects. 
Siehitc -arm:|Iont. Loma, NG) = 2nd mage. sccdeclsooscceusves.ccess|secaerdd conse rene a Crucis thr 
Long. 19° W. 6. to “<a 
tauri. 
24/9 © pim.|Lat. 35° 54” S.,J=2nd mag.x .....<|-.0000.-bocsoesa0s[aen= san see eeneene Greater Mage! 
Long. 5°14’E. cloud to 
nopus. 
31) 9: 20) pim-| Late SFE SOS. P—2ndimare «6. xt). ceecees|ancoesecesscoercees Canopus _ toy 
a 23° 28 Achernar. 
1862. 

Jan. 20) 8 35 p.m. tae 21° 30’ S.,|=1st mag.*......... Wihite ......... T-b\see., ce-ees 3 Hydre Aus 

Long. 74° 20’ to » Touca 
E. 

Feb. 2) 7 15 p.m.|Lat. 9° 55’ N.,|Venus ............... WATT caesar 3 seconds...... From Monocer 
between Ceylon 30° above # 
and Madras. horizon. 

21| 8 52 p.m.|Cambridge Ob-|Auroral arch ...... WIRE ones. ec Endured a |Gradually ro! 
G.M.T. | servatory. considerable} wards the ze 
time. Passed ove 
Pole-star 
, _ 52™ p.m. 
23) 9 25 p.m.|/Weston - super -|Light as strong as|Red .......00...|..-cescseccssseces|ecseeeceeecee soa 
Mare. half-moon. 

Mar.27| 9 20 p.m.|Kurrachee(Bom-|Exceedingly large Blue............ 2 or 3 seconds/From nearly due 

bay), India. meteor. under Ri 


the Pleiades. | 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 215 


Direction ; noting also 
ppearance; Train, if any, Length of | whether Horizontal, 


and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Reuaehs, Observer: 
Inclined. 
lead = much _brighter|.....22......0.]... Teer seeeeeseeeee(After proceeding about\J. H. Davis. 
than the tail, of a 60°, the meteor broke 
parabolic shape, about up into a_ great 
25’ across the broadest number of pieces and 
part. Behind the head finally disappeared. 
extended a tail about 
5° in length and 
12’ broad in_ the 
middle. 
BEPNaneescnetascceasesso-cccraclascorerebs0sess|.covceasscenscecscconse’ Saaneel-sesnbeccdeshint ne dtaerencs ..../T. Halis. 
SENNA GB TALLET), «5.0005 0--00-|..ccsesenssdeccesvechdogaeess No report heard ......... J. M°Innes. 
more than one. They 
almost immediately, aa 
suddenly, became ex-| 
tinct as soon as seen.| Ci 
A few dull red sparks —— 
remained, but these also’ Be 
vanished very quickly. 2 
Meteor. 
Moon. 
Peereoccecsrvccccs POP m ee eee ee nee e wenn ne eeenel ese sees tees enenees COO eee ene e eee a teeta eee eee eeeneeeseeeees YA Halis. 
Biesiackesss =. SOMMER Read tl nos 4scehies'so<e|oes o0vei no staesatnteatenettene lan cathe sotodsaperstertsscdend Id. 
ececee itiberasbis Sense mnal ccc seine nec<cscs|oo0cescecenpunsmsnbeuenneanees|cacsiehdcteses cote cupreccavcennllGe 
SpaBMns ccceccecses css Beals sdcinehetienccsjecseestesevesaanesaadensseens-|ss cash su aiarinne wanedenwgqnen Id. 
no track; no sparks............6..... IN. EetGuSs We cases-sc0-2] decQeenedetavastsaaactacad .» (Id. 
brightest part was............... Its vertex was appa-|............ SBOE COREE James Challis. 
towards the E. rently upon the mag- 
netic meridian. 
| light was comparable........ Free foc Soxsinniol wolch us accn'esaice wpcews|ar semana pass aiine dasha itgen Communicated 
to a flash of lightning by W.H.Wood. 
two miles from the 


Spectator. Very in- 


Perea eee secareaes Pere te eeeeee 


" weemeress ned BEBE ohc paaes MM Mereses: loccedon aoe ae ae pasaecns H. Temple Hum- 
| phreys. 


216 


Place of 
Date. Hour. Observation. 
1862.|h m 
June 4| 8 30 p.m./Urbino, Rimini 
(Italy). 


5] 9 20 p.m.jLat. 52° N., 
Long. 89° 35’ 
E 


14/7 15 p.m. Lat. 1° 7 S.,|--4th mag.* 


Long. 85° 45’ 
E. 

18,9 O pm.|Lat. 7° 1’ S,, 
Long. 79° 20’ 


E. 

July 8} 6 30 p.m.|Lat. 33° 17’ S., 
Long. 32° 45’ 
E 


19)10 15 to 11/Prestwitch, near 
p-m. Manchester. 
20} 7 15 p.m|Lat. 28° 48’ S., 
Long. 9° 54’ 
E 


REPORT—1863. 


Apparent Size. 


Fine bolide ......... 


=2nd mag.* 


>Ist mag.x 


Not a single shoot- 
ing-star. 


= 2nd mag.* 


Aug. 4) 9 45 p.m. Euston Road, /|Fine meteor, equal 


London. to lst mag.* 
FES s OSes cccuspe ewer at Gib er Gl eee Re ee 
also at Ha- 
vannah. 
10| 8 30 to 13)Rome; Observa-|19 shooting - stars 
p-m. tory of the| recorded. 
Capitol. 
LO xeeansssones --/Havannah  and/31 and 54 shooting- 
Paris. stars per hour. 
12/10 O p.m.|Euston Road, |=2nd mag.x ...... 
London. ~* 
12/10 14 p.m.|Ibid.............00. =2nd to 3rd mag. 
UPA i Ge ean = Ist mag.*......... 
12)10 52 p.m./ Hawkhurst =2nd mag. ...... 
(Kent). 
12)11 1 p.m.|Flimwell, Hurst-|= Ist mag.*......... 
green (Sussex). 
12/11 11 p.m./Greenwich ......|Bright meteor 
12/11 35 p.m./Hawkhurst ...... =23 Ursz Majoris... 
“12)11 41 p.m.|Fiimwell, Hurst-|= Ist mag.«......... 


green (Sussex). 


Position, or 


Colour. Duration. Altitude and — 
Azimuth. 
White ......... 15 second ...|From Z Centauri te 
N.N.E. | 
White ..2...<0. 1 second ...... Throngh Centauru, 
to S.S.E. | 
Rich red ...... 3 seconds...... From near 6 Triang) 
Aust. to 3 
Are. | 
Arcturus ......|2 seconds...... 2 Scorpii towards 
W.N.W. 
WiNte:.,;¢.00n0 1 second ...... n Serpentis to 
Taur. Poniat. 
Se ee 5 seconds......|From star BAC 2 
to do. BAC 1001. 
Shee eansa eens se 4 seconds......|76 Urs Majo 
to 3 Can. Veni 
std caged meas emul sets sosscoeeseceee-/Appeared in abst 
lute conjuncti 
with Mizar, and) 
vanished ju 
| ander it. 
coves esseeeeeees-|Occupied only|From 85 Ilereu 
2 or 3 sees.| to 62 Herculi 
in passage. | _ (Approx.) 
Witte... .:<... 1-2 second ...\From 4 (¢ Ursa 
Maj., « Booti 
to B Bootis. 
saivagasttansssses Rapid .........\From 6 Drae 
nis to A Her 
culis. 
White ......00. Moved _very|Appeared from the 
rapidly. W., and swept) 
close below 
* Pointers’ 
wards the hori ; 
Wihitew:4 vce 0°5 second ...|Centre at « Bootis. 
Bee 3 veveee|Rapid ....... |1om 15 Vulpecule) 


to 5° below 6} 
Aquila. i} 


qi 


|) 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


ppearance ; Train, if any, 


217 


Direction ; noting also 


Length of | whether Horizontal, 
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer. 
Inclined. 
MEI a o> nessa aos nnss0.|eSeu ends onanees|sesevesseedsosesenendaseasenedl seven saseuccbecstbnavesdeas sc: Jac. Bianconi 
(Bologna). 
Eta nv clini. ent ssensef saci anti yatuasannsasastatesedl evieee, seeee cect es T. Halis. 
I eae ciel 3250508 ota vac sadn esddiess vil bec. hoc oeaccc ck oa Ue Id. 
EMBUMAVACIIMOMSPAIKS..|,.....00.0000ss|-coccoseoccecaceccoceessseses Slow motion ............ Id. 
ST: | Sa Moderately rapid. _|Id. 
Moon 11:2 days old 
at noon. 
Elen se ecccsccs<lscsscsesssecces| sna tttecceeseseeeecereseseseee/Clear sky, fine night .../R. P. Greg. 
IEMA I caa) a5; ccbocn..|nsedcantonchrucnerensdusssinetlt et adedoccoccsccc. Boe: T. Halis. 
RE eI esses enc. sa] cnascvssecpesonssvacuatracseches, ofc tacbatee ee T. Crumplen 
and J. Towns. 
end. 

MRMCUTEL SENOOING-|,...............|..ssceceseverscasiaanevesseass Sky particularly clouded|Ad. Quetelet, 

stars per hour. Andres Poey. 

small fireball.  First}............... Radiated from the head|.............................. Madame _ Scar- 
and second magnitude ofCepheus and cluster pellini. 
hooting-stars. of Perseus. 

Baan mrs nan ntsseneceeeee ne leeeseceessesees|essesssessvecenenetsessersecelecsvnsccssersesecseregeccene, Andres Poey, 
Coulvisr Gra- 
vier. 

Nef eraer > [oases scee see]. cs cesenporessanmaetteeenterf weic en eee T. Crumplen 
and J. 
Townsend. 

abana ssf a|ec>avnqtassiennasseapnasadven Seen through clouds;|Id. 
part of passage quite 
obscured. 

aE ES Ee Oe anne ST ee A. S. Herschel. 

MRMUNDRES nna n-ee- een cenelncecneavsennaesleerseesesieesscsnsscccgesseseeloosccccesepaeresseceveeécivcece F. Howlett. 

eee secce scr eccescoes ERE THE RONG 00. «se caiieg once aenccexetery acl’ ciate eee ote wae Airy and W. 

long run. Stone. 
ol AS es Do sedeeke oexo| LOWOTAS DT BOGE 544.411. s00ehssnasindarmsaeraree te A. S. Herschel. 

Ra tevasp scr eccsss|soscsscsreveeec|ecoccevoccere Strtereeeceeveslesssesseseeressesressssseseeee (Fe Howlett, 


218 REPORT—1863. 
Date Hour Place of Apparent Size Colour. 
F : Observation. PP : ; 
1862.;h m 
Aug.12)11 48 p.m./Flimwell, Hurst-| Ist mag.x.........Jseccecsecseeees eee 
green (Sussex). 
13} 0 13 a.m.|Hawkhurst ...... =a Aquile .........Jeere ewes sseanERoe 
USO US! acme Lbid.iesssae secs sxe == ACUI? hye scmce|costenvestsatsanche 
13) 0.30).a.m.|TbId.6.05.<0c0ssee0s = VATCHITUS ....:+-0r IGT aes hose 
1911 30 p.m.|Hay, S. Wales...) =2nd mag.x ......J..cseceseeeeeeeees 
23,4 O p.m.Georgia (North|Great luminosity...|...............06 
America). 
23° 9 55 p.m.|Weston - super -|Brilliant meteor;).................. 
Mare. lit up the sky. 
Sept.16 9 10 p.m.|[bid................ =to Mars at his|Bright yellow 
brightest. 
MB/RO LS: pimuTbid. .assececvasse. = 2nd mag.* ...... ISUART OB errs soe 46 
DGieOeSe" pM. Ibid. vo.seecanevaces =2nd mag.x ...... BNC. <60<b-- <5, 
1610" O p.m.|Ibid...........-.... =2nd mag.* .....- BIC eccagsscess 
L6}10 17 pam: |Ibid.... 6c. ..s.e.es. = ]st mag.*......... Dull yellow ... 
18] 8 54 -p.nt.|Tbid:..c.2.....0e... = to Venus.......... Bright yellow 
4 teint tole or} ve) hy Uoraeee rere = Arcturus :...2....|Blae..;......2.- 
| 9) 30) mamal biden. toc ve. Very bright meteor|Blue............ 
19, 6 10 p.m./Reigate ......... Large meteor Inl......c0s..scesees 
broad day, just 
after sunset. 
U9} 10) 1 Sop ms Ramsburg mean |e nctansces.s1s0s0s0000|scsnteceesoboessins 
Hungerford 
(Wilts). 


Position, or — 


Altitude and — 
Azimuth, 


Duration. 


—_——_—_— 


From 41 Antinoi t 
55 Sagittarii. 


Rapid 


0°6 second ...|Appeared 1° W 


: 


conis to near 
Urs Majoris. © 


k to r Can. Vena | 


Serre errr en - Une Major 4 € 
Minor. q 


SOO ee ee ee eeenrnee 


eee eet tt eneeee 


below yx 
conis. 
very|From v Urs M 
joris to 15 Leon: 
Minoris. 


2 secs. ; 
slow. 


..|6 Cephei 
Lyncis. 


to 


Pree eeeee eT eee ete eee eee eee 


Triangula. — 4 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


Appearance ; Train, if any,| Length of 


Direction; noting also 
whether Horizontal, 


219 


and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer. 
Inclined, 
Bee tanedcsvececcces Sutccciosiseta| sco Seeensecccs| srcteccesestacetcemmntrsceee i (acess aocatepeetesersceteee tel. Ela wilelG 
my track lef€ « 2)...,....0000. 6° or 7° ...|Towards 6 Ursz Majoris|............. Risdaspaseas cases A. S. Herschel. 
aint track 4° long, 1 sec.|.............+. Towards  Ursze Majoris|.........ssscssssoscoeseneenes Id. 
MEE en arvensis ss cccecsc)eseeseeceessecs (Slight deflection in last}.....:.0.-0ecsesscssseeseeee(1G. 
half of course. 

BEETACK IOEE ...cccecsccesss 1 eee eae 3 'to\ ee Unsee| Majoris? 09. ..5 cissassecsessezccdaudeed T. W. Webb. 
ike a sword. Handlel............... Pointed for S.W. to N.E.|.---++-+-sscesscssecesensseees Monticello Jour. 
silver, blade and point nal (Florida). 

red, ten times as long 

as broad. 

i a large luminous)............... Horizontalieracuccecsted|- sce coetdas temadvaneewecdsr W. H. Wood. 

Streak. : 

meee narrow’ yellowish|:::23::..2.....|-..c.lssscsedeusuecceedeetiees About one shooting-stari[q, 

Streak 30°, 3 seconds; every 5 minutes for 

m Urse Majoris ap- 13 hour. 

peared through it. 

reer cca cece c| ons cesceesseosc[estencessochsnscat tee eestene|PEcaspeconcanchasteteeees dese Id. 

SA aRhcoSdagaceaeens cic s8ec| BEnReeRCopeencd Eeccetriceo custo sces Sakce pd bcoce cernepees: seourueeer oer!) fab 

ogc Sacameaee COE PRBERER EEE ce er cese acces | teeta eee eeees ese ese essen eee Id. 

EIT EPA TIGA s| <5. 08.0 04 ;|+000csecnachensmeesentecnaeet lwovesnescearacewsir st ntenaes Id. 

hering dull red tail 8° 

long. 

SME PEMMMUMMEBIZG] OANIC|<\2.c05ctcsco.:|>svescccsccbacoscodecsscaeucas|tareee Sete ee eee eeeereecenenes Id. 

brilliancy. From first 

Magnitude star, be- 

came very bright, 

globular, and suddenly 

extinct. 

Bee ertce thn tail” 2.) 225e22ccssevees[sceasscacsaseshcededesteceecloobees gotten race het aca t eh Id. 

ol Bente eee reeee Pearse ereeeleereenee Pee ne rele ene ese ere ease resesesnssseeane|® Ce eee ee ee err Id. 

Te! With 2 1ONG).............0:|....0.cccecseccoreestote states A large meteor wasThomas  Burn- 

tail of sparks. also seen at South-| ingham. 
ampton on the same 
date (— Burning- 
ham, Jun.). 

RM eaee tes sonsicccossthloce teen cdccewss|ceoscswas euveraaccovcsccvasese[lenees Coe veccccnadededvacecnee A. Butson. 


19/10 O p.m./Manchester...... 


(+) 
19/10 12 p.m. 


19|10 15 p.m./Arnside Tower... 


j9|10 15 p.m. 


22|'0 22 p.m.|/Euston Road, 


Place of 
Observation. 


Chiswick 


REPORT—1863. 


Apparent Size. 


Globe as large as a 
fist.  Vividly il- 
luminated all 
objects. 


Strong glare seen ; 
from behind the 
observer. 

Light more intense 
than any single 


flash of lightning. 


Brilliant glare seen 


Wellington (So-|4 times % or 10 


merset). 


Great Malvern 


Peckham Rye, 


London. 


London. 


London. 


times Sirius. 


-|St. John’s Wood,|As large as a small 


plate ; 
bright. 


very 


Colour. 


Globe as blue 
as some 
port-fires. 
Diffused 
light, yellow, 
then deep 


Meteor bluish. 


Body and train 
blue. 


Duration. 


A few seconds 


Not very rapid 


=8th-10th magni-|......... eececeeeelene seeesersenaeens 


tude stars. 


= to Mars 


we eeeee ee 


3 secs.; slow 
and uniform 
motion. 


Position, or 
Altitude and © 
Azimuth. 


From the middle o: 
a y Aurige t 
the middle of ) 


Moved along in ar 
upward course, 


Exactly overheat 
when first per 
ceived. From ¢ 

west 


little 


descending fron 

g Persei to f 

Aurige. 3 
The track 


not reach 
Pleiades. j 
A broken line 
fire 
to the 
Bear. 
Position not ase 
tained. 


Chiefly in the 
sky. 


From 10° E. 0 
Delphinus, an 
same altitud 
as Delpkin 
to 7° belo} 
Mars. 3 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 221 


Direction ; noting also 

ppearance; Train, if any,| Length of | whether Horizontal, 
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or 

Inclined. 


Remarks. 


t first a large caudate)....., Cassese eale SEES SERS Deere eid ocean suavekentcdereanccsss ...{Eudes Deslong- 
shooting-star; _ tail champs. 
continuous. Expanded 
suddenly like a bouquet, 
whence issued a blue 
globe with a tail 
formed into parcels. 
Left a train of rocket- 
like sparks after disap- 
pearance. 


MRE RUN PEDIC 2, cas. vc ;|s2o onaeus Gonwnsidse ies cecssa eu) esesdoMopeeantaccegeeecwove ase Communicated 
it. by R. P. Greg. 


Memmmnearcerca:- blue)! ... 5 .33sc.i|e<+eowserresavssassedeceuscese| te Sedessvteaescases Tee S. Richards,Jun., 
light; became egg- communicated 
shaped, elongated itself, by T. Slater. 
and disappeared without 
sparks. Track like a 
fluttering riband three 
or four inches broad. 
Yellow - orange colour 
near Vega, the rest 
beautiful blue. 
ember isms Ubi). ooh Son |, 5 ee eRe eee a leac et cise cages dcaseeaacn Communicated 
had a tail, and many by R. P. Greg 
Sparks and stars. 
MIE aaa cdedyase's |<<. oc cahvecseecléssc«eesccdevecenceneceese oom: No report heard ......... James Glaishe:. 


Gacseactscectoc|cccvdcuccdescdatmomecemmmernenltnes setts teenage eereeeeses-/COMmunicated 
. by T.W. Weou 


MEERA ONCLENC| («oc caytcescs oc|ssccaceoasccvcecosecovecoseccclesconecsteteacte anbeveeuaaeces Communicated 
ash only. byT.Crump-en. 


ange meteor .........06-)..44 mesanesaspalcacwaenvesasws ee Sane devenswa|<occdancecetemeanesvsy testes? Id. 


EMeapic MeCtEOTs; ONE,|. 0. .2c5..cc0sccccscecveseseeveccecccsoceesees Striking frequency of|Jos. Baxendell, 
Wo, or even three them, 
n every fine 


St CEASE REINS ROAROEET eco Bona OOnCOe ORES LGGa eer EAE oPACOPE RPE Ec Socio, pepe T. Slater. 


222 


1862. 
Sept.22 


22 


22 


22 


22 


22 


22 
22 


25 


25 


10 23 p.m. 


10 23 30 
p-m. 


10 26 p.m 


10 47 p.m. 
ll 3 p.m.) 


11 31 30 
p-m. 

Aboutll 48 

p-m. 


About 6p.m. 
or very 
little 
later. 


Shortly be- 
fore 6 30 


- 25) 6 28 p.m. 
or 6 30 


p-m. 
25| 6 50 p.m. 


p.m. 


Place of 
Observation. 


.|Etchingham 


(Sussex). 


Euston 
London. 


Smedmore, 


set). 


Between 
gollen 
Corwen. 


Oakley, 


sex). 
Loughton 
(Essex). 


Road, 


meridge (Dor- 


= Ist mag.#......+0+ Red and blue,|4} to 5 secs 


Kim- 


Llan- 
and 


Bishop 
Stortford (Es- 


REPORT—1 


Apparent Size. 


= 4th mag.#...... Wak | sakeassens aceveese 


= 4th mag.x......... 


= 3rd mag.*......++. 


= 2nd mag.* 


eeeeee 


= Ist mag.*......+6+ 


= 2nd or 3rd mag. + 


= 2nd mag.x 


Very bright ball of 
light. 


Half size of the 
moon. 


A splendid meteor.. 


863. 


Colour. Duration. 


dull. 


see eeenee 


seeteeneceeeeeeees INAV coaneenee 


+...|Rapid ; 1 sec.. 


1 second 


a 1 second ...... 


Doacueaecledeaseans 2 seconds...... 


Rapid motion. 


...|/Started very 


ly Cygni to 5°bel 


.../Presented itsel 


Position, or 
Altitude and ~ 
Azimuth. — 


Delphinus ; 
velled throug 
Pegasus and dis 
appeared half 
way between 
Arietis and 
Trianguli. 
Deseribed a cury§. 
round the he 
of Delphinus. 


Heo 


Described a reve 
curve about 
pella. 


y Pegasi to 22 4 5 
dromede. . 


+ Cygni. 
Crossed a poi 
48’ _—_ follow! 
and 0° 5’ § 
Mars. 
From the Pleiadé 
to near o Ari 
From 1° E., 
below Mars 
8° below. 


altitude 


Preece reeeeee Pees eee 


As large as 
planet Jupiter. 


the 


Bright hues of 
blue and red. 


10 seconds ... 


tow 


going 
S.E. 


Appeared fa 
towards the 
as if down) 
a hill, 
disappeared 
hind it. 

Descended. 
westerly ¢ 
tion. 

From E. to N. 


| A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 2238 


a a | a a a ae hc gunmen nen ee er a 


Direction ; noting also 
pearance; Train, ifany,| Length of | whether Horizontal, 


and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or raised Observer, 
Inclined. 
teor reddish, and tail/85° .........).......... saad acne domseber ies No meteor ever seen to/F. Howlett. 
blue, or vice versd. Ex- travel so slowly. 
traordinary for its pro- 
tracted course. 
we eeeeee Jie eee Pee ee eee ee ee eee eee ee ee eee eee TREE HH ETT HEEE HEHEHE EH EEE EHH HES ESEESEEERs eet eeeee Id. 
RM aah dense < sodnese <c|a05-c0d.-a5s0e+|:. dea ahs «Se = axe sees gata ..8 as duh aaesbaasa dens aon Id. 

SUOMI opshdense.s0.08 BeOS, Se eenpites| isa hteeeeee a eet oe ore eee seveeseeeeee/T. Crumplen. 
Bas. so sccceee eae (LO Sistas \ oxgdonaes Pete Ree med ees Raaueece deanatiocawra guess [d. 
RARE. ONE) <.4005..+--.-+|,..,sacanakasbonnapaiMtenscrd seats icas siabia ean dsates els 
econd, fading gradually. 

Avery cden|-<cs20050+0020-|......0ccceceessue canvesseasi sl tewootivnds Ba bac agrame wacko’ T. Slater and J. 
Townsend. 
NMRA Fe dn 9 55 won cc's «| nn:dawus sd nnneanennaeeage ReenO eee cas eaaicuas ndaspess kus T. Crumplen. 
attaining its greatest|......... ends’ oloxeuswel=apsnemeeneeees Poa Mec eee oeosesqanandapaens side Communicated 
ight, burst into about by Sir John 
wo dozen small balls Herschel. 

the same light as the } 
eteor, and retaining 
he same direction for 
or 4 seconds. Left a 
ight smoky track be- 
ind it. 

bright, and appeared)............00.{...00000 “Ae agttenaasanee 2cos paces esecerens Reese saesinsss ‘The Standard,’ 
) be quite close. Oct. 10, 1862. 
MEMBEREwer an Ss s200ccccsccene|scesscesssonces|scocacccecscscscccacccsceccvccts eebReaneee hs kavswassoet bec ‘The Standard,’ 

Oct. 2, 1862. 
brilliant appearance'........ 51 A Warriors pene iets 39 minutes after sunset.|.........s:...ce00e0- 
in the evening : 


LA In the dark it 
ould undoubtedly 
ve been as fine as 
e large meteor of 
ptember 19th. 


Date. 


224 


1862.;h m 


Sept.25/About 7 39|London .........|Fine meteor ; =1st]......s00++-++.+./0°8 second ...|From near Polai 


Oct. 


Hour. 


REPORT—1863. 


Position, or 


Place of : é 5 
: Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and 
Observation. ‘Acirndti 


am | | | 


p-m. mag.* to 3° above 
Urse Minoris. 
25| 8 32 p.m.|Brighton ......... Most brilliant |White,  then)...............06 Descending in th 
meteor. green. N.N.E. 
27\Soon  after/Cuckfield(Essex)|Several splendid)...........0....0[eeseeceeeeesseeees Traversed _ the! 
8 p.m. meteors. eastern sky. 
29) 8 49 30 |Manchester...... Decidedly > Ca- |Bluish white..|14 to 2 secs.../From R. A. 15 8 
p.m. pella; nearly = Declination ] 
to Mars. 284° to R. A. | 
51™, Declinati¢ 
N. 30°. , 
3) 7 35 p.m.|Vienna......... One-fifth diameter|Yellow in |2 seconds......|Altitude 34° | 
of the moon. centre ; S.W. i 
greenish on ; 
outer edges 
and on tail. | 
5} 8 O p.m.|London ......... S> ALcturnsievcccess|stecccocsecesasse2 Rapid ssseseree From near Arctur) 
to below the i 
rizon. | 
7|\12 30 p.m.|Mens, Fiirsten-|Adrolite, 161b8. ...|.....cscessesseese|ecesseeteseccssees[esseseceeceseeanen val 
Noon. berg (Meck- 
lenburg). 
15| 9 1 p.m.|Senftenberg 7’ diameter ......... Greenish blue,|23 seconds .../From near Perse 
(near Berlin). then red. to feet of Ur 
Major. 
15] 9 14 p.m.|Ibid................ 5’ diameter ......... Greenish blue,|2 seconds...... From Pleiades 1 
then red. wards Cetus. | 
15) 9 24 p.m./Prague......... Large fireball ...... Greenish ....5.|..ccscastsssacotss From altitude 
to about 10°% | 
tude at last. | 
15) 9 30 p.m.|Senftenberg AHRIAMELED wareweones|bovaceeawsts cos os 2% seconds ...|Pularis, past L 
(near Berlin). toS.W. @ 
15| 9-10 p.m.|Lake Constance,|= Venus ............ Yellowish...... 34 seconds .../From 20° alt 
S.W. end. in E. to 30°@) 
tude in N.E.or 
16) 9-10 p.m.|Rothnen-Siedel..|2 x full-moon...... Prismatic 
colours. 
16] 9-10 p.m.|Ibid..........s000.. Tiare mire bDAlliicrsce-|-2.sacs-ceceesn ete 
16| 9-10 p.m.|Ibid................ Marre PEDAL pacete|'ssec-s-se<te sence 
18) 9 25 p.m.\Greenwich ...... = 2nd mag.* ...... BINGscse0-s2caee 
the Pleiade 
18/10 36 p.m. |[bid.......ccecceees == Capenlatcins.ss «se. Bluish white..!1 second ...... a Ns dist 
peared neal 
Draconis. | 
20| 6 34 p.m.|London ......... A little less than|Intense white |1 second, or a/From 2° W. 
Mars. little less. Pegasi to 1°) 
of and above 
Agquarii. 
20| 9 49 p.m./Greenwich ...... =2nd mag.* ......|Blue  ........./1 second ...... From Perseus # 
| Andromedz. | 


| 


Pee merce aseresccclevessccscccsiee 


Inclined 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 225 
| Direction ; noting also | 

pearance; Train, if any,) Length of | whether Horizontal, i 

and its Duration. , Path. Perpendicular, or | Remarks Observer. 
Inclined. | 

RENEE 2s c552 St oesk Scaassazhenwdecescveaaa seeeateetese | webeencevatneuseucedecs siewds T. Crumplen. 

mged from  silvery}.......... ++++.|Descended S.W. toLight breeze and pass-|F. E. Harrison. 

rightness to a most N.N.E. ing clouds. 

eautiful green colour, 

the same time emit- 

ng sparks. ‘ 

or three were trans-|........ aeause: Serpentine course ...... Starlight night after an|‘ Kent and Sussex 

ndently bright and extensive distant Advertiser,’ 

ry eccentric in their thunder-storm. Sept. 30. 

ovements, one per- ; 

rming for many de- 

esa snake-like course. 

ft no train behind it,|...... sessee--[Its Course was Undula-|....seccccccsssseseerssseeeces Jos. Baxendell. 

t threw off two or ting. 

tee fragments in a 

wnward direction at 

€ moment of its ex- 

ction. 

f 30’ in length ...... BB caskoness E.S.E. to W.N.W. down-|Described with other|H, Wolf. 

wards at an angle of} meteors by Dr. Haid- 
Was inger. 

a train for a second)............... Fell vertically) ccesssscse stitsseeesseeseeeaceseeeeeeees/ Ts Crumplen, 

two. 

IE erexereec.|scssecccstsncdcleacscsccaccel wocaene divsnctacs Earth and’ sand’ was Communication 
thrown up into a by Dr. Haid- 
shepherd’s face. inger. 

SEEPESHSOSED ss unis scsdecloeesocs. eloeveces M0 cenbancdecaWcaguwaaca|pandatneccasccte seeseeeseesess/1. Brorsen. 

oleenvenee edeenccee Ceevevecenvee|coesscevetenccescsnnsoseccscs Id. 
Oblique path in thel........ccccsseecsscsscecees J. Miller. 
-E. 
teeteeeeseeeeeeeeeesesesccaseelectscceeesecesseecsesseeeeess(T. BIOTSEN. 


slightly: Up-|......scsscece+e oaeowassssseyc R. P. Greg. 
wards towards Ursa 
Major. 
N.E. to) SuWer can. 8.2 Probably October 15 ...|[d. 
Mewaarsnandsbeneanceasoresece: Probably October 15 .../Id. 
pases teats terteeesseeeeessseee/ Probably October 15 ...\Id. 
al senassieea cee ese science sesceeee/Hazy ...... SCOCORAEEREEY W. C. Nash. 
IE. to Wasesseizeasedente eee seenscosescscsoccsseseee( 1G, 
ade sedondee ds BaleaddeasoNws|Ti2.3 seeeseteeceeeseseeeeeeee/2s Crumplen. 
seen Cee eb erecorrececsrsecce|sccsenscccessecccscccsccsees«-| We C. Nash. 


226 REPORT— 1863. 


> 


2)A little after|Glasgow ......... Nearly as large as|White ......... sosvososssoscaennei it, appearedm 
10 p.m. full moon. falling to) 
the horizon 
the N. W.¢ 
sky. 
3\Evening ...|Prestwitch(Man-|Four shooting-stars)...... thepaeasashs sensscsccencessonslsoersenesece 
chester). in a moderate 
time. 
5| 6 O p.m.|Liverpool........- As large as an|Quite white .../2) seconds ... In the 
orange, or 5’ dia- from 
meter. 30° to 
12. 
5| 6 10 p.m.|Manchester, 10)Large fireball ......|....scccceeeeeeees 2 seconds....../From N.N.E 


miles S. 


Place of F Position, or 
Date.| Hour. Ob : Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and 
servation. ‘Nod 
muth. 
1862.| h m 
Oct. 20] 9 52 p.m.|Greenwich ...... =2nd mag.* ...... Blue...... secees 1 second ......|From Cassiopeia 
a Pegasi. 
20|11 58 p.m.|Ibid .............-- =2nd mag.* ...... Blue s.cceaeee 1 second ...... From rection 
the Pleiades 
Aurige. 
20/11 59 p.m.|Ibid ..........000- =3rd mage ..00.-|BlU€  seseeeeee 4 second .....- From y to ¢ C 
onis. 
24/10 21 p.m./Hay (S. Wales)..,=1st mag.* ...... WelloWisss:saes=|<ssaetacean teers From 5° below 
Aquarii to 
above 3 Aqua 
26| 7 45 p.m.|Weston - super -|A sudden brilliant Colour of (Meteor  not|Brightest O1 
Mare. light. streak bright) more than| curved part SJ 
orange. lsec.; not] by W.; alti 
seen. 45°. d 
a 
; 
26] 9 O p.m.|Greenwich ...... =Ist mag.* ...... Blue ........./L second ...... Fell from a pe 
Approxi- a few degrees 
mate time. of the Pleiade¢ 
26| 9 30 p.m.|Weston - super - SEM RES in entaederans Yellow ....0....-|occcesese deccecces From altitude | 
Mare. S.W., down | 
the horizon| 
below it, in| : 
27| 6 30 p.m.|Troppau ..s..seee|eseee UpebUaacadoansstess|pness valine sindacas)| pee esdaabannnnnee Altitude 40 
31| 8 45 p.m.|Weston - super -=1st mag.* ...... Blues ies.) ...00- 1 second ...... From altitude 
Mare. in W. 
Noy. 2)10 7 p.m.|Thornliebank, jA sudden _ flash Meteor white-|.......00...:0+++-/Fell down fre 
Glasgow. illuminatedevery| blue. great eleva 
object. to below | 
horizon; a 
N. of W. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 227 
a, 


Direction; noting also 
pearance; Train, if any, Length of | whether Horizontal 
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or F Remarkey Observers 
Inclined. 

ee BitEaacteckinces|eswascescs souee/svsouewesesonapederinenesdeied | -coveecleeee rate e Eee tale W. C. Nash. 

APIRPAUN) «evi see sconces wd bec Core aaal Fe apt dcecauvavvvoeraadccck Ul seovs co MeUaR wT SM Id. 

imei vieess ee Beianauab{axsaes adinsnns{.'s0'seusensvaevsiow sss anlsvaccscsloscexncvecvusteccsctechs set Id. 

MUMPAMOMOMEURERTS OD=|.6...0002000cc|eescescesorenveessvevssterscalccsee prcnaWperGens seratvectcn T. W. Webb 

tved this evening. 

wo of first magnitude 

ypeared together. 

luminosity remained]............... A little inclined to thel............cccccceeeseeeeeees W. H. Wood. 

ree minutes. Disap- horizon. 

ared and reappeared 

eral times, the light 

ctuating from right ee <= 

left. ‘ pas a : oe 

er od 
train a few degrees|............++. Perpendicular down-|....., sevevseesecees[Je MacDonald, 
length, wards 

BGeU UUs SNS cesceveeees pl eeaias vey qols suse] cows counsneunereter esses: See Many meteors in this|W. H. Wood. 

of locality, 
4 
Horizon. 

oe Bbswswotceren-[sccsesncacevose|Se CO Ne sesesusnsonsaritilivs asvesssraveichbetlitlerecelT Schiickle, 

» SESE seseeereeeeees.|20° ...000..|Nearly vertical down .../........ccccseesseeeeeeeesceee/W. HL Wood. 
MESMMETIATKS,, CEMA iia oe2| snes codecs cuavencs eRe te In bright moonlight .../Professor W. 
one brightest. Thomson, 

disappeared with 

meteor. No streak 

of white flame;|..... ieee edéees|svcveuaceaveneeme dame neeee, Sky extremely clear at Paragraph in 

| of red_ sparks the place where the) ‘ Glasgow 
Stars, four or five meteor appeared :| Herald,’ No- 
umber. Appeared bright moonshine. vember 4, 
extraordinary sud- 
S. 
DMEM TDN asco csacsaeslucassecaseacans Radiant, ill-defined, near|Full moonlight ........./R. P. Greg. 
. head of the Lynx, 
. Downwards towards the During moonlight ...... H. Gair, 


left, 70° from _hori- 
zontal, 


Wal We nee'e siuls cegeantianvenssieauacs .|R. P. Greg. 


228 REPURT—1863. 


Position, or 


Date.| Hour. bie eal. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. ae and 
zimuth. 
1862.|h hm 
Nov. 9| 7 to 7 30 |Prestwitch,Man- Not one shooting-|.........ccseceee|eceenseeeneee ical, Secaes ccs eeeeee ova 
p-m. chester. star. 
9 9 3 p.m./Weston - super -> Mars ..-....s+00e Silvery white..|14 second .../From altitude 
Mare. S.; to altitu 
2°, 7 3° ie 
Ss. 
910 41 p.m.|Greenwich ...... =2nd mag.* ....--|Blue see. Lessthan lsec.|From direction 
a Persei towa 
N.; disappear 
about 15° bel 
Polaris. 
10| 7 to 7 30 |Prestwitch(Man-|Two shooting-stars|,,,,...... PRE oe ere Fell down in N.I 
p-m. chester). q 
| 
11) 7 10 p.m.|Hawkhurst ...... =Ist mag.* ...... Very _ bright/Very slow mo-|From @ Urse | 
white. tion. joris to « Uj 
Majoris, bu 
turned a 
fect half cit 
round 3 1 
Majoris. 
11! 8 45 to 9|Weston - super -/Two or three shoot-|Blue  .......00)..c.eeeeeeeneeeees From Mars 
p-m. Mare. ing-stars; =3rd wards the 
mag.* and from — 
culis  verti¢i 
down. 
11| 9 10 p.m.|Greenwich ...... =8rd mag.* ...... BING] iscasesses 1 second ...... From directio 
Capella, . 
to o Urse } 
joris. 
11} 9 28 p.m.|Ibid ...........+06- =3rd mag.* ...... Blue. ...000e 1 second ...... From Cepheu 
Draconis. 
11/10 30 to 11|Prestwitch(Man-|No shooting-stars),....... ecedeessies|Sececcas cones cdg heen sceam : 
p-m. chester). seen. 
12) 6 5 p.m.|Accrington(Lan-|=2nd mag.* ...... Faint white .../Rather slow...|Fell from Peg 
cashire). ' 
12) 7 46 p.m.) Weston - super -/=to « Tyre, . esses. BNE, sic<snscs 21 seconds ...|From Mizar 
Mare. Herculis. 
12} 8 45 p.m./Accrington(Lan- =3rd mag.* ...... Bright white../Rapid; instan-|About 10° 
cashire). taneous. Castor. 
12| 9-10 p.m.|Prestwitch(Man- Four shooting-stars).......+++.+000+ salsaneassstaeeeed ...|Two at the 
chester). horizon, © 
Draco, 
others 
ward, 
Cassiopeia 
k Pleiades. 
13|Until 9 p.m.|Weston - super -/No_shooting-stars)...............01./eererees dus sacupep lance cesee eel 
Mare. visible. 
16) 6 28 p.m./Accrington(Lan-|=Mars ......- <+++-/Yellow, some-2 or 3 seconds; From Au 
cashire). what dull. | tolerably under. ¢ 
quick. towards 
ades, 
it ni 
| reached. 


and its Duration. Path. 


ee eee eee eee eed eee eer rr 


ng; left no tail; sud- 


HORT e eee eee eeeeeeenreseseses| da  seeeeeee 


inute of each other; 
o other shooting-stars 
en in 30 minutes. 
dy light, at last fading).............. 
nothing. 


PPO THe rere eee et ernne 


POP ere eeeeeessrsssesseecece 


POP ee eee aseseeesesassssece 


i ee About 10°... 


minima of size,|Long path... 
near centre of 
; thin adhering 


st have been brilliant 
re they fell. 


Cs fe ee 


pearance ; Train, ifany,) Length of | whether Horizontal, 


lar brilliancy, increas-|............... 


eared within one/Long paths.|Directed _ apparently 


.|Course like a fish-hook. 


° 
BUPRe sau vctSvoccscsscces LSE eared eee 


Direction ; noting also 


Perpendicular, or 
Inclined. 


moon rising. 


oP Cuma sees eeceneesesccovoscslsnesdetdecvtcusvesavedtesene 


: Fine clear night, moo 
shining brightly. 


Favourable sky 


from Mars, 


SOO rere meee esereeeresesesees 


Almost vertically, but 
inclining westwards. 


o 9.0 SASSY 0 SCN MS RSSS 2 8's 6 RUS itt «nin S'e s'e'n.d.a\s wmkau adam esie/seuae 


Fell vertically 


eee eee ee re 


No radiant point dis- 
cernible. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 229 


Observer. 


Siebaiesay ate cet aaeeee et Sky very favourable ;/R. P. Greg. 


..|W. H. Wood. 


n|W. C. Nash. 


.|R. P. Greg. 


.|T. Humphrey. 


aus aea| sdekavccbtiesieeasaekvevers tune W. H. Wood. 
steesccvecccecscsccseceneelsesccsceesccsccccceeeesesssess W. C. Nash. 
stsaesceseecees|seeeeseasceneceessessesceeeees|teecesseeseesssscssecsssncceee Id. 
Gis | ideceacdoca|oesscnnes<scegeteaee ame Bright moonlight .......R. P. Greg. 


L. E. Becker. 


W. H. Wood. 


L. E. Becker. 
R. P. Greg. 


...|W. H. Wood. 


L. E. Becker. 


230 REPORT—1863. 
Place of 
Date.| Hour. Observation. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. 
1862.) h m 
Noy.16|10 40 p.m./Hampstead(Lon-|Bright meteor, like| Nucleus white,|................0. 
don). a globe. track green- 
ish. 

16/10 48 p.m.|Weston - super -/Twice as large as|Bright yellow./i3 second ; 

Mare. Venus ; light = very rapid. 
half moon. 
22) 902) pans N Did) scsnasceseuecs- Resembled Mars ...|Resembled } second 
Mars. 
23| 7 8 p.m.|Ibid...... seoeeesss Two shooting-stars,|Blue — .......0/sesceceeceeeceuee 
Ist and 2nd mag. 
23), 8030 Pm. |[DId ..ccccroseorece Quarter moon’s dia-|Deep orange.../3° or 4° in 1 
meter. sec.; very 
slow. 

26) 6 40 p.m.|Leeds .........44 Bright meteor ......|+++eeeeseeeereeees More - slowly 
than any 
shooting- 
star. 

° s 
e 
~~” 

26| 6 48 p.m./Peebles ......... Double the size Off......ccccsreeeeee Very rapid ... 

the largest planet. 

26 About7p.m.|Selkirk (Rox-|Light like the MOON],.....s00..-cseecslecssecsseseseesees 

burghshire). 

26 7 45 p.m./Melbourne (S.|Fully as large as/Pale, but in-|.............0006 

Australia). the moon. Light! tensely bright 
quite —_ eclipsed) hue. 
the moonlight. 
27| 4 55 p.m.|Strasbourg ...... Great fireball. c.5.3|..0..00cesenee onss|vocseanssh GoveeaNe 
27) 5 40 p.m./Millwall, N.bank|Appeared to be as|Green, yellow,|........+++0++ oes 
of the River} large as the full} blue, alter- 
Thames, oppo-| moon. nately. 
site Greenwich 
Hospital. 
27| 5 45 p.m.|Torquay .........,/Apparent size ofColour of full|2 seconds...... 
full moon. moon. 
* 


Position, or 
Altitude and 
Azimuth, 


Appeared 
below, 
little 
Mars. 

From 4° 
Mars. 


and 
west 


S.B. 


..|From @ Pisciun 


il Ceti. Pas 
within 3° ( 
of Mars. 

Disappeared 
Mars. 

Appeared 3° ¢ 
o Eridani. 
den from 
after falling 
cr 5°. 


wecetecgt ss ecnas “ 
ot 

In Ursa Maje 
4 

~ = 

° °F 

« e @ 


Appeared in } 
Passed with g 
velocity across 
heavens to SJ 

Passed overhea 

altitude 42°, 

W. from S. 
Passed near 

zenith. 1 


Appeared nea 
zenith, 
moved on 
inclined pat 
wards S. hor 


Began and 
E. of Ma 
Lower 
Mars. 1 | 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 231 


and its Duration. 


time. 


cally. 


POOR eee ee meee tees ee eee eetans 


veral until 105 p.m., in 
same place and direc- 
‘ion, the last a 1st mag- 
nitude star, blue. 


e ball of a Roman 
andle. Disappeared in 
bank of clouds which 
ose up within five 
minutes. 


uminated the whole 
2ountry with extraordi- 
aary brilliancy. 


sourse with a very bright 


arly round, rather elon- 
sated. Finally disap- 
eared behind a dark 
loud. 


low sparks thrown off 
hroughout the whole 
ourse; a train also 
een after meteor’s dis- 
ppearance for half a 


ppearance; Train, if any, 


a streak for a short 


2ar-shaped and _ tailed. 
Burst with a shower 
of lst magnitude yellow 
stars which fell verti- 


cht intermittent .........|..... Satceeests 


Direction ; noting also 
whether Horizontal, 
Perpendicular, or 
Inclined. 


Downwards to the right, 
30° from horizontal. 


Parallel to the ecliptic, 
westwards. 


Radiated from » Cassio- 
peiz. 
Fell nearly vertical ...... 


al eee eee eeeseoeeneeseeeeeese 


Another account. 


SOOO Pere eee Oe Poeeeeeaeneeeres 


ploded at the end of its|, 


train of pale-coloured), 


wena e ee eeeee 


N.W. t0 S.Bie..<cccessateee 


n00n; circular; then 
yriform, and exploded, 
hooting out behind it a 
Tilliant crimson flame, 
ike fireworks. 


zontal. 


Observer. 


uO MEER SIRE: o cose sdaebutcfoenes sdescveseasacescuos vanvec} lie 


ssoqaaane bead AsERAS orteassevs|t--Potter 5 ERT, 
Humphreys: 
Sky and sea calm ...... W. H. Wood. 


SOON e Orne eee eeerereeereeeeenes 


In 4 minutes rumbling 
concussions were 
heard for 90 seconds.. 


seesssueveseeeess.{4 prolonged report fol- 


lowed the appearance 
in about one minute. 


In a southerly direction/At right angles to the 


usual course of such 


John Marshall. 


Peebles ‘ Adver- 


visitants. 


St. Alphege church, 
Greenwich, exhibiting 
that building in bold 
relief from surround- 
ing objects; then 
suddenly disappeared, 
leaving all objects 
totally undistinguish- 
able. 


first mistaken for the/28° .........|E. to W., sensibly hori-|..........000+ seeeeneeeeeeees 


tiser’ (R. 
Chambers). 
G. Lewis. 
Owen’s Adver- 
tiser. 
Cosmos, Paris, 
December 5th. 


In a S. by W. direction. The meteor fell behind|J. R. Nash. 


W. Pengelly. 


232 


REPORT—1863. 


Date. 


1862. 
Nov. 27 


27 


27 


27 


27 


7|Appeared 


Hour. 


hm s 
5 45 p.m. 


5 45 p.m. 


5 45 p.m. 


5 45 p.m. 


5 45 pm. 


5 45 p.m. 


547 5 
p-m. 


547 5 


p-m. 
Extinction. 


Place of . 

Observation. Apparent Size. Colour. 
DOAN oc cede cones ian imesteenees sonbestatieis|s ey ccece Peete 
Sunderland Brighter than 

(Durham), Venus. 


Hastings ......... 


Saltford (Bath)..|Half diameter of 


Broxbourne...... 


Sandgate (near|Greatest width 0° 


Dover). 


Grantham ...... 


Magnificent meteor 


Width across the 


eer e ene eeeteeereeserenls 


At the end, behind... 


houses, the light 
increased very 
brightly, 


moon. 


13’ ; greatest 
length 0° 26’. 
Would certainly 
have appeared a 
bright body on 
the surface of the 
moon. 


head 31’; length 
longitudinally 1° 
17’; by compa- 
rison with the 
moon. 


HOOT eee tee eerens 


Red, then blue, 


Colour of me- 


Blue 


White ........./3 seconds..... 


then red. 


teor white, 
butreflected 
light bluish, 


Fee eeeeee 


eovscoscescees-| While «a per- 


Barely 3 secs.. 


6 or 8 seconds 


Not more than 


From « Ceti to 


Position, or 
Altitude and’ 
Azimuth. 


From near Ma 
passed under 
moon, and bu 
at altitude 2 
above the he 
zon. 


.|From altitude § 


38° E. from §, 
altitude3°, 5° 
from S. 
Passed some 

tance below t 
moon into a lo 
dark cloud tot 
right of it. 


From about al 
tude 60° to abo 
altitude 35°. — 


about a mile « 
and 400 or. 
yards high, 
an Appeared at R.. 
23%, S. Decl. 7 


View commence 
near « el 
passed 
across B 
and 


Fomalhaut, 
nishing 4° 
yond this st 
and about 5 
above the hoi 
zon. _Dropp 
balis of _ lig 
between 6 C 
and Fomalhaut. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


i. Train, if any,| Length of 


and its Duration. 


e a globe of phos- 
horus driving a dark- 
oloured head or bolt 
urning before it. Left a 
olden thread behind it. 
urst with a crackling 
ppearance. 
t no permanent streak, 
ut sparks only, upon a 
ort train, 


elongated, intensely 
lue pear-shapes, raced 


ht like that of a 


ece of white-hot iron 
ought out of asmith’s 


ged from red to blue, 
d again to red, when 


ppeared, 


shape, or like Prince 
pert’s drop. A train 
red sparks left in the 
©; no coloured balls 
nm to drop from the 


- Cone milky white, 
Sphorescent, or dim 
Omparison. A train 
uddy sparks, lasting 
3 seconds, followed 
meteor. Large blue 
SScattering yellowish 
» Which burst into 
ks, fell perpendicu- 


light most}. 


Path. 


see eeeeeeteteens 


see eerereteees 


from the head. 


N.E. by N. to S.W. by S. 


Azimuths doubtful; but 


Path perpendicular to 


233 


Direction ; noting also 
whether Horizontal, 
Perpendicular, or 
Inclined. 


./Sloped gently down to- 


wards the W. 


EE Peer Almost horizontal, 
slightly inclining 
downwards. 


altitudes correct, by 
house roofs, &c. 


hee eaten eer eeees eee eneeeee 


the line of the moon’s 
cusps. Produced 
backwards, would 
have passed halfway 
between Mars and the 
moon. 


Remarks. 


eee eee eee re ey Fe eeeeerees 


Atte t eee eens Fonte ee reeeeere 


Although the moon (7 


days old) was ex- 
tremely bright and 
clear, its light was 
lessened by the 
meteor. 


increased in size, but 
not uniformly, an oc- 
casional decrease in 
size and _ brightness 
taking place. Mo- 
mentary checks in the 
velocity each time 
that it discharged a 
shower of balls. It 


vanished at its maxi- 
mum brightness, not 
bursting, but as if 
going behind 
opaque body. 


some 


. 


Observer. 


G. Brown (Deal 
Telegram). 


Rey. G. Ilyffe. 


Writer in ‘The 
Standard.’ 


--/James Rock, Jun. 


Francis Cotterell. 


Writer in ‘The 
Morning Star.’ 


H. P. Finlayson. 


....{The meteor gradually|E. J. Lowe. 


234 


REPORT—18638. 


i ee 


Date. Hour. 


1862. | h 
Noy.27| 5 48 


27| 5 49 p.m. 


27 


27| 5 50 p.m. 


27| 5 50 p.m. 
27| 5 50 p.m. 


27 


p-m. 


Place of 


Westminster, 
London. 


Euston 
(London). 


5 50 p.m.|Kensal - green|Like the moon at 


(London). 


London). 


Liverpool 


5 50 p.m. 
5 50 p.m. 


Etchingham 
(Sussex). 

Hawkhurst 
(Kent). 


Observation. 


Square| Diameter equal half 


Clapham (near) Very large meteor.. 


Near Windsor ...|ight sufficient to 


Apparent Size. 


diameter of moon, 
but more brilliant 
than the full 
moon. 


the time. 


read by. 

The light appeared 
to flash while 
the meteor was 
hidden behind 
houses. 


As large as the 
moon. 

Outshonethe moon;| 
light sufficient to 
read by. 


Colour. 


Position, o1 
Altitude ani 
Azimuth, 


Duration. 


— 


Steady motion|Moved from — 


Many colours.. 

Parliament 
Houses to’ 
the W. below 
moon. 

Very bright}.....cccassosiess First seen at I 
green. 235 40", S.1 

6° or 8° 
appeared 
view at 
22h 30™, S.1 
10°. 

Nucleus of a)......... sted From 2° or 3 
light green of the Pleia 
colour. about 15° o 

S. of the mo 

Brilliant About 5 secs.../From 28° E. 

colours. S. altitude 
to. Ji? We 
altitude 1 
18°, 

Rainbow aaavteues fel catee eh vere aae 4 
colours. 

Bluish white,/Moved three|Altitude 8° 
yellowatthe| and a half} S.E. by E. 3 
edges, and| times  its| by E. 
red at the} own length 
extremity of| ina second. 
the tail. 

“sbeendoenepgevoe|coteereras e+eeeee.|Underneath 

moon. 

Bliel <.hes<0. 3 seconds...... a Aquarii tog 

corni. 


~ Tay 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 235 
Direction ; noting also 
pearance; Train, ifany,! Length of | whether Horizontal 
| and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. oh 
Inclined. 

dy green; tail golden.|....ss....cccsslesssccceccceeee Sieh oteetebeds alms ectens karat paseaben ce cdeeee bao Boog, WISE IN 
Disappeared in a spark- * The Times.’ 
ling shower of colours. 
nil like a rocket; begin-|..,..........«./Nearly horizontal ...... A serene night and sky.|A.B.Clementson. 
Ming and end hidden. Moon seyen days old. 
. 

form somewhat oval.|........... nega Per Siococs bop et ...|As the meteor shot for-/C. H. Bright. 

train stretched far ward it increased and 

behind, composed of »)) diminished alternately 

mber- and crimson- 's, in size, especially just 

oloured sparks. Balls : before disappearance. 

ell from it, which burst 

nto other balls. ea ae 

“Say, 


first small, but grew 
ery bright, and left a 
ain of sparks. Disap- 
eared without bursting. 


Pee eee ere) rere rd hae 


t, with a rugged About 40°../Inclined downwards 4° 


ppearance, moved 

ong the tail and 
ormed sparks for an 
stant behind it. 


owed by a train of 


coe ctwvaree veese[lie, to” Wi, Obliquely|.,..., comeeneeeeee EE Hussey. 
arks, downwards. 
treak remained, but|-+++++++++++++- Downwards towards the/The light caused the|F. Young. 


tks followed thinly 
4 train; beginning 
d end hidden by 
Stacles. Flakes of 
ght were left behind 


a 
= "22>: 
2 i, \) 
= S 


Positions measured by|Communicated 
description the follow-| by A. S. Her- 
ing evening. schel. 


Pee rer res fee eeneee eee 


soseceeees.| Writer in ‘The 
Standard.’ 
Disappeared from sight|H. P. Horner. 


or 5° from horizontal.| behind buildings. 


right at a consider- 
able slope. 


observer to 
round towards 
moon. 


turn 
the 


236 
Place of 

Date |iqierer Observation. 

1862.|h m 

Noy.27| 5 50 p.m./Caen _(Nor- 
mandy). (Seen 
also at Cher- 
bourg.) 


27| 5 53 p.m./Weston - super -|One-third diameter, 


27 


27 


27 


27 


st 


27 


Mare. of moon. 
5 55 p.m.|Mottingham, A ball as large as 
Chislehurst two fists; lighted 
(Kent). up the pathway. 
5 55 p.m.|Peckham Rye ...|Most beautiful 
meteor; large 
as an ordinary 

gas-lamp. 
5 55 p.m./Mile End Road, Width of head one- 
London. eighth diameter 

of moon. 
5 55 p.m.|Chislehurst As large as full 
(Kent). moon ; light suf- 
ficient to read by. 
Between 5 Lymington Ball of bright blue ; 


and6p.m. (Hants). 


Between 5 Etchingham 
and 6 p.m.| (Sussex). 


REPORT—1868. 


Apparent Size. 


Glare from behind 
only perceived. 


Colour. 


First red, 
then blue. 


Silvery white.. 


light like a Ro- 
man candle. 


Splendid meteor .. 


. Nearly every 


Beautiful blue 
tinge. 


Bright yellow, 
shading to 
rose pink 
and rich 
violet. 

Very 

colour. 


blue 


Blue, red, 
yellow. 


colour. 


Position, rT 
Altitude and 
Azimuth. 


Duration. 


Ween e ee ww en eeneees 


4 to 5 seconds|From N.E., altiti 
10° to S.E. by: 


Did not travel 
at a very 
rapid rate. 


Benen nen neee 


4 to 6 seconds|About 15° 4a 
the horizon 


Very slow mo- 
tion; visible 
3 seconds. 


teen e eee eeenee 


on the Plei 
just below 


Ammen r ee ee eee eee e eee en ee eeenee 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 


yearance ; Train, if any,) Length of 


and its Duration. 


—— —__ _ —_——_ 


turning round, a streak)... 
f red sparks was seen, 


ying away. 


first small, gradually 
creased ; halted half. 
ay, with great shower 
sparks. InE., threw 
ut a yellow tail 18° 
ng, green at junction 


ith head. Head 
ear-shaped ; burst at 
st into ten large 


eces which advanced 
dliquely towards the 
orizon. 


a tail in its progress.. 


ariding whip, moving 

att-end first. Burst 
th a flash like light- 
ng. 


eared to divide, and 
en to burst with a 
rprising and brilliant 
off sparks in curls 
ove and below, behind 
like the scales from 
anvil. Crimson-red 
the centre, interlined 
ove with greenish 
ue, and below bright 
llow. Some sparks 
downwards. 
t © 
as small when first 
en, and gradually be- 


Path. 


sewer eeeee 


30° of the 
path were 
seen 
through a 
cumulus 
cloud. 


ss eee eeeoeenee 


E.N.E. to W.S.W., ex- 


Descended at a slight 


Horizontal till the last 


me large. It seemed 
halt midway, and a 
endid shower of 
arks came forth of 
arly eyery colour. 


Direction ; noting also 
whether Horizontal, 
Perpendicular, or 
Inclined. 


NiE..to SoWs... ei aeees 


actly parallel to the 
horizon. 


declivity. 


Report 


It forced its way along 


it 
to- 


moment, when 
turned upwards 
wards the moon. 


Remarks. 


like — distant 
thunder heard in one 
to one and a half 


minutes, at Caen, 
Colleville,, Lion-sur- 
Mer. 


Described in L’Ordre 
et la Liberté of Caen, 
Le Moniteur de Calva- 
dos, and Le Moniteur 
Universel de Paris. 


wee e teen ners eens seeeeeeeeee 


237 


Observer. 


M. Toussaint. 


W. H. Wood. 


as if impeded. 


Writer in ‘ The 


C. J. C., writer 


A. P. Falconer. 


--../F, Reeves. 


G. M. G., writer 
in ‘The Times.’ 


H. Seabrooke. 


Standard.’ 


in ‘The Times.’ 


238 2 REPORT—1863, 


Place of Position, or 


Date.| Hour. Observation. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and 
Azimuth. 
1862.| h m 
Nov.27|Shortly be-|Havre (France)..|Great fireball ......)...... ssseeeeeeee| Withastonish-|Passed over 
fore 6 p.m. ing rapidity.| town. t 
27/6 O p.m.|Newport, Isle off.............05 Brivacee BlUe) siveseess Moderate Passed under 


Wight. speed. moon, more fi 
to the moon t 
to the horizor 


27| 6 O p.m.|Wrotham (Maid-|About equal to the|/Light white,|....... coh ttenaena Passed under 
stone). moon; light not} like moon- moon, 
quite so bright. | light. 


27; 6 O p.m.|Bridport Rather longer than]...ccc..ssecesserileecees A 3: N.E. to 
; (Dorset). moon’s diameter; greatest — heig 
twice as long as about 20°. | 
broad. 


27; 6 O p.m.|/English Bicknor,|.......... bbe <onnceseen Intense blue...|............s..+..|fhe height abe 
Forest of Dean the horizon 
(Gloucester- guessed to 
shire). about 60°. 


21\'G 0 Pim. |Sutton  “Coart; |. 5-s<cavcacessescesceoelebeeees exc sanesce|saress er oe 
Abingdon. 


27| 6 O p.m.\Cambridge Ob-|Overpowered the|Deep blue ...|Slowly pur-|Passed at 
seryatory. light of the moon sued its) 112°N. P. DR 
with intermittent course. altitudel6°, 
flashes. 8.E. to 8. W 


ta 


27| 6 O p.m.|Honiton, nearLarger than full\Intensely blue|Very slow mo-\Judging from 
Exeter. moon, tion, 10secs.| moon, the 
at least. tude was 
35° from 26 
of S.to 5° E 
27|6 3 p.m.|Pendock (Wor-|Half size of full/[ntense blue...|3 or 4 seconds|Appeared bet 
cestershire). moon. Pleiades 
Aries. 
under 
and burst 
mediately b 
the moon. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 239 


t no streak ; went out 
Idenly. 
ng of red and blue 
ht with tail appended: 
1 account). 


DOU eed ne A Aaa 


Mow halo and long 
ninous tail. Nume- 

sparks scattered 
en it burst. 


Almost 


somewhat depressed. 


horizontal ; 


Direction ; noting also 
earance ; Train, if any,] Length of | whether Horizontal, 
and its Duration. i Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer. 
Inclined. 

MipbumMingWs . track)...,......c0..|Nef0So, asatadvacss.oesee Seen also at Bolbec,(Cosmos, Paris, 
ehind it. Ivetol, and Rouen. Dee. 5th). 
earance like a Roman).,,.,,.........,|E. to W.; straight and/The moon shone James Rock, Jun. 
imdle ; a cylinder ten level course. brightly. 

twelve diameters in 
ngth of uniform 
ightness ; not pear- 
aped or kite-shaped. 

o other tail. 

icular when first seen,|....... sseeee--|Moved downwards to-|....... seeccsssoecccrscceseaee[Oe Co Kent, 

us— wards W.S.W., at an 

: angle inclined 6° to 
> () the horizontal. 

isappeared as a shoot- 

g-star might do, va- 

shing not quite sud- 

nly.- 

MUMMIE s vo8596ls<nnceeet|scevecs Penna Rose in N.E., moved)......esesssssscsseeeeeseeeees/Charles Walke 
horizontally, and dis- 
appeared in S.£. 

or two solitary|...... Gichosees|soevcae saontoaee TeeeG tide ide bateccssnedeussicnsccestsooces\Je DUTdOL: 
arks, at first increased 

a stream until the ’ 
eteor was formed. 
1€ meteor increased 

glory and volume 
til it vanished. 
udden disappearance).,...........60/......0. lstsesessseesesseeesee(Lhe same remark madeJ. Kent. 

very remarkable, at Hazely Heath, 
ere being apparently Hants, by Mr. J. 
obstacle to hide it. Seeley. 

flashes resembled].,,... sessseeeeeseetsecceecsseeeeeee(Ring’ Of red and blue 

nmer lightning, light with a tail ap- 

ching nearly to the pended (second ac- 
1ith. Dispersed count). 

ks on all sides; 


No report was heard ... 


W. S. Symonds. 


REPORT—1863. 


Place of : : Positional 
Date. Hour, Observation. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. mlsads and 
zimuth. 
1862.|h m { 
Noy.27| 6 30 p.m.|Windsor ......... Cast shadowS}.......++0008 scedsl ieeeseeeese ate. Underneath | 
through a window moon. Alti 
more strong than about 15°. 
those of the 
moon. ' 
27|..2..++++ee8..| Bray  (County/Width at head half|Blue andgreen|Lasted only a/Appeared alt 
Wicklow). diameter of moon, fewseconds.| due E., | 
, tapering to ex- moved rap 
tremity of tail; to about — 
four moon’s dia- S.E. at ant 
meters in length. tude of 5° or 
DG |scecsvseaveess.|LUNDTICGE ....-. One-third diameter}........:sseseees Comparatively|Appeared I 
of moon. slow. Mars; descen 
across thesky, 
derthemoon. 
appeared hal | 
from the moor 
the horizon. © 
27| 8 48 p.m.|Greenwich Park..|=Ist mag.x ...... Blive 9st.) woes 1 second ...... From direction 
a Draconis t 
Aurige. : 
Dec. 3) 7 30 p.m./Lymington ...... AS IATPC | (BS, (tHE) <<. .snacapechacoos Very rapid ;/Went S. in a | 
moon when full. 10 or 12 secs.) curvetoward 
Needle rocks} 
° descended 
the sea ; fron i 
of Ursa Maj | 
10|About7p.m.| Weston - super -|Large bolide ....., Blues. ssceeses|icccsbaas soseeseee(From altitude2 
Mare. ? a little highel 
the E. to altit) 
10° S. or SS 
10&11) 6-63 p.m.|Prestwitch(Man-|10 or 12 meteors=|.........sc0scceee{ocseeeeeeeeeeeeeee In all quarters 
8-9 p.m.) chester). lst mag.* the sky. @ 
103-12p.m. : 
12\10 15 p.m./Greenwich ...... = [st Mag.%......000|.sesceecceecrscons 1 second ...... Fell down 
pendicularly 
a few degrees 
of the Pleiadt 
12)10 20 p.m.jIbid ............... SHUG connes av abecee|tetesseapseck cats 2 seconds...... Passed fron . 
: Orionis in 
S.W. dire 
for 10°. 
12/10 30 p.m.|Ibid .........006... Abouttwice aslarge|Blue_ ......... 0°5 second ...|\Seemed to § 
as Sirius. from 6 © 
Majoris, 
5° above it 
burst at 
2° from ¢ 
Majoris. 
13)10 26 p.m.|Ibid...... seseeeee-|= Ist mag.x, bril-/Blue  ......6.|, 1 second ...... From « Geminot 
liant. to y Orioni 
15| 6 50 p.m.|Dordogne Puy-|Twice Venus ...,../White ......... Moved slowly./Appeared ne: | 
charnaud Pole, and r 
(France). towards the | 


rizon. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 241 


One = ee ee 


Direction ; noting also 


earance; Train, if any,| Lengthof | whether Horizontal, uy Ob ; 
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or eeekes nerve 
Inclined. 


e into three parts likel........... ecee|BeaptOd We .cccxacensemacte Ba litel ds ««0ditaeseeenteoee’) tt Writer in ‘ The 
€ great meteor of Daily _—Tele- 
graph.’ 


number of = sparks}......... sovee-/IE moved nearly hori-|..cccccccssssssssssssseeeseece 
e left behind in zontally, 

progress, and just 
fore disappearance it 
ew out the most 
lliant light, blue 
d green, like the ex- 
ion of an enormous 


HHO ee ee et eeeeeteeeees steenee Peeeererlinge emer eerereeeeteveeesenes Oder eeeederereereeeeeres Writer in : The 
Illustrated 
LondonNews.’ 


UU iT ee) Nearly horizontal . SPO ener eeeeeeerses 


S Particles, ANd al-++ss+ssessseee|..secssccseseeesessescenseenec|eacceseesesens 
like that of a 
followed if. 


Communicated 


ARRAS ELE Oerrerrrrrrrrrcrr i ee ere +H eOOOeeeeee reer eseaereeeeeees by W. H. Wood. 


R. P. Greg. 


PORTE e eter eeeeeeereresnnsiteee Pe eeeeerees Radiant point perfectly see Petereeeeeeeevesseeeeesenes 
marked between Au- 
riga and Gemini. 
P eee eeerereeeseereseerens 5° or 6° "le aeeeessese Coe re cerereeeeeereslscesennseneceeeeeesereepeseres Je MacDonald. 


Id. 


; 10° 
SPEER Reet e eee teeresenes feteeee COC e ee ee oreo eeereneeeeseres 


alform; left a train,|40° osaesenss|AMGLNEG |oosspsuesscvcesecleaesessteceenieeeeee ate. calc Ce Trapaud. 


h became disunited 
before the meteor 
the train lasted 
t 0°4 sec. 


W. C. Nash. 


f white light ..4...)......000 +++/S.E. to NVW. ............| During a brilliant aurora|Writer in 
* Cosmos.’ 


Feb. 


242 REPORT—1863. — * 


Pines of ‘ . Position, o 
Date.| Hour. Givervation, Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. em 
1862.| h m 
Dec. 15/11 30 p.m./Puycharnaud (Twice Venus ...... Whites) wieres Slow motion...|...ssserveseeees 
(Dordogne), 
France. 
21} 4 22 pm.|Hull ............) Width quarter dia-}.......... asesbaee Very slow mo-|From magnet! 
meter of moon. tion. Dura-| altitude 36 
tion 30 secs.| true S.W. 
1863. 
Jan. 2} 9 20 to |Edinburgh ......,=2nd and 4thj.......... seaseces|eacsaennie Biases In Taurus, 
9 40 p.m mag. stars. &e. 
3) 7 30 p.m. WEIS: Foxes Bussiae Nearly as large as|......000. she soos-| cindy oa cduneeengee Struck acros 
the moon. heayens fro 
N. to the V 
G}...cccsceeceees|Hamburg, Stet-|Large meteor ....0.|.sccersrsceessscee|sceees cogeceuspect|sascskexenmen ood 
tin, Magde- 
burg, &c. 
7| 6 55 p.m./Hurst - green |>Mars or Venus... Very red ......|... en roe From gr, 0 
(Sussex). az Orionis 
Eridani. — 
13 6 30 p.m.|Greenwich Park |Much>Venus_ ...|Bright white...|3 seconds...... From near 
to imme 
below f6- 
Majoris. 
24| 8 7 p.m.|Greenwich ......)=Sirius ............ BUC .scaxtscpsct 3 seconds...... Passed perpel 
larly throug 
Pleiades. 
27\Thesun had|Auchterarder {Large —_luminous|Brilliant rose/Descended |Passed ove 
set 18 min.| (Perth). body. colour. slowly, 4 or, and prot 
455 p.m. 5 seconds. onwards 
N.E. ; 
peared beh 


rising grow) 


27) 4 55 p.m.|Plean (six miles|Very brilliant me-|.......s...s000++.|A few seconds Descended 
S. of Stirling),| teor. emis 


7|A little after/Edinburgh, five/Large meteor ......|Intensely | ..easeeeae seeeees-/ Appeared 

6 p.m. to six miles W. white. scend Dé 
Currie 
House an 
Milns, alm 
the horiz 


ST 


| 6 30 p.m./Glencorse Rail-|14 feet in diameter|The sparks red]...........+.+.++-, Appeared 


way Station 50 or 100) 

(Perth). off. De : 
from 20 
yards to 


Direction ; noting also 
earance ; Train, if any,) Length of | whether Horizontal, 


and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer. 
Inclined. 
EE SIGHT, ccc ccgssnrse -lasnarecends acttesaei tact etabenct pesduougeVeamntons'e te eeeee|Writer in 
milar to that seen at * Cosmos.’ 
'50™ p.m. 
meer irrepular-shaped|About 50°..|E. to W. .........cceressecleccosccecssssssssseveosecepece W. Lawton 
dy followed it; 
id a third © still 
naller, upon a long 
id brilliant train of 
rht. 
shooting-stars .........|. Biessemienenss Radiated from Alde-|..-sssesesenee seseesse-(J. C. Thomson. 
baran. | 
EMME MERAED ry cia naa |sseescaseetssc.|sssaessvaeth soascseccweapabves|tsesaveoeeet romica tee oats, Paragraph in 
‘ Bristol Daily 
Post.’ 
MRIs c Pasi casves| scc2sspcedces]ss0cbessoe5es Sosevece¥essecacclesceepensaganaresccperersca|y o> Communication 
by Dr. O. 
Buchner. 
IPI ATIC 000.0252) 3000. ]s0seeeacecatyeussagsousansesess[eeseoexcogeaPerrtetenne: ost se F. Howlett. 
arks, but no lu- 
nous track. Burst 
th a flash, and 
nished at maximum. 
tly pear-shaped, with|............... A nearly _horizontal|No report heard ......... W. Airy. 
tht tail, which did course. 
Eieesnscc[L2 crasrseee Perpendicularly .........Jssecseesssesseesseesseeeestpee(J« MacDonald 
Di D) MOLION|-.....00<500000 It fell nearly perpendi-|Bright twilight after a\James Hunter 


cular, S.W. to N.E. fine day. A stone) (Proceedings of 
picked up; not mete-| the Roy. Phys. 
oric (J. A. Smith and} Soc. Edinb.). 
M. Thomson). 


head, and two 


ds. One spark 
from it perpen- 
arly, when it va- 


It no doubt crossed thel......+--..ssescsssessecevsees 
Ochils. 


P. Mackenzie ; 
communicated 
by R. P. Greg. 


sete e ee eeeeeee 


mods, then  de- 
Se as it de- 
like red-hot 
Hers falling from 
grate of a coal 


red sparks, n0t)....00...,N.W. to S.E. At six|Seen also at Alyth and/Edinburgh Daily 


stream, but at ir- miles W. of Edinburgh} Dublin, and(?)Syden-| Journal. 
| intervals of it appeared to fallabout) ham (London). 
alf a second. Ravyelrigg Hill. 
‘Blown ox-bladder.!.......... ee. ek eee TARE No higher than the|David Pirrie ; 
of 4 yards, and red telegraph posts. communicated 


‘S flying from it. 
ppeared without 
apparent cause in 


by Sir J. Rich- 
ardson. 


244. REPORT—1863. 
Pl f Position, 01 
Date.| Hour. Gigeention: Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. epene 
1863.| h m i 
Feb. 7| 6 45 p.m,|Elie (Fife) .......A glimmer seen Meteor in- |Glimmer on/Appeared to 
upon the sea, not} tenselywhite,, the water extinguished 
intense, like sheet| appearing 2 seconds ;| Arthur’s Sea 
lightning. blue in the| meteor seen| the peak of 
ruddy sky. % second. Pentlands ; 
altitude a 
5°,, 16g? a 
N. 
7; 6 30 p.m.|Windygates, Glare of light on all]...+ee+s-seseeees The meteor/The course 
Leven (Fife),| objects round. was caught| from Balco 
60 yards from sight of for} Haugh Spin 
Windygates on 2 or 3 secs.| Mills; alt.1 
the Leven - only. (From 133° 
road. to 41° 57a 
muth W. fro 
7| 6 30 p.m.|Farm of West-|Remarkably  bril-)...... soswab sesvon|(bexedenuonmamene Appeared, alti 
mains, Thirle-| liant. 123°,over W 
stane. Lauder heads; d 
(Berwick). peared, alti 
10°, behin 
hill a_ litth 
of Blainslie, 
(From 70° ¢ 
39° 1’, Azil 
W.of S.) § 
7/An _—hour|East sideof Loch|Larger than  the}..+.ssssssse++++- Two or three|The greatest h 
after sun-| Fine (Argyll-| moon. minutes. was 18°, ai 
set. shire). descendedb 
a hill in 
neighbourh¢} 
7G Lo PTO EDIG . cosuscceacsesms Size of the moon:|Bluish colour..|.... sevaceesesntee Greatest alt 
light sufficient to 25°; disapp 
pick up a pin, behind a n 
bouring hill? 
8-12) 9-12 p.m.|/Hawkhurst 2,4, 4, 3, 2, 1, of/1l white, 2)7,5, 4 under,Ursa,Lynx, Ge 
(Kent). Ist, 2nd, &c.| yellow,3red.| % second,| Leo. ; 
mags. 1 second, 
and 2 secs. | 
12107 Sep pani|[bid’..ccvvsserecee =Ist mag.*.........|White, yellow, 1°5 second .../R. A. 8°, N. 9 
red. 58° to RA.e 
N. Decl. 52) 
12) 7 57 p.m.|Weston - super -|= 1st mag.x..ss.sessleceserreresenneees esenctes <shaaneia R.A. 141°, Nu) 
Mare. 27°to RA.) 
N. Decl. 21° 
12-22) 8-11 p.m.|Ibid ........... ../1, 3, 3, 0, 1 = toll bluish whitel.........0......1n all parts .9 
and 2 a.m. Venus, 1st mag.,&c. 
13} 2 0 a.m, |[bid .......00..000 >Venus, very large|Bluish white...|.....seeeess-(From 8° N, | 
meteor. Leonis 6 
Urse Major 
13|10 16 p.m./Prestwitch Very beautiful me-| White .,....... 23 seconds .../From R. A. 4 
(Manchester).| teor,=to Venus. Decl. 66° to 
12°, N. Deel 
13}11 30 to |Abercromby Astonishing fireball Body flame -|...-.+++++04+ .+«e.| Rose over thes; 
11 45 p.m.| Place (Edin- coloured ; of Wemyss 
burgh). tail red. across Queél 
Gardens (5. 
N.E.), & val i 
over the hot 
Abercrombyl 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 245 


——— ee 


Direction; noting also 
pearance; Train, if any,) Length of | whether Horizontal, i 
i and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer. 
: Inclined. 
rs LS TT | ES SS SS OF | SS | 
appeared without)...,.. teeeeeese|N.W. to S.E., in a line|[n the blush of sunset ;3}W. Wood. 
ange of course, explo- nearly horizontal, but} momentary view of 
n, or sparks. Broad somewhat dipping} disappearance only. 
e streak like a ribband downward, 
ice twisted, immediate- 


disappeared. 


a rocket, not globu-|.....000......| Horizontal course .,.,../Still serene evening, W. M. G. Miller. 
r. Emitted beautifully without a cloud. Po-| Measurements 
ight colours in a sitions from memory.) communicated 
raight line behind it. by Sir H. James. 


own-coloured tail was}........ Pinfuniewal sceun Gewduvanmemaue des asoacasen Positions from memory|— Edgeby ; 
en at one and the same communicated 
e the whole length by S. Whitton 
t it travelled and Alexander 
Buchan. 
Measurements 
communicated 


by Sir H. James. 


© Volans, with tail al...............|Came from N.W., and/A fine evening after a/James Shaw; 
d or two long, but no proceeded to S.E.,] rainy day. communicated 
arks seen. declining downwards. by Dr. G, 
Rankin. 


il two or three yards)....,.....0+./N.W. to S.E. .....se0s.-/The flash like lightning|— Malholland ; 
length, like the me- was noticed in closed} communicated 

r itself. A fiery kite rooms. by Dr. Rankin. 

dragonwitha long tail. 
m shooting - stars.|,,,.,,..,......,Radiant at top of Lion’s|.,..,.......ssssesessseeesees|Aw Se Herschel. 

ee had a sparkling head. 

pearance. No tracks 


Ova dat scan s| 2004 aos penabanieherssnisassctliatedicasit aeceesvnsssanecens| Lp 
1; ruddy before dis- 


PPRR EOE E Ree Hees Here seer eee sore eBOes renee |SOFOOS PSOE EH SEE HEEEESES OOOO ES ores eetnncens FOP eteeeroseeeres W. H. Wood. 


eft a train for a fewl...............,Radiant point ~ Leonis. dcécdessessueresneuansccectnes|lGs 
mds ; 8 shooting-stars. 

@ train for a few/30° .........\From overhead to N. 
ds. by E. 


idid train, 2 seconds ;|...,,,....se...| Vertically down inN.W.,]........cescssosesecsesesses.,|Re Ps Greg. 

a bar of light 1° to as if from Dubhe. 

broad. 

of fire, and a con-|......... seoees[SsW. to N.E., in an ap-|Tail and body travelled/P. A. Dassauville 

able tail: like a parently almost hori-| together with regular} (Proc. Royal 

work, zontal line. speed. Phys. Soc. 
: Edinb.). 


246 REPORT—1863. 


Place of Position, or 
Date.| Hour. Observation. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and’ 
Azimuth. 
1863.| h m 
Feb. 13)11 45 p.m.|St. Andrew’s |The tail and body/Brilliantred...|About one mi-|Passed over 
(Fife). extended one de- nute. centre of — 
gree. town, 
x 
13|12 0 p.m.|Shipston - upon-|One-eighth —sun’s|Ruddy ......... 5 OF 6 SECONAS!...c.ssseccccerasel 
Stour (Wor-| disc, almost daz- (Cassiopeia) (Enc 
cester). zling. — oe ot oe ot ae 
; Horizon. 
13]..c..eseeesee[Basdale (West|Very splendid me-|...........ccsses[essecesseseeesenes {Passed overhea 
Argyllshire). teor. 


13-15] 8-10 p.m.|Hawkhurst 9, 3, 1, of 3rd, 4th|10, 2, 1, white,|6, 3,3,1,4sec.,\Gemini and Oni 


(Kent). magnitude, &c. yellow, red.| 1sec., 2 secs., 
and> 2 secs. 
13-15|10 30 to |Prestwitch aire amber | OL cuscdoseegeoceec oawwess eansastens In Ursa, Can 
11 30 p.m.| (Manchester).| shooting - stars, Cepheus, &c,' 
mostly very small. | 
14) 8 56 p.m.|/Hawkhurst Nucleus = star of|White ......... 1°5 sec., 4° ...|R.A. 96°, S.I 
(Kent). 5th mag. 5° to R.A. 
S. Decl. 7°. 
Toe ILI wosusw'sgasseses =2nd mag.* ...... Yellow, red .../2°4 seconds ...|R. ‘a ae 
to R.A 
N. Decl. 6°99 
14]......eeeeees.|Prestwitch =4th mag.x se.) saconssvocesees (O° BECONG, weglkte An CLcpote 
(Manchester). 82°to R. A. bt 
N. Decl. 83 
14 ssdvaenyatedes,s |LOG WSeesogeus LL 1) Fy PTET UETUTUEEEETEEE TT Perret eeeeeeee R. A. 144°, NI] 
58° to R. Ag 
N. Decl. 63° 


15/A little after/Folkestone ..... 
6 p.m. 


Of a _white/Moved  yeryjA little to th 
colour. slowly. of Sirius, a 
a line with 


-|Very brilliant me- 
teor. 


15] 6 37 p.m.|Giessen Large meteor ...... Bluish white.../3-4 seconds ;\Fell verticall 
(Germany) very slow) W. from 4% 
motion. 10° altitude 
15] 8 57 p.m.|London ......... =2nd mag.x ...... Luminous easeavcabenne todvaless setae saecoum 
white. 
16} 8 54 p.m.|Hawkhurst =14 mag.x ......... White, then|1*2 second .,./R.A.337°, N, 
(Kent). red. 69°to R.A 
N. Decl. 6 
16)11 30 p.m./Torquay ......... =3rd mag.x ...... Straw colour...|1 second ......|Appeared 5° Wi 
a point m 
between 1] 
geux and S) 
16/11 35 p.m.jIbid ............... =2nd mag.« ..,.../Bright straw/Rather rapid ;/Passed2°S.ofl 
colour. 2 seconds. | nasch &disa) 


ed 10° furth 


16-22) 8-11 p.m./Hawkhurst 3, 3, 4, 3, 2, of Ist/11,2, 3, white,|7,3,4,1, 4 sec.,|Cameloparda 


(Kent). and 2nd mags., &c.| yellow, red.| 1sec.,2secs.,| Auriga, &¢ 

and>2 secs. 
17].8 9 pandlbidtacavisvecs ..|= 4th, then 2nd/White 1:6 second .,.\R. A. 74°, N, 
mag. star. throughout. 36° toR. A 
N. Decl. 2 
T7\"S49" pan. [bid \c..scccsaceceee =1]} mag.* ......... White, then|l°5 second ...|R. A. 114°, N 
red. 29° to R. A 


N. Decl. 19 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 247 


Direction ; noting also 
Length of | whether Horizontal, 
Path. Perpendicular, or 

Inclined. 


earance; Train, if any, 
and its Duration. 


Remarks. Observer. 


‘St.  Andrew’s 
Gazette,’ Feb. 
1863. 


Myers ci hin eT bs spine V is umahaascadbses 
N.E. direction. 


<e flashes in front. 
dy dazzling appear- 
ce, the hinder part 
eaking into sparks, 


71 Oe Paes Eastward, - horizontal, 


James Gorle. 
below Cassiopeia. 


POPP R ERTS TEETER OE eee eee eeeeeeeeeees seeeeteeseee 


J. White; com- 
municated by 
A. Buchan. 

A. S. Herschel. 


Seen TOP e arenes eee eee eeeeeeseenes 


een shooting-stars ; 5/5° to 30°... Radiant, X Leonis ...... 
tails or a sparkling 
earance ; notracks left. 


On Feb. 15th, 9% 20™ 
p.m. to 9° 50™ p.m., 
8 appeared in 30 min. 


/Presented a good radiant/Qn the idth, 6 appeared|R. P. Greg. 
point in Leo Minor. in 30 minutes. 


punded by a brushy 
nebulous envelope 3° 


TOR e eee ee ee eel eee nee OOe estes eeeeeeeesrereee 


st tailed; red; long 
arrow-like. 


FO eee ebeneeee 


sseoeeeeeee|Moved towards IV. of a............ceccssceseee ..-|Mrs. M¢Leod. 
watchface held with 
XII. vertical. 


trese}00™  sessesees/Fell vertically E. to W..|No detonation ......... Communicated 
by Dr. O. 
Buchner. 
T. Crumplen 
Lt ES eee Seer aca ey Sema oe A. S. Herschel. 
arrow-like, dull red. 
nh One - third|Horizontal, W. to E. W. Pengelly 
Betelgeux 
to Sirius. 
sat pa Betelgeux |Sensibly horizontal)! . gs secseeaesessvececseete eth. 
to Sirius. | S.E. to N.W. 
shooting - stars ;!10° to 35°.,|Two radiants; ° eo’s|)...% eee ake A. S. Herschel. 
) were tailed; one head and Capella. 
|@ track for 1 sec. 
red 2n 
ving a track 6°, one 
ond, white. 
ittailed ; nucleus and Id. 


arrow-like, dull red. 


248 REPORT—1863. 


Place of Position, o 
; t Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude an 
Date. Hour. Bie ation: Apparent Size olou uration fe ud a, 
1863.|h m ; [ 
Feb. 20| 6 25 p.m.|Giessen (Ger- |Large meteor ...... Train greenish].........s0e.s.00- In the S.E. ... 
many). 
20|10 35 p.m.|Hawkhurst =I1st mag.* ...... Wihite) su ssccnss 2-2 seconds ..,./R. A. 83°, N. J 
(Kent). 20° toR. A. 
N. Decl. 23° 
W., altitude’ 
22/10 45 p.m.|Eccles, mear |esrssseseeeeeeeseennvens|eseenssasseesecssiseeeesccsnnnneese Fell due S., 
Manchester. about the alt} 


of Canis Maj 
Half diameter of/Yellow, then|3 to 4 seconds|\Came nearly 
moon. Likethe| white, at the Pole, or 
crown of a hat. | last red. the end of 
Great Bear’s 
Passed behi 
tree, alt. 9°, 4 
of E., and 
down to thi 
point of the| 
rizon. 2ndly, 
among trees 
18° N. of 
altitude 33° 
14° N. off 
altitude 2°, 5 
towards 9° ! 
E., upon the 
rizon. 
.../White,  then|24 seconds ...|Appeared all 


Mar. 4| 6 36 p.m.|Hawkhurst 
(Kent). 


4) 6 36 p.m.|Prestwitch(Man-|Brilliant meteor 


chester). red, 15°, 5° S.4 

Disappeare i} 
titude 3° 0 

ES | 
4| 6 30 to |Accounts from/Equal to a 12-Ib,|/Silvery white,|3 to 5 seconds|Appeared N. 
6 45 p.m.| 12 Coastguard) rocket. Flash then bright by W. B 
Stations,Hast-| observed when} blue; fiery tween Galley 

ings. the meteor was| red before it and Dung} 

hidden by cliffs. | disappeared. Point; oror 

buildings, as 
from Bexh 


Station fla 
Almost to! 
the water b 
it disappear 
burst. 
Meteor like arocket}...«e+es+-..see0e(Descended |Ratherlowin ; 
gradually. It reached} 
horizon, 0} 
lost in t 
of the hori 
Brilliant as  thejIn colour like)....... PHC 8 Souferony seeecs tee 
moon. the moon. 


4) 6 30 p.m.|Hereford ......... 


4| 6 32 p.m.|Bredon (Tewkes- 
bury). 


.|Brilliant blue,|5 or 6 seconds/Across the sky 
changing to} at least. to S.E. 
red. 

ANG mim. Oud seneaeneys|dvecshs<+=0ccoesveseeee|ssneme Ac“ qobeinas| scot seeseeseoese| Neat Cor Ca 


Splendid meteor .. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


Te aa SSS SSS 


earance; Train, if any, 


and its Duration. Path. 


eak train of greenish 
lour. Disappeared 
ddenly. 

orm motion and ap- 
arance. No tail or 
arks. 


PRESS e OTE eee ee ee eee eaee Fete eeneeeeaes 


1 at first and like a 
ndle - flame. Then 
panded to a brilliant 
lite ball near the 
on, sparks flying from 
derneath, like a horn. 
Sappeared gradually 
low the horizon as a 
1 ball the size of a hat, 
thout sparks. 


st globular; at last 
a rainbow-coloured 
am behind it (like a 
1et’s) consisting of 

brilliant light. No 
from it at disap- 
ince, for it did not 
but was lost sight 


r resembling a 
leaving a long 
with sparks, 
it. 


sO eee e eee eneees 


Bisctenvcse eter eeee POO eee eee eeeeeeee 


eee eee eee ee eee eres 


POPP RO OO reer eee re eet etinnnees eeeee ee 


Length of 


eevee eereeeee 


eee eeeeeeeaee 


weet eeeeenees 


train of sparks ......}. pescs¥abeseure 


249 


Direction ; noting also | 
whether Horizontal, i r 
Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer. 
Inclined. | 
.| Downwards towards the No detonation............ ‘Communicated 
right ; 40° from hori- by Dr, O. 
zontal. Buchner. 
|S. to N. ; horizontal ...|............. SPRITE TR A. 8. Herschel. 
U[essdawssdedsocues UettUsace ott s Coeccvesccsccccsssoneess| Le Mackereth, 
.|Came nearly from the)..,,,,...... eceete ct J. Birch;  T. 
Pole, or from the end Humphrey; F. 
of the Great Bear’s Reeves ; Je 
tail; or from altitude Jeffrey. 
142°, 12° E. from N. Communicated 
It was descending at by A. S. Her- 
a slope of 233° to the schel. 
horizon when it disap- 
peared. 


Downwards towards the]........s..se 
right, 50° from hori- 
zontal. 


Seer eeeeeetetans 


About W.N.W.toE.S.E.,|Full moon; no clouds,| Communicated 
in a very low transit.| but a hazy atmo-| by F. W. 
sphere. Gough, R.N. 


Descended gradually ...|......ssssssesseeeesseeeeees5.| COMMunication 
by T.W. Webb. 


N. to S., in a slanting 
direction towards the 


Full moon effaced the Communicated 
stars, but meteor| by J. Glaisher. 
eclipsed the moon. 

i Cuvewsomacuenedsdaedetacet|ussarten seeeseesesseeesseseese/COMMunicated 

by T. Crump- 

len. 


eee eee eee eee eee rey 


250 


Place of ‘ 
Date.| Hour. Goaeauun. Apparent Size. 
1863.| h m 
Mar. 4) 7 0 p.m.|Erbach (Oden-|Very brilliant 
wald). meteor. 


4)About 7 30)Shoreham Brilliant meteor .. 


p.m. (Brighton). 
4]... .seseeseees--| Westphalia Very brilliant 
(many places).| meteor. 
7| 7 35 p.m.|Weston - super -|=1st mag.x ...... 
Mare. 
PAG sie) 00% |LbId! ..6...050-0000. 9, 0, 2, 3, 1, of Ist 
11 30 p.m. mag., 2nd mag., 
&e. 
9)10-11 p.m.|/Hawkhurst No shooting-stars 
(Kent). above 4th mag. 
10/10 30 p.m.)Weston - super -| Remarkable meteor 
Mare. 
11} 9 48 p.m./Prestwitch(Man-|=to Sirius ......... 
chester) 
PUL OS! PRON DIG «vcsedeeoss ees =Ist mag.* ...... 
11-17] 8 30 to [Ibid..........00... 3,8, 9, 8, 1, of Ist 
12 O p.m. mag., 2ud mag., 
&e. 
12) 8 33 p.m.|/Hawkhurst =[st mag.*.e.....0 
(Kent) 
12] 8 53° p.m.|Ibid ............... =5th mag.x ...... 
W269) AT pim.|[bid .o..6005..0s05- =2nd mag.*, then 
=4th mag.x 
13] 8 20 p.m.|Ibid .............4. =2nd mag.* ...... 
13}10 17 p.m.|Prestwitch(Man-|=Sirius ............ 
chester). 
13|10 27 p.m.|Weston - super -|=Venus ............ 
Mare. 


REPORT—1863. 


Position, 9 
Colour. Duration. Altitude an 
Azimuth. 
saevecsendivecsnss Slowly disap-|N.E.to N.W.,s 
peared. disappeared 
the horizon. 
Conspicuous |Travelled at|Passed over | 
colourswere| great speed.| cing College 
red, white, 
and blue. 
eS a nee oassivavanscet} i) Heavy, 
Dull red ...... 7 secs.; slow|R.A. 155°, N.I 
motion. 32°to RA. § 
N. Decl. 028 


7, 1,2,5, blue,|7,4,3,1, < 3/In all parts 0 of 
yellow, red,| sec., i sec.,| sky. 
misty. <2 secs., & 
=7 secs. 
Sdnabounsecudwoenenle teste Fovesekoas| LIRAUIE IN 
White .<pacve 0°75 second ...|R. A. 149°, S.J 
29°toR. A. 
S. Decl. 32°) 
onwards. 
Reddish white|1 second ...... R. A.J 608 
Decl. 75° to 
348°, N. 
180. 


10 white; the|12,12,2, << 3/In Lynx, Gen 


rest reddish sec..< 1sec.,| Leo, Hy 
white, or) < 2 secs. Virgo. 
dull 
SWOMARUER, cae ciete 1:2 sec.; fast..|R. A. 120°, 
24°toR. A 
N. Decl. 4° 
tude 58° to) 
tude 20°. 
WHET sts <<n90 0°7 sec.; very|Centre 6 Can 
slow. 
White, then!1°5 second .../R. A. 186°, 
red. 59° to R.A 
N. Decl. 6 
Saffron......... 0°3 second ...\In Camelop 
WI. ctewesee 2°3 seconds ...|R. A. 124°, 
14° to R. 
N. Decl. 2 
tude abou! 
Yellow .........|3 seconds...... R.A. 158°, 3 


2° to R.A 
S. Decl. 6 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 251 
Direction; noting also 
e; Train, ifany,| Length of | whether Horizontal 
md its Duration. iM Path, Perpendicular, or Henares. Observer. 
Inclined. 

PIRES, casos] -000 0 -chacusesl.csssensosvavensxnsnsiin teveeleenserecececns teeereceeceseecs Communicated 
by! Dr. 0: 
Buchner. 

seneevesseraseeseceeveseerlssecercesesererlNeWe tO S.Hey tOWAIUS|...csse-cceesseees, seveeseeeee|’ Sussex Adver- 

the sea. tiser,’ Mar. 12. 

DUNHAM aS s duc cascovees-.- any IN EOS lacaPecasoauencaccltvess Kasasveacgadea seevecen +++|Communicated 
by Dr. 0. 
Buchner. 

Fuddy tail 6° /60° ......... Last half of course Remarkable object ...... W. H. Wood. 

g, curled off until snake-like and curvi- 

nucleus was ex- linear. 

sted. 

Il fireball, 2 conical-!5° to 60°....One with snake - like No radiant point dis-|Id. 

ed meteors, &c. = course, tinguishable. 

shooting-stars. 

ae Presesseeelecssssscessseeslesseeerescenseceeseeeseseessael NO moon $ hazy sky ...1A. S. Herschel. 

EEE Gal... -sgcaaecolsgoyiagesetteteaceceseces teeleecvenssseeecrersesseceseeenss C. Pooley. 

RI STACK... sss...) scassnsoeeneoccsceavnannatgaoloarocrcecterreres nn R. P. Greg. 

ntary train..,........./... sakeSbosssss 


rushy or misty, and|2° to 40°, 
left a track; one 
a long track and 
ks. 

in or sparks .,....... 


ul. A cluster 4°/4° or 5° ... 
- Total=5th mag. 


td. asuye 
red. No sparks or 

¥ 5 

n or sparks ......... 5 

train and smalll......., Feecer 
Se 

ed from 2nd mag.|......... seams 


estar. Vanished at 


sparks, red at junc- 
vith the nucleus. 


..|Radiant point not dis-|. 


..|From Leo Minor 


s[rtrteeeereeneseesrresereeerene/A fie ODJECt sesseseeees 


Feet ee eeeeenees POOP e reeset eeeles 


OOOO eer eecceecercesesenesece 


cernible. Perhaps a 
radiant point in Virgo. 


Vertically, N. to S. 


sabaeacke The only shooting-star|[q. 
from 8-9 p.m.; sky 
partly cloudy. 


Horizontal, S.S.W. to 
N.N.E. 


252 REPORT—1863. 
Position, 0} 
Date. Hour. Pia ta Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. eet and 
zimuth, 
1863.|h m 
Mar.15| 7 45 to |Hawkhurst Now shootitigestars) icccieiecssnstdn|eeccosseceuseat ous | eee Paki. F 
8 15 p.m.| (Kent). above 5th mag. q 
17/12 30 to |IDIC..ceeeseeeaee =4th and 5th mag. White and [Rapid ........./[n all parts sea 
1 30 am. stars. yellow. 
17| 1 12 a.m.|Ibid ......... vosat| == EMIS canesesesee White ....00 1:2 second .../R. A. 189°, S. 
9° to R.A. ] 
S. Decl. 17° 
tude 12° in BE.) 
17| 8 58 p.m.|Weston - super -'>I1st mag.* ...... Blue, then |13 second ...|R. A. 87°, N. D 
Mare. white. 18° to R. A. 
S. Decl. 8° 
17|10 30 p.m.|/Hawkhurst = mane cme daa es White .....+00. 0°7 second ...{R.A. 171°, N. 
(Kent). 62° to R.A, 
N. Decl. 70 
: overhead. 
17/11-12 p.m.|Prestwitch(Man- No shooting-stars},..........sss+00+/sss0ee aibinakttnes eo ee cool 
chester). seen. 
17-2]| 8-11 p.m.)/Hawkhurst =3rd to 5th mag./White and {Rapid ...... ..(In all parts . 
(Kent). stars. saffron. 
18}11 9 p.m.|London ......... =3rd mag.*, then|White, then|] second ....../In R. A. 208° 
= Ist mag.x blue. Decl. 33° 
21| 8 4 p.m.|Ibid .......ccceee. =7th mag.* ...++.|Ruddy .....+0+- 0°1 second .../Crossed the & 
of Orion. 
23| 8 29 p.m.|Wilmslow (Man-\Very brilliant j......... sipeoesos/2' BECOROS uses eereessredeeeal 
chester). meteor. *~ 
®e 
SIRIUS 
o 
Py ORI. 
Horizon. 
23) 8 29 p.m.|London ...... ... At maximum equal| White, 1:5 second (?))R. A. 95°, S 
to Sirius. changed to 8° toR. 
intense blue. S. Decl. If 
23| 8 30 p.m.| Weston - super -/= 2 (?) sseseeeeese-| White (2) resess 2 seconds......|R. A. 160°, & 
Mare. 14° toR 
(), 8. D 
23| 8 30 p.m.|Hay, S. Wales... About = % ....../Pale  bluish/Rather a slowR. A. 14 
green. motion. Decl. 10° 
117°, 3 
25°. Path 
reached 
horizon. 
23| 8 30 p.m.|Portsmouth ..\Commencement [Brilliant pale}... Passed 3° 0 
faint ; reached} yellow, or of the 
full size and bril-| else red Orion. 


liancy after half| with green 
its course. periphery. 


parance; Train, if any,| Length of 
and its Duration. 


hooting-stars (one= 
ius) ; no tracks left. 
rain or sparks. 


PUIS=|Secesccewscsces 


PO ee ee ee enererereseeeeenes 


and|No path ... 
ily diminished. 


haped, with nebu- 
envelope surround- 


ased very much at 
niddle of its course. 


Direction ; noting also 
whether Horizontal, 
Perpendicular, or 
Inclined. 


Remarks. 


sab] ses tteseesscesereesesessseeees/9KY Somewhat hazy ;/A. S. Herschel, 
then overcast sud- 


denly without wind. 
No radiant point discern- 
ible. 


..No radiant point discern-|........ 


ible. 
Stationary ......... seees/A Curious object .....0... 
IN. to S. ....ssseeseoeeses-(S€en in telescope; aper- 
ture 15 in.; field 0° 
34’. 
{About 30° from hori-|No meteor eyer seen to 
zontal course. go so near to the ho- 
rizon. 


seen eeee Peete eee eee neeeeneee 


HOO OM ere reer aeesereseensegsee 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 253 


Observer. 


Td. 


Id. 


W. II. Wood. 


WS. Were BNE... cove fe antlbaiwen upton teabi anton 


A. Greg. 


Almost vertically down;|........+. 
a little left to right. 


Sesaeecens se seeeeeeeeeeseevees (SCON 
misty and cloudy. 


Elpsdscscokenseersetoons soca Observed through trees./T. W. Webb. 


Downwards towards the 
right; 10° or 12° from 
vertical. 


ciaceees seseeeeeeeeee/ 1 Crumplen. 


through mist ;/W. 11, Wood. 


i eaaw’d te seeeeeeveccecsceeees-/ COMMUNIcated 


A. S. Herschel. 


A. S. Herschel. 


T. Crumplen. 


Id. 


by J. P. Mac- 
lear, R.N. 


254 REPORT—1863. 


Position, 
Altitude 
Azimuth. 


Date.| Hour. Re ae Apparent Size, Colour. Duration. 


1863.;h m os 
Mar.23) 8 30 p.m.|Brading, Isle of/Very large meteor ;|White ......... Lasted but a/Fell a very 
Wight. gave more light short time. | way east 

than the young Sirius ; va 

moon. suddenly, 8 

low Sirius, 
10° above — 
horizon. 


e_ | — FE 


24/10 19 p.m.|Weston - super -/=1st mag.x......... Red and white} second ...... 
Mare. 


...|From 4 (Av) 

Majoris te 
Ursee in 
Overhead, 
E.; collapsedr 
N Came 
dali. A Ursa 


25/12 0 p.m.|Hawkhurst =7, then 5x 2,|White, then/3°3 seconds 
(Kent). then=2ndmag.*| blue, then 
red. 


ary. 
Apr: Uiiesss eeccccceee Weston - super -|Many very bright...|..... Pe benepberecilvcsassesaensnay eit 
1-30 Mare. 


...|From 4 («Urs 
joris, n Lyn 
1° S. of 3 


12/10 14 p.m.|Hawkhurst Brighter than Ca-|Yellow, then/1°9 second 
(Kent). pella. orange. 


12/10 55. p.m.|Ibid ....cosseceeess =25 mag.* ......... Yellow ...4:.... 0°8 second . 


13} 8 15 p.m.|Sheffield ........./The brightest White, at last|Lasted 20secs./Fell down i 
meteor ever seen.| red. 60°. 


13)10 55 p.m./Hawkhurst =3rd mag.* ...... Orange......... 12 second . 
(Kent). 2° above 

siopeiz. 

LOLO.TS) spi. |[bid ..5.s.0sscc.000 =3rd mag.x ...... White sc.d..00. 0°5 second ., 


16|10 43 p.m.|Ibid ...............,)=3rd mag.x ...... White’... ds... 0°5 second . 
pardali 2 tc 
a Persei. 
TOMO SG spi. TR os. cece. odes =3rd mag.x ...... Yellow, then|1-8 second ... 
- orange. 


16) <5) spentbidires....0.. 62-2 =to Jupiter ...... White «50.5220; 0°5 second .../From 4 (y x) 


culis to 


17/10 36 p.m.|Ibid......... soesse| = OF MAQ% veeseeaee White’ :...,...: 0°8 second ... 


18) 9 26 30 [Euston Square, Not quite so bright OF a ruddy|-e..ceeeeeeeees \ 
p-m. London. as Saturn. tinge. Caroli to. 


Saturn 


hy CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 255 


Direction ; noting also 


perhaps auroral. 
a long tail, which 
red 0°5 second. 


pearance; Train, if any,| Length of | whether Horizontal 
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or ; Remarks. Coens 
Inclined. 
MEE PMUEE OF OOM 6.20 ...0c00e]veacssdudccereresnecdeastel.n: Moon 3:8 days old;|W. Airy. 
ipse to a star, but clear sky; good view. 
anished. 
ionary for 4 second)...........0... MORNE: wines Ah adtibed hs, 2 yeccroniit ves ke a W. H. Wood. 
st before disappear- 
ice. 
ge white shooting-star,|......... eA A ee Full moon; clear sky.|A. S. Herschel. 
w to a blue ballin 10°, The three sparks re- 
circular: 10°further mained on the line of 
three red sparks, and flight,=to 2nd mag. 
nediately collapsed to stars, close together, 
d star, which continued and disappeared at the 
Collapse suddenfrom same time with the 
atest size (5’ or 6’), to nucleus, 
mall red star of 2nd 
;whichadyanced with 
orm velocity 10°. No 
or streak. 
Hing-stars —observed|......s+ees+-0+/A well-defined radiant] ssssessssssssssseseeeeessess. W. H. Wood. 
ing the month. point at 6 Libre. 
nished to 4th Mag)... seeseees-/Going to N.W. ..eeeeees A very striking object,..|A. S. Herschel. 
r, changing to orange 
ast third. No sparks; 
track left. 
test in the middle j)......... Gane CEO syd fer PROS. 2 Me cs Id. 
train or sparks left. 
a fireball, leaving al......... bsesse|. os anvessssdsstuecanctemmeessiceenteaess< cond tee ePeccene A. H. Winter, in 
n of sparks. ‘ Manchester 
Guardian,’Ap.14. 
SE a Coie ieee evndcnedtenrees dbl zenisires rire A. S. Herschel. 
atest in the middle. 
MEMMMEIRE ¢— |eonvsacareses.|ocs-isseossuanensscentossavenel-.0,., baeseessesponsnaminesees Id. 
shtest in the middle. 
; 
est at middle; nol......... wee Se Wieitou dG Ble ee gence Altitude 20° N.W. ...... Id. 
n or sparks. 
a Bb te nxae’soeseaveus| sacey ph acaneeemencoeeia ceeds. Id. 
w-like 1° long, with 
e tail. No track 
ac en flash, seen)....... &6. 0034 Heedeantioon: Poccanseeccscaseee Position uncertain ...... Id. 
ugh clouds. 
im or sparks .........)... Pee eeeeeseeeleoceereesees tte teeeeeeeeeeeene|seeseneeceees coe edonvearseeses Id. 
fy 
Seeeroy a nebulous).........5..00.|s000---eeose Evccadescoscces ss The sky was covered/T. Crumplen. 


with auroral haze, 


Position, or — 
Altitude and © 
Azimuth. 


From T. Cephe 
halfway to 
Tarandi. 

From \ Cephe 
across & Cassic 
peie and 124 
beyond. 

Appeared at e 
Custodis. 


From _ star 
1001, 2 towar 
g Aurigze. 


256 REPORT—1863. 
Date. | Hour. Be eae Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. 
1863.|h m_ s 
Apr.18/10 29 p.m.) Hawkhurst =3rd mag.* ...... White) .....<.-; 0°5 second ... 
(Kent). 
18/10 59 p.m.|[Dbid o00....s0ceess- =14 magx, then|White, yellow,/2°2 seconds... 
2H MAZ.x cessor orange. 
18/11 0 p.m/Ibid..,,........+6./=3rd mag. ....../Yellow  ...... 1 second ...... 
1910 35 p.m./Ibid .......ss0004-)=3rd mag.* ......|Yellow, then|1°5 second ... 
white. 
20) 0 4 a.m.|Ibid ........sse0006/—=14 Magee .essseres Yellow, then|1‘3 second ... 
orange. 
20| 9 12 p.m.|London ......... Small meteor ...... Colour’ faint|About 0°6 see. 
red 
20/10 23 p.m.| Hawkhurst == 2] MAG. .ecsesee White .....,.../0°8 second ... 
(Kent). 
20|11 20 p.m./Euston Square,A fine rocket-like|Rather ruddy..!/3 seconds...... 
London. meteor, = Ist 
mag.* 
20)11-12 p.m.|Castle New, Several falling stars|.......... sds seas] owasevenupients eee 
Strathdon. 
Dal depwecaese .....|Prestwitch(Man-/Small meteors......]..ceeesseceeees uselied soasaetapaeeeed 
chester). : 
22)10 12 30 |Hawkhurst =1} mag.*...... “sci boncendaee seeee-{0°3 second .. 
(Kent). 
22/10 58 30 |London ....... ..|=Srd mag.x ...... Yellow. ...... 1-9 second ... 
m. 
22/10 59 p.m.|Ibid.......... w...|=4th mage ...... Wihite?<.v7. <<. 0°8 second ... 
22/11 0 p.m.|Hawkhurst =2NE MACH asacslncsservesesspesens 0-2 second ... 
(Kent). 
22/11-12 p.m.|London .........,NO shooting-stars|...eccssseseeseeeefecenes cooneenever 
visible. 
22/11 11 p.m.|Ibid....... senscnse| 25 IDAL.F seseneses WYARTGE iicsse ses 0°7 second 
22)11 12 p.m.| Hawkhurst =Srd Magee weseesfeceeee asacessnees»|OMNBECOUA, cong 
(Kent). 


.|From 25° E. of § 


« Ophiuchi to 
Herculis. 
About 15° S.W. 
Polaris. 
Appeared at e Per 
sei; disappearet 
almost at # 
horizon. 
From near » Booti 
to > (H 4) 
ginis. 


Fee n eee eee eeenerenes 


altitude 45°, tc 
15° E. of S., alti: 
tude 50°. ¥ 
From 2 Corone 
n Herculis. 
From yp Bootis t 
Z Herculis. 
From 60° E. of NN, 
altitude 60°, t 
20° E. of Ny 
altitude 40°. 


altitude 65°, tt 
10° W. of N 


we hy 
. 
- 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 257 


Direction ; noting also 
pearance; Train, ifany, Length of | whether Horizontal, ‘ 

and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer. 
Inclined. 


Se 


wW7-_—__— 


ightest at middle of its|...........0000[40 sede eaes Seceeetescceeeeas|"eeeeenen eens sereeessreeesso|A. S, Herschel. 
path. No train or 
sparks. 
SMELDRESNECOIENNG Hone sce ccscsvo|sacavecssceccsscvesdievauceead losers eeecreeaqerteste seesevene Id. 
maller at last and ruddy. 


e path had a doublel0° ......... Directed from ¢ Cephei,|:++++1::seeeseeeesssseesserees (Ld 
lexure at the middle. 
ixindled, white, after seat ecececee Cel eceveesevercccesece PPrrrrrrrrra ec eerrere Id. 
xtinction, for last 
ourth part of course, 
hich was bent up- 
vards. 
it a bright yellow streak!.......... essen|soerbeuetwpackechonticeeatle ..|Fine meteor; rose di-|Id. 
or 0°5 second. rectly upwards, 
Mie sses ices. BES SINS. Sees ca soeas|ooenty seeeeeenesecescsssneneee|teeteseeeeeersrreeesseeseeeeel Hs Davis. 


shtest at middle of the|8° or 10°...\Directed from Polaris... 
2 th. No sparks or 


Very low in the N.W....|A. S. Herschel. 


RST INC sas ssoussces| seseensevecncenesonsiateds ele Midensacsarecons ssseoveeseoe!T, Crumplen, 
second. Did not 
dpear to _ explode, 
t faded very sud- 
only. 
EE oer Directed from Corona..,|Falling stars very plenti-| Alex. Walker. 
ful this night. 
oo to Radiant in Corona ......|Five shooting-stars seen/R. P. Greg. 
during the month. 
See merece Moved upwards, rising.,|++++++++++00+ se eeeeesessnesees J.F.W. Herschel. 
rain or sparks seeeeenesl eens ee ececscoelccosees Cecceveeccee See eeeeeeen Set eeeeeeeenees soseeseseseseeelAe 9. Herschel. 
in or sparks ......... an. alesoci ccc cescssanaacheRetodalnareesteveeebrebevsestiveeseellals 
BEETEDS Enc st Ea ISs VT gcse caceselece sCcbecadezecceneiem .....(No meteor appeared|J.F.W. Herschel. 
from 105 12™ 30° p.m. 
(pir to 115 p.m. 
MEE s cee. seenvevelececenceesceses|eeeseens peaueseneenssesasee -.|Perfectly clear sky; no|H. C. Macleod. 
> moon. 
partially seen. Di-|.......,.......|Directed from Cor Ca-|Sky perfectly clear; no|A. S. Herschel. 
itly overhead. roli. more meteors until 
125 10" p.m., when 
desisted. 


HPeeeessrenseeveccnseevonelsecnsucersersealesneeessrssensesessessseeeese|/ NOt the smallest meteor|J.F.W. Herschel. 
after this until 12% 1™ 
15° p.m., when de- 


sisted. Sky very 
Tres clear. 


258 
Place of 
Date.| Hour. Observation. 
SS 
1863.;h m 


May 4/11 30 p.m.|Brighton Marine Completely eclipsed) Variegated, 


13|11 6 
13/11 9 
13/11 27 


13)11 45 


15|10 40 


15/11 55 
23) 9 10 


23) 9 20 
23/10 0 


23/10 10 
23/10 30 


23/10 45 


24| 8 37 


24/10 33 


5|About 10 
p.m. 
5/About 10 
p.m. 
9/About 10 

p.m. 


Parade. 


Prestwitch 


Hawkhurst 
(Kent). 
P-M.|[Did ....0eseeeeeves 


p.m. 


p.m.lIbid vs.essssesees ss 


P.m,|IDId ......ceeeeeeee 
P-M.|IDid .eecoesesee 


p-m.|[bid vasssescievee. 


Tn LGC). seyeneuaveeas|— 


PTL yrevvesevcesses 


p-m. Ibid Seeeeeeeeeeenee 


Pim, [id cerusvecsessee> 


Esplanade, 
Southsea, 


pm, 


p.m.|Hawkhurst 
(Kent). 


et By 
Ibid 


PPTTTITTETT ETT Dd 


=5th mag.x sss 


=Srd Mag.* sree 


+»-|=3rd mag.* 


REPORT—1863. 


Position, 
Altitude an¢ 
Azimuth, 


Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. 


A few seconds|The same altit 
as the moon 
line. Thebres 
of the hands ! 
between the 
and the me 
would cover#) 
distance betya) 
it and the m 
.|From 7 Dracor 

6 Can. Venal 
From 7 to y| 

pentis. : 
From « to 0 Om 

and 6° beyo} 
On the line be! 
7 and p He 


the strong light) kaleidoscopic 
of the moon. colours. 


{ 


White .....0.0. : 


=3rd mag.* ......,Orange 


Yellow ......+04|0°7 see 


White .........{L second ..,...|¢ Lyre to 3 
From 4 (0,6 
Majoris toyl 
Majoris. 
From ¢ Bootis | 
way tor Virg} 
Fell from a. 
degrees 
the moon. 
Fell from the 
towards the} 
From altitude 
due N. to alt 
30° N.E. 
Fell from thez 
towards th 
From altitud 
W. tome 
15° We 
Appeared 
S.E., abou 
above th 
rizon, and 
peared in 
at a slightly} 
elevation. | 
1° 2" “Woe 
altitude30° 
the horizo! 
nearly). 


seeeeeeee (O'S Second ... 


then|1°6 second .,. 


snoaver{ds SECONG.ssaun% 


3 seconds...... 


sevesee( SCCONS....0. 


Blue — ceseeveee|2 SCCONAS. 00.4, 


Blue 1 second «ess. 


eee eeeeee 


Small .......sse.e-..|Bluish white...|1 second ...... 


From first 
appearance 
until burst- 
ing 3 secs. 


Size of the half) Yellowish 
moon when at its} white. 
greatest altitude. 


From » Dral 
towards 9 } 
Minoris. 


=34 mag.x ...s00...| White seseeveee (O'S Second 4. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 259 


| ‘ ; reacts Direction; noting also 
jppearance ; Train, if any, Length of | whether Horizontal 
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer. 
Inclined. 
‘Small spot of light with)............... Perfectly stationary ...|An imposing spectacle ..|H. Mullens. 
rays rapidly revolving, 
eccentric, and kalei- 
doscopic. Dropped 
brilliant coloured balls 
of fire, and after one 
brilliant —coruscation, 
suddenly faded. 
POOP e eee deeseeensceenesevesees 30° or 40°... eevecs Deerveseereerssecccecs weltereeeceens Ooeccecvereces tee R P. Greg 
| EL od See Gr [Sip OMPAcr ive{ Secan dened ease Seanscecseseecies iayedebaevebente jsscul ts 
MAA, .,.04..+...... Sekt ey 4 ate SOW meme 0 Say 5 eer te Jeoasild 
tail or sparks............ Ge vce ravens | ,aslWbondyiasauntsdesudsnaube Path not straight .,,...|A. S. Herschel. 
POR DD 3c. « dn v0s oss] sa, senrevinavnachducuencccstualvenchtodbrsseneccesecsng ecjila. 
0 tail or sparks. 
I ETNA UTS”... cs. acs00e]s cenccasbineesveseesdececsssleesdecddecseced dttbsiobontes. fd. 
htness. 
IIA sues sceuressnens|scsas.ecothusntaadeguaotiai@erlbsiibetesissonceekdcctes sees [ld 
rightest at last. 
EE SIE Peer econ Ree sg No other shooting-star|[d. 
until 115 40" p.m. 
train or sparks .........{seeccsee bavi externa dias rues séndevatealesa isis deasossntea¥paennape de 


...,Lhe whole sky was ob-|/W. Penn. 


scured by clouds, 


il or sparks............/10° apaeetunan tcc cas socabCdsCcateertoenscee:|sscbevecaissavesnedesearmeen(Oeipe Ferschel. is 


s2 


260 REPORT—1863. 
Place of Position, or 
Date.| Hour. Ofiservation. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Adu 
1863.|h m s 
May 24|10 41 p.m.|Hawkhurst =3rd mag.x ....+-White ....0.+../0°5 second ... On a line fri 
(Kent). Z Draconis 
Mizar; cen 
halfway. 
24/11 10 p.m,|IDbid .......00..000 =23 mag.x ...ccovee|WhIte eon. ..|1'2 second ...|From } (p, v) t 
Draconis. 
24/11 18 p.m.|Ibid....... veseeee.{= 2nd mag.x, then|Yellow, then)3*2 seconds ... From R.A. 2 
3rd, 4th mag. orange. S. Decl. 5° 
R. A. 2719 
Decl.—6°. 
2510 20 p.m.|Greenwich ...... =2nd mage .....-|o000 eduesaeeueaeas 5 seconds...... Fell from a | 
degrees e] 
Jupiter towa 
the horizon. — 
26] 9 58 p.m.|Ibid ...........00+ = Jupiter .. Body blue, tail)6 seconds....../From the zenil 
red. moved 
for 20° tow 
the W. 
29) 1 12 a.m.|Hawkhurst =2nd mag.* .....- Saffron......... 1 second ......\Centre y Sagit 
Kent 
June 1) 9 25 p.m. oye ...|=2nd mag.# ...... White ....008.- 1:2 second .../7 Herculis to 
Caroli. 
W118 p.m.|Tbid ......eeeseeeee| = 25 MOQ-# os sseaeelevssnneeee Beaene 1 second ...... d to 3H v) ¢ 
uchi. 
111 12 30 |Ibid..........000.;—=20d Magee 0.00]... seceeevesseeee{l'3 Second ...|Disappeared 2) 
p.m. above the map 
111 14 p.m.|Ibid.......... Son \=3rd mage ...... Yellowish...... 12 second ... Ss neat 
corpii. 
1/11 30 p.m.|Weston - super - Larger than Sirius..|Coloured red... Motion very\From R. A. © 
Mare. slow, 4secs.| N. Decl. 22 
R. A. 224°; 
Decl. 5°. 
6110 0 p.m.|Blackheath ...... Four times as large|Blue...+6s. ..14 second .,.|Fell from zé 
as Jupiter. almost perf 
dicularly to 
horizon. 
8/10 42 p.m.|/Hawkhurst Diminishing, 2nd, Yellow, then)|3‘5 seconds ...|From the barl 
(Kent). 3rd, 4th mag.x. | red. Sagitta, bet 
B and e De! 
to a line thr 
a, n Aquilx 
20/11 55 p.m.|Weston - super -,=1st mag-x.....+44|BIUe esses % second ....../From R. A. 
Mare. N. Decl. 3 
R. A. 31558 
Decl. 20°. 
July 1111 18 p.m.|Hawkhurst = to Altair, then|White, then|3-1 seconds... Aquarii 
(Kent). 3rd mag.x. yellow or below 1A 
: orange. 
11/11 27 p.m.|Ibid....... OEE = to Altair ......|White .........,1°3 second .../From 1° ab 
Capricorn 
1° belov 
Aquarii. 
L111 35 p.m. |[bid ...sseseeeeeees{=Srd Mag.x sesese/ White .se000+./0°9 second .../From 4 (r, v) 
to 6 Lyra. 
11/11 39 p.m.|Ibid ......s00000[=Srd mag.x ......|White .....+../0°8 second .... Appeared at 4 
‘ Pegasi. 
11/11 45 p.m.|Ibid ......sce000+./= 3rd mag.x ......|Yellowish....../0°9 second .../y Aqui 


above @ A 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 261 


————— | i 


Direction ; noting also 
yearance; Train, ifany,) Length of | whether Horizontal 
"and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or ; Remarks. Observer. 
i Inclined. 
SMEORIDALKG!, «4105.02 |s000s-0esseeeeolees reese seeeenseneeecssesseeleasceceetessssssseseessssesses(Ae Se Herschel, 
IOSD NS eae nosso: (hes casi vvdiegine|svcescevcncs ce neasenens a) oe ihvhiueve Me aeeSec ae Id. 
Meeabedl | Verddually.|.....0cccsescss|sceseessecss Issevars Kopanedsesl acs eeecesevececncceees Weeevae Id. 
nge tail of sparks 1° 
g, in last quarter of 
e flight 
BOMTAIN ieee cts... s.lecceees Veevenes dedoabedwscnsebesceccevedseces{urtsri sen eeeeeeuesens veveeveeeld« MacDonald, 
in of red sparks re- 20° deddasaactasdcoup POOP eee eeP EOE Seen ees THPEOE EES SOR ereeeeeee Oeeeeetes Id. 
ined 2 seconds after 
meteor disappeared. 
sparks and a train|...... Nidueeees Horizontal; © N.Ev t0|sccesseeseseess srvseeseeeeee A, S, Herschel. 
ained 1 second. S.W. 
MEER ccc vets| ca'vossseaseesseleseuccceeer: anodes soaveesands|apessstelsvadecsuea te eeeeeees Id. 
OL CE Ca Receeles Dasaanasaapeban everest Pe Cee eee Id. 
in or sparks .,....... iexeayated +e/Downwards, right t0|.ccccersesssssreeseeeeees ves (Td. 
left, 20° from vertical. 
il. Sparkled......... 5° ...e00+ee0ss| Moved horizontally to-|-++..-sseeeesseeees cates eG 
wards the W, 
SE ERE oe ee Mavdanedesss seeveseeess-|We H. Wood. 
ion in last 8 or 10 
s. Faint tail. 


HEAP LISA l cocci cocess|-cseseseneessvsceodeaceadseens Cloudy. Position, &c. W. CG. Nash. 
rance. of meteor not exactly 
noted. 
or sparks ; ruddy}..........5+ Pitlese sisceitasddte sesseseeseseee(SKY partly overcast ;|A, S. Herschel. 
dull in last half of showery. 
ourse, 


FORTE OH Rete ree en ee eeener eee eeeeeeebeany 


tte eenneeeesesseneceresscceee(seesceeecesssesseecesesesseese We He Wood. 


BETAG, LORE $ T1O|seccececcsnescs|soeceseees ‘seevsseesseveseees Clear night; no moon.../A. S, Herschel. 
k left. 
phosphorescent (veal Korceeereanace Horizontal .........00s00]6 te eseeeceeveseseceseeeteseees [Oe 
(second. Very short 

course. 

ght fast meteor.|..... Ome seeeeleneeses FPO eee treet ererersesens|seveseceeeesveveceseseereseses| Le 

€ tail, 1 second. 

I for O°4 second ../8°...e0e.s000e Directed from 6 Pegasi..'........+0. saneaeusedspaveeaee Id. 
REED PMO Cail! Left] secwascos'stescs|cesseesesesceecoun'e See ee sutenscocedesaiee so sassns| MGs 


262 


Date.| Hour. 


12/11 15 


12}11 18 


12)11 28 
12)11 50 


12/11 55 


12)11 56 


13|10 47 


13)10 48 


13|11 17 


19} 8 0 p.m.| Weston - super -|BrighterthanVenus 


Before 
sunset. 


Place of 


Observation. 


eS 


p-m.|Ibid ......44+ seoeee{== to Altair 


Pm, |Lbid ...ccreeeceeees 


eee weet teen 


seen eeeeeeeneee 


Mare. 


pla ee DONTE? Gancivend 


REPORT—1863. 


Apparent Size. Colour. 


=2nd mag.x 


= 25 MAH veeevesee 


=2nd mag.* «+ 


Yellowish, 
then orange. 


2h mage  eeeeee 


=3drd mag.* 


=2nd mag.* 


seeeee seeeneeee! 


White, 
yellow. 


=2nd mag., then then) 


=4th mag.x. 


seeeee| VV TIITO concevnes 


‘Bri ght yellow 


at maximum. 


0°7second ... 


1‘l second . 


cecgesacs[O's BECOME’ vs 


White .........\0°9 second ... 


15 second .. 


seseeeeee(L*8 second . 


Position, or 
Altitude ané 
Azimuth. 


Duration. 


Appeared 

Vulpecule. 
.|From 2° belo 
Aquarii to 
below » Aqu 


..|Commenced } 
ce Pegasi. | 
light was 
terrupted 
n Pegasi, — 
the remail 
of the ff 
deflected 
wards. ; 

To within 7 ¢ 

degrees of 0 

dromede. 


0°7 second .. 
l'l second ... 


15 second ... 
S., and prece’ 
« Draconis, | 
From 4 (a,S) E 
to 4 (y 
Majoris, d 
Venat.). 
0°8 second .../« Draconis t¢ 
Urse Major 
2 or 3 seconds|Appeared N., 
25° | 
(measured) 
appeared b 
clouds ata 


sured), N 


2°2 seconds... 


Appeared 
heayens, ane 
appeared i! 
straight i 
between 
evening stal 
the settin 


eR ee E eee 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


;pearance; Train, if any,| Length of 


and its Duration. 


263 


Direction; noting also 
whether Horizontal, 
Perpendicular, or 
Inclined. 


Path. Observer. 


ed ee 


rite straight tail for Lae eeeeeeens Directed from a Andro- SOO e eee oererererersennceres A. Ss. Herschel. 


15 second. 


ightest at first appear- 


nce. 


all at last, and red; 
no 


o tail or sparks; 
ain left. 


light at reappearance/15° 


vas less bright than at 
rst. 


light was brighter 
first than at last. 


tail was obseryed, nor 
rks, probably on ac- 

junt of sunlight. 

=. 
& 

Be 
1 about mid-heayens 


took its course in a 
erly direction. 


medz. 
Id. 


Peele eee eee ee eee POPE R ROR e eee ee SOCPOR OOOH erodes eeeeeeerenes Id. 
"eeaence Be «.--|Directed from 4 Cygni..|...corsesecsccssesessceseeeses (Id 
Ser mercer LoviZzontal” sscsceseun eons OW IN See Sosccwceahs Dd. 
a 
mt SOpeee The last 5° were. de-|,,...,ccocscassssssaseeesnanes|Ztle 
flected upwards a few 
degrees. 


7° or 8° .,,|Directed from ¢ Cygni..|.....,...scccocceresessseeeees{Lde 
aie POR Lae ee. pamnseaebnathshtesl wingh ocnasoassecanevunede cle 
Pee eran tt eeeee eeeete . eene oo Id, 
Beat ehetsiosnesiscaUisesscpbann secscscseseeees| LOW I N.We coscee Id. 
eee Peewee ee wee tee OREO eee POP e eee eeeee FOP OREO Hee e eee eee eeeEe Td. 


Ph os toa ,eeeeee|Apparently the same/See preceding Report;/W. H. Wood. 
path as that of July} (Catalogue). 
19, 1862, 115 ]7™ 


p-m. 

PRs: fe The streak remained/Seen in the early part of|Correspondent to 
as a flash of fire| the evening, when in| ‘ Hereford 
for 30 seconds, and| reality it was quite| Journal.’ 


as a straight bluish 


day; only Venus and 
cloud for 5 minutes. 


the new moon could 


In 23 minutes it} be discerned in the 
changed its figure! sky. 

from a direct line and 

disappeared, fading 


equally all over. 


264 REPORT—1863. i 


Position, or 


Place of : 4 : 
Date.| Hour. : Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and 
Observation. Azimuth 
1863.| h m 

July 19|About8p.m.|/Leominster Singular meteor OF]..........60 weee.{Traversed  ajIn the N.W...... 

(Herefordshire).) shooting-star ; longer dis- 

=to lst mag.x. tance than 

usual. 


As large as ajClear white...|Moved slowly|An unusual appe 
Pigeon’s egg. ance in the nor 
western sky. 


19} About 8 30)...eecssseeeeereeeees 
p-m. 


(Place in the sky.) 


(Appearance after 
bursting.) 


W. N. 
Horizon line. 


Like a firework .../Bright mauvel....sseoeeeeeeee[Burst betweel 
colour, edged Venus and 
with pink. moon. 


19/About 8 30|Kingswinford 
p-m. (Birmingham). 


Usa RERT Aas eleaaen cael maaan oisgodsenacnlannascavedsesen can LGRUxn Knee 
extended 
about alt. 


19/Very shortly| Hay (near Here- 
after sun-| ford, S. Wales). 


set. 


At first = to Ca-|Brilliant white 
pella, then = to 
Jupiter. 

Looked larger in|Different in 
disc and brighter} colour from 
than Arcturus. Arcturus. 


22) 9 21. p.m. Weston - super - 


14.second ...|From 6 Cassi 
Mare. e 


About 3° in(Centre. R.A. 
2 seconds. 30°, N. Dec 
53’ 46”. 


26) 5 51 p.m. Cranford Obser- 
vatory; W. 
Long. 05 1™ 
37°53. 


Arcturus 
sited 4714%a 
wards (alon, 
horizontal 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 265 


Direction ; noting also 
ppearance; Train,ifany,| Length of | whether Horizontal, 


and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer. 
Inclined. 
a ahs 9 
BGERGUUGED ces benvcsceuccccceveliees SPisseeacw Appeared to burst and Seen by daylight. The J.K.,correspond- 


send out bright rays) path of vapour con-| ent to the 
in all directions. A) trasted strongly with) ‘Irish Times.’ 
path of vapourcurved the colour of the sky. 
at each end remained) 
more than a quarter’ 
of an hour. 
Weeistues ++++e-/From left to right ...... The meteor burned for a W. Sandwick, 

| minute ortwo, but the| communicated 
Streak for a much] by T. W.Webb. 
longer time. 


jail star or piece of fire 
falling down, from whose 
sides issued jets of thick, 
ight, cloudy smoke ina 
lear white streak 15° 
ong and 3° wide. The 
eteor burst, and the 
streak took a zigzag 
orm, leaning towards 
the W., appearing to lie 
lat ; it then faded away. 
The nucleus descended 
0 the horizon before it 
urst, 


MS. T0 We. serecececcoslessscseseesee/After the nucleus GSe|igusideaccesestoseseassteretis Communicated 


appeared, there re- by T. W. Webb. 
mained a tail for 3 or 
4 minutes, which broke 
into segments like 
‘mare’s-tails,’ and va- 
nished by degrees. 
luminous streak as-|.............../Slanting ~ downwards'Seen by four persons at!Id. 
med a zigzag form slightly from left to Hay. 
efore disappearance. right; almost vertical.|The same meteor was 
described in the Birm- 
ingham newspapers. 


NaGasasiesseueee|sesesocesunceuecavsnadssesverstscosedvenccesenasseittedsasses|We El, Wood. 


ated just before extinc- 
on. No tail or sparks. 
0 S.; vertical. The 


seveseeveseeees/L HE Spurious disc ap-|A meteor was noticed by|W. De la Rue. 
peared larger and| daylightona previous 
brighter than that of| occasion while search- 
Arcturus, and of a| ing for Venus with the 
different colour. No| naked eye. 
change of appearance, 


lan, and in altitude, 
ing the passage of 
€ meteor and of Arc- 
Tus. 


266 


Date. 


1863.} h m 
July 26)11 0 


Hour. 


REPORT—1863. 


Place of 


Observation. supa ees 


— 


Weston - super -|Bright meteor, 
Mare. 
Greenwich ....6 


p.m. 


p.m. = Ist MAg.x..ccsecee[eceeee 


p-mM.|[Did.,ssesesseeaeeee = Ist mag.*.....000s 


Colour. 


Straw colour.. 


Position, or 7 


Altitude and 
Azimuth. 


Duration. 


seeee see eeeeeeneee 


From the zenith 
disappearing 
about 10° or 15 
above the horizo’ 
due W. 

Appeared in S.¥ 
at altitude 50 
disappearing j 

the S§. at altituc 

20°. yj 

Passed slowly fro; 
the zenith t 
wards the N. | 

Passed from it 
neighbourhood 
of Jupiter to t] 
western horizor 


2 seconds...,.. 


2 seconds...... 


110 seconds ... 


p.m.| Weston - super -\Large; Venus-like/Same CO1OUL.+++++...s+esseee From the S.W 
Mare. as the moon.| Serpens) tow 
the W. 
p-m.| Hawkhurst = 3rd MAg.x csscerleceeeceeseeererens| 0°6 second ...\¢ Urse Minori 
he o Camelopard 
p-m.|Ibid .. soe == 1st mag. (+-)s0c]-sccceseceeereseee 0°8 sec., rapid|y Cephei to y 
Minoris. | 
P-M.|[bid ......ce0seeeee =34 mag.x ......|Orange....... '0°8 second .../From r Custog 
to 2° he 
. Polaris. : 
PM. |UDIG .scasvacene ...{=2nd mag.# ,,.,..;Yellow «+... 0°8 second ...\\ Cassiopeiz t 
Cephei. 
yo ce ys eas cee = 2nd mag.* ...... White-....0000. 0°7 second ...\0 Custodis a 
Cameloparda 
pan iUbid ....0.cescat =3rd mag.x, then|White ........./1°5 second .,.|3 Urse Moai 
=5th mag.x. Ursze Majo 
p-m.|I bid .........seeres SIME esti vecpenssace White ..ssccoo 1+] second .,./From S Pegasi’ 
Capricorni. 
p-m. 
DMs | LOM os eves cactsscax =2nd mag.* ......|White ......... ‘1 second ......\(e€) to (¢) 
) tarii. 
P-M.|LDId -.55-+000s+sense Beg Mage® ws. Yellow ....... 1-4 second ...|(m) Custod 
(Q) Came! 
dali. 
p-m.|Southsea (Ports-|=2nd mag.* ...... Yellow ......)1 second ....../To 3 (¢, 8) 
mouth), dromede, 
way from (¥ 
| dromede. 
p-m.|Ibid ........ aeaane =3rd mag.x ...... White .,.......,1 second ...... | ee eee 
p-m.| Hawkhurst = 2nd mag.* ....../White ......... 1 second ...... Fell - verti 
(Kent). «below (n) 
uchi. | 
p-m.|Southsea (Ports-|= 2nd mag.x ..,,../White ......... 1 second ...... From 4 (Z Pi 
mouth). n Aguarii), } 
way to 


gasi. | 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 267 


Direction ; noting also 


ypearance; Train, ifany,) Length of | whether Horizontal, 


and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer, 
Inclined. 
apes sseeeeeeee|/Downwards from left to}....s+ssseseeeessscceneccesees Communicated 
right. by W. H. Wood. 
Perkacureponsus (ach straint Heeeeenteseresescsleeteetsesescesensessssssceeeee(Je MacDonald. 
MEE Sabesecdenscgutegvessseee Fase eeeneseeoee Inclined Poreverercceraress|seccce Peewee eee eennenaees rey Id. 
Macesekcetsecaslobs sabsSaegeeseeEudnensedcss|svecas¥entideeRacesseckonasactlls 
++++++/Nearly perpendicular .,.|Three other small me-\Id. 
teors seen between 
10° and 102 20”, 
an acute angle with the} .............../..... Meier eeder 5. Lanes dee Desc6nded ...cccssceecass Communicated 
yerpendicular. by W. H. Wood. 
000 ¥elsceggeeeeteevee|seee er ere eae isi tbaskcnesecaaketeetinuaie A. S. Herschel. 
tel Bad bea o|.eccvssanencdssosessocenscases[& HME ODjECt ¢.....cccasetld. 
Padeoees aGoeveelscciecsicecdgegndesutaneenivan|en>euehrsiydvesseacsessiegae tld’ 
Shy appearance ......|,, Rcsalipevelveetyeahes a Reotedy Sky hazy; moon high|Id 
nt train, remained 1j...............)............ guvdecactaorepres Sky hazy ; moon S.E..../Id. 
econd, 
20° or 25°..| Vertically down ......... Moon in S.E. ; sky hazy|Id 
amstias ceases ttteeelscsesessseseeeeseeeeveeesseees( brightest at middle of Id 
its path, which was 
long and rapid. <A 
very fine object. 
-COSDCCEC| HEBACEE RT CORE Enea Medbsnccanacedtwaedl cs nus dpectonmerreneeeneteaaaeeh EG: 
ow tail, and sparks ac-|......, OCPPCOT PRP cree Cee oy Pie ee No track left ......6..:. Id. 
pmpanied the flight. 
alastevaavobedsnslsccs ce vcotcdbs Pescasevarsnacsalieted wien Cer Prrrt W. Penn 
OCOD SECO e Sr rrrny SOTO OR OO eee eee eer ease ee tereeeeeoes POO eer meee leer eeeeseessree Powe eeeevane Id. 
rain or sparks .,.......|,..... scabedesthVOLtiCAll YE GOWI oe<ccnssal vesas da cateoene ees «.{A. S. Herschel. 
eee nee ee ease atececaccsilseenccees SUPER ae eHeDE ET OOOE THEO ITOH HO EEE DORE eee OOOO DO ROeEeHOO Oe eeesteeenne Ww. Penn. 


268 REPORT—1863. 
Plave af , , Position, or — 
Date. Hour. bservation. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Ania ; 
1863.|h m s Ses : 
Aug. 8,10 28 p.m.|Weston - super - >Ist mag.x ....../Brilliant blue 0°75 second...|From R. A. 70° 
Mare. N. Decl. 54° 
Re AS 7409 
Decl. 44°. ; 
810 29 p.m.|[DId ..ssceeeveeeeee| = 2M MAG. veeeee)/ BlUC  sasaeeeee 0°5 second .../From R. A. 36° 
N. Decl. 54° 
R. A. 46°, N 
Decl. 53°. 
810 29 30 (Hawkhurst =2) mag.x  .ssee White .........,1 second ....+./From («,6) Equule 
p-m. (Kent). , to « Aquila. 
810 38 p.m. Southsea (Ports-)=2nd mag.x ...... WIRICE = st atea sigs ‘13.second .../From 2° belo 
mouth). y  Aquarii 
2° below @ 
Aquarii. | 
8|10 39 p.m.|Weston - super -|=2nd mag. ......|Blue, white.....1 second ....-/From R. A. 3578 
Mare. N. Decl. 59° ¥ 
R. A. 37°, 
Decl. 69°. 
8|10 40 30 |Hawkhurst =2nd mag. «../Yellow ss 1°2 second .../To « Capricorm| 
p.m. (Kent). one quarter @ 
the way from 
Delphini and @ 
= far again. . 
S10 47 p.m. |[Did ....eseeeeeeees |= 15 Magee — sasees/ White seceoeeee 1 second ...... From 3 (y 4 
dromedz, wW 
Piscium) to 
Piscium. . 
810 47 p.m.) Weston - super -/=to Sirius ......... White, then ‘5 second .../From R. A. 27°,) 
Mare. blue. Decl. 7° to R. Af 
20°, S. Decl. 2 
810 48 p.m.|[bid........666 soos] =3rd MAB* ...00, eS tes ttarsss '0°5 second .../From R. A. 
N. Decl. 29°49 
R. A. 21°, 
Decl. 19°. ¥ 
810 49 p.m.|Ibid ............++| =to Venus at max-|Brilliant 15 second .../From R. A. 30°, 
imum brightness.) yellow. Decl. 29° to Rud 
25°, N. Decl. 
810 49 p.m.) Hawkhurst =2nd mag.x «.../Yellow  ....../0°3 second .../Centre at 6 Peg 
(Kent). 
810 50 p.m.|Weston - super -|=1st mag.x (?) .../RUAAY ....sseesleseeeeseererse eens From R. A. 32 
Mare. N. Decl. 30° 
R. A. -3128 
Decl. 3°. 
810 51 p.m.) Hawkhurst = VRE MARR ivose esa IVGHOW' Gcoses 1 second ....../Centre at p § 
(Kent). pentis. 
810 52 p.m.|Weston - super -|=3rd mag.* ...... Blue seoseefl Second ....../From R. A. 3} 
Mare. N, Decl. 30° 
- R. A. 312° 
Decl: 3°. ae 
810 53 p.m./Hawkhurst = 2nd mag. ...... White .........0°6 second ...\Centre at « 
(Kent). otis. 
810 58 p.m.|Weston - super -/>than Ist mag.*../Ruddy.........)1 second ....../From R. A. 279% 
Mare. N. Decl. 7 
RA. | 2028 


Decl. 0°. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 269 


Direction; noting also 
whether Horizontal, 
Perpendicular, or 
Inclined. 


pearance; Train, if any,| Length of 


and its Duration. Path. Remarks. Observer. 


MPRWicoaviieses-ocesssee aves |visases Naesb ees | sis svoucsdhcohbuscsassenvertes| dca ce co vacebierdecseces actos Id. 

tfain OF Sparks ..,...000|.00« coeneseseeel ecnabueuescureceterpes avnewes|deudvaslesoteveresuccions acer A. S. Herschel. 

MMR CUEVREN SS ecco caseverseele CERCCOSO0C S104 PER COCCE AE cEeCEOCOUE CPC T TORIC CEE CDOCE “CoE OBR ee REL AMER Oi dAal isi iii) 
Pelmpratenden thiread|:;.:2%.ss0vess|.ceseccsesetsevenscaclatl x tetas adteneddises 083 seeeee |W. H. Wood 

f light. 

BEMEIMISPRULS!,gJecdealvcc ie atveowenss|. tte oescne SRR ilies PEEP Pn terete A. 8. Herschel. 

train or sparks CeCe re re CITLER TY CLL Crmcccenteccacecens Id. 


REF UET SANs vcrsvccscress|ocee ache enon Relgevce ne nasveenehine Siuuasuteae|dceducesseescceoetarricyasasts| \Valde WOOK. 
PHENO OER e eee eden eee eeees eeeee tees CORP e eee teeter eee Oe eeeeeeeele Pteeeee POOH eee ee eee teres {d. 
bright meteor; red}......60000... ceedesetbisvuosaeetes pieenaees Appeared stationary an Id. 
off side and rear and instant before disap- 
on its contour. Short pearance. 
Ihering tail; left no 
htest at centre ...... G> <scsseesevss|LLOrizonital .caccers edeaeel daa daveueeoeseerenenetteetaane A. S. Herschel. 
_ 
_the red luminons).,,,...... Saatal tree dea aneb eeneneceets Palaces PPR ncoserocnccer coe {W. H. Wood. 
MN was seen, which 
ted 3 seconds. 
GF sparks i1o.c....|O-ccccacscesse Directed™from ’ «” Her=|/. eee A. 8. Herschel. 
: culis. 
eteor showed inter-|...ccececcesceslececeeee ne EPODECOEE adeesterecls a eaneeNsmeteunst oedesceee ses W. H. Wood. 
ttent light. 
‘ain or sparks St teseees 6 FORO rereeee Directed from & Corone seeedeceesere Peete eeseessecees A. S: Herschel. 
dy tail, remained SOOO OEC Dee eeeelereeerereetesseseees TOUTE eed ame edeneeeaeeeeneeeeeeeereeees W. H. Wood. 


270 REPORT—1863. 


Position, or 


Place of F é : p 
Date.| Hour. Observation. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. saree 4 
1863./h m s ; 
Aug. 8/10 58 p.m.|Hawkhurst =to Jupiter ...... White wives. 2°8 seconds .,.|From (8 Pegasi 
(Kent). y Aquile. 
meteor  cros 
these stars ¢ 
to its beginn 
and end. 
8)10 58 p.m./Southsea (Ports-|—to Venus at her|Yellow  ...... 3 seconds.,.... From as 
mouth). brightest. below 3 Ané 
mede as 3b 
a, nearly 
: Pegasi. : 
811 1 p.m.j/Hawkhurst =2nd mag.* ...... Yellow | ...... 1 second ...... To 17 Draco 
(Kent). halfway from 
Draconis. 
BLIP S VEO: ATDIA <.ccatSeieas ces =3drd mag.* ......;Yellow  ...... 0°8 second ...|From 4 (o Dri 
p.m. nis, « Cygni), 
3 (y Draconi: 
Lyrz). 
SLY FF BD) UDI ceses accesses =3rd mag.* ...... Yellow  ..s00- 0:5 second .../From 4 (3, 6) 
p-m. ; culis. . 
B11 5 p.m. |IDId cecccsssseesee =3rd mag.* ...... Nellow-+ ibe. 07 second ...\From 
Aquile. ] 
8/11 11 p.m./Weston - super -/= 2nd mag.* ...... Blue ~ obessesesdeoue vocksvsscvesss From R. A. 
Mare. N. Decl. 1¢ 
R. A. 350%) 
Decl. 0°. @& 
8/11 24 p.m.)/Hawkhurst =24 mag.% ....1008 Yellow ws... 0°5 second ...|From g Pega 
(Kent). (7, 8) Pisci 
8]11 25 p.m.|Weston - super -|=to Antares ...... Similar to An-|0°75 second.../From R. A. 3¢ 
Mare. tares. S. Decl. 158 
R. A. 293) 
: Decl. 20°. 
811 42 p.m./Hawkhurst =3rd mag.* ...... White ...c000s- 1 second ...... From 7 to 
(Kent). otis. 
8}11 45 p.m.jEuston Road |=2nd mag.* ...... Bluish white...|0°8 second ...!From « Ceph 
(London). near « Hereu| 
811 46 30 |Hawkhurst =3h MAg.t seer. White <be.<0502 1 second .......To 4 (3 Serp 
p.m. (Kent). g Bootis), 
way from | 
rone. 
Si11 48 30 |Ibid...........5... =3rd mag.* ...... White. .j..:.,,. 11 second .../To » Canum 
p-m, nat., fron 
way » Ursa 
joris. 
918 9 30 |lbid........... sees[>>1st mag.* ...++-/Yellow ......{1°5 second ...|To 6 Libra 
p.m. & way Ar 


9} 8 32 p.m.|Ibid ..........00..,=2nd mag.* 


9} 8 39 p.m./Euston Road 


=Ist mag.x 
(London). 


sacoee| WHITE cosseseesfL SECON oeevee/TO A Oph 


White POR eeeeesl eeterreneeeeeeseee From i) Pe 


from half 
Herculis. 


@ Andromedy) 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 271 


Direction; noting also 
Length of | whether Horizontal, 


pearance ; Train, if any, 


and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer. 
Inclined. 
red part upon the rear|50° ......... Horizontal in §.E., left/No sparks, but a redlA. S. Herschel. 
of the nucleus. Train to right, at altitude} colour in rear of 
4’ wide, 40° long, white; about 30°, the nucleus, which 
disappeared equably was white. 
throughout, in 4 secs. ; 
spindle-shaped. 
long train; feathery}...... Rotanes on}acansenewih vee sons rscctestasshlccseuxsdaseieerisece cee vo |W. Penn, 
and broad in the centre. 
train or sparks ........./...004 Ris sancanlsdPUMbAsMvAcsaieesthenl Ceres aye sesebatad reo /A. S. Herschel 
REN) sacs s6a|s onssedunnesaes|eoonrdsanteasnsseessesssusnnss] seedorsssecesccccc.cesec.hece, Id. 
train or sparks ......... Dreamin: Towards « Ophiuchi ...|.... eesenenes wscsocensestheate Id. 
RTE cee oul sc 5s csn na hes) ssi vsavectinceyccaarseoeveerel ls vessenconeettnaseay Lieechieg Id. 
BURREIIR HATER s5.c0c0s|s0sancansecyacs|onseosverd Genes eewengabasuwss|sscik susasGesees tsoeccnabbeva W. H. Wood 
MMIAIMNURI WANS 5s fh50LUW svsccenalesassarscanasccccesccsntearecleecsthe sebsseevesesevseesseene/A, S. Herschel 


train or sparks ....., 


A. S. Herschel. 


.|T. Crumplen. 


train; meteor 


OEP m eee Dee e retreat reese eeleutens 


Peel POO Oe OOO ener ee eeeeeeeeeentneeleee 


ks or train; visi-}., 
in the daylight. 


Stars. 


in or sparks .........]... 


FOF e EON eer ORe ee eee eee eeseeelsseneee Crete teeters eee eeeeee 


5 FUER O eee ea ee ene eeeeel any TT SPOT eee meee nena tener eeeereresiteee 


T. Crumplen. 


Pere e OR eeeeeeeeeeensernee 


Hour. 


i! ~ a ~ ee — =) 


o 6 © 6 


30 


15 


15 


p-m. 


15 


910 5 30 


p-m, 


p-m, 
p-m.\[bid .. 
p.m. 
p.m. 


p.m. 


p-m.|[b 


p-m. 
p-m. 


p-m. 


p-m. 


p-m. 


pm. 


Place of 
Observation. 


—— 


Hawkhurst 
(Kent). 


./Euston Road 


(London). 


Greenwich Park.. 


Euston Road 
en ip 


seeeeeetene 


IDId ..erceseerceeee 


Greenwich Park 


Euston Road 


eee e eee eennee 


DDIG cestenssecunene 
Greenwich Park 


Euston Road 
(London). 
Greenwich Park 


| Hawkhurst 
(Kent). 

Euston Road 
(London). 

Hawkhurst 
(Kent). 


Cranford .....+. He 


Euston Road 
(London). 


Hawkhurst 
(Kent). 


Euston Road 
(London). 
e 


Hawkhurst 
(Kent). 


REPORT—18638. 


Position, 0 


Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and 
Azimuth. 
=2nd mag.* ......|White .........J1 second ...... o Bootis to 4 (z 
Virginis. 
=Ist mag.x ......(Orange red ...|...eseesseeeeseee[Erom between 
o) to beloy 
Ophiuchi 
paxehyes secosccscvessee|sececevecevesscees(2 SECS. Slow|Fromia little b 
motion 4 (6, €) 
Majoris to 
x Draconis. 
=3rd Mag.x sscosfeoe euvenceseaese sccscccstesne| PROMI GONG 
conis. 
=2nd mag.x ......|Ruddy .........,0°3 second .../Near # Aquile. 
=$8rd mag.x ...... Ruddy .........{0°2 second .../From 6 Cygn 
a Sagitte. 
Bright meteor......|Bright white ..Quick motion.|From 4 Ursz J 
joris to so 
what below 4 
turus. 
=8rd mag.* ...... Ruddy ........./0°2 second ...|From 8 Cygni{ 
Sagittz. 


=1-2 mag.* ......Orange colour'2 seconds......|Position not not 


=1-2 mag.x ....|Bluish ....00000|2 seconds...... 
Passed 
Ursze Majorig) 


.|From ¢ Aqua : 


Quick, short 
path. 


15 second ., 


seeeee 


=2nd mag.* ......|Orange red .. 


Very bright meteor| Bright white..)...sescccsesevers 


=2nd mag.x ......|White ........./1 second ..... 
4 (0, @ Core 
From @ Cygni 


Lyre. 


seeterleeeeere seteeees Peel tere eeeneeeee eee 


=3rd mag.* 


= Ist mag.*, or|White, yellow,|1°2 second .../From « Cygni 
brighter. orange. (C, F) Here! 
Large and brilliant},....... sevesoeees/S10W motion ;/From altitude a 
as Venus at her about 2secs.| 60° downwa 
brightest. Centre S.W, 
=Ist mage ws. Red ...eseee0+e+/0°5 second .../From p Vulpet 
almost to jf 
Aquila 
= 3rd mag.x, then) Yellowish 2:3 seconds ...|Centre betwee 
=Venus, then} white at Serpentis 5 — 
=3rd mag.*. maximum, halfway fro 
ruddy at last. Herculis, ang 
ceeded an 
distance on¥ 
=to « Lyra ...../Ruddy oa... «(3 seconds .../From a point} 
tween (0, 7, 
pentis. 
2nd MAG sesssslasseeessecesseeselscseesceserseeene[OOntre exacth 


————— ae 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


Direction; noting also 


278 


earance ; Train, if any,) Length of | whether Horizontal 
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or : emake Observer. 
Inclined. 
parks; train $ second]............ccs[essecoreeseeee dvawedeaseuac tet Cesenscseae ePeaiseetdesseaeesd A. S. Herschel. 
Rs SEES a a en | Ceeeeseceeseccesenens .».../T. Crumplen. 
PRMALU Gs fosecydccvs|svsssvacensesss Towards the Pole ......|..+ decesssesserccnees beacpene W. Airy 
Re ay rerce loose ssacoeshees|ccnnsesscsdecsavass sec seeeecee|teneevenens Seseenne Ss sccanbane T. Crumplen. 
Of 25° in length ..,|..0....0000 Wbleensceeneeeessceeneesececcenee|stttteneeeeeeneeeseeuaeeress Id. 
PIOEPBHBLKS)2,,,0)ca|oeesescocseceectes Riscedeeee se neeseeeeneeneee| tere teeeeeweene gawedidenveces Id. 
RPM i72, . 1275) | 208 ods bn nes snsfesdelecnctedectvacs dveeadd wadazse + eevee] We Airys 
BBisaWask cs sceee devawien lode <bescs ddeducfonneeaouWevoacueedatesnesty al iiasbene«spetelaneted Mash o eet T. Crumplen, 
Visible through anl...........0...{+++. pibnaeeceanssvdscaveqaibelenas tonacseveceseessessccerens Id. 
-glass 20 seconds. 
Seen 8  seconds|.....scccseeces feos ssealtissdiivagdonxestles aan|Seveaassse ¢0#s0ecdavscescodess|Lde 
ugh an opera-glass. 
RSW slevel davederss. selves Re. Seas vicds Passed downwards ......|..+. aeacerseseteiees todsevece| We Airye 
Be rasecsadyiiiestiascoseacsalers etvoveesuvascaateseseiten Nifasecevweesda< Sredeves .+.|2. Crumplen. 
train of sparks......|.. sdavadee Towards the Pole ......|.... ee setsosceosceees| We AllYo 
ted second ,...../.. bbvevnereeses Ldebeeebecneccecuseeesensensesfeaeteeecererssesecsseverseoees(Ae Se Herschel. 
° in length eRe e tees theeee Freel Peete bee eeerestnnee Sete eteerl  eree AP e eee eeaseseeraeeeeeseeee T. Crumplen. 
REM RTLE EHC TEE. 1, sce scecsshudivvvcs soncevecsoedvldbeth og Corresponds to Cranford/A. S, Herschel. 
S. Tail 15°, two and to Euston Road, 
ds, white. 9h 53™ p.m. 
ain about 20° long)....... eveeeee-(Shot almost vertically|.......0.- sesssssteneeseeeseee| We De la Rue, 


a 


SOOO eereecee 


seebesleees 


.|Almost vertically down, 
S.W.; alt. about 20°. 


-.|Directed from p Ophi- 
uchi. 


downwards. 


SP eeeeeereeeees Pheer ereesale 


oe 


dette 


seveveceverseerseeeseeesoneee/ Le» Crumplen, 


cocboceasl stetecesteesssees(As Ss Herschel, 
J. F. W. Her- 
schel, and 
others. 


seh seceeeeeeeerereeeeeteee/ Le Crumplen, 


OOD rere eeeeseeeesenseserees J. F. W. Herschel. 


274 REPORT—1863. 
Position, or 
Date.| Hour. ea, Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude ant 
: Azimuth, 
1863./h ms 
Aug. 910 7 30 |Hawkhurst =2nd mag.* ss. White ........./0°8 second ...|To vu Bootis, 
p-m. (Kent). % way 2 VW 
Majoris. 
9110 7 45 |Ibid.......... vooes[== 2nd mag.% «+00. White .........|0°7 second .../From 4 to 3 
p.m. y Serpentis 
Scorpii. 
9/10 12 p.m.|Euston Road |=a Lyra.......++++ Pale yellow ...|3 seconds......|From Scutum * 
(London). eskito ps Sagit 
9/10 19 p.m.|Ibid .......0 coooe[== tO VEDUS...000+0- Orange colour|1°5 second ...|From ¢ Aquila 
wards Serpe 
9/10 19 45 |Hawkhurst =Ist Magek....ce0 Orange... 1-4 second ,,.|From4(é,8)D) 
p-m. (Kent). nis to 6 Hery 
9/10 33. 15 |[bid. ......c00se 00s =2nd mag. «++ WHItG cd canes 0-8 second .,.|From 2° over 
p.m. turus. 
9\10 34 p.m.|Euston Road |=2nd mag-x ...... Bluish ....++... 1 second ...... Near 6 Andro’ 
(London). ‘ 
9/10 40 p.m.|Hawkhurst =1'5 mage oo... Orange... 1:4 second ,..|From 3° left) 
(Kent). to d Pegasi. 
9}10 41 p.m.|Ibid ........06 soos) = 2nd MAg.x ...00- Yellow ......... 1 second ,.....|From 1° ove 
3 (c, 0) Peg 
9110 44 p.m.|Euston Road |=a Lyre....sscseeee Ruddy ........./1°3 second .,.|Near « Caprit 
(London). 
9/10 52 30 |Hawkhurst =2nd Magee sseeve| LELOW verceeres 1 second ,.....|From ¢ Urs 
p-m. (Kent). joris, onwa 
910 54 p.m.|Euston Road  |=a Lyra....sseeeeee/ RUAY seeeeeres|5 seconds......|Near 7 Aqua 
(London). 
910 57 45 |Hawkhurst =2nd mag.x ...... White ........./0°7 second ...|Disappeared 
p.m. (Kent). of 3 Cassiope 
911 1 p.m.|Euston Road |=3Srdmag.x...... naa] DITMSD. enndaeaslesactes secveeeesee(Fom pt tO 
(London). dromedze. — 
QI11 6 pum. |[bid ...seseeeeseeee| = 18t MAg.esseeeeeee|RUAAY seosseeee 1 second .,....|Between 7; 4 
dromede. } 
9|11 13 p.m./Hawkhurst =3'D MAG. araces Yellow .....e00 0°8 second ...|From Z Draey 
(Kent). way to y He 
10| 0 5 am./Euston Road |Lluminated the |....... seseseseeee(2% to 3 secs...|Conjectured | 
(London). house-roofs. 38° alt. 0 
meridian. 
10/ 0 5 am,|Hastings, Win-|Unusually large. |Bright white,|5 or 6 seconds Above Pola: 
chelsea, &c. (17) Diffused a bright] tinged with altitude a) 
CoastGuardSta‘) light. blue. N.E. to Wy 
near Hastings). tude 50°. | 
10| 8 45 p.m.|Riv. SamoggiaOne-sixth diameter|Azure blue, OY)....-.++ vecsevees(EXOM & SE 
(9 30p.m.} (midway be-| of the moon.| violet. tance E, ¢ 
Bologna tween Bologna] Cast shadows of laris throug 
M.T.). and Modena,| trees, &c. more Major toB 
North Italy). | strongly than the disappea 
moon. Arcturus. | 


, 


= Ist mag.#,.,,...../Bluish .--+...--/0°S second ...|From a & 


10| 9 3 p.m.|Euston Road 
joris to 


(London). 


rr 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 


275 


a 


Direction ; noting also 
pearance; Train, if any,) Length of | whether Horizontal 
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer. 
Inclined. 
1 Mridared 2 SCCONG..;.|..cscccsscecscslescecsoncoee Scisdins  GeapEd es cedlcowtecdbae Rabies daoeuesaciva ews A. S. Herschel. 
in lasted 3 second...... [tescseseneveces|scovcccsecsseccnssessoccdesecsleescasccescccsocsee thongs vo (Ld. 
RE sig salicanasslencnasdinancveiarnnncedit isi! fiwdseeucnasndces oc: jasd dae} Crumplen. 
ngth. 
MPEIRARINGE AIG LEE|s02<+00s00000sc]scoscecesndececcocecvdeceooess Train appeared to break/Id. 
whole length of the path up first near the ter- 
seconds. mination, then faded 
gradually from each 
end to centre. 
SnRrmE ADOT, THClicaias dva.c-ocslsuaekeses Vacscensvececscstackt Corresponds to Euston|A. S. Herschel. 
ucleus. Tail 2 secs. Road, 10° 19™ p.m. 
0 oa eee LO. Scan} Directed from 1 Ursee].......cccccccescccssssecccees Id. 
Majoris. 

m remained 1° in|6° or 7° ,,.|/From 6 to y Andromede|..ssesscccceceeececceceee ...../T. Crumplen. 
eus . CEN NGI Frac: cvetekova'sa| 90 ces seadsereveoeceohe Suctes|eaeegear - LP ee ee A. 8. Herschel. 
raight tail, lasted 2 
conds, 

a iL Geos ER eo) ie ee 00 Fe amen I Guenesag dive Pebeenercerecs Id. 
m remained 73° in/8° or 9° ...|9 Pegasi to @ Capricornil......sessecsccesenee PES ER T. Crumplen. 
th. 
ain or sparks ......... Mn wseatucsnsos Directed from o Ursz]......... sodas Sv eiiius cetere bane A. S. Herschel. 
Majoris. 
ous envelope round 8° or 9° ...|From Z to y Aquarii ...|Tail faded gradually at/T. Crumplen. 
nucleus. Train seen each extremity. 
minutes in opera-glass. : 
ain remained for 14/3°....,....... Directed from @ Persei..|........ce008 dsincaangadssepes A. S. Herschel. 
Rei 024s 5 5c co.) scaceccccchisosto ee ee ee eececansercceerscces T. Crumplen. 
m remained 5° jn/l0° ...... -+-|From t, «, X Andromedze},,........5 apscowmedncnedesndihde 
EG | Pa eee re Siasnaccsdaaenenare ea seeeelA. S. Herschel. ; 
aoe cosccposseosclecesscavacharveoas seressseeeee/A report followed ....../T, Crumplen. 
of fire with red train|50° or 60°../From E.N.E. to W.S.W., Exploded at a point/W. E. Buck, T. 
moderate length. slightly rising. about ds of its path.! Webb, &c.;com- 
Disappeared suddenly.| municated by F. 
A report followed. W. Gough. 
Mme WHIGE SHOOGING-|...000cseesesseleapecccsesecsescecseccnses ».»,|The train near the centre|J, Joseph Bian- 
. Expanded suddenly enduredthree minutes,| oni. 
‘first third part of its becoming serpentine, 
Mi. At the middle of| fusiform (very wide at 
path a gaseous en- the middle), fading ra- 
pe and scintillations pidly at theends. No 
nded some distance report heard. 
1 the head. The Seen also at Bologna 
20r contracted ra- by Dr. Casoni. 
y Near Arcturus, and 
ently disappeared. 
I SEO ok sani heaee dst (obsess dcstanvesivsaats vsceolésafecretiesceeeees seeeeeeeee/ De Crumplen. 


T2 


es. 


276 . REPORT—1863. 


Position, or 
Place of : : : ? 
Gute cation. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and 
Azimuth. 


Date. Hour. 


—_ ————— 


1863.|h m s 
Aug.10) 9 3 p.m.|Cranford (Mid-|=2nd mag.® «..+++|sseeeeeeesereeers 
dlesex). 


eI[DId coe. ccvereeeee 


= Sirius Vivid blue .. 
= Sirius Blue-white ... 
= Venus ..... ieee Yellow 


downwards 
the horizon, 
.|Euston Road |=2nd mag.+ White ...,.00.. 
(London). 
Hawkhurst =Ist mag.*, then|White ......... 
(Kent). = Jupiter. 


Cranford (Mid-|A very  brilliant).........seessseee]- 
p.m. dlesex). meteor. 


10) 9 22 30 |Hawkhurst = Ist Mag.t.ecccees|eceee 
p.m. (Kent). 


10| 9 23 30 [Euston Road (Splendid  meteor,|Bluish white..|1 second ...... 
p-m. (London). = to Venus. 


10) 9 24 30 
p-m. 


10) 9 25 30 
p.m. 


10); 9 26 p.m. 


10| 9 26 p.m./Greenwich Ob-|=Ist mag.x......... Blues .cctececeth 
servatory. 


10} 9 26 p.m.|Weston - super -|= Ist mag.*...,.....|REd ..sseseoeees 
Mare. 


10| 9 28 p.m.|[bid ....eccseseeeee| = VENUS «..+0+000.--|Blood - red 
colour. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 277 


Direction ; noting also 
pearance; Train, if any,| Length of | whether Horizontal, 


and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer. 
Inclined. 
SOOO eee E Ee ener esse eeedreenes|teeeeeeOOeseseelesenae Seeveccescace eeeeee San ee ewes eee etree eeeeeeeeesreseeess W. De la Rue. 
eg ee | ee BH cre wcpate by Riis uM es Id. 
+ 
Mises ey sseede teseneceeeeeees|sceesseneueenes In direction of a line}... Crean easeeneeeseeeees Id. 
drawn from 06 to ¢ 
Cygni. 
BNseeserccvavcaeerersceneees | ceereseecess 40° to right Of perpen-|-++ssssrseeesseececeeseereees W. H. Wood. 
dicular. 
5) BIEL ETS aR RAPA Sees (eile 0) eR hee 9) ay See aw A oe Or Id. 
train or sparks .........Jeseseesees -»-.-|Perpendicularly down,..|The meteor disappeared|Id. 
behind the horizon. 
rain remained 5° inl........ SCOT RR Birr Re ety De let archaea pte Fl T. Crumplen. 
ngth. 
Bemremmrserntnlated|40°  .....000+l, ..ccececaccccococecssvzssecee The rest of the tail/A. S. Herschel. 
ith red or yellow vanished quickly. 
darks. Tail endured Corresponds to Cran- 
seconds, near @ Ser- ford, 9 21™ 35% p.m., 
antis ; white, and to Euston Road, 
9» 23™ 308 p.m. 
a long train, visible|40° or45° in|...) oo... eccccccsessccuuee Pocsdreti te ohcadt teen W. De la Rue. 
om 1 to 2 seconds of| length. 
me. 
a white train .........|.. Pijssxuiedenans|scaeoetseadesetoevaseue tenea[ Otte reece een eceeuseneeeeanens A. S. Herschel 
mat 203° Tong re-|Nearly 40°..|............sccssesssssssssees For a representation of/T, Crumplen. 
ained visible in an the train see Appendix. 
era-glass 44 minutes 


ar the end; spindle- 
aped, and fading from 
e ends to the centre. 


emeremmaied LOX° in|.......cccecess|ecccoccvescccvercce we geacawnael ace ede'eas sdetaninmene cece eee Id. 

gth. 

ain remained 103° inj............ sas | ecessssteataccunittsnes Pranadeine | acum esse ces deeauater suet tatters Id. 

gth. 

ain remained 83° inj........... corel et SACEOEEDR PARLORCCIER OA HDoP EEG CEO: OAT Ech CSO SaOR RE PEE Id. 

hgth. 

a white train ......... erate ralnidd|bsas nce cattadian. eseescdsascers Lost behind trees after|W. C. Nash. 
travelling about 20°. 

Pee eeeeteerenes Seeeeeeeeerlsereeee Pr eerrrr errr reer eer errr rrr eee ree OOo eee erereeenee W. H. Wood. 
BROT SPATKS ......0.|,00reeeceseeens Perpendicularly down.../The colour perhaps at-|Id. 


mospheric. 


278 REPORT—1863. 
Position, or 
Date.| Hour. pau Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and 
Azimuth, 
1863.|; hm s 
Aug.10} 9 28 30 [Cranford (Mid-|=Ist mag.tse....1+.|sccsereenerrneee|sneneers ee Disappeared ab 
p-m. dlesex). 3° from « Ly 
10) 9 29 p.m.|Weston - super -|=Ist mag.......... White .....000. 2:5 seconds ...|Appeared at y 
Mare. gasi. 
10) 9 29 p.m.|Greenwich Ob-|=2nd mag.¥ ...... Blue.........-..(1 second ....../From y Drace 
servatory across a Cort 
towards the 
horizon. 
10| 9 31 p.m.{Euston Road |=2nd mag.% ......|Ruddy ......++./0°5 second .../From 9 Aquil 
(London). through « . 
tinoi. 
10} 9 31 30 |Hawkhurst =2nd mag.x ......|White ......... 1}second .../From 3 Ursz | 
p.m. (Kent) joris to h,m 
Venatici. | 
10 9 35 pm.{Euston Road [=a Lyrae «+ess++|Blue..ssseereee 0-4 second .../From between 
(London). quuleus & Del} 
nus to 6 Aquilé 
10) 9 36 p.m.|/Hawkhurst =Jupiter........00..| White ........ 1:7 second ...|From « Herculi 
(Kent) % (w Serpent 
Ophiuchi). 
10} 9 36 30 |Greenwich Ob-|=1st mag.x......... Blue...ss0...000 l second ....../Fell in the W. 
p-m. servatory. a line from) 
Herculis. 
10| 9 37 p.m.|Euston Road |=Venus .......+006 Bluish .....0.0.|sessseeceseeeeseee/Erom « Ophine 
(London). apointnear ¢O} 
uchi, in R.A. 24 
S. Decl. 85°. {| 
10| 9 38 50 (Cranford (Mid-|=2nd mag. .s+.../sereeeseeees spdvbaloaa teas sesedonegee From y Cygni ’ 
.m. dlesex). Aquilae. | 
10} 9 40 5 jibid.......... sevee{BVilliant MCtEOT ...|eeeseereeeeeeeenee|ere cvesnensvesee --|Centre of path 
p-m. at « Pegasi,: 
or two deg 
above. 
10| 9 40 30 |Hawkhurst = 24 MAQ% coeeeeeee WIGe: siscehays 1 second ....../From 5° b 
p.m. (Kent). Cygni to 
hinus. 
10| 9 44 p.m.|Euston Road |=3rd mag.* ...... White .........Je00e soeeseee To c Aquile..., 
(London). | 
10| 9 44 p.m.|Weston - super -|=2nd mag.* ...... Blue....cocees oulsacesneeb ss auninae Appeared at y_ 
: Mare. aSi. } 
10| 9 44 15 |Hawkhurst =2nd mag.x ....../Yellow ....../1*2 second .../To # Canum Vi 
p-m. (Kent). ticorum, fror 
e Urse Maj 
and 4° furtht 
10| 9 44 45 |Ibid.......... covee|==2Nd MAQx weseee Yellow? | isc 12 second ...|. Cepheitoy Ce}; 
p.m. 
10) 9 45 p.m.|Euston Road  |....csscsscessscesseneee|s# dadunlan site Cxepealeterace ecsecssees-(ErOm 4 (ey 
(London) Bootis 
10| 9 46 10 [Cambridge OD-|../.......sceeesseceeeee|teeeeeneeees Se mas|2 cassocdueweveeae First appeared! 
p-m. servatory. altitude ; 
azimuth 257% 
from S. 
10) 9 46 15 |Hawkhurst >Venus at max-|Brilliant = i....... eoseeeoese(Centre at 6 
p-m. (Kent). imum brightness.| yellow. gule. 
109 47 p.m.|Euston Road |=Ist mag.x.........|White ......... Jase seskosecesseee|Dq ec es\aa 
(London). below 8, é 


dromede. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 279 


Direction ; noting also 

arance; Train, if any, Length of | whether Horizontal, 

) and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Hemerk: bacon 

Inclined. 

MUAML OL EPATKS ..,.,..i.{sseceecscseces Directed from Cassio-|.......+000+. SFeat si ssseeee] We De la Rue, 
peia to Lyre. 

memeouattain 25° in|.....<..cccecee Inclined, A0° to left:(Of|t«ssvesnseneeveuvarcetsactes W. H. Wood. 

ength remained after perpendicular. 

isappearance of the 

eteor. 

BAB OTBDALKS| 555 55002|40° vcss.ccees|seeusense PA ecagc ane ushsh sues dafePd aes ce acne Meipashicais sess. W. C. Nash, 
ain remained 5° in)............ ooo[From € Pegasi  ...scssssJeceressceovcreenes tovsecees --.|T. Crumplen. 
ogth. ; 

1 endured 2 seconds... euccicgesvepelsissseenaceabehabs OOo eee neeee POOPED eee e eee eeeerenesbeeees A. Ss. Herschel. 
a ee dy crvive| co anaAbbabeh viviiuevicsticacd trsseeeeesseesessveseseeeeee/ Le Crumplen, 
rain endured 3 secs...|.......cesseeee/eee ssesaesseseteessasceseeeses [Corresponds to Green-|A. S. Herschel. 
wich, 95 36™ 308, and to 
EustonRoad,9537™p.m, 

S at disappearance of|15° .........|. oneneeeenenesesccccneonesces|*eretsesccssananns trevaseeveee! W. C, Nash, 

meteor, and a white 
in remained. 

CRETE np 0nr0snsenron]sanroopersenniaaancapspannnstietbaiieiivesiespins bevsnedenee T. Crumplen. 
an opera-glass, fading 
vards the centre from 

ends. 

SEPP OCCOMGUARDccerecnccccs ieee beeeeee Ceccclecccece SO eeeeeeeeeeseeees Ory ee ee Cee tee W. De la Rue. 

Resucnceapeesse|stoescncccvaeers Cee eeveveneens teeta teneeseeseessecseersesenl IG, 

CES Os ee sseee-4/Position doubtful .,..../4. S$. Herschel. 

Bh POOR Directed from m Pegasi|++-.++++-sesseececserseveseeee|Ty Crumplen. 
.|45° to right of perpen-|---sesressseaes tee eenes oo |W. H. Wood. 
dicular. 
peseasace Gayne]>vnssevecnseheadecndervvalscaes|saeee sees sols mmuns Seer eees A. S. Herschel. 
i Directed from @ Persei..|......scc0.e000 cceodeecigperee Id. 
conds. 
of 5° remained .../7°........ .-»-|Directed from p Bootis|...... socctancatamnercsns scape T. Crumplen. 
Pe reco Moved towards 4 hour]......,..:ssseseseseeseeseeee-(s C. Adams, 
of a watch-face held 
with 12» vertical. 
Peinciecs| LD? « .cetnoay Towards a Arietis .....,,Corresponds to Cam-|A, S, Herschel. 

bridge, 9" 46™ 105 p.m. 

BPIONG cos.seccseseree[12° c..00000/8 to e Andromeda —...|.....-+.-sccessere redeace stake T. Crumplen. 


280 REPORT—1863. 
Position, or 
Date.| Hour, on eet Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. ae an¢ 
zimuth. 
1863.| h m s 
Aug.10| 9 47 p.m.|Greenwich Ob-|BrighterthanVenus/Bluish white...| second ...... In the E.; me 
servatory. almost horiz 
ally southw 
above & Arie’ 
10! 9 47 29 |Cambridge Ob-|.......s:esseeeeereeetee|seeenerenes Gnieseelasndees Pe ette pee aa A 
.m. servatory. 
10| 9 47 30 |Hawkhurst =2nd mag.* ...... Yellow .......+. 0°8 second .../Fromy Androm 
.m. (Kent) to 6 Triang 
HO) 9247 SO) Whids cceveseveesse- = 2nd mag.* ...... Yellow ...... .../0°8 second .../From c Camele 
p.m. dali to 2° un 
10) 9 48 p.m./Euston Road |=Ist mage ....0.|.seeeee evecesscesslcccaneroepsncesens 
(London). de towards 
Arietis. 
10| 9 48 p.m.|Weston - super -|>Ist mag.* ...... White <5... O'S second ...|........seeeeeenes 
Mare. { 
10} 9 49 18 |Cambridge Ob-|=2nd mag.# ...see|.seseeeeeseeeeeens|ene secreceese .++s.| Commencemen| 

p-m. servatory. 235° W. fron 

altitude 70% 
10} 9 50 33 [Ibid ..........00..- = ZN MAP cancec|sausssecunsspevcevfesass sesesereeese-]COMmenced 

p-m. point 241°) 
from S., alti! 
62°°5. | 

10| 953 15 |Hawkhurst =2nd MAg.x seeseleeee Pree 1 second .,..../7 Herculis to 08 

p-m. (Kent). ‘ 

10| 9 53 28 |Cambridge Ob-|....secsscsscsssnseeeeeelene Saiebhench'ss can i dee 

p.m. servatory. 

10| 9 53 30 |Greenwich Ob-|=I1st mag.x......... BhiGsscvscswaawe 1 second ...... 

p.m. servatory. a Lyre acrol 
Herculis, ane 
further. | 

10| 9 53 45 |Hawkhurst ZNO MAGE cevcve|sosm Sdyeiuiesh vawaelsoenavn'ten seseveee(From c Come 

p-m. (Kent). renices to 
under v Boo 

10! 9 54.12 [Cambridge ODb-|...sssssssscesescaneeses|ecesessaneeesereeele datupures sadaeias]ocsecsvecsescy eons 

p-m. servatory. 

10| 9 54 15 |Hawkhurst = Venus at bright-|/Yellow......... 1:8 second ...|From 4 to 2 

p-m. (Kent). est. M Camelopat 

10| 9 54 24 |Cambridge Ob-|=Ist mag. ......)..ceceeeeceenecewe[eeueeesueeeewneens Commenced — 

p.m. servatory. W. from 8 | 
tude 53°. 

10) 9 56 45 [Ibid ........... 000 =3rd mag.* 90. 

p-m. al 

10} 9 56 45 |lWfawkhurst = 2nd mag.* | 

p.m. (Kent). naticorum. 
above d Cana) 
naticorum | 

10} 9 57 p.m.|Euston Road |=Ist magexeec...se.) sceceeeeeereeeees|eennes sis tedwsedes 
(London). 
10) 9 57.15 [[bid ........seeeees = 3rd mag.* ...... White: Sare-sse 0:4 second ... 

p-m. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 281 


Direction; noting also 
arance ; Train, ifany,| Length of | whether Horizontal, ? 
and its Duration. | Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer. 
Inclined. 


SOOO eee eee eeeeeees 


ooting-star of ordinary 
pearance. 
in endured 3 second... A. S. Herschel. 


m endured 3 second 


a train 4° long 


hite tail 10° Jong en- 50° to right of perpen- W. H. Wood. 
ured for a few seconds. dicular. 
Towards 23 hour of a J. C. Adams. 


watch-face held with 

12» vertical. 

Towards 24 hour of a Id. 
watch-face held with 

12" vertical. 


endured 1 second ...|........s0000.. A. S. Herschel. 
bridge, 95 53™ 98s 
p.m. 
Towards 43 hour of a J. C. Adams. 
watch-face held with 
12? vertical. 


POO TO Tere eee reeset Seeeees 


W. C. Nash. 


lasted less than 1 
nd. 


A. S. Herschel. 


MNP BITCH | 565 ccecece so0ss| os sSteeoancdivecwecebede cece |ddececesveee 
30 seconds. 


train 12° in length..|...............,Fowards 2} hour of a J. C. Adams. 
watch-face held with 
12? vertical. 
Towards 7 or 8 hour Of al.s.......e0e00s PA Pee G. Plummer. 
watch-face held with 
12" vertical. 


Streak for 2 seconds|........ a aaa Ro ROTATE tren. Corresponds to Cam-\A. S. Herschel. 


bridge, 9 56™ 45*p.m. 


orsparks .,,... 


Orsparks ....,....|.. enevass veeeeelees 


REPORT—1863. 


Place of Position, or 


Date.| Hour. Observation. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and 
Azimuth. 
1863.;h m s 
Aug.10| 9 57 40 (Cranford (Mid-|Brilliant meteor ...).....css+seeesee/e9 dssotvencenngns| EEO, 46, 1 
p.m. dlesex). of the way t 
Serpentis. 
10} 9 57 45 |Hawkhurst =D MAPK so5501|sevoensvese istepsleenenva soseeese(Erom » Ursee I 
p-m. (Kent). joris to « Boo ti 
10| 9 58 p.m./Greenwich Ob-|=2nd mag. ......|Blue ......... 1 second ...... From p Cor 
servatory. towards the ~ 
horizon. 
10} 9 59 p.m./Euston Road |=2nd mag.x ...... BI WiBb sev gree sxcfawen Sunde ocest vel Across « Hereu 
(London). 
10} 9 59 15 |Tbid ........0000.0. =2nd mag. ......|Bluish sesseeeeeee/Across ¢ Hercu 
p.m. 
10| 9 59 27 |Cambridge Ob-)=3rd mag.% ..sse.|sseeeeseeeeeeeeeeels aevunteines .+s...|Commenced 14 
p-m. servatory. W. from S., 
tude 41°. 
10)10 0 45 |Hawkhurst >Ist mag.x ...... Orange colour] second ......|From 4 to T° u 
p-m. (Kent) 12 Lyncis. 
10|10 0 45 [Ibid .........0-.../>>-Ist mag.e ...... Orange colour|l second ...... From 3 (2 Ly 
p-m. b Camelopa 
to 24° ove 
Lyncis 
10|10 0.55 |Cambridge Ob-|=Ist maget..s.scse.|eeeeeereetereees|eaneneeees seeeeee./Commenced 21 
p-m. servatory. W. from S., | 
tude 42°°5. 
JOJO 0 57 [IT bid ...secsssssceeslesveseeeees SeWenesitepuse G aaads cake ds vaso slth dg cueme eee ssnn]esuenecee joscoeee 
p.m. 
10110 1 p.m./Euston Road (2>> @ Lyre...cecsss|ecceere seeeteeee+|eeeeeeeeesees .-...|From « Lyra 
(London). ‘tween (C, F) 
culis and a 
. degrees fi 
10/10 112 (Cambridge Ob-|=2md mag. .+0...)secceeesseeeneeees|eee sesceveseseeeee| COMMenced 
p.m servatory. W. from S., 
tude 36°°5. 
10/10 130 (|Greenwich Ob-|= Lyre............ Very bright {14 second .../From«Lyrxa 
p.m. servatory. blue. aHerculis, 
or 8° further 
10/10 1.57 [Cambridge Ob-|=2md Magee ..see.|eeeeeeeeceereeeeeslenes seeeseseeeeeee/Commenced 
p.m. servatory. W. from S$ 
tude 42° 
10\10 2 p.m.|/Hawkhurst =to Sirius ........./Orange colour|1‘2 second ...|To ¢ Cygni 
(Kent). g Lacerte. 
10|10 3 p.m./Euston Road |Meteor=to Venus |.........+..+s0++|eereee sudpésaunday From @ Pe; 
(London). a Equulei 
1010 3 45 |Hawkhurst ==2nd MAG ......Jaccrerenreaepersonle Baye Hee Centre at m 
p-m (Kent). 
10}10 4 6 |Cambridge Ob-)=2nd magex ......|ecceeceesseeeererlevene br ashenseres Commenced 
p.m. servatory. W. from 
tude 26°. 
TOTO ~4 20) bid: cccaeenenne voof=2NG MAL.K ...c0elsscseceeceaeseerce|en soccecesceseseee| COMMENCED 
p.m. W. from $ 


tude 285. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 283 


Direction ; noting also 
nee; Train, ifany,| Length of | whether Horizontal, 
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or 
: Inclined. 


Remarks. Observer. 


about 4 seconds ... 


as long as the visible}...............0 to 3 Herculis ......... Two meteors, both alike, 'T. Crumplen. 
and following precisely 
the same course. 


J. C. Adams. 
watch-face held with 
12» vertical. 


A. S. Herschel. 


SEPEEORP ose e ee tee reeeseses|® 


ac copececcs Bvaldencckeahercces Towards 5 hour of a 
watch-face held with 
12" vertical. 
endured 1 or 2)35° to 40°.,|... sedosatuuacavdestosecaneeeg| temumbonaseen teens eeeeeeeees ++|W. C. Nash. 
ds. 


luminous train .../.........cessee Vertically downwards... Canveasssednecssns 


inous train en-|...,..... 
8 seconds. 


POPPE POO Deer tere eeeeeseslsasees 


| RAR (7 Directed from Capella, 
seseseeseees|Lowards 8 hour of a 
watch-face held with 
12? vertical. 
luminous train ......!.......00.68 «».|Towards 83 hour of a 
watch-face held with 
12} vertical. 


PPPOE ee nerereseseeses nee 


284 REPORT—1863. 
Position, 9; 
Date.| Hour. Be art Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude anc 
Azimuth. 
1863.| h m s 
Aug.10|10 4 30 |Hawkhurst =2nd mag.* ....../YElOW  ssevelecccersssseseneees( Lyncis to I 
p.m. (Kent). of @ Urse ? 
joris. ; 
10/10 5 p.m.|Ibid.......... veeee/==tO SINUS wees .-.(Orange colour|1°3 second .../From 6° beloy 
to 33° belo’ 
* Ursz Majori 
1010 5 p.m.Greenwich Ob-|=2nd mag.x ...... Bluish white...|1 second ....../From o Urse } 
servatory. joris beneath U 
Major towari 
horizon. 
1010 5 p.m./Hawkhurst =Ist Magex sees. Orange colour|1*3 second ...\From 6° beloy 
(Kent). to 33° beloy 
Urse Majoris 
1010 5 45 [[bid sessesseseeeess =f0 SINS" <sscees ..\Orange colour/1-2 second ...|From ¢ to » Cef 
p.m. 
1010 5 45 |[bid...........+0+/=to Sirius ..... ....{Orange colour|1:2 second ...|From ¢ to 6 Cep 
p.m. 
1010 6 6 |Cambridge Ob-)=1st mag.* ......|. sacnvaneeabwesoes|e sesescssseeeeeess| Commenced 
p-m. servatory. W. from $ 
tude 49°. 
1010 615 |Hawkhurst =to Sirins ....0s00: Orange colour|........s000s .....{Erom @ Her 
p.m. (Kent). « Ophiuch 
5° further. |) 
10110 6 35 |Cranford (Mid-|Brilliant meteor ...|-+ssssceereeesesesleceeseeceenes ae 
p-m. dlesex). 
10)10 6 46 {Cambridge Ob-|=Ist mag.x ....../eeececeeeecseeceeslene ceececoceecesse 
p.m. servatory. 
10110 7 30 |Hawkhurst =Ist mag. White ...cccceslece PEO cL wasene 
p-m. (Kent) Andromed 
LOKLO 7 30 [Ibid ...........006 .|=to Sinus ......00. Orange COlOUr].....+..+..seeeeee From 3° bel 
p-m. to 3° bey 
Andromed 
10/10 8 p.m.|Euston Road |=Ist mag.* ......Ruddy ......... 15 second .../From g 
(London). to y Delp 
10/10 8 p.m.|Greenwich Ob-|Very brilliant; =|Bluish ......... 1 second ....../From d And 
servatory. Ist mag.*. across y E 
10|10 8 p.m.|/Hampton (Mid-|=Ist mag.x 5 VEry).e.sssseceeereeeesleseeeeneeaees aeons 
dlesex). brilliant. 
10/10 8 3 [Cambridge Ob-|=2nd mag. ...s0e)ceecsscceeeeesseee/eeeeeese SS Commenced 
p.m. servatory. W. from 
tude 42° 
10110 8 30 {Hawkhurst Ts MAGE  cevecclecoccccsessescesee 1:6 second .../From } ( 
p.m. (Kent). B Draconis 
10/10 8 46 |Cambridge Ob-|....sssecsescseeer sabgs acnaccapenmesoobenis ereeseeeees Scerss 


p.m. 


servatory. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 285 


i 
Direction ; noting also 
yearance; Train, ifany,| Length of | whether Horizontal, Shei 
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. bserve 


Inclined. 


Mistadeseacsugesssscecscsee|e seveeceeasceeslicsevernancs Avenierreometnes Corresponds to Cam-/A. S. Herschel. 
bridge, 108 4™ 20° p.m. 


-»|Directed from 0 Came-| ...1...ccccosssasecessaces coe Id. 
lopardali. 


About 12° from _hori- 

zontal, 
v«+|Directed from & Came-|........cccesccsssceecessosece A. S. Herschel. 
lopardali. 


OPO te ee eee OOO coc n cece se eselOPeerecevecnes|secvaccceucedeenceccevcepebecs 


r 4 seconds upon the 
ole length of the 
ible flight. 
inous streak endured).......... seeee 
Seconds upon the 
ole course. 

@luminous train  ...}........ eee. 


PR Re pi Corresponds to Euston|[d. 
Road, 10" 8™ p.m. 


-Towards 4 hour of al....sceseeee cabscaeaaeveds --+.|James Challis. 
watch-face held with 
125 vertical. 
BRECONGS'S) YUCHISO° .....000-|..cccescooccscenceees seesese-.{COrresponds to Cran-/A, S, Herschel. 
ford, 10" 6 35° p.m. 


rain endured for 
ely half a second. 


Towards 5 hour of a).....sesssesseessesseeeeeeeee-(James Challis. 
watch-face held with 
12" vertical. 

MMETETISTICS) 5c ccsyoce|soncccsesssees| oes ‘oouannecaseaeeee iamaevencs| sa Bisaes cappastarisaecenaee ..|A. S. Herschel. 


BMADISPALKS .cccacces|escccsceseeeess 


SHPO O OOOH eee eee eee teeter ee eh he COCR e rete eneeeee Id. 


train 12° in length..|.......sse0000. 


seacecnquatessancysoaswasesces| ect Geen shir daontn sid T. Crumplen. 


slight train .........120° ....... 
} slight train ........./.. 


Pe] e reece ceed eee cesar edebetenvericascssccssecscesececes eeerens W. Cc, Nash. 


Re iadeta vere sxacncs saatapeaeccusts t8v009 a0] sto5.08 aceseecaenemenee seeese--/H. Temple Hum- 


a 
UO ere es eee 


..e.-|Lowards 4 hour of a 

watch-face held with 

12" vertical. 

ttteeeesssessenssseceeeess COLYeSponds to Euston|A. S. Herschel. 
Road, 10" 9™ p.m. 


sna edeataaete Sua behesdener esc G. Plummer, 


luminous streak ...|...,.. 


Towardg 42 hour Of al....jassosssasscsosercecedeens James Challis. 
watch-face held with 
12} vertical. 


tl eeerereganecoes 


286 


Date. Hour. 


1863.| h m s 


Aug.10)10 9 p.m./Enston Road |=I1st mag.x 


10/10 10 15 
p.m. 


10/10 11 p.m. 


1010 11 25 
p-m. 


10/10 11 30 
p.m. 


10/10 11 30 
p-m. 
1010 12 p.m. 


10)10 12 p.m. 


10|10 12 30 
p.m. 
10/10 13 p.m. 


10/10 13 20 


p.m. 

10/10 13 40 
p-m. 

10/10 14 p.m. 


1010 14 p.m. 


10|10 14 15 
p-m. 

10/10 14 18 
p.m. 


10/10 14 25 
p.m. 


10/10 14 40 
p.m. 


REPORT—1863. 


Position, or 
Colour. Duration. Altitude ane 
Azimuth. — 


Place of 


Observation. | Apparent Size. 


* 


WHite) cdesccrss|eenkesedsnasessesst e000. cml 


(London). B Lyre) to 
(S| Tauri P 
niat., 9 Ser 
pentis). 

Cambridge SODi2.dpscoes<ctacecctcvsdlacsvaveccedevacsedlaaes aacdusaveues sl Commenced 
servatory. W. from S§., a 
tude 63°°5, 
Hampton (Mid-|A Ist mag. meteors|............c.sseclessceesecenseeeers From 1° above 
dlesex), very bright. Andromede 
= 4° below ¢ } 
gasi. 
Cambridge Ob-)=I1st mag.x ...... Padhdsear-tdéveswee|-concvadecbaceetes Commenced 
servatory. W. from S., a 
tude 58°. 
Greenwich Ob-|>than Ist mag.»...|Brilliant blue..|2 seconds .../From 4 (A And 
servatory. med, 0 Ceph 
to 5° left of 
Vulpecule, — 
Hawkhurst A meteor brighter/Yellow. ...... 1-4 second ...|From 14° rig 

(Kent). than Sirius. w Cephei 
(»  Cephe 
Cygni). . 

Euston Road |> than Venus at|.scccessseecsreees 0°5 second .../From R. A. 

(London). its brightest. S. Decl. 10°) 
R. A. 277 
Decl. 20°. 

Hampton (Mid-|=1st mag.x ......|-++0ee+ csenceeeseelseeeecene seacuanes From 3 (A, g 
dlesex). conis across. 
Herculis, and | 
or 8° further, 
Cranford Obser-|Very brilliant ......|-.cccesscessocsees|,..ccsvavecccsnces Passed betwe 
vatory. y Herculis. 
Weston - super -|=to Sirius ........./White ......... % second ..,... From 6 Bootis 
Mare. Bootis. 


Wisbech (Cam-|Bright;=2ndmag-|Blue  .........14 second ...\From ¢ Cassiops 
bridgeshire). nitude x. to T Cephe 
Cambridge Ob-|=3rd mag.x ......|...+eeeeeeee Beares|geeuesqusee +eeeee/COmmenced ¢ 


servatory. W. from $ 
tude 38° 

Greenwich Ob-|=3rd mag.x ...... BIUGI 6 <teesness Lessthan1sec.|From « Cassi 

servatory. to € Andro 
Euston Road |=ILst mag.x se..../eeeeeeeees eeeeeees 0°7 second ...|Passed betw 
(London). and y Se 
from Gem 

Hawkhurst cae hy ee aps] WILE ce ccacse 1 second ...... From @ to 3° 
(Kent). of e Bootis 
GaGa ge Ot. cccwacsnctuaancccenas|steesvqecsdecccecelscbscscqroncccaeanl OC GONGN CH 


servatory. W. from § 
tude 42°5, 

den egeanccebldascssuqvodeceesss Commenced 
W. from § 

tude 45™5. 
ceeccececegecccces|soocessgeececescee| Disappeared 
to « Lyre. 


Cranford Obser-|Bright meteor...... 
vatory. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 287 


Direction ; noting also 
pearance ; Train, ifany,) Length of | whether Horizontal, 


and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer. 
, Inclined. 
<encecees|soseseasencedannscedsdéeecnaus| ea sk scans ed die ade seeveseeee|L. Crumplen. 
ENR MNsteS dada sss asaculacsacesceaesees Towards 43 hour of aj-.ssseeeeseee seseececeveeeeeee/Ge Plummer. 
watch-face held with 
122 vertical. 
in remained 2 seconds..|......... Saueunlacarssesaaat auatanul Sassi nue ds tne denaithecaaes saunteitens --.|H. Temple Hum- 
phreys. 
a luminous train i8°)....... apaesune Towards 4 hour Of al.sccoscsesessees baeeates aces 6s James Challis 
ong. watch-face held with 
12> vertical. 
fine train, which re- W. C. Nash 
ained visible 3 seconds. 
train was Orange, and].s....soeceeese|ceecees a ee eee ee Corresponds to Hamp-|A. S. Herschel. 
ted 6 seconds, in two ton, 108 11” pm.; 
tches, being broken at Cambridge, 10® 11™ 
Cephei. 258 p.m. ; and Green- 
wich, 10°11" 30° p.m. 
a fine luminous train,|......... =F .-./T. Crumplen. 


MOERAI) scesiceesenese ens .|H. Temple Hum- 


phreys, 
a bright train for 4)...........066. a trttereseeese|W, De la Rue. 
r 5 seconds. 
NIEETIRTOL TL oi sisnccunvoeces|sccnusecascecceaucvanstanecnes 10° 8™ p.m. lightning or|W. H. Wood. 
meteor-flash ; clouds 
increasing. 
| ee Petes gosae , SA Fe esvceveaerents ausuavestensarl<terciaapsanecea seusapostansey S. H. Miller. 
es ee Towards 53 hour Of al.eesssscessees trceeseeeeeeeees (Gs Plummer. 
watch-face held with 
12? vertical. 
IEG ooh cre. | LO” sdesscses|cceccsecncasesaosacecesr cesses |Zansangsanenemnerteaete ...(W. C. Nash. 
Temained 8° inl....;.......... s+eeeee(T. Crumplen. 
BUM se ncavescesesse|s Sepalsaheseres|<cosvunsensqherac accesses s «peels se dinpapevachesesecseessdes( A. S. Herschel. 
BEE ea saguvesbasceccssestees pan denscecnt Towards 3 hour Of al.scsecscese wane “auskaackit vas James Challis. 
watch-face held with 
12 vertical. 
a luminous train......}....... cae Towards 5 hour Of al....csccossecsscsceees et .- |G. Plummer. 
watch-face held with 
12) vertical. 
no train, but illumi-|..,,,......+.../From Cassiopeia........./Probably brighter at/W. De la Rue. 
the commencement 
of the track which 
was not seen. 


Date. 


Aug.10 


10/10 18 54 |Cambridge Ob- 
p.m servatory. 
10|10 19 p.m.| Hawkhurst 
(Keut). 


10/10 19 p.m.|Euston Road 
(London). 


=Ist mag.# 


=to Venus , 


Much > Venus 


=2nd mag. 


eben 


=I1st mag.* 


10)10 20 p.m.|Weston - super - 
Mare. 

10)10 20 30 |Hawkhurst 
p.m. (Kent). 

10,10 20 30 |Cambridge Ob- 
p.m. servatory. 

10,10 20 45 |Cranford Ob- 
p.m. servatory. 


Blue-white .. 
SH=2And MA.x ceesse|eseeeveereeweeee 


eeeweeleeeenrenes 


Bright meteor ......|sceeeseeee 


IWVINIUG: coh csaver 15 second ... 


voe| White seereesee 1°3 second 


ee eeerenleeee 


.|L second ...... 


..|0°8 second 


288 REPORT—1863. 
Blanbcak Position, or 
Hour. Obsesration. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. sliitile i 
1863.|h m s 7 
10 15 48 |Wisbech (Cam-|Bright ; = to 2nd).cossseeseesseee 2 second ......|From head of ¢ 
p-m. bridgeshire). mag.*. pheus toc Cyg 
10|10 16 p.m.|Weston - super -|=to Sirius ........./White ......... 0-5 second .../From 1 and 2 
Mare. melopardali ti 
Aurigze. 
1010 16 p.m.|/Hawkhurst =2nd MAg.H crsee|ecereccessreecceelseeeernares seveeee|Brom } (1, &) Cys 
(Kent). to « Lyra(centi® 
and 12° beyonc 
10/10 16 14 |Cambridge Ob-|=3rd mage seess.|sssesseerenneeenes lees seeseeeeeeeeee-|COMMeEnced 
p.m. servatory. W. from S., a 
tude 42°°5. 
10/10 16 30 |Hampton (Mid-|=Ist mag.& ..sse.|ecececessreeeeees|enneeeseteeeneenes From 3 (0, P) | 
p-m. dlesex). melopardali t 
Urse Majoris. 
10|10 17 p.m.|Euston Road |=I1st mag.*« ...... Ruddy and |1 second ...,,,/From 3 (« Del 
(London). white. y Sagitte) tojp 
Aquile, and 
further. 
10)10 17 9 |Cambridge Ob-|=I1st mag.x ss...}..c000 ee seseveee{Commenced Tf 
p.m. servatory. W. from 8S. 
10)10 17 14 [Ibid ...s.0000...... GEC IMNAGE. sscvee|ascasssseonpcevess|secnnerseeee s.+.[Commenced 8; 
p.m. W. from S., @ 
tude 51°. 
10}10 17 15 |Hawkhurst >than Jupiter ...|Orange colour1"3 second .,./From « Urse 
p.m. (Kent). joris to 4° ove 
Urse Majoris, 
3° further. 
10|10 18 p.m./Greenwich Ob-|=Ist mag. «...../Blue.....e0 Less than 1sec./From Lacerta t 
servatory. Cygni. q 
10|10 18 p.m.|Hampton (Mid-\Large meteor; |.+cress-e wueesvalesicensneme ans ++.+.{From 2 Cassiopt 
dlesex). > Ist mag.x. to 4 (d, «) Peg 
10/10 18 50 (Cranford Ob- {Very brilliant me-)...... ee seseoeseeeee| Appeared abot vi 
p.m. servatory. teor. Cygni; passe i 
tween y, 0, cli 
to x, o, 3 Cy 
and several — 


grees beyon i. 
Commenced | 
from S., alt. 
From 4 (92) 
conis to a ] 
4 of the wa 
wards 3 Herewi 
...(From a point 
o Bootis. | 
...|Centre at d 
Commenced : 


a point 2 ¢ 
distance 
« Herculis 
Serpentis. 
W. from S8., 
tude 47°. 
From 6 Urse 
joris below 


From o Hercu 
nes Venaticls 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 289 


eee 
Direction ; noting also 
earance; Train, ifany,) Length of | whether Horizontal, 


and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. ohenas 
Inclined. 
ain or sparks ....,....|+ ee See SOR are ee cuaeret Exiles uh ace phlei ov. 0«4 S. H. Miller. 
EO: ne en (re bivanavekei tenia W. H. Wood. 
ER iriinalioenneetsquanso|aisevseuschésdadnenseassssaccefdecesses aii as nese aet a A. S. Herschel. 
. eR ae esl Seas cestascenes Towards 26 HOWE Of al icvcnscces aunt Tice J. Plummer. 
watch-face held with 
12" vertical. 
ashort train .........). Seiehteesnua ss] dus epais<Paspancdesaseseouses lexsQ aon sone wee saetes veeee.|H. Temple Hum- 
phreys. 
- Remas des uucancess BPH pore a aaasedsien eaceesas'sval cwesterany cnetaicene seeeeeese| Le Crumplen. 
BScesersrccsscescoss Bestel <oscces ECan ‘Towards 43 hour of a|Time doubtful............/James Challis, 
watch-face held with 
| 12 vertical. 
eee errr rerere ry Peerlecces Ceeecccces |Towards 4 hour of Bl ccevecccvcvccccscccsesbscvcces Id. 
watch-face held with 
12} vertical. 
Wided into two parts;!..........s.ss.|sessecesecseees evesecenees sen lenee ‘esessseeessesssesesenees|Ae Se Herschel. 


h at x Urse re- 
for 6 seconds. 


in remained for 1 


Wide tes Gamiaces See eeeeeneeeenesssreeeesereees|sesseeesssasssssssssesereseses| We ©, Nash. 
SCE | Sn ae sis suisananeonemaaenal Reues as 0 ve isvsansadetevdess; H. Temple Hum- 
S phreys. 

ME 5. ccesns| saenssosecsorsemaeanteto idle... aa enna 
eral seconds. 

Juminous train for],.............. sino cceeeedonsbaesasneanetsuscelaec~ navesecdetereee ted seeeeeee(James Challis, 

SE Ee eae ere ...Corresponds to Cran-|A. S. Herschel. 


h Swollen in the ford, 10" 18™ 50° p.m. 


ttaneeeeceeeesieveeseassctseereessessssssens teeetereceeseeersseens: seeeses/ T's Crumplen, 


POOH OPER e ee eee eee eeeeees . 


ss|scouescceccecesevvecsssscnses/We H. Wood. 


in for 2 seconds.. 7° seeseseee From 3 tee 2 «| ae en anouneanaeneaenet A. S. Herschel. 


» . | | 
y Stationary flash...) ............... [Fowards: 9) our of al....:......«cetae ee. James Challis. 
; watch-face held with 


125 vertical. 
iP estcinewwansoduselvedvawensionanesie daanaesvaeSisloeseesecee es iteete ies +»s+.|W. De la Rue. 


white train for 1 


SOREN eee teeta ee teeees 


290 REPORT—1863. 


4 
Position, ¢ 


Date.| Hour. eee Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. ee 7 | 
: 
1363./h m s 
Aug.1010 20 58 |Cambridge Ob-\=2nd mag.* .y.se.)sscceeess seeeaaeelaaee cessveveseees- (Commenced 34 
p.m. servatory. W. from S.,) 
tude 37°. 
1010 21 p.m. Hawkhurst =Ist mag.* ...... Yellow ....../1'2 second ...|To 3° unde) 
(Kent). Camelopardy 
halfway 
Camelopard)) 
1010 21 8 |Cambridge Ob-|=2nd mag.x ss.s.Jecececcssseeerneeslereeneeeenens .sse-|From a Ceph 
p-m. servatory. a Cygni, 
VO|1O\22 4B; |Ubid ........s06+ee. S=Srd Mage siere [eesiesieeesesccoee|ecneees iecesessees Commenced |) 
p.m. W. from S., 
tude 43°°5, 
1010 23 p.m.Greenwich Ob-/=3rd mag.* ...... Blue i... .... Lessthan 1sec. Between Aries 
servatory. Pegasus. 
1010 25 p.m./Weston - super -|=2nd mag.* ...+-./Blue — ......++ 0:5 second ...'From 6 Booti 
Mare. Serpentis. | 
1010 25 22 |Cranford Obser-|=2nd mag.% ......|.cccesseeteeeeseeeleeeees oseseastese From ¢ to @ B) 
p-m. vatory. | 
1010 25 15 |Hawkhurst =Ind mage .vsvituleweteebicztens..sd 0°8 second ...|\On a line } 
p.m. (Kent). & Urse to) 
Caroli. 
to 14° 
the latter 
1010 26 p.m.|Weston - super -|=Ist mag.*.........|White,  then|0°9 second ...|From head 
Mare. ; red, Major to 
| of Lynx. 
1010 27 p.m. aera - super -|=2nd mag.* ......|Blue .4......- 0°5 second ...\From Cor C 
are. 
1010 27 30 |Cranford Obser-|=2nd mag.x .....-|..ccccsecebeeeeees Motion ex- |One degre 
p.m. vatory. tremely slow.| «, ¢ Ophiui 
extensive | 
those star 
1010 28 16 |Cambridge Ob-/=Srd mag.x ...see|eeeeseeeeeee edevselesanse seeeeeu sees COMMenced 
p.m. servatory. W. from 
tude 49° 
1010 28 49 [Ibid ....s..sseeeees =2nd mag.* ...... seasatsevedeoererelssssoeeei oso beboos/ COMMENCE 
p-m. W. from 
tude 21° 
1010 29 p.m./Weston - super -\>Ist mag.* ...... Yellow ...... 1 second .,.... From y B 
Mare. # Booti 
10 10 29 17 Cambridge Ob- Heeb nemo eres eereeeress | oone Oeeeet POCO Rear ewe en eeeeee Peer eee 
p.m. servatory. 
1016 29 25 |Cranford Obser-|=2nd mag.% sseeee|..cicceceeeee ieee | ere ee From e be 
p.m. vatory. Lyncis. 
1010 29 56 |Cambridge Ob-|=38rd mag.x ...... saaceccvecdcconestlocessoeddtedlth aT OOLIIentm 
p-m. servatory. W. from 
tude 55 
1010 30 45 |Hawkhurst = OTUUTnae st, occurs |eeneveeeceeeeeeniNl ze soosddiveoeseeee To 1° over 
p.m. (Kent). Majoris 
way from 
Majoris. 
10,10 30 47 |Cambridge Ob-|....:...sssessessneees <i iaadapaehet enanea titan seeceeeeeeeess/(COMMENC 
p.m. servatory. W. from 
tude 18° 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 291 


Direction; noting also 
Length of | whether Horizontal, 


arance; Train, if any, 


and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks, Observer. 
Inclined. 
Sia as Towards 4} Lour of a).........cccccccsssesseesees./J. Plummer. 
watch-face held with 
125 vertical. 
wees sep bRbetislaseseevers tteeveeesrseueeeeees/seveeerersssttecsessesecssees/A, S, Herschel, 
Seaiahtsaoneath anes casitescesaeceberatececee eoceae “ J.C. Adams. 
wae EST sc ibaveled es aad James Challis. 
watch-face held with 
12" vertical. 
BEPEUPMETCDTS PUT-|,......,.cescslesssensrssheosoaccecescecacees Ina space between Aries| W. C. Nash. 
ed parallel courses. and Pegasus, devoid 
: of large stars. 
a train for 1 second...|............... W.H. Wood 
W. H. Wood 
Revbressceeces 12° sseeees-/25° to left of perpendi-|-..-ssssss-csseseseseeeeeses( [de 
cular; down. 
ee eee vesseees/ Parallel to x, ¢ OpPhivichi]....sssseeeeeerseeeeseeeeeeeee] We De la Rue. 
Seve peesasectasceves Towards 44 hour of aj....s...sscsssscesseues-oeeee-/J.. Plummer. 
watch-face held with 
124 vertical. 
a35-CRE Ae Towards 53 hour of al-..ssessssocsssssseeeeeeeeee-(James Challis. 
watch-face held with 
12" vertical. 
white train .........), W. H. Wood 
EPI BIIE HODT 25 corabic cs. enncdens db flee eSeccesencseeae{sooshanasMMPMbeees wedciecd. capes * 
W. De la Rue 
terereeees|sccrsesseseesse/Lowards 4 hour of al....,, Sotovetetoveveltsives..:(d- EAUMMED 
watch-face held with 
12 vertical. 
aes eeeRe ec ee ea ebeeesvenesecetes|Soechiverecedecsonssccos .eee.-/A. S. Herschel. . 
veveeese/Towards 4 hour of a......100....cesssseesseeeeees(J» Plummer. 


watch-face held with| 
125 vertical. 


292 REPORT—1863. 


Pace of Position, 0 
Date.| Hour. Oba oh, Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. ae ; 
1863.|;h m s 
Aug.10/10 31 30 |Hawkhurst =Ist mag.x.........|White ......... 1 second .,....|From 3 (¢,v) € 
p-m. (Kent). 4 of the wa 
a Aquile. 
10/10 31 32 |Cambridge Ob-)=2nd mag.x ......|.ccseccseereesenne|soeeeeeeeeneennees Commenced — 
p.m. servatory. W. from S., 
tude 57°. 
TOMOSS Sy - bid 2s wes scanes. =2nd MAg-x ....--|--.000-. ae icancee|scoeseepereepenens Commenced 
p-m. W. from S., 
tude 30°°5, 
10}10 32 28 |Wisbech (Cam-)=Ist mag.x or..ceoe|sccecesseeeeeeees '24 seconds ...\From 4 (y ¥ 
p.m. bridgeshire). Minoris, w 
conis) to $f 
Bootis. 
LO|TO 33 1Svlbid 2eseeeet.. See rd Age: <..2st|ssaconesduasossss=[seetesssv eee teeeee From + to u 
-m. conis. 
10/10 33 25 |Cambridge Ob-|=2nd mag.* ......|....00 Seesesavene Fete Seccorao: Commenced 
p-m. seryatory. W. from S., 
tude 37°°5, 
ROWTO"S3 29: bid ic5..602.0.03 a) GOTT BS Gee bqaebscoe chock) Ae Se laebasecoaeenG Commenced | 
p.m. W. from S., 
tude 45°°5. § 
10)10 34 p.m.|Hawkhurst =2nd mag.* ...... White: sects 0:8 second .../To « Herculis 
(Kent). 5° further, 
way from 7 
conis. | 
10/10 34 p.m.|Greenwich Ob-|=I1st mag.x....... oo|Blue vo0sse00.{1 SECON ....0. a Cygni to BC 
servatory. i 
10/10 35 p.m.|[bid ...........008 = [st mag.#..0..00 Blue spasvenzs 1 second ......|From 6 Aqi 
the horizon, 
10)10 36 p.m.|/Hawkhurst = 2nd MAG seises|LEUMOW | veencslsacssapanecounnee From 10° tof 
(Kent). beyond Areli} 
ou a line 
Urse Maj 
10)10 36 45 [Ibid ............... == 2nd MALA .ovead| devbiesters soreseey) cde coestocwneeene’ From a Drae 
p-m. j @ Bootis ani 
further. | 
10)10 36 55 |Cambridge Ob-|.++.es.+eee tees dasdabec0aube|saeesesSalenevnedes nstcesenecust “a 
p-m. servatory. 
10/10 37 1 |Ibid....... Riesins = 3rd mag.* ss. ee Eee ery ee. ++++-| Commenced 
p.m. W. from 
tude 55°° 
1010 37 5 |Wisbech (Cam-|Bright meteor, =|..................Jeeecccceeeeeeee ..-|From n Ta 
p.m. bridgeshire). | 2nd mag.x. O Camelop: 
10/10 37 55 |Cambridge Ob-|=2nd or 3rd mag.x..........cseecseeeleeceeeeseneseeenes Commenced 
p-m. servatory. | 
10)10 38 15 |Wisbech (Cam-|=1st mag.*....... = 
p.m. bridgeshire). 
10/10 39 4 |Cambridge Ob-|=2nd magex verses ecccsecccsceeseeelecceees US Commenced 
p-m. servatory. W. from 
tude 31° 
1010 39 20 Greenwich Ob-|=2nd mag.* ...... Blue .s......./Lessthan 1see.|From « Cor 
p.m. servatory. | wards th 
horizon. 


earance ; Train, if any, 
and its Duration. 


Length of 
Path. 


a train for 2 seconds 


OPPO e EMER Oe ete eee eset eteees 


PEPE eae e sense e tenes seeeas THF ttHeHeneaee 


PEROT O TOO e POT eee e ee eE eaten Hee teen eeeeeees 


PEEP neem eee eeeeet erence SOOO e eee seen eeeeeees 


PROC OTe ees ee eerenee selec CATES ITE LILLY ETT) 


a fine faint train for]... 
second. 


aeeeee 


a luminous streak ... 


a luminous streak ... 


SOP e eee eeee eet eeeeees 


FOP eee eee sense eee ereeeleeesseneesseees|, 


POPC P em eee eee reese eee eer leceesreeeensees 


bee ee eevee 


luminous train ..,,../20° ....00... 


Otro eee eeenee 


../Towards 4 hour of a 


OTERO eee terete meee eeeseeeens | ees 


«(Towards 4 hour of a 


Direction ; noting also 
whether Horizontal, 
Perpendicular, or 
Inclined. 


ee eeeeee 


Towards 73 hour of a 
watch-face held with 
12° vertical. 

Towards 4 hour of a 
watch-face held with 
12" vertical. 


OOOO eee eee eeneeeeenee feeees 


eet eenees 


eee ee neee 


Set eeereeaes . 


watch-face held with 
125 vertical. 

Towards 5 hour of ai... 
watch-face held with 
125 vertical. 


p.m. 


POOR eee eee eee eee eneees eee 


watch-face held with 
12° vertical. 


ee eee reese 


watch-face held with 
125 vertical. 


Deane eee eeeeereee Pee eseacees| tte eerseeres 


watch-face held with 
125 vertical. 


eee eeeeeeses 


Prry ee) 


30° from horizontal. 


Remarks. 


—_—_————— 


te eeeeeeees Beer ee (te eeeereree 


OOOO e emer eeeeeeeeneeeeseees 


Corresponds 
bridge, 10" 33m 295 


teem eeeeee 


Feet terres 


teeteeeeessseeeseeees(Se He Miller. 


seeteecesseveseees] We ©. Nash, 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 293 
<< |. — ee eee 


Observer. 


ooenete OEE ...../A. S. Herschel. 


RP by seessssseeee(Je C. Adams, 


onda bncege eerie J. Plummer. 


S. H. Miller. 


..|Id. 


eee ree ewer eeees 


-.|J. Plummer. 


Id. 


Pee eeeeeeesees Oeeee 


to Cam-/A. §. Herschel. 


W. C. Nash. 


OOOO M eH eee beter eeeeetaeenes 


Nesnade cs seeeeeeeeide Plummer, 


*eecevesseeeseeess/James Challis. 


teeveveseveeseseee/Se H, Miller, 


TOO e eee essen eels eeeeeeeesetenssesees 


294 REPORT—1863. 


A, 
a: 


ition, or 
Place of Position, of 


Date.| Hour. Observiltion. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Alvithee i 
1863./h m s ’ 
Aug.10\10 39 40 |Greenwich Ob-|=2nd mag.x ....../ Bluish white...|1 second ,,,...,Onaline throu 
p.m. servatory. « Herculis fro 
a point below 
10|10 39 47 \Cambridge Ob-|......e.044 anatiide uh Sal Dha¥io Muay paciacochansaectshe eeginds Commenced 28) 
p-m. servatory. W. from S., al 
tude 30°°5. 
10)10 40 p.m.|Hawkhurst =2nd mag.* ,,..../Yellow ...... 0:5 second .../From y to } 
(Kent). Cephei. ; 
10\10 40 20 |Cambridge Ob-|=2nd mag.x .,.+6+|...46 Gifs caguasce-\cswevewetesteeaeas Commenced 32 
p-m. servatory. W. from §., al 
tude 46°. 
10)10 41 p.m.|Southsea (Ports-|=3rd mag.x ...... White ..;..<... li second ...|Fron 6 Equu 
mouth). to + (« Antiny 
« Capricorni ¥ 
10|10 41 24 (Cambridge Ob-|=3rd mag. ......|..cceeeeee ehaislscalincceadelttevenas Commenced 94° 
p.m, seryatory. W. from §., al 
tude Bore ) 
1010 41 30 |Hawkhurst = 3rd mag.x seseeefVEMOW .sseelecceeees sseeseeees/Erom pto eCore 
p-m. (Kent). and as far agaill 
1010 41 30 |Cambridge Ob-|=3rd mag.% ..seee}.....ee Ganetavonas|iccvossdtec denases Commenced 4 
p-m. servatory. W. from S., 
tude 41°53, 
10)10 41 40 |[bid.........,.0..)=3rd mag.x . ssscsegeoesec[ooeceoregs oneeese-) COMMONGCH 
p-m. W. from S., 
tude 32°°5, 
10)10 42 30 |Greenwich Ob-|=2nd mag.« ...... 21 oe 1 second ,.....\From e Ophitt 
p-m. servatory. towards the 
horizon. 
10/10 42 50 (Cambridge Ob-|=2nd mag.% ......|..ccccccsccgesesss|scocescsteessenees Commenced 105 
p.m. servatory. W. from S., 
tude 52°°5. 
1010 43 30 |Hawkhurst = 2nd mag.* ...... Red .....4-s006 1 second ....../On a line fi 
p.m. (Kent). Urs Majo. 
Arcturus, 
7° to 12° 
the latter s 
10/10 44 p.m|Wisbech (Cam-|Bright meteor; >|Deep blue .../14 second .../From y, half 
bridgeshire). Ist mag.x. Z Bootis. 
10/10 45 p.m.|Fairlight (Hast-|Largemeteor. Flash| White, then |3 seconds......|Froma Aquila, 
ings). of diffused light.| red. way betwee 
Antinoi 
the horizon 
1010 45 45 |Hawkhurst Meteor = to 3 x|‘ Mauve’ - co-|2 seconds......,From 4 (8 Ac 
pm, (Kent). Venus. lour. é Delphini 
(a Capricot 
} Antinoi), au 
further. 
10/10 46 4 |Cambridge Ob-|=Ist mag.%....ccccrlrocesececcscccscesleonscoccquecsesees Commenced 
p.m. servatory. W. from S. 
} tude 73°. _ 
10)10 46 46 {Ibid............... S15 Ly eee Maeeeercres Peeccl s Saeerer 2 iueease Appeared 233 
p-m. from §., alt 
10/10 47 p.m.| Hawkhurst Last 5° > Venus|Yellow ...... 14 second .../To 1° above 
(Kent). melopardal 
5° further, hill) 
L 


way fromeP 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


arance; Train, ifany,| Length of | whether Horizontal, 
nd its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or 
Inclined. 


PPPOE eee were eeaeeserenane 


A OTP ER emer eee eb ener eee eeeesionsenessseee® 


a luminous train; 
vadest in the middle. 
luminous train 


Pema e ee ee eeeeeeerserareee 


or sparks 


wee tenn 


PPR H POH e eH eee tH ean linereeeseeeees 


n or sparks. Dis- 
eared behind clouds. 


train for several 
iS, coruscant. 
lar, leaving a perma- 
train; afterwards 
aped, with a 
adhering tail. 
Streak 5 seconds.|.......<.... 
45 seconds. 


seen ee eee eee 


a 


luminous train 


bright 


it for 30 seconds. 


wee aeteeenetes 


OWVSPAEKG ....00202|30° oicccoee 


.-/Towards 43 hour of a 


Stationary|.....ccovesseeelooee 


last 5° left a patch|............000/.. 


9 


~ 


95 


Direction; noting also 


Towards W. horizon ... 


watch-face held with 
125 vertical. 


eee eee eee eee eee ee eer ere ey 


Towards 4 hour of a 
watch-face held with 
125 vertical. 


Hee eee e eee e eee eee eee eeeeseee 


watch-face held with 
125 vertical. 


OOOO Fewer tenes eeeeeeeseeee eee 


watch-face held with 
12" vertical. 
Towards 4 hour of a 
watch-face held with 
12° vertical. 


se eeeeeeene eee eee eee errr ery 


he 


30° from horizontal. 


watch-face held with 
125 vertical. 


sleweeeee TOR ee meme eeen ee terees 


Down the eastern edge 
of the Milky Way. 


.|Towards 43 hour of a 
watch-face held with 
125 vertical. 


Towards 4 hour of a 


-|Towards 73 hour of a’ 


Towards 5 hour of a} 


Prrerereecerieerir errr rrr ri rere ery 


Remarks. 


PPR ET ORE e ener eee arene teeetesas 


SOOO ee POP e ear seeeeneeeseretens 


Corresponds to Cam- 
bridge, 10°40™ 20° p.m. 


seeeeee Pree eee r Ce eerr rr er yy 


| 


Corresponds to Cam-! 
bridge, 1044}™ 30° p.m. 


Per errr reer ery eeeeee ateelicoe 
seeeeenee Seen eee rosette anes 
POPP PP ere eee re rere reer ey 

| 


A flash of lightning in 
the same quarter of 
the horizon. 


se eee Cee eee ere ee re) 


A permanent patch of 
light remained 5° or 
10°, onwards from 1, 
d Antinoi. 

A luminous patch re- 
mained 45 seconds in 
the last 7° of the vi- 
sible track. 


sa eneeene Oe ee weer eenaeeeeees 


Train composed of a 
streak and a patch. 
Corresponds to Cam- 


Observer. 


W. C. Nash. 


J. Plummer. 


A. S. Herschel. 


J. Plummer. 


W. Penn. 


J. C. Adams. 


A. S. Herschel. 


J. Plummer, 


James Challis, 


W. C. Nash. 


J. Plummer. 


A. S. Herschel. 


S. H. Miller. 


James Rock, Jun. 


A. 8. Herschel. 


J. Plummer. 


James Challis. 
J. F.W. Herschel. 


bridge, 10" 46™ 46? p,m. 


; 


296 REPORT—1863. ¢ 
Place of ; ; Position, or 
Date.| Hour. Ob tio Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and 
servation. Azimuth, 
1863./h m s 
Aug.10/10 47 p.m.|Hampton (Mid-/=to Venus........./.+ seseceeseeveve|seosceees sevebesee/ HOM ''@ nt 
dlesex). medz to 4 (@ 
Pegasi. | 
1010 47 20 |Wisbech (Cam-|=to Jupiter ......|/Very blue...... 1 second ....../From 3 ( tt 
p.m. bridgeshire). to + (a/mM 
Persei. 
10:10 48 p.m./Greenwich Ob-|=3rd mag.* ..... Blue i. .eceeee 4 second ...... From Camelo 
servatory. dalus to & L 
Majoris. 
1010 48 p.m.|Euston Road |BrighterthanVenus)..........00++++-- 1:5 second ...|From near « Aqi 
(London). to near « Ca 
corni. { 
10}10 48 29 |Cambridge Ob-|=Ist maget sesss.|ecreeeeeeees Ledecs| Ceetiaaoecaweren ...|Commenced di 
p-m. servatory. W. from S., | 
tude 23°°5. | 
1010 48 39 |Ibid......... sooeee| = 3rd MAG ..eccafeseeeeeees ee cau Pet) eeeneeee sepberss Commenced ¢ 
p-m. W. from 8.49 
tude 30°. 
10/10 50 25 |Wisbech (Cam-)/=Ist mag. ......Jeeereerere seoveees/2 SECONAS....4- From 4 ( J 
p-m. bridgeshire). Majoris, 0 E 
to y Bootis. 
1010 51 45 [Cambridge Ob-|=2nd mag.x ..scasleccereeeeeeeeeeenslereenes decedeocges Commenced ¢@ 
p.m. servatory. W. from §, 
tude 21°. 
10}10 52 p.m.|/Weston - super -| Bolide 6 X as bright Varicoloured |3 seconds...... From 7 Cas: 
Mare. as Venus. to Capri 
10/10 52 26 |Cambridge Ob-|=3rd mag.x ......|-s0008 isdiadacdseslacaecnede HER Commenced 3, 
p-m. servatory. W. from 8.) 
tude 67°°% 
10/10 52 30 |Hawkhurst =Ist mag.x ...... White ....s00:/eonsveoceeeseaeens] ROU 
p-m. (Kent). Urs Min 
3 (t,a) Dr 
and half as) 
again. 
10/10 56 p.m.|Ibid......... soovee] =Srd MAG se sees White .....0..0/06 pause seasess. (From € U 
joris to 4 
Can. Ve 
rum. 
10/10 56 1 |Cambridge Ob-|—3rd mag.x ......|ecccseceeseceneeesleeeeeevenes vente Commenced 
p.m. servatory. W. from 
tude 42°. 
10/10 56 38 |Ibid...... Pr ttn =Srdimage% ...00-|be00 Bee svocasercleas eeitetadesas ...|Commenced 
p.m. W. from 
tude 25° 
10/10 57 p.m./Greenwich Ob-|—2nd mag.x ....../Blue  ......+../1 second ...... From a poit 
servatory. a Dracor 
Bootis. 
10/10 57 p.m.|Wisbech (Cam-|=Ist mag.¥.........Jesssssceesesssseeslseseeseesseresees(Erom & Co 


bridgeshire). 


to 7 Urs 
noris. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


oearance ; Train, if any, 
and its Duration. 


a train for a few 
conds. 


uscant. Left a train 
r several seconds. 
> a slight train 


streak remained upon 


Near the 
d it was seen four- 
d-a-half minutes in 
opera-glass, curling 
and fading gradu- 
y from each ex- 
mity. 

a luminous train 


RETIN Esai sseiieces es 


PEPE ee eee eet te eeeeeeeeees 


eared with  vari- 
oured sparks, Left 
prismatic - coloured 
of great dura- 
n. 


train for 2 seconds 


PRR reese er ease sesssvebenels 


ab 


2 


ene eneneeeees 


see eeeosetecees 


train for 3 second...|.. 


se eeenene 


ee ee eee eeenes 


ste eersesercce 


Ol eadeswak 


train 


small train ......... 


Direction ; noting also 


--|Towards 5 hour of a 


watch-face held with 
12? vertical. 


-'Towards 4 hour of al. 


see eneeeeeee watch-face held with 
12° vertical. 


,...|Towards 31 hour of al 


watch-face held with 
12» vertical. 


Towards 53 hour of a 
watch-face held with 
12" vertical. 


eee ee eee ere! 


Towards 32 hour of a 
watch-face held with 
12! vertical. 
Towards 33 hour of a 
watch-face held with 
12" vertical. 


TOPCO ere rene reer ee ees eeeeesens 


Pe eereceeenee 


Length of | whether Horizontal, 
Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. 
Inclined. 
if 
About 25°...|....0050- Sasdaiisene Woacuvoesies| teeeeee Snessaeuvesesedacatees 


..|For a drawing of the 


luminous streak, see 
Appendix. 


Oem eee eenene Seer ne teee 


erento eee nee 


297 


Observer. 


——— 


.../H. Temple Hum- 


phreys. 


..|S. H. Miller, 


W.C. Nash. 


T. Crumplen, 


../J. Plummer, 


Id. 


S. H. Miller. 


+eeeeeee/J. Plummer, 


vessel We A. Wood. 


Paeete sv ses teetsereeeeseerseeslds O, Adams, 


bridge, 105 52™ 265 
p-m. 


Pee ee er 


seer Po eee ee er es 


One rere t een aetee OOO reer eens 


SOOO robe ee eeeeeteeeeeeesseeeenles 


SOOO eee meee eee eeeeeeeesenees 


..[Corresponds to Cam-|A, S. Herschel. 


|James Challis. 
J. Plummer. 
seseee-| We C. Nash. 


.|S. H. Miller. 


js asi sear 


298 . REPORT—1863. 


Place of . in ; Positions or 
Date. Hour. Q&eaetaciin. Apparent Size. olour. Duration. yitune : 
1863.|h m s 
Aug.10|10 57 30 |Hawkhurst >Ist mag-* ....+ Red. .cccaceeeee 1:5 sec. ; slow,On a line fro 
p-m, (Kent). Aquarii thre 
(3, y) Caprie 
to the horize 
10:10 58 p.m.|[bid ......eeeeeee =Ish mag *..-s62 WHILE: s aheesesx 1 second ...... From } («, 2) Pel, 
towards ¢ A’ 
Til. j 
10,10 58 p.m.|[bid .........0006.- =Ist mage ...... White: sjc<c.s 1 second ...... — B Cephe 
ygui. 
10110 58 p.m. |[Did ..........4.+ ==Ist mag-% ..1- VLA 1 second ......\From a to B Cy 
1010 58 2 |Cambridge Ob-|.....sscesscseccsssseefecsseteneetterseeelseeenseerensereees Commenced 31 
p-m. servatory. W. from S$., 
tude 33°. 
TODO HS HH VWI ..ccss.cvenneee == Ot MAP cezen- |. -conwbaseepsnconnliesoa seat ao ehts Commenced 
p-m. W. from S., 
tude 43°. 
10/10 58 5 |Ibid.............0. = Sel MAP.) cuvssc|vaoscsucesepesconalpuesrscapeteheaste Commenced { 
p.m. W. from S.,% 
tude 42°°5. | 
10/10 59 p.m.|Greenwich Ob-)=I1st mag.* «++... Blue ......... 1 second ...... From near @ Pi 
servatory. ih 
10/11 0 22 |Cambridge Ob-|......... NS auy ueUEea de phrvmpe aE cteaaal cxcus epee Ee Commenced /} 
p-m. servatory. W. from S.,) 
tude 53°°5. | t 
LOL 0 27 |UDid ...eeeeeeeeeeee|eeeeerenerers easeneneans ssmutcda gesecsaaicceceteina ne eda 
p.m. ; 
WOM 1 1g Wbid)............00 = 1S Or 2nd: MAG, ...c5sesgenvass*].seaceranenennnael Commenced — 
p-m. W. from S&S, 
tude 36°°5, |), 
TOLL 1 24 [[bid....ce0. ssc eeees =2nd Mag.X ssseeelcee Bdow faesessaclessass ch enunen Commenced | 
ae W. from $8.4) 
tude 133°, | 
1O}11 1 54 |Ubid............000+ = SEOUINA LH aaeces|ecasopecdauaesenne|canesee ati .eeeee-|Comamenced 3f 
p.m, W. from S., 
tude 31°°5 f 
10)11 2 p.m./Hawkhurst =I1st mag.k «eee. White) ......000 1 second ....../From 3° over 
(Kent). dromeda. |) 
10\11 2 2 |Wisbech (Cam-|=Ist mag.% ceecesiccesscerererereeee 2 seconds...... From « Cephej 
p-m. bridgeshire). | Hereulis. — 
10/11 2 2 |Cambridge Ob-/=3rd mag.* «..-+-).....seeee Aare teen opeamees Commenced 
p-m. servatory. W. from § 
tude 27°. 
10/11 3 27 [Ibid ............0-. = And MAg.%  sevies|s socwcewacdeensens|scoeess quevensnen= Commenced 
p-m. W. from & 
tude 36°. 
LO|LL 3 37 |Tbid .........eeneee == ANGE OE Gasess|svenedsonntsceeree|sascass coaches Commenced 2: 
p.m. W. from Sy 
tude 29°°5 
10|11 3 30 \Hawkhurst =Ist mage .....- White ...c0000s 1 second ...... ‘From « Cassié 
p.m. (Kent). to 4 (8 
peiz, 0 Ce 
10/11 3.47 [Cambridge Ob-|=3rd mag.x .....-).csceececeereesss|eceseeteeeneeseees ‘Commenced | 
p-m. servatory. W. from Sy 
tude 34° 
10\11 4 16 |Ibid....... Basachoe = 2nd or 3rd MAg.#|......s.ceqeeceese|ecscvendseceoes ...|Commenced 
p-m. W. from 
tude 43° 
O11 4 26 |[bid ........ccceeee[eeee Bet eco<cecuaseteces| ne Re Horo pene seidisvscoaeon|seetacdinnea a 


p-m. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 299 
Direction ; noting also 
rance ; Train, if any,) Length of | whether Horizontal, 
nd its Duration. ¥ Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer. 
Inclined. 
| Saas eae = a 
lL visible in haze of 8° or 10°,..)...... sai tteantiaie an cqiaaa Se Disappeared behind the\A. S. Herschel. 
horizon. horizon. 
esi cscansn), susibstvehuslssleceeitenttd |Three bright meteors|Id. 
| appeared almost to- 
gether. 
ca EE a ae 2 Positions somewhat un-|I[d. 
certain. 
MN cere nes| inn «essay savednxsseecscuas|iductnsnacuseudg doeadadocds.. Id. 
Peeresnsseeeecereesseetr eeseeereeersees LOWAFUS 4 hour Of al. .icc.ccccccseseeseseeeeee.., J. Plummer. 
watch-face held with! 
12" vertical. 
RUGIRCEEA ceca cnc, =-7| Sooo Seer Towards 4 hour Of al......cccsecccccsseecsesseeeee James Challis. 
watch-face held with 
125 vertical. 
Wabeetsnecscecneneestecasleceecerooesceee(LOWArdS 5 hour Of al.........ccccccesee Minedeitis Id. 
: watch-face held with 
125 vertical. 
train for a few}...............([nclined path in the S. Cloudy in S. .......0... W. C. Nash. 
Moving westerly. 
BU auld Saas veseeeee.| Towards 4 hour of aj........, Eee ear ee J. Plummer. 
watch-face held with 
125 vertical. 
EIIEET | 000 00h os ncse|-osencsnep sncueauatnemywaalls .duha vesdressveseccostec dec; James Challis, 
nee, | 
luminous train......|... mee eee ‘Towards 33 hour of aj,,,.........., endian ja J. Plummer. 
| watch-face held with 
12" vertical. 
IE th ceca veces|<crescec Resceeel Towards 7% hour of a).......0...00..000 secdateidas J. C. Adams. 
watch-face held with 
12° vertical. 
ES a Towards 44 hour of ai..... dessus caveutereate eee J. Plummer. 
‘ watch-face held with 
| 12 vertical. 
in for 24 seconds|18° ..,,...../ Towards y Piscium......).....,....cccccscseseseeseese, A. S. Herschel. 
Wl aise databnd cs 4. RisddicalencaedHile POT LOOT Etre Te] yey) eee dvenattkea S. H. Miller. 
se Hae iii ecs=< Towards {44 hour afta ipctssccsstoeeess ted James Challis. 
watch-face held with 
125 vertical, 
Piven [Towards 3 hour of aj.....,....sasgeneees ia «2 < J. Plummer. 
watch-face held with 
ae 12" vertical, 
DT ccd ibeacececlecescase Percee Towards) Sehourmorvals...chccecesdyeeredadesca «: James Challis. 
watch-face held with 
é 125 vertical. 
in for 3 seconds|....... adgameen[seocare telah es cacuaess seeecves le eer Preece: nade pay doas A. S. Herschel. 
oo re teoeeee-/LOwards 33 hour of al...... swe Vacesweusanessousg -..|J. Plummer. 
watch-face held with 
12) vertical. 
fete seeeeecesscsecenes/eeeseereseesees| LOWALGS Bt hour Of Al....cccccccseesecenes «eieeee--James Challis. 
watch-face held with 
12> vertical. 
PARA Of OLINALY} ciciscgs.ccose|cccececcceess sangsccwandcentwalyanadgeadeadecs cacenddeeatanes| iGo 


300 


hm 


p-m. 
1011 5 
| Pm. 


Hour. 


Ss 


1l 4 30 
| p.m. 
1011 4 30 


6 


1011 6 26 


p-m. 


10 
p-m. 


1011 7 


p.m. 


10 


10)11 


10/11 
p-m. 


1011 8 23 


p.m. 


Il 6 30 


1 


7 p.m. 


7 p.m. 


8 p.m. 


8 p.m. 


8 18 


REPORT—1863. 


oe ppemialis Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. 

Hawkhurst =2nd mag.* ...... Veawerederscvcete|detvasts Seceasavs 
(Kent). 

Greenwich Ob-|=3rd mag.* ...... Be» tackecces 1 second ...... 
servatory. 

Cambridge Ob-|=I1st mag-*.........J..0. eoseeeseeeeess Re antee 
servatory. 

Ibid ...... ede ARG MAL NH nsece|seereet et bee avetel ves bedbevenldeveese 

Hawkhurst —=tonVenusiirc...s: Orange.....+.../About 1 sec.... 
(Kent). 

Cambridge Ob-|=Ist or 2nd Magek).....sceseseeeeee|ecesseceeceseeeees 
servatory. 

Hawkhurst =tolSimlds iii. so. Yellow ......,About 1 sec... 
(Kent). 

Greenwich Ob-|=Ist mag.x......... Blue ..+..0.../1 second ....0. 
servatory. 

Southsea (Ports-|Rather > than Ist/Yellow  ....../1 second «++... 
mouth). mag.x. 

Hawkhurst = tor SHIUS Veils -cse Yellow ......|1 second ...... 
(Kent). 


Cambridge Ob- 
servatory. 


Ibid ......0 maseney 


1011 9 p.m.|Greenwich Ob- 


servatory. 


1011 10 59 |Cambridge Ob- 
p.m. servatory. 
10)11 10 59 [Ibid .........ee0e. 

p.m. 
1011 11 p.m./Hawkhurst 
(Kent). 
10\11 11 p.m.|Ibid ....06...ee0+e- 
10/11 11 30 |Greenwich Ob- 


servatory. 


p-m. 
10\11 11 57 |Cambridge Ob- 


p.m. 


servatory. 


10/11 14 p.m.|Southsea (Ports- 


mouth). 


= 2nd MAg.% sessse|eesesererecevesees 


=Ist Or 2nd MAgQsx].ercerserseeeeeees 


=Ist mag.x; very|Blue......+.++«./14 second 
brilliant. 

=2nd mag.x ...... saneaececeeseneces|soescesceseceeeces 
=2nd mag.* ...... seneneaeeenseneees|sereeenseeseensees 
=2nd Mag.% cessss|eeee doedevensssess/0'O SCCONG cnn 
=2nd mag.* ......|+ saseesesseeseees [O'S Second ... 
=2nd mag.* ...... Blue.....e0ee00|1 second ...... 
=2nd MAg.% sisss.lecsesecsecnecevens|seescessneeeeseees 
Large meteor ..s...|eceesssseseeeeeeee/e SECONA 


..|Commenced 


Fee eee reeeeerorees 


POO e eee er eeensess 


...|From yCygni 


Position, 01 
Altitude an 
Azimuth 


Appeared at 
cium. 4 
Centre at « Pe ! 


| 

W. from S.,) 
tude 10°-5. 
Commenced 1] 
W. from §.,j 
tude 29°5, | 
From ¢ Aquile 
Serpentis. 


Commenced 52! 
from S., altil 
28°'5. 

To 3 Serpentis, 
the way fror 
Corone. | 

From @ Aqu 
within abe 
of the ho 

From (t, «) 
medz to 3 : 
Pegasi,and sey 
degrees furthe 

From 4 (c Herth 
a Lyre) th 
% Herculis 
short of « 0) 
uchi. ..| 

Commenced 
W. from 
tude 2975 

Commenced 
W. from 
tude 29°. 


| 


B Cygni 
Aquilz 
the W. hi 
Commenced 


Commenced 
from S., 
2175: 

From p 
to w EF 
and 6° ft 

Centre 2° 


.../Across 6 Ca 


Urs 
To y Hereu 
d Lyre. 
Commence 
W. from 
tude 28° 


towards f 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


arance; Train, if any, 


Length of 
and its Duration. 


Path. 


rain or sparks ......... 


a faint train 


eeeeeeees 


PEER RG Oe eee eee een eeeeeee: eeeneereseeenes 


luminous train..... 


* | POO e rset eeeseee 


fine train for 2 or 3/50° ....... 
mds, 


PERO ee eee eee eeeeeet reas seeeeertiseeens 


FEET O SEED eee DeRose eons eeeeeeeeesetens 


MOF sparks ........./6°....05 


in for 14 second...!35° ... 


BEER eter eee eeeeresereninees 


SOTTO RC OOOO eee sere reese eneeer 


train for 2 seconds|............ seolegeceneocoestenena cere aaeee 
BIDEEEAML cesceesceecs|D0° secocesee|ss aveseeiceevecesente aetastese 
EIEN os iecccescs|ssesececicecess 


train for 2 seconds)............0.6/.. 


‘From 6 Camelopardaii..| 


SOO OPO O Cee e ree eeEE OO OEE EE eeee 


| 
| Direction ; noting also 
whether Horizontal, 
Perpendicular, or 
Inclined. 


mede. 


watch-face held with 
12" vertical. 


eee enenees 


TOPO eee ee eeeeeeneeeenes 


Towards 33 hour of a 
| -watch-face held with 
125 vertical. 


SEO O HO meee ee eee eee eee eeeeeees 


Directed from y Andro- 
-|From Cassiopeia ......... 


|Towards 8 hour of a 


SSOP OOO eee sere r se eeeeeeeeneee ®t 


Remarks. 


TOP POOO Teer er seeeeeeeeeeesenes 


eee Ome eee ee eeserenereeeey 


sees FORM Terre eee tear tt tene 


se |PEPOOe oneness seeeeresereeeres 


The head continued be- 
yond the streak. 
Corresponds to Green- 
wich, 115 9™ p.m. 


HOOP ORO eee e rere tenes teeees 


FOO e eee eee eee eee eee eeesetens 


ee eweeees FOr e tebe ee sseeens 


Towards 5 hour of a 
watch-face held with 
12" vertical. 
Towards 7 hour of a 
watch-face held with 
125 vertical. 


eee Peer errr 


seer eeeeenee Peer eee eee eeeees oo. 


sseeveeeees/LoWards 73 hour of al...... 


watch-face held with 
12? vertical. 


a | Penman eee tees ee ene eeeseeseneee 


seeee TON ee meee ee eeretees 


Oteenee weer 


tte eeteerees 


Corresponds to Cam- 
bridge, 11* 7™ 1° p.m. 


301 


Observer. 


W. C. Nash. 
Ri ar Adams, 


watch-face held with 
125 vertical. 
tecsseeseeetesersscesseeesslesessseeseseves| LOWAFUS 8 hour Of alscccecssesececeee Urea cneces (Lae 
watch-face held with 
f 12” vertical. 
BEPMMMONENTE | LWO|s00.c00ceseee0s]s00cc0ecebcccsiCbeies Bat SASH cde cosarencteelulecece bait 'A. S. Herschel. 
nds in the last half 
the course. : 
luminous train......|...... seveeeees Towards 7 hour of al..s..esee Cocks seiee eiddeeo wigs J. Plummer. 


A. S. Herschel. 


W. C. Nash. 


W. Penn. 


A. S. Herschel. 


J. C. Adams, 


J. Plummer. 


W. C. Nash. 


Possdecarresnessocesunnesetsediy ee UIMMIEr. 


J. C. Adams. 


|A. S. Herschel. 


..[Id. 
sevcceeses..| We C.5Nash, 
James Challis, 


W. Penn. 


—_——__._.__. 


A. S. Herschel. 


302 REPORT—1863, 
Position, 0 
Date. Hour. omnes, Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude aj 
Azimuth, 
1863./ hm 8 
Aug.10)11 14 40 [Cambridge Ob-|=2nd mag.% .....-|.ssseesseereeeeneeleeees sssseeeeeeeee/Commenced 
p-m. servatory. W. from §&., 
tude 57°. 
LO}11 14 45 jIbid .........cesee. SPM MSPE: .osce-|sssceecuvethesonnel auncesdpossesetec Commenced 
p-m. W. from S., 
tude 46°°5, \ 
1011 15 p.m.|Greenwich Ob-|=Ist mag.x ..,...|Blue.,......... 1 second ..... From Cepher 
servatory. across 0 Cyg 
10/11 15 25 |Cambridge Ob-|=2ind magi ciiseslessssesssececeseesleceeeeees Sanbonas Commenced 
p.m. servatory. W. from &., 
tude 49°°5, 
WOM RAG CEDIA cenvenveyvc|sonsftvccsscotevsvcsenssleencconcnsduscces|soooveoethe phos iss| sveobo sve sstbetE 
p-m. | 
10|/11 16 p.m./Southsea (Ports-|Large meteor ......|. bbusswellbacseces|sonseesdnecencitns| A CEOBSIQIA EEE 
mouth). § 
10)11 16 Cambridge Ob-|=Ist mag.* ...... SIs vs|eoseseessoeeseoee-/ COMMencedam 
p.m. servatory. from §., alti 
19°. i 
1011 17 p.m.|/Hawkhurst = Phil THAR. cousea|cosveansonabesaees 4 second .|From yp to % 
(Kent) conis. 
TOW U7 BO) NLD ses danscscesess = $0) VEUTETelvvcs ses |bvacencuie Gears sesibcaater sereseeees/from head off 
p-m. pheus to l° 
y Cygni. — 
1011 17 34 |Cambridge Ob-|=2nd mag.x ......|.....00006 Pirssasc|psosvss seeeeeeeess|COMMeEnced | 
p-m. servatory. W. from §,, 
tude 265, | 
1011 18 p.m,|Sonthsea (Ports-|Large meteor «6+ serene Seed vovssnstdioaseets|assabubabs Py 
mouth). | 
1011 18 45 |Hawkhurst SUNG MAE Hees esleetyeesnns dessaves|noestsed Rbaeaeeest From 2° Ey 
p-m. (Kent). Cygni to 4° 
y Delphini. 
10)11 19 24 |Cambridge Ob-|=2nd or 3rd mag.*)....,....0e00+ soeleees Perret (eo a 
p-m. servatory. 
VONMM P19) G4 {Lbid,..sscenseeseees =2nd mage ......|esc000 Pivshcvives pore ee ee Commenced & 
p-m. from S., alt) 
46°5. 
10)11 20 p.m.| Weston - super -|=to Venus ......... Bright yellow |2°5 seconds ...\From 76 
Mare. Majoris t 
rone. 
10)11 20 30 |Hawkhurst =to Venus .........|eceee eietetbinscey lsecond .../From y, & 
p.m. (Kent). pei to 1° 
. Andromeé 
2 as far aga 
1011 21 p.m.|/Weston - super -|=to Jupiter ...... Yellow, then|2 seconds......\From 76 
Mare. red. Majoris t 
rone. 
10)11 21 p.m.|[bid ........se0ce0 =to Jupiter ....../Ruddy .........|2 seconds....../From 0 U 
joris to 
10/11 21 to {[bid............... = Istand2nd mag.x|.......ccccscccces|scesecens sucess From R. A 
11 23 p.m. N. Deel 
_ towards 
1011 21 29 [Cambridge Ob-|=I1st mag.*  ......)..eceeeeee tWesseus|sseuusastee cospses Commenceé¢ 
‘pm. servatory. W. from 
tude 25°. 
10)11 22 p.m.) Weston - super -|=to Sirius ........./ White ........./2 seconds....../From 9 U 
Mare. joris to @ 
10)11 22 43 |Cambridge Ob-|=3rd mag.x ...... 856 dice cccecccenslscccersebscseceess Commence 
p-m. servatory. from S., 
25°. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 308 
Direction; noting also 
‘pearance; Train, if any,! Length of | whether Horizontal, 
and its Daration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer. 
Inclined. 
aa sauboteeee! es Mt esssaec. Towards 43 hour of aj...ssesessss WE eweei bit sibiis ../J. Plummer. 
watch-face held with 
12» vertical. 
Eee raccccartivecsensc.|sssecccsisesess Towards 8 hour of al.......eeee0 Sarbcaceceeeapens J. C. Adams. 
| watch-face held with 
125 vertical. 

; US Son SR ee ey ne, ne scdevecouschondeiane W.C. Nash. 
NAGLGELE Ys ic35000>.. sddenateesuees Towards 74 hour Of al..sscccscsssccssccsseuess s...{/0. C, Adatns, 
watch-face held with 

125 vertical. 
PE OLGIN AE ce evistseaiewd\aseosonssihicsssaresscecosdces{acoddousecosest 488 tbs sihais James Challis. 
ppearance, 
MEMUMERMTD cthbvcccncsccleocoseckecveces Powards @ Perel, .240:|eabi Bevceekeucisle wopesecbuss W. Penn, 
be avtbis oe BORER Bat secwsastsaage is Towards 7 or 8 hour of a..............ee004 sesseeeeeee(James Challis, 
: watch-face held with 
; 125 vertical. 
in or sparks ......... Dorceneter ate s}a Perrerrerrerttt fir fe te eceesubecsbeeesseeetescsess[Ae Ss Herschel. 
MEER TECAUIOG) .. 5.22 Sscavualan-kaascetersnned ther kisandltadcheis coon? su cteltis A er i 
SS ee ee eee Towards 8 hour ofsals<ckisscccsccsvencs soos see/J. C. Adams 
watch-face held with 
12> vertical. 
EMOMEEDEG fe fiscscepcee|.oescesdsee Sogelavdssdentetee aaaasnaus Saveeaielioek Sistissctescutesecs seoseee| We Penn. 
tis sis ccs es.|ssse0sdseccccclosacececnadisooasated beeeonateccta Hise sassunsccazenteetibe A. 8S. Herschel. 
SS ee ee Towards 6" of a watch-]..............sseccessesce bec haben seeehed cehad 
face held with 12" vert. 
NTRE IND cscs ccsccssclecercceciaccccs Towards)G. HOWGL: ‘dlssordarscccacsccrceeeeeeet beseleonbintab attics wavet 
watch-face held with 
" 12" vertical. 
iddy train remained)..,,,,,,.. detsal-sscneesbs iucossseess sesoasver Clouds breaking off, and|W, H. Wood. 
on the whole course sky clearing. 
train, in two parts, HOOP Here eeel HHH eee eee eeeneeeeienes te heeeele sat scsbedooenavesssbaesedtys (Ad Ss Herschel 
lained 5 seconds. 
ioe 
y 8 Ss 2s | a (einen een re The succeeding meteors|W. H. Wood. 
on the whole path followed closely one 
conds. upon another. 
train upon the)......,, Re mikcicl=saponsionsGhaanens sees caceess|soceQhbarmeretenrenalwers i...|[d. 
ole course 3 seconds. 
bate ns. Hight or ten 10° to 30°. Taking westerly paths.../A number of shooting-|[d. 
, ing-stars per mi- stars. 
ly minous train,.....|.......... seeee|Towards 8 hour Of al.secsecsssssceesevseseeeeesees(J Plummer, 
watch-face held with 
" 12» vertical. 
ruddy train .........). Pre cee W. H. Wood. 


POP e eee eee eesesenee 


Peerleee 


../J. Plummer. 
watch-face held with 


128 vertical, 


304 REPORT—1863. i 
eg eS SS ee 
irastoasl Position, or 
Date.| Hour. One itah. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude 
1863.|h m s 
Aug.10)11 23 p.m.|Weston - super -|= to Sirius ..,...|White ......+ 1:5 second ...|From y Bootis 
Mare. 
VOW (23; fp:m.|Ubidiess.s3..sdees+|=— tO. SILIUS.. v5200 Ruddy ...+++4.. 1:5 second .,./From 6 Bootis, 
low « Boo’ 
10\11 23 p.m.|Ibid............ eoee| = Tstand 2ndmag.|...seeceseceseesesleeeeeseneees .»++-|From the uppert 
parts of Boo 
10/11 23 p.m./Southsea (Ports-/Meteor = to Venus|White ......... 1 second .../From 3° belo 
mouth). Andromedz 
(6 Andromed 
Pegasi). 
10/11 23 30 |Hawkhurst == [st MAG. cereeelecereee pepaieecs .L second .,./From 
p-m. (Kent). mede, acro 
Pegasi to $( 
Pegasi. 
1011 24 3 |Cambridge Ob--=3rd mag.* ......|., aussoowsesseovelsvasieubh vesseeeees}Commenced 6 
p-m servatory. W. from S., 
tude 27°°5, 
LOMTS24. TO NDI... cseccsee feo SS OMEN vonesslsnee Shaghonideacenlecns seeeeeveeeeees(COMMeEnced © 
p-m. W. from $., 
tude 53°°5, 
10)11 24 17  |Ibid..... webenseass ee welpee sade es vapscaecs|=cesescenocveveess| COMMECNCCHEE 
p-m W. from §,, 
tude 525 | 
WO] 24 18 -\fhid’s....0.....0 Lallerce Bopp ceatenceet ce eras aevecansocsc|neseccecesosssosueliccesc ss acim 
p-m. j 
10/11 25 53 |[bid .........c0ee04) = 1St Maga. severe coucoeesesdsscvesc|seeeseteeseveees esi COMMENCEHE 
p-m. W. from 8, 
tude 64°. | 
10/11 26 23 |I[bid..... St RE =186 MAG-H..ccesess|.sevcasveccosccces seaneneede -...-|(Commenced 
pa W. from S. 
tude 50°5. 
10:11 26 30 |Hawkhurst =2nd mag.x ...... WellOw © sccceclevscccecsoescesces/MXOM A lm 
p-m. (Kent). Urse M 
& (a, A) 
Majoris. 
10)11 27 47 |Cambridge Ob-|=2nd mag.* ......|...00 vvocueasssed|eveseuuesvectsdnes| COMMMENCEEE 
p-m. servatory. W. from 
tude 16° 
10/11 28 p.m.|Weston - super -|=to Sirius ......... White .........,1°5 second .,./From y Boo 
Mare. 
10/11 28 p.m./Southsea (Ports-|=2nd mag. ...... seseeveeesesseeeee'e Second —,,,/From & to B 
mouth). 
10/11 28 p.m.|[bid ...........06 Wl=And MAG ..0..-|scsesces sevseesee Second From 6 Ca 
to 6 And 
10)11 28 8 |Cambridge Ob-|......ccc.ccccecseeeeees Lei sbell Rivecwedea|veawesvewcdedateee eects totam 
p-m. servatory. 
TOM 28 43; bil Sseeeceeeeeese S=1st MaAg.% ecb ve| Ih cesdocccescevec|seccessscosenese seit OSIUIOI MEE 
p-m. corded. 
10:11 29 p.m.|Southsea (Ports-|=2nd mag.* ...... socsscsceseeeeeeee(@ Second .../From @ AT 
mouth). Menkar. 
10)11 29 30 |Hawkhurst Dime ie’ | 210i] AES cegesences|ecssavaqercvesunss OHI 
p-m (Kent). to 7 Andro 


| 


: A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 805 


: i. s Direction ; noting also 
ance; Train, if any,) Length of | whether Horizontal, 
nd its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Resterkts Chiat 


Inclined. 


———— | eS | es a, 


——— 


—- 


train 25° long ......|. Sedge +++/30° to left of perpendi-/Two meteors appeared|W. H. Wood. 


cular. together. 


“|r emeeeeseesersens 


feathery train ......|..+......-++++-/ Towards @ Piscium....../. 


2 eeneets Riese ahs. ABR seseseeeeeee(A. S» Herschel. 


Sree eeeeeeeereerenes 


Ml edveyessds ++»../Towards 6 hour of alse. 
watch-face held with 
12} vertical. 
uminous train ......).........c0. Towards 83 hour of al.. 
watch-face held with 
125 vertical. 
Cee Towards 8# hour of al. 
watch-face held with 
12 vertical. 


ROMSa weve piascclesceacseva Coccccnccccneccece seit tteees PPP Peer Peeters James Challis. 


[c0005) SCOARR ROAR Towards 9 hour. Of alscecechssocoscccocscevecscess J. C. Adams, 
watch-face held with 

12! vertical. 

a Towards 3 hour of al..ssceoceseces seveveveeveseess/. Plummer, 
watch-face held with 

12? vertical. 


Aenescapecscndase eeveeees/J« Plummer, 


seeeseceeesetecessseseeseeee(J« OC. AdAMS, 


seeseseeceescecsesveesseneyseid> Plummer, 


ace. 


ESECCo eee eseeeeee 


s|ceceeevecescesscesscsseteeeses/A, S. Herschel. 


COC ne Patebeacehscnaa Towards 74 hour of A] soccer escecceesveceeeeeeeeees J. C. Adams. 
, watch-face held with 


; 12> vertical. 
POE oe o.5.104125° o.425,.,130° left of PETPeNdi-|-cecsonsssereeerseserseeseeses| We H. Wood. 
e cular, 


4 


i LOL Pere ne HEP POOR e eR eee ere r sere e eee secre emes EO eeeeSESeeeseeeeeee® W. Penn. 


PP eee ee eeeeeeces OO eeeeseeeeeseesscssetees Id. 


rene eee seveee|seeecesvensemescsorersrseeteselsasssemesssessseesesssevsevees(dames Challis. 
welt cece creed cree rlecreee eee eeemeceessecessceeees|scescem cetecccccetccncvceceees J. Cc. Adams. 
Beaaaleees tusesbeseso|acssanavesdaheosuvacedavsveors|osccochscencocsadettttuccroal Wa bonis 


n for 1 second... Poi csean Pescuntvese Vea vaenshyssavessdesasceee|secceeheoceokereretectersseg uel ia kleTRCHEL, 


306 REPORT—1863. 
Place of Position, 
Date.| Hour. Observation. Apparent Size. Duration. Altitude az 
Azimuth, 
1863.;h m_ s 
Aug.10|11 30 8 |Cambridge Ob-|=Ist mag.x..,.-.s++|sereeereeserrerees sscceececsesoeeees| COMMMENCERIS 
p-m. servatory. W. from §. 
tude 27°5. 
10\11 30 17 |[bid.............2./—= 2nd Mag.e ...cseferes agavenvane= a0: |tehexnpenteees ...|Commenced 7 
p.m. from S., alf 
38°. 
10|11 31 _p.m.|Weston - super -|> Ist mag.* ...... White .........|1 second ...... Between («,(3 
Mare. Majoris. 
10|11 31 p.m,|Southsea (Ports-|=15 mag.* ......++- White .........|4 second ......| Cassiopeia 
mouth). Pegasi. 
10/11 32 p.m. ace =2nd mag.* ......|Yellow .....- 08 second ..,|From a toBA 
Kent). 
TOM S2 Thy) TD Sc. scececne: =2nd mag.* ...... 
p-m. 
10/11 33 49 |Cambridge Ob-|=2nd mag.« ...... ..|Commenced 4 
p-m. servatory. from S., al 
10)11 34 p.m./Weston - super -|=2nd mag.x ......|Blue «......../1 Second ...... 
Mare. 
10|11 34 p.m./Southsea (Ports- =14 mag. .........|White .........|2 second ...... 
mouth). 
1011 36 p.m,|Weston - super -|=Sirius ............]White ........./1 second ...... 
Mare. 
10/11 38 p.m.|Ibid..........0004 >Ist mag.x .., 
altitude 12' 
the horizon 
10/11 38 p.m.|Southsea (Ports-|.........ssssseseeesseee|ersees epee 1 second ...... a Arietis to Wy 
mouth). a 
1O|11 39 p.m. |[DId .....seseeeres|ecseseeeueesenrreenneees 13 second ...|Across (1, 
dromede, | 
10/11 40 p.m. bir - super -\>Ist mag.x «..... 1 second ......|From B past: 
are. 
TOL1 4D? th 1Tbid...anasedecacsa {= to lst, 2nd, and 
1l 43 p.m 3rd mag.*. 
10/11 45 15 |Hawkhurst =3rd mag.x ......| opsnerscosones 
p-m. (Kent) 
10/11 45 45 jIbid............... BE MAK sae esleveeeeeeeeeserers 
p-m. ‘ { 
10/11 46 52 (Cambridge Ob-|=Ist mag.x ......|s.cceeeeerees ee ee eccatheracetes Commence 
p-m servatory. W. from 
tude 36° 
10)11 46 p.m.|Southsea (Ports-|Largemeteor,>Ist|White ...,..... li second ...\From @ 4 
mouth). mag.*. Fomalh 
1011 46 p.m./ Weston - super -|= to Sirius. ......| White ...,.....|1 second ...... 
Mare, 
10)11 47 39 |Cambridge Ob-}............008 seevccecs|sonsoeees cvsbacset | saeeeeeas temnseoes 
p-m. servatory. 
10|11 48 p.m.|Weston - super -|=Ist mag.* ...... 
Mare. 
1011 48 p.m.|Southsea (Ports-|=24 mag.x ....0.++./White ...,.....)7 SECON «++... 
mouth). : 
10,11 48 4 |Cambridge Ob-|=Ist mag.x ....0.)...csececeeepeeseeleeeeeeeee t scaseue 
p-m. servatory. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 307 
Direction; noting also 
earance; Train, if any, Length of | whether Horizontal 
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or ; Remarks. Observer. 
Inclined. 
| al 
: @ luminous train ......|........0...00. Towards 8 hour of al............. emthetatciae<.: J.C. Adams. 
watch-face held with 
125 vertical. 
0 Ee Towards 53 hour of A)+trereeveeeveveeeseeseseseeeee(Js Plummer, 
watch-face held with 
12° vertical. 
a train 12° long...... ee ++/60° left of perpendicular|-+++++++++++eeseeseeeseseeesns W. H. Wood. 
down. 
BRMPRAe SSP acenncgeccece.+.|sccccesescceseel..cescescasagevcsecescecececcs|*#eeescestecesees teeeee ttttees W. Penn. - 
Ranvecadguacsnaiteccaetate Pieedeendasenaaten| = 59Per see Vtesecerecsenngeast A,’ 8, ELeeOnGhy 
SoRRRESES SES OSS au Sus veel deco naes's saxasunsesuisescescce| <> in 4eneendd axe cabtas ods. Id. 
Towards 5 hour of Blo vevccccccccccccccccevete toed, Plummer. 
watch-face held with 
12° vertical. 
teaee aces seseeseee/ 20° left of perpendicular stetereesteseccessesessesseses| We He Wood. 
; down. 
Wins saat fae sdbg aes cucu oc apt eeed eo sash coud aces cece. W. Penn. 
apie nedte ware 40° to left of perpendi- tht eeeeeeseesecesceesesscssees| We He Wood. 
he course. cular down. 
PMER SENOS aC us eslesccccceccansce Almost vertically Gawin lees scgecesesst. wetecuGeesedses Id. 
ee W. Penn. 
adaed ee W eee w ei ode dua covaceccdies Id. 
Auedeceapeecurs|..ce-0esuva}cessvastoeanseaitalautedtaeaesscoccsscosneceubon |W. H. Wood. 
Pisa ca niehgesoe <] seas sveaceepsseseceuneeneeeine Several shooting-stars in Id. 
quick succession. 
BRRSGh ANG edeocel os dnsatascelsceseenee A. S. Herschel. 
brain for 1 second...|2°............ Id. 
Puveweperesaes> Towards 8 hour of a teeeeeeesecsesseeeeeeees(Jy Plummer, 
watch-face held with 
12 vertical. 
seeseeceseeseeeeveceeees| We Penn 
W. H. Wood. 
bavaciedtedasae Towards 73 hour of a +eeeeee/ J, Plummer. 


watch-face held with 
125 vertical. 


seseeess.{ Dhrough Cassio 


Position, or 
Altitude and 
Azimuth, 


From L Cam 
pardali halfy 
a Ursze Majo) 

From 6 Androm 
to Z Pegasi. 

Commenced 
from S., alti 


almost to g 
certe. 
From Polaris 


308 REPORT— 1863. 
Hour, Place of Apparent Size Colour, Duration 
: Observation. PP a ; ; 
hm s 
11 48 51 |Cambridge Ob-|.........++8 DCR Ce bce teveleceeceees 
p.m. servatory. 
10/11 49 p.m.|/Hawkhurst =2nd mag.® ...... Wellow * V0. 0:7 second ... 
(Kent). 
10/11 50 p.m.|Southsea (Ports-/=1} mag.* ...+-- White ........./4 second ...... 
mouth). 
10\11 50 19 |\Cambridge Ob-|=Ist or 2rd mag.x|.......esceeeereee|eeeeserreeeenene “5 
p-m. servatory. 
10)11 51 p.m.|/Hawkhurst =2nd MAg.H sevees|ecsesseeeeeeeeeees 0'6 second ... 
(Kent). 
10}11 52 45° |Ibid............... =] st MAg.%.....600-leeeeseceres soca '0'8 second ... 
p.m. 
ROURE Ba GO VED ce scaeans ce sene =} Magee cevses|sceveesensoesereesleoees iescoes cucwe? 
p.m. 
1011 55 p.m.|Weston - super -/=Ist mag.x ......|Blue, white....|1 second ...... 
Mare. 
1O|L1 55 18 |Cambridge OD-|..s+.csrseceeeeeeeneeeslecnseersrrseeserns|sceuneeeeees dese 
p.m. servatory. 
LOMESSSVGS |WbId ii scaccs sees =2Nd MAG. covecslesscceceveneernes|ecsereceensaneres 
p-m. 
10)11 57 15 |Hawkhurst =2nd mag.* ......). aatneesocatsveobe|inheupne ocdbecube 
p-m. (Kent). 
10/11 58 28 (Cambridge Ob-|=I1st or 2nd Mag.x sesvseseresserees/ereeeeeerrereenens 
p-m. servatory. 


10\12 0 p.m.)Hawkhurst 


11] 0 0 27 |Cambridge Ob-|=Ist or 2nd mag.+ 


a.m. 


(Kent). 


servatory. 


11) 0 1 a.m.|Hawkhurst 


11/0 1 2 [Cambridge Ob-|=1st mag.* ...++.|-+° 


a.m. 
11; 0 1 30 

a.m. 
11 

a.m. 


(Kent). 


servatory. 


Hawkhurst 
(Kent). 


0 212 {Cambridge Ob-/=I1st mag.« 


servatory. 


=2nd mag. soe 


= 2nd MAG.% ..seeelecceeererenerenees 


=—« Lyre eeeeteer 


..|0°8 second ... 


seen eeeeeene 


ee letenseeee Peeeearsriceee® 


eeeeee 


Commenced 3 
W. from § 
tude 46°°5. 

Commenced 
W. from §$ 
tude 54°% 

From 2° o 
Herculis 
Herculis. 


: 
. 


Commenced 
W. from 3, 
tude 46°. 


From 6 Cas 
5 


° 


towart 
Lacerta. 

| 

From 284° 
S., altitud 


To4 (r, v) E 
halfway # 
Draconis 
further. 

Commence 
from S., al 
48°, 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 309 


Direction ; noting also 
arance ; Train, if any Length of | whether Horizontal, 
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer. 
Inclined. 
oting-star of ordinary}............. «-/Towards 12 hour of al.s...s...0008 seveeeeeeesees-o lJ. C, Adams 
pearance. watch-face held with 
12" vertical. 
EE Ss eee Ree ey rey | en eT ainewes tga «JA. S. Herschel 
@ train cise. Bote: Sous oveceren[seteeerereressseesersecsseess|seeceaecees See Usevesene seaeee|W. Penn, 
a luminous train......}..........0.... Towards 65 hour Of al. .en..ccscccssseecescces «++-(J. Plummer. 
watch-face held with 
125 vertical. 
or Beneisoel wis Gdawasebaamsne tit nee E Rese pince trevevovesveeereesserlA, S, Herschel, 
SMMAIAGETE SECOMNOS:2| 535 scedecveseve|eoesscccesssedussdcaeneevegal {ures brelepesioaeeiienedbcecees Id. 
a train for 2 seconds..|......000..4... sacesaOunoeracesnsssasusceaxactsenccd niacuena ce nea enenen eoveelld, 
Maes cts Meteo veccete BOS ab verses In a westerly course ...|.... ebaGuboasaseedsauseva tcc: W. H. Wood. 
seseeeeecereeesssssecceees|secrsceeveeses.|LOWArdS 4 hour Of al...cccscsccseceees dere ivesavcd J. Plummer. 
watch-face held with 
125 vertical. 
Aes oe EAA ae ncdecanccvenoaessepetmensucnattecdocahdcecetood ess sooceeecnees Ld, 


train for 1 second...|.....0...sss00s sterereeeeeevesscrssesecseagslssscereeereseesssvesesssereseslA, S. Herschel 


Tuminous train ,,,,,.|......... sevee.|Lowards 74 hour of al..... teveveeseseeevsveceeveseslJ« Plummer. 
watch-face held with 
12° vertical. 
train for 1 second... DG arekadidecas Towards g Lacertz eovcee Fee ee eee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeens A. S. Herschel, 
luminous train ....,.|.....cseesseees Towards 44 hour of al....cceceseseve teeeeeeseeneooe|J« Plummer, 
watch-face held with 
125 vertical. 
train for % second...|.....csee..s00e/seeeees Streneseeseennensseee|seecessorssesesessessessseoses/A, S, Herschel. 
luminous ERATE tes dee vatsoveec treeeeveneceeeseseccsseecceaasleqeeetsectesssssesesseeesess sold PlUMNMEL, 
remained visible 
ome time. 
EE il Re he A RO RR er ee sovesveeeelA, S, Herschel, 
Minous train evecee FOO eo eee eeeeers: Towards 62 hour of A) serccccerceccesseeseesesereees J. Plummer, 


watch-face held with 
12" vertical. 


Aug.11| 0 3 27 |Cambridge Ob-|...sersssessssssersseess|serenseesneresnenelone 


0 10 a.m.|Weston - super -|=to Sirius ........./Vivid blue ...|0°5 second .. 


REPORT—1863. 


Position, or 
Altitude ané 


Place of 


Observation. Duration. 


Apparent Size. Colour. 


.|Commenced 

W. from S., 
tude 72°5. — 
.|Started at « T 


Majoris. 
0 10 56 ..|Commenced 
a.m. W. from S., 
tude 49°. 
0 11 26  |[bid. .......000056] = 2md mag.% ......|soesssceessessssee|eoseeereseseeeees| Commenced 2 
a.m. W. from S., 
0 11 26 |[bid........+++2++.| = 2M or 3rd MAag.x]|..ecseeereorsereee 
a.m. 
OA SA Ibid... secceeses| = 18t MOQ. ceeeee 
a.m. 
0 16 30 Ibid seeneeeeteaeses| — 
a.m. 
tude 17°. — 
019 14 Commenced | 
a.m. . from §,, 


tude 48°°5, 


servatory. W. from §,,) 
tude 44°'5, 
7 |DDid. ...repeesereees .|Commenced_| 
W. from §&, 
a.m. From 6 Cygni 
Herculis. 
a.m.|[bid ........+se+++-| =to Jupiter......... 
and red. 
cm. MDI, ..sssaeueserse = Ist mag.*.........|Bright blue ...|/1 second ......|Fi 
a.m.|[bid ......s0eeee++- =Ist mag.x ...... Bright blue...|1 second ..,.... i 
p.m. .-|=to Sirius ....+000.| White see... 
p.m.|[bid ...+e+seeeeeeee] = to Sirius; very|Yellow...... ace 
0 brilliant. 
30 = to Sirius; very|Yellow......... 
brilliant. 
p-m.|[bid .....s.e00e see = to Sirius; very|Yellow. ...... 
brilliant. 9 
p.m.|Ibid .......6. seeeee[>>18t mag.*x ....../Yellow  ....../1 second +...|/From Cor 
30 =24 mag.*......0. White ......... 09 second ...\Centre 2°: 


Urse Ma 


Direction ; noting also 
whether Horizontal, 
Perpendicular, or 
Inclined. 


arance; Train, if any, 
and its Duration. 


PEER ERE ORO OT Hera te eeteni aus estseeaes 


.-|Towards 53 hour of a 
watch-face held with 
12 vertical. 


a luminous train 


seeleeesenee 


watch-face held with 
12» vertical. 
30° left of perpendicular 
down. 
Towards 33 hour of a 
watch-face held with) 
125 vertical. 


OOTP Oe eee eee nwereereseeees 


Ass sks seeees 


TRH OM TORRE ee eee ee testes 


SER ETE RR eee eee eineneeee steele 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


.-|Towards 12 hour of ai. 


311 


Remarks Observer, 
SSanecaup seeceeceeseseseeseeeo(Je Plummer, 
RS eeehecaaacnae sansa dubeiss: Id. 

Salata deutiiad steeeseceeseseees| We He Wood. 
Bisacencizesca ates des soeseeees(J+ Plummer, 
da and saiscl deen derdevesdsees. [Le 


watch-face held with 

12" vertical. 

~) aente alaed watch-face held with 
12" vertical. 

Towards 73 hour of a 


Towards 33 hour of a\..,.., 


PEEP R Meee eestor eeeeeeees 


Peete ee tere eeeeeees 


wai es eee A cecses Nass sdiaaataires 
12 vertical. 
a luminous train......|.. eth? 5 Rabe Towards 43 hour of al........ Ravatserem cartel a Id. 
watch-face held with 
12» vertical. 
train 15° in length..|............... 30° left of perpendicular),........cessesesescssaseeese.| Ve He Wood. 
down. 
See Saee ae ae o Pec Towards 74 hour of al....ccscesceccesees soseesseeee(Je Plummer, 
: watch-face held with 
12» vertical. 
a luminous train......|............... Towards 4% hourvok slice cd...chscssevedeecnc he Id. 
{ watch- face held with 
ft 12" vertical. 
BERS dh anh eer ocnces|eccssccessccssalssesesscssegsneacces Magaeaseds| ccacs)svad dtdalwaaneduck seoeee| W. H. Wood. 
yellow train 23 secs.|......... Cen eeceseescesceeseessees Pore Fe ++|Id. 
eo : Ihnen 60°right ofperpendicular|...............e6000.. pep aory| | (, Rime 
down. 
SO eee LO a recess 60°rightafperpendicnlarl. auscdsues Guamtdcsenerees a la. 
down. 
low train 12° long)............... 30° left of perpendicular|Three very _ brilliant Id. 
down. meteors followed. 
RET SERRE” ASE ORES Ser Pe: ONO Be ean Id. 
MRRIREE LON Ole. meek. Sete | Sas tucatuttaresst see ck maas|sadcadare canessaeeet te aadenyecil es 
bright, MPT AMEN fs oa Bvasuas|q vaca teddnadecthe tig octane pat APROER Fee Peer ee vores (Id. 
ad adtlses case wc uds ..|To left ; horizontal......|.... caeeated nap xe Shae aeons Id. 
train for 1 second...{10° .........|Parallel to Bi MUIR ons sdasscscresasnton asigstas A. S. Herschel 


Majoris. 


312 REPORT—1863. 
Position, or 
Date.| Hour. Pe a Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and 
‘ Azimuth. | 
i 
1863. hm s . 
Aug-11/10 9 20 |Wisbech (Cam- =2nd mag.* ....-./e seceesssaceesees(Ld Second ...|/From 3 Draconi 
p.m. bridgeshire). 4 (y L 
Cygni). 
11101317 |Ibid.......... vee..{ = 2nd mag.* ...... Blue ........:)l second ...... From 6 Ursa 
p-m. noris to « I 
conis. 

1110 16 p.m.) Weston - super -|> Ist mag.* ...... Yellow......5.. 1 second +.../From Cor Ca 

Mare. 

11/10 17 p.m.|Hawkhurst = 3rd mag.*......++.) White ......... 1 second ......|From « Dracon 

(Kent). of the way 1 
Urse Minori: 
11/10 17 20 |Wisbech (Cam-|=Ist maget ....0.)sseeee seceeseeeees(l second .../From @ Cygni 
p-m. bridgeshire). Aquile. 
TUVO) 22 Gr HU bid’....ccese.c00e: =2nd MAZ.% ...ccclescereeee scccecses(y SECONA ...... From o to n Ce) 
p-m. | 
11/10 29 p.m.|Weston - super -/>I1st mag.* ...... Yellow ...... 05 second ...|Centre 4 (6, y) 
Mare. Majoris. 
11/10 30 10 [Wisbech (Cam-|=3rd mag.% ....6./secsrseeeees sesees|tesereereeeeess ,.|Passed a few 
p.m. bridgeshire). grees abo 
Pole. 
11/10 31 p.m./Hawkhurst = Brd MAgex eceesfeceseseversrees ...(0°8 second .../From 3 (P, M) 
(Kent). melopardalif; 
below X Dr 
s nis. 
11/10 33. p.m.|Weston - super -| =3rd mag.* ...... Dark yellow/2 seconds...... From the h 
Mare. colour. Lynx. 

11/10 33 30 |Hawkhurst =25 MAH vrreseeee Yellow ......{0°8 second .../Centre 8° be 
p.m. (Kent). Bootis. 
11/10 35 p.m.|[bid ......:0000004| = 20d Mag.x sree WHEE: wvgreeves 1:2 second ...|From Alcor to} 
Ophiuchi, 2 

4600, Can. 
ticorum). 

11/10 35 p.m. Wisbech (Cam-|=2nd mag.+ sss.0./serssreeseeeeeees 2 seconds......|From 4 (A, 

bridgeshire). 4 (@, B 
culis. 

11/10 36 33. [Ibid ....csscee0ee.| = 3d MASH seseaeleeeeeereneereeeeee T second ....,.|From 7 Custodil 

p-m. BAC 2326 © 
melopardali 

11/10 37 p.m. Weston - super - >-Ist Magee ....1.)scsseesernsereeeeeleeeee ceeeesseeeee-|Started at a C 

Mare. peiz. 

11/10 39 p.m. [bid ......esse0eee.| =SFd Mage ss. sicarsesecgssones|pesoccouucesssouea| HOI) smMLEEE 
Ursa Majo 
below £6 
Majoris. 

1110 39 23 |Wisbech (Cam-|=2nd mag.* ....../.4 soasuascdsnscee|nes socscsseesseee.(FrOm » Pers 

p.m. bridgeshire). Triangule. 

11/10 40 30 |Hawkhurst =3rd mag.* ...... Yellow .........1°1 second .../To a, 4 way 

p.m. (Kent). Bootis. 
11/10 43 p.m.|Weston - super - =2nd mag-* uo... Bluey tsscek 1 second ...... Commencem 
Mare. Urse Maj 

11/10 43 p.m.|Ibid ......e0e0+-.-|= 3rd mag.* ..-.../Blue...... .se+--/0°S second .../From w to 
Majoris. 

11/10 44 16 [Wisbech (Cam-|=3rd mag.¥ ......|.ssreeees seecdacve|sesceevernes seocs-/From 4 (my § 

p-m. bridgeshire). Persei. 
11/10 45 p.m.| Weston - super -/ = Ist mag.#.........| YellOW sree... 1 second ...,..|From y U: 
Mare. joris. | 
11/10 46 p.m. |[bid ...cossssseeee: =2nd mag.* ...... Blac. sereeeven 1 second ...... From Cor Ca 


arance; Train, if any, 
and its Duration. 


PAPEP ee ee tease eneeeseseerlanees eeee 


train for 1 second... 


-|5° 


Or eer reer ri 


train for 3 a second|8° 


FPPOO eee ober eneeeeseres eee nena 


] 


BEDE d es ccvvcccaccs 


Per eererlen Seen eenee 


or Sparks . 


bbe Ee eee © o 


Teese ee neseveesesensee|eee seeneree 
i 


ba neeee 
| 


oeeleeeenee See mereeeeseesesses 


Direction ; noting also 
whether Horizontal, 
Perpendicular, or 
Inclined. 


POR Eee Ofeseceenaseepesenecccaesescees 


weenee 


N. Decl. 65°, 
From Cepheus 


eee ee (AAU OV UCUS . ceees feeeee 


Pete ee loner eeeeeene 


40°right of perpendicular 


teeee 


aabias On a line through 3 
Urs Majoris and 
Arcturus, 


ee eeleeeee OOP ee eee eseeeeeetsesssleeene 


a POOeeereeeeersescane Pere eeeeeee 


dees] eeeeeece FOOD e eee r eee eeeeenee 


seer 


40° to left of perpen- 
dicular down. 


dicular down. 


Peon 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


a aa er ee 


Length of 
Path. 


see eeeeeee 


er rrr rr 


minute 


Directed from oy I a 


Serpentine; slow motion 


teeeeens tenes 


ee lie seeeeeeeesesesssersssaneeeslesessesenessssssssassrsesearel Id, 


wl PPO eee eeeeeeeereas 


anise te eseeeeeeseeeseseeeeeees (Se H, Miller, 


OTe ees e rena nieeeseresense 


Two meteors followed 
each other closely. 


neeveeeersesseesanees(L4> eceseees 40° to left of perpen-|...........0008 
dicular down. 
teseessreerseseeess./3-y SlOW .,./30° to right of perpen- 


Hid the star Cor Corali 


in transit. 


Remarks. 


Clear sky. No shooting- 
Stars after this for 103 


313 


Observer. 


_—— 


|S. H. Miller. 


CO re 


Id. 


TOR eee e reese renees) 


W. H. Wood, 


Hee eran seen ene 


|A. S. Herschel. 


Ss. 


S. H. Miller. 


ne 5s “DEEP AEA LGU 
WVuscodavecsadesas W. H. Wood. 
Medecis seeeeeeeeee/9e H. Miller, 


A. S. Herschel. 


W. H. Wood. 


seeeee OO eee eeaes 


A. S. Herschel. 


Id. 


Pee eee teterenes 


reeseese@eeslS, H. Miller, 


sereevseoeelW. H,. Wood. 
Id. 


A. S. Herschel. 
W. H. Wood. 
Id. 


S. H. Miller. 
W. H. Wood. 
Id. 


314 REPORT—1863. 
Pl f Position, or 
Date.| Hour. Ob uae Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude ané 
servation. Azimuth. — 
1863.|h ms 
Aug.11|10 52 p.m.| Weston - super -|=3rd mag. «..... Blué.ceserssoess l second ......|From ¢ Ursa 
Mare. joris. . 
11)10 53 30 |Hawkhurst =2nd mag.* ...... White: ..j<.... 0:8 second ...|From 3° N. ¢ 
p-m. (Kent). Lyre to mI 
culis. 
11)10 59 p.m.) Weston - super --=Ist mag.x ..... White ......... 0:5 second ..,|/Started at y 
Mare. dromede. 
11)10 59 31 |Wisbech (Cam-|/=2nd mag.* ...... Blue...eseseese 14 second .../8 Andromeda 
p-m. bridgeshire). Piscium. 
11/11 O p.m.|Hawkhurst =2nd mag.* ...++- White ........- 0°7 second ,..|From 3 Ky, A | 
(Kent). . conis to 4 
Urse Majori 
11/11 0 p.m.|Weston - super --=2nd mag.* «+... Yellow ........- 2 secs.; very/From 6 Urse 
Mare. slow. joris. 3 
Tj1l 2 p.m.jIbid ..............- > Ist mag.* +0... Wellowicinscasn 1 Record Sacss|scedecseen cose ell 
TLL 9 spim:|Thidivy....--.... vee\> 1st mage ssoee-/ Yellow ..s.e0e08 1 second ...... From y Bootis; 
Corone. 
1111 15 p.m. |Ibid ..........0000 =2nd mag.% ...60- BUG! “acess 1 second ...+.. From y Urse 
noris to « | 
conis. 
L111 17 p.m.|Ibid ........0.000ee >Ist mag.¥ ....+ (Red. .sccadsssees 1 second ..... From mouth 0; 
randus to 4 
low Polaris 
AL|11 24 p.m.|Ibid ......cceeeeee > Ist mag.x ....../ Yellow .......|1 second ..... From 4° 
Urs Major 
 Ursee Mi 
11|11 27 p.m.|[bid....... ree = Ist mag.x see...|BlUe....cceeeeee 1 second .,..-.|From 3 Dracol 
B Lyre. | 
11/11 29 p.m.|Ibid ...... ee [st mag.* sees White .cesssccs lsecond ...,../From p to Pp 
Majoris. | 
DUN SL pims|[hid’ss, cece ste an =2nd mag.* «++ Bluesssestvencss 1 second ...,..|From « Booti 
Urs Major 
ULIDYL33! Pi TDId....0ceseverses = to Jupiter ...... White .........{1 second ...... From13 Cam 
dali to BA 
11)11 38 p.m }-[bid ..........000e =2nd mag.* ...0+ Blue scaeesucs 0-5 second ...|From the m 
Tarandus t 
Polaris. 
12) 0 2 a.m.\[bid .........eeee > Ist mag.¥......... Blue, then /|1 second +...|From Polar 
white. Urse Mi 
121-0) 73. sams |Dhidycss css sesssstee >Venus, veryvivid|Red, then yel-|1 second +...\From f 
meteor. low, then medz to 
green. R. A.9°, 
20°. 
12} 0 015 /|Ramsgate (Kent)|La bright Me-|,..........cceeeeleceecseeeeseeeoees From « Li 
f a.m. j teor. : Herculi: 
12) 9 24 p.m./Weston - super -|/= to Sirius ......... White. .casses. 1:5 second ...\From y to 
Mare. 
12) 9 28 p.m.jIbid ........ desceae =3rd mag.¥ ...:.- Blue cs aon eee 05 second .,.|From é to 
eiz. 
12| 9 34 p.m.|Ibid ...... ceseeeeee|Meteor=toJupiter|Yellow, then|2 seconds...... a R. 
red, then N. Decl. 
green. 4° belo 
— Camelog 
12} 9 38 p.m.|Tbid .......00.000 = Ist mag.......... Dark yellow/2°5 seconds ...|Commenc 
colour. ; | at altit 
12)10 8 p.m./Hawkhurst =3rd mag.x .+...(Yellow......../0°7 second .../From one 
’ (Kent). {half _ the 
reckoned 
Persei to 9 U) 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS 


Direction ; noting also 
whether Horizontal, 
Perpendicular, or 
Inclined. 


—.. 


Length of 


Path Remarks. 


~ 


5° to left of perpen- 
dicular down. 


Coe lee reeersccccevesseeseceseseces 


POP e eee meee eeeseces 


Poee nels Pe rersrerererslevecccssccecesssos 


train for 1 second 


dhl bbe ete TILT TT eT Pre et 


Ber ge Tiga sess ehResnarasescavenievalsendqwaxeuesseddssicontects. 


eee en POs eesebeeeses 


OP e seer esses eeeas|tPPPtseeeranens 
PAPE s ere eeeeeoases|seereee Ph eeeee 
PPPOP er esraseenees 


PORE ee eeesee ° 


POPP Pe Peer) Perr 


-train 
train 
train 
tsi 


Cee deccecnccnscseeccoccesene 


RS OI) See rey 


«(Id 


..|A. S. Herschel. 


- (Id. 


315 


Observer. 


— 


— 


W. H. Wood. 
A. S. Herschel. 


W. H. Wood. 
S. H. Miller. 


A. S. Herschel. 


W. H. Wood. 
Id. 


W. H. Wood. 


Id. 


Id. 
Id. 
Id. 


Dror pin. [tee8eetevcegeucnseusguunceys»=lavenoaveyeurusrotureeaeere eit 


Berra ac Sot hs | nelesecees ol eesenesvnenessensaascescsecsss| swe sodpsacesevscoccrs 


40° to left of perpen- 
dicular down. 


SPO eee ee eset Oe serene ee seenes 


SOO rere reseeee 


seeee 


316 REPORT—1863. 
Place of . P Position, ¢ 
Date.| Hour. Observation. | APparent Size. Colour. Duration. Ane 
1863.| h m s 
Aug.12/10 16 p.m.|Hawkhurst QE MAg.x ceeresseelececeecaceereerece|scesecseseenverees ‘From o to & 
(Kent). conis. 

12/10 18 p.m. Wester - super -/=2nd mag.* ...... ‘Blue wee-(L second +,../From y Andro) 

are 

12\10 21 p.m.|Ibid ........ sentets =Ist or 2nd mag.x Blue .....+...{1 second +... From p And 
dz to 56 4 
mede. 

12/10 24 p.m.|[bid .......+ vesee| = 3rd MAg.# ceoeee|BIUC — sseveeeee 0°5 second .... Commenced 
Draconis, p 
over » Ursa’ 
joris. 

12,10 27 p.m.|Ibid ....ss.eee--ee =Ist Mag.%...00006./BIUG  seosseeee 0°5 second ...|Passed from a, 
to 8 Urse 
joris. 

1210 28 p.m.| Hawkhurst 3rd MAG.% ...sc.Joeerereee .sseeeees/0°8 second .../From @ to 3 

(Kent). of y Bootis, 

12/10 35 p.m. 5a - super -/—2nd mag.* ss. BlWe: ssesse «(1 sec. +, slow)From ¢ Cassi 

are ; 

12/10 42 p.m.|Ibid .,..........++/—=2nd mag.# ....++) Blues. ....(0°5 second ...|From mout 
Ursa Major 
or 4° bele 
Urs - 

12/10 43 30 |Hawkhurst IRMA PLE osvessice|sascuasecutestent 0:7 second .../From « 2 

p.m. (Kent). 4 of - 
Ophiuchi. 
12)10 46 p.m. IDIG ciensssseescoon|==ONA MAH sesccslscsvcceeresgrecces 1:2 second ,,,|Centre at ¢u F 
12/10 46 p.m. Clifton (Bristol) |=3rd mag.x sesss.|eccceeeereeereres L second .,....,Erom 4 (# 
0 Posasl) 
(8 Aqua 
Normz). | 
J2}10 46 30 [Ibid ....ccvcoeeesee|—= OFA MAG. evevelecesensenneceeees 1 second .,,.../From 2 (6 At 
p.m. orme} 
Capricorni 
12|10 47 p.m,|Hawkhurst =3rd mag.x ....../ White ...... .(L second .,....,|From 2° ¢ 
(Kent). Bootis 
Arcturus. — 
12/10 48 30 [Clifton (Bristol) |=1st mag.x .es.e.[eeceeesereeereeees 1 second ....,./From altitui 
p-m. in S.E. toa 
5° through: 
of 7°. 

12)10 48 39 |Hawkhurst =3rd mag.* ....../Saffron........./0°4 second .,.|Centre 3 (N 

p.m. (Kent). lopardali, 
Minoris). — 

12/10 53 45 |[bid .......ss000000/= 24 MAG.# ssessseee|/ VEllOW ..seeeee-(1 Second «++,.,,From M 

p-m. pardali t 

Urse M 

Camelop 

12)10 57 p.m. eee - super -/=3rd mag.* ....|Blue ........./0°S second .,./From «Andro 

are. 

12/11 10 p.m.|[Did ..sesseeeeeeee- = to Sirius .........|White ....+../1 second +... Na BP 

a, 2 
and 2° furt 

12/11 10 30 Clifton (Bristol) |>-1st mage wessseleseeeeeseeees veee-/L second .,....|From 4 A, § 

p-m. , to cy (%, 
gasi. 

12|L1 17 p.m,|Weston - super -|=Ist mag.« ......|White ........./0°5 second ,,,/From H (30) 


Mare. 


B Urse 
and 5° bey: 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 317 


Direction; noting also 
whether Horizontal, 
Perpendicular, or 
Inclined. 


nee; Train, if any,| Length of 


and its Duration. Path. Remarks. 


Observer. 


Bemreratd L2° TONE ......|..cccereeneeeee 70° to right of perpen-|...sosss...seeseeessseeeeeees|We H. Wood. 


dicular down. 


BUMIHLT oee6d.<ssscocesees 


ain or sparks ..,,,...,/20° 


PUG Rear er eeeeeeseseeesseses 


ES ee Peer ee ee A. S. Herschel. 


80° to left of perpen-|Nearly horizontal ....../W. H. Wood. 
dicular down. 


MAUL A LONE - 0.01..|-coccccesscocee 


eae 


ME ascssccseccceceses|*s A. S. Herschel. 


FOO Oooo reer etsereeel t HH ett esnes POO ee eee eeeeneeee 


‘train for 1 second...|15° Directed from t Cygni...|...0........44- = 


werwerees EAILCOLCH ITO) LUV ET cel sceeseresecesssecenevnsveveses 


PPPOE Ores eee OOO s ee ees| seeeseeeeettees FOTO OTH eee eT EE TT eR EEE SOE HEHE HEHEHE Hee tees eeeEetesEEEDe 


i, 
t 


PPP Pee eee ee eee rere TPO O Oe e eee OU e eH OTE E TOOTH EOS Eee reese ee THOR EET ertwneae Cee teeta erase Id. 


Directed front 1 Ursze...|-oooreis.cssssoecdesroorebeeee A. S. Herschel. 


train PRO OO erate eereees 8° fet eeeees 


ae cin soben Ub aee ae tasat ere see eeacce ee ee G. F. Burder. 


Directed from € Urse}....+........ tssrseevecseeeee-(As S. Herschel, 
Minoris. 


Peoreesee 


rain for 1 second,..|..........000e.lo0 dads cane Cab dethnns ee dtdai lids odsnose beets Besos ke vsbines de Id. 


br ee Fell vertically ssceeevoenes |Seeeteseveereeessssvssseserers| We He Wood. 


wa TPP OP OOOO Oe eet e eee tees eeeeee Id. 


PPP eeeeeeeeseseresesenes se eeeesecveeee 


-|Course nearly vertical, ,.|..++-+++- eecccaccces sevsceeeeeIG, F, Burder, 


track upon thel, 
course, 


PROC OH OO ESOT EHH es oeeeeneernes|* Seoeceverevenas OCCUR RSS Viale veld W. H. Wood. 


Date. Hour. 
1863.| h ms 
Aug.12)11 26 p.m. 
12)11 30 30 

p.m. 
12)11 32 30 
p-m. 


I. Brograpuicat Nortcr or E. C. Herrick, late Treasurer of Yale College, 


Edward Charles Herrick, the late promoter of meteoric astronomy in 


REPORT—1863, 


Place of 


APPENDIX. 


: Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and — 
Observation. ‘Azimuth, 
Weston - super -|=I1st mag.* ...... \WETUG ie eos: 1 second ...... From 6 Bootis to 
Mare. Coron. 
Clifton (Bristol) |=2nd mag.x ....,.|scceeessceeeeeeees 1 second ...... Centre 4 « Pe 
B Equulei. 
love Were gcgncesece SSSiGh TAS aopsed Seco Soon cece 1 second ...... From 3 a, Z Aqui 
to 3 (n, 9) Ser 
pentis. 


Position, or 


Newhaven, Connecticut, U.S. : 


America, and the subject of this notice, was born at Southampton, Long 


Island, New York, on the 24th of February 1811. 


As clerk in an extensive 


book-store, he cultivated an early taste for accurate knowledge by successful 
studies in entomology. After a memorable storm of falling stars in November 
1833 had fixed the attention of scientific men, Herrick directed his talents to 
the field of meteoric astronomy, and remained until the middle of the past 
year the most vigilant observer and the most careful recorder of wandering 
stars inthe New World. We owe to Herrick and to Quetelet the knowledge 


of the periodical meteors of the 10th of August. 


The discovery of thisim- 


portant date was made independently by Herrick in 1837, and by M. Quetelet 
Both observers maintained after that time a yearly watch for the 
display, and published their observations in the Journals of their respective 


in 1836*. 


countries. 


middle of October, and on the 6th to the 8th of December, their greater fre- 
quency in the morning hours of the night, and their greater abundance in 
America than in Europe, are facts of which we owe the earliest knowledge 
to the observations of Herrick. M. Quetelet thus wrote to Herrick in 1861. 
«The additions which you have made to science will always be among the 
most important and among the most useful for the conclusions which have 
Herrick died on the 11th of June 1862, 
in the 52nd year of his age, being Librarian of Yale College in 1843, Librarian 
and Treasurer in 1852, and Treasurer in 1858. 
Committee of the Connecticut Academy for the observation of luminous 
meteors by Professor H. A. Newton, of Yale College, whose recent contribu- 
tions to the American Journal of Science greatly advance the present state of 


hitherto been drawn from them.” 


The annual frequency of meteors 


meteoric science. 


on the 20th of April, in the 


He is succeeded in the 


ARGS emg ap ey 3 


II. Merrrors DOUBLY OBSERVED. 
(1.) 1859, October 25th, 7" 15™ p.m. 
The meteor seen at Holyhead, and twelve miles W. of Athlone (in Ireland), 
* American Journal of Science, lst Series, vol. xxxiii. p. 401. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 319 


Direction; noting also 
ppearance ; Train, ifany,) Length of | whether Horizontal, 
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or 


Inclined. 


Remarks. Observer. 


MMECGUIEN Sy ach tscives|svateosdaadeves[scdsedaed es sncck cade caeseeetienermheeeee ot BE... W. H. Wood. 


Se¥senevg(2 cavessens/JITCCLEM FOL 97 POPU -cocepsccsccdunes cdecccoccacen G. F. Burder. 


seeeeeren/teteeenaeesesseleeeesesesegaeeneenseseeensensslteeeteetecsensensensseseeners Id. 


appears to have been directed nearly upon the latter place, and to have flown 
140 miles in three to five seconds, from seventy miles above Southport in 
Lancashire to twenty miles above Balbriggan on the Irish coast. At fifty 
miles from Holyhead this meteor produced an illumination like daylight, 
and which cannot have fallen far short of the full moon. An equivalent globe 
of gas-flame should be 40 feet in diameter to produce a similar effect. 


(2.) 1860, November Ist, 8" 30™ p.m. 


A falling star as bright as Mars, and throwing off discharges of fragments, 
observed by Mr. Lowe at Beeston and by Mr. Penrose at Swanage, although 
roughly observed at the latter place, can be seen to have flown upwards of 
sixty miles in three seconds, from eighty miles above Wolverton (in Bucks) 
to thirty miles above Warwick. At 945 yards it would have shone with the 
brightness of full moon, and the diameter of an equivalent globe of gas-flame 
would be 24 inches to produce a similar effect. The colour of this falling 
star was red, and no train was left upon the track. 


(3.) 1862, September 19th, 5" 50™ p.m. 


This meteor appeared as a brilliant fireball, even amidst the rays of the 
setting sun. Exact measurements of the flight are wanting for the estima- 
tion of its real path ; but it appears to have pursued a track perfectly similar 
to that of the meteor which followed it upon the same evening. 


(4.) 1862, September 19th, 10* 15 par. 


_ This extraordinary meteor exploded in the zenith of London. Three in- 
dependent calculations, by Mr. Wood, Mr. Burder, and Mr. Herschel, agreed 
in placing the height of this outburst of light between fifty-five and sixty miles 
above the city or very little towards the South of London; and from the extreme 
brilliancy of the spectacle, it is probable that at places 150 miles from the 
meteor, the splendour of full moon was experienced from its light. On this 
estimation a globe replete with gas flame 83 feet in diameter would 
adequately represent the illuminating power of the flash. The remainder of 
the flight is variously assigned, from 126 miles over Boulogne, or from eighty- 
three miles over Canterbury, to thirty miles over Oxford, thirty miles over 
Chesham (in Bucks), or thirty-three miles over Woodstock in Oxfordshire. 
No report was heard to follow the explosion of the meteor. 


320 REPORT—1863. 


(5.) 1862, September 22nd, 10" 22™ p.m. 


This falling star resembled in character that of November Ist, 1860 (No. 2). 
The point of disappearance is situated twenty miles above Dungeness Point, 
where the meteor arrived from an origin exhibiting little apparent parallax at 
London and Etchingham, but having its direction in the constellation of the 
Dolphin. If the commencement of the visible path is placed 150 miles 
above the Cape of la Hogue, an interval of 170 miles to the point of extine- 
tion was traversed by this meteor in 43 seconds of time. The meteor re- 
sembled Mars. A globe of ignited gas two feet in diameter would sufficiently 
represent the intensity of its light. 


(6.) 1862, September 25th, 6" 15™ p.m. 

Exact accounts of the two meteors which appeared in the South of England at 
sunset of this evening are rare. The first was distinguished by a remarkable 
contrast of red and green colour in the head and vaporous envelope of the 
meteor. A low flight with moderate velocity over the county of Hampshire, 
is rendered probable by the observations at Weston-super-Mare, Ventnor, 
Lamberhurst, and Ticehurst, performing sixty or seventy miles in six or seven 
seconds of time from forty-five miles above Petworth in Sussex, to fifteen miles 
above Salisbury town. The meteor was splendid even in daylight, but no 
report was audible. 

(7.) 1862, September 25th, 6" 30™ p.m. 

The second meteor was vertical at Weston-super-Mare. It was seen at 
a considerable altitude in the S.W. at Hay and Great Malvern, and nearly 
in the zenith at Kimmeridge in Dorsetshire, at the time of its first appearance, 
descending thence towards the south of west from all the stations where 
it was observed. A nearly horizontal course from sixty miles above Swindon 
in Wiltshire to forty miles above Padstow in Cornwall, corresponds most 
closely with the observations of the flight. This meteor was globular, white 
or blue, and attained a size before disappearance compared at Corwen in North 
Wales with that of the moon. No report followed its disappearance. 


(8.) 1862, November 16th, 10" 45™ p.m. 

If this meteor did not move cover the open sea, it may be surmised to have 
passed above Start Point (at a height of forty miles), and downwards towards 
the sea in the neighbourhood of St. Ives, in Cornwall. This result is un- 
certain, from the absence of precision in the observations. The meteor appears 


indeed to have been of the class of larger falling-stars*, and not a distant fire- 
ball. 


(9.) 1862, November 26th, 6" 40™ p.m. 

Vertical over Selkirk. At Leeds the meteor traversed the last two stars in 
the tail of Ursa ; its middle point had an altitude of 19° directly over Selkirk. 
The height above this town was therefore forty-two miles, and in its onward 
course the meteor was directed to an earth point upon the Kirkcudbright 
coast. The meteor terminated at an elevation of twenty miles, with great 
brilliancy, and with a loud report audible at Selkirk. 


(10.) 1862, November 27th, 5" 47™ p.m. 


The path of this brilliant meteor was sensibly horizontal. From thirty 
miles above the mouth of the Scheldt (lat. N. 52° 6’, long. E. 3° 7’), to twenty- 
eight miles above the mouth of the Seine (lat. N. 49° 49’, long. W. 0° 23’), 
the meteor travelled 220 miles with varying brilliancy in 5 seconds. At 


* See Nos. (2) and (5). t See this Appendix, No. III. 


ot Ae 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 321 


Caen in Normandy, forty-five miles from the explosion, a loud report was 
heard after the disappearance of the meteor. The diffused light at Hawk- 
hurst resembled perfectly the light of the half moon, then shining in the same 
direction. At thirty miles the meteor would have rivalled in splendour 
the full moon, and a globe 29 feet in diameter, replete with ordinary gas 
flame, would suffice for an equal luminous effect. 


(11.) 1863, January 27th, 5° 30™ p.m. 

This meteor appeared in strong daylight. Six miles S.E. of Stirling it 
appeared to descend vertically upon Bannockburn; and at Auchterarder, in 
continuation of the same line, it passed overhead, still going north-eastward 
to the horizon. bis 

(12.) 1863, February 7th, 6" 30™ p.m. 

An exceedingly large meteor appeared before the departure of twilight. 
At Loch Fine in Argyllshire, at Lauder in Berwick, and at Elie and Leven 
in Fifeshire, it presented the same appearance of a body moving horizontally 
in 8.W. (from N.W. to S.E.) ;—and the variation of altitude in the west and 
east of Scotland was no more than 25° to 124°. The meteor appears to have 
skirted the westernmost points of the Scottish Isles, from Barra Head to the 
Mull of Galway, at thirty-six miles above the sea, and was doubtless observed 
at Belfast as a striking object. At eighty miles from Greenock, a flash like 
that of lightning was produced in closed apartments. If the meteor rivalled 
the light of full moon at this distance, an equal light would be produced by 
a globe of ordinary gas flame 56 feet in diameter. 


(13.) 1863, March 4th, 6° 36™ p.m. G.M.T. 

Dr. Ed. Heis, Director of the Royal Observatory at Miinster, has published 
a pamphlet containing the particulars of 100 different accounts of this meteor, 
of which the following is a short abstract. The meteor at first resembled a 
bright shooting-star, advancing with leisurely speed and expanding until it 
appeared, to some observers, to attain the apparent size of the full moon, 
which was then above the horizon. The landscape was everywhere illumi- 
nated as if with the strongest artificial light, and to the majority of the 
observers the meteor appeared to fall within a few yards of their position at 
the time. Drs. Baumhauer and Krecke communicated particulars of the 
meteor to Prof. Heis from stations in Holland and Belgium, and M. Quetelet* 
from Brussels, Mr. Greg from Manchester and different parts of England. From 
astronomical friends, and from other sources in Rheinland, Hanover, Holland, 
England, &c., M. Heis received upwards of 100 different accounts. The meteor 
was visible over an area of 100,000 square miles, including in a six-sided figure 
the towns of Manchester, Brighton, Treves, Erbach (Odenwald), Hanover, and 
the northern coast of the kingdom of Hanover. The extent of this area is, from 
Manchester to Erbach, 553 miles ; from Brighton to Bremen, 401 miles. The 
duration of the flight was between 4 and 5 seconds, or, according to five trust- 

worthy accounts, 33, 5, 4, 4, and 52 seconds of time. 


The time of disappearance 7" 6™ p.m., Miinster mean time, 
” ” 6 45 ” Paris i ” 
» os 6 353 ,, Greenwich ,, 


The figure of the meteor was elongated, appearing circular in the direction 


* Bulletins of the Belgian Academy of Sciences, 2nd Series, vol. xv. No. 3. 
1863, Y 


322 REPORT—1863. 


of its motion, but in a transverse direction conical or pyriform, with a length 
from four to ten times its greatest width. Two trustworthy accounts at Brussels 
and Utrecht give half the diameter of the full moon as the approximate appa- 
rent width of the head, from which M. Heis infers a diameter of 460 yards 
for the nucleus or focus of the light. In the early part of its flight the 
meteor nevertheless resembled an ordinary shooting-star, and only gradually 
attained its greatest splendour. An imposing light was thrown upon the 
landscape in the greater part of the area over which the meteor was visible. 
In comparison with this, the full moonlight appeared to pale into insignificance, 
and in some towns of Belgium the light was even compared with that of day. 
The colour of the meteor, in the zenith of the observers, changed from white 
to deep red, which was also the colour of the pointed tail. At last the meteor 
disappeared suddenly, without breaking into fragments. The tail, however, 
contained parcels of vari-coloured light, which appeared to be detached during 
the flight. At Eerzel the meteor appeared as a small stationary moon or ball 
of light at the centre of a conflagration which exhibited kaleidoscopic colours. 
The ball itself was red. It presented the same appearance through the windows 
of a side aisle in the church of Looz, and its passage across the west window of 
the Cathedral in Miinster afforded means for accurately determining the appa- 
rent course at that place. Many of the local accounts collected by M. Heis 
in a journey of three days, undertaken in May near the line of termination 
of the meteor, are instances of lively terror occasioned by a meteor of the 
largest class. A report was heard in North Brabant like the explosion of a 
distant powder-mill, at which the earth trembled, and houses and windows 
were shaken. The interval elapsed was a minute at Herzogenbosch, and yet 
smaller near Eerzel and Eindhoven, where the meteor was vertical at disap- 
pearance. The reports also resembled those of cannons in irregular succes- 
sion, followed for 20 or 40 seconds by rattling noises, which gradually expired. 
These sounds were heard to a distance of eighty miles north-east from the 
explosion. 

The apparent paths, observed in different quarters of the heavens, show the 
meteor to have advanced from 5° W. of N., altitude 22°. In the case of 


S.W. W. N.W. N. N.E. E. S.E. 


3. Hanover. 32. Maestricht. 
14. Brussels. 37. Eerzel. 
17. Ypers. 40. Helmond. 
27. Leyden. 


meteorites and oblique meteors the points of the horizon towards which they 
appear to move depend upon the geographical positions of the observers, and 
cannot be employed alone. 

At Mister the apparent course was referred to the stars, but three only 
out of forty exact observations were recorded in a similar manner. The » 


» 
~ 


< A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 323 
accompanying chart represents the comparison of these accounts, The meteor 


accomplished a visible course of 187 miles in 4 or 5 seconds of time, with a 
velocity of 413 miles per second, from eighty-eight miles above the North Sea 


6 Beginning. 


Height at 
Beginning | 
(Bd), | 
and End 
(Ee). 


P28 be 
- Sern = 
= all 
fold 
: Ten pe End 
: / : ig ak wy 
BELGIUM ‘ oe sa 
“ 4 
a 
| ” 
1 Munster. 10. Goch. 23. Hawkhurst. 
2. Borgholzen. 19. Namur. 25. Leuwarden. 
4, Eupen. 20. Jodoigne. 27. Zaandam. 
5. Richterich. 21. Looz. _ 28. Deventer. 
9. Walbeck. 22. Manchester. 31. Arnheim. 


in N. lat. 53° 50', E. long. 5°, to 17 miles above the southern part of North 
Brabant in N. lat. 51° 28’, E. long. 5° 18, with a (geocentric) trajectory di- 
rected from R. A. 270°-5, N. Decl. 61°. The heliocentric trajectory is from 
R. A. 337° 47’, N. Decl. 81° 39!. 

The orbit about the sun, according to Professor Heis, is direct hyperbolic, 
like that formerly calculated by M. Petit, Director of the Observatory of 
Toulouse, of a meteor seen on the 29th October 1857. 

_ The elaborate explorations of Dr. Heis in the neighbourhood 8. of Her- 
zogenbosch in North Brabant, describe the district where fragments of the 
meteor may in future be found, if the destructible nature of meteoric stones 
leave still any hope of their recovery. 


(14.) 1863, March 23rd, 8" 30™ p.m. 


This meteor was the subject of numerous observations. It originated. 

early fifty-five miles above the sea, fifteen miles southward from Chale (in 

e Isle of Wight), and shot sixty miles in three seconds, disappearing with- 

t audible report fifteen miles above the sea, seventy miles S. of Purbeck 
x2 


3824 REPORT—1863. 


Isle in Dorsetshire. A globe of gas flame 16 feet in diameter would represent 
the light of this meteor according to the best accounts of its appearance. 


(15.) 1863, August 12th, 0* 3™ a.m. 

This meteor illuminated the scene at Weston-super-Mare in Somersetshire 
and at Ramsgate in Kent with a flash of diffused light. The path concluded 
from the observations is from 122 miles above Cobham (in N. lat, 51° 17’ 
W. long. 0° 25') to eighty-six miles above Havant (in N. lat. 50°51’, W. long. 
0° 54’). The visible flight of fifty-two miles was performed in rather more 
than one second of time, from the direction of 32° east of north, altitude 45°, 
terminating in a flash of brilliant light. 


III. Para or Mereor, 1862, November 27th, 5" 47™ p.m. 
Calculated from ten accounts of the foregoing Catalogue. 


Of ten observations, four lines of sight of the point of disappearance inter- 
sect each other, twenty-eight miles high above the mouth of the Seine in 
long. W. 0° 23', N. lat. 49° 49', viz. : 


Grantham ........ Meteor vanished. .4° E. from 8. ...... Altitude 7° 

Saltford ;. ... 8S satis Meteor vanished. .38° E. from 8....... Altitude 10°. 
Weston-super-Mare Meteor vanished. .45° KE. from 8....... Altitude 10°. 
Tunbridge ........ Meteor vanished. .15° W. from 8. ....Altitude 18°. 


A provisional path to this point of disappearance, from 7 fifty five miles 
above the mouths of the Scheldt (long. E. 3° 40', N. lat. 51° 21’), is ap- 
proached, in the following manner, by four other observations of the point of 
disappearance or explosion. The line of sight at— 


Sunderland (5° W. from S., alt. 3°) is 1° above, 11° onwards from disappear“. 


Clapham ..(11° 3 alt. 18?) 186° “sygegt Oe = ” 
Hawkhurst (14° » alt. 15°) is 5° below, O° 5 
Deal...... (26° wereinlt 20°) is3° . | sel eae sedis 55 

Difference .... 1° below, 3° onwards sp 


The place of disappearance is therefore determined by four intersecting 
observations, as well as by four other observations whose errors very nearly 
balance each other about the same point. 

The ten observations of the earlier portions of the meteoric track pass, with 
respeet to the provisional path, according to the following Table of errors. 

The observation of first appearance at— 


Before 
Distance. extinction. 

Miles, Miles. 

Sunderland ............ 320...(40° E. from S., alt. a ..is 10 miles below the track...... 210 
Grantham .....+...... 200:..(35° , FA 1°)...is 3 ,, above oF Gicctea 104 
Saltford) scssrses-<00ce ves 160...(68° 10% is 3 ,, below sna wteeee 88 
Weston-super-Mare...300...(Due E., alt. 10°) eotensces is 12 ,, » Sur Dhapstee 190 
Clapham <.:......se0e56 110...(28° E. from S., alt.17°)...is 3 4, 3 Pea ltase oat 65 
Tunbridge ....+...0266 90...(44° ,, »  38°)...is14  ,, above - ae 85 
Hawkhurst ........000: Sa(O. 5 ay) LOO) Seci8) 2, is x Se eran 50 
Deal)s:}.saao eee 70...(44°- 55 Mae htt om ee ae 125 
Cambridge .......++... T60s(09° |, >» ay 162s 2 A hae YS 22 
Broxbourve .........++ 120...(23° te jy 9?) eas) Us, . Hotbesies 83 


Seen from the point of explosion, these ten observations of first appearance 


x 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 325 


surround the provisional path very closely, but are more crowded together 
north from, and below the provisional track. The ten lines of sight, drawn 
in perspective from the point of disappearance, and strengthened in propor- 
tion to the proximity and early view of the meteor (contained in the first and 
last columns of the Table), indicate a point 15° northward and 6° below the 
centre of the projection as the most probable direction from which the meteor 
approached its bursting point. The corrected path is horizontal directed from 
azimuth 225° (W. from 8.), and commenced thirty miles above the mouth of 
the Scheldt in long. E. 3° 7’, lat. N. 52° 6’; the termination, as before, being 
twenty-eight miles above the mouth of the Seine in long. W. 0° 23’, lat. N. 
49° 49', thirty miles N. of Caen, and seventy miles S. of Worthing in Sussex. 
At Caen, in Normandy, a loud detonation followed the disappearance of the 
meteor. The length of the path is 220 miles, performed in four or five seconds 
of time. 

It is probable from one account of the first appearance, and from the irre- 
gular form which this meteor afterwards assumed, that a group of many frag- 
ments composed the meteoric mass after its collision with the atmosphere. 


IV. Mereoric Suower or Aprit 1863, and Conclusions of Professor 
H. A. Newton. 


A considerable fall of meteors was observed in England on the morning 
of the 21st April 1863, from Newe (Aberdeenshire) in the north, to Weston- 
super-Mare (Somersetshire), and Hawkhurst (Kent), in the south of England ; 
followed, on the evening of the 22nd, by a total absence of meteors during 
several successive hours (see Catalogue). At 3" a.m., on the 21st April, the 
number was 40 per hour for a single observer. The definite nature of this 
phenomenon led to a comparison with the great shower recorded by Herrick 
to have happened on the morning of the 20th April 1803. The observations 
rendered it certain that the date of the cosmical phenomenon had advanced 
twenty-four hours in the course of sixty years, but the cause was not 
detected*. 

Professor H. A. Newton, in the American Journal of Science and Art 
(vol. xxxvi. p. 145), has shown that the precession of the equinoxes produces 
a delay of one day in seventy years, upon the return of all the known periodical 
meteoric showers, of April, August, November, and December. In the follow- 
ing lists, the dates of the star-showers of early history have been corrected by 
this amount from the moveable equinoxes of the early dates to the fixed equinox 
for the year 1850. 


1st. The April shower. 
B.c. 687. March 16 corresponds to a.p. 1850, April 19°9. _ Biot. 
25 19: 


15. ” ” ” ” ” 9 6. Biot. 
A.D. 582. Ave sill a 5 + » 181. Chasles. 
1093. April 9°6 + 3 - » 20°7. Chasles. 
1094, » 10 uy a a » 20°8.  Chasles. 
1095. - 96 is = = » 20°2. Herrick. 
1096. » 10 = Ns AS » 21°3. Herrick. 
1122. » 106 es 3 a », 20°2. Herrick. 
1123. Pel | - A . a 205K Chasles, 
1803. » 196 F =r, a y» 19°9, Herrick. 


Mean...1850, April 20-1 


* Bulletins of the Belgian Academy of Sciences, 2nd Series, vol. xvi.-p. 7. 


326 REPORT— 1863. 
2nd. The August shower. 


A.D. 830. July 26 corresponds to a.p. 1850, August 9°2. Biot. 
gaa a 487 i d. } »  -10°4, Biot. 
835. pate 3 _ 9 5 8:9. Biot. 
841. nt) Boo ” 5 * ~ 8:4 Biot 
924. » 26-28 ,, a “1 cs 8°1-10°1. Biot 
925. Anh rtie eee PA =5 + 8°8— 9-8. Biot. 
926. ile 3 % * i 8°6 Biot 
933. » 25-30 ,, “ ~ ay 5°8-10°8. Biot 
1243, August 2 % is a »  10°6. Herrick. 
1451. - 5 7 99 _ » 100. Biot. 


Mean...1850, August 9:0 
3rd. The November shower. 
a.p, 585. October 25 corresponds to a.p. 1850, November 12°3. Chasles. 


902. A 29°30" ;, + as o 11°0—12.0. Herrick. 
1582. November 7 °F 45 as “1 10°7. Wartmann. 
1698. + 8°6 rp i 8 4 11°6. Wartmann. 
1799. ss 116 x - = * 12-9, Humboldt. 
1833. =A 12°7 is “6 7 re 13°3. Olmsted. 


—_—.-—_—__—_. 


Mean...1850, November 12:0 
4th. The December periods. 


That of December 6th, 7th is not marked by any early appearances. The 
following early dates belong to the second shower :— 
A.D. 901. November 30 corresponds to a.p. 1850, December 13°3. Herrick. 
930. ” 29 ” ” ” ” 11°6. Biot. 
1571. December 8 a a se 7 11°5. Wartmann. 


Mean...1850, December 12°1 


From the consistency of these results, Professor Newton draws a powerful 
argument in favour of the cosmical origin of the periodic shooting-stars. The 
following dates are selected from his list as favourable for the appearance of 
meteoric showers, viz., January 15th to 19th, February 19th, March 1st to 
4th, April 28th to 30th, October 16th to 18th, and October 31st to November 
6th. The last period includes the occurrences of several of the most remark- 
able showers on record*, 


VY. Mereoric SHower or Aveusr 1863. 


On the 9th and 10th of Angust 1863, observations were made at the 
Greenwich and Cambridge Observatories, at Cranford and Euston Road Ob- 
servatories, and at Hawkhurst, for determining the heights and velocities of 
the annual shooting-stars of this period. The following meteors were simul- 
taneously observed on those evenings at one or more of the observatories, 
and at Hawkhurst. The full particulars of the observations are given in the 
foregoing Catalogue. ¢ 

In Table I., the numbers in the first column refer to the meteors on the 
chart in the order of their appearance, and the stations are represented in the 
same table for shortness by their initial letters, viz.: Ca. Cambridge, Cr. 
Cranford, E. Euston Road, G. Greenwich, H. Hawkhurst. 


* The same mode of correction applied to Mr. Greg’s Catalogue of Fireballs, contained — 


in the British Association Report for 1860, shows that the 28th January, 10th February, 


10th April, 18th, 20th, and 29th July, 4th and 12th August, 13th, 18th, and 24th October, — 
13th to 15th, and 21st November, 11th and 21st December, are dates preferred among 
the larger kind of meteors. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 327 


The mean height of first appearance of the meteors derived from Table II. 
is 81-6 ; that of disappearance 57-7 miles above the surface of the earth. The 
mean direction of their flight is from azimuth 222° (W. from §.), altitude 28° ; 
and at the mean hour 10° 16™ 375 p.m. of the appearances, this point was 
situated in R. A. 43°-1, N. Decl. 50°-8, not far from the bright star (y) of the 
constellation Perseus. 

The mean of the velocities in Table III. is thirty-nine miles per second 
for seventeen observations ; but if we exclude the velocities of sixty-one miles 
and seventy miles per second of meteor No. (12), and that of seventy-five miles 
per second of meteor No. (9), as evidently in error, the mean geocentric velocity 
of the fourteen remaining observations is 34-3 miles per second, which agrees 


2° BY East. 


53° 


52° 


51° 


50° 


West. Zoek ae 0° 1° 7 East. 


328 REPORT—1863. 

closely with values elsewhere obtained, and hitherto accepted*. The remain- 
ing columns of this Table contain the illuminating power of each meteor 
during the period of its visible flight. The quantity is expressed by the 
volume of ordinary coal-gas which would be required to supply an equal 
illumination for an equal space of time, by combustion with ordinary expe- 
dients in atmospheric air. The heat of this combustion, converted into foot 
pounds, furnishes the numbers for the last column in the Table. They repre- 
sent the mass of meteoric matter, moving with a geocentric velocity of thirty 
miles per second, which such an amount of free caloric, if applied directly, 
would be able to arrest. These may be taken to represent roughly the 
weights of the meteoric particles before dissolution by the heat and pressure 
of their contact with the air. The use of the oxyhydrogen lime-flame, or 
the flame of the electric arc, as the medium of comparison in place of ordinary 
gas-flame, would probably confirm the suspicion that even smaller quantities 
of meteoric matter than these create the generality of falling-stars. 


Taste I, 
Date, = Began. Ended. pC Began. Ended. 
Noj 1863.) GMT. |3 5... 7. S|" — ieee 
$ |Azimuth.| Alti- |Azimuth.| Alti- | S |Azimuth.| Alti- |Azimuth.| Alti- 
Aug. “® |W.fromS.| tude. |W.fromS.) tude. |“ |W.fromS.| tude. |W.fromS.| tude. 
hm s ° ) ° ° ) ) ° ° 

1 9 9 53 0|H.| 266-0 83:0 30°2 62°5 |E. 219-0 61:0 252°3 43°2 

2 9 1018 O|H.) 115°5 rh te 70°7 41°7 |E. 352°8 72:0 337°8 39°2 

3}; 10 9 21 35/H. 79-2 49°2 51:0 20°8 |E. 37°0 58:0 34°7 22°2 

4} 10 9 36 30\ H. 60°0 42:0 50°2 22°8 |E. 41:0 41:0 39°7 22°7 

5] 10 9 46 10) H.| 230-5 20°77 241-2 12°0 |Ca.| 265°3 23°0 281°5 115 

6} 10 9 53 28| H. 99°5 61°3 83°7 51:0 |Ca. 21°8 47°7 29°5 39'5 

7; 10 9 56 45| H.| 1363 31°8 121°3 22°7™\Ca. 91°8 49:0 79°2 29°8 

8 10 |10 4 20)H.| 172-7 16°8 161°2 13:0 |Ca.| 176°6 29°1 155°6 22°7 

9} 10 |10 6 O|H.| 221°5 61:0 212°5 82°5 |E. 256°0 62-0 213°7 59:0 
10| 10 |10 6 35) H. 60:0 68°8 39°8 40°3 |Cr.| 337°5 53°3 1:0 33°'8 
11} 10 /10 9 O/|H. 78°0 73°2 65°2 47°2 |E. 8-0 69°3 22-7 45:2 
12/ 10 |10 11 30) H.} 221°5 55°8 207°5 83°3 |G. | 249°0 57°5 307°8 57:0 
13} 10 (|10 18 50|/H.| 140°2 65:0 77:0 50-2 |Cr.| 275°0 73°0 14:0 55°5 
14} 10 (|10 33 29|H.} 133-0 72°7 92:0 67:0 |Ca.| 357°8 43°3 3°8 33°5 
15| 10 (|10 40 20) H.} 218°7 58°7 219°4 69°3 |Ca.| 316°7 47:8 333°7 40-0 
16} 10 /10 41 30) H. 93°38 43-2 84:0 33°3 |Ca. 44:0 39-0 49°0 30°0 
17} 10 (|10 46 46|H.| 2047 28-7 199-0 27°2 |Ca.| 233°5 39°8 233°5 42°3 
1g| 10 (20 52 26) H.| 155°5 47°5 130°0 45°8 |Ca. 32°8 74:3 44-2 54°3 
19| 10 {ll 7 1/H.| 100-2 31°0 85°7 18°5 |Ca. 53°2 30°5 44°3 15°7 
20; 10 |11 9 O/H. 85°5 64°7 56°7 32°8 |G. Zhe 66°5 34°7 33:3 

ae a= i 
Additional Observations. 

3 wae seat [Cre £2.28:0 24°5 58:0 33°0- 
10 oe eee ha. AG 33°5 10:0 222m 
P4 .. |Ca.| 254°0 51:0 298'8 45°83 | 
13 Ca. 4:8 53:0 18°3 31:2 | 


* The mean height at first appearance of 178 falling stars observed since the time of 
Brandes and Benzenberg (1798) is 70:05 miles. The mean height of disappearance of 
210 shooting-stars is 54°22 miles. The mean length of path of 66 is 46718 miles ; and 
the mean velocity of 37 is 34°35 miles per second, relatively to the earth. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 329 


Taste IT. 
Beginning. End. 
No. ltz.:1.¢:.| Distance | i Distance 
Lat. N. Long. Pee in) from Lat. N. Long. poet from 
mues- | Hawkhurst. mies. | Hawkhurst. 
A ay miles, Gi; or ee mniles 

1 51 2 0 39 E. 86 86 50 42 018 E. 58 66 

2 51 10 0 2W. 73 79 50 48 0 36 W. 44 67 

3 50 53 0 55 W. Vie 95 49 54 1 56 W. 53 143 

4 50 6 a on Ws: 114 173 49 33 2 39 W. 73 188 

in 52 14 3 8E. 55 154 51 55 2 51E 25 120 

6 51 9 0 33 W. 87 99 50 56 1 3W 84 108 

7 52 14 1 20 W. 71 135 5L 57 1 57 W. 52 134 

8 53 34 0 2W. 55 188 53 32 0 52 W. 42 188 

9 51 48 1 30 E. 131 149 51 8 0 35 E. 66 66 
10 50 51 0 0 63 68 50 20 0 27 W. 53 83 
11 50 56 0 15 W. 109 114 50 42 0 41 W. 62 83 
12 51 51 1 45 E. 122 146 51 6 0 35 E. 55 55 
13 | 51 26 0 2W. 79 87 50 57 0 37 W. 58 76 
14 51 13 0 OE. 64 66 51 3 0 2W. 53 58 
15 51 30 i heey aOR 72 84 51 16 0 48 E. 60 64 
16 51 7 1 35 W. 85 124 50 50 2 24 W. 83 151 
17 oo s4, >| ae 8 Ei: 86 179 52 49 1 33 E. 68 149 
18 51 57 0 9W. 76 103 51 41 0 43 W. 71 99 
19 51 18 1 52 W. 62 120 50 56 1 55 W. 35 M11 
20 50 59 0 24 W. 86 95 50 14 118 W. 65 | 122 

From the additional Observations. 

3 50 54 051 W. 70 91 49 34 2 21 W. 62 172 
10 50 51 0 IE. 62 67 50 20 0 25 W. 53 83 
12 51 42 1 37£E 102 123 51 6 0 36 E. 50 51 
13 51 24 0 1€E 74 81 50 52 0 36 W. 59 77 


The light of full moon has been equated by Sir John Herschel (Cape Ob- 
servations, p. 353 et seq.) to 6852 x Sirius, 54,816 x a Lyre, 78,770 x Altair, 
160,000 x a Persei, and to 318,900 x Cor Caroli. It is further compared in 
this place to a flame consuming 43 cubic feet per hour of ordinary coal-gas 
at a distance of 15 yards, or to a flame consuming 17:2 cubic feet of coal-gas 
per second, at the distance of a mile. 

According to Despretz (quoted by Brande, ‘ Manual of Chemistry,’ 1848, 
p. 275), a single cubic foot of ordinary coal-gas containing 147 grains of pure 
carbon and 63 grains of pure hydrogen, would raise the temperature of 677 lbs. 
of distilled water 1° Fahrenheit by its combustion in atmospheric air. The 
mechanical equivalent of this quantity of heat is nearly 522,000 foot- 
pounds, of which 55,675 represent the dynamical energy of a grain weight 
of matter animated by a velocity of thirty miles per second. A single cubic 
foot of coal-gas would, on this assumption, suffice to arrest the motion of 
9-378 grains weight of matter moving with a geocentric velocity of thirty 
miles per second. The weights of the last column are therefore found by 
multiplying the numbers of the preceding column by the constant factor 


9°378 grains. 


330 REPORT—1863. 
Taste III. 
5 ae =o eee 
=. atlas poe of Light of | Consump- | Weight of 
& 195/25 me % a {meteor atition of coal-| meteoric 
No. |S 2/8/53 re b id 1 mile /gasforlumi-| matter 
a) | or ng Thr compared) nous effect| arrested at 
E102 |2 S\azimuth,| alti- | 2 Hawkhurst. |" ¢o full jequalto that} 30 miles per 
ee |=  |W.fromS.) tude. moon. | of meteor. second. 
sec, S 6 cubic feet. | Ibs. oz. grs. 
1 | 41 | 1:0 | 41 218 40 | Altair 0:07 12°6 0 0 109 
2 | 48 | 1:4 | 34 222 40 | Altair ......... 0:07 163 0 0141 
3 | 84 |3°0 | 28 | 213 13 ,|. Jupiter.......... 8°27 4264°0 5 4 162 
4] 71 |1:7 | 38 249 42 .| Jupiter ......... 19°02 5560-0 814 0 
Bal eAG. | oneg llores 193 40 | Venus ......++ 13°70 2356-0 2 14 267 
6 | 26 | 1:0 | 26 234 6 |e Persei ...... 0:07 115 0 0 100 
7 | 38 |1:0 | 38 235 32 | Persel ...... 113 19:4 0 O 168 
8 | 39 | 1:3 | 30 262 TS) Festus! ccvacase on 5°16 1153-0 1 6 359 
9 | 90 |1°2 | 75 | 219 47 al. SITUS: 2... .6-+5 1:69 348-1 0 6 389 
TO, |46) | csay |) es 209 13. | Sirius .oc...00, 0°83 143:0 0 2 363 
11 | 54 |1°6 | 33 228 62 |aLyre  ...... 0718 48°7 0 0 421 
12 |100 | 174 | 71 220 AZ ASITIUS onsgcs=0 505 1:47 354°7 Dade 
13 | 48 | 1:5 | 32 215 26 | Venus ......... 4°85 1251°0 1 8 328 
14 | 18 |0°8 | 23 | 212 34 | a Persei ...... 0-02 35 0 0 29 
15 | 25 |0°5 | 50 216 29 | a@ Persei ...... 0:03 29 0 0 25 
LG AL |. .5ey| 05 238 2 | Cor Caroli 0-06 10-2 0 0 88 
17 | 34 233 33 | > Venus 23°55 4049-0 5 0 48 
18 | 31 232 9) )|gAdtair: acces en 0°13 22:3 0 0 193 
RO) BS} ccs cop 186 46 (| .SIIUS: jnccscscee 1:95 334°8 0 6 274 
20 | 69 | 1°8*| 38 241 1S) | SIUS. .2ovsesse 1°72 532°0 0 10 232 
From the additional Observations. 
3 j117 | 3:0 | 39 206 9 | Jupiter ....+.. 10°09 5207-0 (Tee dame 
10 | 42 | won | ove 208 1D) AiSirius: fgesccseh - 0°82 141:2 0 2 347 
12 | 86 | 174 | 61 223 40 | Sirius ......... lll 265°9 0 5114 
13 | 48 (15 | 32 216 1B de Venus, «..c..00s> 4°56 1175°0 1 7 109 


For future comparisons of the light of shooting-stars, Dr. Heis communi- 
cates the following light-ratios of Dr. Seidel, of Munich. 


@ Venus. Mean maximum light=38-920 x @ Lyre. 
y Jupiter. Ad » = 8237xa Lyre. 
3 Mars. » == 29385 xa Lyre. 


hh Saturn (without ring). br 
The mean light of the moon im any phase 


sin u—v COS v 
formula, L = —————— 


Tv 
of the bright lune, reckoned from the centre of the moon), 
The light of the planets, when not at greatest brilliancy, is also found by 
the formule (full moon=54,816 x a Lyre),— 


: sin v — v COS v 
DapWGjOl Vege. es cess ws = (7-8 x AAP 
i sin vy — v COS v 
= (661 x AA) * 


0-466 x a Lyre. 
is found from Lambert’s 


x mean maximum light (v the angular measure 


x full moon ; 


Light of Jupiter .......... 


. 
99 > 


* N.B. The original record 2-0 (re-estimated vivd voce 1:8) was muccoreee 10 (see 
Catalogue). 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 331 


sin v — v COS uv 
o* ale ele aha) We eienre = (304 x A A')2 
: 3 : sin vy — v COS v 
Light of Saturn (without ring) = (7-46 x BAN? x eae 
where v expresses, as before, the angular measure of the phase, A and A’ the 


Light of Mars x full moon ; 


Erratum in Appenprx (V.) to A Catalogue of Luminous Meteors. British 
Association Report for 1863. 


In Table III. (p. 330) for the numbers of the last two columns read thus. 
Taste III. 


(Consumption yw, 
| ght of me- 
| No. cs pesgll / teoric matter 
effect equal to ee at 30 
|that of meteor. eee, ber BEG 
_ sf 
avoirdupois. 
cubic feet. | oz. grs. 
Dilen  cnesessescnes 1°3 ae et 
Dialed? Pts sseawetaree 1°6 0 14 
a Ht St Naan daviaeasan 42674 8 191 
sl et, aes BREE 556°0 14 85 
ET MT Nirdecescasacas 235°6 4 289 
Bt ete ccneseesessas 1:2 0 10 
Dall aes bisssst=eeccer TE, 0 7 
Site eee revei ces 2 115°3 2 123 
Ge | RY aenitcosatns 34°8 0 301 
MODS WP sesaevenceus 14:3 0 124 
WSs Bird dotecweses 49 0 42 
Mt Seddon eusams 55°5 0 307 
US) Palen saetars 125°1 2 208 
MEER MPOR IS esto. seesee 0-4 0 3 
UPR, olde cxekeasccsts 03 0: a2 
NOs VE 2 esacteees 10 Oc e2 
U7 OS) ee eae 404°9 So 
Liste) Sareareeaaee 2°2 019 
TNO RMSE S cans ales 33°5 0 290 
ATE aM eases vecstces 53°2 1 23 
From the additional Observations. 
BaD Shigsd oe 520°7 10 131 
ee ae 141 0 230 
Ee ee hese. 0052s 26°6 0 122 
Ey a eM = ec cee 1175 2 142 


330 REPORT—1863. 


Taste III. 
= ae tae 
3 See era of Light of| Consump-| Weight of 
Mais elas re c A + meteor at tion of coal-| meteoric 
No. |S ale 2159 no bene 1 mile |gasforlumi-| matter 
——_ — 
=f =| ES el. Wie gc hos call compared) nous effect| arrested at 
LIZA OVUpIel... ss = . 


@erxaap™ » 3 


* N.B. The original record 2-0 (re-estimated vivd voce 1:8) was miscorreeted 1-0 (see 
Catalogue). —— : 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 331 


sin v — v Cosu 


Btexteny  Gaics + ="@04 x AA)? x full moon ; 


Light of Mars 


: ‘ : sin vy — v cosu 
Light of Saturn (without ring) = (7-46 x Daly * Peat: 
where v expresses, as before, the angular measure of the phase, A and A! the 
distances from the earth and sun found in the columns of the Nautical 
Almanack. 

(2.) At Minster, Dr. Heis, assisted by his pupils, observed on the evening 
of the 10th August, 1863— 


from 9" p.m. to 10" p.mw., 93 meteors. 

7 eee ge tha AA ge 

” 11 ”? 3? 12 39 166 9? 

fe LO a Sra. Lay : 

” 1 2 699 11 ” 39 ”? 
547 of these meteors were drawn upon four lithographed charts of the 
heavens. According to the custom of Dr. Heis, groups of parallel paths were 
represented by single lines, to the number of 68. These average courses 
being transferred to a 30-inch celestial globe and prolonged backwards, in- 
dicated, as in former years, the existence of three radiant points. 


From A, a= 45°, =56°, came 250 meteors =46 per cent. 


7 bao 08 6 — 595, 89 f =16 55 

” N, a= 15°, 5=86°, ” 87 ” =16 ” 

» Uncertain Radiants Pe ical = =22 a 
547 100 


Trains of these meteors (of great permanency) were observed in a comet 
seeker for nearly three minutes in the following order :— 
h mi s 


1. August 9. 9 47 40 = toa Ist mag.*, train 130 seconds. 


eee | 10. 9 3118 = 9 a 
o », 10. 9°50 35 = ¥ oF oe we 
Ber ys; 0-+L0.<10-38 26-<= ton eb mag*y,-~80 € 
eee 10. 1158 26 = oe teen cg: 
foe, | 10012. 1 53 = toa marty 168, 
fee ee 10.12 52 20 = 3 Jun) GO Et 


332 REPORT—1863. 


E. from Greenwich. 
5° 7° g° ge 10° 
53° 53° 

a ——————— 


gaa 
gees 6 
a trenel EE ait 


52°} " ~6 1-, 52° 

ea atid MUNSTER a, 

De } 
\GAESDONCK @|D0RSTEN —— | 
\ \ | 
ce Pd a 
: { 

- 


s 
FRANKFURT 


9° 10° 


Simultaneous observations were undertaken by M. Heis and his coadjutors 


° ‘ “a m s 
at Miinster....(M.) N. lat. 51 58 10; E. long. 30 31 


Peckeloh ..(P.) =) 9211790 Bs 32 29 
Morstens)::..(Dy? *;, &1*40-0 pS 27 49 
Gaesdonck ..(G.) ,, 5140 0 as 24 30 
Straelen....(St.) ,, 51 26 0 Ef 24 57 
Siegburg . .B) » 9048 0 s 2959 
«(00 720 a 
Rheine-....(R.) ,, 5216 0 < 29 49 


a 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 333 

The train of No. 6 was at first straight and narrow, and grew gradually 
wider. It became curved and wound itself into a loop; after separating into 
fragments it dissolved away. 

Similar features to this were observed at Euston Road Observatory, London, 
by Mr. T. Crumplen. The tail of a meteor at 10" 46™ p.m., on the 10th of 
August, at first was spindle-shaped and 4° or 5° in length. In 43 minutes 
it faded gradually away, curving itself until the ends were nearly buckled 
into a circular form. 


The following comparative observations were then collected :— 


Taste IY. 
. {ok First Height, in 
Hour. 5 (53)_ . | appearance. End. Englich miles. 
No. | Date. Minster Sie. Train. 
mean time. | & | 8S Appear- 
Ss 2 a= | d= | «= = ance, |End. 
1863.; h m s 3 2 e “ 
1 |Aug. 8 9 38 38 |M.!1 | With | 268 +20 | 264 (44) 
G. | 1 | With | 348 574, 299 ; 10! 124 75} 
2 8} 94234 |M.|1 | With | 195 57 | 205 | 44 
Ere BS 15 { 803| 269 503 64 | 64 
3 8 9 43 23 |M./1 | With | 160 65 | 190 43 
a (ae san 58 G9 a 22 82 39 | 39 
4 8 9 50 32 | D. | 2 | With | 170 76 | 200 54 
Erie hes 0 | .85| 2483 | 763 
Seale een 138 65 | 155 55 84 55 
5 8 95419 |D. | 2 | With | 330 88 | 240 74 
G. | 4 eee 343, 703; 3:9 723 89 79 
6 8 95319 |M. | 3 216 27 | 213 9 
| Gralies ae 277 643) 261 57 77 25 
7 8 101617 |M.| 2 | With | 296 12 | 292 3 
ses ee! aos 127 66 | 137 56 65 | 25 
8 8| 10 23 55 | F. | 2 51 64 | 59 66 
j eed ie 64 | +204 13;+9 72 53 
9 10; 914 9 |M.| % | With | 234 +21 | 235 —12 
a al! ee. 200 60 | 208 +31 106 | 42 
10 10} 9 2151 |M./ 3 324 40 | 336 23 
St. | 4 2 35 | 358 +28 58 48 
11 10 9 2443 |G. | 1 315 29 | 291 —14 
Peete 267 25 | 255 —17 101 48 


334 REPORT—1863. 


TaBrE IV. (continued.) 


ob lcaeaies First Height, in 
Hour. 5 3 5 appearance. End. English miles. 
No.| Date. | Mimster | 3 | 5! Train. Senet 
mean time. | 5 | a Appear- |i 
S2 a= é= a= o= ance. B 
1863.| h m s ~ 
12 |Aug.10 9 25 22 M. | 2 Bas 236 34 | 239 +24 
G. | 1 wee 215 50 | 310 41 65 55 
13 10 9 31 14 M. | @ | With 40 55 5 52 
(Ce pel oe 17 393) 15 32 
Rood aes 5 55 | 340 30 35 29 
14 10 9 42 47 M. | 1 With | 216 2a) | 213 8 
Ss. 1 Nas 175 52 | 185 34 58 44 
15 10 9 50 35 M. | 1 With 33 58 0 65 
Pavia Bf 162 83 | 238 74 35 25 
16 10 957 3 |M.| 2 | With | 175 54 | 183 45 
Boaee AS 217 24 | 212 8 ? 35 
17 10} 10 7 10 M. | 1 With | 237 14 | 233 2 
ae eee 11 | 257 rt 
S. ces ae 207 38 | 216 +15 82 51 
18 10; 10 910 M.}| 1 With | 263 5 | 250 — 8 
Seer ee oe 32 | 235 | 413 ns: 
19 10} 10 12 29 M. {1 With | 183 61 | 194 45 
Ss. ii 2 146 65 | 147 56 101 58 
20 10} 10 12 52 M. | 2 275 37 | 261 26 
G. | 3 Eco 329 37 | 315 30 75 55 
21 id} 10 16 54 |P. y% | With | 194 56 | 190 33 
rem is | .. | 170 75/171 | +53] 184 | 65 
22 10; 10 19 24 M. | 2 304 1 | 296 —7 
G.| 2 329 + 5 | 320 13 97 79 
23 10) 10 32 34 M. | 2 278 —10 | 274 19 
Dee Eee 292 2 | 286 13 46 23 
24 10; 10 33 9 M. | 1 With | 268 10 | 260 16 
G. | 1 wae 308 — 5 | 297 133 48 37 
25 11} 1050 6 M. | 1 With | 315 + 1) 312 —10 
De ee 83 | 238 | +65 
BES oes dist 307 7 | 304 —15 82 46 
26 Jl} 10 52 11 M. | l With | 301 29 | 286 +18 
Ly eae foe BA Bos een ps 113 46 
27 11} 10 53 29 |M.| 2 | With 3 10 8 14 
F. geo 51 +56 63 +55 ? 55 
28 US Es 1 2F M.} 1 With | 290 —23 | 280 —23 
F | 9 |... | 244 | 414] 277 | 414|° 48° | 42 


Average of 28 meteors, August 8th to 10th, beginning 77-9, end 48-3 miles 
high. 

The comparative observations of meteors by telegraph, undertaken between 
Rome and Civita Vecchia in August 1861, are printed at length in the © 
‘ Bulletino Meteorologico’ of the Observatory of the University of Rome, vol. i. 
for 1862. 

The following mean heights are obtained by calculation :— 

Average of 19 meteors, August 4th to 8th; beginning 57-1, end 46°5 miles high. 


a 23 meteors, August 10th to 11th; a 69°4, ,, 56°6 2 
Total of 42 meteors, August 4th to 11th; sy 63°9, ,, 52°1 + 


Comparative observations executed in England at the same time afforded 
the following results :— 


Average of 6 meteors, August 6th to 11th; beginning 70-3, end 44°6 miles high. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 335 


Hence it appears that the height of shooting-stars in August 1863 was 
little different from their height in 1861. 

(3.) Professor J. Jos. Bianconi of Bologna has addressed the following con- 
siderations to the British Meteorological Society, respecting a mechanical 
theory of the light and heat of luminous meteors advanced formerly by him- 
self in 1839, and recently communicated to the British Meteorological 
Society. The observations of the luminous trains of meteors conducted by 
Professor Respighi, Dr. Casoni and himself, in August 1863, have tended to 
confirm Professor Bianconi in the opinion that heat, partly that of friction, 
and partly that of compression, is sufficient to volatilize superficial portions 
of meteorites, so as to produce the rounded edges and erosions of their sur- 
faces, as well as the atmosphere, or halo of light, about the meteors, which 
remain in a luminous streak upon their track. ‘‘ Admitting that the heat of 
friction is sufficiently powerful to maintain the fusion of the surface, the incan- 
descence of the planetoid, and besides this the sublimation of the melted matter 
which goes to form the tail, we see that this feature can only be developed 
where the heating conditions have the greatest power—namely, near the 
middle of the flight. It will begin gradually, at first not so ample, becoming 
very abundant at the middle of the flight, then diminishing again, and just 
ceasing when the course of the meteor is so slackened as to be incapable of 
producing the necessary heat....... We find also in the undulated form of 
the luminous tail of the bolide, the movements peculiar to heated vapours left 
in the middle of the atmosphere. In short, these few observations lead us to 
conclude, first, that heat produced, as we are authorized to believe, by friction 
is not only calculated to produce incandescence and fusion, but that it attains 
to a higher degree—that of causing a sublimation of the surface-matter of 
the asteroids, which sublimation or volatilization forms a luminous atmosphere 
around the falling body, varying in volume according to the intensity of the 
source of heat; secondly, that this luminous atmosphere left to itself, the tail, 
disappears partially and by degrees, principally on account of its dimensions, 
temperature, and density; and that, whilst its particles accumulate con- 
centrically, it contracts and changes its form with the variations peculiar to 
vapours.” 

The observation of a large bolide with an enduring streak, on the evening 
of the 10th of August, 1863, by Professor Bianconi, and Dr. Casoni at 
Bologna, is noticed in the Catalogue of this Report. 


VI. Transactions or THE ImpERIAL ACADEMY OF VIENNA, Vol. xliv. 


Dr. Julius Schmidt has represented varying phases of the luminous streaks 
of meteors near the radiant point, on the 10th of August 1860 and 1861. 
Trains of shooting-stars (visible to the naked eye for two or three seconds) 
were traced in the field of a telescope for one, two, or even three minutes 
before they finally disappeared. Points of explosion of the meteors produced 
stationary clouds of light ; but intermediate lines of the train moved in various 
figures with looped curves to a distance from the stationary points. Train- 
fragments were observed to separate from one another three degrees in three 
minutes of time. 


VII. American Journat or Science anv Art, vol. xxxvi. July 1863. 


“Remarks on the luminosity of meteors as affected by latent heat,” by 
Benjamin V. Marsh, Philadelphia. 


336 : REPORT—1863. 


Mr. Marsh presents in a tabular view the heating power of a constant 
volume of air drawn from different heights in the atmosphere, upon an equal 
volume of air at standard pressure, when the latent heat is rendered sensible 
by condensation of the air to standard pressure. The results of Mr. Marsh 
are here reproduced. 


Heating power 
of 1 volume (upon 


| Saji anil Dilatation. Number of 1 volume of 
tithe No. of the volumes corresponding to one | standard pres- 
errs igh dita volume at the surface of sure), when 
Bf the earth. condensed to 
standard pres- | 
sure. 
n at ° 
na. re on x 143 
3-43 2 72 1m 
6-86 4 1674.8) 
10°29 8 126 | 
13-72 16 135°" 
17:15 32 139 
20°58 64 142 
24:01 128 143 
27°44 256 143 
30°87 512 143 
34°30 1024 143 | 
37°73 2048 143 
41-16 4096 143 
44-59 8192 143 
48-02 16384 143 
51:45 32768 143 | 
54°88 65536 143 
58°31 131072 143 | 
61:74 262144 143 | 
65°17 524288 143 
68-60 1048576 143 
102-90 1073741824 143 
137-20 1099511627776 143 
171-50 1125899906842624 143 
205-80 1152921504606846976 143 


The bulk of air compressed before a meteorite, determines the absolute 
quantity of heat made sensible, independently of the height of the trajectory 
above the surface of the earth, until the height of twenty-four miles is 
reached in the descent. From this point the quantity of heat made sensible 
gradually diminishes, and falls rapidly to half the quantity of the supreme — 
heights, between ten miles and three miles above the earth’s surface. 

Mr. Marsh points out the intense illumination which a uniform develop- 
ment of free heat must produce in the highest strata of the atmosphere. At 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 337 


a lower elevation the meteor, in the words of M. Quetelet, “ will have entered 
a medium which has not the elements necessary to its continued brilliancy ;” 
for here the potential heat extracted in a given tract of the meteor’s flight 
suffers a rapid decrease, and the density of the air to be ignited, a sudden 
increase upon the values of these quantities in the higher regions of the 
atmosphere. Mr. Marsh produces no evidence that the pressure encountered 
by a meteorite in its flight through the air is in reality constant, in the 
manner supposed in this explanation. 


VIII. 


An exceedingly brilliant meteor appeared over the United States of America 
on the 6th of August 1860, at 7" 38™ p.w., New York mean time, about five 
minutes after sunset. Professor Newton has estimated the path of this 
meteor at 225 or 250 miles in length, accomplished with a geocentric velocity 
of eighteen miles per second, from thirty-nine miles over the southern line 
of Pennsylvania to thirty-six miles high, W. or N.W. of Buffalo. Corrected 
for terrestrial attraction, the geocentric velocity is 16-6 miles per second, and 
the heliocentric velocity 30-4 miles per second towards R. A. 67° 45!, N. 
Decl. 33° 25!. 

The hyperbolic elements of this meteor cannot be reduced to elliptic 
elements of its orbit by any but the largest corrections applied to the indi- 
vidual observations. 


IX. ‘ Puystave pu Gonz,’ by M. Ad. Quetelet (Brussels, 1861). 


In a chapter devoted to shooting-stars, M. Quetelet describes the combined 
observations organized by himself in 1824 at Brussels, to determine the velo- 
cities of shooting-stars. Up to that time, only five instances existed where 
the velocities of shooting-stars had been determined, and M. Quetelet added 
six cases to the number. Their average velocity was seventeen miles per 
second. This velocity is planetary, but Benzenberg continued to maintain 
that shooting-stars migrated from the moon. 

M. Quetelet first drew attention to the prevalence of shooting-stars upon 
the 10th of August, on the occasion of an observation reported by M. Sauveur, 
at the Session of the Roy. Acad. of Brussels, 1836, Dec. 3rd*. 

The late E. C. Herrick, at Newhaven, U.S., made an independent announce- 
ment of the same date in the American Journal of Science (vol. xxxiii. 
p- 176), on the occasion of an accidental view of the phenomenon in 1837. 

The 2nd January, 15th October, and 7th December are characterized by 
M. Quetelet as favourable for the return of star-showers, and his Catalogue of 
similar phenomena has been made the subject of important conclusions by 
- Professor Newton (Appendix No. IV.). 


X. A New Barrish Merzorric Iron (Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, 
New Series, for July 1862). 


A new British meteoric iron, the second hitherto discovered, has been 
analyzed by Dr. Murray Thomson, and described by Dr. J. A. Smith, of the 
Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh. The meteorite was excavated, in 1827, 
from a bed of firm clay 4 feet below the surface, in the village of Newstead, 


* In England this date was noticed in the Philosophical Magazine for 1821 (p. 347), by 
Mr. John Farey, in a remarkable series of questions concerning shooting-stars. Mr. T. 
Forster devoted the date to a short discussion on shooting-stars in his volume of the 
. oe Calendar,’ published in England in 1824. 

1863. Z 


338 REPORT—18638. 


near Melrose, Roxburghshire. The mass, 323 lbs. in weight, was preserved 
upon the spot until 1861, when it was subjected to examination by Dr. 
Alexander Smith in Edinburgh, with results which prove the meteoric nature 
of the mass. In size and figure the meteorite is 10? inches in length, con- 
sisting of a warty mass 13 foot in girth, joined to an acuminated extremity, 
unlike any manufactured metal, but suggesting the idea that the extremity 
which is now the smaller and more pointed first reached the earth in its 
descent, while the larger extremity shows the part least affected by the 
shock. Casts and photographs having been taken, the meteorite was divided 
longitudinally into two portions by the saw. ‘The surfaces were filed and 
polished, and the figures of Widmanstiitten were developed by the action of 
nitric acid, 


These are more minute than in the generality of aérosiderites, but attest 
the meteoric character of the mass. Under the pressure necessary for taking 
a wax impression (whereof figure 1 is an electrotype copy), the smaller half 
of the mass separated into two portions. Such veins of separation are not 
uncommon among meteoric irons. The specific gravity of the lobed frag- 
ment was found to be 6:1919, that of the pointed fragment 6-°7400. The 
difference in hardness between the centre and outer layers of the metal was 
easily perceived by the use of the graving tool, and may be explained by the 
effects of sudden cooling, especially at the point, from contact with the surface 
of the earth. 

The specific gravity of the whole mass was 6:517, that of the unbroken 
half being 6-499. Transverse slices of the lobed portion and of the pyra- 


midal portion yielded respectively the specific gravities 6°350 and 6-750. 
The etching, fiz. 3, demonstrates the closer grain of the iron near the pointed 


ON STEAMSHIP PERFORMANCE. 339 


extremity, and fig. 2 the crystallization near the middle of the rounded por- 
tion of the mass. The iron, especially at the pyramidal part, is very brittle: 
so much so, that no difficulty is experienced in reducing a fragment from this 
part of the meteorite to powder in an iron mortar. 

From an analysis of from 60 to 70 grains of filings of the iron obtained in 
the first process of dissection, Dr. Murray Thomson obtained the following 
proportions :— 


Lg ae ae 93°51 per cent. 
Niekel’........ 4-86 ,, 
licaiebens vist. a. +" Ot | 4033 
Carbon. %. 7: 5% 0-59 _ 
99°37, 


Fragments were also examined separately, for carbon and for silica, with 
the following results :— 
Carbon... 07. 0-56 per cent. 
Silica. cuca ete 0:90 ies.) 


agreeing closely with the preceding analysis. 

Portions of this meteoric iron, with a plaster cast of the entire mass, are 
preserved in the Natural History Museum of Edinburgh. The principal part 
is deposited in the Collection of the British Museum. 


Fourth Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance. 


ConTENTs, 
- Report. 
Two sheets of Indicator-diagrams of H.M.S. ‘ Victor Emmanuel.’ 
Appendix.—City of Dublin and Holyhead Company’s Returns :—Abstract of Paper by 
Mr. W. Watson, Managing Director of the City of Dublin Steam Packet Company, 
on London and Dublin Communication (with Table A). 
Table 1.—Engineer’s Log of City of Dublin Steam Packet Company’s Steamship 
‘Munster,’ June and July 1861. 
Table 2.—Abstract of Log of Pacific Royal Mail Company’s Steamship ‘ Quito,’ January 
27th, 1864, to February 5th, 1864. 
Table 3—Table showing performances of the Royal West India Mail Company’s 
Steamers, from Southampton to St. Thomas, from June 2nd, 1862, to June 2nd, 1863. 
ad 4.—Ditto, from St. Thomas to Southampton, from July 30th, 1862, to July 30th, 
3. 
Table 5.—Summations of the Indicator-diagrams taken on the voyages included in 
Table 3, Southampton to St. Thomas. 
Tables 6, 7, 8, and 9.—Four Logs of voyages of the ‘ Great Eastern,’ for 1863. 
Table 10.—Abstract of Engineer’s Log of the Steamship ‘ Great Eastern,’ 18 voyages, 
1860 to 1863. 
Table 11.—Returns of H.M.S. ‘ Victor Emmanuel.’ 
Table 12.—Return of the results of performance of 45 vessels in the service of the 
Messageries Impériales, for the year 1861. 
Table 13.—Return of the results of performances of 49 vessels in the service of the 
Messageries Impériales, for the year 1862. 
Table 14.—Particulars of 12 Steamships indicated by letters of reference. 


“The object of the Committee is to make public such recorded facts through the medium 
of the Association, and being accessible to the public in that manner, to bring the greatest 
amount of science to the solution of the difficulties now existing, to the scientific improve- 
ment of the forms of vessels and the qualities of marine engines. They will especially 
endeavour to guard against information so furnished to them being used in any other way, 
and they trust they may look for the cooperation of Members of Yacht Clubs having steam 

z2 


340 REPORT—1863. 
yachts, of shipowners, as well as of steamship builders and engineers.” — Third Report, 
1861, p. 16. 


At the meeting of the British Association held at Cambridge in 1862 the 
Committee were reappointed, and the following noblemen and gentlemen 
were nominated to serve on the Committee :— 


The Duke of Sutherland. Hon. Captain Egerton, R.N. 
The Earl of Gifford, M.P.* Hon. Leopold Agar Ellis, M.P. 
The Earl of Caithness. J. E. McConnell, Esq., C.E. 
The Lord Dufferin. Wm. Smith, Esq., C.E. 
Wn. Fairbairn, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S. Professor J. M. Rankine, LL.D. 
J. Scott Russell, Esq., F.R.S. J. R. Napier, Esq. 
Admiral E. Paris, C.B. (Imperial R. Roberts, Esq., C.E. 

French Navy). Henry Wright, Esq., Secretary. 


With power to add to their number. 


The following noblemen and gentlemen, having consented to assist your 
Committee, were, during the present year, elected as corresponding mem- 
bers :-— 


Lord C. Paget, M.P., C.B. | Captain Robertson, R.N. 
The Earl of Durham. | Captain Sulivan, R.N., C.B. 
The Marquis of Hartington, M.P. | Captain Mangles. 

Viscount Hill. | T. R. Tufnell, Esq. 

Lord John Hay. | Wm. Froude, Esq. 
Admiral Elliott. | W. Just, Esq. 

Captain Hope, R.N. _ John Elder, Esq. 

Captain Ryder, R.N. | David Rowan, Esq. 

Robert Dalglish, Esq., M.P. | J. MeF. Gray, Esq. 


Your Committee have the pleasure of stating that, at the unanimous 
request of the members of the Committee, his Grace the Duke of Sutherland 
undertook the office of Chairman. 

Your Committee have pleasure in reporting satisfactory progress, and that 
they have had an increasing amount of useful information placed at their 
disposal. Much greater interest is now taken in the objects of the inquiry, 
and a still increasing number of observers have adopted the forms of the 
Committee, for recording the performances of vessels. 

The importance of the information collected by your Committee is attract- 
ing the attention of steamship owners, as well as scientific investigators ; 
and it is hoped the result of greater efficiency and economy in the application 
of steam, as well as improvements in the construction of steam-vessels, will 
be the result of these Reports; and your Committee have reason to believe 
that considerable advantages have already been derived from their labours by 
steamship owners. 

The future Publication of the Returns of Steamship Performance.—This sub- 
ject has seriously engaged the attention of the Committee. The question has 
been raised, whether the continuance of the Publication ought to take place 
in the Transactions of the British Association, or whether it should be made 
through the medium of some publication of a more strictly mechanical nature, 
and more widely circulated among professional engineers and shipbuilders. 
The Committee are unanimously of opinion that these Returns should be con- 
tinued and extended, and that they should both be preserved and published. 

The collection of these Returns is a matter now so completely organized 

* Since deceased. 


sian 


ON STEAMSHIP PERFORMANCE. 341 


that it has ceased to cause either labour or occupation to the Committee. A 
single officer can readily perform the work of collection, and it seems that 
nothing further is required from the British Association for the future than 
such an annual grant as would serve to compensate the collecting officer and 
ensure the publication of the information obtained. 

Exact Records of Qualities and Performance of War Steamers.—It is well 
known to members of the British Association, that one of the chief objects in 
the original appointment of this Committee was to induce the Lords of the 
Admiralty to take the steps necessary to obtain such exact scientific data as 
should serve for the determination of true principles to be used in the design 
and construction of steam fleets. For this purpose exact observations are 
necessary to be made with fitting instruments, specially constructed, upon 
steamships of large size, in smooth water and rough, laden and light, towing 
and being towed, going slow and going quick, with clean bottoms and with 
foul, under predetermined varieties of condition. Such exact experiments 
are essential to the promotion of the science of naval construction, and can 
only be made by the naval service of the country, for whose special benefit 
they are designed. The British Association has freely, for many years, ex- 
pended its own funds for this great national purpose, and it only applied to 
the Admiralty when their own exertions could not accomplish anything fur- 
ther without aid. 

The Committee report, with deep regret, that all their exertions, repeated 
year by year, have failed to move their lordships to collect a systematic series 
of scientific data of this sort, either for the use of their own officers, who 
ardently desire such professional information, or for the use of science at 
large ; the only objection they state being that such knowledge would cost 
money, and that they do not think fit to authorize the necessary expenditure. 

The Committee have, therefore; to report that this portion of their mission 
has entirely failed, and they think they could render no service to science by 
any further communication with the Admiralty on a matter which seems 
hopeless. 

The annexed correspondence will show how they have done their duty, 
and how the Admiralty have met them :— 


“BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. COMMITTEE ON 
STEAMSHIP PERFORMANCE. 


“ Memorandum with reference to the third Resolution of the British Asso- 
ciation Committee on Steamship Performance, at a Meeting held at 
Stafford House, on the 5th June, 1863, his Grace the Duke of Sutherland 


im the Chair ; namely, 


“That the Chairman be requested to communicate to the First Lord of the 
Admiralty the strong desire which is felt by the members of the British 
Association for the Advancement of Science to obtain certain scientific data 
by exact experiments upon powerful and large steamships, and which it is 
impossible to obtain by other means than those at the command of the 
Admiralty.” 

The Committee, having now carried on their labours systematically during 
several years, have collected a large number of records of the practical per- 
formances of steamships at sea, which the British Association have pub- 
lished annually in their Transactions, and which have been acknowledged by 
many of the large steamship companies to be of material use to them in 
improving the service and economy of their ships. 


342 REPORT—18638. 


But there remain very important facts to be determined, which can be ob- 
tained by direct experiment only, and which only the Admiralty can pro- 
cure. These facts are wanted as data for the scientific construction of future 
ships. At present each shipbuilder, or designer of ships, is obliged to con- 
struct them from the limited number of elements he may have been able to 
obtain from his personal experience. What is wanted is that these data 
should be obtained from experiments made publicly and on a national scale, 
so as to give general and entire confidence in the results, and so that they 
might be accepted as data for naval construction in all time to come. 

The experiments required for this purpose are of the following nature :— 

I.—Experiments on actual stability in still water; or exact measures of 
angles of keel at various degrees of immersion. It would be well that these 
should be made under the following four conditions :— 

1. When the ship is launched. 

2, When she is completed with her machinery, but empty. 
3. When she is armed and equipped. 

4, With her seagoing complement of stores. 

II.—Experiments on the time and angles of oscillation of a ship in still 
water, under the same four conditions. 

TII.—Experiments on the measure of resistance of one ship towed by 
another, under the same four conditions. 

IV.—Experiments on the same ship when propelled under the last three 
of the four conditions, by her own machinery, at the same speed as when 
towed. 

V.—Experiments relating chiefly to the machinery and the propeller. 

1. The exact measures of steam power developed in the engine. 
2. Exact measures of the power expended by the engines. 

3. Exact measures of the direct propelling force of the screw. 
4, Exact measures of the power applied to turning the screw. 

VI.—Experiments 

1. On a vessel with her bottom foul from her voyage. 
2. The same vessel with that foulness removed. 
3. The same vessel polished as finely as possible. 

VII.—A careful series of records of the same vessel at sea, her inclination 
under sail, her times of oscillation on the waves, the speed and nature of the 
waves, the force of the wind, and the performance of the engines and boilers. 


Tf all this could be done on one of the largest ships of the newest class, 
more valuable information could be obtained than has ever yet been ascer- 
tained in the history of the world. 

His Grace the Duke of Sutherland, the Chairman, having submitted the 
preceding suggestions to His Grace the Duke of Somerset, First Lord of the 
Admiralty, the following reply was received :— 


« Admiralty, 7th July, 1863. 

«‘ GenttrmEn,—My Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty having had 
under their consideration the memorandum of the Committee on Steamship Per- 
formance, drawn up at the meeting held at Stafford House on the 5th of last 
month, I am commanded to acquaint you that their lordships are of opinion 
that experiments could only be satisfactorily made to ascertain the stability, 
oscillations, and resistance of large ships under the various conditions specified 
under clauses 1, 2, 3, and 4, by appropriating a ship expressly for the pur- 
pose; and their lordships regret to say that they could not undertake the 


ON STEAMSHIP PERFORMANCE. 343 


carrying out of such experiments, which must necessarily occupy much time 
and entail considerable expense. 

*«T am at the same time to observe that some of the experiments proposed 
as to the stability of ships, and as to the time of their periodic ro!ling in 
still water, are now in progress, and will be communicated to the Committee. 
Others again are published from time to time in the tables of results of trials 
of ships, from which nearly all the practical information sought may readily 
be deduced. 

“T am, Gentlemen, 
«Your very humble Servant, 
“C, Pacer.” 
“To the Members of the Committee of the 
British Association on Steamship Performance.” 


The Royal Navy.—Although the Admiralty declined to accede to the re- 
quest of the Committee to obtain the valuable experimental information 
requested for the advancement of the science of naval architecture, they have 
continued to allow their officers to furnish the usual returns of performance 
of Her Majesty’s ships. Numerous scientific officers connected with H.M.’s 
steam department continue to furnish valuable returns, and the chief engineers 
of several of Her Majesty’s steamships have continued their interesting 
records ; a selection therefrom is appended to this Report, together with two 
sheets of Indicator Diagrams of Her Majesty’s steamship ‘ Victor Emmanuel.’ 

The Royal Mail Companies—The West India Mail Company, the Penin- 
sular and Oriental Company, the Pacific Royal Mail Company, the Dublin and 
Holyhead Company, all continue the system of recording their performances 
in the way recommended by the Committee; a selection from some of thesc 
records has been made by this Committee, and will be found in the Appendix. 

Foreign Mail Companies.—The large fleet of the Messageries Impériales 
continue to forward the record of their performances in the manner originally 
commenced by M. Behic, as managing director of this important Company, 
and now Minister of Public Works in France. The returns of this Company 
(in continuation of those given in the third Report) for the years 1861 and 
1862 are appended. The Austrian Lloyd’s Company also continue to forward 
the record of the performances of the vessels composing their fleet, through 
the kind offices of Col. Paradis and M. Otto Dingler. 

The Mercantile Marine Service—The Committee, to meet the wishes of 
certain steamship owners, issued a new form of steam log, to be kept by 
marine engineers (the name of each vessel being indicated by a letter of refer- 
ence, a corresponding list being kept by the owners, and the name of any 
vessel only to be given up by their consent). The Committee are happy to say 
that that issue has produced valuable records of eleven steamships, of which 
they now publish a systematic abstract. 

A continuation of the engineer’s logs of the ‘Great Eastern,’ as also a 
general summary thereof, will be found in the Appendix. 

Your Committee recommend that the thanks of the British Association be 
given to the various gentlemen who have contributed returns during the pre- 
sent year, for their services to science and their assistance to this Committee 
in organizing observations, and express a hope that some method may be 
devised of continuing the publication of the system of records now so well 
organized by this Committee ; and that some other body than our Admiralty 
may be found willing to afford those means of advancing the science of naval 
architecture, which they refuse. 


344, REPORT—18638. 


The sum voted to this Committee by the Association (£100) has been ex- 
pended, and it is anticipated the expenses will be slightly in excess of the 
sum granted ; but as all the accounts had not been received, the exact state- 
ment could not be prepared in time for the Meeting. 

Your Committee, in conclusion, have the painful duty of recording the 
death of the Earl of Gifford, who was an active and estimable member of the 
Committee. (Signed) SUTHERLAND, 

Chairman. 


Offices of the Committee, 
19 Salisbury Street, Strand, London, W.C. 


APPENDIX. 
City of Dublin and Holyhead Company’s Returns. 


The following particulars relative to the four vessels employed on the mail 
service between Dublin and Holyhead were embodied in a paper read before 
the Institution of Civil Engineers, last year, by Mr. W. Watson, Managing 
Director of the City of Dublin Steam Packet Company ; and will be read with 
interest in connexion with the Tables of the performances of the ‘Ulster’ and 
‘Munster,’ which are appended, and also with reference to the Tables which 
have been given in preceding Reports. 

London and Dublin Communication.—The London and North-Western 
Railway Company and the City of Dublin Steam Packet Company having 
agreed to united action, passed a Bill through Parliament, in 1855, to sanction 
and facilitate their arrangements. 

The Government then made a communication to the Companies, as to the 
requirements of the Post Office for two services, one by day and the other by 
night, to be completed in half an hour less time than that which had been 
already proposed, and this to be guaranteed under heavy pecuniary penalties 
for every minute of excess, arising from causes even beyond control. The 
Companies agreed to undertake this service, but altogether declined to submit 
to penalties for loss of time arising from fogs or other causes wholly beyond 
their control. The subject having been allowed to lie dormant for another 
year, the Members of Parliament for Ireland collectively urged on the Prime 
Minister so forcibly the expediency and necessity for providing for the 
improved means of communication at the public expense, as had been 
formerly dorie when the new Holyhead Road and Telford Bridges were 
constructed, that the matter was at last taken up seriously, and the Govern- 
ment agreed to carry into effect the plan recommended in 1853, and which 
eventually received the cordial approval of the Lords of the Treasury. ; 

The main provisions of the new postal contract were, first, that the entire 
distance between London and Kingstown was to be performed in eleven hours 
(eleven hours and a half being allowed to Dublin), assigning four hours for 
the sea passage, subject to fines for loss of time, unless arising from weather 
or other causes beyond control; secondly, that four steam packets should be — 
provided, each 300 feet in length and 1700 tons burthen builder’s measure- 
ment, with engines of 600 nominal horse-power ; thirdly, that express trains 
should be appropriated exclusively to the Irish traffic ; and fourthly, a morning 
and evening departure from each capital. The Improved Service was arranged ~ 
to be commenced in January 1861, two years being allowed by the contract 
for building the vessels. : 


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IPS INDICATED BY LETTERS OF REFERENCE 


Lorren ov Revennxce, | B ¢ D F F G i 
Date of build | 1856 1 1851 | 1 1855 1857 
| Built ron | : i ; iron 
| Propelled by screw rm 3 ow 
| Longth 326-4 19 0 2003 a2 2378 y 
| Breadth I3.1 401 i 0 ) 162 ‘ 
| Depth of bold °5°g 10:2 100 ae a, a 
Tonnage gross | 3 2 2107 2 1007 1710 
| Nominal horse-power 500 F ) Fi 400 0 200 
Numbor of cylinders a 3 3 2 J 2 2 
: Diameter in inches 82 0 70 in ra Oh a6 
3 Stroke of piston in inches “ 72 4 aa ry a a ‘6 
5 | Revolution of propeller for ono of en 5 - i are i 
| Air-pump diametor 7 by n 31 1 Shiv doin 
Air-pump stroke Q 204 oojin, tin ‘ 3 
= ls Number of nir-purmps a. j|eats 3 F 5 ; : 1 
: Displacement of piston 2 | | | | 
EI Diaplaoecenb AE gingarn S| 12 | 198 1398 | ove | no | ao | a 
& Vacuum maintained! | | 
= Feed-pamp 5 | gop 254 u ss 8 
4 Feed-purmps, nuraber of atl) a ‘ 2 | 2 eels a 
& Displacen f piston ) | | | 
~ = = | 003 | 26 248 vo | 175 us 110 
g Er; a eens =R 22 , 2 iio, | 48 Lins 2 | w 
as = Exhaust from each cylinder 204 «10 | 17) « 10 | 17 t}1 nN] 13 wi 12 
a : Diameter of exhaust = D 197 198 1 | 310 200 277 215 
= = Slido-valve travel UL ) ce 8h 
= = = | Length of =D 43 > | 0 yi ae 
eRe 2 A SES 2 3 | Width of ait rr 085 007 ova 003 058 013 
= = a — = = | Arca of piston + area of port 20) 208 193 
a : 5 2 s= 2 23 8 z | 1=D 0200 Ost | | -o9s 030 
= : i | t off at ) | re ry 
| Diameter of propeller 1 rer. | aurea lu it. | 16M bin 
yy | Pitot of ditto 1 20f 29 18f 18: 1 9 21 
| Total firograte, feet 408 260 270 | 143 1h Mt 
| =p 43 4 sor | “¢ 762 | 44 
Total tal il 6500 200 so | ) 3600 HOT 
== /z | =n D+ 207 2g 202 | 5 | ons 1Ba 
sli = Firegrate 21 9 | oa | 292 213 
zlt | Pressure in ¥ lors 10 iL 16 15 
23/2 Revol 17} } % | 2 
us | Revolution of propeller per minut il 40 yt 
Velocity of piston, feet per minute | 213 7 Oe es 
Fe Velocity of propeller, knots per li {| 102 | 108 | ops | 
| 5 Velocity of vessel, knots per hour |} a | 105 90 | 
| 5 Indicated horse-powor sesse Mba au 830 | 1010 | 5 | 
| 1 Coals per ton per hour | 403 | 116 | ane 
| z : Coals per foot of firegrate pe | wr | 65 | eet al) 
S + © Not given, but it varies from 22iu, to 28in, 
HP Y > 
7 fone US he i ee WS 2 3 
3 2 = s fe ¢ 88 
: = a ROYAL (WEST INDIA) MAIL PACKET COMPANY, | Pi 
F oo Peer sk 2 EP Seeers, 8 SUMMARY MADE FROM THE TABLES OF DIAGRAMS FROM INDICATOR, AND WORKING OF THE ENGINES BELONC TO THE VARIOUS SHIPS INCLUDED IN THE RETURN FURNISHED OF d 
—————— - = THE PERFORMANCES ¥F} THOMAS TO SOUTHAMPTON BETWEEN JULY 30, 1862, AND JUNE 30, 1883, AS GIVEN IN TABLE + } ? 
trea : x = i % 2 4 | ] | 2 2 
os 3 | || | = Sf 
= Te ass 2 3 a a 8 4 at oats Dato, Nastx oy Sir, | = | Grate of Exp | | Rewane, 
es | | te 
ieee (es) 0S) og) ae) ee eee Sh ee a 2 ee | 5 | aaa 
poe | E 2 | =, | | 
= ee > | Ee =) | | | 
So | ;— |- | ——|—— ||} f 
alge | tbr, | ibe | 1 wt. aew. Ibe) Ibs, | tbe ~ ard 
; ape AED] Atrata | 70 | a4 u at & Quil 7080 | 11:45 | 104872 | 2007-44 68 221 | 1008 | 967 115 | 1785 | Wind on bow, and occasional eal, | 
mB | Shannon won| 774 | 1205 | 10 F.S.$ throttle | #807] 19045 | sove7 | Joa 214] oot | as oor | -a1|{ Wind and seabefora beam, Mowing bard rah 
TBH ind Seine lst S212 | rasa | 125076 | | 09 | ov | a 1089 | 93:4 | Bow wind, fine, 
13th Tasmanian 18in, & Qlin, 3096) 928 | 40433 | 1219-99 a7 10455} 182 | Light head winds, and calm. 
2 y 45th cu) Atrato Ast, Gnd, & Sed | 51025 | 1055 | o47I95) 18912 10085 | 1082 1103 | 207 | Light beam and quarterly winds; sails set 
—— == yy BOL oss.) La Plate Int € 4th 752 | 10835 | soue7 | Y7a77a 60 601 10:26 | 120 | Head andvariablo winds: ieavy sea 
E Mtb.) Seine reog | ivaia | 124576 | 1906 \7: 10385 | 3316 172 85 | Beain andl quarterly wind; heavy sea sails at eral; 
- Jo» Ath ..] Toamanian ain. iin, | 3640] vos | aoa2 | i700 | 65 883 | 5399 | 6295 | 1075 | 1756 | Light Head winds, occasiounl fair wind; sails st m rani, 
Z g } 4 doth Atrato Int & Qad ov26 | 1201 | 107433 | 73 1074 os 1135 | 910 | Light bead and quarterly wind; sails 
Ith ,...../Shannon PLS. Lat 127007 | 70 1018 1158 | 178 | Shifting wind; swel), aud fine weather 
= : Sein 189095 70 83 11°33 | 19°85 | Beam and bow winds; fine 
5 Lasmauian ‘ 50021 OL 975 10 o16 Head and Night fair wit 
» sith Atrato 1 f 10iFSL | I rat 1045 xu starbonnl and head, 
17th Shannon B.S, & 10910 | 1954 | 194902 | 4 03 | 9 0 | 7,9 of 10 | yoss | 1975 ly: wind Pinup wt 
joy GH oe) Landay 2nd & gr Fil” 10002 | tossts ) mse24! gusra| 0 0 | 73.2 o| 9gps| lee 19 1; hish sce; «ailewet 
Jom Ret so} Moxnnian , ov7y | 10007 | surat 20 | 3 0 (03 234! oBTs| 4 e734 290 Hs, ingot wat : 
phe at Atrata 11277 | 97419 138/09 0 /71 1 0) Iw} gea2 10775 | 1995 RA etd pane ae 
nw 18th Sh 182: 19871 2474 7803 | O63 219) gay wis | we catitor; plain sails set 
» bth Za Plata i 108302 23} 00/00 00) ge | ass ¢ Wis | 1185 Lenin; light uirs and fine. 
17th ‘Tasmanian 1o | S341 | 160023) 3o=m0 | 3 o-) 03 a Ol gages] aes | & 10725} 20°3 | Head'aud bow winds, nuit sea, 
|» goth Atrato P.8, £2ui O} 1107 | o142 ) re0sst'| 71938)| 0 0 |71 1 oleaoms| aos) Go | avo.) a74 onrd anit quarterly: ils cet 
10th Shannon BS.G1t 10051 | 1040 | 19213 | so120 | 798} 9 0 | 09 a0 | 101 vos 1/1 | No winds fine weather, 
| Both La Pinta Lt ovr | 10540 | 6 | s23 | 9 0 m0 0! ow 07 03 | Bow wind, fore anil aft nails sot 


Ghee | soe'osd | Wet y60 | covorr | 19 ot | tee 


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| A5uG| Lt] wey outa | eat} stot) sor | fos leea| oor | cm | 6 16 1 tia Coa Yor oe | cost ‘Bide 
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ost sex} cove} in| 1 |reo| savor | enor | ty 1% os 6 9%! fonts Foy 


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(oe | HG) Wet | o or ROG T sa d 2a | coat AC oune 


wwo's. [tar Te jore| seo | 1 it & om Wee | cont ‘ex Sag 
oou'e (ter os} ea] worere | ot 10o= 4 93 | cot “2x ung 
\ 
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its Noa te] £6) sav'oct | 0 ot | 0 se) 9 6 Oe 8°05) sont ’o Say | cost “2s sor 
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aes MULE | Aah wwe net | ppnnneennen f 


Dare, 


Loapitat 
y's Conrne 
THreetion. 
State of Sea. 
Ares of rldatip 


Are 


Cb of In proportion 
we Sika. 


7 
adleatel Wore 
power 


Yah Fedreacy, 1800 


Mib Petreary, 1800 


ATU Febreary, 1890 


‘Deck Febranry, 1500 


‘lst Pebeeary, 189 


37Uh April, 1800 


18 April, 18% 


Sob March, 1562 
dork March, 2 
Seth Mare, 1802 


et Aped, 1502 
St Apel, 15 
4s Apel, 1502 


Bek Apel 1502 


5b March, 1802 
tet Apeil Te 


Gh Apel, 1802 


Gb Apel, 1 


0, | Tone | mf 
nes \" Single reef topsails, courses: 
aad ih 


Single reefol topsails, courses 
Furetop 


slayaail, jib oo 


1 | 4010 | 1080 
| 
| Single reefel topaail 


i 

j 
st ae 

} 

j 


lantaails occasionally 
Dooble roefed topaalls and 


Treble reefed fore and main 
Coynails,closervefel unizxen, 
topaail and foreail 


AU plan sail expt royale 7 ay 


i eae topaaly coaraeg 
i, 


form Jase 


Single roeted topsails, courses 
Sib, fore | § 3165, 


Meary ves en from SE 


| Hoary swell from SAV. 


Stasming Chrvagh | Gibealtar Straite 
jStemsing throng | Gibraltar Straits 


Win sail to single reefed top= 


Albsail to fore 


ly ao 
| 


Kxpa 
Woks rasa ‘tn. 


Mapans 


Rxpanaion yy 
iy 
Waka raised din, 

Espansively 
jon "163, and 


Ditto 


Bxpansion he 


Make 


Yspansion 


Wake rales 
Brpansibo 


ake 


Expansion yy, and 
Tats not fed 


=a oe iada) 
: 3 § A a x | 
alla i : i =i 4\.| 
ze | Hs % 3 ah ¢ 75 | 
eae f 2 j 3E if a | S| 
ja |s A|FF|E Fall Ee zal 

5 me 


pansion "307, and 
Voks raised Gin 


25 | axs09 | 10 | 


itt mine | cog | ran | 8 


Websh mised 


aw | a1 | 605 

= toa | una | car 

ate so | 20 | 400 

ie | 18 
| 216 oO 


so | 075 


i, very good, | 98a | 706 | 282 
ry, very good. | 409 | 140 | a2 


‘duh mixed. | Bra | 240 | oat 
Aberdare. os 47 
rvegmannnn ee ape -véves 08 ou 


Leaving Gibraltar, 


Gibraltar to Malta. 


Gibraltar to Malla. 


Left Malta for Corfu 


Salts to Corte. 


Carfa to Malta, 


Malta to Gibraltar, ship's bottom very foul 
r 


‘Malta to Gibraltar, ship's bottom very foal. 


Corfa to Malta. 


Malta to Gibraltar, ship's bottam very foal 


Malla to Gibraltar, abip's bottom very foul 


Ship pitobing Heavily, coals very bad. 
Ship pitebing beavily, ovals very bad, 


Gibraltar to England. 
Gibraltar to Eoglan 


‘Malta to Gibraltar, ship's bottom very foo! 
‘Malta to Gibraltar, ship's bottom very foul 


Gibraltar to England. 


Gibraltar to England 


RESULTATS DE LA NAVIGATION DES PAQUEDOTS DES SERVICES MANITIMES DYES MESSAGERIES IMIERIALES PENDANT L’ANNEE 1401, 


Wald caly Wad Le lead, 


SEAVICES MARITIMES DES MPSSAGRRIES IMPERIALES NAVIGATION DES 


QUEDOTS PENDANT L'ANNEE 1283. 


Camsmoauriny ok Cannas 


4 
3 
Hl 


Vaprur, 
rere 


"Se Vapeur, 


a 
3 
g 


‘Total da Pareoars, 
Mearea do Cuault, 
Ouvertare dex Malate 
‘rant Ean ooze, 
Tdtrevce de Tiras 

‘Cheval 


Par Cheval nomi 
veal ot par Jeary. 


Muyeane par Tears 


Le 
i 


Teun 
Verte 
"June deb roads 


Yedalle sta ¥ 


Consommation 


10 | Cylisax 
u 


78 


ages 


25528 


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10 


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BEE ZEER2 SEER S 


S55 S8885 SER 


$328 33 


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SESE2 22595) 


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19,001 
10,205, 
10938 
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19,979 
10,908 
14,805 
10,800 


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1748 
19,780 
ince 
17710 
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2170 


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aT 


as 


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$22 a385 


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& 
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5 | 


“ i cr * Compoumation DE Cuazsos. ; 
gla ; ' 
EB i 6 a | £3 | 33) 25 é 2 FI 
“ Ai] = 3 | 38 | €2| 33 i | 28 (53 sy | 3 
H z H 4 SF | ae Toms, Fi SES | toa. | 2S z 
i FS a = 3/2 1é a Sai oa i 
a Si é z Pi z 2 
wi. | mus. | va. | wana 
v1 | cool | oust | “sus 


BREs 


2 


BEE 


ese geese 


Ey 


gE 956858 € 


4E 


BHEEE 2eey 


Segge 


PLATE Vil 


S| 

S 

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al RS ASN 
= > 
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se ase 
S SASS 


= 


_ Ships bottom very foul _” 


EDW? 0 CRIGHTON, 


Chief Engineer’ 


S or ELVES 


FORE CYLINDER 


Tring rete of Stearana 

at Sia 

Yu" oar Mb) APlarnecn 
Fore Cylinder 

Half power Halas 

Erpan i & Linke raul 4 

$-77 Bots Red. 

PMMA B-IS 


ne arctan. 
CU ~ Dp 
Kee 
yy 2 19 kas 
Mp pt cat 19-9 
Wi De Wind 
hort Aws be 
Tiree & Fluse nit very Mean 


yma. IP-627 


IP = 9664 j 


Dealt. of Ware 
ve U6 
For * i 
Mean, 1) 
By sterm Dod 


Shape Wottanne very Fete 


not ascertained 
per Indic Writ aseurt* 
K-37. 
Sip «3 42 knove 
ap pceuit = 28 
Vederats will 
Poree 4405 Bc 
Igainst He Wend. 
Fires & Fluues not very clean 


Wes 
* letober 146) 
Kory. (tanilir 
UL off thrott" 


Date ot 


a 


Vean 


By stem Lo 


eieh CLeaning  givitt 
Kwith ten 6 6 

Siup =f 

stip pat Cent ~ 

Wind 6p" on Bow 

Force $ 


Shape patton. vary Cot ; 
Hive & AMY Suite set Most swell 


PLATE Vil 


9 crtenron. 
Curt Engineer 


PLATE Vill 


EDW? 0 CRICHTON 


282-4 


C36 


(fe aS ee 


1097-0 


‘ 
| 
Ni 


x 33 * 21 Ad. 


gee REPORT BRITISH ASSOCIATION 18G3 ae 


w 


INDICATOR DIAGRAMS of EUYLS “YIcToR EMANUEL 


AFT CYLINDER ) 


JO Oct? 1301 After” 
{ta 


Full Powe 


tte: (yluinder 
Hatt Hoilers 


nl D 


P- 3654 3S 8 36 


dele 0a! 186) Aan” Mer (ylind. 
Yer ylunder 


ier linda ther Winder 
Nalf pena Tull Power 
2 Heilers f 4 ra 

: Wot 
Expan ih & Links Hats 
ased Aint 2 = : ad 
pes P8468 32-8 36 By 
Po /2 M1605 “34-46 tog i H 3 


Expanavdy (Mant 
off Uhrettiad & Links 


raused Ainches 


cow’ # calenron 
Quad Engineer 


ON STEAMSHIP PERFORMANCE. 345 


cf 
_ To accomplish what had been proposed, and fully to realize the expectations 
of the public, was naturally a subject of no small anxiety to those on whom 
fhe responsibility devolved of providing vessels so much in advance of any 
which had yet been built. It was not a mere question of speed at the 
measured mile in Long Reach or in Stokes Bay; that had been shown to be 
ticable by the great success of the Royal Yacht, which attained the 
precedented rate of speed, at the trial trip, of 191 statute miles per hour 
_ (wide Table); the difficulty was to maintain such a rate of speed in severe 
_ weather, and under the disadvantageous circumstances which must so often 
ccur in the passage of the Channel four times every day in the year, as to 
in @ comparative regularity in the due performance of a mail service, with 
but very small margin for contingencies at sea. With the object therefore of 
uring this result, it was ultimately decided to increase the size of the 
s to 2000 tons, and that of the engines in like proportion. Designs 
e received from the most eminent builders in England. Those submitted 
by Messrs. Laird, of Birkenhead, and Mr. Samuda, of London, were adopted. 
. Ravenhill, Salkeld, and Co. supplied two pairs of engines, and 
s. James Watt and Co. the other two pairs. The dimensions and general 
rangements of the four vessels are so nearly alike, that the following 
lescription of one, the ‘ Connaught,’ will be sufficient for all. This was built 
by Messrs. Laird, as well as the ‘Ulster’ and the ‘Munster ;’ the fourth, the 
‘Leinster,’ was built by Mr. Samuda. 
The ships are built of iron. The length between the perpendiculars is 
ft.; the beam is 35 ft., and depth 21 ft. The keel is formed of a centre 
plate, 3 ft. deep and 2 in. thick, with two bars 9 in. deep by 2 in. thick, 
n each side at the bottom ; these five plates, with the two garboard strakes, 
-in. thick each, are secured together with iron bolts riveted and countersunk. 
m the top of the centre keel plate two angle-iron bars are riveted, 5 in. by 
in. by 4 in., and to these angle irons, and to the angle irons on the top of 
ae floorings throughout the entire length of the vessel, as far as the fine ends 
allow, is riveted a strong plate, 4 ft. wide amidships, and 2 ft. 6 in. wide 
ends. There are also two very strong box keelsons, secured on the 
ngs at each side of the keel, and another in each bilge. The general 
ng of the ship and the outside plating are done in the usual way, care 
taken to have everything well put together. The engine beams, paddle 
pring beams, and all other beams for the main and lower decks are of 
Timber has been used only for the decks and cabin fittings. There are 
ptincipal iron water-tight bulkheads, which not only provide for the 
of the ship in case of accident, but add greatly to her strength in a 
way. The bulwarks are of iron plates, in continuation of the sides of the 
to the rail, and without any break for gangways, such not being 
ed for landing, either at Holyhead or at Kingstown. To give additional 
h in the centre, where the weight of the engines, wheels, and boilers 
to be carried, the insides of the paddle-boxes are also formed of iron 
, continued from the sides and bulwarks of the vessel, with a strong 
y girder, formed of an iron plate 15 in. broad and 3 in. thick, so as to 
ovide ample means of resistance to the severe shocks which these long 
sels must encounter in rough seas, when driven at such a high rate of 
ed. The gunwale is formed of angle-iron bars, 4 in. by 4 in., riveted to 
@ sheer strake and to a plate which is riveted on the top of the beams. At 
listance of about 15 in. from this, an inner angle bar is riveted, against 
uich the wooden waterway is fitted, so as to leave the outer part, between 
is and the gunwale, to form a drain to take the water off the deck, and to 


us 
ari 
insu 


= 


% 
— 
Be 


346 REPORT—1863. 


discharge it through the scuppers. This arrangement, which was introduced 
by Mr. Laird, has been found very convenient, in freemg the decks quickly 
from water. These iron gunwale plates are 5 ft. wide by ? in. thick amidships, 
tapering gradually to about 2 ft. 6in. by in. at the ends, with a system of 
diagonal tie plating from side to side, securely bolted or riveted to the deck 
beams. Between the paddle-boxes, an upper deck, about 50 ft. in length, 
has been placed. It is laid on iron beams well secured, and being provided 
also with diagonal tie plates, it further adds to the strength amidships; 
though the primary object was for the more rapid embarkation and landing 
of passengers and luggage at times of low water, both at Holyhead and at 
Kingstown. It also forms an agreeable promenade for the passengers in 
moderate weather. The wheel and the binnacle are placed on this upper deck, 
so as to allow of the commander and the officers being near to the men engaged 
in steering. All difficulty is thus avoided in passing the word, a distance of 
nearly 200 ft., as would have been necessary, in the ordinary way. ‘The 
entire of the main deck, from the foremost funnel to the bows, is covered over 
by a hurricane deck formed with angle-iron beams, 5 in. by 22 in., extending 
from the rail at each side, and boarded over with planks 13 in. thick, leaving 
when at sea but one small opening round the foremast. This construction 
has been found of great advantage in throwing off the seas, which, pre- 
viously to the vessels being thus protected, occasionally in heavy weather 
caused damage to the skylights and the upper works. The weight of so 
large a piece of work, about 140 ft. in length, is considerable, and increases 
the immersion of the vessel forward; but this has been amply compensated 
for by the security afforded when pressing at a high rate of speed in 
tempestuous weather. There has not been the slightest damage to any of 
the vessels, during the last two years, since they were completely provided 
with this excellent protection. The plan was copied from a small vessel, the 
‘Menai,’ fitted out in Liverpool for the River Plate in 1854. 

The engines for all the vessels are on the oscillating principle. In the two 
pairs made by Messrs. Ravenhill, Salkeld, and Co., for the ‘ Leinster’ and 
the ‘Connaught,’ the cylinders are 98 in. diameter, with a length of stroke of 
6 ft. 6in.; the air-pumps are 54 in. diameter, with a stroke of 2 ft. 6in. The 
eight boilers are multitubular, four being at each end of the engine-room 
space, arranged in pairs, with one funnel to each pair. There are five fire- 
grates in each boiler, 3 ft. lin. wide, with bars 5 ft. 6in. long. The boilers 
being placed lengthways in the vessel, the firing-space, which is 11 ft. wide, 
is in the centre. The entire extent of the grate surface in the eight boilers 
is 677 square feet; and the heating surface measures 19,700 square feet. 
The bunkers are small, being made to contain only one day’s coal, as the 
vessels can be supplied either at Holyhead or at Kingstown, during the 
interval between their arrival and departure. The space occupied in the 
length of the vessel by the engines and boilers is 108 ft., and this has been 
subdivided, by iron water-tight bulkheads, into three compartments, an 
arrangement suggested by Mr. Laird, and which has been found most bene- 
ficial in giving strength in a part of the vessel which might otherwise have 
been weak, and unequal to the severe strain of the powerful machinery 
working in the heavy seaway of the Irish Channel. The wheels, which are 
constructed on the feathering principle, with fourteen floats each, are 31 ft. 
in diameter at the outside of the floats, or 27 ft. to the centre of axis; and 
each float is 12 ft. long by 4ft. 4in. broad. On the trial trips, the engines 
worked at the rate of 25 revolutions per minute, under a steam pressure of 
25 Ibs. per square inch. The mean of the runs of the ‘Leinster,’ at the 


J ON STEAMSHIP PERFORMANCE. 347 


_ measured mile in Stokes Bay, was at the rate of 203 statute miles an hour, a 
greater speed by upwards of one mile an hour than had been previously 
attained by any other vessel. The ‘ Connaught,’ when subsequently tried at 
the measured mile in Stokes Bay, attained a higher result, the mean of her 
runs showing the speed of 203 statute miles per hour. Vide Table A. 

The ‘Ulster’ and the ‘Munster’ were built by Messrs. Laird, on exactly 
the same lines as the ‘Connaught.’ The engines of these vessels were con- 
structed by Messrs. James Watt and Co., of Soho, the same establishment 
from whence the engines proceeded for the first steam-vessels built for the 
Post Office for the performance of the Holyhead Mail Service. Bonlton and 
Watt would have been somewhat surprised, if it could have been foretold 
that their successors would have been called on to construct engines tenfold 
the size of what they had made to be placed in vessels tenfold the ton- 
nage of the ‘Royal Sovereign’ or the ‘Meteor,’ and for the same line 
of postal communication. The general arrangement of the engines in the 
‘Ulster’ and the ‘ Munster’ is nearly the same as of those in the ‘ Leinster’ 
and the ‘Connaught.’ The cylinders are in diameter 7 ft., with a length of 
stroke of 96in. The wheels are 33 ft. in diameter over all. The boilers 
have each six fireplaces, 2 ft. 6 in. wide, and the bars are 5 ft. 6 in. long, 
giving in the aggregate as large an extent of grate surface as in the others. 
The area of the heating surface is 18,033 square feet. One funnel is used for 
the four boilers of each compartment; and as the coals are carried on the top 
of the boilers, the entire space occupied in the ship by these engines and 
boilers is but 102 ft. These engines were erected on board the vessels in the 
Liverpool Docks. There is not any measured mile at that port for testing 
speed; but from a return supplied by Messrs. Watt and Co., of observations 
made on several trips, the rate attained appears to have been 174 knots, or 
20°3 statute miles per hour, and the average performances of the ‘Ulster’ 
and the ‘Munster,’ contrasted with the average performances of the other 
vessels, fully prove that this in no degree overrates their speed, when going 

- under the usual conditions of a trial ship. 

_ The internal arrangements of the vessels were planned with the object of 

providing for the comfort and accommodation of the public, in the way best 

 caleulated to mitigate and, as far as possible, to prevent the sufferings so 
usually inseparable from the passage of the rough Irish Channel. For 
although the talented builders endeavoured to design a form which should be 

_ @asy in a seaway, both they, and those for whom they were building, were 

_ well aware that it was utopian to expect, as many appear to have expected, 

_ with ships of even their large dimensions, a uniform horizontal position in 

_ tempestuous weather. Enlarged size has no doubt, in many cases, lessened 

_ the motion at sea; but the chief advantage in this instance is that it has 

_ afforded the means of providing reasonable accommodation for many passen- 

_ gers,—a want which had been so much felt with the previous smaller class 

of packets. The saloons and cabins in the new vessels are large, lofty, and 
well ventilated. The principal one is upwards of 60 ft. in length, by 17 ft. in 

_ breadth, and 9 ft. 6 in. in height, there being state-rooms on each side of the 
principal saloon. There are two commodious deck-cabins. The cabins for 

the second-class passengers are placed forward. 

A better opportunity could not have been desired for attaining a good 
result, than the Holyhead and Kingstown mail line. There was sufficient 
‘depth of water at all times of the tide, with no natural obstruction to the 

Navigation of the Channel ; and the short distance needing no great weight of 
coal, and no cargo being carried, the vessels would at all times have very 

_ hearly the same uniform immersion. 


7 


348 REPORT—1863. 


The cost of the four ships to be provided, in accordance with the contract, 
was £75,000 each. The actual cost has, however, greatly exceeded the 
amount agreed to be expended by the Company, in consequence of the size 
of the vessels having been enlarged to upwards of 2000 tons, and the en- 
gines in about the same proportion ; a change which has obtained increased 
accommodation for the public, and probably a superior performance of the 
vessels at sea. ; 

One of the principal peculiarities, which render these vessels of so unique 
a class, is the post-oftice fitted for sorting letters during the passage. The 
space occupied for this purpose extends across the entire breadth of the ves- 
sel, and for the length of 30 ft., between the first and second class cabins. It 
is divided into two rooms, one for letters, and the other for newspapers. In 
these rooms the sacks are opened, the contents taken out and arranged by 
eight or ten sorters, under the direction of a head superintendent. The letters 
are stamped with the post-office packet brand, the postage label cancelled, 
and all the operations completed, so that the letters are ready for delivery, or 
to be forwarded to their destination, on the arrival of the vessel at Kingstown. 
About two hours are thus saved in the transmission of the mails, in conse- 
quence of their being made up on board, instead of after their arrival at the 
General Post Office in Dublin. Besides the gain in time thus secured for 
postal purposes, the main object to be attained was regularity ; while for 
passengers, accommodation was perhaps even more to be valued than extreme 
speed. To fulfil all these conditions, it was necessary to have very large 
vessels, such only obviously allowing the requisite extent of accommodation ; 
and experience had shown that the larger the vessel, when provided with 
adequate power, the less was the difference in the length of the passage at 
sea caused by severe weather. 

The contract with the Postmaster-General had appointed January 1861 
for the commencement of the improved service. But the vessels being in 
readiness some months sooner, it was commenced, by mutual agreement, in 
October 1860, and has since been continued without interruption. When 
two of the vessels, the ‘ Leinster’ and the ‘ Ulster,’ were completed and ready 
for duty, it was thought advisable to make a trial with them, by way of 
practice, in the performance of the old contract. Each performed the distance 
between the lighthouse on Kingstown Pier to the lighthouse at Holyhead, 
upwards of 651 statute miles, in nearly the same time on the average, namely, 
the ‘ Leinster’ in three hours and thirty-one minutes, and the ‘ Ulster’ in 
three hours and thirty-two minutes, being respectively thirteen and twelve 
minutes less than the shortest monthly average of the ‘ Banshee’ in 1848-49, 
and twenty and nineteen minutes less than the ‘ Llewellyn, when the 
distance between the lights was one mile less than in 1860—the Holyhead 
breakwater not having then been in existence *. The gain in speed realized 
by the new vessels was therefore at the rate of from 1:2 to 1-7 mile per hour. 

From what has been already stated, with regard to the speed of each of 
the vessels on their trial trips, when, as is usually the case on such occasions, 
the utmost power of the engines is exerted during the short time required for 
the run of a few miles, it may be readily seen that, for actual daily duty, the 
difference between the four vessels is inappreciable, a matter of paramount 
importance to a mail service. The extreme difference in the rate of speed on 
trial appears to have been about half a mile an hour, which would add but 


* The courses are laid down on the plan of Holyhead Harbour attached to this com- 
munication. : 


— 


j 


_ six or seven minutes to the passage between Holyhead and Kingstown, taking 

_ the present course at 57 knots, or a little over 651 statute miles; the exten- 
sion of the great breakwater having added more than a knot to the distance 
given in the Admiralty Returns as having been performed by the ‘ Banshee,’ 
the ‘ Llewellyn,’ and other packets in 1849-50. A speed of 174 knots, or 
20 statute miles per hour, on the trial trip, allows a safe margin for making the 
passage commonly in four hours, the time proposed by Government; but this 
large margin has not in practice been found too much. Again, it may be 
observed, that there is a considerable difference in running a few times by 
the measured mile, when all is tasked for a short time to the utmost, and 
making a single complete passage of the Channel, even under favourable 
aircumstances. Thus, while the ‘ Connaught’ attained a speed of 202 statute 
miles an hour on her trial trip, her shortest passage of the Channel occupied 
three hours and fourteen minutes, being at the rate of about 20 miles an 
hour. The shortest passage of the ‘ Leinster’ was made in three hours and 
twenty minutes ; that of the ‘ Ulster’ in three hours and eighteen minutes, 

and of the ‘Munster’ in three hours and twenty-six minutes. But the 
average performance of the vessels for the two years and five months, up to 
May 1863, during which they have been on service is still closer. Inclusive 
of all passages made in fogs, gales, &c., 


ON STEAMSHIP PERFORMANCE. 349 


5 


h 
The ‘Connaught’ made 1064 in the average time of 3 51:5 
The ‘ Leinster’ ss 919 x 3 52:5 
The ‘ Ulster’ x 925 + 3 55 
and the‘ Munster’ ,, 920 e 3 58:1 


So close a performance by the four vessels, not identical, and not all from 
the same builders and engineers, could scarcely have been anticipated. The 
longest passage made in the severest gales has not exceeded five hours and 
forty minutes, and one vessel only has been that length of time on but two 
occasions. The previous packets were retarded by the weather to a far 

greater degree. The ‘ Banshee’ has taken nearly eight hours to cross the 
_ Channel; the ‘ Llewellyn,’ the ‘ Caradoc,’ and the ‘ St. Columba’ still more. 
Nearly four thousand passages have been already made up to May 1863, 
without collision, except on one occasion, which happily was not attended 
with very serious consequences. Experienced naval officers anticipated fre- 
“quent and serious disasters ; but the rate of speed, 16 miles an hour, though 
high for night-work, does not appear to have been too high for safety. The 
sense of greater responsibility, and the larger number of men engaged in the 
navigation and management of the vessels, must naturally induce additional 
precaution, as well as afford the means of guarding against danger. The 
facility with which these large vessels are handled and brought alongside the 
jetties is remarkable. The practised skill of the officers, and the quickness 
with which the engines are managed, frequently succeed in getting the ves- 
‘sels alongside, in making them fast, establishing the means of communication 
with the shore, and in landing the mails in three or four minutes. 
_ The consumption of coal in the first few months was considerably in excess 
‘of the quantity originally estimated. Steam of from 25 Ibs. to 28 Ibs. pres- 
_ ‘Sure was then used, which not only required much extra coal, but severely 
_ taxed the durability of the boilers. Arrangements were therefore made to 
_ reduce the consumption to the amount stated in the estimates submitted to 
Government, on which the contract was founded. The result has been satis- 
factory, while the additional time occupied on the passages is but a few 
minutes, and they are still made on the average within the time allocated to 


350 REPORT—1863. 


the sea service by the proposal of Government. The necessity of laying up 
the vessels more frequently for repairs has been also diminished, which is a 
matter of much importance, as they are of so unique a class, that in the event 
of more than two being laid up at the same time, it would be impossible to 
obtain an efficient substitute, and therefore the postal service might be ex- 
posed to some danger of interruption, if such circumstances were to continue 
for any length of time. The engines in the ‘ Ulster’ and the ‘ Munster’ 
were provided with superheaters, but experience has not shown any advan- 
tage resulting from their use, either as reducing the consumption of coal or 
tending to a superior performance. These vessels have made, up to May 
1863, in the aggregate 1845 passages, in the average time of 3h. 56 min., 
and have consumed 30 tons 7 cwt. on the average of each, inclusive of the 
quantity required for raising steam, which is very considerable. The ¢ Lein- 
ster’ and the ‘ Connaught,’ without superheaters, have made 1983 passages, 
in the average time of 3h. 52min., and have consumed (inclusive of raising 
steam), on the average, 30 tons 1 ewt. of coal. 

No breakdown has taken place with any of the engines. On two occa- 
sions some derangement occurred with the wheels. Very constant attention 
is given, during each “rest” after the usual term of duty, to the machinery 
and the boilers, so as to prevent the necessity of extensive repairs. 

The principal trouble has arisen from the difficulty which appears to be 
experienced in obtaining sufficiently sound forgings for the large intermediate 
air-pump crank-shafts. As a precautionary measure, two duplicate shafts 
fitted with cranks had been included in the original order, one suitable for 
either pair of engines from each firm, so that no time might be lost in repla- 
cing one, if at any time it was found to be defective, or appeared to be doubt- 
ful. This was no needless precaution, as within the first year it was found 
necessary to condemn two shafts and to use the duplicates, and the vessels 
were ready within the week for service instead of being laid up for months. 
Two new spare shafts were immediately again ordered, and these have since 
been required; and another of steel, made by Mr. Krupp (of Essen), is also 
now inuse. Thus, within the space of two years and a half, five of these costly 
pieces of work were condemned. It is but justice to the makers of the engines 
to state that they have met the case in the most satisfactory manner. No fail- 
ure has hitherto occurred with any of the shafts supplied by the Mersey Steel 
and Iron Company, and they have done their full share of duty. Very great 
exertion was made by that establishment on one occasion to prepare a forging 
within the short space of three weeks, to replace one under peculiar circum- 
stances, which rendered the utmost expedition important. 

With regard to the ships, it is very satisfactory to be able to state that no 
repairs have so far been needed. They are now in as perfect condition, after 
the performance of their severe duty, as when they commenced in 1860. 
The frequency of docking, for the purpose of cleaning and coating, has 
afforded constant opportunity of examination, but painting only has been 
found necessary. 

To maintain speed, it is obviously indispensable to keep the bottoms of 
the vessels clean ; but as no docking accommodation has as yet been provided 


at Holyhead, and it being objectionable to remove the vessels from the station 


to the graving-docks of other ports, if possible to avoid doing so, the experi- 
ment of employing divers, while the vessels lay alongside the jetty, was tried 
last summer, and with some success. The growth of marine vegetation and 
the adhesion of marine animals, which take place rapidly in the summer 
months, were prevented to a considerable extent, 


4 


| 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 351 


Parricuars or Tria Tries. (Table A.) 


Banshee. Llewellyn. Victoria and Albert. Leinster. Connaught. 


Bees sce 10th Jan., 1848) 15th May, 1848/23rd July, 1855 |26th July, 1860/27th Sept., 1860 
ied......... Long Reach |NoreandMonuse| Stokes Bay Stokes Bay Stokes Bay 
pare 8 ft. Sin. 8 ft. Gin. 13 ft. 10in. | 12 ft. 22in. 12 ft. 9in. 
aa 9 ft. 9 ft. Qin. 14 ft. 13 ft. 23 in. 13 ft. Qin. 
192 ft. 185 ft. 401 ft. 336 ft. 341 ft. 
rolutior 30°5 28°5 25-4 26°25 mean 25:5 
| 19 Ibs. 20 Ibs. 231bs. _|25 Ibs. by gauge|264 Ibs. by gauge 
; | an as 25 in. 25 in. 252 in. 
350 350 600 720 720 
1,555 1,890 2,980 4,751 4,735 
a. 161 15912 | 16-837 17-747* 18-079* 
Statute Miles.) 18-553 18-317 19-377 20:429 20'811 


Report on the present State of our Knowledge of the Reproductive System 
im the Hydroida. By Geo. J. Atuman, M.D., F.R.C.S.I., F.R.S., 
F.RS.E., M.R.IA., Regius Professor of Natural History in the 
University of Edinburgh. 

From the time that Ehrenberg announced a sexual differentiation among the 

_Hyprorma, and assigned a significance which was very nearly the true one to 

_ those parts of their structure which are at present known to be destined for 

the formation of ova and spermatozoa, a marked progress set in in our know- 

Biedze of the phenomena, morphological and physiological, which occur among 

_ these animals ; and the investigations of numerous observers, both in this 

country and abroad, have thus resulted in a very extensive, if not yet com- 

plete, acquaintance with a group of animals which are probably not surpassed 

_ by any in interest, whether we regard the singularity and beauty of their 

forms or the light which they seem capable of throwing upon various questions 
in morphology and physiology,—a group, however, which, if we would hope 
| to attain to any important knowledge of the structure, functions, and rela- 
tions of the animals which compose it, can alone be studied by laborious ob- 

_Servation of these animals in their living state, and by unremitting and 

_Wearying microscopical dissections, while even this would lose half its value 

“unless accompanied by faithful drawings, as the only means by which it is 

bossible to give permanence to the characters of these frail and transitory 

ganisms. 

z, Many years’ study of the Hyprora has, however, convinced me that the 

Ri ecomens of their life-history have not all received their true interpretation ; , 


___ * The mean of four runs. 
__ ¢ The greater part of the following Report was laid before the Cambridge Meeting of 
he Association, in Sept. 1862; it was only, however, at the following Meeting, August 
1863, that it was possible to present it in ils completed form. 


352 REPORT— 1863. 


and I have endeavoured to embody in the following Report the results of this 
study, so far as they regard reproduction, combining them with what has been 
added by the labours of others in the same field, so as to present, as far as 
possible, a comprehensive survey of this department of research. 

Among the older observers, those to whom, during the last century, we 
are chiefly indebted for advancing our knowledge, both morphologically and 
physiologically, of the Hyprorpa, the names of Ellis and Cavolini stand con- 
spicuous; while, during the present century, the labours of Sars, Ehrenberg, 
Lovén, Krohn, Kolliker, Gegenbaur, Steenstrup, Van Beneden, Dujardin, 
Leuckart, Fritz Miller, Claparéde, and others on the Continent, Agassiz, 
Clark, and M°Crady in America, and in our own country those of Dalyell, 
Huxley, Alder, Hincks, Busk, Strethill Wright, and Greene, have thrown 
new and important light upon their structure and functions, and have led to 
the determination of the true import of many phenomena which would other- 
wise have remained imperfectly understood. 

Among the works which have of late years done most in the simple de- 
scriptive zoology of the Hyproma must be mentioned the ‘ Monograph of the 
British Naked-eyed Meduse,’ by Edward Forbes, and the ‘ History of the 
British Zoophytes,’ by George Johnstou—works whose specific determination 
of the British forms have greatly smoothed the way towards their profounder 
study, affording to the anatomical worker of the present day the same kind 
of aid which the zoological descriptions in Ellis’s classical ‘ Essay on the 
Natural History of Corallines’ gave to the earlier investigators. 

In combining anatomical with zoographical description, the 4th volume of 
the great work of Agassiz (Contributions to the Natural History of the 
United States of America, 1862) holds a preeminent place in the fulness of 
its descriptions and the profuseness and excellence of its illustrations; and 
though I shall have occasion, in the following pages, to dissent from some of 
the views of the celebrated American zoologist, I must here express my ad- 
miration of this fine contribution to the zoological literature of our day. 

Besides the advantages I have derived from consulting the works of the 
various authors named above, I must express my thanks for much valuable 
information derived from personal correspondence with numerous friends, 
especially Professors Huxley and Greene, the Rev. Thomas Hincks, Mr. 
Alder, and Mr. Busk. 

Some apology may be deemed necessary for the number of new terms in- 
troduced into the following pages; I do not believe, however, that I have 
employed one which could be advantageously dispensed with. Among the 
means which have tended most to advance a philosophic zoology is a well- 
selected and accurately defined terminology ; while few things have tended 
to retard it so much as ill-selected and loosely applied terms. A rigidly de- 
fined and significant terminology not only facilitates in a way which it alone 
can do the communication of scientific ideas, which would otherwise have to 
be expressed by cumbrous circumlocution and phrases which fail to impart 
definite ideas, but, like the symbols in algebra, it even becomes a direct instru- 
ment in the investigation of truth. 

The subclass Hyprorpa of the following Report includes the orders Hydrida, 
Tubularida, Campanularida, and Sertularida, being so far exactly coextensive 
with the Hydroida of Johnston. It necessarily embraces, however, most of 
the so-called naked-eyed Meduse ; for a large proportion of these are now 
known to be the free zooids of polypoid forms belonging to the Tubularida and 
Campanularida, while those which have not yet been so traced—provided we 
have no reason to regard them as the free zooids of the SrenonopHora—and 


4 


even those which may be proved to be developed directly from the egg, cannot, 
in a philosophical system, be separated from the others*. 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 353 


I. Skercu or THE GENERAL MorpHotocy or tHE Hyprorpa. 


The Hyproma, wherever our knowledge of them is sufficiently complete 
to justify us in arriving at any conclusion regarding the entire life of the in- 
dividual, are all, with, so far as we yet know, only a single exception, composite 
animals at one period of their existence, each consisting then of an assemblage 
or colony of zooidst in organic union with one anoéher. The colony thus 
formed constitutes the “ hydrosoma” of Huxley. 

The associated zooids are always of two kinds (fig. 1). In one (a, 6,¢,d,e) 


Fig. 1.—Campanularia Johnstoni, showing the trophosome and gonosome. 


el Re ot Sr; 


a, b, c, d, e, various parts of the trophosome, and f, g, of the gonosome. 
a, Polypite expanded ; the tentacles are in a single verticil, but when fully extended are 
eld with the alternate one elevated and depressed ; 6, polypite retracted ; c, empty hy- 
heca ; d, stem supporting the polypite and hydrotheca; e, creeping stolon; /f, go- 
ia containing gonophores, which in the present species are in the form of complete 
ophthalmic meduse ; g, one of these meduss just after its escape from the gonan- 


aw 


: _* The recent coral-group Tabulata, and the extinct one Rugosa, are referred by Agassiz 
tothe Hyprorpa. Our knowledge of their structure, however, is as yet very imperfect ; 
and as we know nothing whatever of their generative phenomena, I shall make no further 
| reference to them in the Report. 
Ae the introduction of the very convenient term “ zooid”’ into the language of zoology 
- 2 


A 


354 REPORT—1863. 


the zooid is destitute of all power of true or sexual generation, and has as its 
proper function the nutrition of the colony. The other group of zooids (f, 7) 
has nothing to do with the nutrition of the colony ; it has as its proper function 
true generation, and the zooids which compose it give origin to the generative 
elements—ova and spermatozoa, either directly or after having first developed 
a special sexual bud. For the whole assemblage of the former or nutritive 
zooids I propose the name of “ trophosome”™, while to the latter or generative 
zooids I shall give the name of “ gonosome’’t. Every hydroid, therefore, with 
whose life-history we are acquainted, consists essentially, with the solitary 
exception already alluded to, and which will be afterwards more particularly 
mentioned, of a trophosome destined for the preservation of the individual, 
and a gonosome for the perpetuation of the speciest. 

The proper nutritive zooids (fig. 1 a, 6; fig. 2 a) which constitute the 
essential part of the trophosome of the Hyprorpa have long been known, in 
common with the zooids of the Acrrvozoa, by the name of Polypes. It will 
be more convenient, however, to restrict this term to the Acrrnozoa, to which 
Reaumur, borrowing it from Aristotle, who used it for the cuttle-fishes, 
originally applied it; while we may employ the term “ polypite”’ as proposed 
by Huxley§ for the alimentary zooids of the Hyprozoa. 

The polypite consists essentially of a digestive sac, opening at one end by 
a mouth, and prolonged at the opposite into a simple or branched tube 
which is common to all the zooids of the colony. Behind the mouth are 
situated, in almost every instance, tubular offsets from the digestive sac. 
These are known as “ tentacula”’; they are usually arranged in a single ver- 
ticil (Campanularia, Sertularia, &c.), sometimes in two, one behind the other 
(Tubularia), while they are sometimes scattered over the body of the polype 
(Coryne, &c.), or are partly verticillate, partly scattered (Pennaria)||. 


we are indebted to Prof. Huxley, who, in defining the “ individual” as “ the total result of 
the development of a single ovum,” proposed to designate by the term zooid all more or 
less independent forms which may be included as elements in this total result. (See Huxley, 
Observations on Salpa, &e., in Phil. Trans. 1851; Lecture on Animal Individuality, 
Ann. Nat. Hist. June 1852 ; and his review of J. Miller's Researches on the Development 
of the Hchinodermata, in Ann. Nat. Hist. July 1851. See also Carpenter, Princ. Gen. and 
Comp. Physiology, 1851, p. 906, and Brit. and For. Med. Chir. Rey. for Jan. 1848 and 
Oct. 1849, where he clearly supports the same idea, using the expression “a generation” 
for all that intervenes between one act of true or sexual generation and another. 

The distinction between a “zooid” and an “ organ” is not always easy, and may indeed 
sometimes appear to be arbitrary. T believe, however, that we may regard as a zooid every 
portion of an animal which is not the immediate result of true sexual generation, and is 
yet capable of independent existence, as well as such portions which, though never attain- 
ing to independent existence, yet homologically represent independent forms. In this sense 
not only are the free medusiform buds of the Hyprorpa true zooids, but we must also re- 
gard as such the fixed polypites and those fixed gonophores which never attain a developed 
medusiform structure, as well as the simple generative sacs which are developed on the 
radiating canals of Obelia, Thaumantias, &e. (see p. 401). 

* Tpégw, to nourish, and copa, body. 

+ Dévos, offspring, and copa. 

+ The trophosome of the Hyprorpa admits of an easy comparison with that of the 
SipHONOPHORA; but among the zooids which are associated in the trophosome of the 
StpHonorHora there are, in the Calycophoride and many Physophorids, besides those 
constructed for the immediate reception from without of the nutritive material which con- 
stitutes the food of the colony, certain others which are destined for locomotion and pro- 
tection, and whose part in nutrition is accordingly subordinate to that of the former. 

§ The ‘ Oceanic Hydrozoa,’ published by the Ray Society, 1859. ; 

|| In the Calycophoridee and most Physophoridee the tentacles of the polypite are reduced 
to a single one arising from its base, while the polypites of the Velellidse and Physalidse are 
altogether deprived of tentacles, their place bemg here apparently taken by analogous fili- 


4 
an 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 355 


It is rare for any other form of zooid besides the polypite to enter into the 
composition of the trophosome. In a few genera, however (Plumularia and 
its allies), we find associated with the polypites certain very remarkable zooids, 
whose function, though obscure, is more likely to be connected with the nu- 
trition of the colony than with anything else. The bodies in question have 
been named “ nematophores” by Busk*. They are situated upon certain 
definite points of the trophosome, and consist of minute tubular receptacles 
containing a soft granular protoplasm, and frequently, though not always, a 
cluster of large thread-cells. The protoplasm which fills these receptacles 
can spontaneously emit prolongations of its mass in no way distinguishable 
from the. pseudopodia” emitted by the true Rurzopopa. In fact, the con- 
tents of the nematophores present in this respect no appreciable difference 
from the protoplasm composing the body of an Ameba. The thread-cells, 
however, though apparently immersed in the protoplasm, do not seem to be 
ever carried out in the pseudopodial prolongations, and it is probable that the 
portion of the contents of the nematophore with which they are in immediate 
connexion does not participate in the power of emitting pseudopodia. 

The trophosome may consist of only a single polypite (Corymorpha), or, 
what is by far the most frequent condition, it may consist of many associated 
into a compound group or colony. All the zooids of a colony, both those be- 
longing to the trophosome and those belonging to the gonosome, are kept in 
organic union with one another by a common connecting tubular basis (fig. 1 
d,e). To this common basis of communication I have elsewheret given the 
name of “ ccenosare.” 

Both zooids and ccenosare are composed of two membranes, an outer or 

“ectoderm” and an inner or “ endoderm,” the ectoderm having its free sur- 
face in direct relation with the outer world, while the free surface of the 
endoderm is turned inwards and forms the boundary of the gastric cavity 
and of all its prolongations through the organism+. A similar composition 
Tay be demonstrated not only in all the rest of the Hyprozoa, but in the 
Whole group of the Carenrerata. For the important generalization which 
thus asserts the composition of every ccelenterate animal out of two mem- 
branes—a generalization which forms the basis of the whole morphology of 
the Coelenterata—we are indebted to Professor Huxley, who first enunciated it 
a8 a great anatomical truth §. 

The ectoderm invariably contains imbedded in it the peculiar bodies known 
as thread-cells, which are frequently aggregated in definite groups, very cha- 
acteristic of the species in which they occur. A fibrillated contractile tissue, 

esembling non-striated muscular fibre, may also in a great many instances 

@ demonstrated in connexion with the ectoderm. 

Tn every member of the Hyprorpa with whose trophosome we are ac- 

uainted, excepting only the freshwater Hydra and probably also Nemopsis, 


organs, which occur at a distance from the polypites, and arise from the common con- 
ecting basis of the colony. y 
* Busk, MS. Lectures on Comparative Anatomy delivered in the Royal College of 
urgeons, London. 
t “On the Anatomy and Physiology of Cordylophora,” Phil. Trans. 1853. 
Tt From this generalization, however, we must except the “ Nematophores,” in whose 
aple granular ameboid protoplasm no differentiation into ectoderm and endoderm can be 


§ See his Memoir on the Anatomy and Affinities of the Meduse, Phil. Trans., June 1849 ; 
}s0 his ‘ Oceanic Hydrozoa,’ published by the Ray Society, 1859, and Lectures on General 
at, Hist., in the ‘Medical Times.’ 

242 


356 REPORT— 1863. 


with its curious free trophosome, described by McCrady*, and Acaulis, another 
genus with a free trophosome, described by Stimpson, the ectoderm excretes 
from its outer surface an unorganized pellicle chemically identical with chi- 
tine, and forming an external tubular investment for the soft organized ecto- 
derm. The extent to which the ectoderm is covered by it varies: in some 
cases it is confined to the coonosarc; in others it extends not only over the 
entire ccenosarc, but is often continued for a greater or less extent, and in a 
more or less modified form, over the various zooids of the colony. In the 
Sertularida and Campanularida (fig. 1) it forms cup-like receptacles—the 
“ hydrothece”’ of Huxley, into which the polypites are retractile. It is in- 
variably absent from those zooids which have detached themselves from the 
colony, in order to lead an independent life in the open seat. For this un- 
organized excretion, which must be placed in a totally different category 
from that of the ectoderm and endoderm, I propose the name of periderm§. 
Two different classes of zooids may combine to make up the gonosome||. To the 
more important and only constant one of _. = 
these classes (fig. 2 ¢) I have elsewhere J Fig. 2.—Group consisting of three 
given the name of gonophore, a term zooids from a colony of Hydrac- 
which I shall continue to employ in the tinia echinata, taken from near 
present Report. The gonophore is either the margin of the colony. 
the ultimate generative zoord, giving origin 
directly to the generative elements, or 
it gives origin to these elements through 
the medium of a special sexual bud which 
is developed from it. Though possessing 
intimate homological relations with the 
polypite, it is nevertheless constructed 
upon a special type, and may be in every 
case referred to the plan, frequently much 
modified, of the so-called ‘‘ gymnoph- 
thalmic medusa.” It often separates 
itself from the rest of the hydroid, and 
then lives as a free locomotive zooid in 
the open sea (fig. 1 9). 

The other class (fig. 2b) is not neces- 
sarily present. It consists of peculiarly 
modified polypites, having their aliment- 
ary function more or less suppressed, but 
never detaching themselves from the tro- 
phosome so as to enjoy an independent 
existence. They are the “ gonoblastidia” 
of Huxley. : a, Alimentary polypite; 66, gono- 

The gonophore is always borne as @  pjastidium beara Z The gonoghames 
bud, either directly upon some part of d, spiral polypite, developed close to the 
the trophosome, or upon the gonoblasti- margin of thecolony. The three zooids 
dium, or upon another gonophore which are connected to one another by a com- 
is not then the ultimate generative zooid. ™0n basal expansion or comnosare, 


* “ Gymnophthalmata of Charleston Harbour,” in Proc. Elliott Society of Nat. Hist. of 
Charleston, South Carolina, 1859. 

+ ‘Synopsis of the Marine Invertebrata of Grand Manan,” in Smithsonian Inst. vi. 1854. 

{ Itisalso entirely absent fromthe SipHonorHOoRA. § epi, around, and dépya, skin. 

|| Without including the peculiar receptacles in Plumularia and its allies, described 
below under the name of “ corbule.” ¥ Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb. Session 1857-58. 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 357 


The gonophores, though presenting manifest homological parallelism with 
the polypites, have a very different form, fitting them for the special functions 
to which they are destined. They are constructed essentially on the plan of 
a gymnophthalmic medusa, but vary greatly in the degree of completeness in 
which this plan is expressed in them. They may be primarily referred to one 
or other of two principal types, based respectively upon their greater or less 
approach to the completely formed medusa. The peculiar condition by 
which one of these types is characterized may be named “ phanerocodonic” *, 
while that which distinguishes the other may be designated as ‘“ adeloco- 
donic”’ +—conditions, however, which, it must be borne in mind, pass into one 
another by numerous gradations. 

The phanerocodonic condition is found in those gonophores whose essential 
part is a typically developed medusa (fig. 1), and which are distinguished 
by having a well-developed umbrella, provided with the wide aperture or 
“‘codonostome” + which characterizes this part of the structure in the com- 
plete medusa; the umbrella, except in one remarkable form—that presented 
by Clavatella, Hincks (fig. 3), and by Eleutheria, Quatrefages—being emi- 
nently contractile and fitted for natation. The adelocodonic condition is 
found in the bodies to which I have elsewhere given the name of sporosac ; 
these bodies have either no umbrella (fig. 2c), or, if this be present, it is in 
an incompletely developed state, never provided with a wide open codono- 
stome, and quite incapable of acting as a locomotive organ. 

The phanerocodonic gonophores, in by far the greater number of instances, 
detach themselves, either in whole or in part, from the trophosome or gono- 
blastidium after they have attained a certain degree of maturity, and lead 
henceforth an independent existence, during which they increase in size, often 
develope new parts, and sooner or later give origin to ova or spermatozoa. 

In some cases, however, they develope and discharge their reproductive 
elements while still attached, and then wither away, without ever becoming 
free, notwithstanding their well-developed contractile umbrella apparently 
fitting them for an independent natatory existence. That there is, however, 
no essential difference between these two forms is evident from an observation 
of Agassiz, who found the gonophores of Coryne mirabilis, Agass., in the earlier 
months of the year, detach themselves from the trophosome and swim away 
as gymnophthalmic medusz before the development in them of ova or sper- 
matozoa; while, somewhat later, he has seen the gonophores attain to sexual 
maturity without ever becoming free. 

The free phanerocodonic gonophore is in a single instance ambulatory ; in 
all others it is natatory, locomotion being effected by alternate systole and 
diastole of the umbrella§. In the ambulatory form the umbrella is incapable 
of evident systolic and diastolic movements, and locomotion is performed by 
marginal tentacles peculiarly modified for creeping over solid bodies. This 
very exceptional form has been met with only in Clavatella, whose tropho- 
some has been discovered by Hincks, and in the nearly allied Zleutheria of 
Quatrefages, whose trophosome has not yet been detected. 

While all the leading features of a gymnophthalmic medusa are thus at 
once obvious in the phanerocodonic gonophore, the adelocodonic gonophores, 


* avepos, manifest, and cwdwy, a bell, + “AdnXos, not apparent, and cwowy. 

£ Kwdwy, and oroua, a mouth. 

§ The gonophores of the Calycophoride properly come under the designation of phane- 
vocodonic, though they may never become free, and though we find them departing some- 
what from the typical form of the gymnophthalmic meduse by the non-development of 
the marginal appendages of the umbrella. 


358 REPORT—18638. 


on the other hand, present the medusoid structure only in a disguised or unde- 
veloped condition. They have the form of sacs, and, except in a single known 
instance, the whole gonophore remains permanently attached to the tropho- 
some, giving rise within it to the generative elements, which, after attaining 


Fig. 3.—Ambulatory medusa of Clavatella prolifera, 


\ 


i 


G 


a certain degree of maturity, are ultimately discharged from its cavity. The 
single exception is afforded by the genus Dicoryne, Allm. (fig. 4), in which, 
before discharging its generative products, the gonophore liberates itself from 
its external investment or ectotheca, and thus becoming free, swims about 
actively by the aid of vibratile cilia. 


Fig. 4.—Free locomotive sporosae of Dicoryne. 


A, Male sporosae, still enclosed in its ectotheca. B and ©, female gonophores after 
liberation from the ectotheca, swimming on the open sea; they represent two views of the 
same gonophore in planes at right angles to one another. 


r 


Oe 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 359 


Though it is necessary to distinguish the gonoblastidia from the polypites, 
it cannot be overlooked that they pass into them by certain transitions. 
Agassiz* describes a well-developed mouth in the so-called fertile polypites 
or gonoblastidia of the Hydractinia polyclina of the North American coast, 
and it is doubtful whether even in our Hydractinia echinata the nutritive 
function is ever absolutely suppressed in the otherwise very characteristic 
gonoblastidia of this species. In certain Hudendria the polypites, which 
carry the gonophores grouped round their base, present a perfectly developed 
form while the gonophores are young; but as these continue to grow, the 
polypites which carry them frequently become atrophied, losing their ten- 
tacles and mouth, and by the time the gonophores have attained maturity 
the polypites have assumed the condition of gonoblastidia. Again, among 
the Sertularida, we find in Haleciwm halecinwm the gonoblastidium, which 
here becomes a “ blastostyle’’ (see p. 370), developing from its summit a pair 
of perfect polypites with tentacles and mouth. These, however, are all ex- 
ceptional cases, and do not render less valid the association of the gonoblas- 
tidium with the gonosome rather than with the trophosome, while they are 
important as showing the homological identity between the polypite and the 
gonoblastidium. 

When we compare with one another the various forms of phanerocodonic 
gonophores, we shall see that they are divisible into two important groups. 
In the gonophores belonging to one of these groups the generative elements 
are produced directly by the gonophore itself, being developed between the 
endoderm and ectoderm of its manubrium (fig. 8, p. 369); while in those be- 
longing to the other group they are not produced directly by the gonophore, 
which is then, properly speaking, non-sexual, but are found in a special sexual 
bud to which this non-sexual gonophore itself gives rise (figs. 17 & 18, p. 401). 
It is necessary to distinguish these groups; and I shall accordingly designate 
the former or sexual form of phanerocodonic gonophore by the name of gono- 
cheme+, while to the latter I shall give the name of gonoblastochemet. 

Whether the entire gonosome remains during its whole lifetime connected 
with the trophosome, or becomes in any part an independent zooid,. it is 
manifest that it constitutes an essential element in the character of the spe- 
cies, and the study of no one species of hydroid can be regarded as complete 
unless it embrace both trophosome and gonosome. Since, however, in many 
cases we are acquainted with only the free gonophore, not having yet dis- 
covered the trophosome to which it belongs, while in other cases the tropho- 
some alone is known to us, we have been in the habit of treating such in- 
stances in our systems without regard to the missing zooids, and as if they 
afforded examples of independent species; but it must never be forgotten 
that the data on which we thus assign to them the rank of determinate 


_ species, or even genera, are insufficient for the purposes of a philosophic 


system: such genera and species must be regarded as purely provisional ; 
for the zoologist is no more justified in accepting such incomplete characters 


as sufficient for the accurate determination of his hydroid, than would the 


botanist be in regarding the flower alone on the one hand, or the root, stem, 


_ and leaves alone, on the other, as affording characters sufficient for the defi- 


_ nition of any flowering plant whose exact determination he would attempt. 


* Contrib. to the Nat. Hist. of the United States, vol. iv. 
+ Yovos, offspring, and éynpa, a carriage. 
{t Tovos, BXaorés (a bud), and 6ynpa. 


360 REPORT—1863. 


Il. MorpHonoey or THE GONOPHORE. 
A. Parts of an adelocodonice gonophore. 


An adelocodonic gonophore, when fully developed, consists of the following 
parts (see fig. 5 A, and fig. 6 A, B, C) :— 

1. An external ‘membranous closed sac, ectotheca*. 

2. A second sac lying immediately within the ectotheca, mesothecat. 

3. A system of canals which permeate the walls of the mesotheca, gastro- 
vascular canals. 

4. A third sac, internal to the mesotheca, endothecat. 

5. The generative elements (ova or spermatozoa), contained immediately 
within the endotheca. 

6. A hollow process which occupies the axis of the gonophore, whose 
cavity is in communication with the somatic cavity of the trophosome, and 
round which the generative elements are produced, spadiv§. 

It is not usual, however, for the adelocodonic gonophore to possess all the 
parts here enumerated, the mesotheca and gastrovascular canals in particular 
being often entirely suppressed. The only absolutely constant parts are 
spadix, endotheca, and generative elements. 


B. Parts of a phanerocodonic gonophore. 


In a completely developed phanerocodonic gonophore the following parts 
may be distinguished (see fig. 5 B and fig. 6 D):— 

a. An external membranous closed sae, ectotheca. 

b. Within the ectotheca a peculiar body known as a gymnophthalmic me- 
dusa. 

The gymnophthalmie medusa, which thus constitutes the essence of the 
phanerocodonie gonophore, consists of the following parts :— 

1. An open contractile bell or disc, umbrella. 

2. A central hollow body hanging from the summit of the umbrella-cavity, 
and bearing a mouth at its free extremity, manubrium ||. 

3. A system of canals excavated in the substance of the umbrella, and 
lined with endoderm. They consist of a set of radiating canals and of a cir- 
cular canal: the former are in by far the majority of cases four in number, 
or some multiple of four; they open by their proximal extremities into the 
base of the manubrium, and thence extend at exactly equal intervals towards 
the margin of the umbrella, while the circular canal runs round the umbrella 
immediately within its margin, and receives the distal extremities of the ra- 
diating canals which here open freely into it. These two sets, radiating and 
circular, constitute the gastrovascular canals. 

4. Contractile tentacula which spring from the margin of the umbrella. 

5. Either accumulations of pigment-granules, named ocelli, which occur at 
the base of the tentacles, and in which a refractile body is occasionally im- 
bedded, or else peculiar capsules, lithocysts, which are attached to the margin 
of the umbrella, and enclose one or more transparent refractile corpuscles. 

6. A membranous extension (velum) of the margin of the umbrella over 


* 'Exros, outer, and @7)«n, a sheath. 
t Meoos, middle, and @yKn. 
*Evooy, within, and 07K. 

; Brak, the closely crowded spike forming the inflorescence of a palm-tree, Ke. 

|| Manubrium (Latin), a handle. It is the “pedunele,” “ proboscis,” “ stomach,” &e., of 
authors. The term manubrium was suggested by me some years ago (Proc. Roy. Soc. 
Edin. 1858), in order to obviate the incorrect or equivocal significance which attaches itself 
to the names usually employed for this part. 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 361 


the mouth of the bell, where it forms a thin muscular diaphragm, perforated 
in the centre by a circular opening of greater or less diameter. 

7. Generative elements *. 

In the description here given of the phanerocodonic gonophore, the some- 
what aberrant group of meduse which constitutes the family of the Ziyinide 
is not included ; for these meduswe, while further research will probably suc- 
ceed in referring them to polypoid trophosomes, have not as yet in any case 
been actually so traced. (See below, p. 418.) 

We have already seen that the phanerocodonie gonophore may be a truly 
sexual zooid, which will then always give origin to ova or spermatozoa by the 
direct development of these elements between the ectoderm and endoderm of 
its manubrium (see fig. 5 B), without the intervention of any specialized bud, 
and will accordingly in this respect entirely correspond with the adelocodonic 
forms. It is to these properly sexual phanerocodonic gonophores that I have 
given the name of “gonocheme.” Of this form we have examples in the 
types which have been described by authors under the names of Sarsia, 
Steenstrupia, Oceania, &e. (figs. 6 D, 8, & 16). 

A large number of free gymnophthalmic meduse, however, some of which 
are known to proceed from polypoid trophosomes, are properly non-sexual, 
and cannot give origin to the generative elements without the previous deve- 
lopment of a special sexual bud. The sexual bud is borne upon some part 
of the course of the radiating canals; and it is this bud which is the true 
physiological equivalent of the adelocodonic gonophore and of the sexual form 
of phanerocodonic gonophore. Examples of this phenomenon may be seen 
in those medusze which have been included by authors under the types of 
Obelia, Eucope, Thaumantias, &e. (figs. 1g, 17, & 18). 

It is to these free medusx, which, while they are themselves properly non- 
sexual, give origin, like the gonoblastidium of Hydractinia, to sexual buds, 
but which, unlike the gonoblastidium, are endowed with locomotive powers, so 
that they carry these buds from place to place by the contractions of their 
umbrella, that I propose to give the name of “ gonoblastocheme’’+, 

In the account here given of the gonoblastocheme, I have confined this term 
to such forms of medusze as develope distinct sexual buds upon the radiating 
canals. In some of those medusx, however, in which the reproductive 
elements are produced between the ectoderm and endoderm of the manu- 
biium, we find a greater or less tendency to a differentiation of the repro- 
ductive mass from the general walls of the manubrium. This may be seen, 
for example, in certain forms of the Oceania, Turris, and Lizzia types, in 
which the ova or spermatozoa are developed in more or less specialized, fre- 
quently convoluted lobes of the manubrium, while in some, as in Nemopsis, 
Agass., these lobes are continued from the manubrium for some distance 
along the course of the radiating canals. Iam not, however, yet prepared 
to place these cases in the same category with the true gonoblastocheme ; for 
I have not had an opportunity of examining the structure of the manubrial 


* The structure above described is that of the phanerocodonic gonophore in its most com- 
pletely developed form, such as we meet with it in many of the Tubularida and Campanu- 
larida. Such complete differentiation, however, is not always attained even in the Hy- 
DROIDA, while among the StpHonoPHORA the margin of the umbrella in the Calycopho- 
ride carries neither tentacles, ocelli, nor lithocysts, and the manubrium developes, at least 
usually, no mouth upon its extremity. ‘ 

+ In order to avoid complicating the subject, I have deemed it better to leave out of view 
the question as to whether the particular meduse under discussion have been derived from 
a polypoid trophosome, or are the direct result of the development of anovum. (See below, 
p. 417 &c., where this question of the origin of the medusz is fully treated.) 


362 REPORT—1863. 


lobes, so as to make out with certainty whether they be homologous with proper 
sporosacs. They may ultimately prove so; but until then it will be safer to 
restrict the term “ gonoblastocheme” to those forms to which I have here 
applied it. When it shall be shown that specialized sexual zooids are developed 
from the manubrium, the same term must then be extended to the medusze 
in which this phenomenon can be proved to occur. 

Besides giving origin to their generative elements in special sexual buds 
developed on the radiating canals, the gonoblastocheme differs still further 
from the gonocheme in the almost universal absence of “ ocelli” on the bases 


Fig.5.—Diagrammatic sections of adelocodonic and phanerocodonic gonophore. 
B A 


Til 


A, Adelocodonie gonophore. B, Phanerocodonie gonophore. 

a, ectotheca ; 5, mesotheca or umbrella; c, endotheca; d, spadix; e, ova; f, radiating 
gastrovascular canals ; g, circular gastrovascular canal seen in transyerse section; A, mar- 
ginal tentacle ; 2, ocellus in bulbous base of tentacle ; 4, velum ; 7, peduncle of gonophore; 
m, general cavity of ccenosare ; 7, mouth. 

In both sections the endoderm is distinguished from the ectoderm by giving it a darker 
shade. 


of the tentacles, and the presence of “ lithocysts,”” which are developed on the 
intertentacular spaces of the umbrella margin*. 


C. Homological parallelism between the sporosac and the medusa, and between 
the gonophore and the polypite. 


While it will be found very convenient to insist upon the differences pointed 
out above between the phanerocodonic and the adelocodonic genophores, it must 


* An exceptional condition is presented by Thaumantias as limited by Gegenbaur, and 
by Siabberia, Forbes, in both of which ocelli are present and lithocysts absent, though the 
meduse belong to the type of the gonoblastocheme ; while in Tiaropsis diademata, Agass., 
another medusa of this type, a well-defined pigment-spot has been described by Agassiz 
as existing in the base of the lithocyst, a statement which I can confirm by my own 
observation on an undescribed species of Tiaropsis captured on the Firth of Forth. 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 363 


not be supposed that these two forms are constructed upon plans widely 
different from one another. We find, on the contrary, that the most exact 
parallelism admits of being demonstrated between them ; for though they 
may at first sight appear very different, it can nevertheless be shown that the 
closed generative sac of a Clava or a Hydractinia is an easily understood 
modification of a medusa*. 

In comparing the two classes of gonophores with theview of determining 
their homological relations, their composition out of the two membranes ecto- 
derm and endoderm must be carefully kept in mind. 

Commencing with the central parts of a phanerocodonic gonophore (fig. 5 B), 
and comparing these with the central parts of an adelocodonic gonophore 
(fig. 5 A), we shall find that in the former we have a manubrium in the form 
of a more or less elongated tubular body occupying the axis of the gono- 
phore. The walls of the manubrium are composed of two layers, an internal 
or endodermal layer and an external or ectodermal; and in all phanero- 
codonic gonophores of the sexual type (gonochemes) these two layers become 
ultimately more or less separated from one another by the development of the 
generative elements between them. 

In the adelocodonic gonophore also we have a double-walled tubular body 
occupying the axis ; but while in the phanerocodonic gonophore this body is 
in almost every case perforated by a terminal mouth, in the adelocodonic 
forms it is completely closed. The generative eloments are here also de- 
veloped between the two layers exactly as in the gonocheme ; but, in conse- 
quence of the absence of a mouth, the central organ assumes, by the increasing 
volume of these elements, the appearance of a single-walled sac, filled with 
ova or spermatozoa, and having a cecal diverticulum (spadix) plunged into 
the middle of the mass. This cecal diverticulum is plainly the equivalent of 
the endodermal portion of the manubrium in the phanerocodonie gonophore, 
while the wall of the sac (endotheca), which thus immediately confines the 
generative elements, represents the ectoderm of the same organ. 

The umbrella and gastrovascular canals of the phanerocodonie gonophore 
have their equivalents in the mesotheca and canals of the adelocodonic gono- 
phore, when these happen to be present, though in many cases they are never 
developed ; while the ectotheca holds exactly the same position and relations 
in the two forms. 

It would seem that in no case is a velum or its homologue developed in the 
adelocodonic gonophore, while the marginal tentacles of the phanerocodonic 
forms are, except in the ‘‘ meconidium”’ (see below, p. 376, fig. 12), also without 
their representative in the sporosac; for the tentacula-like tubercles which 
crown the summit of the adelocodonic gonophore of some of the Tubularidce 


'(Tubularia coronata for instance) are of an entirely different significance, 


being merely processes of the ectotheca. 

We are thus enabled to trace a close parallelism between the two kinds of 
gonophore ; but another comparison of great interest in this inquiry here sug- 
gests itself, that, namely, between the gonophore and the polypite. Now there 


Oceania octona, Fleming, and O. turrita, Forbes, meduse belonging to the type of the 
gonocheme, are, on the other hand, described by Forbes as having a lithocyst imbedded in 
the tentacular bulb just below the ocellus. 

_ * Jt is now many years since I endeavoured to demonstrate that the so-called “ ovarian 
vesicles” of the Tubularida, and the fixed sacs contained within the gonangium of the 
Sertularida and Campanularida, were in all cases strictly homologous with the free me- 
dusee—that they possess a true medusal structure in a more or less degraded or disguised 
condition. (‘On the Anatomy and Physiology of Cordylophora,” Phil. Trans., June 1853.) 


364. REPORT—1863. 


can be little difficulty in finding in the body of the polypite the homologue of 
the manubrium of the medusa* ; but the equivalents of the umbrella and gas- 
trovascular canals of the medusa are not at first sight so obvious. I believe, 
nevertheless, that these are not totally unrepresented in the polypite. It will 
be kept in mind that the tentacula of the polypite are merely tubular radia- - 
ting prolongations of the digestive cavity, though with the cavity of the 
tube usually more or less obliterated by the peculiar condition of the endo- 
derm, and that for some distance from their origin they are necessarily in- 
cluded in the thickness of the body-walls of the polypite. Now this included 
portion I regard as the true representative of the radiating canals of the me- 
dusa ; and if we were to imagine the ectoderm of the polypite in a Eudendrium 
or Campanularia to acquire unusual thickness in a zone corresponding in 
position to the roots of the tentacles, we should have a disc-like extension of 
the polypite traversed in a radiating direction by tubular extensions of the 
endoderm which lines the body-cavity of the polypite, and this dise would 
only need to become still further expanded in order to show itself as an un- 
mistakeable umbrella, with radiating gastrovascular canals, while the pro- 
boscidiform extension of the body, which in these genera advances far in front 
of the base of the tentacles, would resemble in all essential points the manu- 
brium of the medusa. 

Now the commencement of such an expansion is evident in the polypite of 
many Campanularide, while in Laomedea flexuosa, Hincks, and Campanulina 
(Laomedea) acuminata, Alder, the ectoderm of the body is actually extended 
as a thin disc for a considerable distance in the plane of the tentacles, which 
acquire in consequence the appearance of being connected at their bases by 
an intervening web. 

While the portion of the tentacles included in the thickness of the body- 
wall of the polypite will thus be the equivalent of the radiating canals of the 
medusa, the free portion of the tentacles is plainly homologous with the free 
tentacles, which in the medusa hang from the margin of the umbrella at the 
points corresponding to the entrance of the radiating into the circular canal, 
and which must be regarded as strictly the continuation of the radiating 
canals beyond their apparent termination in the circular canal. The tenta- 
cles, which in many meduse spring from the intervening spaces upon the 
margin of the umbrella, and are therefore not directly continuous with the 
radiating canals, make their appearance probably in all cases later than the 
others, and are frequently less developed. These must be placed in the same 
category with the lithocysts as simple marginal appendages, to be carefully 
distinguished from the primary tentacles, and, like the lithocysts, have no 
representative in the polypite. 


* Huxley (‘Oceanic Hydrozoa’) strongly insists on this relation, and is so impressed 
with the closeness of the homology, that he uses the same term, “ polypite,” for both. 

Agassiz (op. cit. vol. iv. p. 226) has witnessed the very simple adelocodonie gonophore 
in male specimens of his Rhizogeton fusiformis, stead of withering away after the discharge 
of its contents, elongate itself, develope tentacles, and become transformed into a polypite. 
I have myself, on one occasion, seen an analogous phenomenon in the female gonophore of 
Cordylophora lacustris, in which, after the discharge of the ova, the spadix had become 
elongated through the ruptured chitinous investment of the original gonophore, had deve- 
loped an ectoderm, thrown out tentacles from its summit, and become metamorphosed 
into an ordinary polypite. In the case of Cordylophora the transformation is confined to 
the spadix, while, according to Agassiz, the entire gonophore of Riizogeton takes part in 
the metamorphosis. 

I believe that in both cases the phenomenon is an abnormal one ; it certainly is so in 
Cordylophora, for, in the ordinary conditions to which this hydroid is exposed, no meta- 
morphosis of the kind takes place. 


It cannot be urged as an argument against this view, that the circular 
canal of the medusa is not represented in the polypite; for the absence of a 
developed umbrella in the polypite necessarily brings with it the absence of 
this canal; and for the same reason, velum, lithocysts, and secondary tentacles 
are also absent. Neither can it be said that those cases in which the ten- 
tacles of the polypite are not arranged in a single verticil, but are repeated 
regularly or irregularly in different planes upon the body, are inconsistent 
with the homological relations here insisted on; for such cases can be 
regarded only as special modifications of the more typical plan which has 
directly suggested our comparison. ' 

Huxley, believing the difference in structure and development between the 
locomotive disc of the gymnophthalmic and that of the steganophthalmic 
medusze to be so great as to place them in different categories, would confine 
the term “umbrella” to the disc of the steganophthalmata, and would desig- 
nate that of the gymnophthalmata by the terms ‘“‘nectocalyx” and “gonocalyx.” 
I was at first disposed to adopt the same view; but an investigation of the 
mode in which this part makes its appearance in the gymnophthalmic forms 
has convinced me that the development is essentially the same in both cases, 
and that, notwithstanding some marked structural differences, there is suffi- 
cient unity between the two to render it more convenient to speak of them 
under the same term as strictly homologous organs. In both cases they are 
formed by an outgrowth of the walls of the polypoid manubrium, and the fact 
that the steganophthalmic medusa is produced by successive transverse divi- 
sions of a “ scyphostoma,”’ while the gymnophthalmic medusa is formed as a 
lateral bud from a hydroid trophosome, is no valid argument against this 
approximation ; for every segment of the “ scyphostoma” is strictly compar- 
able to the bud of the hydroid, and developes its umbrella by an outgrowth 
from its sides in quite the same way. 

A very instructive example, which strikingly bears out the comparison I 
haye here attempted to make between the polypite and the medusa, is afforded 
by the remarkable locomotive zooid which with its ectotheca forms the gono- 
phore of Dicoryne (fig. 4, p. 358). This little zooid is essentially a free me- 
dusa, reduced to the condition of an ova-bearing or spermatozoa-bearing 
manubrium, from whose base two free tentacula are developed. Now there is 
here no umbrella; but it is evident that we have only to imagine the ectoderm 
of the manubrium projected as a disc, in the way already supposed, in the 
horizontal plane passing through the base of the two tentacles so as to in- 
clude the basal portion of these tentacles in its thickness, in order to have 
an umbrella with two radiating canals added to the manubrium. 

But development entirely coincides with anatomy in pointing to the same 
conclusion ; and it is only necessary to trace the formation of the umbrella 
and radiating canals in the budding medusa, in order to become convinced 
that their origin is essentially that here insisted on (see below, p. 397) ; while 
the interesting observations of Johannes Miiller on the development of Aigi- 
nopsis (see below, p.418), and of McCrady on that of Cunina (see below,p. 419), 
show that in these genera the umbrella grows out as a horizontal disc from 
the walls of a free polypoid manubrium, which bears a close resemblance to 
the generative zooid of Dicoryne*. 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 365 


* At the same time, however, we must not, in this comparison, overlook the fact that 
both Aginopsis and Cunina belong to the AHginide, a family which in many respects pre- 
sents an approach to the steyanophthalmata ; while, according to Fritz Miiller’s account 
of the development of Lyriope catharinensis (Wiegm. Arch. 1859, p. 310), the process would 
seem to be, even in the undoubted gymnophthalmata, sometimes different ; asin this case, 


566 REPORT—1863. 


The parallelism which I have thus endeavoured to demonstrate may be 
expressed in the following scheme. 


PHANEROCODONIC ADELOCODONIC 
| GonorHore. Gonoruore. Roum: 
Wetothectin 13; sayaie-asadededs -cseebinspases se dabzeee Ectotheca 
Wan bre lla ge ah wat re inadhanacuadeoake ade taante Mesotheca Basal web of tentacles 
in Laomedea flexu- 
osa, &e. 
Gastrovascular canals ..............scssececseees| Canals of mesotheca ./Base of tentacles ex- 
tending through the 
thickness of the 
body-walls. 
Ectoderm of manubrium ..................6.2. .[Endotheca .......++44. Ectoderm of probos- 
cis. 
Endoderm of manubrium ..................... (Spadix -tsusecasuehewse Endoderm of probos- 
cis. 
INVA GRIMALDI aia vinek vs oe'e sis. tris sav’ o0)s¥ «asain Spadix-+ endotheca.../Proboscis. 
Primary or radial marginal tentacula ...... Primary tentacula in Free portion of tenta- 
| the meconidium. cula. 
Secondary or interradial marginal tentacula Secondary tentacula| 
in the meconidium. 
Ocelli and TWthocysts.... 02. -..+.ccnersaeso sages ss 0 | 0 
MGlnMl avers sien stirtartacnceranis ancketeaecctatrice 0 0 


D. Further modifications of the gonosome. 


Besides the great leading differences already described, many others of a 
more subordinate kind are met with. The adelocodonic gonophore in parti- 
cular exhibits many special modifications, and presents us with a regular 
series of gradations in complexity, which throw much light on its morphology. 

The simplest form is probably that which we meet with in the female go- 
nophores of the freshwater Hydra. Here there would seem to be no differ- 
entiation of an ectotheca, while the spadix itself remains in a rudimental 
condition, being scarcely elevated above the base of the gonophore, whose 
whole cavity becomes at an early period occupied by the single large spheri- 
cal ovum. 

An advance over this condition is seen in the sexual bud which is borne by 
that form of medusa described above, under the name of “ gonoblastocheme.”’ 
Here we have the ultimate sexual bud quite destitute of ectotheca, and re- 
duced to the condition of spadix and endotheca separated from one another 
by the intervening generative elements (fig. 18, p. 401). 

In Clava, Hydractinia, &c., we have a still further advance in complexity. 
The gonophore has here the form of a simple closed sac, whose axis is occu- 
pied by a cylindrical or club-shaped spadix, round which the generative 
elements are clustered (fig. 6 A). Careful examination, however, will show 
that the walls of the sac consist of two membranes, an outer or ectotheca and 
an inner or endotheca. The mesotheca is entirely absent. 

In Garveia nutans, Wright, I have found a mesotheca to be distinctly de- 
monstrable ; but it is closed at the summit, and destitute of circular canal, 
while four short radiating canals may be seen in its walls extending from the 
base of the spadix for about a third of the height of the sac (fig. 6 B). 

In Tubularia indivisa the mesotheca presents the highest degree of deve- 


if the observer has correctly interpreted the appearances, the umbrella would be formed 
by the excayation of a solid spherical embryo. 


‘ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 367 


lopment which it attains in any adelocodonic gonophore, if we except the 
peculiar body described below under the name of “ meconidium.” It is per- 
forated at its summit, and the perforation is surrounded by a distinct circular 


Fig. 6.—Types of Gonophores. 


A, Clava multicornis. B, Garveia nutans. C, Tubularia indivisa. D, Syncoryne 


 eximia. 


a, ectotheca; b, mesotheca; c, endotheca; d, spadix; d', manubrium; e, radiating 
gastrovascular canals; f, circular gastrovascular canal; g, marginal tentacles; h, ocelli; 
0, ova; p, ovarian plasma in Tubularia. 


canal which receives four radiating canals, which open into it by small bulbous 
expansions (fig. 6 C). We thus find almost entirely the condition of a medusa— 
a medusa, however, which never becomes free, the mesotheca never disen- 
gaging itself from the ectotheca, the spadix remaining as a simple cecal di- 
yerticulum, and the codonostome being reduced to a mere perforation of the 
mesotheca, while this last exhibits but the faintest traces of contractility, 
and is quite incapable of acting as a locomotive umbrella. 

From the sporosac of Tubularia indivisa it is thus but a single step to the 
true phanerocodonic gonophore, such as we find in Corymorpha nutans, 
Campanularia Johnstoni, or Syncoryne (Coryne) eximia, where the mesotheca 
assumes the condition of a contractile locomotive umbrella, with a well- 


368 REPORT—1863. 


developed codonostome and velum, and, the manubrium now becoming per- 
forated by a mouth, the gonophore is no longer dependent on the trophosome 
for its nutrition, but can become free and lead an independent life in the 
open sea (fig. 6 D and fig. 17). 

The typical and ordinary condition of the spadix is that of a hollow cylin- 
drical or clavate body, occupying the axis of the adelocodonic gonophore. 
Occasionally, however, it departs from this condition and becomes more or 
less branched, as in Plumularia pinnata, Laomedea caliculata, &e. 

The gastrovascular canals may, as we have already seen, be either entirely 
suppressed, or present the condition of simple, short, blind tubes, radiating from 
the base of the gonophore, or be continued from this point as fully developed 
radiating canals to the distal extremity of the gonophore, where they become 
united by a circular canal. In Cordylophora lacustris*, however, instead of 
being simple tubes, they consist of irregularly branched and anastomosing 


* The genus Cordylophora was founded by me, in 1843 (Reports of the Meeting of 
the British Association held in Cork, 1843, and Ann. Nat. Hist. xiii. p. 330), for a 
remarkable tubularidan with scattered filiform tentacula, a well-developed periderm, and 
with adelocodonic gonophores scattered-upon the ultimate ramuli of its branching tro- 
phosome,—a tubularidan, moreover, singularly exceptional in its mode of life, being, with 
Hydra, the only known hydroid which is an inhabitant of fresh water. 

Agassiz, in his recent work (Nat. Hist. of the United States, vol. iv. p. 289), refers the 
genus Cordylophora to the genus Syncoryna of Ehrenberg, which he reconstructs for this 
purpose. From such a determination, however, I must altogether dissent. The name 
Syncoryna was introduced by Ehrenberg, in 1832 (Beitriige zur Kenntniss der Corallen- 
thiere des Rothen Meeres), to replace that of Stipula, Sars’s name for a genus of hydroids 
exactly equivalent with the Coryne of Gartner, a genus from which Cordylophora is abso- 
lutely excluded by, among other characters, its filiform tentacula destitute of capitula. 

Ehrenberg thinks that a hydroid discovered by Cavolini in the Bay of Naples, and de- 
scribed by him under the name of Sertularia parasitica (Mem. Polypi Marini, 1785, pl. vi. 
figs. 8-13), belongs to the genus Syncoryna=Stipula. In this, however, he is evidently 
mistaken, Cavolini’s hydroid, so far as we can judge from the account left us by its dis- 
coverer, being altogether excluded from the genus Stzpula as defined and fixed by Sars. 

If Ehrenberg had not been, like Sars, led into error as to the just application of the name 
Coryne, he would, instead of changing Sars’s name of Stipula for one of his own, have 
simply restored the old name of Coryne as originally given by Gartner. 

Agassiz, however, retains the generic name of Syncoryna, Ehr., but modifies the genus 
by removing from it all the forms included in it by Ehrenberg, except the Sertularia pa- 
rasitica of Cavolini, which, as we have just said, was erroneously placed there by Ehren- 
berg. To this he adds the species of the genus Cordylophora, under the belief that Cor- 
dylophora lacustris and Sertularia parasitica ave congeneric forms. 

Even allowing that this reconstruction of Syncoryna in a sense which was not under- 
stood by its founder is admissible, I must entirely differ from Agassiz in his generic asso- 
ciation of Cordylophora with the Sertularia parasitica. 

The Sertularia parasitica, already taken by Van Beneden as the type of a new genus, 
Corydendrium, Van Ben. (Bull. Ac. Brux. 1844), is certainly a very remarkable hydroid, 
and it is greatly to be desired that we knew something more of it than what is to be 
gathered from the figures and description (excellent though they be for the time) which 
have been left us by the celebrated Neapolitan observer. From these, however, so far as 
they go, we learn that it has a curious complex ccenosarc, consisting in the main stems of 
fascicles of tubes which become single only in the smaller branches; that it has a singu- 
larly extensile and dilatable proboscis ; and that, if we be justified in offering any interpre- 
tation of the curious buds represented in one of the figures (fig. 11, c), we must regard 
them as phanerocodonic gonophores, for it is impossible not to recognize in them a close 
resemblance to young medusee still enclosed in the ectotheca. Of the singular formation 
of egg-like bodies in the interior of the stems, as described by Cavolini, I cannot offer any 
explanation. 

In all these points Cavolini’s hydroid stands widely separated from Cordylophora, and 
it cannot therefore be associated with it in a common generic group. 

T must therefore continue to maintain the independence of Cordylophora as a legitimately 
constituted genus. 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 369 


canals which extend from the base to the summit of the gonophore, where 

they end in blind extremities, without any connexion with a circular canal. 
The usual condition of the adelocodonic gonophore is that of a simple, more 

or less spherical or oval sac. In Eudendrium, however, the male gonophores 


Fig. 8.—Medusa (Sarsia strangulata, Allm., provisionally) 
of unknown trophosome. 


Fig. 7. 

Male gonophore of 
Budendriwm, show- 
ing the develop- 
ment of the sper- 
matogenous tissue 
at intervals be- 
tween the ectoderm 
and endoderm. 


a, very extensile manubrium ; 4 4 b, male elements developed 
at intervals between the ectoderm and endoderm of the manu- 
brium ; ¢, ocellus. 


1863. 2B 


370 REPORT—1863. 


present the form of a simple sac only at first ; for by the time that their con- 
tents have approached maturity, new spermatogenous tissue becomes apparent 
between the endoderm and ectoderm of their supporting peduncles, and these 
two membranes thus become separated from one another so as to form a second 
sac immediately behind the first, while a third may in the same way be 
formed behind the second, the gonophore thus acquiring the peculiar monili- 
form or polythalamic conformation characteristic of this genus (fig. 7). It will 
be at once apparent that the separate chambers presented by this peculiar form 
must not be regarded as so many distinct gonophores; the whole moniliform 
series ought rather to be viewed as a simple adelocodonic gonophore, in which 
the endotheca is not uniformly separated from the spadix by the intervention 
of the spermatogenous tissue, but remains at intervals permanently adherent 
to it. Among the free meduse an entirely analogous phenomenon occurs in 
a Sarsia-like medusa of unknown trophosome, which I captured in the towing- 
net on the south-west coast of Ireland (fig. 8). In this, the manubrium, which 
is extraordinarily extensile, and can be projected for a great length beyond the 
umbrella, was enlarged at distinct intervals by the development of the gene- 
rative elements between its ectoderm and endoderm. The specimen captured 
was a male, and the manubrium, when extended, presented, by the mode in 
which the spermatogenous tissue was developed in its walls, five elongated 
cylindrical enlargements, separated from one another by long thin intervening 
portions, in which the ectoderm and endoderm of the manubrium continued 
in direct contact with one another, no generative element being there deve- 
loped. The spermatogenous mass which occupied the free end of the manu- 
brium was divided into two by a shallow strangulation. The peculiar mode in 
which the generative elements are developed in the manubrium of Dipurena, 
a nearly allied genus described by M°Crady*, would seem to afford an exam- 
ple of an analogous phenomenon. 

The gonophore may be borne upon a distinct peduncle, which may be 
simple (Syncoryne eximia, &c.) or branched (Tubularia indivisa, Corymorpha 
nutans, &c.), each branch then bearing a gonophore on its summit; or the 
peduncle may be evanescent, and the gonophore become sessile (Laomedea 
flexuosa, &e.). 

The gonophores, whether phanerocodonic or adelocodonic, may be destitute 
of any further covering, and will then, while attached to the trophosome 
(Coryne, Clava, &c.) or to the gonoblastidium (Dicoryne, Hydractinia, &e.), 
have their surface in immediate contact with the surrounding water (fig. 2 ¢). 

In other cases the gonoblastidium, with its gonophores, may be surrounded 
by a close case or capsule, formed by a layer of ectodermi with an external chiti- 
nous investment (Campanularia, Sertularia, &c.) (fig. 1f). I have elsewhere 
designated this capsule by the name of “ gonangium’’t. The gonoblastidium 
extends through the axis of the gonangium as a cylindrical column, bearing 
the gonophores as buds upon its sides, and generally expanded at its summit 
into a conical plug or disc, by which the gonangium is here closed. It 
will be convenient to distinguish specially this modification of the gono- 
blastidium; I have elsewhere used for it the term “ blastostyle”’t, and shall 
in the present Report employ the same term in the sense thus defined. 

In some cases the contents of the gonangium escape, when mature, by the 
simple rupture of the summit (Plumularia, &c.). In others, however, the 


* M°Crady, op. cit. p. 135. 

+ Tévos, and ayyetov, a vessel. “On the Structure and Terminology of the Reproduc- 
tive System in the Corynide and Sertulariade,” Ann. Nat. Hist. July 1860. 

t Bdaords, a bud, and ordXos, a column. Proc. B.S. Edin. 1858. 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 371 


summit is separated as a distinct lid, which is then either cast off at once 
(Sertularia pumila, &c.), or it remains moveably attached by one spot of its 
edge, as by a hinge, to the margin of the 


aperture thus formed in the summit of the Fig. 9. — Female gonangium 
gonangium (Sertularia operculata, Antennu- with acrocyst of Sertularia 
laria). pumila. 


The Hydroida with naked gonophores may 
be termed “ gymnogonial”*, while those in 
which the gonophores are contained in a 
gonangium may be termed “ angiogonial” }. 

In by far the greater number of cases the 
blastostyle carries numerous gonophores, 
which always increase in maturity as they 
recede from the base and approach the 
summit of the gonangium. In some cases, 
however, the blastostyle bears but a single 
gonophore ; and then.it often happens that 
the gonophore enlarges to such an extent as 
to fill nearly the entire cavity of the gonan- 
gium, the blastostyle being pushed aside out 
of the axis, and becoming often compressed 
and flattened over the gonophore, or even 
becoming partially absorbed, so as to render 
it difficult to demonstrate its existencet. 

Sometimes the cavity of the blastostyle, 
though in the very young state quite sim- 
ple, soon breaks up, from a common point 
near the base, into several distinct tubes, 
which again unite in the common cavity of 
the plug-like summit. This has been shown 
by Agassiz to be the case in his Clytia pote- 
rium, and I have myself seen it in a nearly ’ 
allied, if not identical, species from the east a, gonangium ; 3, blastostyle; ¢, 
coast of Scotland. opercular summit of blastostyle ; 

In every adelocodonic gonophore belong- 4 d, cecal offsets from the summit of 
ing to gymnogonial genera, as well as in the blastostyle ; e, gonophore after 
most of those which belong to angiogonial having Gischanped its cantante, ste 

5 : e acrocyst; f, spadix; g, proper 
genera, the generative elements are dis- sae of acrocyst; #, external gelati- 
charged directly into the surrounding water, nous investment of acrocyst ; %, ova 
in a more or less developed condition, from contained in acrocyst ; %, young ova 

_ the summit of the gonophore. In the fe- i blastostyle. 
tales of some angiogonial species, however, the ova, instead of escaping 
directly from the gonophore into the water, are retained for some time in a 


* Tupvés, naked, and yédvos. ; 

__ +t ‘Ayyetov, a vessel, and yévos. Since the present Report was laid before the Associ- 
ation, I have seen Victor Carus’s “ Classification of the Hydroida” in the ‘ Handbuch der 
_ Zoologie,’ by Peters, Carus, and Gersticker, 1863, and find that he there employs the 
terms “gymnotoka” and “skenotoka” in the same sense in which gymnogonial and 
_ angiogonial are used in the Report. 

__{ The difference presented by the gonangia, according as they contain numerous gono- 

phores or only a single one, is regarded by Gegenbaur (‘ Generationswechsel,’ p. 38) as 
of sufficient importance to induce him to distinguish the gonangia into “ polymeric ” and 

“monomeric.” I am not disposed, however, to give much weight to this difference. which 

really consists in a comparatively trivial modification of a common sia 5 

B 


372 REPORT—1863. 


peculiar receptacle, where they undergo further development, and which is sup- 
ported upon the summit of the gonangium, and entirely external to its cavity 
(fig.99,h). It will be found convenient to employ a special term for this 
receptacle, which confers upon the gonosomes in which it occurs a very cha- 
racteristic feature. I have already designated it by the name of “ acrocyst” *. 
It may be seen in Sertularia pumila, S. cupressina, S. polyzonas, Calycella 
syringa, &c., and would seem to be in every instance confined to the female. 

There is some difficulty in determining the exact morphology of the 
acrocyst. In its usual form it seems to consist of a simple extension of the 
endotheca of the gonophore, protruded as a hernia-like sac through the 
summit of the gonangium, while the whole becomes surrounded by a thick 
gelatinous-looking envelope, which is excreted from the outer surface of the 
sac, and which shows no appearance of true structure, though distinct zones 
of deposition may occasionally be observed in it. 

In Calycella (Laomedea) lacerata, Johnst., the spadix itself, as has been 
correctly stated by Dr. 8S. Wright, is, with the surrounding endotheca and 
ova, carried upwards upon the blastostyle, by whose elongation it is protruded 
as an acrocyst from the summit of the gonangium, when the whole becomes 
invested by the usual thick gelatinous excretion. The peculiarity of the 
acrocyst in this case is found in the presence within it of the spadix, which, 
however, is depressed by the enlarging ova, and forced back into the bottom 
of the sac. 

In the interior of the acrocyst, the ova pass through certain stages of their 
development, and ultimately escape as free ciliated embryos by the rupture 
of its walls. 

In the cases just described, the acrocyst is destitute of any further covering, 
and has its walls with their gelatinous investment freely exposed to the 
surrounding water. In Sertularia rosacea and S. tamarisca, however, an addi- 
tional covering is provided for the acrocyst, and there is thus formed a curious 
and complicated receptacle, in which the ova, as in a sort of marsupium, pass 
through certain early stages of their development, previously to being dis- 
charged into the surrounding water. 

The nature and morphology of this receptacle in Sertularia rosacea (fig. 10) 
will be best understood by tracing its development. The young female gonan- 
gium is a conical body, with eight slightly projecting longitudinal ridges, and 
with the broad end of the cone constituting the distal end or summit of the 
gonangium. A blastostyle occupies its axis, having upon its sides, one over the 
other, the young budding gonophores, and expanding at its summit into a 
broad thick dise, which closes, as with a plug, the free end of the gonangium. 
Upon the outer side of this dise a thin chitinous investment is excreted, be- 
coming continuous at the edge of the disc with the chitinous walls of the 
gonangium, while in the centre of the dise the chitinous investment is defi- 
cient, leaving there a large circular aperture where the summit of the 
blastostyle is naked. 

The edge of the dise soon becomes produced into eight thick symmetrically 
radiating lobes, which gradually elongate themselves, carrying with them a 
continuation of the chitinous excretion, which forms a-wide tube around each ; 
and now bending upwards, in the form of eight arms with enlarged ex- 
tremities, they remind one of the disposition of the petals in a flower, and 
present altogether an appearance of great elegance. These eight radiating 
arms are composed of ectoderm and endoderm, and have their axis occupied 


* ”"Axpov, the summit, and céazts, a vesicle. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin. 1858. 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA,. 


373 


by a tubular cavity, which communicates with that of the blastostyle. As the 
arms continue to elongate, we find them next (h) with their free extremities 


bending towards one another, until finally, 
by the meeting of their extremities, they 
completely enclose an oval space (c), which 
is entirely shut in by the lateral coalescence 
of the wide chitinous tubes with which the 
radiating processes are each invested. 

In the mean time the eight longitudinal 
ribs of the gonangium continue themselves 
upon the radiating arms, and ultimately 
extend beyond their extremities as free 
pointed processes. Two of them, however, 
situated opposite to one another, greatly 
surpass the others in size, and mainly con- 
tribute to the peculiar and characteristic 
form of the gonangium*. 

If we compare the structure now de- 
scribed with an ordinary polypite, we shall 
have no difficulty in recognizing an exact 
parallelism ; for the eight tubular processes 
which are developed from the summit of 
the blastostyle may be regarded as homo- 
logous with the tentacles of a polypite. 
They have, however, undergone a special 
modification, by which they become subser- 
vient to an entirely different function from 
that of the tentacles of the polypite; for, 
no mouth being developed on the blastostyle, 
they are no longer prehensile organs admi- 
nistering to the alimentation of the colony, 
but, like the blastostyle itself, have assigned 
to them functions appertaining to repro- 
duction rather than nutrition, and are 
destined to circumscribe a cavity for the 
retention and development of the ova. 

The ova would seem to continue in the 
marsupial cavity until they have acquired 
the condition of ciliated embryos. 

The modification of marsupial receptacle 
which occurs in Sertularia tamarisca is also 
very interesting. The female gonangia 
(fig. 11) are here of an oval form for about 
the proximal half of their length, and then 
become trihedral, with the sides diverging 
upwards, while the whole is terminated by 
a three-sided pyramid. The sides of the 


Fig. 10.—Female 


gonangium 


with marsupial chamber of 
Sertularia rosacea. 


a, lateral walls and, 6, roof of the 
gonangium proper; ec, chitinous 
walls of the marsupial chamber ; d, 
three of the six smaller and, e, the 
two larger spine-like processes which 
crown the marsupial chamber; jf, 
blastostyle; g, disc-like summit of 
the blastostyle; 4, the eight radiating 
tubular processes from the summit of 
the blastostyle; 72, ova in the mar- 
supial chamber, the germinal vesicle 
having already disappeared ; , go- 
nophore still attached to the blasto- 
style, and containing two ova with 
the germinal vesicle distinct ; /, dila- 
tation of the blastostyle, probably an 
incipient gonophore. 


pyramid are cut into two or three short teeth along their edges, and each 
of their basal angles is prolonged into a short spine. 


* In Sertularia fallax also a marsupial chamber is developed in the gonangium, and, 
judging from the figures and short description given by Dr. Strethill Wright (Proc. R. 
Phys. Soc. Edin. 28th April, 1858), it would seem that the structure is very nearly 


identical with that here described in S. rosacea. 


374 


REPORT—1863. 


The trihedral portion, with its pyramidal summit, is formed of three 
leaflets (b), which merely touch one another by their edges without adhering, 


so that they may be easily separated by the 
dissecting-needle or by the embryo during 
its escape. They consist of the same chi- 
tinous material as that which forms the 
rest of the gonangium, excreted doubtless 
originally upon the surface of an ectodermal 
lamina. 

On laying open the gonangium, the oval 
or proximal portion of it is seen to be oc- 
cupied by a blastostyle (c,d), which gives 
origin to one or more gonophores (¢). It 
terminates upwards by closing round the 
distal extremity of the blastostyle, where 
it forms a ring, with tooth-like processes, 
by which the extremity of the blastostyle is 
encircled. This oval portion constitutes the 
gonangium proper, and is the only part de- 
veloped in the male. 

From the summit of the blastostyle 
several irregularly branched cecal tubes (7), 
apparently communicating with its cavity, 
are given off; they lie altogether external 
to the oval portion or gonangium proper,and 
embrace a delicate sac (/), within which are 
one or two ova (/) in an advanced stage of 
development, each in a delicate structureless 
sac (m) of its own, which is continued by a 
narrow neck to the summitof theblastostyle. 

The ova, with their investing sacs and 
the surrounding cecal tubes, are further 
closed in by the three leaflets already men- 
tioned as constituting the trihedral portion 
of the gonangium. These leaflets are given 
off from the sides of the oval portion, or 
proper gonangium, a little below its sum- 
mit; and, being in contact by their edges, 
completely enclose a space which is occupied 
by the structures just described. 

The homological relations between the 
marsupial receptacles of Sertularia rosacca 
and S. tamarisca are at once apparent, 
and .are very interesting. The ramified 
tubes (fig. 112) of S. tamarisca are mani- 
festly the representatives of the eight sim- 
ple tubes (fig. 10 2) in S. rosacea, while the 
three broad chitinous leafletswhichsurround 
the whole externally are homologous with 
the continuation of the gonangium in 8S. 


Fig. 11.—Female gonangium 
with marsupial chamber of 
Sertularia tamarisca. 


a, lateral walls of the gonangium 
proper ; 4, two of the three chitinous 
leaflets which form the outer walls of 
the trihedral marsupial chamber ; ¢, 
blastostyle ; d, opercular summit of 
blastostyle ; e, gonophore budding 
from the blastostyle ; Jf, its ectotheca ; 
g, its endotheca ; 2, ova; 7, ramified 
ceecal processes from thesummit of the 
blastostyle ; 4, delicate membranous 
sac, forming the inner walls of the 
marsupial chamber ; /, ova contained 
within this sac ; the germinal vesicle 
has disappeared, and they have nearly 
acquired the condition of planule ; 
m, delicate special sac of the ovum. 


rosacea, where, with its prominent ridges and spines, it forms an external 
capsule-like covering for the sac into which, as in S. tamarisca, the ova are 


expelled from the gonangium proper. 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDRUIDA. 375 


The structures just described in Sertularia rosacea and S. tamarisca will, I 
think, enable us to explain a peculiar feature observed in S. pumila and 
probably some other species. In S. pumila the blastostyle of both male and 
female gonangia gives off from its enlarged opercular summit several more or 
less ramified cecal tubular processes (fig. 9 d), which, instead of developing 
themselves externally, are found entirely within the gonangium, where they 
hang freely from the summit of the blastostyle. Their walls are composed both 
of endoderm and ectoderm, and their cavity communicates with that of the 
blastostyle, so that the peculiar coloured corpuscles which circulate within 
the cavity of the blastostyle are freely admitted into the cecal tubes, where 
they may occasionally be seen in active motion. The tubes can be most 
satisfactorily examined in the younger gonangia. In the older ones they will 
frequently be found to have contracted adhesions to the gonangium, to haye 
become atrophied, and, finally, even to have disappeared. 

I believe that these tubes are the exact equivalents of those which in 
Sertularia tamarisca and S. rosacea are given off from the same part of the 
blastostyle, but where, instead of growing into the cavity of the gonangium, 
they are developed in an outward direction, and assist in the formation of 
the peculiar receptacle which surrounds the acrocyst in those species*. 

Among the various modifications presented by the gonosome there is 
perhaps not one more interesting than that which we meet with in Zaomedea 
Lovéni, Allm., and at least one other allied species. In this hydroid there 
are borne upon the summit of the gonangium, and altogether external to its 
cavity, certain very peculiar gonophores, which convey the impression of 
small, fixed, imperfectly developed medusz (fig. 12 9 4). It was to these 
extracapsular gonophores that Lovén long agof called attention when he 
supported and developed the doctrine, just then announced by Ehrenberg, 
of the sexuality of the Hyproma—a doctrine which, though in its mode of 
statement not absolutely correct, was yet full of significance. 

The bodies in question are nearly spherical sacs, and occur in both the 
male and female colonies. In their walls may be demonstrated an ectotheca, 
mesotheca, and endotheca. The generative elements (m) are formed within the 
endotheca, and surround a well-developed spadix. The endotheca, however, 
is generally of short duration, becoming absorbed or ruptured under the in- 
creasing volume of its contents. In the female four very distinct radiating 
canals (/) may frequently be seen ; these spring from the base of the spadix, 
and thence run in the walls of the mesotheca towards the opposite end of the 
sac. In many cases, however, I was unable to detect any trace of these 
canals, and could never find them in the maie. We should, however, be 
scarcely justified in asserting that in such cases they are altogether absent ; 
for it is quite possible that emptiness or some other peculiar condition at 
the time of observation may have caused them to escape detection—a sup- 


* It is evidently the tubes here described to which Agassiz (Nat. Hist. U. 8. vol. iv. 
p. 329. pl. xxxii. figs. 10, 10*) refers as occurring in a North American hydroid which he 
regards as identical with the Sertularia pumila of the European coasts. He views them, 
however, as simply representing the fleshy bands which may frequently be seen in the 
trophosome of the Hydroida, extending from the outer surface of the coenosare to the inner 
surface of the chitinous periderm, and which these tubes certainly resemble when they 
become more or less atrophied and adherent to the walls of the gonangium. ‘They are also 
described and figured by Lindstrém in a paper on the development of Sertularia pumila 
(Oefversigt af Kéngl. Vetenskaps-Akademiens Férhandlingar, 1855.) 

fT Lovén, Beitriige zur Kenntniss der Gattungen Campanularia und Syncoryne, Wiegm. 
Arch. 1837. Lovén names the hydroid in which he witnessed the extracapsular gonophores 
Campanularia geniculata, which is certainly a wrong determination of the species. 


376 REPORT—1863. 


position which receives confirmation from the fact that, even in those cases 
where they are most obvious, they become obliterated under slight pressure. 

At the summit of the sac 
the mesotheca is perforated 
by acircular aperture,round 
which its walls appear to be 
thickened, and probably con- 
tain here a rudimental cir- 
cular canal in which the 
radiating canals terminate ; 
at least, the presence of co- 
loured granules at this spot 
affords an indication of. the 
existence of such a canal. 
The ectotheca, which is 
loaded with thread-cells, is 
also perforated by an aper- 
ture corresponding to that 
of the mesotheca; and the 
gonophore is crowned by a 
circle of short tentacles (x), 
which seem to originate from 
the thickened margin of the 
perforation in the summit of 
the mesotheca, 

The tentacles possess, like 
the marginal tentacles of a 
true medusa, considerable 
contractility. They may 
frequently be seen of very 
different lengths in different 
gonophores of the same co- 
lony ; and this, which is 
really the result of different 
degrees of contraction, may 
be easily taken for different 
degrees of development, the 
tentacles being especially 
sluggi sh in the acts of Saat a, chitinous walls of the gonangium ; 3, blastostyle ; 
tension and contraction. ¢, opercular summit of blastostyle ; d, young gonophore 
Their length, when fully im the cavity of the gonangium; e, more mature go- 


extended in the female go- nophore, still in the cavity of the gonangium; /f, its 
nophore, will equal about tentacles turned back on the sides of the mesotheca ; 


: , meconidia; #, ectotheca, 7, mesothec: k, 
half the diameter of the etn ehiscn of meconidium ; J, radiating ae Fis ova 
gonophore: while under ex- become planule in the more mature meconidium ; 
ternal irritation, they will ~, tentacles of meconidium; 0, ciliated planula just 
slowly contract to a third of escaped from meconidium., 
their original length, and will then show themselves as a little stellate crown 
on the summit of the gonophore. They vary in number: I have counted in 
the female from 8 to 16 or 20. They are composed of ectoderm and endo- 
derm, the ectoderm containing thread-cells, and the endoderm presenting the 
usual septate appearance. They are less numerous and less developed in 
the male than in the female. 


Fig. 12.—Female gonangium with meconidia 
of Gonothyrea (Laomedea) Lovent. 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 377 


The contents of the gonophore are either ova or spermatozoa, and the 
sexes are invariably found separated on distinct colonies. The ova, while 
contained within the gonophore, pass through the various stages of develop- 
ment up to that of ciliated embryos, in which state, as has been already 
shown by Lovén, they are discharged into the surrounding water through 
the orifice in the summit. 

If we follow the development of these extracapsular gonophores, we shall 
find (d, ¢), as indeed Lovén had already pointed out, that they are originally 
produced within the gonangium where they originate, exactly like ordinary 
intracapsular gonophores, as buds from the blastostyle. By the growth of 
the blastostyle the gonophores are carried upwards with it, in the order of 
their maturity,—the oldest ones, while within the gonangium, being always 


_ nearest the summit of the blastostyle ; but instead of discharging their con- 


tents and then withering away on their arrival at the summit of the gonan- 
gium, as in ordinary adelocodonic forms, they are here carried out through 
the summit, become truly extracapsular, and in this state undergo, with their 
contents, further development, while the growing blastostyle always keeps 
its extremity truncated on a level with the gonangium, whose orifice it con- 
tinues to close by a plug-like expansion, which at the same time affords a 
support for the gonophores after they have become extracapsular. Two or 
three of these extracapsular gonophores, in different stages of development, 
may be usually seen, borne each by a short peduncle upon the opercular 
summit of the blastostyle, with whose cavity that of their spadix freely com- 
municates through the tubular axis of the peduncle. 

While the gonophore is still contained within the gonangium, the meso- 
theca has become developed in it, and the rudimental tentacles (f) may be seen 
thrown back upon its walls in the form of a little star, while the whole is 
confined in the investing ectotheca. 

That the bodies now described belong to the class of adelocodonic rather 
than to that of phanerocodonic gonophores must, I think, be admitted. In 
all essential points, except in the presence of tentacles developed from the 
mesotheca, they agree with the gonophores of Tubularia indivisa, which 
must certainly be classed among the adelocodonic forms, notwithstanding 
their possession of a well-developed mesotheca and gastrovascular canals. In 
both the aperture of the mesotheca is reduced to a mere perforation, and in 
neither is the mesotheca ever developed as a locomotive organ. 

It must also be borne in mind, that when true phanerocodonic gonophores 
are produced in Laomedea and other Campanularide, they belong in almost 
every instance to the type in which the generative elements are not produced 
directly, as in this case, between the ectoderm and endoderm of the manu- 
brium, but are formed in special zooids developed from some part of the gas- 
trovascular system ; Laomedea tenuis, Allm.*, and, according to an observation 
of A. Agassiz +, Lafwa cornuta, Lamx., affording the only known exceptions 


_to this rule. 


The extracapsular gonophores of Laomedea Lovéni are thus of no little 
interest in the morphology of the Hyprorpa, and it will be found convenient 
to speak of them under a special name. Their resemblance to a pomegranate, 
or perhaps still more obviously to a poppy-capsule, with its sessile stellate 
stigma, will instantly strike us; and itis this comparison which has suggested 
to me the name of “ meconidium” +t, by which I have elsewhere found it useful 
to designate them. 


* “Notes on the Hydroid Zoophytes,” Ann. Nat. Hist., Nov.1859. + Agass. op.cit.p. 351. 
{ A diminutive noun, formed from pjxwr, a poppy. “ Notes on the Hydroid Zoophytes,” 
Ann. Nat. Hist., August 1859. 


3878 REPORT—1863. 


A very remarkable feature, which one is at first sight tempted to place in 
the same category with the formation of meconidia, but which is in reality 
of an entirely different significance, is presented by Haleciwm halecinum. In 
this hydroid there is borne upon the summit of the female gonangium, in a 
situation precisely similar to that of the meconidia of Laomedea Lovéni, a 
pair of polype-like bodies. These bodies present no appreciable difference 
by which they may be distinguished from the ordinary polypites of the 
trophosome. They are of an elongated oval form, with the mouth situated 
on the summit of a short conical proboscis, which is surrounded by a circle 
of about twenty-one filiform tentacula. They are always two in number, and 
diverge from a common point of attachment, while their wide gastric cavities, 
after contracting below, communicate here with one another and with the 
tubular cavity of the blastostyle. 

I have never been able to discover any direct relation between these gonan- 
gial polypites and the generative functions of the hydroid. The blastostyle 
gives origin in the usual way, within the cavity of the gonangium, to a 
gonophore, which, so far as I have observed, is always single. This gono- 
phore never becomes extracapsular; and the ova, after being discharged 
from it by the rupture of its walls, finally escape through the summit of the 
gonangium, probably after the disappearance of the gonangial polypites. 

I may here mention a very singular body, whose exact significance I 
have never been able satisfactorily to determine, and which may be seen in 
the female gonangium of Antennularia antennina, where it is of frequent 
occurrence. It is always found floating free in the cavity of the gonangium, 
along with the ova which have escaped from the ruptured gonophores, and 
resembles an imperfectly developed medusa, with a large and apparently 
imperforate manubrium, but with its umbrella closed, and without any trace 
of gastrovascular canals. The walls of the umbrella are separated from the 
central manubrium by a considerable space, which is filled with a clear fluid. 
It may be compared toa free sporosac ; but it is much smaller than the ordi- 
nary sporosacs of the Antennularia; and I have never observed in it any trace 
of generative elements. It is probably produced, like the true gonophores, as 
a bud from the blastostyle; but I can offer no decided opinion either as to its 
origin or its ultimate destination. Its whole structure precludes the idea of 
its being an accidental parasite. 

In almost every case the gonangium, when present in the Hydroida, is 
destitute of any further covering. In certain species, however, belonging to 
the genus Plumularia and its allies, the gonangia are developed in groups, 
and each group is contained in a common receptacle, which confers upon the 
hydroid in which it exists a very striking and characteristic feature. This 
receptacle must be carefully distinguished from a proper gonangium, with 
which indeed it has been confounded in the various descriptive works on the 
Hyproma. It will therefore be very convenient to give it a special name, 
and i have already proposed for it the term corbula*, suggested by its basket- 
like form. 

I have carefully studied the nature of the corbule in Aglaophenia pluma 
(fig. 13) (the Plumularia cristata of most authors), where they may be plainly 
seen to be metamorphosed ramuli. The peculiar metamorphosis of a ramulus, 
which results in the formation of a corbula, consists in the suppression of the 
hydrothece, accompanied by the development on each side of the ramulus of 
numerous oval, hollow, alternately placed leaflets; each leaflet consisting of 
a diverticulum from the ccenosare of the ramulus, invested with a continua- 
tion of the general periderm. 


* Corbula, a basket. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin. 1858. 


. 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 379 


In the earliest stages of these leaflets their edges are entire (A «), but they 
soon become deeply serrated by the formation of hollow tooth-like processes 
(Fc) upon the edge which is turned towards the distal extremity of the ra- 


Fig. 13.—Development of the Corbula in Plumularia (Aglaophenia) pluma. 


l@ a@ 


A, very young corbula; B, corbula more advanced ; C, corbula in a still more advanced 
‘stage; D, the mature corbula; B, transverse section of mature corbula, showing two 
_gonangia, each containing a single gonophore. 4, leaflets of corbula ; , gonangia; c, ra- 

mulus supporting the leaflets; d, a hydrotheca. 
__ F, separate leaflet from mature corbula. a, continuation of the somatic cavity into the 
leaflet, where it divides into two branches, 2 4; ¢, nematophores forming tooth-like 
"processes on the distal edge of the leaflet ; d, imperfectly developed tooth-like processes on 
the proximal edge; e, septum dividing the cavity of the leaflet. 

G, gonangium from mature corbula. @, continuation of somatic cavity into gonangium ; 

2, blastostyle, partially suppressed by the enlarging gonophore; ¢c,gonophore; d, spadix ; 
J, ovum ; g, wall of gonangium. 


380 REPORT—1863. 


mulus. Upon the proximal edge of the leaflet these processes usually remain 
in an imperfectly developed state, though they are occasionally equally well 
developed on both edges. The processes which are thus developed on the 
edges of the leaflet are in all respects similar to the lateral nematophores of 
the trophosome (see above, p. 355). They are filled, like these, with soft 
granular protoplasm, in which is immersed a cluster of fusiform thread- 
cells, and which is in direct communication with the ccenosarc filling the cavity 
of the leaflet. They are also, like these, perforated at their extremity by 
an oblique aperture; but I have never seen the nematophores of the cor- 
bul emit, like those of the trophosome, pseudopodial prolongations of their 
contents. ; 

The leaflets, as they increase in size, direct themselves vertically from the 
upper surface of the ramulus, and those of one side arch over so as to approach 
those of the opposite. They are at first free, but they afterwards become 
intimately united at their edges, the nematophores continuing to project as 
tooth-like processes, and forming an elegant serrated ridge between every two 
leaflets. Ultimately the leaflets of one side coalesce with those of the other 
by their summits, and thus form a completely closed chamber (D). 

As the young leaflet continues to grow, its cavity becomes partially divided 
by a septum (Fe), which stretches across from the outer to the inner side, 
parallel to the axis of the leaflet, but always nearer to the proximal edge. 
At the free end of the leaflet the septum is incomplete ; so that here the 
contents of the cavity at one side of the septum communicate with those 
upon the other side, both sides communicating at the base of the leaflet with 
the common cavity of the ccenosare. 

In the receptacle thus formed the gonangia are produced. They spring 
from the upper side of the metamorphosed ramulus, near the point where 
the leaflet leaves it, and represent the hydrothece which exist on an ordinary 
ramulus, and whose place they here take. They begin to be produced at an 
early stage of the corbula, and may be easily examined in the young corbula 
before it has become closed (B 6, C4). The metamorphosed ramulus gene- 
rally remains unchanged for a short distance from its origin, and may be 
here seen bearing one or two ordinary hydrothece. 

About twelve gonangia are usually contained in each corbula. They are 
of a very simple type (G), of a regular oviform figure, and with their chitinous 
walls thin and delicate. Each gonangium seems to contain but a single 
sporosac, which soon comes to occupy almost the whole cavity of the 
gonangium. A long, nearly cylindrical spadix extends almost from the base 
to the summit of the sporosac, passing in the male through the axis of the 
mass of spermatogenous tissue, but in the female pushed to one side by the 
development of the large single ovum, which here occupies almost the whole 
remaining portion of the cavity of the sporosac. 

There may appear some difficulty in deciding as to whether the corbula 
ought to be regarded as properly belonging to the trophosome or to the 
gonosome. The truth is, that it holds a place exactly intermediate between 
the two, and may in this respect be compared to the bracts in plants; for 
these are in the same way intermediate between the ordinary leaves and the 
proper floral verticils. As the bracts, however, are usually treated of in 
connexion with the ¢nflorescence, whose limitation they frequently determine, 
' we shall perhaps here also find it convenient to speak of the corbula in con- 
nexion with the gonosome rather than with the trophosome*, 


* In a very ingenious paper, ‘On the Morphology of the Reproductive System in the 
Sertularian Zoophytes,” by Prof. E. Forbes (Ann. of Nat. Hist. 1844, vol. xiv. p. 385), 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 381 


I have thus far endeavoured to give a complete account of the morphology 
of those portions of the hydroid which are destined for the origination and 
protection of the generative elements; but, before passing to the considera- 
tion of these elements themselves, it may be well to inquire whether there 
is any general rule as to the distribution of the adelocodonic and phanero- 
codonic gonophores, and of the two forms of the latter among the several 
families of the Hyprorpa. 

There is no established instance of the same species of hydroid producing 
both phanerocodonic and adelocodonic gonophores either simultaneously or 
consecutively. Sars is certainly in error when he includes under his Podo- 
coryne carnea two forms of hydroids, one with developed meduse, and the 
other with sporosacs*; and there can be little doubt that Van Beneden has 
made some confusion between two distinct species when he figures a portion 
of a hydroid colony, which he names Campanularia geniculata, with two kinds 
of gonangia, one containing meduse, and the other sporosacs +. 

The Tubularida present examples of both phanerocodonic and adelocodonic 
gonophores, which are borne either by the trophosome directly or by gono- 
blastidia ; but, so far as our present knowledge extends, the instances of 
adelocodonic gonophores .are rather more numerous among the Tubularida 
than those of phanerocodonic gonophores. The phanerocodonic gonophores 
of the Tubularida belong, so far as we yet know, exclusively to the type 
described above under the name of gonocheme, the generative elements 
not being here proved ever to originate in special buds upon the course 
of the radiating canals. I regard it, however, as highly probable that the 
sexual lobes of Nemopsis, whose bases extend over portions both of the 
manubrium and radiating canals, will prove to be true zooids. The tro- 
phosome of Nemopsis has been shown by M°Crady to be a free Tubularian 
polypite; and if the zooidal nature of the sexual lobes be proved, we shall 
have among the Tubularida an exceptional condition which may be compared 
to that presented by Laomedea tenuis among the Campanularians ¢. 


the author reeognizes in the corbule of Aglaophenia pluma, and some other allied species, 

their true significance as metamorphosed branches. He mistakes, however, the nature of 

the metamorphosis, while, in accordance with the prevailing view, he sees in the receptacles 

a question bodies in all respects corresponding to the proper gonangia of the other 
ydroids. 

Forbes, moreover, extends his generalization, applying it to the gonangia of the other 
Sertularians, which he believes must be all regarded as peculiarly metamorphosed branches, 
with metamorphosed and confluent hydrothecz, exactly in the same way that the floral 
verticils in plants may be referred to verticillate, metamorphosed, and variously combined 
leaves. ‘The vesicle,” he says, ‘‘is formed from a branch or pinna through an arrest of 
individual development, by a shortening of the spiral axis, and, by a transformation of the 
stomachs (individuals) into an ovigerous placenta, the dermato-skeletons (or cells) uniting 
to form a protecting capsule or germen ; which metamorphosis is exactly comparable with 
that which occurs in the reproductive organs of flowering plants, in which the floral bud 
(normally a branch clothed with spirally arranged leaves) is constituted through the con- 
traction of the axis and the whorling of the (individual) appendages borne on that axis, 
and by their transformation into the several parts of the flower (reproductive organs).” 

The theory, however, involved in the above statement, attractive though it be, is con- 
tradicted by the actual development of the parts in question. When Forbes wrote, so 
little was known of the structure and development of the Hyproma, that this accomplished 
and lamented naturalist may well be excused if some parts of his very suggestive paper 
have refused to stand the test of subsequent research. 

* Sars, Faun. Lit. Norv. p. 7. pl. 2. fig. 5. 

t Van Beneden, Mém. sur les Campanulaires, pl. 3. figs. 1-6. 

} Agassiz describes (Cont. to the Nat. Hist. of the United States, vol. iv. p. 281) the me- 
dusa of his Pennaria gibbosa as presenting slight fusiform enlargements of the radiating 
canals, which he is disposed to regard (though not without doubt’) as rudimental generative 


382 REPORT— 1863. 


Among the Campanularians we also meet with many examples of free 
medusa-buds, as well as of fixed sporosacs, the free meduse being, so far as 
we yet know, rather more frequent than the sporosacs. They are both borne 
as buds upon the blastostyle of a gonangium ; but the free meduse are (with 
two known exceptions, those, namely, which are afforded by Laomedea tenuis, 
mihi, and Lafewa cornuta, Lamx.) always gonoblastochemes, the generative 
elements being produced in special sexual buds which arise from some part 
of the radiating canals. 

Finally, among the Sertularians we know as yet of no instance of a free 
medusa, the generative elements being among these hydroids always produced 
in adelocodonic gonophores which, as in the Campanularians, are invariably 
borne upon the blastostyle of a gonangium*. 


III. Srructvre anp Formation oF THE GENERATIVE ELEMENTS, 


The existence of generative elements—ova and spermatozoa—has now been 
fully determined in every important group of the Hyproma. 

Ova.—The hydroid ovum (fig. 20 A), in all those cases where its structure 
has been satisfactorily seen, consists of a granular yitellus enveloping (except 
alone in the genus 7'ubularia) a distinct more or less excentric germinal vesicle, 
in which one or more germinal spots may be almost always demonstrated, and 
occasionally with one or more nucleoli in the interior of the germinal spot. 
The whole is invested by an exceedingly delicate vitellary membrane, which, 
though it sometimes escapes detection, is probably always present, at least in 
the young ovum. In the genus 7ubularia alone the most careful investiga- 
tion has as yet failed in detecting any trace of germinal vesicle or spot. 

In the earliest stage in which I have in any case succeeded in observing 
the ova, that namely presented by these bodies in the young gonophore of 
Coryne pusilla, I have found nothing but minute, clear, nucleated vesicles 
immersed in a common granular plasma. That these are to constitute the 
germinal vesicle and spot of the more mature ovum seems certain, while the 
granular plasma in which they are immersed would appear to represent the 
vitellus, though I could as yet trace no differentiation in it indicating a 
separation into distinct masses accumulated round the individual germinal 
vesicles. Ina more mature stage, however, each vesicle had its own special- 
ized vitellus surrounded by a distinct vitellary membrane. 

Spermatozoa.—The spermatozoa possess the form which so generally cha- 
racterizes those bodies throughout the animal kingdom, being here in all 
cases active caudate corpuscles (fig. 14 Dd). The caudal filament is some- 
times of such extreme tenuity as to render it very difficult of detection, 


sacs, while he has never observed generative elements in the manubrium. I feel convinced 
that the doubts of Agassiz on this point are even better founded than he himself will admit, 
and that the structures alluded to have nothing to do with generative sacs; while the 
analogy of closely allied species (see Cavolini, Mem. Polypi Marini; MeCrady, Gymnoph- 
thalmia of Charleston Harbour) renders it almost certain that Pennaria gibbosa affords no 
exception to the general rule, that the free meduse of the Tudularida never develope 
generative buds upon the course of the radiating canals. 

* Agassiz (op. cit. vol. iii. pp. 46 & 48), referring to a Sertularian which he names 
Dynanena Fabricti, and calls one of the most common Sertularians of the Atlantic coast 
of North America, asserts that this hydroid produces free meduse, of which he gives 
figures. There is probably some mistake here; the fact is mentioned only in a casual 
way ; and in the following volume, in which a detailed account of the North American 
species of Hydroida is given, no allusion is made to it, though the closely allied, if not 
identical, Dynamena (Sertularia) pumila is minutely described. ‘ 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 383 


while the head varies in form, being usually conical—and then with the 
filament attached to the wide end of the cone,—but sometimes spherical, or 
eylindrical, or ‘‘ guitar-shaped”’*, according to the species. 

The spermatozoa seem to be always developed in true sperm-cells which 
are themselves frequently contained as a brood in the interior of mother cells, 
as may be very well seen in Sertularia polyzonias, where the cells which give 
immediate origin to the spermatozoa form groups of from two to four enclosed 
within a common mother cell. The spermatozoon itself seems due to the 
metamorphosis of the nucleus of the sperm-cell. 

In Laomedea flexuosa I have carefully followed the progress of the sper- 
matogenous tissue from a very early period to the formation of the mature 
spermatozoon. In the very young gonophore (fig. 14 A) the spadix may be _ 
here seen surrounded by a nearly transparent mass, which is destined to be- 
come developed into spermatozoa, but which presents as yet no obvious struc- 
ture beyond a minutely granular condition, which under the action of acetic 
acid becomes more distinct. 

In a stage a little further advanced (B) the gonophore has increased in size, 
and the spermatogenous mass has become more voluminous and has acquired 


Fig. 14.—Development of the spermatozoa in Laomedea fleauosa, 
Cc 


CG wy Cx 9000%5 
J0 @® $ 
a 6 \ 


a 


A, very young male gonophore bud, with the spermatogenous plasma interposed between 
the ectoderm and endoderm; B, gonophore further advanced ; C, mature gonophore ; 
D, structure of spermatic tissue at various stages. @, spermatic tissue from B; 8, the 
same, after having been treated with acetic acid; c, spermatic tissue from a gonophore 
somewhat further advanced than B ; d, mature spermatozoa from C. 


a manifest structure, being now plainly formed by a peculiar tissue which, 
when liberated from the confinement of the gonophore and spread over the 


* The spermatozoa of Hudendrium dispar, Agassiz, and some other species are so de- 
seribed by Agassiz in Nat. Hist. of the United States, vol, iv. 


384. REPORT—1863. 


field of the microscope, is seen to consist of a multitude of bodies of a rather 
irregularly pyriform or conical shape, and about ;,),;th of an inch in diameter 
(Da). These bodies, when set free, present for the most part an evident 
vibratory movement, which is plainly a vital phenomenon, and distinct from 
mere molecular motion, though as yet no filament or other source of the 
motion can be detected. When treated with acetic acid, they assume a re- 
gularly spherical form, and have then all the appearance of thick-walled cells 
with an undoubted nucleus in their interior (D 6). 

In a more advanced stage the contents of the gonophore have still further 
increased in opacity, and are now seen to be entirely composed of very minute 
spherical corpuscles (D c) about 5,1,;th of an inch in diameter, and presenting 
a close resemblance to the nuclei of the cells composing the spermatogenous 
tissue in the stage last described. They exhibit distinct but not active mo- 
tion under the microscope, though no filament can as yet be demonstrated in 
them. 

In the next stage (C) the gonophore has attained maturity, and the sperma- 
togenous mass has become still more opake than in the preceding stage, and 
presents a peculiar striated appearance, the strie radiating from the sides of 
the spadix to the walls of the gonophore., Soon after the gonophore has at- 
tained this condition it bursts, and allows its contents to escape into the sur- 
rounding water as mature active spermatozoa (Dd). These spermatozoa have 
an ovo-conical head, with a caudal filament of extreme tenuity ; the head is 
about = ;'55th of an inch in its longer diameter, and about ;;1,,th in its shorter. 
The tail is attached to the wide end. 

In attempting an interpretation of the above appearances, we must, I 
think, regard the nucleated cells which constitute the contents of the gono- 
phore in the second of the stages just described as spermatic cells which in 
the next stage have set free their nuclei; these nuclei, after liberation from 
the cells, acquiring a more elongated form, developing a filament, and becoming 
converted into true spermatozoa. 

Allusion has been just made to the peculiar striated appearance presented 
by the mature spermatic mass while yet contained within the gonophore. 
This appearance, which is very common in the mature male gonophores of 
the Hydroida, suggests to us the idea that the corpuscles composing the mass 
are confined in an exceedingly fine tubular tissue. I have, however, in vain 
sought for any indubitable evidence of tubes, and I believe that the appearance 
in question is the result of a mere arrangement of the corpuscles—a condition 
induced in the plastic mass by the pressure exerted on it by the resisting walls 
of the gonophore as the mass within increases in volume ; for the component 
corpuscles have now become changed from the spherical form of the previous 
stage to a more oval form, and their axes are compelled by the surrounding 
pressure to take a definite direction. It is a phenomenon which in this view 
would be purely physical, and which we cannot avoid comparing to that of 
slaty cleavage, though occurring in an organized and living mass. 

Origin of the Generative Elements——Throughout the whole of the Hy- 
propa the generative elements originate between the endoderm and ecto- 
derm, and, with one exceptional condition to be presently described, are 
always formed in the walls of an organ strictly homologous with the manu- 
brium of a gymnophthalmic medusa. 

This organ forms the axile diverticulum in the young adelocodonie gono- 
phore, and the manubrium of the sexual medusa while it is represented by 
the sexual zooid which buds from the radiating canals in the gonoblastocheme 
or non-sexual medusa. 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 385 


It is notat first easy to say whether the generative elements have their 
proper origin in the ectoderm or endoderm of this body, as in most cases they 
can be merely seen filling the space between these two membranes, which 
become more and more separated from one another as the included mass of 
ova or spermatozoa increases in volume. 

From some favourable observations, however, which I have succeeded in 
making on certain species of hydroids, I have convinced myself that the true 
origin of the ova and spermatozoa is to be found in the endoderm, while the 
ectoderm serves merely as a confining and protecting sac until such time as 
the generative elements acquire sufficient maturity to allow of their liberation, 
which always takes place by simple rupture or absorption of the ectodermal 
sac. 

Thus in the gonophores of the male colonies of Sertularia polyzonias the 
Spermatogenous tissue may be seen filling the entire space between the long 
cylindrical axile spadix and the surrounding walls of the gonophore. In 
most specimens it may be easily seen that the spermatogenous mass is far 
from being of uniform maturity throughout ; for while towards the axis of the 
gonophore it is still very immature, the mother cells being here distinctly 
visible with the ultimate spermatic cells within them, we find that towards 
the periphery it consists of free active spermatozoa. The youngest portion 
of the mass is thus that which is still in contact with the spadix or endoder- 
mal portion of the gonophore, while the oldest portion is situated externally, 
being in contact with the confining ectoderm—a condition which would be 
scarcely possible if the ectoderm, rather than the endoderm, gave origin to the ~ 
spermatic cells. 

A state of things exactly parallel to this may be seen in the female gono- 

phores of Coryne pusilla. At an early period in the development of these 
gonophores, the large thick spadix may be seen to be surrounded by a gra- 
nular plasma, throughout which numerous minute nucleated cells are scattered. 
These cells I regard as the germinal vesicles and spots of the future ova, round 
which no distinctly differentiated vitellus can as yet be detected. In a more 
mature stage of the gonophore, while the same peculiar tissue continues to 
invest the spadix, the peripheral portion of this tissue may be seen to be thrown 
off in the form of undoubted ova, consisting each of a germinal vesicle and 
spot precisely similar to those observed in the more central portion of the 
Mass, but now surrounded by a very definite vitellus. When the gonophore 
has attained complete maturity, the whole of the plasmatic mass has become 
metamorphosed into fully formed ova. 
In Coryne pusilla and many other species, the ova, when escaping 
from the gonophore under the pressure of the compressorium, present a pecu- 
liar appearance. They are then seen to be each invested by a special mem- 
brane of great delicacy, which is continued backwards by a narrow neck-like 
prolongation ; so that in this state the whole ovum presents a pyriform shape. 
This membrane is probably nothing more than the vitellary membrane of the 
ovum, which, from the mode in which the pressure is applied, assumes the 
form described. 

__ Lhave spoken above of an exception to the all but universal fact that the 

generative elements originate between the ectoderm and endoderm of a body 

homologous with the manubrium of a naked-eyed medusa. The exception 
referred to consists in the origination of ova in the blastostyle, as may be 

Seen in Sertularia pumila and one or two other species of Sertularia. 

Tn Sertularia pumila a solitary gonophore of the ordinary form, and con- 

ts in the usual way ova or spermatozoa, originates, as in other cases, by 

863. 2c 


386 REPORT—1863. 


a bud from a blastostyle. In the female colonies, however, nucleated spherical 
bodies, in no way distinguishable from young ova, are found in the walls of 
the blastostyle itself, between whose ectoderm and endoderm they seem to lie 
(fig. 9k). [have not succeeded in satisfactorily tracing the destination of these 
bodies ; but I have reason to believe that the true gonophores bud forth from 
that part of the blastostyle in which the nucleated bodies occur, and that 
these, as young ova, pass from the blastostyle into the budding gonophore, 
where they would then naturally occupy their normal position between the 
endoderm and ectoderm of the manubrium, destined to undergo there a fur- 
ther development before being discharged into the acrocyst, which, as we have 
already seen, exists in this species. Each gonophore, after having performed 
its duty as a receptacle, in which certain intermediate stages of development 
take place, would seem to disappear, and be succeeded by another, which in 
a similar way receives its young ova from the blastostyle on which it buds*. 


TY. Comparison OF THE SEXES IN THE HypRorpa. 


The existence of differentiated sex in the Hyprorpa was first announced by 
Ehrenbergt, who maintained that the so-called “ egg-capsules”’ in Coryne, 
Sertularia, &c., had the significance of special fertile animals to which he 
gave the name of females, while he regarded the ordinary polypites as the 
sterile individuals of the colony. 

With this announcement we may date a well-marked era in the history of 
progressive discovery among the Hyprorpa ; for it is to the happy conception 
of Ehrenberg that we must refer the more philosophic views which within 
the last few years have so greatly advanced our knowledge of the structure, 
functions, and relations of these animals. 

The celebrated German micrologist, however, did not grasp the full mean- 
ing of the facts of which he had thus so nearly given us the exact interpre- 
tation ; for he regarded the central column (blastostyle) of the gonangium in 
Sertularia as the equivalent of the central diverticulum (spadix) in the gono- 
phore of Ooryne, while he viewed the gonophores borne on the sides of the 
blastostyle in Sertularia as merely eggs equivalent to the true eggs contained 
in the gonophore of Coryne. 

The doctrine of the sexual differentiation of the Hyprorma was confirmed 
by Lovén in a remarkable memoir originally published in the Transactions 
of the Royal Swedish Academy for 1835, and thence translated into Wieg- 
mann’s Archiyt. In this memoir Lovén gives an account of those singular 
extracapsular medusiform gonophores which are described above (p. 375) 
under the name of “ meconidia;” he found them in a species of Laomedea 
(L. Lovéni, Allm.), and recognizes in them their true sexual function. He 
also describes the occurrence of medusiform gonophores in two species of 
Coryne ; and having observed that in the gonophores of one of these species 
the cavity of the umbrella was filled with ova, he distinguishes them from 


* Bodies undoubtedly of the same nature as those here described, but without any in- 
dication of a nucleus, are figured by Agassiz in an American species which he regards as 
identical with the Sertularia pumila of Europe. He, however, makes no allusion to them 
in the text of his work (op. cit. pl. 32. f.9). They are described also by Lindstrém, 
op. cit. 

+ Corallenthiere, Abhandl. der Kénigl. Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin, 1832. Erst Theil, 
8. 333. 

t Beitrige zur Kenntniss der Gattungen Campanularia und Syncoryne, Wiegm. Arch. 
1837. Erster Band, 8. 239. 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 387 


mere organs, and regards the gonophores in both instances as special female 
animals *. 

Naturalists had now not only become familiar with the presence of true 
ova in the Hyprorpa, but they saw in the portions of the colony set aside for 
their production something more than mere organs. No one, however, had 
as yet discovered any trace of spermatozoa; Ehrenberg at this time makes 
no mention of a male element, while Lovén calls the nutritive polypites 
male, and in this view of their nature falls behind Ehrenberg, who more 
truly names them sterile or sexless individuals. 

The doctrine of the sexuality of the Hyprorpa now waited only for the 
discovery of the male element in order to receive its complete development. 
This discovery was made by Ehrenberg, who, in 1838, pointed out the real 
nature of certain conical tubercles which at particular seasons are developed 
on the body of the freshwater hydra, and had been by previous observers 
regarded as a peculiar disease to which this animal was supposed to be sub- 
ject, but which were now shown by Ehrenberg + to be true spermatophorous 
capsules, while a further and important step in this direction was made by 
Krohn, who a few years afterwards announced that he had, in the Pennaria 
Cavolini, Ehren., found certain receptacles similar in form to the ovigerous 
ones long ago described by Cavolini in the same remarkable hydroid, but 
containing spermatozoa instead of ova. Similar observations were made on 
Tubularia indivisa and on Eudendrium racemosum, as well as on Aglaophenia 
pluma (Plumularia cristata) and the Sertularia misenensis of Cavolini, in all 
of which Krohn succeeded in detecting spermatozoa t. 

It is now certain that every species of hydroid gives origin to male and 
female zooids (or, in case of such meduse as may be directly developed from 
the egg, to male and female sexually generated individuals), one destined for 
the production of ova, the other for that of spermatozoa. The separation of 
the sexes in distinct generative zooids, or in distinct individuals of a sexually 
generated offspring, is thus absolute and universal among the Hyprorpa. In 
by far the greater number of cases the separation is carried even further 
than this ; for we scarcely ever meet with male and female gonophores in the 
same colony. As an almost universal rule, then, the Hyproma are dicecious ; 
in other words, every colony is unisexual§. ; 

Some few cases of a monecious condition, however, occur. This has been 
noticed by many observers in the freshwater Hydre ||, where indeed it is the 
most usual condition. I have found it also in Plumularia pinnata, which 
sometimes carries on the same stem both male and female gonophores. In 
Dicoryne conferta too there may generally be found, among the dense forest 
of stems with which the hydroid invests the surface of univalve shells, some 
stems carrying male and others female gonophores. Each stem, however, 
carries gonophores of one sex only, though it would seem that both male and 


* Tt may here be noticed that Wagner had already (Isis, 1833, § 256, tab. xi.) found me- 
dusa-like gonophores, filled with ova, in a hydroid which he names Coryne aculeata ; but, 
not being aware of the doctrine of Ehrenberg only just announced, the exact significance 
of these bodies escaped him. 

+ Mittheil. aus den Verhandl. der Gesellsch. naturf. Freunde in Berlin, 1838. 

{ Krohn, Einige Bemerkungen und Beobachtungen iiber die Geschlechtyerhiltnisse bei 
den Sertularinen, Miiller’s Archiv, Jahrg. 1843, S. 174. 

§ Krohn had already noticed that, in all the species examined by him, the male and 
female gonophores were borne on separate colonies (Joc. cit. p. 181). 

|| See especially Prof. Allen Thomson “On the co-existence of ovigerous capsules and 
spermatozoa in the same individuals of Hydra viridis,” in Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., No. 30, 
1845-47. 

202 


388 REPORT—18638. 


female stems are united by the creeping stolon into a common colony. In 
Hydractinia, on the other hand, whose habit is entirely similar to that of 
Dicoryne, we never meet with the two sexes in a common colony; perhaps 
even never investing the same shell. 

As a general rule, there is no perceptible difference between the male and 
female colonies of the same species, either in the trophosome or the gonosome, 
beyond what is, of course, presented by the generative elements themselves. 
In some cases, however, the difference is sufficiently well marked. Thus in 
Sertularia tamarisca the male and female gonangia differ strikingly from one 
another; for the male gonangia are compressed, somewhat obcordate recep- 
tacles with a short terminal tubular aperture; while the female are oval for 
about the proximal half of their height, and then become trihedral with the 
sides diverging upwards, the whole being terminated by a three-sided pyramid 
whose edges are cut into two or three short teeth, and the basal angles pro- 
longed into a short spine*. 

So also in Sertularia rosacea a well-marked difference may be seen. The 
male gonangia are here of a conical form, curved near the apex, which is 
their point of attachment, and provided with six longitudinal ridges in the 
form of thin projecting lamelle, each of which terminates at the distal 
extremity in a free pointed process which arches over the summit of the 
gonangium. In the female gonangium the longitudinal ridges are eight in 
number, while two opposite ones being greatly more developed than the others" 
give to the gonangium the very elegant and striking form which caused Ellis 
to compare it to a “lily or pomegranate-flower just opening.” The female 
gonangium of both Sertularia rosacea and S, tamarisca differs still further 
from the male by the remarkable marsupial chamber which I have already 
described as developed within it. f 

It will also be borne in mind that, in those species which develope an 
acrocyst on the summit of the gonangium, this body is formed only in the 
female; while it is on the female gonangium alone of Haleciwm halecinum 
that the little geminate polypite already described is produced; and to 
these cases we may also add the difference presented by the male and female 
meconidia in Laomedea Lovéni. 

Among the gymnogonial Hydroida also, certain differences may be occa- 
sionally observed between the male and female. Thus in certain Tubularie, 
the tentaculoid tubercles which crown the gonophore are more fully deve- 
loped in the female than in the male; but the most striking difference is 
found in the genus Eudendriwm, whose male gonophores are situated in a 
verticil on the body of the polypite, and present the remarkable polythalamic 
condition already described, while the female gonophores originate irregularly 
for some distance backwards on the branch, and are always monothalamic. 
This difference between the male and female gonophores in Hudendrium 
struck Cavolini long before the presence of a male element in the Hyprorpa 
was suspected, and led him to suppose that Hudendriwm reproduced itself by 
two different kinds of eggs. In accordance with this view, he called the 
female gonophores in his Sertularia (Eudendrium) racemosa, “ nova aracemo,” 
and the male gonophores ‘‘ uova a corimbo”’+. 

The differences above described between the male and female are all con- 
fined to the gonosome ; the trophosome, however, does not appear to be always 
exempt from a participation in sexual difference, for in Hydractinia polyclina, 

* It is apparently the male gonangia which Ellis has figured in his description of this 


species. 
+ Cavolini, Mem. Polypi Marini, 1785. 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 3889 


Agass., the sterile polypites of the male colony are described as differing from 
those of the female colony by their more elongated proboscis *. 


V. DEVELOPMENT. 


Reproduction in the Hyprorpa is sexual and non-sexual, the former taking 
place by means of ova and spermatozoa, the latter by buds and occasionally 
by spontaneous division. 


A. Non-sexual Reproduction. 
a. Gemmation. 


Reproduction by gemmation is the phenomenon which, of all others, most 
vividly impresses us in our study of the Hyproma, and is that which confers 
upon this remarkable group of organisms their peculiar and characteristic 
physiognomy. It struck with all its force the earlier observers, and united 
with the flower-like form of the polypite in suggesting the term ‘“ zoophyte” 
by which the wonderful budding and blossoming plant-lke animals which 
adorn our rocks at low water, and are dredged up at various-depths from the 
bottom of the sea, have long been known to the naturalist. 

Gemmation in the Hyprorma has for its object, 1, the extension of the tro- 
phosome; 2, the formation and extension of the gonosome. 

The primordial trophosome is quite simple ; but it soon begins to complicate 
itself by budding, and this complication is frequently carried to a great ex- 
tent, the primary buds giving rise to secondary buds, and these again to ter- 
tiary, while buds of a fourth, fifth, or even higher order may continue to be 
produced in succession ; and as every bud may develope itself into a branch, 
the result will be the production of those complicated dendritic groups which 
attain to such perfection in numerous species among the T’ubularian, Cam- 
panularian, and Sertularian hydroids. 

The complex trophosome which thus results from successive buddings may 
present symmetrical or asymmetrical forms. Symmetrical forms are, as a 
general rule, presented throughout the Sertularians ; the polypites, with their 
hydrothece, being in these hydroids developed upon points which are symme- 
trically disposed in relation to a common axis or a common plane; while the 
ramification of the trophosome is here also usually symmetrical—distichous 
in most species, verticillate in’ others. The Campanularians, on the other 
hand, and especially the Tubularians, present in most cases an asymmetrical 
disposition of their polypites, and, as a necessary consequence, an asymmetri- 
eal ramification. The genus Pennaria among the Tubularida affords a re- 
markable exception in this respect, its gemmation being so singularly sym- 
metrical as to give to the entire trophosome a close resemblance to that of a 
Plumularia—so close, indeed, as to have led the earlier systematists to place 
it in this genus. 

Under the general head of Gemmation, we may here consider the develop- 
ment of the polypite, the development of the gonoblastidium, and the develop- 
ment of the gonophore. 


1. Development of the Polypite. 


It is exceedingly rare to find the trophosome retaining through life the 
simple condition which it presents during its primordial state. Cases, 
however, of permanently simple trophosomes occur. We meet with them, 


* Agassiz, Nat. Hist. United States, vol. iv. p. 228. 


390 REPORT—1868. 


for example, in Corymorpha and certain allied forms, and apparently also in 
the curious free trophosome of Nemopsis, as described by M*Crady, and of 
Acaulis, as described by Stimpson*, 

Polypite-bud in the Tubularida.—When a polypite-bud is about to become 
developed from any part of the ccenosare in the Tubularida, the two layers of 
the ccenosare are seen at this spot to be pushed outwards as if by an incipient 
hernia, and the little hollow tubercle thus produced forces before it the in- 
vesting periderm, which is first extended over the advancing bud, and is at 
last absorbed or ruptured, 

The little bud, however, has been in the mean time clothing itself with a 
new periderm, which, now that it has escaped from the confinement of the old 
one, is seen to cover it with a very delicate, transparent, structureless pel- 
licle. The bud continues to increase in size, becoming longer and thicker, 
with its endoderm and ectoderm very distinct, and with its cavity opening 
freely into that of the branch from which it springs, and admitting into its 
interior the fluid with the floating granules, which fill the general cavity of 
the ccenosare, and which are kept in a state of active rotation within the bud. 
It continues to enlarge, but has its distal extremity still closed, while the 
entire bud is still invested by its delicate periderm. 

We next find that the little bud has acquired a somewhat clavate form by 
the enlargement of its distal extremity. While the periderm which clothes 
the growing bud continues, by means of new layers deposited upon its inner 
surface, to increase in thickness over the whole bud, except at its extremity, 
these new layers cease, in almost every case, at avery early period to be 
excreted from the free extremity of the bud, and the periderm here accord- 
ingly remains in the condition of a transparent structureless pellicle, of ex- 
treme tenuity, in which state it may often be found in the fully developed 
polypite, though it is also frequently impossible to demonstrate its presence 
after the polypite has attained its complete form. 

Whether this delicate continuation of the periderm remains through the 
life of the polypite or entirely disappears at an early period, we now find 
tentacles begin to grow out from the enlarged extremity of the bud, and a 
terminal mouth to become developed; the form is thus gradually assumed 
which is to characterize the adult polypite. 

In some cases, however (Coryne vaginata, Hincks, and Eudendriwm vagi- 
natum, Allm.), the periderm which clothes the free extremity of the growing 
branch attains considerable thickness, and does not disappear until a later 
period ; but it ceases in such cases to be in close contact with the ectoderm, 
and the polypite continues to become developed within an outer chitinous 
capsule ; and this development proceeds to the formation of tentacles and the 
assumption, more or less, of the adult form by the polypite-bud, before the 
rupture of the enclosing capsule places the young polypite in direct relation 
with the surrounding water +. 

The development of the polypite-bud in Hyd7a seems to be, in all essential 
points, the same as in the Tubularida, the most important differences being 
those which depend on the absence of a periderm in Hydra. The ultimate 
destination of the bud, however, is very different in the two cases; for while 

* It seems to me, however, still a question whether the free hydroids described by the 
American observers as Nemopsis and Acaulis be not the detached polypites of a fixed 
Tubularidan which may possess the habit of throwing off its polypite-heads, as we know 
to be the case in certain European species of Tubularia. (See below, p. 391.) 

+ A very unusual condition is presented by Bimeria nutans, Wright, in which the 


periderm is continued as a thick closely investing tunic over the whole of the polypite, 
except the tips of the tentacles and a small space just behind the mouth. 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 391 


it remains fixed as a permanent part of the hydrosoma in the Tubularida, it 
is in Hydra destined to become detached and enjoy henceforth an independent 
existence. 

Decapitation and Re-formation of successive Polypite-heads. Polarity of the 
Hydroid.—Our account of the development of the polypite-bud in the 7ubu- 
larida would be incomplete without some reference to a very remarkable 
phenomenon presented by certain species of Tubularia, namely, the periodical 
shedding and renewal of the polypite-heads. This phenomenon was several 
years ago observed by Dalyell*, and described with all his usual accuracy by 
this excellent observer. I cannot find, however, that any author has followed 
the process with that exactness which is necessary to enable us to form a 
correct idea of its nature. My own observations have been principally made 
on Tubularia indivisa, where I have bestowed upon the process in question a 
very careful examination. 

When the polypite of this species, with its clusters of gonophores, has 
acquired full maturity, the time is come when it is to be cast off and its place 
taken by a successor, A breach of continuity now occurs in the endoderm of 
the stem at a short distance behind the polypite; while the ectoderm haying 
already become detached from the endoderm in the space between this breach 
and the base of the polypite, the endoderm of the upper end of the stem slips 
out of the ectoderm, carrying the polypite with it, and leaving behind it the 
empty ectoderm as a thin, collapsed, membranous sheath, surrounded by the 
periderm, which here exists as a very delicate loose pellicle. 

The polypite thus detached falls to the ground, where it retains for some 
time its vitality, the gonophores which still hang from it discharging such of 
their contents as had not escaped before the decapitation. 

In the mean time the wound which had been formed in the ccenosare by 
the detachment of the polypite heals over, and the truncated end of the 
ceenosarc becomes closed. 

Two slight constrictions, one a little behind the other, are next seen to 
take place in the ccenosare at a short distance from the decapitated extremity, 
while the peculiar tubular lacunze which exist in the coenosare of Tubularia, 
and which had hitherto extended as separate canals through the whole cceno- 
sarc of the stem, now coalesce in front of the anterior constriction, where 
they form a single cavity by the breaking down of the partitions of endoderm 
which had up to this time separated them from one another, 

A girdle of minute tubercles may next be seen budding forth from the 
ceenosarc¢, at the site of the posterior constriction. These soon become extended 
into tentacles, which embrace the anterior part of the coenosare, round which 
they appear twisted in a very elongated spiral. 

In the next stage a similar zone of tubercles, becoming, like the others, 
elongated into tentacles, shows itself close behind the anterior constriction ; 
and there are thus established the two sets of tentacles, the posterior and 
anterior ones of the new polypite. 

By the elongation of the.ccenosare from behind, the new polypite is gra- 
dually lifted up out of the tube of the periderm, when the tentacles, having 
room to expand, immediately fall into their normal position, while the rudi- 
mental clusters of gonophores may be seen as minute lobulated elevations 
between the anterior and posterior series of tentacles, and the free extremity 
of the polypite has by this time become perforated by a mouth. 

The polypite now increases in size, raised higher and higher on the elon- 
gating ccenosarc, which clothes itself with a periderm as it lengthens, and the 

* Rare and Remarkable Animals, 1847, vol. i. p. 4. 


392 REPORT—1863. 


polypite with its clusters of gonophores, having finally attained complete 
maturity, is then in its turn cast off, to be succeeded in an entirely similar 
way by a new one. 

The formation of successive polypites is always accompanied by a periodical 
elongation of the stem, and this is indicated by annular markings of the 
periderm separated by rather wide intervals, each interval corresponding to a 
single decapitation and renewal. 

From the above description it will be seen that the formation of successive 
polypites is not so much a process of ordinary budding, as a true metamor- 
phosis of the decapitated extremity of the coenosarc. 

In connexion with the phenomena now described, those which accompany 
the artificial section of the stem may here be mentioned. When the stem is 
cut across, the ccenosare of the upper segment soon heals over at the place of 
section, the tubular lacunz become again closed, and the ccenosare now begins 
to grow downwards through the cut extremity of the periderm, presenting 
the same lacunar structure as in the older portions, and excreting upon its 
surface a very delicate periderm. The well-known cyclotic currents may 
generally be seen with great distinctness in the fluid which fills the tubular 
lacune of the young elongated coenosare. 

The lower segment, on the other hand, instead of pushing forth from the 
cut extremity a simple continuation of the ccenosarc, developes from this ex- 
tremity a polypite*. ‘There is thus manifested in the formative force of the 
Tubularia-stem a well-marked polarity, which is rendered very apparent if a 
segment be cut out from the centre of the stem. In this case, no matter in 
what position the segment may lie, that end of it which was directed down- 
wards or proximally while it formed a part of the unmutilated hydroid will 
never develope a polypite, but will extend itself as a simple cylindrical pro- 
longation of the ccenosare ; while the upper or distal end, instead of becoming 
simply elongated, will shape itself into a true polypite ; and all this though of 
course not the least difference in structure or form can be detected between 
the two extremities at the time of section. 

It is further manifest from these facts that when the hydroid is placed under 
conditions which allow of perfect freedom of growth, there is no such thing 
as a stationary extremity, both ends being really growing ends, while there 
exists in every segment a neutral plane midway between the two ends. 

Polypite-bud in the Campanularida and Sertularida.—In the development 
of the bud, the Campanularian and Sertularian hydroids differ in some im- 
portant features from those which characterize the process just described. It 
may be easily watched in many species, as, for example, in Laomedea flexuosa. 
We may here see it proceed, in the first place, to the formation of a hollow 
cylindrical branch, whose cavity is in free communication with that of the 
coenosarc, and whose distal extremity ends in a cul-de-sac invested, like 
the rest of the young branch, by the chitinous periderm. Up to this point 
the phenomena are precisely similar to what we have just seen in the Tubu- 
larida; but now the distal extremity of the branch begins to enlarge, and at 
the same time continues to coat itself with a chitinous periderm in the form 
of a capsule, which acquires increased thickness by successive deposits of 
new matter to its inner surface, thus contrasting with the thin pellicle which 
forms the temporary capsule in certain Tubularida. 

' The extremity of the branch now presents the shape of an inverted cone, 


* The observations of Dalyell, who has made numerous experiments on the section of 
the stem in Tubularia indivisa, are here quite in accordance with my own. (See Dalyell, 
‘Rare and Remarkable Animals,’ vol. i. p. 23.) 


' 
ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 393 


plainly recognizable as the body of the budding polypite, inyested with a 
strong chitinous covering, which is closely applied over its whole surface, and 
is continuous below with the periderm covering the rest of the branch. The 
interior of the young polypite is hollowed out into a wide cavity lined by a 
layer of loose cells—the most internal cells of the endoderm—which are filled 
with a granular pigment. 

The conical enlargement at the extremity of the branch continues to in- 
crease in size, and we soon see the soft parts within become contracted to- 
wards the proximal end of the cone, where they withdraw themselves from 
contact with the walls of the chitinous capsule, which had up to this time 
closely embraced them. At the wide or distal end of the cone they still re- 
main adherent to the capsule for some distance downwards, while at the 
proximal end itself there is also a distinct but narrow zone of contact and 
adhesion maintained between the internal soft parts and the external chiti- 
nous capsule. In the cavity which occupies the interior of the soft contents 
of the capsule very distinct rotating currents may be now seen, excited 
doubtless by the action of vibratile cilia, though a direct view of these cilia 
cannot be obtained through the thickness of the walls. 

Between the proximal and distal zones of contact, the internal structures 
become more and more withdrawn from the walls of the capsule, while the 
whole body continues to elongate ; and this may now be seen in the form of a 
cylindrical column occupying the axis of a conical cup of chitine, and ex- 
panded below into a narrow ring, which at this point connects it with the 
walls of the cup, while, above, it expands into a broad dise which fills up 
the distal extremity of the cup, like a lid or plug. The axis of the column 
is permeated by a tubular cavity in continuation below with the cavity of the 
branch, and expanding above into a wide chamber which occupies the interior 
of the plug-like enlargement of its distal end. It is now plain that, while 
the soft contents of the cup are the developing polypite, the cup itself is to 
become the hydrotheca. 

The excreting of the chitine and the shaping of the hydrotheca would 
seem to devolve on the terminal plug-lke disc alone, from the time that the 
lower parts of the nascent polypite had withdrawn themselves from contact 
with the walls of the external capsule; and as the polypite continues to 
elongate itself, the surrounding cup is extended at the same rate, by addition 
to its wider end from the sides of the disc, while the lower parts of the cup 
undergo little or no change. 

The upper surface of the disc has been all along covered with a thin layer 
of chitine, whose periphery is continuous with the chitinous walls of the cup, 
but which does not interfere with the growth of the young polypite ; for as 
the latter continues to extend itself, the layer of chitine on the upper surface 
of the disc is carried onwards before it, without becoming thereby detached 
from the side of the cup—a fact which we can scarcely explain otherwise 
than by supposing considerable extensibility in the recently deposited chitine 
of the cup. At last the hydrotheca has attained its complete size and shape, 
and now the young polypite becomes more or less retracted within it, the 
terminal plug-like disc withdrawing itself from the layer of chitine which it 
had excreted on its upper surface, and which is now left behind as a roof 
closing over the mouth of the cup. 

The whole circumference of the retracted disc now begins to develope a 
‘circle of minute tubercles, which gradually elongate themselves into short 

_thick tentacles, while the central part becomes elevated into a blunt conical 
proboscis (metastome), and the cylindrical tubular column which occupies the 


394 REPORT—1863. 


axis of the hydrotheca has become dilated into a more oval-shaped body, 
with a wide internal cavity—the stomach of the developing polypite. 

The young polypite, still included within a completely closed cup, presents 
greater and greater contractility, now withdrawing itself towards the bottom, 
and now extending itself through the entire height of the surrounding cup. 
The tentacles in the mean time have become longer, the extremity of the ter- 
minal cone has become perforated by a mouth, and at last the polypite pushes 
off the chitinous roof of its hydrotheca and emerges into free contact with 
the surrounding water. 


2. Development of the Gonoblastidium in the angiogonial Hydroida. 


Laomedea flexuosa will afford here too a very convenient subject for tracing 
the process of development. The gonoblastidia of this hydroid arise close 
to the axille of the branches, and present the form of a long cylindrical 
column (blastostyle), expanded at its summit into a dise, occupying the axis 
of an urn-shaped gonangium, and carrying along its whole length adeloco- 
donic gonophores, which increase in maturity as they approach the summit of 
the cglumn. The whole is elevated on a short annulated peduncle. 

The gonoblastidium here originates in a bud precisely in the same way as 
a polypite ; and up to the stage to which we have already followed the deve- 
lopment of the polypite and hydrotheca, when these parts present the condi- 
tion of a conical enlargement of the extremity of the branch, there cannot be 
found any difference between the polypite-bud and the gonoblastidium-bud. 
It would seem, however, that at this stage the soft parts, instead of absolutely 
withdrawing themselves from contact with the external chitinous capsule, 
present in their ectodermal layer a number of lacunz, which, increasing in 
size, become confluent with each other, and the ectoderm thus becomes split 
into two layers by a true chorization; the external layer remains in con- 
tact with the chitinous capsule, while the internal layer, remaining adherent 
to the endoderm, becomes more and more withdrawn towards the axis of the 
bud, where it now constitutes the external or ectodermal layer of an axile 
column or blastostyle. The capsule thus becomes lined with a thin layer of 
ectoderm, which is continuous with the ectoderm of the blastostyle only at 
its distal and proximal extremities, these two membranes being in the whole 
of the intermediate region separated from one another by a wide interval. 
This interval, which constitutes the cavity of the developing gonangium, is 
thus nothing more than a large lacuna; and it is into this lacuna that the 
gonophores now begin to bud forth from the axile column. The excreting 
and modelling of the chitinous gonangium would seem to devolve for some 
time still on the ectodermal lining, instead of being, as in the polypite-bud, 
transferred at a very early period exclusively to the disc-like summit of the 
axis. After a time, however, the lining membrane entirely disappears, and 
henceforth the excreting and modelling of the gonangium seems to devolve on 
the terminal dise of the blastostyle. While the gonangium is yet young, 
numerous irregular fleshy bands may be seen stretching across the cavity 
from the blastostyle to the external wall. These bands are the remains of the 
original union between the two layers into which the ectoderm has split. 
They are generally torn, and disappear as the gonangium, increasing in size, 
has its walls more and more widely separated from the blastostyle; but they 
are also occasionally more or less visible in the full-grown gonangium. 

A comparison between the developing polypite and its hydrotheca, on the 
one hand, and the developing blastostyle and its gonangium, on the other, 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 395 


affords a most instructive parallelism, showing the close connexion between 
the polypite and the blastostyle. If in the polypite-bud the development 
were arrested at the point to which it arrives just before the terminal disc 
has withdrawn itself from the roof of the young hydrotheca, in order to 
develope its tentacles, we should have in almost every particular a gonangium 
with its blastostyle. The development of a mouth and tentacles, however, 
points towards a different destination ; and now, instead of producing sexual 
zooids, it applies itself soleiy to the nutrition of the colony. 

The gonangium does not always present the simple form which we find in 
Laomedea flexuosa, and we have already seen the remarkable modification 
which it undergoes in the female colonies of Sertularia rosacea and S. tama- 
risca, by the formation of a marsupial chamber for the protection of an extra- 
capsular sac, in which the ova are retained during the earlier periods of their 
development. 


3. Development of the Gonophore. 


The Adelocodonic Gonophore.—The development of the adelocodonie gono- 
phore, in its simplest form, may be easily studied in Hydractinia echinata. In 
this hydroid the gonophores are borne on a gonoblastidium (fig. 2 bd, c), 
which here, just as in the blastostyle of the Sertularida and Campanularida, 
is morphologically nothing more nor less than an arrested nutritive polypite, 
but in Hydractinia never developing a gonangium. 

Tn their earlier stages the gonophores may be seen as minute hollow tuber- 
cles, projecting from the sides of the gonoblastidium. They are composed of 
two layers, endoderm and ectoderm, directly continuous with the correspond- 
ing layers of the gonoblastidium, with whose cavity that of the young bud is 
in free communication. At first we can detect no change beyond a simple 
increase in size; but we soon find the ectoderm separated from the endoderm 
by the interposition of a minutely granular mass between them. This mass 
constitutes the basis of the generative elements, and is afterwards to become 
ova or spermatozoa. In the mean time the ectoderm has itself become dif- 
ferentiated into two layers; and we have thus laid down the foundation of 
all the parts which we meet with in the full-grown gonophore. The wall of 
endoderm which surrounds the central cavity of the developing gonophore, 
and is itself immediately surrounded by the generative elements, is the spadix ; 
the more internal of the two layers into which the ectoderm has divided is 
the endotheca, the more external the ectotheca. 

The gonophore now becomes more and more distended by the increasing 
volume of the generative mass, while the spadix at the same time continues 
to grow, and now constitutes a club-shaped hollow organ extending through 
the axis of the mass, while floating particles from the cavity of the gonoblas- 
tidium are freely admitted into its interior, where they may be seen perform- 
ing active rotatory movements. 

_The sex of the gonophore becomes evident at an early period, by the ap- 
pearance of ova with their germinative vesicle and spot in the generative 
plasma of the female, while in the male the interval between spadix and 
endotheca continues still to be occupied by a uniform grumous plasma, in 
which, at a somewhat later period, spherical cells and ultimately free-moving 
spermatozoa may be detected. 

The gonophore of Hydractinia echinata does not pass to any higher grade 
of development than that here described ; but in some other forms of adelo- 
’ codonic gonophore a further differentiation takes place by the development of 


396 REPORT—1863. 


an additional membranous sac or mesotheca, with gastrovascular canals, be- . 
tween the endotheca and ectotheca (Tubularia indivisa) (fig.6 C). Ihave 
never succeeded in following the development of the mesotheca, and cannot 
say under what condition it begins, or how it proceeds, the membrane appear- 
ing always fully formed from the moment it is recognizable. It is, however, 
by no means improbable that it grows up as a cup from below, beginning 
along the line where the endotheca and ectotheca are continuous with one 
another, 

It will be seen that in the above account I differ in some important points 
from the interpretation given by Agassiz to the appearances which present 
themselves in the development of the adelocodonic gonophore. In his account 
of this process in Clava leptostyla, Agass., Agassiz* regards the walls of the 
gonophore as simple, and as homologous with the umbrella of a medusa. In 
Clava multicornis, however, the existence of two membranes may with care 
be demonstrated in these walls, though I admit that I have frequently failed 
in detecting more than a single one. In no case, however, can the walls of 
the gonophore in Clava be regarded as the homologue of an umbrella. When 
two membranes can be demonstrated in them, these will be an endotheca and 
ectotheca; if only a single membrane be present, as Agassiz believes to be 
the case in his Clava leptostyla, this will be an endotheca, while the part 
which would really represent an umbrella, namely a mesotheca, is not deve- 
lopedt. 

oh aii in the gonophores of Hydractinia polyclina, Agass,, Parypha crocea, 
Agass., and Thamnoenidia spectabilis, Agass., Agassiz correctly figures the two 
membranes which enter into their walls; but he assuredly assigns an in- 
correct origin to the more internal of these membranes when he describes it 
as rising, subsequently to the formation of the generative mass, from the 
proximal end of the gonophore in the manner of a cup closely pressed against 
the outer wall, and, at least in Hydractinia and Thamnoenidia, ultimately 
closing over the contained structures so as to form a continuous internal wall. 

Now the internal wall in the gonophore of Hydractinia is undoubtedly 
formed, not after, but simultaneously with the appearance of the generative 
mass, and is nothing more than the internal of the two layers into which 
the ectoderm of the primary bud has become divided simultaneously with its 
separation from the endoderm by the interposition of the generative elements ; 
it is thus the endotheca of the sporosac, while the more external layer is the 
ectotheca. 

Having had no opportunity of examining the development of the gono- 
phore in Parypha or Thamnocnidia, I am unable to bring any direct obser- 
vations into opposition with the views of Agassiz as to the gonophores of 
these genera; but the analogy of Hydractinia and of other hydroids, whose 
adult gonophores correspond in all essential points with those of the American 
forms, leads me to believe that the process is in all the same as in Hydractinia. 

It is only in those cases where a mesotheca becomes developed, as in Tubu- 
laria indivisa, that the adelocodonice gonophore presents any true representa- 
tive of the umbrella of a medusa, the mesotheca being properly the homo- 

* Op. cit. vol. iv. p. 221. 

+ In my earlier researches into the anatomy of the reproductive system in the Hydroida 
(“On the Anatomy and Physiology of Cordylophora,” Phil. Trans. 1853), I entertained 
the view here maintained by Agassiz, as to the homology of the parts in question. Sub- 
sequent more extended observations, however, have induced me to modify in some respects 
the views then expressed, and to adopt those which are advocated in the present Report. 
(See my paper “On the Reproductive Organs of Sertularia tamarisea,” in the Report of 
the British Association for the Adyancement of Science, 1858.) 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 397 


logue of this part. Agassiz, in his account of Tubularia Couthouyi, Agass., 
ignores the existence of any membrane between the well-developed mesotheca 
of this species and the generative mass which surrounds the spadix. In 
Tubularia indivisa, however, this membrane cannot be overlooked, especially 
in the male, though in the female it would seem to disappear at an early 
period, and may thus escape detection. 

The Phanerocodonic Gonophore.—The phanerocodonic gonophore shows 
itself, at first, in every case as a minute hernia (fig. 15 A), consisting of endo- 
derm and ectoderm, and having its cavity in free communication with that of 
the gonoblastidium or of the trophosome from which it springs, thus in no 
respect differing at this period from the corresponding stage in the develop- 
ment of the adelocodonic gonophore, or indeed in that of a polypite branch. 

It is very difficult to follow satisfactorily the several steps by which this 
primordial tubercle becomes ultimately converted into a medusa. T have 
bestowed great attention on it in different species of Hyprorpa, and have 
more recently subjected the development of the medusa-bud in Corymorpha 
nutans to a very laborious examination, which has led me to adopt the pro- 
cess now about to be described, as the true interpretation of the phenomena 
presented in this hydroid. 

We first find that four equidistant processes (fig. 15 B c), consisting of endo- 
derm and ectoderm, with an included cavity, which is a continuation of that of 
the hernia-like tubercle just mentioned, have begun to grow upwards from a 


Fig. 15.—Development of medusa in Corymorpha nutans. 


A, very early stage of medusa-bud when it presents the form of a simple hernia-like 
tubercle whose cavity is in communication with the somatic cavity of the hydroid; B, 
more advanced stage; C, stage still further advanced; D, transverse section of C; E,a 
stage still more advanced than C; F, transverse section of RE. 

a, ectoderm ; 6, endoderm ; a', more external of the two layers into which the ectoderm 
of the bud has split; a", the more internal of these two layers ; c, radiating gastrovascular 
canals ; d, manubrium. 


398 REPORT— 1863. 


circle round the summit of this primordial bud. These, however, do not 
show themselves as free processes ; for, simultaneously with their appearance, 
the ectoderm of the summit of the bud becomes split into two layers (a’, a’’), 
which become more and more widely separated from one another as the pro- 
cesses continue to elongate, the outer layer arching over the space which is 
surrounded by the four processes. During this elongation, the ectoderm which 
occupies the four intervals between the roots of the processes is carried 
upwards as a continuous membrane, stretching across from one process to 
another in the manner of a web. 

The result of this is, that we have now the distal portion of the bud in the 
form of a deep cup formed of ectoderm, closed over by a layer also consist- 
ing of ectoderm, and having its walls traversed by four equidistant czcal 
tubes, whose cavity is continuous with the original cavity of the bud, and 
which are lined by a continuation of the endoderm of the bud. There is no 


Fig. 16.—Development of medusa in Corymorpha nutans. 


om 
SRdrcomeuenn tench 


Rae 
A, medusa somewhat more advanced than E in fig.15; the bulbous terminations of the 


gastrovascular canals have coalesced, and one of them has become projected into a. long 
thick tentacle. B, medusa just after liberation from the trophosome. 


difficulty in recognizing in these tubes the radiating canals of the future 
medusa, and in the web of ectoderm which unites them the umbrella. 

From the central point of the area included between the bases of the four 
canals another hernial process (fig. 15 C d and D d) has already begun to make 
its appearance, composed of ectoderm and endoderm, and containing a pro- 
longation of the original bud-cavity. It advances as a thick process in the 
axis of the cup, and is at once recognizable as the future manubrium, 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 399 


The four peripheral processes continue to elongate, and are soon seen to be 
dilated into bulb-like expansions at their extremities (fig. 15 E, F). The bulbs 
increase in size, and come in contact by their sides; while one of them, en- 
larging much more rapidly than the three others, gives a marked preponder- 
ance to its side of the bud, and makes the distal end of the bud appear as if 
obliquely truncated. It then begins to extend itself beyond this distal end 
into a thick hollow tentacle. 

In the mean time the four bulbs which had come in contact have coalesced, 
and their cavities now communicate with one another (fig. 16 A); but, by 
the gradual enlargement of the distal end of the bud, the bulbous ends of 
the radiating canals are again drawn away from one another: the communi- 
cation, however, between their cavities is not thereby interrupted, but con- 
tinues to be maintained by a tubular elongation of their original points of 
union ; and in this tube we now recognize the circular canal of the medusa. 

The cavity of the umbrella is still closed by the more external of the two 
laminz into which the ectoderm had originally split at the distal end of the 
bud. In the final stage, this lamina is either perforated in the centre in 
order to form the velum, or, what I now believe to be more probable, it 
entirely disappears, and the velum is formed by a centripetal extension of 
the ectoderm on a plane with the bulbous extremities of the radiating canals, 
at the time when these bulbs are withdrawn from contact with one another 
in order to form the circular canal. 

The manubrium, previously imperforate, has now acquired a mouth at its 
extremity. The solitary tentacle, too, has now become elongated, and pre- 
sents its characteristic moniliform structure; the umbrella rapidly contracts 
and expands with vigorous systole and diastole; and the medusa at last 
hangs on its stalk, a true Stcenstrupia, ready to break away from the restraint 
of its fostering polypite and enter upon an independent existence (fig. 16 B). 

From the above account of the development of the medusa-bud, it will be 
seen that here also I am not entirely in accordance with the views expressed 
by Agassiz on this subject. The distinguished American naturalist gives a very 
detailed account of the process as he has interpreted it in the development of 
the medusa-bud springing from his Coryne mirabilis, and in which he de- 
scribes this development as starting with the separation of the endoderm 
from the ectoderm in the primordial tubercle, and the inversion of the endo- 
derm into itself, so as to form the cup of the future umbrella. ‘‘ In doubling 
on itself, the retreating fold does not press closely on all points upon the 
stationary one, but leaves four equidistant spaces into which the chymife- 
rous fluid penetrates.” This mode of formation of the cup and radiating 
canals being admitted, the subsequent steps must proceed in a different way 
from that which I have described in Corymorpha; but as his account of it 
will scarcely admit of abridgment, I must refer to Agassiz’s great work itself 
for the very complicated details of this process*. 

McCrady t believes that those meduse which occur among the Tubularida 
are developed in a different way from those which we find among the Cam- 
panularida. He describes the umbrella in the former as produced by an 
excavation of the substance of the young bud, forming thus a completely 
closed cavity in which the manubrium is included, and which only at a sub- 
sequent period becomes perforated at its summit to form the orifice of the 
umbrella. In the Campanularida, on the other hand, he believes that the 
umbrella grows up from below as a ring round the manubrium, which is thus 

* Natural History of the United States, vol. iv. p. 192, &c. 
t Op. cit. p. 110. : 


400 REPORT—1863. 


never included in a closed cavity, but is from the first directly exposed to 
the surrounding medium. In accordance with these views, M°Crady divides 
the gymnophthalmatous meduse into the “‘endostomata” and the “ exosto- 
mata.” 

While I think it highly probable that differences will be found in the de- 
tails of the development of the medusa-buds belonging to different species of 
the Hyprorpa, my own observations have not yet led me to adopt the above 
generalization of M°Crady. 

Formation of Buds by the Phanerocodonie Gonophore.—The phenomenon 
of budding does not necessarily find its extreme term in the formation of the 
gonophore. Many free-swimming medusz, some of which are known to have 
originated in hydroid trophosomes, complicate themselves by gemmation, 
which manifests itself in the production of othermedusa-buds upon various parts 
of their bodies. Among the examples of this phenomenon we may cite those 
which are seen in certain meduse of the type described by authors under the 
name of Sarsia, all of which probably originate in Coryne-like trophosomes. 
In these medusz, buds, which develope themselves into forms resembling that 
of the medusa which gives rise to them, spring from the manubrium or from 
the bulbous base of the tentacles. A fine example of the same phenomenon 
is afforded by the medusa of the tubularian hydroid, Hybocodon prolifer, Agass. 
In this beautiful animal, Agassiz* describes the base of the solitary tentacle 
which is continued from the distal extremity of one of the radiating canals of 
the medusa as itself producing a cluster of medusa-buds, which in time 
assume the form of the primary medusa, and may themselves repeat the same 
process, through the production of successive broods of similar buds, before 
they become detached as free natatory meduse. Steenstrup has observed 
buds which he regarded as sexually developed from the base of the tentacles 
in a medusa which he refers to his Coryne fritillaria, while Greene has de- 
scribed the production of buds, not only from the bulbous base of the tentacles, 
but along the course of the tentacles themselves, in his genus Diplonema. 

In the medusze belonging to the family of the Zginide—a group, however, 
of which we have as yet no positive proof of any of its members being derived 
from a polypoid trophosome, though neither is there any proof of the contrary 
—it is probable that multiplication by buds formed upon the inner surface 
of the stomach is a constant and normal phenomenon. It would further 
appear that these buds detach themselves while still in a very immature state, 
and that, after becoming free, they undergo a metamorphosis before arriving 
at their adult form. From the remarkable observations of Kolliker and of 
Fritz Miiller, referred to below (pp. 419, 420), it would seem indeed that there 
is here in some cases a heteromorphism, a difference of form being observed 
among successive broods of buds; but observations are still needed before we 
can arrive at any conclusion as to the ultimate destiny of these buds. 

Among the successive broods of medusze thus produced, whether by primary 
budding from the trophosome, or gonoblastidium, or by secondary budding 
from the primary one, there is, if we except certain instances just referred to 
among the Aginide, no heteromorphism ; and every medusa in the series is 
not only similar to every other, but is probably capable of direct sexual ma- 
turity. In certain other cases, however, it is different. This we have already 
seen in the medusiform zooids, to which we have above given the name of 
* gonoblastocheme.” In the medusa, for example, of Campanularia Johnstoni 
(fig. 17)—a medusa referable to the deep-belled section of the forms grouped 
together by Gegenbaur under the name of Hucope,—and in those of Laomedea 

* Op. cit. yol. iv. p. 245. pl. 24. 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 401 


dichotoma and L. geniculata—meduse referable to the type of Obelia, Pér.— 
sexual elements are never directly developed. For this purpose there is needed 
a new zooid (fig. 17 9 and fig. 18) which no longer presents the developed me- 


Fig.17.—Medusa of Cam- _ Fig. 18.—Reproductive sac (sporosac) budding 
ponularia — Johnstoni from the radiating canals of the gonoblasto- 
shortly after liberation cheme of Obelia (Laomedea) geniculata. 
from the gonangium, 
illustrating the pecu- 
liarities of the gono- 
blastocheme. 


a, portion of umbrella and, 8, radiating canal of the 
medusa ; ¢, spadix of sporosac; d, wall of sporosac, con- 
sisting of endotheca alone; e, ovum, with germinal vesicle 
and germinal spot; jf, ovum, with numerous germinal 
spots in the germinal vesicle. 

dusal type, but, instead of it, the type of the 

adelocodonic gonophore. This zooid springs as 

a bud from the radiating canals of the medusa, 

and is constructed upon precisely the same plan 

as that which we meet with in the gonophore of 

Clava or Hydractinia, except that the ectotheca 
|e would seem to be absent. It has an axile 
Ss o., inaipientaporcsac, spadix (fig. 18 ¢), whose cavity 1s in direct com- 
formed as a bud upon the ra- | ™unication with that of the radiating canal from 
diating canal. which it springs. Immediately investing the 

spadix are the generative elements, ova or sper- 
matozoa; while these are themselves surrounded and confined by a true endo- 
theca (d), which becomes at last ruptured for the liberation of its contents. 

The zooidal nature of these buds is nowhere more distinct than in the genus 
Aglaura, Pér., a form not yet traced to a polypoid trophosome. Here the 
generative elements are produced in eight sac-like processes which surround 
the base of the manubrium, which is itself borne on the extremity of a stalk 
dependent from the summit of the umbrella. These sacs are undoubtedly . 
true buds, and are entirely homologous with the gonophores of Clava ; and 
it is plain that they are developed from the proximal extremities of the 
radiating canals, just where these canals pass off from the manubrium in 
order to run along the sides of the stalk before reaching the umbrella.* 

* See Leuckart’s description of Aglaura Péronii (Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1856, Erster 
2D 


402 REPORT—1869. 


In certain other naked-eyed medusz, such as those belonging to the genus 
Thaumantias, Esch., the trophosome of which has been in one species de- 
tected by Wright, and the genera Tiaropsis, Agass., and Tima, Esch., 
which, like Aglaura, have not yet been traced to a hydroid trophosome, the 
reproductive buds are situated, as in Obelia, upon the radiating canals; but 
they occupy with their extended base a much greater length of these canals 
than the corresponding buds in Obelia, Campanularia, or Aglaura do. They 
possess thus a less defined and individualized appearance than in the last- 
named meduse ; but, notwithstanding this, they are constructed upon essen- 
tially the same plan, and afford no exception to the view here taken. 

In Tima, indeed, we have an extreme case of this extension of the base of 
the generative buds, which here present themselves in the form of four long, 


Fig. 19.—Portion of the reproductive band in a female medusa of 
Tima Bairdii. 


aa @, radiating canal; bbb, reproductive band; ¢, ectoderm; d, endoderm ; e, cavity 
of the spadix; ¢' e', distal edge of the flattened spadix seen through the ectodermal layer ; 


J, ova. 


Cotas 7 


flattened, sinuous frill-like bands, each attached by one edge along the whole — 


length of a radiating canal (fig. 19). When a section is made from the free 
to the attached edge of this band, the generative elements are seen to be 
disposed upon each side of a hollow longitudinal septum (e, é). This septum 
consists of a diverticulum of the endoderm of the radiating canal; it admits 
into its interior the fluid which circulates in ‘the radiating canal, and is 


plainly homologous with a laterally extended and flattened spadix ; while the 


Band, 8.10). Leuckart recognizes in the generative sacs of Aglaura the significance of 
true zooids, though he refrains from extending this view to the generative sacs of other 
medusee. 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 403 


generative elements are externally confined by an ectodermal covering, which 
is in the same way the homologue of the endotheca in an ordinary gonophore, 
but here flattened“out like the spadix, in accordance with the ribbon-shaped 
form of the gonophore. 


he Multiplication by Fission. 


Kolliker* observed a process of true fissiparous multiplication in a medusa 
(Stomobrachium mirabile, Koll.) obtained in abundance at Messina. The fission 
always commenced by a vertical division of the manubrium, which thus became 
doubled ; and this stage of the process was followed by a similar division of 
the umbrella, separating the animal into two independent halves. The process, 
however, did not stop here, but was followed by a further division of each of 
the two first-formed segments into two others, by a fission at right angles to 
the direction of the first ; while Kolliker’s observations led him still further 
to conclude that the process does not terminate with even the second cleavage, 
but, on the contrary, that it still goes on, the animal continuing to multiply 
itself by frequent acts of fission. 

Developed generative bodies were not observed in Stomobrachium mirabile, 
and Kolliker is of opinion that this medusa is only the young of another 
(Mesonema cerulescens, Koll.) found in the same seas, and in which no divi- 
sion takes place, but in which well-developed generative sacs occur along the 
course of the radiating canals. 


B. Sevual Reproduction.— Generation. 


The origin and mode of formation of the ova and spermatozoa have already 
been considered ; the phenomena presented by the development of the embryo 
now remain for discussion. 

Development of the Embryo, from the commencement of the segmentation of 
the Vitellus to the attainment of the free locomotive stage——I shall here de- 
seribe this process as I have observed it in Laomedea flexuosa. In this 
species the gonophores, which belong to the adelocodonic class, are in- 
cluded within a gonangium, where they are borne along the whole length 
of a blastostyle, regularly increasing in maturity as they recede from the 
base towards the summit of their supporting column. Each gonophore in 
the female colony contains but a single ovum—a fact which facilitates the 
observation of the development. 

The mature ovum (fig. 20 A), previous to the commencement of segmenta- 
tion, is about 0-01 inch in diameter ; it is of a granular structure, and contains 
a very distinct clear germinal vesicle about 0-002 of an inch in diameter, 
situated very excentrically, and easily separated from the surrounding vitellus, 
when it may be isolated as a perfectly spherical vesicle upon the stage of the 
microscope. There is occasionally a single germinal spot, but its place is 
usually taken by several (2 to 10) minute more or less spherical bodies, 
which float in the perfectly transparent and colourless fluid contents of the 
germinal vesicle. When the germinal vesicle is freed from the surrounding 
vitellus and floated in sea-water on the stage of the microscope, these bodies 
almost instantly disappear without leaving a trace behind, being apparently 
dissolved by water absorbed from without through the walls of the vesicle. 
If, however, a little tincture of iodine be previously added to the water, they 
continue visible, and are now plainly seen to be themselves vesicles, containing 


4, 


* Zeit. f. wissen. Zool. 1853, p. 352. 
2n2 3 


AO4. REPORT—1863. 


within them a few minute granules which have been rendered obvious by the 
action of the iodine. 

The vitellus is entirely composed of minute’ spherical corpuscles of appa- 
rently homogeneous structure, about 0-0002 of an inch in diameter, along 
with granules so small as not to admit of measurement. There is no obvious 
vitellary membrane in the mature ovum, but I have satisfied myself of its 
presence while the ovum is still in a very young state. In other species, 
Hydractinia echinata for example, this membrane is very obvious in the 
ovum just before segmentation. There is no trace of a micropyle in the ovum 
of this or of any other hydroid which I have examined. 

There is never more than a single ovum in each gonophore of Laomedea 
flecwosa; and as this ovum continues to enlarge, it presses back the spadix 
until the latter is reduced to a small hollow projection in the bottom of the 
gonophore. 

Up to this time the germinal vesicle continued quite distinct, but it now 
entirely disappears (fig. 20 B). The disappearance of the germinal vesicle is 
unaccompanied by any apparent change in the structure of the ovum, which 
retains the same peculiar composition of spherical corpuscles and granules. 
I have no doubt that the vesicle now ceases to exist, and that its disappearance 
is not due to its being merely concealed in the mass of the vitellus. It has 
probably burst, and in so doing must have liberated its peculiar contents, 
which will then of course be no longer visible in the vitellus. The disap- 
pearance of the germinal vesicle is probably the immediate result of impreg- 
nation ; for I have seen active spermatozoa about this time in the cavity of 
the female gonophore. 

It is useless to speculate upon the influence which the liberated contents 
of the germinal vesicle may exert in exciting the new series of phenomena 
which are now about to take place in the ovum; at all events, shortly after 
the disappearance of the germinal vesicle, the process of segmentation sets in. 
This process is certainly not preceded by the visible appearance of a new 
nucleus destined to take the place of the germinal vesicle. Itis quite possible 
however that such a nucleus may exist, though, from its small size and from 
being so deeply imbedded in the mass of the vitellus, it may have eluded our 
attempts to discover it. 

The first step observable in the segmentation-process is the cleavage of the 
yolk into two segments (fig.20 C), immediately followed by the cleavage of these 
into other two, so that the vitellus is now composed of four cleavage-spheres 
(fig. 20D). In none of them, however, can a nucleus be as yet demonstrated. 

The segmentation would now appear to proceed very rapidly, but, perhaps, 
not always with absolute regularity ; for it would seem occasionally to advance 
more rapidly in some of the previously formed spheres than in others. By 
the time that the vitellus presents about thirty-six or more cleavage-spheres 
(fig. 20 E) we begin to recognize in some of these spheres a distinct nucleus, 
while as the spheres become smaller and more numerous the nuclei become 
more and more apparent, until at last there may be seen in every minute sphere, 
of which the segmented yolk is composed, a brilliant nucleus, visible not only 
in the superficial spheres, but also in the deeper ones which come into view 
when the ovum is broken down under the compressor (fig. 20 FandG). It is 
therefore highly probable that in the earlier stages also a nucleus exists in every 
cleavage-sphere, but that in consequence of the thickness and opacity of the — 
enveloping vitellus it is withdrawn from observation. The cleavage-spheres at 
this stage present the same peculiar structure which we find in the yolk just 
before the commencement of segmentation, consisting as they do of minute 


‘ioe 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 405 


Fig. 20.—Development of the ovum in Laomedea flewuosa. 


ey SEF. ie 

A, young ovum in the gonophore previously to the disappearance of the germinal vesi- 
cle: the germinal vesicle is here seen to contain several germinal spots ; B, the germinal 
vesicle and spots have disappeared ; C, the vitellus has become cleft into two segmenta- 
tion-spheres ; D, the ovum after the second cleavage; E, the segmentation-spheres have 
become numerous, and many of them now show a distinct nucleus; F, the segmentation- 
spheres have greatly increased in number, and a nucleus may now be detected in each of 
them ; G, the most superficial spheres have become arranged into a stratum distinguish- 
able from the deeper portion of the ovum; H, the superficial stratum has become more 
distinct, and is now seen to be composed of long prismatic cells ; I, the ovum has begun to 
elongate itself, and one end has become folded on the remainder ; K, the embryo just after 
its escape in the form of a ciliated planula. 


406 REPORT—1863. 


spherical corpuscles, with still more minute granules. When the vitellus 
has thus become broken up into a great number of minute spheres, it is 
evident that the most superficial of these spheres have arranged themselves 
into a distinct stratum, consisting of a single layer of spheres, and completely 
enveloping the more internal parts (fig. 20 G). 

We next find that the spheres composing this layer have increased in 
number, while at the same time they have become longer in the direction of 
the radius of the ovum, and now form a rather thick layer of undoubled cells, 
arranged with their long axes perpendicular to the surface of the oyum, 
having their sides in close contact and investing, as with a continuous wall, 
the whole interior of the mass (fig. 20 H). 

It is impossible not to see in the entire process here described an exact 
parallelism with the early stages in the development of the mammalian 
ovum, while the superficial layer of cells, to the formation of which we have 
just arrived, must be at once recognized as the representative of the blasto- 
derm of the mammal*. 

The nuclei, which were previously visible in the cleavage-spheres, have 
now ceased to be distinguishable, while these spheres at the same time show 
a distinct investing membrane. In fact, on now carefully breaking down the 
ovum under the microscope, its interior is found to consist entirely of loosely 
aggregated cells, some spherical, some more elongated, and all with a more or 
less copious endogenous brood of secondary cells within them (fig. 20 H). 

The external enveloping layer having now attained a considerable thick- 
ness, and a well-defined differentiation between it and the more internal 
parts having been established, the ovum begins to elongate itself, and at the 
same time the interior has undergone a further change; for we no longer 
find in it the large mother cells with their endogenous brood, but a multi- 
tude of small, free, clear vesicles of various sizes mingled with the minute 
granules, which have all along formed a part of the constituents of the ovum. 

At this point we may conveniently, though somewhat arbitrarily, designate 
the developing body as the “embryo.”’ We find now that one end of the 
oval embryo begins to be prolonged beyond the rest, upon which it becomes 
bent back as it continues to elongate itself (fig. 20 1). By this time the 
embryo has become endowed with evident contractility, as manifested by slug- 
gish changes of contour. 

Shortly after this, the embryo escapes from its confinement by the rupture 
of the walls of the gonophore, when it speedily straightens itself and is 
discharged in the form of a long conical body through the summit of the 
gonangium into the surrounding water (fig. 20 K). 

We now find that its whole surface is clothed with vibratile cilia, by whose 
aid it moves slowly along the bottom of the vessel, while the cells and gra- 
nules which occupied its deepest parts seem to have undergone a kind of 
liquefaction, resulting in the formation of an elongated cavity in the axis of 
the embryo, which is thus, at that period, a nearly cylindrical sac, without, 
as yet, any appearance of a mouth, but with an endoderm and ectoderm 
already differentiated, while multitudes of very minute elongated-oval bodies, 
with a high refractive power, soon make their appearance in the ectoderm ; 
these are most probably thread-cells, though no sign of a filament can as yet 
be discovered in them. 

We have thus arrived at the ciliated and locomotive stage of the embryo. 

* The comparison of the structure of the Hydrozoa to the early stages in the development 


of the highest animals has been very distinctly made by Professor Huxley (Oceanic Hydro- 
zoa, p. 2). j 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 4.07 


To this stage Sir John G. Dalyell has given the name of “ planula,” a name, 
however, suggested by a mistaken view of its form, which he compares to a 
Planaria. In this comparison he has probably been led astray by the imper- 
fection of the microscope employed; for the locomotive embryo has no ten- 
dency whatever to a flattened shape, as indicated by the name of ‘“ planula,” 
but is always conical or cylindrical. Instead of ‘ planula,” therefore, one is 
strongly tempted to employ for this form of embryo some term which shall 
not tend to convey a false impression of its figure. The term “ planula,” how- 
ever, has passed into such general use, and has, moreover, become so intimately 
associated with the memory of one to whose admirable and conscientious 
observations our knowledge of the Hydroida owes so much, that the defects 
of the term will hardly justify our suppression of it. 

The further progress of the animal, up to that stage in which it has ac- 
quired all the essential features of the adult, admits of being easily traced in 
many different species. I shall take as a good type of the changes which 
the ciliated embryo undergoes in this progress the development of Hudendriwm 
racemosum, Cay., in which I have satisfactorily followed the various steps. 

After the embryo has enjoyed for a period (which, probably, extends over 
two or three days) its locomotive existence, it loses its cilia, and with them 
all power of active locomotion, though still apparently retaining the power 
of slowly creeping from place to place by the contractility of its body. It 
may now be occasionally scen with one end dilated, so as to give a flask- 
shaped form to the embryo. 

We next find that the animal has attached itself to some fixed object by 
the enlarged extremity of its body, which becomes flattened over the surface 
to which it thus adheres. From the centre of this enlarged base the rest 
of the embryo rises perpendicularly as a little cylindrical or slightly clavate 
hollow column. The base now expands laterally, while, at the same time, it 
becomes compressed vertically, so as to acquire the condition of a little cir- 
cular disc of adhesion. At the same time the embryo becomes enlarged a 
little behind its distal or free extremity by the formation of a slightly pro- 
minent circular ridge, while an exceedingly delicate periderm has been excreted 
as a scarcely perceptible film over its whole surface. 

It will next be seen that a remarkable change has taken place in the disc 
of attachment by the division of this part into lobes separated from one another 
by radiating fissures, which commence as shallow notches at the circum- 
ference, and thence gradually increase in depth until they nearly reach the 
central vertical column. These lobes, like the rest of the young hydroid, 
consist of a layer of endoderm enveloped by one of ectoderm, while each con- 
tains a prolongation from the cavity of the column, and is invested by a deli- 
cate periderm, which may be traced into the bottom of the dividing fissures, 
The lobes of the disc increase in number by successive dichotomous division, 
though absolute regularity is not usually maintained. 

In the mean time the young Hudendrium has increased in size, and the 
circular ridge has become more pronounced, while the part in front of this 
ridge has in the same proportion become more decidedly marked off from the 

rest of the body, and the periderm has here become more distinct by the partial 
withdrawal from it of the included structures. 

Soon after this the whole circumference of the ridge will be found to have 
extended itself as a circle of about ten short, thick tentacula, while at some 
distance behind these the body is seen to be narrowed into a short, nearly 
cylindrical stem springing directly from the centre of the basal disc ; and the 
more contracted portion which lies in front of the circle of rudimental tentacula 


408 REPORT—1863. 


is now plainly recognizable as the proboscis or metastome of the future polypite. 
The tentacles now rapidly multiply by the intercalation of others between those 
already formed. The second set may at first be easily distinguished by their 
shortness ; but the bases of all seem to be on the same level, and the whole 
appear to constitute a single uninterrupted series. The tentacles, though 
short and thick, will have thus soon attained the full number which we meet 
with in the adult. They consist in this stage of an endodermal and an 
ectodermal layer, the ectoderm apparently formed of a single layer of pris- 
matic cells, while the endoderm seems to fill the entire axis with a mass of 
minute, spherical, loosely aggregated cells. Just behind the tentacles the 
body of the young polypite is seen to be excavated by a large cavity, in which 
is a multitude of loose spherical cells, filled with a red granular pigment, 
and undoubtedly thrown off from the inner surface of the walls. 

The whole of the young hydroid is still completely enveloped by the deli- 
cate chitinous periderm, which forms a sheath extending over even the distal 
free extremity, and within which the various changes just described, in- 
cluding even the formation of the tentacles, have been going on. We now 
find, however, that this sheath (which has for some time lain loosely over the 
distal parts of the hydroid, and which it seemed to invest as in a sac) becomes 
ruptured in front of the tentacles, so that the water gains direct access to 
the surface of the young polypite, and the tentacles have full freedom to ex- 
tend themselves. It would seem, too, that the distal extremity of the pro- 
boscis had now, for the first time, ‘become perforated by a mouth; for, up to 
this stage, no undoubted evidence of an oral aperture could be detected. 

The young Eudendrium has thus acquired the form of a true polypite borne on 
the extremity of a short simple cylindrical stem, which still springs from the 
centre of the radiating disc. The stem elongates itself, and the body, tentacles, 
and proboscis rapidly acquire all the characters of the adult; the hydroid, 
however, is still simple, and it remains for it to develope from its base a 
creeping stolon which will take the place of the primordial disc, to complicate 
itself by the budding of new polypites and the development of branches, and, 
finally, by the formation of sexual zooids to combine a gonosome with the pri- 
mary trophosome, in order that the little hydroid whose progressive changes we 
have been thus following may attain the condition of the adult Hudendrium. 

The developmental phenomena above descyibed are in all their essential 
points, so far as we know, universal among the marine Hyprorpa, with one 
exception—that, namely, which is presented by the genus Tubwlaria. 

In this genus a minutely granular plasma, entirely similar to that which 
in other Hydroida becomes differentiated into ordinary ova, may be seen en- 
veloping the spadix of the young gonophore. Instead, however, of becoming 
transformed in the usual way into ova, portions become detached from the 
mass and lie loose in the cavity of the endotheca, where they undergo a deve- 
lopment into free embryos in the manner to be presently described, while the 
residual plasma continues to detach from its mass fresh fragments, ‘which are 
in their turn transformed into embryos. 

In the portions thus successively detached from the central plasma it is 
impossible, as has already been said, to detect any trace of germinal vesicle 
or germinal spot, and yet we should certainly not be justified in regarding 
them as mere gemme, or in attributing to them any other significance than 
that of true ova*. The plasma in which they originate holds in the gono- 

* Agassiz calls the central plasma in Tubularia the “ germ-basis,” and refuses to regard 


as ova the masses which are thrown off from it and become developed into polypoid youn: 
(Gp, ett. vol. iv. pp. 255 & 269.) 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 409 


phores which contain it a position precisely similar to that held by the un- 
doubted spermatogenous tissue in the male gonophores of the same species ; 
and as nothing else is presented by the hydroid which can in any way be 
regarded as ova, we should, by denying to these the essential attributes of 
ova, be reduced to the anomalous alternative of admitting the existence of 
the male element without the correlative female one. 

The phenomena connected with the development of Tubularia indivisa, in 
which I have carefully examined them *, will afford a good example of the 
difference between this form of development and that which is usual among 
the Hydroida; in all essential points they are the same as in the other 
species of Tubularia. 

In the female gonophore of Tubularia indivisa (fig. 6 C), the generative pro- 
duct originates as a voluminous plasma between the endoderm and ectoderm 
of the manubrium. It is evidently in more intimate relation with the endo- 
derm than with the ectoderm, and as it increases in bulk it would seem to cause 
the absorption of the latter membrane, which had confined it in its young 
state. A portion of it now becomes detached from the mass, and soon under- 
goes a special development into an embryo within the cavity of the gono- 
phore. As has just been said, no trace of germinal vesicle or spot can be 
found either in the entire mass or in any of the detached portions; so also 
the phenomenon of yolk-cleavage, if present at all, is very obscure, but the 
detached mass may be easily broken up into cells filled with secondary 
cells. 

The ovum (for I have no hesitation in so designating the mass detached 
from the primitive plasma, notwithstanding its anomalous characters) lies in 
contact with the remainder of the plasma, and while in this position becomes 
developed into an actiniform embryo, as has been already noticed by Van 
Benedent, Mummery?t, and others. In the act of development it becomes 
first extended as a disc over the residual plasma. In this disc we can always 
recognize a differentiation between its peripheral and central portions. Next, 
from the circumference of the disc short and thick processes radiate all 
round, and these soon elongate themselves into tentacles; the disc at the 
same time gradually becomes more gibbous on the side turned away from the 
axis of the gonophore, its interior becomes hollowed out into a digestive 
cavity, and a mouth makes its appearance in the centre of the opposite side, or 
that in contact with the plasma. The embryo now retreats from the plasma, 
the mouth is seen to be elevated on a conical prominence, while the side 
opposite to the mouth becomes more and more prolonged until it assumes the 
form of an elongated oval peduncle into which the general cavity is continued. 
The extremity of this prolongation presents the appearance of delicate striae 
(probably fibres) radiating for a short distance from its central point—a pe- 
culiar structure which might easily lead to the belief that an aperture was 
here present. The «wppearance of an aperture, however, I believe to be entirely 
deceptive. At the same time a circle of very short tentacula makes its ap- 
pearance immediately around the mouth. In this state it escapes from the 
gonophore, and, after continuing free for a period, the side opposite to the 
mouth becomes ultimately developed into a cylindrical stem, which soon 
clothes itself with a periderm and fixes the young Zubularia to some neigh- 
bouring object. After the escape of the embryo, or even during its develop- 


* “Notes on the Hydroid Zoophytes,” Ann. Nat. Hist. July 1859. 

t “Recherches sur, l’Embryogénie des Tubulaires,” p. 37. pl. 1, in Nouv. Mém. de 
PAcad. Roy. de Bruxelles, tom. xvii. 1844. 

¢ “On the Development of Tubularia indivisa,’ Trans. Micr. Soc. 1853, p. 28. 


410 REPORT—1863. 


ment within the gonophore, the remains of the plasma may still throw off 
portions which become developed in a similar way into free actiniform 
embryos*. 

Our knowledge of the freshwater Hydre is still in a very imperfect state, 
not only as regards the development of the embryo, but as to the structure of 
the parts on which the sexual functions devolve in these animals. Towards 
the end of autumn, and occasionally earlier, conical tubercles may be seen 
budding from the body of the various species of Hydre, and containing, when 
mature, active caudate corpuscles. There is no difficulty in recognizing in 
these corpuscles spermatozoa, and in the containing tubercles true male 
gonophores,—a determination which we originally owe to Ehrenbergt. A 
minute aperture ultimately shows itself in the summit of the gonophore, and 
through this the spermatozoa escape. 

But, besides the spermatogenous tubercles, there also occur, usually on the 
same individuals, others which, instead of containing spermatozoa, have their 
cavity occupied by a spherical body, first accurately described by Ehrenberg#, 
and which, notwithstanding some anomalous features, we are justified in 
viewing as an ovum rather than anything else; while we must regard its 
containing sac as a female gonophore—a gonophore, however, in a very low 
stage of development, for the spadix is at an early period pushed back by the 
large single ovum, and remains undeveloped, while no ectotheca appears to 
be differentiated. In the male gonophore, on the contrary, the spadix is not 
suppressed, but may be seen projecting from the body of the hydra into the 
cavity of the gonophore. The ovum, when mature, escapes by the rupture 
of the walls of the gonophore, and is then seen to be invested by a tough 
membranous shell, which in some cases has been observed to develope peculiar 
forked spines over its entire surface. In this body, however, neither ger- 
minal vesicle nor spot has hitherto been detected; and, in the development 
from it of the embryo, the polypoid form appears to be directly attained, 
without the occurrence of a planula-stage§. The structure of the ovum and 
the developmental phenomena in Hydra would thus seem to come nearer to 
what we meet with in Tubularia than to the conditions presented by any 
other hydroid. 

It will be thus seen that the earliest free stage of the Hyproip tro- 
phosome is locomotive, and shows itself under two distinct types—one pre- 


* Claparéde (Beobacht. iiber Anat. u. Entwickl. wirbelloser Thiere an der Kiiste von 
Normandie, 1863, p. 2) takes a somewhat different view of the development of Tubularia 
from that given above. His observations were made on certain minute organisms which 
he found swimming in the open sea, and which are undoubtedly the actinula-stage of some 
species of Tubularia. He compares them to small meduse, the body of the actinula repre- 
senting the umbrella, and the long tentacles the marginal tentacles of the medusa, while 
that portion which is subsequently to become developed into the stem of the Tubularia is 
viewed by Claparéde as corresponding to the manubrium,—the mouth of the future Tudu- 
laria, with its circle of short tentacles, being developed on the summit of the umbrella. Cla- 
paréde believes that he had found an aperture in the extremity of that portion which is to 
become the stem, and he has apparently thus been led to interpret this part as the manu- 
brium of amedusa. Ihave little doubt that Claparéde has been here deceived by the pecu- 
liar structure described above, and which might easily lead to an error of interpretation. 

+ Ehrenberg, Mittheilungen aus den Verhandl. der Gesellsch. naturf. Freunde in 
Berlin, 1838, p. 14. 

+ Ehrenberg, Abhandl. der Berl. Akademie, 1836, p. 115, taf. ii. : 

§ Pallas, Karakteristik der Thierpflanzen, p. 53. Laurent, Froriep’s Neue Notizen, 
No. 513, p. 101; and ‘ Nouveaux Recherches sur les Hydres d’eau douce, Voyage de la 
Bonite,’ 1844. See also ‘“‘ On the Generative System of Hydra,” by Prof. Allen Thomson, 
loc. cit., and Hancock, ‘‘ Notes on a Species of Hydra found in the Northumberland Lakes,” 
in the ‘Annals of Natural History,’ vol. v. 1850. 


~ ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 411 


sented by the great majority of the Hyprorpa, and described above as the 
Planula of Sir J. G. Dalyell; the other confined to the genus Tubularia, 
unless Hydra also should afford an example of it, and which may be in the 
same way designated by the term Actinula*. Every hydroid, if we except 
such forms as may be proved to pass to the medusal condition directly from 
the egg, thus commences its free existence either as a planula or an actinula. 

Import of the Phanerocodonic Gonophore.—The developmental phenomena 
now described have been all observed in ova which have their origin in an 
adelocodonic gonophore; and they enable us to trace back the hydroid in an 
unbroken series, through the egg from which it is developed, and the gono- 
phore in which this egg originates, to the hydroid trophosome from which the 
gonophore buds. 

The cases in which a similarly unbroken chain can be traced back through 
the free phanerocodonic gonophore are naturally far less frequent ; for in the 
majority of cases the free gonophore does not produce its generative elements 
until a considerable time after it has become free, and undergone more or 
less change of form as it continues to develope itself in the open sea; and it 
is very seldom that we can succeed in rearing the free meduse in the con- 
finement of our tanks up to the period when they shall attain sexual ma- 
turityt. We thus then almost always lose absolute evidence of identity in 
the gonophore when presented at two distant periods of its life; and there 
is, therefore, necessarily an interruption in the series of direct observations. 
Some such direct observations, however, have been made; and, besides these, 
so many facts have been ascertained by more or less discontinuous and frag- 
mentary observations, that there remains no longer any doubt that the 
history of the phanerocodonic gonophores and their progeny is in all essential 
points identical with that of the adelocodonic forms. 

Some cases have been observed in which the phanerocodonic gonophore 
has attained to complete maturity, and become loaded with ova or sperma- 
tozoa, before separating itself from the trophosome. 

The first recorded instance of this phenomenon seems to be that described 
by Cavolinit, who observed the medusiform zooids of his Sertularia pennaria 
(Pennaria distycha, Goldfuss) to become loaded with ova while still attached 
to the trophosome—an observation which about three-quarters of a century 
later was confirmed by M*Crady§, who saw the ova in his Pennaria tiarella 
even become developed into planule before the detachment of the gonophore. 

Rud. Wagner || saw in a hydroid, which he names Coryne aculeata, the 
formation of buds, which became developed into somewhat arrested medusa- 
like gonophores ; and then, before detaching themselves from the trophosome, 
gave origin to a copious brood of eggs in the walls of the manubrium. 

Lovén{ saw in a Coryne, which he refers to the Syncoryne ramosa of 

Ehrenberg, a medusoid body, also somewhat arrested in its development. It 


* While the present Report was in the hands of the printer, I received a letter from 
Mr. Alder, in which he informs me that he has bred from the Myriothela arctica of 
Sars, free polypoid embryos closely resembling the free stage of Zubularia. From this 

important observation, it would follow that Myriothela arctica must also be placed among 
the hydroids which commence their free existence under the form of actinule. 

t In the Srrnonoruora the opposite condition is prevalent; for here the gonophores, 
even such as present the more complete medusal or phanerocodonic form, usually become 
loaded with ova or spermatozoa before they detach themselves from the trophosome. 

{ Mem. Polypi Marini, 1785. 

§ Proc. Elliott Soc. Nat. Hist. 1857. 

| Isis, 1835, p. 256. tab. 11. 

4] Miiller’s Archiv, 1857, p. 321. 


412 REPORT—1863. 


was produced upon the body of the polypite, and contained multitudes of ova, 
which had their origin in the walls of the manubrium. It is probable that 
the medusoid here described, though truly phanerocodonic, discharges its 
eggs without ever becoming free. 

Wright observed in a Coryne, to which he gives the name of C. gravata, 
fixed medusiform bodies of the phanerocodonic type, with the spermatic mass 
largely developed in the walls of the manubrium*. 

But the most complete observation of this class has been made by Agassiz‘, 
who has seen in his Coryne mirabilis fully developed medusz, referable to the 
type of Sarsia, originate as buds in the earlier months of the year, and then 
become free before any formation in them of ova or spermatozoa; while 
during the later months the same Coryne gives origin to medusa-buds which 
are arrested ata slightly less advanced stage of development, never become 
free, and produce in some cases ova, in others spermatozoa, in voluminous 
masses developed in the walls of the manubrium. 

In all the above instances the generative elements had advanced far 
towards maturity, and the gonophore had apparently reached its final form 
while still attached to the trophosome. It will, I think, be found that, when- 
ever this is the case, there is some degree of arrest in the complete medusal 
development, though not sufficient to reduce the gonophore to the condition 
of the adelocodonic forms. This shows itself especially in the tentacula, 
which usually remain in the state of mere tubercles, and, even when most 
developed, never attain the completeness and extensibility which characterize 
them in the free meduse. It is also probable that in these cases the manu- 
brium never developes a mouth at its extremity t. 

In other cases, however, the gonophores are detached, as free meduse, in 
a much less mature state, in order to undergo further development in the 
open sea, and while yet the generative elements are quite rudimental,- or 
even before any trace of them can be detected. Here, likewise, several cases 
have been recorded which prove, by direct and continuous observation, that 
these medusz also have, as their proper function, the perpetuation of the 
species by true sexual generation. 

The generative sacs which become developed upon the radiating canals of 
certain free meduse were seen by Van Beneden§ in the meduse thrown off 
by Laomedea dichotoma||. He mistook them, however, for nervous ganglia, 
an error which was afterwards rectified by Krohn §] ; while similar bodies were 
subsequently observed, and correctly interpreted, by Kélliker** in a hydroid 
which he named Campanularia dichotoma, but which is certainly not the 
true Campanularia (Laomedea) dichotoma, whose meduse are different from 
those described by Kélliker. Kolliker in this instance recognized the rudi- 
ments of the generative sacs even before the escape of the medusz from 
the gonangium. 

Gosset+ mentions and figures the generative sacs on the radiating canals of 


* Edin. New. Phil. Journ. 1858, vol. vii. p. 282. 

t Op. cit. vol. iv. p. 189. 

+ The gonophores of the StrrHoyoruora also afford an example of the same phenomenon, 
in the fact that in most cases, even though attaining the phanerocodonic form, they stop 
short of the completely developed medusa, while at a very early period they develope the 
generative elements within them. 

§ “Mém. sur les Campanulaires,” p. 26. pl. 2. fig. 15, in Nouv. Mém. de l’Acad. Roy. 
de Brux. tom. xvii. 1844. 

|| Named Campanularia gelatinosa in Van Beneden’s memoir. 

€ Wiegm. Arch. 1851, p. 267. ** Zeit. f. w. Z. vol. iv. p. 301. 

++ A Naturalist’s Rambles on the Devonshire Coast, 1853, p. 303. pl. 19. fig. 3. 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 413 


medusz, which he saw liberated from the gonangium of Campanularia John- 
stoni, Alder. He seems, however, not to have been aware of the nature of 
these bodies, which were afterwards observed in the same species, and cor- 
rectly interpreted, by Wright *, who also witnessed the generative sacs on the 
radiating canals of the medusa of Obelia (Laomedea) dichotoma just after 
separation +. 

I can fully confirm these observations on the medusa of Campanularia 
Johnstoni, having myself on more than one occasion witnessed the generative 
sacs budding from the radiating canals of meduse shortly after liberation from 
the trophosome of this hydroid (see fig. 17). 

In a Campanularian hydroid which I discovered in the Firth of Forth, and 
would refer to Van Beneden’s genus Campanulina, under the name of C. re- 
pens, Allm., I found the generative sacs distinctly developed on the radiating 
canals of the medusa at the time of its liberation from the gonangium. 

Dujardin ¢ has seen ova produced in the walls of the manubrium of Cla- 
donema, a medusa traceable to a hydroid trophosome nearly allied to that of 
Coryne, and which Dujardin names Stawridium (Stauridie). These ova were 
observed in specimens of a Cladonema thrown off from Stauridium in his 
tanks, so that the observation is continuous and complete. 

Krohn§ has seen ova and spermatozoa produced in the walls of the manu- 
brium of the female and male medusa-buds of a hydroid, which he believes 
to be identical with the Podocoryne carnea of Sars. The generative elements 
had indeed in this case made their appearance at a very early period, for 
their rudiments were manifest while the medusa was as yet incompletely de- 
veloped, and still attached to the trophosome |}. 

To the facts above stated I am enabled to add the case of Coryne eximia, 
Allm., in whose medusa, just after liberation, from specimens obtained in 
Shetland in July 1862, I saw the generative mass in the form of a minutely 
granular substance included between the ectoderm and endoderm of the 
manubrium, and having nucleated spherical cells scattered through it. These 
cells are in all probability the germinal vesicles, with their germinal spot, but 
with the yolk not yet differentiated around them. 

The cases now stated contain, I believe, the whole of the instances in 
which free meduse, giving rise to ova or spermatozoa, have been traced by 
actual and continuous observation to the hydroid trophosome. 

Evidence, however, scarcely less convincing, is afforded by those cases in 
which, though the free medusa in which the eggs or spermatozoa are found 
cannot be traced by direct observation to a trophosome, its resemblance to 
forms which have been so traced is so close as to justify us in assigning to 
both a similar origin. 

Desor {| found, swimming freely in immense numbers in the port of Boston, 
United States, a Sarsia-like medusa, which he did not hesitate to identify 
specifically with a form which some weeks before he had seen produced by 
buds from a Coryne obtained in the same locality. In the free meduse now 
obtained, the walls of the manubrium were swollen by the development in 
them of ova or spermatozoa. He was able to trace the ova through all the 
stages of segmentation. 

* Edinb. New Phil. Journ. 1858, vol. vii. p. 286. : 

+ Op. cit. 1859, vol. ix. p. 115. ¢ Ann. des Sci. Nat. 1845. 

§ Wiegm. Arch. 1851, Erster Band, p. 263. 

| In medusx, however, thrown off from specimens of Podocoryne carnea in wy tanks, 
no trace of generative elements could be detected, even at the end of fourteen days 


after their liberation. 
§| Ann. des Sci. Nat. vol. xii. 1849, p. 207. 


AJ 4 REPORT—1863. 


I have myself frequently captured in various parts of the British seas a 
medusa which, except in its greater size (0°25 of an inch in diameter) and the 
increased number of its tentacles, so nearly resembles the meduse which are 
thrown off from Laomedea geniculata, or the closely allied L. dichotoma, that 
I have no hesitation in referring it to one of these hydroids as its trophosome. 
The peculiar generative sacs (see fig. 18) were well developed near the middle 
of each of its radiating canals, and in some specimens contained mature ova, 
with germinal vesicle and spot, while in others they were filled with mature 
spermatozoa. 

A similar observation was made by Krohn* on a little medusa which he 
captured in the Bay of Naples, and whose resemblance to the meduse found 
by Van Beneden, as above stated, to be developed from Laomedea dichotoma 
was so close, that Krohn did not hesitate to regard it as the product of some 
similar trophosome. 

Specimens of Corymorpha nutans obtained in tne Frith of Forth, in the 
month of June, were kept alive for some weeks in my tanks. During this 
period multitudes of free medusze were thrown off from them; but though 
the liberated medusz continued to live for a considerable time, and increased 
slightly in size, they never developed any trace of generative elements. In 
the neighbourhood of the locality, however, which yielded the specimens of 
Corymorpha, I captured, by means of the towing-net, a small medusa, which 
I have little doubt belongs to the same species as those thrown off by the 
Corymorpha in my tanks. In the medusa thus found free in the open sea, 
the generative elements, though still immature, were very distinctly visible 
as a pale yellow mass between the ectoderm and endoderm of the manubrium, 
which was rendered tumid by their presence. 

Besides the cases now enumerated, in which the sexually mature medusve 
admit of being referred with certainty, or at least with high probability t, to 
specific trophosomes, there are the very numerous cases in which the gene- 
rative elements have been detected in free gymnophthalmic medusz whose 
trophosome is as yet unknown, or only a matter of suspicion ¢, and whose 
evidence in the present inquiry is necessarily only secondary and indirect. 

I have thus endeayoured to bring together the whole of the evidence, 
which carries us up to a particular point in our investigations. This point 
is of great importance, for its determination enables us to enunciate the fol- 
lowing general proposition :— 

Many species of the fixed plant-like Hydroida give rise, by budding, to free 
gymnophthalnac meduse, which ultimately attain, either directly (the gono- 
cheme) or indirectly (the gonoblastocheme), to sexial maturity, and produce 
ova or spermatozou. 

But the point to which we have thus arrived does not complete the deve- 
lopmental history of the Hyprorpa, and the important question still remains, 
What is the result, immediate and remote, of the development of the ovum 
produced by the free medusa? 

A considerable number of facts bearing upon this question have also been 
accumulated, and the development of the ovum has been traced with more or 
less minuteness by various observers, so that we are now enabled to present 

* Wiegm. Arch. 1851, Erster Band, 8. 265. 

+ It is possible for two medusz to present no differences of even specific value, and yet 
be referable to specifically or even generically distinct trophosomes. (See below, p. 425.) 

See the various systematic treatises on the Medusze, especially Forbes’s ‘ Monograph of 
the British Naked-eyed Medusze,’ published by the Ray Society, 1848; Gegenbaur, “ Versuch 


eines Systemes der Medusen,” Zcitsch. f. wissen. Zool. 1857; and M°Crady, ““Gymnophthal- 
mata of Charleston Harbour,” Proc. of the Elliott Soc, of Charleston, South Carolina, 1859. 


~ 
ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 415 


the terms which were still wanting to complete the life-series of the 
hydroid. 

Krohn*, having placed in a jar of sea-water some mature specimens of Cla- 
donema (a medusa which, as we have already seen, Dujardin had previously 
proved to be produced by budding from a Coryne-like trophosome, to which 
he gave the name of Stauridium), observed that after a time they had 
deposited eggs, which adhered to the sides and bottom of the vessel. Soon 
after deposition, the segmentation of the yolk commenced ; and in about forty- 
eight hours after the beginning of the cleavage, the ovum had become 
changed into a free-swimming ciliated infusorium-like embryo (planula). 

This embryo was successfully watched by Krohn through all its subse- 
quent stages—the disappearance of its cilia, the fixing itself to the sides of 
the jar, its conversion into a little circular disc, the growth of a short 
column from the centre of the disc, and its final conversion into a hydroid, 
identical with the Stawridiwn from which Dujardin had originally seen the 
Cladonema thrown off. To Krohn then is due the first grand observation 
by which the whole circle of hydroid development, in the case of a free 
phanerocodonic gonophore, has been completed. 

Gosse t+ had seen the medusa, Turis neylecta, Forbes, discharge from the 
generative mass formed in the walls of its manubrium ciliated planule, which, 
after some time, fixed themselves to the glass, and became elongated into 
adherent, branched, stolon-like bodies, which threw up a perpendicular stem, 
on whose summit a circle of four tentacles was developed, and the whole 
became thus changed into a Clava-like hydroid. 

Wright ¢ ‘subsequently watched the development of the ovum in this same 
medusa. His observations agree with those of Gosse, but he has succeeded 
in tracing the development a step further; for he saw the tentacles increase 
in number by the growth of others behind those first formed, giving by their 
scattered disposition a still more Clava-like appearance to the hydroid, while 
he also noticed the formation of a chitinous periderm which clothed the 
creeping stolon. 

Gegenbaur § describes the development of the egg in a medusa, which he 
names Jizzia Kollikeri. He has seen the segmentation of the vitellus, and 
the formation of « ciliated planula, which, after enjoying for a time its loco- 
motive existence, loses its cilia, fixes itself to the side of the vessel, expands 
one extremity into a disc of adhesion, elongates the rest of its body into a 
cylindrical stem, which, after clothing itself with a chitinous polypary, deve- 
lopes a mouth upon its free extremity, and just below this throws out a 
verticil of tentacula, while the expanded base becomes extended into short 
stolon-like prolongations. 

The development of the ova in another medusa, named by Kéolliker 
Oceania armata, was also observed by Gegenbaur ||. He traced the seg- 
mentation of the vitellus, the formation of a ciliated planula, the fixation of 
the planula, and its development into a stolon-like body; but beyond this 
point his observations were not carried. 

Wright {| observed that numerous planule had made their appearance in 
a vessel in which he had placed some isolated specimens of Thawmantias 
tmeonspicua. He believes that these planule were produced by the Thau- 

* Miiller’s Archiv, 1853, p. 420. tab. xiii. 

+ A Naturalist’s Rambles on the Devonshire Coast, 1853, p. 348. pl. 13. 
{ Edinb. New Phil. Journ. July 1859, pl. 8. f. 1. 

§ Generationswechsel, 1854, p. 23. pl. il. figs. 1-9. 

|| Loc. cit. p. 28. pl. 2. figs. 10-16. 

§| Micr. Journ. vol. ii., new ser. 


416 REPORT—1863. _ 


mantias, and he saw some of them fix themselves to the sides of the vessel 
and develope a lobed disc. From this disc arose a stem, which developed 
from its summit a polypite closely resembling the Campanularia raridentata 
of Alder. 

In the Aquorea vitrina of Gosse, Wright * also observed free ciliated 
planule to escape from the generative bodies, and, after fixing themselves to 
the sides of the vessel, become developed into a hydroid, with polypite, 
hydrotheca, and periderm, bearing, as he informs us, a close resemblance 
to the Laomedea acuminata of Alder. 

The class of observations here enumerated enable us to complete the circle 
of hydroid-development ; for they prove that the ova of the free medusa 
undergo, like those of the fixed gonophore, a continuous development, by 
which they become transformed into polypoid trophosomes ; these trophosomes, 
as has been proved by direct observation in the case of Stawridium, and 
as we may unquestionably assume in other cases, giving origin, by buds, 
to meduse identical with those from whose ova the trophosome was directly 
developed. 

Relation between Sexual and Non-seaual Reproduction in the Hydroida.— 
The phenomena now described under the head of sexual and non-sexual 
reproduction present intimate and important relations with one another— 
relations which find their expression in the remarkable law, originally hinted 
at by Chamisso when he made his memorable discovery of the true genetic 
relations between the solitary Salpe and the associated chain-like colonies 
of these animals, but first distinctly enunciated by Steenstrup, under the name 
of the “Alternation of Generations ”—a law which, though in its original mode 
of statement it must undergo some modification, has nevertheless received, in 
all essential points, abundant confirmation, and will explain, in a way which 
it alone can do, a host of phenomena which would otherwise have appeared 
isolated and exceptional y. 

The law in question manifests itself among the Hyprorpa in the fact that 
between every two sexual zooids one or more non-sexual zooids intervene, 
the immediate result of the development of the ovum being in such cases 
always a non-sexual form. 

To take for example one of the simplest cases, we find that from the 
ovum of Clava multicornis there is developed directly a ciliated planula, 
passing by continuous metamorphosis into the non-sexual polypite. From 
this polypite there is then produced by gemmation a sexual zooid—the 
sporosac, which gives origin to ova or spermatozoa, destined to repeat the 
series, which thus consists of non-sexual polypite and sexual sporosac, and 
so on indefinitely. 

The “period” here indefinitely repeated in the life of the species consists 
accordingly of two terms—polypite—sporosac. 

Again, in Hydractinia echinata we have a case not quite so simple ; for 
here, while the ovum becomes developed as before into a polypite, this 
polypite, instead of directly producing gonophore-buds, sends off from its 
basal extension or ccenosare a peculiar bud, which, though still non-sexual, 
differs from the polypite, and has its alimentary functions suppressed. It 
constitutes the gonoblastidium, and is destined to give origin by budding to 
sporosacs. 


* Micr. Journ. vol. iii. pl. 4. figs. 1-6. ; 

t+ The true significance of the phenomena on which the law of ‘alternation of genera- 
tions” has been founded was for the first time clearly pointed out by Dr. Carpenter. See 
Brit. and For. Med. Chir. Rev. vol. i. Jan. 1848, p. 183, &e. 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 417 


In Hydractinia echinata then the period consists of three terms—poly- 
pite—gonoblastidium—sporosac. 

A still further advance in complication is afforded by those forms in which 
a gonoblastocheme is developed, as in many of the Campanularide—Cam- 
panularia Johnstoni for example. Here we have polypite and gonoblastidium 
in the same order as in Hydractinia ; but the gonoblastidium, instead of giving 
origin directly to sexual zooids, developes a new kind of zooid, as a bud from 
its sides, in the form of a non-sexual medusa or gonoblastocheme ; and it is 
upon this gonoblastocheme that devolves the function of producing, by a 
process of gemmation, the ultimate sexual zooid in the form of a sporosac. 

In Campanularia Johnstoni, therefore, the period will consist of four 
terms—polypite—gonoblastidium—blastocheme—sporosac. 

It will be seen that, in the cases enumerated above, we have examples 
of three different types of alternation—the binary, the ternary, and the qua- 
ternary, this last presenting the highest order of complication which we know 
of among the Hyprorpa. 

The three types may be conveniently formulated as follows :— 


hes EO eR Se a ee ere eee 


More.. b bet, a Oe * 5. TS eee eee 


Quaternary. Ternary. Binary 
eS 


an aeG eda! GF cd Seer ener ser COL» 


Here every successive period is represented in the first series by two 
terms, in the second by three, and in the third by four; the “ period” in 
each case repeating itself indefinitely like a circulating decimal, so as to 
represent in this repetition the indefinitely extended life of the species, while 
the life of the individual is expressed by each “ period” singly. 

It will be noted that the ‘“‘ terms” which, in the above formule, combine 
to form a period may each consist of many zooids. Itis, in fact, very rare to 
find any term consisting of but one zooid. As an example of this latter 
condition, Corymorpha nutans may be adduced. In this hydroid, whose 
life-series belongs to the binary type, the polypite term,ada'a',... &¢., 
consists of a single zooid, while the gonophore term, 6 b' b”, . . . &e., may 
consist of a vast number of zooids,—the single polypite giving origin to 
“numerous gonophores in the form of free medusa-buds. In almost every 
other case, however, the simple polypite becomes, by gemmation, a com- 
" posite trophosome. 

Direct Development of the Medusa from the Egg. Metamorphosis.—A 
question, however, of great importance still remains for discussion; for we 
have yet to determine whether the phenomenon of the so-called alternation 
.of generations is a universal fact among the Hyprorpa, presented by every 

Species in the course of its development. 

In by far the majority of cases in which the development has been suc- 
cessfully traced, the life-series of the individual has presented a polypoid 

1863, 25 


418 REPORT— 1863. 


non-sexual term intermediate between the ovum and the sexual medusal 
term. 

Against the absolute universality of this law, however, certain observa- 
tions have been adduced as tending to show that, in some cases, a direct 
development from the egg to the medusa takes place without the interven- 
tion of a non-sexual trophosome. Nevertheless a careful examination of 
those cases will render it evident that, with one sole exception, they afford 
no proof of the direct development of the medusa from the egg. As, how- 
ever, the observations referred to present examples of a true metamorphosis, 
and are in other respects by no means without interest in the present 
inquiry, I shall here give an analysis of them, with the view of rendering 
apparent their real bearing and significance. 

IT shall first notice a set of observations which have been made upon 
certain medusz belonging to the family of the yinide—a group, however, 
with regard to whose exact systematic position there is some uncertainty, 
since in many of their characters they approach nearest to the true hydroid 
medusa, while in others they look towards the Discophora. 

Whatever view we may be disposed to take of their nearest affinities, the 
Ayinide possess so many points in common with the Hyprorpa, that the 
developmental phenomena observed among them can scarcely be overlooked 
in the present inquiry. 

The first important observation bearing directly on this question is due to 
Joh. Miiller*, who frequently captured, in the sea at Marseilles and Nice, a 
minute free-swimming hydroid. It was of an oval form, about half a line in 
its longer diameter, ciliated over its entire surface, with two tentacula-like 
processes near one end, and having at the opposite end an opening which led 
into a central cavity. 

Miiller considers this little animal to haye been developed directly from 
the egg, and from its resemblance to a peculiar two-tentacled medusa 
which he obtained in considerable abundance at Nice, he believes himself 
justified in regarding it as one of the stages in the development of this 
medusa, into which he supposes it to pass by direct metamorphosis. He 
refers it to the genus Ayinopsis, Brandt, and names it A%ginopsis Mediterranea, 
Miill. Miiller does not seem to have obtained any specimens of his 4. Medi- 
terranea so far advanced as to present traces of the generative elements ; but 
his observations have been in this respect supplemented by Kollkert, 
who afterwards obtained the same species at Messina in a sexually mature 
state. 

Now we cannot overlook the fact that Miiller has not, in the above case, 
traced his ciliated hydroid through a continuous series of developmental phases 
into the adult form of Ayinopsis ; and, without denying the probability that 
the ciliated bitentacular hydroid is really the larva of the AZgiopsis, we 
cannot regard this relation as absolutely proved, while there is no evidence 
whatever that the ciliated form is the immediate result of the development 
of an ovum. Indeed, its remarkable ‘resemblance to the singular generative 
zooid of Dicoryne (see above, p. 365) would seem to show the probability of 
another origin than that by direct development from the egg. Muller, led 
apparently by the analogy of the planula-stage of the Hydroida, considers 
the ciliated condition of the surface as affording evidence of such a direct 
development; but the fact that the Dicoryne-zooid is also richly ciliated 
over its ‘whole surface shows that this argument goes for nothing. 


* Miiller’s Archiv, 1851, p. 272. 
+ Zeit. f. wissen. Zool. vol. iv. p. 327. 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 419 


A curious observation of importance in the present inquiry was made by 
Kolliker*, who found at Messina, in the stomach-cavity of a 10-tentacled 
medusa, evidently belonging to the family of the Mginide, and which he 
describes under the name of Zurystoma rubiginosum, Koll., a number of small 
organisms, resembling medusie in various stages of development, and which 
he believed he could follow from stage to stage until he found them assume 
the form of a 16-tentacled medusa. To this last, which, as is evident from 
his description, also belongs to the family of the diginide, he gives the name 
of Stenogasier complanatus, Koll. 

The great difference between these two meduse appears to Kolliker suffi- 
cient proof that the one could not have been produced by the other, and he 
regards the young Stenogasters as included accidentally in the stomach of the 


- Eurystoma. He views, however, the young brood of Stenogaster, exhibiting 


as it does various steps in a metamorphosis, as affording evidence of the 
direct development of Stenoyaster from the egg. It is, nevertheless, plain 
that there are no more valid grounds for such a conclusion in this instance 
than in Miiller’s case of Aginopsis. 

Some very valuable observations bearing upon this subject have been 
made by M‘Crady +t on another member of the diginide. He observed lying 
free in the umbrella-cavity of one of the Oceanide, to which he gives the 
name of Turritopsis nutricula, M°C., multitudes of little animals, presenting 
various forms, from that of a minute club-shaped hydroid to that of a well- 
developed medusa belonging to the type of the AZyinide, and all undoubtedly 
connected with one another as stages of a simple developmental process. 

Though he at first believed these to be the proper offspring of the Turri- 
topsis in which they occurred, he afterwards rejected this notion, and recog- 
nized in them the young of a species of Ounma (Cunina octonaria, M°C.), 
which had selected the umbrella-cavity of the Oceanidan in order to spend 
there as parasites the early stages of their existence. 

M°Crady views this case as presenting an instance of direct development 
from the ovum, believing that the Cunina originally gained access to the 
umbrella of the Turritopsis in the condition of a free-swimming planula. 
The untentaculated, club-shaped larva (the earliest stage observed) was fol- 
lowed by a bitentaculate hydroid form with long imperforate proboscis and 
distinct internal digestive cavity; and he noticed the interesting fact that 
this bitentacular stage freely repeats itself by budding. Next, two other 
tentacles make their appearance symmetrically between those first formed, 


_ while the extremity of the proboscis seems now to be perforated by a mouth. 
_ The umbrella next begins to make its appearance by an annular extension of 
the circumference of the body just below or at the oral side of the roots of 
the tentacles; and four new tentacles begin to sprout between those already 
formed, while lithocysts become developed on the margin of the incipient 
umbrella. After this the larva assumes the form of an adult Cunina in all 
essential points, except in the possession of a long proboscis, like that of a 
Geryonia, in which stage it leaves the umbrella-cavity of the Turritopsis to 


spend a free life in the surrounding water. It is only after it has quitted 


the medusa on which it had been hitherto living as a parasite that it loses 
‘its proboscis, and that the digestive cavity thereby assumes the form charac- 


teristic of the family of the Zginide. 
M°Crady’s observations are made with great care, and the various steps in 
the transformation have been fully and satisfactorily traced; but still there 
* Zeit. f wissen. Zool. 1843, p. 327. 


+ Proc. Elliott Soc. Nat. Hist. Charleston, 1856, p. 55. 
222 


420 REPORT— 18653. 


is the same absence of evidence as to the origin of the earliest observed 
stage. 

Now, so far from the three cases just detailed affording evidence of direct 
development from the egg, I believe that the evidence is altogether on the 
other side, and that we are more justified in regarding the earliest stage ob- 
served in each case as the immediate result of an act of gemmation, if not 
from a polypoid trophosome, at least from a previously existing medusa. 
The following three sets of observations made in this same family of the 
Aiginide afford a clue to the true interpretation of the above-mentioned 
cases. 

Gegenbaur* observed buds produced from the inner surface of the stomach- 
walls of a medusa, which he named at the time Cunina prolifera, though he 
afterwards referred it to the genus dgineta, Gegenb.t He traced the deve- — 
lopment of these buds into a form closely resembling that of the parent 
medusa; they then become free in the surrounding water; and he does not 
seem to have followed them in their further progress. 

Kefferstein and Ehlerst also observed buds proceed from the stomach- 
walls of a species of Ayineta (Ai. gemmifera, Keff. & Ehl.). They traced 
them through their development up to a point when they found them to 
acquire nearly the form of the parent medusa. 

These two cases aré thus instances of gemmation followed by metamor- 
phosis, and render it probable that the developmental series observed by 
Johannes Miiller, by Kélliker, and by M°Crady had their origin in a bud 
rather than in an ovum. 

We have, however, a third case of especial interest in this inquiry, and 
one which seems to throw considerable light on the curious observation of 
Kolliker above mentioned, in which a brood of 16-tentacled meduse was 
found in the stomach of a 10-tentacled form. The case to which I allude is 
recorded by Fritz Miiller§, who describes the formation of ciliated buds from 
the internal surface of the stomach in an 8-tentacled Cunina, which he names 
CO. Kollikeri, Fr. Mill. He traced these buds through various stages until he 
saw them detach themselves, and swim free in the cavity of the stomach. 
Here they underwent further development, which he continued to observe 
until he saw them transformed into true Cunine, differing, however, from 
the parent by the fact of their having twelve tentacles and twelve stomach- 
pouches instead of eight, the number characterizing the medusa which gave 
origin to them. Beyond this point Miiller lost sight of them, and we are 
accordingly ignorant of their further changes and ultimate destination. 

This case renders it highly probable that the 16-tentacled Stenogasters 
observed by Kélliker in the stomach of a 10-tentacled Eurystoma originated 
in an act of gemmation from the Zurystoma. M°Crady’s case, however, where 
young Cwnine were found in the umbrella-cavity of an Oceanidan, would 
seem to be one of true parasitism, the contained forms being here evidently 
in no way genetically related to the containing one. 

The whole of the observations now detailed, beginning with that of Joh. 
Miiller on dsyinopsis, afford a valuable contribution to our knowledge of the 
life-history of the very aberrant group of medusze which constitute the family 
of the Aiyinide. Some of them afford direct proof that in certain cases the 
meduse of this family give origin to buds which detach themselves from the 
parent at a very early period of their existence and in a very imperfect con- 
dition, and then pass through a series of metamorphoses before arriving at 


* Generationswechsel, p. 56. + Zeit. f. wissen. Zool. 1857, p. 262. 
+ Zoclogische Beitraige in Neapel u. Messina, 1861. § Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1861. 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 421 


their adult state, while the phenomena presented by the other instances— 
those in which gemmation has not been directly observed—render it highly 
probable that the young forms seen in such instances are due also to an act 
of budding, followed, as in those cases where budding has been proved, by 
metamorphic changes; but whether in any of these cases the bud is destined 
to repeat exactly the parent form, or is only one term in a more extended 
life-series, we have not yet evidence to enable us to determine; while in no 
instance is there any proof whatever of the direct development of the medusa 
from the egg without the intervention of a non-sexual trophosome. 

In two families of undoubted hydroid meduse some observations have 
also been made, showing that the medusa passes during the free period of its 
existence through a series of well-marked metamorphoses before arriving at 
the adult state, resembling in this respect the Ayinide whose metamorphoses 
have just been described. 

Two such cases have been recorded. The first is one mentioned by 
Gegenbaur*, and adduced by him as a case of direct development from the 
egg. He describes a minute animal which he discovered swimming free in 
the sea. It was in shape somewhat like an inverted flask, measuring about 
0-05 of a line in diameter, having the base of the neck surrounded by a circle of 
three or four short tentacles, with four minute lithecysts between them. The 
entire animal, even to the tips of the tentacles, was thickly clothed with fine 
cilia. 

He traced it through various successive stages, in which he observed, first, 
an increase in the length and number of the tentacles; then the formation of 
an internal cavity, and a widening of the body into a more disc-like form, 
accompanied by an elongation of the neck; then the circumference of the 
disc-like body became extended laterally, and gradually assumed an umbrella 
shape, while the base of the internal cavity at the same time extended itself 
into eight radiating tubes, which, at the circumference of the disc, became 
united by acircularcanal. It had thus assumed a complete medusa-form 7 of 
a line in diameter; and we now find it with numerous rigid tentacula, eight 
radiating canals, lithocysts, and a two-lobed mouth ; while the cilia have at the 
same time disappeared from the general surface of the body, remaining only on 
that of the tentacles, which appear to retain them through life. Gegenbaur 
refers his medusa to a new genus and species under the name of T’rachynema 
ciliata, which he regards as the type of a distinct family not far removed 
from the Eucopide ; but though he had met with specimens measuring 1 line 
in the diameter of the umbrella, he never witnessed in them the occurrence 
of sexual elements. 

Here again, though an undoubted metamorphosis from a free-swimming 
ciliated form is apparent, there is no evidence whatever to show that the 
earliest observed stage had proceeded directly from the egg—a conclusion to 
which Gegenbaur seems to have been chiefly led by the ciliated condition of 
this stage. We have, however, already seen that a ciliated surface affords no 
proof of direct development from the egg. 

The other case is one recorded by Fritz Miillert, who gives us an account 
of the metamorphosis of Lyriope Catharinensis, Fr. Miill., a medusa belonging 
to the family of the Geryonide. He obtained in the sea at Santa Catharina 
spherical transparent bodies from 0-2 to 0-3 mm. in diameter. In the interior 
of these was aspherical cavity, situated so excentrically that at one side it was 
separated from the external water only by a thin plate. He next observed 


_* Generationswechsel, p. 51. 
+ Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1859, p. 310. 


422 REPORT—1863. 


this plate to become perforated in the centre, while its contractions rendered 
it easily recognizable as a velum. Next, four tentacles began to sprout out 
from the circumference of the velum, and then four others between them, 
while a gastrovascular system, consisting of radiating and circular canals, had 
become visible, and the shallow manubrium might be seen in the bottom of 
the cavity. The first four tentacles were only temporary, being destined to 
disappear during the growth of the young medusa, while the second set 
remained as short rigid filaments. In the next place four other tentacles, 
long and eminently contractile, made their appearance, as permanent organs, 
near the bases of the temporary ones, while lithocysts had become developed 
near the bases of both the rigid and the contractile permanent tentacles, 
Finally, the manubrium elongated itself in the cavity of the umbrella, where 
it was itself borne on the extremity of a peduncle-like process from the roof ; 
and the form of the adult Lyriope Catharinensis—the most abundant medusa 
of the surrounding seas—was thus ultimately attained. 

Here, again, as indeed Miiller himself admits, there is no evidence in 
favour of this being a case of direct development from the egg, the earliest 
stage observed having been found free in the sea, and certainly with none of 
the characteristics of an ovum; so that it is at least as likely that it should 
have been a free bud as a developing ovum. 

Thus far then not a single recorded observation affords evidence that the 
gymnophthalmic meduse ever originate directly by the development of an 
ovum. We have, however, one observation, and only one, in which the 
development of one of these medusze has been traced backwards uninter- 
ruptedly to the egg and the parent medusa, without the intervention of any 
intermediate polypoid form. 

For this important observation we are indebted to Claparéde*, who obtained 
on the west coast of Scotland a species of Lizzia whose manubrium was 
loaded with eggs, some in an early stage, with the germinal vesicle and. 
germinal spot still visible, while others contained an embryo in various stages 
of development. Similar ova, with the contained embryo, he also found 
floating free in the sea. 

The embryo, while still confined within the vitellary membrane, presented 
all the features of a young medusa: from the centre of the bell-shaped um- 
brella there depended a thick-walled manubrium, whose cavity extended itself 
into four radiating gastrovascular canals, which ran in the substance of 
the umbrella, and opened at the margin into a circular canal, while round the 
margin were to be seen the rudiments of eight tentacula. Claparéde’s ob- 
servations on the development of the embryo did not extend beyond this 
point; it is clear, however, that but slight changes were now needed to 
convert it into the form of the parent Lizzia. 


VI. Hereromerism oF THE INDIVIDUAL. 


From the facts now mentioned, it will be at once apparent that the Hy- 
droida present to a most remarkable extent a phenomenon which may be 
described as the heteromerism of the individual. The term individual, in its 
proper zoological conception, must be understood in the sense so happily 
insisted on by Huxley, when he defined it as “ the total result of the deve- 
lopment of a single ovum” +. It is the true logical element of which the 


* Zeit. f. wissen. Zool. 1860, p. 401. 

+ Huxley, “Report on the Researches of Professor Miller into the Anatomy and Deve- 
lopment of the Echinoderms,” Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. July 1851; and “ On Animal 
Individuality,” 7d. June 1852, 


a ee 


le a i 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 423 


species is composed, and a proper conception of its heteromerism is of vital 
importance in any attempt at the determination of affinities and a philoso- 
phical arrangement of species. 

- With scarcely an exception then, so far as we yet know, every hydroid 
consists at one period of its life of an assembly of zooids, and the true zoolo- 
gical individual is in reality the sum of all these zooids, whether they remain 
permanently associated or detach themselves from one another in order to 
become henceforth independent organisms. 

This remarkable phenomenon may be termed the Polymerism of the Indi- 
vidual. But the peculiar characters of the hydroid individual do not stop 
with mere polymerism ; the zooids composing it may, and, so far as our know- 
ledge extends, always do present a greater or less amount of dissimilarity 
among each other, so that the individual is not merely polymere, it is also 
heteromeric ;. and this distinction is of importance to be kept in mind ; if we 
would form an adequate conception of the true hydroid individual *. 

The extent to which heteromerism may be carried varies in different 
species. We may have the total result of the development of a single 
ovum composed of two different forms, or of three, or of four; in other 
words, the zooid elements whose sum constitutes the zoological individual 
may be dimorphic, trimorphic, or tetramorphic, Clava, Coryne, Tubularia,. 
&ec., present examples of dimorphism, the two forms here produced being 
the polypite and the gonophore. Dicoryne and most of the angiogonial 
hydroids afford examples of trimorphism—the gonoblastidium-form being 
in these cases added to those of the polypite and gonophore ; while in Lao- 
medea dichotoma, Campanularia Johnstoni, &c., we have instances of tetra- 
morphism,—for in these hydroids the medusa which buds from the blasto- 
style properly remains sexless, giving rise by gemmation to the true sexual 
gonophore, which is in the form of a sporosac borne as a bud upon its 
radiating canals (see above, p. 401). Hydractinia echinata also affords among 


the gymnogonial hydroids a very interesting example of tetramorphism. In 


this hydroid the colony is composed of four different forms of zooids. 1. The 
ordinary nutritive polypites. 2. The gonoblastidia destined for the support of 
the gonophores: these may be morphologically regarded as polypites arrested 
in their development, the tentaclés having become reduced to the condition 
of mere tubercles loaded with thread-cells, and the mouth remaining proba- 
bly in most cases undeveloped, though it would seem to be occasionally pre- 
sent; they may be easily compared to the blastostyle of the angiogonial 
genera. 3. The gonophores or imperfectly developed and disguised me- 
duse. 4. A set of peculiarly modified polypites, which, like the ordinary 
polypites, properly belong to the trophosome ; the tentacles have become 
aborted in them, being represented only by small hemispherical groups of 


* The expression “heteromerism of the individual” is intended to conyey nearly the 
same idea as Leuckart’s “‘ polymorphism of the individual” (see Leuckart, Ueber den 
Polymorphismus der Individuen, Giessen, 1851). The term “ individual,” however, is 
used by Leuckart for the separate zooids, which are, properly speaking, only the elements 
of which the zoological individual is composed; so that, with our present conception of an 
individual as the logical element of the species, the expression “ polymorphism of the indi- 
vidual” would have a different meaning from that which Leuckart has assigned to it. I 
have therefore, instead of ‘‘ polymorphism of the individual,” used the phrase “ hetero- 
merism (€repos, pépos) of the individual,” which easily conveys the intended meaning ; 
while we may use that of ‘‘ polymorphism of the zooids”’ to express the fact that the zooids 
are not all of the same form. ‘The phrases “ heteromerism of the individual ” and “ poly- 
merism of the individual” may, it is true, be objected to on the grounds that they are self- 
contradictory ; but this is the result of the new ideas which have become involved in our 
conception of the biological individual, which is no longer necessarily ‘‘ individwus,” 


424, REPORT—1863. 


thread-cells, while the body has become much elongated and attenuated, 
and admits of being spontaneously thrown into conyolutions twisted spirally 
in a plane at right angles to the common basis of the colony. This form 
occurs only at the extreme edge of the colony, close to the orifice of the uni- 
valve shell on which the hydroid has fixed itself. 

Of the above four forms of zooids, it may however be doubted whether the 
long attenuated spiral polypites be not merely, notwithstanding their con- 
stancy, an abnormal departure from the normally developed polypite, due to 
the unfavourable conditions of constant attrition and other disturbances to 
which the colony is exposed at the extreme margin of the shell. I have in- 
deed, at a little distance within the margin, met with forms intermediate be- 
tween these and the ordinary polypites, being spirally twisted like the former, 
but having developed tentacles like the latter. Agassiz regards the spiral 
form as a modified reproductive polypite or gonoblastidium, but I cannot 
find that he has ever seen it bearing gonophores, while the intermediate form 
just mentioned seems to decide in favour of its belonging to the nutritive 
rather than to the reproductive zooids of the colony. According to Agassiz, 
the spiral polypites are occasionally branched in his H. polyclina*. 

Another remarkable example of tetramorphism is afforded by Plunularia 
and the allied genera, in all of which, besides polypite, gonoblastidium, and 
gonophore, we find entering into the composition of the colony the curious 
zooids to which the name of “nematophore” has been given, and which are 
described above. Here, indeed, heteromerism, as distinguished from mere 
polymerism,would seem to attain its maximum, the nematophores being formed 
upon a type which we have been hitherto in the habit of regarding as exclu- 
sively belonging to the Rutzoponpa. 

It will be at once perceived that the phenomena of heteromerism just de- 
scribed must be distinguished from the regular genetic succession of polymor- 
phic terms involved in the conception of “ alternation of generations; ” for 
any one of the “terms” which combine to form a “ period” (individual) in 
the life of the species (see above, p. 417) may be itself composed of hetero- 
morphic zooids, without thereby altering the particular type of alternation, 
whether binary, ternary, or quaternary. Thus, while in Hydractinia the 
type of alternation is ternary, the type of heteromerism is quaternary. 


I have already (see above, p. 359) referred to the impossibility of forming 
natural groups in any arrangement of the animals which form the subject of 
the present Report, without embracing the entire “ hydrosoma;” and I have 
endeavoured to show that neither trophosome nor gonosome can of itself, as 
long as we are ignorant of the other, afford characters sufficient for the defi- 
nition of any classificatory group. 

As long as we admit the axiom that the species is composed of individuals, 
itis manifest that, unless the individual be known to us, we have not data for 
the definition of the species. Now for the conception of individual in its 
biological sense (the only one which in this question we have anything to do 
with) absolute organic continuity is not necessary, for the individual may be 
itself, as we now know, composed of zooids which are equally parts of it, whe- 
ther they all remain in continuity with one another or become separate and 


* Wright, who was the first to call attention to the spiral polypites of Hydractinia, also 
describes (Edin. Phil. Journ.) what he views as a distinct form of zooid, in the shape of 
long tapering filaments, occupying, like the spiral polypites, the extreme margin of the 
shell. ‘These filaments, however, are certainly not constant, nor are they even usually 
present ; and I do not hesitate to regard them as an abnormal state of the ordinary poly- 
pite, due to the unfavourable conditions to which it has become exposed. 


. 


ON THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN THE HYDROIDA. 425 


independent organisms. Further, we know that in the hydroid individual we 
may not only have independence of zooids, but polymorphism of zooids; so 
that a knowledge of any one zooid-form may give us a totally inadequate con- 
ception of the true individual form. It is on this account that, before we can 
expect to construct classificatory groups upon a solid basis, we must deter- 
mine the whole life-formula of the individual. 

Now it must be admitted that the practical application of this principle is 
by no means free from difficulty, and that in those cases where the medusa 
detaches itself from the rest of the hydrosoma in order to lead an independent 
existence, the synthesis of the individual by the reassociation of its consti- 
tuent zooids is often far from being an easy task. 

One of the chief sources of this difficulty is found in the fact that the me- 
dusa at the time of its liberation has not yet attained its adult condition, and 
may still undergo great changes of form before arriving at maturity, while we 
necessarily lose sight of it in the interval, and can therefore, in most cases, 
only by inference identify the free-swimming adult medusa with the young 
form which we know to have originated in some definite trophosome. 

But, besides this, numerous adult medusz are known of whose trophosome 
we have not as yet any indication, though there can be scarcely a doubt that, 
like the others, the great majority of these have also their polypoid tropho- 
some. It is plain that any attempt to arrange these medusz into species and 
genera must be purely provisional—so much so indeed that we may have two 
medusz between which it would be impossible to find specific differences, and 
yet their trophosomes may be widely different from one another, while, on the 
other hand, two very different medusee may haye trophosomes specifically in- 
distinguishable. 

In opposition however to this view, it has been asserted that similar tro- 
phosomes are always associated with similar meduse. Thus Agassiz, finding 
the same form of medusze—that, namely, which has been described under the 
generic appellation of Sarsia—originating from polypoid trophosomes which 
present no differences of generic value, and are accordingly included in our 
systems under a single generic name, that of Coryne, and finding, more- 
over, that this is the case in species gathered both upon the east and west 
shores of the Atlantic and upon the North American shores of the Pacific, 
concludes “ that medusz which are generically identical arise from hydroids 
bearing identical generic relations”’*. 

A little consideration, however, will show that this view is untenable; for 
a comprehensive survey of the Hyproma has distinctly proved that the amount 
of divergence between two different trophosomes is by no means a certain 
measure of the divergence between their gonosomes. 

If we were to imagine for a moment that a phanerocodonic and an adelo- 
codonic gonophore were independent organisms, instead of being mere zooids 
associated with others in a complex hydrosoma, we should not hesitate to 
regard the differences between them as of at least generic value, and yet we 
may have the trophosomes from which these two forms of gonophore respect- 
ively spring presenting no differences which would justify us in regarding 
them as more widely separated from one another than two species of a com- 
mon genus. We need only compare the Laomedea flexuosa, for example, 
and its simple fixed sac-like gonophores, with the Laomedea geniculata and its 
free disc-shaped meduse, in order to be convinced how widely the gonosomes 
may differ, and yet the trophosomes present no difference of importance. 


* Agassiz, Nat. Hist. of the United States, vol. iy. p. 217. 


426 REPORT—1863. 


But, to convince ourselves of this difference, it is not necessary to include 
in our comparison the fixed sac-like gonophores at all; for if we confine our- 
selves to those cases in which the comparison lies between free medusse on 
the one hand and the trophosomes from which they spring on the other, we 
shall still find that the doctrine which would always refer similar medusee to 
similar trophosomes, and similar trophosomes to similar medusz, though in a 
large proportion of cases it holds good, cannot be absolutely maintained. 

On this point we have an important observation made by Hincks, who 
found the medusxe produced by the Stawridia prodwta, Wright, indistin- 
guishable from those of Coryne ewimia, Allm., and yet the two trophosomes 
have justly been regarded as presenting generic differences. 

Again, we are not without cases of the converse of this phenomenon, that 
is, cases of trophosomes closely resembling one another, and yet producing 
widely different medusze. Compare in this respect the Coryne eximia, Allm., 
and the Coryne impleva, Alder. No one would venture, from a com- 
parison of the trophosomes alone, to place these hydroids in different genera ; 
and yet their medusz are separated from one another by characters which, 
if we were treating organisms originally independent, would be regarded as 
at least generic ; for while the medusa of Coryne eximia would, in accord- 
ance with the received classification, be an Oceania*, that of C. implexa 
would be a Zanclea, Gegenb. 

Far more rare than the cases in which known meduse have not yet been 
referred to known trophosomes are those in which the gonosomes of known 
trophosomes have not yet been discovered; and even these will rapidly dis- 
appear under the laborious scrutiny to which the whole of this department of 
zoology is now being subjected. Until this happens, however, our charac- 
terization of species cannot be otherwise than incomplete; for no such 
group can be valid which is founded only on one part of every individual 
composing it, the other part remaining unknown. 


An Account of Meteorological and Physical Observations in Five 
Balloon Ascents in the year 1863 (in continuation of eight made in 
the preceding year), under the auspices of the Committee of the 
British Association for the Advancement of Science, by Jamus 
GuatsHEeR, /.RS., at the request of the Committee, consisting of 
Colonel Sykes, the Astronomer Royal, Lord Wrottesley, Sir D. 
Brewster, Sir J. Herschel, Dr. Lloyd, Admiral FitzRoy, Dr. Lee, 
Dr. Robinson, Mr. Gassiot, Mr. Glaisher, Prof. Tyndall, Dr. Fair- 
bairn, and Dr. W. A. Miller. 


Tur principal efforts of the Committee in this series were the extension of the 
experiments began last year to the spring months, and particularly during the 
prevalence of easterly winds. 


§ 1. Ossecrs or run Experiments: Instruments AND APPARATUS: 
Were the same as those detailed in the preceding Report; in addition, how- 
ever, Sir John Herschel’s actinometer was used when possible for the purpose 
of determining the actinic effects of the sun at different elevations; and on 
two or three occasions the solar spectrum was examined by means of a spec-- 
troscope, lent for the purpose by the Astronomer Royal, being the same in- 


* In the sense in which this genus has been limited by Forbes. 


. 


2 Aa eR EOE 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 427 


strument used by Professor Smyth on the Peak of Teneriffe, but somewhat 
altered by Mr. Simms to adapt it to the limited space in the balloon, 


§ 2. Opservine ARRANGEMENTS 


Were in principle the same as those of the preceding year, the only alterations 
made being those necessitated by the use of new instruments. 


Circumstances of the Ascents, and General Observations. 


The ascents were all made by Mr. Coxwell’s large balloon, as in the preceding 
year,—four from the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, and one from Wolverton. 

Ascent from the Crystal Palace, March 31.—The day was favourable, the 
wind was from the East, in gentle motion, the sky was blue and almost 
cloudless. We left the earth at 4" 16™ p.m., and passed upwards with a very 
nearly even motion to the height of 19,000 feet; continued about this level 
for some little time, and then gradually ascended to a height of 24,000 feet, 
which we attained at 5" 28", or in 1" 12™ after starting. On opening the valve, 
though it seemed to be but momentary, we descended 11 mile in 4 minutes ; 
this rapid descent was checked by parting with sand, and for half an hour we 
kept very nearly upon a level, between 15,000 and 16,000 feet high; after 
this we gradually and almost continually declined, and reached the earth at 
6" 26™, the descent having been accomplished in 58 minutes. 

The temperature of the air was 50° on the ground, and the air was more © 
nearly in a normal state than I had ever before seen it ; almost every successive 
reading of the thermometer was less than the preceding in ascending, and 
greater on descending; the departures from these necessary conditions in a 
normal state were very small on this occasion. The temperature was just 
zero at its highest point, and 42° on the ground. There had, therefore, on 
the earth been a decline of 8° during the 2" 10™ we were away; and if the 
numbers on the same level be compared, it will be seen that all those when 
descending are lower than those ascending, indicating that the whole mass of 
air was declining in temperature as that in immediate contact with the earth, 
though possibly to a less degree. 

Almost free as this day was from disturbing causes, yet there existed both 
warm and cold currents of air. 

The temperature of each layer of air was different according to its direction 
of motion, and there were several different currents met with. Within 2 
miles of the earth the wind was East, between 2 and 3 miles high it was di- 
rectly opposite, viz., West ; about 3 miles it was N.E., higher still it changed 
to the opposite, viz., 8.W., and about 4 miles, including the highest point, it 
was W. 

On descending, at 6" 15™ we fell into a S.E. current, and moved towards 
London. 

When nearly 4 miles high we traced the smoke from a furnace chimney, 
moving towards the West; after a time it turned more towards the East, then 
changed its direction two or three times, and finally followed us on our level. 

At the greatest height the sky was of the deepest Prussian blue, the streets 
of London could be picked out as lines, and the squares could easily be seen, 
having all the appearance of an engineer’s plan. 

The river wound like a serpent ; passing the eye down it, ships looked like 
little boats to beyond the Medway, where they were lost ; the white cliffs of 
Margate were plainly seen; the sea beyond Deal and Dover was visible, but 
not the French coast. The coast-line was seen passing down the northern 
side of the Thames to Harwich and up to Yarmouth, with the sea beyond. 


428 REPORT—1863. 


Mr. Coxwell said he could see Ipswich. Looking South, Brighton was visible, 
the sea beyond, and all up to Dover; the North was obscured by clouds and 
mist. The West was not as clear as the East, but the sun shone on the 
Thames at Windsor, giving it the appearance of burnished gold. 

At Putney the rippling of the water at its edges was like molten silver, 
and all the country within these limits was map-like, every field being distinct 
in the suburbs of London, gradually diminishing in size as the distance from 
London increased. Greenwich Park was visible, the Observatory apparently 
a grey speck. We touched the ground at 6" 30™ in a field belonging to Mr. 
G. Brown, Gaysthorn Hall, Barking Side, Essex. 

Ascent from the Crystal Palace, April 18.—The balloon was partially filled 
during the evening of April 17, with the view of starting early the following 
morning. The atmosphere was at this time thick and misty; the wind on 
the earth was N.E., but pilot balloons, on attaining a moderate elevation, 
fell into a north current ; the wind was moying at an estimated velocity of 
40 miles an hour, and the ascent was delayed hour after hour in hopes that 
the upper current would change to N.E. 

At 1" p.m., when the sky was nearly covered with clouds and there were oc- 
sional gleams of sunshine, the ascent was decided upon, although it was 
evident it could not be one of long duration, unless the wind should change 
its direction, or we crossed the Channel; Mr. Coxwell did not, however, think 
it prudent to attempt the latter without other and special arrangements : whilst 
discussing this, the rope, our only connecting-link with the earth, broke, and 
at 1" 17™ we started very unceremoniously, the balloon taking a lurch: Mr. 
Coxwell was partly jerked over the side of the car, and I was thrown among 
my instruments, and unfortunately both Daniell’s and Regnault’s hygrometers 
were broken. Within 3 minutes we were more than 3000 feet high ; at 4000 
feet cumulus clouds were on our level, and a thick mist rested everywhere on 
the earth. At 1" 26™ we were 7000 fect high, in a thick mist which almost 
amounted to a fog ; the temperature of the air continued at 32° nearly, whilst 
that of the dew-point increased several degrees ; on passing out of the cloud 
these two temperatures very suddenly separated, the latter decreasing rapidly ; 
the sky was of a deep blue, without a cloud on its surface. 

At 1" 30™ we were 10,000 feet high ; directly under us was a sea of clouds ; 
the towers of the Crystal Palace were visible, and by them we found we were 
moving South. The temperature before starting was 61°; it decreased to 
32° on reaching the cloud, and continued at this reading whilst in it, then sud- 
denly fell to 231° on leaving the cloud, and was either less or the same at 
every successive reading till we reached the height of 20,000 feet, when the 
lowest temperature was noticed. 

On passing above 4 miles the temperature increased to 141°, and then 
declined to 121° at the highest point, viz. 24,000 feet, in 1 hour and 13 mi- 
nutes after starting. When we were just 4 miles high, on descending, Mr. 
Coxwell began to reflect that possibly we might have been moving more 
quickly than we expected, and that it was necessary to descend till we could 
see the earth ; he opened the valve rather freely at 2" 34™, and we descended 
a mile in 3 minutes ; we descended quickly but less rapidly through the next 
mile, and reached the clouds at 12,000 feet from the earth at 2" 42™; on 
breaking through them at 2® 44™, still 10,000 feet from the earth, I was 
busy with my instruments, when I heard Mr. Coxwell exclaim, ‘* What’s 
that ?” he had caught sight of Beachey Head. I looked over the car and the sea 
seemed to be under us. Mr. Coxwell again exclaimed, “ There is not a moment 
to spare, we must save the land at all risks; leave the instruments.” Mr. 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTs IN 1863. 429 


Coxwell almost hung to the valve-line, telling me to do the same, and not to 
mind cutting my hand. It was a bold decision, and was boldly carried out. 

When a mile high the earth seemed to be quickly coming up to us, and 
we struck the ground at 2" 48™ at Newhaven, very near the sea; but the 
balloon, by the very free use of the valve-line, was so crippled, that it did 
not move afterwards. Nearly all the instruments were broken, and, to my 
great regret, three very delicate and beautiful thermometers, specially sent 
to me for these observations by M. A. D’Abbadie, were broken. 

Ascent from the North-Western Railway Works at Wolverton, June 26.— 
Tn this ascent the Directors of the North-Western Railway provided the gas, 
and gave every facility to Members of the Committee of the British Associa- 
tion and their friends to be present. 

The gasometers at Wolverton are too small to hold gas enough to fill the 
balloon, it was therefore partially inflated the night before, and remained out 
all night without being influenced by the slightest wind ; the morning of the 
ascent was also calm; the sky was of a deep blue, implying the presence 
of but little vapour; the atmosphere was bright and clear, and all cireum- 
stances were of the most promising kind. The time of ascent was fixed to take 
place some little time after the express train from London should arrive, or at 
a little after noon, and the completion of the filling was somewhat delayed, 
the extraordinary fineness of the morning promising its completion in a short 
time. Between 11 and 12 0’clock all these favourable circumstances changed ; 
the sky became covered with clouds, some of them of a stormy character, 
the wind rose and blew strongly, the balloon lurched a great deal: much 
difficulty was experienced in passing the gas into the balloon, and sufficient 
could not be passed in by 1 o’clock. The wind was momentarily increasing, 
and it became very desirable to be away. 

The greatest difficulty was experienced in fixing the instruments, which 
would have been broken but for Mr. Negretti, who had come from London to 
assist me, and who protected them even at the hazard of being hurt by the 
violent swaying of the balloon and the incessant striking of the car upon 
the ground, notwithstanding the united exertions of many men to hold it. 

At the time of leaving the spring catch was jammed so tight by the pressure 
of the wind that it would not act, and we were let free by the simultaneous 
yielding of the men, and had to part instantly with ballast to avoid striking 
adjacent buildings. 

Tt was 3" after 1" p.m. when we left the earth, with a strong W.S.W. wind. 
The temperature was 65°. In 4 minutes we were 4000 feet high, and entered 
a cloud with a temperature of 50°, experiencing a most painful feeling of 
cold, particularly Mr. Coxwell, who at the moment of leaving was over- 
heated from his great exertions, and owing to his anxiety about the change 
in the weather had left without any extra clothing. As on all previous oc- 
casions, we expected soon to break through the clouds into a flood of strong 
sunlight, with a beautiful blue sky, without a cloud above us, and with seas 
of rocky clouds below ; but, on the contrary, when we emerged all looked dark 
both above and below; we could see the earth, but it was dark and dull, and 
without colour; above us there were clouds. At 9000 feet high we were 
both struck with asighing, or rather moaning of the wind, such as precedes a 
storm ; it was the first time that either Mr. Coxwell or myself had ever heard 
such a sound in the air. We satisfied ourselves that it was in no way attri- 
butable to any movement of the cordage about the balloon, but that it was 
owing to conflicting currents of air beneath. At this time we saw the sun 
very faintly, and momentarily expected its brilliancy to increase ; but instead 
of this, although we were now 2 miles high, we entered a fog, losing entirely 


430 REPORT—1868. 


the sight of the sun; shortly afterwards fine rain fell upon us. We then 
entered a dry fog, passed out of it at 12,000 feet, saw the sun again faintly 
for a short time, and then entered a wetting fog. 

At 15,000 feet we were still in fog, but it was not so wetting ; at 16,000 
feet we entered a dry fog; at 17,000 feet saw faint gleams of the sun, and 
heard a train. We were now about 3 miles high; at this time we were not 
in cloud, but clouds were below us; others on our level at a distance, and 
yet more above us. We looked with astonishment at each other, and said 
as we were rising steadily, we surely must soon pass through them. At 
17,500 feet we were-again enveloped in fog, which became wetting at 18,500 
feet; we left this cloud below at 19,600 feet.. At 20,000 feet the sun was 
just visible. We were now approaching 4 miles high; dense clouds were 
still above us; for a space of 2000 to 3000 feet we met with no fog, but on 
passing above 4 miles our attention was first attracted to a dark mass of cloud, 
and then to another on our level ; both these clouds had fringed edges, they were 
both nimbi. Without the slightest doubt both these dark clouds were regular 
rain-clouds ; whilst looking at them we again lost sight of everything, being 
enveloped in fog whilst passing upwards through 1000 feet. At 22,000 feet 
we again emerged, and were above clouds on passing above 23,000 feet. At 
6 minutes to 2 o’clock we heard a railway-train; the temperature here was 
18°. I wished still to ascend to find the limits of this vapour, but Mr. Coxwell 
said we are “too short of sand, I cannot go higher; we must not even stop 
here.” I was therefore most reluctantly compelled to abandon the wish, and 
looked searchingly around. At this highest point, in close proximity to us, 
were rain-clouds ; below us dense fog. I was again reminded that we must 
not stop. With a hasty glance everywhere, above, below, around, I saw the 
sky nearly covered with dark clouds of a stratus character, with cirri still 
higher, and small spaces of blue sky between them; the- blue was not the 
blue of 4 or 5 miles high as I had always before seen it, but a faint blue, as 
seen from the earth when the air is charged with moisture. 

Hastily glancing over the whole scene, there were no extensive, fine or pic- 
turesque views, as in such situations I had always before seen. The visible 
area was limited; the atmosphere was murky, the clouds were confused, and 
the aspect everywhere dull. I cannot avoid expressing the surprise I have 
felt at the extraordinary power which a situation like this calls forth, when 
a few moments only can be devoted to note down all appearances and all 
circumstances, and if not so rapidly gleaned they are lost for ever. Under 
such circumstances, every appearance of the most trivial kind is noticed ; the 
eye seems to become keener, the brain more active, and every sense increased 
in power to meet the necessities of the case; and when we look back after 
the lapse of time, it is wonderful how distinctly at any moment scenes so 
witnessed can be recalled, and made to reappear mentally in all their details. 

We then began our downward journey, wondering whether we should meet 
the same phenomena; soon we were enveloped in fog, but passed below it 
when at 22,000 feet, and saw the sun faintly. At 20,000 feet we were in a 
wetting fog and passed beneath it at 19,500 feet, experiencing great chilli- 
ness; fog was then above and below. I now wished to ascend into the fog 
again, to check the accuracy of my readings as to its temperature, and the 
reality of the chill we had felt, so we reascended. The temperature rose 
to its previous reading, and fell again on descending. From the same level, 
for a thousand feet, we passed down through a thick atmosphere, but not in 
cloud or fog. Looking below, all was dark and disturbed ; looking upwards, 
not much better. At the height of 18,000 feet we were again in fog. 
At 3 miles high we were still in fog, and on passing just below 3 miles 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 431 


rain fell pattering on the balloon. This was 1 mile higher than we expe- 
rienced rain on the ascent, and it was much heavier. On passing below 14,000 
feet we entered a snow-storm, and for a space of nearly 5000 feet we passed 
through a beautiful scene. There were no flakes in the air, the snow was 
entirely composed of spicule of ice, of cross spicule at angles of 60° and 90°, 
and an innumerable number of snow-crystals, small in size but distinct, and 
of well-known forms, easily recognizable as they fell and remained on the coat. 
This unexpected circumstance of snow on asummer afternoon was all that was 
needed on this occasion to complete the experience of extreme heat of summer 
with the cold of winter within the range of a few hours, On passing below 
the snow, which we did when about 10,000 feet from the earth, we entered 
a murky atmosphere, which continued till we reached the ground; indeed so 
thick, misty, and murky was the lower atmosphere, that although we passed 
nearly over Ely Cathedral, and not far from it, we were unable to see it. When 
5000 feet high we were without sand, and became simply a falling body, 
checked by the dexterity of Mr. Coxwell in throwing the lower part of the 
balloon into the shape of a parachute. 

The place of descent was in a field on the borders of the counties of Cam- 
bridge and Norfolk, 20 miles from the mouth of the Wash and 8 miles from 
Ely. 

Ascent from the Crystal Palace, July 11.—This ascent was intended to 
have been one of extreme height, and the promise of success in this respect 
was held out until near the time of starting, as pilot balloons had passed 
nearly due east, and indicated that our course would have been towards 
Devonshire, but so doubtful is the course a balloon will take that no certainty 
can be felt till the balloon has actually left. However, on this occasion 
pilot balloons, though at first moving towards the west, soon met with a north 
wind and went south. Under these circumstances the attempt to ascend five 
miles was abandoned, and we resolved to ascertain, as far as possible, the thick- 
ness of the stratum influenced by the east wind, to profit by the knowledge 
and have as long a journey as we could. 

At the time of leaving, 4" 55™ p.m., the sky was nearly covered with cirrus 
and cirrostratus clouds, and the wind was blowing due east. In about 4 
minutes, and when at the height of about 2400 feet, the balloon suddenly 
changed from moving towards the west to moving due south. At 8 minutes 
past 5 we were over Croydon, at the height of 4600 feet, in mist, but could 
see the Green Man Hotel, Blackheath ; we then descended, passing down- 
wards through a thick atmosphere, till at 5" 32™ we were 2200 feet high 
ever Epsom Downs, and again within the influence of the east wind. We 
then turned to ascend, and at 5" 52™ were 3000 feet above Reigate ; here 
we could see Shooter’s Hill and the Crystal Palace, by the two towers of 
which we found we were again within the influence of a north wind. We 
then continued to ascend, with the view of ascertaining if we could pass above 
the north wind; at 6" 16™, when at 5400 feet, the wind shifted to N.N.W. 
and the atmosphere became very thick and misty, the sun’s place being just 
visible. At 6" 28" we were 6600 feet high, and the sun was wholly ob- 
secured ; we descended somewhat, but did not get below the mist. At 6" 40™ 
we were 6200 feet high and directly over Horsham. 

We then ascended to 6600 feet again to repeat the observations I had 
made, and found that the temperature in the half hour had declined 2° or 3°. 
At this time, 6" 56”, cirri and cirrostratus were very much higher than our- 
selves, and we saw the coast near Brighton. 

A consultation had been held whilst at this height with the view of crossing 
over to France, but our progress being so slow and the circumstances not 


432 REPORT—18638. 


promising success, wefcame down with the view of again falling into the 
east wind, supposing it still to be prevalent. We met the north wind again 
at about 5000 feet, and the east wind at exactly the same height, viz. 2400 
feet, at which we lost it on ascending. We descended to within 1000 feet 
of the earth and were near Worthing, at about 5 miles from the coast; we 
then ascended to 2700 feet, found ourselves moving towards the coast, and 
within the influence of a north wind; evidently, therefore, if we wished 
to continue our journey we must keep below 2400 feet, otherwise we 
should be blown out to sea. When again at the height of 2400 feet we 
turned to move parallel to the coast, being at this time over Arundel. Sheep 
in the fields were evidently very frightened, and they huddled together. We 
now descended to 800 feet, and thus journeyed at heights varying from 
800 to 1600 feet; villagers frequently shouting to us to come down, and 
now and then answering our questions as to the locality we were in. The 
cheering ery of children was frequently heard above other sounds. Geese, 
cackling and frightened, scuttled off to their farms. Pheasants crowed as 
they were going to roost; and as we approached the end of our journey packs 
of dogs barked in the wildest state of excitement at the balloon. 

Thus journeying, all motion seemed transferred to the landscape itself, 
which appeared when looking one way to be rising and coming toward us, 
and when looking the other sinking and receding from us. It was charmingly 
varied with parks, mansions, white roads, and in fact all the constituents of 
a rural scene of extremely beautiful character. The place of descent was 
Goodwood Park, the seat of the Duke of Richmond. 

Ascent from the Crystal Palace, July 21.—The weather on this day was 
bad, the sky overcast and rainy. Although in every respect a thoroughly 
bad day, it was well suited to investigate, if possible, some points concerning 
the formation of rain in the clouds themselves; to determine why a much 
larger amount of rain is collected in a gauge near the surface of the earth, 
than in one placed at an elevation in the same locality ; whether during rain 
the air is saturated completely, or if not, to what extent; to discover the 
regulating causes of a rainfall sometimes occurring in large drops, at others 
in minute particles. 

So long back as the years 1842 and 1843 I made many experiments in 
order to ascertain why so great a difference in volume was found to exist 
in the water collected at lower stations as compared with that collected at 
higher. The experiments which yielded the best results were those in relation 
to temperature. I always found that when the rain was warm, with respect 
to the temperature of the air at the time, no difference existed in the quan- 
tities of rain collected at different heights; but when the temperature of the 
rain was lower than the temperature of the air, a considerable difference 
always existed. 

From this circumstance, it would appear probable that the difference in 
the quantities of rain collected at different heights is owing (at least in part) 
to the great condensation of the vapour in the lower atmosphere, through 
being in contact with the relatively cold rain. 

It was also desirable to confirm, or otherwise, Mr. Green’s deductions 
this gentleman believing that, whenever a fall of rain happens from an over- 
cast sky, there will invariably be found to exist another stratum of cloud at a 
certain elevation above the first. We left the earth at 4" 52™ p.m., and in 10 
seconds had ascended into the mist; in 20 seconds to a level with the clouds, 
but not through them. At the height of 1200 feet we passed out of this rain 
and overlooked a range of surrounding clouds, so dazzlingly white that it was 
with difficulty I could read the instruments furnished with ivory scales, At the 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 433 


height of 2800 feet we emerged from clouds and saw a stratum of darker cloud 
above; we then descended to 800 feet over the West India Docks, and saw 
rain falling heavily upon the earth. None was falling upon the balloon; that 
which we saw, therefore, had its origin within 800 feet of the ground; we 
ascended again, and this time passed upwards through fog 1400 feet in thick- 
ness. At 3300 feet we passed out of cloud, and again saw the dark stratum 
at a distance above ; clouds obscured the earth below. On descending, at 
2700 feet we entered a dry fog, but it became wetting 100 feet lower down. 
After passing through 600 feet the clouds became more and more wetting, 
and below were intensely black. At 5" 28™ we were about 70Q feet high, or 
about 500 feet above Epping Forest, and heard the noise of the rain pattering 
upon the trees. Again we ascended to 2000 feet, and then descended, passing 
into squalls of rain and wind at the height of 500 feet, with rain-drops in- 
creasing in size as we descended, till they were as large as a fourpenny piece, 
on reaching the ground being of the same size as when we left it. On de- 
scending we found rain had been falling heavily all the time we were in the 
air. 


§ 3. Description oF tHu TABLE OF OBSERVATIONS. 


All the meteorological observations taken during the ascents are contained 
in Table I. 

Column 1 contains the times at which the observations were made. Column 
2 contains observations of the siphon barometer corrected for temperature and 
index error. Column 3 contains the readings of the thermometer attached 
to the barometer. Column 4 contains the readings of an aneroid barometer. 
Column 5 contains the height above the level of the sea, as deduced from the 
barometric observations in column 2, by the formula of Baily, checked at in- 
tervals by that of Laplace, which is as follows ;— 

_1(% 2 t+¢—64 anges 2+52251 
where Z is the height required, and h, h’, ¢ and?t' the height of the barometer 
corrected for temperature, and the temperature of the air at the lower and 
upper stations respectively, L the latitude. The temperature of the air for the 
position of the balloon has been derived from the readings in column 10, 
Columns 6 to 9 contain the observations with the dry- and wet-bulb ther- 
mometers free, and the deduced dew-point. Column 10 contains the readings 
of Negretti and Zambra’s gridiron thermometer. Columns 11 to 14 contain 
the observations with the dry- and wet-bulb thermometers aspirated, and the 
deduced dew-point. Columns 15 and 16 contain the direct dew-point obser- 
vations with Daniell’s and Regnault’s hygrometers. When numbers are 
entered in columns 15 and 16 with “no dew” affixed to them, it is meant 
that the temperature of the hygrometer has been lowered to the degree stated, 
but that no dew has been deposited. 

The Astronomer Royal at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, had meteo- 
rological observations taken every 10 minutes on all the days of ascent, and 
Dr. Lee had observations made at Wolverton by his assistant, Mr. 8. Horton, 
With instruments furnished and adjusted by Mr. Negretti, on June 26. 

In calculating the height of the balloon, the observations of Greenwich have 

been employed for March 31, April 18, July 11, and July 21; and those of 
Wolverton for June 26. 

The height of Greenwich above the mean sea-level=159 feet. 

The height of Wolverton above the mean sea-level =300 feet, 


1863, 2F 


434 ' REPORT—1863. 


Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in the Ninth 


ae Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther- 
as fiers aileawir.) Fc Anexid c 
2 Time. sce 2 Att,  |Barometer, melaiabare 
ge paved Therm. ~— Pr bana: 
to 32° Fahr. 
hm 53s in. a in. feet. 5 A 
(1) 4° 7) (oO p.m 29°75 | seneee DONOR! cae 49°8 44'2 
(2) 410° 0”, SHRED |s merstasiel | deedsowen || Cs a eslaae 49°8 44/2 
(3) 4) 00 410! 3 2O19z. |) Lileeaseaal | acste~ee 420 49°8 44:2 
A Td 1Q), 9 29°72 | weseee 29°75 420 49°2 44°2 
(4) A 36 oO. BOBO Wherreng | pseesee 780 48°0 41'8 
BOXT 10" 55 29°10 ASO | o aeass. 1,048 472 40°8 
418 oO y, 28°60 ABO. caden' 1,515 46°0 381 
AdZO OF, 
bales Oeil Elecite, dcesman Loft cpsnusn Ty lyht -saxasn-fuelieeiseea alee Reamaee 
A2I 0 45 26°56 4670 | saeeee 3,507 37°5 33°9 
(5) Aral 630i! sy 26°36 = | senses 26°38 3,698 38°5 32'0 
423 0° » 25°31 ASO 25°35 4,771 37°0 30°90 
(6) ADA NO, cigs 24°82 7. oh il PARR 5,296 35°5 29°2 
AV25. Og DAO cols Verieaas curl) igasiens 5,937 35°1 26°1 
(7) A27i Ov ass 23°52 ASEM mn cave 6,251 33°2 26'0 
4 27 39 » 2322 HL ie lies oat 72235 Shao) 25.7 
4.280 5; 22°92 OS conc 75380 32°6 24°9 
(8) | 429 Oo » 22°75 Ce 71557 32°1 24°8 
(9) AGG2 4 O95 S004) spall ceyaes auxeae 8,372 28°5 (30°0) 
(10) | 433 o » 21°33 380 seee 9,218 
A She Oss 20°63 380 20°58 10,047 26°2 19'I 
(Ql) | 439 o » 
4540) 10" yy Mec cc hand unr eeeel Peco TaySG Or <'|o cies dail aides 
(12) AAT Olarys E8°3.9-he wale letedy 18°23 13,070 1g't Io'r 
(18) 442 © » 
4-43 .@) 5, TGA. Ll , asesens (fet eernes 14,481 I5I 61 
444 0 5, 16°34 33°0 16°93 15,198 14°2 51 
444 30 5, 16°49 BIO | ceesd. 15,738 12°2 42 
(14) ABARinIO Nieeruel, Hebsecs todd ke ccdtasth lieve ‘ (15,793) 12'2 40 
(15) | 4 46 30 ,, 15°95 29°5 | stress 16,669 IV 52 
44645 » 
bie BOE eee | Be aass er Me Aterts 15°63 17,060 g'0 2'0 
17) BN ASY Or o5y 15°45 ZO'OUS Eres 17,451 g'0 3°0 
(18) 449 © » 15°35 280 | 15°33 17,616 8°5 370 
(19) AAGE RO) cas 14°86 2 Gir aliats face 18,475 
(20) 450 © y 14°96 Cow iron cr 18,304 I1'l 72 
moat, (OF ‘a9 15°06 22°0 15'03 18,123 I1'o 7% 
1 2. 3 4, 5 6 7 


Norns AND GENERAL 
O Detached eumuli; blue sky ; misty. 
(2) Blue sky. (3) Blue sky. 

(4) Passing top of tower of Crystal Palace. (5) Very misty. , 

(6) London beautiful ; Isle of Dogs visible at an apparent distance of one mile; afew fine — 
cumuli clouds, apparently resting on the ground. 

(7) Regnault’s Hygrometer is very troublesome ; I cannot get dew deposited on the cup. © 
The earth appears to be dotted with cumuli clouds; blue lines of light are crossing each 
other at right angles. 

(8) Very beautiful deep blue sky. Spectrum is very bright; less lines both at red and — 
violet ends ; G is quite the limit, and I cannot see to B; C is doubtful. 

(9) Colours of the spectrum are very bright. 

(10) The sea is visible to the south of us; London is a wonderful sight; sun shining 
over the Thames at Windsor, which-looks like burnished gold. F 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 435 


Balloon Ascent, from the Crystal Palace, March 31, 1863. 


mometers (free.) Negrete Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers. 
ani 
Zambra’s «ap 
eae Daniell’s. | Regnault’s. 
Diff. | Dew-point, oe Dry. Wet. Diff. | Dew-point. 
meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point. 
5-6 Og geet eld Rone ae a a 48:0 t 
56- 33°3 | 49°8 
5°6 Bona Seaamh st tecegeahbi |. scdpemrall © lcd. cOea BR sates cain meee: 36°2 
570 38°9 
62 35° | 4771 
64 33°7 
79 29°2 ATOns|) jaadegip ll) cosas seoee git NE <iagena ual! Shave . 30°0 
ye PL Gast 38°6 
4°5 26°8 
6°5 23°3 
70 20° 36°6 
6°3 as | 355 
g°0 Il] 33°5 
2 11'6 [no dew. 
79 Gee Nee tebmbep lh: fess" Pill Se«oagn a oll oteansaaeammeenaens 22°0 
77 8-2 
#3 79 
[no dew. 
aE —16'9 GA Cee rel | CCE RN (er Uae Segecsiaalh th cee 20°0 
Meee b cgaens 16°1 {no dew. 
g'0 ROM rca UT ieascaal, [i feseogs.,.| lncoccOe <ageco gall Wen eee Io 
: g'0 —63°6 I1‘0 
as | —63°5 
8:0 —58°0 9°5 
8-2 —58'0 g'0 
P] 59 | 407 | 13% 
70 —52"4 
6°0 —43°6 O'S 
‘ 5°5 39°7 0°3 
3°9 —23'2 £1°r 
3°9 —23°4 IVT 


“—s 


es. fk Up ale ee eS Te 


REMARKS. 


(11) Can see to line F in the spectrum ; violet dull ; cannot see a single line beyond D. ~ 
(12) Valve opened ; gas-very thick. 
(13) Lost sight of the violet end of the spectrum ; cannot see any lines at all. 
(14) Spectrum very short; no lines; can see a little beyond D to E, not F. 
(15) My heart beats very loud ; the sun’s shape in the water is well defined ; Isle of Dogs 
visible; St. Katherine’s Docks very distinct, apparently 10 miles distant ; Crystal Palace 
apparently nearly under us. : 
(16) Gas issuing from the neck of the balloon. (17) Gas yellow and opaque. 
¥ ue) No lines visible in the spectrum, faint violet rays to G@; my face is of a glowing 
mpurple. .. . 
19) Letting gas off rapidly ; the earth looks beautiful. 
20) Mouth of the Thames apparently nearly under us; coast visible to Dover; can see 
Brighton and the sea beyond; gas suddenly became clear. pray 
F 


436 REPORT—1863. 


Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in the Ninth 


2 Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther- 
£3 | Aneroid ‘ eae + a he 
He, Time. | Reading Att, |Barometer, meee 
cE | emma | ameria, > Neod Dry. | Wet 
| to 32° Fahr. 
hm i s pints ° in. feet. ° ~, 
(1) 4 52 Opm. 15°46 2510 || aeaces 17;400-'4| > aereeeee tears 
(2) AES gorse |, 15 07 ic Recsety. |) Bearec 17,097 12° gt 
(3) 4 5obZO° 5, le THOR ke ate |) Reeve | 37,097 
BD) TO aay 15°36 BoIO =|) «15°23 17,636 11‘ 8:0 
(4) 5 4 0 » 14°96 20°0 14°93 18,293 10°5 6:0 
FOND! R50. sy 14°66 =| seoeee 14°53 18,730 9°3 2°5 
Nb 30! GS) 14°62 RES ol sabhes . 18,795 8:2 2°0 
(5) Gee ae GNiimedererS Foto Reses-: of feases , coo 7'0 2°5 
(6) § 850 » 14°37 170 13°93 19,197 
(7) | 51070, | 1427 | 190 | 14°03 | 39,356 | 3:0 | —o'5 
(8) G2 1G) yy 13°47 seveee | 13°43 20,865 
SB 1A. VO: hy 13°87 |e fosend | 13°83 20,076 
515 © 3, E62" ly aeeees Ste ce 20,136 
(9) 516 oO 5; 13°68 hepa 13°24, 20,374 2°0 —0's 
pire: os ees) Wasser” lt Beatin | 13710 
520 © 5 13°18 TIO | eeeeee 21,331 2°0 —o'l 
(10) 5ADZ O80. sy 13°48 Resere |! Gheeree 20,749 
(11) 1’ SABO? sy 13°38 [) Beteass 13°33 20,910 2°0 —2°'0 
12) ig vig) WO” aes r2s88 | "oO! | Gases: 21,868 1°5 —2°5 
(13) 5 26 6! 5, ERTS ms Ue eskss | Beers 22,068 
5627) O° 5; 12°38 TOO, eli" Berens 22,884 I‘o —4'0 
(14) 5 gr 04; RSG Sh el eects. ft teases 16,486 ee eee 
542-0 55 TO*OQ wa yss] Tenedua eile. oeosed 16,309 41 
(15) 533 Oy “ee kc oe RR 16,809 
(16) 534 0 4) HOGG 7 reese eetce 15,149 7°5 
Be On Wy TOSS cei) Coseaies i leaeans 15,080 8-2 
(17) G37 0) ky Meo = 4) Beetwet | genres 15,080 
(18) 5 38 © 5 16°58 13'0 16°43 15,556 II'l gl 
(19) 5 AL SOs, 16°57 16°1 16°33, | 15,565 gr 62 
(20) 5 4z2 © 16°37 T5°S) tay! ewer 5 15,872 9°3 51 
(21) 5 42 30 » 16°47 TSO | saeeee 153714 gt 5°2 
(22) ERAS EEO il sees Sot Eas Sane 16°13 16,080 gt sr 
(23) BAS O's) SpeLED aCe 16°13 16,080 gl 5‘I 
(24) 546 0 , 16°17 Sas 16°13 16,080 Exe) 51 
547 O w 16°17 Es 16°13 16,080 
(25) 5 47 40 4, 7 ey Dae bracers Eevee 16,080 72 371 
(26) 549 0 4 ROS Fi ll iteecdaaien|| |trecsss 15,847 72 31 
isbOn 1O calyy © llicuessacseay OM) tescem s,]litetsa en (15,775) 72 qa 
(27) 5 50 30 » p aepne® |B ee ecer | Raosete peace Sect oeebee 
iF 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 


(1) Just over the Isle of Dogs; moving 8.W.; changed our course; temperature 
increased suddenly ; Royal Observatory visible; Green Man Hotel, Blackheath, distinct ; 
horizon not visible; mass of clouds to the N.W. so distinct that the boundary line can be 
traced; can see the rippling of the river below Putney Bridge. 

(2) We shall cross the Thames. 

(3) InaS.W. current; temperature beginning to decline; face very blue; feet very cold. 

(4) Over Isle of Dogs. (5) Let gas out by opening valve. 

(6) Over Victoria Docks; cold intense ; hands very cold. 

(7) Let gas out again ; no spectrum. 

(8) Nearly westerly current ; Lowe’s ozone powder deeply coloured. 

(9) I could not get dew on Regnault’s Hygrometer, and I failed to get its readings be- 
low —Io. (10) No spectrum. 

(11) Had to break ice for water ; over Thames; breathing deeply. 

(12) Hands blue; Thames looks beautiful, 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. A437 


Balloon Ascent, from the Crystal Palace, March 31, 1863. 


mometers (free). Negretti Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers. | 
and 
pork Daniell’s. | Regnault’s. 
Diff, | Dew-point | phermo- Dry. Wet. Diff. | Dew-point. 
meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point. 
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° 
seoee . eee ee I1'2 
30 —14°2 
30 —15°%3 I2°I 
4°5 —29°0 IIo 


4°5 —32°6 TO | 
35 | —287 | 45 
| 
2°5 —20°6 bie) 
21 —16°8 
40 439 0°5 
470 moto 
less than 
5:0 | —35"4 o'o ras ccarcalRtectreh aseves seegee —I0°0 
Bieta, hh <oocess aur 
2°0 — 64 
ap: | — 63 8°5 
42 iis A) 
a9 | — 35% 82 
4°0 —26'0 j 
: 4°0 —26'0 less than 
f 2°9 = 17'4 Otek} | ceaeks dence =|) eecnse Wt eecans —10°0 
S| at | —28-7 
(| oat | —287 
41 —28°7 
cork’ ain eee Cont (3-5) | (—6:0) 
8 9. 10 11, 12. 13, 14 15 16 
5 (13) Mouth of Thames visible ; coast clear to Yarmouth, 
_ (14) Mr. Coxwell’s pulsations 98, mine 97 per minute. 
(15) Smoke from chimney up to us going N.E. 
(16) The river Thames visible almost from its source to the sea; and the adjacent country 
_ quite clear. 
____ (17) It is a curious sight to see the little spiral lines of steam from trains on Tilbury 
_ line, Romford, and Chelmsford ; between Barking and Romford. 
' (18) Smoke up and almost level with us. (19) Dropped pencil over the car. 
(20) Regnatlt’s Hygrometer does not act. (21) In a westerly current. 


(22) No spectrum. (23) Chelmsford in sight. (24) East coast clear ; Ipswich in sight. 

(25) Very cold (tried vibrations of magnet, but failed). 

(26) Could not get magnet to vibrate. a 

(27) Lowered grapnel ; doubtless the large mass of iron not very distant from the magnet 
had exercised a good deal of influence over it. 


438 REPORT—18653. 


Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in the Ninth 


a Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther- 
38 — A id 5 
ae Time. Reading Haccnneceny EER eros 
a corrected Att. No. 2. 
Ze and reduced | Therm. i We 
to 32° Fahr. 
hh .m_ is in ° in. feet. fe} 5 
I GE sO Pans f'' csyceey Yall: -Recace’ oy kaaeen Ol] ReoooSed & 11h Mmeneteeen DE ntaaene 
B52 20% 16°47 Basma’ all! piece 15,630 7'0 3°0 
(1) | 5 52 30 » 16°57 | aanees 16°13 | 15,489 
Ei 6S) ie id 6) An a See 16°33 5227) 
Bega) tye 16°97 13°0 16°73 14,965 70 6'0 
(2) 5 55 Oven if oy Aue | (ee ee 16°83 14,622 ve 
5) BO) Oss TES 7M CMM eR ees a Resinay 14,325 5 7'0 
5 56 30 5, 17°37 150 | 17718 | 145325 970 yo 
{3 SB. SOs 17°88 15°0 17°83 13,614 10°8 71 
5 by. 3° ” 
BBS Ose Toey | Nw iecee 2 ota eeas 13,077 E35 8:2 
(5) B58) 30) oy 18°47 1570 18°33 12,797 2 10°1 
6) 5 Gon Oras 18°87 Wigs A! heeece 12,232 
5 SD =O) sy 
GS 20:0. 59 Te OTE Saree, alll ener 11,674 13°5 Ir'l 
(7) 2) JO) sg 19°47 15°0 19°33 11,486 14°5 11'2 
(8) Bate Os EDC atl grciee~ ||. dexaes 10,917 
(9) Br 8. Loss BOW Racca li Ssvicse 95570 1875 rhe | 
(10) BO. of BOB UNS Bas a5 22°33 72997 212 17°0 
(11) 6 Qi O.\5) 5s fli I ae 22°73 79443 21'°5 
Oh B Oy sy) ale sets s card nteetuael) essen (7,050) 22°2 18'0 
. TO) ‘Oc, 23°48 16'0 23°43 5657 23°0 19°5 
DOC Ogee si! renee atten) Al aceaws: MLA pees Re farepas 
Bmore , Aakers tamed 23°78 6,279 24/2 20°5 
3 IL 30 55 24. e 17°0 24°13 51901 24:8 210 
Pay OPsy ZARB NC estan site nee sess 5,69 25°1 2572 | 
(12) G14) 6. 5y gare || nee | aoa 55273 25:5 22°0 
(18) BH) T4 Os, Rebs, 4 oapeeee <> Aad (4,910) 25°9 22°0 
© 34 30 5, 25°29 19°90 25°23 4729 26°0 22°0 
(14) 6 15) O° 55 25°67 19°0 25°53 4,441 27°83 23°0 
(15) 3 Tb) 0.55 2587 See ares ome ! 
171 10 2674 21°0 26°43 3952 28°2 244 
619 © : BOE. Ns aecues lente 3,143 28°5 26°1 
6 20 .0.,, 27°07 22°0 27°03 2,950 29°5 262 
BON. Joes BGs We isan 27°38 2,570 30°0 2790, 
O22. 16) 5 27°96 PASO: |e getpiss 1,908 30°0 ry 
6 22 30 . ZOWOe> | -aescuct ail heeee as 19724 30°9 27°5 
(16) O23. 0 5, 28°36 25°0 28°33 1,590 31°5 28°0 
(17) Dea 10 4, ZG \ i lantecdaie bepeaks 1,260 32°2 28°5 
Gy telleep 29°06 DAC ON rete 1,070 32°38 29°0 
(18) G25 35.5 BOO a gl ecstecumnl renters 893 35°0 
(19) BEBO gy NS a tctae! oleic 29°89 ground 42°0 
1 2. 3. 4, 5 6 


(1) Darkness creeping over the earth. (2) Ground looks dark, and the sky very bright. 

(3) Gas very clear. (4) Heard some sounds from the earth. 

(5) No spectrum ; not sufficient light. All the observations to-day were made on sky 
spectra; I could not get a sun spectrum. 

(6) Mr. Coxwell’s hands felt as if they were scalded; he could not lower grapnel by himself. 

(7) Mr. Coxwell called me to his assistance to help him to lower the grapnel. 

(8) Heard railway-train. (9) Violent retching. (10) Feeling of illness. 

(11) Vomiting. (12) Over Romford, (13) Over railway-station. 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1868. 439 


Balloon Ascent, from the Crystal Palace, March 31, 1863. 


mometers (free), Neve Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers. 
an 
Zambra’s 2 
rae Daniell’s | Regnault’s, 
Diff. | Dew-point. pane Dry, Wet. Diff. | Dew-point. 
meter. : Dew-point. | Dew-point. 
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° 
Reem | aSéute =|) wceece': | bee ee Ul deescer*!| esvee * I") weoba + {less than—10) no dew—10 
40 —28'1 
ro | j|— 18 
r°s§ — 4°6 Bet | sacske Ot peace OMY oivelee shell Mt sstt se —10°0 
270 «|— 85 
aye 285 
Ser |—717'4 12°0 
21 |— 62 
24 |— 7°5 11°5 
33 |—-144 
54 |—26'9 19'0 
42. |—11'°3 £2 a Me oe ees aire lame arpa. Ho bch iec —I0°0 
ee -9°7 
3°5 — 24 
Liki See 26'0 
Ba ip 2°83 
3°8 ite eset ced OH 5508 OM eaere MMe cates foyre) 
39 |+ 97 27°0 
aia 3°5 
3°9 22 
40 "ie f 27°8 
48 3°3 28°5 
3°8 13°9 30°0 
2°4 16°9 30°0 
3°3 15"I 31°0 
2°8 1874. 
25 | 19°7 
: 34 18°4 
> 35 19°9 
Y Sy 20°0 
‘: 38 20°4 
{ 
4 
ea 


8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14: 15. 16. 


(14) Fallen in with 8.E. current; over Ilford Jail. At this time we fell into another 
current and changed our course again ; moving back. 

. (15) Ozone 8. (16) Sand out. 

(17) Over Romford or Ilford. (18) Packed up in a hurry. 

(19) Touched the ground at 6% 30™, at sunset, in a field belonging to Mr. G. Brown, 
Gaystham Hall, Barking Side, Hssex, having first been caught in a tree, then broke through 
it; Ba number of rude countrymen came, and by some means the balloon was much 
injured. 


440 REPORT—1863. 


Taster I.—Meteorological Observations made in the Tenth 


Fd Siphon Barometer. | Dry and Wet Ther- 

eg j Aneroid ; 

5s Time. Reading Barometer, Heient above 

< corrected Att. No. 2. D Wet 

Zs and reduced | Therm. rye F 

to 32° Fahr. : 

hm is in a in. feet. o a 

(1) © pL 2 MHONPAMNS |), besitos Pear OOO Ts- sans 61'0 5572 
DATS TOM hi. ciipeomsaes. ©. ile eee ZRBC | Pecans 59°5 53°5 
ES Fey ayo or 29°66 61-0 Bored. ||) | Waco 60°8 54:5 
TRAY Os, 29°66 Garage "acts. |) | paerete 61'5 54°2 

(2) TSG: No, 

(3) I 17-0 ,, 29°17 BOs Ui tascam 1,030 592 54°0 
I 17-+0 ,, 28°57 60°5 28°75 3,603 57°2 Sir 
E308 “Os, By a t6oro: (4 © EAS. 2,185 56°0 50°5 
TALON SOM tan vise.ats. |) "Atos, fecnaneas (2,380) 55:2 49°0 

(4) 119 ©, 27°57 Goo =| 27°75 2,575 54°0 48°0 

(5) LEZ" TONGS © Pl Pastas 1) Ors | 26°75 39555 49°2 43°70 

(6) I2I 0 », 

(7) I 21 10 5, 25°79 5570 25°75 4392 47°2 410 

(8) 122 30 4, 24°50 515 | 24°75 55759 41'2 3571 
1 Mile oY acne 1 OA al ee ome Nive (SBA be 40°5 37°0 

(9) I 24 15 5 23°90 BQO. H|.| Patve 6,420 39°0 
I 24 30 », 23°61 43°5 23°90 6,744 37°0 35°2 

(10) I 25 30 55 23°21 a7) tet. 7,180 34°5 33°2 
t 267 10.%5, 22277 BGIO sd) ~asccre 7GG4-. | “sesemmeent) octets . 
iT 2775305, 22°70 To) 22 6 

"C4 fe ah ae . a Mae e Kies 3 
LAZO) ROMs Tl raernece || Lit Pamesc | 20°85 10,020 32°0 25°38 
DN ZONgO sy 20°63 410 20°60 10,342 

(12) D420 “oy 20°12 BORO LA geese 11,055 31°5 24°2 
rigz 015, 19°13 40° 19°15 T25250).:0|| . seco mie seen 

(13) eae SOMsy Oi Paes a TN Fe ‘ (12,6co) 23°0 310 

(14) ea Orie Ric) See ee |. tee) cl eee ee ee 

(15) ea Ons Alt eseetc, | Rll Uren os 18°35 135340 ||! ceeeeeveilen seenee 

DeGamelOrs Miers ela Becca. 17°95 14,030 sarees ah etna 

(16) Eas OMsy. cc) onatee Ul) Mcgwsr Al) marae (14,600) 21°0 30°0 
ee hRcr(a) An 17°24. 38-0 17°30 745980) |) ~ aeons cae 

(17) | 1°37 0 5 

(18) 138 0 5, 

(19) Ea OP ss 
I 40 O>,, 16°25 30°0 16°25 16,504. 172 130 

(20) ae BM (cp 15°86 24°0 15°85 17,057 12°70 6:0 

(21) Teas mores 15°31 24°0 15°80 17,140 121 51 

22 ih TG Al Nance 15°46 ; 15°46 17,749 12°0 50 

(23) DAS TO Wing 15°81 e, 14°80 18,886 12°0 4°5 

1. 2. 3. 4, 5. is 


(1) Atmosphere misty and thick; wind N.E.; many clouds; now and then gleams of 
sunshine. 

(2) Rope broke before we were ready ; the spectroscope swung round ; I was jerked among 
the instruments ; Daniell’s and Regnault’s Hygrometers were both broken. 

(3) Rising too quickly. 

(4) Misty. 

(5) The line G in the spectrum is very clear; can see H and far beyond. Spectroscope 
directed to sky, near the sun. 

(6) The line B clear; very many lines in sky spectrum. 

(7) Crystal Palace and grounds very well seen ; mist resting on the earth; cumuli on 
level with the balloon. 

(8) Misty. 

(9) The coloration of photographic paper was 2 in 2 or 3 minutes. 

(10) Thick mist; almost a fog. 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 441 


Balloon Ascent, from the Crystal Palace, April 18, 1863. 


mometers (free). Negretti Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers. 
and 
Commie Daniell’s. | Regnault’s. 
Diff. |Dew-point.| phermo- Dry. Wet. Diff. |Dew-point. 
meter. Dew-point, | Dew-point. 
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° 


2 48°4 
61 45°5 

55 45°4 

6:2 431 

6:0 42'2 

6°2 36°4. 

6-2 34°1 47°0 
61 27°5 

3°5 33°6 

18 32°7 

3 311 
Saas fl seness 32°38 
pena 32°2 
6-2 I2'1 

a3 539 315 
sac) | RR 23 
Agios . cena 23°0 
seeeee vee 23°2 
Hen eaeees 21°70 
. eee 20'0 
42 |—I9g°0 17° 
6:0 +=|—20°6 

Bae \—49°3 

72 |—49°5 

oa. |—53°8 

8. Sp 10. 11. 12. 13. 14, 15, 16. 


(11) Beyond H and to A in sky spectrum, under and near the sun, lines beautifully de- 
fined ; great change of focus to see A and H. Sky spectrum at some distance from the sun, 
less than G; can see B and several lines beyond. 

(12) Above the clouds ; sea of clouds below ; Crystal Palace seen clearly ; wind N. 

(13) Ozone 3 by powder ; o by paper. 

(14) Balloon full; no sky spectrum; dark. (15) Bluesky above. (16) Gas out, 


(17) Spectrum far beyond B, up to A when near sun. (18) Gas clear, 
(19) Sky spectrum short at a little distance from sun. 
(20) A stream of cold to sense. (21) Minimum thermometer 11°2, 


(22) Lurch in balloon ; spectroscope swung round, and from some cause the solar radia- 
tion thermometer fell over the side of the car; I looked down, but could not see it. 

(23) General tinge over countenance ; heart slightly affected ; largest field appeared three 
inches square; lowered grapnel. No spectrum; no lines; looking at sky, which was quite 
bright from 14 47™ to 15 49™, with the exception of a few seconds before and after 14 48™, 


442 - . REPoRT—1863. 


Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in the Tenth 


— 


2 Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther- 
22 [eae aan en eee Ch ett ; hae 
BRC) . Readin Height above 
3 z Time, & Barometer, neierel™ 
ce eeoger | ieee | pe eee 

to 32° Kahr. 
hm =s in o in feet ° o 
149 opm 14°81 20°0 14°80 18,886 12°0 4°9 
Te BOWOM GS) 4 lidserchssy” | i secmee ull BASES. (19,140) 12°I 60 
De S25 Ong 14°37 10°5 14°35 | £0;643 |) saege |) Seon 
(1) E52 650, 55, | wiecbbye 1415 | 20,163 11'S 
(2) T 53 Oy 
(5) TA a0, of 14-15 BOO | Resa 24,163 12° 6°0 
THE 0. 4s TACOS Wi aitesess) | Phenses 20,338 
(4) TSO IC Lag 14°05 30°0 14°15 20,338 
(5) 2, ey Wom DRURY bal dbwente s | mbecoe. 20,943 14°0 60 | 
2260 a TAS Ve Brewess 1405 20,428 
(6) PAMOVEOS SC Wil sscbes, — iit) Reese 13°65 BIjt20 6 -| aes G54]! cede 
Been, A acehen s wal") pevsae'y |. Bevan Mul Maree ese |, B50 370 
(7) SptrsO) f° || Wiasthes | [oebtesse ly vesea i] tas Oeaiel 1 semen aeeme 
(8) Dh 2 PEO) a5 ESn35). i weekdrss 13°35 21,646. |). sdeakere |e sdewie 
DESO OORe 1] fesabes, | il) Mameve 13°30 21,760 
(9) 2 TAVB'O th (ll! q see ea th. ae 13°30 RI, 7bO fill. tee ed genes 
Si Go, OAS | 1). iia el oe eer 13°25 BI,86q | aceee lta aeeabe 
(10) Pty 1 Yo finer ie eis be UM Sei Pave 22,041 16° 62 
PZ 240 Fig Migieestete | ||) okashee 12°75 22,954. 12°5 o'0 
OTe Ons) UN Abas: | | bescee 12°60 BZ 258 ily scceteuie tacwees 
D250 gh tial) sesbue — of) Fesece | |) Resccs | |) hep cdeiek © 1] P i eOAmmnInD Recags 
Ze2B BOs || cevbeee | Basses 12°50 23,460 | cdebh |. ction 
229 0.55 T2250 ||! Kenia 12°50 23,460 
ZeZQr ZO 55 | Givevbee ~  P akeco. 12°48 23,500 
Byeeowou.. “Pl eee. | eee 12°50 23,460 
2130130) 5 i) CIR BI Sener 12°35 233753 12°5 O's 
ZeAT Wo... 1) ee I eee 12°55 23,530" |\- wsews evveve 
(11) 2 31 30 5, 
Seago; iA feel | Bt “Anpeoeny || Seed 23,TOQ% | scaese ||| wosees 
PVRS MOnsp bi) jeosbes | obeasns 12°75 22,907 12°5 I'o 
(12) Bragg. Gf 'b.|' reewhes! ell wkeep'e r 13°35 21,765 
BAG Mb UA) Oi) eewkes Bell Sicsv 13°55 21,381 
(13) 2 34.0 5, Hie 1m Oy fe Bears | 13°65 21,189 13'1 3'0 
(ES) ad otc. e ed tare ahs roe eg creer ee icreeee ce ime | Ree! 
(15) OG coe ROPOA dl oReaces 16°24 15,998 15°5 70 
2AGS iGayg’ 2) pieceBees! | il mibSapscyes| al eyouse 0 ||| g Meoneeed wilt bee ea) Me | 
2:88 130.,55 DA A A sept eugene > 14,967 
AO HO, fua, | eiecetee. . caleeypaadecie || pat acta (14,670) 16°5 8°83 
240 © 5, TOA eB Nie Bate esc Siblignce 14,341 
2 40°90) 5; ROMA Ais Sarees 17°95 13,590 16°5 100 
DA TAIO 4, MoM Gesectt N paste cdecets PH) Maree oe 17'0 14°5 
2HAZ OG, bef Ml Se Booem | P.ccpaee 11,100 180 15°5 


(1). Face bluish white. (2) Examined slit of spectroscope, all seems right ; dark field. 
(5) Gas clear. (4) Still a dark field ; far from sun. 
(5) Mr. Coxwell’s pulse 113, Mr. Ingelow’s 130, mine go per minute. 


” 9 , 2 130, 9 9 5 ” 
Mr. Glaisher’s pulse very weak, Mr. Ingelow’s full and strong. 
(6) Opened bottles ; filled four. (7) No sky spectrum ; no lines. 
(8) No sky spectrum ; no lines. (9) Air very dry to sense. 


(10) Sky spectrum B to G close to sun. From this time to 2" 30™ I was chiefly engaged 
with the spectroscope; there was no spectrum at all on looking with the slit directed to 
the sky far from the sun; on approaching the sun the yellow first appeared, and when 
yery near the sun the spectrum was perfect, increasing in length the nearer we approached 


ee eee 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1868. 443 


Balloon Ascent, from the Crystal Palace, April 18, 1863. 


mometers (free). Bearets Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers. 
an : aan 


> ; 
bere : Daniell’s. Regnault’s. 
Diff. |Dew-point.) ppermo- Dry. Wet. Diff. | Dew-point. 
meter. | ; Dew-point. Dew-point. | 


EE 


i. ee er 


14. 15. 16. 


‘the sun; and when a beam of light came from the sun itself, the whole spectrum was 
-yisible, the nebulous line H and a good way beyond at the violet end, and A at the red 
end, with innumerable lines between, particularly at the violet end, all sharp and well- 
defined ; on the balloon revolving the spectrum was gradually lost, till none appeared at the 
sky opposite the sun. I scarcely moved my eye from the telescope during three revolutions: at 
the first I examined the violet end; next the red end; and then the whole spectrum. 

~ (11) Looked at sun with red, blue, and yellow glass for anything like prominences ; edge 
without appendages. (12) No change on paper in one minute. 

(13) Mr. Coxwell uneasy; opened the valve freely, and we descended rapidly. 

. (14) No ; cov’ not get the sun. i 
(15) The readings of the two barometers are discordant I cannot say which is correct: - 


4.44, REPORT—1863. 


TABLE I.—Meteorological Observations made in the Tenth 


| sis Siphon Barometer. | Dry and Wet Ther- 
28 an Gee os yy Aero 2 
es Time. Reading Barometer,| eight above | 
S42 *| sea-level. 
Ee ee ghice| Ne Dry. | Wet 
to 32° Fahr. 
hm 5 in. > in, feet. H ° ° 
r 243 oOp.m. ZOOL @) vil Ebwcle ant WRENS ea 11,003 20°0 181 
2 43 30 », ZOU AN BA Meise oe ees oso 10,785 24°0 19°0 
2 AAO. 35 PASTE IS Ryne |S > ane 9,609 2670 20°0 
(1) 2 AS Oss aeepesl i il eseas coral Mas sss ground | (57°0) 
Meteorological Observations made in the Eleventh 
| 
(2) I 2 opm. 29°70 66-0 29°80 | ground | ...... sam cen 
(3) pallet ea | emer meee, | (Gia Serco wee! (ier erent! ly BASS es 660 57°70 
TA KO 135 29°15 DBO eal teasacs 884 65°0 56'0 
XA gRO ass 28°57 BGiore | le. .sc 1,445 62°0 54°0 
TG EEO) 5: eosees Ab UMMBRS sos. ol aber Prk eee: 61°8 535 
(4) TO gue? ss 28°36 65°0 28°45 1,660 61°5 53.4 
zr. 6 go 5; 27°36 DER Ht pecee ° 2,150 59°5 515 
of GA Heyer 27°36 64°0 27°55 2,651 572 512 
(5) T 720 3 eaeees seeeee | aeeeee (3,029) §5°0 49°8 
uve 5 0. 45 See Sessce'® |) -piaees (3,785) 510 coerce 
Le S105, ee ec : 27°45 3,974) 50°5 seeeee 
T. S50 45 25°27 “eae RO SaSe 45729 48°5 eee 
(6) TLE Os, DAT) Nc sasetut || peuincese 5,264 47° 40°0 
1 Io ©;, 24°58 60'0 - 5578 Neeson ~ ASHE 
(7) rip) Ae oper 23°79 BasO WM li nescese 6,477 
TRIG RO est | Seesesess Ni itesrcem Wiiecests (7,300) 412 310 
x 14.40.55 22°80 a NWN EB 2 7,510 39°0 29°2 
1a Oo mer seeees oy, |) cueeee (7,940) 37°2 26°1 
rele Oss 21°82 4570 21°85 $7796. | aceaer al ae none 
PELE Ors, © Aiaessass SAT) Basesee| ||) Wiesasas (8,827) 36°0 26°1 
(8) X16 10° ;, say cise 21°65 8,888 
56930 5; Shc ehebinl (emsceecs 20°75 9,298 note) 32°0 
(9) Tye aif ohare Se Ae Warnecte 20°65 9,800 Bere Ip] Onecare 
(10) BOX] E55 Sa ee 20°20 10,800 
F507 QO) sy 20°22 OE ET oy an ace 10,804. 
(11) F UV CAIBY sy 19°93 AZ Oi A tassleac 11,204 30°0 31'0 
(12) zis Oo, fatness medi eae 19°75 11,478 
2. : : - 6. 


(1) Suddenly the South Coast appeared under us, and Mr. Coxwell called out, “Put up 
the instruments! help me! we shall be in the sea, we cannot go over!” I began to put 
the instruments up instantly. He called for immediate assistance; we pulled open the 
valve as wide as possible, and at 2 48™ came to the ground with a violent crash; we were 
of course all thrown down ; my head was struck behind, my ankle sprained, and I received 
a few other trifling bruises. Mr. Coxwell and Mr. Ingelow escaped unhurt; but nearly 
all the instruments were broken, with the exception of two large bottles of air for Prof. — 
Tyndall; the two other bottles were broken, and unfortunately three very sensitive thermo- 
meters which had been kindly furnished me for these experiments by M. A. D’Abbadie, 
The descent took place about half a mile from the Newhaven Station. It was fully seven 
or eight minutes before any one came to our assistance. When descending we observed | 
two rents in the balloon, owing to the valve-line having torn it. Mr. Coxwell tenaciously 
held on to the valve-line, and thus crippled the balloon, which never rose. We returned 
to London by the train leaving Newhaven at 7" 30™, The blue of the sea had been mistaken — 
for mist. ‘Temperature on the ground 57°. 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 44.5 


Balloon Ascent, from the Crystal Palace, April 18, 1863. 


mometers (free). Negretti Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). | Hygrometers. 
and 
paceen: | Daniell’s. | Regnault’s. 
Diff. |Dew-point.| Thermo- Dry. Wet. Diff. | Dew-point. 
meter. | Dew-point. | Dew-point. 
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° 
9 |+ 46 | 205 
570 =|—10°6 245 
60 =|—10°4 26°2 


Balloon Ascent, from Wolverton, June 26, 1863. 


| 
eee || 36.25: 66'0 
9°90 49°8 6670 
g'0 43°7 
8'0 47°2 62°0 
8°3 464 61°5 
84. 45°9 io RR MM es coh | ceric || uc Staan ll sehatdce 48'0 
8-0 44°4 
6:0 ree (i. cde!) wR ON caus TY) ssc meedoes 47'0 
5% 44°9 54°5 
Mass — | | eceace 50°5 
Secene | ceeees 50°0 | j 
medest | ce ues 49°0 
70 gro 46-0 
coset RE 43'0 
10°2 18-1 
98 16°3 38°5 
1I'l 10°4 37°0 
BI ecats |) skacss- || secon | secant ll eonceemllimeeeyon I1‘o 
9°9 11°3 36'0 
MMM escas>. | cats ll, esccks S| sesgen-*\|| (eccecaelmmacs som mth imerosee 8:0 
«ip nl oe 31°5 
8. 9. 10. ll. 12. 13. 14, 15. 16. 


(2) Wind W.S.W.; strong. Balloon lurched considerably ; fifty men were not sufficient 
to keep it down; the instruments were with difficulty mounted on the board in the 
car. 
(8) The sky was cloudy, after a fine morning. 

(4) The lower atmosphere very dark. 
(5) Painfully cold. (6) Terribly cold. 
‘ (7) Dreadfully cold ; put on coat with difficulty ; wrapped up my neck ; put on extra cap ; 
ve Mr. Coxwell a wrapper. 
(8) Faint sun; at this time the sighing, or rather moaning of the wind was heard as 


ag a storm ; it is the first instance that either Mr. Coxwell or myself had heard such 
a sound. 


(9) Fine rain falling. 

(10) Saw sun faintly. 

(11) In fog, thin rain; lost sight of sun. 

(12) Worked bellows for Regnault’s Hygrometer. 


446 - REPORT—1863. 


Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in the Eleventh 


2 Siphon Barometer. _Dry_and Wet Ther- 
eS ] Aneroid . 
Ez Time. eating | “a eo tenine rasa rs 
2® and reduced Therm. Pa Dry: Wet. 
to 32° Fahr. 
hm os in a nl ea feet = = 
(1) 1 18 20 p.m. 19°33 A250 Wl are..3 11,341 3rr 310 
(2) 119 0 ;, 19°23 41°5 19°25 12,177 
(3) TOUO RTOs el Geet eere ry, lt seman 19°05 12,459 
(4) rT Z0o 5, 18°83 EI OF | ig eens 12,743 30°5 30°5 
(5) 20 10%, 18°53 cto alia) ie ae EQ,073) i) vewecee out fapnese 
(6) re Newel oP 18°13 410 18°15 13,764.—»\) <reveteery mamta te 
(7) THEOL SIO) sy 18°03 410 | 18:00 13,913 31°0 31°0 
8 TO? SO" ee 
‘5 23 04; 17°63 Away Sb fiat 145530 32°70 29'0 
oy I 24, 0 3; 713 APO | nveses 15,295 
(11 Fq2h Os; 16°93 eae a oc 15,598 30°0 29°0 
(12) 12h 205, 16°83 BIO Aan. 15,757 30°0 29°0 
T2600 00) ,; | 16°73 GOO serene 15,935 29° 26°0 
(15) 1 27) 0h, 16°63 “Rom | eee 16,079 30°0 26°0 
Eis2r Ol ss 16°63 40°0 16°65 16,079 32°0 27°6 
BiBOrsO Wy | lescees:) i]. eames 8 Reaces I] Of cece U0 en cs 
© 20 70) ss 16°53 40°0 16°55 16,274 32°0 27°O 
DRZOn2O mes Sete Men geecce=, Aly secees (16,274) 33° 28°5 
(14) 12598075; 16°53 40°0 16°55 16,274 
T 29 45 "5; es: fb tasces 16°40 16,486 35'0 30°0 
(15) TOMO CM Meccs. | Eletsccine | Meneses (16,548) 35°0 29°8 
Lagi) (One, 132 OH it 5 16°25 16,796 
(16) HET Gi Sale mts Seine Rm teh ae 16°15 16,870 34°5 29°2 
(17) 1 G2eeO ss 16°03 Al's 16°05 17,144 
(18) 2 421075, rie a ee ecto | Wee SA 17,144. 
(19) £59230 %5, || wGto2 41°5 16°05 WET Ad. - ult esas sot 
(20) 139) Os; fess Me |e aces | Bk ee 17,242 
ra ee |e 15°88 Has al) Maer es 1754907 |} -dacee eee 
C9} I 34 0 4, 15°83 41°5 15°90 17,479 34°2 28°1 
aero cll eames) Se Mourn eal coe es) Ol Green | acts 
BZS sO," 15°33 4U'5 15°85 17,479 
I 35 3° » 15°49 410 15°45 18,053 33°70 23°I 
(23) ic Oh eka Ac eed Me cies 15°35 18,291 
1 *4620"4, | 15°23 410 15°25 18,435 29°2 212 
1 36 30 ,, 15°23 42° 15°15 BS,435,) l  ceneee) Mwoeteny 
xr 36 45, neers 42°0 r5°Ds 18,555 26'2 210 
(24) mano ipel! Eliott eees 4: | cupecess 15°15 18,560 25°0 19'0 
LOMO ya Pal cee Ady Mecca oe sears (18,790) 25°0 18°5 
CO TIa9 FOs;) 14°83 Heo Gecas. 19,018 21°8 
Z-49,)10 \;, 
(27) I 4O* 0 5, 
(28) i 40| 0 5, 14°73 40°5 15°75 19,178 20°6 16°2 
(29) TAO AG Gs, Pts VEER Re eee a IP (19,420) | 20°5 160 .| qj 
| (80) DT Ani) oN,, 14°53 410 14°55 10,544..\[°> ..geReeneseens } 
| | | @ 
1 2 8 4, 5 6 7 
(1) In fog; just see the earth; misty. (2) See the sun faintly. 
(3) Lowered grapnel very gradually. (4) Sun just visible ; thin wet fog. 
(5) Mr. Coxwell requested me to open the valve whilst he lowered the grapnel. 
(6) See the sun faintly through wet fog. ; (7) Valve opened. 
(8) Mr. Coxwell complained of pain in his hands, which were dark blue. 
(9) Assisted in lowering the grapnel. (10) In fog, not wet. 
(11) In dry fog. : (12) Tce on Wet-bulb. (13) In fog. 
(14) Faint gleams of light. (15) New Barometer nearly 16°60 inches. 
(16) Train heard. (17) A period of calm, and warm to senses, 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTs IN 1863. 447. 
Balloon Ascent, from Wolverton, June 26, 1863. 
mometers (free), Beas Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometer. 
an 
Zambra’s Daniell’s. | Regnault’s. 
é | J Gridiron . : 
Diff. Dew-point.) Thermo- Dry. Wet. Diff. |Dew-point. . : 
meter, Dew-point. | Dew-point. 
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° 
i ee 33°0 
oo rn 32°0 
BREE Aitiartsesger |) suagie cyl deamagnsh gsseas, o4|\  estehepeieutaapec, Etre Beets 20°0 
Berns. |) wecess 3370 
PEMA RG ont bil ith a Godan eae Bye voces |e oa eee 20°O 
Pea USaaten: Hi sdeaas oeeee seers Pare feabes 20°0 
30 Te sduass ps) se8seuy f) - maceen. Ole tneeteanit ancachasient ime cose 17'2 
4°0 ead” Sacays a]  peecne || peace Meee coeeenan meee 17°0 
44 17't 34°5 33°0 | 269 61 149 
Mtr |i cneaay wil bescagy > pexcesst |b Meese cubase 22° 20°5 
50 | (154) 
4°5 AES ||)” casas nil saaaueg snseeeanenl eee eater SeveroMyifl cascean 21'0 
50 22°0 Z0%e | Acawacs | 2bd.0r) © | GRO e eee aeeene 24°2 
A 52 21°5 BSG | eadece, | uneeeaces | leprevecsne | imansee ca an 23°5 
a 5°3 gett |W vaca 35°0 27°0 80 142 
Geaesa OE ” ocenes 35°2 
fi 
aes . “cern 34°7 
: 6"1 Ee ree 34°2 27°6 6°6 15°7 
1 SUE scascs) Pi sgene. | cevecs, |) -'edesee ovesesrieuscacecn dl) a. ae ese 19'2 
9°9 3°3 SqrAy | Sesasg, | escsse | jacesatmmnenanas g°0 
; So — 78 30°5 
MM sraccs Pecans, || “veeres ||’ eeseen!"}, deanccaaiemeceeect li fiimeeante —I0°1 
52 |— 50 Bre” | Gscaeas. | (asesente|, tesaea aed ance on Perec — 92 
Pea I eae! | Locate Ny: jvecenate S|) ueeecebe (raters tesees — 50 
65 |—1774 PASQ.” || oteseqeg. if teescag |” fecneadmmalteeetoas — 4°0 — 42 
—14'6 ZOPST | eawese: |i dasvisez Al] caine | umeeeie conan ect me — 80 
Cee es ee ee 20°0 160 4°0 
BMEMEEN CS oss'd-s>  Wisccante fi gene soork |, nececiscaee || eusensee, MADR eee mentee —I1r'0 
I | 
9. 10. igh 12. 15, 14, 15 16. 


wy 

-_ 
% 
& 


(30 


(18) Still in cloud. 

(20) Cloudy, and gas rushing out of the balloon in volumes. 

(22) A sudden cloud. 

' (25) Getting clearer ; faint blue sky. 
(26) Just above cloud ; cirri above ; cloud on same level as the car all round. 
(27) Clouds very high. 

(28) Sun faintly shining, but cut off by the balloon. 
29 do do 


do 


(19) Clouds above us still. 


(23) In a wetting fog. 


do 


(21) Still in cloud. 


(24) Cold, dry, thin fog. 


448 REPORT—1863. 


Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in the Eleventh 


2g Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther- 
zs Aneroid i 
BS Time. Reading ms Barometer, Belek 
B2 saaeeeta | tera. | No Dew | Wee 
to 32° Fahr. 
hm” s in. ‘ in. feet. a 6 
(1) I 41 1o p.m. 14°53 410 14°55 19,544 20°0 16°0 
(2) I 41 30 5) 
(3) I 41 45 » 14°33 ATO. i) Besse 19,909 20°5 16:0 
I42 0 45, 14°23 acces 1 See 20,167 2131 16°0 
(4) I 4Z Jo 5, 14°24 410 14,25 20,167 21'I 16"0 
(5) I 42 45 55 
(6) T Aa nO she eee a 13°95 20,648 21'O 16'0 
(7) ee Oe ES ES al SA eee: (en See 19°! 16°1 
(8) 144 0 » 13°94 40°0 13°95 20,648 20°0 160 
(9) LAG. Ons Mara Eres 13°85 20,854 
(10) 140 © 5; 13°64 40°0 13°65 21,266 22°90 16°1 
(11) 147 0 » TG) | al Meeseee of) Aereeme 21,357 22'0 16'0 
(12) 148 oy be 2 nage Ae 13°35 20-578 Hh acess ih eames 
a ae Che ae ey ee eee 22,053 
(13) 150) 0 39 USt2q. |) Moevcos. al), Mescees 22,053 22°0 16'0 
GMO Sey Cyl). Veecetie 2 Ht Mewes 13°20 22,073 21°8 16°0 
+k Ome) WSerq! i). deter. - |) ASecess 22,105 
1 53- 3° 9 13°14 32°0 13°40 22,105 19°2 161 
Tags tay lu Mecewems = |], Meosces Sf) Ueveene |] Pisses a ib Leases oneuee 
The sO Sy) | sewer | escecu- i] Ciee=isee 1] pe sikenas ee tp ween Meepesene 
Dipea AG Poy) | Meseece), + ]u “eseiascs if) fesoeen’) || | Steasaemim ih Caen - ssatee 
(14) I 54 035, OO) lll eases, 4h) eeestene 22.664 (| Sosa yi ae Be 
(15) TANGO lta EM nettewey call, Acvdae: ho] Beeches (23,023) 18'5 16-0 
(16) I 54 40 5, 12°66 tras. al iBeceese 23,143 18'o we 
(17) PRGA MSOMNSE | gl atesree. || I) Weedway.. |) Geeecese (23,200) | 17°0 16'2 
B55 7 0'*s MZIO4, | wees. 13°05 22,965 | seeeee | seen 
OY COO enn akc rn DRE oem Mie Ser Me DEIR Ch crccpe |e ocnce: tase 
(18) I 57 ° »”» 
(19) 158 0 5, (17 aa ee 12°95 22,168 Ig't coeee 
I 58 30 5, RQRb An eel” Meecers ta] © wea sies aT, 467" |) (easel eseane 
T5910 55 13°65 33°0 13°65 21,302 
Sia yer Pars Ta) Aes 13°75 20,934 26°1 21°83 
21 0,» 14°25 33°70 1) |) beccae. 20,167 
(20) 220, 14°25 Bz1O” Bl Beaten 20,167 26'1 22°O 
(21) 2 2 30 5, 14°25 ayo") Aha. 20,1677) || cae cx 
(22) | 2 245 » 14°25 340 | 14:27 | 20,167 
or OORT 14°44 35°0 14°45 19,901 26'0 24°0 
(28) 2 4 30 », 14°64 35°09 | 14°65 19,367 23°0 tesees 
(24) BARA AIG ae «Ly ll etinate © lull Wes eal Miccgidewa'] 0 MKaaetce 23°2 23°1 
ames 70), 14°44 cuter [les sracse 19,901 23°0 22'0 


(1) Sun just visible, but cut off by the balloon. 

(2) In fog again; sun invisible. 

(3) Three layers of clouds we have passed ; clouds still higher. 

(4) Sky very pale blue between clouds. 

(5) Spectrum at blue sky same as on ground. 

(6) Rain-cloud to the right ; two nimbus clouds near us and on the same level as ourselves. 

(7) Saw the sun; the reading of the actinometer increased 8°6 div. in sun; then 3*1 div. 
in faint sun ; then fell 2°7 diy. in shade ; then increased o°$ diy. in sun; and then 1°5 diy. in 
sun in one minute. (8) In fog. 

(9) New Barometer 14'20 inches. (10) In fog. 

(11) Sun invisible. 

(12) Train heard, 


Balloon Ascent, from Wolverton, June 26, 1863. 


momieters (free). Negretti 
and 
Zambra’s 
. Gridiron 
Dew-point.| Thermo- 
meter, 
! 
° ° 
—12'5 20°0 
15°5 
—19'0 24° 
—I19'0 2135 
—18'9 21'0 
a SR ||) | scams 
Sl ae | aeoces 
—22°8 22°0 
—23°6 22'0 
pees 2370 
—23°6 
—22°2 
— 65 
act 18°5 
zebras |) Loe: 
eines 17'0 
SEEOTR || sexes 
eee 18'0 
Beatice 19‘! 
pene 23°0 
(oxo) 26°1 
+ 12 261 
ree 26°1 
13°8 26'0 
eeeees 23°71 
22°ae" |) ,ae 
15°8 22°0 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 449 
Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygromceters. 
Daniell’s. | Regnault’s. 
Dry. Wet. Diff. {| Dew-point. 
Dew-point. | Dew-point. 

° ° °o ° ° ° 
foeee- le Vorpees Hi) cnccean si (huae =cey Ra — 9°5 
amos | iavaea seats bo Cec sess | — Qro 

| 

19°5 15°8 3° 7 BB ed easlsosy yp) > Saat Bas —13°0 
ceaacehah ft - SeemeUhSl voce os IRM sage! li) ecco —13°0 
sesonsrmed, \es'esae alll Ik wagecetl Mtenmers) pl ll Rl scaites —13°'0 
Peery eaten leecher |) acco, yf bee: — 31 
Secjevenrt ||| ceseseetegt) mede camel ietseates — 35 
eres Mee cores ete | || Gscbo — 3°5 
scsrebarnt|: lesacder ||| StenctastsQill MMM cesipde tee + 3°0 
18'0 161 1'9 1°8 + 1°5 
18:0 
19° 18'0 I'o LOD Since + 2°5 
Saale NIE. iowecsens «| | bectcosn EmmCRDEES + 22 
ceaewsier} esecse Cll © csaueaQia iN Masstnnc 4) eee Ne + 2°0 
sesewet Af  Seencevs. | Sec vegiuelumccsives . pe) 
sescte Sl peciesceah| tev ocoQeh| Mneseeesn mma 15'0 
snaeas¥ee\o Pimawencrwsl| ecsicceN RitMmesches 18'o 
11, 12. 13. 14, 15 16. 


B(2) We looked round at the very faint blue sky, covered with cirri, and estimated the 

height of the cloud to be many miles; atmosphere thick and misty. 

_ (14) Cirri alone above; sky faint blue; spectrum with small instrument same as below. 

_ (15) Could not use large spectroscope. 

(16) We are above cloud, but not free from mist. 
17) No fine views or forms, all confused and dirty-looking ; the sky is the same as seen 

from below ; we have very little sand; cannot go higher. 
(18) Faint blue sky above: clouds. (19) Ozone 
(20) Sun very faint. 
(21) Spectrum B to F; actinometer rose 5 divisions in one minute. 


(22) In fog; sun i 
(23) In fog; very 
1863, 


nvisible. 
chilly. 


(24) In fog. 


2. 


bh 
2 


450 REPORT—1863. 


Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in the Eleventh 


Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther- 
Aneroid | Height above 


References 
to Notes 


Time. Reading ‘Att.  |Barometer,| sea-level. 
ccgreed, | therm, | No? weet ieee 
to 32° Fahr. 
hm 3 in 5) in. feet ° ° 
UU iter, NPs cokuwctece Po nsdlverisesean ane bas] pce peatuagl eR ors see >|! "lie ce een i Maaae avers 
(2) 2 6 opm 
2 NORAO) Gs bo | attees || eececemaal| aeeeesss | | ecueer 23°0 21°5 
(EY ae pcre prey en Re a Serre! loners 1 Marr meraem Wmeeres, LM |e coll OE 
2 16720 74; 14°34 350 | tease 20,025 | cesses | eeeeee 
CAI tg 5 a Pet aD eer me 25°0 23°0 | 
C3 ak Po) 14°04 B50 | weenee 20,630 28°9 23°0 
(4) 2730 ot 14°34 34°0 14°35 20,025 28°1 23°77, 
280» 14°64 34°0 14°65 19,367 27°5 23°6 
(5) oy CO a A 14°84 34:0 14°85 T9,089% |b csseceon ieee . 
DE WACK 15°04 B4°O | seers 18,746 28°90 24°0 
PER OSLO | Shae Wot tersess ||) jl) bessane |) coe’==) neces 29°2 2371 
LORS 153 15°34 34°0 15°35 18,235 
DEXORUS Nitrite etsy Wil) bev eras || eos enertn | Aumrsomman 29°0 23°5 
(6) BeIOUZO ty. || Vn Sces Ue)” Skewctel ||| Veeeeg [PD Diceeaccin shanna en s 
21045 » 15°54 35°0 15°55 17,888 29°5 245 
2211 ‘O% 5, 16°04 BBON) | hannes 17,422 29°5 245 
(7) > Tr 15 «5, MOpaee | Pecece ||)" Wesdaw 16,776 | <cpabes “| cateds 
DENTE ZO 0 EESns fodees wise, soa00 16°35 16,594. 
ERA GW til galling tess <caenns|  Gereneirall ‘tsssencui| > Wepre ass 26°0 
2 I2Zp O- 4, 16°44 = Aire (imc 16,412 32°0 26°0 
TZ AOe ses se asceeh | Migersany ‘||, s2=°s0). Pies Meera 32°5 262 
i ie EOS 16°34 36°70 | ceeeee 15,762 32°0 27° 
D TBETG fy RE cece S| tego 16°95 15,602 
2.1330 16°99 36°0) | San eee 15,521 
(8) 2 The Oh 4 T7390. nial, deseee 17°40 14,892. | “secese- |. enemas 
(9) Bamearc At Neate We ereces, |e costee, |e eertae 33°70 27°0 
ZiTA.30 45 17°64 36°O. | cecees 14,501 
(10) BITAAS 35 MSA ial. besec uate 14,197 | ceonse, | ceeens 
(11) BETAS Oss 1804 BOIO) «|| Miaccese 13,896 33°0 29°2 
+13) NSTC Re, Rees hue ci Gene td RCE COks lf gk Soko Tet ff oot 33°70 29°2 
18) 215 5 » 
22s ips oleae FOL7A:d, Wi stscoes | |b) as cene 12,865 eos bode 
Os} 2 15 30 } 19°04 “(avers © lh eteenee 12,4090 |( (soccer |) vesmar= 
(15 TIS CN Tease |p ke Sees Meme eR crace cag | Ms Secchi Phere AeA 33°0 29°5 
(16) 2006" 10 44, 19°77 Leah sees 11,412 
BB LGN3O. shh | cieecasc’ = Tt encuae 2O'OR ee eeseee 33°0 27°5 
(17) DB T9045 DOA A ata aes aa 20°45 10,508 33°0 27°0 
(18) 2. EB EIO" sg 20°77 Gestxaiuall. dves “ 10,011 33°0 2675 a 
(19) 2 I9 © 5 ZOMwFs i Weneas), || aenene 10,011 33°5 26°0 i 
2 19) 30) 4 20°SQ =| ceveee | eevee 9,917 i 
pes 0H a 21°29 sevchagg|teesncs 9,402 ./ 
(20) ZR2OueOr hss 21°49 36°0 21°50 9,148 a5 26°0 
(21) 2°20 30\) 45 22°33 37:0 22°35 8,107 34°5 27°2 


(1) In fog. (2) Faint gleams of light. 
(3) Faint gleams of light; fog above and below, none near us. 
(4) Drops of water falling from the balloon. 


(9) Thin rain pattering on the balloon, and moving against us. 
(10) Snow falling fast. (11) Snow-storm ; dark everywhere. 


(5) In fog; no dew at 15°. 
(6) In fog. (7) In fog. (8) In thin fog. 
(12) Spicula, cross spicula. 


i 
4. 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 451 


Balloon Ascent, from Wolverton June 26, 1863. 


mometers (free). N caret | Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers. 
_. = ani 
Zambra’s | Daniell’ | R ult? 
EB ; Gridiron | amieh's. | Kegnault's. 
Diff. |Dew-point. Thermo- | Dry. | Wet. Diff. bile oiae: / 
meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point. 


10. ts 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 


(13) Many six-sided figures, small but distinct, all icy particles. 
tia} Dense snow, no flakes; sand out. (15) Snow appeared to rise. 
(16) Sand out, golden appearance, mixing with snow. (17) No snow. 
_ (18) Lower atmosphere very murky. 
_ (19) Lower atmosphere has a yellowish-brown tinge, remarkably dull. 
(20) Two canals in sight, straight for many miles. 
_ (21) Lower atmosphere very murky ; Mr. Coxwell had never seen it in such a state before, 
when far from a town. si 
.. q . 


452 


REPORT—1863. 


Tarte I.—Meteorological Observations made in the Eleventh 


References 
to Notes 


Siphon Barometer. 


Reading 
corrected 
and reduced 
to 32° Fahr. 


eeeeee 


Att. 
Therm. 


seeeee 


eeeee 
waeeee 
eeeeee 


Aneroid 


No. 2. 


Barometer, 


Height above 
sea-level. 


feet. 
(5,870) 
5,319 
4,138 
35394 
35293 
1,810 
1,259 


779 
ground 


Dry and Wet Ther- 


Dry. Wet 
° ° 

38°0 

39°2 33/2 
42°0 351 
43°0 371° 
462 43°1 
47° 43°0 
66°5 6o'o 


Meteorological Observations made in the Twelfth 


Time. 
he mh 1s 
221 oO p.m, 
(1) Deze (Om ys 
(2) 2EIZa Onis 
(3) 224 0 5 
2-2 Seow has 
225 3° » 
2°26 oF 5; 
B27 OF «sy 
Ze27e30) 45 
2/28 © ,, 
(4) 228+ ,, 
444 opm 
445 9° » 
446 0 5 
(5). 4 47 ° ” 
448 0 ,, 
45% 0° 5; 
453 Oo 
454 9 5 
(6) 455 9° » 
455 + » 
4 56 30 5, 
457 2 55 
458 © ,, 
4 58 20 ,, 
4 58 50 », 
4°59" 9) 3 
459 10 55 
(7) 459 30 » 
5° 1 30. 4s 
5 2 O55 
5 2z 30 ” 
5 4° » 
SWS by gh 
Smee hss 
5 545 » 
(8) 5 6 0 5 
iy ead 
5.7 3° 
(9) 5: Ql vay 
5 1390 yy 
514 0 
1. 


(1) Put up instruments. 
(2) No sand; threw away leaden weights, &c. 
(3) Cannot see any distance on land. 


) 


eee 30°12 
Hochog 30°12 on the 
SPECS 30°12 ground. 
Sav aae 30°12 
tenes 30°II jonthe ground. 
eoners 29°80 523 
Sebcc 29°55 748 
oudtied 29°35 928 
“pads 29°15 1,150 
@ecvce 28°85 1,494 
Socens 28°55 1,788 
parry 28°30 2,036 
On ot 28:00 2,283 
speses 27°65 2,633 
ceeces 26°70 3,580 
svens 26°55 B52 
aheses 26°50 3,780 
eeeeee 26°35 3,930 
neice 26°30 3,980 
cveeee 26°25 4,030 
seeers 26°11 4,170 
sossee 26°05 4,233 
socio 26°00 4,366 
sage 25°78 4,610 
sous 26°40 3,860 
con 26°40 3,860 
3. 4. 5. 


75°2 62°1 
749 62'0 
74°5 62°0 
742 | 61-5 
sda | or 
740 61°6 
73°5 60°5 
joa | gre 
650 | 57-0 
628 | srs 
62°0 52°0 
=} PS) 510 
sie |) ae 
61°5 54°2 
60°5 532 
60'2 53°5 
5952 541 
595° 54% 
60'0 54°8 
64°0 56°0 
63°5 55°0 
6 th 


(4) Wind very strong ; the descent was very rough and difficult. We descended in a corn- 


ae the farm of H. Jones, Esq., on the borders of the counties of Cambridge and 
Norfolk, 


Cit ek ee 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS-IN 1863. 453 


Balloon Ascent, from Wolverton, June 26, 1863. 


mometers (free). Negretti Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers. 
- and a2 
Zambra’s Daniell’s. | Regnault’s. 
‘4 Z Gridiron r r 
Diff. Dew-point.| Ther. Dry. Wet. Diff, Dew-point. f 
mometer. Dew-point. | Dew-point. 
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° 
6-2 24°38 
69 26°6 
60 29°8 43°0 43°0 37'0 6'0 29°8 
| 
| 
31 39°6 | 
38°5 
6°5 54°7 


Balloon Ascent, from the Crystal Palace, July 11, 1863. 


bie SD | 52°7 PAIAoee (scsevel Ei swccce || seen senses 5570 
12°9 eons reer": | cece Siu | eee 8 RG eecyecr|!  Bocase 53°5 
12°5 52°9 73°8 
12°7 B22, | seceee | cece sel soseae || ‘semaeat ui) Wemman . 550 
Ramene | [essere 733 
13'1 514 OE EKaeesoct || scecas, i) eenee wah) eaeaine 54°0 


see eee 69:2 

132 46°9 

Gere -r|  secees 66°5 
8:0 50°4 

ates | ceeses 64°0 


85 43°5 59°2 
senses | sevens 57°8 
Mesedet || esos : 57°5 
70 Ape = veaccnall\eaccto ale tcsces + || ceeds |) cores 46°0 
73 47°9 61°5 
73 46°83 60°5 tecece | ceaeee |  ceeeee | sevens 46°5 
6°7 47°6 605 
sr | 49°5 
4°9 AQ. Wt ‘ews Seneeoma|cdesse ||| ‘eens of) eames 51°5 
52 50°3 OEM |eescerethl) dsccss |i \esseae> Vly acwenn 48°5 
8-0 49°4. 65°0 
8-5 47°9 64°0 seen CCCOCCE wal Wocosde af doencs 49°0 
8 9. 10 11 12, 13 14 15 16. 
(5) Wind East. (6) Balloon left the earth. 
(7) Balloon entered north current; changed direction. (8) Near Croydon. 


(9) Beautiful view everywhere. 


454, 


Taste I.— Meteorological Observations made in the Twelfth 


REPORT—1863. 


2 Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther- 
23 Aneroi : i 
Ee Time. Reading | gy, [Barometer Meighiabore 
a 3 Pe eee Therm, No. 2. Dry. Wet. 
to 32° Fahr. 
hm s in. a in. feet. eS - 
(1) Bel A OMNI We) dese || uses 26°38 3,832 
(2) Bee SUNORsyh Liv eibiete stil ateeses~ qu |(emeneee= ||. Hence 61°5 54°2 
ELC GMMON ees i) k Mittents) il Peeeease 26°10 4,171 62°0 5570 
Bel ASO. 55. Qe j easncuel|| eecene 26°10 4,171 
(3) Set O MPO myaly immo MN UmeReEIe | witacess . | eebemme 63:0 56°0 
Sa2EwgO: 3, |, || Bi tees! alle eee, 26°52 3,771 64:1 56°2 
ESD gO ea | hl Meeres eli eetncs 26°65 3,660 65°0 56°5 
BRZIO nse VaReRrS OL i escecs 26°70 3,610 65"0 57°0 
ez awmOL i) Pi PURMsstss) Lili y aeaees 26°78 3,524 65°0 57°0 
ReoO Nase iil esses. || vigseses 27°10 3,219 66°0 575 
SMS EaSO nay | Miviimieecmss : Tl vigeeses) | UManeses. |]! Ieee 65°5 57°38 
RRZOMSC re Pecaces!. \\i|)u secicce maf peoete A> deewbces 65°5 57°6 
Bee Oss lt cceese? ts ascece™ le? esetcees Tit tsmeecn te tt teeta ee mma meena 
(4) 5 27 3° » 
(5) SWABS (Ov. S meme y Wb Balt lie oa f 26°70 3,581 65°5 57°0 
REZ SENOS, we ANA uceeeee Tat jee Rees 26°65 3,684. 64°2 56°5 
(6) Fae 1S) eer mn Meauneer Oe ete cx scccuagl Ne Hace eal bearer 63°8 56°5 
tee CNN fy Mig Pome Serr 9 | ot Se 26°75 3,580 64°2 56°5 
(7) PARE IY 4-Cop ge Rl Nell 58 Sake ie Bees 27°05 3,195 65°0 57°° 
(8) Bae eaOT als a eeee | seen was 27°50 2,765 65°0 57°1 
(9) RRmEOe se NM aewerens) a] e Btiss 27°70 25575 65:2 57° 
Of FOr cle geo Me | eee Seems | Maa eR 27°85 2,470 65:2 57:0 
11) OM ase Hit a eseewe oT) gieae 28°00 2,287 650 56°83 
(12) PeGD ROL Gs ult ese a eves 27°95 2,342 
(13) EMG P IDAs te hile ester tal) ates 27°80 2,469 65:2 56°8 
rego Ovsty A wisbere +8 Gl) desea 27°90 2,377 65°0 56°8 
(14) Seats Komaey GEM | ee ten commen ter sace 27°35 234Oa: 11) cece ees 
15) REAQRION sa. All = sbeee ms [Gl )cactives 27°85 2,424. 66-0 56°0 
(16) BEAR Oly WW: ceeecet Bl caenaes 27°80 2,469 66-0 55°5 
mea O! A. iit fee moweni ollie sacine 27°80 2,470 66-0 55°5 
(17) RrAg Ors Ul tease OM acs. 27°80 2,470 
(18) BEAGESOMSE ANN Ww cbees > BI ees 27°78 2,488 65°5 560 
AA OE TAA) tech) Bla tates 27°79 2,488 65°3 56-0 
(19) GRAB NON sha? Hl \bcspacelie Ole cdeusie 27°78 2,488 65°0 5671 
GUAT BOha tM saeceet il) .teunae 27°50 2,762 64°5 57°0 
AO IOMs EN A A csctesc te (lie tactene 27°45 2,817 65°0 57°0 
(20) BBAQ) OLS V Hie > esbat A Minds was 27°45 2,820 65°2 57°3 
Geo ROe Wis tara ces UIE eee. 27°45 2,820 65°5 57°38 
(21) S Gay Ros eae on Sas Ih moe 27°50 2,762 65°5 Cries 
RG 2 EOL sf rails “kecsiece cs Ie kanatee 27°55 2,707 65°5 57°8 
O27) HEC Yoh s S| eS ee | te 27°50 2,762 65°5 572 
BURG IO. 4) CMe appa) allt deniers 27°35 2,926 65°0 56°2 
Sasi teller mae | scorch | Stee 27°20 3,046 65°70 562 
SAR UON Ge Ul) esaeees MIN eenass 27°10 3,157 642 56°5 4 
RORAAD coe “Won Buseeos. fl. traces 27°00 3,266 64°2 56°0 
(23) SURES. 3 COU FRR kta eet a Pein aa oul eer 64-0 56°0 : 
1 2. 3 4 5 6. 7. | 
(1) Thin mist. (2) Atmosphere thick and misty. hy 
(3) Cheering of people assembled at Catherham. } 
(4) The Times Newspaper folded four times fell over the side of the car. 
(5) Sky spectrum B to G. (6) Atmosphere thick and misty. 4 
(7) The Newspaper which fell at 5" 274™ is still visible ; it looks like a bird. 4 
(8) Sand out. (9) Paper not reached the ground. i 
(10) Sand out. (11) Paper has reached the ground. e 
+ 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 18638. 


Balloon Ascent, from the Crystal Palace, July 11, 1863. 


mometers (free). 
Diff. |Dew-point. 
° ° 
73 47°9 
JO 49°0 
770° 501 
79 49°6 
8°5 49°5 
8-0 50°4 
80 50°4 
8°5 50°6 
var | 51°5 
79 grr 
8°5 50°2 
77 50°r 
73 50°4 
TF 50,1 
8*o 50°4. 
79 50°6 
8-2 50°3 
82 50°3 
8:2 50°0 
84 49°9 
82 50°0 
roo | 47°9 
10'S 47°0 
10°5 47'0 
9°5 48°3 
9°3 48°4 
8'9 48°8 
25 50°8 
8'o 50°4. 
79 5°°9 
77 51°6 
‘4 8°3 50°4 
77 51°6 
8°3 50°4 
8°38 49°0 
: 8°38 -| 4g'o 
e Ta 49°9 
f 82 . 
8'o 


8. 


Negretti 
and | 
Zambra’s 
Gridiron 
Thermo- 


eeeeee 


weeeee 


renee 


a eeeee 


seeeee 


10. 


(12) Over Epsom Downs. 


(14) Sand out. 
(16) Sand out. 


(19) Sand out. 
fine view ; crossing high road. 


(21) A very 


4 (23) Faint gleams of sun. 


Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). 


Dry. 


eeneee 


Wet. 


rrrry 


teeeee 


seeeee 


eeeeee 


eee eee 


Diff. 


eeeeee 
aeeeee 
se eeee 


13. 


Dew-point. 


seeeee 


seneee 


14, 


455 


Hygrometers, 
Daniell’s. | Regnault’s, 


Dew-point. | Dew-point. 


5370 


525 


SONS 
515 


50°8 


OSS 


52°0 
59°5 
5°19 
49°5 
50°0 
50°0 
5°75 
51°0 


50°0 
50°0 


15. 16. 


(13) About five miles from Reigate. 

(15) Close to Grand Stand on Epsom Downs. 
(17) Crystal Palace and Shooter’s Hill visible. 
(18) The two towers of the Crystal Palace not quite in a straight line with us. 


(20) Near Reigate. 


(22) Sun seen faintly. 


456 


Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in the Twelfth 


REPORT—1863. 


Time. 


References 
to Notes 


=~ 
—_ 
ll 


(2) 


Ww 


~ 
fon) 
C0Oo0000 000000000000 00DDCDCOCOC0C0O0C0OGO0C0O0O0O0O00# 


(10) 


(11) 


(12) 


DANDADADAADAAHA DANDADANDAADAAAAAADAADAAAADAAAAADAADAAAAAAHDAMHNMN 
n 
3 


> 
oo 
©0000000000 


A 


: 3 
B 


Siphon Barometer. 


Reading 
corrected 
and reduced 
to 32° Fahr. 


aeeeee 
eeeeee 
eeeeee 
sees 
seeeee 
tenes 
saeeee 
wueeee 
seeeee 
eeeeee 
aeeeee 
seeeee 
santos 
wanes 
wenaee 
tenes 
seeeee 
see eee 
senses 
wees 
weneee 
wanes 
waeeee 
tenes 


Att. 
Therm. 


seeeee 
saneee 
seeeee 
seetee 
eeeees 
weeeee 
seeeee 
seeeee 
seeeee 
seeeee 
teeeee 
seenee 
seen 
ween 


Aneroid 
Barometer, 
No. 2. 


(1) Faint gleams of sun. 
(3) Sand out; misty. 
(5) Misty. 

(7) Sand out. 


Dry and Wet Ther- 


Height above 
sea-level. ev Wet. 
feet. si x 
3,529 | 63°5 | 56'0 
3,562 63°5 56:0 
3,562 63°2 56:0 
3,617 63°2 56:0 
wees 63°72 56°1 
3,529 63°2 561 
3,250 63°0 561 
3,250 63°70 56°5 
33259 63°0 56°5 
3,529 62°0 55:1 
35720 610 541 
4,133 60°0 52°8 
4610 | 585 | 52°5 
4,610 58:2 52°34 
4,905 56°8 53°0 
5,105 56°8 53°70 
5,271 56°8 52°1 
51327 56°8 52°5 
5,382 57° 54°0 
51550 568 51°9 
5,684. 56-2 515 
5,718 562 51°5 
5,772 56-2 512 
5,828 561 510 
5,334. 56°0 50°5 
6,052 55°5 49°5 
6,451 53°5 47°2 
6,623 54°8 46°5 
6,623 52-2 46°38 
6,588 52°5 47°0 
6,328 53°0 47°0 
6,186 550 47°1 
6,186 5370 47° 
6,186 53°0 47°0 
6,210 53°0 47°90 
6,210 
5,976 53°0 48-2 
6,031 53°0 47°5 
6,087 |° 52°5 | 47°0 
6,031 p52e2. 47°38 
Snaee 52°73 475 
6,309 51°8 471 
6,365 515 472 
6,420 511 46°8 
6,420 510 46°5 
6,453 512 45°5 
6,475 5r 460 
5. 6. 7. 


(2) Ozone: Moffat 1; Schénbein 0°5; Lowe 3. 


(4) Chilly to sense. 


(6) Ozone: Moffat 1; Schonbein 1; Lowe 3. 


(8) Very misty. 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 


Balloon Ascent, from the Crystal Palace, July 11, 1863. 


mometers (free). 


HORRY AI AANHAOIY YY 
WOW WDMHO ONOUMMNO HH BHD NDNH 


sete 


Ney Gp Ur be 
OnNnrw Onn 


DAA Huy 0 a 
C0 OM OMNFWW 


Sie Guru iar jackie al ie 
mW Ws] COP Un 00 


8 
9 


Dew-point. 


49°8 
49°8 


teeeee 


wee eee 


Negretti 
and 
Zambra’s 
Gridiron 
Thermo- 
meter. 


eeeeee 


weeeee 


weeeee 


deeeee 


seeeee 


seen 


aeeeee 


Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated), 


Dry. 


seeeee 


seeeee 


eters 


seeeee 


ences 


saeeee 


seeeee 


Wet. 


Diff. 


Dew-point. 


Hygrometers. 


Danicll’s. | Regnault’s. 


Dew-point. | Dew-point. 


eerene 


senses 


seeeee 


seeeee 


seeeee 


eeetee 


Beeeee 


seeeee 


9. 


10. 


(9) Over Horsham. 
0) Cirrus and cirrostratus clouds far above. 


(1 
ny Very thick ; objects below are very indistinct. 
( 


2) The coast at Brighton is distinctly visible. 


eeenee 


teeeee 


seeeee 


eeeeee 


eeeeee 


eeneee 


° ° 
50°0 


50°0 
50°0 
51°0 


ao73 


49°° 
49°2 
500 
49°90 
49°0 
49°5 
49°3 
48°0 
471 
47°0 
46°5 
46°0 


42°5 
42°0 


415 


415 
40°8 


42°0 
41°83 
415 


41°5 


40°4 
40°0 


15. 16. 


458 


References 
to Notes 


(1) 


(3) 


(4) 


(6) 


(7) 


(8) 


(9) 


(1) Misty. 


NIN NN NNN NNN NNN NNN NOSIN SENN NS SSN SSEN SESISINNN NN NNSNNS DD DDD AAGV A OY 


Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in the Twelfth 


REPORT—1863. 


Time. 


xe = = 
CODA AOWUWNM DAN DANVMNSPWwWwWHNDN HHO 


~~ 
nF 


12 


Siphon Barometer. 


Reading 
corrected 
and reduced 
to 32° Fahr. 


tenes 


weenee 


teens 


(3) A beautiful view of the Downs. 


Dry and Wet Ther- 


Aneroid | Height above 
Att, |Barometer,) sea-level. 

Teen) Nova Dry. Wet. 
Z in. feet o = 
coesewellt cites esi|;  jcateee 511 46°5 
scones 24°00 6,530 sry 46°0 
porn 23°95 6,588 Sul 46°0 
eaide 23°95 6,588 Pury 46°0 
eee 24°00 6,530 51°5 46°0 
enanes 24°00 6,530 51°5 46°0 
ae ctcae 24°32 6,155 514 46°83 
Wess 24°50 5,975 54°70 47°38 
aise 24°90 51523 52°2 471 
pees 25°10 5,298 52°5 48°1 
eee ees 25°05 59355 5372 48°3 
etal 25°25 5,150 53°38 491 
eaeeee 25°40 4,995 54°2 50°O 
seeeee 25°55 4,840 54° 50°0 
eavis 25°68 4,706 54°2 50°5 
ence 25°70 4,685 54°2 510 
viene 25°85 4,532 55°0 sul 
abuse 26°00 4,380 55°72 51l 

eitas 26°32 4,044 
pare 26°32 4,044 56:2 5170 
5 aes 26°40 3,960 56°8 51° 
anes 26°50 3,855 577° 510 
26°55 3,802 57° 50°5 
eras 26°70 3,645 572 51'0 
eaees 27°05 3,277 58°5 50°5 
sevens 27°20 3,120 59°5 50°0 
aeeines 27°25 3,068 59°5 50°5 
noe 27°40 2,910 59°5 50°5 
Sioa 27°40 2,910 59:2 50°5 
soeeee 27°50 2,805 59°2 50°5 
sas See 27°62 2,679 59°5 50°0 
stale 27°70 2,595 59°5 50°2 
eats 28°00 2,280 6orl 50°5 
decjeas 28°08 2,199 60°5 51°0 
28°18 2,098 610 51°70 
aaa 28°27 2,007 612 51°0 
ae 28°40 1,876 61°3 512 
disievor uly Sees >. pRB 61°3 But 
Sones 28°40 1,876 61°5 5ir5 
seins 28°40 1,876 61°8 51°5 
*5n85e 28°40 1,876 62:0 518 
bees 28°40 1,876 62:2 51°8 
253845 28°40 1,876 62°2 51°8 
Sis 28°43 1,846 62:2 51°8 
mente 28°50 1,776 62-4. 51°8 
Leen 28°55 1,727 62-8 52°1 
Soece 28°59 1,688 62°5 52°5 
ase 28°68 1,601 62:8 52°38 
ioe 28°68 1,601 63:1 52°8 
An 28°70 1,582 63-1 5370 
whee 28°75 1,533; 63°3 5371 
3. 4. 5. 6 re 


(2) Shoreham and Worthing. 
(4) Near Newhaven. 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 18638. 459 
Balloon Ascent, from the Crystal Palace, July 11, 1863. 
mometers (free). ee Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). | Hygrometers, 
an 
Zambra’s | Daniell’s, | Re nault’s, 
Diff. Dew-point. aia Dry. Wet. Diff. Dew-point. ing 
meter, Dew-point. | Dew-point. 
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° a 
4°6 41°8 51°0 
Ror ANG SU. | wectagethy scene ob eveses Ul hieeweam 40°5 
51 Agia Wh <staasne | avewsathMl, Kesescco uh cacaces, nee 40°5 
5a erie || (catia ches ammuemll hsaace ull 0s S.c0 8 | eee 415 
5°5 ACG) | -wcsinday fy wemigapmumlle seergen ol). Saeroesiy Ith weet’ 40°0 
5°5 40°5 
46 42°3 52°0 
6-2 POV cM once: | paeaanpih GeaWeer nll mernesedinit peewee 41'0 
SI 42°0 52°5 oconea sh ‘pesese Li descent oll’ > awatec 41°5 
44 43°7 52°7 
49 434 
4:9 AAA dl) scatman» | essen ally “sectencte alt apeceaaen | mae 43'0 
42 45°8 54°3 
40 46°1 
ane 47°4 caning @ | S80easueniy ‘pseane . Ii Ren rami a ie ameaeae 47°3 
3°2 479 
3°9 474 
41 472 Georg || “bsaeses Mik beeses: UI) eee ree Eee 46°7 
BS, 48°0 
58 45°7 
6:0 45°5 Cy eee fe Meroe ee eereee ||). ade Ss 46°4. 
6°5 44°6 572 
62 45°3 
8-0 42°9 Gren |? beveaaiaih asssacr ||| toaeeee es 46°0 
9°5 41°6 
go ASC sormaa a | pscqnadaly) sssccs 5 |) eeceeeeen eee 45°5 
9°90 42°5 
87 | 427 
8°7 42°7 59°4 
g5 | 46 
93 42°0 
9°6 42°0 
95 44°0 Gree ly eneemiy Wh vesaacs). 3, ¢ $a. cacn ul eee 44°5 
Io’ 42°3 
10°2 421 
I'L eee icataas a |) scconwall vp ssiacac cine scccaieel Reeeee 44°0 
98 42°9 61'0 
10°o 42°9 
10"3 42°7 
10'2 ARO centem, || be cinsapema\ eacioay (Pt ca srcem |e arene 43°5 
To"4. 429 
10°4 4279 
10°4 42°9 62°2 
10°6 ASSTA |, <saigeeme Nh cess dinmelbe lessees |) eecese | sabes 43'0 
: 10°7 43°0 
. 19°0 440 
, 10° 44°3 
| 10°3 44°0 
Io°l Adige || . -vaseaae encom aree Te. easiccct ll ou ctice 44°5 
10°2 44°5 
9. - 10. 11. 12. 15. 14, 15. 16. 


(5) Brighton seen. 


(6) Sand out. 
(7) Balloon entered the east current. 


(8) Sand out. 


(9) Sand out. 


460 


REPORT—1863. 


Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in the Twelfth 


References 
to Notes 


| 


(1) 


(2) 
(3) 


(4) 
(9) 


(6) 
(7) 


NNN NNN NNN NNN NN NNN NN NS SENN NINN NN NSN NNN NI NNN NN NNN NS NNN 


Time. 


Siphon Barometer. 


Reading 


corrected 
and reduced 


weneee 
seeeee 
weeees 
weeeee 
seeeee 
weeeee 
seeeee 
seeeee 
seenee 
weeeee 
teeeee 
seeaee 
seeeee 
sneeee 
tenon 
tenes 


seen 
wee eee 
wenn 
seeeee 
eee eee 
seeeee 
teeeee 
see nee 
seenee 
tee aee 


weeeee 


2. 


to 32° Fahr. 


Att. 
Therm, 


seneee 
teens 
eeeees 

weeeee 
teens 
ween 
seeeee 
seeeee 
teeeee 

weeeee 
seeeee 
weeeee 
weneee 
saneee 
teens 
weeeee 
steeee 
steeee 
seeeee 
weeeee 


tenes 
tenes 
see eee 
teens 
seeeee 
sae eee 
teens 
seeeee 


(1) We are moving parallel to the coast. 
(3) Very fine view of the Downs. 


Aneroid 
Barometer, 
No. 2. 


Height above 
sea-level. 


(2) Sand out. 


(4) Nearly over Lancaster Harbour. 


Dry and Wet Ther- 


Dry. 


66'2 


66°8 
66°7 
66°1 
66°1 


66°2 
66'2 
66:2 


66:2 
66°8 
66°8 


66°38 
66-2 
6670 
65°8 


Wet. 


Balloon Ascent, from the Crystal Palace, July 11, 1863. 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 


mometers (free). 


Diff. 


1] 


~~ 
rH MO A CHL YY O° 
Donn o 0 oqnnF o 


Dew-point. 


Negretti 


Gridiron 


meter. 


sete 


weeeee 


461 


Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). 


sewers 


aeeeee 


seeeee 


seeeee 


10. 


11. 


Hygrometers. 


Wet. 


teeeee 


waeeee 


12. 


(5) Flocks of sheep are huddling together. 
(7) Over the Downs. 


Diff. 


eeeeee 


seeeee 


eeeeee 


weenee 


13. 


Dew-point. 


teens 


seeeee 


seeeee 


weeeee 


seeeee 


seeeee 


eeeeee 


14, 


Daniell’s. 


Dew-point. 


As 


48°5 
48°0 
45°0 


44°5 


45°0 


42°5 


42°0 


42°5 


43°5 
44°0 


15. 


Regnault’s. 


Dew-point. 


16, 


(6) Can see the Isle of Wight, and Solent. 
(8) Smoke moving towards the coast. 


462 | REPORT— 1863. 
Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in the Twelfth 


B | Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther- 
23 | : Aneroid Height above 
ES i Readin 
& z, Time. g Att. |Barometer,| sea-level, 
es gcgmectel| ther” | Nom ara lt 
to 32° Fahr. 
ag m 8s in. + in. feet. 6 2 
a) 7 AAP MOND cs} sbesees-2}|| less eee 28°45 pre 63°7 53°0 
TeAReZOsy | || cobease Ot |) Genes 28°5 1,71 3° 52° 
TP eAG LOW A Fi ketcmss Ml) geesees 28°56 1,716 63'8 5370 
(2) 746. © 3 stapsieee Sli ewaes | 28°70 1,580 64'2 54:1 
7 AG BO. 59 sealien. Cobo seseeeea|! | pen ove 28°75 1,532 64°2 54°5 
(3) 7 AG AS oe Weekes one | eB esis ss 28°80 1,483 64°2 54°8 
(4) CP CUM EE GM In \ehontos ley ace | 28°80 1,483 64:2 54°8 
(5) GPiky Shel een, 1h? eee 28°80 1,483 64°2 551 
(6) AARESO Mate Ml ilietice- Aiur tees ses 28°80 1,483 64°2 55°5 
MAG MNO Rh om) Wierseser ipl pases 28°80 483 64'0 56°0 
FRAO TOs hi Cpe ecwsis | feov ess 28°80 1,483 64°2 56:0 
7 PROMO: 55, aniline jsenesets on], soso ane 28°95 1,337 64°5 56% 
eGOUSO ay) Wii sevaxse, 1) dessces 29°00 1,289 64:5 560 
A eGOMES 59 exi[avd keine | | teeenas 29°00 1,289 64°5 5671 
RUEAO wat I) stsiee Speers 29°05 1,241 64°5 561 
PRG MROr cy Tl | usheces |) 1H | ipeavieas 29°08 1,212 64:8 56°0 
(7) PighoegOirsy |. Lstsesat | Jaane 29°15 1,145 ae 5671 
FAGAGO) ag oPerlrsy ckiedon shia cm ea.cee 29°25 1,049 4°8 561 
Puede A Wodatass ol! execs 29°28 1,020 64°8 56°5 
(8) MEAMRO. sh) i A\\) ustewsss |, eexces 29°30 1,000 64°99 | 56°7 
TAGRERO of vailinr iste sccrv any) pesiass 29°30 1,000 65°0 56°38 
(9) MEOEZO cope A) letases |||, > ceeeses 29°30 1,000 65°0 56°8 
FACOG sy |, fatewes © © eaelens 29°28 1,020 65:2 pes 
PART @On ag Mi. sgvess~ || eseese 29°30 1,000 65:0 sr2 
(10) PSTMS 5h) *8| So Tiekuses 0 ||| feedees 29°27 | 1,029 65°2 56°8 : 
PSREMO! 5 eallrant tegeleseirees|| | ees ac 29°30 | 1,000 65:2 571 f 
PRESARIO AG | MIL. Wetesss © i || lessee 29°30 1,000 65:2 57°1 : 
(11) FT EQueO 5) | van wee |) “fecacee 29°30 1,000 65°2 ge 
FUSOEBO. 54) aaileeb) passes or ay|| esos 29°35 | 952 65°2 5771 } 
(12) ABO AG ih Allee etssce, | UL sees 29°50 | 808 65°5 57°5 | 
(13) MMT INOUE) TIN) Scaweren fill messes 29°55 | 760 65°5 57°5 
(14) 8 1 30 5, 
(15) PMO ah! 9 yl Suweroce lll hears, 29°45 856 65°2 572 
(16) Be BREO og) ayes Sedseon chico» eeeeas 29°38 923 6671 57°0 
CPT Man ee Octo | pes cece 29°15 | 1,144 65°5 56:8 
(17) SAMMONS lice wseeemsen uel) eeeras, 29°05 1,241 65°5 56°8 
see ic Vo haicy ee | emt RECC | Re cocoa 29°00 1,290 65°5 57°0 
(18) Sumer One Hie Wdaed 4, Il) diwacies: 29°05 1,241 65°0 57°0 
(19) 8 5 15 » 5 eben | P= ee 29°05 | (1,241 65:0 57°0 
SieMOMOnee w oi|) svetuees tl. div sisicens 29°10 1,192 6571 571 
(20) BS AGHGO: 5 stilwanieterosau nad! Meseieze 29°15 1,144 65°1 572 
BT ERO. Gt cll iantteaen sah seeres 29°20 1,096 65°2 571 
(21) Sey US ok SN Lphatteas = ||) esas. 29°25 1,048 65°2 571 
(22) Bessie CO el) Gil) wrctrieces {Il Weenies 29°25 1,048 65°72 57°71 
ie 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. ie 
(1) Railway. (2) Can see Arundel. 
(8) A fine park ; Duke of Norfolk’s. (4) Arundel Castle. 
5) Again within the influence of the East wind. (6) Not far from Bognor. 
S \ gn 
(7) Tinkling of sheep bells ; the roads are remarkably white. a 


(8) Very wooded country. ; 

(9) The scene was now almost fairy-like, the panorama seemed to be moving; the wind 
was §8.E. 

(10) Cries of ‘come down” distinctly heard, and the cheering cries of children heard above 
other sounds. (11) The wind is now E. ; sea-breeze felt. 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 463 


Balloon Ascent, from the Crystal Palace, July 11, 1863. 


mometers (free). Megretts Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers. 
an 
Zambra’s . 
sas Daniell’s. | Regnault’s. 
Diff. | Dew-point. anes Dry. Wet. Diff. | Dew-point. 
meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point. 

° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° 
10°7 441 
IIo 43°6 
10°8 44°0 
Io'l 45°8 CASE A GeccaeO Ph Genceaapil|” assencasly conde 47°0 

9°7 46°5 

9°4 47°0 

9°4 (ly ee aes oc 47°5 

gt 476 

8°7 48°4 

8:0 RTM | Nredetass,T ||. \sscSeQWl. fesmana Ml ecorsnas lM srattas 48°0 

8-2 49°3 

84. ABO To -seasde| | lacaces' Gil lessane Bil) decttevaghale teesk es 48°5 

8°5 ago 

8-4 49°2 

8-4 49°2 

8°83 48°8 

8-7 49°0 6459) | ne Oh ‘ccna eet eeeneeee 49°0 

8-7 49°0 

83 49°7 

8-2 50°0 

8-2 em athe) | sect GR sv eonae Pac satieee 50°0 

8-2 50°0 

8:0 Petre | ewes: | qed gt socna bel), Beceem °° 

78 50°8 re 

$2 32 A eS ed sscsnayel|  Gacceeimle lacdes 50°8 

81 50°5 

8-1 50°5 

81 50°5 

8x 50°5 

8:0 50°9 

8-0 50°9 GEEGnA |) vO based.) eee aee et 51°0 

8*0 50°7 

gt 49°6 

3°7 49°9 

87 | 49°9 

85 Boros TP cnet et | Fee Secccelenl|  Secwsuuglllal omnes 51°5 

8:0 50°4. 

8:0 50°4 

8:0 50°5 

8*0 50°5 

81 50°5 

81 50°5 65°3 

8'1 50°5 

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. pla, 16. 

, (12) Moving due West. (13) Over Dale Park, and moving towards Portsmouth. 

(14) Sand out. (15) Very wooded country, with forests of wood. 


(16) A pack of dogs barking at the balloon in the wildest state of excitement. 

(17) Ducks and geese are scuttling away very much frightened. 

(18) Packed up hygrometer. (19) A very extensive wood under us. 

(20) Over a very extensive wood. . 

(21) We are apparently about 4 or 5 miles from the coast. 

(22) Heard a bugle; Chichester was stated to be 5 miles from us, by a countryman to 
whom we spoke. 


464 


Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in the Twelfth 


REPORT—1863. 


References 
to Notes 


(3) 


h 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
3 
8 
8 
8 
3 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
$ 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
3 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 


Time. 


v 
N 
wo 
ooo0o0o00 00 


ww 
cr) 
w 
oo 


wo 
re) 
w 
oo 


Siphon Barometer. 


Reading 
corrected 
and reduced 
to 32° Fahr. 


see ee 


seeees 


seeeee 


seen 


teeeee 


seeeee 


seen 


Att. 
Therm. 


whee 
oteeee 
scenes 
rnd 
senses 


seenee 
teeeee 
seeeee 
teeeee 
weeeee 
senna 
ween 
tee eee 


Aneroid 
Barometer, 
- No. 2. 


weeeee 


(1) Goodwood Park visible ; we shall go over it. 
(3) Packed up the gridiron thermometer. 


Height above 
sea-level. 


(2) Bugle again. 


Dry and Wet Ther- 
Dry. Wet. 
° ° 
65:2 571 
64°5 561 
64°5 56°5 
64°2 55°8 
64°3 55°5 
64°5 55°5 
64°2 55°5 
64°2 5572 
64°2 56°0 
642 56°0 
63°8 562 
63°9 56°5 
642 56°5 
64°2 577° 
64°5 570 
64°5 57°° 
64°5 57°° 
64°8 577° 
64°38 57°° 
64°8 57°2 
64°2 57a 
65°5 571 
65°2 57-% 
652 57'2 
65°1 571 
64°8 561 
64°8 5671 
64°5 561 
64°5 56°0 
64°5 56:2 
64°0 55°3 
64°2 56°0 
64°2 5670 
64°2 57:0 
64°2 56°5 
64°2 56°7 
64°2 571 
64°2 571 
64°5 571 
64°5 572 
6571 582 
65°1 582 
65"1 57°2 
650 571 

68°5 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 465 


Balloon Ascent, from the Crystal Palace, July 11, 1863. 


mometers (free). Nemeth Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers. 
an 


Zambra’s | sp S , 
Gridiron Daniell’s. | Regnault’s, 


Diff. Dew-point.| ‘Thermo. | Dry. Wet. Diff. |Dew-point. r ; 
meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point. 

S:x 50° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° 

8°4 49°2 

8-0 49°2 

84 | 489 

88 48°3 

go 43°1 

87 48-4 

g0 47°8 

8-2 49°3 

8-2 49°3 

7°6 49°9 

74 504 

Ld 501 

72 51-0 64°3 

ie 50°8 

7°5 50°8 

fs 50°8 

78 50°6 

78 50°6 

76 51'0 

71 512 

84 50°2 

8-1 50°5 

80 50°6 

8:0 50°5 

87 49°0 

87 49°0 

8-4 49°2 

85 49°0 

83 | 494 «| (64's 

8°7 48°1 

$2 49°2 

$2 49°2 

72 51°0 

77 5o°r 

75 

71 

7t 

74 

73 

69 

69 

“9 

79 


10. 11. 12. 13. 


(4) Over Goodwood Park; wooded country. 
(5) Packed up instruments. (6) On the ground. 


1863. 2a 


466 CBs | REPORT— 1863. 
Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in the Thirteenth 


2 Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther- 
es Reading | .__ IpAmeToid | Height above 
ne Time. Reading Barometer, 4 
oA 0 Att. »| sea-level. . 
gs andsadvend | Wher’ | No-ts as 
to 32° Fahr. 
(1) hm 5 in ° in. feet, 6 
Se eons ale al |Meat ie lied Eee) ke | CoS MR he send o"2 
asters ae) Si el ee ieee ba cee 29°52 61-2 
(digits Wty BES oat BB! ne ieee WN lie ciel) ih OR on the 611 
(2) Ar eoe ONs,. P| eamscs) ieetercens 29°51 ground 61°1 
Y aghiek Coy ERY) Mle coco LE\h « code 29°42 60°0 
(3) Diep ede eS ON Wear HORM i one 29°15 $21 59°3 
(4) eT abo) Ay | pha a ir coset Bl ber oogene 28°80 859 
BRD OAO By) wait ascot | IM gess vee 28:60 1,051 | 6B°or |f <a 
ib, Po pales GY aS lee SSRepme ne OU cone 28°42 1,227 58°0 
O) SESS Ones Pel Sees. | | Fevseee 28°20 1,439 5771 
(6) | 4 53 30 » 
(7) te Torte ayes Rea NMS ai See ae [os ee 27°95 1,681 56-2 
(8) SE ele Se all le UREA he Coors 27°70 1,823 55°5 
4 54 4° » 
CY ie Fhe Tet SR GN ic eee el We sss 27°42 2,095 5670 
(10) 4 55 20 55 
(11) BOGS TOs | || Teves BAe. 27°25 2,351 54°8 
(12) 4 55 4° » 
(13) Ri OED 2 SP gl fie ws LEE Ips KR 27°05 2,589 54°0 
AAG eRO ee, Ot MEEREcccs) | |\Mfedneas 26°90 2,740 53°5 
POP a hye t, | sch foi feov ene 26°80 2,845 54°2 
AO S7 20<% 4) |) Se eeeass 5 tees oo 26°90 2,740 54°0 
TOS Se eC iae ie MR Ngee ocreh nl (es soe 26°95 2,790 54°2 
(14) SSR GOW Sef) MP Pepe ece 27°05 2,589 53°5 
(15) Sh TOL ye eer eeece lt plekes de! MOM Er ccs (2,556) 53°2 
(16) reSOMBO ge ok MPRee Reco. Wie Bec at) Maecones (2,523) 53°5 
(17) Be TOTO haere ces 2. fe iece nes 27°15 2,488 5570 
(18) 5 9 30 » 
(19) jaa ee oie Se WG Re See adler 27°03 2,610 5570 
Spares 8 
eet Tour we ee leet aes-oeer ml 1» acer 26°95 2,700 54°5 
gees ie I | poe cece NEL ScertS 26°80 2,850 54°2 
(20) | § 235, 
(21) Cec Jee KON 3) Mil! Newmaly COTE) pe) aos 26°75 2,900 53°8 
5 245 » 
CIR hie Ua Sn Pina ocr Nee cco 26°75 2,900 53°3 
(22) y 9:50) % 
(28) 5 315 » 
(oy CUI VOM jar st Coats Sosy 28 an 26°68 2,967 53°0 
Cpe 2 oN Se bias Acre aah bg Sep 26°70 2,945 52°5 
(24) Gdn ve ANIME eats ona |e eee 26°75 2,890 52°2 
oe BR Owmto ees} iiprca neem | abso scr 26°85 2,750 53°2 
ie AEE 
(27) CAF RRCTSIN 2M 8 SARA TSS snc 27°10 2,535 53°2 


a 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 


(1) Sky overcast, wind 8. by E. 
(2) Drops of rain as large as fourpenny pieces. 
(3) Balloon left the earth. (4) Entered clouds. 


(5) Earth out of sight on three sides; Crystal Palace still visible. 
(6) In clouds; clouds very light ; earth entirely out of sight. 


(7) Gas let out; clouds very light. ° (8) Gas let out; very cloudy: ~ 
(9) Gas very cloudy. (10) Train heard. 

(11) In dry cloud. (12) In white cloud. 

(18) Darker above than below. (14) In dense fog. 4 


Fhe 


re 


Balloon Ascent, from the Crystal Palace, July 21, 1863. 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 467 


moreters (free). Mesmetti Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers. 
- — an COCO | 
Zambra’s Daniell’s. | Regnault’s. 
Diff. |Dew-point. Gace: Dry. Wet. Diff. |Dew-point. 
meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point. 
¥ ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° 
13 MOlO fl  ceatack || | soeeas eH far cece Pg WS (os A Peek 59°5 
o3 59°6 
o2 609 
o2 60'9 
O°5 59°5 
12 581 
| 
ae ese 60'0 | 
Fee 56'9 
I'l 56'1 
1°3 54°9 
ro 54°5 56°5 | ; 
oo 560 
oro 54°8 
j 
oro 54°0 
oe 53°5 53°5 
o'9 54/2 549° 
oo 54°0 | 
oo ae pegs |) \o<esk spasm, |) | eeslagpie anit hs aeeeae ttl Wir ees 54°5 
F | 


8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14, 15. 16. 
(15) Gas getting clearer. (16) Sand out. ; (17) Hammering heard. 
(18) Hum of London heard ; bell tolling. (19) Heard railway whistle. 


(20) Clouds above darker than those below ; can see the white edge of lower cloud. 
(21) Out of cloud. 
(or Earth visible through a break in the clouds. (23) Docks visible below. 
34) Docks and River Thames visible; over Greenwich ; ships visible. 
(25) Over West India Docks. 
* (7 In open space; lower clouds moying N.E., and much faster than we are. 
» 27 Wind S.W.; moving N.E. 
2H 2 


468 


Tasty I.—Meteorological Observations made in the Thirteenth 


REPORT—1863. 


Eg 
5a Time. 
as 
hm s 
5745 pm 
5, 8 Oy, 
(1) 5 815 » 
(2 5 8305 
(3) 5 845 » 
(4) BLS Om 
D0 32 tae 
5 9 45 » 
(5) 5 0.9 1, 
5 10 3° 5, 
(6) | $1045» 
§ 11 Oo 5; 
(7) 5 11 3° » 
(8) Seer PANIED 
(9) 2 25, Gy 
(10) RAND GO) 5, 
513 0 » 
5 13 39 »s 
Beth Sole 
5 14 3° » 
(11) 515 0» 
Bich L539 
5°25" 3°)» 
5 15 45 » 
(12) 5 764105, 
5 16 15 ;, 
5 16 30 5, 
Oi aioe & 
§°97°30 } 
5 ISOs, 
5 18 30 ,, 
§ 19 O° » 
(13) 5 19 30 » 
IG 1ZOLNO Ue, 
(14) 5 20 30 5, 
(15) 5.2045 », 
iG oteeO: ss 
(16) 5 21 30 » 
Baez Of; 
(17) 5 22 30 » 
(18) 5230» 
5 23 15 » 
5 23 3° ” 
(19) 524 oO» 
5 24 3° »» 


(1) In cloud. 
(2) Over high 
(3) See the earth through a thin layer of cloud. 


(4) Over a field ; detached clouds bel 


Siphon Barometer. 


Reading 

corrected Att. 
and reduced | Therm. 
to 32° Fahr. 

in. A 


ee ee ry 
ee rr 
es ee 
Se ee 
Cr) es cr) 
Ce oo) 
Cr rs oe 
Pr cr) 
Cr es 
eeeess |  seeeee 
Ce, 
Ce, es 
agence. ))] f wesiese 
eeesee | veeces 
er ee 
re es Cr) 
Orr. es 
er, es eT) 
eecees | eeeeee 
aeeese |  ereeee 
rr ee 
seeeee 


eeeeee 


Pr. es rr) 


Aneroid 
Barometer, 
No. 2. 


Height above 
sea-level, 


wteeee 


Dry and Wet Ther- 


Dry. 


Wet. 


tenes 


road; scud below moving apparently much faster than the balloon. 


in which we were moving recently. 


(6) Passing below lower stratum ; over River 


(7) Over Walthamstow ; carts visible, 
(9) Over East London Cemetery. 


ow; we are m 


oving in an opposite direction to that 
(5) Scud below moving very fast. 

Lea. 
(8) Nearly over Victoria Park. 

(10) Lowering grapnel. 


i 


= 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863, 469 


Balloon Ascent, from the Crystal Palace, July 21, 1863. 


mometers (free). Neeretti Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers. 
an 
Zambra’s i 
“a: Daniell’s. | Regnault’s. 
Diff. |Dew-point. Esc Dry. Wet. Diff. |Dew-point. 
meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point. 
° °o ° ° ° ° °o ° ° 
o'7 52°8 54°2 
o'7 52°38 
O'7 52°8 
eo 53°3 
o°8 53°4 55°0 
14 52°7 
15 52°5 
<aee Ne laumewey | cssiacws | canese seeeee eeeeee eeeeee ecco 53°70 
o9 54°3 
rr 54°1 562 
o"4 55°4 
o2 55°38 
o'7 55°8 
rae ||! iedg one 57°8 
oo 57°2 
eg 57°5 F 
oro 57°5 5775 | gee ees Aro | parecer PRN wre aaeete 58°90, 
o"o 56°2 
oo 555 
oo 54°8 
g’o 54°2 54°2 
eres |) sb 8 | eet “A> gacveae-|) -pecuee peneee ages 54°5 
o"2 53°8 54°3 
05 | 53:0 
1"0 5370 
05 | 52°5 
08 514 
1'2 50°8 
o'7 EOM A caters || SceepeN GP secceprnal| ~ gavsna eevee oveeee 515 
14 5°°7 


oreeee 


16, 


12. 15. 


10, 13. 14, 


11. 


(11) In fog, (12) In cloud. 

(13) Clouds on same level as ourselves ; some below; darker above ; gas thick and opaque 
railway whistle heard. (14) Large masses of cumulus cloud below; light below, 

(15) Light below; dark above. (16) In fog. 

(17) Fine rain falling ; grapnel visible plainly ; misty all round. 

(18) In wetting fog. 

(19) Very fine rain falling; clouds blackish below; earth visible; water dropping from 
the balloon; scud below. 


. 


470 


REPORT—18638. 


Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in the Thirteenth 


References 
to Notes 


(16) 


h 
5 
5 
5 
5 
» 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 


Time. 


Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther- a 
Som na Bis eer ppp csicte ire - / i: 
and reduced | Therm. tak i er 
to 32° Fahr. 
in. in. feet. o 6 
ebiveed) > a) l-\deemae 27°50 2,180 550 54°2 
Scens |) Ebenane 27°70 1,960 55°5 54°1 
eee iat 28°00 1,626 ; 
Saesael! df PU Rese. 28°60 1,044 59°0 59°0 
cabteset | \hi= Seaton 28°65 995 610 610 
= ne aes 28°66 987 61°2 612 
gdeesr’ | Bxacus 28°70 948 61k 61't 
sigscairerep! Ensces 28°75 goo 61°5 61's 
Ta ees ee 28°75 goo 61°5 61°5 
eevee ill abeaees 28°95 706 61°38 61°8 
pees? | IW pesbes 29°00 651 
eee (ed eee 29°00 651 61°5 61°5 
ageese uit MiRexasm 28°90 755 
ele 3 te 28°72 929 60°5 60°5 
sanee a8 |) pbaeeen 28°45 1,179 
Mics NP sk ees 28°33 1,300 53°5 585 
re Feo) ae fore 27°90 1,714. 57°2 57°2 
Sicha fi teens | 27°60 1,960 57°5 572 
Geico minteni,. eeenas 27°60 1,960 57°5 57°5 
aeetine) | il) Beaese 27°60 1,960 57°5 59°5 
Ribiese wl) pevarcee 27°68 1,898 57°5 57°5 
S eee ed oes 27°78 1,801 57°8 57°8 
samase. |, | azar 27°80 1,780 58°5 58°5 
Swees | iP SEeaee | 28°00 1,635 58°9 58°9 
saencep sunt Senta 28°18 1,455 53°6 53°6 
reas, 6 le iBone 28°30 1,330 59°2 59°90 
idiseset I Rises 28°50 1,131 59°5 59°5 
Venaom, |b bean 28°60 1,041 
Sere lime crrone 28°65 996 60'0 
eesti! lla earns 28°70 gs 60'9 
A eae | OMA er 28°75 906 613 
eal | ed a 29°05 636 61'5 
eaheaty lf aes 29°35 313 61'°5 
Ay SET ences 29°58 ground 615 60°5 
2. 4. 5. 6. if 


(1) In black cloud; earth invisible; darker below than above ; gas beautifully clear ; can 
see netting through the balloon. 
(2) The drops of rain are very minute, as fine as pins’ points. 


(3) In clouds; grapnel scarcely visible. 


(4) Still in cloud; can hear the tinkling of bells; can hear the noise made by the rain 


pattering on the trees of Epping Forest. 
(5) Can see the road through the Forest ; seud below; road nearly invisible. 


(6) Scud far below. 


(8) Packed up Daniell’s Hygrometer. 


(7) Earth invisible; clouds above darker than below. 
(9) Gas thick and opaque; grapnel invisible. 
(10) The grapnel and half of the rope are invisible. 


(11) The grapnel is just visible; rain pattering on the balloon. 
(12) Rain-drops about >,th of an inch in diameter. 
(13) Earth visible ; scud below moving at a greater rate than we are. 
14) In cloud; very dark; earth invisible ; wind blowing in my face. | 
tis} Changed direction ; passing over Wood; can see sheep clearly. 
" (6) Grapnel dragged through two trees, breaking off branches, &c., then through a pond, 
_and finally caught in the bank. The descent was effected in a corn-field, and various efforts 
_ were made to bring the balloon out ; but owing to the strength of the wind, the united strength 
_ of ten or twelve men was insufficient to get it over the hedge and keep it there. 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 471, 
Balloon Ascent, from the Crystal Palace, July 21, 1863. 
mometers (free). eis Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers. 
an 
poe Daniell’s. | Regnault’s. 
Diff. |Dew-point.| Thermo- Dry. Wet. Diff. | Dew-point. 
. meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point, 
a8 53°4 o ° °o ° ° ° ° 
14 52°7 
o"o 59 59°2 
o"o 61°0 
"0 61'2 
foe} GR | BARA UP 33g. WR ee ck ee cee L Oidececs 61°5 
oo 61°5 61°6 
oo 61°5 
oo 61°38 62°0 
o"o 61°5 
oo «=| (60's 
[oMe) 58°5 
9"o 572 57°3 | 
0°3 569 
oro 57°5 
oro 57°5 
Ce) Bae 57°5 | 
s oo 57°8 
Hy oo 58°5 
; oo 58°9 
F [oXe) 58°6 58°7 
t o2 53°83 
“| oo 59°5 
4 
‘ 
? 
§ 
‘ ro 59°5 
i : | 
: 8. 4h 10. 11, 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 


472 


§ 4, ApopTep TEMPERATURES OF THE Arr, THE Wet-Bvts, anv THE Dew-Pornt, 
In Five Barioon AScENTs. 


Tantz I1.—Showing the adopted Reading of the Barometer, calculated Height 
above the Sea, Temperature of the Air, Temperature of the Wet-bulb 
Thermometer, and Temperature of the Dew-point in the ninth, tenth, 


REPORT—1863. 


and eleventh Ascents.—NintH Ascent.—March 31, 


‘ime of Reading) Height 
bacon Pika sae the 
tion. oe daeed level of 
P.M. to 32° F. the sea. 

|}h m_ s| in. feet. 
4 11 29°72 420 
14 29°72 420 
16 29°39 780 
17 2910 | 1048 
18 28-60 1515 
ZO 30] oeee SADE 
21 26°56 3507 
21 30| 26°36 | 3698 
23 25°41°| 4A77t 
24. 24°82 | 5296 
25 24°22 | 5937 
27 23°52 | 6251 
27 30) 23°22 | 7035 
28 22°92 | 7380 
29 22°75 | 7557 
32 21°63 | 8872 
33 | 21°33 | 9218 
35 20°63 | 10047 
40 18°73 | 12536 
41 18°33 | 13070 
43 | 17°34 | 14481 
44 16°84 | 15198 
44 30| 16-49 | 15738 
45 ose ((15793) 
46 30] 15°95 | 16669 
47 15°63 | 17060 
48 | 15°45 | 17451 
49 | 15°35 | 17616 
49 30| 14°86 | 18475 
50 14°96 | 18304 
51 15°06 | 18123 
52 15°46 | 17400 
58 30, 15°67 | 17097 
59 30/ 15°67 | 17097 
2 15°36 | 17636 
4 [1496 | 18293 
6 14°66 | 18730 
6 30| 14°62 | 18795 
7 weer ane 
8 50| 14°37 | 19197 
Ke) 14°27 | 19356 
12 13°47 | 20865 
14 13°87 | 20076 
15 13°82 | 20136 
16 13°68 | 20374 
20 13°18 | 21331 
23 | 13°48 | 20749 
24 13°38 | 20910 
25 12°88 | 21868 
26 12°78 | 22068 
27 12°38 | 22884 
31 15°98 | 16486 
32 1609 | 16309 


Time of ep 
obser" | Barom, 
reduce 

Ee |toaa ae 

h m 8) in. 

5 33 | 35°78 
34 | 16°83 
35 16°88 
37 16°83 
38 16°58 
41 | 16°57 
42 | 16°37 
42 30) 16°47 
43 | 16°13 
45 | 16°13 
46 16°17 
47 16°17 
47 40) 16°17 
49 | 16°37 
50 WOOL 
52 | 16°47 
52 30) 16°57 
53 | 16°77 
54 | 16°97 
55 17°37 
56 = | 17°37 
56 30| 17°37 
57 | 37°88 
58 18°27 
58 30) 18°47 
59 18°87 

6 1 19°28 

2 1047 
3 | 19°87 
5 20°97 
8 22°38 
9 22°78 
CP eisl SKS 
Io 23°48 
II 23°78 
Ir 30} 24°18 
12 24°38 
23 24°77 
14 sor16 
14 30) 25°29 
5 ees oT, 
16 25°37 
17 26°48 
19 26°87 
20 27°07 
21 27°46 
22 27°96 
22 30| 28°16 
23 28°36 
24 28°86 
25 29°06 
25 30] 29°50 
30 29°89 


Height 


above the 


level of 
the sea. 


feet. 
16809 
15149 
15080 
15080 
15556 
15565 
15872 
15714 
16080 
16080 
16080 
16080 
16080 


15847 


(15775) 


15630 
15489 
15227 
14965 
14622 
14325 
14325 
13614 
13077 
12797 
12232 
11674 
11486 
10917 
Os72 
7997 
7443 
(795°) 
6657 
6279 
5901 
7696 
5273 
(4910) 
4729 
4441 
5168 
3528 
Seas 
2950 
2570 
1908 
1724 
1590 
1260 
1070 
893 
ground 


Temp. 
of the 
Wet- 
bulb. 


S5‘I 
= ie 


31 
an 
31 
ous 


6'0 


7° 
77° 
71 
8°4 
Io'l 


Ir! 
112 


17'0 


18'o 
19°5 
20°5 
21°0 
212 
22'0 
22°'0 
22°0 
23°0 


24°4 
261 
26°2 
27°2 
27°5 


Temp. 
of the 
Dew- 
point. 


— 64 
— 63 
275 
—35 
—26°0 
—26°0 
ae as: 


—238°7 
—28°7 
—28°7 
—238'1 


— v8 


-— 46 
_ 8°5 
—21'5 
—174 
— 62 


— 75 
—14°4 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1868. 473 

Between 4° 27" and 5" 56™ I failed in obtaining any deposition of dew on 
either Daniell’s or Regnault’s hygrometer, but the wet-bulb acted very satis- 
factorily during these times, and indicated the very low readings inserted in 


the Table. 


Tas re II. (continued.)—Tenta Ascent.—April 18. 


] : 

, Reading : i [Reading] preicht Temp. | Temp. 
jar. ofthe shoe ti Leas Pd ofae Era ie the hove the Aone: of the of ee 

tion. ma Raced level of rete Wet- | Dew- tion. | vadned level of |° ‘Air, Wet- | Dew- 

PeMy tg 39° F, the sea, * | bulb. | point. P.M. to 32°F. the sea. bulb. | point. 
hm s/ in. feet. 5 = 5 hm _  “s/ in feet. a 2 5 
o 12 29°80 esos | 630 | 5572 50°2 || © 55 14°05 | 20338 

15 29°80 | esse | 59°5 | 53°5 48°3|| 56 14°05 | 20338 
I 13 29°66 eeee | 60°8 | 54°75 4911/2 0 13°75 | 20943 | 1370 | 5:0 |--57°1 

14 29°66 | ....-|61'°5 | 54:2 47°38 2 14°05 | 20428 

TJ | ZOE, |p L030. 15972 | 54°0 48°4 | 9 13°65 | 21120 | 14°2 

17+ | 28°57 1603 | 57°2 | 5171 45°5 | 10 seins eres [1570 | 3°70 go"o 

18 27°97 | 2185 | 56:0 | 50°5 45°4 II Aer cece | 14'S 

18 30) .... | (2380) | 55:2 | 49°0 43°1 12 13°35 | 21646 | 13°0 

19 27°57 | 2575 |54°0 | 48-0 42°2 13 13°30 | 21760 

20. 26°75 | 3555 |49°2 | 43°0 | 364\| 14 | 13°30 | 21760 | 165 

21 10)25°79 | 4392 |47°2 | 41°0 34°1 15 13°25 | 21869 a xe 13°2 

22 30) 24°50 | 5759 | 412 | 3571 27°5 15 30, 13°20 | 22041 | 130 | 62 |—69°7 

24 wiaiy = esos 140°5 | 37°0 33°6|| 22 30) 12°75 | 22954 |12°0| oo |—97-2 

24. 15}23°90 | 6420 | 39°0 27 12°60 | 23258 |12°3 

24 30/2361 | 6744 | 37°0 | 35:2 32°6 28 e+e | 23460 | 12°0 

25 30|23°21 | 7180 | 34°5 | 33°2 aro0 28 30| 12°50 | 23460 | 12:0 

26 22°77 | 7694 | 32°8 29 12°50 | 23461 

27 30) 22°70 | 7764 29 30) 12°48 | 23500 

29 20°85 | 1coz0 | 32°0 | 25°8 121 30 12°50 | 23460 

29 30) 20°63 | 10342 3° 30) 13°35 | 23753 | 12°5 | O75 |—92°8 

30 20°12 | 11055 | 31°5 | 24°2 5°9 31 12°45 | 23539 | 12°2 

32 19°13 | 12259 | 23°2 33 12°65 | 23109 | 12°71 

32 30] ...- |(12600) | 23°0 33 10) 12°75 | 22907 |12°5 ro |—88-4 

33 eres con eto 33 30, 13°35 | 21765 

34 | 18°35 | 13340 | 23°2 33 45 13°55 | 21381 

34 10] 17°95 | 14030 | 21°0 34. 13°65 | 21189 

35 e+e+ | (14600) | 21°0 37 30, 16°64 | 15998 |15°7 | 7:0 |—55°6 

35 30| 17°24 | 14986 | 20°0 38 30,17°24. | 14967 

40 16°25 | 16504. |17°2 | 13°0 |—19°0! 39 seee 1(14670) [16-7 | 8°83 |—51-4 

42 15°86 | 17057 |12°0 | 6'0 |—20°6|| 4o 17°64. | 14311 

43 15°81 | 17140 | 12°r | 5°r |—49°3|| 40 30, 18:14 | 13590 | 16-5 | 10°0 — 39°7 

47 15°46 | 17749 | 1270 | 5'0 |—49°5 AT 30) anes £9 TAS! PAS S| AS 

48 15°81 | 18886 |iz70 | 4°5 |—53°8} 42 19°94. | IIIo00 |180 | 15°75 |— 3:2 

49 14°81 | 18886 |12°0| 4°99 |—50°3 43 20°04 | 11003 |20°2 | 181 |+ 4°6 

50 sees |(1g140) | 11°8 57 |—41°6 43 30) 20°24 | 10785 | 24:2 | 19°0 |—10°6 

52 14°37 | 19644 | 10°5 44. 20°94. |. 9609 |261 | 20°0 |—10-4 

52 50) 14°15 | 20163 | 11°5 48 +++» | ground | ,, | 2070 

54. 14°15 | 20163 | 11°3 | 6:0 |—35-2 


The rope connecting us with the earth broke; I was consequently thrown, 
by this sudden departure, among the instruments, and both Daniell’s and 
Regnault’s Hygrometers were broken; I was therefore solely dependent on 
the Wet-bulb Thermometer, whose action was throughout good. 


N.B, From all the observations of the temperature of the air, the wet-bulb, and the 
dew-point in the preceding Tables, a determination was made of these elements, with the 
corresponding readings of the barometer and heights. Some of the numbers in the column 
for heights have been interpolated when either of these elements have been observed with- 
out a corresponding observation of the barometer. The numbers thus found are within 
brackets. The results are contained in the Tables in pp. 472-475, 


A474, REPORT—1863. 


Taste II. (continued.)—Eteventu Ascent.—June 26. 


Time of | Reading each . Reading ; T T 
y ght Temp. | Temp. || Time of Height ‘emp. ‘emp. 
observa- Ebel above the genes of the | of the || observa- “4 pila above the py of the | of the 
Bon Pearce LeveLor o me ©! Wet- | Dew- tion. | reducea| levelof | °,: | Wet- | Dew- 
P.M.  |to 32° F,| the sea. * | bulb. | point. P-M. — |tg 39° F. the sea. * | bulb. | point. 
h 8 | in. feet. a ° 33 hm s/| in. feet. a ° 
I 29°70 | ground 136 =| 15°33 | 18291 


sans see |66:0 | 57°0 49°8|| 36 201 15°23 | 18435 | 292 | 212 |— 7°8 
29°15 884 | 65:0 | 56°0 48°7 36 30) 15°23 | 18435 a ee |—I0'r 
30] 28°57 1445 |62°0 | 54°0 47°2 36 45) 15°13 | 18555 |26'2 | 21°0 |— 50 

arenes veee | 62°83 | 53°75 46°4. 37 15°15 | 18560 |25°0 | 1970 |—14°1 
28°36 1660 |61°5 | 53°71 45°9 38 .+++ |(18790) | 25°0 | 18° |—17°4 
30} 27°86 | 2150 | 59°75 | 51°5 44°4|| 39 14°83 | 19018 » | 21°8 
27°36 | 2651 |57°2 | 51°2 45°7 4° 14°73 | 19178 - |20°6 | 162 |—14°6 
vse | (3029) | 55:0 | 49°8 | 44°9]/| 40 4o (19420) | 20°5 | 16.0 |—15°5 


WO MWMMIIYAADALP Pw » B 
~ 
n 


eee | (3785) | 5170 41 14°53 | 19544 she +. |—Ir‘o 

10} 27°45 | (3974) | 50° 4I 10/ 14°53 | 19544 |20°0 | 16:0 |—12°5 
50) 25°27 | 4729 | 48°5 41 45|/14°33 | 19909 |20°5 | 16:0 |—15°5 
24°87 | 5264 | 47°0 | 40°0 32°2 42 14'23 | 20167 |21°1 | 16:0 |—19°0 

To 24°58 | 5578 |44°0 42 30| 14°24. | 20167 | 21°1 | 16°0 |—r19°0 
1 23°79 | 6477 43 13°95 | 20648 |21°0 | 16:0 |—184 
13 . (7300) {41-2 | 310 | 18-1 43 30 1g't | 161 |— 59 


13 30/2280 | 7510 | 3970 | 29°2 16°73 44 13°94 20648 20'0 | 16:0 |—12°5 
(7940) |37°2 | 26-1 10°4 45 13°84 | 20854 oe «. |=I3'0 


14 ete 

15 21°82 | 8796 Ir‘o 46 13°64. | 21266 - |22'0 | 16-1 |—22°8 
15 20] .... | (8827) | 36:0 | 261 113 47 13°59 | 21357 |22°0 | 160 |—23°6 
16 21°65 | 8888 48 13°34. | 21978 

16 30] 20°75 9298 |31°2 ot 8:0 49 13°24 | 22053 

17 20°65 | 9800 |31°5 50 13°24 | 22053 |22°0 | 16% |—23°6 
17 1I5| 20°20 | 10800 51 13°20 | 22073 |21°8 | 16.0 |—22° 
17 30] 20°22 | 10804 53 13°14 | 22105 

17 45/19°93 | 11204 | 30°0 53 30| 13°14 | 22105 | 192 | 1651 |— 

18 19°75 | 11478 53 A0| hee ere dives ae . — 

18 20) 19°83 | 11341 | 31°2 54 12°89 | 22664 | 18°5 

19 19°23 | 12177 54 30] .... | (23023) | 18°5 | 16:0 |— 

19 30) 19°05 | 12459 54 40| 12°66 | 23143 ° | 18:0 

20 18°83 | 12743 | 30°5 | 30°5 30°5 54 50] ..-- |(23200) | 17°0 | 16:2 |+ 

20 10) 18°53 | 13173 55 13°04 | 22965 | 18°5 | 18°0 J+ 

21 18°13 | 13764 58 13°14 | 22168 |1g'r |] -. I+ 

21 I0| 18°03 | 13913 | 31°0 | 310 310 58 30) 13°54. | 21457 | 23°0 -. |+ 


23 17°63 | 14530 | 3270 | 29’0 22°1 59 13°65 | 21302 
24. 17°13 | 15295 Z-© 13°85 | 20934 | 261 | 20°6 
25 16°93 | 15598 | 3070 | 29°0 25°9 I 14°25 | 20167 
25 20) 16°83 | 15757 | 30°70 | 2970 25°9 2 14°25 | 20167 |261 | 22°0 |4+ 1°2 
26 16°73 | 15935 |29°0 | 26:0 15°2 2 30/14°25 | 20167 | 2671 
27 16°63 | 16079 | 30°0 | 26-0 13°4 2 45) 14°25 | 20167 | 29:2 
28 16°63 | 16079 | 32°0 | 27°6 I2'1 8 14°44] I9901 | 31°0 | 2470 |+ 5°12 
29 16°53 | 16274 |32°0 | 27°0 | (1173) 4 30) 14°64 | 19367 |23°0 | 22°0 
«+++ |(16274) | 33°0 | 285 19°5 VEY Up oe Sisk 4c: 
29 30| 16°53 | 16274 5 14°44 | 19901 |23°0 | 21°5 
29 45} 16'40 | 16486 | 35:0 | 30°0 22°0 Orbe] Pibeset veee 12370 | 2I°0 
(16548) | 35:0 | 29°8 20k 6 20} 14°34 | 20025 |23°0 

6 

7 

7 

3 

8 

9 

9 


31 16°23 | 16796 45 
31 30/1615 | 16870 | 34°5 | 29°2 17°4 || 
32 | 16°03 | 17144 | 34°5 
32 10) 16°03 | 17144 | 34°5 
32 30| 16°03 | 17144 | 34°5 
33 15°93 | 17242 

33 30/ 15°88 | 17339 | 34°3 90lunews Jue 
34 15°83 | 17479 | 342 | 284 174 10 15°34 | 18235 
35 15°83 | 17479 LO» 15) faten soso A 29'O.| 29°S | 
35 30/1549 | 18053 |33°0 | 23°71 3°3 10,20) 604 osee | 2970 | 23° 


14°04 | 20630 | 28°9 | 23°0 
30} 14°34 | 20025 | 281 | 23°7 
14°64 | 19367 |27°5 | 2374 
30) 14°84. | 19089 

15°04. | 18746 | 28'0 | 24°'0 


hie meh a} in feet. 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 475 


Taste II. (continued).-—Eeventx Ascent.—June 26 (continued). 


! 
Time of |Reading) peicht poring 


Temp. | Temp. || Time of Height Temp. | Temp. 
observa- Bs -d the above the chp of the | of the || observa- ue above the Hey of the | of the 
tion a er level of | ‘Ai ©! wet- | Dew- tion. seAbie ad level of Air Wet- | Dew- 
P.M. me 39° F. the sea. T+ | bulb. point. P.M. to 32° F. the sea. * | bulb. | point. 

| 


° a = o hm s|} in. feet. = a 
2 10 45/ 15°54 | 17888 | 29°5 | 24°5 75 || 2 16 30) 20°05 |... 6: | 33°0 | 2775 | 16:4 
II 16:04 | 17422 | 29°5 | 24°5 F ia 17 20°44 | 10508 | 33°0 | 27°0 | 34'9 


II 15) 16°24 | 16776 | 31-0 18 20°77 | IOOIT | 33°0 | 26°5 | 1374 
II 30) 16°35 | 16594 19 20°77 | IOOII | 33°5 | 260 | 11°8 
BOE OAG LAG sos esies @) 3E°5 2670, |- 12-2 19 30)20°89 | 9917 

12 16°44 | 16412 | 32°0 | 262 | 1271 19 45)21'29 | 9402 

22 Bolo... 3 bowen (|'32°5 ||| 26:2 | 226 20 20/2149 | 9148 | 33°5 | 260 | 311'8 
13 16°84 | 15762 | 32°0 | 27°0 | 154 20 30) 22°33 8107 | 34°5 | 27°2 | 14°9 
13 15) 16°95 | 15602 | } 2% 24°25 | (5870) | 38:0 

13 30} 16°99 | 15521 |31°5 | 27°70 | 15-7 || 22 24°72 | 5319 | 39°2 | 33:0 | 24:8 
14 17°39 | 14892 | 33°0 Iw 23 Senta sss |42°0 | 35"1 | 26°6 
2 ee “= 1|33°O |. 27°0 |\ t4°9 24. aisieta reese 143'0 | 37°70 | 29°8 
14 30/ 17°64 | 14501 | 25 25°81 | 4138 

14 45)17°84 | 14197 | 3370 | 25 30/2660) 3394 | 46:2 | 43:1 | 39°6 
14 50| 18-04 | 13896 | 33°0 |.29°2 | 21°6 26 26°70 | 3293 1470 | 43°0 | 385 
15 Baie 4 sse- |33°0 | 29°2 | 21°6 27 28°18 | 1810 

15 r0| 18°74 | 12865 | 33°70 27 30) 28°76 | .1259 

15 30) 19°04 | 12433 | 33°0 28 29°26 779 

15 45 Bas 11 9370 |) 29°%) -laarR 28+ | 30°10 | ground | 665 | 6o0°0 54°7 


16 19°77 | 11412 | 


The readings of the Gridiron thermometer were taken occasionally only in 
the twelfth and thirteenth ascents, as checks on the accuracy of temperature 
as shown by the dry-bulb thermometer, and no combination of readings is 
necessary in these ascents for adopted temperatures, &c., and therefore in 
subsequent calculations the readings as they appear in Table I. are used, 


§ 5. Variation or TEMPERATURE OF THE AtR witH Hetenr. 


Every reading of temperature in the preceding Tables, or the means of 
small groups of readings when observations have been taken near to each other, 
was laid down on diagrams ; all these points were joined, and a curyed line 
was drawn to pass through or near to them, giving them equal weight, and 
by this means every change was made evident to the eye. 

In all these curves there were parts of the same curve showing a gradual 
decrease of temperature with increase of elevation, and a gradual increase of 
temperature with decrease of elevation. The curve of which these were parts 
was assumed to be the true curve of normal temperature freed from disturbing 
causes, and the deviation from this curve indicated the places of disturbance 
and their amounts. The next step was the reading from these curves the tem- 
perature at every thousand feet, and in this way the next Tables were formed. 

The numbers in the first column show the height in feet, beginning at 0 
feet and increasing upwards; the numbers in the second column show the in- 
terval of time in ascending to the highest point; the notes in the third column 
show the circumstances of the observations; the numbers in the fourth and 
fifth columns the observations and the approximate normal temperatures of the 
air; and those in the next column the difference between the two preceding 
columns, or the most probable effect of the presence of cloud or mist on the 
temperature, or of other disturbing causes in operation. 

The next group of columns are arranged similarly for the descent, and the 
other groups for succeeding ascents and descents. 


476 


REPORT—1863. 


Taste III.—Showing the Temperature of the Air, as read off the curve 
drawn through the observed temperatures, and as read off the curve of 
most probable normal temperature, called adopted temperature, and the 
calculated amount of disturbance from the assumed law of decrease of 


temperature. 


Ninti Ascent. 


Height, in feet, 
above the mean 
level of the sea. 


March 31. 
23000 
22000 
21000 
20000 
19000 
18000 
17000 
16000 
15000 
14000 
13000 
12000 
11000 
10000 

g000 
8000 
7000 
6000 
5000 
4000 
3000 
2000 
1000 

° 


what 


From 45 10o™ to 5" 27™ p.m. 


Temperature of the Air. 


Between (tive 
stances. 


Clear blue sky. 


Ascending. 
Be Adopted 
TV 
iia temp. 
° ° 
I‘o foe) 
I's I'o 
20 22 
3°0 40 
65 | 59 
10°7 8-0 
98 | 99 
12'0 | 12°0 
14°3 | I4°0 
16'0 | 16°0 
18°8 | 18-0 
180 | 203 
22,0 4] 22°90 
26-3.) 256 
281 | 27°9 
30°8 | 30°1 
33°O | 323 
35°8 | 34°5 
36:0 | 36°7 
38°2 | 38-9 
39°6 | 41°70 
44°0 | 44°0 
47°2 | 47°0 
5 51°9 


Misty. 


l++11++ 


Pi i+++4++10+ + 


+ o72 


sud ,,Of 49 0} wlt yS MOAT 


Descending. 


Adopted 


stances. pees temp. 
° ° 

1‘0 oo 

bize) o3 

1"4 I'l 

x7 18 

19 22 

Ir 3°0 

2°6 4°0 

Le) 5°5 

69 72 

ewe) oe: 94 

g 1270 | 114 

B | 134 | 13°5 

BD 157 | 155 

P| 317°8 | 17%4 

19°3 | 29°0 

21'o | 21°70 

22°38 | 22°8 

24°7 | 24°5 

25°9 | 26°0 

28°0 | 27°7 

29°2 | 29°5 

30°0 | 31°5 

33°5 | 348 

42°0 | 42°0 


Caleu- 
lated 
effect of 
disturb- 
ance. 


° 

I'o 
o'7 
03 
ol 
03 
o's 
14 
oo 
0°73 
I'o 
06 
ol 
o'2 
o'4 
03 
oo 
foe) 
o2 
ol 
03 
03 
15 


l+++ 


+++1+4+1 1 


I+1+ 


13 


loko) 


March 31.—The sky was clear, and the amounts of deviation of tempera- 
ture on either side of the adopted curve-line were generally small, both during 
the ascent and descent of the balloon. 

On ascending, there was a curious warm stratum of air between 17,000 and 
19,000 feet high, and a similar one was met with on descending, between 
15,000 and 15,500 feet high, 


Height, in feet, 
above the mean 
level of the sea. 


April 18. 
24.000 
23000 
22000 
21000 
20000 
19000 
18000 
17000 
16000 
15000 
14000 
13000 
12000 
11000 
10000 

gooo 
8000 
7000 
6000 
5000 
4000 
3000 
2000 
1000 

° 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTs IN 1863. 477 
Tasce IIT. (continued.) 
Trento AscEnt. 
Temperature of the Air. 
Ascending. Descending. 
Betw Ob Sted, (n Ob fated | 
etween! Circum- ~, |Adopted|_.3t€ etween! Cireum- »~ , Adopted ated 
git | Stance] eed "emp. feet. | a ence evel | temp. Oct 
ance | ance. 
cree | en | | cs ee | aes | | aes cone | 
° ° o ° / ° ° 
124 1270 + 04 125 
13°0 | 12'2 |+ 08 12°9 
1470 | 12°5 | 1°5 Tao, 
és 12°90 1370 — ro 135 
= 12°04) TaeSes tay 14°0 
: s 12°90 | 142 |— 22 14°3 
Hobe |= [257 ae 14°6 
2 5 | 183 | 176 1+ o7) g 15°3 
2 : : ; ‘ 
° = cele 196 |+ ed e > 16°6 
ES 25-0 |. 21-7 |— omg Ea, ol, 1633 
a 2370 | 2470 |— rol] © g 17'0 
£ 2470 | 261 |— 21) 2 oy) 2am 
a 31°8 | 28-2 |+ 36 3 5S |, 20°'0 
= i——| 32°0 | 305, | Pale eee aa 
a jg | 342 | 32°5: | oT ES 
g@ | B= | 325 | 349 |— 24/1 3 
BH | SH | 356 | 378 |— 22] & 
5 | 46° | 4r0 oro || = 
45°0 | 45:0 | o°0| 
479 | 486 |— 07} 
Below} 52°3 | 52°3 0°70 
cloud.| 56°7 | 55°38 |+ o'9 
Ses 59'S eke 
ae 63°27 || cose 


April 18.—The sky was cloudy ; the amount of deviation of temperature 
was very small till the height of 7000 feet was reached, when a cold current 
was met with in the cloud; on passing out of the cloud a warm stratum was 
passed, and then alternating warm and cold currents were passed, but the 


amount of deviation was never large. 
clusions can safely be drawn from the observations in these respects. 


The descent was so rapid that no con- 


A478 REPORT—1868. 


Taste III. (continued.) 
ELEventH ASCENT. 
Temperature of the Air. 


Ascending. Descending. 
Height, in feet, 
areye mean ie Calcu- an ae 
evel of the sea. |Between|_,. Ob- lated ||Between|,,. - late 
Circum- Adopted Circum- Adopted 
euhat |stanceny Se% |"temp. eect. of|/ what |stance,| Seed | "temp. (eet of 
ance ance. 
Cloud 
June 26. prow Se ° ° is ° ° ° 
23000 yd 18°5 | 180 |+ o°5 ee 18-7 | 17°38 |+ o'9 
blue sky r 
22000 In fog. | 22°0 | 18°7 |+ 3°3 19°55 | 188 |+ o'7 
21000 oo 21°5 | 19°5 |-+ 2°0 Fog. | 26:0 | 19°7 |4 63 
fog, 4 
20000 cin 20°3 | 20°3 foie) Faint | 261 | 21'2 | 4°9 
above. sun. 
28.8 
SERPs A 
19900 : S3g58| 240 | 21°2 + 28 289 | 22°0 |4+ 6°9 
S. 2aa8 
18000 & |Cold dry] 33°5 | 22°5 |+1r0|) BF 29l | 23°5 |4+ 5°6 
w __ jthin fog | g 
17000 im 34°5 | 23°38 |+10°7)) | 30°5 | 24°38 + 5°7 
16000 S | Infog.| 32°0 | 25°71 |+ 69]| & _ | 320 | 25°8 |4 62 
15000 F | In dry | 390° 2675 |+ 40|| G | Rain. | 33:0 | 27°0 |+ 6:0 
14000 en fog. | 30°8 | 27°38 |+ 3:0 5 33°0 | 280 |+ 5:0 
13000 rm | Infor: tegors  pag7s | rg S g 33°0 | 292 |+ 3°8 
S . . . : * 
12000 & faintly 30°5. | 30°5 oo ka mow. | 33°0 | 30°74 |+ 2°6 
11000 A In fog. | 31°0 | 31°9 |— 0'9 3 330 | 31°6 [4+ 14 
rs 
10000 Thin’ 43378 4335 |1.03]] -B. |=-—4° 33:3) Saal os 
gooo mane IBC. N3 5:0] tetO 33°99 | 33°7 |+ o2 
8000 37:00 Me3 725 —SO'5 Sa | 348 | 348 oro 
7000 40°5 | 40o°o |+ o°5 @/2 | 369 | 366 |+4 03 
6000 430 | 43°0 roe) no 380 | 382 |— o2 
5000 48°38 | 4779 |+ 09 gE 405 | 410 |+ 05 
4000 srg | 519 | o'0 68. | 446 | 44°3 |+ 03 
3000 553 | 558 [oee) pea 48°38 | 48°38 [oxe) 
2000 60°7 | 60:0 j|4+ o'7 2 | 54°6 | 54°6 oo 
1000 Very | 64°7 | 63°38 |+ o'9 2 & | 607 | 607 oo 
° eh Cre 68:0 | .. 66-7 | 66-7 oo 


June 26.—The morning of this day was very hot and fine; at the time of 
leaving the earth the sky was cloudy, and there was a continued succession 
of strata of dry and wet fogs, of warm and cold currents; and rain and snow 
were both met with ; the former at the height of 10,000 feet on ascending, and 
at 14,000 feet on descending, the snow being situated below the rain on 
descending, at the height of 13,000 feet. 

Between 14,000 feet and 20,000 feet there was a very remarkable warm 
current, and another, but to a less amount, at 22,000. On descending, whilst 
passing through rain and snow, or between 10,000 and 17,000 feet, there 
was scarcely any change of temperature. The results of this day are ano- 
malous. 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. A479 
Tasre III. (continued.) 
TWELFTH ASCENT. 
Temperature of the Air. 
Ascending. Descending. 
Height, in feet, = 
|, on ede li Hee 
level of the sea. |Between Gircum- -. |Adopted|_J2te etween om. »_ |Adopted ate’ 
dunes, |stances,| Server | temp. [euch | eat | stances:| 2774 |" temp, [elect of 
ance. ance. 
July OF —_ a 3 o Thick é é ° 
4 . . t Ba . . . 
4000 &_& | sphere. 610 | 591 |+ 1°9 S ey fren 3°0 3°0 oo 
wn & 
gooo =| 44.4 | Thin | 60:7 | 607 | or] & B 65°3 | 65:2 |-4+ o% 
2000 g™ mist. | 62°9 | 62°9 oo || BYE The bal|loon th/en 
1000 | Sit, 69°3 | 67°5 |= 2°73) Oe turned to asce|nd. 
° ic) ° 75°9 oie 8 
; Vv 
Gooo fa gf | Very | 535 | 540 |— 0°5|| Stet | minty. | $3°0 | gx°8 [4 12 
5000 co || 568 | 57°5 |— o7 || 4S 540 | 53°6 |+ 04 
4000 zl sty 60°4 | 6074 oro|| 8 B 56-4 | 564 aoe 
3000 ga sg 6570 | 63°9 |+ 11 he, 58°38 | 58:8 foere) 
2000 oie) : oe oe i RS Ss 61-3 | 618 |— ors 
1000 Fs a on oft Baareel| (eens 64°7 | 64°7 owe) 
The baljloon thien 
turned |to asce|nd. 
of | ex 
2000 aso 662 | 65°6 |+ o6 Qos 63°3 | 63°5 |— o2 
1000 & « &, 66°0 | 67°5 |— T5\l5 ¢ 66:1 | 66:0 |4 on 
ae BS 
1000 Sie 65°9 | 65°5 |+ 0°4]|° 63°38 | 64°5 |— 07 
° | le tote aa -+ | 68-6 67°99 |+ o7 
THIRTEENTH ASCENT. 
July 21 Between Cloud 
3000 gg Au? 535. ) S87 |e O% Boe higher.| 53°5 | 53°6 |— o7 
Ba a cloud Lae 
2000 ge ie 561 | 564 |— 03/5 © §|ineloud| 55°3 | 55:1 |+ o2 
1000 © 45/Ineloud.| 600 | 59°4 i+ 06 5° 580 | 57°77 |+ 0 
° 614 | 62°5 |— II 
; nL Wetting 
3000 @ A} Fog. | 54-2 | 53°7 |+ 05 | 5 oe ha fog. | 52°I | 52°5 |— 0°4 
2000 Ga_fyjimcloud) s4:0 | say |— 0'9| Box Fn dlack| 55°5 | 55" |+ 0-4 
aio Bn Fog: | 58-0 | 58°0 0°0 |“ § | cloud. | 59°6 | 59: oo 
PA fies B = Rain. 
ea]_. Vy 
1000 fa & i Goro | 6o'0 00 Fes 2 pects 60'0 | 60'0 0-0 
fe) eo 3) dark. | +> : ++ |g EZ landrain| 61-5 | 61-8 |— 03 
tnd, BS 


July 11.—The sky was nearly covered with cloud, and the amount of de- 
viation from the adopted temperatures was always small. 
July 21.—Heavy rain was falling on the earth during the ascent. The 
temperature declined almost evenly, and there is no great departure from the 
adopted curve. 
The next Table has been formed by taking the difference between conse- 
cutive numbers in the preceding Tables in each ascent. 


480 REPORT—1863. 


Taste 1V.—Showing the decrease of Temperature 


March 31. April 18.|| June 26. July 11. 
Height above State of the Sky. 
the level of the a Man is ae ee ttltC ee 
sea. Misty Cloudy 
shelow | clear. | Below || cloudy. me 
| . . ° . - 
2708 We le) aie | 8] ey ey 2 Bleed a 
From | To < a < </|A zi/a|]|a4a/A}]<4/aAalsaA < 
ft. ft. ° ° | ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° 
28000|29000] ... “i Pee BW ae Ificeee i] cue Ieamull|. cee” |i piaten il een | ane 
27000|28000] ... 30s ies BBE ie eeeea Scien Mectsoue | ecco] foro 5 Oe lieocs 
26000| 27000] ... toe oe See) |\ esse l| aoe’ seme \tiveot Apron || tae itemma| tae 
25000|26000| ... weet [|e vee See y|| tenet | Moe bip)| eioteats lke appal yeas) heme wanda [ieee 
24000|25000| ... Bes) 4\| dass Fess| fovsvillifeee ||) coat |e caaad Mensall ees 300 
23000|24000] ... onc ore She di fecctall Geem: [Mire Il amgal Menten Mims (|| lemiielll tees 
22000|23000} I'o ne Bar (oJ Is eacoMl | Pies imocom foo. | enone || oan |) oso: |code tse 
21000|22000] I°2 08 || 073 |] O78 | O79 |] 2.2 | eae | coe | coe | ove | eee | cee Il aoe 
20000|21000}] 1°8 O17 i" 1075 OSG 5 4) .08 |) cee | see! |) veel ieee pees ll wes 
Ig000|20000| 1'9 o"4 0°5 || O79] O°8 |] vas | wee | see | eee | one | cee | eee 
18000|1g000] 271 | O'8 || O'7 |] TZ] T'S || wee | eee | cee | vee | ane | one 
17000|18000] I'9 ro | 1°5 1°3| 173 || see | oe | coe | woe | ove eee 
16000|17000} 2° 1°5 19 1-4"! 170)|\\55 Af leacce lt Mecine |e ae +e 
15000| 16000] 2°0 1'7 2°0 || 1°4| 12 yall) sono + | eee | ve : 
14000|15000| 2°'0 22, 2°I 1°39] Di]! coe | noe, | ose || cee ilese | ase 
13000|14000] 2°0 ZO a) Paes era) ee A Ia Vat | aec Om bars one | ee 
12000|13000| 273 21 || 2°r TA.) (Xz ||ese ||| ‘eos |) 00 a caper gaia aca 
II000|12000} 2°6 2°0 er TAN TAA ses Wheces ill oe . eve 
10000|11000| 2°7 19 253 16 4079) Ill wees || woe sll ses I ineen tees 
go000} 10000} 2°3 16 || .2°0 || 1°5 | O79 || oo | vee | eee efi rea 
8000] go0oo| 2°2 2°0 24 aes |) rer A oct cco mcs 1005 |} C03 
7000} 8000] 2°2 1°8 29 || 2°5| 1°8 Sere eccuel WIP! (coc cod. |) cobal ll Bae 
6000} 7000] 2°'2 a7. Q°2, 3°0| 1°6 wee’ Wiseeulliueste wo iftees reewcilt wee 
5000] 6000] 2°2 15 Z°O || 4°9|.2°B |] ose | ooo | 3°5 | E°Bil ices | sav | con |] wee 
4000| 5000} 2°3 17 4-Gri WP 4roi|! 3°Zit.e | ese fp 22Q)| 278i, awake wen) || ase! |Ihhews 
3000} 4000} 2'0 1°8 3°7 || 3°9| 4°5.|| 196 | 2°2] 3°5] 274] wee | coe | ane |] oon 
2000| 3000] 3'0 20 {1 3°5 |] 42] 5°8 |] 2°] woe | wee | 3°O] one | cee | eee |] 2°7 
1000| 2000] 3'0 323 21 1.37 3°38) Gr || 4°6| ... | o | 299] 1°9| 275] «|! 3:0 
o| 1000] 4°9 72 3°7 || 472] 6° || 8:4 | woe | cee | ove | soe | one | 3°4]) 3°2 
No. of Col, 3 2, 3. 4) OE 856, 75 7) SO pel el ne 


The numbers at the lower elevations are all larger than those at the higher, 
agreeing in this respect with the results of the experiments of the preceding 
year, and those with a clear sky are larger than those with a cloudy sky, also 
agreeing with preceding results. 

The numbers in columns 18 and 20 show the mean results from the experi- 
ments of this year, the former when the sky was cloudy, and the latter when 
clear or mostly clear. The numbers in column 19 show the number of expe- 
riments upon which each result in column 18 is based; at heights exceeding 
5000 feet the experiments were mostly made on one day, viz. June 26, the 
only day, in fact, on which clouds have reached and enveloped the balloon in 
different strata and densities, exceeding the height of 4miles. The numbers 
in column 21 show the number of experiments with clear skies, and they are 
but few. The numbers in column 22 show the total number of experiments 
which have been made at the different heights with a cloudy sky from the be- 


Descending. 


4 
Aj 


iy 
| 
a 
a 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 


in every 1000 feet of elevation up to 29,000 feet. 


481 


July 21. Mean. General Means (omitting July 17, 1862). 
State of the Sky. 
Cloudy. Cloudy. i Clear. 
peel Ne aacs | cae 
wb eh Cloudy. Leni! } Clear. vitae ve Niuaiies Passed jungies Pased 
ss 3 3 ments. ments. || Mean. caer decline | Mean. eanent! ae 
8 2 2 ments. | of 1°, | ments. | of 1° 
< a a 
5 3 7 e > A feet. feet. 
oats | ea a ae a wa ote Nes we ORS I | 1250 
bor ae tee oo o'9 I IIII 
oon os soe tee te ro I 1000 
ce ses Ae tee oct TCs A ABY 1000 
aoe vee tee tas tee tee I'l 2 gir 
eee ee bc ts oo eee i] 183 2 771 
o'8 2 se oc) | eRORS Z| FAO) 170 4 | 1000 
08 2 08 3 || os Zataroyy | 17x 7 gli 
‘ I'l 2 I'o 3 I'l 2 gir |} 12 7 333 
o'9 2 o'9 3 °"9 2 909 1°3 7 771 
14 2 I'2 3 || 14 2 715 1's 7 666 
13 2 rg 3 |e deg 2 G(s fi Vy 7 538 
io 2 18 3 12 2 833 I'9 7 526 
- 1°3 2 || 19 q las 2 771 2° 7 500 
12 2 || 2-7 3 || a2 2 833 || 2°71 7 477 
elon 1'2 2 2°1 3) ima 2 833 22 9 455 
ous 1°3 2 22 Syeatl lS 2 77% 24 9 417 
seueds 1°3 2 2°2 3) I eleg 2 771 2°5 9 400 
o |i eee 1*4. 2 2°3 4 eas: 2 715 2a Il 400 
os [iisee, | oe I's 3 2°0 3 b a 2 667 2°5 10 400 
“Sikere 2°0 3 past 2a 20 2 500 2°5 10 400 
. “lethal tae 3 2°0 2 || 24 2 417 |i 2°5 I0 400 
3e) |, «com Oe 2°6 3 2° 2 2°6 3 385 || 2°6 10 385 
vee | one . ches 5 1'9 Bi naa 5 313 2°6 12 385 
wo fans | oe a5 5 2°0 2 a3 II 303 || 2°7 7 374 
Somes. | ose 370 8 1°8 I 34 18 294 3°2 3 312 
12) 2°6| ... || 3°0 10 2°0 I 3°6 | 20 278 || 4'0 7 250 
BoE 455 |<. 3°4 12 a°3 I 38 19 264 || 5°0 6 200 
mvs (etee | 2°S || 4:4 3 7-2 I 4°5 15 222 72 6 139 
15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22, 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 


ginning of the experiments, and these vary from 11 to 20 up to 5000 feet, 
and the results must therefore be very nearly true. 

The numbers in column 26 show the total number of experiments which 

have been made at the different heights with clear or nearly clear skies; they 
vary from 4 to 12 up to the height of 23,000 feet, and there can be but little 
doubt that the numbers in column 25 are closely approximate to the true 
numbers up to this elevation; above 24,000 feet, the number of experiments 
are too few to speak with any confidence. 

The numbers in column 22, showing the decrease of temperature for 1000 
feet increase of elevation with a cloudy sky, differ very much from those in 
column 25, showing the decrease for the same space with a clear sky, the 
former being much smaller up to the height of 18,000 feet ; at heights greater 
than 19,000 feet the differences between the results in the two states of the sky 
are small, 

i numbers in column 24 show the average increase of aad at every 
: I 


482 REPORT—1863. 


1000 feet, for a decrease of temperature of 1° with a cloudy sky ; from these 
we see that up to 1000 feet the average space is 222 feet, the spacefor each 1000 
feet increasing till at 20,000 feet it requires fully 1000 feet for a change of 
1° of temperature. 

In the last column the same results are shown for clear, or nearly clear sky, 
and they show that a change of 1° takes place for an average increase of 139 
feet in the first 1000 feet ; this space gradually increasing to fully 1000 feet 
at heights exceeding 23,000 feet. 

By comparing the numbers in columns 24 and 27 together, the different 
spaces required to be passed through for a decline of 1° of temperature in the 
two states of the sky will be readily seen: up to 20,000 feet it is generally 
necessary to pass through a much larger change of elevation for a decline of 
1° of temperature than with a clear sky; at heights exceeding 20,000 feet, 
there does not seem to be much difference in this respect between the two 
states of the sky. 

Croupy Sxy. 

By adding together successively the numbers in column 22, we shall fin 
the whole decrease of temperature from the earth to the different elevations ; 
the results with a cloudy sky are as follows :— 


feet feet ° feet. 
From 0 to 1,000 the decrease was 4-5, or 1° on the average of 222 


4 2,000 Ds 8:3 ‘J 241 
- 3,000 he 11-9 ¢ 253 
: 4,000 i 15°3 iS 262 
ns 5,000 fe 18-6 * 269 
g 6,000 x 21:8 4 275 
Ks 7,000 S. 24-4 3 287 
p 8,000 i 26°8 $ 299 
“ 9,000 3 28-8 5 313 
» 10,000 ; 30:3 fi 331 
4 O08 fi 31:7 6 348 
» 12,000 i 33-0 4 365 
yak | LOD 5 34:3 381 
» 14,000 fs 35-5 ih 395 
» 15,000 ; 36-7 “3 409 
» 16,000 : 38-0 i 422 
yond LBD Ps 39-2 i 434 
» 18,000 2 40-5 : 445 
» 19,000 41-9 ua 455 
» 20,000 Es 42-8 hi 468 
» 21,000 - 43-9 A 479 
» 22,000 i. 44-7 is 492 
pee eigen the 45-5 506 


? ” 
These results, showing the whole decrease of temperature of the air from 


the earth up to 23,000 feet, differ very considerably from those with a clear d 


sky, to be spoken of presently. The numbers in the last column show the 
average increment of height for a decline of 1°, as found by using the tempe- 


ratures of the extremities of the column alone. To 1000 feet high the average 
js 1° in 222 feet, increasing gradually to 1° in 300 feet at 8000 feet high, — 


and to 506 feet at the height of 23,000 feet. 


Crear Sry. 


By adding together the numbers in column 25 in the same way the 


following results are found :-— 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1868. 483 


feet. ‘ 


feet feet = 
From 0 to 1,000 the decrease was 7:2, or 1° on the average of 139 
12: 


2» 2,000 ” ” 164 
” 3,000 » 16:2 9» 186 
a: 4,000 coals lee i 207 
. 5,000 22-1 3 227 
" 6,000 E 24-7 4 243 
“ 7,000 27:3 is 257 
45 8,000 3 29°8 i 269 
: 9,000 . 32:3 f 278 
ot OO :. 34:8 vr 288 
2 | 91.600 é 37:3 a 295 
» 12,000 f 39-8 302 
» 18,000 : 42-2 : 308 
» 14,000 e 44-4 e 316 
» 15,000 . 46:5 y 323 
» 16,000 4 48:5 if 331 
4: +17,000 3 50-4 as 338 
» 18,000 . 52-1 * 346 
» 19,000 ra 53-6 4 356 
» 20,000 ps 54-9 ‘. 365 
» 21,000 rd 56-1 : ). 3s 
» 22,000 ke 57-2 " 385 
» 23,000 : 58-0 “, 396 
» 24,000 A 59:3 “ 406 
~~ 25,000 Hl 60-4 i 416 
» 26,000 61-4 e 425 
27,000 i 62-4 & 434 
sy 28,000 : 63°3 b 444 
» 29,000 4 64:1 is 454 
» 80,000 } 64-6 ss 464 


These results, showing the whole decrease of temperature from the ground 
to 30,000 feet, differ greatly, as just mentioned, from those with a cloudy sky. 

The numbers in the last column, showing the average increase of height for 
a decline of 1° of temperature from the ground to that elevation, are all smaller 
than those with a cloudy sky at the same elevation. Each result, up to 
22,000 feet, is based upon at least six experiments, taken at different times 
of the year, and up to this height considerable confidence may be placed in 
the results; they show that a change takes place in the first 1000 feet of 1° 
on an average of every 139 feet, increasing to about 300 feet at 11,000 or 
12,000 feet ; in the experiments taken in the year 1862, this space of 300 
feet was at 14,000 feet high, therefore the changes of temperature have been 
less in 1863 than those in 1862. The latter experiments, however, have 
been taken at different times of the year from those of the former, and 
it would seem probable that this element varies with the season of the year. 
Every experiment proves that the theory of a decline of 1° for every in- 
crease of 300 feet must be absolutely put on one side, as without exception 
the fall of 1° has always taken place in the smallest space when near the 
earth. To determine this space, and also the law of decrease near the earth, 
all the observations of temperature of the air up to 5000 feet were laid down 
on large diagrams, and a line was made to pass through them, giving equal 
weight to every observation; the result at every 200 feet was then read out, 


and in this way the next series of Tables were formed. 
212 


484, 


REPORT—1868. 


Taste V.—Showing the Mean Temperature of the Air at every 200 feet up 
to 5000 feet.—Nintu Ascent. 


Temperature of the Air. 


Ascending. | Descending. 
Height, in feet, | | 
Tevet erghe mca, |Betae ob “ated” [Bet Ob fal 
eve. + | Between). - ate etween| p: = ate 
what |Citcum-| ova |Adopted) eect of | Circum- aq |\Adopted { 
times. | Stnces. temp. pers dean oat | seances Zale Lisete eet, 
‘ ance. || ance. 
March 31. 5 4 BM 5 S 3 
5000 36:0] 36'7|— o°7| 25°99; 26:0|— oF 
4800 37°9| 37°2|/— o'2| 26°5| 264/+ o17 
4600 37,-3)|) SSeiO. las O73 27°4| 26°7|+ 07 
4400 & a7 cel Baha | — 06) 28°0|. 27'0/+ I'o 
4200 = 7°6| 38°5|— og] 280} 27°4/+ 06 
4000 3 38°2| 389 |— 0°7 | 280} 27°7\+ 03 
3800 F ioe] 38°5| 39°3|/— 08 eI 28-1] 28:0/+ o1 
3600 Sy 38°0| 39°7|— 17) g 23'2| 284)/— o2 
34.00 q 28°O)|' tour |— 275 | Soe 28°4| 28°7/— 03 
3200 a 38°38} go5|— m7} 7 28°5| 297% 06 
3000 cre 396) 4roj/— 14] 4, a 29°2| 29°5|— 073 
2800 2 | 40°5| 41°6/— I'1 re = 29°7| 29°7 ole) 
2600 : 413] 42°2|— o9]| =. 30°0|} 30°0 o'o 
24,00 a 42°2| 42°8|— 06 = S BO'O!!) SOS O25 
2200 5 43°0| 43°4/— o74 e a 30°0| 31°0|/— 10 
2000 2 44°0|} 44°0 loko) = BOO)! War aa a ae5 
1800 he 44°38) 44°5|+ 02)! So 39°5)| (BAN E55 
1600 5 45°7| 45'1|/+ 06 5 314; 32°6|— 12 
| ia : : s : ; : 
1400 5 us 463) 457|/+ 06] & 320} 33°2|— 12 
12co ca o 46°83} 464)/+ o4]) © 52°4)). SS Shion) ACS 
1000 47°2| 47°0 /- 0°72 | 33:5) 34°8)— 13 
800 47°5| 47°6|+ o'1 36°0| 36°0 o'o 
600 48:4) 485 |+ o1 37-5.| Siaoa | Oe 
400 re | 4gr6| oe 39°O| 39°2| oro 
200 ee 50°7| ++ | 40°5| 40°5 oo 
° ve S19) |e 42°0| 42°0 oo 
Trenta ASCENT. 
April 18. u 
5000 3. | 45°°| 4570] o°0 
4800 Bm | 459) 45°3/+ o1 
4600 SH | 466) 465 \+ o7 
44.00 & 473) 472|\+ oF 
4200 47°6| 47°9|— 03 
gooo |g 479 48°6|— 07 
3800 Ss, 48°5| 49°4|— o9 
3600 FI 49° 5o1|— rr 
3400 a 49°8| 50°8|— ro 
3200 a 510} 51°6|— 06 
3000 2 52°3|)  §2°3 o"0 
2800 3 §2°8| 53:°0!\— o2 
2609 a . | 544) 53714 0-7 
2.4.00 pl ees 552| 54°4|+ 08 
2200 sr 2 563] ssr i+ 12 
2000 a e | 567) 55°8|+ or | 
1800 A 8 569} 56°75 |+ 0-4) 
1600 Sud a 573 ST aaa"? 
14.00 s 58:0! 58:0 [osze) 
1200 53°38 | 58°8 o"0 
1000 59°5} 59°5 nO 
8co oe 60'1 
600 a 60'9 
4.00 . 61°6 
200 a 62°4 
° | 63°2 | 


we OI ews 


Height, in feet, 
above the mean 


level of the sea. | Between 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863, 485 


Taste V. (continued.) 
ELeventH ASCENT. 


Temperature of the Air. 


62°9| 62°9 O10)|| turned jto asce 
63°3| 63°38 0'0 | 
64°7| 64°7| oo 
aes) 05:5) oC 


Thin mist. 


Ascending. Descending. 
ee | ‘ ea 
la: Ob- | 1 Bet 5 - t 
what esa served poe effect of || GEaD if pee | served adentes effect of 
times. Se temp. EHEC disturb- | times. |e: temp, | €MP» | disturb- 
ance. / H ance. 
—= | Pree 
° ° ° ° ° ° 
oe 48°1| 47°9|/+ O72 41°5| 4170o|+ 0°5 
oe 48°8| 48°7|4+ O1 42°70] 41°5|+ 0°5 
os 49°5| 49°5 o'o 42°5| 42°2|+ 073 
oe 5O3tlau5 O53 o'o 43°2| 42°3/+ o4 
oe Sur] 51 o°0 440] 43°5|+ 05 
oe | 529] SO pee 446) 44°3|/+ 03 
g 0 §2°7 | 52°7 oo = 454) 45°7|\+ 03 
2 - 53°5| 53°5| Ol) & 46°0| 45°8)\+ 02 
£ ee 542| 54:2 O70 || a 46°38} 46°7|/+ oF 
| ee |] 59O|, 5520] p> ete Tl ey 0 ae a ee ee 
™ . 55°83} 5578 oo}; 4, 3 48°38 | 48-8 oe) 
= ++ | 566) 56:6) ool) os & | 49°9| 49°9| oro 
F ots 57°6| 57°5|+ o1|| B li §1°0| 51°0| oro 
gy . 586} 5384/4 o-2 + =] §2°2| 522 foKe) 
a ir 59°7 |. 59:2 |r O'S ae A Se), SREB O'P 
S —_ 60°7; boo|+ o7 = = 54°6| 54° o'o 
x 61'7} 6079|+ 0°8))  b& me | “S59! S5i9k OP 
2 62°5| 61°7/+ 08 5 : 57°1| 57°71 oh) 
“4 ; 62°7| 62°4|+ 03 B 58°3| 583 oo 
cra 636) 63:1 )+ 0'5 : 59° S| 5085 foe) 
= 64°7 | 63°83 |4 o9 60°7| 60°7 oo 
ES - 64:6] +. 61°8| 61°8 foe) 
3 . 65°4 ¢ 63:1) 6371 00 
> : 66°2 ° 64°3} 64°73 oho) 
67°1 65°5| 65°5 oho) 
68:0 | 66:7; 66°7 oo 
Twernrtn Ascent. 
epee Pea eee 
Bs 
aa 60:0} 59°8\+ 02] & » | 60°0 61°38 |— 1°8 
aoe 58°7| 59°0|— 03] g g 61°5| 62°1|— 06 
Bs 597, sgol|to7|) © | Bg | 620] 62°5|— of 
< 610) sgt \+ 19 = Rxg | 63°0| 63:0| oo 
579| 593\— 14\| ~S | Be | 64:0) 63°5)+ o's 
g 591} 596|— 05) SB | SS | 649) 64:0\+ o'9 
S 59°38| 6o:0/— o2 5 “| 652) 64°4\4+ o8 
a 60°3| 60°3 (ote) ES Si) 65-7) 64:8 \-- o%9 
e 60°7| 60'7 O°}: 6573) 65°2\+ o7 
03 61'°0| 610 ool] oF Sun 6570! 65:6|— 06 
£ 6174.) 614 oro] Fy, seen | 65°0| 66°0|;— I'o 
| 61°38) 61°8 oo]; +5 |faintly.| 65°7 66°5|— o8 
=F 6273)|> 62°3 Oo Ens am Thebal|loon thjen 
a nd. 
4 
5 
= 
st 


66'4| 664 o'0} 
69°3| 67°5|4+ 2°3| 
69°0| 68:3 )4+ o2| 
7o"4| 70°4| 0'0 
ato 17272} = O50)| 
74'0| 74'0| 0°0 ! 
- | 75°9| . 


486 


REPORT—1863. 


TasrE V. (continued.) 


TwELrrH AscENT (continued). 


Temperature of the Air. 


Ascending. Descending. 
Height, in feet, 
feel fiber none Between Ob ae Between Ob cated 
every . Circum- ~, |Adopted Cireum- ~, |Adopted 
po |__| stances. pet temp. ee ee stances pete temp. cod 
ance. ance. 
July Il. ° ° ° ° ° ° 
5000 Very | 56°) 57°5| —0o'7 Very | 5470] 53°6| +04 
4800 _ | misty-|  57°7 57°38| —o'1 misty.| 54°2| 54°0| +02 
4.600 g 58°6| 583] +03 54°6| 54°6 o'0 
4400 a 590} 590} Gol A Be 2') Sia FS 
aePs ae On Rk Dai) Ps 55°8| 55°8| v0 
4000 ~ |Misty.| 604] 6074 o"0 564] 564. foe) 
3800 4 60°6| 6r1| —or5|| 57°°| 5§7°0 o'o 
3600 2 62°0| 61°83} +02 4 57°6| 57°6 foxfe) 
3400 ; |——|_ 63°9| 62°5| +14) JF 58°0| 58:0) o'o 
3200 E | gun | 645] 632] +231] @ 58°3| 58:3] oro 
3000 Py seen | ©5°| 63°99) FIt]) 5 58°38] 58:8} oo 
2800 S leintly.| 65°) 64°5| +o'5|| B 59°5)) “Sora ere 
2600 a amy! 65+5| 65'4| or s 60:1! 6orr fohe) 
2400 \ 651] 662) —11]/ | 60°7| 607 loo) 
2200 ° as cae + 61°0| 60°3| +0°7 
2000 i>) rs) 613] 61°8| —O'S 
1800 oy 62°3| 62°3 oro 
1600 3 62°9] 629 o'0 
1400 x 63°5| 63°5 oo 
1200 64°1| 641 oo 
1000 64°7| 64°7 oo 
Thebal loon th/en 
turned |to asce|nd. 
2600 3 64°4| 64°38) —o'4 63°0| 63:0 [exe] 
2400 eae 65°5| 6570) +075 ||_, > 63°0| 63°0 00 
2200 Aa 6670} 65°3| +0°7 Ps 63°0| 63:2| —o2 
2000 g on, 66°2| 65°6| +0°6 |S B 63°3| 63°5| —o2 
1800 ae 66°7| 65°9| +0°8 || Fe 3 63°7| 63°38) —ovx 
1600 = eo in 66°3| 6673) +or5 ie g 64:1 | 64"r oo 
1400 pt 66°5| 667) —o2|I5 5 ona 64°5} 64°5 oo 
1200 aot 66:9} 67°1| —o2||5 * sat 65°5| 65°5 oo 
1000 = 660| 67°5| —15 |" & ee 661| 66:0) +o 
800 a sem ane —D ost eee 
Thebaljloon thjen 
turned |to asce|nd. 
1600 ‘ 64°5| 64°5 oo % 64°2| 63°38) --o4 
1400 Fy 8 64°7| 64°7 oo = 64°3| 64°0} +03 
1200 - 6c"0 6c . oo 8 . ° . 
es, 5 570 Cole) ae) 64°3| 64°2| +or1 
1000 gine 65°99] 65°5| +074 mS 63°38 | 64°5| —o'7 
800 S +6 651| 66:0) —o'9/|/ 806 64°8| 64°9| —o'1 
600 mes qe ge we [og B 65°3| 65:4| —onr 
400 rec! « ||BR ie 66:2| 66:0) +02 
200 No ES > ies 67°5| 66°38) +07 
° Pe =p 68°6| 67°9| +07 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 487 


Taste V,. (continued.) 


TarrTEENTH ASCENT. 


Temperature of the Air. 
= Ascending. Descending. 
Height, in feet, 
above on mean . ee Caleu- 
level of the sea. |Between|q:44m.| Ob-_ |Adopted| lated ||Between!o:.ym-| Ob-_ |Adopted| Jated 
quiet Jrance. | geved | temp. efesh of qyat [stances] seed comp. fest of 
ance. ance. 
July 21. Out of ° ° ° ° ° ° 
pce cloud. 53°5 53°7| —o'2 53°5 53°6 —oy 
2800 6 |indense| 54°} 54°] °|/ FA [tmopen| 53°5 | 53°6 | —orx 
2600 S, |. fog. §4°O| 2 GEA Pe en yePRee 5 3°5 )153'S feos 
24.00 q In dry, | » 547) ©5552 |e = 94 acs SFO dhe 5 472 due Oz, 
2200 at bus. | 856). 55°7 een 54°5 | 54°6 | —ov1 
2000 a 56rr |. §6°3 | re he Ta, 2553 fh SE gaat o'2 
1800 = 56°6| 5770} —04]]  |eoud.| 55°7 | 55°6 | +o7x 
1600 A In cloue, 578 57°68 +o'2 B ee see oo 
14.00 By gf clonde SO e553 eee se ot SOE 1505 Wii sOr4. 
od gq. (ei) 592 )5 sgl reals 56°8 | 57°70 | —ov2 
1000 ‘ |Entered | Goro) §9°5| -o'5|| 58°0 | 57°7 | +0'3 
S50 a, : 60°3 60'1 | +o'2 a The bal/loon thien 
Goa = 60°5| 60°6| —orr 5 turned |to asce|nd. 
400 S 60°38} 612} —o4 5 
200 fy be 61°0| 61°6| —o°6 : 
° ae 614 62°1| —o'7 
34.00 : 95/4 ae 
3200 d | Fog.| 53°] 535] —o's|] Sf | Wet-| 52-4] sa: | tor 
3000 ee 542} 53°7| tos]! § | mg | sar] 5275 | —o4 
2800 oy 55°O| 540] +ro} aw fog. | 52°3 | 52°38 | —ors 
2600 g 542) 54°2 ie » SRM Cc ie Meter 
2400 Q 542! 544] —o72]| & 53°38 | 53°8 oro 
2200 Bs ak 54°) 546) —o'5|| w | Black | 54°9 | 54°4 | +0'5 
2000 2 Cloud.| 54:0) §4°9| —o'9 = |eloud.| 55°5 | 552 | -+0°4 
1800 = 54°9| 554] —o'5|| © 560 | 55°9 | +orx 
1600 es 56:0} 56:0 oo |} VE 56°6 | 56°6 oro 
1400 fo Oe |. 57P) 565 |i-o5 572) 574 | —o2 
1200 wn 57°5} 570) +04) 5 | pain | 581 | 58°5 | —ong 
1000 I 58°0 58:0 foe) 5 59°6 59°6 foyte} 
800 & esa Lf are : 61°8 | 61°8 o*0 
600 61°5 | 63°0 | —1°5 
Thebaljloon thjen 
turned jto ascend. 
1800 572| 57°2 ix) 581 | 58x o"o 
1600 STS. O18 ba ee 59°0 | 58°5 | +05 
1400 = sie 2 58'2| 58-2 oro sf Very 58'7 | 589 | —ov2 
1200 3 Ae Van 5910) ea g.e OO |) ore dank Wmeo9 + 594: ee) 
1000 Bag | Very | 60:0) 59°99] +o! » | ong.| 0 | 60°0 oro 
800 ga dark, | 61'0| 60°38} +o-2 be 159 61'°5 | 60°6 | +o'9 
600 ™, 61°5| 618) —0'3]| > 8 615 | 61x | +04 
400 a7 os Be so Be r 615 | 61:6 | —orx 
200 ie a se P | Rain.| 61°5 | 62:1 | —o°6 
o at be Be 61°5 | 62°7 | —1°2 


488 REPORT—1863. 


Tasrz VI.—Showing the Decrease of Temperature with every | 


- 


| | 
| March 31. ‘| April aa June 26. || July 11. 
i 
eee State of the Sky. 
the sea. i = 
i Misty. | Clear. | Cloudy. || Cloudy. Misty. 
} 
| 
5 3 3s 3) el 318/38) 8] 8) 813] 8) 318 
=| & o i] eS S o S o s oS s 2 
g 3 St Sal tolls} S| 2 | eo) Bere eee oe 
From | To < Aa <2; al<e);al<¢/a}</a}]<}/aj}a)sa 
feet. | feet. = J a i a B ° ° o ° ° ° ° ° ° ° 
4900 | 5000 |} o'2 o2 || of || 04] O93] «- + | O11] Of2). 6 | Po ey eeten| tare 
4800 | 4900 || 03 o'2 || of || 0-4] 073} we | OZ Oral male anil moe 
4700 | 4800 || o-2 or || of || 074] 0°3]] - oo | OZ OZ ss [tae || stonlereoe | Sietegl vis 
4600 | 4700 oz o'2 || of |] 04] 03 Coe BI bas el a We a P| peace : 
4500 | 4600 o'2 o'r | 04 |] og] 0°3 O'I| 0°3| 073] .. o | x0 (ites |" xs : 
4400 | 4500 || 03 o'2 | 04 || 074] 073] 02] 04] 03] «> . en | ee 
4300 | 4400 Orn o'2 || O%} 074| 03 0'2 | 03] 03 . : a Hitech] 3 wih | 
| 4200 | 4300 || 072 or2 | 04 || 04] o74]] «» | 02] 0°4] 0°3] «- PR i ese He 
4100 | 4200 || o'2 ol 04 |] 074] 0-4/1 -- | 02] 073] 073]. ; Pe Lat = 
4000 | 4100 || o'2 02 |} 0% |] 074] 0°4]] Or | 0°73] 0°4| OZ] «2 | oe | oe [Pee : 
3900 | 4000 o"2 Or ie 0% |i. 0:4 [Foal or | Ore | 0°38 || Org tiken | ew |, ciomliete 5 
3800 | 3900 o"2 o2 |] 04 || 04] 0°4]] Or] 073] 074] 0°3] «2 | o+ | oo | ve | oe 
3700 | 3800 o°2 o°2 || 04 |} 0°4] 0°3]| OF] 072] 073] O73] « wa | cletaltitete: I) ete 
36c0 | 3700 o2 o'2 || 04 || 0-4] 074|) O°2] 0°3| O74] O73] -- | ee | ate: | : 
3500 | 3600 || o-2 o'r || of | 0°3| 074|| 0-2] 012] 03] O73] -e | ee | - é ae 
3400 | 3500 o2 o'2 03 || 074 | 0°5]| O12 | O'2| O74] O73] -- | oe | ° AG 
3300 | 3400 o'2 o'2 04 || og] O75 ]] OTL | 02 | 0°3] O73] oe | oe | we | a . 
3200 | 3300 o"2 o°2 04 |] 04] 075 || 0°2] 012] 04] O53] .. | - ce [ges : 
3100 | 3200 or2 o'2 04 || 04 | 0°5]| 02] 072 {| 0°3] Of] «- | - oa. [Meret siete os 
3000 | 3100 o°3 o2 || of 0°4.| 0°6 |] 02} O'2] O'4] O74] -- | oe | oe | oe | oe | @ 
2900 | 3000 03 ol o'4 0°4| O°§|| OTL] O'2| 0O°3| OF] -- +. . . o'2 
2800 | 2900 O73 orl 04 |] 04] O°6|| O72} O'2| O'4] O73] «. | oe A ec) o3 
2700 | 28co || 0'3 ot || og || 04] o'5|| o2| 072] 0G] 073] «- | «e -- | o3| O71 
2600 | 2700 0%3 072 || oS |} or5| 06] 02] 02] 04] 073] «. | -- -- | 03) orf 
2500 | 2600 || 03 o°2 04. || 04 | 0'6|| 02 | 0'2] 04] 03] OF] -- | we | e+ | OF] ODM 
2400 | 2500 O79) 51,5073 0°§ |] 05 | 06 || o-2| 0°3| 074| 03] o1| -- | -- | os | 03] OF 
2300 | 2400 || 03 | o2 04 |] 0-4] 06 || o2] «- | «- | O'2] OTF] OTT] oe | oe | O'2| OZ 
2200 | 2300 || 03 03 04 || 04] 0°6]] 0-3] -- | -- | 073] O72] OF] «- | oe | O39] O72 
2100 | 2200 03 oz o'4 || 074] 0°6|| O'3| «+ | «+ | OZ! OTT] OTT] oe | oe | O12) O72) 
2000 | 2100 0% 03 04 |} 074 | 0°6|| 03 so | 079} O12 |RO'2|| Semiraan| ora! (Onmm 
1900 | 2000 0°%3 o'2 04 || 04 | 06]! og} -. | -- | 03] or] OF 2 | Org] /Orm 
1800 | 1900 o'2 0°%3 05 || o5| o'7]] ons | -- |. | O73} O12] O'2] .. | e- | OF) O'S 
1700 | 1800 03 o'%3 o'4 || 074] 076 |} og] -- | «- | 03] O12] OTF] . «oe | 073) 6; 
1600 | 1700 03 03 04 || 04] 0°6 |] O75] -- | «+ | 073] O12] O'2 .. | 0-9] O'mm 
1500 1600 °°3 o3 o*4 0°3] 0°6|/ O74 | -- e+ | O39] O72] O72] OTL] OTT] O73] OZ 
1400 | 1500 03 03 0°3 || 0-4] 0°6]] 04] -- | «- | 073] O'2]-0°2] ovr] Orr | O74] O73 
1300 | 1400 0°%3 o%3 0°3 || 03] 06 ]] og] -. | -- | 03] O'2| O'2] OTF} OTF) O73] CBT 
1200 | 1300 o4 | of 04 || 0-4] 0°6|| 075] -- | -» | 0°3| O72 | 0°93} O'2| OTF] 03] OF 
11cO | 1200 03 o"4 0°3 || 0°3| 0°6)| O75 | -- | «- | 073} o'2| O72] O'2] O'1| OZ] OFF 
1000 } 1100 o°3 o5 || o% 0°4.| 0°6 || 06] «- | «- | 0°3] O'2] 03] 03] O'2| OF] OF) 
goo | 1000 03 o'6 04 || 07g] 0'5 || 076] «. | oe | «+ | oe | O'2] O'2] O'2/ OZ] oe 
800 | goo 073 o°6 0°45 |]-0°4 | 0°6 || 0°77] «- | «+ | oe | + | 0°39] O79] O72) 0°39] = 
700 | 800 o'4 o'7 Of. || O° |076 |] 078] oe |e | we fee | oe Tl CaO gy Oia 
600 | 700 o°5 o'8 O74 |) 074] O'7 ||) O78] oe |e. | we Kise [sie 0) wien] Org |e Gusiiee 
500 | 600 O'5 OF || Og. | Ora fob] OTB]. . |e. | oi | ae | ole free fl est eae 
400 | 500 0°6 o'8 074 || 0°74. | 076 || Og) Sete. | se | ele |) ee | oe reng Cty 
300 400 o's O'7 O4 04 | 076 || Og] -- | «- | we | =o | oe | oe | OF] OBI 
200 | 300 06 o'8 074, || 07g |/0'6 || Tro] 2.) es | ow f we | Biel | oe Oi Oggi 
100 | 200 06 o-7 04 |] 074] 06] O79) 2 | -- | oe | oe | Ce] we | Off) OBES 
o | 100 || 06 08 epee I ateLil) ox(9||)MGtS)) Gos |b on) oo ie hee | o°6 | O74 


No, of column 1. We 3. 4-5. 65 - J 8) 59) 10. RL, 12 is eee 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 489 
Increase of Height of 100 feet up to 5000 feet. 
July 21. | Mean. 
State of the Sky. 
| 
Overcast. Cloudy. Clear, 
7 = Number Number i eee | 
& 2 Pa 2 | Cloudy he Clear. | tee aes peekea | rp ras ean 
3 = 3 = | ments ments. || Mean. expert | pei Mean. hniertl eeoueh 
ee ments. | decline | ments. | decline 
a|/Aa|<|A Sel of 1°. 
| 
° ° ° ° ° ° ° feet. || o feet. 
ee al eae Ve o'3 5 o°2 2 o3 15 334 || O38 5 334 
ae) ae fer 03 5 o2 2 03 15 334 || 073 5 334 
oe | sia} W's o3 5 o2 2 03 14 334 || 0°3 5 334 
ois Haeley vere |i . °%3 5 o2 2 03 14 334 || 0%3 5 334 
ay alae wee +s 03 5 o°2 2 03 15 334: || 1073 5 334 
oe |e Ody lees o°%3 6 o'2 2 0°3 15 334 || Of3 5 334 
oe |e oe | o%3 6 o'2 2 °0°%3 13 334 o3 5 334 
serie eal’ fe o°3 6 o2 Zt Ayer O33 18 334 || O73 5 334 
ETaietla (oie dh 2)5:0)| "> o%3 6 o2 2% I. 0°3 18 334 || 23 7 334 
i) 2t— a 03 7 o2 2" || Ong 19 334 03 vi 334 
oe | oe ot. 0% 7 i Ow 2 03 19 334 03 7 334 
eo} ee NARA 03 7 o'2 2 03 19 334 || 03 7 334 
aise ites at leis 0°%3 3 o°2 I 03 20 334 0°3 6 334 
maratice 0%3 8 o2 I 0°%3 20 334 o%3 6 334 
32) ores aoe o%3 8 ov! I 0°3 20 334 0% 6 334 
a eal 03 8 o'2 I O73 20 334 o3 6 334 
oc | ee O73 8 o2 I 03 20 334 O73 6 334 
Bian iets al) “ore - 03 8 O72 r 0°73 20 334 || 03 6 334 
Camo! .. : 0°73 10 oz I o%3 22 334 o°3 | 6 334 
Omi. 0'2.|... - 0% 10 o'2 I o"4 21 251 03 6 334 
Oem O:r)) .. ; 03 10 ol I o'4 22 251 || 03 6 334 
Of) )"0'2 | 3 ° 073 II ol I o"4 22 251 o%3 6 334 
o'r} O72] .. . o3 12 orl I iio 23 251 || 03 6 334 
O7mHs0"3)| . . 03 12 oz I O74 23 251 o°%3 6 334 
GlENOr2.|.... : 03 13 o°2 I || °%4 24 251 o3 6 334 
@1}).073)| .. . 0°%3 13 03 I o'"4 24 251 03 6 334 
Or} 03] .. | -- o°%3 12 o2 Tail) 2074 23 251 03 6 334 
OT }FO%3)| ..- |. -- o3 12 o°3 I O74 23 251 o3 6 334 
Gr pOrg | ci. |= ate o°%3 12 o2 I o'4 23 251 || 03 6 334 
OZ [FOw | eb oe 3 12 o%3 I o'"4 23 251 °°%3 6 334 
oz] 074] .. . 03 12 o'2 I o'%4 23 251 03 6 334 
Gyro |. . j.s 03 12 o°3 I o'74 23 251 o%3 6 334 
073] 0°73] or| O'2]] 03 14 0°%3 I O'4 25 251 O73 6 334 
0°3| 04] 02] 0'2]] 03 14 03 I o'4 25 25till of3 6 334 
02} 04) 03) O21) 03 16 03 I o"4 27 251 o"4 7 251 
0°3| 04] 04] 072]) 0°73 16 073 I 0"4 27 251 | of " 251 
0°3 | O°5| O'4| O'2)| 073 16 03 I 0°4 25 251 |) 04 5 251 
0°3| 076} 04| 0°3]| 03 16 04. I O4 | 25 251 05 5 201 
0°4| 0°5| o4| 03] 03 | 16 o4 | 1 o4 | 25 |. 251] 05 | 5 2c1 
0°§| 076) 0'5| 03 |} 04 | 16 o's I o4 | 25 251 |) 05 5 201 
e- | 0°6| 04] 0°3/| OF 12 0°6 I o"4 21 251 05 5 201 
«+ | 06] 075] 0°3]] 074 12 06 I o"4 19 251 06 5 167 
++ | 06] 0°5| O72 || 074 10 o'7 I o4 19 251 06 5 167 
«+ | 06] 0°5| 073!) O'5 10 08 I o"%4 19 251 0'6 5 167 
cic pt a roe 3 O'S 8 o7 I 0°5 17 201 06 5 167 
Bem eeeas||saisna|: O-4ill, OFS 3 o8 I o'5 17 201 06 5 167 
Set ime s) tl patonr| Orit, OPS 8 o'7 I o's 17 201 06 is 167 | 
Sat metey! | Wore =| “O29 iil. O75 8 o'8 I o's 17 201 o7 5 143 
ee | ee | oe | Of] O'5 8 o7 I o°5 17 201 o'7 5 143 
be | ses] ee | O73|| O6 8 o8 I o°6 17 167 08 5 125 
28 


490 REPORT—1863. 


The largest numbers are those at the bottom of the column, and the smallest 
at the top, or at the highest elevations. The numbers in column 20 show 
the mean with the cloudy skies, and those in 22 the results with clear or 
partially clear skies, but there was only one such instance in the year 1863. 
The numbers in column 24 show the general mean from all the experiments 
with cloudy skies, as based upon experiments varying in number from 14 
to 27; and in column 26 the space in feet for a decline of 1° is shown, being 
167 feet near the earth, increasing gradually to 334 feet at heights exceeding 
3000 feet. In column 29 the resuits for clear or partially clear skies are 
shown, being 125 feet for 1° near the earth, increasing gradually to 334 feet 
at 1700 feet, above which it is nearly constant up to 5000 feet. 

From these results we may conclude that in a cloudy state of the sky the 
decline of temperature is less in amount and more nearly uniform up to the 
clouds, than in a clear sky, and that the greatest change in both states of the 
sky is near the earth. 


§ 6. Variation or THE HyGROMETRIC CONDITION OF THE AIR WitH ELByATION. 

All the adopted readings of the temperature of the dew-point in Section 4 
were laid down on diagrams, and their points joined. As it was evident then 
to the eye that the changes did not follow a regular decrease in the tempe- 
rature of the air, the numbers at every 1000 feet were read from the diagram, 
and in this way the next Tables were formed. 


Taste VII.—Showing the Variation of the Hygrometric condition of the Air 
at every 1000 feet of Height. 


Nunta Ascent. 


Humidity of the Air. 
Ascending. Descending. 
Height, in feet, le 
above the mean Tempe- | Dewees Tempe- ._ | Degree 
level of the sea. ae ey ”) Circum-|rature of Bee o > cat se Circum-|rature of] Fisch of 
times, | Stances.|the dew-| 7 0 | humi a at | stances.|the dew-| “ore ur, | bumi- 
point. | Y°P dity. mes point. | YP"! dity, 
March 31. 4 ¥ “ 43 = s 
23000 le .|o B ae VE ae ieee 2a 
22000 golds jaa p23 %/ do lao 
Bt bs /5 >, BeS/2 ESE 
21000 oA llod Sled giles slose 
20000 as lesa 88 9.2 1/8.8 |3.2 = 
ice cee 2zSeleesiaeg 
19000 AB S)8 8 218 & chs SSR RS 
18000 PssPpsspss SssPssp sa 
17000 5 in. 5. | ins 
16000 ise ai oh —29°0| ‘OIo 19 
15000 ; des ns #. —260| ‘O12 | 24 
14000 | ce —23°0| “O14 | 24 
13000 7 x te eee ee 2 —Ig70} “O17 | 23 
12000 & fa |—36"°0| ‘007 7 & —16'0} "020 ] 25 
11000 ww 2 —26'0} *o12 |] 10 o —14'5] "022 | 25 
10000 a) ms |—16°5|] ‘o20 14 RS Q |—13°8| ‘022 23 
go00 12 H |— 40 "036 23 5S |—12'5|] *024 23 
8000 FI a 5%) "O55 || 32 z 5, —12°0] *024 | 21 
7000 2 o 9°5| 066] 35 . @ |— 9°5| 028) 23 
6000 5, I2"O) 374 4) “35 S 2 or0| °044 | 33 
5000 mM 20°O| ‘108 53 23 3°0| *O50 36 
4000 4 ——_ 22°0/ ‘118 51 w 8:0] ‘062 
+ ro} 45 
3000 5 ss, 2870] "153 | 62 ) 150} "086 } 53 
2000 iS @ 285] 156] 54 as) 198] ‘108 | 61 
1000 2) S 34'0| *196 | 60 B 21°o| ‘113 | 61 
420 38°2| °231 | 67 


ae 


nee. 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 491 


March 31.—At the earth’s surface the dew-point was 38°; it decreased to 
283° at 2000 feet, and continued almost at this value to 3500 feet; at 
4000 feet it fell suddenly to 22°, and again suddenly at 5000 feet; after 
this it declined much more rapidly than the temperature of the air; and the 
air at 10,000 feet high became very dry, and exceedingly so at heights ex- 
ceeding 15,000 feet. 

On descending, the temperature of the dew-point was very much below that 
of the air to the height of 6000 feet, and afterwards it approached that of the 
air rather quickly. 

In ascending, the air was moist while passing through mist between 1000 
and 3000 feet high, and the degree of humidity varied from 54 to 62; an- 
other moist stratum was situated between 4000 and 5000 feet: above this the 
amount of water diminished very quickly, the degree of humidity at 12,000 
feet being 7 only, and at points higher than this it was much less. On de- 
scending, the declining curve was interrupted at 4500 feet, at 3000 feet, and 
at 1500 feet by narrow bands of different degrees of humidity. 


Tasix VII. (continued.) 
Trento Ascent. 


Humidity of the Air. 
Ascending. 
Height, in feet, 
above the mean Tempe- .| Degree 
level of the sea. nee Girouta-lrature of ‘evga of 
times, | S!@nces. ean a vapour. to 
April 18. « in. 
17000 ej | |— 20°C orga wag 
16000 <= 1670) -o2z6 "a4 
15000 Sg ™ |—12°0| *o24 22 
14000 a oo" |= Fon tage) as 
13000 FI SOC Seah hea aaa 
12000 Ee = 2*0| 048 | 37 
11000 4, 60} *057 | 32 
10000 6 10*5| ‘069 38 
gooo “2 5 17'°0| ‘094 | 52 
8000 B fsa | 25°] 7235 | -73 
7000 a 6:4 32°0| ‘181 | 87 
6000 + 3A 33°8| "194 | 76 
5000 ag Ee 3470] “196 | 67 
4.000 es 35°0] *204 | 61 
3000 I . 4oro| *247 | 64 
2000 ry 28 45°5| *305 | 68 
1000 S a 49°0| °348 69 
420 50°2| *364] 68 


April 18.—The temperature of the dew-point was 50° on the ground, the 
air was misty; at 1000 feet high, and again at 2200 feet, moist strata of 
air were passed, the difference between the temperatures of the air and dew- 
point becoming less in both cases ; these two temperatures then separated till 
the height of 4000 feet was reached, when the air again became more moist, 
and at 7000 feet high the temperature of the air was only 2° above that of the 
dew-point ; at this time the mist almost amounted to a fog. The degree of 
humidity was 87; on passing above this, the temperature of the dew-point 
rapidly and almost evenly declined, and at heights exceeding 17,000 feet the 
air became very dry. 


4.92 REPORT—1863. 


Taste VII. (continued.)\—ELEVENTH ASCENT. 


Humidity of the Air. 
Ascending. Descending. 
Height, in feet, 
above the mean 
Tempe- -, | Degree Tempe- +, | Degree 
level of he sea [Betwee circum rare of Elastic *f.- | Betee circum. rature of UAH Sr 
times, | stances. the. Ce") vapour. hurl || times. | stances. (the se-| vapour. | hum 
June 26. Clouds 5 in. é in. 
. still 
above; : és Clouds : 
23000 jana fp) wet 5S) ei above.| 995 
bluesky. 
22000 Tattoo 2°3| *O40} 34 2'0 
21000 B+)_18-5] -o18| 18 Fog. |— 4°5| °036| 26 
20000 —15°5 ‘O21 19 ; Ewe) "054 38 
In fog; Faint 
19000 ei —17°5|} ‘oIg|) 15 geet 370] "O50} 32 
18000 . [eeegs} 90} '065| 34 | FF 30] "050| 32 
a [EBeSs g 
as seg60 ° B 
&  |Coldd “o| ° > Al 
17000 ce ay A) 1 10°5| 069) “46 
16000 ic a we 20°5| ‘110) 68 ~ | Rain. | 15°5| *088| 49 
15000 £ ries 24°5| °132| 78 3 —| 14°5 084) 45 
14000 | COEF ny 31°0| *174]| 100 Be 22°0| *118| 63 
> n log. ° qd °o . . 
13000 a B-| 30°5 170} 100 4 Snow.| 24:0] *129| 69 
| Sun Ps 
12000 = | seen 28:0], °153 |. .9x » 23°0| *123| 65 
a faintly. 3 
11000 EZ |infog;| 220| ‘118| 68 5 20'0| *108| 58 
10000 = |thinrai | 16°0/ *ogo| 46 PF |———|_ 12'0| 074] 59 
gooo ~ TLOy OTL 315 150} ‘086} 44 
8000 1075} ‘o069| 57 S| 15°5| -088) 44 
7000 ¥5°0| 086] 34 ae 18°5| ‘100} 43 
6000 2AT Gili os 2ueraS Sx 22°5| “I20] 54 
5000 34°0| “196| 69 5& | 260/ ‘141) 53 
4000 410} °257| 67 S62 | 340] *196| 68 
3000 45°0| °299| 68 & = 39°5| °242] 72 
2000 45°0| °299| 57 @f& | 43°5| *283) 68 
1000 Very 4870)|. °33'5)1 © 55 | SS) -48°0)| © *4qiil 6s 
300 dark. 50°0 361 56 5 aia wes eS, 
) eee swe |.) eee 55°0| °433] 66 


June 26.—The temperature of the dew-point was 50°, and on leaving the 
earth it declined less rapidly than the temperature, so that the humidity in- 
creased; after passing above 4000 feet the dew-point declined rather quickly 
to 6000 feet, where its rapid decline was checked, but continued to decline to 
8000 feet; it was here as low as 103°; it was 11° at 9000 feet, and then in- 
creased, momentarily approaching that of the air; and at 12,700 feet, having 
passed through rain at 10,000 feet, these two temperatures were alike, and 
the air was saturated with moisture, and continued thus to 14,200 feet high ; 
it then separated, and whilst passing through a dry fog at 15,000 feet, whilst 
the air was increasing in temperature, the dew-point decreased; on passing 
out of cloud at 18,000 feet the air became dry, and from 20,000 feet to 23,000 
feet the dew-point was from 30° to 40° below that of air; at this time rain- 
clouds were at the same height, and at 23,000 feet the air again was so moist, 
that the difference between these two temperatures was 6° only. The degree 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 493 


of humidity varied very much, from 100 at 13,000 and 14,000 feet to 19 at 
20,000 feet and to 40 at 23,000 feet. 

On descending, the temperature of the dew-point separated from that of the 
air, and was 30° less at 21,000 feet ; on passing then into fog, the moisture 
increased so rapidly that at 19,800 feet there was only 6° difference between 
these temperatures ; it again separated, and again approached whilst passing 
through rain and snow; on passing below the snow at 10,000 feet, the air at 
first became drier, but afterwards the increase of the temperature of the dew- 
point was more rapid than that of the air, and the air became more humid. 
Both the temperature of the air and the distribution of the water in this 
ascent were very remarkable. 


Tasre VIL. (continued.)—Twetrra Ascent. 


Humidity of the Air. 
Ascending. | Descending. 
Height, in feet, 
ieee Se Tempe- ._ | Degree Tempe- . | Degree 
Oa et Circum-|rature of| pee. of eevee Cireum-jrature of Rlesc) xf , 
times. ri sate vapour. to times. | Stances- eee vapour, ia 
July 11. Es 6..\| ie a in. 
4600 BG sl 503] 1365) 595 jeer |” pal Ge's) “Seed 75 
4400 anzia| 49°8| -358| 72 | 8 |. 5 | 49°5| 7355] 65 
4200 He Bl] 480] :335)- 65 |e ka | Be | 492) “some 63 
4000 a~ 478 *333) 62 a | ge | 47°) “328m 56 
3800 44°6| °295| 62 E me 49°2|) °351| 59 
3600 g 43°3 | 280/) £156 ene Ja | 50°0| °361] 59 
3400 es 43°5| 1283 |° 6s Wpme Z| sr0| °374|. 62 
3200 ae 43°5| °283] 54 S me} Sao)! “374ie 99 
3000 =, 43°4| ‘281| 53 aS 50°9| °373| 60 
2800 2 43°2)| 279) 52 wo Sun 50°7| °370| 60 
2600 Ne 43°5| °283) 52 * seen 50°5| °367| 60 
2400 =| Agi2 S270)|| 56  |faintly.| 50°2| °364| 69 
2200 a x 43°0| °277| 49 B The balloon thien 
2000 ie a 43°0| °277| 48 turned |to ascend. 
1800 =k 2 AGio}| GguT $2 
1600 he a 50.0} °361| 60 
1400 7 & 50°2| °364| 59 
1200 = 48°5| 342] 54 
1000 479) °323) 44 
800 47°5| °329| 47 
600 48:6) 343] 46 
400 50:0} °361| 46 
200 SEE 375:) Ha 
2 S22, 305 | hat 


July 11.—The balloon first rose to 4600 feet, the degree of humidity 
increasing with elevation ; it then descended to 2600 feet, and the tempe- 
rature of the dew-point was nearly constant. The balloon then turned to 
ascend, and reached a height of 6600 feet; the humidity increased as before 
to 5400 feet, and then became somewhat less humid; on descending, the air 
at first increased in humidity, and then decreased, being driest at the lowest 
part of the descent, viz. 1000 feet. The balloon then turned to ascend for a 
third time and reached 2600 feet, with a somewhat drier atmosphere than had 
been met with at this elevation on this day; at this time the track of the balloon 
was near the sea; on descending to 800 feet the air was more humid ; and this 
was found to be the case by ascending for the fourth time to 1600 feet, and 
again confirmed on finally descending to the height of 800 feet, when the 
instruments were packed up. 


4.94, REPORT—1863. 


Taste VII. (continued.) 
Tweitrra Ascent (continued). 


Humidity of the Air. 


Ascending. Descending. 
Height, in feet, 
teva i ipas Tempe-~ Degree Tempe- Degree 
EE at |Cixeum ature of Free ge| 5 OF, || Meenat|Cizeum-[r=tureof force or | OF, 
times. | S'4nces. point, |Yapour. dity.. times. | Stances. pointy vapour. | “dity, 
uly, SL ee ae 
00 ———| 40.0] ‘247| 68 Very | 4170] ‘257| 64 
6400 ay, 41°3| ‘260| 63 misty.} 41°38] °265| 70° 
6200 & ahi 42°5| '272| 63 ve 41°3| ‘260| 65 
6000 stratus | 43°1| °278| 68 me 42'2| *269| 67 
5800 clone 46°3 |, :315:| 70 8 41°'7| °264] 72 
5600 eee 48'S) G35) 73 a 42'0| ‘267] 69 
5400 Sao SOF] 394) 85 vee 43°0| ‘277] 7° 
5200 ; | very | 49°} 348] 75 te + | 442] *288] 70 
5000 A | misty.| 49°4| °353| 76 3 45°7| °307] 73 
4800 es 48'5| 342] 72 B 47°0| °323| 77 
4600 & aot 335 | 2? = 48°0| °335| 78 
4400 F 46°7| -319| 65 S 47°2| °325| 75 
4200 ‘© | Misty. 46°5| °317| 61 3 4.6°6 418 71 
4000 £ _| 47'°0| °323| 62 s 46:0] “311] 68 
3800 A I——| 479] °334| 6 5 45°5| °305| 65 
3600 = 49°7| °357| 64 || & 45°0| ‘299| 63 
3400 = 49°8| 358] 63 x 44°0| 288] 60 
3200 = | Faine| 49°9| °356] 59 43°2| ‘279] 57 
3000 1 wae, | 49°O) 1948] ° 56 “sy 42°5| 2721 55 
2800 I 50°5| °367| 59 e 42°3] ‘270] 64 
2600 g 49°0} 348] 55 i. 42°6| *273] 53 
2400 49°6| -356| 58 5 Sod 4278) ‘amg 53 
2200 ir — 2 aoe (i we Ave : re 43°0 ‘277 52 
=fags ee "ds Bar wee oe 43°0| ‘2771 51 
1800 oe oe Pet Te oe AQT | “2ASip a 5r 
1600 one i. oe on Sep 44°1| ‘289}] 50 
1400 tt eee a pes coe 46°0| ‘*311| 52 
1200 wee eee ave one state 47'O)) . *3agrhs (58 
1000 on wel ee spe ver ATT °33% 53 
fo) Theballoon thjen 
turned |to ascejnd. 
2600 F ee 44°5| °294] 49 = 45°2| °302} 52 
24.00 2 ae 42°0| 1267 | © 43 3 Jus 47'0| °323] 56 
2200 % 40°9| '256] 41 5 te: 45°6| 306] 53 
2000 1%, 41°8| °265| ar Seti mete 44°5| "294) 55 
1800 Hes 433] °280] 43 us ae 44°5| °294] 50 
1600 ak 43°5| °283) 43 || op] +. | 463] +315] 53 
1400 ene 43°8| 286] a9 Bw ee ASS Bes as 
1200 as 45°8| °308| 46 p | os | 49°3| °352] 57 
S28 5 ba > “ : 
ui(eers) E 4 343) 45 te 50D. eersyoNe 5 
800 al B 3 
ae mee Arie STL | ees aul OG 
Theballoon thien 
i turned |to asce/nd. 
ce: e 
1600 3 S 49°0| -348| 58 ee wt 48°6| 343] 57 
1400 | A} 49°0| °3481° 57 |S pal -- | 49°5|] °355] 59 
1200 & ough 50°2| °364| 59 Qu 8) .. 50°0| *361| 60 
1000 ue goo} °361| 55 Io ee 50°6) +369] 62 
800 os 50°7| °370| 60 |/B “pi 51°0| °374| 61 


eee on Sete t 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 495 


Taste VIL. (continued.) 


THIRTEENTH ASCENT. 


Humidity of the Air. 
Ascending. \ Descending. 
Height, in feet, 
josiglershy a Between Tempe- Elastic Degree Between Tempe-| phastic Degree 
iat |Citcum- ACEO free |. | hmm | Citeum REE Of occ af | Oh 
times. | Stances. point, |Y@P°ur. | “gity, || times. stances. point. |Y@P°Ur-| “ity, 
July 21. ‘Out of . in. z in. 
3000 cloud. | 52°5 "398 97 i 52°5| 396] 97 
2800 Ween a 54°0| 418] 100 55:0] °374.| 91 
2600 Sc ae 54°0| “418 100 g mepen| 53°0| “403| 98 
2400 an Ie 54°7| °428]| 100 is 53°0| “403| 96 
2200 el out | 556) eae ® lImeloud) 53°0| -403| 95 
2000 2-1! 55a aoe 53°3| "4°7| 93 
1800 S |etouds;} 546) 427] 93 fs 52°5| °396| 89 
1600 g | clouds| 55°2| 436] 91 B 54°0| “418| 93 
1400 | wy | 562] --453| 93 S 55°1| °434| 96 
7200 a Sasi 570| 465) 93 ie 56°0| *449| 97 
os > \aouds.| 57°} “465| 9° ~ Theballoon th ae 
[efe) SS sya age ok % turned |to ascejnd. 
600 = 580| -482] ot || 
400 E | sky | 59°] ‘5e0) 94 |) B 
200 overcast.| 60°2| 7522) 94 || 
° 60°5| 528] 96 / 
3200 52°8| 400] 99 aam| 5} 374) 85 
3000 Fog. | 52°7| -399] 95 bie ets §2°1| °389| 100 
2800 53°0| °403| 93 sy | SR 2) 39K] , 99 
2600 dq 53°0) 403] 96 3 52°5| 396) 9 
2400 3, 53°6 ire loo || $5 52°9| “401|) 97 
2200 # © 53°9| “4! 99° ee 53°5| “410) 95 
2000 3 - Cloud.| 54:0! -418} 100 a iS Eee 5370] 403] 91 
1800 4inQ 54°9| 431] 100 EE 53°2| 406) 94 
1600 g< 56°0| *449| 100 || SB 54°5| °425| 93 
1400 oa 57°0| °465| 100 || Be 56:0} 449] 96 
1200 ceo Hoga 57° *473,| 100 5 57°6| -475| 98 
1000 58:0| 482] 100 : Rain. 59°5| “5°99] 99 
800 61°8| -552] 100 
600 61°5| °546| I00 
Thebaljloon thjen 
turned |to asce|nd. 
On 
57°] °465) 99 MEL 581) *483) 100 
S7iDi\p ©4739 209° 2S 4nd Neer) SPaeee 500) tOP 
58:2] -485| 100 || 2 Fl gark | 58°6| *492| 100 
59°0| 500] 100 aa g cloud. 59°4| °507| 100 
poe *518| 100 ||, 5 Rain. | 60'0| +518] 100 
ro} °537| 100 liq & 
61°5| °546| 100 S s 


July 21.—Rain was falling heavily on leaving the earth; the degree of 
humidity at first decreased, and then increased and decreased again, till on 
passing into dense fog at 2200 feet the air was saturated. On descending 
to 1400 feet the air was nearly saturated; on rising a second time the air 
Was again saturated, and was nearly so up to 3200 feet ; on the second de- 
scent the humidity varied from 91 to 100, and afterwards the air was quite 
saturated from1800 feet to the earth. Rain had been falling heayily all the 
time the balloon was in the air. 


1863. 


REPORT 


496 


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‘Surpusosy 
*Zurpusosaq: 


*Suripusosy 


*Apnolo 


“AS 249 J0 2981S 


*Surpusosaq 
*Surpuaosy 


*£pnojo 


*Buipuaosy 


“93 0006 
Aojaq 


Apnojo 


aoe nee 
see eee 
wee wee 
wee eee 
wee see 
ae wee 
wee eee 


*Surpuadsy 
*Surpusosaqy 


“95 0008 
AOTAq 
AWS 


"Iea1Q 


*uvayy 


"te Ane 


“11 Ame 


‘gz oune 


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"P2F OOOFS 0} du 4003 QOOT Axoao yu Ayrprwungy Jo vorsoy oy} SurMoyg—]ITA ITAV], 


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oqd aaoqe 
W3198H 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 497 


The numbers in this Table show, as in the previous experiments, that the 
moisture in the air at the same elevation is very different at different times ; 
the numbers in the last column of the Table show the average results in the 
two states of clear and cloudy skies, with the number of experiments upon 
which each result is based. By combining those with cloudy sky with those 
previously obtained, according to the number of observations upon which 
each result was based, the following results were obtained. 


With an overcast sky, the degree of) ~ teen OF, é 

humidity on the earth was ........ } (Se ements. 
eee OO TeeGate sss cpm: o's pa etre Td Shoes 4g 
C10 hae tire RR a aC 13 5y uae 9 
BOO Sa ee hangs Hert apie 5 A 76 ,, 24 a 
OQ Si. otk e's 5 + aug e ghee 2 Se Y os 
7 ete ARE Marae ek mates NS 7or 4 | 20 > 
sao aie ss. 2 atynig eee Lee gen * 
See yy ss vc ee ee to aioe es ale 5. 5 
Bras). ochre oats eins yee 4, 6 «5 4 
SO 5. gi ito «+ » arptale < 465° 5 - 
SOOM 55 een ory «4 6%. fake sok SY ite ae! fs 
_ | RCA pee ane tani - Baie ty 95 
EMME shoes sag Oe os tga eee ae ae 55. , 4 Be 
Rs? bosonic o's a sites sien 53 ,, 864 i 
sot 3 5 '« S Sigfaces ose o-oee 45) a5, ae - 
I ae sw ae Des eae oe Boiss eee 55 
es cs e's singe cle saves oe Des Typ ee 3 
ae ee (a a ” 
MUNN Pacino xg sn 0 09 oe 5 . 
ras Sing v0 es ot es an pr Se 99 
2 ivctheert ncn ee Fo) a eR ae ‘i 
MTS fae sss ees be ecds za see 2 
Serene srt ro SY 2 ee Bale & Pr 
EER heres rais'h's iy 3 a's y's AQIOOS OL = 


The law of moisture here indicated is an almost uniform state of humidity to 
the height of 5000 or 6000 feet, that is, to the usual height of the cloud plane; 
then a sudden decrease and continued decrease to 14,000 feet. At eleva- 
tions exceeding 14,000 feet with cloudy skies the number of experiments are 
too few to speak with confidence of the results ; the humidity, however, seems 
generally to decrease ; the high numbers at 15,000 and 16,000 feet are pro- 
bably accidental, 


1863. ; 25 


498 REPORT—1863. 


By treating the results with a clear or a nearly clear sky in the same way, 
the following results were obtained. 


With a clear sky, the degree of humidity was 


Cy RG PTO ae sins le tect 63 from 4 experiments. 

Ps 00071 = a oh iy eee | ic 
2 Ee ee. eae 10.» 8 bs 
SU | ee ee (re i 
UL ee 2 Se ee i OS as 
Bases + = «quart oun fe 5, 8 a 
GOONS. ta ee RR Ree bo ;, 3 Pe 

1 Ls es aia he ae te 2) a x 
OU ME cess se sits & Be * re - 
LU lp Ry ee) A ae as oe ”9 
Ser te dep -5..8 + < sk Ag 3S oa 
Dg ested ings 6's «t's Bs oe gas = 
DANTE sleet rela giag sss 5 cdiere 5's ae | * 
EEUU | PICA. Ce a dis aed AG 530 *, 
PICT eit 2 eared area S606 . 
AMMO =| <n gies See oe 44. ,, 5 3 
ROR SR 8 ase ae er 40 ,, 5 bs 
DUOMO RES coale Eos soe Be o55 * 
EE LL See aa neta | lr at 
ORO see 2 ote aes es ea 7 
DUNN sn) Wastmeres 1 os ti - Ba oe ie bs 
te UU US Se ee Lee _ 
2 ae EE ee 3 Se + 
I 5g Mire hes inst 5 a | bs 


The law of moisture here shown is a steady increase of humidity from 
the ground to the height of 3000 or 4000 feet, then a decrease by 5000 feet 
to the same as on the ground, declining afterwards, but not regularly, to the 
height of 23,000 feet ; above this point the air is very dry, but, so far as I have 
seen, never quite free from water. 

By comparing the results with a cloudy sky with those from a clear sky, 
the degree of humidity on the ground with the latter is less by 11 than with 
the former, but approximate very closely together at the height of 3000 feet; 
the air continues humid with the cloudy sky to 5000 or 6000 feet, but becomes 
less humid with a clear sky at 4000 feet, and declines, but less rapidly than with 
cloudy sky, till at 7000 feet they are again near together, and continue so to 
9000 feet ; the humidity then increases with the cloudy sky to the height of 
15,000 feet, where the air is as humid as at the height of 7000 feet ; whilst 
with the clear sky the humidity decreases to the height of 13,000 feet, but then 
increases to 15,000 feet, where the air is as humid as it was at 10,000 feet. 
It is remarkable that this humid state is in both states of the sky at the same 
elevation ; at elevations greater than this, the humidity decreases in both 
states of the sky, but more rapidly at first with the cloudy than with the clear 
state, till at heights exceeding 20,000 feet there is but little difference in 
the results from the two states, 


rontse 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1868. 499 


§ 7. CompartIson of THE TEMPERATURE OF THE DEW-POINT, AS DETERMINED BY 
DIFFERENT INSTRUMENTS. 
Taste [X.—Showing the Temperature of the Dew-point, as determined at 


about the same height by different instruments and methods, and compa- 
rison of the results together. 


Under 1000 feet. 


Temperature of the | 
Dew-point temperatures. dew-point as deter- 
mined by 
Calculated Observed Dry and Wet (free) 
Date. Height. from by above that by 
| |e] 2 | 28] 2/2 | 28 
z2 | ee |S2| 22] ge] S214 : 
pe | o@ | 2h] BB | -& | 2B] & 
& | #8 | Af | ae | &° | a2 | ge 
d h m1 feet.’ | _ Es “ é & a 
March 31 4 7 350 38°3 380 : + 03 
411 350 38°3 es 36-2 . + 21 
June -26 1 63 .... 45°9 es 48°9 | - |= 3:0 
Waly )ar R44) «ss 52°7 SGPC ies — 23 
4 45 see | 52°8 53°5| + ae! 
447 52°2 550} +s — 28 
4 51 514 54°) — 26 
3 760 50°9 5ro| os ‘ — o1 
21 | Bees 59°0 | 59°5 — os 
5 293] 948 611 Fo | — 04 
‘* Between 1000 and 2000 feet. 
March 31 4 18 | 1515. 292 | ++ ee goro|| .. -. |— 08 
July x1 7 133) 1876. 42°4.|  o- 44yo| .- -» |— 16 
715 | 1876 430) =- A3:5itmine a. |— O05 
7 164} 1776 ADT ats 43:0)|, te — 03 
7 19 1582 44°4. o. 4475) «0 +. |— OF 
720 | 1485 45°2| «> AS iw ey || se oo 
7 22 | 1290 46°4.| «- 45°5| « «+ [+ o'9 
7 263) 1029 48'0| .. ABs tes «2 |= 05 
| 7 273| #1119 466 480] «- oe J 14 | 
7 283) 1341 444) +s ayo} fs +» |= 076 
% 30% 12397 451) ss 4475) we 74° fr 06 
7 3Z'| 1096 | 45°5| + | 4570 + 05 
7 33) 1488 430) + 25 + 05 
7 46} 1580 45°38) « 4pro| 3k — 12 
747) 1483 | 470, +. 47°5| +s ee 05 
749'| 1483 49°4 oe ASG |) = oo [+ 14 
759) 1337 | 492) +» 48°5| -- or oF 
\ 7 523| 1145 AD°O| os 49°70] os oe o"0 
‘ 755 | 1000 §O'O |; a 500] se oe o"0 
3 7 563 1020 507 8% 50°5 » |+ o2 
7 57%) 1029 499 «+ 508] .. 7» |— o9 
8 4+ 1290 5070 o's Py ee [— 1°5 
21 5 15s] 1241 oe 58°0 oe |— 0°5 


00 


REPORT—1863. 


Tasre IX. (continued.) 


Between 2000 and 3000 feet. 


Temperatures of the 


Dew-point temperatures. dew-point as deter- 
mined by 
Calculated Observed Dry and Wet (free) 
Date, | Height. | from by above that by 
} tnt-ais 0 5 = a¢h| : k 
\£.| 22] 2| 22182) 2] 23 
“?> s 2 ze s ae zo 
P| bt) ge | Pe | ba | get oe 
a 1 a ax ao = it ax tas) 
dh m| feet. aula _ 6 | 5 a 
June 26 1 7} 2651 ART) se 47°0 5 Bos [reg 
ly | tre 5) 34) 247o- |; $04]! se 50°8| . »» |= o§ 
5 37] 2469 | 49°9| -- §O%|) = b= oe 
DAR ..aase | 379) 2s at) ea Sam jae 6 
5 42 | 2470 47°0 : SoS |) * te | 32 
5 433) 2488 | 48°3| «: 5Di9i|| - bs. |— 20 
5 45 | 2488 48°5 | os 49°5\|| - ee ES 
5 48 | 2817 50°4 : 50°o| . ee [+ 0% 
5 49 | 2820 50°9| +s 5o°o| . ++ |-+ 0'9 
5 50 | 2820 51°6 . 5-5 || oe |- VI 
Be2 |. 2707 51°6 STO |! -» |+ 06 
5 53 | 2926 49°70 . 50°O| oe +. |— Io 
7 12 | 2199 | 44°0 : 44°61| <2 ee |— 05 
735 | 2426 41°8 . 420] oe o- |— o2 
7 30 | 2555 Aziz |) ae 42°5 moll ee le 188 
7 38 | 2657 AA6| os Bore ||) ost Vif tee. [eke aECe 
7 383) 2597 44:6] 440] oe »» i+ 06 
July 21 458 2790 54:2| as 5ao5 | tule 2» |— 03 
Ce 2610 55°0| ae 5570] oe oe loo) 
iB Zale 2850 54°2| oe 540] se |} ee | o2 
ears 2900 531] oe S30 ee ew ene 
5 5 | 2890 50°7|  «s 52°0 : «. |— 13 
5 23%| 2870 | $2'2 52°70 see ete [fr Ow 
Between 3000 and 4000 feet. 
July 11 5 4] 3930 45°8| 46°0| « o |= 02 
5 14| 3860 47°9| +» A9°0| coll” een f= a8 
aS teases 47°9| 50°2 | +e oe [= 23 
5 24 | 3524 504) oe 500} +» || we + 0%4 
529s) Meson go. | +e 515] +e |} we fm 1K 
| 5 533 3046 49°O| os 500} ++ |] ee |= 10 
5 56! 3529 49°38| .. td Me | bo 
Gt pees 502 | os GO:0)|) «shell bisigilet- O72 
6 3] 3250 50°3| oe 50'0| -- || oe [+ 03 
6 4. 3250 49°3 . 510 wad eg pf m2 
6 531 3720 43°1 50°3]} os i] os |— 272 
7 63| 3855 | 45°5 464/ ++ || «. |= 079 
7 SN gerry, 42°9 460 ciel Ses le 32 
7 92) 3063 | 42°5 45°5 | ba |e 737° 
21 5 203] 3298 518) 515 | e. |+ 03 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 501 


Tasty LX. (continued.) 
Between 4000 and 5000 feet. 


Dew-point temperatures. 


| 
| 
| 


Temperatures of the 
dew-point as deter- 


mined by 
Calculated Observed | Dry and Wet (free) 
Date. Height. from by | above that by 
e2 | se | 22/28 | ee) 22 | 38 
a8 | #3 | Se | 2 | aa | Se | 88 
p | pe | g2@ |] BR] 2s | ee] be 
a A~ | AR | ee} A~ | Am | mm | 
ee eee | ee 
dh m| feet. | , 3 5 Ss A I 
July x1 5 5%) 4030 | 468) .. AGS} Feichel| | oats |S 079 
5 7 | 4366 49°7| «« CES 6 os j= 18 
5 78| 4610 | 50°3/ «- 48°5 choo iat 
GeT6 |, CArzE’ | YAGcil a 492) ie |) es | oz 
6 9] 4610 | 4770] «. 49°0 es (== 26 | 
612 | 4905 | 49°5| ++ | 492] «- a eval 
7 3] 4796 | 474) -- 47°3 +. | o7 
7 4| 4380 | 472) «| 46°7] al ic 
Between 5000 and 6000 feet. 
March 31 6 113) 5901 Gol, se | GO oats . oro 
July 31 613] 5105 495) +6 50°0 «2 |= oO 
6 14 5271 47S: | 2 fais) VAG FORO is j— 12 
GyrS |. $327 43°6| AQEO |e oropie | fiw io geen | OLA: 
616 | 5382 SaRzr |. +s 4935 | «es Haced ale rz 
618 | 5684 47°2) os 48-0 | Vays s Ra O78 
620] 5772 46°6| 471 — 05 
621 | 5828 464) .. 47°0 — 06 
622] 5884 AG re eo. al AGrE — I'o 
6 58 | 5975 46)... 410 + 06 
6 59 | 5523 | 42.0) -. | 4r'5 [+ 0°5 | 
7 4 5150 444 ee | 48-0 — 36} 
Between 6000 and 7000 feet. 
July 11 624] 6451 AG:Oil Fie Azer ls » [= 1°6 
6271] 6623 38°6| «. 42°0| 6 oe [= 374 
6 32 | 6186 Ameo ees AEE les o« |— 03 
6 34. | 6186 AIO) os ALE a tela es |= O'S 
6 35 | 6210 41°0 : 408} .. +e | O12 
6 47 | 6031 ASA” tele A250} Nels ee [+ 14 
6 473] .-.. 42°5| oe 418] .. e» |+ 07 
6 48 | 6309 43°70] o. 4I'5| es oe [f 1°5 
6 50 | 6420 42°4| os 415 | oe «- |+ o'9 
6 52] 6453 39°6| o. 40°4| «. -- [— 08 
6 53} 6475 40°7| oe 4o'o| «. . + 07 
6 543) 6530 Ss Be ee 4O°5| «- 5 + 12 
6 55] 6588 7 a fl 4O°5| oe + 12 
6 553} 6588 4%°7| os ATE ee es |+ o2 
6 56] 6530 40°5| oe 4OO| ee oe [+ 05 


502 REPORT—1863. 


Taste IX. (continued.) 
Between 7000 and 8000 feet. 


Temperatures of the 
Dew-point temperatures dew-point as deter- 
mined by 
Calculated Observed Dry and Wet (free) 
from by above that by 
Date. Height. 
3 Se £ 5 oO 5 g 
EB ey 3 2s ey 3 i 
ee |aele2e | Sil 2s | 22 | 3e 
=e aa | do 25 5.5 ae a 
ea ee | 25 £5 a é 26) & E, 
ea Pa mb > 
EF | S*|4e| ee | 6° | az | en 
ad h m feet. ° ° ° ° ° 
March 31 4 273}, 7035. | 9°3 4 
6 8]. 7907. .| 11°8 | oro + 18 


Between 8000 and 9000 feet. 


| Sune 26 15 | Bie | oy) fi | 11°0| | | | | 


Between 10,000 and 11,000 feet. 


ON Aaa sa ORAL 


Between 14,000 and 15,000 feet. 


| March 31 4 35 


March 31 5 56] 14325 |— 4°6 —I0°0 oe Nee be 
June 26 1 23 | 14530 22°1 20°0 de Mere e 
Between 15,000 and 16,000 feet. 
March 31 5 52 | 15630 |—281 
June 26 1 26 | 15935 E52 17°2 ae = 20 
Between 16,000 and 17,000 feet. 
March 31 5 46 | 16080 |— 774 
June 26 1 27 | 16079 = dl Con 2 -» [— 3°6 
I 293] --- 19'5| -- +s 21°0 e oe | any 
I 293"... 22°0/ .. - 24°2 “ ois | mee 
I 30 adhere ZEN | fie | Sc 23°5 cit oo are 
Between 18,000 and 19,000 feet 
iJune 26 1 353) 18053” 3°3 | A i | g°0 
1 363| 18555 |— 50) .-. -s |= 972 + 42 
P47 | aes 1H TET | ES Mes, grag ca -» |— g1 
1 38 Pea ee IETS | |= esl 23 =x +. |—13°2 
\ : a J _ - | 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 503 


Tasxe IX. (continued.) 
Between 19,000 and 20,000 feet. 


E | Temperatures of the 
Dew-point temperatures dew-point as deter- 
mined by 
| 
Calculated Observed Dry and Wet (free) 
Date. Height. from by above that by 

B.|5g| 8/28 || BS] § | 28 

se lus | 2 | 32 Ce jing | ae 

ae a5 r= =| ae se | 30 

S. dl ed ee Be |} Se. | 28 §& 

E PS | ge | oe | Ba | ge] ee 

=) =) | AR ae | an ag me 

d hm feet. ant ° ° ° ° ° ° 

. . | - 
June 26 1 41°10) 19544 —12°5} — 95) — 370 
I 42 q--s |—19'6 = go}! —10°0 
I 434 jess |—'5°9 | 13°0|| ia 
Zak 19901 15°8 | 18-0} «so |= 2°2 

2 124 ea 12°6 150 || oe [= 2"4 


Between 20,000 and 21,000 feet. 


| Sune .26 1 44 | 20648 |-2°5| és | a |-1370]| te | He |+ O°5 


Between 21,000 and 22,000 feet. 


| June 26 1 46 | 21266 |-228 | it ] oa |-13°0|| 33 | on = 98 


Between 22,000 and 23,000 feet. 


22884 
22965 


March 31 5 27 
June 26 1 55 


rela: 
10°7 


“bpd 


ot [+ 2°5 


Between 23,000 and 24,000 feet. 


June 26 1 54% 2°5 + 3'0 — 05 
5 


43) 23143 ae Ef tailae eS 


| 


504 REPORT—1863. 
TABLE X. 


Excess of Temperature of the Dew- 


point as found by 
| Dry and Wet Thermometers (free) 
above that found by 
Heights between : 
5 a a8 é 
ne sal eee 2 
a8 P| = 
ore ) ae 3 
ae 6 fp & 6 
Ar Z <4. z 
| nee — 
fect. feet. a ‘ 
© to 1000} —1'4 6 —0'5 4 
1000 ~,, 2000/ —o2 22 —o'8 I 
2000 ,, 3000 | —o'5 23 
3000», 4000 —I1'I Lyi 
| 4000 5, 5000; —o'!1 | 8 
5000 ,, 6000 —o'5 12 
6000 4, 7000 | +orr 15 
7000 ,, 8000} -+1'8 I 
| 8000 ,, 9goco | 
| gooo ,, 10000 
| 10000 ,, 11000 | 
| 13000 ,, 12000 | 
12000 4, 13000 
13000 ,, 14000 
14000 ,, 15000 | +2°8 2 
| 15000 ,, 16000 | —2'0 I 
16000 ,, 17000 | —3°6 I —1'9 3 
170090 =, 18000 
| 18000 ,, 19000 | 
19000 ,, 20000 | —2'2 I —2'1 4 
20000 ,, 21000 eeee we +0'°5 I 
21000 ,, 22000 | .... se —-98 I 
22000 ,, 23000 } 
| 23000 ,, 24000 | ..++ a ee +0'5 I 


In all the experiments there seems to be no certain difference in the tem- 
perature of the dew-point as determined by Daniell’s and Regnault’s hygro- 
meters, and no certain difference in the results as found by the dry- and wet- 
bulb free and those by the dry- and wet-bulb aspirated. The most important 
comparison therefore now to be made is the comparison of results by dry- 
and wet-bulb thermometers and with one or the other of the hygrometers. 

The following are the results as found from all the simultaneous determi- 
nations of the temperature of the dew-point by Daniell’s hygrometer and the 


dry- and wet-bulb thermometers (free). 


The temperature of the dew-point by the dry- and wet-bulb (free) up 
to 1000 feet was the same as by Daniell’s hygrometer, from 14 expts. 


From1000 to 2000 feet was 0:1 lower than by a3 
2000 to 3000 feet was 0-1 lower than by 3 
3000 to 4000 feet was 0-1 higher than by x 
4000 to 5000 feet was 0-4 lower than by OS 
5000 to 6000 feet was 0-9 lower than by 5 
6000 to 7000 feet was 0-3 lower than by Pi 


7000 to 8000 feet was 3:5 higher than by 
8000 to 9000 feet there naa been no neat Eye 
9000 to 10, 000 feet was 0°8 lower than by im 


from 29 ,, 
from 44 ,, 
from 50 ,, 
from 30 ,, 
from 28 __s=éz, 
from 26 ,, 
from 2 ,, 


from 1 expt. 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 505 


At heights exceeding 10,000 feet there have not been sufficient determina- 
tions to deduce any satisfactory results, but up to 7000 feet there have been 
sufficient to speak confidently, and the result is that the dew-point, as found 
by the dry- and wet-bulb thermometers, is worthy of every confidence ; for the 
differences, as shown above, are quite within the error of observation. 


Heicurs AND APPEARANCES OF THE CLOUDS, AND APPEARANCES OF THE SKY, 
March 31. 


There were detached cumuli before starting; blue sky. 

At 4" 21™ 308 p.m., at 3698 feet. Very misty; a few beautiful cumuli. 

At 4" 27™ p.m., at 6251 feet. Earth appears dotted with cumuli clouds ; 
blue lines of light crossing each other at right angles. 

At 4" 52™ p.m., at 17,400 feet. Horizon not visible; a mass of clouds to 
the N.W. so distinct that its boundary-line can be traced. 


April 18. 
At 1° 19™ p.m., at 2575 feet. Misty. 
At 1" 21™ 10° p.m., at 4392 feet. Cumuli on the same level as the bal- 
loon; misty. 
At 1° 25™ 30° p.m., at 7180 feet. Thick mist; almost a fog. 
At 1° 30™ p.m., at 11,055 feet. Above the clouds; sea of clouds below. 


June 26. 


From 1" 17™ 458 p.m., at 11,204 feet, to 1" 25" p.m., at 15,598 feet. In fog. 

At 1" 32™ 30° p.m., at 17,144 feet. Clouds above us. 

At 1" 34™ p.m., at 17,479 feet. In cloud. 

At 1° 36™ p.m., at 18,291 feet. In a wetting fog. 

At 1" 37™ p.m., at 18,560 feet. Cold dry thin fog. 

At 1° 39™ p.m., at 19,018 feet. Just above cloud ; cirri far above, clouds 
all round on the same level as the balloon. 

At 1" 41™ 45° p.m., at 19,909 feet. Evidently three layers of clouds. 

At 15 43™ p.m., at 20,648 feet. Rain-cloud on our right; two nimbus 
clouds near us and on our level. 

From 1° 43™ 30% p.m., at 20,648 feet, to 1" 46™, at 21,266 feet. In fog. 

At 1" 50™ p.m., at 22,053 feet. We looked round at the faint blue sky 
covered with cirri, and estimated its height to be many miles ; the atmosphere 
thick and misty. 

At 1" 54™ p.m., at 22,664 feet. Cirri clouds above ; sky faint blue. 

At 1" 54™ 40° p.m., at 23,143 feet. Above the clouds, but not free from 
mist; the clouds present no fine views, few peaks, and all is confused and dirty- 
looking. The blue sky is of the same paleness as seen from the earth. 

At 1° 5™ p.m., at 22,168 feet. The sky is faint blue, and the clouds are 
all below. 

At 2" 2™ p.m., at 20,167 feet. The sun seen faintly. 

At 2" 2™ 45° p.m., at 20,167 feet. In fog. 

From 2” 4” 30° p.m., at 19,367 feet, to 2" 5™, at 19,901 feet. In fog. 

At 2" 6™ p.m., at 19,963 feet. Faint gleams of light. 

At 2" 6™ 20 p.m., at 20,025 feet. Fog above and below, none near us; 
faint gleam of light. 

At 2" 7™ 30° p.m., at 20,025 feet. Drops of water falling from the bal- 
loon on my note-book. 


506 REPORT—18638. 


_ From 2" 8™ 308 p.m., at 19,089 feet, to 2" 14™, at 14,892 feet. In fog; 
at the latter time it was becoming thin, but nothing could be seen. 

At 2" 14™ 308 p.m., at 14,501 feet. Thin rain was pattering on the bal- 
loon, and moving against us. 

At 2" 14™ 45° p.m., at 14,197 feet. Snow-storm met with. 

At 2" 15™ p.m., at 13,380 feet. Snow falling; there were spicule and 
cross spicule ; many snow crystals, small but distinct, all icy particles ; dark 
everywhere. 

At 2" 15™ 30° p.m., at 12,433 feet. Dense snow all around, no flakes ; 
all icy particles and crystals; the appearance was beautiful. 

At 2" 15™ 45% p.m., at 11,923 feet. When sand was thrown out the snow 
appeared to go up. 

At 2" 16™ p.m., at 11,412 feet. Sand presents a golden appearance when 
mixing with the snow. 

At 2" 17™ p.m., at 10,508 feet. No snow. 

At 2" 18™ p.m., at 10,011 feet. Lower atmosphere very murky indeed. 

At 2" 19™ p.m., at 10,011 feet. The lower atmosphere presents a brown- 
ish, yellowish tinge, remarkably dull. 

At 2" 20™ 30° p.m., at 8107 feet. Lower atmosphere is very remarkable. 
Mr. Coxwell has never seen it so when far from a town. 


July 11. 
From 5" 14™ p.m., at 3860 feet, to 5" 29™ 30° p.m., at 3642 feet. The 
atmosphere was thick and misty. 
At 5" 52™ 30° p.m., at 2762 feet. Misty. 
From 6" 5™ p.m., at 3529 feet, to 6" 14™ p.m., at 5271 feet. Misty. 
‘At 6" 22™ p.m., at 5884 feet. Cirrus and cirrostratus clouds far above. 
At 6" 31™ p.m., at’ 6328 feet. Very thick. 
At 6" 55™ 308 p.m., at 6588 feet. Misty. 


July 21. 
The sky was overcast before starting. 
At 4" 52™ 30° p.m., at 859 feet. Clouds were entered. 
At 4" 54™ p.m., at 1681 feet. Clouds very light. 
At 4" 55™ 30° p.m., at 2351 feet. In dry cloud. 
At 4" 55™ 40° p.m., at 2470 feet. In white cloud. 
- At 4" 58™ 30° p.m., at 2589 feet. In dense fog. 
At 5" 2™ 15° p.m., at 2875 feet. The clouds above are darker than those 
below; the white edges of the lower clouds are visible. 


At 5" 7™ p.m., at 2642 feet. Lower clouds are moving in a north-easterly ~ 


direction, with greater speed than the balloon. 

At 5" 8" 15° p.m., at 2290 feet. In cloud. 

At 5" 9™ p.m., at 2020 feet. Detached clouds below are moving in an 
opposite direction to that in which we were formerly moving. 

At 5° 10™ p.m., at 1727 feet. Scud below moving very fast. 

At 5" 16™ p.m., at 1890 feet. In cloud. 

At 5" 19™ 30° p.m., at 3220 feet. There are clouds on the same level as 
the balloon ; some clouds below are darker than those above. 

At 5" 20™ 30° p.m., at 3298 feet. Large masses of cumulus clouds below. 

At 5" 21™ 30° p.m., at 3218 feet. In fog. 

At 5" 23™ p.m., at 2924 feet. In wetting fog. 


_ At 5" 24™p.m., at 2386 feet. Scud and clouds of a blackish colour below. — 


At 5° 26™ 30° p.m., at 1793 feet. In black cloud. 


~~ pmol 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 507 


At 5" 28™ p.m., at 1044 feet. In clouds. 

At 5" 29™ 30° p.m., at 948 feet. Still in cloud. 

At 5" 33™ p.m., at 1179 feet. Scud far below. 

At 5" 33™ 30° p.m., at 1507 feet. Clouds above are darker than those 
below. 

At 5° 37™ p.m., at 1330 feet. In cloud, very dark. 


DrREcTIoN oF THE WIND. 
Marck 31. 


At 4" 58™ p.m., at 18,302 feet. Moving 8.W. 

At 4" 58™ 30° p.m., at 17,097 feet. Changed our course, moving N.E. 

At 5 2™ p.m., at 17,636 feet. In a S.W. current, moving N.E. 

At 5" 12™ p.m., at 20,865 feet. In a nearly westerly current. 

At 5" 42™ 30° p.m., at 15,714 feet. In a westerly current. 

At 6" 15™ p.m., at 4441 feet. Fell in with a S.E. current; are over 
Ilford. 

At 6" 16™ p.m., at 5168 feet. Changed our course, moving back again. 


April 18. 


Before starting the wind was N.E. 
At 1" 30™ p.m., at 11,055 feet. The wind changed to N. 


June 26. 


Before starting the wind was blowing W.S.W. strongly. 
At 1" 32™ p.m., at 17,144 feet. Apparently calm. 


July 11. 


Before starting the wind was E. ‘ 
At 4" 59™ 30° p.m., at 2633 feet. Balloon entered a N. current. 
At 7" 14™ p.m., at 1876 feet. Balloon entered an E. current. 
At 7° 47™ p.m., at 1483 feet. Balloon again entered an E. current. 
At 7" 56™ 45° p.m., at 1020 feet. Balloon entered a 8.E. current. 
At 7° 57 p.m., at 1000 feet. Balloon changed its course, moving W. 


July 21. 
Before starting the wind was §. by E. 


At 5" 7™ p.m., at 2642 feet. Balloon entered aS.W. current, moving N.E. 
At 5° 9™ 30° p.m., at 1840 feet. Balloon turned to move back again. 


VELOCITY OF THE WIND BY THE Battoon, AND BY Rosryson’s ANEMOMETER 
AT THE Roya OpsERVATORY, GREENWICH. 


On March 31 the balloon left the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, at 4" 16™ p.m., 
and fell at Barking, in Essex, a point 15 miles from the place of ascent, at 
6" 30" p.m. Neglecting all motion of the balloon, excepting the distance 
between the ‘places of ascent and descent, its hourly velocity was 7 miles ; 
the horizontal movement of the air at Greenwich, as shown by Robinson’s 
anemometer, was 5 miles per hour. 

On April 18 the balloon left the Crystal Palace at 1" 16™ p.m., and de- 
scended at Newhaven at 2"46™. The distance is about 45 miles in 14 hour, 
or at the rate of 30 miles per hour. Robinson’s anemometer had registered 
less than 2 miles per hour. 


508 REPORT—1863. 


On June 26 the balloon left Wolverton at 1" 2™ p.m., and fell at Littleport 
at 28 28" pm. The distance between these two places is 60 miles; the 
hourly velocity was therefore 42 miles per hour. The anemometer at Green- 
wich registered 10 miles per hour. 

On July 11 the balloon left the Crystal Palace at 4" 53" p.m., and fell at 
Goodwood at 8" 50™ p.m., having travelled 70 miles, or at the rate of 18 miles 
per hour. The anemometer at Greenwich registered less than 2 miles per hour. 

On July 21 the balloon left the Crystal Palace at 4°52" p.m., and fell 
near Waltham Abbey, having travelled about 25 miles in 53 minutes, or at 
the rate of 29 miles per hour. The horizontal movement of the air by 
Robinson’s anemometer was at the rate of 10 miles per hour. 


PROPAGATION OF Sound. 


March 31. 


At 5" 57™ 30° p.m., at 13,614 feet. Heard some sounds, 
At 6" 3™ p.m., at 10,917 feet. A railway train heard. 


June 26. 


At 1" 16™ p.m., at 8888 feet. There was a sighing or moaning of the wind 
heard as preceding a storm; this continued for some time, and is the first 
instance of the kind that either Mr. Coxwell or myself have experienced. It 
was in no way owing to the cordage of the balloon, but appeared to be beneath, 
as if from conflicting currents below us. 

At 1" 31™ 30° p.m., at 16,442 feet. A railway train heard. 

At 1° 48™ p.m., at 21,978 feet. A railway train heard. 


July 11. 


At 5" 19™ p.m., at 4000 feet. The cheering of people at Caterham heard. 
At 6" 20™ p.m., at 5772 feet. People heard shouting. 

At 7" 56™ 30% p.m., at 1000 feet. Cries of “come down” heard. 

At 8" 1™ 30° p.m., at 808 feet. A pack of hounds baying at us. 

At 8" 4™ p.m., at 1241 fect. Frightened geese heard cackling. 

At 8" 9™ p.m., at 1145 feet. A bugle heard. 

At 8° 14™ p.m., at 1532 feet. Bugle heard again. 


July 21. 
At 5" p.m., at 2488 feet. A railway train and the hum of London heard ; 


also bell tolling 5 o’clock heard. 
At 5" 1™ p.m., at 2610 feet. Hammering heard. 


PuystoLocicaAL OBSERVATIONS. 


March 31. 


At 4" 46™ 305 p.m., at 16,669 feet. Mr. Glaisher’s heart beats very loud, but 
not Mr. Coxwell’s. 

At 5" p.m., at 17,205 feet. Face very blue; feet very cold. 

At 5" 24™+p.m., at 20,910 feet. Breathing deeply. 

At 5" 25™ p.m., at 21,860 feet. Hands blue. 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1868. 509 


At 5" 31™ p.m., at 16,486 feet. Mr. Glaisher’s pulsations 97 per minute ; 
Mr. Coxwell’s 98 per minute. 

At 5" 47™ 40° p.m., at 16,080 feet. Very cold. 

At 6" p.m., at 11,953 feet. Mr. Coxwell’s hands felt as if they were scalded; 
he was unable to lower the grapnel. 

At 6" 3™ p.m., at 10,917 feet. Face a glowing purple. 

At 6" 5™ p.m., at 9570 feet. Violent retching. 

At 6" 8™ p.m., at 7907 feet. A feeling of illness. 

At 6" 9™ p.m., at 7443 feet. Vomiting. 


April 18. 

At 1" 42™ p.m., at 17,057 feet. A stream of cold to sense. 

At 1" 48™ p.m., at 18,886 feet. A general tinge over the countenance ; 
heart slightly affected. 

At 1" 52™ 50° p.m., at 20,163 feet. Face of a bluish-white colour. 

At 2" p.m., at 20,943 feet. Mr. Glaisher’s pulsations varied from 90 to 95 
per minute; Mr. Coxwell’s from 98 to 113; Mr. Ingelow’s kept at 130. 
Mr. Glaisher’s pulse was weak; Mr. Ingelow’s full and strong. 

At 2" 13™ p.m., at 21,760 feet. Air very dry to sense, 


June 26. 


At 1" 7 20° p.m., at 3029 feet. It was painfully cold. 

At 1° 11™ p.m., at 6477 feet. Dreadfully cold; I put on a coat with diffi- 
culty ; wrapped up my neck; also put on an extra cap, and gave Mr, Coxwell 
a wrapper. 

At 1" 22™ p.m., at 14,203 feet. Mr. Coxwell complained of pains in his 
hands, which were of a dark-blue colour. 


Tan Lines IN THE SPECTRUM. 


March 31, 


Before starting B was the boundary-line at the red end, and a little past G 
at the violet end when looking at the sky. When looking at the sun H was 
not distinctly seen. 

At 4° 20™ p.m., at about half a mile high. The spectrum was the same 
as on the earth, but the extreme lines were seen with less distinctness. 

At 42 29™ p.m., at 7557 feet. Sky spectrum very bright, less lines at the 
red and violet ends. Gis quite the limit, B cannot be seen, and C is doubtful. 

At 4" 39™ p.m., at 12,000 feet. Can see to the line F in the sky spectrum ; 
violet dull ; no lines can be seen beyond D. 

At 4" 42™ p.m., at 13,700 feet. Lost sight of the violet end of the sky 
spectrum ; no lines can be seen at all. 

At 4" 45™ p.m., at 15,793 feet. Sky spectrum very short; no lines; can 
see a little beyond D to E, not F. 

At 4" 49™ p.m., at 17,616 feet. No lines visible in the sky spectrum; faint 
violet rays as far as G. 

At 5° 10™ p.m., at 19,356 feet. No sky spectrum at all. 

At 5" 23™ p.m., at 20,749 feet. No sky spectrum at all. 

At 5" 45™ p.m., at 16,080 feet. No sky spectrum at all. 

At 5" 58™ 30° Dp. m.,; at 12,797 feet. Nosky spectrum; probably not suffi- 
cient light. 


510 REPORT—18638. 


April 18. 

Before starting the solar spectrum extends from B to nearly H, and the 
sky spectrum from B to G; these lines were quite the limit. 

At 1" 20™ p.m., at 3555 feet. The spectroscope was directed to the sky 
near the sun; G was very clear; can see H and far beyond. 

At 1" 21™ 10° p.m., at 43892 feet. Very mary lines in the sky spectrum ; 
the line B is clear. 

At 1" 27™ p.m., at 7764 feet. Sky spectrum from B up to A. 

At 15 27™ 308 p.m., at 7764 feet. Beyond H and A in the sky spectrum, 
under and near the sun, lines beautifully defined; requires great change of 
focus to see A and H. When spectrum is directed at some distance from the 
sun can see B and several lines beyond. 

At 1" 29™ p.m., at 10,020 feet. Sky spectrum short. 

At 1" 53™ p.m., at 20,163 feet. Examined slit of apparatus; all seems right. 

At 2°12” p.m., at 21, 646 feet. No sky spectrum ; no lines. 

At 2" 15™ p.m., at 22,041 feet. Solar spectrum extended a good way 
beyond H at the violet end. On passing from the sun the spectrum shortened, 
and G was the limit; this was soon lost and the spectrum shortened rapidly, 

At 2" 15™ p.m., at 22,041 feet. On approaching the sun again the yellow 
first appeared, and when very near the sun on all sides the spectrum was 
perfect, increasing in length the nearer it approached the sun; and when a 
beam of light came from the sun itself the whole spectrum was visible, and 
many lines between A and a andaand B. On passing from the sun the 
same phenomena were repeated as before; and when the sun again came 
round, from A to a good way beyond H was examined, and every line was 
seen that was visible from the earth, and a good many more. 


June 26. 
At the highest point the sky spectrum was the same as on the earth. 


July 11. 
At 5" 28™ p.m., at 3581 feet. Sky spectrum from B to G seen. 


DIFFERENT APPEARANCES OF THE GAs. 
March 31. 


At 4" 41™ p.m., at 13,070 feet. Gas very thick. 

At 4" 47" p.m., at 17,060 feet. Gas issuing from the neck of the balloon. 
At 4" 48™ p.m., at 17,451 feet. Gas yellow and opaque. 

At 5" 57™ p.m., at 13,614 feet. Gas very clear. 


April 18. 
At 1" 38™ p.m., at about 15,000 feet. Gas clear. 
At 1" 54™ p.m., at 20,163 feet. Gas clear. 

June 26. 


At 1" 33™ p.m., at 17,242 feet. Gas seen rushing out of the balloon in 
volumes. 
July 21. 
At 4" 55™ p.m., at 2095 feet. Gas very cloudy. 
At 4" 59™ p.m., at 2550 feet. Gas getting clearer. 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 51l 


At 5° 19™ 30° p.m., at 3220 feet. Gas thick and opaque. 

At 5" 26™ 30° p.m., at 1793 feet. Gas beautifully clear, so that the netting 
can be seen through the balloon. 

At 5" 34™ 15° p.m., at 1960 feet. Gas thick and opaque. 


MisceLLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. 
March 31. 


At 4° 24™ p.m., at 5296 feet. London looks beautiful; Isle of Dogs 
visible at about the distance of one mile. 

At 4" 46™ 30° p.m., at 16,669 feet. The sun’s shape well defined as re- 
flected in the water; St. Katherine’s Docks apparently 10 miles distant ; 
the Crystal Palace apparently nearly under us. 

At 4" 50™ p.m., at 18,304 feet. The earth looks beautiful; the mouth of 
the Thames appears almost under us ; the coast is visible to Dover; can see 
Brighton and the sea beyond. 

At 4" 52™ p.m., at 17,400 feet. Just over Isle of Dogs; the Royal Ob- 
servatory visible; the Green Man Hotel, Blackheath, distinct; can see the 
rippling of the water below Putney Bridge. 

At 5" 4" p.m., at 18,293 feet. Apparently over the Isle of Dogs. 

At 5' 8™ 50° p.m., at 19,197 feet. Apparently-over Victoria Docks. 

At 5" 26" p.m., at 22,068 feet. Mouth of the Thames visible, and the 
coast is clear to Yarmouth. 

_ At 5" 34" p.m., at 15,149 feet. The Thames and éountry visible for miles. 

At 5° 45™ p.m., at 16,080 feet. Chelmsford in sight. 

At 5" 46™ p.m., at 16,080 feet. East coast clear ; Ipswich in sight. 

At 5° 52™ p.m., at 15,630 feet. Darkness is creeping over the earth. 

At 6" 24™ p.m., at 1260 feet. Over Romford or Ilford. 

At 6" 25™ 30° p.m., at 893 feet. Packed up the instruments in a hurry. 


April 18. 
At 1" 21™ 10° p.m., at 4392 feet. Crystal Palace and grounds well seen. 
At 1° 33™ p.m., at 12,970 feet. Balloon full. 
At 1" 48™ p.m., at 18,886 feet. The largest field appears to be three 
inches square; lowered the grapnel. 
At 2" 31™ 30° p.m., at 23,324 feet. Looked atthe sun with red, blue, and 


yellow glass for anything like prominences ; edge without appendages of any 
kind. 


June 26, 
At 2" 20" 20° p.m., at 9148 feet. Two canals in sight; straight for many 


miles. 
July 11. 


At 5" 36™ p.m., at 2332 feet. Over Epsom Downs. 
At 5" 37™ p.m., at 2469 feet. About five miles from Reigate. 
At 5" 39™ p.m., at 2424 feet. Sand out. 
At 5" 43™ 308 p.m., at 2488 feet. The two towers of the Crystal Palace 
not quite in a straight line with us. 
At 5" 45™ p.m., at 2488 feet. Sand out. 
At 5" 49™ p.m., at 2820 feet. Near Reigate. 
At 5"51™ p.m., at 2762 feet. A very fine view; crossing high road. 
At 6" 4" p.m., at 3250 feet. Sand out. 


Reading of id 7 D 
aoe mp.| Ten- |Degree 
observation. aoe Thermom. pay nae Piss 
REMUGed) nies tml ena CT i 
to 32°F.| Dry. | Wet. seg) bie Coe. 
h m in. 5 rs eS in. 
2 OPp.M.| 30°09] 47°8| 42°2| 36°0| ‘212| 64 
2 10 5, | 30°09] 49°6| 44°4| 38°8| °236| 67 
2 20 5, | 30°09]. 50°4| 44°2| 37°6| °225] 62 
2 30 », | 30°08) 49°83) 43°8| 37:4] °224] 63 
2 40 y | 30°08) 49°8| 43°8| 37°4| 224] 63 
2 50 5, | 30°08) 48°3| 42°6| 36:4] 215] 63 
3 2 y | 30°08) 4770) 41°6| 35°5| *208] 65 
3 IO 4, | 30°08] 49°3| 43°1| 36:4] *215] 61 
3 20 ,, | 30°08] 5o0°5| 44°3| 37°7| 226] 62 
3 30 » | 30°08| 48°3| 42°6| 36:3] -214] 63 
3 42 55 | 30°08] 48°1| 42°4| 36-1] *213] 63 
3 50 5, | 30°08] 48-5) 42°8| 36-5] 216] 63 
4 © 45 | 30°08) 48-4/ 42°7| 36:4] *215| 64 
4 10 5, | 30°07] 47°38] 42°3] 36:2] *214] 65 


512 REPORT—1863. 


At 6" 13™ p.m., at 5105 feet. 
At 6" 16™ p.m., at 5382 feet. 
At 6" 52™ p.m., at 6453 feet. 
At 7" 7™ 308 p.m., at 3645 feet. 


At 8" 6™ 308 p.m., at 1144 feet. 
At 8" 7™ 15° p.m., at 1048 feet. 


from the coast. 
At 8" 14" p.m., at 1532 feet. 


At 8" 32™ 30° p.m., at 666 feet. 


At 8" 34™ p.m., at 1085 feet. 


Sand out. 
Over Horsham. 
The coast at Brighton is distinctly visible. 
Near Newhaven. 
Over a very extensive wood. 
We are apparently four or five miles 


July 21. 
At 4" 52" 10% p.m. Balloon left the earth. 


At 4° 53™ p.m., at 1439 feet. 
At 5" 5™ p.m., at 2890 feet. 
visible ; over Greenwich. 


At 5" 6™ p.m., at 2750 feet. Over West India Docks. 
At 5° 11™ 30° p.m., at 1300 feet. 


At 5" 12™ p.m., at 1120 feet. 


At 5" 12™ 15° p.m., at 1030 feet. 
At 5» 29™ 30° p.m., at 948 feet. 


trees‘ of Epping Forest. 


At 5" 35™ p.m., at 1898 feet. The grapnel and half the rope are invisible. 
At 5" 39" p.m., at 996 feet. Changed direction, passing over the Forest ; 


can see sheep clearly. 


Meteorological Observations made in connexion with the Balloon Ascent on 


March 31. 


Amount of 


Goodwood Park visible. 
Over Goodwood Park, 
Packed up instruments. 


Crystal Palace still visible. 
Docks and River Thames visible; ships 


Over Walthamstow ; carts visible. 
Nearly over Victoria Park. 

Over East London Cemetery. 

Can hear the pattering of rain on the 


Royat Ozservatory, GREENWICH. 


ON KRDBA QU QUusFtaUN 


Amount of 


cloud 0-10. 
ozone. 


Retnarks. 


—_ 


o |Cirrus, cumulus, cirrostratus, 
: [and cirrocumulus. 


Cirrus, cumulus, cirrostratu 
and cumulostratus. 


mulus, cirrostratus, and 
cumulostratus. 
Cirrus, cirrocumulus, and 
cirrostratus. 
Cirrus, cumulus, and cirro- 
stratus. 
.. |Cloudless, with the exception 
of a little cirrus and cumulo- 
stratus. 


j 
a | cumulus, cirrocu 
me } 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTs IN 1863. 513 
Meteorological Observations made in connexion with 
the Balloon Ascent on 
March 31 (continued). 
Roya Osservarory, GREENWICH. 


4 Reading of a a ts }. 
a6 ——___—_—_—_|‘emp.| Ten- |Degree) __. l\3sic6 | 
ee Barom,| Thermom. ae aca me Po ane | g | g r Remarks, 
reduced |~ ~~ point.| pour. | dity. | wind. 23 cE | 
to 32°F.| Dry. | Wet. 2gla8| 
h = in. ° ° ° in. | 
4 20p.M.| 30°07| 47°6| 42°3| 36:4] -215| 66 so o |... |Balloon seen to rise; it then 
took a westerly direction. 
‘ | ( About this time the balloon 
oy lee) 4 2° © 2 
Eo = ed i oo ee xan 2 a) - “% | changed, and took a di- 
= TA | rection nearly .N.E. 
45° 5 | 30°07/ 45°5| 404] 34°5| ‘199| 65 ae o | o |Cloudless. Sand appeared to 
rise above the balloon. 
5 © » | 30°07) 45°6| 40°7| 35°1| -196| 67 | ... | © | ... |Cloudless. Balloon exactly 
over the Royal Observatory. 
It was moving in a direction 
nearly E.8.E. 
DB 79 9) | 30°07} 44°5| 39°3| 33:2) *189|) 64 | ... o | ... |On looking through the 30 in. 
| achromatic telescope, the 
| face and shoulders of one 
| | of the aéronauts were 


; | seen. 

5 20 » | 30°07} 44°1| 39° | 33°2| *189| 65 ia o |... |Ballast thrown out. The net- 
ting of balloon distinctly 
seen by aid of telescope. 


15 39 » | 30°07] 43°6| 38°6| 32°6| 185] 65 Onieane \ 

§ 49 » | 30°07] 43°4) 38:4) 32°5| +184) 65 toy ie 2 

§ 50 5, | 30°08) 42°7) 38:1 | 32°5| *184] 67 a. Ore |ens | 

6 © ,, | 30°08] 42°4| 37°7| 32°0 "181 | 638 ies Oars 

6 10 ,, | 30°08 | 42'2) 37°5 318 | *179| 68 sae Om| i | Clondless. Balloon E.N.E. 
6 20 5, | 30°08} 41°9| 37°3| 31°7 179| 67 wat Geet. of Royal Observatory. 

6 30 ,, | 30°08| 4r1| 36°9| 31°71 *179| 69 | ... | 0 |... 

6 40 ,, | 30°08} 40°6| 36-7} 31°7 “170) | 70 On linea. 

6 50 5, | 30°08) 40°3| 36°5| 31°6 | -178| 71 i aul th 

7 2 » | 30°08| 40:0} 36°3| 31°5| -177| 71 | ESE. | 0 | ... 

9 2 » | 30°09/ 37°1 | 34°4| 29°8| -166| 77 | sz. | o | © |Cloudless; a very fine bright 


evening. 


April 18. 
Roya Oxsservatory, GREENWICH. 


i 30°09 | Gor2| 54:2 | 489 | 346| 66 |N.N.E.| 10 | © |Generallyovercast; lightclouds 
Beh Ml) 30°09 | 59°6 | 53°7| 48°5 | *342| 68 | we | 8] on 


Ho 20 ,, | 30°09] 61-2] §5°6| S0°7| -370| 69 . 4 Cirrus, cirrocumulus, and 


12 39 5, | 30°09] 61°6| 55°7| 50°6 *369| 69 ste 10 4 J cunatoabeatts) 
mo 4° » | 30°09] 6074} 55°3| 50°9| -373| 71 N.E. 6 | ... Cirrus, cirrocumulus; dense 
cirrostratus in §.E.; clear 

\a in N. 

J 2 5° » | 30°09} 62°9| 56°3| 50°7] +370] 65 ods 6 | ... |) Cirrus, cumulus, cirrostratus, 
T © » | 30°09} 62°2| 56°0/ 50°6| -369| 66 |N.NE.| 7] © } and cirrocumulus. 

YE TO 4 | 30°09) 61°5| 55°38! So'g| *373| 69 | NE. So leccs : 3 j 
F120 ,, | 3610] 59°2| 54:2| 49°7| -357| 77 ay #3 Cirrus, cirrostratus, and cirro- 

1230 ,, | 30°10) 58-7] 53-6) 49°0| -348| 70 8 cumulus. 

1E 40° 5, | 30°10] 58:2) 52°9) 48°1| -336| 70 nee TaN isd 

Ne fs | 48 20'|59°7 53°6|) 482 | °338| 66 |N.n.e.| 7] ... | | Cirrus, cumulus, cumulo- 
4 se o> 58°83 | 59°3| 48°3| 339] 67 me 6| 0 stratus, and cirrostratus. 

| 7 19 4 | 30°10} 59°3| 53°5| 48'4| 340] 68 | .., Bille 

—FS— SS —— — rn ee es ee ee a Eee 

1863, 


228 


514 


REPORT—1863. 


Meteorological Observations made in connexion with 
the Balloon Ascent on 


April 18 (continued). 


Royat OxpsERvVATORY, GREENWICH. 


Reading of T . D Gas es 
: L emp.| Ten- | Degree) pi oo. eas 
Siete ag Barom.| Thermo. pia ee Sl or ‘ BS as Remarks. 
reduced ) point.| pour. | dity. | W™% | 23/265 
to 32°F.) Dry. | Wet. <0/<45 
hm in. me thiod o| im | : 
2 20p.M.| 30°10] 59°1| 53°2| 480| +335 7 re Bae : . j 
2 30 » | 30°20] 61°9| §5°1| 49°3| -352| 63 | NE 6 Ch 
2 40 5, | 30°10] 59°2| 53°0| 47°5| *329] 65 ree 5 ; : ; 
2 50 5, | 30°10] 59°7| 53°3| 47°6| °330| 65 | N.NE Ai] 3% Cirrus, cumulus, cirrocumu-) 
3 © 4, | 30°10| 60°6| 54°2| 48°6| -343| 65 i 4: | lus, and cumulostratus, 
3 30 | 30°09 581 | 51-8 | 461] °312| 65 3 Grice | 
3 42 5 | 30°10} 57°4.| 5174] 46'0| *311| 65 Cee Cirrus, cirrocumulus, cumu- 
3 50 45 | 30°10] 57°7| 52°0/ 46°8| -321| 67 a2 Be eee lus, and cumulostratus. 
4 © ,», | 30°10) 58x) 51°8| 46°1| -312| 65 | NNE.| 6] © 
June 26, 


Noon. 
© Iop.m. 


°o 
cS) 
° 


te} 
w 
re) 


PNNYNRAH HHH HOO 
es 
° 


30°00 
30°00 
29°99 


29°99 


29°99 
29°99 
29°99 
29°98 
29°98 
29°98 
29°98 
29°98 
29°98 
29°97 
29°97 
29°97 


2997 


29197 
29:97. 
29°96 
29°96 
29°96 
29°96 
29°96 
29°96 
29°96 


29°96 
29°96 


29°96 


59°4 
60°4. 
60°3 


611 


62°0 
62° 

ee 
62'5 
61°8 
60'7 
61°I 
61's 
61's 
60°7 
60°0 


595 
590 


| 611 
| 59° 

| 58°7 
591 


49°7 
51°4 
520 


oni 


53°7 
553 
52°6 
a4 
53°3 
52°0 
52°6 
a2 
52:9 
52°1 
51°0 
50°8 


50°0 


52°7 
50°4 
50:5 
srr 
51'l 


| 50°3 


51°6 
51°0 
52'0 


5357 


°379 | 
388 


5399 


413 
°437 
397 
“419 
“407 
388 
397 
“396 
“401 
“389 
"374 
°371 


361 


"399 
"367 
°375 
375 
*365 
382 
374° 
“389 


"375° 
360 
361 


45 
48 
51 
50 


| 
| W.S.W. 
| W.S.W. 
S.W. 


w. by s. 


| W.8.W. 
w. by s. 
w. bys. 
w. bys. 
Ai we 

W.N.W. 
W.N.W. 
W.N.W. 
W.N.W. 


app 


as 


COCOA ADAHPUUN 


Royat OpsERVATORY, GREENWICH. 


2 |] Cumulus, cirrocumulus, and | 
cirrus. 

. |Cumulus, cirrus, and cirro- | 
cumulus in the zenith. i 
Cumulus, cirrocumulus, and } 
cirrus ; the zenith is clear. b 
Cumulus; cirrocumulus in | 

the zenith and cirrus. 


} Cirrus and cirrocumulus. 


Cirrus, cirrostratus, and cir- 
rocumulus, 


Cirrocumulus, cirrostratus, 
and cirrus, 


+ |Cirrocumulus,  cirrostratus, | 


and cirrus. 
+» |Cirrocumulus, cirrus, and cir- | 
rostratus. 


‘o | | Overcast ; cirrostratus prin- | 
a cipally, with a little cirrus 
4: and cirrocumulus, 

-- | L Overcast ; nearly all cirro- ] 
oo stratus, 1 
° 


Overcast ; cirrostratus; sun’ 
shining faintly through the 
cloud. } 

} Overcast ; cirrostratus. 


“| ¢ Overcast; few drops of rain. 
o |Overcast; continuous rain. | 


ON FIVE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1863. 515 


~~ 


Meteorological Observations made in connexion with 
the Balloon Ascent on 


June 26 (continued). 
WotvERron. 


Reading of peleg ical 
} ; | Seam Se ae ira Dirces sa 8 
* ates, rsa henna. ‘abi P= humi- ee of 25 FI 3 Remarks, 
H reduce —| point. : — . 
} to33° F.| Dry. | Wet. point. | pour. | dity Es E g 
jim in. ° ° ° in. E A 
© 55P-M.| 29°85 | 67°3 | 59°0 | 52°4 |"394| 59 ey [brisk wind. 
I © 5, | 29°83 | 67'0 | 61°0 | 56:2 | 453 | 68 | yo | ... |Balloonin sight; very cloudy ; 
I 15 5, | 29°83 | 67°8 | 58:0 | 50°2 |°364 | 53 Toyeers 
Read) 29.83.) ©3991 57°3 | 50°2 |"364.) 57 | 10) + || Balloon out of sight at 
I 30 5, | 29°82 | 66°4 | 57°8 | 50°8 |°371 | 58 | 10 | + a 
I 35 » |29°82 | 66°0 | 56°6 | 48°9 |°346 | 54 | 10 ¢ y: 
I 40 ,, | 29°82 | 66°0 | §7°3 | 50°2 |°364 | 57 10 
IT 45°» | 29°83 de $7°0 | 50°7 "370 60 TO" |r 
1 50 ,, | 29°82 | 65°0 | 57°0 | 50°4 | °36 59 1O' |) see 
155 » | 29°81 | 64°5 | 57°0 | 52:1 |°389 | 65 TO) |p ae~ Cloudy, 
2 0 y» |29°81 | 65°0 | 57-0 | 504 |°366 | 59 Piro: hore } 
2 5 » | 29°82 eta 57-0 52°6 (392 66 | ro 
210 ,, | 29°83 | 64°7 | 56°3 | 5074 | °36 61 10 ; 
} 2 20 5, | 29°83 | 63-4 | 55-8 | 48-3 |-339 | 58 é oh Clouds thicker. 
| 225 » | 29°83 | 63°4 | 55°8 | 483 | "339 | 58 | § | 10 
2 30 ,, | 29°84 | 63°7 | 55°8 | 4971 |°349 | 59 | | 10 
Bao oO Pelee: | 49% (35%) 59 8 ae 
245 5, | 29°52 | 62°0 | 57°0 | 52°7 |°399 | 72 10 ss 
me 50. 4, a9 63°0 | 57°0 | 51°9 |°387 | 67 = 10 Raining. 
2 55 5,-|29°82 | 63°0 | 57-0 | 51°9 |°387 | 67 = 10 
3 © ,, | 29°82 | 62°8 | 57°0 | '54°2 | "421 | 76 10 
3 5 », | 29°82 | 61°3 | 56:0 | 52°2 |*391 | 74 10 
3 10 ,, | 29°82 | 61°0 | 55:2 | 49°6 |°356 | 66 10 : : 
13.15 5, | 29°82 | 6170 | 55-0 | 49°8 |°358 | 67 10 Little rain, 
} 3 20 5, | 29°82 | 61-0 | 54°3 | 47°7 |°332 | 61 10 
3 25 5, | 29°82 | 60°0 | 54:0 | 48°7 |-344 | 66 10 
3 30 » | 29°82 | 59°9 | 54°0 | 48°7 ("344 | 66 10 }No a 
3 35 » | 29°82 | 6o0°0 | 54°0 | 48°7 |°344 | 66 TO)|| tors 
3 40 ,, | 29°82 | 60°8 | 54°4 | 49°9 | *360 |. 68 TON) secs) |) ) 
3 45 5, | 29°82 | 60°0 | 54°0 | 48°7 | -344.| 68 ON ees We 
3 50 », | 29°82 | 60°0 | 53°3:|47°0 |°318 | 61 10 Raining fast. 
3 55 1 | 29°80 | 59°0 | 53°3 |47°7 |°330 | 69 10 
4 © 5, | 29°80 | 59°0 | 53°2 | 47°9 | *328 | 65 10 | 


Noon. 0°23 | 76°8 | 66°5 | 59°2 |°503 | 55 | ESE] 5 | 0 
© 10p.m. oe 76°6 | 66:4 pas "503 | 55 | HS.E.| 5 | ... | | Cirrusand haze principally ; 
© 20 ,, | 30°22 |77°2 | 661 | 58-4 |*489 | 53 RE. Gli a little cirrostratus, 
HO 30 ,, | 30:22 | 77° | 661 | 58-4 | +489 | 53 | BSH.) 6}... . 
WO 40 ,, | 30°22 |77°2 | 65°38 |57°9 |*480 | 52 |z.byN.| 6 | ... 
D 50 ,, | 30°22 | 76°0 | 64°3 | 560 | "449 | 50 8.E P| ace 
Wt © ,, | 30°22 | 77°2 | 64°83 | 56:2 | "451 | 50 | SE. 6 | 0 
)1 10 ,, | 30°22 |77°8 | 6477 |55°6 |-443 | 48 | ESB.) 6 |... 
| is 20 4, | 30°22 | 76°38 |63°8 | 541 |°419 | 46 | ESEL] 5 | oe 
WE 30 4, | 30°20 | 76°7 | 63°5 | 54°3 |-422 | 47 | 8.2. 6 Cirrus and haze principally ; 
E40 ,, | 30°21 | 762 | 63°0 | 53°7 |°413 | 46 | SE. 7 a little cirrostratus. 


212 


as 


516 REPORT—1863. 


Meteorological Observations made in connexion with 
the Balloon Ascent on 


July 11 (continued). 


Royat OpservaTory, GREENWICH. 


Reading of 


30°20 | 73°3 | 6172 | 52°2 | 391 | 48 S.E. 
» | 30°20 | 74°4 | 61°8 | 52-7 |°399 | 46 S.E. 
yy | 30°20 | 751 | 62°17 | 52°7 |°399 | 46 | E.S.E. 


Temp.) Ten- |Degree} pio. | SS |S 
ee, Barom.| Thermom. ewe a e8) tion Hy gs g é Remarks. 
‘| reduced | point. | pour. | dity.| “"™ | 22 26 
to 32°F.) Dry. | Wet. i <5/<8 
m in. o | ° im in. . 
50 p.m.| 30°21 | 77°3 | 63°2 | 53°3 | "407 | 44 | ES.E. ... [Cirrus and haze. { 
©) 5, 30°27 17723) 16250) 52°83" | Aco.) 243 E. o |Cirrus, cirrostratus, and haze. | | 
Io ,, | 30°21 | 7671 | 62°2 | 52°3 |°393 | 44 | E-S.E. i: lane = cirrocumulus, and | 
20 4, |.30°21 }75°8 | 616 | 51-4 1°379 | 43 E. ae haze. 
gor 7357 Ora: li 5274394) |! 47 E. .. | | Overeast, with light cloud,| 
9» | 30°21 | 73°9 | 61°7 | 52°8 |*400 | 47 | SE. | chiefly cirrostratus. 


_ ApwW 
oo0oo0oo0o 


5 |) 
fe \ Cirrostratus and a little cir-| | 
rocumulus. 


DrAhHHAAHDPWWWHWWNHNDKDDKNNDN HD 


W DIN WMMMMBMMMDOD 5 GOUU 


20 5, | 30°20 | 74°6 | 61°6 | 52°: | "389 | 46 E. | 
30 5, | 30°20 | 74°5 | 6r'5 | sxx |°389 | 46 | S.E. 
40 5, | 30°19 | 74°1 | 61-2 | s1°7 |°384 | 46 | ES.E. | 
50 4, | 30°19 | 73°8 | 60°6 | so-g | "373 | 45 | B.S.E. ... |Cirrostratus. 
© yy, |30°%9 | 7471 | 61°0 | 51-4 |-379 | 45 E. ° Cirrostratus; the blue sky has\ 
To ,, |30°%9 | 741 | 6r°r | 51°6 |°382 | 45 | E.S.E. J _ been in the S.E. since the| | 
20 5, | 30°19 | 74°3 | 60°9 | 51°r |°375 | 44 | E.S.E. \ [clouds first began to break. 
30 » | 30°19 | 74°5 | 60°8 | 50°9 |*373 | 44 | EE : 

40 » | 30°19 | 74°8 | 60°9 | 50°8 |*371 | 43 |, B . Cirrus and cirrostratus. 

50 5 | 30°18 | 74°9 | 610 | 5t-0 | 7374 | 43 |, E.S.5. 

oO 5 |30°%8 | 74°1 | 61-3 | 51°9 |°386 | 46 | E.s.5. Me 

© 5 | 30°18 | 69'9 | 60°6 | 53:4 | ‘409 | §5 | > S.B. ... Thin cirrus and cirrostratus| 


generally prevalent. 
Few light clouds scattered here 
and there. 


~ 
v 


30°19 | 62°5 | 58:0 | 54:2 |-421 | 75 S.E. 


Po) 
ce) 


July 21. 
Royat OsseRvATORY, GREENWICH. 


| 3 |Overcast; rain has fallen almost 
| continuously since 3 o’clock; 
thin rain falling. 


5 10p.m. 29°52 | 61"0 | 61°5 61'0 | *537 100 | S.S.E. | To 


20 y, |29'52 |61'o | 61°5 | 61-0 «537 | 100 | s.8.H. | 10 | ... 
30 5, |29°52-|61'2 | 60'7 | 6o'r |*520 | 97 | 8.8.E. | 10 | ... | } Overcast. 
40 4, |29°51 | 612 | 60°7_ | 60'r |"520] 97 | SS.E. | IO | ... 
50 4, |29°51 | 60°9 | 60's | 60°3 |*524| 98 | 8.s.E. | 10 | ... |Overcast; rain just commenced 
29°51 | 60°9 | 60°5 | 60°3 |*524 | 98] 8.8.E. | 10] 3 [falling heavily. 
IO 4, | 29°51 | 60°7 | 60°3 | Goro }-°518 | 98 | 8.8.E. | Io | ... 
20 5, | 29°50 | 60°5 | 60'2 | 60'0 |°518 | 98 | S.S.E.} 10] ... 
30.4, | 29°50 | 604 | 60°2 | 601 |*520 | 99] SSE. |] 10} 3 


Overcast ; rain still falling. 


DADADUMnH 
oO 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA, 517 


Supplementary Report on the Present State of our Knowledge with 
regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North America. By 
Puiuip P. Carrenter, B.A., Ph.D.* Ki nef , 


Tue object of the present Report is (1) to correct the errors which have been 
obseryed in the first Report (*‘ Report &c.” 1856, pp. 159-368); and (2) to 
point out the fresh sources of information which have been rendered avail- 
able since that period. For convenience of comparison, the paragraph num- 
bers refer to those of the first Report in the corrections, and are continued 
from them in the addenda. In the bibliographical portion, the criticisms by 
the writer of this Report are inserted in [ ]; a distinction not always attended 
to in the former volume, in consequence of which erroneous names and loca= 
lities have been attributed to the reviewer, instead of to the authors quoted. 
22. Introduction—(Line 4 from bottom.) The river Willamette flows 
northwards (Gld.). 
23. Early Writers.—The only Californian shell described by Linneus is 
Turbo sanguineus,=T'. coccineus, Desh. ; vy. Hanl. Ips. Linn. Conch. p. 334. 
The types are too much worn to decide whether they came from the North 
Pacific or (as is more probable) from the Mediterranean. In Gmelin’s edition 
of Linneeus, Lipsie, 1788-1790,—which is, in great measure, a translation 
from a German work published a few years in advance | teste Hanley |,—the 
following species are assigned to the “‘ West Coast of America,” probably on 
the authority of Martyn :—page 3529, Murew foliatus: 3702, Patella pecten: 
3712, Patella calyptra. The last two seem exotic. 
Many West-coast species had found their way into English collections 
during the last century, at a much earlier date than was expected at.the time 
of the first Report. They were mainly derived from the voyages of Capt. 
Cook and other circumnayigators. Capt. Cook was accompanied by Solander, 
as naturalist, at the instance of Sir Joseph Banks. His shells passed into 
the hands of Mr. Humphrey, the dealer, at whose death the remainder, a 
thousand boxes, became the property of the elder Sowerby, and (in part) of 
Mawe [teste Hanley]. They took their chance of being figured or described 
by the early conchologists. The localities are (as might be expected) often 
interchanged, but have been quoted by later authors, who have not thought 
fit to avail themselves of more correct sources of information. 
The first accurate delineations are by Thomas Martyn, in his ‘ Universal 
Conchologist,’ London, 1784. Those who only know this book from Chenu’s 
reprint, Paris, 1845, can form but a poor idea of the exquisite beauty of the 
original work. Of this, very few copies are accessible ; but it may be consulted. 
at the British Museum, the Royal Society, and the Royal College of Surgeons. 
“Te ares s Patella tramoserica, Mart. N.W.C.America, very rare. [N. Zealand. ] 
18 6 1. Patella calyptra, Mart. N.W. Coast of America, very rare. [Not 
identified : resembles Crep. adunca, without deck. Hanl. considers 

: it a HMipponyx, like australis. | 

31 8 4. Trochus inequalis, Mart. Friendly Isles, common. [Does not closely 
resemble the Japan and Vancouver species, =Dachypoma gibbe- 
rosum, Chemn. | 

22 10 1. Zrochus canaliculatus, Mart. N. Zealand, rare. 

83.10 2. Trochus annulatus, Mart. N. Zealand, very rare. 

34 10 3. Trochus costatus, Mart. St. George’s Sound, rare. [= Cualliostoma 
filosum, castaneum, ligatum, and modestum. | 

* In consequence of the expected arrival of fresh materials, this Report has been cor- 


rected and continued up to the period of going to press. 
Warrington Free Museum and Library, Aug. 1st, 1864. 


518 REPORT—1863. 


No. Plate. Fig. 
43 13,14 inh Buccinum liratum, Mart. St. George’s Sound, most rare. [=F. de- 
cemcostatus (Say), Midd., eee aoe Cooper. | 

44 13 2. Buccinum plicatum, Mart. [non Linn.| St. George’s Sound, common. 
[=crispatum, + compositum, Chemn., =/actuca, &c., Esch. ] 

. Buccinum lima, Mart. St. George’s Sound, rare. [Probably P. decem- 
costata, Midd. ; the variety with numerous ribs and flattened spire. | 

. Buccinum saturum, Mart. St. George’s Sound, most rare. { Like 
Chr. liratus, with keels evanescent. | 

. Haliotis pulcherrima, Mart. St. George’s Sound, most rare. [Pacific 

s 


46 15 


. Purpura foliata, Mart. North-west Coast of N. America, rare. 

. Trochus pulligo, Mart. St. George’s Sound, common. 

. Pectunculus corbis, Mart. Pulo-Condore, most rare. [= Cardium Nut- 
tallit, Conr., teste Desh. Cum. The figure is not so accurate as most 
of the others; but the colouring is characteristic. ] 

153 53 1. Pecten rubidus, Mart. [non Hds.] Newfoundland, rare. [ =P. Islan< 
dicus, Miill. | 

Many of the figures of Martyn were reproduced by Chemnitz, in his com- 
prehensive continuation of Martini’s ‘ Conchylien Cabinet,’ 1780-1795. Un- 
happily, though often quoted for generic and specific names, he did not adopt 
the binomial nomenclature (except in vol. xi.), but described each shell in 
two or more words, as it happened. For this reason he appears to have had 
no scruple in altering previous designations, as follows :— 


> 
oO 
bo 
rs 
nee bo bn oo 


Fig. 

1538, 1539. Murex Purpura alata, “Mart. Conch. Un. vol. ii. £. 66, Leaved Purpura 
foliata from N.W. coast of America.” 

1634 .. Murex Glomus cereus, seu Cereus conglomeratus, “Mart. vol. ii. f. 43, 
Ridged Buccinum liratum from King George’s Sound.” 

Vign. 21, f. A,B. Buecinum compositum, “ Mart. Un. Conch. vol. ii. f. 44; Plaited 
Buecinum from King George’s Sound.” 

Vign. 23, f. A, B. Trochus gibberosus Nove Zelandie. “Forster’s Cat. no. 1374; La 
Raboteuse de la nouvelle Zélande.—Mart. Un. Conch. vol. i. f. 31; 
Rugged Trochus inequalis from Friendly Is.” 

1579, 1580. Trochus doliarius, “ Mart. vol. i. f.32, Fluted Zrochus canaliculatus from 
N. Zealand.” 

1581, 1582. Trochus virgineus, “ Favanne, Conch. pl. 79. f. 1. vol. ii. p. 342; id. Cat. 
Rais. no. 1352, p. 269; Le Sabot Magellanique.—Mart. Un. Conch, 
vol. i. f. 33; Ringed Zrochus annulatus from N. Zealand.—Cab. Mus. 
Portl. no. 1240; the Purpled-edged Trochus; item, no. 1970, a large 
and fine specimen of the Purple-edged Zrochus from the N.W. coast 
of 8001 rare.” [= 7. celatus, var. 8. Gmel., teste Dillw. vol. ii. 

1802, 1803. cectinit erispatum. ‘The furbelowed Whelk.” [=B. plicatum, 
Mart., non Ln. | 

1841, 1842. Murex amplustre. N.W. coast of America, [This erroneous locality 
is copied from the Portland Cat.. The species is quoted from Buc- 
cinum (Latirus) aplustre, Mart., no. 3, pl. 1, f. 8, where it is rightly 
assigned to the Friendly Is. =M. argus, var. y. Gmel., teste Dillw. 
vol, ii. p. 735. | ’ 


The assignment of West American species to New Zealand, begun by 
Martyn, has continued a source of error to the present time. It occurs in 
Dr. Gould’s ‘ Exploring Expedition Mollusca,’ in the Cumingian Collection, 
and in the British Museum. 

In the ‘Travels in New Zealand,’ by Ernest Dieffenbach, M.D., London, 
1843, vol. i. pp. 228-264, is given a “ Catalogue of the Species of Mollusca 
and their Shells, which have hitherto been recorded as found at New Zealand,” 
&c., by J. E. Gray. The author premises that some of the species [marked *] 


‘we 5 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA, 519 


assigned by the older writers may be found erroneously placed. The follow- 
ing are probably from the West coast of North America, with the synonymy 
as understood by Dr. Gray :— 


Page. No. 

239 8. Murex foliatus, Gmel. 3329. = M. purpura alata, Chemn. x. pl. 169. f.1538- 
9; Wood’s Cat. f. 13. Purpura foliata, Mart. U.C. ii. 66.—Habd. N. 
Zealand, Humphreys. King George’s Sound, Martyn. [“=M. tripterus, 
Kien.: non M. tripterus, Born et auct.=¢trialatus, Kien.” teste Hanl. | 

229 9. Murex lyratus, Gmel. 3531.=M. glomus cereus, Chem. x. pl. 169. f. 1634, 
—Buecinum lyratum, Martyn, U. C. ii. f. 43.—Hab, N. Zealand, King 
George’s Bay, Martyn. 

233 43. Purpura lamellosa,=Buccinum 1., Gmel., Wood’s Cat. f. 60.= Bue. pli- 
catum, Martyn, U. C. ii. f. 41. = Bue. compositum, Chemn. x. 179, vign. 
21. f. A, B.= Buc. crispatum, Chemn. xi. 84, pl. 187. f. 1802-3. Murex 
er., Lam. 174.—Hab. N. Zealand, King George’s Sound, Chemn., Mar- 
tyn. Coast of Columbia. 

237 =*71. Ziziphinus canaliculatus. Trochus c., Martyn, U. C. pl. 32,= Tr. dokiarius, 
Chemn. x, f. 1579-80; Wood’s Cat. f. 96.— Hab. N. Zealand, Martyn, 
California, Capt. Belcher, R.N. 

*72, Ziziphinus annulatus. Trochus a., Martyn, U. C. pl. 33.= T. virgineus, 

Chemn. x. f. 1581-2; Wood’s Cat. f. 98.= Tr. celatus, 8., Gmel.— Hab, 
N. Zealand, Martyn. California, Capt. Belcher. 

243 115. Bulla Quoyii, Gray, n. s.=B. striata, Q. & G., Voy. Astr. ii, 354, pl. 26, 

f. 8, 9, non Lam.—Hab. N. Zealand, Quoy, Stanger. 

But the first authentic information on the molluscs of the North-western 
coast is given in the ‘ Voyage Round the World, but more particularly to the 
N.W. Coast of America,’ by Capt. George Dixon, London, 1789: to which is 
added a Natural History Appendix. 

Page 355, fig. 2. Solen patulus*, Cook’s River. [=Machera Nuttalli, Cony. ] 

In the ‘ Conchology, or Natural History of Shells,’ by George Perry, Lon- 

don, 1811, a work of no little pretension, yet singularly inaccurate, are figured 


the following species, but without authorities for the assigned localities :— 


* As this extract is probably the first description on record of molluscs from the Pacific 
shores of N. America, by the original collector, and as the book is rarely to be met with, 
it may be interesting to quote the passage :-— 

“At the mouth of Cook’s River [lat. 59°-61°] are many species of shell-fish, most of 
them, I presume, nondescript; and of all which I should have endeavoured to have got 
specimens, had business permitted. Among the bivalves we noticed some of a large spe- 
cies, of the Cardium or cockle-genus [ Cardiwm corbis, Mart. }, half-a-dozen of which would 
have afforded a good supper for one person; but, for a repast of that kind, our men pre- 
ferred a large species of the Solen genus, which they got in quantity, and were easily dis- 
covered by their spouting up the water as the men walked over the sands where they in- 
habited: as I suppose it to be a new kind, I have given a figure of it in the annexed plate 


‘[Solen patulus ; accurate external and internal views, size of life]. Tis a thin brittle shell, 


smooth within and without: one valve is furnished with two front and two lateral teeth 
[the ‘laterals’ are the nymphe for the ligament]; the other has one front and one side 
tooth, which slip in between the others in the opposite valve : from the teeth, in each valve, 
proceeds a strong rib, which extends to above halfway across the shell, and gradually loses 
itself towards the edge, which is smooth and sharp. The colour of the outside is white, 
circularly, but faintly, zoned with violet, and is covered with a smooth yellowish-brown 
epidermis, which appears darkest where the zones are: the inside is white, slightly zoned, 
and tinted with violet and pink. The animal, as in all species of this genus, protrudes 
beyond the ends of the shell very much, and is exceeding good food.—A fine specimen of 
this kind is in the Collection of John Swainson, Esq., of the Custom House, London.—We 
saw also, on this coast, a kind of muscle, in colour and shape much like the common eat- 
able muscle of Europe, but differed in being circularly wrinkled, and a great deal larger 
[Mytilus Californianus, Conr.]. One valve I saw at Queen Charlotte’s Islands measured 
above nine inches and a half in length.— With pieces of these muscles, sharpened to an ex- 
quisite edge and point, the Indians head their harpoons and other instruments for fishing. 
They fasten them on with a kind of resinous substance,”—Dizxon’s ‘Voyage.’ 


520 REPORT—1863. 


9 4. Polyplex gracilis | = Trophon malticostatus, Esch.]. N. Zealand. 
29 5, Mclania striata. New California. {All the figures of ‘ Melania’ on this plate 
represent large Bulimi, perhaps from 8. America. ] 


35 4. Cerithium reticulatum. New California. 

44 2. Haustrum pictum [= Purpura planospira]. East Indies. 

44 3. Haustrum dentex [ =P. columellaris|. Nootka Sound: only 2 sp. known. 
44 4. Haustrum tubereulatum [ =P. patula, jun.).  ?— 

41 3. Oliva Leveriana [ =O. porphyria}. ?— 

47 2. Trochus decarinatus a Calliostoma canaliculatum)]. N. Zealand. 

58 2. Venus radiata | = Callista lupinaria)., N. Zealand. 


The common Califotnian Haliotis was, it seems, first described in the 
‘Zoological Miscellany,’ by Dr. W. E. Leach, vol. i, 1814 *. 
Page 131, pl. 58. Haliotis Cracherodii, Leach. California. 


Solander made use of the materials he had collected in Cook’s Voyage, in 
compiling a work on Conchology of considerable merit. Dillwyn made a copy 
of it, and used it in preparing his own, allowing priority to its specific names ; 
but it was never published. The types were lately parted-with by the Lin- 
nean Society, who had determined not to keep any collections except those of 
Linneus. The ‘ Descriptive Catalogue of Recent Shells,’ &e., by L. W. Dill- 
wyn: London, 1817, is considered by Dr. Gray to be the best conchological 
work arranged according to the old system. ‘The following are quoted from 
the West Coast :— 

Vol. Page. 

i. 301. Mytilus frons, Linn.= Ostrea frons, Sol. Callone. Acapulco, Humphreys; 
West Indies, auct. 

i. 469. Cyprea pustulata, Sol. Acapulco. 

ii, G17. Buccinum plumbeum, Chemn. California. [Monoceros, ?S. America. ] 


Following Dillwyn, and nearly eclipsing his fame through the originality 
and excellence of his classification, appeared Lamarck’s ‘ Animaux sans Ver- 
tebres,’ 1818-1822. Coordinate with or preceding this work are his Articles 
in the ‘ Annales du Muséum’ and the ‘ Encyclopédie.’ The fresh sources of 
his information are quoted in the first Report, p. 169, 

In Delessert’s ‘ Recueil,’ 1841, are figured 
Pl. 2, fig. 1. Solen ambiguus, Lam. [=S. rudis, C. B.Ad.] “Les mers d’Amérique.” 
Pl. 19, fig. 2. Cytherea semilamellosa, Gaudichaud [= C. lupinaria). China Seas. 


In Deshayes’ invaluable edition of the ‘An. s. Vert.,’ Paris, 1835-45, are 
quoted a variety of West Coast species which have already appeared under 
their original authorities. The following may be added :— 

Vol. Page. 

vill. 232. Bulimus Mexicanus, Lam. = Helix vittata, Fér. Mexico. 

ix. 383. Haliotis Californiensis, Swains.= H. glabra, Desh. California. 

ix. 357, Pleurotoma tuberculifera, Br. & Shy. California. 

ix, 584. Murex radix, Gmel.=M. melanomathos (pars), Dillw. Acapulco. 

ix. 605, Murex foliatus, Gmel.=M, tripterus, Kien. N.W. America. “? India.” 


The last of the early writers whose works should here be quoted, and whose 
ideas on the relations of genera were considerably in advance of the age, though 
somewhat fanciful, is Swainson, in his ‘ Zoological Illustrations,’ 1820-1833 ; 
« Appendix to the Sale Catalogue of Mrs. Bligh’s Shells,’ 1822; and ‘ Exotic 
Conchology,’ 1821-1835, reissued by Hanley, 1841. These works contain 
the following West Coast species :— 


* This work has been translated into French, and republished, by Chenu; where the 
same species is found on page 8, pl. 3. f. 2. 


EE LL - -—— 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA, 521 


Bligh Cat,Page. 
2. Haliotis rufescens, Swains. (Ditto in Exot. Conch. ed. ii, p. 34.) Galapagos [?] 
and California. 
4, Cassis [Malea] ringens, Swains. ?-- 
5. Cassis corrugata, Swains. Native of the Galapagos. 
5. Harpa crenata, Swains. P— 
8. Strombus grandatus, Swains. ?— 
Exot. Conch. Plate. 
86. Conus princeps, Ln.= C. regius, Martini, Lam, (C. P. var. 8., Ln.= C. ebreus.) 
Asiatic Ocean. 
97 (middle figure). Marginella prunum, Gmel., Martini= Voluta plumbea, Sol. MS. 
Africa. [The pinched W. Indian a 
182. Cyprea spadicea, Swains., Tilloch’s Phil. Mag. vol. xi. p. 876. South Seas 
Mawe). 
80. Hsliotis Californiensis, Swains. [Figured with 9 small holes.] 1821. 
55, Solen ambiguus, Lam. N. America, 1820. [This shell is conspecific with the 
“ §. medius, Alashka,” of the B. M. Coll.; differing somewhat from the S. 
ambiguus as figured by Delessert. The B. M. locality is perhaps erroneous. | 


bo 


24, Valenciennes’ Memoir on Humb. and Bonpl., 1833.—The following 
notes are from a study of the complete copy in the Libr. Roy. Coll. Surgeons. 


221. Donav radiata [ =var. of D. punctatostriatus, Hanl, 1845]. 

219. Venus succincta | = Chione Californiensis, Brod, 1835]. 

245. Bulimus undatus. [The Caribbean, not the Mexican, type is here figured. ] 

267. Haliotis Californiana [ =H. rufescens, Swains., not H. Californicnsis, Swains. ]. 

267. (Add) Haliotis interrupta, Val. Tropical America. [The description accords 
with the young of 2. Cracherodii, Leach. | 

277. Cerithium musica. [Description accords with C. maculosum, Kien.] 

278. Cerithium granosum [= Cerithidea varicosa]. 

279. Cerithium fragaria [= Rhinoclavis gemmata, Has. }. 

282. Cerithium varicosum | = Cerithidea varicosa, Sby. |. 

308. Strombus cancellatus. Closely resembles Rostellaria fissurella, from Grignon. 
[Probably E. Indian. } 

338. Conus scalaris [= C. gradatus (Mawe), Wood's Suppl. ]. 

270. Solarium bicanaliculatuwm. Small species, like S. Herbert?, Desh. Enc. 

265. Naticu Bonplandi. [The figure exactly represents Neverita patula, Sby.] 

266. (Add) Natica uber, Val. Cumana. 

317. Purpura semi-imbricata, Lam. { An. s. Vert. vol. x. p. 84, no. 39; not since 
identified from the brief description. Perhaps = Cuma costata, Blainv. | 

287. Fusus turris [ =F. Dupetithouarsii, Kien. ]. 

290, Fusus Magellanicus “ = Buc. Geversianum, Pallas, =Murex Peruvianus, Enc. 
Méth.’ 

295. Ficula ficoides [? =decussata]. 

296. Pyrula spirata tS = Rapa, jun. |. 


25. Coquille.—All the limpets quoted are South American. 
26. Eschscholtz.—The following observations may be useful to the student: 


Page. 

10, Murer ferrugineus [ = Purp. crispata, Chemn., var. ; varices few, scarcely frilled }. 

11. Murex lactuca {= Purpura crispata, Chemn. }. 

11. Murex multicostatus [is not Trophon clathratus, as supposed by Midd. ; but pro- 
bably =7. Gunmeri. It resembles 7. laciniatum, Mart. (Falkland Is.) on a 
small scale; varices coronated, without spiral ne heel 

16. Aemea. [Genus described in the Appendix to Kotzebue’s Second Voyage, 1830, 
p- 350; somewhat before Tectura, teste Woodward. ] 2 

18. Acmea mamiillata, {The ‘crowded tubercles’ were perhaps due to nullipore. | 

19. Aemea cassis [if a northern shell, is perhaps the strongly ribbed var. of pelta; 
but the figure accords best with the Cape Horn species, P. enea, Mart. ]. i 

20. Acmea digitalis [is perhaps distinct from the vedighle persona; but passes into 
it by easy transitions ]. 


522 REPORT—1863. 


Page. 
D1. Fissurella aspera [= Glyphis Lincolni, Gray,=cratitia, Gld. But Gl. densicla- 
thrata, Rve, is probably distinct; Sta Barbara, Jewett, Cooper]. 

27. Tankerville Cat., 1825.—The following species are also from the West 
Coast. The prices are added from the British Museum copy, as a record of 
their former rarity :— 


No. App. page. Price. 4 
70 10s. Solen ambiguus. 


161 15s. Tellina operculata. 
162 5s. Tellina punicea. 
206 £10 10s, LucinaChildreni {described by Grayin Ann. Phil.1824; v. also 


Zool. Journ. vol. i. 1825, pp. 221-2. There is no authority 
for the statement that it came from Brazil. The Br. Mus. 
specimens are from “ Mus. Cracherode,” and are probably 
West Coast. The only known locality is Cape St. Lucas. | 


1293 30s. Trochus annulatus. 

1294 20s. Trochus doliarius. 

1690 10s. Murex crispatus. 

1842 15s. Purpura patula. 

1855 20s. Purpura planospira. 

1896 45s. Harpa crenata. 

2240 15s. Cyprea spadicea. 

2251 2s. Cyprea albuginosa. 

2330 xxxii 15s. Oliva splendidula. Hab. ?— 
2332 xxxiii 2s. 6d. Oliva biplicata. West Coast North America. 
2333 XXXiv 2s. Oliva columellaris. ?— 
2347 £5 5s. Conus regius. 


The ,, in Rep., p. 174, should have been omitted, except at no. 808, p. vi. No. 
1401 is described, on p. xii, as from Newfoundland. No. 1786 should have no 
page-reference. e 


In the ‘ Zoological Journal,’ London, 1824-1829, appear descriptions of the 
following species :— 


Page. 
Vol. i. March 1824, 60. Natica patula, Sby. “Brought from S. America by 
M. de Humboldt. 2 specimens only known.” * 

- Oct. 1824, 369. Cyprea_subrostrata, Gray. Nehoue (Mus. Sby.). 
[‘ Probably fossil’ (Gray): a white, smooth spe- 
cies, not to be confounded with Trivia subrostrata. | 

Jan. 1825, 510. Cyprea albuginosa, Mawe, pl.7. f.2; pl.12.f.2. Cali- 
fornia. Named, without description, in Mawe’s 
Cat. (= C. poraria, var., Ducl.: Z. J. iv. p. 68.) 

5138. Cyprea pustulata, Sol. 8. Coast of Mexico. China. 
Vol. iii. Jan. 1827, 70. Hinnites giganteus (Sby.). ?—[ =H. Poulsoni, Cony. 
Calif. |= Hinnita gigantea, Gray, Ann. Phil. Aug. 
1826. = Lima gigantea, Id. in loc. cit. [non J. Shy. | 
4» sept. 1827, 363. Cyprea subrostrata, Gray | bis, Trivia]. ?— 
364. Cyprea radians, Lam. = C. oniscus, Dillw.= C. pedi- 
culus, B., Gmel.+ C. costata, Dillw. W. Coast of 
Mexico, ? Adriatic. 
365. Cyprea Californiana, Gray { Trivia]. California. 
Vol. iv. Jan. 1828, 145-162. Monograph of Ovalum, by G. B. Sowerby, containing 
the species afterwards figured in the Spec. Conch. 


28. Beechey’s Voyage.—Increased study has supplied the following cor- 
rections :— 


* At p. 511, note *, Dr. Gray states that the Natica patula, Barnes, Ann. Lye. Nat. 
Hist. N. Y., Sept. 1824, i. 133, is ‘‘the shell described under that name by Sby. As there 
is another WV. patula [? ubi], must be called by Mr. Barnes’s MS. name of J, helicoides.” 
Also that Doliwm dentatum, Barnes, loc. cit.=D. ringens, Sby. 


—_— 


a 


— 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 523 


Page. 

Z. J. 372. Natica pallida | = Lunatia caurina, Gld.,+soluta, Gld.], 

372. Natica otis. [Vayr.= Polinices fusca, Oped 

372. Natica clausa [=N. Beverlit, Leach, MS. in B. M.). 

378, Fusus lapillus= Bue. subrostratum, Gray. [Resembles the smooth, 
stumpy form of Purpura plicata, Mart.: “ perfectly distinct,” 
teste Hanl. ] 

379. Conus arcuatus [as figured in Z. B. V., is a very different shell from 
that in Mus, Cum. and the monographs ; the latter is allied to C. 
tornatus |, . 

379. Conus interruptus [resembles the broad form of C. mahogant]. 

Z.B.V. 180. (Add) Oliva semistriata, Gray, pl. 36. f. 10. Hab. P—[Panama, &c. ] 

119. Conus Ximenes (scarcely differs from C. mahogani, var. in Mus. Cum. }. 

132. [Should be] Agaronia | et passim]. 

147. (Add) Mowretia Peruviana, Sby. (P. Z. 8. 1835, p. 6) pl. 39. £. 6, 6. 
[Also Margarita Bay, teste eg 

148. Patella Mazatlandica, {This is the Sandwich Islands species, = P. 
evarata, Nutt., teste Hanl. The large specimens quoted are pro- 
bably P. talcosa, Gld. | 

150. Chama echinata, [Further series of specimens make it doubtful 
whether this be not a distinct species from C. frondosa, var. The 
original sculpture has not yet been detected. | 

151. [Should be] Cytherea biradiata. 

152, (Add) Cardita borealis, Cony. (=“Areturus rudis, Humphyr.”) pl. 44. 
f. 1. {Probably from near Icy Cape. Mus. Belcher. ] 


The types of the species described from this important voyage haye been 
scattered. Some have been identified from Admiral Sir E. Belcher’s Collec- 
tion, which he kindly allowed me to examine for that purpose; others are 
in the possession of Mr. Hanley ; but many appear hopelessly lost. 


29. Wood’s Ind. Test—In Hanley’s Revised Edition of this important 
work (London, 1856), several new localities are added from the writer’s 
varied experience, and the synonymy is most carefully elaborated. No other 
book contains such a mass of trustworthy information on the old species in so 
small a compass. The following are quoted, either as original authorities, or 
for locality or synonymy :— 

Page. Fig. 
2 10. Chiton tunicatus, Wood, Gen. Conch, 1815, pl. 2. f. 1 [ = Katherina 
; Douglasie, Gray}. Sitka. 
3. 18. Chiton lineatus, Wood, Gen. Conch. 1815, pl. 2. f. 4, 5. Sitcha, 
North Calif. {Mzr. Hanley believes that Sitka is the island in 
lat. 58°, and that Sitcha is in the district now known as Wash- 
ington Territory, olim Oregon. | 
3 20. Chiton sulcatus, Wood, Gen. Conch. 1815, pl. 3. £1. Galapagos. 
19 16. Solen maximus, Wood, Gen. Conch. 1815, pl. 31. £3 [=S. patulus, 
Dixon. N.W. America]. Sandw. Is. 
21 8. Tellina rugosa, Born. Is. of Opara, New California. [Pacific Is. ] 
27 73. Tellina muricata, Chemn.= Lucina scabra, Rve. Mexico. 
82 97. Conus pusillus, Wood: non Chemn. nec Lam. [nec Gld. | = C. pune- 
ticulatus, var., Lam. (quasi Brug.) Mexico. 
88 31. Cyprea onyx, Gray (quasi Lin.) = C.adusta,Chemn. [Pacific Is. The 
San Diegan shell is closely allied,= Luponia spadicea.| ‘ Calif.’ 
99 35. Voluta incrassata, Dillw. ; posterior to O. angulata,Lam. Centr. Am. 
183 14. Hahotis Cracherodit, Leach=H. glabra, Schub. 1829, non Chemn. 
et auct. Calif. 
Suppl. 201 3. Zellina lutea, Gray=T. alternidentata, Br. & Shy.= 7. Guilfordie, 
Gray, in Griff. Cuy. pl. 19. f. 2. Icy Cape. 
202 1. Dona» scalpellum, Gray, Ann. Phil. 1825, ix. 166; =D. elongata, 
Mawe, Conch. pl. 9. f. 6, 1823. Calif. 


524 REPORT—1863. 


Page. Fig. 
Suppl. 202 2, Donax stultorum, Mawe, |. c. pl. 9. £.7; = Zrigona st., Gray, Analyst, 

1838. ?S, America [= Zr. crassatelloides, jun. if. |. 

204 5. Chama crassicostata= Venericardia ¢., Shy., Tank. Cat. p. 4. = Car- 
dita Curieri, Brod., P. Z.S. 1832.= C. Michelini, Val. Acapulco. 

205 11. Arca pectiniformis,Gray (Pectunculus), non Lam. = P.inequalis, Sby. 

208 6. Conus gradatus, Mawe. Calif. [=C\ scalaris, Val.] Pan. 

211 25. Voluta lens, Mawe. Pan. 

211 26. Voluta harpa, Mawe, Conch. Front. f. 2. 1825; = V. nucleus, Lam. 
8. Pacific. 

211 33. Voluta nux, B.M.= Oliva biplicata, Sby., Tank. Cat. Calif. 

212 38. Voluta tenebrosa, Mawe=O. undatella, Ducl. (Lam.) Pan. 

212 4. Buceinum tenue, Mawe= Cassis Massene, Kien. Galapagos. © 

212 =7. Bucecinum distortum, Swains., Bligh’s Cat.= Columbella triumphalis, 
Duel. [ Clavella). W. Columbia. 

213 10, Buccinum brevidentatum, Mawe= Purp. cornigera, Blainy.= P. ocel- 
lata, Kien. W. Columbia. 

913 11. Buccinum denticulatum, Mawe| =Monoceros lugubre, Shy. Gen. 

213 12. Buecinum armatum, Mawe  { Calif. 

213 13. Buccinum tectum, Mawe= Purp. callosa, Sby. Gen., non Lam. =P. 
angulifera, Kien. (Ducl.)= Cuma sulcata, Swains. Mal. Pan. 

213 15. Buceinum planaxis, Mawe= PI. planicosta, Sby.=P. canaliculata, 
Duval, Rey. Zool. 1840, p. 107. Pan. [Pwrp. canaliculata, Ducl., 
is quite distinct. ] 

214 25. Buccinum elongatum, Mawe=Terebra strigata, Sby., Tank. Cat.= 
T. zebra, Kien. Pan. 

215 15. Strombus bituberculatus, B.M., non auct.= Str. Peruvianus, Swains., 
Phil. Mag. 62. W. Columb. 

216 «3. Murex rigidus, B.M.= Buc. nodatum, Martyn= Murex n., Gmel., 
Dillw.= Zurbinella rigida, Gray. Pan. { Probably the Pacific sp. ] 

217 10. Murex sanguineus, Mawe= Turbinella varicosa, Rye. Galapagos. — 

217 14. Murex salno, Mawe = Fasciolaria granosa, Kien., as of Brod., P.Z.8. 
1832. Panama. ; 

218 1. Trochus undosus, Wood= T. undatus, Mawe, Conch. no. 146 (not 
described) ; = 7. balenarum, Val. Calif. 

219 4. Trochus pellis-serpentis, Mawe= Tegula elegans, Less., 11. Zool. pl. 50; 
=Tr. strigilatus, Phil. (quasi Anton) Abbild. pl. 2. £9. Pan. 

225 45. Turbo saxosus, Mawe=Marmorostoma undulata, Swains., Zool. Il, 
s. 2. Pan. 

233. 6. Haliotis corrugata, Mawe, Conch. no. 181. ?=H. nodosa, Phil. Abbil. 
pl. 2. Calif. 

2338. Pavella pexiza, Gray = Dispotea Byronensis, Gray, Enc, Metr. Moll. 
pl. 4. f.4 =[? Crucibulum spmosum, var.]. Chili. 


31. Voy. Beagle—The Triton scaber is rightly assigned to 8, America: 
there is no satisfactory evidence for its appearance on the N.W. coast. The 
shells so quoted are probably either imported from the Magellan district, or 
are Priene Oregonensis, jun., or Ocinebra, var. aspera. 


36. Duclos—The original article is in the ‘ Annales Nat. Sc.,’ May 1832, 
and contains the following species :— 
Page. Plate. Fig. 
104. 1. Purpura canaliculata, Ducl., resembles P. swecineta on a small scale. 
Cal.; very rare. [Figured with 10 principal and a few intercalary 
ribs. =P. decemcostata, Midd. | 
105 1 2 Purpura melones, Ducl. ?— [Panama. ] 
109 2 8 Purpura centiquadra, Val. MS. [Ducl. states that Val. altered his 
own name to speciosa while the sheet was passing through the 
press. The latter, however, bears date 1833. 
111 2 10. Purpura spheridia, Ducl. Cal. [A well-known Sistrwm from the 
Pacific Is. ] 


i 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 525 


The species quoted in the text from Guérin, which appear in the Mag. 
Zool. for 1844, also appear here with the early date. Oliva polpaster, a south- 
ern form, from Guayaquil, &c., is distinct from all varieties of the Gulf species, 
O. Cumingiz; it bears date 1839. In the same vol. are described and figured— 
Plate. 

2. Calyptrea (Calypeopsis) rugosa, Less. Payta, Peru. [= Crue. imbriecatum, 

without pits. | 

23. Conus hieroglyphus, Ducl. Probably Cal. [A Pacific form, like C. abbre- 
viatus, 

27. Cyprea ba iit Ducl. Cal. [Astarved var. of Aricia arabica, Pacific Is. ] 

38. Lady Douglas (afterwards known as Lady Wigram).—Placunanomia 
cepio. {The type is an old shell, with faint ribs. | 

Placunanomia alope. [The type is a young shell, with small scars and 
faint ribs. The large series of specimens examined in the Smithsonian col- 
lections proves that these forms are among the many varieties of P. macro- 
schisma. The Indians have a superstitious‘dread of handling it. Many more 
species have since been detected in the Brit. Mus., from the late Lady 
Wigram’s valuable donations, including Macoma inquinata, Desh., described 
from her. specimens ; but, as they are evidently from mixed localities, it has 
not been thought necessary to catalogue them. | 

39. Nuttall—tThe verification of Conrad’s species being of considerable 
importance, I made diligent search for the original types during a recent 
tour in the United States. The supposed collection at Harvard University, 
Cambridge, Mass., has not been discovered by Professor Agassiz. The 
inquiries which Professor Longfellow kindly made at my request resulted in 
information that it was “in Dr. Wyman’s Mus. Nat. Hist., in the granite 
building on Howard Street ;” but no opportunity has been afforded of col- 
lating it, or even of verifying its existence. Dr. Jay rendered me every 
assistance in studying the types which he has catalogued in his collection, 
now rearranging in his residence at Memironeck, near New York, and gave 
such duplicates as could be spared for the Smithsonian Museum. Several 
species, however, were not to be found, and some were clearly erroneous, as 
e. g. Chama “ exogyra, Conr.,” which proved to be C. lobata, Brod.; W. I., 
teste Cuming; China, Brit. Mus. The most satisfactory information was 
derived from an interview with Mr. Conrad himself at the Acad. Nat. Sci., 
Philadelphia, where the honorary curator, Mr. W. G. Binney, afforded us 
all possible aid in eliminating types from the collections of the Academy and 
of private conchologists in the city. Mr. Nuttall’s death (the news of which 
was received soon after) prevented his revising the corrections thus obtained. 
As he had previously presented a duplicate series of his shells to the Brit. 
Mus., which had been incorporated with the general collection, and had sig- 
nified to me his intention to leave the unique specimens to the nation, I at 
once communicated with the survivors and with Dr. Gray, who was fortunate 
enough to stop the intended sale, and to secure the shells, which were kindly 
presented by the executors. They are now mounted, and kept in drawers 
adjoining the Reigen collection, the Vancouver collection, and the Stimp- 
sonian typical collection of East Coast N. American shells. The following 
is a résumé of corrections obtained from these different sources, numbered to 
correspond with the list, Rep. pp. 194-201 :— 


2. “ Parapholas”’ penita [is a Pholadidea]. 
3. Platyodon cancellatus | = Cryptodonta myoides, Nutt. MS.}. 
4. Cryptodon Nuttallii, Conr. {The author, finding the generic name preoccupied, 
changed it to Schizotherus N.: 1852, teste Bin. Bibl.; 1854, Journ. A. N.S, 
_ Phil. p. 199,=Lutraria capar, Gld,=L, maxima, Midd.,= Tresus maximus, 


526 


10. 
11. 
12, 


14. 
16, 


17. 
18. 
22. 
23. 


26. 
27. 


28, 29. 


Solecurtus Nuttall | =Machera patula, Dixon, = Aulus grandis, 


REPORT—18638. 


Gray. Mr. Nuttall only brought home young specimens of this extraordinary 
shell. In its adult state it assumes either a transverse form (=capax) or 
the elongated condition, redescribed in a fossil state as new. Between 
these there is every gradation, as can be traced in the magnificent series in 
the Smiths. Mus. ; and a caskful of the animals in spirits, of various ages, 
has affiliated the large shells to the original Nuttallian specimen 


S. 
Pandora punctata [is a Chdiophora, 'The series so named in the Nuttaltian 


collection belongs, however, to the Atlantic CV. trilineata]. 


Solecurtus lucidus [is almost certainly the young of no. 12. The amount of 


obliquity in the internal rib is extremely variable in the adult qa 

mel., teste 
Hds. in Mus. Cum. Mr. C.’s “ grandis, var.” from Monterey, suits in its 
proportions for the adult of S. luwcidus. The shell has been widely distri- 
tate by commerce, and appears to extend far in a northerly direction, The 
animal is very beautifully fringed]. 


Solecurtus Californianus [=S8. Dombeyi, teste Mus. Cuming: non Hanl. MS.]. 
Psammobia Pacifica [is a Heterodonax, probably identical with the W. Indian 


H, bimaculata, which is found abundantly in its many varieties at Aca- 
pulco ;= Tellina vicina, C. B. Ad.}. 


Sanguinolaria Californiana [= Macoma inconspicua, Brod. & Sby., and is a 


northern species |. 


Sanguinolaria rubroradiata {is the young of a large species of Psammobia), 
Tellina alta { =(from types) ?Serobicularia biangulata, Cpy.], 
[= Macoma edulis, Nutt.; a northern variety of MZ. secta, no, 25, and quite 


distinct from MM. edentula. | 


The locality is not confirmed, and is probably erroneous. 
[Dr. Gould considers his D. obesus a distinct species; from a large series, it 


hese species of Standella, described from young specimens, were found 
of very large size by Dr. Cooper, with what may prove a third species, 
perhaps S. nasuta, Gld., olim. } 


thes identical. | 


300. Petricola carditoides [with P. arcuata+cylindracea, Desh., are varieties of P. 


32. 


33. 


34. 


35, 


36. 
37. 


Californica. The series preserved in the Smithsonian Museum connects all 
the extreme forms]. 


Mysia tumida, Cony, MS. [ = Diplodonta orbella, G1d., and belongs to the section 


Spherella, Cony. The label had been assigned by accident to a young valve 
of a Chione, probably from the Sandwich Is. }. 


Tapes staminea, {This is the extreme southern form of a widely diffused and 


yery variable species, of which the normal condition is Saxidomus Petitit, 
Desh.,= Venus rigida, Gld. pars. The principal varieties have been named 
Tapes diversa, Shy.= Venus mundulus, Rye., and Venus ruderata, Desh. | 


[The Californian Saxidomi divide themselves into three groups: the large, 


southern, oval, grooved shells=S. aratus, Gld.; the subquadrate, compara- 
tively smooth, northern shells=S. squalidus+ giganteus, Desh.; and an 
intermediate form, which is the true 8. Nadtallii, Conr. Some of Mr. Nut- 
tall’s specimens were, however, the young of S, aratus, of which the adult 
was not known till very recently. | 


[The young of this Pachydesma is “ Trigona stultorwm, Gray,” Desh, MS, in 


British Museum. | 


Cytherea callosa | =C. nobilis, Rve. Ttis not a Dosinia, but the type of anew 


subgenus, Amuiantis, differing from Callista as Mercenaria does from Venus]. 


Plate 19, fig. 16 (not 14 nor 15). [The true Venus Nuttallii of Conv. (teste 


Conr. ips. and types in Mus. Phil. Ac. and Jay) is not the shell here cata- 
logued, which generally goes by that name, but is a synonym for the V. 
Californiensis, Brod.,=succincta, Val. The error was corrected in the Mus. 
Cum. in time for the right shell to be figured by Reeve in his recent mono- 
graph. It is doubtful what name Conrad intended for the shell here cata- 
logued, which belongs to the group of Stutchburyi, fluctifraga, &e. Ifreally 
distinct from the latter, it may stand as Chione callosa, Shy. jun. (non Conr.) | 


38, Venus Californiana [(teste Conr. ips.) was intended for V. Californiensis, 


Brod, Not haying access to the type, it could hardly be recognized by the 


ee a NEw 


“I 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 52 


brief diagnosis, The name should therefore be dropped. The shell, pl. 19. 
fig. 15 (not 16)= Chione simillima, Sby., no. 39; a good, Lower Californian 
species. It seems that the error was not in the numbering of the figures, as 
Mr. Nuttall supposed, but in Conrad’s identification of Broderip’s species ]. 

40. Chione excavata bs closely related to’ Ch. suecincta; the unique type, however, 
in Brit. Mus. displays characteristic differences of sculpture. It is singu- 
larly like the W. Indian Ch. cancellata, and may prove exotic]. 

41. Cypricardia Californica [=C. Guiniaca, Lam,,=C. Duperryi, Desh, Almost 
certainly from the Sandwich Is. ]. 

45, 456. Cardium Californianum [= C. Nuttallit, var. The species is named “ C. 
corbis, Mart.,” by Desh. MS. in Mus. Brit. and Gane. 

46. Cardium quadragenarium [= C, hdeolabrum, Gld.}. 

51. v. anted, no. 32. 

56, Modiola recta. [Described from yery young specimens. The broad form is 
M. flabellata, Gd. 

59. Mytilus bifurcatus, [|The type is lost; the figure and description would suit 
many species. It is allocated, in Mus. Cum., to the Californian Septifer ; 
but by Pease to a Sandwich Island siyale 

60. [None of Conrad’s species of Isognomon have been confirmed as from Califor- 
nia. They are known to inhabit the Pacific Islands. 

626, [Mr. Nuttall also brought an oyster, which he named in MS. O. latecaudata, 
= O. lurida, var.; and Hinnites giganteus, Gray, =H. Poulsoni, Contr. | 

64, [Dr. Gould states that H. Nickliniana, Lea,=H. Californiensis, Pfr., Chemn., 
Rve.; but that H. Californiensis, Lea, is distinct. | 

69. Helix Townsendiana [= H. eruginosa, Gld. MS. ]. 

74. Chiton Nuttallii [is an Ischnochiton]. 

76. Chiton acutus [is an aberrant form of Mopalia. ‘‘ Chiton consimilis,” Nutt. MS. 
in Brit. Mus., appears to be Mopalia Hindsii, var.“ Chiton Californicus ” 
Nutt. MS., =‘ Acanthopleura” scabra, Rye. ]. ee 

77. Patella mamillata, Nutt. [(non Esch.) is now assigned in Mus, Cuming to 
Acmea scabra, Nutt., var. imatula). 

85. Fissurella ornata, Nutt. [ =F. volcano, Rve.}. 

84. Glyphis densiclathrata, Rve. [ V. anted, p. 522, The shell has been lost. ] 

86. H. Califormiensis, Swains. [(not Californiana, Val.,=rufescens), is an extreme 
var. of H. Cracherodi. The series in the Smithsonian Mus. have 5, 6, 7, 
8, and 9 holes; as soon as it has 10 and 11, it passes into Californiensis, 
which was figured in 1821 with 9 holes. "When these are numerous, they 
are generally small in proportion]. 

91, Calliostoma doliarium [=C. canaliculatum, Mart. This and C. annulatum, 
Mart., are quite distinct from C. filoswm, which= C. costatum, Mart. ]. 

92. Omphalius ater Gs the S. American species. The common Californian shell is] 

94. O. marginatus, Nutt. MS. [| =fwmebralis, A. Ad.}. 

976. The collection contains one specimen of Crepidula dorsata. 

103, [Is a Serpeorbis, without opere., teste Cooper. | 

106. Litorina tenebrata [should be patula, Gld. (non Jeffr.). Nuttall’s MS. name 
was published by Phil. in 1845]. 

107, Natica ? maroccana, var. Californica. [The varietal name must be dropped. 
The shell certainly came from the Sandwich Islands. ] 

108. [The shell is Vitularia salebrosa, jun., and not] Ranella triquetra. 

109. Mitra maura [Swains., teste Rve. (? ubi)=M. orientalis, Gray, =M. “ Chi- 
lensis,’”’ Kien. ]. 

110, Olivella glandinaria, Nutt. | = O. biplicata, Sby.}. 

112, 113. Purpura aperta and P. harpa | ave certainly from the Sandwich Islands]. 

114, Purpura emarginata [was described by Desh. from an immature specimen in 
which a half-formed knob caused an “emargination.”” The adult.is one 
very extreme form; P. ostrina, Gld.,is another; P. fuscata, Fbs., is a third. 
The normal condition is P. dapillus, Cooper (non Linn.),=saaicola, Val. 
Mr. Nuttall’s collection also contains] P. crispata, var. 

116, Monoceros brevidens [is an accidentally short-toothed form of WM. lapilloides], 

118, abi Nuttallit rit C. foliatum and C. monoceros, Shy., belongs to Pwur- 
puride). ; 


528 REPORT—1863. 


The specimens numbered 2, 5, 8, 9, 19, 21, 28-31, 36, 44, 46, 49, 50, 52-54, 56, 
59, 64-67, 70-72, 76, 84, 86-88, 98, 101, 103, 104, and 109 do not appear in the 
Brit. Mus. Nuttallian collection. 

41. Voy. Venus.—Rev. Zool. and Guér. Mag. 


Area trapezia [= A. tuberculosa]. 

Sawicava leyunen [ =8. pholadis ; ?from hole of Lithophagus|. 

Petricola arcuata {=the normal state of P. carditoides, Cony. }. ‘ 

Petricola cylindracea [=a short form of the same sp., developing ridges of growth, 
like Tapes ruderata, Desh. |]. 

Venerupis gigantea [ = Saxidomus squalidus, Desh. ]. ¥ 

Cypricardia Duperreyt [= C. Guinaiaca, Lam.,=C. Californica, Cont. A Sandwich 
Island species, twice quoted, but not confirmed, from Cal. ]. 

Cardium Laperoussti [is an Aphrodite, like Greenlandicum, but more transyerse, and 
with lateral teeth less developed. ‘This very rare and probably boreal shell has 
just been identified from Adm. Sir E. Belcher’s coll. ]. 

Cardium Californiense, Desh. [is not C. Californianum (= Nuttalli’), Cony. ; but= C. 
pseudofossile, Rve., 1844. The name of Desh. is unfortunate, as his shell is the 
Kamtschatkan form with strong ribs. The Californian form is smaller, with 
fainter ribs, = C. blandum, Gld. }. 

Purpura Freycinetii [is figured from a very extreme form of the Japanese species. 
P. ostrina passes into similar’ varieties |. 

Velutina Miilleri (probably = V. levigata, which reaches Vancouver}. 

Lucina cristata [= Tellidora houdata, Holmes; described from the Pleistocene of 8. 
Carolina, and lately dredged alive by Dr. Stimpson; not 7. Burnett]. 

The following may be added to Deshayes’ list :-— 


Pl. 81. Tellina ligamentina, Desh., 1843, Hab. ?— [ = Macoma secta, Cony. ] 
Tellina Japonica, Desh., in Mus. Cum. [also appears to be M. secta, jun. ]. 


In Valenciennes’ plates to the Voy. Ven. have been recognized the follow- 
ing West Coast species and synonyms, in addition to those quoted in Rep. 
pp. 203-204 :— 

Plate. Fig. 
3 2, Trochus diadematus, Val. [resembles Pomaulax undosus, jun., but the sur- 
face is faintly wrinkled all over; umbilical region not chiseled; and 
opere. not ridged. It is probably intended for Pachypoma gibberosum }. 


4 1. Trochus rubiginosus, Val. [probably= 7. annulatus, Mart. }. 
2. Trochus pellueidus, Val. [vesembles 7. lima, Panama]. 
6 3. Buceinum Prevostit, Val. [probably = Pisania pagodus], 
8 1. Purpura bufonides, Val. [appears one of the many vars. of P. biserialis]. 
9 1. Purpura rupestris, Val. | probably = Monoceros lugubre, jun.]. 
10 1. Murex aciculiger, Val. {is represented with labral tooth and closed canal ; 
but resembles C. festivus, Hds. ]. 
3. Murex tortuus (Brod.), Val. [resembles Ph. princeps, with a very poor 
opere., badly drawn]. 
16 1, Venus Thouarsii, Val. [?=multicostata, Sby.; figured with very broad, 
smooth, close ribs, scarcely indented, except in the middle]. 
3. Venus pectunculoides, Val. [is probably 7. grata, not histrionica]. 
17 2. Cardium subelongatum (Rye.), Val. [appears= C. procerum, jun. }. 
18 2, Pecten comatus, Val. (may be=hastatus, jun. ; but, although figured with- 
out the red spot, it most resembles Hin. giganteus, ul, 
19 1. Pecten excavatus, Val. [=Janira dentata, Shy. ]. 
3. 4, pomatia, Val. [may be= P. ventricosus, jun. ]. 
4, 4,  rastellinum, Val. [ =P. hastatus, jun.]. 
21 Ostrea gallus, Val, {“ Acapulco,” with large plates, = O. megodon, Hanl.]}. 
22 1. Cardita arcella, Val. [P= vay radiata, Shy. ]. 
2. 9 modulosa (Lam.), Val. [ = Lazaria affnis]. 
3. »  turgida (Lam.), Val. [= Ven. laticostata]. 
5. 99. Dichelini, Val. [= V. Cuviert). 
23 2, Nucula divaricata, Val. | probably =N. castrensis). 
24 1, Penitella Conradi, Val. [may be = Pholadidea ovoidea. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 529 


Plate. Fig. 

2. Penitella xilophaga, Val. {may he the adult of fig. 4}. 

. Penitel a tubigera, Val. [may possibly be intended for Ph. penita]. 
» Pholas rostrata, Val. [is probably = Netastoma Darwinii, Sby. jun. ]. 
. Ungulina luticola,Val. [may be an extremely bad Petricola ielea 
- Corbula luticola, Val. [1s probably = Sphenia fragilis}. 

- Bornia luticola, Val. Laperoussit |. 

- Saxicava clava, Val. |=. legumen, Desh.,= 8. pholadis, var.]. 

The identification of these species is attended with great uncertainty, as 
the types have not been seen, and the artist appears to have studied effect 
rather than accuracy. 

42. Voyage of Sulphwr.—The types of these species appear to have been 
scattered. Only a part are now to be found in the very valuable collection 
of Admiral Sir E. Belcher, in which most of the shells are, unfortunately, 
destitute both of names and of locality-marks. 

Murex Belcheri [belongs to Purpuride, and may be considered the type of 
the genus Chorus]. 

Ranella Californica. (After comparing a series with the Cumingian speci- 
mens of 2. ventricosa, it appears that the diagnostic characters are not con- 
stant. 

Me pine sapotilla. [The type in Mus. Cuming is much smaller than 
the ordinary condition of M. prunum=cerulescens, Lam., to which species 
the common Panama shells were referred by Mr. Cuming. In his collection, 
however, they stand thus :—Ordinary Panamic type “ sapotilla, Hds.: 5-13 
fms., sandy mud, Panama, H.C.” Another tablet of the true Panama shells 
“ Marginella, n. sp., Panama,”—‘ San Domingo” having been crossed out. 
The small West Indian form, analogous to the typical sapotilla, is given as 
“glans, Mke.” The large West Indian shells, with violet tinge behind the 
labrum, are “ cerulescens, Lam., Panama,” without authority. Another series 
of the W. Indian type is given as “ cerulescens, var., Lam., 10 fms., sandy 
mud, Panama,” without authority. Either habitat-errors have crept into the 
Cumingian labels, or else Mr. Redpath’s observation will not hold, viz. that 
the Atlantic shells have a posterior pinch on the labrum, which is not seen 
in the Pacific. All the authentic series examined from the two coasts bear 
out his view. There will be two opinions as to whether this be more than 
a mere local distinction. ] 

Solarium quadriceps. {On comparing suites of S. granulosum from the 
Texan coast with series from the Gulf of California, it appeared that on each 
side of the Peninsula the shells went through similar changes in strength of 
sculpture, size of umbilicus, number of spiral granules, &e.; nor could any 
elue be obtained by which the coasts could be separated in a mixed collection. 
Hinds’s shell stands at the furthest extreme of removal from S. granulatum. | 

43. U.S. Exploring Expedition.—The shells of this collection were depo- 
sited in the Patent Office in Washington, D.C., where, notwithstanding the 
great care of Mr. Varden, the curator, they were not a little tampered-with. 
Dr. Gould laboured under great difficulties in his work of description; he 
had access only to that part of the collection which happened to be unpacked 
and exposed to view during the brief period that his professional engagements 
allowed of his visiting the capital; and his request to be allowed to take 
doubtful shells to Europe for identification was refused. The materials also 
were of an unsatisfactory kind, a large proportion of the specimens being 
much weathered, and many of the locality-marks being manifestly erroneous. 
If occasional errors have been detected in his great work, they may fairly be 
set down to causes over which the author had no control. Many of these 

1863. 2M 


CONIC? Or CO 


530 REPORT—18638. 


have been corrected by Dr. Gould himself, in his ‘ Otia Conchologiea,’ 
Boston, 1862, which contains the various papers in the ‘Proceedings of the 
Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.,’ with an appendix. After the organization of the 
Smithsonian Institution, all the natural-history collections belonging to the 
Federal Government were transferred to its keeping, with liberty to exchange 
duplicates. The shells remained unopened, and the types not accessible, till, 
at the request of Professor Henry, I undertook the arrangement of the col- 
lections. Fortunately, a considerable part of the shells professing to be 
the figured types of the new species were found together, with the artist’s 
marks corresponding with the plates and figures. The result of the exami- 
nation, so far as the general collection is concerned, will shortly be prepared 
for the press; it is sufficient here to tabulate the observations on the N.W. 
American species, which were, as it happened, the most satisfactorily pre- 
served in the whole series. The following additional particulars include the 
“‘ Rectifications ” in the ‘ Otia,’ the paging of which is continued from the 
‘«« Expedition Shells ” quoted in Rep. p. 209. The quarto volume quoted in 
p. 210 is distinguished as “ E. E. Mollusca.” The folio atlas of plates bears 
date on title 1856, but was not published till 1861, teste Binn. Bibl. vol. i. 
p- 504. The comparisons of types were made in 1860, from a proof copy. 


Otia, Page. 
3. Chiton lignosus=[Mopalia| Merckii, Midd., test. Gld. E. E. Moll. [from 
worn specimens := Ch. Montereyensis, Cpr., from perfect shells. 

230. Chiton (Chetopleura) vespertinus. Perhaps=Ch. lignosus, var. [A Mo- 
palia, differing slightly in the amount of posterior wave. The fig. in 
E. E. Moll. is made-up from broken specimens. } 

6, 242. Chiton (Onithochiton) dentiens. [The shell sent as type of this species, 
and all the others seen from the coast, agree in belonging to Ischnochiton, 
and are not dentate, as would be presumed from the figures and diag- 
nosis. As Dr. Gould’s toothed Onithochiton may hereafter be found, the 
Smithsonian shells have been named Isch. pseudodentiens. | 

6, 242. Chiton (Chetopleura) muscosus. [= Acanthopleura muscosa, H. & A. Ad. 
Gen.,= Ch. ornatus, Nutt. P. ZS. 1855, p. 232,14 Mopalia consimilis, 
Nutt. MS. in B, M. This beautiful species is a true Mopalia. 

230. Chiton (Leptochiton) interstinctus. Resembles C. Sitchensis, Midd. { = Cal- 
lochiton 7.,H. & A. Ad., Gen. It is a true Ischnochiton. The genera of 
Chitonidz cannot always be ascertained by external characters alone, as 
indicated in Messrs. Adams’s genera, All the species in the Smithsonian 
Museum have been dissected. 

7, 242. Patella (Tectura) fimbriata= P. cinis, Rve. [=Acmea pelta, Esch. }. 

9, 242. Patella (Nacella) instabilis, {Varies greatly in proportions. | 

9, 242. Lottia (Lectura) pintadina. {The types represent the normal condition of 
Acmea patina. One variety is A. cribraria, Gld. MS. The speci- 
mens of A. mesoleuca intermixed by Dr. G.in the Mexican War collec- 
tions were, no doubt, affiliated by an oversight. | 

10, 243. Patella (Tectura) textilis is a var. of T. persona, Esch. [A well-marked 
form of delicate growth, passing from A. persona into <A. pelta, var. ; 
from the young of which some specimens can hardly be distinguished, 
except by the fretted pattern. ] 

10, 248, Patella ( Tectura) scabra=spectrum (Nutt.), Rve., not scabra (Nutt.), Rve. 
[The tpe-shepvants belong to two species, f. 456, 456a, being A. spec- 
trum, Nutt., while 456 represents the flattened variety of -4. persona, 
Esch. (approaching the form digitalis, Esch.). As the diagnosis best 
accords with the latter shell, P. seabra, Gld., may stand as a synonym of 
persona, var. ; the intermixed specimen, accidentally figured as belonging 
to the species, being removed to spectrum, Nutt. Thus the name scabra, 
not being needed as first described, will remain for Nuttall’s species, 
described by Rve., but first named in print by Jay. | ; 


—— 


Otia, Page. 
15, 


15. 


50, 244, 
50, 244. 
50, 244. 


52, 
52, 245, 


52, 53. 


85. 


87, 246. 
87. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 531 


Crepidula lingulata. [Described from a worn specimen. Perfect shells 
cannot be separated from C. bilobata, Rve.,=C. ? dorsata, var. bilobata, 
Maz. Cat., nor from the supposed C. dorsata in Mus. Cum. ] 

Crepidula nummaria. [Described from an aberrant, worn, and rounded 
specimen. The normal state is C. navicelloides, Nutt. When grown 
in hollow bivalves, it becomes nwmmaria: the contrary extreme, grown 
in crypts of borers, with another shell or crab over it, is explanata, 
Gld., = eruviata, Nutt.,=perforans, Val. The Lessonoid form is C. 
fimbriata, Rve. The young appears to be C. minuta, Midd. But the 
“C. nummaria, Gld.,” of Mus. Cum., is quite a distinct species, not known 
from the American coast. 

Natica (Lunatia) caurina+ | -_ P 

Natica Cnatia) soluta [=L. pallet Brads shy. } 

Natica (Innatia) algida ; “R. Negro,” E, E. Shells; “Oregon,” EH. E. Moll. 
[veré: =young of L. Lewisit, Gld., July 1847,=L. herculea, Midd., 1849}. 

Lacuna carinata, Gld., Nov. 1848 |Z. solidula, Loy., 1846, Finmark]. 

Litorina patula, Gd. [non Jeffr.], Mar, 1849, =L. planaxis [Nutt.], Phil., 
1847. 

Litorina lepida, scutulata, et plena [are shown by large series to be varieties 
of one species ]. 

Litorina cincta, Gld., Aug. 1847, Puget Sd. [=Z. Sitchana, Phil., 1845. 
This species appears to have been overlooked in the E. E. Moll.] 

Cerithium irroratum, Gid. [= C. obesum, Sby. sen., teste H. Cuming. The 
type proves this to be an HE. I. species, and not the Panamic C. stercus- 
muscarum, Val., as supposed by Dr. Gld.: v. C. B. Ad. i loco]. 

Cerithium filosum, Gld., May 1849 [= Turritella Eschrichtii, Midd., 1849, 
(Bittium). Comp. C. filosum, Phil., Z. f. M. 1848, p. 84. California]. 

Fusus (Bela) fidicula. 

Fusus (Trophon) Orpheus {(non Baird.) = 7. Fabricit, Moll., in Br. Mus. ] 

Buceinum (Nassa, 8. g. Tritia) fossatum. Cesta in Ind. p. 258. [=W. 
elegans, Rve., 1842, non Dujardin: =Zaphon e., Add. }. 

Nassa (Tritia) mendica = N. Woodwardi, Fbs., 1850 [from types:+N. 
Gibbesii, Coop. |. 

Columbella (Aha) gausapata. [Belongs to the Nassoid group, Amyela. | 

Mya precisa [= WM. truncata. Scareely even a variety; but approaches 
the form Aldrovandi. | 

Lutraria ae capax. [Dr. G. revives his excellent name; L. maxima, 
Jonas, 1844, being anterior to Midd. Conrad’s name, Sehizotherus 
Nuttallii, is, however, very much earlier. ] 

Osteodesma (Lyonsia) bracteatum [+ O. nitidum, Gld., in different states 
of preservation, =L. Californica, Conr. The “ golden nacre ” of O. brac- 
teatum is due to incipient decay, as generally happens in Anomiads]. 

Cardita (Actinobolus) ventricosa. [Appears to be a local variety of the 
ancient Miocene species, Venericardia borealis ;+ C. occidentalis, Conr., 
+ C. subtenta, Cony. (fossil) probably. | 

Cardium blandum, 1850. [A finely grown Pyar. of C. Californiense, Desh., 
1839, Midd. (non C. Californianum, Conr., 1837, = corbis, var.) = C.pseudo- 
fossile, Rve., 1844. The name is so like the preoccupied Cahkfornianum 
that it may advantageously be dropped. | 

Venus rigida, 1850 [non Dillw. 1817. It is fortunate that the name is 
not needed, as the author has joined two very different species, both 
of which have other names. The original Latin diagnosis applies to the 
rough northern form of Tapes staminea, Cour., which is the Saxidomus 
Petitii of Desh., and includes V. ruderata, Desh. But the “ specimen, 
33 in. long,” which modified the description in the E. E. Moll., and is 
figured at f. 538, proves to be the adult form of Tapes tenerrima, Cpr., 
P. Z.S. July 1856, which is a Californian and not a Panamic species, 
as had been supposed from Col. Jewett’s label]. 

Anodonta cognata=A. Oregonensis, Lea (probably). 

Anodonta feminalis | =A. angulata, var., teste Lea]. 

2m 2 


532 REPORT—1863. 


Otia, Page. 
93. ° Mytilus (Modiola) flabellatus. {The northern form of Modiola recta, Cony. 
The “specimens from the Gulf of California” must have been JZ. Bra- 
ziliensis, intermixed by accident. | 
94, Mytilus trossulus [is scarcely a variety of M. edulis, which is very abundant 
along the coast, under its usual modifications of form and colour; but 
generally of small size]. 
95. Pecten hericeus, Gld. [=P. hastatus, Sby. sen. ]. 
97, 246. Terebratula (Waldhemia) pulvinata. 
97, 246. Terebratula (Terebratella) caurina. 
BE. E. Moll. 


Page. 

113. Planorbis corpulentus is of Say. 

143. Melania plicifera is of Lea. 

436. Anodonta angulata is of Lea. 

206. Scalaria ?australis [is abundantly confirmed from the Vancouver district. 
It should be called Opalia borealis, Gld.). 

244, Purpura ostrina, Gld., ‘Otia,’ p. 225 [is an aberrant smooth var. of P. 
lapillus, Coop., non Ln.; the normal state being P. saxicola, Val.]. 

The following species, described in the ‘ Otia’ and ‘ E. E. Moll.’ as from ¢ N. 

Zealand ’ and an unknown locality, are really from Puget Sound.. 

Otia, Page. 

56, O45, Trochus pupillus, Gld., March 1849: N. Zealand (Ziziphinus in Index) := 
Margarita calostoma, A. Ad., 1851. Comp. T. modestus, Midd. [which 
is, however,=ligatus, Gld.,=costatus, Mart. This species is named in 
the B. M. Col. “ M. costellata, Sby.,” but is distinct, teste A. Ad. & 
Mus. Cum. ]. 

64, 245. Fusus (-Neptunea) incisus, Gld., May 1849. Hab.?— [= Tritonium 
(Fusus) Sitchense, Midd., 1849,= Buccinum dirum, Rve., 1846.] 


e. 
210. Venus calearea [is correctly described by Dr. G. as from N- Zealand; 
although quoted by him as the Oregon analogue of V. mercenaria]. 

211. Tellina Californica, Conr. [= Macoma inconspicua). 

211. Triton tigrinum [is from Central America, not} Puget Sd. 

211. Pecten Fabricti, Phil. [is the young of Islandicus: Dr. G.’s shells are the 
young of P. (“rubidus, ?var.”) Hindsit']. 

211. Fusus cancellinus. [re G.’s shells are Octnebra, var. aspera. | 

212. Purpura lagena, Gld. [MS., is probably saxicola, var. }. 

213. Pecten Townsendi [has not been identified }. 

213. Venus ampliata [is believed by Dr. G. to have been first designated by him 
as a species, afterwards proved=rigida (Petitii), var. ]. 

44, Middendorff.—The synonymy given in Rep. pp. 214-222 is that of 
the author, not of the writer of the Report, who is by no means prepared to 
accept the learned doctor’s identification of species. The three Chitons quoted 
with doubt from Tilesius have not been confirmed, as from Kamtschatka, by 
any other writer. The Ch. giganteus has the aspect of the large Ischnochiton 
Magdalensis ; the Ch. muricatus belongs to the Lophyrus group, which is not 
known so far north ; and the Ch. setosus has also a 8. American aspect. The 
treatise “‘ De Chitone Giganteo Camtschatico additamentum ad Zoographiam 
Rosso-Asiaticum, auctore Tilesio,”’ was read March 19, 1823, and published 
in 1824. It contains a very valuable and (for that period) remarkable account 
of the anatomy of Chitons, but it does not profess to name and describe species 
in the modern sense. The names, therefore, had better be dropped. Midden- 
dorff’s new species were first described in the ‘ Bulletin de la Classe Physico- 
Mathématique de Académie Impériale des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg,’ a 
work of which few complete copies are known in England, under the follow- 
ing dates. 

April 20, 1847: vol. vi. No. 8 (total number 128), — 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 533 


Column. 

116. Chiton Stelleri, n. s.,= C. amiculatus, Sby., Rve., non Pallas. 

117. Chiton Pallasii, n. s. 

117. Chiton Brandtii, n. s. 

118. Chiton Mertensii, n. 8. [ Ischnechiton]. 

118. Chiton Eschscholtzit, n. s. 

119. Chiton Wosnessenskit, n.s. [A typical Mopala: mantle indented behind. ] 

120. Leg Merchii, n.s. [= Ch. lignosus, Gld., July 1846:= Mopalia Montereyen- 
sis, Cpr. ]. 

120. Chiton hvidus, n. s. 

121. Chiton scrobiculatus, n. s., California. 

121. Chiton Sittchensis, n. 3. 

Noy. 1847 (read April 28): vol. vi. No. 20 (total number 140). 

317. Patella (? Acmea) ancyloides,n.3s. [Probably a delicately grown young patina : 
the diagnosis, however, suits ¢evtilis. Name afterwards altered to per- 
sonoides, to distinguish from Propilidium ancyloide, Fbs.] 

318, Patella (?Acmea) eruginosa, n. 8. [Probably =teztilis, Gld., 1846; but the 
figure is more like seabra, Nutt. | 

318. Patella (? Aemea) pileolus, n. 8. [Probably the young of A. pelta; but assigned 
in Mus. Cum. to a very different shell, =_A. rosacea, Cpr. | 

318. Patella (?Acmea) Asmi,n.s. [A specimen of A. pelta, in Dr. Cooper’s col- 
lection, began life as A. Asma. | 

319. Patella (? Acmea) ceca; genuina, vertice erecto, Atlantic. 

319. Patella (? Acme@a) ceca, var. concentrica; vertice subinflexo; with crowded 
lamellze of growth. 

1849; read Oct. 6, 1848: vol. vii. No. 160. “ Vorlaufige Anzeige einiger neuer 
Konchylien aus den Geschlechtern: Zrtorina, &e., von Dr. A. Th. v. Middendorff.” 
241no.1. Litorina grandis. {The specimens in B, M. and Mus. Cum. appear to 

represent a large var. of L. litorea. | 

242 2. Litorina Kurila (like tenebrosa). 

3. Litorina subtenebrosa. [Probably an extreme var. of L. Sitchana.] 
4, Tritoniwm (Fusus) antiquum, Lu., var. Behringiana. 
243 5. Tritonium (Fusus) Behringit. 
6. Tritonium (Fusus) Baerit. 
7. Tritonium ‘Beas Sitchense [probably = Chr. dirus, Rve., var. ; but stated 
to be “e livido viridescente; columella seepius umbilicata” ]. 
8. Tritonium (Fusus) luridum [= Vitularia aspera, Baird, smooth form]. 

244 9. Tritonium (Buccinum) simplex. 

244 10. Tritoniwm (Buccinum) Ochotense. 

245 11. Tritoniwm (Buccinum) undatum, Linn., var. Schantarica. 

245 12. Tritoniwn acc oordes. 

245 13. Bullia seis the genus Volutharpa of pect. 

246 15. Natica herculea, North California [= LZ. Lewis, Gld., July 1847]. 

246 16. Margarita arctica, Leach, var. major. 


In the text of the 4to volumes, the following corrections are suggested, the 
numbers referring to the page in the B. A. Report which contains the abstract. 


Report, 215. Aemea seutum, D’Orb. [is quite distinct from A. persona, Esch. The 
latter, as figured by Midd., is a very young shell, not certainly be- 
longing to the species]. 

216, Turritella Eschrichtit. |=Bittium filosum, Gld., May 1849. There 
being no month-date to Midd.’s species, the excellent name of Gid., 
which may also be of Phil. 1848, should be retained. ] 

216. Trochus ater and meestus [are well-marked South American species. 
Probably the shells intended are Chlorostoma funebrale, A. Ad., 
and its congeners. | 

216. Trochus euryomphalus | =Phorcus pulligo, Mart., teste Dohrn]. 

216. Trochus modestus, Md. | =filosus, Wd.,= Calliostoma costatum, Martyn]. 

216. Trochus (Turbo) Fokkesi [is from the peninsula of Lower Cal. ]. 

216. Natica flava, Gld. [is entirely different from any of the synonyms 
under it,” teste Gld. ]. 


534 REPORT—1863. 


Report, 216, Scalaria Ochotensis [appears an aberrant Opalia; but is the genus 
Aeirsa of Morch, closely allied to Mesalia, teste A. Ad.}. 

216. Crepidula Sitchana [is figured like the young of grandis; but the 
specimens in Mus. Cum., when compared with the similar stage of 
C. excavata, display no differences either inside, outside, or in the 
nuclear whorls ]. 

216. Crepidula minuta eee the young of C. navicelloides, Nutt. ] 

216. Crepidula grandis [fossil at Sta. Barbara,=C. princeps, Conr. Can 
hardly be distinguished from very fine specimens of C. fornicata, 
sent from Halifax, Nova Scotia, by Mr. Willes]. 

217. Trichotropis cancellata, Has. {is quite distinct from 7. borealis). 

217. Purpura decemcostata, Midd. { =P. canaliculata, Ducl. Var. =P. at- 
tenuata, Rve. Var.=P. analoga, Fbs. } 

217. Tritonium (Trophon) clathratum, Ln. [is distinct from the shouldered 
M. multicostatus, Esch.,= Gunneri, Loy. }. 

217. Tritonium (Fusus) decemcostatum [= Chr. Middendorfii, Cooper= 
Chr. liratus, Martyn. | 

218. Tritonium (Buccinum) cancellatum [Midd., non) Lam. [=Priene 
Oregonensis, Redf. P. cancellata is the Cape Horn species. Some 
specimens in alcohol in Sir E. Belcher’s collection, however, said 
to be from Icy Cape, greatly resemble the southern wor 

218. Tritoniwm (Pollia) scabrum [is exclusively a 8. American shell. Dr. 
M.’s shell may have been Ocinebra, var. aspera]. 

218. Pecten rubidus, Hds. [non Martyn, =P. Islandicus, Mill. Midd.’s pl. 13. 
f. 1-8 are marked in expl. of plates “ Islandicus, var. Behringiana ;” 
they are probably (“rubidus, ?var.”) Hindsii. But the figs. 4-6 
are certainly the young of Hinnites giganteus |. 

219. Venerupis gigantea. {Decorticated specimens of Saridomus squaldus. 

219. Petricola gibba. {Elongated form of cylindracea, Desh., = carditoides,vay. 

219. Machera costata. [The figures represent M. patula, Dixon. ] 

220. Cingula minuta |“ is quite distinct from Hydrobia ulve,” teste Gld.]. 

220. Velutina eryptospira. [Probably a Lamellaria. ] 

220. Purpura Freycinettii, Desh. [is quite distinct from attenuata, Rve. It 
is doubtful whether Midd.’s shells belong to Desh.’s species]. 

221. Terebratula frontalis, Midd. 1851, named in 1849, [may be the young 
of Waldheimia Coreanica, Ad. & Rve., 1850,= Terebratella miniata, 
Gld., 1860, teste A. Ad., Rve.}. 

221. Astarte lactea, Gld. [is distinct from A. Scotica, teste Gld.]. 

221. Tellina fusca, Say [is distinct from 7. solidula, though it may= T. bal- 
thica ; teste Gld. Macoma inconspicua, Br. & Sby., is distinct from 
both]. 

222. Lyoni hyalina [is distinct from L. Norvegica]. 

222. Machera costata, Say. [Dr. Gould does not believe that any of Midd.’s 
synonyms belong to this species. Solen medius, in Br. Mus., appears 
=S. ambiguus, Lam., as figured by Swains. It is not a Machera.] 

45. Samarang.—Litorina castanea, Ad. & Rve., 1850. “Eastern Seas,” 
p. 49, pl. 11. f. 8 [appears identical with Z. Sttchana, Phil.]. 

46. E. B. Philippi.—Columbella teniata, Phil., 1846 [is probably identical 
with Anachis Gaskoinei, Cpr. But C. teniata, Ad. & Rve., 1850, is perhaps 
a Nitidella}. 

47. The “ Mexican War Naturalisis.”—These were Major Rich and Lieut. 
Green. Col. E. Jewett was not connected with the war, as would be supposed 
from the introduction to Dr. Gould’s pamphlet. The following corrections 
apply to the new species tabulated in Rep., pp. 226-228. The species of Gould 
bear date April 1852 (teste Otia, p. 184) and Noy. 1851 (Otia, p. 210); the 
others, July 1856. 


No. 
3. Corbula polychroma [ = C. biradiata, vav.]. 
7. Tellina tersa [= Macoma nasuta, jun. Cal., not Pan. }. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 5385 


. Tellina pura [=M. Mazatlanica, jun. Desh., Mus. Cum. ]. 

11. Donax flexuosus [ =D, Lamarcki, Desh., in B. M.]. 

13. Gnathodon mendicus [= G. trigonum, Pet., May 1853]. 

15. Raéta undulata [is distinct from Harvella elegans}. 

20. Cardium luteolabrum [= C. quadragenarium, Cony. |. 

21. Cardium cruentatum | =Liocardium substriatum, Cony. }. 

27. Modiola nitens [ =M. subpurpureus, Mus. Cum., and is not from Cal. }. 

28, Adula faleata. [The locality of Mr. Cuming’s specimens has not been con- 
firmed. For “species,” in note, read “specimens.” | 

31. Lima tetrica. [The specimens from the Mediterranean, W. Indies, Gulf Cal., 
and Pacific Islands were all named LZ. sqguamosa by Mr. Cuming. | 

33. Bulimus vesicalis (nem. preoc.) = B. suffiatus, ‘ Otia,’ p. 184. 

40. Nacellapaleacea. {Col. Jewett’s specimens appear distinct from WV. depicta, Hds. | 

41. Trochus marcidus. [This shell was called Omphalius Pfeifferi by Mr. Cuming, 
from the resemblance of the figure, in which the umbilicus appears keeled ; 
but the shell marked ‘type,’ answering to the diagnusis, along with ‘ Chloro- 
stoma’ maculosum, A. Ad., are scarcely varieties of Phorcus pulligo, Martyn. 
The finest series is in the B. M. 

43, Livona picoides [has been heard of, but not seen since the explorations of Col. J. 
Dr. Gld. still considers the species distinct: among the very dissimilar varieties 
from the W. Indies (vide suite in B. M.) it would probably not have been 
singled out as a species, but for the theory of the author]. 

45. Crucibulum Jewettii [should be corrugatum, P. Z. S.]. 

47. Modulus dorsuosus. (Col. J. now thinks that the supposed Acapulco specimens 
are W. Indian, =/enticularis, Chem. When dead, the forms from the two 
oceans can hardly be distinguished ; but the aspect of his shells is Caribbzean. ] 

54. Conus ravus [=C. Californicus, Has. }. 

56. Conus pusillus, Gld. [non Chem. =nwzx, small var., teste Cuming]. 

57. Obeliscus achates [ =O. clavulus, A. Ad., 1854]. 

65. Columbella Sta.-Barbarensis [so named to correct the statement that California 
was above the limit of the genus, proves to be a Mexican shell, and was 
probably obtained at Acapulco. Having been redescribed by Reeve from 
perfect specimens, it may stand as C. Reever’. 

66. Mitrdella Gouldii. eS ot to be confounded with Col. Gouldiana, Agass., which 
is probably Amycela. | 

67. Fusus ambustus [is a Californian species. The type stands in Mus. Cum. as 

F. fragosus, Rve., but does not answer to the diagnosis. The typical fragosus 

is marked fragosus, var. F. ambustus appears absolutely identical with F. 

clavatus, Brocchi, Mediterranean, Some of the diagnostic marks are not con- 

stant in the specimens ]. 


Col. Jewett went to Panama, as a private collector, in January 1849, 
spending ten weeks in that region, including Taboga. This was two years 
before Prof. Adams’s explorations. Thence he sailed to San Francisco, 
where he spent four months in exploring the shore for about 50 miles 
from the head of the bay. After labouring for a week at Monterey, he 
spent ten weeks at Sta. Barbara and the neighbourhood, thoroughly exploring 
the coast for fifteen miles as far as Sta. Bonadventura. It was here, at the 
“ Rincon,” after a violent southern storm, that he obtained the specimens of 
Livona picoides, as well as many other rare species that have not been obtained 
by any other explorer. ‘The storm tore up the kelp to such a degree that 
it formed a bank for many miles on the beach, from 10 to 20 feet broad, and 
at least 4 feet deep. Many of the plants were more than 60 feet long and 5 
inches in diameter, having the appearance of vast cables.” Before his return 
to the east, he also collected at Mazatlan (where he obtained some species 
not included in the B. M. Catalogue) and at Acapulco. There can be no 
doubt of the accuracy of the Colonel’s observations at the time they were 
made. Unsurpassed in America as a field-paleontologist, possessed of accurate 


536 REPORT— 1863. 


discrimination, abundant carefulness, and unwearied diligence and patience, 
no one was better fitted to collect materials for a scientific survey of the coast. 
But, unfortunately for his (as for the Nuttallian) shells,he did not describe them 
at the time himself. They were subjected to all the derangements caused by 
frequent changes of residence, and transmission to various naturalists for 
identification. As we know what errors creep into the collections of the 
most learned under such circumstances, it is not surprising that they should 
now have lost much of their geographical value. After several days spent 
in a very searching elimination of the west-coast shells from his general col- 
lection, I was driven to the conclusion that several labels had become mis- 
placed. This was so clearly the case as to certain N. England and W. Indian 
species interchanged with Pacific specimens, that it might also affect. (e. g.) 
Sta. Barbara and Panama specimens as compared with cach other. The kelp 
driven up by the great storm may have travelled from remote localities; which 
will account for tropical shells having been found at Sta. Barbara, as W. 
Indians cecasionally are even on our own shores. It is possible also, as the 
Californian seas have as yet been but little dredged, that deep-water species 
live there which as yet are known only in the tropical province. Already 
some Gulf species have been thus obtained at San Diego and Catalina Island 
by Dr. Cooper, just as Mr. M‘Andrew dredged Mediterranean species on the 
coast of Norway. But facts of such importance should rest on better evidence 
than chance shells picked on a beach, and subjected to dangers of altered 
labels afterwards. What was regarded by Dr. Gould as of authority is eata- 
logued, according to his determinations of species, on pp. 226-281 of the first 
Report. The following is a list of the species which I found in the collection®, 
divided simply into the temperate and the tropical faunas. 


Species of the Temperate Fauna, collected by Col. Jewett t. 


Pholadidea penita, ovoidea. Tapes staminea, tenerrima”*. 

Saxicava pholadis. Saxidomus squalidus, 

Schizotheirus Nuttallii. Petricola carditoides. 

Cryptomya Californica. Rupellaria lamellifera. 

Lyonsia Californica. Lazaria subquadrata *t. 

Solen ?sicarius, var. rosaceus *f. Chama pellucida. 

Macheera patula. Lucina Californica. 

Solecurtus Californianus, subteres. Diplodonta orbella. 

Macoma nasuta, secta. Mytilus Californianus, edulis. 

Lutricola alta. Modiola modiolus, recta, fornicata*t. 
Semele decisa, rubrolineata. Leda celata. 

Donax Californicus, flexuosus*. Pecten hastatus, latiauritus, (Pventrico- 
Standeila PCalifornica, sus, var.) zquisulcatus*}, squarro- 
Trigona crassatelloides. sus*}, paucicostatus *t, 

Psephis tantilla*. Amusium caurinum, jun. 

Amiantis callosa. Hinnites giganteus. 


Chione succincta, fluctifraga, simillima, | Bulla nebulosa. 


* This collection belongs to his daughter, Mrs. Boyce, of Utica, N.Y. The Colonel’s 
invaluable collection of U. 8. Paleozoic fossils (probably the largest made by any indiyi- 
dual’s own hand) may be consulted at the State Museum in Albany, and will probably 
find its ultimate destination at one of the principal colleges. A large number of the 
fossils described by Prof. Hall were from this collection, though often without acknow- 
ledgment. Only a small proportion of the types of the celebrated ‘ Paleontology’ are 
to be found in the State Collection, which was subjected to disastrous and very extensive 
curtailment before Col. J. entered on his present duties as curator, 

* These species and marked varieties were first found by Col. J. 

+ Of these forms, either not seen or not distinguished by Dr. Gould, the diagnoses are 
written, and will probably be found in one of the scientific periodicals for 1864. 

{~ Unless otherwise stated in the list, Report, pp. 228-281, it may be presumed that 
these species were from the neighbourhood of Sta. Barbara. ’ 


OO et 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE QVEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 


Tornatina cerealis*, culcitella*. 

Cylichna (?cylindracea, var.) attonsa *f. 

Volvula cylindrica *f. 

Cryptochiton Stelleri. 

Mopalia muscosa. 

Nacella incessa, paleacea *. 

Acma patina, pelta, persona, scabra, 
spectrum, Asmi, 

Scurria mitra. P 

Fissurella volcano. 

Glyphis densiclathrata. 

Halhiotis Cracherodii, rufescens, splendens. 

Phasianella(?compta,vars. )punctulata*t, 
pulloides*}, elatior *f. 

Pomaulax undosus. 

Trochiscus Norrisii, convexus*f. 

Calliostoma canaliculatum, costatum. 

Liyona picoides *. 

Homalopoma sanguineum. 

Chlorostoma Finctaale, Pfeifferi. 

Crucibulum spinosum. 

Crepidula adunca, dorsata, rugosa. 

Hipponyx tumens *f. 

Serpulorbis squamigerus. 

Bittium esuriens*t, fastigiatum *f. 

Cerithidea sacrata. 

Litorina planaxis, scutellata. 

Amphithalamus inclusus *t. 

Lacuna unifasciata *. 

Radius variabilis. 

Luponia spadicea: Trivia Californica. 

Erato columbella, vitellina. 


537 


Drillia nermis, meesta*T. 

Daphnella filosa *t. 

Mangelia variegata *t, angulata *T. 

Myurella simplex *f. 

Conus Californicus. 

Odostomia gravida*, inflata*t. 

Chemnitzia tenuicula *, torquata* (et 
Pyar. stylina *}), virgo *t, aurantia *t, 
crebrifilata *f, tridentata *}. 

Dunkeria laininata *f, 

Eulima Thersites *f. 

Opalia bullata *f. 

Lunatia Lewisii. 

Cerithiopsis ? tuberculata, 

purpurea *f, 

Marginella Jewettii*, Ppolita, regula- 
ris *f, subtrigona *. 

(Volvarina varia, serrata; perhaps im- 

orted, or label changed.) 

Olivella biplicata, beetica + [=petiolita, 
Gld.,+-anazora, Gld., MS. (non Ducl.) 
=rufifasciata, teste Cum., by error]. 

Purpura crispata, saxicola. 

Nitidella Gouldii *. 

Ocinebra Poulsoni. 

Pteronotus festivus. 

Columbella carinata, Hindsii. 

Amycla ?Californiana, gausapata, tube- 
rosa *f. 

Nassa perpinguis, mendica. 

?Anachis penicillata *f. 

Siphonalia fuscotincta *f. 


fortior *, 


Species of the Tropical Fauna, collected by Col. Jewett *. 


Pholas crucigera [ =lanceolata |]. 

Dactylina laqueata. 

Corbula bicarinata, biradiata, nasuta, 
tenuis, ovulata §, nuciformis §. 

Sanguinolaria miniata *§. 

Psammobia casta. 

Tellina felix, puella*, punicea, “ru- 
bella.” 

Heterodonax bimaculatus et vars. §. 

Strigilla carnaria (white and red vars.)§ 
pisiformis§, sincera. 

Semele pulchra §, venusta §. 

Iphigenia altior. 

Donax transyersus, navicula, gracilis, 
carinatus, rostratus §, punctatostria- 
tus §, v. ceelatus §, assimilis. 

Mulinia angulata. 

Harvella elegans. 

Trigona planulata ||, Hindsii §. 

Dosinia Dunkeri. 


Callista aurantia, chionza, circinata §, 
tortuosa, lupinaria||, rosea||, v. puellas. 

Chione amathusia, sugillata, neglecta. 

Anomalocardia subimbricata, subrugosa. 

Tapes grata,+-vars. discors, fuscolineata. 

Petricola pholadiformis, var. 

Crassatella gibbosa. 

Venericardia laticostata, radiata. 

Lazaria affinis. 

Chama frondosa, spinosa. 

Cardium consors §, senticosum, procc- 
rum, obovale. 

Hemicardium biangulatum §, eraniferum. 

Liocardium apicinum §. 

Codakia tigerrina ||]. 

Lucina eburnea §, excavata §, pectinata. 

Felaztia tellinoides §, var. 

Modiola Brasiliensis, capax. 

Lithophagus aristatus, 

Area grandis, tuberculosa, 


2 Unless otherwise specified, either by §, ||, or locality-marks in Rep. pp. 228-231, 
these species may be presumed to have come from the Panama district. 
§ These species were probably from Acapulco. 


|| Probably from Mazatlan. 


§| Another specimen, 3°78-in. across, is marked “Sta. Barbara” on the shell. 


538 


Scapharca bifrons *, emarginata, labiata, 
nux, 

Noétia reversa. 

Byssoarca Pacifica, mutabilis. 

Barbatia alternata, aviculoides, gradata, 
illota, solida, 

Pectunculus inzqualis, maculatus, par- 
cipictus §, Ppectinoides §, 

Leda Elenensis, polita. 

Pinna maura, tuberculosa. 

Avicula sterna. 

Bryophila setosa *, 

Isognomon Chemnitzianum. 

Pecten ventricosus, subnodosus §. 

Lima angulata §. 

Spondylus calcifer. 

Ostrea palmula, 

Anomia lampe. 

Bulla Adamsi, Quoyi §. 

Siphonaria gigas, lecanium§ et vars. 
maura, ‘paar §. 

Patella Mexicana. 

Acmzea mesoleuca, mitella, vernicosa. 

Fissurella rugosa, nigropunctata, Pma- 
crotrema §. 

Glyphis ineequalis, alta. 

Phasianella perforata. 

Callopoma saxosum. 

Senectus squamigerus §. 

Uvanilla inermis. 

Calliostoma lima, Leanum §. 

Tegula pellis-serpentis. 

Omphalius Panamensis, coronulatus *, 
ligulatus ||, viridulus. 

Nerita Bernhardi, scabricosta. 

Neritina picta, Guayaquilensis, interme- 
dia [“ =globosa, Brod.” |. 

Crucibulum imbricatum, spinosum, um- 
brella, radiatum, pectinatum *, corru- 
gatum *, 

Galerus conicus, mamillaris. 

Crepidula aculeata §, excayvata, incurva. 

Hipponyx barbatus, Grayanus. 

Aletes centiquadrus. 

Vermetus eburneus. 

Bivonia contorta, albida. 

Petaloconchus macrophragma. 

Turritella goniostoma. 

Cerithium maculosum, uncinatum, me- 
dioleve, interruptum, alboliratum. 

Rhinoclayvis gemmata. 

Cerithidea Montagnei, varicosa. 

Litorina aspera, conspersa, Philippii. 

Modulus catenulatus, ?disculus. 

Rissoina firmata*, fortis*, expansa *+||, 
stricta §, Janus *, Woodwardii ||. 

Planaxis nigritella, planicostata, 

Radius avena §, similis. 

Carinea emarginata, jun. 

Aricia punctulata. 

Trivia pustulata, pulla, Pacifica§. 


REPORT—1863. 


Erato scabriuscula §, Maugerie. 
Strombus galeatus, gracilior, granulatus. 
Terebra robusta. 

Euryta fulgurata, aciculata §. 

Pleurotoma funiculata. 

Drillia albovallosa, aterrima, Pexarata §, 
incrassata, nigerrima, rudis, hexagona, 
Peracillima, var. 

Mangelia subdiaphana §, 
cerea *}, Ppulchella. 

Cithara stromboides§ [? =triticea, Kien. ]. 

Daphnella casta §. 

Conus gladiator, mahogani, nux, purpu- 
rascens, regularis. 

Solarium granulatum. 

Torinia variegata. 

Obeliscus achates *||. 

Chemnitzia celata *f. 

Scalaria Hindsii *. 

Alora Gouldii *. 

Cancellaria bulbulus, clavatula, decus- 
sata, goniostoma, tessellata, mitrifor- 
mis. 

Natica maroccana et vars., Souleyetiana, 
zonaria §, catenata §. 

Polinices otis, uber. 

Neverita patula §. 

Ficula ventricosa. 


hamata *+, 


-Malea ringens. 


Bezoardica abbreviata. 

Levenia coarctata. 

Persona ridens [? =] constrictus. 

Triton lignarius, tigrinus, ? pileare, jun. 

Priene nodosa, 

Ranella celata, nitida, triquetra, pyra- 
midalis [like anceps and producta, 
Rve. |. 

Fasciolaria granosa, tulipa, jun. [? im- 
ported]. 

Latirus castaneus, ceratus, rudis, tuber- 
culatus. 

Leucozonia cingulata. 

Mitra lens, funiculata, nucleola, 

Strigatella tristis. 

Lyria harpa. 

Marginella czrulescens, polita (?$). 

Persicula imbricata §. 

Volvarina triticea §, varia§, serrata$, fus- 
ca § [some of these are assigned to Sta. 
Barbara. West Indian specimens may 
have been intermixed: vide Cape St. 
Lucas list, enfra). 

Oliva angulata, porphyria. 

Olivella anazora, gracilis §, inconspicua, 
semistriata, tergina, volutella, zonalis, 
Zanoéti. 

Agaronia testacea. 

Harpa crenata. 

Purpura biserialis, melo, patula, triangu- 
laris, triserialis. 

Cuma tecta, kiosquiformis. 


Oe 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST 


Rhizocheilus nux. 

Vitularia salebrosa. 

Ocinebra erinaceoides. 

Monoceros brevidentatum. 

Sistrum carbonarium §. 

Nitidella cribraria. 

Columbella festiva, fuscata, labiosa, 
major, Reevei *§, uncinata §, ? mille- 
punctata, var.§ 

Conella coniformis. 

Truncaria modesta. 

Nassa collaria*, corpulenta, crebristri- 
ata, luteostoma, pagodus, scabrius- 
cula, tegula, versicolor, complanata, 
Stimpsoniana *, nodicincta. 

Phos gaudens. 


COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 539 

Pyrula patula. 

Engina Reeviana, crocostoma. 

Anachis Californica *§, coronata, costel- 
lata, fluctuata, lyrata, nigricans, parva, 
pygmea, diminuta *, rugosa, varia. 

Strombina bicanalifera, gibberula, re- 
curva. 

Pisania gemmata, insignis, pagodus, 
ringens, sanguinolenta, 

Northia pristis. 

Clayella distorta. 

Murex recurvirostris, [P=] nigrescens 
(Cum.). 

Muricidea alveata§, dubia, vibex, “pin- 
niger, Brod.” 


This list, of about 133 species from the northern and 328 from the 


southern fauna (nearly twice as large as that sent by Dr. Gould and printed 
in the first Report, and yet not containing several species there quoted), is an 
instructive instance of what may be accomplished in about three-quarters of 
a year, simply by picking up shore-shells. It contains about 48 species in 
the northern and 22 in the southern faunas not previously described. 
Besides the recent shells, Col. Jewett brought home a very interesting 
series of Pliocene fossils from the neighbourhood of Sta. Barbara. Almost all 
of them are species known to inhabit neighbouring seas, and are chiefly 
northern forms. Of some no recent specimens have yet been found in such 
perfect condition. The following is a list of the species, which is of the more 
value as they have not been intermixed with those of any other locality, and 
the spot does not seem to have been discovered by any succeeding geological 


explorer. 


Schizotheirus Nuttallii. 
Mactra planulata. 
Chione succincta *. 
Pachydesma crassatelloides. 
Psephis tantilla, Psalmonea. 
Rupellaria lamellifera. 
Cardium graniferum *, 
Venericardia v. ventricosa fF. 
Lucina Californica. 
Pecten floridus *. 
Hinnites giganteus. 
Planorbis, sp. 
Calliostoma costatum. 
Margarita pupilla f. 
Omphalius aureotinctus. 
Galerus fastigiatus f. 
Crepidula grandis + [Midd.,=pyinceps, 
Conr., 3°5 inches long]. 
Crepidula adunca. 

- nayicelloides. 
Turritella Jewettii, n. s. 
Bittium rugatum, n.s. . 

»  armillatum, n. s. 
»  filosum ft. 
Lacuna solidula ft. 


* These species are of a southern type. 


It was two miles from the coast, and 150 feet high. 


Chrysallida, sp.* 
Opalia (?crenatoides, var.) insculpta *, 
n. 8. 
Lunatia Lewisii. 
Natica clausa ft. 
Priene Oregonensis f. 
Olivella biplicata. 
Columbella carinata. 
Amycla gausapata. 
»  tuberosa, n. g. 
?Truncaria corrugata. 
Nassa fossata. 
Pe mendica. 
ura crispata. 
Odnabra Tur das 
Trophon tenuisculptus}, Pn. s. [may 
prove identical with 7. fimbriatula, 
A. Ad., Japan]. 
Trophon Orpheus f. 
Fusus ambustus. 
Pisania fortis *, n. s.. 
Chrysodomus carinatus+, Brit. Mus. 
[probably =despectus, var. ]. 
Chrysodomus tabulatus, jun. +, n. s. 
a dirus f. 


t These forms rank with the northern series. The rest belong to the present Californian 


fauna. 


5-0 ~ REPORT—1 863. 


The following fossils were also col- | Tellina congesta, Conr. Monterey. 


lected by Col. Jewett :— Scalaria: can scarcely be distinguished 
Purpura crispata | San F rancisco, 160 ft. from planicostata, Kien., in Brit. Mus. 
»  ostrina above the Bay. (?= Grelandica) : Panama, 


The collections of Major Rich, having been tabulated by Dr. Gould simply 
as from Upper or Lower California, I had expected to find of but little geo- 
graphical value. They proved, however, to be of peculiar interest. Major 
Rich had been-one of the naturalists in the U. 8. Expl. Exp., and his warlike 
occupations did not prevent his remaining long enough at particular stations 
to pay close attention to the Molluscs. His forte lay in procuring shells in 
the best possible condition; and a study of them was very serviceable in 
explaining the dead shore-shells usually obtained from other sources. For- 
tunately, he was quite aware of the importance of geographical accuracy, and 
arranged those obtained at different places in separate drawers. The “ Upper 
Californian ” collections were made at Monterey, San Francisco, San Diego, 
and San Pedro; the ‘“ Lower Californian,” in the Gulf, principally at La 
Paz, partly at San Jose and Mazatlan. At the latter place he met M. 
Reigen, who had filled his house with decomposing molluscs to such an ex- 
tent as to induce the neighbours to have recourse to the police. From him he 
obtained many species not in the Brit. Mus. Cat., and probably sent to Europe 
in the Havre collection. Major Rich’s beautiful series may be consulted at 
his residence, opposite the British Legation, Washington, D.C.; and are 
designed ultimately for one of the public museums in the neighbourhood. 
The following is a list of the species :— 


Shells collected by Major Rich, from the Californian Fauna. 


Pholadidea ovoidea '?. Tapes staminea et vars.1*4, lacini- 
Parapholas Californica'. (The youngis|_ ata'*. 
very acuminate, with imbricated cups, | Petricola carditoides '. 
as in P. calva.) Rupellaria lamellifera '. 
Netastoma Darwinii '. Chama Buddiana ‘+. 
Saxicava pholadis '%. Cardium Nuttalli +, 
Platyodon cancellatus *. Lucina Californica 1. 
Schizotheirus Nuttalli+. Diplodonta orbella +. 
Cryptomya Californica’. Kellia Laperousii 1. 
Thracia curta *. Mytilus Californianus’, edulis’, v. glome- 
Lyonsia Californica '. ratus *+, 
Mytilimeria Nuttalli', (Very fine, with | Septifer bifurcatus1*, 
ossicle. ) Modiola modiolus 1. 
Solen sicarius *. Lithophagus attenuatus 1. 
Macheera patula ‘. Adula falcata 1*, 
Solecurtus Californianus °. Pecten v. eequisulcatus *, monotimeris *. 
Sanguinolaria Nuttalli *. Hinnites giganteus’. 
Psammobia rubroradiata }. Placunanomia macroschisma |. 
Macoma nasuta ', secta 1+, Bulla nebulosa #4. 
Scrobicularia alta *. Katherina tunicata 
Semele decisa +. Mopalia muscosa !, Hindsii?. 
’ Cumingia Californica }. Nacella incessa ”. 
Donax Californicus +. Acmza persona ”, pelta *, spectrum?, sca- 
Mactra Californica +. bra’, et var. limatula }?. 
Pachydesma crassatelloides ! +. Lottia gigantea ?, 
Amiantis callosa *. Scurria mitra’, 
Chione succincta *. Fissurella ornata * 2, 


' Monterey. Fresh specimens of seven species from the southern fauna were also 
obtained at Monterey, probably from commerce. 

? San Diego. 3 San Francisco. * Near San Pedro. 

* These species were first found by Major Rich. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 


_Glyphis densiclathrata *. 

Lucapina crenulata ' (one spec. Catalina 
Is. ). 

Haliotis rufescens ' +, 
Kamtschatkana | +, 

Pomaulax undosus +. 

Trochiscus Norrisii? (and Catalina Is.). 

Calliostoma canaliculatum'!, annula- 
tum, costatum '. 

Omphalius fuscescens *. 

Chlorostoma funebrale', brunneum !, 
Pfeifferi |. 

Crucibulum spinosum *, 


Shells collected by Major Rich, near La 


(Thracia) Cyathodonta plicata. 

Sanguinolaria miniata. 

Tellina Cumingii. 

Strigilla carnaria. 

Heterodonax bimaculatus. 

Iphigenia altior. 

Donax navicula, punctato-str., rostratus. 

Standella fragilis (common). 

Mulinia angulata. 

Trigona argentina, radiata, planulata. 

Dosinia ponderosa. 

Callista concinna, chionxa. 

Chione succincta, amathusia, gnidia, 
pulicaria, var. 

Anomalocardia subimbricata. 

Tapes grata, histrionica. 

Lazaria Californica. 


Cracherodii ! 4, 


Chama spinosa, producta, corrugata. 
Cardium consors, biangulatum. 
Liocardium elatum. 

Codakia tigerrina (two fine specimens). 
Cyrena olivacea, Mexicana. 
Anodonta glauca. 

Mytilus multiformis. 

Modiola capax. 

Area multicostata. 

Barbatia Reeviana, solida. 
Pectunculus giganteus. 

Pinna rugosa. 


Margaritophora fimbriata. 

Isoonomon Chemnitzianum. 

Pecten ventricosus, subnodosus. 

Lima tetrica *. 

Janira dentata. 

Ostrea amara (Maz. Cat. 215. Is. Cres- 
tona, entrance of Gulf), Virginica 
(more pearly than the Atlantic shells, 
teste Rich). 

Anomia lampe. 

Bulimus sufflatus *, excelsus *, pallidior, 

Physa elata *, aurantia. 

Patella Mexicana. 

Acmza atrata, mesoleuca. 

Fissurella rugosa, virescens. 

Glyphis alta, inzequalis. 


541 


Crepidula rugosa *, adunca?, explanata *. 
Hipponyx Pantiquatus*, ?tumens '. 
Serpulorbis squamigerus ?. 
Spiroglyphus lituella ? *. 

Litorina planaxis }, 

Trivia Californica +. 

Conus Californicus +. 

Ranella Californica +. 

Otivella biplicata !, beetica 1. 

Purpura, vars. ostrina1, emarginata!. 
Cerostoma Nuttallit. : 
Nassa mendica ', perpingius !, fossata', 
Helix, three sp. 


Paz (west shore of the Gulf of Cal.), 


Haliotis splendens (three fresh specimens 
from a resident at San Jose). 

Callopoma fluctuosum. 

Uvanilla olivacea. 

Omphalius rugosus, coronulatus. 

Nerita scabricosta, Bernhardi. 

Neritina picta. 

Crucibulum spinosum, imbricatum, pec- 
tinatum, wmbrella. 

Galerus mamillaris, conicus. 

Crepidula aculeata, onyx, nivea, ungui- 
formis, arenata. 

Hipponyx Grayanus, 
quatus, 

Aletes centiquadrus. 

Spiroglyphus lituella (on Cr. wmbrella). 

Turritella goniostoma, tigrina. 

Cerithium maculosum,stercus muscarum. 

Cerithidea Montagnei. 

Litorina fasciata, conspersa. 

Modulus catenulatus, disculus. 

Cypreea exanthema. 

Aricia arabicula. 

Luponia Sowerbii, albuginosa. 

Trivia sanguinea, radians, Solandri, pus- 
tulata, Pacifica. 

Strombus granulatus, gracilior. 

Euryta fulgurata. 

Pleurotoma funiculata, maculosa. 

Drillia Pinermis. 

Conus puncticulatus, gladiator, purpu- 
rascens, regularis, arcuatus, nux. 

Solarium granulatum, v. quadriceps. 

Cancellaria obesa, cassidiformis, solida, 
goniostoma, Pcandida. 

Natica maroccana, zonaria. 

Polinices Recluziana, bifasciata, otis. 

Neverita patula. 

Sigaretus debilis. 

Oniscia tuberculosa. 

Levenia coarctata. 

Bezoardica abbreviata. 

Priene nodosa. 

Turbinella ceestus. 

Fasciolaria princeps. 


serratus, anti- 


542 REPORT—1863. 


Leucozonia cingulata. Nassa luteostoma, scabriuscula, corpu- 
Mitra lens. lenta. 
Oliva porphyria, Melchersi, Cumingii, Pyrula patula. 
subangulata. | Fusus Dupetithouarsii. 
Olivella tergina, gracilis, volutella (seve- | Siphonalia pallida. 
ral taken alive). Strombina (? new, deep water, San 
Agaronia testacea. | Jose). 
Purpura patula, biserialis, triangularis, Pisania sanguinolenta, insignis. 
muricata, planospira f. | Murex plicatus, recurvirostris. 
Nitidella cribraria. Phyllonotus nigritus, brassica, princeps, 
Columbella fuscata, var. bicolor. 
Conella cedo-nulli. Muricidea dubia. 


Lieut. Green having been obliged to pack up his collection and leave home 
on professional duty, I was not able to make any critical examination of it, 
Capt. Dupont also, of Delaware, was one of the “‘ Mexican-war naturalists,’ 
and made a large collection of La Paz shells during his campaign ; but I had 
no opportunity of seeing them. 

Dr. Gould notes the following corrections in Lieut. Green’s list, pp. 231- 


234 :— 

Semele flavicans should be flavescens. | Donax abruptus should he obesus, 

50. Kellett and Wood.—The locality-marks, on further study, display still 
greater inaccuracies. 

Nassa Woodwardii, Fbs., Sandwich Islands [is the adolescent state of a very abun- 
dant Vancouver and Californian shell,=N. mendica, Gld.}. 

Nassa Cooperi, Fbs., Sandwich Islands. [The type is immature and in poor con- 
dition; but it is a rare Californian species, since found by Dr. Cooper) 

Trochita spirata [has not been confirmed from Gulf Cal., but appears in Brit. Mus. 
from St. Vincent, Cape Verd Is., on the excellent authority of Macgillivray, who 
did not visit the West Coast. The Cumingian specimens were from K. and W.; 
but the “ spirata, var.,” from Magellan and Peru, are simply turrited forms of 7. 
radians |. 

ee ae aureotincta [=C. nigerrima (Gmel.), Mus. Cum. ; but it is unlikely 
that Gmelin knew the species. It is not quoted by Desh. (Lam. ix. 157): but 
the Trochus in fauce nigerrimus, Chemn. f. 1526, = 7. melanostomus, Gmel., is a 
Risella. 

Margarit purpurata et Hillii [are South American shells}. 

Purpura anadloga [is the rough irregular form of P. canaliculata=decemeostata]. 

»  fuscata, Fbs. [of which one brown and one whitish specimen (immature) 
are preserved in the Brit. Mus. as types, is the large, smooth, rather elevated var. 
of saaicola. It belongs to the Vancouver district. 

Purpura, like decem-costatus and Freycinetii [is the normal state of saxicola, The 
banded smooth var. is named in Brit. Mus. “? Bue. striatum, Martyn, Un. 
Conch. no. 7,” but does not agree with the figure]. 

Fusus Kellettit. [This Stphonalia, after long remaining unique in the Brit. Mus. 
Col., has been twice confirmed from the San Diegan district by the Smithsonian 
collectors. Dr. Cooper’s living specimen is 6:25 in. long; and one specimen 
was dredged by A. Ad. in the seas of South Japan. | 
51. Reigen.—The type collection, presented to the Brit. Mus., contains 

about 8900 specimens. The first duplicate series, containing about 6000 

shells, was presented to the State of New York at the urgent request of 

Dr. Newcomb (well known for his researches in Achatinella, made during his 

professional residence in the Sandwich Islands), and is arranged in the Albany 

Museum. Three other typical series were prepared for the Museums of 

Paris, Berlin, and St. Petersburg, and offered on the same terms, viz. that 

they should be arranged by the author, and preserved intact for the free use 
{ Dead shells at La Paz; two fresh specimens in deep water from San Jose; ditto, 

Lieut. Green. 


ee ama ee 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 543 


of students; but the donations were severally declined by the respective 
governments. They have since been offered to the Museums of Harvard 
University, Cambridge, Mass.; M‘Gill University, Montreal, C. E.; and the 
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.; and accepted on the same con- 
ditions*. The writer of the Brit. Mus, Catalogue spared no pains in his 
endeavours to verify the previously described species of Prof. C, B. Adams; 
yet a subsequent comparison of types has developed very unexpected coinci- 
dences. Those who will take the trouble to compare the two diagnoses in the 
synonyms now given will add one to the many proofs of the uncertainty of 
the senses in observation, and the inaccuracy of language in description. The 
following corrections and additions should be made to the list in the British 
Association Report, pp. 243-264, 


18. Parapholas acuminata is united to P. calva by Tryon, Mon. Phol. 

23. The specimens obtained from Madagascar by Sir E. Belcher in the Voy. Sa- 
marang appear absolutely identical. 

24, Petricola robusta. The West Indian form of this species is the Choristodon 
typicum of Jonas; Mus. Cum. 

35. Sphenia fragilis is perhaps S. luticola, Val. 

38. Solecurtus politus ?=S. Carpenteri, Dix. 

40. Should be Semele flavescens, Gld. 

41. Semele ?venusta should be S. bicolor, C. B. Ad. Panama. C. 8S. Lucas. 

46. Should be Sanguinolaria miniata, Gld., as in first Report. 

48. Should be Tellina purpurea, Brod. & Sby., teste type in Mus. Hanl. 

49. =T. pura, Gld., nom. prior. 

54. Quite distinct from Tellina alternata, Say. 

56, Tellina Peburnea proves to be the type of a new generic form, probably 
belonging to Kelliade, viz. Cycladella papyracea. A perfect specimen, since 
found, is in Mr. Hanley’s collection. 

65. Tellidora Burneti is not L. cristata: v. anted, p. 528. 

66. =Strigilla fucata, Gld. (not mmiata). Specimens received from different 
stations on the Pacific Coast vary very greatly in colour and markings, 

68. The fragment of “?? Psammobia” is perhaps part of a Lepas-valve. 

71 and 72. The names of these shells have been altered and re-altered in Mus. 

Cuming, as will be seen by comparing Brit. Mus. Maz. Cat., p. 43, with the 
note, p. 548, and with the present arrangement. Mr. Hanley states that 
no. 72, D. culminatus, Cpr., is his true carinatus; therefore 71, D. carinatus, 
oe , and of most collections, must stand as D.rostratus, C. B. Ad., teste type- 
valve in Mus. Amherst. The two species uniformly retain their dis- 
tinctive characters. 

78. Should be Mactrella exoleta= Lutraria ventricosa, Gld., from type. 

81. Should be Gnathodon mendicus, Gld. “ 

83. T. Hindsii is distinct, teste Hanl. 

85. T. argentata, Sby., 1835,=T. equilatera, Desh., 1839. 

92-99. The generic name should be Callista. 


* A few of the duplicate sets having been sent in exchange to one of the principal 
scientific dealers, he advertises a list of species in which he not merely alters the nomen- 
clature, giving “‘ Monoceros” cingulatum, “ Pollia” insignis (with “ Pisania” gemmata), 
* Trochus” olivaceus (with “ Imperator” wnguis), “ Cerithium ” montagui (for Cerithidea 
Montagnei), Cytherea “ dione” (for Dione lupinaria), “ Astarte” Dunkeri, “ Cytherea” 
Columbiensis, &c., but inserts Californian species (“ Ziziphinus filosus,’ “ Cardium 
Wutali”) as though from the Gulf, and adds others not known at all in the West Coast 
faunas, as “ Columbella levigata,” “ Patella plumbea,” and “ Chiton reticulata.” All 
these, with such shells as Oliva Oumingii, which belong to other regions on the Mexi- 
can coast, would be accredited by the reader on the supposed authority of ‘* Carpenter’s 
Catalogue.” In these times it appears that naturalists must be content to resemble the 
dealers in patent medicines, and guard the accuracy of their works! With regard to the 
Mazatlan collections (now scarce), none can be trusted unless they present an unbroken 
seal, with the initials of the author. 


544A. REPORT— 1868. 


98. Callista alternata has a very different aspect from the ordinary C. circinata ; but 
several of the Pacific shells affiliate more naturally to the West Indian form. 
99. C. affinis, C. tortuosa, and C, concinna appear to be one species. 

100, Sir E. Belcher is confident that he dredged C. petechiulis, in deep water, off S. 
Blas. He has the same confidence in regard to some of the East Indian 
Circes. At this distance of time, a written locality-ticket would have had 
more authority. 

105. The hinge proves that this species is distinct from the true V. crenifera, Sby. 
It has been named V. sugillata by Rve., Conch. Ic. sp. 48. It was also 
brought by Kellett and Wood, and is allied to V. pulicaria. 

110. Among the Panama varieties of this very variable species is Venus fuscolineata. 
T. grata takes the place of the Californian 7. staminea, which is sometimes 
erroneously given as a synonym, and is not straminea, as often quoted. 

116. It appears that Gouldia (Thetis, C. B. Ad., olim, non Sby. nec H. & A. Ad.) is 
congeneric with “ Circe” minima, not with the Astartids. Prof. Adams’s 
fresh specimens of his G. Pacifica prove to have the Crassatelloid internal 
ligament, and represent one of the many remarkable forms of that group. 

117. Fresh specimens of G. varians, from Cape St. Lucas, have also the internal 
ligament, and must rank under Crassatel/a until that genus has been naturally 
divided. 

118. Lazaria Californica. A well-marked group of species from the West Coast. 

121. The purple and orange specimens, here treated as the adolescent state of Chama 
Mexicana, ave certainly the Ch. echinata of collections, and may possibly 
prove a distinct species. A large series sent from Socoro Is. by Mr. Xantus 
confirms this view ; but all the specimens seen are decorticated or incrusted. 

121. This is the Chama Buddiana of C. B. Ad., and probably distinct. 

134. The specimens of Cardiwm graniferum in Mus. Cum., from St. Thomas, W. L, 
appear exactly identical. 

136. The specimens from the Pacific coast, some of which are of very large size, 
have generally a red tinge round the inner margin; as have also the Fiji 
specimens brought by the U. 8. Expl. Exp. In other respects they exactly 
accord with the W. Indian. The Pacific shells are generally called C. 
exasperata, Rve., a name first given to the rough Caribbean variety from 
Honduras, &e. 

187. Codakia punctata. This shell also, brought by the U. S. Expl. Exp. from the 
Fiji Is., is found sparingly along the American shores, and has the same 
coloured margin. 

142. May possibly prove identical with ZL. bella, Conr., S. Diego. 

150. The Fein orbella of Gould, =Spherella tumida, Conv., Ms., is the northern 
form; uniformly larger and smoother than Diplodonta semiaspera. This 
last is fully confirmed from both oceans. 

152. “ Felania” serricata appears congeneric with Miltha, H. & A. Ad.,= Mittrea, 
Gray, the type of which (JL Childrenc) is a Gulf species. 

154. Lasea rubra. Mr. J. G. Jeffreys does not consider the Brit. Mus. specimen 
identical with the British. The Mediterranean specimens are much more 
unlike. A colony of fresh shells from a burrow at Cape St. Lucas, when 
examined, under the microscope, side by side with Ifracombe specimens, did 
not present even varietal differences. The species also appears on the Cali- 
fornian and Japan coasts. Similar and perhaps conspecific forms are 
found on most coasts: among them is Poronia Petitiana, Chen. Conch. Ill. 
p. 2, pl. 1. f. 2; Callao, not rare, Petit. ; 

156. For this species, corbuloides, and other angular forms, the name Bornia may 
be revived in a restricted sense. (A. Ad.) 

157, 158. Mr. A. Adams, who is about to make the Kelliads a special study, thinks 
that these intermediate forms would rank better with Montacuta or Tellimya. 

166. This is almost certainly = Anodonta glauca, Val. 

168. Dr. Dunker renamed this shell /. Adamsianus, P. Z.S. Nov. 1856. 

177. The subgenus Adula may be enlarged to include this and other nostling 
? Lithophagi, which often adhere by byssus, like Modiola. 

178. Liosolenus is quite distinct from Mytilimeria, which appears simply an aber- 
rant form of Zyonsia. Other “ Lithophagi” probably rank with it. 


—a 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTIT AMERICA. 545 


189. Area senilis is from W. Africa (not “1. Indies”): one of the many representative 
species between the two West Coasts. 

185. Noétia reversa, Gray. 

186. Argina brevifrons, Shy. 

188. This is the young of Barbatia alternata. 

191-195 belong to the group Barbatia. 

195. = Barbatia Tubogensis, from type. 

203. The young of this shell is Aricula libella, Rve. Dy. Gould protests against 
some of the interpretations here given to his views. 

204. The W. American pearl-oyster should stand as MZ. fimbriuta, Dkr. It has 
been redescribed as AZ. barbata, Rve. 

212. Dr. Gould protests against the Pacific shells being regarded as O. Virginica. 
Mr. Hanley adheres to his original opinion. Fossils seut from the Sand- 
wich Is. by Mr. Pease (O. Sandiichensis, Pse.) appear scarcely to differ. 

214b. The O. palmu'a appears a distinct species. 

215. This species is identical with O. no. 384 of C. B. Ad. It may take the name 
of O. amara from its “ bitter flavour.” 

224, Bulla Adamsi=B. punctulata, C. B. Ad., non A. Ad. 

229. Haminea eymbiformis is closely allied to ZH. virescens, Sby. 

239, Siphonaria lecanium. S. maura, Sby., is one of the varieties of this species. 
The S. palmata may prove distinct. S. ferruginea, Rve., is probably de- 
scribed from the intermediate form. 

242, Lunthina striulata, Name given in ignorance of sfrivlata, Ad. and Rye. ; and 
not needed, teste Rve. 

245, The Dentalium hyalinum of Phil. is probably the young ‘of D. semipolitum : 
this species is distinct. 

247. The Dent. pretiosum of Nutt. is a northern species ; this is most likely D, lac- 
teum, Phil. 

248-250, This typical group of Chitonids retains the Linnean name in Dr. Gray’s 
arrangement; and as he first pointed out the generic distinctions in the 
family, his judgment is to be preferred. 

252-254, 256. These species belong to Ischnochiton, Gray. 

255, Lepidopleurus, Risso, has sculptured valves and scaly margin, and is probably 
synonymous with Lophyrus, H. and A. Ad. The name may be retained for 
the “ Lophyroid ” Zschnochiton here described, the peculiarities of which haye 
been confirmed by adult specimens in Mus. Cuming, and by other species. 

257. Chiton, H. and A. Ad.,=Acanthoplewra (Guild.), Gray. 

262. = Nacella peltoides, n. s. (described from Cape St. Lucas specimens). 

263. The true Lottia pintadina of Gld. (teste figured types) consists entirely of 
varieties of A. patina. 

265. The “ large flat shell” referred-to is Tecturella grandis, Gray, Brit. Assoe. Rep. 
1861, p. 187. Tecturella is preoccupied by Stimps. Gr. Manan Invert. — [t 
being needful to divide the old genus demea, Lottia may be used for this 
section. By reviving synonyms as sectional names, when a genus is divided, 
good names may be retained in a restricted sense, and the burden of a spu- 
rious nomenclature lessened. The species is Lottia gigantea (Sby. Gen.). 

269, Scutellina navicelloides, Cpr.,= Crepidula osculans, C. B. Ad. 

280, This should stand as Gadinia stellata, Shy., that name having been given to 
the normal form, Rep. pl. 7. f. 3a, of which pentegoniostoma, f. 3f, is only 
an accidental variety. 

282. Callopoma Fokkesii=tessellatum, Rye., is the Lower Californian form, and 
probably distinct. 

2830. = Turbo phasianella, C. B. Ad., non Melaraphe phasianclla, Phil. 

289. The first name is T. eximius, Rve., P.Z. S. 1842, p.185; Mke.’s shell bearing 
date 1850. It appears identical with “ Javaniews, Lam.,” in Mus. Cum., and 
is extremely like “ spectosus, Japan.” Trochus heing now generally retained 
for the Miloticus group, which contains the largest forms, it is best to revive 
Swainson’s excellent name Calliostoma for the “ Ziziphinus ’evoup. A specific 
name should not be used for a genus, where a distinctive name has already 
been accurately described, 

1863, 2 


546 REPORT—1863. 


290. Calliostoma M‘Andree is the normal state, of which C. Leanum is the pale 


variety. : 
292. Mr. Pease considers that 7. Byronianus represents a Polydonta from the Pacific 
Islands, 


313-316. The non-pearly Liotie are Conradia, A. Ad. 

322, 323. Mr. A. Adams thinks that the ‘“Zthalia” amplectans is probably the 
young of “ Teinostoma” a., as suggested in Brit. Mus. Cat. p. 253. 

338. Crepidula adunca, Cpr. (non Sby.,=solida, Hds.,=rostriformis, Gld.). The 
tropical shell is C. wncata, Mke.,= C. rostrata, C. B. Ad., Rve. 

341. Should stand as C. sqguama: y. note on C. B, Ad. no, 351. 

354. Vermetus eburneus, Rve.,=V. 2glomeratus, C. B. Ad.,non Lam. The note to 
Cecum, Brit. Mus. Cat. p. 314, should read: —*“ Of afourth group, Meioceras, 
three species are known from the Caribbean Sea, one of which is fossil at 
Grignon. The earliest Ceecid is the Eocene genus Strebloceras.” Vide 
Mon. Cecide in P. Z. 8. 1858, pp. 415-444. fal 

387. Cerithium irroratum, Gld. (teste type sp. in Mus. Smiths.), is a very distinct 
East Indian species, = C. obesum, Sby. sen. ; 

388. This is not the C. interruptum of C. B. Ad., Sby., and Mus. Cum. (hodie), 
which latter is the roughened form of C. stereus muscarum, Val. C. Galla- 
paginis is the rough form of C. interruptum, Mie. 

389. Vertagus should be changed into 2thinoclavis, Swains.; v. note to 289. 

391-393. The genus Triforts should be removed to Cerithiopside. The true 
“ Triforis” infrequens of C. B. Ad. is a dextral shell, = Cerithiopsis tuber- 
culoides, no. 557. The shell here doubtfully affiliated is probably a variety 
of ZT. inconspicuus. 

398. Litorina Philippii=L. ?parvula, C. B. Ad., non Phil.,=Z. dubiosa, C. B. Ad., 
nom. prov, 

399. =Tntorina pullata, Cpr. ; described from Cape St. Lucas specimens. 

409. Probably= Rissoina jirmata, C. B. Ad.,+R. scalariformis, C. B. Ad. 

411. “Not a Barleeia,” teste Jeffr. MS. It seems, however, too closely allied to 
B.rubrato create afresh genus for it, unless the animal should display differ- 


ences. 
412, 418. Belong to Fenella, A. Ad.* Ff. excurvata=? Rissoa inconspicua, C. B. Ad.,. 
non Alder. 


417, Fresh specimens prove this to be not a dead Hydrobia ulve, but a Barleeia. 
It appears on the Californian coast, as B. subteniis. 

418, 421. Are very similar, and possibly conspecific forms of Cythna, A. Ad. 

422, Is a Gemella, teste A. Ad. 

426, 427. Belong to Styliferina, A. Ad. 

430 et seq. Some of these forms may rank with Gottoina, A. Ad., and thus approach 
Fossarus. 

457. Lnponia spurca. This shell is quite distinct from Z. albuginosa, to which it 
was supposed to belong by Dr. Newcomb. It is probably a ballast specimen. 

458. Quite distinct from the Panamic 4. punctulata. 

445, 446. Cancellariade should be removed to Proboscidifera, teste A. Ad. 

450-452. My. Reeve unites all these species, with several others, to M. variegata; 
which is certainly the easiest way of meeting the difficulty. 

453. Myurella rufocinerea=T. rudis, Gray, teste Rve. 

477. Conus regalitatis= C. purpurascens, var. Most Cones vary in the same manner. 

484. Torinia variegata. Myr. Hanley, restores to this shell the uncomfortable name 
of Chemn. (perspectiviuncula), and unites to it areola, Desh. A careful com- 
parison with shells from the Pacific Islands (teste Pease’s specimens) proves 
them to be completely identical. The “specific” names of Chemn., when 
simply the second word of the diagnosis, can hardly claim precedence. 

486, The genera in this family have lately been revised by Mr. A. Adams. A 
large number of his Japanese groups are here represented. This species 


* The generic names here given were assigned by Mr. A. Adams, who kindly examined 
the figures of the minute Mazatlan shells, all of which haye been drawn under the micro- 
scope. 


=: =~”: - ~~ 


| 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 547 


agrees with Pyramidella, sp. ind., C. B. Ad., no. 293 (not 294), and may be 
quoted as Obeliscus Adamsii. 

487, 488, Belong to Evalea, A. Ad. 

489. Is a Syrnola, A. Ad. 

492. The peculiar appearance of the apex is due to decollation, as proved by the 
discovery of an adolescent and several adult specimens. It probably belongs 
to Diala, A. Ad., and= Cingula paupercula, C. B. Ad., no. 253. 

498-500. Belong to Miralda, A. Ad. Parthenia quinquecincta=? Cingula turrita, 
C. B. Ad.,+ Rissoa notabilis, C. B. Ad. 

501, 502. Belong to Oscilla, A. Ad. Parthenia exarata=? Oingula terebellum, C. B. Ad. 

505-506, The “ Odostomoid Chrysallide” probably rank best with Mwmiola, A. Ad. 

512. Chrysallida ovulum=? Cingula inconspicua, C. B. Ad. ; non ? Rissoa inconspicua, 
C. B. Ad. nec Alder. 

513-515. Are Pyrgulina, teste A, Ad. The Japanese species, however, seem more 
like Parthenia, no. 497. 

517. Is a Styloptygma, A. Ad. 

520. This is not the Chemmitzia similis of C. B. Ad.; and is probably a variety of 
Ch. Panamensis. 

523. = Chemnitzia affinis, C. B. Ad., pars: pars= Ch. undata, no. 531. 

535. Is perhaps a Mormula, A. Ad. 

545. The various shells grouped under Aclis require revision. Comp. Onoba, A.Ad., 
and Ebala, Gray, which is figured as Aclis in Add. Gen. 

549. Ranks best with Lulimeila. 

550. This is not Lezostraca recta, C. B, Ad., and may be called Mucronalia involuta, 

551. This is not L. solitaria, C. B. Ad., and may be called Z. producta. 

552. = Mucronalia solitaria, C. B. Ad. 

553. Ranks best with Hulima, teste A. Ad. 

555. L.retera; distinct from LZ. cota, C. B. Ad. 

556. Should be Eulima, teste A. Ad. 

557. Vide note to 393. 

563. Belongs to the subgenus Sela, A. Ad. 

568. Scalaria raricosta is perhaps the young of S. Elenensis. 

569. S. funiculata and S. diadema, with their congeners, should be removed from 
Cirsotrema to Opalia. 

570. Dr. Gould dissents from the affiliation of this shell to the West African species 
on the ground that “he can separate the African from the Pacific shells as fast 
as we can hand them to him.” So easily can any ordinary naturalist separate 
conspecific British and Mediterranean specimens, or Mazatlan and Panama 
specimens. Itis not found in the West Temperate fauna; the “var. Cali- 
fornica” being the ordinary type from the Pacific Islands, which is much 
more entitled to be regarded as distinct than are the West American forms. 

572. Is shown by perfect Cape St. Lucas specimens to belong to a natural group 
of species, resembling flattened, perforated Phastanelle, to which the name 
Eucosmia may be given. 

580. Appears under genus “ Lagena, Wein,’ * in Mus. Cuming; the Argobuccina 
cancellatum, Oregonense, &c., haying received a new name, Priene, H. & A.Ad. 

589. This belongs to Closia, Gray, = Volutella, Swains., non D’Orb. 


* The names of Klein in his ‘Tentamen’ and ‘ Lucubratiuncula,’ 1773, are not entitled 
to precedence (according to the Brit. Assoc, rules), because he evidently did not adopt the 
Linnean mode of binomial nomenclature. What he calls a ‘“‘ genus” answers more to the 
modern idea of chapter or section. By chance, some of his names are allowable; but, if 
used, the genus must be regarded as that of Adams, Gray, Mérch, or other writer who 
defines it. The following will serve as illustrations of Klein’s “ genera”—‘ Sol, Luna, 
Stella, &c.; Auris, Anas, Tigris, Pes-anserinus, Tuba-phonurgica, Cochlea-lunaris, 
Cochlea-celata, &e.; Buccinum-lacerum, Buccinum-muricatum, Thema-musicum, &e.; 
Ostrewm-imbricatwm, Ostrewn-muricatum, &e.; Musculus-latus, Musculus-mammarius, 
&e.; Tellina-arcinata, Tellina-virgata, &c.; Concha-longa-biforis, Concha-longa-uniforis; 
Concha-rpidoBos;” and, in p. 167, “* Museculus-polylepto-ginglymus,’ under which re- 
markable generic name is given as the first species “‘ Arca-Noe.” According to the now 
fashionable transformation of malacological nomenclature into a branch of archeological 
research, under pretence of justice to ancient writers, the hitherto universally understood 


2n2 


548 rEPoRTtT—1863. 


592. Oliva intertincta is very close to the young of O. subangulata, but differs in the 
chestnut stain on the columella. Ihave not been able to compare it with 
the young of O. Cumingit. pay 

594. Is an abundant species in the Eastern Islands, occasionally seen in West 
Coast collections. 

595. Belongs to Anazola, Gray. The remaining Mazatlan species of Olivellu are 
now called Olivina, Gray. 

598. Okvella aureoeincta= Oliva pellucida, C. B. Ad., non Rve. 

599. Olivella inconspicua, C. B. Ad., is probably the young of the colourless var. of 
O. gracilis, which must be excluded from the synonymy of O. dama, no. 600, 

606, The figure of Purpura bisertalis, jun., Brit. Mus. tablet 2232, is stated by Mr. 
A, Ad. to represent the genus Sinusigera, D'Orb.,= Chelitropis, Pbs. ; just as 
Macyillivrayia is the young of Doliun. 

G11. Rhizocheilus nux+ RK. distans, Cpr. 

612. The young of Vitularia salebrosa is named Fusus lamellosus, Uds., in Brit. Mus., 
and is also the “ Ranella triguetra” of Nuttall’s collection. 

618. Is probably C. baccata, Gask., in Mus. Cum., though Mr. Gaskoin regarded it 
asnew. The var. obsoleta, 618d, is probably C. galaxias, Rve. 

619-622. These shells may perhaps be better studied under Daphnella. 

631. Certainly=N. gemmuilosa, C. B. Ad. 

633. Nassa erebristriata may rank as a var. under proxima, C. B. Ad., which is pro- 
bably itself a var. of versicolor. 

659. This aberrant group of forms is now transferred to Cantharus in Mus.Cuming. 
Perhaps they sal better with Siphonalia, A. Ad. 

653. Anachis rufotincia (“ new,” teste Gaskoin) is probably= Col. diminuta, C. B. 
Ad., in Mus. Cum., but scarcely agrees with the diagnosis, nor was the ac- 
cordance noticed in the Amherst types. 

659. =P. elegans, Gray, in Griff. Cuy. pl. 25. f. 2. (1834.) 

The following species, since found, must be added to the catalogue of the 
Reigen Collection. The specimens are deposited in the British Museum: 
The descriptions of nos. 693-695 appear in the appendix to the Brit. Mus. 
Cat.; the remainder are ready for the press. 

704. Cellepora areolata, Busk. On Omphalius ligulatus. 

705. Membranipora ?Flemingit, Busk. — ,, 

707. Dactylina=C. B. Ad., Pan. no, 516, Obtained from M. Reigen, at Mazatlan, 
by Major Rich. 

693. Lyonsia, sp. ind., 1 sp. 

694. ? Montacuta chaleedonica, 1 sp. 

706. ? Montacuta obtusa, n. s.,2 sp. Congeneric with 157, 158, 

695. Crenella, sp. ind., 1 sp. 

696. Pectunculus, sp. ind., 1 sp. 

697. Cylichna Carpenteri, Hanl., P.Z.S. 1858, p. 543, 1 sp. P= C. luticola, jun. 

698. Scisswurella rimuloides, n.s., 1 sp. : 

699. Vitrinella ornata, n. s., 1 sp. 

700, Vitrinella tenuisculpta, n. 8., 1 sp. 

701. 2 Vitrinella, sp. ind., fragment. 

702. Mangelia sulcata, n. s., 1 sp. 

703. ?? Torinia, sp. ind., 2 sp. 

708. Malea ringens. Obtained from M. Reigen, at Mazatlan, by Major Rich. 


53. Juy’s Catalogue.—Mr. Hanley states that after the return of Prof. 
Nuttall, his duplicates were bought by the elder Sowerby, who sold part to 


designations of Lamarck, &e., must give way to such names as the above; and if some 
other ‘Attempt’ or ‘Little Lucubration’ of a year’s earlier date should be disinterred 
from now-fortunate concealment, the most modern ‘Guides’ and ‘Books of Genera’ will have 
to be re-written. Klein’s idea of Argobuccinum appears to have been that of a “ Spotted 
Whelk,” probably Ranella argus. Argobuccinum, MW. and A. Ad., may standas defined in 
their ‘ Geneva’ for the thin ventricose ‘Lritons. They have, however, divided the species 
between Priene and Lagena. ; 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA, 549 


Dr. Jay, and part to Mr. Stainforth. The specimens in Mus. Cum. were re- 
ceived from Dr. Jay; those in Mus. Hanley from Mr. Stainforth. In the 
third edition of Dr. Jay’s Catalogue, 1839, appear the following species which 
have not been identified, and localities not confirmed. 

14. Tellina rosea, Lam. California. [Perhaps Sanguinolaria miniata. | 

33. Pecten tumidus, Brod. — Upper California. 


37. Chiton incarnatus, Nutt. or 
» Chiton textilis, Cony. a 
38. Patella plicata, Nutt. rp 
40. Lissurella pica, Nutt. Fs 
41. Crepidula squamosa, Brod. oF 
» Bulla Californica, Nutt. is 


68. Natica variolaris. California. 
70. Trochus Californicus, Nutt. Upper California. 


72. Monodenta fusca, Nutt. oo 
73. Marmorostoma planospira, Nutt. - 
» Litorina iostoma, Nutt. A 
» Lrtorina maculata, Nutt. 9 
79. Melongena occidentalis, Nutt. i 
80. Durex sevcostatus, Brug. 59 
86. Monoceros phunbeum, Kien os 
87. Bucceinum Boysii, Nutt. np 


54. CO. B. Adams.—After arranging the duplicate Reigen Collection in the 
State Museum at Albany, New York, I procecded to Amherst, Mass., to 
study the type-collection from which Prof. Adams’s book was written. The 
result is embodied in a “ Review of Prof. C. B. Adams’s ‘ Catalogue of the 
Shells of Panama,’ from the Type Specimens,” written for the Zool. Soc. in 
Jan., and published in the Proceedings for July 1863, pp. 339-369. In this 
paper the synonymy between the Mazatlan and Panama Catalogues is pointed 
out, and the species assigned to the modern genera. The following are the 
principal corrections needed in the list, Rep. pp. 267-280. ‘The resultsi n 
the succeeding paragraphs, pp. 280, 281, should be altered accordingly. 
(M.=Brit. Mus. Maz. Cat.) 


3. Ovula neglecta=avena, var. 
. Cyprea punctulata ; quite distinct from C. arabicula. 

11. Cyprea rubescens, C. B. Ad.,= T. sanguinea, dead. 

15. Marginella sapotilla, C. B. Ad., is perhaps a large form of sapotilla, Hds. _ It 
is destitute of the sharp posterior labral angle seen in the West Indian 
specimens of ce@rulescens. 

33. Olva araneosa, C. B. Ad.,=O. Melchersi, M. 591. 

55. Oliva pellucida, C. B. Ad.,= O. awreocincta, M. 598, dead. 

40, Oliva venulata, C. B. Ad., = O. angulata, jun. 

43. Nassa canescens=dead sp. of N. pagodus. 

50. Nassa pagodus, C. B. Ad.,=decussata, Kien. [ ? non. Lam.]=acuta, M. 625. 

51. Nassa Panamensis has the operculum of Phos and Northia, =exilis, Pws. 

52. Nassa proxima+54 N. striata, C. B. Ad. [non Mus. Cum. =. paupera, Gld.], 
+. crebristriata, M. 633, are probably vars. of N. versicolor. 

53. Nassa scabriuscula, C. B. Ad., +56 N. Wilsont=N. complanata, Pws. 

70. Purpura foveolata, probably =worn sp. of Cuma costata, M. 610. 

74, Purpura osculans+ Rh. Californicus+ Rh. distans, are probably vars. of Rhizo- 
cheilus nux. 

81. Columbella costellata, C. B. Ad.,= Anachis scalarina, Shy. 

98. Columbella parva, C. B. Ad.,=dead sp. of Anachis pygmea. 

103. Colwnbella tessellata, C. B. Ad. (non Gask.),=A. Guatemalensis, Rve. 

110, Cassis abbreviata can scarcely be distinguished, in some of its many varieties, 
from the Texan Bezoardica inflata. 

154. Cancellaria affinis scaxcely differs from C. wreeolata, M, 445, 


550 REPORT—1863. 


160. Cancellaria pygmea= C. goniostoma, jun., no. 157, =M. 446. 

164, Pleurotoma atrior = Drillia vy. Melchersi, M. 461. 

169. Pleurotoma discors, C. B. Ad., is probably a finely developed var. of D. 
aterrima. 

182. Plewrotoma rustica, C. B. Ad.,=worn specimens of D. Melchersi, no. 164. 

191. Mangelia neglecta, probably =M. acuticostata, M. 473. 

194, 195, 201 belong to Cerithiopsis. 

196. Cerithium famelicum must stand for the West Coast Uncinoids, M. 383; the 
Cumingian shell, and two out of ten in the type-series, belong to C. me- 
dioleve, M. 582. : 

198, 199, 200 are various forms of C. stercus muscarum, Val.; quite distinct from 
C. interruptum, Mke., and C. irroratum, Gld. 

203. Does not correspond with the diagnosis, and must stand as Chrysallida pau- 
percula, a very distinct species. 

208, Is scarcely a variety of Zriforts alternatus, no. 207. 

209. Both the specimens are dextral, = Cerithiopsis tuberculoides, M. 557. 

210. Turritella Banksii, C. B. Ad. (non Rve.)= 7. goniostoma, jun., M. 379. 

217. A dead, stunted specimen of Caecum undatum, M. 871. 

220. Chemnitzia acuminata is a very broad but typical species; not Chrysallida. 

221. Chemnitzia affinis, Mus. Cum. and M. 523, has sufficient correspondence with 
the diagnosis; but the type= Ch. undata, M. 531. 

222. Chemnitzia clathratula. The type-series contains Chrysallida clathratula, 
M. 513 and Mus. Cum.,+ Chr. communis+ Chr. effusa, M. 510,+ Dunkeria 
subangulata, M. 537. 

223. Chemnitzia communis, the type of Chrysallida, M. 507, Cpr. (vix A. Ad.). 
The type-series also contains Chr. effusa+ Chr. telescopium, M. 508,+-Dun- 
keria subangulata, +?do. var. 

225. Chemnitzia major ranks with Dunkeria. 

227. Chemnitzia Panamensis contains also Ch. Adamsii, M. 519,+ Ch. ? gracillima, 
M. 530. 

228. Chemnitzia similis, like aculeus ; differs from Ch. Psimilis, M. 520, which per- 
haps= Panamensis, vax. 

930. Chemnitzia turrita=251, “ Rissoa, sp. ind.” 

231, 235, 237, 238. These species of “ ? Litorina” belong to Fossarus. 

233. Litorina atrata+ (adult) 257, P-Adeorbis abjecta, are the same (variable) species 
of Fossarina, A. Ad. . 

239. Litorina parvula, C. B. Ad. (non Phil.),=L. Philippi, M. 598. 

244. Rissoa firmata+ (jun.) 250, R. scaliformis= Rissoina, sp. M. 409. 

246, ? Rissoa inconspicua, C. B, Ad. (non Ald.), does not accord with the diagnosis, 
but is identical with Alvania tumida, M. 414. 

249, Rissoa notabilis+ Cingula ?turrita belongs (with 252 and 254) to another 
suborder, = Parthenia quinquecincta, M, 498. ‘ 

252. ? Cingula inconspicua= Chrysallida ovulum, M. 512. 

253. Cingula paupercula=? Odostomia mamillata, M. 492,= Diala. 

254, Cingula terebellum=Parthenia exarata, M. 501. 

261. Vitrinella minuta. The original type accords better with Lthalia. 

266. Vitrinella regularis is also an Ethaha. 

269. Vitrinella valvatoides. Probably an Zthalia. 

270, 271. Are apparently vars. of Solariwm granulatum. 

272. May be disangwisped as Torinia rotundata, from its great superficial resem- 
blance to Helix rotundata. 

275. Trochus Leanus is a pale var. of Calliostoma M* Andree. 

276. Trochus lima can scarcely be distinguished from C. Antonii, Mus. Cum., 
dredged in the Japan seas by Mr. A. Adams. 

277. Trochus lividus, C. B. Ad.,= Modulus disculus, M. 403. 

280. Trochus reticulatus= Omphalius viridulus, M. 292. 

281. Turbo Buschit, C. B. Ad., = Uvanilla inermis, M. 287,= T. variegatus, Gray, MS. 
in Brit. Mus. The true U. Buschii is coloured outside like U. olivacea, but 
with a white base like U. znermis. St. Elena, Hds. in Brit. Mus. 

282. Turbo phasianella, ©. B. Ad., is probably the perfect form of Phasianella, Pyar. 


“ly oF 


285, 


289. 
290. 
292, 
293, 
296, 
297, 


299, 


300. 
501. 
318. 
321. 
322, 
323, 
324, 
325. 
326, 
327. 


330. 
331, 
333. 
338. 
342. 
343. 
349. 
350. 


351. 


352. 
353. 


357. 
358. 


361. 


366, 
367. 


368. 
369. 


371. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 551 


striulata, M. 2836. Its operculum proves it to be a true Phasianella, and 
not Melaraphe phasianella, Phil., of Add. Gen. 

Turbo rutilus, the worn remains of what perhaps was once Pomaulax undosus, 
brought in ballast from Lower California. 

Sealaria, oe ¢, = Opalia funiculata, jun., M. 569, 

Eulima ( Leiostraca] iota appears distinct from Z. retexta, M. 555, 

Eulima | Mucronalia) solitaria=Letostraca, sp. a, M, 552. 

Pyramidella, sp.,= Obeliscus Adamsii, M. 486. 

Natica hurida, C, B, Ad.,=pale var. of N. maroccana. 

Natica otis, C. B, Ad. (non Br. and Sby.), = Polinices “ Salangonensis,” C. B. Ad., 
no. 298, 

Natica Souleyetiana, C. B. Ad., closely resembles WV. maroccana, with larger 
umbilicus. 

Natica virginea, C. B, Ad.,+302, N., sp. ind. b,= Polinices uber, M. 576, 

Natica, sp. a, =maroccana, var. unifaserata. 

?? Truncatella dubiosa is probably a Paludinella. 

Bulla punctulata=B. Adams, M. 224. 

Bulla, sp.=Tornatina carinata, M. 225. 

Vermetus Pglomeratus, C. B. Ad.,=V. eburneus, Rve., M. 354. 

Vermetus Panamensis, C. B. Ad.,= Aletes centiquadrus, M, 352. 

Stomatella inflata is a Lamellaria. 

Hipponyx Psubrufa, C. B. Ad.,=H. Grayanus, yun., M. 550,+Pbarbatus, jun, 

Hipponyzx Pbarbata, C. B, Ad. The type-series contains H. barbatus, M. 549, 
+H. Grayanus+ Discina Cumingii, M. 14 (valve). 

Calyptrea aberrans is a valve of Anomia. 

Calyptrea aspersa= Galerus conicus, broken, worn, and young; one sp. may be 
mamillaris. 

Calyptrea conica. Most of the specimens are G. mamillaris,=340, G. regu- 
laris; but a few may be the true G. conicus, worn, M. 332. 

Calyptrea planulata is a young flat C. cepacea. 

Calyptrea ?Punguis, C. B. Ad.,= Crucibulum spinosum, yun. 

Crepidula cerithicola= C. onyx, jun., M. 340,+ C. ineurva, jun., M. 339. 

Crepidula squama. Some of the young shells belong to C. onyx ; one perhaps 
to C. incurva. 

Crepidula unguiformis. Some of the specimens belong to this species ; others 
to C. nivea. 

Crepidula nivea. The type-specimens are small, poor, and rough, of the var. 
striolata, passing into Lessonii. Perhaps, therefore, the first name sqguama 
should be retained for the species (nos. 348, 349, 350, part, and 351), leaving 
striolata and Lessoni for the vars. 

Crepidula osculans belongs to another order, = Seutellina navicelloides, M. 269. 

Crepidula rostrata, C. B, Ad., Rve.,=C. uncata, Mke., M. 338; and is perhaps 
distinct from C. adunca, Sby.,=solida, Wds.,=rostriformis, Gld. 

Fissurella microtrema. Dead shells, of which part= V. rugosa, var. M. 273. 

Fissurella mus. Intermediate between Gilyphis inequalis, M. 279, and yar, 

ica. : 

Biaurlla virescens. Intermediate between F. v., M. 271, and F. nigropunctata, 
no. 359. 

Siphonaria ?pica, C. B. Ad. Young dead limpets [? demea}. 

Lottia ?patina, C. B. Ad. [non Esch.}, may stand, until more specimens have 
been collated, as demea (2floccata, var.) filosa. _ 

Lottia, sp. ind. a, may be quoted as Acmea (?floccata, var.) subrotundata. 

Lottia, sp. ind. b, may rank, for the present, as Acmea (Pvespertina, var.) 
vermicosa. 

? Patella, sp. ind., resembles P. vulgata, but may be an Acmea. 


372-376. There was no opportunity of dissecting the Amherst Chitons ; but among 


373. 


the remaining duplicates of the collection (all of which were obtained and 
brought to England) were the following :— 

Chiton dispar, C. B., Ad. (? non Sby.), including Lepidopleurus Adamsit and. 
var, and Z. tenwisculptus. 


552 REPORLE—1868. 


375. Chiton pulchellus, along with Isehnochiton Elenensis, and Pyar. eapressits. 

376. Chiton Stokesit. Sent as C. patulus by Mr. Cuming. 

377-379. Probably vars. of Anomia tenis (non lampe). : 

380, 881. Ostrea, sp. ind. a and 4, a peculiar corrugated species, which may sland 
as O. Panamensis. ‘ 

382. Ostrea, sp. ind. ¢, resembles O. rufa, Gld., MS. (not Lam. in Deless.), not 
Columiiensis. ae S Ses 

383. Ostrea, sp. ind. d, more like the Gulf Mex, shells than O. 7 irginica, M. 212. 

384. Ostrea, sp. ind. e, may stand es O. amara. The “small var.” 1s O. concha- 
phila, M. 214. 

386. Spondylus, sp.,= Plicatula penicillata, M. 210. : . ; 

393, 394. Perna, sp. a, b,= 2. Chemnitzianun. The Jamaica conspecific shells are 
labelled “ beeolor, Ad.” : 

395. Pinna tuberculosa, C. B, Ad., probably=P. maura, yun. ¥ 

398. Lithodomus, sp., includes L. aristaius, M. 176, L. attenuatus, M. 175, and 
L. ?plumula, jun., M. 175. ‘ : 

309. Modiola semifusca, C. B. Ad.,= 31. Braziliensis, M. 171. More like the Atlantic 
shells than are those from Guif Cal. A specimen, undoubtedly from N. 
Zealand, is pronounced conspecific by Mr. Cuming. : . 

400-404. Modiola, sp. ind, contains M. cazaxr, M. 170, Myt. multiformis [ =Adam- 
stanus, Dix.], M. 168, several vars., and ddula einnamomea, var. M. 177. 

405. Chama Buddiana (in poor condition)= Ch. ( ?frondosa, var.) Jornicata, 
M. 121 0. 

406. Chama ?corrugata, small valve; large one P= Ch. Mexicana, reversed. 

407. Chama cechinata, C. 3, Ad., ?= Mexicana, jun.,+ Buddiana, jun. 

414. Arca Paviculoides, C. B. Ad., appears a young Scapharca. 

419, Arca pholadiformis = Darbatia gradata, vay. 

422, Arca similis, scarcely a variety of A. tubererlosa, no. 425. 

432. Cardium planicostaium, C. B. Ad., may be a worn valve of Hemicardia bian- 
qulaia, Dut more resembles a ballast specimen of the W. Indian 2. media. 

435. Venus 2amathusia, 0. B. Ad.,= Anomalocardia subimbricata, M. 115. 

436. Venus discors= Tapes grata, M. 110, var.,4+ 7. histrionica, M. 109. 

A442, Venus, sp. b,= Chione sugillata, Rve. (=Perenifera, M. 105). 

450. Gouldia Pacifica, M. 116, does not belong to the Professor's genus, but is a 
form of Crassatella. 

451. Cyrena maritima. “The discovery of Cyrene in brackish water is a fact of 
some importance to geologisis, which was duly appreciated by D’Orb.” (T. 
Prime, in Ann. Lye. N. Y. 1861, p. 314.) 

457. Donax rostratus, C. B. Ad. (non Gld., MS., and from it Cpr.in M. Appendix, 
p- 549), teste type-valve=D. cartratus, Mus. Cum, ol’m, and from it M. 71; 
non D. carinaius, lus. Cum. hodic, and type, teste Hanl., =D. culminatus, 
M. 72. 

459. Tellina cognaia=Psammobia casta, Rve., teste Cuming. 

465. Tellina felix. The affiliation of th's shell to Strigilla fucata, Gld., MS., was 
doubtless due to an accidental error in labelling. No. 476 is the same 
species, dead. 

468. Tellina puella. Resembles T. felix, not ??puclla, M. 59. 

471. Tellina simulans. The type-vaive exactly accords with the Professor's W. 
Indian specimens. 

A73. Tellina vicina, C. B. Ad.,=versicolor, C. B. Ad., MS. on label. Larger than 
most W. Indian specimens, which exactly accord with the Acapulcans, and 
are varieties of Lfetercdonax bimaculatus. The Panamic shells resemble 
the Lower Californian, which are Psammobia Pacifica, Conv. 

477. Petricola cognaia, Perfect specimens are P. pholadiformis, teste Cum. 

478. Saxicava tenis, Shy.. C. B. Ad., H. and A. Ad.,= Petricola tenuis, H. and A. 
Ad. Gen. pp. 349-411, and better accords with the latter genus. 

479,482. Cumingia coarctata=lamellosa, var. M. 42. 

480, 481. Cumingia trigonularis, M. 43. 

483, Cumingia, sp. ¢,=M. 45, and, if not described, may stand as C. Adamsit. 

484, Cumingia, sp. d,=M. tablet 107, p. 31. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF TILE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 553 


485. Amphidesma bicolor = Semele Prenusta, M. 41 (non A. Ad.). 

487. Amphidesma proxinum, probably =486, ellipticum, var.: not Semele proxima, 
M. 40,= 5. flavescens, Gld., M. p. 548. 

489. Amphidesma striosum, resembles Semele pulchra, no. 488. 

491. Amphidesma ventricosum. Scarcely perfect enough to distinguish the genus. 
The valve outside resembles Macoma solidula. 

497, Anatina alta. A valve of Pertvloma; probably one of the Gulf species. 

498, Pandora cornuta, named and described from a fractured growth ; rescmbles 
Chidiophora claviculata. 

499, 500 are varieties of the same species of Azara, of which perhaps no, 501 is an 

extreme form. 

Corbula rubra=C. biradiata, jun., no. 503, M. 31. No, 509 are dead valves 

of the same,= C. polychroma, Cpr. 

508. Corbula, sp. a, resembles C. pustulosa, M. 32. 

510, Solecurtus affins, probably = 8. Caribbeus=Siliquaria gibba, Spengl., 8S. I. 
Check-List, no. 222. The W. African specimens are affiliated to the same 
species by Mr. Cuming. The Mazatlan shells, M. 37, have a different 
aspect, but closely resemble the Ariquibo specimens in Mus. Amherst. 

511. Solen rudis is named Solena obliqua, Spengl., in Mus. Cum. It appears iden- 
tical with Lnsatella ambigua, Lam., as figured by Deless. ; but S. ambigua 
(Lam.), Swains., is slightly different, and better agrees with the dead valves 
of “ S, medius, Alatska,” in Brit. Mus. These may, however, be only ballast- 
valyes. As S. ambigua, Lam., was described from America, and the form 
is not known elsewhere, it probably represents the Panamic shell. 

515. Pholas, sp. a,=laqueata, teste Cum. 

516. Pholas, sp. b, closely resembles Dactylina dactylus; also La Paz, teste Rich. 


506. 


> 


The following species were collected by Prof. Adams, but do not appear 
in his Catalogue; they were found either mixed with others in the Amherst 
Museum or in the shell-washings of his duplicates*. 


518. Mumiola ovata. 528. Caecum clathratum, 

519. Chrysallida ettusa. 529. Lepidopleurus tenuisculptus. 
520. Chrysallida telescopium. 530. Ischnochiton Elenensis, 
521. Chrysallida fasciata. 531. Cerithiopsis, n. s. 

522. Chrysallida, n. s. 532. Lucina capax. 

523. Leiostraca retexta. 533. Kellia suborbicularis. 

524, Eulima yod. 554. Spheenia fragilis. 

525. Volutella margaritula, 539. Tellina laminata. 

526. Ceecum semilieve. 536. Crenella inflata. 


527. Caecum subquadratum. 


55. British Museum Catalogues.—To the list of Deshayes, Cat. Veneride, 


may be added— 
Page. 
7. Dosinia ponderosa, Gray,=Cyth. gigantea, Shy.,= Venus cycloides, D'Orh. 

[Gulf] California. 

135. Chione callosa { Desh. et auct. Brit.,= Ch. fluctifraga, vay., quite distinct from 
Callista (Amvantis) callosa}, Cony. 

147. Chione astartoides, Beck, Greenland. [1849. = Zapes fluctuosa, Gld., 1841; 
teste Gld., Otia, p. 181. Midd.’s figures more resemble V, Kennerley?, jun. ] 


The authorities are rarely given for localities quoted in this elaborate 
work. The same species often occur under different names. The Veneride 


* With regard to the species which have received different designations in the Reigen 
and Adamsian catalogues, whether those names be retained of which the specimens exist, 
and have been widely distributed, in accordance with the diagnoses, or whether the prior 
ones be adopted of which the unique types do not represent the descriptions, is a matter 
of little moment to the writer of the Brit. Mus. Cat. He spared no pains in making-out 
his predecessor’s species before describing his own, and has offered the best attainable 
list of the parallel forms in the review here quoted, 


554 REPORT—1863. 


in the Brit. Mus. Coll. have received Deshayes’ autograph names, in accord- 
ance with this Catalogue, generally on the back of the tablets. 
In the Brit. Mus. Catalogue of Volutide*, 1855, Dr. Gray arranges the 

W. Coast species thus :— 

Page. No. 

17 7. Lyria (Eneta) Harpa, Adams, 167; Gray, P. Z.S. 1855, p. 61; Hab. Peru, 
=Voluta Harpa, Barnes, Sby., Conch. Thes. {= Voluta Barnesii, Gray, 
Zool. Journ. vol. i, p. 511, note. | 

18 10. Lyria (Eneta) Cumingii, Brod. (loc. cit.). Central America, 8, Salvador, 
Gulf Fonseca. 


56. Sailor’s Coll—Pecten ?senatorius may be a form of sericeus, Hds. 

57. Gould’s Collections.—* Planorbis ammon,=Traskei, Lea. P. graci- 
lentus ?=Liebmanni, Dkr., or Haldemanni,”’ teste Gld. MS. The collec- 
tions of Mr. Blake and others will be found under the “ Pacific Railway 
Explorations,” v. posted, par. 98. 

58. Bridges——Some of the species described as new on Mr, Cuming’s 
authority appear, on further comparison, to be identical with those before 
known. 

? Scrobicularia producta= Lutricola + Dombeyi, Lam. , 

Strigilla disjuncta appears to the author identical with S. sincera, Hanl. [‘ Quite 
distinct,” H. Astin g 4 

Lyonsia diaphana=L. inflata, Conv. 

Calliostoma M*Andree=normal state of C. Leanum, C. B. Ad. 

Natica excavata+N. Haneti, Recl., appear varieties of NV. lene, Recl., the 
analogue of lineata, Chemn. 

ao Alora (“ Trichotropis”) Gouldii, H. and A. Ad., P. Z.S. 1856, p. 369 ; 1861, 
p- 272. 


59. Proc. Zool. Soc.—The following additional synonyms have been ob- 
served in the list, Rep. pp. 285-288 :— 


1835 3. Venus leucodon+ Californiensis [= Chione suceincta, Val. 1833). 
” 110, Pecten circularis [? =ventricosus, jun. |. 
1850 24. PL 8. f. 4. (Add) Cumingia similis, A. Ad. N.W. coast of America. 
37. Gena varia, A. Ad. Mindoro, 9 fms., Cuming; Australia; Acapulco, 
on the sands, Moffat. {Clearly imported. ] 
1851 153. Infundibulum Californicum [is a Pacific shell=Z. chloromphalus, vay. }. 
» 168. Ziziphinus Californicus {= Calliostoma eximium, Rve.}. 
» 190. Margarita calostoma [= M. pupilla, Gld.,=costellata, Brit. Mus. Col., 
non Sby. }. 
1853 185. Preidbiien I sllettt, A. Ad. [= Macron (Zemira) Kellettii, Mus. Cum. : 
= Pusio trochlea, Gray, MS. in Brit. Mus. Cerros Is., Ayres]. 
1854 316. Chlorostoma funebrale {| = Tr. marginatus, Nutt. (non Rve.);= TZ. mastus, 
auct. nonnul.; non Jonas]. 
» 9399. Tellina Mazatlanica [ =T. pura, Gld., 1851). 
1855 231. Chiton Montereyensis {= Mopalia lignosa, Gld., 1846 :=Merckii, Midd., 
1847]. 
231, 232. ck. Hartwegiti and regularis belong to Ischnochiton. 


* In Donovan’s ‘ Naturalist’s Repository,’ vol. ii. 1834, p. 61, appears (without 
authority) “ Voluta Dufresnii, Don., California, 8S. America.” 

+ This belongs to a group of species in which the cartilage is semi-internal, intermediate 
between Scrobicularia (=Lutricola) and Macoma. They are arranged under the former 
group in Add. Gen. ii. 409, as ‘‘subgen. Capsa, Bose.” That Lamarckian name being in 
common use for Jphigenia, Schum., and being also employed for Asaphis and Gastrana, it 
adds to the confusion to use it fora fourth group. The bulk of Blainyille’s old genus 
having migrated to Lutraria and Scrobicularia, his name may be reyiyed for this group 
not otherwise provided-for. The species was redescribed in consequence of Dombeyi having 
been left among the true Te//ens in Mus. Cum. { : 


4 


’ 


| 
| 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 555 


' Page. 
1855 254. Callopoma depressum [ = Senectus funiculatus, Kien.: not American]. 
- The following species appear in later numbers of the Proceedings :— 


1856 360. Mytilus Adamsianus, Dix. [=M. multiformis]. Panama, Cuming. 

» 965. Volsella splendida, Dkr. California. 

Dr. Gray, in his elaborate article on the Olivide, 1858, pp. 38 et seq., 
gives O. julieta, Ducl., O. araneosa, Lam., and O. venulata, Lam., as syno- 
nyms of Strephona reticularis, Lam. ; and quotes as “‘ species (?) more or less 
allied to it,” O. polpasta, Ducl., O. splendidula, Ducl., “ 0. jaspidea, Ducl.,= 
0. Duclosii, Rye.” [?], O. kaleontina, Ducl. (Gallapagos), 0. Cumingii, Rve., 
and Oliva Schumacheriana, Beck, “California: front of pillar-lip brown” 
[?=0. Cumingii, var.}. y 

For 0. volutella, Lam. (including O. razamola, Ducl.), he constitutes the 
genus Famola. 

For 0. wndatella, Lam. (including O. ?hieroglyphica, Rve., O. nodulina, 
Ducl., and 0. ozodina, Ducl.), and similar species, he forms the genus 
Anazola. 

The restricted genus Olivella is altered to Olivina, and includes (from the 
West Coast) O. gracilis, Sby., O. anazora, Ducl., O. tergina, Ducl., O. lincolata 
=dama, Goodall* ; and, in a section, O. columellaris, Sby., O. semisuleata, 
Gray, and 0. zonalis, Lam. 

The Californian species, O. biplicata, Sby.,=O. nux, Goodall, in Wood, is 
placed in the genus Scaphula. This is constituted for an animal, “ Olivancilla 
auricularia,” D’Orb., on which, in his work on 8. America, he figures the 
shell of O. biplicata (teste Gray). The shell might in some way have become 
mixed with 8. American specimens; but as D’Orb. could not possibly have 
there observed the living animal, the genus should be restricted to the latter. 
The shell of O. biplicata is very peculiar, and has not been found south-of 
San Diego: D’Orbigny’s genus is Olivancillaria. 


Page. : 

1859 280, Terebra strigata, Sby., Tank. Cat. Panama, Real Lejose =Buccinum 
elongatum, Gray, Wood,= Terebra zebra, Kien.,= Terebra flammea, 
Less. 

», 287. Terebra Salleana, Desh. Mexico [Pubi], Sailé. 

» 9302. Terebra Petiveriana, Desh. (Pet. Gaz. pl. 75. £5). Panama. Mus. Cum. 

» 303. Terebra specillata, Hds. “ Probably two species here figured,” San 
Blas, Mexico. 

» 303. Terebra larviformis, Hds. “ Probably two species here figured.” St. 

Elena, Monte Christi. 

307. Terebra formosa, Desh. Panama. Mus. Cum. 

» 307. Terebra incomparabilis, Desh. [= T. flammea, Lam., teste Rve., P. Z. 8. 
1860, p. 450]. Panama. Mus. Cum. 

» 308. Terebra insignis, Desh. Panama. Mus. Cum. 

» 428. Spondylus Victoria, Sby., pl. 49. fig. 8. Gulf of California. Mus. Cum. 

» 428. Murex teniatus, Sby., pl. 49. fig. 3. Gulf of California. Mus. Cum. 

1860 370. Leda Taylori, Hanl. uatemala. Mus. Cum., Taylor. 

» 440. Leda Hindsw, Hanl. ? Gulf of Nicoya. Mus. Cum., Hanl., Mete. 

» 449 450, | Review of Deshayes’ ‘ Monograph of the Terebrida,’ 1859, by Mr. 
: Reeve. His synonyms are quoted under par. 62, ‘Conch. Ic? 

1862 239) 5 Prursa fusco-costata, Dkr. California, Mus. Cum. [No autho- 

rity.| Like B, bitubercularis, Lam. 


* Many of the names given to the shells in Wood’s Suppl. were arbitrarily altered by 


Dr. Goodall, as the work passed through the press (teste Gray). However, if the first 


_ published, they will be allv wed the right of precedence. 


: 


556 REPORT—1863. 


In the P. Z. $8. 1861, pp. 145-181, is the first part of the long-expected 
“Review of the Vermetide,”’ by Otto A. L. Mérch. The species of the 
West Coast are arranged as follows :— 


Page. Sp. 4 _ 
lol 4. Stephopoma pennatum, Morch, pl. 25. f. 3-8. Realejo, on Callopoma 
152... + Stephopoma pennatum, ?var. bispinosa, pl. 25.1.9, 10. and Crucibulum. 


153 5. Stphonium (Dendropoma) megamastum, Morch, pl. 25. f. 12, 18. “ PCali- 
fornia; burrowing in Haliotis nodosus, Rve.” [Not a Californian 
species. | 

.. Stphonium (Dendropoma) megamastum, var. centiquadra, Morch. 
“ = Aletes centiquadrus, var. tmbricatus, Maz. Cat. p. 302,” Moreh [non 
Cpr.]. California, burrowing in JZaliotis splendens {a strictly Califor- 
nian species, not found on the Mexican coast]. 

154 6. Stphonium (Dendropoma) lituella, Morch. California; deeply imbedded 

in Haliotis splendens; Mus. Cum. 
?=Stoa ammonitiformis, M. de Serres. 
= Spiroglyphus, sp., Cpr., B. A. Report, p.324. [Found on shells from 
Washington Ter. to Cape St. Lucas (also Socoro Is., Xantus) ; but it 
has not been observed on the Mexican or Centval American coast. | 
1GL£ 20. Stphonium margaritarum, Val. Panama, Val.; Mazatlan, Ieigen. 
“ = Aletes margaritarum, Maz. Cat. p. 303,” [teste Mérch, non Cpr.*]. 

177-36. Vermiculus pellucidus, Brod. and Sby., pl. 25. f. 17-20. 

Var. a. planorboides = Serpula regularts, Chenu. Hab.?—, on ?Margari- 
tifera. Mus. Cum. 

we ee) War. aa. laquearis. WW. Columbia, Cwming. 

178 .. * Var. B. einnamomina. W. Columbia, Cuming. 

Var. y. volubilis, Morch, pl. 25. f. 18, 19.= Vermetus eburneus, Rve., = 
V. lumbricalis, Knight. Hab,?—. Mus. Cum. 

Var. 6. volubilis (adulta) picta, Morch, = Verm. eburneus, Maz. Cat. 
p. 304. W. Columbia, Craning; Puntarenas, Oersted, Journ. 
Conch. viii. p. 30. 

Var. e. crassa, Mirch, = Serp. Panamensis, Chen. Ill. pl. 10. fig. 6 = 
Vermiculus eburneus, Morch, Journ. Conch. viii. 30. Puntarenas, 
Oersted. “ Fossil at Newburn, N.C.,” Nudtall [teste Moreh]. 

179 Var. ¢. tigrina, Mérch. W. Columbia, Cuming. 

ay Var. n. castanea, Morch. On Miarex melanoleucus, Morch. 

Operculum: W. Columbia, Cuming. 

Var. 1, from yar. 6.= Vermetus Hindsti, Gray, Add. Gen, fig. 28, a, b. 

Puntarenas, Oersted. 

180 .. Var. 2, discifer, from var. 6. Puntarenas, Oersted. 

Var. 3, from var. e«. Pl. 25. f. 17. 

Var. 4, subgranosa, from yar. n. Puntarenas, Oersted. 

181 38. Vermiculus effusus, Val., = “ Vermetus e., Val.” Chen. Ill. pl. 5. fig. 4, 
a-c. =Stphonium e., Chen. Man. fig. 2501. “Fie. 4 of Chen. ¢ is 
from specimen figured in Voy. Ven. as V. centiquadrus.” 

In the second part of Morch’s “Review of the Vermetide,’ 1861, pp. 
326-365, occur the following. A portion of the genus Bivonia is united to 
Spiroglyphus. Petaloconchus, Aletes, and part of Bivonia are united to Ver- 
metus, Morch (non auct.). The name Aletes appears to be used in a varietal 
sense, in no respect according with the subgenus as described by the author. 


* T was perhaps wrong in referring the Mazatlan shells to Val.’s species ; but if Mr. 
Mérch is right in his own determination, the Mazatlan synonymy and locality must be 
expunged. There was no evidence of a typical Siphoniwm when the Reigen Catalogue was 
published, nor have I seen such from the whole coast, unless the minute operculum h, 
Brit. Mus. Col., tablet 2537, be supposed the young. Mérch says, “ the lid is unknown.” 
The operculum of the similar Mazatlan species, on which the subgenus Aletes was 
founded, is described in Maz. Cat. p. 302. 

+ “Cpr.’s observations respecting Chenu’s plates (Maz. Cat. p. 306, lin. 18) are in part 


a 39 


erroneous, it being overlooked that Chenu has two plates marked ‘ V.’ ;” note *, p. 337, 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 557 


. Sp. 
2 8. Spiroglyphus albidus, ?Cpr. Mazatlan, Reigen. Operculum g et ?f, Maz. 
Cat. p. 311.=Bivonia albida, Cpr., Maz. Cat. p. 807. Opere. g is with- 
out doubt of Spiroglyphus, and not of Bivonia, var. indentata. Operc. f 
is truly congeneric, and perhaps conspecific. 
544 4. Vermetus (Thylacodus) contortus, Cpr.* Gulf Calif. Mus. Cum. 
vs oes Var. a. repens (Thylacodus). Gult Calif., on Margaritifera, Mus. Cum. 
“This species is perhaps a state of V. (Petaloconchus) macrophrag- 
ma.”  [Mérch: non Cpr. ]+ 
O40 | Var. B. favosa (Thylacodus). Calif., on Crucibulum. Mus. Cum. 
+s oes Var. y. eontortula (Thylacodus). Gulf of California. 


mes, Forma 1. ?Thylacodus contortus, var. indentata, Cpr.“ Corre- 
sponds to forma 1, electrina, of Vermetus varians, D’Orb.” 
+» oss Var. 6. endentata (Vermetus), [Morch, non Cpr.}. Sonsonate, on Spon- 


dylus limbatus, Rye., non Shy. Oersted. 

846 ., Var. «. corrodens (Vermetus). Is. Sibo (PQuibo), Spengler, on Pur- 

pura lineata. 

359 20. Vermetus (?? Strebloceras) anellum, Mirch. California, on Hallotis tuber- 
culatus, Rve. [Not a Californian Haliotis. The diagnosis, however, 
exactly accords with aCalifornian shell, which is perhaps the young of 
S. squamigerus. It has no resemblance to Strebloceras, Cpr., P. Z. 8, 
1858, p. 440, which is a genuine Cwcid. 

360 21. Vermetus (Macrophragma) macrophragma. Mazatlan, &c.= Petaloconchus 
m., Cpr. Realejo, Oersted. 

362 24. Vermetus (Aletes) centiquadrus, Val. Puntarenas, Oersted + V. effusus, 
Val. (the same specimen). 

Bei Var. a. maxima=V. Panamensis, Chen, pl.5, £1. Panama, C. B. Ad. ; 
Mazatlan, Melchers. 
var Var. B. Punctis impressis destituta,= V. Péronii, Val.t 
363. Var. y. siphonata. Puntarenas, Oersted= V. Péronii, Rouss. 
+» «+ Var. 6. tulipa. Gulf of California, on piece of black Pinna, Mus. Cum, 
[The Pinna nigrina is from the E. I.]=V. tuipa, Rouss. 
2a Be Var. «. Bridgesii. Panama, on Margaritifera, Mus, Cum. 


The conclusion of the paper is in P, Z. S, 1862, pp. 54-83. 


58 4, Bivonia sutilis, Mérch. Central America, on Anomalocardia subimbricata, 
Mus. Cum. 

«» 4+ Var. a. Pmajor. On Pinna, probably Central America, Mus. Dunker. 

-» 4s War. 8. triquetra, Mazatlan, on valve of Placunanomia, Mus. Semper. 
Like B. triquetra, “ var. typica.” 

70 8. Thylacodes cruciformis, Mirch. California, on Crucibulum Pumbrella, 
Desh., var. Mus. Cum. Analogue of 7, 7. Riisei, Mirch, from the 
east coast. 

ss ee Var. #. lumbricella. Voy. Ven. pl. 11. f 2. California, crowded on 
Margaritifera. Mus. Cum. 

+s «+ Var, 8. erythosclera. Cal., on young Margaritifera. Mus. Cum. 
Very like Biv. Quoyt, var. variegata. [This species is on shells from 
the Mexican, not the “Californian ” Bee 

76 16. Thylacodes squamigera, Cpr.,= Aletes sg., Cpr., P.Z.S. 1856, p. 226. Sta. 
Barbara, Nutt. | Serpulorbis, not Aletes, teste Cooper. 


* Mr. Mérch has not seen any laminz inside, but, from the 3-5 spiral lire on the 
columella, believes they will be found. The opercula supposed to belong to this species 
(Maz. Cat. p. 311) Mr. M. thinks more probably those of Spiroglyphus albidus. He 
states (erroneously) that the shell was not opened by the describer. 

+ Morch supposes that Bivonia contorta, Cpr., may be the adult of Petaloconchus 
macrophragma, and that both may be forms of Aletes centiquadrus. The nuclear por- 
tions are, however, quite distinct, and the three shells appear, from beginning to end, as 
far removed as any ordinary Vermetids can be from each other. 

{ The writer doubts respecting this species, and thinks the shell on which it is para- 
sitical to be a Melo, and not Strombus galea, simply because named after Péron, who 
did not visit this district. 


558 REPORT—1863. 

Page. Sp. 

76 16 Var. a. pennata,=V. margaritarum, Val. Ven. pl. 11. f. 2. (fig. min.), 
Cal. Mus. Cum. [Affiliated to the Californian species on supposi- 
titious evidence, and probably distinct. These appear to be from the 
tropical fauna.] Analogue of the W. Indian 7. deeussatus, Gmel. 

78 21. PThylacodes oryzata, Morch. Probably W. Central America, from the 
adhesions; but “ China: ” Mus. Cum. 2) : 

Var. a. annulatu. Panama. Mus. Cum.* 


In P.Z.S8.1861, pp. 229-233, is given a “Catalogue of a Collection of Terres- 
trial and Fluviatile Molluscs, made by O. Salvin, Esq., M.A., in Guatemala: 
by the Rey. H. B. Tristram.” t few of the 49 species occur in Mexican 
collections; none are identical with W. Indian species, except such as 
are of universal occurrence in tropical America; and the 16 new species 
show close generic affinities with the shells of the northern regions of 8. 
America. The shells have been identified from the Cumingian cellection. 
The new species are described, and some of them figured. 

Page. No. Pl Fig. 
230 .. .. Helix Ghiesbreghti, Nyst. The largest Hehiv in the New World. 
Helix eximia, Pfr. 

Felix Lalliana, Pfr., var. 

Helix euryomphala, Pfr. Closely allied to the 5S. American 

HT, laxata. 

Helix coactiliata, Fér. 
Bulimus Pazianus, D’Orb. 
Bulimus Moricandi, Pfr. 
.. .. Bulimus Honduratianus, Pfr. 
9 .. .. Bulimus Dysoni, Pfr. 
10 26 8. Bulimus semipellucidus, n.s. Allied to B. diserepans, Sby. 
11... .. =Sueetnea Pputris, Ln. 
12... .. Glandina Ghiesbreghti, Pfr. 


DAIS) Or He CO bo 


3 .. ..  Glandina Carminensis, Morelet. Described from Costa Rica. 
14... .. Achatina, sp. ind. 
15... .. Achatina octona, Lam. 


16... ..  Spiraxis Lattrei, Pfr. 

7... .. Spiravis Shuttleworthii, Pfr. 
..  «. Spiraaxis Cobanensis, D. 8. 

19 .. .. Spiraxis, sp. ind. 

20... .. Leptinaria Emmeline, un. s. 
21... .. Leptinaria Elisa, n. s. 

22 .. .. Cylindrella Ghiesbreghti, Pfr. 
23...  .. Cylndrella Salpina, n. s. 
24... .,. Physa Sowerbyana, D’Orb. 


bo 
eae 
— 
oa) 


25 .. ., Physa purpurostoma,n.s. Lake of Duenas. 
.. 26 .. .. Planorbis corpulentus, Say. 
232 27 .. .. Planorbis tumidus, Pfr. aa ne P. tumens, Maz. Cat. 258. 

28... .. Planorbis Wyldi, n.sp. Lake of Duenas. 

29... .. Planorbis Duenasianus, n.s. Lake of Duenas. 

30... .. Planorbis, sp. noy., in Mus. Cum. 

31 .. .. Segmentina Donbdilli, n.s. Lake of Duetas. 

32... .. Melampus fasciatus, Chem. Salt-marshes on coast. 

33... .. Adamsiella Osberti, n. s. 


* The present posture of binomial nomenclature is well illustrated in this most elabo- 
vate paper, which few naturalists have professed to understand. The shell of which the 
operculum-spine is figured in plate 25. f. 16, is quoted as “ Siphoniwm (Stoa) subere- 
natum, vy. spinosa.” "Che shell described in Maz. Cat. p. 307 is quoted as ‘“ Vermetus 
(Thylacodus) contortus, var. y. contortula (Thylacodus), forma 1, Thylocodus (?) con- 
tortus, var. indentata, Cpr.’ Perhaps the sentences of Kleim and the early writers are 
more easy to understand and remember. The Chitonide of Middendorff (v. First Report, 
p- 214) are simple in comparison. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 559 
Page. No. Pl. Fig. 
oust: SA Cistula trochlearis, Pfr. 
85 .. .. Chondropoma rubicundum, Morelet. 
36... .. Megalomastomasimulacrum, Morelet. Described from Costa Rica. 
.. 37 ..  .. Cyclophorus ponderosus, Pfr. 
.. 388 .. .. Cyelophorus translucidus, Sby. 
233. 39 26 11. Macroceramus polystreptus, un. s. 
.. 40 26 9,10. Helicina Salvini,n.s. Like H. turbinata, Wiegm. Mexico. 


41 .. .. Helcina amena, Pfr. 
42... .. Helicona Oweniana, Pfr. 

3...  .. Helicina merdigera, Sallé. Described from Nicaragua. 
44... .. Helicina Lindeni, Pfr. 


.. 45 .. ., Helicina chryseis,n.s. Mountain forests of Vera Paz. 

. 46,47,48.. .. Paludinella, 3 species apparently undescribed. 

.. “49 .. .. Pachycheilus corvinus, Morelet. Larger than in previously 
noted habitats. 


The vol. for 1863 contains Dr. Baird’s descriptions of new species from 
the Vancouver collections of Lord and Lyall, which will be tabulated, infra, 
par. 103; and the Review of Prof. Adams’s Panama shells, which has already 
been quoted. 


60. Sowerby, ‘ Conchological Illustrations, 1841.—The following are addi- 
tional localities or synonyms :— 


No. Fig. 
2 46. Cardium Indicum {is exotic ; closely allied to C. aa 
56 18. Cardiwm maculatum, Shy. Cal., &e. =C. maculosum, Shy. (preoc.). 
90 .. Murex imperialis, Swains. Cal. =M. pomum, var. Gmel. | Perhaps dis- 
tinct ; may be the W. I. analogue of bicolor. } 
91 38. Murex erythrostoma, Swains. Acapulco. [?=bicolor, var. ] 
45 102. Cyprea albuginosa, Gray. Mexico, Ceylon, {The Ceylon shell is pro- 
bably poraria, sp. 44. } 
1 45. Erato scabriuscula, Gray. Acapulco. =Marginella eypreola, Shy. 
62 40. Fissurella Lincolni, Gray,MS. {An extremely fine specimen (supposed 
“unique ”’) of Glyphis aspera, Esch. Myr. Lincoln is also quoted for 
the “finest of the four known specimens ” of Zacapina crenulata, sp. 19, 
f. 31, 38: “ Monterey.” | 
54 [Erase this line in the former Report, and substitute as follows :—] 
55 Bulimus unifasciatus, Shy. Galapagos. 


‘ Thesaurus Conchyliorum, G. B. Sowerby, &c. To the list in Rep. pp. 
288, 289, may be added :— 
Page. Pl. Fig. 
™ 51 12 23. Pecten circularis, Shy. Cal., St. Vincents. [The name may 
2 stand for the W. Indian shell, the Californian being P. ven- 
tricosus, jun. | 
57 12 20,21. Pecten latiawritus, Cony, Cal. + P. mesotimeris, Cony.” 
261 +59 = 144. TZellina sincera, Hanl. N.W. Coast America. [=Panama. ] 
: 769 165 36-38. Venerupis cylindracea, Desh. Cal.,=Petricola Californica, Conr., 
+P. arcuata, Desh.,+ P. subglobosa, Shy. 
865 179 59-77. Cerithium ocellatum, Brug. Gulf Cal., &e. =C. irroratum [C. 
; B. Ad. (Gld. MS.) ; non] Gld. K. E.,= C. interruptum [C. B. 
Ad.: non Mke, nec} Gld. 


a S Fig. 
t 47 = 45, 44. Conus* interruptus, Mawe, Wood. (Slender, coronated sp.] non 
f Br. and Sby. Hab. ?— 


* Mr. Sowerby remarks, “As the collector’s great object is to know the shells, I have 
preferred, in most cases, giving the species as they stand, stating the alleged differences, 
and leaving the final decision to individual taste.” He further states, with regard to some 
groups, that “the characters of the shells are very uncertain, and the intentions of the 
authors still more so.” The names, references, and localities are given on lists to face the 
plates, and the diagnoses separately, with a copious index. An attempt also is made to 


560 REPORT—1863. 


Sp. Tig. 

Ga i 80. Conus tiaralus, Brod. Galapagos. 

79 128,129. Conus puncticulatus, Brug. Salango, St. Elena, W. Col., Cuming. 
ae 130. Conus puncticulatus, var.,=papillosus, Kien. 

os 391. Conus puncticulatus. { Mazatlan. ] 

rit 392. Conus puncticulatus, var.,=pustulosus, Kien. : ?4+ Mauritianus, Lam. 
133 190. Conus virgatus, Rve.,=zebra, Sby., non Lam, [Resembles regulars, 


var.| Salango, W. Col., Cuming. 
ae Conus virgatus, var., = Lorenzianus, Rye., non Chem. 
193. Conus virgatus, var., = Cromingir. 


106 192. Conus scalaris, Val.,=gradatus, Rve. Salango, W. Col., Croming. 
127 194. Conus incurvus, Brod. {Resembles specimens from La Paz.| Monte 


Christi, W. Col., Cuming. 
180 285,402. Conus Ximenes, Gray, =interruptus, Brod., non Mawe. [Like puncti- 
? ’ ab) eid By : £ 
culatus, var.| Mazatlan, W. Columbia, Cuming. 


157 324. Conus perplecus, Sby. Gulf Cal., W. Col., Craniny. 
84 384. Conus arcuatus, Br. and Sby. Mazatlan, Pacific [?]. 
15 26-28. Fissurella Mexicana, Shy. Real Llejos, Mexico. | [Both localities 


+ 78. Fissurella Mexicana, Shy. Porto Praya. 
are probably incorrect ; it belongs to the Chilian fauna. | 

41 4G, 47. Fissurella rugosa, Shy. W. Indies [= W. Mexico]. 

32 88, 89. Fisswrella alba, Cpr. [Gulf of] California. 


55 64, 65. Fissurella nigrocincta, Cpr. [Gulf of] California. 

56 67. Fissurella tenebrosa, Sby., jun. [PGulf of | California. Like the last. 
54 80. Fissurella obscura, Shy. Real Liejos, Cum. [‘ Gal.” in P.Z.S, 1854. | 
68 154-156. Fissurella excelsa, Rve.,+F. alta, C. B. Ad. 

86 123. Fisswrella Panamensis, Sby. “In Conch. Il., this very distinct 


shell is united to that since named F, excelsa, Rye.” 
115 187-189. Fisswrella cancellata, Soland. St. Vincent’s, Honduras Bay, Guada- 
loup, California. [No authority for the latter. } 


7 12,13. Harpa Rivoliana, Less.,= H. crenata, Swains. Acapulco. 
1860. 
2 57. Dentalium pretiosum, Nutt. “ =striolatwm, Stn. Massachusetts. 


Less curved and tapering near apex than D. entale, more cylin- 
2 2 . ” rm, x : 
drical throughout, but a doubtful species.” {The type-speci- 

mens are not striated.| California. 


43 10. Dentalium hecagonum, Gld. N. America: China, Singapore. 

42 34. Dentalium pseudosexagonum, Desh. Masbate, Philippines: W. 
Columbia. 

8 41. Dentalium splendidum, Shy. Xipixapi, W. Col. 

29 32. Dentalium liratum, Cpr. “ Malgattem.” [Maz. Cat. 244.] 

48 31. Dentalium quadrangulare, Sby. Xipixapi, W. Col. [Like ¢etra- 
gonum, but striated, and much salen) 

49 21, 22. Dentalium tetragonun, Sby. W. Col. [Young shell square, adult 


round. | 


In the very elaborate monograph of the Nuculide, by 8. Hanley, Esq., the 
following species, quoted as from the W. Coast, are minutely described :— 
2 3. Leda Sowerbiana, D’Orb, Xipixapi. 
= WN. elongata, Val. 
=WN. lanceolata, G. Sby., non J. Sby., nec Lam. 
a 35. Leda Taylori, Hanl.,=N. lanceolata, Lam., non G, nec J. Sby. 
Guatemala. (P. Z. 8. 1860, p. 370.) 
29 70-72. Leda Elenensis, Shy. Panama. 
3 90, Leda eburnea, Sby.,=lyrata, Hds. Panama: Bay of Caraccas. 


classify the forms according to their natural affinities. It is rarely that monographers 
and artists take such laudable pains to supply the wants of students. In the monograph 
of Galeomma and Scintilla, however, the locality-marks have not been observed to a 
single species, except the “ British @. Turtoni” and its “ Philippine analogue, G. macro- 
schisma, Desh.” his is the more remarkable, as most of the species were described by 
Desh., with localities, in P. Z. S. 1855, pp. 167-181. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WE8T COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 561 


In the ‘ Malacological and Conchological Magazine,’ by G. B. Sowerby, 
London, 1838, is a monograph of Leach’s genus Margarita. The following 
probably belong to the N. W. Coast, and are figured in the Conch. Ill. :— 


Page. 

25. Margarita striata, Brod. and Sby. Boreal Ocean. 

26. Margarita undulata, Shy. Arctic Ocean. 

26. Margarita costellata, Sby. [Non Brit. Mus. Col. = JL pupilla, Gid.; differs in 
having the interspaces of the spiral ribs decussated. Arctic Ocean. | 

26. Margarita acuminata, Shy. Arctic Ocean. 

30. Aphrodite columba, Lea,= Cardium Granlandicum. 


Several West Coast species were named and figured in the elder Sowerby’s 
‘Genera of Recent and Fossil Shells,’ London, 1820-1824; a work of singular 
merit for its time, but left unfinished*. The stock was purchased by a dealer, 
with a view to completion; but newer works haye occupied its place, and 
the valuable plates and text remain useless in hishands. As no dates appear 
in the bound copy of the work, it cannot be stated whether the species here 
named by Mr. Sowerby had been before published. The loss of the original 
work has been in some respects supplied by the completion of the extremely 
similar ‘ Conchologia Systematica,’ by L. Reeve, vol. i. 1841, vol. ii. 1842. 
It might almost be considered a second edition of the ‘Genera,’ of which 
some of the plates occur in the quarto form. References are here given to 
the species reproduced from Sowerby’s unfinished work, which is often quoted 
by Mr. Reeve according to the “ Numbers ” in which it appeared :-- 


Fig. | Fig. Sowerby’s Genera. 
2. Cumingia trigonularis. 
5. Cumingia lamellosa. 
4, Cumingia coarctata. 
1. Tellina opercularis {= T. operculata, Gmel., = T. rufescens,Chem.,” Rye. }. 
1, Lueina punctata [Linn., “= Lentilaria p., Schum.” Rye. C. 8.}. 
2,5. Venus subrugosa. 
7. Venus gnidia. 
2. Cytherea planulata. 
3. Cytherea aurantiaca. 
4 [non 3]. Lithodomus caudigerus [Lam.,=aristatus, Dillw.]. 
3. [Appears to represent attenuatus, Desh. 
. Modiola semifusca [inside view; exactly accords with Braziliensis, Maz, 
Cat., but is not Lamarck’s species, teste Hanl. }. 


PROS: Ge Coe RO'OURS I Ee Cork 


2. 2. Lima squamosa [ Lam. ]. 

2 2. Ostrea Virginica [Lam. }. 

if 1. Placunanomia Cumingii. “Brought by Mr. Henry Cuming from the 
Gulf of Dulce, in Costa Rico.” 

1. | 1. Lottia gigantea, Gray. Genus named in Phil. Trans. = Patelloides, Quoy 
and Gaim. ?South America. [The U.S. E. E. specimens were la- 
belled “ Valparaiso.” It comes to us from many parts of the world, 
but is only known to live in Middle and Lower California. = Tecturella 
grandis, Cpr., B. A. Rep. 1861, p. 137. 

8. Siphonaria Tristensis, [The figure is singularly like the Vancouver 
species, S. thersites. | 

2 2. Crepidula onyzx. 

4, | 4. Crepidula aculeata: “=P. auricula, Gmel.” 

3. Calyptrea ?extinctorium. [Sby., non Lam. The non-pitted form of 
imbricata. | 
4. Calyptrea spinosa. 


_ * The last Part (no, 34) appeared “ March 31, 1831,” many years after the previous 
issues ; teste Hanl. 


1863. 20 


562 REPORT—1868. 


Rye. | Sby. 
Fig. | Fig. Sowerby’s Genera. 


5. Calyptrea imbricata, [The pitted form. Appears in C.5., f. 1, as“ C. 
rugosa, Less.” | 

7. Calyptrea ?spinosa, var. [The flat, smooth form of spinosa, Appears in 
C.5., fig. 4, as “ C. cinerea, Rve., P. Z. S. 1842,” p. 50. On a log of 
wood floating off Cape Horn, } 

Bulla virescens. 

Nerita ornata {=scabricosta, Lam. }. 

3. Lntorina pulchra, = Turbo p., Swains. 

Titorina varia. Panama. 

Cerithium varicosum. 

. Cerithium Pacificum. [Closely resembles Potamis ebeninus. | 
Fasciolaria aurantiaca | with operc. (non Lam.) =F. princeps,Lam., Rve. }. 

. Murex phyllopterus and operc. [Appears=Cerostoma foliatum, The 
operc. seems to have been rubbed outside. | 

Columbella strombiformis, Lam. 

. Columbella labiosa, “ California” [7. e., Panama, &e. }. 

. Purpura patula | Linn, “= Perdicea nodosa, Petiver, = Cymbium tuberosum 

patulum, Martini.” Rye. C. 8.}. 

. Purpura planospirata. 

. Purpura callosa [= Cuma ret 

. Monoceros lugubre [=cymatum, Tank. Cat. ]. 

Monoceros cingulatum | Lam.: Leucozonia]. 

. Trichotropis bicarinata, and est assoid] operculum. 

. Oliva porphyria [Linn., “= Cylinder porphyreticus, D’Arg.,= Castra Tur- 

cica, Martini.’” Rve. C. 8. ]. 
5. Cyprea pustulata { Lam. }. 


) 


Pe 
PP ROOD PH AESOP Lt 


Peo ke Se ge te Salk 
* 


The following additional West Coast species, figured in the ‘Conch. Syst.,’ 
may be quoted for their synonymy. The authorities for all the species are 
given, but no localities :— 

Pl. Fig. 
26 1. Solecurtus Dombeyi, Lam. [appears intermediate between S. Dombeyt, 
Mus. Cum., and S. ambiguus, Lam. }. 
220 7. Turbo squamiger, Rve. P. Z. 8. 1842, p. 186 [without locality. ‘Gala- 
pagos, Cuming,’ in Conch. Ic. Also Acapulco, Jewett, &c.}. 
229 2. Turbinellus acuminatus, Wood, Kien. [closely resembles Latirus castaneus |. 
268 3. Buccinum elegans, Rve., P. Z.S. 1842, from Hinds’s Col. [is the southern, 
highly developed form of B. fossatum,Gld. The name is preoccupied 
by a Touraine fossil, B. elegans, Duj., in Desh. An, s. Vert. x. p. 219, 
no. 22, As Rve.’s species is a Nassa,and there is another Buc. elegans, 
Kien., Coq. Viv. p. 56, pl. 24. f. 97,= Nassa e., Rve. Conch. Ic., it will 
save confusion to allow Gld.’s later name to stand]. 
268 5,6. Buccinum serratum, Dufr.,= Nassa Northie, Gray [=Northia pristis, 
Desh. ]. 


62. Reeve, ‘Conchologia Iconica.’—The following corrections should be 
made in the abstract, Rep. pp. 289-293. 


20. [Semele flavicans should he flavescens, et passim. 

33. Siphonaria amara [is a Sandwich Is, species, quite distinct from ©. lecanium). 

38. Patella clypeaster |is a 8S, American species, having no connexion with A. 
patina, or with Monterey]. 

60. Patella cinis [ =A. pelta, not patina, var. |. ; 

67. Patella vespertina. [(P. stipulata, sp. 117, is probably a var. of this poses 

69, Patella toreuma [“ var.” in Mus. Cum., “ Mazatlan,” probably=livescens, No 
shell of this (N. Zealand) type has been found on the coast by any of the 
American collectors]. 


* Sowerby’s (correct) name appears on Reeve’s plate; but in the text of ©. S., f. 9 is 
called “a species of Zurbimellus inserted inadvertently.” 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 563 


81. Patella Nuttalliana. (Mus, Cum.,= A, pelta, typical. The figure looks more 
like patina. 

140, Be, anilota, Nutt. [non Esch., is an elevated, stunted form of the black 
? var. of scabra, Nutt. The name being preoccupied, this distinct form may 
stand as limatula]. 

64. Fissurella densiclathrata [is distinct from G. aspera. Sta. Barbara, Jewett]. 

57. Turbo marginatus [Rve., non] “ Nutt.” [is a Pacific species, quoted by Messrs. 
Adams as the Collonia marginata of Gray ; but that is a Grignon fossil, olim 
Delphinula (teste type in Brit. Mus.). The Nuttallian shell, published in 
Jay’s Cat., was described by A. Ad. as Chlorostoma funebrale= Chl. meestum, 
auct. Con Jonas, the true 7. mestus being S. American, teste A, Ad. and 
Mus, Cum.)]. 

39. Cyprea onyx iN the E. Indian, C. spadicea the similar S. Diegan species]. 


The following species, either quoted from the W. Coast, or known to in- 
habit it, or connected with it by synonymy, have been observed in Reeve’s 
“Conch. Ic.’ since the date of the last Report. The number of the species also 
refers to the figure. For the remarks enclosed in [ ] the writer of this Re- 
port, here as elsewhere, is alone responsible. 


56. Fusus turbinelloides, Rve., Jan. 1848. ?Africa, Mus. Cum. [=Stphonalia 
pallida, Br. and Sby.; spines somewhat angular]. 
62. Fusus cancellatus, Lam. “ Unalaska, Kamtschatka, Mus. Cum.” [Doubtless 
the origin of the prevalent locality-error]. 
70. Fusus Nove-Hollandia, Rve., Jan. 1848. N. Hol., Metcalfe. {As Mr. Met- 
calfe gave numerous West Coast shells to Brit. Mus. under locality “N.H.,” 
this shell also was probably from W. Mexico,=F. Dupetithouarsit, Kien. ] 
91. Fusus Gunneri, Loy., (Tritonium), Ind. Suec. p.12. Greenland. [= T'ro- 
phon multicostatus, Esch. The fig. should be 90, 6; f. 91= Bamffius. ] 
52. Cardium pseudofossile, Rve. “P. Z. 8. 1844.” Hab.?— [Not found in 
P. Z. 8.,=C. Californiense, Desh., 1839, non C, Californianum, Conr., 
1837. This is the Eastern form; the Californian Pvar.= C. blandum, ea 
67. Buccinum modrficatum, Rve., Dec. 1846. Hab. ?— [Agrees sufficiently wel 
with worn specimens from La Paz, Mus. Smiths.,= Siphonalia, closely 
allied to pares. 
62. Buecinum dirum, Rve., Dec. 1846. Hab.?— Mus. Cum. [Worn specimen 
of Chrysodomus Sitchensis, Midd., 1849,= F. incisus, Gld., May re 
110, Buceinum corrugatum, Rve., Feb. 1847. Hab.?— [“ Zruncaria,’ Cuming, 
MS. “ Pisania,’ H. Adams. Vancouver, most abundant. } 
2. Sanguinolaria ovalis, Rve., March 1857. Cent. Am. [?=S. miniata, jun. 
3. S. tellinordes, A. Ad., is the same, adolescent; 5. S. purpurea, Desh., adult. ] 
4, Psammobia maxima, Desh., P. Z. 8. 1854, p. 317, Panama. [Closely resem- 
bling Ps. rubroradiata, Nutt. Puget Sound. } 
19, Mytilus palliopunctatus, Dkx, Cal. and Mazatlan. [No authority for Cal. | 
41. Mytilus bifurcatus, Conr., J.A.N.S. Phil. Hab.? [Conr. assigns his Nuttallian 
species to California; but it is the common Sandw. Is. species, teste Pse. 
he Californian shell, with the same sculpture, is a Septifer, and is the 
S. bifurcatus of Mus, Cum.] 
44. Mytilus Sallei (Dreissina), Recl. Central America. {? On which slope. ] 
62. Mytilus Cumingianus, Recl. Panama, [Septifer.] 
60. Mytilus glomeratus, Gld. Hab. ?—* [Gould’s species is from California, but 
the name is attached to a very different shell in Mus. Cum.] 


* Several species occur in the recent monographs without locality, which are well 
known to inhabit the W. Coast. This is partly due to the writer not thinking it neces- 
sary to refer to published books for information, and partly to the changes which have of 
late years been made in the principal authority, viz. the Cumingian collection. By the 
redistribution of species into the modern genera, the student is greatly aided in his search 
for special forms; but, for the sake of uniformity, the autograph labels of collectors or 
describers of species are generally rejected, the names being either in the handwriting of 
the clerk or from the printed index in the monograph, and representing only the judg- 
ment of the latest worker, which may or may not be correct. Synonyms, whether real 

02 


564 REPORT—1863. 


11. Modiola capax, Conr. Galapagos, Cuming. [Lower} California, Nuttall. 
Mazatlan, Carpenter. [Reiyen is the authority for the shells described 
in the Maz. Cat., not Cpr. ] 

17. Modiola Braziliensis, Chem. “ Brazil.” [At f. 31, which appears the true 
Brazilian shell, we are informed that this specimen is a “variety from 
Guayaquil.” ] 

Modiola nitens, “ Cpr. Cat. Reigen Col. Brit. Mus. California.” [The shell 
was erroneously described as from “ California” in P. Z.S., aud does not 
appear in the Reigen Mazatlan Cat.: =. subpurpwreus, Mus. Cum. 

5. Lithodomus cinnamominus, Chem, Philippine Is. and St. Thomas, W.I. [=Z 
cinnamomeus, Maz. Cat. 177. Probably an Adula. | 

8. Lithodomus Cumingianus, Dky., MS. ‘ North Australia and Mazatlan.” {The 
species is figured trom the Mazatlan specimen, which may probably be 
the adult form of Z. calyculatus, Cpr.* The cup is not distinct, but 
shows a tendency to the peculiar formation described in Maz, Cat. no. 174, 
Rve.’s diagnosis, however, appears written from Dkr.’s Australian speci- 
mens, so labelled in Mus. Cum.—a very distinct species, without incrus- 
tations. The name was given by Mr. Cuming to a large Chilian species 
brought by the U.S. Expl. ap 

12. Lithodomus Grunert, Phil. MS. in Mus. Cum. “N, Zealand.” [The species 
=L. falcatus, Gid., and is certainly from California, where it is found in 
the rocks with Pholadidea penita. | 

18. Lithodomus teres, Phil. “Mazatlan.” [The specimens in Mus. Cum. are 
labelled “ Cagayan, Phil.” 

14. Lithodomus coarctata, Diy. Galapagos, Cuming. [= Crenella e., Maz. Cat. 172.) 

16. Lithodomus caudigerus, Lam. “ West Indies” [without authority]. “The 
calcareous incrustation produced beyond the ant. extremity is no specific 
characteristic.” [Vide reasons for contrary opinion, Maz. Cat. no. 176: 
= TL. aristatus. Dr. Stimpson has seen Lithophagus arranging its peculiar 
incrustation with its foot. | 

24, Lithodomus pessulatus, Rve. (Oct. 1857). Hab. >— [The unique sp. figured is 
labelled “ Mazatlan” in Mus. Cum, It resembles plwmula, with ventral 
transverse rug. | 

26. Lithodomus subula, Rve. Hab.?— {=L. plumula, hie 

6, Avicula Cumingit, Rve., March 1857. ‘Ld. Hood's Is., Pacific Ocean, 
attached to rocks, 10 fms., Cuming.” |[?=Margaritiphora fimbriata, 
Dix., var. 

9, Avicula Babak Rve. Panama, under stones at low water, Cuming. [=M. 
Jimbriata, Dky.,=M. Mazatlanica, Hanl.| “ Differs from Cuwmingit in 
regular sequence of scales, developed only at margin, and yellowish tone 
of colour.” 

67, Avicula heteroptera, Lam. N. Holland. “ =A. sterna, Gld.” [Gould’s species 

is from Gulf Cal.; but in Mus. Cum. it is marked inside “ semisugutta.” | 

4. Placunanomia foliata, Brod. Is. Muerte, Bay Guayaquil. “ May=echinata, 

W.L., but has very much larger orifice.” 

7. Placunanomia macroschisma, Desh. ‘ Onalaska, Cuming” [who never was 

there]. Kamtschatka, Desh. [Vancouver district, abundant. ] 

7. Thracia plicata, Desh.“ Mr. Cuming has specimens from California and St. 

Thomas, W.I.” [Cape St. Lucas, Xantus. ] 
Melania. [Various species are described from ‘ Central America,” &c., which 


or supposed, are rejected altogether. Thus shells sent to Mr. Cuming, with authentic 
name and locality attached, may appear soon after without any, or with erroneous, 
quotation. The error is rendered graver by appearing with the weighty authority of 
* Mus. Cum.” 

* The species described in the Brit. Mus. Cat. seldom appear in the monographs, 
unless there happen to b> a specimen in Mus. Cum. Some of the monographers often 
content themselves with figuring the shells that come most easily to hand; and do not 
seem to consider it a part of their work to pass judgment on previously described 
species, or to concern themselves with what are small or difficult. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 565 


may or may not belong to the Pacific slope. They should be studied 

: in connexion with U.S. forms, but are not here tabulated. ] 

50. Melania Buschiana, Rve. “California.” [No authority. Very like the 
young of VW. scipro, Gld. | 

367. Melania nigrina, Lea, MS. in Mus. Cum. “ Shasta, California.” 

68. Cancellaria funiculata, Hds., = C. lyrata, Ad. and Rve. ~ Gulf Magdalena. 

66. Litorina irrorata, Say. “Sitcha.” [The “Sitcha” shell is Z. modesta, Phil. 
Say’s species is the well-known form from the Gulf of Mexico. 

5. Terebra strigata, Sby., + elongata, W00d., =flammea, Less., =zebra, Kien. “Pa- 
nama, Galapagos, and Philippines, Cuming; Moluccas, &c.” [Painting 
in stripes. : 

10. Terebra a ait Hds. Panama, &e. [= 7. Lorots?, Guér., teste Rve. P. ZS. 
1860, p. 450, Painting splashed. 

12. Terebra variegata, Gray. “ Mouth of the Gambia, Senegal, Mazatlan, Co- 
lumbia. It is well known to those who have studied the geographical 
distribution of animal life, that the fauna of the West African seas, 
north of Sierra Leone, is in part identical with the fauna of the seas of 
California and the W. Indies; and geologists, among whom was the late 
Prof. E. Forbes, have laboured, not unsuccessfully, to account for this 
phenomenon.” [ Vide Maz. Cat. p. 157, B. A. Rep. p. 865. In the pre- 
sent instance, however, there will be more than cne opinion as to the 
identity of the species here quoted. |+ Z\ africana, Gray,+ T. Hupei, Lorois, 
+ T. intertincta, Hds.,+ T. marginata, Desh.,+ T, albocincta, Cpr., + T. 
Hindsi, Cpr.,+ T. subnodosa, Cpr. 

72. Terebra armillata, Hds. “Panama, Galapagos. Somewhat doubtful whether 
this is not a var. of 7. variegata.” [If the others are, probably this is. 
Those species of Hinds, which Mr, Reeve has not altered, are not here 

repeated. | 

$2. Terebra dislocata [as Cerithium], Say. “Southern U.S. and California.” [No 
authority given for Cal. 

84. Terebra rudis, Gray, “ = M. rufocinerea, Cpr. 8. Carolina, Jay. Somewhat 
doubtful whether this is not a var. of dislocata.” [The 7. rufocinerea is 
one of the difficult Mazatlan shells, and should share the fate of 7. Mindsiz 
and 7. subnodosa. | 

85. Terebra cinerea, Born. “W. Africa, Hennah; Japan, Hds.; Philippines, 
Cuming; W.1., C. B. Adams; Mazatlan, Cpr.” i e. Reigen. The same 

remarks apply to this group as to variegata, &e.|+ 7. castanea, Kien., non 
Hds.,+ 7. laurina, Hds.,+ 7. luctuosa, Hds.,+ T. stylata, Ads.,+ TZ. Jamai- 
censis, C. B. Ad. 

0. Terebra aspera, Hds.,+ T. Petiveriana, Desh. Panama,8. A., Cuming, Bridges. 

2. Calyptrea tortilis, Rve. Galapagos, Cuming. 

8. Calyptrea alveolata, A. Ad., MS. Galapagos, Cumung. 

4. Crepidula excavata, Brod. Chilif?], Cuming. 

6. Crepidida nautiloides*, Less., MS. in Mus. Cum. “New York.” [=C, 

dilatuta. | 

8. Crepidula marginalis, Brod. Panama, Cuming. [V. Maz. Cat. p. 292, note.] 

10. Crepidula rugosa, Nutt. Upper Cal. [An accidentally ribbed specimen, 
figured from Mus. Taylor. 

ll. Crepidula fimbriata, Rve. (June 1859). Vancouver's Straits, [This is to 
navicelloides, Nutt., no. 97, as Lessonit is to squama ; simply an accidentally 
frilled var. | 

12. Crepidula adunca, Shy. [Not] Panama. =C. solida, Hds.,=rostriformis, 
Gld. [This is the northern species from Vancouyer and Cal., and is not] 
=uncata, Mike. 

18. Crepidula arenata, Brod. St. Elena (not Helena, Desh.), Cuming. 

22, Crepidula aculeata, Gmel, Lobos Is., Peru, Cuming; California, Nutt., Cpr. 
[%.e. Mazatlan, Reagen]; Honduras, Dyson; Sandw. Is., Austr., Kur- 


* Several S. American forms are here quoted for the synonymy ; because in Calyptreide 
the species often haye a wide range, and should be studied in connexion with their 
neighbours, Lact 


O90 


. Crucibulum sordidum, Brod.,+ C. unguis, 


REPORT—1863. 


rachee, mouth of Indus. + C. hystryx, Brod.,+ C. echinus, Brod.,+ C. Cali- 
fornica, Nutt. ; 


. Crepidula rostrata, C. B. Ad. Panama. [=C. wncata, Mke., nom. prior. This 


tropical form presents distinctive marks. | 


. Crepidula exuviata, Nutt. Monterey. [=C. explanata, Gld.,=C. perforans, 


Val. An abnormal form of C. navicelloides, Nutt.: C. nummaria, Gld., is 
the opposite extreme. 


. Crepidula bilobata, Gray a e. Cpr.], MS. in Mus. Cum. [= C. dorsata, Brod. 


Vide Maz. Cat. no. 336, where the origin of the MS. name would have 
been found explained. It appears to be principally a northern species 
= C. lingulata, Gld. | 


. Crepidula lirata, Rye. (Gulf of] California. [Intermediate form between 


C. incurva and C. onyx, described in Maz. Cat. p. 277.] 


. Crucibulum scutellatum, Gray. “= C. rugosa, Less.,=C. imbricata, Sby., non 


Brod.” Payta, Less.; Punta St. Elena, Cuming. [ Vide Maz. Cat. no. 343. ] 


. Crucibulum rugosum, “Desh., non Less.,= C. lignaria, Brod., P var. = C. gem- 


macea, Val.” Island of Chiloé, Cuming. | Vide Maz. Cat. p. 290.] 


. Crucibulum ferrugineum, Rye. Bay of Conception, Chili, Cuming. [=C. 


guiriquina, Less., D’Orb., = C. Byronensis, Gray, in Brit. Mus. Like a 
rough degraded form of C. spinoswm. | 


. Crucibulum umbrella, Desh.= C. rudis, Brod. Panama and Real Llejos. 


* corrugatum, Cpr. “Cal.” [Mazatlan, Jewett, P.Z. 8. 1856, p.204. ] 
5 imbricatum, Brod. Panama. [=C. wmbricatum, Sby.,=C. seu- 
tellatum, Gray, no. 2, var. | 


. Crucibulum spinosum, Shy. Seas of Central America. [Extends northwards 


to California; southwards it degenerates into C. guiriquina. |= C. peziza, 
Gray,+ C. hispida, Brod.,+ C. maculata, Brod.,+ C. tubifera, Less.,+ C. 
cinerea, Rye. 


. Crucibulum pectinatum, Cpyr., P. Z. S. 1856, p. 168. Peru. [Panama, Jewett. } 


-f auritum, Rve.,=C. striata, Brod., non Say. Valparaiso, Cuming. 


[Passes into Galerus. | 


. Crucibulum serratum, Brod. Real Llejos and Muerte, Cuming. [Like 


young of C. pectinatum; nearly ener white, with purple ray. | 

rod. Valparaiso and Panama, Cum- 
ing. {= Galerus; v. Maz. Cat. p. 292, note. The author distributes the 
species of this genus between Trochita and Crucibulum. | 


. Trochita aspera [Rve. as of] C.B, Ad. Panama. [The small var. of Galerus 


conicus. Probably = C. aspersa, C. B. Ad., no. 331. 


. Trochita subrefleca, Cpr., MS. in Mus. Cum. Gulf of California. [= Galerus 


subreflecus, Cpr. in P. Z. 8. 1855, p. 233. ] 


. Trochita corrugata[?cujus. Comp. Calyptrea corrugata, Brod. |. Callao, Cuming. 
. Trochita spirata, Fbs, “? =P. trochiformis, Chem.” Gulf California. [ Vide 


anted, p. 542. 


. Trochita solida [?Rve.]. Conchagua, Mus. Cum. [?= Galerus mamillaris. | 
. Perna anomioides, Rve. March 1858. California, Mus. Cum. [No autho- 


rity ; appears=P. costellata, Conr., Sandwich Islands. | 


. Perna Californica [Rve., non] Conr, California, Conr. [i. e. Nutt.] Honduras, 


Dyson. “Distinguished by the Pedwm-like form and clouded, livid 
Leela colouring. dee is the well-known large flat West Indian species ; 
not known in California. ] j 


. Umbrella ovalis, Cpr. Mouth of Chiriqui River, Bay of Panama, [not] Cuming 


put Bridges. The species was also found at Cape St. Lucas by 
antus. 


. Lanthina fragilis, Lam.,=T. striulata, Cpr. West Indies, Mazatlan, California. 


[ Vide Maz. Cat. no. 242: non J. striolata, Ad. and Rve. 


. Ianthina decollata, Cpr. Probably=T. globosa, var. [Maz. bat no. 243, Of 


the two Maz. forms, provisionally named, this appears the least entitled 
to specific rank. | 


. Columbella Bridgesii, Rve. April 1858. Panama, Bridges. {Appears the 


small var. of C. major. | 


. Columbella Boivini [= Boivinii, Kien.]. Gulf Nicoyia, Hinds. 


r 


46. 


~ 56. 


57. 
62. 


72. 
74, 
109. 
120. 


122. 


123, 
130. 


132. 


135. 


142. 
165, 


176. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 567. 


Columbella acicula, Rye. California. [No authority. | 

Columbella encaustica, Rve. Gulf California, Ireut. Shipley, Mus. Cum. 

Columbella vexillum, Rye. Gulf California. [No authority. ] 

Columbella cribraria, Quoy and Gaim. [i.e. Lam.]= C. guttata, Sby. Panama, 
common under stones, Cuming. [No other localities given. V. Miv- 
della cribraria, Maz. Cat. no, 618. 

Columbella electroides, Rve. Bay of Guayaquil. 

Columbella Pacifica, Gask. Galapagos. 

Columbella pusilla, Sby. Island of St. Vincent, W. I. “= Mitidella Gouldii, 
Cpr.” [The Mitidella is a distinct Upper Californian species. ] 

Columbella lactea, Rve. Gulf Calif., Mr. Babb, R.N. [A Nitidella, so tran- 
sparent that the axis can be seen throughout. | 

Columbella Sta-Barbarensis, Cpr. Sta. Barbara. ‘“ Not merely faintly striated, 
teste Cpr., but unusually grooved.” {Described from a worn specimen 
in Jewett’s Col., and named to mark a more northern limit to the genus 
than had been assigned by Forbes. The label was probably incorrect, as the 
shell lives in the tropical fauna, C. 8. Lucas, Xantus: Acapulco, New- 
berry ; Guacomayo, Mus. Smiths. The name (as expressing error) should 
therefore be altered to C. Reevei, Cpr. ] 

Columbella spadicea, Phil., MS. in Mus. Cum. Mazatlan. [Described by 
Phil. in Zeit. f. Mal. 1846: B. A. Rep. p. 225.] 

Columbella venusta, Rve. (Mazatlan, E. Philippi.) =C. teniata, Phil. [in 
Zeit. f. Mal. 1846], not Ad. and Rve., [ Voy. Samar. 1850; therefore Phil. 
has precedence. ?=Anachis Gaskoinet, Maz. Cat. no. 652, The Sama- 
rang shell is probably a Mitzdella. | 

Columbella sulcosa, Sby. Aunaa and Ld. Hood’s Islands*. Cuming. 

Columbella Gouldii, Agass., MS. in Mus. Cum., Noy. 1858. [= Amycla Goul- 
diana, Agass., Atlantic; non Nitidella Gouldit, Cpr. | 

Columbella uncinata, Shy. Is. Muerte, Bay Guayaquil. [Acapulco, Jewett.] 

Columbella Californica, Rye. April 1859. California. [No authority. 
Like Anachis lirata. | 

Columbella rorida, Rve. Lord Hood’s Island*, Cuming. [Transparent, 
glossy, with necklace of opake white dots. | 


Genus Meta { = Conella, Swains, eliminated by Rve. from Columbella; but Anachis, 


31. 
‘23. 
24, 


26. 


Strombina, Amycla (pars), and Nitidella, which do not even belong to 
the same family, if the opercula are to be trusted, are left in the old place. 
Of the six species, the author only knew the locality for one], M. Dupontia, 
Kien.—Ichaboe, South Africa; [but that of] M. owdoides, “C. B. Ad., 
MS.” [is shown by his published works to be Jamaica; and the following 
are from the West Coast]. 


. Meta cedonulh, Rve. {La Paz, Mus. Smiths.; C. S. Lucas, Xantus; Panama, 


Jewett. | 


. Meta coniformis, Sby. [? Panama, Jewett. | 
. Liziphinus luridus, Nutt., MS. in Mus. Cum. California. [Is not known from 


the American coast ; comp. Sandwich Islands. ] 


. Ziziphinus eximius, Rve., P. Z. 8. 1842. Panama, sandy mud, 10 fms. 


[=T. versicolor, Mke., 1850,=Z. Californicus, A. Ad., 1851. Scarcely 
differs from “ Javanicus, Lam.,” in Mus.Cum. The form was dredged by 
Mr. A. Adams in the eastern seas. 

Zixiphinus Antonit, Koch, in Phil. Abbild. pl. 1. f.4. Australia. [Scarcely 
differs from the shouldered var. of Calliostoma lima (Phil.) d B. Adi, 
which is called eximius, Rve., in Brit. Mus. Col. ] 

Trochus Japonicus, Dkx., [represents Pomaulax undosus on the east side]. 

Trochus digitatus, Desh. Distinct from wnguis, with base like gibberosus. 
Central America. [Mr. Reeve’s distinct shell is perhaps not that of Desh., 
and not from the West Coast. ] 

Trochus undosus, Wood,=T. gigas, Anton. California +. 


* Vide Report, 1856, p. 168, note §§. 
_ t+ Mr. Reeve states that, although this species is most like gibberosus, “‘ Messrs. Gray and 
Adams contrive to place them in different genera.” It is still more remarkable that, while 


568 REPORKRT—1865. 


39. Trochus auripigmentum, Jonas. Panama. [Probably not from W. America. | 
17. Phasianella perforata, Phil. Mazatlan, Panama+TLh. compta, Gld.* Rather 
out of place + ; has neither form nor texture of Phastanella. [The aberrant 
form is due to the figured specimen being quite young; the adults in 

Brit. Mus. Col. prove the texture, colouring, and operc. to be normal. | 
Genus Stmpulopsis. This group, intermediate between Vetrina and Succinea, is 
stated to be peculiar to Brazil and Mexico, where Vitrina is not known. 


In the Monograph of Terebratulide, which is prepared with unusual care, 
and the general introduction to which is well worth attentive perusal by all 
students, occur the following species which bear upon the West Coast fauna 
or synonymy :— 


2. Terebratula (Waldheimia) dilatata, Lam.,=T. Gaudichaudi, Blainy. “Str. 
Magellan,” teste Gray, in Brit. Mus. Cat., without authority. [The E. E. 
specimens varied considerably in outline ; and according to Darwin, and 
what we know of the variations of fossil species, it is quite possible to 
believe that this and the next species had a common origin. The great 
development of this most interesting form in the cold regions of South 
America is extraordinary. | 

3. Terebratula (Waldheimia) ylobosa (Val.), Lam., from type. = 7. Californica, 
Koch. “California, Coquimbo. Californian form well known; small 
specimen in Mus. Taylor, marked ‘de Coquimbo.’” [There appears no 
authority for the general belief that this fine species is Californian. It was 
taken in abundance by the naturalists of the i. S. E. E. at Orange Bay, 
Magellan. The Californian shell, which is probably the original Cal- 
fornica, Koch. (not of authors) is a distinct species, teste Rve. from Dr. 
Cooper's specimens. 

7. Lerebratula (Terebratulina) radiata, Rve., Mus. Cum. ? Straits of Corea, 
Belcher. {Very like the adult of 7. cawrina, Gld. | 

ll. Zerebratula ura, Brod. Bay of Tehuantepec, Guatemala; 10-12 fms. sandy 
mud, on dead bivalve, Capt. Dare. Mus. Cum, and De Burgh. [The 
analogue of 7. vitrea, Med. | 

16. Terebratula (Terebratulina) Japonica, Sby., = T. angusta, Ad. and Rye. Corea, 
Japan. “Represents 7. caput-serpentis, and probably the same.” 

23. Terebratula physema, Val., MS. (unique), Coquimbo.  Gaudichaud, 1853. 
May be a colossal, broadly inflated var. of globosa. 

6. Orbicula Cumingit, Brod. {Besides information in Rep. pp. 188, 244, is given ] 
Is. Cana, Guatemala; sometimes 6-18 fms., Cuming. O. strigata, Tool 
is a less-worn state of this species. [The type-specimens of Discina stri- 
gata in Brit. Mus., on Pecten ventricosus, appear very distinct, and are 
unusually shelly for the genus. | 


excluding Ziziphinus (= Calliostoma), Mr: Reeve “ contrives to place” in Zrochus animals 
shown by the opercula to belong to different subfamilies, as though we knew no more than 
in Lamarck’s days ; his motley group containing Imperator (= Stella, H. and A. Ad.)+ 
Lithopoma + Guildfordia+ Chrysostoma + Bolma + Modelia 4+ Polydonta + Tectus+- 
Pomavlax+ Astralium+ Pachypoma+ Uvanilla. Also ina family the genera and species 
of which are mainly recognized by the base and mouth, most of the shells are only figured 
on the back. Very often the characters of the aperture are not even stated. Remarkable 
liberties are, moreover, sometimes taken with geographical facts, to the great astonishment 
of Americans, who expect even their schoolboys to avoid such statements as at sp. 57, Tr. 
diminutivus, Rve., “ Oahu Islands ;” and at sp. 1, Linxgula ovalis, Rve., “from W. H. 
Pease, Esq., residing at Honolulu, one of the Sandwich Islands.” 

* P, compta is a distinct Californian species ; its Pvarieties pass into pulla. If Mr. 
Reeve can be followed in uniting to pulla, pulchella, Recl. ;-++ affinis+ tessellata+pulchella 
+concinna, C. B. Ad. ;+tenuis, Phil. ;+intermedia, Scacchi ;+ Capensis, Dkr. ;+elon- 
gata, Krauss, Gould’s species should.join this goodly company, rather than perforata. 
The same standard of union followed among the large shells would greatly lessen the size 
of this costly work. : 

+ So is Phasianella rubra, Pease MS., sp. 18, which belongs to Aleyra, A. Ad. allied 
to Euchelus. 


19. 


22. 


33. 


41, 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 369 


- Orbicula ostreoides, Lam.,= O. Norvegica, Sby. (non Lam.) + O. striata, Sby. + 


Cranva radiosa, Gld.+ O. { Diseina] Evansii, Dav. ? N.W. Africa. “The 
locality, ‘ Bodegas, Cal.,’ given by Mr. D. with O. Evansii, on Mr. Cuming’s 
authority, must, I think, be a mistake.” [The genus has not been found 
on the Californian coast by any American collector. 

Venus* grata, Sby.,+tricolor, Shy. Gulf of Mexico, Mus. Cum. [= Tapes 
grata, Say, Panama. The locality-labels have probably been misplaced. 
These specimens are undoubtedly from the West Coast, nor has any 
authority appeared for the species in the Atlantic. The Gulf of Mexican 
“analogue ” is Z\ granulata. The forms are intermediate between Chione 
and Tapes. | 


. Venus multicostata, Sby. Bay of Panama, in coarse sand at low water, Cuming. 


“Probably = V. Listeri,var.,with ribs more tumidly thickened and rounded.” 
[The West Coast shells are distinguished by the very slight crenulation 
of the ribs at the sides. | 

Venus asperrima, Shy. Guacomayo, Centr. Am., sandy mud, 13 fms., Cuming. 
“A form of pectorina; shell of lighter substance, broader and more de- 
pressed ; sculpture more elevately and definitely latticed.” [This is the 
shell named by Mr. Cuming V. cardiotdes, Lam., and should take that 
name, as prior to Sby.’s, if really distinct from pectorina. Also from 
Panama. Mus. Smiths. ] 

Venus discors, Shy., jun. St. Elena and Guacomayo, Centr. Am., sandy mud, 
6-9 fms., Cuming. _“ Concentric decussating ridges cease abruptly at the 
posterior third.” [Character very variable, even in the type-specimens ; 
=T. grata, Say, var.] 


. Venus pectorina, Lam., p. 344,+ V. cardioides, Lam. Centr. Am., Mus. Cum. 


[Probably Atlantic ; much heavier and stumpy; sculpture coarser; teeth 
more like casina, whereas cardioides, no. 19, has a long anterior tooth 
like sugillata t. 

Venus cingulata, Lam.,=pulicaria, Brod. W. Columbia, Cuming. [=V. 
Pinacatensis, Sloat, MS. in Mus. Smiths. Guaymas. The peculiar 
smoothing-off of the central sculpture in the adult may be varietal. It 
is improbable that Lam. was acquainted with the species. | 

Venus crenulata, Chem.,=crenata, Gmel. W.I. = V. eximia, Phil.,+ V. cre- 
nifera, Sby.,+ V. Portesiana, D’Orb. [Not to be confounded with the 
V. crenifera, Maz. Cat.: has a small Cyprinoid lateral tooth, but no 
radiating ribs near lunule, nor long anterior tootht. | 

Venus Californiensis, Brod.,= V. leucodon, Sby. Guaymas, Gulf Cal., sandy 
mud, low water, [teste] Cuming. Mus. Cum. [= V. crassa, Sloat, MS. in 
Mus. Smiths. Not V. Californiana, Conr.,=V. simillima, Sby. This 
species, with V. neglecta, compta, &c., having the mantle-bend nearly 
obsolete, approach Anomalocardia subimbricata, and with that species 
form a natural group, differing from the typical Venus as Lioconcha does 
from Callista := V. succincta, Val. 

Venus Kennerleyi, Cpr., MS.t in Mus. Cum, Hab.—? [Puget Sound, 
Kennerley. | 

Venus sugillata, Rve. California, Mus. Cum. Characterized by the shining 
purple umbos, finely latticed sculpture, dark-stained lunule and liga- 
mentary area. [= “ V. crenifera, Sby., teste Rve.,” Maz. Cat. no. 105, 
in all essential characters. Differs in the long anterior tooth being still 


* Through the kindness of Mr. Reeve, with a view to the completion of this Report, 
I was enabled to compare the figured specimens in this genus with the text, and with 
the shells of the Smithsonian collection, before they were distributed. The bracketed notes 
in the text are based on this examination. They are given with unusual detail, because 
of the unique opportunity of throwing some light on a confessedly difficult family. 
+ The characters of the teeth and pallial line frequently afford satisfactory diagnostic 
marks between critical species, which are often overlooked by monographers. 
-} The descriptions of Dr. Kennerley’s shells had long been written, and would have 
been published but for the American war. The localities of all the West Coast shells sent 
from the Smiths. Col. to Mr. Cuming were duly marked in the accompanying catalogues. 


570 


46. 


47, 


49, 


51. 


52. 


54. 


59. 


REPORT—1863. 


longer, and in the purple colour. This, however, in the figured speci- 
men, has been brought-out by the free use of acid, and the markings have 
been considerably obliterated by the “ beautifying ” process. | 


. Venus simillima, Sby. San Diego, Cal. ‘“Resembles V. compta in detail of 


sculpture’ [but perfectly distinct, belonging to the amathusia group. 
It shows the evil of the very brief diagnoses of the earlier conchologists 
that so discriminating an author as Mr. Conrad should have taken this 
shell for the V. Californiensis, Brod.; and, quoting it (Japsu) as V. Cali- 
forniana, yvedescribed the true V. Californiensis as V. Nuttall. It is 
known by the great closeness of the fine sharp ribs. | 

Venus =crenulata, no. 33, very distinct var. Gulf Cal.; more globose, interior 
purple rose. [This was sent as “Cape St. Lucas, Xantus.” It appears 
truly distinct from the W. I. crenulata, and to be the normal form 
of which pulicaria, no. 26, is an extreme var. Inside, and outside in 
the adolescent state, they agree exactly; differing outside, in the adult, 
in smoothed-off ribs and more distinct \-markings. Mr. Reeve, however, 
still thinks it more like crenifera. It may stand as “? var. Lilacina.” | 

Venus gibbosula, Desh., MS. in Mus. Cum. Hab. ?— [Guaymas:= V. Cortezi, 
Sloat. This is the more rounded and porcellanous form of V. fluctifraga, 
= V. Nuttalli of Brit. Assoc. Report, and Nuttallian paper in P. Z. 8. 
1856, p.21; but not the true V. Nedtalli, Conr., v. infra, no. 49. Interior 
margin very finely crenated on both sides of the hinge. | 


. Venus compta, Brod. Bay of Sechura, Peru, coarse sand and mud, 7 fms., 


Cuming. {This rare species seems to represent V. Californiensis in the 
South American fauna. It is well distinguished by its shouldered form, 
produced ventrally, and by the Circoid pallial line, far removed from the 
margin. Guacomayo, Mus. Smiths. | 
Venus Nuttalli, Cony. California. [Named from type, teste Conr. ips., v. 
antea, p. 526. This is the dull northern form of V. succincta, as flucti- 
fraga is of gibbosula, the species appearing nearly in the same parallels in 
the Gulf and on the Pacific coast, but not found in the Liverpool Reigen 
Col.; nor at Cape St. Lucas. In all essential characters, Nuttall (though 
ointed) and Californiensis (though rounded) appear the same; but Mr. 
ees still thinks otherwise. The figured specimen has been altered with 
acid. The V. excavata is not noticed by Mr. R. | 
Venus mundulus, Rve. Hab. ?— [This shell was obtained by Dr. Stimpson 
in the N. P. Expl. Exp., and bears the Smiths. Cat. number “1845. San 
Francisco, very common at low water,” = Tapes diversa, Shy. jun. This 
is the highly painted, finely sculptured state of 7. staminea, Cony. (not 
“ T. straminea, Cony.” Sby.,= T. grata, var.) The abnormally ridged form 
is V. ruderata, Desh. Conch. Ic. sp. 130. By its large pallial sinus and 
bifid teeth it is a true Tapes. | 
Venus intersecta, Sby. Puerto Puero [? Portrero], Centr. Am., Cuming. 
The shell is exactly identical with no. 19, asperrima=cardioides ; but the 
gure might mislead, the colour-lines appearing as ribs. | 
Venus subrostrata, Lam.* vi. p. 343, = V. neglecta, [Gray] Sby. Hab. Mazatlan 
and West Indies. “ Lam. having cited a figure of the China species, V. La- 
marehii, the species was lost sight of till Sby. renamed it.” [The Zamarck- 
ian species was probably West Indian. V. neglecta closely resembles 
the young of V. Californiensis, but has the ligamental area smooth only 
on one valve, instead of both. | 
Venus Stutchburyi (Gray), Wood, Sandwich Is. Comes very near to the 
Californian V. callosa, [Sby., non] Conr., of which specimens have been 
found also at the Sandwich Is. [V. Stutchburyi is the New Zealand 
species, which may easily be confounded with the Californian. Although 
both may be obtained at the Sandwich Is., there is no evidence that either 


* In critical species, when it is impossible to be positive which of two or more was 
intended by an old author, it appears best to retain the name of the first diseriminator. 
The old name belongs to the general form: the discriminator ought to retain it for a 


part; 


but if that has not been done, it avoids confusion to drop it. 


60. 


68. 


AT. 


80. 


87. 


105. 


116. 


aL, 


15. 
20. 


al. 
22, 


23. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 571 


lives there. The shell here figured is beaked like Nettaili, no. 49; lu- 
nule very faint; concentric ridges very faint, but sharp; radiating ribs 
very coarse. Inside deeply stained; margin not crenated on the sharp 
anterior edge, though faintly on the lunule; hinge-teeth stumpy. | 

Venus muscaria, Rve. Hab.?— [Has the aspect of a West Coast species, 
between cardioides and fine var. of staminea; sinus large; teeth strong, 
not bifid ; lunule with radiating ribs. | 

Venus undatella, Shy. Gulf Calif. [Nota satisfactory species, the type 
having the aspect of a poor specimen altered for cabinet. The “sculpture 
much changing in its development towards the margin” is an accident 
often seen in the cancellated species. Similar specimens of V. neglecta, 
no. 54, collected at Cape St. Lucas by Mr. Xantus, agree with wndatella 
in all respects, except that this is violet within, neglecta being white. 
Ligament-area (as in neglecta) smooth in one valve only. | 

Venus Adamsii,Rve. Japan. [Closely related to Tapes lacimata, San Diego, 
in size, aspect, hinge, &c. Differs in mdntle-bend being not so long or 

ointed, and the radiating sculpture much finer := V. rigida, Gld., MS., in 
timpson’s list; non Gld. in ‘ Otia.’] 

Venus ornatissima, Brod. Panama, sandy mud, 10 fms., Cuming. Still unique. 
[Like V. gnidia, jun., but radiating ribs coarser and more distant; con- 
centric frills not palmated ; lunule pale, laminated. | 

Venus callosa {Sby., non} Conr. Sandwich Is. and Calif. { Vide note to no. 
59. Thisis the V. Nettallit of the Brit. Assoc. Report. Those who regard 
it as distinct from fluctifraga, of which gibbosula, no. 47, is the extreme 
form, may retain the name caillosa of Sby., but not of Conr. Conrad’s 
species= C. nobilis, Rve.; differing from the true Calliste, as Mercenaria - 
does from Venus, in having the ligament-plate rugose.] = V. fluctifraga, 
Sby., teste Rve. in errata. 

Venus bilineata, Rye. Gulf Calif. Partakes of the characters of compta 
and subimbricata: all three may indeed be different states of one and the 
same species. [The shell figured at 105d has all the peculiar features of 
compta, which are clearly marked within; only the concentric waves are 
closer than usual. The shell figured at 105a fd gacnd to be the true w- 
datella, only in fine condition, the type being rubbed. It has exactly the 
same internal characters, including colour; only the colour-lines outside 
are arranged in rays instead of \s. Mr. Reeve, however, retains his differ- 
ent aeagN 

Venus Cypria, Sby., P. Z. 8.1852. Is. Plata, West Columbia. [From same 
district, teste Schott in Mus. Smiths.] Has all the appearance of being 
an attenuately produced form of the West Indian V. paphia [which is 
also from Cape Verd Is., teste Macgillivray in Brit. Mus. ]. 

Dione * maculata, List. West Indies ; ‘Brazil: Pacific Ocean. Widely distri- 
buted in both hemispheres. [No authority for the Old World; the Pacific 
shells are Callista chionea, var. | 

Dione nobilis, Rve., 1849. Cal. [=C. callosa, Conr., 1837. The original 
name, from type, had been communicated to Mr. R., but is not quoted. | 

Dione semilamellosa +, Gaud.,= C. lupanaria, Less. Centr. Am. [=lupinaria, 
Maz. Cat., no. 95. Vide Deless. Rec. Coq. pl. 19. f. 2: “ China Seas,” no 
authority. | 

Dione brevispinata, Rve.,=brevispina, Sby. [Gulf of] California. [Scarcely 

iffers from C. rosea, jun. | 

Dione multispinosa, Shy. Peru. Concentric ridges thinly laminated; spines 
slender and numerous. [An extreme form of the Pacific C. Dione (teste 
Hanl.) ; distinct from semzlamellosa. | 

Dione Veneris, D’Arg. Conch. pl. 21. f. 1,=V. Dione, Ln. West Ind. and 


* The figured types of this genus had been accidentally mislaid ; and might alter the 
judgments given in the text. 
+ “for obvious reasons, I think it best to abandon the foul name given to this lovely 
Species by Lesson,” Rve. (Vide Maz. Cat. p. 70, note.) ? Would not the same reasons 
lead to the alteration of meretria, impudica, &e j 


a72 REPORT—1863. 


33. 
38. 


46. 


Centr. Am. [The Pacific shells should rank with species 22, if sup- 
posed distinct. The fig. is 24, not 23.] 

. Dione exspinata, Rve. Centr. Am. Distinct, if the others are; like seméla- 
mellosa, without spines. [Appears to be C. rosea,jun. The fig. is 23, 
not 24, |} 

Dione circinata, Born. Mazatlan, Mus. Cum. [without authority.]=V. 


28, a, b, rubra, Gmel.,+ V. Guineensis, Gmel.,+ C. alternata, Brod. [f. 28 repre- 


sents alternata; the other figures appear to be from West Indian spe- 
cimens, though that ancient locality is not mentioned. Several of the 
reputed West Coast shells are, however, of the typical form and colour. | 
Dione unicolor, Sby.,= Chione badia, Gray, = Cyth. ligula, Anton. W.Columbia. 
Dione prora, Cony, ‘Cape St. Lucas, Xantus, California; Carpenter.” 
[A very distinct form among the thin inflated species ; only yet found at 

the Sandwich Is., vy. no. 45. 


. “(Mus. Smithsonian Institute of N. America.) This shell, from Cape St. 


Lucas, Xantus, California, proves to be the Dione prora (Cytherea prora, 
Conr.) of our preceding plate.” [Mr. Sowerby’s figure well represents 
the unique specimen from Cape St. Lucas, which was taken alive by Mz. 
Xantus. The quotations in Conch. Ic. would lead to the inference that 
“ Xantus ” was regarded as that part of “ California” in which Cape St. 
Lucas is situated. Both the external and internal characters require 
that a separate name be given to the shell, which stands as Callista pol- 
hearis, Annals Nat. Hist. vol. xiii. p. 312.) 

Cytherea consanguinea, C. B. Ad. Mus. Cum. Apparently a small spe- 
cimen of a variety of C./eta. [Panama, Differs from C. deta in inter- 
nal characters. | 


. Dione pannosa, Sby.,= Cytherea lutea, Koch,+ Callista puella, Cpr. Chili, 


Peru, Mazatlan. [No authorityfor Mazatlan. The name pwella given 
to the Cape St. Lucas specimens was intended as varietal ; although 
Mr. Cuming regards the Peruvian and Peninsular forms as distinct. It 
is not known along the Central American coast. 

» Circe nummulina, Lam. “Central America.” [Probably not from the 
American seas. Admiral Sir E. Belcher is, however, confident that he 
dredged many well-known E. Indian forms in deep water, off San Blas. } 


. Cytherea. In this genus are grouped the Trigone ; besides the typical species, 


= Meretriz, Gray. 

. Cytherea crassatelloides, Conr. “ Bay of California.” [Not known geogra- 
phically. The shell is not found in the Gulf, being a most characteristic 
Californian species. San Francisco, 8. Diego, &e. 


. Cytherea radiata, Sby., + C. gracilior, Sby.,= V. Salangensis, D’Orb.= T. By- 


ronensis, Gray. Salango and Xipixapi, 9 fms. sandy mud, Cuming. 

. Cytherea nitidula, Lam. Mediterranean. [The figures and descriptions of 
Sby. and Rve. well represent specimens from Cape St. Lucas, Xantus. 
Perhaps not identical with Lam.’s species. | 


. Tapes grata, Desh. Philippines. [May stand as 7. Deshayesit, if it be con- 


ceded that Say’s V. grata ranks best with Tapes. | 

. Solarium granulatum, Lam. Mexico. 

. Solarium verrucosum, Phil. W. Indies. ?=/S. granulatum, var. 

. Solarium placentula, {[ Rve.=placentale,| Hds. Bay Magdalena, 7 fms., Belcher. 

. Solarium quadriceps, Hds. Panama. Young state of same type as sp. 7 and 8, 
“from same locality (Pan., Mex., W.I.),” but grows much larger. [The 
Texan shells in Mus. Smiths. are as large as those from Cape St. Lucas : 
the variations on each coast are coordinate. | 


63. Kiener—The following species may be added to the list quoted from 


Ta @} 


oquilles Vivantes,” in Rep. pp. 293, 294 :— 


Page. Pl. Fig. ~ 


1 = : Conus regius, Chem., = C. princeps, Ln., W. Mexico. 


212, 1100. list Conus Largillierti, Kien. Mexico, [Coast not stated. } 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 573 


Page. Pl. Fig: 

I 98. 2. Conus Philippii, Kien. Mexico. Coast not stated. ] 

65. 27. 3. Pleurotoma triticea, Kien. Indian Ocean. [Probably Cithara 
stromboides, Val. ; Cape St. Lucas. ] 

45, 9. 2. Columbella suturalis, Gray (Griff. pl. 41. f. 2)= C. costata, Ducl. 
Mon. pl. 12.f. 1, 2. Pacific, Coasts of Peru [= Anachis fluc- 
tuata, Sby. |. 

46 16. 4. Colwnbella bicolor, Kien. Hab. — [=.A. rugosa.] 


64, 65. (German Authors.) Pfeiffer.—Everything relating to the land- 
shells of North America will be found so thoroughly collated in the works 
of Mr. Binney (v. infra), that it is only judged needful to present here the 
most important references to the writings of the great authority on the 
Pulmonata, The student must necessarily consult the ‘ Symbol ad Histo- 
riam Heliceorum, Cassel, 1841’ et seq., Which contains the following ori- 
ginal authorities :— 


1846. p. 89. Achatina Californica, Pfr. Monterey, Cal. 
91. Achatina (Glandina) turris, Pfr. Hab. ?— [Genus altered to Oleacina, 
Mon. Hel. iy. p. 640. Maz. Cat. 231.] 


In the same author's great work, ‘ Monographia Heliceorum Viventium,’ 
Lipsie, 1847-8, oceur— 


Page. 

Vol.I. 1847, 324. Helix Sagraiana, )’Orb. Cuba, California. [Sowerby’s 
error, copied by succeeding writers. The species is ex- 
clusively Cuban. ] 

338, Helix fidelis, Gray. Oregon.=H. Nuttalliana, Lea. 

339. Helix Californiensis, Lea. California. + H. Nickliniana, 
Lea. (Quoted as a distinct species in Vol. IV. p. 269.] 

(Vol.3. 229. =H. arboretorum, V al.) 
341. Helix Townsendiana, Lea. California. 
(Vol.3. 229. =H. pedestris, Gld.,4ruida, Gld.) 
428. Helix Oregonensis, Lea. Oregon. 
(Vol. 4. 227. =H. Dupetithouarsii, teste Pfr.) 
Vol, I, 1848. 101. Bulimus Mexicanus, Lam. Tabasco, Mexico, =H. (Cochlo- 
gena) vittata, Fér. 
(Vol.4, 402. =Orthalicus M., Cpr.) 

143, Bulimus zebra, Mull.* Mexico, &.= Zebra Miilleri, Chem. 
=Bulimus undatus, Brug. *= Orthalicus livens, Beck *, 
+B. princeps, Brod.+ B. melanocheilus, Val. 

231. Bulimus (Cochlogena) melania, Fér. California. = Melania 
striata, Perry = B. bovinus, Brug. 

Vol. III. 1853. 127. Helix Pandore, Fbs. St. Juan del Fuaco. 

(Vol.4. 347. | =H. Damascenus, Gd.) 

415. Bulimus Humboldti, Rve.=B. Mexicanus, Val. [? non Lam. | 
Mexico. 

422. Bulimus Californicus, Rve. California. 

Vol. TV, 1859, 89, Helix Mazatlanica, Pfr.,n. s. (Mal. Blatt., Apr. 1856, p. 43.) 
Mazatlan. 

268. Helix exarata, Pfr., n. s. California. 

270. Helix reticulata, Pfr. (Mal. Blatt. May 1857, p. 87). Cal. 

276. Helix Mormonum, Pfr. Mormon Island, California. 

347. Helix cultellata, Thomson. Contra Costa Co., California. 

350. Helix arrosa,Gld. Hab. ?— [California.]+ eruginosa,Gld. 

420. Bulimus chordatus, Pfr. (Mal. Blitt., April 1856, p. 46.) 
Mazatlan. 

472, Bulimus Ziegleri, Pfr. (Mal. Blatt., Dec. 1856, p- 232.) 
Mexico. = Orthalicus Z., Cpr. 


_ * These appear as three distinct species in Vol. IV. p. 588-9, with the addition of B. 
longus, Pfr. (= Orthalicus 1., Mal, Blitt., Oct. 1856, p. 187.) 


574 REPORT—1868. 


In the ‘ Monographia Pneumonopomorum Viventium, &e., Cassellis, 1852,’ 
by the same learned author, the following is the only species which occurs :— 
Suppl. 1858, Vol. Il. p. 7. Trencatella Californica, Pfr. San Diego. 


In Wiegmann’s ‘ Archives fiir Nat.,’ 1837, yol. i. p. 285, occurs the fol- 
lowing species, also without authority :— 

Perna quadrata, Anton. California. 

In Troschel’s ‘ Archives fiir Natur’ are quoted the following :— 


1843. Vol. II. p. 140. Fasciolaria sulcata, Less. Acapulco, 
1849. ,,  p. 99. Terebratula Californica, Linsley. 


In the ‘Abbildungen und Beschreibungen neuer oder wenig gekannter 
Conchylien, herausgegeben von Dr. R. A. Philippi,’ Cassel, 1845-51, are 
figured the following, which must be quoted as being original descriptions, or 
for the synonymy :— 

Page. Pl. Fig. 

Feb. 1846. 4. 1. 9. Cyrena solida, Phil. California, &c. 

Aug. 1846. 24.4. 7. Tellina pisiformis,Ln. Mazatlan, &c.=L. pulchella, Ad. 
?= Cardium discors, Mont. 

Qct. 1844. 4. .. .. Cytherea Dunkeri, Phil. W. C. Mexico.=C. Pacifica, 

Mus. Berol., non Dillw. 
Apr. 1847. 35. Cytherea (Artemis) gigantea, Sby. California. ?=Ar- 
temis ponderosa, Gray. 
Murex nigritus, Phil. ? W. C. Mexico. 
Haliotis fulgens, Phil. ? California. = H. splendens, Rye. 
. Turbo Fokkesii, Jonas. Gulf of California. 

Trochus strigilatus, Ant. California. = 7. pellis-serpentis, 
Wood. 

Patella (Acmea) discors, Phil. Mexico. 

LIucina obliqua, Phil. ? W.C. America. 

Lucina pisum, Phil. Mazatlan. 

Pecten tunica, Phil. “Sandwich Islands*, £#. B. 
Philippi.” Jan. 1844. [=P. latiauritus, Cony., teste 
Hanl. 8S. Diego, &c.] 

Pecten Fabricit, Phil. Greenland. [=P, Islandicus, 
jun. Non P. Fabricti, Gld.,=P. Hindsii, jun.) 

Intorina aberrans, Phil., P. Z. 8. 1845, p. 142. Pa- 
nama, on rocks. [=Tall var. of LZ. conspersa. | 

In Dr. L. Pfeiffer’s ‘ Novitates Conchologice,’ Series II., Marine Shells, by 
Dr. W. Dunker, Cassel, 1858, occur the following species from Sitka :— 
Page. Pl. Fig. 

ra Tels ‘4. Tritonium carinatum, Diy. Sitka. [Should be pl. 2. f. 3, 4.] 
[=T. angulosum, Morch, on plate. 


~ 


Jan. 1845. 1 
April 1847. 1 
Oct. 1846. 5. 

8. 


od 


= 
wr go Oyler 


oO 


July 1844. 
April 1850. 


Pb bots Soin as 


pmerle 


or 


11. 6. 


© 


2. 1. 1,2. Tritoniwm Morchianum, Diy. Sitka. [Should be pl. 2. f. 1, 2. 
3. 2. 5,6. Tritonium rutilum, Morch. > Should be pl. 1. f. 5, 6. 
4. 1. 5,6. Tritoniwm Rombergi, Dix. ss Should be pl. 2. f. 5, 6. 
2, 2. 3,4. Neptunea harpa, Morch. + Should be pl. 1. f. 3, 4. 
7. 2. 1,2. Neptunea castanea, Morch. . Should be pl. 1. f. 1, 2. 
[| =. badia, on plate. ] 
35. 10. 6, 7. Murex ( Hemifusus) Belcheri, Hds., var. ?— [= Chorus B., L. Cal.] 


89. 12. 7-9. Cytherea (Tivela) arguta, Rom. Isthmus of Panama. Resembles 
C. (Trigona) mactroides, Born, [Probably Caribbean. } 


66. British Museum Collection.—*< Lunatia ravida, Souleyet, Panama,” 


* A large number of Californian shells have been assigned to the Sandwich Is., in con- 
sequence of the abundant trade between the two localities. They may often have been 
obtained at Honolulu by naturalists, who had no reason to doubt their having lived there. 
All that is known of the genuine Hawaian fauna will shortly be published by Mr. Sow- 
erby, for W. H. Pease, Esq., of Honolulu, 


———— 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 575 


is given without authority; and the locality is probably erroneous. Various 
other shells are scattered in the national collection, assigned either generally 
to the West Coast or to special localities, which it has not been considered 
needful to tabulate without confirmation. 

68. Various sowrces.—Under this head may be arranged gleanings from 
European authors not consulted in preparing the first Report. 

In the ‘ Histoire Naturelle des Coquilles,’ by L. A. G. Bosc, Paris, 1830, 
the following species, not previously quoted, are assigned to the West Coast, 
but without authority :— 


Vol. Page. 

Il. a. Venus paphia. W. America. 
280. Nerita fulgurans, Bose. W.C. America. 
290. Natica rugosa, Chem. 

IV. 60. Helix peregrina, Island on 


” 
” 


152. Trochus solaris. i &e, 
156. Trochus radiatus. Ff &e. 
219. Murex lima. W. C. N. America. 


In Lesson’s ‘ Illustrations de Zoologie, Paris, 1831-2, appear— 
Plate. 
2. Calypeopsis tubifera, Less. [= Crucibulum spinosum). 
41.(1832.) Trichotropus Sowerbiensis, Lesson. Seas of New World. = Trichotropis 
bicarinata, Br. & Sby.= Turbo bicarinatus, Shy. 
48, Terebra flammea, Less. [? = T. strigosa], Antilles ; Isth. Panama. 
51. Tegula elegans, Less. {= T. pellis-serpentis]. Isth. Panama. 

The following West Coast shells are named and figured by Dr. Gray in 
‘Griffith’s Edition of Cuyier’s Animal Kingdom,’ London, 1834. In some 
instances there are also a few words of description :— 

Plate. Fig. 

1. 3. Litorina pulchra. 

41. 5. Turbenella ceratus [? Turbinellus]. 
» Columbella sutwrals | Kiener figures this shell for Anachis fluctuata, Sby., 
1832. The original might stand for many species]. 

. Nassa Northie {= Northia serrata, Kien.). 

» Lurbinella tubercularis | = Latirus tuberculatus (=ceratus, C. B. Ad.)]. 

. Terebra Africana, {The Gulf Cal. shell,=variegata. 

. Triton (Pusio) elegans [= Pisania insignis, Rve., 1846]. 

. Columbella harpaformis | =harpiformis, Sby.}. 

Clavatula Griffithii. [Probably = Pl. funiculata. The shells in this plate 
are reversed, but are repeated correctly in pl. 37 *,] 

. Cytherea Dronea, var. |= C. semilamellosa, Gand. ; perhaps intended for 

C. dione, vay. |. 
_ _ In Woodward’s most valuable ‘ Manual of the Mollusca,’ London, 1851-6, 
_ the following species are quoted as from “ California ” :— 


He omrrmcmwrn 


Page. Pl Fig. 
108. 5. 5, Cancellaria reticulata, Dillw. _[?W. Indies.] 
171. Physa Maugere. [? Ecuador. } 
329, 23. 22. Parapholas bisulcata, Cony. [v. Rep. p. 265. Not known from the 
Californian or W. Mexican coasts. Resembles P. calva]. 

In the very valuable handbook of bivalves, ‘ Recent Shells, by ’S. Hanley, 
London, 1842-56,’ will be found either quoted or original diagnoses of all 
_ West Coast species known to the learned, patient, and minutely exact com- 

piler. As the locality-marks are simply transcripts, they are not here repeated, 
especially as “California” is used for both the temperate and the tropical 
faunas. The following synonyms will be serviceable to the student :— 


Page. 
TG. Solen subteres, Conr., ?= 8. Dombei, ?-+ Californianus. Upper Cal. 
28, Lutraria lineata, Say,=(Cryptodon) Nuttallii [teste Hanl., non] Conr, 


576 REPORT—1863. » 


Page. 
72. Tellina inconspicua, Br. and Sby., ? = Sanguinolaria [ Californiana, Conr., non) 
fusca, Cony. [=the Eastern species]. 
In the Appendix are the following species, of which small figures are given, 
to correspond with those in Wood’s Ind. Test :— 
Page. Pl. Fig. 
339. 13. 50. Periploma obtusa, Hanl. W. America. 
841, 12. 5. Amphidesma proximum, C.B. Ad.,= <A. corrugatum, Ad. Mexico. 
373. 18. 51. Area Reeveana, D’Orb. W, America.=<A. squamosa, yar., D’Orb. 
=A. Helbingii, Rve. 
388. 24. 40. Meleagrina Mazatlanica, Hanl. Mazatlan [ = IL fimbriata, Dkv.). 
The following are extracted from the ‘ Journal de Conchyliologie,’ Paris, 


1850 :— 
Page. Pl. Fig. 
No. 1. Feb. 1850. 57. 4, Columbella Haneti, Petit. ? Mazatlan. 


4, Dec. 1850. 410. Observations on Nerita scabricosta, Lam., by 
Petit. West Coast of N. America. 


oo 


Vol, 3. 1852. 57. Oreille Mitra Haneti, Petit. Mazatlan. 
4, 1853. 58. 2. 11,12. Natica Taslei, Recl. Mazatlan. 
4, 1853. 84,166. 6. 13-15. Gnathodon trigonum, Petit. Mazatlan [= 
mendica, Gld., 1851}. 
4, 1853. 119. 5. 12. Recluzia Rollandiana, Recl. [Genus de- 
scribed.} Mazatlan. 
4, 1853. 154. 5. 9,10. Natica Moguiniana, Recl. ? West Coast of 
America. 
Series IT. 
Vol. 2. Oct. 1857. 171. Adcorbis Verrauzit, cee Californi 
285. 6. Skenea Verrauxii, Fischer. me sone 
292. Review of the Brit. Assoc. Report and Brit. 
Mus. Reigen Catalogue, by Fischer. 
Vol. 9. 209. Review of the Smithsonian Check Lists, by 
Fischer. 


The following species are figured in Chénu’s *‘ Illustrations Conchyliolo- 
giques’; but no authority is given for the localities, nor etymology for the 
remarkable names :— 


Page. Pl. Fig. 
8. 19, 20. Oliva selasia, Ducl. Acapulco. 

VS; 7. 3, 4,21, 22. Oliva caldania, Ducl. California. 
13. 7. 5,9, 23,24. Oliva razamola, Ducl. California. 
ie A 1 2, 10, 11. Olivia azemula, Ducl. California. 
19S WG. 1, 0: Oliva mantichora, Ducl. California. 
19 7 y Pe l Oliva pindarina, Ducl. California. 

o iadig hi 
28.) §27.0 9,40: Oliva todosina, Ducl. California. 


An excellent commentary on the above species, and on the difficult genus 
to which they belong, is supplied in the ‘ Revue Critique du genre Oliva,’ by 
M. Ducros de St. Germain, Clermont, 1857. It was written, not from the 
well-known London collections, but from a very large series containing all 
the types figured by Duclos. The following is the author’s arrangement of 
the West Coast forms, excluding citations of well-known species. 

No. Page. 

25. 49, Oliva angulata does not include azemula, Ducl., as Rve. says; that being 
a var. of ponderosa erythrostoma. 

26. 650. Oliva Maria, u.s., pl. 2. f. 26, a, 6; intermediate between Julietta and an- 
gulata, California, teste Duclos. [Appears to be one of the vars. of 
Cumingii. | 

28, 52, Oliva reticularis. To the typical W. Indian shells are united those from 
California, Panama, Madagascar, Japan, N. Holland, N, Zealand, Xe. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 577 


No. Page. 
if The synonymy includes venwdata+araneosa+ Cumingii+oriola (Ducl. 

non Lam.) + pindarina + fusiformis + timoria + obesina + tisiphona + 
memnonia-+ aldinia+ oniska+ caldania+ harpularia+candida+ustulata. 

63. 83. Oliva Steeriz, Rve. Mazatlan, Ed. Verreaur.=([testacea, var. | 

67. 86. Oliva Deshayesiana,n.s. Atlas, pl. 3. £.67,a,5: intermediate between 
Braziliensis and auricularia. California, teste Duclos. [Certainly not 
from the West Coast. | 

68. 87. Oliva volutella, Lam.+-razamola, Ducl. 

71. 89. Oliva undatella, Lam.+nedulina, Ducl. ; but not ozodona, Ducl., as Rve. 


Says. 

73. 89. Oliva lineolata, Gray in Wood's Ind. Test. = purpurata, Swains.=dama, 
Duel. [i.e. dama, Goodall in Wood, = hneolata, Gray MS. in B. M., 
Zool. Beech. Voy. | 

75. 91. Oliva selasia, Ducl. Acapulco; teste Ducl. ‘“ We know nothing of this 
remarkable shell but the specimen figured by the author.” 

85. 96. Oliva mutica, Say+rufifasciata, Rve. [assigned by error to the Californian 
O.” betica, var. |+-fimbriata, Rve. 


In the most recent and among the most valuable of the contributions to 
our knowledge of local faunas, ‘ Mollusques de Vile de la Réunion, par M. 
G. P. Deshayes,’ Paris, 1863, occur very unexpectedly the following species 
connected with the West Coast, either by name or by identity. The list of 
560 species from this little island, which the researches of M. Maillard has 
brought to light, contains several West Indian forms and a large number 
known in the Central Pacific and even the Sandwich Islands, 

No. Page. 

38. 16. Chama imbricata, Brod. 

47. 19. Lueina tigerina, Ln. ‘Common on sands, with Capsa deflorata, as at 
the Antilles.” 

65. 23. Modiola cinnamomea, Chem. [ Botula, Morch, teste A. Ad.] 

110. 40. Chiton sanguineus, Desh. pl. 6. f.4-7. [Non Ch. sanguineus, Rve. As 
the West Coast shell= Ischnochiton limaciformis, Sby., the Bourbon 
species may retain its name, especially if, as is probable, it belongs to 
another genus. | 

197. 68. Solarium [ Torinia] variegatum, Lam, 

216. 74. Turbo phasianellus, Desh. Minute edition of T. petholatus ; nacreous. 
[Not congeneric with 7. phasianella (Phil.), C. B. Ad., Panama shells, 
no. 282. 

233. 79. Natica reali Lam., Q. and G. Astr. pl. 66. f. 16-19, [P= ma- 
roccana, Chem. | 

307. 95. Cerithium uncinatum, Gmel. Thes, Conch. pl. 180. f. 78, 79. [P= C. un- 
cinatum (Gmel.), Sby. | 

393. 114. Purpura patula, Lam. | Linn. }. 

403. 115. Purpura Pochrostoma (Bl.), Rve. Sern: 

405. 115. Purpura (Coralliophila) madreporarum, Shy. [? Rhizocheilus. = Lepto- 
conchus monodonta, Quoy, teste Gld. Otia, p. 215, ] 

446. 132. Terebra luctuosa, Hds. 

560. 140. Cerithium Gallapaginis (A. Ad.), Sby. Thes. [Sby.’s species = inter- 
ruptum, Mke., non C. B. Ad., no. 198, rough var. | * 


93. Smithsonian Institution.—At the time of the first Report, the tempe- 
rate fauna of the West Coast was only known through sources liable to error, 
the collectors having visited other regions besides Oregon and California, and 
the species described by American authors being but imperfectly understood 
in this country. The large accession to the number of authentic species, the 
important elimination of synonyms, and the assignment of ascertained loca- 


* The review of the remainder of the first Report, nos. 69-92, will be postponed till after 
the = of the new materials, which are almost entirely from American sources. 
1863. 2P 


578 REPORT—18638. 


lities, which are placed on record in this Report, are due almost entirely to 
the stimulus afforded to science in general, and to this branch especially, by 
the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, D.C. The fund bequeathed by 
Mr. Smithson, “‘ for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men,” 
having been declined by the Universities to which it was offered in the Old 
World, is held (in trust only) by the U. 8. Government *. It is administered 
by a permanent body of Regents, according to a constitution drawn-out at 
their instance by the Secretary, Prof. J. Henry, LL.D. It may be safely 
stated that to his unswerving consistency, cautious judgment, and catholic 
impartiality it is mainly owing that, during various political and social 
changes, the Institution has not only steered clear of all party bias in the 
United States, but has distributed its advantages with equal hand on both 
sides of the Atlantic. The Natural History department is under the special 
superintendence of the Assistant-Secretary, Prof. Spencer Baird, M.D., whose 
indefatigable zeal, fertility of resource, and thorough knowledge of the re- 
quirements of the science have enabled the Institution, by a comparatively 
small outlay, not only to amass in a few years an enormous store of accurate 
materials, but also to eliminate from them a series of publications on various 
important branches of American zoology. The contributions of the Smith- 
sonian Institution to our knowledge of the West Coast fauna may be consi- 
dered under [A] its collections and [B}] its publications. 

[A] Smithsonian Collections.—According to the present law, all collections 
made in expeditions fitted out by the Government become the property of the 
Smiths. Inst., with liberty to exchange duplicates. Its museum, therefore, 
is rich in types; and its liberal policy allows of all duplicates being trans- 
mitted to public collections, to schools of science, or to individuals engaged 
in special departments of study. Not being forced into an unalterable plan 
of operations, like many leading museums of the Old World, permission was 
given to send nearly the whole of the molluscs to this country, that they 
might be compared with the Cumingian, the Brit. Mus., and other leading 
collections+. The importance of thus establishing a harmony of nomencla- 
ture for species on both sides of the Atlantic can scarcely be over-estimated. 
The previous want of it can be abundantly seen by comparing paragraphs 
39, 43, 54, &c., in the first and in this Report. The West Coast collections 
belonging to the Smiths. Inst. are mainly from the following sources : 

a. The United States Exploring Expedition, under Capt. (afterwards Admiral) 
Wilkes, 1837-1840, v. par. 43.05 

b. The North Pacific Exploring Expedition, under Capt. Rogers, 1853-1855. 
Collector, Dr. Stimpson. 

c. The Pacific Railroad Expedition, 49th parallel, under Governor died 
Stevens, 1853-54. Collections made in Puget Sound by Dr. Suckley, 
and at Columbia River by Dr. J. G. Cooper. Dr. Suckley also collected 
at Panama, 

* The war has but to a limited extent curtailed the funds and interfered with the 
operations of the Institution. 

+ The Cunard Steamship Company have most liberally conveyed these stores across 
the Atlantic, free of cost. The British and American Governments have allowed special 
facilities for passing the Custom Houses without derangement. Similar acts of liberality 
and courtesy are continually afforded to the Smiths. Inst.—The materials for this Report 
have been placed unreservedly in the hands of the writer, although he went to Washing- 
ton as a complete stranger, and with no other introduction than his published writings. 
He was, however, at that time (Dec. 1859) directed to maintain silence on the slavery 
question, and not even to associate with coloured persons—a strange embargo to lay on 


the private life of a working naturalist! Now, however, there is the same freedom of 
speech on that subject as in England. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 579 


d. The Pacific Railroad Survey, under Lieutenant R. 8. Williamson, 1853. 
Collector, Dr. A. L. Heermann. 

e. The Pacific Railroad Survey, under Lieutenant R. 8. Williamson, 1855. 
Collector, Dr. J. 8S. Newberry. 

f. United States and Mexican Boundary Survey, under Major W. H. Emory, 
1852. Collector, Arthur Schott. 

g- Colorado Expedition, under Lieutenant J. C. Ives. Collector, Dr. J. 8. 
Newberry. 

h. The United States North-West Boundary Survey, under Com. A. Camp- 
bell. Collectors, Dr. Kennerley and Mr. George Gibbs. 

Besides the above official explorations on the American side, during a 
period in which the British Government only fitted out a single expedition 
coordinate with h, the Smiths. Inst. has received a large number of pri- 
vate collections from their correspondents, of which the following are the 
principal :— 

2. Mr. Jas. G. Swan, from Port Townsend, Cape Flattery, Neeah Bay, and the 
neighbouring shores of Vancouver; at intervals, during many years. 

j. Dr.J.G. Cooper, early private collections from Shoalwater Bay and various 
stations in California and from Panama; and lately the dredged collections 
of the California State Geological Survey, of which a portion were sent 
in adyance by Dr. Palmer. 

k. California Academy of Natural Sciences, duplicates of their collection, 
with the privilege of inspecting unique specimens. 

l. Dr. E. Vollum, U.S.A., from Fort Umpqua. 

m. Lieutenant W. P. Trowbridge, from coast of Oregon and California. 

n. Dr. J. A. Veatch, from the peninsula of Lower California, and especially 
from Cerros Island. 

o. Mr. A. 8. Taylor, from Monterey. 

p. Mr. Andrew Cassidy, from 8. Diego. 

q. Rev. J. Rowell, now of San Francisco, from various stations in both faunas, 
and especially from Sta. Crux, and the Farallones Is. 

rv. Mr. John Xantus, of the U.S. Coast Survey, from Cape St. Lucas. Speci- 
mens were received through him from Socorro Island (one of the Revilla- 
gigedo group), Tres Marias and Margarita Island. 

s, Captain C. P, Stone, from Guaymas and the northern part of the Gulf of 
California. 

#, Captain C. M. Dow, from the coast of Central America. 

uw. Dr. J. H. Sternberg, from Panama. 

v. Dr. J. H. Frick, Mr. James Hepburn, and others, from San Francisco. 

w. Mr. C. N. Riotte, U. S. Minister to Costa Rica, from Puntas Arenas. 

x. Mr. W. H. Pease, of Honolulu, collections made by his agents at various 
stations on the coast, particularly at Margarita Bay. 

Collections haye also been received from various expeditions already tabu- 
lated in the first Report; and from stray quarters not here included because 
their accuracy may admit of doubt. The species received from the most im- 
portant of these sources will be enumerated in their order; of the remainder, 
exact lists may be consulted by the student in the Smithsonian Catalogues, 
and the combined results will be found tabulated as ‘ Pacific Railroad Expe- 
ditions’ or ‘Smithsonian Collections.’ 

[B] Smithsonian Publications—These may be classed under three heads. 
(1.) Works published by the U. 8. Government, with more or less of assist- 
ance derived from and through the Smiths. Inst. (2.) The ‘Smithsonian 
Contributions to Knowledge,’ printed in 4to, and answering to the ‘ Trans- 

2P2 


580 REPORT—1863. 


actions’ of English learned societies; and (3.) The ‘ Miscellaneous Collec- 
tions,’ in 8vo, answering to the ‘ Proceedings’ of the societies :— 

(1.) The series of ten 4to volumes, called ‘ Pacific Railroad Reports,’ con- 
tains a complete résumé of the natural history of the western slope of North 
America. The Recent and Tertiary Fossil Mollusca will be analyzed in the 
following pages. Accounts have also been published of the natural history 
of other expeditions.—The annual volumes of ‘ Reports of the Regents of the 
Smithsonian Institution,’ published by the U. 8S. Government, contain exact 
accounts of the assistance rendered to the expeditions by the Smiths. Inst., 
as well as lectures and articles on special subjects. In these will be found 
full particulars of the principles which regulate the natural-history workings 
of the Institution*. 

(2.) The only paper bearing on our present inquiry as yet published in 
the ‘ Contributions ’ is on the “‘ Invertebrata of the Grand Manan,” by Dr. W. 
Stimpson, which should be consulted by all who desire to institute a compa- 
rison between the sub-boreal faunas on the two sides of the Atlantic. 

(3.) The ‘ Miscellaneous Collections’ are all stereotyped, and very freely 
circulated. Among them will be found “ Directions ” for collecting specimens 
of natural history, with special instructions concerning the desiderata on the 
Pacific coasts. These have been widely distributed among the various go- 
vernment officials, the employés of the U. S. Coast Survey, and the variously 
ramified circulating media at the command of the Smiths. Inst.; and have 
already borne a fair share of important results, although the war has 
greatly impeded the expected prosecution of natural-history labours. “ Check 
Lists” have been published “of the Shells of North America, by I. Lea, 
P. P. Carpenter, W. Stimpson, W. G. Binney, and T. Prime,” June 1860. No. 
1 contains the Marine Shells of the “‘ Oregonian and Californian Province,” 
and No. 2 of the “‘ Mexican and Panamic Province.” They are chiefly com- 
piled from the first British Association Report, with such elimination of sy- 
nonyms and doubtful species, and addition of fresh materials, as had become 
available up to the date of publication. They were not intended to be quoted 
as authorities ; and so rapid has been the accumulation of fresh information 
that no. 1 is already out of date. In the “ Terrestrial Gasteropoda,” by W. 
G. Binney, list no. 1 contains the “ species of the Pacific coast, from the ex- 
treme north to Mazatlan,” to which many additions have since been made. 
In the list of “ Fluviatile Gasteropoda,” also by W. G. Binney, “< the letter W 
distinguishes those confined to the Pacific coast, WE is affixed to those 
found in both sections of the continent, and M designates the Mexican 
species. From the starting-point of this list considerable progress has 
already been made. In the brief list of «Cyclades, by Temple Prime,” the 
Mexican and Central American species are similarly designated; but the 
western species and those common to the Pacific and Atlantic United States 
are not distinguished. In the list of “‘ Unionide,” by Dr. I. Lea, whose life- 
long devotion to the elucidation of that family is everywhere gratefully 
acknowledged, the Pacific species are designated by a P. The large series 


* The ‘ Lectures on Mollusca,’ in the Vol. for 1860, pp. 151-283, will perhaps be found 
useful as a digest of classical forms. It was to have been illustrated with copies of woodcuts, 
kindly promised by Dr. Gray, and since placed at the disposal of the Smiths. Inst. by the 
courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum; but, unfortunately, the blocks were not 
to be found at the time. They will appear, however, in forthcoming Smithsonian publi- 
cations. The ‘Lecture on the Shells of the Gulf of California,’ in the Vol. for 1859, 
pp. 195-219, contains in a popular form much of the information distributed through the 
Brit. Mus. Maz. Cat. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 581 


of specimens, representing varieties and ages, in Dr. Lea’s private collection 
are well deserving of close study. Their owner shares the liberality of Mr. 
Cuming in making them available for all purposes of scientific inquiry. 

The Smiths. Inst. has just issued from the press the first part of the 
‘ Bibliography of North American Conchology, previous to the year 1860,’ by 
W. G. Binney, containing references to all printed information on North 
American shells by native writers. Itis divided into “ § A. American descrip- 
tions of North American molluscs; § B. American descriptions of foreign 
molluscs; § C. Descriptions of foreign species by American authors in foreign 
works.” The work is prepared with unusual care and completeness, and 
with the accurate judgment which characterizes all Mr. Binney’s writings. 
It contains, under every separate work or paper, “a list of species therein 
described or in any important manner referred-to, together with their syno- 
nymy, locality, and the volume, page, plate, and figure relating to them.” 
The second part, containing similar references to American species described 
by European writers, is now passing through the press. Mr. Binney has 
most kindly sent the proofs to the writer (as far as p. 287), which have been 
freely used in preparing this Report, and have supplied various important 
sources of information. It undertakes to provide for the whole North American 
continent what has been here attempted for the West Coast; and in much 
greater detail, as not only the first description, but all subsequent quotations 
are duly catalogued. It may be regarded as a complete index of references 
to all works on North American malacology. The student, in making use 
of it, will remember that it is only with the Pulmonates that Mr. Binney 
professes an intimate acquaintance. For these the work may be regarded as 
complete. But, in other departments of the science, only those shells which 
are assigned by the authors to North America are quoted; consequently a 
large number of species are passed-over which are truly American, but are 
assigned to other places, or described without locality. Also, species really 
belonging to other faunas, but falsely attributed to North America, duly 
appear as though genuine; and the additional localities frequently assigned 
by the authors (which are often the real habitats) are seldom quoted. More- 
over the citations stop at Mazatlan; consequently, the tropical fauna of the 
West Coast is but imperfectly represented. Lastly, the authors are not pre- 
sented in chronological or indeed in any other ostensible order ; but it is pro- 
mised that the necessary information will be given in the index on the com- 
pletion of the work. The student will further bear in mind that for many 
reasons no second-hand reference can serve the same purpose as a consultation 
of the original book. With these cautions the work will be found invaluable 
by all who are engaged in working-out American species; and great thanks 
are due to Mr. Binney for undertaking the extreme labour of its compilation, 
and to the Smiths. Inst. for supplying the expense of its publication. Probably 
no such work has yet been printed on the malacology of any other country. 

Lastly, there is now in preparation a complete series of hand-books on 
North American malacology, copiously illustrated with wood engravings, and 
containing a digest of all that is known in each department. The marine 
shells of the Atlantic are being described by Dr. Stimpson, who is now also 
engaged in the dissection of the Freshwater Rostrifers; the marine shells of 
the Pacific are placed in the hands of the writer; the Pulmonates will be 
thoroughly worked-out by Mr. Binney, the Melaniade by Mr. Tryon, and 
the Cycladide by Mr. Prime. Thus it appears that while other Americans 
have been eagerly devoting themselves to destroying each other’s lives, and 
in some instances invoking the name of science to assist in the degradation 


582 REPORT—1863. 


of the coloured portion of our race *, the malacologists have been unusually 
zealous in advancing their before somewhat slumbering study; and that 
while the U. 8. Government has suspended the publication of the Reports in 
progress, preferring to spend the money on war, the Smiths. Inst. has dis- 
played unexpected liberality in preparing and issuing from the press works 
of a far more comprehensive character, for the peaceful “increase and diffusion 
of” what will hereafter be regarded as an important branch of “knowledge 
among men.” 

94. North Pacific Exploring Expedition——In the year 1853, Dr. W. 
Stimpson, well known in very early life for his dredging-researches and ob- 
servations on the marine animals of the Atlantic coast, accompanied Captain 
Ringold as naturalist to the U.S. “ North Pacific Exploring Expedition.” Its 
principal object was to obtain more correct information with regard to the 
Japan seas and the extreme north of the Pacific, and it was only incidentally 
that it visited the Californian province. However, Dr. Stimpson’s extensive 
dredgings in the fiords of Japan developed the interesting fact, that while the 
southern shores presented a fauna essentially Indo-Pacific in its character, 
and abounding in the usual Cones, Cowries, Olives, &c., the northern slopes 
of the same islands presented an assemblage of forms far more analogous to 
the fauna of the Sitka and Vancouver region, and containing many species 
common to the American coast. During the course of the voyage dredging- 
collections + were made by Dr. Stimpson at Madeira, Cape of Good Hope, Sydney 
Harbour, Coral Seas, Port Jackson, Hong Kong (also by Mr. Wright; New Ire- 
land, Lieut. Van Wycke; Gasper Straits, Squires ; vicinity of Canton, presented 
by Mr. Bowring ; interior of Hong Kong, Wright); China Sea; Whampoa ; 
Bonin Island; Loo Choo Island; Ousima; Katonasima Straits; Kikaia ; 
Kikaisima ; Kagosima [alas!]; Hakodadi; Taniogesima (also Wright, Kent, 
Kern, Boggs, Carter); Simoda; Niphon (also Brook); Arvatska Bay, Kamt- 
schatka; Amincheche Island, Avikamcheche Island, Behring Straits; Senia- 
vine Straits, Arctic Ocean (also Captain Rogers); San Francisco; (Puget Sound 
and Shoalwater Bay, Dr. Cooper, Cat. no. 1849-1856); Tahiti (also Captain 
Stephens, Kern), Hawaii (also Garrett; Sea of Ochotsk, Captain Stevens), All 
these were duly catalogued, with stations, depths, and other particulars, and 
living animals preserved in spirits after being drawn. The expedition appears 
to have returned in 1856. Although Dr. Stimpson devoted his chief attention 
to articulate animals, and molluscs occupied but a subordinate share of his 
attention, it is safe to say that in this short period he collected more trust- 
worthy species of shells, with localities, than were received at the Smiths. 
Inst. from the united labours of the naturalists of Captain Wilkes’s celebrated 
expedition. Through some unaccountable cause, certain of the most valuable 
boxes were ‘ lost” between New York and Washington ; the remainder were 
placed in the hands of Dr. Gould for description, with the MS. catalogue, a 
copy of which forms the ‘“ Mollusca, Vol. I.,” nos. 1-2003, of the Smiths. 
Mus. Fortunately, Dr. Gould embraced the opportunity to bring the un- 
certain shells to London, and compare them with the Cumingian Collection t. 


* See Prof. Huxley’s remarks on the publications of the Anthropological Society, in 
his Lectures on Mammalia at the Royal College of Surgeons. 

+ A fuller account of this expedition is here given than is justified from its contributions 
to the W. American fauna, because no other information respecting it is as yet available 
to the malacological student. 

t When he sought similar permission to identify the shells of Captain Wilkes’s Expe- 
dition, the answer of the celebrated Judge who then had the custody of the collection was 
(with an oath), “ We are a nation of twenty millions, and can do without Europe.” Very 
rapidly has science taught her a better lesson since those days. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 583 


Thus a large body of species, named from types, was prepared for the New 
World ; but, unfortunately, through imperfect packing and the practice of 
marking by numbers only, much of the value of this identification was lost. 
The new species were described by Dr. Gould in the ‘ Boston Proc. Soc. Nat. 
Hist.,’ 1859-1861; and on completion of the series, the author collected 
the papers embodying the new species of the two great scientific expeditions, 
as well as his other scattered publications, and issued them in a most valuable 
book, entitled ‘ Otia Conchologica: Descriptions of Shells and Molluscs, from 
1839-1862,’ Boston, 1862; with “Rectifications,” embodying such changes of 
nomenclature and synonyms as he desired to represent his matured views. 
In quoting Dr. Gould’s writings, therefore, this table should always be con- 
sulted. A considerable portion of the specimens have been returned to the 
Smiths. Inst., of which the larger species are mounted in the collection, and 
the smaller ones have been sent to the writer to compare with those collected 
by Mr. A. Adams,which were unfortunately being described in the London 
journals almost simultaneously. The war has unhappily postponed the in- 
tention of publishing the complete lists of species collected and identified with 
so much accurate care. The following, however, have already been deter- 
mined by Dr. Gould from the region in which American species occur. The 
list is given entire (so far as identified), because species as yet known only 
on one coast of the North Pacific may hereafter be found on the other. It 
contains (as in the comparison of the Caribbean and West Mexican fauna) 
(@) species certainly identical, (b) probably identical, (c) “interesting ana- 
gues,” and (d) representative forms. 
8.1.Cat. no. 
1263. Crepidula hystryx, var. Kagosima Bay, Japan. Dead on shore. [=aculeata, 
Maz. Cat. no. 334.] 
1319. Poronia rubra, Mont. Kagosima Bay, Japan. [Vide Maz. Cat. no. 154,] 
Among sea-weeds and barnacles in 2nd and 3rd levels; rocky shore. 
1339. Natica marochiensis [P maroccana; v. Maz. Cat. no. 570]. Kagosima Bay, 
Japan. Dead on shore. 
1344. Acmea ?Sieboldi; very near patina. Kagosima Bay, Japan. Rocks at 1. w. 
1351. Torinia variegata, Lam. Kagosima Bay, Japan. [ Vide Maz. Cat. no. 484.] 
Dead on shore. 
1414, Nassa gemmulata, Lam. [non C. B. oe Kagosima Bay, Japan. 5 fm. sd. 
1476. Acar | Barbatia] gradata, Brod. and Sby. Taniogesima, Kagosima Bay, 
Japan. [ Vide Maz. Cat. no. 194.] Dead in ten fm.; sand and shells. 
407,476. Acar [Barbatia] gradata, Brod. and Sby. Port Jackson. 
1502. Lima squamosa, Lam. Taniogesima, Japan. [ =. tetrica, Gld., teste Cum. | 


The remaining species from these localities are either local or belong to the 
Philippine and Polynesian fauna. At Simoda and Hakodadi we enter on a 
mixed fauna. 


1574. Haliotis discus, Rve. Simoda and Hakodadi. Rocks at low water, four 
fm. “ Kamtschatkana seems to be the small growth of the same.”’ [It is 
locally abundant, however, on the West Coast; while discus has never 
been found there, and is much flatter. ] 

1577. Lutraria [ Schizotherus Nuttallii, Conr.| “Hakodadi Bay. Eight fm. sand. 

1579, Cytherea petechialis, Lam. Hakodadi Bay. Sand, 4th level. 

1582. Tritonium [ Chrysodomus| antiquum, Ln. Hakodadi Bay (also Okhotsk and 
Arctic Oc., 1779). Low-water mark and laminarian zone, on weedy rocks. 

1585. Tritonium [Priene] Oregonense, Redf. Hakodadi Bay. Dead on shore, 
and in twenty fm. Also no. 1955. 

1588. Tellina Bodegensis, Hds. Hakodadi Bay. Dead on shore. 

1589. Mya arenaria, Ln. Hakodadi Bay. 

1592. Mercenaria orientalis, Gld. [A West Atlantic type, probably= MZ. Stimp- 
sont, Otia, p. 169.] Hakodadi Bay. Six fm. sand. 


584 REPORT—1863. 
§.1.Cat. no. " 
1596. Venus rigida, Gld. [MS. non Gld., Otia, p. 85,== Tapes, var. Petitii. The 


Japanese shell is Adamsii, Rve., from type]. Hakodadi Bay. Four to 
ten fm. sand. 


The above occur in connexion with local and with diffused tropical species. 


1601. 
1630. 
1632. 


1634. 
1635. 


1637. 


1639. 
1648. 


1651. 
1665. 


1674. 
1700. 


1702. 


1703. 
1704. 


1705. 
1706, 


1708. 
1710. 
Als 
1714. 
1715. 
1716. 
1717. 


1718. 
1719. 


1720, 
1721. 
1722. 
1728. 


1725. 


Euthria ferrea, Rye. Simoda. Among stones and pebbles, 3rd level. [Al- 
most identical with the Cape Horn species, E. plumbea, Phil. ] 

Tritonium L Cis | cassidarieformis, Rye. East Coast of Japan, lat. 
37°, and Hakodadi. Twenty fm., black coarse sand. 

Chiton “largest”? [?Cryptochiton Stellert]. Hakodadi. On large stones 
and under shelving rocks, low-water mark. 

Peeten, like [=] Islandicus. Hakodadi. Ten fm. shell-sand. 

Sanguinolaria Nuttallii, Cony.,=decora, Hds. Hakodadi. ‘“ Possibly= Sole- 
tellina obscurata, Desh.’ Sand, low-water mark. 

Macoma lata, “ Gmel. in Mus. Cum.,= calearea, Chem.,=proxima, Brown,= 
sordida, Couth.,= Suensoni, Morch.” Hakodadi. 4th level, sandy mud. 

Litorina Grenlandica, Chem. Hakodadi. Rocks, Ist level. 

Cardium pseudofossile, Rve.,=blandum, Gld., perhaps= Californiensis, Desh. 
Hakodadi. Twenty fm. sand. 

Terebratula{ Waldheimia| Gray, Desh. Hakodadi. Shelly gravel, 8-15 fm. 

Leda arctica, Brod. [= Y. lanceolata, J. Shy. |. Hakodadi, Sandy mud, 4-12 
fm. Seniavine Str., 10-30 fm. 

Drillia inermis, Hds. Hakodadi. Shelly sand, 4-10 fm. 

Pecten Yessoensis, Jay. [Probably a var. of Amustum caurinum.| Hakodadi. 
Weedy mud, 4 fm. 

Cardium (Serripes) Grenlandicum. Awatska Bay, Kamtschatka. Mud, 
12 fm. Also Avikamcheche Is., Behring Str., and Arctic Ocean. 

Yoldia thracieformis, Storer. Hakodadi. Mud, 12 fm. 

Mytilus edulis. Wakodadi. Also Avikamcheche Is., Behring Str, and 
Arctic Ocean. Low-water mark, and in 3rd and 4th level. 

Cardium Californiense, Desh. Hakodadi. Mud, 12fm. [= no, 1648.] 

Mya truncata. Hakodadi; also Avikamcheche Is. Mud, 6-15 fm. Also 
Arctic Ocean, in mud, 30 fm. 

Buceinum glaciale. Takodadi, and Straits of Seniavine, at Amincheche 
Is., Behring Str. 

Tritonium [ Chrysodomus]| antiquim-+deformis, Rve., and vars. Hakodadi 
and Avikamcheche Is. Gravel, 4 fm. 

Bucecinum tortuosum, Rve.,=scalariforme+vars. Straits of Seniayine. 

Mya ?arenaria. Hakodadi and Avikamcheche Is. 

Bullia Leer ee Midd. Hakodadi. Gravel, 5-6 fm. 

Lanistes levigata, Gray (=discors, Ln., teste Dix. in Mus, Cum.). Mud, 
20 fm. Hakodadi and Arctic Ocean ; common, in nests, 30 fm. ; no. 1739. 

Trichotropis multicaudata [? = Tr. coronata, Otia, p. 121: related to insignis, 
Midd., teste A, Ad.]. Hakodadi. Gravelly mud, 15 fm. 

[Lepeta] ceca, var. concentrica, Midd. Hakodadi and Arctic Ocean. 

Trichotropis bicarinata, Sby. Hakodadi. Not uncommon in laminarian zone. 
Arctic Ocean ; common. 

Macoma proxima, Brown. WHakodadi; mud, 5-25 fm. Awatska Bay. 
Arctie Ocean ; common, no. 1727. 

Macoma edentula, Brod. and Sby. Hakodadi. Avikamcheche Is. 

Crepidula grandis, Midd. Hakodadi, Okhotsk, 15 fm. ; no. 2002. 

Venus fluctuosa, Gld., 1841. P =astartoides, Beck, 1849. Hakodadi and Arctic 
Ocean; not uncommon. Mud, 5-10 fm. 

Cardita (Actinobolus) borealis, Cony. Avikamcheche Is., Behring Straits ; 
mud, 5-30 fm. Awatska Bay; 10 fm. mud. Arctic Ocean; common. 


. Saxicava pholadis, L.,=rugosa+ distorta. Avikamcheche Is., Arctic Ocean. 


Awatska Bay; on shells, &e. Lam. zone; no. 1729. 


. Margarita obscura, Couth. Awatska Bay, Kamtschatka. Mud, 10 fm. 
. Bela turricula., Mont. Awatska Bay ; mud, 6-15 fm. Also Seniavine Str.; 


no. 1782. 


8.1.Cat. 
17. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 585 


no. 


33. Yoldia limatula, Say. Awatska Bay and Arctic Oc. Mud, common, 5-20 fm. 


1734. 
1735. 
1736. 


1737. 
1740. 
1741. 
1742. 
1744. 
1745. 
1747. 
1748, 


1749, 
1750. 


1751. 
1752. 


1753. 
1764. 


1756. 
1757. 


1768. 
1759. 
1760. 


1761. 
1762. 


1763. 


1765. 
1770. 
1771. 
1773. 
1774. 


1775. 


1776. 


LUCE. 
1778. 


1781. 
1783. 


1784. 


1785. 
1789. 


1790. 
1791. 
1793. 
1796. 
1798. 
1799. 
1821. 


1836. 
1837. 
1838. 


Natica clausa, Brod. Awatska Bay. Mud, 5-15 fm. 

Yoldia myalis (or hyperborea). Awatska Bay. Mud, 10 fm. 

Leda minuta. Seniavine Str. ; Arctic Oc., near Behr. Str. Mud and pebbly 
sand, 15-30 fm., coarse striae. 

Leda minuta, var. Ditto. Mud and pebbly sand, 5-20 fm., fine strie. 

Modrolaria corrugata. Ditto. Mud, in nests, 30 fm. 

Rhynchonella psittacea. Ditto. Graveland sponges, 20-30 fm. 

Margarita striata, Leach. Ditto. Shelly gravel, common, 15-30 fm. 

Admete arctica, Midd. Ditto. Mud, 30 fm. 

Admete viridula, Couth. Ditto. Gravel, 4 fm.; mud, 10-30 fm. 

Velutina haliotoidea. Ditto. Gravel, 10-25 fm. 

Margarita argentata {Gld. Iny. Mass.]. Ditto. Mud, 30 fm.; shelly, 15- 
25 fm. 


Turritella (sp.), Migh. Ditto. Mud, 30 fm.; clean gravel, 4-20 fm. 

Trichotropis bicarinata. Ditto. Pebbly mud, 5-6 fm. 

LInnatia pallida, Brod. Ditto. Mud, 10-80 fm. 

Cylichna triticea, Couth. Ditto. Mud, 15-30 fm. 

Velutina {| Morvilia] zonata [Gld. Iny. Mass.]._ Ditto. On stones, 5 fm. 

Nucula tenuis, Mont. Ditto. Mud, common, 20-30 fm.; pebbly mud, 5-20 
fm. Also Hakodadi; sandy mud, 10 fm.; no. 1687. 

Trophon clathratus, Linn. Ditto. Mud, 20-80 fm.; gravel, 4 fm. 

Lanatia septentrionalis, Beck. Ditto. Gravelly mud, common, 20 fm. ; 
gravel, 4 fm. 

Amicula vestita, Shy. Ditto. Gravel, common, 10-40 fin. 

Scalaria Grenlandica, Chemn. Ditto. Maud, 30 fm. 

LInnatia pallidoides. Ditto. Mud, 30 fm. 

Chrysodomus Islandicus, Chemn. Ditto. Mud, 30 fm. 

Patella | Lepeta| candida, Couth. Ditto. Mud, 30 fm. 

Chiton albus, Linn. Ditto. On shells in mud, 80 fm. 

Chrysodomus Schantaricus, Midd. Ditto. Mud, 20-30 fm. 

Astarte lactea, Br. and Sby. Arctic Oc. Mud, 30 fm. 

Pecten Islandicus, Chemn., var. Arctic Oc. Maud, 30 fm. 

Buceinum ?undatum (probably bicarinate var. of glaciale). Arctic Ocean. 

Buccinum Pundatum, var. pelagica. Arctic Ocean. 

Buccinum ? Ochotense, Midd. Arctic Ocean. 

Buecinum angulosum, Gray (= glaciale, var.). Arctic Ocean. 

Bueccinum ? tenue, Gray. Arctic Ocean. 

Mangelia, like simplex, Midd. Arctic Ocean. 

Bela rufa, Mont. Seniavine Str. Pebbly mud, common, 5 fm. 

Turritella erosa. Seniavine Str. Mud, 10-20 fm. 

Lyonsia Norvegica, Chem. Seniavine Str. Pebbly mud, 5 fim. 

Trichotropis insignis, Midd. Seniavine Str. Gravel, 10 fm. 

Bela decussata, Couth. Seniavine Str. Sandy mud, 10-20 fm. Also Awatska 
Bay ; ne. 1730. 

Yoldia myalis, Couth. Seniavine Str. Mud, 10-20 fm.; pebbly nvd, 5 fm. 

Bela harpularia, Couth. Pebbly mud, 5 fm. 

Margarita helicina, Faby. Behring Str. Clean gravel and alge, 5 fm. 

Turtonia [? minuta, Fabr.]. Behring Str. Common on sponges, 20-40 fm. 

LInmatia | Acrybia| aperta, Lov. (Kamtschatka. 

Modiolaria nigra, Gray. Arctic Ocean. 

Chama lobata {| =exogyra, Jay, non Conr.]. China Sea, west of Formosa. 
Shell-gravel, 30 fm. : 

Purpura emaryinata, Desh. San Francisco. On rocks in 4th level. 

Tittorina plena, Gid. San Francisco. On rocks in 8rd and 4th levels. 

Acmea textilis, Gid. San Francisco. On piles and rocks between tides. 


1838). Acmea patina, Esch. San Francisco. On piles and rocks between tides. 


1859. 
1840. 
1841. 


Cryptomya Californica, Cony. San Francisco. On sandy beaches. 
Macoma nasuta, Cony. San Francisco. Common in sandy mud, 1. w. 10 fm. 
Cardium Nuttall, Cony. San Francisco. Common in sandy mud, 1. w. 10 fm. 


586 REPORT—1868. 


§.1.Cat. no. 

1843. Mytilus edulis, var. San Francisco. On rocks and gravel, 4th level. 

1844. Mytilus Californianus, Conr. Near entrance to San Francisco. On rocks 
and gravel, 4th level. 

1845. Tapes diversa, Sby. San Francisco Bay. Very common, low-water mark 
[ = V. staminea, Conr., var.,= V. mundulus, Rye. ; v. antea, p. 570). 

1846. Chiton [Mopalia] muscosus, Gld. Entrance of San Francisco Bay. Not 
uncommon on rocks at low-water mark. 

1847. Cryptodon { Schizotherus| Nuttallii, Conr., jun. San Francisco. One sp. 

1848, Machera lucida, Conr. San Francisco. Common. [= patula, Portl.] 


The shells brought back by the Expedition from Puget Sound and Shoal- 
water Bay were collected by Dr. Cooper, whom Dr. Stimpson met at San 
Francisco, and are not here catalogued, as they appear again in his own 
collections, v. fra, par. 101. 

1860. Lithophagus cinnamomeus. China coast, lat. 253°. Dead, 25 fm., sand. 

1924. Helix tudiculata, Bin. Petaluma, Cal.; under stems in open grove of scruboak. 

1956. Mytilus splendens, Gld. _Hakodadi Bay. Rocks below tide-marks, com. 

1957. Anomia olivacea, Gld. Hakodadi Bay. On shells or gravelly sand, 10 fm. 

1958. Cerastoma foliatum, var. Burnettii, Ad. and Rye. Hakodadi Bay and N. E. 
part of Niphon. Low-water mark, on rocks and boulders. 

1959. Haliotis Kamtschatkana, Jonas. N. E. shore of Niphon. See no. 1574. 

1960. Purpura Freycinettii, Desh. N. E. shore of Niphon. Common on rocks. 

1961. Purpura Freycinettii, var. with muriciform lamelle. N. E. shore of Niphon. 

1967. Placunanomia macroschisma, Desh. West Coast of Jesso. Gravel, 30 fm. 

1968. Terebratula pulvinata, Gld. Arctic Ocean. Gravel, 30 fm. 

2000. Puncturella noachina, Linn. Sea of Okhotsk. Gravel, 20 fm. 

2001. Astarte lactea, Brod. and Sby. Sea of Okhotsk. Gravel, 20 fm. 

2003. Terebratula globosa, Lam. Seaof Okhotsk. Gravel, 36 fm. [Perhaps Cali- 
fornica, Koch. | 

The following, from among the new species described by Dr. Gould in his 
‘Otia Conch.,’ belong to the same province, and to forms which may be ex- 
pected to appear on the northern shores of West America. They were first 
published in the Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., under the dates quoted :— 
Otia, p. Bost. Proc. 8.N.H. 

109. 1859. June. Natica severa, Gld., like heros, but with umbilicus resembling 
unifasciata. Hakodadi, W. 8. 

LO » Natica russa, Gld., like clausa. Arctic Ocean, W. 8. 

115. 4, Dee. Patella pallida, Gid. Hakodadi. On stones and gravel, 10 fm. 

Loe ee » Patella grata, Gid. N. E. shore of Niphon. 

TS »  Aemea dorsuosa, Gld., like patina, var. monticula suite a! 
Nutt. Hakodadi, on rocks of 2nd and 3rd lamin. zone. W. 

1 Gear »,  Chiton (Leptochiton) concinnus, Gld., like albus, but with lines of 

punctures. Hakodadi, W. 8. 

5 »»  Chiton (Acanthochetes) achates,Gld. Kikaia, Hakodadi, W. S. 

118. 1859. Dec. Chiton (Molpalia) Stimpsoni, Gld., like Blainvillet, without an- 
terior radiating lines. [On stones, clean bottom, 25 fm., 
and under stones and rocks, low-water mark.”—Smiths. Cat. 
no. 1646. Not to be confounded with M. Simpsont, Gray. | 
Hakodadi, W. 8. 

120. 1860. Sept. Terebratula [? Waldheimia] transversa, Gld., like Grayi, with 
_ internal supports: [=Grayt, teste A. Ad.] Hakodadi, 

120. 5; »  Terebratella miniata, Gld., like Zelandica. Apophyses united 
to central crest. [= Waldheimia Koreanica, Ad. and Rye., 
teste Rve. from type. ‘On pebbles, clean bottom, 30 fm.” 
Smiths. Cat. 1597.| Hakodadi, W. S. 

120. 4 5», Rhynchonella lucida, Gld.; in aspect like 7. vitrea, jun. 

ADL, »,  Irichotropis (Iphinoé) coronata, Gld.; like T. ciliata, Kruger. 
Straits of Semiavine, Arctic Ocean, 20 fm. mud. W. 8. 


: ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 587 


Otia, p. Bost. Proc. 8.N.H. 

122. 1860. Sept. Buccinum Stimpsoni, Gld.; like wndatum, but quite distinct. 
Avikamcheche Is., Behring Str., W.S. Arctic Ocean, Rod- 
gers. | Not B. Stimpsonianwm, C. B. Ad.] 

HSS 255 »  Neptunea (Sipho) terebralis, Gld.; like Icelandica. Arctic Oc. 

B25. 1.) 4g 3,  Lrophon incomptus, Gld.; like erassus. Hakodadi, W. S. 

134. Oct. Bela turgida, Gld. Kamtschatka, W. 8. 

ar. Margarita ianthina, Gld. ; like Schantarica. Arctic Ocean. 
HOAs, x5, » Margarita albula, Gld.; like an overgrown arctica. Arctic 
Ocean., W. 8. 

iba... -,, » Margarita mustelina, Glid. Hakodadi; low water, W. S. 

io: »  Gibbula redimita, Gld.; like nivosa, A. Ad. Hakodadi, W. 8. 

162. + 5,  Lyonsia ventricosa, Gld.; shorter than Norvegica. Hakodadi, 

2-6 fm., sandy mud, W. 8. [“?=navicula, jun.” A. Ad.] 

162. Fe 5, Lyonsia (Pandorina) flabellata, Gld.; like arenosa, Arctic 

Ocean, W.S. 

GRE 55 »  Theora lubrica, Gld. Hakodadi; common in mud, 6 fm., W. S. 

EG eis a v5 »  Lanopea fragilis, Gld. Hakodadi, W. 8. 

1:3 »  Panopea ?generosa, var. sagrinata. Awatska Bay, Kamts- 

chatka, W.S. [“Epidermis projects } in., as in Glycimeris. 
Mud, 12 fm.” Smiths. Cat. 1701.] 

IGA, »  Corbula venusta, Gld. Hakodadi, 5-8 fm., shelly sand, W. S. 

165. 5 »  Solen strictus, Gld.; like corneus. Hakodadi, W. 8S. 

165. _s,, »  Solen gracilis, Gld. [non Phil.| Hakodadi, sandy beaches, W. S. 

TBO oe «55 » Machera sodalis, Gld.; like costata. Hakodadi, W.S. 

6d; . »  Solemya pusilla, Gld.; like velum. Hakodadi, 5 fm., mud, W.S. 

“ly ae »  TLellina lubrica, Gld. ; like felix and fabagella, Hakodadi, 6 fm., 

sandy mud, W. S. 
168. ,, 4,  Saxidomus aratus, Gld.; like V. maxima, Phil. San Francisco. 
Described as 4°5 in. long, yet] smaller than Natali. [“Open 
ays at Sir F. Drake’s; |. w., sand.” Smiths. Cat. 1842. ] 
169/°., ,, » Venus (Mercenaria) Stimpsoni, Gld.; like the Atlantic forms. 
Hakodadi, 6 fm., W. 8. 

ia, **,, » Mysia (Felania) usta, Gld. ; like an Astarte, Hakodadi, 8 fm., 
sandy mud, W. 8. 

173. ,,_~— Apr. Montacata divaricata, G1d. Hakodadi, on Spatangus-spines,W.S. 

ie »  Nucula (Acila) insignis, Gld. ; like mirabilis: (identical, teste 
A. Ad.]_ E,. Japan, lat. 387°, and Hakodadi, W.S. [“20fm. 
black coarse sand.”’—Smiths. Cat. 1628. ] 

VW. = 4 =, —- Mytilus coruscus, Gld.* _ Hakodadi; common on rocks between 

tide-marks, W.S. [?=WM. splendens., no. 1956. ] 

LV as »  Pecten letus, Gld.; resembles generally P. senatorius, is still more 

like P. [Amusium] caurinus. Hakodadi, shelly mud, 10 fm., 
W.S. [Non P. letus, Gld.,in U. 8. Expl. Exped. Shells, 
Otia, p. 95,= P. Dieffenbachii, Gray, teste Cuming. ] 

95. The United States Expedition to Japan, under Commodore M. C. Perry, 
1852-4, was not undertaken for scientific purposes ; and no special provision 
was made either for collecting or describing objects of natural history. A 
large number of shells, however, were obtained, and identified by Dr. Jay of 
New York. In Vol. II. of the ‘Narrative of the Expedition, &c.’ (Washing- 
ton, 1856, pp. 289-297) is given a list of Japanese shells, with descriptions and 
figures of the (supposed) new species. The following are related to the mol- 
luscs of the West Coast t. Specimens of the most important may be seen 
in the Cumingian Collection. 

* The M. mutabilis, described on the same page from Kagosima, is a Septifer; it is pre- 
sumed that the learned author did not open a specimen. 

+ The student should also consult, for related forms, the ‘ Mollusca Japonica’ by Dr. 
W. Dunker, Stuttgart, 1861 ;—like all the other works of the same author, most valuable 
for the patient care, accurate judgment, and enlarged experience displayed ; but relating 
chiefly to the subtropical portion of the fauna. 


588 REPORT—1863. 


Fig. 

7,10. Mya Japonica, un. s. Voleano Bay, Is. Yedo. Closely related 
to M. arenaria: (identical, teste A. Ad.]. 

8,9. Psammobia olivacea, n. s. Bay of Yedo. [Nearly allied to 
Hiatula Nuttall. | 


to 
ide) 
bo 
CJ tee aol 


993, $ 1,2. | Pecten Yessoensis, n. s. Hakodadi. [Resembles Amustwn 

aria | 3,4. caurinum, Gid. | 

295. 5. 16,17. Purpura septentrionalis, Rve. [= P. erispata, vav.] ? Japan. 

295. 5. 18,15. ? Bullia Perryi,n.s. Bay of Yedo, one sp. dredged. [= Volut- 
harpa ampullacea, Midd. 

296, Venerupis Nuttalli, Cony. [Saxidomus]. Japan. 

296. Tellina secta, Conr. Japan. 

296. Tapes decussata, Lu. |Probably T. Petitii, var. or Adamsii. 
Japan. | 

296. Ostrea borealis, Ln. Japan. 

296. Lanthina communis, Lam. Japan. 

296. Lanthina prolongata, Blainy. Japan. 


96. At the time that Dr. Gould was describing Dr. Stimpson’s Japanese 
shells in the Boston Proc. Ac. N. 8., Mr. A. Adams, R.N., one of the learned 
authors of the ‘Genera of Recent Mollusca,’ was making extensive and accu- 
rate dredgings in the same seas. The new genera and species have been and 
are being published, in a series of papers, in the Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. and 
in the Proc. Zool. Soc., preparatory to an intended complete work on the 
mollusc-fauna of the Eastern North Pacific. The collections of Mr. Adams 
have already displayed the Japanese existence of several species, as Siphonalia 
Kellettii, Solen sicarius, Homalopoma sanguineum, &c., before supposed to be* 
peculiar to the West coast. Unfortunately for our present purpose, while 
the comparison of specimens was going on, Mr. Adams was unexpectedly 
called to service on board H.M.S. ‘ Majestic,’ and was obliged to pack up his 
collections. Enough has been ascertained, however, to prove that it will be 
unsafe henceforth to describe species from either coast without comparison 
with those of the opposite shores. 

97. Pacific Railroad Reports—aAs it is necessary, in studying any fauna, 
to make comparisons far round in space, so it is essential to travel far back 
in time. The fullest account of the fossils of the West Coast of America is 
to be found in the ‘ Explorations and Surveys for a Railroad Route from the 
Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean,’ which form ten thick quarto volumes, 
copiously illustrated with plates, and published by the U.S. Senate, Wash- 
ington, 1856*. The natural-history department was conducted under the 
superintendence and with the aid of the Smithsonian Institution ; and science 
is under special obligations to Prof. Spencer 8. Baird, the Assistant Secre- 
tary, for his Reports on the Vertebrate Animals. It would hardly be ex- 
pected in Europe that the best réswmé of the zoology, the botany, and the 
geology of the vast region between the Great American desert and the Pacific 
should be found in a railroad survey. Unfortunately, it has not been the 
custom to advertize and sell the valuable documents printed at the expense 
of the U. 8. Government, in the ordinary channels of trade. They often become 
the perquisites of the members of Congress, and through them of the various 
employés, by whom they are transferred to the booksellers’ shelves. The 
fifth volume of the series is devoted to the explorations of Lieut. Williamson ; 
the second Part contains the Report by W. P. Blake, geologist and minero- 
logist of the expedition. In the Appendix, Art. II., are found “ Descrip- 
tions of the Fossil Shells,” by T. A. Conrad. They were first published in the 


* This extremely costly and valuable assemblage of documents was selling in Washing- 
ton, in 1860, at £5 sterling the set. 


sy 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 589 


‘Appendix to the Preliminary Geological Report,’ 8vo, Washington, 1855. 
They are divided into, I. “‘ Hocene,” and II. ‘‘ Miocene and Recent Forma- 


tions.” 

Plate. Fig. No. 
nat 1. 
en 9. 
sabietrS) = 8. 
aoe 4. 
ie as 

6. 
AY 1007. 
Ga 8, 


ea. ))9, 
phe. 10, 
e861. 
Cia 8:12. 
a ne Ga 
mes “44 
OS as 


I. Eocene (all from Cafiada de las Uvas*). 


Cardium linteum, Cony., n.s. Allied to C. Nicolleti, Conv. 

Dosinia alta, Cony., n.s. 

Meretrix. Uvasana, Conr., n.s. 

Meretrix Californiana, Conr.,u.s. Allied to IZ Poulsoni, Cony. 

Crassatella Uvasana, Conr., 0.8. 

Crassatella alta, Cony.,n.s. In small fragments, but abundant, 
as at Claiborne, Al. 

Mytilus humerus, Cony., 0.8. 

Cardita planicosta, Lam., = Venericardia ascia, Rogers. First 
discovered in Maryland in 1829, by Conr.; occurs abundantly 
in Md., Va., Al., and is quite as characteristic of the Ameri- 
can as of the European Eocene period. 

Natica ? etites, Conr., 1833. 

Natica ? gibbosa, Lea, 1833, or N. semilunata, Lea; also found at 
Claiborne, Al. 

Natica alveata, Conr., n.s. 

Turritelia Uvasana, Conr.,n.s. Alhed to T. obruta, Conr.,=T. 
lineata, Lea, from Claiborne, Al. 

Volutatithes |? Volutilithes| Californiana, Conr., u.s,. Resembles 
V. Sayana, Cony. 

? Busycon Blakei, Conr., n.s. 

Clavatula Californica, Cour., n.s. Allied to C. proruta, Conr., of 
Claiborne Eocene. 


II. Miocene and Recent Formations (from various localities). 


Til. 15. 16. 


ey 9. 17. 
Il. 16. 18, 
» 20. 19, 
> 97. 20, 
> 99) 91. 
» 28 22 
14, 18 

& ait = 
Wh a7, 2A 
29. 25 


Cardium modestum, Conr., n.s. San Diego. [May be Hemicar- 
dium biangulatum, jun. | 

Nucula decisa, Conr., nu.s. Resembles N. divaricata of the Ore- 
gon Miocene. [Closely allied to W. castrensis, &c., but too im- 
perfect to determine.] San Diego. 

Corbula Diegoana, Conr., n.s. San Diego. 

Meretrix uniomeris, Conr., n.s. Monterey Co. 

Meretrix decisa, Conr., n.s. Ocoya Creek. 

Meretrix Tularena, Conr., n.s., [in list, “Tularana”’ in text’. 
From a boulder in Tulare Valley. [Comp. Tapes gracilis, Gld. 

Tellina Diegoana, Conr., n.s., San Diego. 

Tellina congesta, Conr., n.s. [Appears a Heterodonaz, allied to 
Leola Lam.] Abundant at Monterey, Carmello, and San 

lego. 

Tellina Pedroana, Conr.,n.s. [P= ZT. gemma, Gld.] Recent 
formation. San Pedro. 

Arca microdonta, Conr., n.s. Resembles A. arata, Say, of the 
Maryland Miocene. Miocene, ?Tulare Valley. 


* The existence of Eocene strata on the Pacific slope is ascertained by a single boulder 
of very hard sandstone, which, though very small, furnished fifteen species. Of these, 
three correspond with forms from Claiborne, Alabama; and the “ finger-post of the 
Eocene” appears in its usual abundance. Mr. Conrad characterizes the specimens as 
“beautifully perfect ;” which would not have been supposed from his descriptions and 
figures. ‘They “seem to indicate a connexion of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans during 
the Eocene period ;” and the author expects that “when the rock shall have been disco- 
vered and investigated i situ, fresh forms will be obtained, with which we are already 
familiar in eastern localities.” 


590 REPORT —18638. 


Plate Fig. No. 
IV. 31. 26. Tapes diversum, Shy. [= Tapes staminea, Conr., var. Petitii, 
(IIL. in text). Desh.] Recent formation. San Pedro. 
Il. 25. 27. Sazxicava abrupta, Conr.,n.s. [Probably the shortened form of 
Petricola carditoides, Conr.| Recent formation. San Pedro. 
24. 28. Petricola Pedroana, Conr., n.s. [Allied to P. ventricosa, Desh. ] 
Recent formation San Pedro. 
{V. 33. 29. Schizotherus Nuttalli, Cony., “n.s.” = Tresus capax, Gid. Recent 
formation. San Pedro. 
Ill. 23. 30. PLadraria Traskei, Conr., ns. [Not improbably = Saxidomus 
Nuttallii, Cony., jun.| Miocene. Carmello. 
V. 45. 31. Mactra Diegoana, Conr.,n.s. Like M. albaria, of the Oregon 
Miocene. [Resembles Mulinia angulata, Gray.] ? Miocene. 
San Diego. 
» 35. 82. Modiola contracta, Conr.,n.s. [Very like M. recta, Conr.] ? Mio- 
cene. Monterey Co. Recent formation. 
» 40. 383. Mytilus Pedroanus, Conr., u.s.  [Probably=M. edulis, jun.) 
Recent formation. San Pedro. 
» 41. 34. Pecten Deserti, Conr., n.s. _[Resembles P. ctreuaris.] Mio- 
cene. Carrizo Creek, Colorado Desert. 
» 84 35, Anomia subcostata, Conr.,n.s. [P= Placunanomia macroschisma. | 
Miocene. Colorado Desert. Allied to A. Ruffini. 
5» 36-38, 36.  Ostrea vespertina, Cony., n.s. [ Resembles O. lurida, vax.| Mio- 
,cene. Colorado Desert. Like O. subfalcata, Conv. 
37. Ostrea Heermanni, Cony.,n.s. Colorado Desert. 
» 43. 38. Penitella spelea, Conr., n.s.* Recent formation. San Pedro. 
44. 39. Fissurella crenulata, Shy. [=Lueapina c.] Recent formation. 
San Pedro. 
VI. 52. 40. Crepidula princeps, Conr., n.s. [= C. grandis, Midd.] Recent 
formation. Santa Barbara. 
V. 39. 41. Narica Diegoana, Conr.,n.s. ? Miocene. San Diego. 
» 42. 42. Trochita Diegoana,Conr., ns. [Like 7. ventricosa; but may be 
Galerus contortus.| ?Miocene. San Diego. 
46. 43. Crucibulum spinosum, Cony.,n.s.+ Recent formation. San Diego. 
VI. 49. 44. Nassa interstriata, Conr., ns. [=N. mendica, Gld.]. Recent 
formation. San Pedro. 
» 48. 45. Nassa Pedroana, Conr.,n.s. [Comp. Amycla gausapata and its 
congeners.|{ Recent formation, San Pedro. 
» 51. 46. Strephona Pedroana, Conr.,n.s. [Comp. Olivella betica.] Recent 
formation. San Pedro. 
» 50. 47. Litorina Pedroana,Conr.,u.s. [=L. plena,Gld.| Recent forma- 
tion. San Pedro. 
» 47. 48, Stramonita petrosa, Conr.,n.s. [Is perhaps Monoceros lugubre. | 
P—. Tulare Valley. 


” 


* Mr. Conrad regards the “ coriaceous cup as characteristic of the genus.” It appears 
a subgenus of Pholadidea, differing in the form of the plate. Mr. Tryon, “ Mon. Pho- 
lad.,” p. 66, restricts it to the Penitella penita, which (according to his diagnosis) has 
one central and two anterior dorsal plates. The closely related P. ovoidea he leaves in 
the original genus, as having “two dorsal accessory valves,” although he allows that ‘‘its 
position cannot be accurately determined on account of the loss of its dorsal valves.” 
Conrad’s fossil has the shape of P. ovoidea; but although he says that it is “ widely dis- 
tinct” from P. penita, I am unable to separate it from the ovoid form of that species, 
which will be found in the Smithsonian series. 

+ This is certainly Sowerby’s species, to which Conrad gives a doubting reference. In 
the text he gives it as “ spinoswm, Conr.,” in his table marking it as “ nov, sp.” 

+ Conrad compares NV. interstriata to N, trivittata, Say, and N. Pedroana to N. lunata, 
Say,and states that the two Atlantic species are “associated with each other both in the sea 
and in the Miocene deposits of Virginia and Maryland.” As the two correlative species 
are found together, living and fossil, on the Pacific side, there is presumptive evidence for 
their having descended from a common stock. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 591 
Plate. Fig. No. 
VI. 54. 49. ?Gratelupia mactropsis, Conr., n.s, ae a punctatostriatus. | 
?Miocene. Isthmus of Darien. Resembles G. Hydeana, Cony. 
Eocene. 
» 55. 50. Meretrix Dariena, Conr., us. (Comp. Cyelina subquadrata.] 
?Miocene. Isthmus of Darien. 
» 03. 51. Tellina Dariena, Conr.,u.s. PMiocene. Isthmus of Darien. 
VU. 57. 52. Natica._Ocoyana, Conr.,n,s. [Marked 51 on plate: err.] Ocoya 
or Posé Creek. 

» 67. 58. Natica geniculata, Conr., n.s. Ocoya Creek. Resembles WN. 

alveata. 

» 62. 54. Bulla jugularis, Conr., u.s. Ocoya Creek. 

» 69. 55. Pleurotoma transmontana, Conr.,n.s. [Marked 60 on plate: err. 

Closely resembles Chrysodomus dirus, Rve.] Ocoya Creek. 
56. Pleurotoma Ocoyana, Conr.,n.s. [Omitted in the text] Qcoya Cr. 
» 72. 57. Syctopus [Ficula.] Ocoyanus, Conr., n.s. Ocoya Creek. 
VU. 73. 58. Turritella Ocoyana, Conr., n.s. Ocoya Creek. 

» 76. 59. Colus arctatus, Conr.,n.s. Ocoya Creek. 

» 15. 60. Tellina Ocoyana, Conr.,n.s. Ocoya Creek. 

» @7. 61, Peeten Nevadanus, Conr.,u.s. Very like N. Humphreysii, Mary- 

land, Miocene. Ocoya Creek. 

TX. 83. 62. Pecten calilliformis, Conr., ns, Very like P. Madisonius, Say, 

Virginia, Miocene. Ocoya Creek. 

The following species are not described in the text, but quoted in the list. 
Vide p. 320 :— 

VIL. ?78. 63. Cardium, sp. ind. Ocoya Creek. 
64, Arca, sp. ind. Ocoya Creek, 

» £80. 65. Solen, sp. ind. Ocoya Creek. 

» 81. 66, Dostnia, sp. ind. Ocoya Creek. 

» ?79. 67. Venus, sp.ind. Ocoya Creek. 

68. Cytherea ?decisa, Conr. Ocoya Creek. 

69. Ostrea, sp. ind. San Fernando. 

70. Pecten, sp.ind. San Fernando. 

71. Turritella biseriata, Conr., ?n.s. San Fernando. 
VII. 758. 72. Trochus,sp.ind. Benicia. 

» ?°09, 73. Turritella, sp.ind. Benicia. 

» (?@1. 74. Buecinum Pinterstriatum. San Pedro. 

* 75. Anodonta Californiensis, Lea. Colorado Desert. 

Mr. Conrad, than whom there is no higher authority for American Tertiary 
fossils, considers the age of the Eocene boulder ascertained; and that “the 
deposits of Santa Barbara and San Pedro represent a recent formation, in 
which (teste Blake) the remains of the Mammoth occur: and the shells indi- 
cate little, if any, change of temperature since their deposition.” But he 
acknowledges that the intermediate beds are of uncertain age. Those on 
Carrizo Creek he refers to the Miocene, some characteristic species being 
either identical with the Eastern Miocene or of closely related forms. In 
addition to the species tabulated in this Report, he quotes, as having been 
collected in California by Dr. Heermann, “ Mercenaria perlaminosa, Conr., 
searcely differmg from M. Ducatelic, Conr.; and a Cemoria, Pandora, and 
Cardita of extinct species, closely analogous to Miocene forms.” The casts 
from Ocoya Creek were too friable to be preserved, and are figured and de- 
scribed from Mr. Blake’s drawings; these also are regarded as Miocene. The 
San Diegan specimens are too imperfect for identification ; they are referred 
to the Miocene by Conrad, but may perhaps be found to belong to a later 
. * Several fossils are figured in plates vii. and viii., to which no reference is made in the 


text. It is unsafe to conjecture the genus to which many of them belong, but it is pre- 
sumed that they relate to the indeterminate species here quoted. 


592 REPORT—18638. 


age. The types of these species in the Smithsonian Museum appear too im- 
perfect to determine specifically with any confidence ; and by no means in a 
suitable condition to allow of important conclusions being drawn from them. 
98. The third article in the Appendix to the same volume of Reports 
contains a “Catalogue of the Recent Shells, with Descriptions of the New 
Species,” by Dr. A. A. Gould. The specimens were (apparently) in the hands 
of Dr. Gould for examination when he prepared the MS. for the first Report; 
and some of them were included in the “ Mexican War Collections,” B. A. 
Report, pp. 227, 228. “The freshwater shells were collected in the Colorado 
desert and other localities ; the land and marine shells between San Francisco 
and San Diego.” The following is the list of species as determined by Dr. 
Gould, pp. 330-336. The specimens belong to the Smithsonian Institution, 
where a large portion of them were fortunately discovered and verified. 
They were collected by W. P. Blake, Esq., and Dr. T. H. Webb. 
Plate. Fig. No. 

1. Ostrea, sp.ind. Parasitic on twigs; thin, radiately lineated with 
brown. [= 0. conchaphila, Cpyr.] Another species, elongated, 
solid, allied to Virginica [ var. rufoides}. San Diego. 

. Pecten monotimeris, Cour. San Diego. 
. Pecten ventricosus, Sby.,~tumidus, Sby. [Dead valves, of the 


form @quisulcatus.| San Diego. 


4, Mytilus Pedulis [= M. tro:sulus, Gld., antea]. San Francisco. 
5. Modiola capax, Conr. San Diego. 

6. Venus Nuttallii, Conr. [= V. succincta, Val.] San Pedro. 

7. Venus fluctifraga, Sby. San Diego. 
8 
9 


co bo 


9% San 


. Tapes grata, Say,=T. discors, Sby., “=straminea, Conr. 
Pedro. 

. Tapes gracilis, Gld.,n.s. Prel. Rep. 1855. [Quite distinct from 
every other Tapes known from the coast. It is supposed by 
Dr. Cooper to be the young of Saridomus aratus, which in 
shape and pattern exactly accord with the figure and diagnosis. 
But the “ Tapes” is figured without sculpture. The shell was 
not found at the Smiths. Inst.] San Pedro, Blake. 

10. Cyclas, sp. ind. Colorado Desert. 
XI. 21,22. 11. Cardium cruentatum, Gld.,n.s. Prel. Rep. 1855. [P. Z. S. 1856, 
p- 201,=C. substriatum, Conr.] San Diego. [San Pedro, 
Blake, in text. ] 
12. aa orbella, Gld. [ =“ Mysia (Spherelia) tumida,” Conr.| San 
edro. 
13. Lucina Nuttallii, Cony. San Pedro. 
14, Mesodesma ?rubrotincta, Sby.t San Pedro. 
15. Tellina vicina, C.B. Ad. [Dead specimens of = Heterodonax 
(“ Psammobia,” var.) Pacifica, Conr.] San Diego. 
16. Tellina secta, Cony. San Pedro. 
17. Sphenia [ Cryptomya] Californica, Conr. San Diego. 
18. Petricola carditoides, Conr.,= cylindracea, Desh. onterey ; San 
Pedro. 
19. Solecurtus Californiensis, Cony. San Diego. 
20. Gnathodon Lecontit, Conr.,= G. trigonum, Petit. Colorado Desert. 
[ Lecontei is probably the a Texan species: trigonus=men- 
dicus is a very distinct shell from Mazatlan. ] r 


XI. 19,20. 


* Neither Dr. Gould, nor Conrad himself, in his later geological writings, appears to 
have called to mind the true 7. staminea, to which the Smithsonian shells belong. It is 
the northern representative of 7. grata, but quite distinct: v. synonymy under Venus 
Petitii=rigida, pars. 

t+ No “ Mesodesma” was found among the shells returned to the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion, nor has any been heard-of from the coast. Dr.Gould’s shell may have been Semele 
pulchra, which was in the collection. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 593 


Plate. Fig. No. 

21. Lottia scabra, Gld. [non Nutt., Rve.:= spectrum, Nutt., Rve.] San 
Francisco. 

22. Lottia patina, Esch. San Pedro. 

23. Scurria pallida, Gray,=Lottia mitra, Brod. [= Scurria mitra, 
Esch.,=Z. conica, Gld., antea.| San Pedro. 

24, Calyptrea hispida, Brod. [= Crucibulum spinosum, Sby.] San 
Pedro ; San Diego. 

25. Crepidula incurva, Brod.* San Pedro. 

26. Bulla nebulosa, Gld. San Diego. 

27. Bulla (Iaminea) virescens, Sby. San Diego. 

XI. 29. 28. Bulla (Haminea) vesicula, Gld., n.s. Prel. Rep. 1855. [P. Z. 8. 
1856, p. 203.] San Diego, Blake. 

XI. 27,28, 29. Bulla (Tornatina) inculta, Gld.,n.s, Prel. Rep. 1855. S, Diego. 
[P.Z. 8. 1856, p. 203. Appears to be a Utriculus.] 

30. Trochus mestus, Jonas [= Chlorostoma funebrale, A. Ad.,=mar- 
ginatum, Nutt. Jonas’s species is S. American.| San Diego. 

XI, 25,26. 31. Phastanella compta, Gld., n.s. Prel. Rep, 1855. [P.Z. 8. 1856, 
p. 204.] San Diego, Webb, Blake. 

32. Litorina, sp.ind. [var. plena, Gld.] San Diego. 
33. Melampus, sp. ind. [olivaceus, Cpr.] San Diego. 
34. Oliva biplicata, Sby. San Pedro. 

XI, 23,24, 35. Potamis pullatus, Gld.,n.s. Prel. Rep. 1855. [= Cerithidea fus- 
cata, Gld., ns. P.Z.S. 1856, p. 206. =C. sacrata, var., teste 
Nuttall, Cooper.} San Diego, Webb, Blake. 

XI. 6-9. 36. Amnicola protea,Gld., n.s. Proc. Bost. Soc. N. H., March 1855. 

Colorado Desert (Gran Jornada), Webb, Blake. 

XI. 10,11. 37. Amnicola longinqua, Gld., n.s. Proc. Bost. Soc. N. H., March 
1855. Colorado Desert (Cienaga Grande), Blake. 

XI. 12-18, 38. Planorbis ammon, Gld., n.s. Proc. Bost. Soc. N. H., Feb. [Otia, 
Mar. in text] 1855. A very variable species. Colorado Desert 
and Ocoya Creek, Webb, Blake. 

XI. 1-5. 39. Physa humerosa, Gld.,n.s. Proc. Bost. Soc. N. H., Feb. 1855, 
Colorado Desert, Blake ; Pecos River, Webb. 

40. Succinea, sp. ind. Ocoya Creek. 

41. Helix Vancouverensis, Lea. San Francisco. 

42, Helix San-Diegoensis, Lea. Point Reyes. [No such species, 
teste Binney. 

43. Helix infumata, Gld. [Otia, p.215.] Point Reyes. 

44, Helix Oregonensis, Lea. Cypress Point. 


99. The fossils of the various Western expeditions were being arranged in 
1860 in the Smithsonian Museum by Prof. J. 8. Newberry, M.D., a natu- 
ralist of rare experience and accomplishments, and author of “‘ Reports on 


the Geology, Botany, and Zoology of Northern California and Oregon.” Wash- 


ington, 1857. They are embodied in vol. vi. of the ‘ Pacific Railroad Re- 
ports.’ The following is a list of the fossils, which were described by 
Mr. Conrad in pp. 69-73, having first appeared in the Proceedings of the 
Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Dec. 1856, to which page-refer- 
ences are added. 
Dr. Newberry’s Californian Fossils. 

Page. Plate. Fig. 
69, = IL. 1, Schizopyga Californiana, Conr., Phil. Proc. Dec, 1856, p. 315. 

Partaking of the characters of Cancellaria and Pyramidella. | 
anta Clara, Cal. 
” ee 2. Cryptomya ovalis, Cony., p. 314. [Closely approaching the recent 
, species, C. Californica.] Monterey Co. 
” » 3. Thracia mactropsis, Conr., p.313. “Monterey Co. 


* The Crepidule returned in this collection were adunca and Prigosa, var. 
. 2e 


594 REPORT—18638. 


Page. Plate. Fig. : 
70. Il 4. Mya Montereyana, Conr., p. 313. [Figure resembles Periploma 
argentaria.| Monterey Co. 
? Mya subsinuata, Cour. | Comp. Macoma inquinata. | Monterey Co. , 
Arcopagia medialis, Conr., p. 814. Like A. biplicata, Conr., of 
the Maryland Miocene. (Closely resembles Lutricola alta, Conr. | 
Monterey Co. 
7. Tapes linteatum, Conr., p. 314. California. 
8. Arca canalis, Conr., p. 314. Santa Barbara. 
9. Arca trilineata, Conr., p. 314. Santa Barbara. 
43 55 10. Arca congesta, Conr., p. 314. California. 
Il. ig bs 


s 
Sor 


71. . Axinea Barbarensis, Conr. [Closely resembles Pect. intermedius. | 

55 5 . Mulinia densata, Conr., p. 313. ? Santa Barbara and shores of 
Pablo Bay. 

5 Dosinia longula, Conr., p.315. Monterey. 


13. Dosinia alta, Oonr., p.315. Monterey. 

14, Pecten Pabloensis, Conr. San Pablo Bay. 

15. Pallium Estrellanum, Cony., p.313. Estrella Valley. 
16. Janira bella, Cony., p.312. Santa Barbara. 


ie } Ostrea Titan, Conr., Phil. Proc. 1855. San Luis Obispo. 


25. Pandora bilirata, Conr., p. 267. [Closely resembles Kennerlia 
bicarinata.| Santa Barbara. 
9 » 24. Cardita occidentalis, Conr., 1855, p. 267. [P= C. ventricosa, Gld.] 
Santa Barbara. 
is 3 23. Diadora crucibuliformis, Conr., 1855, p. 267. [? = Puncturella 
cucullata, Gld.] Santa Barbara. 


Fossils of Gatun, Isthmus of Darien. 
72. VV. 22. Malea ringens, Swains. Gatun. 
4 » 19. Turritella altilira, Cony. Gatun. 
ee » 20. Turritella Gatunensis, Conr. Gatun. 
py » 20. Triton, sp. ind. Gatun. 
or » 21. ?Cytherea Dariena, Conr. [The figure does not appear conspe- 
cific with that in the Blake collection, no. 50.] Galun. 


The northern fossils are supposed by Mr. Conrad to be of the Miocene period, 
and not to be referable to existing species. Those from Sta. Barbara, however, 
are clearly of a very recent age, and probably belong to the beds searched by 
Col. Jewett. But by far the most interesting result of Dr. Newberry’s ex- 
plorations was the discovery of the very typical Pacific shell, Malea ringens, 
in the Tertiary strata on the Atlantic slope of the Isthmus of Darien, not 
many miles from the Caribbean Sea. The characters of this shell being such 
as to be easily recognized, and not even the genus appearing in the Atlantic, 
it is fair to conclude that it had migrated from its head waters in the Pacific 
during a period when the oceans were connected. We have a right, there- 
fore, to infer that during the lifetime of existing species there was a period 
when the present separation between the two oceans did not exist. We 
may conclude that species as old in creation as Malea ringens may be found 
still living in each ocean ; and there is, therefore, no necessity for creating — 
“representative species,” simply because, according to the present configu- 
ration of our oceans, we do not see how the molluscs could have travelled to 
unexpected grounds. 

100. In vol. vii. of the Pacific Railroad Reports, part 2, is the Geological 
Report, presented tothe Hon. Jefferson Davis, then Secretary of War, by 
Thos. Antisell, M.D. He states reasons for believing that during the Eocene 
period the Sierra Nevada only existed as a group of islands; that its final 
uplifting was after the Miocene period ; and that during the whole of that 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA, 595 


period the coast-range was entirely under water. The Miocene beds are 
above 2000 feet in thickness, and abound in fossils generally distinct from 
those of the eastern strata. There is nothing in California answering to the 
Northern Drift of the countries bordering on the Atlantic. The molluscs of 
Dr. Antisell’s Survey were described by Mr. Conrad, pp. 189-196. He 
remarks that “the fossils of the Estrella Valley and Sta. Inez Mountains are 
quite distinct from those of the Sta. Barbara beds, and bear a strong resem- 
blance to the existing Pacific fauna. The Miocene period is noted, both in 
the eastern and western beds, for the extraordinary development of Pecti- 
nide, both in number, in size, and in the exemplification of typical ideas.” 
It also appears to be peculiarly rich in Arcade, which are now almost 
banished from that region, while they flourish further south. The large 
Amusium caurinum and the delicate Pecten hastatus of the Vancouver district, 
as well as the remarkable Janira dentata of the Gulf, may be regarded as a 
legacy to existing seas from the Miocene idea; otherwise the very few 
Pectinids which occur in collections along the whole West Coast of North 
America is a fact worthy of note. Mr. Conrad has “no doubt but that the 
Atlantic and Pacific oceans were connected at the Eocene period ;” and the 
fossils here described afford strong evidence that the connexion existed during 
the Miocene epoch. All the species here enumerated (except Pecten deserti 
and “ Anomia subcostata”’) were believed to be distinct from those collected 
by the preceding naturalists. 


Dr. Antisell’s Californian Fossils, 
Page. Plate. Fig. ; 
190. ; Hinnites crassa, Cour. [?=H. gigantea, Gray.| Sta. Mar- 
[I. err. typ.] garita. 
. 1. Pecten Meekii, Cony. San Raphael Hills. 
Pecten deserti, Cony. Blake’s Col., p. 15. Corrizo Creek. 
Pecten discus, Conr. Near Sta. Inez. 
Pecten magnolia, Cony. [Probably= P. Jeffersonius, Say, Vir- 
ginia.| Near Sta. Inez. 
Pecten altiplicatus, Conr. San Raphael Hills. 
Pallium Estrellanum, Cony. [Janira.| Estrella. 
Spondylus Estrellanus, Cony. [?Janira.| Estrella. 
Tapes montana, Conr. San Buenayentura. 
Tapes Inezensis, Cony. Sta. Inez. 
Venus Pajaroana, Cony. Pajaro River. 
Arcopagia unda, Conr. Shore of Sta. Barbara and Estrella, 
[Closely resembles A. biplicata ; ? = Lutricola alta. | 
Cyclas permacra, Cony. Sierra Monica, Resembles C. pan<= 
duta, Conr.,= Lucina compressa, Lea. 
Cyclas Estrellana, Cony. Estrella. 
Arca Obispoana, Conr. San Luis Obispo. 
Pachydesma Inezana, Cony. [Like P. crassatelloides.| Sta. 
Inez Mts. 
Crassatella collina, Cony. Sta. Inez Mts. 
Ostrea subjecta, Conr. “ May be the young of O. Panzana.”’ 
Sierra Monica, 
Ostrea Panzana, Cony. Panza, Estrella, and Gayiote Pass. 
Dosinia alta, Cony. Salinas River. 
Dosinia longula, Conr. Salinas River. 
Dosinia montana, Conr. Salinas River. 
Dosinia subobliqua, Cony. Salinas River. Also a small Venus, 
a Natica, and a Pecten. 
Mytilus Inezensis, Conr. Sta. Inez. 
LIutraria transmontana, Cony. Allied to LZ. papyria, Conr. 
Los Angeles; also San Luis, 
2e2 


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596 REPORT—1863. 


Page. Plate. Fig. 
194, VI. 8.  Avxinea Barbarensis, Conr. Los Angeles. eae rae: | 
” Vit. 3. ? Mactra Gabiotensis, Cony. Gaviote Pass. May be a Schi- 
sodesma. Associated with Mytilus sp. and Infundibulum 
Gabiotensis. 
3 Vil. 5. Glycimeris Estrellanus, Cony. Panza and Hstrella Valleys. 
Allied to Panopea reflera, Say. [?=P. generosa, Gld. | 
195. Perna montana, Cony. §8. Buenaventura. Allied to P. mavillata. 
VIL. 3. Trochita costellata, Cony. Gaviote Pass. 
ke VLE 4; Turritella Inezana, Cony. Sta. Inez Mts. 
Pap ped U0 eels Turritella variata, Cony. Sta. Inez Mts. 
i X. 5,6. Natica Inezana, Cony. [?Lunatia Lewisii.] Sta. Iiiez Mts. 
As before, the fossils appear to be in very bad condition. The succeeding 
paleontologists who have to identify from them are not to be envied. Their 
principal value is to show what remains in store for future explorers. The 
extreme beauty of preservation in the fossils collected by Col. Jewett, rivalling 
those of the Paris Basin, and sometimes surpassing the conspecific living 
shells, makes us astonished that so large a staff of eminent men, employed 
by the Government, made such poor instalments of contribution to malacolo- 
gical science. The plan, too often followed, of remunerating naturalists, not 
according to the skilled labour they bestow, but according to the number of 
“new species” they describe, is greatly to be deprecated. Further knowledge 
concerning the old species may be more important in scientific inquiries than 
the mere naming of new forms. It is generally a much harder task to per- 
form, and, therefore, more deserving of substantial as well as of honourable 
acknowledgment. 


101, The shells collected on the North Pacific Railroad Survey were in- 
trusted to W. Cooper, Esq., of Hoboken, New Jersey, for description: Dr. 
Gould being occupied with preparing the diagnoses of the N. Pacific E. E. 
species. Judge Cooper was at that time the only naturalist in America known 
to be actively engaged in studying the marine shells of the West Coast, of 
which he has a remarkably valuable collection. He had rendered very valu- 
able service to the Smithsonian Institution by naming their specimens. Un- 
fortunately, there is such great difficulty even in New York city (of which 
Hoboken is a suburb) in obtaining access to typically named shells, as well as 
to many necessary books *, that, notwithstanding the greatest care, errors of 
determination are almost sure to arise. 

The “ Report upon the Mollusca collected on the Survey, by Wm. Cooper,” 
forms No. 6 of the Appendix, pp. 369-386, and errata. (Unfortunately the 


* Both Judge Cooper and Dr. Lea informed me (1860) that they had not been able 
even to see a copy of the plates to the U. 8. Expl. Exped. Mollusca. Through special 
favour, I was enabled to obtain a series of the proofs to work by. The Smithsonian Insti- 
tution, though intrusted with the keeping of the collections, was not fayoured with a copy 
until after the war began, when the whole series was granted by Congress. Senator 
Hale, of New Hampshire, is reported to have spoken and voted for the motion “in order 
that the two greatest humbugs (viz. the Exploring Expedition and the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution) might go together.’ Judge Cooper had derived great assistance from the British 
Association Report, and has communicated many corrections in it. In the alterations of 
synonymy, and in defining the limits of specific variation, I have had the benefit of his 
counsel and experience; and have rarely felt compelled to differ from him. Having him- 
self collected extensively in the West Indies, he had excellent opportunities of comparing 
fresh specimens from the now separated oceans. Iwas fortunate enough to meet his son, 
Dr. J. G. Cooper, at the Smithsonian Institution, and to examine the types of the species 
he collected (which are here enumerated) with the advantage of his memory and know- 
ledge. His later contributions to the malacology of W. America will be afterwards enu- 
merated: his valuable Treatise on the Forests and Trees of North America will be found 
in the Smithsonian Reports, 1858, pp. 246-280, 


g 
ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 597 


work had been carelessly printed.) It contains the following species, the 
localities quoted in the text from other sources being here omitted :— 


Page. 
369, “aso Soa Gmel.,= VM. monodon, Esch. (Cerostoma). San Diego, ? fossil, 
‘assidy. i 

» Murex festivus, Hds. Dead. San Diego, Cassidy. 

» Triton Oregonensis, Redfield (non Jay, nec Say) = T. cancellatum, Midd., 
Rye., non Lam. Straits of De Fuca, Suckley, Gibbs, J. G. Cooper. 

370. Chrysodomus antiquus, var. Behringiana, Midd., one specimen. Straits of De 
Fuca, Suckley. [Comp. Chr. tabulatus. ] 

»  Chrysodomus Middendorffii, Coop., n. s.,= Tritonium decemcostatum, Midd. 
One specimen on the shore of Whidby’s Island. Straits of De Fuca, J. G. 
Cooper. [= Buc. liratum, Mart. This being a remarkable instance of a 
“representative species,” it requires to be minutely criticized. Judge 
Cooper compared his specimen with 130 eastern shells, and noted the difter- 
ences with great fulness and accuracy. <A series of Middendorff’s Pacific 
shells having been brought to England by Mr. Damon, and sold at high 
prices, I made a searching comparison of one of them with the eastern 
specimens furnished me by Judge Cooper and other most trusty naturalists. 
According to the diagnosis of Middendorffit, it should be referred to C. de- 
cemcostatus, Say, and not to the De Fuca species, as it agrees in all respects 
with the eastern peculiarities quoted, except that the riblets near the canal 
are rather more numerous and defined. As it might be suspected that 
Mr. Damon’s shells were mixed, I have made a similar comparison with a 
shell from the N. W. coast, sent to the Smiths. Inst. by Mr. Pease, and with 
the same result. On examining the specimens in the Gaaiwit Collection, 
in company with A. Adams, Esq., we were both convinced that the eastern 
and western forms céuld not be separated. In the similar shells collected 
by Mr. Adams in the Japan seas there are remarkable variations in the de- 
tails of sculpture. ] 

871. Chrysodomus Sitchensis, Midd. [ =incisus, Gld.,=dirus, Rve.]. Str. De Fuca, 
Suckley, Gibbs. 

»  Nassa mendica, Gld. Puget Sound, Suchkley. 

»  Nassa Gibbsii, Coop.,n.s. “ Resembles J. trivittata more than N. mendica.” 
Port Townsend, Puget Sound. [In a large series, neither Dr. Stimpson nor 
I were able to separate this species from N. mendica. Similar variations 
are common in British Nasse. Picked individuals from the Neeah Bay 
series would probably be named ¢rivittata, if mixed with eastern shells. ] 

» Purpura lactuca, Esch.,+ WM. ferrugineus, Esch.,= P. septentrionalis, Rve. Puget 
Sound, Suckley, Gibbs; Shoalwater Bay, Str. de Fuca, J. G. Cooper. 
“ Abounds on rocks and oyster-beds in Shoalwater Bay, the form and 
amount of rugosity depending on station. The oyster-eaters are smooth 
even when young.’ —J. G. C. 

372. Purpura ostrina, Gld.,=P. Freycinetii, Midd., non Desh. +P. decemcostata 
ae ., non} Midd. Rocks above low-water mark ; from mouth of Hood’s 
cull to Str. Fuca; Puget Sound, common, J. G. Cooper. 

» Purpura lapillus [Coop., non] Linn. [=P. saxicola, Val.] Str. De Fuca, 
Puget Sound, J. G. Cooper. “ Found with P. ostrina, and equally common.” 
[Some varieties run into the New England form of P. lapillus, sufficiently 
nearly to justify the identification ; but the bulk of the specimens are easily 
distinguished by the excavated columella. They pass by insensible grada- 
tions to P. ostrina, Gld., which is a rare and extreme variety. Many of the 
shells called P. Freycinetit by Midd. are certainly referable to this species. 
Some forms pass towards the true P. Freycineti, Desh., while others are 
equally close to the very different P. emarginata, Desh. ] 

9» Purpura emarginata, Desh.,=P. Conradi, Nutt. MS. “Upper California,” 
Trask; San Diego, Trowbridge. [This appears to be exclusively a southern 
form = saxicola, var. | 

5 Monoceros engonatum, Conr.,=M. unicarinatum, Sby. San Pedro, Dr. Trask. 

373. Monoceros lapilloides, Conr.,= M, punctatum, Gray. San Pedro, Dr. Trask, 


598 


Page. 
3783. 


” 


” 


. 


REPORT—18638. 


Columbella gausapata, Gld. Str. de Fuca, Suckley. 

Columbella valga [Cooper, non] Gld. [=Buccinum corrugatum, Rve.| Str. 
de Fuca, Suckley. 

Natica Lewisii, Gld.,=N. herculea, Midd. Puget Sound, J. G, Cooper, Suck- 
ley. “Shell sometimes remarkably globose, sometimes with spire much 

roduced.” W. C. “Abundant throughout the N.W. sounds, and col- 
ected in great numbers by the Indians for food. In summer it crawls 
above high-water mark to deposit its eggs” in the well-known sand-coils, 
which are “beautifully symmetrical, smooth, and perfect on both sides,” — 
J. G. C. 

Potamis pullatus, Gld. A variable species. U. Cal., Trask. 

Melania plicifera, Lea. Very common in rivers, W.T., J. G. Cooper. 

Melania silicula, Gld. [=one of the many vars.-of M. plicifera, teste Lea]. 
In rivers, W. T., Nisqually and Oregon, J. G. Cooper. 

Melania Shortaénsis, Lea, MS. [= Shastaénsis, Lea]. Willopah River, J. G. 
Cooper. . 

Amnicola Nuttalliana, Lea, Phil. Trans. pl. 26. f. 89. Columbia River, J. G. 
Cooper. 

inwicagla seminalis, Hds. U. Cal., Zrask. [Belongs to Dr. Stimpson’s new 
genus, ee ae 

Turritella Eschrichtii, Midd. [= Bittium jfilosum, Gld.). Puget Sound, Suck- 
ley, Gibbs. 

“ Titorina rudis, Gld., Stn.” [Cooper, non Mont.}]. Shoalwater Bay, De 
Fuca, J. G. Cooper, Suckley, Gibbs. “Very abundant on the N.W. coast, 
where it presents the same varied appearances as our eastern shell.”— W. C. 
[To an English eye, it appears quite distinct. LZ. rudis, Coop., with sub- 
tenebrosa, Midd., and modesta, Phil., are probably vars. of ZL. Sitkana, Phil., 
=T. sulcata, Gld. | 

Litorina scutulata, Gd. On rocks, from the head of Puget Sound to De Fuca, 
J. G. Cooper. 

Litorina planazis, Nutt. [=L. patula, Gld.]. San Luis Obispo, Dr. Antisell. 

Trochus filosus, Wood,= T. ligatus, Gld.,=T. modestus, Midd. Str. de Fuca, 
J. G. Cooper; U. Cal., Trask. [= T. costatus, Mart. | 

Trochus Schantaricus [Coop., non| Midd. [= Marg. pupilla, Gld.,=M. calo- 
stoma, A. Ad.| Str. de Fuca, J. G. Cooper, abundant. 

Haliotis Kamtschatkana, Jonas. Nootka Sound, Capt. Russell, teste Trask. 

Haliotis corrugata. San Diego, Cassidy. 

Haliotis splendens. San Diego, Cassidy. 

Haliotis rufescens. San Diego, Cassidy. 

Haliotis Cracherodii. (None of the rare var. Californiensis.) S. Diego, Cassidy. 

Fissurella nigropunctata, Sby. Two specimens sent by Dr. Trask as coming 
from Catalina Is., U. Cal. [Pimporte E 

Fissurella aspera, Esch.,? =cratitia, Gld., ? =densiclathrata, Rye. [=Lincolni, 
Gray. This is certainly Gould’s species from type; but Reeve’s shell is 
southern, and appears distinct.] U.Cal., Lieut. Trowbridge. 


. Nacella instabilis. 


Acmea pelta. 
Acmea persona. 
Acmea spectrum. 
Acmea seabra. 
Acmea @ruginosa. 
Scurria mitra. 


The few shells collected of this family are mostly imper- 
fect, but appear to belong to the species quoted: for 
the synonymy of which, reference is made to the Bri- 
tish Association Report. 


Chiton muscosus. Still fewer materials, among which the quoted species 
Chiton submarmoreus.(_ were identified. [The “ submarmoreus,’ both of 
Chiton tunicatus. Midd. and Coop., may prove to be Tonicia lineata, 
Chiton lignosus. var.|] Chiefly from Oregon. 


Helix fidelis, Gray,=Nuttalliana, Lea. Forests W. of Cascade Mountain, 
W. T., J. G. Cooper. 

Helix Townsendiana, Lea. ‘Common in open prairies near the sea, but not 
near Puget Sound,” W. T., J. G. Cooper. 


306. 


377. 


381. 


”» 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 599 


Helix Columbiana, Lea,=labiosa, Gld. “In wet meadows from Vancouver 
to the coast, not near Puget Sound,” W. T., J. G. Cuoper. 

Helix Vancouverensis, Lea | +sportella, Gld., teste Bland]. “ West of Cas- 
cade Mountain; most abundant under alder-grovyes; also on Whidby’s 
Island,’ W. T., J. G. Cooper. 

Helix devia, Gld.,= Baskervillei, Pir. Two sp. in damp woods, near Van- 
couver, W.T., J. G. Cooper. 

Helix tudiculata, Binn. Rare, with the last, Vancouver; also Washington 
Territory, J. G. Cooper. 

Succinea Nuttalliana, Lea. Rare and dead, at Vancouver, J. G, Cooper. 

Limax Columbianus, Gld. “ Abundant in dense, damp spruce-forests, near 
Pacific coast; grows to 6 inches, and is smooth, not rugose, when living,’ 
J. G. Cooper. 


. Limnea umbrosa, Gld. Lake Oyosa, Okanagan River, J. G, Cooper. 


Limnea emarginata, Say. Lake Oyosa, Okanagan River, J. G. Cooper. 

Limnea jugularis, Say. Lake Oyosa, Okanagan River, J. G. Cooper. 

Physa elongata, Say. Near Puget Sound, J. G. Cooper. 

Physa heterostropha, Say. Ponds in W.T., J. G. Cooper. 

Physa bullata, Gld. MS. Lake Oyosa, W.T., J. G. Cooper. 

Ancylus caurinus, Coop., ?n.s, [“P=A. Nuttalli, Hald.,” Coop. MS.] Black 
River, near Puget Sound, J. G. Cooper. 

Planorbis corpulentus, Say. Lake Oyosa, W.T., J. G. Cooper. 

Planorbis trivolvis, Say. Exceedingly abundant in shallow lakes near Van- 
couyer, W.T., J. G. Cooper, 

Planorbis plarulatus, Coop.,n.s. A small carinated species, found only in 
lakes on Whidby’s Island,” J. G. Cooper. [Comp. P. opercularis, Gld. | 

Bulla nebulosa, Gld. Bay of 8. Pedro, Trask. 

Bulla tenella, A. Ad., in Sby. Thes. pl. 134, f. 104 [?]. Puget Sound, one sp., 
Suckley. [?= Haminea hydatis. | 

Ostrea edulis, Coop. [non Linn.:=O. lurida, Opr.]. De Fuca and Puget 
Sound, Gibbs; Shoalwater Bay, Cooper. “Small in Puget Sound; finer in 
Shoalwater Bay, which supplies S. Francisco market; large at Vancouver’s 
Island ; very large near mouth of Hood’s Canal.” 

beeen anomig macroschisma, Desh. De Fuca, Gibbs; Nootka Sound, Capt. 
Russell. 

Pecten caurinus, Gld. De Fuca, Suckley. One of the specimens measures 
23 inches in circumference and 8 in. across. 

Peeten ventricosus, Sby.,+-tumidus, Shy. [= Pvar. equisulcatus, Cpr.]. Upper 
Cal., Trask; San Diego, Cassidy. 

Mytilus edulis, Ln. Shoalwater Bay, Cooper. “As abundant as in Europe 
and N, England, with the same variations, and when eaten occasionally 
causing urticaria.”—J. G. Cooper. 

Mytilus Californianus, Conr, Puget Sound, Port Townsend, Suckley, Gibbs ; 
Upper Cal., Trask. One specimen is 9} inches long. 

Modiola capax {| Cooper, non] Cony. [ = M. modiolus, Ln.]. Not common. Str. 
de Fuca, Gibbs, Cooper. 

Modiola flabellata, Gld. Puget S. and Str, de Fuca, Gibbs. [= M. recta, var.] 

Lithophagus, sp. ind., like ites [Probably Adula stylina, Cpr.] Rocks 
near mouth of Umpqua River, Oregon, Dr. Vollum. 

Area grandis, Coop. [non Brod. and Sby.,= A. multicostata, Sby.]. One sp. 
living. San Diego, Cassidy. 

Margaritana margaritifera, Lea,= Alasmodonta falcata, Gld. River Chehalis, 
&c., W.T., Cooper; Shasta River, Or., Trask. _ After careful comparison 
with eastern U. S. specimens, and those from Newfoundland and Europe, 
Judge Cooper agrees with Dr. Lea that the N.W. shells are at most a slight 
variety. ‘The most abundant of the freshwater bivalves, and the only one 
i found in the Chehalis, the streams running into Puget Sound, and most 

ranches of the Columbia. No species is found in the streams running into 
<a el Bay. Eaten by the Indians E. of the Cascade Mountains,” 


600 


Page. 
381. 


9 
382. 


383. 


” 


384. 


385. 


RE rortT—1863. 


Anodonta angulata, Lea,+A. feminalis, Gd.  Plentiful in Yakima River, 
W.T., Cooper. A series of specimens of various ages leads Judge Cooper 
to endorse Dr. Lea’s opinion of the identity of the two species. 

Anodonta Oregonensis, Lea. Rivers of W.T., Cooper. 

Anodonta Wahlamatensis, Lea. Lagoons in Sacramento River, Dr. Trask. 

Cardium Nuttall, Conr. Shoalwater Bay and Puget Sound, Cooper; San 
Franc., Dr. Bigelow, Trask. “The most abundant clam of Shoalwater Bay, 
inhabiting sandy mud, a few inches below the surface. The Indians feel 
for them with a knife or sharp stick with great expertness. In July many 
come to the surface and die, ? from the sun’s heat.’ 

Cardium quadragenarium, Conr. One valye. San Luis Obispo, Dr. Antisell. 

Lucina Californica, Conr. San Diego, Cassidy. 

Cyclas, sp. nd. Whidby’s Island ; pools near Steilacoom, Cooper. 

Venus staminea, Cony.,+ Venerupis Petitii, Desh.,+ Venus rigida, Gld. [pars], 
+ Tapes diversa, Sby. Shoalwater Bay and Puget Sound, Cooper, Suck- 
ley; San Francisco, Trask; San Diego, Lieut. Trowbridge. [To the 
above synonymy, by Judge Cooper, the large series of specimens in the 
Smithsonian Mus. compels an assent. He considers Tapes straminea, of 
Sby. Thes., to be a variety of V. histrionica, but it more probably = 7. 
grata, as Dr. Gould appears to have considered it, having copied Sowerby’s 
error. Conrad named it, not from the colour, as was supposed when quoting 
it_as “straminea,” but from the thread-like sculpture (teste Conr. ips.). 
Whatever be the form, colour, or sculpture of the shell, Judge Cooper 
remarks in all the same characters of teeth and hinge; we may add also, of 
the pallial sinus. 

Saxidomus Nuttall [Coop., non} Conr.,+ Venerupis gigantea, Desh.,+ Venus 
maxima, Phil. [?}. Near Copalux River, south of Shoalwater Bay, com- 
mon at Puget Sound, Cooper; Bodegas, Cal., Trask. “Much superior to 
the Atlantic guahog as food, but called by the same name. Its station is in 
somewhat hard sand, near L-w. mark,” J. G. C. [Judge Cooper regards all 
the Saxidomi of the coast, except \S. avatus, as one species. The southern 
form, “with rough concentric strize and brown disc,” is Conrad’s species ; 
“others from Oregon are much smoother, without regular strie.” These are 
S. squalidus, Desh. Dr. Cooper found “a fossil variety, in coast-banks 10 
feet above sea-level, which is well figured in Midd. and (less distinctly) by 
Desh. A Californian specimen measures 4'8 in. across.” The fossils, through 
disintegration, often assume the aspect of Venus Kennerleyi, the former 
margins remaining as yarical ridges, while the softer interstices have 
pense 

Venus lamellifera, Conr.,= Venerupis Cordieri, Desh. San Diego, Cassidy. 

Lutraria maxima, Midd., = LZ. capax, Gld. [= Schizotherus Nuttalli, Conv.] 
Shoalwater Bay, Cooper. San Francisco, Trask. “ Lives buried nearly 2 feet 
in hard sand, near 1. w. mark, its long siphons reaching the surface; also in 
many parts of Puget Sound up to near Olympia. It is excellent food, and 
a chief article of winter stores to the Indians, who string and smoke them 
in their lodges. Length, 73 in. The burrows are found in the cliffs, 10 feet 
above high water, with all the other Mollusca now living; and two, not 
now found, were then common [viz. ?...]. The Indians have no tradition 
as to the elevation, and the ancient trees show no signs of the irregular 
upheavings which raised the former levels of low water, by successive 
stages, to a height now nearly 100 feet,” J. G. C 

Tellina nasuta, Conr. Common, from L. Cal. to the Arctic Seas. Shoal- 
water Bay, Cooper; Puget Sound, Suckley; San Francisco, Trask. 

Tellina edentula {Cpr., Coop., not Brod. and Sby.,=Macoma secta, var. edulis, 
Nutt.]. Puget Sound, Gbds. 

Tellina Bodegensis, Hids. Shoalwater Bay, rare, Cooper; mouth of Umpqua 
River, Vollum. 

Sanguinolaria Californiana, Cony. “Common at the mouth of the Columbia 
and other rivers, and high up salt-water creeks,’ Cooper. [= Macoma 
inconspicua, Brod. and Sby.] 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 601 


3a, Solen sicarius,Gld. One dead shell, near Steilacoom, Puget Sound, Cooper. 
“Probably abundant on the mud-flats near the mouth of the Nisqually 
River,” J. G.. C. 

»  Machera patula, Portl. and Dix. (Coop. errata; Nidttalli in text), = Solen 
maximus, Wood, non Chemn.,= Solecurtus Nuttallii, Conr.,= Machera cos= 
tata, Midd., non Say. Washington Ter., Cooper. “ Burrows a few inches 
from the surface, at the edge of the usual low tide; is justly considered 
(expept the oyster) the best of the many fine eatable molluscs of the coast. 

tis the only truly marine mollusc found near the Columbia River; extends 
northwards wherever the beach is sandy, but not known in the Straits of 
de Fuca,” J. G. C. ; 

. st bn geri (Platyodon), Conr. Dead valves, St. Luis Obispo, Dr. 

ntesetl. 

»  Sphenia Californica, (Cryptomya), Cony. San Francisco, Trask. 

336. Mytilimeria Nuttall, Conr. A group, nestling in a white, friable, arenaceous 

substance, was obtained at San Diego by Lreut. Trowbridge. 

» Lholas { Pholadidea] penita, Conr., = P. concamerata, Desh. From worn rock 
which drifted into Shoalwater Bay, attached to the roots of Macrocystis, 
the giant seaweed, Cooper; De Fuca, Suckley; mouth of Umpqua River, 
Oregon, Dr. Vollum. 

The above list must be considered as a résumé, not merely of the shells of the 
N. P. Railroad Survey, but also of all those examined by Judge Cooper, from 
the Smithsonian Museum and from his own private collection. It is pecu- 
liarly valuable as preserving the notes concerning station, &c., of the original 
explorers, and has therefore required a more lengthened analysis. 

The land-shells collected by Dr. Newberry in the Pacific Railroad Survey were 
described by W. G. Binney, Esq.,. with his accustomed accuracy. His paper 
will be found in the Reports, vol. vi. pp. 111-114. The following are the 
only species enumerated :— 

1. Helix fidelis, Gray, Chem., Pfr., Rve.,= H. Nudttalliana, Lea, Binney, sen., De 
Kay. Portland, Oregon, Newberry. Local. 

2. Helix infumata, Gld., Proc. Bost. N. H. 8., Feb, 1855, p. 127. Hills near 
San Francisco, Newberry. Extremely rare. 

3. oie eruginosa, Gld., var. B. loc. cit. North of San Francisco, Newberry. 

are. 

4. Helix Dupetithouarsi, jun., Desh., Chem., Pfr., Rve.,=H. Oregonensis, Lea, 
Pfr. San Francisco, Benicia, Cal.; Klamath Lake, Oregon; Newberry. “One 
of the commonest and most widely distributed species of the Pacific region.” 

102. The U. 8. Government also sent out a “ North-west Boundary Com- 
mission,’ in charge of Archibald Campbell, Esq. The natural-history 
arrangements were superintended by the Smithsonian Inst., and Dr. C. B. R. 
Kennerley was appointed naturalist to the Expedition. At his request, I 
undertook to prepare a Report of the Mollusca, to be published and illustrated 
in a form corresponding to the Pacific Railroad Reports ; Dr. Alcock kindly 
undertaking to dissect the animals, and Mr. Busk to examine the Polyzoa. 
Dr. Kennerley died on his return from a three years’ exploration ; and the 
civil war has thus far delayed any further publication. The materials have, 
however, been thoroughly investigated. They consist principally of dredg- 
ings in Puget Sound. On reference to the maps published by the U. S. 
Coast Survey, it will be seen that this inland sea consists of a remarkable 
labyrinth of waters, fiord within fiord, and only indirectly connected with 
the currents of the Pacific Ocean. It might therefore be expected to furnish 
us with the species of quiet migration, and perhaps with those still living 
from a period of previous altered conditions. No doubt it will furnish new 
materials to reward the labours of many successive naturalists, The pre- 


602 REPORT—1863. 


maturely closed investigations of Dr. Kennerley are only the beginning of a 
rich harvest. Dr. George Suckley, late assistant-surgeon of the U.S. army, 
was appointed to complete the natural-history work, after his lamented 
death. A complete list of the species collected will be found in the fifth column 
of the Vancouver and Californidn table, v. mfrd, par. 112. The particulars 
of station, &c., and all the knowledge which the laborious explorer had col- 
lected, are lost to science. It is quite possible that some of the species here 
accredited to Puget Sound were obtained in neighbouring localities in the 
Straits of De Fuca. The specimens are in beautifully fresh condition, and 
of most of them the animals were preserved in alcohol. The following are the 
shells first brought from the Vancouver district by the American N. W. 
Boundary Commission, the diagnoses of new species being (according to 
custom) first published in the Proceedings of the Ac. Nat. Sc. Philadelphia. 


. Zirphea crispata. Two living specimens of this yery characteristic Atlantic sp. 

. Sazicava pholadis. Several living specimens. 

Sphenia ovoidea,n.s. One sp. living. 

. Cryptomya Californica. Several living sp. 

Thracia curta. One specimen. 

Mytilimeria Nuttallii, Three sp. living at base of test of Ascidian. [The animal 
appeared too peculiar to venture on a dissection. It has been entrusted to 
Di Alcock, of the Manchester Museum. | 

. Neera pectinata,n.s. One sp. living. 

. Kennerlia filosa, n.s. and n. subg. Several living specimens. 

. Psammolia rubroradiata. One fresh specimen of uniform tint. 

. Macoma (? v.) expansa. Adult broken; young living. Belongs to a group of 
forms classed together by some writers under lata or proxima, but the cha- 
racters of the hinge and mantle-bend have not yet been sufficiently studied. 

11. Macoma yoldiformis, n.s. One valve. 

12. Angulus modestus, n.s., but closely allied to the eastern A. tener, Say. Two 

sp. living. 

126. pistes (Pmodestus, yar.) obtusus. Several fresh specimens. 

13. Clementia subdiaphana, n.s. Very rare, living. Intermediate between Cle- 

mentia proper and the prora group of thin Calliste. 

14. Psephis Lordi, Baird. Several living sp. from which the subg. was eliminated. 

15. Venus Kennerlyi, Rye. Very rare. One sp. living. Some of the shells called 

V. astartoides by Midd, may be the young of this. 

16. Petricola carditoides. Several fresh specimens. 

17. Astarte (? var.) compacta. One sp. living; may hereafter be connected with 4. 

compressa. 

18. Serripes Grenlandicus. Several young living specimens. 

19. Lucina tenuisculpta, n. 8, Two living specimens, of which one had the surface 

disintegrated. 

20. Cryptodon serricatus, n.s. One living sp. 

21. Kellia Laperousii. A few living specimens. 

22. Kellia suborbicularis. A few living specimens. 

23. Lasea rubra. One sp. living. 

24. Pythina rugifera, n. s. Two living sp. Intermediate between Pythina and 

Kellia. 

25. Tellimya tumida,n.s. One sp. living. 

26. Modiolaria lewigata. Two living ps 

27. Modiolaria marmorata. One sp. living. (A shell in the U. 8. E. E. Col., 

though marked “ Fiji” in Dr. Gould’s MS. list, probably came from Puget 
Sound, being thus confirmed. ) 

28. Nucula tenuis. Two sp. living*, 

29. Acila castrensis. One sp. tying. 

30. Leda fossa, Baird. One normal sp. living. 


* These species were kindly determined by Mr. Hanley. 


DUP go 0 A? 


=) 
ooons 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 603 


No. 

31. Leda minuta, Linn. One sp. living*. 

82. Yoldia lanceolata, J. Shy. Two sp. liying*. 

33. Yoldia amygdala. One sp. living*. 

34. Haminea hydatis. Two sp. living. 

35, 36. Two species of Tectibranchiates, not yet worked-out by Dr. Alcock. 

37. Tornatina eximia, Baird. Abundant, living. 

38. Cylichna (?yar.) attonsa. One living sp. Probably a variety of cylindracea. 
39. Dentalium rectius,n.s. Very rare, dead. 

40. Acanthopleura scabra. One young living sp. 

41. Mopalia Grayii, n.s. One living sp. 

42. Mopalia Hindsit. One living sp. 

43. Mopalia sinuata, n.s. Two sp. living. 

44, Mopalia imporcata, u.s. Two sp. living. 

45. Ischnochiton (Trachydermon) trifidus, n.s. One living sp. 
46. Ischnochiton Trachydermon) flectens, n.s. One living sp. 
4 


A well-marked group in the genus. 


47. Ischnochiton ( Trachydermon) retiporosus, nu. s. One living sp. 

48. Ischnochiton (Lepidopleurus) Mertensii. Rare, living. 

49. Lepeta cecoides,n.s. Three sp. living. 

50. Calliostoma variegatum, n.s. One living sp. 

51. Margarita ?Vahlii. Three sp. living, = MZ. pusilla, Jeffr., teste A. Ad. 

51b. Margarita (? v.) tenwisculpta. Perhaps a var. of Vahhi, but sculptured. Several 
living specimens. 

52. Margarita lirdata, n.s. Several living specimens, forming a Darwinian group, 
of which var. «. subelevata, var. 8. obsoleta, and Pvar. y. conica might pass 
for species from single specimens. 

53. Margarita inflata, n.s. Two sp. living. 

54, Mesalia lacteola, ?n. s. Two sp. living, but eroded. May prove a var. of 
lactea, but with different sculpture. 

54. Mesalia (?lacteola, var.) subplanata. Two sp. living, but eroded. 

55. Lacuna vincta. One fresh specimen. 

56. Rissoa compacta, u.s. Not uncommon, living. 

57. Drillia incisa, n.s. Two fresh specimens. 

58. Drillia cancellata, n.s. One adeledoand specimen. 

59. Mangelia levidensis, n.s. One fresh specimen. 

60. Mangelia angulatat. One fresh specimen. 

61. Bela excurvata,u.s. (Like Trevelyana.) One fresh specimen. 

62. Chemnitzia (? v.) aurantiat. One fresh specimen. 

63. Chemnitzia torquatat. Two fresh specimens. 

64. Chemnitzia tridentatat. Two fresh specimens. 

65. Eulima micans,n.s, One fresh specimen. 

66. Velutina levigata. Several fine living specimens. 

67. Ocinebra interfossa. Rare, dead. 

68. Nitidella Gouldiit. Two living 2 gerere proving the genus. 

69. Trophon multicostatus. Two fresh specimens. 

70. Chrysodomus ?tabulatus, jun. One young sp. 

71. Chrysodomus rectirostris, n.s. One living sp. 

72, 73. Two species of Cephalopods, not yet affiliated. 


Besides adding more than 70 marine species to the Vancouver branch of the 
Californian fauna, from specimens in good condition, without a single bal- 
last or exotic admixture, the confirmation of many species, which before 
rested only on the uncertain testimony of the U.S. E. E. labels, and the 
affiliation of others which, on the same testimony, had been wrongly assigned 
to distant and erroneous localities, was no slight benefit to science. The 
land and freshwater species of the Expedition will be found tabulated, with 
others, in the separate lists; par. 115. 

103. While the American naturalists were thus actively engaged in ex- 


+ These species were first found by Col. Jewett at Sta. Barbara. Vide p. 537. , 


604: REPORT—1863. 


ploring the regions south of the political boundary, similar explorations, on 
a less extensive scale, were being made under the direction of the British 
Government. The naturalist to the British North American Boundary Com- 
mission, during the years 1858-1862, was J. K. Lord, Esq., F.Z.S. He made a 
very valuable collection of shells in Vancouver Island and British Columbia, 
the first series of which was presented to the British Museum. The new 
species were described by W. Baird*, Esq., M.D., F.L.S., in a paper com- 
municated to the Zool. Soc., and published in its ‘ Proceedings,’ Feb. 10th, 
1863, pp. 66-70.—<Another series of shells, from the same district, was pre- 
sented to the Brit. Mus. by the Lords of the Admiralty, collected by Dr. Lyall, 
of H. M. Ship ‘ Plumper.’ Two new species from this collection were described 
by Dr. Baird, in a separate paper, P. Z.8., Feb. 10th, 1863, p. 71. The new 
species from Mr. Lord’s collections have been drawn on stone by Sowerby. 
The figure-numbers here quoted correspond with the proof-copy kindly fur- 
nished by Dr. Baird.—A third series was collected by Dr. Forbes, R.N., in the 
same Expedition. After Mr. Cuming had made his own selections, this passed 
into the ordinary London market. It contained several species of peculiar 
interest. The following are the (supposed) new species of the Survey :— 
P.Z.S: Plate I: 

Page: No. Fig. 
66 1. Chrysodomus tabulatus, Baird. One broken specimen, Esquimalt Harb., 

Vancouver Island, Lord. [One perfect shell, Neeah Bay, Swan. ] 

2 2. Vitularia aspera, Bd.* Several living specimens, Esquimalt Harb., 
Vane. Island, Lord. [Belongs to a group of grooved muricoid Pur- 
purids, intermediate between Rhizochetlus and Cerostoma, for which 
the subgenus Ocinebra may he reconstituted. These shells are the 
rough form of Ocinebra huvida, Midd. | 

67 3 3, Chemnitzia Vancouverensis, Bd. | =torquata, Gld.]._ Esquimalt Hazb., 
Vane. Island, Lord. From the crop of a pintail Duck. [The 
artist has failed to represent the peculiar character of the species, 
which is, that the ribs end above the periphery, so that a smooth 
belt appears round the spire above the sutures. | : 

4 4, Amnicola Hindsii, Bd. Seven sp., River Kootanie East; nine sp., 
Wigwam River, west slope of Rocky Mts., 4626 ft. high, Br. Col., 
Lord. Resembles Paludina [ Fluminicola] seminalis, Has. 

. Bullina ( Tornatina) eximia, Bd. Esquimalt Harb., V. I., Lord. Alive 

in 12 fm.; dead in Duck’s stomach. [Not Bullina, Add. Gen. ] 

. Succinea Hawkinsti, Ba. Six sp. Lake Osoyoos, Brit. Col., Lord. 

- Inmnea Sumassiit, Bd. Like LZ. elodes, Say. Plentiful. Sumass 

Prairie, Fraser R., Brit. Col., Zord. [Extremely like LZ. palustris. ] 
. Physa Lordi, Bd. Plentiful. Lake Osoyoos, British Columbia, Lord. 
{Larger than Ph. humerosa, Gld., and with strong columellar fold.] 
. Ancylus Kootaniensis, Bd. Six sp., River Kootanie East; five sp., 
River Spokane, British Columbia, Lord. 


68 


(AC oC fc SRL 
Oo.Oo nes on 


69 


* It is due to the memory of Dr, Kennerley, as well as to the other naturalists con- 
nected with the various American surveys, and the officers of the Smiths. Inst., who so 
generously entrusted to the writer their unique specimens for comparison with the 
London museums, to state, that (with two exceptions) the new marine species of the 
British Survey would have been published long before the appearance of Dr. Baird’s 
paper, but for the derangement of the U.S. natural-history publications, consequent on 
the slaveholders’ secession movement. Although the Smithsonian Inst. had offered to 
present to the Brit. Mus. their first series of duplicate specimens from these expeditions, 
which was exhibited at the Manchester Meeting of the Brit. Assoe., where this Report was 
called-for, no notice was given to the writer of the valuable results of the British survey ; 
and it was only through the private kindness of Drs. Sclater and Baird that he was pre- 
vented from adding to the list of synonyms, already, alas! so numerous and perplexing. 

+ These species are named after places, not after persons, as would be supposed by 
the terminations. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 605 


P.Z.S. Plate II. 

Page. No. Fig. 

69 10 10. Chione Lordi, Bd. From a Duck’s stomach. Plentiful. Esquimalt 
Harb., V. I., Lord. 

.. 11 11. Spherium (Cyclas) tumidum, Bd. Plentiful. Sumass Prairie, Fraser 
River, British Columbia, Lord. 

.. 12 12,18. Spherium (Cyclas) Spokanit, Bd. Two sp., River Spokane; two 
young sp., Kootanie River, British Columbia, Lord. (Closely re- 
lated to teantdum, but more delicate. ] 

70 13 14. Lyonsia savicola, Bd. Holes in rocks in Esquimalt Harb., V. I., Lord. 
Japan, teste dA. Ad. Closely resembles L. navicula, Ad. and Rye. 
[Abundant, and very variable in outline, sometimes like Savicava 
pholadis, sometimes like Mytilimeria. Neeah Bay, Swan. ] 

.. 14 15. Crassatella Esquimaltit, Bd. “One sp. Esquimalt Harb., V. I., Lord. 
[A true Astarte, with external ligament, with one ant. lat. tooth in 
one valve, and one post. lat. tooth in the opposite, well developed. 
This character was noticed by J. Sby. in constituting the genus, 
but becomes obsolete in the typical species. The same peculiarity 
of margin is seen in Crassatella. The external ruge are singularly 
irregular, and not always continuous. | 

71 165 Leda fossa, Ba. 10-15fm.; one sp. Esquimalt Harb., V. L, Lyall. 
[=L. foveata, Baird, MS., on tablet. ] 

71 16 Nucula Lyallii, Bd. 8-10 fm.; one sp. Esquimalt Harb., V. L., Lyall. 
Resembles NW. divaricata, Hds., N. castrensis, Hds., N. mirabilis, 
Ad. and Rve., and especially NV. Cobboldie from the Crag. [In the 
early stage, the sculpture has several angles, afterwards only one. 
Both Dr. Kennerley’s and Dr. Lyall’s specimens appear to be= 
Acila castrensis, Hds. | 


The Vancouver Collections having been deposited in separate drawers, 
except the series mounted for the table-cases, permission has been given 
(with the kind assistance of Dr. Baird) to examine them minutely, and pre- 
pare a revised list of the species. The marine shells will be found in the 
sixth column of the general Vancouver and Californian Table. The fol- 
lowing require special mention. 


No. 
17. “ Teredo fimbriata,” teste Jeffr.; out of block of wood from Nai-ni-mo Harb., 
V. L., Lord. 
Teredo. Shelly tube of large sp. Esquimalt Harb., Lord. 
Netastoma Darwin. Esquimalt Harb., Lord. One adult but injured speci- 
men. [For this singular Pholad, with duck-bill prolongations of the valves, 
a subgenus of Pholadidea is proposed, as its characters do not accord with 
Jouanettia, under which it is placed in the Cumingian Collection. 
19. “ Saxicava rugosa.’ Several typical specimens ; Esquimalt Harb., Lord, taken 
out of interior of hard stone, into which they appear to have bored. 
20. “ Callista ?pannosa.” Esquimalt Harb., Lord. One young sp. [ = Saridomus 
squalidus, jun. | 
21. “ Tapes rigida.” Esquimalt Harb., Zord, common. [An instructive series, 
some with very close and fine, others with distant, strong ribs. Some haye 
ribs large and rounded, approaching the sculpture of Cardia. Some change 
suddenly from one form to another. = 7. staminea, var. Petitit.] 
22. “ Cardium Californiense, Desh.” 8-15 fm. Vancouver Is., Lyall. [=var. 
blandum. Tablet contains also young sp. of C. corbis.] 
23. “ Cardita ventricosa, Gld.” 8-15 fm. Vane. Is., Lyall. [Not ventricose; 
State resembles the Hast Coast specimens of Ven. borealis dredged by Dr. 
timpson. 
24, « Ahotenia A iin Gld.” [= A. Oregonensis, Lea.] Lake Osoyoos, Br. Col., 
Lord. Twosp. Also Freshwater Lake, Nootka Sound, Lyall. i 
4, Anodonta ? Oregonensis, jun. Freshwater Lake, Nootka, V. I., Zord; one sp. 
25. Anodonta ? Nuttalliana. Freshwater Lake, Nootka, Vance. Is., Lord; one sp. 
26, Anodonta Wahlamatensis, Freshwater Lake, Nootka, Vance, Is., Zord; four sp. 


18 


606 REPORT—1863. 


No. 
26, Anodonta ? Wahlamatensis, jun. Sumass Prairie, Fraser River, Brit. Col., 


27. 


28. 


29. 
30. 
31. 


382. 


33. 
34, 


35. 
36. 


Lord; one specimen. 

Anodonta angulata. Fort Colville, Columbia R., Zord; one specimen [irregu- 
lar and much eroded. The hinge-line is waved and a false “tooth ” pro- 
duced, in consequence of which it has been named] ‘ Alasmodon.” 

“ Pecten rubidus, Hds.” Vane. Is., Lyall. {Hinds’s type in Br. Mus. appears the 
ordinary form, of which P. hastatus=hericeus is the highly sculptured var. 
This shell, which is more allied to Islandicus, may stand as P. Hindsit. | 

Hinnites giganteus. Island 3 miles above Cape Mudge, Lyall. 

Ostrea lurida. Esquimalt Harb., Lord. Dredged-up by Indians in small hand- 
nets with long handles, in 2-3 fm., on mud-flats. 

“ Placunanomia cepio, Gray.” Esquimalt Harb., Lord. On island rock, 
between tide-marks. [= P. macroschisma, smooth, hollow form. 

“ Chiton (Platysemus) Wossnessenskit, Midd.,= C. Hindsii, Rve.” squimalt 
Harb., Lord. One very fine specimen. [ Quite distinct from Mopalia Hindsit 
(Gray) ; differs but slightly from M. muscosa, Gld.] 

“ Chiton ? levigatus.” Esquimalt Harb., Lord. One specimen. [=schno- 


chiton flectens. | 
“ Chiton dentiens, Gld., ?= marginatus.” Esquimalt Harb., Lord. Two spe- 
cimens. [=Ischnochiton pseudodentiens. Not congeneric with the British 


Leptochiton cinereus = sag! oye ol 
Acmea “mitella, Mke.” Esquimalt Harb., Lord. [Probably A. pelta, jun. 
Not sculptured, as is the tropical species: 
“ Acmea ? testudinalis, jun.” Maqicitialt arb., Lord. One young sp. [with 
extremely close fine striz ; colour in festoons of orange-brown penciling on 
white ground. Might stand well for A. testudinalis, but probably=A. 


patina, vax. pintadina. | 


. Margarita “ costellata, Shy.” Esquimalt Harb., Lord. [=M. pupilla, Gid.] 
. Crepidula lingulata, Gld. Esquimalt Harb., Zord. Three young sp. [Apex 


smooth, imbedded, passing into the aculeata type. The species probably= 
C. dorsata, Brod 


.  Melania silicula, dia, ?=rudens, Rve.” Attached to weeds and floating 


sticks in swift stream on prairie, at Nisqually, W. T., Lord. [=plicifera, 
small var. | 


. Priene Oregonensis. Port Neyille, 6 fm., Lyall. [Very fine; but opercula 


probably misplaced. | 


. “ Nitidella” gausapata, Gld. Esquimalt Harb., Lord. [A beautiful series of 


highly painted specimens. Operculum Nassoid, not Purpuroid; therefore 
ranks under Amycla. 


. “ Vitularia lactuca.” Vancouyer’s Island, Lyall. [A fine series of Purpura 


crispata and vars., among which is a lilac-tinted specimen. | 


. Purpura decemcostata, Vane. Is., Lyall. {=canaliculata. Opere. as in Ocinebra 


lurida. | 


. “ Fusus Orpheus” [Bd., not] Gld. Esquimalt Harb., Lord. Five sp., with 


crabs. [= Ocinebra interfossa, very fine. : 


. Trophon Orpheus, Gld. Esquimalt Harb., Lord. One fresh specimen. 
. Helix Townsendiana, very fine. Sumass Prairie, Fraser River, Lord. 


466. “ Helix Townsendiana, small var.” Fort Colville, Columbia R. ; also sum- 


mit of Rocky Mts., Lord. 


47. Helix fidelis, 2 pee jun. and adult. Vane. Is., Lord. 


47b. Helix fidelis. 


arge but very pale var. Sumass Prairie, Fraser R., Lord. 


48. “ Helix Thouarsti, jun.” Sumass Prairie, Fraser R., Lord. 


49, 


50. “ Helix vellicata, Fbs.”” Sumass Prairie, Fraser R., Zord. [= Vancouverensis. | 
51. Helix [like rotundata}. Fort Colville, Columbia R., Lord. Two specimens. 

52. Zonites (like excavata). Fort Colville, Columbia R., Lord. One specimen. 

53. Zonites Hike electrina|. Fort Colville, Columbia R., Lord. Seven specimens. — 
54, 


“ Helix labiata= Columbiana, var.’’. Vancouver Is., Lord, [closely resembling 
HH. rufescens'. 


Pupa, sp. ind. hs Lake Osoyoos, British Columbia, Lord. One specimen. 
{Genus not found before, north of California. | : 


he, 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 607 


No. 

55. “ Succinea rusticana, Gld.” Sumass Prairie, Fraser R., Lord. [Scarcely to be 
distinguished from the European 8S. putris. | 

56. “ Planorbis corpulentus, Say.” Lake Osoyoos; Syniakwateen ; Marsh, Koo- 
tanie East, Brit. Col., Lord. 

57. Planorbis ? subcrenatus, var. Sumass Prairie, Brit. Col., Lord. 

58. “ Iimnea stagnalis,” typical, fine, and abundant. Lake Osoyoos, Fraser R., 
Lord 


58. Iimnea stagnalis, long narrow spire, mouth swollen, closely fenestrated. 
Marshy stream, Syniakwateen, Lord. 

59. “ Limnea ? desidiosa, Say.” Lake Osoyoos; three sp., Lord. [Exactly re- 
sembles a var. of the widely distributed Z. cataracta, which was found in 

rofusion in the Madison Lakes, Wise. | 

60. “ Jitkes Pdesidiosa, Say.” Syniakwateen, Brit. Col., Lord. One sp. [Very 
turrited, whirls swollen; epidermis finely striated. The same species occurs 
as “I, megasoma, Say. Lake Osoyoos.” | 

61. “ Physa heterostropha, Say.” Sumass Prairie, Fraser R. A variety from Lake 
Osoyoos, Lord. 

62. Physa {probably young of Lordi, but with orange band inside labrum.] Koo- 
tanie R. East, Brit. Col., Zord. One sp. 

Besides the shells preserved in the National Collection, the following 
species were also brought by the Expedition :— 

63. Terebratula unguculus, n. s. Vane. Is., Forbes. One adult specimen, Mus. 
Cum. [Extremely interesting as being the only sculptured species known 
recent. The young shells from California were naturally affiliated to 
Terebratella caput-serpentis by Messrs. Reeve and Hanley ; but the adult has 
the loop similarly incomplete. | 

64, Rhynconella psittacea. Vance. Is., Forbes. One specimen, Mus. Cum. 

65, Darina declivis, n.s. Vane. Is., Forbes. One specimen, [The only other 
species of Darina is from the West Coast of S. America. ] 

66. Clementia subdiaphana. Vance. Is., Forbes. One broken sp. 

67. Saxidomus brevisiphonatus, n. s. This unique shell is marked “ Vancouver 
Island” in Mr. Cuming’s Collection, and is believed by him to have formed 
a part of Dr. Forbes’s series. The shape resembles Callista, without lunule. 
The mantle-bend is remarkably small for the genus. 

68. Melania, n. s., teste Cuming. Vane. Is., Forbes. [Two specimens, with very 
fine spiral striz, sent to Philadelphia for idenieeeatau] 

69. Mesalia lacteola. Vance. Is., Forbes. One sp., Mus. Cum. 

70. Pteropoda, several species, of which two are new, teste Cuming ; but they may 
have been collected on the voyage. Forbes, 


The collections made on the British Survey are peculiarly valuable to the 
student in consequence of the great perfection of the specimens. They have 
generally been obtained alive, and are often the finest known of their kinds. 
The occurrence, however, of a specimen of the tropical Orthalicus zebra, 
marked ‘‘ Vancouver's Island,” in Mr. Lord’s collection*, is a useful lesson. 
When such reliable data are thus found possessed of adventitious materials, 
it will not be regarded as a slight on the collections of the most careful 
naturalists when specimens are regarded as of doubtful geographical accuracy. 
In Dr. Lyall’s collections there also occur specimens of the well-known Patella 
Magellanica and Trophon Magellanicus, duly marked “ Vancouver's Island,” 
though no doubt collected in the passage round Cape Horn. The naturalists 
of the American Expl. Expeditions generally travelled across the continent. 

104. The latest exploration undertaken for State purposes is also for our 

present object by far the most important, both as relates to the number of 


+ * Mr. Lord writes, “The fact of my having found this shell, alive, on Vancouver 
_ Island is beyond question. How it got there I do not pretend to say; it was very pos- 
sibly brought by some ship.” 


608 REPORT—1863, 


species authentically collected and the thoroughly competent and accurate 
manner in which the necessary information is being recorded. It is no longer 
left to the great nations bordering on the Atlantic to send exploring expe- 
ditions to the Pacific. The State of California, only born in 1850, has so 
rapidly attained maturity that when she was barely ten years old she con- 
sidered science a necessary part of her political constitution, and organized a 
“ State Geological Survey,” under the direction of Prof. Whitney. To this 
survey Dr. J. G. Cooper (whose collections for the Pacific Railway Explora- 
tions haye already been reported, vide pp. 597-601) was appointed zoologist, 
and Mr. W. M. Gabb (formerly of Philadelphia) paleontologist. The friendly 
relations established with both these gentlemen at the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion not only put them in possession of the special desiderata on the present 
branch of inquiry, but have resulted in unreserved interchange of facts and 
opinions, by means of which a large instalment of the malacological results 
of the Survey can be embodied in this Report. Dr. Cooper has not only ex- 
plored the whole coast and the neighbouring islands from Monterey to San 
Diego, but has dredged extensively from shoal-water to 120 fathoms, keeping 
accurate lists of all acquisitions from each locality. Having an artist’s 
pencil as well as a naturalist’s eye, he has drawn the animals from life, and 
already subjected many of them to dissection. The slaveholders’ war has to 
some extent suspended the operations of the Survey; but it is confidently ex- 
pected that the State will do justice to herself by issuing, with suitable illus- 
trations, the full results of her officers’ labours. The first public notice of 
the molluscs appears in the Proc. Cal. Ac. N. 8., Noy. 3rd, 1862, pp. 202-207. 
Here Dr. Cooper, speaking of the new species, writes with a modesty which 
is not always credited to American naturalists by Europeans,—*As they 
may have been collected either by the N.W. Boundary Survey or at Cape 
St. Lucas, it has been considered safest, in order to avoid confusion, to send 
specimens or drawings of them to [the writer], that he may compare 
them with the above collections, and decide whether they are really new.” 
He gives valid reasons, however, for describing the following soft Mollusca. 
Unfortunately for French and German naturalists, the diagnoses are in 
English only. 


Page. 

202, Strategus (n. @.) inermis, n. 8. More highly organized than any other genus 
of Opisthobranchiata ; creeps slowly among the grasses in the muddy parts 
of San Diego Bay, looking like a large caterpillar. Not uncommon, 

208, Pleurophyllidia Californica, n. s. Closely resembles P. lineata of 8. Europe. 
“From the distance of locality there can, however, be no identity of 
species.” [?] Numerous in Dec., crawling and burrowing on sandy flats 
in San Diego Bay; none in Jan., after the floods. [Dr. Cooper writes that 
the body of fresh water was so great in some places as to kill the marine 
molluscs for a considerable distance beyond the estuaries, and thus mate- 
rially alter the pre-existent fauna. | 

204, Doris Montereyensts, n. s., 6-10 fm., adhering to sandstone. Monterey Bay, 
very rare. Small specimens in San Francisco Bay, Prick. 

204, Doris (Asteronotus) sanguinea, n. s. Under stones in San Diego Bay ; rare. 

. 204, Doris (? Asteronotus) alabastrina, n.s. Under stones in 8. Diego Bay. One sp. 

204, Doris t Actinocyclus) Sandiegensis, nu. s. Very ‘active among grass on mud- 
flats near low-water mark, San Diego Bay ; common before the flood. 

205. Aolis (? Flabellina) opalescens, un. 8. Common among grass in San Diego Bay, 

205. AZolis (? Phidiana) iodinea, n. 8. Among algz on rocks outside San Diego 
Bay. 

207. Tritonia Palmeri, n. 8. San Diego, common “in same localities as the Di- 
phyllidia. Named after Mr. Edward Palmer, a zealous naturalist, who 
assisted me while at San Diego,” 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 609 


Dr. Cooper’s second paper “ On New or Rare Mollusca inhabiting the Coast 
of California,” in the Proc. Cal. Ac. N.S., Aug. 17, 1863, contains (English) 
descriptions of the following species. He observes that “ Santa Barbara and 
Santa Barbara Island are very different in the groups of animals inhabiting 
them, although the island is only thirty-five miles from the mainland. 
Catalina Island is twenty-four miles from the mainland, and the molluscs 
are very different from both the mainland and the other islands, being the 
richest locality on our shores.” 

Page. 

87. Aplysia Cakifornica, Cp.; for which is constituted a subgenus, Neaplysia; 15 
inches by 5*. Three specimens; San Pedro beach, after storm ; stomach full 
of alge. Fig. 14. 

58. Navarchus, Cp. Pr. Cal. Ac., Apr. 1863. 

» Navarchus inermis, Cp.,= Strategus t., Cp., anted. Catalina Island, 10 fms., 
in seaweed. 1 specimen. 

» Doris albopunctata, Cp. Santa Barbara, 20 fm., rocky bottom. Catalina 
Island, rocks, 1. w. 

» Doris Montereyensis, Cp. Santa Barbara Island, rocks, 1. w. 

» Doris sanguinea, Cp. 4 sp. with the last. “ Stellate structure not discovered.” 

» Doris Sandiegensis, Cp. 2 sp., with the last. ‘All these species belong to 
Doris, typical.” 

59. Triopa Cataline}+, Cp. 4 sp., on algee among rocks,1.w. Catalina Island. 

3, Dendronotus iris, Cp. Several sp. thrown on beach by storm, Santa Barbara; 
1 sp. dredged on seaweed, 28fm. Very variable in colour. ? =“ Dendrono- 
tus, sp.,” Gld., H. E. Moll. 

» Holis Barbarensis, Cp. 1 sp., 16fm., rocky bottom, Santa Barbara. 

60. Fabellina opalescens, Cp.,= A®olis 0., Cp., antea. With the last: also shore 
of Santa Barbara Island, rare. 

» Phidania todinea, Cp.,= Holis t., Cp., antea. Santa Barbara, beach, 1 sp. 

»  Chiorera leonina,Gld. 1sp.,in 20fm. Santa Barbara. 

Sept. 7th, 1863. Dr. Cooper described a very interesting new genus of 
Pulmonates, only found at the head of one ravine in Santa Barbara Island, 
with “myriads of Helix Kellettii [=H. Tryoni, v. note *, p. 116], and two 
other species, probably new.” Full particulars of its habits are given. It 
has the mantle of Zima, dentition of Helicide, and shell resembling Daude- 
bardia and Homalonyx [= Omalonyx, D’Orb.]. 

62,63. Binneya notabilis, Cp. 3 living and 18 dead shells. Fig. 15 (five views). 

Jan. 18th, 1864. The remaining land-shells of the Survey were described 
(with Latin diagnoses) by Dr. Newcomb, in a paper communicated to the 
Academy by Dr. Cooper. Specimens of many of them will be found in the 
Cumingian Collection. 

116. Helix Tryoni, Newe. Santa Barbara and 8. Nicholas Islands,’ abundant ; 
living. “= H. Kellettii, Cp., p. 63.” 

» Helix crebristriata,Newc. San Clemente Island; abundant. “ Closely allied 
to H. intercisa, and very variable.” 

117. Helix rufocincta, Newe. Catalina Island, eestivating under stones; rare. 
8. Diego; 1 dead sp. Outline like H. Pytyonesica: umbilicus open or 
nearly closed. 

» Helix Gabbii, Newe. San Clemente Isl. 1 sp., like H. facta. 

118, Helix facta, Newe. Santa Barbara Isl., very common; San Nicholas Isl., 
rare. Somewhat like H. Rothe. 

» Helix Whitneyi, Newc. Near Lake Taho, Sierra Nevada, 6100 feet high. 
3 sp. under bark, near stream, with H. Breweri and H. chersina. Resembles 
A. striatella. 

* Molluscs, as well as trees, assume giant proportions in California: e. g. Schizotkerus 
(with siphohs) 16 in., Amusiwm 8 in., Lunatia (crawling) 16 in., Mytilus 9 in., &e. 

T Vide note Tt, p. 604. 

63. 2R 


610 REPORT-—1863. 


Page. 
118. Heli Brewert, Newe. Near Lake Taho ; 8 sp. (Also 1 sp. from mountains in 
Northern California, Prof. Brewer.) Like H. arborea. 
geen Durant, Newe. Santa BarbaraIsl. “ Like Planorbis albus=/hirsutus, 
Dr. Newcomb also identified the following species in the State Collection :— 
119. Helix arrosa, Gld. Common near mouth of S. Francisco Bay. 
» Helix arrosa, yellow var. Santa Cruz, Rowell. 
5, Helix ?Californiensis, Lea, or ?Nickliniana, Lea; var., Cooper. 
», Helix Carpenteri, Newe. Broken dead shell, head of S. Joaquin Valley, Gabd. 
,, Helix Columbiana, Lea. Near 8. Francisco. 
» Helix chersina, Say. Very large, near Lake Taho, Cooper. 
3, Helix Thouarsit, Desh. Pt. Cypress, Monterey, Cooper. 
» Helix exarata, Pfr. Mt. Diablo, Brewer; Santa Cruz, Rowell. 
» Helix fidelis, Gray. Humboldt Bay and mountains, lat. 42°, Brewer. Black 
var., Prick. 
3, Helix infumata, Gld. Near Ballenas Bay, Rowell. 
5 Helix Kellettii, Fos. S. Diego, Catalina Isl., fine var., Cooper. 
» Helix loricata, Gld. Near Oakland, Newcomb. 
» Helix Newberryana, Bin, Temescal Mountains, near Los Angeles, Brewer. 
3, Helix Nickliniana, Lea. Common near 8. Francisco Bay, Cooper. 
y Helix sportella, Gid. Near 8. Francisco Bay, Cooper. 
9 ane Mormonum, Pfr. San Joaquin Valley, Gabb; north to Mt. Shasta, 
rewer. 
» Helix Traskii, Newe. Mountains near Santa Barbara, Brewer. May be= H. 
Thouarsit, var. 
» Helix tudiculata, Bin. Near 8. Diego and 8. Pedro, Cooper. 
Helix Vancouverensis, Lea. De Fuca, Gabb: perhaps extends south to Hum- 
boldt Bay. 

Unknown to Dr. Cooper, Dr. Palmer sent a valuable consignment of the 
shells collected by the Survey between San Diego and 8. Pedro to the Smith- 
sonian Institution, without acknowledgment of their source. They would 
have been described and erroneously assigned to his credit, but for the tardy 
and accidental discovery of their origin. Dr. Cooper obtained permission to 
send the first series of duplicates, duly numbered, for identification, to the 
Smithsonian Institution. This invaluable series was lost in the “ Golden 
Gate.” The gold was recovered, and much of it stolen ; the far more precious 
shells remain, unnaturally located, in their native element—a puzzle, perhaps, 
to palontologists in some coming age. Other series, though not so com- 
plete, have since been received in safety ; and through the liberality of the 
Californian Survey and of the Smithsonian Institution, as well as through the 
energy and kindness of Dr. Cooper, they are already being distributed to the 
Cumingian Collection, the British Museum, the museums at Cambridge, 
Mass., Philadelphia, Albany, Montreal, &c., as well as to the collections of 
working naturalists. The stations being now discovered, it is to be hoped 
that in a few years Californian shells will cease to be objects of great rarity 
in this country. At the request of Dr. Cooper, in order that he might pro- 
ceed with other departments of his labours, all the new species which have 
been seen in England have been described in conjunction with those from 
other sources. On those which are only known here by the beautiful drawings 
sent by the collector, it would be unsafe and premature to impose a name. 
The diagnoses are being published in the Proc. Cal. Ac. N.8., and should be 
accredited to the zealous zoologist of the Survey, rather than to the mere 
artist-in-words who endeavours to represent their forms to the reader. It 
will be understood that the lists now to be presented, though corrected to the 
date of going to press, are still incomplete; and that the information has been 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 611 


compiled from Dr. Cooper’s letters received at different times, without oppor- 
tunity for his revision. Should errors, however, have escaped detection, they 
will, no doubt, be corrected, and omissions supplied, in the forthcoming Re- 
ports of the Survey. The species either new to science, or now first found in 
the Californian branch of the fauna, are as follows :— 


ce ia 


eS 


- Defrancia intricata. §. Diego, on Phasianella compta, &e. Maz. Cat., no. 13. 
. Lerebratula unguiculus. Monterey to 8. Diego: young shells in 6-20 fm.; 


not rare. 


. Lerebratella ?caurina. Catalina Is., 80 fm. ; living; rare. 
. Waldheimia Grayi. Catalina Is., 120 fm. 
. Zirphea crispata, Fragments from 8. Diego appear (very unexpectedly) to 


belong to this northern species. 


» Corbula liteola,n.s. 8. Pedro—S. Diego; common near shore. 

. Neera pectinata. Santa Barb., Cat. Is., 40-60 fm. (Puget Sd., Kennerley). 

. Kennerlia bicarinata, n.s. Cat. Is., 40-60 fm. ; rare. 

. Entodesma inflata, Cony.,=diaphana, Cpr. Near 8. Diego; 1 valve (Palmer). 
. Plectodon scaber, n.g. and n.s. Cat. Is. ; 2 similar valves, 40-60 fm. 

. Macoma inquinata. - 3. Francisco ; rare. 

- Macoma yoldiformis. 8. Diego. (Puget Sound, Kennerley.) 

. Macoma indentata, u.s. 8. Diego. 

» Angulus variegatus, n.s. Mont., Cat. Is., 20-60 fm. ; rare. (Neeah Bay, Swan.) 
. Arcopagia lamellata. S. Diego. =Maz. Cat., no. 58. 

. Gidalia ( Cooperella) scintilleformis, n. subg., n.s. 8. Diego. Santa Barbara Is. 
. Semele rupium. Catalina Is.; not rare. (Also Galapagos.) 

. Semele pulchra, 8. Diego. (Also Cape St. Lucas, Acapulco.) 

. Semele ncongrua, n.s. Catalina Is., 40-60 fm. ; common. 

. Psephis salmonea, u.s. 8. Diego, Cat. Is., 30-40 fm. ; rare. 

. Psephis Lordi. Cat. Is., 20-40 fm.; common. (Puget Sound, Kennerley.) 

» PAstarte fluctuata,n.s. Cat. Is, ; 2 similar valves ; 40 fm. (Very like the Crag 


fossil, A. omaria, jun.; but Dr. Cooper considers it a Crassatella.) 


. Penericardia boreahs. Cat. Is.,120fm. The typical, flat New England form. 


The small swollen var.,= V. ventricosa, Gld., is also found at Cat. Is., in 
30-40 fm. 


. Miodon prolongatus. (Neeah Bay, Swan.) Identified from tracing only. 
. Trapezium. One extremely young sp.=Maz. Cat., no. 120 (not like 7. Du- 


perryt). §. Diego. 


» Chama ?spinosa, 8. Diego. (One young valve sent.) 
. Cardium (?modestum, vax.) centifilosum. Cat. Is., 30-40 fm. [The differences 


between this and the Eastern Pacific shell are probably only varietal. | 


- Hemicardium biangulatum. Cat. Is., living in 10-20 fm. ‘(Also Acapulco, 


Panama.) 


. Liocardium elatum. 8. Diego ; very large (Maz. Cat., no. 124), 
. Lucina tenuiseulpta. 8. Diego, living indfm. (Also Puget Sound, Kennerley.) 


Var., dead in 120 fm., Cat. Is. (approaching LZ. Mazatlanica, Maz. Cat., 
no. 144), 


- Lucina borealis. Cat. Island, 120 fm. “ = Z. acutelirata, Conr., foss. E. E.” 


[Exactly agrees with British sae a 
itto. 


. Cryptodon flecuosus. Cat. Is., 120 fm. 

. Kellia suborbicularis. 8. Diego ; Cat. Is., 30-40 fm. Ditto. 

. Kellia (var.) Chironti. 8S. Diego. (Also Neeah Bay, Swan.) 
- Lasea rubra. Cat. Is., shore (typical). 

. Lepton meroéum, u.s. 8. Diego. 

. Tellimya tumida. 8. Diego. (Also Puget Sound, Kennerley.) 
. Pristes oblongus, n.g., n.s._ 8. Diego. 


Crenella decussata. Cat. Is., 10-40 fm. ; not rare. (The ordinary British, not 
the New England form.) 


_ 40. Barbatia gradata. 8, Diego; Maz. Cat., no. 194. 
_ 41. Axinea intermedia. Monterey—S, Diego, Cat. Is.,40-60fm. [Scarcely differs 


from the South American shell. It is the A. Barbarensis, Conr., of Pac. R. 
R. fossils, teste Cooper. ] 


2R2 


REPORT—18638. 


' Acila castrensis. Cat. Is., 40-60 fm. (Also Puget Sound, Kennerley.) 

. Leda cuneata, teste Hanl. Mont.—S. Diego; Cat. Is., 10-60 fm. 

. Leda hamata, n.s. Santa Barbara; Cat. Is., 20-60 fm. ; common. 

. Verticordia ornata, D’'Orb, Santa Barbara ; Cat. Is., 20-40 fm. [Exactly ac- 


cords with the Japanese species, novemcostata, teste A. Adams. 


. Bryophila sctosa. (Cape St. Lucas, Xantus.) Identified from tracing, no. 980. 
. Lima orientalis (in Mus. Cum.,= dehiscens, Conr., teste Cooper). Mont.—San 


Diego; Cat. Is., beach to 20 fm. ; common. 
Limatula subauriculata. 40-120 fm., Cat. Is.; not rare: 1 valve in 4 fm., San 
Diego. [Exactly agrees with British specimens. | 


. Janira dentata. Monterey, 8. Diego, beach to 20fm. (Also Cape St. Lucas, 


Aantus.) 
Cavolina telemus. Cat. Is.; dead in 30-60 fm. (Also Vancouver, Lyall.) 


. Tornatina carinata, 8. Diego. (Also Mazatlan, Reigen.) 
. Pedipes liratus. 8S. Diego. (Also Cape St. Lucas, Xantus.) 
; Dentalium (var.) Indianorum. Mont. 


é Cat. Is., 20 fm.; common. [ Probably 
a striated var. of pretioswm, which Sowerby doubtfully, and Dr. Baird con- 
fidently, affiliate to D. extale. | 


. Dentalium semipolitum. S. Diego. (Also La Paz.) 

. Dentalium hexagonum. 8. Diego. (Also W. Mexico.) 
. Acanthochites avicula,n.s. Cat. Is,, 8-20 fm. ; rare. 

. Acanthopleura fluxa, n.8. Cat. Is, 

. Ischnochiton veredentiens, n.s. Cat. Is., 10-20 fm. 


Ischnochiton (Lepidoplewrus) pectinatus, n.s. Cat. Is., beach. 


. Ischnochiton (Lepidopleurus) scabricostatus, n.8. Cat. Is., 8-20 fm. 
. Ischnochiton (Trachydermon) pseudodentiens. 8. Diego. (Also Puget Sound, 


Kennerley.) 


2. Ischnochiton (Trachydermon) gothicus, n.s. Cat. Is., 8-20 fm. 

. Leptochiton nexus, n.s. Cat. Is., 20-80 fm. 

. Nacella (?paleacea, var.) triangularis. Monterey. 

. PNacella subspiralis. Cat. 1Is., 10-20 fm. [May he the young of the long-lost 


Patella calyptra, Mart. ; unless that be a broken Crepidula adunca. | 


. Scurria (? var.) funiculata. Monterey ; rare. 

. Puncturella cucullata. Monterey. (Also Puget Sound, U. 8. E. E.) 

. Punctwrella Cooperi,n.s. Cat. Is., 30-120 fm. ; not rare. 

. 2Imperator serratus, ??n.s. Monterey ; Cat. Is., 10-20 fm. [Dr. Cooper thinks 


this shell probably the young of Pomaulaz. | 


. PLeptonyx bacula, u.s. Cat. Is., beach, dead. 

. Gibbula optabilis, n.s. 8. Diego. 

. Calliostoma supragranosum, n.s. 8. Diego. 

. Calliostoma gemmulatum, u.s. 8S. Diego. 

. Calliostoma splendens, u.s. Mont. ; Cat. Is., 6-40 fm. 

. Margarita (?var.) salmonea. Mont. ; Cat. Is., 6-40 fm. [Intermediate be- 


tween wrdulata and pupilla. | 


. Margarita acuticostata. Mont.; Cat. Is., 8-20 fm. [Fossil, Santa Barbara, 


Jewett. | 


. Solariella peramabilis, ?n.s. Cat. Is., 40-120 fm. ; living. [Differs but slightly 


from S. aspecta, Japan, A. Ad.] 


. Ethalia supravallata, n.s., and Pyar. invallata. S. Diego. 

. Liotia fenestrata, n.s. Cat. Is., beach to 40 fm. ; dead. 

. Liotia acuticostata, n.s. Mont.; Cat. Is., 10-20 fm. 

. Crepidila excavata, var. jan. Santa Barbara Island. 

2. Galerus contortus, n.s. Mont.—S. Diego, 20-40 fm. 

3. Hipponyx serratus. Santa Barbara Island; 1 sp. Maz. Cat., no, 346. 

. Cecum crebricinctum, 1.8. Mont.—S. Diego; Cat. Is., 8-20 fm. 

5. Cecum Cooperi, ns. 8. Diego. [Two fine species of the Anellum 


group. 


. Turritella Cooperi, n.s. 8. Diego; Cat.Is.; common. [May tie identical 
. E.] 


with one of Conrad’s imperfectly described fossils in P. R. E 


. Mesalia tenuisculpta, n.s. S. Diego; shoal water. 


, Lulima rutila,?n.s. Monterey. | 

. Scalaria bellastriata, n.s. Monterey. 
. Scalaria subcoronata, u.s. Monterey. 
. Scalaria crebricostata, nu.s. Monterey, 8. Diego. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 6138 


. Bittium armillatum. §. Diego. [Fossil, Santa Barbara, Jewett. ] 
. Bittium asperum. 8. Diego ; Cat. Is., beach to 40 fm. [TF ossil, Santa Barbara, 


Jewett. | 


. Isapis fenestrata, n.s. 8. Diego. (Also Neeah Bay, Swan.) 

. LIsapis obtusa, n.s. Mont.—S. Diego; Cat. Is., 10-20 fm. 

. Rissoina interfossa, u.s. Mont.; Cat. Is., 8-10 fm. 

. Rissoa acutelirata, u.s. 8. Diego *. 

. Fenella pupoidea, u.s. Mont., 20 fm.; rare. 

. PAmphithalamus lacunatus, n.s. 8. Diego. 1 immature specimen. 
. Diala acuta, n.s. Mont.; Cat. Is., beach to 10 fm. 

. Diala marmorea, n.8. Monterey, 8. Diego; very rare. 

. Styliferina turrita, ns. S. Diego. 

. Jeffreysia translucens, n.s. 8. Diego, 

. Cythna albida, n.s. 8. Diego. 

. Trivia Solandrt. Santa Barbara and St. Nicholas Is. ; common. 

. Obeliscus ?variegatus. 5S. Diego. (Also La Paz, Cape St. Lucas.) 
. Chrysallida pumila, n.s. S. Diego; Cat. Is. 

. Chrysallida cincta, n.s. Sta. Barbara Is.; very rare. 

. Chemnitzia chocolata, n.s. 8. Diego. 

. Chemnitzia (Ptenwicula, var.) subcuspidata. 8S. Diego. 


Eulima micans, n.s. 5. Diego. Cat. Is., 30-40 fm. (Also Puget Sound, 
Kennerley.) 
Eulima compacta,?n.s. §.Diego.| j|Dr. Cooper has not decided whether 
these be distinct species, 


Scalaria ? Cuming. 8. Diego. 

Scalaria ?Indianorum, var. 8. Diego. [Probably conspecific with the Van- 
couver shells. | 

Opalia borealis. Favallones Is. (Also Neeah Bay, Swan.) 

Opalia spongiosa, u.s. Monterey. 

Opalia retiporosa,u.s. Cat. Is., rare and dead in 40 fm. 

Cerithiopsis columna, n.s. Monterey. 


. Cerithiopsis assimilata. Cat. Is.= Maz. Cat., no. 563. 


Triforis Padversa. Cat. Is., 10-40 fm., very rare. [The specimens sent can- 
not be distinguished from the Herm shells. | 
Priene Oregonensis. ‘‘ Comes south to Monterey.” 


. Nassa insculpta, v.s. Cat. Is., living in 40 fm., rare. 

. Amycla undata, n.s. Cat. Is., not rare in 40 fm. 

. Amycla chrysalloidea, u.s. 8S. Diego, shoal water. 

. Anachis subturrita,n.s. 8. Diego. 

. Trophon triangulatus, ?n.s. Cat. Is., 60 fm. [Resembles the young of 


Murex centrifugus. | 


. Argonauta argo. “ Hundreds on beach at Sta. Cruz Is.” 

. Octopus punctatus, Gabb. San Clemente Is. 

. Onychoteuthis fusiformis, Gabb. San Clemente Is. 

. Ommastrephes giganteus, D’Orb. San Clemente Is. 

. Ommastrephes Ayresit, Gabb. San Clemente Is. ‘“ Hundreds on the beach.” 


' Besides the above, several species are now satisfactorily assigned to the fauna, 
the evidence for which was before considered doubtful. Such are— 


152. 
133. 


Waldheimia Californica, Koch [non auct.,=globosa, Patagonia]. 120 fm. 


Catalina Is. 
Clidiophora punctata, §. Diego to Sta. Cruz; valves common, but rare living. 


154, 135. Standella Californica, planulata, et Pnasuta. Conrad’s types being lost, 


and his species imperfectly described from very young specimens, a difficulty 


* Most of the minute shells from 8. Diego, quoted without station, were found in the 
shell-washings of the consignments from Dr. Cooper and Dr. Palmer, 


614 


No. 


156. 


137. 


138. 
159. 
140. 
141, 


142. 


143. 


144. 
145. 


REPORT—1868, 


attends their identification. Dr. Cooper found very large valves (resembling 
Schizotherus) in abundance, but much deformed by the entrance of sand, and 
apparently killed by the fresh waters of the great flood. The large shells 
belong to two very distinct species, which are probably those of Conrad ; 
among the small shells is perhaps a third, which may be Dr. Gould’s sup- 
pressed nasuta. 

Raéta undulata. This remarkable reverse of the Atlantic BR. canaliculata is 
also confirmed by rare valves from the S. Diegan district. It is not con- 
gone with Harvella elegans, to which it bears but a slight external resem- 

ance. 

Tapes tenerrima. Large dead valves of this very distinct species were found 
mae the Standelle, and confirm Col. Jewett’s young shells described as from 

anama. 

Pecten paucicostatus. Sta. Barbara Is. [Described from Col. Jewett’s valves. | 

Bulla Quoywt. 8. Diego. Maz. Cat. no. 226. 

Truncatella Californica. 8. Diego. 

Acmea rosacea. Monterey to 8. Diego. This shell is named prleolus, Midd., 
in Mus. Cuming, but does not agree with the diagnosis. It can hardly be 
distinguished from Herm specimens of A. virginea. It was first brought by 
Col. Je ewett, but referred to Panama. 

Amphithalamus inclusus. §. Diego. [Several specimens of this minute but 
remarkable new genus confirm a solitary shell in Col. Jewett’s mixed 
collections. | 

Myurella simplex. Very variable in sculpture, as befits the species which 
forms the northern limit of a group common between the tropics. Col. 
Jewett’s shell was in poor condition, and supposed to be the young of a 
Gulf species. 

Volvarina varia. 8. Diego, Cat. Is. Re Barbara, Jewett; also C.S. Lucas. ] 

Nassa Cooperi, Fbs. S. Diego, Cat. Is. [This Kellettian shell has a double 
right to its name, now that Dr. Cooper has ascertained its habitat. ] 


The information on station, &c., which Dr. Cooper has sent with regard to 
previously known species, will be found incorporated in the general table of 
the fauna. The following notes, extracted from his letters, are too valuable 
to be omitted :— 


Haliotis Californiensis. “This form is so rare that I think it only a var. of 
Cracherodi.” 

Haliotis, Several specimens from the Farallones present characters inter- 
mediate between corrugata, rufescens, and Kamitschatkana. It is not yet 
ascertained whether they are hybrids or a distinct species. 

“ Tivona picoides I have not found, though I have seen fresh ones from Pt. 
Conception.” 

“?Serpulorbis squamigerus. Common south of Pt. Conception; has no 
operculum.” [The young begins like V. anellum, Morch. | 

Macron lividus. Point Loma, 8. Pedro, common; extends northwards to thé 
Farallones. [= Planazis nigritella, Newcomb, MS.; non auct. | 

“ Olivella semistriata, Gray, fide Newe., is a species found N. of Monterey only.” 
ae Dr. faba species is from Panama, that of Newcomb is probably 
O. beetica. : 

“ Nassa interstriata, Conr., foss. (P= N. paupera, Gld.) ; resembles NV. fossata, 
Gld. (=B. elegans, Rve.*), but distinct. Common south from Sta. Barbara.” 

Probably =. perpinguis, Hds. N. paupera is quite distinct,= N. striata, 
. B. Ad., teste Cuming. ] 

“ Fissurella violacea I have seen from Catalina Is.” { Esch.’s shell is generally 
considered S. American. ? May Dr. Cooper’s be a form of Seat 

Acmee. With regard to limpets and other variable shells, Dr. C. writes :— _ 
“From my examination of large numbers of specimens, I am more and 
more compelled to believe that hybrids are very frequent between allied 


* Nassa elegans was first published, by J. Sowerby, in the Min. Conch. 1824. 


ne eer aa Sa eee 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 615 


species, and that the comparatively few links that are met-with in large 
series of two forms should not be allowed to unite them, but be considered 
as hybrids.” 

LInnatia Lewisit. Abundant on beach. [One sp. measures 52 in., and the 
animal of a much smaller one (4 in.) is 11 inches long. | 

Ostrea. “The same species throughout to 8. Franc.: 8. Diego,” Cooper. [Be- 
sides the typical northern shell, O. dwrida, are well-marked Pvars. laticaudata, 
rufordes, and expansa. | 


There are also several species which are quoted in Dr. Cooper’s letters, or 
appear from his sketches to be quite distinct, or at least new to the fauna ; 
but they have not yet been sent for identification. Among these the following 
are the most important. The MS. numbers refer to the tracings which Dr. 
Cooper kindly copied from his original drawings. Where a “—” appears, 
the information is derived from his letters only. 


MS. No. 

402. Allied to ? Thracia. 

—  Cyathodonta, probably plicata, Desh. (Cape St. Lucas, Xantus). 

620a, Figure accords exactly with Venus toreuma, Gld. Catalina Is., beach. 

1058. Figure accords with Lioconcha hieroglyphica. Catalina Is., 120 fm. 
1060. Resembles Swmapta. Catalina Is., 40 fm. 

676. Resembles Crassatella Pacifica. 

874. Lucina. 

983. Nucula, with concentric sculpture. Sta. Barbara, 15 fm. 

— Yoldia. One fresh valve of a large and remarkable species, 26 by 1:2 in., 
with fine concentric sculpture, very inequilateral: Sta. Cruz; on beach. 

751a. ?Lanthina. 

1077, 1078. Chitonide. Two highly sculptured species. Sta. Barbara, 12 fm. 

— ?Gadinia. Cat. Is., Cooper; Farallone, Is., Rowell. “The animal differs in 
having pectinated flattened tentacles. It may be the type of a new genus 
Rowellia.” 

466. Emarginula. |The first appearance of the genus on the W. American coast. ] 

415a. Glyphis. 

354a. Like Haplocochleas. Sta. Barbara, 15 fm. 

564. Like Pyrgola. 40 fm. 

— Trivia sanguinea. Dredged dead in Cat. Is. 

— Trivia. “Thinner and larger than sanguinea. Common in Lower Cal.” [?= 
Pacifica. | 

— “ Terebra specillata.” One sp. near S. Pedro. 

— Fleurotomide. Several species are represented only by single specimens, 
Among them are 

588. Drillia. 

1021. Drillia, 2 in. long, shaped like Mitra. One worn sp. Catalina Is., 120 fm, 
1020. Driliia, reversed. Catalina Is., 60 fm., living. 
479a. Clathurella (large). Sta. Barb., 20 fm. 
663. Clathurella, 15 fm., Sta. Barb. 
1852. ? Clathurella, 40 fm. 
1053. ?Daphnella, 60 fm. 
419, 426. Two species of shells resembling Daphnella. 
1055. P Bela, 80 fm. 

423a. Mangelia, 15 fm., Sta. Barb. 

3976. Shape of Cithara, without ribs. Catalina Is., beach. 

1028. “?Aclis,” reversed. One sp., Cat. Is., 120 fm. [The figure more resembles 
a young Vermetid. | 

463. “ Cancellaria ? Tritome, Sby. Agrees with Dr. Newcomb’s specimen.” 8, 
Diego, one dead on beach, 23 in. long. 

817. Cancellaria. Fragment of a second species equally large. 

1038. Sigaretus. 40 fm., dead, Cat. Is. 
1050. Lamellaria, 10 fm., Sta. Barbara. 
(385a, 464, 818.) Naticide. 3 sp. 


616 REPORT—1863. 


MS. No. 
576. Possibly a scaly var. of Monoceros engonatum ; like the Purpura, vay. imbri- 


cata, of Europe, but of different colour and texture ; ?=spdratum, Blainy. 
1001. Fieure resembles Vewilla fuscolineata, Pse. Sandwich Is, 

—  Nassa, smooth, with thick lip.” Cat. Is., 80 fm. [Comp. inseulpta. ] 

— ?Macron Kelletivi. Cat. Is., dead, in 60 fm. 

— Chrysodomus ?tabulatus. Cat. Is., 120 fm., young, dead. 

— Fusus, “like geniculus, Cony.” Farallones Is. 

411. Trophon, like multicostatus. 

5156. Muricidea. Cat. Is., 40 fm. [The young shells called Trophon, Typhis, 
&e., by Dr. Cooper can scarcely be identified without a series, and from 
tracings only. | 

515d. PTyphis. Sta. Barb., 15 fm. 

520. Pteronotus centrifugus, jun. S, Pedro; rare on beach, 

384). Muricidea, like alveata. Mont.—s. Diego. 

956. PStphonalia. Monterey, Sta. Barb., beach, 


In Prof. Whitney’s Preliminary Report on the Survey, Proc. Cal. Ac. p. 27, 
May 4th, 1863, he states approximately as the result of Dr. Cooper’s mala- 
cological labours, up to the close of 1862 :— 


No, of species n“theteollectiOm 6% Were), VL ernnals soe tieleem ele 335 
Of which are new to California, and believed to be undescribed ..., 123 
Other supposed Californian species not yet collected .............. 65 


In a Survey conducted with such care, even negative evidence is of some 
importance, though not conclusive. Dr. Cooper has not been able to obtain 
the following species :— 

Discina Evansiv. 

Strigilla carnaria. {Max. Nuttall’s specimens were probably Atlantic. ] 

Venus dispar. 

Trapexium Californicum. [= Duperryi,= Guiniacum.] 

LIncina bella. gree =pectinuta, Cpr. ; but the type seems lost. | 

Modiola nitens. [Probably an error in the Cumingian label. | 

Mytilus glomeratus, “=edulis, var,” [Perhaps an accidental var. from being 
crowded on a floating stick. ] 

Barbatia pernoides. {Very probably an error in Dr. Gould’s label. ] 

Arca multicostata. “ Must have been brought to 8. Diego.” 

Pecten purpuratus. [Ascribed to the fauna from abundant yalves marked 
“Cal.” in the U.S. I. Is. collections, but certainly from 8. America. Dr. 
Cooper has unfortunately not been able to discover any of the species 
described by Hds. ] 

Radius variabilis. ‘“ Doubtless exotic.” 

Polinices perspicua. ‘ Probably Mexican.” 

Ranella triquetra. “ Probably Mexican.” [Guaymas. ] 


105. Having now presented to the student an analysis of all that is yet 
known of the results of public surveys, it remains that we tabulate what has 
been accomplished by private enterprise. Mr. J. Xantus, a Hungarian gen- 
tleman in the employ of the United States Coast Suryey under the able 
direction of Professor Bache, was stationed for eighteen months, ending July 
1861, at Cape St. Lucas, the southern point of the peninsula of California. 
It is a source of great benefit to natural science that the Secretary of the 
Smithsonian Institution is also one of the acting members of the Coast Survey 
Board; and that a harmony of operations has always existed between the 
directors of these two scientific agencies in Washington. ‘The publications 
of the Coast Survey have earned for themselves a reputation not surpassed by 
those of the oldest and wealthiest maritime nations. For obtaining data on 
geographical distribution, Cape St. Lucas was a peculiarly valuable station, 
being situated near the supposed meeting-point of the two faunas (v. B.A. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA, 617 


Rep.p.350); and also, not being a place of trade, or even an inhabited district, 
likely to be free from human importations, although we should be prepared 
to find dead exotics thrown on its shores both by northern and by tropical 
currents. In his solitary and what would otherwise have been monotonous 
life, Mr. Xantus found full employment in assiduously collecting specimens 
in all available departments of natural history; having received ample in- 
structions, and the needful apparatus, from the Smithsonian Institution, 
The bulk of the shells at first received from him were worn beach speci- 
mens; but afterwards several species were preserved, with the animals, in 
alcohol. Mr. Xantus generously presented the first series of the molluscs to the 
Smithsonian Museum, reserving the second for his native land. The first 
available duplicates of the shells not occurring in the Reigen collection will 
be found in the British Museum or in the Cumingian eabinets*. Although the 
whole series would have found little favour in the eyes of a London dealer or 
a drawing-room collector, it proved a very interesting commentary on the 
Reigen and Adams Catalogues: it added about sixty t new forms to the accu- 
rately located species of the marine fauna, besides confirming many others, 
which rested previously on doubtful evidence ; and disproved the intermixture 
of northern species, which, from the map alone, had before been considered 
probable. 

The collection is not only essentially tropical, but contains a larger propor- 
tion of Central American and Panama species than are found in the Reigen 
Catalogue. This may partly be due to the accidents of station, and partly to 
this projecting southern peninsula striking the equatorial currents. It must 
also be remembered that the Reigen Catalogue embraces only the Liverpool 
division of his collection ; and that many more species may have existed in 
that portion of the Havre series which did not find its way to the London 
markets. Mr. Xantus also obtained individuals of identical species from 
Margarita Island, and a series containing living specimens of Purpura plano- 
sptra (only thrown up dead on the promontory), from Socorro Island, one of 
the Revilla-gigedo group. <A very few specimens of Haliotis and of Pacific 
shells may have been given to him by sailors or residents: they were not 
distinguished from his own series in opening the packages. The collection is 
not yet complete. In consequence of the French occupation of Mexico, it 
was with difficulty that Mr. Xantus himself “ran the blockade” at Manza- 
nello; and he was compelled to leave there thirty-one boxes of shells, alco- 
holies, &c., subject to the risks of war. 

The Polyzoa were placed in the hands of Mr, G. Busk for examination, 
and the alcoholics were intrusted to Dr. Alcock, the Curator of the Manches- 
ter Natural History Society. Neither of these gentlemen have as yet been 


* During the period that Mr. Xantus was out of employment, owing to the derange- 
ments of the war, a portion of the duplicates were offered for sale, and will be found in 
some of the principal collections. 

t The editor of a Californian newspaper, kindly forwarded by Mr. Pease, professes 
to “give entire’ a paper read by 8. Hubbard at a meeting of the Cal. Acad. N.S. on 
the collections of Mr. Xantus. The following extract, which is entirely destitute of foun- 
dation in fact, is a curious specimen of the tendency to extreme exaggeration, which seems 
indigenous to some dwellers in a vast country, and has now, it seems, invaded even an 
Academy of Nat. Sc., who, it is to be hoped for their credit, have not published the paper 
in their Proceedings :—‘ The Mol/usca are represented by over 5000 specimens, not yet 
considered.—Shel/s: P. P. Carpenter gave, after a hurried survey of the collection, 1700 
species last year ; but since then the collection has more than doubled. About half of the 
whole is pronounced by P. P. C. and Isaac Lea to be new.’ Dr. Lea did not see the 
collection, as it contained neither Unionids nor Melaniads. Of Mr. Hubbard’s “ more 
than 3400 species,’ besides “Mollusca,” not one in ten have been seen, 


618 


REPORT—1863. 


able to report concerning them. The first notice of the shells appears in the 
Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philadelphia, Dec. 1859, pp. 331, 332. The new species 
are described in the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Nat. Hist.,’ 1864, vols. xiii. and 
xiv., as follows :— 


A.N.H. Vol. XIII. 


nD 
S SUP C9 bo FS 


Page. 
dll. 


7) 


312. 


Asthenotherus villosior, nu.g. 1 living sp. and fragm. 

Solemya valvulus. 1 living sp. 

Tellina (Peroneoderma) ochracea. 1 sp. 

Psammobia (? Amphichena) regularis. Valves. 

Callista pollicaris. 1 sp., living (= C. prora, var., teste Rye., C. I. f. 45). 

Callista (2pannosa, var.) puella. Extremely abundant, living. Also 
Acapulco, Jewett. (Very variable, yet always differing from the 
typical South American shells.) 

LTiocardium apicinum. Extremely abundant, living. Also La Paz; Aca- 
pulco, Jewett. 

Lucina lingualis. Extremely abundant, valves. 

? Crenella inflata. Valves; very rare. (Anaberrant form.) Also Panama, 
C. B. Ad. 

Bryophila setosa, nu.¢. Abundant; living among sea-weed, on Purpura 
planospira. Also California, Cooper. 

PAtys casta. Rare: allied to Cylchna. 

Ischnochiton parallelus. Rare; living. 

Ischnochiton (?var.) prasinatus. 1 living sp. Possibly a form of paral- 
lelus. 

Ischnochiton serratus. 1 living sp., like Elenensis. 

Nacella peltoides, = Nacella, sp. ind., Maz. Cat., no. 262. 

Acmea (?var.) atrata. Intermediate between P. discors, Phil., and P. 
Jfloccata, Rye. Also La Paz, Margarita Bay. 

Acmea strigillata. Tntermediate in characters and station between 
A. patina and A. mesoleuca. Also Margarita Bay. 

Glyphis saturnalis. Not uncommon ; living. 

Eucosmia variegata. (Probably a subgenus of Phastanella,) Rare, dead. 

Eucosmia (?variegata, vax.) substriata. Very rare. 

Eucosmia punctata. 1 sp. 

Eucosmia cyclostoma. 1 sp. 

Haplocochlias cyclophoreus, n. g. (? Related to Ethalia.) Very rare, dead. 

Narica aperta. 1 sp. 

Fossarus parcipictus. 3 sp. 

Fossarus purus. 1 sp. 

Litorina pullata,= Intorina, sp. ind., Maz. Cat., no. 399. Abundant. 

Litorina (Philippii, var.) penicillata. Like the W. Indian L. (ziczac, var.) 
lineata. Abundant. 

Rissoa albolirata. 1 sp. 7 

Fenella erystallina. 1 sp. | 

? Hydrobia compacta. May be a Barleeia. 1 sp. 

Hyala rotundata. 1 sp. 

?Diala electrina. 1 sp. 

Acirsa [teste A. Ad.] menesthoides. 1 sp. 

Cythna asteriaphila. Imbedded in a star-fish, like Stylina. 1 living sp. — 

Bittium nitens. 1 sp. 


Mangelia subdiaphana. 1 sp. 

Drillia appressa. 1 sp. 

Cithara fusconotata. Very rare. 

Obeliscus variegatus. 2 worn sp. Described from a fresh Guaymas 
shell, Mus. Cal. Ac. 

(Odostomia) Evalea equisculpta. 1 sp. 

(Odostomia) Evalea delicatula. 1 sp. 

Chrysallida angusta. 1 sp. 


7 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 619 


A. N. H. Vol. XIV. 
Sp. Page. 
‘ 7. Eulima fuscostrigata. 1 sp. 

45.  ,,  Opalia crenatoides. 1 pertect and a few rubbed specimens. This, and 
the Santa Barbara fossil, O. ?var. insculpta, are so close to the Por- 
tuguese O. crenata, that additional specimens may connect them. 

46.  ,, Truncaria eurytoides. Common; rubbed. Also Guacomayo, in the 
Smithsonian Museum. 

47. 48. Sistrwm (Pochrostoma, var.) rufonotatum; connected with type by a few 
intermediate specimens. Rare; dead. 

48. ,, PMitidella millepunctata. AlsoGuacomayo, Mus.Smiths. Very rare,dead, 

49. ,, Nitidella densilineata. Very rare; dead, 

»,  ?Anachis tincta. 1 sp. 

51. 49. -Anachis fuscostrigata, 1 sp. 

52. ,,  Pisania elata. A few worn specimens; like Peristernia, without plait. 


The following table contains the species previously described, with the ad- 
dition of the other localities in which they are known to occur. The numbers 
in the first column are those in Prof. C. B. Adams’s Panama Catalogue: a 
P in the same column signifies that the species has been found at Panama 
by other collectors. The second column contains the shells of La Paz, col- 
lected by Major Rich and others, and are marked by an italic P. In the 
third column, A shows that the shell has been found at Acapulco, on good 
authority ; and C, that it is known at other stations on the Central American 
coast. The fourth column exhibits the corresponding numbers of the species 
in the B. M. Reigen Catalogue; and G shows that the shell has been found 
in the Gulf district by other collectors. In the fifth column, Cal. stands 
for Upper, and L for Lower California; Marg. for Margarita Bay, Gal. for 

_ the Galapagos, E for Ecuador and the tropical shores of 8. America, and WI 
for the West Indies. The sixth column continues the numbering of the 
species from the list in the ‘ Annals.’ 


Pan. | La |Aca-| Maz.| Other . 
Cat. |Paz.|pul.| Cat. | habitats. No. List of Cape St. Lucas Shells. 


517 A| 14] E 53 | Discina Cumingii. On Margaritiphora. 

P 22) E 54} Gastrochena ovata. In Spondylus. 

A| 23] Marg.) 55) Saxicava pholadis. In Spondylus. 
56 | Eucharis, sp. ind. 1 dead valve, resembling W. 
Indian species. 
P 35 57 | Sphenia fragilis. In Spondylus. 
G 58| Thracia squamosa. 1 broken pair. 

Thracia (Cyathodonta) plicata (“? =truncata, 

Migh.”’). 1 sp., jun. 


aera ere eae 
yy 
= 
on 
© 


e G 60 | Lyonsia inflata. 1 sp. 
36| E 61} Lyonsia picta. 1 valve. 
463} P|C | 55 62) Tellina Cumingii. 1 pair. 
469 A EH 63] Tellina rubescens [= Hanleyi]. Smashed valve. 
(472 64} Strigilla sincera. 1 valve. 
1 A} 67 65 | Strigilla lenticula. Valves. 
P 66 | Lutricola viridotincta. 2 valves. 
485 41 67 | Semele bicolor. Valves. 
4 G | Marg.| 68) Semele Californica, var. Valves. 
5 40) L 69 Semele flavescens. Rare. 
480 A| 43) E 70| Cumingia trigonularis, jan. In Spondylus.- 
473} P| A WI | 71) Heterodonax bimaculatus. Abundant ; normal, and 


numerous vars. 


620 REPORT—1863. 
As esl a — pee | No. List of Cape St. Lucas Shells. 
A | 75b|(Mar.)| 72 | Donax, var. celatus. Valves. 
7 73 | Donax ? Conradi, jun. 
456 COM Perez OT 74.| Donax Pnavicula, yun. 
493 | P| C | 80 75 | Mulinia angulata. Valves. 
J 79| WI | 76) Standella fragilis, 1 sp. living, and numerous 
adult valves. 
446) P|C| 83| E 77 | Trigona radiata, jun. 
78| Trigona nitidula, Shy. Several living sp. agree 
exactly with Sby.’s figure. [Perhaps Lam.’s 
Mediterranean shell is different. | 
448 C1290! 79 | Dosinta Dunkert. Rave. 
MY 88 |E.Mar.| 80| Dosinia ponderosa. Several pairs [jun.=distans]. 
444 A| 92 81| Callista aurantia. 
1447) P| A | 93\E.Mar.| 82) Callista chionea. 
C | 96| Marg.| 83) Callista vulnerata. Living, and dead valves. 
98; E 84) Callista (Pvar.) alternata. 1 living. 
L 85 | Amiantis callosa, Rare, living [ = C. nobilis, Rve. ]. 
?P G |L.Mar.| 86) Chione succincta. Very rare. 
P| C D 87 | Chione pulicaria, vay. lilacina. Valves, abundant. 
P E 88 | Chione neglecta. Living and valves. 
106 88) Chione undatella+-var. bilincata, Rye. (pars). Very 
rare. [Probably=neglecta, vax. | 
435| P|C/113| E 89 | Anomalocardia subimbricata. Valves. 
111 90| Tapes squamosa. 1 sp. 
1g A| 24) E | 91) Petricola robusta. In Spondylus. 
27 92 | Rupellaria linguafelis. 
117; E 93| Crassatella varians. Living. Large and abundant. 
492 E 94| Crassatella gibbosa. Valves. 
P 118 95 | Lazaria Californica. Very rare. 
C 96) Venericardia crassa. 1 valve. 
405 C | 121d 97 | Chama Buddiana, jun. On syenitic rock. 
407 A/121; E 98} Chama echinata, Brod. Living, from Socorro Is. 
P C | 121 | Marg. | 986) Chama frondosa, var. 
123} L 99 Chama Pexogyra. Worn valves. 
P| A |122| Gal. | 100) Chama spinosa. 1 sp. 
P\A E {101} Cardium consors. Valves. (Very fine at Acapulco.) 
433 C | 125 |.Mar.) 102 | Cardiwmn procerum. Valves. 
434 126} E | 103} Cardium senticosum. Valves. 
PP) As L_ | 104) Hemicardium biangulatum. Valves. 
P|C}136| WI | 105) Codakia tigerrina. Living, very large, and young 
valves. [Of the Pacific Is. type. ] 
1 137 |Pac.Is.| 106 | Codakia ?punctata, jun. 
P | P|A{147| E |107| Lweina eburnea. Living, rare. 
lz A | 140 108 | Lucina excavata. 1 valve. 
145 109 | Lucina prolongata. Valves. 
143 110 | Lucina cancellaris. Valve. 
G 111 | Diplodonta subquadrata. 1 sp. 
C 112 | Diplodonta calculus. Several living sp. 
113| Miltha Childreni. {A few fresh specimens correct 
the habitat “ Brazil,” previously assigned to this 
extremely rare and remarkable shell, which ap-| 
pears to be a gigantic Felania. | 
Pp. A | 155 114) Kellia suborbicularis. In Spondylus. 
| A | 164 115 | Lasea rubra. 6 sp. living. 
P C | 167 116 | Mytilus palliopunctatus. _ Fragment. 
P | P| A | 168 117 | Mytilus multiformis. Abundant. 
P 169 118 | Septifer Cumingianus. Common. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 621 


Pan. | La |Aca-| Maz. 


Cat. |Paz.| pul.| Cat. 
P| A |170 
A | 172 
iP A |176 
Pp A | 175 
P| C/}181 
iP C | 189 
418 A | 190 
420| P 
192 
424 C | 193 
423| P 195 
416 A |} 194 
12 G 
696 
201 
395 200 
P| A | 202 
391} P| C | 204 
393 | P| A | 205 
206 
EP WAG |... G: 
387 | P| A | 207 
2 G 
iP 
390 
385 208 
386 C | 210 
381 A | 211 
383 | P 212 
215 
384 | P 215 
821| P| A | 224 
225 
A | 226 
229 
240 
P A | 239 
235 
243 


Other 


No. 


habitats.! ~ 


L. Mar. 
Gal. 


eahesic| 


E 
E. Mar. 


E 


EK 
E. Mar. 


Gal. 


119 
120 
121 
122 
123 
124 
125 


145 


Mare. 


L.Cal. 


L 


146 
147 
148 
149 
150 
151 
152- 
156 
157 
158 
159 
160 
161 


162 
163 
164 
165 
166- 
172 
178 
174 


List of Cape St. Lucas Shells. 


Modiola capax. A few living sp. “ Gal.” [?]. 
Crenella coarctata. In Spondylus. 

Lithophagus aristatus. Ta Spondylus. 
Lithophagus plumula. Tn Spondylus. 

Arca mulicostata. Adult valves, and jun. living. 
Byssoarca Pacifica. Raye. 

Byssoarca mutabilis. Valve. 

Barbatia Reeviana. Valves. 

Barbatia vespertilio. Valves. 

Barbatia illota. Valve. 

Barbatia solida. Rave. 

Barbatia gradata. Valve. 

Axinea gigantea. Large valves, and jun. living. 
Axinea, sp. ind. 

Pinna lanceolata. Fragment. 

Pinna maura. 1 sp., jun. 

Pinna rugosa. 1 sp., yun. 

Margaritiphora fimbriata, Living. 


7 Avicula Peruviana. Valves. 


Lsognomon Chemnitzianus. Common, living. 

Isognomon Janus. 4 sp. living. [One has close 
ligament-pits, passing into costellatus, just as no. 

38, var. passes into meisus. | 

Pecten submodosus. Several valves, and 1 living. 
[P. intermedia is only a var. of this species. ] 

Pecten ventricosus. Valves. [The young is P. 
circularis, Sby., pars. | 

Janira dentata. Very plentiful. 

Lima tetrica. 1 living, and valves [= L. squamosa, 
teste Cuming. W.I., Mediter., Pac. Is. ]. 

Lima arcuata. 1 fresh pair. [Can hardly be separa- 
ted from L. fragilis, Gal., Pac. Is.,in Mus. Cum. ] 

Spondylus calcifer. Valves. Red var., and speci- 
men changing into purple. 

Plicatula penicillata. 1sp. on Fasciolaria. 

Ostrea wridescens. A few living. 

Ostrea ? Virginica, jun. 

Ostrea Columbiensis. Valves. 

Ostrea amara. On Pomaulax. 

Cavolina ?telemus. Fragment. (Pelagic.) 


[Nudibranchs and Aplysia. Not yet determined. ] 


Bulla Adams, and var. Common. 

Bulla nebulosa, Rave. 

Bulla Quoyi. Very rare. 

Haminea vesicula. Plentiful, living. 

Haminea cymbiformis. 1 sp. [Closely related to 
AI. virescens. | 

Siphonaria equilirata. Dead. (ful. 

Siphonaria lecanium, with var. palmata, &c. Plenti- 

Onchidium Carpenteri. Very rare. 

Melampus olivaceus, Rare. 

[The rest of the Pulmonates will be tabulated 

afterwards, vide p. 630. ] 

Lanthina decollata. Very rare. 

Ischnochiton Magdalensis. Large and highly sculp- 
tured. Very rare. 


622 


REPORT—1863. 


Pan. | La |Aca-! Maz.| Other 
Cat. | Paz.) pul.| Cat. | habitats. 
C |252| E 
256 
258 
C | 261 
A | 260 
264 | Mare 
268 
P| A |\273)| Gal. 
357 C 
274 
P|A|279| E 
281 
L. Cal. 
L. Cal. 
L 
L. Cal. 
P| C | 286 
A | 288 
289 | Marg. 
274| P 
263 295 
304| P.| A | 326| Marg. 
305 | P| C | 327 |E.Mar. 
336| P| A | 343 |E.Mar. 
337 | P| A | 344|E.Mar. 
344.| P| A | 334|K. Cal. 
P\A E.Mar. 
345 A | 337 |C.Mar. 
346| P 340 |E. Mar. 
328| P| A |347| E 
327 A | 349 
329| P| A |350| Gal. 
323| P| A | 352 
355 
A | 359 
P L 
367 
P|} A | 380 
Jp 
193) P| A |381]| Gal. 
196} P| A | 383 
200} P| A | 387 |G.Mar. 
P| A |388] Gal. 
197 | P| A | 389] Mare. 
Mare. 
2206 395 |PE.Mr. 


No. 


219 


List of Cape St. Lucas Shells. 


Ischnochiton limaciformis. 2 specimens. 
3| Ischnochiton Bean. 1 sp. 


Acanthochites arragonites. A few living sp. 

Patella discors. Dead. 

Patella pediculus. Dead. 

Acmea fascicularis. Abundant, living. 

Acmea mitella, jun. : 

Fissurella rugosa, jun. [A var. is first black, with 
two white rays; afterwards changes to whitish. | 

Fissurella microtrema. Common. - [Passes into 
rugosa. | 

Fissurella nigrocincta. 1 young sp. 

Glyphis inequalis. Rare. 

Rimula Mazatlanica. 2 sp. 

Haliotis Cracherodii. (Turtle Bay.) 

Haliotis splendens. (Margarita Island, with 4,5, 
and 6 holes.) 

Callopoma Fokkestt. Dead. 

Pomaulax undosus. Fresh, with Gulf Polyzoa. 

Uvanilla olivacea. Dead. 

Uvanilla unguis. Dead. 

Calliostoma eximium. Dead. 

Omphalius coronulatus. Dead ; not uncommon. 

Vitrinella Panamensis. 1 sp. off Spondylus. 

Nerita scabricosta. Abundant. 

Nerita Bernhardi. Abundant. 

Crucibulum imbricatum. Dead. 

Crucibulum spinosum. Dead. 

Crepidula aculeata. Dead. West and East Indies. 

Crepidula ? arenata, jun. * 

Crepidula excavata, jun. et var.* 

Crepidula onyx. Dead. 


| Hipponyx antiquatus. Dead. 


Hipponyx barbatus. Pacific Is. Fresh sp. 

Hipponyx Grayanus. Rare. 

Aletes centiquadrus. On Margaritiphora, &c. 

Bivonia contorta. Frequent, on shells. 

Petaloconchus macrophragma. Frequent, on shells. 

Spiroglyphus lituella. On Purpura planospira and 
muricata, from Socorro Is. 

Caecum subimpressum, Very rare. 

Turritella tigrina et var. Cumingi. 

Turritella sanguinea. (Whirls not shouldered.) 

Cerithium maculosum and dwarf yar., like medio- 
leve. Abundant. 

Cerithium uncinatum. Common; dead. 

Cerithium stercus muscarum. Rare; dead. 

Cerithium interruptum, Mke. Common. 


| Rhinoclavis gemmata. Rare. 


Pyrazus incisus. Rare. 


220 Cerithidea Mazatlanica. Dead. 


* A difficulty attends the identification of young specimens of these rare species, no 
series having yet been obtained. 
diate between the two. The young of excavata has a large swelling umbo projecting beyond 
the margin ; the umbo in “? var.” has the margin spreading round it, as in onya, jun., 
and in consequence appears turned in the contrary direction. The umbilicus above the 
deck exists in both forms; but it is not an absolutely constant character, even in adunca. 


* C. excawata, var.,”” in Mus. Cum. is exactly interme- 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 623 


wants 
mia ieity 


uty hyty 


hots 


pal | Oat |hebitata| 
C | 397 | Marg. | 221 
C | 396 222 
398 28) 
401! E |293 
224 

225 

A | 408 226 
227 

228 

414. 229 
C|417| L |230 
411 231 
422 232 
420| L |233 
419 234 
425 235 
427 236 

A | 424 237 
2376 

435| °L |238 
A|438} E |239 
C E | 240 
241 

242 

A | 439 243 
A | 440 |Gal. E.| 244 
A | 441 245 
A Gal. | 246 
A |442} E |247 
A 248 
A Gulf E/ 249 
C | 447 250 
A | 448 | Gal. E) 251 
449) E | 259 

C 2538 
C |454| E | 254 
A | 455 255 
A|456| E | 256 
‘ 257 


List of Cape St. Lucas Shells, 


Litorina aspera. Very rare. 

Litorina conspersa. Common. <A distorted specimen 
has a Lacunoid chink: another a Nassoid shape. 

Litorina Philippii. Rare: v. anted, var. penicillata. 

Modulus catenulatus, jun. 

Rissoina firmata. Rare. 

Rissoina fortis. Very rare. 

Rissoina stricta. Rare. 

Rissoina clandestina. Dead. 

Rissoina infrequens. Dead, worn. 

Alvania tumida. 1 sp., off Spondylus. 

Barleeia subtenuis. 1 sp. 

Barleeia lirata, 1 sp. 

Gemella, sp. 1 sp. 

Jeffreysia Aldert. 1 sp. 

Jeffreysia bifasciata. Mery rare, 

Alaba supralirata. Not uncommon. 

Alaba terebralis. 1 dead, broken specimen. 

Planaxts nigritella. Dead; some of the specimens 
may be a dwarf form of 

Planaxis ? planicostata. 

Radius variabilis. 1 sp. 

Aricia arabicula, Very rare. 

Aricia punctulata. Very vare. 

LIuponia Sowerbyt. 1 living and several worn. 

LIuponia albuginosa. Dead; plentiful. 

| Cyprea tigris and Pteroceras lambis ; doubtless 
received through traders. | 

Trivia pustulata, Dead. 

Trivia radians ; intermediate specimens towards 

Trivia Solandri. Dead. 

Trivia Pacifica. 1 sp. 

Trivia sanguinea. Dead. 

Erato Maugerie. {Exactly like the W. Indian 
specimens : also Crag fossil, teste S. Wood. ] 

Erato scabriuscula, Rare. 

Strombus galeatus, jun. 1 sp. 

Strombus granulatus. Abundant; dead. 

Strombus gracilior. 1 dead specimen. 

Subula strigata. 2 dead specimens. 

Subula ? luctuosa, jun. 

Euryta fulgurata. Dead. 

Euryta aciculata. Dead. 

Terebra lingualis. 1 sp. 

Myurella variegata. Vasey rare. 

Myurella albocincta. 1 dead specimen. 

Myurella subnodosa. 1 dead specimen. 

Pleurotoma funiculata. Rare; dead. 

Drillia aterrima. Rare; and var. Melchersi. 

Drillia albovallosa. 1 sp., dead. 

Drillia luctuosa,_ 1 sp., dead. 

Drillia maura, Val. Fragment. 

Daphnella casta. 1sp. [Coarser.strise than W. I. 
species, but scarcely differs from crebriplicata, 

ve., “ Philippines.” ] 

Cithara strombodes 1 sp. [Probably=triticea, 

Kien. | 


624 REPORT—1863. 
ean ee Aca Me omer. No. List of Cape St. Lucas Shells. 
117|.P| A E 268 | Conus princeps. Dead. 
11S} eH TA Gal. E) 269 | Conus brunneus. Dead. 
118| P| A | 476 270 | Conus purpurascens and var. regalitalis, Dead. 
114| P| A | 480 271 | Conus gladiator. Dead. 
116| P| A |481} Gal. |272| Conus nev et var. pusillus [Gld. non Chem. ]. 
Living; plentiful. 
118 CG 273| Conus scalaris. 1 sp., dead. 
Pye E |274| Conus tornatus. Rare, dead. 
270| P| A 275 | Solarium granuatum, and ? vay. quadriceps. Com- 
mon. 
L_ |276| Odostomia ? straminea. 1 sp. 
489 277 | Syrnola lamellata. 1 sp., off Spondylus. 
254 501 278 | Oscilla exarata=terebellum. 1 sp. 
923 507 | 279 Chrysallida communis. 1 sp., off Spondylus. 
227 518 280 | Chemnitzia Panamensis. Gay rare. 
519 281 | Chemnitzia Adamsi. 1 sp., olf Spondylus. 
524 282 | Chemnitzia prolongata. 1 sp., off Spondylus. 
532 283 | Chemnitzia flavescens. 1 sp., off Spondylus. 
194 A |563| L | 284) Certthiopsis assimilata. 1 sp., off Spondylus. 
207 557| L_ | 285! Cerithiopsis tuberculoides. 1 sp. 
208 C | 391 286 | Triforis alternatus. 1 sp., off Spondylus. 
P, 287 | Scalaria ? tiara. 1 sp. 
995| P| A |570| Gal. |288| Natica maroccana. Com. W. Afr.; ?Pacific Is. | — 
PP is 289 | Natica zonaria. Common. Opere. grooved as in} — 
canrena {=alapapilionis, var., teste Rye.: non 
Chem. ]. 
A 290 | Natica catenata, Common. 
302| P| A |576| EE |291) Polinices uber. Common. [The young shells go 


through all shapes, from globose to pointed. 
Opere. thin, light green, horny. | 

A Gal. | 292| Polinices otis et var. fusca. Rare; dead. 

. | 293 | Polinices bifasciata. Living; rare. 

A 294 Neverita glauca. 1 sp. 

577 295 | Lamellaria, sp. ind. 1 sp. 

A | 579 296 | Ficula ventricosa. Not uncommon. Animal pre- 
served of both sexes, and of surpassing beauty. | — 
66 C| G@ |E.Mar.| 297 | Malea ringens. 1dead sp. [Tossil, Atlantic shores, 

A 

A 

C 


a1) 


Newberry. | 


112| P G | Gal. | 298 Oniscia tuberculosa. Very rare. 
111| P| G | Gal. | 299) Levenia coarctata. Very rare. 3 
110} P| 300 | Bezoardica abbreviata. 1 living, with very small] — 


normal operculum. Common; dead. | Varies 
greatly in form and sculpture, like the Texan 
“ analogue,” which may be conspecific. ] 


131 C 301| Triton vestitus. 1 sp. [Scarcely differs from pilearis. || _ 
132 302 | Ranella celata. 1 sp., dead. im 


L |303| Ranella Californica. Very rare. Grows 4 inches|_ 
long. hes 

151 A |582| Gal. | 304) Latirus ceratus. 2 dead sp. 
ee 584| E |305) Fasciolaria princeps. 2 dead sp. ; 
18 A 306 | Mitra crenata, Rve., teste Dohrn. 1sp. [?=ne-| 


cleola. | ; 

19 307 | Mitra solitaria, C.B. Ad. 1 sp. i 
20 586 | Gal. E| 308  Strigatella tristis. Rare. 

A|G@| E_ |309| Aneta harpa. 1 sp. ; 

1e 589 310| Volutella margaritula. Off Spondylus ; common. | 


Marginella minor. O#f Spondylus; rare. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 625 


Pan. | La | Aca- 
Cat. |Paz. pul. 
A 
A 
36| P 
?33| P| A 
P 
iP 
PC 
39 A 
C 
A 
34) P| A 
A 
76| P| A 
P\A 
69} P| A 
JBN 
Bi -P' C 
P 
74 
107 A 
89 | P\A 
94 A 
86| P| A 
A 
90 | P 
A 
P 
P 
55 Cc 
45|P\A 


Maz. | Other 
Cat. oman 


?WI 


606 |E. Mar. 


608) Gal. 
603 |G.Mar. 
E 


605 
Gal. 
611 
Gal. 
613) WI 
615| E 
617| E 
Gal. 
E 
E 
EK 
624 |L. Mar. 
632 


| 
No. 


312 
313 | 


List of Cape St. Lucas Shells. 


Volvarina varia. Rare. [Cannot be distinguished 


from some W. I. specimens. ] 
Persicula imbricata. 1sp. [Can scarcely be sepa- 
rated from interrupta, jun. Also Guacomayo. | 


4! Persicula phrygia. Rare. [Closely allied to fru- 


mentum. Differs from the W. I. sagittata by 
having the painting in loops instead of zigzag, 
and an orange callosity over the sunken spire, 
bordered by a spotted sutural line. | 
Oliva porphyria. 1sp. 
Oliva Melchersi, var. Rare. | 
Oliva subangulata. Very common, dead. {This 
ier very rare elsewhere, is known by the! 
shouldered shape, toothed paries, and violet- 
stained mouth and columella. | 


| Olivella dama. Rare; dead. 


Olivella tergina. Rare; dead. 

Olivella undatella. 5 sp.; dead. 

Olivella zonalis. Rare; dead. 

Olivella v. aureocincta, 3 sp.; dead. 

Olivella anazora. Very rare; dead. Perhaps a var. 0 

Olivella gracilis. Extremely abundant. [With 
many varieties: among which is one with dark 
median and sutural bands and light spire ; an- 
other with dark spire; another pure white, o 
which the young is znconspicua, C.B. Ad. The 
Acapulean varieties are somewhat different. ] 

Harpa crenata. _ Dead. 

Purpura biserialis. Abundant. 

Purpura triserialis, Common. 

Purpura triangularis. Not uncommon. 

Purpura patula. Common. Also West Indies. 

Purpura muricata, Rare; dead at C. 8, L.; living; 
at Socorro Island. 

Purpura planospira. Dead shells at C. 8. L. and 
La Paz; abundant and fine at Socorro Island, 

Rhizocheilus nux+tall var. [= Californicus. ] 

Sistrum carbonarium. Living ; plentiful. 

Vitidella cribraria. Abundant. 

Columbella major. Rare. 

Columbella fuscata. _Abundant. 

Columbella festiva. Not rare. 

Columbella hemastoma. Not rare. 

Columbella solidula. Abundant *. 

Columella Reevet [= Sta. Barbarensis, Cpr. (error) }. 

Columella baccata. Rare. 

Conella cedonulli. 1 sp. 

Nassa tegula. Rare; pale var. 

Nassa versicolor. Rare; dead. 

Nassa corpulenta. Very rare. 


* The young shell is thin, semitransparent, with Alaboid tuberous vertex. The nuclear 
part is rather more tumid than the next whirl, and set slanting as in some Chrysodomi. 
Adolescent, whirls smooth, except a suturalline. Sculpture of adult gradually developed, 
with spiral lines, sometimes all over, sometimes only anteriorly and posteriorly. Last 
whirl sometimes with blunt radiating riblets, but generally smooth. Siphonal notch deeply 


cut back, as in Strombina, to which the species may belong. 
1 


25s 


626 . REPORT—1863. 
| 
Cat, (Baz.{pul.| Cat, [habitate| X°- List of Cape St. Lucas Shells. 
P Gal. Pt Fusus Thouarsii {+ Nove-Hollandia, Rye.)}. Rare ; 
2 dead. 
P 639| E_ | 347| Siphonalia pallida. Very rare. 
109 Gal. | 348| Engina Reeviana. 1 sp. 
iP A Gal. |349| Engina crocostoma. 1 sp. 
iP C | 647 350} Anachis coronata. Very rare. 
652} E | 351| Anachis teniata [= Gaskoinei]. Very rare. 
99 352 | Anachis pulchrior. Very rare. 
G 353 | Anachis pallida, Phil. Very rare. 
98 E | 354} Anachis ?parva, var. Dead shells : may be pyg- 
med, Var. 
650 355 | Anachis serrata. A few perfect specimens. 
(100)}) | A |(651)) (E) | 356} Anachis pygmea (var. auriflua). Rare. 
P| C | 657 357 | Strombina maculosa. Very rare. 
87 E_ | 358} Strombina gibberula. Very rare. 
64| P| A | 662 359 | Pisania sanguinolenta. Dwarf var.; common. 
60 A 360 | Pisania lugubris. Rare; dead. 
P| C | 664 361 | Murex plicatus. Rare; dead. 
140| P | A | 665 362 | Murex recurvirostris. 1 sp., dead. 
P | A | 669 363 | Phyllonotus bicolor. Rare. 
P|A|671 364! Phyllonotus princeps. Rare; dead, 
136 | P | A | 673 365 | Muricidea dubia. Rare; dead. 
366 | Argonauta argo. large sp. of the ?var. papyracea. 
Pelagic. 
367 | Octopus, sp. Pelagic. 


As would be expected, the bulk of these species (203 out of 367) are the 
same as have been already enumerated in the Reigen Catalogue. Of those 
which do not appear in the Mazatlan lists, no fewer than 37 appear in the 
Panama collections (beside 10 others, known to inhabit the equatorial region). 
Of those not quoted from Mazatlan, 34 are also found in the Acapulco 
region, and 30 at La Paz. Of the whole number, 79 have also been found 
in South America, and 28 in the Galapagos. 38 have also been found in 
Margarita Bay, of which Pyrazus incisus and Siphonaria equilirata are Lower 
Californian rather than Gulf species; but only 13 belong to that portion of 
the Lower Californian fauna which is known to reach 8. Diego, exclusive of 
the same number of Gulf species, which also stray into the 8. Diegan district. 


There are also 10 species, which (with more or less distinctness) represent _ 


West Indian forms. Of these, five, viz. Heterodonax bimaculatus, Erato 
Maugerie, Volvarina varia, Persicula imbricata and phrygia, are new to the 
Gulf fauna: the other five appear in the Reigen Catalogue. 

106. The most extensive collections in the Vancouver district, both as far 
as the number of species and of specimens is concerned, have been made for 
the Smithsonian Institution by Mr. J. G. Swan, teacher at the Indian Reserve, 
Neeah Bay, W.T. For several years * valuable consignments have been 
received from him of shells collected at Cape Flattery, Port Townsend, and 
other stations. Latterly he has trained the native children to pick up shore- 

‘shells in large quantities. The labour of sorting and arranging these has 
been enormous; it has, however, been repaid not only by observing the 


* In consequence of boxes having been received at different times, through the accidents 


of transit, it has not always been possible to ascertain with certainty to whom, among 
simultaneous collectors, should be allowed priority in the discoyery of new species. ; 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 627 


variations of form in large numbers of individuals, but by the discovery of 
several new species and the addition to the district-fauna of many others. 
The duplicates are made-up in series for distribution by the Smithsonian 
Institution ; and, though of the worst quality from a “ collector’s”” point of 
view, they will be found very serviceable by real students, being carefully 
named in accordance with this Report. He has now received a dredge, con- 
structed for him by Dr. Stimpson; and if he succeeds in training the young 
Indians to use it, there is little doubt that a rich harvest of fresh materials 
will shortly be obtained. Some of the collections were made on the neigh- 
bouring shores of Vancouver’s Island, among which was a large series of 
Pachypoma gibberosum, Chem., with attached Bivonia, both of an essentially 
Eastern Pacific type, the former having been brought from Japan by Mr. A. 
Adams. The Indians have taken a fancy to the opercula of this shell for the 
purpose of ornamenting their canoes. As it is an article of trade among 
themselves, it is remarkable that so large ashell should have so long escaped’ 
the notice of collectors. Dead specimens have been washed-up in California ; 
but it is not known even to enter the Straits of De Fuca alive. The shore- 
pickings of the Indian children, which have already added 25 species to 
science, are singularly free from ballast-importations, although they present 
a few (supposed) extra-limital shells, probably washed-up by the ocean 
currents. The following are the species new to the Vancouver fauna; the 
remainder will be found tabulated in the 7th column of the general Table, 
par. 112, infra. 


. Waldheimia Coreanica, valves. 

. Aylotrya pennatifera, teste Jeffr. 

. Clidiophora punctata, one worn valve. 

. Macoma ?edentula. Two living shells may be the young of this species, or an 

extreme var. of inquinata. 

Mera salmonea. Plentiful. 

Angulus variegatus. Rare. 

Semele rubrolineata. One large valve may belong to this species, or (more 

probably) be distinct and new. 

. Standella ? Californica, One young valve. 

. Miodon prolongatus, n. sube.,n.s. Several valves of this curious shell, inter- 
mediate between Zucina and Venericardia, accord with forms not before 
eliminated, from the Coralline Crag and Inferior Oolite, 

10. Lazaria subquadrata. One valve. 

11. Diplodonta orbella. Very large valves. 

12. Kellia (var.) Chironit. A few valves. 

15. Adula stylina. Plentiful. 

14, Axinea (? septentrionalis, var.) subobsoleta. Numerous valves. 

15. Stphonaria Thersites,n.s. Rare,dead. Like tristensis and other Cape Horn and, 

N. Zealand types. The genus was not known north of Margarita Bay. 

16. Mopalia (Kennerleyi, var.) Swannii. One sp. and valves. 

17. Ischnochiton (Trachydermon) Nuttalla. One sp. 

18. Haliotis Kamtschatkana. Rare. 

19. Pachypoma gibberosum, Chem, Living; plentiful. 

20. Leptonyx sanguineus, Lim. Very plentiful. (Japan, A. Ad.;=Homalopoma 

sanguineum, antea p. 588 (nom. preoc.); Mediterranean, Phlippi.) 

21. Chlorostoma funebrale (et var. subapertum. One sp.). 

22. Calliostoma canaliewatum. Living ; abundant. 

23. Margarita cidaris,n. s. One fresh specimen, with aspect of Turcica. 

24, Margarita helicina. Very rare. 

25. Gibbula parcipicta. One sp. 

26. Gibbula succincta, n.s. Rare. 

27. Gibbula lacunata, n. s. One sp. 


NOX Pwery 


£00 


628 wEPonT—-1863; 


No. 
28. Gibbula funiculata, n.s. Very rare. 
29. Hipponyx cranioides, n. s. Plentifal. 
30. Bivonia compacta, n.s. Frequent on Pachypoma; externally resembles Peta- 
loconchus macrophragma. 
31. Bittium (? var.) esuriens. Common, dead. 
32, Lacuna porrecta, n. s. Plentiful, with intermediate ?vars. exeguata and 
effusa. 
33. Lacuna (? solidula, vay.) compacta. Rare. 
34, Lacuna variegata, n. s. Not common; resembles the Japanese LZ. decorata. 
35. Isapis fenestrata, n. s. Very rare. 
36. Alvania reticulata, n.s. Very rare. 
37. Alvania filosa, n. 8s. One specimen. 
38. ? Assiminea subrotundata, n. s. One specimen. 
39. ? Paludinella, sp. One specimen. 
40. Mangelia crebricostata, n. s. Very rare. 
Al. Mangelia interfossa, n. s. Several dead specimens. 
42, Mangelia tabulata, n. s. Several dead specimens. 
43. Daphnella effusa, n. 8. One broken specimen. 
44, Odostomia satura, n. s. and Pyar, Gouldit. Very rare. 
45. Odostomia nuciformis, n. s. and Pyar. avellana, Very rare. 
46. Odostomia inflata, Very rare. 
47. Odostomia tenuisculpta, n.s. Very rare, 
48, Scalaria Indianorum, n. 8. Rare. 
49, Opalia borealis. Very common. This fine species, indicated by Dr. Gld. (E. 
KE. Mol., p. 307) under Scalaria australis, closely resembles O. Ochotensis, 
Midd. It is not referred to in the ‘ Otia,’ and the locality was naturally 
suspected. 
50. Cerithiopsis munita, n. s. Rare. 
.51. Cerithiopsis columna. Very rare. 
52. Cerithiopsis tuberculata. Rare. No differences have been detected on comparing 
53. Triforis adversa. the Herm and Neeah Bay specimens. 
54, Trichotropis inermis. A few specimens differ from the decorticated 7. cancel- 
lata, and agree with Hinds’s diagnosis. 
55. Cancellaria modesta, n. 8, One sp. and fragment, 
56. Velutina prolongata, n. 8. Very rare. 
57. Olivella biplicata. Very fine and abundant. 
58, Purpura (var.) fuscata. Forbes’s species, the locality of which was before un- 
certain, is here connected by easy transitions with the normal sazicola. 
59. Columbella (var.) ? Hindsit, May be a stunted form of A. gausapata. 
60. Amycla tuberosa, Rare. 
61. Chrysodomus tabulatus. One beautifully perfect specimen; described and 
figured from Mr, Lord’s broken shell, sent simultaneously. 


The following appear to be due to currents :— 


62. Pachydesma crassatelloides. Fragment. 
63, Fissurella voleano, One broken specimen, 


107. A collection of shells received from the Farallones Islands by Mr. R. 
D. Darbishire, of Manchester, soon after the publication of the first Report, 
contained several species at that time new to science, but in too imperfect a 
condition for description. Among them were— 


Martesia intercalata, Maz. Cat.,no. 19. Burrowing in Haliotis rufescens. 
Odostomia inflata, n. 8. Young shells, abundant, in Haliotis rufescens. 
Ocinebra lurida. 

Ocinebra interfossa, 0. 8. 


Collections from the same locality were afterwards sent by the Rey. J. 
Rowell, and are tabulated with the rest of the Smithsonian series in the 4th 
column of the general Table, par. 112. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 623 


108. In 1860, previously to the commencement of the Californian Geo- 
logical Survey, Dr. J. G. Cooper joined a military expedition across the Rocky 
Mountains, under the command of Major Blake, U.S.A. Having forwarded 
his notes and specimens to Judge Cooper, they were placed in the hands of 
Mr. Thomas Bland, of New York. He prepared a ‘Notice of Land and 
Freshwater Shells, collected by Dr. J. G. Cooper in the Rocky Mountains, &c.,” 
which appears in the ‘Ann. Lye. N. H. of N. York,’ 1861, pp. 362 et seg: 
We have here the judgment of one of the most distinguished students of 
American land-shells, whose labours on the tropical forms have accumulated 
facts so important in their bearing on the Darwinian controversy *. The fol- 
lowing is an outline of the Report, which is peculiarly valuable for the copious 
notes on the station and distribution of species :— 


No. 

1. Helix Townsendiana, Lea. “ Both slopes of the Bitter Root Mountains, from 
2200-5600 ft. high. Large var. at the base of the range to 4800 ft. Small 
var. in dry prairie at junction of Hell-Gate and Bitter Root Rivers; also in 
Wash. Ter., west of the Coast Mountains. The most wide-spread of the 
species,” J. G. C.; Puget Sound, Cape Disappointment, teste Bland. 

2. Helix Mudlani, n.s., Bland. “ Under logs and in dry pine-woods: dead, Coeur 
d’Aléne Mission: living, west side of Bitter Root Mountains,” J. G. C.; 
St. Joseph’s River, 1st Camp, Oregon, teste Binney. Closely allied to H. Co- 
lumbiana, Lea,;=labiosa, Gld. A. beautiful hyaline var. was found under a 
stone, by the Bitter Root River, 4000 ft. high. 

8. Helix polygyrella, u.s., Bland. “ Moss and dead wood in dampest parts of 
spruce-forests ; common on the Ceeur d’Aléne Mountains, especially eastern 
slope,’ J. G. C. Entirely unlike any other N. A. species, and having affi- 
nity with H. polygyrata from Brazil. 

4. Helix Vancouverensis, Lea,=H. concava, Bin. sen. olim, non postea, nec Say; 
=H. vellicata, Fbs., certainly ; =H. sportella, Gld., probably. “ West side 
of Coeur d’Aléne Mountains, W. T., in forests of Coniferee, such as it in- 
habits west of the Cascade Range. Between these two ranges, for 200 miles, 
is a wide plain, quite uninhabitable for snails, on account of drought. This 
sp. and H. Townsendiana probably travel round it through the northern 
forests in lat. 49°,” J. G.C. Also Crescent City, Cal., Newcomb; Oregon 
City, Whidby’s Is., W. T. ; Mus. Bland. Found on the Pacific slope, from 
Puget Sound to San Diego. 

5. Helix strigosa, Gld. “ Aistivating under pine-logs, on steep slope of shale, 
containing veins of lime, 4000 ft. high, near Bitter Root River, Rocky Moun- 
tains,” J. G. C.; Big Horn Mountains, Nebraska; Rio Piedra, W. New 
Mexico; teste Bland. One sp. reached N. York alive, and deposited six 
young shells. [?May not these have been abnormally hatched in the body 
of the parent, from the unnatural confinement. ] 

6. Helix Cooperi, Binn., jun. “ East side of Mullan’s Pass, Rocky Mountains, 
W. T., at an elevation of 5500 ft.,” J. G. C.; Black Hills of Nebraska, Dr. 
V. Hayden; Big Horn Mountains, Nebraska; west side of Wind River 
Mountains; Rio Piedra, W. N. Mexico, teste Bland. Passes by varieties 
towards H. strigosa, Gld. Hayden’s shell from Bridger’s Pass, Nebr., referred 
to by Binn., jun., Journ. A. N.S. Phil. 1858, p. 115, as HZ. solitaria, var., is 
the young of this species. 

7. Helix solitaria,Say. Both slopes of Coeur d’Aléne Mts., 2500 feet high, J. G. C. 
Also Prairie States, teste Bland. 

8. Helix arborea, Say. ‘“ Damp bottom lands, along the lower valley of Hell-Gate 
River, 4500 ft. high,” J. G. C. Found from Labrador to Texas, and from 
Florida to Nebraska ; also on the River Chama, N. Mex.; also Guadaloupe, 
teste Beau and Férussac, letter to Say, 1820; teste Bland, 


_* Vide “ Geographical Distribution of the Genera and Species of Land Shells of the 
tae saat &c.,” by Thomas Bland, Reprinted from Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist., vol. vii. New 
ork, . 


630 REPORT—1868. 


No. 
9. Helix striatella, Anth. With H. arborea, J.G.C. From Canada E. to Kansas, 
and from Pembina (Red River N.) to Virginia; teste Bland. 
10. Succinea rusticana, Gld. “ Rocky Mountains of Bitter Root Valley, 2500- 
4500 ft.,” J. G. C. 


The freshwater shells collected on the Rocky Mountains by Dr. Cooper 
were determined, with the assistance of Dr. Lea and of Messrs. Binney and 
Prime, as follows :— 


ll. Limnea fragilis [as of] Linn.[Binney]. Hell-Gate River; Missouri River, 
above the Falls. [=L. palustris, auct. | 

12. Limnea humilis, Say. Hell-Gate River. 

13. Limnea bulimoides, Linn. [Binney]. Missouri River, above the Falls. 

14. Limnea desidiosa, Say. Missouri River, above the Falls. 

15. Physa hypnorum, Linn. Hell-Gate River. 

16. Physa heterostropha, Say. Hell-Gate River; Missouri River, above the Falls. 

17. Planorbis trivolwis, Say. Hell-Gate River. 

18. Planorbis ?parvus, Say. Hell-Gate River. 

19. Aneylus, sp. ind. 

20. Melania plicifera, Lea. Hell-Gate River. 

21. Leptoxis, sp. ind. 

22. Amanicola, sp. ind. 

23. Spherium { Cyclas| occidentale, Prime. Hell-Gate River. 

24. Spherium | cia striatinum, Lam. Missouri River, above the Falls. 

25. Unio luteolus, Lam. 

26. Margaritana margaritifera, Linn. Missouri River, above the Falls; also Spokan 
River, below Lake Coeur d’Aléne,= A. falcatus, Gld.; the purple var. hitherto 
only found on the Pacific slope. 


109. The land-shells of the peninsula of California present points of great 
interest to the student of geographical distribution. While those of the 
eastern shore of the Gulf belong exclusively to the Mexican or Central Ame- 
rican fauna, those of the western, present in their general features that form 
of the South American type which belongs to the region of the Andes. The 
contrast between the Glandine and painted Bulimids of Mazatlan, and the 
small dull forms, or solid white shells of the peninsula, is evident even to the 
superficial observer. They are catalogued by Mr. Binney in the ‘ Proc. Ac. 
Nat. Se. Philadelphia,’ 1861, pp. 331-333, and are as follows, outline-figures 
being given of the new species :— 


No. 

1. Helix areolata, Sby. Cerros Is., Dr. Veatch. 

2. Helix Pandore, Fbs. Margarita Is. (Binney). 

3. Bulimus excelsus, Gld. La Paz. (Mus. Cal. Acad. N.S.) 

4, Bulimus vesicalis,Gld. _Lower California. [Altered in ‘ Otia,’ p. 184, to B. 
suffiatus ; nom. preoe. | 

5. Bulimus pallidior, Sby.,=vegetus, Gld. With B. incendens, y.infra. (S. Ame- 
rica, Cuming.) [Cape St. Lucas List, no. 166. ] 

6. Bulimus proteus, Brod. One large and many young specimens; Cape St. Lucas, 
Xantus. (Mountains of Peru, teste Efeiffer.) C. 8. L., no. 167. ‘ 

7. Bulimus Xantusi,n.s. Promontory of St. Lucas. 4 sp. Xantus. [No. 168.] 

8. Bulimus artemisia,n.s. Promontory of St. Lucas. 1 sp., on small species of 
Artemisia; Xantus. [C. 8. L., no. 169.] 

9. Bulimus pilula, u.s. Todos Santos Mission and Margarita Is.,in rocky spots 


under mosses, not uncommon, Xantus. Resembles B. sufflatus, jun. [ No. 170. ] 
Bulimus incendens, 1.8. In great numbers with B. pallidior, Sby., climbing 
high “ copal” or copaiva trees, on dry hills 800-1000 ft. high ; ei St. 
Lucas, Margarita Bay, Xantus. Resembles B. excelsus,Gld. [No. 171.] 
- Pedipes irata, Binn. Cape St. Lucas, Xantus. [C. 8. L., no. 172.] ,, 


a 
S 


i 
= 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA, 631 


110. At the time of the preparation of the first Report, not a single 
naturalist was known in Europe to be resident on the western slope of North 
America, to whom communications could be addressed on the subject of it. 
There was, however, even at that time, a “ Californian Academy of Natural 
Sciences,” which met at 8. Francisco, and published its ‘ Proceedings.’ This 
Academy is now in a flourishing condition, under the presidency of Col. L. 
Ransom. The general zoological department is under the care of Dr. J..G. 
Cooper; the shells under that of Dr. J.B. Trask, Vice-President of the Academy, 
whose name has already appeared in Judge Cooper’s Report, anted, p. 597 ; 
and the fossils under that of Mr. W.M.Gabb. The corresponding secretary 
is Dr. W. O. Ayres; and the librarian Prof. J. D. Whitney, the director of 
the State Geological Survey. Already the nucleus has been formed of a very 
valuable collection, many of the critical species in which have been sent to 
England for identification. The coasting-trade between 8. Francisco and 
many stations in L. California, the Gulf, and the Mexican coast, offers pecu- 
liar facilities for obtaining valuable information. Two of the contributors to 
the Californian Academy require special and grateful mention, Dr. Wesley 
Newcomb.(whose labours had greatly enriched. the State Collection at his 
native city, Albany, New York, and whose researches among the Achatinelle 
in the Sandwich Islands are well known) is stationed at Oaklands, near Fran- 
cisco, and has already furnished valuable papers, an abstract of which is here 
given, as well as emendations and additions to the British Association Report, 
which are included in their appropriate places*. The Rev. J. Rowell has long 
been a regular correspondent of the Smithsonian Institution, and has sub- 
mitted the whole of his West-coast collections for analysis. He has dis- 
played peculiar industry in searching for small species on the backs of the 
larger shells, especially the Haliotids of the Californian coast, and the Ostrea 
tridescens, which is imported in large quantities from Acapulco for the San 
Francisco market +. . 

In the ‘ Proc. California Ac. Nat. Sc., vol. i. pp. 28-80, Feb. 1855, Dr. 
J. B. Trask published descriptions of Anodonta Randall, Trask, Upper San 
Joaquin ; Anodonta triangularis, Trask, Sacramento River; Anodonta rotund- 
ovata, Trask, Sacramento Valley ; Alasmodonta Yubaénsis, Trask, Yuba River. 

In the ‘ Ann. Lye. N. H. New York,’ vol. vii. 1860, p. 146, Dr. Newcomb 
describes the first Pupa found on the Pacific slope, viz. Pupa Rowellit, Newe. 
Near Oakland, Cal. ‘* Approaches nearest to P. ovata, Say.” 


* The “ Chiton amiculatus,’ Newc., MS.,=Cryptochiton Stelleri. ‘Rare near 8. Fran- 

cisco ; somewhat more abundant in the Bay of Monterey.” His “‘ Panopea generosa,” in 
the Albany Museum, was found to be Schizotherus Nuttalliz. 
. + As an instance of the way in which mistakes arise, may be placed on record a series 
of shells sent to Mr. Rousseau, of Troy, New York, by Mr. Hilman, formerly of that 
city, now a resident at San Francisco. They were sent as Californian ; yet, of the thirty- 
four species which it contained, only one could be called a native of that province. - All 
the rest were tropical, and of that peculiar character which belongs to Acapulco. No 
doubt, the gentleman had obtained them from a trader to that city. If only a few species 
had been sent, mixed with Californian shells, they might have puzzled the learned ; for they 
were obtained, on the spot, bya gentleman of known integrity. As itwas, the magnitude of 
the error led to its discovery: but in how many similar cases such error is thought impos- 
sible !—Strigilla carnaria; Donax carinatus, puncto-striatus; Heterod. bimaculatus; Cal- 
lista aurantia, chionea; Petr. robusta; Card. consors, biangulatum; Liocard. apicinum ; 
Trigona radiata, Hindsii; Anom. subimbricata ; Lima tetrica ; Stphonaria gigas, lecanium ; 
Patella discors, pediculus; Fiss. rugosa; Crue. imbricatum, spinosum, umbrella; Crep. 
aculeata; Hipp. antiquatus, barbatus; Cerith. uncinatum; Modulus disculus; Natica 
maroccana, catenata ; Polinices uber; Leuc. cingulata; Atneta harpa; Purp. triangularis. 
The single shell from the temperate fauna is Glyphis aspera, which has not yet been found 
so far south as San Francisco. 


632 REPORT—1863. 


In the ¢ Ann. Lye. N. H. New York,’ 1861, p. 287, the Rev. J. Rowell, of 
San Francisco, describes the second species of Pupa* discovered on the 
western slope, viz. “ P. Californica, Row., San Francisco: plentiful.” 

On February 4th, 1861, Dr. Wesley Newcomb published (Latin) dia- 
gnoses of the following Californian Pulmonates in the ‘ Proceedings of the 
Cal. Ac. Nat. Sc.,’ vol. ii. pp. 91-94. A second Part bears date March 18th, 
pp. 103, 104, 


Ce 
91. Helix Bridgesti, Newe. San Pablo, Cal. 1 sp. Distinct from all described forms. 
y Helix Traskii, Newe. Los Angelos, Cal. “ Distinguished from H. Thouarstt 
at a glance.” 
92. Vitrina Pfeifferi, Newe. Carson Valley. More rounded than diaphana, Drap. 
94, Pisidium occidentale, Newe. Ocean House, 8. Francisco, Rowell. 

103. Helix Carpenteri, Newe. Tulare Valley, Mus. Cal. Ac. Belongs to the Cy- 
clostomoid group, and has the aspect of a desert species. [Quite distinct 
from H. Carpentertana, Bland, Florida. | 

» Helix Ayresiana, Newe. Northern Oregon; Mus. Cal. Ac. Resembles H. 
reticulata, Pfr., a Californian species not identified by the author. 

104, Physa costata, Newcomb. Clear Lake, Cal., Veatch, Mus. Cal. Ac. 


In the ‘ Proc. Ac. Nat. Se. Philadelphia, 1861,’ pp. 367-372, Mr. W. M. 
Gabb published “ Descriptions of New Species of American Tertiary Fossils,” 
in which occur several Californian shells. The authorities for the localities 
are not given, and the diagnoses are in English only. Considerable confusion 
often arises from the study of tertiary fossils without knowledge of recent 
shells, and vice versé. Mr. Gabb’s writings on the Cretaceous fossils of Ame- 
rica display an ability with which this paper is perhaps not commensurate. 
Some errors which had been found very difficult to understand are here cor- 
rected by the author himself, who regrets the incompleteness of his earlier 
work. 


368, Turbonilla aspera, Gabb. Sta. Barbara, Miocene, [ =Bittiwm, sp., teste Gabb, 


9 Modelia striata, Gabb. Sta. Barbara, ? Miocene. [= Lacuna carinata, Gld. 
teste Gabb MS. and specimens. Mr. Gabb considers that Litorina Pedroana 
Conr., is the same species, which is probably not correct. ] 
369. Sphenia bilirata, Gabb. Sta. Barbara. [Description accords with Savicava 
arctica, jun,, var.; but Mr. Gabb considers it a good species. | 
Venus rhysomia, Gabb. ? Miocene, Sta. Barbara. [= Psephis tantilla, Gld., 
teste Gabb MS. and specimens. | 
371. Cardita monilicosta. ? Miocene, Sta. Barbara. [Description accords with 
Venericardia ventricosa, Gd. jun.; but Mr. Gabb considers it a good species. ] 
Morrisia Hornii. ?Miocene. Sta. Barbara. “ First pointed out by Dr. 
Horn in a rich fossiliferous marl, and not uncommon.” 


In the ‘ Proceedings of the Calif. Ac. Nat. Se.’ for April 7th, 1862, pp. 170- 
172, Mr. W. M. Gabb published detailed English ‘‘ Descriptions of two Species 
of Cephalopoda in the Museum of the Academy,” of which one, Onychoteuthis 
fusiformis, is said to be from Cape Horn, the other from California. 


170. Octopus punctatus, Gabb. Common near San Francisco. Also abundant in 
Scammon’s Lagoon, Lower California, Capt. C. M. Scammon. Axms more 
than seven feet long, Dr. W. O, Ayres. “ Differs from O. *megalocyathus, 


* That the race of small Pupe is very ancient on the North American continent, as in 
Europe, is evident from the very interesting discovery, by Prof. Dawson, of a fossil Pupa, 
in situ, nestling in an upright tree, fossilized in the Nova Scotian coal-beds; which can 
scarcely be distinguished, even specifically, from some living forms. 


—————eeE 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA, 633 


Page. 3 
Couth., E. Ei. Moll. p. 471, in absence of lateral membrane, size of mouth and 


cupules, and general coloration.” 
171. Onychoteuthis fusiformis, Gabb. “Cape Horn,” Mus. Ac. [San Clemente 
Is., Cal., Cooper, MS. ] 

From the ‘ Proc. Cal. Ac. N. 8.,’ 1863, p. 11, it appears that at least one 
molluse, a Teredo or Xylotrya, has already established for itself an economic 
celebrity. Piles have been entirely destroyed in six months from the time 
they were placed in the water. 

On March 2, 1863, Mr. Auguste Remond published, in the same Journal, 
English “ Descriptions of two new Species of Bivalves from the Tertiaries of 
Contra Costa County: ”— 

13. Cardium Gabbii, Rem. Late tert. deposit near Kirker’s Pass, in shelly sand, 
with Tapes regularis, Gabb, and Murex ponderosus, Gabb, both extinct. 
“ Basily recognized by heavy hinge and enormous laterals; lunule cari- 
nated.” [? Lrocardium. | 

Ostrea Bourgeoisii, Rem. Same locality. 

On April 20, 1863, Dr. Cooper described (in English) the following mol- 
luse, of which the only species previously known is from Cuba :— 


” 


21. Gundlachia Californica, Rowell. Fig. 5 (three views). Fifty specimens on 
water-plants in clear, stagnant ponds, at Marysville, Feather River, Rowell. 


On January 8, 1864, Dr. Newcomb described (in Latin) the following, 
with other Pulmonates from the State Survey, already tabulated in p. 609 :— 


115. Helix Hillebrandi, Newe. Tuolumne Co., Cal. One recent and several fossi 
shells, M. Voy. Like H. Thowarsi, but depressed and hirsute. 


The latest contribution to the malacology of California is one of the most 
interesting. It is described (in Latin) by Dr. Newcomb, Feb. 1, 1864 :— 


121. Pedicularia Californica, Newe. One specimen from coral growing on a mon- 
ster Echidnocerus, very deep water, Farallones Is., D. N. Robinson. “ As 
beautiful as P. elegantissima, Desh., from Is. Bourbon.” [ Mr. Pease also ob- 
tained a deep-water Pedicularia from coral in the Pacific Is., which Mr. 
Cuming affiliated to the Mediterranean P. Sicula. Dr. Gould (Otia, p. 215 
also describes P. decussata, coast of Georgia, 400 fm., U. 8. Coast eg 


111. The following descriptions of species, and notes on habitats and 
synonymy, have been collated from various American scientific periodicals, 
chiefly by the assistance of Mr. Binney’s ‘ Bibliography.’ 

In the ‘ American Journal of Science and Art,’ O.8., vol. xxxviil. p. 396, 
April 1840, Dr. A. A. Gould records the following species, said to be from 
“California.” His Z’rochus vittatus is not known :— 


Murex tricolor et bicolor. Trochus vittatus. 
Cardium Californianum. Bulimus undatus. 


In the ‘Annals of the New York Lyceum of Natural History,’ vol. iy. 
1846, No. 5, p. 165, Mr. John H. Redfield first described Triton Oregonense, 
Straits of San Juan de Fuca: plate 11. fig. 2. 

In the ‘ Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,’ 
1848, vol. iv. p. 121, Mr. T. A. Conrad described new genera, and gave notes on 
Parapholas Californica, Cryptomya Californica, and Psammobia Californica, 
altering Osteodesma hyalina (nom. preoc.) into Lyonsia Floridana. In the 
same work, March 1854, vol. vii., Mr. Conrad described Cyathodonta undulata. 
He also states that Gnathodon trigonum, Petit, is probably identical with G. 
Lecontei, Conr.[?] (nom. prior), and alters genus Z'rigonella to Pachydesma. 


634: REPORT—1863. 


In the ‘Proc. Boston Ac. Nat. Hist.,’ July 1851, vol. iv. p. 27, Dr. A. A. 
Gould published “ Notes on Californian Shells,” and, in vol. vi. p. 11, described 
Helix ramentosa, California, and Helix damascenus, from the desert east of 
California. 

In the ‘Proceedings Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil.,’ April 1856, vol. viii. pp. 80, 81, 
Dr. Isaac Lea described the following species of new freshwater shells from 
California :— 


Pompholyx effusa. Sacramento River. 

Melania Shastaénsis. Shasta and Scott Rivers. 
Melania nigrina. Clear Creek, Shasta Co. 
Physa triticea. Shasta Co. 

Planorbis Traskit. Kern Lake, Tulan Co. 
Lymnea proxima. Arroya, St. Antonio. 
Ancylus patelloides. Sacramento River. 


and offered notes on 


Margaritana margaritifera, Lea,= Alasmodonta falcata, Gld.,= Alasmodonta 
Yubaénsis, Trask. Klamath and Yuba. 

Anodonta Wahlamatensis, Lea,= A. triangulata, Trask,+ A. rotundovata, Trask. 
Sacramento River. 

Anodonta angulata, Lea,+A. feminalis, Gld.,+-4. Randalli, Trask. Upper 
San Joaquin. 

Helix Oregonensis, Lea. Point Cypress, Monterey Co. 

Helix Nickliniana, Lea. Tomales Bay and Dead Man’s Island. 

Helix Californiensis, Lea. Point Cypress. 

Lymnea exigua, Lea, San Antonio Arroya. 

Lymnea pallida, Ad. San Antonio Arroya. 

Physa heterostropha, Say. Los Angeles. 

Melania occata, Hds. Sacramento River. 

Melania (Paludina) seminalis, Hds. Sacramento River. 

Planorbis trivolvis, Say. Horn Lake. 

Planorbis ammon, Gid. Lagoons, Sacramento Valley. 


In the New Series of the ‘Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philadelphia’ occur descriptions 
and notes on species, as under :— 


Page. 

1857. Feb. 18. Helix intercisa, W. G. Bin.,= H. Nickliniana, Bin. sen., var. 
Oregon. 

1857. % 19. Succinea lineata, W. G. Bin. Nebraska. 

1857. June. 165, Mr. T. A. Conrad described the genus Gonidea for A. angu- 
lata, Lea; and for Gonidea Randal, Trask, and Gonidea 

‘ Feminalis, Gld.; regarding the three species as probably 
distinct. [Dr. Lea, however, considers them rapetat 

1858. March. 41. Dr. IL Lea described Planorbis Newberryi. Klamath Lake 
and Canoe Creek, California. 

1860. March. 23. | Melania Newberryi, Lea. Upper Des Chutes River, Oregon, 
Newberry. 


In the “ Notes on Shells, with Descriptions of New Genera and Species,” by 
T. A. Conrad, reprinted from the ‘Journ. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil.,’? Aug. 1849, are 
given the following synonyms, pp. 213, 214:— 


Petricola Cahifornica, Conr.,= Saxicava C., Conr.,= P. arcuata, Desh. 
Petricola carditoides, Conr.,= Saxicava c., Conr.,=P. cylindracea, Desh. 
Stliqua Nuttallit, Conr.,= Solecurtus N., Conr.,=Solecurtus maximus, Gld., non 
Wood, =Solen splendens, Chenu. 
pen lucida, Conr.,=Solecurtus 1, Conr.,=Solecurtus radiatus, Gld., non 
inp. ‘ 


Sy Bs 


. — 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 635 


In his “ Synopsis of the Genera Parapholas and Penitella,’ from the same 
source, p. 335, are given as synonyms— 


Parapholas Californica, Conr., =Pholas C., Conr., =Pholas Janelli, Desh. 
Penitella Conradi, Val., =Pholas penita, Conr., =Pholas concamerata, Desh. 
Penitella melanura, Sby., =Penitella Wilsoni, Cony. (not Parapholas bisulcata). 


In the elaborate but somewhat intricate ‘“‘ Monograph of the Order Phola- 
dacea,” &c., by G. W. Tryon, jun., Philadelphia, 1862, the following species 
are quoted from the West Coast, and form the conclusion of the marine shells 
hitherto described, so far as known to the writer :— 


Page. 

49, Rocellaria { Gastrochena] ovata, Sby. Panama, W. I., and Charleston, Stimp- 
son. “Not the slightest difference between the Pacific and Atlantic speci- 
mens.” 

74. Pholas (Cyrtopleura) truncata, Say. Massachusetts ; S. Carolina; Payta, Peru, 
Ruschenberger ; Chili. 

77. Dactylina (Gitocentrum) Chiloénsis, King, 1832,=Ph. laqueata, Sby., 1849. 
Peru, Chili [Panama, Jewett]. Scarcely differs from D. Campechensis,= 
Ph. oblongata, Say, =Ph. Candeana, D’Orb.; Southern U. 8., W. I. 

82. Navea subglobosa, Gray, Ann. N. H. 1851, vol. vil. p. 385. California. [In 

a hole ina shell. Cabinet Gray.” Neither shell nor authority cnteast 

85. Pholadidea (Hatasia) melanura, Shy. Lower California,= Penitella Wilsonit, 
Conr., J. A. N. Se. Ph., fig. 4 (non 5). “This error in figuring led Dr. 
Gray to misunderstand both the species and Conrad’s idea of the genus 
Penitella.” [| Vide Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1856, p. 265. ] 

87. Penitella penita. [{Mr. Tryon erroneously quotes (Netastoma) Darwinit, as 
well as Ph. cornea, as synonyms. | 

88. Jouannetia (Pholadopsis) pectinata, Conr.,= Triomphalia pulcherrima, Sby. 
“ California” [no authority], W. Columbia. 

127. “ Pholas retifer, Morch, Mal. Blatt. vii. 177, Dec. 1860. One broken right 
valve. Hab. Real Llejos.” = Dactylina ( Gitocentrum) Chiloénsis, King [ teste 


Tryon]. 


112. The following Table contains a complete list of all the Molluses which 
have been identified, from Vancouver Island to 8. Diego, arranged so as to 
show at the same time their habitat, and the principal collectors who have 
obtained them. The species in the first column were obtained by Prof. 
Nuttall; in the second, by Col. Jewett. The third column (marked B.A.) 
contains the species tabulated from other sources in the First Report. Those 
to the right of the double column are the fresh explorations recorded in this 
Supplementary Report.. The fourth column contains the shells brought by 
the Pacific Railroad Expeditions, as well as the species sent to the officers of 
the Smithsonian Institution by the Rev. J. Rowell and their various corre- 
spondents. The fifth column (‘ Ken.’) contains the species of the American, 
and the sixth (‘ Lord’) of the British North Pacific Boundary Survey. The 
seventh records the collections of Mr. Swan and his Indian children; the 
last, those of Dr. Cooper in the Californian Geological Survey. As a large 
proportion of the species are as yet unknown, and the diagnoses will be found 
scattered in various periodicals, some of which are rarely accessible in this 
country, it has been judged needful to add a few words of description, with 
references to well-known books. By this means the student will have before 
him a compact handbook of the fauna, and will distinguish at a glance the 
range of localities, and the amount of authority for each. For the full 
synonymy, the previous pages of the two Reports must be consulted. 


6386 REPORT—1863. 5 


Results of the Explorations in the Vancouver and Californian Province. 1864. 
(Omitting the doubtfully located and undetermined species.) 


The letters stand fo the localities in which the shells were collected, as 
follows :— 


V. Vancouver Island, Straits of S. | M. Neighbourhood of Monterey. 
Juan de Fuca, and adjoining | B. + Sta. Barbara. 
shores of Washington Territory, | D. The region between 8. Diego and 
formerly known as ‘ Oregon.’ S. Pedro. 
P. Puget’s Sound and the neighbour- | I. The islands: in the 4th column, 
hood. generally the Farallones; in the 
O. Oregon ; and the region on each side last, the Sta. Barbara group. 
of the Columbia River. H. Species obtained from the backs of 
C. California; or the district north of Haliotids ; locality unknown ; 
the peninsula, generally. probably Lower California. 
L. Peninsula of Lower California. Jr. Fragments only. 
I’. Neighbourhood of 8. Francisco. fos. Only found fossil. 
Nutt.) Jew. | B. A. | smiths. Ins.| Ken. | Lord.|Swan.| Cooper. | 
Defrancia intricata  ...... —}|—/|—|] — — D 
1. Lingula albida .......... —|—|D — —;—|—) BD 
2. Rhynconella psittacea ....) —|—}—|) — —|Vi— — 
3. Terebratula unguiculus....| — | — | — -— —|Viv MD 
4, Waldheimia pulvinata ....) —|— | P |) — P}|—}]— = 
5. ——Californica ........ —;—|C — —|—|— I 
6. Grays Sie SO —}—|;—}|} — —}—] — I 
7. Terebratella Coreanica....) — | —}]— | — —|—|V — 
8. CHUTNEY MORE es oc —;}—/|;P) — Pn) AV aay Pz 
9, Xylotrya pennatifera ee ee —;—|V — 
10. fimbriata 75) 60% ef —f—l|— to aN ve ba 
Guide to the Diagnosis of the Vancouver and Californian Shells. 
Class Poryzoa. Family Discoporide. 
Defrancia intricata, Busk. Maz. Cat. no. 13. From Southern fauna The re- 
maining species in this class haye not yet been determined. 
Class PALLIOBRANCHIATA. Family Lingulide. 
1. Lingula albida, Hds. Voy. Sulph. ; Rve., Hanl., Davidson et auct. 20fm. c. Cp. 


Family Rhynconellide. 
2. Rhynconella psittacea, Linn. auct. E. & W. Atlantic: circumpolar. 


Family Terebratulide. 

3. Terebratula unguiculus,n.s. Like Terebratella caput serpentis in size, shape, and 
sculpture ; but loop incomplete in adult, as in 7. vitrea, 6-20 fm. not r. Cp. 

4, ile a pulvinata, Gld. E.E. Smooth, subglobular, ashy. 80 fm., living, 

Ip., CI. 

5. ? Waldheimia Californica, Koch, non auct. Colour ashy. Intermediate between 
Coreanica and globosa, Lam., Rye. (which is Californica, auct. non Koch). 

6. Waldheimia Grayi, Davidson. Very transverse, reddish, deeply ribbed. 

7. Terebratella Coreanica, Ad. & Rye. Voy. Samarang. Size of globosa; reddish. 
=miniata, Gld. Jun. ?=frontalis, Midd., Asia. 

8 Terebratella caurina, Gld. E.E. Like dorsata; subtriangular, ashy, with strong 

or faint ribs. : 


Class LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. Family Teredide. 
. Xylotrya pennatifera, Blainy. Ann. Nat. Hist. 1860, p. 126. 


9 
10. Xylotrya fimbriata, Jetty. in Ann. Nat. Hist. 1860, p. 126 ;=palmulata, Fbs. & 
Hanl., non Lam. Phil. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 637 


Nutt.| Jew. | B. A. ||Smiths. Ins.) Ken. | Lord.|Swan.| Cooper, 
11. Zirpheea crispata ........ —|—|— — Bee pew pe 
12. Pholadidea penita ...... | B | B} C | VOFMB| P | —| V MD 
15. PROVED. |e. ace « —|D|D i —|;—|— M 
14. Netastoma Darwinii ....| —|— | M — —; Vi — C 
15, Martesia intercalata ...... —}—|— I —|}—|— — 
16. Parapholas Californica....| B | — | C -- — — D 
17. Saxicava pholadis........ —j|M/|CIL| MCH | P| V| V D 
18. Glycimeris generosa...... ;—j|—|P PF —\|—|— D 
WD, ‘Mya truncata.........0.5. |; —}|—|P — P | —|— — 
20. Platyodon cancellatus ....) B | — | C FD | —|—j|—J| FDI 
21. Cryptomya Californica ..| B | B | C F P|—|V D 
22. Schizotherus Nuttalli....| — | B | C OFM |} P|}—!|Vj| OD 
23. Darina declivis .......... ;—|—]— — —|V|— _ 
24, Corbula Iuteola.......... —|—;}—] — —|— D 
25. Spheenia OyOWded=.5 06 hs —|— — P| — — 
26. Nevera pectinata .,...... — ha P|}—|— BI 

Family Pholadide. 


. Zirphea erispata, Linn. auct. E. & W. Atlantic and circumpolar. 
. Pholadidea penita, Cony. Hanl. auct.=concamerata, Desh. Shape from elongate 


to ovoid; umbonal reflexion closely adherent. 


. Pholadidea ovoidea, Gld. Otia. Umbonal reflexion with anterior opening. 
. Netastoma Darwinti, Shy. New subgenus: valves prolonged, like duck’s bill 


instead of cups. Surface with concentric frills. Quoted from “8, A.” 


~ Martesia intercalata, Cpr. Maz. Cat. no. 19. From Southern fauna. 
. Parapholas Californica, Cony. Hanl. auct.=P. Janell, Desh. Very large; 


with layers of thin, short cups. 


Family Saricavide. 


Sazicava pholadis, Linn. auct.+-var. arctica, Linn. auct. Maz. Cat. no. 23-+-var. 
gastrochenoidea, ovoid and gaping like Maz. Cat. no. 21+-var. legumen, Desh., 
elongate, cylindrical, scarcely gaping. 


. Glycimeris generosa, Gld. K.E. Perhaps= Panopea Fayjasti, 8. Wood, Crag 


Moll. : pipes like Saxicava. 


Family Myade, 


. Mya truncata, Linn. auct.= MW, precisa, Gld. Atlantic: circumpolar. 
. Platyodon cancellatus, Conr. Hanl. Pipe-ends 4-valyed. Low water: common. 


Sold in §. Francisco market, Cp. 


. Cryptomya Californica, Cony. Outside like young Mya; mantle-bend nearly 


obsolete. 
Subfamily Latrarine, 


. Schizotherus Nuttalli, Conr.+Tresus maximus, Midd. Gray=LZ. capax, Gd. 


Shape from ovoid to elongate ; very large and tumid; beaks swollen ; hinge- 
sides channeled ; mantle-bend joined to ventral line. 


Darina declivis, n.s. Outside like Machera. Cartilage-pits produced, gaping. 


Family Corbulide. 


. Corbula luteola,n.s, Shape of young biradiata; small, ashy yellow. Com. Cp. 
» Sphenia ovordea,n.s. Siphonal area small ; front excurved ; mantle-bend large. 
. Neera pectinata, n,s. Principal ribs about 12; beak smooth. Like sulcata, 


fm. Cp, 


638 REPORT—1863. 


Nutt. | Jew. | B. A. ||Smiths. Ins.! Ken. | Lord.|Swan.| Cooper. 


27. Clidiophora punctata oil ads 
28. Kennerlia filosa.......... = 
bicarinata ......00... — 

30. Periploma argentaria 3} aD 
Sse TACIA. CHIEHA,. |. cseva fc. 6 omoun,¢ 
32. Lyonsia Californica ...... 
Entodesma saxicola. . 
; imfigta .t. Peotee 
35. Mytilimeria Nuttalli : 
36. Plectodon scaber ........ 
37. Solen sicarlus .......... 
37 b. . rosaceuS ........ 
38. Solecurtus Californianus .. 
39. SELORETES) | sors ties cus ¢ B 
0. Machera patula ........ OB 
D 

C 


wl | | al | oe 


Pe Fea Bt For es Be | 


4 


ale} 
9) 


41. Sanguinolaria Nuttalli.... 
42, Psammobia rubroradiata . . 


[= [= tata feof taf fat 
pas sere) |e BFA 
PST Ll] 1 ol el | er] 
| 4 4 ore Sale 
<4) <4) 41.4] <2] 14 4 
“}<l-)-1-)- =~) 


| 


Family Pandoride. 

27. Chidvophora punctata,n.g. (Type of genus=Pandora claviculata, P. ZS. 1855, 
. 228.) Teeth 3, posterior long, with ossicle. Conr.sp.; like Cl. trilineata, 
ut teeth more divergent ; inside strongly punctate. : 

28, Kennerlia filosa, n.s. New subgenus of Pandora with ossicle: outer layer ra- 

diately grooved. Shell beaked. 

29, Kennerlia bicarinata, n.s. Not beaked; 2 post. keels in convex valve. 40-60 


fm.r. Cp. May prove=P. bilivata, Cony, 


Family Anatinide. 

30. Periploma argentaria, Cony. Hanl. Large, subquadrate. 

31. Thracia curta, Conr. Hanl. Strong, suboyate. 

32. Lyonsia Californica, Cony. Hanl.+-bracteata+-nitida,Gld. Outline variable : often 
close to Atlantic LZ. Floridana: striated external layer fugacious. 

33, Entodesma saxicola, Baird. Subgenus of Zyonsia: animal nestling, irregular. 
Close to E. cuneata, Ad. & Rve. Form protean: brittle, thick, lurid, with 
enormous ossicle. Var. cylindracea has the form of Saxicava pholadis. 

34, Entodesma inflata, Conr.=draphana, Cpr. P. Z. 8. 1855, p. 228. From Southern 
fauna. Like picta, but pale, without pinch. 

35, Mytilimeria Nuttall’, Cony. el ? Subgenus of Zyonsia: rounded, with spiral 
umbos. 

36. Plectodon scaber,n. g.,n.8. Shape of Theora: dorsal margins twisted-in spirally 
inside umbos. Lateral teeth laminated, with internal cartilage hidden, ap- 
pressed. 2. valves, 40-60 fm. Cp. 


Family Solenide. 
37. Solen sicarius, Gld. Otia, Nearly straight, rather short, truncated. 
376. Solen ? var. rosaceus. Straight, narrower, longer, smaller ; glossy, rosy. 


Family Solecurtide. : 

88. Solecurtus Californianus, Conr. Hanl. May be a var. of the Peruvian P Dombeyt. 
Yellowish ash, with ventral parallel grooves. A Pvar. without grooves closely 
resembles gibbus. 

39. Solecurtus subteres, Conr. Hanl. Small, compact, with violet rays. 

40. Machera patula, Dixon= 8. maximus, Wood=grandis, Gmel.=Siliqua Nuttalli 
?+lucida, Cony. (var. jun.) Asia. 


Family Tellinide. 
41. Sanguinolaria Nidtalli, Conr. Hanl.= Psammobia decora, Hds. Flat, rounded. 
42. Psammobia rubro-radiata, Nutt. Large: shape of vespertina: rayed with lilac. 


a eo 
' 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 639: 


Nutt. } Jew. | B. A. ||Smiths. Ins.| Ken. | Lord. |Swan.} Cooper. 
43. Macoma secta .......... D/D|C]} MIL.|—|—/]— D 
43 6, Oredulis: ..-.5..0%. Oo;—|— PO P}|—|— — 
44, —— indentata .......... =| | — —|-—|—- D 
45. yoldiformis ........ =—}=—} = — P|—|V D 
46. PRUE. se. we ea OD; D|OC}} VPOF} P| V}| V| MD 
47, ——inquinata .......... —|—|0 O P|—|V F 
47b. Pedentula.......... —j—'} — — —/;—|V — 
48. Ve CXPANSA......002- oa — P|—|— — 
49, —— inconspicua ........ Oo|;—|}— OF P.M Vie PM 
50. Angulus modestus ...... —};—|— — P|—j|;— “= 
506,——_ —— obtusus ...... —|—|/— D P|—/|V D 
51. variegatus.......... — a — —|—|V MI 
52. Gouldit. 7 me. . oso —)}—|— DL. | —|—]— D 
53. Mera salmonea ....| — | — | — EF —|—|V M 
54. Tellina Bodegensis ...... — |— | OF O —j|;—|V D 
55. Arcopagia lamellata..) — | — | — — —/}—|—-— D 
56. Cidalia subdiaphana...... =i i D —|—} — — 
57. Cooperella scintilleeformis .. — | — | — — —|—|— DI 
58. Lutricola alba .......... B+} By © — —|—|— DI 


43. Macoma secta,Conr.Hanl. Large,flat,rounded, glossy; winged behind ligament. 

43 6. Macoma var. edulis, Nutt. Northern form, less transverse; texture dull. 

44, Macoma indentata,n.s. Like secta, jun., but beaked, indented, and ventrally 
produced. 

45. Macoma yoldiformis, n.s. Small, white, glossy, very transverse ; ligament-area 
scooped-out. 

46. Macoma nasuta, Conr. auct.+tersa, Gld. Large, beaked, twisted; mantle- 
bend touching arte scar in one valve. From Kamtschatka to S. Diego. 
care Lady Franklin, 76°, Belcher, 1826. 3 ft., mud, between tide-marks, 

ord. 


47, Macoma inquinata, Desh. P. Z.S. 1854, p.357, Like degraded nasuta; mantle- 
bend a little separated from scar in both valves. 

47 b. Macoma Pedentula, Brod. & Shy. jun. ; or an abnormal var. of inquinata. 

48, Macoma ?var. expansa. Scars like lata and calcarea in Mus. Cum., but teeth 
not bifid, very thin, glossy. Scarcely differs from data, Desh. in B.M. 
Greenland. 

49, Macoma inconspicua, Br. & Sby.= Sang. Californiana, Cour. Probably =“ Fa- 
bricti= fragilis, Fabr.” in Mus. Cum. Like thin, flat solidula: pink; var. 
large, white. 8-15 fm. Lyall. 

50. Angulus modestus,n.s. (Subg. of Tellina.) Like tener, Say; but with callus 
between mantle-bend and scar. White. 

506. Angulus Pvar. obtusus. Inside like modestus; but beaks obtuse. 

51. Angulus variegatus, n.s. Shape of obtusus: no eallus; rayed with pink and 
yellow. 20-60fm.r. Cp, 

52. AngulusGouldii, Hanl. MS. in Mus. Cum. Small, white; ant. ventr. side swollen. 

53. Mera salmonea, n.s. (Scarcely differs from Angulus.) Small, subquadrate, 

lossy, salmon-tinted. Beach—20fm. Cp. 


54, Tellina Bodegensis, Hinds, Voy: Sulph. Large, strong, transverse, with con- 


centric grooves. 
55. Arcopagia lamellata, Maz. Cat. no. 58. One fine pair in shell washings. 
56, Gidalia subdiaphana, n.g.,n.8. Thin, swollen, shape of Kellia, ligament sur- 
gounding beaks: hinge with 5 bifid teeth (3-2); no laterals; large mantle- 
end. 


57. Cooperella scintilleformis, n.s. New subgenus of Gidalia. Cartilage semi- 


internal: only 1 tooth bifid. 


58. Lndricola alta, Conr. (Tellina). For this group (= Capsa, “ Bosc,” Add. non 


Lam.), scarcely agreeing with either Macoma or Serobicwaria, Blainville’s 


640 REPORT—1863. 


$$ -_____— 
Nutt. | Jew. |B. A. |Smiths. Ins. Ken. | Lord. Swan.) Cooper. 


e| 


59. Semele decisa 4........- D 
60. MII bs heb eek eee — 
61. 
62. —— pulchra.....,..60.. 
63. INCONSTUS 22.,.%24)4 « — 
64. Cumingia Californica .. B 
65. Donax Californicus ...... B 
66. flextiosus! Alii. cece — 
67. NAVICULE | Shas kl. —- 
68. Heterodonax bimaculatus | D 
69. Standella Californica .,..| B 

B 

B 


Bry| Ho 


Se 
[Bld eid4 


696;:—- nasuta-.. ss... .e08. 
70, —— planulata .......... 
fille LACHLB. fs she dies selec 
72. Raéta undulata.......... 
73. Clementia subdiaphana 

74, Amiantis callosa ........ 
75. Pachydesma crassatelloides} BD 
76, Psephis tantilla.......... = 


|] el |leoel lists 


| 
a 
fea Sede ES eh a Sh 


ck Ac = (dr FU GPs it 
| 
Kee] so] eeeyylS 


Joales|ol || 
| 


ttdtd | | 


— Vfr. 
viv 


synonymic name may be revived in restricted sense. Species=diangulata, 
P. Z. 8. 1855, p. 230. 

59, Semele decisa, Cony. auct. Large, rough, like Peruvian corrugata, but truncated. 

60. Semele rupium, Shy. Smaller, rough, swollen; with smaller mantle-bend. 
Galapagos. Not x. Cp. 

61. Semele rubrolineata, (? Conr.). Flattened, same shape, with faint sculpture each 
way, and pink rays. [Conrad’s lost shell may be young decvsa. 

62, Semele pulchra, Shy. Transverse, crowded concentric sculpture, with radiating 
lines at sides. Southern fauna. 

63, Semele incongrua, n.s. Like pulchra, with concentric sculpture differing in 1. 
and 1. valves: fine radiating stric all over. 40-60 fm, c. Cp. 

64. Cumingia Californica, Cony. auct. Maz. Cat. no. 44. 

65. Donax Californicus, Conr. (non Desh.) = obesus, Gld. (non Desh.). Smooth, 
stumpy: outline and colour variable. 

66. Donax flecuosus, Gld, Like punctostriata jun, with stronger keel, and no 
punctures. 

67. Donax navicula, Shy. Maz. Cat. no, 77. From Southern fauna. 

G8. Heterodonax bimaculatus, Broad var., generally violet,=Psammobia Pacifica, 
Conr.= Tellina vicina, C. B, Ad. Cape St. Lucas, Acapulco, W, Indies. 


Family Mactride. 
69. Standella Californica, Conr. (non Desh.). Large, shaped like Schiz. Nuttall, but 
beaks narrow. Mantle-bend separate from ventral line. 
69, Standella ? var. nasuta, Gd. ( ce ame bs Revived for young shells between 
Californica and planulata, till more is known. 
70. Standella planulata,Conr, Nearly as large ; shape piper Mactrella exoleta. 
71. Standella falcata, Gld, Otia. Shape like planalata, but flatter. 
72. Raéta undulata, Gld. Otia. Like the Atlantic 2. canaliculata, but reversed. 
Rare at 8. Pedro, Cp. 
Family Veneride. 
73, 2Clementia subdiaphana, n.s. Hinge normal, very thin, ashy. 
74, Amiantis callosa, Cony. (not auct.). Subgenus of Callista: hinge-plate rough- 
ened as in Mercenaria: mantle-bend as in Dosinia. L. w. com. Cp. 
75. Pachydesma crassatelloides, Cony, auct. Subgenus of Trigona, with fewer teeth : 
jun. = stultorum, Gray. 
76, Psephis tantilla, Gld. Otia. Subgenus of Venus: animal ovoviviparous. Teeth 
elongate, approaching Pachydesma, Small,with purple spot. 12-20fm.¢, Cp. 


if 


~er 


-~ 


92, 
93. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 641 


Nutt.| Jew. | B. A. |Smiths. Ins.| Ken, | Lord.|Swan.| Cooper. | 

77. Psephis Lordi .......... Say ceil ie) tee oa ad ea I 
78. salmonea .......... — as —}—]— DI 
79. tellimyalis ........ Sere aed cereal -- 
80. Venus Kennerleyi........ —;—|;—|]| — P|}—|V — 
81. Chione succincta ........ iBD|}; D;C} — —|—|— D 
82. CRCAV AEA) oie ai siatn ates D}—}]— |} — — |— | — — 
83. semi limiaey nee aa cee DD L —}|—]— D 
84. Auotifrage, 5.6.5. 03" De Dee mv) —|—|— D 
85. Tapes tenerrima ........ —|B{|F) F —|;—|V D 
86 Deir atarn anv ain fates —;—/|M D —}—|— D 
87. RUATINTIOB Goths s ) Pee DC| F ee aD See | FD 
876 var, Petitii.......- —|{/—j|]C ]VPOM;P|V|V VM 
87 ce var, ruderata ...... —}—|}—)]} — —|V — 
88. Saxidomus aratus........ Se F —|—)|}— FD 
89. TS ela 1 ir DID;C} — —|}—)— FD 
90. squalidus .......... —|}F/}0Oj} VPOF|P/|ViV -- 
91. brevisiphonatus ....) — | — | — — —|Vji— — 
92. Rupellaria lamellifera....) D | M | C D —|—|— M 

| 93. Petricola carditoides ....|BD MB} C F P|—|V M 
94, Chama exogyra.......... BD | — | C LH | —/}—|}— D 
95 PEMA Rear as: ees B-| -B—--6 MD | —;—j|—)j| FMD 
77. Psephis Lordi, Baird, P, Z.S, 1863. Teeth normal: pure white. 20-40 fm. ¢. Cp. 

78. Psephis salmonea, n.s, Very small, rounded, teeth elongate: salmon-coloured. 


30-40 fm. r. Cp. 


. Psephis tellimyalis, n.s. Shape of Tellimya: central tooth minute; outside 


teeth long. 


. Venus Kennerleyi, Rve. Large, transverse, flattened, ashy: strong cone. ribs, 


Young like astartea, Midd. (not fluctuata, Gld.). 


. Chione succincta, Val.= Californiensis, Brod. = Nuttall’, Cony. Cone. ribs smooth. 
. Chione excavata, Cpr. P.Z.S. 1856, p. 216, Scarcely differs from cancellata. 


Possibly exotic. 


. Chione simillima, ey. Finely sculptured each way. 
. Chione fluctifraga, Sby. 


+callosa, Shy. Like Stutchburyi: swollen, irregular. 
Tapes tenerrima, Cpr. P. Z. 8, 1856, p. 200, (jun.)= V. rigida, Gld. pars, f. 538. 
Very large, thin, flat; long pointed sinus. 


. Tapes lacimata,n.s. Large, swollen, brittle, ashen; sculpture pectinated. 


Tapes staminea, Cony. Strong, shape of decussata; sculpture close ; yellowish. 
Var. diversa, Shy.=mundulus, Rve. More swollen, clouded with chocolate. 
Var. Petitii, Desh.=rigida, Gld. pars. Dead white, sculpture strong or faint, 
open or close. 2 ft. deep in mud, between tides, Lord. Var. tumida, Sby. 
Very swollen. Var. orbella, rounded, globose. Var. ruderata, Desh. Con- 
centric sculpture laminated. 


» Saxidomus aratus, Qld. Otia. Very large, oval, with regular concentric ridges. 
. Saxidomus Nuttallii, Cony. auct. Transverse, subquadrate, irregularly grooved. 
. Saxidomus squalidus, Desh, Large, variable outline, broader, scarcely sculp- 


tured. 


. Saxidomus brevisiphonatus, n. 8. Smaller, Callista-shaped ; close, faint concen- 


tric lines over distant waves; mantle-bend very small. 
Family Petricolide. 

Rupellaria lamellifera, Conr.=Cordieri, Desh. With large concentric lamine. 
No radiations. 

Petricola carditoides, Conr.+ Californica, Conr.+cylindracea, Desh.+-arcuata, 
Desh.+gibba, Midd. Of various aspects, like Saricava. Normally shaped 
like Cypricardia, with fine sculpture like Naranio, 

Family Chamide. 


94. Chama exogyra, Cony. Reversed; texture opaque; rudely frilled. 
ig i? pellucida, Shy. Dextral, texture porcellanous, rosy ; closely frilled, S.A. 
: 20 


642 REPORT—1863. 


& 
be 


Natt. | Jew. . ||Smiths, Ins.| Ken. | Lord.|Swan.| Cooper. 


?D 


96. Chama spinosa .......... = 
97. Cardium corbis.......... OB 
quadragenarium ....| B 
var. blandum ...... oa 
var. centifilosum ....| — 
101. Hemicardium biangulatum | — 
102. Serripes Groenlandicus....} — 
103. Liocardium elatum ...... = 
substriatum ........ D 
D 

D 

D 


RD e Ued 1 eee 


105. Astarte compacta........ 
106, —— Esquimalti ........ 
: fluctiatia, . 2h. ie 
108. Miodon prolongatus...... 
109. Venericardia borealis .... 
var. ventricosa ... 

110. Lazaria subquadrata...... 
111. Lucina Nuttallii .,...... 
112. —— Californica ........ 
PAWL! regs ici slolns ssnns as 


Hi | oo] ee] os 


aC) 
Q 


Lal 


DI 


PPOlmIT Illi ities 
Fy 


Old PLL Td Pelt e | | 


A Os Oe a ee 
thi dot od ed eee et 


td 
Pe eee 


96. Chama spinosa, Sby. Ridges broken into close short spines. Maz. Cat. no, 122, 
Family Cardiade. 
97. Cardium corbis, Mart.=Nuttalli+ Californianum, Conr, Large, earthen, rather 
nodulous; posterior margin strongly indented by 2 first ribs. Asia. 8-15 fm. 
Iya. Jun. in stomach of starfish, 12 fm. Lord. 
98. Cardium quadragenarium, Conr.=luteolabrum (=aanthocheilum), Gld. Very 
large; 40 ribs, with aculeate spines. 
99. Cardium var. blandum, Gld. Otia. Delicate form of the Asiatic pseudofossile, 
Rve.= Californiense, Desh. Transverse; close, flat ribs; margin regular. 
8-15 fm. Lyail. 
100. Cardium vay. centifilosum. Probably=modestum, Ad. & Rye. ; but rounder, 
ribs sharper and more distant. Belongs to subg. Fidvia, Gray. 80-40 fm. Cp. 
101. Hemicardium biangulatum, Sby. Southern fauna. 10-20 fm. living. Cp. 
102. Serripes Greenlandicus, Chem. auct. Boreal. Rounder than S. Laperousii. 
103. Liocardium elatum, Sby. Maz. Cat. no, 124. Gulffauna. Very large, Cp. 
104, Lrocardium substriatum, Conr.=cruentatum, Gld. Almost identical with the 
Peruvian Elenense. 


Family Astartide. 
105. Astarte compacta, n.s. Like compressa, but closer; dorsal margins straight, 
at right angles, 
106. Astarte Esquimalti, Baird, P.Z.S. 1863, p. 70. Subtrigonal; ribs irregular. 
107. P Astarte fluctuata, n.s. Very close to Omalit, jun. of Coralline Crag, 2 right v. 
30-40 fm. Cp. 
108. Miodon prolongatus, n. g.,n. 8. Outside Lucinoid; hinge and scars nearer to 


Venericardia. Congeneric with Astarte orbicularis, J. Sby. Min. Conch. pl. 444. 


f. 2,3 (non ejusdem, pl. 520. f. 2). G. Oolite ; and with the Crag Cardita corbis, 
109. Venericardia borealis, Conr. N. Atlantic, from Miocene. 120 fm. Cat. Is. Cp. 
109b. Venericardia vay. ventricosa, Gld. Small, swollen. 80-40 fm. Cp. 
110. Lazaria subquadrata,n.s. Hinge of Lazaria: outside like Cardita variegata,jun, 
Family Lucinide. 
111. Lucina Nidtallii, Cony. Hanl. Like muricata, with more delicate sculpture. 
112. Lueina Californica, Cony. Dosinoid, with waved lunule. Jun. ? = Z. Artemidis, 


P.Z.S. 1856, p. 201, l 
113. Lueina bella, Cony, Shell not known; may be =pectinata, Maz. Cat. no. 142. 


114, Lucina temusculpta, n.s. Like Mazatlanica, Cat. no, 144, more conyex, with. 


finer sculpture. 4 fm. living, Cp. The island var. is intermediate. 120 fm. 
dead, Cp. 


Pre 


— 


Po). el 6 


Fin pyran 


=——.. * 


a ied 


er 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 643 


A 
& 
+ 
oy 
2 

3 

ow 
> 


. ||Smiths. Ins. Ken, | Lord./Swan.| Cooper. 


115. Lucina borealis .,...... a= 
116, Cryptodon flexuosus ....| — 
ine serricatus..4...... == 
118, Diplodonta orbella...... B 
119. Kellia Laperousii ...... = 


119. yar. Chironii 
120. 
121. 
We. WeASea. TODEA. . .niss ovine: 
128, Pythina rugifera........ 
124. Lepton meroéum ..,.... 
125. Tellimya tumida........ 
126. Pristes oblongus........ 
127, Mytilus Californianus. ...| MD 
128. BLES tieecne. 6 «sc eras» C 

1286. —— var. glomeratus ..| — 
129. Septifer bifurcatus ...... PC 
130. Modiola capax ........ B 
131. AT GHETOUEIS sys «| s viceaye' + — 
132, —— fornicata.......... — 
133. LE LUD, oq eG Oris B 


TO UELI LALO, «st, «yc mae 


bp} HS] o| oeH 


by 
bey 
Loa 


feat ths] |S) ees by est Shee et 


Peta ste diated ah | 
[oot] Sete sh 2h etre eta a PME ae setet! af 5 


M 


weeo||eoalllI IIIT iwltil 
a| wommoal ll Iii t leer i |i 
ae) 
Q 


b| eye 4 


115. Lucina borealis, Linn. auct.--acutilineata, Conr. Widely diffused, from Coral- 
line Crag. Philippines, teste Cuming, 380-120 fm. Cp. 
116. Cryptodon fleruosus, Mont. auct. Atlantic, circumpolar. Cat. Is. 120 fm. Cp. 
117. Cryptodon serricatus, n.s, Small, circular, flat; epidermis silken. ? Cat, Is. 
Cp. 120 fm. 
Family Diplodontide. 


118. Diplodonta orbella, Gld. Otia.=(Mysia) Spherella tumida, Cony. 


Family Kelliade. 


119, Kellia Laperousii, Desh. Woodw, ‘Typically large, strong, transverse. 

119}, Kellia var. Chironii. Thinner, less transverse, margins rounded. 

120. Kellia rotundata, nu. s. Larger, flatter, and less pearly than suborbicularis. 
Margin circular. { 

121. Kellia suborbicularis, Mont. auct. Maz. Cat. no. 153. N. Atlantic: W. Mexico. 
Exactly accords with British sp. 30-40 fm. Cp. 

122. Lasea rubra, Mont. auct. Maz. Cat. no. 154, N. Atlantic: W. Mexico. Exactly 
accords with British sp. 

123. Pythina rugifera, u.s. Large, thin, slightly indented ; teeth minute ; epidermis 
shagey. 

124, Lepton cite n.s. Small, shaped like Swnapta. 

125, Tellimya tumida, n.s. Between bidentata and substriata: ossicle minute. 

126. Pristes oblongus, u.g.,n.8, Like Tellimya, with long marginal teeth, serrated 
near hinge, 

Family Mytihde. 

127. Mytilus Californianus, Cour. 9 in. long: stained with sienna: obsoletely ribbed. 

128. Mytilus edulis, Linn. auct.=trossulus, Gld. Abundant on whole coast, with the 
usual Atlantic vars. Between tide-marks, Zord: also brown var, on float- 
ing stick, 

128 6, Mytilus ? var. glomeratus, Gld. Otia. Short, stumpy, solid, crowded. 

129. Septifer bifurcatus, Rve. Outside like Mytilus b. Cony. from Sandw. Is. 

130. Modiola capax, Cony. Maz. Cat. no. 170. From Southern fauna. 

131. Modiola modiolus, Linn, auct. Cireumboreal. 8-15 fm. jun. Lyall. 

182. Modiola fornicata, n.s. Short, swollen, like large M. marmorata ; but smooth, 
not crenated. 

133. Modiola recta, Cony. 6 in, long, thin, narrow, rhomboidal, Chaff-like hairs 
over glossy epidermis. : 

272 


644: REPORT—1863. 


154. 


Nutt.| Jew. | B. A. |/Smiths. Ins.; Ken.| Lord. Swan.| Cooper. 
133 6. Modiola var. flabellata...) — | — | V VP P|—!|V = 
134. Adula falcata ...,...... == |-Mi-} -M FM — — D 
135. [oy lili eee ie ecksc == |---| ORM . | — P= == 
136. Lithophagus plumula....}| — — M — — D 
137. attenuatus ........ — | —+-L I et | == 
188. Modiolaria levigata ....)| — | — | — a Pil VV — 
139. marmorata .,...... ane — i — Pa == — 
140. Crenella decussata ...... ye — —|—|— I 
141. Arca multicostata ...... — — D — | — | — — 
142. Barbatia gradata........ — — —_ —}—|]— D 
143. Axineea intermedia ....| — — — —}|—}]—| MDI 
144. var. subobsoleta....| — | — | — ODI —};—|Vv — 
145. Nucula tenuis .......... — | — | — — Pie) = a 
146 Acila castrensis ....| — | — — Psy I 
147) Deda exelata: 1 Cas Pe ot es = WB iF — —|—}]— MD 
148. CUNEALA Yh ates « —|— — —|—}]— MDI 
149, —— minuta............| — | — | — ||  -— FE (SEES eee = 
150 HOBSH ele ates cite aioe —|—|— — P| oy) = 
L5t —— hamata! i... .8i 7. — |} — | — — —|— |} — BI 
133 6. Modiola vay. flabellata, Gld. Northern form, somewhat broader. 


Adula falcata, Gld. Otia. Subgenus enlarged to include species intermediate 
between Modiola and Lithophagus: shape of latter, byssiferous like former, 
nestling in crypts. Sp.=Gruneri, Phil. MS. Shape not always falcate : 
chestnut, rugose. 


. Adula stylina, n.s. Shorter, broader; epidermis brown, glossy. 

. Lithophagus plumula, Wanl. Maz. Cat. no. 175. From Southern fauna. 

. Lithophagus attenuatus, Desh. Maz. Cat. no. 173. From Southern fauna. 

. Modiolaria levigata, Gray. Exactly accords with Atlantic specimens. Cir- 


cumboreal. 


. Modiolaria marmorata, Fbs, & Hanl. Exactly accords with Atlantic speci- 


mens. Circumboreal. 


. Crenella decussata, Mont. Exactly accords with Atlantic specimens. Circum- 


boreal, 10-40 fm. not x. Cp. 


Family Arcade. 


- Arca multicostata, Shy. Maz. Cat. no. 181.| y, oni anni 
. Barbatia gradata, Sby. Maz. Cat. no. 194, ( ~ "OM POUbne™ Zauna, 
. Axinea intermedia, Brod. = Barbarensis, Cony. fossil. Closely accords with 


the Peruvian specimens. 40-60 fm. Cp. 


. Avinea (? septentrionalis, Midd. var.) subobsoleta, Sculpture much fainter than 


in Midd.’s fig. ; 
Family Nuculide. 
Vucula tens, Mont. auct. Agrees with var. lucida, Gld. Circumboreal. 


. Acila castrensis, Hds. Sulph.+ Lyall, Baird. Subg. of Nucula with divari- 


cate sculpture ; only known in Crag and N. Pacific. 40-60 fm. Cp. 


. Leda celata, Hds. Sulph. Swollen, strongly sculptured: teeth very numerous. 


10-60 fm. Cp. 


. Leda cuneata, Sby. D’Orb. teste Hanl. (Scarcely differs from commutata, Phil. 


in Mus. Cum.) =znornata, A. Ad. Chili, 0-60fm. Cp. 

. Leda minuta, O. Fabry. teste Hanl. Circumboreal. Agrees with Norwegian 
specimens of ‘‘ caudata, Don.” teste M‘Andr. 

. Leda fossa, Baird, P. Z.S. 1863, p. 71. Between minuta and pernula. Sculp- 
ture nearly obsolete. 

. Leda hamata,n.s. Like Steenstrupi and pernuloides, but very hooked, sculp- 
ture strong. 20-60 fm, ce. Cp. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERIGA. 645 


Nutt.| Jew. | B. A. | Smiths. Ins.| Ken. | Lord. Swan.| Cooper. 
152. Yoldia lanceolata ...... —|—;—)}) — a == 
153. amygdala ........ —i —}|—), — Pj}|—|— — 
154. Verticordia ornata ...... — — | — —|—|— BI 
155. Bryophila setosa........ | — | — | — H —|—/— ?C 
156. Lima orientalis ........ — |— | — — =| —— | MDI 
157. Limatula subauriculata ..) — | — | — — —|— | — DI 
158. Pecten hastatus ........ — |B] P — Papen yn: M 
159. Pra. Hindsii ...... |) 12 Pe vern Vi — 
160. var. equisuleatus ..| — | B | — || D i BD 
161. pancicostatus ...... ee) ee eS | I 
162. Pvar. latiauritus....|BD| D | C || . D — | — | = D 
1620. monotimeris ...... BD) Dalia bia = D 
163. Amusium caurinum — Cjn.| O VO Po —— ivi — 
164, Janira dentata.......... — | — |] — — — } — | — MD 
165, Hinnites giganteus...... C=) Calne PM Bag Via GaNe D 
166. Ostrea lurida .......... 3] Er, Wit Hikte NA TNE EF 


162. Voldia lanceolata, J. Shy. Hanl.= arctica, Brod. & Shy. (Not Adrana 1., Lam. 
G.Sby.) With ant. diagonal lines. 
153. Yoldia amygdala, var. teste Hanl. Like lanceolata, without posterior wing, 
and anterior sculpture. 
Family ? Tregoniade. 
154. Verticordia ornata, D’Orb.=novemcostata, Ad. & Rve. Samarang. Exactly 
accords with Chinese types. S.A. 20-40 fm. Cp. 


Family Aveulde. 
155. Bryophila setosa, n. g.,n. 8., Ann. N. H. 1864, p.10, Like minute, broad Pinna. 
Animal oyoyiviparous. Sta Barbara, 20 fm. Cp. 


Family Pectinide. 

156. Lima orientalis, Ad. & Rve., Samarang, in Mus. Cum.= dehiscens, Conr. fossil, 
teste Cp. Very close to young of LZ. hians, var. tenera. Beach to 20 fm. c. Cp. 

157. Limatula subauriculata, Mont. Fhs. & Han]. Cirecumboreal. Fossil in Crag. 
Islands, 40-120 fm. not r.; 8. Diego, 1 valve, 4 fm. Cp. 

158. Pecten hastatus, Sby.=hericeus,Gld. Elongated ; afew principal ribs serrated ; 
ears unequal. In var. rubedus, Hds. (non Mart.), the ribs are equal, not 
serrated. 

159. Pecten (? var.) Hindsii. Broader; ribs close, small, smooth, bifurcating. 
Passes from hastatus towards Islandicus. 

160. Pecten equisulcatus,?n.s. Thinner and flatter than ventricosus, with narrower 
ribs. 

161. Pecten paucicostatus, ?n.s. Somewhat resembling very young caurinus; but 
ribs fewer, stronger. 

162. Pecten latiawritus, Cony. (pars). Ribs sharply defined, with sharp concentric 
lamin. Possibly an extreme form of 

162. Pecten monotimeris, Cony. = tunica, Phil.+latiauritus, Cony. pars. Passes into 
Amusium. Very slanting, thin, with faint ribs. 

163, Amusium caurinum, Gld. E.E. Large, flat, thin, very inequivalve. Var.= 
Yessoensis, Jay. Japan. 

164, Janira dentata, Shy.=excavata, Val. Ven. Like media, From the Gulf fauna. 
Beach-20 fm. Cp. 

Family Spordylide. 

165. Hinnites giganteus, Gray, Analyst.= Poulsoni, Conr. Very large, Spondyloid : 

ligament as in Pedwm, strongly adherent along the ears. 


Family Ostreide. 


166. Ostrea lurida, n.8. Shape of edulis: texture dull, lurid, olivaceous, with purple 
stains. 2-3 fm. on mud flats, Lord. 


646 REPORT—1863, 


] 
| Nutt. Jew. | B. A. | Smiths. Tns| Ken. Lord.|Swan.| Cooper. 


166d. Ostrea var. laticaudata ... — 

166e. var. rufoides ...... | — 

166d. var. expansa ...... | — 

167. conchaphila ..{ma D 

168. Placunanomia macroschis-- — 

169. Anomia lampe.......... — 
B 


170. Cavolina telemus ...... | 
171. Bulla nebulosa ........ 
172. —— Quoyi........ eect 
173. Haminea hydatis........ | 
174. VOSICWIG vag cisics Sere. 
175. virescens .......... 
= Philinid 0.00... see, i 


176. Teeednipeimcciiea:. z. 
177. Tornatina culcitella 


emer baie) 
bike td att att at ean 


Ceeeeee eee re ae: 


Ll rormt tori ll siti 
Bol | Sol peepee 


cs) 
aE eRe 


1666. Ostrea var. laticaudata, Nutt. MS. Purple, winged, waved: denticles near 
hinge. Passes towards palmula, Maz. Cat. no. 214, 0b. 

166¢. Ostrea ? var. rufoides=rufa, Gld. (non Lam.). Passing towards Virginica, jun. 
Thin, with umbos hollowed ; reddish in scar-region. Also fossil. 

166d. Ostrea ? var. e2 ‘pansa. Flat, affixed to whole” surface, like Columbiensis. 
Round, or winged to left, or right, or both, like Malleus. Also passes into 

167. Ostrea conchaphila, Cpr. Maz. Cat. no. 214. From Southern fauna. 


Family Anomiade. 

168. Placunanomia macroschisma, Desh. Kamtschatka. Vars.=alope+cepio, Gray. 
Shape most variable, according to station. Sculpture often obsolete. On 
rock, between tides, Lord. 

169. Anomia lampe, Gray, Maz. Cat. no. 219. From Southern fauna. 


Class PTEROPODA. Family Hyaleide. 


170. Cavolina telemus, Linn. = Hyalea tridentata, Forsk. non Lam. Pelagic. 50-60 
fm. dead, Cp. 
[Other See at were brought by the Brit. N. P. Boundary Survey, but may 
have been collected on the voyage: v. p. 607. ] 


Class GASTEROPODA. 
Subclass OpisTHOBRANCHIATA. = Order TECTIBRANCHIATA, 
Family Bullide. 
171. Bulla nebulosa, Gld. Otia. Large, globular, thin. Maz. Cat. no. 225-+-var. 
_ _fulminosa, Cp. 
172. Bulla Quoyi, Gray. Small: angular at umbilicus. Maz. Cat. no. 226, Pacific. 
173. Haminea hydatis, Linn. auct. Exactly accords with European specimens. 
174. Haminea vesicda, Gld. Otia. Smaller, paler, and thinner. 
175. Haminea virescens, Sby. Gen. Var.=cymbiformis, Maz. Cat. no. 229. 


Family ? Philinide. 
Two species not yet dissected: one with internal shell like Phanerophthalmus. 


Family Tornatellide. 
176. Tornatella punctocelata,n.s. Small: grooved with rows of dots: pillar twisted 
as in Ballina, Add. non Gray. 


Family Cylichnide. 
177. Tornatina culcitella, Gd. Otia. Large, brownish, with faint strie. Fold close 
to paries. 


ae. a 


ppt Aang 


ES ee le 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 647 
Nutt.) Jew. | B. A. | Smiths. Ins.| Ken. Lord.|Swan. 
1776. Tornatina cerealis ...... —] B|— — — | — | — M 
178. RIM, | SA a5. i0id reef — |} me — 12 ee = 
179. - CarMate, \scte sores » —/|—|— — —|—}|— D 
180. Cylichna ? cylindracea Bi) — — —|—/—| MDI 
1800. var. attonsa........ —}—|— — 21 ees ee — 
181. —— planata See asia 2, Seales —|—|— D —|— | — = 
182 ricuiltael: “t,o —j|—|D D —|—|— —_— 
183. Volvula cylindrica ...... —|}B}|—} = SSS —_ 
184, Neaplysia Californica . —— fh —}—|— D 
185,- Navarchus inermis ...... —|—|— -~ —}—}]— DI 
186. Pleurophyllidea Californic, —|;—|— — —|—|— D 
187. Doris sanguinea ........ —|—|— — —|—|— DI 
188. alabastrina Oe oe — i — —|—|— D 
189, —— albo unctata ...... —/—|— — —}|—|— BI 
190, —— Sandiegensis ...... }— | — | — — — | — | DI 
191. Montereyensis aes = | =} — —|—|]—| FMI 
192. Triopa Cataline ........ ss a = —|—-|— iF 
193. Tritonia Palmeri........ —|—|— — —|—|— D 
194, Dendronotus iris ........ —|—|— — —|—|]— B 
195, AXolis Barbarensis ...... See | ieee ae Nal B 
196. Phidiana iodinea........ —|—|]— — —}—|— BD 
197. Flabellina opalescens ....| — | — | — — —|—j|—| BDI 
198. Chiorzera leonina........ — P = — | ee B 
199, Melampus olivaceus = |.=7|-e DL | —|—}|— DI 
200, Pedipes liratus.......... —|/—|— L —|}—}|}— D 
201. Siphonaria Thersites . —|—|— — —/;—|V — 


1776. Tornatina cerealis, Gld, Otia. Small, white, smooth: but probably=worn 
oung eulcitella. 

178. Tornatina eximia, Baird, P. Z.S. 1863, p. 67. Size moderate: fold appressed : 
subrectangular. 

179. Tornatina carinata, Maz. Cat. no. 223. 

180. Cylichna ?cylindracea, Linn. auct. Intermediate specimens, passing into 

1806. Cylichna var. attonsa, rounded off at apex. 

181. Cylichna planata, n.s. Like mamillata, with apex flattened-off, and fold distinct. 

182. Cylichna inculta, Gld. Otia. 

183. Volvula cylindrica, n.s. Like grain of rice, pointed at one end. 


Family Aplysiade. 
184. Neaplysia Californica, Cp. Proc. Cal. Ac, 15 inches long. 
185. Navarchus inermis, Cp. Proc. Cal. Ac. Grasses, on shore, Cp. 
Family Pleurophyllidiade. 
186. Pleurophyllidea Californica, Cp. Proc. Cal. Ac. Sandy flats, Cp. 


Order NUDIBRANCHIATA. 
187-198. All the new Nudibranchs are described in the Proc. Cal. Ac. Vide anted, 
p. 609. Vide also Gld.’s Otia, and Esch. Zool. Atlas. 
Subclass PotmonaTa. 
For land and freshwater species, both of Pulmonates, Rostrifers,-and Bivalves, 
vide posted, paragraphs 115-119. 
Family Auriculide. 
199. Melampus olivaceus, Cpr. Maz. Cat. no. 235. 
200. Pedipes liratus, Binn. Proc. Ac, N.S. Phil. 1861, p. 333. 
Family Siphonariade. 
201. Stphonaria Thersites,n.s, Like lateralis: with strong lung-rib and obsolete 
sculpture, 


648 REPORT—1868. 


Nutt.) Jew. | B. A. ||Smiths. Ins. Ken. | Lord./Swan.| Cooper. 
202. Dentalium v. Indianorum | — | — | P | — Pj|/—|WV MI 
203. ——rectius..........0+ —|;—)}]— — 12N |) — 
204, —— semipolitum ...... —}—|]— oo —/|—)}]— D 
205. hexagonum........ —|-—* |. — — —|—|]— D 
206, Cryptochiton Stelleri....) — | C | OC FMI Ral: ipa I 
207. Katherina tunicata...... —|—|0O OF P. aa hy, I 
208. Tonicia lineata.......... —}—|C} PEM; P|} V/V — 
209. submarmorea ...... —}—}] — O =} — |v = 
210. Mopalia muscosa........ M/F | P | OFMI |—| VV I 
211. Wosnessenshii ....| — C — —|Vij— — 
212. —— Kennerleyi.,...... —}—|—]  — P|—|/V — 
2126, VET. SWAN. bs. cv —|—/|— ~- —|—|V — 
213. —— Hindsii .,........ —}|—|—| F ieee = 
214, —— Simpsonii ........ —}~—| CO} = = |=) = = 
215 | | EF Pe) —ofnV — 
— | —|-PM O Pisa hv, — 
M | — |} — 1 ce —}|—|/— — 
— —— — —_— P ee a 7_—_ 
1: ae |S Se | — Po) Fle = 


Subclass PRosoBRANCHIATA, Order LATERIBRANCHIATA. 


Family Dentaliade. 
202. Dentalium (? pretiosum, Nutt. Sby. var.) Indianorum. Like entalis, with very 
fine posterior striz. 20 fm. c. Cp. 
203. Dentalium rectius,n.s. Long, thin, slightly curved : like eburneum, Singapore. 
204, Dentalium semipolitum, Br. & Sby. P=hyalinum, Phil. not Maz. Cat. no. 245. 
From Southern fauna. 
205. Dentalium hexagonum, Shy. From Southern fauna. 


Order ScutrprancHiaTa. Family Chitonide. 


206, Cryptochiton Stelleri, Midd. Very large: valveshidden. Reaches Sta Cruz, Cp. 

207. Katherina tunicata, Shy.= Douglasie, Gray. Mantle smooth, black: valves 
partly concealed. Between tide-marks, Lord. Reaches Farallone Is. Cp. 

208. Tonicia lineata, Wood. Closely resembling lineolata, Peru. Painting variable. 

209. Tonicta submarmorea, Midd. Perhaps= lineata, var. without lines. 

210. Mopalia muscosa, Gld. E. E.= C. ornatus, Nutt. (=armatus, Jay) -+consimilis, 
Nutt. Highly sculptured: mantle crowded with strong hairs, Between 
tide-marks, Lord. 

211. Mopalia Wosnessenskii, Midd. Mantle slit behind, with few hairs. Sculp- 
ture like muscosa. 

212. Mopalia Kennerleyi, n. s.= Gray?, antea, p.603, nom. preoc. Sculpture fainter : 
olive with red: ridge angular; post. valve waved. 

2126.Mopala Kennerleyi, var. Swanii: red, ridge arched ; less sculptured. 

213. Mopala Hindsit, Gray. Olive: distinctly shagreened: flat: post. valve waved. 

214. Mopalia Simpsonii, Gray, in B.M.Col. Like Hindsii, with valves beaked. 

215. Mopalia vespertina, Gld. EK. E. Shape of Hindsti, with very faint sculpture and 
slight wave. Olive clouded with brown. 

216, Mopalia lignosa, Gld. E. E.= Merckii, Midd. = Montereyensis, Cpr. P. Z. 8. 1855, 
p. 231. Like vespertina, without wave: brown in streaks. 

217. Mopalia acuta, Cpr. P. Z.S. 1855, p. 232. Subgeneric, aberrant form; with 
small blunt plate, instead of post. sinus, between the two principal lobes. 

218. ? Mopalia sinuata,n.s. Small, raised sharp back, red and blue, engine-tumed ; 
post. valve deeply notched. ai 

219, ? Mopalia imporcata, n.s. Pale: central areas ribbed: post. valve slightly 
notched. Indications of sutural pores in these two species, if confirmed, will 
require a new genus. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 649 


Nutt.) Jew. | B. A. | Smiths. Ins. Ken. | Lord.|Swan.| Cooper. 
220. Acanthopleura scabra....) M | — | C ET P|—|— I 
221. FUT BIB ta crave star yee otece —|—)}— — =|— I 
222, Ischnochiton Magdalensis | — | — | L LM | —}]—j|— DI 
223. veredentiens ...... —|—}— — —|—|— I 
224, Lepidopleurus regularis ..| — | — | C — —|—|— _ 
225. scabricostatus...... ;—}|—|/—]| — —|—)|— I 
226. Cen ALU Se Jicliaiens —|—|— |; — —}|—)|— I 
227. —— Mertensii.......... }—;<=|/C |] M Pair saly WV. — 
228. Trachydermon retiporosus. — | — | —| — P|—j|— _— 
229, —— interstinctus ...... —!;=|P — —|—|/— — 
230. PEMIAUS:| eres .)e's. eo —|/—|;—|} — P|—)— — 
231. dentiens .......... —|;—/|P/ — —|-—/|—- — 
2316, —— pseudodentiens ..) — | — | — _— Bil Mil D 
232. Gothicus.......... 2) 2 —|/—|— I 
233. —— Hartwegii ........ |} — |= © iP —|-—-|— — 
234. —— Nuttallii.......... M/—/|C] M —|—|V I 
235. HE CEOTSH) Fs\ce-0ivhech Y ;}—}|—}|— M Po Viel == D 


220. Acanthopleura scabra, Rve. = Californicus, Nutt. Insertion-plates resemble 
Katherina, Valves with coarse V-shaped ribs, and projecting beaks. 

221. Acanthopleura fluxa,n.s. Green, mottled with orange-red ; not beaked ; with 
only marginal and diagonal ribs. 

222. Ischnochiton Magdalensis, Hds. Large, strong-valved, typical. Sculpture much 
fainter than in southern shells. Mantle-margin with striated scales like 
flattened bristles. Side plates 2- or 3-lobed. Beach—20 fm. Cp. 

223. Ischnochiton veredentiens, n.s. Margin similar. Small, arched, sculptured 
like Mertensti, but with 2 rows of bosses, one of which dentates the sutures. 
10-20 fm. Cp. 

224, Lepidopleurus regularis, Cpr. P. Z. 8. 1855, p. 232. Subgenus of Ischnochiton : 
mantle-scales Lophyroid, generally striated. Sp. arched, green, shagreened. 
Side lobes 2-4: eaves spongy, not projecting. 

225. Lepidopleurus scabricostatus, n. 8. Small, arched, orange: rows of prominent 
granules over shagreened surface. Lobes blunt, slightly rugulose, close to 
eaves, 8-20 fm. Cp. 

226. Lepidopleurus pectinatus, u.s. Olive: strong sculpture over shagreened surface: 
side areas ribbed: outer margin and inner sutures pectinated. Bch. Cp. 

227. Lepidopleurus Mertensii, Midd. Red: highly sculptured over smooth surface : 
side areas with rows of bosses. Mantle-scales smooth, rounded. 

228. Trachydermon retiporosus,n.s. Subgenus of Ischnochiton: mantle-scales very 
small, close, smooth. Sp. like scrobrewatus, central pattern in network, 3-6 
side ribs. 

229. Trachydermon interstinctus, Gld. E.E. Centre minutely punctured : 6-8 blunt 
side ribs. 

230. Trachydermon trifidus,n.s. Centre-punctures few, deep: 2-4 blunt ribs: side 
plates with 2 slits. 

231. [Zrachydermon dentiens, Gld. E.E. No shell known answering to diagnosis and 
figure.] The 4 following species have incisors blunt, eaves not projecting. 

2316. Trachydermon pseudodentiens=type specimen of dentiens. False appearance of 
teeth due to colour or ridges of growth. Closely granular : areas indistinct. 
Sinus broad, squared: eaves spongy. 

232. Trachydermon Gothicus, n.s. Blunt parallel riblets along very arched back. 
Sutural lobes united at sinus: eaves not spongy. 8-20 fm. Cp. 

233, Trachydermon Hartwegii, Cpr. P. Z.S. 1855, p. 231. Large, arched. Inside 
callous, without rows of punctures to slits: eaves spongy. 

234, Trachydermon Nuttallit, Cpr. P. Z. 8. 1855, p. 231. Large, plain, flat. Incisors 
slightly rugulose : eaves spongy. 

235. Trachydermon flectens, n.s. Mantle-margin scarcely granular. Rosy, ver 
small, scarcely sculptured: valves beaked and waved as in M. Stimpsoniv: 
eaves and incisors normal. 


650 REPORT—1863. 


Nutt.) Jew. | B. A. ||Smiths, Ins. Ken. | Lord. Swan.| Cooper. 
236. Leptochiton nexus ...... =| a eet) ea ae I 
237. Acanthochites avicula ..) — | — }| — —_ —}—|]— 3 
238. Nacellainstabilis........ —|—/P —- —|VivVv = 
239. UHCORSE Derr ahs -<o.(gere —|B/D D —|—)}— MD 
240. subspiralis ........ —|—|— = =—|=—)} => I 
241, —— depicta............ —/;—]D — —|—};— D 
242. paleacea, 2z)....0%°.. —| By} — — —|—|— — 
242 b. var. triangularis ..) — | — | — — —}—-—}|— M 
243. Acmza patina .......... C}C} Cy} VFM | P| Vj} V-} FMBI 
244, Poltae Vis .oneaes C |} Cj} Cy} VFM. | P.) WV }-V-)-EMBI 
244 6. —— var. Asmi........ —|B{|—} I —}—}]— M 
245, PEPSONAY) aie}. ci sitar. D8: Oat Oar VE P fcViall-}> 2 BE 
246, CATA Vice whee tere totes Deh: Oni DIH | —}—}—J] MDI 
247, —— spectrum.......... Da} Ca) O-<)- SRDE —}—} MBD 
248. MOBACED! ferrietaiccckee. : —;}B}— — — MD 
249, Lottia gigantea ........ —|—}]} C jf FMIL | — | — MBDI 
250. Scurria mitra .......... M-} C-}PC|| VPF P- lean pals MI 
250 6 Pvar. funiculata —|—|}— — —}—}|— M 


236. Leptochiton nevus, n.s. Like asellus : scarcely sculptured : mantle-margin with 
striated chaffy scales, like Wagdalensis, interspersed with transparent needles. 
20-80 fm. Cp. 

237. Acanthochites avicula,n.s. Like arragonites, but valves sculptured in large 
snake-skin pattern, 8-20 fm. r. Cp. 


Family Patellide. 

238. Nacella instabilis, Gld. E.E. Large: shape of compressa. 

239. Nacella incessa/Hds. Sulphur. Small: Ancyloid. 

240, ?Nacella subsprralis, n.s. Shaped like Emarginula rosea, and may be a Scutel- 
lina. 10-20 fm. Cp. 

241, Nacella depicta, Hds. Sulphur. Small, long, flat, smooth: colour in rays. 

242. Nacella paleacea, Gld. Otia. Narrower, brown, striated at each end. 

242d. Nacella ? vay. triangularis. Shorter: apex raised: scarcely striated: whitish, 
with brown spots. 


Family Acemeide. (For synonyms, v. Reports in locis.) 

243. Acmea patina, Esch. Large, blackish or tessellated: with very fine distant 
striz. Between tides, Lord. ; 

244, Acmea pelta, Esch. More conical; border narrow; smooth, with blunt ribs 
often obsolete. Between tides, Lord. 

2446, Acmea ?var.-Asmi, Midd. Stout, small, black, conical. Probably an ab- 
normal growth of pelta, jun. (1 sp. beginning on pelta) Cp. 

245. Acmea persona, Esch. Smaller: apex posterior: colour blotched or freckled : 
sculpture in irregular ribs. Maz. Cat. no. 266. Var. wmbonata, arched, with 
narrow distant ribs. Var. digitalis, apex near margin. Var. textilis, apex far 
from margin, approaching pelta. 

246, Acmea scabra, Nutt. Rve. Outside with close rows of fine granules: orange- 
red tint, glossy. Var. limatula, sculpture stronger, border black: perhaps= 
Maz. Cat. no. 265. 

247. Acmea spectrum, Nutt. Rye. Flattened, with very strong ribs, irregular. 

248. Aemea (? pileolus, Midd. var.) rosacea. Pink, small: like Herm specimens of 
virginea. 

249. Lottia gigantea, Gray. Genus reconstituted: mantle with papille interrupted 
in front. Shell large, flat, dark, lustrous (= Tectwrella grandis, Smiths. Inst. 
Check List). 

250. Scurria mitra, Esch. Papille all round the mantle. White, conical: young 
sometimes faintly sculptured. In dead clam, 12 fm. Lord. 

250 b. Scurria ? var. funiculata. With rounded riblets, somewhat nodulous. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 651 


Nutt.) Jew. | B. A. ||Smiths. Ins.| Ken. Lord. Swan, Cooper. 
251. Lepeta ceecoides ........ = | i — = — 
252. Gadinia (Rowellia) ....| — | — | — iE —|—)|— I 
253. Fissurella volcano ...... M;} BB} C I — | —|PV DI 
254, Glyphis aspera.......... — | — |} 0C Ae; = ieWr yt WV — 
255, densiclathrata ....)/?B| B} OC |} — —}—/}— M 
256. Lucapina crenulata...... D|—} O}- .C —|—|— D 
257. Puncturella cucullata....)— |—| P || — P|—|V M 
258. —— galeata............ at aa ee ce P|—!|V — 
259. Cooperl -Alji- oe. : —/}—|— — —;);—-—|— I 
260. Haliotis Cracherodii ....| D | C | © | FDIL | — | — |} — MI 
261 splendens.......... D;|C;}Ci} DIL |—|—|]—]| MDI 
262, —— corrugata.......... —j|—|C D —|}|—|/— I 
263. WULCHEONS os oes ales’: —|C|C D —|—};— M 
264, Kamtschatkana ....| — | — | C FI —;—|V DI 
265. Phasianella compta...... —|BD/ C D —|—}|—y| MDI 
266. Pomaulax undosus ...... M;C;C L —/}—|— DI 
267. Pachypoma gibberosum. .| — | — | — M —|—|V MB 


251. 


252, 


265. 


266. 
267. 


Lepeta_cecoides, ?n.s, Like ceca, but apex turned back. Farallone Is., ° 
teste R. D. Darbishire. 
Family Gadiniade. 


Rowellia, sp. Genus proposed by Cooper : tentacles flattened, pectinated. Cat. 
Is. Cp. Far. Is. Row. 


Family Fisswrellide. 


. Fissurella volcano, Rve.=ornata, Nutt. Approaches Peruviana: hole variable. 
. Glyphis aspera, Esch.=Lincolni, Gray=cratitia, Gld. Large, coarsely sculp- 


tured, with colour-rays. 


. Glyphis densiclathrata, Rve. Smaller: with closer, finer sculpture, 
. Lucapina crenulata, Shy. Tank. Very large : internal. 
. Puncturella cucullata, Gld. E.E. Large, with strong, variable ribs, 15-40. 


Hole simple. 


. Puncturella galeata, Gld. E.E. Scarcely differs from noachina, but tripartite 


process more strongly marked. 


. Puncturella Cooperi, n.s. Outside like galeata, but without props to the 


lamina. 30-120 fm, not r. Cp. 
Family Haliotide. 


. Halotis Cracherodii, Leach, auct. The trade species, smooth, dark olive: holes 


5-9. Var. Californiensis, holes 9, 10,11. 


. Haliotis splendens, Rve. Flatter, grooved, lustrous. Holes 4-7. Below tide: 


on rocks, Cp 


. Halhitis corrugata, Gray. Large, arched, very rough. Holes 3-5. Below 


tide: on rocks, Cp. 


. Haliotis rufescens, Swains. Large, flatter, waved, rich orange-red. Holes 


3-5. Below tide: on rocks, Cp. 


» Hahiotis Kamtschatkana, Jonas. Small, thin, arched, waved. Holes 4, 5. 


Below tide: on rocks, Far. Is. Cp. 


Family Trochide. 

Phasianella compta, Gld. Otia. Maz. Cat. no. 284. Like pullus, a little longer 
and flatter; but operc. bevelled and striated. ? Var. pulloides, exactly like 
Herm shells: ? var. eatior, dwarfed, longer and flatter : var. punctulata, with 
close rows of dots; pillar chinked. 8-20 fm. Cp. 

Pomaulax undosus, Wood. Very large: operculum with 2 ridges. 

Pachypoma gibberosum, Chem. ?=inequale; Mart. Large, rough: operc. 
swollen, simple. (Dead.) 


652 REPORT—1863. 


Nutt.) Jew. | B. Pa eee Ken. | Lord.|Swan.| Cooper. 

268. ? Imperator serratus ....) —|—]—]| — |—|—]|—] MI 

| 269. Leptonyx sanguineus ....| — | M | — || OFMI | —|—|V MI 
270. actly tf Ade.ck es —|}—|}—)} — —|/—|— I 
271. Liotia fenestrata........ —|/—;}—| — —|—|— I 
272. acuticostata ...... SS) | ae! | —|/—|]— MI 

| 273. Ethalia supravallata ....}— | —|]— || — lee D 
275 b. var. invallata ....) —|—}|— || — —|—|/— D 
274, Livona picoides ........ —|B\;—| — —|—|— — 
275. Trochiscus Norrisii...... M; B/C]. — =- fies DI 
276. CONVERUS wei. sch belo —— | My ==) 2 — | — — 
277. Chlorostoma funebrale ..| M | C | C ||. FI —|-—|V MD 
2776. var. subapertum....| — | — | — ||). — —|—|V — 
278 Pea het ay Oe be —|}—|D\ —;);—|— DI 
279. brunneum ........ —}|—/ CC] FMDI)—)} —}— M 
280, —— Pfeifferl .......... —!/M;C} — —|—}— D 
281 aureotinctum ...... c{j;—/} Cj .L — —)}— I 
282. Omphalius fuscescens....} B | M| C || D —|—|/—} DI 
283. Calliostoma canaliculatum| M |} C |} C | M —|—|V M 
284 costatum .......... Maj 5C | Oo VE MI OPA avi — 
285 annulatum ........ My —"|*C TM —|VIV = 
286. —— variegatum ........ a Aol ar Py} — | — = 

| 
268. ? Imperator serratus, n.s. Small, finely sculptured, base stellate, nucleus Plan- 


270. 


271 
272 
273, 
278 
274 
275 


276. 
277 


orboid : opere. flat, with more whirls. 10-20 fm.=266 or 267 jun. teste Cp. 


. Leptonyx sanguineus, Linn. n.g. Like Collonia, not umbilicate. Opere. with 


horny and shelly layers, many whirls, outside flattish, not ribbed, margin 
broad. Species red or purple, lirate. Beh.-20 fm. Cp. 
Leptonyx bacula, n,s. Small, ashy, Helicina-shaped, nearly smooth. Bch. 
d. Cp. Genus=Homalopoma, p. 537: nom. preoe. 
. Liotia fenestrata, n.s. Small. Strongly ribbed each way. Bch.—40 fm. d. Cp. 
. Liotia acuticostata, n.s. Small. Sharply keeled, without radiating sculpture. 
10-20 fm. Cp. 
. Ethalia supravallata, n.s. Minute: with keel and furrow near suture. 
b. Ethalia ? var. invallata. Without keel. 
. Livond picoides, G1d. Otia. Probably the remnant of an ancient colony of pica. 
. Trochiscus Norrisii, Sby. Tank. Nucleus as in Solarium: perhaps a Probosci- 
difer, though pearly. 
. Trochiscus convecus, 1.8. Small, subturrited, whirls swollen: umbilicus with 
2 ribs, the outer crenated. 
. Chlorostoma funebrale, A. Ad. P.Z. 8. 1854, p. 316=marginatum, Nutt. non 
Rye. Blackish, often puckered near suture. 


277 b. Chlorostoma funebrale, var. subapertum, with umbilical pit. 
278. Chlorostoma gallina, Fbs. P. Z. 8. 1850, p. 271. Olive, dashed with purple. 


Var. pyriformis, Gld., umbilicus partly or wholly open. 


279. Chlorostoma brunneum, Phil. Auburn: finely striate: Gibbuloid aspect. The 


young (teste Cp.) has a basal rib. 


280. Chlorostoma Pfeifferi, Phil. Like brunneum: outside Ziziphinoid: umbilicus 


281. 


keeled. 

Chlorostoma aureotinctum, Fbs. P. Z. 8. 1850, p. 271=nigerrimum, Gmel. ? Mus. 
Cum. Gibbuloid: with distant grooves and fine sculpture ; mouth orange- 
spotted. 


282. Omphalius fuscescens, Phil. Almost identical with igulatus, Maz. Cat. no. 293. 
283. Calliostoma canaliculatum, Mart.=doliarium. Large, with strong grooves. 
284. Calliostoma costatum, Mart.=filosum, &e. Smaller, swollen, reddish; finely 


ribbed. 8-15 fm. Lyall. 


285, Calliostoma annulatum, Mart.=virgineum. Large, granular, stained with violet. 
286. Calliostoma variegatum, nu. s. Small, more conical, nodules more distant, white 


on rosy ground. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 653 


Nutt.| Jew. | B. A. ||Smiths. Ins.) Ken. | Lord.|Swan.| Cooper. 

287. Calliostoma supragranosum| — | — | — — —j}|—|— D 
288. gemmulatum ...... —|—|— — —|}—|/— D 
289. splendens ........ —|}—|— — —}—}|— MI 
290. Phorcus pulligo ........ -—|/}—|M — —|V{|V M 
291. Gibbula parcipicta ...... —|—|— FI —j|—|V I 
292 foptabilis’. >. o. Sate —|—|— — —|—)|— D 
293, momiculater |... 2's —/—|;—| — —;—|V — 
294 BUCEIN CER es ja0 cider « —|}—|—]| FIN |—}|]—|V I 
295 TRCuna bale se ese. « —|—}|— — —!|V — 
296. Solariella peramabilis....| — | — | — — —|—}— I 
297. Margarita cidaris ...... —}—|— — —|/—|V — 
298. PIEPI A ores ss Tele —j|—|P VOLS PERV ELEV — 
298 b. var. salmonea ....| — | — | — — —};—}]— MI 
299, acuticostata ...... — |Bfs| — |) — —}—)|]— MI 
300. —— inflata ............ —|--}/—|}. — Peg avs — 
301 Mei) "sacs. es —}|—|— — P|}—|V — 
302. ——?PVahlii .......... —|—)|}— — P| —}— — 
303 tenuisculpta ...... —,—|— — P|—‘\V 

| 304 LAGI oe Sa —|—|— — —|—|V — 


297, 
298, 


. Calliostoma supragranosum,n.s, Swollen, with sharp ribs; posterior 1-4 


granular. 


. Calliostoma gemmulatum, n.s. Very swollen: painted like eximium: with 2 


principal and 2 smaller rows of granules. 


. Calliostoma splendens, n. 8. Orange-chestnut, with fleshy nacre ; small, rather 


flattened, base glossy. 6-40 fm. Cp. 


. Phoreus pulligo, Mart.4maculosus, A. Ad. =euryomphalus, Jonas+marcidus, 


Gld. Subgenus of Gibbula, with expanded, rounded umbilicus, and flat 
whirls ; sometimes obsoletely ribbed. 


. Gibbula parcipicta, n.s. Like strong growth of Marg. lirulata, vay. 


Gibbula optabilis, n. s. Wider: decussated between ribs: 2 spiral lines inside 
umbilicus. 
Gibbula funiculata, n.s, Shaped like Montaguwi: with rounded spiral riblets. 


. Gibbula succincta, n. 8. Small, scarcely sculptured, with spiral brown pen- 


cillings. 


» Gibbula lacunata, n.s. Very small, nearly smooth ; umbilicus hemmed-in by 


swelling of columella. 


» Solariella peramabilis, n.s. Subgenus of Margarita, with open, crenated um- 


bilicus. Species most ornate, with delicate sculpture. Umbilicus with 3 
internal spiral lines, crossed by lirulee: operculum sculptured. Like Minolia 
aspecta, A. Ad. 40-120 fm. living, Cp. 

Margarita cidaris, A. Ad. n.s, Large, knobby, like thin Tureica, with simple 
pillar and small umbilicus. 

Margarita pupilla, Gld. E.E.=calostoma, A. Ad. Strong, with sharp ribs, de- 
cussated between, and fleshy nacre, 8-15 fm. Lyall. 


298 b, Margarita ? var. salmonea. Between pupilla and undulata: salmon-tinted, 


299. 
300. 
301. 


302. 
303. 
304. 


sculpture fine, not decussated : sutures not waved. 6-40 fm. Cp. 

Margarita acuticostata, n.s. Small, painting clouded; 3 sharp ribs on spire. 
8-20 fm. Cp. 

Margarita inflata, n.s. Thin, whirls very swollen; sculpture very fine; spiral 
hollow inside keeled umbilicus. 

Margarita lirulata, n.s. Small: opere. smooth: 2 sharp principal riblets on 
spire: outline variable. Var. swbelevata, raised, livid: var. obsoleta, sculp- 
ture evanescent : ? var. conica, very tall, with intercalary ribs, like G, parci- 

acta. 

ae garita Vahl, Moll. Raised, smooth: operc. with spiral rib. 

Margarita tenwisculpta, ?n.s. Like obsoleta, but opere. ribbed. 

Margarita helvcina, Mont, Like the Finmark shells, Circumboreal. 


654 REPORT—1863. 

Nutt.| Jew. | B. A. |/Smiths. Ins.| Ken. | Lord./Swan.| Cooper. 

aA erabarmy a ) SENSIERS de 
305. Crucibulum spinosum....; M | B | C DIL. | — | —/ — DI 
306. Crepidula aculeata ...... SS — —|-—|— — 
307. GOPSAEB! hia. «. saan (Opel Fed stole — Pil. Veal eV. MD 
308. excavata, var....... = || ea — —|—|— I 
309. —— adunca......... | — | BJOC Te P | oNe| pave ENMDE 
310. TUL OSE a esmiehcdeye is cat one a Bale Baio C —|{/—|— DI 
811. —— nayicelloides ...... M|—j|C OI =i Vi tay ii 
3116. var. nummaria....) — | — | P — —|V — 
31le. var. explanata....| C | —| M — —|V {Vv — 
812. Galerus fastigiatus ...... —|— |P — BesionY’ hte — 
313. COMLOTUUS oo.ts b Sain avetel —|—|— — —j|—j|—] MDI 
314. Hipponyx cranioides ....] — | — | — — —|—|V — 
515. antiquatus ........ — | PB | — — —|—]}—] PMI 
316. SERDADUN  reivecnh a> iebebe,« —|—|]— — —|}—}/}— i 
317. PUGOEMS | Sfoic sv. vee —|B\— — —|—}]—]| MDI 
318. Serpulorbis squamigerus..) B | B | C D —|/—-|j— D 
319. Bivonia compacta ..[gma} — | — | — = —|—|V — 
320. Petaloconchus macrophra-) D | — | — — —|;—|— — 
321. Spiroglyphus lituella ....| B | — | — C —)-—-|— —_ 
Order PECTINIBRANCHIATA. Suborder RostriFERa. 


305. 
306, 


307. 


308. 
309, 


310, 


Family Calyptreide. 


Crucibulum spinosum, Sby. Maz, Cat. no. 344. From Southern fauna. 

Crepidula aculeata, Gmel. Maz, Cat,no. 554. From Southern fauna, Round 
the world. 

Crepidula ? dorsata, Brod., var. lingulata, Gld. E.E.=var. bilobata, Maz. Cat. 
no. 336=C. bilobata, Rve. Appears identical with the S. American shells. 

Crepidula excavata, Brod. Maz. Cat. no. 337. 8. American, 

Crepidula adunca, Sby. Tank.=solida, Hds.=rostriformis, Gld. E.E. Dark 
liver, rough epidermis, solid deck with produced sides. [Not wncata, Mke.= 
age C. B. Ad., Rve.=adunca, Maz. Cat. no, 338,] Between tides, Lord ; 
10 fm. Cp. 

Crepidula anes Nutt. P. Z.8. 1856, p. 224. Probably northern var. of onyx, 
Sby. Maz. Cat. 340, with epidermis ind shaggy. 


. Crepidula navicelloides, Nutt. Shape of sguama, with nucleus of unguiformis 


(Maz. Cat. no. 342). Rounded yar. in hollow bivalves=nummaria, Gld. 
Var. drawn out in layers like Lessonii=fimbriata, Rve. Var. elongated in 
crypts, scooped by crab or bivalve explanata, Gld.=exuviata, Nutt.=per- 
forans, Val. 


. Galerus fastigiatus, Gld. E.E. Like mamillaris, nucleus large, immersed. 


Large, in 8-15 fm. Lyall. 


. Galerus contortus, n.s. Whirls twisted: nucleus minute, prominent. 20-40 


Cp. 
Family Capulide. 
HHipponyx cranoides, nv. 8. Large, rough, flat, intermediate between planatus and 


. Hipponyx antiquatus, Linn, Maz. Cat. no. 347. From Southern fauna. 
. Hipponyx serratus, Cpr. Maz. Cat. no. 346. From Southern fauna. 
. Aipponyx tumens, n.8. Growth like Heleion: sculpture more open than 


barbatus. 


Family Vermetide. 


. Serpulorbis squamigerus, Cpr. P. Z. 8. 1856, p. 226 (not Aletes). Large, scaly. 


Verm. anellum, Morch, P. Z. 8. 1861, p. 359, is perhaps the young, 


. Bivonia compacta, n.s. Entirely open within: but colour and growth like 
. Petaloconchus macrophragma, Cpr. Maz. Cat. no. 359, From Southern fauna, 
. Spiroglyphus lituella, Morch, P, Z. 8. 1861, p, 154, 


Me -a pa ger Oe 


OC ——E—EEEEEE SE 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 655 


Nutt.| Jew. |B. A.||Smiths, Ins.) Ken. | Lord.|Swan. Cooper. 
322. Ceecum crebricinctum,.,.) — | — | — — —j|;—j|;—| MDI 
823, BOOPOLI 25-55 havi ssowes =) >> — —|—|— DI 
324, Turritella Cooperi ...... —|— — —|—;—]| DI 
525. Jewettal. 3)... 24:50 — |B fs.| — || D Pfos. | — | — | — — 
326. Mesalia lacteola ........ ae Se tse — | P|Vji=— — 
326 b. var, subplanata ..| — | — | — — P|—|V — 
327. tenuisculpta ...... = Sa) = — —|-—|— D 
328. Cerithidea sacrata ...... MB|.C | C CF |—j|—|— FD 
329, Bittium filosum ........ —;—|P Ae Pie Vaal Ni -- 
329 6, Pvar. esuriens —|B|— — —|;—|V MD 
330. attenuatum........ —}—|— M | —}]—}— — 
331. quadrifilatum...... —|—|— D —|—|— D 
332, —— asperum ...,...... — Bfs.. — — —|;—|— DI 
333, —— armillatum........ — Bfs.| — —- |}—|—}— D 
334, fastigiatum ........ —|B = —)—}— — 
335. Litorina planaxis........ €.-Gye FDI |; —|—/|—); MDI 
336, SHGHANA) os. ote: 2 4.4:> —j|— | 0 PO Bulk Virus — 


Family Cecide. 
322. Cecum crebricinctum, n.s. Large, with aspect of Elephantulum, but very fine 
close annular sculpture; plug subungulate, 8-20 fm. Cp. 
323, Cecum Cooperi, n.s, Small, with 30-40 sharp narrow rings. 


Family Turritellide. 
324, Turritella Cooperi, n.s. Extremely slender, with many narrow whirls, c. Cp, 
325. Turritella Jewettii, n.s. Like sanguinea, with very faint sculpture. 
326. Mesalia lacteola, ?n.s. May be a local var. of the circumpolar Jactea, with 
altered sculpture: distinct, teste Cuming. 
3266, Mesalia Pyar. subplanata. Sculpture fainter: whirls flattened. 
327. Mesalia tenuisculpta, n.s. Very small, slender, whirls rounded, lip waved. 
Shoal-water, Cp. 
Family Certthiade. 
328. Cerithidea sacrata, Gld, E.E.= Californica, Nutt.+-pullata, Gld. Variable in 
shape and sculpture: passes into Mazatlanica, Maz. Cat. no. 395. 


329. *Bittium filosum, Gld. K.E.=LEschrichtii, Midd, Strong, broad, grooved. 


529b. Bittium ? var. esuriens. Like starved jilosum, very narrow, adult scarcely 
sculptured. 

330. Bittium attenuatum, u.s. Like plicatum, A. Ad., or drawn-out esuriens, with 
threads instead of grooves. 

331, *Bittium quadrifilatum, n. 8. Broad: 4 threads, equal from beginning, coiling 
over strong radiating ribs. 

332, *Bittium asperum,n. 8s. Same aspect: upper whirls with 2 strong and 2 faint 

keels over less prominent ribs. Beh.—40 fm. Cp. 

333. *Bittium armillatum, n. 8. Same aspect: 3 nearly equal rows of knobs. 

334, Bittium fastigiatum, u.s. Small, slender: apex normal: sutures indented, 
anterior rib strong. 


Family Litorinide. 


835, Litorina planacis, Nutt. Phil.=patula, Gld. E.E. Outside plain; columella: 


scooped. 

336. Litorina Sitchana, Phil.=suleata, Gld.=rudis, Coop. Rounded, flat, with spiral 
ribs. Var. modesta, Phil. (pars) has sculpture faint: swbtenebrosa, Midd., is 
perhaps a degraded var. Rocks between tides, Lord; 8-10 fm. Lyall [?). 


* These species have so peculiar a nucleus that they can scarcely rank near Ceri- 
thium or Rissoa: perhaps they are related to dlaba, The nucleus of eswriens and 
attenuatum has not been seen. 


656 REPORT—1863. 


Nutt.| Jew. | B. A. ||Smiths. Ins.) Ken. Lord. Swan. Cooper. 


POFMI MDI 


337. Litorina scutulata ...... — |B 
338, P Assiminea subrotundata | — | — 
309, ? Paludinella |..s....%.- —|— 
340. Lacuna vinecta.......... —|— 
OLUCCUR Portage ait et = 
SOLMUIG: < aerate oaeees — 
var. compacta ....| — 
varlepataey ssi. cas: — 
unifasciata ........ — 
345. Isapis fenestrata ........ — 
ObtUSAM Aes. 3.9 — 


acutelirata ........ —_ 


SINS ca ent ae AO — 
352. Fenella pupoidea ...... — 
353. Barleeia subtenule toes — 
Pvar. rimata...... — 
354, haliotiphila ...... — 
355. Amphithalamus inclusus | — 


Ll ll l44b4tl <4] 44eeeeee| 


DI 
DI 
MBDI 
MI 
D 
M 
DI 
D 
D 


B 
348. Rissoa compacta........) — | — 
B 


| | 

337, Litorina scutulata, Gld. E.E.+-lepida, Gld. Var.=plena, Gld. Small, solid, 
pointed, flattened, smoothish. Rocks between tides, Lord. 

338. ? Assiminea subrotundata, n.s. Like a very thin Litorina: ashen, plain. 

339. ? Paludinella, sp. May be an aberrant Assiminea. 

340, Lacuna vincta, Mont. auct. Circumboreal. 

341, Lacuna porrecta, n.s. Upper whirls flattened, effuse anteriorly; chink large. 

3416. Lacuna Pyar. effusa. Larger, taller, more swollen, 

341 ¢, Lacuna Pvar. exequata, same shape but flattened. 

842, Lacuna solidula, Loy.=carinata, Gld., not A. Ad.=Modelia striata, Gabb. 
Solid, variable, chink small; sometimes keeled or angular. 

342 b, Lacuna ?var. compacta. Very small, narrow, orange, scarcely chinked. 

343. Lacuna variegata, n.s. Very tall, effuse, irregular with wide chink: clouded 
or with zigzag stripes: like decorata, A. Ad. 

844, Lacuna unifasciata, Cpr. P. Z. 8. 1856, p. 205. Small, glossy, generally with 
a coloured keel, sometimes broken into dots. Var. awrantiaca, keel obsolete, 
resembling the chinked Phasianelle. 8-10 fm. Cp. 

345. Isapis fenestrata, n.s, Like ovoidea, with sharp distant ribs. 

346. Lsapis ee n.s. Whirls flattened behind: ribs swollen, oneven. 10-20 
fm. Cp. 


Family Rissoide. 

347, Rissoina interfossa, n.s, With 5 sharp keels crossing 14 strong ribs. 8-10 fm. 

348. Ztissoa compacta, n.s. Sculptured like Beanii, with short broad whirls. 

349, Rissoa acutelirata, n.s. Alvanoid: 15 sharp, distant, spiral riblets, travelling 
over 18 sharp distant ribs, obsolete in front. 

350, Alvania reticulata, n.s. Open network: radiating threads travelling over 12 
stronger distant spiral threads. 

351. Alvania filosa, n.s. Turrited: pillar purple-stained: 18 close spiral strie, 
passing over very faint waved riblets. 

352, Fenella pupoidea, n.s. Variegated, truncatelloid shape. 20 fm. rare, Cp. 

353, Barleeia subtenws, n, s.=Hydrobia Pulve, Maz. Cat. no. 417; but with normal 
Barleeoid operculum, On grass, Cp. 

353 b. Barleeia Pyar. rimata, Whirls more swollen: base chinked. 

354, Barleeia haliotiphila, n.s, Longer, narrower, much smaller. On Z. splendens. 

855, Amphithalamus inclusus, n. g..n.8. Habit of minute Nematwra; labrum not 
contracted, but labium in adult travels forward to meet it, leaving a chamber 
behind. Nucleus cancellated : base bluntly ribbed. 


“1 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 65 


Nutt.) Jew. | B. A. ||Smiths. Ins. Ken. | Lord. Swan.! Cooper. 
356. ?Amphithalamus lacunatus| — | — | — — —|-—|— D 
307. Truncatella Californica ..| — | — | — — —;|—}|}— D 
308. Jetireysia Alderi........ —|}-—|;— D —|-—|— — 
359. translucens ........ —|}—|— —_ —}|—|— D 
360. Cithna albida .......... —}|—}— — —|—|— D 
36L. Diala marmorea ........ —}—|]— H —}—|—| MD 
362 DOULA ctv be ores —};—|— — —{|—|— MI 
363, Styliferina turrita ...... —}—}—|} — —}—|— D 
364, Radius variabilis.,...... — |?B| — — —|/—|— — 
365, Luponia spadicea ...... —|C;}co} ~ |—|—/|—} DI 
866. Trivia Californica ...... —!|B{C L —|—);— DI 
367, MIOMMGEE srsr 50's vate « };— |} — |] — L —|/—}|— I 
368. Erato vitellina.......... —| B,C — — | —5|i-— DI 
369 columbella ........ —|B|C L — | |). |. MDE 
370. Myurella simplex ...... —/| B|— — —|—|— D 
371. Drillia nermis.......... —;| Bi; C — —j}|—}]—] BDI 
372 BDGISD= 5), arava 0 stds» }—}—|— — P}—|V — 
373. —— moesta.........5.- —|B]— — —{|—|— D 
374, BOLORB cfs. a 2ye.0 10 a.aibis.s —|}—j|— M —|—|— M 
3746 Pvar. aurantia ,...| — | — | — D —|/;—-—|— D 
356. ? Amphithalamus lacunatus, n.s. Same nucleus; base chinked, not keeled. 


372. 
373. 


374. 


(Adult not found.) 
Family Truncatelliide. 
Lruncatella Californica, Pfr. Pneum. Viv. Suppl. vol. ii. p. 7, 
Family Jeffreysiade. 
Jeffreysia Alderi, Cpr. Maz. Cat. no. 420. 


. Jeffreysia translucens, u.s. Possibly a Barleeia: pillar thickened, base rounded. 


Cithna albida, n.s. Very close to C. twmens, Maz. Cat. no. 421, but umbilicus 
angled, not keeled. 
Family Planaxide. 


. Diala marmorea, n.s. Solid, glossy, clouded with red: base faintly angled. 
. Diala acuta, n.s. Base flattened, sharply angled: turrited. Bch.-10 fm. Cp. 
. Stylferina turrita, u.s, Minute, slender, base rounded. 


Family Ovulide. 
Radius variabilis, C. B. Ad. Maz. Cat. no. 435, Probably exotic. 


Family Cypreide. 


. Luponia spadicea, Gray. Like onyx, but light-coloured. 
. Trivia Californica, Gray. Small: ribs sharp, distant. 
. Trivia Solandri, Gray. Maz. Cat. no. 441. From Southern fauna. Sta. Barb. 


and St. Nich. Is. common, Cp. 


. Erato vitellina, Hds. Sulph. Large, wide-mouthed: paries callous. 
. Erato columbella, Mke.=leucophea, Gld. Maz. Cat. p. 5387, Perhaps a var. of 


Mauger, from the tropics. 20-40 fm. c. Cp. 
Suborder ToxrFERA. Family Terebride. 


. Myurella simplex, n.s, Sculpture very faint and variable: shape of albocincta, 


c. Cp. 
Family Pleurotomide. 


. Drillia inermis, Hds, Sulph. Early whirls close sculptured. Beach-16 fm. 


living. Cp. 

Drillia incisa, n.s. Like inermis: spiral sculpture grooved, not raised. 

Drillia mesta, n.s. Like large luctwosa: middle whirls with long transverse 
ribs and posterior knobs; adult obsolete. 

Drillia torosa, n. s. Whirls rounder, olivaceous : with one row of strong bosses 
throughout: no posterior knobs. 


aie ee Pyar. aurantia, Orange, with sutural riblet and faint spiral sculpture, 
. 2U 


658 REPORT—1863. 


\Smiths. Tan! Ken. | Lord.|Swan.} Cooper. 


i) 
® 
rc 
> 


. Drillia penicillata ...... 
cancellata.....s. 
. Mangelia levidensis 
; tabulate os. p<. eres 
Na TATOTIOSSD Tite b |< eee 
erebricostata ...... 
. —— variegata...,..0.5- 
Pvar. nitens ...... 
an 
} Bela hidiculas) or. 4. oss. 
excurvata .....0.. 


P 

. Conus Californicus...... 

. Obeliscus Pvariegatus.... 

. Odostomia nuciformis.,.. 
Pvar, avellana .. 


adHi 1 alll lili 44441 | 


<| < 


ee 


(RB jog eed et es oes ik eas sy gs ce a | 


Lol dt id deol ol ll we I dd 
| elt et bad edhe 
PILE EVEL Lael dd tl 


Beet eereesectvereoce © 


Beeeees ee ee eeeseees- 
LSJ ILI SELL II IRI II 


875. Drillia penicillata, n.s. Like inermis, with delicate brownish pencillings. 
876. Drillia* caneellata, ?n.s. Like the young of incisa, but nodosely cancellated. 
877. Mangelia levidensis, n.s. Stumpy, purplish brown, with rough sculpture. 
878, Mangelia tabulata, n. s. Stout, strongly shouldered, coarsely cancellated. Pillar 
: abnormally twisted. 
879, Mangelia interfossa, n.s. Like attenuata, delicately cancellated. 
880. Mangelia crebricostata, n.s. Like septangularis, with closely set ribs. 
381, Mangelia variegata, n.s. Small, slender, thin, zoned with brown: 9 narrow 
' ~ ribs, and strong spiral strize. 
381 6. Mangelia Pyar. nitens. Glossy: spiral lines almost obsolete. 
382. Mangelia angulata, u.s. Shape of variegata, but brown, whirls broad, angular. 
383. Bela fidicula, Gld. E.E. Very close to turricula, var. 8-10 fm. Lyall. 
384, Bela excurvata,u.s. Like Trevelliana: stumpy, Chrysalloid. 
385. ?Daphnellat aspera, u.s. Elongated, with coarse fenestration. 
386. PDaphnellat filosa, n.s. Small, diamond-shaped, but rounded periphery ; 
spirally threaded. 
387. PDaphnellat effusa, nom. prov. Thin, extremely drawn-out, sculpture faint. 


: Family Conide. 
388. Conus Californicus, Hds, Sulph.=ravus, Gld. Chestnut, plain. 
Suborder Proposciprrera. Family Pyramidellide. 


889, Obeliscus Pvariegatus, n.s. From Gulf fauna. Periphery with spiral groove. 
Colour-pattern clouded. 

390. Odostomia nuciformis, n.s, Very large, solid, Tornatelloid. 

390 6. Odostomia Pvar. avellana. Shape of conoidalis. 

391. Odostomia satura, n.s. Large, with swollen whirls like Bithinia similis. 

3916. Odostomia ?var. Gould. Taller, base gently rounded. % 

392, Odostomia gravida, Gld. Otia. Like conotdalis, but nucleus minute. 

393. Odostomia inflata, n.s. Like large dolioliformis: with most minute spiral 
striulation. Farallone Is, On Hal. rufescens, teste Darbishire, 


* A peculiar group of species, resembling Clionella (marine, teste Stempson.) 
+ Generic position of all these doubtful: perhaps they belong to genera not yet 
eliminated : fiosa resembling the Eocene forms between Conus and otoma. 


LT 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 659 
Nutt.| J ew. B. A. ||Smiths, Ins.) Ken. | Lord.|Swan.| Cooper. 

394. Odostomia straminea ....| — | — | — H SS Cc 

395. tenuisculpta ...... —}—4 = —|V — 
396, Chrysallida cincta ...... —|—)|;— — —|-—-|— i 

397. EM, baa eh } — fp — — —|—)|— DI 
398. Dunkeria laminata ...... | |} Be — — —|—|!— D 
399, Chemnitzia tridentata ..;— | Bj} — || — P|—j|— MD 
400. chocolate -0t oon ies = he —|—}|}— D 
4008. var. aurantia ...... }—}| Bj—} — Pi Sau — 
401. —— tenuicula.......... —|- BV BI = —|—}|— D 
4018. Pear. subcuspidata..} —}|— | — |) — —|—|— D 
402. erebrifilatas.....).<<.| —-}- Bob aie s —)|—}— — 
403. Horquatapes J), ts". | =~} Bee — P| Vj— — 
4036. Puar.stylina ...... —|B'— — |}—/—|—! M 
404, VIEMOVW PSS oss ates |/}—| B) — — =—|—|/— —_ 
405. Eulima micans ........ | — | —-} — — P| Sav DI 
406. compacta........65 —}—)|};— — —}—|— D 
407. O15 ceo ee }—|—) — — peje ye M 
408. ——thersites ........-. | —!|B\— — —|—}|— — 


394, Odostomia straminea, n.s. Like tall var. of inflata, with straw-coloured epi- 
dermis, not striulate. 

395. Odostomia tenwisculpta,n.s. Like sublirulata, Maz. Cat. no. 487, with obsolete 

sculpture throughout. 

396. Chrysallida cincta, n.s. Passing towards Mumiola.. Radiating sculpture very 
faint. 

397. Chrysallida pumila, n.s. Like ovulum, Maz. Cat. no. 512, but slender; spiral 
lines delicate. : 

398. Dunkeria laminata,n.s. Subgenus of Chemnitzia, with rounded whirls: typical 
species. Aspect of Fenella, finely cancellated. 

399. Chemnitzia tridentata, n.s. Large, chestnut: 19-24 ribs, evanescent at peri- 

hery : waved interspaces with 8-10 spiral grooves: labrum with 8 teeth, 
. hiddsa as in Obeliscus: base round. 

400. Chemunitzia chocolata, n.s. Same size and colour: not toothed: base prolonged : 
crowded ribs minutely striulate between. 

4006. Chemnitzia ?var. aurantia. Intermediate between the above: orange, base 
round ; 26 ribs, striulate between. : 

401. Chemnitzia tenuicula, Gld. Otia. Shape of tridentata dwarfed: whirls flatter, 
base prolonged, spiral grooving strong. : 

4016. Chemnitzia ?var. subcuspidata. Ribs more distant, muricated at sutures. _ 

402. Chemnitzia crebrifilata, n.s. Slender, whitish: with 8 spiral threads passing 
over 24 ribs, evanescent round base. 

403. Chemnitzia torquata, Gld. Otia= Vancouverensis, Gld. Ribs truncated before 
periphery, leaving plain band above sutures. 

403. Chemnitzia var. stylina. Like torquata, tapering, less swollen in front, with 
more ribs, band less marked. 

404, Chemnitzia virgo, u.s. Very slender, with short, smooth base: 18 ribs, evanes- 
cent at periphery, and 8 spiral grooves. 


Family Eulimide. 


405. Eulima micans,?n.s. Perhaps a small var. of the European polita. 30-40 fm. 
living. Cp. 
406. Eulima compacta, ?n.s. Small, with blunt spire and elongated base, 
407. Eulima rutila, ?u.s. Leiostracoid, rosy, base lengthened. Like producta, 
Maz. Cat, no, 551. 
408. Eulima thersites, u.s. Very broad, short, twisted. ines 
U 


660 REPORT—1863. 

Nutt.| Jew. | B. A. |Smiths. Ins.| Ken. | Lord./Swan.| Cooper. | 
409. Scalaria Indianorum ....) — | — | — — —|—|V — 
4096. Povar. tincta .....00s —};—|— L —}|—|— D / 
410, —— ?Cumingii ........ —|—|— — —|—|— D 
4106. Peracilis ........4. —|}—|— D —);-—|— — 
411. subcoronata ...... — — _— —|—|/|— M 
412. —— crebricostata ...... —|—}|— — | 9) IO | 
413 bellastriata........ —|—|— —— —|}|—|— M 
414, Opalia borealis ........ —|—|P — —|;—|V _ 
415 Pvar. insculpta ....| — |Bfs.| — — —|-—-)|— — 
416 spongiosa ........ —|/—;—-—} — —|;—|— M 
417 retiporosa ........ — —|| — —|;—|— I 
418 bullatas io. bce — | B |} — | = 
419. Cerithiopsis tuberculata..) — | B | — — —j|—!/V;} MD 
420, COlUMING Se sek owe —|}—|— — —j|—|V M 
AD1, ——"munita ee.eiees —}|—|— _ —|—|V — 
422. —— purpurea .......... —|B{|— — —|—]}—]| MD 
423, HOLULOBs eaters aie —|B{— — =| She — 
424. assimilata. ........ —|—)|— — —}|—|— I 
425, Triforis Padversa........ —|— — —j|—|V I 
426, Cancellaria modesta ....) —|—}— | — —|—)|V — 


Family Sealariade. 


409, Scalaria Indianorum, ?n.8. Between Turtonis and communis: like “ Geor- 


gettina, Kien. Mus. Cum. no. 34, Brazil.” 


409), Scalaria Pyar, tincta. Purple-brown behind: like regularis, without spiral 


sculpture. 


410. Scalaria ? Cumingit, Cpr. P. Z.S. 1856, p. 165. 
410b.Scalaria gracilis, Sby. in Mus. Cum. 
411. 


412, 


413. 
414, 
415. 
416. 


Al7. 
418. 


419. 


420. 
421. 
422. 


423. 
424. 


425. 


426, 


Scalaria subcoronata, n.s. Like young communis, with more and sharper ribs, 
faintly coronated when adolescent. 

Scalaria crebricostata, n.s.=Mus. Cum. no, 32: 15 sharp reflexed ribs, coro- 
nated against the sutures, 

Scalaria bellastriata, n.s. Shape like pretiosa, jun.: ribs very close, spinous 
at shoulder, crossed by spiral riblets. 

Opalia borealis, Gld. E. E. Very close to australis: obsolete forms like Ocho- 
tensis, Midd. 

Opalia (?erenatoides, var.) insculpta, Like the C.S. L. form and crenata, but 
ribs closer, without spiral sculpture, sutural holes behind the basal rib. 

Opaha spongiosa, n.s. Like small, very slender granulata: surface riddled 
with deep punctures in spiral rows. 

Opaha retiporosa, n.8. Sculpture in network, with deep holes. 40 fm. d. xr. Cp. 

Opalia bullata, n. s. Shape of Rissoina: with sutural bosses; no basal rib. 


Family Cerithiopside. 
Cerithiopsis tuberculata, Mont. Fbs. & Hanl. Agrees with the British rather 
than with the Mazatlan form, Cat. no. 557. 
Cerithiopsis columna,n.s, Very tall: nodules close, like strung figs. 
Cerithiopsis munita, n.s. Stout: strongly sculptured: base evenly ribbed. 
phen oe purpurea, 0.8. Stained with purple: nodules fine: base finely 
irate. 
Cerithiopsis fortior, n.s. Sculpture open: strong basal rib. 
Cerithiopsis assimilata, C, B. Ad, Maz. Cat. no. 563, With spiral keels. From 
Southern fauna. 
Triforis ?adversa, Mont, Fbs, & Hanl. Agrees with British specimens. 10- 
40 fm. vy. 1. Cp. 
Family Cancellariade. 
Cancellaria modesta, n.s. Like Trichotropis borealis, with two slanting plaits 
and spiral ribs travelling up the paries. See also p. 615, nos. 463, 817. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA, 661 


| Nutt.| Jew. | B. A. |/Smiths. Ins. Ken. |Lord. Swan. Cooper. 
427. Trichotropis cancellata ... — | — | P —_ Disiee) Malt 24 
428, SHCIDMS, =e). atleaes —}|—;—} — —|—|V — 
429. Velutina levigata ......) — | — | — — Be jglsn|.¥- — 
430. prolongata ........ —|—|=— = Se SY — 
431. Natica clausa .......... —|—}|P — P|}—|V = 
432. Lunatia Lewisii ........ }—| Cj} P I 2 P}—!|V D 
433 allida s Aas Adter —|—|P — PileaiVe Wei Vi — 
434. Neverita Recluziana ....) — | — | — Ds eaifeSs) 22 D 
435. Priene Oregonensis...... —|—j|P} VP P| Viv M 
436. Ranella Californica...... }—)/—}— L —|—/—| BD 
437, Mitra maura ........ 5 | Oh ah I —|}—)|— DI 
438. Marginella Jewettii .—| B)— _— —|—|/— MI 
439. —— subtrigona ........ |}—|B|— = —}—/ = — 
440, POC UMATIS es ye. satel |} —| B|— == —|—}—| MDI 
441, Volutella pyriformis ....| — | — | — F —|—)|)— D 
449, Volvarina varia ........ —| Bi] — — |—|—}|— DI 
443, Olivella biplicata........ | CU Core D |}—!|—j;| V} MDI 
444 DeSweH A Te... wee | — B | OG} |. MEY. \yiBodcsibo 


427. 
428, 


429, 


Trichotropis cancellata, Hds. Sulph. Sculpture strong, open. Epidermis bristly. 
Trichotropis inermis, Hds. Sulph. Sculpture faint: not bristly. 


Family Velutinde. 
Velutina levigata, Linn. Fbs. & Hanl. Exactly accords with British speci-< 
mens. ?=Kamtschatkana, Desh. 


. Velutina prolongata, n.s. Spire very small. Labrum produced in front. 


Family Naticide. 


. Natica clausa, Brod. & Sby. Umbilicus closed. Opere. shelly. Cireumboreal. 
. Lunatia Lewisti, Gld. E. E.=herculea, Midd. , Whils flattened behind. Abun- 


dant on beach, Cp. 


. Lunatia pallida, Br. & Sby.=caurina+soluta, Gld. Globular, compact, whitish. 


Boreal. 


. Neverita Recluziana, Petit, Rve. Large, solid, raised, with brown grooved 


lump on pillar. Also Guaymas. 
, Family Tritonide. 


. Priene Oregonensis, Redf. Like cancellata, but coarser sculpture. 6 fm. Lyal/. 
. Ranella Californica, Hds. Sulph. Scarcely differs from fine specimens of 2. 


ventricosa, in Mus. Cum. 
Family Fasciolaride. 
Mitra maura, Swains. Nutt. = orientalis, Gray =‘ Chilensis, Gray,’ Kien. Veiy 
dark and plain. Peru. Sand between rocks, l.w. Cum. Peru. 


Family Marginellide. 


. Marginella Jewettii, Cpr. P. Z. 8. 1856, p. 207. Like the Mogador species, 


somewhat shorter and broader. 10-20 fm. Cp. 


. Marginella subtrigona, n.s. Shape of Erato columbella. 
. Marginella regularis, n.s. Between Jewettii and minor, C. B, Ad. Maz. Cat. 


no. 587. Beach—20 fm. Cp. 
Volutella pyriformis, n.s. Genus of Swainson (not D’Orb.) = Closia, Gray. 
Like V. margaritula, Maz. Cat. no. 589, but produced in front. 


. Volvarina varia, Sby. C.8. Lucas, W. Indies. 


Family Olivide. 
Okivella biplicata, Shy. Tank. =glandinaria, Nutt. Nut-shaped. 
Olivella betica, n.s. Narrow, dull, thin: has been erroneously called anazora, 
tergina, petiolita, and rufifasciata. 


662 REPORT—1863. 


Nutt Smiths. Ins.} Ken, | Lord.|Swan.| Cooper. 
445, Nassa fossata .......44. —|—|PC — P|)/—|V D 
446, erpinguis ........ —|B;C] @P)L|—|—}|—]| BDI 
447, insculpta......00.. —-|—{— 1 oo =| = |= ik 
448, mendica .......+.. —}|}C|P POF | | .-PidoiVaieie|. MED 
449, —— Cooperi .......... —|—|? — —|-—|— DI 
450, —— tegula ............ —j|—|LC L —-|;-—/|— D 
451, Amycla gausapata ...... —|B;P VD P| oViiteiV: M 
452, —— ?Californiana...... —|B|C -- —|;-—|— — 
453, tuberosa Ws... 04... — |Bfs| — _ — fj mde Viel 
454, P-—— i eve kas —{|—|— — —|j;-—|— D 
455, P UNdSta --s. 2. ke. —;—};— — —|-—-|-— I 
456, ? Truncaria corrugata..../ — | — | O || VPFMI| P | —| V DI 
457. Columbella carinata ....| — | B | C —_ — | — | — |. MDI 
4576. Pyar. Hindsii...... —| B/D — —j|—|V; MD 
458, Purpura crispata........ Cot Bo Cal VEOR sR H igi! al tvi F 
459, ——canaliculata ...... —|}—|—-— VF |—! Viv — 
460. —— saxicola .......... —| OC} Cy VEE Rel AV avi FI 
4606. var. fuscata ...... —|—|? — —|—|V — 
460c. var, emarginata Lope Pei by lle! D —|;—|— D 
460d. var. ostrina ...... —|F/C POG. NB Ve Vi FD 

Family Buccinde. 


445, Nassa fossata, Gld. E. E.= elegans, Rve.non Desh. Large, broad, flattened spire. 
446. Nassa perpinguis, Hds. Sulph. Same type, smaller, rounder, narrower. ‘ 
447. Nassa insculpta, n.s. Zeuxis, with varix and non-reflexed callus. Spirally 
grooved. 40fm. living, r. Cp. = 
448. Nassa mendica, Gld. E. E.+ Gibbesii, Coop.= Woodwardii, Fbs. Very variable : 
some forms approach ¢rivittata. 
449, Nassa Cooperi, Fbs, P. Z.S. 1850, p. 273. Like mendica, with 7 distant ribs, 
~~ -and fine spiral sculpture. i 
450, Nassa tegula, Rve.. Maz. Cat. no. 624, From Southern fauna. 
451. Amycla gausapata, Gld.E. E. (Genus rearranged for Columbellids with Nas- 
: sold opercula, probably including Alia and Astyris.) Strong, solid, varie- 
gated, smooth. ° 
452. Amycla ? Californiana, Gask. P.Z.S. 1851, p. 12. Whirls more swollen. 
453. Amycla tuberosa, n.s. Very close to minor, Scacchi, but with different nu- 
cleus. 8-lOfm. c. Cp, -. 
454. P_Amycla. chrysalloidea, nis. Shape of Truncaria eurytoides, but mouth not 
"~~ effuse: spirally furrowed. Shoal-water, Cp. | ; 
455. ? Amycla undata,n.s. Like stumpy, small corrugatd, with waved sculpture. 
40 fm. not r. Cp. 
456, ? Truncaria corrugata, Rye. Conch. Ie. (“ Buccinum :” “ Pisania,” Add. May. 
E an Amycla.) Large, with waved ribs and spiral strie. Dwarfed at 40 


- Cp. 
457. “Columbella” carinata, Hds. Sulph. Small, turrited, smooth, with stout pos- 
terior keel. (Perhaps Amycla.) Beach, Cp. 
4576. Columbella var. Hindsii, Rve. Keel shorter, till it ceases, as in gausapata. 


Family Purpuride. 

458. Purpura crispata, Chem.=plicata, Mart.=/lactuca, Esch.=septentrionalis, Rve. 
+&c. Large, strong, canal distinct, smooth or foliated. 

459, Purpura canaliculata, Ducl.=decemcostata, Midd.+-attenuata, Rve.+-analoga, 
Fbs. With elegant spiral grooves. Chrysodomoid. ; 

460. Purpura saxicola, Val.=lapillus, Coop. Like the Atlantic species, rough, pillar 
scooped, with brown spiral lines. 

4606. Purpura var. fuscata, Fbs. Raised thin form, dull, with faint sculpture. 

460¢. Purpura var. emarginata, Desh. Short, swollen, with scaly sculpture. 

460d. Purpura var. ostrina, Gld. E. E. Short, swollen, nearly smooth. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 663 


Nutt.| Jew. | B. A. ||Smiths. Ins.| Ken. | Lord.|Swan.| Cooper. 
Be oe: See Sapa 

461. Monoceros-engonatum ..| B | —| C D —/|—|/— DI 
4616. Poar. spiratum ... i =.=) = _ —|—|— I 
462. lapilloides.....4.... Bij —j| C D |—|—|— I 
463, Ocinebra lurida and vars. | — |B fs.| — FI. | —} V| V |Mjuo.I 

—— interfossa.......+-- —|—|— MI BeliMeiivd W jun, 
465, ? PonlsOnLa tees | C |? B| — L pce ee ees a 
466. Cerostoma foliatum ..|—|—]| O ||PODIfs) P| V{ V — 
467. INE RALINT 5,5 o1e faye Balbo -- —|—|— DI 
468. monoceros ......-- —|—|C L —|—|— ?D 
469. Chorus Belcheri ........ —j,;—|D I —|—|— D 
470, Nitidella Gouldii........ —| B]|— M P|}—|vV| MD 
471, Pedicularia Californica ... —|—|—]} @ |—/—j]— — 
472, Pteronotus festivus,..... —|C|L D —|—|— D 
473. Muricidea Californica....| — | — | LC — —|—|—)] MBDI 
474, Trophon multicostatus ..) — | — | — — Ea? NOON — 
475. MCIESTIR es <4 s'h 0s —j|—/|P — P| Vji— = 
476. triangulatus ...... a) = —|—|— E 
477, Siphonalia Kellettii ....) — | —| ? D —|—|—]| BD 
478, —— fuscotincta ........ —| B|— — —|—|— — 
479, Chrysodomus tabulatus ..| — |B fs.| — — /PPjni V| V PT 
480, —— liratus............ —|—|A vi —|—|— — 


461. Monoceros engonatum, Conr.=unicarinatum, Sby. Brown-dotted, with sharp 
osterior keel, smoothish. Beach, Cp. 

461. Monoceros ?yar. spiratum (Blainv.). Light colour; scaly; horn not developed. 

462. Monoceros lapilloides, Conr.= punctatum, Gray +-brevidens, Conr. Not should- 
ered: shape of lapillus. 

463. Ocinebra lurida, Midd. (Genus reconstituted for Muricoid Purpurids with 
irregular varices.) Like canaliculata, brown, with swelling ribs. Beach on 
Cat. Is. living. Cp. 

463b.Ocinebra var. aspera, Baird. Sculpture rough. 

463. Ocinebra var. munda. Tall, with faint sculpture. 

464, Ocinebra interfossa, n.s. Purple-brown, with latticed sculpture. 

465. ? Ocinebra Poulsoni, Nutt. Shape like M. monoceros, with brown spiral lines: 

466. Cerostoma foliatum, Gmel.=monodon, Esch. Large, with winged varices. 

467. Cerostoma Nuttallii, Conr. Smaller, pear-shaped: interstices scarcely sculptured, 

468. Cerostoma monoceros, Sby. Spire raised : whirls rough, rounded. 

469. Chorus Belcheri, Hds. Sulph. Very large, with irregular varices like Trophon. 
L. w. com. Op. 

470. Nitidella Gouldii, Cpr. P. Z. 8, 1856, p. 208, Slender: like thin A. gausapata, 
with Purpuroid operc. 

471. Pedicularia Californica, Newe. Small, purple, highly sculptured. 


Family Muricide. 


472. Pteronotus festivus, Hds. Sulph. Form irregular; frills reflexed. : 

473. Muricidea Californica, Hds. Sulph. Varices faintly developed. L.w.-20fm. Cp. 

474, Trophon multicostatus, Esch.= Giunneri, Loy. Rye. Frills spiny behind: not 
sculptured spirally. Crop 

475. Trophon Orpheus, Gld. E. E. Like the last, with distant spiral riblets. 

476. Trophon triangulatus,n.s. Typhoid shape: frills triangular, white, 60 fm. Cp, 

477. Siphonalia Kellettii, Fbs. P.Z.S. 1850, p. 274. Very large, turrited, with 
swollen whirls. Also Japan. 1 living 63 in. long. 

478. Siphonalia fuscotincta, n.s. Like the same in extreme miniature. 

479, Chrysodomus tabulatus, Baird, P. Z.S. 1863, p. 66. Large, with posterior keel, 
and delicate sculpture. 120 fm. dead, Cat. Is. Cp. 

480, Chrysodomus liratus, Mart, = decemcostatus, Midd. (? Say) = Middendorffix, Coop; 
Swollen, with distant keels. "Whidby’s Is. : 


664 REPORT—1863. 


Nutt.| Jew. | B.A. | Smiths. Ins. Ken. | Lord./Swan.| Cooper. 
481. Chrysodomus CHTUS <2 2 s's > —{—|P VI PIiVIv a 
482 rectirostris ........ —|—|— 2n¥ Pees al! 
483. Fusus ambustus ........ — |Bfs.| C EME . |.—S9pSbnie|-Bpr 
484, Macron Kellettii........ ary ay Ti; Sell yee eT 
485, Tiyidan! } Sard ie sees) —]—}— Ty. . 4. 29S D 
486. Anachis subturrita ...... —|}—|— — ites ee D 
487. ? penicillata........ —|B/— — oe} REL rhein DI 
488. Argonauta Argo ........ —|—|— — ane |) Hey) ae I 
489, Octopus punctatus ...... —|—j}—| (FL). |/?P| —/?v I 
490, Ommastrephes giganteus .| — | — | — = tes) ahah eat I 
491, —— Ayresli .......... —/}/—;-] — Lb aby isa I 
492. Onychoteuthis fusiformis .| — | — | — ?M P Putra I 
481. Chrysodomus dirus, Rve.=incisus, Gld. = Sitchensis, Midd. Dark liver, with 


spiral grooves. 

482. Chrysodomus rectirostris, n.s. Small, white, smooth, with straight canal. 

483. Fusus ambustus, Gld. Otia. Close to clavata, Brocchi, from Mediterranean. 
Farallone Is. teste Darbishire ; 16 fm. c. Cp. 

484. Macron Kellettii, A. Ad, P. Z.S. 1853, p- 185, Mean with blunt keels, Dead, 
60 fm. Cat. Is. Cp. 

485. Macron lividus, A. jv Small, smooth. 

486. Anachis subturrita, n. 8. Aspect of small Rissoina, 20 faint ribs: no spiral 
sculpture. 

487. P Anachis penicillata, n. 8. Small, with Metuloid sculpture. Beach-10 fm. Cp. 


Class CEPHALOPODA. ~— Family Argonautide. 
488, Argonauta Argo, Linn. auct. Like the Mediterranean form. Hundreds on Sta 


Cruz Is. Cp. 
Family Octopide. 


489, Octopus punctatus, Gabb, Proc. Cal. Ac. 1862, p. 170. S, Clemente Is. Cp. 


Family Loligide. 
490. Ommastrephes giganteus, D’Orb. Peru. Common at 8. Clemente Is. Cp. 
491. Ommastrephes Ayresii, Gabb, Proc. Cal.Ac. Hundreds on S. Clemente i Cp. 
492. Onychoteuthis gusfor mts, Gabb, Proc. Cal. Ac. 1862, p. 171. “Cape Horn, 
Mus. Ac.” lemente Is. C; "Dp. 


113. It remains to tabulate the shells which have been received from 
special localities, south of the State of California, either by the writer or by 
the Smithsonian Institution; wide Br. Assoc. Rep., par. 77. 

The promontory of Lower California has been so little explored, that the 
existence of a large inland fiord, in lat. 28°, was not known to the autho- 
rities. It appears that the whales have long delighted in its quiet waters; 
and those whalers who were in the secret carefully preserved the exclusive 
knowledge of so profitable a hunting-ground. All that we know at present 
of the molluscs of that region is from collections made at Cerros Island, by 
Dr. Ayres and Dr. Veitsch. They are mostly shore shells, and are sadly 
intermixed with an abundance of cowries, cones, strombs, and other clearly 
Pacific species, which throw great doubt upon those which may be truly 
from the coast. As it is manifestly a “hotbed of spurious species,” nothing 
can safely be built upon the data, which present a singular intermixture of 
northern and southern forms. Excluding the Central Pacific importations, 
the lists stand as follows, the temperate species being distinguished (as in the 
first Report) by a *, the tropical by a t:— 


(or) 
lop) 
Or 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 


*Sanguinolaria Nuttall. *Trochiscus Norrisii. 
*Macoma secta. *Omphalius ?fuscescens. 
Angulus Gouldii. *Omphalius aureotinctus. 
*tHeterodonax bimaculatus. +Crucibulum imbricatum. 
*Donax Californicus. *+Crucibulum spinosum. 
tDonax punctatostriatus. +Crepidula arenata and var. 
*Standella ?Californica. +Cerithium uncinatum. 
*Pachydesma crassatelloides, *Cerithidea pullata. 
*tAmiantis callosa. +Cerithidea Montagnei. 
*Chione simillima. *Litorina planaxis. 
. tChione neglecta. Luponia sp. ind., jun. 
*Tapes staminea, Conr. +Trivia Solandri. 
+Tapes grata and vars. *Trivia Californica. 
*Lucina Californica. Drillia penicillata. 
Lucina bella. Myurella, sp. 
*Mytilus edulis. (One young specimen, | *tNeverita Recluziana. 
perhaps from San Francisco.) +Natica Maroccana. 
*Septifer bifureatus. *Scalaria (Ind. var.) tincta. 
tPecten subnodosus, ventricosus. +Bezoardica abbreviata. 
*Pecten monotimeris and vars. +Leucozonia cingulata, 
*Hinnites giganteus. tStrigatella tristis. 
*t+Ostrea conchaphila. *Olivella biplicata. 
*+Anomia ?lampe. *Purpura ostrina, vars. 
Siphonaria sequilirata. +Purpura biserialis. 
*+Melampus olivaceus, Monoceros lugubre. 
Helix arrosa. +Vitularia salebrosa. 
*+Bulla nebulosa. Cerostoma monoceros. 
*tIschnochiton Magdalensis. Ocinebra Poulsoni. 
*Acmea persona, var. textilis. Chorus Belcheri. 
*Acmea scabra, var. limatula. +Columbella fuseata. 
*Acmea Pspectrum, jun. *Columbella carinata. 
*Lottia gigantea. +Strombina gibberula, 
*Lucapina crenulata. | tAnachis coronata. 
*Fissurella volcano. | *tNassa tegula. 
*Haliotis splendens. +Nassa complanata. 
*Haliotis Cracherodii. Macron Kellettii, 
*Pomaulax undosus. *Macron lividus. 
Callopoma tessellatum = Fokkesii. 


The shells of Margarita Bay, on the Pacific coast of Lower California, in 
lat. 24°, have become known through W. Harper Pease, Esq., of Honolulu, 
Sandwich Islands. Through his labours we are likely soon to be favoured 
with accurate accounts of the distribution of species in the various parts of 
the Pacific Ocean. Already his researches have greatly enriched our know- 
ledge of the quaint fauna of the Sandwich Islands, from which he has elimi- 
nated the spurious species, and added those erroneously ascribed to California 
by previous naturalists. The principal trade from these islands is with San 
Francisco; and “the coast,’ in Mr. Pease’s writings, signifies the coast of 
California or (generally) of Western America. Many of our best specimens 
of rare West-coast shells have been received from: him, and in remarkably 
fresh preservation. The Margarita Bay species were obtained by one of his 
trained collectors, and are as follows :— 


Martesia intercalata. Donax punctatostriatus. 

Saxicava pholadis Dosinia ponderosa. 

Solecurtus yviolascens. Callista chionza, 

Hiatula compacta. Callista vulnerata (?=tricolor, Pse.). 
*Tellina secta. Chione succincta 

Strigilla carnaria (pink). Chione gnidia, 


Semele Californica. Tapes grata. 


666 


*Tapes staminea. 
Chama frondosa. 
Cardium procerum. 
Liocardium, elatum, 
Modiola capax. 
Modiola Brasiliensis. 
Lithophagus attenuatus. 
Barbatia gradata. 
Pecten ventricosus. 
Ostrea Virginica (Maz. Cat.). 
*Ostrea lurida, var. 
Ostrea conchaphila. 
Ostrea amara. 
Siphonaria zequilirata (=leviuscula, 
Sby., teste Cuming). 
Siphonaria gigas. 
*Helix areolata, F'bs. (The only land- 
shell received from the Bay.). 
Dentalium tetragonum, Sby. 
Dentalium semipolitum. 
Dentalium lacteum, Phil. 
Acmea strigatella, 
Acmea atrata, 
Gadinia reticulata. 
Calliostoma versicolor. 
*Chlorostoma gallina. 
*Chlorostoma aureotinctum. 
Nerita scabricosta. 
Nerita Bernhardi. 
Crucibulum spinosum. 
Crucibulum imbricatum. 


REPORT—1863. 


Crepidula onyx. 

Crepidula excavata. 

Galerus conicus. 

Cerithium stercus muscarum, 

Pyrazus incisus and var. 

Rhinoclavis gemmata. 

Cerithidea Mazatlanica. 

Litorina. fasciata. 

Litorina aspera, var. 

Conus “ reticulatus ’’ (Pease). Dead. 

Conus “ emarginatus” (Pease). Dead. 

Conus interruptus. 

Neverita Recluziana. 

Polinices bifasciata. 

Cancellaria urceolata. 

Cancellaria goniostoma. 

“ Cypreecassis testiculus ” 

tenuis |. 

Malea ringens. 

Priene nodosa. 

Oliva subangulata. 

Oliva porphyria.. 

Purpura patula. 

Purpura biserialis. 
*Purpura ostrina. [Normal, living. ] 

Vitularia salebrosa. 

Monoceros lugubre, var. 

Cerostoma monoceros. 

Nassa tegula. 

Siphonalia anomala. 

Phyllonotus nigritus. 


[perhaps 


In the above list, the only strictly Californian species are those marked 


with a *. 


The following species have been received from La Paz, besides those tabu- 
lated in Major Rich’s list, p. 541, in the C.S. L. list, p. 619, and the B. A. 


Rep. p. 352. 


It is clear that the fauna of the district is essentially tropical, 


and remarkably free from Californian species. 


Dentalium semipolitum. 
Turrttella punctata. 
Modulus cerodes, 


Olivella fulgida, Lieut. Trowbridge [teste W. Cooper; but probably added by 


him accidentally from his W. African collections, 
from any other West-coast source ]. 
Siphonalia modificata. Dead. 


A very interesting series of shells were collected at Guaymas and Pinacati 
Bay, by Capt. Stone and Mr. Sloat. The latter gentleman affixed MS. names 
to those which he regarded as new. They were in remarkably beautiful 
condition, the bivalves having an unusually porcellanous aspect, and many 
of the species presenting local peculiarities. 


Mulinia carinulata, Desh.,= Mactra modesta, Sloat MS. 

Dosinia ponderosa, Very large. | 

Chione fluctifraga, Sby.,= V. Cortez’, Sloat MS. [ =gibbosula (Desh.), Rve.,= 
callosa, Shy., non Conr. |. 

Chione succincta, Val.,= Californiensis, Brod.,= V. crassa, Sloat MS, [Very 
variable in sculpture ; also, with the last, varies greatly in shape, some of the 
specimens being much produced, others rounded. ] . 

Chione gnidia, Brod. , Passing into amathusia. 


It has not been received 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 667 


Chione pulicaria, Shy., var.,= V. Pinacatensis, Sloat MS. Sculpture pressed 
smooth in the middle. 

Cardium elatum. Fine. 

Cardium procerum. Fine. 

Modiola capax. “Choros.” Also Sta. Inez Bay. 

Modiola Brasiliensis. (Typical.) 

Byssoarca Pacifica. 

Ostrea conchaphila et amara, Maz. Cat. 215. 

Chiton (Lophyrus) Stokesit. Also San Salvador, Capt. Dow. 

Callopoma fluctuatum. 

Bivonia contorta. 

Turritella goniostoma. 

Turritella tigrina (light var.),=leucostoma, Val. 

Cerithidea albonodosa. Common. {Probably a var. of Mazatlanica. | 

Strombus gracilior. Also Mulege Bay. 

Neverita Recluziana. (Operc. strong, horny. | 

Ranella triquetra. {Operc. sub-Buccinoid, oval ; nucleus internal, near middle 
of labrum ; scar with few ridges, as in Purpura. | 

Oliva angulata. Not rare. 

Oliva Cumingti, very callous var. 

Agaroma testacea. 

Monoceros lugubre. Very tall var. 

Phyllonotus nigritus. Very large, of form described by Philippi, with Pholads 
m situ. Agiobampo Bay. 

Phyllonotus bicolor. (Operc. thin, without frills or raised layers ; of uniform 
colour.] Also Angeles Bay. 


To these may be added, from a second voyage by Capt. Stone to the 
northern part of the Gulf of California, and in equally good condition— 


Arca grandis. Agiobampo Bay. 

Callista semilamellosa. Agiobampo Bay. 

Lazaria pectunculus (teste Cuming). St. Luis Bay. 
Cardium consors. St. Luis Bay. 

Avicula Peruana. Mulege Bay. 

Incina tigerrina. Very fine. San Marcos Island. 
Margaritiphora fimbriata. * Topo.” 

Janira dentata | =excavata, Val.|. ‘“ Caballito del mar,” St. Luis Bay. 
Bulla nebulosa. ‘ Huevitos.” 
Glyphis inequalis. St. Luis Bay. 

Crucibulum imbricatum. St. Luis Bay. 

Cyprea exanthema. (Large.) Cape de Haro. 

Myurella variegata. Mulege Bay. 

Solarium granulatum et var. quadriceps. Agiobampo Bay. 
Polinices bifasciata. Angeles Bay. 

Cyprecassis tenwis [= Marsene, Kien.]. Carmen Island. 
Harpa crenata. Very fine. Mulege Bay. 

Bezoardica abbreviata. Mulege Bay. 

Ficula decussata. Angeles Bay. 

Pyrula patula. Agiobampo Bay. 

Malea ringens. Lobos Island. 

Argonauta hians. 1 fine sp. Upper part of Gulf of California. 


To the Guaymas fauna must be added, from Dr. Gould’s portion of the 
same collection, ‘‘ Pecten pyaidatus” [?=subcrenatus, jun.). Also from the 
collection of the Calif. Ac. Nat. Sc., Wassa nodocincta, A. ‘Ad. [Galapagos; 
Cuming]. On comparing these lists with the shells given in B. A. Rep. 
p- 352 (in which the Venus quoted is not “ stamnea, Conr.,” but a southern 
species), it will be seen that the fauna of the upper part of the Gulf, as far 
north as it has been explored, is essentially tropical. The Chione fluctifraga 


668 REPORT—1863. 

and C. succincta, however, and the Polinices Recluziana indicate a connexion 
with California which may have been, at a previous age, more direct than at 

resent. 

: 114. (See first Report, pars. 79-83.) Acapulco being notorious for the 
exotic species quoted in its fauna, it is desirable to examine all authentic 
collections from that prolific locality. The Smithsonian series were ob- 
tained by Dr. Newberry * (NV.), after his Pacific R. R. Explorations (vide 
p- 593); by Mr. Belcher (B.); and by the Rev. J. Rowell (#.), who obtained 
them principally from the valves of the large oysters. The private collec- 
tions of Judge Cooper, Col. Jewett (J.), and other American naturalists have 
also afforded valuable information. The species from these various sources, 
which were also found by Mr. Xantus, are tabulated with his Cape St. Lucas 
series, anted, pp. 619-626, The following have not been obtained from the 


northern localities :— 


Corbula nuciformis, J. 

Corbula ovulata, and smooth var., B., J. 

Macheera patula, var., V. (Surely im- 
ported. ] 

Sanguinolaria miniata, J., V., B. 

Tellina princeps, B.; punicea, V., B.; 
opercularis, JV. 

Strigilla carnaria, pale and crimson vars., 


cael f 

Semele proxima, J.; pulchra, J, .; 
venusta, J. 

Donax carinatus, J., V.; rostratus, J. ; 
transversus, JV. 

Trigona Hindsii, J. 

Mactrellacarinata, Zam.,=alata, Spengl., 
WV. [Perhaps imported. ] 

Dosinia Anne, NV, 

Callista circinata, J.; semilamellosa, W., 
B.; spinosissima, B. 

Chione amathusia, NV. 

Rupellaria foliacea, 2. 

Petricola ventricosa, R. 

Chama corrugata, R. 

Cardium ?aculeatum, jun., NW. [proba- 
bly from ballast]; graniferum, JV. 
Lucina Ppectinata, var., J. {More like 

imbricatula, W. I.; perhapsJamaican. | 
Diplodonta semiaspera, 7. 
Foie tellinoides, var., J. {More like 
subglobosa, W. I. ; perhaps Jamaican. | 
Corbicula ?convexa, 1 worn valve, J. 
Scapharca bifrons, NV. ; labiata, B. 
Noétia reversa, J., B. 
Argina brevifrons, N, 
Axinea parcipicta [=multicostata], 
J., N.; pectenoides, J. ; inaequalis, J. 
Lima angulata, J. 
Ostrea megodon [P.Z.S. 1845,p.106], 1. 
Anomia lampe, J. 


Tornatina infrequens, B. 

Dentalium Phexagonum, var., B. 

Fissurella nigropunctata, J.; ?macro- 
trema, J.; alba, jun., B. (1 worn sp.) 

Calliostoma lima, var. zequisculpta, NV. ; 
Leanum, J. 

Senectus squamigerus, J. 

Galerus conicus, V.; mamillaris, ¥. 

Crepidula nivea, #.; incurva, 1. 

Turritella Banksii, V.; leucostoma, B. 

Ampullaria Columbiensis, 2. | West 
Mexico ; locality uncertain. ] 

Truncatella Bairdiana, B, 

Radius avena, J. 

Cypreea exanthema, NV, 

Luponia fimbriolata, Beck, N. [Pro- 
bably imported, and perhaps an im- 
perfectly developed form of semzpo- 
lta, Migh. } 

Terebra tuberculosa, NV. 

Drillia incrassata, B.; eburnea, n. s., 
R. [W.Mexico; locality uncertain. | 

Mangelia subdiaphana, J. 

Conus interruptus, Br. § Sby., B.; ma- 
hogani, N.; puncticulatus, J. 

Eulima hastata, R. 

Eulima, like yod, R. 

Eulimella, sp. (worn), B. 

Chemunitzia tenuilirata, B. 

Fasciolaria, sp. [size of tedipa, but with 
row of knobs and serrated lip], 1. 

Latirus castaneus, V. 

Volvarina ?fusca, J. [More regularly 
cylindrical than the W. I. specimens, 
broader in proportion near suture 
and at base, spire much shorter; but 
locality uncertain. 

Oliva Julietta, B. 1 worn gp. [proba- 
bly imported]; Pkaleontina, dead, 1. 


* The collections of Dr. Newberry passed principally into the hands of Dr. E. Fore- 


man, late of Washington, who kindly presented a series to the Mus. Smiths. 


After the 


secession-movement, he went into the Confederate States, where it was not possible to 


obtain further information from him. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 669 


Agaronia testacea, WV. Nassa collaria, V. ; ambigua, Mont., teste 
Rhizocheilus madreporarum. 2 living Hanl., N. [Probably imported from 
sp. on coral, J. W.L.} 


Columbella uncinata,/J. ; humerosa,n.s., | Anachis coronata, V.; Californica, J. 
R.; varians, var., V. [PImported from | Muricidea alveata, J. 
Sandw. Is. } Phyllonotus brassica, NV. 


The following species are part of a collection received at the Smithsonian 
Inst. from Real Llejos, and fill up gaps which existed in the Central Ameri- 
can fauna at the time of the first Report :— 


Discina Cumingii. Ceecum liratocinctum. 
Trigona Hindsii. Czecum lieve. 
Hemicardium oboyale. Cerithium interruptum, yar. 
Crassatella gibbosa. Barleeia subtenuis. 
Kellia suborbicularis. Arvicia punctulata. 
Barbatia mutabilis, Terebra strigata. 

Noétia reversa. Cerithiopsis assimilata. 
Axinea Pmulticostata. Triforis alternata. 
Fissurella rugosa. Olivella gracilis. 
Phasianella perforata, PNitidella millepunctata. 
Omphalius viridulus. Northia pristis. 
Hipponyx barbatus. Pisania sanguinolenta. 


The collections received at the Smithsonian Inst. from Panama consist, in the 
main, of species already tabulated from that region. The following, however, 
are new to that well-searched portion of the fauna ;— 


Tellina striata (teste Cuming), Rowell, Pease. 

Tellina (Angulus) amplectans, n.s., Rowell, Pease. 

Adula stylina. Californian species: either ballast or error in num- 

Pecten equisulcatus, jun. bering: Rowell. 

Litorina. Small spotted species, n.s., teste Cuming, but appears identical 
with the W. Indian: probably imported: Rowell, 

Fluminicola, sp., Rowell. 

Drillia albolaqueata, n.s., Rowell. 

Natica catenata, Rowell. 

Cuma costata, Rowell. 


115. The Pulmonates of the Pacific slope have not formed a special study 
with the writer of this Report, as they were already in the abler hands of 
Messrs. Binney, Bland, and other eminent Transatlantic naturalists. The 
opinions of Mr. Binney as to synonymy, &c., with descriptions of new 
species and details of those previously known, were given in papers pub- 
lished in the ‘ Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil.’ as follows:—* Descriptions of American 
Land Shells,’’ Feb. 1857; ‘Notes on American Land Shells,” Oct. 1857, 
May 1858, Noy. 1858, July 1859: and also in the ‘ Proc. Bost. N. H. 8.,’ 
“‘ Description of two supposed new species of American Land Shells,” Apr. 
1857. These are embodied in ‘ The Terrestrial Air-Breathing Molluscs of the 
United States and the adjacent Territories of North America,’ vol. iv., by 
W. G. Binney, Boston, 1859. It was first printed in the ‘ Boston Journal 
of Natural History,’ vol. vii., and is intended as a Supplement to the great 
treatise by his father, vols. i—iii., on the same subject. It is impossible to 
speak in too high terms of commendation of the manner in which this work 
has been prepared and executed, and of the beautiful figures drawn by Otto 
Kohler. The more matured views of the author were embodied in the 
‘ Check-List of the Terrestrial Gasteropoda of North America,’ published by 
the Smithsonian Inst., June 1860, of which a second edition was soon issued. 
The species were divided into three series,—(1) those of the Pacific coast, 


a 


670 REPORT—1863. 


from the extreme north to Mazatlan; (2) those of eastern N. A., from the 
boreal regions to the Rio Grande ; (3) those found in Mexico, to which sixteen 
from the first series are added. The freshwater Pulmonates are catalogued 
by the same most industrious author, in the ‘ Check-List of the Fluviatile 
Gasteropoda of N. America,’ which contains the Melaniade, Paludinide, 
Ampullariade, Valvatide, and Limneide ; the West Coast species being dis- 
tinguished by the letter W, and the Mexican by M. Mr. Binney next under- 
took a monograph of the Paludinide, &c., the proofs of which were widely 
distributed in 1862. Afterwards, assisted by the extensive series of speci- 
mens received from the Smithsonian Museum, and with access to those of 
the principal public and private collections in the U.8., and with the benefit 
of Say’s types preserved in the Acad. Nat. Sc. Phil., he prepared a preliminary 
synopsis of the Limneide, with full synonymy, proofs of which were issued by 
the Smithsonian Inst., May 4th, 1863. Last of all, under date Dec. 9, 1863, 
the Smithsonian Inst. has distributed proof copies of a complete ‘Synopsis 
of the Species of Air-Breathing Molluscs of N. A., as eliminated from their 
synonyms by Mr. Binney’*. Of all these works the author not only sent the 
earliest slip-proofs to assist in the preparation of this Report, but in several 
instances took the pains to write separately what related to the W. coast, 
and even sent the manifold-duplicate of part of the printer’s copy. It is not 
considered necessary to tabulate each of these publications separately, as 
they can easily be obtained by post, on application to Professor Henry, 
Washington, D.C. The following list embodies—(1) the classification and 
nomenclature of Dec. 9th, 1863; (2) the synonymy as given in previous 
synopses ; and (3) the localities and authorities supplied by Mr. Binney in 
MS.. The following reservation requires attention :—‘ As a mere proof, 
which will undoubtedly receive many corrections, this list should not be 
quoted as authority, or referred-to as a published work.” 


Mr. Binney’s Arrangement of the West Coast Pulmonates. 
t The species thus marked have not been seen by Mr. Binney. 


PHANEROPNEUMONA. 
EcrorpHTHALMA. (None known in the region.) 
OPISTHOPHTHALMA. Fam. Truncatellide. 


1. Truncatella Californica, Pfr.,+ T. gracilenta, Gld. S. Diego, Cooper, [Comp. 
Maz. Cat. no. 423.] 


PULMONATA. 
Groputna. § 1. Vermivora. Fam. Oleacinide. 


42. Glandina ( Glandina) turris, Pfr. (= Achatina= Oleacina, Pfr.) W. Mexico. 
Maz. Cat. no, 231. ¢ : 
3. Glandina (Glandina) Albersi, Pfr. (= Achatina, Pfr.).,+ G. Albersi, var. turrita, 
Cpr. W. Mexico. Maz. Cat. no. 230. 


* The first Transatlantic attempt to revise the genera of N. A. Helicide was made by 
Mr. Bland, in his “ Remarks on Classifications of N. A. Helices by European authors, 
and especially H. and A. Adams and Albers,” printed in the ‘ Annals of the Lyceum of 
Nat. Hist. N: York,’ Oct. 1863. In an addendum, he gives a list of the Pacifie species, 
with an account of two “genera” not represented in the eastern division. Mr. Binney, 
continuing Mr. Bland’s labours, issues the species for the most part in the trinomial 
nomenclature, which now appears to be taking the place of the Linnean binomial system. 
No attempt is here made to review the work, as the writer felt justified in doing with 
reference to marine shells; the only alterations made consisting of corrections in some of 
the citations with which he happened to be more familiar. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 671 


§ 2. Phyllovora. Fam. Helicide. 


Subfam. Vitrinine. 


+4. Vitrina Pfeifferi, Newe. Carson Valley, Cal., Newcomb. 

5. Binneya notabilis, Cp. Catalina Island, Cal., Cooper. 

6. Macrocyclis Newberryana, Bin. S. Diego, common, Newberry. 

7. Macrocyclis Vancouverensis, Lea, Helix V., Lea, Trosch., Pfr., Gld., Rve.,= 
H. vellicata, Fbs., Rve., Pfr.,+ H. concava, Binn. VANCOUVER TO CALI- 
FORNIA :—Columbia R., Nidtall, U.S. £.£.; Puget Sound, U.S. E. #. ; 
Vancouver, B. N. P. B. S.; Oregon City, Newberry ; California, Trowbridge ; 
St. Joseph’s R., 2nd Camp. 

7b. Macrocyclis [?var.] sportella*,Gld. Puget Sp. to 8. Disco :—Puget Sd., 
U.S. £. E.; Fort Umpqua, Oregon ; 8. Diego, Ives, Newberry ; S. Francisco, 
Mus. Cal. Ac.; Contra Costa Co., Thomson. Animal solitary.” 


Subfam. Helicine. 
8. Helix (Patula) strigosa, Gld. Interior Bastn; N, Mexico To Brit. Am,: 
; —Int. of Oregon, U. S. E. E.; Cation Largo, Rio Pedro, N. M., Newberry. 
9. Helix (Patula) Cooperi, Bin. California. 
10. Helix (Patula) Mazatlanica, Pfr. Mazatlan. 
‘ll. Helix (Folygya) acutedentata, Bin.,+ H. Lotsa, Bin. Guaymas. Mazatlan, 
Gambel. 
12, Helix (Polygyra) ventrosula, Pfr. [No locality given: not “ Ww.” in Check- 
Lists 


14, Helix (Stenotrema) germana, Gld. Oregon, U. S. LZ. £. 

15. Helix ( Triodopsis) Mullani, Bland. WASHINGTON TERRITORY AND OREGON: 
—St. Joseph’s River, 1st Camp. 

16. Helix (Triodopsis) loricata, Gld., Pfr.,= H. Lecontei, Lea. Sacramento River, 
U.S. E. E. 

17. Helix (Mesodon) Columbiana, Lea, Trosch., Rve., Pfr.,+H. labiosa, Gld., Pfr. 
VANCOUVER TO OREGON :—F't. Vancouver, Nuttall; Ft. George, U.S. E.E.; 
Nootka Sound, Hinds; Astoria, Drayton; Oregon City, Newberry. 

18, Helix (Mesodon) devia, Gld., Pfr., =H. Baskerville’, Pfr., Rve. Puget Sound, 
O28. HE; Oregon. 

19. Helix (Aglaia) fidelis, Gray, Mill., Rve., Pfr.,.= H. Nuttalliana, Rve., Trosch,, 
Gld. VANCOUVER TO OREGON :—Puget Sound, Columbia River, U. S. Z. £.; 
Esquimault Harb., Zord; Umpqua Valley, Or., and San Francisco, New- 
berry ; De Fuca, Gibbs; Oregon City, Shumard; Ft. Steilacoom, Suckley. 

20. Helix (Aglaia) infumata, Gld. San Reaatianes Bigelow. 

21, Helix tdiaen arrosa, Gld., =H. eruginosa, Gld. (nom. preoc.), OREGON, 
CALIFORNIA :—San Francisco, Bigelow, Samuels; Petaluma and Columbia 
River, Newberry. 

22. Helix (Arianta) Townsendiana, Lea, Trosch., Rve., Pfr., Gld.,+H. pedestris 
+ruda, Gld. OrEGoN anD CatiFrornia :—Wahlamat River, Nittail, 
Townsend, U. 8. FE. E.; Nisqually, Dyes.; Puget Sound, Kennerley. 

23. Helix (Arianta) tudiculata, Bian. WASHINGTON TERRITORY TO CALIFORNIA: 
—San Diego, Newberry. 

24. Hehx (Arianta) Nicklimana, Lea,= H. Cahforniensis, Rve., Pfr. (non Lea), 
=H. arboretorum+nemorivaga, Val.—Var. =H. anachoreta, Binn. “Widely 
distributed, but solitary,” Thompson. CALIFORNIA :—Sacramento River, 
U.S. E. E.; San Francisco, Bigelow ; Tomales, Newberry. " 

25. ee Meee. redimita, Binn. (jun.),=H. Nickliniana, var. Binn. (sen.). 

alifornia, 


13. Helix feo polygyrella, Bland. “ Ww.” [teste Check-List, not in MS, ] 


* In the Check-List of Dec. 9th, sportella does not appear. It is generally treated by 
Mr. Binney as a small variety of Vancouverensis, with stronger radiating and spiral lines ; 
but in the MSS. sent for publication in this Report it takes rank asa species. Mr. Bland 
considers the two identical; yet in Add. Gen. the form is thus divided :—“ Iberus (Cam- 
pylea) sportella, in fam. Helicide,” and “ Discus Vancowverensis, in fam. Stenopide.” 
In Albers it is divided as “ Macrocyelis vellicata,’ “ UM. Vancowverensis,” and “ Helix 
(Patula) sportelila.” , : 


672 : REPORT—1863. 


26. Helix (Arianta) intercisa, Binn. (jun.),=H, Nickliniana, var. Binn, (sen.), 
Oregon. 
+27. Helix ( Arianta) evarata, Pfr. California. 
$28. Helix uaee reticulata, Pfr. California. 
$29. Helix (Arianta) ramentosa, Gld. California, Newcomb. 
+30. Helix (Arianta) Ayresiana, Newe. Northern Oregon. 
+81. Helix (Arianta) Bridgesit, Newe. San Pablo, California, Newcomb. 
$82. Helix (Arianta) Carpenteri, Newc. Tulare Valley, California. [Not Carpen- 
teriana, Bland; Florida. | 
33, Helix (Arianta) Californiensis, Lea, Trosch., Dekay (non auct.),=H. vincta, 
Val., Rve., Pfr. Catrrornta :—Interior of Cal, U.S. £. £.; Monterey, Ives. 
+34. Helix (Arianta) Mormonum, Pfr. Mormon Is., California. 
35. Helix (Arianta) Dupetithouarsi, Desh., Rve., Pfr., + H. Oregonensis, Trosch., 
Dekay, Pfr. Wasuineton Trrrirory To Catrrornta. Interior of Cal., 
U.S. £. E.; Puget Sound, Dyes.; Klamath Lake and Benicia, Newberry ; 
Tulan Lake, Cal.; Monterey, Trowbridge ; San Diego, Ives. 
$36. Helix (Arianta) Traskii, Newe. Los Angelos, California, Newcomb. 
87. Helix (Arianta) Kellettii, Fhs., Rve., Pfr. Sta. Barbara, Kellett and Wood ; 
San Diego, teste Gould. 
88, Helix (Arianta) Pandore, Fbs., Rvye., Pfr.,.=H. damascenus, Gld. Sta. Bar- 
bara, Kellett and Wood; Desert East of California, Mus. Newcomb. 
89. Helix (Arianta) levis, Pfr.,+ var. 8. Columbia River. 
40. Helix (Euparypha) areolata, Sby., Pfr., Phil., Rve.,+ vars. B.y. PENINSULA 
oF Lowrer CatirorniaA. [Margarita Bay, Pease.*] 
$41. Columna (Rhodea) Californica, Pfr. [-Achatina, Pfr., Rye. ] 


Subfam. Orthalicine. 


42. Bulimulus (Liostracus {not Leiostraca, Add.|) Ziegleri, Pfr. Mazatlan, Reigen. 
[t43. Bulimulus Mexicanus t, Lam., Deless., Pfr., Rve, (non Val.),= Cochlogena 
vittata, Fér, Mazatlan, Regen. | 
44, Bulimulus (Mesembrinus) pallidior, Shy.,.=B. vegetus, Gld., teste Cum., Binn. 
San DivGo To Care St. Lucas :—C. 8. Lucas, Xantus. 
45. Bulimulus (Mesembrinus) excelsus, Gld. (text),=B. elatus, Gld. (fig.). SAN 
Dingo To Carr St. Lucas :—C. 8. Lucas, Xantus. 
46. Bulimulus (Mesembrinus) inscendens, Binn, Lower Cattrornia :—Margarita 
Bay, and C. 8. Lucas, Xantus. 
+47. Bulimulus (Thaumastus) Culifornicus, Rye. 
+48. Bulimulus (? Mormus) sufflatus,Gld.,=B. vesicalis,Gld. (nom. preoc.). LOWER 
CALIFORNIA. 
49, Bulimadus (? Mormus) pilula, Binn, LowEr Ca irornts:—Todos Santos 
Mission, Margarita Is., Xantus. 
50. Bulimulus (Seutalus) proteus, Brod. Cape St. Lucas, Xantus. 
51. Bulimulus (Scutalus) Xantusi, Binn. Cape St. Lucas, Xantus. 
52. Bulimulus (Peroneus [non Peronea, Poli}) artemisia, Binn, Cape St. Lucas, 
Xantus. . 
53. Orthalicus (Orthalicus) zebra, Miill., Pfr. Mazatlan, Reigen. | Also Eastern 
530. Orthalicus (Orthalicus) undatus, Fér., Pfr. § Mazatlan.” slope, 


Subfam. Pupine. 


+54. Pupa (Pupilla) Rowellit, Newe. San Francisco, Rowell. 
+55. Pupa (Pupilla) Californica, Row. San Francisco, Rowell, 
56. Pupa (Leucochila) chordata, Pfr. Cinaloa, Mexico. 


* See also Dr. Newcomb’s new species, tabulated in pp. 609, 633. 

} Included among the doubtful species by Mr. Binney ; but the shell so named in the 
Maz. Cat., no. 234 (perhaps erroneously), was certainly found on opening the Mazatlan 
boxes by Mr. Archer. 

_ § Mr. Binney follows Pfr., in his later works, in separating these ? varieties, The shells 
in the Reigen Collection were clearly conspecific, Vide Maz, Cat., no. 232. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 673 


Subfam. Suceinine. 


757. Succinea* (Succinea) Hawkinsi, Baird. British Columbia, Lord. 
758. Succinea (Succinea) cingulata, Fbs. Mazatlan, Kellett and Wood. 

59. Succinea (Succinea) rusticana, Gld. Orreon anp CaLrrornr :—Oregon, 
U.S. L. E.; Ocogo Creek, California, Williamson, 

60. Succinea (Succinea) Nuttalliana, Lea. “Scarcely differs from S. ovalis, Hudson 
River,” Gld. Oregon anp Catirornta:—Lewis’s River, Or., Metall ; In- 
terior of Oreg., U. 8. E. E.; Wright’s Lake, Rhell’s Lake, Cal., Newberry. 

61. Succinea (Succinea) Oregonensis, Lea.  Resembles S. aurea,” Gld, OREGON 
AND CALIFORNIA :—Oregon, Nuttall. San Francisco, Rowell. 


Subfam. Zimacine. 


62. Limax t (Amalia) Columbianus,Gld. Puaer Sounp To San Francisco :— 
Puget Sound, U. S. #. £., Dyes; Oregon City and Cape Flattery, Wil- 
liamson ; San Francisco and Port Oxford, Trowbridge ; Nisqually, Case. 


Fam. Arionide. 


Subtam. Arionine, 
63, Arion (Lochea) foliolatus, Gld. Puget Sound, U, 8. E. E., Pickering. 


Subfam. Zonitine. 


64, Zonites § (Afyopis) cultellata, Thoms. “ Closely resembles the Dalmatian H. 
albanica and acies,” Contra Costa Co., Cal., common, Thomson. 


Fam. Onchidiade. 
65. Onchidium Carpenteri, Binn, Cape St. Lucas, Xantus. 


Limynopuinta. Fam. Auwriculide. 


Subfam. Melampine. 


66. Melampus olivaceus, Cpr. SAN DmaGo to MazaTLan :—Mazatlan, Reigen ; 
San Diego, Blake, Cooper. ; 

67. Pedipes lirata, Binn. Lowrr Catirornia:—C. 8S. Lucas, Xantus ; San Diego, 
Cooper, 


Fam. Limneide. 
Subfam. Limneine. 


68. Limnea (Limnea) stagnalis, Linn.,+ L. jugularis, Say, Hald., De Kay, Kiist., 
Binn. (1st list),+Z. appressa, Say, Hald., De Kay, Kiist., C. B. Ad.,+ Z. spe- 
ciosa, Zieg]. Kuropr, Asta, AMERICA :—Rhett Lake, California, Newberry ; 
Ruby Valley and S. Utah, Captain Simpson. Fort Simpson and Hudson’s 
Bay, common; throughout British America and northern tier of U. S., 
from Vermont to Pacific, teste Binn. [Var.=H. fragilis, Linn., teste 
Hanl., Ips. Linn. Conch. p. 385; non Rve., Binn. (1st list). ] 

69. Limnea (Limnea) lepida, Gld. Lake Vancouver, U. S. E. £. 

70. Limnea (Limnophysa) refleca, Say, Hald., De Kay, Kiist.,4 LZ. elongata, Say, 
LL. umbrosa, Say, Hald., De Kay, Kiist.,4+ Z. evilis+L. Haydeni, Lea. San 
Francisco, Rowell. Also through British America and northern tier of 
States from New York to Pacific; teste Binn. 

+71. Limnea (Limnophysa) Sumassit, Baird ||. 


* So great is the difficulty of ascertaining (even approximately) the specific relations of 
Succinee without a comparison at least of single specimens, that Mr. Binney considers it 
safest, until series have been examined, simply to quote the species which have been de- 
scribed by other authors. He has followed the same course with Ancylus, and for the 
same reason. : 

{ “Hasa pore. Why not Arion?” —Binney, in MS. list. 

§ This appears among “ doubtful species” in the MS., but is printed in the text of 
the Check-List. 

|| Probably a variety of palustris=Nuttalliana, Lea. British authors have as yet had 
but ae opportunities of studying typically-named American freshwater Pulmonates, 

. 2x 


674 REPORT—1863. 


72. Limnea (Limnophysa) palustris, Mill. et auct.,=L. fragilis (as of Linn.), Hald., 
De Kay, Binn. (1st list), Rve. (hodie). {Non Linn., teste Hanl. in Ips. Linn. 
Conch., p.385]. +L. elodes, Say, Gld., C. B. Ad., Kiist.,-Z. Muttal- 
liana, Lea, Kiist., ?+L. plebeia, Gld.,4L. expansa, Hald., De Kay, Kist. 
NortHern Evropr, Asta, AND AMERICA:—Columbia River, Muttall; 
Puget Sound, Kennerley; Klamath Lake and Summer Lake, Or.; Rhett 
Lake and Wright’s Lake, Cal., Newberry: Clear Lake, Cal., Veatch; San 
Francisco, Rowell; Monterey, Canfield; Porcupine and Yuckron Rivers, Rus. 
America, Kennicott. Also from Pennsylvania westward to Pacific, and from 
this line northwards, wherever searched, even to interior of Russian Ame- 
rica; teste Binn. 

73. Limnea (Limnophysa) proxima, Lea, San Francisco, Cooper. Arroya San 

, Antonio, Trask. 

74. Limnea(Limnophysa) emarginata, Say, Hald., De Kay, Kiist..=Z. Ontariensis, 
Mublf., Kiist.,+-Z. serrata, Hald. New Enetanp To WasurineTon TER- 
RITORY. 

75. Limnea (Limnophysa) catascopium, Say, Hald., Gld., De Kay, Mrs. Gray, Pot. 
& Mich., Kiist.,4Z. pinguis, Say (non Dohrn), =Z. Virginiana, Lam., Desh., 
Deless., = Z. cornea, Val., = L. sericata, Ziegl. New ENGLAND TO 
Lewis River, AND THROUGH Brirish America; teste Binn. 

76. Limnea (Limnophysa) Adeline, Tryon. San Francisco. 

77. Limnea (Limnophysa) Traskii, Tryon. Mountain Lake, California. 

78. Limnea (Limnophysa) pallida, C. B. Ad., Hald., De Kay. San Francisco, 
Rowell; San Antonio Arroya, teste Lea. 

79. Limnea (Limnophysa) bulimoides, Lea, Hald., De Kay. Fort Vancouver. 
San Francisco, Rowell. Also Eastern States. (Check-List.) 

80. Limnea (Limnophysa) solida, Lea, Hald., De Kay,+Z. apicina, Lea, Kist. 
Oregon, Also Eastern States. (Check-List.) 

81. Limnea (Limnophysa) ferruginea, Hald., De Kay. Oregon. 

82. Pompholyx effusa, Lea, Add. Pitt River, Newberry; Sacramento River, 
teste Lea. 

83. Physa (Physa) Lordi, Baird. British Columbia, Lord ; east of Fort Colville, 
W. T., Am. N. P. B. Surv. 

84, Physa (Physa) gyrina, Say, De Kay, Kiist., C. B. Ad., Hald.,=Ph. elliptica, 

ea, De Kay,+Ph. cylindrica, De Kay,+Ph. Hildrethiana, Lea, Wash- 
ington Territory, Captain Simpson ; San Francisco, Rowell. 

85. Physa (Physa) ampullacea, Gld.,=Ph. bullata, Gld. (non Pot. & Mich.). 
Oregon, Cooper; Lakes Rhett and Upper Klamath, Newberry. 

86. Physa (Physa) Gabbii, Tryon. Sta. Ana Riv., Angelos Co. Also Mountain 

ake, California. 

87. Physa (Physa) heterostropha, Say, Gould, C. B. Ad., Desh., Kiist., De Kay, 
Mrs. Gray, Pot. & Mich., Eaton,+ Ph. fontana, Hald.,4+Ph. cylindrica, 
Newe.,+Ph. aurea, Lea, De Kay,+Ph. plicata, + Ph. glabra, De Kay, + Ph. 
osculans, Hald. (part),+ Ph. striata,+ Ph. subarata, Mke.,4+Ph. Charpentiert, 
+Ph. Phillipii, Kiist., + Ph. elliptica, + Ph. inflata, Lea,=Bulla crassula, 
Dillw., =B. fontinalis, Chemn., Schréter,= Cochlea neritoides, List. NortH 
America, passim :—Chiloncynck, Kennerley ; Hell Gate River, Newberry ; 
San Francisco and Washington Territory, Cooper; Los Angeles, teste Lea. 
Also from Texas to British America and Arctic regions, and from Atlantic 
to Pacific, teste Binn. 

+88. Physa (Physa) costata, Newe. Clear Lake, Cal., Veatch. 

89. Physa (Physa) virginea, Gld. San Francisco, Rowell. 

90. Physa (Physa) humerosa,Gld. RioColorado, Willamson; San Diego, P. R. R. £. 

91. Physa (Physa) virgata, Gld. San Diego, Webb; Los Angelos; Cal. Ac. N.S. 


several of which are perhaps but modifications of cireumboreal species which have been 
already traced to Hastern Asia. Even the series in Mus. Cum. are far from being accurate 
or complete. The inflexible rules of the British Museum have not yet allowed a single 
‘specimen of Dr. Baird’s species to be transmitted to America, even for comparison. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 675 


92. Physa (Physa) triticea, Lea, Binn. MSS.* California, Cooper. 
+93. Physa (Physa) concolor, Hald. Oregon. 

94, Bulinus t (Bulinus) aurantius, Cpr. |=Aplexa, auct.: v. Maz. Cat. p. 179],= 
Ph. Peruviana, Mke. [non D’Orb.]. Mazatlan, Regen. 

95. Bulinus (Bulinus) elatus, Gld. Mazatlan, Reigen. 

96. Bulinus (Bulinus) hypnorum, Linn., Hald., C. B. Ad., Chen. et auct.,=Ph. 
elongata, Say, Gld., De Kay,= Ph. elongatina, Lewis. NortTHERN Evropr, 
Asta, AMERICA. Puget Sound, Cooper; common at junction of Yukron 
and Porcupine Rivers, Russ. Amer., Kennicott. Through Brit. and Russ, 
America, and from Kansas to Washington, D. C.; teste Binn. 


Subfam. Planorbine. 
97. Planorbis (Planorbis) subcrenatus §, Cpr. Oregon, Nuttall, [?Puget Sound, 
Kennerley. | 
98. Planorbis (Planorbis) tumens, Cpr.,=P. tenagophila, Mke. (non D’Orb.),=P. 
affis, Cpr. | Cat. Prov.,non C. B. Ad.] Mazatlan, Melchers, Reigen. San 
Francisco, Cooper; Petaluma, teste Gld. 
99. Planorbis (Planorbis) vermicularis, Gld. 

100. Planorbis (Helisoma) ammon, Gld., =P. Traskei, Lea. Klamath Lake, Or. 
and Rhett Lake, Cal., Newberry. Ocogo Creek, Cal., Williamson; Kern 
Lake, Cal., Cooper; Monterey Co., Trask; Lagoons, Sacramento Valley, 
teste Lea. 

101. Planorbis (Helisoma) corpulentus, Say, Hald., De Kay, Gld., Chenu, =P. tri- 
volvis (pars), C. B. Ad. Columbia River, abundant, U. S. E. EZ. Also 
Eastern States. 

102. Planorbis (Helisoma) trivolvis, Say, De Kay, Gld., Hald., C. B. Ad., Kiist., Pot. 
& Mich., Katon= Bulla fluviatilis, Say,+ Pl. regularis, Lea,+ Pl. megastoma 
+ Physa planorbula, De Kay, + Pl. macrostomus+ Pl. corpulentus, W hiteaves, 
+ Pi. lentus, Gld.,+ Pl. trivolvis, var. fallax, Hald.,= Cochleat rium-orbium, 
Lister, Petiver. Puget Sd., Campbell; Wright’s Lake, Cal., Newberry; Ft. 
Vancouver, Cooper}; San Francisco, Rowell; S. Diego ; Mus. Smiths. ; Horn 
Lake, teste Lea. Probably extends over whole continent, teste Binn. 

103. Planorbis (Menetus) opercularis, Gld.,= P. planulatus, Coop. 8, Francisco, U.S. 

l. Exp.; Whidby’s Is., Cal., Cooper. 

104, Carinifex || Newberryi, Lea. Klamath Lake and Canoe Creek, Cal., Newberry; 

Clear Lake, Cal., Veatch. 


Subfam. Ancyline. 


105. Ancylus Newberryi, Lea. Klamath Lake, Newberry. 
7106. Ancylus crassus, Hald. “W.” [Check-List.] 
107. Ancylus caurinus, Coop. California, Cooper. 
108. Ancylus patelloides, Lea. S. Francisco, Cooper; Arroya, San Antonio, Cal., 
Mus. Smith. 
$109. Ancylus Kootaniensis, Baird. Brit. Columbia, Lord. 
110. Ancylus fragilis, Tryon. “W.” [Check-List.] 
111. Acrolovus Nuttalli, Hald. { Velletia N., Binn. in list, May 4th.] Oregon, Nutt. 
112. Gundlachia Californica, Rowell. 


* So in first printed list and in two MSS.; but in Check-List of Dec. 9, Ph. Troos- 
tiana, Lea, is assigned to the West, instead of this species. The MSS. are probably 
correct. 

t Non Bulinus, Sby., olim,=Bulimus, auct. However clearly Bulinus, Binn., may be 
right according to the antiquaries, it is far too like Bulimus, which has taken complete 

possession of the entire malacological world, to be allowed a resurrection in the same 
order. Surely burial for a given number of years ought to be allowed as evidence of 
death, especially if the infant-name scarcely even breathed the air of use, and its resur- 
rection would breed malaria among terms thriving in the vigorous manhood of universal 
acceptance. 

§ It is quite possible that this may prove avery finely grown specimen of P. lentus. Dr. 
Kennerley’s shells are intermediate. 

|| Thus in Check-List, Dec. 9th. In that of May 4th, it appears as Planorbdis N.; in the 
MS. list as Carinifera. 

2x2 


676 REPORT—1863. 


Suborder THALASSOPHILA. 
Fam. Siphonariade. 


$113. Stphonaria lecanium, Phil.: [Var.=S. mawra, Shy. Var. palmata, Cpr., is 
ossibly distinct. Mazatlan, £. B. Philippi, Reigen; Acapulco, Jewett ; 
ape St. Lucas, Xantus. | 
+114. Stphonaria equilirata, Cpr.,[ = S. equilorata, Rye. Mazatlan, Reigen; C. 8. 
Lucas, Xantus; Margarita Bay, very fine, teste Pease. | 
$115. [Siphonaria thersites, Cpr. Neeah Bay, Swan. ] 


Doubtful, spurious, and extralimital species :— 


Helix aspersa, Mill. “Sta. Barbara,” Kellett and Wood. [Imported.] 
Helix arbustorum, Linn. 
Helix Sagraiana, D’Orb. [Certainly Cuban. | 
Helix “ Sandiegoénsis, Lea.” Gld., P. R.R., vol. v. p. 331, “No such sp. de- 
scribed,” teste Binney. 
Helix peregrina, Bose. 
Bulimus Humboldti, Rye. ?“ Mazatlan.” 
Bulimus Laurentit, Shy.“ Sitka:” probably Sitcha in San Salvador, teste 
Binney. 
Melania {| Bulimus| striata, Perry. [Vide anted, p. 520. 
Suceinea aperta, Lea,= 8. rotundata, Gld. Sandwich Is., U. 8S. Evpl. Exp. 
tPhysa Maugeria, Gray, teste Woodward, Manual, p. 171; but probably equa- 
torial S. America. 
tSiphonaria amara, {Nutt. Admitted into the list by Mr. Binney, on the autho- 
rity of Rye., as of Nutt.; but it lives on the Sandwich Is. ; teste Pease, New- 
comb, U.S. £. £.). 


116. The Smithsonian Institution has lately issued a “ Descriptive Cata- 
logue of the species of Amnicola, Vivipara, Bithynia, Valvata, and Ampul- 
laria,” by Mr. W. G. Binney. It is abundantly illustrated with outline- 
woodcuts, and contains the synonymy corrected from all the accessible types. 
Dr. Stimpson is at present engaged in dissecting the molluses; but none of 
his investigations have yet been published. The following is a réswmé of the 
West Coast species, from a proof kindly furnished by the author. 

Page. Fig. 

4, Amunicola lenginqua, Gld., Bost. Proc. vy. 180. Colorado Desert, Blake. 
5. 6. Amnicola protea, Gld., Bost. Proc. y. 129. Colorado Desert, Blake, Webb. 

12, 45, Vivipara, Lam.,= Paludina, Lam. [This genus, so fine and plentiful east 
of the Rocky Mountains, does not appear on the west. | 

44, ,, Paludina Nuttalliana, Lea, Trans. Am. Phil. Soe. vi. p. 101, pl. 23. f. 109. 
[In text. In later manuscript list, this name appears as a synonym of | 
Fluminicola (Stimps., MS.) Nadtallit, Lea, = Amnicola Nuttalliana, Cp., 
Minn. Rep. p. 374,= Leptoais Nuttallii, Hald.,= Anculosus Nuttalliz, Reve. 
?-+ Paludina seminalis, Hds. (p. 46, f. 81), [P+ P. Hindsii, Baird.] Co- 
lumbia River, Nettall, Cooper; Upper des Chutes Riy. and Klamath 
Lake, Or., Newberry; Roques R., Or.; Sacramento R., Hinds; Brit. 
Columbia, Lord; Canoe Creek and Pitt River, Cal., Newberry. 

46. 80. Bithinia nuclea, Lea, = Paludina n., Trans. Am. Phil. Soe. vi. p. 91, pl. 25. 
f.105 [in text. In later MS. list, appears as synonym of | Fluminicola 
virens, Lea (Paludina v., Lea; Leptovis v., Hald.),-+-Paludina nuclea, Lea. 
Wahlamat River, Oregon, Nidtall | Willamette, MS. list]. 


The following are added by Mr. Binney in his later MS. list :— 


Valvata virens, Tryon. Clear Lake, Calif. [The Smithsonian duplicates have 
been unfortunately distributed under the name “ V7. sincera, Say,” which had 
been previously given to the specimens, and under which they are quoted in 
the Check-List of 1860, no, 456, According to Mr. B., M%. sincera is “ like 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA, 677 


ecarinate forms of V. tricarinata, Say,” to which the Clear Lake specimens 
bear but slight resemblance. | : 

Pomatiopsis Binney, Tryon. 

Fluminicola fusca, Hald. (Leptovis f.). Shores of Lake Utah, Capt. Burton. 


117. Of the West Coast species of Melaniadze we are unable to offer any 
list embracing the synonymy, as the materials are at present in the hands of 
Mr. Tryon for elimination, and his labours are not yet sufficiently advanced 
to furnish a report. His Manual of the North American Melaniade will be 
published by the Smithsonian Institution. The animals of many species have 
already been dissected by Dr. Stimpson*. It is unfortunate that in the two 
most important branches of North American freshwater molluscs, the Me- 
laniadze and the Unionide, there exists a radical difference of opinion between 
the leading writers, which has sometimes assumed the appearance of per- 
sonal animosity. Malacologists east of the Atlantic, unwilling to become 
partisans when the leading nomenclators of the rival schools are equally 
honoured, have to a great extent declined to pay attention to the unexhausted 
riches of the American waters, regarding any settlement of the disputed 
points as hopeless. Dr. Isaac Lea, who has spared no expense in illustrating 
his publications of the results of a life-long study, follows the restrictions 
on the priority-rule allowed by the British Association Committee. Other 
writers, however, claim a certainty in identifying the supposed species of 
Rafinesque and other similarly inaccurate authors, which would be considered 
by most English naturalists as not warranted by the few loose words of de- 
scription given. It would be well if the student were permitted to start from 
the first carefully ascertained landmark, rather than from the defaced tracks 
of the first hunter. 

In the Check-List of North-American Fluviatile Gasteropods, published by 
the Smithsonian Institution, June 1860, which contains the names of 405 
(supposed) species of Melania, Lithasia, Gyrotoma, Leptoais, and Jo, Mr. Binney 
assigns the following eleven to the West Coast. None of them are accredited 
to the eastern division. 


43, Melania bulbosa, G1d. | 242, Melania Shastaénsis, Lea. Shasta 
104, Melania exigua, Conv. and Scott Rivers. 
166. Melania Menkeana, Lea. 243. Melania silicula, Gld. [=M. plici- 
174. Melania Newberryt, Lea. era, small var., teste Lea. | 
177. Melania nigrina, Lea. Clear Creek, | 296. Melania Wahlamatensis, Lea. 
Shasta Co. 297. Melania Warderiana, Lea. 
211. Melania plicifera, Lea. 360. Melania fusca, Hald. 


118. Dr. Lea’s Check-List of the Unionide (June 1860), after eliminating 
synonyms, assigns to America, north of Mexico, no fewer than 552 species 
of Unio, Margaritana, and Anodonta. The type-specimens of the species 
described by Dr. Gould from the United States Exploring Expedition were 
_ submitted to Dr. Lea’s inspection, and confirmed his previous opinion that 
they were varieties of those before known. The U. famelicus, Gld., he pro- 
nounced to be a South-American shell; but it appears, without note, in the 
Check List, no. 133, probably by oversight. The only widely diffused species 
is the long-famed “ pearl-mussel”’ of the Conway and other British streams. 
The following seven are accredited to the Pacific coast :— 


* See his very interesting and important paper “ On the structural Characters of the so- 
called Melanians of North America,” in the ‘American Journal of Science,’ vol. xxxviii., 
July 1864, pp. 41-53. It appears that the sexual system is quite distinct from that of the 
ordinary Ctenobranchiate Gasteropods, and approaches the Cyclobranchiates. 


678 ; REPORT—1863. 


281. Unio Oregonensis, Lea. [Comp.534.} | 499. Anodonta Californiensis, Lea. 

484, Margaritana margaritifera, Lea. | 531. Anodonta Nuttalliana, Lea. 
Linn. | 534. Anodonta Oregonensis, Lea. 

494. Anodonta angulata, Lea. 551. Anodonta Wahlamatensis, Lea. 

Besides these, 36 species of Unio and Anodonta are assigned to Mexico 
and Central America in a separate list; but no distinction is indicated be- 
tween the Pacific and the Atlantic slope of the mountain-range. 

119. At the request of the Smithsonian Institution, Mr. Temple Prime, of 
New York, well known for his special devotion to this department, has con- 
sented to prepare a Manual of the Cyrenide inhabiting American waters, 
All the accessible materials from the West Coast are in his hands for exami- 
nation. The first part of his “‘ Monograph of the Species of Spheriwn of 
North and South America” is printed in the ‘ Proc. Ac. N. Sc. Phil.’ 1861, 
pp. 402 et seq., and contains quotations of five species, nos. 4, 7, 9, 10, 11, 
with synonymy, from Washington Ter., Oregon, and California. He has 
kindly (in advance of his intended publications) furnished to Mr. W. G. Bin- 
ney the following MS. ‘‘ Synopsis of the Corbiculide of the West Coast of 
North America,” with liberty to publish in this Report. Itis here condensed, 
with synonyms and references, in the nomenclature of the writer. 


Mr. Prime’s List of West North-American Corbiculidee* [Cyrenide]. 


. Corbicula convexa, Desh., P.Z.S. 1854, p. 342,= C.ventricosa, Pr. MS. Mazatlan. 

Cyrena radiata, Hanl., P. Z. 8. 1844, p. 159. Realejo. 

. Cyrena solida, Phil., Abbild. 1846, p. 78, pl. 15. f.9. Nicaragua; Belize. 
Cyrena triangula, VY. de Busch, P. Z. 8. 1849, p- 78, pl. 2. £.3,= C. altilis, Gld., 
Bost. Pr. 1852, p. 400, pl. 16. f. 5 bis, = C. Mexicana, pars, Maz. Cat., no. 165 
(= C. varians, cat. ‘ait Mazatlan. 

. Cyrena insignis, Desh., P. Z. S, 1854, p. 20; Tl. Conch. 1861, p. 39, pl. 2. f. 2. 
California. 

Cyrena olivacea, Cpr., Maz. Cat., no. 164,= C. Fontainei, Desh., MS. (non D’Orb., 
B. M. Cat. no. 253). Mazatlan. 

. Cyrena acuta, Pr., Til. Conch. 1862, p. 387, pl. 14. f.1. Centr. America. 

. Cyrena Mexicana, Sby., Zool. Tl. 1829, p. 364 [Maz. Cat., no. 165= ]C. varians, 
cat. ay ars, + C. fragilis, Desh. Ms. +C. equilateralis, Desh., P. Z. 8. 
1854, sah . Mazatlan. 

9. Cyrena Californica, Pr., Proc. A. N.S. Phil. 1860, p. 276,= C. subquadrata, 

Desh., P. Z. S. 1854, p. 21 (nom. preoc.). California. 

10. Cyrena Panamensis, Pr., Proc. A. N. 8. Phil. 1860, p. 283, = C. inflata, Desh., 
‘P. Z. S. 1854, p. 28 (nom. preoc.). Panama. 

11. Cyrena Recluzii, Pr.,= C. cordiformis, Recl., Il. Conch. 1853, p. 251, pl. 7. f. 9 
(nom. preoc.). Centr. America. 

12. Cyrena Cumingii, Desh., P. Z.S. 1854, p. 22. . Centr. America. 

13. Cyrena tumida, Pr.,= C. angulata, Desh., P. Z. 8, 1854, p. 22 (nom. preoc.). 


gobo 


OI QD HX 


Centr. America. 

14. Cyrena pullastra, Mérch, Mal. Bl. 1860, p. 194. Realejo. 

15. Cyrena maritima, C. B, Ad., Pan. Sh., no. 451. Panama. 

16. Cyrena sordida, Hanl., P. Z.8, 1844, p. 159. Central America. 

17. Spherium triangulare, Say ( Cyclas t.), New Harm. Dissem. 1829, p.356, Mexico. 

18. Spherium striatinum, Lam. (Cyclas s.), An. s. Vert. vol.v. p. 560, 1818,= C. eden- 
tula, Say, loc. cit. be = C. cornea (Lam.), C. B. Ad., Cat., 1847,= C. albula, 
Pr., Bost, Proc. 1851, p. 155, + C. tenwistriata, Pr., p. 156, + C. acuminata, 
Pr., p. 158,+ C. inornata, Pr.,+ C. simplex, Pr.,+ C. modesta, Pr., ne Hab. 
N. York to Alabama, Connecticut to Illinois; Hell-gate River, W. T. 

19. Spherium dentatum, Hald. (Cyclas d.), Proc. A. N.S. Phil. 1841, p. 100. Oregon. 


* The name Corbicula, having been first given to a species, and being itself a diminu- 
tive, is scarcely fitted to displace long-used generic appellations in marking the family- 
group. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 679 


20. Spherium occidentale, Pr., Proc. A. N. 8. Phil. 1860, p. 295, = C. ovalis, Pr., 
Bost. Proc. 1852, p. 276 (nom. preoc.),=‘ Sph. ovale, Stn.,’ Add. Gen. vol. ii. 
p-450. Hab, New York to Georgia; Vermont to Wisconsin; Hell-gate 
River, W. T. 

21. Spherium nobile, Gld. (Cyclas n.), Bost. Proc. 1855, p. 229 [Otia, p. 218]. San 
Pedro, Webb. 

22. Spherium patella, Gld. (Cyclas p.), Bost. Proc. 1850, p.292 [Otia, p. 86; E. E. 

Moll. f. 527, type not returned to 8. I.] Oregon. 

23. Spherium Spokant, Baird [P. Z. 8. 1863, p. 69, f. 12, 13: anted, p.605]. B. Col. 

24. Spherium tumidum, Baird [P. Z. S. 1863, p.69, f. 11: anted, p.605]. B. Col. 

25. si meridionale, Pr., Proc. Ac, N.S. Phil. 1861, p.414. Panama; Mus. 

rime. 

26. Spherium lenticula, Gld. (Lucina * 1.), Bost. Proc, 1850, p. 256. California. 

27. Spherium subtransversum, Pr., P. Z. 8. 1860, p. 322. Mexico. 

28. Pisidium abditum, Hald. [Pubi]= Cyclas minor, C. B. Ad. Bost. Proc. 1841, p.48, 
= P. obscurum, Pr., Bost. Proc. 1851, p. 161,+ P. Kurtz, Pr., p. 162,-+ P. 
zonatum, Pr., p. 162,+ P. regulare, Pr., Fagk IL, vi. 363, pl. 12. f£. 11-13, 1852, 
+ P. notatum, Pr., Bost. Il. vi. 365, pl. 12. f. 20-22, 1852, P. amplum + P. 
resartum, Ingalls, MS.,+ P. rubrum+P. plenum, Lewis, MS., +P. retusum, 
Pr., P.Z.S. 1859, p. 322. 

29. Pisidium occidentale, Nowe. [Proe, Cal. Ac. Nat. Se. 1861, p. 94]. San Fran- 
cisco, Rowell. 


120. Of the tertiary fossils throwing light on existing species no addi- 
tional information has yet been published. We cannot but hope that the 
researches of Mr. Gabb, on the fossils collected by the Californian Geological 
Survey, will develope relations of great interest between the existing and 
former conditions of the continent. The Astorian fossils described by Mr. 
Conrad from the U. S. Exploring Expedition (vol. x., Geology, Philadelphia, 
1849), and tabulated in the first Report, p. 367, belong to the Smithsonian 
Institution, but were not discovered therein 1860. All of them, however (in- 
cluding the indeterminate species), are figured in the atlas of plates. They 
resemble the fossils of the Pacific Railroad Expeditions in being very imper- 
fect, for which reason the following criticisms may prove erroneous. The 
general aspect of the collection betokens the Miocene period. 


Mya abrupta, Cony., may be the young of Glycimeris generosa, Gld. 

Thracia trapezoides, Conr., may be curta, Conr. 

Solemya ventricosa, Conr., has the aspect of a large Lazaria. 

Tellina arctata, Conyr., closely resembles Macoma, var. expansa. 

Tellina emacerata, Conr., is perhaps Bodegensis, Hds. 

Lucina acutilineata, Conr., appears to be borealis, Linn. 

Cardita subtenta, Conr.,= Venericardia borealis, Cony. 

Nucula divaricata, Conr.,= Acila castrensis, Hds. 

Pectunculus patulus, Conr., may be septentrionalis, Midd. 

Pectunculus nitens, Conr., resembles Psephis tantilla, Gld. 

Pecten propatulus, Conr. A very fine specimen, enclosed in a large nodule 
from Oregon, was presented to the Brit. Mus. by Mr. C. Pace. If not identical 
with Amusium caurinum, Gld., it is most closely allied, especially to the 
Japanese form. 


* Mr. Prime assigns no reason for changing Dr. Gould’s Zucina into a Cyclas, nor any 
authority for “ California.” He was, perhaps, misled by the artist’s engraved references to 
the figures 528, a, >, where he has drawn a rule, referring to the Cyclades above, instead of 
writing Lucina. It is assigned to ‘‘?Coast of Patagonia” in~ Otia,’ p. 63, and to “?R. 
Janeiro” in ‘ EH. E. Moll.,’ p.414. In each place the shell is compared to an Astarte or 
Cyprina, with lateral teeth. The type was not returned to the Smithsonian Institution ; 
but the diagnosis states that it is “chalky, thickened within the deep and jagged pallial 
line, sculpture faint but decussated, and margin finely crenulated,”—characters more con- 
sistent with Lucina, s.g. Myrtea, than with Cyclas. If the type cannot be recovered, per- 
haps the species may be dropped, as it is not the Lwcina (Myrtea) lenticula, Rye. 


680 REPORT—1863. 


Terebratula nitens, Cony., is very probably Waldheimia pulvinata, Gd. 

Bulla petrosa, Cony., has the shape of Tornatina eximia, Bd. 

Crepidula prorupta, Cony., is certainly princeps, Midd. 

Turritella, sp. ind., resembles Mesalia lacteola. 

? Dolium petrosum, Conr., resembles the young of Priene nodosa, Chemn. 

Fusus geniculus, Conr, A similar shell has just been taken at the Farallones 
by Dr. Cooper. 


121. To correct the general table of “ Mollusca of the West Coast of N. 
America” (First Report, pp. 298-345), and the deductions founded upon it 
(pp. 346-367), would involve the necessity of reprinting a considerable por- 
tion. The student, being now in possession of all the known sources of 
fresh information, can with his own pen strike out the spurious species, alter 
the synonyms, insert the newly discovered forms, and make the requisite 
corrections in the classified results. 

122, With regard to the tropical fauna, the researches at Cape St. Lucas 
and in the interior of the Gulf of California, though leaving much to be 
desired, bear-out the general conclusions arrived-at in paragraphs 78-87. 
_The evidence for the identity of specific forms on the Atlantic and Pacific sides 
of Central America has been greatly confirmed. Dr. Gould writes, “The 
doctrine of local limitations meets with so few apparent exceptions that we 
‘admit it as an axiom in zoology that species strongly resembling each other, 
derived from widely diverse localities, especially if a continent intervenes, 
and if no known or plausible means of communication can be assigned, 
should be assumed as different until their identity can be proved (vide E. E. 
Moll. Intr. p. xi). Much study of living specimens must be made before 
the apparent exceptions can be brought under the rule.” It has, however, 
to be borne in mind that the researches of modern geology clearly point to 
considerable alterations in the existing configuration of continents, and in 
the consequent direction of ocean-currents, during the ascertained period of 
many species now living. Nor are we warranted in the belief that the 
existing fauna in any locality has been created at any one time, or has 
radiated from any single spot. To study the relations of living shells simply 
in connexion with the existing map of the world must lead but to partial 
results. The facts accumulating with regard to the British species, by 
tracing them through the northern drift (now found even on the Snowdonian 
range), to the oldest crag deposits when Europe was contained in far different 
boundaries, show how altered may have been the configuration of the new 
world when the oldest of its molluscs were first created. Coordinately with 
the glacial period, Central America may haye been a group of islands ; co- 
ordinately with the creation of Saxicava pholadis and Chrysodomus antiquus, 
the gulf-weed may have floated between the Rocky Mountains in the 
archipelago of West America, and Japanese molluscs may have known how 
to migrate to the Mediterranean shores. Dr. Gould’s position may there- 
fore be accepted in theory ; yet, in practice, the “ imperfection of the geological 
record” *, and even of our knowledge of existing species and their variations, 
demands that the greatest caution be exercised in building results on deduc- 
tions from our ignorance. Already the fossil Malea ringens of the Atlantic 
has proved a “ Rosetta Stone ” to interpret the Cyprea exanthema, Purpura 
patula, and other Caribbean shells of the Pacific ; and as the geology of the 
West Coast advances, so may we expect to find traces of previous denizens of 


* No student of geographical distribution should omit to weigh carefully the chapter 
on this subject in Darwin’s ‘ Origin of Species,’ and the information given in Lyell’s 
§ Antiquity of Man,’ 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA, 681 


American waters, which have bequeathed some species now flourishing, and 
others dying-out, to the existing seas. The present faunas of West America 
are perhaps the most isolated on the surface of the globe; yet, if we knew 
the ancestry of each specific form, we might find some first appearing with man 
on this planet, others first living even in historic times, others tracing their 
descent from remote periods, and it may be very distant localities, in the ages 
of the Miocene, possibly even of the Eocene oceans. These suppositions are 
not set forth as theories, but simply to guard against interpretations of facts 
based on conclusions which may be only the results of our necessarily 
imperfect information. 

123. With regard to forms offering local peculiarities sufficient to dis- 
tinguish them from correlative forms offering equal peculiarities in some other 
fauna, we are by no means warranted in assuming that these have sprung 
from different creations. Ifa race of men, migrating to a new continent, in 
a very few generations, or even in the next, develope an essentially different 
physique, it is fair to conclude that molluscs, borne by a change of currents to 
a distant region, or steadily migrating to the extreme limit of their con- 
_ ditions of life, will also change their appearance. If the publication of the 
“ Darwinian Theory” has had no other effect, it has at least checked the pro- 
pensity to announce ‘“‘new species” for differences which may fairly be re- 
garded as varietal. It must also be borne in mind, that if the views of Mr. 
Darwin be only a theory, such also is the name required for the prevalent 
opinion of separate creations for all diverse forms. What indeed can we 
possibly know of the mode of original creation of a single species? We can 
only prove that one or the other supposition best explains a certain class of 
facts. It is not necessary for a working naturalist to commit himself to an 
exclusive belief in either of these theories. He may perhaps best explain 
some facts by the doctrine of separate creation, others by that of natural 
selection. In either case it is his duty to trace-out, as far as possible, the 
limits as well as the powers of variation in every living form, and to guard 
against seeing that only which accords with his prevailing belief. 

124. The study of European shells, as they exist in Norway, in Britain, in 
the Mediterranean, at the Canaries, or as they appear at different depths 
and stations in our own seas, still more as they occur in the widely separated 
periods of the later and middle tertiary ages, is an excellent preparation for 
the examination of either recent or fossil faunas in districts where our know- 
ledge is fragmentary and unconfirmed. It may be safely stated that there are, 
in the American waters, many tropical forms from the West Indies and the 
Pacific shores, some temperate forms from California and the Atlantic, and 
many sub-boreal species in the Vancouver district and the European seas, 
not differing from each other more or even so much as forms universally 
allowed by malacologists to have had a common origin from Britain and the 
Mediterranean, from the Red and the Coralline Crag. 

125. It is interesting to observe that, notwithstanding the probable con- 
nexion of the oceans through the Rocky Mountains during the Miocene age, 
there is extremely little similarity between the special temperate faunas of 
East and West America. Not a single species has yet been proved identical, 
and the allied forms are but few in number. They appear as follows :— 


Californian species. U. S. Atlantic species, 
Clidiophora punctata, C. trilineata (? =nasuta), 
Lyonsia Californica. L. (hyalina= )Floridana. 
Macoma inconspicua. M. fusca. 

Angulus modestus. A. tener. 


Raéta undulata. R, canaliculata, 


682 REPORT—18638. 


Californian species. U. S. Atlantic species. 
Liocardium substriatum. L. Mortoni. 
Lunatia Lewisii. L. heros. 
Nacsa mendica. N. trivittata. 
Amycla (species). Amycla (species). 


126. When, however, we approach the region in which boreal and sub- 
boreal forms occur, many species are found in common, and between others 
there is but slight difference. Yet even here there are more British than 
New England species in the West-coast fauna. As might be expected, tue 
British species are for the most part those which are also found fossil, and 
therefore have had time to diffuse themselves widely over the hemisphere. 
It is, however, remarkable that many Crag species have reached Eastern 
Asia and West America which are not found in Grand Manan and New 
England. It is also extraordinary that certain special generic forms of the 
Crag, as Acila, Miodon, Verticordia, and Solariella, reappear in the North 
Pacific*. When seeking for an explanation of so remarkable a connexion 
between faunas widely removed in space and time, the correlative fact must 
be borne in mind, that the northern drift, so widely diffused over Europe 
and Eastern America, has not yet been traced in the western region. The 
following Table exhibits, not only the identical but the similar species be- 
longing to the northern faunas of the Atlantic and Pacific. In the Asiatic 
column, K denotes that the species occurs in the Kamtschatka region, J in 
Japan. In the second column, V signifies the Vancouver district, C the Cali- 
fornian, and I the Sta. Barbara group of islands. The species marked F 
are also fossil. In the third column, C denotes the Coralline, R the Red, and 
M the Mammaliferous Crag. The fourth contains the species living in the 
British seas; the fifth, on the American side of the Atlantic, Gr. standing 
for Greenland. 


East Asia. West America. Crag. British. | E. America. 
K V__ Rhynconella psittacea ..| (Pleistocene) |psittacea _[psittacea 
— VC Xylotrya pennatifera.... —- pennatifera — 

— V_Xylotrya timbriata...... — fimbriata 
— VC Zirphea crispata ...... CRM _|{erispata __[crispata 
K VC Saxicaya pholadis ...... CRM _ |pholadis _ [pholadis 
J VC Glycimeris generosa ....| Faujasii, C R _- = 
— V_ Sphenia ovalis ........ ‘?Binghami’ f |Binghami — 
JK VY Mya ‘troncata.....5..... CRM _ {truncata _ |truncata 

JK, lata | V = Macoma inquinata...... lata, RM  |proxima roxima,&¢ 
K V__ Serripes Greenlandicus .. RM = reenland. 
K VI_ Venericardia borealis... . — — borealis 
— V_ Astarte (compacta) ....jcompressa,R M\compressa |compressa 
— V_ Miodon prolongatus ....| corbis, CR = — 

— IF Lucina borealis ........ CRM _ _/borealis — 
— I Cryptodon flexuosus .... C flexuosus — 
China |I _ Verticordia 9-costata....| cardiiformis,C} — — 
— VC Kellia suborbicularis . :. . CR suborbicul. _— 


* Whether there be any similar correspondence in the Polyzoa is not yet known, Mr. 
Busk not having had time to complete his examination. 

t See, in this connexion, a very accurate Table of the species which travel round 
Cape Cod, with their distribution in existing seas and over different provinces of the 
various drift-formations in the Old and New World, by Sanderson Smith, in Aun. Lye. 
Nat. Hist. N. York, vol. vii. 1860, p. 166. 

{ From the Coralline Crag. Looks more like ovalis. 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 


683 


East Asia. West America. 
J VC Lasea rubra .......... 
JK VC Mytilus edulis ........ 
— VC Modiola modiolus ...... 
— V = Modiolaria marmorata . . 
JK V_ = Modiolaria levigata .... 
— I Crenella decussata...... 


JK V_ Nucula tenuis 

Beg ee. VCIF Acila castrensis .... 

K V_Yoldia lanceolata 

‘Ve Leda minuta 73332104 

I Limea subauriculata.., . 
VC Hinnites giganteus 


(Asia) | V_ Limnea palustris ...... 
— VC Cylichna attonsa ...... 
— V_ Haminea hydatis ...... 
— VC Dentalium Indianorum. . 

JK,ceca | V  Lepeta cecoides ...... 
_ V_ Margarita helicina...... 
— Ve Margarita PVahlii...... 
— V Mésalia lacteola........ 
— V_=Lacunavincta ........ 
K(turricula})V Bela fidicula .......... 
— V_ Bela excurvata ........ 
— VC Scalaria Indianorum .... 
K V_ Velutina laevigata ...... 
1 V  Natica clausa.......... 
—_ V CI Eulima micans........ 
— V_ Cerithiopsis tubercularis 
— VI Triforis adversus ...... 
— CI Erato columbella ...... 
— VC Purpura saxicola ...... 
_ V_ Chrysodomus liratus.,.. 
— V_ Trophon multicostatus . . 
127 


Cobboldiz, RM 
RM 


RM 

C 

Cortesyi, C 
M 


eylindracea,CR 


entale, M 


turricula, R 
Trevelliana, R 


M 

R 
polita, CR 

C 

C 
Maugerize, C R 


British. 


rubra 
edulis 
modiolus 
marmorata 
nigra 
decussata 
tenuis 


caudata 
subauricul. 
palustris 
attonsa 
hydatis 
entale 
(czeca, Vor.) 
helicina 


yvincta 
turricula 
Trevelliana 
communis 
leevigata 
(Norway) 
micans 
tubercularis 
adversus 


lapillus 


(N orway) 


E. America. 


edulis 
modiolus 
marmorata 
leevigata 
glandula 
tenuis 
lanceolata 
minuta 


palustris 


striolatum 
ceca, Gr. 
helicina 
Vahlii, Gr. 
lactea, Gr. 
vincta 
turricula 


levigata 
clausa 


—— 


CYVasr) 
lapillus 
10-costatus 
Gunneri 


. The following species (besides others dredged by Mr. A. Adams, but not 


yet determined) have been found on both the Asiatic and American shores of 
the N. Pacific, in addition to those recorded by Middendorff, v. Brit. Assoc. 


Report, p. 223. 


Terebratella Coreanica. 
Waldheimia Californica. 
Waldheimia pulvinata. 
Waldheimia Grayi. 
Glycimeris generosa. 
Schizothrus Nuttallii. 
Solen sicarius. 
Sanguinolaria Nuttallii. 
Tellina Bodegensis. 


Cardium modestum., 
Amusium caurinum. 
Placunanomia macroschisma. 


oe grandis. 
 Drillia inermis. 


Lunatia palli 
Priene Orego 


da. 
nensis, 


Cerostoma foliatum. 
Siphonalia Kellettii. 

128. The Vancouver and Californian districts have so many characteristic 
species in common (111 out of 492), that they must be regarded as con- 
stituting one fauna, differing as do the British and Mediterranean regions, 
Full particulars as to the range of the different species may be expected in 
Dr. Cooper’s Report to the Californian Geological Survey. One fact must, 
however, be here specially noted, viz. the great peculiarity of the island-fauna. 
Although the Sta. Barbara group are so near the mainland, the dredge has 
not only produced maiuy species not known on the continent, but also many 


684: REPORT—1863. 


before considered as essentially tropical. Along with these are not only some 
species of types hitherto regarded as almost exclusively Asiatic, as Verticordia, 
Solariella, and Fulvia modesta, but also some which belong to the sub-boreal 
district, as Lucina borealis, Venericardia borealis, and Crenella decussata, The 
latter belongs to the British, and not to the N. England form. 

129. Ofthe blending of the temperate and tropical faunas on the peninsula of 
L. California we are still in ignorance. All we know is, that at Margarita Bay 
the shells are still tropical, and that at Cerros Island they are strangely inter- 
mixed. There is peculiarevidence of connexion between the faunas of the penin- 
sula and of 8. America, not only in the land-shells (v. anted, p. 630), but in 
some of the marine forms. Beside identical species with wide range, as many Ca- 
lyptreeids, the following are coordinate between the North and South Pacific:— 


Upper and Lower California. South America, 
Netastoma Darwinii. N. Darwinii. 
Solecurtus Californianus. 8. Dombeyi. 

Semele rupium. (Ditto, Galapagos.) 
Callista var. puella. C. pannosa. 
Chama pellucida. C. pellucida. 
Liocardium substriatum. L. Elenense. 
Axinwa (Barbarensis. ) A. intermedia, 
Verticordia novemcostata. V. ornata. 

Pecten equisulcatus. P. ventricosus. 
Siphonaria thersites, S. lateralis, &e. 
Tonicia lineata. T. lineolata. 
Acmeea patina. A. seutum, D’ Ord. 
Acmiea persona. A. “Oregona,” H.C. 
Scurria mitra. S. scurra. 
Chlorostoma funebrale. C. moestum, 

Mitra maura. M. maura. 

Ranella Californica. R. ventricosa. 
Priene Oregonensis. P. cancellata. 
Trophon multicostatus. T, Magellanicus. 


Time and space do not avail for pointing out further relations with exotic 
faunas; which indeed will be performed with greater correctness after Dr. 
Cooper shall have published his complete lists. 

130. For the sake of ayoiding the inconyenience of trinomial nomenclature, 
the subgeneric and varietal names have often been cited in this Report instead 
of the generic and specific, in order that the exact form of the shell quoted 
might be more quickly determined. The diagnoses of all the new species 
here tabulated are written for the press, and will shortly appear in the dif- 
ferent scientific journals. Additional specimens will probably prove several 
forms to be conspecific which are here treated as distinct. In the present 
state of the science, absolute certainty is not to be attained. The object of 
the writer* has been principally to bring together the works of his prede- 
cessors, and so to arrange and describe the new materials that those who 
continue his labours may be able to draw their own conclusions from existing 
data. In order to facilitate reference, a brief index is here given of the 
subject-matter of the former and of the present Reports. 


* The best thanks of the writer are due to Hugh Cuming, Esq., for the free use of his 
collection ; to Messrs. H. & A. Adams, Hanley, Reeve, and Sowerby, for aid in identifying 
specimens ; to the officers and naturalists connected with the Smithsonian Institution ; 
to Dr. A. A. Gould, for very valuable corrections ; and generally to authors and friends, 
who haye kindly rendered him all the assistance in their power. He earnestly invites 
criticisms on the subject-matter of the two Reports ; in order that they may be embodied, 
and errors corrected, in the Manuals of the West-Coast Mollusca which he has undertaken 
to prepare for the Smithsonian Institution. 

Warrington, Aug. 22nd, 1864. 


. 


— ae 


ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 


685 


Page in 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
; vines i h. 

—). Physical Condition of West America .., Be aod 
61 2. Errors respecting Habitat .. ose ae Bes we 162 
13-21. Errors of Nomenclature ... aos ane Dor 164 
22. Table of Localities.. 5D nee pe meee LOG 

23. Table of collectors. Early Writers. Linnzeus, Solander, 

- Martyn, Chemnitz, Dixon, Dombey, Perr y Leach, 
Dillwyn, Lamarck, Swainson ... wc 168 
24. Humboldt and Bonpland (Valenciennes) 169 
25. Voyage of ‘ Coquille:’ Lesson we Peiseail 
26. Eschscholtz .. ade ave Fey gil 
27. Tankerville Catalogue : Zoological ‘Journal wavy de: 
28. Voyage of ‘Blossom’: Beechey, Belcher 175 
29. Wood's ‘ Index Testaceologicus and Supplement 178 
30. Voyage of ‘ Astrolabe’: Quoy and Gaimard 179 
31. Voyage of ‘ Adventure’ and ‘ Beagle’: King 179 
32. Hugh Cuming’s Researches ac jee 179 
33. D’ Orbigny’s S. America ae om 189 
34. Botta : vas : 191 
35. Blainville’s Pur pure 191 
36. Guérin’s Magasin : Duclos ans 191 
37. Voyage of ¢ Beagle’ : Darwin (see also p. "359) .. eepsiene! (7 
38. Lady Katherine » Douglas (afterwards Wigr: ae me 192 
39. Nuttall; Conrad me Ail) 
40. Voyage of « Bonite’ : Bydoux and ‘Souleyet 201 
41. : ‘Venus’ : Deshayes, Valenciennes ... se. 202 
42. ‘ Sulphur’ : Hinds . 204 
43. U.S. Exploring Expedition ; Gould 208 
44, Middendorff Ae 214 
45. Voyage of ‘ Samarang’: Adams and Reeve 224 
46. E.'B. * Philippi 224. 
47. Mexican-War Naturalists, Rich and Green; also J ewett 225 
48, 49. Melchers; Menke .. oe “ie ae os 235 
50. Kellett and Wood ; Forbes : rise oe 239 
51. Reigen; Br. Mus. Mazatlan Catalogue noe 5: 241 
, 110. Conrad on Wilson’s shells E 264 
53. Jay’s Catalogue : 265 
54. C.B B. Adams; Panama Catalogue 265 
55. Br. Mus. Catalogues ; Veneridee . 281 
56. Sailor’s Collection ... : ath 281 
57,98. Gould’s Collection .. Se: ove 283 
58. Bridges... 284 
59. Pr dubodiinds of the Zoological Society 285 
60. Sowerby ; ‘ Conchological Illustrations ’ 288 

61 4 ‘ Thesaurus ; Conchyliorum’ and ‘ Malacological 
Magazine’ 288 
s, Sowerby’s ‘Genera’ "; Reeve’ gs‘ Conchologia Systematica’ Nes 
62. Reeve’s ‘ Conchologia Tconica’ 289 
63. Kiener, ‘ Coquilles Vivantes’ 293 

64, 65. German authors; ; Pfeiffer, Menke, Philippi, Kiister, 
Dunker 294 
66. British Museum Collection 296 
67. Cumingian Collection 297 

68. Various European sources: Bose, ‘Lesson, Gray, “Wood- 

ward, Hanley, Journ. de Conch., Chenu, Ducros, 
Deshayes coe Se 297 
69, 121. General Table of the Western Faunas eA 297 
70,71. Isolation from other Provinces ... see Ay o. §=63846 
72,73. Boreal and Sitcha District His sn 347 
74-76. Fauna of Oregon and Upper California... 348 

77, 78. Zo Lower California; S. gee 8. Bedto,§ 8.5 uan, 
~ La Paz, Guaymas ‘S 350 
79-83. Tropical Fauna; Galapagos ts 853 
84-87, 122. Comparison with other Faunas ... Pee 362 


ra I. Bias II. 


635 


680 


686 REPORT—1868. 


Page in 
Pact Report I. Report II. 
88. Land and Freshwater Shells Bos aha she. TICUO. ke a. 
89. Polyzoa ... eH Ses ind WON ates 
91, 120. Fossil Species; U. 8. Expl. ‘Exp... se! fan peay BORmie ee OTD 
90, 92. Conclusion of First Report DOT se. 


93. Smithsonian Institution ; Collections and Publications... videlaibtes PROUT 
94. N. Pacific Exploring Expedition ; has ai Gould). sen ate eee IDS 


95. U.S. Japan Expedition; Jay... BEES dikes lc ii 
96. A. Adams; Ja ie oe) eepies DES 
97. Pacific Haoad I Depots "Blake's Fossils res 05, ake) Ree POOS 
98. - Gould’s Shells as #09) DOD) opesiy BOD 
ne % > Newberry’s Fossils ... oa% aed eles BeOO eS 
100. 5s . Antisell’s Fossils... ana aioe DROOL 
101. W. Cooper's Shells (Coop. sue abe Vee O00 
102. U. 8. N. Pacific “Boundary Survey ; Kennerley ... sisi A\bes (MOO 
103. Brit. ; Lord, Lyall, Forbes os» sites 603 
104. Californian State Geological Survey; J. G. PROORE (CP.) sep white tal OCG 
105. Cape St. Lucas Shells; Xantus ... san OLG 
106. Neeah Bay, Vancouver, &c.; Swan ues e5 tot sieht es BRODIT 
107. Farallone Islands ... 355 ae sists, (feeb, Mes BOOS 
108. J. G. Cooper’s Land Shells ; Bland... oo is6 rare gO2o 
109. Land Shells of Lower California wee eee 680 

110. Californian Naturalists: Trask, Newcomb, Rowell, Gabb, 
Remond ... : nat 5 ges ePODL 
111. Various American publications ee os», WeagiOon 
112. General Table of the Vancouver and Californian Fauna... ... 635 

113. Additional Shells from Lower California and the Gulf; 
Cerros Island, Margarita Bay, La Paz,Guaymas... ... ... 664 

114. Additional Shells of Tropical Fauna; Acapulco, Real 
Llejos, Panama aaa) “Yen s00S 

115. General List of Land, Freshwater, and “Marine Pulmo- 
nates; Binney ... ove. jaee 069 
116. Paludinide, &e: ; ; Binney ... ate os ae <'2ep ainveehgiis s MRO TAS 
117. Melaniadz ; Binney ~ ae +} a ais snese mare, 
118. Unionide; Lea... =r an 4 ue ear Rave 
119. Cyrenidx ; Prime . is nes a ak ond), heggg OPO LS 
91, 120. Tertiary Fossils... fa Ses ade 004, S07, os STO 
69, 121. Corrections of General Table |... 5 a vas, 200) destasDoo 
84, 122. Comparison with other Faunas ... 8 as 335 S02 dees SSO 
123. Local peculiarities ... 6 2a Fr ice), plese arenes L 
124. Comparative study of European Fauna ... ae Sox) ep eee een 
125. Comparison with Eastern American Fauna... eee ecto 
126. Comparison with the Crag Fossils ee oa sn) (boas pea satee EES 
127. Comparison with Asiatic Shells... a oe s") yh chs ene tED 
128. Peculiarities of the Island Fauna wee)” asm, | aE 
129. Comparison of the West Coast of N. and §. America ... ... ... 684 
130. Explanation of Nomenclature... oie) Pena Ge OSs 


Report on Steam-Boiler Explosions. 
By Professor Airy, F.R.S., Astronomer Royal. 


In considering the cause of the extensive mischief done by the bursting of a 
high-pressure steam-boiler, it is evident that the small quantity of steam 
contained in the steam-chamber has very little to do with it. That steam 
may immediately produce the rupture; but as soon as the rupture is made 
and some steam escapes, and the pressure on the water is diminished, a 
portion of the water is immediately converted into steam at a slightly lower 
temperature and lower pressure; and this in the same way is followed by 


4 ee 


ON STEAM-BOILER EXPLOSIONS. 687 


other steam at a still lower temperature and pressure; and so on, till the 
temperature is reduced to 212° F., and the pressure to0. Then there remains 
in the boiler a portion of water at the boiling-point, the other portion having 
gone off in the shape of steam of continually diminishing pressure. From 
this it is evident that the destructive energy of the steam, when a certain 
pressure is shown by the steam-gauge, is proportional to the quantity of 
water in the boiler. 

I have long desired to possess myself of some theory and experiments 
which would enable me to form a numerical estimate of the proportion 
between the quantity of water at a given temperature and its destructive 
power. Several years ago I corresponded on this subject with my friend 
Professor W. H. Miller, of Cambridge ; but it appeared difficult then to find 
sufficient materials for a certain conclusion. In the present year I again 
requested him to take up the subject; and I received from him a complete 
theory on the generation of steam in the way which I have described, with 
references to the latest trustworthy experiments bearing on the subject. I 
also received from him references to the experiments of the French General 
Didion, illustrating the power of gunpowder in cannons. About the same 
time, by the kindness of Messrs. Ransomes and Sims, of Ipswich, experiments 
had been made, at my request, by their able engineering superintendent, George 
A. Biddell, Esq., on the quantity of water which does actually escape in steam 
from a boiler in which the pressure has been raised to 60 lbs. per square inch. 
The result of this experiment agreed well with Professor Miller’s theory, 
suggesting only a small correction, which Professor Miller refers, and, I 
doubt not, justly, to the iron of the boiler. From these I have been able to 
obtain a result which I believe to be worthy of every confidence. 

I will first state, as the immediate result of Mr. Biddell’s experiments, 
that when there were, in the boiler of a small locomotive, 22 cubic feet of 
water at the pressure of 60 lbs. per square inch, and the fire was raked out, and 
the steam was allowed gently to escape with perfect security against priming, 
the quantity of water which passed off before the pressure was reduced to 0 
was 2? cubic feet, or one-eighth of the whole. 

In regard to the use made of Professor Miller’s theory, Professor Miller 
had succeeded in obtaining a numerical expression for the pressure of the 
steam at twelve different measures of the volume occupied by water and steam, 
which expression I have succeeded in integrating accurately; and I have 
thus obtained an accurate numerical expression for the destructive energy 
of the steam. In regard to the use of General Didion’s experiments, these 
experiments give the velocity of the ball, in cannon of different sizes, pro- 
duced by different charges of powder. I have found, by trial with the formula 

Wu 
29 x weight of powder 
energy per kilogramme of powder, and have adopted it in the comparison. 

The result is as follows :— 

The destructive energy of one cubic foot of water, at 60 lbs. pressure per 


, Which of these experiments exhibits the greatest 


“square inch, is equal to the destructive energy of two English pounds of 


gunpowder in General Didion’s cannon-experiments. 

General Didion’s experiments were made, as I understand, with smooth- 
bored cannon. It cannot be doubted that much energy is lost in the windage, 
some also from the circumstance that the propelling power ceases at the 
muzzle of the gun before all the energy is expended, and some from the 
coolness of the metal. If we suppose that, from all causes, one-half of the 
energy was lost, then we have this simple result :— 


688 REPORT—1863. 


The gauge-pressure being 60 Ibs. per square inch, one cubic foot of water 
is as destructive as one pound of gunpowder. 

In one of Mr. Biddell’s experiments, the steam-yalve was opened rather 
suddenly, and the steam escaped instantly with a report like that of a very 
heavy piece of ordnance. This is not to be wondered at; forit appears, from 
the comparison above, that the effect was the same as that of firmg a cannon 
whose charge is 44 lbs. of powder. 


Observations on the Electrical Resistance and Electrification of some 
Insulating Materials under Pressures up to 300 Atmospheres. By 
C. W. Siemens, C.E., F.R.S. 


Ir has been repeatedly observed that the insulation-resistance of deep-sea 
cables improves on their being submerged, unless the cables be absolutely 
faulty. But it remained for a long time an open question whether this 
improvement was to be ascribed to the pressure of the water or only to the 
lower temperature at the bottom. This question has, however, been set at 
rest by the electrical tests applied to the Malta-Alexandria cable at the 
Gutta-percha Works, Mr. Reid’s arrangements enabling me to subject the 
coils, during their electrical examination, to a pressure of 600 lbs. on the 
square inch. 

Before pressure was put on, the coils were always immersed for 24 hours 
in water, at a constant temperature of 24°C. The electrical resistance of 
the insulating covering of each knot of the conductor was measured before, 
during, and after pressure, the temperature of the pressure-tank being always 
maintained at 24° C. The ayerage improvement of the insulation under this 
pressure, after the zinc current had been kept to the cable during one minute, 
was found to be nearly 14 per cent., or assuming the improvement to be 
directly proportional to the pressure shown by the gauge, the resistance Rp 
of any coil of this cable under the pressure P, in Ibs., per square inch, whose 
resistance at atmospheric pressure was R, would be expressed by 

Rp=R (14 0:00023P). 
The observations of which the coefficient 0:00023 is a mean would be too 
voluminous to repeat here; the principal part of them is included in the 
weekly reports on the electrical conditions of the cable during its manufacture. 

A pressure-tank has since been constructed at the Gutta-percha Works, in 
which a considerably greater pressure can be attained. I have taken advan- 
tage of this, to have the separate knots of the core of the Oran-Carthagena 
cable, now in course of manufacture, tested under a pressure of 300 atmo- 
spheres—fully equal to that to which the cable will be exposed at the bottom 
of the Mediterranean*. 

The same opportunity has enabled me also to make a few experiments with 
a view to determine the dependence of the insulation-resistances of gutta 
percha, india-rubber, and of a combination of both these materials from ex- 
ternal pressure. I have further extended the experiments to ascertain the 
ratio of increase of the insulation-resistances by polarization or electrification 
under different pressures. 

The results are collected in the following Tables :— 


* The depth of the Mediterranean in that part does not exceed 1500 fathoms, 


~& 


ON THE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE OF INSULATING MATERIALS. 689 


TasiEe I.—G@utta-percha-covered Wire. 


a Coil 13. Coil 18. 
——E—E——E—E—————EE———EEEE 


iy AR ‘ AR : AR R. AR 
1 min.| 151.AP. in.| 192. AP. in.| 145.AP.|3 min. | 179. AP. 


millions. illions. illions. millions. 


00034 00031 | 1 0-0083 ee 00084 


0:0047 0:0033 0:0034 975 0:0038 
0:0028 0:0040 0:0029 320 0:0034 
0:0036 0:0037 0:0036 357 0:0038 


Remarks.—* The cable had been put to earth for a considerable time before these 
measurements were made, and was put to earth for 15 min. after each 3 min. test. 


Taste II.—Gutta-percha-covered Wire (No. 22). 


Pressure 1 minute. 4 minutes. 9 minutes. 14 minutes. 19 minutes. 
Se a a ae (Ak Mea leeks Fae 
spheres. A A AR A AR 
P. R. | o37ap.| B® | opzap.| B® | aziap.| FB | sapap.| F | apaap 
" millions. millions. millions. millions. millions. 
0" | 287 | 0.0026 | 293 | 00031 | 221 | oo0se | 242 | o-0032 | 354 | 0.0037 
75 | 283 | % 362 | 90081 | 41y 434 | 452 
00044 0-0051 0:0047 00047 00048 
150 |.362 | 2 474 | % 597 | 0 557 | 2 579 
00042 0:0089 0:0053 0:0055 0-0065 
225 | 436 | 0.0047 | 59 | 0.0065 | 9 | 0.0026 | 722 | o-0os4 | 72 | 0.0084 
300 | 519 | 90047 | 701 724 789 84] 
eee | sed | | ssa | et Py gre Ve 
ot | 242 | 805 346 | — | 366 366 | — 


Remarks.—* Between each series of observations the cable was put to earth for 
two hours. + Immediately after pressure. { Three hours after pressure. 


Tasie II].—Gutta-percha-covered Wire (No. 22). 


Pressure AR 

. in atmo- | Resistance. 

a. spheres. R. 381 AP. ee 
Ps 
hm millions. 
Ciel’, 0 380 0-0038 Current had been kept on the cable 
7 6 75 490 half-an-hour to complete the elec- 
7 9 0 402 0-00. 49 trification previous to taking the 
7 20 150 642 first reading, and was not inter- 
: eS ote 415 0 00. 44 | rupted during the series. 
790 

7 31 0 429 aN 
289) 800% [°° ag? 1000082 
7 42 0 429 sas 
10 0 0 381 Te 


1863. 2Qy 


690 REPORT—1863. 


Taste LV.—India-rubber-covered Wire. 


Pressure me 
: in atmo- | Resistance. 
Time. | spheres. | BR. _T28aP. Doragee 
P. 
nym millions. 
10 0 0 128 _0-00083 Zinc-current had been half-an-hour 
10 10 75 120 ~ 000042 to cable to complete electrifica- 
10 17 150 116 _ 000031 tion, and kept on during the ob- 
10 28 225 113 _ 000125 servations uninterrupted. 
10 33 300 101 This reading was scarcely made, 


when the needle of the galvano- 
meter showed a considerable fault 
to have occurred. The fault was 
afterwards found to be in the 
stuffing-box. 


See ES Se 


Taste V.—India-rubber-covered Wire. 


Pressure 1 minute. 4 minutes. 9 minutes. 14 minutes. 19 minutes. 
inatno:)| ———— SO ee | ae 
me |e | ge |B | ore | ® | oan | ® | roar 

—0:0016 77 —0:0015 81 —0:0020| “g5 0:0028 


pe y 00008] 77 |-oo012) (7 |-o-0021} Gf |-0-0017 
Oriratiy ot tee foe emo T sm oS Mas 
ae ha: ao a 87 ap as 


Remarks.—* Cable to earth two hours between each series. + Immediately after 
pressure. } Three hours after pressure. 


Taste VI.— Wire covered with India-rubber and Gutta percha (No. 13). 


Pressure | mm AR 

: in atmo- sistance. | _Stv 

came: spheres. R. 59AP. Sema 
P. 

h m millions. aif 
11 0 0 59 0-0011 Zinc-current had been kept on the 
ll 9 75 64 0-0011 cable during an hour before the first 
11 17 150 69 0-0005 reading was made, and not inter- 
11 29 225 71 0-0011 rupted during the series. 


11 36 300 76 
11 39 0 58 


ON THE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE OF INSULATING MATERIALS. 69] 


Taste VII.— Wire covered with India-rubber and Gutta percha (No. 27). 


Pressure AR | 
é in atmo-| Resistance. 
Time spheres, R. T7AP. Remarks. 
iP: 
ea millions. ae x : 
2 0 0 77 . urrent had been on 12 hour. 
2 10 75 lh eres , 
218 150 100 0-0019 
2 27 225 111 0-0028 
2 40 300 127 
2 47 0 80 Immediately after pressure. 
2 55 0 75 Ten minutes after pressure. 


Tables I., IJ., and III. contain the results of experiments with gutta-percha 
cables. The gutta-percha-covered conductor used consisted of coils of copper 
strand (three wires), weighing 72 lbs. per knot, and covered to 0-26 inch with 
three coatings of gutta percha, with intervening thin layers of Chatterton’s 
compound. The length of each of the coils was about a knot, and two of 
them were always placed in the pressure-tank at the same time; but they 
were tested separately. 

The coils, which had been for twenty-four hours previously maintained at 
a constant temperature, were placed in the pressure-tank, which was kept 
during the experiments at the same temperature. One end was sealed, and 
the other passed through a stuffing-box in the side of the tank to the testing- 
board. 

When the coils were in the tank, a vacuum was first made, then the water 
admitted, and, finally, the pressure put on in stages of 75 atmospheres, until 
the pressure of 300 atmospheres was attained. 

The battery-power used was uniformly 200 elements (Daniell’s). 

The resistances given in the Tables are reduced from the deflections of a 
Dubois’ zine galvanometer, and are expressed in millions of mercury (métre) 
units. 

Table I. contains the results of some measurements of electrical resistance 
of the coils, noted after the current had been active for one and three minutes 
respectively, at various pressures. The cable was put to earth for a sufficient 
time between the readings, under different pressures, to prevent the residuum, 
or electrification by the current, of one test interfering with the values ob- 
tained for the next test. 

The columns headed —— in the Tables give the ratios of increase of re- 
sistance due toa unit of pressure. The other columns are self-explanatory. 

The experiments recorded in Table II. were made to determine the effect 
of pressure on the capacity for electrification of gutta percha. It is well 
known that the apparent insulation of gutta percha increases during the first 
half-hour from the moment the battery is put to it, after which it becomes 
nearly constant. The observations in this instance were continued for 19 
minutes after making contact with the battery. 

The first series of readings were made under atmospheric pressure after 1, 
4, 9,14, and 19 minutes’ continuance of current respectively. The cable was 
- then put, for two hours, to earth. Similar series were made under various 
pressures up to 300 atmospheres, putting the cable between each series to 

2x2 


692 REPORT—18638. 


earth for the same length of time; also two such series without pressure, the 
first immediately after taking off the pressure, the other after the cable had 
been three hours to earth. 


, ‘ i eer 
It appears from the coefficients in the columns headed eS AP 2 this Table, 


that pressure has no marked influence on the electrification of gutta percha ; 
the relative amount of electrification being, in all cases, only a function of the 
time during which the current is kept on. The same constancy of electrical 
resistance or electrification was observed in regard to differences of tempera- 
ture by Mr. Fleeming Jenkin as early as 1859 *. 

In the measurements recorded in Table III., the electrification of the cable 
was completed under atmospheric pressure before taking the first reading. 
The pressure was then raised to 75 atmospheres, under which the resistance 
was observed. The pressure was then taken off, and the resistance observed 
again. Readings were then made alternately under atmospheric pressure and 
pressures increased each time by 75 atmospheres. 

It will be observed that the resistance of the insulating covering increased 
on the application of the pressure of 75 atmospheres from 380 to 490 millions, 
and on taking off this pressure did not, as might have been expected, imme- 
diately fall back again to its original value, but only after an interval of 
three hours. 

The coefficients in Tables I., II., and III. are on an average the same as 
those obtained with the core of the Malta-Alexandria cable. 

I may further mention here that the tests were extended to measuring the 
induction of the insulating materials. The results proved that the inductive 
capacity of gutta percha is not affected by pressure. 

Being desirous to ascertain whether the same physical laws indicated by 
these observations were equally applicable to other insulating materials, I 
subjected a length of wire covered with india-rubber to the same test. A 
length of half-a-mile of copper wire, No. 16, B. W. G., which had been covered 
with three coats of masticated india-rubber by the longitudinal process intro- 
duced by me some years ago, was kindly placed at my disposal by the Gutta- 
percha Company, after having been submerged in the canal at Wharf Road 
for a period of about 18 months. At the ends where the core had been exposed 
to the air and light, the india-rubber had turned into a viscid mass, but, on 
raising the coil out of the water, it was found to be perfectly sound, although 
the india-rubber had turned white by absorption of water, and was completely 
covered with vegetable and animal substances. Its electrical resistance, ac- 
cording to the tests of Dr. Esselbach and of Mr. Willoughby Smith, Electrician 
to the Company, was still very high. 

Table IV. contains the resistances of the india-rubber coating; in millions 
of units, after the zinc-current had been kept half-an-hour on, under various 
pressures ; and Table V. the resistances under different pressures read off after 
the current had been on 1, 4, 9, 14, and 19 minutes respectively. 

From the test in the former of these Tables, the surprising fact was demon- 
strated that the electrical resistance of india-rubber decreases as the pressure is 
increased, being the reverse of the behaviour of gutta percha. 

The vertical columns in Table V. corroborate this, whilst the horizontal 
columns (showing the resistance after the current had been active during the 
stated intervals of time under various pressures) indicate this further remark- 
able difference between the two insulating materials, that whereas, in the 

* Report of the Twenty-ninth Meeting of the British Association at Aberdeen in 1859, 
Trans. of Sect, p. 248, : 


ON THE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE OF INSULATING MATERIALS. 693 


case of gutta percha, the increase of electrification is proportional to the in- 
crease of electrical resistance by pressure, the electrification of india-rubber 
decreases with the pressure in a ratio surpassing the decrease of electrical 
resistance. 

Struck by this extraordinary difference in the effects of pressure upon these 
two materials, I next submitted to my tests a wire covered first with india- 
rubber by the longitudinal process, and thereupon with gutta percha to the 
thickness of 0°175 inch. 

In submitting a wire so covered to pressure, I made certain that the results 
obtained could not be influenced by any direct action of the water upon the 
india-rubber by absorption or otherwise, owing to the intervention of the 
gutta percha. 

Tables VI. and VII. contain the resistances of the insulating materials at 
different pressures, the electrification being completed. 

These observations are interesting in so far as they confirm the foregoing 
results with gutta percha and india-rubber, the coefficients being a mean 
between those of the two materials separately, as will be seen by the 
following :— 


Mean of coefficients for gutta percha from Tables I., IT., and III... + 0-0041. 
The same for india-rubber from Tables IV. and V. ............ —0-0009. 
The same for both these materials combined from Tables VI. and VII. +0-0016. 


The accompanying diagram, constructed from Tables III., IV., and VILI., 
is added to give a graphic representation of the variations observed in the 


f Gutta percha. 


and 
India-rubber. 


Resistance. 
— 


See India-rubber. 


| 
sm 


100 200 300 atmospheres. 
Pressure. 


electrical resistances under increasing pressures. The abscissee represent 
pressures, and the ordinates the electrical resistances when the maximum of 
electrification was attained. 


694. REPORT—1863. 


These results go to prove that external pressure exercises a decided influence 
upon the electrical condition of gutta percha and india-rubber, and probably 
upon every other substance in nature. They go to prove, moreover, that this 
change of electrical condition cannot be attributed to general physical laws,— 
as, for instance, to the supposition that the nearer approach of the particles 
under the influence of external pressure interferes with their transmission of 
electrical motion,—but must be referred to the specific atomic arrangement of 
the material in question. 

It appears to me desirable that these researches should be extended to other 
materials, including both good and bad conductors, in order to arrive at more 
satisfactory general conclusions ; but such experiments are of a difficult and 
expensive nature, and I thought that even the few results I have put together 
in this paper would be acceptable to the Association. 


On the Construction of Iron Ships and the Progress of Iron Shipbuild- 
ing on the Tyne, Wear, and Tees. By Cuaries M. Paumer. 


Tue art of constructing ships dates from remote antiquity, and we find in 
history, sacred and profane, many particulars of the ships in use in ancient 
times. As civilization advanced, and the science of navigation became better 
understood, ships increased in size, strength, capacity, and speed. Year after 
year brought its improvements, century after century its changes, until the 
art of shipbuilding in wood approached perfection, and the rude coracles 
and row galleys of our forefathers had given place to the clipper-ship, with 
its fine lines, tapering masts, and flowing canvas, the merchantman driven 
by steam at a high speed across the ocean, and the three-decked, steam- 
propelled man-of-war. Then a demand arose for vessels of a still higher 
character—merchantmen possessing still greater speed, men-of-war suffi- 
ciently powerful to resist the destructive shot and shell which the genius of 
men like our friend and townsman, the President of the Association, was 
inventing. With wood as the material to be employed, this demand could 
not be met; but human skill was equal to the emergency. The important 
discovery was made that ‘ships built of iron float lighter, strength for 
strength, than ships built of wood;” and although for many years the pre- 
judices of some men and the interests of others prevented the general adop- 
tion of the principle, it eventually triumphed, and now iron is rapidly super- 
seding wood as material of which ships are constructed. 

The principal advantages that are claimed for ships of iron, as compared 
with vessels of timber, are briefly these :— 

In vessels of 1000 tons the iron ship will weigh 35 per cent. less than 
the timber vessel, the displacement of water being the same. The iron 
ship will therefore carry more weight, and as the sides are only about one- 
half the thickness, there will consequently be more space for cargo. The 
additional strength obtainable, too, allows iron ships to be built much longer 
and with finer lines, thus ensuring higher sailing or steaming qualities, with 
greater carrying power, and therefore greater commercial results. In 
wooden vessels, repairs of ruinous extent are frequently required, while the 
repairs in iron ships are generally of a lighter character, and are only needed 
at long intervals. An iron ship is not liable to strain in a heavy sea, 
whereas the straining of a timber vessel often damages a valuable cargo. The 
bilges of an iron ship ean be kept clean and free from the disease-engendering 


ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF IRON SHIPS. 695 


bilge-water which is always found in a wooden ship. Moreover, the use of 
iron masts, steel yards, and wire rigging effects a very large saving of weight, 
and affords the greatest facilities for the application of patent reefing sails 
and other appliances by which economy of labour is attained, and many risks 
of loss of human life avoided. 

As to the form of building iron ships, and the manner of combining the 
iron so as to obtain. the requisite amount of strength with the least amount 
of material, much difference of opinion exists amongst practical men. The 
angle-iron frame and plating of the iron vessel take respectively the places 
of the timbers and planking of the wooden ship; and it has been found by 
experience that plating sth of an inch thick is equivalent in effect to 
planking of oak one inch thick, while plating 14ths of an inch thick is equal 
to planking of oak 5 inches thick. As in the largest American wooden 
vessels the plank is seldom more than 5 inches thick, so it may be argued 
on the above data that the plating of the largest iron ship need not be more 
than 11ths thick; and that any strength required above that which such 
plating would give, should be obtained by means of framework. Many 
practical men, however, advocate the system of light framework, and, in order 
to obtain the measure of strength necessary, the application of thicker plates. 
That the principle of strong framing and plating of moderate thickness is 
most advantageous, may be shown by many facts other than those which 
are derived from the most modern practice of wood shipbuilding. The 
strength of an iron ship, as in a girder, depends on its capability to resist 
the buckling and tensile strains that it is called on to bear; but I believe 
that we have in reality only to make a ship strong enough to resist the 
buckling strain; and I am led to this conclusion by experiments conducted 
for that celebrated work, the Britannia Bridge, which proved that in con- 
structions of wrought iron the resistance to the tensile strain is much greater 
than the resistance to buckle, and, in consequence, the upper parts of the 
girders are made much stronger than the lower parts. We have, in my 
opinion, to make the parts of an iron ship, in principle, like a girder. A 
girder, however, is at rest and the strains are always in some known direc- 
tion; but in a ship whose position is ever varying, it requires to be so con- 
structed as to resist the strains in such varied positions. If the side of a 
ship could remain, as in a girder, constantly vertical, then the advocates for 
the thick plates and small frames might be able to show that their system 
was the most economical way to obtain the requisite strength ; but as such side, 
if laid over, as it is in a ship at sea, would, without support, bend or buckle 
of its own weight, it is evident that the framing is absolutely necessary to keep 
the plating firm in position, and consequently the strength of the ship de- 
pends in a very great degree on the strength of the framing. Another fact 
that shows the economy of strong frames, is that a plate, with a piece of angle- 
iron attached to its edge, would bear much more before buckling than a 
similar plate increased in thickness so as to weigh the same as the plate 
and angle-iron. But the great and most important argument in favour of 
moderately thick plates and strong framing is, that all the work must be 
put together by hand; for though many attempts have been made to rivet 
ships by machinery, none seem yet to have been successful even in a me- 
chanical point of view. So soon, therefore, as the thickness of plates and the 
size of the rivets pass the point at which the workman with ordinary ex- 
ertion can accomplish good work, then the attachment of the parts by means 
of riveting is subject to the risks of imperfect workmanship. It is, there- 
fore, my opinion, both in a practical and theoretical point of view, that we 


696 REPORT— 1863. 


ought not to use plating in any vessel, however large, more than about three- 
quarters of an inch thick. 

In the early period of iron shipbuilding the frames were generally com- 
posed of simple bars of angle-iron, but they are now usually doubled by a 
reverse bar, which is riveted on the principal bar, so as to make a frame 
whose cross section is like the letter Z, and this form is perhaps as strong as 
any that could with economy be obtained. In some large ships, plates of iron 
on edge were placed between the angle-irons so as to enlarge the section. 
The frame thus formed required longitudinal supports to bind it together, 
and those all-important strengthening pieces, called stringers, box and other 
keelsons were introduced. The great advantage of these appliances is, that 
they may be placed exactly where the ship requires support, and that, too, 
with the least possible amount of iron. As to the application of these 
stringers and keelsons, the shipbuilder must be guided by the form, propor- 
tions, and other circumstances connected with the construction of the ship. 

To show how far this system of longitudinal framing may be carried with 
success, I may point to the ship ‘ Richard Cobden,’ designed by Mr. Guppy (known 
in connexion with the construction of the ‘Great Britain’) in 1844. This 
vessel was framed so as to leave rectangular spaces to be covered with the 
outside plating; these spaces were 23 feet vertically, and 5 and 6 feet 
horizontally, and in no part of this highly successful construction were the 
plates more than sths thick. 

As to the riveting, which is of the utmost importance in shipbuilding, I 
shall say a few words. In making boilers, single riveting is usually adopted, 
but there the strain is constantly in one direction. In ships the direction of 
the strain is changeable as the vessel moves ; therefore double, and in some 
cases triple riveting has been used with great advantage. Mr. Fairbairn 
estimates that the tensile effect of single riveting is represented by 56, 
double riveting by 70, and triple riveting by 90, and these proportions 
would appear to hold good whether in chain or zigzag riveting. The former, 
however, has been shown by experiment to have an advantage over the latter 
of about 20 per cent. in the tensile strain. 

In concluding this necessarily brief account of the general principle on 
which iron ships are constructed, I may mention that the only objections 
that can reasonably be urged against ships made of this material, are that the 
compasses are difficult of adjustment, and that the bottoms get foul. Let us, 
however, hope that science, in the promotion of which the British Association 
is so powerful an agent, may in a short time show us how both these diffi- 
eulties may be overcome. 

I now proceed to what is perhaps the more interesting division of this 
paper, viz., a sketch of the progress of iron shipbuilding on the Tyne, Wear, 
and Tees. 

For a very long period the district of the Tyne, Wear, and Tees has been 
famous for its shipping. A committee of the House of Commons, that sat 
so far back as the year 1642, designated Newcastle as “the nursery for 
shipping,” and Defoe, writing of the Tyne in 1727, states that “they build 
ships here to perfection—I mean as to strength and firmness, and to bear 
the sea.” 

The history of iron shipbuilding in this district does not commence, how- 
ever, until the year 1840. In March of that year, the ‘John Garrow,’ of 
Liverpool, a vessel of 800 tons burthen, the first iron ship seen in these rivers, 
arrived at Shields, and caused considerable excitement. A shipbuilding 
firm at Walker commenced to use the new material almost immediately, and 


ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF IRON SHIPS. 697 


on the 23rd of September, 1842, the iron steamer ‘ Prince Albert’ glided from 
Walker slipway into the waters of the Tyne. 

During the next eight or ten years very little progress was made. The 
vessels mostly in demand were colliers, and no one thought of applying iron 
in their construction; but about the year 1850, the carriage of coals by 
railway began seriously to affect the sale of north-country coal in the London 
market, and it became essential, in the interest of the coal-owners and others, 
to devise some means of conveying the staple produce of this district to 
London in an expeditious, regular, and at the same time economical manner. 
To accomplish this object, I caused an iron screw steamer to be designed in 
_ such a manner as to secure the greatest possible capacity, with engines only 
sufficiently powerful to ensure her making her voyages with regularity. 
This vessel, the ‘John Bowes,’ the first screw collier, was built to carry 650 
tons, and to steam about nine miles an hour. To the success of this experi- 
ment may be attributed, in a great measure, the present important develop- 
ment of iron shipbuilding in this district, and the fact that we continue to 
supply so largely the London market with coals. On her first voyage, the 
‘John Bowes’ was laden with 650 tons of coals in four hours; in forty- 
eight hours she arrived in London ; in twenty-four hours she discharged her 
cargo; and in forty-eight hours more she was again in the Tyne; so that 
in five days she performed successfully an amount of work that would have 
taken two average-sized sailing colliers upwards of a month to accomplish. 

The amount of prejudice with which nautical men, and persons engaged 
in the shipping and coal trades, opposed the introduction of screw colliers 
was great. They argued that it would be impossible for steamers carrying 
650 tons of coals, and costing about £10,000, to compete with vessels that 
consumed no fuel, and which, though carrying only half the quantity, cost little 
more than £1000, or only one-tenth the amount. I was, however, confident 
of the result, and persisted in the development of the system. How far my 
views have proved correct will be borne out by the following Table, which 
shows the number of cargoes and tons of coals imported into London by 
screw steamers in each year, from July 31, 1852 (the date of entry of the 
first screw steamer, ‘ John Bowes’) to June 30, 1863 :— 


Year. Cargoes. : Tons. 
1852 a Gt svat S107 blog suB na 9483 
1853 ais ns Sree) oo eS as . 69,934. 
1854 ccs MRE esc 2? Wiese fs +» 199,974 
1855 ee Crimean War... 27a) <os 3 v— - 85,584 
1856 ios ae a eqmig ny ss i; ss. 238,597 
1857 “ae o «estat OAT eas Fr +++ 547,099 
1858 sels ay sca 2a ae Pa s+» 599,527 
1859 ... Italian War ... 899 ... 7 ss 544,614 
1860 Ae ee. ..» 1069 ... i --- 672,476 
1861 +43 abd s8 aA2gor Ik x, --» 851,991 
1862 =e ae wae AD tere + es 929,825 
1863 Half-year ending June... 714 ... a «+. 463,609 

5,212,713 


By this Table it is seen that a total quantity of 5,212,713 tons of coals 
have been imported into London by screw colliers, and, in addition to this, 
large and increasing quantities have been taken to other ports both in this 
country and abroad. Since its first introduction, too, the screw collier has 
been greatly improved, and the facilities for loading and discharging very 
largely augmented. The screw collier ‘James Dixon’ frequently receives 
1200 tons of coals in four hours, makes her passage to London in thirty-two 


698 REPORT—1868. 


hours, there (by means of the hydraulic machinery which our President 
invented, amongst the other inventions which distinguish his name) dis- 
charges her cargo in ten hours, returns: in thirty-two hours, and thus com- 
pietes her voyage in seventy-six hours. The ‘James Dixon’ made fifty-seven 
voyages to London in one year, and in that year delivered 62,842 tons of 
coals, and this with a crew of only twenty-one persons. To accomplish this 
work on the old system with sailing colliers would have required sixteen 
ships, and 144 hands to man them. 

One of the great difficulties we had to encounter in perfecting these vessels 
was in the ballasting. To dispense with the necessity of shipping shingle or 
chalk as ballast, many costly experiments were tried, and at length, by a 
system of double bottoms, the construction of which adds to the strength of 
the ships, the ballasting of the vessels with water was brought to a highly 
satisfactory result. The water is allowed to run into the spaces between the 
two shells as the vessels pass down the Thames; when the spaces are full 
the cocks are closed, and so remain until the arrival in the Tyne, when the 
water is pumped out by means of an apparatus provided for the purpose. 
This system allows the vessel to be ballasted without loss of time at either 
end of her voyage, and does not impair in the slightest degree her power of 
carrying coals. The introduction of the screw collier has revolutionized the 
coal-carrying trade, and has had a most beneficial effect upon commerce 
generally. Besides accomplishing the purpose for which it was designed, 
this class of vessel has been proved capable of rendering very important 
services to the Royal Navy. When, in the latter part of the year 1854, 
information reached this country that the commissariat department of our 
army in the Crimea had broken down, and that the salvation of our troops 
depended upon a rapid despatch of supplies, it was found that screw colliers 
were admirably adapted for the work, and the majority of them were tempo- 
rarily taken out of the coal trade and employed in the transport service. 
The Government admitted on that occasion that screw colliers had proved 
to be more useful and economical than any other class of vessels they had 
employed. 

In the year following the launch of the ‘ John Bowes,’ namely, in 1843, 
the first iron vessel built on the Wear was released from its blocks. The 
Tees, with great energy and considerable success, followed the example, and 
on both those rivers, as we shall see presently, a very considerable trade in 
iron shipbuilding is carried on. 

The first iron vessel for war purposes constructed in this district was 
‘The Terror,’ one of the large iron-cased floating batteries designed during 
the Russian war to operate against Cronstadt. This vessel, of 2000 tons, 
250 horse-power, carrying 26 sixty-eight-pounder guns, was built in three © 
and a half months, and she would have been completed in three months had 
not the declaration of peace slackened the energies of our men, which, up to 
that time, had been maintained so nobly by their patriotic feelings. 

It was in the building of this vessel that. rolled armour-plates were first 
used. The demand for forged armour-plates was so great that the forges of 
the kingdom could not supply it, and recourse to rolling was unavoidable. 
At that time the largest plate mill was at Parkgate, and we accordingly 
employed Messrs. Beale and Co., the owners of Parkgate works, to roll the 
plates we required. To the use of these rolled plates, however, the Admiralty 
opposed itself; but we feeling convinced, by experiments which we made, 
that the rolled armour-plates were at least equal to the forged, invited the 
Admiralty to a trial of their efficiency. 


ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF IRON SHIPS. 699 


We built a target 9 feet square, on a plan which we thought might be 
advantageously adopted for large vessels of war, and on the cellular principle. 
The cells we filled with compressed cotton, which we had found by experiment 
to be very effectual in stopping shot. On this target was a thin teak backing ; 
on the teak were bolted one hammered and two rolled plates. The target 
was bolted on to the side of an old wooden frigate at Portsmouth, under the 
direction of Captain Hewlett. The first shot fired at it missed the target, 
went through both sides of the frigate, and, to my great astonishment, 
skimmed over the surface of the water for nearly a mile. The firing showed 
that whilst the hammered plate split and cracked to pieces, the rolled plates 
were not broken, only indented, and were superior to the hammered plate in 
every respect. Unfortunately the target was not firmly bolted to the vessel, 
and it sprung at each shot, so that the bolts which held the armour-plates 
were broken, and they fell into the sea. 

A shot was then tried to test the resisting power of the compressed cotton, 
and it appeared to answer so well that Captain Hewlett advised a series of 
experiments to be made. The Admiralty were willing, but required us to 
provide the targets at our own expense. Having already spent upwards of 
£1000 on experiments for the good of the country, we declined this proposal ; 
nevertheless we had proved to the Admiralty this important fact, that the 
rolled plates were superior to the forged, and they have since been universally 
adopted. We claim, therefore, for this district the honour of being the first 
to prove the strength and utility of rolled armour-plates, since known and 
spoken of in Parliament as ‘“ Palmer’s Rolled Plates.” 

While on this subject of armour plates, I may perhaps be allowed, as the 
builder of the iron-plated frigate ‘ Defence,’ to make a slight digression, in 
order to express an opinion upon the class of marine architecture to which 
that vessel belongs. The ‘ Defence,’ although in every respect a strong ship, 
does not combine all the strength which, with the same weight of material, 
might have been obtained ; and with respect to her model, it is my opinion 
- that if she had had less rise and more floor, and so had drawn less water, 
she would have steamed faster, answered the helm quicker, and have proved 
in all respects more manageable and convenient. The Admiralty authorities, 
I know, do not agree in this view, and they are at the present moment 
spending a large amount of money in the national dockyards for the express 
purpose of building a class of vessels similar in construction to the ‘ Defence.’ 
Tn my opinion it is, to say the least, very questionable policy for the Admiralty 
to speculate in this kind of shipbuilding. Private builders exerted themselves 
greatly in the production of armour-plated frigates for the Government; these 
vessels were produced in much less time than would have been consumed in 
the naval dockyards, and in the matter of cost the difference must be greatly 
in favour of vessels built by contract. It is surprising to see the tenacity 
with which the Admiralty cling to wooden ships, notwithstanding the most 
overwhelming proofs that it is time to adopt iron exclusively. 

It was my desire to furnish the Association with accurate statistical details 
of the iron shipbuilding trade of these northern rivers, showing the quantity 
of iron consumed, the number of men directly employed, and the amount of 
tonnage launched per annum. But unfortunately my neighbours here, and 
on the Wear and Tees, with a few exceptions, were too much engaged to 
supply me with the statistics of their respective establishments. I have 
therefore estimated the several totals from such materials, aided by personal 
knowledge and experience, as I was able to obtain, and the followmg state- 
ment will, I think, be a pretty close approximation to accuracy :— 


700 REPORT—1863. 


Estimated amount of tonnage of iron anne launched on Tons. 


the Tyne during the year 1862 .. s i =a 42,1715 
Ditto ditto on the Wear ... a ce “he +» 15,608 
Ditto ditto on the Tees... 3% ae os a 9660 

571443 


The number of men annually employed in producing this quantity of ton- 
nage, exclusive of those engaged in the manufacture of engines, was— 


Men. 

On the Tyne ... age ae ais ag ie ..- 4060 
>» Wear... mia et ons oe a wom 42500 
5). LREGS) wat tes Scie = es ats sar SHO 
Total 8110 


The quantity of iron consumed doring the's same period in n the construction 
of iron ships, was— 


Tons. 

On the Tyne ... ie “se be. fe oh ++. 22,540 
3) Wear ... 568 an “ise Me a w. 9,360 
re MeN 4 on, Roe fer Bo 1 ia se. 6;760 
Total ... 33 wee - 38,660 


The amount of iron tonnage at present on the stocks in n this district is as 
follows :— 


Tons. 

On the Tyne ... et ae s oe ae sss 33,000 
» Wear... BS ae wae “a ee ++ 19,000 

ay eee. Wee ese ace oa ioe «ss 10,600 
Total ... ae .. 62,600 


But these statistics show us only the ets thak i is dincctly, employed in 
the production of iron ships, and that, as we all know, is but a small propor- 
tion of the whole. It would indeed be difficult accurately to estimate the 
amount of labour that is indirectly concerned in this trade, as for instance in 
the manufacture of iron, the production of coals, the importation of timber, 
the construction of engines, and the supply of anchors, chains, sails, &c. 
Enough has been said, however, to prove that iron shipbuilding is one of the 
most important branches of industry in this great commercial and manufac- 
turing district. 

I may perhaps be allowed to describe very briefly the operations of my 
own firm, which, I trust, will prove of some interest, as showing the extent 
to which one establishment may be developed. In the first place, we obtain 
the greater portion of our limestone from our own mines. Ata point on the 
coast ten miles north of Whitby, the ironstone seams crop out in the sides of 
the cliffs, and here we have formed the small harbour of Port Mulgrave, 
where vessels can ride in safety, and ship their cargoes with ease and expe- 
dition. Between the Tyne and Port Mulgrave some of our steamers run 
direct, making on the average four voyages per week, whilst others of a 
larger class call to load stone on their return voyage from London. At 
Jarrow the ore is delivered to the furnaces by means of the Armstrong 
hydraulic cranes, and mixed with ores from Cumberland, Devonshire, and 
Lincolnshire ; thence it is passed to the mills, and from the mills to the ship- 
yards. The number of men employed in these operations is upwards of 3500. 
The number of tons of iron consumed per annum in our yards and engine 
works is about 18,000 tons. The amount of tonnage launched during the year 
ending the lst August was 22,000 tons. We have 15,000 tons in course of 
construction, and orders spread over a period for 40,000 tons more. Amongst 


ON THE CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES OF THE NORTHERN DIstRicts. 701 


these latter are steamers of upwards of 3400 tons burthen, pronounced by 
their owners to be “the finest and most complete merchant steamers ever 
built.” They are intended to bring cotton from the Southern States of 
America, so soon as the unhappy war in that country shall cease, and they 
will no doubt be but the pioneers of others of a similar class. One of these 
steamers is of sufficient capacity to carry 7000 bales of cotton, and it is esti- 
mated that, during one year, she will bring from New Orleans to Liverpool 
38,000 bales. The crew of such a vessel consists of sixty hands, and it would 
require five sailing vessels of 1200 tons each, employing 130 seamen, to do 
the same work. 

A consideration of the future of the iron shipbuilding trade opens out a 
vast field for speculation, but the ultimate result is not difficult to anticipate. 
We have seen with what success sailing vessels have been superseded by 
steamers in the coasting and coal trades, and we know that magnificent fieets 
of steamers, engaged in the postal and other services, are ploughing almost 
every known sea. As commerce increases, there will be few trades in which 
the employment of iron steamers will not be found of advantage. Most of 
the carrying trade to the Baltic and Mediterranean is already conducted in 
vessels of that class, and the sailing ships that cross the North Atlantic are 
being rapidly displaced by iron steamers. Their advantages in strength, 
speed, and capacity are so marked, that sailing vessels of timber must give 
way before them. Even the Admiralty, cautious and unyielding though it 
be, will have to abandon its “ wooden walls” in favour of the stronger and 
more useful material—a material, too, that lies in rich profusion beneath our 
feet, and has not, like timber, to be purchased of other nations. The com- 
mercial men of this country have set the Admiralty a signal example of 
industry and enterprise. It is they who have made the experiments, and 
adopted the inventions that have established the maritime supremacy of this 
country ; and it is owing to their energy that we find on every sea, in the 
shallow rivers of the East, and the deep broad waters of the West, English- 
built ships of commerce diffusing the benefits of free trade, and linking 
nations and tribes together in the bonds of amity and peace. The true source 
of our national greatness is to be sought in this wonderful development of 
our merchant navy. Other nations are entering into friendly rivalry with us, 
but the larger share of the carrying trade of the world will ever be secured to 
that country that can produce vessels combining the largest capacity with the 
utmost amount of economy and expedition in construction, and that can at the 
same time navigate those vessels with the greatest degree of skill and rapidity. 

In conclusion, permit me to express the proud conviction I entertain that 
the mineral wealth of this district, and the skill and endurance of its work- 
men, whether on land or sea, will enable the locality that gave birth to an 
Armstrong and a Stephenson to maintain its character for maritime industry 
and enterprise, and to bear its full share in promoting the commercial great- 
ness of the country. 


On the Chemical Manufactures of the Northern Districts. By Tuomas 
Ricuarpson, M.A., F.R.S.E.; J.C. Stevenson, F.C.S.; and R. C. 
CLAPHAM. 

Salt.—Salt-works were formerly very numerous in this district, establish- 

ments having been formed at Howdon Pans, Hartley Pans, Jarrow, North 

and South Shields, and other localities. This trade was carried on by several 


702 REPORT— 1863. 


of the most wealthy families in the neighbourhood, in the beginning of the 
last century, and about 200 pans were employed in producing salt, which 
was extracted from sea-water and brine-springs. Shields salt was the most 
celebrated salt in the kingdom, and was produced in such quantities at South 
Shields as to give a character, and even a nomenclature, to the town, which 
to this day is divided into East Pan and West Pan Wards. The remains of 
a large hill are still to be seen, formed from the ash of the salt-pans, After 
a time, these ashes took fire, and Mr. R. W. Swinburne—to whom we are 
indebted for this information—states that the Chapter of Durham are in 
possession of a picture representing the burning hills at South Shields. The 
production of salt from sea-water in this locality has given place to that 
obtained from the brine-springs and rock-salt of Cheshire, and the fact illus- 
trates what great changes take place in altering the locale of manufactures. 
A considerable quantity of white salt is still made, on the Tyne, from sea- 
water, in which rock-salt from Cheshire and Ireland is dissolved, in order to 
diminish the cost of evaporation. Two improvements have been successfully 
introduced in making white salt, which have the saving of fuel as their object. 
Mr. Wilkinson employs the waste heat of coke-ovens for this purpose; and 
Mr. Fryar dries whitening with the heat which escapes from his salt-pans. 
Alkali ( for this and the last century).—Towards the end of the last century 
two gentlemen, Mr. W. Losh and Mr. Thomas Doubleday, were engaged, un- 
known to each other, with a series of experiments on the best plan of con- 
verting common salt into carbonate of soda. These chemists appear to have 
used very similar processes; and when the late Lord Dundonald came to 
reside in the neighbourhood, he was soon on intimate terms with both 
parties. Both Mr. Losh and Mr. Doubleday tried numerous plans at his 
lordship’s suggestion ; but after spending upwards of £1000, Mr. Doubleday 
seems to have become tired of making an outlay which promised little or no 
result. The first plan tried was to effect the decomposition of common salt 
by means of oxide of lead, and to carbonate the caustic soda, while the 
insoluble chloride of lead was heated to form a yellow pigment, long known 
as Turner’s yellow. Another process consisted in decomposing common salt 
by sulphate of iron. The resulting sulphate of soda was fluxed with coal, 
and the sulphide of sodium which was formed was carbonated with sawdust. 
This plan-was also worked, some time afterwards, at an alkali manufactory 
situated near Blyth. Another process, which was tried, was founded on the 
mutual decomposition of common salt and sulphate of potash. This opera- 
tion was always carried on by Mr. Losh and Mr. Doubleday whenever the 
price of the two potash-salts allowed a profit to be made, and the chloride of 
potassium was regularly sold to the Yorkshire alum-makers. Mr. Losh re- 
sided in Paris in 1791, where he acquired a knowledge of chemistry, and 
soon after his return home, a company was formed to manufacture soda at 
Walker. The original partners were Lords Dundas and Dundonald, Messrs. 
Aubone, and John Surtees, and John and William Losh. They obtained 
their salt from a brine-spring found in a coal-pit at Walker, and the heavy 
duty upon salt at that date, which was £36 per ton, was avoided by evapo- 
rating a concentrated solution of the brine-spring with sulphuric acid; thus 
making sulphate of soda, and not salt. Another plan adopted by Mr. Losh, 
to avoid the duty, was to add ground coke or ashes to the concentrating salt- 
pan before the salt was formed, and use it, in this damaged condition, for the 
manufacture of sulphate of soda. This was about the year 1796 ; and Messrs. 
Doubleday and Easterby, in 1808, commenced making sulphate of soda by 
decomposing the waste salts from the soap-boilers, which consisted chiefly of 


ON THE CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES OF THE NORTHERN DISTRICTS. 703 


common salt and some sulphate of soda. Their chief supply was obtained 
from the Messrs, Jamieson and other soap-boilers at Leith. They purchased 
their sulphuric acid at first, but between 1809 and 1810 they got the plans 
of chambers from Messrs. Tennant, of Glasgow, and erected the first chamber 
on the Tyne at Bill Quay. They imported the first cargo of sulphur from 
Sicily about the same time, and its arrival in the river excited great atten- 
tion. At first, the Government returned them the import duty on this sul- 
phur, which was used in making acid, and the present Mr. Doubleday re- 
members having received, at the end of the year, as much as £1500. This, 
however, only lasted some three or four years, when the duty was repealed. 
This firm, then trading under the name of Doubleday and Easterby, also 
erected the first platina retort for making rectified oil of vitriol. This retort 
cost them £700, and before long they had three retorts in operation. The 
alkali which they made was used, in the crude state, in the manufacture of 
soap, in which they were also engaged. In 1816, after the conclusion of 
peace, Mr. Losh returned to Paris, where he learned the details of the present 
plan of decomposing sulphate of soda, which he immediately introduced in his 
works at Walker, and thus may be said to have been the father of the modern 
alkali trade in this country. Mr. Doubleday gave the plans of his chamber, 
furnaces, &c., to the Messrs. Cookson when they commenced their alkali- 
works at South Shields. This trade has been developed in an extraordinary 
manner in this locality, where about 47 per cent. of the whole produce of the 
United Kingdom is now manufactured. The peculiar advantages of the dis- 
trict are also being recognized by the fact that the celebrated firm of Messrs. 
Tennant have purchased land with the intention of removing the greater part 
of their works from Glasgow to the banks of the Tyne*. 

The following details will embrace a brief account of the source of the raw 
materials, and the various improvements which have been recently intro- 
duced :— 

Source of Sulphur.—Until within the last few years, Sicilian sulphur was 
almost exclusively employed in this district for the manufacture of sulphuric 
acid,—the pyrites from Wicklow being the only other source of supply. This 
latter, however, was not sufficiently abundant to render the manufacturer 
independent of the great fluctuations which have recently taken place in the 
price of sulphur, on account of the demand consequent on the vine disease. 
During the last few years, the following additional sources of supply have 
been available :—1st, the Belgian; 2nd, Norwegian ; 3rd, Spanish or Portu- 
guese ; 4th, Italian; 5th, Westphalian pyrites. 1. The Belgian pyrites has 
the advantage of being shipped at Antwerp at a moderate freight to the Tyne. 
It is a very hard, compact material, containing about 50 per cent. of sulphur, 
and therefore nearly approaches a pure bisulphuret of iron. The burnt 
residue from one manufactory on the Tyne (the Walker Iron Works) after 
being roasted in a lime-kiln, to burn off the small remaining portion of sul- 
phur, is regularly used as an iron ore at the adjoining iron-works. It con- 
tains no copper, and from 3 to 5 per cent. of arsenic. 2. The Norwegian 


* Charles Cooper, an overman at Walker Colliery, informs us that he was employed by 
Mr. Losh in 1798, and that crystals of soda were then manufactured and sold by Mr. 
Losh. The salt obtained from the brine-spring on the premises was evaporated in small 
lead pans, and was afterwards decomposed by litharge. The soda so produced was ery- 
stallized in small lead cones; and when it had stood sufficiently long to crystallize, the 
cones were turned upside down to run off the mother liquor. The crystallizing process 
was then only. carried on in the winter months. Mr. C. Hunter, of Walker, further 
informs us that in 1816 he sold about half a ton of soda for Mr. Losh, to a Mr. Anderson, 
of Whitby, at £60 per ton. , 


704, REPORT— 1863. 


pyrites is shipped at Levanger. It contains 44 per cent. of sulphur, is easily 
broken, and does not flux in the kiln. The quantity of copper it contains 
being less than 1 per cent., the burnt residue cannot be profitably smelted 
for copper. 3. The most extensively used pyrites is shipped from Huelva, 
in Spain, and Pomeron, in Portugal. The mines are situated on each side 
of the boundary between the two countries. They were most extensively 
worked in ancient times, but their recent development has arisen from the 
use of the ore as a source of sulphur. Containing only from 2 to 4 per cent. 
of copper, it was unable to compete with the richer ores which, from time to 
time, became available in different parts of the world; but the mining is 
now rendered profitable in consequence of the sulphur haying acquired a 
value as well as the copper. The percentage of sulphur varies from 46 to 
50. The practical difficulty in burning this ore, namely, its great fusibility 
at the point where the combustion of the sulphur gives rise to considerable 
heat, has been overcome by the adoption of kilns, first used in Lancashire, in 
which the area of the surface is large in proportion to the weight of the 
charge of pyrites. The use of cupreous pyrites has led to the introduction of 
the manufacture of copper on the Tyne, which will this year amount to be- 
tween 700 and 800 tons. The ordinary process of smelting is employed ; but 
the moist method is also being tried, the advantage being, that by this 
method all the ingredients of the mineral are utilized, the oxide of iron 
making an ore of similar quality to hematite. The smelting process, how- 
ever, is still preferred in the large manufactories. In 1860, several cargoes 
of an ore containing free sulphur imbedded in gypsum were imported from 
the island of Milo, in the Archipelago. From the small quantity of sulphur 
contained in it (19 up to 24 per cent.), great difficulty was experienced in 
burning it, except in large masses. Subjoined is an analysis of one parcel 
of it :— 


Salonur se... ee emt te 24:00 
Oy peait Fes: Hee et 62°20 
SandiGicrss Ss SvOh et ee Lee 6:00 
Water! 2440. {Me GRe HP ee 7:00 

99-20 


Still more recently, Professor Ansted has discovered a deposit of free 
sulphur in Corfu, of which he has been kind enough to forward a sample; 
but we believe it has not been used in commerce. When sulphuric acid is 
wanted quite free from arsenic, Sicilian sulphur must be used. So largely 
has pyrites displaced sulphur in the production of sulphuric acid, that in 
1862 only 2030 tons of sulphur were consumed, against 72,800 tons of 
pyrites; and, reckoning the above quantity of sulphur as equivalent to 
4500 tons of pyrites, it appears that 77,300 tons of pyrites are annually used 
for the manufacture of sulphuric acid, along with 2500 tons of nitrate of 
soda. Assuming a produce of 120 per cent. on the pyrites, this is equal to a 
production of 92,760 tons of sulphuric acid, calculated as concentrated. This 
quantity of sulphuric acid is nearly all consumed where it is made, for the 
manufacture of other chemicals, such as soda and manures, the quantity sold 
being 6440 tons; but this might be more correctly described as consumed in 
other works, for the quantity sent to a distance is very small. Four-fifths 
of the sulphuric acid is used for the decomposition of common salt. 

Salt and the Alkali trade.—The ordinary Cheshire salt is almost ex- 
clusively used for the manufacture of alkali, the exception being in one 


ee Re eo el 


ON THE CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES OF THE NORTHERN Districts. 705 


manufactory where the waste heat of coke-ovens is utilized in evaporating 
the liquors formed by dissolving rock-salt. Nearly all the salt used in the 
alkali-works is carried by canal to Hull, Goole, or Grimsby, whence it is 
brought to the Tyne at a nominal freight, generally by foreign vessels, that 
take it as ballast when coming to the Tyne for an outward cargo of coals. 
This is the only practical result of the repeal of that portion of the navigation 
laws which prevented foreign ships carrying cargoes coastwise. The annual 
consumption of common salt in the district is 90,000 tons, requiring 73,800 
tons of sulphuric acid, and producing 100,000 tons of dry sulphate of soda. 
The whole of this quantity is used in the manufacture of alkali. A few 
hundred tons are consumed in the glass manufacture, but are omitted here, 
as no account has been taken of the sulphate of soda made from the nitrate 
of soda in the sulphuric-acid process. The alkali is produced in the four 
forms of—1, alkali or soda-ash, 43,500 tons; 2, crystals of soda, 51,300 tons ; 
3, bicarbonate of soda, 7450 tons; 4, caustic soda, 580 tons. The manu- 
facture is so well understood, that only local peculiarities and recent im- 
provements need be noticed. 

Alkali.—All the Tyne soda-ash is fully carbonated, sawdust being gene- 
rally used in the furnace for this purpose, so that it contains merely a trace 
of hydrate of soda. The greater part of it is also refined by dissolving, 
settling, evaporating, and calcining, thus producing an article of great 
whiteness and purity. 

Caustic Soda.—This manufacture is, as yet, quite in its infancy in this 
district. In Lancashire very large quantities are made from the “red 
liquors” which drain from the soda salts. These liquors always contain 
caustic soda, sulphuret of sodium, and common salt. In Lancashire, where a 
hard limestone is used for balling, the percentage of caustic soda is large, 
while the sulphuret exists in small proportion, and is easily oxidized. It 
would seem that the London chalk, which is used here, produces a lime 
chemically much less energetic, forming less caustic soda, and holding 
sulphur more loosely in combination. Consequently the Tyne red liquors 
require a very large quantity of nitrate for their oxidation, and yield so little 
caustic soda that this process has been abandoned in favour of the well- 
known method of boiling a weak solution of alkali with lime. This has the 
advantage, however, of producing a richer and very pure article, sometimes 
as strong as 74 per cent. 

The improvements (besides such as have been already noticed) which have 
been introduced into the alkali trade, since the last meeting of the British 
Association in Newcastle, may be divided into those which have been gene- 
rally adopted, and the special improvements of individual manufacturers. 
1st: Economy of labour has been attained by using larger furnaces, in which 


a workman can manipulate a larger charge with less toil, and by various 
_other appliances purely mechanical. 2nd. Economy of fuel has been largely 


attained by the application of the waste heat and flame from the ball fur- 


_ naces to the surface-evaporation of the tank or black-ash liquor. Formerly, 


this was evaporated in hemispherical cast-iron pans, each with a fire below. 
3rd. Economy of water and fuel by the adoption of the circulating tanks for 
lixiviating balls, first introduced at Glasgow by the late Mr. Charles Tennant 
Dunlop. They are so arranged as regards their connexions with one another, 


_ that water runs into the tank which has been most nearly exhausted, and 


liquor of full strength runs off the tank which has been most recently filled. 
The balls are always under the surface of the liquor, and thus escape the 


22 


. partial decomposition and consequent formation of sulphuret, which resulted 
1863. 


706 REPORT—1863. L 


from the balls being subjected to successive washings and drainings. 4th. Use 
of cast-iron decomposing-pans. 5th. Gay-Lussac’s process for! recovering 
and using again the waste nitrous acid in the manufacture of sulphuric acid 
has been adopted by several manufacturers ; others consider that the expense 
of the erections and of working the process may be better applied in pro- 
viding an additional amount of space in the leaden chambers. The special 
improvements are :—1st. Revolving ball furnaces, invented by Messrs. Elliott 
and Russell, of St. Helen’s, and used in the Jarrow Chemical Works. 2nd. In 
the Walker Alkali Works, the waste gas (carbonic oxide, &c.) from the blast- 
furnaces of the adjoining iron-works is conveyed by flues to the evaporating 
and calcining furnaces. The advantage obtained is not only economy of 
fuel, but a hot flame free from smoke and dust, and dispensing with the 
stoker’s labour and tools. It is found very useful for regulating the bottom 
heat of the cast-iron pan in which salt is decomposed. The carbonic oxide 
is, however, found not to burn very well in the presence of muriatic-acid gas. 

Hyposulphite of Soda——The manufacture of hyposulphite of soda has 
largely increased of late years, and we believe it was not made upon the 
Tyne previous to 1838. In 1854 the produce only amounted to 50 tons per 
annum. It has gradually risen to 400 tons per annum. In addition to being 
used in photography, it is largely employed as an “anti-chlor” in paper- 
making; and the markets of Europe and America are chiefly supplied from 
the Tyne. In 1852 Mr. W.S. Losh obtained a patent for the manufacture 
of hyposulphite of soda from soda-waste, which has been the means of 
greatly lessening the price, and extending its application in the arts. On 
account of its great ¢tability, hyposulphite of soda has nearly superseded the 
use of the older salt—sulphite of soda—as an “ anti-chlor,” the latter being 
chiefly confined to sugar-refineries as a deoxidizer. Dr. Jullion has recently 
obtained a patent for the production of hyposulphite of lime, to be used as 
an “anti-chlor,” but it has not yet been introduced in commerce, the appa- 
ratus for its manufacture, in course of erection at the Jarrow Chemical 
Works, not being completed. 

Hydrochloric Acid.—In the decomposition of common salt vast quantities 
of hydrochloric acid are necessarily produced, and it is an important question 
for chemical manufacturers to apply the best means for its condensation. 
Since the visit of the Association in 1838 few branches of manufacture have 
received more attention, and there are few in which greater improvements 
have been effected than in condensing muriatic-acid gas; and this has arisen 
not only on account of the necessity of preventing injury to agriculture, so 
that heavy claims for damage might be avoided, but also in consequence of 
the commercial value attached to hydrochloric acid in the production of 
bleaching-powder, bicarbonate of soda, oxychloride of lead, and other pro- 
ducts. The methods generally employed in condensing are well known, and 
we shall only allude to some of the improvements practically applied. The . 
drying-furnace generally used is called an ‘open furnace,” to which the heat 
of the fire is directly applied; and we believe that the greatest difficulties in 
the way of a perfect condensation, in former times, arose from the gases from 
this furnace. The heat required to drive off the gas from the crude sulphate 
of soda is very great, so that when the gases arrived in the condensers, it 
was found difficult to absorb them, even when a very large quantity of water 
was used; and the muriatie acid which was thus produced was of so low 
a strength, as to be, commercially, almost useless, In former years, also, 
the draught through the condensers was always obtained by a connexion 
with a high chimney ; but in some of the works this plan is now abandoned, 


ON THE CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES OF THE NORTHERN DISTRICTS. 707 


and the whole of the vapour or gas which escapes passes through a 12-inch 
pipe always open to view. At present, these gases are conducted through 
long flues or pipes and cooling-shafts, and on entering the foot of the con- 
densers the heat is reduced to about 140° Fahr., at which point the gases 
easily condense, and a strong acid is obtained at the same time. <A rather 
different method has been pursued for some time at Messrs. C. Allhusen and 
Sons’ works. Instead of the heat from the fire being conducted directly on 
to the drying materials in the furnace, a “close” furnace is used, in which 
the flame from the fire passes over a brick arch and under the bed of the 
furnace, and not in immediate contact with the materials; this furnace has 
no connexion with a chimney for its draught, and the gases from both the 
pan and dryer pass into one condenser. The hydrochloric acid passes off 
from the furnace unmixed with the smoke from the fire, and at a lower 
temperature than the ordinary method, and is consequently more easily con- 
densed, and obviates the necessity of long flues or cooling-shafts, Messrs. 
Allhusen and Sons have given us the following results of some recent experi- 
ments with this kind of furnace. The charge of salt generally used, was 
8 cwt., the moisture varied from 6 to 9 per cent., and the sulphate of soda 
contained from 1:75 to 2°25 per cent. of undecomposed salt. 


Theoretical 

Salt unde- Moisture weight Acid Loss per 

composed. per cent. of acid. obtained. cent. 
Ist experiment .... 1°75 7:0 502-0 495-06 1-4 
2nd FP we stenhs70 7:0 498-0 498-00 1:8 
3rd a eee i225 7:0 498-0 484-08 2°6 
4th 55 Sty 1480 7:0 498-0 490-04 1:6 
5th 3 are “L170 70 498-0 485-00 2°8 


Average.... 2-0 


As a further instance of the care that is now bestowed in condensing, we 
append also the result of some recent experiments conducted at the Walker 
Alkali Works to ascertain the actual quantity of muriatic acid condensed. 
The daily produce was conducted into large cisterns prepared for the purpose, 
and the strength, depth, &c., was carefully ascertained. The salt used was 
also tested daily for moisture and impurities, such as sulphates, sand, &c. 
The former was found to average 6 per cent., and the latter 1} per cent. 
during six months’ trial, thus leaving 92:5 per cent., NaCl=57-7 HCl in 
100 parts of salt used. 

The crude sulphate of soda produced was also daily tested for common 


salt left undecomposed, which is deducted below :— Test of 
HCl. Sulphate. 
January .... 100 parts of salt gave.... 58-3 25:9 

February.... i> 5 ja ce S30 2:24. 
March...... 4 4 fe eh 6402 2:25 
Aipral sare wisi. # i sive se anOei4 1:14 
May rata yes 3 ry wa. 584 2:98 
Junie sa See a 35 nls. 9 03'9)-- 2:12 
Anvetage TEG) 240%). . cee 55°8 2:45 

HCl left in sulphate of soda ...... 1:52 

57°32 

Logs per Cent oe ce tten cas 0:38 

57:70 


708 REPORT—1863. 


A patent was obtained by Mr. R. C. Clapham, in 1860, for the use of the 
weak acid in the place of water for condensing, which has been successfully 
carried out in the above works; and it will thus be seen that the whole of 
the acid produced was obtained and calculated without difficulty. Muriatic 
acid is not entirely free from impurities ; and, on account of its containing 
arsenic, iron, sulphuric acid, &c., it is not applicable to all purposes, ‘The 
total quantity of hydrochloric acid produced is about 180,000 tons per 
annum. 

Manganese.—Manganese is imported from Germany and Spain, but it is 
chiefly from the latter country that the richest ores arenow obtained. It is 
found in hills consisting of schistose rock, which sometimes rise to a height 
of 800 feet from the level of the plain; but it is also found in “ pockets,” 
in which case it is quarried by picks, and occasionally gunpowder is used, 
The quality of the ore varies from 50 to 90 per cent. peroxide; and to 
obtain the richer ore, men and boys are employed to break and sort it. It 
is then put into sacks and carried a distance of 20 to 35 miles, on mules’ 
backs, to the ports of shipment in the Mediterranean. The richest ores are 
obtained at Calanas, in the province of Huelva, 30 miles north of the ancient 
Roman fishing-town of Huelva. We are indebted to Mr. 8. F. Gething for 
this information, who also informs us that he imported to the Tyne, in 
1857, the first cargo of this kind of manganese. Manganese ore frequently 
contains peroxide of iron, copper, cobalt, titanium, &e.; but no means have 
hitherto been taken to separate them. Manganese is used in the manufac- 
ture of glass, iron, and of bleaching-powder ; and for the latter it is imported 
to the extent of 14,400 tons annually. Several patents have been taken out 
for the recovery of the manganese from the waste chloride of manganese 
solutions, but generally with indifferent success. The most successful, how- 
ever, is the process of the late Mr. Charles Dunlop, of Glasgow, in which the 
manganese is precipitated as a carbonate, and finally oxidized. This patent 
has been profitably worked at St. Rollox, in Glasgow, and has, to some 
extent, superseded the use of native manganese. Still more recently, a 
patent has been obtained by Mr. Clapham for the separation of the free 
hydrochloric acid contained in the waste manganese solutions, and for its 
application in the manufacture of bleaching-powder. 

French Limestone, locally called ‘ Cliff? is imported as ballast from the 
Seine, and also from the coast of France, to the extent of about 14,000 tons 
annually. It forms part of the upper chalk-bed in the secondary deposits, 
and is nearly pure carbonate of lime; and although very like chalk in its 
appearance, differs from it to some extent in being compact, harder, and less 
susceptible of retaining water. It is always used in this locality, in prefer- 
ence to other limestone, for making bleaching-powder. 

Bleaching-powder.—Since 1831, the method pursued in the manufacture 
of bleaching-powder has entirely changed, and the quantity made has far 
more than doubled. At that time it was made by the decomposition of 
manganese and common salt with sulphuric acid, which was rather a costly 
process, and the price was about £28 per ton. Itis now manufactured from 
what was, at one time, the waste muriatic acid referred to above, and the 
price has been reduced to one-third. During the last few years the demand 
for bleaching-powder has been increased, partly on account of the extensive 
use of Esparto grass from Spain in the manufacture of paper, which has been 
found to require a large quantity of chemicals to bleach it. The quantity of 
bleaching-powder now made is 11,200 tons per annum. 

Soap.—The first soapery in this locality was begun by Messrs. Lamb and 


ON THE CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES OF THE NORTHERN DISTRICTS. 709 


Waldie, about the year 1770, at the Westgate, Newcastle, whence it was 
remoyed to the Close. The works were purchased by Mr. Thomas Double- 
day in 1775, and continued under the firm of Doubleday and Easterby until 
the year 1841. Other manufactories were built in Sandgate and at the 
Ouseburn, all of which have been abandoned. Very little hard soap was 
made until the end of the last century; Castile soap only was used. Up 
to 1770, soft soap was chiefly used for both domestic and manufacturing 
purposes. The chief improvements introduced have been the use of palm 
oil, bleached by Watts’s process, and the manufacture of the ley by boiling 
the alkali with the lime, instead of the so-called “ cold process.’ The total 
quantity now manufactured exceeds 6000 tons per annum. The prices of 
the raw materials at the present time are as follows:—tallow, first sort, 
T. C., 43s. 6d.; fine American resin, 36s. to 39s.; best yellow soap, 33s. to 
35s.; best mottled soap, 33s. per cwt. 

Prussiate of Potash.—The first attempt to manufacture any compound of 
cyanogen in this district was made in the beginning of the last century, by a 
Jew, in Oakwellgate, in Gateshead. He afterwards removed his apparatus 
to Corbridge ; but, failing in producing a saleable article, he discontinued 
the operation, which was taken up by a Mr. Simpson, who ultimately suc- 
ceeded in perfecting the process in works erected at Elswick. Mr. Simpson 
manufactured Prussian and other kinds of blue colours; and at his death 
the manufacture was removed to Heworth, where the Messrs. Bramwell have 
carried on the works since 1758. Prussian blue was the only form in which 
the cyanogen was produced, from which prussiate of potash was afterwards 
manufactured. This salt was not known in commerce in a crystallized form, 
however, till about the year 1825, when the price was 5s. per pound. The 
price has now fallen to 113d. Mr. Bramwell has introduced various im- 
provements in the manufacture of this salt, employing close pots, in which 
the fused materials are worked by machinery, and substituting sulphate of 
potash for the more expensive potashes ; but notwithstanding the application 
of every chemical and mechanical appliance, and the low prices at which the 
prussiate of potash is sold, the demand has fallen off, and at present only two 
tons of yellow prussiate and 3 ton of red prussiate are manufactured weekly. 
The decline in this trade has arisen partly from the American civil war, and 
partly from the introduction of the aniline colours. The celebrated attempt, 
in 1844, to produce cyanogen from the nitrogen of the air, was made at these 
works; and although the efforts of Mr. Bramwell and his friends were per- 
fectly successful in a chemical point of view, these gentlemen were induced 
to abandon the process as a manufacturing operation. 

Alum.—The first alum-works established in England were erected at 
Guisborough in 1460, by Sir Thomas Challoner, who brought over a work- 
man from France to carry out the then secret process, the monopoly of this 
trade being in the hands of the Pope. The works were subsequently decreed 
to be a royal mine, and passed into the possession of the Crown. They were 
afterwards farmed to Sir Paul Pindar, at a rental of £15,000 per annum. 
He employed about 800 persons, and made large profits, his monopoly enabling 
him to keep up the price to £26 per ton. The Long Parliament restored the 
mines to the original owners, and at the Restoration not less than five manu- 
factories were in operation. The process is well known; but potash-alum 
(formerly the only alum made) is now only produced at the Loftus Works, all 
the other manufacturers employing the cheaper sulphate of ammonia. From 
the mother liquors large quantities of an impure sulphate of magnesia are 
obtained, which are partly refined and partly consumed as a manure, mixed 


710 REPORT—1863. 


with other substances. Alum and sulphate of alumina are also made from 
sulphuric acid and clay or shale, but the quantities are not very large. The 
quantities produced annually are as follows :—Alum, &c., 4000 tons; rough 
Epsoms, 1800 tons. Some improvements in the details have been introduced 
to economize labour and save materials. The precipitation of the iron from 
aluminous liquors by means of prussiate of iron was first employed here by 
Messrs. Lee and Co.; and the Guisborough Alum Company have introduced 
an aluminous cake, containing sulphate of magnesia, which has been found 
to answer very well in dyeing certain colours, as browns, blacks, d&c., and in 
the manufacture of all kinds of coarse paper. . 

Epsom Salts—The abundant supply of magnesian limestone on the coast 
of Marsden, three miles south of the Tyne, and at other places in the county 
of Durham, has for many years sustained the manufacture of sulphate of 
magnesia on the Tyne. The mineral is a tolerably pure double carbonate of 
lime and magnesia, containing about 21 per cent. of magnesia. The follow- 
ing is an analysis by Mr. Clapham :— 


Per cent 

Pilichn AV slik. BRR OORL Re 10:00 
Alumina £94,336 8.08 se ee 1:60 
Owide. of nonwss 2h tk, Sse 0-50 
Carbonate of magnesia ........ 35°33 
Carbonate of lime ............ 52-50 
99°93 


The process formerly employed was to calcine the limestone, and wash it 
repeatedly with water, by which, however, the lime is only imperfectly 
remoyed, the residue being dissolved in acid and crystallized. The principal 
source of sulphate of magnesia for many years past has been the rough 
Epsoms obtained from the residual mother liquors of the Yorkshire Alum 
Works. In these salts protoxide of iron replaces a variable proportion of 
magnesia, forming a double salt, and an excess of sulphuric acid is always 
present. 

The following is an analysis of rough Epsom salts by Dr. Richardson :— 


Per cent, 
Solphuric agid.,~):\. «oi¢ babu Pe - 32°26 
BM apRON a. .bs - wxnds. ‘ler $65 eeeivaes 15°35 
Protoxide Of Anon. cewidcclivswicie 1-73 
Oxides of nickel and cobalt...... 012 
LAT eg Se I, ee 0:09 
"ALTMIRS dre adowugare auyste Hale Mlle 1:33 
ROAR ee a taatatc mee Ch. tw este oxke hs 0-83 
VALOR or nte acoso ott cicists kttcts 48-29 

100-00 


Formerly these salts were mixed with washed magnesian lime, and then 
calcined in order to peroxidize the iron. It is found, however (as first 
suggested by Dr. Richardson), that calcination is unnecessary when the solu- 
tion is sufficiently diluted, and when space is provided in the precipitating- 
tank for the bulky precipitate of protoxide of iron which is formed by the 
gradual addition of magnesian lime. This is probably the only chemical 


¢ 


2 


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ON THE CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES OF THE NORTHERN Districts, 711 


manufacture of the district, with the exception of prussiate of potash, which 
has greatly fallen off in extent, a more rational system of medicine having 
diminished the use of purgatives, and reduced the demand for Epsom salts to 
about one-third of what it was twenty years ago. The annual production is 
still 1500 tons, two-thirds of which are made from the rough salts. 

Carbonate of Magnesia.—This compound has long been produced in this 
district, where it was formerly, and is still to a limited extent, manufactured 
from the mother liquors of the salt-pans known as Bittern, to which carbonate 
of soda is added to precipitate the magnesia in the form of carbonate. This 
old plan has been largely superseded by the elegant process of the late Mr. 
H. L. Pattinson, which consists in submitting calcined magnesian limestone 
to the action of carbonic acid and water, under pressure. The magnesia dis- 
solves out as bicarbonate of magnesia, from which the neutral carbonate of 
magnesia is precipitated by the application of heat. The quantity manufac- 
tured is said to be about 250 tons per annum. 

Superphosphate of Lime.—The manufacture of this article was commenced 
at Blaydon in 1844, by Dr. Richardson, soon after the publication of Liebig’s 
celebrated report on agricultural chemistry. Various materials are employed 
as the source of phosphate of lime, viz. bones, bone-ashes from South America, 
exhausted animal charcoal from the sugar-refineries, coprolites from Suffolk 
and Cambridgeshire, phosphorite from Spain, Sombrero guano, &c. Improve- 
ments have been introduced in the manner of mixing the acid with these 
substances, in drying, and in the riddling of the superphosphate. The quantity 
produced amounts to between 15,000 and 16,000 tons per annum. 

Pearl-hardener.—This article has only recently been manufactured here, 
and its introduction is due to Dr. Jullion, who has applied it to the hardening 
of paper. It is produced by precipitating hydrated sulphate of lime from a 
perfectly pure solution of chloride of calcium by means of sulphuric acid, 
Great care is taken in its preparation, and it is being generally introduced 
among the manufacturers of paper. The quantity made is said to be about 
2000 tons per annum. 

Sulphate of Iron.—The first manufactory for the production of green 
copperas in England was founded about the year 1579, when one Matthew 
Falconar, a Brabanter, “did try and draw very good brimstone and copperas 
out of certain stones, gathered in great plenty on the shore, near unto 
Minster, in the Isle of Sheppey.” Mr. Thomas Delaval commenced to 
manufacture copperas at Hartley about the year 1748, but he subsequently 
sold the manufactory to his brother, Lord Delaval, and by an Act of Parlia- 
ment, 11th of George III., 1771, power was given to Sir Francis Blake 
Delaval to grant to Sir John Hussey Delaval, in fee simple, all the copperas- 
works then and there existing; which may enable us to form some idea of 
the importance then attached to this manufacture. The late Mr. Barnes and 
Alderman Forster erected the first copperas-works on the Tyne, at Walker, 
in 1798, which are still in operation. The quantity at present manufac- 
tured is about 2000 tons per annum, and the process is still the same; but 
Mr. Thomas Barnes has applied the refuse crystals to a novel purpose. This 
refuse was, and is, generally thrown away; but Mr. Barnes uses it as a 
manure on his farm, on the thin soil which lies on the magnesian limestone. 
He finds that the depth of the soil is gradually increasing by the disintegra- 
tion of the rock, and that the more he uses, the more satisfactory are the 
results. The beneficial effect of the copperas is doubtless partly due to the 
natural decomposition of the carbonate of lime with the sulphate of iron, and 
partly to the action of the peroxide of iron on the organic matter of the soil. 


712 REPORT—1863. 


While being constantly renovated, a supply of oxygen is provided in a solid 
form by this hydrated oxide of iron. 

Venetian Red.—The manufacture of this article has long been carried on 
in this neighbourhood, and is noticed here, as it is so closely related to green 
copperas. It is made by calcining a mixture of copperas and some native 
hydrated oxide of iron, chalk, and gypsum. ‘The calcined mass is levigated 
and dried. About 4000 tons per annum are manufactured on the Tyne, and 
the price varies from £4 10s. to £5 per ton. 

Sulphate of Copper—This salt was formerly produced by roasting old 
copper in a reyerberatory furnace, and then dissolving the oxide in sulphuric 
acid, but it is now obtained in carrying out Longmaid’s process for decom- 
posing common salt by means of cupreous pyrites. The quantity made is 
about 100 tons per annum, which is all produced at the works of Messrs. 
J. and W. Allen. 

Resin Size.—This article is manufactured according to a patent obtained 
by Mr. W. 8. Losh, and is intended to produce a size suitable for paper- 
makers, and to supersede the old size in ordinary use, which consists of alum, 
resin, and soda-ash. Its manufacture has, however, been only partially 
developed, and not more than 100 tons yearly are produced; but a new and 
cheap size, which can be prepared ready for the use of the paper-trade, is, 
we think, a step in the right direction, and the theory of the sizing of paper 
is a field still open to chemists. 

Lamp-black.—The manufacture of lamp-black, we believe, is peculiar to 
this locality, and it is produced from bituminous coals. These coals are 
slowly burnt, at a dull heat, and with as small a supply of air as possible. 
The smoke is conducted into brick chambers, into which a jet of steam or 
water is passed, to assist in the better formation of the lamp-black. The 
quantity made is about 1200 tons annually. 

Grease.—This product is made to the extent of 2800 tons annually. It is 
chiefly produced from the distillation of resin, and in a locality ike New- 
castle, surrounded by extensive collieries and works, the consumption is con- 
siderable. Since the American war the price has been much affected, and, 
we are told, has advanced from £8 or £9 per ton to £22 per ton. 

Chemical Products of Gas-works.—The quantity of coal used in the manu- 
facture of gas on the three northern rivers, the Tyne, Wear, and Tees, amounts 
to about 100,000 tons. 

The products obtained are as follows :— 


875,000,000 cubic feet of gas ..........., £113,000 
5S, 000 tons ol COkb ae cee cin tth che siete wie 10,000 
23,800 gallons of crude naphtha ...... 2,800 

309,000 gallons of creosote oil ........ 1,250 
35D CO FORA AOL PUGEI 0 garg) atitveds ahaha sinshae 3,130 
600 tons of sulphate of ammonia... . 9,000 
£139,180 


The sulphate of ammonia is manufactured direct from the gas-water, in 
the following manner :—A large cylindrical boiler is filled two-thirds full 
with the gas liquor, and gently boiled. The gaseous products and steam are 
conducted into a mother liquor, from a previous operation, which is kept 
slightly acid. When no more ammonia comes over, a quantity of milk of 
lime is added to the boiler and a strong heat applied, until the colouring 
matters cease to be disengaged. The gaseous products are collected as before, 


ON THE CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES OF THE NORTHERN DISTRICTS. 713 


and the colouring matters are skimmed off the surface of the liquor. The 
boiling is then moderated, and during the whole operation a stream of acid 
is supplied to the cistern. The sulphate of ammonia salts out, and is fished 
up into baskets to drain, when it is ready for the market. 

Cement.—The manufacture of this material on a large scale in this district 
is of comparatively recent origin. A small quantity of cement has long been 
made on the Yorkshire coast, near Whitby, where a peculiar mineral is found 
in the alum-shale, called the ‘‘cement stone.”? This mineral has been 
analyzed by Dr. Richardson, who found it to contain— 


Vay msolublein ‘acids’ Fs... Ve, See 18-41 

Consisting of silica ............ 12°24 

3 of alumina 5.7) S28, : 6°17 
Alumina soluble in acids ’............... 6:89 
sie OF iron.) , . PY eee eae 0-54 
NC ee eee ct ee ee, 37°68 
BRae nesta! cs J. :'. Sree cee 5°20 
moun nad potash .)... |; .. ste see ine traces 
Oeeanie matters... . J). .yieee es eee oe 1:45 
Carbonic acid and water ...........2.... 29°62 
99:79 


About 20 ewt. of this mineral is found in every 60 tons of shale, and the 
greater proportion is sent to Hull, where it is manufactured into a cement, 
sold under the name of Mulgrave cement. 

The mineral is burnt in small open kilns, and afterwards ground to a fine 
powder. 

The production of cement on a large manufacturing scale dates from the 
establishment of the works of Messrs. T. C. Johnson and Co., in 1856. This 
firm manufactures Portland cement, Roman cement, Keene’s marble cement, 
and plaster of Paris ; and they have recently introduced improved machinery 
for the more perfect levigation of the raw materials, by which the subsequent 
chemical action is much facilitated. 

Portland cement is very extensively used in this country, in France and 
Germany, for dock works, basins, fortifications, and for fronting houses in 
imitation of stone. It is also used for coating the inside of all first-class 
iron ships. The rivets are carefully coated, and are thus protected from the 
corrosive action of the bilge-water. It has been found of equal service in 
sugar-carrying vessels, where the leakage of the molasses exercises a very 
corroding action. 

Roman cement is prepared by calcining Septaria in open kilns, and after- 
wards grinding the burnt material in horizontal stoves. It is used either 
alone or mixed with an equal volume of sharp sand. 

Keene’s marble cement is made by soaking calcined gypsum in a solution 
of alum, and then recalcining the mass at a dull red heat. This recalcined 
material is then ground and sifted. It is only used for internal work, such 
as floors, skirtings, walls, &c. It is largely employed in London in churches 
and club-houses ; it rapidly dries after being applied, and may be papered or 
painted in two days. When dry, it is so hard that a nail cannot be driven 
into it. Two qualities are made, one of which can be polished in imitation 
of marble, while the other is used as a ground for painting: when different 
colours are introduced, a superior scagliola is formed. 


714 REPORT—18683. 


The quantities manufactured per annum are as follows :— 


Tons. Casks. 
Portland cement ...... 10,000 or 50,000 
Roman DPE nCe ters 350 ,, 2,450 
Keene’s rieqpe cary CaGReRe 50 ,, 350 
Plaster of Paris ...... 200 ,, 2,000 
The present prices are— 
Portland cement ........ 8s. 6d. per cask of 430 lbs. 
Roman bed pepe Gist tors 7s. 6d. 5 336 lbs. 
Keene’s S57 welt! na ease 14s. Od, sy 336 Ibs. 
Plaster, Of Parig.os::.:. 5/5 sn 30s. Od. per ton. 
Quantities and Prices of Raw Materials used in Local Chemical 
Manufactures. 
Tons. Price per ton. Value. 
fds £ Ss a 
Sulphur (included as pyrites) .... 72,800 tO 99,200 0 0 
(Copper value not included.) 
co hed BER EE ay 90,000 015 0 67,500 O 0 
WtHiO Ol SOON oes a tat was fs 2,500 1415 0 36,875 0 0 
ELT ype le, re Ra a ge a ges 144,000 0 2 8 18,000 0 0 
(4 lye saan 2a todo ate psecn eV OT pe 323,000 0 3 9 60,562 19 0 
WEST OR Ero len wseansd (in eine are nck 11,400 4-0 0 45,600 0. 0 
Rough Epsom salts ...........:; 1,500 Ck aad B.oi0 0.0 
Magnesian limestone .......... 700 Oa so 122 10 0 
French limestone .......+,4+4.-+ 14,000 0 4 6 3,150 0 0 
Quantities and Prices of Finished Products. 
Tons. Price per ton. Value. 
a he £ ee ed, 
SAS SO ea 43,500 810 0 369,750 0 0 
Crystals of soda .......... 51,300 415 0 243,675 0 0 
Bicarbonate of soda ...... 7,450 Te Oeg 89,400 0 0 
Caustieisodares sane. %. teh 580 SM OY 10,440 0 O 
Hyposulphite of soda...... 400 25 0 0 10,000 0 0 
Ciliee rere ee Fe 6,440 Pe). ay 38,640 0 0 
Boman te PS. 28 1,500 75 = 10,875 0 0 
Bleaching-powder ........ 11,200 Naam ih 100,800 0 0 
Sonfint erat? 0) Pre 6,000 34 0 0 204,000 0 0 
Yellow prussiate of potash. . 105 O° Op lhl Aiea 
Red < ree: 40 0 2 6Hlb. 11,200 0 0 
Ata? 200, BOE See re 4,000 7 oe 28,000 0 0 
Carbonate of magnesia .... 250 a0 0 7,000 0 0 
Superphosphate of lime .... 15,000 Bo i bi 75,000 0 0 
Pearl-hardening ........ 2,000 db toa Ma 20,000 0 0 
Sulphate of iron.......... 2,000 3.0 0 6,000 0 0 
Venetian fed! SOT! OR Pe, 4,000 5 0 0 20,000 0 0 
Sulphate of copper........ 100 35 0 0 3,500 0 0 
Resins 7“ FPOT PIR Ges 100 (Set oar 700 0 0 
Ramip~ Mack? 003, ie Se 1,200 EBOe NY 8,400 0 0 
Gineden ts 0, PINS ee 2,800 8 0 0 22,400 0 0 
Cements S287) SOLAR 12,000 20 0 24,000 0 0 


~ he OAT yee 


ne 


ON THE LOCAL MANUFACTURE OF LEAD, ETC. 715 


On the Local Manufacture of Lead, Copper, Zinc, Antimony, &c. 
By T. Sorwitn, F.R.S., and T. Ricuarpson, M.A., F.R.S.E., &c. 


Leap. 


Tue lead-mining districts of the North of England are chiefly situated in or 
near the centre of that narrow portion of Great Britain which is formed by 
the counties of Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, and Westmoreland, 
and may be considered as being nearly in the central portion of the whole 
island, being situated nearly midway in its length from north to south, 
as well as from east to west, between the German Ocean and the Irish Chan- 
nel, Under the level lands which lie near to the eastern and western coasts, 
the upper portion of the carboniferous series of rocks contains numerous and 
valuable beds of coal. From beneath these coal-strata the “ lead-measures,”’ 
as they are locally termed, that is to say, the several beds of limestone and 
other rocks in which veins of lead-ore are chiefly found, gradually rise in a 
westerly direction, with an inclination exceeding that of the general rise of 
the surface, until they basset or crop out at the surface over a wide range of 
country, reaching their highest elevation at the mountain of Cross Fell in 
Cumberland, and other adjacent fells or mountain moorlands which extend in 
a north and south direction so as to form a western limit to the lead-mining 
districts. The strata which extend between the outcrop of the lowest of 
the coal-strata and the Cross Fell ridge of mountains are well known in 
the district as the carboniferous or mountain-limestone formation—so called 
from the abundance of coal so nearly associated with them, and from the 
numerous beds of limestone which prevail. These lead-mining strata lie 
nearly midway in the series of formations which are known in England, 
being as much below the tertiary beds of the south-east part of the island 
as they are above the Silurian rocks on the borders of Wales. A lofty range 
of elevated land extends from the borders of Scotland to Derbyshire, occupy- 
ing from twenty to thirty miles in width of the middle portion of the north 
of England. In many parts of this range of hills are extensive lead-mines, 
which may be classed as follows :— 

1st. Mining districts connected with the river Tyne and its tributaries— 
the Nent, East and West Allen, and the Derwent; Alston Moor, in the 
county of Cumberland; East and West Allendale, in the county of Northum- 
berland; Blanchland, and Derwent Valley, in the same county. In addi- 
tion to these, which form, as it were, distinct mining territories of consider- 
able extent, other valuable mines in detached places have been discovered, 
and are extensively worked in the valley of the Tyne. 2nd. The extensive 
mining districts of Weardale, in the upper part of the valley of the river 
Wear, and its tributary valleys of Burnhope, Kilhope, Wellhope, Ireshope, 
Rookhope, &e. 3rd. Another extensive district in Teesdale, in the upper 
part of the valley of the river Tees, the mines being situated chiefly in 
the county of Durham, and partly in Yorkshire, worked by the London Lead 


- Company. 


The geographical position of these districts may be readily understood by 
referring to ordinary maps of this part of England, and by assigning to the 
upper part of the rivers Tyne, Allen, Wear, and Tees an area extending about 
twenty miles from their respective sources, and in the Derwent a range of 
about ten miles from its source. This would roughly indicate the position 
of the principal mines. 

Tn any view of the history of mining it is impossible to overlook its con- 
nexion with geological conditions on which the very existence of the mine 


716 REPORT—1868. 


depends. The mind is thus carried back to a remoteness of time for which 
an adequate expression has not yet been defined. The deposition of regu- 
larly stratified rocks over a large area of country exhibits proofs of gradual 
progress, extending over enormous periods of time. Midway in this vast 
period we find, in certain parts of the North of England, evidences of volcanic 
action, which has interposed basalt among the strata of sandstone, shale, and 
limestone. The results of this protrusion not only affect the subterranean 
operations in mines; they also appear prominently at the surface, and give 
rise to some remarkable features of the scenery. The “ Whin Sill,” as 
it is locally termed, interrupts the gradual flow of the river Tees by a 
barrier over which that river falls at High Force, near Middleton-in-Tees- 
dale, and it is the cause of the romantic cataract called the Caldron Snout, 
near the source of that river. Precipitous cliffs of basalt, near Holwick, 
were formerly connected by a chain bridge, one of the first, if not the earliest, 
of that construction in Europe. The same overflowing of basalt which oc- 
casions these and other striking features of landscape scenery in Tees- 
dale extends in a north-easterly direction, and occasionally forces itself on 
the attention by the manner in which it seems to have invited the erection 
of works of art: this rock by its greater hardness having withstood the 
abrading action which wore away the softer rocks, presents a firm foundation 
for buildings designed to be as strong as possible. Thus, for a considerable 
distance along the line of the Roman Wall, we find the direct course from 
Chesters to near Haltwhistle forsaken, and the wall built on the summit of 
precipitous crags of basalt. The pleasure-grounds of the Duke of Northum- 
berland at Ratcheugh, near Alnwick, afford an example of the protrusion of 
this rock. Dunstanborough Castle, Bamburgh Castle, and Holy Island 
Castle may be mentioned as interesting places on this account. But the 
underground occurrence of basalt concerns still more nearly the practical 
operations of the miner, and involves much costly labour. 

Old writers on mines and mining were seldom content to rest with a less 
remote antiquity than creation itself; and it curiously marks the state of 
geological science even so late as 1670, when Sir John Pettus wrote his 
‘ History, Laws, and Places of the Chief Mines and Mineral Works in Eng- 
land, Wales, and the English Pale in Ireland.’ The hills and dales were 
treated as having been watery billows formed by the breath of the Almighty 
into hills and valleys, which, says the writer, “‘ have ever since continued in 
these wonderful and pleasant dimensions.” The same quaint writer speaks 
of Adam not only as a miner, but also as a refiner, &c., and nothing, he adds, 
shows wisdom more than the getting of gold by proper courses. The allusions 
made by some of the early writers to the getting of gold, and the minute 
directions which they give for the washing of gold found on the surface, 
warrant a belief that that precious metal was formerly prevalent on the 
surface, and it is by no means unlikely that its greater abundance in ancient 
than in modern times was one of the attractions which led to the peopling of 
the island by strangers, and that Britain was in ancient times to Rome and 
other nations what California and Australia are in our day. Certain it is that 
gold and silver have from early times been specially reserved by the Crown, 
and some remains of this are still apparent in the state of the law relating 
to treasures of these metals found under the surface of the earth. 

From many circumstances, Alston Moor is best known as a lead-mining 
district from its having been open to public enterprise, and it forms a good 
type of the general condition of the lead-mining districts. Of its early 
history little is known. Its occupation by the Romans is attested by the 


ON THE LOCAL MANUFACTURE OF LEAD, ETC. 717 


extent and perfect preservation of some of their large works, and the position 
of the mineral veins in it and the adjacent districts is such as to render it 
almost impossible that lead-veins were unworked. The formation of the great 
military road called the Maiden Way must have exposed to view the mine- 
ralogical characters of the rocks over which it passed, and the lead found in 
the Roman station at Whitley was most probably obtained from the im- 
mediate vicinity. Traces of ancient smelting-places exist, as may be inferred 
from the scorize yet to be found ; but of any detailed operations or exact loca- 
lities there is not, that we are aware of, any records. It is not until about 
six centuries ago that any light appears by which to judge of the state of 
the mining-districts, and even then, and for some centuries after, few and 
far between; and vague and undefined are the indications of lead-mining. 
The insecurity of property at that time, and more especially of Border pro- 
perty, may be noted ; for even then the Kingdom of Scotland included Cumber- 
land, although the mining rights were claimed by the English Crown. In the 
time of Henry IV. a lead-mine is mentioned as having been in Essex ; and 
Sir John Pettus enumerates the following counties as producing lead-ore 
containing silver, namely, Devonshire, Gloucestershire, Worcestershire, Staf- 
fordshire, Leicestershire, Cheshire, Derbyshire, Lancashire, Cumberland, 
Northumberland, Yorkshire, Bishopric of Durham, Flintshire, Denbighshire, 
Shropshire, Carnarvonshire, Merioneth, Buckingham, Montgomery, Carmar- 
then, Brecknock, Monmouth, and Dorsetshires. From this it may be seen 
that for a long period lead-mining operations have been extensively spread 
over a great part of England and Wales, whilst in Scotland the chief works 
were almost confined to Leadhills, a place where gold was formerly ob- 
tained in some abundance. More accurate records would probably throw 
further light on the question whether in mining districts in southern parts 
of the island gold was or was not among the early inducements to search 
for hid treasures. 

In Sir John Pettus’s definition of poor mines and rich mines, or “ mines 
royal,” he states that “where the ore digged from any mine doth not yield 
according to the rules of art so much gold or silver as that the value 
thereof doth exceed the cost of refining, and loss of the baser metal wherein 
it is contained, or from whence it is extracted, then it is called poor ore or 
a poor mine. On the contrary, where the ore digged from any mine doth 
yield according to the rules of art so much gold or silver as that the value 
thereof exceeds the charges of refining and loss of the baser metal in which 
it is retained and from which it is extracted, then it is called rich ore or 
a ‘mine royal,’ and it is appertaining to the king by his prerogative.” In 
this we have the definition of the limits within which it appears the mines 
of Alston were included as Mines Royal, and the importance of which is 
prominently marked in the several charities which the Kings of England 
in several successive reigns conferred by virtue of that prerogative. Sir 
John Pettus states that the mines in Devonshire, Somersetshire, and Corn- 
wall were wrought by the Romans, who in the period of 300 or 400 years 
that they occupied the mining districts of the North of England doubt- 
less exercised their knowledge of the ore, and Cxsar expressly mentions 
that one reason of his invading the Britons was because they assisted 
the Gauls with “the treasures with which their country did abound.” 
It appears moreover that in those times, and long after, the practice was 
to condemn to the mines those who had committed any heinous offence 
against the laws of the land. In the beginning of the fourteenth century 
(1304) mention is made of indemnities granted to mimers in Cornwall, 


718 REPORT—1863. 


and liberty to turn-watercourses for their works at pleasure. Thirty years. 
later certain mines of lead mixed with gold and lead ore are mentioned in 
Shropshire. “A concealed mine of gold” is referred to (1401) in a letter 
of mandamus, and in 1426 Henry VI. granted to John, Duke of Bedford, 
‘* All mines of gold and silver within his kingdom of England for 10 
years, paying the tenth part to the Holy Church, to the king the fifteenth, 
and to the lord of the soil the twentieth part.” In 1438 the same king 
granted to John Sellers all mines of gold and silver in Devon and Corn- 
wall, and all mines of lead holding silver and gold, to hold (from the 
expiration of 12 years formerly granted to the Duke of Bedford) for 20 
years, paying the fifteenth part of pure gold and pure silver. In 1451 the 
same king made his chaplain, John Boltwright, comptroller of all his 
mines of gold and silver, copper, lead, &c., within the counties of Devon 
and Cornwall, and in the following year the same Boltwright is mentioned 
as “ Provost and Governor of all his mines,’ and a grant was made to 
him of all mines of copper, tin, and lead, in Devon and Cornwall, to hold 
during his good behaviour, paying the tenth part of pure gold and silver, 
copper, tin, and lead, with power to let and set for 12 years, paying to the 
king the tenth bowl of ore, &c., holding gold or silver, and to dig without 
interruption, &e. 

These notices, some of them referring to mines generally, and others only 
as contained in certain counties, are curious as showing the manner of the 
Crown’s disposal of them. The constant mention of gold and silver is quite 
different to any mining conditions of modern times, and the limited periods 
of 10 or 12 or 20 years would seem to imply that no large works were con- 
templated—the continued security for a long period under which alone 
extensive and deep mines can now be worked not being required in virgin 
mines, when the readiness of the implements and machinery were adapted 
only for operations of an inconsiderable depth. In 1468, Edward IY. granted 
Richard, Earl of Warwick, John, Earl of Northumberland, and others, all 
mines of gold and silver, &c., on the north side of Trent, within England, 
and all mines of lead holding gold or silver in the same parts for 40 years, 
paying to the king the twelfth part of pure gold and silver, and to the lord of 
the soil a sixteenth part, with liberty to dig, except under houses and castles, 
without license. In 1475 the same king granted to Richard, Duke of Glou- 
cester, Henry, Earl of Northumberland, and others, the mines of Blanchland 
called Shildon, in the county of Northumberland, and the mine of Alston 
Moor called Fletchers; the mines of Keswick, in Cumberland, and the copper- 
mine near Richmond, to hold the same for 15 years, paying to the king the 
eighth part, to the lord of the soil the ninth part, and to the curate of the 
place a tenth part as they arise. In 1478 the same king granted, on sur- 
render of the former grants, to William Goderswick and Doderick Wavyers- 
wick, all mines of gold, silver, copper, and lead in Northumberland and 
Westmoreland, to hold the same for 10 years, paying to the king a fifteenth 
part, and to the lord of the soil, and to the curate, as they can agree. In 
1486, Henry VIL., by his letters patent, dated February 27th, made Jasper, 
Duke of Bedford, and other Earls, Lords, and Knights, commissioners and 
governors (a designation retained until very lately in the direction of the 
estates of Greenwich Hospital) of all his mines of gold, silver, tin, lead, and 
copper in England and Wales, to answer the profits to the king, and made 
Sir William Taylor comptroller to hold the same for twenty years, with 
liberties of court and other privileges, paying to the king the fifteenth part 
of pure gold and silver, and to the lord of the soil the eleventh part as it 


ON THE LOCAL MANUFACTURE OF LEAD, ETC. 719 


grows. For a period of about 50 years following the appointment of this 
commissioner in the reign of Henry VIL., little of moment appears to have 
been done; and in the third year of the reign of Queen Elizabeth a society 
was appointed, entitled the Society for the Mines Royal, to whom a grant 
of gold, silver, and copper was given within the counties of York, Lancaster, 
Cumberland, Westmoreland, Cornwall, Devon, Gloucester, and Worcester, 
as also in Wales, with liberty to grant and assign parts and portions. The 
various laws and regulations of this and similar societies do not throw any 
light on the local details of mining, and the general rate of duties and con- 
ditions of the North of England lead-mines in the above periods can only be 
inferred from the probability of their having been included in some of the 
grants already recited. 

In other lead-mine districts we find more minute details of local customs ; 
such, for example, are the laws of the lead-mines of Derbyshire, and Mendip, 
in Somersetshire; but we find no trace of any of these peculiar customs 
having prevailed in Alston or the adjacent districts. One of the Derbyshire 
customs or regulations is curious enough :—“ If any blood be shed upon the 
mine, the author shall pay 5s. 4d. the same day, or else shall double the same 
every day till it comes to 100s.” 5s. 4d. was also the apparently moderate 
penalty in case of underground trespass. The laws and customs are described 
as being those of the mine used in the highest peak, and in all other places 
through England and Wales. The miners sued that the king “ would 
confirm them by charter, under his great seal, by way of charity, and for 
his profit, forasmuch as the aforesaid miners be at all times in peril of their 
death, and that they have nothing in certain but that which God of his 
grace will send them.” The information to be thus gleaned is scanty 
enough, and admits not of being woven into a connected narrative, yet it 
indicates the scale of payment to the several parties concerned, the shortness 
of the term for which grants were made, the absolute rights of the Crown, 
and the participation in a portion of the revenues by the Church. The 
mines of Alderston, or Alston, had royal protection granted in 1233, again 
in 1236, and again in 1237; in 1282 the manor of Alderston was granted 
by Edward I. to hold in fee of that King of Scotland, reserving to himself 
and to the miners various privileges, especially such as belonged to the 
Franchise of Tindale, within which Alston was then comprised. ‘The details 
of grants and charters more immediately relating to Alston appear to cor- 
respond in general terms with those more general grants which we have 
specified as elucidating the early progress of mining in this kingdom 
generally. In 1333, several of the privileges above alluded to were con- 
firmed to Robert, son of Nicholas de Veleripont, and in the following year 
some further liberties were confirmed, from which it appears that Alston 
at that period had not only mines, but a mint. These and some other details 
are contained in.a brief account of the mining districts which one of the 
writers drew up more than 30 years ago, when residing in Alston Moor. 
The ancient names of Park and Forests which occur in these northern 
mining districts, as applied to extensive tracts of land which are now treeless, 
are worthy of mention, as they indicate in a striking manner the abundance 
of forest timber which once adorned the now nearly treeless districts under 
consideration. In 1290, Patric of the Gilt and 26 other miners were im- 
pleaded by Henry de Whitby, and Joan, his wife, for cutting down their 
trees at Alderston, by force and arms, and carrying them away to the value 
of £40. The miners claimed that they held the mine of the king, and were 
privileged to cut wood. The context sufficiently indicated that there had in 


720 REPORT—1863. 


former times existed vast quantities of wood, that it was extensively used 
for the mines, and that the country was thus rendered bare and treeless, in 
which state only too much of it yet remains. 

Another intimation contained in these ancient records leads to the sup- 
position that mining cases were at one time subject to the decision of juries 
of miners similar to those which existed in other parts of the kingdom, and 
the proceedings of such juries one of the writers had occasion to investigate 
more closely in connexion with the Forest of Dean. Alston Moor after- 
wards became the property of the Hyltons, of Hylton Castle, in the county 
of Durham, and a lease was granted in 1611 for 999 years by Henry Hylton, 
subject to the payment of certain rents which amounted to £64. In 1629 
the manor was sold to Sir Edward Ratcliffe for £2500, and it remained the 
property of that family till the confiscation of the estates of James, Earl of 
Derwentwater, in 1716. It was granted by the Crown in 1734 to the Royal 
Hospital for Seamen at Greenwich, and has ever since remained in the pos- 
session of the Commissioners in trust for that institution. Adjoining estates 
have subsequently been purchased, and added to the original tracts of land 
so given. It would be a work of some labour to extend these notices to the 
details of property and succession in the several other districts. The only 
practical result would be to discover a period when general and undefined 
Royal rights were gradually brought into narrow compass by increasing 
population, and when mining was doubtless encouraged by liberal immunities 
granted to miners. It would be difficult to pursue in any minuteness the 
gradual advance of improvement and distinct rights of property over clearly 
defined districts. The royalties of Allendale passed into possession of the 
Fenwicks of Wallington, of the Blacketts, and eventually of the family of 
the present possessor, Wentworth Blackett Beaumont, Esq., M.P. The 
Weardale mines are held under lease by the same owner from the Eccle- 
siastical Commissioners. The mines in Teesdale belong to various lords, of 
whom the Duke of Cleveland is the chief; and at and near Blanchland, in 
the valley of the Derwent, the royalties belong to H. Silvertop, Esq., and 
other proprietors. It is, however, interesting to endeavour to mark the 
periods at which the former vague and uncertain methods of mining in these 
lead districts were replaced by more exact ones, and it is apprehended 
that such a period of change may be distinctly traced in the supervision of 
that great engineer, Mr. Smeaton, who was for a time an agent of Greenwich 
Hospital in this district. It is certain that one great work which he pro- 
jected and commenced at Alston, in 1775, gave a new stimulus to mining. 
This was the Nent Force Level, a work of great magnitude, of vigorous con- 
ception, well adapted to the then existing state of information, and to the 
imperfect state of engines where great power was required. In the present 
day an equal amount of exploration and drainage may be pursued by the 
use of hydraulic engines wholly worked by water. About the same period 
the progress of mining in Allendale owed much to the ingenuity of Mr. Wm. 
Westgarth, who first introduced water-pressure engines. The generous 
interest taken by Smeaton in the promotion of so useful a discovery may 
be seen by the communications of that great engineer to the Society of Arts. 
The minute details of the construction of Mr. Westgarth’s engine may be 
seen in the early volumes of the Transactions of that society. “The old 
man” is the local phrase by which ancient mining operations in these 
districts are described. The greater or less abundance of produce of lead 
was scarcely matter of public interest, nor were the fluctuations of price 
such as would have been felt in the case of coal. Carried on in remote 


ON THE LOCAL MANUFACTURE OF LEAD, ETC, 721 


districts, which, until half a century ago, were in many places almost in- 
accessible except on ponies, it is not surprising that few details of local 
history of an authentic and detailed character exist, or that we have only 
meagre traces of a secluded district, and of a people shut out in a great 
measure by their occupation even from the few dwellers on the surface of 
their own remote dales. 

The earliest method of working lead-mines appears to have been by shaft, 
by following the surface-indications of ore downwards. The driving of 
levels for drainage in Dean Forest was of later orign, and probably so in the 
other mining districts of the kingdom. The work was drawn to the surface 
in kibbles, or small tubs, and some of the smaller pits on the basset of 
inferior beds of coal yet present what probably was the appearance of a 
respectable mine in the infancy of such operations. The general use of 
levels or galleries large enough to admit of horses travelling in them is said 
to have been introduced into the lead-mining districts by Sir Walter Calverly 
Blackett, about 120 years ago, but the example was not, as we believe, 
followed for many years by other mine-owners. Cast-iron rails, instead of 
wood, were first used in Nent Force Level. Tin pipes were first used for 
ventilation by Low, Carlisle, and Co., at Tyne Bottom Mine. Mr. Stagg 
introduced iron pipes at Rampgill, and Mr. Dickinson first used lead pipes 
for the purpose of ventilation in the Nent Force Level. Any of these 
materials were an improvement on the wooden boxes, which rapidly decayed, 
and so rendered the air impure, and which moreover could with difficulty 
be kept water-tight. 

The quantity of lead ore raised in this Northern district and smelted in 
the different mills, in 1861, according to Hunt’s ‘Mineral Statistics,’ was 


as follows :— 


Lead Ore. Lead. Silver. 
tons. tons. Oz. 

Durham and Northumberland ............ 19,536 +. 15,252 «. 78,265 

Beran) xis cc csins skied. case os soeicveds 63324. ps0 pm ASOI4S | buen 6375105 

PERI GPOIANG (0,5. cineca sesiencensieed ences doe, 20392 padeas EES OG jatal aceite KA: 

BMERARIPO. cainuahcsisynsestap css cscecssceccsseseee 0, SOL. ton MENU ORs tLEe QORO 

371053 27,645 140,244 

Lead Ore, Lead, and Silver the produce of Cumberland for 10 years ended 1862. 
Lead Ore. Lead. Silver. 
Year. tons. ewt. tons. cwt. oz. 

TS G24 niente wees’ S54 TOW TT). pu.wiveeacne S70), LS beennaewens 52,893 
TIGR omsca cau. S5543 IO eo neiey to 5,619 50,000 
GAs Beccsceves Q;S90,1S  ” cceseqree 6,662) 16% fecnecaate 42,020 
MBG GLY actecan ss Qi 6270 1 ZU AE CPAs TES 7 BE ERBS a oo 2,879 
TS 5G! TD weastiecs 7eQikl. tase easaa. se 5:321. 1 51,931 
BGT) SF Seacstnsye GiAGOW Ol maseass eae A A ON axsineaten 43,460 
TOR so he escn'as FT, 2A 5014s = onvetecce S20 kA eee ccievs 43,721 
EBGQ  uteseencs FALOOe eh eiveemands 5,250 14 39,406 
MOUG Petecencee OAT IO! eset ees RsIZONA 7 Mts. 32,806 
WS6E 8.08. Sen BOSSA OM fl Jean. kis A OTAGISVTfile--fedie-< 37,115 
BS G2H rercacosmchsMineTel 731i BSiciy esenedses '§ 2:4 Teg LOR oe ateo sh vs 41,911 


Lead Ore, Lead, and Silver the produce of Durham and Northumberland 
for the 10 years ended 1862. 


TOGZ  Jessenetees TSO ACh fot! dace ce hess RSTO SA aa ELS 191,736* 
Sigg) ot..eetenes mg28y zONi Peete DS OATS rhaneterisestsct 140,000* 
BS Faber aatoo as DO3 20 Tien wh dusje cajun 16,669) 28 0 tots -scess 78,577 
TB 5 Sina fanoint ows 22 1O7e OE. Clatateceae TO,209°1Qe ascccecse’ | 7 SUAS 
EO. ssnernens ZAAZG. 7, casievesas T7674 UK) | cccsccees 79,924 


* The Westmoreland silver is included in these quantities. 


1863. oA 


722 REPORT—1863. 


Lead Ore. Lead. Silver. 
Year. tons. cwt. tons. cwt. OZ. 
US 7e eseceses Zag oON ae tesmsctses 17,072 "Tat ateremeees 74,091 
RSSSME ate .ct 19;999 2 —sseeeeere 165776. “78 CT 78,238 
EOS Ot -s pbs TO;57% BO ty Sustege oct 14,568 o Salsas 745222. 
TR OG Be asn-c anv, 20,200 12 E5180 20 bee enero 84,254 
TOUR ase esos 19,536 15 15,252 17) 0” sssusers 78,265 
iy Giriame tt ns Sees Se 21.177 18 TO,AEA. On eres 82,854 


Produce of Lead in the years 1845 to 1862, inclusive, in the counties of 
Cumberland, Durham, and Northumberland. 


Cumberland. Durham and Northumberland. 
Year. tons. cwt. Year. tons. cwt- 
1845 ssesssecoeee 5,861 0 T8459 sisssds..cse BO,24S, 0 
TBAOip fies. eac2-- ASSES IG 1846  s-eeccerrees 10j284. 0 
TBAT. inet sevedies. 5,702. 0 TSAF os bacesst¥es con, poe A nee 
US49)" ssancocesse 5.0840 0 LOAD» sasievp cons=oai Ral game 
E849 s--ssecceeee 65327. 7 T849 -<s-.00ve-s- 4,000 2G 
TB50" n.d ..c8s 6,850 *4. ISSO” Wiiviivete) TSyegoeg 
UBHI  40.,2255s--5 | 6,533) 2 D8GR Aches. ik Lh Sees 
TB52, | cocnrgseres. 05:877 1S F852. -cdssstsraves pees OT OMe 
1853 0 ---eeeerreee 6,019 9 1853 15,041 § 
USGA, vesepesacsese + 0,002 6 1854. 16,684 4 
1855 sseseeeeeeee 6,929 17 T8656" cecccocsctce “€6;G0Qhag 
T9560 ease onsets. ssugigon lia TSEG os. ceestcbe7pO7A ae 
ESET | ---ctestsaee 4700) FE ISS7. «lou wavgueete)  DOOTR RO 
IRR auscsfeann, SILOS E 2 ER5S.  sclsspassae a0, Aes 
TS5Q  vsesrceseees | 5,250 14. LO5Q: veresnsceeeal Sq SOa eee 
RSGGhN. wtiastt.. a6 Tro) an. L366) 4%. 15e. ee cower 
BOOT gids vasnesstsypuqsG StS TS6X. sevens est vee ER 2BOND 
1862 6,241 10 YS 62r sus,s ease 16,454 0 


In concluding this part of the subject, one prominent feature may be men- 
tioned, namely, the work called the Blackett Level, commenced by W. B. 
Beaumont, Esq., M.P.,in East Allendale. The shafts on this work were com- 
menced in 1855, and the Adit Level, near Allendale Town, was begun in 
1859. The entire length, when completed, will be nearly seven miles. At 
three of the shafts, and also at the Allenheads mines, are extensive adapta- 
tions of the improved hydraulic engines invented by Sir William Armstrong, 
and particularly described by him at the meeting in. Newcastle of the Me- 
chanical Engineers. 

Smelting Processes.—Various important improvements haye been intro- 
duced into the treatment of lead ores, among which we may mention the 
substitution of the Spanish Economico furnace for the slag hearth, by means 
of which a better"produce of lead is obtained from the refuse products of the 
mills, ‘This Spanish furnace is a miniature blast-furnace, covered at the 
top, from which a flue conveys the fumes to the condensing chambers or 
chimney. 

Another improvement, introduced since 1839, is the celebrated desilver- 
izing process of the late Mr. H. L. Pattinson, by which large quantities of 
both lead and silver have been saved. This process is so well known that 
we do not think it necessary to describe it on the present occasion, especially 
as it was fully explained in a previous Report to the British Association. 

A third improvement is the conversion of hard into soft lead by the pro- 
cess of calcining introduced by Dr. Richardson, at Blaydon, in 1840. This 
process consists in exposing the hard lead in a melted state to a current of 
hot air, by which the antimony and other impurities are oxidized. The 
oxides float on the surface of the molten lead, and are skimmed off from 
time to time. This operation is continued until a sample of the lead drawn 
from the furnace is found to be soft and malleable. The late Mr, George 


ey IO: oy, 


s 


Burnett, jun., applied this process to the softening of Spanish lead, and 
employed a large metal pan, set inside the furnace, in which this hard lead 
is melted. This improvement has been the means of developing a most ex- 
tensive trade between this country and Spain. The Spanish ores on the east 
coast of Spain are smelted with the fuel exported from this country, and the 
hard lead is brought here to be softened and refined. The following Table 
shows the gradual development of this trade :— 


ON THE LOCAL MANUFACTURE OF LEAD, ETC. 723 


Imports of Lead into Neweastle-upon-Tyne. 


? Year. tons. Year. tons. 

: 1844 i Rebercrte 213 | 1854 §. Sorcen oe 6,534 
1845 ot ey acct 1,453 1855 = 55.45 BEE 3,723 
1846 Srey Rae 3,939 | 1856 Fin Se 3,391 
1847 SOAS RSE 2,276 1857 se cemans the 4,877 
1848 Lah 1,697 | 1858 een pends 4,871 
1349 ROA HIE 3,958 1859 beecriygrinncl 9,069 
1850 Rete wae care 7,287 | 1860 Orsi. docket 93373 
1851 isamaean- 11,915 | 1861 SES teuoeaahs 12,284 
1852 pee istsm es = 7307 1862 ea eee 12,459 
1853 oi Ae 7,421 | 


This hard lead contains, on an average, about 50 oz. of silver per ton, 
so that the quantity of silver extracted on the Tyne is now upwards of 
600,000 oz. per annum. 

The total imports of lead into this country in 1861 were 23,109 tons, of 
which a considerable portion was from Linares, in Spain. This lead con- 
tains very little silver, and the average contents may be taken at 40 oz. per ton 
on the total imports. The total production of British mines in 1861 was— 
lead, 65,643 tons, and silver, 563,731 oz. Hence the imports and prodit . 
tions of these metals in this district amount to 45 per cent of the lead, and 
upwards of 50 per cent. of the silver of the whole trade of Great Britain, 

Several improvements have also been introduced for the condensation of 
the fumes evolved in the various smelting and refining operations to which 
lead is submitted. The first in point of time is the horizontal flue or chimney, 
which was first used by the late Messrs. Crawhall and Johnstone, in Mr. 
Beaumont’s extensive mills. The flues are built of masonry, eight feet in 
height and six feet wide. The aggregate length of the flues in the mills 
belonging to Mr. Beaumont is nine miles. Another plan, adopted in the 

; mills of the London Lead Company, is the invention‘of the late Mr. Stagg. It 
consists in drawing the entire gaseous products of the furnace through water, 
_ by means of powerful pumping machinery. The lead fume is completely 
- condensed, and easily separated from the water, where it is allowed to 
collect and remain at rest in suitable tanks. Mr. Stokoe’s plan has been 
introduced at Langley and other smelting establishments. In this plan, the 
_ lead fumes are driven by a fan-blast through a series of ascending and de- 
_ scending columns, partially filled with brushwood, on pebble stones, down 
_ which a stream of water falls to condense the lead-fumes. The water collects 
in tanks at the bottom of the columns, and the fumes are allowed to subside. 
_ We have heard that a small quantity of pure ore is reduced in crucibles . 
_ by means of iron, similar to the process employed in treating antimony ore, 
with the object of obtaining a lead of great purity, for the production of red 
lead to be used in the manufacture of flint-glass. 

Manufacturing Processes.—This locality has long been celebrated for its 
manufactured leads. The first establishment is said to have been com- 
menced about a century ago, and those at the Ouseburn and Gallowgate 
were erected about the year 1799. 

342 


724 REPORT—1863. 


White Lead.—The greater portion of this article is manufactured by the 
old Dutch process, and we have no important improvement to notice. The 
levigation is conducted with improved machinery, and the yield of white lead 
has increased, with a greater attention to the conditions necessary to ensure 
a more perfect corrosion of the lead. 

Mr. Pattinson’s beautiful process for making oxychloride of lead is worked 
at Washington. This plan consists of decomposing lead ore by hydrochloric 
acid, when a pure chloride of lead is easily obtained. This substance is then 
partially decomposed by an earthy base, leaving an amorphous oxychloride 
of lead behind, which is used in the same way as ceruse or white lead. 

Red Lead, §c.—The manufacture of orange and red lead, litharge, is still 
conducted in the same way, but in every case with improved and more 
effective machinery. 

Sheet Lead and Lead Pipe.—-The manufacture of these articles has largely 
increased, and much more powerful machinery has been introduced, by 
which the sheet lead-is now made of a greater width than formerly. Messrs. 
Walker, Parker and Co. manufacture a tinned lead pipe, which admits. of 
its use in many cases where a leaden surface would be objectionable. 

Shot have been long manufactured here. The Shot Tower is a striking 
object, towards the west of the town, on the banks of the river. It was 
erected at the close of the last century, to carry out the patent process of 
Mr. Watts. A short time afterwards the late Mr. Burnett, with great 
shrewdness, substituted an old pit-shaft at Wylam for the purpose of cast- 
ing shot. The manufacture of shot embraces several interesting processes ; 
but as no recent improvement has been introduced, we must limit our re- 
marks to the above brief historical notice of this branch of manufactured 
leads. 

Statistics —From the information which has been kindly furnished by 
Messrs. Forster, Leithart, and Parker, we are enabled to give the following 
details of the quantities of these articles made in this district. 


tons. tons. 
White Lead and Paint ...... 7,500 | Lead. Pipes |. .cessses0cbuuleer see Ly 500 
Red Lead............ssseeseseeeee 4500 | Shot: ..ccajeescuaataectesaeseenteskan 750 
WAUBAEO *:..0's'.220055052010.000000, SOO | 
Sheet Lead .................0088 4,500 10,559 
Coprrr. 


The smelting of ores of copper in this locality is of recent origin, and is 
due to the importation of cupreous pyrites, which are used by the alkali- 
makers for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. The chief supply is obtained 
from Spain; but the pyrites which arrive from Cornwall, Ireland, and 
Sweden also contain copper. The following analyses, by Messrs, Browell, 
Clapham, and Marreco, exhibit the composition of the sulphur ores :—- 


Cornwall. Ireland. Spain. Sweden. 
Sulphurnsadisvesni 34 Sas san AGAL \atsene IAC Sig bees: 38°05 
TROT Swe Wwerdstesctaie PAE ZOOL wed AT7S FE ees AOiZO) eee ces 42°80 
Copper vi.icceeee ees "SOON? seyice ROS) esate Brie) Miewens 1°50 
Beas s6ites ga MOOML Eevee hanes Prd oo rinoce — 
PANG) sachs ceueten Pirsig 1032150). cue 2 OO) ecawen O82 feene ea = 
SATROMIC nenueee tenets OWL ts teceh ek | aces AINSI Acer = 
Silica... ..cncessessy 00s 2OOOO Pash oan BO 3h veviece Stoo! My. -1ses 12°16 
Insoluble matter... — = ...... TASH desea —= PY) veeseee — 
Moisture we ae TTAQiEL sate WS 4Ayiiiere se -- 
Oxygen andloss ... —  ...... Rp st Bit ner ene 5°49 


ON THE LOCAL MANUFACTURE OF LEAD, ETC. 725 


These ores are usually burnt in the ordinary kilns for making sulphuric 
acid; but one manufacturer on the Tyne employs Longmaid’s process for 
making sulphate of soda, in which case the copper is obtained as sulphate. 
The burnt ores are afterwards run down to regulus, either alone or mixed 
with copper ores and slags, which are imported from the Continent. Some of 
the manufacturers only carry their operations up to the point of making a 
regulus with 50 per cent. of copper, while others produce tile-copper. The Lit 
de fusion varies with the character of the ore, and the following mixtures 
are used for the purpose :— 


ewt. ewt. ewt, 
PUBS OFC 25 cctsesn tacuth VTL Bee aanices Ol cata ° 
Burnt ore ......... re es rs AY Onan 7 
Dilieeous’ Ore s..28. a! is. Qe hee 18 
Copper ee Bees ee ge SURNCacess ° 
Ba A257. bicoaaes » PBlesee meskes 3 ° 
Tank waste ...... Op. eae Cee Basak 4 

Fluor spar ......... OF gaan Ona imeeaars I} 
oal OF “Rereaans Ppl ocr Fe ° 


Messrs. Mease and Co. dissolye out the copper with sulphuric acid, and 
precipitate this metal by means of iron. 

The quantity of copper ore raised in the northern counties is very small, 
being only 131 tons per annum, and the imports are given in the following 
Table :— 


Imports of Copper Ore and Slags. 


1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. 
IROOM ccdacsans cts 6 730¢ arene: IG WBREA: Ola ruantane CHIE athe 74 
BYOEWHY OS cdoerctsesee” 55S sen cee S): we aceoce: Sapetdeeroe SF hemipecbnce 14 
Denmark ......... ERS. role ea OLAS ouch aed 2 
South America .., Onrte.cck: Tit} Zee D5 Wis <Seeh oy atte or ° 
Belgium ............ role Eeeree yet eo ss es dane oo Boh ° 
Germany _ serene se CME RE Onecare 7) NCES Oe eet I 
Turkey Ge cnwnse Gn eccess Tee eens Oo eracee ° 


The present Saal ‘predieGiGH of copper on the Tyne is about 700 tons. 
ZINC. 


The ores of this metal are not very abundant in this district ; but blende and 
calamine are found in the neighbourhood of Alston. Ores of zinc are im- 
ported from the Isle of Man and Ireland, through the ports on the west 
coast, and from the Rhine and Sweden to the Tyne. Well-arranged 
smelting-works have been erected by Mr. Attwood, who employs a modifica- 
tion of the Belgian process for the reduction of the ores. The annual pro- 
duce of spelter varies from 750 to 800 tons. 

Mr. Hunt gives the following returns of the production of these ores in 
this locality :—Alston, blende, 366 tons; calamine, 135 tons ; sundry mines, 
95 tons: total, 596 tons. 

ANTIMONY. 


The ores of this metal are all imported and smelted by one firm, who 
produce annually about 270 tons. The precess of reduction is that generally 
employed, and we have heard that the sulphur matt is treated with sul- 
phuric acid to obtain green copperas. 


Nicket anp CoBatt. 


The works where these metals were extracted from their ores are Bee at 
present in operation. 


726 REPORT—1863. 


On the Magnesian Limestone of Durham. 
By Joun Dacuisu, F.G.S., and G. B. Forster, M.A. 


CovreRinG as it does so considerable a portion of the Northern Coal-field, the 
Magnesian Limestone must always afford a most interesting study to those 
engaged in the mining operations of this district. This arises from its im- 
portant bearing not only on geological, but also on physical conditions; the 
former have long been a subject of general interest, and as regards the latter, 
one of the most marked features is the large quantity of water met with in 
the shafts which have been sunk through it for the purpose of winning the 
coal below. It was more especially to this feature that this paper was, in 
the first instance, proposed to be directed; but-in the preparation of the 
required maps and sections, it was found that allusion to other debateable 
ground could not be avoided. 

This deposit has, at various times, occupied the attention of some of our 
ablest geologists, and has been carefully investigated by them, so far as it 
can be seen in its sections open to the day; but the writers, in the pursuit 
of their professional duties, having had frequently brought before them sec- 
tions of the entire deposit in the numerous coal-shafts which have passed 
through it, and having obtained the true inclination of the Coal-measures 
underlying a large tract of the Limestone in the workings of the various coal- 
mines, have had suggested to them conclusions somewhat at variance with 
the opinions expressed by recent writers, and which they deem of sufficient 
interest to bring before this Association. 

In all the sinkings through the Magnesian limestone, feeders of water, 
more or less considerable, are met with at a certain distance from the surface, 
derived not so much by percolation through the mass of the rock—for this 
can obtain to a small extent only—but collected in and coming off the nume- 
rous gullets and fissures which everywhere intersect and divide the mass of 
strata. If the shaft be not drained by pumping, or otherwise, the water 
from these feeders rises to a point which remains, save in exceptional cases, 
constant. A line drawn between these various ascertained points gives the 
line of saturation, indicated by dotted lines, on the sections exhibited ; 
and it will be observed that, although this line commences at the sea-level, 
it neither continues on this plane nor follows the line of stratification, nor 
yet all the undulations of the surface, but rises for the most part uniformly 
with it as it passes inland. At Seaton Pit, near Seaham, it is 226 feet from the 
surface, and at Eppleton, three miles directly west of Seaton, it is the same ; 
and as the surface-level of the latter is 180 feet above that of the former, it 
follows that the line of saturation rises in this direction at the rate of 60 
feet per mile. 

It was mentioned previously that under certain circumstances there is a 
slight variation in the level of the line of saturation; this occurs sometimes 
near the outcrop of the Limestone, when after a long succession of wet weather 
the level is raised a few feet ; and, again, in some cases where gullets are ex- 
posed on the surface, down which large quantities of water from flooded 
brooks, &c., find their way, and hence in any shaft communicating with 
these gullets the water rises rapidly and considerably. 

Immediately underlying the Limestone is a bed of sandstone of very variable 
thickness, which when exposed to the action of the atmosphere disintegrates 
rapidly, and has hence acquired its local name of “ friable Yellow sandstone.” 
It is in sinking through this bed of rapidly decomposing sandstone that such 
great engineering difficulties have been encountered, owing to the enormous 


ON THE MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE OF DURHAM, 727 


quantity of water which in some cases is met with, more especially if the bed 
be thick, and much below the level of saturation. A very full account of 
the sinking of the Murton Winning is given by Mr. Potter in vol. v. of the 
«Transactions ’ of this Institute. In this case nearly 10,000 gallons of water 
er minute were pumped out of this bed by engines exceeding in the aggre- 

gate 1500 horse-power. ‘The circumstances which favour the remarkable 
accumulation of water in the Limestone, and the rapidity with which it is 
drained off into pits sunk through it, are due to several causes, some of which 
are peculiar to this formation, and perhaps to this district. They are :— 

1st. The arrangement of the beds of stratification. 

2nd. The contour of the country. 

3rd. The permeability of this formation to water. 

On examining the locality, it will be observed that the beds of strati- 
fication dip towards the sea at an angle somewhat more inclined than the 
surface of the ground, so that on this line of section the Magnesian lime- 
stone crops out with a bold escarpment about four miles inland from 
the sea, forming one of the most pleasing features in the landscape of the 
south-eastern portion of Durham. An observer standing on the escarpment 
‘and looking inland would have an extended view over the wide expanse of 
flat country which, owing to the softer character of the rocks of the Coal- 
measures, lies at its base, and frequently running up into the Limestone in 
deep bays or fiords, gives it the character of an ancient rugged coast-line, 
Seaward an entirely different aspect is presented—a series of undulating hills, 
intersected with many deeply-cut, picturesque, and beautiful ravines, which 
being low and sheltered are well wooded and clothed with luxuriant foliage. 
The boldness of the escarpment is no doubt to a certain extent due to the 
soft nature of the “ Yellow sandstone ” lying immediately at its base. This 
sandstone sometimes reaches a thickness of 50 feet, and extends over the 
flat base to a considerable extent beyond the Limestone, and being thoroughly 
pervious to water, forms a natural absorbent for all the drainage of the dis- 
trict around, which is further increased by the numerous before-mentioned 
bays running into the Limestone. In addition to this, over the country ex- 
tending from the outcrop of the Limestone to the sea, the large fissures already 
spoken of as intersecting in all directions the Limestone, form so many chan~ 
nels of communication between the surface and the bed of “ Yellow sand- 
stone,” down which the surface-drainage, and even in some instances small 
streams pass freely. It cannot, therefore, be wondered at that when this 
formation is pierced by any shaft below the level of saturation large volumes 
of water should be encountered; and although this may for the time increase 
the engineering difficulties and frequently add much to the cost of winning 
coal through the Limestone, it has at the same time its brighter points of 
view, affording as it does an inexhaustible supply of pure and agreeable 
water to the inhabitants residing on its surface. The large towns of Sun- 
derland and South Shields are entirely supplied by water pumped at exten- 
sive works at Humbledon, Fulwell, and Cleadon Hills. The town of Seaham 
Harbour is also similarly supplied. The water is hard for domestic purposes, 
but delightfully clear and refreshing. 

There is another point connected with this branch of our subject. which 
affords much scope for conjecture as to its cause, and offers a large field for 
further research. In all the deep winnings made near the sea-coast, the 
water met with below a certain depth is saline, but not to a uniform degree, 
gradually becoming more so as the depth increases, until it attains the same 
specific gravity as the water of the North Sea. It is difficult to obtain the 


‘ 


728 REPORT—1863. 


law regulating the increase of density, as a great number of experiments 
would require to be made extending over a considerable area, -and great 
care that the waters tested are not locally contaminated by contact with de- 
composing rocks. The results of the testing of a great many samples ob- 
tained at various depths over the Hetton, South Hetton, Murton, and Seaham 
estates, extending over an area of about thirty square miles, were described. 

From this it would seem that the line of uniform saltness, so far as the 
above researches go, by no means follows either a line of uniform depth, or 
that of stratification, and does not depend on the contour of the country or 
the line of saturation. 

The water of the greatest density was obtained from the roof of the Hutton 
seam, at Seaton Colliery, at a depth of 1500 feet from the surface, or 1260 
feet below the level of the sea. This density was 1-026, being nearly that 
of sea-water. 

In other parts of this coal-field, however, as at Walker, Framwellgate, 
Butterby, Lambton, Birtley, and St. Lawrence, saline springs of an entirely 
different character are met with at various depths (in the case of Framwell- 
gate and Butterby coming to the surface), and at some of these places the 
springs have been used as brine-springs for the preparation of ordinary 
salt. ‘ 

Various opinions are held by geologists as to the precise structure of the 
Permian series of this district, and their relationship to the subjacent rocks. 
Perhaps, with little exception, all the older geologists, and those not residing 
in this neighbourhood, consider the Permian series of this district to lie un- 
conformably on the Coal-measures, and that the Yellow sandstone and Red 
sandstone beds form a part of the Permian series, and are conformable to the 
overlying Magnesian limestone. 

On the other hand, local geologists, whose opinions, from their opportunity 
of examination and from the attention which they have bestowed on this 
series of rocks, are well worthy of every consideration, are of opinion that the 
Yellow sandstone and Red sandstone beds form part of, and are conformable 
to the Coal-measures, and do not belong to the Permian strata. This view, 
however, does not seem to be borne out by well-ascertained facts; questions 
of conformability, in all cases connected with the Yellow sandstone, must be 
doubtfully entertained, as this rock lies more in ‘hills than in beds; and the 
question of its conformability to the Limestone must be settled by examination 
over an extended area, as, indeed, is essential in order correctly to ascertain 
all questions of conformability. It may be observed, that whilst at Monk- 
wearmouth Pit the Coal-measure strata intervening between the Magnesian 
limestone and the Hutton seam are 1500 feet, at Seaham they are 1100 feet, 
and at Castle Eden only 400 feet. So that at Castle Eden 1100 feet of Coal- 
measure strata have been denuded, and yet the Yellow-sandstone underlies 
the Limestone at each place. 

With respect to the “ Red beds,’’ it would seem to the writers that if they 
can be proved to be independent beds, they must also be conformable to the 
Limestone, resting with it unconformably on the edges of the Coal strata; but 
for several reasons they venture to express an opinion that they do not exist 
at all as independent beds, but are merely the reddened edges of the Coal- 
measure rocks themselves. 

_ The following are the reasons which have led the writers to entertain this 
view :— 

Ist. Beds of ‘‘ Red rocks” are frequently met with below the coal-seams 
in sinking shafts, as is shown at Monkwearmouth, Ryhope, Seaton and Castle 


7 


ON THE MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE OF DURHAM. 729 


Eden, Murton and Eppleton, and Elemore Pits, and they can be seen crop- 
ping out below a coal-seam in the cliffs a little to the north of Cullercoats 
Haven. 

2nd. The fossil remains in the “ Red beds” are identical with those of the 
Coal-measures, as shown by Mr. Howse in his paper on the Permian Fossils 
(Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club Transactions, vol. ii. p. 235). And yet, 
if independent beds, they are not “ the upper beds of the Coal-measures,” 
because in all sinkings, &c., they are found to underlie the Limestone and 
Yellow sandstone even when, as previously mentioned, in treating of the 


_ unconformability of this rock to the subjacent coal-formation, an enormous 


thickness of Coal-measure beds has been denuded off. Further, wherever 
any coal-seam has been worked, as at Kelloe, Cornforth, &c., nearly to 
its outcrop under the Limestone, the stone forming the roof becomes red— 
clearly proving either that these red measures are simply the reddened edges 
of the crop of the Coal-measures, or that they belong to the Permian series, 
resting unconformably with them on the Coal series. 

3rd. This red appearance of rocks has been observed in other parts of the 
Coal-measures where its origin could be distinctly traced. 

1st. The shales forming the roof of coal-seams are frequently found dis- 
coloured and reddened in the galleries of the mine where they 
have been exposed to the action of the atmosphere for some time. 

2nd. This character has been found strongly marked in the rock sur- 
rounding upcast shafts when the action of decomposition has 
been accelerated by increased temperature and probably by per- 
colation of water. 

3rd. In one special instance, viz. in the recent sinking of the Camboise 
Pit, which is situated close to the sea, and at the outset passes 
through 7 feet of recently-blown sand. ‘The bottom of this sand 
was found to be quite reddened, and in appearance strongly re- 
sembled the red rocks below the ‘‘ Yellow sandstone,” which 
latter, from its lying in hills, from its incoherent character and 
false bedding, was probably originally blown sand. 

It is not difficult to understand that the Coal-measure rocks, by lengthened 
exposure to the action of the atmosphere, as must have been the case prior to 
the deposition of the Limestone, would become reddened to the extent now 
witnessed, when it is considered that they all contain so large a quantity of 
iron, and that, under circumstances at all favourable, they readily take on 
them this character. 

The writers propose now to treat shortly of the general stratigraphical 
character of the Magnesian limestone of this district. 

Hitherto it has been usual for geologists to divide this formation into four 
distinct beds, or groups of beds; and these subdivisions have been compared 
to other series of beds extensively developed in other parts of Europe. 

. These groups of Magnesian limestone rocks have been named by the fol- 
lowing authors thus :— 

In 1850 Professor King published the following arrangement of the Mag- 
nesian limestone:— 


In ENGLAND. In GERMANY. 
1. Crystalline. Stinkstein. 
Brecciated. 
Pseudo-brecciated. { icin 
Fossiliferous. Dolomit. 


Compact. Zechstein. 


780 é, REPORT—1863. 


In 1857 Mr. Howse proposed the following division of the Magnesian 
limestone, which has been adopted by Mr. Kirkby, by Professor Geinitz, of 
Dresden, and also by Professor King more recently :— 


ENnGLIsH SERIES. GERMAN EQUIVALENTS. 
Magnesian Limestone. Zechstein. 
1, Upper Group .j«.. a. Upper yellow-limestone. a. Plattendolomit, and 
b. Botryoidal do. b. Kugelkalk, &e. 
2. Middle Group .... ¢. Cellular, and c. Rauchwacke. 
d. Shell-limestone. d. Dolomit, Asche, &c. 
3. Lower Group .... e. Compact limestone, and a Zachatern 


Ff. Conglomerate. 
Doubtless, any one examining these rocks, by commencing at their outcrop 
near South Shields, which is the usual starting-point, and going southward 
along the coast, would readily recognize these groups. The line of separa- 
tion between the compact and cellular rocks is clearly distinct, as is also the 
first appearance of the botryoidal rocks, south of Marsden. But there are 
equally well-defined changes in the character of the rocks at other points 
along the coast (as at the point near the blast-furnace south of Seaham Har- 
bour) which have not been made use of for grouping the Magnesian limestone 
into distinct series of beds; and there are also, south of Seaham, several 
other groups of shell rocks with distinct and variously-marked differences of 
lithological character. It is not at all to be wondered at that these points of 
strongly-marked difference of lithological character, and apparent non-con- 
formability of deposition, should occur throughout such an extensive deposit 
as the Magnesian limestone. These occur constantly to a far greater extent 
throughout the Coal-measures, and yet it would be extremely hazardous to 
venture on any speculative subdivision of those rocks *; most probably all 
the variations of lithological structure, running through all the stages of fri- 
able, earthy, rubbly, starry, marly, crystalline, botryoidal, coralloidal, sphe- 
roidal, mammillated, brecciated and pseudo-brecciated, soft-laminated and 
hard-laminated, conglomerate, conglobate, concretionary, oolitic, and honey- 
comb, are simply due to the effects of local action at the time of deposition— 
rocks of the same stratigraphical position taking alternately any or all of the 
above lithological types. 


On the Manufacture of Iron in connexion with the Northumberland 
and Durham Coal-field. By Isaac Lowrn1an Brin, Mayor of 
Newcastle. : 


Ture is probably no district, where the manufacture of iron is carried on, 
which presents more features of interest, and embraces within its range 
greater variety, than that which is worked in connexion with the coal-field 
of Northumberland and Durham. Notwithstanding this, the iron metallurgy 
of the North, which it will be the province of this paper to explain, owes 
none of its importance to the existence of any of the ores of iron in 
those measures which belong more immediately to the coal-formation. In 


* The roof of a seam of coal consists at one place of a hard sandstone, which, thinning 


. 


Scotland, Staffordshire, and South Wales, the shales of the coal-measures — 


¢ 


a 
=) 
a 


out more or less abruptly, is replaced by soft shale, and-at times the shale comes in asa 


wedge, without displacing the sandstone, and gradually increases to a thick bed. Even 
beds of coal themselves, commencing with a few inches, thicken to many feet, are sepa- 
rated by layers of shale into distinct seams, and again become one by the disappearance — 
of the band of shale. : 


ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 731 


contain bands and nodules of ironstone in sufficient quantity to supply im- 
mense works, established in these localities, for smelting iron. The coal- 
field of the North of England, on the contrary, extensive and productive in 
mineral fuel as are its strata, is singularly deficient in those ores of iron 
which distinguish many other carboniferous districts, An explanation, then, 
of the prominent position occupied, as a seat of the iron-trade, by the loca- 
lity under consideration, must be looked for in another direction, and a very 
brief mental survey of the geology of the adjoining country will furnish 
the necessary information. Starting from the.coal-field itself, which, as con- 
taining the fuel required for smelting, may be considered as the keystone to 
the whole, we arrive within no great distance at strata which abundantly 
compensate for that poverty in ironstone already spoken of as inherent to our 
coal-measures themselves. 

The district known as the Newcastle and Durham coal-field contains an 
area of something like 700 square miles, and in shape may be roughly con- 
sidered as an isosceles triangle, having its apex coincident with the coast- 
line at Warkworth. As the sea principally forms its eastern barrier, our 
observations are necessarily almost exclusively confined to those formations 
bounding it on.the west and south. In the former direction, 7. ¢. towards 
the west, a narrow strip, having a width of four or five miles, of the mill- 
stone grit, rising up from under the coal-formation, separates this latter from 
an extensive tract of country, of which the mountain limestone is the pre- 
vailing rock, From the south-west corner of our coal-field, and separated 
from it by a great expansion of the millstone grit accompanied by mountain 
limestone, we pass over a thin wedge of the old red sandstone and enter 
upon the new red, to the west of which the carboniferous limestone again 
appears as a long, narrow, curve-shaped district, extending ‘from Pen- 
rith to Whitehaven, and of importance in describing our subject. On the south, 
and skirting the coal-field on the south-east, we have the magnesian lime- 
stone some half-dozen miles in width. Beyond it, forming for some distance 
the valley of the Tees, is the new red sandstone, separating, by an interval 
of twenty miles, our collieries form those hills of lias in Yorkshire, the ore of 
which will form the greater portion of the subject of this paper. 

We will now briefly allude to the position of the minerals which consti- 
tuted the sources whence our furnaces in former times were supplied, adding 
a few remarks on their practical application, and then consider those means 
which at the present day furnish our greatly extended ironworks with that 
immense quantity of raw materials which their increased capacity demands. 

We may pass over without further notice at the present moment both 
the immense beds of coal, of the purest kind, in this northern coal-field; and 
the inexhaustible supplies of lime furnished by the extensive tracts of moun- 
tain and magnesian limestone previously alluded to. We shall, therefore, at 
once proceed to name the different combinations in which ironstone is found 
in the various strata of the measures already referred to, reserving any fur- 
ther remarks when we come to speak of the composition and nature of the 
minerals generally. 

Ironstone of the Coal-measures.—Many of the numerous beds of shale as- 
sociated with the coal-formation in this neighbourhood contain, interspersed 
in their thickness, nodules of ironstone, but these have rarely been sufficiently 
abundant to lead to their being worked for smelting purposes. 

Above the seam of coal known on the Wear as the High Main, and sepa- 
rated from it by a distance of 18 inches, is a continuous band of this ore. 
It is 43 inches thick, and was formerly wrought on Waldridge Fell for the 


732 REPORT—1863. 


Whitehill Iron Works, and subsequently at Urpeth and its vicinity for 
the furnaces at Birtley. Another thinner band, only 2 inches in thick- 
ness, formed the roof of the Hutton Seam, near Birtley. From the fact that 
both these were extracted by simply bringing down the roof of the old coal- 
workings, it was expected to supply the furnaces there at a very cheap rate, 
and this might have been so had the quantity per acre been larger. As it 
was, the ironmasters had tu seek far and wide for supplies, and, in conse- 
quence, the cost of stone was ruinously high. The present partners in the 
Birtley Works have kindly placed in the writer’s hands their cost-book, and 
from it, after the furnaces had been in operation four or five years, the fol- 
lowing results are taken :— 


Tronstone used per ton. Cost on ton of iron. 
ewts. qrs. Ibs. 6. d. 
USSD Pivs..desseceteo sme 6 OMGIOM Saesesceocecsasees es 2 Sle 
IBRG hides letct asia! AF duly oi Bava tad, ter hich Lai OF 
ASA ed ik I ge pop 2 oe Pa: eee 
LOY acsnoteabecisas ts 67 Onsen lig 2 2 8% 


From their furnace-books this appears to have represented the calcined 
weight, and hence the yield of the raw stone must have been from 25 per 
cent., gradually falling to 22. At this time hot blast was in use at the 
Birtley Works, the system having been introduced there about 1831. Mr. 
George Clayton Atkinson, a partner of the Tyne Ivon Company, has 
obligingly given the following as their consumption for the year 1812, 
using stone of a similar kind to that described above ; indeed, a considerable 
quantity was purchased from the owners of the Birtley Iron Works, previous 
to the erection of the establishment at that place. The quantity used was 
8772 tons, which cost on an average 16s. 1d. per ton. During that year they 
produced 2547 tons 18 ewt. of iron, and, in addition to the above-mentioned 
ironstone, 284 tons of hematite were consumed. If the small quantity 
of this latter ore is assumed to give 50 per cent., the yield of the clay iron- 
stone would be something above 27 percent. The difference in the produce 
may have arisen from less perfect freedom from adhering shale in the Birtley 
furnace-workings—a supposition corroborated by the increased consumption 
there to the ton of iron in later years, when failing supplies would prevent 
proper ‘‘ weathering” of the ironstone. In 1812, the ironstone per ton of 
iron cost the Tyne Iron Company £2 18s. 10d. 

Near Wylam, according to Mr. Benjamin Thompson, who erected the 
works at that place, a mine was opened in 1836, out of which, from a section 
of 4 feet, four bands, measuring together 104 inches, were obtained. This 
cost, it was stated, 7s. 6d. per ton of 223 cwt., and yielded 30 per cent. of 
iron, Another working supplied nodules haying a percentage of 35 to 37, 
and costing 11s. 6d. per ton. The united produce, however, of both did not 
suffice to supply 150 tons weekly, and these mines were speedily abandoned 
when a less precarious mode of obtaining ironstone offered itself, although 
the cost of the latter would, at the period of its first introduction, have not 
been less than £2 on the ton of iron. 

At Shotley Bridge, on the western edge of our coal-field, and consequently 
low down in the series, is a deposit of ironstone, which has been far more 
extensively worked than any other seams found in our coal-measures. Ac- 
cording to a description by the late Mr. William Cargill, in a working having 
a section of about 7 feet in height, 12 to 15 inches of stone were obtained 
from six or seyen bands. The ironstone from it cost 7s. to 8s. per ton. At 
a depth of 44 fathoms below it, and lying above 20 inches of coal, is a bed 
of shale about 3 feet thick, containing 6 or 7 inches of ironstone. The total 


ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 738 


yield of both seams, contained in an acre of ground, Mr. Cargill estimated 
at 5324 tons. In later years, however, according to a detailed report com- 
municated by Mr. Edward T. Boyd, the average produce of the first-men- 
tioned seam, “‘ The Ten Band,” as it was called, at that time was 8 inches 
of ironstone in a working 5 feet 9 inches high, and in the other bed his 
section gives— 


Good conliir.ns. Bie acces steht ete 1 ft. 6 in. 
Pping Own searic aa ery. eeeeaaneaee 0 
2 ft. 1 in. 
PEROMSLOUD cn aicty dass vc.nningstajas ca conaehaastict O 43 
BGM acn eons es ass se sevens sins te aemegeenaace 3 
—_ 3 103 
5 113 


For a limited supply, the quantity of ironstone found in this neighbourhood 
might have sufficed; but an immense work having been erected upon it, 
comprising fourteen blast-furnaces, serious inroads were soon made on its 
resources. From information formerly received, it would not appear, what- 
ever might be the richness of clean stone, that its yield, as delivered to the 
furnaces, exceeded 26 per cent. The cost on a ton of iron, for ironstone, at 
Shotley was 25s. to 30s., which compelled the owners of this establishment to 
look to another district for their supplies, so that at the present time every 
pit on their royalties is laid in. 

A small quantity of ironstone continues to be extracted from a landsale 
colliery at Hedley, which is smelted at Wylam, and, as the writer believes, 
some is still worked by the Weardale Iron Company near Tow Law. Ina 
general sense, however, it may be assumed that ironstone of the coal-forma- 
tion of the North of England forms no element at the present day in the 
consumption of the blast-furnaces of that district. 

The Iron Ores of the Mountain Limestone——Following the order of our 
description of the geology of the country, the deposits of ironstone con- 
nected with the mountain limestone next demand notice. In this series 
there occurs a bed of shale 30 feet in thickness, in the whole of which con- 
siderable quantities of nodules of ironstone are interspersed. The late Mr. 
Thomas J. Taylor, in evidence on the Border Counties’ Railway Bill before 
a Parliamentary Committee in 1854, stated this shale bed to contain 9680 
tons of ironstone to the acre, of which he assumed practically 6000 could be 
obtained. Its cost he stated to be 6s. 6d. to 7s. per ton, and its yield such 
as would require 31 tons of stone to produce one ton of iron, equal to 30°5 
per cent. Mr. Benjamin Thompson, who worked this bed at Hareshaw, in- 
forms the writer that 8470 tons of ironstone per acre was its contents, and 
of this the lowest 6 feet contained two-sevenths of the whole. Allowing 
one-third for loss, he considered 5647 tons as the practical produce of an 
acre. Its yield he gives as 33 per cent., and its cost 9s. per ton of 22} cwt., 
equal to 8s. per ton of 20 cwt. At Ridsdale, from data possessed by the 
writer, the cost of ironstone for a ton of iron was 29s. 3d. This deposit has 
been somewhat extensively wrought at Hareshaw and Ridsdale, as well as 
attempted at other places. In all these localities, however, the workings 
have been discontinued. 

At Chesterwood, about two miles from Haydon Bridge, there was opened 
out, some years ago, a seam of what in some measure resembled the famous 
«“ Black-band ironstone” of Scotland, containing, however, much more coal 
than the celebrated ore of this name. It varied, according to Mr. Bigland, 
who worked it, from 3 to 4 feet in thickness. The raw stone contained 20 


734 REPORT—1863. 


to 25 per cent. of iron; but instead of 2 tons of raw mineral producing 1 ton 
of calcined, as in the case of Scotland, 3 tons were required at Chesterwood ; 
so that the richness of the calcined stone was about the same, viz. 60 per 
cent. Mr. Bigland states that for several years they obtained 20,000 to 
25,000 tons of the raw stone, until the bed was exhausted in that locality in 
1855, after less than ten years’ working. The deposit has been traced to 
other places, but in each case it is thin and poor in metal. 

In Alston Moor many of the mineral veins traversing the mountain lime- 
stone contain a considerable quantity of a hydrated peroxide of iron, as well 
as amorphous carbonate of iron. <A bed of the latter lying on the surface, 
but of very limited extent, was worked by the writer’s firm at Nent Head, 
and smelted at Wylam. The iron produced from it, as well as from other 
carbonates and oxides from the same district, was of excellent quality; but 
unfortunately the supplies were too uncertain and too costly. The ore in 
the veins themselves at one time was tolerably pure carbonate, yielding 
perhaps 30 per cent. or more of iron ; but it gradually passed into carbonate 
of lime, from which it was with difficulty distinguished. At the present 
day only a small quantity is worked at Alston. On the other hand, at Wear- 
dale the veins contain so much carbonate and oxide of iron that furnaces 
have been erected at Tow Law, by Messrs. Attwood and Baring, for their 
reduction. 

The small district of mountain limestone spoken of as stretching from 
Penrith to Whitehaven contains very large quantities of most valuable red 
hematite, containing 60 per cent. and upwards of iron. It is sold at White- 
haven at about 10s. per ton. Its position is uncertain in a mining point of 
view, occurring in detached masses of varied thickness. This locality, as 
well as that near Ulverstone, of a similar character, is of importance in con- 
nexion with the northern coal-field, inasmuch as considerable quantities of 
the hematite ore are brought over to the east coast as a mixture with our 
own ironstone; while, to the furnaces smelting the produce of the White- 
haven mineral field, coke from our side is conveyed. 

Tron Ores of the Lias Formation.—The Lias rocks of Yorkshire constitute 
by far the ‘most important source from which the needful supplies for our 
furnaces are derived. The seams of ironstone belonging to this formation 
crop out on a considerable extent of the coast-line of the shale beds, which, 
in addition, contain large balls of the same ore. In rocks so liable to disin- 
tegration from atmospheric influence these have fallen away, and in conse- 
quence considerable quantities of ironstone, freed from the adhering shale, 
are to be found on the beach as rounded pebbles, and even as masses of rock, 
In modern times the ore so separated from its parent bed attracted the atten- 
tion of those ironmasters who commenced smelting the ironstone of the 
coal-field. Mr. Joseph Cookson, in a very interesting document drawn up 
for the writer, mentions that for the Whitehill furnace, built in 1745, and 
abandoned before the end of last century, ironstone was gathered in Robin 
Hood’s Bay, and conveyed by water to Picktree, on the Wear, near Chester- 
le-Street, and carted from that place to the works. Soon after the year 1800 
the Tyne Iron Company obtained ironstone in a similar way from the beach 
between Scarborough and Saltburn ; and, according to Bewicke, in his work 
on the Cleveland ironstone, that firm commenced, between the years 1815 
and 1820, to tear up the stone from its bed at different parts of the coast. The 
exposed character of the Yorkshire shores and want of shelter rendered the 
conveyance of ironstone to the Newcastle furnaces a task of great difficulty 
and of some danger; and, therefore, it was not until the stratum furnishing 


yh 


a oe at ee 


ahs RNP a 


ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 735 


it was discovered inland on a line of railway, at that time recently opened, 
that any large quantity of this lias ironstone was consigned to the iron- 
masters of the Tyne. It is stated that the discovery of this bed is due to a 
Mr. Wilson, then a partner in the Tyne Iron Company’s Works, who pointed 
out its position at Grosmont, about five miles from Whitby, in 1836. The 
seam, being 44 feet thick, was cheaply worked, sent down the railway, and 
shipped at all seasons for the Tyne, where it would at that time cost about 
9s. per ton. It is probable that ultimately as much as 80,000 to 100,000 
tons of it were annually smelted in the north-country furnaces. 

Much surprise has been expressed at the time which elapsed between 
this discovery in 1836 and the period when the importance of the bed of 
ironstone became so immensely increased by the large quantity of ore 
extracted from mines opened in it since 1850. This is not so difficult of 
explanation as might at first appear. The Whitby ironstone, as it was then 
generally called, was known over a distance of coast not far short of ten miles ; 
and its character to the west, five miles inland, had been also sufficiently 
explored. Over the whole of this area its yield of metal had been uniform, 
viz. about 25 per cent. No doubt the owners of the blast-furnaces which 
had been built on the Tyne for smelting local ores were too glad to obtain 
a cheaper stone elsewhere, particularly when hot blast increased the con- 
sumption of their furnaces, already indifferently supplied, and competition 
with Scotland ran down the price of iron. Whitby harbour, for these firms, 
was more convenient than the Tees, because vessels coming down in ballast 
more easily ran into the former than up the somewhat intricate navigation 
of the river, and there was no reason to suppose that a seam of ironstone 
which had so uniformly maintained a low percentage over fifteen miles of 
country should, in this respect, as well as in others, change so rapidly in the 
next dozen miles. That the introduction of the stone from Whitby did not 
confer any great advantage on the Tyne smelters is proved by the fact, that 
for fourteen years after its discovery only two furnaces, and those built 
under somewhat peculiar circumstances, were added to the five in blast pre- 
vious to the importation of this ore. The fact was that, with the exception of 
one or two years, the Tyne never could compete in selling “ mine” iron 
against the market price of the Glasgow makers. No practical man, there- 
fore, was likely to be led into the expenditure of capital by a year or two’s 
prosperity, with the knowledge of the superiority conferred on his Scotch 
competitors by their fields of black-band. Between the years 1840 and 
1850, the cost of ironstone on the ton of iron was never, at the Birtley Iron 
Company’s Works, less than 26s. 3d., and this only when the trade was in 
an exceedingly depressed condition ; 30s., and as high as 34s., was the more 
ordinary figure. The average selling price of iron at Glasgow over eleven 
years was within 6d. of the cost at the Birtley Iron Works, and to obtain this 
the owners must have charged the coal from their own pits at less than 2s. 
per ton laid down at the furnaces. During five years of the eleven, iron 
was cheaper at Glasgow than the cost at Birtley even with the coal supplied 
at 1s. 6d., or thereabouts, per ton. In 1845, both the owners of the Walker 
and of the Tyne Iron Works sought to mend their position by looking for 
royalties of black-band in Scotland, and, in consequence, there was brought 
for some time a considerable quantity of that mineral to the river Tyne. 

Matters were in this state when Messrs. Bolekow and Vaughan, who, in 
1840, had built a rolling mill at Middlesbro’, added at Witton Park, in 1846, 
the process of smelting to their operations. They were induced to do so by 
an offer of ironstone to be supplied from the coal-field near Bishop Auckland. 


736 REPORT—1863. 


In these expectations, as had happened to their colleagues on the Tyne, they 
were disappointed, and, like them, they had recourse to Whitby. In one 
respect, however, their position differed from that of the ironmasters further 
north. Ina voyage of fifty miles, ten miles more or less is a small sacri- 
fice compared with securing a good harbour ; but where the ironstone-mea- 
sures were known to run close to the mouth of the river upon which the 
works were placed, it was obviously a matter of importance to draw the sup- 
plies of ore, or as much of it as could be obtained, from the nearest point. 
Examination of large detached masses which had fallen from the cliff led 
Messrs. Bolckow and Vaughan to Skinningrove on the coast, at which place, 
to their surprise, they found the bed had thickened out from 41 feet to nearly 
143, and instead of 25 per cent. of iron it contained 31. So far was acci- 
dent ; but that firm, experiencing the usual inconvenience arising from an 
exposed place of shipment, sought for, and found in 1850, the position of the 
ironstone inland. It is not pretended that the merit of original discovery 
belongs to Messrs. Boleckow and Vaughan in reference to this extraordinary 
deposit of ore. On the contrary, Mr. Jackson, the father of the present 
owner of Normanby Hall, sent, in 1811, two waggons of it to the Tyne Iron 
Works. Mr. Bewicke, senior, was also, a year or two before its position in- 
land was recognized by Messrs. Bolekow and Vaughan, aware of its existence 
near Guisbro’. Indeed, so early as 1839, a Mr. Neasham had despatched an 
entire cargo to the Devon Iron Works at Alloa, in Scotland, at which estab- 
lishment it met with an indifferent reception, being tipped over the rubbish- 
heap very soon after its arrival. In the minds of none of these gentlemen, 
however, did the mineral excite that confidence in its value which the sub- 
sequent labours of the Middlesbro’ firm ascertained it possessed, and to 
whom undoubtedly, therefore, is due the merit of having introduced it to 
the immensely important place it now occupies. The las rocks contain 
other beds of ironstone, to which reference will be hereafter made, when the 
composition of the Main Cleveland seam, and its use as an ore of iron, are 
spoken of. 

We have thus seen that, in a district embraced within the four counties of 
Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, and Yorkshire, the coal-formation 
contains the usual clay ironstone; the mountain limestone has furnished 
to a limited extent some black-band and nodules of ironstone, and is now 
affording spathose ore and brown hydrated peroxide of iron, as well as very 
large quantities of the finest red hematite; lastly, in the lias beds of York- 
shire there are found inexhaustible deposits of argillaceous ore. Besides all 
these, and profiting by the return of light colliers, some small quantities of 
other ores, both foreign and British, are conveyed to the Tyne, but not to an 
extent to render them worthy of more especial notice. The composition of 
the various minerals now in use will be given when the subject of their 
metallurgical application comes, in its proper place, to occupy our attention. 

Historical Account of the Manufacture of Iron in the North of England.— 
It is now proposed to show in what order, and in what manner, the various 
ores of iron, met with in the different geological measures in the North of 
England, have been made available in a metallurgical point of view. 

Before entering on this part of his task, the writer would take the oppor- 
tunity of expressing his acknowledgments to Mr. Hodgson Hinde, to whose 
antiquarian researches he owes some valuable information respecting the 
earlier production of iron in the North of England. 

Notwithstanding the varied character of the different ores of the district 
under review, and the want of indication of metallic contents of some, the 


ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 737 


property that even these have of “ rusting” on exposure to air and moisture 
appears to have made known the existence of all at a very early period of 
our history. The labours of Hodgson, Wallace, and others leave little or 
no doubt that the smelting or reduction of iron ore was carried on to a con- 
siderable extent in this part of the country during its occupation by the 
Romans. Vast heaps of iron scoria may be seen on the moors in the 
parishes of Lanchester and Chester-le-Street, in the county of Durham, and 
in the valleys of the Reed and the Tyne, on the mountain limestone, in 
Northumberland. It is remarkable that none of these are very remote from 
one or other of the Roman stations which dre scattered over these two 
counties, The same observations respecting an early use are, to some ex- 
tent, applicable to the lias ironstone; and, no doubt, proper investigation 
would indicate a similar state of things wherever iron ores were near. the 
surface, and the state of society required the metal they contained. That 
furnaces, or “ bloomeries,’’ were continued or re-established in some of the 
same situations is proved by an inquisition of the death of Gilbert d’Um- 
fraville, Lord of Redesdale. In the catalogue of his possessions, a.p. 1245, 
there are mentioned, “ forgiee que reddunt ferrum, quod reddit per annum 
inj 1 ijs;” and that ironworks existed in the county of Durham in the early 
part of the 17th century appears from a curious tract written in 1629, 
entitled ‘“‘ A Relation of some Abuses committed against the Commonwealth, 
composed especially for the county of Durham.” The author, who signs his 
initials «‘ A. L.,” instances as the first abuse the great destruction of timber, 
chiefly for the sake of bark for the tanneries, but in one instance, at least, 
for smelting-operations. He says, “There is one man, whose dwelling- 
place is within twenty miles of the city of Durham, who has brought to the 
ground (to omit all underwood) above 30,000 oaks in his lifetime, and (if he 
live long enough) it is doubted that he will leave so much timber in the 
whole county as will repair one of our churches if it should fall, his iron 
and lead works do so fast consume the same.” 

Hitherto, of course, all these smelting-operations have reference to the 
small bloomery or hearth in which, with a little ore and some charcoal blown 
by the wind in exposed situations, or subsequently by rude bellows, a 
** bloom” of malleable iron was obtained*. 

The German colony of ironworkers at Shotley Bridge established them- 
selves at that place in the reign of William III. At some time or another 
afterwards a small high-blast furnace, five or six feet in the boshes, was 
erected there, the remains of which, according to information received, are 
still visible. Wallis, in his ‘ History of Northumberland,’ published in 1769, 
mentions an ironwork which existed some years previously at Lee Hall, near 
Bellingham, under the management of a Mr. Wood, “ who made a good deal 
of bar iron; but, charcoal becoming scarce, he removed to Lancashire, where 
he attempted (unsuccessfully) to make it with pit coal.” Although bar iron 
only is mentioned, there is no doubt, from the remains still existing, that 


* This simple mode of smelting, viz. the bloomery, is the one which appears to have 
been universally adopted in the first instance for obtaining iron. Captain Grant, who has 
recently returned from his expedition to the source of the Nile, found the inhabitants of 
the Land of the Moon gathering small nodules of ironstone from the sides of the hills, 
and smelting them on the bare ground in a charcoal fire. The blast was produced by two 
or four persons working each a small bellows formed of wood and goat-skins. At the end 
of the wooden bellows pipe was a short tube, or tuyére, of baked earthenware, which con- 
veyed the compressed air to the fire. The bloom resulting from the operation was beaten 
into a thin bar and then drawn out into wire, which was chiefly used for ornamental pur- 
poses.—Private Letter to the Writer. 

1 3B 


738 5 REPORT—1863. 


Wood also produced pig iron. Charcoal iron was also smelted from some of 
the bands of clay ironstone at Bedlington, where the old calcining-kilns are 
still visible, or were so until very recently. No iron, however, has, as far as 
can be ascertained, been made there for more than a hundred years. 

The inroads which iron-smelting, together with other metallurgical opera- 
tions, &c., had made upon the forests were such, that in the reign of Queen 
Elizabeth four Acts of Parliament were passed to restrict the consumption 
of timber, especially when applied to the manufacture of iron. To supply 
the deficiency thus occasioned, schemes were proposed so -early as 1612 by 
Sturtevant, and subsequently in 1621 by Dud Dudley, for smelting iron 
with pit coal. The unsuitability, however, of the arrangements in use for 
smelting with charcoal when applied to mineral fuel, in all probability 
delayed this important amelioration taking effect for a hundred years after 
its first suggestion by Sturtevant. The small furnaces and bellows of very 
limited power, which did very well with charcoal, would be literally useless 
when applied to coal or coke. After various ineffectual attempts by Buck 
and others, about 1713 the Darbys of Staffordshire reduced the application 
of pit coal to one of practical utility in that county. Darby’s progress, how- 
ever, must have been slow, and his success limited; for the number of blast- 
furnaces in the country had, in the meantime, decreased from 300 to 59, 
so that in 1740 the make of pig iron in England had fallen to 17,850 tons, 
from about 180,000 tons, the chief portion of our requirements being 
imported from Sweden and Russia. To Mr. I. Cookson, who had recently 
purchased the Whitehill estate, near Chester-le-Street, the merit belongs of 
erecting and working the first blast-furnace with coked coal in the North of 
England. The Whitehill furnace was 35 feet high, 12 feet across the boshes, 
and produced 25 tons of iron per week. The blast was supplied by a bellows, 
worked by a water-wheel, placed on Chester Burn. Its mode of supply of 
ironstone was from the thin bands on Waldridge Fell and from Robin Hood’s 
Bay, as has been already mentioned. The coal, of course, was obtained from 
the immediate vicinity. Mr. Joseph Cookson, a descendant of the founder 
of pit-coal smelting in this district, has given many curious particulars re- 
specting this early attempt. The iron was used for colliery castings, and 
latterly for Government ordnance. Frequent interruptions for want of water 
to drive their wheel led at length to the furnace being “ gobbed,” and ulti- 
mately abandoned, about the close of the last century. 

Whatever advantages, in point of minerals, any district might stand pos- 
sessed of, its power for turning them to profitable account depended at that 
time on the existence of a fall of water sufficient to drive the needful blowing- 
apparatus. The discoveries of Watt prevented the want of hydraulic power 
being any longer an impediment, and in a short time the obedient steam- 
engine was appointed to supply the necessary blast to iron-furnaces. Not- 
withstanding the poverty of our coal-field in ironstone, the high price of 
iron—£8 per ton—and the small quantity of ore required for a furnace 
when forty tons of iron was the usual week’s make, induced the Tyne Iron 
Company, in 1800, to erect their two furnaces and a steam blowing-engine 
at Lemington. An idea of the cost of manufacturing pig iron in those days 
is not without interest as illustrative of the disadvantages of this coal 
district as an iron-field. The particulars are kindly furnished by Mr. G. 
Clayton Atkinson, one of the present members of that firm, so that their 
correctness may be relied on :— 


ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 739 


Tronstone ...:......... mere hive 3°44 tons at 16s. 1d. £2 15 5 
IHEMAtite OF > sc .secessuneaperccaes STL hiss MES SOG. On gr s 
— £2 18 10 
W@hax (chalk)! / 20050 Seva. 146: ;; DANOD. cetera ts on alg 
GRO '=.32, 53 - ceca doe ssiettee sa eaat QAO iss) Sas Se scSivees I 9 9 
MeCN. 0, . "sacs capads Poet sven eaneeneckae ORT OLEe aes O14. 2 
Sal MG ware 


These details are of the year 1812, when cold blast alone was employed. 
The make from one furnace was 2547 tons; equal to 49 tons per week. 
The ironstone, with the exception of 806 tons of “ beach stone,” was all the 
produce of the thin bands of our coal-measures. 

In 1825 pig iron rose in value to the unprecedented price of £12; and as 
a considerable portion of the stone smelted by the Tyne Iron Company was 
the produce of pits at Urpeth and its neighbourhood, Messrs. Perkins, Hunt, 
and Thompson, who were extensively engaged in coal-mining in that locality, 
blew in two furnaces, in 1830, which they had built at Birtley. Their 
operations, like those of their predecessors at Lemington, exhibit, with equal 
force, the absence of the elements of success in our coal-field for the manu- 
facture of iron even when the fuel was supplied to the furnaces at the low 
rate of 2s, per ton or less. The following is copied from their cost-book, 
and represents the workings for two furnaces for 1835, when hot air was 
used—an improvement introduced at Birtley in 1831. The make was 4390 
tons, or only 42 tons for each furnace per week. The cost per ton of iron 
was, for 


HAMS O\ cg tiie! cow asses skereae cops ees eaten £1 18 i+ 
UIE COBUK) | coccttsessceccanesuecers cereccaen oO” Ze 
Coal (5 or 6 tons probably) ............... © 7 of 
MERON AGC igs Fkk a ri'cncvdd dene Wes teerateeen o 14 24 
BSBTIGIICN ts paca yvauss sidaeceea> coe aiceaeaeee o4 2 
Total. :: .scuseeores £316 1 


In 1836, the furnace at Wylam was put into blast by Messrs. Thompson 
Brothers to smelt ironstone expected to exist in great abundance there, as has 
been already explained, 

We have now arrived at that period in our history of the iron-trade which 
was followed by a gradual but, ultimately, an entire change in the sources 
from which the furnaces of this district derived their supplies of ironstone. 
So early as 1836 a cargo of that ore, which in time displaced all others at 
the then existing works on the Tyne, so far as local ironstone was concerned, 
was sent from Grosmont, near Whitby, to Birtley. In the year 1833, and 
up to 1839, pig iron had ranged from £4 10s. to as high as £9 per ton in 
Wales. The demand for iron in this neighbourhood was so vastly on the 
increase, that the ores of the coal strata could not meet the growing require- 
ments, and the Whitby stone had not inspired much confidence either for 
economy or quality of the iron it produced. In consequence, speculators 
began to pay attention to those deposits of ironstone spoken of as being 
connected with the mountain limestone. Ridsdale was the place selected by 
Mr, Stephen Reed, Mr. Thomas Hedley, and others, where the stone ex- 
isted, as has already been described, and where coal could be obtained from 
a seam from 2 to 23 feet thick, situated in the same geological formation. 

_ Although pig iron had fallen in 1840 to £3 12s. 6d. at Glasgow, and in 

1841 was selling at £3 5s. per ton, a second work, to smelt the same bed of 

ironstone with the coal 24 feet thick, lying 70 fathoms below the ironstone, 

Was put in blast at Hareshaw; a second furnace was subsequently built at 
3B2 


740 REPORT—1863. 


Ridsdale, and two more at Hareshaw. There is no doubt that the iron 
produced from this bed of ironstone was of a very excellent description. 
Both works, however, were nearly twenty miles from a railway, and twenty 
more from a market ; so that their iron cost, according to Mr. T. J. Taylor, 
12s. per ton for carriage to the consumer. After some years of fruitless 
struggle to meet the competition offered by Glasgow, both of these establish- 
ments were closed and finally dismantled. 

About 1840, Messrs. Bigge, Cargill, Johnson, and others, who had 
purchased from the projectors of the Ridsdale Works that concern, had their 
attention directed to the beds of ironstone described as lying in the coal- 
measures near Shotley Bridge. A pair of furnaces were speedily erected and 
set in blast. A larger company was formed, and an immense establishment 
was constructed. Twelve blast-furnaces were built, large rolling-mills and 
all the necessary mines, mining villages, &c., followed in rapid succession. 
Until 1850 the furnaces went on devouring the minerals found in the 
neighbourhood at an alarming pace, having in the meantime made extensive 
trials of those from the lead-veins of Weardale. In 1850, the recent dis- 
coveries in Cleveland promised relief from the impending famine; and in a 
very short time, in spite of a distance of about fifty miles, the ironstone 
from that district, with some hematite for a mixture, entirely superseded the 
stone lying adjacent to the furnaces. 

In 1842, Messrs. Losh, Wilson, and Bell, who for fifteen years had been 
making bar iron, built a blast-furnace at Walker for producing forge pig by 
smelting their mill-furnace cinders with Whitby stone, and this was followed 
by a second one in 1844; so that these were the first furnaces ever built 
expressly for smelting the recently discovered ironstone at Whitby. 

About this period, Mr. Charles Attwood, in concert with Messrs. Baring 
and Co. of London, purchased a small furnace then recently erected at 
Stanhope by Mr. Cuthbert Rippon, and built five others at Tow Law for 
smelting the “ rider ore” (carbonate and oxide) of the lead veins. There is 
no doubt that, owing to the extreme irregularity of this kind of material, 
immense labour and expense were at first incurred, and, as regards the 
quality of the produce, frequently with very unsatisfactory results. Better 
acquaintance, however, with the veins and their contents has enabled that 
firm now to produce iron of a very high class—so good, indeed, as closely to 
resemble in composition and quality the celebrated German “ Spiegel Eisen.” 
For bar-iron purposes it bears a high name, and has, like its prototype in 
Germany, been found well adapted for the manufacture of the finer kinds of 
steel—an application, as is well known, confined exclusively to the purest 
descriptions of metal. 

In 1846 Messrs. Bolckow and Vaughan erected the furnaces at Witton 
Park, in the Auckland district, for smelting ironstone expected to be obtained 
in that vicinity. We have already heard how these hopes were disappointed 
and Whitby resorted to, as it had been by almost every furnace-owner in the 
North. 

Although only remotely connected with our subject, it may as well be 
mentioned that a company of gentlemen had erected at Cleator Moor, near 
Whitehaven, a couple of blast-furnaces for smelting the hematite iron-ore of 
that district, an example which has been somewhat extensively followed 
since. The iron made is of good quality, and, the ore being rich, an im- 
mense quantity, as much as 500 tons weekly, or more, is said to have been 
run from one furnace. 

To avoid interrupting the remainder of our subject, which will hereafter 


ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 741 


be confined almost exclusively to the Cleveland stone, mention may be made 
of other trials to render available the bed of ironstone-nodules of the moun- 
tain limestone. This was attempted at Brinkburn, on the Coquet, but after 
a very short trial the works were closed. Another experiment was made at 
Haltwhistle with a similar view, but it also was abandoned soon after the 
erection of the works. 

At Bedlington two furnaces were constructed to smelt the same bands, 
formerly used at the charcoal-works in that locality, with an admixture of 
Yorkshire stone, mill cinder, and other materials, but these also were only a 
short time in operation. 

We have now arrived at the period when the newly discovered Cleveland 
bed of ironstone was about to supersede all other modes of supply of this 
mineral, and the present will therefore be a convenient opportunity of esti- 
mating the position of the iron-trade previous to its introduction. This will 
be most readily done by glancing at a list of the furnaces then in existence, 
which were as follows :— 


Furnaces. Proprietors. No. Description of Ironstone used. 


Lemington...... Tyne Iron Co....... 2 Whitby stone, black band, and hematite. 
Birtley ......... Birtley Iron Co..... 2 Whitby stone, &e. 
Wylam ......... Bell, Brothers...... I Do. black band, hematite, &c. 
Ridsdale......... Ridsdale Iron Co. 2 WNodules from mountain-limestone formation. 
Hareshaw ...... Hareshaw IronCo. 3 Do. do. 
Shotley Iron Derwent Iron Co. 14 Bands of ironstone from coal-measures, and 
Works. hematite. 
Walker ......... Bp ets z Whitby stone, black band, hematite, &c. 
and Bell. 
Tow Law and Weardale Iron Co. 6 “Rider ore” from lead-veins, and a portion 
Stanhope. from coal-measures. 
Bedlington ...Longridge and Co. 2 Whitby ironstone, and a portion from coal- 
measures, 
Witton Park...Bolckow& Vaughan 4 Do. do. 
PROTA Se vamos de gas 38 Furnaces. 


The entire make of all these furnaces would never exceed 150,000 tons 
per annum during the period under consideration. 

We have now (i. ¢. A.p. 1851) brought up the account to what substan- 
tially in principle is the position at present occupied by the manufacture of 
iron, on, or in connexion with, the Newcastle and Durham coal-fields. In 
pursuing the narrative, illustrating the development of the trade, it will be 
convenient to give, in the order they arise, some account of the character 
and composition both of the raw materials used and of the products 
obtained. 

Coal.—Notwithstanding the varieties of coal which occur in the northern 
coal-field, the whole, with few exceptions, are more bituminous in character 
than the produce of other localities in this country. North of the Ninety- 
fathom Dyke is the district where the Low Main of the Tyne (Hutton Seam 
of the Wear) furnishes the least caking coal we possess; but even here the 
small coal, when coked, loses all trace of its original form and leaves the ovens 
as large masses of coke. At Wylam, Walbottle, and other places, a thin layer 
of a dry-burning splint coal does occur in connexion with a seam of a highly 
caking description, but the entire quantity of it, and of any other similar 
variety, is very insignificant. The caking property, although very valuable 
for many purposes, entirely unfits the coal of this district for use in the raw 
state in our blast-furnaces, where its fusing property, by impeding the blast, 
causes the contents of the furnace to hang and slip, and thus to descend at 


742 BO REPORT—1863. | 


irregular intervals. Against this disadvantage, however, possessed by our 
coal, may be placed the extreme hardness and strength of the coke it pro- 
duces, which is thereby rendered capable of resisting the crushing effect of a 
high column of materials as they exist in our blast-furnaces. An experiment 
at the Clarence Works showed that a cube of coke 2 inches on a side sup- 
ported a weight of 25 cwt. when cold, and 20 cwt. when hot, before it was 
crushed. Dr. Richardson gives the following analyses of coal from this and 
other districts, the latter being given for the sake of comparison :— 


Percentage 

Locality. Sp.gr. Carbon. Hydro- Nitro- Sul- Oxygen. Ash. Coke left, 
gen. gen phur. by Coal. 

18 Samples, Newcastle 1256 82°15 5°31 1°35 24 5°69 3°77 60°67 ~ 
36.0 do. | Wales:..1.: 1315 83°78 4°79 98. 0°43 AIS) atga | 72°62 


8 do. Scotland...1'259 78°53 561 oo wil 9g'69 4703 54°22 

7. do. Derbyshirer‘19z2 79°68 4°94 I'41 Yor 10°28 265 59°32 

The purity of the coal is by no means an infallible indication of its fitness 
for the manufacture of a suitable coke for iron-furnaces. Not only is com; 
parative freedom from ash and sulphur indispensable, but we must have con- 
currently the power which depends on some circumstance we do not clearly 
understand, of producing coke sufficiently compact to come down to the region 
of fusion in our furnaces without being much crushed on its way. 

To form an idea of the extent to which ash and sulphur exist in the coke 
of the South Durham coal-field, the following analyses are extracted from the 
Clarence Laboratory journal :— ; 


Ash per cent. Sulphur per cent. 
5°86 one ees ig oe aa pla 0°58 
5°79 awe ae Ves ot dae 0°68 
754 O77 
g"00 oi 0°44 
8°33 =f 0°50 


As arule, 6 per cent. of ash and about ‘60 of sulphur may be considered 
as the average analytical results of the best coke of the district just quoted. 
Following the example of our neighbours abroad, plans have been introduced 
into this neighbourhood of submitting coal of an inferior description to a 
washing process, by which, where the earthy matter is not part and parcel 
of the coal itself, a very large quantity of impurity is easily removed. 

Limestone.—A very few words will exhaust this section of the subject. In 
certain districts the magnesian limestone, although differing little in colour, 
&e., from the rock in other localities, is nearly entirely carbonate of lime, and 
the mountain limestone almost invariably, from its purity, satisfies the con- 
ditions required by the iron-smelter. These two, but principally the latter, 
with a little chalk, brought by coasting-vessels as ballast, constitute the flux 
in the iron-furnaces. The following analyses from the Clarence Laboratory 
show the composition of 


Mountain Magnesian Chalk from 
Limestone Limestone. South of 
’ : | Harmby. Raisby Hill. England. 
Insoluble in Hydrochloric acid ...... Lolo Ns Cree Seer 295) (ayant cheers 1°96 
Peroxide of Iron and Alumina ...... EC} RP eee "AOU. ésvadeae 1°24. 
LAME «ss vadeesysvsssevevensyeeconSuensens BS qiokee sslecsa «gg GaGO2.,. heccavetages 53°34 
Magnesia: visctiiiasscsscstesessevdecsenoes TOS Lassen AS. eckeanaete et 63 
Uarbonionacid: @. shit iteh ee esiitens. 3 Pa ov RT ae ASAD | Vliet 42°99 
100°43 99°82 100°66 


The chalk contained 21 per cent. of water. 
Ironstone of the Lias.—It will be foreign to the intention of the present 
communication to attempt anything like a minute description of the district 


ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 743 


over which the deposit of ironstone, embraced within the title of this section, 
is found. Mr. John Marley, whose name has been, from the first, associated 
with its discovery in the neighbourhood of Middlesbro’, and who has devoted 
much attention to its geological position and extent, and the late Mr. Joseph 
Bewicke, to whom a long practical acquaintance with the subject gave abun- 
dant opportunity of studying this question, have both written on the subject 
at considerable length. To their works—the former in the Transactions of 
the Northern Institute of Mining Engineers, and the latter in a work on the 
Cleveland Ironstone—those persons who desire more detailed information are 
referred. 

It may be briefly stated, however, that Mr. Bewicke gives the dimensions 
of the field of ironstone as thirty miles by sixteen, from which he deducts 
sixty miles for denudation, giving a net area of 420 square miles. The 
brother and partner of the writer, Mr. John Bell, who possesses a very com- 
plete knowledge of the district, prepared models and maps of the country 
which agree pretty closely with these estimates. Mr. Bewicke roughly con- 
siders the yield to be 20,000 tons per acre, and hence infers that close on 
5000 million tons are contained in the Main Cleveland Seam, within the 
limits laid down*. We have already seen, in the preliminary account of this 
bed of ironstone, how varying in thickness it is. In some places, also, it 
becomes more or less split up by bands of shale, a circumstance which of 
course interferes greatly with its commercial value. Commencing with 
Grosmont, near Whitby, where it was first wrought in a systematic way, 
there are found two seams of ironstone, known as the Pecten and the Avicula 
bands. The former consists of 3 feet of ironstone, divided in the middle by 
a bed of shale 1} foot thick. Separated from this by 30 feet or more of 
shale is the other seam, the Avicula, embracing 44 feet of ironstone, along 
with 2 feet of shale ; and it is by these two bands uniting, as well as increas- 
ing in thickness, that we have further north the Main Cleveland Seam, as it 
is termed. In the northern portion of the field considerable irregularity in 
character is also observable. At Codhill the bed has an extended height, but 
is so interspersed with foreign matter that it is found necessary to confine the 
mining to a section of 53 feet; and the produce, from the circumstance of 
more or less shale bands running through the ironstone itself, is only about 
28 per cent. of metal. A little to the east of Codhill are the Belmont Mines, 
where the shales thin out, and in consequence the yield of iron is about 30 
per cent., the seam at the same time having increased in height to 7j feet. 
At Skelton, still further east, a marked improvement, both in thickness and 
in quality, is again discernible. The workings there are frequently 10 feet 
high, and a recent analysis of the entire section of stone gave above 36 per 
cent. of iron. The north side of the Vale of Guisbro’ is formed by an elevated 
ridge of land separating this valley from that of the Tees. At the western 
edge of this ridge are the Normanby mines, where the stone is worked at an 
average thickness of about 8 feet, containing 314 per cent. of iron. There is 
a general dip of the seam to the east from this point, and in its progress in 
that direction there is a gradual increase in thickness, and a little improve- 
ment in percentage of iron. It continues in this way past Eston and Up- 

~leatham, until it reaches Rockcliffe, where it attains a thickness of nearly 


* Tn an estimate recently made by the writer, based on the researches of Messrs. Hugh 
and T. J. Taylor, T. Y. Hall, &c., there would appear to be in our northern coal-field six 
thousand million tons of coal left for future use; so that there is just about fuel enough 
in the one district—reserving it for that purpose exclusively—to smelt the ironstone of 
the main seam of the other. 


744, REPORT—1863. 


18 feet, after which it splits again into bands, and, as far as is known, resumes. 
towards the east and south the character formerly observed as attaching to it 
at Grosmont, near Whitby. 

From the details just given it will be seen that, although the quantity of 
ironstone in the Main Cleveland Seam is practically inexhaustible, the portion 
which, in recent years, has yielded such immense quantities of rich mineral, 
as far as we can at present judge, occupies comparatively a very limited area. 
Commencing at Swainby, near Osmotherley, which is the most western point 
where the bed is worked, its thickness is not much above 3 feet, and the per- 
centage of iron under 28. It improves gradually in a north-eastern direction 
past Kildale, where a working was attempted, and abandoned, by the writer’s 
firm. Itis not until we reach Codhill, thirteen miles from Osmotherley, that 
the seam is considered worth extracting; and a line from this point to Rock- 
cliffe, on the coast, a distance of twelve miles, will probably be found as forming 
the southern boundary of the best stone; so that, after making the necessary 
allowance for denudation, twenty to thirty square miles may be assumed as 
the extent of the area, of which a considerable portion lies at a great depth. 

Much more irregular in its features is the so-called Top Seam. At Nor- 
manby and Eston little more than its position can be recognized, and through- 
out the entire field it varies from afew inches to many feet in thickness. In 
richness of iron it is not less changeable, giving from 20 to 35 per cent. of 
metal, according to the locality from which the sample may be taken. In 
the Main seam there exists a certain degree of uniformity, even in the change 
of thickness and richness; but in the Top seam both alternate very frequently 
in a most unlooked-for manner. On the western side of the district Ingleby 
Greenhow is the most northern, and indeed the only place where the Top seam 
has been wrought in that direction. In the mine there its thickness was 2 
feet, and its richness in iron 34°75 per cent. On the other side of the valley 
it thinned away to a few inches, containing 37-65 per cent. of metal. Near 
Osmotherley the seam is several feet thick, and in it a few inches at the top 
contain 41 per cent. of iron; these are succeeded by 3 feet of stone, with 24-5 
per cent., lying upon the top of 10 feet, giving 16-70 per cent. of iron. On 
the east coast, at Port Mulgrave, Messrs. Palmer formerly worked a small 
district of the Top seam 4 to 43 feet thick, which on analysis gave 30°99 per 
cent. of iron. In Goadland Dale, Glazedale, Fryup Dale, and Danby Dale 
this seam varies from 5 feet to 8 or 9 feet in thickness, and yields from 20 to 
25 per cent. of iron. In one case it is as low as 9°33, and in another case as 
high as 30°11 per cent., but both of these results were from a very limited 
area. Unless the magnetic ironstone worked at Rosedale Abbey is a portion 
of this Top'seam, about which some doubt has been expressed, all the work- 
ings in connexion with this bed have been abandoned from the causes just 
enumerated. 

A word or two respecting the mode of extracting the ironstone from the 
Main Cleveland Seam in the northern portion of the field,7.¢. near Middlesbro’, 
will probably not be considered as altogether superfluous. There is a portion 
of the bed at the top 3 feet thick, over and above the heights of the seam 
formerly given, and separated by a parting from the remainder of the bed, 
which parting varies from being a mere point of separation to a thickness of* 
6 or 7inches. When it attains this latter thickness, or even less, its contents 
are so impregnated with bisulphide of iron as to give 28 per cent. of sulphur. 
This band, being} easily detached from the ironstone, was applied in the 
chemical works at Washington as a substitute for ordinary pyrites, and con- 
tinued to be so used until a manufactory at Middlesbro’ was able to consume 


ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 745 


all the produce of the district on the spot. An analysis of the 3-feet and of 
the sulphur band will be found in the table hereafter given. The 3-feet is 
left in the workings to form the roof of the mine. The remainder of the seam 
varies from 8 to 10 feet in height, and indeed occasionally reaches 16 feet, or 
even more. In extracting the stone, headways are driven 9 feet wide and 
90 feet apart, from which, at intervals of 30 feet, boards are excavated 15 
feet wide. By this system “ pillars”’ are left 90,feet long by 30 feet wide. 
When the limits of the royalty are reached, or when, from any other cause, 
it is deemed necessary to work the pillars, they are removed, with something 
like a loss of 10 per cent. of their contents, so that in a good working, free 
from faults, the whole of the ironstone, within perhaps 73 per cent., can be 
brought away. 

The following tabulated results of analyses will give a correct idea of the 
component parts of the Main Cleveland Ironstone Seam, taken from that por- 
tion of the district where it is found in the greatest perfection :— 


Normanby, average 


of seam worked. Eston. Upleatham. 
IECOLONIGE OL IFON..: -c.5 22. 3S'OO aes eae NAG UZ wesw acct 37°07 
IBPEOMIEO OL IVON 222 5.2 .-. 2°60") aces okey ee GeO enews yO 
Protoxide of manganese... “TAT Saray eee 5 waco neEEE — 
Alumina et aA SIOZ. oan abig epOOn tame ececs YZRIeT 
LO 1 oy by 7 ry by. Seer | 
Magnesia sp 58 4:16" (anh scat ban es ea Oe 
LE DELL pen i Ral aia a Mocwelcr: “yb lees _— 
RURUPOUNGACIGL Os. 0... S22OOU ce Wa ohn eae aA 
SICH ee eaPalstcgriss: is <2.) T0736 ines Pascoe Oe OMnacsnes saeeekCrOn 
Sulphur {eo Ngee STAs ee aaed TT RIAS AT Tere — 
BMtOHOTIC ACIC xq o0- cas A Geer cad =e peers — 
PRORPUGIICACIC tse. ese | | LIGY “snc sven SROMEne! nen mnCLg 
LL USED Cg Ge alle erie re Fe ic ts ier sci — 
iter er ee ene NASA ack: ag aeeee ete e® aoa6 
97°27 100°41 99°90 
Metallic iron... PP Mer ee Le Ms CSE cock vino ye RAG 7 
Authorities .... ... ...Clarence Lab. Dick. Geol. Survey. Crowder. 
Normanby 3 ft. Sulphur 
Skelton. Skelton. roof. band. 
Protoxide of iron .......00.4. AE*GQ) neds ee AA°3 Te inanv ay 33°86) vaccse, 19°97 
Peroxide Of 17011 .....cccses = —— seven =" een et fn 47a eaten _ = 
Protoxide of manganese ... °75 seeese = Ceces oe GOh seed — 
FAT GINITIAS osedeecadsssissstaeses SiGTe coscen TI6Gi sevdes Grigg sessee 8°47 
WPMIO NMG. Siasy caneSeecaxshs osicae Gi33h sche. 4266 ike HPS SZ keseseayy G49 
Magnesia .scsscsecvcsenaceeees BSG lar «oes 2°38 endses 378A. sacs « 1'07 
MOHAB a aac getp re dd<< das cn sace's a= fee opty. So. eeecaa — serene 
Carbonic acid ......ses0eees.. 21°30 a | QTD ven sansa DOtOO) arene — 
includes water. 
Biltemeigeadebiees s- o0c2ccceed debt YO°SAY wogens 7GGr date ERI2A) becdeds 10'94. 
: 28°37* 
Rl pa tacccthsttea-ar-t eran, eee LOR osc 40 13 
Sulphuric acid ..............5 eee —— tosis —— semen — 
Phosphoric acid ...........- Pe oe A MSO camves oy eas —- 
Orpanitig: to. sesites es sasee0s Shane OP ene ens oie — 
Water cesses Serehecee satin ==" ‘anges eee 3°69 wees 13°20 
9°78 100'71 “60 ‘ 
Metallic iron ............s0004. aeG seo QAA Zh cas ae 2666 pe? v Es 
Authorities ...... Clarence Clarence Clarence Clarence 
Lab. Lab. Lab. Lab. 


The relationship existing among the earthy constituents of the Cleveland 


* Sulphur and iron, as bisulphide of iron—28°37 sulphur, 24°82 iron. 


746 REPORT—1868. 


ironstone, it will be seen, varies somewhat in different localities. This is not 
to be wondered at, for in fact the seam itself in the same section is by no 
means uniform in its composition. A moment’s inspection of the furnaces 
working the ironstone of the district enables a practised eye to perceive a 
very marked difference in the general character of the slag compared with 
that usually seen at ironworks. Although it flows hot and fluid, it is ex- 
tremely stony in its fracture, with scarcely a vestige of a vitreous nature. 
A very short comparison of the relationship which the earths bear to each 
other in ores of other parts of the country with those under examination will 
explain this. The following may be instanced :— 


Low Moor Parkgate. Butterley. _ Brierly. Stanton. Cleveland. 
Dilieiisesccnevacss GOn) bisers ZS CA ae Bb ae GON ven-ene 50. warts gw 
Limes, .veasaeeas Opvaost iT Queso aw BE, dole Oy adeses 130 nee 27 
Magnesia ...... Sieeeaete TOieyaanct= Ol» sesaae [ae ee ty A 14 
Alumina ...... PS pelea OH) Waaere es Di teases ZA ivesss | 20 ekoses 25 

100 100 100 100 100 100 


The following analyses show the composition of slags produced at different 


works :— 
Slag from Wales. Wales. Staffordshire. 8. Yorks. 


Cyfarthfa. Dowlais. Dudley. Low Moor. 

LGM scsseec vane ; Ae ve adeitaie Bev vcqesdeas 43°5 
Alumina . E20) Wives Yass.) LAA Sia todo eaae IIo 
BAM ase cece se acess AG a) adapts om BEGB Sescasasaee 33°6 
Magnesia 4°5 ASO itkve sis G84." oaoasnate 3°6 
Protoxideof iron 3°6  ..-...06 1 OS TAD 0 edecesers 81 
Sulphur ......... DAY sedcaaned Se anteeeres “HOO ivessunets 8 
IPOUASI sks sc.scees Ft hoes sees aw Naaviaste TNT “Peecekwoes _ 

98°7 98°6 99°26 100°6 

Authorities... .0ces.ccesees0e Berthier. —-Dr. Percy. 


Those from Cyfarthfa and Low Moor were analyzed under the writer’s eye. 
In the case of Low Moor the iron was chiefly metallic. 

On comparing the composition of the slags from the Welsh, Staffordshire, 
and South Yorkshire works, just given, with those from the furnaces in Cleve- 
land, the great dissimilarity in constitution will at once be perceived, and a 
little further examination will show that, with the composition of our ores, no 
mere addition of lime can ever imitate the vitreous slags of those localities 
just mentioned. 

The following analyses illustrate this :— 


Slag from Clarence, previous 


Clarence. Clarence. one repeated. Clarence. Ormsby. 

Prliceisncsn eset oie BOAO" sises 27 BOs Moats 27°68 secs. 27°65) cee 29'92 
Alumina ......... ZOWE” “sorte Eee estes ZU QR. Nwarts ZASGON © wexaee 21°70 
WimM6 jseessescesss ss BOSS" se.c0e 4O'FAS  seceee ROvIZ Waders 40°00 saseee 38°72 
Magnesia ......... 425” cesese GPO coe Mee heerrcice 3°55. eetese 6710 
Protoxide of iron BiGAn cesses ‘Ole oitesx BOE seers by PMc "32 
Do. manganese... TOs caw trace ...... DO usees “35 Seagee *80 
Sulphur........s-0 34% (asa sae 2OO'! Janes 2°O0** staves ¥°9§ Wives 1°61 
Potash” s.....ccccss "SO etsst. Oh scene ater RS "40" Sested — 
Soda .....sscesecses — sieees maa Soeeea — saaee 5 "99 seat _— 
Phosphorus ...... Sau sets trace . =| seeeue "2.6 jcwasees "07 

98°75 100°35 100°35 100°62 99°24. 


Authority ... Clar. Lab. lar. Lab. lar. Lab. W. Crowder. lar. Lab. 
There is one circumstance connected with the composition of these slags 
which may have some interest in a chemical point of view, inasmuch as it 
may throw some light on a subject not yet very deeply examined, namely, 


ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 747 


that of the comparative volatile nature of the earths, or of the comparative 
facility with which they are decomposed and vaporized. In all the analyses 
hitherto made by the writer, the composition of none of these slags corresponds 
with the amount of earthy matter introduced into the furnace ; thus, in the 
three specimens of slag from the Clarence furnaces, the silica, alumina, lime, 
and magnesia bear the following average ratio to each other, as expressed in 
whole numbers :— 
Silica. Alumina. Lime. Magnesia. 
> RE ie ae a eee Sr, ee RE Eo 
After analyzing the Normanby ironstone which was used about that time, 
and adding to its earthy constituents those introduced in the coke and lime- 
stone, the slag, by calculation, should have been, as regards the above-named 
elements, composed of — 
Silica. Alumina. Lime. Magnesia. 
29 + 16 + 46 + 9, -=1, 190 
The analysis in the School of Mines would, it is true, give a somewhat 
different result, but one which, nevertheless, does not correspond with actual 
examination of the slags, even had a similar quality of mineral been in use at 
Clarence. The Eston stone smelted with the same kind of coke and limestone 
should have given slags containing the earths in the following proportions ;— 
Silica. Alumina. Lime. Magnesia. 
28 + 18 + 45 + 9 = 100 
There escapes, as may be easily seen, from the furnaces on the Tees, cc., 
vast volumes of white vapour, which condense, or partly condense, with great 
facility. That there is a difference in the readiness with which it does this 
may be inferred from the fact, that while large quantities of condensed matter 
are intercepted in the pipes for leading the gas to the boilers, a great amount 
travels many yards before it reaches a lofty chimney, from which it escapes 
as a white cloud, and this cloud goes a long distance in the atmosphere before 
it is finally dispersed. Nothing short of entire interception of the vapour will 
enable us to judge whether the discrepancy between calculation and fact can 
be reconciled. The writer is now engaged in arranging a steam-pump which, 
by continued exhaustion through water or otherwise, will effect, no doubt, 
complete condensation of each of the component parts of this fume, when some 
light may be thrown upon the nature of the volatilized portions of the minerals 
used in our blast-furnaces. ; 
This fine dust has been examined at the Clarence Laboratory, and although 
the analysis proves nothing, having been taken at one place only in the con- 
necting pipes, a statement of its composition may not be devoid of interest. 
It gave— 


Silica and sand aa ae 5 we ais 34°82 
Alumina iS ‘tg Fe tes BA ae 16°00 
Lime ... ne wee oie sea so oi 12°15 
Magnesia ots ed Fee oe et oe °57 
Peroxide of iron as = afi = Sea 8*20 
Oxide of zinc ... cc og oa sis a a ha HOO 
Sulphuric acid os “5 es ss ass 8°80 
Potash... Pee oot = ae te Bh *40 
Soda ... ote eee pe ae ot oe 6°85 
Chlorine o> re ag 4 7 oa 1°56 
Water ... a a = He ae aie 5°60 

99°55 


__ From a more recent examination of the fume, taken at different distances 
from its point of exit from the furnace, the varying proportion of lime would 
indicate that this earth maintains the condition of vapour longer than the 
other constituents of the condensed matter :— 


748 REPORT—1863. 


At 30 yards from the point of exit the dust contained - 9‘0 per cent. of Lime. 
At 60 do. do. do. 12°5 do. 
At 130 do. do. do. 140 do. 

In order to supply that deficiency in silica noticed as existing in the slags, 
and which might possibly affect the quality of the iron itself, there was added 
to the charge at the Clarence Works a siliceous mud, and subsequently, at 
Eston, freestone, by Messrs. Bolckow and Vaughan. A vitreous slag resultcd ; 
but no very marked improvement being noticed in the iron, the addition was 
discontinued, 

Temperature of Blast.—The uniform practice in the whole district is to blow 
the furnaces with heated air. Sufficient data are not possessed to enable us 
to speak with any degree of certainty respecting the application of cold blast ; 
but, as far as actual experience goes, it is in favour of the idea that the lias 
ironstone would prove very intractable under that mode of smelting. In the 
year 1841, from some reason or another, cold air was used during four months 
at Birtley. The furnaces only ran 42 tons per week of white iron, produced 
by a consumption of 33 tons of coke to the ton. At Clarence an attempt 
was made recently to operate on the Cleveland ore in the same way; twice 
the quantity of coke was used which is required when making foundry iron, 
and only white pig was obtained. 

A more elevated temperature being wished for than is easily commanded 
by means of heated iron pipes, various experiments were tried at the Clarence 
works, and ultimately Cowper’s stoves were introduced. In these, by an 
alternate system of heating a mass of brickwork in closed vessels of iron, and 
passing the air through the same, a temperature of 1000° F. and upwards in 
the blast was obtained. The condensation, however, of the furnace-fume, the 
apparatus being heated by the waste gases, so interfered with the efficiency of 
the apparatus that the system was modified. Previous experiments were then 
continued, in which an arrangement of clay pipes, iron pipes, and forge 
cinders was made to replace the bricks. This was a great improvement; the 
temperature of the air was increased up to 1200° F., and the tubular arrange- 
ment permitted the apparatus to be more easily cleaned. In time, however, 
the same inconyenience from the condensed fume interrupted the value of the 
results, and the plan was abandoned, At no time was the high temperature 
maintained with that regularity upon which success alone depends. Enough, 
however, was ascertained to give encouragement to the idea that a steady in- 
crease of 500° or 600° in the blast would have been serviceable. 

To ayoid the inconyenience of the flue-dust, Messrs. Cochrane erected large 
gas generators to obtain carburetted hydrogen and carbonic oxide from the 
imperfect combustion of coal. The writer is unable to say what have been 
the advantages attending this mode of operating. The loss of heat from such a 
plan of applying coal, and other sources of expense, will probably be a serious 
impediment to the full measure of usefulness of the system*, At the Wylam 
and Wear Ironworks the writer has introduced an arrangement by which the 
blast is heated by means of the waste heat from the coke ovens. 

Shape of the Blast Furnaces—In shape, our blast-furnaces present no 
novelty worthy of notice. The width of the boshes varies from 14 to 18 fect, 
and the height from 42 to 50 or 55 feet, in one case 75 feet having been 
reached with beneficial results. An average proportion will, probably, be 

* Since the foregoing was written, Messrs. Cochrane have informed the writer that they 
experience no difficulty in maintaining a temperature of 1150° in Cowper’s stoves, which 
they have had in operation for two years, and that they thereby effect an economy of 5 cwt. 
of coke in the blast-furnace on the ton of iron, as compared with the furnaces using air 


heated in the ordinary way. Messrs. Cochrane also state that in any future furnaces they 
. ropose using this form of apparatus. 


ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 749 
three diameters of the boshes to the entire height; but no great importance 
can be attached to this ratio, inasmuch as the furnaces continue to work well 
long after the destruction of the lining has greatly altered the dimensions 
just given. One attempt has been made here to employ Alger’s furnace, in 
which the circular horizontal section is replaced by one of an elliptic cha- 
racter. In this form the iron is tapped, and the slag allowed to run, from 
the back as well as from the front of the furnace. At the Stockton Iron- 
works, where the system has been tried, the major axis of the ellipse is 12 feet 
and the minor 53 feet in the hearth ; the higher part of the furnace (which 
is an old one altered) remains circular. The owners do not find it expedient 
to work it from both sides, as is proposed by the patentee, neither has it the 
large dimensions he recommends. It is therefore premature to offer any 
opinion on the merits of the plan from the experience of this district, which, 
however, hitherto has not been such as to warrant the conclusion that a de- 
parture from the old shape is advantageous. The blast in the North of Eng- 
land is introduced generally by three or four tuyéres, at.a pressure varying 
from 3 to 4lbs. per square inch, and at a temperature of about 600° to 700° F. 
The production of a furnace is from 200 to 220 tons weekly, although more 
than this quantity has been frequently obtained. 

Quahty of Iron from Cleveland Ironstone.—Notwithstanding the composi- 
tion of the slags already spoken of, the furnaces drive with great ease and 
rapidity—the cinder flowing, when the make is foundry iron, perfectly liquid, 
and of an intense white heat. 

For foundry purposes the Cleveland iron was at first objected to from its 
chilling quickly in the “ ladle,” when compared with the makes of Scotland, 
and producing more “ scum ”’ than the metal from that country. 

The writer had this scum analyzed at the Clarence Works, and found it to 
consist of— 


Silicate of iron 42°10 
Protoxide of iron 8°32 
Mon $73 s es aa 42°02 
Carbon oa ace 1°93 
Protoxide of manganese 2°82, 
Lime ... Re - “49 
Magnesia “10 
Phosphorus Ir 
Sulphur *23 
Titanic acid 88 

100°00 


The furnaces of this district have little tendency to produce what is techni- 
cally known as “glazy iron.” Some years ago one of the Clarence furnaces, 


however, did run a quantity of this kind of metal. 


Two samples of it were 


analyzed, and their composition was ascertained to be as follows :— 


No. 1 Pig. No. 1 Pig. 

Tron ae so “ -- 88°18 90°70 
Carbon combined ... dea = "79 “71 
Do. uncombined 2°59 2°68 
Silicon see ore 5°13 5°13 
Manganese... ane oa ot 7 iy “56 
Sulphur... a os nec "17 "23 
Phosphorus ac I'l2 1°12 
Titanium ... aoe Ae ae 26 “18 
Calcium... ies St, Ree 22 *20 
Magnesium... 33 Sa 4 "06 "03 
Authority..,......... Clarence Laboratory. 99°29 IoI"54. 


750 , REPORT—1863. 


Silicon evidently constitutes the chief difference between the two samples 
given above and the iron usually produced in the neighbourhood. 

The composition of fifteen samples of ordinary iron smelted from the Cleve- 
land lias-stone is exhibited in the annexed table of analyses, These examina- 
tions, with two exceptions by Mr. Crowder, haye all been performed in the 
Clarence Laboratory. 


Clarence. Clarence. Clarence. Tees. Cleveland. So. Bank. 
No.1 Pig. No.1Pig, No.1 Pig. No.1Pig. No.1 Pig. No.1 Pig. 
Iron vee ae was 03708 92°68 94°13 92°40 92°43 92°57 
Carbon combined ae “48 78 "93 "44. "32, “47 
Do. uncombined ... 2°83 2°43 2°34 2°78 3°43 2°89 
Silicon ... ut of Tiss3i 72, 2:57 3°71 1°70 1°76 
Manganese es qed 576 tr. “31 "42 "30 "44 
Aluminium fs eth fue — — _- — _— 
Calcium ... sr as ee _ — —_ "05 03 
Magnesium... ee ee ~~ — -- ‘oI ‘ol 
Titanium my “oo — — 20 “56 "51 
Sulphur ... As bse "04 "25 tr. “16 28g 12 
Phosphorus... ane "30 "30 *30 1°20 1°24 1'29 
99°566 9916 00°58 10131 00°17 100°09 
Clarence. Clarence, Clarence. Clarence. Clarence, Tees. 
No.3Pig. No.3Pig. No.3 Pig. No.4Pig. No.4Pig. No. 4 Pig, 
Tron we os es 93°96 93°66 92°35 94°64 91°55 93°84. 
Carbon combined ve "43 28 1°24 26 1°26 22 
Do. uncombined ... 2°67 3°13 68 2°45 1°06 2°72 
Silicon ... a SY ME. “88 1°80 1°87 1°84 2°16 
Manganese nen Hy “ko ¥/ "81 "93 1°06 *50 
Aluminium ao dus Oh es “= *36 —_ 277 _— 
Calcium ... “ap oo *30 "93 — "44. 45 
Magnesium __.. eo “02 "24. — EK tr. 
Titanium oe aoe 25 "14 _ _— — "09 
Sulphur ... aa sue ‘Io “197 04 tr. 80 26 
Phosphorus... Sta "72 1°23 1°55 1'00 1°57 83 
I0I‘35 10018 1I00'00 10115 100°00 10107 
Crowder. Crowder. 
Clarence. Clarence. Clarence. 
Mottled. White. White. 
Tron wee ase ast 93°59 =e ee 97°30 ee ee 97°036 
Carbon combined aes 85 oF a “90 788 
Do. uncombined ... 2°70 ste a 1°06 at BY 7 
Silicon ... = ‘ne “56 at ee ‘II Ma 4.0 
Manganese re ae wh) 45 Sea ‘Ir 5 ts — 
Aluminium aS — ax er _ _— 
Calcium ... as Fs 26 ee ay a5 — 
Magnesium... Bcf "07 she 4 *06 fas — 
Titanium aa Sas — see a — es a — 
Sulphur ... te 453 “25 as oe “96 =e Pr, “312 
Phosphorus’... = I'05 oe Bee “26 ce ae 1°434 


From the following summary of some of the experiments on iron, under- 
taken by the War Department, an idea of the important question of relative 
strength may be gained, It is only fair to add that these trials were made 
soon after the works on the Tees commenced operations, since which time the 
qualities of the ore and its mode of treatment are better understood. 


ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 751 


Breaking Breaking Break- Force 


weight, weight, Deflec- i Angle required 

Kind of iron. Qual. Sp.gr. tensile trans- tion. weight, tor- for 
test. verse. tor- sion. crush- 

sion. ing. 

lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 
Whitehaven—Hematite Foundry...1 7°097 14233 4644 ‘161 3724 7:2 52136 
3. 7214 17751 5105 *120 4182 5°38 82265 
4 7196 17566 6100 ‘152 4977 4°9 82583 
Butterley—Clay ironstone . I 77I4I 23388 =67106 «145 7346 9°3 88488 
2 7°:078 18970 6077 ‘128 6011 7°5 74743 
3 77126 23265 6692 *130 6940 7°5 91663 
Ystalyfera—Clay do, Anthracite...1 7°165 25172 7848 “163 6704 12°2 87457 
2 7157 26758 7944 °196 6176 9°6 90874 
3 7150 24533 7228 ‘166 5719 88 88772 
PEPOVMVDYD sees osiecctec<ceocnetecssccecusse  7°103 26766. 7o47 <rSa ngage. 16% 105202 
Blenavon Cold Blast.............-.5-5I 7°137 25456 7493 ‘171 5034 9° 91897 
3. 7158 23906 7600 "191 5674 102 87358 
Cleveland—Stockton Furnaces...... I 7148 25810 7159 °136 5872 4:2 99526 
2 7135 22271 6932 "134 6305 5:7 87063 


From these figures it would appear that the iron from this northern locality 
stands very well even when contrasted with some of the best brands of the 
kingdom. A large founder at Middlesbro’ states the Cleveland iron to be 
strong in the lower classes, viz. Nos. 3 and 4. A bar 2in. x 1in., with bear- 
ings 3 feet apart, carried 27 to 30 cwt. Under tension, bars having a sec- 
tional area of one centimetre bore 35 ewt. before fracture occurred. In 
melting for the foundry, the same authority states 2 to 23 per cent. to be 
the loss on pig iron obtained from Cleveland stone. 

At the Clarence Works the following experiments were undertaken with 
bars to ascertain the breaking-weights. The bars were 2 in. x 1 in., and sup- 
ported on bearings 3 feet apart :— 


Quality of iron in bar. 


No. 4. Breaking weight. 
Deflection. ewt. qr. lbs. 
BNO! Teniceac: 65 in ee) ee 
es coas 62-5; 28) 2 22, 
Baeicccses ‘60° 5; 30 Ol) 27 
4 "56 30.0 22 
Ripe tiane “5Q) G5 27) i222, 
GPs acoaze "00, 29 0 22 
pence “G27. ZO Omrzz 
CISPSREDERE oy ar CIP op ee 
Qeeaey+ ey CO ate 28) 2. 122 
EOterecscys FBS yy Cs YM wet 
Average...... "586 .,, 20) 0.22 
No. ariron Io othera’:609, 5, <<:27-+-e-2 +} Oh 
Atma ELON 53095593 ay) ceeseese--+nnen! MOORE EO eer OI NO. 2) pie 
AIO 5) 2503) 55) | pe-0e-s20> «aca Ce een OLED NOLO Dies 
Mottled. 
Moreh Gi strogal i)y . cahiekiitesay SIMO mee 
OTe See OB Avie. t atuganpe? apn Come eee 
Bircee betas 048 ,, ONG lie We IT? 
4 OAT as 26 2 22 
recto 046 ,, 27 2 22 
Best see 048 ,, 2522 
Average...... IAD ve Mites <axiackises Cee 


Effect of Manganese in the Blast Furnace.-—The experiments of M. Caron 
in ascertaining the effect of manganese on pig iron, which he found sensibly 


752 REPORT— 1863. 


to reduce the amount of sulphur, led the writer to try the effect of it in the 
Clarence furnaces. The results, in a chemical point of view, are not devoid 
of interest, inasmuch as they afford some indication of the behaviour of this 
metal under the treatment of an iron furnace. The ore itself was poor in 
manganese ; the composition was as follows :— 


Silica... an oe ae “ee ie so 2560 
Peroxide of iron ... 5 = oes $5 S20 1124-36 
Do. manganese ... a ae ae Bs yids) 
Oxide of do. <4 So aed one era ip 
Loss by heat... & ade $5 ae 04 © 5°00 
100°00 


The iron produced gave by analysis for different qualities as follows :— 


No. 1 Pig. No. 2 Pig. No. 3 Pig. 
Carbon... & os ase 4 (2ilAdastes e051 200 Mie | (eee 
Silica... os os ots RISO) ace ta Res ee ene 
Manganese ae Ai? Pe iy ee ke RE be 2G 
Sulphur ... a5 Se ose *2OD icse ese © Mi OZA  Sinee ene 
Phosphorus eee Aa wed S*ATOTLE OY ee eSGovee levee eeOr 


As far as the two last-mentioned elements are concerned, the addition of 
manganese in the furnace does not appear to have effected much change, but 
it is quite possible that the increase of this metal may, when the iron is 
remelted for the founder, remove a portion of the sulphur. M. Caron as- 
certained that this change occurred when manganese was fused with iron 
containing sulphur. Want of opportunity has prevented this examination 
from being pursued. 

The slag was of the following composition while the furnace was working 
with the manganese ore :— 


Silica s.4 ane wns ne ed vee vee 29°25 
Alumina ... te “os ae rae aan «a. | TOE 
Lime ee ts he ae i me ssey BETS 
Magnesia... +O 258 oa a 50 = *60 
Protoxide of iron oo ae ae ies sree od 
Do. manganese i a eat saage (ORT 
Sulphur ... ae eae ee the eae wey Dea 
Oxide of titanium nee as oS er ue "75 
100°06 


By calculation it was ascertained that for 100 parts of metallic manganese 
introduced into the furnace, 


There came out in the iron sie 9°5 
In the slag... ae ie 56 are nee 8776 
Leaying unaccounted for... wee se ii es NOD 

1000 


These figures require a little modification, difficult to define, arising from a 
varying amount of manganese being found both in the iron and in the slag of 
furnaces using Cleveland ironstone alone. 

Use of the Waste Gases—The waste gases are employed for raising steam 
and heating the blast, but on the use of this mode of economizing coal there 
still exists a considerable diversity of opinion. Extra consumption of high- 
priced coke, and irregularity of working in the furnaces themselves, is not in 
every case a commercial equivalent for the inferior small coal saved, and 
labour in firing boilers, &ec., avoided. In the writer’s opinion there is some 
force in the objection; at the same time his own experience, after incurring 


ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 7538 


great expense in the necessary gas apparatus, leads him to persevere, in the 
hope that even the objections he admits to exist will vanish with the know- 
ledge which time and patience alone can secure. 

It is, however, reasonable to suppose, as far as a mere question of fuel is 
concerned, that the combustion of the carbonic oxide at the top of a furnace 
must heat the materials to a greater or less extent, and whatever this may 
amount to will be a saying pro tanto lower down the furnace. 

To ascertain, if possible, what amount of heat was really imparted to the 
contents of a blast-furnace by the combustion of the carbonic oxide at the top, 
an examination has been made within the last few days of two furnaces at 
the Clarence Works, one open-topped, and the other close-topped. At the 
former the gases were burnt, and from the latter they were conducted away 
unconsumed. Both furnaces were of the same construction, and both were 
using materials similar in quantity and quality, and producing the same kind 
of iron. In both instances the temperature was taken 8 feet below the charging 
plates, At the close-topped furnace the following result was obtained :— 


Time of observation. Temperature. 
pS lls Me wae, SO Gn ie 
2.30 Ae - <7 eLOAG 
2 40 a. Pee wc SOFO 
ates a aes we) LIGy 
3 50 _ = oa. Gedo 
Put on 56 ewt. materials 3 20 ce = sis0 [ZA0 
3 30 rr se n/s| sEZOOR. seated MEATIE, ote 1121° F, 


Day following. 


Time of observation ...... givens. gh 200 ess 

Temperature ..........0000. II7S° sco 1227° we. 1275° «.. Mean temp. 1226° 

Put on 76 ewt. materials 2 sd” ane "cee, Shea eR emmEL CORED Taeapeens .1240 

Day succeeding. 

Time of observation ...... 3%20™ ... 3@30™... 3735™ ... 3h 55m 

BHETPCLALUTC' ...cscccecssnce 1305° ... 1282° ... 1282° ... 1415° Mean 1321° 

ientronrso Gwt. materials’ 42 5™ 0, 14. | ooh Ue eves) evel Lemp. Tage 
alee ES a Bi ao™ sti siespll aes el eeaeeeneees » 1438 


The mean of these observations indicates 1200 degrees as being the 
probable temperature of a close-topped furnace 8 feet below the charging 
plates. 

An attempt was then made to ascertain the temperature of the gases at a 
point 8 feet below the charging plates of the open-topped furnace. One ob- 
servation only was obtained, which indicated 1692 degrees. 

In all these experiments the temperature was ascertained by heating a 
cylinder of copper of a given size, and ascertaining the effect it had on an 
accurately measured quantity of water. In the case of the open-topped 
furnace the temperature was so high that this apparatus became unmanage- 
able, the copper getting so hot that the water was thrown violently out of 
the vessel containing it. Looking at the single observation obtained and 
subsequent appearances, the temperature of the gases in an open-topped 
furnace will probably be about 1800 degrees, or 600 degrees above that of 
the close-topped furnace, the datum line in each case being, as before stated, 
8 feet below the charging plates. 

Temperature of escaping Gases from Furnaces.—Scheerer gives 572° F, as 
ae pee aint of the upper zone of a blast-furnace. The writer recently 

63. 30 


754 REPORT—18638. 


made the following examination of the temperatures of different furnaces 
working with close tops :— 


Clarence No. 5 furnace, 48 feet high, making No. 4 iron. 


hm 
Full... ane Soh enor eo Pn Pas of besiirs gases, BS F. 
2 25 
Put on 75 cwt. materials 2 35 ae: oo qe 
Same furnace, making Nos. 2 and 3 iron. 
hm 
ah. ap ... 2 © Temperature of escaping gases, 710° F. 
2 10 do. do. 840 
2 20 do. do. 940 
Put on 25 cwt. materials 2 30 do. do. 710 
Walker No. 4 furnace, 42 feet high, making No. 4 iron. 
hm 
ols: . cae «. 2 © Temperature of escaping gases, Soe F. 
2 10 do. do. 800 
Introduced 33 c. materials 2 20 do. do. 670 
Middlesboro’ No. 2 Sains 42 feet high, making white iron. 
h 
Mallet 22. = sya eee, Fs © Temperature of escaping gases, 519° F.. 
2 20 do. do. 960 
Put on go cwt. materials 2 30 do. do. 469 
The mean temperatures will be as follows :— 
Clarence, making No. 4 iron... ads - re ey fee 
Do. do; . Nova 825 
The mean temperature of the tube ° conveying the ape from four 
furnaces was 808 
Walker, making No. 4 iron oat Ses a8 eS «390 740 
Middlesboro’, making white iron... see ane sat oe ee 


The object of these figures is to show that, taking Scheerer’s statement as 
our guide, the whole of the furnaces alluded to are working at a loss. 

It is obvious that there is an escape of heat capable of preparing an addi- 
tional quantity of material for treatment in the reducing and fusing zones of 
the furnace. The obvious method of making this heat available is by in- 
creasing the height of the furnace itself. This, however, has its limit, vary- 
ing probably with the nature and size of the materials used. If, for example, 
the fuel is easily crushed, or the “ mine” is small, or easily rendered so, then 
the altitude of the column containing it must not be above that which will 
permit the blast to enter freely and preserve, as far as possible, an equal tem- 
perature over every horizontal section or zone of the materials. 

It is more than probable that the limits of extreme height have been already 
reached by experience in other localities, the ironmaster there being guided 
by the peculiar characteristics of his own minerals. 

The iron-furnaces in Cleveland work under a totally different set of cireum- 
stances from those of Staffordshire, for instance, where the coke is friable and 
the “ mine” small. Our coke is endowed with great hardness and capability of 
resisting pressure ; and our ironstone, worked in great blocks, is sufficiently 
large to permit a free passage of air through a much higher column than 
otherwise would be the case. 

Messrs. Bolckow and Vaughan have actually put this to the test of prac- 
tical proof by erecting a furnace 75 feet high. Upon one occasion, in making | 
No. 4 iron, the gases were escaping at a temperature of 467° just after 


ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 755 


charging, and 665° when ready for its charge, or a mean of 517°; the reduc- 
tion of something like 200° being due, no doubt, to the increased burden 
which this higher furnace was actually carrying. 

Economy of fuel in the blast-furnace is of twofold importance: first, from 
its direct action in reducing the cost of making iron; and secondly, as the 
superiority of quality possessed by charcoal iron over that smelted by pit 
coal consists, in all probability, in the greater amount of impurity contained 
in the latter description of fuel, it obviously becomes a matter of consideration 
to employ as small a quantity of coke as possible, so as to diminish the weight 
of foreign matter introduced into the furnace. Hence any system inter- 
fering with these conditions requires close and careful watching on the part 
of the ironmaster. 

Magnetic Ironstone of Rosedale Abbey.—Hitherto our observations have 
been confined chiefly to describing the natural and metallurgical features of 
the Main bed of ironstone in Cleveland; but as there are some matters of 
interest connected with the Top Seam, a short notice of it here may not be 
out of place. 

This seam of the Lias formation (which is either the Top seam, or very near 
its geological position) has been wrought in two or three places, but by far 
the most important workings are the mines at Rosedale Abbey. The samples 
1 and 2 are analyses of the Rosedale Abbey ironstone. No. 3 is the Top 
seam from Ingleby. 


No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. 
Blackstone. Se oe Ingleby. O 
: : ; e os 1° 

Oxide of iron ... ao 64°90 ae { ba Fe? 02 ... yee Fe? 038 
Do. manganese... — 69 ste "94. 
Alumina... oc 582 9°25 4 Cane A 4°71 
ATG "oe or 3°53 fon ‘2°86 oe 3°32 
Magnesia ae. eee "99 +? — Wee 3°34 
Potash cee ay _— trace ee *20 
Carbonic acid — 10°36 26°00 
Silica de sf ao 5°70 sc 6°95 a 7°37 
Loss by heat... Hee 16°15 ae 1°59 ae — 
Sulphur ... ras oe -- "03 “08 
Phosphoric acid... = I°41 1°36 
Carbonaceous = "34 “38 
Water — 3°76 3°86 
100°52 98°16 99°77 

Authorities............ W.Crowder _J. Pattinson. Clarence Laboratory. 

Metalliciron ... ore 45°43 as 49°20 ec 36°95 


The Rosedale stone is chiefly smelted at Ferry Hill furnaces, and to some 
extent as a mixture at other works. In quality the iron is much like that 
which is obtained from the main beds of ironstone. 

The Ingleby stone is a portion of the Top seam, and, being thin and expen- 
sive to work, is now abandoned. A few hundred tons were smelted without 
admixture at the Clarence Works. The content of iron was verified as being 
superior to the ordinary Cleveland main seam, but the metal in quality did 
not differ from the usual make of the district. 

Weardale Ores.—The Weardale ores, from the quality of iron produced by 
their use, require some separate notice. They are found in the veins of the 
mountain limestone, either as sparry or spathose carbonates, or as hydrated 
peroxides ; the latter, no doubt, resulting from the joint effects of atmospheric 

*and aqueous action on the former. The following information, communicated 
by Mr. Attwood, shows the composition of both varieties :— 
3c¢2 


756 


Protoxide of iron 
Peroxide of iron 
Protoxide of manganese 
Lime ... 

Magnesia 

Alumina : 
Carbonic acid... 
Sulphur ave 
Phosphoric acid 

Water .. x 


Insoluble residue 
Protoxide of copper ... 


Metallic iron ... 


REPORT—1863. 


Spathose. 
By Dr. i 


49° 


I = 
3°96 
2°33 
37°20 
o'04 
trace 
0°30 
3°12 
99°96 


38°95 


Hydrated Peroxide. 


Dr. P. 


ercy. 
711 
6°60 
56 
1°90 
“40 
13 
$73 
12°40 
2 Si 4'0 
6:32 {a 1'97 


trace 


99°64 


49°78 


Dr. Richardson gives the following as the composition of a specimen of 


Weardale spathose ore :— 


Tron 

Lime and magnesia 
Silica ae 

Loss by heat 


The character of the iron produced from the above ores is of a marked 
kind, highly crystalline, and affording bar iron of a very excellent quality. 
Recently Mr. Attwood has succeeded, he states, by a plan of his own, in ob- 
taining very good steel from the iron. 

The composition of a description of iron coming so near in its properties to 
that of charcoal iron, as it does, is of sufficient interest to justify attention 


being drawn to it. 


3. 4. 
Swedish. Weardale. 
aaeee 527) --ares 894 OR 
Boe BIOZ teastate yA LO 
Shs Jo) erent he 
aaa Os ear aae 2a 
beans SO) mpacse ented 
sieve POR. assert ny Oy 
S25 —— [esviceal ew “OL 
99°82 100°00 


seeeee 


Dr. Perey. Dr. Percy. 


Weardale iron :—: 
No. 1. i 
German. German. 
Spiegel Hisen. Spiegel Hisen. 
TRON. oSves ses Bae vscene 98°655 
Carbon ...... rrp tecicee "210 
Silicon ...... SO tans ts 1'062 
Manganese...11°12 ...... — 
Sulphur ...... SI ROS SO trace 
Phosphorus.. °13 ...... trace 
Copper ...... Sie aes — 
100°00 99°927 
Autho- Mitchell 
pees Dr. Percy. and 
Richard. 


The following table shows analyses of both foreign and 


5. 6. 
Weardale. Weardale. 
White Spiegel. 
90°51 isseuee 96°775 
"O05 ss0ms 209% 
“TAO cases 882 
—— cotaees O21 
ane "229 
trace sse.e -— 
99°715 99°999 
Mitchell Washington 
and Laboratory, 
Richard. by M. Brivet. 


Dr. Percy afterwards haying reason to think the proportion of sulphur, as 
given in his analysis, was too high, repeated the examination, and found it 
only ‘03 per cent. in Weardale Spiegel Eisen. 


The slag from the furnace 
where the specimen No. 5 was made contained— 


Silica Be 2 we. 36°80 
Alumina, with a little oxide of iron and of manganese 13°80 
Lime ss 46°00 
Magnesia ... 2°54 
Soda and potash, “estimated as the difference . "86 


100°00 


ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 757 


The coke used at the Weardale Company’s furnaces is that from the 
bottom of our coal series, and which, as a rule here, as in some other coal- 
fields, appears the best adapted for iron-smelting, owing no doubt to freedom 
from sulphur. The subject is of interest, as showing that the results ob- 
tained by the use of charcoal abroad can be very closely imitated when 
suitable ores, and mineral coal of great purity is the fuel employed. 

Cumberland Hematite.—The rich hematites of the Whitehaven district 
approach in some cases to nearly a pure peroxide of iron. 

The following indicates their composition :— 


Cleator. Cleator. 
Peroxide of iron ite one arse 0-5 Sten came reat g ig 1G 
Protoxide of manganese... a STOST aee "24, 
Silica ... “35 ca ns 7°05 5°66 
Alumina nee ozs aaa A. AGS Oa *06 
Lime ... vse ce oe se ay fines © box O7 
Magnesia ee ae cer es Rely Bora ee — 
Sulphur ae “ee rok otc [ORs Maveue ese eu aCS 
Phosphoric acid sr Ae St trace MAN. trace 
99°96 I0I'Ig 
School of Mines, 
Metallic iron ... ae ba are (09-2 Rare eee J0G:G5 


The following analysis shows the composition of iron from the Cleator 
furnaces :— 


Iron ms i. nee 8 oss ee es 93°94 
Carbon Se ah ee ae oe we 4cr8 
Silicon... “: ae #2 Fe est Peep | R92 
Manganese a os Fe "02 
Calcium ... 12 
Magnesium ae a ie Her aa sec 06 
Sulphur ... ss we oss 6a er atc "05 
Phosphorus So £3 cic Ay ste “te *08 

Authority, Clarence Laboratory. 100°37 


This ore and that from Ulverstone are brought to some extent to the east 
coast for admixture with the Cleveland stone. 

Ironstones from Ridsdale and Hareshaw (Mountain Limestone), and from 
Consett, near Shotley Bridge (Coal Formation).—These ironstones haying been 
incidentally mentioned, the following analyses, by Dr. Richardson, may be of 
interest :-— 


Ridsdale. Hareshaw. Consett, Shotley Bridge. 
iron), 5 )s-. sts prot (SAGO tere ois BQO IRE acs se. 36°68 
Lime and magnesia... 9°00 ... 22a UG Opes cohen MGT 
Clay... a BEE “Wig bolo e> =H Sey el eR seen ESOS 
Loss by heat... nee) MAGI O Zl es eas (IAOg eee soe EG Tate 


In each case no doubt the stone was a perfectly clean sample, quite free 
from adhering shale, which will account for the difference of metal between 
the analyses and the actual yield in the furnace, as formerly stated. 

Statistics of the Pig Iron Manufacture in connexion with the Newcastle and 
Durham Coal-field——The following figures, extracted from the statistical 
returns of the Geological Survey, afford probably the readiest mode of impart- 
ing a correct idea of the extent and rate of development of the iron-mines 


now under consideration. ; 
In September 1850 the first ton of stone was worked from Eston Hill 


758 REPORT—1863. 


for trial at Witton Park Works. Previous to this the valley of the Esk, 
and, to a small extent, the coast, furnished the produce of the Lias beds. 
Subsequently the quantity raised on the coast was increased a little, in 
consequence of the seam near Skinningrove being recognized as containing 
more iron. 


Esk Valley. Coast. Cleveland Hills. Total 
Tons. Tons. Tons. tons. 
T3855 swe oon = GJOOO! 2k VER 1GO,G00M) 0k 452) 865,360 1.7 eat TQ eagaS 
TS5O. 2. cs ABSOOO 0. eens (G7STOM caer, SST AM AAS ect Saeieaojoee 
TS57. nan : eee 1,414,155 
DOGS ec | Not properly separated after this; but most of ++» 1,367,395 
TO5OMMece the increase may be set down as being the produce wee 1,520,342 
1860 | of the Cleveland Hills. ++ 1,471,319 
1861... wee 1,242,514* 
1862. cdl ucs =©%H,OOD, veel Bese .98,900..... s+. 1,566;066 %25 isa, 689,906 
CUMBERLAND ORE. 
Smelted at Smelted Exported 
Newcastle or in to Total 
Middlesbro’. Cumberland, other places. tons. 
TS54y sexe can, 40, 708veieys twittzees cast eee 2ON25 7a. c eae Ges OAo 
ESSE ener ng ysIGe) sso he... "2A LOG, ... 9 iis TAO AGO en: oe eeOOr as 
POGOe cok ATsAGO aux 4 2- 29Q)007) jc-0 © nde LOR OSOm sa5 sume een 
IB 57 Wiles: MMA ABASOO ofits Vc ROSITA... Wiss eae Beale ee Se 
ESGS exe ase 579040) a. 22. 07,5248 9 sv. ces 207,254) nen gen 
S'S) se ave ears lt7 7p2OOU ssa fens FOIL S2 Mace: eve (eZAG OS Aiea ce, Sear 
X860 seengevs 925240 5. cee, 28,749 ver), see 2575402.) ---) OSNGOO LEST 
TSOT soc) juems 65,555. peo 40 TT7jO5A) .o0y., 2+ | 288,885. cep eats RA 72,04. 
1862 saree, 55,838", gee one, £19,285. -oe,. «os 1357599711 See SST EZO 
Weardale. 
Brown Hematites Newcastle. Cumberland. 
and Carbonates, Claystone. Alston. 
Tons. ‘ans. Tons, 
ROG Smenes! sss — RVous eed TEjOSA auc wcll sek aet 7200 
MOGOE acc) oss = Ree) Lk OSS E87 5 
TSGO G20. press — SCD TE SE. os ee leee — 
TSG sel tiees | QEROOO! ene 2 ose aE aes 
TOOL” Sin br.) LAA SOG nes, cece. ne, be 820 


A very large quantity of hematite is obtained from the neighbourhood of 
Ulverstone, a portion of which is smelted with coke from the Durham coal- 
field, while some of the ore itself is brought to mix with the Cleveland iron- 
stone. The following figures indicate the importance of the iron-trade of 
Ulverstone :— 


Carried to Newcastle Smelted at Exported to Total 

or Middlesbro’. Ulverstone. other places. tons. 
ESOXe wraeue 11,838 tons ...... 118,759 tons ...... 388,583 tons ...... 519,180 
TRO2 ceesrueee AY oat MR re TO7JORA. Masum 1e>seae 388,209) 95.00) fesse 5595391 


The following statement gives at one view the number of furnaces on the 
east coast existing previous to the recent extension of the iron-trade in con- 
nexion with the Cleveland ironstone worked from the neighbourhood of Mid- 
dlesbro’, with other particulars of interest connected with its present condi- 
tion and future prospects :— 


* The Government returns are 111,253 tons short of the actual weight this year. 
+ The Government returns are incorrect, only giving 10,750 tons for 1861. 


ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 759 


Furnaces Furnaces , Building Furnaces 
previous existing or pro- in Blast 
toA.D. Ist Sept. aaa Ist Ist Sept. 


Name of Work. Owners. 1850. 1863. ept. 1863. 1863, 
Lemington ..._ ... Tyne Iron Company 2 2 — I 
Birtley .... ..._ ... Birtley Iron Company 2 3 _— 3 
Wylam... ...... Bell Brothers ... I I — I 
Walker... .... ... Losh, Wilson, and Bell 2) Gf RONSRN tS 2 
Ridsdale... ... Ridsdale Iron Company ... 2 dismantled — ° 
Hareshaw ... ... Hareshaw Iron Company 3. dismantled — ° 
Consett. . Derwent Iron Company .. 14 14 = 6 
Towlaw & Stanhope Weardale Iron Company... 6 6 — 4 
Bedlington ... ... Longridge and Co. ... ... 2 2 — ° 
Witton Park... .. Bolckow and Vaughan 4 4 a 4 
Middlesbro’ ..._ ... Bolckow and Vaughan — 3 at 3 
Eston ... ... ... Bolckow and Vaughan — 9 os 9 
Clarencey,. ... °-. Bell Brothers ~.. ... 2%. _ 6 2 5 
Tees ... ... ... Gilkes, Wilson, and Co. ... = 5 _ 4 
Ormesby ... ... Cochrane and Coit acing = 4 — 4 
Claylane ... ... Elwin, Malcolm, and Co. — 3 3 3 
South Bank ... ... Elwin, Malcolm, and Co. — 3 3 3 
Stockton ... ... Holdsworth and Co. ao -- 3 — 3 
Norton ..._...... Warner, Lucas, and Barrett 3 ae 3 
Tees Side ... ... Hopkins and Co. , =: 2 = 2 
Thornaby ... ... Whitwell and Co. : —_ 3 oa 3 
Normanby ... ... Jones, Dunning, and Co.... ... — 2 — 2 
South Durham... South Durham Iron Company... — 3 — 3 
Felling, River Tyne Pattinson & Co. and Bell Bros... — 2 — ° 
Jarrow dos i... Walmer and Co...57..519..f0 28 == 4 — ws 3 
Wallsend do. ... Palmer and Co.... .. _— 2 Ww oe es 
Bradley |. 1. Richardson and Co. . — 4 gk OO 
Washington... ... Washington Chemical Company — I = one 
Wear ... ... ... Bells, Hawks, and Co. ... —_ I =, Seen 
erryhel'* ),. °..: James Morrison — 3 BS? fai 
Seaham... ...... Marchioness of Londonderry .. — Zou. — 2 
Hinderwell ... ... Hinderwell Iron er — Tees ee I 
Haltwhistle ... ... ... — Bo BRg == ° 
Imm DUrT 9... 2. -5- — ties Ava ° 
Beckhole ... ... Bagnall ‘and Co. — ONE O02 ° 
Newport ... ... B. Samuelson ... — Che mena! ° 
Eskdale Side... ... ... oe fs — Oise 2 ° 
Glazedale End ... ... — OF tie fa ° 
38 108 17 78 


The furnaces working hematite ore on the west coast are as follows, taken 
from the Geological Survey :— 


Furnaces built. Furnaces in Blast. 
1861.—Cumberland = ise 13 P 8 
Lancashire ies ae 12 A: aie 10 
1862.—Cumberland ar “00 13 a) dae 7 
Lancashire ava oe 14, wee vee II 


According to the same authority, the following figures embrace an account 
of the production of pig iron from the furnaces alluded to in this paper :— 
1860. 1861. 1862. 


Tons. Tons. Tons. 

Northumberland, using chiefly Cleveland stone ... 69,093... 73,260 ... 46,586 
Durham, using chiefly Cleveland stone ... nae ESEOSOSE. sc 912,030) 0 297 ,ale 
North Riding of Yorkshire (Cleveland) ... se- 248,005 i.. 234,656 ... 233,598 
658,679 629,946 667,202 

Cumberland Sie ae ne hee PoE IST;050% lcs. | 95 5;,EO5 ow LOG An 
Lancashire ... ae a vid 3 I SNS5Ocnssa L098 770 jaiaredge, gg 


Malleable Iron.—Malleable iron was, of course, the description of metal 


760 REPORT— 1863. 


produced by all those bloomeries mentioned in a previous section of this 
paper, as is indicated by the heaps of scoriz found near Roman stations, 
monastic establishments, and other places. Coming down to more recent 
times, it is obvious that in a country where, comparatively speaking, there 
would be a considerable consumption of wrought iron, there was necessarily 
thrown into the market a corresponding quantity of old or scrap iron. With 
cheap fuel and water-power in sufficient quantity to drive small hammers, 
forges were erected at various suitable localities, such as Swalwell, by 
Crowley and Co.; Beamish and Lumley, by Hawks; Bedlington, and at 
various other places. It is needless to say the weight of metal so manu- 
factured was small. The next stage in the manufacture of malleable iron 
was the erection of slitting--mills in different places commanding water- 
power; but when or where first established the writer can scarcely deter- 
mine. By the kindness of Mr, Stephen Hawks, who has searched through 
the books at the Gateshead Iron Works, he has ascertained that the slit- 
rods used there in 1772 appeared to be all brought from London, and pro- 
bably were manufactured in Wales or the Midland Counties*, Slit-rods 
were first made in this neighbourhood from hammered bars; indeed, the 
writer was informed by the late William Losh, one of the founders of the 
firm of Losh, Wilson, and Bell, that he erected a slitting-mill near Newcastle, 
and the iron he used was bars brought from Sweden. This would probably 
be about the year 1800. Cort patented the rolling of bar iron in the year 
1783, and Mr. Stephen Hawks, in an old letter-beok of 1799, finds Mr. 
William Hawks writing, “ We will certainly roll the iron to the dimensions 
you mention ;”’ so that probably rolling-mills were introduced in the neigh- 
bourhood of Neweastle a very short time after their invention by Cort. In 
the year 1800, according to information received from Mr. G, C. Atkinson, a 
small mill was erected at Lemington. 

Mr. William Longridge states that his father commenced the Bedlington 
works in 1809, the river Blyth supplying the motive power. At that time a 
plate of 150 to 200 Ibs. was considered, he observes, something wonderful to 
produce. It was here that, in 1820, they rolled the first malleable iron rails, 
an invention of Mr. Birkenshaw. 

In 1827, Messrs. Losh, Wilson, and Bell. erected what at that time was 
considered in the North a powerful mill, at Walker, capable of rolling 80 to 
100 tons of bars a week. Here, as at all the other works, old scrap iron, or 
common Welsh bars, cut up for re-rolling, were the raw materials used. 
This firm led the way in extending the operation to the “ puddling” of pig 
iron, a process adopted by them in the year 1833. 

The rapid progress in Scotland of the manufacture of pig iron from black- 
band by means of the hot blast, and the cheapness of coal on the Tyne, 
induced Losh, Wilson, and Bell to increase their rolling power. <A second 
mill was erected in 1838, where rails of the largest dimensions, and tyre-bars 
for the wrought-iron wheels, invented by Mr. Losh, were manufactured. 

The old house of Hawks and Company soon after added largely to their 
means of producing wrought iron. In this they were speedily followed by 
the Derwent Iron Company, who erected immense rolling-mills at Consett, 
near Shotley Bridge, and increased largely the capabilities of the Bishop- 
wearmouth Iron Works, which they had previously purchased. There would 


* From information communicated by Mr. 8. Hurrell, it would appear that, in all pro- 
bability, the slit-rods imported to the Gateshead Works were from the mills of a Mr, Rey- 
nolds, in Shropshire. 


~ 


ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 761 


be in the district, previous to 1850, about 300 puddling-furnaces, capable of 
turning out above 150,000 tons of finished iron per annum. 

The following list, compiled from actual returns, shows the number of 
puddling-furnaces now existing in connexion with the iron-works of the 
Northumberland and Durham coal-field :— 


Number of 


Works. Firms. Puddling Furnaces. 
Walker i ... Messrs. Losh, Wilson, and Bell pase eae 5O 
Gateshead ... ... Messrs. Hawks, Crawshay, and Sons ... oa! 
Consett ae ..» Derwent Iron Company ats ne wae 109 
Bishopwearmouth ... Derwent Iron Company ae = see gy 
Birtley oes ... Birtley Iron Company ... ce a eas LO 
Bedlington ... ... Messrs. Mounsey and Dixon ... te ase ale 
Shotley Bridge ... Messrs. Richardson and Son ... ee pres, 
Hive, Jarrow .... Messrs. Elliot and Co. ... -. ae s25eerG 
Sunderland .., ... Messrs. Tyzack and Co. sf aco Se, 
Britannia... ... G. Hopper tes ae aoe aa dm 526 
Jarrow a. ... Messrs. Palmer and Co. aa is it +30 
Tudhoe a ... Weardale Iron Company oe 355 ve) 64 
Middlesbro”... ... Messrs. Bolekow and Vaughan “i aan) 68 
Witton Park ... Messrs, Boleckow and Vaughan ce py! 
Tees Side... ... Messrs. Hopkins and Co, Be =r sect ats 
Albert a ... Messrs. Barmingham and Co. ... sae ae AS 
Stockton... ... Stockton Iron Company sce bee ite 20 

Total ... a ae sida ..- 646 


The united power of all these works will be equal to an annual production 
of 340,000 tons of finished iron, and probably the actual make during the 
year 1862 may have amounted to 300,000 tons. 

In addition to the quantity of iron obtained by the puddling process, a 
considerable weight, possibly as much as 10,000 tons per annum, is manu- 
factured from old iron imported from various parts of the kingdom. 

At first a much stronger opinion existed in favour of refining pig iron 
previous to puddling it than is the case at the present moment. In fact, it 
may be said that this mode of working has been all but abandoned as more 
wasteful than simply puddling the pig iron direct, and indeed one manu- 
facturer of great experience gives as the result of his observation that a 
sectional inch of boiler-plate had its breaking-weight actually diminished by 
interposing the process of refining between the pig and the puddled bar. At 
the new works no refineries are built, and at the older establishments the 
refineries are all but discontinued. 

There are probably less mill and forge cinders used in the manufacture of 
pig iron from the lias ironstone, either for bar or other purposes, than in 
any other iron-district in the kingdom, and this obviously from the greater 
abundance and cheapness of ironstone. The extra loss in puddling and the 
depreciation of quality in the malleable iron are more than an equivalent for 
any saving in the blast-furnace which may be effected by using the forge 
cinders, into which the greater part of the phosphorus of the pig finds its 
way. It is also not improbable that the admixture of mill and forge cinders 
might, with the constitution of the Cleveland ores, be more detrimental to 
the quality of the bars than is the case in districts smelting other kinds of 
ironstone. At all events, our bar-iron makers seek to avoid any risk of this 
by its very sparing use. 

Some bar-iron manufacturers prefer pig having an admixture of a little 
hematite in the blast-furnace, or they seek to secure the advantages resulting 
from the use of this class of iron by using hematite pig in the puddling- 


762 REPORT—1863. 


furnaces. It is highly probable that some good attends such a course of 
procedure, as well from the acknowledged excellence of hematite pig as from 
the advantage that is generally admitted to accrue from using different 
varieties im “the manufacture of malleable iron. The fact, too, that the 
tendency of the Cleveland iron is towards cold shortness, with that of the 
hematite is in the opposite direction, increases the probability of the sound- 
ness of these views. At the same time, by care in puddling and in the 
subsequent process, bar iron of a very high class of excellence can be pro- 
duced from pig obtained from Cleveland ir ronstone alone. 

Messrs. Bolckow and Vaughan have kindly furnished the writer with a 
series of samples which have been submitted to breaking strains, and the 
following are the results :— 


Experiment. Tons. ewt. 
No. 1 boiler plate $ thick sec.,=1 in. sq., breaking wt., 26 10 
No. 2 do. 7 1 in. do. 27 #6 
No: 3 do. 3 I in. do. 25. 0 
No. 4 do. + 1 in. do. 26 
No. 1 bar iron ,, 1 in. do. 25° <6 
No. 2 do. is I in. do. 25° 6 
No. #3 do. 5 I in. do. 25 10 
No. 4 do. 3 1 in. do. 24 10 
No.5 do. = 1 in. do. 24 10 
No. 6 do. % 1 in. do. 24. © 
No. 7 do. - rin. do. 25 5G 
No. 8 do. 65 1 in. do. 2ht rao 
No. 9 do. if 1 in. do. 25 20 
No. 10 do. PA 1 in. do. 25 wo 
No. 11 do. #3 I ue do. 25. 210 
No. 12 do. 0. 25 10 
No. 1 do. submitted for 60 ok to a strain of 22 tons, 


data which time the elongation was {ths of an inch. 
The quality of both the plates and bars tested in these experiments was No. 3 
of extra quality. 

Not a bad estimate of the inherent excellence of any pig iron may be 
formed from the quality of bars it is capable of producing and from the loss 
of weight incurred in the process of puddling. Within the last few days the 
writer has received from the manager of one of the largest bar-iron works in 
Scotland a return of the quantity of Scotch pig iron required to make one 
ton of puddled bar. He gives 22} cwt. of pig for one ton of refined metal ; 
214 ewt. #ths refined and ‘Ith pig to a ton of puddled i iron, which is equal to 
231 ewt. af pig per ton of puddled iron. When the pig is not refined but 
puddled direct, 23; cwt. are consumed for one ton of puddled iron, These 
figures, from personal experience of some years, the writer considers to 
* indicate as good a yield as the Scotch iron is capable of affording. From two 
separate works using pig iron made from Cleveland ironstone the following 
returns have been furnished: from one, the produce for the whole of 1862 
was 22 ewts. 0 qrs. 16 lbs. of pig to the ton of puddled iron, and for the first 
six months of 1863 it was 22 ewts. 0 qrs. 17lbs. at the same work. The 
second establishment gives for the year 1862, 22 cwts. Oqrs. 16 lbs. of 
No. 4 iron to the ton of puddled bar. The loss, therefore, on iron produced 
from Cleveland ironstone is only about 66 per cent. of that when using 
Scotch iron, and the quality of the former is such that the preliminary pro- 
cess of refining, as has been already stated, is all but entirely dispensed with. 

Many of the forges being, under the circumstances just enumerated, of 
recent construction, embrace all the latest improvements. Very powerful 
steam-hammers forge down the puddled balls so rapidly into blooms or slabs, 


ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. ~ 763 


that two of these are frequently taken simultaneously to the puddling-mill 
and rolled out by “ doubling”’ into a single bar, of dimensions varying with 
the subsequent destination of the product. 

In the puddling-furnaces different materials are employed in different 
localities for protecting the iron bottoms. In some places the plastic hema- 
tite from Lancashire is the substance used; in others limestone is preferred. 
In most cases, however, “ bulldog,” 7. ¢. calcined mill-furnace scoriz, ground 
and mixed frequently with a small quantity of red ore, is found a good 
covering. This substance is capable of resisting the corroding action of 
puddling pig, which is more rapid than that of refined metal, or a mixture of 
refined metal and pig. 

The qualities of pig iron used in the puddling-furnaces vary with circum- 
stances; for a fibrous quality of bar, No. 4 forge pig gives very satisfactory 
results. A considerable quantity also of white and mottled iron is worked 
up in our forges. 

Finishing mills of great power have been constructed, capable of rolling 
rails, bars, angle and girder iron of any section, and of ene greatest lengths 
produced in this branch of manufacture. Sheets of all kinds and plates of 
the largest dimensions, short of the huge masses of iron now applied to our 
ironclads, are also turned out, of excellent quality. 

Supposing the make of pig iron in the district more immediately connected 
with the Cleveland ironstone field to have been 667,000 tons, it will pro- 
bably have been disposed of as follows :— 


Tons. 


For foundry purposes in the Makes mck ae 2-0» | 150,000 
For malleable iron oes oe 400,000 
Exported elsewhere at ae cee Sor ou 08 |EL9,c00 
otal. wn ae 667,000 
Tn addition to the ironstone and Daher oonaaeeel on ie Ee Sir 
coast, amounting, as we have already seen, to about . ... 1,870,000 
There will have been used in pig and bar iron-works and 
foundries of coal, say _... see si ea wee sss 2,900,000 
Limestone at the blast-furnaces_... eas a one ssa | §00,000 
Total weight of materials... s+ 53270,000 


The capital employed in mines, blast-furnaces, and malleable iron-works 
will be from two to three millions sterling. 


The annual amount of wages for miners, furnace-men, and 


workmen engaged in the mills, forges, &c., say as .. £1,750,000 
The dues paid to the railways for ree on minerals and on 
iron will not be far short of ... : oe ae ws. 500,000 


The activity imparted to our local iron-trade by the recent discovery of the 
Cleveland bed of stone, near Middlesbro’, has few, if any, parallels in the 
commercial history of the kingdom. Fifty years ago Staffordshire and Wales 
had reached great eminence as iron-producing districts. Their powers 
sufficed at that time to supply the chief requirements of our commerce. 
Gradually, as this demand increased, their means of production extended, 
until Neilson’s discovery of the hot-blast enabled the Scotch ironmasters, 
five-and-thirty years ago, to bring their rich black-band into competition 
with the clay ironstone and hematite ores of England. 

Enormous as are the quantities of iron produced by the works of the 
localities just enumerated, it must be remembered that their present condition 
was the growth of a considerable period of time. Ten years, on the other 


764 REPORT—1865. 


hand, sufficed to place the iron-trade connected with the Cleveland bed of 
ore in its present remarkably conspicuous position. 

The Middlesbro’ ironstone was opened out in the latter part of 1850, and 
in the year 1860 the following numbers indicate the weight of pig iron 
smelted in the districts quoted for the sake of comparison :— 


Northumberland, Durham, and the North Riding of York  ... 658,679 tons. 
North and South Staffordshire... oes e 336 sai; MOLOSAGOY yy 
South Wales wee aa ee aes at «es 969;025 5, 


Scotland (the whole of) sae ach 

The figures are from the Geological Survey. 

This rapid rate of increase in our local trade has been maintained without 
the exercise of any influence of a speculative character. New markets had 
to be sought, increased sources of consumption had to be organized in our 
own vicinity, and some prejudices had to be overcome before the new brands 
of this additional iron district were fairly accepted as an important contri- 
bution to the metallurgical industry of the kingdom. Now that this much 
has been honestly and completely accomplished, we may fairly look for a 
great extension of those local branches of manufacture in which iron plays 
an important part. With our cheap fuel, magnificent and improving harbours, 
and enormous commerce, it is only reasonable to suppose that rolling-mills, 
engineering establishments, iron-ship building, and many other similar 
undertakings will find a place among us, and assist in maintaining for the 
North of England a very honourable rank in those industrial communities 
which contribute so largely to the welfare and prosperity of the British 
empire. 


937,000 5, 


On the Manufacture of Steel in the Northern District. 
By Tuomas Srencer, M.LLM.E. 


Tne history of the manufacture of steel in this locality commences at a 
very early period; for we find that, probably three hundred years ago, a 
colony of Germans settled at a place on the river Derwent, within a few 
miles of this town, and, according to tradition, there established this branch 
of local industry, where they also attained some celebrity as manufacturers 
of swords and edge tools. ‘The names of these immigrants, who, it is stated, 
took refuge in this country that they might enjoy religious liberty, were Ole, 
Mohl, Vooz, &e., &c., and some of whose descendants still reside in the 
village where their ancestors originally settled, the names being now Angli- 
cized to Oley, Mole, &e. The name of the village is Shotley Bridge, and in 
the wall of an old two-story dwelling-house, the original materials of which 
are hidden under a coat of ‘‘rough cast,” there still exists a stone above the 
doorway with an inscription in bad German, to the following effect :—pxs. 
HERREN. SECEN MACHET. REICH. OHN. ALLE. SORC. WAN. DV. ZVGLEICH. IN. DEINEM. 
STAND. TREVW. VND. FLEISIC. BIST. VND. DVEST. WAS. DIR. BELOHLEN. Ist. 1691, 
of which the following is a free translation, showing that the original im- 
porters of the stecl-manufacture to this district were probably good Lutherans, 
who had suffered persecution for conscience’ sake:—“The blessing of the 
Lord makes rich without care, so long as you are industrious in your vocation 
and do what is ordered you.” 

But there is a much earlier record of these German immigrants than the 


a)" 


—— 


_ ar a 


ON THE MANUFACTURE OF STEEL. 765 


above, the parish register at Ebchester Church containing the following entry, 
by which it will be seen that the name even then had undergone a change :— 
« Elliner, the daughter of Mathias Wrightson Oley, was baptized on the 17th 
day of June, 1628.” It shows also that the grandfather of the child then 
baptized had probably married into a family of the name of Wrightson, at 
that time resident in the neighbourhood, as appears by several entries in the 
parish register of the period, clearly marking a third generation. 

In all probability the next works of this nature established in this locality 
were those of Sir Ambrose Crowley, who is described as an ironmonger, and 
afterwards Alderman and Lord Mayor of the city of London, and who 
appears to have commenced a manufactory at Winlaton Mill in the year 
1691. The names of Landells and Chambers are mentioned as being in this 
trade at an early period, after whom came Cookson, Spencer, and others, 
whose works are carried on at the present time. 

The manufacture of steel, as at present carried on in this district, com- 
prises the following descriptions :—Blistered, shear, spring, and cast steel, to 
produce which the following materials are required:—Iron, carbon in the 
shape of charcoal, manganese, coal, coke, fire-bricks, and fire-clay ; of these 
the iron and manganese are imported into the district, the former, for the 
best qualities of steel, being brought from Sweden. The charcoal, coal, coke, 
fire-bricks, and fire-clay are produced in almost inexhaustible quantities, and 
of most excellent quality, in the immediate neighbourhood. A small pro- 
portion of the fire-clay, however, is brought from a distance for admixture 
with that found in the locality. 

The mode of manufacture in use here is that known as the cementing or 
converting process, the furnaces used being large enough to contain from 
10 to about 23 tons of material at one time; this material consists of 
selected iron, known to the manufacturer as being most suitable for the 
purpose for which it is ultimately intended. It is placed in the cells of the 
furnaces with bruised charcoal in alternate strata, the whole being covered 
with a vitreous material to effectually exclude the air; and heat is applied 
for a period of about eight or ten days, according to the degree of carboniza- 
tion required. The mass is allowed to cool for several days, and the bars 
are then taken out in the form of blistered steel. The change that has 
taken place in its structure since it was placed in the converting furnace is 
very marked ; for instead of being of a fibrous nature, it is now quite of a 
crystalline character, and it must be reduced or drawn out under rolls or 
heavy hammers to bring back to it something of its former nature. It is, 
however, used in the blistered state for many purposes, such as for welding 
into hammer faces, and for welding to iron for edge tools and for spades and 
shovels, although cast steel is now fast superseding its use even for these 
purposes. Spring steel is made by simply reducing with rolls the blistered 
bars ; and shear steel is made by repeatedly drawing down and welding the 
blistered bars. This last-mentioned description is also being fast superseded 
since the introduction of mild welding cast steel. 

The most important of what may be termed the secondary processes of 
this manufacture is that for producing cast steel, and it is (among the old 
methods of making steel) of the most recent introduction. Cast steel is 
different from all the other descriptions of steel in its fineness of grain, 
greater strength, and its homogeneity. The first steel used in this country 
partaking at all of the nature of this description of steel was the Indian 
Wootz, which was much prized by users of steel, especially by the makers of 
dies for coining-presses, who, it is said, paid the almost fabulous price of five 


766 REPORT—1863. 


guineas per pound for it. The discovery of the English method of making 
cast steel is due to Benjamin Huntsman, of Attercliffe, who appears to have 
arrived at it by a series of experiments. He was a clockmaker, and desired 
to improve the quality of steel for clock springs. He was born in some 
part of Lincolnshire in the year 1704, and although his family are said to 
have been German, he must have become thoroughly Anglicized, as he was 
a strict Quaker. In all probability, this discovery was made before the year 
1760, as it had become public previous to his death, which took place in 
1776, at 72 years of age. This process was first introduced into this locality 
by the late firm of Messrs. Crowley, Millington, and Co., at the beginning of 
the present century, probably about the year 1810, who were next followed 
by Messrs. Spencer, of Newburn. Afterwards, Messrs. Cookson and Co. 
erected cast steel melting-furnaces at their works at Derwentcote; and 
within the last few years, Messrs. Fulthorpe and Co., of Dunston, commenced 
this branch of the steel-trade. Cast steel is produced by breaking the 
blistered steel into small pieces, and placing the same in crucibles or melting- 
pots capable of containing 36 to 40 Ibs. weight each, two of which are 
placed in each melting-furnace. A plentiful supply of coke is now filled 
into the furnaces, and by the aid of a strong draught of air an intense white 
heat is obtained, and kept up for three or four hours, according to the nature 
of the steel required. When it is ascertained that the steel is perfectly 
melted, the crucibles are taken out and their contents poured into iron 
moulds conveniently placed near, and left to stand until in a cool enough 
state to be taken out as cast-steel ingots. These ingots are afterwards 
reheated, and hammered or rolled, or it may be both hammered and rolled, 
according to the description of article for which it is intended to be used. 
To produce large ingots, a number of crucibles, containing liquid steel, are 
brought out of the furnaces, quickly following each other, and a continuous 
stream is kept flowing into the mould, There is scarcely a limit to the size 
of ingot that may be made in this way, as was evidenced by the monster 
block of steel exhibited by Krupp, of Essen, at the International Exhibition 
in London last year; but great risks are run of getting an unsound ingot, 
as the least delay in getting out every crucible of steel in perfect order might 
cause a cessation of the stream, and thus make an unsound casting. In the 
year 1839 a great improvement was made in cast steel by Josiah Heath, by 
the introduction of manganese. 

Having described the various processes that the several different kinds of 
steel undergo in its manufacture, it may be useful to notice some of the new 
methods that have been tried in the neighbourhood. 

The method of making steel by the cementing or converting process, as 
already described, may be called the indirect method, because the object of 
the process is to deprive, in the first instance, the pig iron of the whole of its 
' earbon, making the product as nearly as possible a pure malleable iron, and 
afterwards imparting to it again the necessary quantity of carbon to make it 
into steel. The new methods seem to aim, for the most part, at making steel 
by a direct process, without depriving the pig iron of the whole of its carbon, 
and without reducing it into a malleable iron condition. This is effected by 
extracting a large portion of carbon, but taking care to leave in a sufficient 
quantity to make steel, the object being to save the great waste of metal 
attending the puddling of iron, as well as the actual cost of that process, 
Of these last methods the Uchatius process is one that was extensively ex- 
perimented on a few years ago at the Newburn Steel Works, and the follow- 
ing is a short description of the manner in which the process was carried on. 


ON THE MANUFACTURE OF STEEL. 767 


Pig iron, of a first-class quality, was melted in a reverberatory furnace, and 
run into a tank filled with cold water, where it was reduced into granules ; 
this granulated cast iron was mixed with pulverized oxide of iron and some 
alkaline earths, and the whole put into the ordinary steel melting-crucibles, 
and then placed in the furnaces, to which heat was applied in the usual way 
until it was brought into a fluid state. By this method it was thought that 
the degree of hardness of the steel was capable of being regulated by the 
size of the granules and by the quantity of oxides used; but after a great 
number of experiments, at a cost of little under a thousand pounds, on 
attempting to work it in large quantities, it was found that the product was 
so uncertain in the qualities necessary to good steel, that the process was 
altogether abandoned. This irregularity of the produce was probably caused 
by the uncertain quantity of carbon in the pig iron used. 

A method of making “ puddled”’ steel has been tried in this locality, but 
without success. This process was a patented invention of Riepe, a German, 
and consists in puddling cast iron in a furnace constructed specially for the 
purpose, until it is observed to be in the condition of steel. This state is 
found to exist when a particular form of bubble appears on the face of the 
metal. 

The Bessemer process of making steel has also been introduced into the 
district, at Tudhoe, near Ferryhill, but with what success the writer is not 
able to say. The operation, as is generally known, consists of blowing 
atmospheric air through a mass of melted cast iron until the carbon and the 
whole of the impurities of the iron are burnt out of it. This process was so 
ably described by Mr. Bessemer himself, at the Meeting of the British Asso- 
ciation at Cheltenham, that it is unnecessary to give a detailed description 
of it here; but it may be mentioned that he commenced by extracting only 
a portion of the carbon, intending to leave a sufficient quantity to produce 
steel, but the difficulty of adjusting the exact amount finally led him to 
extract the whole, and afterwards restore the exact quantity requisite by 
adding a measured amount of highly carbonized cast iron. Experiments in 
making cast steel from the Taranaki sand from New Zealand, and also from 
another similar sand from the coast of Italy, have been tried at Newburn, 
with a result of getting an excellent quality of steel; but, although yielding 
about 51 per cent. of metal, the cost of its production, without including 
anything for the sand, was so great, that it would not answer commercially. 
It may be mentioned that this description of metallic sand appears to possess 
the remarkable property of not becoming oxidized when kept in a moist 
condition; and the writer would call the special attention of chemists and 
metallurgists to the fact, with the view of arriving at (what would be an 
invaluable discovery) the production of iron or steel that would not be sub- 
ject to the destroying action of the oxygen of the atmosphere. 

The articles manufactured from steel in this locality are very numerous: 
amongst which may be mentioned railway axles, tyres and springs, piston- 
rods, motion-bars, and files for engineers’ use, rings for Blakeley guns, shot, 
&c.; the great bulk of tonnage being railway-springs of various kinds— 
buffing, bearing, and traction, in the laminated form, as well as the volute 
spring originally made in this country at Newburn, and of which there have 
been many hundreds of thousands made within the last few years. The 
rings supplied for guns made in this district have been pronounced by the 
consumers superior to any others. A firm, in this locality, has been appointed 
makers of springs for Mr. W. Bridges Adams’s patent for the application of 
circular springs between the tyre and the frame-wheel for all kinds of rolling 


768 REPORT—1863. 


stock on railways, and it is stated that springs applied in this manner effect 
an increased durability in Staffordshire tyres of 50 per cent. over Krupp’s 
cast-steel tyres without the springs. 

The estimated annual value of the steel manufactures of the district is 
about £100,000, giving employment, at the present time, to about 300 
persons, and consuming annually about 15,000 tons of coals. There are in 
the district nine converting furnaces and fifty-two cast-steel melting-furnaces, 
The following is a list of the firms possessing those furnaces :—Messrs. John 
Spencer and Sons, Newburn, six converting and thirty-six melting-furnaces ; 
Messrs. Cookson and Co., Derwentcote, one converting and six melting-fur- 
naces; Messrs. Faweus and Co., Swalwell, two converting and six melting- 
furnaces ; Messrs. Fulthorpe and Co., Dunston, six melting-furnaces, 

As far as can be ascertained, it would appear that the number of persons 
employed in this trade in 1838 would be from seventy to eighty, and the 
weight of steel produced annually at that time would be about one-ninth the 
quantity now produced. ‘The prices of steel range from about £18 to £112 
per ton, according to the description, the quantity, and the size. 

This district is highly favourable for the development of the manufacture 
of steel of the best quality, owing to the facility and cheapness with which 
a supply of iron can be obtained from Sweden—treights frequently being as 
low as 3s. 6d. per ton—and also owing to an abundant supply of cheap fuel 
and labour in the neighbourhood. ‘The business requires, however, the most 
vigilant attention of thoroughly practical and experienced persons in its 
management to attain any considerable amount of success. 


Report on the Theory of Numbers.—Part V. By H. J. Srernen 
Surru, M.A., F.RS., Savilian Professor of Geometry in the Univer- 
sity of Oxford. 

120. Geometrical Representation of Forms of a Negative Determinant.— 
Before quitting the subject of binary quadratic forms, we have still to men- 
tion several investigations of great interest, relating chiefly to forms of a 
negative determinant. We shall first refer to the geometrical considerations 
which Gauss has employed to illustrate the nature of these forms *. 

Let an infinite plane area be divided by two systems of parallel lines into 
similar and equal parallelograms. The vertices of these parallelograms we 
shall call nodes; and we observe that every system of nodes possesses the 
characteristic property, that if it be displaced without rotation in its own 
plane, so as to bring any one node into a position originally occupied by any 
other node, then every node will also occupy a position originally occupied by 
another node; and the system in its second position will entirely coincide 
with the system in its original position. From this property we infer that 
the system of nodes admits of an infinite number of parallelisms besides the 
given parallelism; 7. e. that it may be regarded, in an infinite number of dif- 
ferent ways, as dividing the plane area into similar and equal parallelo- 
grams, For let O and O' be any two nodes such that no node lies on OO' 
between O and O'; let P be one of those nodes which lie the nearest to the line 


* See Gauss’s review of Seeber’s ‘* Untersuchungen iiber die Higenschaften der ter- 
niiren quadratischen Formen,” in the Gottingen ‘ Gelehrte Anzeigen’ for 1831, No, 108, 
or in Crelle’s Journal, vol. xx. p. 312; also Lejeune Dirichlet, Crelle, vol. xl. p. 209. 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 769 


00’ produced indefinitely both ways, and let PP’ be drawn parallel and equal 
to 00"; then P’ is anode, and OO'P’P is a parallelogram of which the vertices 
are nodes, and which has no other node either on its contour or in its interior ; 
such a parallelogram we shall call an elementary parallelogram. It is then 
evident from the characteristic property of the system, that every elementary 
parallelogram supplies us with a parallelism of the system; also we can 
obtain an infinite number of dissimilar elementary parallelograms ; for if Ox 
and Oy are the two lines of the given parallelism which intersect in O, and 
if m and m are any two integers relatively prime, the intersection of the mth 
parallel from Ow with the nth parallel from Oy will give a node O' such 
that no node can lie on OO' between O and O’; and, again, instead of P in the 
preceding constructiou, we may take any node lying on either of the two lines 
of the system which are the nearest to OO’. The areas, however, of all 
elementary parallelograms are equal. To prove this, we observe that if 
AOB is an elementary triangle (7. ¢. a triangle of which the vertices are 
nodes, but which has no other node cither on its contour or inside it), the 
parallelogram OAO'B obtained by drawing parallels to any two of its sides 
OA and OB through the opposite vertices B and A is an elementary parallelo- 
gram. For if AO and BO are produced to A’ and B’, so that O bisects AA’ 
and BB’, A’ and B’ are nodes, and the triangle A'OB! is elementary ; because 
if there were a node w' (other than its vertices) in A’OB’, we could imme- 
diately construct a node w (other than its vertices) in AOB. But A/OB! can be 
made to coincide with BO'A by a displacement without rotation ; therefore 
BO’A is elementary as well as AOB ; or the parallelogram AOBO’' is elemen- 
tary. Hence, if two elementary triangles have a common base, they are cer- 
tainly equal. For if through the vertex of either triangle we draw a parallel 
to the base, an elementary parallelogram will be contained between that 
_ parallel and the base; that is, the altitude of either triangle will be the dis- 
tance of the base from the parallel nearest to the base; or the triangles will 
be equal. Again, let AOB, «0d, be any two elementary triangles, which we 
may suppose to have a common vertex ; if BOw is an elementary triangle, they 
are each of them equal to it and to one another; if not, let a be that node 
contained in BOa which lies the nearest to OB, then BOw is elementary, and 
has the side BO in common with AOB ; by proceeding in this manner we shall 
form a series of elementary triangles, of which the first is AOB, and the last 
aOB, each triangle having a side in common with that preceding it, whence 
AOB=a0b; i.e. any two elementary parallelograms are equal. 

We shall next show that it is always possible to find a reduced paral- 
lelogram, 7. e. an elementary parallelogram, the sides of which are not 
greater than its diagonals. Let O be any node; A a node as near to O as 
any other; B a node on one of the parallels nearest to OA, and as near to O 
as any node on either of those parallels; complete the elementary parallelo- 
gram OAO'B; it will have the property required. Produce O'B to 0", making 
BO"=0'B; then AB=OO"; but by hypothesis OA < OB, and OB < 00’, 
OB < 00"; 2. ¢, the sides of OAO'B are not greater than its diagonals. 

Again, if OAO’B is a reduced parallelogram in which OA < OB, it can be 
proved that no node lies nearer to O than A, and that no node, out of the 
line OA, lies nearer to O than B; for, first, no node on the line OBO! lies 
nearer to O than B, because by hypothesis OB < 00', OB < 00", and because 
the extremity of the perpendicular drawn from O to OO’ falls between the 
points of bisection of the segments O0’’B and BO’, or on one of those points : 
secondly, no node on any parallel beyond OBO’ can lie as near to O as B, 

1863. 3D 


770 REPORT—1863. 


for the limits of the angle AOB are evidently 60° and 120°; whence the 
perpendicular distance of OA from the parallel nearest to it but one is 
> OBV 3; 1 e, the distance of any node on that parallel from O is > OB. 
~ If then we join any node O, first to a node A, which lies as near to O as 
any other node, and, secondly, to a node B, which lies as near to O as any 
node out of the line OA, the joining lines are adjacent sides of a reduced 
parallelogram ; for, by what precedes, B must lie on one or other of the 
parallels nearest to OA. 

In general, a system of nodes has but one reduced parallelism, because in 
general there is a pair of opposite nodes AA’ each of which is nearer to O than 
any other node whatever, and a second pair of opposite nodes BB’, not lying 
in the line AOA’, each of which is nearer to O than any node not lying in 
that line. Even if A and B are equidistant from O, provided only that their 
common distance from O is less than the distance of any other node from O, the 
system has but one reduced parallelism. But there are two special cases in 
which a nodal system admits of more than one reduced parallelism. 

1. If there is one pair of opposite nodes AA’ nearer to O than any other 
node, and two pairs BB’, 6b’, equidistant from O, not lying in the line AOA’, 
and nearer to O than any other node not in that line, the system admits of 
two reduced parallelisms, having one set of parallels in common, and haying 
their common set of parallels equally inclined to the other two sets. 

2. If there are three pairs of points at the minimum distance from O, 
the system of nodes forms a system of equilateral triangles; and, suppressing 
in turn each one of the three systems of parallel lines by which these 
triangles are formed, we obtain the three reduced parallelisms of which the 
system admits. 

That, in these two cases, the reduced parallelisms are such as we have 
described, and that, except in these two cases, there is but one reduced — 
parallelism, may be inferred from the existence of a reduced parallelogram 
in every system, and from the properties which have been shown to belong 
to it. 

To apply these results to the theory of quadratic forms, let aa*+2bay+cy” 


be a form of the negative determinant —A; let cos as? and with a pair 


of axes inclined to one another at an angle w, let us construct all the points 
whose coordinates are integral multiples of Wa and “¢ respectively ; thus 
forming a nodal system. The expression awv* + 2bay-+cy’ will then represent 
the square of the distance between any two nodes, the differences of whose coor- 
dinates are «Va and yb: and the area of an elementary parallelogram will 
be VA. If the transformation e=aX+/Y, y=yX+6Y,where ad—Py= +1, 
change ax?+2bay+cy” into AX’+2BXY+CY’; and if, in the same plane 
as before, we construct a nodal system corresponding to the latter form—the 
directions of rotation from the axis of X to the axis of Y, and from the axis 
of x to that of y, being the same—it will be found that the two systems may 
be made to coincide. For if we consider the point in the first system whose 
coordinates are w/a, y¢ as corresponding to the point in the second system 
whose coordinates are X./ A, Y/C, the distance between any two points of. 
the first system is equal to that between the corresponding points of the second 
system ; therefore the two systems are identical, and are either similarly situ- 
ated, i. ¢. are capable of being made to coincide by moving either of them 
about in their common plane, or else are symmetrically situated, 2. ¢. are — 
capable of being made to coincide after the plane of one of them has been 


Fi a 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 771 


turned over and applied again to the plane of the other. On comparing any 
two corresponding triangles in the two systems, for example the triangle 
obtained by giving to X and Y the values (0, 0), (1, 0), (0, 1), with the 
triangle obtained by giving to w and y the values (0, 0), (a, y), (G8, 6), it 
will be seen that the two systems are similarly or symmetrically situated, 
according as ad—By=-+1, or=—1. 

It thus appears that a class of quadratic forms of a negative determinant 
may be considered to represent a nodal system, and that each form of the class 
corresponds to a parallelism of the system. Conyersely, to each parallelism 
of the system a form of the class corresponds. For let Ox, Oy be lines of 
any parallelism of the system, and OX, OY lines of any other parallelism, 
the directions of rotation from Ow to Oy and from OX to OY being 
the same; let also /a, /¢ be the lengths of the sides of an elementary. 


parallelogram in the first system, and va the cosine of the angle between 
: ¢ 
them ; and let / A, VC, =, have the same signification with regard to 
the second system; then, if (w/a, yc), (XW A, YC) are the coordinates 
of the same node P, we must have two equations of the form «=aX +,/Y, 
y=yX+6Y, in which « and y are integral if X and Y are so, and vice versa; 
hence a, 3, y, 5 are integral, and 2iA—By=+1; the sign of the unit being 
determined by the supposition we have made as tu the situation of the axes 
with respect to one another. Also OP?=aa?+2bxry + cy?=AX?+2BXY + 
CY’; or the two given parallelisms are represented by two properly equiva- 
lent forms. 
The theorem that in every nodal system a reduced parallelism exists, has 
for its arithmetical expression, “In every class a form exists in which 
[26] < [a], [2b] <c.” We thus obtain an independent proof of the theory 
of reduction of Art. 92; the geometrical signification of the special condi- 
tions in the definition of a reduced form is as follows :—If a=c>([2b], the 
corrresponding nodal system has only one reduced parallelism ; but either of 
the two directions in this reduced parallelism may be taken for the axis of x, 
consistently with the condition that the rotation from Ow to Oy should have 
a given direction; the condition 24 >0 implies that if the angle between the 
axes is not right, that direction is to be assumed for the axis of « which ren- 
ders the angle between Ow and Oy acute, Similarly, if a <c, but a=[2b], 
the system has two reduced parallelisms, and the condition 2b>0 distin- 
guishes one of them from the other. If a=[2b]=c, the system has three 
reduced parallelisms, which are identical and similarly placed; the condition 
2b>0 does not distinguish between these, but only between the two modes im) 
which any one of them can be taken. 
The number of automorphics of a class may be ascertained by causing the’ 
nodal system which represents it to revolve in its own plane round one of its 
nodes, and examining the number of positions in which it coincides with its ori- 
ginal position. After a revolution of 180° it will always do so; but in order 
that it should do so in any other position, the first and second sides of its reduced 
parallelogram must be equal, and must include an angle of 90° or 60°, 2. @. 
the system must be one of squares or of equilateral triangles. Hence we infer’ 
(Art. 90) that there are in general but two automorphics for a form of a 
negative determinant, but that for the classes containing the forms #*+y? 
and 2a*+ 2vy+2y? (or multiples of those forms) there are four and six respec- 
tively. 
; 3D2 


772 REPORT—18638. 


Similarly we may investigate the conditions for the ambiguity of a class. 
In order that a class should be ambiguous, the nodal system representing it 
must be symmetrically equivalent to itself. If therefore there is but one 
reduced parallelogram, that parallelogram must be symmetrically equivalent 
to itself, 7. e. it must be either a rectangle or a rhombus. When there are 
two reduced parallelograms, we have seen that they are symmetrically equi- 
valent to one another; and when there are three, they are each of them 
rhombs. We thus obtain the conclusion that if (a, 6, c) is the reduced form 
of an ambiguous class, either b=0, or a=c, or a=2b (Art. 94), 

121. Application of Formule relating to the Division of the Circle to the 
Theory of Quadratic Forms.—We have already referred to the trigonometrical 
solutions of the equation T?—DU*=1 (Art. 96, ix.) and to the connexion 
existing between them, and the number of classes of quadratic forms of 
determinant D (Art. 104.) 

If p isa prime of the form 3xn+1 or 4n+1, the coefficients of the cubic, 
or biquadratic, equation of the periods depend on the values of the indetermi- 
nates in the equation 4p =a” +37’, or p=" + y’ (Art. 43). Thus in these two 
cases, if, for any given value of p, we calculate the equation of the periods, we 
obtain, by a direct though tedious process, the values of the indeterminates in 
certain simple quadratic decompositions of 4p or p. But the theory of the 
division of the circle supplies a method equally direct and of more general 
application for the investigation of such decompositions in certain cases. The 
principles of this method were discovered by Gauss, who deduced from them 
the first of the three following theorems :—- 

“Tf p=4n+1=2°+y’, 


TI2n 
w= ee mod p; «==1, mod 4; 
Ti2n .T2n - 
Cake lan d ».” 
Y= Iln . in ae 


(Gauss, Theor. Res. Biq. Comm. prima, art. 23.) 
“Tf p=3n+1, 4dp=a’+dy’, 
Nl2n 
Tn. In’ 
y = 0, mod 3.” 
(Jacobi, Crelle, vol. ii. p. 69 ; Stern, 2b. vol. vii. p. 104, vol. ix. p. 198, vol. xviii. 
p. 375; Clausen, 7b. vol. vil. p. 140.) 
Tf p=8n4+1=2a°+2y/’, 
Ay Hn 
C= 3. 
IIn . T4n 
(Jacobi, Crelle, vol. xxx. p. 168; Stern, 7b. vol. xxxii. p. 89.) 
In all these formulz the absolute value of « is evidently < 3p; so that x 
is determined without ambiguity as the minimum residue for the modulus p 
of the binomial coefficient. And the combination of the two congruences 
satisfied by w gives rise in each case to a remarkable property of the coefli- 
cient: thus, from the two congruences satisfied by in the first theorem, we 
infer that “if pis a prime of the form 4x+1, the minimum residue of 
rales for the modulus p is of the form 4m-+1.” 
To show, by an example, how these formule are obtained, we shall consider 
the last of them in particular. Resuming the notation of Art. 30, let 6 be a 
p-l 
primitive root of the equation #?—!—1=0; and let "=05 =w,(?"=w'=i, 


mod p; #=1, mod 3; 


LSS — 


,mod p; w=1, mod 4.” 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 773 


r s= ore ree 
F(w)== o av", w representing a root of the equation Pet =0, and y a 
s=0 a 


F (a=*) F (eo) 
F (0-*") 

is an integral function of w only (Art. 30, iii.) ; let Pp (w)=a+bw+cw* + dw". 

F (0) F @-") 
F (@-™) 

fore PW (w)=W (w*); i.e. (b6—d) (1—1t) w+ 2ci=0, or c=0, D=d, and py (w)= 

a+5(1+%)o, p(w’) =a+b (1-2) w !; so that p= (w) x (o j= 

5 
a?4-902 (Art. 30, iv.). Again, J (")=a+8 (9"-+y™) = — pag mod p 
19n 


primitive root of the congruence #?— =1,mod p. Theny (w)= 


The function 


is not changed, if for @~” we write 6—*”; there- 


(Art. 30, v.), and p (y")=a—b (y"+y") = aii ee whence 
a=-—3 _ Hon To show that a= —1, mod 4, we observe that by the 
Mn . T4n 


definition of the function J, J (w)= Zw" *, y, and y, representing any two 
numbers of the series 1,2, ...  —2, which satisfy the congruence y’1+ y”= 1, 
mod p. Hence a= = (—1)”*"!, where y, is one of the numbers 1, 2,.. 2n—1, 
and n,, y, satisfy the congruence y+ y/?==1, mod p. Let @ be any one of 
the numbers 1, 2,..—1, and let A, B be the values of y’? corresponding to 
the values n—o, n+o of »,; then AX B=(1—y*%"”) x (1—y4 @F) = 
—y tf OF) x (1—y'@t), mod p; therefore A x B is a quadratic residue of 
p, and the values of y, corresponding to the values »—o, n+< of n, are either 
both even or else both uneven; also, if »,=n, y’? == 2, mod p, and y, is even, 


because 2\ 1. Let & be the number of values of n,, included in the series 
p 


1, 2, ..n—1, for which y,+7, isuneven; then a=3(—1)”*%=2(n—1)— 
Ale+(—1)”; i. e. a= —1, mod 4. 

We might also determine « in the equation p=«*+ 2y’ by the congruence 
@=(—1)"3 a mod p, or by the congruence w=2” x4 Pee 
mod p. ‘These determinations, which have been given by M. Stern, may 
EF (0-”) EF (Oe) 


F (Os 
a—n\72 
oR or may be deduced from the formula of Jacobi. The formuls for 
the determination of w in the first two theorems also admit of various modi- 
fications. It will be observed that, in the first, y is determined by a con- 
gruence as well as x. This determination is obtained by a comparison of the 


either be obtained directly by considering the functions 


2 
two congruences 1 +5 = 0, mod p,1+(I12n)’ = 0, mod p (the latter arising 


from Sir J. Wilson’s theorem); with regard to it Gauss observes, “ quum 
insuper noverimus quo signo affecta prodeat radix quadrati imparis, eo scilicet 
ut semper fiat forme 4m-+1, attentione perdignum est, quod simile criterium 
generale respectu radicis quadrati paris hactenus inveniri non potuerit. Quale 
si quis inveniat et nobiscum communicet magnam de nobis gratiam feret,” 


774 : REPORT—1863, 


These congruential determinations possess great interest, not only because — 
direct ‘methods. of solution present themselves very rarely in the theory of 
numbers, but also on account of the singular connexion which they establish 
between certain binomial coefficients and certain quadratic decompositions of 
primes. Nor is it less remarkable that the properties of the resolvent func- 
tion of Lagrange form the intermediate links in this connexion; although it 
is proper to observe that Gauss has exhibited his demonstration of the theorem 
relating to the equation p=a*+ 7’ in a form in which its connexion with the 
theory of the division of the circle is disguised. 

Results of a more general character haye been obtained by Jacobi and 
Cauchy. Cauchy has treated of the subject with great fulness of detail in his 
Memoir on the Theory of Numbers, in the 17th volume of the Memoirs of the 
Academy of Sciences (pp. 249-768); while Jacobi has barely indicated his 
method in his note on the division of the circle (Crelle, vol. xxx. p. 166); 
nevertheless, as in some respects it seems preferable to that employed by 
Cauchy, we shall endeavour to adhere to it in what follows. 

‘Retaining the other notations which we have employed in this article, let 


ae =wv(m, n, 6) or (m,n), When there is no occasion to consider 
@ explicitly ; we observe that ~ (m, n)=wW (n, m); W (0, n)=u (m, 0)= 
W (0, 0)=—1; also W (m', n')=y (m, n), if m' =m, mod p—1, n' =n, 
mod p—1; W (m,n)=(—1)"** p=(—1)""! p, ifm+n=0, mod p—1, but m 
and n are not =0;mod p—1. Letm,,m',,....m,‘” be any set of +1 num- 
bers, each of which satisfies the conditions 0 <m, <p—1; let m,4+m’',+... 
+m,=n, (p—1)+5,, where 0 =s,<p—1; and put F(0-™) F(@-™)... 
F (9-™») = (6) F (6-"1.) ‘Writing, for brevity, 
K=n, ph S=m4tm,, pn" =m,+m,'+m,",...modp—1, 

and determining j1,, 4,', 4," -..80 as to satisfy the conditions 0 < p, <p—1,we 
find x (8) = (sy, m,") W(p', ,")....W(u,-?, m,). In this expression if 
fO +m") > p—1, we write for W (u,%, m,“*”) its equivalent p+ 
W(p—1—p,©, p—1—m,”); and if p+m,“t?=p—1, we write for 
W (py? 74°F) its equivalent (—1)ttm p. It is evident that the condi- 
tion ph +m°+) > p—1 will be satisfied n, times precisely ; so that x (6) 
assumes the form p71 aes ©, (6) and ¥, (8) denoting products of factors of 


the form (h, h’), in each of which h+h'<p—1. It will now be found 


©, Gy) = IIs ; 4 : 
that: 2004 == (—1)e-m_ ee _ mod yp. For (1), fa (+1) 
{eG AT oe 
<p—1, we have p (u,, m,“*, y) = — Oy, *” mod p; (2) if n,@ 
’ By 3 1 2) Bie? [ Tm, 6” , Pi 
+m,“t) > p—1, we have $$ 
‘i v(p—1—p,°, p—1—m,“*, y) 
_ H(p—1—p,©).0(p—1—m,) _ np,“ Mee 
Op —2— pam) = Bay tm or? OOP 
—1)9 Pes 
since, by Sir J. Wilson’s theorem, [I (p—1—j) = = mod pif <p—1; 


(3) if p, +m,°* =p—1, we have 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 975 
Wy, StY 
1,01,” 8 


because My, Tm,“ =(—1)'t™°F), mod p, by Sir J. Wilson’s theorem, 
while My,“*=1, since p,¢+=0: whence, multiplying and writing s, for 


(<1) = 


p,©, we obtain the congruence written above. Let r represent any term of a 
system of residues prime to p—1; let the numbers m,,m,'...m;‘” be deter- 
mined by the congruences m, =m,© r, mod (p—1), combined with the 
condition 0 < m,? < p—1; and let m+m'+... +m =n, (p—1)+5,, 
where again 0 <s,<p—I1: we have for every value ofr an equation of the 
form a , (0) 
x (G")=p"* kK —— , (0) and a congruence of the form 
®, (y) each o7—N,, IIs, 
v (y) =) Imm’ Tm," ... 
- Let y(0)=A,+A,0+...+Az 6", k+1 denoting the number of terms 
in a system of residues prime to p—1; let n, be the least of the numbers 
re Ny +p and j the exponent of the highest power of p dividing 
A, ie. ..A,: then shall j=n,. For, first, if 7>n,, from the equation 


, mod p. 


yy, On x ic =®@, (9), in which the coefficients of the powers of 6 are integral 


sll we infer the congruence W, (vy) * LY) =, (y),mod p; but x Ca X) 0, 


mod P3 therefore, ®, (y) == 0, mod p, which is impossible, Eanes if 
j <1, writing A; for A;+p/, and observing that W, (y) is prime to p, for 
every value of 7, we find ‘ 
Ay +A,’ y PLA yrt. Be 8). Gi ps5 mod pv’ 5 

for every value of r: but the sees iat of this system is prime top, there- 
fore A’, =0, A,’ =0, A',=0, mod p,-/, which is contrary to the eka 
thesis that j j <7, and that p) is the highest power of p dividing A,, A,, 
Ax 

The application of these results leads to the following general theorems ; 
in the enunciations of which p is an uneven prime, and A a number not 
divisible by any square. 

“Tf A=4m+3, p=An-+1, and if we represent by a and 6 numbers less 
than A and prime to A, respectively satisfying the equations 


b 
(5)=1, G)= —1, we have 


- 3b— sa 
4p 


=2°+4 Ay’, 
>) 


CXS) ace oS 


f1, (Man) 


“Tf p=4An-+1, A being of any other linear form than 4m-+3, and if we 
represent by a and 6 numbers less than 4A and prime to 4A, respectively 


satisfying the equations (== 7 *)= +1, (5 ; =*)= —1, we haye- 


776 REPORT—1863. 
Sb— zu 
ip A =w + Ay? 
3b 
8 aki i br 
ogi “TL, [Nan] 


In these formule the signs of summation extend to every value of a and 6 
respectively ; and in the expression IT, [flan] the exterior sign of multiplica- 
tion II, extends to every value of a, while the interior sign is the factorial 
symbol, so that Wan=1.2.3...an. The number 3 is excluded from the , 
first formula; the numbers 1 and 2 from the second. 

It will suffice to show how the first of these two theorems is to be demon- 
strated. For this purpose we consider the product IF (0°); taking an, 
a'n, a'n, .. for m,, m,',... we find y (0)= — TF (6%); because (as may 
easily be proved) Sa==0, mod A, whence San =0, mod p—l. We shall 
now show that (0) is of the form AZ0“"4+Bx0"". Actually multiplying the 
expressions F (6~“”"), F (0-*"),...., the coefficient, in the product, of any 
term such as v* @”” is equal to the number N of the solutions of the simul- 
taneous congruences 

Pty ty" +..=k, mod p, ay+a'y'+a'y"+....== —m, mod A. 
If r is a number prime to A, and satisfying the equation = =+1, N will 


not be changed, if we write rm, ra, ra’, . . . (or rather the least positive residues 
of those numbers, mod A) for m, a, a’. Hence, in y (@) all powers of 0 whose 
exponents are of the form an have the same coefficient A’, and all powers of 0 
whose exponents are of the form bn have the same coefficient B’. Again, con- 
sider a power of 0 of which the exponent is of the form aén; 6 representing a 
given divisor of A (other than 1 or A), and « representing any number less than 
> and prime to . ; all such powers of 6 will have the same coefficient. For 
we can always find a number r prime to A, satisfying the equation (5)= us 
A f By 
and yet congruous, for the modulus 5? to any given number prime to 33 
whence it follows that the number N will remain the same for all values of 
m included in the formula a3. But a sum of the form 3,,0%” is equal to+1 
or—1, according as the number of primes dividing 5 is even or uneven, be- 
A 
cause it is the sum of the primitive roots of the equation w'=1. Thus, the 
function y (4) assumes the form A'S6” + B's0°"+C', whence, attending to the 
equation £44 30°"=(—1)', in which ) is the number of primes dividing 
A, we find, as has been said, —IIF (0-*")= x (0)=AZ0"+Bz0". If we 
write @~' for @ in this equation, it becomes 


—IIF (6%")=y (071) =Az0"" + BEO™, since (=)= i (=)= ce i 
Multiplying the two equations together, and obserying that 
F (6-”) F(6")=(— 1)" p=p, because n is even, we obtain 
4pY¥o) —[(—1) (A+B)+(A—B) 2 ia | 
x [(—1)* (A+B)+(A—B) (26"—=6")], 


| 


ul 
4 
i 
. 


~ 
Ni 
~t 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 


or, since (20""— =")? = —A*, 

Apo) = (A+B)? +A (A—BY, 
W, (A) representing the number of numbers less than A and prime to A. We 
have next to determine the highest power of p dividing A+B and A—B, or, 
which is the same thing, A and B. By the principles indicated above, we 
have 


Ss 


A>6% 4+BE0"=p* ®, (6) 
wv, (@) 
xb 
Ase™ 4 Bye p* 2-1) 
¥_,() 


Writing in these equations y for @, and observing that the determinant 

(Sy) — = (y)?t, as wellas the four numbers ®, (y),b_,(y),¥,(7),¥_1(), 

is prime to p, we infer that the exponent of the highest power of p dividing 

A and B is the less of the two numbers = = Of these the former is the 
> 


a 


lesst; if therefore we write « and y for (—1)‘ (A+B) >. 
Xa 2b— Sa 


/ (A—B) p> respectively, our equation becomes 4p * =a?+Ay?. Also, 


» and 


* See Art. 96, ix. of this Report, or the note on Art. 104. 

+ Since D094 D5n—(—1)A, we have By"+4Sy?"= (—1)A, mod p; and since 
(26% — S6bn)?= —A, we have (Sy —Sy'”)?= —A, mod p. Thus the two factors of the 
determinant are each of them prime to p. 

The principle that any rational equation containing only powers of @ and integral num- 
bers may be changed into a congruence for the modulus p, if y be written in it for 0, has 
already been employed in this article. Its truth is evident, if we observe that the irre- 
ducible equation satisfied by 0, if considered as a congruence for the modulus , is satisfied 
by y. This principle is of more general application than a similar one which has been 
already employed in Art. 51 of this Report ; but its proof supposes the irreducibility of the 
equation of the primitive roots, which is not necessary to the proof of the principle of 
Art. 51. 


+ =b— a is certainly positive, because z 


” is equal to the number of improperly 


primitive classes of the negative determinant —A. Or (as it is desirable to avoid making 
as 


AWA 


use of this result here) =5— a is positive because (26 — =a) is the sum of the series 


ao 
2/2 a the summation extending to every value of prime to A, and the terms bein 
All a 2 & 


a 
taken in their natural order. This series is positive, because the series - (=) x4 eof 
which it is the limit, when p is diminished without limit, is certainly positive, being the reci- 


procal of the product n[ 1- (4) - a et in which the sign of multiplication extends to 
every prime qg not dividing A, and in which every factor is positive. The series 


: (x) 1 is one of those summed by Dirichlet in the memoir “ Recherches sur diverses 
n 

applications, &c.” (Crelle, vol. xxi. p. 141 ef seq.) : for the case in which A is a prime, he 

had already summed it in the memoir on the Arithmetical Progression (Memoirs of the 

Academy of Berlin for 1837, p. 55). Cauchy (Mémoires de l Académie des Sciences, vol. 

xvii. p. 673 et seq.) inverts Dirichlet’s process, ard transforms sums of the form = f(a) — 

=f (5) into infinite series. The transformation is effected by substituting for f(x), in the 


. 


778 REPORT—1863. 


®, (a2 = 
eye ie Rta Avan 


since 


_24 ae 4S 
Ap &Sy™+4Bp AEy™ == —(—1) 9 ahaa mod p, 


za za 
Ap 4¥y"4Bp 4zy”= 0, mod p, whence by addition 
> 4 
“= —(—1)a——__—_., mod p. 
= A tertian 


If Ais a prime, x also satisfies the congruence }v =1, mod A; for the 
sum of the coefficients in any function y (m, n) is== —1, mod p—1, and 
therefore mod A; whence the sum of coefficients in y (@) which is a product 
of an even number of such functions is 1, mod A; because the reduction 
of x (0)-to the form AZ6*”+ Bre” is effected only by means of the equations 
J gee es 


Q” 


gr4_]—0, =(0; whereof the former does not alter the sum of the 


coefficients at all, and the latter alters them only by a multiple of A. Con- 
3 


sequently + (A—1) (A+B)=1, mod A, or, since p&X =1, mod A, and 
(—1)=—1, 4v=1, mod A. 
It will be observed that if A is of the form 8m-+ 7, whether A is a prime 
or not, # and y are necessarily even in the equation (A); whence, dividing 
by 4, we may put the equation in the form 
sb— Sa 
P A =0" + Ay? 
3b 


ie ed 
soa Ty ayes TI Man’ ube 


Ex. Let A=7, p=7n+1; the values of aare1,2,4; of b,3,5,6: hence 
ik ae [13x 
— 2 Tin. T12n 


potty, «= —} Sa ,mod p; alsow==1, mod 7, 


(Jacobi, Crelle, vol. ii. p. 69.) 
Whenever the exponent of p is 1, the formule (A) and (B) completely de- 
termine the value of #; when the exponent of p is 2, we can only be sure 


A-1 
expression = (5) f («)==f (®*) —=/f (0), the equivalent infinite series 
a 


A m=o A Ls 
ey tT () det 23 i} cos lh lel 9 ds; 
4 Jo Am=1 J0 

whence, observing that 


z=A—1] ee e=A4—-1 1, Shiny 
= (Zain -(*) VA, and = (2) cos —— =0, 
e=1 a a s ; m=A Z 4 
; m= 8 ‘A . 
we obtain $ VA (f(a) —f (t))= = : @)(. sin cal ds; a formula from which 
m= 


Dirichlet’s result is immediately deducible, by putting f (7) =«, and performing the inte- 
grations. It is a remarkable fact that the inequality 2b > =a has never been proved by 
elementary considerations, or without the use of infinite series (see the Memoir on the Arith- 
metical Progression, p. 57). If A is a prime, 2}—2a is certainly not zero, for 2b+4- a is 
uneven (because A is of the form 4u+3); but even this remark cannot be extended to the 
case in which A is composite. 


* 


SWS AS 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, 779 


that the absolute value of w is less than p, so that x is not completely deter- 
mined, but is either the least positive or the least negative residue of the 
binomial coefficient ; though in this case if A is a prime of the form 4n+3, 
the ambiguity may be removed by the congruence 3 #=1,mod A. But 
when the exponent of p is > 2, x is never completely determined by the 
congruence for the modulus p. 

It is very remarkable that the exponent of p in the formula (A) is pre- 
cisely the number of improperly primitive classes of determinant —A, and 
in the formula (B) is precisely the number of properly primitive classes of 
determinant —A*. 

Before Dirichlet’s discovery of the formule expressing the number of 
classes of quadratic forms of a given determinant, Jacobi, having succeeded 
in determining the exponent of p in the formula (A), for the case in which 
A is a prime number, was led with singular sagacity to conjecture that 
pb— Ta 

A 


must represent the number of improperly primitive classes of deter- 


* See Art. 104 of this Report. When A is of the form 4x+3, the two expressions given 
by Dirichlet for the number of properly primitive classes of determinant —A are 


( 2-(5)) =) , and A—B, where A and B represent the numbers of residues infe- 
tisfying the conditions (“~)=+1 and ()=—1 respectively, Hence 
rior to 3A, and satisfying the conditions (4) +1 an (7) respectively en 


#aE is the number of improperly primitive classes; because that number is equal to 


or is one-third of the number of properly primitive classes, according as A==7, or=3, 
mod 8 (see Art. 103 or 113). 
There is no difficulty in showing that Dirichlet’s two expressions are identical. If 


() =1, the congruence 24'=4, mod A, is always resolubie; and if } receive in succession 


all positive values less than A which satisfy the condition (¢)=-1 b! will obtain the 


=o! b 26'—b 


i. eet ee A But if b'<iA, 


same values in a different order. Hence = a =2 
2b'—b=0; if b'>+4A, 20'—0=A, 7. ¢. ne =A, for there are A values of 4 greater than 3A. 


>b— Sa 


Similarly =o =B, so that =A-B. In precisely the same manner it may be 


shown, if ‘@re by considering the congruences 2b'+-5=0, mod A, 2a’+a=0, 
2b'+6 2a' +a 
A 


x =2B+A; whence 


33 
mod A, that = => =2A+B and — => 


3 2-24 _a_p, 
A 


Also the expression given in Art. 104 coincides with A—B. For that expression may be 
written in the form 


-OrC2)-2C2)-@-+@-- 


a' and 0! representing numbers less than 34. 


m[F(@—“")}2 


UE Zany , the exponent of p in the 


Tf we consider, as Cauchy has done, the product 


nLF67)) 


formula (A) will be A—B. That product is evidently equal to TF(@—™), or to nO) , 


730 REPORT—1863. 


minant —A*, If is the number of classes in the principal genus of impro- 
perly primitive forms of determinant —A, it follows from the theory of 


composition of quadratic forms that 2p" can always be represented primitively 


a , and that 


the exponent of the lowest power of p which is capable of such representa- 
tion is either f or a submultiple of A. Again, the equation 
sb— Za 
4p “ =2°+Ay’, if we write in it 2X+Y for w, and Y for y, becomes 
Sb— Za A +] 
7 hee a eg “e) (X, Y)’, the values of X and Y being integral. 


Assuming, then, that there exist primes of the lear form nA +1, the doubles 
of which are capable of representation by a class appertaining to the exponent 
h (an assumption which implies that —A is not an irregular determinant, 
at least in respect of its improperly primitive classes), we see that in the case 
in which A is a prime of the form 4n+3, and in which therefore there is but 
— za 


by the principal form in that genus, ¢. e. by the form (2, 1, + 


: pte os 
one genus of improperly primitive forms, 


must be equal either to the 


number of improperly primitive classes, or toa multiple of that number ; 
and as Jacobi found, upon a sufficient induction, that 2 was always equal to 


Brae) he did not scruple to enunciate the theorem as true. We know, 


however, from an account which Dirichlet has given of a communication 
made to him by Jacobi, that Jacobi never obtained a demonstration of the 
theorem; and, indeed, it would seem probable, as has been observed by Di- 
richlet, that its demonstration requires other principles (Crelle, vol. li. p, 206). 

It is hardly necessary to add that when there is more than one genus of 
forms of determinant —A, 7. ¢. In every case except when A is a prime of 
the form 4n+3, the exponent of p in the formule (A) and (B) is always a 
multiple of the least exponent for which those formule can be satisfied. 

122. Extension of the preceding Theory by Hisenstein.—In the theory of 
which an account has been given in the last article, the prime number p is 
throughout supposed of the linear form nA+1 or 4n4+1; thus in the equa- 
tions p=a°+7y*, p=x°+8y’, we have supposed p te be of the forms 7n+1 
and 8n+1 respectively. But we know that some power of every prime of 
which —A is a quadratic residue is capable of representation by the form 
wv +Ay’; and, in particular, that primes of the form 8x+3 are capable of 
representation by a+ 2y°, and primes of either of the forms 7n+2 or 7n+4 


5) 
according as (5)=41 or =—1; a result which is in accordance with the equation 


1-2=(-O) 


In the formula (B), the exponent of p, obtained by the consideration of the same pro- 
b— : : : 
duct, is A'—B'=2x GE ea) Z ae! ; A’ and B' denoting respectively the numbers of residues 
of the classes a and 4 respectively, which are inferior to 2A. 

* Crelle, vol. ix. p. 189. Jacobi counts the classes of the prime determinant —A on the 
principle of Legendre, not distinguishing opposite classes from one another. If is the 
number of improperly primitive classes so counted, we have h=2n—1, because there is but 
one improperly primitive ambiguous class. When A is of the form 8x+7, Jacobi enun- 
ciates the theorem with reference to the number of properly primitive classes, which in this 
case is equal to the number of improperly primitive classes. 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 781 


by 2?+7y*. M. Stern found by induction that the value of w in the equation 
p=8n4+3=a"+4 27° 
satisfies the congruences 
1 W4n+1 

——— dp, «=(—1)", 14#*; 

D 2 fn. T3n+1 Ul ih Calvan 
and Eisenstein succeeded in demonstrating this theorem, as well as the two 
following t :— 

“Tf p=7n4+2=2°+4+7y’, 

1 [sn 
2 Tn. TL2n’ 
“Tf p= in+4=2°+4+7,’, 
me lon I 
SS = ’ 
2 Tin. W2n+1 

These demonstrations are obtained by expressing the prime number p as 
the product of two complex factors, composed of 8th or 7th roots of unity. 
But the decomposition of p is no longer supplied by the formula of Art. 30 ; 
nor are the complex factors included in the definition of the functions v, 
which have been considered in Art. 50 and in the last Article. 

If p=8n-+3 is a real prime, p is also a prime in the theory of complex num- 
bers of the form a+6i; let y be a primitive root of p in that theory, and let 
yJ=1+ iz, mod p, z representing one of the real integers, 0, 1,..y—1. Also 
let Y(w)= wy, w denoting a primitive 8th root of unity, and the summa- 
tion extending to every value of y. Eisenstein establishes the equations 
Wolo )=p, W(w)=v(w*); whence (w) is of the form A+B(1+7)u, 
and p=(w)y(w—!)=A?2+2B*. To find the residue of A, mod p, let 

e=}(p?—1)=3n+1+np; 
and write successively y* and +*¢ for w in the function {(w). We find 
Wy) =Dy9 = X(1 +722)? = (1 +2%)*"41(1—z)", mod p, 

because in general (a+67)?=(a—d?), mod p. In this expression no power 
of z has an exponent divisible by p—1; but 32_?"' 
different from zero, and is a multiple of p—1; therefore (7°) ==0, mod p. 
Again, because 5e=7n+2+(5n+1)p, Wy?) = 30 +2)"? (1—ziy" 4}, 
mod p; in this expression the coefficient C of ?~? is 

N7n+2 Hbn+1 
Tp W7n+2—p Op’ 15n+1—p” 
where p+’ =p—1, and the summation extends from p»=3n+1 to p=7n+42. 
Writing 38n+1-+-y for p, 5n4+1—y for p’, and observing that 

Ip. Mu=(—1y mod p, 


we Sie 


modp; #==3, mod 7; 


i 


mod p; #=2, mod 7.” 


*—=(, mod p, unless @ is 


a lal 


we find 
Gay O7n+2.05n4+1  N7n+2.05n+1  yadng41 TW4n41 
oy Pre ty. ly, Ti4ne  iee vee at Uy Na 
— Win+2.05n4+1 ogg W4n+1 d 
re T4n+1 x2 ~ Tn. 138n +1’ aereite 


* Crelle, vol. xxxii. p. 89. We enunciate the latter part of the theorem in the form in 
which it has been given by Hisenstein. 
+ Crelle, vol. xxxvii. p. 97. 


7 ° REPORT—1868. - 


observing that 24"**== —1, mod p, and transforming each of the three fac- 
torials by Sir J. Wilson’s theorem. Hence, finally, 
wal ag A ee aD Tel 
Bg Vr) gt) 9° 2 tip ida 


in accordance with the enunciation of M. Stern, The congruence A=(—1)", 
mod 4, is inferred by Eisenstein from the values of (1), W(—1), W(2), L( —2) ; 
but we may omit these determinations here. 

If p=7n+2, or 7n+4, Eisenstein considers the complex numbers formed 
with the roots of the equation n°—21n—7=0. If w is animaginary seventh 
root of unity, and 4, =3(w*+w—*)-+ 1, the roots of this equation are 7,, .5 53 
and every complex number formed with them is of the type a+6n,+en,; 
a, b, ¢ denoting real integral numbers. Let y be a primitive root of pin 
this complex theory (p is a prime of the theory, because the congruence 
n —21n—7=0, mod 9, is irresoluble: see Art. 44 of this Report), and let 
y’ =1+2,n,+4,n,, mod p, z, and z, each representing any term of the series 
0,1, 2,..p—1. The function U(w)= XY (the summation extending to all 
the p* values of ¥) is shown by Eisenstein to satisfy the equations 

Pw=Po) =o"), Yw)=V(o')=Y(w"),  Y(w) x Wo!) =p ; 
whence W(w) is of the form a+b(w+w*+o*) +¢(w°+o' +"), and 
p=A°+7B’; ifA=a—}(b+c), B=}(b—c). The equation p?>=a+3b-+3e, 
considered as a congruence, mod 7, becomes A==p*, mod 7; 7. e. A=4, 
or = 2, mod 7, according as p is of the form 7n+2 or 7n+4. To obtain 
the congruence, mod p, which is satisfied by A, we consider the congruence 
2A=V(y°)+(y*), mod p; in which e=+(p*—1)=a+(p+ yp*, a, 3, y 
representing positive integers less than p, of which the sum will be found to 
bep—1, Now W(y)=2y¥ = 3h Bh (1+2m,+e.m)*x (1 +2,n,+%.M9,)? 
x (1+2,np?+%.%,2)”, mod p,; because in general [ f(n,)?=/(np), mod p. 
Hence (y’)=0, mod p, because a+f8+y=p—l1, and_ because 
aN ae 2,91 2,%== 0, mod p, unless 9, and 6, are both different from zero, 
and both divisible by p—1. Again, if 3e=a'+/'p+y'p*, we find 
a'+'+ y'=2(p—1); and omitting terms in which the sum of the indices 
of z, and z, is inferior to 2(p—1), 


___ yP—1 5p-1 - a). ys 2 i y 
v(y*) =) Xo (2,7, +2,.) (=, + Noy) (Ngo +#,Mop2) » mod Pp: 
Substituting for = Mpr bt? Nope its value —2,9, —2,0,.—%,Np —Zn2p, We obtain 
Se, ! f—p—l ent = 1 
P(y*) =a. 116 -Iy Pe be (2:n, +2.n,)” (mp +2a%25) ’ mod p 5 
— i _ 6 —1 = . 
because every such sum as a DA " (@n, +2)" '* (mp +*.noy)” perio 


which 6 is one of the numbers 1, 2, 3,..p—1, taken positively or negatively, 
is certainly =0, mod p, as may be seen by substituting (2:mp +2009) for 


(2,n, +2,n,)?. Lastly, the coefficient C of (z,z,)?—1 in the expression oe: s+ 
(7+ zms)P "(2 Mp +2, Mop)? as evidently babi RK’, (m Noy) (n, Pg aad 
K, representing the coefficient of a in the expansion of (1+.)?~1. Hence 
C= (1y22p— Nap)? = 1, mod p, because MN2p—1s"p= £21; so that finally 


A==3 lla’. 116’. Wy' 3°" 3" (z,z,)?"' = 4 Ma’. 116. My’, mod p; 


an expression which, on substituting for a’, 6', y' their values in the two 


ON THE THEORY. OF NUMBERS. 783 


cases p=7n+2, p=7n-+4, will be found to coincide with: the formule given 
by Eisenstein. 

There can be no doubt that the principles of this method are capable of 
many other applications; but nothing has as yet been added to these researches 
of Eisenstein. 

123. Applications of Continued Fractions to the Theory of Quadratic Forms, 
—Representations of a number by quadratic forms are in certain cases dedu- 
cible from the development of its square root in a continued fraction. If A 


is any number not a square, sae ME the (n+1)th complete quotient in the 


development of A,“ the convergent fraction immediately receding that 
Pp yP 


complete quotient, so That P?n—AGn=(—1)"D,, the form (¢’,, —pnr, A), of 
which the determinant is (—1)"D,, is either properly or improperly primitive, 
and belongs in either case to the principal genus ofits order. If we investi- 
gate the transformation by which this form is reduced to the simplest form in 
its class, we shall obtain, by an operation exempt from all tentative processes, 
a representation of A by thatsimplestform. The following proposition, how- 
ever, supplies a method by which, when gq, is uneven, and (q*n, —Pn, A) 
belongs to the principal class of properly primitive forms, or when q, is even, 
and (39°, —Pn, 2A) belongs to the principal class of improperly primitive 
forms, we can frequently infer from the development of »/ A itself the solu- 
tion of the equations 


~(—1)D,Y°=A, 2X°+2XY+ abhest Td at bh: 


“ Tf (a, 6, c), (a’, b’, c’) are two primitive forms of the determinants D 
and D’, whose joint invariant ac'—2bb' + ca’ is Eps and if m and m’ are the 


greatest common divisors of a, 2b, ¢; a’, 2b’, c’; m*D' and m"”D are respect- 
ively capable of primitive representation by the duplicates of (a, 6, c) and 
a, b',¢ c’). ? 


“Thus if (a’, 8, c’) is properly primitive and ambiguous, D can be repre- 
sented primitively by (1, 0, —D’); if (a, 0’ 0) is improperly primitive and 


. For (a,6,c)and (a’,6’,c’) 


let us take (1, 0, —A) and (q,, —pa, ‘hel whose joint invariant is zero, and 
of which the first is properly primitive ; while the.second is properly or im- 
properly primitive according as q, is uneven or even, and has for its duplicate 
in the former case (q°,, —pn, A), in the latter 2 x (4q°,, —pn, 2A): so that 
itis ambiguous in both cases alike. Further, let us represent by (e,, —8,, €s—1) 


Ps Ps—-1 
Ys Ys—1 


ambiguous, 


the form into which (¢,,, —pp; nA) is transformed by ; we infer, 


from the property of the invariants, the equations 
(—1)**'D =e, €,_1—0",, es_1 D, — 28, J,—e, Ds_1=0. 
Let us first suppose that n is uneven, so that (—1)"D, is a negative deter- 
minant which we shall call —A; since 


In(In& —2P nity + Indy”) =(Gne pny) + Ay’, 
it is evident that when q,v°—2p,cy+qnAy’* attains its minimum value, 


; is a convergent to a not, we may add, the last convergent, if the last 


integral quotient in the development of ms is unity. If therefore (¢,, —pns 


n 


784 REPORT—1863. 


YnA) is properly primitive and of the principal class, we shall have, for some 
value of s, e,=1; whence 


D,a= —20,5,+ e.—1D,; and A=J*,+D,Ds-1 =(J,—é,D,)°+AD*,. 
If (ns —Pns QnA) is improperly primitive, and of the principal class of its 


order, we shall have for some value of s, e,-=2, D,;.=—6,J,++4es_;D,, 
24=2(J.— fail D,) +2(I.— — D,)D.+ An 


We may therefore enunciate the theorem: “If?” is an inferior convergent 
Gn 

to / A, and A=q*,A—p*,; when (qa; —Pas YnA) is of the principal class of 

forms of determinant —A, A is of the form X°+ AY’, and Y is the denomi- 

nator of a complete quotient in the development of/ A; when (¢n, —Pn» YnA) 

is of the principal class of improperly primitive forms of determinant —A, 


A is of the form 2X?4+2XY-+ sl 3 Y’, and Y is the denominator of a com- 


plete quotient in the development of / A.” 

When (¢,, —Pn; ga) is ambiguous and properly primitive, but of some 
other class than the principal class, we must distinguish between two cases, 
that in which the reduced form equivalent to (¢;, —px, YnA) is itself an am- 
biguous form, and that in which it is of the type (a, 6, a). In the former 
case we shall arrive at a form (e,, —6,, ¢s—1), In which e,, being the least 
number which can be represented by (qn, —Pns YnA), 18 a divisor of 2¢,, and 
consequently of D, and 2A; and we shall find 


3 2 
ie (1-2, =) +a De 
Es Es 


In the latter case we shall, in the series of forms (¢., —ds, es—1), arrive at a 
sequence of one or other of the three types: (1), (2[a—d]|, —[a—b], a), 
(a, a—b, 2fa—b]); (2), (a, —[a—4], 2fa—b]), (a, b, a); (3), (a, —b, @), 
(2[a—b], a—b, a); 7. e. we shall arrive at a form in which e, is the least 
number but one, which can be represented by (Gn; —Pn; YnA), and is a divisor 
of D, and 2A; we shall then find 


ut | 
(al) A=(,—]D)'442"3 

2 
(2) A=(Jeu1+4D,)?+ ant 
(3) A=(e+3D) +80" 


Similar results may be enunciated for the case in which (q,, —Pny QnA) is 
improperly primitive and ambiguous, but not of the principal class. 

In applying the preceding formule to particular cases, the following 
theorem of Goepel’s is very useful. Since 


i Yup" s— 2PrP As + AG? ae 6,=%,,PsPs—1 —Pn( P.qs-1 +Ps-14.) = AGn eT e— ls 
we find, if u, is the integral quotient immediately succeeding A , that 


& 
ds41==0,—p,e, Hence 6, 6,... form a continually decreasing series. But 
é Bs s 1 2 y 
¢, =Pn 1s positive, and 6,=—Ag,_, is negative; there exists, therefore, a 
pair of consecutive terms 6, and 6,4, of which the former is positive, or zero, 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 785 


and the second negative ; Goepel shows that —8,6,,, << A. For we find 
Ge0—1 + Ys—18,=(—1)*(9, Ps1—P,Jo—-1)> 148, + e—1€, = (—1)*+(9,, P,— 9.) 
1. € 
Ys €s—1 + Ys—1 es i 
Ys Ost+Yo—1 &s Ve Poti vi 
whence 
Ys €s—1 +9,_1 9, > Hs(Ye 8, +901 €,) 3 
or multiplying by e,, 
Aq, => —6d, Os41 Ye Eg Os41 Ys—15 
that is, A> —0, 0,41, because 6,4, is negative. 
Thus if A=1, we have necessarily 8,=0; whence e,=e,_1=1, D,-,=D,, 
A=J*,+D’,. If A=2, we have either 


(1) 5.=0, €._1=2, e=1, D,2)=22D,, A=J*,+2D*, ; 
or (2) d:=0, e1=1, e=2, D,=2D,-,, A=J?,4+2D*,_;; 
or (3) é=1, Os41= —1, pe=2, e=1, €s—1=€s41=3 ; 


D,1=3D,—23,, A=(J,—D,)?+2D*,=(J.41—D,)’ + 2D*,. 
If A=3, we have either 


(1) m0, =3, c=, D2, 330. A =3",-- ols 
or (2) —9, e¢1=1, ¢=3,) DoD, A=’ Poly: 
or (3) O=1, b41=—2, #,=38, ¢,=1, e_1:=4, D,1=4D,—23, 
A=(J,—D,)?+3D*, ; 
or (4) 6=2, o4:=—1, B,=3, €,=1, €41:=4, Dp4;=4D,—25,41, 
A=(J.4:—D,)?+3D*, ; 
or (5) 6=1, d41=—1, p=2, €=1, es 1=641=4, 


3 D,1=4D,—23,, A=(J,—D,)?+3D?,; 
or (6) 6,=1, ds41=—1, He=1, ¢,=es-1=€041=2; D,1=D,—J,=J.4i 
D.41=D,—Js4i1=I,, A=J?,—D,J,+D? =3,4:—D, Joa +D? 


the last case occurring always and only when q, is even. If A=7, andif we 
suppose qg,, even, so that (¢,, —pn, dnA) is improperly primitive, we shall cer- 
tainly arrive at a form (e,, —ds, e,_)), in which 8,=+1, and either e,=2, 
€,—1=4, or vice versd e,_,;=2, es=4; so that there are four cases 


(1,2) +J,=2D,_.—D,, A=J?,¢I,D,14+2D%-1, 
(3, 4) +J,=2D,—D,_,, A=J*,FI,D,+2D%_1. 


Let us next suppose that n is even, so that (—1)"D,,= A is a positive deter- 
minant. Then it is evident d, 6,... are all positive, for 


Inos= ed (GnPs—P ne) UnPs—1 —Pr Qo) + AG,95— 1? 
of which both parts are positive. Again, the numbers €,, €, +++ forma conti- 
nually decreasing series ; for ¢n¢s=(4nPs—PnYs)°—Ag’s; of which the positive 
part continually decreases, and the negative increases in absolute magnitude. 
But e,=q,, and e, = —Agq,,; there exists, therefore, a term e,_, which is posi- 
tive, while the following term e, is negative; whence 3°,=A+e,e,_1<A. 
1863. 3 


786 REPORT—1863. 


Thus if A=2, we shall have 6,=1, e,.)=1, es=—1, 2J,=D,+D,;-1, 
A=(J,+D,)’—2D?,=(J,+D,-1)?>—2D*,_1. If A=38, we shall have either 
(1) j=1, 6.=1, e,=—2, 2J,=D,+2D,_1, A=(J,+D,_1)?—3D’5_1; or 
(2) d.=1, é;1=2, e-=—l, 2J,=2D,+D,-1, A=(J,+D,)?—3D*,. 

If a is the integral number immediately inferior to »/ A, the period of inte- 
gral quotients in the development of s/ A is of the type 

Fis Pao+++ Pk—1s b, Pk-1s Pk—29 +++ i> 2a; 

and it is sometimes possible to assign @ priori the value of D;, the denomina- 
tor of the complete quotient corresponding to 6; for that denominator is always 
a divisor of 2A, and is besides <2,/A. Thus if A is a prime, D,=1 or 2; 
if 3A is a prime, D,=1, 2, or 4. Hence if A or 3A is a prime of the form 
4n+1, (—1)*D,=—1; for the equations «7—Ay’=+2, = +4 are impos 
sible on the supposition that w and y are relatively prime, and the equation 
«’—Ay’=1 is inadmissible, because } is not the last quotient of a period. 
Similarly if A or 3A is a prime of the form 4m+3, (—1)*D,=2 ote 
according as the prime is of the form 8m+7 or 8m+3; if ZA is a prime of 
the form 4m+8, (—1)'D,= +3 or —3, according as the prime is of the form 


12m+11 or 12m+7; and, in general, if \ and = are each of them primes of 
the form 4n+3, and if 2\< A, (—1)*D,=A, or —A, according as X is or 
is not a quadratic residue of 2 We thus obtain a direct method for the repre- 


sentation of primes of the forms 4m+1, 8m+3, 8m+7, or the doubles of 
such primes, by the forms «*+y’, a°+2y, #?—2y*: when d is a prime of 


the form 12m-+ 7, the developments of / and 2 a/ ; will give represen- 


tations of 3A by the forms a°—ay+y’, «°+3y?: when d is a prime of one of 


the forms, 28m +11, 28m+15, 28m+23, the development of sth will give 


a representation of 7 by the form w?—awy+2y’, &e. 

The theorem relating to primes of the form 4n+1 is very celebrated ; it 
was established independently by Gauss and Legendre, and it no doubt sug- 
gested the researches of Goepel in his doctoral dissertation ‘De quibusdam 
eequationibus indeterminatis secundi Gradis’ (Crelle, vol. xlv. pp. 1-13). 
Goepel confined his investigation to the case D,=2, though his method, 
which in the main is that here described, is of a much more general cha- 
racter. The theorems relating to the case A=—3 were first given by M. 
Stern, who employs Goepel’s method with very little modification (Crelle, 
vol. lili. pp. 87-98). A paper by M. Hermite, which appeared in Crelle’s 
Journal (vol. xlv. p. 191) prior to the republication there of Goepel’s disserta- 
tion, contains a method (see pp. 211-213) which is very similar to that of 
Goepel, but which does not connect itself so readily with the common theory 
of continued fractions. In these researches of M. Hermite the invariant 
ac’ —2bb'+<a’c appears explicitly ; which is not the case in Goepel’s paper. 


Berra). 


NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS 


-_ 


« PUREE S. 
bat -wiah dies 


syn hl ee ala 
ea ete 


hs *y pines Th . 


NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS 


OF 


MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. 


MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 


MATHEMATICS. 


Address of the President, Professor W. J. Macavorn Ranxryz, FERS. 


Tue President, on taking the chair, said that the quantity of business before 
the Section was so great that the utmost economy of time would be necessary in 
order to dispatch that business in a satisfactory manner. For that reason the 
Committee had instructed him to recommend to the Section the observance of the 
following rules in conducting discussions :—That immediately after the reading of 
any paper, members should put such questions to the author as they might con- 
sider desirable for the purpose of making clear the meaning of the paper; that the 
author should answer those questions one by one; that after all the questions had 
been answered, such members as chose to make remarks on the subject of the paper 
should address the Section, each member being at liberty to speak once only on one 
paper; and that after all those remarks had been made, the author should reply to 
the whole discussion in one address. He trusted that the members of the Section 
would approve of the rules recommended by the Committee, and would support 
him in taking care that those rules should, as far as practicable, be observed. 


On a certain Class of Mathematical Symbols. 
By W. H. L. Russert, A.B., FBS. 


In general, a mathematical symbol acting on a function of a variable gives rise to 


another function of that variable. Thus = F@),AF@), M3 dx f (x), and many other 


expressions, are all functions of (x). But there are certain symbols which, in their 
action on a function of a variable, produce expressions which, from their essential 
nature, are independent of that variable. Such is the symbol used by Cauchy in his 
‘Exercices’ to denote the aggregate result obtained by multiplying a function 
of (x) successively by those simple factors which, equated to zero, make it infinite, 
and then substituting for x) the values obtained by equating those factors to zero. 
Such also is the symbol @ used by Professor Boole in his researches on the com- 
parison of transcendents, denoting the result obtained by subtracting from the 
Ll 


2 ' REPORT—1863. 


result derived by Cauchy’s symbol just mentioned the coefficient of = in the ex- 


pansion of the given function in descending powers of (x). Now let 


F (2, Y; = = 45) denote any function of 2, y, and its differential coeffi- 


cients. This is sometimes written F(z, y, ¥:, Ya++++ Yn). Now there are in- 


vestigations in which we require the value of a where yn is put equal to zero 


na 
after the differentiation is performed. The writer has found a symbol such as 
Z™ to denote this, of great utility in the treatment of differential equations; and it 
will be observed that it belongs to the second class of symbols here mentioned. 


On the Quantity and Centre of Gravity of Figures given in Perspective, or 
Homography. By Professor Sytvester, /.2.S, 


In the first instance, the author showed how to find the point in the perspective 
representation of a plane figure into which the centre of gravity of such figure is 
projected. For this purpose it is only necessary to be furnished with the direction 
of the vanishing-line corresponding to the plane of the object put into perspective. 
The rule for finding the point in question is the following: every element of the 
picture is to be charged with a density equal to the inverse fourth power of its 
distance from the vanishing-line; the centre of gravity of the figure so charged 
will be the point required, and may of course be found by the rules of the integral 
calculus. 

Next, as {o the area of the unknown object. To determine this another datum 
(but only one other) is required besides the direction of the vanishing-line, which 
may be termed the constant of perspective, being determined when the position of 
the eye and that of the object-plane in reference to the picture are given. This 
constant is the product of the eye’s distance from the vanishing-line into the square 
of the distance of the intersections of the object- and picture-planes from the same 
line. If now every element of the picture be charged with a density equal to the 
constant of perspective divided by the cube of the element’s distance from the 
vanishing-line, the mass of the figures so charged will be the area of the unknown 
object-figure. 

The author then proceeded to show how the area and the perspective centre, by 
aid of the preceding principles, admit of being reduced to depend on one single 
integral, closely analogous to the potential used in the theory of attractions to which 
he gives the name of polar potential. The polar potential of a plane figure in 
respect to a given line is defined to be the sum of the quotients of the elements by 
their respective distances from the line, and consequently the polar potential of the 
picture in respect to a vanishing-line in its plane becomes a function of the two 
parameters by which its position may be determined. The parameters which the 
author finds most convenient to employ are the distance of the yanishing-line from 
an arbitrary fixed point in the picture and the angle which it makes with a fixed 
line therein. 

The author then supplied the formule (which are of a very simple character) for 
calculating the area of the object and the coordinates of its perspective centre of 
gravity, by means of differentiation processes performed upon the polar potential of 
the picture treated as a function of these parameters. He afterwards proceeded to 
extend the same method to figures, plane or solid, connected by the more general 
relation known under the name of homography, of which the relation between 
figures generated through the medium of perspective is only a particular kind. In 
the case of a solid figure, its polar potential in respect to a variable plane becomes 
a function of three parameters ; and by means of differentiations performed upon it 
in respect to these parameters, the content and the coordinates of the point cor- 
responding homographically to the centre of gravity of a solid figure may be ex- 
pressed when its homograph and the position of a plane corresponding to the 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3 


points at infinity in the otherwise unknown figure are given in addition (as regards 
the content) to a certain constant termed the homographic determinant. 

* Professor Rankine threw out a suggestion as to the possibility of a practical 
> oe of the preceding theory to the stability of structures standing to each 
other in a certain simple relation of homography. 


On the Conditions of the Resolvability of Homogeneous Algebraical Polynomials 
into Factors. By J.J. WAtkER. © 


In this communication a commencement was made of a systematic investigation 
of the conditions of resolyability of homogeneous polynomials of ” variables into 
factors, and it was shown that in the case of the polynomial of the second degree 
the conditions are that every n—3rd “minor” of a symmetrical determinant, whose 
constituents are the coefficients of the polynomial, should vanish. It was also 
‘shown that the coefficients of the factors are roots of certain quadratic equations, 
and the general theory was illustrated by geometrical applications. 


ASTRONOMY. 


On the Augmentation of the Apparent Diameter of a Body by its Atmospheric 
Refraction. By SrepHen ALEXANDER. 

Professor Challis, in the Report of the Association for 1862, stated that there 
would be reason to expect, in a solar eclipse, that a slender band of the sun’s disk 
immediately contiguous to the moon’s border would be somewhat brighter than the 
other parts, and advised that especial attention should be directed to this point on 
the next occurrence of a solar eclipse. 

The phenomenon thus ingeniously shown by Professor Challis to be in place has 
itself been frequently observed. 

The author first noticed it in February 1831, at Berlin, Maryland, during the 
progress of the annular eclipse (Transactions of the Albany Institute, vol. ii. p. 85). 
It is mentioned in his notes as haying been seen “during the first hour of the 
eclipse, with (at one time and another) different telescopes and screen glasses of 
different colours.” 

It has, almost without exception (perhaps with no exception), been seen by him 
in some seven or eight solar eclipses which he has since observed. jt gai atten- 
tion was directed to its observation in this country in 1854; and its observation is 
recorded by Profs. Frazer and Kendall at Philadelphia in that year (Proc. of Amer. 
Phil. Soc. vol. vi. p. 41), also among his own observations of that eclipse at 
Ogdensburg, New York (Astronomical Journal, No. 75, p. 17). See also his 
Report of Observations in Labrador, July 1860, made to the Superintendent of the 
United States Survey (Report of the Superintendent for 1860, Appendix 21). 

The daguerreotype impressions of the eclipse of 1854 (taken in New York) 
distinctly show the narrow bright band; and it can also be seen in the photogra- 
phic impressions taken in July 1860, in Labrador. A careful inspection will, he 
presumes, reveal it in the instance of any good vousliga impression of 
the partially eclipsed sun; especially where the dark limb of the moon is pro- 
jected on a part of the sun’s disk sufficiently near to the border of the same. The 
phenomenon is thus the most conspicuous when the eclipse is quite small or when 
it is very large. 


On the Selenographical Relations between the Chain of Lunar Mountains the 
Alps with the Mare Imbriwm and the Mare Frigoris. By W. R. Brrr, 
F.R.AS. Communicated by Dr. Ler, F.RS. 

The mountains on the lunar surface known as the Alps extend from the Caucasian 
range bordering the N.E. portion of the Mare Serenitatis to the dark-floored crater 

Plato, approaching nearly to the summit of its western rim, From the ae 


A REPORT—1863, 


range to a point not very far west of Plato, the 8.E. aspect of the Alps bordering 
the Mare Imbrium is precipitous—in this respect resembling most of the terrestrial 
chains of mountains bordering large oceans; and the mountains are much closer 
together and more chain-like than in the area towards the Mare Frigoris, where 
they are more or less detached the one from the other. A large extent of surface, 
presenting a great variety of character—mountainous, rugged, pierced with nume- 
rous craters, rising into an elevated crest, sometimes spreading out into considerable 
breadth, at others contracted to a narrow, neck-like kind of isthmus—extends from 
the Caucasus to the promontory La Place, which is the western jutting-point of the 
rugged and mountainous border of the Sinus Tridum. The western part of this 
rugged land is occupied by the Alps. The middle exhibits a decidedly raised 
character, in which Plato appears to have been “sunk.” This walled plain is com- 
paratively shallow. The eastern part of the tract above described is lower, and 

ierced with numerous craters, especially the portion immediately eastward of 

lato; the largest crater (very much smaller indeed than Plato) being a conspicuous 
object under the morning and evening illuminations. The smooth surface of the 
Mare Imbrium comes closely up to the tract above described; and at some little 
distance from the border several isolated mountains, soft ridges, and small craters 
are scattered here and there on the surface of the Mare, which are conspicuous 
objects under every aspect of illumination. The immediate object of this paper was 
to solicit the attention of astronomers to a continuation of the Alps on the northern 
side of the Mare Frigoris. The Alps, as laid down on our lunar maps, do not extend 
beyond the bright ground N. and N.W. of Plato. ‘The boundary common to this 
bright ground and the Mare Frigoris is exceedingly well defined: the contrast 
between the superior brilliancy of the one and the dark grey surface of the other 
is very marked. The bright ground, which is of the rugged character above 
mentioned, gradually rises from the Mare Frigoris to the summit of the ring of 
Plato; and the same is observable of the ascent on the south side from the surface 
of the Mare Imbrium, with the exception of the slight depression of the site of the 
ancient crater Newton (Schriéter). In the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astrono- 
mical Society for May 1863, I described a remarkably dark border common to the 
Mare Imbrium, the Alps, and a bright portion extending from them to the south of 
Plato. Since writing that paper I have ascertained that this dark border is irre- 
spective of any hypsometrical affections, in this respect resembling greatly the 
bright rays extending from the various ray-centres on the moon’s surface, which 
alike cross every variety of depression and elevation, Under an early illumination, a 
soft and slightly elevated ridge, casting a well-defined shadow, is seen extending from 
a crater, Piazzi Smyth (which is some distance 8. W. of Plato), to the small group of 
mountains of which \, at the foot of the Hartwell Mountains, is the principal. The 
slight elevation of this ridge above the general surface of the Mare Imbrium and its 
continuity between Piazzi Smyth and Plato are well seen under both the morning 
and evening illuminations. The visibility of this ridge is fugitive; it disappears 
entirely under even a moderately high sun, and then the dark border, which is only 
manifested under an advanced stage of illumination, crosses it uninterruptedly. 
The dark border greatly resembles, although in an opposite sense, the broad light 
mark crossing Geminus under the mid-day illumination, which is described in my 
paper presented to the British Association in 1859, I have been somewhat par- 
ticular in describing the independence of this dark border and any hypsometrical 
affections, as several patches of a similar kind are observed on the surface of the 
Mare Frigoris, especially near the centre. I have not yet detected much, if any, 
yariation of level on the surface of the Mare Frigoris north of Plato, except a fault 
of an exceedingly well-marked character, not far from the opposite or northern 
border of the Mare Frigoris. This fault clearly indicates a well-marked difference 
of leyel between the southern part of the Mare Frigoris adjoining the bright ground 
north of Plato and the northern portion. It is in this immediate neighbourhood 
that the northern boundary of the Mare Frigoris is exceedingly rugged and rocky, 
running into several promontories which extend towards Plato; and these pro- 
montories, combined with the fault above alluded to, clearly indicate a superior 
level for the land extending between Timzeus and Fontenelle north of the Mare 
Frigoris, Shortly after sunrise, and a little before sunset, this high land is seen to be 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 5 


a continuation of the direction of the Alps. As before remarked, the Alpine chain 
is most perfect in the neighbourhood of the Mare Imbrium, viz. from a little 
north of Cassini to the west extremity of a bright portion of land extending from 
it to Plato—the chain being indented by the wedge-shaped valley ; the portion of 
bright land has but few mountains on it, and a few craters have been opened upon 
it. North of this portion of bright land, several detached mountains are scattered 
over the surface, interspersed with but few craters; and this territory may be 
regarded as the continuation of the Alpine Mountains, as far as the southern 
boundary of the Mare Frigoris, by two well-marked groups of mountains west of 
Plato, the chain-like character and general direction being confined to the higher 
peaks bordering the Mare Imbrium. “ Between this interesting group of rugged 
and mountainous land and the Alps, the Mare Frigoris intervenes at a lower level. 
The ‘fault’ before alluded to clearly indicates a sinking down of a portion of the 
surface of the Mare hereabouts, which is not only narrower than any other, but 
especially interesting from its being crossed by certain lucid streaks from the rayed 
crater Anaxagoras, which are more or less coincident with the promontories above 
mentioned.” The strait-like character of this portion of the Mare Frigoris, the 
existence of considerable mountain masses on ails side, the well-marked depression 
of the Mare below the group of mountains on the north, and the ascent on the south 
towards the rim of Plato strongly indicate the valley-like character of this part of 
the Mare Frigoris, and also that the group of mountains on the north may with 
great probability be regarded as a continuation of the great Alpine group on the 
south, a portion of the chain haying been depressed when the valley of the Mare 
was produced, 


On the relative Distances of the Planets from the Sun. By R. 8. Browne. 

The communication consisted of a new series of numbers which more closely 
approximate to the known distances of the planets from the sun than do those 
suggested by Bode, as shown in the following Table :— 


Bode’s Numbers. Numbers proposed. 
1 4 1 4 4 
2 443 df 2 44+ 3 i 
3 442:°3 10 3 7+ 4 11 
4 44.273 16 4 ll+ 7 18 
5 44293 28 5 184 11 29 
6 44245 52 6 29+ 18411 58 
ti 442°:3 100 fi 58+ 29418 105 
8 44253 196 8 105+ 58429 192 
9 44273 388 9 1924 105+58 355 


On the Star Chromatoscope. By A. Cuavvet, F.R.S, 


The scintillation and change of colours observed in looking at the stars are so 
rapid, that it is very difficult to judge of the separate lengths of their duration. If 
we could increase on the retina the length of the sensations they produce, we should 
have a better means of examining them. This can be done by taking advantage 
of the power by which the retina can retain the sensation of light during a fraction 
of time which has been found to be one-third of a second—a phenomenon which 
is exemplified by the curious experiment of a piece of incandescent charcoal re- 
yolving round a centre and forming a continual circle of light. It is obvious that 
if the incandescent charcoal during its revolution was evolving successively various 
rays, we could measure the length and duration of every ray by the angle each 
would subtend on the circle during its course. This is precisely what can be 
done with the light of the star. It can indeed be made to revolve like the incan- 
descent charcoal, and form a complete circle on the retina. When we look ata 
star with a telescope, we see it on a definite part of the field of the glass; but if 


6 REPORT—1863. 


with one hand we slightly move the telescope the image of the star changes its 
position ; and during that motion, on account of the persistence of sensation on the 
retina, instead of appearing like a spot, it assumes the shape of a continuous line. 
Now if, instead of moving the telescope in a straight line, we endeavour to move 
it in a circular direction, the star appears like a circle, but very irregular, on ac- 
count of the unsteadiness of the movement communicated by the hand. Such is 
the principle of the instrument employed by the author to communicate the perfect 
circular motion, which it is impossible to impart by the hand. The instrument 
consists of a conical tube placed horizontally on a stand, and revolving on its own 
axis by means of wheels; inside this tube a telescope or an opera-glass is placed, 
by which, by means of two opposite screws, the end of the object-glass can be 
placed in an excentric position in various degrees according to the effect desired, 
while the eye-glass remains in the centre of the small end of the tube, Now, 
we understand that when the machine makes the tube revolve upon its axis, the 
telescope inside revolves in an excentric direction, and during the revolution the star 
seen through it must appear like a circle. This circle exhibits on its periphery the 
various rays emitted by the star, all following each other in spaces corresponding 
with their duration, showing also blank spaces between two contiguous rays which 
must correspond with the black lines of ee spectrum. The instrument, in fact, is 
a kind of spectroscope, by which we can analyse the light of any star, study the 
cause of the scintillation, and compare its intensity in various climates or seasons 
and at different altitudes. 


On the Relationship between the Variation of the Excentricity of the Earth’s 
Orbit and the Moon’s Mean Motion in Longitude. By the Rev. Dr. E. Hincxs. 


One of the hieroglyphic inscriptions at Thebes contains a notice of an eclipse of 
the sun, observed on a given day of a given year of a certain king; but according 
to Hansen’s tables, no eclipse could have been visible on that day so far west as 
Thebes. Dr. Hincks therefore asked for the assistance of those more practically 
engaged than himself in astronomical pursuits in answering the following queries : 
—Let e, and M, be the excentricity of the earth’s orbit and the mean longitude of 
the moon at the beginning of 1801. Let e,, and M, be the excentricity and the 
mean longitude at the end of any time 7, the longitude being reckoned from the 
equinox of 1801. 

Let e,=e,+e,T+e,T* 
and M,,=M,+M,rt+M,1?+M,1°*. 


It was formerly thought that M,=ae, and M,=a,e,; a and a, being coefficients 
supposed to be known. Some years ago it was discovered that these coefficients 
were much less than they had been supposed to be; and it was inferred that some 
other cause had combined with gravity to make M, so great as it is. Within the 
last year he had heard that some eminent astronomers were of opinion that e, was 
‘much greater” than it had been supposed to be; but he had heard nothing pre- 
cise as to its value. It had occurred to him that as M, had been greatly overrated 
by astronomers, the above equation M,=ae, might still hold good. If so, the 
eclipse might not only be visible at Thebes, but annular ; and it was more probable 
that a recorded eclipse should be of an unusual character, as an annular eclipse 
would be, than an ordinary partial one. The moon being near her apogee, a total 
eclipse would be impossible. On the possibility of the equation raune good, he 
desired to ascertain the opinions of the Section. 


Description of a Solar Eyepiece invented by the Rev. W. R, Dawzs, F.RAS., 
and constructed, under his direction, by Dottonn. Communicated by Dr. Lux. 


In the greatly improved form of this eyepiece, as exhibited, the fundamental 
principle of the original construction is preserved, which consists in greatly con- 
tracting the field of view, so that the heat emanating from the portion of the sun’s 
focal image admitted to the eye-glass, however large the telescope may be, shall 
be less than would cause any injury to the dark glasses which defend the eye from 
excessive light. The diaphragms by which the field is thus contracted are arranged 


— 


ee 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, a, 


in a rotating circular plate, which is prevented from becoming inconyeniently heated 
by a layer of plaster of Paris on its first surface, and by a coating of enamel on the 
brass plate on which it rotates. The eye-lenses and dark glasses are also arranged 
in rotating wheels. : 

By the use of the smallest apertures in the diaphragm-plate, the middle, or 
umbra, of large solar spots may be advantageously scrutinized, all the rest, even 
the penumbra of the spot itself, being excluded from view. It was in this way 
that the inventor discovered the irregular illumination and cloudy appearance of 
the umbra (which was previously supposed to be black, and probably the body of 
the sun itself), and the existence, in most of the larger and more symmetrical spots, 
of a small well-defined portion in which no light at all could be seen, and to which 
alone the term nucleus (often erroneously applied to the whole of the wnbra) ought 
to be restricted. This is the more important, as the inventor has arrived at the 
conclusion that the existence or non-existence of this entirely black nucleus forms 
an obvious distinction between two classes of solar spots, whose origin is of a very 
different kind. 

This eyepiece is also of great utility in several other species of observation ; as, 
e. g.,in the scrutiny of minute and delicate portions of the moon’s surface, while the 
eye is relieved by the exclusion of all the rest from the field of view; in observing 
lunar occultations, and the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites, and in examining the 
immediate vicinity of planets for faint satellites, and of bright stars for minute com- 
panions. The diameters of the apertures in the diaphragm-plate vary from 0:5 to 
about 0-01 of an inch. As there is some difficulty in cleaning out the smallest of 
these without injuring it as a point of a fine needle might do, it may be well to 
mention that the inventor has found the best instrument for this purpose to be a 
ceat’s whisker, 


On the Lamar “ Mare Smythii,” the walled Plain “ Rosse,” the “ Perey Moun- 
tains,” and the newly named Craters, “ Phillips,” “ Wrottesley,” ‘“ Cheval- 
her,” and “ Piazzi Smyth.” By Dr. Lex, F.R.S. 

The “ Mare Smythii” *.—This interesting portion of the moon’s surface was first 
observed with sufficient care, and delineated accurately, by Schréter in 1792, Sept. 30, 
twenty-two hours after full moon. T. Mayer and Cassini had represented in its locality 
a long grey streak. Schréter’s drawing, in the main, is executed with ereat fidelity, 
and represents all the principal features of the Mare, as well as some interesting 
craters east of it. In this respect, as well as in a portion of the eastern rim, it is 
closely in accordance with a drawing made by Mr. Birt on the 30th of J uly, 1863, 
when the terminator bisected the surface of the Mare. Mr. Birt also had an 
cpprnnity, on the 25th of November, 1863, of verifying in almost every particular 

chroter’s delineation. Schréter designated this extensive lunar plain “ Abraham 

Gotthelf Kistner,” and delineated and described two somewhat extensive depres- 

sions eastward of the southern part of the Mare, It would appear from Beer and 

Madler’s large map that these great selenographers had but imperfectly seen this 

fine Mare, nearly equal in extent to the Mare Crisium, for they describe “Kistner” 

as extending like a sea from —2° to— 9° south latitude; and that it is almost 30 Ger- 
man miles in length, while they make the Mare Crisium 61 German miles long. They 
give on their map a dark plain even smaller than that described above, and which, 
rom a careful comparison of the drawings now in existence, appears to be the 
eastern portion only of the southern part of Schriter’s “Kistner.” Schroter’s 
delineation being thus so considerably reduced by Beer and Miidler, it becomes 
quite impossible to identify their “Kistner” with the Mare in question. Accord- 
ingly when, on August 20th, 1861, it was seen by Mr. Birt in the immediate 
neighbourhood of the terminator, the observation assumed the character of a dis- 
peers in fact, the mutilation of this fine plain by Beer and Miidler clearly renders 
the observation of Mr. Birt a rediscovery of the true “Kistner ” of Schroter, while 
the position of one of the depressions east of its southern portion is so nearly 
* The name “ Smythii” is given to this Mare in commemoration of the extensive and 


lone labours of the accomplished and gallant admiral, the author of the ‘ Celestial 
'ycle.’ 


8 REPORT—1863. 


similar to that of the “ Kistner” of Beer and Midler as really to have been taken 
for it. Under these circumstances it becomes highly important to settle the 
nomenclature in this part of the moon by distinctly designating both formations, 
the larger the “ Mare Smythii,” the smaller “ Kistner.” 

The extent of this large plain—fifteen degrees of latitude and as many, if not 
rather more, of longitude, viz. 5° N. to 9° 30'S. latitude, and 80° W. to 95° W. (?) 
longitude—combined with its great similarity to the Mare Crisium, clearly entitle 
it to rank asa Mare. As it was first discovered and named by Schroter, it may be 
considered undesirable to disturb the existing nomenclature; and undoubtedly it 
would be taking an unwarrantable liberty to change the name, if Beer and Madler 
had given the dimensions and outlines on their map as left by Schréter. As it is, 
much confusion has arisen. The plain has not been identified with their delinea- 
tion ; a formation eastward of it has been regarded and published as “ Kastner ;”’ 
and the only way now to set the matter right is to distinguish the one from the 
other unmistakeably. Again, the name of “ Kistner” is but little known in this 
country, and is of mere local interest, while the name of “Smyth,” as the Rey. T. 
W. Webb remarks, ‘“‘is not merely of English but of universal celebrity.” It is 
therefore proposed to retain the name “ Kistner” for the smaller and more ancient 
formation, and to commemorate the rediscovery by designating the larger and more 
modern plain by the name of the gallant admiral who has contributed so largely, 
not only to the advancement of astronomy, but also to the pleasure of every practical 
astronomer, by the publication of his most interesting ‘ Cycle.’ 

The walled plain “ Rosse ” is situated in the south-east quadrant of the moon’s 
surface. It has hitherto been wnrepresented, and is one of the largest individualized 
localities on the lunar disk unappropriated. It was first noticed by Mr. Birt, on 
November 3, 1862; but its characteristics, boundary-walls, and distinct individual 
character were determined with the Hartwell equatoreal on the 27th of August, 
1863. Its selenographical coordinates are 53° to 60° S. latitude and 48° to 55° E. 
longitude, and it extends from the craters Zuchius and Segner on the south to 
Phocylides on the north. Its eastern and western walls are partly interrupted by 
two small but conspicuous craters, as yet wnamed. The surface of this walled 
plain appears, under a rather advanced illumination, to be very smooth and level, 
with the exception of a remarkable promontory stretching towards the middle of the 
enclosure. This walled plain has received the name of “ Rosse,” in honour of the 
nobleman who has so liberally contributed to the advancement of astronomy by the 
erection of one of the largest telescopes in existence at Parsonstown in Ireland. 

The “ Percy Mountains ” are a fine chain, extending from Gassendi to Cavendish, 
with some very interesting crater-openings on their summits. They have been 
named to honour the memory of Earl Percy, the late Duke of Northumberland, a 
well-known patron of astronomy and a munificent donor of refracting telescopes to 
the Universities of Cambridge and of Durham. They are now undera regular course 
of observation by Mz. Birt, both with the Hartwell equatoreal and the Royal Society's 
41-inch achromatic, which was lately voted to him by the Council. Selenographical 
coordinates 17° to 28° 8. latitude, and 41° to 53° E. longitude. 

“ Phillips” and “ Wrottesley” are two interesting craters adjoining the magni- 
ficent formations “Wilhelm Humboldt” and “Petayius.” The occasion of naming 
them, as well as the discrepancy occurring in Beer and Madler’s map, as compared 
with “Der Mond,” relative to “ Wilhelm Humboldt” and “ Phillips,” are fully 
detailed in the ‘Astronomical Register’ for November 1863, pp. 169 and 170. 
“Phillips,” which is nearly the size of Plato, has for its selenographical coordi- . 
nates 24° to 27° 8. latitude, and 75° to 80° W. longitude. It is marked “ Hum- 
boldt” on Beer and Miidler’s map, which is decidedly a mistake. The coordinates 
of “ Wrottesley ” are 23° 8. latitude and 56° W. longitude. 

“Chevallier,” named in honour of the distinguished astronomer and scholar, the 
Rey. Temple Chevallier of the University of Durham, is situated in the north-west 
quadrant of the moon’s disk. Between “ Atlas” and “ Messala” there are three 
craters, two of which are unnamed. It is proposed to designate the nearest to 
“ Atlas” “Chevallier ”’; its selenographical coordinates are 45° N. and 50° W. 

The crater “ Piazzi Smyth” is named, with the Teneriffe Mountains, to comme- 
morate “An Astronomer’s Experiment.” It is interestingly situated on a soft 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9 


ridge on the surface of the Mare Imbrium, in latitude 42° N. and longitude 3° 30' E, 
It is almost the only crater in a somewhat irregular line of detached rocks which 
are designated the Teneriffe Mountains, the principal of which is the isolated rock 
Pico,” named by Schréter. These mountains are each designated by a Teneriffan 
appellation. A fine rock, equal to “ Pico,” and westward of “ Piazzi Smyth,” is 
called “ Piton’’; those south and north of “ Pico,” “ Guajara” and “ Rambleta” ; 
a fine branching chain east of “ Rambleta,” “ Alta Vistay’; and a rock N.E. of 
“Rambleta,” ‘ Chajorra.” 


On the Distribution of Heat on the Sun’s Surface, and the Currents in ts 
Atmosphere. By J.J. Murray. 


Professor Secchi, of Rome, has ascertained that the sun’s equator is sensibly 
hotter than its poles. That this should be the case follows from the meteoric 
theory of solar heat. The asteroids which revolve round the sun, and fall into its 
atmosphere as meteors, probably occupy, like the entire solar system, a lenticular 
space haying its greatest diameter nearly coincident with the sun’s equator ; and 
if so, a greater number of meteors must fall on the equatorial than on the polar 
regions of the sun, making the former the hottest. The meteoric theory will also 
account for the currents in the sun’s atmosphere, observed by Mr. Carrington (see 
the ‘Proceedings of the Royal Astronomical Society,’ 15th April, 1860). He 
finds that the spots in the lowest latitudes drift most rapidly from W. to E. Were 
the sun's atmosphere, like the earth’s, acted on by no other motive power than the 
unequal heating at different latitudes, the relative direction of the currents would 
be the reverse of this, in virtue of the well-known principles of the trade winds and 
“ counter-trades,” and this would be true at all depths in the sun’s atmosphere. 
But if meteors are constantly falling into the sun’s atmosphere, moving from west 
to east with a velocity scarcely less than that of a planet at the sun’s surface, and 
in greatest number in its equatorial regions, there is a motive power which is 
adequate to drive its atmosphere round it from west to east, and with greatest 
velocity at the equator. The intensely bright meteor-like bodies which Mr. Car- 
rington and another observer simultaneously saw traverse the sun’s disk moved 
from west to east, and they were almost certainly asteroids falling into the sun, 


Researches on the Moon. By Professor Puririrs, /.R.S, 


The author, having on previous occasions presented his views as to the methods 
and objects of research in the moon, was desirous now to state a few results, and 
exhibit a few drawings, the fruit of recent examinations of the moon by means of a 
new equatoreal by Cooke, with an object-glass of 6 inches*. In sketching ring 
mountains, such as Theophilus and Posidonius, the author has been greatly 
interested by the changes of aspect which even a small alteration in the angles of 
elevation and azimuth respectively produce in the shadows and lights. Taking an 
example from Cyrillus, with its rocky interior, and fixing attention on the nearly 
central mountain, it always appears in the morning light to have two principal 
unperforated masses. By a slight change in the direction of the light, the division of 
these masses is deeply shaded on the north or deeply shaded on the south, and the 
figure of the masses, 7. ¢. the limit of light and shade, seems altered. A slight 
change in the angle of elevation of the incident light makes more remarkable 
differences. On Posidonius, which is a low, nearly level plateau, within moderately 
raised borders, the mid-morning light shows with beautiful distinctness the shield- 
like disk of the mountain, with narrow broken walls, and in the interior, broad, easy 
undulations, one large and several smaller craters. In earlier morning more craters 
appear, and the interior ridges gather to form a broken terrace, subordinate to the 
principal ridge. This circumstance of an interior broken terrace, under the high 
main ring of mountain, is very frequent, but it is often concealed by the shadow 
of the great ridge in early-morning shadows. To see it emerge into half-lights, 
and finally into distinct digitations and variously directed ridges, as the light falls 


* He has also observed the aspect of the sun, but on this subject he reserved his remarks. 


10 REPORT—1863. 


at increasing angles, is a very beautiful sight. But it is chiefly to the variations in 
the central masses of lunar mountains and their physical bearings that the author 
wishes to direct attention. Many smaller mountains are simply like cups set in 
saucers, while others contain only one central or several dispersed cups. In Plato 
is a nearly central very small cup, bright, and giving a distinct shadow on the grey 
ground, as seen by Mr. Lockyer, Mr. Birt, and Professor Phillips himself. But in 
the centre of many of the larger mountains, as Copernicus, Gassendi, and Theophilus, 
is a large mass of broken rocky country, 5000 or 6000 feet high, with buttresses 
passing off into collateral ridges, or an undulated surface of low ridges and hollows. 
The most remarkable object of this kind which the author has yet observed with 
attention is in Theophilus, of which mountain two drawings are given, in which 
the author places equal confidence, except that the later drawing may have the ad- 
vantage of more experience, The central mass is seen under powers of 200 to 400 
(the best performance is from 200 to 300), and appears as a large conical mass of 
rocks about fifteen miles in diameter, and divided by deep chasms radiating from 
the centre. The rock-masses between these deep clefts are bright and shining, and 
the clefts widen towards the centre; the eastern side is more diversified than the 
western, and, like the southern side, has long excurrent buttresses. As the light 
grows on the mountain, point after point of the mass on the eastern side comes out 
of the shade, and the whole figure resembles an uplifted mass which broke with 
radiating cracks in the act of elevation. Excepting in steepness, this resembles the 
theoretical Mont d’Or of De Beaumont; and as there is no mark of cups or craters 
in this mass of broken ground, the author is disposed to regard its origin as really 
due to the displacement of a solidified part of the moon’s crust. He might be 
justified by Professor Seechi’s drawing of Copernicus in inquiring if the low ex- 
current buttresses may indicate issues of lava on the southern and western sides ? 
On the whole, the author is confirmed in the opinion he has elsewhere expressed, 
that on the moon’s face are features more strongly marked than on our own globe, 
which, rightly studied, may lead to a Imowledge of volcanic action under grander 
and simpler conditions than have prevailed on the earth during the period of 
subaérial voleanos. The author also exhibited a drawing of Aristarchus, showing 
some undescribed features in the aspect of that, the brightest part_of the moon’s 
surface. 


On the Changing Colour of the Star 95 Herculis, 
By Professor Prazzi Suytu, /.R.S., Astronomer Royal for Scotland. 


The star 95 Herculis is a double star, of which the two members are nearly of 
equal magnitude (about the 5th), and are six seconds apart, in R. A. 17h, 55m. 
33s,, and N. D. 21° 35' 56" epoch 1860, It has hitherto been catalogued as a 
diversely coloured pair of stars, one member being called “apple-green” and the 
other “cherry-red.” These colours have moreoyer been oka upon (as are the 
colours of all ordinary stars) as constant features, Being observed, however, by 
the author when he was on the Peak of Teneriffe, in 1856, they were found nearly 
colourless, and without any diversity of tint the one from the other. This obser- 
vation was considered anomalous at the time, and was so to a certain extent; but, 
on examining older authorities, the author has met with two other instances of an 
equality of pale colour being observed in the two components of 95 Herculis—one 
by Sestini in 1844-50, and the other by Struve in 1832°53; and remarks that, while 
these two epochs are separated by twelve years exactly to a tenth, the later of 
them precedes the Teneriffan observation in 1856-58 by almost exactly the same 
quantity. Now this looks like a regular periodic change, of yery short period; and 
it is not improbable that the twelve years constitutes a multiple of a shorter period 
still, during which the change of tint of the stars is so marked that, from being 
merely grey at a certain time, one star has been described as becoming an “ astonish- 
ingly yellow-green,” and the other “an egregious red.” Although this is the first 
instance of this kind yet detected in the sky, the author thinks that it will not be 
found a solitary one; and that its phenomena may bear some relation to the 
“eclipse ” pink prominences of our sun, and to auroral displays. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 11 


On Sun-spots and their Connexion with Planetary Configurations. 
By B. Stewart, FBS. 


The author described the results of his examination of a continuous series 
of pictures of the sun’s disk taken by the Kew photoheliograph between February 
1862 and August 1863. He atta that “there is little difficulty in finding 
approximately, by a comparison of two or three consecutive pictures, at what por- 
tion of the sun’s disk any spot ceases to increase and begins to wane, or, on the 
other hand, breaks out into a visible appearance.” Now, it appears to be a law 
almost universal, that if there be several spots, and one decreases before coming to 
the central vertical line passing through the sun’s disk, another spot does the same ; 
if, on the other hand, a spot breaks out on the right half and increases up to the 
border, another will do the same. The author thinks that he has noticed a con- 
nexion between this behaviour of sun-spots and the configuration of the nearer 
planets, Mercury and Venus, of the followmg nature. Let us suppose that Mercury 
and Venus are both in a line considerably to the right of the earth, then spots will 
decrease as they come round from the left-hand side, and before they reach the 
centre of the disk. On the other hand, if these two planets are considerably to the 
left of the earth, there will be a tendency for spots to form on the right half of the 
disk and to increase up to the border, 


Lieut anp Haat. 


Account of Preliminary Experiments on Oalcescence. By C, K, Axi, Ph.D, 


In this paper the author described the attempt which he had made, conjointly 
with Mr. one Griffith, the Assistant General Secretary of the British Associa- 
tion, to carry out some of the experiments proposed by him in his paper “ On the 
Transmutation of Spectral Rays,” for the purpose of producing the converse phe- 
nomenon of fluorescence, for which the term calcescence* was suggested to him 
for adoption. As the experiments, partly from the unfitness of the apparatus em- 
ployed, and partly from other interruptions, were not brought to a successful issue, 
and moreover are likely soon to be renewed under more favourable conditions, and 
with the more pewerful and convenient instruments supplied by the liberality of 
the British Association, a description of the same in print will best be reserved for 
a future occasion. 


On some Phenomena produced by the Refractive Power of the Eye. 
By A. Crauper, F.R.S. 


This paper was to explain several effects of refraction through the eye, one of 
which is, that objects situated a little behind us are seen as if they were on a 
straight line from right to left. Another, that the pictures of external objects 
which are represented on the retina are included in an angle much larger than one- 
half of the sphere at the centre of which the observer is placed; from this point of 
view a single glance encompasses a vast and splendid panorama, extending to an 
angle of 200°. This is the result of the common law of refraction. All the rays 
of light passing through the cornea to the crystalline lens are more and more re- 
fracted in proportion to the angle at which they strike the spherical surface of the 
cornea. Consequently, the only objects which are seen in their true position are 
those entering the eye in the direction of the optic axis. By this refraction the 
rays which enter the eye at an angle of 90° are bent 10°, and appear to come from 
an angle of 80°. This phenomenon produces a very curious illusion. When we 
are lighted by the sun, the moon, or any other light, if we endeavour to place our- 


* From calcium, the name of the characteristic chemical element of lime, whose action 
on the oxyhydrogen flame most probably represents a phenomenon of the kind alluded to, 
and has suggested the speculations contained in the paper adverted to in the text. 


12 REPORT—1863. 


selves in a line with the light and the shadow of our body, we are surprised to find 
that the light and the shadow seem not to be connected at all, and that, instead of 
being in a line, they appear bent to an angle of 160° instead of forming one of 180°; 
so that we see both the light and the shadow a little before us, where they are not 
expected to be. The eye refracts the line formed by the ray of light and that formed 
by the shadow, and the efiect is like that of the stick, one-half of which, being im- 
mersed in water, appears crooked, or bent into an angle at the point of immersion. 
This enlargement of the field of vision to an angle of 200° is one of those innu- 
merable and wonderful resources of nature by which the beauty of the effect is in- 
creased. By it our attention is called to the various parts of the panorama which 
appear in any way a desirable point of observation, and we are warned of any 
danger from objects coming to us in the most oblique direction. These advantages 
are particularly felt in our crowded towns, where we are obliged to be constantly 
on the lookout for all that is passing around us. 


On Specific Refractive Energy. 
By J. H. Guanstonez, Ph.D., F.R.S., and Rey. T, P. Darz, MA., FRAN. 


In a paper laid before the Royal Society a few months ago, the authors came to 
the conclusion that every liquid is endowed with a certain optical property, which 
is independent of its temperature, and which accompanies the substance in its 
mixtures with other liquids, and to a certain extent in its chemical combinations. 

This property is the refractive index, minus unity, divided by the density 


=C,and for this constant the authors have suggested the term ‘specific refractive 


energy.’ It is not maintained that the above formula represents the property with per- 
fect accuracy, for each observed refractive index is affected by dispersion, which does 
not follow the same law; and evenif the refraction of the theoretical limit of the 


spectrum be taken,” , there is apparently some disturbing cause of a higher order 
which still remains unaccounted for. Other physicists have sought for this property 
in what Newton called the absolute refractive power, — , but this does not agree 
80 well with the experimental observations. 

The authors now proposed to show how nearly the expression aa represents 


the real law as determined from observation, and under what varied circumstances 
it may be applied, and also to suggest a possible cause of its divergence from abso- 
lute coincidence. In doing so they referred not merely to experiments of their own, 
but also to those of Dulong, Jamin, and Le Roux on the refraction of gases and 
Mes ae and to other determinations by Brewster, Deville, Weiss, and Schraub. 

. Specific refractive energy and change of volume by heat.—It was shown in 


the paper above referred to that the specific refractive energy of a liquid, a D ” (or if 


. malas 
y represent the theoretical limit of the index, ae, is a constant, or very nearly 80, 


at all temperatures. Yet in almost every instance examined it was found that the 
specific refractive energy slightly diminished as the temperature increased. The 
exceptions are quite within the limits of errors of experiment, and may probably be 
thus accounted for. 

2. Specific refractive energy and change of volume by pressure.—The single experi- 
ment on this subject made by Jamin on water gaye a result which is about equally 


accordant with theory, whether, with that observer, we calculate it by DD - or 


—l 

prefer the formula — 
3. Specific refractive energy and change of aggregate condition.—It has been shown 
in previous papers that the refractive energies of water and phosphorus in the liquid 


—~ 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 13 


and solid condition vary directly as their densities. This observation is now ex- 
tended to other bodies and to the gaseous condition. 


Condition. Water.} Phosphorus. |Sulphur. | Bisulph. Carb. | Ether. 
_ Sa 336 58 50 ie sa 
ICRP so 'hie\.s). sata 2184 « 333 “59 “49 “49 “49 
NREECOUAY 6 oie: oh oy 5 mia is) 321 “50? *A9? "44, “46 


Calculation from constituents | 339 Pots at “48 53 


In the above table the density of water at 0° C. is taken as unity throughout. It 
will be observed that the specific refractive energies of the solid and liquid con- 
dition are almost identical, and that those of a gas are somewhat less, with one 
doubtful exception, sulphur. As these are taken for the most luminous part of the 
spectrum, the disturbance caused by dispersion, at least, will make itself felt; and 
it is worthy of remark that (setting aside sulphur) the more dispersive a substance 
is, the greater is the difference between its specific refractive energy in the liquid 
and gaseous condition. 

There is no resemblance between the absolute refractive powers of a substance in 
these two states, as was observed long since by Arago. 

4. Specific refractive energy and solution—Ilt was laid down in a former paper 
as approximately true that the specific refractive energy of a mixture of two 
liquids is the mean of the specific refractive energies of its constituents. The 
following observations on solutions of two gases, two liquids, and two solids in 
water will serve to test whether this law can be extended to solution in general, 
even where there is a change of aggregate condition in one of the bodies, or where 
a feeble chemical affinity exists between the two. The specific refractive energy 
of water is taken at ‘3285 for Fraunhofer’s line A, and °333 for the line D. 


Specific refractive Specific refractive energy of solution in water. 


Substance. 
energy: Observed. Calculated. 
Ammonia.... 506 375 378 
Hydrochloric acid} 277 "344 “316 
Alcohol «./3 s+ “456 *396 395 
Nitric acid. ... *289 “310 “311 
BULACT wisvays «e *340 340 3365 
Common salt . . "260 “318 315 


Tn all these cases the observed and the calculated numbers are nearly coincident, 
with the exception of hydrochloric acid, where the combination of the gas with 
water seems to have materially altered its optical property. It is so likewise with 
sulphuric acid. 

The above-mentioned solution of sugar in water, when mixed with an equal 
weight of water, gave the specific refractive energy 337, instead of ‘3865, which 
may be taken as the same thing. 

The doubly refracting crystals of tartaric acid gave as their specific refractive 
power, deduced from the mean of the two spectra, ‘319 for the line A, and a solution 
in water gave ‘316—a lower, instead of 324, a higher number, as the theory 
requires. 

tt may be a matter for consideration how far the molecular forces that cause 
crystallization, or maintain a body in a solid or liquid state, influence the velocity 
with which light is propagated through the medium. 

5. Specific refractive energy and chemical combination.—Dulong showed long ago 
that the absolute refractive power of a compound gas is nearly, but not exactly, the 
mean of the specific refractive powers of its gaseous constituents. This is equally 
true of the specific refractive energy. But the observation need not be confined 
to gases. In the following table the actual specific refractive energies of three 
liquids is compared with the mean of the specific refractive energies of their con- 
stituents, whether gaseous, liquid, or solid, 


14 REPORT—1863. 


Brom. Phosph. | Chlor. Phosph.}| Chlor. Carb. 


QOpsdrvedaly iepbiniil voay onbpdieie = 237 348 *287 
Calculated from constituents .. . "250 304 "264 


These show merely a general resemblance between the observed and the calcu- 
lated energies. They form part of the ever-multiplying proofs, that though a 
chemical compound may be considered as haying a specific refractive energy com- 
posed of the specific refractive energies of its component elements, it is, as stated 
elsewhere, modified by the manner of combination. 

The specific refractive energy of chloride of ammonium appears to be *42. As 
calculated from Dulong’s numbers for nitrogen, hydrogen, and chlorine gases, it 
should be only 34 ; but as calculated from the specific refractive indices of ammonia 
and hydrochloric acid when liquefied by solution, it is -417. 


On a New Form of Syren. By W. Lavp. 


A disk of cardboard is perforated with 1682 holes, apportioned into twenty-four 
concentric circles, the fifteen interior ones being divided into regular, and the 
remainder into irregular, intervals. The former are divided in the followin 
proportions :—For every two holes in the first circle (counting from the eatin} 
there are 3 in the 2nd, 4 in the 3rd, 5 in the 4th, 6 in the 5th, 8 in the 6th, 10 in 
the 7th, 12 in the 8th, 16 in the 9th, 20 in the 10th, 24 in the 11th, 52 in the 12th, 
4O in the 13th, 48 in the 14th, and 64 inthe 15th. If with a small tube air is blown 
into these circles whilst the disk is in rapid rotation, a series of musical notes will 
be obtained, allied to each other in the relative proportion of the numbers. Look- 
ing at the outer portion of the disk, lines of holes are observed radiating from the 
centre, and dividing the disk into 24 equal parts; and, if the other holes were 
stopped, each of these rings would produce a single sound, the same as the 6th 
row of the inner series. This note will form the fundamental of all the harmonies. 
If a point is taken in the first of the external rings, and, starting from it, with a 

air of compasses the distance between it and the first intermediate hole is repeated 
bv times, it will correspond with four of the fundamental spaces; and if a single 
jet of air is forced through these holes whilst the disk is rotating, the idea con- 
veyed to the mind will be precisely the same as if two separate notes were sounded 
together—the two notes being a fundamental and its third, the proportions of the 
vibrations being as 5:4. The 2nd row is divided in the ratio of 4: 3—this will 
give a fundamental and its 4th (or subdominant); the 3rd row is divided as 3: 2, 
giving the fundamental and its fifth (or dominant); the 4th row, divided as 5: 3, 
gives a fundamental and its 6th ; the 5th row is as 7 : 4—this giving a fundamental 
and flat 7th; the 6th row has a combination of four holes, in the proportion of 
6:5:4:3—this will give a perfect chord of four notes; the 7th row has four holes, 
in the proportion of 8:6: 5:4—this will give a perfect chord with octave of the 
fundamental; the 8th row is divided in the proportion of 5:4:3, giving a per- 
fect major triad with inverted 5th; and the last row is divided in the proportion 
of 6:5:4, which forms a ee major triad. The exact intonation of the notes 
given out by the inner circles, and the exquisite harmonies produced by the outer 
ones, are remarkable, 


M. Soteiz’s Tenebroscope, for illustrating the Invisibility of Light. 
Exhibited and described by the Abbé Moreno. 


The instrument exhibited consisted of a tube with an opening at one end to be 
looked into, the other end closed, the inside well blackened, and a wide opening 
across the tube to admit strong light to pass only across. On looking in, all is 
perfectly dark, but a small trigger raises at pleasure a small ivory ball into the 
course of the rays, and its presence instantly reveals the existence of the crossing 
beam by reflecting a portion of its light. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 15 


On a New Micrometer. By M. H. Soret; exhibited and explained 
by the Abbé Moteno. 


This consisted of two Ramsden’s eyepieces, one fixed near the object or image 
to be measured, the other moveable to suit the vision of the observer, with a ruled 
glass micrometer-plate placed between them. The magnifying ated of this eye- 
piece being ascertained by a comparison of the object as seen directly, with the 
same object as seen through the micrometer, it then became applicable to the 
telescope, the microscope, and even to goniometry by a certain adjustment, and 
haying the plate to which the objective eyepiece was attached graduated on its 
circumference, 


On Spectral Analysis. By Prof. Pritcxer. 


It is generally admitted now, that every gaseous body rendered luminous by heat 
or electricity sends out a peculiar light, which, if examined by the prism, gives a 
well-defined and characteristic spectrum. By such a spectrum, by any one of its 
brilliant lines whose position has been measured, you may recognize the examined 
gas. This way of proceeding constitutes what is called spectral analysis, to which we 
owe, already, the discovery of three new elementary bodies. In order to give to 
spectral analysis a true and certain basis, you want the spectrum of each elementary 
substance. Very recently, some eminent philosophers, in examining such spectra, 
met with unexpected difficulties, and doubts arose in their minds against the new 
doctrine. Those doubts are unfounded. The factis, that the molecular constitution 
of gases is much more complicated than it has been generally admitted to be till now. 
The spectra therefore, always indicating the molecular constitution of gases, must 
also be more complicated than they were at first thought to be. By these consider- 
ations, a new importance, of a physical nature, is given to spectral analysis. You 
may recognize by the spectrum of a gas, not only the chemical nature of the gas, but 
you may also obtain indications of its more intimate molecular structure—quite a 
new branch of science. Allow me now to select, out of the results already obtained, 
two instances only. Let me try to give what I may call the history of the spectra 
of two elementary bodies—of sulphur and nitrogen. In order to analyze by the 
prism the beautiful light produced by the electric current if it pass through a 
rarefied gas, I gave to the tube in which the gas is included such a form that its 
middle part was capillary. Thus I got within this part of the tube a brilliant film 
of light, extremely fitted to be examined by the prism. The date of my first paper 
on this subject is the 12th of March, 1858. About a year ago, after haying pro- 
vided myself with apparatus more suited to my purpose, I asked my friend Professor 
Hittorf, of Miinster, to join me in taking up my former researches. The very first 
results we obtained in operating on gases of a greater density opened to us an im- 
mense field of new investigation. We found that the very same elementary sub- 
stance may have two, even three, absolutely different spectra, which only depend 
on temperature. In our experiments we made use of Ruhmkorff’s induction-coil, 
whose discharge was sent through our spectral tubes. In order to increase at 
other times the heating-power of the discharge, we made use of a Leyden jar. 
Now, let us suppose a spectral tube, most highly exhausted by Geissler’s mercury- 
pump, contains a very small quantity of sulphur. The discharge of the coil will 
not pass through the tube if it do not meet with ponderable matter, either taken 
from the surface of the glass or, if the discharge be very strong, by the chemical 
decomposition of the glass. In heating the tube slowly by means of a lamp, in 
order to transform a part of the sulphur into vapour, all accidental spectrum, if 
there be one, will disappear, and you will get a pure and beautiful spectrum of 
sulphur. I suppose the Leyden jar not to have been interposed. you now 
interpose it, the spectrum just spoken of will suddenly be replaced by quite a dif- 
ferent one. We were, generally, led to distinguish two quite different classes of 
spectra. Spectra of the first class consist in a certain number of bands, variously 
shadowed by dark transversal lines. Spectra of the second class consist in a great num- 
ber of most brilliant lines on a dark ground. Accordingly, sulphur has one spectrum 
of the first class and another one of the second class. You may, as often as you 
like, obtain each of these two spectra. In operating on a spectral tube containing 


16 REPORT—1863. 


nitrogen at a tension of about 50 millimétres, you will, without the Leyden jar, 
get a most beautiful spectrum of the first class. After interposing the jar, a splendid 
spectrum of the second class will be seen. But here the case is more complicated 
still. The above-mentioned spectrum of the first class is‘not a simple one, but it 
is produced by the superposition of two spectra of the same class. Tieetted nitro- 
gen, at the lowest temperature, has a most beautiful colour of gold. When its 
temperature rises, its colour suddenly changes into blue. In the first case, the cor- 
responding spectrum is formed by the less refracted bands extended towards the 
violet part ; in the second case, it is formed by the more refracted band of the spec- 
trum extended towards the red. Nitrogen, therefore, has two spectra of the first 
class and one spectrum of the second class, The final conclusion, therefore, is that 
sulphur has two, nitrogen three, different allotropic states. It may appear very 
strange that a gaseous body may have different allotropic states, z. e. different states 
of molecular equilibrium. It may not appear, perhaps, more strange that a sub- 
stance, hitherto supposed to be anelementary one, may really be decomposed at an 
extremely high temperature. From spectral analysis there cannot be taken any 
objection that sulphur and nitrogen may be decomposed. Chloride of zine (or 
cadmium), for instance, exhibits two different spectra. If heated like sulphur, and 
then ignited by the discharge of Ruhmkorft’s coil, you will get a beautiful spectrum 
either of chlorine or of the metal, if either the Leyden jar be not interposed or be 
interposed. There is, in this case, a dissociation of the elements of the composed 
body in the highest temperature, and recomposition again at a lower temperature. 
You may consider the dissociation as an allotropic state, and, therefore, I may 
make use of this term as long as the decomposition be not proved by the separated 
elements. 


On the Focal Adjustment of the Eye*. By Barnarp §. Proctor. 


The object of the paper was to afford answers to the following questions :— 

Is it occasionally, generally, or universally that the human eye has distinct foci 
for vertical and horizontal lines ? 

Is the power of altering the focus of the eye exceptional or general? and what is 
the extent of the change ? 

Can eyes, having distinct vertical and horizontal foci, be made to adjust these 
foci to any particular distance at the same time ? 

Have the two eyes generally different focal lengths ? : 

Does a good resolving power always accompany a good adjusting power ? 

Are markings on a flat surface resolved better by one eye or both? 

What is the appearance of a vertical line, and what of a horizontal line and a 
point, when within or beyond focus ? 

Do the powers of the eye vary much with time of day, bodily or mental 
fatigue, &c. ? 

For experimenting upon the focus, an object was constructed consisting of a 
darkened glass, upon which were scratched lines so as to transmit light. The 
design adopted was a cross consisting of fine double lines, simple appliances being 
adopted for transmitting through these lines a constant amount of light, and for 
varying the distance between the object and the eye of the observer. For ascer- 
taining the resolving power of the eye, a test-object was constructed in the same 
manner, the design upon it consisting of two lines diverging at a very acute angle 
from a point, and bearing an index showing how many thousandths of an inch 
space there was between the lines at the point where the observer ceased to have 
the power of distinguishing them as two lines. : 

This test-object, and the same mode of using it, was adopted in experimenting 
upon the power of various eyes to change focus: the resolving power having been. 
ascertained for the shortest comfortable focus, the same was tried for double and 
three times the distance. 

In all these experiments, the person whose sight was being examined did not 
know the measurements till the conclusion of the experiments ; thus was ayoided 


* The entire paper is printed in the Philosophical Magazine for October 1863. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 17 


any tendency which there might have been to fancy that at double the distance 
double the width of the lines was requisite to admit of resolution. 

As the result of the examination of the sight of nine individuals, it was found 
that seven have equal focus for both eyes; four have longer focus for vertica 
lines than for horizontal; two have shorter focus for vertical, and three have equal 
foci for both. Of seven observers, six have the power of varying the focus for both 
horizontal and vertical lines. All have the power of bringing both lines into focusl 
at once. Of nine observers, four have the best resolving power for horizontal lines, 
one for vertical, and four equally good for either; the better resolving power 
generally coinciding with the shorter focus. 

Theoretically, at double the distance double the space between lines should he 
required to admit of their resolution. In most instances it was found, by experi- 
ment, that less than double the space was required at double the distance—a fact 
resulting probably from the aberrations varying with the adjustment, as the results 
of the observations were only taken account of when the observer believed the focal 
adjustment to be accurate. It was found that in using two eyes we generally have 
results corresponding with the powers of our best eye. Different observers describe 
the appearance of a line out of focus in various manners, as follows :—a faint band 
but with clear edges; a line with misty edges; a band consisting of two or more 
misty lines, sometimes nearly clear, and not constant in number—the motions of 
the eyelid will frequently alter the number. 

The evidence regarding the variation of sight before and after breakfast was con- 
flicting ; but all agreed that bodily or mental fatigue very much impaired both 
the resolving and adjusting powers. 


On a new kind of Miniature possessing apparent Solidity by means of a 
Combination of Prisms. By H. Swan. 


By this invention is obtained a miniature representation of the human form or 
other objects possessing the appearance of perfect solidity, the image being appa- 
rently imbedded in the thickness of a small enclosed block of glass or crystal, 
thereby defining form and expression with a degree of accuracy unattainable in a 
flat portrait. This is effected by a new application of the principles of binocular 
yision employed in the ordinary stereoscope. A stereoscopic pair of transparent pic- 
tures (taken at an angle suitable for the effect intended) are produced by the ordinary 
photographic means. To effect the combination of these, the block of glass or qua- 
drangular prism, in the interior of which the solid image is to appear, is composed 
of two rectangular prisms ground to an angle of about 39° or 40°. These are placed 
together so as to form one solid quadrangular prism, divided lengthwise by a thin 
film of air. If one of the pictures be now placed at the back of this combination, 
and the other picture at the side, on attempting to look through the combination 
the two images will be superposed on each other (forming one solid image, appa- 
rently imbedded in the crystal), all the rays which fall on one side of a line per- 

endicular to the surface of the prism next the eye sufferine total reflexion at the 
inner oblique surface of that prism, while nearly all those rays which fall on the 
other side of this line will be transmitted, unaltered in direction, through the body 
of the combination. Thus, one of the eyes perceives only the object at the back of 
the prisms, while to the other eye the picture at the side is alone visible, and that 
lying apparently at the back also, producing the perfect appearance of solidity. It 
is evident that, to produce these results, care must be taken not only that the 
pictures are not misplaced so as to produce the pseudoscopic effect, but also that 
the picture which suffers reflexion shall be reverted to compensate for the rever- 
sion occasioned in reflexion. 


On the Elasticity of the Vapour of Sulphuric Acid, By T. Tarz*, 
The author gave general formule (derived from the results of his experiments) 
expressing the law connecting the pressure and temperature of the vapours of sul- 
phuric acid diluted with different equivalents of water. 


* The paper is printed in Phil. Mag. Dec, 1863. 
1863. 2 


18 , REPORT—1868. 


Exectriciry, MAGnNeErisM. 


On Bonelli’s Printing Telegraph. By W. Coox. 


The author remarked upon the simplicity, regularity, and economy of time which 
Bonelli’s system offers as compared with others. Independence of synchronic 
movement or elaborate clock-work, freedom from all delicacy in the mechanical 
detail, and the substitution of the most absolute simplicity in the place of that 
which, until now, demanded a special knowledge to keep the machines in working 
order, are among the practical advantages obtained; while, on the other hand, 
rapidity and certainty, never even hoped for, are ensured. The principal features 
of the new system are two tables in cast iron, placed inversely to each other at the 
corresponding stations, and each provided with a miniature railway, over which 
run two waggons, one carrying the type-set message, the other the paper, chemi- 
cally prepared with nitrate of manganese, and two combs, formed by the ex- 
tremities of the wires of the line, one of which touches the type at one station, 
while the other passes over the prepared paper at the other; a spring catch to each 
of the waggons setting them free to move by the closing of an electrical current. 
Neither on short circuit nor at a distance has the slightest difficulty in working 
the Bonelli machine been experienced, a well-considered system of counter-currents 
having completely annihilated the inconveniences which, from the time of Bain to 
the present moment, have been inevitable in electrochemical telegraphy. 


On a Printing Telegraph. By D. E. Hucues. 


This instrument requires but one-electrical wave for each letter, whereas for the 
“Morse” an average of four waves is required for each letter, and the dial instrament 
requires seven. There are twenty-eight keys, like the keys of a piano, each corre- 
sponding to a letter or mark—as (say) a full-stop or a number—at pleasure. When 
one of the keys corresponding to a letter is depressed, this brings a detent in contact 
with a pin corresponding to that letter on the circumference of a uniformly revolving 
type-wheel, stops it, and at the same time sends an electric wave to the distant 
station, which, by an electro-magnet detaching a similar detent, stops the same 
letter for the instant, and, by a revolving cam brought up, presses the paper against 
the type, the impression of which is thus taken at the distant station. The rising 
of the detent by the key rising to its place simultaneously stops the electric current, 
and each wheel again starts into motion at the same letter, as they had each been 
stopped exactly at the same letter; and so letter after letter is printed nearly as 
fast as the keys of a pianoforte can be moved. The chief mechanical feature of 
this machine is the almost mathematical synchronism of the two type-wheels, 
continuously revolving—one at the transmitting, the other at the distant receiving 
station—any little difference that may accidentally occur ges) corrected by the 
machine itself; this exact synchronism between the two type-wheels is absolutely 
necessary. Approximate synchronism is obtained by the adjustment of two vibrat- 
ing springs in unison—the perfect synchronism being obtained by a small correc- 
tion, produced, as each letter is printed, by the very act of printing. The type- 
wheel is either hastened or retitled, as may be required, to fitng the letter trul 
opposite the printing-pad. The means by which the machine corrects itself at eac 
letter, or at the commencement of work, is by means of a correcting cam—a solid 
wedge, pushed down into a similar hollow wedge—one on the driving part, the 
other on the arbour of the wheel. The paper to be printed on is coiled on a reel, 
and is drawn forward by the machine, and pressed up against the letter to be 
printed by the electric wave that brings the required letter or number to its place 
at the under side of the revolving wheel. .A special value in working submarine 
cables is claimed for this instrument, the following rates of speed having been 
obtained in different lengths :— 


Atlantic Cable... 0. ......... 2500 miles, 4 words per minute. 
Red Sea cable ............ 2000 ,, 6 5a 
” no See ee 1000 2?) 19 a 


” ” aravace © Mid) te PY are 500 ” 24 ” 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 19 


On an Acoustic Telegraph. By W. Lavo. 


This instrument consists essentially of two distinct pieces of apparatus. That 
for transmitting the signal has a small mouth-piece. On the right-hand side there 
is a finger-key, forming part of the circuit, and an electro-magnet, with a vibrating 
armature and binding-screw to connect with one of the line wires. Within a case, 
under a glass cover, is an elastic membrane, in the centre of which is fixed a 
platinum plate in connexion with the finger-key. A light piece of angular metal, 
resting on three pins, is so placed that the pin at the angle rests on the plate in the 
centre of the membrane, the other two resting in cups on its edge, so as to allow of 
free motion on the points. In the body of the receiver-box is suspended a soft 
iron core, surrounded by a coil of silk-coyered wire, one end of which is in con- 
nexion with the finger-key and the other with the binding-screw. The method of 
producing sound in the receiving instrument depends upon the fact that, at the 
moment of magnetizing or demagnetizing a piece of iron, there is an alteration in 
the arrangement of the particles, which gives rise to a slight ticking noise. 
Having connected the transmitter, by means of an insulated wire, with the re- 
ceiver, and the binding-screws having been brought in connexion with a battery of 
three or four elements, if the finger-key on the transmitter be pressed, the person 
at the receiying-station hears the ticking noise. To convey a musical note or 
sound, the operator places his mouth to the tube in front of the instrument and 
sings a note, when immediately the membrane begins vibrating in accordance with 
the note sounded, and at each vibration breaks contact between the pin and plate 
in its centre. This, forming part of the circuit, causes the iron core in the receiy- 
ing instrument to be magnetized and demagnetized a number of times equal to the 
number of vibrations of the membrane, and so conveys to the receiver an impres- 
sion of a musical sound, The finger-keys and small magnet at the sides of the 
instruments are for the purpose of varying the methods of communication by the 
combination of single sounds, and can also be used with the other parts for the 
purpose of regulating the lengths of the notes and dividing them imto varying 
pomans, so as to form a sound-alphabet somewhat similar to the signals written 

y Morse’s telegraph. 


An Electromotive Engine, exhibited and described by W. Lavo. 


The electromotive machine exhibited and described by the author consisted of 
two coils forming a powerful electro-magnet, revolving on an axis parallel to the 
axes of these coils, and at equal distances between them. On the stand four 
pillars, forming coils, were planted in the circumference of a circle round the re- 
volving electro-magnet, aed at such a distance from it as just to permit its free 
motion. By asimple contrivance, similar to the commutator, the electric current 
was so transmitted and reversed as to make each of the pillar-coils a magnet, with 
the pole it presented to that of the revolving coil as it approached it, of the oppo- 
site name, south or north; but the instant it passed, reversing it into one of the 
same name: thus, while advancing it is attracted; but the instant it begins to 
retire, repelled ; and so a constant motive force is applied to keep it revolving. 
The engine exhibited was mounted with bevel wheels, carrying an axle, on which 
a cord could wind up a weight of some pounds. It was also furnished with a 
friction-break, by which its power (which was, even with only two Grove’s cells, 
considerable) could be exactly measured. 


On Galvanic Copper and its Applications. By M. Ovpry. 
Communicated by the Abbé Moreno. 


M. Oudry, haying been commanded by the Emperor to endeavour to protect some 
of the public monuments of France and chefs-d’ ceuvre of art by the electro-plating 
process, found insurmountable difficulties in depositing 4 uniform and brilliant coat 
of copper on iron, either malleable or cast; but having succeeded by mechanical 
means in reducing electrotype plates of copper to a completely impalpable powder, 
he used this as a paint, with a medium the basis of which was benzoin instead of 
linseed oil or any of the oils used with ordinary paints. He had completely suc- 

2 


20 REPORT—1863. 


ceeded in giving a surface of a very durable character and of a brilliant, bronzed 
appearance to iron, plaster, and other objects which it was desirable to protect with 
this substance. 


On Specimens of Telegraphic Facsimiles, produced by Casselli’s Method. 
Exhibited and explained by the Abbé Moreno. 


M. Casselli adopts Mr. Bakewell’s principle, but causes the two cylinders to 
move at the two stations synchronously, by mechanical means contrived by him- 
self. The copies exhibited by the Abbé were exact facsimiles of the originals, some 
being pictures, some pieces of music, and some written. 


METEOROLOGY, ETC. 


On the System of Forecasting the Weather pursued in Holland, By Professor 
Buys-Baxnor, Director of the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute. 


In the plan pursued in Holland, observations are taken at four principal places— 
Helder, Groningen, Flushing, and Maestricht. On the indications afforded at these 
places the forecasts are based. The author remarked :—“ For every day of the year, 
and for every hour of the day, I have very carefully determined the height of the 
barometer in the place of observation at that height above the sea where it is 
suspended, This is a cardinal point not sufficiently observed in England, and not 
at allin France. The ditlerence of an observed pressure from that calculated on, 
I call the departure of the pressure—positive when the pressure is greater, negative 
when it is less. Those departures, besides the observations of the other instruments, 
are communicated from post to post. The rule is now very simple. If the depart- 
ures are greater (more positive) in the southern places than in the northern, 
greater at Maestricht or Flushing than at Groningen or Helder, the wind will have 
a W. in its name; when the departures are greater in the northern places, the wind 
will have an E, in its name. More accurately, you may say, the wind will be 
nearly at right angles with the direction of the greatest difference of pressures. 
When you place yourself in the direction of the wind (or in the direction of the 
electric current), you will have at your left the least atmospheric pressure (or the 
north pole of the magnet). When the difference of pressure of the southern places 
above the northern is not above four millimetres, there will be no wind of a force 
above 30 Ibs. on the square metre. Moreover, the greatest amount of rain will fall 
when the departures are negative; and, at the places where the departures are 
most negative, there also the force of the wind will be generally stronger. More- 
oyer, there will be no thunder if the barometric pressure is not less than two milli- 
metres above the average height, and when at the same time the difference of the 
departures of temperature is considerable. These rules, and especially the first two, 
were laid down by me in 1857, in the ‘Comptes Rendus’; and on the Ist of June, 
1860, the first telegraphic warning by order of the Department of the Interior was 
given in Holland. It was unfortunate that those telegraphic warnings were not 
introduced four days sooner, for in that case the first communication would have 
been a first warning against the fearful storm of May 28, 1860, called the Finster- 
storm. All of you know how amply Admiral FitzRoy has arranged the telegraphic 
warnings all over England. The rules used in Holland have answered well, as is 
shown in the translation of a paper of Mr. Klein, captain of a merchant-ship, 
whereto I have added my observations and signals compared with the signals of 
Admiral FitzRoy. My own paper dates from June 1, 1860, and is extracted by 
My. Klein; but I preferred that the less complete and precise paper of a practical 
man should be translated, because I thought that the seamen would put more reli- 
ance on it. Fyrom the tables added to that translation, it appears that I have warned 
from ny four stations just as Admiral FitzRoy has done from his twenty. It must, 
however, be recorded that, besides those four stations, there are also some stations— 
Paris, Havre, Brest, in France, and Hartlepool, Yarmouth, Portsmouth, Plymouth, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21 


in England—that send me their observations. Generally they arrive too late; and 
therefore they throw very little light on the forecasting”. ..... The author 
remarked that, for the future, “the normal heights of barometric pressure, or, 
better, of the barometers which are read, must be conscientiously taken; the 
observation must be made at more points once a day, and mutually communicated ; 
and at days when there are greatly different departures—that is to say, of three 
millimetres—or when there is change of inclination, there must be sent a message 
at noon or in the evening of the same day. In all cases, not only the pressure in 
the morning, but likewise that at night should be given. A critical indication is 
when on the previous day the northern stations had greater departures, and on the 
following day the southern had greater departures, even when the difference in the 
latter case was small. A caution should be given when the difference of the de- 
partures is four millimetres.” 


Description of an Instrument for ascertaining the Height of a Cloud. 
By Professor Curvattrer. 


This little instrument consists of two horizontal jointed rulers, graduated from 
the centre of the joint, the unit of graduation being the length of an upright sliding- 
piece, moveable upon either of the rulers. One branch of the rulers is directed to- 
wards the shadow of a cloud, the horizontal distance of which shadow from the 
place of observation can be ascertained ; and the other branch, carrying the vertical 
sliding-piece, is directed towards a vertical line drawn through the point of the 
cloud which casts the shadow. The sliding-piece being now moved along the ruler 
till the shadow of its inner edge just touches the inner edge of the other horizontal 
ruler, we have on the ruler and sliding-piece an exact miniature representation of 
the known horizontal distance of the shadow from the observer (s), and the height 
of the cloud (/) above the horizontal plane on which the shadow falls. 

Hence if d is the number of the divisions on the scale, and 1 the length of the 
sliding-piece, we have the proportion 


$i hei: ad: 1, 
whence 78 
d 


On the Path of a Meteorie Fireball relatively to the Earth’s Surface. 
By Professor Corrin, of Lafayette College, Eastern Pennsylvania. 

This meteor passed over the northern part of America on the 20th July, 1860, 
and was observed by different observers over a course of about 1000 miles. It 
was first seen at an elevation of 92 miles, then at 56 miles, and still lower after- 
wards at 39 miles. Its orbit appeared to be hyperbolic, and the paper described 
the various phenomena observed at the different stages of its progress until it 
traversed the distance of 500 miles over the sea. 


On Fogs. By J. H. Guapsronz, Ph.D., RS. 


The author had obtained additional returns of the occurrence of fog at different 
stations round the coasts of the United Kingdom; and on examining these with 
those previously brought before the notice of the British Association, he had been 
led to some new generalizations. The most important of these are— 

Ist. The distinction between general and local fogs.—A general fog is found to 
occur at every or almost every station along a whole country-side, extending 
usually one or two hundred miles, and often much more than that; while a local 
fog is marked at only one station, or perhaps at two very near together. There is 
nothing intermediate between these two kinds of fog; they do not pass insensibly 
one into the other; there is scarcely any record, in fact, of a fog visiting three or 
four stations and no more. Local fogs depend, no doubt, on peculiarities of the 
locality ; but it is difficult to draw just conclusions about them, as the peculiarities 
of the observer seriously affect the returns of them, and there is little or no check. 
A general fog, on the contrary, is at once recognized by the uniform occurrence of 
the same date in the lists, The fogs observed at the light-vessels at sea appear 


22 REPORT—1863. 


to be almost exclusively of this general character, probally because there are 

‘fewer conditions at sea to create a fog over a limited area. The most extensive 
fog which the author had traced was that of June 22nd and 23rd, 1861; it spread 
all round England and Wales, except part of the Suffolk and Norfolk coast, all 
round Scotland, with the exception of some places in the extreme north, and 
rather irregularly along the whole coast of Ireland. 

2nd. These general fogs are in the habit of visiting certain geographical areas.— 
There seem indeed to be certain parts of the coast that are peculiarly liable to 
become the landfall of a fog, which, according to its magnitude, stretches to a 
greater or a less distance right and left of this particular spot. Thus, in Ireland, 
from the lighthouses of which the author possesses daily returns for three years, 
there are two special localities on which fogs seem to be in the habit of striking. 
One of these is the south-east corner, often the centre of a fog that covers the 
coasts of Wexford and its neighbourhood, and sometimes obscures the whole 
southern and eastern shores, The other is the western half of the southern shore, 
the fog rarely extending on the one side beyond Minehead, or on the other side 
beyond Valencia, except that it seems in the habit of visiting at the same time the 
prominences of Mayo. The northern and the north-west shore was very rarely 
visited by fogs of any extent. From England and Scotland the author has simi- 
lar daily returns for only the first half of 1861; and thus he has less confidence 
in any generalization for these countries, especially as the Irish returns show that 
these fogs visit a particular coast very unequally in different seasons. Yet, during 
the period above mentioned, it is perfectly clear that fogs frequently made a land- 
fall of the Suffolk coast, extending perhaps from the north-eastern bend of Norfolk 
down to Essex, appearing at all the numerous lightships and the principal light- 
houses along that side of the country. The most extensive fogs of the eastern 
coast seemed to haye their centre about Yorkshire, from which they stretched 
north and south, sometimes confined between Northumberland and Lincolnshire, 
but at other times extending from Aberdeenshire down to Suffolk, and reappearing 
again at the Forelands. In more than one instance also these fogs crossed the 
mainland and made their appearance in the Bristol Channel. On the western 
coast there occurred also several general fogs, their landfalls being the headlands 
of Wales and Cornwall; they generally penetrated into the Bristol Channel, and 
got round to the south as far as the Start. Between that point and Beachy Head 
there were few general fogs in the first half of 1861, though at some stations local 
fogs abounded. On the eastern coast, the mouth of the Thames escaped their 
visitation better than any other part. 

As to Scotland, the eastern fogs that stretched from England up to the corner 
of Aberdeenshire sometimes included the whole eastern shores up to the Shet- 
lands in their range. The Orkneys seem to be included in two great areas of 
eastern and western fogs, the avestern extending thence by Cape Wrath to the 
Hebrides and the Western Islands. 

It would be at once interesting to the scientific man and useful to the navigator 
to ascertain more accurately the limits of the areas peculiarly exposed to general 
fogs, and to determine the meteorological conditions on which the formation, con- 
tinuance, and disappearance of these fogs depend. Beyond showing in some cases 
a connexion between the Yorkshire fogs and a north-east wind, the author has 
done little towards the solution of this problem; but he proposed it as an im- 
portant inquiry to those scientific men who make meteorology their more especial 
study, 


On Ozone and Ozone Tests. By EK. J. Lown, F.RAS., P.LS., FGS., fe. 


The present paper is a continuation of one read last year on “the necessary 
precautions in ozone observations,” and on “certain requisite corrections ” before 
the actual amount of ozone can be determined. A discussion as regards the sensi- 
bility of the tests, in which Professor Miller, Dr. Moffat, Mr. M. Lyte, and others 
took part, induced me to carefully consider this portion of the subject. It struck 
me that the tests of Schénbein and Moffat must be incorrect, because they were made 
with the starch of commerce ; and as, in the ordinary manufacture of starch, lime, 
sulphuric acid, and chlorine were used, ordinary starch could not be pure enough 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 23 


for delicate tests; indeed, chlorine and also lime in combination with sulphuric 
acid have each the power of staining the preparation of starch and iodide of potas- 
sium. Ordinary iodide of potassium is often impure, and the material itself (gene- 
rally writing-paper) is far from being chemically pure. There has also been a 
want of uniformity in the proportions of starch and iodide of potassium employed 
by different observers; in fact, the following are the formule :— 

Formula of Schénbein, 10 parts of starch to 1 of iodide of potassium. 

Formula of Moffat, 23 parts of starch to 1 of iodide of potassium. 

Formula of Lowe, 5 parts of starch (wheat) to 1 of iodide of potassium. 

I determined upon manufacturing the starch myself without the aid of the usual 
chemicals, simply steeping the solutions in distilled water, which was repeatedly 
changed until pare starch alone remained, Starch was made from wheat, rice, 
sago, arrowroot, potato, arum, snowdrop, crocus, narcissus, tulip, and hyacinth, 
which were as pure as possible and as white as snow, To Mr. Squire, of Oxford 
Street, was entrusted the manufacture of pure iodide of potassium, part prepared 
with water, and part crystallized several times from alcohol, The materials used 
were calico, specially prepared by Mr. Joseph Sidebotham, of the Strine Works, 
and a chemically pure photographic paper as well as a very porous paper. There 
was great difficulty in getting a chemically pure paper, as nearly all were worthless 
for these experiments, At the recommendation of Dr. R, D, Thomson, 15 grains 
of prepared chalk were added to each ounce of air-dried starch to prevent sour- 
ness, This precaution is requisite for uniformity of effect, as the intensity of action 
depends upon the amount of water contained in the starch. Thus,— 

ests made with air-dried starch became coloured with five minutes’ exposure, 

Tests made with starch dried by fire-heat for one minute coloured with seyen 

minutes’ exposure, 

Tests made with starch dried by fire-heat for three minutes coloured with nine 

minutes’ exposure, 

Tests made with starch dried by fire-heat for ten minutes coloured with thirteen 

minutes’ exposure. 

Tests made with starch dried by fire-heat for thirty minutes coloured with twenty 

minutes’ exposure. 

Tests made with air-dried starch, with chalk added, coloured with twenty minutes’ 

exposure, 

aire to far succeeded, I next tried a mixture of 10 parts of starch to 1 of iodide 
of potassium as a dry-powder test; ten minutes’ exposure in the open air showed 
that the powder tests were a success, being more sensitive than the test-slips. 

My next determination was with regard to a proper formula, ¢. e. what strength 
would colour quickest. Powders of different strengths were prepared, varying in 
the proportion of iodide of potassium and wheat-starch, beginning with equal por- 
tions of each, and extending as far as 30 parts of starch to 1 of iodide of potassium. 
It was found that 1 part of iodide of potassium to 5 of wheat-starch was invariably 
the darkest, the degree of density diminishing in either direction when other strengths 
were used; thus, 1 to 43 or 1 to 53 were neither so dark. Other starches require a 
different formula. 

The next series of experiments were with the view of ascertaining the effect of 
various acids, and other chemical substances, on the ozone powders when placed 
under the same bell-glass; and the result was that hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, 
nitrous acid, chloride of lime, phosphorus, iodine, carbonate of iron, or limestone on 
which an acid had been poured, each coloured the tests rapidly, whilst sulphuric 
acid, glacial acetic acid, carbonate of lime, carbonate of iron, and ammonia produced 
no effect on the powders. It was remarked that the powder tests had the adyan- 
tage of being more sensitive, and that they also retained their maximum colour, not 
afterwards fading, as is the case with the tests of Schénbein or Moffat; and there 
is yet a more important advantage to be mentioned, for by their aid we are enabled 
to say what colours the tests, and whether it is really ozone. In the experiments it 
was found that a different colour was imparted to the powder, and that the colour 
penetrated deeper according to what coloured it; so that differences of effect took 
place by which the different materials used might be recognized, which could not be 
seen by the use of test-slips. Thus,— 


QA ; REPORT—1863. 


Toping, although coloured a brown-black, was metely a surface-covering, below 

which the powder was colowrless. 

PuospHorus.—Bluish black on surface only, below almost colourless. 

CuLonipE oF Limr.—Deep brown on surface only, below slightly yellow. 

Hyprocutoric Acip.— Grey-pink on surface only, below orange. 

Nirric Aciy.—Dark red-brown, extending slightly into the powder, below 

colourless. 

CarBoNATE OF Iron witH GuacraL Acetic Acip.— Yellowish brown to thick- 

ness of cardboard, below buff: 

LIMESTONE WITH SuLPHuRIC Acip,—Pale brown to thickness of cardboard, 

below slightly stained. 

CARBONATE OF [Ron WITH StLpHuRIC Aci.—Black to depth of § of an inch. 

Nirrovs Acip.—Dark brown more than the eighth of an inch deep, below yel- 

lowish brown. 

Nirric ActD MIXED WITH OzoNE PowpER (both exposed and unexposed ).— 

Blue-black the sixth of an inch deep, below reddish brown. 

The aboye experiments may require modification, yet they show differences so 
striking as to open up a new method of investigating ozone. The action of ozone 
on the dry-powder tests is somewhat analogous to that produced by nitric acid ; yet 
dilute nitric acid, when ten times stronger than the French philosophers declare is 
the proportion present in the air, does not colour the tests. It seems probable that 
whatever colours the tests is always present in the air, as on no occasion has my 
sensitive dry-powder test failed to show its presence, even when test-slips have re- 
mained uncoloured for some days. Its varying intensity may be attributed to cir- 
cumstances acting for or against its visibility. Thus an increase of temperature 
from the increased chemical action should show an increase of ozone. An increase 
in the velocity of air will increase the amount of ozone, because a greater number 
of cubic feet of ozonized air passes over the test in a given time. To a certain ex- . 
tent the increase of moisture will favour the development of ozone, beyond which, 
when the air becomes saturated, a minimum will result. Most ozone at Highfield 
House occurs with a 8. wind, and least with a N.E. wind. The maximum amount 
of ozone is attained when the barometer is at its lowest readings, and the minimum 
when at its highest. This may be owing (and, no doubt, is in part) to the increased 
velocity of a S. wind over that of a N.E. wind, its increased temperature, and 
moisture. Supposing the amount of ozone in a cubic foot of air to be represented 
by 5 at a pressure of 295 inches, ought it not to be more than 5 when this pressure 
is increased, and less than 5 when diminished ?—yet the contrary is shown to result 
in practice. 


On the Connexion that exists between Admiral FitzRoy’s “ Caution Telegrams” 
and the Luminosity of Phosphorus. By Dr. Morrat. 


On a Free Air Barometer and Thermometer. Devised by the Abbé Juannon ; 
exhibited and explained by the Abbé Moteno. 


It consisted of a siphon of about the bore of the tube of a maximum thermo- 
meter, one branch of the siphon open to the air, the other branch furnished with 
two bulbs, one at top for air, the other near the bend at the bottom full of mercury, 
with a little glycerine oil, or other fluid not capable of acting on or absorbing the 
air of the upper bulb, floating on the surface of the mercury. The two bulbs are 
so proportioned in capacity, that the changes of the volume of the air in the upper 
bulb by changes of temperature are exactly compensated by the increased pressure 
of the mercury by the same cause, so that, as far as temperature is concerned, the 
surface of the mercury or glycerine between the bulbs shall remain perfectly fixed 
or unaffected. The branch then between the bulbs becomes a simple sympieso- 
meter or pressure-barometer, while the open straight branch becomes a very 
sensitive thermometer. 


On «a Metallic or Holosteric Barometer. Constructed by M. Navper; 
exhibited and explained by the Abbé Moreno, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 20 


Meteorological Observations recorded at Huggate, Yorkshire. 
By the Rey. THomas Ranxrn, 


This was the series for 1862, similar to the series which had been for several years 
furnished to the Association by the author. 


On a new Revolving Scale for Measuring Curved Lines. 
By H. Scutacintwerr. 


This instrument consisted of a small brass wheel revolving ina short handle, the 
circumference, about 2 inches round, having a number of very short steel pins 
inserted radially, the number depending on the scale to which it was desired to 
measure the curve; and the side of the wheel having graduations corresponding to 
the pins on the circumference, the zero and other remarkable divisions being dis- 
tinguished from the lesser graduations. The author entered into a minute detail 
of the several graduations it would be desirable to adopt to suit English, French, 
and German measures required for maps, courses of rivers, routes of travellers, and. 
meteorological and other curves requiring to be measured or reduced to particular 
ecales. He also entered into a comparison of this little roulette with “ Elliott’s 
Opisometer,” and the more complicated apparatus inyented by Doppler and 
Jacquard. 


On a Proof of the Dioptric and Actinic Quality of the Atmosphere at a High 
Elevation. By Professor C. Prazzt Suyrn, F.R.S. 


The chief object of the astronomical experiment on the Peak of Teneriffe, in 
1856, was to ascertain the degree of improvement of telescopic vision when both 
telescope and observer were raised some two miles vertically in the air. Distinct 
accounts have, therefore, already been rendered as to the majority of clouds being 
found far below the observer at that height, and to the air there being dry, and in 
so steady a state and homogeneous a condition that stars, when viewed in a 
powerful telescope with a high magnifying power, almost always presented clear 
and well-defined minute discs, swrounded with regularly formed rings,—a state of 
things which is the very rare exception at all observatories near the sea-level. 
Quite recently, however, the author has been engaged in magnifying some of the 

hotographs which he took in Teneriffe in 1856, at various elevations, and he finds 
in them an effect, depending on height, which adds a remarkably independent con- 
firmation to his conclusions from direct telescopic observations. The nature of the 
proof is on this wise :—At or near the sea-level a photograph could never be made 
to show the detail on the side of a distant hill, no matter how marked the detail 
might really be by rocks and cliffs illuminated by strong sunlight; even the ap- 
plication of a microscope brought out no other feature than one broad, faint, and 
nearly uniform tint. But on applying the microscope to photographs of distant 
hills taken at a high level in the atmosphere, an abundance of minute detail ap- 
peared, and each little separate “retama” bush could be distinguished on a hill- 
side 43 miles from the camera. Specimens of these photographs thus magnified 
had been introduced into the newly published volume of the ‘Edinburgh Astro- 
nomical Observations,’ four of them being silver-paper prints, and the fifth a press- 
print from a photoglyphic plate, kindly prepared and presented by Mr. Fox Talbot. 


On the Comparison of the Curves afforded by Self-recording Magnetographs at 
Kew and Lisbon, for July 1863. By B. Srewarr, FBS. 


One point of interest in this comparison is, that a disturbance began at both 
places at precisely the same moment of absolute time; and a second point is, that 
there is great general similarity between the two curves of north and south dis- 
turbance, while in the east and west disturbance-curves the likeness is much less 
marked, and it scarcely appears at all in the vertical-force curves. An extremely 
interesting feature of the Lisbon curves of vertical force and east and west force is, 
that the one is nearly exactly the reverse of the other, a peak of the one correspond- 
ing in time to a hollow in the other, a hollow to a peak, and so on throughout the 
disturbance, which extcnded over twelve days. Senhor Capello, of Lisbon, remarks 


26 REPORT—1863. 


that this fact may be expressed by saying that the whole disturbing force acts in 
one plane, which is evident, inasmuch as the two components alluded to are in 
one line. The comparison of these curves is believed to confirm results which have 
been obtained, without the aid of photography, chiefly through the sagacity of 
General Sabine; for it appears that at Lisbon the vertical force and east and west 
force are affected by only one type of disturbance, while the north and south 
force is under the influence of two different types; and it is believed that at Kew 
both types operate upon each of the three elements. 


On a Mercurial Air-Pump. By J. W, Swan. 


In general arrangement and appearance this instrument resembles a barometer, 
with a reservoir at the top and a reservoir at the bottom of the tube. Both reser- 
yoirs are of considerable capacity, but the lower one is the largest. The lower 
reservoir has two pipes entering it, namely, an inlet and outlet, and each has a 
stopcock. The upper reservoir, termed a vacuum-chamber, is surmounted by a 
ball-valve opening outward, and has also a tube with a stopcock communicating 
with the vessel to be exhausted. The vacuum-chamber, tube, and a portion of the 
lower reseryoir are, in the normal condition of the apparatus, occupied by mercury, 
The remaining space within the lower reservoir is filled with water, which is 
separated from the mercury by a caoutchouc bag, tied on the lower end of the 
tube containing the mercurial column. The inlet pipe entering the lower reser- 
voir is connected with town water-pipes or a force-pump. The working of the 
pump is effected by opening the outlet pipe so as to permit the mercury to vacate 
the vacuum-chamber and ascarid to the barometric level, displacing the water 
from the lower reservoir. Then the vacuum formed having been taken advantage 
of by opening the communication between the vacuum-chamber and the vessel to 
be exhausted, the original condition of things is restored by closing the outlet pipe 
of the lower reservoir, and opening the inlet, so as to supply water at a high pres- 
sure, which will force the mercury to reoccupy the vacuum-chamber, the valve at 
the top allowing the exit of its more or less attenuated gaseous contents. This 
process, being frequently repeated, will, no doubt, give a very perfect vacuum, as 
there is no obstruction, of the nature of a valve, between the vacuum-chamber and 
the vessel to be exhausted. This air-pump was said to be specially adapted for the 
exhaustion of small vessels. It was proposed that the instrument should be made 
entirely of wrought iron ; among its advantages were small cost and simplicity, its 
efficiency not depending upon fine aotenuanclty, 


Description of the Experimental Series of Rain-Giauges erected at Calne. 
By G, J. Symons. 


These instruments have been constructed and erected at the expense and in the 
grounds of Major Ward, of Castle House, Calne, with a view of finally deter- 
mining the size and form of gauge which most truly indicates the amount of rain 
actually reaching the surface of the earth, and also deciding both the best elevation 
at which to place the gauge above the ground, and, if possible, the correction 
requisite to reduce the observations made at other elevations to what they would 
have been if made at the adopted standard height, The series consists of two sets 
of gauges: those for testing the indications of different-sized gauges are eleven in 
number, consisting of circular ones, 1in,, 2in., 4in., 5in., 5in. with a peculiar 
flange or lip, 6in., 8 in., 12 in,, and 24 in. in diameter, and square ones of 265 in. 
and 100 in. in area. These are all placed at the same height above the ground 
(1 foot), and are very near to each other. The elevation series consists of nine 
gauges of 8 in. diameter, placed at the following heights above the ground, viz., 
level, 2in., 6in., 1 ft., 2ft., 3ft., 5ft., 1Oft., and 20ft.; and at some distance from 
each other. A second gauge of 5 in. diameter is placed 20ft. above the ground, in 
order to ascertain if its indications at that height bear the same ratio to an 8-inch 
gauge as at a less elevation. The instruments being erected in a very favourable 
position, free from the influence of trees or buildings, and elevated on poles, it is 
anticipated that the results will be more reliable and available for the before-men- 
tioned purpose than if placed upon buildings. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 27: 


On a New Marine and Mountain Barometer. By W. Symons, F.C.S. 


The barometer shown is a modification of the portable standard siphon-baro- 
meter introduced by the author a few months since, and described in various pe~. 
riodicals at the time. It is an adaptation of Gay-Lussac’s; but instead of having 
a vernier and scale to each tube of the siphon, an internal continuous metal tube 
is adjusted by a rack to the surface of the mercury in the short limb of the siphon, 
and the barometer is then read off in the usual way by a vernier and scale attached 
to the top of this internal tube, thus avoiding the double reading and necessary 
calculation of Gay-Lussac’s. There is, also, a very simple but effectual method of 
making the barometer portable by means of a leather plug on a steel wire, attached to 
asmall handle at the side; by shifting this handle about one-fourth of an inch, the 
flow of mercury is completely stopped. Marine barometers, as generally con- 
structed, haye been fractured by sudden concussions, as by firing a large gun; this 
arises, no doubt, from the necessity of fixing the tube firmly into the cistern. In 
the barometer shown this is obviated, as the tube need not be rigidly fixed, but 
may be supported in any point by elastic material, without deranging the accuracy 
of the instrument. 


On a Maximum Thermometer with a New Index. By W. Sxmons, F.C.S. 


Although there are two well-known and ingenious arrangements for maximum 
thermometers without indices, yet the constant demand for thermometers with in- 
dices shows at least a popular preference for them. There are, however, certain 
objections to those most generally in use. Steel not only corrodes, but its specific 
gravity is too great, Graphite has been much used, and if it be pure, it appears 
to answer every purpose ; but occasionally there exist in it impurities which ap- 
pear to corrode the mercury and soil the tube, The author has made a great 
number of experiments on the subject, and thinks he has now succeeded in 
making a composition, the basis of which is clay, which fully answers the pur- 

ose; for the sake of distinction, as it partakes somewhat of the character of stone, 
e has named it “lithite.” A considerable number of these thermometers have 
now been distributed, and as yet there has been no failure. 


On the Result of Reductions of Curves obtained from the Self-recording 
Electrometer at Kew. By Professor W. Tuomson, 7.2.8, 


The author said, that all the photographs up to last March had been reduced to 
numbers, and the monthly averages taken. Each month shows a maximum in the 
morning, sometimes from 7 to 9 A.M., and another in the evening, from 8 to 10 p.m. 
There are pretty decided indications of an afternoon maximum, and another in the 
small hours after midnight, but the irregularities are too great to allow any conclu- 
sion to be drawn from a mere inspection of the monthly averages. He intended to 
calculate three terms, if not more, of the harmonic series for each month, and thus 
be able to judge whether the observations show any consistence in a third term 
(which alone would give four maxima and four minima), or a first term (which 
alone would give one maximum and one minimum in the twenty-four hours), 
There is a very decided winter maximum and summer minimum on the daily 
ayerages. That for January is more than double of that for July. This part of 
the subject will also require much labour to work it out. In the reductions 
hitherto made he had included negatives with positives, and all the sums have 
been “algebraic” (i, e. with the negative terms subtracted). Very important 
results with reference to meteorology will, no doubt, be obtained by examining 
the negative indications separately ; and, again, by taking daily and monthly ave- 
rages of the jfine-weather readings alone. This part of the subject he had not been 
able to attack at all yet. Nor had he yet been able to go through a comparison of 
the amounts of effect with wind in different quarters. 


28 REPORT—18638. 


CHEMISTRY. 


Address by A.W. Witt1amson, F.R.S., President of the Chemical Society, and 
Professor of Chemistry and of Practical Chemistry in University College, 
London. 


Berore the Section enters upon the business for which it meets, viz. the consi- 
deration of papers and reports upon special branches of chemistry and the chemical 
arts, it may not be unacceptable to cast a brief and cursory glance at some few 
topics illustrative of the tendencies of chemical science during the last few years, 
and of its applications to some of the manufacturing arts. 

One of the most remarkable features of the progress of our science is the rapid 
rate at which materials have been accumulating, by the labours of chemists in the 
so-called organic department of the science. The study of the transformation of 
organic bodies leads to the discovery of new acids, new bases, new alcohols, new 
ethers, and at a constantly increasing rate which is truly wonderful. Some of these 
new substances are found to possess properties which can at once be applied to 
practical manufacturing purposes, such as dyeing, &c., but the greater number of 
them remain in our laboratories, museums, and text-books, and serve to teach us 
new instances of the combining forces of matter. The influence of this rapid 
growth of materials upon our knowledge of principles, and of the laws of combina- 
tion which constitute the science of chemistry, has been simultaneous with the 
discoveries of the materials themselves; and the material and intellectual progress 
of organic chemistry have gone on so regularly hand in hand, that it is impossible 
to say which has done most in helping the other. It is, accordingly, observed that 
the science has been simplified by every important addition to her materials; 
instead of isolated unmeaning substances, with formule so complex and unintel- 
ligible as to be troublesome to chemists and truly distressing to learners, we have 
now definite and intelligible families of bodies, of which the members are most 
harmoniously united together by some law of composition, and whose connexion 
with neighbouring families is similarly clear and satisfactory. New discoveries 
are constantly coming in to fill up the gaps which still disfigure our growing system. 

In mineral or inorganic chemistry there is not the same scope for discovery at 
present, inasmuch as the elements which belong to it do not combine in those nu- 
merous proportions which occur among the chief elements of organic bodies. But 
yet mineral chemistry has not been standing still, for even the heavy metals, most 
remote in their properties from those volatile and unstable substances of organic 
chemistry, have been got in many instances to combine with them, and the organo- 
metallic bodies thus formed haye not only proved most valuable and powerful 
agents of decomposition, but they have served as a connecting link between the 
two branches of chemical science. A system of classification of elements is now 
coming into use, in which the heavy metals arrange themselves harmoniously with 
the elements of organic bodies, and in accordance with the principles which were 
discovered by a study of organic compounds. 

It is now many years since the attention of chemists was directed by a French 
Professor to some inconsistencies which had crept into our system of atomic 
weights. Gerhardt showed that the principles which were adopted in fixing the 
atomic weight of elementary bodies generally, required us to adopt for oxygen, 
carbon, and sulphur numbers twice as great as those generally in use for those 
elements. The logic of his arguments was unanswerable, and yet Gerhardt’s 
conclusions gained but few adherents. It is to be observed that for some years 
Gerhardt represented chemical reactions by so-called synoptic formule, which took 
no account of the existence of organic radicals. These synoptic formule represent 
in the simplest terms the result of a chemical reaction; but they give no physical 
image of the process by which the reaction is brought about. 

The introduction in this country of the watertype in connexion with poly- 
atomic as well as monatomic radicals was found to satisfy the requirements of the 
synoptic formule. Gerhardt was the first to adopt them from us. He gave, in his_ 
admirable ‘Traité de Chimie Organique,’ a system of organic chemistry on that 
plan, and his book has been of immense service to the development of our science. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 29 


The extension of these principles to mineral chemistry had been commenced in the 
cases of the commonest acids and bases, but their general introduction met with 
difficulties, and something seemed wanting to their complete success. 

I must now travel southward for a short time, and ask you to accompany me to that 
sunny land of glorious memories, and to its southern dependency, the Island of Sicily, 
It was reserved for Professor Cannizzaro, of the University of Palermo, to show us 
how the remainder of the knot could be untied. He argued, upon physical as well 
as chemical grounds, that the atomic weights of many metals ought to be doubled, 
as well as those of oxygen, sulphur, and carbon. His conclusion is confirmed by 
the constitution of those organo-metallic bodies which I mentioned just now, and it 
certainly does seem to supply what was still wanting for the extension of our system 
of classification from the non-metallic elements to the heavy metals themselves. 

The elements are now arranged into two principal groups :—I1st, those of which 
each atom combines with an uneven number of atoms of chlorine or hydrogen; 
2nd, those of which each atom combines with an even number of atoms of chlorine 
or hydrogen, Like every classification founded upon nature, this one draws no 
absolute line, as some elements belong to both classes. The first group includes 
the monatomic elements of the chlorine family, the triatomic elements of the 
nitrogen family, hydrogen and the alkali metals, silver and gold, in all about 
eighteen elements. The usual atomic weights of these are retained. The usual 
atomic weights of all the other elements, biatomic, tetratomic, &c., are doubled. 
This second group includes the oxygen family, carbon, silicon, and the alkaline 
earths, the metals, zinc, iron, copper, lead, &c. 

Every step in our theoretical development of chemistry has served to consolidate 
and extend the atomic theory, but it is interesting to observe that the retention of 
that theory has involved the necessity of depriving it of the absolute character 
which it at first possessed. Organic compounds were long ago discovered con- 
taining atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in proportions far from simple ; and 
the atomic theory must have been abandoned but for the discovery that the atomic 
or, rather, molecular weights of these compounds correspond invariably to entire 
numbers of the elementary atoms. We now use the term ‘molecule’ for those 
groups which hold together during a variety of transformations, but which can be 
resolved into simple constituents; whilst we receive the word ‘atom’ for those 
particles which we cannot break up, and which there is no reason for believing that 
we ever shall break up. 

Amongst the most brilliant extensions of our means of observation have been the 
researches in spectrum analysis. The application of these beautiful methods to the 
investigation of minerals has already led to the discovery of three volatile metals 
which had previously escaped observation, whilst its extension to the investigation 
of the light which reaches our planet from the heavenly bodies has led to the 
recognition, in several of them, of elements identical, in this respect at least, with 
some of our elements in this earth. An eminent French chemist has recently taken 
occasion, in reporting the results of some researches on the new metal “ thallium,” to 
yolunteer insinuations against Mr. Crookes’s claim to that discovery. M. Dumas 
considers it corroborative of his views that Mr. Crookes did not refer the considera- 
tion of his claims, on the first opportunity, to a jury of gentlemen, formed for exa- 
mining products of manufacturing industry at the National Exhibition of 1862. I 
lave felt it my duty to allude publicly to this proceeding, because it occurred in 
a report of a commission of the French Academy, published by order of that 
distinguished body. All chemists have, however, adopted the name “ thallium ” 
which Mr. Crookes gave to the metal when he first discovered it. 

Before proceeding from the scientific and intellectual progress of chemistry, I 
must bee leave to refer briefly to the educational effects of that progress. Little, 
indeed, would our conquests over nature avail us if they were only known to the 
systematic cultivators of science, and only used by them; and unless the popular 
dissemination of knowledge keeps pace with its extension, the chief fruits of that 
extension will be lost. It would be unjust to deny that some important steps have 
been taken of late years, by various governing bodies in this country, towards giving 
to experimental science a position in national education; but these steps are only 
the beginning of a reform in education, which must go much farther in order to be 


80 REPORT—18638. 


effectual. In illustration of what has been done, I may mention the admission of 
chemistry and physics into the list of subjects of examination for various Govern- 
ment appointments, civil and military; but the small value which the framers of 
the schemes placed upon these sciences, compared to mathematics, is but too plainly 
shown by the small number of marks which they assign to the utmost recognized 
proficiency in them; so that the effect of the recognition is tantamountto saying, 
“We can’t help acknowledging these sciences, but we want to encourage the 
study of them as little as possible.” The medical corporations, who influence the 
studies of the rising generation of practitioners by their examinations, have not 
only recognized the necessity of a Lite knowledge of chemistry, but many of 
them require the knowledge to be acquired not only in the lecture-room, but partly 
also in the laboratory. The University of London is specially to be noticed for the 
beneficial influence which it has exerted in this direction in its medical examina- 
tions ; but more particularly for the institution of the new degrees of Bachelor and 
Doctor of Science, which acknowledge, for the first time in this country, the phy- 
sical and natural sciences as entitled to equal recognition with classical and mathe- 
matical studies for purposes of general education. ‘These influences have no doubt 
contributed materially to the introduction of chemical instruction, and even of 
ractical chemistry, into junior schools, which has been going on so extensively of 
ate years. It is, however, consolatory to observe that a more powerful influence 
than any of these is at work, viz. the popular appreciation of its real value, gra- 
dually raising physical science to the prominent place in national education which 
it is destined to occupy. 

If education is intended to prepare young people for a life of usefulness, in which 
their various faculties may be employed to the benefit of their fellow-men, and con- 
sequently to their own, there can be no doubt of the value of teaching them to 
observe, to recollect, to arrange the phenomena of the physical world, and to apply 
the knowledge and skill thus acquired to practical purposes. No phenomena that 
can be brought within the observation o aterybouy by inexpensive experiments 
are so simple in their nature, no reasonings more definite and tangible, or more 
easily controlled by special observations, than those of chemistry; and the science 
affords, elon scope for a more thorough training of the various faculties of the 
mind than can be supplied in schools by any other means. 

Among the chemical arts much has been doing, but, as usual, in a quiet, unde- 
monstrative way. First and foremost among improvements I must mention the 
introduction into one manufacture after another, of those admirable furnacesinvented 
by Mr. Siemens, and generally known as regenerative furnaces. Whether we 
consider them from the point of view of the economy of fuel, or whether as atford- 
ing the means of attaining temperatures beyond the range of other furnaces, there 
can be no doubt of the immense value of this invention. Heat is the great source 
of power in almost all our dealings with inorganic matter, and I have not the 
slightest doubt that the power over heat given by these regenerative furnaces will 
revolutionize many a chemical art. 

The manufacture of iron, and its subsequent treatment for the removal of im- 
purities, has been of late years the subject of many experiments. Various plans 
have been proposed for avoiding the injurious effects of the mineral impurities of 
our coal, by using gas for the reduction of the iron ores. In this country, however, 
the manufacture of cast iron is carried on in such vast quantities that changes in 
the processes must meet with great resistance. The laborious and expensive process 
of puddling hitherto adopted for burning out the carbon from cast iron is being 
gradually superseded by one or other of the following :—either by treating the molten 
pigs with oxide of iron until the carbon is removed as carbonic oxide, or by Besse- 
mer’s process of blowing air through the molten cast iron. In either case it is de- 
sirable to add some carbon to the malleable iron in order to render it more fusible, 
and for this purpose the best material is the manganiferous carburet of iron, known 
by the name of “ eemaery of which enough is used to make a low steel of 
about 4 per cent. of carbon. 

One of the most interesting novelties in metallurgy is the manufacture of alumi- 
nium, now carried on for the sake chiefly of its alloy with copper, by the distinguished 
gentleman who holds the office of Mayor of Newcastle. The mechanical properties 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 81 


of this so-called aluminium bronze give it great value, and it seems likely to find 
much favour for its appearance. Mr. Bell has also rendered no small service to 
science by collecting a large quantity of that wonderful new metal, thallium, and 
preparing several new salts. Among alloys, a variety of brass containing a small 
quantity of iron has recently attracted considerable attention. The alloy is by no 
means new, though hitherto known but to few persons. It combines tenacity with 
elasticity to a remarkable degree, and can be easily forged. 

Most of the members of the Section are probably aware of the admirable series 
of agricultural experiments which have been proceeding for the last twenty years, 
under the direction of Mr. Lawes, of Rothamsted ; yet many are probably unaware 
of the vast importance of the results already established by those experiments. Few 
things are perhaps more difficult than to conduct scientific experiments in any 
practical art like farming; to find how the resources which science discovers can be 
profitably turned to account, or how the defects which theory points out, in ordinary 
working processes, can be profitably remedied. It is almostproverbialthat the greater 
number of persons who attempt the introduction on their farms of plans suggested 
by abstract science, succeed only in finding how to lose money. It does indeed require 
a rare combination of enthusiasm with caution, of knowledge of theory with 
practical experience of the conditions of ordinary working, to carry such experi- 
ments to a definite and useful issue. Such rare combinations of qualities have 
existed in Mr. Lawes; and when we recollect that by associating Dr. Gilbert with 
his labours he obtained the cooperation of an able and accomplished chemist, we 
have no longer reason to wonder that the results of twenty years’ continuous ex- 
periment, conducted on an ample scale, with the most-scrupulous care and systematic 
order, should have led to the establishment of results so numerous and important 
pn secure for Mr. Lawes the highest rank among the founders of scientific agri- 
culture. 

In speaking of the chemistry of agriculture, I cannot omit alluding to the writings 
of Licbig, which have rendered such important services by bringing vividly before 
the English agriculturists what was known of the chemistry of farming, and several 
ingenious and suggestive theories relating to practical agriculture. In the intro- 
duction to the last German edition of his ‘ Agricultural Chemistry,’ Liebig refers 
in terms of studied disrespect to the investigations of Mr. Lawes, and while mis- 
quoting a paragraph in one of Mr. Lawes’s publications, endeavours to convey the 
impression that that gentleman was unacquainted with the correct use of the term 
“ mineral,” and had misunderstood Liebig’s mineral theory; which he is generally 
considered to have disproved. I mention this circumstance with pain, and have 
no doubt that all who value Liebig’s truly important scientific labours will regret 
it as much as I do, 

Another practical question which science has latterly brought prominently before 
the attention of the public is that of the utilization of the drainage of towns. It 
is estimated that the quantity of nourishment for plants wasted in London alone in 
this form is worth about a million sterling per annum; but this valuable material is 
contained in so large a quantity of water, that no plan has come into working for 
separating it out profitably for use. Some persons are of opinion that the sewage 
might with advantage be conveyed through pipes for use in the fields, especially on 
meadow land, to which it is most easily applicable. Baron Liebig has written a 
letter on the subject, which was forwarded by Alderman Mechi to the ‘ Journal of 
the Society of Arts,’ containing a proposal to mix the liquid with superphosphate 
of lime before distributing it, by which he considers that the value of the con- 
stituents already contained in the liquid will be practically increased. It is, how- 
ever, not likely that the opinion of a chemist will decide the authorities to adopt 
an experimental scheme of the kind, as it is really rather an engineering and com- 
mercial than a chemical question. The practical test of value commercially, is how 
much an article will fetch, and the data of this kind before us do not lead to the 
anticipation of a profit at all approaching to what theory suggests from the sale of 
this refuse. At Croydon (a town of about 18,000 inhabitants) it appears that the 
use of the whole sewage has only added about a thousand pounds to the rent of a 
farm on which it is used. 

Another refuse material which has already come to possess great value is coal- 


32 REPORT—1863. 


tar. Not only is our chief supply of ammonia, the food of plants, derived from 
that source, but those brilliant and varied colours which are now so much in use 
for dyeing silk also owe their origin indirectly to the same source. There is perhaps ~ 
no more striking instance of the ‘benefits which ultimately arise even to the manu- 
facturing arts, from every complete investigation of chemical substances, than is 
afforded by those beautiful dyes which have sprung up today from aniline, which 
yesterday was a chemical novelty in the hands of a first-rate investigator. 


On some Results of Experiments on Lucifer Matches and others ignited by 
Friction. By Professor Axe, FB.S. 


Having mentioned the components of the frictional composition, or the heads 
of the principal English and Foreign matches, he went on to notice the possible 
causes of accident in the transport of matches. The result of experiments proved 
that no degree of heat to which, under all ordinary circumstances, matches were 
likely to be exposed in their transport or otherwise, would suffice to lead to their 
spontaneous ignition. It was quite within the range of possibility, however, that 
on board ship continuous concussion, combined with a degree of heat, might bring 
about accidental ignition of matches, while it might be granted that the accidental 
ignition of one or two boxes in securely closed cases might frequently occur almost 
without a possibility of fear of its spreading to other boxes. A knowledge of the 
causes of the accidental ignition of gunpowder and other explosives rendered it 
advisable that such precautionary measures as were obvious and easily observed 
should be attended to in the shipment of matches, with the view of reducing such 
occurrences to the minimum extent. Some of those steps he specified. The first 
was the pHa gl of a place for the reception of such packages, distinct from 
all other merchandise. Secondly, the efficient ventilation of that part of the vessel 
in which matches were stowed. Thirdly, the enforcement of rules to prevent fire 
being brought by sailors within the vicinity of the matches. Fourthly, the care- 
fully packing of the match-boxes into cases, so as to prevent any independent 
motion. And, fifthly, the bestowal of more uniform attention on the production of 
mt and sufficiently stable match-boxes, and on the packing of the matches into 
the boxes, 


On the Impurities contained in Lead, and their Influence in its Technical Uses. 
By W. Baxer, F.C.S8. 


Having noticed the characters by which pure lead is known, the author proceeded 
to point out the impurities which render it hard, and what elements may exist in 
it without impairing the qualities which render it suitable for its various technical 
uses, The substances which commonly impart hardness to lead are sulphur, anti- 
mony, and arsenic. Copper, if alone, does not much affect the softness of lead. 
Tron also, in the absence of sulphur, is not found in sufficient quantity to produce 
hardness. Refining processes for impure lead are essentially oxidizing processes. 
When the antimony is not more than 1 to 2-070, as in Derbyshire slag-lead, the 

igs are placed on the bed of the ordinary reducing furnace and melted down with 
free access of air, The separation of the lead from its impurities being effected by 
taking advantage of the difference between the melting-points of lead and the mixed 
sulphides, the latter are left on the bed of the furnace, whilst the purified lead in an 
oxidizing atmosphere runs into the pot. The writer has introduced an oxidizing 
agent for effecting the softening of slag-lead as it is tapped from the blast-furnace. 
The softened lead is treated by Pattinson’s process for the concentration of silver. 
It is highly important for certain technical uses that lead should be practically free 
from copper. Less than 2 oz, per ton will produce a pink tint on white-lead cor- 
rosions, and good red lead for glass-making should not contain more than 1 oz. per 
ton. » 


On the Manufacture of Aluminium. By I. L. Beri, Mayor of Newcastle. 


The progress of the manufacture of this—so far as the arts are coneerned—new 
metal has scarcely been such as to require much to be added to those admirable 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 33 


researches bestowed upon the process by the distinguished chemist, M. St. Claire 
Deville, of Paris. Upon the introduction of its manufacture at Washington, three 
and a half years ago, the source of the alumina was the ordinary ammonia-alum 
of commerce (a nearly pure sulphate of alumina and ammonia). Exposure to heat 
drove off the water, sulphuric acid, and ammonia, leaving the alumina behind, 
This was converted into the double chloride of aluminium and sodium by the pro- 
cess described by the French chemist, and practised in France, and the double 
chloride was subsequently decomposed by fusion with sodium. Faint, however, as 
the traces might be of impurity in the alum itself, they to a great extent, if not 
entirely (being of a fixed character when exposed to heat), were to be found in the 
alumina. From the alumina, by the action of chlorine on a heated mixture con-. 
sisting of this earth, common salt, and charcoal, these impurities, or a large propor- 
tion thereof, found their way into the sublimed double chloride, and, once there, it 
is unnecessary to say that, under the influence of the sodium in the process of re= 
duction, any silica, iron, or phosphorus found their way into the aluminium sought 
to be obtained. Now it happens that the presence of foreign matters, in a degree 
so small as almost to be infinitesimal, interferes so largely with the colour as well 
as with the malleability of the aluminium, that the use of any substance containing 
them is of a fatal character. Nor is this all, for the nature of that compound 
which hitherto has constituted the most important application of this metal— 
aluminium-bronze—is so completely changed by using aluminium containing 
the impurities referred to, that it ceases to possess any of those properties which 
render it valuable. As an example of the amount of interference exercised by very. 
minute quantities of impurity, it is perhaps worthy of notice that very few varieties 
of copper have been found susceptible of being employed for the manufacture of 
aluminium-bronze ; and hitherto the author has not, nor have they in France, been 
able to establish in what the difference consists between copper fit for the produc- 
tion of aluminium-bronze and that which is utterly unsuitable for the purpose. 
These considerations have led us, both here and in France, to adopt the use of an= 
other raw material for the production of aluminium, which either does not contain 
the impurities referred to as so prejudicial, or contains them in such a form as to 
admit of their easy separation. This material is Bauxite, so called from the name 
of the locality where it is found in France. It contains 


Silica 244 SOR Aes 0 Bh 2°8 
Wirtamium if 26520. 03..18 RSs. eel 6.2 hs, 0 ne eR 31 
Sesquioxidevofiron).!.. 1%. 2A NR ee ee 25'5 
AMuiminat 252 00, 52.0..C08)..18. SR eee 57-4 
Carbonate Of JIMS; } «,..«:cheisve.ocasateey eee 0:4 
SW BEGI.. 6.c ace sio.$.c,clsbave febdlace aoa ogacate eS 10-8 

100-0 


The bauxite is ground and mixed with the ordinary soda-ash of commerce, and 
then heated in a furnace. The soda combines with the alumina, and the aluminate 
of soda so formed is separated from the insoluble portions, viz. peroxide of iron,. 
silico-aluminate of soda, &c., by lixiviation. Muriatic acid or carbonic acid is then 
added to the solution, which throws down pure alumina. The remainder of 
the process is precisely that which is described by M. St. Claire Deville. The, 
alumina is mixed with common salt and charcoal, made into balls the size of an 
orange, and dried. These balls are placed in vertical earthen retorts, kept at a red 
heat, and through the heated contents chlorine gas is passed. The elements of the, 
earth, under the joint influence of carbon and chlorine at that temperature, are: 
separated—the carbon taking the oxygen, and the chlorine the aluminium. — This- 
latter substance, accompanied by chloride of sodium, sublimes over, and is collected,: 
as a double chloride of aluminium and sodium. In small iron retorts, kept at as 
high a temperature as iron can bear, a mixture of soda (carbonate of soda) and carbo=. 
naceous matter, with a little ground chalk, is placed. The metallic base of the alkali: 
distils over and is collected in coal oil. A portion of the double chloride and sodium,- 
along with fluxes, is exposed to a full red heat in a reverberatory fummage. The 

1863. ; : 


84 REPORT—1868. 


sodium seizes the chlorine combined with the aluminium, and thus liberates the 
latter metal, which falls to the bottom of the fused mass. 

Aluminium is used in sufficient quantity to keep the only work in England—viz. 
that at Washington—pretty actively employed. Asa substance for works of art, 
when whitened by means of hydrofluoric and phosphoric acid, it appears well 
adapted, as it runs into the most complicated patterns, and has the advantage of 

reserving its colour, from the absence of all tendency to unite with sulphur, or to 
Vaves affected by sulphuretted hydrogen, as happens with silver. 

A large amount of the increased activity in the manufacture referred to is due tu 
the exceeding beauty of the compound with copper, already spoken of, which is so 
like gold as scarcely to be distinguishable from that metal, while it possesses the 
additional valuable property of being nearly as hard as iron. 

This alloy, or aluminium-bronze as it is termed, is a discovery of Dr. John 
Percy, F.R.S., and appears to be a true chemical compound. Copper is melted in 
a plumbago crucible, and after being removed from the furnace, the solid aluminium 
is added. The union of the two metals is attended with such an increase of tem- 
perature that the whole becomes white hot; and unless the crucible containing the 
mixture is of refractory material, a vessel which has resisted a heat sufficient to 
effect the fusion of copper melts when the aluminium is added. 

Mr. Gordon was the first, it is believed, who detected and determined the amount 
of tension wire of aluminium-bronze was capable of resisting, which he found to be 
between that of the best iron and the best steel wire. Colonel Strange, of the Royal 
Astronomical Society, investigated its properties, which were given in a very able 
paper in the ‘Transactions’ of that body. Its malleability, ductility, and capability 
of being finely divided and engraved upon, along with its great strength, induced 
the Colonel to recommend its adoption in the theodolite used in the Trigonometrical 
Survey of India. 

At the Elswick Ordnance Works, Captain Noble, R.A., confirmed previous ex- 
periments on the capability of aluminium-bronze to resist longitudinal and trans- 
verse fracture, and in addition to this he ascertained that its position to withstand 
compression stood halfway between that of the finest steel and the best iron. 

The bronze containing ten parts of aluminium and ninety of copper affords an 
alloy endowed with the greatest strength, malleability, and ductility. The colour 
of the copper is affected by a very trifling addition of the other constituent, and 
the alloy gradually improves in these valuable qualities just mentioned until the 
proportions given above are reached. After this, 7. e. when more than 10 per cent. 
of aluminium enters into the composition of the bronze, the alloy gradually be- 
comes weaker and less malleable, and at length is so brittle that it is easily pounded 
in a mortar. 


On Thallium. By I. Lowrutan Bett. 


The persevering labours of Mr, W. Crookes in connexion with this newly dis- 
covered metal had shown it to exist, in notable quantities, in a sublimate found in 
flues leading from the kilns, in which certain kinds of pyrites are treated for obtain- 
ing sulphuric acid. The author caused the substance found in the apparatus con- 
nected with the leaden chambers at Washington to be examined, and ascertaining 
that thallium really was present, he requested M. Henri Brivet, the chief of the 
laboratories at Washington, to continue the researches and prepare a sufficient 

uantity both of the metal and of its salts for exhibition at the present Meeting of 
the British Association. Some of the results (perhaps all) may have been observed 
by other chemists, but in a subject of such recent discovery as thallium, confirma- 
tion of the labours of others is not without its value. This paper does not pro- 
fess to be more than a record of the various substances obtained by M. Brivet, 
upon whom the entire labour devolved of preparing, and to whom in consequence 
the whole merit is due for the information now submitted to this Meeting. 

The sublimate varies considerably in appearance, sometimes of « whitish yellow 
and at others of a chocolate colour, and these two not unfrequently alternate in dis- 
tinet layers. The reddish colour in the latter is due to oxide of iron and oxide of 
manganese. In both these thallium is to be found in the state of a sulphate, to an 
extent indicated by the following analysis :— 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 35 


Karthy matter. cicesssesseecesecssees | OVB 
PbO 


LPM TEG WI « Gal Gals delfeben’s> io) Basse 
Alumina,....... MEMR bea Pile es ew 280 
HeO@ inten aevisate Sine ele daltate a aaaeeleniie lee AOD 
MaiOw sciz Biles i Dewan s Siete GS 
CaO’... stete ben ptitanta lotsa oe deren 

: MiOhresi, 0 ernie renner 0:55 
BOP eM oes eRe ee Jig contd 

Ors riaens Ai GCG Doi id Gade 7:55 

PAHIELS APN. RNASE ee aia davateiers 3 “1680 

Se As Zn, &c. not estimated. .........05 eneBd: 

100-00 


Wishing to free the solution, obtained by treating this mass with water, from iron, 
lime was added. This plan was not the one ultimately adopted, but during its ap- 
plication a considerable quantity of ammoniacal vapours pe their appearance, and 
hese were afterwards found to be due to the presence of sulphate of ammonia in the 
sublimate itself, possibly due to the fact that some pyrites from the collieries is used, 
and adhering coaly matter may have given rise to the generation of the alkali. 
A concentrated hot solution of all the salts obtained from 4 cwt. of the flue sub- 
limate gave a salt which fell in granular crystals; others of an octahedral shape 
fell subsequently from the same solution, and were found on analysis to consist of 


Oe PBDEs F800 a Set Beet cte i . 86°50 
US IA eae Sco ct 9 cic 26-40 
AO PETE Hi! ot ERE IER Mindat 9:50 
BeGecest ocean Ae eee ie-B0 
PAOD (2 P32. eaey, valtat eee QOed 
Ag H\(not weighed). ...5.% saete veleleielee ly . 5:35 

100-00 


As a source of thallium, the whole solution was treated in two ways. 
~ First, the solution not sufficiently strong to give any crystals was filtered, and to 
it a piece of sheet zinc was added; this, by its conversion into sulphate of zine, 
gave the thallium as a metallic precipitate, but contaminated with the impurity of 
the zinc. This metallic precipitate was washed with water and again dissolved in 
sulphuric acid, and then precipitated by means of hydrochloric acid. The chloride 
of thallium being feebly soluble in water, the washings of the chloride were pre- 
served and used for washing out, in subsequent operations, the sulphate of thallium 
from flue-dust. The pure chloride thus obtained was either reconverted into sul- 
hate and then precipitated by an electric current, or the chloride was fused, placed 
in a dish, after cooling in water, with a piece of zinc, which reduced the metallic 
thallium as before. The metal itself preserves the exact physical structure of the 
cake of the chloride of thallium. The metal so obtained by either of these modes 
was melted, and both were of the same degree of purity. They gave the following 
results on analysis :— 


TUES SLLTTITVN SG eiietane och ssapekens slahutnst oaideae pe ses. 98:66 
Siva: aa cbc}: Bas, herds id dew ost un, okstace ke ioe 36 
5 es Ate ok bie ids) il boeiias ae Prin 84 
TIRE US San wisiby 5 us ceteas aid. sudnniey tea uses EaaRnOUe ih 64 

100-00 


The" second and more economical mode of treatment consisted in taking the 
solution obtained from the flue sublimate and adding chloride of sodium until all 
precipitation ceased. The acid solution remaining after the chloride has been pre- 
cipitated, contains more thallium than an ordinary neutral solution, and in conse- 
quence was preserved. The solution was concentrated, and crystals of sulphate of 
iron and sulphate of ammonia separated. The mother-liquor, on being treated with 
chromate of potass, gave chromate of thallium, which was exhibited a of the 


36 REPORT—1863. 


salts of this metal. The chloride of thallium so obtained was treated in the man- 
ner already described for procuring the metal. Before pec the subject of the 
flue dust, it may be well to say that it consisted principally of sulphate of lead, 
caused by the presence of sulphide of lead in the pyrites, earthy matter, &c., with 
a small ee of thallium, as was manifest in reducing the sulphate of lead, when 


the metalliclead was found to contain thallium, as shown by the subjoined analysis. 
BEY el TUT signs, agd ceatastrerocenais, aris ie ayeters| a) ayn lohoe 7:69 
RD Sai erence Boke inchoate 91°53 
MOSS as Bavayelaraey cyenaiels phy ste) alareneisiere cheveyedelee ‘78 
100-00 


In all, about eight pounds of thallium have been procured in the way described. 
Six pounds of metallic thallium were exhibited; one pound was presented to Mr. 
Crookes and to some chemical friends in Paris, and the remainder has been employed 
in forming the salts exhibited, viz. :— 

Sulphate.—Sulphuric acid dissolves the metal with great readiness, giving off 
hydrogen, the solution on concentration affording crystals. 

Mitrate.—Nitric acid also dissolves the metal with ease, giving off nitrous 
vapours, the solution affording crystals in the ordinary way. 

Carbonate.—A solution of thallium not being, like that of lead, &c., precipitated 
by an alkaline carbonate, the following process was followed. The spongy metallic 
thallium precipitated by zinc from the chloride was moistened and heated gently 
and exposed to the air.” The greater portion of the thallium oxidized, which oxide 
was then dissolved in water, and a stream of carbonic acid was passed through the 
solution. This converted the oxide into carbonate, and from the solution of carbo- 
nate of thallium so obtained, crystals of this salt were procured by concentration in 
the usual way. Exposure to the atmosphere produced similar results, 7. e. carbonic 
acid was absorbed, just.in the same way as happens when solutions of potass, soda, 
lime, &c. are similarly treated. 

Chromate, obtained in the way already described, by adding chromate of potass 
to a solution of any soluble salt of thallium, 

Bichromate, got’ by using bichromate instead of the chromate. If the bichro- 
mate is precipitated from an acid solution and heated to ebullition, and the solution 
allowed to cool, the crystals fall in brilliant scales, as may be seen on examining 
the specimens. 

Chloride of Thallium, obtained in the way already mentioned, as a precipitate. 
This precipitate, dissolved in a boiling solution of muriate of ammonia, gave crystals 
on cooling, the chloride being more soluble in muriate of ammonia than in water. 
A specimen of melted chloride answering to what may be denominated horn thal- 
lium was also prepared. 

Sesquichloride of Thallium.—On treating the chloride of thallium with boiling 
nitric acid, all the chloride dissolves, and the solution, on cooling, deposits brilliant 

ellow scales of a sesquichloride. This sesquichloride was exhibited, after having 
een melted. 

Iodide of Thallium, obtained by precipitating a solution of sulphate of thallium 
by iodide of potassium, giving a very insoluble yellow precipitate, which, on being 
heated when dry, changes to orange, regaining the primitive colour on cooling. 

Sulphate of Thallium and of Alumina.—The addition of the sulphate of alumina 
to a solution of sulphate of thallium gave this double salt resembling in form those 
of alum; and, indeed, this substance may be considered as a thallium-alum. The 
existence of a double salt of this description is interesting, inasmuch as it forms a 
link with the alkalies. 

Sulphate of Thallium and of Soda.—On adding caustic soda to the solution of 
sulphate of thallium, in treating the flue sublimate with hot water, iron is first 
thrown down and ammonia given off. The hot strong solution on cooling gives 
erystals of sulphate of soda, containing sulphate of thallium; but whether mecha- 
nically or otherwise, want of time has not permitted the determination. A speci- 
men of these crystals was shown. 

Sulphocyanide of Thallium.—When a solution of sulphate of thallium has added 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 37 


to it another of sulphocyanide of potassium, a sulphocyanide of the former metal, 
in long white crystals, falls. 

This is necessarily a very imperfect paper in an exclusively scientific point of 
view. Both the writer and his friend M. Brivet had been too much occupied in 
other affairs connected with the Meeting to devote that time to its preparation the 
interest of the subject entitles it to. The results were in consequence confined to 

rocuring the salts, and any further examination of them must be reserved for the 

uture. The results already obtained, indeed, were somewhat abridged by the in- 
disposition of M. Brivet, occasioned by frequent contact with the metal, or rather in 
breathing its fumes; at all events, his symptoms, those of languor and headache, 
corresponded with those already described by another dperator. 


On Minerals and Salts found in Coal-pits. 
By R. Carvert Crapnam and Joun Dacuisx, F.GS. 


In conducting the extensive coal-mining operations in the counties of Northum- 
berland and Durham, many interesting minerals and salts are met with, which are 
little noticed by mine-adventurers, as they do not bear directly on the material sought 
for. Some of these substances have been formed simultaneously with the coal, or 
at least at periods far removed from the present time, whilst others are of recent 
formation. Having had favourable opportunities of obtaining and examining spe- 
cimens, the writers proposed briefly to describe the results, and, in doing so, divided 
the paper into the following heads :— 

1. Coal, and, 

2. The adjoining rocks which were formed nearly simultaneously with it. 

3. The minerals and other foreign substances found in coal. 

4, The salts found in coal, and formed by decomposition and recombination. 

1. Coal.—One of the most striking peculiarities of the northern coal-tield is the 
variety in the economic quality of the various beds of coal—the same seam being 
in different parts a household, a gas, a coking, and a steam coal; and this occurs 
without any great alteration in its chemical constituents, and probably arises from 
a different combination of elements or in mechanical structure. 

The household coal has a hard fracture, and in burning leaves little ash, and that 
of ared colour. The essential economic character of gas coal is the yielding of a 
large quantity of gas on distillation, together with freedom from sulphur and other 
eepmtice. The requisite of coking coal is that, on roasting in close ovens, it should 
yield a hard and compact coke, free from sulphur and from slaty particle, which, 
on burning, would leave clinkers and destroy the fire-bars. The steam coalis a very 
hard, free burning, white ash, non-caking coal. 

2. The Rocks adjoining the Coal consist chiefly of bituminous and non-bituminous 
shales, sandstone, ironstone, and limestone; and although they possess numerous 
distinctive features of very great interest, a lengthened description would be 
foreign to the purpose of this paper, and is the less required, as their general pro- 

erties have been frequently described and are well understood. Specimens were 
Reaves exhibited, and a brief analysis of each annexed, for the object of showin 
more clearly the part they play in the formation of the salts, &c., hereafter to be de- 
scribed. The following are the specimens selected :— 
1. Specimen of non-bituminous shale, from Messrs Cowen’s Pit, at Blaydun. 
2. Specimen of blue shale, from Newsham Colliery, near Blyth. 
8. Specimen of bituminous shale, from ‘the roof of the Low Main or “ West 
Haslay ” seam, at the same mine. 
4, Specimen of mussel-band ironstone, from a bed lying five feet above the 
ait Main seam, in the Bedlington Pit, and clay-ironstone, from Hetton 
olliery. 
5. Specimens of sandstones used for building up-cast shafts. 
The specimens of sandstone were from various well-known quarries in the coal- 
“measures. 

The chief characteristic of these sandstones seems to be the quantity of iron, 
lime, or magnesia they contain, which is the cause of their decomposition when 
exposed to the action of disintegrating agents, and has led to serious loss through 


38 -  ~ REPORT—1863. 


‘the decomposition of the stones with which the sides of many of the up-cast shafts 
in this district are lined, by the sulphurous vapours from the ventilating-furnaces 
and engine-fire. This is remedied by the adoption of fire-bricks in the place of 
sandstone, the latter not being liable to decomposition under the circumstances to 
which they are exposed. , : ‘ 
With the object of showing the action of these gases, the writers have examined 
various specimens of metal tubbing taken from the shafts of Hetton and other 
collieries, after having been some years in use, and append the analyses :— 


No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. 
NGOU cites ce, PO rae EU. by ae O00 ee 
Sulphur ...7. 300 ..5. L427 .). o2G oeeeeup 
@atoons. esa, TSO cee OD ns. DN ae ee 
Silica ...... 0:65 84:15 — 


Water ....., 1600 .... 620..., 1472 1.0. = 
95-50 100-12 100:00 
The following are some analyses of sandstones :— 


Recent Analyses of Sandstones. 


PENSHER. COX GREEN. Crag- | Mica- 

Ss |  —_} leit ceous 

Brown | White | Grey | Top | Middle |Bottom| S@=4- | sand- 

rock, rock. rock. | stone. | stone. | stone. | Stone | stone. 

Silica tire 78°50 | 88-00 | 84:50 |'78-83 |81-60 | 83-30 | 86:33 | 76:25 
Alomine la cveccse en 16:00} 10:00 | 5:50 |12°16 | 9:60 | 9:16 | 9-83} 8-12 
Oxide of iron.............4. 5:00} 1:16 | 530 | 6:00 | 660 | 6:00 | 2:60} 9°53 
Carbonate of lime......... 0:21} 0:20] 030) 1:40] 1:20] 0:34 160 1:11 


Carbonate of magnesia...) 0:30) 0:20 | trace! 0°30 | 0:40 | 0:30 | trace} 0:32 
Salts of soda and potash | traces | trace | trace | trace | trace | trace | trace | 3:40 


100-01 | 99:56 | 95:60 | 9869 |99:40 19910 |100-36 |98°73 


3. Minerals and other Foreign Substances found in Coal.—Many of these are 
omitted in printed analyses, as they exist in separate masses and are not uniformly 
intermixed throughout the coal. They chiefly consist of— 


(1.) Carbonate of iron. (6.) Arsenic. 

ce Sulphuret of lead. (7.) Hatchetine. 

tt Sulphuret of copper. 8.) Sulphuret of iron. 
4.) tee cana of baryta. {3 Sulphuret of nickel. 
(5.) Carbonate of lime. 


A few of these we shall describe. 
(A.) Specimen from the centre of the Hutton coal-seam, at Seaton Colliery, 
near Seaham, at a depth of 1500 feet; it consists of sulphurets of iron and copper. 
The analysis of a large specimen is as under :— 


Copper...... Pra RITE CEE abicianeye 33°20 
(ESSE ERIS Ce ART ee IR “Se R.. 28:20 
BUG E os cate eta ees at oc ps ameV poke a cle 37-00 
Carbon, &.. 14... ausaireteatg Pinter) (sitet 1:60 

100-00 


(B.) Specimen of Sulphuret of Lead from Seaton Colliery, 
The following in an analysis of a specimen :— 


1 BE heetnes et be RSH ge or re boa .. 62°48 
SUL PTt errnrs Se 1 RE FFA PHONE E 11-40 
PEOH career cei ctcss. «0th ieee serrsat 2:10 
COA cere eran: wcaacs face n Laine sees 34:02 

100-00 


(C.) Iron pyrites, locally termed “brasses,” is found in nearly all coal, and 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 39 


sometimes to a very considerable extent. A large quantity is separated from the 
coal on its arrival at the surface of the mine; but a great part of it is thrown to 
waste, and forms the “ fire-heaps” attached to nearly every colliery, and is fre- 
quently the cause of considerable damage to vegetation when they take fire. 
Probably as much as 20,000 tons per annum are saved, and used in the manu- 
facture of sulphate of iron and sulphuric acid. 
The following is an analysis of cleaned coal-pyrites from Walker Colliery :— 


PUPAE bos sicseltorwe me cece tae oe sees. 40°50 
ETT Papo, o Susid «Gee eal ts Paste Rl Gee 86:35 
ODE AR i, osterg snus «0 nds Shen SERRE rie Ten mete 17:90 
RAI oon dt cs sx eyo tvs sh EM oan peta aa 1:55 
Carbonate of lime ..........0:- Sapte 4:00 

100-30 


Still more recently a further quantity—(D.) Specimens of Hatchetine—was found 
in the South Hetton Pit, some of which the writers hoped to have been able to 
lay before the members of the Association; but unfortunately the pit-boys found it 
out, and used it for greasing the axles of their trams, thus making it deserve the 
name of “ mineral grease,” which it sometimes receives. 

(&.) Specimen of coprolite found in the bituminous shale lying immediately over 
the Low Main seam at Newsham Colliery, near Blyth: from the numerous fish- 
remains found in this bed, it has received the name of “ Fish-bed.” This speci- 
men contains 30 per cent. of phosphate of lime. 

(F.) Specimen of sulphate of baryta, found in Felling Colliery, near Newcastle, 
by Mr. G. B. Foster, in quite a large mass. The writers are not aware of sulphate of 
baryta having previously been noticed in connexion with coal, except by Dr. Richard- 
son, of Newcastle, who observed it in the waters of Walker Colliery in 1847. 

(C.) Specimen of carbonate of lime, generally found in layers, occasionally of 
several inches thick, and frequently presenting the appearance of fine marble. 

(EL.) Specimen of carbonate of iron, also found in layers, and frequently mixed 
with lime, also in large masses. 

(I.) Arsenic is not found isolated, but in some coal “brasses”’ it exists to the ex- 
tent of 0-1 to 0:3 per cent. 

(J.) Specimen containing fine crystals of sulphuret of nickel, imbedded in car- 
bonate of lime, from South Wales. 

4. The Salts formed by Decomposition and Recombination.—Through the rocks 
described in the first part of this memoir water is constantly percolating, and this, 
becoming charged with various salts in its passage through the upper strata, in- 
duces decomposition of many of the previously mentioned substances, thus forming 
new combinations. These are in some cases found in solutions of various densities, 
sometimes in crystallized masses of great purity, and at other times in layers de- 
posited from solution or by evaporation. e shall give a few illustrations :— 

(K.) A specimen from Hetton Colliery, which consists of crystallized sulphate 
of iron (copperas). This is sometimes found in considerable quantities. 

(M.) Specimen of sulphate of alumina, containing 29°6 per cent. sulphate of 
alumina, soluble in water. This substance is found in considerable quantities in 
Hetton Colliery. 

(N.) Specimen of sulphates of iron and alumina (iron-alum, very pure). This 
is found in fine crystallized masses. 

(O.) Specimen of sulphate of lime, from Walker Colliery, from a large mass of 
snow-like crystals. 

(P.) Specimen of needle-shaped crystals of Epsom salts. This substance is 
found in large quantities in Hetton Colliery, and is quite pure. 

(Q.) Specimen of nearly pure common salt, with a trace of sulphate of lime. 

(R.) Specimen of chloride of potassium, mixed with common salt, 

- In presenting the above imperfect results to the Members, the writers are well 
aware that they have not exhausted the subject; but, amidst the more important 
duties of the last few months, it has been found difficult to find time sufficient to 
complete the paper that they had sketched out for themselves. 


40 0 REPORT—1863. 


On Disinfectants. By H. B. Conny, F.C.S. 


It was remarked by the author, that the idea of artificial disinfection by chemical 
means was not opposed to the operations of nature, since the action of the air in 
overcoming the foulness which is inseparable from the congregating together of 
men in dwellings is explainable only by the laws of chemistry. The atmosphere 
is an admixture of chemical substances, whose influence on organized being, whe- 
ther in its constructive or destructive effects, is of a truly chemical nature. In 
studying, consequently, the best means of ‘seconding nature in her efforts for dis- 
posing of the waste products of organic life, we had only to copy her admirable 
processes, in order to arrive at the most perfect results. The researches of recent 
times on the composition and economy of the atmosphere pointed clearly to oxygen, 
and especially to active oxygen, as the chief means by which natural disinfection 
is accomplished, There are two classes of circumstances in which the auxiliary aid 
of disinfectants is very frequently required to overcome unwholesome influences, viz., 
1st, against the deleterious emanations which generally proceed from the bodies of 
men, especially when labouring under disease, and more particularly when such 
disease is of a contagious nature; 2nd, against the taint of organic decomposition. 
In both these cases the chemical objects to be kept in view were substantially the 
same. The infective material in either case is supposed to be an organic com- 
pound, declining by successive transformations from a highly complex form towards 
that state of ultimate repose which belongs to complete oxidation. Its dangerous 
qualities are dependent on its condition while passing through those steps of 
transition during which it acts after the manner of a ferment. Disinfectants are 
of two classes :—I1st, those which, by fixing the organic matter in a form unfayour- 
able to oxidation, thus reduce to the utmost its tendency to undergo chemical 
‘change, and which are more properly designated antiseptics; 2nd, those which 
more or less rapidly break up the organic matter by producing its oxidation and 
conversion into imputrefiable products, and which alone are properly designated 
true disinfectants. The advantages possessed by the preparations indicated by the 
author were thus summed up:—they had no smell whatever of their own, gave 
off no odorous gas during their operation, and when diluted for use were devoid of 
perceptible action, except on offensive matter; they were thoroughly efficient and 
poe in their effects, disinfecting as well as deodorizing ; perfectly safe to us, 
“because not poisonous; not mistakeable for other substances, on account of their 
characteristic colours ; capable of being regulated as to quantities required by the 
‘depth of colour of their solutions; and applicable in a great number of cases for 
which no other disinfecting agents can be employed. 


On Fire-clay Goods*. By Josepn Cowen, Jun. 


The author stated that fire-clay, which is obtained in large quantities in the two 
counties of Durham and Northumberland, usually lies beneath the coal-measures, 
in layers varying in thickness from 12 inches to 5 or 6 feet. The refracto 
-character of any sample of fire-clay is determined by the proportions in whic 
silica and alumina are present, and by the absence of lime, iron, and other easily 
fluxible substances. The best descriptions of tire-clay—those which, when manu- 


ip 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 
Silica...... ie He 51-10} 47:55| 48-55] 51-11 | 71:28 | 83:29 | 69-25 
ot Adhuvnlina® .uia. Pd) 31:35 | 29:50] 30-25] 30-40 | 17-75 | 810 | 17-90 
Oxide of iron ...... 463} 913| 4:06] 4911] 9.4, 188, | 297 
Lined Io .alneyie te. 1:46| 1:34] 1:66] 1:76 ( 130 
Magnesia .......... 154] 0-71} 191] trace | 230) | 2-99 
Water and organic 

MALE ORS ache Teh 10-47 | 12-01] 10°67) 12:29 | 694 | 364 | 7-58 


aS ree ee) a de eo bee ee sennd eet nels Sale), | 


* This paper was drawn up by the author at the request of the Local Committee. 


TBANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ’ 4d 


factured, are capable of resisting the greatest heat—always contain a large portion 
of silica. The preceding Table contains a series of analyses of samples of fire-clay 
taken from seven seams, all worked in the mines belonging to one fire-brick ma- 
nufactory, situated a few miles west of Newcastle. 

The remaining part of the paper treated at length of the various applications 


which have been found, especially in late years, for articles made from this 
substance. 


On the Extraction of Thallium on a large scale from the Flue-dust of 
Pyrites-burners. By W. Crooxgs, F.R.S. 


gen some months past been occupied, in conjunction with Messrs. Ege 
kin and Williams, in the extraction of thallium from an amount of material far 
greater than has ever been treated before, the author proposed to bring before the 
Meeting an account of the methods ultimately adept 

The author has received some hundreds of specimens of deposit, flue-dust and 
minerals, every one of which was first of all easel tested for the metal by means 
of the spectroscope. The practical employment of spectrum analysis is, he regretted 
to say, of but very limited use, and has caused him many disappointments before he 
determined to abandon it, except for confirmation in subsequent experiments. The 
spectrum by itself pines no indication of quantity; the green line produced by a 
residue containing but one part of thallium in a thousand is as vivid and distinct 
as the line given by the pure metal; and therefore, before he could decide whether 
a deposit contained sufficient thallium to repay for its extraction, it was necessary 
to make an estimation in the moist way, by exhausting a weighed quantity of the 
dust with water, and adding hydrochloric acid to the solution. Associated with 
thallium in these deposits is, unfortunately, a variety of other metals, among which 
he found mercury, copper, arsenic, antimouy, iron, zinc, cadmium, lime, and sele- 
nium, together with ammonia, sulphuric, hydrochloric, and nitric acids. 

Soon after the publication of Fis lecture delivered at the Royal Institution, 

March 27, 1863, Dr. Alfred S. Taylor sent me a powder, which is, beyond doubt, a 
portion of the residue in which Berzelius found selenium. He examined the speci- 
men with the most scrupulous care in the spechraseore: but have been unable to 
-see the faintest trace of the green line. Had thallium been present, it would 
scarcely have escaped the keen observation of Berzelius. 
. The flue-dust upon which we have a3 yet operated amounts to about five tons, 
the whole of which has been treated by the method he is about to describe. The 
difficulties of manipulating such an amount have been very serious. The process 
at present adopted at Messrs. Hopkin and Williams’s laboratory is as follows :— 
The thalliferous dust is first treated in wooden tubs with an equal weight of boil- 
ing water, and is well stirred. During this operation a considerable quantity of 
nitrous acid is evolved; after which the mixture is allowed to rest for twenty-four 
hours for the undissolved residue to deposit. The liquid is then siphoned off, the 
residue is washed, and afterwards treated with a fresh quantity of boiling water. 
The collected liquors which have been siphoned off from the deposit are allowed 
to cool, precipitated by the addition of a considerable excess of strong hydrochloric 
acid, at the precipitate, consisting of very impure chloride of thallium, is allowed 
to subside. The chloride obtained in this way is then well washed on a calico 
filter, and afterwards squeezed dry. He mentioned that from three tons of the 
dust he obtained 68 pounds of this rough chloride. 

The next step consists in treating the crude chloride in a platinum dish with an 
equal weight of strong sulphuric acid, and afterwards heating the mixture to expel 
the whole of the hydrochloric acid. To make sure of this, the heat must be con- 
tinued until the greater part of the excess of sulphuric acid is yolatilized. After 
this the mass of sulphate of thallium is dissolved in about twenty times its weight 
of water, and the solution filtered. On the addition of hydrochloric acid to this 
solution, nearly pure chloride of thallium is thrown down; this is collected on a 
“calico filter, well washed, and then squeezed dry. 

It is now necessary to again convert the chloride into sulphate. For this pur- 
pose we add the dry chloride gradually to hot sulphuric acid, using four parts by 


42. ° REPORT—1863. 


weight of strong acid to six parts of the chloride. The mixture so obtained is 
heated strongly until all the hydrochloric acid is expelled and the residue assumes 
the form of a dense liquid. ‘I'his, being set aside, solidifies on cooling to a white 
crystalline mass. When this is dissolved in water an immense amount of heat is 
evolved, and great care must be taken to avoid breakage of the vessels. The best 
way of dissolving it is to add it slowly to ten times its weight of hot water. A 
solution is thus obtained, which must be filtered; and on being concentrated and 
set aside to cool, crystals of sulphate of thallium will be obtained, which may be 
rendered quite pus by recrystallization,—a little hydrosulphuric acid being pre- 
viously added, if necessary, to separate arsenic, mercury, &c. 

The final step in the process is the reduction of the metal from this sulphate, 
Plates of pure zinc (which must leave no residue whatever when dissolved in sul- 
phuric acid) ave arranged vertically round the sides of a deep porcelain dish hold- 
ing a gallon. About seven pounds of crystallized sulphate of thallium are then 
placed in the dish, and water poured over to cover the salt. Heat is applied, and 
in the course of a few hours the whole of the thallium will be reduced to the state 
of a metallic sponge, which readily separates from the plates of zinc on slight 
agitation. The liquid is poured off, the zincs removed, and the spongy thallium 
washed two or three times. It is then strongly compressed between the fingers, 
and preserved under water until it is ready for fusion. The fusion of the metal 
is readily effected. An iron crucible is placed over a gas-burner, and a tube is 
arranged so that a constant stream of coal-gas may flow into the upper part of the 
crucible. Lumps of the compressed sponge are then introduced, one after the other 
as they melt, until the crucible is full of metal. It is then stirred up with an iron 
rod, and the thallium may either be poured into water and obtained in a granu- 
lated form, or cast into an ingot. Thirty or forty fusions have been performed in 
the same crucible without the iron being acted upon in the least by the melted 
thallium. The products of these fusions were ultimately melted together and cast 
in an iron mould. The bar of metallic thallium exhibited before the Section 
weighed a quarter of a hundredweight. 

Thallium contracts strongly on cooling. The coating of tarnish which it 
acquires while hot is instantly removed by water, which renders the surface per- 
fectly bright. The liquid metal in the crucible, when protected by the stream of 
coal-gas, can scarcely be distinguished from mercury. Thallium is not absolutely 
identical in colour with any other metal, but approaches nearest to cadmium and 
tin. It has perfect metallic lustre. “Its specific gravity is 119. It is very malle- 
able, but not very ductile. It can only be drawn into wire with great difficulty ; 
but by the operation technically known as squirting, thallium wire may be formed 
most readily. Thallium is very soft, being only exceeded in this property by the 
alkali metals. A point of lead will scratch thallium with the greatest readiness. 
Thallium possesses the property, in common with soft metals, of welding by pres- 
sure in the cold. Rubbed on paper, it gives a dark streak, having a yellow reflec- 
tion, which in a short time nearly fades out, but may be restored with an alkaline 
sulphide. Thallium is strongly diamagnetic, being in this oe nearly, if not 
quite, equal to bismuth. It melts at 550° F., and distils at a white heat, evolving 
brown vapours into the air at a temperature little above its melting-point. When 
a minute fragment of thallium, or of any of its salts, is introduced into the flame 
of a spirit-lamp, it colours it of a most intense green, which, when examined by 
means of a spectrum apparatus, appears to be absolutely monochromatic, com- 
municating one single green line to the spectrum. This property of the metal is 
now too well known to require further remarks; from it the name Thallium was 
chosen. 

The atomic weight of thallium is 203. This result, however, is not deduced 
from sufficiently accurate analyses to render it entirely trustworthy, and the author 
is now engaged in determining the equivalent in a more accurate manner. 


On Photelectrie Engraving, and Observations upon sundry Processes of Photo- 
graphic Engraving. By Duncan C, Dattas, 


*. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43 


On the Slacking of Quicklime. By Joun Davy, M.D., F.R.S., Se. 


The object of the author in this communication was twofold :—first, the giving 
an account of certain experiments, the results of which seemed to show that lime 
is capable of forming with water a subhydrate, attended with the evolution of little 
heat; next, the suggesting the use of lime in collieries as a substitute for gunpow- 
der in blasting, founded on the fact of the high temperature, attended with the 
production of steam, occasioned by the quenching quicklime,—that is, its conver- 
sion into a hydrate,—yet not sufficiently high to inflame any inflammable gas. He 
concluded with expressing the hope that a trial of the suggestion would be made 
in a colliery, being so easy of execution and attended with no danger—the great 
objection to the use of gunpowder. His own trials, he stated, made with borings 
into hard sandstone, had not succeeded, which is not surprising considering the re- 
sistance offered—so much greater than from coal—and the small quantity of lime 
employed. 


On a new Gas-Furnace for melting Gold, Silver, Copper, Cast Iron, Glass, 
§e., by means of Coal-gas, without the aid of a bellows or tall chimney. 
By G. Gorn. 


This furnace consists of a stout cylinder of fire-clay, about 10 inches high and 
6 or 8 inches wide, enclosed in a sheet-iron casing, to the lower and back part of 
which is affixed a short chimney: the casing is supported by three iron legs about 

-15 or 18 inches high. Inside the clay cylinder is placed a shorter and thinner 
clay cylinder or cupola, having three clay pegs projecting from its inner side near 
the top, for supporting the crucible. Both the cylinders are open at their ends, 
and rest upon the bottom of the iron casing. The outer clay cylinder is covered at 
the top by a thick circular plate of fire-clay, with a hole in its centre for inserting 
or removing the crucible, &c. ; and this hole is closed by a plug of fire-clay. The 
iron casing has a large hole in the middle of its bottom part under the cupola, be- 
neath which is fixed a peculiar corrugated gas-burner ; so that the flame passes wu 
inside the cupola, surrounding the crucible, then out at the top of the cupola, an 
down the outside between it and the outer cylinder, to a hole entering the 
chimney. 

The Mediiesi-siccd furnace will melt half a pound of copper, or six ounces of 
cast iron. One ounce of copper has been melted in it in 2} minutes, one ounce of 
cast iron in 3 minutes, five ounces of copper in 4} minutes, and three ounces of 
cast iron in 5 minutes. The second-sized furnace will melt fifty ounces of copper, 
or forty ounces of cast iron; it has melted sixteen ounces of copper in 8 minutes. 

The furnace is portable, requiring no brickwork erections or fixed chimney; it 
may be placed anywhere, and used in any situation where gas is available; it is 
safe in action, free from dust, and produces no smoke. A further great advantage 
is “the perfect accessibility which it permits to the melted metal, and the protec- 
tion of the fused metal from oxidation by means of the layer of flame which during 
the action of the furnace plays over the mouth of the open crucible and excludes 
the atmospheric air. Thus the advantages of a covered crucible are gained, whilst 
the contents of the crucible are perfectly accessible to examination or manipula- 
tion.” This also enables oxidable metals and alloys to be melted in an open 
crucible without the addition of a flux or reducing agent. 

The furnaces are suitable for jewellers, dentists, analytical chemists, and all 
persons requiring small crucibles quickly heated to high temperatures. They may 
be obtained of EK. W. Ball, 11 Broad Street, Islington, Birmingham. 


On the Commercial Advantages of a new Carbonate of Soda, 
By M. L. Kusstzr. 


He refers to the ‘Comptes Rendus’ of the French Academy for January 12, 1863, 
for his description of the facility of obtaining, with simple Breanne, beautiful 
erystals of this salt containing one equivalent of water. From their different 
crystalline form they cannot be confounded with ordinary crystals of soda. They 
are right prisms with square bases, sometimes terminated by a right face, but 
oftener by a prismatic or pyramidal summit, 


4A. REPORT—1863. 


The salt presents many features by which its purity can be ascertained. 

1. Its striking peculiarity of form, its complete dryness, and greater specific gra- 
vity than crystals of soda. 

2. It cannot be adulterated with the cheaper salts, sulphate and ordinary car- 
bonate of soda, which contain much water, and fall into powder. 

3. It is the only ordinary salt that can be heated red hot on a piece of charcoal 
without change of crystalline form. It merely becomes opake, while sulphate and 
carbonate of soda undergo watery fusion, common salt decrepitates, and nitrate of 
soda deflagrates. The least-instructed purchasers cannot be deceived as to its 


urity. 

The surface with difficulty effloresces even in an atmosphere so dry as to turn in 
the same time a large crystal of soda into powder. As it contains only 17 per cent. 
of water, and 83 per cent. of carbonate of soda, the cost of distant carriage 1s nearly 
the same as that of ordinary soda-ash of 85 per cent. 

The preparation is more economical than that of the two ordinary forms of soda, 
being produced by the “ multiple ” employment of heat ; and it can be packed from 
the evaporating-pan without deetiche more than a moment. M. Kessler considers 
that all these properties point it out both for the public and the manufacturer as 
the most rational commercial form of soda. 


On Glass-engraving by Hydrofluoric Acid. By M. L. Kesstrr. 

The two principal glass-works in France, St. Louis and Baccarat, have used for 
five or six years M. Kessler's process for engraving on glass by means of hydro- 
fluoric acid, of which various specimens, especially lamp-globes, may be seen any- 
wherein London. The results have been obtained with great economy by printing 
on paper the “‘ réserve” or ground of the pattern with bitume de Judée dissolved in 
essence of turpentine ; the printing is then transferred to the glass, which is plunged 
into a bath of hydrofluoric acid, in which a continual rotatory motion is given to it, 
The glass is acted on wherever there is no printing. When the engraving is suf- 
ficiently deep, the pieces are washed in an alkaline lye, which dissolves the reserve. 
This process has rapidly extended, and has already in great part displaced the 
ancient method of glass-cutting. In view of its increased consumption for this 
_purpose, M. Kessler has simplified the manufacture of hydrofluoric acid, which he 
pt ares in cast-iron cylinders. Asacure for the painful burns caused by this acid, 

e has found a certain antidote in binding on the wound strips steeped in acetate 
of ammonia. 


On a New System of Evaporating Liquids. By M. L. Kesster. 


There is at present an important gap in the list of apparatus for evaporating 
liquids. There are simple evaporators of various kinds, and there are arrange- 
ments in which the heat of the vapour from one liquid boils another more volatile 
liquid. There are also apparatus where the same eflects are obtained by means of 
decreasing pressures corresponding to diminishing boiling-points, but not for the 
multiple so, of the same liquid without the intervention of decreasing 
pressures. is arises from the difficulty of condensing a vapour disengaged in the 
atmosphere, and necessarily of inappreciable tension, and especially mixed with air. 

M. Kessler thinks that for resolving the question the first condition is the placing 
of the vessels above each other, so that the bottom of one shall be the cover of the 
other, as in this arrangement the air charged with vapour will easily ascend to be 
cooled in contact with the cover, then coming into contact with the liquid to be 
saturated with vapour it becomes the agent of its own transport. Constantly in 
motion, it cannot accumulate in the places for condensation and thus prevent the 
vapour from reaching these. 

econdly, to prevent the drops condensed from falling into the liquid below, he 
ives an inclination to the surface of the cover towards the sides all round. The 
rops adhering to the cover by capillary attraction drain into a trough round the 
outer edge of the lower vessel, and are thus delivered outside the apparatus. This 
trough also forms a water-lute between the two vessels. 
M. Kessler says that such an apparatus performs the two separate operations of 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45 


distillation and evaporation. Used as an alembic, no refrigerator is required. By 
recent experiments by M. Iresca at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, it was 
found that an apparatus of four vessels, of which the lowest was heated with gas, 
and the uppermost was open to the air and acted as a refrigerator, evaporated 15 
litres of water with a cubic métre of gas, while the same quantity of gas with a 
single vessel uncovered evaporated only 5:170 litres. The apparatus was 54 cen- 
timétres diameter, and evaporated nearly 4 litres an hour. hen two vessels are 
used and the upper one is kept supplied with cold water, 20 litres of water an hour 
can be distilled. 

For concentrating sulphuric acid, only the bottom vessel, or capsule, is required 
to be of platina. 

In Bopiring this apparatus to the evaporation of common salt, and especially car- 
bonate of soda, M. Kessler has found that, in the atmosphere partly saturated 
with vapour under the inclined covers of the vessels, the salts crystallize on the 
bottom and sides in large crystals, as is the case in slow cooling. The solution of 
carbonate of soda does not produce a pellicle on the surface, and forms beautiful 
prisms containing 17 per cent. of water. Iodide of potassium gives crystals of an 
unprecedented size, and sulphate of soda gives anhydrous crystals. 


Are Nitrogen and Carbonic Oxide the Oxide of Carbon in different Allotropic 
or Isomeric States? By H. Kiteour, of Edinburgh. 


The author, it was stated, was making experiments with the view, if possible, 
of reducing nitrogen and carbonic oxide into the same substance. Hitherto, how- 
ever, his results had been negative. 


On the Manufacture of Earthenware at Newcastle*. By C. T. Marne. 


The manufacture of white earthenware was introduced into this district by Mr? 
Warburton, at Carr’s Hill Pottery, near Gateshead, about 1730 or 1740. Those 
works were very successfully carried on for seventy years, when they gradually 
declined, and in 1817 were closed. A small portion of the building is still used as 
a brown-ware pottery. The next manufactory was built by Mr. Byers, at New- 
bottle, in the county of Durham, about 1755, where brown and white earthenware 
still continue to be made. In 1762, Messrs. Christopher Thompson and John 
Maling erected works at North Hylton, in the county of Durham ; their successor, 
Mr. Robert Maling, in 1817 transferred his operations to the Tyne, where his de- 
scendants still continue the manufacture. St. Anthony’s, Stepney Bank, and Ouse- 
burn Old Potteries were commenced about the year 1780 or 1790. Messrs. A. 
Scott and Co. and Messrs. Samuel Moore and Co. ereeted potteries at Southwick, 
near Sunderland, the former in the year 1789, the latter in 1803. The pottery 
carried on by Messrs. John Dawson and Co., at South Hylton, was built by them 
in 1800. The works of Messrs. John Carr and Sons, at North Shields, were 
erected in 1814. Messrs. Thomas Fell and Co. built St. Peter’s Pottery in 1817. 
The ostablishment of Messrs. Skinner and Co., Stockton-on-Tees, dates from 1824. 

There are now about twenty-five potteries in this district, of which on the Tyne 
six manufacture white and painted! ware, four white, printed, and brown ware, 
and three brown ware only, employing 1200 people, and manufacturing yearly 
about 12,000 tons of white clay and 30C0 tons of brown clay, and consuming in 
the process of manufacture about 34,000 tons of coals. On the Wear there are 
two potteries manufacturing white and printed ware, two white, printed, and 
brown ware, and two brown ware only, employing about 500 people, manufacturing 
yearly about 4000 tons of white clay, 1500 tons of brown clay, and consuming in 
the manufacture about 14,000 tons of coals. On the Tees there are four potteries, 
manufacturing white and printed ware, employing 500 people, manufacturing 
5000 tons of white clay, and consuming 13,000 tons of coals. Two potteries at 
Norton manufacture brown ware; the particulars of their operations the author 
had not been able to obtain. 


* This paper was drawn up by the author at the request of the Local Committee. 


46. REPORT—1868. 


The potteries in this district, being situated upon navigable rivers, have great 
advantages over their inland competitors, Staffordshire and Yorkshire. The ex- 
enses on clay from sea-freight and inland carriage average 13s. per ton to Staf- 
ordshire, and 5s, per ton to this district ; and in flints the advantage is still greater, 
in Staffordshire the average being 19s. per ton against 4s. 6d. per ton here. Coals, 
although a little dearer here per ton, are so much superior in quality that 80 tons 
of Newcastle coals are equal to 100 tons of Yorkshire or Staffordshire coals. 
_ About 1858, Messrs. Skinner and Co., of Stockton-on-Tees, first applied Need 
ham and Kite’s patent filtering-press for expelling the surplus water from the slip, 
which had formerly been done by evaporation. This is a much cleaner and better 
rocess than the old system, and is now adopted by thirty or forty potteries in 
yea and Scotland. With the exception of three potteries in this district and 
at Glasgow, machinery has been very little applied to the manufacture of earthen- 
ware, and even at these works not nearly to the extent to which it is capable of 
wae profitably adopted. One manufactory on the Tyne, Ford Pottery, having 
the best machinery, supplies at least 80 per cent. of the jars used by confectioners 
for marmalade and jam, &c., in England and Scotland. 

The description of goods manufactured in this district is that used by the middle 
and working classes, no first-class goods being made here. The principal markets, 
in addition to the local trade, are the Danish, Norwegian, German, Mediterranean, 
and London, for exportation to the colonies. The trade to the United States 
being so very small from here, the American war has affected this district less 
than any other. 


On the Constitution and Rational Formula of Narcotine. 
By Dr. A. Marruressen, F.2.S., and G. C. Foster, B.A, 


Chemists have been aware of the existence of narcotine, as one of the constituents 
of opium—the dried-up juice obtained from the capsules of the white poppy— 
since almost the beginning of the present century ; and the remarkable properties 
of the numerous derivatives which it yields, when acted on by various chemical 
reagents, have caused it to be made the subject of several extended investigations. 
Still, the constitution of narcotine, and of the products derived from it, has not 
hitherto been explained; and even its elementary composition has remained so far 
doubtful that some chemists have admitted the existence of three or four distinct 
varieties, each differing in composition from the rest. Ina paper published in the 
Philosophical Transactions for 1863, p. 345, the authors of this communication have 
shown that (adopting the atomic weights C=12, H=1, O=16, &c.) the composi- 
tion of narcotine is represented by the formula C”H**NO’, and is always the same. 
In the same paper they have shown that the composition of cotarnine is represented 
by the formula C'*7H™NO’; so that the action of oxidizing agents upon narcotine 
may be expressed by the equation 


C2H2NOQ7 4. 8) = CYVHYNO? + ©O1°F°O5, 
Narcotine. Cotarnine. Opianic acid. 
They have there also described several new transformations of narcotine, cotarnine, 
and opianic acid, which it is necessary, for the understanding of what follows, to 
recapitulate briefly in this place :— 
1. One molecule of narcotine, boiled with excess of hydriodic acid, yields three 
molecules of iodide of methyl. 
2. Cotarnine, heated with hydrochloric acid, yields chloride of methyl and cotar- 
namic acid :— 
CVH™NO* + HCl + H?0 = C'H*NO! + CH°Cl. 
Cotarnine. Cotarnamic acid. _ Chloride 
of methyl. 


3. Cotarnine, heated with dilute nitric acid, yields methylamine and cotarnie 
acid :— 
CYVHNO? + 2H?O = CUH”O0® + CH®N. 


ateaees Cotarnine. Cotarnic acid. Methylamine. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 4 


4. Nascent hydrogen converts opianic acid into meconin :— 
C1°H 005 + H? =CHOt + HO. 


Opianic acid. Meconin. 
¥ Opianiec acid, boiled with strong potash-lye, yields meconin and hemipinic 
acid :— 
92CHYO5 = yloF10O4 + C1°H1908, 
Opianic acid. Meconin, Hemipinic acid. 
6. Opianic acid, meconin, or hemipinic acid, boiled with hydrochloric acid, yields 
chloride of methyl. 
7. In the case of hemipinic acid, the action of hydrochloric acid, if continued for 
a short time, gives rise to carbonic acid and a new acid, C°H°O+, as well as to 
chloride of methyl :— 
C°H?°0® + HCl = CH%0t + CO? + CH°Cl; 
Hemipinic acid. New acid. 


or, if continued for a longer time, to hypogallic acid, carbonic acid, and chloride of 


methyl :— 
CH'O*% + 2HCl = C7H°0t + CO? + 2CH°Cl. 
Hemipinic acid. Hypogallic acid. 

The object of the present communication is to point out analogies between the 
substances which take part in, or result from, these transformations and bodies 
whose constitution is better known ; and so to deduce a series of rational formule 
which shall, as far as possible, express their respective chemical functions and their 
relations to one another. 

Cotarnine.—The authors regard transformations 2 and 3 as proving that cotarnine 
is a methylized compound, corresponding to a not yet isolated normal cotarnine, 
C“H™NO®, bearing the same relation to cotarnic acid that malimide bears to malic 
acid. They point out that cotarnic acid resembles malic acid in being a bibasic. 
ae containing five atoms of oxygen, and they compare the derivatives of each as 

‘ollows :— 


C405 (+H805 
Cotarnic acid. Malic acid. 
CY'HNO! C*H'’NO* 
Cotarnamic acid. Aspartic acid 
CUHYNO4,HCl C+H'NO}, HCI 
Hydrochlorate of cotarnamie acid. Hydrochlorate of aspartic acid. 
C™H™MNO? C*H*NO® 
Cotarnimide (hypothetical normal cotarnine). Malimide. 
C™H°(CH*)NO# C*H+(C*H®)NO? 
: Methyl-cotarnimide (cotarnine). Phenyl-malimide. 
Hence they deduce the following rational formule :— 
11F79C02)iii 
a 0*=cotamic acid (bibasic but triatomic). 


=cotarnamic acid. 


C™H*02)iii ey 
Oe. YN 


(C ‘Ca Vey “ = methyl-cotarnimide=cotarnine. 


Meconin, Opianiec acid, Hemipinic acid.—Transformations 6 and 7 may be taken 
as proof. that each of these bodies is a dimethylized derivative of a corresponding 
normal compound not yet isolated. The authors further regard transformations 
4 and 5 as indicating the existence of a hydrate of meconin, C’*H”O’, and they 
suppose this compound to be a first result of both transformations, and to give rise 
to meconin by subsequent loss of the elements of water. If this be admitted, 
opianic acid and its congeners may be compared to oil of bitter almonds and glucose 
and their respective derivatives :— 


48 REPORT—1863. 


Ovo! . C7H® C®H"05 
Meconin. Benzylene. Mannitan. 
C°—2205 C7H®O C®HuUO8 
Hydrate of meconin (hypothetical). Benzylic alcohol. Mannite. 
op see C7H’O C°H205 
Opianic acid. Oil of bitter almonds. Glucose. 
CM F908 C7HS02 C®HYo7 
Hemipinic aeid. Benzoic acid. Mannitic acid. 
These comparisons lead to the following rational formule :— 
(C'H'O) | Oi: hypothetical hydrate of meconin 
(OH?)2H2 =hypothetical hy : 
5 : 
(CH? 0? =meconin. 


(CHyH. Hi = opianic acid. 


Coney ere ‘=hemipinic acid. 
Combining the above formula for meconin with that pence arrived at for 
cotarnine, the authors give the following as the rational formula of narcotine :— 
CH’ 
(CUH°0?)iii 
8 419 i 
(C H “ ne 
(CH*)?H 


—believing that by it all the known transformations of narcotine and of its imme- 
diate products of decomposition can be expressed. 


Short Communications on Galvanic Copper, Photolithography, and Photo- 
microscopic Specimens. By M. Abbé Moreno. 


On a Deposit in the Gas-tubes of the Cleveland Blast Furnaces. 
By J. Pattinson. 


A substance, in fine powder, varying in colour from blackish-grey to almost 
white, is deposited in the large tubes used for conveying the waste gases of iron- 
smelting furnaces to the boilers and heating-stoves, where they are economized. 
The deposit at present in question had been found in the tube of a furnace smelt- 
ing a mixture of Upleatham and Rosedale ironstones with Weardale blue lime- 
stone and South Durham cokes. The deposit was of a dark-grey colour, and was 
impalpably fine. Analysis determined its constituents as follows :— 


Protoxide of iron .....-....+++++: 14:22 per cent. 
OxideOl ZINC. cee ceciise se se ee nts 1048 ss, 
Sulphide of zine ........-.++ese05- 13:70)" ',3 
JUNC TO SA8 Grip ONOCIC SDI IO OOGOE S20; 
GUNIO caste lene Sen pee in os 3° 12:32, 
Magnesia. oc cscs crac cess eesaeee 503, 
Chloride of sodium. ......-.++++++5 vA aes 
VASNIMONIN ie vietete eve Sayers loys oe sesh OOP 23, 
AN aise ETE oe yqacsSaatar gece wm aissgema oe ae trace ,, 
Sulphuric acid .......- see eeeeees 318, 
Free sulphur ........-+-seeeeeees OLA 5 
STING 3p eiocitaccticnede ahah states sche ot 2260s, 
Carbonaceous matter...........+5+ 450 ,, 
99°84 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 49 


On Zine, Nickel, and Cobalt in the Cleveland Ironstone. By J. Parrryson. 


The constant presence of oxide of zinc in considerable amount in the deposit 
found in the waste gas-tubes of blast furnaces smelting Cleveland ironstone had 
pointed out that zinc was probably uniformly diffused in this ironstone. In order 
to ascertain this, the author obtained a sample from the main seam of the Up- 
leatham mines, and, after examining it carefully to see that it contained none of 
the visible pieces of zinc-blende which are occasionally found, sought for the 
“presence of zinc in the usual manner. From this sample an amount of oxide of 
zine equal to 0:32 of a grain of zinc per lb. of ironstone, or about 10 grains per 
ton, was obtained. In searching for zinc, indications of the presence of nickel and 
cobalt were also obtained. A quantitative analysis showed that the ironstone con- 
tained 0°72 of a grain of nickel, and 0:12 of a grain of cobalt, per pound. In smelt- 
ing, the principal portion of these two metals will be reduced to the metallic state 
and will accompany the iron, although it is probable that the peculiar bluish colour 
which the furnace slag sometimes possesses may be partly owing to minute 
quantities of cobalt carried away with the slag. The author has estimated the 
amounts of nickel and cobalt contained in pig iron, malleable iron, and puddling 
furnace cinder, all of which were produced from Cleveland ironstone. In each 
case four ounces of the sample were operated upon. They contained as follows :— 


Pig Iron. | Malleable | Puddling Fur- 
Tro: 


m. nace Cinder. 
Grains of nickel per Ib. .......... 1:88 1:56 0°313 
Grains of cobalt per lb. .......++. 0:32 0:24 0-062 
Percentage of nickel ..........+. 0:027 | 0-022 0:0045 
Percentage of cobalt ........-.+. 0:004 | 0-003 0:0009 


The samples were taken at different periods of time, and from entirely different 
batches of iron. An admixture of nickel with iron is said to pe aN the quality 
of the latter; but it is scarcely probable that either nickel or cobalt in the above 
proportions will affect the quality of the iron appreciably. These results are 
interesting, however, as affording another illustration of the wide diffusion through- 
out nature of comparatively rare substances. 


On the various kinds of Pyrites used on the Tyne and Neighbourhood in the 
Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid. By J. Parruyson. 
Tron pyrites, or bisulphide of iron, has been used on the Tyne in the manufacture 
of sulphuric acid since about the year 1840. At that time, and up to 1856, the 
only supplies of this mineral were obtained from Ireland, Cornwall, and the col- 


if 2. 3. 4, 5 6 7 
epUT ee a Sate sete cee’ < 44:60 | 49°30} 45-01] 45°60} 44°50} 44-20] 38°10 
EES sg ote Actes senate 88:70 | 41-41] 39°68] 38°52] 39:22] 40-52) 34-44 
CSE e Boog Bipadiockon 3°80; 581] .. ws 1:80| 0:90} trace 
LL 22S Sieg RI a a 0-58! 0-66] 037] O64) .. 150] .. 
HOME Ae ce es cen’ p ee es 0:30] trace | 1:80} 6:00] 1:18] 3°51] ,. 
DUST A ee trace | trace | trace | trace ae rs a 
EE scar ciciciew ces ° 0:14] 0-14} 0-25} O11} 2:10) 024) 4:96 
WWAIOWICSIO. ws scien cedceess trace | trace| .. . OOL 0:33 
Carbonic acid .......... i re Ae 1:65 511 
PATABNIC 5 f. ds tiie ablddw@aetes 0:26| 0:31] trace | trace] .. 0°33] trace 
ADE P ONG, 5 sicsist oper abate clone -siatacs 0-23} 025) 032) 037) 0-45] 0:25] 031 
Coal and loss ............ 4c i a aa She ale 14-45 
SPN Suaks, sropers heyegehei ae oa ape 11:10} 2-00} 12:23) 8-70} 9-08}; 880} 1:40 
IEOISEUTOL, « <lsbstrestertbines ciel 0:17} 0:05) 0:25) 036] 0-17) 0:90} 0-90 


99:88 | 99-93 | 99-91 {100-30 |100-16 |100-34 |100-30 


50 REPORT—1863, 


ieries of this district, where it occurs and is associated with coal, and is known by 
the name of coal brasses. But since 1856 other and more abundant supplies have 
been obtained from Spain, Portugal, Belgium, Westphalia, Norway, Sweden, and 
Tuscany. At present the total consumption of pyrites on the Tyne and neighhbour- 
hood is about 70,000 tons per annum, representing a value of about £105,000. The 
preceding Table represents the composition of the principal kinds of pyrites at 
resent used, The samples analyzed are chiefly fair average samples of cargoes 
fugit to the Tyne. 

No. 1. Spanish pyrites, obtained from the districts of Huelya in Spain and 
Algarve in Portugal. About 30,000 tons per annum used on the Tyne. No. 2. 
Ditto. No.8. One of the Belgian varieties, obtained from the Rocheux mine, 
Theux, near Spa. About 12,000 tons of Belgian pyrites used on the Tyne per 
annum, No. 4. Westphalian pyrites. Consumption on the Tyne about 8000 tons 
per annum, This is one of the most abundant sources of the newly-discovered 
metal thallium. No. 5. Norwegian pyrites, obtained from the island of Ytterden, 
in the Bay of Drontheim. About 6000 tons per annum used on the Tyne. No.6. A 
rich variety of Irish pyrites, obtained from the Wicklow mines. About 4000 tons 
of Irish pyrites used on the Tyne per annum. No.7. Coal brasses, sample obtained 
from the Walker Colliery. About 7000 tons per annum used on the Tyne for the 
manufacture of sulphuric acid. Other analyses of pyrites were also given in the 
paper. The process adopted by the author in estimating the amount of sulphur, 
the methods of burning, the treatment of the residuum, and various objectionable 
varieties of pyrites were also described. 


On a New Method of Measuring the Chemical Action of the Sun’s Rays. 
By Dr. T, L. Purpson. 

The author happened to notice that a solution of sulphate of molybdic acid 
(that is, a solution of molybdic acid in excess of sulphuric acid) standing in his 
laboratory upon a shelf which is ed exposed to the sun for about three hours 
each day became bluish green in the daytime and colourless again at night. 

In sunlight...... Mo0?+ HO=Mo0?+ HO? 

At night,....... Mo0?+HO?=Mo0'*+ HO. 
This change is produced by the chemical action of the sun’s rays: heat will not 
effect it; for the solution boiled did not change colour. 

Nothing is easier than to measure with the greatest accuracy the amount of 
reduction which takes place *by the sun’s action in a given time. The actinometric 
liquid is prepared by dissolving molybdate of ammonia in excess of sulphuric acid, 
introducing metallic zine until the liquid becomes dark blue, and then adding a 
solution of permanganate of potash until the last drop restores the liquid to its 
primitive colourless state. A provision of the liquid haying been made, twent 
cubic centimetres are exposed to the direct rays of the sun for one hour (11 to 19) 
each day. It is then withdrawn, and the amount of reduction measured by a 
standard weak solution of permanganate of potash. This is delivered from a 
pipette with bulb and long thin stem, graduated into 100 equal divisions. After 
each insolation, the degree read off the pipette gives for each day the relative 
amount of actinism, just as a thermometer gives the degrees of heat. 

From a short series of experiments, it appears that the variation of the chemical 
action of the sun’s rays describes curves which are not only irregular, but present 
sometimes sudden deflections, calling to mind barometric curves, to which they may 
perhaps be related. 


On Musical Sounds produced by Carbon. By Dr. T. L. Purpson, 

When a rod of glass is suspended by a string, and struck with a hammer, it 
emits a beautiful musical sound—a fact turned to account in the instrument called 
the Harmonica, The same happens with phonolite, certain varieties of flint, and a 
few other minerals. In quarrying mountain-limestone, wedges are driven into 
holes drilled in the rock in order to break it; and the author noticed once, in 
Belgium, that the instant a slab separates in this manner, a peculiar musical sound 
shoots through it. Among the elements, none are perhaps more remarkable in 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 51 


this respect than aluminium; a bar of this metal, suspended by a string and struck 
with a Beccr, emits a musical sound like that of glass. He finds that the same 
occurs with compact homogeneous wood-charcoal. The best piece experimented 
on was 11 inches long, 3 inch wide, and weighed exactly 82°05 grammes, When 
struck, it gave the high treble C; and a piece weighing 2°05 grammes being 
struck off it, it gave the C sharp exactly. The note of the scale produced in these 
circumstances depends on the square of the length and the diameter of the substance 
struck; the duration of the sound, upon the duration of vibration produced by the 
shock. Ccteris paribus, glass will ring after a blow 4 to 5 seconds, aluminium 
3 to 4 seconds, and charcoal 13 to 2 seconds, according to his experiments. The 
densities of these three substances are somewhat similar :— 


Hel caret belie ianln ad cipcrs th Abr 2:49 
LM ibe ashe mei iRud cove cintooIbome 2-62 
Amorphous carbon ..........+- 2-50 


It appears that some years ago a performer at Astley’s Theatre executed a piece 
of music upon fragments of charcoal of different dimensions, suspended on strings. 


On the Constant Increase of Organic Matter in Cultwated Soils. 
By Dr. T. L, Purpson. 


On January 6th, 1863, an article appeared in ‘The Times,’ entitled “ Exhaustion 
of Vegetable Mould,” followed by a “leading article” upon the same subject, in 
which the writers stated that the organic matter of soils under cultivation is 
being constantly exhausted, that the vegetable mould is a most valuable constituent 
of soils, and that its loss is not replaced in any way in our present systems of agri- 
culture. The author refutes these extraordinary statements by bringing forward 
the determination by analysis of the proportion of organic matter in soils sub- 
mitted to culture for many years, compared with the quantity present in unculti- 
vated soils; and, supported likewise by the opinions of the late Professor Johnston 
and Baron Liebig, he proves that the organic matter of soils constantly increases 
by cultivation, whilst their fertility steadily decreases,—this fact being due to the con- 
stant loss of potash, lime, phosphoric acid, &c. 

The vegetable mould or humus supplies chiefly carbonic acid; but as plants get 
abundance of this in the air and water they absorb, that given by decomposition of 
humus constitutes in most cases an excess. A certain amount of organic matter 
in a soil generally betters the physical condition by rendering it more porous, &c. 
The author insists also on the necessity, in analyses of soils, of determining the 
amount of moisture by heating the soil to 105° C, as long as it loses weight, before 
proceeding to determine the amount of organic matter present, 


Researches on the Manufacture of Prussiate of Potash, By the late Joun Lux 
and Tuomas Ricuarpson, M.A., Ph.D., F.RS.L., MRLA., Fe, 


The celebrated manufacturing experiment of Messrs. Bramwell and Hughes to 
obtain cyanogen from the nitrogen of the air and charcoal, induced the authors to 
examine the old process of producing prussiate of potash, in order to ascertain what 
became of the nitrogen of the animal matter. 

The experiments were all made with the same mixture of materials, which was 
formed of pure horn finely rasped, potash, and clean iron filings. A small quantity 
of water was added to assist in sake an intimate mixture, which was afterwards 
carefully dried, and then ground to a fine powder. This mixture was composed of 


orn... Sa AO eee .. 16:00 
Potash os such ©. « bushsteieeeeree aes 17°72 
ETON, geass «ea Sy stats bre fee 300 
Moisture, 6 4..35,.6. ome Pes nates 3:28 

40:00 


A potash-charcoal was made by soaking 13 ozs. of wood-charcoal with a solution 
of 4 ozs. of potash, and then fully dried. fe 


52 REPORT—1863. 


A gun-barrel was Seem filled with the first mixture and exposed to a red 
heat in a separate furnace. In the first and second series of experiments the gases 
voduced in the gun-barrel were passed through the potash-charcoal, which was 
i ¢ at a red heat in another iron tube in connexion with the gun-barrel. In the 
third series of experiments the gases were passed through hydrochloric acid; in 
the fourth series of experiments the gases were passed through the red-hot potash- 
charcoal, and then, successively, through hydrochloric acid and a solution of potash. 
In this series of experiments the gases which escaped were collected and analyzed. 
The prussiate of potash which was formed was extracted and crystallized. The 
ammonia was estimated by means of platina, and afterwards calculated into the 
equivalent of prussiate of potash. 
The theoretical yield of prussiate of potash was 382°50, and the results of the 
experiments are shown in the following Table :— 


ul 2. 3. 4, 

From the retort.........06. 101:97 135-46 146:93 141-08 
From the tube ............ 68-25 63°54 “% 71:00 
From the hydrochloric acid. . 36 140:24 58°80 
From the potash .......... ie 2°75 

Total prussiate ....= 170-22 199-00 287°17 273°63 

LB a os ae Soe sede 183-50 95°33 108:87 

Produce per cent...= 44:5 52:2 75-1 71:5 


The gases evolved in the fourth series were collected after the experiment had 
been some time in operation, and consisted of— 


iNbLIO an doe Aa Ran ooo pone feitsken 14:00 
PAP ARGC os winsaiaye'h erh.ns nis Gk» co 46-00 
Carbonic oxide ..... sno aon otaee . 25°34 
Carburetted hydrogen .......... .. 14:66 

100-00 


It therefore follows that a quantity of the nitrogen is lost in consequence of its 
being isolated; but the principal source of loss in the process arises from this 
substance escaping in the form of ammonia. 


On the Separation of Lead and Antimony. 
By Tuomas Ricwarpson, M.A., Ph.D., F.RS.E., Se. 


The hard or slag leads of commerce are softened in the following manner :— 
A quantity of the lead is melted in large shallow metal pans, and exposed to a 
current of hot air; the antimony, alloyed with a certain quantity of lead, becomes 
oxidized, and the dross which is formed floats on the surface, whence it is skimmed 
off by the workman. The lead which remains is now soft and malleable, and 
nearly free from antimony. 

When the dross is reduced to the metallic state, it may be submitted to the 
same process, when a further separation of lead takes place. The dross from the 
second calcination contains the lead and antimony in about equal proportions, 
beyond which this process of calcination cannot be carried. 

The following analyses show the changes which take place in these operations :— 


EneuisH Harp Leaps. 


Original Lead, First Calcination, Second Calcination. 


Lend: pase ese we seuss ONE 86°53 52°84 
Antimony’ 030.4 53%.5° °° O57 11:29 47:16 
Coppergocstsurrare s OTe trace trace 
From vietewsseecsss O02 0°34 trace 

100:00 98:16 100-00 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 53 


SpanisH Harp Leaps. 
Original Lead. First Calcination. Second Calcination. 
95°81 64:98 56° 


NG GA iveyehoieieydiotae rane 

Antimony 61.) <dseone OO 29°84 43°40 
Copper ...ssseeeeee 0:32 5:90 traces 
ition Heponnc Po sn 0:20 traces 


100-00 100:92 100-00 
The author has found that the addition of a small quantity of soda ash to the 
dross, in the process of reduction, acts very beneficially ; and as it enables the work- 
man to work at a lower heat, a quantity of antimony is saved. This action is 
illustrated by the following analyses :— 
Without Soda Ash, With 2} per cent, Soda Ash. 
2: 58°70 


ILench ygorenodn arooond 82:88 

Antimony .........05. 16:09 40°66 

CigiG Se iceoooneoonon 0:68 0:32 

TROWI sss diet y's.« oeislave e's sisie : 0°35 0:32 
100:00 100-00 


The alloy of antimony and lead obtained in this process answers very well in 
the preparation of type furniture. 

In these operations a quantity of refuse products accumulate in the smelting 
works, which are reduced in small blast furnaces; and after some time the hearth 
of these fumaces is gradually filled with a spongy semifused mass, called a Cuesco 
by the Spaniards. One of these masses was analyzed, and found to contain 


edie catalase PAomiee ea yciciot isic 61:35 
AMtIMONY «0020 e uence a Diepretetens 29°50 
COpper’ so oes sive. siajeiene spasfelstelehepale 8°30 
1LXoh ea aOR IRIS Ta Lrccoe ceo ch GOT 061 
fhe 7 MReMeenneticoon dont once: .. traces 

99:76 


On the Use of Fuel in Marine Boilers. 
By Tuomas Ricuarpson, M.A., Ph.D., F.RS.L., §c., and T. W. Bunning. 

The object of these experiments was to examine the effects produced by mixing 
coals of different characters. 

As regards the use of fuel in raising steam, coals may be divided into non-bitu- 
minous, semibituminous, and bituminous. The two latter cannot be burnt with 
close fire-doors without the formation of smoke, while the former require a peculiar 
stoking to obtain a maximum evaporative effect. 

In conducting the experiments at Her Majesty’s Dockyard at Keyham, the 
character of the smoke was recorded according to the following scale :— 


Infos Inn eontorinaa pep oc but Very light. 
Ds aie wpeuavoeeke cabal ejaleeyapels Light. 
Soren osuenncapooedan Light brown. 
is ie diitonte.e Cae Sek oe . Brown. 
ES Ainseyco pod cce anata c Black. 
(i abe Bh acetone ine eey C Very black. 


The experiments lasted six hours on an ayerage, so that the greatest number of 
marks which could have been recorded against any coal was 2160. 

When Hartley coal was burnt with close doors, the number recorded was 292, and 
against Welsh coal (Gellie Cadoxtan) the number was 40. 

When these coals were mixed in equal quantities and burnt in the usual manner 
with close doors, the number recorded was only 1. 

The details of these experiments were given in Tables, and the extraordinary fact 
is thus found, that a mixture of these two coals can be burnt in an ordinary steam~- 
boiler furnace, with the usual stoking, without producing the smallest smoke. 

Another series of experiments has heen made, which conlirm the above obser~ 


54 REPORT—1863. 


vations, and the following Table contains some of the results, which possess more 
general interest :— 
Lbs. of water evapo- Cubic feet of water 


Coal. rated from 100° F. evaporated per sq. 
by 1 Ib. of coal. foot of grate. 

Hartloyisia tte: «sss Meath ileis te 10°71 4:10 
Welsh Aberdare... 0. nadteeet a 10°14 37 
Hartley and Welsh round coal 10-45 3-7 

mixed in equal quantities .. 
Hartley round coal and Welsh 

dust. coal mixed in equal 9:93 3°45 


quantities........ oraksteletele 


Analysis of a Deposit from a Colliery Water containing Sulphate of Baryta. 
By Tuomas Ricwarpson, W.A., Ph.D., PRSL., Se. 


In the year 1849 a spring of water made its appearance in the shaft of Walker 
Colliery, which Mr. Clarke, the mining engineer, carried off by means of a wooden 
pipe. The water was quite clear as it issued from the sides of the shaft, but it 
rapidly deposited a solid matter which soon filled the pipe. This deposit contains 
a large quantity of sulphate of baryta, as indicated by the following analysis :— 


Sulphate of baryta'..:.:..5....55.. 90:01 
Sulphate oflime —2s2i se. ase t 3°04 
Peroxide of irom 8 APTS eee. 30 
POTICE is ARPES PE PE 2°65 
Water lan .nan teemdendned cerns P 3°51 

99°51 


After the lapse of a short time the deposit ceased to form, and the author had 
no opportunity to examine the water. The water most probably contained the 
baryta in some lower form, which absorbed oxygen as the solution fell down the 
pipe to the bottom’ of the shaft. 


On the Chemical and Physical Principles in connexion with the Specific Gravity 
of Liquid and Solid Substances. By Ovro Ricurer, Ph.D. 


In this paper the author endeavours to show that chemistry has for its founda- 
tion not a simple, but a complex principle. On the one ‘hand, it is the purely 
chemical principle, whatever its nature may be, which determines the various 
forms of molecular arrangement; and it is the ponderable portion alone of the 
various kinds of atoms which, in their constant weight-equivalents, furnishes the 
basis of calculation. On the other hand, it is the purely physical principle, what- 
ever its nature may be, which determines the’ specific volume of the molecules; 
and it is the imponderable portion alone of the various kinds of atoms which, in 
cheir variable volume-equivalents, furnishes the basis of calculation. Accordingly 
our tree of chemical knowledge-splits up into two main branches, viz., Pondo- 
Chemistry and Impondo-Chemistry. The author believes that all the chemical 
elements consist, not of single atoms, but of a definite number of such atoms asso- 
ciated according to some fixed principle of grouping, and thinks that all the modi- 
fications in the physical properties of matter, which we are in the habit of distin- 
ei by the terms polymorphism, allotropism, specific heat, fusing- and 

oiling-points, crystalline form, optical and electro-magnetic polarity, &c., ought 
to be considered as so many functions of one and the same variable magnitude, 
viz., the specific volume. He imagines, moreover, that the eighth part of the 
volume of ice, which Playfair calls the Unit Volume, is really the standard whereby 
all the volume-equivalents will one day be correctly measured and calculated. The 
specific volume he regards as the resultant of the combined repulsive energies 
proper to the various species of molecules, and holds that these repulsive energies 
are directly proportional to the amount of vibratory movements developed in the 
system. These energies he supposes to vary in range and intensity correlative 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 55 


with the more or less partial suspension (paralysis) of these vibratory movements, 
and considers that all the endless modifications in the physical and, to a certain 
extent also, chemical deportment of molecules ought mainly and exclusively to be 
referred to paralytic agency ; and by no means, as is commonly maintained on the 
part of our most distinguished experimentalists, to certain alterations in the form 
of atomic grouping. Thus, e. g., Ne Pasteur, in order to explain the phenomena of 
circular polarization, at one time assigns as the primary cause of that property the 
unsymmetrical grouping of the atoms at two opposite regions of the influencing 
molecule; at another time, when discussing the case of chlorate of soda and its 
congeners, which are optically active in the crystalline state, but entirely neutral 
when in solution, he assigns a primary cause very different and even specifically dis- 
tinct from the former, namely, the spiral form of aggregation, which form, being 
destroyed in the act of solution, leaves the individual molecules optically, because 
constitutionally, inactive. The author thinks it unphilosophical to attempt an 
explanation of this class of phenomena, and which are in every respect so identical, 
by means of two first causes, so essentially distinct both in their form and in their 
mode of action (the one being purely mechanical, and the other purely dynamical), 
and believes that circular polarization ought, on the contrary, to be referred, not to 
the existence of chemical, but of physical dissymmetry, and that the reason why 
chlorate of soda loses its optical energy in the act of solution must be sought in the 
varying temperature and the altered state of aggregation, which cooperate in re- 
storing the physical symmetry, while the process of crystallization tends to produce 
the opposite etfect. 

In conclusion, the author states that for the last twelve years he has been en- 
gaged in composing a catalogue of the specific gravities of liquid and solid sub- 
stances; but he regrets to find that, with the most ample resources at his disposal, 
the collection still amounts to so small a fraction, in comparison.with the immense 
number of non-determined substances, that he feels himself justified in urging upon 
the British Association the adoption of some practical measure. 


On Titanium in Iron. By Dr. Ritey. 


This metal, the author observed, appeared in small cubical crystals, and had 
long been observed in blast furnaces used for making the best grey iron. Titanium 
ought no longer to be considered one of the rarer elements, as it occurs very gene- 
rally, and is a constituent of clay. Stourbridge bricks contained at least 1:05 per 
cent. of it. In mining-shales as much as 3 or 4 per cent. have been traced. The 
object of the paper was to show that, under certain conditions, it formed a con- 
stituent part of pig iron, and its presence appeared to have some beneficial effects 
in the manufacture of iron and steel, as it acted somewhat similarly to manganese. 


On Glass*. By R. W. Swuxsourne. 


The paper treated at length on plate, crown, sheet, flint, and bottle glass. It is 
worthy of remark that ordinary window glass was first used in Great Britain for 
architectural purposes at the great monasteries at Monkwearmouth, on the river 
Wear, and at Jarrow, on the Tyne. The venerable Bede, our first ecclesiastical his- 
torian, who flourished at the former place in the seventh century, relates that his 
cotemporary, the Abbot Benedict, sent for artists beyond seas to glaze the Monastery 
of Wearmouth. Such was the change made in their churches by the use of glass 
instead of other and more obscure substances for windows, that the unlettered 
people avowed a belief, which was handed down as a tradition for many genera- 
tions, “that it was never dark in old Jarrow Church.” By a singular comeidence, 
the first manufactory of window or crown glass in Great Britain was established 
at Newcastle-upon-Tyne within a few miles of these monastic establishments. In 
the year 1616, Admiral Sir Robert Maunsell erected glass-works at the Ouseburn, 
Newcastle, which were carried on without interruption till nearly the middle of 
the present century. Crown window glass is no longer made on the Tyne, and as 
an art it is declining everywhere; but the manufacture of sheet glass has of late 
years been most largely increased, and is carried on to a great extent in the ad- 


* This paper was drawn up by the author at the request of the Local Committee. 


56 REPORT—1863. 


joining district of the river Wear, where the quantity produced by Messrs. James 
Hartley and Co. alone is very nearly equal to the entire produce of the six extinct 
crown-glass manufactories on the river Tyne. The beautiful art of coloured glass, 
or what is termed stained glass, has been carried on most successfully for some 
years in Newcastle by Mr. William Wailes and others; and the tasteful designs 
and beautiful colouring of Mr. Wailes’s numerous works have given him a great 
celebrity throughout the kingdom. A great improvement has been made in this 
description of glass, inasmuch as exterior staining has been superseded by glass 
made of the required tint in the crucible of the manufacturer. The glass, there- 
fore, is not stained, but is inherently of its peculiar colour. This process of making 
coloured glass in the crucible has restored the art to its pristine state, for in such 
manner this glass was made by the old masters. By its means the brilliancy and 
durability of the old coloured glass has been obtained, and all the colours of anti- 
quity are produced by our modern manufacturers in greater brilliancy, ruby alone 
excepted. It is ascertained that there is something in the undulating and imper- 
fect surface of the glass of the fourteenth century which renders it more adapted 
to display intensity of colour than the more perfect glass of modern times. Hence 
the coloured-glass makers resort to the use of a glass, as the basis of their colour, 
which of itself is of the most rude and imperfect character. 

The manufacturers of window glass on the river Tyne have originated many 
improvements in the process. In 1817 Mr. Charles Attwood, of this town, made 
crown glass by using the insoluble part of kelp, separated by lixiviation from its 
saline ingredient, which he rejected, and in its place he used the carbonate of soda of 
commerce. The analytical examination of this insoluble portion of kelp was under- 
taken in 1829 by the employés of a large crown-glass manufacturer at South Shields, 
with the assistance of the late eminent Dr. Turner, of the London University; and, 
after a long series of experiments, most seriously impeded by the excise duty and 
regulations, it was discovered that kelp in any form might be safely abandoned, 
and that better results with a great saving could be obtained by the use of lime and 
carbonate of soda. The alkaline ingredient in plate glass was for many years 
obtained from the Barilla, from Alicant, or Teneriffe, and was superseded by an 
alkali prepared by Lord Dundonald, by the decomposition of common salt by car- 
bonate of potash—carbonate of soda and chloride of potassium being the results. 
The latter was separated by priority of crystallization; and, the remaining liquor 
being evaporated, carbonate of soda was obtained in a solid state, and was so used 
by the plate-glass maker. This process was used in England up to the year 1832, 
when it was discontinued at the Plate Glass Works at South Shields. Carbonate 
of soda of commerce, in a refined state, at less than half the price, was substituted, 
and its use has ‘become general throughout England, 


A New Form of Gas-Battery. By W. Symons, F.C.S. 


In Grove’s well-known gas-battery, as stated by the author, the greater part of 
the electrical action is developed at the line where the platinum, liquid, and gas 
come into contact; thus a very small portion of each platinum plate is efficiently 
employed. At the Glasgow Meeting of the Association, the author exhibited a 
battery of his construction, in which a much greater portion of the platinum was 
brought into action; but the battery now shown is far more compact and simple. 
The object is to render available the longest section of the platinum; thus, in using 
plates four inches long and half an inch wide, instead of having a line of action one 
inch long, by the arrangement now proposed the active portion will be two lines of 
eight inches each ; thus increasing it from one inch to sixteen. An arrangement is 
required to sere up the supply of gas, which is done by communicating with a 
reservoir through glass tubes, connected by india-rubber joints with each cell. Small 
siphons are also arranged to keep the liquid in each cell at a uniform level. 


On the Composition of some New Zealand Lignites. 
By Murray Tuomson, W.D., F.RS.E. 


In general appearance these lignites are more like common coal than any other 
samples of brown coal that the author has eyer seen, Some of them are compact 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 57 


and difficult to break, and when broken, showing a conchoidal or semi-conchoidal 
fracture. Others, again, are very brittle, and exhibit a cubical or even fracture. 
The streak in all the samples is dark brown. It is only here and there through the 
masses that they show any traces of woody tissue. The mean specific gravity of 
six of the samples is 17340. These characters, when taken along with their 
chemical composition, would place these lignites in the variety of the earthy 
brown coals. 

In composition and in economic value, whether regarded as fuel or as sources of 
gas or oil, the Table which accompanies this paper shows that the New Zealand 
lignites are greatly inferior to the coals of the carboniferous formation of any 
country; and especially are they inferior in the somewhat large amount of ash 
which they contain. When, howeyer, compared with other lignites, they must 
be regarded in a favourable light. 


New Zealand Lignites. 
(The quantities are those contained in one ton.) 


Designation. fle ne | Coke. eae Ash, Gas. Oil. Sp. gr. 
Ibs. | Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. | cub. ft. | gallons. 
{X 2. |1267 we 887 | 85 | 2954] 17 | 1-262) 
: zs No. 3. {1194 | 964 82 | 3175} 152 | 1-195) 
Saddle. Hill (Otago) ’ No. 6.1140 1099 | 733 | 366 | 1889]... | 1-626| 
oT ae No. 8. |1217 {1021 | 659 | 862 | 3175] .. | 1:147 
No. 9.| 977 [1262 | 681 | 586 | 3024 7% | 1:337 | 
Abbot’s Creek Lignite .... |1170 (1068 | 737 | 331 | 3024 1-496 
MColl’s , , «-.. (1296 | 943 | 632 | 303 | 3931 
inthay 5. 5 wwele 1878. |) SOL e787, 73 | 3250 
Ennerglyn (Nelson) Coal? [1266 | 973 | 911 62 | 4400 
Lignites from other places. 
Provence (15 samples) .... |L097-6| 864°6| 589-1 (2755 | 
Hesse Cassel (5 samples) .. | 963-2 |1187:2 |1099°2 | 88:3 +8 »» | 137 
MSP retearhayc.6) «(nie eyes) os: e%~:« fy =a os, (REEOO 
South American (3 samples) | .. a .. |206:00/ .. Rn ta {0 
24 samples of German Lignites yielded on an average 18 gallons of crude oil per ton. 


U 
Définer par la Végétation V Htat moléculaire des Corps. Analyser la Force 
végétale par des Essais raisonnés de Culture. By M. G. Vuxt. 


On the Oxidation of Beta~Hexylice Alcohol. By Professor Wanxiyn, F.R.S.L. 


This paper contained an account of some researches by the author and Dr. Erlen- 
meyer “On the Oxidation of Beta-Hexylic Alcohol.” Beta-hexylic alecohol—the 
alcohol which was obtained from mannite, and which belongs to a new series of 
alcohols isomeric with the alcohols of the vinic series, but differing widely from 
them in properties and reactions—is easily oxidized by a mixture of ‘bichromate of 
potash and dilute sulphuric acid. Its first product is beta-hexylic aldehyd, thus :— 


BC,H,,0+0=8C,H,,0+H, 0. 
The next products are carbonic acid, water, and butyric acid, thus :— 
Hexylic Aldehyd. Butyric Acid. 
a —_—_—_. 
BC,H,,0+0,=2C0,+2H,0+C, H, O,. 


The interest attached to this decomposition depends upon its furnishing a proof 
that two atoms of carbon in the beta-alcohol are differently combined from the 
remaining four, 


58 REPORT—1863. 


In the normal or alpha-alcohol the first stage of oxidation is the production of 
the aldehyd, 
a€, H,,0+0=a0, H,, 0+H, O. 


The second stage, the production of the corresponding fatty acid, 
Caproic Acid, 
———_. 


aC, H,,0+0=C,H,, O,. 


It would seem that, while in the alpha or common series of alcohols the union of 
the carbon atoms with one another is quite regular, the reverse obtains in the beta 
series. 


On Fractional Distillation. : 
By J. Atrrep Wayxtyn, Professor of Chemistry in the London Institution. 


Fractional distillation is resorted to in order to separate the single liquids which 
are present in a mixed liquid. The phenomena which take place during the distil- 
lation of a mixture are of a very complex order, and the general conditions which 
concur to produce the result may be enumerated as follows :— 

1. Composition of the mixture, #. e., relative proportion of the individual liquids 
present. 

. 2. Tensions of the vapours of the individual liquids at the boiling-point of the 
mixture. 

3. Densities of the vapours. 

; 4. Latent heat of the individual vapours, and capacity of the individual liquids 
or heat. 

5. Diffusion-coefficients of the individual vapours. 

6. Rate of distillation. 

7. Adhesions between the liquids. 

Whenever a mixed liquid distils off so as to yield a vapour different in compo- 
sition from the initial liquid, it is obvious that separation is taking place; and if 
the yapour is continuously different in composition from the initial liquid, perfect 
separation is the inevitable result if the process be pushed far enough. 

he author considers each of the above-named general conditions first separately, 
and then in conjunction with the rest. The rate of distillation he believes to be of 
particular importance, for that determines whether the individual liquids shall distil 
off mainly according to the tension of their vapours, or mainly according to the 
diffusion-coefficients of their vapours. Finally, he expresses his belief that by a 
proper regulation of the distillatory process any mixture whatever may be com- 
pletely separated into its individuals. 


On Oxidation by Ozone. By Dr. T. Woon, F.C.S. 


Accepting the fact that oxygen is capable of existing in more than one form, 
he called attention to the difference between the action of ordinary oxygen and the 
kind of oxygen which is commonly known as ozone. The results of his experi- 
ments went to show that ozonized air is capable of supporting combustion more 
powerfully than common air. Ozone was also a most powerful disinfectant. It 
entirely remoyed the smell of ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen from decom- 
posed blood, and recoagulated the fibrine after it had been dissolved by the ammonia 
generated during decomposition. At a temperature of 70° F. milk was most easily 
curdled in ten minutes by ozone ; albumen and fibrine are not decomposed by ozone. 
Quills soaked in dilute acetic acid form excellent joints for apparatus in experiments 
with it. The author stated that in the neighbourhood of stables and such like 
places, ozone was never to be found in warm weather, and concluded with a few 
remarks on the antiseptic properties of ozone below 60° F. 


On Impurities in Lead and Molecular Motion. By Dr. Zennzr. 


_ This communication referred to a peculiar effect of molecular motion in ip 
impurities from metals—lead being instanced. The author classified the con- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 59 


ditions and forms under which the forces which cause these motions are exerted, 
and under which such phenomena exhibit themselves, as follows. First, when the 
substances have to be brought into a fluid state by dissolving them in water, 

alcohol, &c., for the purpose of crystallization or for dialysis, as shown by the 
beautiful researches of Professor Graham. Secondly, when the substances are 
brought into a fluid state by heat, as is usually done with metals, such as lead, 
antimony, &c., when it is intended to crystallize them for their purification ; but 
the most remarkable instances are those in which the motion of molecules takes 

. place without there being such facilities afforded to the mobility, as in the previous 
divizion the substance remaining in a solid state. The third division was where 
the change was produced by mechanical means, asis shown by the change of mal- 
leable fibrous iron by means of concussion into a crystalline and brittle form. 
Fourthly, the existing cause may be chemical action, of which hitherto only a few, 
but those very interesting, instances have been noticed. Another instance of 
molecular motion under the excitement of chemical action observed in the manu- 
facture of white lead bythe Dutch process, as used in this country, is the object of the 
paper. Thin sheets of metallic lead are exposed at a temperature rarely exceeding 
180° Fahr. to the action of the atmospheric air, mixed with the vapour of acetic 
acid and carbonic acid. They are converted into carbonate of lead ; but when the 
lead used for this purpose has not the necessary purity, there are observable in the 
parts oxidized atid converted into carbonate of lead layers of different tints, and 
especially the thin layer nearest to the remaining portion of metallic lead shows a 
decided difference in colour, being darker and generally of a reddish-grey hue, 
arising from the oxides of iron, copper, &c.; and the remaining portion of the me- 
tallic lead, on being analysed, also showing an increase of the impurities. 


GEOLOGY. 


Address of the President, Wartneton W. Suytu, W.A., F.R.S., F.GS., Chief 
Inspector of the Minerals of the Crown and of the Duchy of Cornwall, Lec- 
turer at the Royal School of Mines, Jermyn Street. 


IF there is any one part of the British Islands where the very name of the place is 
naturally associated in our minds with a particular geological formation, it is the 
town of Newcastle as associated with the Coal; and beyond a doubt many of the 
present visitors to this cradle and centre of the coal-trade will have made their 

ourney hither with the expectation of not only hearing communications on various 
faphiches of geological science, but more especially of adding something to their 
knowledge of the carboniferous strata. 

We are to be favoured with several papers dealing with different portions of the 
subject, and I am led to think that, with a view to their scope being fully appre- 
ciated, as well as for other reasons which I propose to set before you, it may be 
advisable that I should invite your attention to the state of our knowledge of the 
occurrence and history of the coal-measures generally, whilst I refer mainly to the 
a which characterize that most valuable region in which we are assem- 

led. 


In the short time which I will allow my Address to subtract from the hours 
which we require for the reading and discussion of the numerous papers already 
sent in, I shall only attempt as it were an overture, giving a general outline of the 
carboniferous plot, and introducing a few notes to illustrate those passages which 
are most likely, in our successive acts, to demand attention and concentrate our 
interest. 

The Carboniferous System is commonly divided, for convenience sake, and in 
accordance with the structure of most European coal-fields, into three principal 
divisions, viz. the Carboniferous Limestone, the Millstone Grit, and the Coal Mea- 
sures. 1 need here say nothing of the Devonian or Old Red Sandstone system, or 
of the still older rocks which, in the absence of the Devonian, form the foundation 
of that great division of the geological scale with which we are engaged. The 


60 REPORT—1863. 


Carboniferous or Mountain Limestone (the oldest group of strata for our consider- 
ation) might be hastily passed over, but for its presenting in this northern district 
a transitional type between Scotland and the south of England no less important in 
its commercial aspect than interesting to the geologist in the various inquiries 
which it suggests. Turn to the Mendips, to Wales, or to Derbyshire, and we find 
the Carboniferous Limestone constituted almost exclusively of actual limestone- 
strata, amounting to from 300 or 400 to above 1500 feet in vertical thickness, and 
never exhibiting other than the smallest traces of beds of coal. But in Yorkshire 
a change sets in: the carboniferous action, if I may so term it, applies the thin end 
of the wedge, and small seams of coal, of but little value, are intercalated among 
the beds of limestone, and are associated with a large proportion of shale and sand- 
stone, stratified with a remarkable regularity. Advancing northward, these seams 
increase in number and importance. Throughout the great moorland region which 
culminates in Cross Tell, the same strata, rising from far beneath our feet as we 
stand here on the lower Tyne, emerge to the daylight, and compose the substance 
of the Pennine chain which, with its lofty and heather-purpled undulations, forms 
the broad dividing ridge of northern England. 

In the region of Weardale and Aldstone Moor, where in the becks and burns, 
and in the grout escarpment which towers above the valley of Eden, excellent ex- 
posures of the strata invite their study, the shales are often very similar to those of 
the coal-measures, though containing but few vegetable remains: the sandstones 
and grey beds frequently exhibit stems and fragments of plants familiar to us in the 
overlying strata, and the coal-seams are crowcoal or anthracite, resting on a bed of 
indurated silicious silt or of clay. 

Northward, however, of the great fault which runs nearly parallel to, but south 
of, the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway, the coal-seams become, and as it appears 
suddenly, bituminous, and the lower division of the limestone admits more numerous 
intercalations of shale, sandstone, and coal; and when we follow it to the upper 
district of the North Tyne, and beyond the river Coquet, the violent folding and 
contortion to which the strata have been subjected bring into view new basins or 
fields of coal. The true position of these is far beneath our ordinary measures, and 
has been recognized as such in Scotland, where they attain a vast importance. In 
the Berwick district, which has been minutely described by Mr. Boyd, it would 
appear that about 400 fathoms of carboniferous-limestone measures have been de- 
tailed below the WhinSill or basaltic bed, and about 100 fathoms above it, including 
in all twelve seams of coal of from two to four feet each. Certain of these, the 
Scremerston seams, appear to be remarkable in haying a limestone roof. For the 
details of another of these basins of the limestone-coals I may refer you to an ex- 
cellent paper by my indefatigable friend Mr. Nicholas Wood, published, as is Mr. 
Boyd’s paper, in the ‘ Transactions of the Institute of Mining Engineers.’ 

Let us pass from the upper beds of the limestone to the next overlying group of 
deposits. The millstone-grit or Farewell Rock, as it is sometimes called by col- 
liers, embraces a series of strata unproductive in coal, and in which conglomerates 
and coarse and silicious grits often preponderate. With this rugged crown many 
of the fell-tops are capped; but before it bends downwards to pass under the first 
strata of the coal-measures, we may frequently find with it strata of shale, and 
sandstone, and fire-clay, roughly similar to those of the true measures, yet present- 
ing to a practised eye peculiarities of structure and colour. 

As we descend eastward from the higher ground of the moorlands, on the edge 
of which the first or Brockwell seam of coal is traced, and as we find new and 
higher seams constantly succeeding, and the strata inclined regularly towards the 
sea, we pass into the midst of that tract which, extending from the river Coquet 
on the north to near the Tees on the south, for 50 miles in length, forms the great 
northern coal-field. The greatest thickness attained by this formation is probably 
not more than 2000 feet. But it would be vain for me, within a limited time, to 
offer _you details of the strata—a subject which has been amply treated by Mr. Bud- 
dle, Mr. Wood, Mr. T, Y. Hall, Mr. Greenwell, and others. “ Let it suffice to say 
that in this thickness there exist, associated with shales of many varieties and with 
fine-grained sandstones, some 57 beds of coal, from an inch thick upwards, com- 
prising in all 75 feet of coal; whilst those which are considered the workable seams 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 61 


are twelve in number, giving an ageregate of about 50 feet of coal. The most 
famous of these seams, from above downwards, are the High Main, the Yard Coal, 
the Bensham, Five Quarter, Low Main, Lower Five Quarter, Ruler or Hutton 
Seam, the Townley or Beaumont, the Busty Bank, Three Quarters, and the Brock- 
well. 

On the east the coal-measures are overlain, in a line running from South Shields 
past Houghton-le-Spring to near Bishops Auckland, by the Permian Series, repre- 
sented by the Magnesian Limestone and the Lower Red Sand—that unequal and 
water-bearing bed which forms the great obstacle to the sinking of shafts to the 
underlying coals. Prejudice, it is well known, even after the difference of these 
strata from the mountain limestone was proved, long contended that the coal could 
not be found continuous beneath the magnesian limestone; and it is still asserted 
that the seams have proved inferior when they pass beneath it, as shown especially 
by the failure in certain tracts of the Five Quarter and Hutton Seams. But no 
sufficient reason is apparent why such deterioration is not rather to be ascribed to 
that variation in quality which all seams are found to undergo when followed over 
a large area, than to the evil influence of an unconformable upper formation. The 
variation here alluded to exercises an important bearing on the commercial rela- 
tions of different parts of the field; and whilst the best “household coal,” bright, 
giving a black cinder, and free from ash, extends from the Tyne to the Wear, and 
from the last river to Castle Eden, and occupies another area about Bishops Auck- 
land, the steam coal, more dense, and yielding a white ash, characterizes the dis- 
trict beginning some fiye miles north of the Tyne; and the tender coal, best suited 
for coking, is largely worked all along the line of the western outcrops, from Ryton 
down to the outskirts of Raby Park. 

As regards the physical agencies which have impressed its present form on this 
great coal-field, I would remark that they appear to have acted with upheaval in a 
north and south direction, as evinced by the regular strike over a great length of 
country. This was accompanied or followed by transverse fractures resulting in 
several very pronounced lines of fault. Two of these, running respectively east- 
north-east and east-south-east, are the whin or basaltic dykes named the Hett and 
the Cockfield dykes. Of the others the most noticeable is the great fault called 
the Ninety-fathom Dyke, which, starting from the coast near Cullercoats, where it 
displaces the strata to that amount, ranges past Gosforth to Blaydon, and then 
entering on the more hilly ground, may be traced westward to the New Red Sand- 
stone of the neighbourhood of Carlisle. Along this western part of its course its 
throw is so great as to inlay, as it were, on its north side, in the midst of the lime- 
stone district, a long strip of the coal-measures of the Newcastle field, and thus to 
give rise to the collieries of Stublick, Midgeholm, Tindal Fell, &c. 

The coals and other strata of this field have sometimes been compared with those 
of Belgium ; but when we regard the decided east and west direction of the trough- 
ing and folding, and the vast number of thin seams which are so noticeable in the 
latter, we may conclude more properly that it is in the peculiar and often similarly 
circumstanced coal-field of Somersetshire that we have to seek for the direct con- 
tinuation of the field of the Low Countries. 

Let us now cast a brief glance on the theoretical side of the subject. Upon the 
mode of origination of the limestone, the shale, and the grit or “ post,” little dif- 
ference of opinion is now entertained. That the coal itself has been formed purely 
from vegetable matter can no longer be questioned. The view originally pro- 
pounded by De Luc, that the vegetation now composing our coal-seams grew on 
the soil which actually forms the bed or “thill” of the seam, has met with very 
general acceptance, notwithstanding the difficulty of adopting it in certain excep- 
tional cases. That this dense mass of vegetation flourished and swelled over an 
area frequently subjected to depression beneath the neighbouring water admits of 
but little doubt. Such an hypothesis serves to explain not only the equable cover- 
ing of the coals with their roofs of muddy or sandy matter, afterwards consolidated 
into shale and grit, and exhibiting to our gaze the remains of mollusca and fishes 
which tenanted the waters of those depressions, but indicates also the mode in 
which certain seams have been divided by a parting almost imperceptible in one 
place, but amounting to many feet in another. The well-known Busty Bank seam 


62 REPORT—1863. 


of the western district, some 5 feet thick, including a clay band of 11 inches, is thus 
divided, in a distance of two or three miles, by the increase of the parting to 18 feet, 
into the Stone Coal and the Five Quarter at Garesfield Colliery. A still more re- 
markable instance is the Tow Law seam, at the works so called, 6 feet 3 inches 
thick, which, by the increase of a parting as it goes eastward, exhibits at Bowden 
Close Colliery, only three miles away, two seams divided by no less than 16 fathoms 
of ground, in which beds of sandstone or “post” and even thin seams of coal haye 
been intercalated *. 

Such partings, when composed of shale, are often one mass of Stigmaria-impres- 
sions, and thus form no exception to the generally important part which that fossil 
plays as the root of the chief plant of the coal. But when the partings consist of 
fine-grained clean sandstone showing no trace of rootlets, I confess that the ap- 
pearance of bright solid coal resting upon them seems to me to demand some other 
explanation. Instances of this kind observed in South Staffordshire and in the 
Whitehaven Collieries induce me to think that the material must in some cases 
have been introduced between the laminze, and sometimes even diagonally athwart 
them, subsequently to the solidification of the coaly matter. 

But there are several curious phenomena as to which a doubt frequently arises, 
whether they are due to action during or after the formation of the coal; and 
deductions of no small practical importance sometimes depend on the ques- 
tion, Thus Mr, Hurstt has given a very exact account of irregularities, 
especially swellies, or narrow depressions in the Low Main coal, which appear to 
have been formed prior to the deposition of the upper seams. On the other hand, 
Mr. Marcus Scott has excellently described {| a broad valley of denudation which 
was eroded in the coals of the Shropshire field, and filled in with higher unpro- 
ductive measures. 

Again, with some of the slips and faults, or “ troubles,” we may occasionally ob- 
serve both coal and ironstone beds so to change in approaching them, or to vary 
so much on opposite sides of them, that whilst in some few cases we may be led to 
suspect their contemporaneity with the beds themselves, there are many more 
which we cannot paired without supposing that the coal must at the time of the 
disruption haye been moulded and squeezed in an almost plastic condition. 

In the determination of the plants of the coal much has been done; and the 
Newcastle names of Hutton and Witham have gained deserved honours in the 
cause. But a great deal remains to be accomplished by microscopic inquiry, and 
by the observation in the pits themselves of the pie which soon Dany particu- 
lar seams. Gdoppert tells us, of certain coals of Rhine-Prussia and Silesia, that 
different seams are distinctly formed of different plants,—sometimes Sigilaria and 
Lepidodendron, at others Coniferze, and in many Stigmaria being chiefly promi- 
nent. May we not by degrees connect the peculiar and perhaps varying character 
of seams with the special plants of which they are formed? and may we not thus 
advance to a much clearer perception of the true character of those wondrous 
primeyal forests ? 

And here I would remind you, that whilst some of our guides in coal geology 
incline to the opinion of a marine origin for their plants, thus bringing them into 
natural contact with the fishes and the probably marine shells often found in the 
shales, others insist on a terrestrial vegetation, and a third party on that of lagoons 
or sea-swamps and bogs, The last few years have given some weighty arguments 
to those who insist on a land-forest, however near to the water-level it may have 
been. We but recently know that among those giant stems of Sigil/aria the busy 
hum of flying insects and the merry chirp of the cricket were heard, that scorpions 
curled their ominous tails, that land-shells crept slimily along, and that several 
genera and many species of reptiles either pursued their prey along the ground or 
climbed the trees whose hollow trunks haye formed the casket to contain their 
remains. Here then is a goodly population to vivify the scene which only a few 
years ago was held to be almost wanting in all but vegetable life; and when we 


* This remarkable instance has been described to me by the veteran and accomplished 
iron-master, Mr. OC. Attwood. 

+ Transactions of the Institute of Mining Engineers, 1860. 

t Quart, Journ. Geol. Soc, of London. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 63 


consider the accidents which have, amid the great decomposition of organic 
matter, preserved to us those remains, generally enclosed in ironstone nodules, 
we pint feel confident that coming years will haye many an additional fact to 
disclose. 

Of the whole range of the carboniferous formation, perhaps the most interest- 
ing in several respects is the lower division. Many years ago Professor Phillips 
described the peculiar group of unquestionably marine shells occurring in the roof 
of the Halifax coals; and my friend Mr, Binney has traced throughout the length 
of Lancashire several seams which are thus characterized, and which lie invariably 
below the thick seams of the main coal-field. I have been greatly interested in 
hunting up the same group—the well-known Aviculo-pecten papyraceus, Gonvatites 
Lister, Orthoceras, and Lingula—in Derbyshire, in North Staffordshire, and in 
North Wales. Again, they occur very similarly in South Wales, at Merthyr and 
Nantyglo, and further west in the Kilkenny coal-field. I have devoted at intervals 
several days to the search for them along the outcrop of the Durham district, but 
hitherto unsuccessfully ; and whilst their occurrence lends great force to the pro- 
bability of the original unity and the subterranean connexion of most of our coal- 
fields, their apparent absence in the Durham and Cumberland lower coals appears to 
indicate a peculiar difference{in the conditions of deposition, The identification of 
distant seams, and of low as compared with high measures, appeared on this evidence 
very feasible ; but Mr. Hull has not long since shown that caution is still needed, 
by announcing the occurrence of the same group of fossils in the roof of what 
appears to be a higher seam in Lancashire. 

tis, I believe, only from the fossil side of the question that we can obtain a 
ee view of the position, with respect to true coal, of the cannel, the Torbane- 
ill or Boghead mineral, and bituminous shales. These yarious substances, whose 
affinities haye formed the subject of such serious litigation, may occur interstrati- 
fied with, and under circumstances analogous to, the seams which we all, without 
exception, recognize as coal; but when we come to examine their fossil character, 
the evidence thus obtained seems to me to point to quite a different mode of for- 
mation, On the one hand, observe in the coal the comparatively uninjured cellu- 
lar tissue of the vegetable mass, and the remarkable freedom from simultaneously 
deposited foreign matter; on the other hand, take the series beginning with the 
best cannels, and passing through the various grades of the carbonaceous and 
bituminous shales, the “parrots” and the “rattlers” and the “black bats,” and 
you find that in these latter an unbroken transition links the one to the other. In 
all of them the mashed and comminuted state of the carbonaceous element, and the 
frequent presence of fish-teeth, scales, and coprolites, and occasionally of mollusca, 
indicate conditions different enough to warrant a geological, let alone a technical 
separation. 
the shales which form the roof of a bed of coal be carefully examined, it will 
often be found that successive layers, from half an inch to several inches in thick- 
ness, are loaded with distinct kinds of remains, whether animal or vegetable. 
When they are of that homogeneous, fine-grained, and tenacious quality which 
constitutes what the colliers term a “good roof,’ the surface of the coal-seam 
appears to have been evenly and quietly covered with sediment; when the cap- 
ping is of sandstone or even of some of the rougher varieties of shale, it may some- 
times be seen that the coal has been eroded prior to its being covered up, and 
occasionally, as in the fine open exhibition of the Brockwell seam at Hownes Gill, 
near Shotley Bridge, came fragments of the coal lie strewed along the top of 
it, forming a coaly breccia. The under part of the shale or “bind” in actual contact 
with the coal is, with certain seams and in certain districts, a matted layer of large 
flattened stems of Stgillaria, Lepidodendron, &c., intermingled with fronds of ferns, 
whilst at a few inches higher we reach a band consisting exclusively of the flag- 
like leaves of Poacites, or a bed containing fish-remains and the Unio-like shells 
which recent researches have divided into several genera. In other cases, as 
notably in the “ Bottom Hard” coal of Shipley in Derbyshire, the immediate roof 
exhibits millions of a small brown “ Unio” ; and as you walk in the workings, you 
look up at the bottom of a “mussel-bed” where whole generations of the mollusk 
appear to have lived and died. Time would fail me were I to attempt to specify 


64 REPORT—1863. 


instances, but it is important to suggest to you that this is a class of phenomena 
especially calling for the observation of local workers, and one which, I venture to 
add, would relieve the monotony of mere business underground visits with an 
interest of a wider and a higher character. 

It is well known that the ironstone bands of the coal-measures are among 
the most prolific sources of the objects of these studies, and I must, in con- 
clusion, refer to the very interesting lists and parallels of fossils prepared by 
Mr. Salter for the two last numbers of the “Iron Ores of Great Britain,” in the 
‘Memoirs of the Geological Survey.’ The rich stores obtained by zealous col- 
lectors in South Wales, and those yielded by the productive strata of the Pot- 
teries coal-field, have been formed under his careful hands into a very valuable 
foundation, upon which I trust that we may soon see in course of erection a sys- 
tematic and comparative natural history of the British coal-fields. 


On the Metamorphic Origin of the Porphyritic Rocks of Charnwood Forest. 
By Professor D. T. Anstep, 2.8, 


The proposition of the author was that the so-called igneous rocks of the district 
were a series of metamorphosed sedimentary deposits, probably comparable with 
those of North Wales. The slates of Charnwood, with their contained rolled pebbles 
and faint traces of life-remains, are known to alternate with rocks having the 
appearance of syenite; but he regarded the whole as of sedimentary origin. 


On a Deposit of Sulphur in Corfu. By Professor D. T. Anstep, F.R.S. 


Among certain gypseous marls and extensive deposits of gypsum on the northern 
side of the transverse limestone-axis of the island of Corfu many thin seams of native 
sulphur, almost chemically pure, are known to occur. Of these one series, from } of 
an inch to 12 inch in thickness, was examined by the author; and he was informed 
of another lower series of thicker beds. The surface of the sulphur in some cases 
presented a somewhat stellate appearance not unlike that common in wayellite. In 
the village of Spagus, near the deposits, the houses and walls are built of the 
gypseous rock, with occasional sulphur bands. _ Springs of water, smelling strongly 
of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, exist in the neighbourhood, A large quantity of 
sulphur had been removed for local use. 

The sulphur has not been found on the south side of the principal mountain-axis of 
Corfu, though it recurs in some of the other Ionian Islands, especially in Cephalonia. 
All the islands are subject to frequent earthquake-disturbances, but these are by no 
means synchronous—the earthquakes that affect the different islands not being in any 
way identifiable. Thus, within the author’s experience, earthquakes had occurred on 
one day in Santa Maura and on the same day in Cephalonia at a very short distance, 
but by no means at or near the same hour. The author connected the sulphur 
phenomena with the volcanic operations going on at a moderate depth beneath 
the surface, 


On some Facts observed in Weardale. By C. Arrwoon, 


On the Pennine Fault in connexion with the Volcanic Rocks at the foot of 
Crossfell ; and with the Tyndale Fault, called “ The Ninety-fathom Dyke.” 
By W. Baryeriver, F.G.S. 


After a brief description of the great escarpment of the Mountain Limestone 
system, underlaid at the base by the Old Red Sandstone conglomerate, the effects 
of the fault are traced in the line of “ edge beds” from Ravenstonedale to Tindale 
Fell, which consist, in different places, of the Great Scar Limestone, the Old Red 
Sandstone, the Silurian Slates, the Coniston Grit and Limestone, and northwards 
from Hartside Fell of the higher beds of the Mountain Limestone system. 

The band of volcanic rocks, about two miles in its greatest width, 1400 feet in 
height from the base in Murton Pike (the highest of the Pikes), and about 20 miles 
in length, occurs between the New Red Sandstone of the Vale of Eden and the 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 65 


mountain chain, and is diversified by many most picturesque forms as well as 
many shapeless mounds. Crossfell and the adjoining region form the highest parts 
of the Pennine chain, and, opposite the greatest elevation of the volcanic rocks on 
the other side of the chain, ten miles distant, the basaltic bed called the “Whin 
sill” attains its greatest thickness (40 fathoms) and its greatest intensity of 
chemical action. The Red Sandstone is washed up into all the irregular spaces 
of the hills, both limestone and volcanic, thus proving its deposition after the 
elevation of the hills was accomplished. 

The volcanic band is described in detail from near Brough, in Westmoreland, to 
Hartside Fell. Murton Pike is conical, and abuts against a lofty convex cliff of 
limestone, resting also partly on its ledge above. Dutton Pike, a striking pyramid 
of 1575 feet of absolute height, and about 1000 feet from the base, with a slope of 
from 28° to 33°, is completely isolated. The rock is apparently cut off on the 
north by the great Crossgill vein traversing the Alston Moor district east and west 
for many miles, and ending at the escarpment; and the southern limit is very 
near the great independent dislocations in Fmidials and Stainmoor, which produce 
so much confusion in the neighbourhood of Brough, and even change the south- 
ward course of the Pennine Fault. 

Between the Eden New Red Sandstone and the western side of the volcanic 
band there is a narrow line, often faintly traced, of limestone and shale beds, 
dipping rapidly under the Red Sandstone, which have been broken off from the 
chain by the fault. The limestone is light blue, dark blue, brown, and almost 
white, and often crystalline. The greenstone passes into slate, grey or whitish. 
The former is a dull dark substance, varying in hardness, liable to decomposition, 
but often very compact. Analysis of specimens from Dufton Pike :— 


Greenstone. Slate. 
RATE cc oc vacs.s « a 7 Siltcn. secre esc ose .. 70:50 
Tron and alumina........ 13 Tron and alumina......,. «ccna 
WATE Gye .c. 4 2:5, c:4.0 > Dette, sects turds 5 Time rscr, chee Raa itfaresdwiy .» trace 
PROS aa ia, 2.0030 4.0.2 0 trace Magnesia ........ qo ceca une 
Loss—heating ..,......, 6:50 LGkS. rat heh sodas! dayncl a 1:50 


Alkalies and matters not found 
by difference....... alehetsis 
100:00 

On the west side of Dufton Pike occur beds of granite, apparently in round or oval 
deposits, and like that of Shap Fell. Smooth boulders of this granite, of basalt 
and of quartz rock, are dispersed on the flanks of the chain and on the volcanic 
hills. ‘here are also veins or dikes across the Jine of volcanic action, containing 
quartz, felspar, and talc. There are signs of parallelism in the process of eruption ; 
but there is no appearance of craters. The three large Pikes are striking ex- 
amples of regular forms produced by processes of degradation. 

he ninety-fathom Slip-Dike, or Tynedale Fault, is then traced from the sea to 
Hartley Burn, where the narrow line of the Newcastle Coal-field, thrown down to 
the north by the fault, disappears. A large basaltic dike accompanies the fault for 
many miles across the rivers Allen and South Tyne, at 200 yards’ distance on the 
south. Another basaltic dike passes on the north side of the fault from Choller- 
ford, crosses the Tyne thrice, and is supposed to enter the Hartley Burn district con- 
siderably north of the coal-field there. This coal-field has been worked to the 
extreme west end, where it appears to be cut off by a slip-dike running N.N.W. 
and afterwards W.N.W., and much broken and very irregular. It appears to rise 
to the W. and N.W., and the coal-beds dip for about 40 yards to the north. This 
outcrop of the Newcastle Coal-field is only three-quarters of a mile distant from 
that of Tindale Fell, in the mountain-limestone chain. It seems, therefore, pro- 
bable that the former coal-field is simply terminated by its junction with the 
Pennine chain. A slip-dike, seen near Blenkinsopp, may be the same that appears 
to cut off the coal, and afterwards to pass by the tate of Halton Lee Fell, through 
Tindale Fell, into Geltsdale. The vertical beds appear faintly, but distinctly, in 
Blackburn in this direction. The slip-dike that throws down the Tindale Fell 
oe Talkin Fell, for 40 fathoms, runs W.N.W., and appears to be confined 

, m 5 


66 REPORT—1863. 


within the mountain-limestone system. <A basaltic bed, that chars the coal, under- 
lies the seams at Hartley Burn and Midgeholme. 

In considering the connexion between the two great faults, we are led to the 
question of geological age. If the faults had taken place at the same time, the 
age of both might have been fixed during the Permian period, viz. after the de- 

osition of the magnesian limestone, and before that of the New Red Sandstone. 

or, at one end, there is the overthrow of the magnesian limestone at Cullercoats ; 
and at the other, the almost vertical disturbance of the magnesian conglomerates 
at Brough, and the unconformable deposition of the Eden New Red Sandstone 
against the mountain limestone and the igneous rock. The deposition of New Red 
Sandstone upon the small Ingleton Coal-field is also noticed. As this sandstone 
is wanting at the mouth of the Tyne, and as the Tynedale Fault is not observed to 
penetrate through the chain into the Eden New Red Sandstone, there is negative 
evidence to the effect that the fault might have occurred after the Permian system 
was complete. On the other hand, the two faults might apparently have occurred, 
as one physical event, or as nearly contemporaneous, after the deposition of the 
coal-measures, which are dislocated by the Tynedale Fault, and before that of the 
New Red Sandstone. In that case, the coal ought still to have existed on some 
parts of the mountain chain. But there is not a vestige of coal on that chain 
throughout its entire length, from the base of the Cheviot to its southern limit. 
The elevation, therefore, of that chain, and the crisis of the Pennine Fault, must 
have happened either before the deposition of the coal, or after the chain had been 
denuded of coal already deposited. But the Tynedale Fault is supposed to throw 
down the coal 1200 to 1800 feet at its intersection of the chain, not far from its 
axis. At any rate, it is thrown down there from a considerable height. It can 
hardly, therefore, be doubted that the coal once existed throughout the chain upon 
the millstone-grit, and was washed off during the partial submergence of the 
chain. In that case, it would follow that the Tynedale Fault, occurring after the 
deposition of the magnesian limestone, and before that of the New Red Ranimine, 
is older than the Pennine Fault, and that the latter fault, with all its volcanic con- 
sequences, might have occurred within the same geological epochs, but after the 
effects produced by the Tynedale Fault. This denudation of coal would of course 
imply an intermediate subsidence of the mountain-limestone system, during which 
the coal of the chain, both north and south of its depression and burial along 
the line of the Tynedale Fault, would be washed away. When the chain again 
began to rise after the denudation of the coal, the present abrupt termination of 
Tindale Fell, towards the north, and its great height above the plain at Hartley 
Burn might be occasioned by the unequal elevation of the surface in the neigh- 
bourhood of the Tynedale Fault, on a different axis which prevails, north of that 
fault, to the German Ocean. 

There appear to be direct evidence in the disturbed magnesian conglomerates, 
near Brough, that the Pennine Fault, which followed the final elevation of the 
chain, may have occurred after the dislocation of the magnesian limestone at 
Cullercoats, 

Professor Phillips, while admitting the objection arising from the above disturb- 
ance, and the great difficulty of the problem, inclines to the conclusion that the 
Pennine and Craven Faults preceded the magnesian-limestone epoch, and that the 
Tynedale Fault was of somewhat later date. He finds also a close analogy between 
the small Ingleton Coal-field and that of Hartley Burn, But there is this differ- 
ence, that, though qreey thrown from an almost equal height, the Hartley Burn 
coal is not absolutely detached, like that of Ingleton, from other large coal tracts 
of the same kind, but is connected directly and continuously with the Newcastle 
Coal-field; that the seams do not, as at Ingleton, thin off to nothing, without any 
apparent cause, but are quite as thick there as at any other place along the line, 
and are cut off by dislocations of great extent. It is possible that the Ingleton coal 
may, from causes operating on a limited tract, have escaped destruction, and been 
afterwards thrown down by the Craven Fault. The existence, therefore, of this 
line of coal seems to show that the Tynedale Fault must have preceded the Pen- 
nine Fault. Asa general rule in this district, the east and west veins are older 
than the noyth and south yeins; and the samo rule may prevail with respect, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 67 


to large fractures or faults. This priority appears to be most reconcileable with 
what is now to be seen. If the Pennine Fault had been first, it might naturally 
have been expected to have extended in a straight line northward towards Esk- 
dale; but it does not extend beyond the line of the Tynedale Fault; and, on the 
river Irthing, the beds are remarkably regular, in a dip 8.8,W., and without any 
trace of faults, running north and south. Again, the Tynedale Fault might perhaps 
have been expected to penetrate the Pennine chain at this point of supposed de- 
pression. On the other hand, the previous existence of the Tynedale Fault, as a 
vast cross fracture, might be expected not only to influence the subsequent eleva 
tion of the chain, but also to cause the divergence of the “edge beds” of the Pen- 
nine Fault towards the N.E., and, in part, to deprive that fault of its usual power. 
Both these effects appear to be still visible; yet, after all that has been said, there 
is abundant scope for further observation and reasoning. 


On the Physical Condition of the Earth in the Earlier Epochs of its History. 
By the Rey. Jamus Brovin, Mommail. 


The author maintained that the condition of the earth in the earlier epochs of its 
history may have been the effect, not of internal, but of external heat, in the fol- 
lowing propositions :—1. The greater heat of the temperate and polar regions, in 
the earlier eras, cannot be accounted for on the supposition that the distribution of 
land and water was different from that which now exists. 2. The change which 
seems to have been produced on the metamorphic rocks was not caused by heat from 
within acting upon them while they were covered with a mass of superincumbent 
strata. 3. We lave no conclusive evidence that the temperature of the central part 
of the globe is higher than that of the surface. 4. There is no evidence that the 
great mass of the earth has ever been in a fluid state. 5. All the phenomena 
hitherto observed may be satisfactorily accounted for on the supposition that the 
earth was at some former time exposed to great external heat. 

The general inference which he deduced from his observations was that, in all 
Spee avons in regard to the physical condition of the earth in former epochs, it 
should ever be kept in mind that an increase of temperature implies an increase of 
Sepeephenc pressure, with all the effects on chemical combinations and animal and 
vegetable development which such an increase would produce. 


On Artificially produced Quartzites. By AtmxanpER Brysoy. 


The author gave in detail the results of experiments he had lately made with 
certain siliceous minerals. A brown crystal of Cairngorm quartz, exposed to the 
heat of a brick-kiln for six days, lost its carbon and came out white, having, never- 
theless, increased in specific gravity from 26458 to 2.6571. An amethyst treated 
in a like manner became changed into opal; red granite of Peterhead so exposed 
tumed white, but black basalts came out red, and the colour of Arran pitchstones 
was found to be permanent. He also exhibited a slice of silicified monocotyle- 
donous wood with annular layers, in which the crystals of silica were observed 
to have broken up the tissues of the plant. Referrmg to the question of fluid in 
inet rocks, he believed that no cavity had been filled at a higher temperature 
than 94°, 


On the Causes of Earthquakes and Voleanic Eruptions. 
By J, ALEXANDER DAVIES. 
The theory of the author was that these phenomena, generally preceded by 
atmospheric alterations unusual in degree, were also connected with them, and, 
indeed, caused by them. 


On Two New Coal-plants from Nova Scora. By Dr. Dawson. 

One of the plants (Z. Acadianus) belonged to the genus Lepidophloios of Stern- 
berg; the other was an example of a type of Lepidodendron, very characteristic, in 
Nova Scotia, of the Lower Coal-measures associated with the Lower Carboniferous 
Limestone. The author concluded that the original species of er ne (t. Lari- 


68 REPORT—1863. 


cinum) was founded on the fragment of the bark of an old trunk, having the leaf- 
bases flattened, and hence described as scales. It was evidently, in short, closely 
allied to the specimen described. The genus Ulodendron was, he thought, identical 
with Lepidophloios, but apparently founded on specimens having the leaf-bases 
preserved, with the cone scars, but wanting vascular scars; but he was in doubt as 
to the claims of the name Ulodendron on the ground of priority. It appeared to 
him that the generic names Ulodendron, Lomatophloios, Leptoxylum, Pachyphleus, 
and Bothrodendron should be abolished in favour of Leprdophioios, unless indeed it 
should appear that any of these names had priority in date. The second plant 
described was the Lepidodendron corrugatum, which was one of the most abundant 
in the Lower Coal-measures of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. The species 
was remarkable for its variability, and also for the dissimilar appearances of old 
stems and branches occasioned by the separation of the areoles in the growth of the 
bark, instead of the areoles themselves increasing in size, as in some other Lepido- 
dendra. 


On the Relations of the Cumberland Coal-field to the Red Sandstone. 
By W. Marrutas Dunn, Government Inspector of Coal-mines, 


The author's practical investigations in the collieries of Ellenborough, Aspatria, 
and Crossby led him to consider that the main coal-field of the district yet remained 
untouched, as it had been downeast by faults beneath the Red Sandstone rock, 
which he is inclined to regard as the superior stratum of the Carboniferous system. 
Quoting several authorities in support of his opinion that the bottom of the 
basin would be found at and around Silloth Harbour, he pointed out the importance 
of determining the question, and described the trial simkings now going on near 
Wetherall and at the Aspatria Colliery. 


On a Salamander in the Rothliegendes. By Dr. Genxirz of Dresden. 


It was found some years ago in a slab of grey-marl slate, at Selberg, near Braunau 
belonging to the lower Rothliegende, not to the Kupferschiefer. Dr. Geinitz had 
proved the relation of this fossil with the living Stren lacertina, L., of North Carolina, 
so that he was persuaded he had in the fossil an old and gigantic Stren (a Sala- 
mander), whose dimensions exceeded those of the living species about ten times. 
There were preserved three and a half vertebrae, with a part of the skin; and the 
name proposed was Palgostren Beinerti, Gein. 


On the Alluvial Accumulation in the Valley of the Somme and Ouse. 
By R. A. C. Gopwix-Avsten, F.RS. 


The object of the paper was to show that these two river-valleys belonged to 
areas over which the geological changes had differed so greatly that, at present, 
comparisons could not be made; that the materials of the gravel-beds of the Ouse 
had, like those of all the rivers of the east of England, been derived from the 
“boulder-formation ;’’ and that the state of the animal-remains indicated that they 
belonged to the fauna of the period antecedent to the boulder-clay ; consequently 
that, should it be proved that flint implements were to be met with in the Bedford 
gravel-beds, it would not prove that the Elephas primigenius and its associates were 
contemporaneous with man. The valley of the Somme was shown to belong to an 
area which lay beyond the “ boulder-formation ”—that the series of alluvial beds 
differed greatly in respect of the physical conditions under which they had 
originated, yet that they indicated a definite order of succession, and implied a vast 
lapse of past time; in each of these flint implements have been said to have been 
found. The only evidence on this point which the author considers to be reliable 
is that with respect to the Champ de Mars, near Abbeville, where the beds belonged 
to the most recent portion of the alluvial series of the Somme, in the “ subaérial ” 
accumulations. The author further showed that there is no sufficient evidence of 
a post-glacial elephantine period, as also that the Somme valley could never have 
been the line of drainage of a vast river, but that the phenomena of river alluyia at 
great elevations are to be accounted for by physical changes of definite date, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69 


On the Reptiliferous and Footprint Sandstones of the North-east of Scotland. 
By Professor Harxness, F.R.S. 


The author, after having carefully examined all the localities in the district 
around Elgin where rocks are exposed, has been enabled to arrive at a series of 
sections which place the reptiliferous sandstones of this neighbourhood in their 
proper position. 

‘he arrangement of the strata in this part of Scotland was made out generally 
by Sir Roderick Murchison and Prof. Sedgwick about thirty-five years ago, and sub- 
sequently Sir Roderick Murchison has added considerably to the details of the geo- 
logy of this area. The rocks in this part of Scotland were all regarded as belonging 
to the Old Red Sandstone group until, a few years ago, the remains of a Crocodile 
(Stagonolepis) were discovered in the higher portion of the series. This led pale- 
ontologists to look upon the reptiliferous sandstones of Elgin as appertaining to the 
Triassic formation ; but, from the sequence of the strata and their mineral nature, 
some geologists have still regarded these rocks as upper members of the Old Red 
series. As no distinct sections had been made out of the sequence of the strata, the 
evidence of conformability between the several strata was not perfectly satisfactory. 
The author has, from his observations, now obtained a series of sections from the 
lower beds of the Old Red, which, in this district, repose upon the metamorphic rocks, 
to the deposits which overlie the reptiliferous sandstones. These sections exhibit the 
following sequence of rocks :—Base of the Old Red (which here does not manifest the 
lowest nor even the middle members of the group), a mass of purple conglomerate, 
succeeded by purplish sandstones (Scat Crag beds) with remains of Bothriolepis and 
Holoptychius, upon which repose grey sandstones with pebble-beds containing the 
same fossils. These latter pass upwards into yellow sandstones (Bishop’s Mill beds) 
containing Holoptychius and Glyptopomus, have pebble-beds above them, and upon 
these latter the reptiliferous sandstones repose, being succeeded by limestone (corn- 
stone). The whole of the strata have a perfect conformity, and the agreement in 
the conformity and the sequence of the strata can be seen in several spots in the 
district around Elgin. 

The author next described a continuous section seen along the Ross-shire coast, 
from the Nigg to Tarbetness. In this section the whole of the Old Red Sandstone, 
from its lower members to its upper beds, is seen continuously, the sequence and 
conformity of the deposits being perfect. From the upper beds of this section the 
Rey. Messrs. Cam ell and Joass have obtained footprints, some of which are 
identical with the Ichnolites from the reptiliferous sandstones of the Elgin country, 
and the upper members of the Old Red Sandstones here have a great affinity in 
nature and sequence to their representatives on the southern side of the Moray 
Firth. From this section in Ross-shire, and from the sections which can be obtained 
in Morayshire, the author has now no doubt that reptile life, in the form of Croco- 
diles and in other forms, existed during the deposition of the strata which make up 
the higher members of the Old Red Sandstone in this part of Scotland. 


On the Fossils of the Skiddaw Slates. By Professor Harkness, F.R.S. 


The Skiddaw slates, lying above the Lingula-flags, had at one time been regarded 
as Azoic. They were first brought within the series of rocks producing life-remains 
by Professor M‘Coy, who described two Graptolites and sea-plants (Chondrites) dis- 
covered in them. Investigations lately made by the author in the neighbourhood 
of Keswick had removed them in paleontological character very far above their 
supposed position. He had obtained the remains of a shrimp-like Crustacean, allied 
to Ceratiocaris, upon which Mr. Salter had founded a new genus, Caryocaris, and a 
shell of Discina. The family of Graptolites, regarded as typical of the age, had 
been increased by his investigations, representatives of seven genera having been 
obtained, four of which were confined to this group of rock strata. The forms 
discovered belonged to the genera Dendrograpsis, Phyllograptus, Tetragrapsus, Dicho- 
grapsus, Didymograpsus, Diplograpsus, and the better-known Graptolites. In con- 
clusion, Professor Harkness alluded to the fact that the forms of Graptolites which 
occur the earliest in time are of the most complicated design, thus affording no 
support to the progression-theory. 


70 REPORT—1863. 


On the Hornblendic Greenstones, and their relations to the Metamorphic and 
Silurian Rocks of the County of Tyrone. By Professor Harxyuss, F.R.S. 
The eastern portion of the county of Tyrone is made up of rocks, in part con- 

sisting of oma ereenstones, flanked on the north by metamorphic masses, 

and on the south by the Silurian beds, which have been described by General Port- | 

lock as being well exhibited near Pomeroy. The metamorphic rocks on the north 

and the fossiliferous Silurians on the south dip in opposite directions, and the inter- 

-yening hornblendic greenstones seem to form the axis of the elevation of the 
altered and unaltered rocks. These hornblendic greenstones are, in some localities, 
enetrated by granite. The author, from his observations in this part of Ireland, 

is induced to conclude that the metamorphic rocks in the north of Ireland, and also 

those of the Highlands of Scotland, have been elevated, flexured, and contorted at 

a period antecedent to the time when the granitiform masses were thrust into 

the metamorphic strata, and he is disposed, from the mode in which the granites 

sometimes exhibit themselves, to regard them as the result of an excess of meta- 
morphic action. 

From the mode of occurrence of the metamorphic rocks on the north of the 
hornblendic greenstone and the unaltered Silurians on the south thereof, he looks 
upon these rocks as appertaining to the same geological epoch; and Judging from 
the fossils of the unaltered Silurians, these rocks belong to the age of the Caradoc 
beds, a period to which the bulk of the metamorphic rocks of the north of Ireland 
and,the upper gneiss of the Highlands of Scotland are also referable. 


On the Fossil Teeth of « Horse found in the Red Clay at Stockton. 
By Joun Hoee, W.A., F.BS., Se. 

The author exhibited three fossil molar teeth of the lower jaw of a Horse, and 
remarked that few occurrences of Mammalia, in a fossi/ state, had been recorded in 
the adjoining counties of Northumberland and Durham; indeed, only once before 
the teeth of a Horse had been described. 

These specimens were dug up in the Red Clay of the New Red Sandstone to the 
south of the town of Stockton-on-Tees, and at a depth of 4 or 5 feet. 

The author also compared with them three molar teeth of a Horse, which he 
had found last autumn, with a portion of a human siull, in a field at Norton, where, 
in local history, it was related that a battle had been fought some centuries ago. 
It is the same field as that noticed by him to the Ethnological Subsection at Swan- 
sea, and mentioned in the Report of that Meeting. 

He further compared with the fossil teeth the corresponding molar teeth of the 
lower jaw of a recent Horse. ‘The fossil teeth differed from all the more modern 
ones by their strength, size, colour, and glazed exterior. 


On the Metamorphic Rocks of the Malvern Hills. 
By Harvey B. Horn, M.D., F.GS. 

The two most southern hills of the Malvern range consist entirely of bedded 
rocks, chiefly mica and hornblende schists, and gneissic rocks, having a nearly 
N. and §. strike. In the next, or Midsummer Hill, some thick-bedded rocks, com- 

osed of hornblende and felspar with a variable proportion of quartz and diorite, 
oth coarse- and fine-grained, are interstratified with gneissic rocks and mica schist ; 
the direction of the strike bemg more to the W. of N. and E. of S. In the next, 
or Swinyards Hill, the strike is due E. and W.: S. of the summit the rocks are 
gneissic and schistose, with some diorite and quartzo-felspathic rocks regularly in- 
terstratified; but, on its northern declivity, these are succeeded by massive and 
coarsely crystallized granitoid rocks, in which the mica is sometimes replaced by 
hornblende and epidote. The direction of bedding, though obscured, is traceable by 
means of narrow belts of more schistose rock, interposed at intervals, and lying in 
the plane of the general H. and W. strike. No veins proceed from these highly 
eel masses into the adjacent rocks. 
n the Herefordshire Beacon the rocks are again gneissic and schistose in struc- 
ture, partly micaceous and partly hornblendic, traversed by large quartzo-felspathic 
veins. These rocks are well exposed along the new pathway leading from the 


J 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, ry 


turnpike-road towards the summit, and better still at the Wind’s Point, The strike 
is here E, of N. and W. of 8. 

From the Wind’s Point to the Wych there is a long succession of alternating 
gneissic and schistose rocks, with occasionally beds of diorite interstratified. In 
these gneissic rocks, when hornblende replaces the mica, the alternations of the 
lighter-coloured bands of felspar and quartz with the darker hornblende give to 
the rock a finely ribboned appearance. The strike towards the central portions of 
this ridge, as opposite Malvern Wells, is nearly N. and 8.; but near to the Wych 
it varies on either side of K. and W. 

Thus far, with the limited exception of the northern extremity of Swinyards 
Hill, where the bedding has become obliterated, the hills consist of bedded rocks. 
But N. of the Wych these schists, &c., haye associated with them some granitoid 
rocks, especially in parts of the Worcestershire Beacon, and in the hill which over- 
looks Dowles Bench. On the southern side of the North Hill, hornblende occu- 
pies the place of the mica, and not unfrequently the two are associated in the 
same mass. Much of this rock, however, has a very gneissic structure. The bedding 
is entirely obliterated. It is possible that some portions of these more crystalline 
rocks may have been erupted, but there is no evidence of this beyond their massive 
character and the absence of veins running from them into the adjacent dioritic 
and schistose-rocks, The gneissic structure which they frequently exhibit, and-the 
manner of their occurrence when viewed on the large scale, are more in accordance 
with the supposition of their metamorphic origin. The remaining portions of this 
northern part of the range are made up of gneissic rocks and diorite. The general 
direction of the strike is N.W. and 8.E. 

These rocks have a more highly metamorphosed aspect, are more mixed with 
diorite, and contain more hornblende than the altered rocks of known Cambrian 
age, and in this respect they bear much similarity to some of the metamorphic rocks 
on the N. side of the River St. Lawrence. 

Throughout the range these rocks are traversed by numerous quartzo-felspathic 
and granitic veins. Dikes and intruded masses of trap are frequent, twenty-seven 
oceurring N. of the Wych, and six to the south of it. The veins are posterior to 
all the rocks except the trap-dikes. 

The oldest of the Paleozoic rocks of the district are the Hollybush sandstone and 
black shales, or Malvern equivalents of the Lingula-flags, or Primordial zone of 
Barrande. At their base there is a conglomerate of quartz-pebbles and rounded 
fragments of felspar, derived probably from the crystalline rocks against which 
they rest. Above these are olive and greenish-coloured sandstones, containing dark 
and bright green particles, probably of volcanic origin, and others that are flagey and 
micaceous; and at the little hamlet of White-leaved Oak they contain a band of 
limestone about 6 feet in thickness. Besides the characteristic Zrachyderma anti- 
guissima and a Scolithus, these sandstones have yielded a Lingula and an Orthis. 

Above these sandstones are the Black Shales. On the western and north-west- 
ern slopes of the Key’s End Hill these shales completely conceal the sandstones, 
but in the valley of the White-leaved Oak, and on the western sides of the Ragged- 
stone and Midsummer Hills they have been removed by denudation, whereby the 
underlying sandstones are exposed. These shales contain some well-known Lin- 
gula-flag fossils, besides others that have not yet been described. 

These sandstones and shales have interstratified with them many beds of vol- 
canic ash, grits, and lava-flows. Some of these form bosses from the denudation 
of the softer rocks from around them. At least three of these lava-beds occur in the 
sandstones, and many more are intercalated with the shales; but the exact number 
is not ascertained. In composition some are felspathic, others felspatho-augitic with 
crystals of augiteP, while some are highly calcareous, as is the case with the boss 
nearest Bransill Castle and with those on the HE. of Coal Hill. Some of the ash- 
beds contain cavities which have become filled with carbonate of lime or quartz, 
which in the weathered portions become dissolved out, and restore to the rock its 
original cellular structure. That these beds are contemporaneous intercalated de- 
posits, and not erupted, is clearly shown in the section at the north end of Coal Hill, 
where grit-, ash-, and laya-flows are regularly interbedded with decarbonized shale, 
and dipping with them to the 8.W, 


72 REPORT—1863. 


All the remaining members of the Lower Silurian series are absent from the 
district, and the beds which rest upon the Malvern representatives of the Lingula-flags 
belong to the pegs Llandovery beds, to which all the other subdivisions of the 
Upper Silurian and the lower division of the Devonian systems succeed conformably. 
Towards the southern extremity of the hills, and north of West Malvern, the lower 
urple sandstones occur; but in all the intervening portion of the chain it is the 
cone beds only that rest upon the metamorphic rocks, overlapping the lower beds, 
and showing that the central portions of the chain were less depressed during the 
deposition of the Llandovery rocks than were the two extremities. That the hills 
were above the sea-level during this Llandovery period is proved by the fragments 
of the crystalline rocks which these conglomerates contain, as already shown by 
Professor Phillips. 

The cuttings which were made in the construction of the railway brought to 
light some important faults on the western side of the Wych, which had been pre- 
viously overlooked for want of sufficient exposures. Of these, the principal, or 
Colwall fault, crosses the railway-cutting near the western extremity of the tunnel. 
The interval between the railway and the hills on the south side of this fault con- 
tains all the beds from the Upper Llandovery to the Downton sandstone and lower 
part of the Old Red Marls inclusive. On the N. side of the fault all these beds are 
carried to the N.W., the Wenlock limestone as far as the turnpike-road, and the 
Aymestry limestone to Brock Hill. Between the Wenlock limestone on the N. side 
of the fault and the Downton limestone on the S. side there is, therefore, an inter- 
val in which the Wenlock shale is in contact with the Old Red Mar!s, and through 
this space the railway passes. At a little distance from this larger fault, on its 
northern side, are three smaller faults, and still further to the N. a fourth. This 
latter crosses the tunnel at the shaft nearest the hills, and the turnpike-road at the 
turning-off to the lime-quarries, and thence passes down the little valley in the 
direction of Brock Hill. 

Another great fault occurs along the western foot of the Herefordshire Beacon, 
extending from the Wind’s Point to Walm’s Well. This fault is caused by the 
upthrust of the metamorphic rocks through the Upper Silurian beds, which the 
have carried high up before them, at the same time bringing up the Hollybush 
sandstones and black shales, which, altered by trap-dikes, from the lower hills on 
the eastern side of the Beacon. All the Upper Silurian beds thus upraised have 
been subsequently removed by denudation. 

There are also some other faults of minor importance. 

As the general result of his researches the author infers— 

1. That the metamorphic rocks of the Malverns are certainly as old as the lower 
part of the Cambrian—probably as old as the Laurentian period *. 

2. That they were above the sea-level prior to the deposition of the Primordial 
zone, 

3. That during the deposition of the Primordial zone the range was sinking. 

4, That subsequent to this, the range was again elevated, and continued so until 
after the deposition of the Lower Llandovery rocks. 

5. That the Upper Llandovery rocks were deposited during a period of depres- 
sion, which depression continued until after the deposition of the Lower Devonian 
series ; that portion of the range which is between the Wind’s Point and the Wor- 
cestershire Beacon being the last to be depressed. 

6. That subsequently to the Lower Devonian period the range again became ele- 
vated, and continued so during the deposition of the Middle and Upper Devonian 
beds, the Carboniferous limestone, and the Millstone-gritT. 

7. That this was again followed by gradual depression, during which the Coal- 
measures, the Permian system, the Trias, and Lias were deposited. 

8. That the age of the faulting of the Upper Silurian and Devonian strata, on the 


* By Laurentian period, it is not intended to imply that they are the exact equivalents in 
time of the metamorphic rocks on the N. side of the St. Lawrence, but only that they are 
older than the Cambrian System. The term is here used generically to group all the altered 
rocks which are of pre-Cambrian age. 

+ These are all absent from beneath the Coal-measures at Martley on the N., and Dy- 
mock on the S., where they rest on the Lower Old Red sandstone. 


—— 


'PRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ° Ws 


western side of the hills, was at the close of the Lower Devonian period, and pro- 
bably dependent on the elevation of the range which took place about that time ; 
but that the age of the great longitudinal fault on the eastern side of the range was 
subsequent to that of the Lias. 


Some Facts relating to the Hydrography of the St. Lawrence and the Great 
Lakes. By Dr. Horsoert. 


The effects of frosts and thaws during the Canadian winters are very remarkable 
on the rivers, smaller lakes, and bays of the great lakes in the valley of the St. 
Lawrence. One example was given. In the winter of 1861 the writer very care- 
fully examined those effects upon Burlington Bay, at the head of Lake Ontario. 
The ice at the time was about 15 inches thick. Frequent thaws occur during the 
winter, at all of which the ice expands with the rise of temperature. With the 
return of the cold the ice again contracts, but the part which has been shoved upon 
the shore remains stationary, and the ice opens or cracks in parts over deep water. 
During twenty-four hours the ice had expanded 6 feet over a distance of two miles, 
whilst it remained firm on the south side of the bay, carrying with it about 80 feet 
of a wharf, which broke at the centre, whilst some 80 feet nearer the shore remained 
firmly imbedded in the ice, that had not yielded. Similar efiects were produced 
in other places along the same shore. This expansion and contraction of the ice is 
sure to destroy all those bridges and wharfs built upon piles and light spars in the 
lakes and rivers which freeze over; for the larger lakes remain open during the 
winter. The boulders of primitive rocks, which thickly strew the valley of the 
St. Lawrence, are found on one shore of the smaller lakes and rivers to have been 
carried by the action of the ice far away from the water; and whilst those boulders 
often occur so abundantly on one shore as to prevent the traveller landing, he is 
sure to find the other shore quite free from them, 


The Upper Tertiary Fossils at Uddevalla, in Sweden. 
By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, F.RS., F.GS. 


The enormous heaps of fossil shells and barnacles which compose some of the 
hillsides near Uddevalla have for a long time attracted the attention of tourists as 
well as of geologists, and they may be considered one of the wonders of Scandi- 
nayia. In 1747 Linné published an account of his West Goétha journey, which 
contains a list and figures of the fossils found by him at Uddevalla, as well as some 
curious particulars as to the calcination of the shells, the Jiittegryter (or “ giants’ 
pots”), and various other matters which met his observant eye. He enumerated 
and briefly described nine species of fossils. arly in the present century the 
Swedish geologist Hisinger and the French geologist Brongniart severally recorded 
some important facts as to the height of these beds above the level of the sea, and 
the occurrence of barnacles 7 siéu on the gneiss rock, which underlies them, and is 
laid bare in certain places. In the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ for 1835 appeared 
an admirable essay, by Sir Charles Lyell, “ On the proofs of a gradual rising of the 
land in certain parts of Sweden.” His notice of the shell-mounds is full of in- 
terest; but the geographical distribution of the marine Invertebrata had not been 
at that time much studied, and our great geologist stated that at Uddevalla 
“nearly all, perhaps every one, of the species belonged to the German Ocean.” 
The catalogue of fossils from this locality appended to the paper gives twenty-six 
- species; and it shows the laborious research with which the author collected them 
(with some assistance) in the space of a single day. Two years afterwards 
Hisinger published his ‘ Lethzea Suecica,’ and added five species to the list. I am 
not aware that anything more has been made known on this subject beyond a 
casual, although highly important, remark by Professor Lovén, in the Transactions 
of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, that all these fossils are of an 
arctic character; another paper, by the same eminent naturalist, identifying a 
shell from Behring’s Straits (Piliscus commodus, Middendortt) as an Uddevalla 
species; occasional references by Dr. Otto Torell, in his valuable treatise on the 
mollusk-fauna of Spitzbergen, to some of these fossils; and a geological map, 


74 REPORT—1863. 


published last year by Olbers, of the Bohusliin district (within which Uddevalla 
is situate), accompanied by a short explanatory memoir. Professors Sars and 
Kjerulf have lately investigated, with their usual ability and care, the fossils of the 
corresponding formation in the Christiania district. Last year I had an opportunity 
of yisiting the so-called glacial formations both in Sweden and Norway, and of 
examining several collections of fossils from Uddevalla; and I now offer a list of 
the latter, in the hope that it may be useful to geologists. 

The Uddevalla beds which I observed were at Capellbacken and Lilleherstehagen, 
lying about an English mile from Uddevalla and from each other. I was struck with 
the variety of conditions which appears at Capellbacken, and in that place compared 
with the other. At Capellbacken was the solid rock, with Balanus Hameri (now an 
inhabitant of deep water) still attached to it; close by, a raised beach containing 
Littorina litorea, Mytilus edulis, and other littoral shells; and within the distance 
of a few yards lay a confused and thick mass of other shells, some of which (as 
Mya truncata and Pholas crispata) live within tide-marks, while others (as Pecten 
islandicus and species of Astarte) frequent deeper water. This assemblage seemed 
not to be different from the débris which would be cast up on a modern arctic 
beach. Scarcely any of the shells were broken or rubbed. Many specimens of 
Mya truncata and Saxicava arctica were perfect, and had the valves united, although 
the ligaments had disappeared. The Mya was not in situ, as I afterwards saw it 
at Tufve, in the island of Hisingen, near Gottenburg. Several of the species 
which composed the great shell-heap (e.g. Terebratella spitzbergensis, Lepeta ru- 
bella, Cyclostrema costulatum, Mesalia borealis, and Velutina undata) have not been 
found living south of the Arctic circle ; and as most of the other species are also 
inhabitants of high latitudes, it may be safely inferred that all of them existed in a 
climate similar to that of North Greenland or Spitzbergen. One exception, hows 
ever, is so remarkable that I will mention it, although not without considerable 
distrust. It is that of Cyprea hoida,a Mediterranean shell. Mr.'Thorburn showed 
me a specimen which he had found in the pe at Capellbacken: it had 
the semifossilized aspect of the other shells, and exhibited no trace of the bright 
gloss which characterizes fresh or recent specimens of this kind of cowry. 

The formation consisted of several distinct layers, and apparently represented 
many epochs and conditions. Some of the strata were probably elevated, and 
others depressed, at alternate periods and irregular intervals, but hy slow degrees. 
An instance of such a diversified and long-continued movement occurs at Capell- 
backen. There, within half an English mile of the little town of Uddevalla, is a steep 
and winding ravine, down which flows a small stream. The banks on each side are 
formed entirely of shells closely packed together, with but a slight admixture of 
sand. The lowest stratum rests on a rock of gneiss, and consists of a firm bluish 
clay, called by Swedish geologists “fucus-lera.” Dr. Torell informs me that it 
contains Leda (Yoldia) truncata, I did not observe any shells or fossil organisms 
in this bottom layer; but only a small part of it was uncovered, and not being pro- 
vided with workmen or tools, I could not ascertain its thickness. Over it was a 
bed of sandy gravel, with rolled stones or pebbles, containing Mytilus edulis and a 
small form of Saxicava arctica, This bed was about six inches deep and resembled 
araised beach, Judging from the angle at which it dipped, and from the nature 
of the superincumbent layer, I traced it for about 200 yards further up the hill, 
where it cropped out or came to the surface. The third or uppermost layer was 
the compact mass of shells above mentioned, comprising Mya truncata (var. 
uddevallensis), an unusually large and solid form of Saxicava arctica, Buecinum 
grenlandicum, Trophon clathratus (or scalariformis), and various other shells, 
besides innumerable valves of Balanus Hameri, with its operculum and plate of 
attachment. This great layer was from 20 to 30 feet thick in some places; and its 
summit is said to fe about 200 feet above the sea-level: the Swedish foot differs 
from ours in being only three-eighths of an inch less, At Lilleherstehagen, which 
lies about an English mile east of Uddevalla, another extensive deposit is partially 
exposed. Here the upper layer gives a singular result. Mixed with the universal 
Trophon clathratus (which is a high northern species, and found living only within 
the Arctic circle) are many shells of rather a southern type. Such are Ostrea 
edulis, Tapes pullastra,Corbula gibba, and Aporrhats pes-pelicani. All these species, 


, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 75 


however, have been recorded by Sars as inhabiting the coast of Finmark, although 
they are also natives of the Mediterranean. According to Dr. Torell a living 
oyster has never been found in the seas of North Greenland or Spitzbergen. Dr. 
Malm says that Isocardia cor and Tapes decussata (usually regarded as southern 
forms) are fossil in lower deposits at Uddevalla, and that Mytilus edulis and Balanus 
porcatus occur there at a depth of from 70 to 93 feet below the present level of the 
sea. It is pretty clear that all the littoral beds which are now covered by deep- 
water shells must have sunk, and, after receiving fresh loads by the gradual accu- 
mulation of organic remains during successive generations, have been raised to the 
height which they at present occupy. It would be difficult to imagine any cir- 
cumstances under ovhieh Terebratella spitzbergensis could have found its way to the 

- shore. No Brachiopod has ever been known to be cast up by the tide or waves 
on a recent beach. This vast quarry has been worked from the time when Linné 
wrote, and in all probability ever since the land has been cultivated or used by 
civilized man, for making lime and repairing roads; and yet it is very far from 
being exhausted. A few years ago the Ewedeek Government was induced by the 
representations of Professor Lovén to prevent further devastation on the crown of 
the hill at Capellbacken, where Balani may still be seen im situ. Fossils of the 
same arctic character, but to some extent differing in species according to the nature 
of the deposit and other circumstances, occur throughout the south of Sweden. 
Dr. Malm has prepared an elaborate table, showing all the fossils discovered by him 
in no less than seventy-four localities. 

The collections which I examined for the purpose of making out the subjoined 
list were those of Sir Charles Lyell, Messrs. Thorburn, Dr. Malm, Mr. R. D. Darbi- 
shire, and the public museums at Uddevalla and Gottenburg; and I take this 
abe f of expressing my best thanks to the gentlemen above named for their 
liberal and friendly aid. Mr. R. Thorburn was my guide and kind host at Udde- 
valla. I need hardly say that I personally collected some fossils during my visit to 
this remarkable place. My list comprises 97 species: viz. Mollusca 83, Polyzoa 2, 
Cirripedia 4, Echinoderm 1, Annelida 3, Foraminifera 3, Sponge 1. I have no 
doubt that this number might be increased by further investigations. For facility 
of reference, and to please my geological friends, I have again arranged the species 
in alphabetical order, although I cannot help protesting against such an unscientific 
method of classification. 


MOLLUSCA. 
BracHIoPpoDA. 
Species. Synonyms. Remarks. 
1. Terebratella spitzber- Terebratula caput-serpentis, Enumerated b Lyell as 
gensis, Davidson. Misinger. “ Terebratula. 
CoNCHIFERA. 
2. Anomia ephippium, A. squamula, LZ. 
Linné,var. squamula. 
, var.acu- A. aculeata, Z. Fide Malm, 
leata. 
3. Astarte borealis. Venus borealis, Chemnitz. 
Crassina semisulcata, Leach. 
C. arctica, Gray. 
C. corrugata, Brown. 
4, —— compressa. Venus compressa, Montagu. Not V. compressa, L. 
; C. striata, His. 
5. crebricostata, C. depressa, Br. 
Forbes. 
6. —— sulcata, var. el- Venus compressa, L. 
liptica. V. sulcata, Da Costa. 


C. elliptica, Br. 
C. scotica, His. 
A. semisulcata, Lovén.. 


76 


Species. 


. Axinus flexuosus, var. 


. Cardium edule, LZ. 


exiguum, Gmelin: 
fasciatum, Mont. 


. Corbula gibba. 


. Cyprina islandica. 
. Leda arctica. 


. —— minuta. 

. —— pernula, var. 
. —— pygmea, var. 
. Lucina borealis. 

. Lucinopsis undata. 


. Modiolaria discors. 


. Mya arenaria, L. 


truncata, L., 
yar. uddevallensis. 


. Mytilus edulis, Z. 


modiolus, LZ. 


. Nucula tenuis. 
. Ostrea edulis, L. 
. Pecten islandicus, 


Mill. 
septemradiatus, 
Miill. 


. Pholas crispata, L. 
. Psammobia tellinella, 


Lam. 


, Saxicayva arctica. 


. Scrobicularia alba. 


. Tapes decussatus. 


pullastra. 


. Tellina balthica, LZ. 


calcarea, Ch. 


REPORT—1863. 


CoNCHIFERA (continued). 
Synonyms. 

Tellina flexuosa, Mont. 

Axinus Sarsii, Lov. 


Tellina gibba, Oliv. 

Mya inequivalvis, Mont. 

C. nucleus, Lamarck. 

Venus islandica, L. 

Nucula arctica, Gray. 

Arca truncata, Br. 

A. glacialis, Gray (Wood's 
Suppl.). 

N. portlandica, Hitchcock. 

A. minuta, Diller. 

A. caudata, Donovan. 

A. pernula, Miill. 

L. macilenta, Steenstrup. 

A. pygma, v. Minster. 

N. lenticula, Moller. 

Venus borealis, LZ. 

V. undata, Pennant. 

Mytilus discors, Z. 

Modiola barbata, Lyell. 


Modiola papuana, Zam, 
M. vulgaris, Fleming. 
Arca tenuis, Dont. 


P. danicus, Ch. 


Mya arctica, Z. 

M. byssifera, Fabr. 

S. groenlandica, Potiez § Mi- 
chaud. 


Mactra alba, W. Wood. 
Venus decussata, L. 


Venus pullastra, Z. 

T. solidula, Pulteney. 

T. lata, Gm. 

T. sabulosa, Spengler. 

T. triangularis, ( Wahklenb.) 
Lyell. 

T. planata, His. 

T. proxima, Br. 


Remarks. 


Merging into the variety 
rustica. 

Lilleherstehagen. 

40 feet below the pre- 
sent sea-level (Malm), 

Lilleherstehagen. 


Not A. glacialis, Gray 
(Parry’s Voyage). 


Lilleherstehagen. 


Malm. 
Lilleherstehagen. 
Kuréd (Malm). 


Malm. 


Principally var. udde- 
vallensis. 


40 feet above sea-level 
(Malm). 

50 feet above sea-level 
(Malm). 


Psammobia sordida, Couthouy. 


36. 


37. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 


Species. 
Teredo nana, Turton, 


Thracia papyracea. 


, var, villo- 
sluscula, 


. Aporrhais pes-pelicani. 
. Buccinum greenlan- 


dicum, Ch. 


. —— undatum, Z. 
. Cerithiopsis costulata. 


Cerithium reticula- 
tum. 

Chiton marmoreus, 
Fabr. 

Cyclostrema costula- 


tum. 
Cyprea lurida, Zam. 
Fusus antiquus, var. 
latericeus, D£6il. 


— Turtoni, Beun. 


. Lacuna divaricata. 


. Lepeta czeca. 


. — rubella. 
. Littorina litoralis, 


litorea. 
rudis. 


. Manegelia violacea, 


Mighel § Adams, 


. —— pyramidalis, 


— Trevelyana. 


turricula. 
Margarita groenlan- 
dica, var. 


ConcHIFERA (continued). 
Synonyms. 

Pholas teredo, Fabr. 

T. denticulata, Gray. 

T. megotara, Forbes & 
Hanley. 

T. dilatata, Stimpson. 

Tellina papyracea, Polt. 

Amphidesma phaseolina, 
Lam. 

Anatina villosiuscula, Mac- 
gulivray. 


GASTEROPODA. 


Strombus pes-pelicani, L. 
B. undatum, Fuér. 

B. boreale, Brug. 

B. anglicanum, His. 

B. cyaneum, Leach, 

B, tenebrosum, Hancock. 


Turritella costulata, AZoil. 

Cerithium niveum, Jeffr. 

C. arcticum, Morch. 

C. metula, Malm. 

Strombiformis reticulatus, 
Da C. 


Margarita ? costulata, M6. 


eee ee nnee eenrerne 


Murex antiquus, Z. 
F. corneus, Lyell. 
Tritonium incarnatum, Sars, 


Turbo divaricatus, Fubr. 
T. vinctus, Mont. 
Patella czeca, Mill. 

P. Clelandi, Zyeil. 

P. cerea, Moll. 

P. candida, Couth. 

P, rubella, Fadr. 

Nerita litoralis, Z. 
Turbo litoreus, Z. 

T. rudis, Mont. 
Defrancia cylindracea, Mil, 


Buccinum pyramidale, Strém. 


Defrancia Vahlii, (Beck) Moil. 
Fusus pleurotomarius, Couwth. 


77 


Remarks. 


Anatina myalis, Lam., 
in Lyell’s list. 


Malm. 


Lilleherstehagen. 


Not C. metula, Loy. 


Malm. 


Doubtful. 
Not Murex corneus, L, 


A variety approaching 
in shape £. norve- 
gicus, 

40 feet above sea-level 
(Malm), 


The P. Clelandi of Sow- 
erby is Tectura testu- 
dinalis, 


Lilleherstehagen. 


Malm, 


Pleurotoma Trevillianum, Turt, 


P. reticulata, Br. 

Murex turricula, Mont. 

Turbo greenlandicus, Ch. 

Margarita undulata, Sowerby 
& Broderip. 

M. carnea, &, TZ. Lowe. 


78 


Species. 
60. Margarita helicina. 


61. striata, Brod. § 
Sow. 

62. sulcata, G. B. 
Sowerby, jun. 


63. Mesalia? borealis. 


64. Nassa incrassata. 


65. reticulata, 
66. Natica affinis. 


67. pallida, Brod. 
Sow. 
68. —— islandica. 


69, Odostomia albella. 
70. Patella vulgata, Z. 


71. Puncturella noachina. 


72, Piliscus commodus, 
Lov. 


73. Rissoa castanea,(var.) 
Mi 


oll. 
74, inconspicua, 
(var.) Alder. 
75. labiosa, var, 
76. parva, var. 
ite ulye. 


78. Tectura virginea. 


REPORT—1863. 


GaAsTEROPODA (continued). 


Synonyms. 
Turbo helicinus, Fabr, 
T. margarita, Mont. 
M. vulgaris, Leach, 
M. cinerea, Couth. 
M. sordida, Hane. 
M. argentata, Gould. 
M. glauca, Moll. 
M. Harrisoni, Hane. 
Turritella, Lyell. 
Scalaria borealis, Beck. 
S. Eschrichti, (Holbdil) 

Méil. 
S. undulata, Sow. 
Buccinum incrassatum, 
Strém. 

B. macula, Mont. 
B. coccinella, Zam. 
B. ascanias, Philippi. 
B. reticulatum, Z. 
Nerita affinis, Gm. 
Natica glaucina, His. 
N. clausa, Brod. & Sow. 
N. consolidata, Couth. 
N. septentrionalis, Beck. 
N. greenlandica, Beck, 
N. lactea, (Zov.) Ph. 
N. livida, Hanley. 
N. pusilla, Ford. § Hani. 
Nerita islandica, Gm. 
Littorina ?, Lyell. 


Natica helicoides, Johnston. 


N. canaliculata, Gould. 
Turbonilla albella, Lov. 


O. rissoides, var., Forb. § 


Hani. 
Patella noachina, Z. 
P. fissurella, Mill. 
Fissurella greeca, His. 


Cemoria Flemingii, Leach. 


Sipho striata, Br. 
Pileopsis ungaricus, His. 


Pilidium commodum, Mid- 


dendorff. 


Capulus Pax (and perhaps 
, obliquus as the adult 


state), S. Wood. 
R. exarata, Stumps. 
R. scrobiculata, Malm. 
R. albella, Lov. 


a ey Mont. 


si ie ryus, J 

althica, ‘Nilsson. 
Darko ulvee, Penn. 
Patella virginea, Dill. 
P, parva, Da. 


Remarks. 


AO feet above sea-level 
(Malm). 


Lilleherstehagen. 
Not Nerita glaucina, L. 


Not Natica pusilla, Say. 


40 feet above sea-level 
(Malm). 


Hisinger and Malm. 


Not Patella greea, L. 


Not Patella ungarica, L. 


Not R. scrobiculata, 
Moll. 


50 feet above sea-level 
(Malm). 


Malm. 


79. 


80. 


88. 
89. 


; Rotal 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 


Species. 
Trichotropis carinata, 


Trophon clathratus. 


truncatus, 


. Velutina haliotoidea. 


undata. 


. Lepralia Landshbo- 


royii, (var.) Johnst. 
variolosa, (var.) 
Johnst. 


. Balanus crenatus, 


Bruguiére. 


. — Hameri. 


porcatus, Da C. 
Verruca Strémia, Mil, 


. Echinus droébachi- 


ensis, Mill. 


. Serpula norvegica, 


Gunnerus. 


. —— vermicularis, Z. 


spirorbis, Z. 


. Miliola oblonga. 


egos Lam. 
ia Beccarii. 


. Cliona celata, Grant. 


GASTEROPODA (continued). 


Synonyms. 
Murex carinatus, Laskey. 
T. borealis, Brod. § Sow. 
Fusus umbilicatus, Br. 
T. acuminata, Jeffr. 
T. atlantica, (Beck) Moll. 
T. costellatus, Couth. 
Murex clathratus, Z. 
M. Rumphius, (Jont.) 

Lyell, 

T, costatum, His. 
Fusus peruvianus, Sow. 
F. scalariformis, Gould. 
Buccinum truncatum, Strém, 
M. bamfttius, Don. 
Helix haliotoidea, Fubr. 
Bulla velutina, Miiil. 
H. levigata, Mont. 
Galericulum undatum, Br, 
V. zonata, Gould. 


POLYZOA. 


ee 


re ee 


Lepas Balanus uddeval- 
lensis, Z, 

L. Hameri, Ascanius. 

L. tulipa alba, Ch. 

B. tintinnabulum, His, 

B. sulcatus, Lyell. 


ECHINODERM. 


E. saxatilis, His, 
E. neglectus, Forbes, 


ANNELIDA. 


ee ee | 


Tere eres eeresenn 


FORAMINIFERA. 
Serpula oblonga, LZ, 


Nautilus Beccarii, L, 


SPONGE. 


ee ry 


79 


Remarks, 


Darbishire, 
Darbishire. 


Darbishire. 


Not Lepas tintinnabu- 
lum, L. 


Not £, saxatilis, Mill, 


Malm. 


Darbishire. 
Darbishire. 


Darbishire. 


80 REPORT—1863. 


A Synopsis of the Bivalved Entomostraca of the Carboniferous Strata of Great 
Britain and Ireland. By Professor T. Rurrrr Jonus, F.G.S., and J. W. 
Krirxsy. 

After a review of what former observers have published on the Bivalved Entomos- 
traca of the Carboniferous formations, the authors proceeded to point out—Ist, a 
few rather doubtful Cyprides or Candone, from the Coal-measures, 2ndly, Cytheres, 
of which there are about eight species, chiefly from the Coal-measures. 3rdly, 
Bardia, about eight species, mostly from the Mountain-limestone and its shales. 
Athly, Cypridinide, comprising Cypridina, Cypridella, Cyprella, Entomoconchus, and 
Cytherella, from the Mountain-limestone: a fine collection of these rare forms from 
Little Island, Cork, liberally placed at Messrs. Jones and Kirkby’s disposal by 
Mr. Joseph Wright, well elucidate the relationships of these hitherto obscure 
genera and their species. 5thly, Leperditide, comprising Leperditia (to which genus 
belong the so-called Cypris Scotoburdigalensis, C. inflata, C. subrecta, Cythere tn- 
ornata, and others, many of them dwarf varieties of one species, and mostly belong- 
ing to the Mountain-limestone series) ; Zntomis (Mountain-limestone), Devonian 
and Carboniferous forms of which have been mistaken for Cypridine; Beyrichie 
(from nearly all parts of the Carboniferous system), several species, of which 
B. arcuata, Bean, sp., is the most common; and Kirkbye, somewhat rare, and 
chiefly from the Mountain-limestone series. 

Leperditia and Beyrichia are also Silurian and Devonian genera; they do not 
appear to pass upwards into the Permian formation. Bairdia and Kirkbya occur 
first in the Carboniferous and reappear in the Permian deposits, even in the same 
specific forms; and Bairdia has been freely represented in Secondary and Tertiary 
deposits, and exists at present. Of the Cypridinide under notice, Cypridella, 
Cyprella, and Entomoconchus appear to be confined to the Mountain-limestone ; 
Cypridina occurs in the Permian, and, with Cytherella, is found in Secondary and 
Tertiary rocks and in the existing seas. Entomis is a Silurian and Devonian 
genus, especially characterizing the so-called Cypridinen-Schiefer of Germany. 


Notes on some Fossil and Recent Foraminifera, collected in Jamaica by the 
late Lucas Barrett, F.G.S. By Professor T. Rurerr Jonzs, F.G.S., and 
W. K. Parxer. 


In 1862 Mr. L. Barrett, F.G.S., late Director of the Geological Survey of the 
West Indies, gave Messrs. Jones and Parker some fossil and recent Foraminifera 
from Jamaica, comprising a few new forms,—some that were previously but little 
known, and some in finer condition of growth than usual. The recent specimens, 
from their ascertained habitats, illustrate to some extent the conditions under which 
the fossil forms were deposited. 

One sample of the Fossil Jamaican Foraminifera consisted of several specimens 
of Amphistegina vulgaris; and another, of a few of the same species, with one Zea- 
tularia Barrettit (a new variety of Textularia). No locality nor geological horizon 
was indicated for these. A third sample, from “South Hall Cliff,” consisted of 
two large specimens of Vaginulina legumen. Fourthly, a much larger series of 
Foraminifera from the “Pteropod-marl” of Jamaica affords Nodosaria Raphanistrum, 
Dentalina acicula, Vaginulina striata, Frondicularia complanata, Cristellaria calear, 
C. cultrata, C. rotulata, C. Italica, Orbitolina vesicularis, Bulimina ovata, Cuneolina 
pavonia, Vertebralina striata, and Lituola Soldanii, These, however, can be regarded 
only as an incomplete Rhizopodal fauna. 

From the Recent Foraminifera dredged by the late Mr. Barrett from different 
sea-zones, between 15 and 250 fathoms, on the Jamaican coast, we learn that Am- 
phistegina vulgaris, Textularia Barrettii, Dentalina acicula, Frondicularia complanata, 
Cristellarie, and Lituola Soldanii indicate at least 100 fathoms, and probably more, 
as the depth at which the Pteropod-marl and the Amphistegina-beds were de- 
posited in that region. Pteropods are found in some sea-muds at similar depths, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 81 


On certain Markings on some of the Bones-of a Megaceros hibernicus lately 
found in Ireland. By J. Bure Juxes, F.RS., F.GS. 


Part of the skeleton of a Megaceros having been procured by Mr. F. J. Foot, of 
the Geological Survey, from some men who were digging turf in a bog at Legan, 
south of Edeworthstown, co. Longford, two of the bones and a broken tine of one 
of the horns were found to exhibit deep cuts as if made with a Imife. A femur 
showed a narrow transverse cut, 4 inches long and 3 an inch deep. A tibia had a 
wider and shallower indentation, and one exactly corresponding to it was found in 
the broken horn-tine. When put together, these accurately fitted into each other; 
and certain mineral stainings existed on the surfaces of both, of precisely similar 
shape, showing that the surfaces had long been in perfectly close contact. 

Mr. Jukes suggested that these indentations might have been produced by the 
mutual pressure of the two bodies lying in the marl beneath the bog for a long 
period of time. 

According to Mr. Foot’s statement, they lay in about 2 feet of shell-marl resting on 
gravel and clay, and covered by 15 feet of turf; and some of the old men of the 
neighbourhood said that 25 feet of turf had been formerly removed from the bog. 

Mr. Jukes suggested also the possibility of the narrow transverse cut across the 
femur haying been in like manner produced by the pressure of the sharp edge of a 
piece of antler; and wished to point out the great caution required before appealing 
to any mere marks or cuts on fossil bones as undoubted proofs of human agency. 

He also called attention to the very fresh state of the bones, which had been 
analysed by his friend M. Alphonse Gages and found to consist of 


Inorganic matter (carbonate and phosphate of lime) ,,....., 58°58 
Organic matter (cartilaginous, Kc.) sess. reeeee single as ahasiep Shree 


100:00 
with a density of 1:788, The bone examined was one of the ribs, 


On the Neanderthal Skull, or Reasons for believing it to belong to the Clydian 
Period, and to a Species different from that represented by Man, By Prof. 
W. Kine. 


The evidences for the first proposition involved in the above title were based on 
Lyell’s description of the Neanderthal cave, which, in Prof. King’s opinion, occurs, 
with one or two negative exceptions, under the same ancient physical-geography 
conditions as the caverns of the Meuse valley. If the latter became charged with 
their organic and inorganic contents during the Clydian period *, as must be ad- 
mitted, it was contended that the Neanderthal infilling belonged to the same great 
term of geological time, though possibly to its latest division—that of the “ Men- 
checourt low-level flint-implement gravels” ft. 

In upholding his second proposition, the author first examined the general 
features of the Neanderthal skull, and showed that, in this point of view, it dif- 
fered widely from all human crania, either recent or fossil. An examination of 
the individual bones of the skull led to the same conclusion; their form and con- 
tours, as well as the relative position of their component parts, were shown to be 
abnormal to man, but normal to the ape. Indeed, so closely does the Neanderthal 
skull resemble that of the young Chimpanzee, figured by Busk in the ‘ Nat. Hist. 
Rey.’ for 1861, as almost to lead to the belief that it does not belong to the 
human genus: it was admitted, however, that, in the absence of the facial and 
basal bones, this would be little more than a mere assumption. 

Prof. King, noticing next the psychical endowments of man, asserted that they 
are visibly expressed in the strongly arched form of his cranium—a feature which, 
though much debased in certain races, characterizes the whole human species. 


* In the last edition (5th) of his ‘Synoptical Table of Aqueous Rock Groups,’ the 
author proposed the name Clydian for the Glacial period. 

t See the author's “Attempt to Correlate the Glacial and Postglacial Deposits of the 
wis (57 plea &e., in ‘ The Geologist,’ 1863, pp. 168-178, 

1863. 6 


82 REPORT—18638, 


The Australians and Andamaners possess the dimmest conceptions of their own 
moral obligations and of the existence of a Godhead—psychical endowments of a 
lower grade it is difficult to conceive can exist; nevertheless the author believes 
them to be essentially human: moreover, the brain-case of these races conforms to 
the highest cranial type of our species. But considering that the Neanderthal skull 
offers only approximate resemblances to that of man, that it more closely agrees 
with the cranial type of the Chimpanzee—a creature whose faculties are unimproy- 
able, incapable of moral or theosebic conceptions—Prof. King feels himself con- 
strained to believe that the thoughts and feelings which once dwelt within it never 
soared above those of the brute. 

Thus the author is led to regard the Neanderthal skull as belonging to a creature 
cranially and psychically different from man; and he proposes to distinguish the 
species iy the name of Homo Neanderthalensis. 


On some Fossil Fishes from the Permian Limestone of Fulwell, near Sunder- 
land, By J. W. Kirxsy, 


The object of the paper was to record the discovery of fish-remains in the Upper 
Magnesian Limestone of the Permian formation, the discovery being of interest 
especially on account of the remains having been found at a horizon considerably 
higher in the Permian series than any vertebrate remains had been previously 
known to occur. The fossils were first noticed in August 1861, in a newly opened 
quarry, belonging to Sir Hedworth Williamson, Bart., at Fulwell, a mile and a half 
to the north of Sunderland. The quarry is in the northern slope of the hill, and is 
not far from another and older quarry. In these quarries the magnesian limestone 
is largely worked for lime-buning, as it had been in the older quarry for the last 
sixty years, during which time no traces of any organic remains had been found. 
In working the lower and inferior strata, in order to keep the new quarry at its 
proper level, the great bulk of the fossil fish were discovered. Most of them are 
found in one bed, or zone of beds, of limestone, there nevertheless being several 
instances of their occurrence both aboye and below. A similar discovery was 
afterwards made in the equivalent strata of the old quarry. The same fish-bed also 
appeared to extend considerably to the north-east—the half-tail of a small fish 
having been obtained from a stratum of limestone in Marsden Bay. The fossils 
appeared almost invariably to have belonged to perfect individuals. At least, the 
entire dermoskeleton, fins, and bones of the head seemed to have been unimpaired 
up to the period of deposition, egret there were instances of distortion by sub- 
sequent compression, A pair of individuals were sometimes found together, but 
the specimens were usually isolated and comparatively rare, Fully nine-tenths of 
the specimens found belonged to a single species of Palgoniscus. The remainder 
belonged probably to two or three species of the same genus and to a species of 
Acrolepis. The Pale@onisci were small, the largest being a little over 4 inches in 
length. The Acrolepis seemed to have sMomet a length of 12 inches, Associated 
with the fish-remains there had also occurred, rarely, some fragments of plants. 
These, though imperfectly preserved, appeared to be referable to three species, one 
of which was a Calamite, another an Ulimannia caulerpa, and the third was a large 
reed-like form, whose generic relations were difficult to determine from the dis- 
covered fragments. These were the only fossils that had been met with along with 
the fish, These fish-bearing strata were 150 feet from the top of the Upper Lime- 
stone. The discovery carried the Permian Vertebrata from the lower beds of the 
Permian series of Durham high into the upper, and near enough to the Trias to 
give to their occurrence, perhaps, more than usual interest. To the paper were 
appended descriptions of the species. 


On the Coal-measwres of Sydney, Cape Breton. By J. P. Lestey, 


On the Discovery of Rock-salt in the New Red Sandstone at Middlesbrough. 
By Joun Martey. 


The fresh-water requirements of Messrs, Bolckow and Vaughan in connexion 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83 


with their iron-works at Middlesbrough being very large, they commenced, about 
four years ago, to sink a well or shaft for fresh water. The shaft was carried to 
the aan of 180 feet. The supply of fresh water being still not considered sufii- 
cient, a very large bore-hole was, about a year ago, commenced from the bottom of 
the shaft. A bore of 18 inches diameter has been put down to the present extreme 
depth of 1312 feet. The strata bored through form part of the pper New Red 
Sandstone or Trias formation, the same as those in which the deposits of rock-salt 
of Cheshire occur. The rock-salt was first pierced at a depth of 1206 feet, and 
has been found to form a bed 99 feet in thickness. This bed terminates in a sort 
of conglomerate, consisting apparently of salt and limestdne mixed together. 

The quantity and quality of the brine have yot yet been fully tested, but the 
following is an analysis of a sample from the yery light-coloured portion of the 


ed = 


Per cent, 
Chiondé-of sodium: ~' {5 oe keh none 
Siphate of WMG: .. iisigauerstehad Maaiida kes Bron 
Sulphate of magnesia .. ., .. ».. «.. «,. 0:08 
Euiphste of cds. ., cc. ¢eiceal qibiieelitaieetees Le 
SELIG a «an ua, kile ae 0:06 
PIS Of TOR. cans os Stn oe ae Ass 
WTOISUUNG . 5-5 mclaie’ ms Epuedtban, HALT ee MLL 

100-00 


It is as yet impossible to estimate the extent or area of this deposit. On the 
north we have, at Castle Eden Colliery, the coal-measures overlain by the Per- 
mian; and at Oughton boring, nearer to the Tees, the Trias has been bored into 
about 500 feet ; the Hutton coal-seam, at Castle Eden Colliery, being about 750 
feet below the sea-level, and the salt at Middlesbrough about 1250 feet. On the 
south side of the Tees the Lower Lias is soon met with, and capped by the Upper 
Tips gad Oolitic measures. These measures dip both to the south and north from 
the Tees. 


On the Equivalents of the Cleveland Tronstones in the West of England, 
By Cuarves Moore, F.GS, 


These rocks, with their contained ironstone bands, had been traced by the author 
from Lyme Regis to Yeovil and Bath. In mineral wealth they formed a marked 
contrast to those in the north of England; for where the ore was rich enough to 
work, it was not thick enough, and vice versd. 


On the Organic Contents of the Lead Veins of Allenheads, and other Lead 
Vems of Yorkshire, By Cuartes Moors, F.GS, 


The author, having in former papers called attention to the orgemisms he had 
met with in the mineral veins which traverse the carboniferous limestones of the west 
of England, had of late subjected those of Yorkshire to the same scrutiny. In 
certain veins and fissures in these he had detected numerous organic remains, washed 
into them by the action of later seas. The most remarkable of these was that of 
the New Rake vein, the clayey infilling of which was found to contain abundance 
of “ Conodonts ”—the small tooth- and comb-like bodies hitherto found only in the 
Upper Silurian bone-beds, which Dr. Pander had described as fish-teeth, but which 
Dr. Harley has since established to be of crustacean origin. 


Observations of Sir R. I. Murcutson upon the Permian Group of the North- 
west of England, in communicating the outline of a Memoir thereon by 
Prof. R. Harknuss and himself. 


The Permian rocks, or youngest Paleozoic deposits, which form a natural group 
characterized by community of animal and vegetable life, occur in various parts of 
6* 


84 REPORT—1863. 


Europe. He (Sir R. 1. Murchison) had applied to them the term Permian in 
1841, and, before that time, this group had no collective name. His reason for 
proposing this name was, that he had found in Russia the stratigraphical and 
fossil characteristics of the formation spread over a country much larger than 
France, around the former kingdom of Permia. In the north-west of England 
there was a remarkable display of rocks, consisting of sandstones and breccias, 
which were, gradually and conformably, linked together with the magnesian 
limestone or its equivalent. The lower portion of the deposit, over a large central 
portion of England, was formerly called the Lower Red Sandstone, the equivalent 
of the Rothliegende of Germany. The chief fossiliferous member of these deposits 
was, in the first instance, admirably described by Professor Sedgwick, in his well- 
known memoir on the magnesian limestone; but that author had not connected 
the Red Sandstones of St. Bee’s Head, Corby, &c., with that magnesian limestone, 
but had left them in the New Red Sandstone. In Germany, Sir R. Murchison had 
asserted that overlying sandstones, superposed on the magnesian limestone, formed 
the upper part of the group; and he showed that in typical sections this mass of 
sandstones accorded with and’ passed down into the equivalent of the magnesian 
limestone, and was separated from the Bunter sandstone of the Trias. 

He was now well pleased to find, from the labours of Mr. Binney, followed by 
those of Professor Harkness, and confirmed by his recent survey of the rocks, that 
in reality the north-west of England offered a complete confirmation of the tri- 
partite arrangement of the Permian group. 

Thus, if several of the small brooks in the Vale of Eden be ascended from west 
to east, especially that called Hilton Beck, a succession of beds of dolomitic 
breccia is seen to overlie the enormous mass of the lower portion of this great 
proup, or the Penrith Sandstone. Many of the details have been before explained 

y Professor Harkness; but he now called particular attention to the value of the 
recent discovery by his colleague of certain plants in the centre of the grou 
which were absolutely identical with well-known Permian plants elsewhere, an 
wholly distinct from the carboniferous flora. 

Above the limestone and dolomitic breccias came a series of shales or marls, as- 
sociated with impure magnesian limestone. These passed conformably, and with- 
out any break, into the upper sandstone. He was sure Mr. Binney would sustain 
what he had said in reference to this group being in that district a great Upper 
Paleozoic Trias. 

Again, St. Bee’s Head exhibited a thin but instructive portion of the Roth- 
liegende, or Lower Red Sandstone. There the breccia was deposited unconformably 
on the surface of the carboniferous sandstone, which was eroded in a most irregular 
manner, the breccia entering into all the sinuosities of the lower rock, and show- 
ing a complete physical break between the coal-measures and the superjacent Per- 
mian strata. Many other English localities offered, indeed, instances of the total 
separation of the carboniferous deposits, and proved that the Permian was a newer 
and distinct series, in which breccia entered into the eroded cavities of the water- 
worn rock. This lower breccia is the representative of the yellow sandstone of 
Durham, underlying the magnesian limestone occurring near Sunderland and along 
the coast of Hartlepool. 

He would now say a word on a point of importance to gentlemen living in 
mining districts. Hitherto it had been unknown that the Lower Red Sandstone, 
or Rothliegende, afforded any valuable mineral substance; and, up to this time, 
geologists had remained unacquainted with the age of one of the most valuable of 
our ores, the hematite or kidney iron-ore of Cumberland and Lancashire. This 
hematite occurs in cavities of the mountain limestone; and it had often been asked, 
to what age are we to attribute these great infillings? At one time they were 
referred to a Tertiary period ; but Professor Phillips suggested that they were pro- 
bably connected with the series called Permian. 

On this occasion, he (Sir R. I. Murchison) had to announce the discovery of a 
locality in Furness where the hematite was discovered to be in direct connexion 
with the Permian lower breccia, the “crab rock” of the natives. It was also 
found that this hematite had been frequently worked out by old workmen from 
cavities under the breccia, thus affording proofs of the value of the suggestion ot 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 85 


Professor Phillips. This discovery, in enriching the Permian group of England, 
showed that at the period remarkable in Germany for the eruption of much igneous 
matter, and very great changes, the era was rife in our country in the elaboration of 
one of our richest ores. 

On the part of Professor Harkness and himself, Sir R. I. Murchison concluded 
by stating that one of the main objects was to show that large masses of red sand- 
stones, in Westmoreland and Cumberland, which overlie the magnesian limestone 
or its equivalent, and which, up to this time, have been viewed as New Red Sand- 
stone, must henceforth be classed as Permian; thereby involving a considerable 
change in all pre-existing geological maps. 


On the Chronological Value of the Triassic Rocks of Devonshire. 
By W. Prncetty, F.R.S, 


On the Drift Beds of Mundesley, Norfolk. By Prof. Parties, /.R.S. 


During his surveys of the Yorkshire coast previous to 1829, the attention of the 
author had been specially directed to the succession of the later Ceenozoic deposits, 
and, as a general result, he presented in the first volume of the ‘Geology of Works 
shire,’ published in that year, a series of deposits, the earliest being ossiferous 
gravels below the boulder-clay, the later being gravels and lacustrine deposits, 
also ossiferous, above that clay. In the same year Sir C. Lyell informed him 
of the proofs which he had collected of the “forest-bed” of the Norfolk coast 
being subjacent to the boulder-clay. To meet these facts by a distinct classifica- 
tion, and others of great exactness collected by Prestwich, Austen, Morris, and 
others, the author employed, in 1853 *, the terms “ preglacial” and “ postglacial,” 
in addition to and limiting the term “ glacial,” which had begun to be generally 
used. 

Having examined in the present year the sections on the Norfolk coast, Prof. 
Phillips was able to measure the thicknesses, so as to be convinced that the total 
above the chalk fell short of 400 feet; that, excepting the cases ascertained by 
Mr. King of bivalve shells in their natural position, no facts of importance ap- 
peared which required or even suggested an immensity of time for their occur- 
rence; and that littoral and estuary agitation of water, rather than any consider- 
able movements upward and downward, were indicated as agencies for the pre- 
glacial gravels, sands, loams, and “forest-bed.” The author was strongly im- 
pressed by the want of any real separation between the “ Norfolk” rather than 
“Norwich” Crag and the other laminated shelly deposits which are subjacent to 
the boulder-clay. The organic remains appear to be not at all opposed to this 
view ; and by adopting one general title for all these beds, immediately above the 
chalk, in the Norfolk and Yorkshire sections, and treating them as deposits of one 
varied series of local effects, with but slight changes of level, there is reason to 
think that a wider basis may be obtained for reasoning on the physical conditions of 
the “ Preglacial ” period. 


On the Deposit of the Gravel, Sand, and Loam with Flint Implements at 
St. Acheul. By Prof. Puirups, PAS, 


A recent visit paid by the author to the gravels of the Somme valley had led 
him to believe that insufficient notice had been taken, in the scheme drawn out 
to determine their age, of those phenomena of river action which would tend to 
change the relative positions of the gravel-layers, and that the general lay or posi- 
tion of the beds composing the deposit had not been enough allowed for in reason- 
ing on the agencies concerned. ‘The materials of the deposit were such as could 
be best accounted for by supposing inundations from melting snows or heavy rains 
on an uncultivated surface like that of the adjoining hills,—rounded pebbles and 
hard sandstones from the tertiary beds; rough flints from the chalk; sands and 
loams, with small flint chippings, from the general surface. The small land and 
freshwater shells associated with the sands above and mixed with the gravel, 


* ¢ Rivers, Mountains, and Sea-coast of Yorkshire,’ 


86 REPORT—1863. 


agree with such an origin better than with the supposition of their hanes a cin 
lated in a lake—for which, indeed, no sufficient evidence appears of any kind. 

Assuming, then, a fluviatile action for the arrangement of the deposit, it is first 
to be remarked that, neither by the abundance of water-shells nor the aspect of the 
beds does any presumption arise of long-elapsed time during their accumulation. 
Secondly, it cannot be doubted that the flint implements are of the age of the 
gravel beds—that is, the age of their latest disturbance; for it is a well-known 
fact, of frequent occurrence, that an old fluviatile deposit of gravel, sand, and loam 
is disturbed by even a gentle stream in time of flood, removed and rearranged in 
the same order in a new situation, and that thus broad areas of recomposed de- 
posit are annually increasing. During such changes, objects like the flint “ haches” 
would be often plunged to the bottom, after having been lying on tle top, and 
may thus be found little worn among objects which may have experienced longer 
agitation and “ frottement.” 

But the age of this gravel is not necessarily so very great as it must be if the beds 
were deposited at the high level which they hold, and the valley subsequently 
excavated by the river. This probably did not happen; the beds are not level— 
they slope towards the river 1°, 13°, 2°, and 23°; this slope proves them to have 
been angularly elevated; and, by examining other sections in the same valley, it 
appeared to the author that the line of the Somme is marked out by a fault, and 
that other angular movements of the same kind in modern geological times have 
marked out the other exactly parallel valleys on each side of the Somme, between 
the well-known anticlinal axes of Boulogne and the Pays de Brai. The author is 
disposed to accept as probable the contemporaneity in Picardy of the “ flint- 
kmappers” and the extinct Rhinoceros, but to refuse to the deposit proof of more 
than a few thousand years of antiquity. 


On the Recent Discovery of Gold near Bala Lake, Merionethshire, 
By T, A. Reapwin, £.G.8, 


The discoveries of gold in Merionethshire have of late been rather frequent. In 
some instances the appearances have been of such a character as to justify expecta- 
tions of profitable results. Last year the author enumerated the gold localities of 
the neighbourhood of Dolgelly ; now he noticed a recent discovery of gold near the 
beautiful lake of Bala (Ziyn Tegid). About five miles from Bala, on the north- 
west side of the turnpike-road leading to Dolgelly, and about two miles from the 
village of Llanuwchllyn, nearly opposite the western end of the lake, is a prominent 
hill, known as Castell Carn Dochan. At the top of this hill are the ruins of a castle 
of the olden time, and at the foot of the hill runs the swift little river Lew (Avon 
Lew) on its course to the lake. Geologically, the district is similar to the “ Dol- 
gelly Gold District,” namely, the Lower Silurian rocks penetrated by large bosses 
of greenstone. The Maps of the Geological Survey, LXXIV. S.W. and LXXYV., 
S.E., show a continuation of rocks to this spot, in a north-easterly direction, of 
precisely the same character as at Cwmheisian, Dolfrwynog, Cefn Coch, Tyddyn- 
glwadis, &c., a distance of six or seven miles. At Castell Carn Dochan Mine there 
is a very remarkable auriferous quartzose lode. It runs nearly N.E. and 8.W., 
and has a dip to the south. This lode is exposed to view for about twelve fathoms, 
showing gold in specks nearly the whole distance. The lode-stuff is for the most 
er free from sulphurets of lead, zinc, and copper. Occasionally metallic gold is 

ound richer than a large specimen which was exhibited. The quartz has a differ- 
ent appearance from that at Clogau and Dolfrwynog, and resembles more closely 
that at Clunes in Australia. Some boulders of quartz weighing from 2 to 4 ewt, 
have been broken up and found to contain visible gold throughout. The largest 
boulder had been built into a wall, near the spot where it had fallen, The upper 
fa an of the lode appears to have slipped over the lower and down the face of the 

ill, leaving behind it a record of where it had been in characters of gold. Many 
tons weight of this lode-stuff have been collected, some of which has yielded gold 
at the rate of 18 oz. to the ton. It is interesting to notice large loose masses of 
greenstone lying about, having upon them incrustations of quartz, spangled with 
particles of gold. The débris, of witli there is a considerable quantity, yields gold 


eo 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87 


of equal value with the lode-stuff. Specimens of quartz have been found showing 
gold as rich as any that has been found at Clogau, where £32,000 has been realized 

om the gold-produce of less than 1300 tons—a result, he believed, unparalleled in 
the world’s history of gold-quartz mining. Operations have been commenced at 
the mine, by driving an adit into the face of the hill to cut the lode at a depth of 
about 20 fathoms. This level has been driven to within six feet of the lode, which, 
if found as rich at that depth as the sample exhibited, very probably may give as 
satisfactory results as the St. David’s Lode at Clogau. The gold is not associated 
with sulphurets in excess, so that its extraction is exempted from the difficulties 

enerally attending the various processes of amalgamation. This is an important 
fret, and greatly enhances the commercial value of the discovery*. 


On some Remains of Bothriolepis. By G. E. Roszrrs. 


The fossils described consisted of two casts of the central cephalic buckler, pre- 
viously unknown, and several other bones and plates of the head of this great fish. 
Agassiz, Pander, and Eichwald had described the dorsal scutes; but no portion of 
the head, save the jaws, had come under their notice. The position of Bothriolepis 
among the Dendrodic Ccelacanths was noticed; and although its affinity with 
Asterolepis seemed probable, too little was known about the family to warrant the 
setting up of any one species as a type. The plates covering the head were a quarter of 
an inch in thickness and of great strength, the external ornament consisting of ex- 
cessively fine radiating lines and sinuous ridges. The specimens were obtained from 
the yellow sandstones of Alves and Newton in Elginshire, their exact stratigra- 

hical position being beneath the reptiliferous and footprint beds, of presumed 

pper Devonian age, and in the lower part of the section described by Professor 
Harkness. Bothriolepis exceeded Asterolepis in size, the length indicated by the 
fossil remains being from twenty to twenty-five feet. 

The specimens exhibited were collected by Dr. Taylor, of Elgin, the Rev. Dr. 
Gordon, of Birnie, and Mr, Smith, of Inverness. 


On the Discovery of Elephant and other Mammalian Remains in Oxfordshire. 
By G. E, Roserts. 


A considerable number of elephant and other mammalian bones have recently 
been met with in a cutting upon a new line of railway passing through Thame, in 
Oxfordshire. By the kindness of Mr. J. J. Wilkinson, a gentleman connected with 
that line, a large portion of those exhumed has been forwarded to the Geological 
Society. They were taken from a coarse rubbly gravel, mixed with stiff clay, about 
13 feet from the surface. The section forwarded by Mr. Wilkinson gives a surface- 
clay, lightish yellow in colour, and with a sandy bottom 11 feet in thickness, lying 
upon the gravel, the average thickness of which is 2 feet 6 inches, and which passes 
downwards into a light-coloured sand. About 10 feet down in the clay a vase was 
found, of coarse earthenware, full of small bones; and just above the gravel another 
vase of coarse brown ware. The gravel extended linearly for 60 yards, and was 
slightly dome-shaped. Part of the bones have been submitted to Dr. Falconer, who 
has recognized Elephas primigenius of the Siberian type,—teeth and other remains 
rather abundant ; Elephas antiquus; a large species of Bos (primigenius? or pris- 
cus ?),—top of radius, tibia, and horn-core; many bones and teeth of Equus Caballus 
fossilis, including a finely preserved tibia of great size, and a portion of another still 

arger; and some good fragmentary specimens of the horns of Cervus elaphus. Still 
more important mammalian remains have been obtained by Mr. Codrington, F.G.S. 


On a Help to the Identification of Fossil Bivalve Shells, 
By H. Seerey, #.G.S. 


The author suggested that, if the number of hinge-teeth possessed by these shells 
was written down in formule, similar to the plan in use for mammalian teeth, much 


* February 1864, the lode is cut in the level 18 fathoms below where the gold was found. 
It is 3 feet wide, and shows gold occasionally.—T. A. R. 


88 REPORT—1863. 


aid in determining species and also in grouping families of the Mollusca would he 
the result. Hinge-teeth, which were persistent in form, could be indicated by or- 
dinary numerals, and variable teeth by accentuated numerals. In drawing out such 
a scheme care was taken to note the position of the teeth, whether anterior or pos- 
terior to the umbo. He considered that the plan, if adopted, would simplify the 
definition of a genus. 

[The paper is printed in the ‘ Geologist’ for February 1864. ] 


On a Section of the Strata from Hownes Gill to Cross Fell. 
By T. Sopwirn, B.S. 


The strata of the lead-mining districts of the North of England extend from 
beneath the coal-bearing strata of the Northumberland and Durham coal-fields at 
Hownes Gill to the mountain of Cross Fell in Cumberland, and were exhibited in 
a section taken from east to west over the important lead-producing districts of 
East and, West Allendale and Alston Moor. The Fell-top Limestone is seen to form - 
nearly the summits of the highest hills, and, beneath, a great thickness of siliceous 
and argillaceous strata intervenes between it and the Great Limestone, This forms: — 
one of a series of limestone strata, in which large quantities of lead have.been pro- 
duced. Several details relating to this section were verbally explamed by My. 
Sopwith. Op 


On Models illustrating Contortions in Mica-Schist and Slate. 
By H. C. Sorsy, BS. 

One of the models was formed of alternating bands of black and grey vulcanized 
india rubber, which were firmly held at one end by a brass clamp, and were free at 
the other, unless held by the fingers. When this was bent, it showed that the ex- 
terior layer was stretched and the inner compressed. Yielding in this manner, no 
secondary contortions were produced, but merely a simple band, as in contorted 
slate rocks. The other model was constructed with alternating bands that could 
not be stretched or compressed, by making use of the india-rubber enclosing can- 
vas, and was firmly held at both ends by brass clamps; and, when this was bent, 
various secondary contortions were produced, similar to those met with in many 
varieties of contorted mica-schist. 


Description of a Sea-star, Cribellites carbonarius, from the Mountain Lime- 
stone Formation of Northumberland, with a notice of its association with 
Carboniferous Plants. By Grorcr Tarr, F.GS. 


This Asteroid, the first recorded from the Mountain Limestone, is an impression 
of the upper surface, in a fine-grained micaceous sandstone. It is named Cribel- 
lites carbonarius ; and the following characters are observable :—Rays five, rounded, 
lanceolate, five times as long as the disk, ridged in the centre, covered with longi- 
tudinal rows of reticulating tubercles: disk small and tuberculated. The disk is 
only 0:3 of an inch in diameter, while the rays are 1:5 inch in length. A circular 
impression in the disk may be the impression of the Madreporiform nucleus. In 
the form of this Asteroid, and in the characters observable, it is similar to Cri- 
bella rosea, Miller; but the rays are proportionally longer, the disk smaller, and 
the tubercles much nearer to each other than in the recent analogue. The sand- 
stone from which the fossil Sea-star was obtained lies 20 feet above the Shilbottle 
coal, and about 600 feet below the base of the millstone grit, being in the upper part 
of the Mountain Limestone formation, which, in Northumberland, is about 3000 feet 
in thickness. In this sandstone there also occur Strophomena crenistria and the 
remains of carboniferous plants. In the same locality, somewhat higher in the 
series, there is another sandstone-bed, in which are vast numbers of Strophomena 
crenistria, associated with species of Sigillaria, Lepidodendron, Calamites, Knorria, 
and the Stigmaria jicoides. One or two other similar facts will help to illustrate 
the geological history of the Coal era. At Budle a metamorphosed shale, 30 feet 
in thickness, overlying a limestone, is in the under layers crowded with marine 
organisms, such as Griffithides farnensis, Euomphalus carbonarius, Bellerophon Uri, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89 


B. decussatus, and B. striatus, Leda attenuata, Posidonia Becheri, Strophomena creni- 
stria, Chonetes Hardrensis, and Lingula sguamiformis; but, as we ascend upward, stray 
fragments of plants are mingled with these organisms, and on an endogenous leaf we 
find the marine Annelid Spirorbis carbonarius; further upward, the marine organiems 
decrease, and the plants increase ; and in the upper part of the deposit the marine 
organisms disappear, and numerous fragments of Stigmaria jicoides, Bechera, ferns 
of the genus Sphenopteris, and endogenous leaves are spread out between the 
layers of the shale. The Mountain Limestone of Northumberland is rolonged in a, 
narrow tongue for a few miles along the Berwickshire coast, and t ere, too, is a 
shale-bed_showing a similar assemblage of organisms; the lower layers contain 
Chonetes Hardrensis and Nucula gibbosa, but the upper layers are filled with Sphe- 
nopteris, reed-like stems accompanied with Spirorbis, Holoptychius Hibberti, and 
other fish-remains, and Estheria striata, var. Tateiana (Jones). Such sections 
indicate a change of conditions taking place while the beds were in course of de- 


* “\position : at first the conditions were undoubtedly marine, but they became estua- 


ring from some unknown cause—probably from a gradual alteration in level and 
‘in influx. of fresh water, and passed eventually into entirely freshwater conditions. 


On the Origin of the Jointed Prismatic Structure in Basalts and other Igneous 
_ Rocks. By Professor J. Toomson, M.A. 


The author gaye reasons against the prevailing views of the origin of the jointed 
prismatic structure of basalt and other igneous rocks, which are founded ‘on the 
supposition of a spheroidal concretionary tendency in the material during consoli- 
dation; or on this, combined with a tendency to split into prisms by shrinkage, 
such as is met with in the drying of clay or starch. 1st. No reason has been as- 
signed, and he believes none is conceivable, why the supposed centres of concre- 
tionary action should be arranged in straight or nearly straight rows, like beads on a 
vast number of parallel strings. 2nd. Even if the centres were so arranged, still we 
ought to expect, under the supposition in question, that the centre of a spheroid of 
one column would often be in front of the division between two spheroids of an 
adjoining column, and that thus the sides of the columns would be serrated with 
indentations and protuberances at the cross joints instead of being smooth as they 
actually are. He supposed that the columns of basalt have been formed by split- 
ting through shrinkage of a very homogeneous mass in cooling; and that the cross 
joints are fractures which have commenced in the centre of the column, and ad- 
vanced to the outside as a circle increasing in diameter. This mode of fracture he 
thought is evidenced by various markings and other indications on the stones. T hey 
usually show a remarkably symmetrical appearance round the outer part of their 
cross joint faces; presenting an appearance like a complete circular conchoidal frac- 
ture, often with rays from the centre, such as are seen in the ordinary conchoidal 
fracture. In order to produce the cross fractures commencing in the centre, he 
supposed that a longitudinal tensile stress must have existed in the columns pre- 
viously to the cracking of the cross joints. Ife would not venture to explain the 
origin of this tensile stress; but suggested that, perhaps, after the column was 
formed, chemical action, caused by infiltration of water, might cause a slight ex- 
pansion of the outside of the column, and so introduce the internal tensile stress. 


On “the Wash,” a remarkable Denudation through a Portion of the,Coal- 
Sidd of Durham. By Nicxotas Woon, F.G.S., President of the Institute 
of Mining Engineers of the North of England ; and Evwarp F. Bovyp. 

In the introductory part of this paper the authors observed that in all parts of 
the earth numerous proofs are exhibited of the abrading action of water, by which 
not only the valleys and softer strata, but the more consolidated strata also and 
the highest elevations of the land have been abraded; and, by this agency, vast 
accumulations of sand, gravel, clay, and rounded boulders have been formed and dis- 
tributed, by means of floods, over different parts of the earth’s surface. The authors 
do not jwish, in this communication, to determine the precise mode by which 
these accumulations have been formed, but only to point out the universality of 


90 REPORT—1863. 


their oceutrence. More particularly they wish to show that some of the phe- 
nomen *xhibited by the mining-operations carried on in this district most ma- 
terially bear on this question. They state that the numerous opportunities which 
haye occurred to them of collecting information respecting those superficial 
gravels, clays, and sands which are spread over the coal-field of Durham, and 
slsu the frequent opportunities they have had of observing the abrasion or denu- 
dation of the strata of the district, and especially of a remarkable one locally 
termed “the Wash,” which cuts through a considerable portion of the Durham 
coal-field, have induced them to lay the result of their experience before the 
members of the British Association. 

It was stated by the authors that this wash or drift can be traced through the 
coal-field, from the vicinity of the city of Durham, in a spe direction, to the 
river Tyne, near Newcastle; that it is traversed a considerable portion of this 
distance by the present valley of the Wear, until, having passed Chester-le-Street, 
it follows the course of the Team valley, and terminates at the junction of the 
latter stream with the Tyne. This communication was illustrated by a plan of 
the whole district traversed by “the Wash,” and a series of cross-sections exhibit- 
ing in detail the depth of the denudation of the strata, the nature of the deposits, 
and other information relative to the materials accumulated in this old valley. 

The details of the various cross-sections show that the deepest portion of the 
denudation was along the eastern or dip side of the valley, and that the basset- 
ing or outcropping edges of the strata on that side are more upright and abrupt 
than those on the opposite side; that all the stones and pebbles, from their 
rounded appearance, bear marks of long exposure to the abrading action of water 
in motion; that no traces of shells, bones, or other organic remains were observed ; 
and that the pavement or bottom of the valley on which the accumulated ma- 
terials rest bears evidence of the great power of the water which carried the débris 
along its channel. The surface of some of the harder sandstones met with in 
sinking through the gravel and clay was furrowed and polished in rough and 
scarred outlines, and the coal-seams, where exposed, were either upright, adjoining 
the denudation, or worn and rounded off, as if acted on by the movement of 
harder bodies across them; but frequent cases. occurred where the seam of coal, 
when traced to its termination against the clay, had the upper portion of it de- 
stroyed by abrasion, and portions of that nearer the floor remained, the intervening 
parts being filled up with clay, and boulders, and broken pieces of coal, frequently 
of a large size. The rounded boulders and pebbles found disseminated and mixed 
with the masses of clay consist generally of hard sandstone, limestone, iron- 
stone, &c., of the carboniferous strata occurring to the westward. The lowest 
at of excavation of this valley, being 140 feet below the sea-level, points to a 

ormer higher elevation of land than at present. 

The authors suggest that the feeders, by which the body of waters found their 
way into “the Wash,” may be traced in the shape of branches or tributaries in 
more than one direction. One extends up the rivulet of Urpeth, another from 
Durham to Bishop Auckland and westward on the line of the river Wear, and 
another probable branch extends considerably more to the east, although the 
authors suggest the flow from the latter may possibly have been in a southerly . 
direction and towards the Tees. 

The authors do not decide whether this denudation has been caused by running 
water or glacial action, though the uniformity of the bed of the denudation and 
its moderate rate of inclination would lead to the latter opinion. They would 
not, however, lose sight of the fact, that a body of water which could cover the 
top of the deep deposit, 300 feet thick, which occurs at Durham, must have had 
some effect in the production of a current of considerable force down the course 
of the Wash. 

The peculiar relation of the Wash to the existing river-systems and present 
drainage of the country is also pointed out, and a comparison is made of the uni- 
form rate at which the present river Wear and the old Wash channel decline to 
the north, until the Wear suddenly leaves the line of the old valley and flows to 
the sea through a gap in the magnesian-limestone escarpment, branching off at an 
elevation of 100 feet above the level of the Wash, through the solid strata. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91 


The authors sum up the result of their communication by the following re- 
marks :—That, at some former period, a current of water or masses of glacial ice 
passed down the valley of the Wash from the site of the city of Durham to the. 
river Tyne, near Newcastle; that such a current or glacial action denuded the solid 
strata for a depth of from 150 to 200 feet, and that at its debouchure into the 
valley of the Tyne it excavated or denuded the solid strata to the depth of 
140 feet below the present high-water level at Newcastle, and consequently very 
considerably below the present level of the sea; that such denudation or wash 
has been subsequently filled up by the detritus partly produced on the spot and 
partly brought from distant localities; and that the present drainage of the county 
oa over this detritus in some places at a level of from 100 to 140 feet above the 

ed of the ancient Wash, and at the latter depth below the present high-water level 
of the North Sea. 

It is also somewhat extraordinary that though the present drainage of the 
county (the river Wear) passes along the general line of the ancient river, and 
at about 100 feet higher level, it does not follow the precise line of the Wash, but 
occasionally diverges in a zigzag direction, especially near Durham: passing 
through the solid rock in preference to keeping the straight line of the Wash, it 
again falls into the straight line of the Wash, along which it passes for a con- 
siderable distance, and, at Chester-le-Street, diverges almost at right angles to 
the line of the Wash to the eastward, and passes into the sea at Sunderland, pre- 
ferring that course through the magnesian-limestone rock to gp EE the straight 
line of “the Wash” northward along the river Team, though there is a descent 
of upwards of 50 feet to the river Tyne in the Wash; the ae drainage of 
the country by the river Team being 140 feet above the level of the Wash 
at its debouchure at the river Tyne, and 140 feet below the present high-water 
level of that river. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, tyorupine PHYSIOLOGY. 


Address of Professor Batrour, F.R.S., President of the Section. 


In opening this Section of the British Association, it may be proper to make a 
few introductory remarks. At some of the meetings the President has given a 
résumé of the recent progress of the department over which he presides. I regret 
that I am unable on the present occasion to follow such a good example. The 
comparatively recent date at which I was requested to occupy this honourable 
Peele and my University engagements, which were only concluded, about a 
ortnicht ago, have prevented me from attempting to do more than make some 
eneral remarks on the value and importance of the investigations embraced in 
Section D. The subjects are Biological—haying reference to the structure, phy- 
siology, and distribution of living beings. Man, animals, and plants are alike in- 
cluded within the scope of our researches. Although our Section is separated for 
convenience from that of geology, nevertheless they have important bearings on 
each other. The study of paleontology cannot be prosecuted without a wee 
knowledge of the anatomy, mode of growth, and geographical distribution of the 
plants and animals of the present epoch. In fact, the study of fossil plants and 
animals ought to constitute a part of every course of botany and zoology. Geology, 
in place of being reckoned a istinet science, may be considered as the means by 
which the departments of mineralogy, botany, and zoology are combined in one 
harmonious system—embracing the natural history of the globe. Rash geological 
statements and conclusions often arise from imperfect knowledge of the sciences 
included in our Section. Fronds of ferns of different external forms have been 
described as distinct fossil species or even genera,—the geologist not knowing that 
very different forms of frond are exhibited by the same species of fern in the 
present day. Again, another error has arisen from the same form of frond being 
considered as indicating the same species, whereas the same form does occur in 
different genera in the present flora; and these can only be distinguished by the 


92 REPORT—1863. 


fructification, which, in fossil ferns, is rarely seen. So also the same forms of shell 
may belong to different genera,—the only distinction being founded on the teeth or 
some other character of the animal inhabiting the shell,—and such characters are 
of course totally lost in the fossil. The cortical markings of plants have been made 
to characterize different genera and species, while the fact that dissimilar markings 
occur on the same bark, according as it is viewed on its inner or outer surfaces, 
has often been neglected. Again, the presence of a palm-leaf might be considered 
by the geologist as indicative of a very hot climate, from his not knowing that 
some palms occur at high latitudes, and others are met with on mountains asso- 
ciated with cool forms of Conifers. These and numerous instances might be ad- 
duced to show the necessity for a perfect acquaintance with the present fauna and 
flora in all their details, before the geologist can determine fossils, or the character 
of the climate of paleontological epochs. There is a mutual bearing of all the 
natural sciences on each other, and the student of nature must take a comprehen- 
sive grasp of all. 

The natural sciences have always occupied a prominent place in the Proceedings 
of the British Association. The subject is in itself popular, and is interesting to 
all classes. Much has been done in this Section to eae the sciences of zoology 
and botany, and to stimulate naturalists in their investigations. 

A feature of the Association, which requires special notice, is the procuring of 
reports on different departments of science, and the aiding and encouraging of 
naturalists in carrying on researches which require much labour and expense for 
their prosecution. Many a deserving young naturalist has thus been enabled to 
advance science and lay the foundation for future fame and promotion. 

Another important feature of the Association is the bringing together men ot 
science, and promoting free personal intercourse. Perhaps more good has been 
done by this than even by the reading of papers. Interchange of thought by oral 
communication, and the opportunity of frankly stating difficulties and of asking 
questions, are most valuable to men of science,—especially when they are congre- 
gated from various parts of the world. Friendships too are cemented, and aspe- 
rities are softened, by coming into contact with fellow-labourers in the same great 
field. No doubt, there have been occasional unpleasant altercations at our meet- 
ings; but even these have been ultimately turned to good account. Explanations 
are made, opinions are canvassed, and truth is finally elicited.“ For as iron sharp- 
eneth iron, so the countenance of a man his friend.” But, it has been remarked, 
iron does not sharpen iron unless it is brought into contact with its fellow, and one 
be made to act sharply and keenly on the other. 

In former days keen disputes took place among geologists in reference to the 
formation of rocks. The igneous view propounded by my distinguished relative, 
Dr. James Hutton, was supported warmly by some, while the aqueous view was 
espoused by others. At length, by a combination of fire and water, truth was elicited, 
and the minds of geologists were to a certain extent composed. The relations and 
position of rocks,—the continuity of formations,—Cambrian and Silurian rocks,— 
coal and shale,—glacier motion,—the definition of species, their permanence or 
variability, and their origin,—embryogeny and cytogenesis in plants and animals, 
—flint-hatchets,—the age of man,—and many other points, structural and physio- 
logical, have been, and some are still, discussed with great keenness and even with 
acrimony. But out of all this, as in former cases, truth will at length come forth. 
The storms which now and then agitate the natural-history atmosphere will purify 
it. Like the mists on the mountain, which bring out in bold relief the noble rocks 
and ravines of the craggy summit, so these disputes, even while they are carried 
on, bring out some phenomena of interest which had been previously invisible. The 
lightning’s flash from the dark cloud may discover to us some prominent object 
which had been overlooked in the calm sunshine. But ere long the storm will 
cease, the mists will be dissipated, and then the unclouded summit will appear in 
all its majestic clearness. o when the obscurity cast around science by the 
disputes of combatants shall have passed away, the truth will shine forth to the 
calm eye of the philosophic observer in all its beauty. In such polemics we are 
not to fight merely for victory or for the advancement of our own fame, but for 
the great cause of truth, which alone will prevail at last. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 93 


No studies are better calculated to promote friendly intercourse. The investi- 
ean of God’s works is well fitted to calm unruly passions, and to promote 

umility and harmony. In speaking of the effects of the practical prosecution of 
botany, the late Dr. Johnston of Berwick remarks :—“ There is a preordained and 
beneficial influence of external nature over the constitution and mind of man. He 
who made nature all beauty to the eye implanted at the same time in His rational 
creatures an instinctive perception of that beauty, and has joined with it a pleasure 
and enjoyment that operate through life. We are all the better for our botanical 
walks when undertaken in the right spirit. They soothe, soften, or exhilarate. 
The landscape around us becomes our teacher, and from its lesson there is no 
escape: we are wooed to peace by the impress of nature’s beauty, and the very 
air we breathe becomes a source of gratification and pleasure.” Many a time, 
while carrying on botanical researches in the wide field of nature, and visiting 
the alpine districts of this and other lands, have I felt the force of these remarks. 

On the last occasion that I presided over Section D,—viz. at Liverpool in 1854, 
—I was associated with my late deeply lamented colleague, Edward Forbes, who 
was President of Section C; and on looking back to his career, I would hold him 
ap as a bright example of a true naturalist, who took a wide and expanded view of 

ature in all its departments, and at the same time exhibited such a genial spirit 
as endeared him to all. Once and again was I associated with him in scientific 
rambles and in meetings of naturalists, and I have seen the tact with which he 
subdued the perfervidum ingeniwm when misdirected, and calmed the turbulent 
spirit when self-esteem prevented the due acknowledgment of another’s merits. 

e was truly unselfish, and never failed to recognize and encourage merit wherever 
he could detect it. I have elsewhere remarked, that with all his knowledge he 
combined an affability, a modesty, a kindness which endeared him to every one. 
No student of nature was beneath his notice; no fact recorded by a pupil, however 
humble, was passed with neglect. He was ready at all times to bs questioned, 
and was prompt to point out any spark of merit in others, He had no jealousy, 
and never indulged in attacks upon others. He gave full credit to all, and he was 
more ready to see the bright than the dark spots in the character. Even to those 
who criticised him severely, he bore no ill-will: he certainly did not return railing 
for railing. He had a truly generous spirit, and was totally devoid of narrow 
bigotry. He was desirous of promoting science independent of all selfish views. 
e pred it for its own sake. Would that his example was more followed by all 
of us! 

When we look at the changes which are constantly taking place in the views ot 
naturalists as science advances, we cannot but feel the need of modesty in the 
statement of our opinions. While we give our views, and the reasons for adopting 
them, let this be done without dogmatism or asperity, ever remembering that our 
conclusions may be modified or altered by future discoveries, Such anticipations, 
however, should not paralyse our efforts. Science is fadvancing, facts are being 
accumulated, and year after year a noble structure is being reared on a sound founda- 
tion. It requires now and then a master-mind to bring out great generalizations, 
and to give a decided impetus to the work. Facts must be carefully weighed, and 
Imowledge must be accurate and extensive; otherwise a genius in science is apt 
to bring forward rash generalizations and to indulge in unfounded speculations. 

The imagination is disposed to run riot when a grand vista seems to open before 
it, and it flies on heedlessly to the terminus, without surveying the intermediate 
ground. We do not ignore speculation, but we recommend at the same time cau- 
tious induction—a sifting of facts, and of their relation to each other. 

Natural-history sciences are now assuming an important place in education. 
They are not confined as formerly to medical men, but they enter more or less into 
the preliminary studies of every one. While classics and mathematics ought to 
have an important place in our schools and colleges, natural history cannot now 
be neglected. Universities which formerly ignored it are now remedying their 
error in this respect, and we may ere long hope to find it occupying a still more 
important position in educational institutions. The possession of university 
honours is now connected to a certain degree with a knowledge of nature, and a 
Master of Arts as well-as a Doctor of Medicine is supposed to know something of 


94 REPORT—1863. 


the objects in the material world with which he is surrounded. The establishment 
also of special degrees in science is a step in advance for which we are indebted to 
the University of London, Natural sciences are particularly valuable in mental 
training. They promote accuracy of observation and of description, They teach 
the student to ra at the objects around him not with an idle gaze, but with an 
intelligent discrimination, They ensure correctness of diagnosis, and encourage 
orderly and systematic habits. 

The British Association, in its perambulations, does much good by bringing such 
subjects prominently under the notice of directors of educational institutions in 
various parts of the country. It stirs up many to see the yalue of this kind of 
knowledge, and gives practical illustration of its bearing on the ordinary business 
of life. Thus the Association has an important influence on the town in which it 
meets, not merely by what it does during its sittings, but also by its after-effects 
on the population. The very preparations made in the locality for the meeting 
haye hed been productive of much permanent good. They have been instru- 
mental in bringing together collections which have formed the nucleus of a local 
museum, and they have been the means occasionally of introducing sanitary mea~- 
sures of the highest benefit to the inhabitants, 

In conclusion I would remark, that the contemplation of the works of God is 
only second to the study'of His Word, It was too often supposed that science and 
religion were opposed. Dr, James Hamilton remarks :—‘ Science and religion 
long stood in doubtful opposition. There was much needless dread among the 
believers in the one, and much needless boasting from the disciples of the other, 
Religious men expressed their convictions with the mingled caution and asperity 
of fear, while scientific men hastened, with an air of unholy triumph, to place their 
discoveries in direct opposition to the statements of Scripture. Time has done much 
to reverse these positions, The prog soe of inyestigation, the growth of scholar- 
ship, the enlargement of knowledge, have removed many of the objections formerly 
brought against Scripture, and enabled its defenders to give them full and satis- 
factory answers. Now there is less of unbelieving dread on the one hand, less of 
unseemly boasting on the other. It is no longer necessary to scoff at revelation in 
order to appear witty, or required to question its truth in order to appear learned, 
The advocates of a heayen-given Bible have learned to use the weapons of their 
opponents; they can walk abroad among the mysteries of science with as fearless 
a step as the most daring unbeliever, and are able to claim the result of its highest 
teaching in proof of the statements and doctrines of the Word of God. The 
attempts to produce opposition between the works and the Word of God have 
utterly failed, The longer it continued, the greater became their harmony; as 
they approached, their enmity was laid aside—they discovered they were friends. 
The clear eye of Science looked on the serene face of Religion, and received some- 
what of her benignant expression; the pale brow of the ambitious student has 
bent over the page of Revelation, and his eye blazed with light brighter than the 
fire of genius, for it was radiant with the hopes of a coming immortality,” 

It is clear that religion and science must bein harmony, The works and the 
Word of God cannot be at variance. The two books of Revelation and of Nature 
are complete and perfect as regards their author. In the one we have a revelation 
in regard to matters of eternal moment—that Word which is true from the be- 
ginning, which cannot be broken, and which abideth for ever,—on the discussion 
of which we do not enter at the meetings of the British Association, As concerns 
the great truths thus revealed, he that runs may read. The Book is not intended 
to teach science. ‘The Bible, however, never does violence to facts, nor to the 
principles of sound natural philosophy. Never in one single instance will you find 
it in opposition to the just ideas which science has given us regarding the form of 
our globe, its magnitude, andits geology. There is no physical error whatever in 
the Scriptures ; and this transcendent fact, which becomes more admirable in pro- 
portion as it is made the subject of closer investigation, is a striking proof of the 
inspiration which dictated them, even to their least expressions.” 

he other book has been placed before us in order that it may be examined by 
the intellectual powers of man, and that its truths may be gradually evolved in the 
course of ages. The investigation of these truths, depending on man’s powers of 


ree a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95 


observation and research, must necessarily be imperfect. The pages of it are 
opened by one generation after another, Much error may be mixed up with these 
researches, and we cannot appeal to an authoritative revelation on these matters. 

There may be science falsely so called—incomplete investigations—which at 
first sight may appear to be at variance with statements in Scripture. But all 
supposed opposition will Siaeprey as science advances. We have no fear of true 
science. We cannot too carefully or too minutely interrogate God’s works. There 
may be a mistaken interpretation of the physical facts mentioned in God’s Word, 
and there may be difficulties as regards them which it is not easy to unravel, and 
which we may not now be able to explain. So far as our faith is concerned, there 
is no cause for alarm as to the teachings of science ; and in regard to minor points, 
there are no contradictions in the two books. Although it is not in these meet- 
ings that we discuss religious questions, still every Christian naturalist must in 
his own mind weigh the bearings of science on that religion which tells him of 
new heavens and a new earth, and on which rest all his hopes of a blessed im- 
mortality, 


Borany. 


Description of the Fruit of Clerodendron Thomsone (Balf.), from Old 
Calabar, By Professor Batrour, F.2.S, 


This Verbenaceous plant was sent from Old Calabar by the Rey. W. C. Thomson, 
and had been described and figured by Professor Balfour from specimens grown in 
the Edinburgh Botanic Garden. The plant has since perfected its fruit, and Pro- 
fessor Balfour gave a description of it, illustrated by drawings. When in fruit, the 

lant presents a showy appearance, owing to the scarlet covering of the inner sur- 
ace of the achenes. ‘The style of this plant in the young state is terminal, and the 
four achenes are concrete. As the carpels advance in growth, they separate and 
the style falls off. On cutting across the four achenes, we observe at their junction 
a red cellular coat. This coat increases in size, becomes succulent, and finally 
separates the achenes so as to make them spread out in a horizontal cruciate form, 
being united only at their bases. The cells of the scarlet mass contain oil-globules. 


Description of a New Plant-house. By T. Bewtey, 
Communicated by N. B. Warn, F.R.S. 

The principal feature was a double roof, by means of which the heat was retained 
to such an extent that it took several nights of severe frost to bring down the 
temperature from 52 to 48 degrees. The effect of this arrangement upon some 
plants was really wonderful, and it enabled the author to grow tropical plants 


towards the roof, while plants requiring a more temperate atmosphere were grown 
below. 


On Proliferous Cones of the Common Larch, 
By Joun Hoce, W.A., RS. & LS., &e. 


The author exhibited many specimens of the cones of the common Larch which 
presented an abnormal mode of growth. He first observed this proliferous growth 
in two or three cones from a young tree, wherein the stalk of the cone had grown 
through the cone itself to an extent of about two inches, in the autumn of 1858; 
and in the following spring he forwarded them to Sir W, Hooker for the Museum 
in Kew Gardens, where they still remain. 

The specimens he now showed were gathered by himself off several young 
larches in October 1862, in another plantation; and the shoots from the extremities 
of the cones had in some extended to full 103 inches, which, as they were well 
covered with leaves and buds, seemed perfectly healthy, and capable of growing 
into strong and regular branches. 

This healthy condition forbade him from attributing the singular proliferousness 
to disease, but assured him that it originated in an exuberance of growth, caused or 
increased by the rainy summer of 1862, 


96 REPORT—1863. 


The author, for the purpose of ascertaining the mode of growth of the stalk 
through the entire cone, had three cones sawn through longitudinally, and in all 
the same undivided growth was proved. The cones were quite healthy, and the 
seeds well formed and advancing to maturity. 


List of rarer Pheenogamous Plants discovered in the South-East of Durham 
since 1829. By Joun Hoae, M.A., F.R.S., F.LS. 


In the year 1829 the author communicated some catalogues of natural history, 
as an ‘ Appendix” to the second edition of the History of Stockton-on-Tees. 
At the last Meeting of the British Association at York, he enlarged the “Cata- 
logue of Birds,” by including all the more rare kinds which had been recently 
detected in that vicinity. So it was his intention on the present occasion to haye 
done the same with the rarer Phenogamous plants that he had met with in the 
south-eastern portion of the county of Durham since 1829, and to have added 
some descriptive notices respecting the rarest, with their habitats. Time, however, 
had failed him; and consequently he could only present to this Section a bare list 
of the different plants alphabetically arranged. 

Mr. Hogg very shortly mentioned the geological divisions of that district ; and, 
in pointing out the great extent of alluvial deposits and salt-marshes by the river 
Tees, as well as along its wide estuary, the many sand-links and limestone-cliffs 
on the sea-coast, he remarked that all these different formations were highly favour- 
able for the growth of various plants. Whilst several rarer kinds had been lately 
introduced with ballast used in the making of the many railways, others, he re- 
gretted to say, had, after a lapse of many years, entirely disappeared. 

Scientific and full descriptions of some of the more interesting varieties were 


necessarily reserved for a future communication. 


Anagallis ceerulea. 
Antirrhinum elatine. 
—— linaria. 

minus, 

Beta maritima. 
Campanula hybrida, 
rapunculus. 
Cardamine amara. 
Carduus acanthoides. 
tenuiflorus. 
Centaurea calcitrapa. 
Chrysanthemum segetum, 
Cichorium intybus. 
Cuscuta epithymum. 
Diplotaxis muralis. 
—— tenuifolia. 
Euonymus europzeus. 
Fumaria capreolata. 
Galium mollugo. 
Glaucium luteum. 
Habenaria chlorantha. 
viridis. 
Hypericum hirsutum. 
humifusum. 
Knautia arvensis, 71. albo. 
» fl. pleno. 
Lepidium campestre. 
ruderale. 
Medicago sativa. 


Notes on Canadian Forests. 


Melilotus leucantha, 
Mercurialis annua. 
Meum foeeniculum. 
Ononis arvensis, 77. albo. 
Orchis pyramidalis. 
Papaver rheas, fl. albo. 
Pastinaca sativa. 
Phalaris canariensis. 
Plantago major, fl. pyramidali. 
Primula vulgaris, var. caulescens, 
Prunus cerasus. 
Pyrethrum parthenium, 
Raphanus raphanistrum, 
Reseda lutea. 

Rosa rubella. 
rubiginosa. 

——— tomentosa, 77. albo. 
Rubus fruticosus, 

Salvia verbenaca. 
Senecio sylvaticus. 
viscosus. 

Solanum nigrum. 
Sorbus aucuparia. 
Symphytum officinale. 
Teesdalia nudicaulis. 
Thalictrum flavum. 
Trifolium incarnatum. 
Verbascum thapsus. 
Zostera marina, 


By Dr, Hursore. 


This paper consisted of notes on the Canadian forests in connexion with climate 


> ee 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 97 


and contained a description of the varieties of vegetation within a district of about 
2,000,000 square miles, extending from the Gulf of Mexico to the northern bounda-~ 
ries of Canada, and from the Atlantic Ocean to the western prairies. 


Note on certain Influences regulating the Forms of Leaves, gc. 
By Maxwett T, Masters, M.D., F.L.S. 


The object of this communication was, lstly, to show the cause of the groove 
so generally met with on the upper surface of the leaf-stalk ; and, 2ndly, to account 
for the oblique form of certain leaves. 

With reference to the furrow on the leaf-stalk, it was shown that this is a provi- 
sion to prevent undue pressure on the young growing leaf-bud, and at the same 
time to economize space. The truth of this notion is borne out by an examination 
of the leaf-bud, as well as by the fact that when, from various causes, no pressure 
is exerted, the leaf-stalk is not grooved, but cylindrical. A similar explanation 
may be given of the inner palea of grasses, which presents a central groove, into 
which the axis of the spikelet is received, and which is bounded by the two pro- 
minent ribs always present in that organ. In many Restiacee a similar provision 
exists against eatlae pressure: whenever, in these plants, a bract or scale 1s closely 
pressed up against the stem, that scale is provided with lateral ribs, bounding a 
central furrow, as in the upper palea of grasses; this scale, moreover, is frequently 
provided with a coating of hair, which affords additional protection against pres- 
sure. In other species, where no pressure is exerted, the scale is either entirely 
absent, or, if present, destitute of the lateral ribs and intermediate furrow. Similar 
illustrations may be found in the bracts of Iris, Philydrum, Gladiolus, and very 
many other plants. The obliquity of leaves was shown to be, in many instances, 
the result of a process of mutual accommodation, whereby one portion of a leaf is 
restricted in its growth by the nearness of a neighbouring leaf, while another part 
not so cramped for space grows to a proportionately greater extent—a process 
precisely resembling that which takes place in the outermost florets of some Cru- 
cifers, e.g. Iberis, the outer petals of some Umbellifers, &c. In the lime, the 
hazel, the mulberry, and many other plants, the leaves are oblique at the base, and 
‘the branch is bent away from the les f at a considerable angle—is, in botanical lan- 
guage, flexuose; a space is thus left, which is filled up by the larger segment of 
the base of the leaf. Now, if a line-be drawn across a lime leaf in such a direction 
as to cut off the projecting lobe at the base, it will be seen that this line is nearly 

- parallel in direction to that part of the stem above the leaf in question, and from 
which it is deflected. The direction of this line is usually the same as that of the 
first or second lateral vein proceeding from the midrib towards the margin of the 
leaf, counting from the base of the leaf upwards. Several instances from natural 
as well as from exceptional leayes were adduced in support of the opinion just 
expressed; at the same time it was admitted that this explanation did not sutfice 
to account for all cases of the kind, that of Begonia among others, 


ZooLoey. 


Descriptions of New British Polyzoa, with Remarks on some imperfectly 
known Species. By JosHua ALDER. 


The species forming the subject of this communication belong chiefly to the 
MAcishied. calcareous forms of the genera Cellepora and Eschara. The new species 
described were named Cellepora levigata, Eschara ligulata, and Palnucellaria elegans, 
the latter also a new genus, which is characterized as follows :—Polyzoary erect, 
calcareous, inarticulate, cylindrical, smooth, branching dichotomously. Cells dis- 
posed in four longitudinal, alternate series, those on the two opposite series being 
on the same level. Apertures circular, with a broad, projecting, palmate expansion 
in front, bearing an avicularium. This genus is proposed for a beautiful little coral 
dredged this year in Shetland by the Rev. A. M. Norman. The species remarked 
upon included the Eschara levis of Fleming, a species lost sight of by British natu- 
sate - many years ; Eschara Landsborovit, now first ascertained to be an Eschara, 
: it 


98 REPORT—1863. 


but the imperfect state of which had been described by Dr. Johnston as a Lepralia 
(this was found on the coast of Northumberland, by Mr. Embleton) ; Quadricellaria 
gracilis of Sars, previously published from an imperfect specimen under the name 
of Onchopora borealis by Professor Busk. Scrupocellaria Delilii, a species new to 
Britain, was got from the deep-water fishing-boats on the coast of Northumberland 
by Mr. Alder, and has since been dredged on the Durham coast. The last species 
described was the Hornera borealis of Busk, which is now introduced as British for 
the first time: specimens of this were got in Shetland by Mr. Barlee in 1858, and 
since by Mr. Norman. The paper was illustrated by drawings; and specimens of 
most of the species were exhibited. 


On a New Species of Ione. By C. Spence Barz, F.R.S. 


The genus Jone was first established by Col, Montagu, to receive a species of 
parasitic isopod Crustacea, allied to Bopyrus, which he found beneath the carapace of 
Callianassa subterranea, a variety of prawn that burrows beneath the sand, and is 
found at the entrance of Salcombe Estuary, as well as in Plymouth Sound. This 

rawn has likewise been taken on the coast of France, and the parasite described 

y Milne-Edwards. The new species, which the author has named Jone cornutus, 
was brought home by Mr. Lord, the naturalist to the Commission which had to 
determine the boundary-line between British territory and that of the United States, 
and was found parasitic upon a species of Calhanassa which he took on the coast 
of Vancouver’s Island. is species is much larger than that of the European 
form, and differs from it chiefly in having the lateral extremities of the somite, or 
segment which bears the antenne, posteriorly produced upon each side of the head, 
after the manner of lateral horns. All the perelopoda are short and powerfully sub- 
chelate. The branchial appendages are arborescent and pendulous; to the inner 
extremity of which two appendages are attached, each of which inversely increases 
as the other decreases; so that one is largest nearest the pereion of the animal, 
while the other is longest nearest the caudal extremity. To the posterior of 
these the male animal attaches itself by means of the seventh pair of pereiopoda. The 
author likewise remarked a very considerable variation in the form of the larvae 
from that of either of the parents, although it more nearly corresponded with that 
of the male than with that of the female. 


On the Syndactylous Condition of the Hand in Man and the Anthropoid Apes. 
By C. Carrer Braxz, F.G.S., Hon. Sec, ASL. 


The author called the attention of the Section to a curious abnormity which is 
resented by the integument of a specimen of old male Gorilla which was brought 
Bae the Gaboon by Mr. Winwood eade, and presented by that gentleman to the 
Museum of the Anthropological Society of London. The specimens of Gorilla 
‘which have been the subjects of the elaborate and complete memoirs which have 
appeared from the pen of MM. Duvyernoy and Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire in the 
Archives of the Paris Museum (vols. viii. and x.), and by Professor Owen in various 
parts of the ‘ Zoological Transactions,’ have, with those described by other authors, 
all coincided in one attributed character, true as regards the specimens with which 
they were acquainted, which probably represent the majority of specimens of Gorilla 
which had been examined in Europe. This statement, reduced to a general pro- 
position, was that the integument of the skin of the fingers was more or less con- 
nected across the first digital phalanx, in such a manner that the first joints were 
firmly connected together by skin, sometimes as far as the distal extremity of the 
first phalanx, sometimes merely to the middle of this phalanx. In no specimen of 
Gorilla, of the description of which the author is yet cognizant, are the digits of the 
anterior extremity free to the same extent as in man, in which the distal extremities 
of the metacarpals mark the termination of the amount of syndactyly of the hand. 
In the specimen of Gorilla to which allusion is made in this short note, the digits of 
the fingers present a different condition of connexion from that in the typical speci- 
mens described by zoologists. The second (index), third (medius), and fourth 
(annulus) digits are free beyond the distal end of the metacarpals, as in the human 
subject; the fifth digit (minimus) is also in a less degree attached to the annulus 


—s 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 99 


than in the specimens of Gorilla contained in various public museums. We have 
thus a specimen of Gorilla in which the digits of the hand are almost as free as in the 
hand of the lower races of mankind. Careful examination, bya lens, of the integu- 
ment, before the preparation of the specimen by Mr. Leadbeater, who first called the 
author’s attention to this abnormity, demonstrates the fact that the epidermis covers 
the cutis on the inner sides of the interdigital spaces of the first phalanges of this 
specimen. The consistency of this epidermis merely differs in degree from that of 
the homologous structure in the foot and in other parts of the body. It would be 
interesting to compare such a curious abnormity of the integument with the simi- 
lar abnormities which exist in the human species. The human fingers are most 
frequently connected together by syndactyly, and remain during life in that state 
of arrested development (as regards the integument) which is typified by the per- 
manent stage of development of the Gorilla. On the other hand, the author has 
never yet met, either in the chimpanzee or orang-utan, with a similar case of free- 
dom of digits to that here described. We must, however, recollect that the number 
of specimens of chimpanzee and orang-utan which have been accurately described 
anatomically forms a very small percentage. How many individuals of Gorilla may 
exist in which a similar “accidental” variety may exist, must remain for a long 
time unknown to us. The author then referred to cases of congenital syndactyly 
in man, and concluded by suggesting that the speculation whether a like rule, or 
its converse, may or may not prevail in the ape,—whether it might not through 
generations, during which the congenital defect of the Gorilla, or absence of the 
characteristic syndactyly, might be transmitted, operate towards the production 
of a more prehensile form of hand,—must be postponed until a larger series of 
specimens shall be examined by anthropologists or zoologists, 


On the Marine Cyclopoid Entomostraca (Calanide), with Notices of some 
Species new to Britain. By Guorce S. Brapy. 
Dr. Baird’s ‘Monograph of the British Entomostraca,’ published by the Ray 


' Society in 1849, and still the only authoritative work on the British species, contains 


descriptions of only three species of this family, viz. Cetochilus septentrionalis, 
Anomalocera Patersonii, and Temora jfinmarchica, the last of which seems to be 
involved in some obscurity. Mr. Lubbock has, however, since that date, given 
descriptions, in the ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History,’ of several new 
British species. My own opportunities of observation have as yet been very limited. 
I have examined many gatherings, both littoral and from deep water, on the 
Northumberland and Durham coasts; and Mr. Norman has kindly placed in my 
hands some material of his own collecting, from the Shetlands a the Frith of 
Clyde. This, with the addition of a small gathering made by myself among 
the Channel Islands, constitutes the whole of the material which I have yet been 
able to obtain. It has yielded altogether nine species, four of which are new to 
Britain. It would be out of place here to enter into any minute descriptive details. 
The best specific characters will be found in the form and structure of the antennze 
and the fifth pair of feet, and in the shape of the last abdominal segments: there 
are minor characters discernible also in other organs. One of the most curious 
points of structure is the strong serrated armature existing in many species on each 
side of the hinge-joint in the right antenna of the male. 

I have compiled a table illustrating the disgribution of the nine species which I 
have observed, but this can scarcely be thought of much value, owing to the want 
of copious gatherings from more distant places. It will be noticed that all the 
species have been taken in this district: we may be sure that equal opportunities of 
search in other places would have given a longer list. The four species referred 
to as being new to Britain are Ichthyophorba hamata, Dias longiremis, Temora velox, 
and a species of Eucheta(?) not yet determined. The most abundant species, 
both in the Shetland and Northumberland gatherings, and occurring plentifully also 
among the Channel Islands, was Diaptomus longicaudatus, Lubbock. This is espe- 
cially abundant in the Northumberland district as a littoral species. I may also 
notice as being of common occurrence here and in Shetland Evadne polyphemoides, 
Leuckart, a species, I believe, hitherto unrecorded as British, Though found in com- 

7% 


100 : REPORT—1863. 


pany with the Cyclopoid species, it belongs to the family Polyphemide, and does 
not therefore come within the range of the present paper. Temora finmarchica is 
included in our list on the strength of one mutilated specimen which, however, 
agreed so well with Dr. Baird’s figures as to leave little or no doubt about its 
identity. 

Northumb. & Durham. 
Guernsey. | Clyde. | Shetland. 


Littoral. | Pelagic. 

Cetochilus septentrionalis, Goodsir + 2 + — + 
Anomalocera Patersonii, Templeton| — oe _— _— _ 
Buichsptas spss «Serie. vat ies halts + - + 7 + 
Diaptomus longicaudatus, Lubbock; = + = + _— + 
Pontellina brevicornis (?), Zubbock|  — - + — _ 
Temora finmarchica, Ganner .. — > _— _ —_ 

yy VCLOK, LAYCDORG. rw os 515 aie + — _ + — 
Dias longiremis, Liljeborg ...... _— + + —_ —_ 
Ichthyophorba hamata, Liljeborg — oe - _— + 


On the Zoology of Hylton Dene, near Sunderland. By Guoren 8, Brapy. 


Hylton Dene is a ravine or dell, through which flows a streamlet—in north- 
country phrase a burn—tributary to the river Wear, which it joins about a couple 
of miles above Sunderland Bridge. The burn itself is, like the Wear at that 
point, subject to tidal influence; but the adjacent pools of which we have to speak 
are above the level of. high water at ordinary spring tides. On a flat expanse on 
each side of the burn are situated several small and very shallow pools, the depth 
of which is mostly on about six or eight inches. Zoologically we may divide them 
into three groups in the order of their proximity to the river Wear; and we find 
that the proportion of chlorides contained in their water regularly decreases as we 
recede from the river. As regards their organized inhabitants, the pools differ no 
less conspicuously than in their inorganic constituents. Those of the first and most 
saline group are marked chiefly by the presence during the autumn months of two 
Nudibranchs, Alderia modesta and Limapontia depressa. They contain also, in com- 
mon with the second group, various Crustacea: Gammarus locusta, Orchestia littorea, 
Palemon varians, Crangon vulgaris, Corophium longicorne, Spheroma, sp., and Temora 
velox, an Entomostracan of the order Calanidee. Besides these, there are two or three 
species of Foraminifera and some Annelids, I think of the genus Nereis. The second 
group is characterized more by the absence of certain species which occur in the 
first and third, than by any inhabitants peculiar to itself. The single large and 
deeper pool which forms our third group differs in nothing, a its peculiar 
Crustacean fauna, from an ordinary freshwater pond. It is of tolerable depth, but 
very narrow—more like a tortuous ditch than a pond; and it affords a home to 
numerous Notonecte, Beetles, Water-rats, to a few individuals, small and stunted, 
of Limneus pereger, and to a beautiful Polyzoon, Plumatella repens. The Ento- 
mostraca of this pool are all purely freshwater species, such as Cyclops quadricornis, 
Candona lucens, and several Cyprides. The most interesting inhabitants are, how- 
ever, some of the larger Crustacea, Palemon varians, Mysis vulgaris, and Coro- 
phium longicorne, all of which occur in great numbers. 

Estuarine swamps, such as this, seem to be the nearest analogues we now possess 
of the extensive lagoons of the Carboniferous period. To the paleontologist it 
must be a matter of considerable interest to note the association of species in 
such localities; and I think enough has been said to show that considerable cau- 
tion should be used in pronouncing upon the saline or freshwater nature of any 
deposits merely from the nature of the animal forms which they enclose. 


Notes on Foraminifera new to the British Fauna. 
By Henry B. Brapy, F.L.S. 
After some preliminary remarks on the various methods which have been proposed 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 101 


for the separation of recent Foraminifera from bulky material, the author proceeds to 
enumerate and describe several species not before recorded as British, which, with 
some others not yet satisfactorily determined, had resulted from the examination of 
dredgings from various parts of our coast. 

Experience showed that too great dependence should not be placed upon any 
single mode of treating foraminiferous sand ; that, whilst difference of specific 
gravity might be taken advantage of, by floating and other means, for the separa- 
tion of the more delicate forms, it was almost useless so far as concerned the porcel- 
lanous and arenaceous groups. In the manipulation of these the best assistance 
seemed to be derived from the use of wire-gauze sieves of different degrees of 
fineness. 

The Shetland material, from which most of the specimens alluded to inthe paper 
were derived, was dredged by Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys and Mr. E. Waller, at depths 
varying from 65 to 85 fathoms. That from the Irish Sea was from the Admiralty 
soundings, off Laxey, communicated by Mr. E. C. Davison, depth 15 fathoms. The 
sand from the Northumberland coast was taken from 35 fathoms, near Holy Island, 
during the recent dredging-operations conducted under the direction of the British 
Association Dredging Committee. 

The following is a list of the species whose occurrence in the British seas is 
noted for the first time :-— 


Biloculina sphera, D’ Ord. Shetland, very rare. 

Biloculina coutraria, D’ Orb. Shetland, very rare. 

Triloculina tricarinata, D’ Orb. Shetland, very rare. 

Quinqueloculina pulchella, D’ Ord. Shetland, only a single, somewhat mon- 
strous specimen found, 


Lituola scorpiurus, Montfort. Shetland, rather rare. 

Lagena distoma, P. § J. Northumberland coast, rare; Shetland, 
very rare. 

Glandulina levigata, D’ Orb. Shetland, very rare. 

Bigenerina digitata, D’ Orb. Shetland, rare. : 

Bolivina punctata, D’ Ord. Shetland, very small feeble specimens, not 
uncommon. 


Planorbulina Ungeriana, D’Orb. Shetland, common in some localities. 
Planorbulina Haidingerli, D’Orb. Shetland, rare. 


Pulvinulina Menardii, D’ Ord. Trish Sea, rare. 
Pulvinulina concentrica, P. § J. Shetland, rare. 
Pulvinulina Karsteni, Reuss. Shetland, very small and delicate speci- 
mens, rare. 
Rotalia orbicularis, D’ Ord. Trish Sea, rare; Shetland, rare. 
Discorbina Bertheloti, D’ Orb, Shetland, rare. 
Anomalina coronata, P. § J. Shetland, common. 
Polystomella crispa, var. arctica, Shetland, common. 
1 Bilt f 


Nonionina stelligera, D’ Orb. Shetland, rare. 


On the principal Divisions of the Pacific Fauna. By W. Harper Pxasz, of 
Honolulu. Communicated by Dr. P. P. Carpenter. 


The author, having been engaged for many years, personally and by his agents, 
in making careful explorations of the marine and land faunas of various groups 
of the Pacific islands, is preparing materials for a comprehensive work on the 
subject. He desires to correspond with other naturalists who are engaged in 
similar investigations. 

He is led to the conclusion that the centre of creation for the Pacific fauna lay 
in the neighbourhood of the Philippines; one line of distribution passing in a 
northerly direction to the Hawaian islands ; another over the small islands near the 
equator ; a third, through the larger groups, in a southerly line to the Paumatus 
and Marquesas. ; 

The general elevation of land over the Pacific islands has been more regular 
than the tables heretofore made would lead us to believe. 


102 REPORT— 1863. 


The distribution of the land shells strangely coincides with that of the native 
races, the Papuan and the Malayan. 

The Hawaian fauna is perhaps the most isolated in the world. The small 
islands still marked on the charts towards the American coast have no existence. 
But there is a chain of islands, running parallel with the axis of the Hawaian 
group, and connecting it with the northern part of Japan, which have been 
strangely neglected by the exploring expeditions. They have been principally 
examined by Capt. J. Paty, who was commissioned by the Hawaian government 
for that purpose. They are apparently in process of subsidence ; but their shell- 
fauna coincides with the Hawaian. 


On the Colour of the Salmon. By Joun Davy, M.D., PRS. 

The colour, the subject of this paper, is that of the muscles of the Salmon and its 
congeners when in their highest condition—the peculiar salmon-colour. The author 
premises that it is commonly attributed to an oil. This conclusion he is not able 
to adopt, there being several facts opposed to it:—Ist, that all the muscles are not 
similarly coloured, some even being colourless, as those of the eye, which are sur- 
rounded by and in the midst of a colourless adipose membrane; 2nd, that those 
muscles are not of highest colour, as the thin portion of the fish, which abound most 
in oil; 8rd, that the results of chemical examination tend to prove that the colour 
is not essential to the oil, but is seated in and belongs to the muscular portion, «. e. 
to those muscles which are most strongly coloured, such as constitute the thick part 
of the fish. The conclusion which, according to the author, seems most warranted by 
the facts, is that the colour depends on a peculiar colouring-matter of an organized 
kind, analogous to those colouring-matters which exist in plants, especially their 
leaves and flowers, and in the tegumentary parts of mammalia, birds, and fishes, 
such as the hair of the first, the feathers of the second, and the epidermis of the 
third. And in accordance, he thinks, it may be a secretion, partly depending on 
the food taken, such as is required to bring the fish into its highest condition. 


List of the British Pycnogonoidea, with Descriptions of several New Species. 
By GrorcEe Hopes. 

No complete list of the British Pyenogons has appeared, and such information as 
we possess is scanty and scattered. It is difficult to account for this neglect, as these 
animals possess considerable interest both in their life-history and their peculiarly 
eed: physiological features. 

An examination of such records as I have been able to consult has enabled me to 
compile a list of twenty-two species, the total number recorded as British, With 
two exceptions, that of a Phoxichilidium by Mr. Gosse and a Phoxichilidium and 
a Nymphon by myself, no new species haye been published since Harry Goodsir and 
Dr. Johnstone’s time: the former described seven species, principally from the 
Frith of Forth; it is possible, however, that two or three of fen might not stand 
a very critical examination. 

The list, as it now stands, contains 


13 species of Nymphon, 
AhaaS Pallene, 
ay a Phoxichilidium, 
i + Pasithoé, 
1 + Phoxichilus, 
1 fn Pycnogonum ; 
22 


in all twenty-two species, including the four which were recorded in my Report of 
the Pycnogons obtained last year during the dredging-expedition to the Dogger 
Bank under the auspices of this Association. 
I have now to increase this list by the addition of ten species, seven of which 
are new to science, and three new to Britain. 
The new species are contained in the following genera :— 
Ammothoa, a genus not before represented by any British form. 
Achelia, anew genus which I found it necessary to establish, 
Pallene and Phowxichilidium. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 108 


The genus Armmothoa is in some respects like Nymphon, the most decided dif- 
ference being the greater number of joints of the palpi, Ammothoa possessing eight, 
whilst Nymphon has only five. The foot-jaws in Nymphon are always as long or 
longer than the rostrum; in Ammothoa they are much shorter. 

I have two new species to describe, for which the specific names of brevipes and 
longipes are proposed. 

he limbs of Ammothoa brevipes are short and robust, furnished with moderately 
long, strong spines. The rostrum is conical, with the apex truncate; the foot- 
jaws nearly two-thirds the length of the rostrum ; palpi equal in thickness through- 
out,—if anything, slightly thicker at the free end. Oculiferous tubercle terminating 
in a pointed wart, directed backwards. Abdomen long, slightly tapering. 

Several specimens have occurred on the Durham coast, from deep water. 

Ammothoa longipes is more slender in general form than Ammothoa brevipes. The 
rostrum is as long as the thorax, tapering to a moderately blunt point. The palpi 
are long and slender, the four terminal joints being of about equal length. 

A single specimen from Polperro. 

Acheliu is distinguished by the possession of two pairs of palpi, one pair long 
and slender, the other short and stout. The genus may be thus characterized :— 

Antenne two-branched, one pair long and slender, eight-jointed, the other pair 
short and stout, two-jointed, and produced iennedliately in front of the ocu- 
liferous tubercle. 

In some respects this genus agrees with a form possessing two pairs of palpi, 
which Kroyer named Zetes ; it may, however, at once be distinguished by the very 
different character of the rostrum, Zetes being much elongated and seated upon a 
sort of stalk, Achelia being short and stout. 

I have three species of this genus to describe, for which the specific names of 
echinata, hispida, and levis are proposed. 

Achelva echinata is robust, with moderately long legs, furnished with strong spines 
produced from little eminences upon the limbs and hady. The oculiferous tubercle 
is directed forwards, and terminates in a little point, directed backwards. The 
inner = are of the same length as the oculiferous tubercle, the outer being longer 
than the rostrum. The colour is a fine sienna to a pale straw. 

This species has been found in the Channel Islands, the Isle of Man, and upon 
the Durham coast. Itis by no means uncommon, from low tide to a few fathoms. 

Achelia hispida is distinguished from Achelia echinata by the much smaller di- 
mensions of the spines, which, in this species, are mere hairs, and also by the rela- 
tive sizes of the inner palpi and oculiferous tubercle ; the latter organ reaches but a 
little beyond the origin of the inner palpi, which are robust and furnished with two 
circlets of little spines ranged round the upper and lower ends of the first joint. 

Achelia levis is remarkably free from hairs, merely possessing a few small ones on 
the femoral and tarsal joints. The oculiferous tubercle is much shorter than either 
of the preceding, the inner palpi more closely resembling those of Achelia echinata. 

The two latter species were sent me from Polperro, in Cornwall. 

The rostrum of Phoxichilidium virescens is stout, slightly thickened in the middle, 
truncate at the apex. The foot-jaws are slender and closely approximated at their 
origin, each finger with 6-8 teeth. Legs moderately long. Colour pea-green. 

everal specimens of this species were sent me from Polperro. 

At first sight it might be mistaken for Phovichilidium olivaceum, but the closely 
approximated foot-jaws at once show its distinct character. 

allene pygmea was taken by Mr. Spence Bate so far back as 1853, and by him 
noticed in a paper of that year read before this Association at Hull. It was, how- 
ever, neither named nor described, his remarks bearing upon the larval stages of 
these animals. I have also taken a single specimen upon the Durham coast; it 
may be thus characterized— 


Thorax robust ; legs long and slender, constricted at the joints; last joint fal- 
ciform, with a strong toothed shoulder at the base. Two strong spines on the 
sixth joint. Rostrum short, stout. Foot-jaws closely approximated. Oculi- 
ferous tubercle moderately long. Abdomen stout. 


The three species new to Britain all belong to the genus Nymphon. They were 
described by Kroyer in Gaimard’s ‘Scandinavian Voyage.’ One species, Nymphon 


104 ; REPORT—1863. 


Strémii, has been taken in Shetland by the Rey. A. M. Norman; the other two, 
viz. Nymphon miztum and Nymphon longitarse, have been taken by myself on the 
Durham coast. 

The following list contains all the species at present known to inhabit the British 
seas :— 


Nymphon, Fabricius. Achelia, Hodge. 

gracile, Leach. echinata, Hodge. 
ossipes, Fabricius. hispida, Hodge. 

emoratum, Leach. levis, Hodge. 
pictum. _ Pallene, Johnston. 
giganteum, Johnston. brevirostris, Johnston. 
longitarse, Kroyer. circularis, Goodsir. 
mixtum, Kroyer. pygmea, Hodge. 
Strémii, Kroyer. Phoxichilidium, M.-Edwards. 
hirtum, Fabricius. coccineum, Johnston. 
brevitarse, Kroyer. globosum, Goodsir. 
Johnstoni, Goodsir. olivaceum, Gosse. 
spinosum, Goodsir. petiolatum, Arvéyer (Pallene at- 
pellucidum, Goodsir. tenuata, Hodge). 
simile, Goodsi. virescens, Hodge. 
minutum, Goodsir. Pasithoé, Goodsir. 
brevirostre, Hodge. vesiculosa, Goodsir. 

Ammothoa, Dana. Phoxichilus, Montagu. 
brevipes, Hodge. spinosus, Latreille. 
longipes, Hodge. Pycnogonum, Fabricius. 


littorale, Strdm. 

There can be little doubt that a careful examination of the species found on 
various parts of our coast would add many new forms to this list, especially amongst 
the smaller species. 

Whilst most departments of marine zoology have made rapid strides within the 
last few years, our knowledge of the Pycnogons has scarcely advanced. No doubt 
this is owing in a great measure to the difficulty in determining the species in con- 
sequence of there being no complete list. It is hoped the foregoing may in some 
degree supply this want, and lead to these animals being better known and under- 
stood. 


On the Roman Imperial and Crested Eagles. 
By Joun Hose, MA., F.RS., LS., Se. 


The author, in giving an account of the Roman Imperial Eagle and several 
crested or crowned Eagles, showed that the former bird is the Aguila heliaca of 
pe which, in many of its characters, resembles our Golden Eagle (4. chry- 
saétus). 

The Roman Eagle was not crested ; and when lately engaged on his Memoir on 
Baalbec, the author was led to inquire if any existing species of the Eagle tribe 
could really have been the type of the beautifully sculptured crested Eagles which 
are seen in the pomp of the Sun at Baalbec and at Palmyra, in Syria. 

The author then described several crested or crowned Eagles, two of which are 
natives of Africa, viz. Aguila Desmursti and Spizaétus coronatus ; and these, with the 
Crested Indian Eagle, Spizaétus cirrhatus, inhabiting Nepal and India, might have 
been Inown to the Roman artist, and so have been taken for the model of those 
sculptured birds. He further described the Thrasaétus harpia, furnished with a 
larger crest, as well as that noble bird recently added to the Eagle-collection in 
the Zoological Society’s Gardens in the Regent’s Park, the Harpyhaliaétus coronatus 
of Temminck; but since both these species are natives of South America, they 
could not have influenced the sculptors in their selections of a type. Hence it is 
probable that one or both of the fie birds might have afforded to the Roman 
artists, suggestions for the modelling of the crested Eagles, which are so well 
executed in the temples of those ancient cities. 

Mr. Hogg illustrated his descriptions with several drawings which he had made 
of those sculptured Eagles, and of some of the species under consideration. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 105 


An Account of the Attempts to Transport Salmon to Australia. 
By T. Jounson. 

The = apg employed in the different attempts to carry out the ova and fry 
were exhibited. The author showed specimens of fry hatched from ova which had 
been buried for ninety days in the Wenham Lake Ice Company’s Wells. In the 
same vessel were placed for comparison fish from the same ova, but which have 
been hatched in the ordinary way: these were considerably larger than those pro- 
duced from the preserved ova. 


Note on some Foraminifera dredged by the late Mr. Lucas Barrett at Jamaica. 
By Professor T, Rurrerr Jonus, F.G.S., and W. K. Parker. 


Of these specimens (evidently only the larger and more conspicuous members of 
a rich Rhizopodal fauna), some were taken at from fifteen to twenty fathoms, 
namely, Quingueloculina agglutinans, Q. pulchella, Orbiculina compressa, and O. 
adunca; some at from 50 to 100 fathoms, namely, Orbiculina compressa, Dentalina 
acicula, and Orbitolina vesicularis; and several others at from 100 to 200 fathoms, 
namely, Dentalina acicula, D. communis, Cristellaria rotulata, C. cultrata, C. calcar, 
Frondicularia complanata, Amphistegina vulgaris, Polytrema miniacea, Bigenerina 
nodosaria, Vernewlina tricarinata, Textularia trochus, T, Barrettii, Cuneolina pavo- 
nia, Lituola scorpiurus, and L. Soldanit. 

Cuneolina, a rare form, hitherto known only by figures and descriptions given by 
D’Orbigny, proves (as suspected) to be a modification of Textularia; and T. Bar- 
rettii is intermediate between it and Textularia proper. The Frondicularte are 
remarkably large and beautiful; and the Cristellarie and Dentaline are also large 
and relatively abundant. 

This fauna is almost identical with the fossil Foraminifera of the Pteropod-marl 
of Jamaica, a tertiary stratum, specimens from which were also given by the late 
Mr. Lucas Barrett in 1862 to the authors of this notice. 


Abstract of the Report of a three-wecks’ Dredging-Cruise off Scarborough. 
By J. LEcKENBY. 


The author described the nature of the ground upon the Dogger Bank, distant 
about 70 miles from land—rough gravel (northern drift) with fragments of jasper, 
greenstone-porphyry, &c., similar to those which strew the beach near Scarborough, 
and the purely littoral character of the Dogger fauna; the depth of water on the 
bank ranging from 5 to 15 fathoms, the sea often breaking over the shallower parts. 

He further described the results of dredgings in deep water in apparently lias 
mud, 40 to 50 miles from land, between the Dogger Bank and the coast. Amongst 
others of less note were obtained— 


Fusus Turtoni, Scalaria Trevelyana, 
norvegicus, Bulla Cranchu, 
P ovum, Crenella nigra (very large and fine), 
propinquus (abundant), Nucula tenuis, 
Mangelia nebula, Leda caudata (very large), 
Natica Montagui (very large andfine), | Syndosmya prismatica (very large), 
— greenlandica, Solen pellucidus, 1# in. in length, 


many of the species enumerated not having been hitherto obtained by the dredge. 

He also gave a list of species obtained within 10 miles of the shore, at a depth of 
from 20 to 25 fathoms, and enumerated the various Echinoderms that were obtained, 
and recorded the occurrence amongst the Crustacea of Pagurus cuanensis, hitherto 
only found off the Irish coast. 


On the Irruption of Syrrhaptes paradoxus. By A. Newton, F.L.S, 


These birds, which are commonly known as Pallas’s Sand-grouse, and which are- 
of Chinese origin, have made recent visits to this country, but have been rapidly 
exterminated or driven away. It appeared from the statement of the paper, that 
about 109 of these rare birds had been killed in the British Isles, of which 63 were 
shot in Norfolk and Suffolk. The author strongly condemned the unnecessary 


106 REPORT—1863. 


slaughter which had taken place, and was still taking place, among this species, 
which would have established itself here if it had received the commonest hospi- 
tality. 


On the Morphology of the Ophiuroidea. 
By the Rey. Aurrep Mere Norman. 


The structure of the skeleton in these star-fishes was commented upon with 
especial reference to certain morphological points which were found to be of great 
value in the elucidation of species, but which had not hitherto been attended to 
by British naturalists. The following recent additicns to our fauna were men- 
tioned :—Ophiura Sarsii (Liitken), Ophiwra squamosa (Liitken), Ophiwra affinis 
(Liitken) (synonymous with O. Normani, Hodge), Amphiwra Chiajii (Forbes), 
Ophiopeltis securigera (Duben and Koren), Asteronya Lovéni (M. and T.); and the 
specific characters of the several forms were pointed out. 


On British Holothuriade with reference to new Species. 
By the Re¥. A. M. Norman. 


The object of this paper was to bring together information which is scattered 
through many publications on the naked Echinodermata of Great Britain. Since 
the publication of the late Professor Forbes’s work, several species of interest have 
been added to our fauna—namely, Cucumaria elongata (Duben and Koren), Thyone 
raphanus (Duben and Koren), Psolus sguamata (Duben and Koren), Holothuria 
nigra (Peach), and Synapta inherens (Miller), The author described three new 
species: Psolinus pusillus, taken by My. Alder and Mr. G. Hodge on the coast of 

urham; Zhyone floccosa, from Cornwall; and Synapta tenera, dredged by Mr. D. 
Robertson in the Clyde district. Attention was especially called to the value of 
the examination of the dermal spicula or calcareous plates in determining specific 
character in this order. These plates are generally profusely distributed in the skin 
of the Holothuroidea, and are also found in the feet and tentacles, 


On the Occurrence of the Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus) near 
Wick, N. B. By C. W. Pracu. 


It was found floating dead on the west side of this county (Caithness) in August 
1863, and towed into a small cove near Reay. Its length was between 60 and 70 
feet, and it yielded about 1620 gallons of blubber, spermaceti, and oil. Each lower 
jaw had about 22 teeth. 

Captain Macdonald, of Sandside House, purchased it of the Receiver of Wreck, 
and under his superintendence the skeleton has been carefully preserved. The 
authorities of the British Museum have since purchased it for that institution. 


Notice of a Monstrosity in a Whiting. By CO. W. Ross. 


The fish, which was exhibited to the Section, had three eyes, two in their natu- 
ral position, and one between the two. He believed lusus nature among fish very 
rare, a great authority upon the subject mentioning only two such malformations 
—in one case a contraction of the upper jaw, and in the other an elongation of the 
lower. As a proof of the rarity of these occurrences, it was only necessary to bear 
in mind that, amongst the thousands of whiting brought in, and the hundreds of 
thousands of mackerel and herring, this was the only instance of the kind of which 
there was any note. 


On the Generic Characters furnished by the different Modes of mining Leaves 
adopted by the Larve of Micro-Lepidoptera. By H. T. Sraryton, 
There are no less than 20 different genera of the Tineina of which the laryz 
mine beneath the skins of the leaves of plants; some of these always remain 
miners, having no power of quitting their mine to enter a fresh one; some 
even change to the pupa state within the mine, but the greater number issue 
from their mines when full-fed, some before doing so cut out flat oval cases from 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 107. 


the mined portion of the leaf, in which they descend to the ground, and therein 
change to the pupa state. Some mining larve move freely from one leaf to 
another; some only mine when they are young, feeding externally when about 
half-grown. Some of these mining larve have the usual complement of legs and 

rolegs; some have only 8 prolegs, the first pair of ventral prolegs being absent 5 
finally, some are entirely without legs, and these are difficult to recognize as Lepi- 
dopterous larve. 


On some Elucidations of the Geological History of North Africa, supplied by its 
lacustrine Fauna. By the Rev. H. B. Trisrram. 


On certain Facts on the Variation of Species, which point to Western Asia as the 
centre of Creation for the Palearctic Region. By the Rev. H. B. Tristram. 


On the Physical Geography of the Malay Archipelago. 
By Aurrep R. WALLAcE. 


This archipelago extends from the Nicobars on the north-west to San Cristoval, 
one of the Solomon Islands, on the south-east; and from Luzon, on the north, to 
Rotti, at the south-west angle of Timor, on the south; being an irregularly trian- 
gular area of 292° latitude, by 69° of longitude. For ethnological and other pur- 

oses the Malay peninsula, thengh a portion of the mainland, is included in this 
insular belt ; and analogous reasons induced the determination of the eastern limit. 
The author advocated the insertion in all future atlases of a special map of these 
islands, comprising so many races of man and such variety of physical phenomena 
as to entitle it almost to be regarded as the sixth great division of the globe. The 
immense number of active i distinct voleanos were then mentioned (the islands 
in which the former occur being unusually liable to earthquakes), as also the immense 
forests which, throughout a great portion of the archipelago, clothe even the 
loftiest mountains to their summits; while in other portions these give place to 
arid hills and plains scantily covered with scrub. The meteorological phenomena 
display similar contrasts, some of the islands experiencing the monsoons with the 
utmost regularity, while others show an inconstancy of climate resembling our own. 
But the most marked feature of the physical geography of the region is to be found 
in the fact that one large section is Tact by a very shallow sea with the con- 
tinent of Asia, while a similar submarine plateau unites another portion to Australia; 
the intervening belt of ocean being almost unfathomable. 

The author then subdivided the islands into—1l. Voleanic and Non-volcanic ; 
2. Forest Country and Open Country; 3. Well-marked Seasons and Undefined 
Seasons ; and 4. Western or Indo-Malayan Region, and Eastern or Austro-Malayan 
Region. 

a to the first, Borneo and Celebes formed two central masses, round which the 
volcanic islands are distributed in a band about 5000 miles in length, roughly con- 
forming to their outline, and comprising about fifty active volcanos. Throughout 
this entire length are to be found, at innumerable points, most convincing evidences 
of frequent upheavals and depressions of land, especially of upraised coral-reef. 
The island of Celebes, the great mass of Borneo, and the whole Malay peninsula 
have absolutely no volcano, active or extinct ; and there is a similar quiescent area, 
1000 miles wide, in the great island of New Guinea, where no volcano is known to 
exist nor earthquake to occur in an island estimated to contain 290,000 square 
miles, or 53,000 more than Borneo, hitherto regarded as, after Australia, the largest 
island in the world. Still further to the east occur a few small active volcanos. 

After describing the most striking peculiarities of climate and seasons, the author 
passed to the consideration of the geological formations and zoological products, 
and stated as a recognized fact that one portion of the archipelago is entirely 
Asiatic, while the remaining portion is quite as distinctly Australian. In support 
of this view, he briefly discussed the relations of the geographical distribution of 
animals and plants with geology; and claimed that the same changes in geological 
distribution of land and water, of which we have so many evidences in our pre- 
sent acquaintance with the constituents of the earth’s crust, are still going on. 


108° REPORT—1868. 


Wherever upon islands contiguous to each other or to a continent animals or plants 
of the same or closely analogous descriptions are observed, it will be found, upon 
investigation, that the sea between them is shallow; and that where a deep sea 
divides islands from each other, there entirely different types will be found. An 
upheaval of only 50 fathoms would make dry land of the whole sea intervening 
between Borneo, Java, and Sumatra, and the mainland of Malacca and Siam, while 
the 100-fathom line of soundings includes the Philippines and other groups; from 
which fact he argues the comparatively recent submergence of this part of Asia. 
He then adduced a variety of arguments from the zoological world, instancing 
examples both of Carnivora and Ruminantia which are common to the islands 
named and to Southern Asia, while they are totally unknown to Australia, yet 
which could never have reached the islands of the western section from the’ main- 
land of Asia so long as the ocean retained its present configuration. 

A few anomalies are observable in the Philippines, which could sufficiently be 
accounted for by the more remote period at which they were cut off from Asia, as 
indicated by the greater depth of the intervening ocean. The islands, from Celebes 
and Lombok eastward, present many of the characteristic features of the Austra- 
lian region, as indicated by the shallow sea and the similarity of fauna and flora 
between the eastern section of the Indo-Australian archipelago and Australia, 
while the strait, barely 15 miles wide, between Bali and Lombok, marks the dividing- 
line between the Asian and Australian kingdoms of natural history. From these 
various data a general conclusion may be drawn, that all the islands eastward of 
Borneo and Java formed part of an Australian or Pacific continent, from which 
they were separated at a period not merely long antecedent to the submergence of 
the adjacent portion of the Asiatic continent, but promenly, long before any portion 
of South-eastern Asia emerged from the waves; basing this conclusion upon the 
comparatively recent geological formation of Jaya and Borneo, and on the great 
depth of the sea between Borneo and the eastern section of the archipelago, which 
pointed to a very long period during which the two continents of Asia and Australia 
were widely separated. 

Particular attention was called to the fact that the division of the archipelago 
now pointed out did not correspond to any physical or climatal divisions; for the 
volcanic band runs through both sections, and the climates of Borneo and New 
Guinea are very similar; yet in spite of these, which are usually deemed the neces- 
sary conditions for ensuring similarity of animal life, the most striking contrast 
' between them respectively at once forces itself even upon the most unobservant 

traveller. The differénes between these two sections of the archipelago was further 
illustrated by showing what would be the consequence of the two continents of 
Africa and South America becoming joined in the course of ages by the slow up- 
heaval of the Atlantic bed, and the erosive agency of rivers on either continent. 
If, then, a renewed period of upheavals occurred, islands would have been formed 
similar to those of the Indo-Australian archipelago, yet equally dissimilar as to 
natural history. The paper concluded by urging upon naturalists increased devo- 
tion to that science, as tending to throw light upon many of the most recondite 
questions of the earth’s previous history. 


On the Geographical Distribution of Animal Infe. By A. R. Wattace. 


The author called attention to the six geographical regions established by Dr. 
Selater (Proc. Linn. Soc., Feb. 1858) for ornithology—yviz., 1st, the Neotropical, 
comprising South America and the West Indies; 2nd, the Nearctic, including the 
rest of North America; 3rd, the Palearctic, composed of Europe, Northern Asia 
to Japan, and Africa, north of the Desert; 4th, the Ethiopian, which contains the 
rest of Africa and Madagascar; 5th, the Indian, containing Southern Asia and the 
western half of the Malay archipelago; and 6th, the Australian, which comprised 
the eastern half of the Malay Islands, Australia, and most of the Pacific Islands. 
It was stated that these regions would apply almost equally well to mammalia, 
reptiles, land-shells, and insects; but there were some exceptional cases, which 
it had been thought would render these regions inapplicable to zoology gene- 
rally. These exceptional cases were—lIst, that the fatenakiineld of Japan are 
Palearctic, agreeing with the birds, &c.; but the snakes are altogether Indian, as 


a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 109 


pointed out by Dr. Giinther in his paper on the geographical distribution of reptiles 
(Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858, p. 373); 2nd, that the mammalia of North Africa are 
not European, like the birds; 3rd, that the insects of the Moluccas and New Guinea 
are generally of Indian forms, while the birds and mammals are Australian; and, 
Ath, that the insects of Chili are of North-Temperate and Australian forms, while 
the birds and mammals are mostly of true South-American groups. These cases 
were treated successively ; and it was shown that the statement as to the mammals 
of North Africa was incorrect, and that they really very strongly confirmed the evi- 
dence of the birds and reptiles as to that country being Palearctic. In the other 
cases the anomalies of distribution were explained as being due to special excep- 
tional circumstances, which should not invalidate the general accuracy and useful- 
ness of these divisions. The discrepancies in the distribution of plants, which, 
while often agreeing with those of insects, were much greater, were supposed to be 
in a great measure due to the adventitious action of the glacial epoch and of floating 
ice. In conclusion, naturalists were called upon to furnish detailed information as 
to the agreement or discrepancies of this system of geographical regions in the 
groups to which they paid special attention, so that a final conclusion might be 
arrived at as to the advisability of adopting them for general use. 


PHystoLoey. 


Address by Professor Rotteston, F.R.S., President of the Subsection. 


THE President opened the business of the Subsection by a bibliographical 
survey of recent physiological works, periodical and systematic. Speaking, firstly, 
of British periodicals, he observed that the liberality of our various scientific so- 
cieties in publishing so many volumes of Proceedings in octavo, with illustrations, 
accounted for the more or less popular character of most other English scientific 
journals. More strictly and severely scientific papers were to be found on the Conti- 
nent, in such works as the ‘Zeitschrift,’ published under the auspices of Siebold and 
Kolliker, or the ‘Archiv’ of Reichert and Du Bois Reymond, than we ordinarily saw 
in publications devoted similarly to biological science, and dependent similarly on 
public patronage, in Great Britain. The eae and readiness with which the 
societies alluded to published the most rigidly scientific dissertations made them, 
within these islands, the favourite channel for such communications. On the 
other hand, the fact that a large number of semi-scientific natural-history periodi- 
cals were published in this country proved that a strong taste for such subjects was 
becoming widely diffused throughout it. 

The more exclusively professional and practical medical press gave evidence of 
a similar tendency in the important section of the community for which it was 
intended, by the publication of lengthy series of lectures on the more recondite 
parts of philosophical anatomy, which could scarcely have any very direct bearing 
on the practical exercise of the art of healing. 

Passing from periodical to systematic literature, Professor Rolleston said that 
there were three great departments, viz. that of experimental physiology, that of 
structural and especially of microscopic anatomy, and, thirdly, that of compara- 
tive anatomy, in which accessions both to our knowledge and to our means of ob- 
taining it, had been recently made. In the department of experimental phy- 
siology, Dr. Edward Smith’s, Dr. Davy’s, Dr. Radcliffe’s, and Dr. Pavy’s recent 
works were well known to the Members of the Association, before whom the 
authors had brought, or would upon the present occasion bring, papers. Whilst 
upon this subject, Professor Rolleston made some remarks upon vivisection. A 
defence might be set up for it upon the following grounds, and under the follow- 
ing limitations :—Firstly, in the operations. passing under that name, the first 
thing done in many cases was to extinguish life and sensibility in a manner (as by 
pithing) as much more speedy than the ordinary methods for the destruction of 
animals, as the scalpel of the anatomist was a surer and speedier agent than the 
clumsy tools of the slaughter-house or the uncertain ones of the sportsman. In 


110 REPORT—1863. 


such cases, the term vivisection was a misnomer. Secondly, chloroform was in 
these days almost invariably employable and employed: the cases in which it 
could not be put into use, on account of its introducing some chemical or other 
source of fallacy, were very few. On the other hand, it was quite open to the op- 

onents of vivisection to say, that recognizing the susceptibility to pain which th 

ower creatures had, and, in addition to this, certain rudiments in them of a moral 
nature, as giving them still further claims upon our consideration, and feeling that 
we could not without grievous injury to our own better nature make a practice of 
sacrificing their lives, we were necessitated to regard vivisection as something un- 
justifiable and indefensible, To this it might be replied, that such a line of argu- 
ment, if consistently followed out, would lead, as indeed it had led, to vegetarianism, 
against which the instincts and, even less ambiguously, the practice of the great 
mass of mankind would be found to rebel, at all events at present. And it might 
further be said, that the results of experiments on the lower animals had enabled 
us to understand something of the nature of, and to combat, with something of 
success, the attacks of two terrible human maladies, epilepsy and diabetes. "The 
question was a complex one, very different considerations having to be weighed 
one against the other, one scale containing human, the other brute suffering, 
Wantonness and malignity were, of course, excluded from our consideration ; whilst, 
on the other hand, the means at our disposal for the extinction of sensibility and 
of life diminished the amount of brute suffering to a very small actual residue. 
Nothing, however, could be alleged in favour of vivisection, if practised for the 
sake of obtaining merely greater operative dexterity ; and the whole discussion was 
expressly limited to the consideration of it, as practised in England, by the fol- 
lowing words :—“ In a country like this, where litatin life is highly prized, brute 
misery will never be wantonly produced: ‘The merciful man is merciful unto his 
beast.’ It is possible that, where human life is held cheap, the man who loveth 
not his brother may be wanton in his treatment of the brute. This is not the case 
here, and in a British Association I need allude no further to the matter.” 

In structural (and especially in the microscopic part of structural) anatomy, the 
writings of Professors Beale and Kiihne (both of whom had read papers last year 
before the Subsection) were particularly noteworthy, and the names of Dr. Turner 
and Dr. Roberts were both honourably connected with the subject and with the 
Association. As a periodical, the ‘Quarterly Journal of the Microscopical So- 
ciety,’ and as a systematic work, Virchow’s ‘ Cellular Pathology,’ were deserving 
of our best acknowledgments. 

The important questions of “ Man’s place in Nature,” and of the relative position 
of the several varieties of the species, had neyer received so much attention from 
professed anatomists as within the present year. Professor Huxley’s name at 
home, and Karl Vogt’s abroad, sufficiently illustrated this observation; and Von 
Baer and Rudolph Wagner were devoting the evening of their long lives of success- 
ful biological labour to the elucidation and exposition of this momentous question. 

The most recent systematic work on comparative anatomy with which the 
speaker was acquainted was that of Gegenbaur’s, and it was also a most excellent 
one; and Professor Owen’s edition of Hunter’s ‘Essays and Observations’ was a 
most valuable addition to the literature of that branch of knowledge. 

No place could boast of better workers in zoological anatomy than Newcastle, 
rich in an Albany Hancock, a Joshua Alder, a Dr. Embleton; nor could any local 
natural-history society fairly claim a superiority over the Tyneside Naturalists’ 
Field-Club. 

A new systematic work on zoology was now issuing from the Leipsie press: 
the names of the several authors, Peters, Gerstiicker, and V. Carus, were a very 
abundant guarantee for its anatomical and Seo dies merits. 

The present was a period preeminently fruitful in systematic treatises on phy- 
siology. The excellent English manual, by Dr. Kirkes, had just reached its fifth 
edition; one, if not both, of Dr. Carpenter’s larger works were out of print, and 
would, it might be expected, shortly rea nee in fresh editions. On the Continent, 
Funke’s very comprehensive ‘Lehrbuch’ was possi through its fourth, Vi- 
crordt’s had attained its second, and Budge’s within the present year its eighth 
edition. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ‘lil 


The remainder of the Address consisted of considerations, firstly, of the general 
usefulness and, secondly, of the educational value and applicability of the natural- 
history sciences. 


On the Ventilation of Barracks and other Public Buildings in India. By 
Srewarr Crarx, Inspector-General of Prisons in the North-west Provinces. 


All the barracks recently erected in India are well supplied with means for natural 
ventilation ; still, when occupied by the regulation number of men, the air during 
night-time is very impure. It has been shown that, in a tropical climate, natural 
ventilation will not proceed during certain atmospheric conditions; and however 
well any apartment may be supplied with doors, windows, &c.,no movement of the 
internal air sufficient to change the atmosphere will take place. Therefore venti- 
lation by artificial means must be resorted to; otherwise the inmates must suffer. 
It is evident that, on account of the climate, the peculiar construction of suitable 
buildings renders ventilation by heat or vacuum impracticable, and therefore the 
“plenum” is the only method by which the ventilation under consideration can be 
accomplished. Fresh air forced into an apartment may not, it is true, completely 
expel the foul; but if openings for the ingress of the air be judiciously arranged, 
the greater part of it will be got rid of by the open doors and ventilators, and what 
remains will be so completely diluted that no harm will come of inhaling it. An 
ordinary blower, 4' 9” x 2' 6", constructed on the eccentric principle, with a revolv- 
ing fan 3' 9" 2’ 5’, and worked by manual labour, will discharge (allowing even a 
broad margin for laziness on the part of the driver) 4000 cubic feet of air per minute, 
and will throw into two apartments 70’ x 20’ each, through forty suitably arranged 
openings, upwards of 2000 cubic feet of air per minute, being at the rate of more 
es double the quantity (estimated at 20 cubic feet per minute) generally con- 
sidered necessary for the complete removal of putrescent matters from soldiers’ 
dormitories. A number of plates accompanying the paper exhibited the plan of a 
barrack 70'X20', arranged with twenty beds, ventilated by forced ventilation, 
with sections and elevations of the whole apparatus, which the author had reason 
to believe was well adapted to the ventilation of soldiers’ barracks and other public 
buildings in hot climates. The whole apparatus is of the most simple kind: it can 
be erected and kept in perfect working order by any ordinary joiner. The apparatus 
now in use at the Agra Prison was erected entirely by the prisoners. The first one 
was constructed for a corridor of sixty-eight cells, and cost about £24 (240 rupees), 
including the cost of convict labour at the usual rates, Eight men are required to 
work each blower during twenty-four hours. Supposing the apparatus adjusted 
for two barracks, each arranged for twenty beds, so that the same blower will do 
for both, and cost at the usual contract rates £50 (500 rupees), or £1 5s, (12 
rupees 6 a.) per soldier for plant—the cost of working per mensem at 7s. (5 rupees 
8 a.) per coolie being £2 16s., or 28 rupees—the total cost per annum for each 
soldier, including wear and tear, &c., would not exceed £1, or 10 rupees. This 
will be admitted to be no large outlay for the benefits of good ventilation. Such 
an outlay, calculated on the aggregate of the European force in India, would 
amount to a very large item; but supposing that good ventilation would prevent 
at least one-half of the frightful sickness and mortality that take place in the 
Indian army, which he believed it would do, the balance-sheet at the end of the 
year would be in favour of improved ventilation, independently of the increased 
efficiency of the soldiers and of the army generally. 


On the Ligamentous Action of the Long Muscles in Man and other Animals. 
By Dr. Crevanp. 


The author pointed out that, in the human subject, maximum flexion of the hip- 
joint could not be obtained along with full extension of the knee, on account of the 
shortness of the hamstring muscles ; and so also maximum flexion of the ankle-joint, 
along with full extension of the knee, was prevented by the shortness of the gastro- 
cnemius muscle. This limitation of movements by the shortness of muscles, he said, 
was best seen in the humeral region of the horse, where it was so great that very little 
flexion or extension of the shoulder could occur without a corresponding movement 


112 REPORT—18638. 


at the elbow; well-marked instances of similar interdependence of joints were 
to be found in other parts of the horse, and also in other animals—e. g. in the legs 
and wings of birds. He proceeded to show that movements of that description 
in the humeral region of the horse were exactly those most frequently and usefully 
employed by human beings; that the shoulder and elhow were usually flexed 
and extended together; that likewise in walking, leaping, &c., flexion and exten- 
sion of the hip, knee, and ankle went together; that in those movements the 
long muscles were not alternately contracted and extended, but kept in a state of 
medium contraction, very slightly altering their length, and were, therefore, evi- 
dently not the muscles which produced those movements. On the other hand, it was 
shown that a muscle passing over two joints, if maintaining a definite length, would 
cause another muscle passing over only one of them to act upon both. It was 
argued that, in the movements referred to, the long muscles gave force, but not 
velocity. 


Note on the Change of Attitude which takes place in Infants beginning to Walk, 
By Dr. Crevanp. 


This paper was illustrative of two drawings traced from a mesial section of the 
body of a newly born child. One of the drawings showed the position of the ver- 
tebral column when the head was bent forwards, and the thighs flexed upon the 
body; the other its position when the body was stretched straight with the thighs 
in a line with the trunk. It was shown that the vertebral column of the newly 
born child was capable of being curved in any direction in its extent above the 
sacrum, but that the sacral concavity forwards was already formed. The limbs, 
however, could only be made to lie in a straight line with the trunk by bending 
the pelvis back, so as to develope the lumbar convexity forwards of the column. 
Thus the straightening of the limbs when the child begins to walk was shown to 
be effected not by mere motion of the pant but by development of the lumbar 
convexity of the vertebral column. In the drawing of the stretched body the brim 
of the pelvis was vertical; in the other drawing it was 52° removed from being in 
a straight line with the lumbar vertebree immediately above it. 


Some Observations on the Eggs of Birds. By Joun Davy, M.D., F.RS., Se. 


The author, after pointing out certain qualities of resemblance common to the 
eggs of different kinds of birds, such as especially the alkaline nature of the albu- 
men and the acid of the yelk, and that the two are in opposite electrical conditions, 
described the results of the experiments he had made to endeavour to ascertain in 
what respects the eggs of different species differ. Some of the conclusions which 
his results seem to warrant are the following :— 

1. As to the colour and markings of eggs, these are so very various, that the 
colouring-matter is of an organic kind very similar to that of leaves and flowers, 
and in part depends on molecular arrangements. 

2. That the albumen in quantity greatly exceeds the yelk, but in eggs of differ- 
ent species in no regular manner, whilst in all the quantity of solid matter in the 
yelk is proportionally much larger than in the white. 

3. That the temperature at which the coagulation of the albumen takes place 
varies in almost every instance, and that the firmness of the coagulum does not 
appear to be regulated by the proportion of solid matter which the albumen yields 
on evaporation. 

4. That the coagulum of each has an aspect of its own, varying in different 
instances as to tint and degree of translucency, and in some varying in colour. 

The author, taking into consideration the many sources of error to which experi- 
ments on eggs are exposed, offers his results, and the conclusions from them, merely 
as approximations. 


Some Observations on the Blood, chiefly in relation to the question, Is Ammonia 
one of its Normal Constituents? By Joun Davy, M.D., F.RS., 6. 


Of the many questions relating to the blood, there are two, the author observed, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 113 


which have lately had much consideration :—one, as to the coagulation of that 
fluid, whether owing to the escape of ammonia? the other, whether the blood in a 
healthy state contains the volatile alkali? Referring to the first question, he stated 
his reasons for answering in the negative. The second question is, he thinks, 
more difficult to answer. The conclusions which he thinks are warranted by the 
results of varied experiments which he has made, are the following :— 

1. That they are confirmatory of the inference that the coagulation of the blood 
is not owing to the escape of ammonia. 

2. That they are favourable to the conclusion that the blood generally contains a 
minute portion of ammonia. 

3. That the ammonia which is found in the air expired in respiration, and in the 
insensible cutaneous perspiration, is derived from the blood, and is yielded in union 
with carbonic acid. 

4, That the proportion of the volatile alkali is greater in venous than in arterial 
blood, and in ths Flood of the Batrachians and of other animals in which the aéra- 
tion of this fluid is less perfect than in birds and Mammalia of higher temperature. 


Notes on certain Parts of the Anatomy of a Young Chimpanzee. 
By Dr. Emsreron. 


In these notes, a general description of the young male, with dimensions of the 
trunk and extremities, and of the alimentary canal, is given. The dentition, ver- 
tebree, and ribs are noticed. The muscles of the leg below the Imee, and of the 
foot, are described. 

The different parts of the encephalon, and the relation of the posterior lobes of 
the cerebrum to the cerebellum, are reviewed. 

The conclusions drawn are in conformity with the deductions of Prof. Huxley, 
namely :—1. That the posterior extremity of the Chimpanzee is a foot, and not a 
hand. 2. That the posterior lobes of the cerebrum in the Chimpanzee are deve- 
loped so as fully to overlap the cerebellum, both laterally and posteriorly ; and that 
all the parts of the human encephalon are represented in that of the Chimpanzee. 


On the Reciprocal Action between Plants and Gases. By R. Garver, F.L.S. 


In this paper the author brought forward the subject of the natural inhalations 
and exhalations of plants, and of the effects on vegetation of certain contaminations 
of the atmosphere, such as occur in coal and mining districts, consisting for the 
most part of sulphurous and hydrochloric acids and of ammonia. As regards the . 
first question, he denied any power in ordinary plants to absorb watery vapour or 
water through the leaves, as exemplified by immersing the tops or leaves of droop- 
ing shoots in water, or by exposing them to a moist atmosphere. He noticed, too, 
that the avidity which water has for carbonic acid explains the facility with which 
it is taken in by the roots, or withdrawn by the juices of the leayes from the air. 
He guarded against this avidity in his experiments by covering the surface of the 
water in the bell-glasses containing his plants with a stratum of oil; and thus it 
may be clearly proved that growing plants or plucked leaves rapidly absorb in the 
sun a large amount of carbonic acid, though an atmosphere containing one quar- 
ter or one half of the same has in a short time an ee influence on them. 
With respect to their exhalation of oxygen in the sun, he found that about 160 
square inches of the upper and lower surface of young holly-leaves gave off in a 
long summer day 1} in. of oxygen, or a holly-bush about breast high 40 in. in the 
same time. Plants, even if heaithy and growing, give off carbonic acid in the dark, 
so did the petals of plants even in sunshine, though in some cases no gas at all. 
Autumnal leaves appeared to absorb oxygen. With respect to the second point— 
the injurious effects of certain vapours upon plants—he observed that those men- 
tioned above appear to act as corrosives. That they all are given off in the districts 
in question is shown from the a nee of sulphur and muriate of ammonia to be 
seen upon the scoriz of the mine-heaps. Phosphorus and coal-gas are less preju- 
dicial than those above-mentioned ; pure hydrogen, nitrogen, and the vapour of 
chloroform still more innocuous. In fact, plants having no nervous centre are not 


1863. 


114 REPORT—1863. 


easily poisoned, except by corrosives, or by excess of stimulus to the roots—too 
much guano for instance ; delicate plants may be watered with a solution of mor- 
phia or of hydrocyanic acid with impunity. With respect to chemical impurities 
of the air, different plants have different susceptibilities for such influence, and the 
greater or less impurity of the atmosphere may, indeed, be shown from the effects 
on plants. Thus the rhododendron will flourish in an air fatal to the common 
laurel ; wheat will luxuriate when a holly or oak will die. Some plants which 
appear naturally to luxuriate in the coal strata—as the oak, holly, or some ferns— 
die when the mines begin to be worked. Fortunately, annuals suffer least; for 
instance, corn and wheat do well where nothing else can, and perhaps the exhala- 
tions in question may even tend to ripen them. An increasing deterioration of the 
atmosphere in towns and mining districts may be estimated by means of plants as 
follows:—1. In the smallest degree of impurity trees are destitute of the leafy 
lichens; and Ericz, the Scotch fir, and the larch die. 2. Next, the common lau- 
rel, the Deodara cedar, the Ivish arbutus, the laurestinus, and the yew die, 3. The 
araucaria, the thuja, the common cedar, the mezereon, and the Portugal laurel die. 
4, The common holly, the rhododendron, the oak, and the elm die. 5. Annuals 
still live, and the almond, poplar, and many roses thrive, fruit-trees are barren, 

eas unproductive. 6, Hieracia, Reseda lutea, the elder, some saxifrages and se- 

ums, with many syngenesious and cruciferous weeds still luxuriate. 


On a Parasitical Acarus of the Anodon. By R. Garner, F.L.S. 


The little Arachnoid in question inhabits the gills of the Anodon, and was fully 
described as the Atazx ypsilophora by Van Beneden. The author also worked out 
its history: the ova, deposited in the mantleof the mollusk; the larvee, with rostrum ; 
the eyes, at first four and then two in number; moulting, and till the last moult 
minus one pair of legs. The author attributes the formation of pearls par excellence 
to the presence of a distoma. Around these parasites, as nuclei, shelly matter is 
deposited, sometimes at first dark in colour, sometimes clear nacre from the com- 
mencement. Hence pearls may have a dark centre or not, or, if the dark deposit 
goes on, a black or purple pearl may be formed. It is sometimes impossible to dis- 
tinguish a distoma from an incipient pearl, except by pressure, when the pearl will 
burst; or polarized light will show the layer of shelly matter, or frequently the 
organization of the distoma may be seen through the nacreous covering. But other 
irritants may, exceptionally, the author admits, give rise to the formation of pearls 
or pearly prominences, as for instance the ova of parasites. Those of the Ataz, 
when they are deposited in the external layer of the mantle of the mollusk, produce 
numerous pearly prominences to be seen upon the interior surface of the shell to- 
wards the retral extremity, 


Further Observations on the Normal Position of the Epiglottis. 
By Georer D. Gres, W.D., MA., F.GS. 


When this subject was brought before the Association last year, it was the 
generally received opinion that the epiglottis in the healthy state was always erect 
and perpendicular. Its peculiar structure fayoured this view. The examination 
of 300 healthy persons, up to the month of October 1862, has shown the author 
that, in a certain percentage, the cartilage was in a semipendent, transverse, 
oblique, or nearly quite horizontal position. This was during passiye examination, 
independently of the act of swallowing, of phonation, or of any motion in the 
structures of the throat, and carefully observed when the tongue was protruded 
forward and held outside the mouth. Up to the present time, he had examined 
ag many as 680 persons, of various ages and sex, as or less in perfect health, 
or nearly approaching to it, and the percentage, curiously enough, remained the 
same—namely, eleven; that is, eleven persons out of every 100 individuals pos- 
sess an epiglottis whose position is not erect. This striking difference between an 
erect and a pendent epiglottis is a question of the highest importance in everything 
appertaining to voice and throat, whether in health or disease. The pendent con- 
dition of the epiglottis is sometimes congenital, and, when it occurs in the young, 
there is great danger to life during their passage through the diseases of child- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 115 


hood, especially those likely to involve the throat. As vaccination in the youn 

is a preventive or modifier of small-pox, so may the knowlege of the condition o: 

the epiglottis act as a safeguard in the treatment of diseases of the throat, more 
particularly in such terrible affections as croup, diphtheria, and the different forms 
of cedema of the larynx from scarlet fever or other disease. 


On Voluntary Closure of the Glottis, independently of the Act of Breathing. 
By Georer D. Gres, M.D., MA., F.GS. 


Voluntary control over the muscles of the larynx has been surmised, but never 
proved. In certain individuals, however, complete voluntary power is possessed 
over the laryngeal muscles ; and this was discovered in the course of some experi- 
ments performed by the author upon his own larynx with the aid of the laryngo- 
scope. They showed that the action of the posterior crico-arytenoid and the 
thyro-arytenoid muscles could be excited at pleasure by the will, without phona- 
tion and independently of the act of respiration; that is to say, breathing was 
interrupted for a few moments, and muscular action induced, the resulting ap- 
pearances being seen in the laryngeal mirror. 

It is considered to be more than probable, nay, almost certain, by some of our 
best physiologists, that all the muscles of the larynx are in a state of action during 
phonation ; and through the general harmony and sympathy which exists every- 
where amongst groups of muscles associated for one common purpose, it is assumed 
with perfect correctness that their states of action and relaxation are adjusted in 
such nicely balanced proportions as to produce the effect required by an education 
and practice of which the will is scarcely cognizant. -A priort, therefore, if volun- 
tary power is possessed over one set of muscles, it must be equally so in neigh- 
bouring groups, because of this harmony and sympathy existing among such 
muscles as those of the larynx in phonation. 

Whilst one group is therefore seen to act through voluntary power, it is but 
reasonable to assume that other groups are simultaneously influenced by the same 
agency ; and this can be proved to be correct. 

In the author’s larynx, if he deeply inspires and forcibly or strongly draws in 
the air, the glottis is seen widely open, the thyro-arytenoid muscles and vocal 
cords are drawn laterally outwards, and under favourable circumstances the trachea 
can be seen throughout its entire length, permitting of a view of its bifurcation and 
commencement of the bronchial tubes. This act is accomplished during breathing 
by the action of the posterior crico-arytenoid muscles. 

If, on the other hand, the breathing is arrested for a few moments, and the 
action of the little muscles excited by the will, there is seen a remarkable pheno- 
menon, which consists in the opening and shutting of the glottis with extreme 
rapidity, in the same manner as the blades of a pair of scissors. 

he glottis may be retained of a triangular shape, perfectly motionless, or kept 
quite shut, the edges remaining in contact, at pleasure. So complete is the con- 
trol over the laryngeal muscles in the author, that the balance of contraction and 
relaxation of the fibres may be so accurately regulated as to retain the glottis of 
any form, size, or width, at will, for some seconds, without an inspiration. 
hen the lips of the glottis are in contact, and so retained, the pressure is such, 
during the muscular contraction, that the fibres of the aryteno-epiglottic or Hil- 
ton’s muscle are set in action, and the epiglottis is drawn downwards, and to some 
extent conceals the glottis. This last phenomenon further proves the voluntary 
power possessed over a set of fibres which were considered as the least likely to be 
under the control of the will, for their action was called spasmodic or convulsive, 
which permitted of the rapid passage of the food over the glottis and its precipita- 
tion into the cesophagus. 

According to Bishop, the posterior crico-arytenoid muscles alone open the 
glottis, while all the rest close it. As the reflection of the voluntary action of the 
thyro-arytenoid muscles can be seen, of necessity the arytenoid and lateral crico- 
arytenoid act at the same moment, and as their fibres relax, those of the posterior 
crico-arytenoid contract, and thus the glottis is opened and shut by the will, 
during the alternate and simultaneous action of these muscles whilst agit 


116 REPORT—1863. 


is temporarily suspended. For the moment the author hazarded the opinion that 
the voluntary muscular power begins in the crico-thyroid muscles in approximating 
the two cartilages and rotating the cricoid on the thyroid, thus forming a point 
@appui for the continuance of muscular action in the other laryngeal muscles, 
although the crico-thyroid exert at the same time their own influence on the 
tension of the vocal cords when they depress and draw forward the thyroid and 
raise and tilt backwards the cricoid cartilage, at the same time rotating the one 
cartilage upon the other. 

The author’s experiments he considered conclusively settled the question that 
in some persons, and probably in all if attempts were made, true voluntary power 
is possessed over the muscles of the larynx, and to such an extent that the glottis 
may be closed with a distinctly audible flapping noise, chiefly by the powerful and 
rapid contraction of the thyro-arytenoid muscles and their coordinate assistants, 
but especially the crico-thyroid, which, anal with the thyro-arytenoid, regulate 
the tension, position, and vibrating length of the vocal cords. 


On the Renal Organ (the so-called Water System) in the Nudibranchiate 
Mollusks. By A. Hancock. 


On the Physiological Effect produced by Apparatus contrived for the purpose of 
causing a Vacuum upon the entire Body, or a part thereof. By Dr. Junon. 


How to Restore Drowned Persons, Patients in Chloroform Accidents, fc. By 
Cartes Kipp, M.D., Member of the Royal College of Surgeons, England, 
Associate of the Surgical Society, Ireland. 


Since the previous Meeting of the Association, one very remarkable instance of 
accident from inhalation of chloroform vapour had come under the personal notice 
of the author, which he was desirous to bring pepe the Section. It has been a 
sort of experimentum crucis to prove the truth of certain views recently promul- 
gated by him (as our volumes of ‘Transactions’ will testify), which it is not ne- 
cessary here again to state in detail. It has been a sort of experimentum crucis 
eae in a case of suspended animation in an hospital patient from chloro- 

orm, where certain manipulations, which have proved effectual in hundreds of 
experiments on the lower animals, poisoned on eens by chloroform, have also 
proved unexpectedly valuable in saving human life in this instance. 

In these previous papers (it may be shortly stated) the author showed that 
from a large number of experiments on animals with anzsthetic vapours, espe- 
cially by contrasting the effects of ether, chloroform, carbonic acid, carbonic 
oxide, &c., while the two latter disorganized the blood, and ether produced a kind 
of deep intoxication like alcohol, the effect of chloroform (while less persistent) 
was that of a more useful anesthetic for general purposes. It was a on that 
chloroform did not act very materially on the blood, or cause intoxication; and, 
moreover, that where deaths unhappily occurred from chloroform, the accident 
was not necessarily due, as ae taught in the schools, to deep narcotism or 
paralysis of the heart’s action (“cardiac syncope”), but rather to narcotism or 
paralysis of the voluntary respiratory nerves and muscles, which, in a secondary 
manner (but only in an incidental and not important manner), induced, as a post- 
mortem result, this so-called state of cardiac syncope. 

The author also explained, at considerable detail, the nature and probable 
proportion of accidents from this cardiac syncope, or, as he now prefers calling it, 
APN@A or muscular apnoea, as also the probable proportion or percentage of acci- 
dents that happened (perhaps as coincidences) during a state of simple SYNCOPE ; 
the modus operandi of these proximate or immediate causes being different, as also 
the plan of resuscitation adapted to apnoea or to syncope being different, founded 
on this mode of operation of these causes. 

It was explained at some length, that the present discovery of the true nature 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 117 


of chloroform accidents is of singular importance, as it bears in a marked manner 
on the entire physiology of apnoea, viz. the apnoea and treatment of persons drowned, 
the resuscitation of still-born children, the recovery to life of patients suffocated in 
coal-mines, or individuals dug in a state of apnoea out of the ruins of tumbled-down 
houses, or even the restoration to life of persons “found dead” in bed at night 
from the effects of an overloaded stomach (from indigestion) pressing on the dia- 
phragm, but oftener ascribed to a mythical disease, “fatty heart.” 

Reasoning deeply on various groups of facts, partly practical in hospitals, partly 
pathological, partly experimental on animals, as seen in the dead-house, partly em- 
pirical from observations now of some ten thousand administrations of these agents, 
the author leans to the belief that, under chloroform or ether, the heart is never 
attacked by the sudden paralysis which popular fancy as also some writers have 
sought to convey by the words cardiac syncope : we have had an erroneous or wrong 
interpretation of the facts. 

He contends, as a matter of reasoning, that if in one hundred experiments on 
dogs, rabbits, &c., poisoned by chloroform, the most marked or only marked post- 
mortem appearances be gorging of the right cavities of the heart, if in the human 
subject the same condition of the pulmonic or right heart be found, as it is, 
the previous statistical or bare induction from the facts that this gorging of the 
heart is the result of paralysis from chloroform (cardiac syncope), and the imme- 
diate cause of death, is not true, as there has been an anterior condition more im- 
portant overlooked, viz. that this gorging of the right heart is merely the result of 
(apnoea or) the lungs not receiving the blood from the heart thus vainly striving 
to push it forward ; it is the function of the lungs and diaphragm, in a word, that 
is at fault, and what has been overlooked by mere experimenters of a vivisectional 
kind on animals; that, in hospital, the patients under chloroform usually struggle 
very violently, as if suffocating; and also when alarm of accidents arises, the pa- 
tient’s limbs are actively rubbed in the course of the veins, all which tends power- 
fully to engorge or fill the right side of the heart: the heart, in fine, strives ac- 
tively to push forward this blood; but the lungs are in a state of paralysis, and do 
not receive it. 

Electricity to the heart is useless in all these cases; but electricity to the dia- 
phragm and respiratory muséles, as causing full artificial respiration, unloading 
the lungs and heart-cavities, &c., acts like magic. To support his view, other 
logical deductions were quoted by the author. It is against the analogy of the 
action of chloroform, so peculiarly confined to muscles of the voluntary kind, that it 
should act on the heart. It is contrary to all clinical observation of the pulse and 
action of the heart in thousands of hospital cases deeply narcotized, the pulse 
being almost always increased in volume and strength, even so much so that 
some good observers can see no explanation of the deaths but by over-stimulation 
and over-action which induce this gorging of its cavities: the heart, in experi- 
ments under chloroform, is, in fact, wltimewm moriens. Again, it often occurs that 
the pulse, before taking chloroform, may, in patients, be almost imperceptible 
and very slow, with a heart equally feeble, but both improve in force and number 
of beats as the narcotism of the chloroform becomes more and more advanced: 
even Dr. Snow describes the pulse as thus usually increased in foree by chloro- 
form—a paradox he admits he cannot explain. Again, the deaths from chloroform 
do not usually occur from or in deep narcotism or coma, but generally in the stage 
of excitement or half-narcotism, and want of proper relation of the capacity of 
the lung (diminished perhaps) to the supply of blood in excess crowded into or 
engorging the large veins and right auricle and ventricle: a form of tetanic rigi- 
dity, with spasm of the glottis, explains the condition. 

omparing thus one group of facts with another group, the best form of deduc- 
tive reasoning, the error in the earlier hasty generalization is corrected; and when 
we remember that there have been now nearly 200 deaths in surgical operations from 
this mistake or generalization, its correction becomes a matter of grave importance. 
The remedy which promises such good effects, which was used in the case of the 
poor lady dead from chloroform, the subject of the present communication (and has 
since been referred to in the leading medical journals in three other instances of 
apnoea from chloroform accident or drowning, with the same admirable good re- 


118 REPORT—18638. 


sults), is the ‘“Faradization” form of electricity, (not applied to the heart, but) 
solely to or through the respiratory muscles, diaphragm, phrenic nerve, &c., so as 
to assist or originate, apparently, the only true form of artificial respiration so 
desirable. This form of electricity cures hemiplegia, by renewing the vital activity 
of muscles paralyzed for a time by a clot in the brain; but the ordinary electricity 
is directed Mack along the nerve to the brain, already disordered, and does mis- 
chief, and near the eye, for instance, may cause total blindness. So that, where 
we have already the brain under chloroform, the “ Faradization ” plan acts better 
by stimulating merely the diaphragm and other respiratory muscles; the mode 
of application found best in animals being an intermittent but gentle current 
passed through the phrenic nerve (where the omohyoid muscle im the neck lies 
at the outer edge of the sterno-mastoid) by means of the wetted sponge (not the 
dry sponge),—the other pole or sponge also, as in this lady’s case, wetted, applied 
somewhere about the floating ribs nearest to the diaphragm, or, still better, one or 
two acupuncture needles stuck at once into the latter muscle, so as to excite alter- 
nate action of the current from the neck to the respiratory muscles, and imitate 
normal respiration, In animals, this plan succeeds in a manner almost marvellous 
in restoring life where suspended animation exists. 

The patient, in the present case, was a poor married lady, otherwise in fair 
health, admitted to one of our private hospitals or “ homes,” who was operated 
on by one of the plastic operations on the female organs, so successful of late, 
thanks, too, in a great measure, to the calming influence of chloroform. Near 
the end of the operation, the author (Dr. Kidd), who watched the respiration and 
pulse all through its performance, was alarmed by both stopping, then going on 
again, but finally stopping, with all the usual signs of death by chloroform; the 
woman, in fact, lay in a state that it might be said death had obviously set in: 
she was cold, pulseless, without motion or breathing, her face like stone. The 
utmost alarm was instantly felt. The so-called “ready method” of Marshall Hall, 
as also the Silvester method of artificial respiration, were persistently had recourse 
to; still there was no pulse, no breathing, no animation. The lifeless or all but 
lifeless body, in a word, lay, as many of the animals poisoned by chloroform are 
seen to lie, till roused up by electricity. The author of the paper sent at once 
for the magneto-electric battery. Some confusiom arose at first in its appli- 
cation, as the handles or poles were not insulated, and the author himeel? was 
receiving the shocks, till a German physician, standing by, happily caught the 
metallic handles with his coat-tails (non-conductors). This ital incident is 
mentioned to show how totally unprepared for such accidents our London hos- 
pitals are. All the persons standing by, too, were erroneously solicitous that the 
electricity should be applied at once to the heart ; but the directions of the 
author were not to the heart at all, but to the phrenic nerve and diaphragm, as 
already described. The poor patient had now been lying some quarter of an hour 
pulseless, cold, and without breath, indeed Bai “dead.” Off and on, 
alternately, the moist poles were now applied about twelve times each minute, so 
as to imitate in somewise the stimulus af ordinary contractions of the diaphragm ; 
and soon, to the delight of the operator and all around, a deep sighing inspiration 
was noticed at each Thcak of the circle (this was a great relief ), increasing in full- 
ness till it was evident good respiration was established. No pulse, however, was 
yet perceptible, and cardiac action was still watched for with much eagerness. Mi- 
nutes on minutes passed away as hours: the patient moaned at the excitement of 
the phrenic and a pin stuck into the diaphragm (the author's scarf-pin, as no other 
was to be had); but still it was thought desirable to continue the application of 
the electricity: there was soon a flicker of the pulse, but not till the expiration of 
two hours was the pulse quite reestablished. It is worth being added, that the 
woman quite recovered, and had no recollection whatever of the four hours her 
life was in the balance and under the surgical operation. The case, as already 
stated, is chiefly remarkable as fully bearing out the efficacy of this form of elec- 
tricity, and applied only in this manner, as previously tried in hundreds of experi- 
ments on the lower animals. It has now been tried in four cases on the human 
subject. It places a serious responsibility on our London and other hospitals where 
the author’s views haye not yet been examined, and where deaths are ocewrring 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 119 


very often; nor is it the least valuable portion of the present researches that they 
seem applicable to all forms of apnoea, whether from drowning, or chloroform, or 
suffocation in coal-mines, or resuscitation of still-born children, &c.—all forms of 
stoppage of heart, indirectly arising from want of artificial or natural respiration. 
The discovery may not appear so valuable or new to some who have not studied 
the subject, but it is eminently both one and the other, when taken in conjunc- 
tion with the fact, only half known in the schools, that the “cardiac syncope ” of the 
standard books does not begin at all in the heart, but (as the author's researches 
in previous volumes of ‘Transactions’ testify) in the lungs, and probably by a 
form of tetanic rigidity of the respiratory muscles, 


On the Inwestigation of Instinctive Actions. By Dr. W. Murray, 


The conclusion arrived at by the author was, that the instinctive movements of 
animals, and their nervous or psychical constitution, did not differ from those of 
man in kind, but in degree. Movements are classed by him under two heads :— 
1st. The simple, of which the volitional, emotional, and the reflex are varieties. 
2nd. The compound, made up of two or more of the former. In man the volitional 
movements, as representing reason and experience, are immensely superior to the 
others. As we descend in the scale, we find emotion as the originator of the 
purely instinctive movements become more prominent. Lower still in the scale, 
we find all the movements necessary to the life of the animal left to the care and 
control of reflex action. The author concluded that the amount of intelligence 
possessed by animals may be estimated by the extent to which the volitional con- 
— the emotional and reflex movements, inasmuch_as volition is the representative 
of reason. 


On the Practicability of Arresting the Development of Epidemic Diseases by the 
Internal Use of Anti-Zymotice Agents. By Dr. G. Roxrnson. 


The author commenced by referring to the circumstance of the analogy between 
many of the phenomena of zymotic diseases and the ordinary process of fermenta- 
tion having Boss perceived and recognized by Hippocrates and the oldest writers 
on medicine. Their idea was, that a poisonous ferment, existing in the atmosphere, 
entered the mass of blood, and induced in it a series of changes, which gave rise 
to the excessive heat and other peculiarities of that class of diseases. At the pre- 
sent time, this doctrine, modified by the discoveries of Liebig and other chemists, - 
has been adopted by most physicians, and forms the basis of the classification of 
diseases framed by Dr. Farr, and used by the Registrar-General. It thus supposes 
living germs to exist in the atmosphere, which, when introduced into the body, 
give rise to a specific and regular series of morbid actions, pursuing a definite course 
in a definite time, as in small-pox—those germs being developed and multiplied, 
and producing others capable of reproducing in other bodies the same succession 
of changes. Other rtnclagints have supposed that the atmospheric poison acts on 
the blood chemically, by giving rise to what may be termed catalytic actions ; while 
the author is disposed to ‘believe, from what he saw during the cholera epidemic in 
Newcastle, in 1853, that some of these volatile organic matters in the atmosphere 
are capable of acting on the animal body as direct poisons, and that this inanimate 
volatile matter also furnishes nutrition to the organic germs suspended in the air. 
After these preliminary remarks, he proceeded to refer briefly to a number of scat- 
tered facts, which seemed to him to indicate the existence of a great principle, which 
might hereafter be found applicable to the perEOe or mitigation of epidemic 
diseases, by the direct use of substances capable of arresting the process of morbific 
fermentation. He mentioned the following facts as converging to this conclusion: 
—1. Antiseptic substances, ranging from simple innocuous matters, such as sugar, 
up to the powerful metallic poisons, such as corrosive sublimate, and forming 
a very numerous and diversified group, have been long known to be capable of 
arresting the putrefaction of animal and vegetable structures. 2. The same sub- 
stances prevent the formation of fungi, as is seen in the use of solutions of metallic 
salts in taxidermy, in the prevention of dry-rot, &c. 8. Many of those agents are 


120 . REPORT—1863. 


also known to arrest at once the process of fermentation—as, for instance, sul 
phurous acid; and Erni and other chemists have observed under the microscope the 
rapid stoppage of the vitality of the yeast-plant when a solution of arsenious acid 
was added to the fermenting liquor. 4. The formation of the fungus in and on 
the plant, which causes the vine disease, is prevented by applying sulphur 
to the affected vines. 5. In Cornwall, it is believed that the arsenical fumes 
from the tin-calcining furnaces exercised an influence over the potato plants 
in the neighbourhood, which preserved them from the disease then affecting 
other parts of the same county. [A statement to this effect, signed by Capt. 
Charles Thomas, sen., of Dolcoath, and sixteen cottagers, was here read.] 
6. It has been found that when a species of fermentation has taken place in the 
human stomach, resulting in the development in large quantities of a minute orga- 
nism (the Sarcina ventriculi), this morbid action can be controlled and stopped by 
the direct anti-zymotic influence of certain salts, such as sulphite of soda, in doses 
perfectly compatible with the patient’s safety. 7. In different parts of the world, 
among different races, a belief has long existed that certain antiseptic substances, 
of which arsenic may be taken as the type, are capable of acting as antidotes or 
preservative and curative agencies against atmospheric and other poisons ; and in 
some cases that popular belief has proved to be well founded. The experience of 
the multitude discovered the value of arsenic as a cure for ague long before it was 
recognized as such by physicians. The arsenical fumes of certain works in Corn- 
wall were stated by the late Dr. Paris to have stopped the ague, previously endemic 
there. More recently it has been stated, that the arsenic-eaters of Syria are pecu- 
liarly exempt from fevers and other epidemic diseases; and in India the natives 
have long used arsenic as an antidote to the poison of snakes. Dr. Robinson con- 
cluded by expressing a belief that these scattered observations were not only suffi- 
cient to justify and necessitate further inquiries in this direction, but seemed in 
themselves to shadow forth the outline of a great law, which might at some future 
time be productive of immense benefit to mankind. 


On the Nature and Varieties of Organic Effluvia, By Dr, G. Roxsryson. 


Were any proof wanting of the intimate and necessary connexion between natu- 
ral philosophy, chemistry, and natural history, on the one hand, and physiology 
and pathology on the other, it would be supplied by the gradual progress of our 
knowledge of the abnormal constituents of the atmosphere. As the natural sciences 
have advanced, many of those noxious influences which were formerly ascribed to 
supernatural causes, or to the scarcely less mysterious agencies of stars, comets, and 
volcanos, have, even in the present imperfect state of medical science, been traced 
to the operation of the ordinary laws of nature; and there is strong reason to hope 
and believe that with the advance of science the composition and relations of many 
of those subtle aérial poisons which sometimes periodically, sometimes permanently, 
desolate various regions of the earth will be ascertained, and their injurious effects 
at least in some degree mitigated or prevented. But for this great object to be 
even partially attained, the cultivators of the natural sciences must be brought into 
closer relation with physiologists and pathologists ; they must, even for the advance- 
ment of their own favourite departments of knowledge, be willing both to receive 
and impart instruction, and so cooperate in the work of elucidating the laws of life 
with those men whose special duties compel them to observe, as closely as human 
powers extend, the structure and functions of the highest of all animal organiza- 
tions. Even now. the necessity for further advances in the application of natural 
read at and chemistry to the explanation of the phenomena of life is painfully 
elt by every student of the healthy and diseased actions of the human body; and 
there are hosts of questions, all bearing most powerfully and directly on the health 
and happiness of mankind, which can only be solved by continued progress in the 
direction indicated. I make these preliminary remarks in no depreciatory spirit, 
and with a full sense of the enormous advances recently made in the development 
of the physical sciences; but I do feel that the highest, and noblest, and most 
useful study that can engage the human intellect—the study of man himself— 
has not in this country received a proper share of attention, while I am at the 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 121 


same time convinced that its cultivation would in turn accelerate the progress 
of general science. A very little reflection will suffice to demonstrate that, under 
the general term “ organic effluvia,” several entirely distinct substances have been 
confounded; and as it is impossible to entertain any clear ideas of their action 
as causes of disease, without greater precision in this respect, I am induced to 
direct attention to the subject. The importance of a clearer classification will 
be manifest when we consider that our arguments and inquiries respecting epi- 
demic diseases must be materially influenced by the views prevalent as to the 
composition, properties, and affinities of those peculiar matters present in the 
vatmosphere, which form the basis of such pathological and hygienic researches. 
In the present state of our Imowledge, I am inclined to think that all those 
abnormal constituents of the atmosphere which are recognized under the gene- 
ral term “organic eflluyia” may be resolved into four principal groups, viz. :— 
1. Gases and the vapours of volatile chemical compounds formed during the de- 
composition of organic matter. 2. Odoriferous particles sui generis. 3. Volatile 
organic matters not endowed with vitality. 4. Living germs. 1. In the first 
oup I would place not only the binary gaseous compounds evolved, for instance, 
uring putrefaction, such as the compounds of hydrogen with sulphur, phosphorus, 
carbon, &c., but also ammonia and its curious combinations with sulphur and phos- 
phorus, described by Dr. Crace Calvert as formed during the decomposition of 
animal matter. 2. The natural philosophy of odours is so little known that no 
excuse need be offered for placing in a separate group the volatile particles capable 
of being detected by the sense of smell, but not demonstrably related to any known 
gases or vapours. 38. The third class of organic effluvyia is one to which I attach 
great importance from the belief that not only are those volatile organic matters 
often, perhaps generally, poisonous in themselves, but that they are also injurious to 
an incalculable extent by sheltering, nourishing, and so propagating the noxious 
germs liable at all times to be suspended in the atmosphere. And if it can be demon- 
strated that volatile organic matter is present, under certain circumstances, in the 
air surrounding us, there is no more difficulty in believing it capable of nourishing 
and contributing to the growth and development of contiguous germs, than in 
supposing the animalcules present in water to derive their chief support from the 
animal and vegetable matters dissolved or suspended in it. That organic matter is 
present in the atmosphere might at once be inferred from the varied odours pro- 
ceeding from plants and animals, and from the injurious effects exercised on 
living animals by exposure for a length of time to accumulations of such effluvia. 
But modern chemistry has converted this probability into a certainty. Vauquelin, 
on analyzing the liquid obtained by the decomposition of marsh deos, found in the 
residue an organic substance which blackened or charred on exposure to heat. 
Zimmerman has described, under the name of “ pyrrhine,” volatile organic matter 
universally present in rain and snow-water. And more recently Dr. Angus Smith 
has even determined the relative quantity of the organic constituents of the atmo- 
sphere present under different circumstances. This point may, therefore, be con- 
sidered as definitely settled. 4. The existence of living germs in the atmosphere 
is proved by the phenomena of what has been erroneously called “ Equivocal 
Generation,” such as the appearance of fungi on animal and vegetable substances 
secluded from everything but the atmosphere, air, &c. The possible dependence 
of epidemic diseases on the entrance into the blood circulating within the human 
body of some varieties of these organic germs is favoured by many analogies and 
bysome direct evidence. For instance, Dr. Robert Dundas Thompson, who examined 
the air contained in the cholera-wards of St. Thomas’s Hospital during the epidemic 
of 1854, states “that in the atmosphere of a cholera-ward ee rc dees were 
diffused throughout the air, derived from the inmates; that sporules of fungi, and 
germs of vibriones, or vibriones themselves, were obtained by filtration from the 
atmosphere.” In leaving this subject for the present, it may be well to observe, 
that whatever classification of these volatile invisible particles emanating from 
living or dead animal and vegetable matter may eventually be adopted, they are 
doubtless so mixed together as to render their separation in any definite quantity 
of air very difficult, if at all practicable, For instance, in the effluvia proceeding 


122 REPORT—1863. 


from a case of small-pox it could be demonstrated that all the above-described 
varieties are present. And, in fact, there is every reason to believe that the atmo- 
sphere is even more compound than the ocean, containing innumerable substances 
dissolved or suspended in it, and being constantly affected by and reacting on the 
mass of living organisms with which it is brought in contact. 


On the Condition of the Uterus after Delivery in certain of the Mammalia. 
By Professor Rottuston, M.D., WA., FBS. 


The author gave descriptions of the uteri of the common Rat (Mus decumanus), 
of the Tenrec (Centites eeaudatus), and of the human subject, in each case giving 
the appearances seen immediately after or at the period of parturition. He 
described, also, and figured the uterine walls and the foetal membranes of a Pig- 
tailed Monkey (Macacus nemestrinus), which had died a short time after partu- 
rition, Special reference was made to Dr. Matthew Duncan's paper in the last 
volume of the ‘Obstetrical Society’s Transactions,’ and to M. Robin’s paper in the 
‘Mémoires de l’Académie Impériale de Médecine de Paris’ (tome xxv. 1861), 
These authors had shown that, in the human subject, one part, and that much the 
larger part, of the so-called “ decidua scrotina” was really not deciduous at all; and 
M. Cazeau (‘ Traité des Accouchements,’ p. 500) had stated it as his belief that the 
non-deciduous scrotina was often mistaken in practice for a morbidly adherent 
placenta. In theory it had often been mistaken for a mass of denuded muscular 
coat, being, as it was, made up of smooth and glistening strata of membrane, which 
it was necessary to examine with the microscope to be assured that it was not the 
muscular but a modified mucous coat. The non-deciduous scrotina in the Rat did 
not form, as in the human subject, an elevated area, but a hernial protrusion out of 
the uterine cayity into the mesometrium. This had been mistaken for a develop- 
ing oyum. M. Robin’s phrase, in describing the way in which the utero-placental 
area and the laminz of non-deciduous scrotina were restored to the condition of 
the rest of the uterine mucous surface (“le tissu de la muqueuse s’est régénéré au- 
devant d’eux”’), was shown to apply to the process of restoration in the homologous 
area and tissues in several of the lower animals; and it was suggested that the 
proces of reparation of extensive superficial wounds bore a considerable resem- 

lance to the more purely physiological phenomenon under consideration. M, 
Coste’s plate (‘ Histoire du Développement,’ 1. a. fig. 3), however, showed for what 
a long period the utero-placental area might retain characters more or less different 
from those of the rest of the mucous membrane of the cavity. In this point, the 
Rodent and Insectivore contrasted forcibly with the human subject. The deci- 
duous scrotina it was not always easy to separate away from the after-birth, at 
least so as to preserve it in the form and dimensions it had normally in the human 
subject previously to parturition, In the Monkey it was more coherent and con- 
sistent, and was so figured by the author, as well as by Breschet in the ‘ Mémoires 
de l'Institut’ (xix.), in a paper less known than it deserved to be. In the lower 
Mammalian orders, the Insectivora, Rodentia, and Carnivora, the deciduous serotina 
was thicker, more pulpy, and less condensed than the homologous structure in the 
Quadrumana and in the human subject. The Cetacea, the Pachydermata (re- 
sembling them in so many points), and the Ruminants had no deciduous serotina. 
This structure was saucer-shaped in the Rat, and might be found in the stomach 
of the mother rat after parturition, together with the after-birth, which these 
animals, as well as many others below the apes, devoured. It was bilobed, but 
the two lobes were continuous centrally, though constricted, in the Rabbit; the 
decidua scrotina, in fact, clamped the bilobed after-birth together. The same was 
the case with the Hare ; but the two lobes of the after-birth itself were here con- 
nected by an isthmus of their own proper tissue, as well as by the decidua scrotina. 
The decidua was but a thin wafer in the Tenrec at full time: in a Hedgehog, at an 
early period, it was tumbler-shaped,—the bottom of the tumbler being supposed 
to be convex, and the rim to converge somewhat. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 123 


On LInfe in the Atmosphere. By J. SamvEnson. 


No subject in natural history, except the allied one, the origin of species, had of 
late excited greater interest in the scientific world than the origin of the lowest 
i ee of living beings on the globe ; and although the problem was far from being 
solved, yet the investigations that had accompanied the discussion had already 
served the useful purpose of throwing new light on the anatomy and life-history 
of the mysterious little forms of which it treated. It was rather with the latter 
object, than in the expectation of being able to assist in the solution of the general 
question, that the author ventured to lay before the Association the results of in- 
vestigations recently made. He had, for example, taken rags imported from various 
countries, and shaken the dust from them into distilled water, which he then exposed 
to the atmosphere; and after describing generally the character of the living forms 
_ he had discovered in this pure water, he stated in detail the forms of life found in 
each kind of dust, and among these were some new species of Rhizopoda and 
Infusoria, and an interesting ciliated worm-shaped form, originally a Vibrio, but 
which grew in dimensions until it assumed the appearance of a collection of the 
larvze of some other Infusoria. The general result of the microscopical examina- 
tion of these fluids between the 27th of July and 15th of August was as follows :— 
In the dust of Egypt, Japan, Melbourne, and Trieste, life was the most abundant, 
and the development of the different forms was rapid. He also described the infu- 
sorial forms found in pure distilled water after a few days’ exposure to the atmo- 
sphere. In conclusion, he observed that if he was correct in supposing the germs 
of the living forms that he had described to be present in the dust conveyed by the 
atmosphere, and in distilled water, it was worthy of notice that these germs retain 
vitality for a long period, of which he could not pretend to define the limit. In his 
experiments they outlived the heat of a tropical sun, and the dryness of a warm 
room during the whole of the winter; but in Dr. Pouchet’s case they retained their 
life 2000 years, for he obtained his from the interior of the pyramids of Egypt, 
and they survived an ordeal of 400° of heat. A main purpose which the author had 
in view was to disprove the theory of spontaneous generation; and he suggested 
whether the great rapidity with which these germs are multiplied might not account 
for the spread of epidemic diseases. He did not profess to have any acquaintance 
with such diseases ; but might it not be desirable to subject the atmosphere of hos- 
pitals to the microscopic test ? 


On the Dietary of the Lancashire Operatives. By Dr. E, Satu, F.R.S. 


Dr. Smith explained at some length an inquiry into the dietary of the Lanca- 
shire operatives made by him for the Government, with a view to show the 
minimum allowance of food to maintain health, and the most economical mode of 
expending the amount. The Report had just been eee ok in the Fifth Report 
of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council, and in the paper he showed—Ist, the 
amount and cost of nutriment which those populations obtained in times of plenty 
and scarcity, contrasting the amount in the same person under the two conditions ; 
2nd, the amount which should be allowed for food is 2s. 3d. to women, and 
2s. 6d. to men, weekly; 3rd, the formule for soups and other foods distributed to 
these classes; and 4th, numerous formule arranged by Dr. Smith to show how 
much nutriment could be obtained from ordinary foods for the sum allowed. 


On the Dietaries of the Labouring Classes. By Dr. E. Surru, F.RBS. 


In this paper Dr. Smith pointed out the value of various foods in relation to their 
cost and nutritive elements, and particularly the extreme value of bread, skimmed 
milk, and butter-milk in the dietary of the poorer classes. The carbon and nitrogen 
in the nutritive elements were alone selected, and the price of the foods was such 
as applied to the greater part of the country. The following table contains some 
of the results at which he arrived :— 


124 REPORT—1863. 


TaBLE showing the quantity of Carbon and Nitrogen contained in ld. worth of 
various foods at the prices annexed, and also the variation from the pennyworth 
of various foods to supply as much Carbon and Nitrogen as are contained in one 
pennyworth of bread (the standard quantity). 


Variation from cost of 1d. 

to supply the standard 

2 Ohrbon. | Wik ene of 1050 grains 

‘ood. Costi arbo itrogen | of carbon and 66 grains 
pine. for 1d. for ld. of nitrogen. a 


Carbon. Nitrogen. 
Spey grains. grains. d d. 
IBTORE or rece teat atest costa 13 per lb. 1450 66 5 
Hine Gul’, vceee okcohen ¢ Ziel 1330 60 1-09 ipa 
SANG. occ ca ny he ote ean Sn dra ae 2500 93 ‘58 7 
| Shere Slane ar 9 ae uy 5 ea icp 1380 35 1:05 1:88 
(Op ynciiey ewe eRe AN 1p oo 1513 75 ‘957 88 
MBIZOT Sa cricets deities i Nata 2800 121 ‘61 545 
CHS meee eae as ers iepeiiets > il oanien 1820 170 ‘796 388 
OUSUORS is x saasces> dase * fs aaa 1540 49 94 1:34 
IP OURPOCS! weep secrhe asc i gp abe 770 241 | 1:88 2°69 
Green vegetables . = ee 1640 56 88 1:18 
Green vegetables .... epee 820 28 1:76 2°36 
16 51 {25 SN © Ss oH ilar Bis 327 =f 4:45 
ee a eae ra at + afer 2 591 a! 2-45 
1D nT Dit ewgigeh Deuce (shaper 886 1:63 
WG tie sere scr tas sania (ieee! 651 2:22 
USAT ears aap a's 4 ,, 622 2:34 
NETORCLON -. reves ¢ cna gte Seo 746 1:94 
BORE cit ante: gale tastes 7 yy 320 23 4:53 2:87 
LN LUYI £0) Tm ns IER Fy ealyge 415 20 349 3:3 
AP OPK Reece oe hes ihe a 483 18 3:0 3:66 
TTIVEN cerccorste cre syndic Samia 410 70 3°53 94 
IBQUEB ee ay teins ae esos ues 1566 48 92 1:46 
Dried English bacon . . mrs 510 12 2°84 55 
Green American bacon 4. 918 17 1:58 3:88 
Dried herrings ...... ? each. 352 54 4] 1:22 
Fresh herrings ...... Sr ttsss 480 72 30 ‘91 
INew. maillcitet hte veer. cts). 1 per pint. 546 44 2-66 15 
Newemualky Tet 20..)¢0. 2 tiene 273 22 5°32 3:0 
Skimmed milk ...... oot icp 1748 147 82 38 
Skimmed milk ...... haat 873 87 1-64 ‘76 
Skimmed milk ...... 1 " 437 44 3:28 1-52 
Butter-milk ........ = ie oh 2514 262 ‘576 25 
Butter-milk ........ Su fs 838 88 1:15 75 
Wihey wie try team’s. ae 
Skimmed-milk cheese 3 rf, 782 122 1:98 54 
New-milk cheese .... 8 ; 332 40 4:33 1:65 
CRG Nee ogc ceabetntes sees 3 per oz 5 3:3 20:0 


On Cranial Deformities, more especially on the Scaphocephalic Skull. 
By Wi11am Turner, M.B., F.B.S.E. 


The author commenced by stating that deformities of the skull might be occa- 
sioned by artificial means, by pathological changes, by posthumous changes, and by 
developmental irregularities and deficiencies. He in a great measure restricted 
himself in his paper to a consideration of the effects produced on cranial form by 
developmental irregularities and variations in the mode of ossific formation, more 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 125 


especially by premature or retarded union of the cranial bones along their sutural 
lines and at their synchondroses. He arranged the sutures connecting the bones 
of the skull-cap into a vertical transverse group, a median longitudinal, and two 
lateral longitudinal groups; and agreeing with Professor Virchow, of Berlin, he 
stated that should a premature ossification take place in one, or more than one, of 
the whole, or a part, of a line of sutures, then the growth of the skull correspond- 
ing to, and in a direction perpendicular to, the line of synostosis will occur, and 
diminished length, or breadth, or height, as the case may be, will be occasioned. 
He illustrated this proposition by describing a peculiarly elongated and laterally 
compressed form of skull, to which, along with Professor Von Baer, of St. Peters- 
burg, he applied the name scaphocephalus. Four as yet undescribed examples 
of this peculiar boat-shaped s had come under his notice. The whole of these 
crania were characterized by possessing the following characters :—absence of a 
sagittal suture, and consequent blending of the two parietal bones; absence of 
parietal eminences ; lateral compression ; great elongation. He then discussed at 
length the two theories which had been advanced to account for the production of 
such a form of skull; and concluded that the balance of evidence was in favour 
of the theory that it originated from a premature union of the sagittal margins of 
the two parietal bones, and consequent compensatory growth of the skull in the 
antero-posterior direction, rather than from the development of the bi-parietal bone 
from a single median vertical centre. The author then directed attention to the 
importance of attending to the above proposition in ethnological inquiry, more 
especially with reference to the production, through its action, of various aberrant 
forms of skull in individuals of any given nationality, which may cause them to 
.. a shape of head quite different from that of the race to which they belong. 

e pointed out, moreover, that obliteration of the sutures to a greater or less ex- 
tent exists in the crania of the Flathead Indians, which have been distorted by 
artificial means; his observations agreeing with those of Professor Daniel Wilson 
in this particular. He was of opinion that the pressure occasioned the tendency to 
premature union of the bones in these cases. The author did not think that persons 
possessing crania the form of which had been modified by premature synostosis 
necessarily exhibited any special tendencies to cerebral disease or deficiencies in 
their mental capacities. The paper is printed at length in the ‘Natural History 
Review,’ January 1864. 


On the Means of passing unharmed through Noxious Gases or Vapours. 
By Joun Wurtz, Surgeon, Finchley. 


Tt consists of two flexible pipes fixed in a metal covering, which is fixed over 
the nose and mouth. Each of these pipes is furnished with a valve of vulcanized 
india-rubber, one of which is fixed so that it can be moyed only inwards, and 
the other only outwards. These valves are elastic, and of so light a material that 
they are opened and shut by the force of the air, moved to and fro in the act of 
breathing ; and, therefore, when the air passes through these pipes, the person 
inhales only through one pipe, and exhales through the other. Having the end, 
which is farthest from thd bay: of that pipe by which he inhales in a pure atmo- 
sphere, the air which enters the lungs is pure, though the dein is surrounded by 
noxious vapour. This inhaling-pipe may draw its supply from the open air at any 
distance from the body, or it may be supplied from a bag carried on the body. 
By this plan, the supply is limited to the size of the bag; by that, the supply is 
limited by the length of his inhaling-pipe. The flexible valve of the exhaling- 
pipe completely prevents ingress of the surrounding gas, and therefore the pipe is 
short; it need not be more than half an inch in length. The part of the apparatus 
which I have described, and which I call the “ ori-nasal cover” and air-pipes, is 
fixed in that part of an air-tight hood which covers the face. A tippet, made of 
waterproof cloth, is joined to the hood. Two circular pieces of glass are fixed in 
the hood for enabling the man to see. Every part of this air-proof hood where 
the metal is fixed is water-tight. When this apparatus is about to be used, a soft, 
thick kerchief is to be wrapped smoothly sab the neck. The hood and tippet 
is then put on. A band is bound round the head and face, over the hood, to keep 


126 REPORT—1863. 


the ori-nasal cover in its place. A kerchief is bound round the neck over the tippet, 
to prevent any foul air passing under it; and the waistcoat and coat should then 
be fationed and secured over the tippet for the same purpose. 


On the Coal-Miners of Durham and Northumberland, their Habits and 
Diseases. By Dr. Wison. . 


Premising that disease, like life, was not an entity per se, but a modified vitality, 
the object of this paper was to show what effect the exclusive habits and occu- 
pation of the coal-miners of the North of England had on their health and length 
of life. The author described at length the construction of the cottages, the dress, 
the food, the nature of the work, and the —— of the pitmen. 

Their houses are well adapted for good ventilation. Their dress is the best for 
resisting the effect of the change of temperature in going to and returning from 
work, Their food is wholesome, and, although eaten somewhat irregularly, the 
customs they adopt are well suited to their peculiar circumstances. The division 
of labour is fully carried out. They work in a constrained position—each hewer 
working alternately one week from 1 a.m. till 9 a.m., and in the next from 9 a.m. 
till 5 p.m. They eat a moderate quantity of animal food once a day, emery, on 
returning from work: after this meal they give themselves a thorough cleansing 
with soap and hot water, and then they retire to rest. They have favourite amuse- 
ments, and many of them indulge periodically in great excesses. Ale is the liquor 
chiefly drank, and that by some in large quantities; but the régime of a colliery is 
so strict that, however much they may exceed on receipt of their wages, they must 
resume work at the proper time; and thus habitual drunkenness is prevented, and 
consequently the specific diseases induced by alcohol are extremely rare. 

The most frequent cause of death amongst them is accidental violence. The 
miners of Durham and Northumberland are not prone to phthisis, and there is 
almost a total absence of the black phthisis which is so common in some mining 
districts. 

The impure air they often unavoidably breathe brings on structural changes 
in the mucous membrane of the lungs, and the consequent oppressed breathing 
is a very common ailment. According to the author’s experience, they are almost 
exempt from Bright’s disease; and he attributes this to their profuse perspiration 
while at worl, and the daily ablution with soap and hot water on their return 
home. 

Having gone with some minuteness into the statistics taken by Dr. Farr from the 
census of England, the author drew the conclusion that the miner of the north of 
England has an average of three years’ longer life than the aggregate of English- 
men, eight years’ longer life than the Cornish miner, nine longer than the Staftord- 
shire and twelve longer than the South Wales miner, and only one year less than 
that of the men of the healthiest districts of the kingdom. 

These results were in accordance with the author’s personal observations, and 
were also borne out by statistics taken by him from the local registers of his 
neighbourhood. Pitmen marry young, and are thus freed from a large class of 
imaginary and real disorders; and the author concludes, that whilst there is much 
aed for amendment in their morals, their physical condition should not be inter- 

ered with. 


GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. 


Address of the President, Sir Roprrtcx I. Murcuison, A.C.B., D.O.L., LL.D., 
F.RS., Director-General of the Geological Survey, and President of the 
Royal Geographical Society. 

A Quarter of the ~ aaa century has elapsed since it fell to my lot, as Joint 

General Secretary of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, to 

address the numerous and influential body which in 1838 was assembled at New- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 127 


castle-on-Tyne, and presided over by the late Duke of Northumberland. Under 
the auspices of that good and enlightened nobleman, we then compte together 
much pecuniary aid for the advancement of Science ; and, including Ladies (who, 
however, were not then members, but visitors), our numbers were greater than on 
any occasion before or since at any place in the British Isles. I was then associated 
in duty with that eminent mathematician the late Dr. Peacock, afterwards Dean of 
Ely, who, with many of our leading members, has, alas! passed away. Those of 
us, however, who are left come again hither with a lively recollection of the kind 
reception we then met with, and therefore sanguinely anticipate that Newcastle 
and the Counties of the North of England will well sustain their former good name 
and high reputation. 

Tn 1838 this town had been so recently embellished by such new and beautiful 
architecture that, in our opening General Assembly, I spoke of the noble results of 
individual enterprise, genius, and taste which had associated the triumphs of art 
with those of manufacture and commerce, and combined the refinements of wealth 
with the most varied productions of industry, 

The words of the Latin poet, which I then quoted, have, indeed, in later years 
been rendered still more applicable :— 


** Hic portus alii effodiunt ; hic alta theatris 
Fundamenta locant alii, immanesque columnas 
Rupibus excidunt ; scenis decora alta futuris,” 


For, if I was then struck with the great works which this capital of the northen- 
most English counties had achieved since the early recollections of a boy at Durham 
School in the first years of this century, what is now my gratification and surprise 
when I look at the onward progress made between 1838 and 1863 in this centre of 
industry! In 1838 we were not enabled to reach our place of meeting by railroad 
from the south or from the north; but now the passenger flies across the Tyne by 
one of the noblest and most skilfully engineered of river-viaducts. Then, it is true, 
great and flourishing manufactories existed, and evidences of energy and high in- 
tellect abounded; but now among your townsmen there has arisen a man whose 

nius has thrown new light on the defence of nations, and whose talents and 
ingenuity have been so appreciated by the public, that the British Association 
could not have selected a more fitting President of their body. 

Twenty-five years ago your trade and commerce were, it is true, important; but 

our imports and exports, including those of North and South Shields and Sunder- 
ae have since then, as nearly as may be, trebled, and ships from the Tyne, the 
Wear, and the Tees now frequent the most distant regions of the globe. 

It is especially by this great extension of its influence and relations that New- 
castle-on Tyne has become an eminently suitable meeting-place for geographers 
and ethnologists ; and to this fitness of things, let me remind you, the Association 
has of late years adapted itself: for, when we last assembled here, this Section, of 
which I am proud to have been the founder, had no existence. 

When in 1838 I here took a retrospective view of the progress made by the 
British Association in the first seven years of its existence, it was natural’ that, 
with the strong desire with which I was imbued, I should have then expressed my 
regret that Geography had not hitherto received at our Meetings that amount of 
attention to which it is justly entitled. Referring to the progress then made by the 
Royal Geographical Society of London, when its members were a third part only of 
the present number, I expressed a hope that the great geographical problems which 
had been lately solved, and which remained to be worked out, might be brought 
regularly before the Association, and secure the application of some of those funds 
which had hitherto been exclusively appropriated to the advancement of other 
sciences. 

Steadily pursuing this idea, it was therefore a great satisfaction to me to succeed, 
after an interval of sixteen years, in establishing in the year 1854 this separate 
Section of Geography and Ethnology; and since that day I can truly say that this 
department of our Scientific Body has been most popular, and at the same time, I 
trust, eminently useful. 

Under these encouraging aspects, I will first call your attention to some of the 


128 REPORT—1863. 


leading geographical results in British Geography which have been brought about 
since we last met here. At that time four years had elapsed since (at our first 
Meeting in Scotland) I directed the attention of this Association to the untoward 
condition of the Topographical Survey of the British Isles, by showing that no map 
of any country north of the Trent was in existence; in short, that all the North of 
England and the whole of Scotland were in that lamentable state; whilst the 
survey of France, and of nearly all the States of Germany, had been completed. 
Having roused public sentiment to this neglected state of the national map—so 
neglected, indeed, that one of the great headlands (Cape Wrath) was known to 
have been laid down some miles out of its proper place in all maps and charts— 
deputations to the Government followed, in the first of which I pleaded the cause 
of Geography, but with little or no effect as regarded the North of England and 
my native country, Scotland. Ireland then absorbed nearly all the labours of the 
Ordnance Survey, and was at length furnished with a map on the six-inch scale, 
from which the really useful general map on the one-inch scale has since been con- 
structing, but is not yet completed. 

In the twenty-nine years which have elapsed since the period when the question 
was first agitated, at Edinburgh, considerable progress has doubtless been made; 
but it is surely a reproach to a powerful country like Britain that in thirty years 
we have only just seen the region between the Trent and the Tyne delineated and 
laid down on a real map, 7. ¢., on the one-inch scale ; whilst even yet the maps of 
the northernmost English counties are unfinished. 

In making this observation, I am well aware that the skilful officer, Colonel Sir 
Henry James, who now directs the Survey, has made every exertion to complete 
this national object, and has shown great talent in its management. The tardy 
execution of the work has been due to two causes. The first of these was the 
deviation from the origina] plan of operations, which I greatly regretted, and from 
which on various pancioien have entered my humble dissent. The construction 
of a General Map of Great Britain, on the scale of one inch to the mile, was in 
rapid progress some thirty years back; and had this been followed out to its com- 
pletion, in the first instance, without applying the Survey forces to other and more 
detailed objects, not merely England, but the whole of the British Isles would 
have been completely mapped many years ago, and upon a scale larger than that 
used in the general map of any other country; in fact, upon the largest scale to 
which the term “ map” can be applied, or which can really serve some of the most 
essential purposes. The first deviation from the early plan took place in Ireland, 
where, in order to settle disputes relating to property between townlands, the six- 
inch scale was introduced. Now, plans on this scale, if not furnished with con- 
tour lines, do not embrace the salient features of a true map, whilst the dimen- 
sions of the sheets relating to any one county are so large, that though highly use- 
ful to geological surveyors and miners, they cannot be consulted for improvements 
of roads, construction of canals, railroads, or other public works, still less for any 
general military movements or travelling purposes. With the extension of the 
Survey to the North of England and Scotland, not only has the six-inch scale been 
adopted, but much larger cadastral plans, on the 25-inch scale, have been and are 
in execution. While these plans are, I grant, most valuable to individual pro- 
prietors, they are beside the purposes of the geographer, inasmuch as they exhibit 
no attempt whatever at the delineation of physical features. Hence I regret that 
their execution should have been preferred to the completion, in the first instance, 
of an intelligible and useful Map of the British Isles, which, if made to depend on 
the previous completion of tkedlabornhala plans, will still involve, I fear, the lapse 
of another very long period before the whole country will possess what geographers 
consider a map. The other and the most powerful cause which has retarded the 
progress of good cartography has been the frequently recurring cold fits of indiffer- 
ence and consequent cutting off of the supplies by which our legislature has been 
periodically affected, and which have necessarily occasioned a collapse and stagna- 
tion in the works of this important Survey. 

As respects my own special department, or the “ Geological Survey,” I deprecate 
still more strongly the delay of the construction of the one-inch Map, seeing that 
no geologist can yet labour effectively in the Highlands of Scotland, and accurately 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 129 


delineate their interesting rock-formations by colouring any one of the defective 
county =e of that region. With my expression of regret on these points, I am 
bound to declare that the large cadastral plans are admirably executed; and that 
for the registration of property they are of material value. As such great land- 
marks, they will always be mementos of the highly useful services of Sir Henry 
James and his associates. 

Let us now cast a rapid glance over the progress of discovery in distant lands, 
and particularly where cur countrymen have signalized themselves. In this wide 
field wherein our knowledge has been extraordinarily increased within the last few 
years, I will limit my remarks to three or four regions; the more so as I have 
recently addressed the Royal Geographical Society at large on many collateral 
topics in a Discourse which is now in circulation. 

Australia, scarcely known to the civilized world till after Cook’s voyages (1770- 
75), has of late been so rapidly colonized by Britain, that ere long she will be no 
mean rival of those vast regions of North America which were first occupied by 
subjects of the British Crown. At former Meetings of this Association we have 
dwelt on the early discoveries of new lands in the interior of Australia, in which 
the names of Mitchell, Eyre, Sturt, Leichardt, and others have been always 
mentioned with honour and respect. The later journeys of the brothers Augustus 
and Frank Gregory have earned for those good surveyors the highest honours of 
the Royal Geographical Society, for their extensive researches and determinations 
of longitude and latitude in Northern, Eastern, and Western Australia. Whilst 
more recently the bold expedition of Burke and Wills cost those noble fellows 
their lives, the latest researches of their successors stand out as indeed most singu- 
larly successful. M‘Douall Stuart, after various previous triumphs, in one of which 
he reached the watershed of North Australia, has actually passed from Adelaide, in 
South Australia, to Van Diemen Bay on the north coast, in latitude 15° S. Con- 
temporaneously with this last expedition, M‘Kinlay, proceeding also from Adelaide, 
reached the Gulf of Carpentaria, and thence travelled to the eastern shore; and 
Landsborough, realizing all the value of the discoveries of Burke and Wills, and 
 agenorieg from the Gulf of Carpentaria, traversed the continent southward until 

e regained the noble colony of Victoria, in which the expedition was organized. 
‘As I have recently dwelt at some length on these bold adventurers in my Anni- 
versary Address, referring also to some geographical determinations by Mz. Walker, 
of Queensland, I will now simply direct your attention to the huge map of Aus- 
tralia which hangs upon the wall, and on which all the routes of these explorers 
are laid down. 

The rapid rise of the different Colonies in Australia is truly marvellous; and, 
whilst we have successfully occupied all the available ports and lands along the 
eastern, southern, and western sides of the great Continent, we are now, I rejoice 
to say, beginning to extend our settlements to the north coast, the occupation of 
which I have advocated for many a year, on political as well as on commercial and 
colonial grounds. A few years only of practical researches have dispelled our 
ignorance respecting the interior of this vast mass of land, in which, though there 
‘are wild desert’ tracts, there are also many rich and well-watered oases of fine 
pasture-grounds, through which the colonist may open out communications across 
the Continent from the south and east to the northern shores. A short time only, 
I venture to predict, will elapse before towns shall arise at the head of the Gulf of 
Carpentaria, as well as at the mouth of the Victoria River of the North, from whence, 
as well as from the new settlement of Cape York, Australians will have a direct 
communication with our great Indian Empire. In speaking of the Bnet of these 
remarkable Colonies, it may be considered invidious to seem to select any one for 
special notice, where all of them have such high claims to our notice. I may, 
however, in passing, mention the last-formed of these wonderful separate Govern- 
ments. This is Queensland, possessing a surface six times greater than that of the 
United Kingdom, and the very grazing-grounds of which (according to its accom- 
plished Governor, Sir G. Bowen) are about twice as large as the British Isles, in- 
eluding large tracts peculiarly adapted to the growth of cotton. 

Nor can | omit to notice the striking encouragement given to geographical ex- 
ploration, and, indeed, to the cultivation of many branches of science, by rene 


1380 a REPORT—1863. 


Sir Henry Barkly, whose final Address to the Royal Society of Victoria is one of 
which the President of any Scientific Society in Europe might well be proud. 

The progress which our enterprising Australian Colonists have made, not only 
in wealth and material prosperity, but in all that can figuiye people, was striking] 
manifested at the last Great International Exhibition. it we saw collocated, 
not merely the rich natural products of gold and Cones with admirable pictorial 
views which eyen enabled us to imagine that we had visited the mines of our 
antipodes, but we also had before us solid pret in the publication of excellent 
Maps and the Catalogues of the valuable Libraries of Sydney and Melbourne, that 
there is scarcely sip lee of knowledge or of industry which is not cultivated in 
Australia with a zeal rivalling that of the mother-country. 

Relying on the conversations which it was my privilege to hold with the dis- 
tinguished men who represented the several Australian Colonies on that occasion, 
as well as with many personal friends who have long resided there, I feel assured 
that there is no part of the British dominions where the people are more attached 
to the Sovereign and the British Constitution than Australia. It has always, 
therefore, been a source of pain to me, when some persons have spoken or written 
of the coming of the day when these great Colonies are to be separated from us, 
Seeing no cause for such separation, and believing that our Government and Legisla- 
ture are much too enlightened to commit the error into which our Government fell 
when Britain lost her North American settlements, we are, I rest satisfied, never 
likely to estrange our Australian Colonies by similar treatment. It has been well said 
by a late Governor of South Australia that the loyalty of Australia is an homage to 
the enlightened rule of England, of which her statesmen may be proud*. On m 
own part, I am indeed persuaded that, if judiciously and considerately treate 
Australia, which affords SS far the finest possible field for the emigration of our 
superabundant population, will long continue to be a source of wealth and strength 
to the mother-country ; and will, I trust, for ages hold out a proof that the people 
who liye under a constitutional monarchy enjoy much truer freedom, in its best 
sense, than those who have formed part of any democracy, ancient or modern, 

And now let me say a few words on the last grand geographical feat—the dis- 
covery of the water-basin which supplies the Nile. 

The first act in this portentous operation was the discovery, by Captain Speke 
(when he left his leader, Captain Burton), of the large African lake which, 
in the year 1858, he named Victoria Nyanza, In his late expedition, when 
accompanied by Captain Grant, he has proved (as he said he would before he 
started) that this great body of fresh water is the main source of the White Nile; 
and in this exploit we have one of the greatest geographical triumphs of all history. 
For age after age had rolled on—traveller after traveller, from the days of the 
Egyptian priests and of the Roman emperors down to modern periods, had endea- 
youred to ascend the Nile to its sources, and all had failed! By reversing the line 
of research followed by all former travellers, and by proceeding from the east coast 
of Africa, near Zanzibar, to the central, lofty, and ak plateau-land forming in that 
meridian the watershed between North and South Africa, these gallant Indian 
Captains reached the great reservoir from whence the Nile flows. Thence they 
traced the mighty stream northwards into Egypt, and demonstrated that, whilst the 
White Nile, which they followed, is the Great Nile; the so-called Blue River, 
joining the parent stream at Khartum on the frontiers of Egypt, is, like the Atbara 
and other waters, a tributary only. 

As the outlines of the long walk of Speke and Grant across those vast interior 
and equatorial regions of Africa have been given to the public, first in my Address 
to the Royal Geographical Society, and subsequently in various periodicals, it 
would be out of place to say more on the subject until their own full account, 
be ey are preparing with many illustrative sketches, shall haye been 
published, 

In the mean time it is gratifying to know that our gracious Queen has shown by 
her own kind expressions how truly she is proud that two of her own gallant 
Officers should have succeeded in performing what the people of many a European 


* See the Lecture, “Australia: what it is and what it may be,” by Sir Richard G. 
MacDonnell, C.B. Dublin, 1863. - 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 131 


nation have failed to accomplish. We may therefore be sure that the British 
people will rejoice with all geographers, if the travellers should receive due honours 
and rewards for such glorious services. : 

- Among foreign Sovereigns the King of Italy has taken the lead in the desire to 
commemorate the great event, by ordering two gold medals to be struck on the 
occasion. The first, which immediately after its completion was presented to the 
leader on the Royal Geographical Society’s Anniversary, had on its reverse the 
words, so well known to Englishmen as the motto of Nelson, “Honor a Nilo.” 
The second, which the Italian Minister, the Marquis d’Azeglio, since put into my 
hands, and which has been delivered by me to Captain Grant, has on it these 
eat words: ‘ Al Capitano Grant: divise col Capitano Speke gloria e pericoli.”? 

hus do these medals remind us that, through the enterprise of her sons, England 
has won glory through many a danger at the sources, as at the mouth, of the Nile. 

Among the geographical communications which have been already sent in to be 
read at this Meeting, and of which I have any acquaintance, I will now allude to 
four only. 

Referring still to Africa, we hope to be favoured by Dr. Barth with a translation 
from the German of the ascent of the lofty snow-clad mountain of Kilimandjaro, 
in tropical Hastern Africa, as carried out by that energetic Hanoverian trayeller, 
Baron C. von der Decken. 

In relation to China, you will, [doubt not, be much gratified with the memoir of 
Mr. R. Swinhoe, a practised Chinese scholar, and formerly a British Vice-Consul, 
on the large, but little known, island of Formosa, and the numerous islets between 
it and the mainland. Whilst the publications of the last few years, including the 
‘Narrative of the North China Campaign of 1860’*, by Mr. Swinhoe himself, have 
rendered us well acquainted with large portions of the interior of China—and whilst 
Captain Blakiston has laid down on a beautiful chart the course of that mighty 
stream the Yang-tsze-Kiang, to a distance of nearly 1000 miles above the highest 
point previously reached by our countrymen—the great island of Formosa, off the 
eastern coast of the Chinese mainland, has remained comparatively unknown. 
Since the days when parts of its west coast were surveyed, the outline of those 
shores has, it appears, undergone a great change by the rapid increment of silt and 
sand washed down from the mountainous interior; so that a new survey is imperi- 
ously called for, to render some of the ports accessible to commerce. Near thee 
north end of the island, indeed, the port of Tam Sui is not liable to these dangers, 
and is indicated by Mr. Swinhoe as being best suited for commercial dealings; and 
this part of the coast was so well surveyed by Captain (now Admiral) Collinson, 
that his charts thereof may be entirely depended on. In short, now that Lord 
Elgin’s Treaty of Pekin has thrown open to British enterprise all the ports of 
China, it is to be hoped that, by the completion of accurate surveys of the south- 
western coast of Formosa, its present unapproachable harbours will soon be 
frequented by British vessels. We learn that these extensive lands are very rich in 
natural productions; and Mr. Swinhoe will interest you much by a description of 
the habits, costumes, and peculiarities of the Chinese inhabitants. The aborigines 
—a Malayan race—still occupy all the mountainous districts, or eastern side of the 
island, and live among the great forests that yield so much camphor. The subject 
of Formosa is so novel that this communication will prove very attractive; whilst: 
you will, I doubt not, be struck by the coloured drawings which the author has 
made of the Chinese occupants of this great island, and after whom, ety the 
women, the Portuguese may well be supposed to have named it “ Formosa.” If, 
as I have been led to believe, my accomplished friend Sir Harry Parkes should join 
our Section on this occasion, it is certain that he will give us a lively and accurate 
description of the Chinese people, as well as a solid and trustworthy account of our. 
political and commercial relations both with China and Japan. 

Turning to Central America, you will have a very interesting memoir by Mr. 
Osbert Salvin on the physical geography of Guatemala, in which the author will 
particularly notice the Saas si distribution of the various zoological produc- 
tions of that country. He will also give us accounts of its virgin forests, volcanos, ’ 


* London; Smith and Elder, 1861. 
* 9 *% 


132 REPORT—1863. 


and lakes, as well as of the Indian remains and buildings which he has traced 
in it. 

Another American subject to be brought before us will doubtless bring to our 
halls many persons interested in the triumphs of mechanical skill when practically 
opps to the overcoming of great difficulties presented by physico-geogra- 
phical features. Mr. William Wheelwright has commenced the execution of a 
stupendous engineering work, called the Great Central Argentine Railroad, to which 
he formerly called the attention of the Royal Geographical Society, and which is 
destined to connect the great port of Buenos Ayres, on the Atlantic, with the city 
of Copiapo and the port of Caldera, on the Pacific. From the Pass of San Francisco 
in the Andes (16,000 feet high), it will descend the western side of those mountains 
through the valley of Paipote, and reach the city of Copiapo, 1300 feet above the 
ocean; thence continuing to Caldera, one of the finest ports in the Pacific, after a 
descent of 246 miles from the culminating point of the road in the Andes. With 
the exception of one inclined plane of five or six miles, the immense elevation is 
to be traversed by locomotive engines; for Mr. Wheelwright has already had a 
railroad constructed from the valley of Copiapo to the mineral district of Charma- 
cillo, on which the trains run twelve miles an hour, in ascending 1900 feet in nine 
miles !—a gradient unheard of, I believe, in Europe. 

In the commencement of this Address I spoke of the imperfect means we pos- 
sessed in 1838 of reaching rapidly this flourishing town by rail; and still less then 
had the genius and sagacity of Wheatstone oyerspread the countries with the electric 
telegraph. Such however has been the progress, that in 1861, at Manchester, we 
interchanged questions and answers with the philosophers of St. Petersburg during 
an evening assembly ; and advances have been effected for transmitting telegrams 
round the world. A vast stride will be made in the ensuing winter by the extension 
of the telegraph from Constantinople through Asia Minor, and thence vid the 
Persian Gulf to the country of Mekran, at the head of the Indian Ocean, and so to 
the British possessions in India. The preliminary researches which have been 
made towards the establishment of this overland electric line to British India have, 
indeed, already laid open to us countries which, though unknown to the moderns, 
were seats of power when Alexander the Great and his lieutenants invaded India. 
At the same time other efforts are in progress to carry a system of telegraphs from 
Russia through Siberia, and thence across the Desert of Gobi to Pekin. 

The great desideratum, however, of connecting Europe with America by a Sub- 
marine Telegraph remains to be accomplished. With a view to that desirable end, 
the Council of the Royal Geographical Society warmly supported a proposal by 
Dr. Wallich to effect a complete survey of the intervening sea-bottom as a pre- 
cursor to the actual laying down of a cable upon the vast unknown irregularities of 
the submarine surface ; such an effort being certain to throw much light on Natural 
History and Physical Geography. The soundings which ascertain the nature of the 
bottom of the ocean, not only give us the outlines and characters of various sunken 
rocks, sands, and mud-banks, and of vast and deep cavities, but inform us where 
the under-currents prevail, and where at vast depths the surface is tranquil and un- 
ruffled in some places, whilst in others submarine volcanos disturb the sea-bottom. 
Nay more, these submarine operations have taught us that some of the lower 
animals cannot only live, but flourish, preserving even their colours, at the enor- 
mous depth of one mile and a half. We thus see how the efforts of the nautical 
surveyors and the engineers to spread the electric telegraph are not merely destined 
to be useful to mankind, but also to elicit great and important truths in Natural 
History, the development of which is specially connected with the pursuits of the 
geographer, 

In adverting to the consideration of the other science which this Section em- 
braces, it gives me pleasure to be able to report that the Ethnological Society is in 
& prosperous and satisfactory state, having within the last three years greatly in- 
creased the number of its members and improved its financial condition. This 
satisfactory result is in great measure due to the vigorous exertions and numerous 
contributions of my eminent friend, its last President, Mr. John Crawfurd, whom I 
am happy to see among us at this Meeting. Under his auspices the Ethnological 
Society brought out last year a volume of Transactions, forming the first of a new 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 133 


series, which has been favourably received by the public, and a second volume has 
just been published. As the Ethnological Society has had the good fortune to see 
the place vacated by the retirement of Mr. Crawfurd filled up by the pie 
of so skilful and philosophic a naturalist as Mr. John Lubbock, and as Mr. Francis 
Galton, the President of this Section at the last Meeting of the Association, has 
kindly consented to act as our Ethnological Secretary, we may reasonably calculate 
on receiving much sound support from men like these, who can so well connect the 
sciences which we cultivate with many other branches of human knowledge. 

In conclusion, I have now only to exhort you to profit by this Meeting, not 
merely by listening attentively to the reading of the various memoirs to,be brought 
before you, with many of which (particularly those relating to Ethnology) I am as 
yet unacquainted, but also by discussing all doubtful points in a fair spirit.of in- 
quiry. Above all, let us strive to show, by the amount of useful knowledge we 

ather together, that the value and interest attached to the proceedings of this 
Section are as effectively sustained on the banks of the Tyne as they have been 
at any other meeting-place of this our Parliament of Science. 


On some Curiosities of Physical Geography in the Ionian Isles. 
By Professor Ansrep, /.R.S. 


The Ionian Islands and the mainland of Greece abound with matters of interest 
to the geographer. Among them are:—l. Valleys and circular depressions re~ 
ceiving drainage, but without apparent outlet. These abound in Corfu, Santa 
Maura, and Cephalonia. They occur also in Zante, rendering the islands less 
healthy than they would otherwise be. They are, beyond doubt, results of the 
peculiarly cracked and open condition of the limestone-rock of which the whole 
of the islands may be said to be made up. 2. Inflowing currents of sea-water. 
Very clearly connected with the same condition of the rock is the curious pheno- 
menon presented near the town of Argostoli, the capital of Cephalonia. The town 
is on a low step of cracked and cavernous limestone, a foot or two above the highest 
ordinary level of the sea, on one shore of a small creek, separated by a higher ridge 
of similar limestone from the Gulf of Argostoli. There is hardly more than a few 
inches perceptible tide in the eastern part of the Mediterranean, and even in this - 
creek the rise, though multiplied, is small. At four places close to the town there 
are inlets or cracks, a few feet wide, entering some hundred yards into the land, 
and terminating in broken, rocky, cavernous spaces. Instead of the ordinary phe- 
nomenon of the fresh water running over the land to the sea, we have here the 
reversed phenomenon of the sea coming in by these crevices, running for some 
distance over the land, and finally entering and becoming lost in the earth. It is 
nothing unusual in limestone-countries to find water disappearing into the earth; 
» but it is certainly exceptionable that this should be sea-water, and that it should 
continue permanently. The author suggested as a better explanation of these 
inflowing currents than has yet been given, that they are probably results of the 
cracked condition of the limestone-rock and the great evaporation from the surface 
during summer. It is not unusual to see the vine—especially the grape-vine— 
growing and flourishing on piles of loose, angular limestone, without the smallest 
particle of visible soil. The moisture required by the roots is no doubt supplied by 
constant evaporation from the water underground. It goes on so long as there is 
any moisture left, and the hotter and drier the limestone at the surface, the more 
readily is the supply sucked up. Thus, whatever water enters the rock from rain 
falling on the surface, and all that comes in by these entering currents from the 
sea, is probably exhausted by evaporation from the surface. It would follow, if this 
explanation be correct, that a deposit of salt must be forming in connexion with 
the limestone into which the water penetrates. 


On some Points in the Cranioscopy of South American Nations. 
By C. Carrer Brat, /.GS., FAS. 
The object of the paper was to reconsider some of the primary principles on 
which those cranioscopists who have classified the races of South America have 
based their arrangements, and to call especial attention to a few important excep- 


134 REPORT—1863. 


tions which appear to invalidate the generalizations commonly accepted. Every 

ractical cranioscopist is aware that Retzius’s classification of human skulls into 
Necktie and dolichocephalic was applied by that illustrious Swede to the 
arrangement of the great leading South American types. The lamented and de- 
ceased cranioscopist gave, as examples of the brachycephalic type, as exhibited in 
South America, the tribes of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, La Plata, Patagonia, 
and Tierra del Fuego; while the dolichocephalic or long-headed type found its re- 
presentatives in the populations of Carib, Guarani, Brazilian, Paraguay, and Uruguay 
origin. This broad generalized statement of facts still remains the accepted and 
predominant hypothesis. How far is it consonant with the extent of our know- 
ledge on the subject? Those few tribes and nations of South America of which 
any accurate and reliable information exists will be briefly recapitulated in the 
following observations, and especial attention drawn to the destderata which appear 
in our collections. The geographical order will be adhered to, apart from any 
broad generalization which may arise, based on craniometrical classification ; such 
generalizations, e. g., as that of Morton, who divided the whole American races 
into two great families; the Toltecan, comprising the extinct half-civilized tribes 
which have become extinct during a prehistoric period; and the barbarous tribes. 
The latter division was subordinated amongst the Appalachian, Brazilian, Pata- 
gonian, and Fuegian branches. Mr. Blake then proceeded to criticise these types 
in detail. In the first place, he pointed to Colombia; the characteristic type pre- 
vailing amongst the tribes of Venezuela is the Carib. The skull is here markedly 
long-headed, with the parietal diameter less than the longitudinal. The frontal 
bones are strongly flattened ; the zygomatic arches large. Accurate and reliable 
evidence respecting the cranial conformation of the natives of Ecuador is wanting. 
The Cara and the Scyri are unknown. There were several types in Peru; e.g. the 
Chincha type, short-headed; the Chimu type, long-headed, so far as known; the 
Inca or Quichua, short-headed, flattened from before to behind by compression from 
the frontal bone to the occiput. In Bolivia there were the Aymara, long-headed, 
of which few examples existed in our collections; the Titicacan, long-headed, but 
of whom the other physical characters are unknown. In Chile, at the present 
day, the type was long-headed, so far as known. The Anthropological Society of 
Paris has recently prepared a series of queries respecting the physical characters of 
the Chile races, vhs showed the utter want of information on this topic. In 
Patagonia the type was also long-headed, as in Tierra del Fuego, Paraguay, La 
Plata, and Brazil. 


On Celtic Languages. By R. 8, Carnocr. 

The author commenced by stating that, having had an opportunity of readin 
Mr. Crawfurd’s paper before attending the Meetings of the Association, he shoul 
reply to it in“detail. Mr. Crawfurd stated that when between two or more lan- 
guages there was a substantial phonetic or grammatical agreement, they might be 
pronounced cognate. In the next paragraph, however, he laid down a different 
proposition, namely, that the words which most distinctly proved languages to be 
cognate were conjunctions, &c., words, in fact, which could not be constructed. 
He would not quarrel with Mr. Crawfurd for using the term German in describing 
the origin of five-sixths of our English language, when doubtless Anglo-Saxon 
was intended. The Norman element, instead of being one-sixth, probably did not 
constitute a fiftieth part of the language. On the question of grammatical struc- 
ture, he combated the notion that the leading languages of Europe, ancient and 
modern, had all sprung out of a dead language of India, and also the proposition that 
the Siamese was a monosyllabic language, and contended that race could never 
to a certainty be determined by language. It would be considered absurd in a 
man who, having given cogent reasons for not visiting Rome, forthwith started for 
the Holy City. But Mr. Crawfurd, after going to the trouble of arguing that 
the boasted test of agreement in the mere structural form of language is inadmis- 
sible, proceeded nevertheless to compare the Gaelic and Welsh, with the view of 
showing that in point of structure they were entirely different languages. Again, 
after stating that the formation of compound words by the help of prepositions was 
a distinguishing characteristic of Indo-Germanic or Aryan languages, and, amongst: 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 135 


them, of the Sanskrit, the Gaelic, and Welsh, Mr. Crawfurd argued that no such 
manner of compounding words was known to either of these languages. This 
assertion was inexcusable; for if he had searched the dictionaries of the last two 
languages, he would soon have found that in upwards of one-third of the words 
the first syllable was a prefix. The author quoted numerous instances to prove 
this; and then contended that the English language was not of German origin, 
but a lan e which was principally based upon Greek and Latin, derived partly 
through Saxon and Norman-French, and partly direct from the two former lan- 


guages. 
On a Visit to Dahomey. By Mr. Crart. 


On the Commixture of the Races of Man, as affecting the Progress of Civiliza- 
tion in Eastern Asia and the Malay and Polynesian Islands. By Joun 
CrawrFurD, F.R.S. 


The writer gives, as examples, the mixture of the Chinese with the Malay, of 
the European with the Malay, and of the European with the Polynesian. The 
first description of admixture forms the largest portion of the so-called Chinese 
inhabitants of the Philippines with the Malayan Archipelago ; the second, under 


the designation of Mesizo, a considerable body in the Philippine Islands; and of 
the third, a striking instance is to be found in the Pitcairn Islanders. 


On the Origin of the Gipsies. By Jown Crawrurp, F.R.S. 


The gipsies, whose first appearance in Europe tool place 400 years ago, or about 
seventy years before the discovery of America, have excited much curiosity for the 
last fifty years, in consequence chiefly of their being believed to be Hindus—an 
hypothesis, according to the writer of this paper, for which there is no other evi- 
dence than a few Indian words in their rude language, and a somewhat darker com~ 
plexion than that of the people they are living among. Of the genuine Hindu 
words in their language he gives a list amounting to more than 123, while of other 
oriental languages, such as Persian, Turkish, and Arabic, it contains a considerable 
number. “ From all,” says he, “that has been said in the course of this paper, I 
must come to the conclusion that the gipsies, when, above four centuries ago, the 
first appeared in Western Europe, were already composed of a mixture of many dif- 
ferent races, and that the present gipsies are still more mongrel. In the Asiatic 

ortion of their lineage, there is probably a small infusion of Hindu blood ; but this 
is, 1 think, the utmost that can be predicated of their Indian pedigree. Shortly 
eaking, they are no more Hindus in lineage than they are Persians, Turks, or 
opeans; for they are a mixture of all these, and this in proportions impossible 

to ascertain.” . 


On the so-called Celtic Languages, in reference to the Question of Race, 
By Joun Crawrvrp, F.R.S. 


The object of this paper is to show that the Welsh and Armorican languages on 
‘the one side, and the Irish and Scots-Gaelic on the other, are not sister tongues, 
but distinct languages, and hence that the people speaking them, in so far as 
language can be considered evidence, are of different races. This the author 
endeavours to show by an analysis of the grammatical structures and vocabularies 
of the two tongues. “If,” says he “the facts and arguments adduced in the 
course of this paper be valid, the languages which are its subject are two dis- 
tinct and separate tongues. Bede, indeed, seven centuries ago, pronounced the 
Welsh and Irish to be as different from each other as Latin and Saxon. In so far, 
then, as language can be considered a test of race, and to the extent that one Eu- 
ropean race differs from another, the parties speaking the two languages must be 
viewed as distinct original races.” ie he concludes, “the Gaelic language on 
the one hand, and the Welsh and Armoric on the other, be two distinct tongues, 
and not, as the denomination of Celtic would give us to understand, dialects of a 


136 REPORT—1863. 


common tongue, it will of course follow that the people speaking the Gaelic lan- 
guage, whether of Ireland or of Scotland, had no share in the great enterprises of the 

eople known to the Romans as Gauls. The people who established themselves 
in Northern Italy, who captured Rome, overran and plundered Greece, and, under 
the name of Galatians, established themselves in Asia Minor, were the Celts— 
men who spoke the same language which is now spoken in Wales and Brittany, 
although it is not likely that the inhabitants of these poor and remote countries 
had any share in these remoter enterprises.” 


A few Notes on Sir Charles Lyell’s ‘ Antiquity of Man.’ 
By Joun Crawrourp, F.R.S. 

The author agrees entirely with Sir Charles Lyell in his conclusion that the ex- 
istence of the human race is of a far higher antiquity than is popularly believed, and 
he dissents from him only on the question of the commutation of species, confining 
himself here to Sir Charles’s arguments drawn from language and the im gined 
transition of the family of the apes into man, and hence the unity of i 
On the subject of language, Sir Charles Lyell, adopting the Aryan or Indo-Ger- 
manic theory as expounded by Professor Max Miiller, gives it as his opinion that 
no language has been known to have endured beyond 1000 years ; and in opposition 
to this opinion, the author of the paper quotes the Arabic, which, dating from the 

ublication of the Koran to the present time, has lasted for 1240 years, while the 

reek language, reckoning from the time of Homer to our own days, has endured, 
with small change, for 2600 years; he further adds that, when there is no change 
in the frame of society, as among the Australians, a language may last even for 
thousands of years. On the question of the transmutation of the apes into man, 
Sir Charles Lyell adopts the opinions of the learned and ingenious Professor Huxley, 
who, while he adopts the theory that man is a direct transition from the anthropoid 
monkeys, takes special pains to guard himself from concluding that there is any 
other than a certain structural resemblance between them. ‘ Let me, then, take 
this opportunity,” says he, “of distinctly asserting that the differences are great 
and significant ; that every bone of a Gorilla bears marks by which it may be dis- 
tinguished from the corresponding bones of a man; and that in the present crea- 
tion, at any rate, no intermediate link bridges over the gap between Homo and 
Troglodytes. At the same time, no one is more strongly convinced than I am of 
the vastness of the gulf between civilized man and the brutes, or is more certain 
that, whether from them or not, he is assuredly not of them. No one is less dis- 
posed to think lightly of the present dignity, or despairingly of the future hopes, 
of the only consciously intelligent denizen of this world.” “ The monkeys, then,” 
concludes the author of the paper, “ have an outward and even a structural resem- 
blance to man beyond all other animals, and that is all; but why nature has be- 
stowed upon them this similarity is a mystery beyond our understanding.” 


On a Human Cranium from Amiens. By Henry Duckworth, F.G.S. 
This was a short communication relating to the discovery of a human skull, in 
the summer of 1861, whilst on a visit to the quarries of St. Acheul. 1t was obtained 
from the deposit known to the workmen as the “ Découyert” bed, its depth from 
the surface being about six feet. 


Ethnology of Eastern Mantchuria. By Captain Frenne. 


From Tientsin (North China) to the Capital of Mantchu Tartary. 
By Captain G. Fiemme. 

The paper described a journey performed by the author in company with Mr. 
Meakin in 1861. The travellers did not adopt the Chinese dress, as they were 
advised to do, believing that it was not only difficult to maintain the disguise— 
the discovery of which might lead to consequences of a very serious nature—but 
that they would consult their own safety, and produce a good impression in the 


7 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 137 


natives, by appearing in the English costume, and making no secret of the object 
of their journey. The explorers passed the Great Wall of China, from which 
they extracted a brick (which was exhibited), and gleaned much valuable in- 
formation about the country. 


On the Discovery of the Sources of the Nile. § By J. A. Grant, Bengal Army. 


Our party consisted of Captain Speke, myself, and two hundred natives, formed 
of Seedees from Zanzibar, ten men of the Cape Mounted Rifles, and negro porters 
returning to their homes in the interior, Of baggage-animals, we had twelve mules 
and three or four donkeys ; but these all died within three months of our having left 
the coast. Food was purchased, and porters paid, in cotton cloths, Venetian beads, 
or thick brass and copper wire; when these failed, the chiefs of the countries were 
conciliated with presents of rifles, ammunition, watches, medicines, &c. 

The route from the sea to the lake district lay through large properties governed 
by paltry but independent sultans, who delayed us till their demands for taxes 
were satisfied. Further on a new and distinct race were met with—the Wahuma 
kings owning the fertile lands on the western shores of the Lake Victoria-Nyanza, 
and holding the key to the Nile. Fortunately for us, they showed great intelligence, 
asking many questions about our Queen, our arts and manufactures, and finally 

anted our long-wished-for desire—a passage through their countries towards 
Beypt. On questioning them where the waters of that mighty lake of 2000 square 
miles went to, they were, until enlightened by us, as ignorant of its course as we 
had been, for ages, of its source. 


On the Aboriginal Occupation of North Tynedale and Western Northumber- 
land: an Illustration of the Social Life of the Northumbrian Celts. By 
the Rey. G. R. Hatt. 


The author said that his archeological survey had extended over an area of 
about 300 square miles, and that many vestiges of the prehistoric period were now 
noticed for the first time. The numerous ancient British Cerau, or fortified 
towns, might be considered as hill-forts, located, as the Warden Hill Camp, near 
the confluence of the North and South Tyne, on elevated sites; or, as lowland 
fastnesses, of which the Countess Park Camp is a good type, occupying escarp- 
ments, usually flanked by deep ravines in the river-basin itself. The foundations 
of ramparts, including from one to three acres, and of numerous hut-circles or 
dwellings, ranging from 15 to 46 feet in diameter, can be traced in many instances. 
The action of fire was evident on the unhewn, massive blocks of white freestone in 
several oppida—a proof of long occupation by the aboriginal tribes, who seem to 
have consisted of petty septs or clans, generally at war with one another. Nu- 
merous terraces for primitive cultivation, querns or hand-mills, large mounds of 
iron scoriz, with the rudest pottery intermingled, and “delves” to furnish ore for 
these primitive smelting-works, occur’ at Birtley and elsewhere. A remarkable 
conical tumulus, 30 feet high and 100 paces in circumference, exists near Gun- 
nerton, called the Money Hill. Many smaller barrows, in one of which a cist-vaen 
was found, have been noticed, and several flint arrow-heads and iron spear-heads 
have been ploughed up in this district. 

These vestiges were shown to be most probably Celtic, and of pre-Roman date, 
the present state of the North-American Indians illustrating very nearly the social 
life of the Gadeni Celts. 


On Routes between India and China. By Captain Henperson. 


The paper treated of some proposed overland and river routes between British 
India and Western China for emigration and trade. These routes are to be opened 
out by the general system of tug- and tow-boats of the native type, to be established 
in Eastern Bengal and British Burmah, and have for their object to open the coal- 
fields of Assam and Silhet in connexion with the Eastern Bengal Railway, and to 
extend the traffic of the Calcutta and South-eastern Railway to Burmah and 
China, vid the River Irawaddy and its tributaries at Bamu, under the recent 


138 REPORT—1863. 


treaty with the King of Burmah. The author stated that the large consumption 
and continual exhaustion of coal in England and America had induced him to 
bring before them the coal-supply of India, which at the present juncture was a 

uestion of vital importance as to the financial position of our railways there—Sir 

harles Wood having recently guaranteed the East Indian Auxiliary Railway for 
the provision of cheap coal from the Kurhurballee fields south of the Ganges, 
while the;working of the Assam coal-fields is a matter of greater moment, as it 
would facilitate the project of overland communication between Western China 
and British India, and not only extend trade, but induce emigration to eastern 
Bengal and British Burmah, which provinces have an area of nearly 200,000 
square miles, and a population less than 4,000,000. The Oriental Inland Com- 
pany, after spending a large portion of their capital in trials, now admitted that 
the train-system was a failure. The author had persevered in experiments to 
render his system a perfect one, and some recent improvements in boilers and 
condensers would enable him to establish a cheap mode of transit by tug- and tow- 
boats of native type. The paper was accompanied by appendices and diagrams ex- 
planatory of the nautilus-flotilla system of boats advocated by the author; and it 
stated that by their adoption Assam coal could be brought to Kooshtee at two- 
thirds of the present price of that brought from Calcutta, and at one-fourth of 
its cost in the upper part of the Burhampooter. 


On his Exploration of certain Affluents of the Nile. By Baron von Hevetin. 


On some Old Maps of Africa, placing the Central Equatorial Lakes (especially 
Nyanza and Tanganyika) nearly in their true positions. By Joun Hoge, 
M.A., F.RS., F.R.GS., Se. 


The author described in this paper some old maps of Africa, in each of which 
one of the central lakes of Equatorial Africa is laid down nearly in its exact position. 

The first of the’ maps mentioned is one of the 16th century, which is preserved, 
according to Sir R. I. Murchison, in the College de Propaganda Fide at Rome. In 
it the Nile is delineated as flowing out of an equatorial lake; and it was probably 
in part derived from that by Diafar Ben Musa in A.D. 839. 

In this Arabic map the Nile is laid down as issuing from a lake upon the equator, 
named Kura Kavar. 

The next map is that of Africa, by John Senex, F.R.S., Geographer to Queen 
Anne, and which he dedicated to “Sir Isaac Newton, Kt., President of the Royal 
Society, and Master of Her Majesty’s Mint,” about 150 years ago. 

In it is placed, in about. 1° ofl latitude from the equator, southwards, a large lake 
of much the same form as the Lake Nyanza, and extending to near 3° south lat. 
The 35th meridian of east longitude intersects about one-third of its west por- 
tion, instead of diyiding it at about one-third of its east side. Senex says, “ This 
great lake is placed there by the report of the negroes.’’ But the same able car- 
tographer has placed, in his ‘Map of the World,’ the “great lake (Nyanza), b 
report of the Caffres,” nearer to the equator, and in about 33° east long., whic 
is a much more accurate position than that given in his former map. 

The fifth map of Africa is a small one, published in 1811, by Walker, in his 
‘Universal Atlas.’ This, omitting the former equatorial lake, or the Nyanza, ex- 
hibits a very long and narrow lake, called “ Lake of Zambre.” It presents, upon the 
whole, much of the shape of the Lake Tanganyika, its north extremity being placed 
at about 3° of south lat., and its east position in the meridian of 31° (or nearly so) 
of east long. It will be seen that Walker has only misplaced the Lake Zambre, 
or Tanganyika, by one degree of longitude—a singular coincidence, when we re- 
member the date of its execution, more than fifty years since. 

Another lake, the Maravi, or Nyassa, called by some Zambesi, is given in a sixth 
map, also exhibited, which is by Titers at Edinburgh, in 1815; but with remark- 
able carelessness, or probably scepticism, it omits altogether the ¢wo former great 
equatorial lakes. 

Hence, inasmuch as each of these three maps only places a single and a different 


ee 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 139 


lake, it is necessary to have all the three to constitute a more accurate map of that’ 
portion of Africa. 

Next, Mr. Hoge showed that the best geographers, including Herodotus and 
Ptolemy, considered the White river, or the western branch, as the true Nile. 
And he then produced two more ancient maps, taken from two early Latin trans- 
lations and editions of the latter geographer, wherein the “ Nili Paludes,” or lakes, 
with the Mountains of the Moon (Montes Zune) as their origin, are differently laid 
down: one was published at Rome, with an atlas, in a.p. 1478, and the other at 
Bale in 1542. The earliest of these two maps represents a third large branch of 
the Nile, which it calls “ Astapus fluvius,” flowing from the S.E., and having its 
source in a small lake, which is bisected by the equinoctial line. Under this is 
written “Coloa Palus.” Since the Lake Coloa, or Caloé, is clearly identified with 
the lake now termed Dembea, this river must answer to the Bahr el Azrek, the 
Azure or Blue River; its geographical position, therefore, is assigned far too 
much to the south. 

Mr. Hogg also described Seneca’s account of the two officers sent by Nero Czesar to 
find out the « Caput Nili,” and which was narrated by them in the presence of that 
contemporary writer; and he conceived that the Nile which those officers explored 
was the west branch, or Bahr el Abiad, by reason of the vast quantity of “ implicite 
aquis herbs” still existing there and in the Bahr el Ghazal; and he further 
thought that the “ duas petras, ex quibus ingens vis fluminis excidebat,’”’ would 
seem to indicate the Karwma Falls, where the two Roman officers terminated their 
exploration, but which the two English officers, Captains Speke and Grant, have 
now so successfully completed, and by gallantly following that branch to its entrance 
into the Mediterranean Sea, have proved it to be the true Nile. 


On Anthropological Classification. By Dr. James Hunt, FSA. 


After the author had given a short outline of the nature of the subject, in which 
he stated that the origin of man belongs entirely to mythical times, and is a ques- 
tion which could not be solved by human experience, he proposed merely to classify 
man as he now exists, or as he has existed since the historical period, without 
reference tu those distinctions being absolutely original. The scope of the present 
paper was to inquire whether these physical differences were so well marked as to 
serve as the basis of classification. He reviewed the classifications of Ephorus of 
Cuma, Buffon, Linnzeus, Gmelin, Herder, Voltaire, Blumenbach, Lacépéde, Du- 
méril, Maltebrun, Cuvier, Virey, Hunter, Lawrence, Metzan, Bory, Desmoulins, 
Prichard, Lesson, Fischer, Morton, Latham, Hombron, Jacquinot, D’Omalius 
d@Halloy, Pickering, Burke, Knox, Agassiz, Crawfurd, and Isidore Geoffroy St.- 
Hilaire, and offered critical remarks on each system. The multiplicity of the 
systems at present in vogue is a sufficient refutation of the truth of most of them. 

he author considered that anatomy and physiology were the primary sources 
whence an adequate knowledge of the principles of anthropological classification 
could be derived. Language is no test of race. He laid great stress upon the form 
of the cranium as the most convenient and certain distinctive mark, and spoke with 

eat approval of the ternary classification adopted by Gratiolet, who divides man- 
ind into the frontal (European), parietal (Mongol), and occipital (Negro) races— 
these cranial distinctions being coincident with the mental and moral characters 
which were solely dependent on man’s physical structure. Other secondary phy- 
sical characters could also be used with advantage; and the author especially 
alluded to the classifications which might be based upon colour, stature, hair and 
beard, longevity, diseases, temperaments, odour, entozoa, and other subsidiary points 
of distinction. The degree of intelligence was the chief character distinguishing 
man from the inferior animals. If a classifier of the negroes of the West Indies 
were to use language alone as a criterion, he would classify them under the head 
of Europeans, with whom their acquired language is identical; their physical cha- 
racters alone mark them as African. The author considered that language must 
be utterly discarded as the first principle of anthropological classification. ile ave 
a far higher value to religion and to art, considering language merely as the third 
element. That there are well-marked physical, mental, ani moral Ustinetions in 


140 REPORT—1863. 


mankind is as well-ascertained a fact as that there are differences in the orang and 
the chimpanzee. We must, therefore, classify mankind according to the physical 
and psychological differences which now exist; for the present state of anthropology 
will not enable us to say how and when these distinctions have originated. 


On the Physical and Mental Characters of the Negro. 
By Dr. James Hunt, S.A. 


The object of the paper was to determine the position which one well-defined 
race occupies in the genus Homo, and the relation or analogy which the negro race 
bears to animated nature generally. The skin and hair are by no means the only 
things which distinguish the negro from the European, even physically; and the 
difference is greater still mentally and morally. The skeleton of the negro is 
generally heavier, and the bones are larger and thicker, in proportion to the muscles, 
than those of the European. The thorax is compressed ; the leg is longer than in 
Europeans, but is made to look shorter on account of the ankle pap Roe between 
11 in. to 13 in. above the ground; the heel is both flat and long. Burmeister has 
pointed out the resemblance of the foot and the position of the toes of the negro to 
that of the ape; and many observers have noticed that some negroes frequently 
used the great toe asa thumb. The hairis essentially different; and the voice re- 
sembles sometimes the alto of a eunuch—there being a peculiarity about it by which 
it can always be distinguished. The assertion that the negro only requires an oppor- 
tunity for becoming civilized was stated to be disproved by history. The African 
race have had the benefit of the Egyptian, Carthaginian, and Roman civilization, but 
nowhere did they become civilized. The many cases of civilized blacks are not pure 
negroes ; but, in nearly every case where they had become men of mark, they had 
European blood in their veins. In the West Indian Islands it has frequently been 
observed that all the negroes in places of trust which require intelligence have 
European features. Negro children are precocious; but no advance in education 
can be made after they arrive at the age of puberty; they still continue mentally 
children. After citing authorities to prove the low psychological character of 
the negro, the paper continued :—“ We now know it to be a patent fact that there 
are races existing which have no history, and that the negro is one of these races. 
From the most remote antiquity, the negro race seem to have been what they now 
are.’ The author could see no evidence to support the opinion of some writers 
that the negro had degenerated from some higher form of civilization. The 
general deductions he would make were—first, that there is as good reason for 
classifying the negro as a distinct species from the European as there is for making 
the ass a distinct species from the zebra; secondly, that the negro is inferior intel- 
lectually to the European; thirdly, that the analogies are far more numerous be- 
tween the negro and the ape than between the European and the ape. There was” 
in the negro that assemblage of evidence which would induce an unbiassed observer 
to make the European and negro two distinct species. 


Some Facts respecting the Great Lakes of North America. By J. A, Lapnam. 


On the Extinction of Races. By R. Luz. 


The author gave statistics showing the rate of extinction of the various tribes 
which have given way to modern civilization. He stated that it might be sug- 
ested as an almost abstract question for discussion whether the disappearance 
of the aboriginal tribes might be taken as a type of what might happen at a future 
period of the world’s history, when the present population shall have given place 
to an order of beings superior to the now dominant race of mankind. Europe was 
now the centre from which this flood of civilized life was overspreading the globe, 
and our own Anglo-Saxon race contributed one of the chief elements of that civili- 
zation. It might be the lot of nations now springing into existence at the antipodes 
to outstrip her in the pursuit of knowledge, and, when ages shall have passed 
away, to supply a nobler race and a more perfect humanity to the lands which 
now rank foremost in civilization. Viewed as a bare fact, and taking it in con- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 141 


nexion with what we knew of the previous history of man, there was nothing in 
the extinction of races to justify us in regarding it as a type of anything to fol- 
low at some future period. The man who now wanders free through the unknown 
wilds of Australia had not only not advanced in moral development since the 
formation of his species, but he had actually retrograded. We must, therefore, 
regard this extinction of races rather as an illustration of humanity in its crudest 
— shrinking and passing away before a race endowed with superior intel- 
igence, 


On the recent Discovery of Lacustrine Human Habitations in Wigtonshire. 
By Lord Loyatye. 


Dowalton Loch, in which the structures about to be described were discovered, 
is a sheet of water of very irregular form, about two miles long and half a mile 
broad, situated in Wigtonshire, on the west coast of Scotland, at the end of a 
narrow yalley five miles in extent, the whole of which is occupied by a moss, part 
of whose waters flow into the loch, and the remainder into the sea near Monreith ; 
the elevation of the watershed near the middle of the valley being almost imper- 
ceptible. Sir William Maxwell, of Monreith, has effected the drainage of this loch 
at his own heavy expense, to the great benefit of his neighbours as well as himself, 
by a cutting at its southern extremity of no less than 25 feet deep, for a considerable 
distance through the wall of whinstone and slate that closes the valley. The 
water haying been partially drawn off, the bed of the loch exhibits the appearance 
of an immense sheet of mud, surrounded by beaches of different elevations, covered 
with large rolled stones and angular blocks of slate. It contains a few small islets, 
composed, apparently, of the same materials as the beaches. Sir W. Maxwell, 
haying heard that a bronze vessel had been found in the mud near the southern 
shore, succeeded in obtaining it, but could not trace other articles of the same 
description reported to have been found near it. On visiting the spot, 19th of 
August, 1863, to obtain further information, I observed some timbers standing on 
an island near the centre of the loch, and was told that some one had been there in 
a boat when it first appeared above water, and had found bones, a small granite 
quern, and piles; and a spot was pointed out to me at the extremity of one of the 
little promontories, where similar piles were observable, which, on inspection, I 
found to be true. These piles varied from a foot to eighteen inches in circumference. 
Sir W. Maxwell’s bailiff, Mr. Chalmers, who displayed great zeal and intelligence 
throughout these researches, having proceeded to the spot to secure labourers for 
the next day’s search, reported that, though it was not possible to reach the larger 
island, a smaller one was accessible, and that a canoe lay near it. Onreaching the 
island, over about 40 yards of mud, I found it nearly circular, about 38 yards in 
circumference and 13 in diameter. It was elevated about 54 feet above the mud, 
and on each side of it were two patches of stone, nearly touching it. On the north 
side of it lay a canoe of oak, between the two patches, and surrounded by piles, the 
heads just appearing above the surface of the mud; it was 24 feet long, 4 feet 
2 inches broad in the middle, and 7 inches deep, the thickness of the bottom being 
2 inches. On removing the stones which covered the surface, several teeth, appa- 
rently of swine and oxen, were found; and I proceeded to cut a trench round the 
islet; and upon coming to the southern end, a small quantity of ashes were turned 
up, in which were teeth and burnt bones, a piece of a fine earthenware armlet of a 
yellow colour, and a large broken earthenware bead, striped blue and white, together 
with a small metal ornament, nites. gilt; two other pieces of an armlet of the 
same material, one striped with blue and white, were also found on the surface. On 
cutting deeper into the structure (the foregoing objects having been found on the 
outside about 2 feet from the top), it proved to be wholly artificial, resting on the 
soft bottom of the loch; the uppermost layer was a mass of brushwood about 2 feet 
thick; beneath it large branches and stems of small trees, mostly hazel and birch, 
mingled with large stones, evidently added to compress the mass; below that 
were layers of heather and brushwood, intermingled with stones and soil, the whole 
resting upon a bed of fern about 1 foot thick, which appeared in all the structures 
examined to form the foundation. The whole mass was pinned together by piles 


142 REPORT—1863. 


and stakes of oak and willow, some of them driven 23 feet into the bottom of the 
loch, similar to those above mentioned. The islet was surrounded by an immense 
number of these, extending to a distance of 20 yards around it; and the masses of 
stone, which apparently were meant to act as breakwaters, were laid amongst them. 
The one next examined stood about 60 yards off, at the extremity of a rocky pro- 
jection into the loch, but separated from it by the now hardened mud. It was 
smaller, and the layers were not so distinctly marked, and some of the timbers in- 
serted in it under the first layer of brushwood were larger, and either split or cut 
toa face. A stake with two holes bored in it about the size of a finger, a thin 
piece of wood in which mortises had been cut, and a sort of box, the interior of 
which was about 6 inches cube, with a ledge to receive the cover, very rudely cut 
out of a block of wood, were found. I succeeded two days afterwards in reaching 
the largest islet in a boat. It appeared by measurement to be 3 feet below the 
level of the other islets; but it was much larger, and several depressions on its 
surface showed that it had sunk. Wherever the soil was not covered with stones 
and silt, teeth were scattered all over it. We found quantities of bones at different 
depths in the mass, but always below the upper layer of faggots, and towards the 
outside. The progress of the excavation was very soon stopped by the oozing in of 
the water; but a workman, plunging his arm up to the shoulder into the soft mate- 
rial, brought up handfuls of the fern layer, mingled with sticks and hazel-nuts and 
large bones, believed to be those of oxen. Near the spot ere of sand and stone, 
fused together, were picked up. On the south side of the island extraordinary pains 
had been taken to secure the structure: heavy slabs of oak, 5 feet long, 2 feet wide, 
and 2 inches thick, were laid one upon another in a sloping direction, bolted 
together by stakes inserted in mortises 8 inches by 10 inches in size, and connected 
by squared pieces of timber 3 feet 8 inches in length. It extended to the length of 
23 yards, and its base, about 5 yards beyond the surface cf the mud, was formed of 
stems of trees laid horizontally, and secured by stakes. In other respects the forma- 
tion resembled that of the other islet, but it was far larger, measuring 100 yards 
round by about 36 yards across. No building of any sort was discovered; but a 
large plank of oak, 12 feet long, 14 inches broad, and’7 inches thick, lay covered 
with stones on the north side. The sinking of the mud had by this time laid bare 
a second canoe between the islet first examined and the shore; it was 183 feet 
long, 2 feet 7 inches wide, and barely 2 inches deep; a block of wood, cut to fit a 
hole left probably by a rotten branch, was inserted in the side, 2 feet long, 7 inches 
wide, aoa, 5} inches thick, and had there been secured by pegs driven through the 
side; across the stern was cut a deep groove to admit a backboard; a hole 2 inches 
in diameter was bored at about one-third of the length of both canoes in the 
bottom. This was so rotten that it would not bear my weight without breaking, 
The next day, being unable to reach the last-mentioned island, I found upon the 
spot which had been indicated to me on my first inquiry, no less than six strue- 
tures similar to those before described, in a semicircle. They were, however, much 
smaller, apparently single dwellings. Though upon some of them charred wood 
was found, nothing else was discovered except a mortised piece of timber, which 
might have drifted there; and in one, inserted under the upper layer of brushwood, 
a large oak timber, measuring 8 feet long by 3 feet in circumference. Throughout 
these investigations, no tool or weapon of any sort has come to light. In the 
layers the leaves and nuts were perfectly fresh and distinct, and the bark was as 
plainly distinguishable on the stems and timber as on the day they were laid down, 
as were also the heather and the fern. It is difficult to conjecture the state of the 
loch when these edifices were formed, and whether or not they were completed at 
one period. The finding of the large stones in the lower layer of ferns might lead 
to the belief that they were gradually raised as the waters of the loch increased ; 
and the necessity of strengthening them by breakwaters would seem to prove that 
the loch must have risen considerably before they were abandoned. No other sort 
of building has been discovered on them; but the great number of teeth scattered 
over the surface of the larger island, and even on the mud surrounding, and the 
immense expenditure of ighout indicated in the shaping and hewing of the large 
timber with tools, which must have been, from the work produced, of the rudest 
description, betoken apparently a considerable population. The loch must have 


TRANSACTIONS OP THE SECTIONS. 143 


remained for a considerable period at each of the different levels before mentioned ; 
at one time 6 or 7 feet above its last level (that is, before its drainage was effected), 
to which it was reduced by three cuts made to feed neighbouring mills, one cer- 
tainly of great antiquity. At 31 feet below the ordinary level there are unmistake- 
able appearances of a former beach, with which the top of the first-mentioned islet 
almost exactly coincides. It is remarkable that though there are many rocky 
eminences in the bed of the loch, none bear token of ever having been used for the 
erection of these dwellings, which seem invariably to haye been based upon the 
soft bottom of the loch, where the intervening mud and water may have afforded 
the inhabitants a greater security from attacks from the shore. I had not time 
to examine fully the shores of the loch; but I was assured by Mr. Chalmers 
that he had examined them carefully without finding traces of other structures. 
On a hill to the south there are remains of a Danish fort * (z. e. a circular entrench- 
ment), and the very ancient ruin called Long Castle is on an adjacent promontory 
on the north side. Since writing the above, a very old man in Sir William Max- 
well’s service told me that in clearing out a channel between a small wooded island 
in Myston Loch, close to Monreith House and the beach, he remembers there bein 
found layers of timbers, piles, and flat stones laid in circles. I have also obtaine 
from a farmer living near Ravenstone Moss a paddle of black oak, 8 feet long, 14 
inches broad, and 1 inch thick, which, with four or five others, he had found in 
that moss, lying close to a mass of timbers about 6 feet from the surface; this, I 
have every reason to believe, formed part of a structure similar to those described. 
I should haye mentioned that, though retaining its shape, the timber is for the 
most part completely decayed, except where it has been protected from the action 
of the mud. Dowalton Loch lies one mile to the left of the high road, halfway 
between Wieton and Port William. The name of the loch is probably derived from 
the Macdowals, formerly lords of this part of the country, and possibly of Irish 
origin, constant communications with the north of Ireland haying taken place from 
the earliest period. Sir William Maxwell suggests as an easy explanation of the 
different fais found in the loch, that the waters originally discharged themselves 
into the sea from the western end of the valley, a portion of them only now finding 
an exit that way, in consequence of the formation of the moss towards the centre 
of the valley, which compelled the remainder to flow into the loch. In this case 
the structures must be supposed to have been formed in the early stages of the 
growth of the moss, whilst the loch was so shallow as to make it easy to raise the 
moss above its waters, and yet deep enough to float canoes, and afford the desired 
security from an enemy. 


On Two Ascents of the Volcano of Misti. By the Hon. R, Marsnam. 


On his Travels towards the Sources of the Nile. By Signor Mrant. 


M. Miani indicated some trifling matters in which he asserted that the geo- 

aphy of the explorers was at fault, and concluded by expressing a hope that the 

mperor of Austria would grant him money to make another expedition to ascer- 
tain whether he or they were wrong. 


On the Tribes, Trade, and Resources around the Shore-line of the Persian Gulf. 
By Colonel Petry. 


On the Antiquities of the Orkneys. By G. Purrie. 


Proposed Interoceanic and International Transit Route through Central 
America. By Captain Beprorp Pin, R.N. 


It is with peculiar pleasure that I introduce my present subject to your notice, 
because I pte believe that the result of the labours of myself and my com= 


* This has subsequently proved, on closer investigation, to be decidedly Roman. A 
Roman fibula in bronze has also been picked up on the larger islet. 


144 REPORT—1 863. 


panions during the explorations in Central America, from which we have just 
returned, will not alone prove interesting as additions to our geographical know- 
ledge, but be the means of conferring happiness upon hundreds of thousands of our 
fellow-countrymen at the antipodes, of vastly increasing and directing the flow of 
commerce from the great producing countries of the Pacific into English channels, 
and, furthermore, of offering to our energy and eapital a new field of enterprise 
of boundless extent and inexhaustible resources. 

I propose to discuss my subject under two heads, viz.:—1. The physical aspect 
of Central America; 2. The great political and commercial importance of a rail- 
road transit across it. 

In defining the boundaries of Central America, I do not restrict myself to that 
part commonly called the Isthmus of Panama, but include the entire country, from 
the first narrowing of North America at Tehuantepec to its final expansion into 
South America at Darien. This large extent of country, the centre of the New 
World, is included between the 7th and 18th parallels of north latitude and the 
77th and 94th meridians of west longitude. There are no less than four crossings 
or isthmuses within the above boundaries, the narrowest of which, in lat. 9° north 
and long. 79° west, is only 27 miles across, while the broadest is not 200 miles from 
. ocean to ocean. The extent of the coast-line, counting all its sinuosities, is 3000 
miles, the length from end to end about 1350 in a direction N.W. and 8.E., and the 
area 306,000 square miles, or about the size of England and France. The population 
is about 2,859,000, or an average of rather more than nine to the square mile. 

The climate of Central America is equable. There are two seasons, the wet and 
dry, or summer and winter. 

The maximum range of the thermometer in the interior of Nicaragua, the 
central state or republic, is about 90° ; the temperature in the dry season is much 
cooler, and often quite chilly; but the following observations will give some idea 
of the atmospherical laws by which the climate is governed. Annual rain-fall 
97-7 inches; rain fell 138 days; mean highest temp., 86°; lowest, 71°; yearly 
average, 77°. 

The prevailing type of disease is a low intermittent fever; but that the general 
healthiness of the country is above the average in the tropics is proved by the 
vigorous old age of the inhabitants and the small Py of deaths amongst 
the residents. The more violent forms of disease haye never been experienced, 
and yellow fever is unknown. 

The general aspect and scenery of Central America is most varied, and perhaps, 
on the whole, unrivalled in the world. The Atlantic coast-line is for the most 
ey low, and fringed with primeval forests ; magnificent rivers, coming from the 

‘ar interior, empty themselves into the Caribbean Sea, and these again are inter- 
sected near their mouths by extensive lagoons, forming an interior navigation, 
close to the shore, for many hundreds of miles, and offering the greatest facilities 
for the growth and export of cotton of any locality I have ever visited. 

Inland, nature has been prodigal of her gifts, and has put on her grandest forms. 
Towering mountains and volcanos, magnificent savannas, level plains, and beauti- 
ful lakes, dotted with the most romantic islands, the whole combined with a 
fertility of soil and salubrity of climate unsurpassed in the tropics. 

Of its manifold productions those best known are precious metals, cochineal, 
indigo, sarsaparilla, vanilla, india rubber, balsam, copal, cotton, copaiba, cocoa, 
coffee, tobacco, hides, mahogany, cedar, live oak, several dyewoods, pitch-pine, 
containing a large quantity of tar, lignum vite, cascarilla, a great variety of hard 
woods, silk-gerass, tortoise shell, &c. 

In short, from its geographical position, climate, and inexhaustible natural 
wealth, Central America may safely be looked upon as offering to enterprise the 
most desirable field in the world. 

The above is a brief sketch of the centre of the New World under its physical 
aspect. It remains to point out in what manner so promising a country may be 
utilized. I propose, by the construction of a transit by railroad from the Atlantic 
to the Pacific Ocean, through the heart of the central state, or rather republic, of 
Nicaragua, to open up the entire country; and I am anxious to make this transit a 
great highway of nations for all the world. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 145 


The political necessity of such a route is proved beyond cayil or dispute by the 
following words of the Duke of Newcastie, Colonial Secretary, spoken from his 
place in the House of Lords, session 1862 :—“ A short time back, when there was 
an apprehension of hostilities with the United States (the Trent affair), he was 
unable to communicate with the Governor of British Columbia for the space of 
six weeks, there being the possible chance of any dispatches sent vid Panama 
falling into hostile hands.” 

At present the only means of crossing from the Atlantic to the Pacific is by the 
Panama Railroad, which is essentially an American undertaking, and exclusively 
devoted to the interests of the United States. 

The speech above points out the sort of political paralysis our statesmen are 
liable to while this state of affairs continues, and it is unfortunately only too easy 
to prove that our merchants trading with that part of the world are liable at any 
moment to a similar commercial paralysis, whieh it might not be so easy to recover 
from ; indeed the blow might have been dealt lone before this, had not the fearful 
war and dismemberment of the United States fully occupied the attention of its 
citizens. 

With regard to the Great Transit Route I have proposed, it is right that I should 
just sketch its rise and progress. 

In 1859-60 I was stationed on the coast of Central America (Atlantic side), as 
senior naval officer in command of H. M. 8. ‘Gorgon,’ and then first conceived 
the idea of a transit through Nicaragua. The nature of the service I was at that 
time employed upon precluded the possibility of any elaborate survey or explora- 
tions; but all my investigations went to prove the practicability of my project, and 
subsequently, after paying off the ‘Gorgon,’ I was enabled to go thoroughly into 
the matter. I have now just returned from Nicaragua, and am happy to say that 
my surveys and sections prove beyond doubt the practicability of a railroad from 
ocean to ocean, with good harbours at each terminus, and facilities in other respects 
for opening a great highway of nations such as I believe no other interoceanic 
Project has yet offered. 

he route starts from a headland on the Atlantic, called Monkey Point, thirty 
miles north of Greytown, runs in a westerly direction to San Miguelito on the Lake 
Nicaragua, skirts the northern side of that lake, crosses the River Tipitapa, and 
following the south side of Lake Managua, passes through the city of Leon, and 
finally terminates at Realejo on the Pacific. 

The construction of ack a railroad across Nicaragua would open up the finest 
cotton country in the world, formed by nature for the cultivation of the plant, and 
enjoying a geographical position in close proximity to the best market. The rail- 
road transit, while it would make England independent of the American monopoly 
at Panama, would shorten the route to British Columbia by several days, open up 
the Japanese trade, and bring us within forty-five days of Australia and forty-one 
of New Zealand, thereby knitting those colonies, and securing their commerce to the 
mother country more firmly than ever. 

We have every encouragement to proceed. See what the Suez line has done for 
India ; it has brought that country much closer to England, and afforded the best 

arantee for its future prosperity and permanent connexion. For instance, in 
isl, 759 miles of railroad were made, and 747 in 1862,—that, too, in a country 
where it was previously demonstrated to be an impossibility to construct railroads, 
owing to the monsoons, the crumbly soil, the rapid vegetation, the white ant, the 
heat, the poverty of the inhabitants, the want of labour, the idleness of the poor, 
and the lassitude of the rich. 

Eastern Australia, New Zealand, and our North Pacific colonies are now calling 
loudly upon us to treat them at least as well as our adopted Indian children, We 
are bound by every lawto doso. The opportunity of knitting these colonies to us, 
and making them as profitable as India, is doubtless offered, by opening a speedy 
means of transit between them and us. Suezis an example; let us read the lesson 
right, and no longer persist, by a suicidal apathy, in estranging from us such loyal 
fellow-subjects and good customers. 


1863. 10 


146 REPORT—1863. 
On the Marganza. By the Rev. J. L. Proctor. 


On the Opening of a Cist of the Stone Age near the Coast of the Moray Firth. 
By EH. Rozerts and Prof. Busx, F.R.S. 


Mr. Roberts said that, in company with his friends Dr. Gordon and Mr. Harvey 
Gem, he had lately visited two mounds situated pine the sandy shores at Bannat 
Hill, a mile from Burghead; and after examining their contents, they turned their 
attention to the small cairns of rudely piled stones which lie a few yards from one 
of the shell-middens, and which evidently marked the burial-places of the tribe. 
Two of these were piled around small enclosed spaces, formed by the junction of 
four upright stones. A fragment of human jaw lying on the sand outside one of 
those led them to search among its contents for other bones, but unsuccessfully. 
The second cairn, however, with its central cist, yielded better evidence. This, 
like the neighbouring tomb, was a rude erection of four flat sandstone-slabs, placed 
vertically, so as to enclose a space 30 inches long by 20 inches in width. The 
depth of the stone, which nearly corresponded with that of the grave, was 22 inches. 
Three of the stones had been slightly smoothed before being used. The direction 
of this grave was S.S.E. by N.N.W. This, however, was of no moment, as the 
adjoining one differed so much in this respect as to lie at nearly right angles to it. 
The cavity thus formed was filled with sand, into which they dug, and presently 
succeeded in discovering a skeleton, which had apparently been buried in a crouch- 
ing position, the legs below the knee being bent beneath the hams, and the head 
bowed towards the knees, and presenting peculiarities which Mr. Busk had described 
in a note attached fo the paper. From the position of the skeleton Mr. Roberts 
was at first inclined to consider that the cist had never been broken into, but the 
absence of some few of the vertebree and of the smaller bones rendered this some- 
what uncertain, though the disturbance, whether from curiosity or another motive, 
seemed to have been insignificant. He regretted, however, to add, that the box in 
which he packed the bones was tampered with during its transit from Elgin to Lon- 
don, and some of the bones, including the lower jaw, from which precious evidence 
might have been obtained bearing on the Moulin-Quignon enigma, never reached 
him. No pottery nor fashioned stones accompanied the skeleton. The note by 
Professor Busk was to the effect that the bones had belonged apparently to a young 
individual, about 5 feet 8 or 9 inches in height, of slight make, and no preat 
muscular development. At first sight, from the comparative delicacy of form and 
want of muscular impressions, one would be inclined to regard them as those of a 
woman, but, if so, she must have been of more than the usual stature. Unfortu- 
nately, no part of the pelvis, which would enable a correct judgment as to this 

oint to be formed, was found among the remains. If they were a man’s, he must 
have been of small size, and not of a strong build, with a remarkably small head for 
a male. The cranium was decidedly brachycephalic, the proportion of length to 
breadth being as 1:00 to 823, and for its size rather unusually high, the proportion 
of that dimension being to the length as ‘808 to 1:00. The forehead was narrow, 
and the supraorbital ridges very slightly projecting, although the frontal sinuses 
were well developed. Compared with other ancient crania, this might be regarded 
as belonging to the same class as those which had been considered as appertaining 
to the stone-period of the North of Europe. 


On the Physical Geography of Guatemala. By O. Savin. 
On Ethnographical Casts. By Hermann Scuiacrn welt. 


On the Ethnology of Ceylon, referring especially to its Singalese and Tamil 
Inhabitants. By Mutu Coomara Swamy. 

The author commenced by saying that the population of Ceylon was nearly 
three millions, and that its inhabitants, who were distributed among a great variety 
of races, might be classified under the heads of European, Asiatic, and Eurasian. 
The European population was not great, and consisted chiefly of English, Irish, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 147 


and Scotch emigrants, employed in the civil and military service or on the plan- 
tations. The Asiatics of Ceylon are the Veddahs, the Singalese, the Tamils, the 
Moors, and the Malays. The Veddahs are hunters, and are supposed to be the 
aborigines of the island. The Tamils of Ceylon belong to the same race as the 
Tamils of Southern India, and consist either of those who have been on the island 
for centuries or who are recent emigrants. They are to be chiefly found in the 
north-east portion of the island, and their two great capitals are Jaffna and Trin- 
comala. Their main occupation is agricultural. The coolies are the labourers of 
the island. They cross over in large numbers from the continent during the coffee- 
season. The Singalese are the inhabitants proper of Ceylon, and range themselves 
under the heads of Kandians, low-country Singalese, and Rhodiahs. The Kan- 
dians are the inhabitants of the hill-country, and are a hardy robust race, never 
till recently intermingling with their low-country brethren. Their language is 
made up of three component parts — Elu (a Singalese pure), the Pali, and the 
Sanskrit. They possess an extensive literature, and their religion is Bhuddism. 
The low-country Ningalese are either Buddhists, Roman Catholics, or Protestants. 
The influence of Roman Catholicism is very great, and the people are divided into 
classes after their occupations. The Malay population of the island is small, and 
the inhabitants form the Ceylon Rifle Regiment. They are faithful soldiers, 
brave and obedient; and in their religion thorough Mahommedans. The Moors 
are the small traders and shopkeepers of the island. 


On the Anatomical Characters of the Skull found by Mr. Duckworth. 
By Wittr1am Turner, V.B., P.RS.E. 


A description of the form and general characters of this cranium was given, one 
of the most interesting features connected with it being its resemblance to the 
much-discussed “ Engis” skull, of which it might almost be considered to be a 
reduced copy. 


On the Varieties of Men im the Malay Archipelago. 
By Atrrep R. Watxace, F.R.GS. 


In the Malay Archipelago are found two very strongly contrasted races—the 
Malays and the Papuans. The former inhabit the great western islands, Su- 
matra, Jaya, Borneo, and Celebes; the latter New Guinea and the adjacent 
small islands. The typical Malays are of a light brown colour, resembling cinna- 
mon or lightly roasted coffee ; they have constantly straight black and rather coarse 
hair, little or no beard, and generally smooth hairless bodies; they are of a low 
stature, rather strongly made, with short thick feet and small delicate hands, 
The face is broad, the eyebrows flat, the nose small, well-formed, with the nostrils 
somewhat exposed ; the lips broad and well cut, the mouth large but not project- 
ing. In character the Malay is impassive, reserved, and bashful. His feelings of 
surprise, admiration, or fear are not readily manifested, and he has little appre- 
ciation of the sublime or beautiful. He is somewhat taciturn, is deliberate when 
he speaks; he but seldom laughs, nor does he openly express his gratitude for a 
favour. He revenges an insult more quickly than an injury. He is honest and 
trustworthy in many matters, but prides himself upon his capacity for lying. His 
intellect is but mediocre ; he is deficient in the energy necessary to acquire now- 
ledge, and his mind seems incapable of following out any more than the simplest 
combinations of ideas. He is quick in acquiring mechanical arts, and therefore 
makes a good servant for simple routine duties. 

The Papuan is, in many respects, the opposite of the Malay. In colour he is a 
deep sooty brown or black; his hair is very peculiar, being harsh, dry, and frizzly, 
growing in little tufts, which in youth are short and compact, but which in adults 
often grow out so as to form a compact frizzly mop, nearly a yard in diameter. He 
is bearded, and his arms, legs, and breast are more or less hairy. The Papuan is 
taller than the Malay, and, perhaps, equal to the average of Europeans ; the face is 
elongate, and the hands and feet rather large ; the forehead is flat, the brows very 

rominent; the nose large, long, and arched, with the nostrils hidden by the over- 
anging tip. The face has thus a Semitic character, which is perceptible even in 
10* 


148 REPORT—1863. 


the children. The moral characteristics of the Papuan separate him widely from 
the Malay. He is impulsive and demonstrative in speech and action. His emo- 
tions and passions are expressed in shouts and laughter, in yells and frantic leap- 
ings. He is noisy and boisterous in speech and action, both at home and before 
strangers. Of his intellect less is known, but it seems at least equal and probably 
superior to that of the Malay. He has a love of art, decorating his canoe, his 
house, and almost every domestic article with elaborate carving. It must be 
granted, therefore, that these two races are most strongly contrasted; and if man- 
kind can be classed at all in distinct varieties, the Malay and the Papuan must 
certainly be kept separate. Besides these well-marked races are the inhabitants 
of the intermediate islands of the Moluccas and Timor, which, though differing in 
some degree from both, may yet, in almost every case, be classed with one or the 
other of them. The Negritos of the Philippines, and the Semangs of Malacca, 
differ in most important characters from the Papuan races, with which they have 
hitherto been classed, and must be considered to have Asiatic rather than’ Poly- 
nesian affinities. The recent evidence of the antiquity of man, and his having 
survived geological changes and the extinction of many species of Mammalia, 
introduces a new element into ethnographical researches, and enables us to specu- 
late more freely on the derivation and origin of races. Mr. Darwin’s researches on 
the structure and origin of the coral-reefs of the Pacific render it highly probable 
that great islands, or even continents, have recently sunk beneath its waters. The 
present distribution of animals in the Pacific islands leads us to conclude that this 
subsidence is geologically recent. The inhabitants of all the Pacitic islands, as 
far west as New Guinea and Australia, have much in common, while they differ 
greatly from other races. Combining these facts, and boldly following their indi- 
cations, we may divide the Malay Archipelago by a vertical waving line through the 
Moluceas, so that all the tribes to the west of the line will be Malayan or of Asiatic 
origin, and all to the east Papuan or of Polynesian origin. This division is in 
harmony with that which has been shown to exist in the animal productions of 
the same regions, and obviates the difliculties attending every theory hitherto pro- 
posed as to the affinities and derivation of the Malayan and Polynesian races. 


On the Central Argentine Railway from Rosario to Cordova, and across the 
Cordillera of the Andes. By W. Wuertwricut. 


This railway commences at the city of Rosario, in the province of Santa Fé, on 
the right bank of the La Plata, in latitude 32° 56’ south, longitude 61° 30' west, 
and about 250 miles above Buenos Ayres by the channel route, which is navigable 
for ships of a large size, and has a depth of 16 feet of water; it possesses a very 
fine harbour and all the elements of prosperity, and is the great commercial 
entrepot of the interior provinces. Here the steamers which ply between Monte- 
video, Buenos Ayres, and Paraguay, and those engaged in commerce with Cor- 
rientes and other commercial points stop, while almost a daily intercourse by 
steamers is kept up between this port and Buenos Ayres. From Rosario the rail- 
way will pursue its course in a north-west direction over those vast and fertile 
plains to Cordova, the central city of the plains, 247 miles, and thus will form the 
great trunk line, having upon its south and west the provinces of Mendoza, San 
Juan, San Luis, and the interior of the province of Buenos Ayres, whose high 
roads all concentrate upon the line of railway about midway; on the north are 
the provinces of Tucuman, Santiago del Estero, Jujury, Catamarca, and Rioja, 
with all their roads concentrating at Cordova, and thus forming one of the most 
extraordinary combinations to be found in the annals of railways. The railway is 
a work of great magnitude, and is intended to go over mountains at an elevation 
of 16,023 feet. 


Notice of the Discovery of Three additional Runie Inscriptions in St. Molio’s 
Cave, Holy Island, Argyleshire. By Prof. D. Witson. 


On the Rivers of the Interior of Australia. By the Rey. J. E. Woon. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 149 


ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 
Address by Wiutram Tire, MP., F.RS., President of the Section. 


THE general business of this Section will be preceded by a few opening re- 
marks which I shall have the honour of addressing to you, and we will then 
proceed with the papers on the programme for the day. One of the usual du- 
ties of Presidents seems to be the presentation of an opening Address; but in 
accepting the office I have now the honour of filling, it appeared to me that our 
time would be better occupied in considering the papers we may have submitted to 
us than in occupying a considerable portion of your time by opinions of my own upon 
the subject. Iwas the more led to this because on looking at what has been done by 
the gentlemen who immediately preceded me, viz. Mr. Newmarch, in 1861, at Man- 
chester, and Mr. Chadwick last year at Cambridge, it appeared to me that each of 
them had almost wholly exhausted the subject, with regard to the objects and 
topics of statistics and economical science, and the admirable réswmé of Mr. New- 
march in 1861 showed what has been done so correctly and completely during the 
thirty years over which his experience extended, that it left little for me to say. 
One or two subjects obviously and naturally suggested themselves, and in referring 
to Mr. Newmarch’s address, we find an admirable calculation of the results, with 
which statistical inquiry is more immediately concerned. He says, “These seem to 
me six-fold, viz., first, all such problems as relate to the real nature of wealth, and 
to the production and growth of wealth in a community; second, all such as relate 
to the exchange of commodities, that is to say, to inland and foreign trade; third, 
all problems relating to taxation and finance; fourth, problems relating to cur- 
rency, banks, and prices; fifth, problems relating to the wages and the hire of 
labour, and the division of employments; and lastly, problems relating to the func- 
tions of the State as regards interference with the economic relations of its sub- 
jects.” These are all so clearly expressed and put, that I cannot do better than 
present them to your notice, and call attention to this able statement of our ob- 
jects and duties. He continues thus: “ With respect to the first three of these 
groups of problems, it is probable that no further important doctrines remain to be 
discovered. There is little further to be found out concerning the real nature of 
wealth, concerning the true principles of exchange, or concerning taxation and 
finance, beyond the conclusions already established and expounded.” I should, 
however, be glad if the present position of monetary affairs in America could be 
brought forward and fully discussed in this Section; for her statesmen and mer- 
chants appear to bid defiance to all the laws and calculations of statistics. I should 
therefore very much like the exact condition of the currency system in America, 
and information as to the extraordinary amount of debt they have certainly 
created, to be brought under your consideration. One other topic I must men- 
tion, which is best explained in the following words in the Report of the Par- 
liamentary Committee :—“ A Committee of the House of Commons having reported 
in favour of the adoption of the Metrical System of Weights and Measures, and it 
being understood that a Bill to carry into effect such recommendation will be in- 
troduced in the ensuing Session of Parliament, your Committee venture to sug- 
gest that the expediency of such a measure might be discussed at the ensuing 
Meeting.” My friend, Colonel Sykes, supplemented this report with a statement 
that a Bill relative to this had heen introduced subsequently to the report of the 
Committee being prepared, and that it had been read a first and second time, the 
latter occupying the House nearly the whole of one day ; and, notwithstanding the 
opposition of Government, the measure passed the second reading. I think the 
most convenient course would be not to enter at present again on a fresh discus- 
sion of this subject, because the principle of the measure has been thus affirmed by 
Parliament, and it has also been very fully discussed in the Meetings of the Social 
Science Association. After remarking on the beneficial effects of the newly esta- 
blished Social Science Association, and the cordiality existing between it and the 
British Association, the chairman concluded. 


150 ; REPORT—1863. 


The Volunteer Force ; its Comparative Cost, Development, present State and 
Prospects. By Lieut.-Colonel Henry C. ALLHUSEN. 


Scarcely four years have elapsed since certain political causes induced the people 
of this country to arm in its defence, and to originate that movement which so 
soon resulted in the organization and establishment of the present volunteer army. 
The first steps were taken under Lord Derby’s administration by General Peel, the 
Secretary of State for War, who accepted the services of several corps in the spring 
of 1859, and afforded them every facility within his power. When the present 
Government came into office thirteen corps were established, and although at that 
time every expense had to be borne by volunteers, the force increased with extra- 
ordinary rapidity, its enrolled strength rising to 150,000 men in June 1861, and 
attaining the maximum (163,000) in April 1862. It was, however, shortly found 
that the pecuniary sacrifice entailed by this voluntary enlistment was so great as 
to necessitate assistance on the part of the State, and the first contribution was 
granted by Lord Herbert, who supplied 25 per cent. of the arms and ammunition ; 

ut uniformity in equipment being subsequently deemed essential, it was deter- 
mined to issue the full quantity. This was followed by the appointment of ad- 
jutants and drill instructors, and lastly by the adoption of the capitation grant, 
recommended last year by the Royal Commission. In consideration of this sup- 
por, and to ensure its proper application, the Act of George III. has been repealed 

y the Volunteer Act introduced this Session by the Marquis of Hartington, the 
Under Secretary of State for War. It possesses the advantage of placing a limit 
to inefficiency by clearly defining the terms on which a volunteer is to be con- 
sidered effective ; and with reference to the provisions regarding discipline, the 
voluntary nature of the service virtually annuls the power any of these clauses 
might seem to confer on commanding officers. In this force control must mainly 
depend on example, and can be exercised with good effect only when supported 
by reciprocal esteem and confidence ; in fact, a successful combination of discipline 
and efficiency cannot be attained unless moderation, good feeling, and a proper 
spirit of emulation animate all the members in the discharge of their respective 

uties. Although undoubtedly much has been done to consolidate this great in- 
stitution through the countenance of public opinion, the support of Her Majesty’s 
Government, and the well-known favour and consideration with which the present 
ee of State, Lord de Grey, has invariably regarded the volunteer force, yet 
it is probable that further measures will be found indispensable to ensure the per- 
manence of its basis. The number of drill instructors is inadequate, and their 
qualifications below the requisite standard ; the capitation grant should be raised to 
40s. for garrison artillery, engineers, and rifles, and to 50s. for light horse and in- 
land artillery corps possessing guns on travelling carriages; and, finally, a force of 
field artillery should be organized by issuing light field guns to such of the inland 
corps as may make application for them. The adoption of these suggestions 
would have the effect of reducing the cost entailed by serving in the volunteer 
force, which 30s. per man cannot entirely cover; would rescue inland artillery 
corps from their present anomalous position, and would improve the mobility of 
the volunteer army, and the self-supporting power of its several branches. 

The total enrolled strength is now 159,000 men of all ranks, of whom 1800 are 
cavalry, 23,000 artillery, 2500 engineers, and 132,200 rifle volunteers. After 
comparing the cost of the several branches of Her Majesty’s land service and its 
strength with that of the continental armies, the author concluded as follows :— 
“The people of this country, from their natural industry and energy, pay almost 
undivided attention to the pursuits of the day that interest them most; hence 
a long-continued peace produces apathy, and almost a dislike for all military 
exercises. Thus it is that, after Marlborough, the renown of the British arms 
seems gradually to have receded, until the glorious campaigns of Wellington again 
raised them to admiration; and although after forty years’ peace the battles in the 
Crimea were fought with the utmost bravery, and under severe privations, yet on 
the Continent the prestige of our arms most certainly suffered, eae our mili- 
tary organization was considered far from what it ought to have been. This, how- 
ever, produced reforms which have placed the army in the highest state of effi- 
ciency, and now that the militia is well organized, the yeomanry regularly trained, 


a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 15a 


and the volunteer force still in its strength, England has a military armament equal 
to any emergency. The desired position, then, having been attained, every effort 
should be made to preserve it, and success, through Providence, will be certain if 
the other services continue efficient, and the volunteer army be rendered perma- 
nent. The idea of invasion may have become latent, or merged in the memories of 
the past ; still men well know that as the tide of time rolls on, the nations, as they 
rise and fall in its course, can neither command the sunshine of peace nor prevent 
the thunder-clouds of war.” 


On the Vital and Sanitary Statistics of our European Army in India, com- 
pared with those of the French Army under like conditions of Climate and 
Locality. By Dr. Jamus Brep. 

The author showed that the mortality of 69:0 per 1000, adopted in the lately 
ublished ‘ Sanitary Report for India,’ obtained under the insalubrious conditions of 
ocality and climate, had been greatly ameliorated of late years. For the last twenty- 
six years, or from 1829 to 1855, the death-rate, inclusive of a considerable period 
of war, the Cabul massacre, the Scinde and Gwalior campaigns, and the two Sikh 
wars, was only 44-4 per 1000. For 1817, during the Pindaree war, the mortality 
er 1000 was 69:0; the average for the next six years of peace being 75:0, In 
824, 1825, and 1826, during the first Burmese war and siege of Bhurtpoor, the 
mortality rose to 129, 157, and 158 per 1000 for these years respectively; and for 
the next six years of peace fell to an average of 56 per 1000; and for the next eleyen 
years of war, 1839 to 1849 inclusive, the rate vibrated from 47 to 124 during the 
first Sikh war—hbeing for the eleven years an average of 74 per 1000. In the last 
six years, 1850 to 1855 inclusive, the average mortality was 37:3 per 1000, By the 
latest return of the British army in India, exclusive of the late Fast India Com- 

, neta troops, it appears that the deaths in India amounted to 35:3 per 1000; and 

eaths on the passage home caused a further loss of 35:3 per 1000; being altogether 

a decrease of the whole strength of 68°6 per 1000. It was shown that invaliding, 

even at home, causes a decrease of 32°53 per 1000, while the average death-rate, 

exclusive of the Horse Artillery, was 14:7; so that this cause of decrement in 

India is not greatly in excess. In comparing these rates of Indian mortality in 

the British army with those of French troops, in their tropical colonies of Marti- 

nique, Guadaloupe, Guiana, and Réunion, during ten years—1838-47 inclusive— 
the mortality was 69:5 per 1000—vibrating between 90-4 and 25:3. In Algeria, 
in an effective strength of 108,000 men, for ten years, from 1837 to 1846 inclusive, 
the death-rate was 788 per 1000; and during 1846 it was 68°83; while the 
other casualties of discharged, sent to France, killed in battle, deaths in French 
hospitals, pensioned, and invalided, amounted to 28°3, increasing the total decre- 
ments of French troops in Algeria to 97:1 per 1000, The author also showed, 
that whereas at home, for fifteen years previous to 1854, the average death-rate was 

14:7, and that of invalids 32:1 per 1000, those rates respectively in 1860 had fallen 

to 7:32 and 21:30, evidently a gain to the effective force of 18°38 per 1000. In 

the hot climates of Jamaica, Ceylon, and Mauritius, where from January 1830 to 

March 1837 the death-rates respectively were 91:49 and 34-6, they had fallen in 

1860 to 20:2, 19°6, and 25°8 per 1000, proving beyond doubt that, with the intro- 

duction into India of improved sanitary appliances, adapted to climate and loca- 

lities, and with restraints on vice and intemperance, correspondingly decreasing 
rates of augmented health among our troops must follow as natural results. The 
author, in conclusion, referred to Miss Nightingale’s evidence, recorded in the 

Topographical and Statistical Reports, printed in the Appendix to the Sanitary 

Commissioners’ Report of 1863. 


On the Coventry Frechold Land Society. By C. H. Bracesripes. 

After describing the six estates of the Society and their appropriation to build- 
ing purposes, the author stated that the mode adopted for obtaining these results 
had been by a contribution of one shilling and sixpence per week per share bein 
paid to a common fund, and when that fund had sufficiently accumulated, an 
estates offered in localities suitable to the convenience of members, they had been 


152 REPORT—1865. 


poe in the order shown in a Table exhibited. The streets on the estates 
nave been substantially made and well culverted, regard having been paid to the 
best and most approved sanitary arrangements. When an estate was purchased, 
the allotments were offered to the members in priority as they stood upon the 
books, it being optional with the members whether they had their allotments in 
that or a future purchase ; by this means the members generally have been enabled 
to obtain their allotment in such locality that they most approved. Members 
previous to the ballot were allowed to withdraw the amount they had subscribed, 
and sums amounting in the whole to £2681 14s. 6d. have been so withdrawn. 
When a member received his allotment, he was at liberty either to pay the balance 
at once or to give a mortgage to the trustees as security. About two-thirds of the 
members have given mortgages, the whole of which, with the exception of ten, 
have now been paid for by the ordinary contributions of one shilling and sixpence 
per share per week. The ten mortgages remaining are for 25 shares, and the amount 
remaining unpaid is about £100. The legal expenses were in each case of con- 
veyance, and mortgage 32s. 6d., exclusive of stamp, whether for one or six shares. 
In the above manner 1108 allotments on six estates have been made, and the 
future transactions of the Society reduced to £100. The principal cause which has 
brought the managers to a determination to wind up the affairs of the Society 
have arisen from the great depression in the principal trade of the town during the 
last few years. 


On the Sanitary Condition of the Troops in India. By Dr. Camps. 


He said that the object of the paper was to call attention to a few of the facts stated 
in the report recently laid before Parliament of the Commission appointed by Her 
Majesty in 1859 to inquire into the health of all ranks of the army in India. From 
the data collected in the paper, it appears that the mortality of men of the soldiers’ 
age in the healthy parts of England and Wales is such that eight die annually to 
1000 living. In India the mortality per thousand at the age of 20-25 is 56:4; at 
25-30 it is 48:8; and at 40-45 it is 61:6. The excess of mortality in India is 
nearly the same at all the seven quinquennial periods of age from 20 to 55, except 
at the first and fifth, when the recruits join and leave their corps in greatest num- 
bers. This poiuts to the influence of the term of service, and seems to justify the 
inference that the fatal causes in operation produce nearly the same fatal results 
in India at all the ages from 20 to 55 among men exposed to the same influences. 
From actuarial tables prepared by Dr. Farr, it seems that the expectation of life 
at the age of 20 is 17-7 years in India, and 39°5 years in England ; so, therefore, life 
is shortened by 21:8 years. On an average, in the stations of Bengal, 84 men ina 
battalion of 1000 were constantly in the hospital. Thus, out of 1000 men at a given 
station, 84 of their number are sick in the hospital, and 69 die annually. With 
this amount of sickness, an army of 70,000 British troops in India has, so to speak, 
a vast hospital of 5880 beds constantly full of sick, and loses yearly by death 4830 
men, or nearly five regiments. With respect to the loss and sickness in war, all 
the evidence goes to show that the diminution in the mortality of men before the 
mutiny was due to improvements in the sanitary arrangements. Fever, dysentery, 
diarrhcea, cholera, liver affections, and other diseases which prove specially fatal 
in India, were referred to in the paper, and numerous statistics furnished as to 
this effect. Comparative statements of the mortality among officers and civil 
servants in England and India were also given. The report, in its recapitulations, 
states that the inquiries of the Commission have shown—1. That by far the larger 
proportion of the mortality and inefficiency in the Indian army has arisen from 
endemic diseases, and notably from fevers, diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, and from 
diseases of the liver. 2. That the predisposition to these diseases is in part attri- 
butable to malaria, in conjunction with extremes of temperature, moisture, and 
variability. 8. But that there are other causes of a very active kind in India, con- 
nected with stations, barracks, hospitals, and the habits of the men, of the same 
nature as those which are known in colder climates to occasion attacks of the yery 
diseases from which the Indian army suffers so severely. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 153 
A Statistical Account of the Parish of Bellingham. By W. H. Cuantroy. 


On the Origin of the Stockton and Darlington Railway. 
By W. Fattows, of Middlesbrough. 


The author began by stating that the first locomotive railway was the Stockton 
and Darlington line, the Act for which was dated April 19, 1821, and the line 
opened in September 1825; whilst the Act for the Liverpool and Manchester, to 
which the honour of being first constructed has been erroneously assigned, was 
dated May 5, 1826, and it was opened September 15, 1830. he first effort to 
provide for the extension of the trade of the South Durham district was made as 
early as 1767, when subscriptions were opened for connecting the towns of Stock- 
ton and Darlington and the neighbouring country by means of a canal. A joint 
report on the project was prepared by Mr. Robert Whitworth and the celebrated 
Brindley, estimating the expense at £63,722, exclusive of parliamentary expenses ; 
the total length was to be thirty-three miles, and the rise in that distance 328 feet. 
The scheme was never carried out, and similar projects made afterwards met with 
the same fate. A public meeting was held at Stockton in July 1818, presided 
over by the Earl of Strathmore, at which, notwithstanding resolutions proposed 
by Mr. Edward Pease and other gentlemen in favour of the formation of a railway, 
a canal scheme in the northern part of the district, based on the report of Mr, Lea- 
ther, was resolyed to be adopted. Mr. Pease and his friends called a meeting at 
Darlington on the 13th November in the same year, when it was resolved to form 
a Company for a railway from Stockton by way of Yarm and Darlington, to 
the Auckland coal-field, with a proposed capital of £100,000. The share list was 
soon made up, and Mr, Overton surveyed the line. An application was made to 
Parliament for an Act for constructing the same; and such an Act received the 
Royal assent in April 1821, and George Stephenson was called in to construct it. 
The first rail was laid by Mr. Meynell (the Chairman of the Company) on the 
22nd of May, 1821. The formal opening of this railway took place on the 27th of 
September, 1825, when a locomotive drawing five waggons laden with coal, one 
with flour, one containing surveyors, engineers, &c., six waggons with strangers, 
fourteen with workmen and others, and last of all, other six wagegons of coals, 

assed from one end to the other of the line. The whole train moved at the rate of 
rom ten to twelve miles an hour, with an estimated weight of 86 tons. It was 
computed that about 700 people were drawn in this train, a number which created 
the greatest astonishment. Since that time the Stockton and Darlington Railway 
has always paid dividends to its shareholders; and the Company, having carried 
into effect the scheme foreshadowed by Brindley and Whitworth, has become the 
connecting link between the towns of Stockton and Kendal and the western parts 
of the island. The Company, as a separate company, held its last meeting during 
the present month (August 1863), Parliament having sanctioned its amalgamation 
with the North-eastern system. It began with a capital of £100,000, and ended as 
a separate company with one of £4,000,000. 


On the Difference between Irish and English Poor-law. By Dr. Hancock. 


He said that the difference between the Irish and English Poor-laws was most 
material. The statistics of the distressed districts show the extent to which able- 
bodied men can and do get relief. There was a very simple proof that the Irish 
Poor-law could not be adopted in Ireland. The Poor-law Amendment Act, in 
1834, was passed with the intention of abolishing all out-door relief to the able- 
bodied, but when it began to be extended to the manufacturing districts in the 
North of England, this was found to be impracticable, and the attempt was given 
up. The great intercourse which takes place between England and Ireland leads 
to the labouring population spending part of their lives in one country and part in 
the other. It is manifest that the establishing of a different rule by law as to the 
mode of treating labourers engaged in the same trade when suffering from the 
same calamity, is just such a cause as would be calculated to contribute in some 
degree to feelings of discontent. There can be no doubt that a great deal of dis- 
turbance connected with land in Ireland, particularly the more violent part of it, 


154 ; REPORT—1869. 


has been caused by the attempt of many proprietors to convert the Irish peasant 
occupiers into farm-labourers, in view of copying what they see in England and 
Scotland. Those who do so, if they wish to succeed, should carry out the whole 
of the English system of agricultural management. If they omit such an im-' 

ortant element as the Poor-law they cannot expect to be successful—at any rate, 
it is obvious that Irish proprietors should not be restrained by law from managing 
the relief of their poor labourers exactly as English proprietors do. 


On the Opening and Extension of Durham University Acadenacal Endowments. 
By James Heywoon, M.A., F.RS. i 


The University of Durham possesses estates, the gross income of which, during 
the last four years, has averaged £7170 a year, whilst the average net income for 
the same period has only been £5410 a year. The difference between these two 
sums, or £1760, shows the average annual outgoings of the property, which 
amount to nearly one-fourth of the gross rental, and are so excessive, that advan- 
tage would be derived by an appeal to the Attorney-General to inquire, by means 
of the agency under his control, into the cost of the management of the landed 
estates of the University of Durham, considered as charitable property. 

Commissioners were appointed, under the Durham University Act of 1861, for the 
improvement of that seat of learning; they included the Right Rev. Dr. Baring, 
Bishop of Durham, the Right Hon. R. Lowe, M.P., the Right Hon. C. B. Adderley, 
M.P., the Hon. H. G. Liddell, M.P., the Rey. Dr. Vaughan, and Robert Ingham, 
Esq., M.P. 

i their report, the Commissioners observe that the financial arrangements of the 
University of Durham have been conducted with little system or success; they 
remark that there has been no sufficient encouragement given to the study of 

hysical science, and that the University of Durham has failed to do for the 
industry of the North all that it might reasonably have been expected to perform. 

The scheme of the Ecclesiastical Commissioners for the University of Durham 
had originally comprised the annexation of the wardenship of the University to the 
deanery of Durham, the endowment of the professorships of Divinity and Greek with 
canonries in Durham Cathedral, and the establishment of twenty-four fellowships 
of £120 a year each, with a further sum of £30 a year to each of the ten senior 
clerical fellows. 

Among the alterations suggested by the Commissioners of 1861, were the 
cessation of any further appointments to any of the twenty-four fellowships, all of 
which had been exclusively limited to members of the Church of England, and the 
stopping of any further elections to twenty scholarships belonging to the University, 
aie Vitharts confined to members of the Church of Tnplitrt 

Forty open scholarships of £30 a year each, to be competed for by any persons, 
whether members of the University or not, and to be tenable for two years each, 
were proposed by the Commissioners of 1861, in place of the previous arrangement 
of fellowships and scholarships; and a further recommendation was made, that 
forty additional scholarships of £50 a year each should be created, to be competed 
for by any students commencing their second year, and to be tenable for one year, 
with the power of a successful candidate retaining such £50 scholarship for an 
additional year, in any case where the student, having taken a degree in one depart- 
ment of the University, should select to study in some other department of the 
University ; as, for instance, if a scholar, who is a Bachelor of Arts, should choose 
to study either divinity or physical science. 

Under the existing Durham system, about £2916 are annually laid out in 
fellowships, and £740 in scholarships; the change proposed by the Commissioners 
of 1861 m this plan has been arrested by petitions from the Dean and Chapter 
of Durham, and other persons, to the Queen in Council, which have been supported 
by pleadings before a Committee of the Privy Council, and have led to nu dis- 
allowance of the ordinances of the Commissioners of 1861 by the Privy Council. 

It isnot the intention of the Commissioners of 1861 to issue any fresh ordinances, 
and the work of reform is for the present practically left in the hands of the Dean 
and Chapter of Durham. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 155 


’ All the students of the University of Durham are expected to attend the Church 
of England service, and subscription to the three articles of the thirty-sixth canon of 
the Church of England is expected previous to any degree in Arts being conferred. 
‘Dissenters are consequently virtually excluded from the University of Durham. 

An almost constant decline is observable in the numbers of the Durham Uni- 
versity students. In 1862-65 there were only 25 students in Arts and 23 students 
in Divinity ; total 46 students. 

The sums required from the University of Durham endowments, for the scholar- 
ships suggested by the Commissioners of 1861, would be £1600 a year, viz., £600 
a year to provide for twenty open scholarships of £30 a year each, tenable for two 
years, and £1000 a year for twenty open scholarships of £50 a year each, tenable 
for one year; some additional provision would also be needed to meet the case of 
the £50 scholarships being continued for a second year. 


Remarks on Native Colonial Schools and Hospitals, from the Sanitary Statistics 
of the Aborigines of British Colonies, collected by Miss Nigurrncate. Pre- 
sented to the Statistical Section by Jamus Heywoop, M.A., FBS. 


An inquiry has recently been conducted by Miss Nightingale into British colonial 
hospitals and schools. hat distinguished lady has been assisted by the Duke of 
Neweastle, Secretary of State for the Colonies, in her important investigations, and 
a still more extended inquiry is recommended by her into the condition of the 
ancient tribes who still remain in the British colonial possessions. 

Adult natives in many of the colonies are regarded as specially liable to the 
disease of consumption: diseases affecting the chest may be considered as a main 
cause of the gradual decline and disappearance of some of the civilized or semi- 
civilized races of aborigines. 

Many of the school-houses for native children are described in the colonial returns 
as of bad construction, and ill situated for health, and the ventilation is often very 
insufficient. The period of tuition varies considerably, from two up to ten or more 

ears. 
; Many returns have been received from hospitals for the native population in the 
colonies, and the statistics of mortality in these returns show a very high death- 
rate upon the number received into those institutions. Among the causes of such 
a mortality may be mentioned, defective stamina in the native population, delay in 
applying for medical relief, bad and insufficient accommodation, or defective medi- 
cal treatment, and inadequate management of the sick. 

Bad, over-crowded dwellings for the natives, deficient drainage, bad water, want 
of cleanliness, and other bad habits, must also have their share in increasing disease 
and mortality. 

A select Committee of the Legislative Council of Victoria, Australia, inquired 
in 1858-59 into the condition of the Australian aborigines, and noticed in t&eir 
report, that the rapid settlement consequent upon the country being occupied by 
flocks and herds was more unfavourable to the aborigines than if the land had only 
been gradually taken up for agricultural purposes. 

The Committee were of opinion that great injustice had been perpetrated upon 
the aborigines, and that when the government of the country found it necessary to 
take from them their hunting-grounds and their means of living, proper provision 
should have been made for the natives thus dispossessed of their former territory. 

Miss Nightingale recommends the following remedial measures for the native 
population in the colonies :— : et ‘i 

7 Provision of land should be made for the exclusive use of the existing tribes, 
and settlements should .be formed under any Christian denomination which might 
undertake in a wise marner the gradual winning of the native population under 
their care to higher and better habits. 

2. The prohibition of the sale of intoxicating drinks to the aborigines. 

3. The proper conduct of education. 

4, Physical training and out-door work. 

5, Encouragement of open-air activity. 


156 REPORT—1863. 


On the Reduction of the Death-rate in Gateshead by Sanitary Measures. 
By Joun Lame. 


The situation of the town of Gateshead is upon the banks of the River Tyne, 
immediately opposite Newcastle—built pu on the low ground adjoining the 
river, and partly on rapidly rising ground behind, the whole being very favourably 
situated for drainage. In the old parts of the town, on the flat ground at the 
river’s edge, the streets are narrow, two of considerable length being only from 
8 to 10 feet wide; other parts of the old town are built in courts, the houses in 
almost all cases being improperly constructed, and devoid of all means of thorough 
ventilation ; generally miserably deficient in accommodation, and no yard attached, 
the whole ayailable space being built upon. 

Previous to 1851 (when the Public Health Act was applied to Gateshead), 
there had only been one sewer executed, costing £2000, but no use was made of 
it for “private drainage.” Sewerage works were commenced by the Board in 
1854, and they spent up to the end of 1862 the sum of £6525; but this left about 
one-fourth of the sewerage works yet to be done to render them complete, or, say, 
total executed, and to be executed, will cost £10,500. The smallness of this sum 
for a town of 33,589 inhabitants (in 1861) is owing principally to the favourable 
nature of the site for drainage, and also in some measure to the cheapness of the 
materials, the whole of the sewerage pipes being made in the town, and on 
account of pipes 6 inches diameter being in most cases used for branch sewers 
instead of 9-inch and 12-inch, the usual sizes. 

The cost of draining towns varies from 12s. to 20s. per head of the population, 
or even in some cases higher, but the sewerage works of Gateshead will only cost 
6s. 3d. per head. 

Since 1851 there has also been executed all necessary “private drains,” con- 
necting the houses and yards with the public sewers, costing, say, four-fifths of 
the public sewers (the usual proportion), or £5000, 

Between 1851 and 1862 there have been thirty-six “private streets” paved at 
an expense to the owners of the adjoining houses of £3680. 

The cost of the whole of the above permanent sanitary works executed has 
therefore been £15,205. 

As the result of this expenditure, the annual mortality has been reduced from 
50:2 per 1000 (for the six years from 1851 to 1856 inclusive) to 25:4 per 1000 
(for the six years from 1857 to 1862 inclusive), or a saving of nearly 5 per 1000. 
If, instead of the last six years, the average of the last four years were taken, the 
death-rate will be still further reduced to 24°3 per 1000. 

This is far above what it ought to be, as the normal mortality of towns may be 
stated at 17 per 1000, but which standard it is not anticipated will be speedily 
reached in Gateshead, on account of the malconstruction of the old houses, as 
mentioned above. Yet, as new and better houses are built, and sanitary works 
are vigorously carried on, there is every reason to believe that a mortality of less 
than 20 per 1000 will be attained. 


On the Decrease of the Agricultural Population of England, 1851-61. By 
Freperick Purpy, Principal of the Statistical Department, Poor Law Board, 
and one of the Honorary Secretaries of the Statistical Society. 


The author commenced by drawing attention to the prosperity which of late 
years has attended English farming, and to the rise in the value of land, especially 
since 1853. Nevertheless, at the last census it was found that the only counties 
which had decreased in population were the agricultural ones of Cambridge, Nor- 
folk, Suffolk, Wilts, and Rutland. To exhibit the decrease in the population 
ascribed to the class “ Agricultural ” in the census of occupiers of 1861, the writer 
divided the kingdom into three sections. (1) 24 counties of highest rank, where up- 
wards of 20 per cent. of the adult population is occupied in agriculture. (2) 16 
counties of intermediate rank, where over 10 and under 20 per cent. is employed ; 
and (3) 5 counties of lowest rank, where less than 10 per cent. is employed. Be- 
tween 1831 and 1861 the first section of counties had increased 1,093,000, or 22 
per cent. on the population generally ; the second section 1,651,000, or 39 per cent. ; 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. i it 


and the third section 3,425,000, or 73 per cent. It was stated that in 1831 the 
population was pretty equally divided between the three sections: the respective 
proportions were then 5:0, 4:2, and 4:7. In 1861, however, in consequence of the 
unequal rate of increase, those ratios became 6:1, 59, and 8:1. In 1851, the num- 
ber of persons in England and Wales, aged 20 years and upwards, occupied in 
agriculture was 1,576,080; in 1861 the same class had fallen to 1,531,270. This 
shows an actual decrease of 44,790 persons, or nearly 3 per cent. in the ten years. 
The greatest decline had taken place in the south-western and the Welsh divisions. 
In the former, consisting of the counties of Wilts, Dorset, Devon, Cornwall, and 
Somerset, the decrease was 20,381, or 9 per cent. ; and in the latter, which includes 
Monmouthshire, it was 13,285, or 8 per cent. The ratio of adults engaged in agricul- 
ture in England and Wales on the adult population generally in 1851 was 16:1 per 
cent., and in 1861 it was 13-9 per cent., which is therefore a decline of 2°2 per 
cent. ; in other words, 22 in every 1000 of the adult population had, between 1851 
and 1861, ceased to belong to the agricultural class. Mr. Purdy showed that, 
during the last decade, the falling off in certain counties was very considerable. 
Sussex had lost 2698; Hants, 3412; Berks, 1158; Herts, 1095; Bucks, 1048; 
Suffolk, 3306; Wilts, 2837; Dorset, 1343; Devon, 9475; Cornwall, 3917 ; Somer- 
set, 2809 ; Gloucester, 1166; Northumberland, 1265; Cumberland, 2099; Mon- 
mouth, 1089; South Wales, 4530; and North Wales, 7666. The highest per- 
centages of decrement took place in Devon, 13:3; North Wales, 11:0; Cornwall, 
10:5; Elampshire, 8:8; Cumberland, 7:7; Monmouth, 7-6; Wilts, 7-3; Sussex, 
65; Suffolk, 6-4; Dorset, 5:6; South Wales, 5-6; Hunts, 5:4; Bucks, 5:1; and 
Northumberland, 5:1. It was observed of Wiltshire that, while the population 
generally had decreased by 4904, the decrease of the adult agricultural population 
was 2837 ; and that in Suffolk the general decrease was only 747, while the agri- 
cultural decrease was 3306. Mr. Purdy stated, however, that eleven counties had 
increased their agricultural population. The six most remarkable instances were 
these: Salop had increased 1226, or 3:5 per cent.; Worcester, 1281, or 5:7; Lei- 
cester, 1371, or 6:0; Lincoln, 2159, or 3°3; Chester, 1550, or 4:2; and Lancaster, 
5336, or 7:1 per cent. Attention was directed to the fact that the largest increase 
had occurred in our great manufacturing county, and further, that Lancashire, in 
1861, employed a larger agricultural population than any other county. The num- 
ber of adults so engaged was 80,822. The West Riding of Yorkshire, which in 
this respect comes next, only employed 77,168, and Lincoln, a purely agricultural 
county, 67,357. Though the adult agricultural population of Lincoln is 11,000 less 
than Lancashire, the return of the farmers’ profits (Schedule B.), in 1859-60, in 
the former county exceeded those of the latter by £1,000,000; the valuation in 
both counties having been made upon precisely the same principle, that is, by 
assessing all the farms, whether their occupiers were lable to pay income-tax or 
not. In 1851 there were in Lincolnshire 10,970 farms, one-fourth of the number 
exceeding 100 acres each; while in Lancashire, with 15,865 farms, less than one- 
twentieth of them exceeded 100 acres each. Excluding from each county those per- 
sons placed under the agricultural class, but who in fact work in woods or in gar- 
dens, it is found that in Lincolnshire there were 65,849, and in Lancashire 76,496 
adults engaged infagriculture properly so called. The Schedule B. valuation of the 
first county is £2,647,000, and of the second £1,605,000. Dividing’ these sums 
among the adults respectively employed in each, gives £38 per head for Lincoln- 
shire, and £21 for Lancashire. The exact relation between the agricultural capa- 
city of the two counties can only be satisfactorily shown when England adopts a 
system of agricultural statistics like that of Ireland. The diminution of the agri- 
cultural population was attributed to emigration, and to the attraction of higher 
wages in other industries; though a considerable advance had taken place of late 
years in the money wages of the farm labourer. In Wales, where a large decrease 
of the agricultural class has been noted, the men’s wages had risen from 7s. 6d. 
in 1837, to 11s. in 1860. Contemporaneously with the general advance of agricul- 
tural wages, large tracts of waste land had been enclosed for cultivation. The 
Enclosure Commissioners state the total area: to be 390,000 acres; this is equal 
in extent to the county of Hertford. The writer concluded by remarking that the 
want of agricultural statistics in England precluded any investigation of the effect 


158 


REPORT—1868. 


which the decrease of manual labour may have had upon the productiveness of the 


soil,—how far increase of skill and mechanical appliances have supplied the P 
of the labourer,—what and how much did England yield when 1,576,000 o 


lace 
her 


adults belonged to the agricultural class;—what and how much, ten years later, 
when the class was reduced by 45,000 persons. 
terest, but which at present cannot be solved statistically. 

The following summary Tables haye been compiled from the Statistical Appendix 


to Mr. Purdy’s paper. 


These are questions of great in- 


A.—Table of the number of Adults engaged in Agriculture in England and Wales 
in 1851 and 1861, and the proportion to the Adult Population. 


| 

Divisions. | 
| 

. The Metropolis......... | 
. South-Eastern 


. South-Midland .........| 
. Eastern 


York 


PSP SNS ew 


POeee ee EC Serer) 


— 


England and Wales.. | 


Number of persons, 


_ aged 20 and upwards, 


engaged in agriculture. 


1851. 1861. 
15,838 | 15,687 
184,601 | 178,146 
167,627 | 163,547 
160,249 | 155,818 
227,554 | 207,173 
179,363 | 179,800 
142,389 | 144,710 
112,184 | 119,070 
137,681 | 136,909 
83,822 | 78,942 
164,773 | 151,488 


1,576,081 1,531,290 


Ratio per cent. on the 
total population, 


aged 20 and upwards. 

1851. 1861. 
Tsk 1-0 
20°8 17-4 
254 23°5 
26°5 25°2 
23°3 20°7 
15°5 13°7 
21°7 20°77 
83 74 
14°3 12°5 
1671 12°9 
25°7 214 
161 13°9 


Decrease 
in the ratio 
of 1861. 


te Fer ee rahe Bare Nae 
WNLDSSHAWe ARE 


ty 
x) 


class not being returned as one of the agricultural occupations in 1851. 


Note.—The numbers in 1861 are exclusive of persons ‘‘ employed about animals,” that 


B.—Table showing the Counties which, between 1851 and 1861, experienced the 
greatest absolute Decrease in the number of Adults employed in Agriculture. 


Divisions. 


South-Eastern 


Pree e cree rere 


ween een eeeeee 


West-Midland .....s0ssee.06 
‘| Northern 


Counties. 


SUSREX.3 adeeb sauncihes sae 


Southampton 
Berkshire 


ee ee een ne eee 
SRO eee te ewnee 


Buckinghamshire ........ 
SUAOUC;. Scieasccssssse 


Aenean ewan teens 
Seem ewan ee enenee 


Gloucestershire........ : ; ‘ 
Northumberland......... 


eet weweeenee 


South Wales.........00... 
North Wales..........0.+. 


Amount of absolute 
decrease in 1861. 


2698 
3412 
1158 
1095 
1048 
3306 
2837 
1343 
9475 
3917 
2809 
1166 
1265 
2099 
1089 
4530 
7666 


Ratio per 
cent. of 
absolute 
decrease. 


oO 
SOAVEHNSCAWHAWENASDE 


— 
SIO SB HIS Oh | 


| 


*,* Mr. Purdy’s paper upon the decrease of the agricultural population of England will 
be found in the Journal of the Statistical Society for 1864 in extenso. 


Fe 


‘‘ TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 159 

_ On the Mortality of Lancashire, §e., during the year ended at Midsummer 
1863. By Freperick Purpy, Principal of the Statistical Department, 
Poor Law Board, and one of the Honorary Secretaries of the Statistical 
Society. 


| This was a continuation of the paper which the writer brought before the 
- Section at Cambridge. The cotton famine was felt in several of the Lancashire 
' unions through a marked increase in pauperism at the beginning of 1862. It 
increased till the Midsummer following, when the distress had assumed most 
serious proportions, which continued to augment still more rapidly up to December, 
when the maximum of destitution was reached ; thence to Midsummer last it has 
steadily declined, leaving, however, in the unions principally affected, a rate of 

auperism which is between three and four times their normal ratio. The deaths 
in Lancashire during the year ended Midsummer were compared with the average 
of the three years ended at Midsummer 1862. The average was 61,263; last 
year’s deaths 64,828, being an increase of 3565, or 5:8 per cent. No attempt 
was here made to correct the figures for the increase of population. A similar 
comparison was made for three contiguous divisions—Yorkshire, where the deaths 
were respectively 46,454 and 49,955, being an increase of 5501, or 7°56 per cent; 
the rate of increase was here larger than in Lancashire,—the Northern division, 
deaths 25,499 and 26,876, which showed an increase of 1377, or 5:4 per cent., very 
close to the Lancashire rate of increase,—and the North Midland division, deaths 
26,578 and 25,181, which showed a decrease of 1397, or 5:3 per cent. 

Limiting the inquiry to the principal cotton manufacturing unions, properly so 
called, a group of sixteen was formed of the most distressed. The two first belong 
to Cheshire, the others to Lancashire. They are the unions of Stockport, Maccles- 
field, Wigan, Bolton, Bury, Chorlton, Salford, Manchester (with Prestwich), Ashton- 
under-Lyne, Oldham, Rochdale, Haslingden, Burnley, Blackburn, and Preston. 
The average number of deaths in the three years was 43,152, and the deaths in the 
year ended Midsummer last, 43,951, that is to say, an increase of 799, or 1‘9 per 
cent., as compared with the average. But it was found, on correcting the numbers 
with respect to the increase of population, that the ayerage should be 42,353, the 
deaths for the year ended Midsummer last, 41,574; this then exhibited, instead of 
an increase, a decrease of 779 deaths, or 1°8 per cent. 

The sixteen unions were arranged in three sections, as in the Cambridge paper. 

Section A. contained 7 unions, which at Midsummer 1862 were least pauperized ; 
the increase of pauperism as against 1861, was at that time 34 per cent. in the 
lowest burthened, and 100 per cent. in the highest. It was shown, by compari- 
son of the deaths in the year ended Midsummer 1863 with the average of the 
three preceding years, that Wigan, Chorlton, and Oldham had increased 8-7, 13-9, 
and 16-9 per cent. respectively ; that Macclesfield, Salford, Bolton, and Bury had 
decreased 5:0, 0:9, 2:2, and 4:1 per cent. respectively. 

Section B. consisted of 4 unions; the increase of pauperism at Midsummer 1862 
varied in this section from 120 to 145 per cent. The deaths in Manchester (with 
Prestwich) had increased 2:7 per cent. The others had decreased : Rochdale, 6-6 
per cent.; Burnley, 16-0 per cent. ; and Haslingden, 1°6 per cent. 

Section C. was formed of 4 unions; the pauperism had increased from 283 in 
the lowest union to 458 per cent. in the highest. Stockport had increased in 
deaths 12-0 per cent., and Ashton-under-Lyne, the most distressed union in the 
whole district, judging by the numbers on the books of the relieving officers and of 
the Relief Committees, 3-9 per cent. 

In the Preston union there was a decrease of 8°7 per cent. in the deaths. This 
union felt the distress earlier, and till it was surpassed by Ashton, heavier than 
any other. Last autumn typhus fever prevailed at Preston. Dr. Buchanan, the 
Government Inspector, who visited the district, reported the fever as “the steady 
follower on famine,” and gave, it may be remembered, a very gloomy account of 
the physical depression of the unemployed operatives generally; yet in the very 
year of this fever, which disease soon disappeared, there were 256 less deaths in 
the union than on the average of the three preceding years. Blackburn, also a 
very distressed union, shows a slight decrease of mortality. Liverpool, though 


160 REPORT—1863. 


the largest cotton port in Europe, has been but slightly affected by the cotton 
famine; the pauperism there is, and has been, but little in excess of its usual 
amount. It has not been found necessary to institute any Relief Committees. 
Nevertheless the increase in the death-rate has been very great. The average 
number of deaths in the three years was 8198; in the year ended Midsummer 
1863 it was 9475, being an increase of 1277, or 15°6 per cent. In the contiguous 
union of West Derby, the deaths were respectively 4915 and 6199, increase 1284, 
or 26-1 per cent. ‘These figures present a remarkable contrast to the average 
death-rate of the cotton manufacturing unions during the same period. Mr. Purdy 
observed that the increase of mortality in the Manchester, Ashton-under-Lyne, 
Chorlton, Oldham, and Wigan unions appeared from the Registrar’s Returns to 
have been caused by the prevalence of epidemics in those districts, especially 
from scarlatina, diphtheria, measles, and small-pox. The decrease of deaths in the 
other unions has been attributed by various Registrars to the generally temperate 
state of the weather; to the change from employment in the atmosphere of the 
milis to the open air; and to the greater maternal care bestowed upon the 
younger children. The possible saying of life from the last-named cause may 

e very great indeed, when it is remembered that one-half of the large mortality of 
the Lancashire towns is usually that of children wder five years of age. 

The Tables which follow have been extracted from the Appendix to the original 


paper, 


Section A.—Unions of least Pauperism. 


Increase per cent. in Number of Deaths. 
Paupers at Midsummer 
and Christmas 1862, | Average of 
Unions. compared with 1861. | three years| The year 
—________—____|__ ended ended 
Midsummer} Christmas |Midsummer|/Midsummer 


Difference 
per cent. 


1862. 1862. 1862. 1863. 
Macclesfield ...........-sese0s 34 40 1486 1412 — 50 
WaltOnddtiasksh saesscvesshe 84 215 2614 2590 — 09 
Bolton ..... Se eGi use de Sette Bee 41 136 3440 3363 — 2:2 
SWisatssages tatess. cunecee sees 38 121 2391 2599 + 87 
YUL is <schoue chee Be pegaaebsnehs 100 343 2353 2256 — 41 
Whoriion et oecehe vests <.coucxs 68 464 3735 4255 +139 
Oldham.,.... atinpcnchds vet acous 86 497 2774 3243 +16°9 


*,* The Unions are arranged, in this and the two next Tables, according to the ratio of 
paupers to population at Christmas 1861: the most pauperized at that date is placed first. 
(See previous paper, 1862.) 


Section B.—Unions of medium Pauperism. 


| Increase per cent. in Number of Deaths. 
Paupers at Midsummer 
and Christmas 1862, | Average of 


The year | Difference 


Unions. r i d1. 
nions compared with 1861 saree yeare ended per cent. 
Midsummer| Christmas |Midsummer|Midsummer 
1862. 1862. 1862. 1863. 
Manchester with Prestwich 127 340 7228 7421 + 27 
Rochdale ...............00. ie 120 414 2111 1971 — 66 
Burnley seaawatetde ae setae venice 145 348 1835 1541 —16:0 
Haslingden...... Gaodgocieonce > 108 431 1529 1505 — 16 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 161 


Section C.—Unions of highest Pauperism. 


Increase per cept. in Number of Deaths. 
Paupers at Midsummer 
and Christmas 1862, | Average of - 
Unions. compared with 1861. | three years| The year | Difference 
ended ended per cent. 
Midsummer] Christmas {Midsummer Midsummer 
1862. 1862. 1862. 1863. 
REMRLENU eco, <5 sesavasssveess 283 231 2951 2695 — 87 
Blackburn 322 348 2952 2931 — 07 
Stockport 306 299 2324 2605 +12:0 
Ashton-under-Lyne siawivasion 458 224 3429 3564 + 39 


Section D.—Unions of ordinary Pauperism. 


Increase per cent. in Number of Deaths. 
| Paupers at Midsummer | 
and Christmas 1862, | Average of 
Unions. compared with 1861. | three years 


The year | Difference 


ended ended per cent. 
Midsummer, Christmas. |Midsummer| Midsummer 
1862. 1862. 1862. 1863. 
MEMO core seavascasasnsonns 8 3 8198 9475 +15°6 
West ated and Toxteth 8 1 4915 6199 +2671 


Statistics of the Tanning Trade of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

By the late T. C. Anus. Communicated by Jamus Ports. 
Thirty years ago Newcastle appears to haye taken the lead in the tanning trade, 
but now Leeds occupies that position. The present state of the tanning trade in 


Neweastle and Gateshead is represented by the following statistics :— 
Value about 


; 280 
£25,736 


Bark used during the year 1862, 1780 tons...... £9753 0 0 
Valonia “ oe VBA: Foye ra trate 2202 0 0 
Gambier -- - HOLS os ase 980 0 0O 
Divi divi rr " BOs: is chests 772 0 0 
Shumae a BAR 55: tater oeies 4315 0 0 
Oil, Cod, and Linseed 9 TSH sy ceretsaning 5310 0 0 
Lime and Pigeon-dung... i.e. eee ee pet ads, 324 0 0 
LETS pea SOE aOOAEORTC OEMENCLA ICH RCRREF ORR ic SractCLO OCIS 100 0 O 
EVES id ars Wyeyay alos o.diioxs.'¢ 9:0: p00 6 o1e16)o\c etic ieeiataia eas 800 0 0 
te MINGCTIGIS” 25 Vinyasa ceo che eee 100 0 O 
Snenetecsvonshons cananaydrvyicehanyepce/ eve Lotenes (| damier fata 600 0 0 

Alum and Soda ot sa d's o atstetan > eqoro tare nter Agee eee 200 0 O 
0 0 

0 0 


Raw Materials put into Work. 


Butchers’ hides, 38,020 713tons£24,908 0 0 

Calf-skins .... 62,124 84 , 9,320 0 0 

Sheep -skins .. 46,452 2,322 0 O 

Beal-aicins ...163,000 873 ,, 40,750 0 0 77,300 0 0 
£103,036 0 0 

The above will produce in yalue when manufactured— 

Butchers hides 2.3. i.cccs ree. £47,500 0 0 

Calf-skins ........ aratereatere 1... 16,373 0 a 

Sheep-skins ......sssseeseeees 3,871 

Seal-sking pssseessereveeeeeees 67, 915 0 0—£185 659 0 0 


1863, 11 


162 REPORT—1863. 


Comparison of the Organization and Cost in detail of the English and French 


Statistical 


The following is the analysis of the paper, to which is added the pay tables 


English Army. 
Effectives . Number. Cost. Cost per head. 
£ Bao ds 
1. Effective and non-effective services...| 148,242 15,060,237 IOI Ir IO 
Deduct charges for auxiliary forces 
disembodied militia, enrolled — 1,222,977 
pensioners, and volunteers ...... 
13,837,260 93 6 10 
2. Effectives and non-effectives ........+ 148,242 13,837,260 
Deduct from charges, the non- 
effectives  ........0.008 SIAL k } a 4,127,886 
11,709,424 78 18 5 
ot MMTAUNITY PAW ab is. <=.) asvcessatboromane cos 102,765 
WRVEIEVT Soyi <soserecst=ssadcantasssaenoee 13,867 
ATUNLEr Y= se secaees vesence? <cascrueness eon 23,740 
TETIPITIGPYA og cans cant apis ce sensanh<deangsba 4,906 
Military train Pay....cccecsesscecsesseeee 1,840 
147,118 4,967,603 ats g 
4. Administration of the army.......+.... 148,242 164,917 Lise Sook 
Secretary of State for War, Com- 
raander-in-Chief’s department ee } 748,242 48,260 
PLGEAU Ae cpersnanenetaseseeene: —_ 213,177 : eat oko) 
DeiGgneral AAs, .s0scccassesaeensecessegunes® 148,242 114,976 o15 6 
Ve Hees Sue tve rates! 263 79476 | 304 5 © 
7. War Office, Secretary of State for War. I 5,000 5000 0 O 
| Other officers ....... wetwohes fo0sueesdats 531 153,446 288 19 0 
8. Infantry of the line, officers, and men. $1,300 2,479,600 go ro 
9. Cavalry of the line ..,....csesesseeseons 10,826 448,980 4i 9 8 
10. Bogibeersine rive scccccsdss.cesongueves su 4,906 277,142 56 9 9 
11. Artillery, horse and foot, includ- 
ing 1882 at the depdt............ } 22,372 870,608 afs8, 3 
U2. Military strane oeeiden oth ck otto. 1,840 71,381 38 15 4 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 1638 


—" for 1863-64. By Colonel Syxes, M.P., F.RS., President of the 
ocvety. 


of the French and English armies. 


French Army. 


Effectives. Number. Cost. Cost per head. 
‘ie £ s. d. 
1, Effective and non-effective services | 400,000 434,624,040 43 11 Io 
Deduct dotation ...............- dartcere — 63,340,000 | 
2, Effectives.........sscsssseseeressereresees| 400,000 371,284,040 37 2 6 
3. Infantry pay ......-.-.ceceesseesesaeree 244,023 
MPR VANG yy | ca -caseessceseneon-}onesecl 59,679 
FATTINEEY go) cs-accconscocctsssoneestene 37873 
Engineers ,,  .......--e-ceeeeeeeeevveeee 7,809 
Military train pay ......-..ce-seeeeeee 3,655 
Petirands pay ........csecsecssceeeses eee 64 
353,103 147, 01,500 1613 4 
4, Administration central personal ... 1 49°50 | Moo 
is i material ...| } 400,000 549,500 , 
Depot general of War....s+-ss.e++ 144,500 | 
2,604,538 ong) 5 
5, Etat-major or staff...........---s++++ 400,000 | 21.2802 { a 2° 6 
Includes sub-officers and clerks ... 4,655 pear 183.0 0 
6. Etat-major, Ist article, marshals 
of France, &e. re We eoiacse=oes } 794 = epee pat ROMEO. a 
7. War Office, Minister of War ......... I 130,000 5,200 0.0 
Other officers .....0:00.00-2-0scseceseees 479 1,643,998 137 6 8 
8. Guard imperial .........:0sseeseeeeeees 17,784 | 
Infantry of the line in France ...... 199,992 
” ” Algeria eave . 26,247 
POtal <ciseasacice che -soavesssacs 244,023 90,629,169 1417 6 
9. Cavalry of the ine.......+0....seeee+ 535175 24,043,056 1x 8 
10. Engineers .......0s.sseeeseeeeessners con 6,968 2,937,936 16 18 4 
11. Artillery, horse and foot ........+..-- 37,873 17,350,464 TS) 168 
With subscriptions and indemni- May | 
ties the COSt iS <.....se0++sseeeee } 19,326,017 any, Sie 
12. Military train ........ Wetivccebus meester 45722 2,316,721 19g 


SR Serena (ree oe el 
ibe. 


164 REPORT—1863. 


TABLE (continued). 


English Army. 


Effectives. Number. Cost. Cost per head. 
£ Ge. ds 
13. Army hospital corps.......:....6..00+- 940 23,510 ashi TO 2 
14. Medical establishment................. 148,242 281,260 117 11 
15. Commissariat charges................05 148,242 1,223,936 Seg 
Fuel and light for the barrack 
department wes..cccceseeeeeeseeee 148,242 278,597 es 
10 2 9 
16. Clothing, &c., and establishment ...) 139,630 630,385 4 10 3 
17. Barracks and establishment, &c. ...| 148,242 635,637 4 5.0 
1B; Martial Iawice ccévenee tees ccccckocnteea 148,242 43,012 ° 5 9 
19. Manufacturing department ........ A g 956,365 6 9 oF 
Warlike stores. csceedsts ts ccekeots f Gabe { 838,369 5 13 6 
12 2. 6} 
20. Small arms factory............+...+- | 3 f 181,914 
» purchase and repair J]  *4%?42 ) 105,769 
287,713 118 9 
21. Gunpowder factory................66 } . 75,617 
Purchase ditto and saltpetre ...... fi ea { 733,698 
809,275 1 8 2} 
22. Royal gun factory and materials ; 127,280 > 7 3 
alone tthe te eee eeneetenee ese esaeeenes 148,242 { 124,233 
Purchase of iron ordnance, &c.... —351,513 5 sega 
23. Purchase of horses : 
Veterinary establishment .,....] | Total horses 3,921 
Horses and medicine ............ 14,511 (82,493 
36,414 230° 4 
24, Military education. ..........0.:essscoes 148,242 172,201 Pilg he 
25. Barracks at home .........:..eseeeeeee 148,242 635,637 45 9 
Works and buildings, and bar- BY 
racks at home and abroad ...... } a48\2%0 eaeoae > 2 os 
1,446,578 915 14 
26. Non-effective services ...s.se0e-..055| 148,242 2,127,838 147 «+1 
| 


The differences in the departmental organization of the English and French 
approximation to truth in all cases—W. H. Syxes. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 165 


TABLE (continued), 


French Army. 


Effectives. Number. Cost. Cost per head. 
4 fr. ee 
13. Military hospitals .....ccc008 weeseeees 4,573 4,921,884 43. 0TOo 
14. Medical establishment ...........s.00- 400,000 | 14,753,650 116 8 
15. Commissariat, provisions, forage, } | ies 
light, and warming.........s00008 } bia ies: peal sia Gre a 
16. Clothing and the establishment...... 336,626 16,157,700 1 19 11 
17. Beds and bedding, furniture, &c. 400,000 6,576,961 013 «64 
Infantry buildings, repairs, &c, &c. — __ 10,536,090 
17,113,051 1 -aghep 
18. Justice militaire ........... ciao cnen te 400,000 1,260,987 o.2 6 
19. Manufacturing department and 
warlike stan ci waenath sack tee So 26,769,010 a) 1g) 8a 
~|20. Small arms for 1864 ...........008 i. aN 2,060,000 
7 » repairs, purchase, &c. § laa ek 1,449,230 


3,909,230 o 7 3h 


21. Gunpowder establishment and 


MNACCIRAIS; vs fo~Subssea-cococaneeaee “ce 8,391,465 caer 
22 Foundries 638,000 um I 3 
FOTGeS ...cccescssccnecccescceressccoons ia { 420,000 
~ 1,058,000 Bi 4 2h pat 
SP teroap And rea nsec eetSS oh, Seteeeaee 2 10 10 
24. Military education ............s..06 +ss| 400,000 3,004,033 On Tk 
25. Buildings and fortifications by the | iy 
engineer corps and department { imi ae 10,255,020 a 
26. Non-effective services, Hétel des 
Invalides, compassionate allowances =e 
to old soldiers, the widows and [| 4°0C° Faget G1 ohee 
orphans, and to wounded soldiers 


armies does not admit in some cases of exact comparisons, but there is a satisfactory 


166 


Etat-major 
Colonel ... 


Lieut.-Colonel 


Guard Imperial Grenadiers. 


Daily pay 
when 


stationary. 


if.” (C. 


22 15 2 


17 31 9 


14 50 0 


REPORT—1863. 


TABLE (continued). 


French Military Pay. 


when on 


the march.} P*Y: 
ir. Cc. mn ir. 

Of 152i... 
2234: ON sc 


Chasseurs of the Line. 


Daily pay Yearly Daily pay 


18 50 0}3600|70 00 


Daily pay | Yearly | Daily pay 
when on pay. when 
the march. stationary. 


sesane 4300 |11 94 11 
14 0 6} 3600*10 0 


Infantry of the Line. 


fr. c. mj fr. fr. c. m. 


sasted 5500 |15 27 1 


0 
9 66 6} 2400 | 6 66 6 
5 


Daily pay 
when on 
the march. 


fr. &: ny 


20 27 7 


16 94 4 
14 00 


Captain, 1st class 12 66 6/14 66 6] 2400 9 66 6 
Li. Bada 9 72 2\12 72 2} 2000 8 55 5| 2000/5 55 5| 8 55 5 
Tame 8 13 8/10 63 8] 1600 6 94 4] 1600/4 44 4 6918 
Ist class ... 
Lieutenant, 2 
ay ae tt 7 37.5| 9 87 511450 6 527|1450| 4 2 7| 6527 
ae Fo a 6 87 5| 9 37 3]1350| 3 75.0) 6 25 O| 1300/3 75 0| 6 25 0 
nsign...... ; 
Serjeants ...... 1 30 0| 195 0]... 0800] 115 0}... 080 0 1150 
0 46 0 
Corporals ...... 0860| 1410 me 041 olf roe) ieee 046 0 071 
0 30 0 3 
Privates .s...+++. 0650) 1100 { 095 0| + 350 boys’ 030 0| 055 
Boys under 14... 0 43 0| 0 73 OJ...... 025 0| 045 0] ...... 025 0| 045 
, above 14... 0 65 0| 1 10 0)...... 0400| 065 0] ...... om .:. 
Surgeon-Major 1 18 82 5/22 12 514500) 12 50 0/16 50 0| 4500 12 50 0116 50 
- 2 13 61 1/16 61 1]2950| 8 19 4/11 19 4| 2950/8 19 4/11 19 
under 1 10 19 4/12 69 4]2000| 5 555| 8 55|2000|555 5 8 5 
iota. 9 166 11 66 6] 1800) 5 06) 750 0| 1800'6 0 0 759 
! — 
* A)l troops of the line have extra pay while in Paris. 
Note.—From the “ Aide-Mémoire,” by V. Milet, Lieutenant, 38th regiment of the line, 


edition of 1860. 


The French military pay is in francs, centimes, and milliémes. 


Observations on Criminals. 


By Tuomas Rosiys, Governor of Newcastle-wpon-Tyne Jail. 


The importance of this subject is attested by the fact that in the year 1860 no 


less than 100,614 persons were committed to the prisons in England and Wales, 


involving a cost of £533,407 18s. 8d. 


In considering the causes of crime, drunkenness, because a ready and plausible 
reason, is frequently assigned as the sole cause of crime; now, though a most de- 
testable vice, and justly punished as a crime, it is, though an important one, but 


one among many Causes. 


cumstances requiring great self-control. 


It is often the proximate cause of the lighter class of 
misdemeanors ; but the serious crimes of theft and violence are more frequently 
committed without the stimulus of drink, with well-arranged plans, and under cir- 


Grenadier Guards. : Regiments of the Line. 
Yearly Daily Daily 4 Yearly Daily Daily 
Yearly pay. pay. pay. pay. Yearly pay. pay. pay. pay. 
£ fr. S54, || 1; Ce & 9. d. fr. |i gay dd, || irs" es 


2200 0 0| 55,000 


488 3 9 12,3041 6 
469 15 0) 10,074 |1 3 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 167 


TABLE (continued). 
English Military Pay. 


B & 
— 


150 0 |1000 0 0} 25,000 |2 14 9| 68 50 {cake 
Colonel. 


32 10} 310 5 0) 7,756 |0 17 0) 20 1 |Lieut.-Colonel. 


~) 


27 60] 292 0 0| 7,500 }0 16 0| 19 20 |Major. 


—) 


| 28217 6| 6,808 |015 6| 1860] 21210 6 5,076 |0 11 7| 13 90 {Seat ee 
”» 


nd ,, 
Lieutenant, 


Lieutenant, 


bss 6 0 3,175|0 7 4| 880] 11812 6 2,846/0 6 6| 7 80 Ist class. 


2nd class. 


Sub-Lieut. or 


100 7 0| 2,408/0 5 6) 660] 9916 3 2895/0 5 3) 6 30 Hutigh? 
— _ 02 2 2 60 — —- 0 2 0| 2 40 |Serjeants. 
— — j0.1 5 1 70 — — |0 1 4]! 1 60 |Corporals. 
ate SSO Teer E 1 30 — — |0 1 O} 1 20 |Privates. 


__ f |Boys under 14. 
» above 14, 


411 10 0} 9,686 |1 2 0O| 26 40] 273 15 0} 6,517 |0 15 0} 18 O |Surgeon-Major1. 
273 15 0} 6,570 |015 0; 18 0 _— _ — _— 7 2. 
182 10 0} 4,880 |0 10 0; 12 Of] 182 10 0} 4,880 |010 0/ 12 0 », under 1. 

a < Te a= Sa + i ” ” 2. 


When we find that of the 100,614 criminals upwards of 8000 were under 16 
years of age, it must be obvious that the mass of our criminals commence their 
career in childhood, before an appetite for intoxicating drink has been formed. 
The hideous features of the criminal mind show too plainly that bad training is the 
fruitful source of crime. As the young criminal, whose inheritance is poverty, filth, 
and a corrupt example, left in brutal ignorance, grows up and exhibits the natural 
vanity, violent temper, sensuality, and selfishness, by which he is generally distin- 

ished, in an exaggerated form, he is shunned by the respectable, who shrink 

om even giving him employment; this is too eagerly made an excuse for in- 
dulging in idleness, which rapidly leads to crime. There is another class of criminals 
formed of the waifs and strays of families in better circumstances, who, in spite of 
parental care and some education, become the victims of idleness and sensuality. 

The amount of positive ignorance in the majority of criminals is almost incon- 
ceivable: of the 100,614 alluded to, 34,279 could neither read nor write; 61,233 


168 REPORI—1863. 


could read or write imperfectly, leaving less than 5000 who had acquired a very 
moderate amount of education: this ignorance extends also to any occupation they 
may have followed, however humble. 

It is clearly the duty of society to provide asylums for orphans, and enforce 
the education of all classes for some useful future course in life. 

Labour is the true foundation upon which any plan of prison discipline should 
be based; it should have been one of a prisoner’s earliest lessons, and should 
form one of the leading features of his education ; by habitual industry, the mind is 
more likely to be fitted to receive religious impressions. If reformation he the ob- 
ject sought, prison discipline to be the means, some provision must be made for 
the employment of prisoners when discharged; this has been successfully tried in 
London, Wakefield, and Birmingham. No prison of any importance should be 
without a workshop outside, where men could, after discharge, if willing, fit them- 
selves for the labour-market; thus, in a practical form, would the element of hope, 
too long excluded from our systems, be introduced, and remove the prisoner’s 
ready excuse of not being able to find employment. With reference to the treat- 
ment of prisoners when in prison, any one who will take the trouble to examine 
the subject thoughtfully, will be satisfied that the popular notion that prisoners 
are pampered is, generally speaking, a mistake ; at the same time, it does appear 
necessary that the law and the executive power should be shown to be strong 
enough to deal with the monster evil, and prevent panics such as we lately 
witnessed. 

In managing a great number of convicts, two things are absolutely essential as 
a foundation: first, that they should be so completely separated from the world as 
to make escape almost impossible; secondly, that they should be so subdivided as 
to prevent dangerous conspiracies. This could be effected by planting convict depots 


on islands off our own coasts, the prisoners being placed in a number of small’ 


prisons, all subject to one governor, who, from a central residence, might have 
telegraphic communication with each, and thereby be enabled, in case of neces- 
sity, to concentrate upon any given point an overwhelming force. The separate 
prisons would also be useful for classification, in some of which a severe discipline 
could be brought to bear upon the worst class, while the others might be arranged 
for testing different kinds of discipline, and to suit the different stages of the pri- 
soners in their progress towards reformation ; by this plan the deterrent and re- 
formatory principles may be worked out in their integrity with very little increased 
cost, except at the first for the buildings. None should leave the island, except by 
the gate of reformation, until their sentences were expired. It would be a mere 
to the sick to keep them, whether they live or die, where they could have both 
spiritual and medical assistance, rather than allow them to return to the corrupting 
scenes of their vile haunts. 

It will scarcely be denied that a responsibility rests upon society with regard to 
this question, and that the public should be prepared to help the penitent, as well 
as to punish the incorrigible. 


On the Pavis Improvements and their Cost. 
By W. Tits, M.P., FRS., &e. 

After some general remarks upon the necessity that existed for the alteration of 
the communications in the centre of Paris, and upon the strategical motives that 
had led to their adoption, the author of this paper proceeded to consider the ques- 
tion of the cost of those improvements, which he had been informed had been 
less than that of similar operations in this country. He stated that his impression 
was, that town improvements could never be executed at a less cost than 70 per 
cent. of the total outlay; and the result of his examination of the accounts that 
were presented by the Prefect of the Paris improvements had only confirmed him 
in that opinion. Instead of yielding a profit to the city, as had been pretended, 
they had in all cases involved it in great and serious loss. 

Mr. Tite dwelt upon the encouragement that the Government of France had 
thought proper to bestow upon the course that the city had entered into in this 
matter, by undertaking a portion of the expense, and by authorizing the raising 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 169 


loans by the city of Paris. .The sum that the city was authorized to borrow in 
this way was as much as 180,000,000 francs ; nor would this in all probability be 
all, for M. F. de Laysterie said (in 1861) that Paris had incurred a total liability of 
312,000,000 francs for the indemnities of the proprietors whose houses had been 
taken, up to that time; and there were other sources of expense and further 
outlays for the liabilities since undertaken. The Imperial Government had also, 
according to the Prefect’s report, paid the city the sum of 40,500,000 francs as its 

roportion of the accounts of the works that had been then settled; and it had, 
in fact, encouraged the city in every way to undertake the duty of remodelling 
the thoroughfares of the metropolis. The consequence was that Paris had been 
changed in its external characteristics, as though by magic; the narrow, tortuous 
streets had made way for long, straight, wide boulevards, parks, &c., for the re- 
creation and the health of the people; but it remained to be seen at what expense 
to the inhabitants of the city all this was accomplished, and at what expense to 
the nation. 

The accounts of several of the works were not yet made up, but from the Pre- 
fect’s statement to the Town Council of Paris, it was easy to separate the. cost of 
the Halles’ Centrales, the Rue de Rivoli, and the Boulevard Sebastopol of the 
right bank of the Seine. Now, of these, the operation of the Halles Centrales was 
more exclusively a municipal improvement than such a one as concerned the 
State, and it ought therefore to be compared rather with the removal of Fleet 
Market than any analogous work in our country; the State also did not enter 
into the expense of this operation in any way. The cost of the transfer of the 
Halles to their present position had been, however, as follows:—the outlay in- 
curred for the purchase of land and the erection of buildings had amounted to the 
gross sum of 31,796,238°61 francs, of which the city had received, for the sale 
of waste lands, old materials, and properties unsold, capitalized at thirty-three 
years’ purchase on the rents, the sum of 6,725,071-24 francs; so that it will 
finally be a loser by this operation of 25,073,167-37 francs, or about 80 per cent. 

The Rue de Rivoli was more decidedly of the character of a city improvement 
than the Halles Centrales, for it served to put in communication with one another, 
the Tuileries, the Palais Royal, the Louvre, and the Hotel de Ville; whilst it 
formed the great artery for the traffic of Paris from the east to the west of the 
town. The cost of this operation had been about the gross sum of 108,658,000 francs, 
from which the city derived, for the sale of the surplus land and the old mate- 
rials, &c., the sum of 34,153,520 francs, thus making the net cost equivalent to 
71,504,800 francs, The State intervened for various sums in the result; that is to 
say, it contributed in some cases one-half, in some two-thirds, and in some one- 
third of the outlay; so that the total amount of its contribution for the expense of 
this street was equal to the sum of 20,740,967-27 francs. This reduced the 
cost of making the Rue de Rivoli to the city of Paris to about 50 per cent. on 
the total outlay ; but it did not affect the real results of the operation, which were, 
that it cost the nation the proportion of 68°57 per cent. of the outlay. 

As to the expense incurred upon the Boulevard Sebastopol, on the portion com- 
prised between the Strasbourg Railway Station and the Place du Chitelet, the 
city of Paris had incurred the outlay of 58,648,665-80 francs. Upon this sum 
it had received the amount of 25,880,412°63 francs for the sale of old materials, 
surplus land, &c.; so that the operation showed a total loss of 34,768,153-17 
francs, or about 60 per cent. of the total outlay. The State, however, intervened 
to the extent of one-third of the loss, which will reduce the portion that will be 
incumbent on the city of Paris to the net sum of 23,178,856-10 francs, or about 
40 per cent. of the total cost. But it is to be observed that in all the above 
calculations the interest upon the money is not taken into account, though it 
runs from the day of the jury having given their verdict. 

The accounts for the remaining works that have been undertaken for the im- 
provements of Paris have not yet been made up, as was said before, but enough of 
them is known to enable any one to reason as to their probable cost, which will 
clearly be in the same ratio as those of the Rue de Rivoli and the Boulevard Se- 
bastopol. Indeed, the works that have been rendered necessary by:the Boulevards 
Malesherbes and Prince Eugéne, the streets round the new Opera, the Rue de 


170 REPORT—1863. 


Rouen, the Rue Lafayette, the new streets and boulevards on the island of the 
Cité, and the left bank of the Seine, must have entailed a very considerable ex- 
pense for levelling the ground, and the works that are required to make the ap- 
proaches. The same principle has also been adopted in them as in the parts 
already undertaken; and the quantity of land abandoned for the use of the public 
was very large. Mr. Tite also incidentally alluded to the outlay that the town 
had incurred in the laying out of the Bois de Boulogne, the Pare Monceaux, the 
Bois de Vincennes, the squares of St. Jacques la Boucherie, the Place du Con- 
servatoire, the Palais des Thermes, which he admired very much, but which he 
considered it would be impossible to execute with a municipal body elected by the 
people who paid for them. 

. Tite stated that he had applied, through Parliament, for the statistics of the 
improvements of the city of London, but he had not succeeded in obtaining them ; 
all that he had been able to learn was, that the New Cannon Street had cost £589,470, 
or about £506 per yard forward, and the New Victoria Street £330,675, or about 
£300 per yard forward; but he had not been able to ascertain what the City had 
derived from the sale of the land, old materials, &c., in either case. He, however, 
stated that his experience in this matter was, that the expense attending the con- 
version of inhabited house-rent to ground-rents was always an operation that was 
costly in its nature, whatever improvement might be made in the character of 
the houses; and he was disposed to consider the loss of this operation, which 
must always be incurred when town improvements are undertaken, was about 70 per 
cent. of the outlay. The results of the operations in Paris only confirmed him 
in this opinion. 

Mr. Tite finished his paper by calling attention to the means that the city of Paris 
adopted to meet the calls that were thus made upon it, and for the current expenses 
of the town. He showed that the ordinary budget of the town was 112,536,778-08 
franes, of which the Octroi duties constituted the major part, they being 83,325,816 
francs; the extraordinary budget brought this total to 119,935,272-91 frances, and 
the supplementary receipts, including the proceeds of the loan, swelled the total 
sum to 199,807,203-20 francs. From this he concluded that great caution ought to 
be observed in increasing the debt of Paris, which already had to provide the sum 
of 10,546,788°64 francs for the interest of that debt. 

Mr. Tite, in conclusion, warmly acknowledged his obligations to His Excellency 
Lord Cowley and the Prefect of the Seine, Baron Haussman, for the valuable 
documents which had enabled him to prepare this paper. 


MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 


On an Improved Caisson Gate. By Admiral Sir Epwarp BrrcHer. 


Tue floating dock-gates proposed were constructed similar to caissons now used 
in the royal yards, but in this instance in pairs hinged at the apex, thus facili- 
tating the insertion of the bearing ends into the abutting cavities. They thus 
‘orm together a complete arch, more effectual the greater the resistance or external 
pressure may be against the ingress of water. In undocking, those caissons could 
be attached under the counter cf a vessel, and act as a lift, should there be any 
want of water to float her out. 


A brief Description of a Spirit-level Telescope for observing Altitudes and 
obtaining Latitudes independently of natural or artificial Horizons. By 
Admiral Sir Epwarp Betcuer. 

The telescope is fitted similarly to the transit telescope, with an oblique dia- 
phragm for illuminating the wires. But in this instrument, which has no Y sup- 
ports, or axis for illumination, the light is reflected through a slit in the upper 
side, which carries a transparent level tube. The bubble brought into contact with 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. Lyall 


the centre wire gives a true level gauge; and the sun or other object being brought 

into contact by the radius bar of the sextant, the altitude is necessarily obtained. 

The telescope occupies precisely the same position as that used in any ordinary 

sextant; and practice, even at sea, soon renders the operation easy. On shore, 

where the sextant can be used with a stand, it will be found very useful for mea- 

paki altitudes of objects of small arc, which could not be reflected in an artificial 
orizon. 


On a Mode of rendering Timber-built Ships Impregnable and Unsinkable 
under Moderate Crew Power, as in Leaky Vessels. By Admiral Sir Epwarp 
BELCHER. 


Referring to a pamphlet by Mr. Walters, who proposed to effect his object by 
introducing copper cylinders between the timbers, the hold-beams, and indeed 
every opening where cargo did not prevent—calculating that these displacements 
or cells would about compensate for difference of specific gravity between cargo, 
vessel, and gear, so as to simply reduce her to the state of a water-logged craft, to 
save crew, vessel, and such portions of cargo as might be secured in air-tight 
yessels—the author stated that the pneumatic trough had suggested to him the 
propriety of close sealing the holds, or underplanking the hold-beams, and saving 
those spaces between them for the storage of light dry goods above that deck 
(which was generally lost), and placing loose planks as a temporary deck. In the 
event of a dangerous leak, or even a large hole being stove in the bows or bottom 
of a ship, he proposed securing the hatches from beneath to hatches above, screwed 
firmly in opposition to each other, and filled in by pitch from the upper or open 
hatch. It would be apparent that, if the ship was air-tight, the water could only 
enter so long as the air was compressible ; and, by inverting the pump-boxes and 
rendering them air-pumps, the leak would not only be stopped, but, by the con- 
tinued action of the air, it would be expelled by the very orifice by which it en- 
tered. Therefore the customary and continued labour and wear of the power of 
the crew would not be required to such an extent, if at all, when once the neces- 
sary quantity of air had been forced in. 


On the Decortication of Cereals. By Roserr Davison. 


After giving a description of the structure of a grain of corn, the author showed 
the advantages that are to be obtained by decortication ; he then dealt with it in 
a hygienic point of view, and detailed the several qualities of bread made from it, 
and furthermore stated that it is better to make a quality with al/ flours united, as 
in this way can a wholesome and well-flavoured bread be best obtained. The 
author then stated the principle adopted by Mr. Poissant (the pioneer of this 
system) in order to obtain the complete decortication. He observed, as a singular 
and important fact, that corn having undergone this process was not so likely to 
be attacked by that destructive insect, the weevil—that is, if the corn is carefully 
excluded from the sunshine. The author thus concluded his paper:—1l. Decorti- 
cated grain will always be profitable to the world, as it incontestibly yields 10 to 
12 per cent. more flour than ordinary millering. 2. It can be done in either 
small or large quantities, and not only produces from 10 to 12 per cent. more flour, 
but at the same time from 5 to 6 per cent. more glutinous nourishment. 3, It 
renders corn safe from the attack of the weevil, and therefore renders it more fit 
for storing against periodical seasons of scarcity. Lastly, the machines are simple, 
cheap, lasting, and capable of being worked either by hand or motive power, at 
small cost; and the system has, in fact, no known drawback, except that pollard, 
bran, &c., which are produced by the present method of millering, will no longer be 
an article of commerce. But, as a set-off, the pellicle which}is produced by the 
new system is found to make an excellent vellum-like paper, which is largely 
sought after in France by bookbinders. 


172 REPORT—1863. 


On Improvements in Machinery and Apparatus for Cleansing and Purifying 
Casks. By Rozert Davison, 


In the paper which the author read before the Association in the year 1849 on 
the “Desiccating Process,” he took occasion to mention its application to the 
urifying of brewers’ casks, one million having at that time undergone the process ; 
tee it had not been made clear that they had a previous operation performed on 
them—namely, that of cleansing—which was effected by machinery of peculiar 
construction, the first of which was introduced in 1845 by the author, in concert 
with Mr. W. Symington. These machines still continue in high repute; but there 
is, however, one objection—they are only calculated to cleanse one cask at a time. 
His new process is as follows :—The machine consists mainly of two circular discs, 
with an upright shaft or spindle in the centre, which has a screw at each end (the 
threads being cut right- and left-handed) ; the two discs have, likewise, each a cor- 
responding female screw, which, when turned round on the upright spindle (the 
same being temporarily fixed), it will be easy to see, will cause the dises to advance 
or recede from each other, according as they are turned to the right or left hand. 
Such is the mode by which the casks are secured or released from the machine— 
that is, by turning in one direction the casks are effectually secured between the 
two dises, by turning the reverse way they are released. Any number of casks which 
the bottom dise will contain, and even a second tier (if desired), can be fixed and 
afterwards cleansed at the one operation—say, two sets of five or ten casks. The 
best cleansing medium is found to be a small quantity of sharp shingle, along with 
two or three gallons of hot water. The time occupied in cleansing ordinary dirty 
casks is about five minutes. The author further states that he had found super- 
heated steam an excellent purifier of both new and old casks. 


On Improvements in Waggons and Gun-Carriages. By Grorce Fawcvs. 
ip Ig i] 


The author remarked that, during the present year, two serious accidents have 
happened from want of proper precautions when going down hill with heavy loads, 
namely, the fire-engine at Sydenham and the boiler-waggon at Preston in Lan- 
cashire. The plan now proposed is to combine a check to the tendency to run 
down hill when ascending or descending an incline road by a pawl actine ona 
pawl rim or toothed wheel on the inner naves or axles of the wheels. The teeth 
of the pawl wheels are directed inwards towards the centre of the waggon. When 
ascending, by dropping the paw] on the front wheels they travel forward, but cannot 
run back. In descending, the hinder wheels, when pawled, cannot run down hiil, 
but act as drags. This arrangement of pawls, &c., holds good if the waggon is 
intended to travel either end ,first without turning round. The pawls, &c., may 
also be applied to single or two-wheeled carts to prevent them running back when 
going up hill. Two single carts, thus fitted, and placed back to back, would form a 
good waggon. Applied to field-guns, the pawls would check the recoil of guns 
when firing, and the limber and gun-carriage wheels would act as one waggon. 
The suggestions of the author were illustrated by a model of a pontoon carriage, 
the wheels of which were fitted with pawls in the manner described. 


On a New Method of Constructing Boats. By Grorcr Fawcvs. 


The National Lifeboat Institution has done much to promote and encourage the 
preservation of life from shipwreck. The useful services of the lifeboats are 
limited to certain localities. After every due compliance with the requirements 
of the legislature, intended to provide every passenger-vessel from our shores with 
its own lifeboat, a passenger-vessel may yet be provided very inadequately with 
boats. Ships’ boats are very liable to be injured, and, when very large or heavy, 
are difficult to launch, and in moments of danger and confusion the difficulty is 
increased. With the proposed plan of boats, a passenger, emigrant, or troop-ship 
may easily carry sufficient boats for landing all on board at once, without more 
(perhaps with less) encroachment on the limited space on deck; and her boats, 
when packed as proposed, will mutually strengthen and protect each other from 
injury. The use of a large number of smaller or medium-sized boats which may 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 173 


thus be adopted will lessen the difficulty of launching; and there will then be less 
confusion by these boats being unencumbered, more promptly loaded and despatched 
from the ship’s side—a place of danger in bad weather, with the passengers more 
divided. There will then be less danger of rushing to the best or first boat, when 
every one on board is satisfied that there is room enough in the boats for all, and 
that all are equally good. 

The boats are so constructed that any number will fit one within the other, as 
internal projections are dispensed with and thwarts folded. Flat, half-round, or 
angle iron or iron plates are used to impart the necessary strength. Although the 
inventor prefers to form the boat with two bows, they may yet be made with a 
bow and stern. These boats are, moreover, admirably adapted for pontoon pur- 
poses, as the displacement of each boat is equal to that of a pontoon ; and half-a- 
dozen boats, with the displacement of six poutoons, may be packed in the space 
of one pontoon. 


Remarks on Armour-Plating for Ships. By Captain Dovetsas Gauron, FRS. 


After referrmg to the experiments on the Warrior target, the author remarked : 
The most severe test to which any target has been subjected at Shoeburyness is 
far less severe than the ordeal which ships would have to withstand in defending 
the entrance of or in forcing a passage into a harbour. At the trial of the Warrior 
target, already referred to, the nature and extent of the test to which it was sub- 
jected were as follows :—Twenty-nine rounds in all struck the target, embracing 
a total weight of 3336 Ibs. of metal, propelled by 400 Ibs. of powder, and repre- 
senting an amount of work done in foot-pounds of 62,570,000; of this total, how- 
ever, 32,392,000 go to the credit of shell and solid shot at low velocities, which 
are held to be almost innocuous against such targets as the Warrior. Of the 
thirteen rounds of solid shot at high velocities, four only were 68-pounders (and 
one of these is said to have missed the target), representing work done to the ex- 
tent of 10,260,000 foot-pounds—about one-sixth of the total work; and, if one 
round missed, as alleged, one-eighth. Thus, three out of the twenty-nine rounds 
go to the credit of the old 68-pounder, which is said to be the most effective gun 
in the service against iron plates. Of the twenty-nine rounds not more than five 
or six were fired in salvo, and yet the plates were deeply indented, buckled, and 
badly fractured, and many of the fastening-bolts were broken; so that, had the 
target been part of the side of a ship rolling on the sea, the plates would probably 
have fallen off in consequence of the destruction of the fastenings. But the strain 
in such a test as this is far less than that from a well-concentrated broadside, such 
as the crew of every French ship is regularly exercised to give. The arrangement 
required for the armour-plating of a ship is a strong front plate, in which deflection 
under blows shall be prevented, but which shall have some cushion behind to pre- 
vent the full concussion of the blow being communicated to the side of the ship. 
The best form to distribute material in a beam, so as to prevent deflection, is to 
obtain depth ; hence, in tubular girders, the top and bottom flanges are separated 
by a comparatively light web. Without exactly comparing the effects of the blow 
of a shot to the weight of a beam, it is apparent that as the best form in which to 
place the material to resist shot is that which will allow of the smallest yielding at 
the point of impact, it follows that, after reserving a sufficient face of metal for the 
front plate, the remainder should be placed in that shape which is resorted to for 
obtaining stiffness in beams. The authorthen described the target invented by 
Mr, Chalmers. 


On Air-Engines and an Air-compressing Apparatus. 
By J. Jamuson, Close Engine- Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

The author pointed out that in the steam-engine not more than one-seventh of 
the total consumption of heat was utilized, and then proceeded to enumerate the 
causes of the non-success of the air-engines which have hitherto appeared, re- 
ferring to two as types of the whole. In the first he showed that, in addition to 
the heat required to work the engine, there was a consumption of heat in the hot 
chambers of the generators, resulting only in the development of heat in the cold 
chambers, which actually resisted the action of the engine ; that this absorption and 


174 REPORT—1863. 


development of heat acted injuriously in three ways: firstly, its absorption in the 
hot chamber diminished the working pressure; next, its development in the cold 
chamber increased the resistance ; and, thirdly, in interfering with the action of the 
respirator. He also stated that the mechanical necessity existing for keeping all 

arts of the machine at once in motion, producing excessive cushioning, resulted 
in a loss of effect, represented by from two to four cubic feet of air for every foot 
of air contained in the working cylinder at the best point of its stroke; and he said 
that the operation of these causes necessitated the employment of excessive heat 
or very slow speed—an almost fatal alternative. The second type of air-engine, he 
said, required the employment of extremely large apparatus, because there was a 
pressure-diagram and a resistance-diagram caused by the working of a pump, and 
the total diagram must always, therefore, amount to three times the effective dia- 
gram. In the air-compressing apparatus he described, he pointed out how these 
defects were obviated :—That there was no necessary transference of heat from the 
hot to the cold chambers, but that the total heat absorbed in the hot chamber 
was converted into mechanical effect, and therefore a lower degree of heat might 
be employed. That there was no difficulty in the arrangement from cushioning in 
the working cylinder. That the highest point of pressure obtained in the gene- 
rator was not again lost, as it was in all other cases; and that, in addition to the 
improvements effected on the first type of engine he described, the new apparatus 
was capable of receiving the whole effect obtainable by the use of the second form ot 
apparatus without its resistance, and at high instead of low pressures, He finally 
teed to the advantages to be derived from the use of air instead of steam, 
which he stated to be a saving of fuel, freedom from risk of explosion, burstin 
under air-pressure being comparatively harmless, if it should occur; but he state: 
that no safety-valves were required in the apparatus described by him, as it was 
self-coverning in the production of pressure. It was not liable to derangement. 
It would work reversed as well as forward. Insurance was not affected by the use 
of the engine; and the compressed air might be applied in any situation, being 
laid on like gas, to be used when and how it was required. 


On Extinguishing Fires. By C. B. Kine. 


The subject, he remarked at the outset, was one of grave importance, touching, 
as it does, the safety of our lives and our aye In large manufacturing 
towns and cities, where immense wealth, in the shape of merchandise, is closely 

acked and stored, the importance of an improved construction of fire-proof ware- 
houses cannot be overrated. It was the object of this paper to give in a succinct 
form a few facts collected from practical experience. After referring to the im- 
portance of carefulness, and remarking that though buildings could not be made 
wholly fire-proof, they could be constructed with a view of rendering them im- 

ervious to fire, viz. to resist, not to assist, any fire that may break out upon their 

oors, the author described certain fire-proof buildings, and noticed the mode of 
applying water to extinguish fires. The best means of arresting fires, he observed, 
was a very wide question, as the only limit to the means was the expense. On 
the Continent, generally, the whole was managed by Government, and the firemen 
were placed under martial law, the inhabitants being compelled to work the en- 
gines. In extinguishing fires of any magnitude, the steam fire-engine must ever 
hold the foremost place, not only on account of the development of power, but on 
the more important score of economy. Having alluded to the first steam fire- 
engine constructed in England by Mr. John Braithwaite, in the year 1830, and the 
taking up of the subject by the Americans subsequently, he described the main 
features of the engines constructed by different companies, and stated that Messrs. 
Merryweather, and Son were now manufacturing steam fire-engines, and had suc- 
ceeded in bringing out two very good serviceable engines, named the ‘Deluge’ and the 
‘Torrent.’ He next gave a description of steam fire-engines used for service in the 
water, and ecnisledted by expressing a hope that the discussion of the subject might 
bring to light features which had been hidden from the public generally, and 
increase to greater efficiency the present arrangements for the suppression of fires 
in many of our large towns and cities. 


i 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 175 


The Newcastle and Gateshead Water- Works. By D. D. Mary. 


The Newcastle and Gateshead Water-Works, as originally constructed in 1848, 
consisted of five large reservoirs formed in the valley of Whittle Burn, about twelve 
miles north-west of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The drainage-area was about 4340 
acres, the capacity of the reservoirs 215,000,000 gallons, and the pipe to convey 
the water to Newcastle was two feet in diameter, and capable of carrying from four 
and a half to five million gallons per day. The amount of rainfall was ascertained 
to be twenty-four inches per annum; and it was assumed that as, in a district of 
an ordinary character, one-third of the rainfall finds its way iato the rivers, in a 
peculiar locality like Whittle Dean, where the declivities were rapid, the ground 
impervious, and vegetation scanty, the proportion of water which would be carried 
off by the natural channels of the country could not be taken at less than one- 
half. Twelve inches of rain over an area of 4540 acres would have produced 
3,250,000 gallons per day; and as the coasumption was then only 700,000 gallons 
per day, and the reservoirs were laid out to contain ten months’ supply, it did 
appear to the promoters that the works were of sufficient magnitude for many 
years to come, and that ample provision had been made against the longest drought 
ever likely to happen. The works were brought into operation in October 1848, 
and were found sufficient until the year 1850. The consumption had in the mean- 
time increased to one and a half million gallons per day, and the number of persons 
supplied with water from 10,275 in 1845 to 62,740 at the end of 1849. The reservoirs 
could then only hold a supply for about five months. Im the middle of February 
1850 a drought commenced, which lasted till the end of October, during which the 
stored water went continually down; and the company were obliged before the end 
of summer to have recourse to the works which they had purchased of the pre- 
vious company, and to pump from the river Tyne in aid of the supply from the 
reservoirs. It was found that, instead of the rainfall being 24 inches that year, it 
was only 17-68 inches ; and instead of the available quantity being 12 inches, the 
water actually impounded only amounted to 6} inches, But it was also disco- 
vered that the rain available for water-works falls almost entirely in the winter 
months, and that to take full advantage of the collecting-ground the reservoirs 
should be of such magnitude as to impound all that falls, it being unsafe to depend 
on the summer rains, which, unless they are heavy and continued, are quickly 
absorbed by the land. After very dry weather it is not unusual for rain to fall to 
the depth of an inch, and none find its way to the streams. But in a district like 
this, where the rainfall is so limited, and droughts extending to six and eight months 
are of frequent occurrence, even great storage-capacity is not to be relied on. The 
original capital of the company, £200,000, has since been more than doubled; the 
reservoir-storage has been increased from 215 to 530 million gallons, and the 
drainage-area from 4340 to.17,300 acres. In the last Session of Parliament power 
was obtained to supply the water of the River Tyne for manufacturing purposes, 
and to construct a large impounding reservoir of 500 to 600 million gallons, gaug- 
ings having been previously taken which showed that in ordinary years_that 
additional quantity could be obtained from the company’s present streams. When 
the company commenced operations in 1845, the quantity consumed was 700,000 
gallons per day, and the system of supply intermittent and irregular; but in their 
first Act of Parliament they voluntarily bound themselves to give constant service 
and unlimited supply. At that time the lowest rate for water was ten shilings per 
annum, a scale of charge which prohibited the poor from having it in their houses 
at all; and the custom was to carry it from the street pants or fountains, where it 
was retailed at a farthing per skeel of three gallons. By the present company 
these pants were gradually abolished; the charge to a poor person occupying a 
single room was fixed at five shillings per annum, and where houses were let in 
several tenements, which is the case to a great extent in this town, and the tenants 
could be supplied at one common tap, the company was at the entire expense of 
the exterior and interior pipes and fittings. By these measures the supply was 
greatly extended; and the company may now be said to supply the whole popu- 
lation where their pipes are laid, amounting to about 165,000. The gross daily 
supply is 4,700,000, or about 28 gallons per head, one-fourth of which is consumed by 
railways, manufactories, and for trade purposes generally, leaving 21 gallons per 


176 REPORT—1863, 


head for domestic consumption. In 1854 the water in the reservoirs was tested 
for hardness by Dr. Smith, of Manchester, and found to be 13:2 degrees. The water 
has also been analyzed by different analytical chemists, and found to be composed 
of the following ingrediénts :— 


Dr. Smith, Dr. Letheby, 
March 1854. February 1863. 
Carbonate of lime and magnesia ...... 6:54 13-01 
Up Habe OL MS or cs Gln smile) sieleleyaie ess 6-13 4:65 
Alkali BsOMLOLIG Ow tects, cpe mic cdterais fits, of 4:23 1:63 
Oxide of iron and silica .............. ‘81 83 
Ohyecnnrtod reek ni ee eet NAGE a By DORE O 2°38 1:21 
Total solid contents in grains per] 20-09 21-33 
mmnperialtfalloniiecds te. ccet ¢ ( = 


Analysis of Tyne Water. 


Dr. Letheby, Dr Rickatdaoal ne Pattinson, 
Feb. 1863. May 1863. Jan. 1863. 


Carbonate of lime........... 


Carbonate of lime and magnesia. . 4:09 3°06 4:50 
Sulphateroflimie fay. Wie rie hte: 2°49 1:22 82 
Alkaline chloride .............. 1:22 ‘87 1:65 
Oxide of iron and silica ........ ‘41 50 58 
Organic matter ..... “BURR tee oe 1:39 2°63 2-05 


Total solid contents in grains | 


per imperial gallon ...... { 8:28 9°60 


Tt only remains to mention the system of supply. The reseryous at Whittle 
Dean are 360 feet above high-water mark of the Tyne at Newcastle, but, on account 
of the friction along the twelve miles of main pipe, the water does not reach by 
gravitation the houses in the highest parts of the town. About one-fifth of the 
whole has to be pumped to these high districts, and for that purpose the company 
have a fifty-horse-power engine at Benwell reservoir, whence the water is forced 
to a reservoir at Benwell Bank top, 400 feet above high-water mark, which com- 
mands the most elevated houses in the town and suburbs. 


The Asp Moreno explained the action of Caselli’s auto-telegraph, now actually 
at work between Paris and Marseilles, by means of which a fac-simile of the 
writing of the pee is transmitted ; and he exhibited specimens of handwriting, 
portraits, &c., thus effected. 

The Aspé Moreno exhibited a model and gave explanations of Messrs. Bourdon 
and Saleron’s apparatus, termed “ Injecteur pour les Corps Solides.” 

The Assé Moreno exhibited and gaye explanations of the “ Ventilateur a 


Réaction” of M. Perigault de Rennes, and of the “Balance Aérostatique” of 
M, Seiler. 


On Bridge Foundations. By T. Pacer. 


The object of the author was to show the system pursued by him without the 
heavy cost of coffer-dams. The system adopted by the author consists in the use 
of cylinders of iron filled with brickwork or concrete. The foundation, he said, 
might be described as a part of a structure, which resisted the weight of the super- 
structure; and it was evident that the higher the horizontal plane of the resisting 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 177 


mass was, the less was the weight of the ek tse upon it, and the better 
adapted as a foundation to resist its pressure. He then described the system he had 
pursued in the construction of four bridges over the Thames, and also of the pier 
at Greenock. He considered it important that the foundation of each pier should 
be one undivided structure; that it should not be broken into separate parts, as it 
was in cases where cylinders were used; and that, besides the resistance due to the 
horizontal area of the foundation, it should embrace the additional resistance 
afforded by the friction due to the vertical surface of the pile; and this, short of 
founding on rock itself, would present the most solid resisting mass that could be 
found. The system afforded great facility and rapidity of construction, and its 
2g alam to harbours of refuge was a subject of great interest and importance at 
the present time, both for expedition in completing the works and for economy. 


New Plan for Hanging Dock-Gates. By R. A. Pracocx, C.L., of Jersey. 


The works of docks and harbours must necessarily be strong and durable, and 
therefore expensive; but any new methods of construction which are sufficiently 
durable and convenient, and by which expense is considerably reduced, are so much 
gained (he exhibited models of gates, showing how the mortices and tenons were 
immovable). Shipping having gradually but largely increased in dimensions during 
the last twenty years, it became necessary to provide wider and deeper water- 
ways to docks, and consequently dock-gates of greater height and length. Rollers 
for the outer ends of the gates to travel upon, by means of tramways at the bottom 
of the water, were apparently thought indispensable. These tramways, being below 
the level of the sill of the lock, necessarily became more or less covered with mud, 
sand, &c., and were, as a matter of fact, so difficult to open and shut with suitable 
expedition, as to render necessary the very valuable but at the same time very 
costly hydraulic apparatus now in use. The question is, Can gates be so constructed 
as to carry themselves without rollers, and so as to save a large portion of their 
first cost, and the whole of the heavy first cost and annual expense of hydraulic 
power? After mentioning a number of inconveniences incident to the present 
system of dock-gates, he went on to say—To prevent all these inconveniences, 
why not treat the dock-gate like an ordinary field-gate >—make all its parts strong 
in proportion to its weight, which, in the present case, is about 45 tons; make it 
carry itself, and so dispense with rollers and tramways. He then proceeded to de- 
scribe, first, the girder and its fastenings, which are to carry our dock-gate as a 
gate-post carries its field-gate, and then the suspended gate from the girder. He 
then remarked that this is clearly an advantage over gates of the usual system, 
where the pivot is at the bottom, and inaccessible on account of the weight of the 
gate, and also on account of the mud and the water: the bottom of the heel-post 
fits into a strong cast-iron shoe. He then referred to the construction of the gate, 
so as to secure sufficient rapidity and enable the gate to carry itself without the 
use of rollers ; and having described the minor details of the gate, went on to show 
the immobility of the tenons and mortices. He stated that four lockmen could 
work two pairs of these gates at a cost for wages of only about £200 per annum, 
and the heavy cost of hydraulic power is got rid of altogether. 


Description of the Large Gyroscope used by Sir William Armstrong in his 
investigations on Rifled Projectiles. By Professor Wiri1am Por, F.R.S. 


At an early period of these investigations Sir William perceived that the motion 
of a rifle ball had considerable analogy with that of the spinner of the gyroscope ; 
but, as the instruments usually sold under that name were imperfect, he contrived 
a much larger and better form of the machine, which enabled him to study more 
satisfactorily the nature of its motion, and more particularly to ascertain accurately 
the numerical value of the various elements entering into its calculation. Mr. 
Pole had, at the time referred to, been requested by Sir William Armstrong to 
undertake the theoretical investigation of the action of the machine. He pro- 
duced and worked the instrument, and gave a general exposition of its principles, 
and of the formule referring to it; and he finally showed its application to explain 
some facts in gunnery. 


1863, = 12 


178 REPORT—1863. 


Richards’s Jndicator for Steam Engines, By C. T. Portsr. 


This instrument (invented by Mr. Charles B. Richards, an engineer of Hartford, 
Connecticut, U. 8.) is constructed on a plan by which it is found that the errors in 
the motion of the paper and those in the motion of the pencil are quite avoided, 
and correct diagrams are obtained under all circumstances. The principal dis- 
tinguishing features of this instrument are a short and strong spring, a short mo- 
tion of piston, and light reciprocating parts, combined with a considerable area of 
cylinder, and an arrangement of levers and a parallel motion for multiplying the 
motion of the piston in such a manner that the diagram is described in the usual 
way and of the ordinary size. The proportion between the motion of the piston 
and that of the pencil is a matter of discretion; that which has been adopted is 
1 to 4, and the steadiness with which the indication is drawn by these instruments, 
even at the highest speeds of piston, leaves nothing to be desired. 

In respect to the ability of these indicators to give diagrams which shall be per- 
fectly accurate, it is to be observed that the spring moves without any tendency to 
bend, and the motion of the piston, and the length of cylinder to be filled with 
steam as the piston rises, are one-fourth of those in the ordinary indicator. It is 
assumed, also, that if the motion could be frictionless, then the approach to simul- 
taneousness in the action of an indicator would be in a direct ratio to the strength 
of the counteracting forces, existing in the pressure of the steam on the one side of 
the piston and the resistance of the spring on the other, and in an inverse ratio to 
the distance through which the piston has to move upon any given disturbance of 
their equilibrium. But, moreover, the motion cannot be absolutely frictionless ; and 
if the friction should be equal in two indicators of different strokes, then the resist- 
ance from it, in each one, would be in proportion to the length of its stroke ; and if 
the resistance from friction should be equal in two indicators having different areas 
of piston, then its effect on the diagrams given by them would be in an inverse 
ratio to the areas of the pistons. In every view which can be taken, it is evident 
that the features embodied in this indicator—namely, a strong spring, short motion 
of piston, and light moving of parts, combined with a reasonably large area of 
cylinder—are essential for the attainment of truth in the diagram. 

General Construction of the Indicator.—The parallel motion is made as compact 
as possible. For this purpose, a lever of the third order is employed to multiply 
the motion, and the extremities of the line drawn by the pencil are permitted to 
have a slight curvature, which considerably reduces the length of the rods, and 
does not affect the usefulness of the instrument, the curvature at the lower end 
being below any attainable vacuum, while the extremity of the scale above is very 
rarely employed. 

The indicators are made of a uniform size ; the area of the cylinder is one-half of 
a square inch, its diameter being *7979 of an inch. The piston is not fitted quite 
steam-tight, but is permitted to leak a little; this renders its action more nearly 
frictionless, and does not at all affect the pressure on either side of it. The motion 
of the piston is 3% of an inch, and the motion of the pencil, or extreme height of 
the diagram, is 3} inches. The paper cylinder is 2 inches in diameter; and the 
length of the diagram may be 5} inches, if this extent of motion is given to the 
cord. The diagram is drawn by a pointed brass wire on metallic paper. This isa 
great improvement over the pencil; the point lasts a long time, cannot be broken 
off, and is readily sharpened, and the diagram is indelible. The steam-passage has 
two or three times the area usually given to it. The stem of the indicator is coni- 
cal, and fits in a corresponding seat in the stop-cock, where it is held by a peculiar 
coupling, shown in section in the accompanying woodcut illustration of the indi- 
cator. This arrangement permits the indicator to be turned round, so as to stand 
in any desired position, when, the coupling being turned forward, the difference in 
the pitch of the screws draws the cone firmly into its seat; and when the coupling 
is turned backward, the cone is by the same means started from its seat. The 
leading pulleys may be turned by some pressure, to give any desired direction to 
the cord, and will remain where they are set. By these means the indicator can 
be readily attached in almost any situation: 


- pian 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 179 


Tn order to adapt this indicator for use on engines of every class, the springs are 
made for it to nine different scales, as follows :— 


No. 1. j-inch motion shows 1 Ib. pressure 2a Ig 
on the square inch ; indicates from oer 
” 2 qs ” ” ’ ” ” —15 ” a 22°5 
” 3 a6 7 ” 7 ? ” —15 ” ate 55 
” 4, ot ” 7 ” ” ” —15 ” a 60 
» OW ot PA He » Atmosphere to + 75 
” 6. 32 ” ” ” ” ” ” = 100 
Riya ees Reem ” y + 125 
” 8 45 ”? 9 ? 7 9 9 aE 150 
» 9. 36 9 ” ” ” ” » + 175 


ia 
= 


WUT 


a 


i 


( 


——— 


on 1s 


HRIMBRULT. 


L80 REPORT—1863. 


Each of these springs will fit every instrument alike. All of the scales except 
No. 2 are multiples of 8; and the common rule will measure all the diagrams, if the 
proper scale is not at hand. It will be observed that the five higher scales do not 
indicate the vacuum, as the greater number of engines which work steam at high 
pressures do not condense, and, moreover, at these pressures the scale of the indi- 
cation necessarily becomes small, while it is always highly desirable to show the 
vacuum on a large scale. Spring No. 1 may be employed to indicate the vacuum 
in engines which work steam at high pressures and with condensation. It can be 
readily substituted in the indicator, and the diagram which it will give will be on 
a satisfactory scale. It is provided with a stop, which prevents it from being com- 
pressed too much, so that a high pressure of steam will not injure it. Moreover, 
the vacuum being omitted from the scales which go above 60 lbs., the entire range of 
the pencil is available for the pressures above the atmosphere, which are therefore 
shown on a somewhat larger scale. The springs indicating pressures above 60 lbs. 
will be made, however, to indicate the vacuum also, when so ordered. 

The springs are tested with a highly sensitive gi Poe expressly designed for 
the purpose, and are corrected for a temperature of 212°, which is the temperature 
at which they will work under almost all circumstances, and at which their accu- 
racy is guaranteed. 


Thompson’s Universal Stopper for Bottles, §&c. By D. Pusrrer. 


An Investigation on Plane Water-lines. 
By W. J. Macquorn Ranxrne, C.Z., DL.D., P.R.SS.L. & E., &e. 


1. This paper contains an abstract of a mathematical investigation which has 
been communicated in detail to the Royal Society (see Phil. Trans. 1864). By 
the term “plane water-line” is meant one of those curves which a particle of 
a liquid describes in flowing past a solid body, when such flow takes place in plane 
layers. Such curves are suitable for the water-lines of a ship; for during the mo- 
tion of a well-formed ship, the vertical displacements of the particles of water near 
the surface are small compared with the dimensions of the ship *. 

2. The author refers to the researches of Professor Stokes (Camb. Trans. 1842) 
“On the Steady Motion of an Incompressible Fluid,” and of Professor William 
Thomson (made in 1858, but not yet published), as containing the demonstration 
of the general principles of the flow of a liquid past a solid body +. 

3. Every figure of a solid, past which a liquid is capable of flowing smoothly, 
generates an endless series of water-lines which become sharper in their forms as 
they are more distant from the primitive water-line of the solid. The only 
exact water-lines whose forms have hitherto been completely investigated are 
those generated by the cylinder in two dimensions, and by the sphere in three 
dimensions. In addition to what is already known of these lines, the author points 
out that when a cylinder moves through still water, the orbit of each particle of 
water is one loop of an elastic curve. 

4, The profiles of waves have been used with success in practice as water- 
lines for ships, first by Mr. Scott Russell (for the explanation of whose system the 
author refers to the ‘Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects’ for 
1860-62), and afterwards by others. As to the frictional resistance of vessels 
having such lines, the author refers to his own papers—one read to the British 
Association in 1861 and printed in various engineering journals, and another read 
to the Royal Society in 1862 and printed in the Philosophical Transactions t. 

5. The author proceeds to investigate and explain the properties of a class of 
water-lines comprising an endless variety of forms and proportions. In each series 


* As water-line curves have at present no single word to designate them in mathema- 
tical language, it is proposed to call them Neotds, from vnis, the Ionic genitive of vais. 

t See also a paper by Dr. Hoppe, in the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Mathematics’ for 
March 1856. 

} See also a paper by the author on the Computation of the Probable Engine-power and 
Speed of proposed Ships, in the Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects for 1864: 
also a treatise on “ Ship-building,” 1864. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 181 


of such lines the primitive water-line is a particular sort of oval characterized 
by this property—that the ordinate at any point of the oval is proportional to 
the angle between two lines drawn from that point to two foci. bin fig. 1 of the 
Plate illustrating the author’s paper in Phil. Trans. 1864 (not yet published), 
LB represents a quadrant of such an oval, O being its centre, and A one of the 
foci; the other focus is at an equal distance from the other side of the centre.) 
Ovals of this class differ from ellipses in being considerably fuller at the ends and 
flatter at the sides, 

6. The length of the oval may bear any proportion to its breadth, from equality 
(when the oval becomes a circle) to infinity. (In the Plate referred to above, the 
length O L is to the breadth O B nearly as 17 : 6.) 

7. Each oval generates an endless series of water-lines, which become sharper 
in figure as they are further from the oval*. In each of those derived lines, the 
excess of the ordinate at a given point above a certain minimum value is proportional 
to the angle between a pair of lines drawn from that point to the two foci. 

8. There is thus an endless series of ovals, each generating an endless series of 
water-lines ; and amongst those figures a continuous or “ fair” curve can always 
be found, combining any proportion of length to breadth from equality to infinity, 
ie. any degree of fulness or fineness of entrance, from absolute bluffness to a 

ife-edge. 

9. The lines thus obtained present striking likenesses to those at which naval 
architects have arrived through practical experience ; and every successful model in 
existing vessels can be closely imitated by means cf them, from a Dutch galliot 
to a racing-boat. 

10. Any series of water-lines, including the primitive oval, are easily and 
quickly constructed with the ruler and compasses as follows. Parallel to the 
longitudinal axis OX, draw a series of straight lines at equal distances apart. 
Through the foci draw a series of circular ares AC,, AC,, &c., so as to contain a 
series of angles found by dividing those distances by 

OL?— OA?" 
20A 

Each of those circular ares indicates the direction of motion in still water of 
each of the particles that it traverses. Then through the angles of the network 
formed by the straight lines and circular arcs draw a series of curves; these will be 
the required water-lines Tf. 

The centre of curvature of the oval at L is the focus A. 

11. The following curves, traversing certain important points in the water-lines, 
are exactly similar for all water-lines of this class, and are easily and quickly con- 
structed with the compasses. 

LM isa hyperbola having a pair of asymptotes crossing the axes at O at angles 
of 45°. It traverses all the points at which the motion of the particles in still 
water is at right angles to the water-lines. 

LQN and LP are the two branches of a curve of the fourth order, having a 
pair of asymptotes which traverse O, making angles of 80° withOX. A straight 
line joining L and P makes an angle of 30° with LO. The two branches cross 
the axis O X at L, making angles of 45°. The branch L QN traverses a series of 
points, at each of which the velocity of gliding of the particles of water along the 
water-line is less than at any other point on the same water-line. The branch 
LP traverses a series of points, at each of which the velocity of gliding is greater 
than at any other point on the same water-line. 

12. The axis O Y from B to P traverses a series of points of minimum velocity 
o ore from P onwards it traverses a series of points of maximum velocity of 
gliding. 

13. Every water-line, complete from bow to stern, which passes within the 


* As a convenient and significant name for these water-lines, the term “ Odgenous 
Neoids” is proposed (from ’Qoyevzjs, generated from an egg, ov oval). 

t The first émployment of a graphic process of this kind is due, it is believed, to Pro- 
fessor Clerk Maxwell, who applied it to certain curves connected with electricity and mag- 
netism. 


182 REPORT—1863. 


point P, has three points of minimum and two of maximum velocity of gliding; 
while every water-line which passes through or beyond P has only two points 
of minimum and one of maximum velocity of gliding. Hence the latter class 
of lines causes less commotion in the water than the former. 

14. On the water-line P Q which traverses the point P itself, the velocity of 
gliding changes more gradually than on any other water-line haying the same 
proportion of length to breadth. Water-lines possessing this character can be 
constructed with any proportion of length to breadth, from »/3 (which gives an 
oval through L and Pp to infinity. The finer of those lines are found to be nearly 
approximated to by wave-lines, but are less hollow at the bow than wave-lines are. 

15. The author shows how horizontal water-lines at the bow, drawn according 
to this system, may be combined with vertical plane lines of motion for the water 
at the stern, if desired by the naval architect. 

16. In this, as in every system of water-lines, a certain relation (according to a 
principle first pointed out by Mr. Scott Russell) must be preserved between the 
lengths of the after-body and fore-body and the maximum speed of the ship, in order 
that the appreciable resistance may be wholly frictional and proportional to the 
square of the velocity (as the experimental researches of Mr. J. R. Napier and the 
author have shown it to be in well-formed ships), and may not be augmented by 
terms increasing as the fourth and higher powers of the velocity through the pro- 
pagation of diverging waves. 


Description of Corrugated Armour of Steel or Iron for Ships of War. 
By Grorce Reprorp. 


The method proposed is founded upon two principles of strength—cohesive 
strength and mechanical strength. The plates, being made of steel, hardened and 
tempered as nearly as possible up to the cohesive strength of the Whitworth shot 
and shell, are of two kinds—one thick and corrugated, the other thinner and plain. 
The steel corrugated plates, which are 3 inches thick, are placed upon the thinner 
plates of 1 inch, also tempered, and bolted through the skin of the ship—to the ribs 
in an iron ship, or to the timbers in a wooden one. If iron plates of the corru- 
gated form were backed with an inch plate of steel, hardened and tempered, the 
author thought that they would prove impenetrable; and even smooth iron plates 
of 4 inches, thus laid upon steel, would be more effective than iron plates even of 
7 inches thick, backed ‘a timber. The author states that the advantages of the 
plan proposed are, besides the protection of the ships, the reduction of the weight 
of armour much below that contemplated for the new ships of war, and below that 
of the Warrior, the Achilles, and the Minotaur. The saving of at least 1 inch in 
thickness of plates would give a reduction of 100 tons; and, if it should be found 
that timber backing can with this armour be dispensed with (a point now so much 
the subject of inquiry), the reduction of weight would be about 250 tons in a ship 
of the Warrior class. The extra cost would be, to a great extent, met by the 
saving in the thickness of plates and the timber backing. The author looks to 
the development of the eoncals of steel, and the conversion of iron into that far 
stronger metal, for the acquisition of a lighter and impregnable armour for ships of 
war, a desideratum which can never be obtained by merely increasing the thick- 
ness of iron to any extent a ship could carry and be fit for ocean service. The 
author stated that steel plates of this kind could be manufactured at about one- 
third more than the cost of the best iron armour-plates. 


Rifled Ordnance. By G. Ricwarns. 


The author suggested and illustrated a sguare-bore gun introduced by him, to 
give greater initial velocity to projectiles than was attainable by any plan yet pro- 
posed, inasmuch as the area of the square bore was at least 20 per cent. more than 
that of the circular bore containing a shot of the same diameter, thereby exposing, 
by using a wad or sabot, a greater surface to the impact of the ignited powder. 
The author also showed a method of loading heavy ordnance (applicable to sea 
service) by means of a loading-rod. The method of loading the gun was by means 
of a loading-rod passing through a perforation in the breech of the gun, and thence 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 1838 


to the muzzle. The cartridge used was also made with a perforation, through 
which the loading-rod passes. The loading-rod was quickly attached to the base 
of the projectile at the muzzle of the gun. Both rod and charge were quickly 
drawn into the chamber of the piece, disconnected in readiness for loading, and 
the breech was then closed by a small apparatus, such as a revolving disk. 


On the Paper-Manufactures of Northumberland and Durham. 
By W. H. Ricwarpson. 

The author stated that the principal improvements that have been made in the 
manufacture of paper in late years are in the details and general efficiency of the 
machinery, whereby a much larger quantity of paper is made with the same appa- 
ratus than formerly; and in the superior management of the chemical processes. The 
introduction of Esparto grass, the importation of which has been steadily increas- 
ing, was also noticed: 10,000 tons of this were imported in the year 1862 into the 

ort of Newcastle alone, the greater part of which was forwarded into Scotland, 

ancashire, and elsewhere. Hsparto, or adfa, as it is called on the African coast, 
is a coarse grass which grows in sandy places in almost all the countries bordering 
on the Mediterranean, and has been used from time immemorial for making: mats, 
ropes, &c., and has been extensively used for paper-making since 1860, mainly by 
the exertions of Mr. Thomas Routledge, the patentee of the only successful process. 
No material alteration in the machinery or apparatus is required for working esparto 
by this process, and very much less power 1s required. The successful working 
of this fibre depends on the careful and proper adjustment of the quantity and 
strength of the chemicals employed. The quantity of soda ash required for 
neutralizing the gummo-resinous matters in the fibre, so as to admit of its being 
made into a pulp, is very large, thou h not so great as is required for straw; and 
the fibre, unlike rags, never having before been subjected to bleaching or other 
chemical treatment, also requires yery much more bleach-powder to bring it to a 
colour suitable for printing-paper. The quantities required are from five to six 
times as much as for cleansing and bleaching the coarsest rags. Nearly all news- 
paper, not excepting that on which the Zimes is printed, contains a portion of 
esparto ; and some of the penny daily papers published in Edinburgh contain only 
one-fourth of rag material. The large supply of paper-making material from this 
source has been most opportune. Rags are becoming gradually scarcer; coloured 
rags, suitable for making common printing-paper, were worth 4s. to 6s, per ewt. in 
1848, and are now worth 9s. to 12s. per ewt., and this notwithstanding the relief 

roduced by the importation of esparto. The scarcity, the existence of which the 
jurors’ report of the Exhibition of 1862 most unaccountably denies, has been aggra- 
vated by the almost total cessation of the supply of waste and tares from the cotton- 
mills; and, even with the assistance of esparto grass and cheaper chemicals and 
fuels, the paper-makers in this country have been placed by recent legislation in a 
most disadvantageous position in respect of the supply of material in comparison 
with their continental rivals. 

Note.—Importation of esparto in 1863 into the United Kingdom, 25,161 tons 
Sewt. 1 qr. 12 Ibs. 


On an Improved Manufacture of Biscuits. By J. Rosrxson. 


Reports and Sections relating to Captain B. Pim’s projected Transit Route 
through Central America, showing the modus operandi of Surveying in the 
Forests of that Country. By E. Satmon, CE. 

This report detailed the writer’s proceedings in the primeval forests, while 
making a preliminary survey to prove the practicability of the Interoceanic Rail- 
way through Nicaragua. It was accompanied by drawings and sections. Much 
of the document was occupied with a description of the difficulties successfully 
encountered by the surveying party, the nature of the country, and their con- 
trivances for obtaining food, water, shelter, Xc. The nature of the soil and the 
plants of the district were described at length. In a second expedition, subse- 
quently undertaken, the party encountered great obstacles from the advanced 


184 REPORT—1863. 


state of the rainy season. In conclusion, Mr. Salmon remarked, “I have no hesi- 
tation in stating that, as far as my portion of the work is concerned, no real en- 
gineering difficulty exists, and I see no reason to think that the proposed railway 
would be an expensive one to make. I have gone largely into the question of 
labour, and I find that you can get as many men as you require—first-rate workmen 
—at the rate of 15 to 20 dollars per month, besides their food. These questions, 
however, cannot be entered into in a brief outline like the present one. In conclu- 
sion, it may be interesting to state that on my first expedition, with a gang of two 
Creoles and twelve Indians (total party fifteen), I cut through the dense jungle, 
20; miles, in 24 working days—ayerage per day rather more than Sths of a mile. 
On the second expedition, with a gang of eight Creoles and six Indians (total party 
fifteen), I also cut 224 miles in 201 working days—avyerage 1 mile and 5 chains per 
day,‘making a total of 425 miles in 44} working days—average of both expeditions 
rather more than 58 chains per day. 


Portable Machinery or Apparatus for Riveting, Chipping, S¢c., the invention 
of Mr. J. M‘Farlane Gray, of Liverpool. By W. Surru, C.E. 


The special feature in the instruments or apparatus under notice is as follows, 
viz., that whether used for riveting, caulking, chipping, or otherwise operating 
upon and treating metals or other substances, by means of a series of blows, the 
principle of the construction and action of the several varieties of instruments is 
the same. The piston, plunger, bolt, or striker traverses the cylinder inde endently 
of the “tool-head” or “tool-holder,” or of the operating tool, and through a 
greater distance, and moreover does not pass out of the steam-cylinder, but gives 
the blow, or series of blows, “ shuttle-like” within the cylinder upon the “ tool- 
holder ” or “ tool-head,” which is free to slide backward and forward within one end 
of the steam-cylinder; and the change of motion, or the rapidity of action, of the 
moving part or parts within the cylinder is effected by inside tappets, or the com- 
bined action of a tappet or tappets and asteam-piston valve. The outer form of such 
instruments, and the arrangement and combination of their parts, have of course to 
be varied to suit the special purpose for which they are intended to be used. 

In every case the cylinder is provided with a bolt, piston, or plunger, capable of 
traversing backward and forward upon the admission of steam in either direction. 
This moving part has sufficient weight to enable it to accumulate the vis viva due to 
almost the full pressure of the steam upon its end surface, or area, and by its 
impact to give out this force upon the rivet, or other surface operated upon, 
through the intervention of a “tool-head” or “ tool-holder.” 

For the admission of steam to the slide-valve chest of the cylinder, it is pre- 
ferred to used a small gridiron valve, which may be kept close by a spring, and is 
opened by means of pressure on a thumb-piece or lever. The gridiron slide-valves, 
having back and front sliding faces alike, are in equilibrium. A cock or any other 
suitable valve contrivance may, however, be substituted. 

The steam is conveyed from the boiler to the apparatus by means of a flexible 
pipe, or by metal tubing and flexible pipe combined. The exhaust-nozzle may be 
on the middle of the valve-chest cover, and have a short elbow or other form of 
pipe to direct the exhaust steam from the operator, and is under the control of the 
person using the apparatus ; but a stud or stop-pin may be inserted through the 
cylinder and the gland, to prevent the chipper or the tool-head being driven out; 
and also a spiral or other reacting spring should be introduced, for the purpose of 
overcoming the friction between the tool-head or holder and the gland and the 
stutting-box, and thus return the chipping or other tool, or the teol-head or tool- 
holder, after each blow, back to its normal position. 

The tool-head may be itself the operating tool, or it may be a socket to contain 
the tool required ; but, whatever its form may be, and whether brought back by a 
spring or not, its travel or motion backward and forward, or in and out, is in every 
case less than that of the piston, bolt, or striker, 

This apparatus, when designed as a “riveter,” is provided with suitable handles, 
for the purpose of holding and guiding the apparatus while it is in operation, and 
also with handles whereby to lift it from one position of the work to another. 


——. 


ae ae 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 185 


Instead of depending upon the operator for supporting and guiding the apparatus, 
it may be mounted upon a guide-bar or other form of carriage. The operator may 
also be assisted by sustaining part of the weight of the apparatus by a rope 
or chain. 

For riveting rows of holes at regular intervals, a stud-hook may be fitted so as 
to project in front of the machine, and, by entering an adjacent or advance hole, 
assist In supporting, as well as in guiding, the apparatus whilst in use. This stud- 
hook may be moved by a regulating screw, to adapt it for any required pitch of holes. 
Where it can be applied, a spring 
gauge-pin is adopted, forming at 
the same time a pin to gauge 
the pitch of the holes, and 
by locking into a spring-box, 
which contains a spring-dolly or 
“holder-up,” and being forced 
on the pin with considerable 
pressure, it becomes a support- 
ing bolster for the rivet-head, 
and forms amechanical “holder- 
up.” The pin which enters the 
rivet-hole may be attached to 
the riveting-cylinder with a 
moveable screw, and it may be 
cut as a ratchet, and lock into a 
spring-pall ; or the arrangement 
may be reversed, as the dolly 
spring-box or the spring-pin 
may be attached to the spring- 
box, and the socket and pall to 
the cylinder. 

The accompanying woodcut 
illustrates one arrangement of 
this apparatus when used for 
the purposes of riveting. 

In operating with the “steam- 
chipper,” the apparatus being 
provided with suitable handles, 
the operator grasping them 
brings the apparatus up to the 
surface to be chipped; and the 
steam being admitted, a succes- 
sion of rapid blows is given, 
and as the metal is chipped, the 
operator advances the appa- 
ratus. The chipper may be sup- 
ported on a sliding or other 
carriage, or by other suitable 
means, 

In heavy work, and where 
the diameter of cylinder and 
pressure of steam used are such 
that the amount of backward 
peer of the apparatus would 

é inconvenient for the opera- 
tor to support or withstand, a 
lanyard attached to the cylin- 
der may be carried to some con- 
venient point of attachment, 
in advance of the machine, so 
as partly to keep the apparatus 


186 REPORT—1868. 


up to its work. Instead of attaching this lanyard to a fixed point, it may run 
over a pulley, and have a weight hanging from it. 

Where found necessary, a strut, arranged with a view to simple adjustment, 
may be applied to support or guide either the riveters, the chippers, the caulkers, 
or the hammers, and be substituted for the hand supporting. 

Mr. Gray also employs a combined steam-boiler and rivet-hearth, with furnace 
common to both, to be used in conjunction with the several modifications of the 
apparatus just described; such combined steam-boiler and rivet-hearth or forge 
serving the twofold purpose of generating the steam for working such apparatus, 
and of heating rivets to be operated upon thereby. 

In the modification of the apparatus, when mounted and fitted for hammering 
copper pipes, a saddle-piece of wood is bolted to a flange, the saddle being curved 
to fit the pipe to be hammered. A balance-weight is also suspended es the 
curved arm attached to the apparatus, in order to keep the same erect whilst it is 
at work operating upon the copper pipe. 


Novel Arrangement of Direct-acting Steam Engines. By W. Suaru, CLE. 


This system of direct-acting steam-engines is the invention of Messrs. Jackson 
and Watkins, engineers, of Millwall, who, instead of employing a guide-block and 
guides, or any of the usual methods of guiding and supporting the outer end of the 
piston-rod at its junction with the connecting-rod, and instead also of working a 
pump by a lever, or from off the crank by an excentric, or other means of commu- 
nicating motion, effect these two objects of guiding the piston-rod and work- 
ing the pump by placing the pump-barrel with its longitudinal axis in, or nearly in, 
a line with the cylinder, and between the cylinder and the crank-shaft, and the 
pwmp-plunger or piston is connected to the piston-rod and the end of the connect- 
ing-rod of the engine by a fork end or any other suitable means; thus the pump is 
worked direct, and forms also the guide for the piston-rod. In condensing-engines 
the air-pump is the pump employed in this manner. The piston or plunger of the 
pump is of sufficient diameter to allow of a trunk large enough to permit of the con- 
necting-rod vibrating within it; and where the distance between the cylinder end 
and the crank-shaft is limited, as is generally the case in marine engines, the inven- 
tors prefer to employ, a single-acting and single trunk-pump, the capacity of the 
pump-chamber or barrel being regulated by the dimensions of the annular space, 
or the difference between the exterior diameter of the trunk and the interior dia- 
meter of the pump-barrel. 

In inverted direct-acting screw engines the valves may be placed at the bottom 
of each pump in direct communication with the condenser. ie every case the con- 
necting-rod works within the trunk of a pump placed between the cylinder of the 
pump and the packed end or ends thereof; or the piston and the eland alone are the 
means of guiding the piston-rod, and of taking the thrust due to the angular mo- 
tion of the connecting-rod. For working the back slide or cut-off slide of double- 
slide valve engines, it is connected to the backward excentric or its rod directly 
through a weigh-shaft, or by any other of the well-known means, and the amount 
of expansion regulated by changing the positions of the slides by means of a 
screwed valve-rod or other suitable means. 

The rod of the main slide-valve and the expansion-valve rod pass through a 
gland in the slide-chest, and are moved together by the excentric gear; and the 
expansion-valve rod is not connected to the link-block, but, by means of a rod or 
bar, to a stud or pin projecting from the face of the backward excentric strap or rod. 
On the upper end of the valve-chest the rod of the expansion-slide passes through 
a gland, and has a hand wheel or cross fitted thereon for the purpose of turning it, 
and thereby changing the position of the expansion-slides or cover-plates in rela- 
tion to the steam passages or openings through the main slide-valve; the expan- 
sion-valve rod is screwed with a right- and left-hand thread, and the lower end of 
the rod is made to turn or swivel when it is required that the degree of cut-off 
shall be changed. 

In adapting this invention to horizontal or other forms of direct-acting pumping- 
engines for raising or forcing, or raising and forcing water, a trunk-pump 1s applied 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 187 


of suitable dimensions, and placed between the cylinder and the crank as previously 
described, and for this purpose a double-acting pump with double trunk may, by 
increasing the length of the piston-rod and the connecting-rod, be employed. 

It will be seen from the foregoing description, that by the plan adopted by 
Messrs. Jackson and Watkins of placing the pump between the cylinder and the 
crank in direct-acting steam-engines, the usual guide bars and blocks are dispensed 
with; and that in working the air-pump in direct-acting condensing-engines 
according to this plan, the necessity no longer exists for the employment of sepa- 
rate and independent levers, beams, connecting-rods, &c. 


A novel Method of covering Boilers, Pipes, and Cylinders of Steam Engines for 
preventing the Radiation of Heat, the mvention of Mr. James Spence, of 
HM. Dockyard, Portsmouth. By W. Smiru, CLE. 


In the non-conducting compositions which Mr. Spence proposes to employ, argil- 
laceous earth is ground or beat up and mixed with water, so as to form a paste, 
with which is compounded oil-cake, fish- or train-oil, cow-hair, carbonaceous mat- 
ter, and the other materials afterwards mentioned, for giving consistency, character, 
or colour, according to the purpose for which the composition is required. The 
hair is well opened and beaten in or incorporated, and the whole mass is thoroughly 
mixed until it has obtained the requisite degree of density or consistency. 

For coating steam-boilers and such like vessels subject to great heat, and for 
other similar purposes, argillaceous earth (say, one thousand pounds in weight) is 

ound or beat up and mixed with water so as to form a paste. To this is added 
about twenty-four pounds of oil-cake, about three gallons of fish- or train-oil, and 
to this mixture is introduced about twenty-four pou of cow-hair, twenty-four 
pounds of soot, and three pounds of bone-dust or bone-ash. These are thoroughly 
combined together, and form a plaster or composition capable of being applied in 
the manner of plastering walls and other surfaces. 

For coating steam-pipes, steam-engine cylinders, and other such bodies and sur- 
faces, argillaceous earth (in weight, say, one thousand pounds) is taken and prepared 
as before; to this is added about thirty pounds of oil-cake, two gallons of fish-oil, 
about thirty-six pounds of cow-hair, fourteen pounds of soot, eighteen pounds of 
bone-dust, and fourteen pounds of ground carbonaceous matter; these are well in- 
corporated in a finely divided condition, as before stated. For purposes where a 
finer quality of coating is required, there may be less oil, less cow-hair and dry 
matter introduced in proportion to the weight of clay. 

For a finishing coat to the previously described compositions, the following sub- 
stances may be used :—To each one thousand pounds of argillaceous earth about 
one and a half or two gallons of fish-oil, about thirty-two pounds of oil-cake, thirty- 
two pounds of cow-hair, about half a gallon of linseed oil, twenty-four pounds of 
ground charcoal, and about eight pounds of glue; to these may be added about 
pe pounds of paint or colouring matter, of any colour or tint that may be pre- 

erred. 

Steam-boilers may be coated whilst in use ; and the composition may be applied 
by hand or trowel to a depth of three-quarters of an inch or so, and scored or grained 
across and allowed to dry, and then a second or any additional number of coatings 
may be added. 

or coating circular pipes or such like surfaces, a layer of hay or straw bands, 
‘saturated in the composition, may be lapped or coiled around the pipe or vessel, 
the composition plastered on, and the coatings or layers added at intervals. Wood 
laths may be introduced ; and any of the well-known means of bonding or binding 
may be employed, according to the form of the body to which the composition is 
to be applied, and according to the nature of the action to which the material is to 
be subjected. 

This process is intended to be used instead of employing felt and wood lagging 
with sheet-lead covering or other additions, as a covering for steam-boilers, cylin- 
ders, pipes, and such like, and other vessels and bodies, for prevention of the radia- 
tion of heat, as also for protecting pipes and other vessels containing fluids or liquids 
against the external action of extreme cold, and generally for coating vessels or 


188 REPORT—18638. 


bodies subject to the action of heat or cold, and for preventing radiation therefrom 
or the transmission or passage inward or outward of heat or cold. : 

The method of applying the non-conducting composition to the surface of steam- 
boilers, cylinders, and other heated surfaces for the prevention of the radiation of 
heat, as also to water-pipes and other surfaces for preventing the injurious effects 
of intense cold or frost, must of course vary according to the form or shape of the 
object to be covered, and the particular purpose for which it is intended to be em- 
ployed; but, as a rule, the expedients which are usually adopted by plasterers or 
workmen employed in coating ceilings, walls, and other surfaces with plain or or- 
namental coatings of plaster or cement may be adopted with advantage in applying 
the composition according to this invention to various metallic and other bodies. 
Especial care is to be taken that, after the first coating of the composition has 
been applied to any heated or other surface, this coating is pricked through in a 
suflicient number of places in order to allow the air and moisture to escape freely 
when drying, this being essentially necessary in order to ensure the adhesion of the 
composition to the surface to be protected. 


An improved Valve and Apparatus for Atmospheric Railways. 
By W. Suiru, C.E. 

The object of this contrivance (the invention of the Rev. G. R. Harding, of St. 
Ann’s, Wandsworth) is chiefly to overcome the defects which have attached to the 
valyular portion of previously tried systems of atmospheric railways, or railways 
worked by the vacuum or pressure of air. The inventor uses a number of blocks 
or pieces of material converging towards each other, for the purpose of fitting into 
the trough or channel in the railway tube, and having also, in relation to the longi- 
tudinal axis of the tube and the trough in which the blocks are fitted, angular faces 
or fitting and bearing surfaces. A series of these blocks or pieces being jointed to- 
gether forms the continuous flexible bar or valve. The trough being formed of 
\ -like shape in transverse section, and from the angular arrangement of bearing 
and fitting surfaces between the blocks or pieces, greater perfection of working 
condition is ensured ; so that the greater the atmospheric pressure, or the better the 
vacuum, the more perfect contact is obtained between the working parts of the ap- 
paratus. The accompanying woodcuts illustrate some of the methods of putting 
the invention into practice. v 


Ss 
J 
SVS SSS 


TTT : rT 


XK 


SEES 
SS 


SSS 


1 &S 
rz PORPTOP CELT 


iZ 

Fig. 1 is a longitudinal section of the tube of an atmospheric railway fitted 
with the piston, flexible bar or valve, and curved lifting-piece, in accordance with 
the invention of the patentee. Fig. 2 isa cross section of fig. 1, taken on the dotted 
line a, b, showing the tube, part of the flexible bar or valve fitting in the \ -shaped 
trough, the piston-carriage, and the curved lifting-piece. 

A is the tube; B, the piston; C, piston-rod; E, the flexible bar or valve; F is 
the curved lifting-piece. 

In figs. 3 and 4 the flexible bar or valve is shown separately and to enlarged 
scale. The blocks, a, composing the valve are hinged together by means of fixed 
pins, b, and slotted links, c, so as to counteract any strain, as by this plan the blocks 
slide upwards and downwards as the case might be, and the links allow the blocks 


* 


— > 


a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 189 


free play. On the upper and lower surfaces of these blocks a band of india rubber 
is laid, next to which are bands of leather, and on the outer upper surface is laid a 
metallic band or any other suitable material to protect the valve from rain or damp, 
and on the lower surface a thin band of steel, so as to allow it to ride easily 
upon the curved lifting-piece F. Fig. 4 is a cross section of fig. 8, in which a part 
of the slotted link, c, is shown. 

The blocks may, however, be formed of metal or any other convenient material, 
and be solid or hollow. The bands shown in the illustrations might, when the 
metal blocks were employed, be replaced by a metallic band, and leather strap on 
its under side, and screwed on to each of the blocks. 


On Self-acting Valve Motion for Steam Hammers. By Jouy SturcEon, 


On the Diagonal Principle of Iron Ship-building. By R. Tartorson. 


In this principle the line of resistance to forces acting in the direction of the 
vertical planes is diagonal to the circumferential line of the body of the ship, 
thereby opposing the greatest amount of resistance that could be given at an angle 
equivalent to the inclination of the planes. Ships built on the diagonal principle 
were stronger, the author stated, than those on the vertical, at the rate of 100 per 
cent. 4 


On the Prevention of Fouling of Ships’ Bottoms. By Dr. Watts. 


The author proposed a composition made of equal parts of powdered quick-lime, 
of fat, and of oil, mixed and rubbed together. It is laid on the first time, when 
cold, by means of a short-haired painter’s brush, on the surface while high and 
dry; but when afloat it must be applied by means of a diver’s hand. This com- 
position is a kind of soap, which is insoluble in water, and which undergoes a slow 
chemical change, the result of which is that, after a few months, it becomes 
rather less soft, and more easily separable in the form of flakes or scales from the 
submerged surface of the ship than it was when fresh applied. The author has 
tried a combination of fat and oil, and of fat and white lead, and has determined 
that the lime-soap is the article best adapted for the purpose. It can be laid on 
smoothly in the air, and also applied under the water with great facility. From 
experiments made by Dr. White, he thinks that the capacity for speed of an iron 
vessel will be increased fourteen per cent. by the use of this soap. The author 
also proposes that, before the lime-soap is hae a strip of sheet zinc should be 
fixed on the upper part of the flat surface of each row of iron plates below the 
light-load line-mark, by means of iron screws about a quarter of an inch in length, 
with broad heads, taking care that some part, at least, of the surfaces of contact of 
the iron and zinc are clean, as shown by the metallic lustre. The surface of the 
zinc in contact with the iron which is to be protected should be equal to at 
least one-sixteenth part of the surface of iron to be protected. The zinc corrodes ; 
and therefore it will be necessary from time to time to fix it closely by the screws, 
and to replace it when necessary, all of which can be done by divers. Aluminium 

rotects iron from corrosion by electro-metallic action, in the same manner as zinc 

oes; but a smaller area of surface of aluminium will have an effect equal to a 
larger extent of zinc. The higher price of aluminium will probably prevent the 
use of it for this purpose. : 


LISLE, OF, PLATES; 


PLATES I-IV. 


Illustrative of the Report of the Committee on the Application of Gun-cotton 
to Warlike Purposes. 


PLATE V. 


Illustrative of Dr. A. Matthiessen’s Report on the Chemical Nature of 
Alloys. 


PLATE VI. 


Illustrative of the Report of the Committee on Standards of Electrical 
Resistance. 


PLATES VII. anv VIII. 


Illustrative of the Fifth Report of the Committee on Steamship Per- 
formance. 


i 


_ S 


ae 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 191 


List of Papers of which Abstracts have not been received. 
—F—_— 


On the Newcastle Time Gun. By Prof. C, Prazzt Suyru, /. RS. 


On the Analysis of Chinese Iron. By Dr. Strvenson Macapam. 


On the Manufacture of Superphosphates and Dissolved Bones. 
By Dr. Stevenson Macapam. 


Recent Applications of the Hydrocarbons derived from Artificial and Natural 
Sources. By Dr. B. H. Paut, F.CS. 


On Coal, Coke, and Coal-mining in Northumberland and Durham. 
By N. Woop, J. Taytor, J. Martry, and J. W. Pxase. 


On the Upper Tertiary Strata of the Bohuslan District. 
By Dr. A. W. Maun. 


On some Fish-remains that have occurred in the Coal-measures of Durham 
and Northumberland. By T,. Array and J. W. Kirxsy. 


On the Cultivation of Cinchona in India. By Crrments R. Marxnam, 
Notes on the Homologies of the Trilobites. By C. Spence Bartz, FERS. 


A brief Account of the Vegetation of the Cliffs of Mohir, co. Clare. 
By N. B. Warp, F.RS., LS. 


On the Physiological Properties of the Nitrite of Amyle. 
By Dr. B. W. Ricnarpson, 


On the Reason why the Stomach is not digested by its own Secretion during 
Life. By Dr. Pavy, FEBS. 


On the Renal Organ of the Aplysia. By Prof. Rotrestoy, F.R.S. 


192 REPORT—18638. 


On the Physiological Action of the Uterus in Parturition. By Dr. Donxn. 


On the Calabar Bean. By Tuomas NuNNELEY. 


Miners’ Safety-mask for supporting Life in Firedamp and other noxious 
vapour. By Dr. B. W. Ricwarpson. 


Ethnology of the Island of Formosa. 
By Roserr Swinnor, H.M. Consul at Formosa. 


On the Effects of the recent Gold Discoveries. By Henry Fawcerr. 
On Transportation in connexion with Colonization. By Colonel Torrens. 


On Regenerative Gas-Furnaces as applied to Iron- Works. By C. W.Sremens, 
C.E., PRS. 


On the Proportions of Ships of least Skin Resistance for a given speed and 
displacement. By Prof. W. J. Macquorn Ranuinz, LL.D., F.RS. 


On the Improvements now being carried on in the River Tyne. 
By J. F. Urs. 


On Targets for Gunnery Experiments. By Captain Doveras Gatton, F.R.S. 


The Application of Machinery to Coal-cutting. By Save. Frere. 


Bown’s Tyre-fastening. By Bunsamiyx Fornerct1t. 


Engineering Manufactures of the Tyne and neighbouring Districts. 
By P. Wesrmacorr and J. F, Spencer. 


New Method of Working Railways by Stationary Engines. 
By R. and W. Hawrnorn. 


On the Railways and Locomotives of the Districts adjoining the Rivers Tees, 
Tyne, and Wear. By J. ¥. Tonr. 


_——— 


INDEX I. 


TO 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 


OBJECTS and rules of the Association, 
xvii. 

Places and times of meeting, with names 
of officers from commencement, xx. 

Treasurer’s account, xxiv. 

Members of Council from commence- 
ment, xxv. 

Officers and Council for 1863-64, xxviii. 

Officers of Sectional Committees, xxix. 

Corresponding Members, xxx. 

Report of Council to General Committee 
at Newcastle-on-Tyne, xxxi. 

Report of the Kew Committee, 1862-63, 


23.8.48 

Accounts of the Kew Committee, 1862- 
63, XxXxvii. 

Report of the Parliamentary Committee, 
XXXVill. 

Recommendations adopted by the Ge- 
neral Committee at Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne:—involving grants of money, 
Xxxix; applications for reports and 
researches, xli; applications to Govern- 
ment, xlii; communications to be 
printed entire among the Reports, xlii. 

Synopsis of grants of money appropriated 
to scientific purposes, xliii. 

General statement of sums which have 
been paid on account of grants for 
scientific purposes, xly. 

Extracts from resolutions of the General 
Committee, 1. 

Arrangement of General Meetings, l. 

- by Sir William G. Armstrong, 


Abel (F. A.) on the system of manu- 
facture of gun-cotton as carried on in 
the Imperial Austrian establishment, 
8; on the composition, and some pro- 
perties, of specimens of gun-cotton 
prepared at the Austrian Government 


works, 9; on experiments in progress 
bearing upon the manufacture of gun- 
cotton, 14. 

Akin (Dr. C. K.), on the transmuta- 
tion of spectral rays, 93. 

Allman (Dr. George J.), report on the 
present state of our knowledge of the 
reproductive system in the Hydroida, 


351. 

Alloys, Dr. A. Matthiessen on the che- 
mical nature of, 37; on the electrical 
permanency of metals and, 124; on 
the variation of the electric resistance 
of, due to change of temperature, 127, 

America, Philip P. Carpenter on the 
ae of the west coast of North, 
517. 

Ammonium, Dr. George D. Gibb on the 
physiological effects of the bromide of, 
81 


Anderson (John), report on the applica- 
tion of gun-cotton to warlike purposes, 
1 


Animal matter, on the production of 
sulphuret of zinc, blende, selenite, and 
calamine, under the influence of pu- 
trefaction of, 205. 

Antimony, report by T. Sopwith and T, 
Richardson on the local manufacture 
of, 715. 

Antisell’s (Dr.) list of Californian fos- 
sils, 595. 

Armstrong (Sir W. G.), report on the 
application of gun-cotton to warlike 
purposes, 1 

Austrian gun-cotton, analysis of, 33. 


Balloon ascents, meteorological observa- 
tions by James Glaisher in five, made 
in 1863, 426; the ninth ascent, 434 ; 
tenth, 440; eleventh, 444; twelfth, 
452; thirteenth, 466, 


194 


Bell (Isaac Lowthian), report on the 
manufacture of iron in connexion with 
the Northumberland and Durham coal- 
field, 730. 

Brayley (E. W.), report on observations 
of luminous meteors, 1862-63, 209. 
Bright (Sir C.), report on standards of 

electrical resistance, 111. 


Caithness (the Earl of), fifth report on 
steamship performance, 339. ‘ 

Carpenter (Philip P.), supplementary 
report on the present state of our 
knowledge with regard to the mol- 
lusca of the west coast of North Ame- 
rica, 517. 

Chemical manufactures of the northern 
districts, report on the, by Thomas 
Richardson, J. C. Stevenson, and R. 
C. Clapham, 701. 

Clapham (R. C.) on the chemical manu- 

“~ factures of the northern districts, 701. 

Coal-field, Isaac Lowthian Bell on the 
manufacture of iron in connexion with 
the Northumberland and Durham, 730, 

Copper, report by T. Sopwith and T. 

ichardson on the local manufacture 
of, 715. 

Cumberland, Pvt of lead ore, lead, 

a silver for ten years ended 1862, 


Daglish (John), report on the magnesian 
limestone of Durham, 726. 

Donegal, report of a committee on the 
chemical and mineralogical constitu- 
tion of the granites of, and of the rocks 
associated with them, 48. 

Dredging on the coasts of Shetland, J. G. 
Jettreys’s report on, 70. 

Dublin and Holyhead Company’s steam- 
ships, on the performance of the, 344. 

Dufferin (the Lord), fifth report on steam- 
ship performance, 339. 

Durham and Northumberland, produce 
of lead ore, lead, and silver for the ten 
years ended 1862, 721. 

Durham, John Daglish on the magnesian 
limestone of, 726. 


Egerton (the Hon. Capt.), fifth report on 
steamship performance, 339. 

Electric phewatiena, on the measure- 
ment of, by their electromagnetic 
effects, 136; by statical effects, 148, 

Electrical measurements, Prof. J. C. 
Maxwell and Fleeming Jenkin on the 
elementary relations between, 130. 

—— measurements derived'from the five 
elementary measurements, 154. 


REPORT—1868. 


Electrical permanency of metals and 
alloys, Dr. A. Matthiessen on the, 
124, 

resistance, report of the committee 

on standards of, 111. 

resistance, description of an expe- 
rimental measurement of, by Prof. 
J. C. Maxwell and Messrs. Balfour 
Stewart and Fleeming Jenkin, 163; 
method employed, 163; apparatus, 
164 ; mathematical theory of the ex- 
periment, 168; details of the experi- 
ments, 171. 

Ellis (the Hon. Leopold), fifth report on 
steamship performance, 339. 

Esselbach (Dr.), report on standards of 
electrical resistance, 111. 


Fairbairn (W.), report on the application 
of gun-cotton to warlike purposes, 1 ; 
fifth report on steamship perform- 
ance, 339. 

Felspathic solution, influence of the, on 
the structure of some Cambrian rocks, 
207. 

Bi oe the Rey. Dr. Robinson on, 
105. 


Foods, Dr. Edward Smith on the, used 
by the free and jail populations of 
India, 176. 

Frankland (Prof. E.), report on the ap- 
plication of gun-cotton to warlike pur- 
poses, 1. 

Gages (M. Alphonse), synthetical re- 
searches on the formation of minerals, 
203. 

Gibb (Dr. G. D.), report on the physio- 
logical effects of the bromide of am- 
monium, 81. 

Gifford (the Earl of), fifth report on 
steamship performance, 339. 

Gladstone (Dr. J. H.), report on the ap- 
plication of gun-cotton to warlike = 
poses, 1; report on fog-signals, 105. 

Glaisher (James), report on observations 
of luminous meteors, 1862-63, 209; 
an account of meteorological and phy- 
sical observations in five balloon as- 
cents in the year 1863, 426. 

Gonophore, Prof. Allman on the mor- 
phology of the, 360. 

Granites of Donegal, report of a com- 
mittee on the chemical and minera- 
logical constitution of the, and of the 
rocks associated with them, 48. 

Greg (Robert P.), report on observations 
of luminous meteors, 1862-63, 209. 
Griffith (Sir R., Bart.), report on the 

chemical and mineralogical constitu- 


INDEX I. 


195 


* tion of the granites of Donegal, and of | Iron ships, Charles M. Palmer on the 


the rocks associated with them, 48. 

Gun-cotton, report of the committee on 
the 7 lata of, to warlike purposes, 
1; chemical considerations, 2; me- 
chanical considerations, 4; practical 

- applications, 5. 

——, F. A. Abel on the system of ma- 
nufacture of, as carried on in the Im- 
perial Austrian establishment, 8; on 
the composition, and some properties, 
of specimens of, prepared at the Au- 
strian Government works, 9. 

» experiments on the hygroscopic 

properties of the Austrian, 12. 

, F. A. Abel’s memorandum with 
reference to experiments in progress 
bearing upon the manufacture of, 14. 

——,, information on the application and 
manufacture of, by Baron Lenk, 25. 

, analysis of Austrian, 33. 

, extracts from a report on Baron 
Lenk’s, 33. 

Gunpowder works, Royal, experiments 
instituted upon a manufacturing scale 
at the, 16. 


Haughton (Rey. 8.), report on the che- 
mical and mineralogical constitution 
of the granites of Donegal, and of the 
rocks associated with them, 48. 

Hennessy (Prof. H.), report on fog-sig- 
nals, 105. 


=e (E. C.), biographical notice of, 
18 


Herschel (Alexander S.), report on ob- 

servations of luminous meteors, 1862- 
, 209. 

Hydroida, Dr. G. J. Allman on the re- 
productive system in the, 351. 

, Sketch of the general morphology 

of the, 353. 

, Structure and formation of the ge- 

nerative, 382. 

, heteromerism oftheindividual 422. 

——, comparison of the sexes in the, 
386; development, 389. 


India, Dr. Edward Smith on the foods 
used by the free and jail populations 
of, 176. 

——,, tables showing the scales of jail 
dietary in, 202. 

Tron, Isaac Lowthian Bell on the manu- 
facture of, in connexion with the 
Northumberland and Durham coal- 
field, 730. 

, on a new British meteoric, 327. 


protoxide of, 204, 


, Solubility of silicate of hydrated 


construction of, 694. 


Jail dietary in India, tables showing the 
scales of, 202. 
Jettreys (J. Gwyn), report of the com- 
mittee appointed for exploring the 
coasts of Shetland by means of the 

dredge, 70. 

Jenkin (Fleeming), report on stand- 
ards of electrical resistance, 111; on 
the elementary relations between elec- 
trical measurements, 130; description 
of an experimental measurement of 
electrical resistance, 163. . 

Jewett (Col.), species of the temperate 
fauna collected by, 536; of the tro- 
pical fauna, 537. 

Joule (Dr.), report on standards of elec- 
trical resistance, 111. 


Lead, report by T. Sopwith and T. Ri- 
chardson on the local manufacture of, 
7165. 

, produce of, in the years 1845-62 
inclusive, in the counties of Cumber- 
land, Durham, and Northumberland, 
722. 

——, imports of, into Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne, 723. 

Lenk (Baron), information on the appli- 
cation and manufacture of gun-cotton, 
25; extracts from a report on his gun- 
cotton, 33. ; 

Lime, action of the alkalies on silicate 
of, 205. 

Limestone, John Daglish on the mag- 
nesian, of Durham, 726. i 

Luminous meteors, report on, by James 
Glaisher, R. P. Gree, E. W. Brayley, 
and Alexander S. Herschel, 209; ca- 
talogue of, 210; appendix, 318. 


McConnell (J. E.), fifth report on 
steamship performance, 339. 

Maenetic phenomena, on the measure- 
ment of, 132. 

Mallet (Robert), preliminary report on 
the experimental determination of the 
temperatures of volcanic foci, and of 
the temperature, state of saturation, 
and velocity of the issuing gases and 
vapours, 208. 

Matthiessen (Dr.), report on the chemi- 
cal nature of alloys, 37; report on 
standards of electrical resistance, 111; 
on the electrical permanency of metals 
and alloys, 124; on the variation of 
the electric resistance of alloys due to 
change of temperature, 127. 

13* 


196 


Maxwell (Prof.), report on standards of 
electrical resistance, 111; on the ele- 
mentary relations between electrical 
measurements, 130; description of an 
experimental measurement of electri- 
cal resistance, 163. 

Metals and alloys, Dr. A. Matthiessen 
on the electrical permanency of, 124. 

Meteor of November 27, 1862, path of, 
324, 

Meteors, luminous, report and catalogue 
of, observed in 1862-63, 209; appen- 
dix, 318. 

Meteoric iron, on a new British, 337. 

shower of April 1863, Prof. II. A. 

Newton on the, 325. 

shower of August 1863, 326. 

Miller (Dr. W. A.), report on the ap- 


plication of gun-cotton to warlike | 


purposes, 1; report on standards of 
electrical resistance, 111. 
Minerals, M. Alphonse Gages’ synthe- 


tical researches on the formation of, | 


203. 

Mollusca, Philip P. Carpenter on the, of 
the west coast of North America, 
517. 


Napier (J. R.), fifth report on steam- | 


ship performance, 339. 

Nasmyth (James), report on the appli- 
cation of gun-cotton to warlike pur- 
poses, 1. 

Newberry’s (Dr.) list of Californian 
fossils, 593. 

Newton (Prof. H. A) on the meteoric 
shower of April 1863, 325. 

Northern districts, Thomas Spencer on 
the manufacture of steel in the, 764. 
Numbers, Prof. H. J. S. Smith’s report 
on the theory of, 768; geometrical 
representation of forms of a negative 
determinant, 768; application of for- 
mule relating to the division of the 
circle to the theory of quadratic forms, 

772. 


Palmer (Charles M.) on the construction 
of iron ships, and the progress of iron 
shipbuilding on the Tyne, Wear, and 
Tees, 694. 

Paris (Admiral E.), fifth report on 
steamship performance, 339, 


Rankine (Prof. W. J. M.), fifth report on 
steamship performance, 339. 

Rays, spectral, Dr. C. K. Akin on the 
transmutation of, 93. 

Redtenbacher (Dr.) on Baron Lenk’s 
gun-cotton, 33. 


REPORT—1863. 


Rich (Major), shells collected by, from 
the Californian fauna, 540; collected 
near La Paz, 541, 

Richardson (Thomas), report on the 
chemical manufactures of the north- 
ern districts, 701; report on the local 
manufacture of lead, copper, zinc, an- 
timony, &c., 715. 

Roberts (R.), fifth report on steam- 
ship performance, 339. 

Robinson (Rey. Dr.), report of the com- 
mittee on fog-signals, 105. 

Rocks, Cambrian, influence of the fel- 
spathic solution on the structure of 
some, 207. 

Russell (J. Scott), report on the appli- 
cation of gun-cotton to warlike pur- 
poses, 1; fifth report on steamship per- 
formance, 339. 


Schneider (Dr.) on Baron Lenk’s gun- 
cotton, 35. 

Schrétter (Dr.) on Baron Lenk’s gun- 
cotton, 33. 

Scott (Robert H.), report on the che- 
mical and mineralogical constitution 
of the granites of Donegal, and of the 
rocks associated with them, 48. 

Shetland, J. Gwyn Jeffreys’s report on 
dredging on the coasts of, 70. 

Ships and shipbuilding on the Tyne, 
Wear, and Tees, Charles M. Palmer 
on the construction of iron, 694, 

Siemens (C. W.), report on standards of 
electrical resistance, 111. 

Signals, fog,the Rey.Dr. Robinson on, 105, 

Silicate of hydrated protoxide of iron, 
solubility of, 204. 

— of lime, action of the alkalies 
on, 205. 

Smith (Dr. Edward), abstract of report 
by the Indian Government on the food 
used by the free and jail populations 
of India, 176. 

Smith (H. J. Stephen), report on the 
theory of numbers, 768 

Smith (Wm.), fifth report on steam- 
ship performance, 339. 

Sopwith (T.), report on the local manu- 
acture of lead, copper, zine, antimony, 
&e., 715. 

Spectral rays, Dr. C. K. Akin on the 
transmutation of, 93. 

Spencer (Thomas), report on the manu- 
facture of steel in the northern dis- 
tricts, 764. : 

Standards of electrical resistance, report 
of the committee on, 111. 

Statical effects, on the measurement of 
electric phenomena by, 148, 


INDEX II. 


Steamship performance, fifth report of 
the committee on, 339; appendix, 344. 

Steel, Thomas Spencer on the manufac- 
ture of, in the northern districts, 764. 

Stevenson (J. C.), report on the chemi- 
cal manufactures of the northern dis- 
tricts, 701. 

Stewart (Balfour), report on standards 
of electrical resistance, 111; descrip- 
tion of an experimental measurement 
_of electrical resistance, 163. 

Sutherland (the Duke of), fifth report 
on steamship performance, 339, 


Tees, C. M. Palmer on the construction 
of ships and shipbuilding on the, 694. 

Temperature, Dr. A. Matthiessen on the 
variation of the electric resistance of 
alloys due to change of, 127. 

Thomson (Prof.), report on standards of 
electrical resistance, 111. 

Tyne, C. M. Palmer on the construction 
of iron ships and shipbuilding on the, 
694, 


RAR nnn 


197 


Varley (C. F.), report on standards of 
electrical resistance, 111. 

Volcanic foci, Robert Mallet on the ex- 
perimental determination of the tem- 
peratures of, 208. 


Wear, C. M. Palmer on the construction 
of ships and shipbuilding on the, 694. 

Wheatstone (Prof.), report on fog- 
signals, 105; report on standards of 
electrical resistance, 111. 

Whitworth (Joseph), report on the ap- 
plication of gun-cotton to warlike pur- 

oses, l. 

Williamson (Prof.), report on standards 
of electrical resistance, 111. 

Wright (Henry), fifth report on steam- 
ship performance, 339. 


Zine, report by T. Sopwith and T. Ri- 
chardson on the local manufacture of, 
715. 


PPD ALD PL LP PLP PPL PPP LILI PILI. 


INDEX I. 


TO 


MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE 
SECTIONS. 


[An asterisk (*) signifies that no abstract of the communication is given. | 


ABEL (Prof.) on some results of ex- 
erimentson lucifer matches and others 
ignited by friction, 32. 

Acarus of the Anodon, R. Garner on a 
parasitical, 114. 

*Africa, North, the Rev. H. B. Tristram 
on some elucidations of the geological 
history of, supplied by its lacustrine 
fauna, 107. 

‘Agricultural population of England, 
1851-61, Frederick Purdy on the de- 
crease of the, 156. 

Air-engines and an air-compressing ap- 
paratus, J. Jameson on, 173, 

“Air-pump, J. W. Swan on a mercurial, 26. 

‘Akin (Dr. C. K.), account of preliminary 

experiments on calcescence, 11. 

-Mbalio’ onthe oxidation of beta-hexylic, 
by Prof. Wanklyn, 57. 


Alder (Joshua), descriptions of new Bri- 
tish Polyzoa, with remarks on some 
imperfectly known species, 97. 

Alexander (Stephen) on the augmenta- 
tion of the apparent diameter of a body 
by its atmospheric refraction, 3. - 

Algebraical polynomials, J. J. Walker 
on the conditions of the resolvability 
of homogeneous, into factors, 3. 

Allenheads and other lead-veins of York- 
shire, Charles Moore on the organic 
contents of the lead-veins of, 83. 

Allhusen (Lieut.-Col. Henry C.) on the 
volunteer force ; its comparative cost, 
development, present state, and pro- 
spects, 150. 

Alluvial accumulation in the valleys of 
the Somme and Ouse, R. A. C. God- 
win-Austen on the, 68, 


198 


Aluminium, I. L. Bell on the manufac- 
ture of, 33. 

America, Central, Captain Pim on an 
interoceanic and international transit 
route through, 143, 

, North, J. A, Lapham on the great 
lakes of, 140. 

American nations, South, C. Carter Blake 
on some points in the cranioscopy of, 


*. 


Amiens, Henry Duckworth on a human 
cranium from, 136. 

Angus (T. C.), statistics. of the tanning 
trade of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 161. 
Animal life, A. R. Wallace on the geo- 

graphical distribution of, 108. 

Anodon, R. Garner on a parasitical aca- 
rus of the, 114. 

Ansted (Prof. D. T.) on the metamor- 
phic origin of the porphyritic rocks of 
Charnwood Forest, 64; on a deposit 
of sulphur in Corfu, 64; on some cu- 
riosities of physical geography in the 
Tonian Isles, 133. 

Anthropological classification, Dr. James 
Hunt on, 139. g 

Antimony, Thomas Richardson on the 
separation of lead and, 52. 

‘ Antiquity of Man,’ Sir Charles Lyell’s, 
John Crawfurd on, 136. 

Antizymotic agents, Dr. G. Robinson 
on the practicability of arresting the 
development of epidemic diseases by 
the internal use of, 119. 

Apes, anthropoid, C. Carter Blake on the 
syndactylous condition of the hand in 
the, 98. 

Argentine railway, W. Wheelwright on 
the Central, from Rosario to Cordova, 
148. 

Armies, English and French, Colonel 
Sykes on the comparison of the orga- 
nization and cost in detail of the, 162. 

Armour of steel or iron, corrugated, for 
ships of war, G. Bedford on, 182. 

Armour-plating for ships, Capt. Douglas 
Galton on, 173. 

Armstrong (Sir W. G.), description of the 
large gyroscope used by, in his inyes- 
tigations on rifled projectiles, by Prof. 
W. Pole, 177. 

Army in India, European, Dr. James 

~ Bird on the vital and sanitary statis- 
tics of our, 151. 

Atmosphere at a high elevation, Prof. C. 
Piazzi Smyth on a proof of the dioptric 
and actinic quality of the, 25. 

.——~, J. Samuelson on life in the, 123. 

Atmospheric railways, W. Smith on an 

'~ improved valve and apparatus for, 188, 


REPORT—1863, 


Atmospheric refraction, Stephen Alex- 
ander on the augmentation of the ap- 
parent diameter of a body by its, 3. 

*Attwood (C.) on some facts observed 
in Weardale, 64. 

Australia, T. Johnson’s account of the 
Sa to transport salmon to, 

*——, Rey. J. E, Wood on the rivers of 
the interior of, 148, ; 


Bainbridge (W.) on the Pennine fault in 
connexion with the voleanic rocks at 
the foot of Crossfell; and with the 
Tyndale fault, called “The Ninety- 
fathom Dyke,” 64. 

Baker (W.) on the impurities contained 
in lead, and their influence in its tech- 
nical uses, 32. 

Bala lake, Merionethshire, T. A. Read- 
win on the recent discovery of gold 
near, 86. 

Baifour (Professor), his address as pre- 
sident of Section D, 91; description of 
the fruit of Clerodendron Thomsonse 
(Balf.), from Old Calabar, 95. 

*Barometer, M. Naudet on a metallic or 
holosteric, 24. 

, the Abbé Jeannon’s free air, 24. 

, W. Symons on a new marine and 
mountain, 27. 

Barracks and other public buildings in 
India, Stewart Clark on the ventila- 
tion of, 111. 

Barrett (Lucas), Prof.T. R. Jones and W. 
K. Parker on some recent and fossil 
Foraminifera collected in Jamaica by 
the late, 80. 

Baryta, sulphate of, analysis of a deposit 
from a colliery water containing, by 
Thomas Richardson, 54. 

Basalts, Prof. J. Thomson on the origin 
of the jointed prismatic structure in, 
and other igneous rocks, 89. _ 

Bate (C. Spence) on a new species of 
Tone, 98. 

Bedford (George), description of corru- 
gated armour of steel or iron for ships 
of war, 182. 

Belcher (Admiral Sir E.) on a spirit- 
level telescope for observing altitudes 
and obtaining latitudes independently 
of natural or artificial horizons, 170; 
on an improved caisson gate, 170; ona 
mode of rendering timber-built ships 
impregnable and unsinkable under mo- 
len crew-power, as in leaky vessels, 


Bell (I. L.) on the manufacture of alu- 
minium, 32; of thallium, 34, ; 


5 


Brady 


INDEX II. 


*Bellingham, statistical account of the 
parish of, by W. H. Charlton, 153. 
Beta-hexylic alcohol, Prof. Wanklyn on 

the oxidation of, 57. 

Bewley (T.), description of a new plant- 
house, 99. 

Bird (Dr. James) on the yital and sani- 

_ tary statistics of our European army 

in India, compared with those of the 

' French army under like conditions of 
climate and locality, 151. 

Birds, Dr. John Davy on the eggs of, 
112. 

Birt (W. R.) on the selenographical re- 
lations between the chain of lunar 
mountains the Alps, with the Mare 
Imbrium and the Mare Frigoris, 3. 

*Biscuits, J. Robinson on an improyed 
manufacture of, 183. 

Blake (C. Carter) on the syndactylous 
condition of the hand in man and the 
anthropoid apes, 98; on some points 
in the cranioscopy of South American 
nations, 133, 

Blast-furnaces, Cleveland, J. Pattinson 
on a deposit in the gas-tubes of the, 
48 


Blood, observations on the, by Dr. John 
Davy, chiefly in relation to the ques- 
tion, Is ammonia one of its normal 
constituents ?, 112. 

Boats, George Fawcus on a new method 
of constructing, 172. 


Boilers, pipes, and cylinders of steam-en- 


gines, W. Smith on Mr. James Spence’s 
invention of a novel method of cover- 
ing, for the prevention of the radiation 
of heat, 187. 

Bonelli’s printing-telegraph, W. Cook 


- on, 18, 
Bothriolepis, G. E. Roberts on some re- 
mains of, 87. 


Bottles, D, Puseley on Thompson’s uni- 


- yersal stopper for, 180. 

Boyd (Edward F.) on “the Wash,” a 
remarkable denudation through a por- 
tion of the coal-field of Durham, 89. 


Bracebridge (C. H.) on the Coventry 


Freehold Land Society, 151. 

Brady (George S.) on the marine cyclo- 
poid Entomostraca (Calanide), with 
notices of some species new to Britain, 
99; on the zoology of Hylton Dene, 
near Sunderland, 100. 

enry B,) on Foraminifera new 

to the British fauna, 100. 


Bridge-foundations, T. Page on, 176, 


ritish fauna, Henry B. Brady on Fora- 


. -minifera new to the, 100. 
Brodie (Rey. James) on the. physical 


199 


condition of the earth in the earlier 
epochs of its history, 67. 

Browne (R.S.) on the relative distances 
of the planets from the sun, 5. 

Bryson (Alexander) on artificially pro- 
duced quartzites, 67. 

Bunning (T, W.) on the use of fuel in 
marine boilers, 53. 

Buys-Ballot (Prof.) on the system of 
forecasting the weather pursued in 
Holland, 20. 


Caisson gate, Admiral Sir E. Belcher on 
an improved, 170. 

Calcescence, Dr. C. K. Akin’s account of 
preliminary experiments on, 11. 

Calne, G. J. Symons on the experimental 
series of rain-gauges exeotad at, 26. 

Camps (Dr.) on the sanitary condition 
of the troops in India, 152. 

Canadian forests, Dr. Hulburt’s notes on, 


96. 

Carbon, Dr. T. L. Phipson on musical 
sounds produced by, 50. 

Carboniferous strata of Great Britain and 
Treland, Prof. T. Rupert Jones’s sy- 
nopsis of the bivalve Tntohanteans of 
the, 80. 

Caselli, on specimens of telegraphic fac- 
similes produced by his method, 20, , 

Casks, Robert Davison on improyements 
in machinery and apparatus for cleans- 
ing and purifying, 172. 

*“ Caution telegrams ” of Admiral Fitz- 
Roy, Dr. Moffat on the connexion that 
exists between, and the luminosity of 
phosphors 24. i 

me languages, R, S, Charnock on, 

34, : 
Tat John Crawfurd on the so-called, 
35. 

Celts, Northumbrian, Rev. G. R. Hall 
on the social life of the, 137. | 

Cereals, Robert Davison on the decorti- 
cation of, 171. a Ness 

Ceylon, Mutu Coomara Swamy on the 
ethnology of, 146. : 

*Charltor*(W. H.), statistical account 
of the parish of Bellingham, 152. _ . 

Chamoen (R. 8.) on Celtic languages, 

Charnwood Forest, Prof. Ansted on the 
metamorphic origin of the porphyritic 
rocks of, 64. 

Chevallier (Prof.) on an instrument for 
ascertaining the height of a cloud, 21. 

Chimpanzee, Dr. Embleton on certain 

‘parts of the anatomy of a young, 113. 

China, Captain Henderson on routes be- 
tween India and, 137. “4 


200 


Chloroform accidents, Dr. Charles Kidd 
on restoring patients in, 116. 

Chromatoscope, A. Claudet on the star, 5. 

Cist of the stone age, E. Roberts and 
Prof. Busk on the opening of a, near 
the coast of the Moray Firth, 146. 

Clapham (R. Calvert) on minerals and 
salts found in coal-pits, 37. 

Clark (Stewart) on the ventilation of 
barracks and other public buildings in 
India, 111. 

Claudet (A.) on the star chromatoscope, 
5; on some phenomena produced ‘ 
the refractive power of the eye, 11. 

Cleland (Dr.) on the ligamentous action 
of the long muscles in man and other 
animals, 111; on the change of atti- 
tude which takes place in infants be- 
ginning to walk, 112. 

Clerodendron Thomsone (Balf.) from 
Old Calabar, description of the fruit 
of, by Prof. Balfour, 95. 

Cleveland blast-furnaces, J. Pattinson on 
a deposit in the gas-tubes of the, 48. 
ironstone, J. Pattinson on zinc, 

nickel, and cobalt in the, 49. 

Cloud, Prof. Chevallier on an instru- 

ment for ascertaining the height of a, 


Coal-field, W. Matthias Dunn on the re- 
lations of the Cumberland, to the red 
sandstone, 68. 

of Durham, Nicholas Wood and 
Edward F. Boyd on “the Wash,” a 
remarkable denudation through a por- 
tion of the, 89, 

*Coal-measures of Sydney, Cape Breton, 
J. P. Lesley on the, 82. 

Coal-miners of Durham and Northum- 
berland, Dr. Wilson on the habits and 
diseases of the, 126. 

Coal-pits, R. C. Clapham and John Da- 
glish on minerals and salts found in, 37. 

Coal-plants from Nova Scotia, Dr. Daw- 

_ son on two new, 67, 

Coffin (Prof.) on the path of a meteoric 
fireball relatively to the earth’s sur- 
face, 21. 

Colliery water, Thomas Richardson’s 
analysis of a deposit from a, containing 
sulphate of baryta, 54. 

Colonial schools and hospitals, remarks 
on native, 155, 

Condy (H. B.) on disinfectants, 40. 

Cook (W.) on Bonelli’s printing-tele- 
graph, 18. 

Copper and its applications, M. Oudry 
on, 19. 


ea galvanic, the Abbé Moigno on, 


REPORT—1863. 


Corfu, Prof. D. T. Ansted on a deposit 
of sulphur in, 64, 

Coventry Freehold Land Society, C. H. 
Bracebridge on, 151. 

Cowen (Joseph) on fire-clay goods, 40. 

*Craft (Mr.) on a visit to Dahomey, 135. 

Cranial deformities, W. Turner on, 124. 

Cranioscopy of South American nations, 
C. Carter Blake on some points in the, 


Cranium, human, Henry Duckworth on 
a, from Amiens, 136. 

Crawfurd (John) on the so-called Celtic 
languages, in reference to the question 
of race, 135; on the origin of the gip- 
sies, 135; on the commixture of the 
races of man, as affecting the progress 
of civilization in Eastern Asia and the 
Malay and Polynesian Islands, 135; 
on Sir Charles Lyell’s ‘ Antiquity of 
Man,’ 136. 

Cribellites carbonarius from the moun- 
tain-limestone formation of Northum- 
berland, description of, by George 
Tate, 88. 

Criminals, Thomas Robins’s observations 
on, 166 

Crookes (W.) on the extraction of thal- 
lium on a large scale from the flue- 
dust of pyrites-burners, 41. 

Crossfell, W. Bainbridge on thePennine 
fault in connexion with the volcanic 
rocks at the foot of, 64. 

Curved lines, H. Schlagintweit on a new 
revolving scale for measuring, 25. 


Daglish (John) on minerals and salts 
found in coal-pits, 37. 

*Dahomey, Mr. Craft on a visit to, 135. 
Dale (Rey. T. P.) on specific refractive 
energy, 12. , 
*Dallas (Duncan C.) on photelectric en- 
graving, and observations upon sundry 
asin of photographic engraving, 

4 


Davies (J. Alexander) on the causes of 
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, 67. 

Davison (Robert) on the decortication 
of cereals, 171; on improvements in 
machinery and apparatus for cleansing 
and purifying casks, 172. 

Davy (Dr. John) on the slacking of 
quicklime, 43; observations on the 
eggs of birds, 112; on the colour of 
the salmon, 102; observations on the 
blood, chiefly in relation to the ques- 
tion, Is ammonia one of its normal 
constituents ?, 112. 

Dawes (Rev. W. R.), description of a 
solar eyepiece invented by, 6, 


INDEX II, 


Dawson (Dr.) on two new coal-plants 
from Nova Scotia, 67. 

*Devonshire, W. Pengelly on the chrono- 
logical value of the triassic rocks of, 85. 

Disinfectants, H. B. Condy on, 40. 

Distillation, Prof. Wanklyn on fractional, 
58. 

Dock-gates, R. A. Peacock on a new 
plan for hanging, 177. 

Dredging-cruise off Scarborough, J. Lec- 
kenby on a three-weeks’, 105. 

Drift-beds of Mundesley, Norfolk, Prof. 
Phillips on the, 85. 

es) persons, Dr. Charles Kidd on 
restoring, 116. 

Duckworth (Henry) on a human cra- 
nium from Amiens, 136; on the ana- 
tomical characters of the skull found 


by, 147. 

Dunn (W. Matthias) on the relations of 
the Cumberland coal-field to the red 
sandstone, 68. 

Durham, Dr. Wilson on the habits and 
diseases of the coal-miners of, 126. 

, coal-field of, Nicholas Wood and 

Edward F. Boyd on “the Wash,” a 

remarkable denudation through a por- 

tion of the, 89. 

, list of pheenogamous plants dis- 

covered in the 8.E. of, since 1829, by 

John Hogg, 96. 

University academical endowments, 

James Heywood on the opening and 

extension of, 154. 


Eagles, John Hogg on the Roman im- 
perial and crested, 104. 

Earth, Rev. James Brodie on the phy- 
sical condition of the, in the earlier 
epochs of its history, 67, 

Earth’s orbit and the moon’s mean mo- 
tion in longitude, Rev. Dr. E. Hincks 
on the relationship between the varia- 
tion of the excentricity of the, 6, 

surface, Prof. Coffin on the path 

of a meteoric fireball relatively to the, 


1. 
Earthenware, C. T. Maling on the ma- 
nufacture of, at Newcastle, 45. 
Earthquakes, J. Alexander Davies on 
the causes of, and volcanic eruptions, 


67. 

Effluvia, Dr. G. Robinson on the nature 
and varieties of organic, 120. 

Eggs of birds, Dr. John Davy on the, 
112. 

Electrometer at Kew, Prof. W. Thom- 
son on the result of reductions of 
curves obtained from the self-record- 
ing, 27. 


201 


Electromotive engine, W. Ladd on an, 19. 
Elephant and other mammalian remains 
in Oxfordshire, G. E. Roberts on the 

* discovery of, 87. 

Embleton (Dr.) on certain parts of the 
anatomy of a young chimpanzee, 113. 

Energy, Dr. J. H. Gladstone and Rey. 
T. P. Dale on specific refractive, 12. 

England, Frederick Purdy on the de- 
crease of the agricultural population 
of, in 1851-61, 156. 

*Eneraving, photelectric and photogra- 
phic, Duncan C. Dallas on, 42. 

Entomostraca, marine cyclopoid, George 
8. Brady on the, 99. 

of the carboniferous strata of Great 
Britain and Ireland, Prof. T. Rupert 
Jones’s synopsis of the bivalved, 80. 

Epidemic diseases, Dr. G. Robinson on 
the practicability of arresting the de- 
velopment of, by the internal use of 
antizymotic agents, 119. 

Epiglottis, Dr. George D. Gibb on the 
normal position of the, 114. 

*Ethndégraphical casts, Hermann Schla- 
gintweit on, 146. 

Ethnology of Ceylon, Mutu Coomara 
Swamy on the, 146, 

Eye, A. Claudet on some phenomena 
produced by the refractive power of 
the, 11. 

, Barnard S. Proctor on the focal 

adjustment of the, 16, 


Fallows (W.) on the origin of the Stock- 
ton and Darlington Railway, 153. 

Fauna, British, Henry B. Brady on Fora- 
minifera new to the, 100. 

——, Pacific, W. Harper Pease on the 
principal divisions of the, 101. 

Fawcus (George) on a new method of 
constructing boats, 172; on improyve- 
sy in waggons and gun-carriages, 

Fire-clay goods, Joseph Cowen on, 40. 

Fires, C. B. King on extinguishing, 174. 

Fishes, fossil, from the Permian lime- 
stone of Fulwell, near Sunderland, J. 
W. Kirkby on, 82. 

Fleming (Captain), journey from Tien- 
tsin (N. China) to the capital of Man- 
tchu Tartary, 136. 

on the ethnology of Eastern Man- 
tchuria, 136. 

Flint implements at St. Acheul, Prof. 
Phillips on the deposit of the gravel, 
sand, and loam with, 85: .°. 

Fogs, Dr. J. H. Gladstone on, 21. 


* 


‘Foraminifera, Prof. T. R. Jones and W. 


K, Parker on some fossil and recént, 


202 


collected in Jamaica by the late Lucas 
Barrett, 80, 105, 

Foriminifera new to the British fauna, 
Henry B. Brady on, 100. 

Fossil bivalve shells, H. Seeley on a help 
to the identification of, 87. 

Fossils at Uddevalla, in Sweden, J. G, 

- Jeffreys on the upper tertiary, 73. 

—— of the Skiddaw slates, Prof. Hark- 
ness on the, 69, 

Foster (G. C.) on the constitution and 

_ rational formula of narcotine, 46. 

Fuel, Thomas Richardson and T. W. 
Bunning on the use of, in marine 
boilers, 53. ! 


Galton (Captain Douglas) on armour- 

misting fon ships, 173, 

Garner (R.) on the reciprocal action be- 
tween plants and gases, 113; on a pa- 
rasitical acarus of the Anodon, 114. 

Gas-battery, W, Symons on a new form 
of, 56. 

Gas-furnace, G. Gore on a new, for melt- 
ing gold, &c., 45. . 

Gas-tubes, J. Pattinson on a deposit in 
the, of the Cleveland blast-furnaces, 48. 

Gases, R. Garner on the reciprocal action 
between plants and, 113. 

or vapours, John White on the 
means of passing unharmed through 
noxious, 125, 

Gateshead, John Lamb on the reduction 
of the death-rate in, by sanitary mea- 
sures, 156. 

Geinitz (Dr.) on a salamander in the 
Rothliegendes, 68, 

Geography,physical, Prof. Ansted onsome 
curiosities of, in the Ionian Isles, 133. 

Gibb (Dr. George D.) on the normal po- 
sition of the epiglottis, 114; on vo- 
luntary closure of the glottis, indepen- 
dently of the act of breathing, 115, 

Gipsies, John Crawfurd on the origin of 
the, 135. 

Gladstone (Dr. J. H.) on specific refrac- 
tive energy, 12; on fogs, 21. 

Glass, R. W. Swinbourne on, 55. 

Glass-engraving by hydrofluoric acid, 
M. L. Kessler on, 44, 

Glottis, Dr. George D. Gibb on volun- 
tary closure of the, independently of 

_. the act of breathing, 115, 

Godwin-Austen (R. A. C.) on the allu- 

- yial accumulation in the valleys of the 
Somme and Ouse, 68. 

Gold, &c., G, Gore on a new gas-furnace 
for mals AS. 

——, T. A, Readwin on the recent dis- 

_ coyery of, near Bala lake, 86, 


REPORT—1863. 


Gore (G.) on a new gas-furnace for 
melting gold, &e., 43. 

Grant (J. A.) on the discovery of the 
sources of the Nile, 136. 

Greenstones, Prof. Harkness on the horn- 
blendic, and their relations to the me- 
tamorphic and Silurian rocks of the 
county of Tyrone, 70. 

Gun-carriages, George Faweus on im- 
provements in, 172. 

Gyroscope, Prof, W. Pole’s description 
of the large, used by Sir W. Armstrong 
in his investigations on rifled projec- 
tiles, 177, 


Hall (Rey. G, R.) on the aboriginal oc- 
cupation of North Tynedale and 
Western Northumberland, 137. 

*Hancock (A.) on the renal organ (the 
so-called water-system) in the nudi- 
branchiate mollusks, 116, 

Hancock (Dr.) on the difference between 
the Irish and English poor-law, 153. 
Hand, C, Carter Blake on the syndacty- 
lous condition of the, in man and the 

anthropoid apes, 98. 

Harkness (Prof.) on the fossils of the 
Skiddaw slates, 69; on the reptilife- 
rous and footprint sandstones of the 
N.E. of Scotland, 69; on the horn- 
blendic greenstones, and their relations 
to the metamorphic and Silurian rocks 
of the county of Tyrone, 70; observa- 
tions upon the Permian group of the 
N.W. of England, 83. 

Heat, J. J. Murphy on the distribution 
of, on the sun’s surface, and the cur- 
rents in its atmosphere, 9. 

Henderson ( roms on routes between 
India and China, 137, 

*Heuglin (Baron yon) on his exploration 
of certain affluents of the Nile, 138. _ 

Heywood (James) on the opening and 
extension of Durham University aca- 
demical endowments, 154; remarks 
on native colonial schools and hospi- 
tals, from the sanitary statistics of the 
aborigines of British colonies, collected 
by Miss Nightingale, 155. 

Hincks (Rey. Dr. E.) on the relationship 
between the variation of the excentri- 
city of the earth’s orbit and the moon’s 
mean motion in longitude, 6. ; 

Hodge (George), list of the British Pyc- 
nogonoidea, with descriptions of several 
new species, 102. : 

Hogg (John) on the fossil teeth of a 
horse found in the red clay at Stockton, 
70; on proliferous cones of the com- 
mon larch, 95; list of rarer pheenoga- 


INDEX lf. 


“mous plants discovered in the 8.E. of 

_ Durham since 1829, 96; on the Roman 

imperial and crested eagles, 104; on 
some old maps of Africa, placing the 
central equatorial lakes (especially 
Nyanza and Tanganyika) nearly in 
their true positions, 138. 

Holl (Dr. Harvey B,) on the metamor- 
phic rocks of the Malvern Hills, 70. 
Holland, Prof. Buys-Ballot on the system 

a forecasting the weather pursued in, 


Holothuriade, Rev. A. M. Norman on 
ni with reference to new species, 
106. 

Horse, John Hogg on the fossil teeth of 
a, found in the red clay at Stockton, 70. 

Hownes Gill to Cross Fell, T, Sopwith 
on a section of the strata from, 88. 

Hughes (D, E.) on a printing-telegraph, 

8 


Hulburt (Dr.) on the hydrography of the 
St. Lawrence and the great lakes, 73; 
notes on Canadian forests, 96. 

Hunt (Dr. James) on anthropological 

_ classification, 139; on the physical 

. oa mental characters of the negro, 
140. 

Hydrofluoric acid, L. Kessler on glass- 

_ engraving by, 44. 

Hydrography, Dr. Hulburt on the, of the 
St. feores and the great lakes, 73. 

Hylton Dene, near Sunderland, George 
8. Brady on the zoology of, 100, 


India, Stewart Clark on the ventilation 
of barracks and other public buildings 

SoJm,.111, : 

, Dr. James Bird on the vital and 

sanitary statistics of our European 

army in, 151. 

, Dr. Camps on the sanitary condi- 

_ tion of the troops in, 152. 

—— and China, Capteint Henderson on 

_ routes between, 137. 

Indicator for steam-engines, C. T. Porter 

- on Richards’s, 178. 

Infants, Dr. Cleland on the change of 
attitude which takes place in, when 

. beginning to walk, 112. 

Instinctive actions, Dr. W. Murray on 

. the investigation of, 119. ‘ 

Tone, C. Spence Bate on a new species 


_ of, 98. 

Tonian Isles, Prof. Ansted on some curio- 
sities of physical geography in the, 
133. 

Ireland, J. B. Jukes on certain markings 

- on some of the bones of a Megaceros 
hibernicus lately found in, 81. 


203 


Tron, Dr, Riley on titanium in, 55. 

Tron shipbuilding, R, Taylorson on the 
diagonal principle of, 189. [ 

Tronstone, Cleveland, J. Pattinson on 
zinc, nickel, and cobalt in the, 49. 

, Cleveland, in the west of England, 

Charles Moore on the equivalents of 

the. 83, 


Jamaica, Prof. T. R. Jones and W. K. 
Parker on some recent and fossil Fora- 
minifera collected in, by the late Lucas 
Barrett, 80. 

Jameson (J.) on air-engines and an-air- 
compressing apparatus, 173. 

Jeffreys (J. Gwyn) on the upper tertiary 
fossils at Uddevalla, in Sweden, 73. 
Johnson (T.), an account of the attempts 

to transport salmon to Australia, 105. 

Jones (Prof. T. Rupert), notes on some 
fossil and recent Foraminifera collected 
in Jamaica by the late Lucas Barrett, 
80, 105 ; a synopsis of the bivalye En- 
tomostraca of the carboniferous strata 
of Great Britain and Ireland, 80. 

Jukes (J. — on certain markings on 
some of the bones of a Megaceros hi- 
bernicus lately found in Ireland, 81. 

*Junod (Dr.) on the physiological effect 
produced by apparatus contrived for 
the purpose of causing a vacuum upon 
the entire body, or a part thereof, 116, 


Kessler (L.) on the commercial advan- 
tages of a new carbonate of soda, 
43; on glass-engraying by hydrofluoric 
acid, 44; on a new system of evapo- 
rating liquids, 44, 

Kidd (Dr. Charles) on restoring drowned 
persons, patients in chloroform acci- 
dents, &c., 116, 

*Kilgour (H.), Are nitrogen and carbonic 
oxide (the oxide of carbon) in different 
allotropic or isomeric states ?, 45. 

King (C. B.) on extinguishing fires, 174. 

King (Prof. W.) on the Neanderthal 
skull, or reasons for believing it to be- 
long to the Clydian period, and to a 
species different from that represented 
by man, 81. i 

Kirkby (J. W.), synopsis of the bivalved 
Entomostraca of the carboniferous 
strata of Great Britain and Ireland, 
80; on some fossil fishes from the 
Permian limestone of Fulwell, near 
Sunderland, 82. 


Labouring classes, Dr. E. Smith on the 
-- dietaries of the, 123. 
Lacustrine human habitations in Wig- 


204: 


* tonshire, Lord Lovaine on the recent 
discovery of, 141. 

Ladd (W.) on a new form of syren, 14; 
on an acoustic telegraph, 19; on an 
electromotive engine, 19. 

*Lakes of North America, J. A. Lapham 
on some facts respecting the, 140. 

Lamb (John) on the reduction of the 
death-rate in Gateshead by sanitary 
measures, 156. 

Lancashire, F. Purdy on the mortality of, 
during the year ended midsummer 
1863, 159. 

operatives, Dr. E. Smith on the 
dietary of the, 123. 

Land Society, Coventry Freehold, C. H. 
Bracebridge on the, 151. 

Languages, R. 8. Charnockon Celtic, 134. 

, John Crawfurd on the so-called 
Celtic, 135, 

*Lapham (J. A.), some facts respecting 
the great lakes of North America, 140. 

Larch, common, John Hogg on prolife- 
rous cones of the, 95, 

Larve of Microlepidoptera, H. T. Stain- 
ton on the generic characters furnished 
by the different modes of mining leaves 
adopted by the, 106. 

Lead, W. Baker on the impurities con- 
tained in, and their influence in its 
technical uses, 32, 

, Dr. Zenner on impurities in, 58. 

veins of Allenheads, and other lead- 

veins of Yorkshire, Charles Moore on 

the organic contents of the, 83. 

and antimony, Thomas Richardson 
on the separation of, 52. 

Leaves, Dr. Maxwell T. Masters on cer- 
tain influences regulating the forms 
of, 97. 

Leckenby (J.) on a three-weeks’ dredg- 
ing-cruise off Scarborough, 105, 

Lee (Dr.) on the lunar “ Mare Smythii,” 
the walled plain “ Rosse,” the “ Percy 
Mountains,” and the newly named cra- 
ters, “Phillips,” “ Wrottesley,” “Che- 
vallier,” and “ Piazzi Smyth,” 7. 

Lee (John) on the manufacture of the 
prussiate of potash, 51. 

Lee (R.) on the extinction of races, 140. 

*Lesley (J. P.) on the coal-measures of 
Sydney, Cape Breton, 82. 

eae. New Zealand, Dr. Murray 
er on the composition of some, 


Lime, Dr. John Davy on the slacking of, 
3. 


Limestone, Permian, of Fulwell, near 
Sunderland, J. W. Kirkby on some 
fossil fishes from the, 82. 


| 


REPORT—1863. 


Limestone formation of Northumberland, 
George Tate’s description of a sea- 
star, Cribellites carbonarius, from the, 
88. 

Liquids, L. Kessler on a new system of, 
A4 


Lovyaine (Lord) on the recent discovery 
of lacustrine human habitations in 
Wigtonshire, 141. 

— (KE. J.) on ozone and ozone-tests, 

2. 

Lucifer matches and others ignited by 
friction, Prof. Abel on some results of 
experiments on, 32. 

Lunar mountains the Alps, W. R. Birt 
on the selenographical relations be- 
tween the chain of with the Mare Im- 
brium and the Mare Frigoris, 3. 

Lyell, Sir Charles, a few notes on his 
‘ Antiquity of Man,’ by John Craw- 
furd, 136. 


M‘Farlane Gray (J.) on portable machi- 
nery for riveting, &c., invented by, 
184. 

Machinery, portable, for riveting, chip- 
ping, &e., invented by Mr. J. M‘Far- 
ane Gray, 184. 

Magnetographs, B. Stewart on the com- 
parison of the curves afforded by self- 
recording, at Kew and Lisbon, for July 
1863, 25. 

Main (D. D.) on the Newcastle and 
Gateshead Waterworks, 175. 

Malay Archipelago, Alfred R. Wallace 
on the physical geography of the, 107; 
on the varieties of men in the, 147. 

Maling (C, T.) on the manufacture of 
earthenware at Newcastle, 45 

Malvern Hills, Dr. H. B. Holl on the 
metamorphic rocks of the, 70. 


| Mammalia, Dr. Rolleston on the condi- 


tion of the uterus after delivery in cer- 
tain of the, 122. 
Man, C. Carter Blake on the syndacty- 
lous condition of the hand in, 98. 
and other animals, Dr. Cleland on 
the ligamentous action of the long 
muscles in, 111. 
, John Crawfurd on the commixture 
of the races of, as affecting the pro- 
ess of civilization in KE. Asia and the 
Talay and Polynesian Islands, 135. 
*Mantchuria, Capt. Fleming on the eth- 
nology of eastern, 136. 
*Marganza, the Rey. J. L, Proctor on 
the, 146. 
Marine boilers, Thomas Richardson and 
< W. Bunning on the use of fuel in, 
3. 


a 


INDEX. II. 


Marley (John) on the discovery of rock- 
salt in the new red sandstone at Mid- 
dlesborough, 82. 

*Marsham (Hon. R.) on two ascents of 
the volcano of Misti, 143. 

Masters (Dr. Maxwell T.) on certain in- 
fluences regulating the forms of leaves, 
&e., 97. 

Mathematical symbols, W. H. L. Rus- 
sell on a certain class of, 1. 

Matthiessen (Dr. A.) on the constitu- 
tion and rational formula of narcotine, 
46. 

Megaceros hibernicus, J. B. Jukes on 
certain markings on some of the bones 
of a, lately found in Ireland, 81. 

Men, Alfred R. Wallace on the varieties 
of, in the Malay Archipelago, 147. 

Mercurial air-pump, J. W. Swan on a, 
26. 


Meteoric fireball, Prof. Coffin on the path 
of a, relatively to the earth’s surface, 
21 


*Meteorological observations recorded at 
Huggate, Yorkshire, by Rev. T. Ran- 
kin, 25. 

Miani (Signor) on his travels towards 
the sources of the Nile, 143. 

Mica-schist and slate, H. C. Sorby on 
models illustrating contortions in, 88. 

Microlepidoptera, H. T. Stainton on the 

eneric characters furnished bythe dif- 
ferent modes of mining leaves adopted 
by the larve of, 106. 

Micrometer, H. Soleil on a new, 15. 

Middlesborough, John Marley on the 
discovery of rock-salt in the new red 
sandstone at, 82. 

Minerals, R. C. Clapham and John Da- 
glish on, found in coal-pits, 37. 

Miniature, H. Swan on a new kind of, 
possessing apparent solidity by means 
of a combination of prisms, 17. 

*Misti, volcano of, the Hon. R. Marsham 
on two ascents of the, 143. 

*Moffat (Dr.) on the connexion that 
exists between Admiral FitzRoy’s 
“caution telegrams” and the lumi- 
nosity of phosphorus, 24, 

Moigno (the Abbé), M. Soleil’s tenebro- 
scope for illustrating the invisibility 
of light, exhibited and described by, 
14; on afree air barometer and ther- 
mometer by the Abbé Jeannon, 24; 
¥*on galvanic copper, photolithography, 
and photomicroscopic specimens, 48 ; 
on Caselli’s autotelegraph, 176; on 
Bourdon and Saleron’s ‘“injecteur pour 
les corps solides,” 176; on M. Peri- 
gault de Rennes’ “yentilateur a réac- 


205 


tion,” 176; on M. Seiler’s “ balance 
aérostatique,” 176. 

Molecular motion, Dr. Zenner on impu- 
rities in lead and, 58. 

*Mollusks, nudibranchiate, A. Hancock 
on the renal organ in the, 116. 

Moon, Prof. Phillips’s researches on the, 
9 


Moon’s mean motion in longitude, Rey. 
Dr. E. Hincks on the relationship be- 
tween the variation of the excentricity 
of the-earth’s orbit and the, 6. 

Moore (Charles) on the equivalents of 
the Cleveland ironstones in the West 
of England, 83; on the organic con- 
tents of the lead-veins of Allenheads 
and other lead-veins of Yorkshire, 
83. 

Moray Firth, E. Roberts and Prof. Busk 
on the opening of a cist of the Stone 
age near the coast of the, 146. 

Mortality of Lancashire, &c., F. Purdy 
on the, during the year ended at mid- 
summer 1863, 159. 

Mundesley, Norfolk, Prof, Phillips on the 
drift-beds of, 85. 

Murchison (Sir R. I.), observations upon 
the Permian group of the N.W. of 
Kngland, 83; his address as president 
of Section EH, 126. 

Murphy (J. J.) on the distribution of 
heat on the sun’s surface, and the cur- 
rents in its atmosphere, 9, 

Murray (Dr. W.) on the investigation of 
instinctive actions, 119 

Musical sounds produced by carbon, Dr. 
T. L. Phipson on, 50. 


Narcotine, Dr. A. Matthiessen and G. C. 
Foster on the constitution and rational 
formula of, 46. 

*Naudet (M.) on a metallic or holosteric 
barometer, 24. 

Neanderthal skull, Prof. W. King on the, 
81. 

Negro, Dr. James Hunt on the physical 
and mental characters of the, 140. 

Newton (A.) on the irruption of Syr- 
rhaptes paradoxus, 105, 

New Zealand lignites, Dr. Murray 
Thomson on the composition of some, 
56. 

Nightingale (Miss), on native colonial 
schools and hospitals, from the sani- 
tary statistics of the aborigines of Bri- 
tish colonies, collected by, 155. 

*Nile, Baron yon Heuglin on his explo- 
ration of certain affluents of the, 138; 
J.A.Grant on the discovery of the 
sources of the, 157; Signor Miani on 


206 
«his travels towards the sources of the, 


143. 

Norman (Rev. Alfred Merle) on British 
Pome re with reference to new 
-species, 106; on the morphology of 
the Ophiuroidea, 106. 

Northumberland, Dr. Wilson on the 
habits and diseases of the coal-miners 
» of, 126; George Tate’s description of a 

: ~ sea-star, Cribellites carbonarius, from 


_ the mountain-limestone formation of, 
88. 


and Durham, W. H. Richardson on 

the paper-manufactures of, 183. 

elts, Rev. G. R. Hall on the social 

- life of the, 137. 

Nova Scotia, Dr. Dawson on two new 
coal-plants from, 67. 

*Nudibranchiate mollusks, A. Hancock 
on the renal organ in the, 116, 


Old Calabar, Prof. Thomson’s description 
of the fruit of Clerodendron Thom- 
sone (Balf.) from, 95. 

Ophiuroidea, the Rey. Alfred Merle 
Norman on the morphology of the, 
106. 

Ordnance, G. Richards on rifled, 182. 

*Orlmeys, G. Petrie on the antiquities of 
the, 143. 

Oudry (M.) on Pomme copper and its 
of oe 

ordshire, G. E. Roberts on the dis- 
covery of elephant and other mamma- 
lian remains in, 87. 

*Oxide of carbon in different allotropic 
or isomeric states ?, are nitrogen and 
carbonic oxide the, by H. Kilgour, 
45. 

Ozone and ozone-tests, EH. J. Lowe on, 
22; Dr. T. Wood on oxidation by, 
58. 


Pacific fauna, W. Harper Pease on the 
principal divisions 0 the, 101. 

Page (T.) on bridge-foundations, 176. 

*Palearctic region, the Rev. H. B. Tris- 
tram on certain facts on the variation 
of species, which ee to Western 
Asia as the centre of creation for the, 
107. 

Paper-manufactures of Northumberland 
and Durham, W. H. Richardson on 
the, 183. 

Paris improvements and their cost, W. 
Tite on the, 168. 

Parker (W. K.), notes on some fossil and 


recent Foraminifera collected in Ja- | 


maica by the late Lucas Barrett, 80, 
105, 


REPORT—18638. 


Pattinson (J.) on a deposit in the gas- 
tubes of the Glavelaaitt blast-furnaces, 
48 ; on zinc, nickel, and cobalt in the 
Cleveland ironstone, 49; on the va- 
rious kinds of pyrites used on theT Q 
and neighbourhood in the manutac- 
ture of sulphuric acid, 49. 

Peach (C. W.) on the occurrence of the 
sperm-whale (Physeter Spay ag 
lus) near Wick, N. B., 106 

Peacock (R. A.) on anew plan for hang- 
ing dock- fo ates, 177. 

Pease (W. Harper) on the principal di- 
visions of the Pacific fauna, 101. 

*Pelly (Colonel) on the tribes, ‘pede, 
and resources around the shore-line of 
the Persian Gulf, 143. 

*Pengelly (W.) on the chrondlogieal 
value of the triassic rocks of Deyon- 
shire, 85. 

Pennine fault, W. Bainbridge on the, in 
connexion with the volcanic rocks at 
the foot of Crossfell, 64. 

Permian group of the N.W. of England, 
Sir R. I. Murchison and Prof. R. 
Harlmess upon the, 83. 

*Persian Gulf, Colonel Pelly on the 
tribes, trade, and resources around the 
shore-line of the, 143. 

Perspective, or homography, Prof. Syl- 
vester on the quantity and centre of 
gravity of figures given in, 2. 

*Petrie (G.) on the antiquities of the 
Orkneys, 143. 

Pheenogamous plants, list of rarer, dis- 
covered in the S.E. of Durham since 
1829, ie gr Hoge, 96. 

Phillips (Prof.), researches on the moon, 
9; on the drift-beds of Mundesley, 
Norfolk, 85; on the deposit of the 
gravel, sand, and loam, with flint im- 
plements, at St. Acheul, 85. 

Phipson (Dr. T. L.) on a new method of 
measuring the chemical action of the 
sun’s rays, 50; on musical sounds 
produced by carbon, 50; on the con- 
stant increase of organic matter in 
cultivated soils, 51. 

*Photelectric engraving, Duncan C, Dal- 
las on, 42. 

*Ph *hotolithogr aphy, the Abbé Moigno on, 


“Phoomierse ic specimens, the Abbé 
Moigno on, 4 

*Phosphorus, Dr. Moffat on the con- 
nexion that exists between Admiral 


FitzRoy’s “caution telegrams” and 
the luminosity of, 24. 
Physeter macrocephalus C.W. Peach on 


the occurrence of, near Wick, N.B.,106. 


INDEX II, 


Pim (Captain Bedford) on an inter- 
oceanic and international transit-route 
through Central America, 143 ; on his 
projected transit-route through Cen- 
tral America, by E. Salmon, 183. 

Planetary configurations, B. Stewart on 
oa ara and their connexion with, 

Planets, R. 8. Browne on the relative 
distances of the, from the sun, 5. 

Plant-house, description of a new, by 
T. Bewley, 95. 

Plants and gases, R. Garner on the reci- 
procal action between, 118. 

ae (Prof.) on spectral analysis, 

5 


Pole (Prof. W.), description of the large 

oscope used by Sir W. Armstrong 

in his investigations on rifled projec- 
tiles, 177. 

Polynomials, J. J. Walker on the con- 
ditions of the resolvability of homo- 
geneous algebraical, into factors, 3. 

Polyzoa, Joshua Alder on new British, 
97. 


Poor-law, Dr. Hancock on the difference 
between the Irish and English, 153. 
Porter(C. T.) on Richards’s indicator for 

steam-engines, 178. 

Potash, John Lee and Thomas Richard- 
son on the manufacture of the prus- 
siate of, 51. 

Printing-telegraph, Bonelli’s, W. Cook 
on, 18; D. E. Hughes on a, 18. 

Prisms, H. Swan on a new kind of mi- 
niature, possessing apparent solidity 
by means of a combination of, 17. 

Proctor (Barnard S.) on the focal ad- 
justment of the eye, 16. 

"Proctor (Rey, J. L.) on the Marganza, 

Purdy (Frederick) on the decrease of 
the agricultural population of Eng- 
land, 1851-61, 156; on the mortality 
of Lancashire, &c., during the year 
ended at midsummer 1863, 159. 

*Puseley (D.) on Thompson’s universal 
stopper for bottles, 180. 

Pyenogonoidea, list of the British, by 
George Hodge, 102. 

Pyrites, J. Pattinson on the various 
kinds of, used on the Tyne and neigh- 
bourhood in the manufacture of sul- 
phuric acid, 49. 

Pyrites-burners, W. Crookes on the ex- 
traction of thallium on a large scale 
from the flue-dust of, 41. 


Quartzites, Alexander Bryson on artifi- 
cially produced, 67. 


207 


Races, R. Lee on the extinction of, 140. 

Railway, W. Fallows on the origin of 
the Stockton and Darlington, 153. 

Railways, W. Smith on animproved valve 
and apparatus for eee: eric, 188. 

Rain-gauges erected at Calne, G. J. Sy- 
mons on the experimental series of, 
26. 

*Rankin (Rev. Thomas), meteorologi- 
cal observations recorded at Huggate, 
Yorkshire, 25. 

Rankine (Prof. W. J. M.), his address 
as president of Section A, 1; an inves- 
tigation on plane water-lines, 180. 

Reali (T. A.) on the recent disco- 
very of gold near Bala lake, Merio- 
nethshire, 86. 

Refraction, atmospheric, Stephen Alex- 
ander on the augmentation of the ap- 
parent diameter of a body by its, 3. 

Richards (G.) on rifled ordnance, 182. 

Richards’s indicator for steam-engines, 
C. T. Porter on, 178. 

Richardson (Thomas) on the manufac- 
ture of the prussiate of potash, 51; 
on the separation of lead and anti- 
mony, 52; on the use of fuel in ma- 
rine boilers, 53; analysis of a deposit 
from a colliery water containing sul- 
phate of baryta, 54. 

Richardson ea . H.) on the paper-manu- 
factures of Northumberland and Dur- 
ham, 183. 

Richter (Dr. Otto) on the chemical and 
physical principles in connexion with 
the specific gravity of liquid and solid 
substances, 54. 

Rifled ordnance, G. Richards on, 182. 

Riley (Dr.) on titanium in iron, 59. 

Riveting, W. Smith on portable ma- 
chinery for, invented by J. M‘Farlane 
Gray, 184. 

Roberts (G. E.) on some remains of 
Bothriolepis, 87; on the discovery of 
elephant and other mammalian re- 
mains in Oxfordshire, 87; on the 
opening of a cist of the Stone age near 
the coast of the Moray Firth, 146. 

Robins (Thomas), observations on cri- 
minals, 166. 

Robinson (Dr. G.) on the practicability 
of arresting the development of epi- 
demic disease by the internal use of 
antizymotic agents, 119; on the na- 
i and varieties of organic effluvia, 
120. 

*Robinson (J.) on an improved manu- 
facture of biscuits, 183. 

Rocks, Dr. Harvey B. Holl on the meta- 
morphic, of the Malvern Hills, 70, 


208 


Rocks of Charnwood Forest, Prof. D. T. 
Ansted on the metamorphic origin of 
the porphyritic, 64. 

, on the Pennine fault in connexion 

with the volcanic, at the foot of Cross- 

fell, by W. Bainbridge, 64. 

, Prof. J. Thomson on the origin of 

the jointed prismatic structure in ba- 

salts and other igneous, 89. 

, Silurian, of the county of Tyrone, 

Prof. Harkness on the hornblendic 

greenstones, and their relations to the 

metamorphic and, 70. 


—, triassic, of Devonshire, W. Pen- | 


gelly on the chronological value of the, | 


Rock-salt in the new red sandstone at 
Middlesborough, John Marley on the, 


82. 

Rolleston (Dr.), his address as president 
of Subsection D, 109 ; on the condition 
of the uterus after delivery in certain 
of the mammalia, 122. 

Rose (C. W.) on a monstrosity in a 
whiting, 106. 

Rothliegendes, Dr. Geinitz on a sala- 
mander in the, 68. 

*Runic inscriptions in St. Molio’s Cave, 
Prof. D. Wilson on the discovery of 
three additional, 148. 

Russell (W. H. L.) on a certain class of 
mathematical symbols, 1. 


St. Acheul, Prof. Phillips on the deposit 
of the gravel, sand, and loam with 
flint implements at, 85. 

St. Lawrence and the great lakes, Dr. 
Hulburt on the hydrography of the, 73. 

Salamander in the Rothliegendes, Dr. 
Geinitz on a, 68. 

Salmon, T. Johnson’s account of the at- 
tempts to transport, to Australia, 105. 

, Dr. John Davy on the colour of 
the, 102. 

Salmon (E.) on Capt. Pim’s projected 
transit-route through Central Ame- 
rica, 183. 

Salts, R. C. Clapham and John Daglish 
on minerals and, found in coal-pits, 37. 

Samuelson (J.) on life in the atmo- 
sphere, 123. 

Sandstone, red, W. Matthias Dunn on 
the relations of the Cumberland coal- 
field to the, 68. 

Sandstones, Prof. Harlmess on the repti- 
liferous and footprint-, of the N.E. of 
Scotland, 69. 

Scarborough, J. Leckenby on a three- 
weeks’ dredgine-cruise off, 105. 


Schlagintweit (H.) on a new revolving | 


REPORT—1863. 


scale for measuring curved lines, 25; 
on ethnographical casts, 146. 

Scotland, Prof. Harkness on the reptili- 
ferous and footprint-sandstones of the 
N.E. of, 69. 

Seeley (I1.) on a help to the identifica- 
tion of fossil bivalve shell, 87. 

Shells, H. Seeley on a help to the iden- 
tification of fossil bivalve, 87. 

Shipbuilding, iron, R. Taylorson on the 
diagonal principle of, 189. 

Ships, Captain Douglas Galton on ar- 
mour-plating for, 173. 

, timber-built, Admiral Sir E. Belcher 
on a mode of rendering, impregnable 
and unsinkable under moderate crew- 
power, as in leaky vessels, 171. 

Ships’ bottoms, Dr. White on the pre- 
vention of fouling, 189. 

Ships of war, George Bedford on cor- 
mugpted armour of steel or iron for, 

82. 

Skiddaw slates, Prof. Harlmess on the 
fossils of the, 69. 

vee Prof. King on the Neanderthal, 

hy 


, W. Turner on the anatomical cha- 
racters of the, found by Mr. Duck- 
worth, 147. 

scaphocephalic, W. Turmer on the, 


, 

124. 

Slate, H. C. Sorby on models illustrating 
contortions in mica-schist and, 88. 

Smith (Dr, E.) on the dietaries of the 
labouring classes, 123; on the dietary 
of the Lancashire operatives, 123. 

Smith (W.) on portable machinery or 
apparatus for riveting, chipping, &c., 
184 ; on a novel arrangement of direct- 
acting steam-engines, 186; on a novel 
method of covering boilers, pipes, and 
cylinders of steam-engines for prevent- 
ing the radiation of heat, 187; on an 
improved valve and appa for at- 
mospheric railways, 188. 

Smyth (Prof. Piazzi) on the changing 
colour of the star 95 Herculis, 10; on 
a proof of the dioptric and actinic 
quality of the atmosphere at a high 
elevation, 25. 

Smyth (Warington Wy his address as 
president of Section C, 59. 

Soda, L. Kessler on the commercial ad- 
vantages of a new carbonate of, 43. 
Soils, Dr. T. L. Phipson on the constant 

increase of organic matter in cultivated, 


Solar eyepiece invented by the Rey. W. 
R. Dawes, description of a, 6. 
Soleil (H.) on a new micrometer, 15, 


INDEX Il. 


209 


Soleil’s (H.) tenebroscope, for illus- | Sun, R. S. Browne on the relative dis- 


trating the invisibility of light, ex- 
hibited and described by the Abbé 
Moigno, 14. 

Somme and Ouse, R. A. C. Godwin- 
Austen on the alluvial. accumulation 
in the valleys of the, 68. 

Sopwith (T.) on a section of the strata 
rom Hownes Gill to Cross Fell, 88. 


Sorby (H. C.) on models illustrating | 


contortions in mica-schist and slate, 
88. 

Specific gravity of liquid and solid sub- 
stances, Dr. Otto Richter on the che- 
mical and physical principles in con- 
nexion with the, 54. 

Spectral analysis, Prof. Pliicker on, 
15. 


Spence (James), novel method of cover- 


ing boilers, pipes, and cylinders of | 


steam-engines for preventing the ra- 
diation of heat, 187. 

Sperm whale, C. W. Peach on the oc- 
currence of the, near Wick, N. B., 106. 

Stainton (H. T.) on the generic charac- 
ters furnished by the different modes 
of mining leaves adopted by the larvee 
of Microlepidoptera, 106. 

Star chromatoscope, A. Claudet on the, 5. 

Star 95 Herculis, Prof. Piazzi Smyth on 
the changing of colour of the, 10. 

Steam-engines, C.'l. Porter on Richards’s 
indicator for, 178. 

—, W. Smith on a novel arrangement 
of direct-acting, 186 ;. on a novel me- 
thod of covering boilers, pipes, and 
cylinders of, for preventing the radia- 
tion of heat, 187. 

Steam-hammers, John Sturgeon on self- 
acting valve-motion for, 189. 

Steel or iron for ships of war, description 
of corrugated, by George Bedford, 182. 

Stewart (Balfour) on sun-spots and their 
ccnnexion with planetary configura- 
tions, 11; on the comparison of the 
curves afforded by self-recording mag- 
netographs at Kewand Lisbon, for July 
1863, 25. 

Stockton, John Hogg on the fossil teeth 
of a horse found in the red clay at, 70. 

*Sturgeon (John) on self-acting valve- 
motion for steam-hammers, 189. 

Substances, Dr. Otto Richter on the 
chemical and physical principles in 
connexion with the specific gravity of 
liquid and solid, 54. 

Sulphur, Prof. D. T. Ansted on a de- 

osit of, in Corfu, 64. 

ts) ee acid, T. Tate on the elasticity 
of the vapour of, 17. 

186 


tances of the planets from the, 5. 

Sun-spots and their connexion with pla- 
netary configurations, B. Stewart on, 11. 

Sun’s rays, Dr. T. L. Phipson on a new 
method of measuring the chemical ac- 
tion of the, 50. 

Sun’s surface, and the currents in its 
atmosphere, J. J. Murphy on the dis- 
tribution of heat on the, 9. 

Swamy (Mutu Coomara) on the ethno-— 
logy of Ceylon, referring especially to 
itsSingalese and Tamilinhabitants, 146, 

Swan (H.) on a new kind of miniature 
possessing apparent solidity by means 
of a combination of prisms, 17. 

Swan (J. W.) on amercurial air-pump, 26. 

Swinbourne (R. W.) on glass, 55. 

Sykes (Colonel), comparison of the or- 
ganization and cost in detail of the 
English and French armies for 1863- 
64, 163. 

Sylvester (Prof.) on the quantity and 
centre of gravity of figures given in 
perspective, or homography, 2. 

Symbols, mathematical, W. H. L. Rus- 
sell on a certain class of, 1. 

Symons (G. J.), description of the ex- 
perimental seriesjofrain-guages erected 

_at Calne, 26. 

Symons (W.) on a new marine and 
mountain barometer, 27; on a maxi- 
mum thermometer with a new index, 
27; on a new form of gas-battery, 56. 

Syren, W. Ladd on a new form of, 14. 

Syrrhaptes paradoxus, A. Newton on the 
ruption of, 105. 


Tanning trade of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 
T.C. Angus on the statistics of the, 161. 

Tate (George) description of a sea-star, 
Cribellites carbonarius, from the moun- 
tain-limestone formation of Northum- 
berland, with a notice of its association 
with carboniferous plants, 88. 

Tate (T.) on the elasticity of the vapour 
of sulphuric acid, 17. 

Taylorson (R.) on the diagonal principle 
of iron shipbuilding, 189. 

Telegraph, D. E. Hughes on a printing, 18. 

, W. Cook on Bonelli’s printing, 18. 

Telegraphic facsimiles produced by Ca- 
selli’s method, 20. 

Telescope, spirit-level, Admiral Sir E. 
Belcher on a, for observing altitudes 
and obtaining latitudes independently 
of natural or artificial horizons, 170. 

Tenebroscope, M. Soleil’s, exhibited and 
described by the Abbé Moigno, 14. 

Thallium, J. L, Bell on, 34. 

14 


210 


Thallium, W. Crookes on the extraction 
of, fromthe flue-dust of pyrites-burners, 
41, 


Thermometer, the Abbé Jeannon’s free 
air, 24, 

, W. Symons ona maximum, with a 
new index, 27. 

Thomson (Prof. J.) on the origin of the 
jointed prismatic structure in basalts 
and other igneous rocks, 89. 

Thomson (Dr. Murray) on the composi- 
tion of some New Zealand lignites, 56. 

Thomson (Prof. W.) on the result of re- 
ductions of curves obtained from the 
self-recording electrometer at Kew, 27. 

Tientsin, Capt. G. Fleming on a journey 
from, to the capital of Mantchu Tar- 
tary, 136. 

Titanium in iron, Dr. Riley on, 55. 

Tite (William), his address as president 
of Section F, 149, 

— on the Paris improvements and 
their cost, 168. 

*Tristram (Rey. H. B.) on some elucida- 
tions of the geological history of North 
Africa, supplied by its lacustrine fauna, 
107; on certain facts on the variation 
of species, which point to West Asia 
as the centre of creation for the pale- 
arctic region, 107 

Troops in India, Dr. Camps on the sani- 
tary condition of the, 152. 

Turner (William) on cranial deformities, 
more especially on the scaphocephalic 
skull, 124; on the anatomical cha- 
racter of the skull found by Mr. Duck- 
worth, 147. 

Tyne and neighbourhood, J. Pattinson 
on the various kinds of pyrites used 
on the, in the manufacture of sulphuric 
acid, 49. 

Tyne water, analysis of, 176. 

Tyrone, Prof. Harkness on the horn- 
blendic greenstones and their relations 
to the metamorphic and Silurian rocks 
of the county of, 70. 


Uddevalla, in Sweden, J. Gwyn Jeffreys 
on the upper tertiary fossils at, 75. 
Uterus, Dr. Rolleston on the condition 
of the, after delivery in certain of the 

mammalia, 122. 


*Vill (M. G.), définer par la végétation 
l'état moléculaire des corps; analyser 
la force végétale par des essais rai- 
sonnés de culture, 57. 

Volcanic eruptions, J. Alexander Davies 
on the causes of earthquakes and, 67. 

*Volcano of Misti, on two ascents of the, 
by the Hon. R. Marsham, 143. 


REPORT—1863. 


Volunteer force, Lieut.-Col. Henry 0: 
Allhusen on the, 150, 


Waggons, George Fawcus on improye- 
ments in, 172. 

Walker (J. J.) on the condition of the 
resolvability of homogeneous algebra- 
ical polynomials into factors, 8. ; 

Wallace (Alfred R.) on the physical 
geography of the Malay Archipelago, 
107; on the geographical distr bution 
of animal life, 108; on the varieties of 
men in the Malay Archipelago, 147. 

Wanklyn (Prof.) on fractional distilla- 
tion, 57; on the oxidation of beta- 
hexylic alcohol, 57. 

Water-lines, Prof. W. J. M. Rankine’s 
investigation on plane, 180. 

Waterworks, D. D. Main on the New- 
castle and Gateshead, 175. 

*Weardale, C. Attwood on some facts 
observed in, 64, 

Weather, Prof. Buys-Ballot on the sys- 
tem of forecasting the, pursued in 
Holland, 20, 

Wheelwright (W.) on the Central Ar- 
entine railway from Rosario to Cor- 
ova, and across the Cordillera of the 

Andes, 148, ( 

White (Dr.) on the prevention of foul- 
ing of ships’ bottoms, 189. 

White (John) on the means of passing 
unharmed through noxious gases or 
vapours, 125. : 

Whiting, C. W. Rose on a monstrosity 
in a, 106. 

Wigtonshire, Lord Lovaine on the recent 
discovery of lacustrine human habita- 
tions in, 141. 

Williamson (Prof. A. W.), address as 

reins of Section B, 28. 
ilson (Dr.) on the coal-miners of Dur- 
ham and Northumberland, their habits 
and diseases, 126. 

*Wilson (Prof. D.) on the discovery of 
three additional Runic inscriptions in 
St. Molio’s Cave, Holy Island, Argyle- 
shire, 148, 

Wood (Rey. J. E.) on the rivers of the 
interior of Australia, 148. 

Wood (Nicholas) on “ the Wash,” a re= 
markable denudation through a por- 
tion of the coal-field of Durham, 89. 

bey (Dr. T.) on oxidation by ozone, 


Zenner (Dr.) on impurities in lead, and 
molecular motion, 58. 

Zine, nickel, and cobalt in the Cleve- 
land ironstone, J. Pattinson on, 49. 


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of the Science of Radiant Heat ;—Prof. Cumming, on Thermo-Electricity ;—Sir D. Brewster, 
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212 


PROCEEDINGS or rHzE FOURTH MEETING, at Edinburgh, 1834, 
Published at 15s. 


Contents :—H. G. Rogers, on the Geology of North America ;—Dr. C. Henry, on the 
Laws of Contagion ;—Prof. Clark, on Animal Physiology ;—Rev. L. Jenyns, on Zoology ;— 
Rev. J. Challis, on Capillary Attraction ;—Prof. Lloyd, on Physical Optics ;—G. Rennie, on 
Hydraulics, Part II. 

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PROCEEDINGS or tue FIFTH MEETING, at Dublin, 1835, Pub- 
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ConTENTS :—Rey. W. Whewell, on the Recent Progress and Present Condition of the 
Mathematical Theories of Electricity, Magnetism, and Heat;— A. Quetelet, Apercu de 
l’Etat actuel des Sciences Mathématiques chez les Belges;—Capt. E. Sabine, on the Phe- 
nomena of Terrestrial Magnetism. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Sir W. Hamilton’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue SIXTH MEETING, at Bristol, 1836, Pub- 
lished at 12s. 


ConTENTs :—Prof. Daubeny, on the Present State of our Knowledge with respect to Mine- 
ral and Thermal Waters ;—Major E. Sabine, on the Direction and Intensity of the Terrestrial 
Magnetic Force in Scotland ;—J. Richardson, on North American Zoology ;—Rev. J. Challis, 
on the Mathematical Theory of Fluids;—J. T. Mackay, a Comparative View of the more 
remarkable Plants which characterize the neighbourhood of Dublin and Edinburgh, and the 
South-west of Scotland, &c.;—J. T. Mackay, Comparative Geographical Notices of the 
more remarkable Plants which characterize Scotland and Ireland ;—Report of the London Sub- 
Committee of the Medical Section on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;—Second Report 
of the Dublin Sub-Committee on the Motiuns and Sounds of the Heart ;—Report of the Dublin 
Committee on the Pathology of the Brain and Nervous System;—J. W. Lubbock, Account 
of the Recent Discussions of Observations of the Tides ;—Rev. B. Powell, on determining the 
Refractive Indices for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in various media;—Dr. Hodgkin, 
on the Communication between the Arteries and Absorbents ;—Prof. Phillips, Report of Experi- 
ments on Subterranean Temperature ;—Prof. Hamilton, on the Validity of a Method recently 
proposed by G. B. Jerrard, for Transforming and Resolving Equations of Elevated Degrees. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Daubeny’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or true SEVENTH MEETING, at Liverpool, 1837, 
Published at 16s. 6d. 


ConTENTS :—Major E. Sabine, on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at dif- 
ferent points of the Earth’s Surface ;—Rev. W. Taylor, on the various modes of Printing for 
the Use of the Blind;—J. W. Lubbock, on the Discussions of Observations of the Tides ;— 
Prof. T. Thomson, on the Difference between the Composition of Cast Iron produced by the 
Cold and Hot Blast ;—Rev. T. R. Robinson, on the Determination of the Constant of Nutation 
by the Greenwich Observations ;—R. W. Fox, Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic 
Veins, and the Temperature of Mines ;—Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical 
Section of the British Association, appointed to investigate the Composition of Secretions, and 
the Organs producing them ;—Dr. G. O. Rees, Report from the Committee for inquiring into 
the Analysis of the Glands, &c. of the Human Body ;—Second Report of the London Sub-Com- 
mittee of the British Association Medical Section, on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;— 
Prof. Johnston, on the Present State of our Knowledge in regard to Dimorphous Bodies ;— 
Lt.-Col. Sykes, on the Statistics of the Four Collectorates of Dukhun, under the British Go- 
vernment ;—E. Hodgkinson, on the relative Strength and other Mechanical Properties of Iron 
obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Strength and other Properties 
of Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast ;—Sir J. Robison, and J. S. Russell, Report of 
the Committee on Waves ;—Note by Major Sabine, being an Appendix to his Report on the 
Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at different Points of the Earth’s Surface ;— 
J. Yates, on the Growth of Plants under Glass, and without any free communication with the 
outward Air, on the Plan of Mr. N. J. Ward, of London. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Traill’s Address and Recommenda- 
tions of the Association and its Committees, 


213 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe EIGHTH MEETING, at Newcastle, 1838, 
Published at 15s. 


ConTENTS:—Rev. W. Whewell, Account of a Level Line, measured from the Bristol Chan- 
nel to the English Channel, by Mr. Bunt;—Report on the Discussions of Tides, prepared 
under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell;—W. S. Harris, Account of the Progress and 
State of the Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Major E. Sabine, on the Magnetic 
Isoclinal and Isodynamic Lines in the British Islands ;—D. Lardner, LL.D., on the Determi- 
nation of the Mean Numerical Values of Railway Constants;—R. Mallet, First Report upon 
Experiments upon the Action of Sea and River Water upon Cast and Wrought Iron ;—R. 
Mallet, on the Action of a Heat of 212° Fahr., when long continued, on Inorganic and Organic 
Substances. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe NINTH MEETING, at Birmingham, 1839, 
Published at 13s. 6d. 


Conrents :—Rev. B. Powell, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Refractive 
Indices, for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in different media ;—Report on the Ap- 
plication of the Sum assigned for Tide Calculations to Rev. W. Whewell, in a Letter from T. G. 
Bunt, Esq. ;—H. L. Pattinson, on some Galvanic Experiments to determine the Existence or 
Non-Existence of Electrical Currents among Stratified Rocks, particularly those of the Moun- 
tain Limestone formation, constituting the Lead Measures of Alton Moor ;—Sir D. Brewster, 
Reports respecting the two series of Hourly Meteorological Observations kept in Scotland ;— 
Report on the subject of a series of Resolutions adopted by the British Association at their 
Meeting in August 1838, at Newcastle ;—R. Owen, Report on British Fossil Reptiles ;—E. 
Forbes, Report on the Distribution of Pulmoniferous Mollusca in the British Isles;—W. S. 
Harris, Third Report on the Progress of the Hourly Meteorological Register at Plymouth 
Dockyard. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe TENTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 1840, 
Published at 15s. 


ConTENnts :—Rev. B. Powell, Report on the recent Progress of discovery relative to Radiant 
Heat, supplementary to a former Keport on the same subject inserted in the first volume of the 
Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of Science ;—J. D. Forbes, Supple- 
mentary Report on Meteorology ;—W. S. Harris, Report on Prof. Whewell’s Anemometer, 
now in operation at Plymouth ;—Report on ‘‘ The Motion and Sounds of the Heart,” by the 
London Committee of the British Association, for 1839-40 ;—Prof. Schénbein, an Account of 
Researches in Electro-Chemistry ;—R. Mallet, Second Report upon the Action of Air and 
Water, whether fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at various temperatures, upon Cast Iron, 
Wrought Iron and Steel ;—R. W. Fox, Report on some Observations on Subterranean Tem- 
perature ;—A. F. Osler, Report on the Observations recorded during the years 1837, 1838, 1839, 
and 1840, by the Self-registering Anemometer erected at the Philosophical Institution, Bir- 
mingham ;—Sir D. Brewster, Report respecting the two Series of Hourly Meteorological Ob- 
servations kept at Inverness and Kingussie, from Nov. Ist, 1838 to Nov. Ist, 1839 ;—W. 
Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Vertebrata ;—C. J. B. Williams, M.D., 
Report of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs and Air-Tubes ;—Kev. J. S. Henslow, 
Report of the Committee on the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison and Major E, Sabine’s 
Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHE ELEVENTH MEETING, at Plymouth, 
1841, Published at 13s. 6d. 


Contents :—Rev. P. Kelland, on the Present state of our Theoretical and Experimental 
Knowledge of the Laws of Conduction of Heat ;—G. L. Roupell, M.D., Report on Poisons ;— 
T. G. Bunt, Report on Discussions of Bristol Tides, under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell; 
—D. Ross, Report on the Discussions of Leith Tide Observations, under the direction of the 
Rev. W. Whewell ;—W. S. Harris, upon the working of Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymouth 
during the past year ;—Report of a Committee appointed for the purpose of superintend- 
ing the scientific cooperation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Obsere 
vations in Terrestrial Magnetism and Meteorology ;—Reports of Committees appointed to pro- 
vide Meteorological Instruments for the use of M. Agassiz and Mr, M‘Cord ;—Report of a Com- 


214 


mittee to superintend the reduction of Meteorological Observations ;—Report of a Com- 
mittee for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Report of a Committee for obtaining In- 
struments and Registers to record Shocks and Karthquakes in Scotland and Ireland ;—Report of 
a Committee on the Preservation of Vegetative Powers in Seeds ;—Dr. Hodgkin, on Inquiries 
into the Races of Man ;—Report of the Committee appointed to report how far the Desiderata 
in our knowledge of the Condition of the Upper Strata of the Atmosphere may be supplied by 
means of Ascents in Balloons or otherwise, to ascertain the probable expense of such Experi- 
ments, and to draw up Directions for Observers in such circumstances ;—R. Owen, Report 
on British Fossil Reptiles ;—Reports on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway 
Constants ;—D. Lardner, LL.D., Second and concluding Report on the Determination of the 
Mean Value of Railway Constants ;—E. Woods, Report on Railway Constants 3—Report of a 
Committee on the Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-Engines. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Whewell’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue TWELFTH MEETING, at Manchester, 
1842, Published at 10s. 6d. 


ConTENTS :—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the cooperation of the British 
Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;— 
J. Richardson, M.D., Report on the present State of the Ichthyology of New Zealand ;— 
W.S. Harris, Report on the Progress of Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Second 
Report of a Committee appointed to make Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds; 
—C, Vignoles, Report of the Committee on Railway Sections ;—Report of the Committee 
for the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances ;—Lyon Playfair, M.D., Abstract 
of Prof. Liebig’s Report on Organic Chemistry applied to Physiology and Pathology ;—~ 
R. Owen, Report on the British Fossil Mammalia, Part I.;—R. Hunt, Researches on the 
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and'the Growth of Plants ;—L.- Agassiz, Report 
on the Fossil Fishes of the Devonian System or Old Red Sandstone ;—W., Fairbairn, Ap- 
pendix to a Report on the Strength and other Properties of Cast Iron obtained from the Hot 
and Cold Blast ;—D. Milne, Report of the Committee for Registering Shocks of Earthquakes 
in Great Britain ;—Report of a Committee on the construction of a Constant Indicator for 
Steam-Engines, and for the determination of the Velocity of the Piston of the Self-acting En- 
gine at different periods of the Stroke ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Committee on the Form of 
Ships ;—Report of a Committee appointed “to consider of the Rules by which the Nomencla- 
ture of Zoology may be established on a uniform and permanent basis ;’’——Report of a Com- 
mittee on the Vital Statistics of large Towns in Scotland ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices 
of Progress in special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Francis Egerton’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTEENTH MEETING, at Cork, 
1843, Published at 12s. 


ConTENTS :—Robert Mallet, Third Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether 
fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at Various Temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and 
Steel ;—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the cooperation of the British As- 
sociation in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Sir 
J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., Report of the Committee appointed for the Reduction of Meteoro- 
logical Observations;—Report of the Committee appointed for Experiments on Steam- 
Engines ;—Report of the Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality 
of Seeds ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Series of Observations on the Tides of the Frith of 
Forth and the East Coast of Scotland ;—J.S. Russell, Notice of a Report of the Committee 
on the Form of Ships;—J. Blake, Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines;—Report 
of the Committee on Zoological Nomenclature ;—Report of the Committee for Registering 
the Shocks of Earthquakes, and making such Meteorological Observations as may appear to 
them desirable ;—Report of the Committee for conducting Experiments with Captive Balloons; 
—Prof. Wheatstone, Appendix to the Report ;—Report of the Committee for the Translation 
and Publication of Foreign Scientific; Memoirs ;—C. W. Peach, on the Habits of the Marine 
Testacea ;—E, Forbes, Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the AXgean Sea, and on their 
‘distribution, considered as bearing on Geology ;—L. Agassiz, Synoptical Table of British 
Fossil Fishes, arranged in the order of the Geological Formations ;—R. Owen, Report on the 
‘British Fossil Mammalia, Part II. ;—E. W. Binney, Report on the excavation made at the 
junction of the Lower New Red Sandstone with the Coal Measures at Collyhurst ;—W. 


215 


Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Invertebrata ;—Provisional Reports, and 
Notices of Progress in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Earl of Rosse’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHE FOURTEENTH MEETING, at York, 1844, 
Published at £1. 


ConTENTS :—W. B. Carpenter, on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—J. Alder and A. 
Hancock, Report on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca ;—R. Hunt, Researches on the 
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;—Report of a 
Committee appointed by the British Association in 1840, for revising the Nomenclature of the 
Stars ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on the Meteorology of Toronto in Canada ;—J. Blackwall, Report 
on some recent researches into the Structure, Functions, and Ciconomy of the Araneidea 
made in Great Britain ;—Earl of Rosse, on the Construction of large Reflecting Telescopes ; 
—Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on a Gas-furnace for Experiments on Vitrifaction and other 
Applications of High Heat in the Laboratory ;—Report of the Committee for Registering 
Earthquake Shocks in Scotland ;—Report of a Committee for Experiments on Steam-Engines; 
—Report of the Committee to investigate the Varieties of the Human Race ;—Fourth Report 
of a Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds ;—W. Fair- 
bairn, on the Consumption of Fuel and the Prevention of Smoke ;—F. Ronalds, Report con- 
cerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew ;—Sixth Report of the Committee 
appointed to conduct the Cooperation of the British Association in the System of Simulta- 
neous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Prof. Forchhammer on the influence 
of Fucoidal Plants upon the Formations of the Earth, on Metamorphism in general, and par- 
ticularly the Metamorphosis of the Scandinavian Alum Slate ;—H. E, Strickland, Report on 
the recent Progress and Present State of Ornithology ;—T. Oldham, Report of Committee 
appointed to conduct Observations on Subterranean Temperature in Ireland ;—Prof. Owen, 
Report on the Extinct Mammals of Australia, with descriptions of certain Fossils indicative 
of the former existence in that continent of large Marsupial Representatives of the Order 
Pachydermata ;—W. S. Harris, Report on the working of Whewell and Osler’s Anemometers 
at Plymouth, for the years 1841, 1842, 1843 ;—W. R. Birt, Report on Atmospheric Waves ; 
—L. Agassiz, Rapport sur les Poissons Fossiles-de l’Argile de Londres, with translation ;—J. 
§. Russell, Report on Waves ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Re- 
searches entrusted to Committees and Individuals. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dean of Ely’s Address, and Recommenda- 
tions of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe FIFTEENTH MEETING, at Cambridge, 
1845, Published at 12s. 


Contents :—Seventh Report of a Committee appointed to conduct the Cooperation of the 
British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observa- 
tions ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on some points in the Meteorology of Bombay ;—J. Blake, Report 
on the Physiological Actions of Medicines ;—Dr. Von Boguslawski, on the Comet of 1843; 
—R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—Prof. Schonbein, on Ozone ;—Prof, Erman, on 
the Influence of Friction upon Thermo-Electricity;—Baron Senftenberg, on the Self- 
Registering Meteorological Instruments employed in the Observatory at Senftenberg ;— 
W. R. Birt, Second Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress and Pre- 
sent Extent of Savings’ Banks in the United Kingdom ;—Prof. Bunsen and Dr, Playfair, 
Report on the Gases evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the Theory of Smelting 
of Iron ;—Dr. Richardson, Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan ;— 
Report of the Committee on the Registration of Periodical Phenomena of Animals and Vege- 
tables ;—Fifth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Appendix, &c. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir J. F. W. Herschel’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe SIXTEENTH MEETING, at Southampton, 
1846, Published at 15s. 


ContENts:—G. G. Stokes, Report on Recent Researches in Hydrodynamics ;—Sixth 
Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. Schunck on the Colouring Matters of 
Madder ;—J. Blake, on the Physiological Action of Medicines;—R. Hunt, Report on the Ac- 
tinograph ;—R. Hunt, Notices on the Influence of Light on the Growth of Plants ;—R. L. 
Ellis, on the Recent Progress of Analysis ;—Prof. Forchhammer, on Comparative. Analytical 


216 


Researches on Sea Water ;—A. Erman, on the Calculation of the Gaussian Constants for 
1829:—G. R. Porter, on the Progress, present Amount, and probable future Condition of the 
Iron Manufacture in Great Britain ;—W. R. Birt, Third Report on Atmospheric Waves ;— 
Prof. Owen, Report on the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton ;— 
J. Phillips, on Anemometry ;—J. Percy, M.D., Report on the Crystalline Flags ;—Addenda 
to Mr. Birt’s Report on Atmospheric Waves. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir R. I. Murchison’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue SEVENTEENTH MEETING, at Oxford, 
1847, Published at 18s. 


ConTENTs :—Prof. Langberg, on the Specific Gravity of Sulphuric Acid at different de- 
grees of dilution, and on the relation which exists between the Development of Heat and the 
coincident contraction of Volume in Sulphuric Acid when mixed with Water ;—R. Hunt, 
Researches on the Influence of the Solar Rays on the Growth of Plants ;—R. Mallet, on 
the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Prof. Nilsson, on the Primitive Inhabitants of Scan- 
dinavia;—W. Hopkins, Report on the Geological Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes; 
—Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Report on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—Rev. W. Whewell and 
Sir James C. Ross, Report upon the Recommendation of an Expedition for the purpose of 
completing our knowledge of the Tides ;—Dr. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—Seventh Re- 
port of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. Glynn, on the Turbine or Horizontal 
Water-Wheel of France and Germany ;—Dr. R. G. Latham, on the present state and recent 
progress of Ethnographical Philology ;—Dr. J. C. Prichard, on the various methods of Research 
which contribute to the Advancement of Ethnology, and of the relations of that Science to 
other branches of Knowledge ;—Dr. C. C. J. Bunsen, on the results of the recent Egyptian 
researches in reference to Asiatic and African Ethnology, and the Classification of Languages ; 
—Dr. C. Meyer, on the Importance of the Study of the Celtic Language as exhibited by the 
Modern Celtic Dialects still extant ;—Dr. Max Miiller, on the Relation of the Bengali to the 
Arian and Aboriginal Languages of India;—W. R. Birt, Fourth Report on Atmospheric 
Waves ;—Prof. W. H. Dove, Temperature Tables, with Introductory Remarks by Lieut.-Col. 
E. Sabine ;—A. Erman and H. Petersen, Third Report on the Calculation of the Gaussian Con- 
stants for 1829. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Robert Harry Inglis’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue EIGHTEENTH MEETING, at Swansea, 
1848, Published at 9s. 


ContTENTs :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;— 
J. Glynn on Water-pressure Engines ;—R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns ;—Eighth 
Report of Committee on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—W. R. Birt, Fifth Report on At- 
mospheric Waves ;—E. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—J. P. Budd, on the advantageous use 
made of the gaseous escape from the Blast Furnaces at the Ystalyfera Iron Works;—R. Hunt, 
Report of progress in the investigation of the Action of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of 
Plants allied to those of the Coal Formations ;—Prof. H. W. Dove, Supplement to the Tem- 
perature Tables printed in the Report of the British Association for 1847 ;—Remarks by Prof. 
Dove on his recently constructed Maps of the Monthly Isothermal Lines of the Globe, and on 
some of the principal Conclusions in regard to Climatology deducible from them; with an in- 
troductory Notice by Lt.-Col. E. Sabine ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the progress of the investigation 
on the Influence of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Ferns ;—J. Phillips, Notice of further 
progress in Anemometrical Researches ;—Mr. Mallet’s Letter to the Assistant-General Secre- 
tary ;—A. Erman, Second Report on the Gaussian Constants ;—Report of a Committee 
relative to the expediency of recommending the continuance of the Toronto Magnetical and 
Meteorological Observatory until December 1850. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Marquis of Northampton’s Address, 
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tur NINETEENTH MEETING, at Birmingham, 
1849, Published at 10s. 


ConTENTs :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Earl 
of Rosse, Notice of Nebulz lately observed in the Six-feet Reflector ;—Prof. Daubeny, on the 
Influence of Carbonic Acid Gas on the health of Plants, especially of those allied to the Fossil 
Remains found in the Coal Formation ;—Dr. Andrews, Report on the Heat of Combination ; 
—Report of the Committee on the Registration of the Periodic Phenomena of Plants and 


217 


Animals;—Ninth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ; 
—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the] Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from 
Aug. 9, 1848 to Sept. 12, 1849 ;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experimental Inquiry on Railway 
Bar Corrosion;—W. R. Birt, Report on the Discussion of the Electrical Observations at Kew. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. T. R. Robinson’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTIETH MEETING, at Edinburgh, 
1850, Published at 15s. 

ConTEnTs :—R. Mallet, First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Reyv. Prof. 
Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Dr. T. Williams, on the Structure and 
History of the British Annelida;—T. C. Hunt, Results of Meteorological Observations taken 
at St. Michael’s from the Ist of January, 1840 to the 31st of December, 1849 ;—R. Hunt, on 
the present State of our Knowledge of the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Tenth 
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Major-Gen. 
Briggs, Report on the Aboriginal Tribes of India ;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Ob- 
servatory of the British Association at Kew ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Investigation of British 
Marine Zoology by means of the Dredge ;—R. MacAndrew, Notes on the Distribution and 
Range in depth of Mollusca and other Marine Animals, observed on the coasts of Spain, Por- 
tugal, Barbary, Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849 ;—Prof. Allman, on the Present State of 
our Knowledge ot' the Freshwater Polyzoa ;—Registration of the Periodical Phenomena of 
Plants and Animals ;—Suggestions to Astronomers for the Observation of the Total Eclipse 
of the Sun on July 28, 1851]. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir David Brewster’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTY-FIRST MEETING, at Ipswich, 
1851, Published at 16s. 6d. 


ConTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Eleventh Re- 
port of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. J. Drew, on 
the Climate of Southampton ;—Dr. R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns: Action of 
Porous Strata, Water and Organic Matter ;—Report of the Committee appointed to consider 
the probable Effects in an Economical and Physical Point of View of the Destruction of Tro- 
pical Forests ;—A. Henfrey, on the Reproduction and supposed Existence of Sexual Organs 
in the Higher Cryptogamous Plants;—Dr. Daubeny, on the Nomenclature of Organic Com- 
pounds ;—Rev. Dr. Donaldson, on two unsolved Problems in Indo-German Philology ;— 
Dr. T. Williams, Report on the British Annelida;—R. Mallet, Second Report on the Facts of 
Earthquake Phenomena ;—Letter from Prof. Henry to Col. Sabine, on the System of Meteoro- 
logical Observations proposed to be established in the United States ;—Col. Sabine, Report 
on the Kew Magnetographs ;—J. Welsh, Report on the Performance of his three Magneto- 
graphs during the Experimental Trial at the Kew Observatory ;—F. Ronalds, Report concern- 
ing the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from September 12, 1850 to July 31, 
1851 ;—Ordnance Survey of Scotland. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Airy’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or tHE TWENTY-SECOND MEETING, at Belfast, 
1852, Published at 15s. 


ConTENTS :—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Twelfth 
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev. Prof, 
Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1851-52 ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the In- 
fluence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants;—A Manual of Ethnological 
Inquiry ;—Col. Sykes, Mean Temperature of the Day, and Monthly Fall of Rain at 127 Sta- 
tions under the Bengal Presidency ;—Prof. J. D. Forbes, on Experiments on the Laws of the 
Conduction of Heat;—R. Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Dr. Hodges, 
on the Composition and CEconomy of the Flax Plant;—W. Thompson, on the Freshwater 
Fishes of Ulster; —W. Thompson, Supplementary Report on the Fauna of Ireland;—W. Wilts, 
onthe Meteorology of Birmingham;—J. Thomson, on the Vortex- Water- Wheel ;—J. B. Lawes 
and Dr. Gilbert, on the Composition of Foods in relation to Respiration and the Feeding of 
Animals. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Colonel Sabine’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


218 


PROCEEDINGS or tHE TWENTY-THIRD MEETING, at Hull, 
1853, Published at 10s. 6d. 


ConTENTs :—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1852-53; 
—James Oldham, on the Physical Features of the Humber ;—James Oldham, on the Rise, 
Progress, and Present Position of Steam Navigation in Hull;—William Fairbairn, Experi- 
mental Researches to determine the Strength of Locomotive Boilers, and the causes which 
lead to Explosion ;—J. J. Sylvester, Provisional Report on the Theory of Determinants ;— 
Professor Hodges, M.D., Report on the Gases evolved in Steeping Flax, and on the Composition 
and GEconomy of the Flax Plant ;—Thirteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the 
Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Robert Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations; 
—John P. Bell, M.D., Observations on the Character and Measurements of Degradation of the 
Yorkshire Coast; First Report of Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Sur- 
face, as compared with that of the Earth;—R. Mallet, Provisional Report on Earthquake 
Wave-Transits; and on Seismometrical Instruments ;—William Fairbairn, on the Mechanical 
Properties of Metals as derived from repeated Meltings, exhibiting the maximum point of 
strength and the causes of deterioration ;—Robert Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earth- 
quake Phenomena (continued). 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Hopkins’s Address, and Recommenda- 
tions of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Liver- 
pool, 1854, Published at 18s. 


. ContENTS:—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena (continued) ; 
—Major-General Chesney, on the Construction and General Use of Efficient Life-Boats ;~—Rev. 
Prof. Powell, Third Report on the present State of our Knowledge of Radiant Heat ;—Colonel 
Sabine, on some of the results obtained at the British Colonial Magnetic Observatories ;— 
Colonel Porflock, Report of the Committee on Earthquakes, with their proceedings respecting 
Seismometers ;—Dr. Gladstone, om the influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers 
of Plants, Part 2;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1853-54 ; 
—Second Report of the Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Surface ;—W. G. 
Armstrong, on the Application of Water~Pressure Machinery ;—J. B. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert, 
on the Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food ;—Archibald Smith, on the Deviations of the 
Compass in Wooden and Iron Ships ;—Fourteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on 
the Growth and Vitality of Seeds. 

. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Earl of Harrowby’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tuE TWENTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 
1855, Published at 15s. 


ConTENTS :—T. Dobson, Report on the Relation between Explosions in Coal-Mines and 
Revolving Storms;—Dr. Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers 
of Plants growing under different Atmospheric Conditions, Part 3;—C. Spence Bate, on the 
British Edriophthalma ;—J. F. Bateman, on the present state of our knowledge on the Supply 
of Water to Towns ;—Fifteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and 
Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report cn Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1854-55 ; 
—Report of Committee appointed to inquire into the best means of ascertaining those pro- 
perties of Metals and effects of various modes of treating them which are of importance to the 
durability and efficiency of Artillery ;—Rev. Prof. Henslow, Report on Typical Objects in 
Natural History ;—A.- Follett Osler, Account of the Self-Registering Anemometer and Rain- 
Gauge at the Liverpool Observatory ;—Provisional Reports. 

' Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Duke of Argyll’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Chel- 
tenham, 1856, Published at 18s. 


Contents :—Report from the Committee appointed to investigate and report upon the 
effects produced upon the Channels of the Mersey by the alterations which within the Jast 
fifty years have been made in its Banks; J. Thomson, Interim Report on progress in Re- 
searches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;—Dredging Report, Frith of Clyde, 
1856 ;—Rev. B. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1855-1856 ;—Prof, 
Bunsen and Dr. H. E. Roscoe, Photochemical Researches ;—Rev. James Booth, on the Trigo- 


219 


niometry of the Parabola, and the Geometrical Origin of Logarithms ;—R. MacAndrew, Report 
on the Marine Testaceous Mollusca of the North-east Atlantic and Neighbouring Seas, and 
the physical conditions affecting their development ;—P. P. Carpenter, Report on the present 
state of our knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North America ;— 
T. C. Eyton, Abstract of First Report on the Oyster Beds and Oysters of the British Shores; 
—Prof. Phillips, Report on Cleavage and Foliation in Rocks, and on the Theoretical Expla- 
nations of these Phenomena: Part I. ;--Dr. T. Wright on the Stratigraphical Distribution of 
the Oolitic Echinodermata ;—W., Fairbairn, on the Tensile Strength of Wrought Iron at various 
Temperatures ;—C. Atherton, on Mercantile Steam Transport Economy ;—J. S. Bowerbank, on 
the Vital Powers of the Spongiadz;—Report of a Committee upon the Experiments conducted 
at Stormontfield, near Perth, for the artificial propagation of Salmon ;—Provisional Report on 
the Measurement of Ships for Tonnage ;—On Typical Forms of Minerals, Plants and Animals 
for Museums ;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on Progress in Researches on the Measure- 
ment of Water by Weir Boards;—R. Mallet, on Observations with the Seismometer ;—A. 
Cayley, on the Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Report of a Committee appointed to con- 
sider the formation of a Catalogue of Philosophical Memoirs. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Daubeny’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at 
Dublin, 1857, Published at 15s. 


Contents :—A. Cayley, Report on the Recent Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Six- 
teenth and final Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds; 
—James Oldham, C.E., continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull;—Report of a 
Committee on the Defects of the present methods of Measuring and Registering the Tonnage 
of Shipping, as also of Marine Engine-Power, and to frame more perfect rules, in order that 
a correct and uniform principle may be adopted to estimate the Actual Carrying Capabilities 
and Working-Power of Steam Ships;—Robert Were Fox, Report on the Temperature of 
some Deep Mines in Cornwall;—Dr. G. Plarr, De quelques Transformations de la Somme 

—o atl+1gé\+1G¢|+1 

0 [ety efit? 
est exprimable par une combinaison de factorielles, la notation ati+1 désignant le produit des 
t facteurs a (a+1) (a+2) &c....(a4+¢—1);—G. Dickie, M.D., Report on the Marine Zoology 
of Strangford Lough, County Down, and corresponding part of the Irish Channel ;—Charles 
Atherton, Suggestions for Statistical Inquiry into the extent to which Mercantile Steam Trans- 
port Economy is affected by the Constructive Type of Shipping, as respects the Proportions of 
Length, Breadth, and Depth ;—J. S. Bowerbank, Further Report on the Vitality of the Spon- 
giadz ;—John P. Hodges, M.D., on Fiax ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of the Committee 
on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain ;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of 
Luminous Meteors, 1856-57 ;—C. Vignoles, C.E., on the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to 
sustain the passage of Railway Trains ;—Professor W. A. Miller, M.D., on Electro-Chemistry ; 
—John Simpson, R.N., Results of Thermometrical Observations made at the ‘ Plover’s’ 
Wintering-place, Point Barrow, latitude 71° 21’ N., long. 156° 17’ W., in 1852~54 ;—Charles 
James Hargrave, LL.D., on the Algebraic Couple; and on the Equivalents of Indeterminate 
Expressions;—Thomas Grubb, Report on the Improvement of Telescope and Equatorial 
Mountings ;—Professor James Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots in the Botanical 
Garden of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester ;—William Fairbairn on the Resistance 
of Tubes to Collapse ;—-George C. Hyndman, Report of the Proceedings of the Belfast Dredging 
Committee ;—Peter W. Barlow, on the Mechanical Effect of combining Girders and Suspen- 
sion Chains, and a Comparison of the Weight of Metal in Ordinary and Suspension Girders, 
to produce equal deflections with a given load ;—J. Park Harrison, M.A., Evidences of Lunar 
Influence on Temperature ;—Report on the Animal and Vegetable Products imported into 
Liverpool from the year 1851 to 1855 (inclusive) ;—Andrew Henderson, Report on the Sta- 
tistics of Life-boats and Fishing-boats on the Coasts of the United Kingdom. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. H. Lloyd’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


a étant entier négatif, et de quelques cas dans lesquels cette somme 


PROCEEDINGS or true TWENTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Leeds, 
September 1858, Published at 20s. : 
ConTENTS:—R. Mallet, Fourth Report upon the Facts and Theory of Earthquake Phe- 


nomena ;— Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1857-58 ;—R. H. 
Meade, on some Points in the Anatomy of the Araneidea or true Spiders, especially on the 


220 


internal structure of their Spinning Organs ;—W. Fairbairn, Report of the Committee on the 
Patent Laws ;—S. Eddy, on the J.ead Mining Districts of Yorkshire ;—W. Fairbairn, on the 
Collapse of Glass Globes and Cylinders ;—Dr. E. Perceval Wright and Prof. J. Reay Greene, 
Report on the Marine Fauna of the South and West Coasts of Ireland ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on 
Experiments on the Measurement of Water by Triangular Notches in Weir Boards ;—Major- 
General Sabine, Report of the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain ;—Michael 
Connal and William Keddie, Report on Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Substances imported 
from Foreign Countries into the Clyde (including the Ports of Glasgow, Greenock, and Port 
Glasgow) in the years 1853, 1854, 1859, 1856, and 1857 ;—Report of the Cominittee on Ship- 
ping Statistics;—Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., Notice of the Instruments employed in the Mag- 
netic Survey of Ireland, with some of the Results;—Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin 
Dredging Committee, appointed 1857-58 ;—Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Report on Crustacea of Dub- 
lin District ;—Andrew Henderson, on River Steamers, their Form, Construction, and Fittings, 
with reference to the necessity fur improving the present means of Shallow-Water Navigation 
on the Rivers of British India;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Com- 
mittee ;—Appendix to Mr. Vignoles’ paper “ On the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to sus- 
tain the passage of Railway Trains ;’—Report of the Joint Committee of the Royal Society and 
the British Association, for procuring a continuance of the Magnetic and Meteorological Ob- 
servatories;—R. Beckley, Description of a Self-recording Anemometer. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Owen’s Address, and Recommenda- 
tions of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or rue TWENTY-NINTH MEETING, at Aberdeen, 
September 1859, Published at 15s. 


Contents :—George C. Foster, Preliminary Report on the Recent Progress and Present 
State of Organic Chemistry ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Growth of Plants in the 
Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Dr. A. Voelcker, Report on Field 
Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to cultivated 
Crops ;—A. Thomson, Esq. of Banchory, Report on the Aberdeen Industrial Feeding Schools ; 
—On the Upper Silurians of Lesmahago, Lanarkshire ;—Alphonse Gages, Report on the Re- 
sults obtained by the Mechanico-Chemical Examination of Rocks and Minerals ;—William 
Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Efficiency of Continuous and Self-acting Breaks for 
Railway Trains ;—Professor J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee for 
1858-59 ;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors for 1858-59 ; 
—Professor Owen, Report on a Series of Skulls of various Tribes of Mankind inhabiting 
Nepal, collected, and presented to the British Museum, by Bryan H. Hodgson, Esq., late Re- 
sident in Nepal, &c. &c. ;—Messrs. Maskelyne, Hadow, Hardwich, and Llewelyn, Report on 
the Present State of our Knowledge regarding the Photographic Image ;—G. C. Hyndman, 
Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee for 1859 ;—James Oldham, Continuation of Report 
of the Progress of Steam Navigation at Hull;—Charles Atherton, Mercantile Steam Trans- 
port Economy as affected by the Consumption of Coals ;—Warren de la Rue, Report on the 
present state of Celestial Photography in England ;—Professor Owen, on the Orders of Fossil 
and Recent Reptilia, and their Distribution in Time ;—Balfour Stewart, on some Results of the 
Magnetic Survey of Scotland in the years 1857 and 1858, undertaken, at the request of the 
British Association, by the late John Welsh, Esq., F.R.S.;—W. Fairbairn, The Patent Laws: 
Report of Committee on the Patent Laws;—J. Park Harrison, Lunar Influence on the Tem- 
perature of the Air ;—Balfour Stewart, an Account of the Construction of the Self-recording 
Magnetographs at present in operation at the Kew Observatory of the British Association ;— 
Prof. H. J. Stephen Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part I.;—Report of the 
Committee on Steamship performance ;—Report of the Proceedings of the Balloon Committee 
of the British Association appointed at the Meeting at Leeds ;—Prof. William K. Sullivan, 
Preliminary Report on the Solubility of Salts at Temperatures above 100° Cent., and on the 
Mutual Action of Salts in Solution. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prince Albert’s Address, and Recommenda- 
tions of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tuz THIRTIETH MEETING, at Oxford, June 
and July 1860, Published at 15s. 


ConTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1859-60 ;— 
J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee ;—Rev. J. Anderson, Report on 
the Excavations in Dura Den ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots in the 
Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Rev. R. Walker, Report of 


221 


the Committee on Balloon Ascents;—Prof. W. Thomson, Report of Committee appointed to 
prepare a Self-recording Atmospheric Electrometer for Kew, and Portable Apparatus for ob- 
serving Atmospheric Electricity ;—William Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Effect of 
Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon Wrought-iron Girders ;—R. P. 
Greg, Catalogue of Meteorites and Fireballs, from a.p. 2 to A.D. 1860 ;—Prof. H. J. S. Smith, 
Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part IT. ;—Vice-Admiral Moorsom, on the Performance of 
Steam-vessels, the Functions of the Screw, and the Relations of its Diameter and Pitch to the 
Form of the Vessel;—Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on the Effects of long-continued Heat, 
illustrative of Geological Phenomena ;—Second Report of the Committee on Steamship Per- 
formance ;—Interim Report on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches ;—List of the 
British Marine Invertebrate Fauna. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Wrottesley’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTY-FIRST MEETING, at Manches-. 
ter, September 1861, Published at £1. 


ConTENTS:—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Dr. E. 
Smith, Report on the Action of Prison Diet and Discipline on the Bodily Functions of Pri- 
soners, Part I.;—Charles Atherton, on Freight as affected by Differences in the Dynamic 
Properties of Steamships ;—Warren De la Rue, Report on the Progress of Celestial Photo- 
graphy since the Aberdeen Meeting ;—B. Stewart, on the Theory of Exchanges, and its re- 
cent extension ;—Drs. E. Schunck, R. Angus Smith, and H. E. Roscoe, on the Recent Pro- 
gress and Present Condition of Manufacturing Chemistry in the South Lancashire District ;— 
Dr. J. Hunt, on Ethno-Climatology ; or, the Acclimatization of Man ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on 
Experiments on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches ;—Dr. A. Voelcker, Report on 
Field Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to 
cultivated Crops ;—Prof. H. Hennessy, Provisional Report on the Present State of our Know~ 
ledge respecting the Transmission of Sound-signals during Fogs at Sea;-—Dr. P. L. Sclater 
and F. von Hochstetter, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Birds of the 
Genus 4pteryx living in New Zealand ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Results of Deep-sea 
Dredging in Zetland, with a Notice of several Species of Mollusca new to Science or to the 
British Isles;—Prof. J. Phillips, Contributions to a Report on the Physical Aspect of the 
Moon ;—W. R. Birt, Contribution to a Report on the Physical Aspect of the Moon;—Dr. 
Collingwood and Mr. Byerley, Preliminary Report of the Dredging Committe of the Mersey 
and Dee;—Third Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance ;—J. G. Jeffreys, 
Preliminary Report on the Best Mode of preventing the Ravages of Teredo and other Animals 
in our Ships and Harbours ;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experiments made at Holyhead to 
ascertain the Transit-Velocity of Waves, analogous to Earthquake Waves, through the local 
Rock Formations ;—T. Dobson, on the Explosions in British Coal-Mines during the year 1859; 
—J. Oldham, Continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull ;—Professor G, Dickie, 
Brief Summary of a Report on the Flora of the North of Ireland ;—Professor Owen, on the 
Psychical and Physical Characters of the Mincopies, or Natives of the Andaman Islands, and 
on the Relations thereby indicated to other Races of Mankind ;—Colonel Sykes, Report of the 
Balloon Committee ;—Major-General Sabine, Report on the Repetition of the Magnetic Sur- 
vey of England ;—lInterim Report of the Committee for Dredging on the North and East 
Coasts of Scotland ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Resistance of Iron Plates to Statical Pressure and 
the Force of Impact by Projectiles at High Velocities ;—W. Fairbairn, Continuation of Report 
to determine the effect of Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon 
Wrought-Iron Girders ;—Report of the Committee on the Law of Patents ;—Prof. H. J. S. 
Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part III. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Fairbairn’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tut THIRTY-SECOND MEETING, at Cam- 
bridge, October 1862, Published at £1. 


ConTEnTs :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1861-62 ;— 
G. B. Airy, on the Strains in the Interior of Beams ;—Archibald Smith and F. J. Evans, 
Report on the three Reports of the Liverpool Compass Committee ;—Report on Tidal Ob- 
servations on the Humber ;—T. Aston, on Rifled Guns and Projectiles adapted for Attacking 


222 


Armour-plate Defences ;—Extracts, relating to the Observatory at Kew, from a Report 
presented to the Portuguese Government, by Dr. J. A. de Souza;—H. T. Mennell, Report 
on the Dredging of the Northumberland Coast and Dogger Bank ;—Dr. Cuthbert Colling- 
wood, Report upon the best means of advancing Science through the agency of the Mercan- 
tile Marine;—Messrs. Williamson, Wheatstone, Thomson, Miller, Matthiessen, and Jenkin, 
Provisional Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—Preliminary Report of the Com- 
mittee for investigating the Chemical and Mineralogical Composition of the Granites of Do- 
negal ;—Prof. H. Hennessy, on the Vertical Movements of the Atmosphere considered in 
connexion with Storms and Changes of Weather ;—Report of Committee on the application 
of Gauss’s General Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism to the Magnetic Variations ;—Fleeming 
Jenkin, on Thermo-electric Currents in Circuits of one Metal ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Me- 
chanical Properties of Iron Projectiles at High Velocities ;—A. Cayley, Report on the Pro- 
gress of the Solution of certain Special Problems of Dynamics ;—Prof. G. G, Stokes, Report 
on Double Refraction ;—Fourth Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance ;— 
G. J. Symons, on the Fall of Rain in the British Isles in 1860 and 1861 ;—J. Ball, on Ther- 
mometric Observations in the Alps ;—J.G. Jeffreys, Report of the Committee for Dredging 
<n the N.and E. Coasts of Scotland ;—Report of the Committee on Technical and Scientific 
‘Evidence in Courts of Law ;—James Glaisher, Account of Eight Balloon Ascents in 1862 ;— 
Prof. H. J. S. Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part IV. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. Prof. R. Willis’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


Printed by Taylor and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street. 


are Fo taeey 


$34 
ad 


eH teh t 


Loe Be 2 


stisede i 


Steast Beas: 
a 


it 


rote siete 


rire: 
wie. tt} 


Sehaes 
isitists partis 


Spin reenh aipaen = 


Pieeeeen 


dor d eww send tog 


: ae rer 


aoe = ie 


Soe 


ay 
area a a 
oli 
phen 
Sle pe ; aides 
i 


Be : 


beietetehet tes 
Siete 
Biot eetaeest tats 


sph 
Ast 


eet 


3 
+