h
REPORT
OF TIIF
THIRTY-FIFTH MEETING
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE ;
HELD AT
BIRMINGHAM IN SEPTEMBER 1865.
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1866.
PRINTED BY
TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.
ALKItK Y FLAMMAM.
CONTENTS.
Page
Objects and Rules of the Association xvii
Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement xx
Treasurer's Account xxv
Members of Council from commencement xxvi
Officers and Council, 1865-66 xxx
Officers of Sectional Committees xxxi
Corresponding Members xxxii
Report of the Council to the General Committee xxxiii
Report of the Kew Committee, 1864-65 xxxiii
Report of the Parliamentary Committee xxxix
Recommendations of the General Committee for Additional Reports
and Researches in Science xl
Synopsis of Money Grants xliv
General Statement of Sums paid on account. of Grants for Scientific
Purposes xlv
Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee 1
Arrangement of the General Meetings 1
Address of the President, John Phillips, M.A. Oxon., LL.D. Dublin,
F.R.S., F.G.S., &c ; li
REPORTS OE RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE.
Report on Dredging among the Channel Isles. By J. Gwtn Jeffreys,
F.R.S 1
Report on the Cultivation of Oysters by Natural and Artificial Methods.
By Fbank Btjckland, M.A., M.R.C.S., &c 3
a 2
IV CONTENTS.
Page
First Report of the Committee for exploring Kent's Cavern, Devonshire.
The Committee consisting of Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., Professor
Phillips, Sir John Lubbock, Bart., Mr. John Evans, Mr. Edward
Vivian, and Mr. William Pengellx- (Reporter) 16
Report of a Committee " appointed to report on the changes which they
may consider desirable to make, if any, in the Rules of Zoological
Nomenclature drawn up by Mr. H. E. Strickland, at the instance of
the British Association at their Meeting in Manchester in 1842 " . . 25
Report of the Committee on the Distribution of the Organic Remains of
the North Staffordshire Coal-field. — Concluding Report. By a Com-
mittee, consisting of Sir Philip de M. Grey Egerton, Bart., F.R.S.,
Professor T. H. Httxlet,E.R.S. Reporter, William Moltneux,F.G.S. 42
Report of the Committee appointed to explore the Marine Fauna and
Flora of the Soutb Coast of Devon and Cornwall. — No. 1. Consisting
of J. Gwtn Jeffreys, F.R.S., Rev. Thomas Hincks, Jonathan Couch,
F.L.S., Charles Stewart, J. Brooking Rowe, F.L.S., and J. Ralfs,
F.L.S. Reporter, C. Spence Bate, F.R.S., &c 51
Interim Report of the Committee on the Resistance of Water to Floating
and Immersed Bodies. By W. J. Macquorn Rankine, C.E., LL.D.,
F.R.S., John Scott Russell, C.E., F.R.S., James R. Napier, Marine
Engineer, and William Froude, C.E 56
Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1864-65. By a Com-
mittee, consisting of James Glaisher, F.R.S., of the Royal Observa-
tory, Greenwich, Secretary to the British Meteorological Society, &c. ;
Robert P. Greg, F.G.S., &c. ; E. W. Brayley, F.R.S., Professor of
Physical Geography and Meteorology in the Loudon Institution, &c. ;
and Alexander S. Herschel, B.A 57
Report on Dredging on the Coast of Aberdeenshire. By the Rev. Walter
Gregor, and Robert Dawson 142
An Account of Meteorological and Physical Observations in Tbree Bal-
loon Ascents made in the years 1864 and 1865 (in continuation of
twenty-two made in the years 1862, 1863, and 1864), under the
auspices of the Committee of the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, by James Glaisher, F.R.S., at the request of the
Committee, consisting of Colonel Sykcs, The Astronomer Royal, Lord
Wrottesley, Sir D. Brewster, Sir J. Herschel, Bart., Dr. Lloyd, Dr. Lee,
Dr. Robinson, Mr. Gassiot, Mr. Glaisher, Prof. Tyndall, Dr. Fair-
bairn, and Dr. W. A. Miller 145
Interim Report of the Committee on the Transmission of Sound under
Water, consisting of the Rev. Dr. Robtnson, Prof. Wheatstone, Dr.
Gladstone, and Prof. Hennessy 192
On the Rainfall of the British Isles. By G. J. Symons, M.B.M.S 192
On the Strength of Materials considered in relation to the Construction
of Iron Ships. By William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S., &c, and
Thomas Tate, Esq 243
Maltese Caves. — Report on Mnaidra Cave. By A. Leith Adams, M.A.,
M.B., F.G.S , 257
CONTENTS. y
Pag«
Eeport of the Gun-cotton Committee, consisting of William Fairbairn,
LL.D., F.B.S., Joseph Whitworih, LL.D., F.E.S., James Nasmyth,
C.E., F.B.A.S., J. Scott Eussell, C.E., F.E.S., John Anderson, C.E.,
Sir William Gf. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D., F.E.S., Dr. Gladstone,
F.E.S., Professor W. A. Miller, M.D., F.E.S., Professor Frankland,
F.E.S., and F. A. Abel, F.E.S 264
On the Horary and Diurnal Variations in the Direction and Motion of
the Air at Wrotteslcy, Liverpool, and Birmingham. By A. Follett
Oslee, F.E.S 26-4
Second Eeport on the Physiological Action of certain of the Amyl Com-
pounds. By Benjamin W. Eichaedson, M.A., M.D., F.E.C.P 272
Eeport on further Besearches in the Lingula-flags of South Wales. By
Henry Hicks. With some Notes on the Sections and Fossils, hy J.
W. Salter, F.G.S., A.L.S ' 281
Eeport of the Lunar Committee for Mapping the Surface of the Moon.
By W. E. Birt, at the request of the Committee, consisting of James
Glaisher, F.E.S., Lord Eosse, F.E.S., Sir John Herschel, Bart.,
F.E.S., Professor Phillips, F.E.S., Warren de la Eue, F.E.S., Pre-
sident of the Eoyal Astronomical Society, Dr. Lee, F.E.S., Eev. W.
E. Dawes, F.E.S., Eev. T.W.Webb, F.E.A.S., J. N. Lockyer, F.E.A.S.,
H. S. Ellis, F.E.A.S., and W. E. Birt, F.E.A.S 286
Eeport of the Committee on Standards of Electrical Eesistance. By Pro-
fessor Williamson, Professor Wheatstone, Professor W. Thomson,
Professor Miller, Dr. A. Matthlessen, Mr. Fleeming Jenkin, Sir
Charles Bright, Professor Maxwell, Mr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. Bal-
eour Stewart, Dr. Joule, and Mr. C. F. Yaeley 308
Eeport of the Committee, consisting of Major-General Sabine, P.E.S., Sir
John Herschel, Bart., F.E.S., J. P. Gassiot, F.E.S., and Sir E. I. Mttr-
chison, Bart., F.E.S., appointed for the purpose of communicating to
the Russian Government the opinion of the British Association, that
the establishment of magnetical observations on the Kew system at
the Observatory of Tinis, by Professor Moritz of that place, would
largely conduce to the furtherance of Magnetical Science. By General
Sabine, P.E.S 313
Appendix to Eeport of the Committee on the Distribution of the "Verte-
brate Eemains from the North Staffordshire Coal Field. By John
Young, M.D., F.E.S. Edinb 317
First Eeport on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea.
By Henry Woodward, F.G.S 320
Eeport on the Theory of Numbers. — Part YI. By H. J. Stephen Smith,
M.A., F.E.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry in the University of
Oxford 322
Eeport on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and
Measures, with reference to the Interests of Science. By a Committee,
consisting of Lord Wrottesley, D.C.L., F.E.S., The Et. Hon. C. B.
Adderley, M.P., Sir William Armstrong, C.B., F.E.S., The Astro-
nomer Eoyal, F.E.S., Samuel Brown, W. Ewart, M.P., T. Graham,
F.E.S., Sir John Hay, Bart., M.P., F.E.S., Prof. Hennessy, F.E.S.,
yi CONTENTS.
Page
James Heywood, M.A., F.E.S.,Dt.Lee, F.B.S., Dr. Leone Levi, F.S.A.,
F.S.S., Prof. W. A. Miller, F.E.S., Prof. Eankine, F.E.S., Eev.Dr.
Eobinson, F.E.S., Colonel Sykes, M.P., F.E.S., W. Tite, M.P., F.E.S.,
Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.B.S., James Yates, F.B.S., Sir Eobeet
Kane, F.E.S., F. P. Fellows, C. W. Siemens, F.E.S., Matthew Arnold,
M.A., Eight Hon. Earl Fortescue, and Frederick Pttrdy, F.S.S. . . 375
On the Bed of the Ocean. By A. G. Findlay, F.E.G.S. . . .' 379
On the Composition of the Gases evolved by the Bath spring called King's
Bath. By Prof. A. W. "Williamson, University College, London . . 380
NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS
OF
MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.
MATHEMATICS and PHYSICS.
Address of W. Spottiswoode, F.R.S., President of the Section 1
Mathematics.
Mr. O. Byrne on Dual Arithmetic (i
Professor A. H. Curtis on certain Theorems in Laplace's Discussion of the
Figure of the Earth and Precession and Nutation 6
Rev. R. Harley on the Theory of Differential Eesol vents G
Professor T. A. Hirst on Chasles's Method of Characteristics 6
on Quadric Transformation
Dr. C. M. Ingleby on a Method of discovering Remainders in Arithmetical
Division 7
Professor Plucker on a New Method in Geometry 7
Professor Price on the Extension of Taylor's Theorem by the Method of De-
rivations 7
on some Applications of the Theory of Probabilities 7
CONTENTS. Vll
Page
Mr. W. H. L. Russell on the Calculation of the Potential of the Figure of
the Earth 8
Br. Stevelly on the application of D'Alemhert's Principle to the Rotation of
a Rigid Mass 8
Professor Sylvester on a Special Class of Questions on the Theory of Pro-
bahilities 8
on Professor Price's Modification of Arbogast's Method 9
Light.
Mr. A. Claudet on Moving Photographic Figures, illustrating some Pheno-
mena of Vision connected with the Combination of the Stereoscope and the
Phenakistoscope by means of Photography 9
Mr. F. Galton on Spectacles for Divers, and on the Vision of Amphibious
Animals 10
Dr. J. H. Gladstone on the Refractive Equivalent of Carbon 11
Mr. H. C. Sohby on a New Form of Spectrum-Microscope 11
Heat.
Principal Forbes's Experimental Inquiry into the Laws of the Conduction of
Heat in Bars, and into the Conductiug-Power of Wrought Iron 12
Mr. W. J. Macqtjorn Rankine on the Second Law of Thermodynamics .... 13
Electricity.
Mr. W. Fairbairn on India-Rubber and Gutta Percha as Insulators for Sub-
marine Telegraphic Cables 14
Mr. J. P. Gassiot on the Change of Form and Colour which the Stratified
Discharge assumes when a Varied Resistance is introduced in the Circuit of
an Extended Series of the Voltaic Battery 15
Mr. R. Sabine on a New Method, introduced by Messrs. Siemens, for the
Measurement of Electrical Resistances 16
Captain Selwyn on some New Arrangements of the Poles of Magnets 17
Meteorology.
Mr. F. W. Bbeabey's Remarks upon Aerial Navigation, suggested by Mr.
Glaisher's late Balloon Ascents 17
Mr. J. B. Capello on the Great Storm of December 186-4, on the Coast of the
Peninsula 17
Mr. J. Park Harbison on the Heat attained by the Moon under Solar Radi-
ation 17
Mr. Alfred King on the Self-Registering Barometer at the Liverpool Obser-
vatory 18
Mr. A. Follett Osler on an Anemometer for the Registration of Cyclones
or other Tropical Hurricanes 19
Mr. T. L. Plant on the Anomalies of our Climate 19
Mr. D. Smith on the Meteorology of Birmingham 19
Mr. J. B. Capello and B. Stewart's Description of the Magnetic Storm of
the Beginning of August 1865, as recorded by the Self-recording Magneto-
graphs at the Kew and Lisbon Observatories 20
Mr. W. Symons's Improved Standard Barometer 21
Mil CONTENTS.
Page
Hydrostatics.
Mr. L. Oertling on the Hydrometer and its Adaptation to the present re-
quirements of the Board of Inland Revenue 21
Instruments.
Mr. S. B. Howlett on a Self-recording Anemometer 21
Captain Lendy on the Topograph, a new Surveying Instrument 21
Mr. Cornelius Varley on an Instrument by which any Rainbow that can
possibly appear within the area of any picture, may be indicated in its right
place and of the true size 22
CHEMISTET.
Address by Professor W. A. Miller, M.D., LL.D., Treas. & V.P.R.S.,P.C.S.,
President of the Section 22
Mr. F. A. Abel's Notes on Compounds of Copper and Phosphorus 27
Mr. H. Bird's observations on the Utilization of Sewage, as conducted at
Stroud, and on the Growth of the Sewage Plant 28
Mr. J. C. Bowring on the Preservation of the Sheathing of Ships, and Ex-
traction of Silver from Sea-Water by means of Electricity 28
on the Direction of the Electric Current 28
Dr. Crace-Calvert on the Action of Acids on Metals and Alloys 28
Mr. T. Fairley on the Reactions of Cyanogen. Note on Glycocine, with
Tables 29
Mr. Frederick George Finch on the Utilization of Blast-Fumace Slag . . 29
Mr. David Forbes on some Minerals from South America 29
on the Colour of Gold as seen by transmitted Light .... 30
Dr. Frankland on the Constitution of the Acids of the Acetic, Lactic, and
Acrylic Series 30
Dr. Hill on the Sanitary and Economical Aspect of the Sewage Question . . 31
Dr. Stevenson Macadam on the Results of Agricultural Experiments made
in 1864 -. ; 31
on Esparto Fibre, or Spanish Grass, and its Em-
ployment in the Manufacture of Paper 33
Professor Maskelyne on Crystals of Melaconite, and on Tenorite 33
Dr. Phipson, a few words on Sponges as a Source of Bromine and of Nitrogen 34
on the Sublimed Oligist of Vesuvius, and its Artificial Produc-
tion 34
on Silicium in Iron 34
Dr. D. S. Pbice on the Action of Light upon Sulphide of Lead, and its bear-
ing upon the Preservation of Paintings in Picture Galleries 34
Mr. Manning Prentice on the Progress of the Manufacture of Gun-Cotton,
and its Application to Mining, Military, and Sporting Purposes 34
Mr. Owen Rowland on the Properties of Parkesine, and its application to
the Arts, Manufactures, and Telegraphy 34
Mr. Wentworth L. Scott on the Action of the Alkali Metals in determin-
ing the Explosion of Gun-Cotton 35
Dr. Angus Smith on a Method of estimating Carbonic Acid in the Air .... 35
CONTENTS. IX
Page
Mr. John Smyth, Jim. on an Apparatus for the Determination of the Ozone
in the Atmosphere, and Experiments made therewith by means of the Aspi-
rator 37
Dr. Aug. Yoelcker on Phosphatic Deposits recently discovered in North
Wales 37
on the Composition of a Marine-Boiler Incrustation. ... 39
Dr. J. E. De Vrij on the Possibility of Manufacturing Neroli in the British
Colonies 39
— on the Botatory Power of several Essential Oils 40
Mr. W. Willis on the Aniline Process in Photography 40
Dr. T. Wood on the New Formulae, with reference to Schools and Examina-
tions 40
GEOLOGY.
Address by Sir Bodeiiick I. Murchison, K.C.B., G.C.St.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.B.S., V.P.G.S., Director-General of the Geological Survey, and President
of the Boyal Geographical Society, President of the Section 41
Mr. S. Bailey on the Economic Value of the various Measures of Coal and
Ironstone in the South Staffordshire Coal Field 48
Bev. P. B. Bhodie on the Fossiliferous Beds of the New Bed Sandstone
(Upper and Lower Keuper) in Warwickshire 48
on a Section of Lower Lias at Harbury, near Leamington 48
on Two New Species of Corals in the Lias of Warwick-
shire 49
's Remarks on the Drift in part of Warwickshire, and on
the Evidence of Glacial Action which it affords 49
Mr. L. P. Capewell on the Organic Bemains of the Coal-Measures 49
Principal J. W. Dawson on the Fossil Plants of the Post-Pliocene Deposits
of Canada in Connexion with the Climate of the Period, and the Formation
of Boulder Clay 50
â– The Succession of Palaeozoic Floras in North Ame-
rica 50
Mr. E. C. H. Day on the Lower Lias of Lyme Begis 51
on a Head of Hijbodus Delabeckei 51
on the History of the Jurassic Seas, as evidenced by the
History of the first Liassic Sea 51
M. Geheimrath H. von Dechen and Professor E. Romer on the Large
Prussian Geological Map of the Bhenish Provinces and Westphalia 51
Mr. David Forbes on the Existence of Gold-bearing Eruptive Bocks in South
America which have made their appearance at two very distinct Geological
periods 52
on the Igneous Bocks of South Staffordshire 53
Rev. W. Fox on a New Wealden Saurian named Polacanthus 56
M. W. von Haidinger on the Progress of the Imperial Geological Institute
of the Austrian Empire 56
Professor Harkness and H. Nicholson's Additional Observations on the
Geology of the Lake Country 57
— on the Silurian Bocks of the Isle
of Man 58
X CONTENTS.
Pago
Professor Harkness on the Metamorphic Rocks and Serpentine Marbles of
Connemara and Joyce's Country 59
Dr. Harvey B. Holi, on the Pre-Cambrian Pocks of Central England 59
Rev. W. Holland's Remarks on the Geology of Parts of the Sinaitic Penin-
sula 62
Rev. H. Housman on the Fossil Footprints in the New Red Sandstone at
Brewood, near Wolverhampton 62
Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys's Notice of the Occurrence of certain Fossil Shells
in the Sea-bed adjoining the Channel Islands 62
Mr. H. Johnson on the Extent and Duration of the South Staffordshire Coal-
field 63
Mr. C. Ketley on the Silurian Rocks and Fossils of Dudley 63
Mr. E. Ray Lankester on Annelida from Guernsey 65
on the British Species of Cephalaspis and the Scotch
Pteraspis 65
Mr. D. Mackintosh on the Relative Extent of Atmospheric and Oceanic De-
nudation, with a particular reference to certain Rocks and Valleys in York-
shire and Derbyshire 65
Rev. A. W. M c Kay on the Red Sandstone of Nova Scotia 66
Mr. George Maw on some Fossiliferous Strata occurring between the Bunter
Sandstone and Mountain Limestone of the Vale of Clwyd, North Wales . . 67
on an Extensive Distribution of WTiite Sands and Clays in
North Wales antecedent to the Boulder Clay Drift 68
Mr. W. S. Mitchell on hitherto unrecorded Leaf Forms, &c, from Alum
Bay, Isle of Wight 68
Mr. W. Ness on the Coal-Measures in Mold Valley, and their Products .... 68
Mr. R. A. Peacock on Steam as the active Agent in Earthquakes 68
on Extensive and Deep Sinkings of Lands in the Channel
Islands Seas, and on some Changes of the French Coast of the Bay of Bis-
cay within the Historical Period 70
Mr. W. Pengelly on the Insulation of St. Michael's Mount in Cornwall. ... 71
Mr. Lovibond Percival on a Recent Example of the Formation of Pyrites
in a South Staffordshire Coal Pit 71
Professor Phillips on Glacial Striation 71
Rev. W. Purton on the Geology of Coalbrook Dale 72
Mr. T. A. Readwtn on the Recent Discovery of Gold at Gwynfynydd, North
Wales 73
Mr. George E. Roberts's Notes on the Theory of Repulsion as illustrative
of Physical Geology propounded by Dr. Winslow of Boston 73
Professor Ferd. Roemer on a Fossil Spider lately discovered in the Coal-
measures of Upper Silesia (Prussia) 73
Mr. G. R. Rumney on a Coal Field in Brazil 73
Mr. J. W. Salter's Explanation of a Map of the Faults in the Gold District
of Dolgelly 73
Mr. A. Startin on the Drift in the Parish of Exhall, North of Coventry. ... 74
Rev. W. S. Symonds on some Ancient Drifts and Old River Beds of Siluria 74
Mi-. J. E. Taylor on Contortions in the Chalk at Withingham, near Norwich 76
Professor Tennant on the Agate* found in England, with specimens from dif-
ferent countries 76
CONTENTS. XI
Page
Rev. J. D. La Touche on the Nodules in the Limestone of Wenloek Edge. . 76
Mr. C. Twamley on the Faults in the South Staffordshire Coal Field, and
their relation to the Igneous Rocks of the District 76
Mr. Edwabd Whympee's few Notes on the Structure of the Matterhorn .... 76
Mr. W. Mattietj Williams on the ancient Glaciers North and East of Llan-
gollen, and more particularly of the Neighbourhood of the Hope Mountain 77
on some Vegetable Deposits in the Aachensee . . 78
Mr. C. J. Woodward on a Deposit near Lilleshall, Salop, containing recent
Marine Shells 79
BOTANY and ZOOLOGY, including PHYSIOLOGY.
Botany.
Dr. Cleghobn on the Deodar Forests of the Himalaya â– 79
Mr. W. Htern on Ranunculus radians (Revel) as a British Plant 80
Dr. W. Hinds on the Identity of Origin of Starch and Chlorophylle 81
on a Monstrosity of the Rose 82
Dr. W. Lauder Lindsay on the Relations of the Southern to the Northern
Flora of New Zealand 82
Mr. E. J. Lowe on the Propagation of Ferns by means of Spores 83
Zoology.
Mr. Spence Bate and Professor Westwood on the Genus Anceus (Anceus
and Praniza, Auct.) 83
Dr. P. P. Carpenter on the regard due to Usage and Utility, as well as mere
Priority in fixing Zoological Nomenclature 83
Dr. Carte's Notes on the Voracity of Chiasmodus 84
Dr. Edwards Crisp on the Relative Weight of the Brain, and on the Exter-
nal Form of this Organ, in relation to the Intelligence of the Animal 84
on the Food and Habits of the Mole, Sparrow, and of the
Vespidae 85
on the External Form of the Hand and Brain of the
Orang (S. satyrus) 86
Dr. Duncan's Description of Two New Species of Aporose Madreporaria, from
Guernsey 86
Rev. F. Hewlett on the Occurrence of the Bones of Extinct Struthious Birds
in New Zealand in the same Oven with those of the Dog 86
Mr. W. R. Hughes's Notes on the Development of a Deep Sea Sponge .... 86
Dr. G. M. Humphry on the Homologies of the Lower Jaw, and the Bones
connecting it with the Skidl in Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes 87
Dr. Jordan's Examination of the British Lepidoptera, with a view to inves-
tigate the Origin of Species 89
Sir John Lubbock on the Transformations of C'hloeon (Ephemera) dimidiatum 89
Miss Irby and Miss Mackenzie on the Characteristics of the South Sclavonic
Race 90
Rev. A. W. M c Kay on the Turdus migratorius 90
Mr. C. R. Mabkham on the Arctic Highlanders 90
Dr. J. Moefat on Phosphorescence, Storms, and Disease 90
XU CONTENTS.
Pape
Dr. Morch on the Scope of Conchological Inquiries 91
on the Classification of the Mollusca 91
on the Zoological Affinities of the Mollusca 91
Mr. Thomas J. Moore's Bemarks on some Improved Methods of Displaying
Birds in Public Museums, illustrated by specimens from the Derby Museum
at Liverpool 92
Mr. Edward Newton on a remarkable Discovery of Bones of Didus in the
Island of Bodriguez 92
Bev. A. M. Norman on the Structure and Development of Salpa spmosa, Otto,
as observed at Guernsey 92
Dr. Prideaux, Phrenology, or the Physiology of the Brain, the most impor-
tant department of Ethnology 92
Dr. P. O'Callaghan's Bemarks on a curious preserved Specimen of the Black-
bird 92
Dr. P. L. Sclater on the Birth of a young Hippopotamus in the Zoological
Society's Gardens at Amsterdam 93
Dr. W. B. Scott on the Occurrence of Orcynus alalonga on the Coast of Devon 93
Mr. H. T. Stainton on the extraordinary partiality shown by Insects of the
Genus Laverna for Plants of the Order Onagracece 93
Bev. W. H. Sterling on the Natives of Patagonia and Terra del Fuego .... 9-4
Mr. J. Thrupp on the Domestication of certain Animals in England between
the Seventh and Eleventh Centimes 94
Physiology.
Address by Henry W. Acland, M.D., LL.D., F.B.S., Regius Professor of
Medicine in the University of Oxford, President of the Subsection 94
Dr. Lionel S. Beale on Life 101
Dr. J. Hughes Bennett on the Formation of Pus, in reference to the doc-
trine of Cell Pathology 101
Dr. Cobbold on Beef and Pork as Sources of Entozoa 102
's Bemarks on Specimens of Entozoa 102
Dr. John Davy on the Effects of Scanty and Deficient Diet 102
— — Is the Opinion that a Diet of Animal Food conduces to Lean-
ness well founded on Facts ? 104
Dr. W. Dickenson on the Functions of the Cerebellum 106
Dr. Fleming on the Prevalence of Tapeworm in Birmingham, and its Causes 10G
Dr. A. Gamgee on Experiments confirmatory of those of Kiihne on the Non-
existence of Ammonia in Blood 107
Dr. George Duncan Gibb's Befutation of the View recently propounded that
the Food comes into contact with the Vocal Cords in Deglutition 107
Dr. G. M. Humphry's Bemarks on the Skeleton of a Woman set. 104 108
Dr. W. H. Lightbody on the Vascular Arrangements of the Cornea 108
Professor Macdonald on the Development of the Vascular System of the
Foetus in the Vertebrata, with the view to determine the true course of the
Circulation through the Veins and Arteries of the Hunian Foetus in utero . . 108
Dr. B. Norris, Bigor Mortis not Muscular Contraction 109
Mr. Samuel II. Parke s on the Early Development of Organs in Embryonic
Life 109
CONTENTS. Mil
Pagn
Dr. Eolleston on certain Points in the Anatomy of Lxmbricm terrestris 110
on certain Points in the Anatomy of Two Animals from the
Mammoth Cave, Kentucky 110
Dr. B. W. Eichardson on certain Physiological Experiments with Ozone . . 110
Dr. Shuttle's few Remarks on the Causes of the Cattle Murrain Ill
Mr. "William Turner on Variability as manifested in the Construction of the
Human Body 1 H
GEOGRAPHY and ETHNOLOGY.
Mr. T. Balxes on the Victoria Falls of the Eiver Zambesi 112
Letter from Mr. Samuel Baker to Sir R. I. Murchison 112
Dr. C. Carter Blake on certain Simious Skulls, with especial reference to a
Skull from Louth, in Ireland H 4
Mr. E. Brown's Explorations in the Interior of Vancouyer Island 116
Mr. W. Chandless on the Ascent of the Eiyer Purus HO
Dr. Charnock on the Origin of the Gipsies H"
Dr. E. S. Charnock on Cannibalism in Europe 117
Mr. J. Crawfurd on the Oriental Negro H '
on the Physical and Mental Characteristics of the African
or OccideDtal Negro
117
on Cannibalism in Eelation to Ethnology 118
Dr. Cullen on the Isthmus of Panama and Inter-Oceanic Ship Canal Eoutes 118
1 on the Darien Indians 119
Mr. Eobert Dunn on the Influence of Civilization upon the Development of
the Brain in the different Eaces of Man 119
Mr. J. Evans on the Worked Flints of Pressigny le Grand 120
Eev. Frederic W. Farrar on Language and Ethnology 120
Mr. George Grove on the Exploration of the Holy Land, as proposed by the
Palestine Exploration Fund 1-1
Mr. D. Mackintosh on the Comparative Anthropology of England and Wales 122
Mr. C. E. Markham on North Polar Exploration 123
Capt. T. M c Neill and Capt. Wilson's Results of Surveys relating to the
Water Supply of Jerusalem ' 1-3
Dr. F. Mueller on M'Tntryre's Journey across Australia, and Discovery of
Traces of Leichhardt • 1-*
Bear- Admiral Osemaney on Arctic Exploration 125
Lieut.-Col. Lewis Pelly on the Seychelle Islands 126
on the Shores of the Persian Gulf 126
's Notes on Arabia 126
on the Comoro Islands 127
Col. Phayre on the Ethnology of the Hindu- Chinese Nations 128
Sir H. C. Eawllnson's Notes on the Eussian Frontiers in Central Asia 128
Mr. A. Adams-Eeilly on a Eecent Survey of the Chain of Mont Blanc 128
Professor Steenstrup and Sir J. Lubbock on the Flints of Pressigny le Grand 129
Mr. E. Swixhoe's Notes on the Aborigines of Formosa 120
Xiv CONTENTS.
Page
Mr. E. B. Tylob on the Negro-European Dialects of Surinam and Curacao. . 130
M. Vambeby on the Origin of the Hungarians 130
Dr. A. Vambeby on the City Life of Bokhara 131
Mr. Thomas Weight on the true Assignation of the Bronze Weapons, &c,
supposed to indicate a Bronze Age in Western and Northern Europe 131
ECONOMIC SCIENCE and STATISTICS.
Address by The Eight Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P., F.R.S., the President of
the Section 131
Mr. W. B. Adams on the Division of Labour 135
Mr. J. T. Ablidge on the Duration of Life, the Prevailing Diseases, and the
Causes of Death, of Potters 135
Mr. Thomas Aveby on the Municipal Expenditure of the Borough of Bir-
mingham 135
Rev. W. J. Bain on the Social, Educational, and Religious Position of the
Working Population of South Staffordshire 140
Professor John H. Bennett's Statistics of Pneumonia 144
Mr. .T. Thackbay Bunce on the Statistics of Crime in Bimiinghaui, as com-
pared with other large Towns 145
Mr. F. P. Fellows on the Practical Advantages of the Metric System of
Weights and Measures 147
Mr. G. B. Galloway on Intercommunication between Railway Passengers . . 150
• on the Means of saving Life from Buildings which may
be on Fire 150
's Suggested Improvements applicable to the City of
London and other large Towns, to improve Health and preserve Life .... 150
Mr. J. D. Goodman, Statistics of the Small Arms Manufacture of Birming-
ham 150
Mr. Alfbed Hill, Statistics of the Post-Office Savings' Banks 152
Mr. G. J. Johnson, Statistics of the Benefit Building and Freehold Land
Societies of Birmingham 154
Professor Leone Levi, Statistical Data in relation to the Representation of
the People 154
Dr. T. de Meschin on the proposed Extension of Government Administration
to Railways 154
Mr. D. Mobbis on the Past and Present Productive Power of Cotton Ma-
chinery 155
Professor Rogebs on Patents and Copyrights 155
Mr. Henby C. Ropeb on the Physical and Geographical Features of the
Country ten miles round Dudley, with remarks upon the natural drainage
area, as they bear upon the Sanitary Condition of the district 155
Mr. W. L. Sabgant on the Vital Statistics of Birmingham, and seven other
Towns 155
Mr. E. Vivian on the Admission of Rlegitimate Children into Workhouses, as
a means of preventing Infanticide 156
Mr. R. Wilkinson's Statistical Review of the Police-recognized Drunkenness
of the Metropolis 156
Mr. James Yates on Mural Standards for exhibiting the Measures of Length
legalized in the United Kingdom , . . 159
CONTENTS. XV
Page
Dr. Leone Levi, Statistical Data in Relation to the Representation of the
People 162
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
Address by Sir W. .Armstrong, K.C.B., F.R.S., President of the Section . . 164
Sir W. G. Armstrong on Chain-testing Machines . . . v 165
Mr. Henry Bessemer on the Manufacture of Cast Steel, its Progress, and
Employment as a Substitute for Wrought Iron 165
Mr. F. I. Bramwell on Weldless Tyres, Circular Rolling, and Railway
Wheels 173
General Sir J. F. Burgoyne on Railways in War 173
Mr. G. Burt on a Pneumatic Hammer 175
Mr. D. K. Clark on Torbite (a new Preparation of Peat) and its Uses 175
Mr. J. M. Clements on a Machine for stitching Button-holes 176
Mi\ E. A. Cowper on a new Cotton Gin for separating Cotton Fibre from the
Seed 176
on the Effect of Blowing Blast Furnaces with Blast of very
High Temperatures 177
Mr. S. N. F. Cox on Siemens's Regenerative Gas-Fumaces and Producers . . 177
Mr. William Fairbatrn on some of the Causes of the Failure of Deep-sea
Cables, and Experimental Researches on the Permanency of their Insulators 178
Mi\ George Fawcus's Suggestions for Improvements in Blocks for Lowering
Ships' Boats, and for Improvements in Boats 184
Mr. Nath. J. Holmes on District Private Telegraphs 184
Mr. W. Hooper on the Applicability of India-rubber as an Insulator for Tele-
graphic Conductors 184
Mr. T. Levick on Machinery for Compressing Air, and the Applicability of
such Compressed Air for working Coal-cutting and other Underground
Machinery 185
Mr. J. Robinson on some Developments of and Improvements in Giffard's
Injector. 186
Mr. C. W. Siemens on the Outer Covering of Deep-sea Cables 187
Mr. W. Sissons's description of a Patent Steam Pile-Driver 190
Mr. B. Smith on Wanning, Lighting, and Ventilating the Birmingham Town
Hall 190
List of Papers of which Abstracts have not been received 191
ERRATA.
In the present volume.
Reports, page 72. Column 7. Position, etc. : —
17th line from bottom, for b read c.
13th „ ,, for £ read p.
11th „ „ for ( read r.
6th „ „ for 30° read 3°.
5th „ „ for S. of Cassiopeia muZ S. of a. Cassiopeium.
Sections, pago 62, line I. for Glyptolepis beds read Caithness Flags.
In the volume for 1864.
Sections, page 20, 17 lines from bottom, for The time the Bound takes
read The time the electric current takes.
Sections, page 188, line 1,for 0-5 read O'Oo.
OBJECTS AND RULES
or
THE ASSOCIATION.
OBJECTS.
The Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by
other institutions. Its objects are, — To give a stronger impulse and a more
systematic direction to scientific inquiry,— to promote the intercourse of those
who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one an-
other, and with foreign philosophers, — to obtain a more general attention to
the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind
which impede its progress.
EULES.
ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES.
All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall bo entitled to be-
come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to con-
form to its Rules.
The Eellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So-
cieties publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled, in
like manner, to become Members of the Association.
The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees, of
Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem-
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Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General
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Meeting.
COMPOSITIONS, SUBSCRIPTIONS, AND PRIVILEGES.
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Annual Subscribers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
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Associates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.
186-3. b
XV111 RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
The Association consists of the following classes : —
1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.
2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on ad-
mission Ten Pounds as a composition.
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payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership after in-
termission of Annual Payment.]
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year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of Annual Pay-
ment.]
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6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.
And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
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New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a compo-
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Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
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Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subscrip-
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Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
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3 Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the first seventeen volumes of Transactions of the Associa-
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Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.
MEETINGS.
The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place
of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee at the pre-
vious Meeting ; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Officers
of the Association.
GENEEAl COMMITTEE.
The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons : —
1. Presidents and Officers for the present and preceding years, with
authors of Reports in the Transactions of the Association.
2. Members who have communicated any Paper to a Philosophical Society,
which has been printed in its Transactions, and which relates to such subjects
as are taken into consideration at the Sectional Meetings of the Association.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XIX
3. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, altogether not exceed-
ing three in number, from any Philosophical Society publishing Transactions.
4. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, not exceeding three,
from Philosophical Institutions established in the place of Meeting, or in any
place where the Association has formerly met.
5. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who
are specially nominated in writing for the" Meeting of the \ear by the Presi-
dent and General Secretaries.
6. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections are
ex-offino members of the General Committee for the time being.
SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.
The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, Committees, con-
sisting severally of the Members most conversant with the several branches
of Science, to advise together for the advancement thereof.
The Committees shall report what subjects of investigation they woidd
particularly recommend to be prosecuted during the ensuing year, and
brought under consideration at the next Meeting.
The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and progress of
particular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent persons,
for the information of the Annual Meetings.
COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS.
The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which
shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees,
and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise
to be adopted for the advancement of Science.
All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
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Committee, unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recom-
mendations.
LOCAL COMMITTEES.
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assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.
Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those
Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.
OFFICERS.
A President, two or more Tice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a
Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.
COUNCIL.
In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be
managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council
may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the
Meeting.
PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS.
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve
his right of property therein.
ACCOUNTS.
The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the Meeting.
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XXVI
REPORT 1865.
II. Table showing the Names of Members of the British Association who
have served on the Council in former years.
Aberdeen, Earl of, LL.D., KG-., E.T.,
F.K.S. (deceased).
Acland, Sir T. D., Bart.,M.A.,D.C.L.,RK.S.
Acland, Professor H. W., M.D., F.E.S.
Adams, Prof. J. Couch, M.A., D.C.L, F.E.S.
Adamson, John, Esq., F.L.S.
Adderley, The Eight Hon. C.B., M.P.
Ainslie, Eev. Gilbert, D.D., Master of Pem-
broke Hall, Cambridge.
Airy.G. B.,M.A., D.C.L., F.E.S., Astr. Eoyal.
Alison, ProfessorW. P.,M.D.,F.E.S.E. (deo d ).
Allen, W. J. C, Esq.
Anderson, Prof. Thomas, M.D.
Ansted, Professor D. T., M.A., F.E.S.
Argyll, G. Douglas, Duke of, F.E.S. L. & E.
Armstrong, Sir W. G., F.E.S.
Arnott, Neil, M.D., F.E.S.
Ashburton, William Bingham, Lord, D.C.L.
(deceased).
Atkinson, Et. Hon. E., late Lord Mayor of
Dublin.
Babbage, Charles, Esq., M.A., F.E.S.
Babington, Professor C. C, M.A., F.E.S.
Baily, Francis, Esq., F.E.S. (deceased).
Baines, Et. Hon. M. T., M.A., M.P. (dec").
Baker, Thomas Barwick Llovd, Esq.
Balfour, Professor John H./M.D., F.E.S.
Barker, George, Esq., F.E.S. (deceased).
Bath, The Most Noble the Marquis of.
Bath, The Venerable the Archdeacon of.
Beamish, Eichard, Esq., F.E.S.
Beeehey, Bear-Admiral, F.E.S. (deceased).
Bell, Isaac Lowthian, Esq.
Bell, Professor Thomas, V.P.L.S., F.E.S.
Bengough, George, Esq.
Bentham, George, Esq., Pres.L.S.
Biddell, George Arthur, Esq.
Bigge, Charles, Esq.
Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.E.S.
Boileau, Sir John P., Bart., F.E.S.
Boyle, Eight Hon. D., Lord Justice-General
(deceased).
Brady,TheEt. Hon. Maziere, M.E.I.A., Lord
Chancellor of Ireland.
Brand, William, Esq.
Breadalbane, John, Marquis of, K.T., F.E.S.
( clccCtisccll •
Brewster, Sir David, E.H., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.E.S. L. & E., Principal of the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh.
Brisbane, General Sir Thomas M., Bart.,
K.C.B., G.C.H., D.C.L., F.E.S. (dec").
Brodie, Sir B. C, Bart., D.C.L, P.E.S.
(deceased).
Brooke, Charles, B.A., F.E.S.
Brown, Eobert, D.C.L., F.E.S. (deceased).
Brunei, Sir M. I., F.E.S. (deceased).
Buckland, Very Eev. William, D.D., F.E.S.,
Dean of Westminster (deceased).
Bute, John, Marquis of, E.T. (deceased).
Carlisle, G. W. Fred., Earl of, F.E.S. (dec").
Carson, Eev. Joseph, F.T.C.D.
Cathcart, Lt.-Gen., Earl of, E.C.B.,F.E.S.E.
(deceased).
Challis, Eev. J., M.A., F.E.S.
Chalmers, Eev. T., D.D. (deceased).
Chance, James, Esq.
Chance, J. T., Esq.
Chester, John Graham, D.D., Lord Bishop of
(deceased).
Chevallier, Eev. Templo, B.D., F.E.A.S.
Christie, Professor S. H., M.A., F.E.S. (dec").
Clapham, E. C, Esq.
Clare, Peter, Esq., F.E.A.S. (deceased).
Clark, Eev. Prof., M.D., F.E.S. (Cambridge.)
Clark, Henry, M.D.
Clark, G. T., Esq.
Clear, William, Esq. (deceased).
Gierke, Major S., E.H., E.E., F.E.S. (dcc d ).
Clift, William, Esq., F.E.S. (deceased).
Close, Very Eev. F., M.A., Dean of Carlisle.
Cobbold, John Chevalier, Esq., M.P.
Colquhoun, J. G, Esq., M.P. (deceased).
Conybeare, Very Eev. W. D., Dean of Llan-
dail' (deceased).
Cooper, Sir Henry, M.D.
Cork and Orrery ,*The Et. Hon. the Earl of,
Lord-Lieutenant of Somersetshire.
Corrie, John, Esq., F.E.S. (deceased).
Crum, Walter, Esq., F.E.S.
Currie, William Wallace, Esq. (deceased).
Dalton, John, D.C.L., F.E.S. (deceased).
Daniell, Professor J. F., F.E.S. (deceased).
Darbishire, E. D., Esq., B.A., F.G.S.
Dartmouth, William, Earl of, D.C.L., F.E.S.
Darwin, Charles, Esq., M.A., F.E.S.
Daubeny, Prof. C. G. B., M.D..LL.D., F.E.S.
DelaBeche, Sir H. T., C.B., F.E.S., Director-
Gen. Geol. Surv. United Eingdom (dec d ).
Dc la Eue, Warren, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Derby, Earl of, D.C.L., Chancellor of the
University of Oxford.
Devonshire, W.,Duke of, M.A.,D.C.L.,F.E.S.
Dickinson, Francis H., Esq.
Dickinson, Joseph, M.D., F.E.S.
Dillwyn, Lewis W., Esq., F.E.S. (deceased).
Donkin, Professor W. F., M.A., F.E.S.
Drinkwater, J. E., Esq. (deceased).
Ducie, The Earl of, F.E.S.
Dudley, The Eight Hon. the Earl of.
Dunraven, The Earl of, F.E.S.
Egerton.Sir P. dc M. Grev, Bart,,M.P.,F.E.S.
MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
XXVU
Eliot, Lord, M.P.
Ellesrnere, Francis, Earl of, F.G.S. (clec d ).
Emiiskillen, William, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Estcourt, T. G. B., D.C.L. (deceased).
Evans, The Eev. Charles, M.A.
Fairbairn, William, LL.D., C.E., F.R.S.
Faraday, Professor, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Ferrers, Rev. N. M., M.A.
FitzRoy, Rear- Admiral, F.R.S. (deceased).
Fitzwilham, The Earl, D.C.L., F.R.S. (dec d ).
Fleming, W., M.D.
Fletcher, BeU, M.D.
Foote, Lundy E., Esq.
Forbes, Charles, Esq. (deceased).
Forbes, Prof. Edward, F.R.S. (deceased).
Forbe8,Prof.J.D.,LL.D.,F.R.S.,Sec.R.S.E.,
Principal of University of St. Andrews.
Fox, Robert Were, Esq., F.R.S.
Frost, Charles, F.S.A.
Fuller, Professor, M.A.
Galton, Francis, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Gassiot, John P., Esq., F.R.S.
Gilbert, Davies, D.C.L., F.R.S. (deceased).
Gladstone, J. H., Ph.D., F.R.S.
Goodwin, The Very Rev. H., D.D., Dean of
Gourlie, William, Esq. (deceased).
Graham, T., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Master of
the Mint.
Gray, John E., Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S.
Gray, Jonathan, Esq. (deceased).
Gray, William, Esq., F.G.S.
Green, Prof. Joseph Henry, D.C.L., F.R.S.
(deceased).
Greenough, G. B., Esq., F.R.S. (deceased).
Griffith, George, M.A., F.C.S.
Griffith, Sir R. Griffith, Bt., LL.D., M.R.I. A.
Grove, W. R, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.
HaUam, Henrv, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. (dec d ).
Hamilton, W. J., Esq., F.R.S., Sec. G.S.
Hamilton, Sir Wm. R., LL.D., Astronomer
Royal of Ireland, M.R.I.A., F.R.A.S.
(deceased).
Hancock, W. Jseilson, LL.D.
Harcourt, Rev. Wm. Vernon, M.A., F.R.S.
Hardwicke, Charles Philip, Earl of, F.R.S.
Harford, J. S., D.C.L, F.R.S.
Harris, Sir W. Snow, F.R.S.
Harrowby, The Earl of, F.R.S.
Hatfeild, William, Esq., F.G.S. (deceased).
Henry, W. C, M.D., F.R.S.
Henry, Rev. P. S., D.D., President of Queen's
College, Belfast.
Henslow, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.L.S. (dec d ).
Herbert, Hon. and Very Rev. Wm., LL.D.,
F.L.S., Dean of Manchester (dec d ).
Hereford, The Very Rev. the Dean of.
Herschel.Sir John F.W., Bart., M.A., D.C.L.,
F.RS.
Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., F.R.S.
(deceased).
Heywood, James, Esq., F.R.S.
Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S.
Hincks, Rev. Edward, D.D., M.R.I.A.
Hincks, Rev. Thomas, B.A.
Hinds, S., D.D., late Lord Bishop of Norwich
(deceased).
Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D.
Hodgkinson, Professor Eaton, F.R.S. (dee d ).
Hodgson, Joseph, Esq., F.R.S.
Hogg, John, Esq., M.A., F.L.S.
Hooker, Sir William J., LL.D., F.R.S.
(deceased).
Hope, Rev. F. W., M.A., F.R.S. (deceased.)
Hopkins, William, Esq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.
Horner, Leonard, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased).
Houghton, Lord, D.C.L.
Hovenden, V. F., Esq., M.A.
Hugall, J. W., Esq.
Hunt, Aug. H, Esq., B.A., Ph.D.
Hutton, Robert, Esq., F.G.S.
Hutton, William, Esq., F.G.S. (deceased).
Ibbetson,Capt.L.L.Boscawen,K.R.E.,F.G.S.
Inglis, Sir R. H, Bart., D.C.L., M.P.
(deceased).
Inman, Thomas, M.D.
Jacobs, Bethel, Esq.
Jameson, Professor R., F.R.S. (deceased).
Jartline, Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.E.
Jeffreys, John Gwyn, Esq., F.R.S.
Jellett, Rev. Professor.
Jenyns, Rev. Leonard, F.L.S.
Jerrard, H. B., Esq.
Jeune, The Right Rev. F., D.C.L.
Johnston, Right Hon. William, late Lord
Provost of Edinburgh.
Johnston, Prof. J. F. W., M.A., F.R.S. (dec d ).
Kelehcr, William, Esq. (deceased).
Kelland, Rev. Prof. P., M.A., F.R.S. L. & E.
Kildare, The Marquis of.
Lankester, Edwin, M.D., F.R.S.
Lansdowne, Hen., Marquis of, D.C.L.,F.R.S.
(deceased).
Larcom, Major, RE., LL.D., F.R.S.
Lardncr, Rev. Dr. (deceased).
Lassell, William, Esq., F.R.S. L. & E
Latham, R. G., M.D., F.R.S.
Lee, Very Rev. John, D.D., F.R.S.E., Prin-
cipal of the University of Edinburgh
(deceased).
Lee, Robert, M.D., F.R.S.
Leigh, The Right Hon. Lord.
Lefevre, Right Hon. Charles Shaw, late
Speaker of the House of Commons.
Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., F.R.S.
Lichfield, The Right Hon. the Earl of.
Liddell, Andrew, Esq. (deceased).
Liddell, Very Rev. H. G, D.D., Dean of
Christ Church, Oxford.
Lindley, Professor Jolin, Ph.D., F.R.S.
(deceased).
Listowel, The Earl of.
Liveing, Prof. G. D., M.A., F.C.S.
Lloyd, Rev. B., D.D., Provost of Trin. Coll.,
Dublin (deceased).
Lloyd, Rev. H, D.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. L.&E.,
M.R.I.A.
Londesborough, Lord, F.R.S. (deceased).
Lubbock, Sir John W„ Bart., M.A., F.R.S.
(deceased).
XXV1U
Klil'ORT — 1865.
Lubv, Eev. Thomas.
Lyell, Sir Charles,Bart.,M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.E.S.
Lyttelton, The Eight Hon. Lord.
MacCullagh, Prof., D.C.L., M.E.I.A. (dec" 1 ).
MacDonnell, Rev. E, D.D., M.E.I.A., Pro-
vost of Trinity College, Dublin.
Macfarlane, The Very Rev. Principal, (dec 1 ').
MacGee, William, M.D.
MacLeay, William Sharp, Esq., F.L.S.
MacNeill, Professor Sir John, F.R.S.
Malahide, The Lord Talbot de.
Malcolm, Vice- Ad. Sir Charles, K.C.B. (dee d ).
Maltby, Edward, D.D., E.E.S., late Lord
Bishop of Durham (deceased).
Manchester, J. P. Lee, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
Marlborough, Duke of, D.C.L.
Marshall, J. G., Esq., M.A.. F.G.S.
May, Charles, Esq., F.E.A.S. (deceased).
Meyuell, Thomas, Esq., E.L.S.
Middletou, Sir William F. E, Bart.
Miller, Prof. W. A., M.D.. Treas. & V.P.E.S.
Miller, Professor W. H., M.A., For. See.R.S.
Moggridge, Matthew, Esq.
Moillet, J. D., Esq. (deceased).
Monteagle, Lord, F.R.S. (deceased).
Moody, J. Sadleir, Esq.
Moody, T. F., Esq.
Moody, T. H. C. Esq.
Morley, The Earl of (deceased).
Moseley, Eev. Henry, M.A., F.E.S.
Mount-Edgecumbe, Ernest. Vugustus.Earl of.
Murchison, SirEoderickL, Bart., Gr.C. St.S.,
D.C.L, LL.D., F.E.S.
Neild, Alfred, Esq.
Neill, Patrick, M.D., F.E.S.E.
Nelson, The Et. Hon. Earl
Nicol, D., M.D.
Nicol, Professor J., F.E.S.E., F.G.S.
Nicol, Eev. J. P., LL.D.
Noble, Capt, A., EA.
Northampton, Spencer Joshua Alwyne, Mar-
quis of, V.P.E.S. (deceased).
Northumberland, Hugh, Duke of, E.G.,M.A.,
F.E.S. (deceased).
Ormerod, G. W., Esq., M.A., F.G.S.
Orpen, Thomas Herbert, M.D. (deceased).
Orpen,'Jolm H., LL.D.
Osier, Follett, Esq., F.E.S.
Owen, Prof, M.D., D.C.L, LL.D., F.E.S.
Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce, D.D., Lord
Bishop of, F.E.S., F.G.S.
Palmerston, Vise, K.G.,G.C.B., M.P., F.E.S.
(deceased).
Peacock, Very Eev. G., D.D., Dean of £lv,
F.E.S. (deceased).
Peel,Et.Hon.SirE.,Bart,M.P.,D.C.L.(dec d ).
Pendarves, E. W., Esq., F.E.S. (deceased).
Phillips, Professor John, M.A.,LL.D.,F.E.S.
Phillips, Eev. G., B.D., President of Queen's
College. Cambridge.
Pigott,The Et. Hon. D. R, M.E.I.A., Lord
Chief Baron of the Exchequer in Ireland.
Porter, G. E., Esq. (deceased).
Portlock, Major-General,R.E.. LL.D., F.R.S.
(deceased).
Portman, The Lord.
Powell, Eev. Professor, M.A., F.E.S. (dec' 1 ).
Price, Eev. Professor, M.A.. F.E.S.
Prichard, J. C, M.D., F.E.S. (deceased).
Eamsay, Professor William, M.A.
Eansome, George, Esq., F.L.S.
Eeid, Maj.-Gen. Sir W., K.C.B., E.E., F.E.S.
(deceased).
Rendlesham, Et. Hon. Lord, M.P.
Eennie, George, Esq.. F.E.S. (deceased).
Eennie, Sir John, F.E.S.
Richardson, Sir John, C.B., M.D., LL.D.,
F.E.S. (deceased).
Richmond, Duke of, E.G., F.E.S. (dec d ).
Eipon, Earl of, F.E.G.S.
Ritchie, Eev. Prof., LL.D., F.R.S. (dec d ).
Eobinson, Capt.. E.A.
Eobinson, Eev. J., D.D.
Eobinson, Eev. T. E., D.D.. F.E.S., F.E.A.S.
Eobison, Sir John, Sec.E.S.Edin. (deceased).
Eoehe, James. Esq.
Eoget, Peter Mark, M.D., F.E.S.
Eolleston. Professor, M.D., F.E.S.
Eonalds, Francis, F.E.S.
Eoscoe, Professor H. E., B.A., F.E.S.
Eoseberv, The Earl of, E.T., D.C.L., F.E.S.
Boss, Bear- Admiral Sir J. C, E.N., D.C.L.,
F.E.S. (deceased).
Eosse, Wra., Earl of, M.A., F.E.S., M.E.I.A.
Eoyle, Prof. John F., M.D., F.E.S. (dec' 1 ).
Eussell, James, Esq. (deceased).
EusseU, J. Scott, Esq., F.E.S.
Sabine, Lieut.-GeneralEdward.E.A., D.C.L..
LL.D., President of the Eoval Society.
Sanders, William, Esq., F.E.S., F.G.S.
Scholefield. William, M.P.
Scoresbv, Eev. W., D.D., F.E.S. (deceased).
Sedgwick, Eev. Prof, M.A, D.C.L, F.E.S.
Selbv, Prideaux John, Esq., F.E.S.E.
Sharpey, Professor, M.D., Sec.E.S.
Sims, Dilhvyn, Esq.
Smith, Lieut-Col. C. Hamilton, F.E.S.(dec d ).
Smith, Prof. H. J. S., M.A.. F.E.S.
Smith, James, F.E.S. L. & E.
Spence, William, Esq.. F.E.S. (deceased).
Spottiswoode, W., M.A., F.E.S.
Stanley, Edward, D.D., F.E.S., late Lord
Bishop of Norwich (deceased).
Staunton, Sir G. T., Bt, M.P., D.C.L., F.E.S.
St. David's, C.Tliirlwall.D.D.,LordBishop of.
Stevellv, Professor John, LL.D.
Stokes,'Professor G. G. , M. A., D. C.L. , Sec. Ii . S .
Strang, John, Esq., LL.D.
Strickland, Hugh E.. Esq., F.R.S. (deceased).
Sykes, Colonel W. H, M.P.. F.R.S.
Symonds, B. P., D.D., Warden of Wadliam
College. Oxford.
Talbot, W. H. Fox. Esq.. M.A., F.E.S.
Tayler, Eev. John James, B.A.
Taylor, Hugh, Esq.
Taylor, John, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased).
Taylor, Eichard, Esq.. F.G.S.
Thompson, William, Esq., F.L.S.(deeeascd).
Thomson, A., Esq.
Thomson, Professor William. M.A., F.E.S.
Tindal, Captain, E.N. (deceased).
MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
XXIX
Tite, William, Esq., M.P., F.K.S.
Tod, James, Esq., F.E.S.E.
Tooke, Thomas, F.K.S. (deceased).
Traill, J. S., M.D. (deceased).
Trevelyan, Sir W. C, Bart,
Turner, Edward, M.D.. F.E.S. (deceased).
Turner, Samuel, Esq., F.E.S., F.G.S. (dec").
Turner, Rev. W.
Tvndall, Professor John, F.E.S.
Vigors, N. A., D.C.L., F.L.S. (deceased).
Vivian, J. H., M.P., F.E.S. (deceased).
Walker, James, Esq., F.E.S.
Walker, Joseph N., Esq., F.G.S.
Walker, Eev. Professor Eobert, M.A., F.E.S.
(deceased).
Warburton, Henry, Esq..M.A., F.E.S.(dec d ).
Ward, W. *vkes, Esq., F.C.S.
Washington, Captain, E.N., F.E.S.
Wav, A. E., Esq., M.P.
Webster, Thomas, M.A., F.E.S.
West, William, Esq., F.E.S. (deceased).
Western, Thomas Burch, Esq.
Wharncliffe, John Stuart,Lord.F.E.S.(dec d ).
Wheatstone, Professor Charles, F.E.S.
Whewell, Eev. William, D.D., F.E.S., Master
of Trinity College, Cambridge. (dee d ).
White, John F., Esq^
Williams, Prof. Charles J. B., M.D., F.E.S.
Willis, Eev. Professor Eobert, M. A., F.E.S.
Wills, William, Esq., F.G.S. (deceased).
Wilson, Thomas, Esq.. M.A.
Wilson, Prof. W. P.
Winchester. John, Marquis of.
Wood, Nicholas, Esq. (deceased).
Woollcombe, Henry, Esq., F.S.A. (deceased 1 ).
Worcester, The Et." Eev. the Lord Bishop of.
Wrotteslev, John, Lord. M.A., D.C.L., F.E.S.
Yarborough, The Earl of, D.C.L.
Yarrell, William, Esq., F.L.S. (deceased).
Yates, James, Esq., M.A., F.E.S.
Yates, J. B., Esq., F.S.A., F.E.G.S. (dec d ).
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1865-66.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
Sir Eoderick I. Mukchison, Bart, K.C.B., G.C.St.S., D.C.L., F.E.S.
Lieut.-General Edward Sabine, E.A., D.C.L., Pres. R.S.
Sir Philip de M. Geey Egerton, Bart, M.P., P.E.S.
PRESIDENT.
JOHN PHILLIPS, Esq., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., P.E.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology
in the University of Oxford.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
The Eight Beverend The Lord Bishop of Won-
CESTER.
The Eight Hon. C. B. ADDERLEY, M.P.
William Scholefield, Esq., M.P.
J. T. Chance, Esq., M.A.
F. OSLER, Esq., F.E.S.
The Eev. Charles Evans, M.A.
The Eight Hon. The Earl of Lichfield, Lord-
Lieutenant of Staffordshire.
The Eight Hon. The Earl of Dudley.
The Eight Hon. Lord Leigh, Lord-Lieutenant of
Warwickshire.
The Eight Hon. Lord Lyttelton, Lord-Lieute-
nant of Worcestershire.
The Eight Hon. Lord Wrottesley, M.A., D.C.L.,
F.E.S., F.E.A.S.
PRESIDENT ELECT.
WILLIAM E. GEOVE, Esq., Q.C., MA., F.E.S
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
The Et. Hon. J. E. Denison, M.P.
J. C. Webb, Esq., High-Sheriff of Nottinghamshire.
Thomas Graham, Esq., F.E.S., Master of the Mint.
Joseph Hooker. M.D., D.C.L., F.E.S., F.L.S.
John Eussell Hinds, Esq., F.E.S., F.E.A.S.
T. Close, Esq.
His Grace The Duke of Devonshire, Lord-
Lieutenant of Derbyshire.
His Grace The Duke of Rutland, Lord- Lieute-
nant of Leicestershire.
The Et. Hon. Lord Belper, Lord-Lieutenant of
Nottinghamshire.
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT NOTTINGHAM
Dr. Robertson.
Edward J. Lowe, Esq., F.R.A.S., F.L.S.
The Rev. J. F. M'Callan, M.A.
LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT NOTTINGHAM.
I. E. Wright, Esq.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
Babington, Prof. C C, F.R.S.
Bateman, J. F., Esq., F.E.S.
Crawfurd, John, Esq., F.E.S.
DelaEue, Warren, Esq., F.E.S.
Foster, Peter Le Neve, Esq.
Galton, Capt. Douglas, E.E., F.E.S.
Gassiot, J. P., Esq., P.R.S.
Hutton, Robert, Esq., F.G.S.
Jeffreys, J. Gwyx, Esq., F.R.S.
Lubbock, Sir John, Bart., F.R.S.
Miller, Prof.AV.A.,M.D.,F.E.S.
Odling, William, Esq., M.B., F.E.S.
Price, Professor, M.A., F.E.S.
Sclater, P. L., Esq., F.R.S.
Smyth, Prof. Warixutox, P.R.S.
Stanley, Et. Hon. Lord, M.P., F.E.S.
Stokes, Professor G. G., Sec. F.E.S.
Btkes, Colonel, M.P., F.E.S.
Sylvester, Prof. J. J., LL.D., F.E.S.
Wheatstone, Professor, F.R.S.
Webster, Thomas, Esq., F.R.S.
Williamson, Prof. A. W., F.R.S.
Eev. Professor Sedgwick.
The Duke of Devonshire.
Rev. W. V. Harcourt.
The Earl of Eosse.
Sir John F. W. Hersehel,
Sir E. I. Murehison, Bart-
Bart.
K.C.B.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The President and President Elect, the Vice-Presidents and Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and
Assistant-General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presidents of former
years, viz. —
Sir David Brewster.
G. B. Airy, Esq., the Astronomer
Eoyal.
Lieut.-General Sabine, D.C.L.
William Hopkins, Esq., LL.D.
The Earl of Harrow! >y.
The Duke of Argyll.'
Professor Daubeny, M.D.
GENERAL SECRETARY.
Francis Galton, Esq., M.A., F.E.S., F.E.G.S., 42 Eutland Gate, Knightsbridge, London.
ASSISTANT CENERAL SECRETARY.
George Griffith, Esq., M.A., 5 Park Villas, Oxford.
CENERAL TREASURER.
William Spottiswoode, Esq., M.A., F.E.S., F.E.G.S., 50 Grosvenor Place, London, S.W
LOCAL TREASURERS.
The Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.
The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D.
Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L.
The Lord Wrottesley.
William Fairbairn, Esq., LL.D.
The Eev. Professor Willis.
Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D
Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A.,.
LL.D.
William Gray, Esq., F.G.S., York.
Prof. C. C. B"abington, M.A., F.E.S., Cambridge,
William Brand, Esq., Edinburgh.
John H. Orpen, LL.D., Dublin.
William Sanders, Esq., F.E.S., Bristol.
Eobert MAndrew, Esq., F.R.S., Liverpool.
William Holliday, Esq., Birinim/ham.
Robert P. Greg, Esq., F.G.S. , Manchester.
John Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq., F.R.S., Swansea.
James Heywood, Esq., P.R.S.
Robert Patterson, Esq., F.R.S., Belfast.
Edmund Smith, Esq., Mull.
Professor W. Thomson, Glasgow.
Richard Beamish, Esq., F.R.S., Cheltenham .
John Medcalfe Smith, Esq., Leeds.
John Forbes White, Esq., Aberdeen.
Rev. John Griffiths, M.A.. Oxford.
Thomas Holgkin, Esq., Neweastle-on-Tgne.
Thomas Gill, Esq., Ba'h.
AUDITORS.
Eobert Hutton, Esq., F.G.S. Dr. Gladstone.
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. XXXI
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE
BIRMINGHAM MEETING. .
SECTION A. MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
President.— W. Spottiswoode, M.A.. F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.
Vice-Presidents.— W. R. Grove, Q.C., Ph.D., F.R S. ; Professor Sylvester, F.R.S. ;
Professor Tyndall, F.R.S. ; J. P. Gassiot, F.R.S. ; Dr. Lloyd, F.R.S. ; Professor
Price, F.R.S.; Professor Stevelly, LL.D.; Principal Forbes, F.R.S.
Secretaries.— Professor H. J. S. Smith, M.A., F.R.S. ; J. M. Wilson, M.A. ; Fleem-
ing Jenkin, F.R.S. ; G. S. Mathews, M. A. ; Rev. T. Neville Hutchinson, M.A.,
F.C.S.
SECTION B. CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, INCLUDING THEIR APPLICATIONS
TO AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTS.
President— Professor W. A. Miller, M.D., V.P.R.S., Pres. Cheui. Soc
Vice-Presidents. — Professor A. W. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S. ; J. H. Gladstone,
Ph.D., F.R.S. ; Sir R. Kane, M.D., F.R.S., President of Queen's College, Cork;
G. Shaw, F.G.S. ; Dr. A. W. Hofmann, F.R.S.
Secretaries.— A. Vernon Harcourt, M.A., F.C.S. ; Professor Wauklyn, F.C.S. ; H.
Adkins; A. Winkler Wills.
SECTION C. GEOLOGY.
President.— Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart., K.C.B., G.C.St.S., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S., Director-General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom.
Vice-Presidents.— Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., F.R.S., F.G.S. ; Principal Dawson, of
Montreal; Professor Jukes, F.R.S.; Professor Harkness, F.R.S.; Rev. W.
S. Symonds, F.G.S. ; W. W. Smyth, F.R.S.
Secretaries.— H. C. Sorby, F.R.S. ; W. Pengelly, F.R.S. ; Rev. P. B. Brodie, M.A.,
F.G.S. ; J. Jones, F.G.S. ; Rev. Edward Myers.
SECTION D. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.
President.— T. Thomson, M.D.,*F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents. — Professor Babington, F.R.S. ; Professor Balfour, F.R.S.; G. Ben-
thani, F.R.S., Pres. Linnean Soc. ; Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S. ; Sir W.
Jardine, Bart., F.R.S. ; J. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S. ; P. L. Sclater, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Secretaries.— E. Perceval Wright, M.D., F.L.S. ; Rev. H. B. Tristram, M.A.,
F.L.S.; John Anthony, M.D. ; Rev. Charles Clarke.
SUB-SECTION D. PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCE.
President. — Professor Acland, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents. — John Davy, M.D., F.R.S. ; Professor Rollestou, F.R.S. ; Profes-
sor Lionel Beale, F.R.S.; Professor Van Der Hoeven; Edward Smith, M.D.,
F.R.S., LL.D. ; Professor John Hughes Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E.
Secretaries. — William Turner, M.B., F.R.S.E. ; Alexander Fleming, M.D. ; Thomas
P. Heslop, M.D. ; Oliver Pemberton.
SECTION E. GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.
President.— Major-General Sir Henry Rawlinson, M.P., K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents. — Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart., K.C.B., G.C.St.S., D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.; Major-General Sir A. S. Waugh, R.E., F.R.S. ; John
Crawfurd, F.R.S., Pres. Ethnolog. Soc. ; Dr. Bosworth, F.R.S.
Secretaries.— Clements R. Markham, F.R.G.S. ; H. W. Bates, Assistant-Secretary
R.G.S. ; Thomas Wright, M.A. ; G. Jabet ; Sebastian Evans, M.A.
SECTION F. ECONOMIC SCLENCE AND STATISTICS.
President— The Right Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
Vice-Presidents.— The Right Hon. Sir John Pakington, M.P. ; Sir John Bowring,
F.R.S. ; William Farr, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. ; Professor Fawcett, M.P. ; William
Newmarch, F.R.S. ; Professor Rogers, of Oxford ; W. L. Sargent.
Secretaries,— Edmund Macrory, A.M. ; J. D. Goodman ; G, J, Johnson.
XX.X11
REPORT 1865.
SECTION G. MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
President— Sir William George Armstrong, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents. — J. F. Bateman, F.R.S. ; Admiral SirE. Belcher; Capt. Douglas
Galton, R.E., F.R.S.; William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S.; J. R. Napier; J.
Nasmyth, F.R.S. ; Professor Rankine, LL.D., F.R.S. ; Charles Vignoles, F.R.S.
Secretaries.— P. Le Neve Foster, M.A. ; W. P. Marshall ; Walter May ; Henry
Lea.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Professor Agassiz, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts.
M. Babinet, Paris.
Dr. A. D. Bache, Washington.
Captain Balavenetz, R.I.N.
Dr. H. D. Buys Ballot, Utrecht.
Dr. D. Bierens tie Haan, Amsterdam.
Professor Bolzani, Kasan.
Dr. Bergsma, Utrecht.
Mr. P. G. Bond, Cambridge, U.S.
M. Boutigny (d'Evreux).
Professor Braschmann, Moscow.
Dr. Cams, Leipzig.
M. Des Cloizeaux, Paris.
Dr. Ferdinand Cohn, Breslau.
M. Antoine dAbbadie.
Geheimrath von Dechen.
M. De la Rive, Geneva.
Professor Wilhelm Delfts, Heidelberg.
Professor Dove, Berlin.
Professor Dumas, Paris.
Dr. J. Milne-Edwards, Paris.
Professor Ehrenberg, Berlin.
Dr. Eisenlohr, Carlsruhe.
Professor Eneke, Berlin.
Dr. A. Erman, Berlin.
Professor A. Escher von der Linth,
Zurich, Switzerland.
Professor Esmark, Christiania.
Professor A. Favre, Genera.
M. Leon Foucault, Paris.
Professor E. Fremy, Pans.
M. Frisiani, Milan.
M. Gaudry.
Dr. Geinitz, Dresden.
Professor Asa Gray, Cambridge, U.S.
Professor Grube.
M. E. Hebert, Paris.
Professor Henry, Washington, U.S.
Dr. Hochstetter, Vienna.'
M. Jacobi, St. Petersburg.
Prof. Jessen, Med. et Phil. Dr., Grie.ss-
wald, Prussia.
Professor Aug. Kekule, Ghent, Belgium.
M. Khanikof, St. Petersburg.
Professor Kiepert.
Prof. A. Kolliker, Wurzburg.
Professor Do Koninck, Liege.
Professor Kreil, Vienna.
Dr. Lamont. Munich.
M. Le Verrier, Paris.
Baron von Liebig, Munich.
Professor Loomis, New Yuri;.
Professor Gustav Magnus, Berlin.
Professor Matteucci, Pisa.
Professor P. Merian, Bale, Switzerland.
Professor vonMiddeudorft',»S'i;.Prfws&w<7.
M. l'Abbe Moigno, Paris,
Dr. Arnold Moritz, Tiflis.
Chevalier C. Negri.
Herr Neumaver, Munich.
Professor Nilsson, Sweden.
Dr. N. Nordenskiold, Hetsingfors.
M. E. Peligot, Paris.
Prof. B. Pierce, Cambridge, U.S.
Gustav Plaar, Strasburg.
Professor Pliicker, Bonn.
M. Constant Prevost, Paris.
M. Quetelet, Brussels.
Professor W. B. Rogers, Boston, U.S.
Professor F. Rbmer.
Herman Schlagintweit, Berlin.
Robert Schlagintweit, Berlin.
M. Werner Siemens, Vienna.
Dr. Siljestrom, Stockholm.
Professor J. A. de Souza, University of
Coimbra.
Professor Adolph Steen, Copenhagen.
Professor Steenstrup.
Dr. Svanberg, Stockholm.
M. Pierre Tchihatchef.
Dr. Otto Torell, University of Lund.
Dr. Van der Hoeven, Ley den.
M. Vambery, Hungary.
M. de Verneuil, Paris.
Baron Sartorius von Waltershausen,
Gbttingen.
Professor Wartmann, Genera.
Dr. Welwitsch.
REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXXU1
Report of the Council of the British Association, presented to the
General Committee, Wednesday , September Q>, 1865.
1. The Council has received a Report from the Treasurer, W. Spottiswoode,
Esq., at each of its meetings, and his General Report for the year ending
September 6, 1865, 'will be presented to the Committee this day.
2. The Report of the Parliamentary Committee has been received for pre-
sentation to the General Committee this day.
3. The Kew Committee has presented a Report to the Council at each of
its meetings, and the Report for the year 1864-65 -will be laid before the
General Committee this day.
4. In addition to the Noblemen and Gentlemen elected at Bath, the Council
propose the names of the Right Hon. the Earl of Dudley ; the Eight Hon. the
Lord Lyttelton, Lord-Lieutenant of "Worcestershire ; A. Eollett Osier, Esq.,
F.R.S. ; and the Rev. Charles Evans, M.A., Head Master of King Edward's
School, as Vice-Presidents of the present Meeting ; and the Rev. G. D. Boyle,
M.A., as Local Secretary.
5. The Council have added to the list of Corresponding Members the names
of the following Foreign Men of Science, who have been present at Meetings
of the Association : — M. E. Hebert, Dr. Arnold Moritz, Herr Neuniayer, M.
Vambery, Dr. "Welwitseh.
6. The Council learn with deep regret that the prolonged illness of Mr.
Hopkins renders him unable to continue his valuable services in the office of
General Secretary.
7. The Council have been informed that invitations will be presented to
the General Committee at its meeting on Monday, September 11, from
Nottingham, for the year 1866 ; from Dundee, for the year 1867 ; and from
Norwich and Southampton for an early meeting.
Report of the Keio Committee of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science for 1864-65.
The Committee of the Kew Observatory submit to the Council of the British
Association the following statement of their proceedings during the past
year :—
A short time before the Meeting at Bath, it had been decided by the
Secretary of State for India, on the recommendation of the President and
Council of the Royal Society, that pendulum observations should be made
in India, and that the officer appointed to conduct this experimental inves-
tigation might receive instruction at Kew Observatory, which might form the
base-station of the Indian series.
In consequence of this decision Captain Basevi, R.E., first assistant in
the Indian Trigonometrical Survey, received instruction at Kew Observatory
in the method of making and reducing pendulum observations, and in that
of taking transits. Colonel Walker, R.E., Superintendent of the Survey, also
attended, in order to make himself acquainted with the details of the' appa-
ratus and the method of observing.
The pendulums used were those marked No. 1821 and No. 4, used
formerly by General Sabine in different parts of the globe. The former was
also used by Mr. Airy in his Harton Colliery experiments.
A receiver, by means of which these pendulums might be vibrated in vacuo,
was constructed by Mr. Adie, optician, London. A convenient room for pen-
dulum observations was likewise fitted up in the Observatory, the expense
being defrayed from the Government Grant Fund of the Royal Society;
1865. c
xxxiv REPORT — 1865.
and in this room the preliminary observations were made for determining the
constants of the two pendulums about to be used in India. These observa-
tions were made by Mr. Loewy, and the results have been communicated to
the Eoyal Society by the Superintendent, in conjunction with the observer.
The pendulums and other apparatus were subsequently taken to India by
Mr. J. Hennessey, and have arrived safely at the head quarters of the Trigo-
nometrical Survey.
General Sabine has been informed by Mr. Meldrum, Director of the
Mauritius Observatory, that the necessary funds have been .-voted by the
Government of that colony for hourly meteorological and magnetical observa-
tions; and that he may shortly be expected in this country, in order to become
acquainted with the working of the Kew instruments. In consequence of
this communication, Mr. Adie has constructed a set of self-recording mag-
netographs, in readiness for Mr. Meldrum's arrival.
A Dip Circle and Unifilar have been verified at Kew, and will shortly be
dispatched to Mr. Ellery, Director of the Observatory, Melbourne, Australia.
Two Dip Circles and two Unifilars, ordered by Colonel Walker, R.E., Super-
intendent of the Indian Survey, have been Verified in the presence of Colonel
Walker, who has received instruction in the method of observation with these
instruments. They have since been sent to India, where they have safely
arrived.
Three Dip Circles and three Unifilars, ordered by Colonel Strange, are being
verified at the Observatory, and likewise one Dip Circle and one Unifilar re-
cently ordered by Captain J. Belavenetz of the Russian Navy, for the Compass
Observatory just built at Cronstadt.
Mr. E. Walker (who has received the Cambridge Adams prize for his
essay on terrestrial magnetism) has been at Kew Observatory, receiving
instruction in the use of magnetical instruments.
The usual monthly absolute determinations of the magnetic elements con-
tinue to be made ; and the self-recording magnetographs are in constant
operation, as heretofore, under Mr. Whipple, magnetical assistant, who has
displayed much care and assiduity in the discharge of his duties.
The meteorological work of the Observatory continues to be performed by
Mr. Thomas Baker, who likewise takes charge of the photographic depart-
ment connected with the self-recording instruments, and executes both
offices very satisfactorily.
Since the Meeting at Bath, Senhor da Souza, of the University of Coimbra,
has ordered a self-recording barograph and thermograph, an anemometer and
electrograph, tubes for filling by Mr. Welsh's process in order to obtain a
standard barometer, and a cathetometer. These instruments have been con-
structed by opticians, and forwarded to Coimbra.
During the past year, 88 barometers and 420 thermometers have been veri-
fied, and 6 standard thermometers have been supplied to men of science
and opticians ; 3 sets of measures of capacity have likewise been verified.
The Self-recording Barograph continues in constant operation, and traces
in duplicate are obtained, one set of which has been regularly forwarded to
the meteorological department of the Board of Trade.
At the request of Mr. Charles Cator, an anemometer of his construction
has been tested at the Observatory, and the restdts communicated to him.
Also, at the request of Professor Roscoe, the photographic action of total
daylight is daily registered by an apparatus of his construction.
The Kew Heliograph, in charge of Mr. De la Rue, continues to be worked
by a qualified assistant, who gives much satisfaction. During the past
year 243 negatives have been takeif on 146 days, and four sets of positives
REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXXV
have been printed from each, some of which have been given to men of
science interested in this branch of research.
The negatives are being reduced under the superintendence of Mr. De
la Rue, and by means of an instrument of his own construction, which he
has generously presented to the Kew Committee. Mr. B. Loewy has been
engaged in the reduction, which he is executing satisfactorily.
It was mentioned in last Report that an addition to the Micrometer was
in the course of construction, by means of which the proportion of the sun's
disk obscured by spots might be conveniently measured. This arrangement
is now completed; and the materials for measurement have been greatly in-
creased through the kindness of Mr. Carrington, who has placed his original
drawings, in which the size and appearance of the spots are delineated with
great fidelity, at the disposal of the Kew Observatory. It may be desirable
to state in a few words the proposed method of exhibiting the results of
these reductions. In the progress of this branch of knowledge observers have
been led to recognize certain laws which represent the average behaviour of
sun-spots ; but to all of these laws there are individual exceptions. In this
state of things it is probable that our knowledge of the subject will ulti-
mately be advanced, not only by a study of those groups which behave in a
normal manner, but also by a study of those which are exceptions in their
behaviour to the general rule; and on this account it has been thought desi-
rable to publish the results in such a way that anyone may be able to study
the appearance and behaviour — in fact the whole history — of any one group.
In order to accomplish this, a lens is being made by Dallmeyer, by means
of which individual groups may be magnified to a scale on which the diameter
of the sun will be equal in size to two feet.
The sun-spots continue to be observed after the method of Hofrath Schwabe,
of Dessau.
As Kew is the first public institution which has taken up the subject of
sun-spots, and as it is intended to continue the method of numbering groups
so long and successfully adopted by Hofrath Schwabe, it was thought desirable
to endeavour to procure, if possible, for this countr}- the original drawings made
by this eminent and assiduous observer during a course of about forty years;
A joint letter by Mr. De la Rue and Mr. Stewart was consequently addressed
to Hofrath Schwabe ; and the following answer to it was soon received.
" Gentlemen, — The request contained in your letter, although in the highest
degree honourable and complimentary to me, and although it gives me an op-
portunity to show the Royal Astronomical Society my gratitude for the Royal
Medal granted to me, has still cost me some struggle before complying with it;
for it is not easy to part with what has given me very often much pleasure
and enjoyment as a compensation for the labour - devoted to the work.
" But in complying with your desire I do so on one condition, viz. that you
would grant me permission to obtain the observations back again at any time
that I should be desirous of looking into them, during the short time of life
still left to me. I do not think that I shall have an occasion to avail myself
of the permission asked for ; but permit me kindly to believe that it is in my
power to do so. After my death you may consider the whole of the observa-
tions as the property of the Royal Astronomical Society.
" Please to write me if you are willing to agree to the above desire, and
I shall then immediately send you my astronomical diaries, &c. from 1825 to the
end of 1864. " I remain, Gentlemen,
" Tours very faithfully,
" S. H. Schwabe."
c2
xxxvi REPORT — 18G.J.
In order to realize this generous bequest of Hofrath Schwabe, Mr. Loewy of
the Kew Observatory went to Dessau, taking with him a selection of dupli-
cate negatives and prints of the sun, which he presented, in the name of the
Association, to that gentleman. After receiving Mr. Loewy most courte-
ously, Hofrath Schwabe expressed his gratification at the high degree of
perfection attained in photoheliography, which surpassed his most sanguine
expectations ; he also handed over to Mr. Loewy's trust not only his valu-
able collection of sun-drawings, but also all his astronomical observations.
Some of these will be exhibited at the Association.
It has long been a desideratum in photoheliography, with the view of ob-
taining the apparent diameter of the sun's disk, to ascertain the absolute values
in arc of the divisions of the measuring-instrument (Mr. De la Hue's Micro-
meter), and preliminary experiments were made with that object during the
period that the Heliograph Avas at the Cranford Observatory. These were only
partially successful. The mode of operation was this : a suitable object suffici-
ently distant was photographed by means of the Kew instrument, with the
lenses in the same positions as when solar pictures were taken. Different por-
tions of the object (windows, doors, &c. of a house, for example) were then care-
fully measured so as to ascertain their value in minutes and seconds of arc ; and
by measuring the pictures of these several portions with the arbitrary scale of
the Micrometer, the value of the latter in arc could be calculated. The experi-
ments did not succeed so well as could have been desired, in consequence of
the disturbance of the images by the undulations of the atmosphere, none
but very low objects coming within the desired range. More recently, how-
ever, the experiments have been taken up again with great promise, and
excellent photographs of the Kew Pagoda have been obtained, which possess
the requisite sharpness. The object itself, on account of its numerous galleries,
is peculiarly fitted for such' observations, as it will be possible to ascer-
tain and allow for any optical distortion of the photographic image. Thus
it is not improbable that the Pagoda will afford the means of ascertaining,
photographically, with the greatest accuracy, the angular diameter of the
sun, and will give data for correcting the assumed semidiameter of the moon,
by the discussion of photographic pictures of solar eclipses.
M. Oussew has informed Mr. De la Eue that the Wilna Heliograph is
now at work under his direction, during the absence, on account of ill health,
of the Director, Prof. Sabler. At present he experiences some difficulty in
obtaining perfect photographs, and he has been invited to receive instruction
at the Kew Observatory. It is considered to be desirable on other accounts
that M. Gussew shoiild be able to avail himself of the advantage thus
offered to him, as an arrangement might then be made for the division of the
labour of reducing the Heliographic observations.
An apparatus will shortly be added to the Kew Observatory for the important
object of the ready verification of sextants ; the system of distant mirrors
now in use, designed by Mr. Galton and erected at his own cost, being only
available in steady sunshine.
The new apparatus has been designed by Mr. Thomas Cooke, the well-
known optician. In principle, it consists of four collimators fixed radially,
at various angles apart, round the table on which the sextant is to be laid
for examination. The cross wires of the collimators in each of their com-
binations are to be brought successively into contact by the sextant. Then
a comparison of its readings with the constant angles of construction of the
apparatus determines the error of the sextant at various points of its arc.
However, in practice, to avoid the cost of very large collimators, whose
REPORT OF THE &EW COMMITTEE. XXXV11
object-glasses would suffice to include the rays proceeding both to the index
and to the horizon-glasses of large sextants, Mr. Cooke employs double colli-
mators of moderate size ; and he adjusts each pair to strict parallelism by
aid of a detached telescope.
The coloured shades of the sextant are readily examined by strongly illu-
minating the fields of two of the collimators, after contact of their cross wires
has been made in the ordinary manner.
On the application of Mr. Galton, backed by the recommendation of the
Kew Committee, the Council of the Eoyal (Society has allotted .£80 from the
Government Grant, to defray the estimated cost of Mr. Cooke's apparatus,
and its establishment in the Observatory at Kew.
The apparatus will be erected in the basement-hall of the Observatory;
and when the arrangement is complete it is hoped that the Observatory will
become a place where quadrants and sextants can be verified with great
facility, and where scientific travellers or officers in Her Majesty's Service
may receive instruction in the use of geographical instruments.
The solar spectrum is being mapped by the spectroscope belonging to the
Chairman. All the measurements for the region between D and E have
been made and carefully verified ; and a map of this region, in accordance
with these measurements, has been constructed by Mr. Loewy. Many more
lines are exhibited in this map than in that lately made by Professor Kirch-
hoff. Observations made by this instrument have likewise brought out
several new lines in the spectrum of ignited sodium.
At the joint suggestion of Professor Tait of Edinburgh and the Superin-
tendent, an ingenious apparatus has been constructed by Mr. Eeckley, by
means of which a disk can be made to revolve in vacuo with great velocity ;
and a short description of some experiments performed by means of this
instrument, with the view of ascertaining whether visible as well as mole-
cular motion is dissipated by a medium pervading space, has been commu-
nicated to the Eoyal Society by the Superintendent in conjunction with
Professor Tait.
The instrument devised by Mr. Broun, for the purpose of estimating the
magnetic dip by means of soft iron, remains at present at the Observatory.
The Superintendent has received grants from the Eoyal Society for special
experiments ; and when these are completed, an account will be rendered to
that Society.
It will be seen from the foregoing Eeport, that many other experiments
and observations, of a nature to advance science, are made under the sanc-
tion of the Committee, besides those which form the ordinary work of the
Observatory; it is, however, always stipulated that the cost of such experi-
ments shall be defrayed by their promoters.
J. P. Gassiot,
C hairman.
Kew Observatory,
31st August, 1865.
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REPORT OF THE PARLIAMENTARY COMMITTEE. XXXlX
Report of the Parliamentary Committee to the Meeting of the British
Association at Birmingham, September 1865.
The Parliamentary Committe have the honour to report as follows :—
By a Resolution passed at Bath your Committee were requested to press
on the Government the expediency of instituting a series of experiments oir
Foo- Signals, but on consulting some of the Members of the Committee
appointed for the purpose of making experiments on the transmission of
sound under water, your Committee were informed that no action on the part
of the Government was at present necessary.
Your Committee brought under the notice of the Council the unsatisfactory
character of the provisions of the Public Schools Bill of last Session, so far as
they affected the interests of Science.
Your Committee advocated such alterations therein as they believed would
be most likely to promote these interests ; and it was at the suggestion of one
of their members that Professors Sharpey, W. A. Miller, Huxley, and TynclaU
were applied to, and gave the admirable evidence on the extent to which
Physical Science might with advantage be introduced into the studies of our
great Public Schools, which will be foimd in the Appendix to the Report of
the Committee of the House of Lords on the Bill above referred to, and to
which the attention of all engaged in the instruction of youth may be usefully
directed. Some valuable remarks on the same subject by our President Elect
had been previously referred to in the course of the Debate ; and the evidence
of our President, Drs. Carpenter and Hooker, the Astronomer Royal, and
others, before the Public School Commissioners, furnishes an additional proof,
if any were wanting, of the zeal and energy with which the Cultivators of
Science continue to remonstrate against the system, which still unhappily
prevails in many of our Schools, of ignoring the claims of Science.
Whottesley, Chairman.
31st August, 1865.
xl REroiiT — 1863.
recommendations adopted by the genekal committee at the blkjunghajl
Meeting in September 1865.
[Whcu Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the Secretary,
except there is a specific nomination.]
Involving Grants of Money.
That trie sum of .£'600 be placed at the disposal of the Council for main-
taining the Establishment of the Kew Observatory.
That the Lunar Committee, consisting of Mr. J. Glaisher, Lord Eosse,
The Rev. T. W. Webb, Mr. W. E. Birt, Dr. Lee, Mr. J. N. Lockyer, Rev.
"W. E. Dawes, Sir J. Herschel, Bart., Frofessor Phillips, Mr. J. Nasmyth,
Mr. Warren De la Rue, and Mr. H. S. Ellis, be reappointed, with the object of
making further progress in mapping the surface of the Moon ; that Mr. W.
E. Birt be Secretary, and that the sum of .£100 be placed at their disposal
for the purpose.
That the Committee on Electrical Standards, consisting of Professor
Williamson, Professor Wheatstone, Professor W. Thomson, Professor W. A.
Miller, Dr. A. Matthiessen, Mr. Fleeming Jenkin, Sir Charles Bright, Pro-
fessor Maxwell, Mr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. Balfour Stewart, Dr. Joule, and
Mr. C. F. Yarley, be reappointed, with power to add to their number ; that
Mr. Fleeming Jenkin be the Secretary, and that the sum of £100 be placed
at their disposal for the purpose.
That the Committee on Luminous Meteors and Aerolites, consisting of
Mr. Glaisher, Mr. E. P. Greg, Mr. E. W. Brayley, and Mr. Alexander
Herschel, be reappointed ; that Mr. Herschel be the Secretary, and that the
sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That the Balloon Committee, consisting of Colonel Sykes, Mr. Airy,
Lord Wrottesley, Sir David Brewster, Sir J. Herschel, Bart., Dr. Lee, Dr.
Eobinson, Mr. Fairbairn, Dr. Tyndall, Dr. W. A. Miller, and Mr. Glaisher,
be reappointed for the purpose of making night observations at any time of
the year, and day observations in the months of October to April ; and elec-
trical observations if possible ; that Mr. Glaisher bo the Secretary, and that
the sum of .£100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Dr. Eobinson, Professor Wheatstone, Dr. Gladstone, and Professor
Hennessy be reappointed (with power to add to their number) for the purpose
of making experiments on the Transmission of Sound under Water ; and that
the sum of £30 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. Glaisher, Lord Wrottesley, Professor Phillips, Professor Tyndall,
Dr. Lee, Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. F. J. Bateman, and Mr. E. W. Mylne be a
Committee for the purpose of continuing the Eeports on the Eainfall of the
British Isles ; and that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for that
purpose.
That the Astronomer Royal, Lord Wrottesley, Sir J. Herschel, Bart., Dr. Lee,
Mr. W. De la Eue, and Mr. Glaisher (with power to add to their number) be a
Committee for the purpose of examining the late Dr. Bumker's Astronomical
Observations in the Southern Hemisphere ; and in case they should be of
opinion that it is desirable these observations should be reduced for publica-
tion, a sum of £150 be granted to Professor G. Eiimker, M.A., for that
purpose.
That Mr. Thomas Fairley be requested to continue his researches on the
RECOMMENDATIONS Oi' THE 6ENERA£ COMMITTEE. xli
Polycyanides of Organic Radicals ; and that £20 be placed at his disposal for
that purpose.
That Dr. Matthiessen be requested to investigate the chemical constitution
of Cast Iron ; and that the sum of =£'-50 be placed at his disposal for the
purpose.
That the Committee appointed at Bath (Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., Professor
Phillips, Sir J. Lubbock, Bart,, Mr. J. Evans, Mr. E. Vivian, and Mr. W.
Pengelly) to investigate Kent's Hole, Torquay, be requested to continue
the exploration ; that Mr. "W. Pengelly be the Secretary, and that the further
sum of £200 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Messrs. W. S. Mitchell, J. Prestwich, and H. Woodward be a Com-
mittee for the purpose of investigating the Fossil-Leaf Bed in Alum Bay,
Isle of Wight ; that the specimens be placed in the British Museum ; and
that the sum of .£20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Dr. E. Perceval Wright and Professor Harkness be a Committee for
the purpose of assisting Mr. Brownrig in exploring the Kilkenny Coal
Field ; that the Fossils thus obtained be placed in some National museum ;
and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professor Busk and Captain Spratt be a Committee for the purpose
of continuing to assist Dr. Leith Adams in the exploration of the Maltese
Caverns ; and that the further sum of =£30 be placed at their disposal for
the purpose.
That Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Professor Owen, the Earl of Dueie, Sir
Henry Rawlinson, and the llev. H. B. Tristram be a Committee for the
purpose of aiding the Palestine Exploration Fund in exploring the Geology,
Geography, and Zoology of the Holy Land ; and that the sum of =£100 be
placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That the Committee appointed at Bath, consisting of Mr. J. W. Salter,
Mr. R. Lightbody, Mr. Ticary, and Mr. J. E. Lee, be reappointed for the
purpose of assisting Mr. Hicks in further excavations in the Lingula Flags at
St. David's ; and that an illustrative suite of the Fossils be placed in the
Miiseum of Practical Geology, Jerniyn Street ; and that the sum of =£20 be
placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. J. Bryce, Mr. Milne Home, and Mr. M c Farlan be a Committee
for the purpose of studying Earthquake Shocks in Scotland ; and that the
sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Dr. E. Perceval Wright and Dr. Carte be a Committee for the pur-
pose of reporting on the Irish Annelids ; and that the sum of £15 be placed
at their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. A. Newton, llev. H. B. Tristram, and Dr. Sclater be a Committee
for the purpose of assisting Mr. E. Newton in his researches for the remains
of the extinct Didino birds of the Mascareen Islands, and to report thereon
at the next Meeting of the Association ; and that the sum of £50 be placed
at their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Mr. Bobert M c Andrew, Mr. Edward Waller,
Rev. A. M. Norman, and Mr. II. K. Jordan be a Committee for the purpose
of exploring the Coasts of the Hebrides by means of the dredge ; and that the
sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Mr. C. Spence Bate, Mr. John Couch, Mr. B.
Rowe, Mr. C. Stewart, and the Bev. Dr. Hincks be a Committee for inves-
tigating the Marine Flora and Fauna of the southern coasts of Devon and
Cornwall ; and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
xlii report — 1865.
That Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Rev. W. Gregbr, and Mr. Robert Dawson be a
Committee for tbe purpose of exploring the Coasts of Aberdeenshire and
Banffshire ; and that the sum of .£25 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
That Dr. Scott, Mr. C. Stewart, and Mr. H. S. Ellis be a Committee for
the purpose of .making experiments on Oyster Culture in the West of
England ; and that the sum of =£10 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
That Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Dr. Collingwood, Rev. H. H. Higgins, Mr.
Isaac Byerley, Dr. J. B. Edwards, and Mr. Thomas J. Moore be a Committee
for the purpose of dredging the Estuary of the Mersey ; and that the sum of
£5 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Dr. J. E. Gray, Mr. C. Spence Bate, and Mr. Frank Buckland be a
Committee for the purpose of reporting on Oyster Culture ; and that the sum
of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Sir John Lubbock Bart., Sir Henry Rawlinson, Mr. Jolm Crawfurd,
Professor Huxley, and Mr. Francis Galton be a Committee for the purpose
of aiding the researches of Mr. George Busk on Typical Crania ; and that the
sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Dr. Barnard Davis, Professor Acland, and Professor Rolleston be a
Committee for the purpose of preparing a Catalogue of Crania ; and that the
sum of =£50 be placed at their disposal for that purpose.
That a grant of .£10 be made to Dr. Richard Norris to enable him to
pursue physiological experiments on Rigor Mortis.
That a grant of £25 be made to Dr. B. W. Richardson to enable him to
pursue his physiological experiments on the Aniyl Series and allied organic
compounds.
That Sir John Bowring, Lord Wrottesley, The Bight Hon. C. B. Adderley,
Sir William Armstrong, The Astronomer Royal, Samuel Brown, W. Ewart,
T. Graham, Sir John Hay, Bart., Professor flennessy, James Heywood, Dr.
Lee, Dr. Leone Levi, Professor W. A. Miller, Professor Rankine, Rev. Dr.
Robinson, Colonel Sykes, W. Tito, Professor A. W. Williamson, James Yates,
Sir Robert Kane, F. P. Fellows, C. W. Siemens, Matthew Arnold, Right
Hon. Earl Fortescue, Dr. Dieterici, Follett Osier, Ralph Hcaton, I. de
Meschen, and P. Le Neve Foster (with power to add to their number), be a
Committee, with power to use such measures as they may deem expedient for
promoting the extensive use of the Metric System in scientific documents, as
well as the teaching of the system in schools and colleges, and for the general
information of the people ; that Professor Leone Levi be the Secretary, and
that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the furtherance of these
objects.
That the Patent Law Committee be reappointed, and that it consist of the
following Members : — Mr. Thomas Webster, Sir W. G. Armstrong, Mr. J. F.
Bateman, Mr. W. Fairbairn, Mr. John Hawkshaw, Mr. J. Scott Russell, Mr.
John Bethel, and Mr. Peter Le Neve Foster ; and that the grant of £30, pre-
viously made and not drawn, be renewed.
That the Committee for the purpose of experimenting on the difference
between the resistance of water to floating and to immersed bodies, consisting
of J. Scott Russell, Mr. J. R. Napier, Professor Rankine, and Mr. W. Froude,
be reappointed ; and that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. xliU
Applications for Reports and Researches not involving Grants
of Money.
That Professor Stokes be requested to continue his Eeport on Physical
Optics.
That Professor Smith be requested to continue and conclude his Eeport on
the Theory of Numbers.
That Professor "Wanklyn be requested to continue his Research on the
Hexylic Compounds.
That the Committee on Scientific Evidence in Courts of Law, consisting
of the Rev. "W. Y. Harcourt, Professor "Williamson, TheRight Hon. J. Napier,
Mr. W. Tite, Professor Christison, Mr. James Heywood, Mr. J. P. Bateman,
Mr. Thomas Webster, Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart., and Professor "W. A.
Miller (with power to add to their number) be reappointed ; and that Pro-
fessor "Williamson be the Secretary.
That Dr. Paul be requested to continue his Report on the Application of
Chemistry to Geology.
That Dr. Baker Edwards be requested to continue his Research on the
Alkaloidal Principles of the Calabar Bean.
That Mr. J. F. Spencer, not having been able to'complete his Report " On
the different modes of estimating the nominal horse-power of Marine En-
gines, with a view of securing a uniform system," be requested to continue
his labours, and Report at the next Meeting.
That the Gun-Cotton Committee, consisting of Mr. Fairbairn, Mr. Joseph
"Whitworth, Mr. James Nasmyth, Mr. J. Scott Russell, Mr. John Anderson,
Sir William G. Armstrong, Dr. Gladstone, Professor YV. A. Miller, Dr. Frank-
land, and Mr. Abel, be reappointed and requested to continue their Report.
Involving Application to Government.
That Sir Roderick Murchison, Admiral R. Collinson, Admiral Ommanney,
and Mr. C. R. Markham be a Committee for the purpose of representing to
Her Majesty's Government the advantage to several branches of Science
that would be derived from the ^exploration of the unknown region around
the North Pole.
Communications to be printed in extenso.
That the Addresses of the Presidents of the Sections be printed in extenso
in the Transactions.
That the Paper read by Mr. Follett Osier on September 11, "On the
Horary and Diurnal Variations in the Motion of the Air," with Diagrams
illustrating the same, be printed in extenso in the Reports of the Asso-
ciation. •
That Mr. Bessemer's Paper " On the Manufacture of Cast Steel, its pro-
gress and employment as a substitute for "Wrought Don," be printed in extenso
in the Transactions of the Sections.
That the title of Section D be changed to Biology, and that the Council be
charged with making the requisite arrangements.
The Committee unanimously recommend that for the word " Subsection "
in the third paragraph of the business of Sections the word " Department "
be substituted.
xliv REPORT — 18G5.
Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes by
the General Committee at the Birmingham Meeting in September
1865. The names of the Members who ivould be entitled to call on
the General Treasurer for the respective Grants are prefixed.
Kew Observatory. £ s. J.
Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Observatory 600
Mathematics and Physics.
Glaisher, Mr.— Lunar Committee 100
Williamson, Prof.— Electrical Standards 100
Glaisher, Mr. — Luminous Meteors and Aerolites 50
Sykes, Col.— Balloon Experiments 100
Robinson, Dr. — Sound under "Water (renewed) 30
Glaisher, Mr.— British Rainfall 50
Airy, Mr. — Reduction of Riimker Observations 150
Chemistry.
Fairlcy, Mr. — Polycyanides of Organic Radicals 20
Matthiessen, Dr.— Chemical Constitution of Cast Iron (renewed) 50
Geology.
Lyell, Sir C— Kent's Hole Investigation 200
Mitchell, Mr.— Alum Bay Eossil Leaf Bed 20
Wright, Dr. E. P.— Kilkenny Coal-field 20
Busk, Professor. — Maltese Caverns Explorations 30
Murchison, Sir R. — Palestine Explorations 100
Salter, Mr. J. W.— Lingnla Elags at St. David's 20
Bryce, Mr. J. — Researches on Earthquakes in Scotland 25
Zoology, Botany, and Physiology.
Wright, Dr. E. P.— Irish Annelida 15
Newton, Mr. — Didine Birds of Mascareen Islands 50
Jeffreys, Mr.— Hebrides Coast Dredging 50
Jeffreys, Mr. — Marine Fanna and Flora (Devon and Cornwall) 25
Jeffreys, Mr.— Aberdeen and Banffshire Coast Dredging .... 25
Scott, Mr.— Oyster Culture in the West of England 10
Jeffreys, Mr. — Mersey Dredging 5
Gray, Dr. J. E.— Oyster Culture 25
Davis, Dr. Barnard.— Catalogue of Crania 50
Norris, Dr. Richard. — Observations on Rigor Mortis 10
Richardson, Dr. B. W. — Amyl Compounds 25
Geography and Ethnology.
Lubbock, Sir J.— Typical Crania (renewed) 50
Statistics and Economic Science.
Bowring, Sir J. — Metrical Committee 50
Mechanics.
Webster, Mr.— Patent Laws (renewed) 30
Russell, J. Scott, Mr. — Resistance of Water to Floating Bodies 50
Total "2135
GENERAL STATEMENT.
xlv
General Statement of Bums which have been paid on Account of Grants
for Scientific Purposes.
£ s. d.
1334.
Tide Discussions 20
1835.
Tide Discussions 62
British Fossil Ichthyology 105
£167
1836.
Tide Discussions 163
British Fossil Ichthyology 105
Thermometric Observations, &c. 50
Experiments on long-continued
Heat 17 1
Rain-Gauges 9 13
Refraction Experiments 15
Lunar Nutation 60
Thermometers 15 6
£434 14
1837.
Tide Discussions 284 1
Chemical Constants 24 13 6
Lunar Nutation 70
Observations on Waves 100 12
Tides at Bristol 150
Meteorology and Subterranean
Temperature 89 5
Vitrification Experiments 150
Heart Experiments 8 4 6
Barometric Observations 30
Barometers 11 18 6
£918 14 6
1838.
Tide Discussions 29
British Fossil Fishes 100
Meteorological Observations and
Anemometer (construction) ... 100
Cast Iron (Strength of) 60
Animal and Vegetable Substances
(Preservation of) 19 I 10
Railway Constants 41 12 10
Bristol Tides 50
Growth of Plants
Mud in Rivers ,
Education Committee
Heart Experiments
Land and Sea Level ,
Subterranean Temperature .
Steam-vessels
Meteorological Committee 31 9
Thermometers 16 4
6 6
tu
3
50
5
267
7
8 6
100
£956 12 2
1839.
Fossil Ichthyology 110
Meteorological Observations at
Plymouth 63 10
Mechanism of Waves 144 2
Bristol Tides , , 35 18 6
£ ». d.
Meteorology and Subterranean
Temperature
Vitrification Experiments
Cast Iron Experiments
Railway Constants
Land and Sea Level
Steam-vessels' Engines
Stars in Histoire Celeste
Stars in Lacaille
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue
Animal Secretions
Steam-engines in Cornwall
Atmospheric Air
Cast and Wrought Iron
Heat on Organic Bodies
Gases on Solar Spectrum
Hourly Meteorological Observa-
tions, Inverness and Kingussie
Fossil Reptiles
Mining Statistics
£l
21
11
9
4
7
100
28
7
2
274
1
4
100
331
18
(i
11
16
6
10
10
50
16
1
40
3
22
49
7
8
118
2
9
50
595 11
1840.
Bristol Tides 100
Subterranean Temperature 13
Heart Experiments 18
Lungs Experiments 8
Tide Discussions 50
Land and Sea Level 6
Stars (Histoire Celeste) 242
Stars (Lacaille) 4
Stars (Catalogue) 264
Atmospheric Air 15
Water on Iron 10
Heat on Organic Bodies 7
Meteorological Observations 52
Foreign Scientific Memoirs 112
Working Population 100
School Statistics 50
Forms of Vessels 184
Chemical and Electrical Pheno-
mena 40
Meteorological Observations at
Plymouth SO
Magnetical Observations 185
£1546
13
6
19
13
11
1
10
15
(i
u
15
(1
17
6
1
6
7
13 9
16 4
1841.
Observations on Waves
Meteorology and Subterranean
Temperature 8
Actinometers 10
Earthquake Shocks 17
Acrid Poisons 6
Veins and Absorbents 3
Mud in Rivers 5
Marine Zoology 15
Skeleton Maps 20
Mountain Barometers 6
Stars (Histoire Celeste) 185
30
8
7
1)
(i
12
8
l)
18
6
tl
U
xlvi
report — 1865.
JE
Stars (Lacaille) 79
Stars (Nomenclature of) 17
Stars (Catalogue of) 40
Water on Iron 50
Meteorological Observations at
Inverness 20
Meteorological Observations (re-
duction of) 25
Fossil Reptiles 50
Foreign Memoirs 62
Railway Sections 38
Forms of Vessels 193
Meteorological Observations at
Plymouth 55
Magnetical Observations 61
Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone 100
Tides at Leiih 50
Anemometer at Edinburgh 69
Tabulating Observations 9
Races of Men 5
Radiate Animals .jj 2_
£1235
1842.
Dynamometric Instruments 113
Anoplura Britannise 52
Tides at Bristol 59
Gases on Light 30
Chronometers 26
Marine Zoology 1
British Fossil Mammalia 100
Statistics of Education 20
Marine Steam-vessels' Engines... 28
Stars (Histoire Celeste) 59
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of) 110
Railway Sections 161
British Belemnites 50
Fossil Reptiles (publication of
Report) 210
Forms of Vessels ISO
Galvanic Experiments on Rocks 5
Meteorological Experiments at
Plymouth 68
Constant Indicator and Dynamo-
metric Instruments 90
Force of Wind 10
Light on Growth of Seeds 8
Vital Statistics 50
Vegetative Power of Seeds 8
Questions on Human Race 7
£1449
s. d.
5
19 6
1 6
12
18 8
1 10
6 3
10 11
11
2
12
8
14
7
17
6
5
10
1 11
9
17
1843.
Revision of the Nomenclature of
Stars 2
Reduction of Stars, British Asso-
ciation Catalogue 25
Anomalous Tides, Frith of Forth 120
Hourly Meteorological Observa-
tionsatKingussieandlnverness 77 12 8
Meteorological Observations at
Plymouth 55
Whewell's Meteorological Ane-
mometer at Plymouth 10
£ s. d.
Meteorological Observations, Os-
ier's Anemometer at Plymouth 20
Reduction of Meteorological Ob-
servations 30
Meteorological Instruments and
Gratuities 39 6
Construction of Anemometer at
Inverness 56 12 2
Magnetic Cooperation 10 8 10
Meteorological Recorder for Kew
Observatory 50
Action of Gases on Light 18 16 1
Establishment at Kew Observa-
tory, Wages, Repairs, Furni-
ture and Sundries 133 4 7
Experiments by Captive Balloons 81 8
Oxidation of the Rails of Railways 20
Publication of Report on Fossil
Reptiles 40
Coloured Drawings of Railway
Sections 147 18 3
Registration* of Earthquake
Shocks 30
Report on Zoological Nomencla-
ture 10
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester 4 4
Vegetative Power of Seeds 5 3 8
Marine Testacea (Habits of) ... 10
Marine Zoology 10
Marine Zoology 2 14 11
Preparation of Report on British
Fossil Mammalia 100
Physiological Operations of Me-
dicinal Agents 20
Vital Statistics 36
Additional Experiments on the
Forms of Vessels 70
Additional Experiments on the
Forms of Vessels 100
Reduction of Experiments on the
Forms of Vessels 100
Morin's Instrument and Constant
Indicator 69
Experiments on the Strength of
Materials 60
£1565 10 2
5
8
14
1(1
»
1844.
Meteorological Observations at
Kingussie and Inverness 12
Completing Observations at Ply-
mouth 35
Magnetic and Meteorological Co-
operation 25 8 4
Publication of the British Asso-
ciation Catalogue of Stars 35
Observations on Tides on the
East coast of Scotland 100
Revision of the Nomenclature of
Stars 1842 2 9 6
Maintaining the Establishment in
Kew Observatory 117 17 3
Instruments for Kew Observatory 56 7 3
GENERAL STATEMENT.
xlvii
£ s.
Influence of Light on Plants 10
Subterraneous Temperature in
Ireland 5
Coloured Drawings of Railway
Sections 15 17
Investigation of Fossil Fishes of
the Lower Tertiary Strata ... 100
Registering the Shocks of Earth-
quakes 1842 23 11
Structure of Fossil Shells 20
Radiata and Mollusca of the
jEgean and Red Seas 1S42 100
Geographical Distributions of
Marine Zoology 1842 10
Marine Zoology of Devon and
Cornwall 10
Marine Zoology of Corfu 10
Experiments on the Vitality of
Seeds 9
Experiments on the Vitality of
Seeds 1842 8 7
Exotic Anoplura 15
Strength of Materials 100
Completing Experiments on the
Forms of Ships 100
Inquiries into Asphyxia 10
Investigations on the Internal
Constitution of Metals 50
Constant Indicator and Morin's
Instrument, 1842 10 3
£981 12
1845.
Publication of the British Associa-
tion Catalogue of Stars 351 14
Meteorological Observations at
Inverness 30 18
Magnetic and Meteorological Co-
operation 16 16
Meteorological Instruments at
Edinburgh 18 11
Reduction of Anemometrical Ob-
servations at Plymouth 25
Electrical Experiments at Kew
Observatory 43 17
Maintaining the Establishment in
Kew Observatory 149 15
For Kreil's Barometrograph 25
Gases from Iron Furnaces 50
The Actinograph 15
Microscopic Structure of Shells... 20
Exotic Anoplura 1843 10
Vitality of Seeds 1S43 2
Vitality of Seeds 1S44 7
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10
Physiological Action of Medicines 20
Statistics of Sickness and Mor-
tality in York 20
Earthquake Shocks 1843 15 14
~£830 9~
1846.
British Association Catalogue of
Stars 1844 211 15
I
6
10
£
Fossil Fishes of the London Clay 100
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1839 50
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory 146
Strength of Materials 60
Researches in Asphyxia 6
Examination of Fossil Shells 10
Vitality of Seeds 1844 2
Vitality of Seeds 1845 7
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10
Marine Zoology of Britain 10
Exotic Anoplura 1844 25
Expenses attending Anemometers 1 1
Anemometers' Repairs 2
Atmospheric Waves 3
Captive Balloons 1844 8
Varieties of the Human Race
1844 7
Statistics of Sickness and Mor-
tality in York 12
£685
s.
d.
16
7
16
2
15
10
12
3
7
3
6
3
3
19
3
6
3
16
1847.
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1839 50
Habits of Marine Animals 10
Physiological Action of Medicines 20
Marine Zoology of Cornwall ... 10
Atmospheric Waves 6
Vitality of Seeds 4
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory 107
£208
9
3
7
7
8 6
5 4
1848.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory 171
Atmospheric Waves 3
Vitality of Seeds 9
Completion of Catalogues of Stars 70
On Colouring Matters 5
On Growth of Plants 15
£275
15
11
10
9
15
1849.
Electrical Observations at Kew
Observatory 50
Maintaining Establishment at
ditto 76
Vitality of Seeds 5
On Growth of Plants 5
Registration of Periodical Phe-
nomena 10
Bill on account of Anemometrical
Observations 13
£159 19
2
5
8
1
9
1850.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory 255
Transit of Earthquake Waves ... 50
18
xl
vm
REPORT — 18G5.
£ s. d.
Periodical Phenomena 15
Meteorological Instrument,
Azores 25
£345 18
1891.
Maintaining the Establishment at
KewObservatory (includes part
ofgrantin 1849) 309 2 2
Theory of Heat 20 1 1
Periodical Phenomena of Animals
and Plants 5
Vitality of Seeds 5 4
Influence of Solar Radiation 30
Ethnological Inquiries 12
Researches on Annelida 10
"16391 9 7
1852.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory (including
balance of grant for 1850) ... 233 17 8
Experiments on the Conduction
of Heat 5
Influence of Solar Radiations ... 20
Geological Map of Ireland 15
Researches on the British Anne-
Hda 10
Vitality of Seeds 10
Strength of Boiler Plates 10
£304
1853.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory 1C5
Experiments on the Influence of
Solar Radiation 15
Researches on the British Anne*
Hda 10
Dredging on the East Coast of
Scotland ]0
Ethnological Queries 5
£205
1S54. "
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory (including
balance of former grant) 330 15 4
Investigations on Flax n
Effects of Temperature on
Wrought Iron 10
Registration of Periodical Phe-
nomena j0
British Annelida '", ' 10
Vitality of Seeds ....!.!!!!!!!"!!! 5
Conduction of Heat !"" 4
' £380 19 7
1855. ~"
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory 495
Earthquake Movements '." 10
Physical Aspect of the Moon!!! 1 1
Vitality of Seeds ]0
Map of the AVorld .,..,', ] 5
Ethnological Queries 5
Dredging near Belfast ,",'!,!!!!!!! 4
£480 16 A
2
9
6
fi
7
o-
2
3
2
8
5
t
11
185(5.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory : —
1854 £ 75 01
1855 £500 0/
Strickland's Ornithological Syno-
nyms 100
Dredging and Dredging Forms... 9
Chemical Action of Light 20
Strength of Iron Plates 10
Registration of Periodical Pheno-
mena 10
Propagation of Salmon 10
575
13
9
£734 13 9
1857.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory 350
Earthquake Wave Experiments. . 40
Dredging near Belfast 10
Dredging on the West Coast of
Scotland 10
Investigations into the Mollusca
ofCalifornia 10
Experiments on Flax 5
Natural History of Madagascar. . 20
Researches on British Annelida 25
Report on Natural Products im-
ported into Liverpool 10
Artificial Propagation of Salmon 10
Temperature of Mines
Thermometers for Subterranean
Observations 5
Life-Boats 5
7 8
7 4
£507 15 4
1858.
Maintaining.the Establishment at
Kew Observatory 500
Earthquake Wave Experiments.. 25
Dredging on the West Coast of
Scotland 10
Dredging near Dublin 5
Vitality of Seeds 5
Dredging near Belfast 18
Report on the British Annelida... 25
Experiments on the production
of Heat by Motion in Fluids ... 20
Report on the Natural Products
imported into Scotland 10
5
13
£618 18 2
1859.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory 500
Dredging near Dublin 15
Osteology of Birds 50
Irish Tunicata 5
Manure Experiments 20
British Medusidse 5
Dredging Committee 5
Steam-vessels' Performance 5
Marine Fauna of South and West
of Ireland 10
Photographic Chemistry 10
Lanarkshire Fossils 20
Balloon Ascents 39
1
11
£G84 1 1 I
GENERAL STATEMENT.
xlix
6
1860. £ s. d.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory 500
Dredging near Belfast 10
Dredging in Dublin Hay 15
Inquiry into the Performance of
Steam-vessels 124
Explorations in the Yellow Sand-
stone of Dura Den 20
Chemico- mechanical Analysis of
Rocks and Minerals 25
Researches on the Growth of
Plants 10
Researches on the Solubility of
Salts 30
Researches on the Constituents
ofManures 25
Balance of Captive Balloon Ac-
counts 1 13 6
£1241 7
1861.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory 500
Earthquake Experiments 25
Dredging North and East Coasts
of Scotland 23
Dredging Committee : —
1860 £50 01
1861 £22 0J
Excavations at Dura Den 20
Solubility of Salts 20
Steam-vessel Performance 150
Fossils of Lesmahago 15
Explorations at Uriconium 20
Chemical Alloys 20
Classified Index to the Transac-
tions 100
Dredging in the Mersey and Dee 5
Dip Circle 30
Photoheliographic Observations 50
Prison Diet 20
Gauging of Water 10
Alpine Ascents 6
Constituents of Manures 25
72
5 1
£1111 5 10
1862.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory 500
Patent Laws 216
Mollusca of N.-W. America 10
Natural History by Mercantile
Marine 5
Tidal Observations 25
Photoheliometer at Kew 40
Photographic Pictures of the Sun 150
Rocks of Donegal 25
Dredging Durham and North-
umberland 25
Connexion of Storms 20
Dredging North- East Coast of
Scotland 6 9 6
Ravages of Teredo , 3 11
Standards of Electrical Resistance 50
Railway Accidents 10
1865.
£
Balloon Committee 200
Dredging Dublin Bay 10
Dredging the Mersey 5
Prison Diet 20
Gauging of Water 12
Steamships' Performance 150
Thermo-lilectric Currents 5
£1293
1863.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory 600
Balloon Committee deficiency... 70
Balloon Ascents (other expenses) 25
Entozoa 25
Coal Fossils 20
Herrings 20
Granites of Donegal 5
Prison Diet 20
Vertical Atmospheric Movements 13
Dredging Shetland 50
Dredging North-east coast of
Scotland 25
Dredging Northumberland and
D urham 17
Dredging Committee superin-
tendence 10
Steamship Performance 100
Balloon Committee 200
Carbon underpressure 10
Volcanic Temperature 100
Bromide of Ammonium 8
Electrical Standards 100
Construction and distribu-
tion 40
Luminous Meteors 17
Kew Additional Buildings for
Photoheliograph 100
Thermo-Electricity , 15
Analysis of Rocks 8
Hydroids 10
£1608
1864.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory 600
Coal Fossils '. 20
Vertical Atmospheric Move-
ments 20
Dredging Shetland 75
Dredging Northumberland 25
Balloon Committee 200
Carbon underpressure 10
Standards of Electric Resistance 100
Analysis of Rocks 10
Hydroida 10
Askham's Gift 50
Nitrjte of Amyle 10
Nomenclature Committee 5
Rain-Gauges 19
Cast Iron Investigation 20
Tidal Observations in the Humber 50
Spectral Rays 45
Luminous Meteors 20
£1289~
s.
d
10
16 6
3
10
3 10
15
8
15 8
1
REPORT 1865.
Oyster Breeding 25
Gibraltar Caves Researches ... 150
Kent's Hole Excavations 100
Moon's Surface Observations ... 35
Marine Fauna 25
Dredging Aberdeenshire 25
Dredging Channel Islands 50
Zoological Nomenclature 5
Resistance of Floating Bodies in
Water 100
Bath Waters Analysis 8
Luminous Meteors 40
s.
d.
10
£1591 7 10
1865. £ s. d.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory 600
Balloon Committee 100
Ilvdroida 13
Rain-Gauges 30
Tidal Observations in the Humber 6 8
Hexylic Compounds 20
Amyl Compounds 20
Irish Flora 25
American Mollusca 3 9
Organic Acids 20
Lingula Flags Excavation 10
Eurypterus 50
Electrical Standards 100
Malta Caves Researches 30
Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee.
Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money for scientific pur-
poses have been entrusted, are required to present to each following meeting
of the Association a Report of the progress which has been made ; with a
statement of the sums which have been expended, and the balance which re-
mains disposable on each grant.
Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific purposes from the funds of the Asso-
ciation expire at the ensuing meeting, unless it shall appear by a Report that
the Recommendations have been acted on, or a continuation of them be
ordered by the General Committee.
In each Committee, the Member first named is the person entitled to call on
the Treasurer, William Spottiswoode, Esq., 50 Grosvenor Place, London, S.W.,
for such portion of the sum granted as may from time to time be required.
In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate
the payment of personal expenses to the members.
In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua-
tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named shall be
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, the specified balance which may
remain unpaid on the former grant for the same object.
General Meetings.
On Wednesday Evening, September 6, at 8 p.m., in the Town Hall, Sir
Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A.,D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., resigned the ofiice of
President" to Professor John Phillips, M.A., LL.D., P.R.S., E.G.S., who took
the Chair, and delivered an Address, for which see page li.
On Thursday Evening, September 7, at 8 p.m., a Soiree took place in the
Town Hall.
On Eriday Evening, September 8, at 8.30 p.m., in the Town Hall, Joseph
Beete Jukes, Esq., E.R.S., E.G.S., delivered a Discourse on the "Probabili-
ties as to the Position and Extent of the Coal-Measures beneath the Red
Rocks of the Midland Counties."
On Monday Evening, September 11, at 8 p.m., a Soiree took place at the
•Exhibition of the Society of Artists.
On Tuesday Evening, September 12, at 8 p.m., a Soiree took place in the
Town Hall.
On Wednesday, September 13, at 3 p.m., the concluding General Meeting
took place, when the Proceedings of the General Committee, and the Grants of
Money for Scientific purposes, were explained to the Members.
The Meeting was then adjourned to Nottingham*.
* The Meeting is appointed to take place on Wednesday, August 22, 1866.
* ADDRESS
OF
JOHN PHILLIPS,
M.A. OXOST.; LL.D. DUBLIN; F.E.S.; F.G.S.; ETC.
Assembled for the third time in this busy centre of industrious England,
amid the roar of engines and the clang of hammers, where the strongest
powers of nature are trained to work in the fairy chains of art, how softly
falls upon the ear the accent of Science, the friend of that art, and the
guide of that industry ! Here, where Priestley analyzed the air, and Watt
obtained the mastery over steam, it well becomes the students of nature to
gather round the standard which they carried so far into the fields of know-
ledge. And when, on other occasions, we meet in quiet colleges and Aca-
demic halls, how gladly welcome is the union of fresh discoveries and new
inventions with the solid and venerable truths which are there treasured and
taught. Long may such union last ; the fair alliance of cultivated thought
and practical skill ; for by it labour is dignified and science fertilized, and the
condition of human society exalted !
Through this happy combination of science and art, the young life of the
British Association — one-third of a century — has been illustrated by disco-
veries and enriched by useful inventions in a degree never surpassed. How
else could we have gained that knowledge of the laws of nature which has
added to the working strength of a thousand millions of men the mightier
power of steam *, extracted from the buried ruins of primeval forests their
treasured elements of heat and light and colour, and brought under the con-
trol of the human finger, and converted into a messenger of man's gentlest
thoughts, the dangerous mystery of the lightning f ?
How many questions have we asked — not always in vain — regarding the
constitution of the earth, its history as a planet, its place in creation ; — now
probing with sharpened eyes the peopled space around — peopled with a thou-
sand times ten thousand stars ; — now floating above the clouds in colder and
clearer air; — now traversing the polar ice — the desert sand— the virgin
forest — the unconquered mountain ; — now sounding the depths of the ocean,
or diving into the dark places of the earth. Everywhere curiosity, every -
* The quantity of coal dug in Great Britain in the year 1864 appears by the returns of
Mr. E. Hunt to have been 92,787,873 tons. This would yield, if employed in steam-
engines of good construction, an amount of available force about equal to that of the
whole human race. But in the combustion of coal not less than ten times this amount of
force is actually set free — nine-tenths being at present unavailable, according to the state-
ment of Sir William Armstrong, in his Address to the Meeting at Newcastle in 1863.
t The definite magnetic effect of an electrical current was the discovery of Oersted in
1819 ; Cooke and Wheatstone's patent for an Electric Telegraph is dated in 1837 ; the first
message across the Atlantic was delivered in 1858. Tantse mobs erat.
(12
Hi report — 1865.
where disco very, everywhere enjoyment, everywhere some useful and there-
fore some worthy result. Life in every form, of every grade, in every stage ;
man in every clime and under all conditions ; the life that now surrounds
us, and that which has passed away ; — -these subjects of high contemplation
have been examined often, if not always, in the spirit of that philosophy
which is slowly raising, on a broad security of observed facts, sure induc-
tions, and repeated experiments, the steady columns of the temple of physi-
cal truth.
Few of the great branches of the study of nature on which modern philo-
sophy is intent were left unconsidered in the schools of Athens ; hardly one
of them was or indeed could be made the subject of accurate experiment.
The precious instruments of exact research — -the measures of time, and space,
and force, and motion — are of very modern date. If instead of the few
lenses and mirrors of which traces appear in Greek and Roman writers *,
there had been even the first Galilean or the smallest Newtonian telescope in
the hands of Hipparchus, Eratosthenes, or Ptolemy, would it have been left
to their remote successors to be still struggling with the elements of physical
astronomy, and waiting with impatience till another quarter of a century
shall have rolled away and given us one more good chance of measuring the
distance of the Sun by the transit of Venus ? Had such instruments as
Wheatstone's Chronoscope been invented, would it have been left to Foucault
to condense into his own apartment an experimental proof of the velocity of
light, and within a tract of thirty feet to determine the rate of its movement
through all the vast planetary space of millions and thousands of millions of
miles, more exactly than had been inferred by astronomers from observa-
tions of the satellites of Jupiter t ? By this experiment the velocity of light
appears to be less, sensibly less, than was previously admitted ; and this con-
clusion is of the highest interest. For, as by assuming too long a radius for
the orbit of Jupiter the calculated rate of light-mavement was too great ; so
now by employing the more exact rate and the same measures of time we
can correct the estimated distance of Jupiter and all the other planets from
the sun. We have in fact a really independent measure of planetary space ;
and it concurs with observations of the parallax of Mars, in requiring a con-
siderable reduction of the assumed diameters of the planetary paths. The
distance of the earth from the sun must be reduced from above ninety-five
to less than ninety-three millions of miles, and by this scale the other space-
measures of the solar system, excepting the diameter of the earth and the
distance and diameter of the moon, may be corrected +.
* The effect of lenses or globes of glass or crystal (iJaXo?) in collecting the solar rays
to a point are familiarly referred to by Aristophanes in the Nubes, 76G ; and the orna-
mental use of convex and concave reflectors is known by the curious discussions in tile
IVth Book of Lucretius.
t Fizeau performed experiments on the velocity of light between Suresnes and the
Butte Montmartre, by means of the oxyhydrogen light, reflected back in its own path.
1
The space was 28,324 feet Engl. Twice this distance was traversed in 7iT7jn77 of a
second = 167,528 geogr. miles in a second. From observations of Jupiter's satellites De-
lambre inferred 107,976 miles, Struve 166,096. The experiment of M. Foucault gives
298,000,000 metres = 160,920 geogr. miles.
J Estimates of the earth's distance from the sun have varied much. Cassiniand
Flair steed, using observations of the parallax of Mars, ascribe to it 10,000 or 11,000
diameters of the earth = 79 or 89 millions of miles. Huyghens estimated it at 12,000 =
95 millions of miles. In 1745, Button reported it as the common opinion of astronomers
at 30 millions of leagues (Fr.)=90 millions miles (Engl.), but after the transit of Venus
ADDRESS.
liii
The light and heat which are emitted from the sun reach the earth without
great diminution by the absorptive action of the atmosphere ; but the waste
of heat from the surface of our planet through radiation into space is pre-
vented, or rather lessened by this same atmosphere. Many transparent
bodies admit freely heat-rays derived from a source of high temperature, but
stop the rays which emanate from bodies only slightly warmed. The atmo-
sphere possesses this quality in a remarkable degree, and owes it to the pre-
sence of diffused water and vapour ; a fact which Dr. Tyndall has placed in
the clear light of complete and varied experiment *. The application of this
truth to the history of the earth and of the other planets is obvious. The
vaporous atmosphere acts like warm clothing to the earth. Hy an augmented
quantity of vapour dissolved, and water suspended in the air, the waste of
surface-heat of the earth would be more impeded ; the soil, the water, and
the lower parts of the atmosphere woiild grow wanner; the climates would
be more equalized ; the general conditions more like what has been supposed
to be the state of land, sea, and air during the geological period of the Coal-
measures.
Such an augmentation of the watery constituents in the atmosphere would
be a natural consequence of that greater flow of heat from the interior, which
by many geologists, mathematicians, and chemists is supposed to have hap-
pened in the earlier periods of the history of the earth.
By the same considerations we may understand how the planet Mars, which
receives not half so much heat from the sun f as the earth does, may yet
enjoy, as in fact it seems to enjoy, nearly a similar climate, with snows alter-
nately gathering on one or the other of its poles, and spreading over large
spaces around, but not, apparently, beyond the latitude of 50° or 40°; the
equatorial band of 30° or 40° north or south being always free from snow-
masses bright enough and large enough to catch the eye of the observer.
Mars may therefore be inhabited, and we may see in the present state of
this inquiry reason to pause before refusing the probability of any life to
Jupiter and even more distant planets.
The history of suns and planets is in truth the history of the effects of
light and heat manifested in them, or emanating from them. Nothing in
the universe escapes their influence ; no part of space is too distant to be
penetrated by their energy ; no kind of matter is able to resist their trans-
forming agency. Many if not all the special forces which act in the parti-
cles of matter are found to be reducible into the general form of heat ; as
this is convertible and practically is converted into proportionate measures of
special energy. Under this comprehensive idea of convertibility of force,
familiar to us now by the researches of Joule J, the reasonings of Grove § and
Helmholtz, and the theorems of Eankine |[, it has been attempted by Mayer,
Waterston, and Thomson^! to assign a cause for the maintenance of the heat-
giving power of the sun in the appulse of showers of aerolites and small
in 1769, he allowed 33 millions. Such was the effect of that now supposed erroneous ex-
periment on the opinions of astronomers. (Epoques de la Nature.)
* Proc. of Koy. Soc. 1861. The Rumford Medal was adjudged to Dr. Tyndall in 1864.
t The proportion is about ^§r according to the received measure of the mean dis-
tance.
J Phil. Mag. 1843; Reports of the British Association, 1845 ; Trans, of the Royal
Society, 1850.
§ Grove on the Correlation of Phvsical Forces, 1846.
|| Rankine, Trans, of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1850-51 ; Phil. Trans, 1854.
*|[ Communication to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1 854.
liv REPORT — 18G5.
masses of matter, and the extinction of their motion on the surface of the
luminary. By calculations of the same order, depending on the rate of radi-
ation of heat into space, the past antiquity of the earth and the future
duration of sunshine have heen expressed in thousands or millions of centu-
ries *. In like manner the physical changes on the sun's disk, by which
portions of his darkly heated body become visible through the luminous
photosphere, have been connected, if not distinctly as a cause, certainly as a
coincident phenomenon, with particular magnetic disturbances on the surface
of the earth; the solar spots and the magnetic deflections concurring in
periods of maxima and minima of ten or eleven years' duration. Thus even
these aberrant phenomena become part of that amazing system of periodical
variation which Sabine and his fellow-labourers, British, French, German,
Russian, and American, have established by contemporaneous observation over
a large part of the globe t.
With every change in the aspect and position of the sun, with every alte-
ration in the place and attitude of the moon, with every passing hour, the
magnetism of the earth submits to regular and calculable deviation. Through
the substance of the ground, and across the world of waters. Nature, ever
the beneficent guide to Science, has conveyed her messages and executed her
purposes, by the electric current, before the discovery of Oersted and the
magical inventions of "Wheatstone revealed the secret of her work.
Even radiant light in the language of the new Philosophy is conceived of
by Maxwell J as a form of electro-magnetic motion. And thus the impon-
derable, all-pervading powers, by which molecular energy is excited and
exchanged, are gathered into the one idea of restless activity among the
particles of matter : —
. . . seterno percita niotu :
ever-moving and being moved, elements of a system of perpetual change in
every part, and constant preservation of the whole.
What message comes to us with the light which springs from the distant
stars, and shoots through the depths of space to fall upon the earth after
tens, or hundreds, or thousands of years ? It is a message from the very
birthplace of light, and tells us what are the elementary substances which
have influenced the refraction of the ray. Spectral analysis, that new and
powerful instrument of chemical research for which we arc indebted to
Kirchhoff, has been taught by our countrymen to scrutinize not only planets
and stars, but even to reveal the constitution of the nebula?, those mysterious
masses out of which it has been thought new suns and planets might be
evolved — nursing-mothers of the stars. For a time, indeed, the resolution
* Professor Thomson assigns to the sun's heat, supposing it to be maintained by
the appulse of masses of matter, a limit of 300,000 years ; and to the period of cooling of
the earth from universal fusion to its actual state, 98 million years. These are the lowest
estimates sanctioned by any mathematician.
t A m ong the interesting researches which have been undertaken on the subject of the
spots, may be mentioned those of Wolf (Comptes Kendus, 1859), who finds the number
and periodicity of the spots to be dependent on the position of Venus, the Earth, Jupiter,
and Saturn. Stewart has made a special study of the relation of the spots to the path of
Venus (Proc. of the Koy. Soc. 186-1) ; and Cliacornac is now engaged iu unfolding his
conception of the spots as the visible effect of volcanic excitement. The peculiar features
of the solar surface are under examination by these and other good observers ; such as
Dawes, Nasmyth, Secchi, Stone, Fletcher, Howlett, and Lockyer.
| Proc. of Eoy. Soc. 1864. The elder Herschel appears to have regarded the light of
the sun and of the fixed stars as perhaps the effect of an electro-magnetic process — a per-
petual aurora.
ADDRESS. lv
of some nebuhe, by the giant mirror of Lord Rosse, afforded ground for
opposing the speculation of Herschel and the reasoning of Laplace, which
required for their very starting-point the admission of the existence of thin
gaseous expansions, with or without points or centres of incipient condensa-
tion, with or without marks of internal movement. The latest results, how-
ever, of spectral analysis of stars and nebulas by Mr. Huggins and Professor
W. A. Miller, have fairly restored the balance. The nebulas are indeed found
to have in some instances stellar points, but they are not stars ; the whole
resembles an enormous mass of luminous gas, with an interrupted spectrum
of three lines, probably agreeing with nitrogen, hydrogen, and a substance at
present unknown*. Stars tested by the same accurate hands are found to
have a constitution like that of our own Sun, and, like it, to show the pre-
sence of several terrestrial elements — as sodium, magnesium, iron, and very
often hydrogen. While in the Moon and Venus no lines whatever are found
due to an atmosphere, in Jupiter and Saturn, besides the lines which are
identical with some produced in our own atmosphere, there is one in the red,
which may be caused by the presence of some unknown gas or vapour. Mars
is still more peculiar, and enough is ascertained to discountenance the notion
of his redness being due to a peculiarity of the soil f.
To aid researches into the condition of celestial bodies, the new powers of
light, discovered by Niepce, Dagucrre, and Talbot, have been employed by
Bond, Draper, De la Rue, and other astronomers. To our countryman, in
particular, belongs the honour of successful experiments on the rose-coloured
flames which extend from certain points of the sun's border during an
eclipse ; as well as of valuable contributions through the same agency to that
enlarged survey of the physical aspect of the moon, which, since 1852, the
Association has striven to promote. By another application of the same
beautiful art, in connexion with clock-work, the momentary changes of
magnetic force and direction, the variations of temperature, the fluctuations
of atmospheric pressure, the force of the wind, the fall of rain, the propor-
tion of ozone in the air, are registered in our observatories ; and thus the
inventions of Ronalds and his successors have engaged the solar rays in
measuring and comparing contemporaneous phenomena of the same order
over lar£ e parts of the globe — phenomena some of which are occasioned by
those very rays.
As we ascend above the earth, heat, moisture, and magnetic force decrease,
the velocity of wind augments, and the proportion of oxygen and nitrogen
remains the same. The decrease of heat as we rise into the air is no new
subject of inquiry, nor have the views respecting it been very limited or very
accordant. Leslie considered it mathematically in relation to pressure ;
Humboldt gave the result of a large inquiry at points on the earth's surface,
unequally elevated above the sea ; and finally, Mr. Glaisher and Mr. Coxwell,
during many balloon ascents to the zones of life-destroying cold, far above
our mountain tops, have obtained innumerable data, in all seasons of the year,
through a vast range of vertical height. The result is to show much more
rapid decrease near the earth, much slower decrease at great elevations ;
thus agreeing in general with the decrease of density, and yet throwing no
discredit on the determinations of Humboldt, which do not refer to the free
atmospheric ocean, but to the mere borders of it where it touches the earth,
and is influenced thereby J.
* Proc. Roy. Soe. and Phil. Trans. 1864. t Phil. Trans. 1864.
t Reports of the British Association for 1862, 1863, 1864.
lvi REPORT — 1865.
The proportion of carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere at great heights is
not yet ascertained : it is not likely to be the same as that generally found
near the earth ; but its proportion may be more constant, since in those
regions it is exempt from the influence of the actions and reactions which
are always in progress on the land and in the water, and do not necessarily
compensate one another at every place and at every moment.
Other information bearing on the constitution of the atmosphere comes to
us from the auroral beams and other meteoric lights known as shooting-stars.
For some of these objects not only appear at heights of ten, fifty, and one
hundred or more miles above the earth, but at the height of fifty miles it is
on record that shooting-stars or fire-balls have left waving trains of light,
whose changes of form were in seeming accordance to varying pressure in the
elevated and attenuated atmosphere *.
Researches of every kind have so enriched meteorology since our early
friend, Professor J. Forbes, printed his suggestive reports on that subject, and
so great have been the benefits conferred on it by the electric telegraph, that
at this moment in M. Leverrier's observatory at Paris, and the office so lately
presided over by Admiral FitzEoy in London, the messages are arriving from
all parts of Europe to declare the present weather, and furnish grounds for
reasonable expectation of the next probable change. Hardly now within
the seas of Europe can a cyclone begin its career of devastation, before the
warning signal is raised in our sea-ports, to restrain the too confident sailor.
The gentle spirit which employed this knowledge in the cause of humanity
has passed away, leaving an example of unselfish devotion, in a work which
must not fail through any lack of energy on the part of this Association, the
Royal Society, or the Government. We must extend these researches and
enlarge these benefits by the aid of the telegraph bringing the ends of the
world together. Soon may that thread of communication unite the two great
sections of the Anglo-Saxon race, and bring and return through the broad
Atlantic the happy and mutual congratulations for peace restored and friend-
ships renewed.
The possible combinations of force by which, in the view we have been
considering, the characteristic forms and special phenomena of solid, liquid,
and gaseous matter are determined, may be innumerable. Practically, how-
ever, they appear to be limited, as natural products, to less than one thousand
distinguishable compounds, and less than one hundred f elementary sub-
stances. Of these elements the most prevalent are few on the earth ; as of
gases, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen ; of solids, silicon, calcium, magnesium,
sodium, iron ; and it is interesting to learn by analysis of the light of stars
and planets, that these substances, or some of them, are found in most of the
celestial objects yet examined, and that, except in one or two instances, no
other substances have been traced therein. Even the wandering meteoric
stones, which fall from their courses, and are examined on the earth, betray
only well-known mineral elements, though in the manner in which these are
combined, some differences appear, which by chemical research and the aid
of transparent sections Professor Maskelyne and Mr. Sorby are engaged in
studying and interpreting +.
* This is the result of a careful discussion made by myself of observations on a meteor
seen from Rouen to Yorkshire, and from Cornwall to Kent, Jan. 7, 1856.
f At the present moment the number of " elementary substances " is sixty-one.
f Professor Maskelyne has made a convenient classification of the large collection of
meteorites in the British Museum, under the titles of "Aerolite or Meteoric Stone;"
* Aerosiderite or Meteoric Iron ;" and " Aerosiderohtes," which includes the intervening
ADDRESS. lvii
By the labours of Lavoisier and his contemporaries, Chemistry acquired a
fixed logic and an accurate nomenclature. Dalton and the great physicists
of the early part of this century gave that law of definite combination by
proportionate weights of the elements which is for chemistry what the law
of gravitation is for celestial mechanics. A great expansion of the meaning
of the atomic theory took place, when Mitscherlich announced his views of
isomorphous, isomeric, and dimorphous bodies. For thus it came gradually
to appear that particular forces resided in crystals in virtue of their struc-
ture, lay in certain directions, and exhibited definite physical effects, if the
chemical elements, without being the same, were combined in similar propor-
tions, and aggregated into similar crystals. Some years later, ozone was
discovered by Schonbein, and it concurred with a few other allotropic sub-
stances in reviving, among philosophic chemists, the inquiry as to the relative
situation of the particles in a compound body, and the effects of such
arrangements : an idea which had been expressed by Dalton in diagrams of
atoms, and afterwards exercised the ingenuity of Exley, Mac Vicar, and
others *.
' Everything connected with this view of the modification of physical pro-
perties by the arrangement of the particles- — whether elementary or com-
pound — is of the highest importance to mineralogy, a branch of study by no
means so much in favour even with chemists as its own merits and its col-
lateral bearings might justly deserve. Yet it is in a great measure by help
of this branch of study that the opinions now current regarding metamor-
phism of rocks in situ, and the formation of mineral veins, must acquire that
solid support and general consent which at present they do not possess.
Crystals, indeed, whether regarded as to their origin in nature, their fabrica-
tion by art, or their action on the rays of light, the waves of heat and sound,
and the distribution of electricity, have not been neglected by the Association
or its members. In one of the earliest Reports, Dr. "Whewell calls attention
to the state of crystallographical theory, and to the artificial production of
crystals ; and in another Report, Professor Johnston notices epigene and
pseudomorphous crystallisation ; and for many years, at almost every meet-
ing, new and brilliant discoveries in the action of crystals on light were
made known by Brewster t, and compared with the undulatory theory by
Herschel, MacCullagh, Airy, Hamilton, "Whewell, Powell, Challis, Lloyd, and
Stokes.
The unequal expansion of crystals by heat, in different directions, first
observed by Mitscherlich, has been carefully examined in the cases of
sulphate and carbonate of lime by Professor W. H. Miller J, who has also
considered their elasticity, originally measured in different relations to the
axis by Savart. These and many other interesting relations of crystals have
varieties. Mr. Sorby, whose latest results are unpublished, but will be communicated to
the Royal Society, is of opinion that the substance of meteorites has undergone changes
due to physical conditions in some ancient period not now to be paralleled on our planet,
or on the moon, but rather to be looked for only in the immediate neighbourhood of the
sun. Professor Haidinger has also made a special study of meteorites.
* Dalton, Chemistry, vol. i. 1808. A clear view of the simpler applications of Dalton's
ideas is given by the illustrious author in Daubeny's Treatise on the Atomic Theory, 1850.
Exley, Nat. and Exp. Philosophy, 1829. Mac Vicar, Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1855 ; Trans. Roy.
Soc. Edinb., &c.
t " Sir David Brewster must be considered as in a degree the creator of the science
which studies the mutual dependence of optical properties and crystalline forms."
(Whewell, in Report on Mineralogy, Brit. Assoc. 1832, p. 336.)
X Rep. Proc. 1837, pp. 43, 44.
lviii report — 1865.
been attended to ; but the Association has not yet succeeded in obtaining a
complete digest of the facts and theories connected with the appearance of
crystals in nature — in the fissures of rocks ; in the smaller cavities of rocks ;
in the solid substance or liquid contents of other crystals. Such an inquiry,
however, it did earnestly demand, and some steps have been taken by our
own chemists, mineralogists, and geologists. But more abundant information
on this class of subjects is still needed, even after the admirable contributions
and recent discoveries of Bischof, Delesse, and Daubre'e *.
Within our Association-period both the nomenclature of chemistry and the
conception of the atomic theory have received not indeed a change, but such
an addition to its ordinary expression as the more general language and
larger meaning of Algebra have conferred on common arithmetical values.
The theory of compound radicals, as these views of Liebig, Dumas, and Hof-
mann may be justly termed, embraces the consideration of groups of elements
united in pairs by the ordinary law, these groups being for the purpose in
hand treated as single elements of combination. The nomenclature which
attempts in ordinary words to express these relations grows very unma-
nageable even in languages more easily capable of polysyllabic combinations
than ours ; but symbols of composition — the true language of chemistry —
are no more embarrassed in the expression of these new ideas than are the
mathematical symbols which deal with operations of much greater com-
plexity on quantities more various and more variable f. The study of these
compound radicals conies in aid of experimental research into those numerous
and complex substances which appear as the result of chemical transforma-
tions in organic bodies. Thus in some instances the very substances have
been recomposed by art which the vital processes are every moment pro-
ducing in nature ; in others the steps of the process are clearly traced ; in all
the changes become better understood through which so great a variety of
substances and structures are yielded by one circulating fluid ; and the result
is almost a new branch of animal and vegetable physiology, not less import-
ant for the health of mankind than essential to the progress of scientific
agriculture.
The greater our progress in the study of the economy of nature, the more
she unveils herself as one vast whole ; one comprehensive plan ; one universal
rule, in a yet unexhausted series of individual peculiarities. Such is the
aspect of this moving, working, living system of force and law : such it has
ever been, if we rightly interpret the history of our own portion of this rich
inheritance of mind, the history of that Earth from which we spring, with
which so many of our thoughts are coordinated, and to which all but our
thoughts and hopes will again return.
How should we prize this history ! and exult in the thought that in our
own days, within our own memories, the very foundations of the Series of
Strata, deposited in the beginning of time, have been explored by our living
friends, our Murchison and Sedgwick, while the higher and more complicated
parts of the structure have been minutely examined by our Lyell, Forbes,
and Prestwich + ! How instructive the history of that long series of inhabi-
* Bischof, Chemical Geology (published by the Cavendish Society, 1856).
Delesse, Etudes sur le Metamorphisme, 1858, and other works.
Daubree, Sur la Relation des Sources Thermales des Plombieres, avec les Filons Metal-
liferes et la Formation des Zeolithes, 1858, and other works.
+ On the Nomenclature of Organic Compounds, by Dr. Daubeny. Reports of British
Association, 1851.
I The investigations of Murchison and Sedgwick in the Cambrian and Silurian Strnta
began in 1831 ; the views of Sir C. Lyell on Tertiary periods were made known in 1829.
ADDRESS. Hx
tants which received in primeval times the gift of life, and filled the land,
sea, and air with rejoicing myriads, through innumerable revolutions of the
planet, before in the fulness of time it pleased the Giver of all good to place
man upon the Earth, and hid him look up to Heaven.
Wave succeeding wave, the forms of ancient life sweep across the ever-
changing surface of the earth ; revealing to us the height of the land, the
depth of the sea, the quality of the air, the course of the rivers, the extent of
the forest, the system of life and death — yes, the growth, decay, and death
of individuals, the beginning and ending of races, of many successive races
of plants and animals, in seas now dried, on sand-banks now raised into
mountains, on continents now sunk beneath the waters.
Had that series a beginning ? Was the earth ever uninhabited, after it
became a globe turning on its axis and revolving round the sun ? Was there
ever a period since land and sea were separated — a period which we can
trace — when the land was not shaded by plants, the ocean not alive with
animals '? The answer, as it comes to us from the latest observation, declares
that in the lowest deposits of the most ancient seas in the stratified crust of
the globe, the monuments of life remain. They extend to the earliest sedi-
ments of water, now in part so changed as to appear like the products of fire.
What life ? Only the simpler and less specially organized fabrics have as
yet rewarded research among these old Laurentian rocks — only the aggre-
gated structures of Foraminifera have been found in what, for the present at
least, must be accepted as the first deposits of the oldest sea. The most
ancient of all known fossils, the Eozoon Canadense of Sir W. Logan, is of
this low, we may even say lowest, type of animal organization.
Then step by step we are guided through the old Cambrian and Silurian
systems, rich in Trilobites and Brachiopoda, the delights of Salter and Da-
vidson ; with Agassiz and Miller and Egerton we read the history of the
strange old fishes of the Devonian rocks ; Brongniart, and Goppert, and
Dawson, and Binney, and Hooker unveil the mystery of the mighty forests
now converted to coal ; Mantell and Owen and Huxley restore for us the
giant reptiles of the Lias, the Oolite, and the Wealden ; Edwards and
Wright almost revive the beauteous corals and echinodermata ; which Avith
all the preceding tribes have come and gone before the dawn of the later
periods, when fragments of mammoths and hippopotami were buried in
caves and river sediments to reward the researches of Cuvier and Buckland,
Prestwich and Christy, Lartet and Falconer.
And what is the latest term in this long series of successive existence ?
Surely the monuments of ever- advancing art — the temples whose origin is in
caverns of the rocks ; the cities which have taken the place of holes in the
ground, or heaps of stones and timber in a lake ; the ships which have out-
grown the canoe, as that was modelled from the floating trunk of a tree, are
sufficient proof of the late arrival of man upon the Earth, after it had under-
gone many changes and had become adapted to his physical, intellectual, and
moral nature.
Compared with the periods which elapsed in the accomplishment of these
changes, how short is the date of those yet standing monoliths, cromlechs,
and circles of unhewn stone which are the oldest of human structures raised
in Western Europe, or of those more regular fabrics which attest the early
importance of the monarchs and people of Egypt, Assyria, and some parts of
America ! Yet tried by monuments of natural events which happened within
the age of man, the human family is old enough in Western Europe to have
been sheltered by caverns in the rocks, while herds of reindeer roamed in
1* REPORT — 18G5.
Southern France*, and bears and hyenas were denizens of the South of
England f. More than this, remains of the rudest human art ever seen are
certainly found buried with and are thought to belong to races who lived
contemporaneously with the mammoth and rhinoceros, and experienced the
cold of a Gallic or British winter, from which the woolly covering of the
wild animals was a fitting protection.
Our own annals begin with the Kelts, if indeed we are entitled to call by
that historic name the really separate nations, Belgian, Iberian, and Teu-
tonic, whom the Roman writers recognize as settlers in Britain J ; settlers
among a really earlier family, our rudest and oldest forefathers, who may
have been, as they thought themselves to be, the primitive people of the
land§. But beyond the KeXrai who occupied the sources of the Danube
and the slopes of the Pyrenees, and were known to Borne in later days, there
was present to the mind of the father of Grecian history a still more western
race, the Cynetae, who may perhaps be supposed the very earliest people of
the extreme west of the continent of Europe. Were those the people, the
first poor pilgrims from the East, whose footsteps we are slowly tracing in
the vaUeys of Picardy and the south of England, if not on the borders of the
lakes of Switzerland ? Are their kindred still to be found among the Rhaetic
Alps and the Asturian cliffs, if not amid the wilds of Connemara, pressed
into those mountainous recesses by the legions of Borne, the spear of the
Visigoth, and the sword of the Saxon ? Or must we regard them as races of
an earlier type, who had ceased to chip flints before the arrival of Saxon, or
Goth, or Kelt, or Cynetian ? These questions of romantic interest in the
study of the distribution and languages of the families of man are part of a
large circle of inquiry which finds sympathy in several of our Sections,
especially those devoted to Zoology, Physiology, and Ethnology. Let us not
expect or desire for them a very quick, or, at present, a very definite settle-
ment. Deep shadows have gathered over all the earlier ages of mankind,
which perhaps still longer periods of time may not avail to remove. Yet let
U3 not undervalue the progress of ethnological inquiry, nor fail to mark how,
within the period to which our recollections cling, the revelations of early
Egypt have been followed by a Chronology of the ancient kingdoms on the
Tigris and Euphrates, through the same rigorous study of language. Thus
has our Rawlinson added another page to the briUiant discoveries of Young
and Champollion, Lepsius and Bosellini.
Nor, though obtained in a different way, must we forget the new know-
ledge of a people nearer home, which the philosophic mind of Keller has
opened to us among his native mountains. There, on the borders of the
Alpine lakes, before the great Roman general crossed the Bhone, lived a
people older than the Helvetians ; whose rude lives, passed in hunting and
fishing, were nevertheless marked by some of the many inventions which
everywhere, even in the most unfavourable situations, accompany the least
civihzed of mankind. Implements of stone and pottery of the rudest sort
belong to the earliest of these people ; while ornamented iron weapons of war,
and innumerable other fabrics in that metal, appear about the later habita-
* See the Memoirs of M. Lartet on the Caves of the Dordogne, 1863-64.
t In the caves of Gower, Devon, and Somerset, flint flakes occur with several extinct
animals.
J Gallic or Belgian on the south-east coast ; Iberian in South Wales ; German at the
foot of the Grampians. (Tacitus, Vita Agricola?.)
§ " Britannic® pars interior ab iis incolitur, quos natos in insula ipsa memoria pro-
dituvn dicunt." (Caesar, v. 12.)
ADDRESS. lxi
tions, and correspond probably to tbe period of tbe true Helvetii, who quitted
their home and contended with Caesar for richer settlements in Gaul. The
people of whom these are the traces on almost every lake in Switzerland are
recognized as well in the ancient lake-basins of Lombardy and among the
Tyrolean Alps, and further on the north side of the mountains ; and probably
fresh discoveries may connect them with the country of the Sarmatians and
the Scythians.
Thus at length is fairly opened, for archaeology and palaeontology to read,
a new chapter of the world's histoiy, which begins in the pleistocene periods
of geology, and reaches to the prehistoric ages of man. Did our ancestors
really contend, as the poets fancied*, with stones and clubs against the lion
and the rhinoceros, and thus expel them from their native haunts, or have
they been removed by change of climate or local physical conditions ? Was
the existence of the hyena and the elephant only possible in Western Europe
while a climate prevailed there such as now belongs to Africa or India ? and
was this period of high temperature reduced in a later time for the elk, rein-
deer, and musk ox, which undoubtedly roamed over the hills of England and
France? If we think so, what a vista of long duration stretches before us, for no
such changes of climate can be supposed to have occurred except as the effect of
great physical changes, requiring a lapse of many thousands of years. And
though we may think such changes of climate not proved, and probably
careful weighing of evidence may justify our disbelief, still, if the valleys in
Picardy have been excavated since the deposit of the gravel of St. Acheulf,
and the whole face of the country has been altered about the caverns of
Torquay since they received remains of animals and traces of man J — how
can we admit these facts and yet refuse the time required for their accomplish-
ment '? First, let us be sure of the facts, and especially of that main fact
upon which all the argument involving immensity of time really turns, viz.
the contemporaneous existence of man with the mammoth of the plains and
the bear of the caverns. The remains of men are certainly buried with those
of extinct quadrupeds ; but did they live in the same days, or do we see relics
of different periods gathered into one locality by natural processes of a later
date, or confused by the operations of men ?
Before replying finally to these qiuvstions, further researches of an exact
kind are desirable, and the Association has given its aid towards them, both in
respect to the old cavern of Kent's Hole, and the newly opened fissure of
Gibraltar, from which we expect great results, though the best of our la-
bourers has ceased from his honourable toil§. When these and many other
researches are completed, some future Lyell, if not our own great geologist,
may add some fresh chapters to the ' Antiquity of Man.'
In judging of this antiqiuty, in counting the centuries which may have
elapsed since smoothed flints fitted with handles of wood were used as chisels
and axes by the earliest people of Scandinavia or Helvetia, and flakes of flint
were employed to cleanse the skins of the reindeer in the caves of the Dor-
dogne, or stronger tools broke up the ice in the valley of the Somme, we
must be careful not to take what is the mark of low civilization for the indi-
cation of very remote time. In every country, among every race of men,
* Lucretius, v. 964-1283.
t Prestwich, Transactions of the Royal Society, 1860, and Proc. of Roy. Inst., Feb.
1864.
X Pengelly, Reports of the British Association, 1864.
§ The late Dr. Hugh Falconer, whose knowledge of the fossil animals of caves was re-
markably exact, took a great share in these examinations.
lxii report — 1865.
such rude weapons and tools are used now, or were used formerly. On the
banks of the Ohio, no less than on the English hills, mounds of earth, rude
pottery, and stone weapons occur in abundance ; and indicate similar wants,
contrivances, customs, ideas, in different races of men living in different
periods. Even when in the same country, as in Switzerland, or England, or
Denmark, successive deposits of instruments of stone, bronze, or iron ; suc-
cessive burials of pines, beeches, and oaks ; successively extinguished races of
elephants, elks, and reindeer, give us a real scale of elapsed time, it is one of
which the divisions are not yet valued in years or centuries of years.
Toward a right judgment of the length of this scale of human occupation,
two other lines of evidence may be thought worthy of notice ; one founded
on the anatomical study of the remains of early men, the other on the laws of
language. If the varieties of physical structure in man, and the deviations
of language from an original type, be natural effects of time and circumstance,
the length of time may be in some degree estimated by the amount of the
diversities which are observed to have happened, compared with the varia-
tion which is now known to be happening. This process becomes imaginary,
unless we assume all mankind to have had one local centre, and one original
language. Its results must be erroneous, unless we take fully into account the
superior fixity of languages which are represented in writing, and the greater
tendency to diversity of every kind which must have prevailed in early times,
when geographical impediments were aggravated by dissocial habits of life. It
appears, however, certain that some differences of language, organization,
and habits have separated men of apparently unlike races during periods
longer than those which rest on historical facts*.
Ever since the days of Aristotle, the analogy existing among all parts of
the animal kingdom, and in a general sense we may say among all the forms
of life, has become more and more the subject of special study. Related as
all living beings are to the element in which they move and breathe, to
the mechanical energies of nature which they employ or resist, and to the
molecular forces which penetrate and transform them, some general confor-
mity of structure, some frequently recurring resemblance of function, must
be present, and cannot be overlooked. In the several classes this analogy
grows stronger, and in the subdivisions of these classes real family affinity is
recognized. In the smallest divisions which have this family relation in the
highest degree, there seems to be a line which circumscribes each group,
within which variations occur, from food, exercise, climate, and transmitted
peculiarities. Often one specific group approaches another, or several others,
and a question arises whether, though now distinct, or rather distinguishable,
they always have been so from their beginning, or will be always so until
their disappearance.
Whether what we call species are so many original creations or derivations
from a few types or one type, is discussed at length in the elegant treatise of
Darwin f, himself a naturalist of eminent rank. It had been often discussed
before. Nor will any one think lightly of such inquiries, who remembers
the essay of Linnaeus, " De Tulluris orbis incremento," or the investigations
of Brown, Prichard, Forbes, Agassiz, and Hooker regarding the local origin
of different species, genera, and families of plants and animals, both on the
land and in the sea. Still less will he be disposed to undervalue its import-
ance, when he reflects on the many successive races of living forms more or
less resembling our existing quadrupeds, reptiles, fishes, and mollusca, which
* Max Miiller on the Science of Language. t On the Origin of Species, 1859.
ADDRESS. lxiii
appeared to have occupied definite and different parts of the depths of an-
cient time ; as now the tiger and the jaguar, the cayman and the gavial, live
on different parts of the terrestrial surface. Is the living elephant of Ceylon
the lineal descendant of that mammoth which roamed over Siberia and Eu-
rope and North America, or of one of those sub-Himalayan tribes which Dr.
Falconer has made known, or was it a species dwelling only in circumpolar
regions ? Can our domestic cattle, horses and dogs, our beasts of chace and
our beasts of prey, be traced back to their source in older types, contempo-
raries of the IJrus, Megaceros, and Hyena on the plains of Europe ? If so,
what range of variation in structure does it indicate ? if not so, by what
characters are the living races separated from those of earlier date ?
Specific questions of this kind must be answered before the general pro-
position, that the forms of life are indefinitely variable with time and cir-
cumstance, can be even examined by the light of adequate evidence. That
such evidence will be gathered and rightly interpreted, I for one neither
doubt nor fear ; nor will any be too hasty in adopting extreme opinions or
too fearful of the final result, who remember how often that which is true
has been found very different from that which was plausible, and how often
out of the nettles of danger we have plucked the flowers of safety. At the
present moment the three propositions which were ever present to the mind
of Edward Forbes may be successfully maintained, as agreeing with many
observed phenomena ; and around them as a basis of classification may be
gathered most of the facts and most of the speculations which relate to the
history of life*. First, it may be admitted that plants and animals form
many natural groups, the members of which have several common characters,
and are parted from other groups by a real boundary line, or rather unoccu-
pied space. Next, that each of these groups has a limited distribution in
space, often restrained by high mountains or deep seas, or parallels of tem-
perature, within which it has been brought into being. Thirdly, that each
group has been submitted to, or is now undergoing, the pressure of a general
law, by which its duration is limited in geological time ; the same group
never reappearing after being removed from the series.
How important, in the view of this and many other questions, is that
never-tiring spirit of geographical and maritime discovery, to which through
four hundred years Europe has sent her noblest sons and her most famous
expeditions ; sent them, alas ! too often to an early grave. Alas ! for
Franklin, who carried the magnetic flag into the Icy Sea from which he had
already brought trophies to Science ! Alas ! for Speke, who came home with
honour from the head waters of the Nile ! Forgotten they can never be,
whenever, on occasions like this, we mourn the absence of our bravest and
our best ; praise, never-ending praise be theirs, while men retain the generous
impulse which prompts them to enterprises worthy of their country and bene-
ficial to mankind !
'Aei <T0o5)' kXcos eooerai kclt ulav.
If it be asked, what share in the discoveries and inventions of the last
thirty-three years is claimed for the British Association ; let us answer fear-
lessly — We had a part in all. In some of them we took the foremost place
by the frequency of our discussions, the urgency of our recommendations,
the employment of our influence, and the grant of our funds. For others we
gave all our strength, to support the Eoyal Society and other institutions in
* See the remarkable Essay of E. Forbes on the distribution of the existing Fauna and
Flora of the British Isles, in Memoirs of Geol. Survey of Britain, vol. i. p. 336.
lxiv REPORT — 1865.
their efforts to accomplish purposes which we approve. In all instances our
elastic system responds quickly to pressure, and returns the friendly impulse.
If we look back on the work of previous years, it is easy to mark the special
action of the Association in fields which hardly could be entered by any other
adventurers.
Many of the most valuable labours of which we are now reaping the fruits,
were undertaken in consequence of the reports on special branches of Science
which appear in the early volumes of our Transactions — reports in which
particular data were requested for confirming or correcting known genera-
lizations, or for establishing new ones. Thus a passage in Professor Airy's
report on Physical Astronomy* first turned the attention of Adams to the
mathematical vision of Neptune ; Lubbock's Report on Tides f came before
the experimental researches and reductions, which since 1834 have so often
engaged the attention of Whewell and Airy and Haughton, with results so
valuable and so suggestive of further undertakings. Among these results
may be placed additional knowledge of the probable depth of the channels of
the sea. For before the desire of telegraphic communication with America
had caused the bed of the North Atlantic to be explored by soundings to a
depth seldom exceeding three miles, there was reason to conclude from the
investigations of Whewell on Cotidal Lines J that a depth of nine miles was
attained in the Sonth Atlantic, and from the separate computations of Aiiy
and Haughton that a somewhat greater depth occurred in a part of the course
of the tide-wave which washes the coast of Ireland§. The greater portion of
the sea-bed is within reach of soundings directed by the superior skill and
greater perseverance of modern scientific navigators ; a depth of six miles is
said to have been reached in one small tract of the North Atlantic ; depths of
nine or ten miles in the deepest channels of the sea are probable from consi-
dering the general proportion which is likely to obtain between sea-depths
and mountain-tops. Thus the data are gradually being collected for a com-
plete survey of the bed of the sea, including among other things information,
at least, concerning the distribution of animal and vegetable life beneath tbe
waters.
Waves — their origin, the mechanism of their motion, their velocity, their
elevation, the resistance they offer to vessels of given form, these subjects
have been firmly kept in view by the Association, since first Professor Challis ||
reported on the mathematical problems they suggest, and Sir J. Robison and
Mr. Scott Russell undertook to study them experimentally^. Out of this in-
quiry has come a better knowledge of the forms which ought to be given to
the ' lines ' of ships, followed by swifter passages across the sea, both by
sailing vessels and steamers, of larger size and greater lengths than were ever
tried before**.
One of the earliest subjects to acquire importance in our thoughts, was the
unexplored region of meteorology laid open in Professor J. Forbes's Reportsft.
Several of the points to which he called attention have been successfully at-
tained. The admirable instruments of Whewell, Osier, and Robinson have
replaced the older and ruder anemometers, and are everywhere in full opera-
* Reports of the British Association for 1832, p. 154. Laplace had indeed observed
that " the planet Uranus and his satellites, lately discovered, give reason to suspect the
existence of some planets not yet observed ;" thereby encouraging the search for new dis-
coveries in our own system. (Exp. du Syst. du Monde, 1799, 4to, p. 350.)
t Reports of the British Association, 1832. % Trans, of Roy. Soc. 1833.
§ Trans, of Roy. Irish Acad. 1855. || Reports of the British Association, 1833, 1836.
1 Ibid. 1837 and following years. ** Ibid. 1840-1843.
tt Ibid. 1832-1840.
ADDRESS. l.KV
tion, to record the momentary variations of pressure, or sum the varying
velocities of the 'wind. No small thanks were due to Mr. Marshall and Mr.
Miller* for their enterprise and perseverance in placing rain-gauges and
thermometers amidst the peaks of Cumberland and Westmoreland. These
experiments are now renewed in both counties and in North Wales ; and I
hope to hear of similar efforts among the mountains of the West of Ireland
and the West of Scotland. Our meteorological instruments of every kind
have been improved ; our system of photographic registration has spread
from Kew into other observatories ; and our corresponding member, Pro-
fessor Dove, has collected into systematic maps and tables the lines and
figures which represent annual and monthly climate over every land and
sea.
In the same manner, by no sudden impulse or accidental circumstance,
rose to its high importance that great system of magnetic observations, on
which for more than a quarter of a century the British Association and the
Royal Society, acting in concert, have been intent. First, we had Eeports
on the mathematical theory and experimental researches of magnetism by
Christie (1833), Whewell (1835), and Sabine (1835) : — afterwards, a magnetic
survey of the British Islands t ; then, the establishment of a complete obser-
vatory at Dublin, with newly arranged instruments, by Dr. Lloyd, in 1838.
On all this gathered experience we founded a memorial to Her Majesty's
Government, made a grant of £400 from our funds for preliminary expenses,
and presented to the Meeting of this Association in Birmingham, in 1839, a
Report of progress, signed by Herschel and Lloyd. From that time how
great the labour, how inestimable the fruits ! Ross sails to the magnetic
pole of the south ; America and Russia cooperate with our observers at Kew,
Toronto, and St. Helena ; and General Sabine, by combining all this united
labour, has the happiness of seeing results established of which no man
dreamed — laws of harmonious variation affecting the magnetic elements of
the globe, in definite relation to the earth's movement, the position of the
sun and moon, the distribution of temperature, and the situation in latitude
and longitude J.
Our efforts have not been fruitless, whether with Mr. Mallet we make ex-
periments on artificial earth-shocks at Dalkey, or survey the devastations
round Vesuvius, or tabulate the records of earthquakes since the beginning of
history§ ; or establish the Kew Observatory as a scientific workshop where
new instruments of research are made and proved and set to work ||; or
dredge the sea with Forbes, and Brady, and Jeffreys If; or catalogue the
stars with Baily** ; or investigate electricity with Harris, Ronalds, Thomson,
* Mr. Marshall's observations were made in Patterdale, Mr. Miller's about Wastdale
Head. (British Association Eeports for 1846, and Royal Society's Transactions,
1850.)
t The survey was begun in Ireland iu 1835, by Lloyd, Sabine, and Ross ; and com-
pleted in England, Wales, and Scotland in 1837, by the same magneticians, assisted by
Fox and PluUips. It was repeated in 1857 and following years by Sabine, Lloyd, Welsh,
Haughton, Gralbraith, and Stoney.
t Trans, of the Royal Society for many years ; Reports of the British Association,
1840 and following years ; Rede Lecture, 1862.
§ British Association Reports ; Experiments at Dalkey, 1853 ; Report on Earthquakes,
1840-1858. See also the excellent communications of M. Perrey to the Memoirs of the
Academy of Dijon.
|| The Kew Observatory became a part of the system of the Association in 1842.
IT See Reports of the Dredging Committees from 1842 to 1864 ; Nat. Hist. Trans, of
Northumberland and Durham ; Jeffrey s's British Conchology.
• ** British Association Catalogue of Stars, 1845.
1865. e
lxvi REPORT — 1865.
and Jenkin*; or try the action of long-continued heat with Harcourtf:
in these and a hundred other directions, our attempts to gain knowledge
have brought back new facts and new laws of phenomena, or better instru-
ments for attaining or better methods for interpreting them. Even when
we enter the domain of practical art, and apply scientific methods to test a
great process of manufacture, we do not fail of success ; because we are
able to join in united exertion the laborious cultivators of science and the
scientific employers of labour.
Am I asked to give an example? Let it be iron, the one substance by
the possession of which, by the true knowledge and right use of which,
more than by any other thing, our national greatness is supported. "What
are the ores of iron — what the peculiarities and improvements of the
smelting processes — what the quality of the iron — its chemical composi-
tion — its strength in columns and girders as cast iron ; in rails and
boiler plate, in tubes and chains, as wrought iron — what are the best
forms in which to employ it, the best methods of preserving it from
decay ; — these and many other questions are answered by many special
Reports in our volumes, bearing the names of Barlow, Mallet, Porter, Fair-
bairn, Bunsen, Playfair, Percy, Budd, Hodgkinson, Thomson ; and very nu-
merous other communications from Lucas, Fairbairn, Cooper, Nicholson,
Price, Crane, Hartley, Davy, Mushet, Hawkes, Penny, Scoresby, Dawes,
Calvert, Clark, Cox, Hodgkinson, May, Schafhaeutl, Johnston, Clay, and
Boutigny. Beyond a question, a reader of such of these valuable documents
as relate to the strength of iron, in its various forms, would be far better in-
formed of the right course to be followed in experiments on armour-plated
ships and forts to resist assault, and in the construction of ordnance to at-
tack them, than he is likely to be from merely witnessing a thousand trials
of the cannon against the target. Anyone who remembers what the iron
furnace was forty years ago, and knows its present power of work, or who
contrasts the rolling mills and hammers of other days with the beautiful ma-
chines which now, with the gentlest motion but irresistible force, compel the
strong metal to take up the most delicately moulded form, will acknowledge
that, within the period since the British Association began to set itself to the
task of reconciling the separated powers of Theory and Experience, there
has been a total change in the aspect of each, to the great advantage of both.
Our undertakings have not been fruitless. We attempted what we had
well considered, and had the power to accomplish ; and we had the more than
willing help of competent persons of our own body, the friendly aid of other
Institutions, and the sanction of the Government, convinced of the sincerity
of our purpose and the wisdom of our recommendations.
The same work is ever before us ; the same prudence is always necessary ; the
same aid is always ready. Great indeed should be our happiness, in reflecting on
the many occasions, when the Royal Society in particular, and other Institutions
older than our own, have readily placed themselves by our side, to share our re-
sponsibility and diminish our difliculties. But for this, our wishes might not al-
ways have prevailed ; and the horizon of science would not have been so clear
as now it is. Of late years, indeed, Societies formed on our model have taken
up special parts of our work ; and thus to some extent have relieved us of the
pressure of communications relating to the practice of particular professions
and the progress of some public questions. Not that scientific agriculture,
social statistics, or physiology are neglected in our meetings, but that these and
* The latest result of these researches is an instrumental standard of electrical resist-^
ance. (Keports of the British Association, 1863-1864.
f Reports of the British Association, 1846-1860.
ADDRESS. livii
other practical subjects are found to have more than one aspect, and to re-
quire more than one mode of treatment. With us, facts well ascertained,
conclusions rightly drawn, will ever be welcome, from whatever quarter of
the horizon of science they make their appearance. Whatever societies cul-
tivate these objects, they are our allies, and we will help them, if we may.
With pleasure we receive proofs of the good work done in limited districts by
the many admirable Field Clubs formed by our countrymen ; whether, like
those of Tyneside and the Cotswolds, and in this immediate vicinity those of
Warwickshire, Worcestershire, and Dudley, they explore the minutest re-
cesses of our hills and glens ; or, bike the rangers of the Alps, bring us new
facts regarding glaciers, ancient climate, and altered levels of land and sea.
By these agreeable gatherings natural history is most favourably com-
mended ; and in the activity and enlarged views of the officers who conduct
them, the British Association recognizes the qualities by which the vitality
of scientific research is maintained, and its benefits diffused among the pro-
vincial Institutions of the Empire.
Such, Gentlemen, are some of the thoughts which fill the minds of those,
who, like our Brewster, and Harcourt, and Forbes, and Murchison, and Dau-
beny, stood, anxious but hopeful, by the cradle of this British Association ;
and who now meet to judge of its strength, and measure its progress. When,
more than thirty years ago, this Parliament of science came into being, its
first child -language was employed to ask questions of Nature ; now, in riper
years, it founds on the answers received further and more definite inquiries
directed to the same prolific source of useful knowledge. Of researches in
science completed, in progress, or in beginning, each of our annual volumes
contains some three hundred or more passing notices, or full and permanent
records. This digest and monument of our labours is indeed in some respects
incomplete, since it does not always contain the narrative or the result of
undertakings which we started, or fostered, or sustained ; and I own to
having experienced on this account once or twice a feeling of regret. But
the regret was soon lost in the gratification of knowing that other and equally
beneficial channels of pubbcation had been found ; and that by these ex-
amples it was proved how truly the Association kept to the real purpose of
its foundation, " the Advancement of Science," and how heartily it rejoiced
in this advancement without looking too closely to its own share in the
triumph. Here, indeed, is tbe stronghold of the British Association. Where-
ever and by whatever means sound learning and useful knowledge are ad-
vanced, there to us are friends. Whoever is privileged to step beyond his
fellows on the road of scientific discovery, will receive our applause, and, if
need be, our help. Welcoming and joining in the labour of all, we shall
keep our place among those who clear the ways and remove the obstacles
from the paths of science ; and whatever be our own success in the rich
fields which lie before us, however little we may now know, we shall
prove that in this our day we knew at least the value of knowledge, and
joined hearts and hands in the endeavour to promote it.
REPORTS
ON
THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
Report on Dredging among the Channel Isles.
By J. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S.
Our dredgings, which occupied six weeks, were confined to the coasts of
Guernsey and Jersey. Owing to the rocky nature of the sea- hed, and to the
extraordinary rapidity of the tides, the work was very difficult and unsatis-
factory ; and one of my dredges was unavoidably lost, notwithstanding the
rope was a new one and every precaution had been taken to prevent an
accident of this kind. The depth of water seldom exceeded 30 fathoms ;
although there was one remarkable exception in a long submarine trough,
called Hurd's Deep, lying about fifteen miles north of Guernsey, and having
a depth of 60 fathoms and more.
As regards the Mollusca (to which I shall, as in former Beports, confine
myself), they exhibit somewhat of a Mediterranean or South-European cha-
racter. This will appear from the accompanying lists. No new species were
procured; but scientific research does not consist entirely of such discoveries.
It may be well questioned whether the reduction of some forms, which have
heretofore been regarded as species, to the rank of varieties may not be of
equal importance. The sexual relation of known species, their development,
mode of growth, food, habits, economy, geographical and bathymetrical dis-
tribution, are all matters which require careful investigation. I had likewise
an opportunity of observing for the first time the animals or soft parts of
several species of shell-bearing Mollusca, and of rectifying the published
descriptions of other species. In the first of these categories I would
enumerate Cardium papillosum, Rissoa crenulata, R. striatula, Defrancia
Philberti, and Mangelia laevigata. In the second category may be placed
Qaleomma Turtoni, Chiton discrepans, C. cancellatus, and Trochus exasperatus.
Among the rarer or more local species taken by us were Argiope capsula,
Cardium papillosum, Tellina balaustina, and Crimora papillata. It was also
noteworthy that Aplysia depilans and A. punctata (usually considered distinct
species) copulated when a pair was placed in a vessel of sea-water. This
genus is not hermaphrodite in the same sense as Helix, inasmuch as each
1865, B
2 REPORT 1865.
individual of Aplysia performs the functions of one sex only, while each snail
is at the time of sexual union both male and female.
The tide ebbs far on the coasts of the Channel Isles, especially during the
equinoxes ; at Guernsey the reflux extends about 30 feet, and at Jersey up-
wards of 40 feet. This is very different from what takes place in the Medi-
terranean, and it occasions a remarkable variation of habitat in many species.
Psammohia costulata lives at Herm in the sand which is laid bare at low
water, but in Shetland it occurs at a depth of between 80 and 90 fathoms.
Hence we may infer that the depth of water cannot always be safely pre-
dicated from a cursory examination of shells either in a recent or fossil state.
Their comparative solidity and size afford better criteria *.
A collection of the shells obtained on the present occasion has been placed
in the British Museum.
We were indebted to Mr. Lukis, Mr. Gallienne, Mr. Macculloch, Mr. Le
Lievre and Mr. Cooper, of Guernsey, and to Mr. Piquet and Mr. Rose of
Jersey, for much assistance and pleasant companionship. From the first-
named of these gentlemen I received Purpura hcemastoma, from the second
Emarginula cancellata, and from the third Triton (or Murex) cutaceus, all of
which had been taken alive at Guernsey and Herm. There cannot be the
slightest reason to doubt that Triton nodiferus, as well as T. cutaceus, inhabit
this part of our seas. MM. Cailliaud and Tasle have recorded the latter
species, and M. Cailliaud the former, as natives of the coast of Brittany.
Off Jersey were dredged a few worn specimens of Cerithium vulgatum, a
species which does not seem to have been observed in a living state anywhere
on the shores of the North Atlantic. It is common throughout the Medi-
terranean and Adriatic. M. Cailliaud has included it in his list of shells from
the Loire-Inferieure, but only in a dead and rolled condition. From careful
inquiries which I made at Jersey, I am enabled to state with some degree
of certainty that no ballast containing shells has ever been brought there.
I should be disposed to attribute the presence of C. vulgatum (as a semi-
fossil shell) on the coasts of Jersey and Lower Brittany to an ancient sub-
mergence of the land, at a period probably anterior to that when submarine
forests and peat-beds were formed on the shores of the north of Europe, and
when the bays of St. Aubin and St. Michel were produced. Fossil shells, of
Eocene species, were likewise met with ; and they will be noticed in the
Geological Section of this Meeting.
The following Tables may be useful to show which species are apparently
restricted to the more southern limits of Great Britain.
I. Species found in the Channel Isles but not in Shetland : —
Argiope decollata.
capsula.
Mytilus barbatus.
Adriaticus.
Modiolaria costulata.
Crenella rhombea.
Area lactea.
Galeomma Turtoni.
Lepton squamosum.
sulcatulum.
Loripes lacteus.
Diplodonta rotundata.
Cardium aculeatum.
Cardium tuberculatum.
papillosum.
Tapes aureus.
Gastrana fragilis.
Psammobia vespertina.
Donax vittatus.
politus.
Amplndesma castaneum.
Mactra glanca.
Lutraria oblonga.
Scrobicularia tenuis.
Solen vagina,
Mya Binghami.
* See ' British Conchology,' vol. iii. p. 27.
ON DREDGING AMONG THE CHANNEL ISLES.
Gastrochama dubia.
Pholas daetylus.
Candida.
parva.
Teredo pedicellata.
Dentalium Tarentinum.
Chiton discrepans.
Emarginula rosea.
Fissurella Grseca (probably).
Calyptrsea Obinensis.
Haliotis tuberculata.
Cyclostrema, Cutlerianuni.
Trocbus umbilicatus.
lineatus.
striatus.
exasperates.
granulatus.
Pbasianella pidla.
Rissoa calathus.
costulata.
cremdata.
lactea.
pulebemnia.
striatula.
Aclis supranitida.
ascaris.
Cbemnitzia scalaris.
fenestrata.
excavata.
Odostomia dolioliformis.
Warreni.
— conspicua.
Lukisi.
Barleeia rubra.
Iantbina Britannica.
Triforis pidcbella.
adversa.
Nassa pygmrea.
Lachesis minima.
Murex corallinus.
Triton cutaceus.
nodiferus.
Tropbon muricatus.
Defrancia Pbilberti.
Mangelia rivfa.
Ovula patula.
Bulla cornea.
bydatis.
Aplysia pimctata.
Pleurobranchus plumula.
Otina otis.
Melampus denticulatus.
Sepia elegans.
Sealaria Turtoni.
Cbemnitzia simillima.
In all, 81 species of Testaceous Mollusca.
About tbe same number of species are found in Shetland but not in the
Channel Isles. The greater part of the British Mollusca are common to both
extremities. I estimate the total number to be 520. Of these may be
reckoned 80 as peculiar to each extremity (and 80 more as inhabiting
the intermediate area only) ; so that 360 is the probable number of species
belonging to the Channel Isles and Shetland. The Mediterranean has from
700 to 800 species.
II. Species not observed north of the Channel Isles : —
Argiope decollata,
Lepton sulcatulum,
Cardium papillosum,
Teredo pedicellata,
Chiton discrepans (probably),
Emarginula cancellata ?,
Rissoa pulcherrima,
Bissoa lactea,
Purpura haunastoma ?,
Murex corallinus,
Triton cutaceus,
nodiferus,
Bulla bydatis,
Sepia elegans,
being 14 species, of which 2 are doubtful as natives of the British, seas.
Report on the Cultivation of Oysters by Natural and Artificial
Methods. By Frank Buckland, M.A., M.R.C.S., §-c.
Feeling highly honoured with the confidence you have placed in me to_ in-
quire into this subject— important not only in a physiological but also in a
commercial bearing — I have since the last Meeting used my best endeavours
to obtain all the facts and all the information circumstances and labour would
allow — and this not only near at home, but also at distant localities. I would
b2
4 REPORT 1865.
beg to state that the facts hereafter mentioned are in no ease derived from
books, but from actual observation and experiment.
I have found that there is an amazing amount of most valuable informa-
tion, because the result of practical experience, afloat. This information lias,
however, never yet been properly collected, sorted, and reduced to a scientific
bearing. The further, moreover, that I investigate the question of that most
mysterious mollusk the Oyster, the more I find that, after all, we know little
or nothing at all about it.
The cultivation of the full-grown oyster is indeed pretty well known after
it has arrived over the state of " brood ;" but in its earliest stages of deve-
lopment comparatively little or nothing is known. It is the more important
therefore to turn our attention in this direction, as legislation is actually at
fault in the matter, and, as recent events have proved, those whose duties it
is to make laws for the fisheries hardly know what laws to make.
I would propose to divide my Eeport under several heads —
1. The cultivation of the oyster by natural means.
2. The cultivation of the oyster by artificial means.
3. Experiments in hatching by artificial heat.
4. Experiments on a large scale on the fore shore.
5. The chemical analysis of the oyster.
6. On dredging.
7. Comparison of the French and English system of oyster-culture.
8. Experiments on oyster-spat.
9. On the cause of greenness in oysters.
Although we know not as yet the actual process by means of which the
delicate and thin-shelled young spat manages to cling to various substances,
yet we can by observation find out the objects which it seems to prefer; and
these I woidd place in order as follows : —
1 . The shell of the living oyster.
2. The shell of the dead oyster, technically called " Culch."
3. The shells of mussels, periwinkles, whelks, clams.
4. Pieces of crockery, glass, tiles, tobacco-pipes.
5. Iron.
6. Wood.
I would propose to examine these in rotation.
1. T7ie Shell of the Living Oyster. — In the natural state, when not dis-
turbed by the hand of man, we find that the tendency of the oyster is to
accumulate in large groups, crowded and packed together in the most fan-
tastic shapes. You find them of all ages, the nucleus of the group being a
very old oyster, and around it oysters of ages varying from six or eight years
to spat of as many months. It is curious to remark that these oysters have
a tendency to accommodate each other ; for I find that very seldom is there a
dead one among the group, but that they are for the most part alive and
thriving.
There is a locality in the North Sea, known to the deep-sea trawlers,
not far from the island of Heligoland, in lat. 54° to 55°, long. 5° to 6° :
the trawlers avoid this spot, because the great clumps of oysters cut then-
nets and do much damage. By the kindness of my friend Mr ."Thomas, owner
of the trawling-smack ' Hurricane,' I am enabled to show samples of these
oysters ; and I cannot but think that, were capital provided, and if expe-
rienced men undertook the task, the fishing of this oyster-bank, at the present
high price of oysters, would turn out to be a remunerative speculation. The
CULTIVATION OF OYSTERS BY NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL METHODS. 5
oysters are exceedingly thin, but, as direct experiment proves, they are
capable of being fattened if placed in a favourable locality.
2. TJie Shells of the Bead Oyster, technically called " Culch" — I look upon
the study of the culch and its management as one of the most important
things in oyster-culture ; for upon its state, whether abundant or not abun-
dant, whether clean or dirty, depends the detaining or the loss of the young
oysters after they are emitted from the mother's shell, and also the important
question as to whether the public grounds (or commons) should or should not
be taken by private companies.
We start the question with two facts : —
1. That the oyster will adhere to dead oyster-shells in preference to any
other substance, even the shells of the living oyster.
2. That in order that the spat may adhere, tbe culch must be perfectly
clean and free from mud and weed.
There are but few localities where the shells of the dead oysters have ac-
cumulated in sufficient quantity to give the spat a chance of adhering ; it is
therefore necessary to collect these shells from elsewhere and throw them
down upon localities where the spat is likely to fall. This process is carried
out by oyster- culturists on a pretty large scale ; and it seems almost provi-
dential that beds of oyster-shells should be found in the neighbourhood of
the grounds which are cultivated. Thus, for instance, you will see on the
map a place called the " Pan Sand," at the mouth of the Thames. Now, near
this spot there is an accumulation of oyster-shells ; and dredging-boats from
various localities dredge up these shells and carry them on to places nearer
inshore, and throw them again to the bottom of the sea, knowing full well
that, if there be spat floating about, and if they be in a proper condition to
adhere, these shells will assuredly catch it. How this Pan Sand oyster-bed
came into existence I am quite unable to tell you ; but, from the appearance
of the oysters themselves, I can assert that the oysters were of great age,
that they had lived there many years undisturbed by dredges, and that a con-
siderable time has elapsed since they thrived in this locality.
Hence we learn an important fact, viz. that the spat seems to prefer adher-
ing to a shell that is partially decayed, and softened, rather than to a new shell
lately placed down. So great is the value of oyster-shells as " culch," that I
have often cast a longing eye upon the shells which are carted away in large
quantities from the oyster-shops in London and thrown on dust-heaps. They
would be of much greater value if thrown on to the bottom of the sea, where
they would certainly, if the season were favourable, form a trap for the
floating spat. Such, however, is the abundance of old oyster-shells on the
Pan Sand, that having, with the officers of the oyster -fishery with which I am
connected, considered the idea, we find it would be cheaper to fetch them
from the Pan Sand.
I cannot, however, quit the subject of oyster-shells without lamenting
that no use has yet been found for them on land. They are now to lands-
men but waste material ; and I cannot help thinking that, if technology were
to throw her lamp upon the matter, a use might be found for them. True it
is that they make good lime ; but lime can be obtained from other materials
at a less expense. The fact, however, of the lime of the oyster-shell being
so very good has led my friend Mr. Bartlett, Superintendent of the Zoological
Gardens, to give them in a burnt state to poultry and the more valuable
breeding pheasants. The birds seem to like it much, and it certainly is be-
neficial to laying hens and growing chicks. Another use of oyster-shells I
have lately heard of. Mr. Browning, of Paglesham, tells me that the poor
6 KEPORT 1865.
people grind the shell and take as much of the powder as will cover a four-
penny piece as a cure for ague.
3. We will now consider the third materials the spat loves to fasten itself
to. The most prominent of these is " mussels.' 1 I am enabled to show you
several fine specimens where oysters have adhered to mussels. The reason
of this is obviously that the shell of the mussel presents the two requisites
for the adhesion of the spat — perfect cleanliness and great smoothness.
Oyster-proprietors shoxdd treasure this fact carefully in their memory, and
should apply it. Mussels in beds form one of the greatest enemies to oysters,
for they spin their web over them, accumulate mud, and suffocate the oysters
beneath. They should therefore be dredged up, placed on the foreshore to
die and decay, and the shells thrown back into the sea at the places where
the spat is expected to fall.
For some reason or other the spat seems to like the shell of the common
whelk, especially when the animal is dead. I now show you several specimens
to prove this fact. Whelks, however, are far too valuable, not only as hunian
food, but also as a bait for the cod in the North Sea cod-fishery, to which
locality they are annually sent in quantities of such enormous money-value, to
prevent our ever thinking of using whelk-shells as cidch in large quantities.
The spat will also adhere to clams and to cockles. There is a large bed of
these shells outside the mouth of the River Crouch in Essex ; and friends
of mine who have oyster-fisheries in this region dredge large quantities to
place down on their grounds. I show you samples of all these facts.
4. We cannot be too observant of facts. I now show you a common
saucer, on which oysters of three years old have fastened themselves. It was
dredged up at a place called the Sandheads. at the nioiith of the Thames ; it
is marked Queen's Channel in the maps. The French oyster-culturists have
long been aware of the fact shown by the saucer, and in their oyster-parks
place down all the broken potteryware they can find; and to these the
oysters will adhere in considerable numbers — that is, in France. Unglazed
earthenware has also attractions for the oyster ; and upon this fact is founded
the whole system of catching oysters by means of earthenware tiles, as I
shall state hereafter.
5. It has often been a question as to whether oysters will or will not adhere
to iron. I am able to answer this in the affirmative. The piles which sup-
port the pier at Heine Bay are covered over with broad-headed iron nails,
and upon these, when the tides are very low, I have frequently found oysters
adhering. A dredgerman, moreover, lately brought me in an exceedingly
fine specimen, viz. the square bit of iron that A\as used formerly to go round
the head of the wooden stock of an anchor ; upon this square bit of iron I
found no less than twenty-four oysters pf various sizes and ages.
6. Oysters will also adhere to wood. Much has been said lately upon the
advantage of placing down fascines or faggots for the use of the young oyster.
I at once pronounce this to be a delusion and a snare, and I entreat those
interested in the matter never to go to any trouble or expense in placing
down fascines for this purpose. The experiment has been tried over and
over again in England, and with the simple residt that the fascines are ex-
cellent cellectors of mud and seaweeds, sometimes of barnacles, but hardly
ever of spat. I now show you two solitary specimens, one from the Isle of
Re, and the other from Mr. Wiseman's grounds at Paglesham ; but the
failures in this direction so much preponderate over the successes that I
should never advise their use.
In the experiments now under my charge at Heme Bay, it is true, I have
CULTIVATION OF OYSTERS Bl NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL METHODS. 7
used fascines very largely, and this for two reasons — first, to try the expe-
riment of catching oysters with them ; and secondly, to make the fascines
do the very work they seemed most inclined to do, viz. to collect the weeds
and the mud. I made with these fascines enclosures of various sizes and
shapes, and inside them I placed the tiles, which were thus guarded both
from the mud and also from the long belt-weed, which bothered me much by
floating among the tiles and upsetting them. This is a good example of one
of the difficulties of oyster-culture, and a proof that he who undertakes such
matters must closely observe the actions of various materials when placed in
the sea, and use these natural tendencies to the advancement of the object he
has in view. I show a water-colour drawing of my works at Heme Bay.
On Dredging.
The subject of dredging has occupied my most serious attention. It is a
question upon which legislation is at fault, or rather those who make the
laws know not what laws they ought to make, as they have not studied the
natural history of the animal which they wish to protect from injury.
Dredging consists in sailing over the grounds and scraping the ground with
an instrument called a dredge ; it is made chiefly of iron : the front part of
it has a sharpish edge to pick up the oysters, which are received into a network,
the network being of chain in the deep-sea dredging-boats, of cow's hide- in
those boats which fish in more shallow water.
As the dredge passes over the bottom of the sea it performs two opera-
tions :
â– 1st. It picks up what oysters it may happen to meet with in its course.
2nd. It clears away the mud and dirt from the stones over which it passes.
The failure of spat has been popularly attributed to over dredging, i. e. the
ground has been so much worked that all the oysters have been taken off
from it, and none left for breeding-purposes. This theory I hold to be some-
what fallacious. True it is that the Jersey beds are now unproductive ; but
I fear that unless they are regularly dredged they will remain for ever \m-
productive. It is well known — and it is one of the first principles in oyster-
culture — that in order to enable the spat to adhere the culch must be perfectly
clean ; if it is not dredged the mud will quickly accumulate on it, and there
will be no places left fit for the reception of spat, should there happen to be
spat.
It has been argued that if no parent oysters are left on the bed to spat
there can be no young ones bom to adhere to the culch. The answer to this
is, that no number of dredges can pick up all the oysters on a given space
of ground, and that there will be enough left to stock the ground should there
be " a fall of spat," in other words, should the spat live after it has been
emitted from the mother's shell.
Supposing the ground to have but few oysters left on it on account of the
place being so much worked with the dredge, the young oysters (should it
be a favourable year for them) would find plenty of harbour on the clean
culch, and the grounds would be restocked. Supposing, on the contrary, that
the ground is thoroughly stocked with oysters, and has not been dredged for
some time, they must all of them inevitably perish, on account of the culch
being covered with mud, even though the year has been favourable for their
living.
I would, however, draw a serious distinction as regards locality. In the
case of the deep-sea oyster-beds, I should certainly not permit any dredging
to go on during the months that the oysters are spatting, for the simple rea-
8 REPORT 1865.
son that there is but very little mud and dirt about, and that therefore it
cannot collect to a great extent upon the culch.
In the case, however, of oyster-beds, -whether common or private, situated
in rivers or near the mouths of rivers, I should advise the dredging to be
continued with the greatest vigour up to the time that the first spat is seen
on the culch, and then, and not till then, should the beds be allowed to re-
main quiet.
It has been proposed to stop the dredging during the months of May and
June. What would be the inevitable consequence ? It is during the months
of May and June that the sea flora is most luxuriant ; every stone and shell
would become coated with weed and slime-like- material of some kind or
another, and this vegetable varnish upon it would entirely prevent the young
oysters adhering to the culch, and they would inevitably perish. If, on the
contrary, the dredges are kept well going during these two months, the culch
will become thoroughly clean, and the spat will be able to adhere to the sur-
face thus prepared for them.
The dredge in going over the ground would not, I feel convinced, do injury
cither to the spawning oyster or to the young spat. The former may be
knocked about without any injury to its constitution, and the latter are so
very minute that they would escape destruction by the dredge. Shoidd,
however, even the dredge destroy numbers of them, the mischief done would
be well compensated by the space of ground cleaned and got ready for others ;
for it must be recollected that when the oysters on a well-stocked bed are
at the height of spatting the water must be perfectly full of them.
Some friends of mine, whose riving depends upon oysters, never think of
taking off the dredges from their best spatting-ground until they see the
spat fixed upon the culch. The theory that dredging during spatting-time
injures the spat, they know perfectly well ; they have therefore tried the
experiment of leaving certain portions of the ground untouched ; the conse-
quence has been that less spat was found upon this ground than upon the
neighbouring grounds where dredging was going on all the time ; the grounds,
in fact, which had been most dredged had most spat upon them. The case of
the flats outside Whitstable is very remarkable. Large numbers of boats from
"VVhitstable and other parts have for many years past been in the habit of
dredging these flats every day in the year, and all the year round ; it follows
to reason that, unless it paid the men to go there, they would resort to other
places. They, however, keep to the flats — a plain proof that oysters are there.
They are there; and the reason is, that perpetual dredging has kept the
ground clean, and that the spat floating about from the oysters on the neigh-
bouring beds, these flats, and other places find a place suited for them, and
adhere there. Could we look at the bottom of the sea at the mouth of the
Thames, we should find a well-marked spot covered with oysters more or less,
whereas all the ground surrounding it woidd be blank, containing no oysters
at all. In illustration of this fact, I woidd imagine a large number of corn
seeds thrown from the sky on to Salisbury Plain : should there happen to be
a ploughed field in the plain, the seed would fall into the earth prepared for
its reception, would germinate and grow ; whereas if it fell on the ground
not so prepared it must inevitably perish.
This question of dredging very seriously affects the taking in of common
ground and applying it to private purposes. Two cases lately occurred — the
one where Parliament granted the Heme Bay Company a considerable tract
which had hitherto been common ground ; the other case is that of the Eoach
Eiver Fishery, where Parliament refused to give over the commons to a pri-
CULTIVATION OF OYSTERS BY NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL METHODS. 9
vate company. I premise by stating that commons are absolutely necessary
for the stocking of private beds ; they are generally in the neighbourhood of
private beds, and the spat which falls upon them is the produce of the oysters
upon the private bed. These commons are worked by poor men to obtain
what they can upon them, and sell them to the owners of the beds ; in so
doing they keep the ground clean for the reception of spat.
In the case of the Roach River Fishery, the commons are situated in a
comparatively narrow river, and the commons adjoin the private beds almost
as near as the various paving stones in the streets. The spat, therefore, which
are born on paving-stone A (which is private) are very likely to fall on
the neighbouring paving-stone B (which is " commons ") ; anyhow the spat is
carried up and down by the tide, and must of necessity fall in the river.
The dredgermen perpetually work these commons, and in so doing keep them
ready for the reception of spat. When the spat falls, they pick it up in the
form of brood, and sell it to the oyster-proprietors, from whose oysters it ori-
ginally came. Now it would not be right that oysters belonging to Mr. A
should become the property of Mr. B, because they happen to swim over an
imaginary hue and settle on the adjoining ground ; it would be just the same
thing as if, a farmer breeding a number of lambs in a private field, these lambs,
because they happen to get over into a common where donkeys and geese are
feeding, should become the property of the gipsies.
The case of the Heme Bay Fishery is different from that of the Roach River.
Here, as will be seen from the map, the oysters may come from anywhere.
The Whitstable people said they came from their ground ; a few of them
might possibly have done so, but experience shows that the set of the tides
is towards the flats out to sea, and there oysters are always found. The
authorities who laid down the Admiralty Charts gave their evidence before
the House of Commons, that the set of the tide at Heme Bay was from east
to west ; in fact their evidence was hardly needed, as the drift of the shingle
along the shores of Heme Bay amply proves it. Whitstable being to the
westward of Heme Bay, the prevailing set of the tide would carry the spat
back to their ground, and not on to that of the Heme Bay ground. There
was not very long ago a large number of spat picked up on the Heme Bay
ground, and I learnt from observant persons living at Heme Bay that at that
time the wind was from the eastward.
Periwinkles. — To those who lay oysters on the foreshore I would now ven-
ture to give a valuable hint, which they may possibly know before. Between
high- and low-water mark green weed is very apt to accumidate ; this col-
lects mud, and in other respects docs injury to the oysters. "No amount of
dredging or other cleaning will keep this green weed off; it is nevertheless
very desirable to get rid of it ; and this would form an excellent problem for
those who are in the habit of studying what is called the police of nature —
that is, to mark the way in which the undue increase of one animal is kept
down by the increase of another. Everybody knows that periwinkles are
of great use in keeping clean the walls of an aquarium. My friends Mr.
Wiseman and Mr. Browning of Paglesham, who are proprietors of large
oyster-fisheries, have applied the observed fact of periwinkles eating weeds
to a practical operation on a large scale.
The foreshore where their oysters are laid is very subject to this green
weed ; they have therefore turned out large numbers of periwinkles upon it,
and these, eating up the green weed, clean the foreshore in the most wonder-
ful way. It is curious to remark how periwinkles, obeying their apparently
natural instinct, are in the habit of climbing up poles which are put in as
10 REPORT — 1865.
beacons ; they crawl up these poles as far as they can, and then, remaining
out of water till they are nearly dried up, drop back again.
Expert mints on the Foreshore on a large scale.
The Heme Bay Oyster Company having deputed me to carry out experi-
ments on their grounds at Heme Bay according to the much talked-of French
system of oyster-culture, I have since the month of May last been almost
exclusively occupied in these experiments. Having carefully studied the
whole system of tiles and fascines as adopted in the Isle of Be, actual ex-
perience has shown me that the French system cannot be adopted on the
English foreshores in exactly the same manner as it has been in France; almost
at every point minor puzzles occur, which require much foresight and per-
petual contriving to overcome. The Kemmerer tiles are, as is well known,
coated with cement on the under side, so that, the oyster having fixed itself,
the cement can be broken in pieces, and the oyster, when arrived at the age
of one year, immediately let free. I have not adopted this system, prin-
cipally on account of the expense it would necessarily entail. I have, how-
ever, with the assistance of an ingenious brick-maker, contrived a tile of such
a size and such a consistency, that the necessity of having cement is avoided,
and the oyster will be able to be set free without fracturing its shell.
At a comparatively small cost, but with great personal labour, I have laid
down four thousand of these tiles on the foreshore at Heme Bay. Three great
difficulties have occurred: these are, firstly, to keep the tiles from being
knocked over by the waves ; secondly, to obviate their unaccountable desire
to sink into the mud, and in consequence become useless ; and thirdly, the
inconvenience of the very short time allowed by the tides to place the tiles
in their proper position on the foreshore. Most of these matters I have,
however, seriously considered, and, with the able help of Mr. Dilnot, a trades-
man of Heme Bay, have overcome.
The tiles I placed down at three different periods in the year, viz. in June,
July, and beginning of August ; I examined them carefully every spring tide :
the waves have displaced them but very slightly, and broken hardly any.
It is as yet (September) rather early to report the actual result of the ope-
ration, as the spat would not yet be sufficiently large to be easily appreciable ;
I therefore hope that the present warm weather may encourage what is called
the Michaelmas spat, and that the tiles may be found to have caught some.
In their present condition the tiles are covered with what are locally called
" Nuns," in other words balani or acom-shells ; but no young oysters are to
be seen as yet.
In accordance with the French plan, I have placed in my submarine parks
and gardens broken pieces of glass, earthenware, pottery, &c. In France these
objects wo\dd have become covered with oysters. At the locality, however,
where we placed them the nuns took the place of the oysters. The numbers
of numerous marine creatiu-es which have adhered to the tiles amply prove
that their structure is most favourable for the catching of spat, should there
be any to catch ; and the local fishermen, who first laughed at my operations,
no longer laugh, but express their opinion that the tiles would be capital
things, should there be any spat about.
Anxious to ascertain the fact whether the tiles did not catch spat because
they were not in structure adapted so to do, o'r because the spat perished be-
tween the time of its being emitted from the mothers shell and in fixing
itself, I devised the following experiments : — I procured large glass jars and
bottles, and, placing in these oysters which I could see to be in a spatting
CULTIVATION OF OYSTERS BY NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL METHODS. 11
condition, covered over the top with a material which would admit the water
freely into the bottle, and placed it at the bottom of the sea, defended from
injury by fascines. Upon subsequent examination I found that the young
oysters had not adhered to the sides of the glass, though, in my opinion, there
was no reason why they should not do so, except the temperature of the water
surrounding the bottle. Experiment No. 2. — I obtained wooden boxes, and,
without injuring them, placed in each one or two spatting oysters ; I placed
tiles over these oysters, and over the tiles a covering of coarse canvas, the
meshes of the canvas being large enough to let in water, but not let out the
oyster-spat. My idea in doing this was to prove whether, or not, as has been
supposed by some, the spat immediately on being emitted from the parent
fixes itself. These boxes were placed on the foreshore in such a locality that
they would never be dry ; after they had been down one month I cut off the
canvas and examined the tiles, but not one single trace of oyster-spat could
be seen, the oysters which had been shut up in the box underneath the tiles
I found to be quite hearty, and to have got very fat on their captivity. I
tried the same idea in closing the spatting oyster between two flower-pots
wired together; here again the results were nil. To my mind these experi-
ments prove conclusively that the young ones cannot survive the state of
things favourable to their parent, and that they certainly do not adhere the
moment they are sent forth from their mother's shell.
Comparison of the French and English System of Oyster-culture.
I have now examined both methods very carefully, and have come to the
conclusion (and I am bound in honesty to state it) that in my humble opinion
the French system has been much overrated ; or at least the idea that the
system is applicable to this country is more or less fallacious.
The public seem to have got it into their heads that our English system is
faulty, because for several successive years it failed to produce any large
number of oysters ; at the same time highly favourable reports were issued
of the success of cidtivating oysters in France by what is called the artificial
system. I candidly confess I was one of the first to fall into the trap, and
to imagine with others that, because the tiles, fascines, &c. were placed in the
sea, therefore the oysters could be made to breed, and that if you placed tiles
you would have oysters, if you placed no tiles you would have no oysters.
As I have explained before, the English system is to catch the spat upon
culch, the French to catch it upon tiles. I have examined both systems, and
come to the conclusion that the tiles will (except under certain favourable
circumstances) never beat the culch.
I have been to the Isle of Re, and have seen (through the great kindness
of Dr. Kemmerer) the whole system ; and the long and short of it is this :—
, For many years the oyster-spat in France was totally neglected, and the in-
habitants thought nothing about turning their beds to profitable account.
The learned pisciculturist, M. Coste, suggested the idea of tiles being placed
down, the idea having, I believe, been first suggested by a poor mason, M.
Bceuf, with whom I have had a long conversation. The tiles, fascines, &c.
were placed down under the patronage of the government, and they were
picked up covered with young oysters. The success was pronounced complete,
fascines and tiles were all the rage, and all those who had oyster-fisheries
thought their fortunes were made.
The fact of the matter is, that the first year these various oyster-catching
implements were laid down happened to be a year famous for an exceed-
ingly heavy fall of spat ; in other words, a vast majority of the young spat
12 REPORT 1865.
born lived, thrived, and ultimately adhered to whatever they could find to
adhere to. They found the fascines and tiles, and covered them as bees
cover the boughs of a tree at swarming-tirne ; and the idea was at once
started that these fascines and tiles were the means, as it were, of creating
the oysters which otherwise would not have been created.
The first two or three years after these tiles, &c., were laid down happened
to be good years for the spat living ; but for the last few years the spat has
not lived, and the natural consequence has been that they have not been
found on the tiles in very large quantities. Oysters, in fact, are just as scarce
this year in France as they are in England. If the artificial system with
tiles had been such a great success, and had the tiles caught the sj)at when
culch would not catch the spat, it would of necessity follow that oysters in
France would have been very cheap, whereas in fact they are quite as dear as
in England, and there are so few of them to be had that French agents are
at this moment in this country buying all they can get hold of.
There can, however, be no doubt whatever that as a rule the oysters spat
much more freely on the west coast of France than they do at the mouth of
the Thames and the adjoining coasts of Essex. The reason of this is, to my
mind, obvious. Oysters require heat, or rather warmth, in their younger
state. From the nature of the vegetation the general state of the climate can
be pretty well ascertained. Now at the headquarters of artificial breeding,
at the Isle of Re, the temperature is so great that vines grow luxuriantly.
In England the temperature is such that we can only grow corn, turnips, &c.
The latitude of the Isle of Re, which is situated in the Bay of Biscay, is about
46°, whereas the mouth of the Thames is about 51|°; it is natural therefore
to suppose (as indeed the facts show) that in ordinary years there should be
a much larger fall of spat at the Isle of Re than on the east coast of England.
The state of things on the west coast of Ireland seems to confirm this con-
clusion ; for here, again, the oysters breed much more freely than they do in
England, the cause being the warm moist climate and the even temperature
of the air.
In accordance with hydrographical facts, the oysters bred both in Ireland
and Re are taken elsewhere to fatten ; those from Ireland are brought round
by vessels or else in boxes by railway and laid down at the mouth of the
Thames, where in a year or so they increase greatly in the quantity of meat
contained in the shells. The shell, too, seems inclined to take on the cha-
racteristics of the oysters natural to the place, though direct observation will
not as yet enable me to be sure about the fact " whether the young of trans-
ported oysters will, if born in the locality where a purer breed of oysters
exist, assume the character of the natives of the place :" this is a subject of the
highest importance, about which no facts are yet known. In Re the lean
oysters are placed in what are called clares — that is to say, mud ponds ; in
these mud ponds they find food, and certainly become fatter than at the
place where they were first born.
Chemical Analysis.
The object of this investigation is, first, to ascertain whence the oyster
obtains the mineral material to secrete his house, and, secondly, what those
materials are ; for, commercially speaking, the proportion of the meat to the
shell is of the greatest importance to the merchant who has to pay high
prices for the transport of oysters long distances. If he buys oysters with a
thick shell, containing a large proportion of mineral, he cannot possibly ob-
tain as much profit as if there were more meat than shell at a given weight.
One-fourth.
One-fifth.
<
CULTIVATION OF OYSTERS BY NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL METHODS. 13
With this idea, I have, with the assistance of my clerk, ascertained the pro-
portion of meat to shell in nearly forty kinds of oysters. I am indebted to
Mr. Moore, of the Derby Museum, Liverpool, for many specimens of these
oysters ; and I shall be exceedingly obliged to any gentleman who will give
me any specimens to enlarge my table.
Proportion of Meat to Shell in different hinds of Oysters, ascertained by
Mr. Frank BucMand.
Colchester
Whitstable
Paglesham
Heme Bay
Falmouths
Callies >• One-sixth.
Mayor's Bank, Galway J
Plymouth ,
Tramore Bay, Ireland
Eastbourne, Sussex )-One -seventh.
Milford, Wales
Isle of Skye
Bed Bank Burrin, Collare, Ireland ....
Sandheads, Mouth of Thames
Sir W. Wallace's, Loch Byan, Scotland
Exmouth Harbour
Wexford, Ireland >One-eighth
Clew Bay, Ireland
Skibbereen, Cape Clear ,
Penmaenmawr, Wales
Auglimish Bay, Ireland
Boston, Lincolnshire
Boss Muck, co. Clare, Ireland
Waterford, Ireland
Channel between Dover and France . .
Hayling Island, near Portsmouth \ One-tenth.
Beaumaris, Wales
Shetland
Howth Bank, Ireland
Mouth of the Humber ' One-twelfth.
North Sea One-fifteenth.
Isle of Be, France One-twentieth.
It struck me that, whereas the oysters were very different in appearance,
their mineral ingredients would differ correspondingly. I have therefore
obtained the assistance of Mr. A. P. Tarner, F.C.S. He finds that the chemical
ingredients composing the oyster-shell are three — animal matter, phosphate
of lime, and carbonate of lime.
Six different kinds of oysters were taken from localities widely apart ;
and the result (given in the Table) proved directly that, as I had supposed
from theory, the more animal matter there was in an oyster-shell, and the
less mineral, the greater value it would be for the market ; it is very satis-
factory to find that the chemical ingredients of the shell of the oyster tally
almost exactly with the prices they bear at the market. I have not as yet
had time to examine the meat of the oyster, but propose to report on this
at a future time.
One-ninth.
}
One-eleventh.
14
REPORT 1865.
Animal matter.
Phosphate of lime.
Carbonate of lime.
Heme Bay Native. . .
Rivedoux Rocks ...
•096
•087
•075
•0G2
•041
•037
Rivedoux Rocks ...
Herno Bay Native...
Colchester
â– 075
•047
•028
•020
•020
•011
North Sea
•948
•943
•910
•905
•857
•838
Red Bank Burrin ...
North Sea
Red Bank Burrin . . .
Heme Bay Native...
Rivedoux Rocks ...
Red Bank Burrin . . .
Experiments on the Matching of Oyster-spat.
It is my firm conviction that one of the chief reasons why the yonng spat
have died in such countless numbers in the open sea is, that the water is not
of a sufficient temperature to allow them to live and thrive during the period
in which the process of adhesion takes place. Sudden alterations of tempe-
rature, especially from warm to cold, are also particularly fatal in their re-
sults. I have therefore instituted a series of experiments to endeavour, if
possible, to give the young spat a continuous supply of water at a constant
and unvarying temperature. In doing this I have gone to some considerable
expense ; but, as a set-off against this, I have been greatly aided by Mr.
Dilnot, a tradesman of Heme Bay, who has most kindly placed his premises
at my disposal.
By a somewhat complicated bit of machinery we have been enabled to keep
up a constant supply of sea-water continually flowing for several weeks, the
temperature being arranged by an application of artificial heat. Upon exa-
mining the stones, shells, and other materials in this artificially warmed
water we were much pleased to find the shells adhering in the position
usually chosen by the young oyster itself, viz. the underside of the shell,
The adhesion was pretty firm, but as the water dried the shell became loose,
and ultimately fell off. I cannot, however, but look at this as a partial ap-
proach to success. It appears to me that the young creatures had taken up
the position they intended to occupy, and that they died from some other
causes. What those causes were I am hardly at present able to state ; but I
am qiute certain and positive that I know what two of them were, and trust
to be able to meet the difficulties in future trials. The task of applying
heat artificially is no easy one, and presents many mechanical difficulties,
which at present I can hardly see how to meet. I do not, however, despair,
and propose further experiments during the next season. I mentioned this
idea at the last Meeting of the Association, at Bath, and have since endea-
voured to carry it out. Experiments of a similar kind have, I have heard,
been instituted by Mr. William Crofts ; but I have not seen his apparatus.
Experiment has shown me the exact temperature the spat like best.
The Question of Green Oysters.
This is, both commercially and socially speaking, a most important ques-
tion. The Biver Roach, situated on the coast of Essex, has for a hundred
years or more produced large quantities of oysters ; but, strange to say,
none of these oysters are ever sent to the English market, being all, with-
out exception, sent to the markets at Dunkirk and Ostend, and thence to
Baiis, Berlin, and even, I bebeve, as far as St. Petersburgh. The reason
why they are not sent to the English market is simply that they are green
in appenrance. I have examined into this question with very great care, and
in doing so have been greatly assisted by my friend Mr. W. Wiseman, of
Pagles'ham. The oysters, strange to say, are only green in the winter, and
CULTIVATION OF OYSTERS BY NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL METHODS. 15
not in the summer. The greenness docs not extend throughout the whole of
their body, but simply to their beard or fin. The cause is totally unknown :
some attribute it to the green weed among which the oysters are placed ; others
to the infusoria upon which they feed : for all practical purposes suffice it to
say, they are most excellent and nutritious food to the human frame. Dr.
"Letheby has made an analysis of them for Mr. Wiseman, and reports that they
are perfectly wholesome and contain no copper. Practical experience, more-
over, proves that they are wholesome, and many dozens of them may be eaten
with impunity. The 03-sters at Marcnnes, in France, are so highly esteemed
by the French people on account of their greenness, that the oyster-culturists
at Marennes placed them in pits in order that they might become green.
From all that I can observe or ascertain, my present opinion is (and is fur-
ther confirmed by experiments which I have carried out), that the cause of
the greenness is the presence of chlorophyll in the beard of the oyster.
From this fact we may deduce an important practical conclusion, viz. that, if
it be desirable to get off the greenness from the oysters, all that is required
will be to place them in pits, and place a covering of hurdles, brands, or
other materials over them, so as to prevent the action of light, the chloro-
phyll will, I believe, not be formed, and the oyster in consequence not be able
to take it up. This is a practical suggestion which I have made to Mr. Wise-
man, and which he has promised at once to experiment on.
Falmouth Green Oysters.
The green oysters from Falmouth have undoubtedly a bad reputation, on
account of their being said to contain copper. Mr. Fox, of Falmouth, has
been good enough to send me samples of these oysters. I have submitted
them to the analysis of Mr. Tarner, who reports the presence of copper in
them, but in very minute quantities, hardly sufficient, I should imagine, to
do injury to the human system ; still that it is present there can be no doubt.
It may be that the oysters obtain the copper from a solution in sea-water,
or from the fresh water running from the copper-mines. I propose, if oppor-
tunity serves, to visit Falmouth, and inquire more minutely into this fact.
Falmouth oysters are imported in considerable quantities to the mouth of the
Thames ; and practical experience shows that they lose all their green colour
on being exposed for a few months in water suited to their fattening. The
bodies of these Falmouth oysters when first caught are almost as green as
arsenical paper ; the shells also look green in external appearance. Upon
placing them in spirits of wine the spirits become dark green ; there can be
no doubt whatever that this is caused by the presence of chlorophyll.
In conclusion, I would remark that so anxious am I about the cultivation
of the waters, especially with reference to the Salmon and the Oyster, that I
have established, at my own expense, at the Royal Horticultural Gardens,
under the Science and Art Department of the South Kensington Mriseum, a
" Museum of Economic Fish-culture," in which I have exhibited drawings
and preparations illustrating the habits and natural history of the salmon,
together with samples of oysters from many parts of the United Kingdom.
The development of the young oyster from its embryonic state to the time
that it is fit for market, together with the various modes of its cultivation,
both by ordinary and by artificial methods, is fully illustrated. Samples of
oysters, alive or dead, from any part of the world will be most thankfully
received ; for any fact, however insignificant it may seem to be, is valuable.
16 REPORT 1865.
First Report of the Committee for exploring Kent's Cavern, Devon-
shire. The Committee consisting of Sir Charles Lyell, Bart.,
Professor Phillips, Sir John Lubbock, Bart., Mr. John Evans,
Mr. Edward Vivian, and Mr. William Pengelly (Reporter) .
The celebrated Kent's Cavern, or Kent's Hole, is about a mile due east from
Torquay barbour. It is situated in a small, wooded, limestone hill on tbe
western side of a valley wbicb, about half a mile to the south, terminates
on tbe northern shore of Torbay.
Tbe hills -which surround the district consist of limestone, greenstone,
clay-slate, and a reddish grit or compact sandstone. Tbe two last are tra-
versed by veins of quartz ; and, with tbe possible exception of tbe green-
stone, they all belong to tbe Devonian system. Indeed the entire Torquay
peninsula is exclusively made up of rocks of this age.
According to tradition, there were formerly four or five entrances to the
cavern, of which two only were generally known, the others being merely
narrow apertures or slits through which, until they were blocked up from
within, tbe initiated were wont to enter clandestinely. The remaining two
are about 50 feet apart, and occur in tbe face of one and the same low
natural cliff, running nearly north and south, on the south-eastern side of
the hill. The northern entrance is in form a rude triangle, about 6 feet
high and 8 feet wide at the base. The southern is a natural and tole-
rably symmetrical arch, 9g feet wide at the base, and 6 feet high. Its
form is due partly to a gentle curvature of the strata — the apex of the
opening being in the anticlinal axis — and partly to the actual removal, by
natural causes, of portions of the limestone beds ; the base of the opening,
or chord of the arc, consists of undisturbed limestone ; so that the entrance
may be aptly compared to tbe mouth of an oven.
From the time of the researches and discoveries which, forty years ago,
rendered the cavern famous, to the commencement of the exploration under
the auspices of this Association, the southern entrance has been blocked up,
the northern alone being vised by visitors. The base of the latter is about
189 feet above the lovel of mean tide*, whilst that of the former is about
4 feet lower.
The Cavern has been known from time immemorial. Even tradition fails
to reach back to the date of its discovery. It did not, however, attract the
attention of scientific inquirers until September 1824, when Mr. Northmore
visited it with the double object, as be stated, " of discovering organic remains,
and of ascertaining the existence of a temple of Mithras," and he declared
himself" happy to say that he was successfid in both objects." He was speedily
followed by Mr. W. C. Trevilyan, who, according to the Rev. Mr. M'Enery,
" was the first that obtained any results of value to science." Mr. M'Enery,
whose name must be for ever associated with the cavern, first visited it in the
summer of 1825. He was at that time quite inexperienced in cavern re-
searches ; for he states that the party which he had been induced to accom-
pany was a large one, and that on entering the cavern he " was the last of
the train, for he could not divest himself of certain undefinable sensations, it
being his first visit to a scene of this nature." The visit was a memorable
one ; for, separating himself from his companions, and devoting himself to
* A " bench mark " of the Ordnance Survey in the road from Torquay to Ilsham farm,
and which is at no great distance from the cavern, is, as Col. Sir H. James kindly informs
me, 131'629 feet above the level of mean tide at Liverpool. By pocket aneroid, the base
of the northern entrance of the cavern is 575 feet above this mark. — W. P.
ON KENT S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 17
what he conjectured to be a favourable spot, he found several teeth and
bones. He thus describes his feelings on the occasion : — " They -were the
first fossil teeth I had ever seen, and as I laid my hand on these relics of
extinct races, and witnesses of an order of things which passed away with
them, I shrank back involuntarily ; though not insensible to the excitement
attending new discoveries, I am not ashamed to own, that in the presence of
these remains I felt more of awe than joy." He at once communicated his
discovery to Dr. Euckland, and with great energy followed up his " good
fortune " for several years. So far as can be ascertained from his memoranda,
the date of his latest visit was August 14th, 1S29.
Though he at one time intended to publish a narrative of his labours and
discoveries, and had made arrangements for the requisite illustrations, the
intention was unfortunately abandoned. After his decease, it was feared
that his manuscripts had been destroyed or lost ; but after experiencing a
variety of fortune they passed into the hands of Mr. Vivian of Torquay, who
from them compiled a Memoir which was published in 1859*.
In 1840, Mr. Godwin- Austen read a paper before the Geological Society
of London, on the " Bone Caves of Devonshire," when he described the results
of his investigations in Kent's Hole.
In 1846, the Torquay Natural History Society appointed a Committee to
conduct an exploration of a small portion of the cavern. Though their object
was mainly to obtain specimens for the Society's Museum, very careful atten-
tion was given to the positions and associations of all the articles found. A
paper embodying the results of this investigation was drawn up by Mr.
Vivian, a member of the Committee, and read in 1847 before the Geological
Society of London. A mention of this communication appeared in the 3rd
volume of the Quarterly Journal of the Society.
Though it may be doubted, perhaps, whether any of the foregoing explora-
tions were conducted with that rigid observance of method which is now held
to be necessary, all the explorers are unanimous in stating that they found
flint " implements " mixed up with the remains of extinct animals.
In 1858, the results of the systematic and careful exploration of Brixham
Cavern, on the opposite shore of Torbay, induced the scientific world to sus-
pect that the alleged discoveries which, from time to time during a quarter
of a century, had been reported from Kent's Hole, might, after all, be en-
titled to a place amongst the verities of science ; and from that time various
proposals for further investigations have been made. As is well known,
these suggestions took a definite form at the last Meeting of this Association,
when a liberal grant of money was made, and a Committee was appointed
for the purpose of further exploration. It is the object of this communica-
tion to state what up to this time the results have been, so far as they are at
present determined.
The Committee have great pleasure in stating that, in reply to their appli-
cation for permission to make the proposed investigation, the proprietor, Sir
L. Palk, Bart., M.P., assured them most promptly that it would " give him
great pleasure to place every facility in their hands." He placed the cavern
in their exclusive custody, and suggested the most satisfactory arrangement
for the ultimate disposal of such objects of interest as might be found.
Though large portions of the deposits were broken up by Mr. M'Enery
and his successors, there is still within the cavern a very considerable amount
of virgin ground. The Committee, however, were desirous of selecting an
area in which not only were the deposits certainly intact, but which would
* Cavern Kesearches. Simpkin, Marshall and Co., 1851?,
1865. c
18 REPORT 1865.
not present any very great difficulties in working. After a visit of inspec-
tion it was decided to undertake the exploration of the large chamber into
which the southern entrance immediately opens. The mode of investigation
was laid down, trustworthy and intelligent workmen were engaged (Mr.
Charles Keeping, brother of the well-known fossil collector, being the chief),
and the work, consigned to the superintendence of the two resident members
of the Committee, Mr. Vivian and the Honorary Secretary, was commenced
on March 28th of the present year.
Immediately outside the cave lay a considerable talus of earth and stones,
the upper portion of which, at least, is believed to have been thrown out by
Mr. M'Enery, who conducted his researches through the northern opening.
It was necessary to cut through this mass in order to reach and make avail-
able the entrance which the Committee had selected for their operations.
This material was very carefully examined, partly for the purpose of detect-
ing any objects of interest which it might contain, and partly as an initiatory
exercise for the workmen.
The cavern is in no part subject to any considerable amount of drip ; and
no portion of it is drier than the chamber selected for exploration. Since the
commencement of the work unusually heavy rains have fallen in the district,
but water has entered through the roof at a very few points only, and in no
instance in such an amount as to produce discomfort or inconvenience.
The following is the succession of deposits, in descending order, which the
chamber contained.
1st. Huge blocks of limestone which had manifestly fallen from the roof.
Many of them required blasting to effect their removal ; and in several
instances it was necessary to blast even the masses into which they were by
this means divided. One of the blocks measured 11 feet long, 5| half
broad, and 2^ thick; hence it contained upwards of 100 cubic feet, and
must have weighed fully 7 tons. In some cases two or three of them
lay one on another, and, in a few instances, were firmly cemented together
by a separate cake of stalagmite between each pair; whilst others lay
unconformably with considerable interspaces. Occasionally, what appeared
to be a boss or dome of stalagmite proved to be a block, or two or three
small blocks, of limestone invested on all sides with a stalagmitic sheet.
Certain masses, lying at some distance from a drop, were without even a
trace of stalagmite.
2nd. Beneath these limestone blocks there was a layer of mould of an almost
black colour. It varied from a few inches to upwards of a foot in depth.
3rd. Underneath the black soil came a cake of stalagmitic breccia, made up
of comparatively small fragments of limestone so very firmly cemented to-
gether with carbonate of lime as occasionally to require blasting. It was
rarely less, but not unfrequcntly much more, than a foot thick. Everywhere
it was firmly attached to the walls, and it occasionally extended completely
across the chamber. Not unfrequently, however, the centre of the chamber
was altogether destitute of this breccia, in some instances, because there is
no drip near the area, in others, because it was intercepted by an overlying
limestone block.
4th. The breccia is succeeded by the ordinary reddish cave-loam, which
contains a large number of limestone fragments, varying in dimensions
from bits not larger than sixpences, to masses but little smaller than those which
lay on the surface. They lie at all angles without anything like symmetrical
arrangement. In fact the entire deposit is without any approach to strati-
fication. Many of the stones are partially encrusted with calcareous matter,
on Kent's cavern, Devonshire. 19
and not unfrequently loam, stones, and splinters of bones are cemented by
the same substance into a very tough breccia. The presence of a calcareous
drip is more or less traceable everywhere. Hitherto the cave-earth has been
excavated to the depth of 4 feet only. How far it extends below this, or
what may be beneath it, is at present unknown. Where it is not covered
with the stalagmitic breccia, the black soil lies immediately on it ; but the
line of junction is everywhere sharply defined. In no instance do the two
commingle.
Since the large masses of limestone occur at all levels in the cave-earth as
well as everywhere above it, it is obvious that whatever may be the cause to
which their fall is attributable, they cannot be referred to any one and the
same period. They fell from time to time throughout the accumulation of
the cave-earth, they continued to fall whilst the stalagmitic breccia was in
process of formation, as well as during the introduction of the black mould,
and they are amongst the most recent phenomena which the cavern presents.
And even of those which lie on the surface, there is conclusive evidence that
in some cases a considerable interval of time must have elapsed between the
fall of two blocks lying one on the other — an interval sufficiently great for
the formation of the cake of stalagmite between them, and which is some-
times fully 6 inches thick. There can be little doubt that some of them
fell very recently, even when measured by human standards.
It is by no means easy to determine the cause which threw them down.
To call in the aid of convulsion seems undesirable, since it would be necessary
to do so very frequently. Moreover, it may be doubted whether anything
short of a violent earthquake would be equal to the effect. Though the roof
of the chamber is of very great span and entirely unsupported, and though
it presents appearances which are not calculated to inspire confidence, the
violent concussions produced by the frequent blastings already mentioned,
blastings which not unfrequently throw masses of limestone, weighing up-
wards of a ton, to a distance of several feet, have never brought down even a
splinter.
The fall of the blocks has sometimes been attributed to changes of dimen-
sions in the roof arising from changes of temperature ; but the fact that the
cavern temperature is all but constant throughout the year, seems fatal to
this hypothesis.
The masses lying on the surface were a sufficient guarantee that the de-
posits beneath them remained intact. There can be no doubt that they are
at once a proof and the cause of the undisturbed character of the soil they
cover. A portion of the cavern so easily accessible as is this chamber,
would not have been spared by Mr. M'Enery, but on account of some great
difficulty or discouragement ; and in fact he states that the fallen masses
completely foiled him in his attempts to make explorations in it, excepting
in one branch some distance south of the area selected by the Committee.
Their own characters, moreover, render it absolutely certain" that the deposits
have never been violated.
The following is the method of exploration which has been observed from
the commencement, and which it is believed affords a simple and correct
method of determining the exact position of every object which has been
found.
1st. The black soil accessible between the masses of limestone on the sur-
face was carefully examined and removed.
2nd. The limestone blocks occupying the surface of the deposits were
blasted and otherwise broken up, and taken out of the cavern.
c2
20 REPORT — 1865.
3rd. A line, termed the " datum line," is stretched horizontally from a
fixed point at the entrance to another at the hack of the chamber.
4th. Lines, one foot apart, are drawn at right angles to the datum line,
and therefore parallel to one another, across the chamber so as to divide the
surface of the deposit into belts termed " parallels."
5th. In each parallel the black mould which the limestone masses had
covered is first examined and removed, and then the stalagmitic breccia, so
as to lay bare the surface of the cave-earth.
Gth. Horizontal lines, a foot apart, are then drawn from side to side across
the vertical face of the section so as to divide the parallel into four layers or
" levels," each a foot deep.
Finally, each level is divided into lengths, called " yards," each 3 feet
long, and measured right and left from the datum line as an axis of abscissas.
In fine, the cave-earth is excavated in vertical slices or parallels 4 feet
high, 1 foot thick, and as long as the chamber is broad where this breadth
does not exceed 30 feet. Each parallel is taken out in levels 1 foot
high, and each level in horizontal prisms 3 feet long and a foot square
in the section, so that each contains three ci;bic feet of material.
This material, after being carefully examined in sitn by candlelight, is
taken to the doorway aud reexamined by daylight, after which it is at
once removed without the cavern. A box is appropriated to each yard ex-
clusively, and in it are placed all the objects of interest which the prism
yields. The boxes, each having a label containing the data necessary for
defining the situation of its contents, are daily sent to the Honorary Secre-
tary of the Committee, by whom the specimens are at once cleaned and
packed in fresh boxes. The labels are numbered and packed with the speci-
mens to which they respectively belong, and a record of the day's work is
entered in a diary.
The same method is followed in the examination of the black mould,
and also of the stalagmitic breccia, with the single exception that in these
cases the parallels are not divided into levels and yards.
With very rare exceptions the cavern has been visited daily by one, and
frequently by both of the Superintendents ; and Monthly Reports of progress
have been regularly forwarded to Sir Charles Lyell, the Chairman of the
Committee.
Though it would be premature to attempt anything like an exhaustive
list, it may be of interest to furnish a brief and general account of the objects
which have been found.
Of the articles met with in the black mould, those occurring between the
fallen masses of limestone have been kept distinct from such as have been
detected beneath them. Such a division, however, is not rendered necessary
by the characters of the objects themselves, and will not be attended to on
the present occasion. In this category also may be placed the greater num-
ber of the specimens found in the talus outside the cavern. The collection is
of a various miscellaneous nature. It consists of stones of various kinds,
human industrial remains, charred wood, bones of various animals, marine
and land-shells, and the broken shells of hazel-nuts. It passes from the
Rabbit's nest fined with clean dry fur and containing a couple of fresh
green ivy-leaves, and numberless fragments of wine and porter bottles flung
away by parties who have visited the cavern mainly from a love of frolic,
back to the age of bronze implements and of flint flakes, and probably repre-
sents from fifteen hundred to two thousand years.
The stones are in most cases well rounded, and, at least, some of them are
on rent's cavern, Devonshire. 21
of marine origin, since they are distinctly lithodoniized. They consist of
limestone, quartz, red grit, greenstone, and flint ; all except the last derivable
from the rocks of the immediate district, and were probably obtained from
the neighbouring beaches, where also the flints were perhaps found ; for
though there is no flint in situ within five miles,- it is a well-known fact
that such pebbles are met with on existing beaches at much greater distances
from any known accumulation of flints in place. The rounded stones are
extremely numerous in the black mould, and were undoubtedly selected and
taken to the cavern ; but for what purpose it may not be easy to determine.
There are also several pieces of hard greenish-grey grit of an elongated
form, which were perhaps used as whetstones. Angular pieces of slate are
also numerous. They are probably fragments of articles fashioned by man,
as occasionally a piece is met with which is obviously a portion of a curvi-
lineal plate. Such plates are mentioned by Mr. M'Enery, who supposes
them to have been used as covers for earthenware vessels. The human in-
dustrial remains consist of articles in bronze and in bone, pottery, spindle-
whorls, and flint-flakes. The bronze articles are a fibula, the bowl and
part of the stem of a spoon, a spear head, a fragment of a socketed celt, two
or three rings, one eoil of a helical spring, a pin about 3| inches long, and
and an object resembling a horseshoe in form, but not more than an inch long.
In this connexion may be mentioned a lump of metal which, from its
general appearance, would be termed copper ore, but from its interior, a small
portion of which has been exposed accidentally, it is probably native copper,
or a mass of metal which has been smelted. A similar mass mentioned by
Mr. M'Enery, is said to have been analyzed " by Mr. Phillips and found to be
pure virgin ore." Much of the pottery, excepting one small piece, undoubt-
edly Samian, is extremely coarse, and in most cases it is unglazed. A large
number of fragments have been found, but nothing approaching a perfect
vessel. They are generally ornamented, and from the different .patterns, as
well as from other facts, it may be concluded that they represent a consider-
able number of utensils. One piece probably formed part of a vessel in
which things were burnt, as on its inner surface there is a firm admixture of
clay and small bits of charcoal. Much of the pottery is without doubt of
Roman age.
The objects fashioned in bone are a comb, which in size and outline
resembles a common shoe-lifter having teeth cut in the broad end ; a
spoon, neatly formed of a portion of a rib, and measuring about 6 inches long
and ^jths of an inch broad ; a chisel about 2-jSjths inches in length, and at
its broad end -jiyths of an inch in width ; a wedge, somewhat rudely fashioned
out of a horn or antler ; two small fragments which appear to be portions of
combs, and one of which bears traces of ornamentation ; and an article about
3 inches long, apparently the handle of some tool.
The spindle-whorls are formed of different materials, such as Devonian
red grit, one of the harder varieties of Triassic sandstone (rocks abundant
in the neighbourhood), a somewhat coarse, greenish, schistose rock not found
near the district, and Kimmeridge coal. They differ somewhat in dimen-
sions and in workmanship ; some being well finished, whilst others are so
roughly made as to render it safer perhaps to call them simply " holed
stones." "With them may be mentioned a large bead, which appears to con-
sist of amber or some analogous substance ; and a small, holed, ellipsoidal
fragment of limestone, which was perforated probably by some lithodomous
mollusk.
The flint-flakes are four in number, two of dark and two of light or white
22 report — 1865.
flint, the latter being the best formed. The light colour is more or less
superficial, the centre being of a dark grey.
The charred wood is very abundant. Some specimens are undistinguish-
able from prepared charcoal, whilst others are obviously nothing more than
partially burnt sticks, some of them of considerable size.
Bones are extremely numerous. They are more or less discoloured, and
have lost a considerable portion of their weight. It may be doubted whether
the entire elements of any skeleton have been found lying together.
Amongst them there are the relics of pig, deer, sheep, fox, wolf (?), bat,
hare, rabbit, with smaller rodents, birds, and various kinds of fish. Some of
them appear to have been exposed to the action of fire.
The land shells are principally various kinds of snail, the larger forms
being the most prevalent. They occur in all stages of growth, and thus
render it probable that they had established a colony in the cavern.
Amongst the marine shells are the limpet, whelk, oyster, cockle, mussel,
pecten, solen or razor-shell, and the internal shell of the cuttle-fish, Sepia
officinalis. From the unrubbed condition of the last, it was probably not
found cast ashore on the beach, but taken directly from the cephalopod to
which it belonged.
The source of the shells of hazel-nuts is not far to seek. They were no
doubt obtained from the wood in which the cavern is situated, and were
perhaps carried in by small animals whose homes were under the fallen
masses of limestone where the shells were found. Most of them are per-
forated at one end.
In passing below the black mould we first encounter the stalagmitic
breccia. This the workmen carefully break into small fragments, in order to
detect any articles of interest imbedded in it. The search, though not very
productive, has not been quite fruitless. In the breccia have been found
charred wood, marine and land shells, and bones of various animals, some of
which perhaps are extinct.
Immediately beneath this cake we enter the red cave-loam, and at once
find ourselves amongst the relics of several species of extinct animals. The
only differences in the four successive levels in which, as already stated, the
red loam is taken out are simply that the first or uppermost is the poorest,
and the third, perhaps, the richest in osseous remains ; and that the three
lower levels contain a large amount of minutely comminuted bone, of which
there are very few instances in the uppermost foot. In other respects the
levels are the same — everywhere the same in the materials which form the
staple of the deposit ; in the occurrence of pebbles of various kinds of rock,
which differ from those in the overlying black mould only in being less
numerous ; in the presence of bones in the same condition and representing
the same species of animals ; and in yielding " flint implements " of the
same types. It will not be necessary, therefore, to describe each level sepa-
rately or in detail.
The bones found below the stalagmite are heavier than those met with
above it. This distinction is so well marked and so constant as to be cha-
racteristic. It would be easy to assign them to their respective deposits
by their specific weights alone. Most of those from the red loam are but
little discoloured, indeed some of them are of a chalk-like whiteness. A few,
however, occur here and there which have undergone a considerable amount
of discoloration, a consequence, probably, and also a proof of a greater degree
of exposure before their inhumation. On most of the latter, certain lines
and patches of fighter colour not unfrequently present themselves, which
on Kent's cavern, Devonshire. 23
may be likened to such as are sometimes left by mosses or lichens on objects
on which they have grown.
A large number of bones, including jaws, teeth, and horns, are scored with
teeth-marks, clearly the work of animals of different kinds. Some of the
long bones are split longitudinally. Many appear to have been rolled,
including most of those which have been gnawed ; and in the case of the
latter, it is tolerably obvious that the rolling was subsequent to the gnawing.
Some of those found beneath the large masses of fallen limestone are in a
crushed condition, and thus apparently attest the fact that the deposit on
which they lay, and on which the blocks fell, was of a compact nature, and
capable of a firm resistance.
The minutely comminuted bone already spoken of, is commonly found
converted with loam and stones into a firni breccia. Not unfrequently,
however, it occupies the hollow cavities of some of the larger bones.
"With it there sometimes occurs a cream-coloured substance, which in a few
instances has been met also in the form of small detached lumps having a
low specific gravity. This, as well as some of the comminuted bone, has
been supposed to be of faecal origin.
In cleaning the bones it is frequently found to be impossible to remove
entirely the earthy matter from them. They are at least partially invested
with a thin film, which defies the brush and water. On drying, however,
this matter commonly scales off, and proves to be a paste or paint composed
of loam and carbonate of lime, the latter probably derived from drip from
the roof.
Large portions of the osseous remains occur in the forms of fragments
and mere splinters. The identifiable parts are chiefly teeth, which are ex-
tremely numerous. Amongst the Mammals represented, there are certainly
the Cave-bear, Cave-lion, Cave-hyaena, Fox, Horse (probably more than
one species), Ox, several species of Deer, the tichorhine Ehinoceros, and
Mammoth. Remains of the Hyaena are probably the most abundant, after
which come those of Ehinoceros and Horse. The relics of the Mammoths
(both molars and tusks) are those of very young individuals.
It has already been hinted that " flint implements " occur everywhere in
the cave-earth mixed up with the remains of extinct Mammals. Several of
them were found in the presence of, and some of them by, the Superin-
tendents. Like the bones, they are least abundant in the uppermost
foot, and occur in greatest numbers in the lowest zones. Altogether, and
without reckoning doubtful specimens and numerous chips, nearly thirty
'•implements" have been dug out. Though the designation of "flint" is
given to all, some of them are perhaps of chert. Of the flints properly so
called, some are of a dark, and others of a light-grey colour, whilst a third
kind are almost white, and have a porcellanous aspect. With the exception
of three, they are all of the kind known as flakes — flat on one side, and more
or less carinated on the other. Some of them are fragments only, others
were found broken in the deposit with the parts lying in contact, whilst
others again are perfect. Some of the broken specimens of the white variety
show that they are not of this colour throughout their entire mass, but have a
dark central axis or core. The flakes agree in character with those in the
black overlying mould. The excepted three are of chert, and are worked on
both sides. They were found in the second, third, and ftrarth levels ; one in
each. That from the second foot is about 4| inches long, and, where
widest, 2| broad. At one end it tapers to a point, and narrows to no more
than | of an inch at the other. In outline it is rudely a segment of a
24 REPORT — 18C5.
curvilineal figure, and is slightly falciform. The inner or concave margin is
the cutting edge. Unfortunately the tip of the pointed end was broken off
after exhumation. Those from the third and fourth levels are more highly-
wrought "implements." They are worked to an edge around the entire
perimeter. In outline they are rather ovoid than elliptical, being narrower
at one end than at the other. That from the third foot measures 4-1- inches
in length, and its greatest breath and thickness are respectively 3^ inches
and |- of an inch. That found in the fourth zone, the lowest yet reached, is
the most elaborately finished "implement" of the series. It is lighter in
colour and somewhat smaller than the preceding two, its dimensions being
3| inches long, 2\ broad, and ^ in thickness.
Without intending at present to enter on the consideration of all the
bearings of the entire evidence produced, the Committee feel at liberty to
express their conviction that it is totally impossible to doubt either the human
origin of the "implements," or their inosculation, in undisturbed soil, with
the remains of the Mammoth, the Cave-bear, and their extinct contem-
poraries.
Nor are these the only indications of human existence found in the cave-
earth. Several small pieces of burnt bone have been met with in the red
loam, some of them loose and detached, others of small size and incor-
porated in the breccia composed of loam, stones, and comminuted bone.
Mention has been made already of the occurrence in the cave- earth of
rounded stones not derivable from the limestone hill in which the cavern is
situated. It seems probable that at least some of them were selected and taken
there by man ; though it may not be easy, perhaps, to determine in all cases
for what purpose. But, waiving this point, there are two stones which must
not be hastily dismissed. The first of them is 4| inches long, and something
less than 1 inch square in the section. It is a mass of hard purplish-grey grit,
and is undoubtedly a whetstone, or rather a portion of one. It was found
in the first level of the cave-earth, in a small recess or cavity in the northern
wall of the chamber, immediately beneath a projecting stratum of limestone
in situ. In this cavity the stone stood with its longest axis vertical. The
Superintendents were inclined to the opinion that it had slipped through a
hole into the cavity at a comparatively recent date ; and they diligently set
to work to find the means of its ingress. Here, however, they were com-
pletely foiled. There was no hole or passage, vertical or lateral, by which
the cavity could have been entered. Not only, as has been said, was
there a thick stratum of limestone in situ immediately over the recess,
but over this again, as well as over the red loam, there was a thick com-
pact mass of stalagmitic breccia, consisting of large and small pieces of lime-
stone firmly cemented, and having a height of fully 8 feet ; the whole of
which was removed before the cavity was disclosed or its existence suspected.
The second stone is a rude flattened spheroid, formed from a pebble of
coarse, hard, red sandstone, and apparently used for breaking or crushing.
Its diameters measure 2| and 1| inches. It was found in the second level
of the red cave-earth, over which lay an enormous block of limestone, but
no stalagmite.
In addition to the pleasure which always attends scientific discovery, the
Committee have had the gratification of confirming most of the statements
of their predecessors. Any differences observable between the statements
now made and those of the earlier investigators arise from defective, not
conflicting evidence. For example, the Committee have not yet been so
fortunate as to find the remains of Machairodus latidens, mentioned and
RULES Or ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 25
figured by Mr. M'Enery *, nor of Hippopotamus major, alluded to by Prof.
Owen f as occurring in tbe cavern ; nor bare they found anything in the
least degree calculated to bring the statements alluded to into discredit-
Again, so far as their researches have gone, the Committee have not, like
Mr. Godwin-Austen, found the bones of man mixed up, in undisturbed soil,
with those of extinct animals + ; it will be seen, however, that there is no
a priori improbability in the statement of the distinguished geologist just
mentioned ; and the Committee would remind such as may be disposed to
attach importance to the fact that men's bones are not forthcoming as readily
as their implements, that in the black mould, as well as in the red loam of
the cavern, the only indications of man's existence are remnants of his handi-
work. Pottery, implements and ornaments in bone, metal, and stone, ' the
remnants of his fires, and the relics of his feasts are numerous, and betoken
the lapse of at least two milleniums ; but here, as well as in the older de-
posits below, the Committee have met with no vestige of his osseous system.
In conclusion, the Committee would observe that the value of their
labours is not to be measured by the discoveries, or rather the rediscoveries,
which they have made. They have not only disinterred a valuable body of
fact, but with it a confirmation of the concurrent statements of M'Enery,
Godwin-Austen, and the Committee of the Torquay Natural History Society ;
and have thereby more than doubled the amount of trustworthy evidence
which they have themselves produced.
Report of a Committee " appointed to report on the changes which
they may consider desirable to make, if any, in the Rides of Zoolo-
gical Nomenclature drawn up by Mr. H. E. Strickland, at the
instance of the British Association at their Meeting in Manchester
in 1842."
Pefokm of the Nomenclature of Zoology was a subject which occupied much
of the time of the late Hugh E. Strickland §. It was his object that this
reform should be brought forward under the auspices of the Pritish Asso-
ciation, and at a meeting of the Council of that body, held in London upon
11th of February, 1842, it was resolved — "That with a view of securing
attention to the following important subject, a Committee, consisting of Mr.
C. Darwin, Professor Henslow, Eev. L. Jenyns, Mr. "W. Ogilby, Mr. J.
Phillips, Dr. Pichardson, Mr. H. E. Strickland (reporter), Mr. J. 0. "Westwood,
be appointed, to consider of the rules by which the nomenclature of zoology
may be established on a uniform and permanent basis ; the Peport to be
presented to the Zoological Section, and submitted to its committee at the
Manchester Meeting"^.
This Committee met at various times in London, and the following gen-
tlemen were added to it, and assisted in its labours : — W. J. Proderip,
Professor Owen, W. E. Shuckard, G. P. Waterhouse, and W. Yarrell. An
outline of the proposed code was drawn up and circulated, and many valuable
* Cavern Researches, p. 32, and plate F. (8vo Edition).
t British Fossil Mammals and Birds, p. 410 (1846).
J Trans. Geol. Soc., Second Series, vol. vi. part 2. pp. 444 & 446.
§ See Memoirs of Hugh Edwin Strickland, by Sir W. Jardine, Bart., pp. clxxv. and 375.
^f Report of Twelfth Meeting of the British Association held at Manchester, June 1842,
26 report — 1865.
suggestions were received from eminent zoologists at home and abroad. The
" plan " was further considered by the Committee during the Meeting at
Manchester, " and the Committee having thus given their best endeavours
to maturing the plan, beg now to submit it to the approval of the British
Association under the title of — ' Series of Propositions for rendering the
nomenclature of zoology uniform and permanent ' "*.
The propositions were printed in the Reports of the British Association,
and a grant of money was voted to print copies for circulation. The rules
thus laid down were very generally adopted by zoologists, both in this
country and abroad; but in Great Britain having been printed only in
the volumes of the British Association, 'Annals of Natural History,' and
'Philosophical Magazine 'f, or depending on private circulation, it was
deemed advisable that greater publicity should be given to them, and at the
Meeting at Oxford in 1860 it was resolved, that " The surviving members of
the Committee appointed in 1842, viz., Mr. C. Darwin, Rev. Professor
Henslow, Rev. L. Jenyns, Mr. W. Ogilby, Professor Phillips, Sir John
Richardson, Mr. J. 0. Westwood, Professor Owen, Mr. "W. E. Shuckard,
and Mr. G. R. "Waterhouse, for the purpose of preparing rules for the esta-
blishment of a Uniform Zoological Nomenclature, be reappointed, with Sir
W. Jardine, Bart., and Dr. Sclater. That Sir W. Jardine, Bart., be the
Reporter, and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the pur-
pose of revising and reprinting the Rules "J.
Prom the difficulty of bringing such a Committee together, nothing was
done since the time of its appointment ; but the resolution and a grant of
money were again renewed at the late Meeting in Newcastle, as follows : —
"That Sir W.- Jardine, A. R. Wallace, J. E. Gray, Professor Babington, Dr.
Francis, Dr. Sclater, C. Spence Bate, P. P. Carpenter, Dr. J. D. Hooker,
Professor Balfour, H. T. Stainton, J. Gwyn Jeffreys, A. Newton, Professor
T. H. Huxley, Professor Allman, and G. Bentham, be a Committee, with
power to add to their number, to report on the changes, if any, which they
may consider it desirable to make in the Rules of Nomenclature drawn up
at the instance of the Association by Mr. H. E. Strickland and others, with
power to reprint these Rules, and to correspond with foreign naturalists and
others on tbe best means of ensuring their general adoption, and that the
sum of £15 be placed at their disposal for the purpose."
Accordingly the Rules, as originally approved of, were reprinted, and
zoologists were requested " to examine them carefully, and to communicate
any suggestions for alteration or improvement, on or before the 1st of June,
1864, to Sir William Jardine, Bart., Jardine Hall, by Loclerby, N. B., who
will consult with the members of the Committee, and report upon the sub-
ject at the next Meeting of the British Association appointed to be held at
Bath."
Erom the press of business at Bath the Committee did little there to com-
plete further the code of Zoological Nomenclature, and I was directed to
take some opportunity while in London to call together as many members
of the Committee as possible. Accordingly in the month of June last I sent
* Report of Twelfth Meeting, 1842, p. 106.
t At the Scientific Congress held in 1843 at Padua, the late Prince C. L. Buonaparte
submitted to the meeting an Italian translation of the ' British Association's Code of Rules,'
which was generally approved of. A French translation of the Report appeared in the
scientific journal ' L'Institut,' in which paper much stress was laid on the importance of
the measure. A review of it was also printed in the ' American Journal of Science.'
% Reports of the British Association held at Oxford, I860, p. xlvi.
RULES OF ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 27
a circular to the following members that I considered were within compara-
tively easy reach, and who I thought might be able to attend in London
without much inconvenience, viz., Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, Mr. Wallace, Dr.
Gray, Professor Babington, Dr. Francis, Dr. Sclater, Dr. J. Hooker, Mr.
Stainton, Professor Huxley, Mr. A. Newton, and Mr. G. Bentham. Mr. Gwyn
Jeffreys kindly permitted this meeting to be held at his house in Devonshire-
place, and it was attended by myself, Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, Mr. Wallace, and
Dr. Sclater ; the other gentlemen who had been invited sending apologies that
from various causes they were unable to come up to London or to attend.
Tbey, however, expressed themselves generally favourable to some code of
rules being adopted.
Professor Babington having returned his printed copy of the rules with
his observations written on the margin, the Committee were fully in posession
of his views. Mr. Wallace had brought with him a written memorandum
containing notes of what he thought could be altered or modified with
advantage. The members present then read over the printed rules and
recommendations one by one, and carefully compared them with the memo-
randa above mentioned, as well as with many letters from other naturalists,
and the observations made upon each were taken down at the time. The re-
commendations of the Committee, which I shall presently read to you, have
been based upon these observations, and upon the conferences and discussions
held at Birmingham during the present Meeting.
Since the time that Mr. H. E. Strickland's Rules and Recommendations
were printed in the Reports of the British Association, zoological nomen-
clature has not been improved. Whether it is from the rules and recom-
mendations not being sufficiently well known, or from an idea that no one
has any right to interfere with or make rules for others, many gentlemen
appear to cast them away, and do not recognize them at all, while others
accept or reject just what pleases themselves ; in consequence many very
objectionable names have been given, and a very base coinage and spurious
combinations have been going on. The Committee does not allude to very
long or harsh sounding names, though they are much to be deprecated even
when classically compounded ; but they object to indelicate names, or to such
compounds as Malherbipims, Kawpifalco, Zebrapicus, &c; or, when a new
form in the genus Procelhria is thought to be discovered, and honour is
intended to be done to a distinguished navigator, such a word as Coohilaria
is proposed ; or, when provincial names are attempted to be Latinized, as in
the case of a fish commonly known as the " Tom Cod," which is entered in
our systems under the scientific (?) name of Morrhua tomcodus. These may
be said to be extreme examples, but hundreds might be given, and it is the
opinion of the Committee that the only way to deal with such names is
to reject them altogether.
In this condition of our zoological nomenclature, then, it is of the greatest
importance that some general code of rules should be adopted and acted
upon. The Committee were perfectly agreed upon this point, but on calling
them together during the present Meeting of the British Association, the
botanists arrived at the conclusion that, having long acted in concert upon
the rules laid down by Linnaeus in the ' Philosophia Botanica,' and by Sir
James E. Smith, Decandolle, and others, it was unnecessary for them to have
Botany included in the Stricklandian code ; at the same time they were sen-
sible that some generally recognized code would be of the utmost importance
to zoology. The Committee therefore are of opinion and recommend : —
28 report— 1865.
I. That Botany should not be introduced into the Strickland rules and
recommendations.
II. That the permanency of names and convenience of practical appli-
cation being the two chief requisites in any code of rules for scien-
tific nomenclature, it is not advisable to disturb by any material
alterations the rules of zoological nomenclature which were au-
thorized by Section D at the Meeting of the British Association at
Manchester in 1842.
III. The Committee are of opinion, after much deliberation, that the
Xllth edition of the ' Systema Natura) ' is that to which the limit
of time should apply, viz. 1766. But as the -works of Artedi and
Scopoli have already been extensively used by ichthyologists and
entomologists, it is recommended that the names contained in or
used from these authors should not be affected by this provision.
This is particularly requisite as regards the generic names of
Artedi afterwards used by Linnaeus himself.
In Mr. H. E. Strickland's original draft of these Bules and Recommen-
dations the edition of Linnaeus was left blank, and the Xllth was inserted by
the Manchester Committee. This was done not as being the first in which the
Binomial nomenclature had been used, as it commenced with the Xth, but as
being the last and most complete edition of Linnoeus's works, and containing
many species the Xth did not. For these reasons it is now confirmed by
this Committee, and also because these rules having been used and acted
upon for twenty-three years, if the date were altered now, many changes of
names would be required, and in consequence much confusion introduced.
IV. In Rule 13th, " Specific names, when adopted as generic, must be
changed." The Committee agree that it is exceedingly injudicious
to adopt a specific name as a generic name, but they are of opinion
that where this has been done, it is the generic name which must be
thrown aside, not the old specific name, and that this rule shoidd
be so altered as to meet this.
Y. The recommendations under " Ckisses of objectionable names,'' as
already pointed out, cannot be too carefully attended to. Specific-
names from persons have already been sufficiently prostituted, and
personal generic names have increased to a large and undeserving
extent. The handing down the name of a naturalist by a genus
has always been considered as the highest honour that could be
given, and shoidd never be bestowed lightly*.
TI. The recommendation, " Specific names to be written with a small
initial." The Committee propose that this recommendation should
be omitted. It is not of great importance, and may be safely left
to naturalists to deal with as they think fit.
These are the chief alterations and modifications the Committee have to
suggest. It is scarcely possible to make any code of rules for a subject so
extensive as zoology either perfect in itself or such as will meet the opinions
of every one. It must be a matter of compromise, and as working by no
rides is creating great confusion and an immense increase in synonymy, the
Committee would ask this Section to approve their present report or finding,
* " Hoc imieum et siumnum prceinium laboris, sancte servandum, et caste dispen-
saiidum ad incitaruentuin et oniaruentum Botanices." — Phil. Botan., p. 171.
RULES OF ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 29
and to give their sanction to these Eules and Recommendations as now pro-
posed to be modified.
Signed on the part of the members of Committee
present at Birmingham * by "Wm. Jardine, Reporter.
On the preceding Report being read to Section D, upon Tuesday, 19th
September, the following motion was made and carried unanimously : —
Moved by Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, seconded by Dr. Sclater, — That the Re-
port now read be approved of and adopted by the Section, and that
the Rides or propositions, as thereby altered and amended, be printed
in the Reports of the British Association and recommended for the
general use of zoologists.
PART I.
RULES FOR RECTIFYING THE PRESENT ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE.
[Limitation of the Plan to Systematic Nomenclature.']
In proposing a measure for the establishment of a permanent and uni-
versal zoological nomenclature, it must be premised that we refer solely to
the Latin or systematic language of zoology. We have nothing to do with
vernacular appellations. One great cause of the neglect and corruption
wbich prevails in the scientific nomenclature of zoology, has been the
frequent and often exclusive use of vernacular names in lieu of the Latin
binomial designations, which form the only legitimate language of systematic
zoology. Let us then endeavour to render perfect the Latin or Linnajan
method of nomenclature, which, being far removed from the scope of national
vanities and modern antipathies, holds out the only hope of introducing into
zoology that grand desideratum, an universal language.
[Laiu of Priority the only effectual and just one.~\
It being admitted on all hands that words are only the conventional signs
of ideas, it is evident that language can only attain its end effectually by
being permanently established and generally recognized. This consideration
ought, it would seem, to have checked those who are continually attempting
to subvert the established language of zoology by substituting terms of their
own coinage. But, forgetting the true nature of language, they persist in
confounding the name of a species or group with its definition ; and because
the former often falls short of the fulness of expression found in the latter,
they cancel it without hesitation, and introduce some new term which
appears to them more characteristic, but which is utterly unknown to the
science, and is therefore devoid of all authority f. If these persons were to
object to such names of men as Long, Little, Armstrong, Golightly, &c, in cases
where they fail to apply to the individuals who bear them, or shoidd complain
of the names Gough, Lawrence, or Harvey, that they were devoid of meaning,
and should hence propose to change them for more characteristic appella-
tions, they woidd not act more unphilosophically or inconsiderately than
they do in the case before us ; for, in truth, it matters not in the least by
what conventional sound we agree to designate an individual object, provided
the sign to be employed be stamped with such an authority as will suffice to
* The Members of the Committee present at Birmingham were A. E. Wallace, Professor
Babington, Dr. Francis, Dr. Sclater, C. Spence Bate, P. P. Carpenter, Professor Balfour,
H. T. Stainton, J. Gwyn Jeffreys, A. Newton, G. Bentham, and Sir W. Jardine, Bart.
(Reporter).
t Linnseus says on this subject, " Abstinendum ab hac innovatione qure nonquam
cessaret, quin indies aptiora detegerentur ad infinitum,"
30 REPORT — 1865.
make it pass current. Kow in zoology no one person can subsequently claim
an authority equal to that possessed by the person who is the first to define
a new genus or describe a new species ; and hence it is that the name
originally given, even though it may be inferior in point of elegance or
expressiveness to those subsequently proposed, ought as a general principle
to be permanently retained. To this consideration we ought to add the
injustice of erasing the name originally selected by the person to whose
labours we owe our first knowledge of the object ; and we should reflect how
much the permission of such a practice opens a door to obscure pretenders
for dragging themselves into notice at the expense of original observers.
Neither can an author be permitted to alter a name which he himself has
once published, except in accordance with fixed and equitable laws. It is
well observed by Decandollc, " L'auteur menie qui a le premier etabli un nom
n'a pas plus qu'uu autre le droit de le changer pour simple cause d'impro-
priete. La priorite en effet est un terme fixe, positif, qui n'admet rien, ni
d'arbitraire ni de partial."
For these reasons, we have no hesitation in adopting as our fundamental
maxim, the " law of priority," viz.,
§ 1. The name originally given by the founder of a group or the describer
of a species shoidd be permanently retained, to the exclusion of all subse-
quent synonyms (with the exceptions about to be noticed).
Having laid down this principle, we must next inquire into the limitations
which are found necessary in carrying it into practice.
[Not to extend to authors older than Li imams. ~\
As our subject matter is strictly confined to the binomial system of nomen-
clature, or that which indicates species by means of two Latin words, the one
generic, the other specific, and as this invaluable method originated solely
with Linnaeus, it is clear that, as far as species are concerned, we ought not
to attempt to carry back the principle of priority beyond the date of the 12th
edition of the ' Systems Naturae,' 17G6. Previous to that period, natural-
ists were wont to indicate species not by a name comprised in one word, but
by a definition which occupied a sentence, the extreme verbosity of which
method was productive of great inconvenience. It is true that one word
sometimes sufficed for the definition of a species, but these rare cases were
only binomial by accident and not by principle, and ought not therefore in
any instance to supersede the binomial designations imposed by Linnaeus.
The same reasons apply also to generic names. Linnaeus was the first to
attach a definite value to genera, and to give them a systematic character by
means of exact definitions ; and therefore, although the names used by pre-
vious authors may often be applied with propriety to modern genera, yet in
such cases they acquire a new meaning, and should be quoted on the authority
of the first person who used them in this secondary sense. It is true, that
several of the old authors 'made occasional approaches to the Linnaean exact-
ness of generic definition, but still these were but partial attempts ; and it
is certain that if in our rectification of the binomial nomenclature we once
trace back our authorities into the obscurity which preceded the epoch of its
foundation, we shall find no resting-place or fixed boundary for our researches.
The nomenclature of Eay is chiefly derived from that of Gesner and Aldro-
vandus, and from these authors we might proceed backward to iElian, Plinv,
and Aristotle, till our zoological studies would be frittered away amid the
refinements of classical learning*.
* "Quis longo sevo recepta vocabula conmmtavet hoclie?" — Zinnaus.
RULES OF ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 31
We therefore recommend the adoption of the folio-wing proposition : —
§ 2. The binomial nomenclature having originated with Linnaeus, the law
of priority in respect of that nomenclature, is not to extend to the writings
of antecedent authors, and therefore specific names published before 1706
cannot be used to the prejudice of names published since that date.
[It should be here explained, that as the works of Artedi and Scopoli have
already been extensively used by ichthyologists and entomologists, the names
contained in or used from these authors should not be affected by this provi-
sion. This is particularly requisite as regards the generic names of Artedi,
afterwards used by Linnaeus himself. Brisson also, who was a contemporary
of Linnasus and acquainted with the ' Systema Naturae,' defined and pub-
lished certain genera of birds which are additional to those in the twelfth edi-
tion of Linnaeus's works, and which are therefore of perfectly good authority.
But Brisson still adhered to the old mode of designating species by a sentence
instead of a word, and therefore while we retain his defined genera, we do
not extend the same indulgence to the titles of his species, even when the
latter are accidentally binomial in form. For instance, the PerdLv rubra of
Brisson is the Tetrao rufus of Linnaous ; therefore as we in this case retain
the generic name of Brisson and the specific name of Linnaeus, the correct
title of the species would be Perdix rafa (Linn.).
[Generic names not to be cancelled in subsequent subdivisions.']
As the number of known species which form the groundwork of zoological
science is always increasing, and our knowledge of their structure becomes
more complete, fresh generalizations continually occur to the naturalist, and
the number of genera and other groups requiring appellations is ever becom-
ing more extensive. It thus becomes necessary to subdivide the contents of
old grotips, and to make their definitions continually more restricted. In
carrying out this process, it is an act of justice to the original author 'that his
generic name should never be lost sight of; and it is no less essential to the
welfare of the science, that all which is sound in its nomenclature should
remain unaltered amid the additions which are continually being made to it.
On this ground we recommend the adoption of the following rule : —
§ 3. A generic name, when once established, should never be cancelled in
any subsequent subdivision of the group, but retained in a restricted sense
for one of the constituent portions.
[Generic names to be retained for the typical portion of the old genus.]
When a genus is subdivided into other genera, the original name shoidd
be retained for that portion of it which exhibits in the greatest degree its
essential characters as at first defined. Authors frequeutly indicate this by
selecting some one species as a fixed point of reference, which they term the
" type of the genus." When they omit doing so, it may still in many
cases be correctly inferred that the first species mentioned on their list, if
found accurately to agree with their definition, was regarded by them as the
type. A specific name, or its synonyms, will also often serve to point out
the particular species which by implication must be regarded as the original'
type of a genus. In such cases we are justified in restoring the name of the
old genus to its typical signification, even when later authors have done
otherwise. We submit therefore that
§4. The generic name should always be retained for that portion of the
original genus which was considered typical by the author.
Example. — The genus Picumnus was established by Temminck, and in-
32 report — 1865.
eluded two groups, one with four toes, the other with three, the former of
which was regarded by the author as typical. Swainson, however, in raising
these groups at a later period to the rank of genera, gave a new name, Asthe-
nurus, to the former group, aud retained Picumnus for the latter. In this
case we have no choice but to restore the name Picumnus, Temm., to its cor-
rect sense, cancelling the name Asthenurus, Sw., and imposing a new name
on the three-toed group which Swainson had called Picumnus.
[ When no type is indicated, then the original name is to be kept for that
subsequent subdivision which first received it.']
Our next proposition seems to require no explanation : —
§ 5. When the evidence as to the original type of a genus is not perfectly
clear and indisputable, then the person who first subdivides the genus may
affix the original name to any portion of it at his discretion, and no later
author has a right to transfer that name to any other part of the original
genus.
[A later name of the same extent as an earlier to be wholly cancelled.]
When an author infringes the law of priority by giving a new name to
a genus which has been properly defined and named ahead}-, the only penalty
which can be attached to this act of negligence or injustice, is to expel the
name so introduced from the pale of the science. It is not right, then, in
such cases to restrict the meaning of the latter name so that it may stand
side by side with the earlier one, as has sometimes been done. For instance,
the genus Monaulus, Yieill. 1816, is a precise equivalent to Lop>hophorus,
Temm. 1813, both authors having adopted the same species as their type,
and therefore, when the latter genus came in the course of time to be di-
vided into two, it was incorrect to give the condemned name Monaulus to one
of the portions. To state this succinctly :—
§ 6. When two authors define and name the same genus, both making it
exactly of the same extent, the later name should be cancelled in toto, and
not retained in a modified sense*.
This rule admits of the following exception : —
§ 7. Provided, however, that if these authors select their respective types
from different sections of the genus, and these sections be afterwards raised
into genera, then both these names may be retained in a restricted sense for
the new genera respectively.
Example — The names (Edemia and Melanetta were originally coextensive
synonyms, but their respective types were taken from different sections which
are now raised into genera, distinguished by the above titles.
[No special ride is required for the cases in which the later of two generic
names is so defined as to be less extensive in signification than the earlier,
for if the later includes the type of the eaidier genus, it would be cancelled
by the operation of § 4 ; and if it does not include that type, it is in fact
a distinct genus.]
But when the later name is more extensive than the earlier, the following
rule comes into operation : — -
\_A later name equivalent to severed earlier ones is to be cancelled.]
The saiue principle which is involved in § 6 will apply to § 8.
* These discarded names may, however, be tolerated, if they have been afterwards
proposed in a totally new sense, though we trust that in future no one will knowingly
apply an old name, whether now adopted or not, to a new genus, (See proposition,
c[. infra.)
RULES OF ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 33
§ 8. If the later name be so denned as to be equal in extent to two or
more previously published genera, it must be cancelled in toto.
Example. — Psarocolius, Wagl. 1827, is equivalent to five or six genera
previously published under other names, therefore Psarocolius should be
cancelled.
If these previously published genera be separately adopted (as is the case
with the equivalents of Psarocolius), their original names will of course
prevail ; but if we follow the later author in combining them into one, the
following rule is necessary : —
\_A genus compounded of two or more previously proposed genera ivlwse cha-
racters are now deemed insufficient, should retain the name of one of them.~]
It sometimes happens that the progress of science requires two or more
genera, founded on insufficient or erroneous characters, to be combined toge-
ther into one. In such cases the law of priority forbids us to cancel all the
original names and impose a new one on this compound genus. We must
therefore select some one species as a type or example, and give the generic
name which it formerly bore to the whole group now formed. If these
original generic names differ in date, the oldest one should be the one
adopted.
§ 9. In compounding a genus out of several smaller ones, the earliest of
them, if otherwise objectionable, should be selected, and its former generic
name be extended over the new genus so compounded.
Example. — The genera Accentor and Prunella of Vieillot not being consi-
dered sufficiently distinct in character, are now united under the general
name of Accentor, that being the earliest.
We now proceed to point out those few cases which form exceptions to the
law of priority, and in which it becomes both justifiable and necessary to
alter the names originally imposed by authors.
\_A name should be changed ivhen previously applied to another group ivhich
still retains it.~\
It being essential to the binomial method to indicate objects in natural
history by means of two words only, without the aid of any further designa-
tion, it follows that a generic name should only have one meaning — in other
words, that two genera should never bear the same name. For a similar
reason, no two species in the same genus should bear the same name. When
these cases occur, the later of the two duplicate names should be cancelled,
and a new term, or the earliest synonym, if there be any, substituted.
When it is necessary to form new words for this purpose, it is desirable to
make them bear some analogy to those which they are destined to supersede,
as where the genus of birds Plectorhynchus, being preoccupied in Ichthyology,
is changed to Plectorhamphus. It is, we conceive, the bounden duty of an
author, when naming a new genus, to ascertain by careful search that the
name which he proposes to employ has not been previously adopted in other
departments of natural history*. By neglecting this precaution he is liable
to have the name altered and his authority superseded by the first subsequent
aiithor who may detect the oversight, and for this result, however unfortu-
nate, we fear there is no remedy, though such cases would be less frequent
# This laborious and difficult research is now greatly facilitated by the very useful
work of M. Agassiz, entitled " Nomenclator Zoologicus," and "Index Universalis " to
that work.
1865. D
34 report — 1865.
if the detectors of these errors would, as an act of courtesy, point them out
to the author himself, if living, and leave it to him to correct his own inad-
vertencies. This occasional hardship appears to us to be a less evil than to
permit the practice of giving the same generic name ad libitum to a multi-
plicity of genera. "We submit, therefore, that
§ 10. A name should be changed which has before been proposed for some
other genus in zoology or botany, or for some other species in the same
genus, when still retained for such genus or species.
\_A name whose meaning is glaringly false mag be changed.]
Our next proposition has no other claim for adoption than that of being a
concession to human infirmity. If such proper names of places as Covent
Garden, Lincoln's Inn Fields, Newcastle, Bridgewater, &c, no longer suggest
the ideas of gardens, fields, castles, or bridges, but refer the mind with the
quickness of thought to the particular localities which they respectively de-
signate, there seems no reason why the proper names used in natural history
should not equally perform the office of correct indication, even when their
etymological meaning may be wholly inapplicable to the object which they
typify. But we must remember that the language of science has but a
limited currency, and hence the words which compose it do not circulate with
the same freedom and rapidity as those which belong to every-day life. The
attention is consequently liable in scientific studies to be diverted from the
contemplation of the thing signified to the etymological meaning of the sign,
and hence it is necessary to provide that the latter shall not be such as to
propagate actual error. Instances of this kind are indeed very rare, and in
some cases, such as that of Monodon, Caprimulgus, JParadisea apoda and
Monocidus, they have acquired sufficient currency no longer to cause error,
and are therefore retained without change. But when we find a Batrachian
reptile named in violation of its true affinities Mastodonsaurus, a Mexican
species termed (through erroneous information of its habitat) Picus cafer, or
an olive-coloured one Muscicapa atra, or when a name is derived from an
accidental monstrosity, as in Picas semirostris of Linnasus, and Helix dis-
juncta of Turton, we feel justified in cancelling these names, and adopting
that synonym which stands next in point of date. At the same time we
think it right to remark that this privilege is very liable to abuse, and
ought therefore to be applied only to extreme cases and with great caution.
With these limitations we may concede that
§ 11. A name may be changed when it implies a false proposition which
is likely to propagate important errors.
[Names not clearly defined may be changed.']
Unless a species or group is intelligibly defined when the name is given, it
cannot be recognized by others, and the signification of the name is conse-
quently lost. Two things are necessary before a zoological term can acquire
any authority, viz., definition and. publication. Definition properly implies
a distinct exposition of essential characters, and in all cases we conceive
this to be indispensable, although some authors maintain that a mere enu-
meration of the component species, or even of a single type, is sufficient to
authenticate a genus. To constitute pvMioation) nothing short of the inser-
tion of the above particvdars in a printed booh can be held sufficient. Many
birds, for instance, in the Paris and other continental museums, shells in the
British Museum (in Dr. Leach's time), and fossils in the Scarborough and
other public collections, have received MS. names, which will bo of no
RULES OF ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 35
authority until they are published with characters*. Nor can any unpub-
lished descriptions, however exact (such as those of Forster, which are still
shut tip in a MS. at Berlin), claim any right of priority till published, and
then only from the date of their publication. The same rule applies to cases
where groups or species are published, but not defined, as in some museum
catalogues, and in Lesson's ' Traite d Ornithologie,' where many species are
enumerated by name, without any description or reference by which they
can be identified. Therefore, —
§ 12. A name winch has never been clearly defined in some published
work should be changed for the earliest name by which the object shall have
been so defined.
[Si>ecijic names, when adopted as generic, must be changed.]
The necessity for the following ride will be best illustrated by an example.
The Corvus pyrrhocntrcue, Linn., was afterwards advanced to a genus under
the name of Pyrrhocorax. Temminck adopts this generic name, and also
retains the old specific one, so that he terms the species Pyrrhocorax pyr-
rhocorax. The inelegance of this method is so great as to demand a change
of the generic name. We propose, therefore, that
§ 13. A specific name must not be altered in order to use that name for
the genus ; where this has been already done the old specific name must be
restored, and a new generic name given to prevent an unharmonious repetition.
N.B. — It will be seen, however, below that we strongly object to the
further continuance of this practice of elevating specific names into generic.
[Latin orthography to he adhered to.']
On the subject of orthography it is necessary to lay down one proposi-
tion, —
§ 14. In writing zoological names, the rules of Latin orthography must
be adhered to.
In Latinizing Greek words there are certain rides of orthography known
to classical scholars which must never be departed from. For instance, the
names which modern authors have written Aipucnemia, Zenophasia, poio-
cephala, must, according to the laws of etymology, be spelt ^Epycnemia,
Xenoph isia, and pceocephala. In Latinizing modern words the rules of classic
usage do not apply, and all that we can do is to give to such terms as clas-
sical an appearance as we can, consistently with the preservation of their
etymology. In the case of European words whose orthography is fixed, it is
best to retain the original form, even though it may include letters and com-
binations unknown in Latin. Such words, for instance, as Woodivardi,
Knighti, BuUocki, Eschscholtzi, would be qiute unintelligible if they were
Latinized into J'udvardi, Cnichti, Bidlocei, Essolzi, &e. But words of bar-
barous origin, having no fixed orthography, are more pliable, and hence,
when adopted into the Latin, they should be rendered as classical in appear-
ance as is consistent with the preservation of their original sound. Thus
the words Tortus, awsuree, argoondah, leundoo, &c., should, when Latinized,
have been written Toccus, ausure, argunda, cundu, &c. Such words ought,
in all practicable cases, to have a Latin termination given them, especially if
they are used generically.
In Latinizing proper names, the simplest rule appears to be to use the
termination -us, genitive -i, when the name ends with a consonant, as in
* These MS. names are hi all cases liable to create confusion, and it is therefore much
to be desired that the practice of using them should be avoided in future.
d2
36 report — 1865.
the above examples ; and -ius, gen. -ii, when it ends with a vowel, as,
Latreille, Latreillii, &c.
In converting Greek words into Latin the following rules must be attended
to:—
Greek. Latin.
ai becomes a?.
ei „ i.
os terminal, us.
ov „ uni.
ov becomes u.
01 „ 03.
v „ y.
When a name has been erroneously written and its orthography has been
afterwards amended, we conceive that the authority of the original author
should still be retained for the name, and not that of the person who makes
the correction.
Greek.
becomes
Latin
th.
X
ph.
ch.
rx
c.
nch.
yy »
ng.
h.
PART II.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING THE ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE IN FUTURE.
The above propositions are all which, in the present state of the science, it
appears practicable to invest with the character of laws. We have endeavoured
to make them as few and simple as possible, in the hope that they may be
the more easily comprehended and adopted by naturalists in general. We
are aware that a large number of other regulations, some of which are here-
after enumerated, have been proposed and acted upon by various authors who
have undertaken the difficult task of legislating on the subject ; but as the
enforcement of such rules would in many cases undermine the invaluable
principle of priority, we do not feel justified in adopting them. At the same
time we fully admit that the rides in question are, for the most part, founded
on just criticism, and therefore, though we do not allow them to operate re-
trospectively, we are willing to retain them for future guidance. Although
it is of the first importance that the principle of priority should be held para-
mount to all others, yet we are not blind to the desirableness of rendering
our scientific language palatable to the scholar and the man of taste. Many
zoological terms, which are now marked with the stamp of perpetual cur-
rency, are yet so far defective in construction, that our inability to remove
them without infringing the law of priority may be a subject of regret.
With these terms we cannot interfere, if we adhere to the principles above
laid down ; nor is there even any remedy, if authors insist on infringing the
rules of good taste by introducing into the science words of the same inele-
gant or unclassical character in future. But that which cannot be enforced
by law may, in some measure, be effected by persuasion ; and with this view
we submit the following propositions to naturalists, under the title of Recom-
mendations for the Improvement of Zoological Nomenclature in future.
[The best names are Latin or Greek characteristic words.']
The classical languages being selected for zoology, and words being more
easily remembered in proportion as they are expressive, it is self-evident that
§ A. The best zoological names are those which are derived from the
Latin or Greek, and express some distinguishing characteristic of the object
to which they are applied.
RULES OF ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 37
[Classes of objectionable names.']
It follows from hence that the following classes of words are more or less
objectionable in point of taste, though, in the case of genera, it is often neces-
sary to use them, from the impossibility of finding characteristic words which
have not before been employed for other genera. We will commence with
those which appear the least open to objection, such as
a. Geographical names. — These words being for the most part adjectives
can rarely be used for genera. As designations of species they have been
so strongly objected to, that some authors (Wagler, for instance) have gone
the length of substituting fresh names wherever they occur ; others (e. g.
Swainson) will only tolerate them where they apply exclusively. We are by
no means exposed to go to this length. It is not the less true that the
Hirundo javanica is a Javanese bird, even though it may occur in other
countries also, and though other species of Hirundo may occur in Java. The
utmost that can be urged against such words is, that they do not tell the
whole truth. However, as so many authors object to this class of names, it
is. better to avoid giving them, except where there is reason to believe that
the species is confined to the country whose name it bears.
b. Barbarous names. — Some authors protest strongly against the introduc-
tion of exotic words into our Latin nomenclature, others defend the practice
with equal warmth. We may remark, first, that the practice is not contrary
to classical usage, for the Greeks and Eomans did occasionally, though with
reluctance, introduce barbarous words in a modified form into their respec-
tive languages. Secondly, the preservation of trivial names which animals
bear in their native countries is often of great use to the traveller in aiding
him to discover and identify species. We do not therefore consider, if such
words have a Latin termination given to them, that the occasional and judi-
cious use of them as scientific terms can be justly objected to.
c. Technical namcs.^-All words expressive of trades and professions have
been by some writers excluded from zoology, but without sufficient reason.
Words of this class, when carefully chosen, often express the peculiar cha-
racters and habits of animals in a metaphorical manner, which is highly
elegant. We may cite the generic terms Arvicola, Lanius, Pastor, Tyrannus,
Hegulus, Ploceus, &c, as favourable examples of this class of names.
d. Mythological or historical names. — When these have no perceptible re-
ference or allusion to the characters of the object on which they are conferred,
they may properly be regarded as unmeaning and in bad taste. Thus the
generic names Lesbia, Leilus, Remus, Corydon, Pasijmae, have been applied
to a Humming bird, a Butterfly, a Beetle, a Parrot, and a Crab respectively,
without any perceptible association of ideas. But mythological names may
sometimes be used as generic with the same propriety as technical ones, in
cases where a direct allusion can be traced between the narrated actions of a
personage and the observed habits or structure of an animal. Thus when the
name Progne is given to a Swallow, Clotho to a Spider, Hydra to a Polyp, Athene
to an Owl, Nestor to a grey-headed Parrot, &c, a pleasing and beneficial con-
nexion is established between classical literature and physical science.
e. Comparative names. — The objections which have been raised to words of
this class are not without foundation. The names, no less than the defini-
tions of objects, should, where practicable, be drawn from positive and self-
evident characters, and not from a comparison with other objects, which may
be less known to the reader than the one before him. Specific names ex-
pressive of comparative size are also to be avoided, as they may be rendered
inaccurate by the after discovery of additional species. The names Picoides,
38 report — 1865.
Emberizoides, Pseudoluscinia, rubeculoides, maximus, minor, minimus, &c, are
examples of this objectionable practice.
f. Generic names compounded from other genera. — These are in some degree
open to the same imputation as comparative words ; but as they often serve
to express the position of a genus as intermediate to, or allied with, two other
genera, they may occasionally be used with advantage. Care must be taken
not to adopt such compound words as are of too great length, and not to cor-
rupt them in trying to render them shorter. The names Gallopavo, Tetrao-
gallus, Gypaetos, are examples of the appropriate use of compound words.
g. Specific names derived from persons. — So long as these complimentary
designations are used with moderation, and are restricted to persons of emi-
nence as scientific zoologists, they may be employed with propriety in cases
where expressive or characteristic words are not to be found. But we fully
concur with those who censure the practice of naming species after persons
of no scientific reputation, as curiosity dealers (e.g. Caniveti, Boissoneauti),
Peruvian priestesses (Cora, Amazilia), or Hottentots (Klassi).
h. Generic names derived from persons. — Words of this class have been ex-
tensively used in botany, and therefore it would have been «'cll to have
excluded them wholly from zoology, for the sake of obtaining a memoria
technica by which the name of a genus would at once tell us to which of the
kingdoms of nature it belonged. Some personal generic names have, how-
ever, crept into zoology, as L'uvieria, Mulleria, Rossia, Lessonia, &c, but they
are rare in comparison with those of botany, and it is perhaps desirable not
to add to their number.
i. Names of harsh and inelegant />ronuneiation. — These words are grating to
the ear, either from inelegance of form, as Hidma, Yuhina, Oraxirex, Esch-
scholtzi, or from too great length, as chirostrongylosti nus, Opetiorhynchus, bra,-
chypodioides, Thecodontosaurus. It is needless to enlarge on the advantage of
consulting euphony in the construction of our language. As a general rule it
may be recommended to avoid introducing words of more than live .syllables.
Tc. Ancient names of animals applied in << wrong sense. — If has been cus-
tomary, in numerous cases, to apply the names of animals found in clas.-ic
authors at random to exotic genera or species which arc wholly unknown to
tbe ancients. The names Cebus, Callithrix, Spiza, Kitta, Struthus, ave ex-
amples. This practice ought by no means to be encouragi d. The usual
defence for it is, that it is impossible now to identify the species to which
the name was anciently applied. But it is certain that if any traveller will
take the trouble to collect the vernacular names used by the modern Greeks
and Italians for the Ycrtebrata and Mollusca of southern Europe, the mean-
ing of the ancient names may in most cases lie determined with the greatest
precision. It has been well remarked that a Cretan fisher-boy is a far better
commentator on Aristotle's ' History of Animals' than a British or German
scholar. The use, however, of ancient names, when comvctly applied, is most
desirable, for " in framing scientific terms, the appropriation of old words is
preferable to the formation of new ones"*.
1. Adjective g> n> rie mimes. — The names of genera are in all cases essen-
tially substantive, and hence adjective terms cannot be employed for them
without doing violence to grammar. The generic names Hians, Oriniger,
Cursorius, Nitidula, &c, arc examples of this incorrect usage.
m. Hybrid names. — Compound words, whose component parts are taken
from two different languages, are great deformities in nomenclature, and
naturalists should be especially guarded not to introduce any more such terms
* Whewell, Phil. Ind. Sc. vol. i. p. lxvii ; Nov. Org. Ken. iv. iii.
RULES OF ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 39
into zoology, which furnishes too many examples of them already. We have
them compounded of Greek and Latin, as Denclrofalco, Gymnocorvus, Mono-
eulus, Arborophila, Jlavkfaster ; Greek and French, as Jacamaralcyon, Jaca-
merops ; and Greek and English, as BullocJcoides, Gilbertsocrinites.
n. Names closely resembling other names already used. — By Ride 10 it was
laid down that when a name is introduced which is identical with one pre-
viously used, the later one shoidd be changed. Some authors have extended
the same principle to cases where the later name, when correctly written,
only approaches in form, without wholly coinciding with, the earlier. We
do not, however, think it advisable to make this law imperative, first, because
of the vast extent of our nomenclature, which renders it highly difficult to
find a name which shall not bear more or less resemblance in sound to some
other ; and, secondly, because of the impossibility of fixing a limit to the
degree of approximation beyond which such a law shoidd cease to operate.
We content ourselves, therefore, with putting forth this proposition merely as
a recommendation to naturalists, in selecting generic names, to avoid such as
too closely approximate words already adopted. So with respect to species,
the judicious naturalist will aim at variety of designation, and will not, for
example, call a species virens or virescens in a genus which already possesses
a viridis.
o. Corrupted words. — In the construction of compound Latin words, there
are certain grammatical rides which have been known and acted on for two
thousand years, and which a naturalist is bound to acquaint himself with
before he tries his skill in coining zoological terms. One of the chief of these
rules is, that in compounding words all the radical or essential parts of the
constituent members must be retained, and no change made except in the
variable termiuations. But several generic names have been lately intro-
duced which run counter to this ride, and form most unsightly objects to all
who are conversant with the spirit of the Latin language. A name made
up of the first half of one word and the last half of another, is as deformed
a monster in nomenclature as a Mermaid or a Centaur would be in zoo^gy ;
yet we find examples in the names Corcoran (from Corvus and Pyrrhocorax),
Oypsnagra (from Cypselus and Tanagra), Merulaxis (Merula and Synallcuvis),
Loxigilla (Loxia and Fringilla), ike. In other cases, where the commence-
,it of both the simple words is retained in the compound, a fault is still
committed by cutting off too much of the radical and vital portions, as is
the case in Bucorvus (from Buceros and Corvus), Ninox\(Nisus and Noc-
tua), &c.
p. Nonsense names. — Some authors having found difficulty in selecting
generic names which have not been used before, have adopted the plan of
coining words at random without any .derivation or meaning whatever. The
following are examples : Viralva, Xema, Azeca, Assiminia, Quedius, Sjoisula.
To the same class we may refer anagrams of other generic names, as Dacelo
and Cedola of Alcedo, Zajoornia of Porzana, <kc. Such verbal trifling as this
is in very bad taste, and is especially calculated to bring the science into
contempt. It finds no precedent in the Augustan age of Latin, but can be
compared only to the" puerde quibblings of the middle ages. It is contrary
to the genius of all languages, which appear never to produce new words by
spontaneous generation, but always to derive them from some other source,
however distant or obscure. And it is peculiarly annoying to the etymologist,
who, after seeking in vain through the vast storehouses of human language
for the parentage of such words, discovers at last that he has been pursuing
an ignis fat mis.
40 REPORT — 1865.
q. Names previously cancelled by the operation of § 6. — Some authors con-
sider that when a name has been reduced to a synonym by the operations of
the laws of priority, they are then at liberty to apply it at pleasure to any
new group which may be in want of a name. We consider, however, that
when a word has once been proposed in a given sense, and has afterwards
sunk into a synonym, it is far better to lay it aside for ever than to run the
risk of making confusion by re-issuing it with a new meaning attached.
v. Specific names raised into generic. — It has sometimes been the practice
in subdividing an old genus to give to the lesser genera so formed, the names
of their respective typical species. Our Rule 13 authorize^ the forming a
new generic name in such cases ; but wc further wish to state our objections
to the practice altogether. Considering as we do that the original specific
names should as far as possible be held sacred, both on the grounds of justice
to their authors and of practical convenience to naturalists, we would strongly
dissuade from the further continuance of a practice which is gratuitous in
itself, and which involves the necessity of altering old names or making new
ones.
We have now pointed out the principal rocks and shoals which lie in the
path of the nomenclator ; and it will be seen that the navigation through
them is by no means easy. The task of constructing a language which shall
supply the demands of scientific accuracy on the one hand, and of literary
elegance on the other, is not to be inconsiderately undertaken by unqualified
persons. Our nomenclature presents but too many flaws and inelegancics
already, and as the stern law of priority forbids their removal, it follows
that they must remain as monuments of the bad taste or bad scholarship of
their authors to the latest ages in which zoology shall be studied.
[Families to end in idae, and Subfamilies in inse.]
The practice suggested in the following proposition has been adopted by
many recent authors, and its simplicity and convenience is so great that we
strongly recommend its universal use.
§ B. It is recommended that the assemblages of genera termed families
should be uniformly named by adding the termination idee to the name of the
earliest known, or most typically characterized genus in them ; and that their
subdivisions, termed subfamilies, should be similarly constructed, with the
termination ince.
These words are formed by changing the last syllable of the genitive case
into idee or ince, as Strix, Strigis, Strigidce, Buceros, Bucerotis, Bucerotidce,
not Strividce, Buceridce.
[The authority for a species, exclusive of the genus, to be followed by a
distinctive expression.^
The systematic names of zoology being still far from that state of fixity
which is the ultimate aim of the science, it is frequently necessary for correct
indication to append to them the name of the person on whose authority they
have been proposed. When the same person is authority both for the specific
and generic name, the case is very simple ; but when the specific name of
one author is annexed to the generic name of another, some difficulty occurs.
For example, the Muscicapa crinita of Linnams belongs to the modern genus
Tyrannus of Vieillot ; but Swainson was the first to apply the specific name
of Linnceus to the generic one of Vieillot. The question now arises, Whose
authority is to be quoted for the name Tyrannus crinitus ? The expression
Tyrannus crinitus, Linn., would imply what is untrue, for Linnaeus did not
RULES OF ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 41
use the term Tyrannus ; and Tyrannus crinitus, Yieill., is equally incorrect,
for Vieillot did not adopt the name crinitus. If we call it Tyrannus crinitus,
Sw., it would imply that Swainson was the first to describe the species, and
Linnaeus would be robbed of his due credit. If we term it Tyrannus, Vieill.,
crinitus, Linn., we use a form which, though expressing the facts correctly,
and therefore not without advantage in particular cases where great exact-
ness is required, is yet too lengthy and inconvenient to be used with ease and
rapidity. Of the three persons concerned with the construction of a bino-
mial title in the case before us, we conceive that the author who first
describes and names a species which forms the groundwork of later gene-
ralizations, possesses a higher claim to have his name recorded than he who
afterwards defines a genus which is found to embrace that species, or who
may be the mere accidental means of bringing the generic and specific names
into contact. By giving the authority for the specific name in preference to
all others, the inquirer is referred directly to the original description, habitat,
&c, of the species, and is at the same time reminded of the date of its dis-
covery ; while genera, being less numerous than species, may be carried in
the memory, or referred to in systematic works without the necessity of per-
petually quoting their authorities. The most simple mode then for ordinary
use seems to be, to append to the original authority for the species, when not
applying to the genus also, some distinctive mark implying an exclusive re-
ference to the specific name, as Tyrannus crinitus (Linn.), and to omit this
expression when the same authority attaches to both genus and species, as
Ostrea edulis, Linn. Therefore,
§ C. It is recommended that the authority for a specific name, when not
applying to the generic name also, should be expressed thus, (Linn.), as Tyran-
nus crinitus (Linn.).
[Neiv genera and species to be defined amply and publicly.]
A large proportion of the complicated mass of synonyms which has now
become the opprobrium of zoology, has originated either from the slovenly
and imperfect manner in which species and groups have been originally de-
fined, or from their definitions having been inserted in obscure local publica-
tions which have never obtained an extensive circulation. Therefore,
although under § 12 we have conceded that mere insertion in a printed
book is sufficient for publication, yet we would strongly advise the authors of
new groups always to give, in the first instance, a full and accurate defini-
tion of their characters, and to insert the same in such periodical or other
works as are likely to obtain an immediate and extensive circulation. To
state this briefly,
§ D. It is recommended that new genera or species be amply defined,
published, and extensively circulated in the first instance.
[The names to be given to subdivisions of genera to agree in gender with
the original. genus.~\
In order to preserve specific names as far as possible in an unaltered form,
whatever may be the changes which the genera to which they are referred
may undergo, it is desirable, when it can be done with propriety, to make
the new subdivisions of genera agree in gender with the old groups from
which they are formed. This recommendation does not, however, authorize
the changing the gender or termination of a genus already established. In
brief,
§ E. It is recommended that in subdividing an old genus in future, the
42 report — 1865.
9
names given to the subdivisions should agree in gender with that of the ori-
ginal group.
[Etymolor/ies and types of new genera to be stated.']
It is obvious that the names of genera would in general be far more care-
fully constructed, and their definitions would be rendered more exact, if
authors woidd adopt the following suggestion : —
§ F. It is recommended that in defining new genera the etymology of
the name shoidd be always stated, and that one species should be invariably
selected as a type or standard of reference.
In concluding this outline of a scheme for the rectification of zoological
nomenclature, we have only to remark, that almost the whole of the propo-
sitions contained in it may be applied with equal correctness to the sister
science of botany. We have preferred, however, in this essay to limit our
views to zoology, both for the sake of rendering the question less complex,
and because we conceive that the botanical nomenclature of the present day
stands in much less need of distinct enactment than the zoological. The
admirable rides laid down by Linnaeus, Smith, Decandolle. and other botanists
(to which, no less than to the works of Fabricras, Illigcr, Vigors, Swainson,
and other zoologists, we have been much indebted in preparing the present
document), have always exercised a beneficial influence over their disciples.
Hence the language of botany has attained a more perfect and stable condi-
tion than that of zoology; and if this attempt at reformation may have the
effect of advancing zoological nomenclature beyond its present backward and
abnormal state, the wishes of its promoters will be fully attained.
Report of the Committee on the Distribution of the Organic Remains
of the North Staffordshire Coal-jield.- — Concluding lleport. By a
Committee, cons'/stint/ of Sir Philip db M. Grey Egerton, Bart.,
F.R.S., Professor T. H. Huxley, F.R.S. Reporter, William Mo-
LYNEUX, F.G.S.
The coal-measures of North Staffordshire may be divided into four distinct
groups, namely,
feet. feet.
The Lowest Measures from about 800 to 1000
The Lower Thick Measures „ 2000 to 2500
The Upper Thick Measures ., 1400 to 1800
The Upper Measures „ 1000 to 1200
giving a total vertical thickness of from 5200 to G500 feet.
The divisional formations of the lowest and lower thick measures in the
Cheadle-field consist of shaly coarse and fine sandstones, which, although not
proved by actual workings, would appear to be from 300 to 400 feet thick.
The extension of these sandstones northwards is checked by an upthrow of
Millstone-grits near Consall in the Churnet valley, and their place is occupied
in the Knypersley and Biddulph districts of the extreme northern point by
masses of black and brown shales and clayey laminated sandstones. The
divisions of the other groups correspond with this in some respects, but they
are less marked and massive. Each of these groups is characterized by the
NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE COIL-FIELD ORGANIC REMAINS. 43
presence of a distinct series of beds of coal and ironstone of greater or less
value and persistency. The lowest measures contain seven seams of coal,
three of which are worked for local use only, but the base is occupied by a
most valuable bed of Hydrate, known as the Froghall ironstone. The lower
thick measures contain all the best and thick coals, but only one band of
ironstone (the Burnt Wood) of sufficient thickness or quality to be worked.
The upper thick measures afford a remarkable contrast, as containing nearly
all the workable bands of ironstone, while the upper measures contain thick
masses of brick clays, with a few thin seams of coal, and but one or two
bands of ironstone to which any attention has been paid.
It is probably a somewhat remarkable feature in connexion with these
great divisions, that in no instance have the two middle groups been found
to contain deposits showing an extended continuous water-action of a turbulent
character ; but in the upper part of the lowest measures, and the top beds of
the upper measures occur rocks resembling in every particular those of the
Millstone-grit. It may, however, be mentioned that instances have come
under notice of the occurrence of large rounded quartz pebbles in shales and
ironstones, lying near the base of the upper thick measures at Apedale ; and
in another case a large siliceous water-worn boulder, some pounds in weight,
was met with at considerable depth near a fault in one of the pits of the
Cheadie coal-field. It not unfrequently happens, however, that large masses,
composed of fragments of plants, broken shells, and other organic remains,
intermixed with subangular pieces of ironstone, coal, and shaly sandstones,
cemented together by a hard paste, are met with in sinkings and workings in
the neighbourhood of faults, but as a ride the enormous stratigraphical
deposits of these fields evidence tranquillity of action extending over a very
long period of time. This conclusion is borne out by the nature and condi-
tion of the organic remains imbedded in the shales and ironstones of the
different measures, which are not only exceedingly numerous, but of a most
remarkable and interesting order ; and it may here be stated as evidence of
the results of an extended pakeontological inquiry, that before the commence-
ment of a systematic course of research with reference to the subject, the
known species of fish-remains were limited to the number of nine, with
about the same number of shells, including those of a marine type then sup-
posed to be confined to a single bed belonging to the lowest measures of the
Churnet valley and its representative at Wetley Moor. The fish-remains
are, however, now found to consist of from 35 to 40 genera, embracing
upwards of 80 species, while the mollusca range out into upwards of 22
genera, represented by about 60 species ; the marine forms extend at intervals
upwards from the lowest to the upper thick measures, while the frequent
occurrence of reptilian remains, and the vast number of the smaller crusta-
ceans indicate the extended range and variety of the organic life of these
fields during the period of their formation. These reptilian remains consist
of single internal bones, with occasionally roughly ornamented external
bones of the head. The range of these animals has been traced from the
horizon of the Stinking Coal of the lowest beds, here and there up through
the whole of the measures, to the chalky mine ironstone of the upper thick
group. They are generally found in association with fish-remains, and appear
to have been more numerous during the formation of the New Ironstone, the
Knowles, and the Brown Mine ironstones of Kidsgrove, Fenton, Longton,
Silverdale, and Apedale. They are, however, by no means confined to these
localities, traces of them being found over the greater part of the area in-
cluded in these fields, and also in direct association, both with shells referable
D D
44 report — 1865.
to marine conditions, and those assumed to be of brackish or freshwater
origin.
Of all the forms of life met with in these fields the little Cytheropsis is the
most numerous and persistent. It occurs in almost every distinct mineral
deposit, and sometimes forms compact masses several inches in thickness, and
entirely separated from all other organisms ; at others it appears in associa-
tion with Mieroconchus alone, or is mixed indiscriminately with fish and
shells, or forms a thin layer'or parting between beds of shale or ironstone, or
the nucleus of ironstone nodules. It is, however, a fact of some importance
in the question referable to the conditions under which certain coal and iron-
stone beds were deposited, that the little fossil has never been found in the
fields under notice in direct association with shells known to be marine. A
most interesting example of this severance oecurs in the shales of the Stinking
Coal at Windsend, in the Churnet valley. The lower parte of these shales im-
mediately overlying the coal are remarkable for the immense number of Avi-
culopectens they contain in a compressed form, and associated with Goniatites,
Orthoceras, and Posidonia. In various instances the same shale-bed has yielded
Ci/theropsis and Beyriehia, and occasionally Anthracosia ; but these three latter
fossils are always separated from the former. After repeated examinations,
it has been ascertained that about two feet above the coal a well-defined
division occurs in the form of a bone-bed, containing teeth, scales, coprolites,
and other remains, with frequent concretionary nodules, distinctly compressed
into the under surface of the shales. Above this line the Avievlopecten never
passes, and in no instance have the Ci/theropsis or Anthracosia been found
below it ; but each organic deposit is separated from the other as clearly and
distinctly as could have been effected by the intervention of thick masses of
strata.
With Cytheropsis are frequently found Beyriehia, Mieroconchus, and Ser-
pula, but the latter genus is by no means so generally distributed. Beyriehia
oocurs in great numbers in the shales of the Cockshead ironstone at Adderley
Green, in association with Cytheropsis and Mieroconchus ; but Serpula, so far
as has been proved, is confined to the shales of the Woodhead coal in the
Cheadle field. Each of these forms, like Cytheropsis, is confined to the beds
containing Anthracosia ; they never pass into the marine horizons of either the
upper or lowest measures.
Until the present year these fields were not known to contain any of the
higher order of Crustacea ; recently, however, a fragment of Limulus has
been met with in a small nodule of the Hard Mine ironstone at Adderley
Green ; and more recently still a curious ironstone deposit, lying near the
base of the lowest measures of the Churnet valley, has been found to contain
Maoruran remains of an interesting form associated with Cytherop>sis and
Anthracoptera. It is by no means unlikely that these latter organisms may
be found to pass into the higher strata ; but so far they appear to be con-
fined to the particular bed in question.
The fish-remains of these fields are of an exceedingly interesting character,
and in certain beds occur in great numbers, and in a most beautiful state of
preservation. Many new forms have been met with, and individual speci-
mens of well-known species occasional^ come to hand, by which some im-
portant anatomical points have been satisfactorily established. The whole of
these remains are now undergoing examination, and ere long a more complete
knowledge of their specific character will be arrived at.
Of the Ganoid fishes, the most commonly distributed are the Paheonisci,
which range throughout the whole of the four great divisions of the fields,
NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAL-FIELD ORGANIC REMAINS. 45
and pass downwards into the shales of the Millstone-grit and the grey iron-
stone nodules of the Carboniferous shales. In the Aviculopecten shales of the
Stinking Coal two or three at present undetermined species are imbedded,
but rarely in a well-preserved condition. The species of this bed are inter-
mixed with the marine shells, and appear to be different to those so largely
distributed amongst the beds of the upper thick measures ; and in no instance
have they been found in this deposit to pass above the line of the bone-bed
alluded to, where detached scales are largely intermixed with Lhujulce and
other organisms in a fragmentary condition.
Towards the upper part of these lower beds a small species, tolerably per-
fect, is occasionally found imbedded in nodides of clay ironstone ; but, gene-
rally speaking, between this point and the shales of the Ash Coal, the base of
the upper thick measures, evidence of the existence of these fish seldom
occurs, except in the form of detached scales, scattered over the face of the
numerous intervening bone-beds. In the Ash-coal shales, however, they
appear in a more perfect form, and attain their maximum development in
the shales of the Deep Mine ironstone, 200 yards above it. This latter iron-
stone is at Longton, on the extreme western boundary of the proved measures,
1 foot 3 inches thick, and divided into four bands overlaid by a bed of black
shale, hard, clean, and easily split into thin slabs. As an ichthyolitic
depository it is one of the most interesting met with, and affords in addition
some curious data referable to the range of animal life in one distinct horizon.
This stone is worked at Longton, Fenton, Shelton, Berryhill, Sneyd Green,
Golden-hill, and other places, but not always under the same name. The
Longton bed is opened at two points communicating with each other, and from
the shales of these two workings have been collected, in a remarkable state of
preservation, specimens of eighteen genera, and about twenty-six species of
fish. One new genus, under the name of Cycloptychius, occurs in great
numbers and the most perfect condition ; but beyond the limits of the two
pits at Longton it has never as yet been known to pass ; and in each direc-
tion from this point, where the stone has been worked, the whole of its
organic remains die gradually out to a few detached scales and isolated teeth.
The restriction of the Palcronisci of this deposit to a definite range would
appear to indicate the prevalence of either deep or shallow water along this
particular line ; but it is in the character of its organic contents that this
peculiarity is the more observable ; the stone itself, where it has been
pierced, although showing a tendency to thin out towards its eastern out-
crop, retains over the greater part of the field a tolerably uniform thickness
and character.
Of Coslacanthus there are two species, ft leptums and C. granulates, the
former being the more common, and of greater range. Detached scales are
met with in the Hydrate shales, and here and there in the fossiliferous beds
of the lowest measures, including the Stinking Coal shales. In the Wood-
head coal-shale of the lower thick measures, 0. lepturus is occasionally found
in a fair state of preservation, and also in the nedular grey ironstones inter-
mixed with the grey shales above it. More frequently, however, it occurs as
detached scales ; and in this form, wherever Palceoniscus is detected, both
Gcelacanthvs and Platysomus are generally in association with it. The Deep
Mine ironstone contains numerous fine specimens, and it not unfrequently
occurs in the Cockshead, Knowles, and Brown Mine ironstones and shales.
Platysomus, of which there are two species, has a somewhat similar range ;
but in certain deposits, in different localities, each species appears to be a
characteristic feature.
46 report — 1865.
Many of the coal and ironstone beds are either of local extent, or
evidence a variation of condition of deposit within a limited area, and con-
sequently the measures of one district are no sure guides in engineering to
those of another. This more frequently happens in the upper thick beds
with the ironstone group, and it is found that this diversity in the character
of the mineral deposits is partaken of in a somewhat similar degree by the
forms of life directly associated with them. Taking the Longton and Fenton
beds as one example, the Deep Mine shales show the predominating form to
be PalcEoniscus, the Knowles ironstone Platymmus, and the New Ironstone
Megalichihys. At Silverdale and Apedale Palceoniscus is rare, while the
Brown Mine teems as it were with Platysomi. Passing to the Kidsgrove
district, the Brown Mine becomes the New Mine, and Phttysomus gives place
to Rhizodopsis, and passing downwards to the Woodhead coal, Ccelacanthus
appears as the characteristic fossil of its bed. The life-zone, as it were, of
each of these deposits also varies. In the case of the Deep Mine, it is con-
hned to a few inches of black shale immediately overlying the stone, and in
no known instance passing into the mineral itself. In the Knowles ironstone
shales the same conditions are observable ; but the life-zone extends down-
wards into the stone, fine specimens of Rhizodus, Ccelacanthus. Acanthodes,
and Megalichihys beim>- of frequent occurrence in the upper division of the
bed. The Brown Mine of Silverdale and the New Mine of Kidsgrove present
parallel conditions ; but in the Brown Mine of the latter district the shales
form only the matrix of its interesting organisms. The beds of ironstone
and coal enumerated — the Woodhead and Ash coals, and the Cockshead,
Knowles, Deep Mine, Brown, and New Mine ironstones— appear to be the
great fish-zones of these fields ; but it may be accepted that the whole of the
mineral beds contain the remains of either fish or shells, generally both. These
remains, as previously stated, are rare in certain localities ; but no bed has
hitherto been found totally unfossiliferous over the whole of its proved area.
It is also worthy of note, that in almost all, if not every case, the divisional
line between each seam of coal and band of ironstone and their associated
shales or bass, consists of a thin film, as it were, of detached scales and teeth
of fishes or compressed mollusks, showing in a simple but conclusive manner
that whatever may have been the condition under which each bed of coal
was formed, it was immediately after its formation covered by water con-
taining the ordinary forms of life of that period, and which by its agency
were spread over the surface of each coal-bed before becoming charged with
the mud now forming its superimposed shales. Frequently the ironstones
are immediately overlain by thin beds of coal ; and in the case of the New
Mine at Kidsgrove, this coal is largely intermixed with fragments of Gyra-
carrihus, Megalichihys, and other fish-remains ; but this is the only instance
in the field in which such fossils have been detected within the body of coal
itself ; and in this case the coal which forms a parting between two bands of
stone is not of the ordinary character of coal-deposits, but evidently the
aggregated parts of an older bed brought from another point, and redeposited
by aqueous agency.
In addition to the Ganoid fishes enumerated, Acanihodes, Acrolepis,
Gyrolepis, Pyyopterus, Dipkpterus, aai: Megalichihys are forms more or less
familiar to these beds, most being represented by two or more species,
winch appear here and there at intervals throughout the entire vertical strata.
Megalichihys Hibberti is by far the most common form ; but hitherto no
perfect specimen has been met with. The New Ironstone of Fenton Park,
the Gubbin ironstone shale of Shelton, and the Chalky Mine ironstone of
NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAL-FIELD ORGANIC REMAINS. 47
Silverdale, have yielded fine examples of this fish — in the latter case a frag-
ment of a jaw 16 inches in length. With this fish are frequently associated
in the New and Knowles ironstones large jaws referred to Rhizodus, and
others as yet not satisfactorily determined.
The small cycloidal-scaled fish assigned to Rhizodopsis is also of common
occurrence, and with it are occasionallyfound large circular scales,with concen-
tric and radiating lines of ornamentation. Acanthodes is also of wide range,
heing more abundant in nodules of the Cockshead ironstone, and in the
Knowles and Deep Mine ironstone shales, which also contain Gyrolepis and
Pygopterus. Strepsodus, a long somewhat curved tooth with parallel lines,
also ranges from the Stinking Coal to the upper beds, but always in detached
forms. Amblypterus so far appears to be extremely rare in these fields.
The Placoid order of fishes is freely represented, and possesses an equally
determinate range with the ganoid forms of the field. Pleuracanthus, or the old
Diplodus gibbosus, occurs in thousands in the New Ironstone at Fenton Park,
making its first appearance in the shales of the Stinking Coal, and ranging
upwards to the Red Shag ironstone of the upper beds. The spine described
as Pleuracanthus, is frequently found associated with the teeth and dermal
covering of the fish, in a manner which confirms the now received opinion
of their common origin. Pleura canthus minutus is not so common, but it
has a wide and general range, and another species is not unfrequent in the
New Ironstone of Fenton Park, but it is rarely found to pass from this
horizon. Of the large dorsal spines, Ctenacanthus, the species hybodoides is
the most familiar, but it is seldom found out of the New Ironstone, Deep
Mine, Knowles and Brown Mine shales. Gyracanthus formosus is of far
wider distribution, being found in twelve different beds of the lower and
upper thick measures. G. tuberculatum is frequently associated with it, but
it is of less vertical range. Orthaeanthus cylindricus is also confined to the
upper part of the thick coal and the lower part of the ironstone groups, but,
like Ctenacanthus and Gyracanthus, the finest specimens are obtained from
the New Ironstone of Fenton Park. The fossil known as Onchus is remark-
ably persistent in its distribution, being plentiful in the Stinking and Wood-
head coal-shales, and in nearly the whole of the coal and ironstone beds of
the succeeding measures. A form resembling Leptacanthus, and others with
double or single rows of curious hooked teeth, are not unfrequently met
with, especially in the New Ironstone, which appears to have been the great
life-centre of the singular animals to whom those defensive weapons
belonged.
The remainder of the Placoid fish consist of the genera Cladodus, Peta-
lodus, Gtenodus, Orodus, Ctenopty chins, Archodus, Pcecilodus, Helodus, some
forms resembling Cochliodus, a small tooth with numerous branching cusps,
and others as yet undetermined. Gtenodus appears to be limited to the New,
Brown Mine, Knowles, and Black-band ironstones, and is of somewhat rare
occurrence. Petalodus is of similar range, and Cladodus extends to the
Woodhead coals, and is frequently found in groups on slabs of the Knowles
ironstone and Ash-coal shales. Orodus is confined to the Stinking Coal of the
lowest measures, and also another form of an exceedingly interesting character,
of which but two specimens have been detected. Ctenoptychius is represented
by three or four species, of which ap'ualis is the most common, the New
Ironstone containing remarkably fine examples. Archodus is a rare form,
and appears to be confined to the latter bed. To Helodus no limit can well
be given, it being met with in almost all the beds, and in the Knowles is
frequently of large size. The tooth resembling Cochliodus is rare, and has
48 report — 1865.
not been met with in other beds than the Stinking Coal, and in the stony
8-foot ironstone at Kidsgrove. Pcecilodus is a common form in the Cockshead
ironstone shales, and has a tolerably wide range from the Stinking Coal
upwards. The little tooth with numerous cusps is confined to the New and
Deep Mine ironstones, but is frequent in the former bed. In addition to
these, there is a fine lancet-shaped tooth rarely found in the Deep Mine,
Wood's Mine, New, Bassey Mine, and Gubbin ironstones, to which at present
no name has been assigned.
The Mollusca of these fields may be divided into three distinct groups — •
the Avieulopecten and Goniatite group of the lowest measures, the Spirifer-
and Distinct group of the middle, and the Anthracosia of the entire fields.
The Avieulopecten of the lowest measures is represented simply by the species
papyraceus, and is confined to two horizons, that of the Stinking Coal about
100 feet above the Millstone-grit, and a lean grey ironstone about the same
distance above the Stinking Coal. In the latter bed it is associated with
Goniatites, Posidonia, Orthoceras, and Lingula, each of which are invariably
found to occupy different and successive levels in the deposits to which they
are confined.
Immediately upon the coal, which is strongly sulphureous, comes a bed
of Aviculopectens, from 6 to 8 inches thick ; this is succeeded by a layer of
Goniatites of similar thickness ; then Posidonia and Orthoceras ; the black
shales containing fish, and at the top of all comes Lingula mixed with
scales of Ptdceoniscus. The Avieulopecten, Goniatites, Posidonia, and Ortho-
ceras bands are generally dovetailed, as it were, into each other, but each
contains nevertheless its characteristic features. Lingula is, however, always
sharply cut off from them and confined to one definite line on the top of the
shales immediately below the bone-bed which separates these fossils from the
on-coming C'gtheropsis and Anthracosia. The Aviculopecten-bed is of great
areal extent, and retains a remarkable degree of uniformity in whatever
district it is found, and in more than one important case the existence of
certain valuable mineral deposits have been determined by its presence alone.
In the Goldsitch-moss basin, 10 miles direct north from Ipstones, it forms
one of the coals worked there under the name of the Thin Seam ; at Wetlcy
Moor it is represented by the Four-foot coal, at Biddulph by the Biddulph
Moor coal, and in each locality it contains its characteristic tranquilly
deposited fossils, in equal numbers and corresponding conditions.
The other Aviculopecten-hed is a thin grey laminated ironstone about 100
feet above the Stinking Coal, and hitherto has not been detected beyond the
limits of the Churnet valley. Its fossils are in a fine state of preservation,
but so far it has not been found to contain other remains than Avieulopecten
papyraceus and Posidonia.
The base of the lowest measures of the Churnet valley is a clayey marl,
which reposes directly upon the upper beds of the Millstone-grit, and varies
in thickness from a thin film to 15 feet. This is succeeded by the well-
known Hydrate, a most curious and remarkable deposit, varying from an
inch to 2 feet 6 inches. The shales in contact with this ore, and the stone
itself in certain localities, contain great numbers of Anthracosia acuta — a form
of life which take3 precedence of all others in the history of the period
represented by these rocks. Between this bed and the Stinking Coal the
only recognizable fossils are scanty remains of fishes ; but here, as before
stated, Anthracosia again comes in, and again gives place to the Avieulo-
pecten of the laminated ironstone. In the succeeding clay ironstone nodules
it is accompanied by other species, but from this point up to the marine bed
NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAL-FIELD ORGANIC REMAINS. 49
opened up at Hawley's sinkings, there are no known indications of the intro-
duction of other forms of life than those of which this genus is the type.
In the Woodhead coal-shales of the Cheadle field, and other basement beds
of the lower thick measures at Norton and Bucknall, Anthracomya and An-
thracoptera are found in association with Anthracosia, the latter being repre-
sented by the species subconstricta, robusta, ovalis, and others ; Anthracomya by
Adamsii, and Anthracoptera by two new species, and others. In the Bullhurst
coal and its succeeding shales these bivalves frequently occur in immense num-
bers, especially in the Cockshead ironstone, the Hard Mine, Little Mine, and
the various Banbury coals of the Silverdale and Kidsgrove districts, and in
the Bassey Mine, Gutter Mine, Cannel Mine, and Black-band ironstones of
the upper thick measures. It is however remarkable that, where they are
unusually abundant, fish-remains become scarce and fragmentary ; in fact
none of the deposits which retain their original condition afford conclusive
evidence of other than the occasional commingling of these vertebrate and
invertebrate animals in the waters of the period, and it is only in the aggre-
gated bone-beds that their remains are associated in anything like equal
proportions.
In many cases the bone-beds covering the surface of coal pass into thick
irregularly-deposited masses of shells, which by their persistency become
valuable guides in mining operations. Not unfrequently, however, they are
confined to a definite horizon, the shales above them being destitute of other
remains than those of plants matted together and imperfectly preserved. As
a rule the coal-beds are of greater extent and of a more uniform character
than ironstone deposits. In the upper measures both are usually but
slightly divided, and, generally speaking, where the ironstone thickens the
coal becomes inferior. The Longton ironstone-beds in many instances die
out altogether, or are but obscurely represented in the Silverdale and the
more easterly districts, and this is in fact the case with the coal in many
cases. The position of the shells varies according to the character of their
matrix ; in some instances they appear in situ, smoothly laid out, and rising
layer upon layer to the thickness of several feet. In this form they are
generally compressed, but in many others, such as the Moss coals, Hard
Mine, and Cockshead ironstone-shales, they retain their original shape.
Until within the last two or three years there was no published evidence
to show that the generally received opinion of the restriction of marine
fossils to the lower measures of the British coal-fields was incorrect; but
some sinkings at Longton in the spring of 1863 revealed the existence of
a series of such remains in the shales of a thin unworked coal called the
Bay Coal, situated towards the base of the upper thick measures. These
remains consisted of Aviadopecten, Goniatites, languid, Orthoceras, Spirifer,
Ctenodonta, Macrocheilus, Katicopsis, Nautilus, Loxonema, and Biscina. The
discovery of Lingula, which at the time was the only form met with, was
announced in the Report of your Committee read at the Meeting at New-
castle, and the occurrence of the additional forms was also noticed in their
Report read at Bath last year. It has, however, been subsequently found
that, about eight years ago, Discince were discovered in nodules of the Priors-
field ironstone at Fenton Park.
From the Bay Coal not being a workable seam, its extension can only be
proved by sinkings in other parts of the field, where it will have to be looked
for under different names and position, no other section appearing to agree
with the one at Longton. The Priors-field ironstone, which lies below the
Bay Mine, also yielded at the same sinkings Lingulce and Discince, but,
50 REPORT — 1865.
except in one instance, of the association of the young of Discina with An-
thracoptera, none of the other forms were found in direct contact with them.
Discince have recently been met with at Kidsgrove in grey ironstone nodules,
which would appear to be representatives of the Longton Priors-field bed.
The Bay Coal fossils appear to be confined to a thin stratum of shale,
containing grey flattish nodules of lean ironstone overlying the coal. The
Lingulce were never known to pass into the ironstone, but appeared to lie
near the top of the shales in association with Discince. Below these come
Orthoceras, Spirifer, and the others, and the nodules were generally taken
up with Aviculopecten, Spirifer, and Productus. Immediately above these
shales came another nodular bed of ironstone and thick shales, and these
were the depositories of several species of Anthracosia with Gytheropsis ; but
here, as in the Stinking Coal, the line of demarcation was in no case passed
by either of the forms above or below it. The Priors-field group appears to
be equally defined, Anthracoptera and Gytheropsis overlying the Linyuhe
and Discince. This isolation of Lingulce from all other than Discince is a
somewhat curious fact, but the cases cited are not the only ones which have
come under notice. It occurs in the shales of a coal worked on the western
flank of Axedge, and referred to the middle beds of the Millstone-grit.
In June and July of the present year a bed of greyish shale, lying a few feet
above the Gin Mine coal, belonging to the upper part of the lower thick mea-
sures, was sunk through on the hill which divides Longton from Adderley Green.
These shales far surpass the Bay Mine in the number and variety of their
organic contents. They contain Productus, Chonetes, Lmgula, Aviculopecten,
Ctenodonta, A-vinus, Natteopsis, Ghemnitzia, Lo.vonema, Platyschism i, Pleu-
rotomaria, Discites, Goniatites, Nautilus, Orthoceras, and others, most of them
being represented by two or more species, some of which are new.
More than one of these forms are common in the carboniferous rocks of
Scotland, and others are found abundantly in the Millstone-grits of Stafford-
shire. It is an interesting feature in these deposits that they contain Pro-
ductus, Spirifer, and Nautilus, which are absent in the lowest measures of
these fields. The occurrence of this bed is important as showing that the
two great divisions of the upper and lower thick measures are at widely
separated intervals, interlined by deposits which point to the sudden cessa-
tion of one order of natural operations, and the introduction of another,
which obtained for a comparatively short period and then passed away, to be
repeated Ion? after in two distinct but less important forms, but still equally
clear and equally conclusive. Whether there are other instances of these
isolated marine conditions in the middle measures, or whether they stretch
into the upper strata of the coal-field, a careful examination of beds passed
through in future sinkings will alone determine.
On the extreme western outcrop of the coal strata at Longton a bed of
limestone, supposed to be of freshwater origin, overlies the Bassey Mine
ironstone at a distance of about 30 feet. Recent sinkings on the Longton
Hall estate have revealed a second band of limestone 30 feet below the
other, and like it divided into three beds by thin partings of clayey shale.
The upper bed has long been known, but in no other instance has the second
bed been met with, although there are several pits within the space of 300
yards. Far above this, however, a little below the base of the brick clays of
the upper measures, a third, if not a fourth bed of similar limestone has been
exposed at distant points, in each of which the fossil contents specifically
agree. The lower beds are the more fossiliferous, and include great numbers
of Gytheropsis, Microconchus, Anthracosia Phillipsii, with scales and teeth of
MARINE FAUNA AND FLORA OF SOUTH DEVON AND CORNWALL. 51
Ccelacanthus, Platysomw, Ehizodopsis, MegaUchthys, and Pleuracanthns.
Anthmcosia PMUipsii is also remarkably abundant in the Bassey Mine and
the Gutter Mine ironstones, the latter being composed almost wholly of
compressed forms of this shell. The Black-band ironstone of Apedale is
also extremely rich in similar species, and contains, in addition, SanguinoUtes,
with thick masses of Cytheropds. Anthmcosia Phillipsii appear to be the
characteristic shell of these upper thick measures, occurring abundantly in
the Cannel Mine and other beds worked in different localities, until it dies
out in the valueless coal-seams which interline the arenaceous shales of the
upper beds of Hartshill and Newcastle-under-Lyne.
It may be stated in conclusion that, in drawing up their Report, your
Committee have confined themselves as much as possible to the more strik-
ing particulars of the inquiry. The subject is in itself of too voluminous a
character for detailed treatment, and a great amount of interesting matter
has been necessarily omitted. Much of this, however, will be supplied by
carefully prepared lists of the whole of the fossils found in the various
measures of the field, which will be arranged in stratigraphical order for
future publication.
Report of the Committee appointed to explore the Marine Fauna and
Flora of the South Coast of Devon and Cornwall. — No. 1. Consist-
ing of J. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S., Rev. Thomas Hincks, Jonathan
Couch, F.L.S., Charles Stewart, J. Brooking Rowe, F.L.S., and
J. Ralfs, F.L.S. Reporter, C. Spence Bate, F.R.S. fyc.
In presenting the first Report of the results of the Committee formed for the
purpose of dredging the southern coast of Devon and Cornwall, we think it
undesirable to repeat the full list of animals as recorded in our Dredging
Tables. We shall therefore mention only those species that are either new or
rare, or exhibit some especial interest from observation of some hitherto unre-
corded peculiarity of habit or structure. We cannot communicate the residt
of our labours without expressing our appreciation of the service that we
received from Her Majesty's Gunnery Ship ' Cambridge.' Capt. Ewart, C.B.,
having kindly offered any assistance that we might require on the water, we
were not slow to avail ourselves of the ship's launch and crew for the purpose
of dredging, and were on those occasions accompanied by Dr. Forbes of the
' Cambridge,' a gentleman known to science for an excellent memoir on the
History and Topography of Vancouver's Island.
Pisces.
In reporting on the Eish, Mr. Couch says that although our success in
this quarter has not been very abundant, still however our labour has not
been without some considerable amount of success.
Among the ordinary inhabitants of our coast we scarcely expected to have
found the Twait shad, so near the bottom, in rather deep water, as to be taken
in the trawl ; we were also enabled to obtain a knowledge of tbe ordinary
food of the Megrim or scaldfish, P. arnoghssus, of which the examples were
numerous : small specimens of Galathcce were in their stomach.
We were also fortunate enough to obtain a specimen of the Eilefish,
Balistes capriscms, the second on record as having been taken in England,
and offering in some respects a different appearance from the figures given of
e2
52 report — 1865.
it by Willughby and Yarrell ; but tbe particulars of this difference, as well
as the way in which it was caught, it would be tedious to give now, and
Mr. Couch reserves them for his work on our native fishes that is now pub-
lishing. Also an account of another fish which we have obtained within a
few days (Aug. 18th), and now report for the first time as a visitor to our
coasts. This is the Short-finned Tunny, Thynnus hraehyterus of Cuvier; an
example of which we procured from Mevagissy, and a second from Polperro ;
Mr. Couch has made drawings of both these rare fish.
We also obtained from the trawl a specimen of Myliobates aquilce, or Eagle
Ray.
MOLLTTSCA.
Among the Mollusca of more or less interest the following are recorded : —
An exceedingly fine specimen of Octopus vulgaris, as well as of Loligo
media, Sepia elegans, and S. officinalis. Also the ova of a Sepia, containing
the rudimentary shell, apparently differing from those of S. officinalis, but of
what species we have not yet been enabled to determine.
A beautiful specimen oildalia elegant, far more brightly rose-coloured than
the figure given by Messrs. Alder and Hancock, from which our specimen
also differed in the posterior extremity of the foot, terminating in three in-
stead of a single point.
We might also mention a specimen of Avicula being taken about half an
inch longer than the greatest length ascribed to it by Prof. Edward Forbes.
Crustacea.
The first species of crab to which we shall allude is that of Achceus
cranchii, spoken of by Bell as being rare ; two specimens only being re-
corded, one from Ealmouth, the other from the South of Ireland.
Certainly this little crab is by no means uncommon off the coast of South
Devon, in depth from six to twenty fathoms. This circumstance enables us
to state that the second and third pairs of pereiopoda are not drawn of suffi-
cient length in proportion to the two posterior, in both Prof. Bell's and Dr.
Leach's figures of the species.
Among the specimens that we dredged, we took two from six fathoms of
water near the Knapbury, that possibly may be a second species. Our atten-
tion was first drawn to the circumstance from observing a peculiarity in its
habits from that of the known species, which is that it covers itself with
weed as we know is done by those of the genus Pisa.
In Pisa this is no accidental occurrence, since all the spines are sharp-
pointed and curved ; and my friend Mr. Whitford has informed me that he has
observed specimens in his aquarium which soon after having cast their
exuviae, pick up with the claws pieces of weed and place them on the spine.
In Achceus cranchii the spines are straight, a circumstance that gives the
animal generally a hairy appearance. In the second form the spines are not
visible to unassisted observation, and the legs of the animal look smooth and
free from hairs, but a nearer and closer inspection shows that the spines are
all hooked as in Pisa. The form of the eye somewhat varies also; but
whether these are sufficient to ground a specific distinction of the two ani-
mals, we have not quite determined, particularly as we have observed among
the mass of straight hairs in A. cranchii a few hooked ones also.
Of the interesting genus of soldier- crabs, Pagurus, we have taken six or
seven species, viz. —
P. bernhardus. P. hyndmanni. P. laevis.
prideauxii. dillwynii. ulidianus.
cuanensie.
MARINE FAUNA AND FLORA OF SOUTH DEVON AND CORNWALL. 53
Of the last species we have some doubt, as Mr. Bell remarks, it is ex-
tremely like the young of P. bernliardus, and certainly until we can capture
a specimen bearing ova we are much inclined to believe that it is so.
We are glad to be able to record P. dillwynii from the south coast
of Devon. It is now about fifteen years since the first and only specimen
was taken on the coast of South Wales. ~No other naturalist appears to have
fallen in with it, and we found it necessary to take an occasional look at the
original specimen to assure ourselves that we had not committed a mistake
in considering it to be distinct.
A few weeks since, seeing a woman shrimping on the sandy beach at
Teignmouth, we requested to have a look into her net, and among the com-
mon shrimp we saw to our great pleasure numerous specimens of P. dillwynii ;
after purchasing her entire stock we hastened to the beach, and with the in-
coming tide took numerous specimens which we kept alive for a short time.
This, the prettiest of all the pretty genus, has the habit of burrowing in the
sand, and it is probably to this circumstance that it has not been met with
before ; but, curious enough, we have since taken it with the dredge in about
four fathoms of water in Bigberry Bay, and again one specimen in six fathoms
as near to Plymouth as the mouth of the river Yealme.
An interesting point in the history of this genus we have been enabled to
make out relative to the development of the young. The end of April or
the beginning of May is the period when the young appear to be most abun-
dant. Early in June we were enabled to capture many specimens of the
young animal in various degrees of progressive development, a circumstance
that has enabled us to determine that the species Glaucothoe peronii, described
by Prof. Milne-Edwards in the Annales des Sc. Nat. for March 1830, is none
other than an immature stage of the genus. At this period the little crea-
ture swims freely in the ocean, until obliged by increasing age to take refuge
in a shell, when he settles down and becomes a hermit crab.
Of the genus Palinurus we would desire to point out a curious and in-
teresting structural condition of the inferior antennas. In all macrourous
decapods the inferior pair of antennas is furnished with a lateral scale, or ar-
ticulated process. This is invariably situated at the extremity of the third
joint of the peduncle ; now in Palinurus this scale or squamiferous process
is incorporated with the walls of the peduncle, the third and fourth joints
being fixed together, and the squamiferous process exists in form only as a
figure impressed against the sides of the antennae.
In the elaborate memoir of Prof. Kinahan on the genus Crangon, we think
that he has erroneously figured the common shrimp, or that the common
shrimp of the Irish, differs from those of the English, shores. The small and
delicate second pair of pereiopoda that Mr. Bell describes as being " nearly as
large as the third," and figures rather shorter than the first, Dr. Kinahan
makes as long again as the first pair. Prof. Kinahan's figure is also more
slender than that of our edible shrimp ; neither can we see the desirability or
convenience of the generic separation which he has made between those hav-
ing the second pair of pereiopoda short from those that have them a little
longer. This being only variation in degree, and not structurally important,
we consider as being only of specific and not generic value.
Among the prawns we are enabled to add a new genus to the British
fauna, namely, Caradina of Prof. Milne-Edwards. In making this interest-
ing addition, we must remark that it is one of name only, since it is, we be-
lieve, the same that Dr. Leach described under the name of HippoTyte va-
rious, which has remained so long misinterpreted. We have occasionally
54 report — 1865.
taken this species when dredging in Plymouth Sound, but never so abun-
dantly as of late.
We have previously observed the peculiar robust looking second pair of
pereiopoda, but it was not until recently we discovered that it had the pecu-
liar structural formation pecidiar to the genus Caradina, in which the pro-
podos articulates with the carpus, not at the centre, but at the infero-anterior
angle, and thus appears as a partially dislocated joint.
There is a second specimen that appears to me to be specifically distinct
from the preceding ; it is more slender, and has the rostrum long and slight.
The teeth are two above, the one at the base flanked by a lateral tooth on
each side, and one near the apical extremity ; on the under side there is a
tooth immediately under the anterior upper tooth, and a second posterior to
it : to this species we provisionally give the name of Caradina tenuis.
Among the sessile-eyed Crustacea we have added to our local fauna Mono-
culodes stimpsoni and Amphithoe albomaeulata ; of the latter we took but a
single specimen, and remarked the similitude of its colouring to that of half-
grown specimens of Amplntho'e ridjieaudata.
Considerable numbers of Tanaia have been captured deeply inserted in the
crevices of the slate rocks of the coast, a habitat that is also favourable for
the residence of Anceus, a genus whose sexes have long been placed in sepa-
rate genera. These we have been enabled to work out with great care, a
circumstance that enables us to support some of the views of M. Hesse, and
unite the two supposed genera as the male and female of one.
We have only to add the peculiar circumstance of our having captured
Chondrocantha zeia attached parasitically to a specimen of Synopta.
Annelida.
Among the Annelida, Mr. J. Brooking Howe remarks that the following
have been made out, but we have many specimens as yet undetermined.
Gen. Serpentaria. Gen. Psamathe.
S. fusca. P. fusca.
Gen. PontobdeUa. Gen. Ghjcera.
P. muricata. Two species not yet determined.
P. verrucata. Gen. Cirratulus.
Gen. Tomopteris. C. borealis.
T. onisciformis. C. tentaculatus ?
Gen. Aphrodita. Gen. Clutstopteris.
A. aculeata. C. insignis.
A. hystrix. Gen. Arenicola
Gen. Lepidonotns. A. piscatorum.
L. squamatus. A. ecaudata.
Gen. Siyalion. Gen. Terrebella.
S. boa. Three species, which appear to
Gen. Eunice. differ from any previously
E. sanguinea. described as British.
Gen. Northia. Gen. Pectinaria.
N. tubicola. P. belgica.
N. conchylega? Gen. Sabelht.
Gen. Nereis. S. penicillus.
N. brevimana? S. savignii.
N. pelagica. Gen. Serpida.
Gen. Eeteronereis. S. vermicularis.
H. longissima ?
marine fauna and flora of south devon and cornwall. 55
Alctonidiad^;.
Among the Alcyonidiadas we have taken two species, in addition to
gelatinosum, to which we do not find any reference in the first edition of
Dr. Johnston's 'Natural History of British Zoophytes.' One of these resembles
so much the coral Eschara cornu-cervi, that but for its soft texture and
flexibility it migbt be compared to it. The other resembles a short club,
almost an oval mallet, on the top of a slender footstalk. Figures of these
have been taken.
EcHINODEKMATA.
Amongst the Echinodermata may be mentioned Echinus flemingii, Spatan-
guspurpureus, Porania pulvillus (Goniaster templetoni of Forbes), and Pal-
mi pes placenta : these specimens are often brought in by the trawlers, but some-
times a maund containing little else than the Pahnipes is procured at one
time, the others being rather rare. Amongst these and their more common
associates we have on three occasions found a specimen of Luidia savignii
about eight inches in the greater diameter, and twice a single ray of what we
believe to be Luidia sarsii. It is seven inches long, more abruptly tapering
than in the other species ; its upper surface orange, with purplish-brown
spots at the base of the spines of the paxilla? ; in all other respects it answers
the description given of the species by the Rev. A. M. Norman in his paper
on the genera and species of British Echinodermata published in the ' Annals
of Natural History.' This is, we believe, the first notice of a western locality
for this interesting animal, which must have been fifteen inches in its greater
diameter. On the inner side of the eastern end of the Breakwater, where
grey mud has collected, six specimens of Amphiura • filiform is, remarkable for
its pickaxe -shaped spines, occurred in one haul of the dredge. This species
also has not been noticed here before, the Durham and Northumberland coasts
being the only English localities yet given. Antedon rosaceus is common in
the Sound, where it is found principally on the rocks that project from the
mud and rubble of the bottom ; of late years they have greatly extended
their colonies, owing probably to the injured specimens having been thrown
overboard wliilst the boat was moving to a different spot.
Ophiothrix fragilis (Ophiocoma rosula, Forbes) is common everywhere, its
colours being most varied. We only mention it here to point out an important
modification of the spines nearest the cirrhi, they being converted into books
of two or three points, which must greatly assist them in maintaining their
hold of the rocks on which they live ; and more especially must these be use-
ful in the young star-fish_, whose life is for some time spent on sponges, from
which it is, indeed, often difficult to remove them without injury. Ophio-
coma nigra often occurs mixed with the last species, but is never so
numerous. Specimens of Holothuria nigra are sometimes dredged, and
Ocnus brunneus is not uncommon in the Sound. We have also obtained IPen-
tacta hyndmanni deeply wedged into the holes made by Sa.vicava in the rocks
outside the Breakwater. Sipunculus bernhardus, Thalassema neptuni, and one
example of Syrinx modus have also been found here. From Polperro we have
received a specimen of Synapta, but was unable to determine its species as
the preservative fluid had destroyed its anchors and plates. Some years since
one was also obtained in the Sound, but was not, I believe, preserved.
Before concluding this Report it may be interesting to briefly describe a
curious, and probably unique abnormal growth found on the oral surface of
an Echinus sphcera. On opening the shell the inner surface of this part
appeared as if sand or some foreign substance had got under the perisoma,
but on closer examination this was found to be owing to a growth from the
56 report — 1865.
shell, principally occurring at the lines of junction of its separate plates.
It was in the form of short columns and fungoid masses, on the tops of which
the perisoma rested : this outgrowth presented, on microscopical examination,
a calcareous network, finer and more loose than the other portions of the
shell. The Echinus was not altered in form externally, but it seems pro-
bable that such a growth, by uniting the plates composing the shell and so
preventing the increase at that part, should ultimately cause some distortion.
Interim Report of the Committee on the Resistance of Water to Floating
and Immersed Bodies. By W. J. Macquorn Rankine,C..E., LL.D.,
F.R.S., John Scott Russell, C.E., F.R.S., James R. Napier,
Marine Engineer, and William Froude, C.E.
1. The following Interim Report describes the experiments made by the
Committee up to the day before the commencement of the present Meeting.
Those experiments are still in active progress.
2. The Committee held several meetings in the course of the past winter
and spring, and agreed to a programme of experiments of which the follow-
ing is a summary.
3. Two models to be made of painted wood, designated respectively as A
and B.
The models to be ship-shape, and each of them to consist of two equal
and similar halves joined together at the middle water-line.
Elements of Models.
A. B.
Length 4-000 feet 4-000 feet
Breadth 0-571 foot 0-571 foot
Total depth 0-571 „ 0-364 „
Form of Midship Section. Circle. Ellipse.
Area of Midship Section 0-256 sq. feet . . . . 0-163
Form of Water-lines of fore-body Harmonic curves.
Form of Water-lines of after-body .... Trochoids.
Stem and stern-post vertical straight lines.
Length of fore-body : Length of after-body ::3:2 ....3:2
Mean girth 1-45 foot . . 1 foot.
Model A to be in two parts joined at the circular midship section, so that
Toy turning the after-body through a right angle about a longitudinal axis
the water-lines can be converted into buttock-lines, and vice versd.
4. Experiments to be made according to the method formerly put in prac-
tice by Mr. Scott Russell, in which the uniformity of the propelling force is
maintained by means of a regulating weight hanging from a pulley under
which the hauling cord passes ; the model to be guided in a straight course
by means of a stretched wire.
5. Those experiments to be made principally at speeds not exceeding the
natural speed of the wave corresponding to the length of the model, viz., about
two knots per hour ; but a few experiments may be made at higher speeds.
6. The experiments to be made on each model under two circumstances,
viz. with the model immersed as nearly as may be to the middle water-line,
and with the model totally immersed.
7. The programme of experiments having been thus drawn up by the Com-
mittee, the superintendence of its execution was undertaken by Mr. Scott Rus-
sell, as being the only Member of the Committee resident in or near London.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 57
8. Full-sized drawings of the models having been prepared in conformity
with the programme, the models were made from those drawings. Both
drawings are now exhibited, and also model B ; model A, being now in use,
has not been sent to Birmingham.
9. The actual performance of the experiments was entrusted by Mr. Russell
to Mr. J. Quant, Naval Architect, who has performed that duty with great
skill and assiduity.
10. Twenty-eight experiments have already been made on model A, upon
a run of about 98 feet in length on a lake in Blackheath Park, the use of
which for that purpose has been liberally granted by Dr. Joseph Kidd.
Further experiments on model A are in active progress ; and when they are
finished those upon model B will be begun.
11. The Committee deem it advisable to defer giving a detailed account of
those experiments until the whole series shall have been completed, because
the separate publication of the portion of that series which has hitherto been
made would be but imperfectly useful, and also because, having only yesterday
(11th Sept. 1865) received the account of those experiments, they have not
had time to give them due consideration.
12. The following general results, however, may be stated : —
I. The resistance of model A when immersed so as to be just covered with
water, and no more, is more than double of its resistance when half immersed
at the same speed.
II. When the after-body of model A is turned so as to convert the water-
lines into buttock-lines, its resistance is increased, and that whether the
model is half immersed or just covered.
Report on Observations of Luminous Me teors, 1861-65. By a Committee,
consisting of James Glaisher, F.R.S., of the Royal Observatory,
Greenwich, Secretary to the British Meteorological Society, fyc. ;
Robert P. Greg, F.G.S., §•<;.; E. W. Brayley, F.R.S., Professor
of Physical Geography and Meteorology in the London Institution,
fyc. ; and Alexander S. Herschel, B.A.
The Chairman, in presenting the Eeport, said, The class of phenomena
known as Luminous Meteors includes the familiar appearances of shooting-
stars and fireballs — in the words of M. Quetelet, (i a much despised phe-
nomenon, long neglected by astronomers," but which now justly claims their
attention, and, as shown by the papers contained in this Report, commands
the consideration of those best able to speculate upon cosmical phenomena.
The number of meteors observed during the past year has been unusually
small, partly owing to the cloiidy state of the sky, partly owing to the absence
this year of certain acknowledged star-showers, namely, those of January,
April, and August. The November shower, although concealed in England
by clouds, did not disappoint expectation. It attracted attention, and was
observed with considerable interest at Malta, as described in the Report. If
the sky is clear, the circumstances are altogether favourable for its reappear-
ance in the present year and the next, in the morning of the 13th of No-
vember. Its greatest display is expected to visit us in 1866 ; but even in the
present year it is advisable to be prepared for its appearance by organizing a
competent staff of observers, and furnishing them with the proper means for
determining the radiant-point, and the heights and velocities of the meteors.
The British Association in the past year having sanctioned a set of Maps to
be printed for the use of the Committee, which are now completed and are
1865. t
58 repokt — 1865.
presented with this Eeport, every means will he provided to Members of the
Association willing to take part in the observations of this shower, to enable
them to record their observations with facility, and to reduce as far as pos-
sible the inevitable uncertainty of cloudy nights, which attaches to our in-
sular climate in November.
A shower of remarkable meteors observed on the 18th of October last
(of which a map, showing the radiant-point, was exhibited), coincided with a
date at which fireballs have made their appearance in more than average
numbers. The radiant-point of this shower was perfectly denned in Orion, and
illustrates well the manner in which these maps may be employed. A star-
shower less conspicuous, on the 28th of July last, was observed with a radiant-
point equally distinct, close to Fomalhaut, the most southerly star observed
on our meridian. These and other accurate observations of star-showers are
included in the Eeport. Continued observation will doubtless reveal other
radiant-points, and at the same time will lead to determining more exactly
the position and character of those already known.
Of large meteors, the greater number described in the Catalogue took place
in December last. Two detonating meteors were also observed. The first
occurred in England on the 20th of November last, the second in Scotland on
the 21st of February. Observations show that on the first of these nights
shooting-stars were extremely scarce, so that at Weston-super-Mare and
Hawkhurst only one or two meteors could be counted in an hour. This fact,
of which the description is contained in the Catalogue, illustrates in a re-
markable manner the adventitious character of large meteors. Nevertheless
the 20th of November is one among the well-known dates preferred by fire-
balls. A third detonating meteor, on the 30th of April, was doubly observed
at Manchester and Weston-super-Mare, and its height was well determined.
The nearest approach of this meteor to the earth was thirty-seven miles.
Startling as are the accounts of detonations heard from such a height, it is
yet more surprising that the report from such a distance should be brief and
momentary. The sounds caused by meteors yet offer much which, it is
hoped, will be explained and illustrated by further observations.
Interesting papers appear in the Eeport, " On the Origin of Meteorites,
the series of Physical Processes of which they are the result, and their
functions in Nature," by Professor Brayley ; and " On the Physical History
of Meteorites," by Mr. Sorby. It appears from a microscopic analysis of
their structure by Mr. Sorby, that when aerolites resemble in their appear-
ance igneous terrestrial rocks, the evidence of their previous history has been
more or less obliterated, while characteristic peculiarities in their structure
evince that they could not have originated in the volcanic action of the
moon or any planet. Mr. Brayley infers that they originate in gaseous
matter projected from the equator of the sun, and condensed to the solid
form in its passage through interplanetary space. A gradual condensation
from a vaporous state is said by Mr. Sorby also to represent more nearly
than any other the conditions under which they must have been consolidated.
In this view of the origin of meteorites (including in the term Meteoric
Irons), their source is considered to be unique, and they are traced to the
energetic forces whose modes of action are considered in Solar Physics. The
bodies thus arising are termed by Mr. Brayley Meteoritic Masses, to di-
stinguish them emphatically from all other members of the solar system, as
well as from fallen meteorites.
In another paper contained in this Eeport, which is an abstract of a
' Memoir on Sporadic Shooting- stars,' Mr. Newton, basing his conclusions
upon a certain knowledge of their height, arrives at some interesting results
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 59
regarding the number and distribution of tbese bodies in space. The average
height of the centres of their visible tracks is sixty miles above the earth.
Their number in the atmosphere daily is seven and a half millions, and, if
not intercepted in their flight, there would be found in the space occupied by
the earth at any instant in its orbit, 13,000 of such bodies pursuing different
orbits. Of shooting-stars visible in telescopes, Mr. Newton calculates that
the number is at least fifty times as great as the number of those visible to
the naked eye. Indeed there appears to be no limit to their minuteness or
to their numbers. Tbeir velocity is greater than the velocity of the earth in
its orbit, ard Mr. Newton supposes that they are grouped together according
to some law, probacy that of rings encompassing the sun, resembling in their
inclinations and dimensions the orbits of the comets. Mr. Newton, in con-
clusion, supposes that these bodies, which he terms Meteoroids, are not frag-
ments of a former world, but rather materials from which new worlds are
forming ; the latter view is taken by Mr. Brayley.
Meteoroids and meteoritic masses constitute the two classes of bodies
which have to be considered in Meteoric Astronomy. It is, however,
reasonable to suppose that the same forces which in the phase of greatest
concentration of the solar system give rise to " meteoritic masses," might in
a phase of vastly greater antiquity, and of greater extension of the solar orb,
have given rise in a similar manner to the rings of " meteoroids." Continued
observations directed to the phenomena of shooting-stars will end by remov-
ing doubt from this province of astronomy, and throw new light on certain
difficult questions in cosmical philosophy — such, for example, as the existence
of organic matter (a kind of peat or humus) in the meteorites of Orgueil.
At the request of the Committee, the following Report for the past year has
been drawn up by Alexander S. Herschel : —
The Committee have the satisfaction to present in this Report several
descriptions of large meteors ; of which the details are given in the Cata-
logue, and have led in some instances to determining their real heights and
velocities. In investigating the path of the detonating meteor of the 30th
of April last (Monthly Notices, R.A.S., 1805, June 9), although resting on
two observations only, a high degree of accuracy was attainable. The Com-
mittee take this opportunity of congratulating Members and other, observers
on the increasing precision of their observations, by which this satisfactory
result could be obtained (Appendix I. 6).
A few observations of old date, not previously recorded, are entered in the
Catalogue, together with extracts from authentic foreign sources. Obser-
vations of several star-showers are included, of which the results are col-
lected in Appendix II. Recent additions of meteorites to museums, and
remarkable meteors, are desciibed in the third and fourth appendices of the
Catalogue. A number of contributions to literature in meteoric astronomy
are either noticed or given in full in Appendix V.
Sky-maps prepared especially for observations of shooting-stars, and par-
ticularly of their radiant-points, have been placed for constant use in the
hands of observers. Dr. Heis, of Miiuster, warmly seconding the appeal of
the Committee, has lithographed copies of these charts, by which the meteors
observed in the same latitude* at Miinster are conveniently compared with
those observed at Greenwich. To his courteous zeal and devoted labours, the
Committee are indebted for the heights of shooting-stars observed at Miinster
in July and August 1864 and 1865, contained in Appendix YI.
* The latitude of Greenwich Observatory is 51° 28' 38" : that of Miinster Observatory
is 51° 58' 10". The difference is therefore 29' 32", or not quite half a degree — about the
average error unavoidably committed in copying, and producing a requisite quantity of
lithographic impressions of the maps.
F2
GO
RETORT 1865.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS
Date.
Hour.
Place of
Observation.
1784. h m
Feb. 23 1159 (sid. Slougb (Bucks).. Diameter 15" or
Apparent Size.
1840.
July 28
1841.
A112;. 9
Dec. 10
time.)
1842.
Oct. 5
1858.
May 31
Aug. 9
to 10
1860
Oct. 13
Night
8 20 p.m.
(local time.)
9 12 p.m.
11 12 p.m.
11 p.m.
1 a.m.
10'.
H.M.S. 'Erebus.'
S. lat. 47°, E.
lone. 97°.
H.M.S. 'Erebus.' Brilliant meteor .
E. Ion?. 164 c
18', S. lat. 33°
40'.
Havvkhurst
(Kent).
ibid
ibid
H. M. S. ' Fury.'
Off Jedo (Ja
pan).
Baffin's Bay
18G1.
Aug:. 6
:2nd mag.#
= Jupiter.
Colour.
^ diameter of full
Magnificent meteor
Large
About
p.m.
10
Kidderminster
(Warwick-
shire).
Large
Blue and
orange.
Duration.
second
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
Near X, Hydra?.
About 4 sees. .
From 1) Pegasl
across (3 Aquarii]
At the same altij
tude as fi, ami
the same azirautl
as a Lvr<T.
IntheN'.N.E J
From near Cassiol
peia, across Ursiil
Minor,andlosinf I
itself in the fold I
of Draco.
At an altitude ol
about 50°.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSE11VATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
61
OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
Appearance; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
â– V telescopic meteor with
a lunula.
jeft a long broad spark-
ling train for 5 seconds
^eft a patch of light of its
own size at the place for
2 seconds.
lurst. Left a train which
lasted a minute.
'ollowed hy a tail of light
20° in length.
Length of
Path.
luminated the whole
district with its lip-lit.
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Remarks.
Observer.
Fell in a curve with one
or two bends.
Stationary
" Meteors in great num-
bers were seen darting
about in all direc-
tions."
In one hour fifteen fall
ing stars.
Flexure not great, but
certainly not straight.
W. Herschel
(Journal of
Observations).
J. C. Ross,
' Voyage to
the Southern
Seas.'
Id.
J.F.W.IIerschcl,
MS.
Fell in the N.N.E.
hi.
1.1.
Hundreds of meteorsisherard Osborne
overhead shooting
from N.E. to W,
Crossing the beams of
an aurora.
S. to N. ; horizontal
(Japanese
Waters).
C. F. Hall.
Fine starlight night, no H. W. Johnston.
wind.
62
REPORT 1865.
Date.
Hour.
1862.
Mar.21
June23
1863.
Oct. 30
31
Nov. 1
2
1864.
Aug. 3
8
10
16
h m
Place'of
Observation.
Brisbane
Observatory
(Australia).
Ibid
8 to 9 p.m
8 to 9 p.m.
1 30 to
2 a.m.
lltol2p.m.
7 50 p.m.
10 7 p.m.
9 5 p.m.
About 40
a.m.
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Ibid
Ibid .
Ibid.
Cherbourg
(France).
29 9 24 p.m
Sept. 2 8 16 30
p.m.
5 10 21 p.m
6 8 55 p.m
11
12
14
19
20
London
Apparent Size.
Brilliant meteor
Small
Small
Colour.
Very large, produ
cing a strong
light.
2nd mag.*
Eastbourue
(Sussex).
Altanca (St.
Gotthard).
Weston - super
Mare.
Greenwich
Ibid.
West Linton
(Scotland).
9 5 p.m
8 26 p.m
41 a.m.
11 51 p.m.
11 40 p.m.
8 21 p.m
Ibid .
Hawkhurst =3rd mag.*
(Kent).
Wolverhampton =2nd mag.*
Much brighter than
Jupiter.
Large fireball
= lst mag.*.
= lst mag.*.
Yellow
Duration.
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
In the W.
Ruddy white..
Greater than 1st
mag.*
Large
Orange
Bluish white.
Bluish white.
Large
Weston - super
Mare.
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Ibid
= Sirius
=3rd mag.*
= lst mag.*..
Bluish
White
Blue
Bright white..
YeUow
Orange.
Very slow mo-
tion.
second
About 3 sees...
2 or 3 seconds
A few degrees
above the S.E.
horizon.
From I- (r), I)
Herculis to
Coronse.
Passed through tl
Lynx.
3 seconds.
1 second .
From 13 Persei to a
Piscium.
From direction of e
CygnitoePegasi.
Disappeared near X
Bootis;poiutof ap-
pearance not seen.l
Between E. and
S.E.
In the N.
- 6 second
1-J second
| second ..,
0-8 second
0'8 second
rapid.
Centre of the path
at « Cephei.
From a. Persei to 6
Ursse Majoris.
Began at 25 Lyncisj
Midway between
p Cygni and /j
Laeerta:.
From g Herculis to
\ (« Ophiuchi,
S Tauri Ponia-H
towski).
-\\
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
63
\ppearance ; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
Length of
Path.
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Conical figure. Increased
in size until it hurst
with a shower of sparks
like a rocket.
Left a train the same
length as the path.
Left a white streak for
several minutes : broad
and long, and chan-
ging its form and
colour to yellow and
red.
Reddish train, 15°in length
Remarks.
W.SW. to E.N.E.
Shooting-stars frequent
through the night.
Frequent shooting-stars
on the 22nd and 27th.
In one hour, one meteor
only ; clear sky.
In one hour six meteors j
clear sky.
In thirty minutes no
meteor seen; clear sky.
In one hour no meteor
seen ; clear sky.
The meteor (? the train)
remained visible one
minute.
Obsen
Pugh's Directory
(1864).
Id.
5° or a little^ •
more.
Train
Burst like a shell, illu
minating the heavens
with a brilliant
light.
^eft a long train of light
which remained visible
after the meteor itself
had disappeared.
do train or sparks
5° + .
E. to W.
Perpendicular ,
Nearly perpendicular ...
Directed from i] Cephei.
10°
2°.
Downwards towards the
right 20° from per-
pendicular.
Almost stationary
In twilight
Sky cloudless ; the light
of the rr.eteor re
sembled noonday
dazzling.
Slow motion
Slow motion
On the same night a
number of other me-
teors were seen,
mostly large.
Moonlight
No other shooting-star
in 50 minutes.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Id.
Id.
' The Times.'
T. Crura plen.
G. F. Chambers.
Modena News-
paper.
W. II. Wood.
W. C. Nash.
Id.
Walter Bell.
Id.
\. S. Herschel.
T. M. Simkiss.
W. H. Wood.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
61
REPORT 1865.
Date.
Hour.
Place of
Observation.
1864. h m
Sept.20 10 35 p.m. Hawkhurst
(Kent).
20
10 58 p.m.
Ibid.
22,11 52
2211 59
23
p.m. Ibid
p.m. Ibid
8 36 p.m. Ibid
23: 8 48 p.m
23
23
8 49
8 50
Ibid
p.m. Ibid
p.m
23 8 54 p.m
23 1 8 55
8 59
23
23
2!
24
24
24
24
24
p.m,
p.m
Ibid,
Ibid,
Ibid
Ibid ,
9 54 p.m. Ibid
20 i
8 26
8 37
p.m,
p.m,
Mont de Marsan
(S. France).
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
[bid
p.m. Ibid
8 53
9 29
9 32 p.m. Ibid
p.m.
Ibid
24! 9 38 p.m
Ibid
Apparent Size.
= Capella, then =
2nd or 3rd mac;.*
= 2nd rnag.*
= 2nd mag.*
=;3rd mag.*
= a Lyra: .
= 3rd mag.*
=3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
Fireball; large, like
a bombshell.
= lst mag.*
=3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= a. Lyra:, then =
2nd or 3rd mag.*
Colour.
red.
White
White
White
White .
White .
White .
White .
White .
White .
Yellow
White .
White .
Yellow
White .
Yellow
Duration.
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
White, then 3 seconds ;
very slow.
Orange 0-8 second ;
rapid.
White, then
red.
06 second
- 7 second
1-2 second
1-2 second
From o Persei to ^
(a, 7]) Aurigae.
To §(« Andromedae,
y Pegasi), § of
the way from
a Triangulee.
From t to \ Piscium
Began at /3 Arietis
Centre of path at
1 second ..,
1 second ...
1 second
1 second ..,
ri second
- 5 second ;
rapid.
Moved rapidly
Cyj
disap-
peared between
v and J Cygni.
From Q Camelo-
pardi to as Ursae
Majoris.
From y Lacertse to
e Cephei.
From y Ursae Mi-
noris to | (g, jj)
Draconis.
Disappeared mid-
way between ?
and e Pegasi.
Midway between e
and g Pegasi.
From r Vulpeculae
to 4° beyond /3
Cygni.
From a. Androme-
dae to % {y, a)
Pegasi.
0-6 second ,
1'2 second
0'5 second
4 second ,
- 6 second ,
3 - 4 seconds
From2 W.of!?Ca-
melopardi, half-
way to c Lyncis.
From -£ (S Coronae,
â– k Serpentis) to
4° beyond k Ser-
pentis.
Began at k Ophi-
uchi.
From i («, b) to c
Draconis.
Disappeared at i
(K Cerberi, p
Cygni).
From | (£, b) Ursae
Minoris to K Ca-
melopardi.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
65
Appearance; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
Length of
Path.
Diminished in midway 15
to a dull red star,
drawing a tail of red
sparks.
No train or sparks ....
No train or sparks
Xo train or sparks
S T o train or sparks
So train or sparks
So train or sparks
ntermittent light
io train or sparks
ball of fire ,
To train or sparks
o train or sparks
20°
15°
aniing nucleus, drawing
a tail of red sparks.
6°.
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Remarks.
Observer.
12 C
Radiant, Ceti
Directed from a Trian.
guise.
A. S. Herschel.
J Id.
'Id.
Id.
Id.
Direction from A (j, «.-)
Pegasi.
Stationary
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
.'id.
Id.
Radiant, (3 Aurigae Id.
N. to S.
A. report equal to ' La Gironde '
twenty pieces of Newspaper,
cannon fired off to-
gether, followed the
meteor, lasting 10J
seconds. During
sunshine. (See Ap-
pendix III.)
A. S. Herschel.
DirectedfromeHerculis,
Radiant, /3 Auriga;.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Directed from v Cygni.J 'id.
A singular shooting-star
Id.
66
REPORT 1865.
Date.
Hour.
1864.
Sept.24
24
24
24
h m
9 42 p.m.
9 47 p.m.
11 3 p.m.
11 13 p.m.
24 11 15 p.m,
24 11 32 p.m.
24
24
25
25
25
25
26
26
26
26
26
27
11 44 p.m.
11 47 p.m.
8 43 p.m.
8 45 p.m,
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid
Wolverhampton
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid
9 44 p.m.
11 45 p.m.
30 a.m,
8 2 p.m
8 4 p.m
9 50 p.m.
11 30 p.m
7 48 p.m
Place of
Observation.
Apparent Size.
= 3rd mag.*
=3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 1st mag.*
:2nd mag.*
:3rd mag.*
=2nd mag.#
=2nd mag.*
:3rd mag.*
Wolverhampton =2nd mag.*
Ibid =2nd mag.*
Ibid =2nd mag.*
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Ibid
Weston - super
Mare.
Wolverhampton
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
= 3rd mag.*
=3rd mag.*
Large fireball
2 X Mars
=3rd mag.*
Colour.
Yellow
White
Yellow
White
White
White
White
White
Yellow
Yellow
Orange.
Blue .
Blue .
White .
White .
White .
Golden yellow
White
Duration.
07 second
0*7 second
- 3 second
0'8 second
1-5 second
1 second ...
1*2 second
0'7 second
08 second
1 second ..
l-J second
2 seconds..,
1.2 second
0-6 second
1 second
2 seconds.
Disappeared at M
(y, S) Bootis.
From a. to ft Cepheil
From O Camelo-
pardi to y Ursae
Minoris.
To i d, 0) Cassio-1
peiae, halfwayJ
from ft. Andro-j
medae.
From k Draconis toi
£ Herculis.
From i (d, it) Au-j
rigae to i (rfl
Camelopardi, SI
Persei).
From o to jj
Cygni.
From a Piscium toH
Ceti.
From £ (y, £) to pi
Draconis.
From i (a, 3) to y|
Ursae Majoris.
0*9 second ...
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
From a Lyrae to a
Draconis.
From a. Aquarii toi
a. Herculis.
From a. Ceti to at
Aquarii.
From A Custodis
to II Camelo-
pardi.
From n Tarandi
to 2 (K, BAC
2326) Camelo-)
pardi.
Fell to the W.N.W.f
horizon from anl
altitude of about
30°.
Began near Polaris
Began at \ Cygni..
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
67
Appearance; Train, if any,! Length of
and its Duration. Path.
15°
Left a bright streak for
2 seconds.
Left a train
Left a train .
10
15"
15°
At first a ruddy 3rd
magnitude star. At
the moment of dis
appearance it flashed
with a light nearly
equal to Jupiter, leav-
ing a luminous spot
at the place for four
seconds.
jeft a short train
eft a short train separated
from the head, thus —
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Directed from v Bootis.
Remarks.
In two hours nineteen
meteors.
Radiant, /3 Aurigae ...
Observer.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Id.
In one hour eleven me- Id.
teors.
Radiant, (i Aurigae ,
Radiant, /3 Aurigae ,
Radiant, (5 Aurigae .
In one hour eight shoot
ing-stars.
*
Downwards towards the
left, 15° or 20° from
perpend cular.
E. to W., nearly hori-
zontal.
Directed from £ («, S)
Cygni.
Communicated
by T. M. Sim
kiss.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
T. M. Simkiss.
Meteors very frequent Id.
through the night.
In one hour eleven me-
teors.
Id.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Communicated
byW.H.Wood.
Communicated
by T. M. Sim-
kiss.
A. S. Herschel.
68
REPORT 1865.
Date.
1864.
Sept.27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
Hour.
Place of
Observation.
h m
7 52 p.m.
8 7 p.m,
Apparent Size.
Hawkhurst
(Kent),
[bid
=3rd mag.*
White
= a Lyrae, then =
2nd or 3rd mag.*
8 1G p.m. Ibid =2ndmag.*
8 34 p.m. [bid .
8 44 p.m. [bid .
8 44 p.m. Ibid.
8 52 p.m jlbid .
9 1 p.m. ibid ,
9 14 p.m. Ibid .
Ibid,
9 37 p.m.
9 50 p.m.
Ibid,
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mas.*
= a Lyra; ..
= 3rd mag.*
9 53 p.m. Ibid.
9 55 p.m. Ibid ,
= Sirius
= 3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
=2nd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
27 10 27 p.m. Ibid = 3rd mag.*
27,11 11 p.m.
27 11 14 p.m,
29 2 5 a.m,
30! 9 15 p.m
Oct. 5
10 46 p.m
Ibid ,
Ibid,
=3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
Wolverhampton :> Mars
Ibid.
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
= lst mag.*
:2nd mag *
Colour.
White, then
red.
Yellow
White .
Yellow
White .
Duration.
0-7 second
4 seconds..,
Fine yellow ,
Yellow ...,
Red, then
white.
Yellow ...
Yellow
While .
White .
Yellow
White .
Yellow
1-6 second
1*5 second
08 second
- 5 second
3'8 seconds
0'6 second
08 second
1-3 second
0-5 second
0-6 second
1"4 second
06 second
11 second
Golden yellow
Yellow, then
green.
2i seconds
White
11 second
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
From y Draconis!
to i Hercufis.
From S Aquilae to
% (/J, •) Ophi-
uchi.
From t Persei to
i (d, B) Camelo-
pardi.
From g Lacertae to
fi Cephei.
'From y Cygni to
Sagittae.
From e Custodis to
^ (i, e) Cassio-
peiae.
From 7r Cassiopeia;
to -k Cephei.
From i (p, S)
Draconis to \
(y Draconis, c
Cygni).
Began at a. Aquarii
From \ (X Andro.
medae, g Lacertae
to e Pegasi).
From£ (?,/x) Cygni
halfway to a Del-
phini.
Began at £ Cephei.,
From /3 Cephei to
§ (i// Draconis, y
Ursae Minoris).
From i (S, L) Ca-
melopardi to \
(Polaris, P Ca-
melopardi).
To d Telescopii, f
of the way from
Aurigae.
From i (<p, x) Per
sei to § (0, k)
Andromeda;.
In the E., altitude
35°.
About 20 3 above
the E.N.E. ho-U
rizon.
From ^ (h Ursae
Majoris, X Dra.
conis) to S Ursae
Majoris.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 69
Appearance; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
Length of
Path.
Diminished in midway 30°
to a dull red star,
drawing a tail of red]
sparks.
Began suddenly, gradually
grew less.
Drop-like nucleus, with a
tail of yellow sparks.
15°
12°
-.eft a train ,
30°
15°
35°
10°
I ..
20°
15°
15°
o train left
sft a train for 1 second
on the whole length of
its path.
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Remarks.
Observer.
Radiant, Ceti
Radiant, 9 Ceti
Radiant, f3 Aurigae
Path undulating. Ra-
diant, 6 Ceti.
Radiant, j3 Aurigae
Towards c Aquarii
Radiant, (3 Aurigae ,
Radiant, /3 Aurigae ,
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
1.1.
Id.
Id.
In one hour twelve me- Id.
teors.
In one hour twelve me-
teors.
Directed from a Cephei
Radiant, 6 Ceti
Radiant, /3 Aurigae
Radiant, 6 Ceti
Radiant, /3 Aurigae ..
Horizontal. S. to N.
Id.
1.1.
id.
Id.
Id.
In one hour ten meteors Id.
Id.
\
In one hour eleven me-
teors.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Communicated
by T. M. Sim-
kiss.
Id.
A. S. Herschel.
70
REPORT 18G5.
1864. h m
Oct. 5 10 49 p.m.
5 10 56 p.m.
511 40 p.m
Date.
Hour.
8 9 p.m
8 15 p.m
11 10 p.m
20 a.m
50 a.m
Place of
Observation.
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Ibid .
Apparent Size.
= 2nd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
Kensington =2nd mag.*
(London).
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Ibid
Wolverhampton
Ibid
Ibid
10 2 32 a.m. Ibid
10 2 40 a.m. Ibid
2nd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
2 x Mars
= Mars
= Sirius
= lst mag.*.
SxSirius....
11
13
13
13
18
3 a.m.
45 a.m.
56 a.m.
2 30 a.m.
9 52 p.m
18 10 13 p.m
Ibid
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Ibid
Wolverhampton
= lst mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
=3rd mag.*
2 X Mars
.Hawkhurst =3rd mag.*
(Kent).
Ibid I=3rdmag.*
White
Dull...
Colour.
White
White
Blue and red.
Duration.
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
1 - 5 second ...From /3 Auriga; to
e Lyncis and 6°
further.
09 second ... From a Andro-
medae to \ (j3, /*)
Pegasi.
Not more thanJFroinR.A. 10 h 50 m ,
3 seconds.
1 second
1 second
3 seconds.
2 seconds About 30° above
W.S.W. horizon.
Blue
Green
White
2 seconds.
N. Decl. 67F- to
R.A.ll h 20 m , N
Decl. 60°.
To \ Andromedas,
iof the way from
c Lacertae.
From 7j Piscium,
halfway to j3
Arietis.
From rj to £ Tauri.
1^ second
Fully 3£ s<>cs. ;
very slow-
motion.
White I second ; very
rapid.
White 0-5 second
About 20° above the
E.S.E. horizon
From y Cassiopeiae
to a Cygni.
About 35° above
the E. horizon
White
Golden vellow
- 6 second
White
White, then
red.
1'2 second
1*3 second
From i («, j3) Genii
norum to Rigel.
From c to ^ (k, a)
Persei.
Began at £ (L
Camelopardi,
Lyncis).
About 30° above
the S.E. horizon
Began at/ Lacertae
Began at £ (e Ursae
Minoris, x D ra "
conis).
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
71
Appearance; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
.eft a train for 1 second
in the first half of its
course.
eft a faint train visible
half a second.
Length of
Path.
eft a long bright train ,
eft a long bright train .
eft a long bright train .
eft a short train
small fireball, throwing
off sparks, and leaving
a long train.
. d in the last half of its
course.
G J .
15 ;
Direction; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
/
7
Remarks.
Meteors very frequent
through the night.
N. to S. Horizontal
Observer.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
G. F. Chambers.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Communicated
by T. M. Sim-
kiss.
Id.
3»
yy
Directed from \ (c, d)
Camelopardi.
Directed towards /3 Pe-
gasi.
Directed from rj Cephei
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Communicated
by T. M. Sim.
kiss.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
72
REPORT — 1865.
Date.
1864.
Oct. 18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
Hour.
h m
10 20 p.m
10 22 p.m.
10 20 p.m.
10 43 p.m.
10 52 p.m.
10 58 p.m.
11 2 p.m.
11 12 p.m.
11 14 p.m.
11 27 p.m.
11 50 p.m.
18 11 52 p.m
18
19
19
19
19
o£t APP*^ Size
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
11 58 p.m.
2 a.m.
7 a.m.
14 a.m.
A.bout 8
p.m.
Ibid ,
Ibid .
Ibid.
Ibid,
Ibid,
Ibid,
Ibid,
Ibid,
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid,
Ibid ,
Ibid,
Ibid,
Ibid,
Mai ton.
= a Lyrae
= a Lvrae
= 1st mag.*
= 3rd mag.*.
•1st mag.
= 3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= a Lyra; ..
= 2nd mag.*
= 2nd mas*
= 2nd mas;.*
= Mars
= 2nd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
Large as a rocket.
Colour.
Duration.
Blue, with 2 - 7 seconds
short red
tail.
Blue, with
short red
tail.
White
Bright white ..
White
Oranse
2 - 5 seconds ,
L3 second
06 second
1 second
L4 second
1 second
0'5 second
I-G second
1-2 second
0'8 second
0-8 second
Blue, with 1-5 second
short red
tail.
Bluish white...
0-6 second
0-6 second
0-4 second
Slow speed
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
From \ (L, II)
Camelopardi t4
i (?, w ) Dran
conis.
From * (P, N) Ca-'j
melopardi across
/3 Ursae Minorisj
to | (v, I) Dra-
conis.
From near <r Pi-!
scium to i («
Androruedae, jS
Pegasi).
Began at £ (a
Arietis, (3 Tri-
angula;).
Midway between e
and 9 Gemiuo-
From k Cephei to
i (?, w ) Dra-
conis.
From y Cassiopeia:!
three quarters of
the way to
Cygni.
Began at £ (£ Per-
sei, r) Tauri).
From t Cassiopeia?
to r Cygni.
Centre of path at
L Camelopardi.
From i (P Camelo-
pardi, Polaris) tc
\ (e, K) Ursa
Minoris.
From 1° N. of I
Persei to i (B,C;
Camelopardi, anc
4° further.
From § (£ Persei J
b Muscse) to \
(v, t) Andro-;
medae.
From 2^° S. of i
Muscae to a Arietis
From fi to I Ceti ;
and 30° further..
Began 2° S. ofCasj
siopeiae.
Disappeared neai
the S.S.W. ho-
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 73
Appearance; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
.eft a train on the whole
length of its path for 2, \
seconds.
eft a red train on the
whole length of its path
for 2^ seconds.
Length of
Path.
eft a train for 1^ second
on the whole length of
it"» path.
40°
30°
Direction; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Remarks.
Observer.
stationary meteor.
Left a patch of light
like a star, which re-
mained visible 5 sees.
25 :
Radiant, v Ononis
Radiant, v Ononis
Radiant, v Oriouis
rhe course appeared
bent at (3 Ursa Mi-
noris.
Directed from the Plei-
ades. Radiant, v On-
onis.
25°
'G .
Ift a bright yellow 38'
train on the whole
length of its course for
H seconds.
ft a train for 1 second...
"t a train on the whole
ength of its course
risible 2 seconds.
12°
14°
Radiant, v Ononis
Directed from n Tauri.
Radiant, v Ononis.
Radiant, v Orionis
Directed from /3 Auriga:.
Radiant, v Orionis.
Radiant, v Orionis ...
"t a train for 2 seconds 13°
ft a wide yellow train 32°
In the whole length
f its course visible
Jur seconds ; widest
i the middle of the
ourse.
| a white train on the
hole length of its path
sible 2 seconds.
i d intensely bright.
eft a long streak for
>me seconds.
B5IT r ~
Radiant, v Orionis
Radiant, v Orionis
8° Radiant, v Orionis ,
12° IRadiant, v Orionis .
Directed from & (<p, n)
Persei. Radiant, v
Orionis.
N.N.E. to S.S.W
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
I
lid.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Adark nigbt, illuminated ' The Times,
all objects sufficiently
to recognize them.
a
74
REPORT 1865.
Date.
Oct. 1 9
Hour.
1864. h rc
Place of
Observation.
11 28 p.m.
19 11 43 p.m.
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
8 8 p.m
8 10 p.m
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Ibid.
Ibid,
Ibid
8 30 p.m. Ibid.
9 1G p.m. Ibid,
9 34 p.m. Ibid ,
9 37 p.m
9 39 p.m,
22 10 48 p.m.
Ibid,
Ibid
Greenwich
24 7 12 p.m. Ibid
24
24
24
24
9 16 p.m.
9 26 p.m,
9 49 p.m
10 32 p.m
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
24 10 49 p.m
25
11 19 p.m.
iDid.
Ibid.
Ibid
IbW
Ibid
Apparent Size.
Colour.
= 1st mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
=3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
;2nd mag.*
:3rd mag.*
:2nd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
Yellowish
white.
Bright white...
White
White
Duration.
White
Bright white..
Yellow
= lst mag.* ; bril-
liant.
:2nd mag.*;
bright.
White .
Yellow
Blue .
Blue
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag*
=3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
1-3 second
1/2 second
1-2 second
1 second ..
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
- 6 second
0*4 second
0*9 second
1 second ..
0-9 second
Rapid motion.
From 3° S. of J
Tauri, i of thl
way to J (j3, J
Arietis.
Began at (3 Arieti,
Disappeared at iH
Piscium.
From y to i («, /5l
Equulei.
At L Camel opardifl
At i (», 3) DrJ
conis.
From i (A CuJ
todis, H Camelcl
pardi) to 3° be
yond C Camelcl
pardi.
To B, halfwav froil
F Cerberi.
From $ (A Custc
dis, H Camek
pardi) to c Ci|
melopardi.
Across Aldebaran.i
Directed towarc
horizon ; pat
parallel to a Hi
joining a Andre
medse and a V>
gasi, at a distan<
of 20° from I
Pegasi.
White
Bright white
White
White
White
White
1-2 second ..
1-8 second ..
0-7 second ..
0'8 second ..
1-2 second ..
1*4 second ..
Began at ^ i|
Delphini, e P
gasi).
From Piscius
to 5° beyoij
h (H 2 Peg*,!
â– k Aquarii).
Disappeared at 1
Eridani.
From e Pegf'
to 4° beyond
Equulei.
From /3 Eridani |
/3 Orionis.
From \ (e Muscl
p Persei) to |
(y Pegasi, a A,
dromedee).
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 75
Appearance; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
Left a streak the whole
way for 2 seconds.
Length of
Path.
â– eft a patch of light for
2 seconds.
I stationary meteor ...
5°.
5°.
12-
12 :
eft a streak for 2 seconds
eft a streak for 2 seconds
eft a streak on all its
course for 2* seconds.
5°.
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Remarks.
From Radiant, v Orionis
Directed towards k An-
dromedae.
Directed from /3 Arietis
Nearly stationary
Stationary
Observer.
No other shooting-star
in 45 minutes.
Another followed the
same path on the
23rd.
N. to S., horizontal
« Androniedse.
* * p>
Pegasus.
* y * a.
Cloudy sky. The posi-
tion could not be de-
finitely determined.
X
Directed from i (aCygni
to a Lyrae).
Directed from Aldebaran
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
W. C. Nash.
Id.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
76
REPORT — 1865.
Date.
1864.
Oct. 30
31
Nov. 1
1
1
1
4
4
Hour.
li in
7 7 p.m.
11 p.m.
2 5 a.m.
2 14 a.m.
2 17 a.m.
2 32 a.m.
15 a.m.
17 a.m.
40 a.m.
47 a.m.
58 a.m.
1 a.m.
3 a.m.
3 G a.m.
8 10 p.m.
Place nf
Observation.
Apparent Size.
Colour.
Duration.
8 28 p
9 16 p.
m
,m,
4 9 40 p.m.
7 2 46
7 2 49
l.m.
l.m.
7 2 53 a.m.
3 13 a.m.
Tunbridge(Kcr.t)
Hawkliurst
(Kent)
Ibid
= Mars
= 3 rd maj.*
Same colour as
Mars.
White
= 3rd mag.* White
Ibid
= 3rd mac.*
= 3rd mag.*
Ibid
Ibid j = 3rd mag.*
Ibid = 3rd mag.*
Ibid.
Ibid ,
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid,
Ibid,
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid,
Ibid,
Ibid ,
Ibid,
Ibid,
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
=3rd raag »
= 3rd mag.*
=3rd max.*
= 3rd mag.*
:3rd mag.*
:4th mag.* and
==5th mag.*
= 3rd raag.*
= 3rd mag.*
=3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
=2nd mag.*
:1st mag.*
White .
White .
White .
White .
Yellow
Yellow .
White .
White 08 second
White .
Yellow
White .
Yellow .
White .
White .
White .
White .
White .
White .
1-2 second
- 8 second
07 second
0-8 second
- 4 second
0-8 second
09 second
06 second
0'9 second
Yellow, then
red.
0-6 second
1-2 second
0-5 second
0-5 second
- 6 second
1-3 second
1 second
0-7 second
0'8 second
1-3 second
1 second
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
Began a few de-
grees E. of the
zenith.
Began at in Mono-
cerotis.
From a» 2 to a Taun
To i|/ Caucri, half-
way from n
Lyncis.
To B, halfway frorr
t Tauri.
From »; to v Gemi-
norum.
From T to r Cepbe
From e Leonis
Minoris to § (54
Leonis Minoris
? Leonis).
From o to v Pis
cium, and half I
far again.
From fi Ursa; Mi)
noris to N Dra
conis.
From f to j
Leonis Minorisi
and half as fa
again.
From o Lynci
to £ Ursa; Ma
joris.
From D Urss
Majoris to
(« Ursae Ma
joris, \ Dra 1
conis).
From § to r Urs:,
Minoris.
From S Vulpeculf!
to p Aquila;.
From g to i Vuf
peculae.
From i (ij, p) ?'i
scium to •£■(5i
Piscium, y P('
gasi).
From 26 to p. Dk
conis.
From ? to « 2 Tau:,
From g Lyncis to :
Geminorum.
From % («, j3) Gc
minorum to
Cancri.
3° below a Hvdr
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 77
Appearance; Train, if any
and its Duration.
Length of
Path.
Left a train on the whole
length of its path.
5°
8°...
^eft a streak for 3 seconds
wo meteors simulta-
neous, about one degree
apart.
o train or sparks
isappeared suddenly
o train or sparks
o traiu or sparks
3 train or sparks
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Downwards towards
S.S.E. horizon.
Directed from Orion ...
Remarks.
From Radiant, £ Persei..
From Radiant, % Persei..
From Radiant, $ Persei.
From Radiant, h Lvncis
From Radiant, £ Persei.
Observer.
From Radiant, £ Persei.
In one hour six meteors;
clear sky.
From Radiant, £Leonis !d.
From Radiant, £ Persei.. Id.
T. Crumplen.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Td.
Id.
Id.
From Radiant, £ Persei.
From Radiant, h Lvncis
From Radiant, £ Persei.
In one hour nine
meteors ; clear sky.
From Radiant, £ Persei..
Coextensive and parallel
flights.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Stationary
In one hour five meteors; Id.
clear sky.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Appeared to oscillate ,
78
REPORT 1865.
Date.
1864.
Nov. 7
7
7
Hour.
h m
3 36 a.m.
3 45 a.m.
3 50 a.m.
2 20 a.m.
2 32 a.m. Ibid
Place of
Observation.
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Ibid
Apparent Size.
Ibid
Ibid
8j 2 51 a.m.
9 10 23 p.m,
11 5 26 p.m,
11
11
11
11
13
5 35 p.m,
5 35 p.m,
set.
5 35
Ibid
Greenwich
Rhodez
(S. France),
Dep. Aveiron.
West Pcckham
Maidstone
(Kent).
Pamiers
(S. France),
Dep. Ariege.
About sun- Chambon
(France),
Dep. Creuse.
.m. Hawkhurst
(Kent).
12 a.m.
to
4 a.m.
S. S. ' Ellora,' off
Malta.
-3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 1st mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 1st mag.* ; bril-
liant.
= to Venus
Very brilliant me-
teor.
Larger than full
moon.
2 x Venus.
Colour.
White
White
White
White
White
White
Bluish white.
White, red,
and blue.
Colourless
Green
0-4 second
0'5 second
0'5 second
- 4 second
05 second
- 4 second
Duration.
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
3 or 4 seconds
From t I.eonis to
Virginis.
From 7rLeonis, half.
way to a Hydraei
From e Lyncis to \
(57 Telescopii, /3
Aurigae).
From o Leonia
Minoris to
Ursae Majoris,
and half as far
again.
From S Ursae Mi.
noris to ^ (j8, k)
Cephei.
From M to Q Ca-j
melopardi.
Fell iu N.N.W.I
from altitude 20 c |'
to about altitudei
10° ; point of j
appearance per-)
pendicularly be-!
low y Draconis. I
Passed 25° W. of
the zenith.
Deliberate
speed.
Moderate
speed.
3 seconds
5 or 6 seconds
Disappeared 12°
above the S. by
£. horizon.
20° above the NJ
horizon.
Passed over the val-
ley from W.N.W.!
to S.S.W.
From i Ceti to
Piscis Australia.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
79
Vppearance ; Train, if any
and its Duration.
.eft a streak for 2 seconds
.eft a streak for 2£ sees
to train or sparks
Jo train or sparks
irushy appearance .
rain straight, linear, daz-
zling white. Soon it
enlarged and diminish-
ed in brilliancy. At
the end of 5 minutes
it remained »s a some
what irregular reddis!
cloud, 12° or 15° long
and 1° or 2° wide
composed of cherry-
red and dark - red
sparks.
eft a tapering train 4° or
5° long.
n elongated globe ; sepa-
rated into portions and
disappeared suddenly ;
left a long train on its
whole course.
ike a firebrand, elon-
gated behind with dif-
fused light.
eft a tapering train for
10 seconds of the
same colour as the
I meteor.
Length of
Path.
10"
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Remarks.
In one hour seven
meteors ; clear sky,
frosty.
Observer.
;0°or80°.
15°
12°
Nearly from N. to S.
Nearly horizontal
E. to W., horizontal ..
N. to S.
Directed from Capella...
fn 45 minutes six
meteors. Sky foggy.
Overcast on succeed-
ing days.
Eclipsed the mooulight.
Seen also at Blaye
and at Perigueux.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
W. C. Nash.
M. Boissy
(Comptes
Rendus, vol.
lix. No. 20).
The tail was almost as
brilliant as the meteor.
Cloudless sky. No de-
tonation. Train of
the same appearance
as the meteor ; re-
mained visible four
minutes.
Seen in twilight ....
Grand display of meteors
all through the watch
None on the morning
of the 14th. (See Ap-
pendix II. 2.)
E. Jones.
Abbe Sans (Les
Mondes).
Legrip (Cosmos).
A. S. Herschel
and H. T. Hum-
phreys.
Communicated
by A. S. Herschel.
80
REPORT — 1865.
Date.
Hour.
Place of
Observation.
Apparent Size.
Colour.
Duration.
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
18G4.
N'ov.13
13
14
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
22
22
22
h m
U 27 p.m.
11 41 p.m
to
2 15 a.m.
8 40 p.m.
8 50 p.m.
8 55 p.m.
8 55 p.m.
8 57 p.m.
A few mi-
nutes be-
fore 9 p.m.
9 p.m.
About9p.m.
10 to
12 p.m.
11 1 p.m.
6 20 p.m.
9 17 p.m.
11 20 p.m.
llawkhurst
(Kent).
Ibid
White
4 seconds ...
From /3 Auriga;,
halfway to A
Draconis.
From 55 Persei
White
Trafa'gar Square
(London).
Leamington
(Warwickshire).
Beeston Uuscr
vatory.
Mobberlv
(N. Cheshire).
Ilallaton,
Uppingham
(Rutland).
Weston - super -
Mare.
Manchester , ,..
Luton (Oxon) ...
Hawk hurst
(Kent).
to i (y, <j,) Pe-
gasi.
Brilliant meteor ...
Larger than the
moon.
As bright as the
sun.
Half the size of the
moon ; light like
lightning.
Splendid meteor...
Six small meteors
in two hours.
Green
A few seconds
In the N.E. sky ...
Blue
U first red;
(hen dazzling
bluish white.
Almost from the
zenith, falling
downwards in
the N.E. through
about 45°.
Appeared first near
the horizon in
the N.E., and
travelling west-
ward, disap-
peared at an al-
titude of about
60°.
From R.A. 164°,
N. Decl. 67°, to
R.A. 158°, N.
Decl. 50°.
From near Capella
to near Mars.
Fell to the N.E. by
E. horizon.
The flash appeared
to come from the
W.
Vari-coloured;
head orange.
Blue
Moved slowly,
about 3 sees.
A few seconds
Blue and
orange.
Blue
Very brief ...
White
1"3 second ...
Less than 1
second.
Disappeared at J
(i; Tauri, « Per-:
sei).
From e Tauri to E
Psalterii.
In N. ; point of
appearance 10°
above ?Ursas Ma-
joiis, pursued an
almost horizontal
pathl2°westward.
From R.A. 20°, S.
Decl. 13°, to R.A.
9°, S. Decl. 11°.
Ibid
Weston - super -
Mare.
Blue
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEOllS.
81
ppcarance; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
Length of
Path.
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Remarks.
15 c
;ft a streak on all itsG0°
course for 3 seconds.
\ fine meteor. After
wards quite overcast.
Observer.
'sappeared with a very
vivid flash of light.
;ploded into three fras-
ments, which moved,
one perpendicularly
|down, the other two,
one on either side, at an
angle of 60°.
first diminished, and
again flashed forth more
bright than sheet light-
ning. Disappeared with-
out any sparks.
Perpendicular, down
rst with orange sparks
and streamers and vivid
light. Tail blue.
appeared with niagnifi- About 20°
ent blue light.
Towards N.E.
Sky overcast. Heavy T. Crumplen.
rain before morning,
Sky cloudy ; a few stais M. G. Ilorslev.
visible.
Imperfect view through |E. J. Lowe.
fog. Light equal to
that of dav.
A. S. Ilerschel.
Id.
Fell perpendicularly
Seen through clouds
which obscured the
stars. No report
heard.
. Stars obscured by
stratus cloud. About
nine o'clock there
was a rumbling
noise as of distant
cannon firing, which
lasted several se
conds.
... No other meteors seen ;
in one hour one me
teor only.
Proc. Brit. Met,
Soc, ii. 324.
The Times,'
Nov. 23.
lliant globe, followed
y another equally bril-j
â– ant but of smaller
ize.
e a flash of lightning,
laminating the whole
istrict.
Nearly as bright
noonday ; sky cloudy.
A few stars visible.
Lit up the landscape ...
reased gradually and5° Directed from A Tauri
isappeared suddenly.
Radiating from t) Tauri; Sky generally clear ; no
moon.
shy appearance;
led by a streak,
train
pur-
l 12°+
Nearly horizonta', E. to
W.
W. II. Wood.
R. S. Bibby.
J. F. Hawkins.
1 Evening Star.'
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Id.
W. C. Nash.
W. H. Wood.
82
REPORT 1865.
Date.
1804.
Nov.28
28
28
Hour.
h m
7 53 p.m
9 13 p.m.
9 50 p.m.
Place of
Observation.
Hawk hurst
(Kent).
Ibid
Wisbech (Cam-
bridgeshire).
Apparent Size.
Colour.
Duration.
= 2nd mag.*
â– 3rd mag.*
= a. Orionis ; very
bright.
White
White
Yellow
View just before disappearance. The head seemed to
separate from the train sharp and clear like a drop of liquid
metal, and then the train brightened up.
28
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
10 30 p.m.
1 30 a.m.
1 36 a.m.
1 37 a.m.
1 40 a.m.
1 55 a.m
2 1 a.m
2 40 a.m
2 59 a.m
3 15 a.m. Ibid
Weston - super
Mare.
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid ,
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid
6 56 p.m.
7 13 p.m.
8 8 p.m.
8 16 p/m.
8 39 p.m.
9 16 p.m.
9 45 p.m.
Paris.
Wisbech (Cam
bridgeshire).
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Ibid
Ibid ,
Ibid.
Ibid
= 3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
Very voluminous
disk.
= Sirius
= 2nd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 2r.d mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
White
White
White
White
White .
White .
Yellow .
White
White
From k Fegasi I
\ (a Delphini 1
Vulpecute).
To i, halfway froi
a Draconis.
2 seconds From r\ Persei I
t Tauri.
- 5 second
1 second
Position, or ,
Altitude and |l
Azimuth.
05 second
0-6 second
0'5 second
- 4 second
1 second ..
0-6 second
08 second
0'6 second
0*8 second
White 0*8 second
3 seconds..
Brilliant
yellow.
• Bright white...
White
White
White
White
2\ seconds
0-8 second
07 second
06 second
08 second
0-6 second
From H 2 to 10 C
melopardi.
From i (,,, j8) H
draj to o Mon
cerotis.
From 0) to v Ur;
Majoris.
From d Ursa; M
joris to \ Dr
conis.
From i (29 Urs
Majoris, P Dr
conis) to N Dr
conis.
From a. to jj Cepb
From m Lyncis
t Geiuinorum.
From k Gemin
rum to J (y, i
Cancri.
From k to g Lyni
From r Ursae M
joris to n T
randi.
From Pollux to
Cancri.
Centre of path 5*i
above the hoi
zon, 40° E. fro I
S.
From f3 Aurid
to % (a, y) Cetl
Began at y AndrJ
medae.
From Z, Cassiope
to g Lacerta?.
From S to 36 Dr,
conis.
From £ to y Ursi
Minoris.
From aAndromed;
to /3 Pegasi.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
83
ppearance ; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
Length of
Path.
o train or sparks
le train brightened up 25 c
after the disappearance
of the head, and ran
back.
ft a streak for 1 second
It a faint streak for half
second.
-e a large rocket burn-130
)g very slowly.
;t a rocket-like train
isible 3 seconds.
50°
Direction; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Remarks.
From Radiant, D.
From Radiant (R 3 )
W. to E., nearly per-
pendicularly down.
[n one hour six meteors
Clear evening. Three
2nd mag. meteors and
9 smaller from Cassio-
peia, through Perseus.
Observer.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
S. H. Miller.
From Radiant, $ Leonis
From Radiant, K G ..
From Radiant, D
From Radiant, A l
From Radiant, D
From Radiant, A 1G .
From Radiant, K G.
In one hour sixteen me-
teors ; clear sky.
'From Radiant, K G
JFrom Radiant, KG
W. H. Wood.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Id.
Id.
From Radiant, D in one hour fifteen me-
teors ; clear skv.
S.W. to N.E. Perfectly
horizontal.
Directed from 9 Persei
No report heard
The stream of light grew
brighter as the meteor
advanced.
From Radiant, K G
Id.
Id.
M.
Id.
From Radiant, A 1(!
From Radiant, A, G In one hour seven me-
teors ; clear sky.
From Radiant, A 16
From Radiant, R, In one hour nine me-
teors ; clear skv.
M. Tissot (' Les
Mondes,' 1S64,
Dec. 8).
S. II. Miller.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
84
REPORT 1865.
Date.
Hour.
1864. h m s
Nov.29 11 37 30
p.m.
Place of
Observation.
Apparent Size.
Bus ton Road
Observatory.
Colour.
29
30
30
30
30
30
30
Dec. 1
2
2
11 51 p.m. [bid,
25 a.m. Ibid ,
1 6 a.m. Hawkhurst
(Kent).
1 23 a.m. Ibid ,
I
1 39 a.m. Ibid
2 5 a.m. Ibid
9 52 p.m. Weston - super
Mare.
5 58 p.m. Hawkhurst
(Kent).
40 a.m. Ibid
1 13 a.m. Ibid
= 4th mag.* Bluish
= 4th mag.#
= Sinus
= 3rd mag.*
=3rd mag*
= 3rd mag*
= 2nd mag.*
= lst mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd macr.*
Bluish
White
White
White
White
White
Blue
White
White
Duration.
04 second ...
04 second ...
2, 1 19 a.m. Ibid .
2 1 36 a.m. Ibid,
2 141 a.m. Ibid
2 6 8 p.m. Ibid
3 3 30 a.m. Ibid
= 2nd mag.* 'White
= 3rdmag.* White
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
White
White
White
Size of full moon... Nucleus white,
tail red.
4,2 a.m. Taranaki (N'ewAs large as the sun
(local time). Zealand).
6 56 p.m. Paris
5 10 45 p.m. Hawkhurst
(Kent).
As large as an
orange.
= 3rd mag.*
White
05 second
05 second
07 second
0-4 second
1 second
1 second
06 second
06 second
06 second
0-4 second
- 4 second ...
1 second
1 or 2 seconds
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
From 6 to |° abi
«c Orionis and
further.
Began 3° abovi
Orionis.
Began at 10° abti
the E. horizi
Disappeared 1
low the horizo
From ^ (£ Dra<
nis, a Cephei)
3° beyond | i
j/) Cephei.
To r.„ halfway fro
B "Hydra;.
From o Leoi
Minoris to
beyond 57 Ur:
Majoris.
From i (/, e) Le.
nis Minoris to
Ursa; Majoris.
From a Pegasi to
Piscium.
From g to N Dr,
conis.
From y to o Cam
From y Geminoru
to 126 Tauri.
Disappeared at
Ursac Majoris.
From 3 Ursa? M
joris to B. A. •
4287 Can. Vena
and half as f.
again.
From d Leonis M
noris to ^ (fi,
Leonis).
From £ (o, ff) H'!
norium to 9 Ai
dromedae.
Overhead I
4 seconds.
1 second
Began near C^l
pella. Disap
peared betwee'
a and /3 Urs
Majoris.
From d to c &••
melopardi, an
nearly as fa 1
again.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
85
ppearance ; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
Length of
Path.
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
'iin on whole length of.
p.uk.
bio on whole length of 10°
mth.
l>bular ; left no train .
Towards m Monocerotis
Directed from t, Leonis
Remarks.
t a streak for 2 seconds
Two others from same
Radiant in 10 minutes.
Meteors very plentiful...
From Radiant, K G.
From Radiant, L II.
From Radiant, I, II.
Observer.
From Radiant, L II In one hour fourteen
meteors ; clear skv.
eshortened and crooked 3°.
[â– girt.
From Radiant, K g .
in thirty minutes four
meteors ; clear sky.
From Radiant, KG...
From Kadiant, L H...
Directed from q Came- From Radiant, K G.
lopardi.
From Radiant, D....
' From Radiant, KG.
a streak on the middle 1 ,
'its course for 2 sees..
Iped like a fish. The 30° or 40°.. From E. to W.
â– ;ht made all objects!
stinctly visible,
(tone fell in the sea'.
I ro miles from land ;
lother fell at Turakina.
In one hour fifteen me-
teors ; clear sky.
From Radiant, KG...
T. Crumplen.
Id.
Id.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Id.
Id.
W. II. Wood.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
a train of many 30°
i loured sparks visible
|r 2 seconds.
S.S.E. to N.N.W.
Foggy and dark morning Communicated
byA.S. Herschel
Detonated with a report Vienna Acad.,
equal to a hundred^ ' Sitzungsbe-
cannons. Seen also richt,' 1865,
at 'H'anganua, eighty June 30.
miles from Taranaki.
M. Lartigues
(Comptes
Rendus).
From Radiant, D A. S. Herschel.
86
REPORT 1865.
Date.
i 1S64.
Dec. 5
Hour.
h m s
11 p.ra,
Place of
Observation.
5 11 6 p.m.
5 11 13 p.m.llbid
511 19 p.m.Ibid
Hawkburst
(Kent).
Ibid
5 11 30 p.m.
5 11 36 p.m.
Ibid
Ibid
5 11 39 p.m.Ibid
9 49 p.m. Wisbech (Cam
bridgeshire).
10 17 p.m.
3 45 a.m.
3 50 a.m.
4 30 a.m
4 31 a.m
5 42 p.m
13
1865.
Jan. 1
9 7 p.m. Paris
Vlancbester .
Ibid
Hawkburst
(Kent).
Ibid
Ibid
Greenwich
Apparent Size.
= 2nd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mac.*
= 3rd mag.*
White, then
orange.
White
= Mars
= lst mag.* ; very
bright.
Brilliant meteor
Colour.
White
White
White
White
White
Orange colour
Duration.
1*6 second
0-5 second
06 second
0*6 second
06 second
06 second
06 second
2 seconds..
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
3 X Venus.
White, thev
pure green.
17 a.m
3 30
a.m.
= 2nd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
Manchester .
Greenwich
Small, but very
brilliant disk.
Exhibiting a well-
defined disk.
— 2ad mag.* ;
bright.
110 17 p.m. Hawkburst
(Kent).
White
White
Bluish white...
Ibout 4 sees..
About 2 sees.,
l - 2 second ..
0-5 second ..
0-5 second ..
Rapid
From /3 Aurigae
8 Cassiopeia?.
Began at % (k,
Aurigae.
From i to ? Di
conis.
From k Lyn
to e Ursae If.
joris.
From i (i, »,) A
rigae to ? Pers
From % (q Can
lopardi, D Ut
Majoris), hi
way to P Can
lopardi.
To i (/,, t) Ui
Majoris, ha
way from m
Lyncis.
From a (k,
Monocerotis
* (P, *) 1
dani.
Near the stars
Ursa Major. I
IntbeN.E II
From £ Cassiope I
to i (o Honor )
g Lacertae).
Began at ij Virgil
From a Leonis t
Hydrae.
Across Lyra to'
Aquilae.
Less than I sec.
Bluish white...
About 2 sees.
Bluish white ,
White, then
orange red.
Centre of 1j |
visible path |
above the ho
zon, 61° E. fn I
S.
From the cenlf
of Cassiopeii I
chain to midw
between « /
dromedac and
Cygni.
From the directnl
of p Geminorn
passed betwt '
t) and a Leoiii
2 sees., slower From n Monoot
at last. rotis to p Ca.
Majoris.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
87
ppearance; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
jft a streak on all its
course for 1J second.
Length of
Path.
3°.
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Towards /3 Tauri.
sappeared suddenly
ft a streak for half a
second.
ft a streak for 1$ second
ft a train divided into
two streams.
1 sappeared suddenly
I possessed great illumi-
mating power.
t train or sparks
t; train or sparks
t: train or sparks
I train
25°
10 :
Remarks.
Observer.
From Radiant, D...
From Radiant, D...
From Radiant, K g
From Radiant, D...
From Radiant, D
N. to S., horizontal
20 c
sembling that of Nov.
irks from the head,
(specially near disap-
earance. Momentary
ain on the whole
sngth of its course.
train
dually increased to an
ongated disk and va-
ished suddenly ; left
o streak.
Very short,
inclined.
40-
Directed from e Canes
Venatici.
From Radiant, D.
From Radiant, D.
In one hour thirteen
meteors ; clear sky.
Threw a faint light on
all objects.
Downwards towards the
right, 30° from hori-
zontal.
Perpendicularly down in
NAY.
Inclined
In one hour twenty-one
meteors.
A very short view ob-
tained between the
roofs of houses.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
J. Webb.
'Manchester
Guardian.'
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Id.
W. C. Nash.
M. Tissot, 'Les
Mondes.'
Moonlight ; much scud T. Heelis.
from S.E.
Partially clear .
W. C. Nash.
A. S. Herschel.
88
REPORT — 1865.
Date. Hour.
1865.
Jan. 1
2
2
4
6
6
15
20
22
28
Feb. 10?
10
17
17
h m
10 34 p.m
1 26 a.m
1 28 a.m.
1 49 a.m
1 51 a.m,
8 25 to
8 45 p.m
10 36 p.m
10 59 p.m
11 54 p.m,
8 to
8 30 p.m,
11 15 p.m
11 18 p.m
Evening ...
6 40 p.m.
Place of
Observation.
Apparent Size.
Colour.
Duration.
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
llawklinrst
(Kent).
[bid
Ibid,
Ibid .
[bid.
Ibid .
= 3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.#
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag *
Yellow 12 seconds.
Ibid
Ibid
Greenwich
Hawkluirst
(Kent).
super
Weston
Mare.
Hawlcliurst
(Kent).
Bangalore,
Mysore
(S. India).
= 3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
= lst mag.* ; bril-
liant.
Two small meteors
White
Dull...
White
White
Yellow 0-8 second .
White
Greenwich
5 50 p.m. -Vuteuil (France\ Fireball
Bright ..
= Sirius
= Mars
White
Blue
10 4 p.m. Royal Observa
tory, Green-
wich.
= 3rd maa;.*
Blue
- 8 second
08 second
0-5 second
0-6 second
- 7 second ...
Less than 1 sec,
1 second
From Y DracotJ
to a Ursse Ml
joris.
From ^ (h, v) Ursj
Majoris to
Lyncis.
From b Lvncl
to % («, ft) A I
rigas.
From M to Q CI
melopardi.
Disappeared at I
Cassiopeiae.
From/>Camelopan
halfway to 'A
Ursae Majoris.
From \ (k LeoniJ
r Lyncis) to
(8, «) Cancri.
From a point a fel
degrees from I
Leonis towari
a Cancri. Abo 1
the moon.
[n the E
From [3 to a Leon,
From the spati
midway betweci
Ursa Major ar
Gemini ; fell pe
pendicularly.
Between I and In the N j
2 seconds.
\ second
From a point near |
midway betweO
S and o- Dracon )
towards <* C
phei.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OP LUMINOUS IHETEORS. 89
ppearance ; Train, if any,
aud its Duration.
Length of
Path.
;ft a momentary train
6°.
train or sparks
train perceived
• bular; increased ra
idly ; disappeared with
ut bursting.
15°
li;htest at last ; disap-
eared suddenly.
t train
e a streak 4° or 5° in
ngth j visible several
inutes.
25 ' :
Drain
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Remarks.
Observer.
In one hour four meteors A. S. Herschel
Clear sky; no moon ... Id.
Directed from y Cephei
In thirty minutes five
meteors.
No meteors in twenty
minutes; clear sky;
half moon.
In thirty minutes two
meteors ; clear sky.
Bright moonlight night
On the 21st, from 8"
to 8 h 45 m p.m., clear
sky ; no moon ; no
meteors.
Id.
Id.
i,l.
I.l.
1<1.
Id.
W. C. Nash.
A. S. Herschel.
Communicated
by W. H. Wood
A. S. Herschel.
Perpendicular ,
Horizontal
Path curved
^Draconis. trDraconis.
A large meteor fell and Communicated
burst in the S.S.E. byA.S. Herschel
(See a letter from
Bangalore, 1865, Feb.
10; Appendix III. 3.)
Moon full, hazy
Apparent motion; seen
also at Sevres, moving
from S. to N., -where
the streak endured
ten minutes.
Faint aurora ,
* « Cephei.
W. C. Nash.
Villicrs du Ter
rage.
W. C. Nash,
Arthur Harding
90
REPORT 1865.
Date.
1865.
Feb. 19
19
19
20
Hour.
20
20
21
21
h ni s
10 20 p.m.
10 40 p.m.
10 50 p.m
10 49 p.m
11 30 p.m
11 30 30
p.m.
9 12 p.m.
Place of
Observation.
Slough (Bucks).
Ibid
Ibid
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Weston - super
Mare.
Apparent Size.
Colour.
= lst mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
=2nd mag.*
Ibid.
About 9 30
p.m.
= Sirius
3rd mag.*
White
White ....
White ....
Yellowish
Orange .
Duration.
1*4 second
1 second ...
I second ...
II second
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
Arbroath (For-
farshire), N.B
Pratis (Fife-
shire), N. B.
2 seconds.
Size of full moon..,
Size of full moon...
Same colour
as the moon.
Dazzlingwhite
25
25
25
25
25
25
Mar. 2
17
17
17
17
40 a.m
52 a.m.
1 6 a.m
I 25 a.m.
10 45 p.m.
11 30 p.m,
7 10 p.m.
10 56 p.m.
II 7 p.m.
11 12 p.m
11 14 p.m
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid
Egham (Surrey)
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Ibid
Ibid,
Ibid
=3rd mag.* .
= 1st mag.*
=3rd mag.*
=3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
=3rd mag.*
= lst mag.*
= lstmag.*...
= lst mag.*
=2nd mag.*
=3rd mag.*
A few seconds
6 or 8 seconds
White .
White .
White .
White .
Yellow
Yellow
White .
White ,
White
White
Began at (3 Canis
Minoris.
From v Aurigas to
I Tauri.
To /t Camelopardi..
From a Tarandi, I
halfway to 6\ |
Persei.
From i] Draconisil
to R. A. 313°, N.
Decl. 62°.
IFrom R. A. 327° J !
N. Decl. 80°, to]
R. A. 327°, N. |
Decl. 60°.
From £ (Mars Al-'i
debaran) to Be-1
telgeux.
Began in the N.,
and disappeared
in the south-west,
quarter.
0'9 second
1"3 second
0'8 second
0*8 second
0*5 second
0-5 second
1*3 second
06 second
2 seconds..
White
07 second
0-5 second
To y Bootis, half-
way from m Ca-
numVenaticorum.
From z Bootis to \
(w Serpentis, ?
Corona?).
To 7T Serpentis, |
of the way from
X, Bootis.
From k Ursa? Ma-
joris to I Tele-
scopii.
To /3 Leonis, half-
way from / Can 1
Venaticorum.
From a to p Caneii
Venatici.
From j8 Cancri to
Monocerotis.
To <p, 3° directed
from z Virginis. '.
From i (p Leo-
nis, / Sextan J
tis) to v 2 Hy
drae.
From ^ (»j, a) Her
culis to i Her
culis.
At k Cephei
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
91
Appearance; Train, if any
and its Duration.
, Length of
Path.
Direction; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Remarks.
Observer.
16°
Direction from (p Lyncis
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Id.
Id.
W. H. Wood.
Id.
A. Brown.
J. Anderson.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
td.
Directed from <r Ursa
Majoris.
Lightning frequent in
N.E.
In one hour two me-
teors ; clear sky.
Bright display of Au-
rora ; and again on
the 20th of March,
from 8 h to 12 h p.m.
Seen also at Innerleithen
and Walkerburn.
A vivid light reflected
from the snow. A
minute after the me-
teor disappeared, a
long rumbling noise
was heard in the north
resembling thunder.
The noise lasted two
minutes, and gradu-
ally died away.
Drew a long tapering and
waving tail, green at the
; base, and yellow at the
point.
Nucleus pear - shaped,
tapering to a point two
and a half diameters of
the moon from the head.
The point was red, and
threw off bright red
sparks.
N.E. to S.W. ; hori-
zontal.
.•eft a train on the whole
course for 1 second.
In one hour eight me-
teors ; clear sky.
(ieft no train
15°
L°
h2
92
REPORT — 1865.
Date.
Hour.
Place of
Observation.
Apparent Size.
Colour.
Duration.
Position, or |
Altitude and 1
Azimuth.
1865.
Mar. 17
20
25
30
30
Apr. 3
3
3
7
7
8
9
10
12
15
19
20
20
20
20
h m s
11 15 p.m.
9 10 p.m.
10 54 p.m.
1 35 a.m.
11 12 p.m.
5 a.m.
5 30
a.m.
39 a.m.
2 40 a.m.
3 4 a.m.
9 49 p.m.
5 a.m.
11 30 p.m.
9 10 p.m.
11 25 p.m.
10 13 1
p.m.
9 58 p.m.
10 20 57
p.m.
10 21 p.m.
10 26 45
p.m.
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Ibid
=2ud mag.*
White
0'6 second ...
1*3 second ...
0-G second ...
0-7 second ...
04 second ...
- 4 second ...
0-5 second ...
0*4 second ...
- 4 second ...
From v, halfway J
e Bootis.
From i (a,
Leonis to G 11
dras.
From X Bootis, j
the way to oCar
Venatici.
From 2° E. of
Serpentis to
Ophiiichi.
From i (13, 6) tr
(/3, h) Ursa: M
joris.
From [3 to -} (v,
Draconis.
From A 2 to t Hd
culis.
From i (y, ,
Cephei (o m Ci
todis.
From ? to % Di
conis.
Disappeared at
Vulpecnlae.
Across a Dracot.
to y Draconis.
Began 30° abo.
the N.N.E. hoi
eon.
White
Ibid
Ibid
White
Ibid
White
Ibid
White
Ibid
White
Ibid
White
Ibid
White
Ibid
White
Weston - super •
Mare.
White
Bright white ..
Weston - super -
Mare.
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Brompton
(London).
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
2xVenus
Blue
Rapid ; less
than 1 sec.
11 second ...
08 second ...
0-5 second ...
Momentary ...
06 second ...
From S.E., altitu;
40°, to near
pella.
From the direct!'!
of x to v Ur 1
Majoris.
From d Canes V
natici to £ L
onis.
From 1° above j
Virginis to i
above (3 LeoniJ
From y to k Ur;|
Majoris.
Altitude, PolariJ
azimuth 10° \|
of that star ; di |
appeared insta 1
taneously.
From a to « Urs!
Majoris.
Blue
Bluish white...
Bluish white...
White
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
93
ippearance ; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
Length of
Path.
'ispppeared by degrees,
o train or sparks
o train or sparks
o train or sparks
:ft a train ,
5°.
15 :
ar-shaped; illuminated
all objects. Burst with
red sparks. Left a
bright yellow streak.
)> train
12°
I ft a train for 2 seconds
rew off a few sparks
and gradually disap-
peared.
(sudden flash
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Remarks.
In one hour seven me-
teors.
In one hour two me-
teors ; clear sky.
Observer.
Directed from n Lyrae.
/
In one hour four me-
teors ; clear sky.
In thirty minutes one
meteor.
Bright moonlight
A strict watch main-
tained for meteors ;
none seen. A fine
bright night.
A. S. Herschel,
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
W. C. Nash.
W. H. Wood.
Well observed ; left a
train 5° long.
W. C. Nash.
Communicated
byW. H.Wood,
W. C. Nash.
A. S. Herschel.
T. Crumplen.
A. S. Herschel.
W. C. Nash.
A. S. Herschel.
94
REPORT 1865.
Date.
1865.
Apr. 20
20
Hour.
h m s
10 27 p.m
10 35 p.m.
20 10 45 15
p.m.
20
20
20
20
20
21
21
21
22
23
23
10 46 p.m.
10 50 p.m,
10 57 p.m,
10 58 58
p.m.
11 15 p.m
10 15 p.m.
11 35 p.m.
12 p.m.
12 a.m.
45 a.m.
Place of
Observation.
Greenwich
Ibid.
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Greenwich
Bayswater
(London).
Greenwich .
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Weston - super
Mare.
Ibid,
Ibid
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
1 a.m. Ibid
Apparent Size.
=4th mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
= lst mag.*..
=2nd mag.*
= lst mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
:1st mag.*..
= 1st mag.*
=3rd mag.*
=2nd mag.*
=3rd mag.*
= lst mag.*
:2nd mag.*
Colour.
Blue
Bluish white...
White
Brilliant white
Yellow
Duration.
Less than 1 sec.
Lessthanlsec.
0*5 second ...
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
Bright blue ... Less than 1 sec.
White .
Orange.
Blue .
Blue .
Blue .
Blue .,
Blue .,
Blue ..
09 second
0*5 second
1 second
0-5 second
0-5 second
0-5 second
0-5 second
Altitude 55°; az
muth about 5° V
of preceding mc
teor; passed almo
horizontally aero;
o Ursse Majoris.
Altitude, Polaris
azimuth 7° E.
that star ; fc
almost perpend
cularly towan
the N. horizon.
To v, halfway froi
9 Ursae Majoris
Between Comae B(
renices and lj
Canum Venati
corum.
From jSGeminoruif
From 9 Urs;e Mi!
joris towards Vi
horizon.
From y Herculisf i
5 Serpentis.
From R. A. 252' 1
S. Decl. 5°, (\
R. A. 247°, {
Decl. 12°.
From R. A. 253'ii
N. Decl. 68°, t
R. A. 268°, m
Decl. 52°.
From R. A. 255';!
N. Decl. 6°, «
R. A. 238°, S
Decl. 12°.
From R. A. 253°, V
Decl. 6°, to RJ\
238°, S. Decl. 5
From R. A. 278'
N. Decl. 22°, t
R. A. 281°, >
Decl. 2°.
From R. A. 21 l c
N. Decl. 21°, t
R. A. 201°, T»
Decl. 17°.
From R. A. 280 C|
N. Decl. 33°, t
R. A. 288°, > :
Decl. 27°.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
95
Vppearance; Train, if any
and its Duration.
Mo train
"Jo train
ilight train .
ilight train .
I>eft a train for 1 second
Length of
Path.
15 c
15 :
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
G J .
5°
10° or 12°.
Nearly horizontal
Nearly perpendicular ,
Horizontal
Perpendicularly down.
ned
Tncli
Remarks.
At Ramsgate, Mr. R
Cramp reports no me-
teors before ll h p.m.
on the 20th, although
the sky was clear.
Imperfect view
Observer.
W. C. Nash.
Id.
A. S. Herschel.
W. C. Nash.
H.T.Humphreys
W. C. Nash.
A. S. Herschel.
W. H. Wood.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
06
REPORT — 1865.
Date.
Hour.
Place of
Observation.
Apparent Size.
Colour.
Duration.
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
1865.
Apr. 23
23
23
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
26
26
26
27
27
27
3d
h m
1 8 a.m.
2 5 a.m.
2 20 a.m.
7 44 p.m.
9 3 p.m.
9 21 p.m.
9 30 p.m.
9 48 p.m.
11 p.m.
11 30 p.m.
15 a.m.
About 10
p.m.
10 14 p.m.
23 a.m.
10 5 p.m.
About 10 15
p m.
41 a.m.
Weston - super -
Mare.
Ibid
Dull yellow ...
Blue
0-5 second ...
1*5 second ...
Slow motion..
1*2 second ...
1*8 second ...
Moved slowly
1 second
Remarkably
slow motion.
2 seconds ...
From R. A. 270°,
N. Decl. 37°, to
R. A. 290°, N.
Decl. 35°.
From R. A. 151°,
N. Decl. 22°, to
R. A. 147°, N.
Decl. 15°.
From R. A. 119°,
N. Decl. 60°, to
R. A. 106°, N.
Decl. 43°.
From y Gemino-
rum, halfway to
9 Canis Majoris.
In the S
Ibid
Blue
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Ibid
White
— Jupiter
White .
White
Ibid
Began at r] Virginis
From £ to X Hern
culis.
From y Ursa; Mi-!
noris to I Urscel
Majoris.
From R. A. 190° 1
Ibid
White
Ibid
Ibid
Blue
Frant (Sussex)...
Weston - super -
Mare.
Woodstock
(Oxon.).
Weston - super -
Mare.
Ibid
Blue
N. Decl. 40°, tol
R. A. 175°, N.I
Decl. 55°.
In the N.E., alti-1
Nearly = Jupiter ...
tude 45°.
From R. A. 130°,|
N. Decl. 50°, tol
R. A. 110°, N.
Decl. 37°.
In the S
White
Blue
From R. A. C8°,J
N. Decl. 80°, tol
R. A. 65°, N.I
Decl. 55°.
From R. A. 225°, 1
Yellow
Yellow
Ibid
N. Decl. 5°, tol
R. A. 237°, N.J
Decl. 8°.
From R. A. 192°,l
N. Decl. 5°, tol
R. A. 184°, S.
Decl. 20°.
Near the S.S.W.H
horizon, altitude
5°.
First seen at a point!
R.A. 15 h 56' n ,N.j
Decl. 6°. Disap-*
peared in R. A.fli
16 h 18 m , S.Decl.I
19° 0'.
Woodstock
(Oxon.).
2xVenus
Brownish
yellow.
At first red ;
afterwards
bluish white.
Rapid motion
From 2 to 2\
seconds.
Considerably ex-
ceeding Jupiter,
presenting a very
sensible disk.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
97
>pearance ; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
ft a very bright train ,
train or sparks
:'t a train on all its
:ourse for 2 seconds.
lobular ; gradually di-
uinished. Left no train
Length of
Path.
Direction ; notiug also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Remarks.
10° or 12°..
8°
Descending
Directed from p Yirginis
W. to E.
Seen also overhead at
Reading. In forty
minutes five meteors;
clear sky.
Observer.
W. H. Wood.
Id.
W. to E. ; horizontal
'iew off red fragments
efore disappearance.
!!r proceeding two or
nee degrees across
le sky it flared up to
irice its proper size
id burst.
thad two maxima of
ightness in its flight,
id a tapering train
ree or four degrees
3° or 4°
Auroral arch on the
25th, at 9 h 15 m p.m.
Horizontal ; W. to E.. . . Left no train ; no report
heard.
The path was not The train appeared to
straight, but slightly consist of a number
waved. of much smaller me-
teors.
Id.
Communicated
by A. S. Her-
schel.
Id.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Id.
Id.
R. H. Allnatt.
W. H. Wood.
J. H. Abrahall.
W. H. Wood.
Id.
Id.
J. H. Abrahall.
Jos. Baxendell.
98
REPORT 1865.
Date.
Hour.
1865
Apr. 30
30
30
May 1
h m
45 a.m.
Place of
Observation.
Weston - super
Mare.
Apparent Size.
2 x Venus
Colour.
Yellow, red,
and green.
Duration.
5 seconds.
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
From R. A. 0°, M
Decl.58°,toR./l
315°, N. Dec
30°. Began pn
cisely at /3 Caj
siopeiae; well oil
served.
a,
1. First appearance.
2. Appearance after first quarter of its course : a b, expanded diameter ; c, con-
tracted diameter.
3. Appearance near the end of its course: de = 12', diameter of temporary
white envelope of the nucleus ; /, contracted diameter of the nucleus, green.
1 5 a.m.
1 30 a.m.
9 40 p.m.
10 30 p.m.
10 31 p.m.
16 a.m.
11 5 p.m.
Ibid,
Ibid,
Greenwich
Ibid,
Ibid,
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Ibid
== 1st mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= lst mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
= lst mag.*
Yellow
Blue
Bluish white...
Blue
Bright blue ..
White
Orange red
1 second
1 second
^ second
Less than 1 sec
- 7 second ...
0'7 second ...
4 - 5 seconds ...
From R. A. 0°, N
Decl. 58°, to R. A
6°, N. Decl. 56°.
From R. A. 20 c
N. Decl. 51°, t 1
R. A. 30°, Ni
Decl. 42°.
From direction c|
a Ursae Majoris
disappeared nea
t Ursae Majoris.
From the directio
of a Lyra; ; dis
appeared near
Cephei.
From v Draconisi
disappeared afe\
degrees above
Lyrae.
om ^- y, w Cf
phei to / Cus
todis.
From T Cephei to
point midwaybe
tween 23 and 3
Cygni.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
99
ppearance; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
Length of
Path.
int train
un
ial to a 1st mag.*.
onsisting entirely of a
tream of red sparks ;
nd having a flash, or
laximum of brightness
= 1/. some distance be
jre disappearance.
10°+
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
8° to 10°.
16°
Perpendicular ,
Nearly horizontal
Remarks.
Observer.
Began as a mere lumi-
nous point. Grew to
equal a 1st mag.* (yel-
low with yellow tail),
in the first quarter of
its course. Equal to
Venus at half its
course (green with red
flame-like protube-
rances behind) ; tail
18° long, and bright
yellow. Expanded and
contracted alternately
four or five times, in
the second half of its
course, increasing in
brightness until it
burst with a flash
twice as bright as
Venus, faintly illumi-
nating the country.
The train remained
3 seconds ; 8 or 10
minutes after disap-
pearance, a rumbling
noise was heard which
lasted 3 seconds.
W. H. Wood.
Id.
Id.
Three minutes later a
report, like that of a
cannon at some miles
distance was heard.
\V. C. Nash.
Id.
Id.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
100
REPORT — 1865.
Date.
1865.
May 6
8
18
24
25
Hour.
h in
11 53 p.m
25
25
25
June 8
20
20
20
5 a.in
11 20 p.m.
11 20 p.m.
4 a.m.
Place of
Observation.
Greenwich
1 40 a.m.
11 10 p.m.
11 13 p.m.
8 a.m.
10 41 p.m,
10 57 p.m,
11 32 p.m.
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Weston - super
Mare.
Manchester .
Weston - super
Mare.
Ibid,
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Weston - super
Mare.
Greenwich
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Ibid,
Ibid,
Apparent Size.
Larger than 1st
mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
=2nd mag.*
a. Lyrse
Colour.
White
-3rd, then = 1st Pale blue,
mag.*
3rd mag.*
3rd mag.*
1st mag.*
= Venus
= 2nd mag.*
=3rd mag.*
=2nd mag.*
Duration.
About 1 sec.
Smoky blue..
Bluish white..
Blue
White
Blue
Yellowish
white.
- 4 second
2 seconds.
0-9 second
1*5 second
0-5 second
- 5 second
1*5 second
2 seconds.
White
Yellow
White
0'5 second
0-7 second
1 second ..,
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
From a point b
tween a and »Cyi
ni ; flew upwarc
across X Lyrae,an
disappeared 1'
2° beyond the la
ter star.
From \ Ursae M
noris to S Urs;|
Majoris.
From R. A. 195 'II
N. Decl. 28°, tl
R. A. 205°, >|
Decl. 15°.
From (3 Cephei tl
4/ Cygni.
From R. A. 262^
S. Decl. 8°, ti
R. A. 264°, H
Decl. 4°.
From R. A. 8°
N. Decl. 57°, t.
R. A. 32°, N;
Decl. 59°.
To/, halfway fron
»' Canum Venati
corum.
From R. A. 348°
N. Decl. 60°, t(
R. A. 17°, N:
Decl. 67°.
From a poin :
near d Draconis
passed acros:
(3 Cephei am
y Cassiopeia;, t(i
a point 5° be'
yond the latte
star.
Appeared midwa;
between f La!
certaj and a
Cygni.
From /tot Pegasi
and as far again
From e Delphini
halfway to A
Equulei.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OP LUMINOUS METEORS. 101
Appearance ; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
'ine train
Length of
Path.
25 c
eft a smoky streak 4° in
length.
lightly denned disk,
Left a momentary
train.
Ax=4°
xy—\h'
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Remarks.
Directed from Tarandus
In thirty minutes one
meteor.
Radiant, N s R. P. Greg.
Observer.
W. C. Nash.
A. S. Herschel.
W. II. Wood.
Rose vertically from The last 8° of the patl
Radiant Q 1( Q 2 . were convex towards
the west.
'â– > train or sparks
liin
!* train or sparks 6°
40° -r-
^ train or sparks
r o maxima of brightness
i its flight.
Perpendicular ,
M 7 , D w, and D G 2 this
year; occurred in April
and May, rather than
in May and June.
W. H. Wood.
Id.
A. S. Herschel.
W. H. Wood.
Directed from e Cephei
A very brilliant meteor.. W. C. Nash.
A. S. Herschel.
(d.
Id.
102
REPORT 1865.
Date.
Hour.
Place of
Observation.
Apparent Size.
Colour.
Duration.
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
1865.
June20
July 1
2
h m s
11 35 p.m.
11 50 p.m.
35 +
a.m.
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Weston - super -
Mare.
Ibid
Yellow
Blue
- 5 second ...
0*5 second ...
0*5 second ...
From c to n Pega
From 190° + 58'
to 193 + 50.
From 168° + 72'
to 161 + 52
Blue
2
1 20 a.m.
Ibid
Blue
1 second
From 270° + 30 c
to 245 + 35.
9
15
17
17
Night ;
12 +
p.m.
11 35 p.m.
11 4 p.m.
11 20 p.m.
Ibid
Vari-coloured
Several sees...
From a little W.
N. to some di
tance E. of N.
First appeared ne
a Pegasi, passt
very near to
Lacertae, abo>
midway betwe<
a. and j3 Cephe
and disappears
at a point n
far from (i Urs
Minoris.
Warrington
(Lancashire).
Weston - super -
Mare.
Ibid ..
Very large
— 2nd mag.*
1-5 second ...
0-25 second...
From 231° + 12 c l
to 228 + 5.
From 267° - 3 C
to 267 — 10.
19
19
19
10 26 p.m.
10 26 40
p.m.
10 30 +
Blue
Lessthan 1 sec.
3 seconds ...
Several sees...
From a point mill
Blue
way between
Ursae Major
and a. Draconis
pursued a pat
for 10° or 12
parallel to a Hi
joining d and
Ursae Majori
and directed h
wards Capella.
From /3 Ursae Miml
ris ; disappear!
near X Draconi
From due S. toEi
19
p.m.
10 32 p.m.
Brilliantbluish
white.
Lesstlianlsec.
From a little belo|
e Ursae Major,
to ip Ursse M
28
28
28
10 30 p.m.
10 39 p.m.
10 56 p.m.
Hawlshurst
(Kent).
Ibid
White
- 6 second ...
2-5 seconds ...
1*4 second ...
j oris.
From <p, halfway j
2 Draconis.
From i (C, F) Hei
culis to a Corom,
From i} Ursa; M:|
joris to^ (Sdo.,
Canum Venat
White, then
red.
Ibid
corum).
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
103
ppearance; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
Length of
Path.
o train or sparks
o train or sparks
d train or sparks .
) train or sparks .
:ceedingly luminous
â– with superb changes of
colour,
ke a large rocket. The
light increased rapidly
in the first 10° of its
flight. A bluish phos-
phorescent train was
.hen developed, which
continued visible some
seconds after the me-
;eor itself had disap
jeared.
I train or sparks
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
75°
Remarks.
* train or sparks
k train
in
10° or 12°
Loeteor of considerable
rilliancy ; left a tail of
slden fire.
<:rain or sparks
N sparks following the
lcleus.
Brain or sparks
14 ;
The phosphorescent
track terminated
about the point where
the increase of light
terminated.
Observer.
A. S. Herschel.
W. H. Wood.
Id.
Id.
' Weston-super-
Mare Mer-
curv.'
T. G. Rylands.
Inclined
20°
Very short
path.
38°
Inclined
Very rapid in its motion
W. H. Wood.
Id.
W. C. Nash.
Nearly stationary
Directed from Fomal-
haut.
From a southern Radiant
This meteor scintillated
considerably, and dis
appeared very sud
denly.
J. P. Trapaud.
' Bristol Daily
Post.'
W. C. Nash.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Id.
104
REPORT 1865.
Date.
Hour.
1865
July 28
28
28
28
28
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
h m
10 58 p.m
Place of
Observation.
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
11 14 p.m. Ibid
11 17 p.m. Ibid
11 32 p.m. Ibid ,
11 35 p.m. Ibid ,
10 a.m.
12 a.m.
15 a.m.
20 a.m.
36 a.m.
44 a.m.
52 a.m.
53 a.m.
10 10 p.m.
29 10 45 p.m,
29
29
29
29
29
10 46 p.m.
11 p.m.
11 12 p.m.
11 14 p.m.
11 16 p.m.
Ibid .
Ibid .
Ibid.
Ibid
Ibid,
Ibid,
Ibid,
Ibid,
Combe, near
Woodstock
(Oxon.).
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid
Apparent Size.
Colour.
- 1st mag.*, then
twice as bright
as V--
= 2nd mas*
= 3rd mag.*
= 1st map;.*
â– 1st mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
= 3rdnia<r.*..
= 1st mag.*
= 1st mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
= Sirius
= 3rd mag.*
White
Yellow
Yellow
White, then
orange.
White
White .
Yellow
White .
White .
Yellow ,
White .
White ,
White .
§ the size of Venus Pale yellow
= 3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
White .
White .
White .
Yellow
White .
White .
Duration.
L"7 second
1-5 second
0-9 second
1'8 second
07 second
0-5 second
1"5 second
07 second
1 second ...
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
0-9 second ..
1*3 second ..
0-9 second ..
1 second ,
Slow motion..
05 second ..
0-5 second ..,
0-8 second ...
15 second ..,
0*6 second ..,
07 second ...
From £ (/3 Aqua
as Equulei) to
(a Aquarii, \
gasi).
To (i Cassiopei
halfway from
Pegasi.
From 9 Pegasi tc
(/3 Aquarii,
Equulei).
From ^ (v,
Cygni to | (£,
Cephei.
From r Tarandi
i (p, r) Cephe
Close to J Dracoi
From ? Cephei t<
Ursae Minoris.
From Y Dracoi
to y Ursa; W
joris.
FromaHonorium
a Lacertae, a
as far again.
From y to $ (9,
Piscium.
From X Honorit
to /3 Cassiopei
and half as
again.
To 4 Ursae Majo
halfway from
Camelopardi.
To X Pegasi, £
the way fron
Andromeda;.
Appeared in the
at a mode
altitude, ant
moved towa
S.E.
From a to
Cygni, and
far again.
First appeared a
Custodis.
From /3 Cephei
7r Draconis
From i (k C;
ni, a Cephei),
* (jS. y) Ui
Minoris.
Disappeared at
Pegasi.
From a. Androi
daj, halfway tc
Pegasi.
A CATALOGUE Of OBSERVATIONS OP LUMINOUS METEORS.
105
)pearance ; Train, if any,
aud its Duration.
Length of
Tath.
sappeared with a flash 7° or 8° ..
about one degree in
length, at which place a
train remained 4 sees,
. tiaiu or sparks
i train or sparks
23°
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Remarks.
Observer.
From a southern Radiant 1 U. S. Ilerschel
Directed from Fomal-
haut.
dulatiug, throwing off
iery sparks in the last
lalf of its course,
conical train remained
ipon the whole course
1% seconds.
train or sparks
train or sparks
train or sparks
leak 2 seconds.
23°
No path
26°
train or sparks
train or sparks
i ! t a streak upon the
hole path for 3 sees.
Strain or sparks
Bntained a uniform
Tightness. Drew a
am of sparks.
Directed from Fomal
haut.
Stationary
Directed from Fomal-
haut.
Undulating motion in
the last half of its
course.
1.1.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
21 :
Directed from a southern
Radiant.
Directed from Fomal
haut.
•train or sparks
Long path..
6 a streak for 2 seconds
b a streak for 2 seconds
i rain or sparks
c rain or sparks
Drain or sparks
30 c
Almost horizontal, in-
clining downwards.
Directed from x Persei.
Directed from Fomal
haut.
Directed from /3 Cygni.
In 2 h 30 m forty-three
meteors : one observer ;
clear sky ; no moon.
A second at 10 h 20 m ,
equally bright ; de-
scended vertically. A
third appeared at the
same hour on the fol-
lowing night.
rd.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
J. H. Abrahall.
A. S. Ilerschel.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
106
REPORT 1865.
Date.
1865.
July 29
29
29
29
29
29
Hour.
Place of
Observation.
h m s
11 38 p.m. Hawkhurst
(Kent)
30
30
30
11 39 p.m
11 50 p.m,
11 52 p.m.
11 55 p.m,
11 56 p.m,
10 25 p.m.
11 46 p.m,
11 56 p.m
Ibid,
Ibid,
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
3012 p.m.
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
Aug. 3
4 a.m.
13 a.m.
28 a.m.
34 a.m
39 a.m
40 a.m
41 a.m
44 a.m
44 30
a.m.
8 40 p.m,
Weston - super
Mare.
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Ibid,
Ibid,
Ibid,
Ibid.
Ibid,
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
St. Helier's
(Jersey).
Apparent Size.
11 25 p.m. Weston - super - =Sirius
Mare.
=2nd mag.*
= lst mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
= lst mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
=3rd mag.*
=3rd mag.*
=3rd mag.*
=3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
=3rd mag.*
= lst mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
Large
Colour.
White
White
White
White
White
White
White
White
White
White
White
White ,
White .
White .
White .
White .
White .
White .
Yellow
Red
Duration.
Bright yellow
0*6 second .,
0*8 second .
0-8 second .
07 second .
- 9 second .,
- 8 second ..
- 5 second ..
1'9 second .,
0*8 second ..
0-5 second ..
- 8 second ...
- 6 second
0-7 second
0*8 second
- 5 second
- 9 second
1 second ...
1 second ...
l'l second
A few seconds,
very brief.
0'5 second
Position, or I
Altitude and I
Azimuth.
From K, halfway!
p Camelopardil
From OAndrome'l
to â– =. (a And:l
metlse, t Pegas
From 2 to y Lyi
and as far aga
To i Cephei, J
the way fror
Cassiopeia;.
From * Cassiope
to v Persei.
From /3 Cephei 1
Draconis.
From 150° + •
to 163 + 31
To 5 (a Dracon
£ Ursa} Majon
i of the
from L Camel
pardi.
From I Cyg
halfway to
Lacertae.
To o Ursae Majo
3 of the way frc
L Camelopardi
To i Honorium,
of the way frc
a Andromedse.
To r, halfway fret
2 Ursae Minor
and 4° further,
From \ (X, u)
norium to m |
certse.
From to d
gasi.
From u) to ^ (v,
Andromeda.
From a. to /3
rigae.
From 2 Cassiope-
to m Custodis
From g to \ (i,
Draconis.
From i (\, u) H
noriuni to Cs
siopeiae.
Dropped verticalll
to the S.E. ill
E. horizon, fro,
altitude 10° +
«= 2=
From 233° + 3 g
to 234 + 7
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 107
ppearancej Train, if any,
and its Duration.
Length of
Path.
) train or sparks
> train or sparks
train or sparks .
train or sparks .
train or sparks .
train or sparks .
't a train .
t a streak on the whole
f its course for 2 sees.
train or sparks
train or sparks
train or sparks
a streak for 2 seconds
a streak for 2 seconds
ik 1| second
a streak for 1 second
rain or sparks
Jrain or sparks
Drain or sparks
•rain or sparks
t>td like a cricket-ball.
Jsappeared without
lltrsting.
kuucleus appeared sen-
sly elongated.
10
Direction; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Remarks.
Observer.
In one hour sixteen me-
teors : one observer ;
clear sky ; no moon.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
W. H. Wood.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
In one hour twenty-four ]
meteors : one observer ;
clear sky ; no moon.
Seen by several persons Communicated
at St. Helier's.
Bright moonlight
byA.S. Herschel
W. H. Wood.
1 2
108
REPORT 1865.
Date.
1865.
Aug. 5
8
Hour.
Place of
Observation.
h m s
9 35 p.m. St. Malo (France)
8 55 p.m.lDax (S. France)
9 20 p.m. Ibid
9
10
11
11
11
11
9 40 p.m.
9 4G p.m.
9 47 p.m.
Ibid
9 57 p.m.
10 20 p.m,
10 42 p.m
11 37 p.m
to 1 a.m
9 41 15
p.m.
9 48 ±
p.m.
9 48 10
p.m.
9 51 45
p.m.
Ibid
[bid ,
Ibid,
Weston - super
Mare.
Ibid
Greenwich
Surbiton ...
Greenwich
Ibid
Apparent Size.
:2nd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
:3rd mag.*
:2nd mag.*
;2nd mag.*
= v-
=2nd mag.*
-1st mag.*
:2nd mag.*
Royal Observa-
tory, Green
wicb.
Ibid .
= 4th mag.*
=3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
=4th mag.*
White
White
White
White
-1st mag.* ....
Colour.
White
Blue and red-
Duration.
0"8 second
0-7 second
0'9 second
0-7 second
0-7 second
1*5 second
White
Blue
Blue
Bluish white.
07 second
- 5 second
0-5 second
.j second ..
Blue
llcddish
Bluish white...
Bluish white...
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
From c Draconin
7r Ilerculis.
From /i to i
Lyrx.
From Q Cepheil
j; Draconis.
From e Ursse M
joris to £ I
Ursaj Majorisl
Canum Venatil
rum).
From -J (y, t) til
Cephei.
From ip, across!
Cephei,toi//Cyd
From y to ji Cl
siopeiae.
From 138° + 5
to 151 +4
Across Draco *
wards « Lyra;
| second
Less than 1
second.
second
Less than J sec.
From the direct' ^
of ft Bootis 1
a point N. o.J
Bootis.
From a point ' I
of y Bootis t
point near )|
Bootis.
From a point it'/
way betweei
and S Buotis
v^ Bootis.
Between y an«'
Draconis.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
109
Ippearance; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
Length of
Path.
} train or sparks
) train or sparks ,
) train or sparks ,
train or sparks .
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Remarks.
Ohscrver.
ft a streak for 1 second
lue nucleus, surrounded 30 c
rind followed by red
sparks. Diminished to
1 point, and disappeared
without bursting. The
streak remained visible
15 seconds.
Directed from Perseus.
A. S. Hcrschel.
id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
In the latter part of its Id.
course the flight and
the streak were twice
inflected.
tft a streak for 2 seconds
I streak visible.
train
train
< train
a. Commencement.
Streak.
b. Termination of the meteor.
I5 C
8°.
Inclined
In one hour six meteors:
one observer; clear sky
moon nearly full.
Full moonlight; 2nd
mag. stars not dis-
tinguishable.
riiree meteors from 10'
to ll h 1 j"> p.m.
In one hour no meteors
seen: sky partial);
clear ; full moon. A
terrific storm of light-
ning and rain before
midnight.
.V fine clear night
Id.
w.
II
M'ood
Id.
\v.
c.
Nash.
10 Inclined
itrain
I train
Inclined
a Lyra;. y Draconis.
/
F. Cruniplcn.
Arthur Harding.
Id.
;\V. C. Nash.
Id.
/3 Diaeonis.
110
REPORT 1865.
Date.
Hour.
Place of
Observation.
Apparent Size.
Colour.
Duration.
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
1865.
Aug.l]
11
11
h m s
10 p.m.
10 5
p.m.
10 1 5
p.m.
Weston - super -
Mare.
Royal Observa-
tory, Green-
wich.
Ibid
—3rd mag.*
= 4th mag.*
Blue
05 second ...
Less than 1 sec.
Rapid motion..
Bluish white...
Bluish white...
From 175° + 5;j
to 191 + 4(j
From the view
of a Cygni, i,
appeared nea)
Cygni.
Fell through Eqi
leus towards 1
11
11
11
10 7 30
p.m.
10 8 p.m.
10 10 30
p.m.
Ibid
Blue ...
More than 1
second.
0-75 second ...
1 second
rizon.
From the directi
of /3 Peg!
passed acr
Delphinus ant
Aquilae to a po
5° beyond 1
latter star.
Weston - super -
Mare.
Royal Observa-
tory, Green-
wich.
White
= 1st mag.* ......
Bluish white...
From 0° 4- 2if
to -flJ
InN.N.W.,altitit
60°, directed 1
wards W.
11
11
11
10 19 15
p.m.
10 19 42
p.m.
10 21 30
p.m.
Ibid
Bluish white...
Bluish white...
Bluish white...
In W., from a poj
10° below a Lyii
passed across
Ophiucbi.
Ibid
Ibid
= 2nd mag.*
in the vicin
of i) Dracoi
to a point 1
W. of 1) Uil
Majoris.
tion of Co
Berenices, c |
11
11
11
10 23 41
p.m.
10 25 p.m.
10 31 30
p.m.
Ibid
Bluish white...
Blue
0*5 second ...
appeared nea:
Bb'otis.
From a point '
below 7] Ui'
Majoris towa;
Arcturus.
Weston - super -
Mare.
Royal Observa-
tory, Green-
wich.
Bluish white-
From 37° + 5!
to 23 + 6:
From a position
W. of 12 Cani
Venaticorum
wards the
horizon ; dis:
peared at a I
tude 10°+. !
11
10 32 p.m.
Weston - super -
Mare.
>lst mag.*
From 162° 4- 5*1 |
to 170 +4;
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
Ill
ppearance ; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
o train or sparks
i train
j train
ne train ; lasted 1 sec.
12°
10°
25°
) train or sparks
le train
lie train.
ic train.
lall train
ft a train .
he train....
lft a train for 2 seconds
Length of
Path.
12
"
Perpendicular
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
s
Almost perpendicularly
down.
The meteor ascended
apparently.
Remarks.
The nights of the 9th
and 10 th were over-
cast.
Observer.
A very brilliant meteor.
Id.
Id.
Very brilliant
Very brilliant
12 Can. Ven.
W. H. Wood.
\V. C. Nash.
W. H. Wood.
Ernest Jones.
W. C. Nash.
Id.
Ernest Jones.
W. C. Nash.
W. II. Wood.
Ernest Jones.
W. H. Wood.
112
REPORT — 18G5.
Date.
Hour.
Place of
Observation.
Apparent Size.
Colour.
Duration.
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
1865.
Aug.ll
11
11
11
11
11
11
h m s
10 33 31
p.m.
10 40 p.m.
10 40 15
p.m.
10 47 15
p.m.
10 49 p.m.
10 52 p.m.
10 52 n.m.
Weston - super -
Mare.
[bid
— 1st mag.*
Bluish white...
More than 1
second.
1 second
06 second ...
0-75 second ...
Very rapid ...
Greater than
1 second.
Momentary ...
Slow motion..
From direction .
y Persei t
wards » Urs
Majoris. Cent
of path midw;
between tho
stars.
a= =
From 212° + 22
to 216 + 8.
From the dire
tion of k Dr.
conis to a poii
between a Dr;
conis and i) Urs
Majoris.
From a point b
tween a Urs.
Majoris and Pi
laris to a point?
of k Draconis.
= 2nd mag.*
= 2nd mn.g.*
= 3rd mag.*
Bluish white...
Blue
\\ eston - super -
Mare.
Iljid .
Blue
From 195 D + 45 '1
to 199 +37.
From 24° -f 70 c ,|
Weston - super -
Mare.
Ibid
Blue
to 32 + Cl.'f
From the direclioij
11 10 56 n.m.
Red
of X Bootis.
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
10 58 p.m.
10 58 45
p.m.
11 1 45
p.m.
11 6 30
p.m.
11 10 15
p.m.
11 17 45
p.m.
11 26 p.m.
Blue
From 205° + 52 c I
to 212 + 20.
From 190° + 58 c i'J
Ibid
Blue
to 193 + 44.)j
Passed below < Drai
Blue
conis from thedi 1
rection of t Ursr'l
Minoris.
From the direction!
Ibid
White
of y Draconis i> 1
a point S. of J!
Cygni.
From a point W. Oi I
Polaris.
From l3 Cygni ii
the direction o,
a Ophiuchi.
Between £ and «
Ibid
Blue
Ibid
Blue
Ibid
Bluish white...
Cygni.
From Cassiopeia/'
shot 20° towards
Capella.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 113
pearance; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
kin
opened in colour and
ei reased in size.
Hit train 25
1 train or sparks
train or sparks
Utrain
Strain or sparks
irain or sparks
rain
rain
rain
rain
Length of
Path.
10 c
10 :
20°
10°
12°
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Remarks.
Nearly horizontal
Observer.
W. C. Nash.
Perpendicular ,
Inclined
Clear sky from 10 1 ' to 11
15 m p.m. ; 12 meteors
seen : one observer.
Almost perpendicular.
Inclined
Curved path
20° Almost perpendicular.
I Cygni.
Cygni.
W. II. Wood.
Arthur Harding.
Id.
W. H. Wood.
Id.
Arthur Harding.
W. II. Wood.
Id.
Arthur Harding.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
W. C. Nash.
114
REPORT 1865.
Date.
1865.
Aug. 11
11
11
11
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
Hour.
h m s
11 27 30
p.ru.
11 33 30
p.m.
11 39 47
p.m.
11 40 p.m
9 10 p.m.
11 7 p.m.
11 12 p.m.
11 16 p.m.
11 2f p.m.
11 25 p.m.
11 31 p.m.
11 36 p.m.
11 40 p.m.
Place of
Observation.
Greenwich
Ibid.
Ibid
Ibid.
Combe, near
Woodstock
(Oxon.).
| the size of Venus
Weston - super
Mare.
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid
Greenwich ....
Ibid
Weston - super
Mare.
Apparent Size.
Colour.
â– â– 1st mag.*
= 1st mag.*.
: 3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
=2nd mag.*
Blue
Bluish white...
Bluish white..
Blue
Pale yellow ,
Blue
Blue
= 3rd mag.* Blue
= 2nd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
= 1st mag.*
= 1st mag.*.
Blue
Blue
Bluish white.,
Bluish
Blue
Duration.
H second
1 second
Less than 1 sec,
| second
0-5 second
0"5 second
0-25 second ..
1 second
- 5 second
Rapid motion.
t; second
0-5 second
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
From the direc-
tion of /3 Ursa
Minoris to z
point between I
Draconis and %
Ursae Majoris.
From a point abova
Capella ; disap-
peared 5° below
|8 Auriga?.
From a point 5 C
W. of a Ursa]
Majoris ; passetj
below S Ursa'
Majoris to i
point about 7 C
below e Ursa
Majoris.
From the directiorj
of X Draconis
passed above <]
Ursae Majoris
a point below
Ursoe Majoris.
Fell to very nea
the S.W. horizon I
From 242° + 63°
to 214 + 51.
From 190° + 40°
to 193 + 34.
From 127° + 53°
to 133 +47.
From 24° + 70°
to 50 + 67. '
From 265° + 70°
to 263 +51.1
In the W. ; disapj
peared near Co'
rona Borealis. ,
From the directioi
of Sagitta; dis;
appeared near
Herculis.
*= S=\
From 186° + 71°
to 190 + 58 !
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
115
ippearance; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
'rain
(o train
fo train
Ifo train or sparks
To train or sparks
io train or sparks
.'o train or sparks
fo train or sparks
To train or sparks
. T o train
light train
eft a train
Length of
Path.
15°
11V
\r
12-
15
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Inclined
Inclined
Inclined
Inclined
N.E. toS.W
Almost perpendicular. . .
Remarks.
A brilliant meteor
A second, nearly as
bright, appeared at
10 h 15 m p.m., falling
thus— S. to N.
\
Very cloudy.
Clear sky ; six meteors
from 10 h 50 m to ll h
50 m p.m., for a single
observer.
Observer.
Arthur Harding.
W. C. Nash.
Id.
Arthur Harding.
J. H. Abrahall.
W. H. Wood.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
W. C. Nash.
Id.
W. H. Wood.
116
REPORT 1865.
Date.
1865
Aug. 13
13
13
Hour.
Place of
Observation.
h m s
9 53 p.m.
9 56 p.m.
10 2 15
p.m.
Tooting, Surrey.
13
13
13
14
11
17
17
17
17
17
10 6 p.m.
10 36 p.m.
11 30 50
p.m.
10 23 p.m.
10 40 to
11 p.m.
9 12 p.m
10 5 p.m
10 15 p.m
10 25 p.m
11 31 p.m
Ibid
Greenwich
Ibid
rooting, Surrey.
Greenwich
Apparent Size.
1st mag.*
= 1st mag,*
= 2nd mag.*
= 3rd mag.* ...
= 1st mag.*.
1st mas *.
Ibid
Combe, near
Woodstock
(Oxon.).
Greenwich
iVrgeles (Ilautes
Pyrenees).
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid
= 3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
= 4th mag.* ;
> a Lyras.
Colour.
= 3rd mag.* ...
3 or 4 times % ...
Bluish white..
Bluish white.,
Blue
2 seconds.
Blue
Bluish
Bluish white.
Bluish white
Bluish white.
White
then
Duration.
I second
I second
2 second
I second
1 second
1 second
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
Disappeared near |
Lyra;.
From y Buotis b
wards y Serpentis
From direction o
i Ursac Minoris
passed between
and a. Draconis.
Fellperpcndicularl;
from a point
little to the lef
of Arcturus.
From a point 5'
below y Bootis
disappeared nea
e Boo I is.
Fell almost perpen
diculailyinW.fron
near y Serpentis
From a point
little below
Draconis to
Draconis.
Yellow
White ,
Orange, then
l.essthanlscc
05 second ...
1*3 second ...
D4 second ...
10-12 seconds
red.
In the N.N.W.
altitude 20°.
Emerged from
cloud at a poin
midway betweei
X, and i) Urss!
Majoris.
To y Cephei, § o,
the way from |
Honorium.
From y Pegasi to I
(<t>, i) Piscium
and as far again
From \ (k Cygni,
Draconis) to j (i
K) Camelopardi
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
117
ppearance; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
ne train,
o train .
o train .
Length of
Path.
20°
ight train .
ain
ne train.
train
eteor not seen. The
streak remained visihle
15 seconds. Fusiform,
fading from the ends
towards the centre,
o train or sparks
;ft a streak for 1 second
jual to a 4th mag.* in
the first half of its
course ; gradually in-
creasing, it drew a train
of ruddy sparks 3° in
length behind it. In
the last 10° of its course
it was followed by four
or five distinct balls of
light, thus —
10°
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Remarks.
Observer.
yra. &
it *
Lyr
#
Nearly horizontal ....
Almost perpendicular.
Perpendicular .
Almost perpendicular. .
12° Nearly horizontal;
to W.
Length of Direction from t Dra-
streak 6°. conis.
50°
Uiisht meteor
Three or four bright me-
teors seen together.
Shooting-stars by no
means plentiful. A few
bright meteors were
also seen on the 13th.
Very cloudy; no stars
discernible.
The meteor lighted up
the landscape with a
bright flash.
The meteor and the
fragments gradually
disappeared. The
duration of the flight
was from 10 to 12
seconds, well counted
immediately after the
disappearance of the
meteor.
Ernest Jones.
Id.
Arthur Harding.
Id.
Ernest Jones.
W. C. Nash.
Ernest Jones.
J. II. Abrahall.
W. C. Nash.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Id.
fd.
118
REPORT 1865.
Date.
1865.
Aug.17
19
19
21
22
22
24
25
25
25
25
26
26
26
Hour.
h m s
11 51 p.m
8 40 p.m
9 p.m
9 12 18
p.m.
8 55 30
p.m.
8 59 p.m.
8 27 p.m,
8 58 30
p m.
9 34 p.m.
9 35 30
p.m.
9 41 p.m
10 43 30 â–
p.m.
6 a.m
9 10 p.m
9 35 p.m
Place of
Observation.
Argeles (Hautes
Pyrenees).
Lac de Gaube
(Pyrenees).
Ibid
Greenwich
Blackheath
Ibid
Halton, Hastings
(Sussex).
Greenwich
Ibid
Ibid .......
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid
Apparent Size.
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
= Venus
= 4th mag.*
= lst mag.*..
= 2nd mag.*
= lst mag.*..
= 2nd mag.*
= 4th mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
Colour.
White .
White .
White .
Blue .
Blue .
White .
Reddish
Brilliant blue
White
Blue
Bluish white ..
Blue
Blue
Blue
Bluish white..
Duration.
- 7 second
0-7 second
0-5 second
1$ second
5 seconds
l second ...
3 seconds.
Very rapid
motion.
1 second
f second
Very rapid
motion.
1 second
second
i second
Rapid motion.
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
From X to e Cygi
From e Aquila; i
i (8 Aquila', I
Serpentis).
First appeared at I
Herculis.
From the zeniij
to a point a
on the right of]
Draconis.
From a point r.ea
4> Pegasi to
Trianguli.
Fell from a poiij
in the vicinity (
a Persei.
Appeared near/3 Al
dromedffi, passe
3° under y Al
droinedae, an
disappeared clos
to (3 Persei.
From the directiol
of tp Cassiopeil
to a point abo\ !
e Cassiopeia;.
Towards horizon!
path parallel to I
line connecting I
and /3 Ursas Mil
joris.
From a point 'M
left of r] Urs I
Majoris, in tt'
direction of
Bootis.
Passed between 1
and « Serpent
towards y Booti
Passed above
Corona? Boreal
in the directio
of a Serpentis. ,
From direction J
a Cephei, disa]
peared near j
Draconis.
From the dirert
tion of ij Urs
Majoris to
Bootis.
Passed above a. Ail
dromedae towart
y Andromeda;.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 119
>pearance ; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
> train or sparks
) 'rain or sparks
> train or sparks
int train
train
light short train
h train
f train
train
J train
! -rain
crain
Length of
Path.
6°..,
15°
10°
Wtrain , 6°
11 :
(train 10°
7°.
7°.
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Remarks.
Directed from ^Lyra.
Almost perpendicular. ..Slow motion
Nearly horizontal
Perpendicular .
Inclined
oUrs.Maj.
*
/SUrs.Maj.
Inclined ..
Burst about 1 second
before disappearance,
throwing off a shower
of sparks.
Nearly horizontal, to.
wards N.
Inclined
Inclined
Observer.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
Id.
W. C. Nash.
Arthur Harding.
Id.
F. Howlett.
Arthur Harding.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
W. C. Nash.
Id.
Arthur Harding.
120
REPORT — 1865.
Date. Hour.
1865.
Aug. 2 6
20
26
27
27
29
h iu s
9 52 30
p.m.
10 4 p.m.
10 25 p.m
8 15 p.m
9 5 p.m
Greenwich
Place of
Observation.
Ibid
Ibid
Perigueux (S.
France).
Ibid
8 38 p.m. Greenwich
Apparent Size.
= Venus
= 3rd mag.*
= 4th mag.*
= 3rd mag.*
= 2nd mag.*
= lst mag.*
Colour.
Blue
Blue
Blue
White
White
White
Duration.
S seconds.
h second
Very rapid
motion.
- 7 second
07 second
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
From i Cassiopeia!
disappeared
the neighbou
hood of a Perse
From direction ill
ft Cephei ; di
appeared near i
Corona; Boreali i
From the directic 1
of <r Ursse M
noris to a poii
aboveaDraconi
To o Honorium, '
of the way fro
e Cephei.
From 9 Cassiopeil
to £ (S Cassiij
peiai, x Persei'
From a point 5d
altitude ; 5° rigl
of Polaris to
point midwi
between S Urs
Majoris and
Draconis.
APPENDIX.
I. Meteors doubly observed.
(1.) Fireball; 1864, August 31st, 10 h 31 ra p.m.
At Exeter, the meteor disappeared at an altitude of 18° in the E.N.E.,
whilst at Frant in Sussex it appeared to move at an altitude of about 50° in
the W., disappearing S.W. From Exeter to Frant, the direct distance is
1G7 British statute miles, and the distance of the meteor from the earth at
disappearance was from forty-five to fifty miles above Chichester, on the
coast of Sussex. The character of the data does not permit the investigation
to be carried further.
(2.) Fireball; 1864, November 11th, 5 h 35 m p.m.
The meteor was vertical over the west of Auvergne, where it was seen in
twilight, and over the valleys of the Lot, Dordogne, and Garonne, in the
south of France. It was observed at Hawkhurst, Tunbridge, and West
Pcckham, near Maidstone, in Kent. The height at disappearance, derived
from the English, compared with the French observations, is forty -five miles,
between Limoges and Rhodez. The flight, of more than eighty miles, was
accompanied by a brilliant streak, which remained visible several minutes in
the twilight. This was nearly horizontal, directed from between N.E. and N.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OP LUMINOUS METEORS.
121
ipearance; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
glit train
I train 5°
Length of
Path.
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
20°
( train 10
Remarks.
Inclined
Very slow motion
train or sparks
train or sparks
e train
Observer.
\rthur Harding.
W. C. Nash.
Arthur Harding.
A. S. Herschel.
Id.
F. P. Trapaud ;
Ernest Jones.
(3.) Detonating Meteor ; 1864, November 20th, 9 h 50 ra p.m.
Disappeared over the North Sea, not far from the mouth of the Humber
oft the coast of Lincolnshire. A few minutes after the appearance a report
was heard near Uppingham, in Rutlandshire, like the discharge of cannons in
the distance. The descriptions at Manchester, Mobberly, Weston-super-Mare
&c, leave no doubt that the meteor was directed from N.E. The detonating
S aU ^T hlch occurred under similar circumstances of time and place, on the
19th of November 1861, was directed from a little E. of S., or very nearly
trom an opposite direction. In other respects the two meteors resemble one
another veiy closely (v. Report, 1862, p. 79).
(4.) Fireball ; 1864, December 9th, 3 h 45 m a.m.
The meteor observed at Manchester disappeared N.E. At Hawkhurst the
point ot disappearance was 8° above the horizon, N.N.W. The situation of
this point is therefore fixed. The flight was directed from the usual radiant
ot the 6th to the 13th of December, between Gemini and Auriga, and thus
the rest of the flight is easily determined. Path seventy-five miles in
1-3 second, directed from R. A. 95°, N. Deck 30°. Velocity fifty-eight miles
per second. Began ninety miles above Todmorden, in Lancashire. Disap-
peared thirty miles over York. Although a vivid meteor, no report succeeded
its appearance at Manchester.
1865.
122 report — 1865.
(5.) Detonating Meteor; 1805, February 21st, 9 h 25 m p.m.
Over Perthshire, in the neighbourhood of Perth and Stirling. In Fife-
shire, a concussion like prolonged thunder was heard in the N. The light
reflected from the snow had a very imposing effect. The track of the meteor
was from between N. and N.E., with no great inclination towards the earth.
(6.) Detonating Meteor ; 1865, April 30th, h 45 ra a.m.
Observed at Manchester, and Weston-super-Mare, in Somersetshire (vide
R. A. S. Monthly Notices, 1865, June 9th).
Path seventy-five miles in two and a half, to five seconds, directed from
azimuth 161° W. from S., altitude 12°, near the star CapeMa. Velocity
twenty miles per second. Began fifty-two miles above Lichfield (N. lat. 52° 43',
"W. long. 1° 52'). Disappeared thirty-seven miles above Oxford (N. lat.
51° 44', W. long. 1° 16'). The disappearance took place with a flash, at a
distance of eighty-six miles from "Weston-super-Mare, where eight or ten
minutes afterwards a rumbling report was heard, which lasted a few seconds.
Sound, with its ordinary velocity of 1090 feet per second, would take seven
minutes to travel the same distance. This meteor belongs to the few whose
real tracks are found to lie from the "W. to the E. side of the meridian.
II. Meteoric Showers and their Radiants.
(1.) (R. A. S. Monthly Notices, 1864, Dec. 9.)
The radiants T and A G„ (of the list contained in the last Report) were
conspicuous on the night of the 27th of September 1864. The first, evidently
an early appearance of F (No. 49 in the same list), remained in force until
the 6th of October, producing swift white meteors, almost entirely dissolving
into streaks. A third radiant, (No. 48 of the same list), was for the first
time observed during the occurrence of a considerable shower of ruddy
meteors, on the night of the 18th of October 1864. The meteors of this
shower are swift and leave voluminous streaks.
(2.) November Star-shower.
The sky was generally cloudy in England on the morning of the 13th of
November 1864. The following extract from a letter addressed to the
Secretary, Mr. Herschel, proves that the shower was observed at Malta on
the morning of the 13th of November, ami that no trace of it remained on
the morning of the 14th : —
S. S. Ellora, off Malta, 1864, November 14. " There was a grand display
of meteors from midnight to 4 h a.m., all through the watch, the night before
last. The watch, an old ' salt,' and an intelligent man, said that it was the
grandest shower he had ever seen, and that the whole watch had been look-
ing at them with delight. There were no very striking ones, and none burst.
Last night [Sunday night] I watched till ll h 30 m myself, and told the watch
to wake me up if any were seen, and at all events at 5 o'clock. He did so,
but reported that not one single one had been visible. The sky was clear
enough, but bright moonlight. I looked out a little while, but not a single
shot. The watch told me in the morning that there had not been a single
one visible till daylight."
(3.) (R. A. S. Monthly Notices, 1865, March 10.)
Two fireballs, on the 9th and 13th of December 1864, were shown to be
conformable to G, the general radiant of smaller meteors, which reaches its
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 123
maximum about this period. The radiant coincided, as in the previous year,
with a point between r and fl Geminorum,
(4.) Star-showers of April, July, and August.
The numbers of meteors recorded on the nights of the lst-2nd of January,
19th-20th of April, and lOth-llth of August, in the year 1865, were not
greater than ordinary. The return of these well-known star-showers was
either altogether wanting, especially in January, or very inconsiderable, as in
April and August. On the 11th, 12th, 13th, and 14th of August, a few
meteors were observed. Several large meteors appeared on the night of the
25th of April 1865. The same was also noticed by Sir John Herschel on the
25th of April 1843 (Proceedings, Brit. Met. Soc. Jan. 1865 ; p. 314).
During a considerable shower of meteors on the 28th of July 1865, a
radiant of novel and interesting character was observed at Hawkhurst. The
new radiant was situated- close to Fomalhaut, and belongs properly to the
southern hemisphere. The letter H, omitted by Dr. Heis from his nomen-
clature of radiant-points, is chosen to designate the shower.
Epoch of the shower; 1865, July 28-9. Position; R. A. 338°, S. Decl. 28°.
The following extract from Sir James C. Ross's ' Voyage to the Southern
Seas ' (vol. i. p. 98), may be noticed in connexion with this shower.
" H. M. S. Erebus, S. lat. 47°, E. long. 97°, 1840, July 28th to 29th. The
gale continued all night with a heavy cross sea ; there was much lightning
to the eastward ; meteors in great numbers were seen darting about in all
directions, and the whole aspect of the sky proclaimed a convulsion or dis-
turbance of the atmosphere of an unusual character."
The position of Fomalhaut above the horizon, at the time and place of this
observation, on board the ' Erebus' was 17° from the zenith. Only one such
meteor was observed at Hawkhurst on the night of the 29th.
v
(5.) General Radiant-points of shooting-stars (Proceedings, Brit. Met.
Soc. 1865, Jan., vol. ii. p. 302).
A list of fifty-six General Radiant-points of shooting-stars, which appeared
in the last Report, was founded upon a series of charts prepared by Mr. Greg.
The accompanying reduced engravings of meteor tracks contained in three of
these charts, illustrate four of the most interesting general radiant-points of
shooting-stars occurring in January, February, and March. (Pp. 124, 125.)
The radiant A G l (fig. 1.), near Aldebaran (No. 3 in the list), embraces the
period from Dec. 21 to Eeb. 4. A remarkable display of it was first noticed
by Mr. Herschel, and by other observers, on the night of the 24th of December
1861. (Report 1862, pp. 40, 80.)
M 3 (fig. 2) represents a radiant between Leo Minor and the head of Leo
(No. 7 in the list), enduring from February 4th to 26th, and having a tendency
to a maximum on the 13-1 5th of the month. It was first noticed by Mr. Greg,
Mr. Herschel, and Mr. Wood, in February 1863.
In other showers no tendency to a maximum can be perceived. The
radiants M., M 6 are of this kind (Nos. 14, 15 in the list), and form a double
or twin radiant (fig. 3), advancing, with the time, across the principal stars of
Ursa Major, from March 3rd to 31st. The same radiant afterwards advances
as far as the last star in the Tail of Ursa Major, presenting an interesting and
well-established instance of the same meteoric shower enduring (from March
3rd to June 2nd) a period of thirteen weeks, and having a radiant advancing
throughout the interval in a right line.
k2
124
REPORT — 1805.
(6.) Shooting-stars observed at Minister, 1864-65.
Simultaneous observations by Dr. Heis and his assistants were continued
Fig. 1.
'alar
Fis. 2
'alor
from the 27th of July to the 10th of August 1864, and from the 27th of July
to the 9th of August 1865, at Minister, Peckeloh, Gaesdonck, Lippstadt, and
A. CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
125
Papenburg. The situations of these places, with the exception of Lippstadt,
E. long, (from Greenwich) 33 m 20 s -9, N. lat. 51° 41', and Papenburg, E. long.
Fia;. 3.
'a lor
(from Greenwich) 29 m 31 s -0, N. lat. 53° 4' 30", are given in the Report for
1863. The comparative observations given in Tables I. and II. (p. 126) were
obtained : —
No. 4. Length of Path ninety-one miles.
No. 5. Length of Path sixty miles.
No. 6. At both stations blue : shot upwards ; at Minister from altitude 51°
to 71°, at Peckeloh from altitude 45° to 56°.
The radiants observed at Miinster in the year 1865 were as follows : —
1865, Apr. 15-29 / ^ ' a= ?i?°' ? = t flo 1 in all 38 meteors.
' l \M g .a=l/o , <5= +54° J
1865, July 27 to
Aug. 10.
' From A came 26 meteors=21 per cent
„ B „ 43 „ =35 „
â– \T z, A
„ Uncertain radiants ,,49 „ =40 „
In all 123 meteors.
III. Large Meteors.
(1.) 1864, September 24th, 12" 20 m (noon). Tarbes (S. France).
The occurrence is described in the ' Comptes Rendus' (for 1864, October 3rd
and 10th). The meteor presented the appearance of a ball of fire moving with
the rapidity of a flash of lightning, and leaving a cloud of smoke for several
minutes. It was seen in broad day as far south as the Balearic Islands, and
as far north as Nerac, and Couzon in Creuse. The point of disappearance was
nearly over Tarbes, and the flight assigned by M. Le Verrier is forty miles
high above the Department of Gers. The following extract of a letter from
126 report — 1865.
Table I.— Heights of Meteors, 1864, July 27th to August 10th.
Height in
' Hour,
£ £
First appear-
Ei**'
English
Ref.
No.
Date,
1864.
Miinster
mean
a
55
Train, &c.
ance.
69-16 = 1°
miles.
time.
tS •
to --
1/3
a =
5 =
«8 =
3=
Beg.
End.
h m s
o
O
O
1.
July 27
27
27
28
10 3 39
M
?
With
299
+27
299
+ 15
2.
3.
4.
11 9 36
11 22 36
10 21 21
Pe
M
Pe
M
Pe
M
3
1
1
1
1
n
With
281
331
307
307
285
*23
33
5
6
21
15
60
273
325
276
298
267
232
16
48
32
10
3
10
39
30
39
32
28
28
With
With
With
With
Red, with ...
Pe
i
sparks. With
214
52
211
23
184
32
5.
28
10 37 36
M
2*
245
62
211
63
Pe
2
246
55
245
56
138
115
6.
28
10 56 36
M
L
i
With
357
253
60
76
346
321
43
70
89
53
7.
30
10 41 3
M
$
Red. Train
278
38
210
55
Pe
n
one minute
267
30
321
41
60
46
8.
30
11 3 48
M
2
315
15
308
6
Pe
3
289
29
289
7
>
42
9.
Aug. 5
9 32 18
M
2
345
85
107
85
Pe
3
323
+52
211
+ 67
51
45
10.
5
10 16 30
M
3*
310
- 1
318
- 9
Pe
4
303
-14
307
-11
84
42
1).
5
10 26 44
M
2
213
+58
199
+ 56
Pe
2
212
43
195
43
45
42
12.
5
10 43 51
M
2*
7
71
32
81
Pe
4
233
77
241
71
39
39
13.
6
9 40 48
M
2
299
14
294
8
Pe
2
282
15
268
15
39
30
14.
10
9 47
Pe
1
333
33
316
10
G
1
346
25
336
18
194
175
15.
10
11 23 25
M
2
300
21
291
2
G
1
41
+20
47
+ 7
111
101
Av
erage heig
htsof 14 M<
teors
82 61
* [?«=223°.]
Table II.— Heights of Meteors, 1865, July 27th to August 9th.
Ref.
No.
Date,
1865.
Hour,
Miinster
mean
time.
c
o
id
GO
<U -f-
? â– -
CO V
a a.
Train, &c.
First appear-
ance.
End.
Height in
English
miles.
«=
ff=
•=
E =
Beg.
End.
1.
2.
3
4.
5.
6.
July 27
27
•28
28
Aug. 9
9
h m s
10 20 18
10 37 28
9 52 39
9 57 30
9 30 25
9 48 22
M
Pe
M
Pe
M
Pe
M
Pe
M
Pa
M
Pe
?
2
2
2
3
3
2
3
1
1
y-
2
Colour blue.
Burst. With
Blue. Long
path. With
With
o
278
257
340
318
254
239
315
265
140
175
205
20
O
+31
24
26
29
31
28
32
5
62
68
73
+56
o
259
245
353
340
240
225
195
205
155
194
255
234
O
+33
26
18
27
31
29
57
44
50
44
59
+ 46
65
32
60
86
81
60
65
29
53
29
52
55
With
Blue. Shot up-
wards. With
Average
64
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 127
a resident at Pau to a relative in England, describes the character of the
meteor : —
" Pau, 1864, October 6th. On Saturday, 24th September, the day before
I arrived here, M — heard in the house, like many others, a loud report
(louder than any cannon). The report was so loud says another, sitting in
the English Club, that he thought the windows were smashed in. Another
eyewitness here at Pau says he observed a flash of light in a dark cloud, fol-
lowed immediately afterwards by a tremendous detonation. The enclosed
extract from the newspaper will give you the description of it as experienced
at Lembeye, twenty miles distant from this (see Catalogue). The detonation
was also heard startlingly loud at Orthez, twenty-four miles from this ; also
at Monein, twelve miles from this, and at Mont-de-Marsan. These places
are relatively situated thus (see fig.). At Monein they thought the houses
were coming down about their ears. I cannot discover that any meteorite
fell."
Mont-de-Marsan.
O
Orthez. CX.
Lembeye.
Monein. Pau.
(2.) 1864, August 10th, 6 h p.m. Island of Milos (Cyclades).
A detonating meteor appeared over Milos and the Cyclades thirteen minutes
before sunset, in full sunlight, leaving a cloud of smoke for more than a
quarter of an hour. The meteor was seen at Athens, and the streak was
visible sixteen minutes. The heights at appearance and disappearance are
estimated by Dr. Julius Schmidt at twenty-five and twenty-three English
miles respectively, over iEgina and Paros. The direction was from Leo, and
the velocity about thirty miles per second. Stones are reported to have
fallen upon the island of Polinos, but their meteoric character is not con-
firmed. The detonation was heard at Milos, where the train of smoke was
visible more than a quarter of an hour.
(3.) 1865, February 9th, 6 h 50 m p.m. Salem, Carnatic (S. India).
The following extract of a letter from an English gentleman residing at
Bangalore, situated on the high road from Bombay to Madras, was received
by Mr. Herschel from a relative in England, to whom the letter was
addressed.
" Bangalore, 1865, February 10th. We have had a splendid meteor. I
was walking with H — , and at first I thought it was a blue light. It came
perpendicularly down ; at first it was bright blue, then purple, and at last
deep red. It lit up all the country with just the same glare that a blue light
makes. Everything could be seen most distinctly. At Salem*, I read in a
newspaper it was accompanied by a noise equal to 100 cannons. You could
see the trace of it for nearly five minutes after. The moon was up, and
* Salem, in the Carnatic, is eighty miles S.S.E. from Bangalore.
128 report— 1865.
the body itself was larger than it. My boy told me it only comes when
a king dies, and curiously enough we hear that the Eajah of Mysore has
just died."
IV. Meteorites, Siderites, Siderolites. (See also V. (5) to (8.))
(1.) 1863, December 10th, 3 L a.m. Trebizond (Asia Minor).
Three days after the meteoric fall of Tourinnes-la-Grosse, and five days
after the largest meteor described in the Catalogue of the last Report, a de-
tonating meteor of very unusual character passed over Samoronitza, near
Trebizond. The meteor desoended with a report equal to a hundred cannons,
into a wood near Inly (twelve miles from Samaronitza), which it set on fire.
A thick fall of snow following, a few fragments, only, of doubtful meteoric
character, could be recovered on the 6th of March 1864. The real substance
of the meteorite appears to have eluded search, from its pulverulent or
otherwise easily destructible nature*. Large meteors on the 3rd, 9th, and
13th of December are described in the present Catalogue. They indicate a
return of this aerolitic period, rendered famous by the earlier falls of Benares,
Wold Cottage, and "Weston, and by the recent fall of Montrejeau, near Tou-
louse, on the 9th of December 1858.
Incendiary meteors have twice been recorded to have taken place upon
the 13th of November. The first instance is described in the ' Astronomische
Nachrichten ' (vol. viii. p. 107), — a meteor which fell near Prague on the
13th of November 1829, and burned the surface of a field brick-red. The
second meteor set fire to a bam at Ain, in France, on the 13th of November
1835. The " phosphorescent lines of light " observed in great numbers in
the great November shower of 1833, are perhaps meteors of the same
description.
Among the municipal records of the town of Ludlow, in Shropshire, there
is preserved, in vellum, a roll of bailiffs from the time of Queen Elizabeth.
Under the date 1594, occurs the following passage : —
" A greate barne in Lempster [Leominster, Hereford] fired by a comett, and
burned 15 dayes."
The occurrence must have created considerable sensation at the time, or it
would not have been recorded in such a document ; and the writer of the
record certainly lived at the time, and in the neighbourhood.
(2.) Siderites.
Two large blocks of iron at Western-port, near Melbourne (Victoria),
weighing 5 to 6 and 1| tons respectively, have been examined in situ by
Dr. Neumayer, who supposes them to be of meteoric origin. The larger is
now in the British Museum. A third, weighing \\ ton, has been transported
to Melbourne from the Dandenog hills, sixty miles east of Melbourne, and
some miles to the north of Western-port (Vienna Acad. Sitzungsber., 1861,
April 18, and June 6).
A portion of metallic iron labelled " native iron " in the Museum at
Ziirich, has been recognized by Dr. Haidinger as a fragment of the meteoric
iron of Steinbach, in Saxony (Vienna Acad. Sitzungsber., 1864, April 28).
(3.) Siderolites. (Vienna Acad. Sitzungsber., 1864, May 12.)
A large block of mixed meteoric iron and stone (Siderolite), similar to the
4
* Vienna Acad. Sitzungsber., 1864, April 28.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 129
meteorite of Hainholtz, has been discovered near the Sierra de Chaco (Chili),
in the neighbourhood of the celebrated locality of meteoric iron of Atacama
(Comptes Bendus, 1864, Mar. 28).
A new specimen of meteoric iron, weighing 20 cwt., is described at
Toconado, 120 miles north of the former locality of Atacama, where the iron
is exhausted. A breccia-like fragment of similar iron and stone, found at
Copiapo, 300 miles south of Atacama, has been examined by Dr. Haidinger.
The included minerals contain a larger proportion of nickel than the iron by
which they are surrounded.
(4.) Aerolites.
M. Wohler, who in 1860 analyzed the aerolites of Cold-Bokkeveldt, and
Kaba (Vienna Acad. Sitzungsber., 1860, July 5), reports the analysis by M.
Clbez, of the meteorites of Orgueil. Besides the usual inorganic constituents,
they contain 6 per cent, of a black amorphous organic substance, composed
of the organic elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, in proportions quite
similar to those in which they occur in lignite and peat ; in other words, a
veritable humus. M. Wohler infers from all the facts that wherever meteo-
rites originate, organic matter, — and hence probably, also, organized matter —
must have an existence.
(5.) Catalogue of the Collection of Meteorites belonging to B. P. Greg, Esq.,
Manchester.
The meteorites in this Catalogue are described under a new system of ar-
rangement, based upon those of Shepard and Bose, and altered so as to
bring similar meteorites together by their resemblance to different terrestrial
minerals. Great uncertainties still exist in the classifications adopted by
Shepard, Bose, and Beichenbach, over which this natural system of arrange-
ment in many instances possesses an advantage.
Y. Papers bearing on Meteoric Astronomy.
(1.) Cold days in February and May.
Brandes, at the beginning of the present century, first pointed out the
existence of a hesitation in the curve of temperature of the air about the
12th of February. Madler, in 1834, drew attention to a similar depression
of temperature about the 12th of May. Erman, in the year 1840, ascribed
these cold days of the year to the obscuration of the sun by the passage of
meteorites across its disk. At the opposite extremities of their orbits, one
ring of these meteorites furnishes us with the meteors of August, another
passes us in November. At these latter periods, M. Petit has shown that
the temperature of the air undergoes a small but appreciable elevation. In
support of Erman's theory, M. Ch. S. C. Deville cites the mean temperature
at Paris of the cold and warm days in question for fifty-seven years from
1806 to 1863 (Comptes Bendus, 1865, Mar. 27). M. Faye remarks upon this
mode of accounting for the anomalies in the temperature of the air, that the
theory must be received with caution. A slight glance at Mr. Glaisher's
Table, showing the adopted mean temperature of every day in the year, as
determined from aU the therm ometrical observations taken at the Boyal Ob-
servatory, Greenwich, in fifty years, from 1814 to 1863, is sufficient to show
that a great break in the continuity of the temperature-curve, perhaps the
most remarkable of any in the year, takes place at the end of November,
130 KEPORT — 1865.
causing a maximum of temperature on the 3rd of December, which cannot
be explained by any regular appearance of meteors at that date.
M. Le Verrier communicates to the Academy of Paris the observation, at
Constantinople, of a black body seen to cross the disk of the sun in forty-six
minutes, between 9 h and 10 h a.m. (local time), on the 8th of May 1865. The
observation adds interest to the former paper on the remarkable variations of
temperature in the months of spring (Comptes Eendus, 1865, May 29).
(2.) Heights, and Numbers of Meteors (Am. Journ. Sci. vol. xxxix. p. 193, and
Mem. Am. Acad. 1864, Aug. 6).
From the table of heights of meteors contained in the Am. Journ. Sci. (vol.
xxxviii. p. 135*), Professor Newton estimates the mean height of the centre
of the paths of shooting-stars above the earth to be 95-55 kilometres, or not
quite sixty miles (see also ' Les Mondes,' vol. v. p. 756). Their distribution
at other altitudes above the earth's surface is plainly indicated by the
following Table : —
From 19 to 38 miles ( 30 kilom. to 60). Total 114 meteors.
38 „ 56 „ ( 60 „ 90). „ 243 „
56 „ 75 „ ( 90 „ 120). „ 277
75 „ 94 „ (120 „ 150). „ 106
94 „ 112 „ (150 „ 180). „ 57
A consideration of 1393 meteors (recorded by about forty observers) shows
that the whole number of meteors visible at one place is 50-35 times the
number visible within 10° of the zenith, and therefore 50-35 times the
number of meteors occurring within this cone. If m represents the hourly
number, N the total number visible over the whole earth in the same time, it
is shown from the law of distribution in altitude, already stated, that
N=10,460xm.
Thirty meteors per hour in all the sky, concluded from the careful obser-
vations of M. Pouvard (Comptes Eendus, xiii. p. 1029), is not too large for
the mean value of m. It may therefore be concluded that the average
number of meteors traversing the atmosphere daily, and large enough to be
seen with the naked eye on a dark clear night, is more than seven and a half
millions.
The number of such meteors traversing a space equal to the sphere of the
earth (radius R), at any moment, with an average relative velocity (V), is
116-2 x y meteors, omitting the effect of the earth's attraction.
The average length of flight of shooting-stars is 12°-6. The mean distance
of the centres from the observer is upwards of ninety miles, the average
length of path upwards of twenty-five miles, and the average velocity calcu-
lated from a mean duration of 0-45 second, is at least forty-eight miles per
second. If, however, the average velocity is only thirty miles per second, it
follows from this formula that in each volume of the size of the earth, on
the track of its orbit about the sun, there are as many as 13,000 meteoroids,
large enough to furnish shooting- stars visible to tbe naked eye.
Of telescopic meteors, it is shown that their numbers are at least forty-fold
as great.
* Misprinted vol. xxxvi. in Appendix III. of last Report.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 131
Their average velocity, greater than that of the earth, implies that the
meteoroids are not closely grouped about the earth's orbit. That they are
grouped according to some law is, however, altogether probable.
1st. They may form a number of rings, like the August ring, cutting or
passing near the earth's orbit at many points along its track. The sporadic
shooting-stars may be outliers of such rings.
2nd. They may form a disk in or near the plane of the orbits of the
planets.
3rd. They may be distributed at random like the orbits of the comets.
According to the first of these suppositions there should be a succession of
radiants corresponding to the several rings. Dr. Heis and Mr. B,. P. Gre<*
believe that they have detected such a series. Continued observation di-
rected to this end will probably decide whether the meteoroids belong entirely
or mostly to rings.
The meteoroids neither belong exclusively, nor even largely to a disk, or to
a lenticular-shaped group about the sun, like that which the zodiacal light is
often supposed to indicate. The orbits of their rings are not in general cir-
cular, as may be inferred from their great velocity, but resemble more the
orbits of the comets. Finally, they cannot be regarded as the fragments of
former worlds, but may rather be described as the materials from which new
worlds are forming. (See pp. 135, 136).
(3.) Streaks, Detonations, ifcc. of Meteors (Vienna Acad. Sitzungsber.,
1864, November 10th).
From a carefully revised catalogue of 2950 meteors in the northern hemi-
sphere, the percentages of detonating, caudate, and aerolitic meteors are sepa-
rately determined by Dr. Julius Schmidt for every month. The percentage
of detonating meteors in August is three times less than in March. The
greatest percentage of aerolitic meteors is observed in May, when the per-
centage of caudate meteors is the least. On the average of the whole year,
different coloured shooting-stars are observed in the following proportions :—
White 75-8 per cent. Eed 5-7 per cent.
Yellow ..15-9 „ Green ..2-6 „
The average durations in seconds, for the different colours, are as follows :
White meteors 0-775 sec. Red meteors 1-905 see.
Yellow meteors ..0-921 „ Green meteors ..3-127 sees.
If the meteor of the 18th of October 1863 is omitted from the thirty-
two green meteors, included in the last average, the average duration of the
remaining thirty-one green meteors is 2-584 sees.
(4.) Meteorological Observations at the Flagstaff Observatory, Melbourne
Victoria, 1859 to 1862, p. 137.
From the mean of 1428 meteors observed in 668 hours, in three years
l)r. Neumayer concludes the following hourly numbers of meteors at Mel-
bourne, in the different months : —
January 2-1 April 1-4 July 2-7 October 2-9
February 1-9 May 1-9 August 2-7 November 1-7
March 1-7 June 2-8 September 2-5 December 2-8
132 report — 1865.
The following hourly numbers were observed at seasons when meteors were
most frequent : —
Between Jan. 25 and 27 5-0 Between Aug. 31 and Sept. 4 4-3
June 2 „ 10 41 „ Dec. 11 „ „ 13 4-5
„ July 26 „ 31 7-5 „ „ 23 „ „ 25 5-2
Aug. 13 „ 18 7-8
It may be noticed that, at Melbourne, meteors at the latter end of July
are nearly as abundant as in August.
(5.) Inferences and Suggestions in Cosmical and Geological Philosophy. New
Theory of the Origin and Formation of Meteorites. By Professor E. W.
Brayley, E.E.S.
Professor Brayley, a Member of the Committee, communicated to the Royal
Society on the 23rd of February last (1865), a paper entitled " Inferences and
Suggestions in Cosmical and Geological Philosophy," an abstract of which was
read on March 23rd, and appears in the ' Proceedings ' of the Society, No. 73,
vol. xiv. p. 120-129. In this paper a new theory of the origin and formation
of meteorites is enunciated.
In the introductory section, the author calls attention to the fact that the
position, powers, and functions of the Sun, as the physical centre of the solar
system, are peculiar, and in fact unique. The " Primary Induction " from
them, — indicating, in his opinion, " the principle of philosophical investiga-
tion " which should be applied to the Sun, — is conceived by him to be " That
they imply a corresponding uniqueness and peculiarity in its constitution,
characterizing also the nature as well as the disposition of the substances of
which it essentially consists. But the particular density of the Sun indicates
that it actually consists both of ponderable and imponderable matter. The
nature of the former as constituting apparently its relatively exterior regions
[is] believed to be made known in part by Professor Kirchhoffs researches in
Prismatic Chemistry applied to the Sun, as showing that some of the ele-
mentary substances of the Earth exist also in the Sun"*.
The author proceeds to state some of his reasons for believing " that, as a
class, the stars are the most ancient objects in the creation, and also (each in
its own sphere of action) the origins of the series of physical agencies and
processes by which the planets and other classes of heavenly bodies were
finally produced and are maintained." This being admitted, he infers that
the original production of ponderable matter takes place in the stars, and in
our Sun as one of them — a conception to which he had been led by the pre-
ceding and other considerations long before the application of prismatic che-
mistry to the Sun.
The energy set free in the condensation within the Sun, of matter in its
highest and most elementary character, of course imponderable, which is
conceived by the author to be essential to it, into ponderable matter (an ex-
pression which is shown not to be a solecism) and eventually into the me-
tallic vapours which the observations of Kirchhoif and other spectroscopists
have discovered in the Sun and other stars, is inferred to be at once the ex-
clusive proximate source of the heat and light and other energies of the Sun,
and (in our solar system) the only and universal origin of ponderable matter,
the absolute synthesis of which, from its imponderable elements, is thus be-
lieved to take place in the Sun.
In the second section, the " Cause and Nature of the Phenomena called the
* Syllabus of Lectures on Astronomical Physics, delivered at the London Institution in
1864, here cited from a revised edition, printed for private use. Lecture V.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 133
Solar spots" are considered. The energy arising from the transition from im-
ponderable into ponderable matter, will in part become, it is here said, the
centrifugal or projectile force by which the torrents of matter (finally assum-
ing the gaseous form) so produced, are impelled through the denser envelopes
of the Sun, causing the spots and the other phenomena of ebullition of which
the photosphere is the scene.
The next subjects of discussion are
The Origin of Meteorites, Series of Physical Processes of which they are the
result, and their Functions in Nature.
The vapours of metallic and other elementary matter evolved or discharged in
the ebullition of the photosphere of the Sun, partly remain upon the Sun, consti-
tuting its atmospheres*, but are principally aggregated into masses of immense
magnitude (terrestrially speaking), of the nature of bubbles. Having undergone
a certain amount of condensation, these first become visible to us as those particles
the collective brighness of which reveals to us the existence of the zodiacal light,
and are, in fact, the matter separated from the Sun's equator by rotation. These
Jiarticles, termed by the author meteoritic masses, are projected from the zodiacal
ight by the force to which its variable extension is owing, and are further gradually
condensed during their passage through the interplanetary spaces into the liquid
and solid state, constituting eventually the nuclei of meteors, which are finally
precipitated upon the Earth (and doubtless upon the other planets) in the form of
Meteorites.
The sudden outburst of light over a solar spot, witnessed on September 1, 1859,
by Mr. Carrington and Mr. Hodgson, the author regards as a fact confirmatory of
this view, and as having been the consequence or accompaniment of the produc-
tion, and the transfer with immense rapidity from within to without some exterior
region of the Sun, of a meteoritic mass, or more probably of an immense congeries
of such masses, enabled by its consisting of ponderable matter to manifest the
higher temperature and consequent greater effulgence of the interior regions of the
luminary, whence it was originally derived. Certain phenomena before recorded
by astronomers, but not yet understood, are probably of the same nature.
The structural characters of meteorites are those of bodies which have been origi-
nally condensed from heterogeneous vapours — the mingled vapours of uncombined
elementary substances variable in their nature, and requiring different temperatures
for their maintenance in the gaseous form, but all existing originally at a very high
temperature ; and their adequate investigation may afford, as an experimentum
crucis, an independent confirmation of Kirchhoff's discovery, and of the truth of
the spectrum-analysis of the composition of bodies distant from us in space. They
consist, mineralogically, of two groups, meteoric iron and meteoric stones, forming,
however, by graduation into each other, as first pointed out by the author many
years since, one series of bodies \. The intermediate examples, and indeed most
of the stones, are aggregates of earthy matter partly in the crystalline and partly
(as Mr. H. G. Sorby has shown J) in the vitreous state, and distinct portions of
metallic iron alloyed with other metals. They are, in fact, always heterogeneous
aggregates, in conformity with the origin here assigned to them. While, as a
class, meteorites are perfectly distinct from all terrestrial rocks — the presence of
metallic iron as a mineral constituent imparting to them, indeed, a character which
is perfectly unique— some of their constituent minerals, and all the elementary
substances of which they are composed, are such as are found, but differently asso-
ciated, in the Earth's crust, although there are many other terrestrial elements
which have not yet been discovered in them.
"Ten, or perhaps more, of the elements of the solar atmosphere," according to
Kirchhoff and Angstrom, " are also those of meteorites— iron, nickel, cobalt, chro-
mium, and magnesium being characteristically such. But the non-metallic base
* Companion to the Almanac for 1864, p. 46; for 1865, p. 53.
t Annals of Philosophy (January 1824), second series, vol. vii. p. 73; Philosophical
Magazine (December 1841), third series, vol. xix. p. 501.
\ Proc. Eoy. Soc, vol. xiii. p. 333. Article V. (7) of this Appendix.
134 report — 1865.
silicon, which, in union with oxygen as silica, is an abundant and equally charac-
teristic element of meteorites, is absent in the Sun, according to our present know-
ledge, in which also other elements of meteorites, including oxygen itself, are not
known to be present"*. It cannot be doubted, however, that by the further pro-
secution of spectrum-analysis, other elements will be discovered in the Sun. It
must be remembered also that our knowledge of meteorites is confined to a few only
of those which have fallen upon the Earth, and that during a very small space of
time, physically speaking, not exceeding a few thousand years, or perhaps even not
many centuries ; while the synthesis of ponderable matter in the Sun may reason-
ably be supposed to vary from time to time as to the particular chemical elements
produced. A remarkable and instructive fact, in the actual condition of science on
this subject, is that the metal iron is now known to be an abundant and character-
istic element of the Sun, of Meteorites, and of the Earth.
In harmony with these views on the origin of meteorites is a recorded, but per-
haps hitherto unpublished opinion of Sir H. Davy, that they originally consist of
the metallic and other combustible bases of the earths and alkalies of which me-
teoric stones are principally composed. But whether the oxidation of these bases
is effected in the Earth's atmosphere, as he also suggested, or whether in some cases,
though not in all, oxygen is present in the original assemblage of elementary
vapours, and combines with certain bases, and with portions of others, as the con-
densation proceeds, is a difficult question. The latter theory may be thought to
agree better with the entire series of phenomena presented by meteors, and with
the constitution of meteorites as a peculiar class of mineral aggregates ; but some
facts relating to either branch of the subject tend to support the former. Both
may be true to a certain extent. The facts, however, that scarcely any oxidation
of the iron meteorites has taken place, and that there are no meteorites which con-
sist principally of oxide of iron, while there are some in which metallic iron and
earthy matter (oxides) are present in nearly equal proportions, but that even in
these no excess of oxide of iron occurs, are opposed to the supposition that meteor-
ites have derived any considerable part of their oxygen from the atmosphere ; with
which also the existence of sidphide of calcium in certain meteorites is incon-
sistent.
In what part of space between the zodiacal light and the Earth the final conden-
sation takes place is not at present determinable. It would seem that these masses
must retain much of their original heat, and therefore to a great extent an aeriform
or vaporous condition (though one of greater density than that in which they left
the Sun, or even the zodiacal light, and mingled with liquid or solid matter as just
suggested) in the interplanetary spaces where the ether alone exists, and that
their entire conversion into a liquid and finally a solid form may not occur imtil
their arrival in a region of positive cold in the vicinity of the Earth or other planets.
Mr. Sorby has lately inferred, from the equable manner in which mineral ingredients
greatly differing in specific gravity as well as fusibdity are mingled in meteorites,
that their formation must have taken place in some physical iocality where the
force of gravitation is small ; " that they come either from the outside of a very
small planet much less than the moon, or else from the interior of a larger planet
since broken up"f. The first inference is in perfect accordance with the theory of
meteorites announced in this paper ; for it is evident that the force of gravity in
the original meteoritic masses must be very small, quite inadequate to interfere with
the disposition within them, and among one another, of their proximate elements,
however discordant in fusibility or specific gravity. It will follow also that the
* Companion to the Almanac for 1865, p. 65.
t Letter to the author [dated July 29, 1864. At the Meeting of the British Association
in September 1864, Mr. Sorby stated his inference in a somewhat different form, suggesting
" that the fusion and cooling " of metallic meteorites (such as the Pallas Iron) " might have
taken place in the metallic centre of small independent bodies, where the specific gravity was
nil, the meteorites being fragments of such bodies entering subsequently within the earth's
attraction, or that each meteorite had been itself a separate small body cooled in space." —
Quart. Journ. of Science (Oct. 1864) vol. i. p. 747. The last alternative, it will be seen, is
exactly the description of a meteoritic mass as contemplated in this paper. The equable
diffusion of proximate elements is equally characteristic of meteoric stones].
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 135
final condensation of these vaporous masses cannot take place either very near the
Sun or very near the Earth.
According to observations of the author already published*, the iron meteorites,
if not certain single meteoric stones (and most probably also the entire nucleus,
which in some cases is broken up and falls as a shower of meteorites), have the
form (resembling that of the meteors themselves, which is nearly that of a flame)
of the solid of least resistance, or of one derived from it, and received in fact from
the resistance of a medium they have traversed, but having in general one termi-
nation, and sometimes the other also, truncated to a variable extent. This would
seem to prove that they must once have been — as individual masses, and not
merely as portions of a body of which they originally formed part, nor as to their
preexisting materials only — in a fluid or mobile condition. These and other sig-
nificant circumstances are adduced in the paper as tending to the discrimination of
the physical changes by which meteoritic masses are affected prior to their entering
the Earth's atmosphere, from those which they afterwards undergo within it, and
from its action — the conclusion arrived at being that the solid meteorite is finally left,
with a slight alteration in figure, and however greatly reduced in volume, in the
approximate actual form — that of a bubble elongated by being impelled in a certain
direction through a resisting medium — in which, when in a gaseous state, it left
the Sun.
The phenomena of luminous meteors (shooting- stars and fireballs) more or less
examined by physicists from the latter part of the preceding century (the author
having himself endeavoured to elucidate certain characteristic phenomena of fire-
balls by applying to them the results of modem science t), but which, since the
appearance of the persistent meteor-shower in November 1833, have been so assi-
duously observed and discussed by meteorologists, especially in relation to the
periodicity they exhibit, are shown to be entirely conformable to the views of their
origin which are enunciated in this paper. The petrological characters of meteor-
ites themselves, as recently investigated by mineralogists J , together with others
before noticed by the author §, are also accounted for by these views, though, with
respect to the former, in a very different manner from that hitherto accepted.
The long-continued study of meteorites and of the phenomena which attend
their fall, affected by the consideration of the probable synthesis of ponderable
matter in the Sim, and — since the conclusions of Kirchhoff have been announced —
the special study of solar physics and chemistry, in connexion with both subjects,
appear to the author to justify him in entertaining the hope that he may thus have
succeeded — by means partly of a new deductive cosmical hypothesis submitted for
verification, and parti}- by uniting, and in some cases newly interpreting, preceding
inductions on particular points of their physical history — in effecting at least the
approximate solution of the problem of the origin and formation of meteorites,
which has been sought by philosophers from the time of the communication to the
Royal Society, now sixty-three years since, of Edward Howard's paper, demon-
strating their peculiar nature and establishing the reality of their fall||.
In the succeeding section of the paper, relating to the " Original Forma-
tion of the Planets," it is remarked that the only known phenomenon in which
the process of the formation of the Earth as a planet is actually observed, is
* First announced in Lectures on Igneous Meteors and Meteorites given at the Royal
Institution in 1839, and at the London Institution in 1841. See English Cyclopedia, Div.
Arts and Sciences, Meteors, Igneous or Luminous, vol. v. col. 604.
t See " A Sketch of the Progress of Science respecting Igneous Meteors and Meteorites
during the year 1823," read before "the Meteorological Society," May 12, 182 i, and pub-
lished in the Philosophical Magazine (for October of the latter year), first series, vol. lxiv.
pp. 288-292 ; also, Second Supplement to the Penny Cyclopaedia, "Meteors, Igneous or
Luminous ; " and English Cyclopaedia, as referred to in the preceding note.
I Reichenbach, Haidinger, G-. Rose, Maskelyne, Sorby, R. P. Greg.
§ Syllabus of Lectures on Igneous Meteors and Meteorites, delivered at the London In-
stitution in 1841, as reprinted in Phil. Mag., third series, vol. xix. p. 501, with addition,
p. 502.
|| Read February 25, 1802; published in the ' Philosophical Transactions ' for that
year, part 1.
136
REPORT-
-1865.
that of the fall of Meteorites upon it, by which its magnitude is augmented,
and that by the addition of materials homogeneous with those of its existing
elementary constitution, being chiefly "those chemical elements which are
present in the greatest quantity in the Earth's crust, and seem to be most
essential to its constitution. According to the principle of the adequacy of
Existing Causes, therefore, we must conclude that the fall of Meteorites is a
continuation or a residue of the process of formation of our planet, and that
the Earth was originally produced by the aggregation and coalescence of
Meteorites, or of greater masses into which they had previously coalesced.
The " Theory of the Minor Planets " is briefly considered. All the pheno-
mena they present are regarded as supporting the conclusion that their pecu-
liar relations and community of character are not, as hitherto supposed,
effects of their having formerly constituted one heavenly body which has been
reduced to fragments, but of their being bodies intrinsically of the same
nature, meteoritic masses in fact, in an advanced intermediate state between
the condition of meteorites and that of true planets, in process of gradual
convergence towards each other, preparatory to their coalescence into one
greater planet.
(6.) On the Microscopical Structure of Crystals. By H. C. Sorby, F.R.S. &c.
(Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xiv. pp. 453-500).
From the size of the vacuities seen by the aid of the microscope in certain
cavities contained in quartz, felspar, and other crystalline minerals, it is pos-
sible to calculate the circumstances of heat and pressure under which the
crystals were originally consolidated. On heating the crystals gradually, the
vacuous spaces gradually diminish and ultimately disappear. Their dimen-
sions in the natural state are therefore an exact measure of the contraction of
the incarcerated fluids in cooling down from the originally high temperature
of consolidation. Great liquid pressures at the time of consolidation tend to
diminish, and great temperatures to increase the size of the vacuous spaces
contained in the cavities in their ultimate or natural state. These fluid
cavities exist by millions in every specimen of ordinary quartz, and cause the
opacity of this (and the generality of other crystalline minerals) to the pas-
sage of the rays of light. Decrepitating crystals are familiar examples of
their occurrence among artificial products, such as those of salt, sulphate of
potash, nitre, &c. They are indeed of such universal occurrence in crystals,
as to form in mineralogy a microscopical test of crystalline aggregation.
Fig. 2.
By alternate overgrowths and restorations of the
crystalline figure in deposition, minute cavities are
constantly formed, especially when the deposition
is rapid (fig. 2). In these cavities a portion of the
flux, or mother-liquor, becomes incarcerated. The
foreign substance by which the deposition is for a
moment arrested so as to form the cavity is also
frequently caught up and confined within the
cavity. The cavities are irregular in size, but
generally take their figure from the crystalline
figure of the mineral. After being cooled down
from the temperature of deposition, the cavities
exhibit a variety of solid, fluid, and gaseous con-
tents, as well as a vacuity due to the total con-
traction of the incarcerated fluid. Various examples of cavities in the crystals
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OP LUMINOUS METEORS. 137
of minerals are given in the figures at the end of this paper. These consist of,
fluid cavities, glass cavities, gas cavities, and stone cavities, according to the
different materials by which the cavities were filled in deposition. The
coexistence of all of these in the crystalline minerals of igneous rocks, is a
certain proof of the combined influence of igneous fusion, aqueous solutio n
and gaseous sublimation in the process of their consolidation. The fluid
commonly enclosed in mineral crystals is an aqueous solution of chlorides of
potassium and sodium, sulphates of potash, magnesia and lime, and free
hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. It forms in some specimens of quartz, fully
one per eent. of the total weight of the mineral.
If for various specific reasons a dull red heat (680° F.) is adopted as the
ordinary temperature of consolidation of the igneous rocks, lavas, trachytes,
and granites, a fluid pressure of 4000 feet of superincumbent rock would
exactly equipoise the vapour-tension at this temperature of the saline fluids.
If a greater liquid pressure prevailed than this, which would generally be
the case, no vacuity could be formed within the cavities, until by cooling
and contraction the liquid pressure within them should decrease so far as not
to exceed the vapour-tension of the fluid. If p be the excess of pressure at
the time of consolidation at a temperature of 680° F., measured in feet of
superincumbent rock, v the observed proportion of vacuity to liquid volume
in the cavities at 0° C. (32° F.), the equation between these quantities,
derived from the best data of the elasticity of water, and of its vapour, in
combination with saline substances, is briefly
A.Q
^=369,0003^^ (10)
If P be the total pressure of superincumbent rock, including the vapour-
tension at 680° F. at the time of consolidation,
P= 4000 +28,385 (0-3-«).
The contraction of the fluids can be observed with considerable accuracy by
the aid of the microscope, in cavities that are equiaxial, or else (as in figs. 50,
101) in such as are long and slender, or very thin and flat. The value of v
varies in different specimens of quartz from 0-04 to 0-25, and from these the
following Table was calculated of depths at which a variety of igneous rocks
submitted to the microscope were probably consolidated : —
Depth in feet.
Trachyte of Ponza 4,000
Elvan of Gwennap 18,100
Granite at St. Austell 32,400
Mean of Cornish Elvans 40,300
More recent veins of Aberdeen Granite . . . 42,000
Mean of Cornish Granites 50,000
Elvan, at Swanpool, near Falmouth 53,900
Granite from Ding-Dong Mine, Penzance . . . 63,600
Mean of the Highland Porphyry Dykes .... 69,000
Exterior of the main mass of the Aberdeen Granite 69,000
Mean of the Highland Granites 76,000
Centre of the main mass of the Aberdeen Granite 78,000
Mean of all the igneous rocks . . . .49,692
The greater depths of the Aberdeenshire granites over those of Cornwall
(figs. 100, 116), shown in this Table, are conformable to general opinions
concerning these granites, derived from purely geological considerations.
1865. T
138
REPORT 1865.
The mean depth of consolidation of all the igneous or gneissoid rocks of the
Table is nearly 50,000 feet, and a rate of increase of 1° in 85 feet, according
to the information of Mr. R. Hunt, observed in descending to the bottom of the
deepest mines in England, would require a temperature of 680° F. (adopted in
calculating this Table) at a depth below the surface of 53,500 feet, very nearly
in accordance with the original supposition.
The molten lava of Mount Teneriffe can hardly be supposed to have an
actual depth less than that of 30,000 feet. The height of the mountain
and the depth of the ocean near its western side, indeed, amount together to
28,000 feet, and if the lava have any lateral extension to a moderate distance
in the same direction, a few thousand feet of rock must necessarily intervene
between its surface and the ocean-bed. The igneous rocks, hitherto examined
in the microscope, appear therefore to have been consolidated at depths com-
mensurate with those of modern lavas. In other words, granites, trachytes,
and gneissoid rocks are unerupted lavas of older volcanoes, consolidated by
loss of temperature, and variously protruded to the surface along with the
superincumbent strata.
50
c
Explanations of the Figures. The sign of multiplication indicates the ampli-
fying power employed ; in linear measure.
Fig. 2. (p. 136). A portion of the growing edge of a crystal of chloride of
sodium, x 200 : showing how the fluid cavities are formed. The shaded part
represents the concentrated solution entering into a deep notch formed by the
irregular growth of the crystal. The notch may be enclosed by a plane sur-
face, or, as shown by the dotted line, by the further growth of the crystal,
and cavities like those upon the right or left of the figure will be the result.
Fig. 50. A fluid-cavity.
Fig. 80. A fluid-cavity in the nepheline of a block ejected from Vesuvius.
X 1000.
Figs. 81, 82. The cavity, fig. 80, after having been subjected to a more
or less bright red-heat.
Fig. 86. A gas-cavity in the nepheline of a block ejected from Vesuvius,
in a natural state, x 1000.
Fig. 90. A glass-cavity in the nepheline of a block ejected from Vesuvius,
X 1200.
Fig. 91. The cavity, fig. 90, after having been subjected to a bright red heat.
Figs. 100, 101. Fluid-cavities in the quarti of a Trachyte from Ponza;
100. x 2000 ; 101, x 800.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 139
Fig. 116. A fluid-cavity in the quartz of the main mass of granite at
Aberdeen, x 2000.
Fig. 117. A stone-cavity in the quartz of the granite at St. Austell, Corn-
wall, x 1000.
(7.) On the Microscopical Structure of Meteorites.
By H. C. Sorby, F.R.S., &c.
(From the Proceedings of the Royal Society, June 16th, 1864.)
" For some time past I have endeavoured to apply to the study of meteorites the
principles I have made use of in the investigation of terrestrial rocks, as described
in my various papers, and especially in that on the microscopical structure of crystals
(Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1858, vol. xiv. p. 453. See the preceding Article). I
therein showed that the presence in crystals of ' fluid-, glass-, stone-, or gas-
cavities ' enables us to determine in a very- satisfactory manner under what con-
ditions the crystals were formed. There are also other methods of inquiry still
requiring much investigation, and a number of experiments must be made which
will occupy much time ; yet, not wishing to postpone the publication of certain
facte, I purpose now to give a short account of them, to be extended and completed
on a subsequent occasion*.
"In the first place it is important to remark that the olivine of meteorites
contains most excellent 'glass-cavities,' similar to those in the olivine of
lavas, thus proving that the material was at one time in a state of igneous
fusion. The olivine also contains ' gas-cavities,' like those so common in volcanic
minerals, thus indicating the presence of some gas or vapour (Aussun, Parnallee).
To see these cavities distinctly, a carefully prepared thin section, and a magnify-
ing power of several hundreds are required. The vitreous substance found in the
cavities is also met with outside and amongst the crystals, in such a manner as to
show that it is the uncrystalline residue of the material in which they were
form id ( Mezo-Madaras, Parnallee). It is of a claret or brownish colour, and pos-
sesses the characteristic structure and optical properties of artificial glasses. Some
isolated portions of meteorites have also a structure very similar to that of stony
lavas, where the shape and mutual relations of the crystals to each other prove
that they were formed in situ, on solidification. Possibly some entire meteorites
should be considered to possess this peculiarity (Stannern, New Concord), but the
evidence is by no means conclusive, and what crystallization has taken place in situ
may have been a secondary result ; whilst in others the constituent particles have
all the characters of broken fragments (L'Aigle). This sometimes gives rise to a
structure remarkably like that of consolidated volcanic ashes, so much, indeed, that
I have specimens which, at first sight, might readily be mistaken for sections of
meteorites. It would therefore appear that, after the material of the meteorites
was melted, a considerable portion was broken up into small fragments, subsequently
collected together, and more or less consolidated by mechanical and chemical ac-
tions, amongst which must be classed a segregation of iron, either in the metallic
state or in combination with other substances. Apparently this breaking up oc-
curred in some cases when the melted matter had become crystalline, but in others
the forms of the particles lead me to conclude that it was broken up into detached
globules whilst still melted (Mezo-Madaras, Parnallee). This seems to have been
the origin of some of the round grains met with in meteorites ; for they occasion-
ally still contain a considerable amount of glass, and the crystals which have been
formed in it are arranged in groups, radiating from one or more points on the ex-
ternal surface, in such a manner as to indicate that they were developed after the
fraa-nients had acquired their present spheroidal shape (Aussun, &c). In this they
differ most characteristically from the general type of concretionary globules found
in terrestrial rocks, in which they radiate from the centre ; the only case that I
know at all analogous being that of certain oolitic grains in the Kelloways rock
at Scarborough, which have undergone a secondary crystallization. These facts
are all quite independent of the fused black crust.
* " The names given thus (Stannern) indicate what meteorites I more particularly refei
to in proof of the various facts previously slated.
1,2
140 REPORT — 1865.
" Some of the minerals in meteorites, usually considered to be the same as those
in volcanic rocks, have yet very characteristic differences in structure (Stannern),
which I shall describe at greater length on a future occasion. I will then also
give a full account of the microscopical structure of meteoric iron as compared
with that produced by various artificial processes, showing that under certain con-
ditions the latter may be obtained so as to resemble very closely some varieties of
meteoric origin (Newstead, &c).
" There are thus certain peculiarities in physical structure which connect meteo-
rites with volcanic rocks, and at the same time others in which they differ most
characteristically, — facts which I think must be borne in mind, not only in forming
a conclusion as to the origin of meteorites, but also in attempting to explain volcanic
action in general. The discussion of such questions, however, sbould, I think, be
deferred until a more complete account can be given of all the data on which these
conclusions are founded."
(8.) Note on the preceding Articles (5) and (7). By Professor Brayley.
My friend Mr. Sorby, having resumed his microscopical investigation of the
structure of meteorites, privately printed and circulated a note, dated July 1865,
" On the Physical History of Meteorites," in which lie gives in a concise form what
he terms " a provisional theory " of their formation, announcing also his intention
to " describe the facts upon which it is founded," and discuss the " objections to
this and other theories in a [future] communication to the Royal Society." The
reception of an impression of this note from Mr. Sorby occasioned me to print, also
for private circulation, a comparison of the physical history of meteorites as in-
ferred in my own communication to the Royal Society, as above (p. 132), with that
inferred by him from his new observations of their microscopical structure. This
was placed in the hands of the officers of the Association, at the Meeting at Bir-
mingham, but too late to allow of its being read at any of the sectional meetings.
The present article is a brief abstract of it, with some additions.
Of the two most important results relative to the origin and formation of
meteorites obtained by Mr. Sorby, the first is stated, in his note, as follows : —
"A most careful study of their microscopical structure leads me to conclude that
their constituents were originally at such a high temperature that they were in a
state of vapour, like that in which many now occur in the atmosphere of the Sun,
as proved by the black lines in the solar spectrum."
As original induction from observed facts, this is in reality a verification, to an
important extent, of the hypothesis of the origin and formation of meteorites an-
nounced in my paper. But I had already arrived at, and made public in that paper,
exactly the same conclusions, with the addition that this vapour had actually been a
part of the same mass, and was identical in origin, with that forming the atmosphere
of the Sim, constituted as we believe it to be, on the authority of Kirchhoff and the
other spectroscopists who have continued and repeated his researches (p. 132).
Some of Mr. Sorby's subsequent conclusions are also closely parallel to my own.
" On cooling," he continues, " this vapour condensed into a sort of cometary cloud,
which was in a state of great commotion." This "cometary cloud" is manifestly
identical in nature with the bubbles or volumes of gaseous matter consisting of
the vapours of metallic and other elementary substances, which, having undergone
a certain amount of condensation, are conceived by me to be projected from the
Sun and through the Zodiacal Light ; and their gaseous contents having constituted,
according to my views, the torrents causing the phenomena termed the solar-
spots, in the stupendous ebullition of the photosphere, they must necessarily be " in
a state of great commotion," which would be retained long after their projection
from the Sun.
Mr. Sorby finally concludes " provisionally that meteorites are records of the
existence in planetary space of physical conditions more or less similar to those now
confined to the immediate neighbourhood of the Sun," at a remote cosmical period ;
a conclusion which he identifies with " a modified nebular hypothesis."
These physical conditions of planetary space at a former period are those which
I attribute to the interior regions of the Zodiacal Light as existing now, and of the
actual nature of which meteorites may be regarded as perpetual records. But I
. believe it may be shown, by a strict process of reasoning, that one of the necessary
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 141
results of the " uniqueness and peculiarity of the position, powers, and functions of
the Sun, as the physical centre of the solar system," is, that such conditions must in
the nature of things have heen from the beginning, and must ever be, confined to
it and its immediate vicinity ; that they never have existed, and cannot exist, any-
where else in the solar system, or in the space which it now occupies. Of the pre-
sence of the conditions requisite for the genesis of meteorites within, upon, and
immediately around the Sim, we have actual and ample evidence, quite independent
of that which may be derivable from meteorites themselves. But all that can be
said in support of the notion that such conditions could ever extend to distances
from the Sun comparable to those of the planets, is to adduce the very facts to
account for which that notion is brought forward, or refer to what are supposed to
be the probabilities of the "nebular hypothesis" hitherto unverified.
I deem myself justified in affirming that Mr. Sorby, by his microscopical obser-
vations of the structure of meteorites, has verified the hypothesis of their origin
and formation which has been stated in my " Inferences and Suggestions " through
a great part of their genetic history, — to the extent that is, of their condensation
from separate volumes or masses (believed to be originally solar bubbles) of aeriform
matter, consisting of the mingled vapours of their chemical elements, at a very high
temperature, in intense commotion, and existing, or having existed, in planetary
space somewhere between the Sun and the Earth*.
The second most important residt of Mr. Sorby's investigation, is that many
meteorites have been subjected to a metamorphic action.
" The particles of the cometary cloud," he saj r s, " moving with great velocity,
were often broken by collision. After collecting together to form larger masses,
heat, generated by mutual impact, or that existing in other parts of space through
which they moved, gave rise to a sensible amount of metainorphism. In some few
cases, when the whole mass was fused, all evidence of a previous history has been
obliterated ; and on solidification a structure has been produced quite similar to
that of terrestrial volcanic rocks."
The basaltic character of meteoric stones which Dr. Haidinger and Mr. A. S. Her-
schel have adduced in support of their conclusion, that they must have been frag-
mentsof true planets previously existing, together with the mineral constitution which
has led the former inquirer as well as Mr. R. P. Greg to regard them as unerupled
lavas, are manifestly the results of the metamoi-phism which some have undergone,
for the discovery of which, thus annoimced, science is indebted to Mr. Sorby. That
while existing as meteoritic masses resulting from the condensation of solar bub-
bles and froth, and prior to their coalescence into planetary bodies, or becoming
the nuclei of meteors, meteorites had undergone metamorphism, or that any which
had actually fallen upon the Earth had suffered that process, had never occurred to
me ; although I had been indebted to Mr. Sorby's kindness and liberality for an
opportunity of examining his series of sections of meteorites prepared for the mi-
croscope, before my paper was communicated to the Royal Society. This discovery
has removed an ambiguity, which from the time when the resemblance of certain
meteorites to volcanic rocks was distinctly recognized, has led to continued misap-
prehension of the nature of meteorites in general, and of their genetic history.
From this I had been myself preserved only by the conviction, that a group or
series of mineral aggregates possessing the unique character that nearly alf its
terms, even those principally composed of oxides, contained iron in the metallic
state, while some were entirely devoid of oxygen, consisting exclusively of iron
and other metals, together with uncombined "carbon, and also sidphur and phos-
phorus (if not silicon) united merely with portions of those metals, could not have
had the same origin with another group, volcanic rocks, which are character-
istically the results of oxidation, all their proximate constituents being oxides,
whether simple or compound. It was as evident at least that certain meteoric rocks
were genetically independent of the presence of oxygen, as that all volcanic rocks
were essentially due to its action ; while the meteorites devoid of oxygen were mani-
* The four paragraphs which terminate here have already appeared in an article on the
physical constitution and functions of the Sun, in the ' Companion to the Almanac ' for
1866, in sequence of two others contained in the same work for the two preceding years.
In the same article are some further considerations (also derived from my privately printed
paper) relative to the meteoritic constitution and physical circumstances of the Zodiacal
Light.
142 report — 1865.
festly as typically meteorites as those principally composed of oxides, and must have
originated in the same cosmical process. Metamorphosis alone, it is evident, could
not have converted meteorites devoid of oxygen into those which consist chiefly of
oxides, though a process of reduction resulting from the same cause, and going on
at the same time, might have converted the latter class into bodies resembling the
former. But the two groups — or rather the extreme terms of the series of Meteoric
Rocks — differ so greatly in their chemical composition, that the oxidation of the
unoxidated group would not result in the production of the oxidated, nor would
the reduction of the latter have produced the former. The meteoric irons must
have originated either from the condensation of vapour in which oxygen was not
present, or under conditions in which its activity was more or less controled. It
is highly probable, however, that the most perfectly stony meteorites, those most
nearly resembling Volcanic Rocks, and in which the smallest amount of metallic iron
occurs, have resulted from a combined process of metamorphosis and oxidation. All
this is perfectly consistent with my inference recently advanced, that the production
of terrestrial hypogene rocks " would be one of the final results of the Earth's for-
mation by the coalescence of meteoritic masses;" an inference which is I believe
original, and the announcement of which was made previously to Mr. Sorby's dis-
covery that some fallen meteorites have already undergone metamorphic action.
Report on Dredging the Coast of Aberdeenshire.
By the Rev. Walter Gregor, and Robert Dawson.
The Committee appointed by the British Association for the Advancement
of Science, for dredging the coast of Aberdeenshire, having engaged a smack
belonging to Banff, left that port on Tuesday, the 4th of July. The voyage
was continued till they found themselves off Gixdleness, the southern point ox
the Aberdeenshire coast. On Wednesday evening the distance from land was
about forty miles, and the depth of water was thirty-eight fathoms, with a bot-
tom of shingle and broken shells. The vessel was on the bank known as " The
Long Forties." The dredgings from this spot yielded no Arctic fossil shells,
although they were found in abundance on a smaller bank, which lies nearer
the shore, and at a distance of from eight to fifteen miles from land. There
were, however, brought up, in a decayed state, the four most common littoral
species, viz. Littorina rudis, Purpura htpillus, Solen siliqua, and Mytilus
edulis, the last being, with one exception, the small shore variety.
The Committee then sailed in and dredged in depths of forty fathoms with
a bottom of sand, forty-eight fathoms with a similar bottom, and fifty-seven
fathoms with a bottom of mud, shingle, and the concreted sand-tubes of a
species of Sabellaria, without finding any fossil shells. They continued their
course N.W. till they sighted the Buchanness Light-House on Thursday
evening. On Friday, when about ten miles from land, the dredges were put
out in fifty-four fathoms, with a bottom of mud and shells. The vessel was
then steered N. by E. for two hours. The dredges were again let down in
forty-five fathoms, when fossil shells came up in abundance. During the day
there was a thick fog, accompanied by torrents of rain. By evening it was
blowing a strong breeze, and the Committee were obliged to make for Peter-
head Bay. The weather continued unfavourable till Monday, when the Com-
mittee again sailed. It being almost a dead calm, little way was made, and
it was late in the afternoon before it was deemed expedient to throw the
dredges. About seven miles from land the dredges were let down in forty
fathoms, when large quantities of fossil shells came up. During the night
the vessel continued her course N. by E. from Buchanness, and by morning
(Tuesday, 11th July) was twenty-five miles from land. Here the depth was
ON DREDGING THE COAST OF ABERDEENSHIRE. 143
found to be 65 fathoms, and the bottom mud. Round this spot the dredging
was carried on for the day. During the afternoon a breeze sprang up, and
the working of the dredges became impossible. There was nothing for the
Committee but to return to Peterhead Bay.
The portion of the coast explored extends from Girdleness, the southern
extremity of Aberdeenshire, to a few miles north of Peterhead. There thus
remains -undredged a distance of rather more than ten miles on the east
coast, and of twelve miles on the north coast, at the entrance of the Moray
Firth, from Kinnaird to the Banffshire coast. The Committee regret that the
weather was not more favourable, as they have every reason to think they
would have been able to accomplish the dredging of the whole of the Aber-
deenshire coast, 4 and thus have had the means of presenting to the Association
a much fuller report than the one now submitted.
From the soundings, and the nature of the dredgings, the following con-
clusions may be drawn : — The sea gradually deepens for a distance of eight
to fifteen miles, when a bank covered with Arctic fossil shells occurs. The
depth again goes on increasing, till the bank called " The Long Forties " is
reached. From this bank no Arctic fossil shells were obtained but decayed
littoral species. The inner bank is, no doubt, composed of drift. It is
highly probable that the outer bank (" The Long Forties ") was at one period
an island, or the shore of a continent, which has since been submerged under
the sea.
It may be remarked that, along with the littoral species dredged from
" The Long Forties," there came up a valve of the "West Indian shell, Lucina
pemylvanica .
On referring to the Report of the Committee for dredging the North and
East Coasts of Scotland, laid before the meeting of the Association in 1862,
it will be found that the number of Mollusca collected by Mr. Dawson on the
Aberdeenshire coast amounted to 223 species, arranged as follows : —
Gasteropoda Prosobranchiata 110
Opisthobranchiata 11
Nudibranchiata 8
Pteropoda 1
Conchifera Lamellibranchiata 92
Brachiopoda 1
223
Since that time 36 species have been added to the list, arranged as
follows : —
Gasteropoda Prosobranchiata 14
Opisthobranchiata 1
Nudibranciata 14
Pteropoda
Conchifera Lamellibranchiata 5
Brachiopoda 2
"36
Formerly found 223
Making in all 259 species.
The most interesting of the newly added species are Cerithiopsis tubercu-
laris (2 specimens), Mangelia laevigata, var. (1 specimen), Buccinopsis Dalei
(1 specimen), Troehus Grcenlandicus (1 specimen), Fusus propinqims (several
specimens), Odostomia pallida (1 specimen), Propilidium ancyloides, Am-
144 report — 1865.
phisphyra, n. 8. (4 specimens), supposed to be the same species as that found
by Mr. Dawson in shell-sand from Unst, and noticed by Mr. Jeffreys in his
Report to the Meeting of the Association of last year, Montacuta Dawsoni,
described by Mr. Jeffreys in the second volume of his ' British Conchology,'
Pecten striatus, Panopea plicata, Tellina balaustina (a perfect specimen),
Crania anomala, and Argiope cistellula.
Of the Crustacea a full examination has not yet been made ; but what has
been done has brought to light several additions of interest and importance.
Of the Macroura only six species were obtained, viz., Stenorhynchus phalan-
gium and S. tenuirostris (many specimens), Inachus Dorsettenis (a few speci-
mens), Hyas coarctatus, Ebalia Cranchii (several specimens), and Atelecydus
heterodon (one small specimen). The total absence of any of the genus
Portunus, several of which are somewhat common in the Moray Firth, and
the extreme paucity of Atelecydus heterodon, plentiful on the Banffshire
coast, are worthy of notice. Of the Anomoura the Paguridas alone have
been fully examined, and they are as follows : — Pagurus Bernhardus, P.
Cuanensis, P. Ulidianus (one specimen), P. Hyndmanni (several specimens),
and another small specimen, not yet identified. Of the Sessile-eyed Crus-
tacea the examination has not been completed ; but the following interesting
species have been obtained, viz., Cheirocratus mantis and Unciola planipes,
two species recently described by the Rev. A. M. Norman in the ' N. H.
Transactions of Northumberland and Durham'; two Ampeliscce, not yet an-
nounced as British, but described by Mr. Norman as A. laevigata and A.
tenuicornis ; Mysis spinifera, not yet recorded as British; and another well-
marked species, in all probability new. One specimen of Sipuneulus Bern-
hardus was got.
The Echinodermata yielded nothing remarkable, except one specimen of
Brissus lyrifer, which, it may be remarked, has also been found off the
Banffshire coast, and one of Psolus squamosus, rather common on the Banff-
shire coast. Besides these the following species were found : — Ophiura tex-
turata, 0. albida, Ophiocoma bellis, 0. Ballii, O.gramdata, 0. rosida, Uraster
rubens ; Solaster papposa, Liudia fragilissima (1 specimen), Echinus sphcrra,
Edi inocyamus pusillus, Spatangus purpureus (many specimens), Amphidotus
cordatus, and A. roseus (a good many specimens). The absence of Palmipes
membranaceus and of Goniaster equestris, both rather plentiful on the Banffshire
coast, is worthy of notice.
In the examination of the Polyzoa and Hydrozoa little has been done.
Hornera borealis, a species not found before south of Shetland, was observed;
and two of the Leprcdia?. may turn out to be new.
Of the Actinozoa four species only were met with, at a depth of fifty-seven
fathoms, viz. Tealia crassicornis, Stomphia Churchice (5 specimens), Hor-
mathia Margarita, and Caryophyllia Smithii (a broken specimen). Of
Hormathia Margarita} the disk and tentacles only came up ; but these agreed
in every respect with the description given in the ' Actinologia Britannica.'
The Hormathia lived for several days, expanding the tentacles, and doing its
best in the miserable circumstances to enjoy life (!). The smallness of the
number of the Actinozoa, when compared with the number of species found
on the Banffshire coast (about eighteen, including the littoral species), is
somewhat remarkable. One reason for the difference, no doubt, is the nature
of the sea-bottom, that of Banffshire being in many places rocky or, as it
is locally called, " hard."
The few Sponges that were got were sent to Dr. Bowerbank. They con-
sisted of Polymastia spinula, Hymeraphia stellifera, and a very young Hy-
meniacidon, which was too immature for satisfactory determination.
ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1861 AND 1885. 14.5
It may be added that a small Lumpsucker, which the Committee have
been unable to identify either from Yarrell's or Couch's « British Fishes,'
â– was brought up.
To complete the dredging of the coast, the Committee would ask a re-
newal of the grant. They would also suggest that it would be most de-
sirable that their researches should be extended along the coast of Banffshire,
which has already yielded so many species new to Britain and to science.
A supplementary Report will be laid before the next Meeting of the Asso-
ciation.
An Account of Meteorological and Physical Observations in Three
Balloon Ascents made in the years 1864. and 1865 {in continuation
of twenty -two made in the years 1862, 1863, and 186-1), under the
auspices of the Committee of the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, by James Glaisher, F.R.S., at the request of the
Committee, consisting of Colonel Sykes, the Astronomer Royal, Lord
Wrottesley, Sir D. Brewster, Sir J. Herschel, Bart., Dr. Lloyd,
Dr. Lee, Dr. Robinson, Mr. Gassiot, Mr. Glaisher, Prof. Tyndall,
Dr. Fairbairn, and Dr. W. A. Miller.
TnE Committee on Balloon Experiments was reappointed last year, chiefly
for the following purposes : —
1st. To examine the electrical condition of the air, if possible.
2nd. To verify the law of the decrease of temperature as found from
summer-day observations, already made, with day observations at other
seasons of the year, but principally in the winter and adjacent months.
3rd. It was understood that, in addition, magnetical experiments, when-
ever possible, were to be made in preference to all others ; observations by
the spectroscope (particularly on the solar spectrum), on the currents of the
atmosphere, on solar radiation at different heights, and hygrometical observa-
tions, though secondaiy, were to be held very important subjects of inves-
tigation, and to be followed as far as possible, according to circumstances.
4th. To make arrangements for observations at night, and to make ob-
servations at night, if possible.
With respect to the first of these objects, no further progress has been
made ; the instrument which was prepared last year, was prepared for use
with an open-burning flame ; this is not admissible with gas in such close
proximity ; and since the last Meeting I have been in hopes that Mr. Fleeming
Jenkm, with Mr. Varley and Prof. Thomson, would be able to arrange an
apparatus that might with safety be used ; but, owing to engagements in
connexion with the Atlantic Telegraph Cable, these gentlemen have not yet
succeeded.
With respect to the second and third objects of research, some progress
has been made, though not to the exteat contemplated at the beginning of
the year.
With respect to the fourth object, having relation to night observations,
none have actually been made, but some arrangements have been completed,
of which I will say a few words.
1865. M
146 report — 1865.
To take observations in the air at night, it is imperatively necessary to
have some power of illumination, so that the instruments can be read.
Very many suggestions have been made for the benefit of the occupants
of the car ; among them phosphorus and the use of glow-worms have been
mentioned. The latter I feared would lose their luminosity at a low tem-
perature. The best of all seemed, however, to be a well-made miners' Davy-
lamp ; and through the kindness of my friends T. Sopwith, Esq., F.R.S., and
E. Potter, Esq., of Tynemouth, two have been most carefully made by Mr.
H. "Watson, of Newcastle, of copper ; so that their presence near to magnets
is innocuous.
These lamps, with their lights burning, have been placed in a volume of
gas, completely surrounded by it, without any bad effect following the im- '
mersion ; and what is more important, I have had one of these lamps burning
during an ascent made on the 27th of February of this year, coming down
alight — the only difference between with and without the light being that
in the latter case I had a source of heat to wann my cold fingers, which I
never had before.
I corsider tliat at present all necessary arrangements have been made for
night observations, so far as light is concerned ; and I cannot but regard this
as an advance, although I have not any results to present of observations made
at night, and we therefore are still in utter ignorance, without a single obser-
vation of the processes in operation at night to guide us, at any distance from
the earth. Such a series of observations, even though only to the height of
half a mile, would be veiy valuable indeed.
§ 1. Instruments and Apparatus.
The instruments used were for the most part the same in construction as
those in the preceding year; in addition, however, to them, there was a
very fine spectroscope by Mr. Browning, and a delicately mounted magnet
lent by Capt. Evans, F.K.S.
§ 2. Observing- Arrangements.
The instruments were in all cases placed on suitable framework attached
to the outside of the car, and were in this position easily read by myself
standing at the end of the car.
Circumstances of the Ascents, and General Observations.
Up to the last Meeting of the Association there had been 22 ascents, of
which 17 had been made in the months of June, July, August, and Septembe",
and 5 only in the other months of the year, viz. 1 in January, 1 in March,
2 in April, and 1 in October. Of those made in the summer months, one only
had been made in the morning, and 16 had been made in the afternoon or
evening, with a declining sun.
Efforts were therefore directed to day experiments between the months of
October and April, it being considered that the day and high experiments in
summer already collected had better be brought together and discussed before
any more of such experiments were made, and that in future attention should
be directed to those points of research needing further elucidation.
I therefore devoted all my leisure between the months of October and April
to securing as many ascents as I could between these times, and regret to
ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 AND 1865. 147
say that I succeeded in three only. The first of these "was on December 1st,
the second on December 30th, 1864, and the third on February 27th of the
present year. These three ascents were made from Woolwich Arsenal.
Although I have so few ascents to speak of, it must be borne in mind that
winter is the most difficult season of the year to pursue balloon experiments ;
yet as mountains are not climbed at this time of the year, and so few
experiments have hitherto been made by means of the balloon, we are in
almost entire ignorance of everything connected with the higher regions of
the atmosphere during this cold portion of our year, in respect to the pro-
gressive diminution of temperature with elevation, the diffusion of vapour
in the atmosphere, the density of clouds, their extent, and the currents in the
atmosphere.
It is therefore the most important season for experiments ; and these will
be exceeded in value only by night experiments.
Ascent from Woolwich Arsenal, December 1, 1864. — The balloon left the
earth at 2 h 37 m p.m., the temperature of the air at the time being 48° ; and
this value remained almost unchanged till the height of 600 feet was passed
(increasing slightly in fact at first), and then very gradually declined to 31 1°
at about one mile in height.
Ascent from Woolwich Arsenal, December 30, 1864. — The balloon left at
2 h 13 m p.m., with a temperature at the time of 42^° ; it declined 2° in the
first 500 feet ; at 1000 feet high it was 37°, or showing a decrease of 5|° ;
at 2000 feet it was 33|°, showing a further decline of 3|° in this 1000 feet.
At 2500 feet high we met with cloud ; the temperature was 31°. At 3300
feet, just at the upper surface of the cloud, the temperature was 27° ; on
getting above the c^ud the temperature rose, and when 400 feet above it had
increased to 31 1°.
Ascent from Woolwich Arsenal, on February 27, 1865. — We left the earth
at l h 58 m p.m. ; the temperature of the air was 52°, declined gradually to 35°,
when cloud was reached, which proved to be 1000 feet in thickness ; during
the passage through it there was no change of temperature, but on passing
above it the temperature increased with the elevation.
By comparing these results with those taken in the period of summer they
differ very greatly, and plainly show that the laws of temperature holding
good at one season are different from those at other seasons of the year.
The balloon's courses in these three ascents were very nearly the same
after attaining a certain elevation. On the 1st of December, on reaching
1100 feet, the current of air changed from W. to S.W. ; at 2000 feet a
W.N.W. current was entered ; at 5000 feet the air was moving W.N.W.,
and we approached the sea, compelling us to descend near Rochester at
4 U 25 m p.m.
In the second ascent the wind was nearly south on the earth when the in-
flation began ; it changed to W. nearly, and pilot balloons at a moderate ele-
vation moved N,W. On leaving, the balloon first moved E.N.E. ; when 500
feet high we entered a W. current, and, as before, moved towards the sea. It
was at first intended to descend near the river Thames ; but on coming within
300 feet of the earth the wind changed and we went somewhat inland, and
descended, at 3 h 20 m , near to Stamford Le Hope.
During the month of January, and the greater part of February, as far as
could be determined from daily observation from the Royal Observatory,
Greenwich, the general prevalence of the wind in the higher regions of the
ah- was W. and S.W. On February 27th the direction of the wind on the earth
148 report — 18G5.
was N., and apparently steady in that direction while the balloon was being
filled. On its completion the wind had changed to the S., and 4 or 5 hours'
observations were looked forward to.
On reaching the height of 1500 feet, the balloon again fell in with the pre-
valent S.W. current, and at 3000 feet was in a nearly W. current, and again
passed over the like course, directly towards the sea. It was therefore not
deemed prudent to ascend very high. When above the lower clouds they
were seen moving at right angles to the balloon's motion. Approaching the
sea, it was necessary to descend ; and on again reaching the height of 3000
feet the balloon fell in with the S.W. current, at 1500 feet with the S. current,
and with this passed somewhat inland ; on again reaching 3000 feet, we
turned to move again directly towards the sea, and descended at South Han-
ningfield at 4 h 1 M .
After this I did not succeed in ascending, and since April I have mostly
been taking steps towards securing some night ascents.
It is unfortunate, in one sense, that the wind on these occasions, not-
withstanding its direction on the land, was so constantly at certain eleva-
tions moving with a W., W.S.W. or S.W. current, because on all occasions
it so shortened the time of observation, and limited the elevation to such
heights only that we were certain of being able to descend before reaching
the sea.
Yet the fact is important, and very much so, as proving the constancy of
the S.W. current during our winter months ; for the evidence of such cur-
rent is not merely confined to these three clays only, but a continued watch
was kept on the higher regions from the lloyal Observatory, and whenever
scud or cloud has been seen at the proper elevation, it has been found to be
moving in that direction. The high temperature we experience in winter
seems to be very much due to the prevalence of the warm current.
In these three ascents, Frederick John Evans, Esq., Staff Commander E.N.,
F.R.S., Superintendent of the Compass Department of Her Majesty's Navy,
very kindly furnished me with a very delicate magnet, which he uses on board
of iron ships and in the Compass Department.
This instrument vibrates in a little more than two seconds on the earth.
In the ascent on December 1, I was able to take ten sets of vibrations ; and
notwithstanding the lower temperature of the higher regions, the time of
vibration was lengthened.
In the ascent on December 30, the balloon was in a constant state of rota-
tion, and I was unable to take any magnetic observations.
In the ascent on February 27, the same needle vibrated in 2-001 seconds
on the earth, at the height of one mile vibrated in 2-277 seconds nearly.
These results were confirmed by another magnet, somewhat less delicately
mounted, its time of vibration being found to be longer at high elevations
than on the earth. These results agree with those found at other times of
the year.
The Lines in the Solar Spectrum.
At every opportunity I directed the spectroscope to the sun, and always
saw a very fine spectrum, with veiy many lines, far greater in number than
when viewed on the earth, and much better defined. The spectrum usually
extended from A to far beyond H, the latter line being plainly made up of
fine lines. I have never seen the spectrum of the sun, when viewed on the
ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 AND 1865. 149
earth, nearly so brilliant as it always is on rising above the lower atmosphere,
although I have examined the solar spectrum many hundreds of times on the
finest days. The spectrum, when viewed from above, is perfect with a much
narrower opening of the slit than it is on the ground, and consequently lines
can be resolved clearly which cannot be seen from the earth.
A very delicate blackencd-bulb thermometer, placed with its bulb near
to the carefully screened bulb for temperature of the air, in the first of these
three ascents, generally read the same as that for the temperature of the air,
occasionally read lower, and never during the ascent read more than 1° in
excess. The same results were observed in the ascent on December 30tb.
In the ascent on February 27 it generally read the same; but at times,
when the sun was shining the brightest, it read from 2° to 3° higher than its
shaded neighbour.
No tinge of ozone was shown on any test-paper spread freely about on the
rigging in any of these journeys.
§ 3. Description of the Table of Observations.
All the meteorological observations taken during the ascents are contained
in Table I.
Column 1 contains the times at which the observations were made. Column
2 contains observations of the siphon barometer corrected for temperature and
index error. Column 3 contains the readings of the thermometer attached
to the barometer. Column 4 contains the readings of an aneroid barometer.
Column 5 contains the height above the level of the sea, as reduced from the
barometric readings in column 2 on the days the siphon barometer was used,
and from column 4 on other days, by the formula of Baily, checked at inter-
vals by that of Laplace, which is as follows : — -
z= 1 „ g (i,) x6 o 158 ( 1+ ^r«) (l+ „,o 283 rc„ s2 L)( 1+ lg|l),
where Z is the height required, and h, Ji', t and t' the height of the barometer,
corrected for temperature, and the temperature of the air at the lower and
upper stations respectively, L the latitude. The temperature of the air for the
position of the balloon has been derived from the readings in column 10,
when such have been taken, otherwise from column 6. Columns 6 to 9
contain the observations with the dry- and wet-bulb thermometers free,
and the deduced dew-point. Column 10 contains the readings of a
gridiron thermometer. Columns 11 to 14 contain the observations with
the dry- and wet-bulb thermometers aspirated, and the deduced dew-
point. Columns 15 and 16 contain the direct dew-point observations with
Daniell's and Kcgnault's hygrometers. "When numbers are entered in
columns 15 and 16 with " no dew " affixed to them, it is meant that the
temperature of the hygrometer has been lowered to the degree stated, but that
no dew has been deposited. Column 17 contains the readings of a very de-
licate blackened-biub thermometer fully exposed to the sun's rays.
The Astronomer Eoyal had observations made every ten minutes at the
Eoyal Observatory, Greenwich, on the days of ascent, by Mr. Nash of the Mag-
netical and Meteorological Department.
The height of Greenwich barometer- cistern above the mean sea-level is
159 feet.
150
REPORT 1865.
Table I
A. —
Meteorological Observations made in 1
;he Twenty-third
s »
Ci o
4) O
«-
Tim
e.
Siphon Barometer.
Aneroid
Barometer,
No. 2.
Height above
sea-level.
Dry and Wet Ther-
Beading
corrected
and reduced
Attached
Therm.
Dry.
Wet.
to 32° Fahr.
h m
s
in.
in.
feet.
II 35
p.m.
(1)
(2)
30-15
46-2
43-5
30 - I92
6i«o
46-8
43-2
i i5
(3)
a 30
>>
30-063
50-0
30-10
ground.
48-0
44-2
(4)
2 37
>>
29-95
206
482
44' !
2 38
»» "
29-61
498
48-0
44-0
(5)
2 38
30
.»
29-38
644
47'5
43-2
«)
2 39
tt
29^42
51-0
29-20
890
47-2
43'3
(7)
2 40
..
28-85
1,230
46-0
42-0
(«)
2 41
»>
28-413
51-0
28-45
1,618
45-0
41-2
(»)
2 42
it
28-23
1,831
43'5
40-2
(10)
2 43
tt
27-80
2,248
43-0
387
2 44
it
27-40
2,636
41-0
36-0
2 45
tt
26-70
3.298
44-0
36-0
(11)
2 46
tt
26426
47*o
26-42
3.57o
39'5
34"9
2 48
it
26-19
3.804
38-5
33 - o
2 50
tt
25-78
4222
38-0
32-0
2 51
11
25-68
4.3 2 4
38-0
32-0
(12)
2- 54
tt
25-30
4,630
36-0
29-1
(13)
2 55
>»
25-110
47-0
25-19
4.74 2
35-0
28-5
(14)
2 57
»>
24-90
5,038
33"o
26-1
2 58
11
24-70
5,328
3i'5
26-1
(15)
2 59
ti
24-690
46-0
24-70
5,328
31-5
26-1
3 5
it
25-50
4.496
31-2
26-5
3 6
tt
(16)
3 6
30
tt
25-67
4>3'9
31-2
26-5
3 8
>>
25-80
4,184
33 - o
29-1
(17)
3 9
»>
2585
4,128
33'5
29-8
3 1°
»
25-80
4,170
34'5
30-0
3 14
it
25-09
4.766
32-2
29-1
(18)
3 15
it
24-891
46-0
2492
4,909
31-8
27-2
(19)
3 17
tt
24-90
4.951
31-0
27-1
fyOj
3 2 3
11
24-78
5.°5 2
30-2
25-1
3 2 4
it
24-72
5,122
29-8
25-0
(21)
3 26
it
24-70
5-'97
30-2
25-1
3 27
it
25-00
4-93 1
30-2
25-2
3 3 2
11
25-50
4.489
3 I- 5
28-1
(22)
3 33
11
2 5'45
4.54i
32-0
28-1
(23)
3 34
11
25-20
4,805
32-0
28-1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Notes and
(1) Sun shining; clear sky ; wind N.N.W., light and variable.
(2) Cloudy ; a pilot balloon first moved W., then N.W.
(3) Sky clear. (4) Wind very nearly W.
(5) A gun fired ; felt the shock. (6) Sun shining brightly.
(7) Entered a S.W. current, moving towards the part of the river north of Erith. Very
misty all round. (8) Sun shining brightly.
(9) Eeport of proving guns at Woolwich ; perceptible vibration, every rope and the in-
struments were shaken.
(10) Opened the valve ; nearly opposite Belvedere.
(11) Sun warm. (12) Between Erith and Belvedere,
ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 186-1 AND 1865.
151
Balloon Ascent, from Woolwich Arsenal, December 1, 1864.
mometers (free).
Difference.
Dew-point.
Gridiron
Thermo-
meter.
Dry and Wet Therms, (aspirated).
Dry.
Wet.
Diff.
Dew-
point.
Hygrometers.
Daniell's.
Dew-point.
Regnault's.
Dew-point.
Delicate
Blackened-
bulb Ther-
mometer.
27
3-6
3-8
4 -1
4'°
4'3
3 - 9
4'°
3-8
3"3
4"3
5*o
8-o
4-6
5'5
6-o
6-o
6- 9
6-5
6- 9
5-4
5 - 4
47
47
3'9
37
4"5
3'i
4-6
3 '9
s-i
4-8
5 - i
5-°
3"4
3"9
39
8.
40.4
39" 1
40'o
39-6
396
38-5
38-9
37'4
36-8
36'3
37-9
297
297
28-6
25 - 6
23-8
23-8
187
12-5
I2"2
I2"2
156
i's-6
ai - 3
2I"9
224
22"0
166
i6-s
9' 1
9-8
89
8-9
9-6
9-1
91
46-5
468
48-0
482
48-0
38-5
35 - °
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
General Remarks.
40'2
40*0
40'o
[dew
iyo no
[dew
15-0 no
40 - o
[dew
16-0 no
[dew
19-0 no
15.
16.
56-0
56-0
47 °
44 - 5
40'o
390
35"S
33'°
29-5
3i-5
31-0
30-0
17.
(13) Ozone =0. (14) Wind N.N.W.
(15) Nearly opposite Erith ; hills and dales distinctly visible.
(16) Sun-spectrum very fine. (17) Sand out.
(18) A little to the right, or nearly over Dartford.
(19) Moving towards Cobham Park.
(20) Cannot get any dew on either Daniell or Regnault.
(21) No ozone.
(22) South of Greenhithe ; smoke near the earth moving S., but after reaching 1000 feet
moving N.
(23) In a line with Northfleet ; we shall pass over Cobham Park.
152
REPORT 1863.
Table I. a. — Meteorological Observations made in the Twenty-third
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)
Time.
3 4°
3 4i
42
43
44
45
4 6
46
47
48
49
5°
5i
52
53
54
54
55
55
56
57
5S
59
o
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
9
10
r 3
'4
'5
'5
17
iS
'9
20
op.m.
o „
o „
o „
° ,,
o „
o „
3° >.
o „
o „
O 11
o „
o „
o ..
O I)
3° >>
° „
3° 11
o „
o ,,
o ,,
o „
o „
o ,,
30 ..
„
° II
o „
o „
o „
o „
° ..
30 .»
° „
o „
„
° „
30 11
° ,,
o „
o „
o „
Siphon Barometer.
Reading
corrected
and reduced
to 32° Fahr.
Attached
Therm.
Aneroid
Barometer.
No. 2.
in.
2478
24-63
24-60
24-95
25-52
26-45
26-47
26-45
26-20
26-00
2582
26-00
2616
26-20
26-20
26-65
2675
2680
27-00
27-30
2 7'45
27-50
27-30
27-30
27-20
27-14
27-25
27-40
28-00
2825
28-30
28-42
28-50
28-52
28-60
28-70
28-80
28-60
28-50
28-35
28-40
28-50
28-70
Height above
sea- level.
feet.
5.H5
5>4°3
5.431
5,063
4.464
3.4o7
3-47°
3-49 1
3.759
3.973
4,170
3,968
3.789
3.744
3.744
3,240
3.' 2 4
3,082
2,914
2,662
2,536
2.497
2,691
2,691
27S8
2,847
2.744
2,603
2,039
1,804
1.759
1,644
1.569
i.55°
J.475
1,381
1,280
1.394
I.45 1
r.532
1,496
1.424
1,280
Dry and Wet Thcr-
Dry.
30-0
295
29-1
30-0
31-2
32-8
33"°
33'°
33'°
33'°
33'°
33-0
327
32-4
32-1
32-5
32-5
32-8
33'°
34-0
34'5
35'2
35'5
35'6
35'7
35'5
35°
35'5
36-2
37-1
37'3
38'3
38'3
387
39'°
42-0
42-1
42-0
4''5
41-2
40-5
4i'5
42-0
3.
4.
0.
6.
(1) T\ T o dew on either Daniell's or Regnault's Hygrometers.
(2) A chill to sense; sand thrown out. (3) Heard voices.
(4) The setting sun illuminated the topmost part of a dark stratus cloud, with a very deep
orange-colour ; not a cloud in the sky above altitude 15°. Put magnets away.
(5) A sudden chill again. (6) Sand thrown out.
(7) Wind W.N.W. ; smoke below moving S.
(8) Heard a clock strike 4 h plainly. (9) Sand thrown out.
(10) Saw a railway-train. (11) Heard people calling cut..
ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 AND 1863. 153
Balloon Ascent, from Woolwich Arsenal, December 1, 1864 (continued).
mometers (free).
Dry and Wet Therms, (aspirated).
Hygrometers.
|
Daniell's.
Hegnault's.
Blackened-
Difference
Dew-point
meter.
Dry.
Wet.
Diff.
point.
Dew-point.
Dew-point.
bulb Ther-
mometer.
o
2-8
o
iX-4
3-0
i6-5
3 -o
i 5 '3
z-2
1 8-4
3' 1
'9 - S
3 - 3
22'9
3'5
22'5
2I- 5
3 - *
23*1
3'3
23 I
[dew
5 - i
>7'4
15-0 no
33'o
5"°
iS'°
5-o
i5'°
4"5
I9'2
[dew
3 9
2CO
2o - ono
3 - 4
2I"3
2 - S
247
25-0
2'0
25*0
2'0
20/2
**9
27'3
2'0
28-5
28-0
i'S
30-5
17
308
>'9
3°"7
30-0
2"0
30-5
2"I
3°'3
24
29-4
2"0
298
2"2
30-0
i - 4
3 2 "7
2*1
32-3
i-6
33-0
1-8
34' 1
i'3
35' 2
I - 2
358
I"0
367
i'7
368
i-9
379
2'5
364
23
3 6 "3
*"S
35'5
'S
37-1
2'0
37'°
2- 3
36-4
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15. 16. 17.
(12) A great deal of moisture on the balloon.
(13) Nearly south of Gravesend. (14) Heard many voices.
(15) Can hear cries of " come down ;" wooded country.
(16) Cobham Park. (17) Moist to sense.
(18) Moisture almost dropping from the balloon.
(19) Approaching the Medway.
(20) Ascending to a higher current to cross the river.
(21) We can see Eochester Bridge and Castle.
154
KEPORT 1865.
Table I. a. — Meteorological Observations made in the Twenty-third
V o
£2
Siphon Barometer.
Aneroid
Barometer,
No. 2.
Height above
sea-level.
Dry and Wet Ther-
Time.
Reading
corrected
and reduced
Attached
Therm.
Dry.
Wet.
to 32° Fakr.
h m s
ill.
in.
feet.
4 21 op.m.
28-80
I.20S
41-2
397
4 « 3° »»
28-82
1,194
4i"3
39'7
4 22 O ,,
28-90
1,137
41-0
40-2
4 2 3 ° .i
29-12
979
4.1-1
40-2
(1)
4 35 o »
4 33 ° »
29-82
V ground â– <
45-2
43-0
Table I. b. — Meteorological Observations made in the Twenty-fourth
(2)
2 12 O p.]
2 12 45 ,
11.
29-86
I ground -<
42-5
39'°
2 13 O ,
29-80
80
42-1
38-5
2 14 O ,
2951
355
41-0
37-2
(3)
2 15 O ,
29-25
602
40-0
36-2
2 15 30 ,
2905
782
390
360
2 16 O ,
28-95
877
38-2
35-i
(4)
2 l6 30 ,
2880
1,020
37'2
34-8
2 l6 45 ,
2850
1,321
36-2
34-2
2 17 O ,
2 l8 O ,
2 l8 30 ,
27-80
1.995
34'i
32-9
2 19 O ,
27-60
2,220
33'°
32-0
<£)
2 19 30 ,
27-50
2,310
32-5
32-0
(«)
2 19 45 ,
2 7'45
2.355
32-7
3 r8
2 20 O ,
2740
2,410
32-5
31-9
(7)
2 21 O ,
2 22 O ,
27-10
2,634
32'2
3i'5
2 23 O ,
27-05
2,699
319
30-5
(«)
2 23 30 ,
27-05
2,699
31-9
30-8
w
2 24 O ,
27-11
2,641
319
30-5
(10)
2 25 O ,
27-40
2,350
319
31-0
(ii)
2 26 O ,
27 - 45
2,301
31-9
31-2
2 27 O ,
27-68
2,077
3 I- 9
31-6
(12)
2 27 IS ,
2 27 30 ,
27-75
2,019
32-3
32-0
(13)
2 28 O ,
2r55
2,215
32-2
32-2
2 28 15 .
27-40
2,362
3i-5
31-2
(14)
2 28 30 ,
27-21
2,552
3i"3
30-6
(15)
2 28 45 ,
(16)
2 29 O ,
26-92
2,822
29-5
29-0
2 29 30 ,
26-71
3,018
28-8
28-3
(17)
2 29 45 ,
(18)
2 30 O ,
2648
3,228
27-5
27-2
7.
(1) On the ground at Delce Farm, near Kochester.
(2) Left the earth. (3) Mist all round.
(4) Cold. (5) Dropped the grapnel.
(6) Approaching cloud. (7) In cloud.
(8) Just out of cloud ; and over the wall of the river.
(9) At least 150 vessels in sight. (10) Out of cloud.
ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 AND 1865. 155
Balloon Ascent, from Woolwich Arsenal, December 1, 1864 (continued).
momcters (free).
Dry and Wet Therms, (aspirated).
Hygrometers.
Delicate
1
DanieU's.
Regnault's.
Blackened-
Difference.
Dew-point.
meter.
Dry. Wet.
1
Diff.
Dew-
point.
Dew-point.
Dew-point.
bulb Ther-
mometer.
o
O
»*5
37"4
i-6
37-2
o-8
39-2
09
39'i
2"2
4°\5
Balloon Ascent, from "Woolwich Arsenal, December 30, 1864.
S'5
34-8
3-6
34"i
3-8
32-4
2*8
31'2
3-0
32-0
3'i
30-9
2-4
3I-S
2 -
31-2
3°"5
30-0
I "2
30-8
I'O
30-0
°"5
31*0
o- 9
30-0
o-6
307
07
30-0
28-0
»"4
27*1
11
28-3
> "4
27-2
0-9
28-9
07
29*6
°'3
30-9
3°'5
0-3
3°'4
o - o
32 - 2
0-3
30-4
07
28-9
o-5
27-3
°S
26*4
0-3
26 - o
27-0
8 - 9- 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.
(11) Our course is taking each bight of the river.
(1-) Sand out. (13) Cold to sense : approaching cloud.
(14) Edge of cloud. ll 8
(15) Entered cloud ; lost sight of everything.
(16) Very cold. (17) Much lighter : verv cold.
(18.) CI
oud dense
and cold
fog da
zzlingly
bright.
156
REPORT — 1865.
Table I. b. — Meteorological Observations made in the Twenty-fourth
<u en
sz
w 5
Time.
Siphon Barometer.
Aneroid
Barometer,
No. 2.
Height above
sea-level.
Dry and Wet Thcr-
Reading
corrected
and reduced
Attached
Therm.
Pry.
Wet.
to 32° Fahr.
h m s
in.
in.
feet.
(1)
2 31
p.m.
26-28
3.424
27-2
265
2 32
jj
2612
3-5 8 °
30*0
26-0
(2)
2 32 15
j>
26-12
3,580
29-5
26-2
2 33
i)
26-00
3.735
315
26-0
(3)
2 34
?»
2 34 15
jj
26-15
3.589
29-5
26-2
2 34 30
jj
26-15
3.589
29-0
27-2
(4)
2 34 40
)>
2 34 45
»
26-25
3.492
28-2
27-1
2 35
35
26-50
3.249
28-2
27-0
(5)
2 35 30
JJ
27-20
2,570
28-2
28-0
(0)
2 36
JJ
27-65
2,133
30-2
297
2 37
JJ
28-90
932
33-0
32-0
(7)
2 38
JJ
28-95
837
34-0
32-5
2 39
JJ
2905
797
34-5
329
(«)
2 40
J*
29-18
689
35'2
335
2 41
II
29-05
1,009
35-9
33-8
(•9)
2 41 30
IJ
28-90
1,369
36-0
33 - 9
2 42
II
28-72
1,669
35'5
338
2 43
II
28-60
1,929
35'5
33'5
2 43 30
It
28-52
2,129
35'5
33-2
2 44
It
28-48
2,219
35'5
33'2
2 45
It
28-32
2,589
34'9
32-8
2 45 30
>>
28-30
2,699
34'5
33"°
2 46
It
28-26
2,829
34'2
32-5
2 47
It
28-25
2,860
34'°
33'°
2 47 30
II
28-24
2,946
34-0
33"°
2 48
II
28-40
2,796
34-0
33-0
2 48 30
11
28-40
2,796
34-0
33'°
2 49
It
28-40
2,796
34-0
33'°
2 49 30
It
28-45
2,666
34'5
33'3
2 49 45
JJ
28-50
2,536
35'°
33'2
2 50
JJ
2860
2,276
35'3
33"2
2 50 30
JJ
2868
2,070
35-6
335
2 51
JJ
28-85
1,621
35-6
33'5
2 51 30
JJ
28-92
1,462
356
33 8
2 5 1 45
JJ
29-00
1,256
35-8
338
2 52
It
29-10
1,096
36-0
34-0
2 53
11
29-35
556
362
34-0
2 53 30
11
29-38
5"
362
34 - 5
2 54
II
29-39
495
36-2
34-5
2 54 3°
II
29-32
556
36-2
34'5
2 55 °
II
29-31
565
36-1
34' 5
2 57
II
29-60
299
38-2
3 6 '7
2 57 3°
II
29-31
570
38-2
36-7
(10)
2 58 30
II
29*20
670
38-2
35"5
2 59
II
28-95
900
37-2
36-0
300
II
28-78
1,056
37-2
36-0
4.
o.
7.
(1) Sun shining dazzlingly. A beautiful sky of Prussian blue ; not a cloud above us ;
beautiful sea of cloud below of varied surface, bright and shining.
(2) Sun brighter still. (3) Sun observed in mist.
(4) In a very dense cloud. (5) Out of cloud.
ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 AND 1865. 157
Balloon Ascent, from Woolwich Arsenal, December 30, 1804 (continued).
moinetcrs (free).
Dry and Wet Therms, (aspirated)
Hygrometers.
Gridiron
Thermo-
meter.
Delicate
Blackened-
bulb Ther-
mometer.
Difference.
Dew-point.
Dry.
Wet.
Diff.
Dew-
point.
Daniell's.
Dew-point.
Regnault's.
Dew-point.
o
07
23-4
40
*3'4
3 - 3
15-0
55
122
I 5 -0
I4'0
3 - 3
15-1
r8
207
29O
VI
227
i *a
22'3
28-5
0'2
27-3
OS
28-3
I"0
30-0
IS
29 -
r6
30-2
34'5
i - 7
308
21
30-6
36-0
2.' I
308
I "7
31-2
35'5
2'0
3I-I
29-6
355
2-3
2-3
296
35*3
3o - o
2'I
29-5
'5
30-5
»7
29 - 6
IO
31-2
I'O
3I - 2
I"0
31*2
10
31-2
i-o
31'2
1-2
31-2
r8
30-3
21
29-9
2-1
30-3
2T
30-3
355
1-8
311
2"0
30-8
• • ••â–
30-5
2-0
31-0
2-2
30-8
17
32'0
17
32 -
17
32'0
1-6
IS
32-1
347
32-5
15
347
27
34 - 9
I'2
34 - 4
12
34'4
10.
11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 1G. 17.
(G) Falling quickly ; revolving in 2 minutes.
(7) We are about a mile north of Purfleet.
(8) Moving W.S.W.
(1Q) Sand thrown out.
(9) Moving towards Sea Reach.
158
REPORT 1865.
Table I. b. — Meteorological Observations made in the Twenty-fourth
Time.
Siphon Barometer.
Reading
corrected
and reduced
to 32° Fahr.
Attached
Therm.
J Aneroid
Barometer,
No. 2.
Height above
sea-level.
Dry and Wet Ther-
Dry.
Wet.
(1)
(2)
(3)
h
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3 io
3 15
m s
1 o p.m.
2 o
,,
2 30
3 °
3 45
4 °
5 o
6 o
o
o
>,
in.
28-62
28-55
2860
2870
29-05
29-42
29-50
29-63
2982
feet.
1,203
1,266
I,2i6
1,116
766
39 6
316
186
ground •]
37-2
37-2
37'5
37-8
37-8
38-2
38-2
38-2
38-2
35'7
35-6
360
36-0
362
3 6 4
36-4
36-4
36*5
Table I. c. — Meteorological Observations made in the Twenty-fifth
1
25
p.m
(4)
1
34 °
,.
(&)
1
52
.,
(«)
1
58
,.
1
58 10
,,
1
58 20
11
1
58 30
».
1
59 °
»,
(7)
(8)
2
)»
2
1
,,
(»)
2
1 30
,»
2
2
(10)
2
2 30
,1
2
2 45
J,
2
3 °
J,
(11)
2
3 3°
;,
(12)
2
4
j)
(13)
2
5
,,
(14)
2
5 3°
9)
2
6
(15)
2
6 30
,,
(16)
2
7 3°
,,
(17)
2
8 30
J>
2
9 °
,,
(18)
2
9 3°
J)
(19)
2
11
,,
2
11 30
»>
30-27
30-20
30-13
30-00
2992
2965
29-30
28-98
28-52
28'2I
27-78
2698
26-72
26-42
26-20
26-05
26-00
25*62
25-39
*5'34
25-30
25-30
25-25
ground
60
176
244
474
767
1,085
1.543
1,851
2,279
3.074
3.333
3,632
3,851
3.99°
4,040
4,418
4. 6 47
4- 6 97
4.737
4,737
4795
477
42-4
47 - 5
42-0
52-1
45'*
51-8
45-2
S J *4
44-8
51-0
44-1
49'5
42-1
47-2
40-9
46-2
40-1
45-2
40-1
437
38-9
41-2
37'*
35'5
33'°
34-8
32-0
34-8
32-0
35"°
31-6
34-8
30-9
34°
29-2
34"o
28-3
34'5
28-5
35-2
29-0
382
31-1
382
30-6
1.
4.
7.
(1) Moving direct for Sea Reach; we must come down if we do not change our
direction.
(2) Packed up all the instruments, cleared the tops of some trees, and came down within
a mile of the river, near the Railway Station at Stanford le Hope.
(3) On the ground.
(4) A pilot balloon went nearly due N. (5) Wind S. (6) Left the earth.
(7) Over the river. (8) Bells sound very clearly.
(9) Wind S.W. ; sun obscured by cloud.
(10) Moving towards Barking Creek ; moving N.E. (11) In cloud; cold.
(12) In a white cloud. (13) Faint gleams of light.
ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 AND 1865. 159
Balloon Ascent, from Woolwich Arsenal, December 30, 1864 (continued).
momcters (free)
Difference.
i - 5
r6
'•5
i-8
r6
i-8
r8
r8
**7
Dew-point,
36-2
33 - 4
34-0
34-2
34-0
339
33'9
339
34-z
Gridiron
Thermo-
meter.
Dry and Wet Therms, (aspirated).
Dry.
Wet.
Diff.
Dew-
point.
Daniell's.
"Dew-point.
Hygrometers.
Regnault's.
Dew-point.
Delicate
Blackened
bulb Ther
mometer.
Balloon Ascent, from Woolwich Arsenal, February 27, 1865.
5-3
3 6 '5
5'5
359
69
38-0
6-6
38-5
6-6
38-1
6- 9
3 6 '9
7"4
34-1
b-3
339
61
33'*
5'
34 -2
4-8
331
4"i
32 -
2 - S
29T
2-8
27-5
2-8
27-5
3 '4
27-2
39
247
48
20-9
57
18-2
6-o
171
62
191
7-i
2I - 6
7-6
20*3
18-5
34'2
29*0
i9'o
52'0
52 - o
5 r 5
35-0
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
1G.
17.
(14) We are in cloud, and over water; the clouds below are moving much more quickly
than we ; wind more westerly.
(15) Sun shining faintly ; clouds at least three or four miles above us, moving W. ; we
are in a N.W. current.
(1(3) Clouds below appear to be moving N. ; we are moving towards the E.
(17) The clouds below are moving at right angles to us.
(18) Over Barking level ; Tilbury line to our left or N/.'; clouds have a very fine purple
tm ^s 0v ^ r a - Tery beautiful ey en surface ; N. gloomy and dark ; great contrast.
(19) Sensibly warmer.
1G0
REPORT — 18G5.
Table I. c-
-Meteorological Observations made in
the Twenty-fiftli
L
m
11
Time.
Siphon Barometer.
Aneroid
Barometer,
No. 2.
Height above
sea-level.
Dry and Wet Ther-
Beading
corrected
and reduced
Attached
Therm.
Dry.
Wet.
to 32° Fahr.
h m s
in.
in.
feet.
2 12 o p.m.
2519
4.855
387
30-6
U)
2 12 30 „
25-17
4.875
387
297
2 13 O „
25-17
4.875
39-2
29-4
2 17 O „
25-08
4.965
39'2
29-2
2 22 30 „
38-2
29-0
2 23 O „
25-30
4,828
38-2
29-0
(a)
2 24 O „
25-30
4,S28
38-2
29-0
(a)
2 25 O „
25-30
4,828
38-2
29-0
2 27 O „
25-30
4,828
38-2
27-5
(4)
2 27 30 „
25-25
4,840
38-2
27-5
2 28 O ,,
25'22
4.847
381
27-2
2 29 O „
25-20
4.865
38-2
27-5
2 30 O „
25-20
4.S65
38-2
27-5
(i>)
2 34 „
25-60
4,408
39-2
29-5
2 34 20 „
25-60
4,408
39'4
30-0
l«)
2 36 „
25-50
4.5*7
39'2
30-0
CO
2 37 O „
2 38 O „
25-42
4,604
39"2
30-0
2 40 O „
25-30
4.734
41-2
3*"5
(8)
(9)
2 41 O „
25-30
4.734
4i7
42-0
42-0
31-3
31-0
31-0
2 42 „
25-50
4.538
2 42 30 „
25-70
4.332
43-2
32-5
2 43 »
25-90
4,136
43'3
33-0
2 44 „
26-60
3.45°
42-5
35-5
(10)
2 45 »
26-78
3.274
42-0
36-0
2 4S 3° >.
27-10 .
2,960
417
36-0
2 46 „
27-35
2,7'5
407
35-5
(11)
2 46 20 ,,
27-40
2,676
40-5
360
2 46 30 „
27"55
2,529
41-0
36-5
2 47 ..
27-70
2,382
41-0
37'5
2 48 „
27-72
2,360
41-0
38-0
2 4 s 3° »
27-72
2,360
41-2
380
2 49 ° ..
. . . A .
27-75
2,330
41-8
380
2 5° ° ..
£7-80
2,281
43 "°
39-5
2 51 „
28-05
2,035
43-2
39-0
2 54 ,.
29-31
796
44-2
40-2
2 55 „
29-80
322
462
41-0
2 56 „
29-65
460
46-2
41-0
2 5 6 3° 11
29-45
644
46-0
41-2
2 57 3° ..
29-14
927
44 - 5
40-0
2 58 „
29-1 1
957
43-5
395
2 59 11
29-00
1.057
43 - 5
39'°
2 59 30 ..
2890
1. 148
43'5
385
3°°,.
2892
1,130
43-0
38-5
310.,
28-98
1,075
43-0
38-5
(12)
3 1 jo n
28-99
1,066
43-5
38-5
320,,
29-00
1,057
43 - 5
39-0
3 3o,.
29-07
990
43'5
395
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
7.
(1) <
(3)]
Dver Dagenhani Marsh. (2) Lowered grapnel.
Entered a more southerly current ;; about S.W. (4) Clouds very high.
W J
Hust come down.
(«)
Sun again
wight.
ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 AND 1865.
161
Balloon Ascent, from Woolwich Arsenal, February 27, 1865 {continued).
mometers (free).
Difference
8-1
9°
9-8
IO'O
9-2
9 -a
9 -z
9 -2
107
107
io"9
107
107
97
9"4
92
9-2
97
io - 4
no
iro
107
10-3
7-0
60
57
S - a
4*5
4'5
3'5
3-0
3 -2
38
3'5
42
4-0
5-2
S" a
48
4-5
4-0
4*5
4'5
4'J
5-0
4-5
4-0
Dew-point.
19-4
I7"7
165
161
1 6-6
16-6
166
166
i3'o
13-0
124
13-0
130
167
177
179
179
»93
1*5
'7-5
17*5
197
207
27-0
286
28-9
29 -
30*2
30-8
331
34-2
34-0
33'3
353
34'°
35-5
351
35-1
357
347
347
336
32-6
33-1
331
33*i
35 - 3
347
Gridiron
Thermo-
meter.
Dry and Wet Therms, (aspirated).
Hygrometers.
Dry.
Wet.
Diff.
8.
Dew-
point.
Daniell's.
Dew-point.
Delicate
Renault's, likened,
hull) Thcr-
Dcw-point.
15-0
i7 - o
15-0+
i6'o
383
34-0
35'°
9.
10.
3 3'°
45-0
43'5
435
42-5
4i'o
46-0
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
1G.
17.
(7) Moving towards Long Ejacli
(10) On level with lower clouds.
(12) Upper clonda moving as bsfore ; no sun
186o.
(8) Sin hot.
(11) Bolow cloud.
(9) Opoued valve.
162 report — 1865.
Table I. c— Meteorological Observations made in the Twenty-fifth
C2
£2
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
Time.
3 12
3 13
3 IS
3 16
3 17
3 17
3 18
3 19
3 20
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
21
22
^3
-4
as
26
27
28
29
3 °
30
3i
3-
32
33
34
35
37
38
3S
39
40
4i
42
43
43
44
o p.m.
o „
3° »
o „
o „
o „
o ,.
o „
o „
o „
30 »
o „
O n
O ,i
30 »
o „
o „
30 „
o ,,
o ,,
o „
o „
o „
o „
o „
o „
O 1,
° ,,
o ,.
o „
o „
3° n
O ,1
o ,,
3° 11
o „
o „
o „
o „
o „
30 ..
o „
o „
° ,.
o „
o „
+ ,.
o „
Siphon Barometer.
Reading
corrected
and reduced
to 32° Fahr.
Attached
Therm.
Aneroid
Barometer,
No. 2.
29 - II
29-15
29-50
29-50
29-61
29-63
29-68
29-75
29-80
29-80
29-65
29-32
2930
2915
29-00
28-90
28-90
28-90
29-08
29-10
29-30
2930
2930
2933
29-50
2938
2920
29-30
28-72
28-55
28-25
28-00
27-90
27-80
27-72
27-68
27-50
27-30
27-00
26-82
26-82
26-78
26-78
2661
Dry and Wet Ther-
Heipht above
sea-level.
feet.
953
926
605
605
504
486
441
377
322
322
459
761
779
916
i.o53
1,148
1,148
1,148
978
959
770
770
770
742
582
698
872
969
1.375
1.463
1,689
1.944
2,046
2,148
2,230
2,271
2.4-5 5
2,659
2,965
3.149
3.H9
3.190
3,190
3,360
Dry.
43 - 5
43 - 5
43'5
44-0
44'5
45-0
45'3
459
45'5
46-0
46-0
45-2
45-2
45-0
44-2
43-2
43-2
43-2
43-2
43-2
43-2
43-2
432
43 - i
43"3
43'5
43'5
43'3
42-5
42-0
40-6
39' 6
38-9
38-0
37*9
37-2
37-2
36-5
36-0
35-2
35-2
34-2
34-2
34-2
Wet.
B.
4.
(1) Neck of the balloon tied up.
(2) Twelve miles from Chelmsford.
(3) Changed direction ; moving W« I
(4) Water looks like polished steel.
think.
ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 AND 1865. 163
Balloon Ascent, from Woolwich Arsenal, February 27, 18G5 (continued).
mometers (free).
Difference
45
4"2
4-5
47
45
4-8
5-0
5 '4
5i
5°
5-o
5*
5'2
2'2
*7
2-6
2-5
2-2
2'2
21
2'0
2-2
Dew-point.
35'3
34'3
33-6
33-8
347
34'6
346
34*4
34-6
353
35-3
34°
34°
4-8
34-6
44
346
42
34-0
4-2
34-0
4'5
33 - 3
47
32-9
47
32-9
5-2
31-8
5-2
31-8
5-i
32-0
45
33"2
43
339
4"5
336
4'3
34"°
4 - 3
339
5*o
31-4
47
31-6
4T
312
3-6
3 4
3i-3
3-0
309
29
31-0
31-9
307
30-1
297
29-5
29-5
28-4
287
28--!
9.
Dry and Wet Therms, (aspirated).
Gridiron
Thermo-
meter.
Drv.
o o
Wet.
Diff.
Hygrometers.
Dew-
point.
Daniell's.
Dew-point.
34-0
Regnault's
Dew-point.
34'°
3i'o
33-5
33-0
Delicate
Blackened
bulb Ther
mometer.
34'°+
30-5
30-0
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
(5) Country brightened up by the sun. In haze.
(6) In thicker haze ; only one bag of ballast.
(7) In cloud. (8) In cloud.
(9) Mist.
10. 17
n2
164
REPORT 18C5.
Table I. c. — Meteorological Observations made in the Twenty-fifth
â–
8 "
ti ©
Time.
Siphon Barometer.
Aneroid
Barometer,
Height above
sea- level.
Dry and Wet Thcr-
Reading
corrected
Attached
No. 2.
Dry.
Wet.
£ 2
and reduced
to 32° Falir.
Therm.
h m s
in.
in.
feet.
(1)
3 44 3°P- m -
(2)
3 45 o »
16-45
3.5»i
33 - °
32-0
(3)
3 45 3° »
26-32
3.65*
3 45 4° »
26-20
3-772
33-0
32-0
(4)
3 46 „
26-52
3.415
32-5
32-0
3 47 ..
26-72
3,218
32'5
317
3 48 „
2690
3,042
32-5
32-0
(5)
3 49 »
27-30
2,650
32 - 5
32-0
3 50 ..
27-32
2.637
33 - »
32-7
3 5' ..
27-71
2,252
34-2
33-1
3 5 2 -
2S20
1.793
35"5
33'°
3 54 © ,.
29-00
1,023
420
38-0
3 55 „
29-30
731
42'5
387
3 5 6 ° ..
29-40
634
43-0
39-2
3 56 3° .-
*9'47
561
438
395
3 57 „
2956
472
437
398
3 57 3° »
29-70
448
44-0
40-2
3 58 „
2979
331
44-2
40-6
3 59 .-
29-80
322
44'4
40-8
(«)
3 59 3° -.
29-85
70
44'5
40-9
400,,
2989
ground.
44 - 5
41-2
4.
(1) In cloud ; cold. (2) In fog.
(3' Opened valve ; one bug of ballast only.
ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 AND 1865. 165
Balloon Ascent, from Woolwich Arsenal, February 27, 1865 (continued).
momcters (
free).
Gridiron
: Thermo-
meter.
Dry and Wet Therms, (aspirated)
Hygrometers.
Delicate
Rlackencd-
bulb Ther-
Difference
Dew-point
Dry.
Wet.
Diff.
Dew-
Daniell's.
1 Hegnault's
point.
Dew-point.
Dew-point.
mometer.
1*0
30-0
30-5
l'O
30-0
°5
31-0
307
o-S
30-0
°'5
3i - o
3°'5
0-5
31-0
04
3i - 9
ii
31-2
as
29-2
4 -o
331
38
34-0
33
34-6
4' 3
34'4
3'9
35-1
3-8
357
36
36-4
3-6
366
36
367
3-3 j
37-3
8.
9 - 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.
(4) In cloud. (5) Out of cloud.
(6
) Just ovi
^r some
trees.
166
REPORT- — 1865.
§ 4. Adopted Temperatures of the Air, the Wet-bulb, and tile Dew-
point in Three Balloon Ascents.
From all the observations of the temperature of the air, evaporation, and dew-point
in Table I., a determination was made of these elements, with the corresponding reading or
mean of readings of the barometer and heights, and then the next Table was formed.
Table II. a.— Showing the adopted Reading of the Barometer, calculated
Height above the Sea, Temperature of the Air, Temperature of the Wet-
bulb Thermometer, and Temperature of the Dew-point, in the
Twenty-third Ascent. — December 1, 186-i.
Time of
observa- i
tion.
A.M. ,
Reading!
of the \
Baroxn
reduced
,o32°F.
Height
above the
level of
the sea.
Temp.
of the
Air.
Temp.
of the
Wet-
bulb.
Temp,
of the
Dew-
point.
Time of
observa-
tion.
P.M.
Reading
of the
Barom.
reduced
to 32° F.
Height
above the
level of
the sea.
Temp.
of the
Air.
Temp.
ot the
Wet-
bulb.
Temp.
ot the
Dew-
point.
h m s [
in.
feet.
li m s
in.
feet.
1 1 35 O
f ^
46-5
3 33
2 5'45
4541
32-0
28-1
9 -1
30M5
Jl
46-2
43-8
34 c
25-20
4805
32-0
28-1
9-1
P.M.
30-19
:§
43-2
40
24-78
5 2 45
30-0
27-2
1 8-4
I 15
1 ^ £j
° So
46-8
43-2
41
24-63
5403
29-5
26-5
16-5
2 30 O
30' IO
I J
48-0
44-2
40*0
42
24-60
543i
29-1
26-1
15-3 '
37
29-95
206
48-2
44-1
39-6
43
24-95
5063
30-0
27-2
18-4
38
2961
515
48-0 44-0
396
44
25-52
4464
31-2
28-1
19-8
38 30
29-38
584
47-5
43-2
38-5
45 °
26-45
3487
32-8
295
22-9
39 °
29"20
890
47-2
43'3
38-9
46
26-47
347o
33-0
295
22-5
40
28-85
1230
46-0
42-0
37'4
46 30
26-45
3491
33-0
29-8
23-I
41 c
28-45
1618
45 -o
41-2
36-8
47
26-20
3759
33-0
29-7
23-1
42 c
28^23
1831
43"5
40-2
36-3
48
26-00
3973
33-0
27-3
17-4
43
27-80
2248
43-0
3^7
37'9
49 °
25-82
4170
33-0
28-0
15-0
44 c
27-40
2636
41
36-0
29-7
50
26-00
3968
33-0
28-0
,5-0
45 °
26-70
3298
40-0
36-0
29-7
51
26-16
3789
32-7
28-2
19-2
46
26-42
3570
39'5
34'9
28-6
52
26-20
3744
32-4
28-5
20 -
48 c
26-19
3804
38-5
33-0
25-6
53 °
26-20
3744
32-1
28-7
2I - 3
50 c
25-78
4222
38-0
32-0
23-8
3759
32-4
51 °
25-68
4324
38-0
32-0
23-8
54
26-65
3240
32-5
30-0
247
54
25-30
4630
36-0
29-1
iS-7
54 3°
26-75
3124
32-5
30-5
25-O
55 c
25-19
4742
35'°
28-5
'5'5
55 °
26-80
3082
32-8
30-8
2 9 -2
57
24-90
503S
33'°
261
12-5
55 3°
27-00
2914
33 - °
3"'i
27-3
58 c
24-70
5328
3 1- 5
26-1
12-2
57
27-30
2662
34-0
320
28-5
59
24-70
5328
3i-5
z6'i
12-2
58
27'45
2536
34'5
33-0
30-5
3 5
25'5°
449 6
31-2
26-5
15-6
59
27-50
2497
35' 2
33'5
30-8
6 30
25-67
43'9
31-2
26-5
15-6
'400
27-30
2691
35'5
33' 6
3°'7
8
25-80
4184
33'°
29-1
213
1
27-30
2691
35 -6
33-6
30-5
9 c
25-85
4128
33'5
29-8
21-9
1 30
27'20
2788
35'7
33'6
3°'3
10
25-80
4170
34 - 5
30-0
22-4
2
27-14
2847
35-8
331
29-4
14
25-09
4766
32-2
29-1
22-0
3
27-25
2744
35-0
33-0
29-8
15 c
24-92
4909
31-8
27-2
16-6
4
27-40
2603
35'5
333
30-0
17 c
24-90
495 1
31-0
27-1
16-5
5 °
28-co
2039
36-2
34-8
327
23
24-78
5052
30-2
25-1
9 1
6
2S-25
1804
37-1
35'°
32-3
24 c
24-72
5122
298
25-0
9-8
7
28-30
1759
37'3
35'5
33-0
26 c
24-70
5'97
30-2
251
8-9
S
28-42
1644
38-3
36-5
34-1
27 c
25-00
4931
30-2
25-2
8-9
8 3c
28-50
1569
3S-3
37'°
35'2
32 c
25-50
4489
3i*5
28-1
9-6
9 c
28-52
1550
38-7
37*5
35-8
1
ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 AND 1865.
167
Table II. a. — Twenty-third Ascent. — December 1, 1864 (continued).
Time of
observa-
tion.
F..M.
Reading
of the
Barom.
reduced
to 31!° F.
Height
above the
level of
the sea.
Temp,
of the
Air.
Temp,
of the
Wet-
bulb.
Temp,
of the
Dew-
point.
Time of
observa-
tion.
P.M.
Reading
of the
Barom.
reduced
to 32° F.
Height
above the
level of
the sea.
Temp.
of the
Air.
Temp,
of the
Wet-
bulb.
Temp,
of the
Dew-
point.
h m s
in.
feet.
h m s
in.
feet.
O
4 io o 28*60
1475
39"°
38-0
36-7
4 20
28*70
1280
42-0
397
364
13 0! 28*70
1381
42 'O
40-3
368
21
28-80
1208
41*2
397
37'4
14 28*80
12S0
42-1
40-2
37-9
21 30
28-82
1 194
413
397
37-2
15 2S*6o
139+
42-0
39*5
3 6 '4
22 O 289O
"37
41'0
40-2
39-2
15 30
28-50
145 1
4i - 5
39-2
36-3
23 O 29*12
979
41-1
40-2
391
17
28-35
1532
41-2
38-7
35"S
25 O
[â– ground â– <
iS 028*40
1496
40-5
39-0
37-1
33 c
45-2
43-0
40-5
19 oj 28-50
1424
41-5
39'5
37-0
b. Twenty-fourth Ascent. — December 30, 1864.
14
»5
15
16
16
16
'7
18
18
»9
19
l 9
20
22
2 3
2 3
24
2 5
26
2 7
2 7
29-86
29-80
29-51
29-25
29-05
28-95
28-80
45 28-50
o
o
3c
o
JO
45
27*80
27-60
27-50
2 7'45
27-40
27-16
27-05
27-05
27-11
27-40
2 7-45
27-68
2775
2 7'55
-i 1 q ! 27-40
27-21
26-92
26-71
26-48
26-28
26*12
15 1 26*12
O 26'00
2615
26*15
26-25
26*50
26-20
27-65
28-90
28-95
29*05
29
*9
2 9
3o
3i
3 2
32
33
34
34
34
35
35
36
37
38
39
ground
80
355
602
782
877
1020
'995
2220
2310
2 355
2410
26 34
2699
2699
2641
2350
2301
2077
2019
2215
2362
2552
2S22
3018
3228
34 2 4
3580
3580
3735
3589
3589
3492
3 2 49
2570
2133
932
837
797
42*5
39-0
34-S
| 2 40
29-18
689
35*2
33'5
42-1
! 38-5
34' 1
41
29-05
1009
35 - 9
33-8
41-0
37'2
32-4
41 30
1 28-90
1369
36*0
33-9
30*8
40-0
362
31-2
42
1 28-72
1669
35'5
338
31*2
39-0
36-0
32-0
43 c
'28-60
1929
35-5
335
311
38-2
35'i
30-9
43 3°
28-52
2129
35-5
33*2
29-6
37-2
34-8
3''5
44
28-48
2219
35-5
33-2
29-6
36-2
34-2
31-2
45
28-32
26S9
34'9
328
29*4
3 0- 5
45 3°
28-30
2699
34-5
33'°
3°'5
...
30-0
46
28*26
2829
34*2
32-5
296
34-1
329
30-8
47
28-25
2860
34'°
330
31-2
33-0
32-0
30-0
47 3°
28-24
2946
34*0
33'°
31-2
3 2 '5
32-0
31-0
48
28-40
2796
34-0
33°
31 2
32-7
31-8
3°'°
48 30
28-40
2796
34-0
33-0
31-2
32-5
3i'9
30-7
49
28*40
2796
34-0
33-0
312
32-2
3 1- 5
30-0
49 3°
2S*45
2666
34'5
333
31*2
31-9
30-5
27*1
49 45
28*50
2536
350
33-2
3°'3
31-9
308
28*3
50
28*60
2276
35'3
33-2
299
319
3°'5
27-2
50 30
28*68
2070
35-6
335
3o-3
319
31-0
28-9
51
28-85
1621
35-6
33'5
3°3
3 I- 9
312
296
5i 3o
28-92
1462
35-6
338
311
3 I- 9
31-6
30-9
5i 45
29-00
1256
35-8
33-8
30-8
32-3
32-0
30-4
52
29-10
1096
36-0
340
31-0
322
32-2
32*2
53
2 9 - 35
556
36-2
34-0
30-8
31*5
31-2
30*4
53 3°
29-38
511
36-2
34-5
32-0
3f3
30-6
28-9
54
2939
495
36-2
34-5
320
29*5
29-0
27-3
54 3°
29-32
556
36-2
34*5
32-0
28*8
2o 3
26-4
55
29-31
565
36-1
34 - 5
32-1
...
27-0 1
57
2960
299
38-2
3 6 7
347
27-5
27-2
26'0 i
57 3°
29-31
570
38-2
36*7
347
27-2
26-5
23-4
58 30
29-20
670
38-2
35-5
34"9
30-0
26-0
134
59 °
2895
900
37*2
360
34'4
29-5
26-2
15-0
300 28-78
1056
37*2
36*0
34 - 4
31-5
26'0
12*2
1
28-62
1203
37-2
357
34*2
29-5
26-2
15*1
2
28-55
1266
37*2
35 -6
33-4
29-0
27*2
20*7
2 3c
28-60
1216
37'5
35-6
34*0
28-2
27*1
22*7
3
28-70
1116
37-8
36-2
34-2
28*2
27-0
22'3
3 45
29-05
766
37*8
362
34'°
28*2
28-0
2 7'3
4 °
29-42
396
38*2
36-4
33 - 9
30*2
29-7
28-3
5
29-50
316
38*2
364
339
33"°
32-0
30-0
6
29-63
186
38*2
364
339
34-0
3 2 '5
29-8
15
29*82
ground.
38-2
3-5-5
34 -2
34*5
32-9
30-2 'â–
1G&
REPORT — 1865.
Table II. b. — Twenty- foukth Ascent. — December 30, 1864 (continued).
Time of B
obscrva- ,
cading
of the
Height _. Temp. Temp.
ibovc the I r? 1 ' ..i .!.
Time of Re ??; u «
*** T
\ h °vethc f h «
'"' cl of Air.
the sea.
Temp,
of the
Temp,
of the
tion.
P.M. t
Snrom.
educed
> 32° F.
level of
the sea.
ii tne
Air.
Wet-
bulb.
Dcw-
loint.
tion Barom.
reduced
P - M- to32°F.
Wet-
bulb.
Dew-
point.
h m s
in.
feet.
O
— —
O
h ni s
in.
feet.
O
I 25 C
30-27
1 * f
477
42-4
3 6 "5
2 48 30
27-72
2360 41-2
38-0
34'°
35 °
°
47 - 5
42-0
35'9
49 °
Z775
2330 418
38-0
333
52
30 - 20
) &> I
52-1
45-2
38-0
50 c
27-80
2281 1
t3"°
39'5
35'3
58 10
30-13
60
51-8
45*
38.5
5 1 °i
28-05
2035
n-2
39-0
34-0
58 2C
30-00
176
5»"4
44-8
38-1
54 c j
29-31
796
M'J
40-2
355
58 30
29-92
244
51-0
44' 1
36-9
55
29-80
322
46-2
41-0
35-1
59 °
29-65
474
49'5
42-1
34 - i 1
56
29-65
460
46-2
41*0
35-1
20c
29-30
767
47-2
40-9
339
56 30
29-45
644
46-0
41-2
357
1 30
28-98
1085
46-2
40-1
33-2
57 3°
29-14
927
44'5
40-0
347
2
28-52
1543
45-2
40-1
34-2
58
29-11
957
43'5
39'5
347
2 30
2821
1851
43'7
38-9
33*
59 °
29-00
1057
43*5
39-0
33'6
2 45
27-78
2279
41-2
37-1
32"o
59 3°
2890
1 148
43-5
38-5
32-6
3
29-0
300
2892
1130
43-0
38-5
33"i
3 3°
26-98
3074
1
2898
1075
43'°
38-5
33'i
4 °
26-72
3333
35-5
33'°
29-1
1 30
28-99
ic66
43'5
38-5
33-1
5
26-42
3632
34-8
32-0
27-5
2
29-00
1057
43-5
39-0
35'3
5 3°
26-20
3851
34-8
32-0
27-5
3
29-07
990
43-5
39'5
347
6
26-05
3990
35-0
31-6
27-2
4 c
29'!!
953
43-5
39'°
353
6 30
26-00
4040
34-8
30-9
247
5
29-15
926
43'5
39"3
34' 3
7 3°
2562
4418
34'°
29-2
209
5 3°
29-50
605
43'5
39°
33-6
8 30
25-39
4647
34-0
28-3
lS-2
6
29-50
605
44-0
393
338
9 °
*5'34
4697
34" 5
28-5
171
7
2961
5 C 4
44'5
40-0
347
9 1?
25-30
4737
35-2
29-0
I 9 -I
8 c
2963
486
45°
40-2
34-6
11
25-30
4737
38-2
•*
311
21-6
9 c
29-68
441
453
4°"3
34-6
11 30
25-25
4795
38-2
30-6
20-3
10
29-75
377
45'9
40-5
34'4
12
2519
4S55
38-7
30-6
19-4
11
29-80
322
4-5 - 5
40-4
34-6
12 30
25-17
4875
3S7
29-7
177
12 c
29-80
322
46-0
41-0
35'3
13 O
25-17
4875
39-2
29-4
16-5
12 30
2965
459
46-0
41-0
35'3
17 O
25-08
4965
392
29-2
16-1
13
2932
761
45-2
40-0
34-0
22 30
38-2
290
16-6
14
29-30
779
45-2
40-0
34'°
23 O
25-30
4S28
38-2
290
16-6
15 3c
2915
916
45-0
40-2
346
24 O
25'3°
4S28
3S2
29-0
166
16 c
29*00
1053
44-2
398
346
25 O
25-30
4S28
382
290
16-6
17 c
2890
1148
43-2
39-0
34'°
27
[25-30
4828
38-2
27-5
13-0
17 3c
28-90
1 148
43-2
39'°
34°
27 3 C
i 2 5 - i5
4840
38-2
27-5
13-0
18
28-90
1148
43-2
38-7
33'3
28 c
25-22
4847
38-1
27-2
12-4
19 c
29-08
978
43-2
38-5
32-9
29 c
I 25-20
4865
38-2
27-5
13-0
20 c
29-10
959
43-2
38-5
32-9
30 c
25-20
4S65
38-2
27'5
130
21 C
29-30
770
43-2
38-0
318
34 c
25-60
4408
39-2
29-5
167
22 C
29-30
770
43-2
38-0
31-8
34 2c
25-60
4408
39'4
30-0
177
23 C
2930
770
43-2
381
32-0
36 c
25-50
45'7
39-2
30-0
17-9
24 C
2933
742
43-1
386
33"2
38 c
25-42
4604
39-2
30-0
17-9
25 c
2950
582
43'3
39'°
33'9
40 c
25-30
4734
41-2
3i-5
19-3
26 c
> 29-38
698
43'5
39'°
33'6
41 c
,25-30
4734
417
3i-3
18-5
27 c
> 29-20
872
43'5
39-2
34-0
42-0
31-0
I7-5
28 c
> 28-30
969
43'3
39'°
339
42 c
> 25-50
4538
42-0
31-0
'7'5
29 c
> 28-72
1375
42-5
37'5
3i'4
42 3c
> 25-70
433 2
43-2
32-5
197
30 c
1 28-55
1463
42"o
37'3
31-6
43 c
> 25-90
4136
43 - 3
33'°
20-7
30 3c
) 28-25
1689
40-6
36-5
31-2
44 '
) 26-60
345°
42-5
35-5
27-0
3 1 <
) 28-00
1944
39-6
36-0
45 <
> 26-78
3274
42-0
36-0
286
32 c
> 27-90
2046
38-9
35*5
3 I- 3
45 3<
) 27-10
2960
417
36-0
28-9
32 3c
27-80
2148
38-0
35'°
30-9
46 c
> 2 7'35
2715
4°7
35'5
290
33 <
> 27-72
2230
37'9
35'°
31-0
46 2t
) 27-40
2676
40-5
36-0
30-2
35 <
) 2768
2271
37-2
35'°
3i'9
46 3 c
3 27-55
2529
41-0
36-5
30-8
37 <
> 27-50
2 455
37'2
34'5
307
47 <
3 27-70
2382
41-0
37 - 5
331
38 y
) 27-30
2659
36-5
339
30-1
48 c
> 27-72
2360
41-0
38-0
34'*
39 <
3 27-00
2965
360
33'5
29-7
ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 AND 1865.
169
Table II. b. — Twenty-foubth Ascent. — December 30, 1864 {continued).
Time of
observa-
tion.
P.M.
Reading
of the
Barom.
reduced
to 32° F.
Height
above the
level of
the sea.
Temp.
of the
Air.
Temp,
of the
Wet-
bulb.
Temp,
of the
Dew-
point.
Time of
observa-
tion.
P.M.
Reading
of the"
Barom.
reduced
to 32° F.
Height
above the
level of
the sea.
Temp.
of the
Air.
Temp,
of the
Wet-
bulb.
Temp,
of the
Dew-
point.
h m s
in.
feet.
O
c
h m
s
in.
feet.
O
3 40 0, 2682
3 '49
35-2
33'°
29-5 1
3 5i
c 27-71
2252
34'2
33-1
3l"2
4.1 o, 26-82
3 '49
35-2
33-0
2 9'5 i
52
c
28-20
1793
35'5
33-0
29-2
42 ci 26*78
3190
34-2
32 - I
28-4
54
c
29-00
1022
42-0
38-0
33-1
43 26-78
3190
34-2
32-2
28-7 ,
55
29-30
731
42-5
3S7
34-0
44 0. 26-61
3360
34-2
32-0
28-3 ;
56
c
29-40
634
43-0
39-2
34-6
45 ° 26-45
3521
33'°
32-0
30-0
56
30 29-47
561
43-8
39'5
34 - 4
45 3°
26-32
3652
1
57
29-56
472
437
39-8
35i
45 4°
26-20
3772
33-0
32-0
30-0
57
3 C
29-70
448
44-0
40-2
357
46
2652
34'5
32-5
320
31-0
58
29-79
331
44-2
40- 6
36-4
47 °
26-72
3218
32-5
31-7
3°'° ,
59
29'So
322
44'4
40-8
36-6
48
2690
3042
32-5
32 - »
31-0
59
3 C 2985
70
44'5
40-9
36-7
49 27-30
2650
3i-5
320
31-0
4
c 29-89
ground
44'5
4 1 ' 2
373
50 27-32
2637
33-1
32-7
3 ,- 9
1
170 REPORT— 1865.
§ 5. Variation op Temperature op the Air ■with Height.
Every reading of temperature in the preceding Tables, or the means of
small groups of readings when observations have been taken in quick succes-
sion at about the same altitude, or when the Balloon has passed and re-
passed through nearly the same space within a few minutes — as, for example,
on December 1st, between 3 h 44 m and 3 h 49 m it fell from 4464 feet to 3470
feet, and rose to 4170 feet — these readings, or means of readings, were laid
down on diagrams, the points joined, and a curved lino made to pass through
or near them, so that the area of the spaces between the original and tbe
adopted lines on one side Avas equal to that of the spaces on the other side.
Thus treated, temperature decreased with increase of elevation on December
1st and 30th. On February 27th it was found to increase, after attaining
the altitude of 4647 feet. On descending, the temperature at first declined,
and at 4800 feet the reading was the same as at the same elevation on as-
cending ; then a warm current was met with, and the readings at the same
elevation were much higher than were noted in ascending, and continued so
through a space of 2800 feet, below which they were lower than on ascend-
ing ; in consequence of these differences no temperature has been adopted for
these, and another ascent and descent were made, for which temperatures
have been adopted.
The numbers in the first column show the height in feet, beginning at the
groimd and increasing upwards ; the numbers in the second column show the
interval of time in ascending to the highest point; the notes in the third column
show the circumstances of the observations ; the numbers in the fourth and
fifth columns the observed and the approximate normal temperatures of the
air ; and those in the next column the difference between the two preceding
columns, or the most probable effect of the presence of cloud or mist on the
temperature, or other local disturbing causes.
The next group of columns is arranged similarly for the descent, and the
other groups for succeeding ascents and descents.
ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864) AND 1865.
171
Table III. — Showing the Temperature of the Air, as read off the curve
drawn through the observed temperatures, and as read off the curve of
most probable normal temperatures, called adopted temperatures, and the
calculated amount of disturbance from the assumed law of decrease of
temperature.
Twenty-third Ascent.
Temperature of the Air.
1864.
December 1.
Height, in feet,
above the mean
level of the sea.
Ascending
Descendin
i*
Between
what
times.
Circum-
stances.
Ob-
served
temp.
Adopted
tempe-
rature.
Calcu-
lated
effect of
disturb-
Between
what
times.
Circum-
stances.
Ob-
served
temp.
Adopted
tempe-
rature.
Calcu-
lated
effect of
disturb-
ance.
ance.
5400
*sn
29-5
— 0*2
29-3
291
4- 0-2
5200
3°'9
30-8
+ o-i
29-6
29-6
o-o
5000
311
317
- o-6
3o'o
30 - I
— o-i
4S00
32-5
32-8
- 0-3
3°'S
30-3
4- 0'2
4600
33-6
33' 6
o-o
31-0
30-5
+ o-s
4400
346
35 1
- o'5
3i-4
30-8
4- o-6
4200
36-9
36-2
+ 07
3. -8
31-2
4- o-6
4000
37'°
37-1
— o-i
32-4
31-7
4- 0-7
3800
a
38-6
37 - 9
4- 07
•-3
32-5
3 2-I
4- 0-4
3600
£V
39'3
38-6
4- 07
S
32-4
32-4
O'O
3400
B
39-8
39" 2
4- o-6
32-5
32-7
— 0-2
3200
a!
40-1
39'7
4- 0-4
zr
CD
32*6
33-1
- ° - 5
3000
"to
*o
403
40-2
4- o-i
3
g
p
33-0
33-6
- o-6
2800
te
407
40-8
— 01
335
34-1
- o-6
2600
2400
E
CO
CO
E
CD
4I"2
42-3
4 I- 5
42-2
- 0-3
4- o-i
35°
357
34-5
35'°
+ o-s
4- 07
22CO
JZ
O
43-0
43-0
O'O
~s
362
357
4- o-s
2000
g
43'2
437
- o-s
>n
36-6
36-8
— 0-2
180O
160O
5
43-8
45"5
44"4
45'°
- o-6
4- o-s
3
37 - i
38-3
38-0
389
- 0-9
- o-6
I4OC1
45-8
45-6
+ 0-2
41-6
400
+ i-6
1200
4<5'2
46-2
O'O
41-2
41- 1
4- o-i
ICOO
80O
46-8
467
4- o-i
40-9
41-9
— I'O
47-0
47-2
— o'2
417
42-4
- 0-7
600
47-2
47-6
- 0- 4
42-6
43-0
- 0-4
400
48-0
47'9
4- o-i
43'4
43"6
— 02
200
48-2
48-0
4- 0-2
45-3
44* 3
4- i-o
O
48-0
48-0
o-o
1
45"4
45-1
4- 0-3
December 1.— The temperature of the air at the height of 400 feet was the
BMne as on the ground, viz. 48°; on passing above this point the temperature
declined to 47|° at 600 feet, very slowly to 45|° at 1600 feet ; a decrease of
1 |° then took place in the next 200 feet, remained very nearly the same for
400 feet more, and then declined to 41^° at 2600 feet, still decreasing gradu-
ally to 38^° at 3800 feet, and then rather more quickly to 29^° at the
highest point. On descending, the temperature increased very uniformly
till 4000 feet was passed, then almost without change through a decline of
800 feet, or to 3200 feet high ; increased 1° in the next 400 feet downwards,
and 1^° in the succeeding 200 feet; after this the temperature increased by
pretty even amounts, till the height of 1800 feet was reached ; here a warm
current was entered, for by the time the balloon had descended to 1400 feet,
the temperature had increased to 41|°; it then declined to 41° at 1000 feet'
172
REPORT 1865.
after which it increased hy even amounts till within 200 feet of elevation,
where the temperature was 45°-3, being only o, l less than that found on the
ground.
Table III. (continued.)
TwENTr-FOUItTH ASCENT.
1864.
Ten
pcratur
e of the Air.
December 30
Height, in feet,
Ascendin
Descending.
Calcu-
1
Calcu-
above the mean
level of the sea.
Between
what
times.
Circum-
stances.
Ob-
served
temp.
Adopted
tempe-
rature.
lated
effect of
disturb-
Between
what
times.
Circum-
stances.
Ob-
served
temp.
Adopted
tempe-
rature.
lated
effect of
disturb-
ance.
ance.
Just out
of cluud.
2600
Entered
3*'3
32-0
+ 0-3
H
H
O
31-8
31-8
O'O
g
cloud.
1
2400
â–
O
t<->
ii
c =
2"-o
32-5
3*"5
o-o
£
31-9
319
o-o
2200
2000
"en
<.s
33-0
34'i
33i
33-8
— O'l
+ o-3
8
Si , V° 3*'°
p-r 32-5 32's
O'O
o-o
1800
"rl
34-8
34-S
o-o
V
The balloon
then
1600
O
35-6
356
o-o
turned |to asce
nd.
1400
r4
36-1
36 1
o-o
M
I2CO
m
3 6 '9
36-9
o-o
09
IOOO
37-8
37'6
+ 0-2
*a
800
s
39'°
39"°
O'O
B
6co
p
Misty.
4C0
39'9
4- o-i
400
40-9
40-9
o-o
200
41-6
41-6
o - o
l
426
296
426
O'O
+ o-i
1
Above
cloud.
3600
-o "io
29-5
In very
29 'O
293
- 0-3
M-
dense
3400
£
*
27"I
27-4
- 0-3
cloud.
28-4
28-4
O'O
3200
u-l
Hi
277
277
o-o
28-4
28-4
o-o
3000
g
dense
288
286
-f 0-2
28-3
283
o-o
2800
"cl
CO
cloud.
29-5
29-6
— o-i
ua
28-2
28-2
o - o
Just
"b
2600
cl
O
entering
cloud.
31-0
30-6
+ 0-4
O
Out of
cloud.
282
28-5
- 0-3
2400
2
ji'a
3*'3
— o-i
=?
29-0
29-1
— o-i
2200
rl
32-2
32 - 2
O'O
1>J
30-0
29-8
+ 0-2
2000
"r)
3*'5
33-1
- o-6
2
306
30-6
O'O
1800
3
•*3
311
31-1
o-o
1600
316
316
o-o
1400
f«H
32-1
321
o - o
1200
3 2 '5
32-5
o-o
1000
33'o
33'i
— o-i
800
34'*
34-2
o-o
The balloon ;
then
turned jto asce'
nd.
ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 AND 1865.
173
Table III. (continued.')
Twexty-fourth Ascent (continued).
1864.
Temperature of the
Air.
Dec. 30 (con).
Height, in feet,
above the mean
level of the sea.
Ascendin
3*
Descending.
Between
what
times.
Circum-
stances.
Ob-
served
temp.
Adopted
temp.
Calcu-
lated
effect of
disturb-
Between
what
times.
Circum-
stances.
Ob-
served
temp.
Adopted
tempe-
rature.
Calcu-
lated
effect of
disturb-
ance.
ance.
2800
ft
34'3
34-4-
— o-l
34-0
34-3
-°'3
2600
â–
O
35'°
349
+o-i
s
35'°
35'°
O'O
2400
35*4
35'3
-+-0-I
35-1
352
— - I
2200
35'5
35'3 +°'2
a
353
35-3
O'O
2000
rA
35b
35'° o-o
u
ej
353
3 5'4
— O'l
1800
rt
3
35-6
356 i o-o
-£>
35*5
35'5
O'O
1600
49
35-6
35'6 o - o
00
3
ft
35-6
35" 6
O'O
1400
e
O
tl
36-0
35-8 4-0-2
efr
357
357
O -
1200
<4-
â– a
a
36-0
36-0
o-o
S
35'9
35-8
+01
1000
c*
£>
36-0
36-0
o-o
Oj
36-0
35'9
+o-i
8co
a
35'9
359
o - o
--J
36-1
361
o - o
600
400
s
B
363
37'5
36-4
37-2
— O'l
+Q-3
The balloon then
turned to ascend.
1200
13
37-2
37 - 2 ' o'o
» 1^ j
bd
377
37-6
+ 0-1
1000
V a
3
O
37'*
37'4 -.o-a
- »i hrj
3 ^> 2
-3 g
377
377
O'O
800
a &d.
O
377
377 o-o
O
3
37-3
37 - 9
— O'l
600
, 2 * I
£
38-2
38-0 -f-O-2 j
38-0
380
O'O
400
h cv"
^
38-2
38-3 , -o-i
O
38-2
3S2
o - o
200
a "
w
r
|3
ft
38-3
38-3
o-o
1 1
38-4
38-5
— O'l
December 30. — The temperature of the air was 42|° on the ground ; it
declined 1° in the first 200 feet ; 0°- 7 in the second; 0°' 9 in the third ; l°-0 in
the fourth ; l°-2 in the fifth, where it was 37°-8, or nearly 5° less than on the
ground ; it then decreased by amounts varying from |° to 1° in every 200 feet,
till 2400 feet had been passed, where the temperature was 32|°, declining to
32^° at 2600 feet. The balloon then turned to descend, the temperature re-
maining at nearly the same value, viz. 32°, for 400 feet, and increased \° on
falling to 2000 feet, when the balloon turned to ascend, the temperature de-
creasing very evenly up to 3400 feet : here a warm current was met with ; for
the temperature increased 2|° in passing from 3400 feet to 3600 feet, the tem-
perature there being 29|°. On descending, the temperature decreased to 28^°
at 3400 feet, and remained veiy nearly at that value for the next 800 feet,
but increased to 29° at 2400 feet and to 30° at 2200 feet; after this it in-
creased about ±° for every 200 feet, till the balloon had fallen to 1000 feet,
and 1|° whilst passing from that to 800 feet ; the balloon then turned to re-
ascend for the second time, the temperature remaining at 36° whilst passing
upward from 800 feet to 1400 feet 5 it then declined about i° in passing
through the next 200 feet, and remained nearly at that value till 2400 feet were
reached, and fell to 34^° at 2800 feet, when the balloon turned to descend,
the temperature increasing from 34° at 2800 feet to 38°-2 at 300 feet ; on
again ascending, the temperature did not vary until 600 feet was reached, but
declined to 37 0, 2 at 1200 feet, and gradually increased to 38°-4 on the ground.
174
REPORT — 1865.
Table III. (continued.)
Twenty-fifth Ascent.
Temperature of the Air.
1865.
1
February 27.
Height, in feet,
Ascending
Descending.
Calcu-
Calcu-
above the mean
level of the sea.
Between
what
Circum-
stances.
Ob-
served
Adopted
tempe-
lated
effect of
Between
what
Circum-
stances.
Ob-
served
Adopted
tempe-
lated
effect of
times.
temp.
rature.
disturb-
times.
temp.
rature.
disturb-
ance. ,
ance.
5000
Above
39'4
33'4
+ 6'0
39'°
4S00
Cloud.
3»-3
33-1
+ 5' 2
38-4
4600
34"°
33' 2
-j-o-8
39'5
4400
34-0
33'4
-j-o-6
42-1
4200
•-d
34-3
336
+07
43'3
40c
£
3
35'°
33-8
+ 1-2
43 - i
3800
A
*"o
34-8
34''
+07
hrj
43-0
3600
r^
l-H
34-8
35'i
34-5
35'i
+°'3
O'O
O
&
42-8
3400
H
42-5
3200
3000
a
35-8
35-8
O'O
fc>
42-0
4i7
37-2
369
+0-3
On a level
with
2800
2600
i
38-0
39"4
37-8
387
-|-0'2
+07
3
cloud.
4 I- 7
41'2
Below the
level of
2400
• — 1
Below
40-4
39-6
-j-o-8
r*-
the cloud.
42"0
2200
cloud.
41'S
407
+o-8
1*1
43'°
2COO
42-8
417
+ i-i
M
43-2
1800
B
43'9
42-8
J-i-i
43' 2
1600
44'9
437
+ 1-2
•a
43-2
I4OO
£
4S - 5
44-6
+ 0- 9
B
43-2
I2CO
45-8
45-6
-fO'2
43-2
IOOO
46-5
466
— O'l
43-6
80O
47'°
477
-07
437
60O
487
489
— 0'2
45'3
40O
49'9
50-0
— o'l
457
200
51-3
511
-f-0'2
O
52-3
5 2 '3
o - o
The
turn«
jalloon
d to as<
then
:end.
3600
34OO
In
cloud.
33-6
33'9
33'5
34'°
+ 0-1
-o-i
In
cloud.
327
32'6
327
32-8
O'O
— 0'2
32OO
3OOO
2SCO
2600
24OO
3
d,
b
34-2
35'7
36-2
367
37-2
34-8
35'4
359
36-5
37-2
— o - 6
4-0-3
+0-3
4-o - 2
O'O
3
5
In
cloud.
32*6
32-6
32-6
327
33'5
32-9
33-0
33-1
33'3
33'5
-0-3
-0-4
-°'5
-o-6
O'O
In
liazc.
22CO
2O00
â– 3-
37-8
38-9
38-0
38-9
— 0-2
O'O
E
Below
34'4
34-8
34'°
34-8
+ c'4
O'O
l800
3
Below
40'o
39-8
+ 0'2
S"
cloud.
35' 2
36-0
-o-8
l6oo
b
cloud.
41-1
4C6
+o-5
-£-_
37'°
37' 2
— 0'2
I40O
a
42-3
41-4
+0-9
>X)
3S9
38-5
+ o'4
I20O
43"°
4 2 '3
+07
g
4°"4
39'9
+c's
IOOO
A
437
43-2
4-o-s
42-0
4 » '4
4-o'6
800
a
44 - 3
44"°
4-0-3
42-6
427
— O'l
600
44-9
44-8
4-o-i
43-2
43'4
— C'2
400
&
457
457
O'O
44' 1
44- 1
O'O
200
44'5
44'5
CO
44' 5
44'5
O'O
February 27. — The temperature on the ground was 52°-3, which declined
1° on passing through the first 200 feet, and about 1^° in each space of
ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 AND 1865. 175
200 feet up to 800 feet, where the temperature was 47° or 5°-3 lower than on
the ground : the decline was then less rapid, for on passing through the next
800 feet the whole decrease was 2°-l. The temperature then declined rather
more rapidly to 35°-l at 3400 feet high ; at 3600 feet it was 34f °, and varied but
little from this till 4000 feet had been passed ; it then decreased to 34° at 4600
feet, when it suddenly became warm, the temperature increasing to 38|° on
passing above 4S00 feet, and to 39^° nearly on reaching 5000 feet, the same
temperature having been passed at 2600 feet. The balloon then turned to de-
scend, the temperature at first decreasing to 3S°-4 at 4800 feet, being the same
as noted on ascending : here a warm current was met with, and the tempera-
ture increased rapidly ; when at 4200 feet it was 43°-3, being 9° warmer
than was noticed at the same elevation on ascending ; this excess gradually
diminished, till at about 2000 feet high the temperature observed during
the descent was very nearly the same as. noted, during the ascent; and below
this the temperatures were all lower by some -degrees than were recorded at
the same elevation during the ascent : these differences seem to be chiefly
owing to the presence of cloud situated between 3100 feet and 4100 feet
high, or 1000 feet in thickness passed through in ascending, and seen at the
same level, but not passed through in descending. The point where the tem-
peratures noted were the same ascending and descending was a little below
the cloud-plane ; at lower elevations, to the ground, the air was some degrees
warmer under the cloud, during the ascent, than in the absence of cloud
during the descent. The .effect of the presence of the cloud in this ascent
seems to have been to cool the air several degrees ; and this cooling influence
seems to have extended for nearly 1000 feet above the cloud, and for 500
or 600 feet below ; nearer the earth the presence of the cloud seems to
have exercised a warming influence. In the descent it will be seen that the
temperature differed very little from 43°, from 4200 feet high to 1000 feet
high, the depression' to 41°+ from 3000 feet to 2600 feet being evidently
influenced by the passage through the cloud-plane. On ascending again,
first haze was passed through, then cloud entered, giving readings differing
but little from those met with in the first ascent. On descending to the
earth, temperatures a little lower, owing apparently to the diurnal decrease
of temperature at these altitudes, were met with, thus far agreeing with those
during the first ascent ; and comparison with those during the first descent
through a large break in the clouds gives a great deal of information upon
the large influence exercised by the presence of cloud.
In previous Reports a Table (No. IY.) was formed here, showing the
decrease of temperature in every 1000 feet ; as no additional information at
high elevations is given this year, this Table has not been formed. The
residts of Table V. of preceding years are included in Table III. of this year.
176
REPORT 1865.
Table VI. — Showing the Decrease of Temperature with every
Dec. 1,
Dec. 30
Height,
in feet,
above the
level o f the
18()4.
1864.
State of the Sky.
sea.
Generally
clear.
Cloudy.
From
To
to
s
c
<u
CI
<
tr,
s
c
u
n
OJ
«
fan
B
^3
E
a
u
<
c
c
u
n
V
O
to
c
'B
c
U
in
<
6,
c
-3
a
V
05
V
P
c
p
u
w
<
g
c
u
41
â–
CI
A
a
c
0)
en
<
a
•3
u
â–
4>
feet.
feet.
O
3
4900
5000
o'S
OI
4800
4900
o-6
- I
• •
..
• •
4700
4800
0-4
o - i
* •
• •
• •
••
• •
4600
4700
0-4
o-i
..
4500
4600
07
O'l
••
• •
••
• •
4400
45C0
o-8
O'l
••
..
■•
••
••
• •
4300
4400
o'5
0'2
••
• •
• •
■•
4200
4300
o-6
0-2
• •
■•
••
4100
4200
o'5
0-2
• •
• •
• •
••
••
4000
4100
0-4
0'3
■•
3900
4000
0-4
0'2
■•
• •
3800
3900
0-4
0-2
.
• •
3700
3800
04
0-2
••
• •
•
• •
• •
• •
3600
3700
0-3
o-i
..
3500
3600
0-3
o-i
••
+ ro
+°'4
.
• •
• •
3400
3500
0-3
0-2
••
â– fl'I
4-o-s
•
••
• •
3300
3400
o'3
0-2
••
01
o-o
» •
3200
3300
- 2
0-2
°'3
O'O
.
'
3100
3200
0'2
0-2
••
0-4
O'O
.
3000
3100
0- 3
0-3
••
o'S
+o-i
.
• •
2900
3000
0-3
03
••
°'5
4-0-1
•
• •
2800
2900
03
0-2
••
o'S
O'O
.
2700
2800
0-3
0-2
••
0-5
01 c
>'2
03
..
..
2600
2700
0-4
0-2
••
°'S
0'2 <
>"3
0-4
..
••
2500
2600
°'4
0-2
0-2
O'O
o'4
0-3 c
>"2
01
..
2400
2500
0-3
0-3
0-3
o-i
0-3
0-3 <
yz
O'l
• •
• •
2300
2400
0-4
0-3
03
o-i
0-4
0-3 c
)"o
O'l
• •
2200
2300
0-4
0-4
0-3
o-o
0-5
04 c
)-o
o - o
2100
2200
0-4
0-5
0-3
0-2
0-4
0-4 c
>-I
o-o
..
..
2000
2100
0-3
o-6
0-4
0-3
°'5
0-4 <
)'2
- I
..
1900
2000
0-3
o-6
o'S
0*3 c
ro
O'l
..
1800
1900
0-4
o-6
°'5
- 2 C
>'o
O'O
1700
1800
0-3
o'5
0-4
0'2 C
)-o
o - o
..
• •
1600
1700
03
0-4
0-4
03 c
)'0
o-i
1500
1600
o-3
o'5
0-3
0-3 c
)-I
o-i
• •
..
1400
1500
o-3
06
- 2
• •
- 2 C
>-I
00
• •
1300
1400
0-3
06
0- 4
• •
02 c
•I
o-o
1200
1300
0-3
o'5
0- 4
0'2 C
â– I
O'l
1
1 100
1200
0-3
0-4
0-4
0-3 c
•0
O'l
o-i
O'O
1000
1 100
0-2
0-4
0-3
0-3 c
•0
o-o
01
01
900
1000
0'2
0-3
07
0-5 4c
•I
o-i
O'l
O'l
800
900
0-3
0'2
o'7
o'6 c
•0
o-i
0'2
o-i
700
800
0'2
0-3
O'S
..
.
o-i
01
o-i
600
700
o'a
0-3
0-4
.
.
0-2
0"2
O'O
500
600
0'2
0-3
0-5
.
.
0-4
O'l
O'l
400
500
ci
0-3
0-5
..
.
.
0-4
0-2
O'l
300
400
cri
0-3
0-4
• •
•
•
••
••
o-i
200
300
O'O
0-4
0-3
.
.
O'O
ICO
200
o-o
0-4
0-5
.
o-i
100
o - o
0-4
o-s
.
.
o-i
' - 1
No. of c
»1. 1.
3.
â– i.
1
},
0.
r. 1
?.
9.
10.
11.
1
ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1804 AND 1865.
crease of 100 feet up to 5000 feet.
177
Fel
.27.
il
\r
, General mean
(omitting; July 17,
1862, August 31,
1865.
iuc;ui.
1803
, January 12, April 6, July
3, 20, 27
, 1864,
and February 27, 1865).
State of the Sk
y.
Cloudy.
Number
Number
Cloudy.
Clear.
.
si
of
of
Space
Space
M
c
feb
c
c
Cloudy.
experi-
Clear.
experi-
Number
passed
Number
passed
i
t3
e
ments.
ments.
Mean.
of
through
Mean.
of
through
n
u
c
V
experi-
for a
experi-
for a
a
to
00
ments.
decline
ments.
decline
<
<
B
ofl°.
of 1°.
O <
>
3
o
feet.
feet.
* '
■•
•
• •
• •
o'3
2
0-3
20
333
0-3
12
333
• '
•
•
• •
• •
• °'3
2
0-3
20
333
0-3
12
333
D'O
•
•
O'O
°'3
2
0-3
20
333
0-3
12
333
S"J
*
•
ci
o' 3
2
0-3
20
333
o'3
12
333
*>'I
•
•
O'l
o' 4
2
0-3
21
333
°'3
12
333
">'I
•
•
O'l
°'5
2
°'3
21
333
0-3
12
333
3*1
•
•
O'l
o' 4
2
0-3
24
333
03
12
333
3*1
•
•
O'l
0-4
2
03
24
333
0-3
12
333
3*1
ri
">'I
•
•
o'l
°'4
2
0-3
24
333
0-3
'4
333
.
.
O'l
O'l
0-4
o*3
2
2
0-3
0-3
25
25
333
333
°"3
0-3
M
'4
333
333
yz
•
•
C2
2
9*3
2
0-3
26
333
03
H
333
y%
•
0'2
2
o"3
2
0-3
17
333
0-3
J 3
333
3*2
•
0'2
2
0'2
2
0-3
27
333
0-3
"3
333
>'3 c
>â– * <
J'O
0'2
3
0*2
2
0-3
28
333
o*3
'3
333
v 3 c
>"3 <
>'I
0*2
3
0'2
2
0.3
28
333
°"3
1 3
333
>'3 c
> - 4 <
VI
0'2
3
0'2
2
0.3
28
333
03
"3
333
-'4 c
>"4 <
ro
0'2
5
0'2
2
°'3
30
333
0-3
*3
333
>'5 <
»6 »
>"3 <
yo
0'2
5
0*2
2
0-3
3 1
333
0-3
12
333
>'3 <
yi
0'3
4
0'2
2
0-4
30
250
0-3
12
333
>'5 <
'"3 <
yi
0'3
4
03
2
0-4
31
250
°'3
12
333
>'4 <
>'2 (
yo
C2
5
0-3
2
0-4
3 1
250
0-3
12
333
>'4 <
>"3 <
i'i
°'3
7
0-3
2
0-4
34
250
03
12
333
>'S <â–
>'3 <
yi
°'3
7
0-3
2
0-4
34
250
°'3
12
333
>"5 c
>"3 <
VI
C2
9
0-3
2
0-4
37
250
o"3
12
333
»"4 c
»"4 *
>'i
0'2
9
o'3
2
0-4
37
250
o"3
12
333
'4 <:
>"4 c
>'2
0'2
9
0-3
2
0-4
36
250
o'3
12
333
''S c
'4 c
>'3
°'3
9
0-3
2
0-4
36
250
o'3
12
333
'5 c
»'4 c
>'4
o'3
9
0-4
2
0-4
36
250
0-3
12
333
''5 c
•5 c
â– 6 c
•■6 c
'â– 5 t
"S c
•6 c
'•5 <
•5 c
>'5 t
> - 4
>-6
>-6
>-6
>-6
>-6
o'4
9
0-4
2
0-4
36
250
°'3
12
333
>'S «
o'4
7
0-4
2
04
34
250
o"3
12
333
>"4 <
03
7
0-4
2
0-4
34
250
°'3
12
333
>4 t
o'3
7
0-5
2
0-4
36
250 j
• °'3
12
333
>"4 <
0'3
7
0-4
2
0-4
36
250 '
03
12
333
>'4 «
0'3
7
0-4
2
0-4
38
250 \
0-4
13
250
>'4 <
>7
0'3
7
0-4
2
0-4
38
250
0-4
13
2<;o
»'4 c
>7
o'3
7
0-4
2
0-4
35
250
0-4
10
250
»'S «
>7
04
7
°'4
2
°"4
35
250
°'5
10
200
'5 c
>"S e
>"7
°'3
9
0-4
2
0-4
37
250
o"5
10
200
'5 «
»'4 c
>'8
o' 3
9
o'3
2
0-4
37
250
o-5
10
200
'5 t
•6 c
•6 c
•6 c
S c
•6 c
•6
»'4 c
»"7
.'6
°"3
9
o'3
2
04
33
250
°'5
10
2CO
>'4 c
o'4
9
o'3
2
0-4
33
250
°'5
10
20O
'4 c
4
°'3
7
o"3
2
04
29
250
o'S
10
200
'4 c
»'3
o'3
7
0-3
*
0-4
29
250
o'S
10
200
4 c
"3
o'3
7
o-3
2
°'5
27
2CO
o'S
10
200
'S c
'4
o'4
7
0'2
2
0-5
27
20O
0-4
10
23O
S
6
c
"2
o'3
4
0'2
2
o'S
24
200
0-4
10
253
c
'I
0'2
4
C2
2
05
24
200
°'5
10
200
• c
'O
o'3
4
0'2
2 .
o'S
24
200
o'S
TO
200
• c
'O
o'3
4
0'2
2
o-6
24
167
o-6
10
167
1
3. 1
1.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19,
20.
21. 22.
23.
•*"*!
-•->«
9
178
REPORT 1865.
§ 6. Variation of the Hygrometric Condition op the Air "with Elevation.
All the adopted readings of the temperature of the dew-point in Section 4
were laid down on diagrams, and joined by lines drawn from one to the other.
In the case of the temperature of the air, when thus joined, a curved line can
be drawn through them, giving equal weight to every observation ; but this
cannot be done with respect to the temperature of the dew-point, it being far
more variable than the temperature of the air ; and the numbers in the fol-
lowing Table are those read at every 200 feet, from the diagram formed
simply by joining the points of observation.
Table VII. — Showing the Variation of the Hygrometric condition of the
Air at every 200 feet of Height.
Twenty-third Ascent.
1864.
December 1.
Height, in feet,
above the mean
level of the sea.
Humidity
of the Air.
Ascending.
Descending.
Between
what
times.
Circum-
stances.
rempe-
ratuxe of
;he dew-
point.
Elastic
force of
vapour.
Degree
of
humi-
dity.
Between
what
times.
Circum-
stances.
Tempe-
rature of
the dew-
point.
Elastic
force of
vapour.
Degree
• of .
humi-
dity.
in.
in.
5400
i 5 -o
â– 086
S3
i5'3
•087
• 54
5200
i3 - o
•078
45
i6 - 9
•093
• 57
5000
I2 - I
•074
42
18-4
•100
. 60
4800
I4"4
•0S3
45
185
•100
58
4600
I78
•097
5°
187
•101
59
4400
2C4
•110
55
19-1
•103
59
4200
22'0
118
54
193
'104
58
4000
237
•127
57
196
•106
57
3800
S
257
•139
59
17-5
•096
5 2
3600
28-5
•156
65
2
159
•089
48
3400
a
29-3
•162
66
Q
19-4
•105
58
3200
c3
29 - 6
•164
66
w
23^0
•123
66
3000
en
1j
29-6
•164
66
LA
267
"US
86
2800
O
£?
296
•164
62
3
27-9
•152
79
2600
s
*£
30*1
•168
65
1
•^
30-5
•170
83
2400
O
m
35'°
•204
76
â– *â–
• — •
30-9
•173
83
2200
a
37-6
•225
81
1*3
(V
31-4
•176
82
2000
36-9
•219
79
g
31-8
•179
82
1800
36-5
•216
76
13
&
32-5
•184
83
1600
S-i
PR
36-9
•219
72
347
•201
87
1400
37'i
•221
72
36-8
•218
83
1200
37-6
•225
72
37-2
•222
86
1000
38-6
•234
73
39-0
•238
93
800
38-8
•236
73
39'3
•240
9 1
600
38-5
•233
75
395
•242
89
400
39'5
•242
72
39 - 9
•246
88
200
395
•242
72
4c 2
•249
82
40-0
•247
74
40-5
•252
83
December 1. — The temperature of the dew-point on the ground before start-
ing was 40°, or 8° below that of the air ; this difference slightly increased to 8|°
at 1600 feet, when the air became more moist, the temperature of the air at
2200 feet being 43°, and that of the dew-point 37|° ; these temperatures then
separated suddenly, the difference between them at 2600 feet being rather
more than 11°; this difference remained about the same until 3600 feet were
passed, when it began to increase quickly up to 5000 feet, where it was 1 9°,
the temperatures of the air and dew-point being 31°-1 and 12°-1 respectively,
the degree of humidity being as low as 42. The air then became somewhat
more moist, and the degree of humidity increased to 53 at 5400 feet ; at
5000 feet, on descending, the temperature of the air was 30°, and that of the
ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 AND 1865.
179
dew-point 18°-4, showing a difference of ll°-6, which increased gradually to
12|° at 4000 feet; the air then suddenly became much drier, the degree of
humidity being 48 at 3600 feet, and the difference between the temperatures
of the air and dew-point was 164°. The air then became much more moist,
and continued so till the ground was reached. The most humid state was'
experienced at the height of 1000 feet from the earth.
Table YTI. (continued).
Twenty-fourth Ascext.
180
Report — 18G5.
Table VII. (continued).
Twenty-fourth Ascent (continued).
Humidity
of the Air.
1864.
Dec. 30 (cont.)
Height, in feet,
above the mean
Ascending
Descending.
Between
Tempe-
Elastic
Degree
Between
Tempe-
Elastic
Degree
of
humi-
dity.
level of the sea.
what
times.
Circum-
stances.
rature of
the dew-
point.
force of
vapour.
of
humi-
dity.
what
times.
Circum-
stances.
rature of
the dew-
point.
force of
vapour.
in.
in.
2800
2 9 '8
•166
84
30-0
•167
85
2600
29-5
•163
80
30-4
•170
83
2400
a 1
29-8
•166
80
30-1
•168
83
2200
2000
A
297
30'°
•165
•167
80
80
O hj
"_3
fcd
CD
30*1
30-5
•168
•170
82
83
1800
^*-
O
30-9
•173
83
^"3
O
4
30-5
•170
82
1600
fc
31'2
•17s
84
1*
O
30-5
•170
82
14CO
O
3°'7
•172
81
13 -t*
30-5
'170
82
1200
O
pq
3°*7
â– 172
8l
3 3
p.
30-9
•173
82
J 000
3°'7
•172
81
307
•172
81
800
30-8
•172
82
30'2
•168
79
600
...
...
...
29'6
•164
77
400
...
33 - 5
Thebal
turned
•192
loon th
to asce
86
en
nd.
1200
IOOO
hi
3
34-5
346
•199
•200
90
90
|U3 U>
bd
341
34-0
•196
•196
87
87
800
la g
O
34"9
•203
9'
3- V
- 3 g
3
33-8
•194
86
600
Is
35'°
•204
89
33*9
-1 95
8S
400
O
35"°
•204
89
"SO
33-8
'94
84
200
* O
m
r »
a>
33-6
•193
84
O
...
...
34"4
•199
,„
December 30. — The temperature of the dew-point on the ground was 34°-9,
and the humidity 74, the former decreasing to 31 §° at 600 feet, where the
humidity was 72 ; the dew-point then varied but little, and much less than
the temperature of the air, so that the degree of humidity increased to the
height of 2400 feet, then was smaller at 2600 feet. The balloon descended
then to 2000 feet, then turned to ascend ; the air continued humid till 3200
feet was passed ; the degree of humidity at this point was 94 ; above this point
the air was much drier. During the subsequent successive ascents and descents
the air in the lower atmosphere was found to be very humid.
February 27. — The temperature of the dew-point on the earth was 38°, or
14°-3 below that of the air, the air being consequently unusually dry, and
particularly so for February, the degree of humidity being 59 only. On
ascending, the air gradually became more moist, till the height of 3200 feet
in the centre of cloud, where the degree of humidity was 78. On leaving
the cloud below, the air became drier, and was the driest at 5000 feet high,
where it was 37. On descending, the air was much drier down to 2600 feet
than at corresponding heights during the ascent. No cloud was passed
through, and at lower elevations the air was more moist than in the ascent.
On ascending again through cloud, and descending also through cloud, the
results were very similar to those noted in the first ascent, the most humid
states being those in the cloud, which in the last descent were found but
little short of saturation.
ON THKEE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 AND 1865.
181
Table VII. (continued.)
Twenty-fifth Ascext.
1865.
February 27.
Heiarht, in feet,
above the mean
level of the sea.
Humidity of the Air.
Ascendin
?•
Descending.
Betwecr
what
1 Tcmpe-j E1 ;
Cjrcum- raturc of, f .
stances, the dew-
Degree
of
humi-
Between' _ „ ^"" VC } Elastic D T*
! stances, the dew- humi-
times.
point.
vapour.
dity.
times.
point.
"pour. dlty
in.
in.
5C00
Above
15.8
089
37
'5'8
089
37
4800
cloud.
20"0
•108
47
16-4
•091
39
4600
18-3
•099
51
181
•098
4'
4400
iS-5
"100
52
19-4
•1C5
39
4200
22'0
118
60
2C5
•110
4'
4000
TJ
267
"'45
7i
218
•117
42
3800
27-5
•15c
74
3
237
•J27
46
3600
c
"o
27"6
•151
75
3
*55
•138
5°
3400
3200
3000
s
c
1— 1
287
293
296
• J5 8
•162
â– 164
77
78
74
2 7"4
28-6
28-8
•149
-I 57
158
55
59
60
On a
level
with
2800
~h
297
•165
72
3
clouds.
29'0
â– 160
61
2600
O
-4-»
30-0
•167
69
30-4
•170
66
2400
E
Below
31-2
•i7S
69
O
Below
the
32-6
185
69
2200
to
cloud.
32"2
•182
69
level of
3+"9
•203
73
2000
M
327
186
68
cloud.
339
•'95
70
1800
s
33"3
â– 190
66
%
33-8
•194
70
1600
p
e
33-8
•194
65
â–º13
337
•193
69
1400
338
•194
64
5
33'5
â– 192
69
1200
33'4
•191
62
33 - 4
191
69
1000
33'4
•191
60
345
199
70
800
337
•'93
60
34-0
•196
69
600
34'°
196
57
34'4
•199
66
400
347
•201
57
353
•206
67
200
37-6
•225
60
Thebal
loon t
lien
O
38-0
â– 229
59
turned
to asce
nd.
3600
In
3o'o
•167
87
In
3°"5
•170
9'
34CO
cloud.
2S6
•'57
81
cloud.
309
•'73 ,
94
3200
3000
28-5
297
•156
•,65
80
79
s
3C2
3'
•168
-I 74
9'
94
©
2800
b
â– *
E
30-0
â– 167
78
In
3i'°
•174 !
94
2600
a
3°"3
•169
78
3
cloud.
31-9 |
•180
97
2400
3 ro
•'74
79
w
31-4 •
•176 !
92
2200
fS
30-9
•173
77
-t*
Below.
31-0
"'74
87
20CO
m 1
31-3
â– 176
74
o>
cloud.
30-1
•168
83
j8co
Below
31-2
•175
7i
O
29-2
•161
79
i6co
cloud.
313
•176
68
â– *.
30-0
•167
1400
B
3 ''4
•176
65
O
31-0
•'74
74
1200
M
32*0
•1S1
66
3
32-0 iS 1
72
IOCO
~rn
327
186
65
B
331 -188 1
71
800
g
33'4
191
66
33'8 194
7'
6co
34-0
•196 |
66
34'4 "'99
72
4C0
A
348
•2C2
66
360 "212 1
74
200
|
366 '217
74
37'3 â– "22 3
76
The numbers in this Tabic having been found from experiments taken at
different times in the year, and under different circumstances from those in
previous years, can scarcely be combined with them, till we know more about
182
REPORT 1865.
the general laws at the different seasons of the year. I defer for the present
making any further use of them, particularly as their combination would not
change the general Tables previously found.
Table VIII. — Showing the Degree of Humidity at every 200 feet.
Height
above the
level of
the sea.
feet.
5400
5200
5000
4800
4600
4400
4Z00
4000
38CO
3600
3400
3200
3000
2800
2600
2400
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
20O
o
Dec. 1, 1864.
December 30, 1864.
February 2", 1865.
Wean.
State of the Sky.
Generally
Clear.
53
45
42
45
5°
55
54
57
59
65
66
66
66
62
65
76
81
79
76
72
72
72
73
73
75
72
72
74
54
57
60
58
59
59
58
57
5*
48
58
66
86
79
83
83
82
82
83
87
83
86
93
9 1
89
88
82
83
Cloudy.
84
62
78
92
91,85
9291
91196 80
96958
IOO 9480
92.92 80
... 92
... J90
90
Cloudy
â– â– 3
a
is
83
83
Si
83
Si
82
82
82 9c
81 90
7991
77 S 9
7689
37
47
5i
52
60
7i
74
75
77
78
74
72
69
69
69
68
66
65
64
62
60
60
57
57
60
59
Generally
Cloudy.
37
39
4i
39
4i
42
46
50
55
59
60
61
66
69
73
70
70
69
6 9
69
70
69
66
67
87
81
80
79
78
78
79
77
74
7i
68
65
66
65
66
66
66
Cloudy.
9 1
94
9 1
94
94
97
92
87
83
79
78
74
72
7i
7i
72
74
74
76
V
5
V
P.
X
4)
O
t>,
â– 0
3
-
a
c
a
O
...
U
53
5i
37
2
5 1
43
2
5i
46
2
54
46
2
57
50
2
5*>
56
2
57
60
2
55
69
6
56
78
6
62
82
6
66
80
6
76
Si
8
7°
83
ic
74
82
to
79
84
10
81
82
10
80
79
8
80
77
8
79
76
S
78
?8
10
79
77
10
83
76
10
82
73
8
82
73
s
80
72
4
77
72
4
78
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.7.8.9.10.11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.17.18.19.',
The numbers in this Table show, as in all similar experiments at all times
in the year, that the moisture in the air is very different at the same elevation
at different times ; and that the moisture on the same day was differently dis-
tributed over different places. The most remarkable in this Table is that of
the first descent on February 27, the balloon having ascended through clouds,
descended through a break in the clouds, and then ascended and descended
again through clouds, showing a marked difference at the same elevation in
the degree of humidity of the air. These results are too few, and having
been deduced from experiments made at a different season of the year from
those previously made, had better be left till more winter ascents have been,
made to combine with them.
ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 AND 1865.
183
7. Comparison of the Temperature of the Dew-point, as determined by
different instruments and methods, and comparison of their eesults
together.
Table IX. — Showing the Temperature of the Dew-point, as determined at
about the same height by dirferent instruments and methods, and compa-
rison of the results together.
Under 1000 feet.
Dew
â– point'
Temperature of the dew-point as deter-
temperatures.
mined by
Calculated
from
Observed 1
by
)ry and Wet (free)
above that by
Dry and Wet
(aspirated)
above that by
fa
a >> •
Height.
^
bocs-a
5
£»
ft.
in «
ft.
E' 2 5
M 0>
"'3.
c to
grom
y and
<3
u
'5.
£2 s
SB
C to
•3 a
Site
'c to
3 a
«
c £â–
tc to
14
rt t^
p
Q w
pa
tfS P
PI
rtX
na
EM
Q
d
h
m
feet.
o
>
Dec.
i
1
15
ground
ground
40-4
3 9 -i
40-2
4C0
-r-o-2
-°"9
2
30
ground
4C0
4C0
40 'o
O'O
O'O
Dec.
30
2
55
565
32-1
32-5 .
-0-4
Feb.
27
1
2
3
3
3
3
52
58
6
10
'4
24
ground
957
605
377
779
742
38-0
347
338
34'4
34'°
33-2
35"°
34'°
34"o
34-0
34'2 •
32*0
-0-3
— 0'2
o-o
-o-8
+ 3-8
4-2-4
From 1000 to 2000 feet.
Dec. 30 2 5i|
Feb. 27 3 1 8
1256
1 148
30-8 . .
33'3 | ••
■•
3°'5
33-0
••
••
4-0-3
4-0-3
From 2000 to 3000 feet.
Dec. 1 3 57
2662
28-5
28-0
+o-s
4o
2691
307
30'o
4-0-7
Dee. 30 2 22
2634
3o'o
28-0
4-2 - o
2 44
2219
29'6
3o'o
-0-4
Feb. 27 2 47
2382
33'i
..
33'o
• •
+o'l
2 49
2330
33'3
34-0
..
-07
3 35
2271
319
30-5
4-1-4
184
REPORT 1865.
Table IX. (continued).
From 3000 to 4000 feet.
Date.
Height.
Dew-point
temperatures.
Temperature of the dew-point as deter-
mined bv
•
Calculated
from
Observed
by
Dry and Wet (free)
above that by
Dry and Wet
(aspirated)
above that by
Daniell's Hygrometer
above that by
Regnault's.
>>
H
O
*- <u
•a a
« 3.
p~
c
â– s
a s
s to
a >>
3 S
et
Dry and Wet
(aspirated).
u
V
- a
« g
'c to
rt >.
PS
c
3 a
a
~ **
'c to
^> 4)
3S
ca
Sd to
d h m
Dec. i 3 46
3 52
3 54
Dec. 30 2 33
Feb. 27 3 45
3 46
3 4S
feet.
3470
3744
3240
3735
35 21
34'5
3042
22'5
20"0
247
I2'2
30-0
31 -
3I-0
3
21-5
20'0
25^0
IS'O
3°"5
307
i4 - o
30-5
'
3
+ i-o
00
-0-3
-2-8
-°"5
+0-3
-r8
+o-s
From 5000 to 6000 feet.
Fr
am
4000 to 5000 feet
Dec.
1 2 50
4222
23-8
20 -
..
• • +3'8
1
3 5
4496
156
I 5 -0
"
+ o-6
3 H
4766
22"0
l6o
..
+ 60
3 17
495 '
ib-S
19-0
-*'5
3 49
4170
15-0
15-0
O'O
Fob. 2
â– 7 2 7i
211
2 17
2 27
2 34
4418
4737
4965
4828
4408
20'9
21-6
16-1
13*0
167
.8-5
15-0
17*0
19-0
15-0
+2-4
+V-i
-0-3
+2-6
— 2 -
2 34^
4408
177
••
i6'o
+ 17
Dec. 1 2 58 5328 12-2! .. 1 i7 - o .. 1
.. |- 4 'S|
1
Table X.
Heights between
Excess of Temperature of the Dew-
point as determined by Dry and
Wet Thermometers (free)
above that observed by
m %
"S to
rt >.
OS
H
O
O
O
u
•fi 4)
- *J
-«-> I)
9 a
£2
5,60
tfK
V>
O
d
feet. feet.
and ioco
IOOO „ 2CCO
2COO „ 3000
3000 ,, 4000
4000 „ 5000
5C00 „ 6oco
-0-3
+o ; 5
-0-4
+ r6
-4-8
7
5
6
7
1
O
+ i-4
+0-3
+ i-o
_o-6
+ o-6
4
2
2
2
4
ON THKEE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1861 AND 1865.
185
Table XI. — Simultaneous readings of a delicate blaekcned-bulb thermometer
fully exposed to the sun's rays, and of a delicate thermometer carefully
shaded from the influence of the sun, the bulbs of the two instruments
being Avitbin 3 inches of each other.
December 1, 1864.
Height
Temperature of
Excess of
Time of obser-
above
mean
Shaded
Blackened-
reading of
Bluckened-
Remarks.
sea-level.
Thermo-
bulb Ther-
bulb Ther-
meter.
mometer.
mometer.
h m <
feet.
ground.
46-2
56-0
+ 9-3
Sim shining.
115 p.m.
ground.
46-8
56 - o
+9-2
* 39 ° »
890
47-2
47 "o
— 0'2
Sun shining brightly.
41 „
1618
45 "o
44' 5
-°'5
Sun shining brightly.
4 6 ° ->
3570
39 - 5
40-0
4-o-s
Sun warm.
5 1 ° »
4324
38-0
39'°
+ V0
55 ..
4742
35-0
35'5
4-o-s
3 5 ° »
4496
31-2
33-0
+ 1-8
9 ° .1
4128
335
29-5
-4-0
H ° »
4766
32-2
3''5
-c'7
17 .»
49 5 1
31-0
31-0
O'O
24 „
5122
29-8
30-0
-f-O'2
48 „
3973
33'°
3 3"°
o - o
December 30, 1864.
2 34 30 p.m.
3539
29-0
29-0
39 ° »
797
34' 5
34'5
42 „
1669
355
35\5
43 .,
1929
35'5
35-5
O'O
O'O
o-o
February 27, 1865.
I 58
).in.
ground
, ,
52TJ
58 20
j)
176
5i '4
52"0
+ o-6
59
»
474
49'5
5 I- 5
+ 2-0
2 6 30
>i
4 C 4°
34 '8
35-0
-j-O-2
28
j>
4847
381
38-3
+ 0"2
40
)»
4734
41*2
45'°
+ 3-8
A2'0
43'5
+ i-5
42
»>
4332
A2 -
43-5
+ i-5
45
j'
3274
42-0
42-5
+o-5
49
))
2330
41-8
4i - o
-o-8
56 30
5»
644
46-0
46-0
O'O
Sun shining faintly.
Sun hot to sense.
186
REPORT 1865.
December 1, 1864.
Observations of the time of vibration of Evans's Magnet and Glaisher's
Magnet.
1864.
Place of
Height
above
sea-level.
Evans
s and Glaisher's Magnet.
Arc of vibration.
Mean time
observation.
No. of vi-
brations in
Time oc-
cupied in
of vibration
At com-
from each
Magnet.
each set.
each set.
mence-
ment.
At
end.
set of ob-
servations.
h
m
feet.
s
s
Dec. 1. 2
48
In Balloon.
3600
28
45-2
1-614
Glaisher.
2
52
JJ
4200
5°
119-5
60
5
2-390
Evans.
2
56
jj
4800
20
50-0
loo
2-500
»j
2
56 +
jj
4800
28
68-4
120
2 '553
„
3
I
jj
5000
34
56-2
40
i'653
Glaisher.
3
2
jj
50CO
10
232
10
2-320
Evans.
3
7
j)
4100
30
5°'5
80
1683
Glaisher.
3
12
jt
4300
40
933
60
2-333
Evans.
3
l6
jj
4900
20
42-2
10
2"IIO
»
3
20
jj
5000
S*
1238
90
2- 3 8l
jj
3
30
jj
4500
10
24-1
100
2-410
jj
3
37
j)
5000
58
140-0
IOO
2-414
j»
3
47
jj
3600
20
47 - 3
90
2-365
»j
12
Blacldieath.
160
80
1652
5°
2-065
jj
jj
60
124-4
5°
2-073
jj
j»
38
550
5°
1-448
Glaisher.
jj
40
67-2
5°
i-68o
jj
j»
20
322
5°
1610
Dec. 2.
Koyal Ob-
servatory.
160
30
590
25
3
1-967
Evans.
*j
10
19-8
27
5
1-980
jj
jj
40
81-9
113
38
2-047
jj
j»
20
40-2
40
8
2"OIO
jj
10
I5-3
80
2
I- 53
Glaisher.
>i
30
47 '3
160
30
i'S77
j>
u
20
318
150
6
1-590
?j
j»
10
'55
140
10
1-550
jj
it
20
3»'3
150
3°
1565
jj
1865.
Feb. 27.
In Balloon.
4900
40
899
IOO
20
2-247
Evans.
jj
4800
38
877
150
5°
2-307
South Ilan-
ningfielcl.
no
5°
IOO'I
150
10
2"C02
jj
j»
5°
lOO'O
140
10
2-QOO
JJ
on three balloon ascents in 1864 and 1865. 187
Heights and Appeabance of the Clouds.
December 1, 1864.
Before starting the sky was cloudy.
At 3 h 50 m p.m.. at 3968 feet, the setting sun illuminated the topmost part
of a dark stratus cloud with a very deep orange- colour ; not a cloud in the
sky above altitude 15°.
December 30, 1864.
At 2 h 15 m p.m., at 602 feet. Misty all round.
At 2" 19 m 45 s p.m., at 2355 feet. Approaching cloud.
At 2 h 21 m p.m., at 2532 feet. Entered cloud.
At 2 h 23 m 30 s p.m., at 2699 feet. Just out of cloud.
At 2" 28 m p.m., at 2215 feet. Approaching cloud.
At 2 h 28 m 30 s p.m., at 2552 feet. Just entering cloud.
At 2 h 28 m 45 s p.m., at 2687 feet. Passed into cloud and lost sight of every-
thing.
At 2 h 30 ra p.m., at 3228 feet. Cloud dense and cold.
At 2 h 31 m p.m., at 3424 feet. The sky was of a beautiful prussian-blue
colour, with a beautiful sea of cloud below of varied surface, bright and shining.
At 2 h 34 m 40 s p.m., at 3550 feet. In a very dense cloud.
At 2 h 35 m 30 s p.m., at 2570 feet. Out of cloud below.
February 27, 1865.
At 2 h 3 m 30 s p.m., at 3074 feet. In cloud.
At 2 h 4 m p.m., at 3333 feet. In a white cloud.
At 2 h 5 m 30 s p.m., at 3850 feet. We are in cloud : the clouds below arc
moving much more quickly than we are.
At 2 h 7 ra 30 8 p.m., at 4418 feet. The clouds below appear to be moving 1ST.
At 2 h 8 m 30 s p.m., at 4647 feet. The clouds below are moving at right
angles to us.
At 2 h 9 m 30 s p.m., at 4737 feet. Clouds have a very fine purple tinge over
a very beautiful even surface.
At 2 h 27 m 30 s p.m., at 4840 feet. Clouds very high above us.
At 2 h 45 m p.m., at 3274 feet. Clouds on our level.
At 3 h l m 30 s p.m., at 1075 feet. Upper clouds moving as before.
At 3 h 38 m 30 s p.m., at 2659 feet. In haze.
At 3 h 39 ra p.m., at 2965 feet. In tbicker haze.
At 3 h 40 m p.m., at 3149 feet. In cloud.
At 3 h 41 m p.m., at 3149 feet. Still in cloud.
At 3 h 43 m p.m., at 3190 feet. Misty.
At 3 h 44 m 30 s p.m., at 3440 feet. In cloud.
At 3 h 45 m p.m., at 3521 feet. In fog.
At 3" 46 m p.m., at 3415 feet. In cloud.
At 3 h 49 m p.m., at 2650 feet. Out of cloud.
Direction op the Wind.
December 1, 1864.
On the ground the wind was from the W.N.W., light and variable.
On the ground at l h 15 m p.m., a pilot balloon first moved W., and after-
wards N.W.
188 report— 1865.
At 2 h 40 m p.m., at 1230 feet. The balloon entered a S.W. current.
At 2 h 57 m p.m., at 5038 feet, The Mind was W.N/W.
At 3 h 33 m p.m., at 4541 feet. Smoke near the earth moving S., but after
reaching 1000 feet, moving X.
At 3 h 56 m p.m., at 2830 feet. The wind was W.NVW. The smoke below
moved S.
February 27, 1S65.
On the ground before starting the wind was from the S.
At 2 h l m 30 s p.m., at 1543 feet. The wind was 8.W.
At 2 U 7 m 30 s p.m., at 4418 feet. The wind was W.
At 2 h 2o m p.m., at 4828 feet. Entered a more southerly current, about
S.W.
At 3 h 32 m 30 s p.m., at 2148 feet. Changed direction, moving W., I think.
OS THE PBOPAGATIOX OF SoUXD.
December 1, 1864.
At 3 h 49 m p.m., at 4170 feet. Heard voices.
At 3 h 58 m p.m., at 2536 feet. Heard a clock stricke 4 h plainly.
At 4 h 6 m p.m., at 1804 feet. Heard many voices.
At 4 h 7 m p.m., at 1759 feet. Can hear cries of " come down."
February 27, 1865.
At 2 h l m p.m., at 877 feet. Bells sound very clearly.
Gexebal Obseevations.
December 1, 1864.
At 2 h 3S m 30 s p.m., at 644 feet. A gun fired ; felt the shock.
At 2 h 39 m 30 s p.m., at 890 feet. Sun shining brightly.
At 2 h 42 m p.m., at 1831 feet. Report of proving guns at Woolwich ; per-
ceptible vibration ; every rope vibrating ; and every instrument shaking.
At 2 h 43 m p.m., at 2248 feet. Opened the valve ; nearly opposite Belvedere.
At 2 h 46 m p.m., at 3570 feet. Sun warm.
At 2 h 54 m p.m., at 4630 feet. Between Erith and Belvedere.
At 2 h 59 m p.m., at 5328 feet. N early opposite Erith ; hills and dales di-
stinctlv visible.
At 3 h 9 m p.m., at 4128 feet. Sand out.
At 3 h 15 m p.m., at 4909 feet. A little to the right, or nearly over Dart-
ford.
At 3 U 17 m p.m., at 4951 feet. Moving towards Cobham Park.
At 3 h 33 m p.m., at 4541 feet. South of Greenhithe.
At 3 h 34 m p.m., at 4S05 feet. In a line with Xorthfleet ; we shall pass
over Cobham Park.
At 3 h 46â„¢ p.m., at 3470 feet. A chill to sense ; sand thrown out.
At 3 1 ' 52"' p.m., at 3744 feet. A sudden chill again.
At 3 h 53 m p.m., at 3744 feet. Sand thrown out.
At 3 b 59 m p.m., at 2497 feet. Sand again thrown ouc.
ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 AND 1865. 189
At 4 h l m p.m., at 2091 feet. Saw a railway train.
At 4" 2â„¢ p.m., at 2847 feet. A great deal of moisture on the balloon.
At 4 h 3 m p.m., at 2744 feet. Nearly south of Gravesend.
At 4" S m p.m., at 1044 feet. Cobham Park.
At 4 h 9 m p.m., at 1550 feet. Moist to sense.
At 4 h 13 m p.m., at 1381 feet. Moisture almost dropping from the balloon.
At 4 h 14 m p.m., at 1280 feet. Approaching the Medway.
At 4 h 15 m p.m., at 1394 feet. Ascending to a higher current to cross the
river.
At 4 h 17 m p.m., at 1532 feet. We can see Rochester Bridge and Castle.
At 4 h 33 m p.m. On the ground at Delce Farm near Rochester.
December 30, 1804.
At 2 h 16 m 30 s p.m., at 1020 feet. Cold.
At 2 h 19 m 30 s p.m., at 2310 feet. Dropped the grapnel.
At 2 h 23 m 30 s p.m., at 2699 feet. Just over the wall of the river.
At 2 h 24 m p.m., at 2641 feet. At least 150 vessels in sight.
At 2" 26 m p.m., at 2301 feet. Our course is taking each bight of the river.
At 2 h 27 m 15 s p.m., at 2019 feet. Sand out.
At 2 h 28 m p.m., at 2215 feet. Cold to sense.
At 2 h 29 m p.m., at 2822 feet. Very cold.
At 2 h 29â„¢ 45 s p.m., at 3128 feet. Much lighter ; very cold.
At 2 h 32â„¢ 15 s p.m., at 3580 feet. Sun brighter.
At 2 h 34 m p.m., at 3610 feet. Sun obscured in mist.
At 2 h 34 m 40 s p.m., at 3522 feet. In a very dense cloud.
At 2" 36 ra p.m., at 2133 feet. Falling quickly, revolving in two minutes.
At 2 b 38 m p.m., at 837 feet. We are about a mile north of Purfleet.
At 2 h 41â„¢ 30 s p.m., at 1369 feet. Moving towards Sea Iteach.
At 2 h 58â„¢ 30 s p.m., at 670 feet. Sand thrown out.
At 3 h 3 m p.m., at 1116 feet. Moving direct for Sea Reach ; we must come
down if we do not change our direction.
At 3 h 6 ,u p.m., at 186 feet. Packed up all the instruments, cleared the
tops of some trees, and came down within a mile of the river, near the Rail-
way Station at Stanford-le-Hope.
At 3 h 10â„¢ p.m. On the ground.
February 27, 1865.
At l h 58 m p.m. We left the earth.
At 2 h p.m.., at 767 feet. Over the river.
At 2" 1â„¢ 30 s p.m., at 1085 feet. Sun obscured by cloud.
At 2 h 2 m 30 s p.m., at 1851 feet. Moving towards Barking Creek.
At 2 h 3 m 30 s p.m., at 3074 feet, Cold.
At 2 h 5â„¢ p.m., at 3032 feet. Faint gleams of light.
At 2 h 5â„¢ 30 s p.m., at 3851 feet. Over water.
At 2 h 0â„¢ 30 s p.m., at 4040 feet. Sun shining faintly.
At 2 h 9â„¢ 30 s p.m., at 4737 feet. Over Barking level ; Tilbury line to our
left, or N".
At 2 h 11â„¢ p.m., at 4737 feet. Sensibly warmer.
At 2 h 12â„¢ 30 s p.m., at 4875 feet. Over Dagenham Marsh.
At 2 h 24â„¢ p.m., at 4828 feet. Lowered grapnel.
At 2" 25â„¢ p.m., at 4828 feet. Entered a more southerly current about S.W.
At 2 h 34â„¢ p.m., at 4403 feet. Must come down.
190
REPORT 1865.
At
At
At
At
At
At
At
At
At
At
left.
At
At
2 h 36 m
2 h 37 m
2 h 41 m
2 h 42'"
3 h 5 m p
3 h 38 in
3 h 38 m
3 h 39 m
3 h 45 m
p.m
p.m.
30 s p.m
p.m.
m.
, at 4517 feet.
, at 4580 feet.
Sun again bright.
Moving along Sea Beach.
at 4600 feet. Sun hot.
, at 4538 feet. Opened valve.
at 926 feet. Neck of balloon tied up.
p.m., at 1375 feet. 12 miles from Chelmsford,
p.m., at 2560 feet. Water looks like polished steel.
30 8 p.m., at 2659 feet. Country brightened up by the sun.
p.m., at 2965 feet. We have only one bag of ballast.
30 s p.m., at 3652 feet. Opened valve ; only one bag of ballast
3 h 59â„¢ 30 s p.m., at 70 feet
4" 1â„¢ p.m,
Just over some trees.
On the ground at South Hanningfield.
Meteorological Observations made in connexion with the Balloon Ascent on
December 1, 1864. —
Royal Observatory, Greenavicu.
Time of
observation.
Reading of
Temp,
of the
dew-
point.
Ten-
sion of
va-
pour.
Degree
of
humi-
dity.
Direc-
tion of
wind.
â– S2
O
I"
C
<**
.
£ °
Remarks.
Barom.
reduced
Thermom.
to 32° F.
Dry.
Wet.
<-3
<
h m
in.
in.
Noon.
30-003
46-5
43'9
409
•256
82
w.s.w.
o 1 5 p.m.
30-004
46-7
44-0
40-9
•256
81
w.s.w.
Cloudless ; slight haze in N.
o 30 „
30-001
46-7
43'5
40-5
•252
80
w.s.w.
and S.
45 ..
30-004
47-1
44'2
40-9
•256
80
w.s.w.
.
1 „
30-005
47 - 3
44" 3
41-0
•257
79
81
81
s.w.
Cloudless ; dense haze in the
1 15 ».
30-006
47'3
44"5
41-4
â– 261
w.s.w.
direction of Woolwich.
1 30 ,,
30*006
47'3
44"5
41 4
•261'
w.s.w.
1 45 ..
30-005
47'3
44'3
41-0
•257
79
w.s.w.
Cloudless. Haze is gradually
clearing off, and a few light
clouds are rising in the N.
20,,
30-002
47'3
44" 3
41-0
•257
79
w.s.w.
I
Light cirrus in the N.
2 15 ..
30-001
46-g
44-0
40-8
•255
80
w.s.w.
2
Light high cirrus in N. and
N.N.E.
2 30 „
30-002
46-3
43-6
40-5
•252
Si
w.s.w.
4
1 Light cirrus scattered about
J the skj.
2 45 »
30-002
46-3
43'5
40-4
•251
81
w.s.w.
4
J „
30-002
46-0
43'5
40-7
•254
82
s.w.
4
Balloon rising in E.S.E. Lost
to view at 3 1 ' 8 m , apparently
falling.
3 20 „
30-015
44" 3
42-8
41-0
•257
89
s.w.
I
Light cirrus in S.W. ; haze.
3 3o .,
30-021
44'3
42-5
40-4
•251
96
s.w.
Cloudless, with the exception
of a little cirrostratus in
S.W. ; slight haze.
3 45 i!
30-024
44-0
42-3
s.w.
Cloudless, with the exception
of a little cirrostratus in
the horizon.
40,,
30-026
43-6
41-9
s.w.
\
4 '5 ..
30-029
43'4
4 1- 7
s.w.
> Cloudless.
4 3° »
30-033
43'3
41-4
s.w.
)
ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 AND 1865.
191
Meteorological Observations made in connexion with the Balloon Ascent
December 30, 1864. — Eotal Observatory, Greenwich.
on
Readine of
Temp.
Ten-
o<=
<—
Time of
observation.
Barom.
reduced
to 32° F.
Thermom.
of tbe
dew-
point.
sion of
va-
pour.
of
humi-
dity.
Direc-
tion of
wind.
â– " 1
c
11
B
B
g «
2 c
<
Remarks.
Dry.
Wet.
k m
in.
O'
in.
,
1 op.m.
29788
38-8
36-1
3 2 "5
•184
79
S.W.
10
I 15 "
29785
38-8
36-2
32-7
•1S6
80
s.w.
10
1 3° »
29784
38-7
36-0
32-4
•184
79
S.W.
10
1 45 »
29781
38-6
36-0
32-5
•184
79
s.w.
10
2 „
24781
38-5
35-»
3 2< 3
•183
78
s.w.
10
a 15 ..
29777
38-5
35*9
32-5
•184
79
s.w.
10
2 30 »
2 9775
38-4
36-1
33-0
•188
82
s.w.
10
a 45 »
29770
38-6
36-1
327
•186
80
s.w.
10
3 »
29760
38-6
36-1
327
•186
80
s.w.
10
3 15 ,.
2 9759
38-4
35*9
32-5
•184
80
s.w.
10
3 3° ..
29757
38-2
359
32-9
•187
81
s.w.
10
3 45 ><
29-818
38-1
35'5
32-0
•181
79
s.w.
10
Generally overcast; clouds
broken.
4°..
29744
37'4
35'2
32-2
•182
82
s.w.
7
Very dense clouds in S. ;
cirrus elsewhere generally.
. 1
February 27, 1865. — Eoyal Observatory, Greenwich.
30-017
30-019
30-014
30-008
29-997
29995
29-991
29-975
29-967
29-965
29968
48-6
489
49-0
487
47'4
47"9
47'4
28-988 47-1
29-980 46-8
46-3
46-1
45-9
45-6
43'4
43'3
42-9
43-0
42*2
43'i
42*2
42-4
42-4
42-1
42-0
42-0
41-6
377
37'2
36-2
36-8
3 6 "4
37-8
3 6 "4
37-1
37"5
37-2
37'3
37-5
37-0
â– 226
â– 222
•214
•215
â– 227
•215
•221
•225
â– 222
•223
â– 225
66
65
62
63
66
69
66
68
70
72
72
73
73
s.w.
s.s.w.
s.
s.w.
s. by w.
s.s.w.
s.w.
s.s.w.
s.w. by s.
s.w. bys.
s.s.w.
s.w.
s.w. by w.
10
10
10
10
10
10
Light cirrocumulus and a little
stratus in S.W. horizon.
Haze in N.
Cirrus, and cirrocumulus in
the zenith. Dense cirro-
stratus and cumulostratus
in horizon, gradually spread-
ing over the sky.
Cirrus ; clear sky in the zenith ;
cumulus and cumulostratus.
Dense clouds almost entirely
cover the sky. Balloon first
seen at 2 s ; and was visible
for about 4"" ; seen due E.,
and appeared moving in a
northerly direction.
Sky generally covered with
dense clouds, excepting a
little clear in the zenith.
Generally overcast ; clouds
broken slightly in the air.
Clear sky and light cirrus in
the zenith ; dense clouds in
theN.
Generally overcast, with the
exception of a little clear in
the S.E.
Uniformly covered with cirro-
stratus.
19.2 report — 18G5.
Interim Report of the Committee on the Transmission of Sound under
Water, consisting of the Rev. Dr. Robinson, Prof. Wheatstone,
Dr. Gladstone, and Prof. Hennessy.
When the Committee on. Fog-signals stated at the Meeting of the British
Association last year that no success had attended their efforts to induce the
Board of Trade to undertake experiments on the subject, it was thought
advisable to change the mode of procedure. The Parliamentary Committee
was requested to press on the Government the expediency of instituting such
experiments, while the Committee was reappointed for the purpose of making
experiments on the transmission of sound under waer — a line of inquiry
suggested by us in our memorial to the President of the Board of Trade,
June 18, 1803. The sum of =£30 was placed at our disposal, and to this the
Government-Grant Committee of the Royal Society have added £100.
The subject of the production of sound under water, and its transmission
through that medium, had previously engaged the attention of one of our
number, Professor Wheatstone, and we naturally wished to be guided in our
first trials by his experience. A long and serious illness unfortunately
delayed the commencement of that gentleman's experiments ; but the inves-
tigation has been fairly begun this summer. The results hitherto arrived
at are instructive and promising, but they are not sufficiently precise to
warrant their publication. We have therefore only to report progress, and
to ask the British Association to give us the opportunity of bringing our
results before them next year.
On the Rainfall of the British Isles. By Gr. J. Symons, M.B.M.S.
In my previous reports on the progress of rainfall-investigations I have
scarcely referred to what had been done before I undertook the collection and
organization to which 1 have now devoted nearly six years.
I purpose to supply the omission on this present occasion, and to divide my
Report into the following divisions :■— â–
1. What had been done prior to 1860.
2. What has been done since 1860.
3. What remains to be done.
4. A few particulars respecting the rainfall of the last fifty years, and
the fall in 1864.
1. What had been done prior to 1860. — Raving been almost wholly en-
gaged during the past year in clearing up arrears, and in thoroughly classifying
the materials hitherto collected, the imperative necessity of circulating
amongst engineers, meteorologists, and rainfall-observers a complete index of
the collected observations has been brought prominently before me. I have
therefore prepared such an index, and annexed it to this lleport. Besides its
general usefulness, it will be specially so in. two respects. (1) Every station,
whether discontinued or not, being entered, with the years between which
observations have been obtained, and with observer's name, and height above
sea-level, any one, whether engineer, agriculturist, or physicist, can ascer-
tain with the greatest ease exactly what observations have hitherto been col-
lected. In order to facilitate reference, the stations are arranged alphabetically
in counties; and there are also provided general indexes of England and
i&Jttport British Asrocia&on
i
Aioited ~Hnz
ftym fnt fpotj
ImJs tc the namt
ttation
BHITISH ffiAIHFAUL
S IA " oisrs ,
Aug. 1865,
Only stations Jatawn to be aetiutlfy ,<r work
are meurhecL—ifiote supplied with wttntn â–
try fhe British, Assoeiatfon aretfwvn th-itsQ
other* thus •
â–
>
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 193
Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. (2) Those who are willing to help on the
completion of the collection will see at once what I have, and what I have not ;
and thereby they will be saved much needless copying and I much corre-
spondence.
A barren index, however, throws little light on the history of rainfall-in-
vestigations. Before entering on this I desire to meet at the very outset an
objection sometimes raised, viz., that we cannot trust very old observations,
and therefore 1 may be busy collecting useless materials. I maintain that
we can trust them, and have the pleasure of knowing that my friend Mr.
Glaisher fully agrees with me on this point. I think them far more reliable
than many modern ones ; for in the 17th and early part of the 18th century,
to measure the fall of rain was esteemed a serious undertaking, only to be
accomplished by first-class men. The repeated reference to the height of
their gauges, their diameter, and the number of pounds and ounces troy cor-
responding to an inch of rain over the area of the " tunnel " of their gauges,
and the details frequently given, combine to render it certain that they took
every reasonable precaution to secure accuracy. The results they obtained,
and which they would hardly credit, we of the 19th century know to be just
what was due to the situation of the gauges. Another point to be remem-
bered is this : — it is not intended to use any old observations in determinino- the
absolute mean fall at any place, or, in other words, in determining the 'geo-
graphical distribution of rain ; that will be done from recent observations with
tested instruments. The old observations will only be used for determining
the existence or otherwise of secular variation, and for that purpose an in-
accurate gauge would do as well as a perfect one.
The earliest observations I have yet obtained are those of Mr. Townley, of
Townley in Lancashire, extending (with two intervals) from a.d. 1677' to
1705, or twenty-eight years. Mr. Townley believed his to.be the first made
in England ; I do not feel sure that they were so. The- only other observer in
the 17th century whose observations have yet been obtained was the Rev. W.
Derham, of Upminster, near Romford in Essex, who began in March 1696^
and has left a series of yearly totals (months also for some years) for nine-
teen years.
The longest and most perfect record at present obtained was kept by
Thomas Barker, Esq., of Lyndon in Rutland; it extends from 1736 to 1794
or fifty-nine years. It is doubtful if so long a record will ever again be kept
by one person, with one gauge, and without interruption.
Erom Table I. it will readily be seen how sudden and great has been the
increase of observers during the last thirty years, and especially durino- tho
last five, in which one finds the results of the recent grants of this Associa-
tion. From 1677 to 1800 the returns never number more than twenty-six
per annum, and averaged only four ; and in subsequent ten-yearly periods the
numbers average, up to 1810, 15 ; to 1820, 21 ; to 1830, 40 ; to 1840, 103 ;
to 18o0, 1/8; to 1860, 366; and at the present time the returns number
rather more than a thousand. It is right to mention that no records have vet
been obtained for 1687 and 1688, 1694 to 1696, 1717 to 1721, 1724 and
1 / 25, since which time there is no year without one or more complete registers •
that is to say, rain-records go back complete 140 years, and with intervals
about fatty years more, or nearly 200 years altogether.
1865.
194 REPORT — 1865.
Table I.
Number of Records obtained for eacb year from 1677 to 1864.
Number.
Number.
-a
a «
T3
"5 *
Year.
c
ca m
Year.
B
CO
0) ( C9
_ "5
*d
.s|
a 2.
T3
d
*Q
C 'S
— c
u
e3
Q
3
.2
4a
— - —
a u o
« ca
a
o
no:
a
5
O
H
EH
U
o
OH3 fc
1677.
1
1
1720.
, ,
t ,
, .
1678.
1
, .
, ,
1
1721.
. ,
. .
. .
. .
1679.
1
• •
••
1
3
1722.
1723.
1724.
1
1
i
i
1680.
1
..
1
i|
1681.
1
, ,
, ,
1
1725.
. .
, ,
1682.
1
, ,
• •
1
1726.
1
, ,
, ,
i
1683.
1
, ,
, ,
1
1727.
1
, ,
. .
i
1684.
1
, ,
, ,
1
1728.
1
a .
• .
i
1685.
1
, ,
, ,
1
1729.
3
, ,
, ,
3
1686.
1
( ,
, ,
1
8
1687.
, ,
, ,
, ,
1730.
3
, .
. .
3
1688.
, f
, ,
, ,
1731.
3
1
. .
4
1689.
1
• •
1
8
1732.
1733.
1734.
4
4
1
1
5
5
1690.
1
1
5
1
6
1691.
1
t f
, ,
1
1735.
4
1
, ,
5
1692.
1
, ^
1
1736.
2
, ,
, ,
2
1693.
1
t ,
, ,
1
1737.
2
, .
. ,
2
1694.
t t
t ,
, ,
1738.
2
, ,
. ,
2
1695.
# #
, ,
1739.
2
, ,
, .
2
1696.
, ,
, ,
. ,
. .
36
1697.
2
, ,
. ,
2
1740.
• â–
. .
1698.
2
, ,
, ,
2
1741.
, ,
• .
1699.
2
• •
••
2
10
1742.
1743.
1744.
1700.
2
2
1701.
2
, ,
, ,
2
1745.
. .
, ,
1702.
2
, ,
, ,
2
1746.
. ,
. ,
1703.
2
, ,
t t
2
1747.
. .
. ,
1704.
1
, ,
f t
1
1748.
• ,
, ,
1705.
1
, ,
, ,
1
1749.
2
, ,
, ,
2
1706.
1
, ,
1
11
1707.
1
, ,
t t
1
1750.
2
, ,
, ,
2
1708.
1
. ,
, ,
1
1751.
2
. a
. .
2
1709.
1
• •
• t
1
14
1752.
1753.
1754.
2
2
••
••
2
2
1710.
1
1
2
t t
t ,
2
1711.
1
, ,
• »
1
1755.
2
. ,
. ,
2
1712.
1
, ,
, #
1
1756.
2
. .
. ,
2
1713.
1
, ,
1
1757.
2
, ,
. .
2
1714.
1
1
1758.
2
. .
. .
2
1715.
1
1
1759.
2
, ,
, i
2
1716.
1
1
20
1717.
, ,
, ,
1760.
2
, .
. ,
2
1718.
, #
, ,
, ,
, ,
1761.
2
, ,
. .
2
1719.
i
•-
7
1762.
1763.
3
1
3
1
ON
THE
RAINFALL OF THE
BRITISH ISLES.
19.
Year.
Number.
1
Year.
Number.
a
IS —
-a
a
a ^
- .2
â– a 3
"d
.
c '3
<xsj>
T3
.
C3 '3
° ~a
s
â– a
.5 c
e a
a
ns
.5 a
o
c
"a
â– "_ â– '
a S'S
etf
Za
o
a
73
â– 3 8-g
Q
Q
V
O
°"S - C
c
O
u
o
r ° "a 'C
cn
1-1
H
H
»
t»
HH
H
H
1764.
1
..
..
1
1815.
8
10
1
19
1765.
2
1
, ,
3
1816.
11
10
, ,
21
1766.
5
1
, ,
6
1817.
14
11
1
26
1767.
9
1
. .
10
1818.
16
11
1
28
1768.
5
1
. .
6
1819.
17
11
1
29
1769.
4
1
, |
5
209
39
1820.
1821.
22
25
11
9
1
1
34
35
1770.
2
1
3
1771.
2
2
, ,
4
1822.
24
9
1
34
1772.
2
2
» ,
4
1823.
24
9
2
35
1773.
2
6
. ,
8
1824.
27
10
2
39
1774.
4
6
10
1825.
28
12
1
41
1775.
5
7
, .
12
1826.
32
9
1
42
1776.
5
7
, ,
12
1827.
32
12
1
45
1777.
7
5
, ,
12
1828.
31
15
1
47
1778.
7
3
. .
10
1829.
32
16
1
49
1779.
6
3
9
401
84
1830.
1831.
37
46
19
25
1
1
57
72
1780.
6
3
9
1781.
7
2
. .
9
1832.
52
31
1
84
1782.
8
2
. .
10
1833.
6)
32
1
93
1783.
7
2
. .
9
1834.
63
33
1
97
1784.
10
1
. ,
11
1835.
64
42
3
109
1785.
11
3
, ,
14
1836.
71
49
3
123
1786.
11
2
, ,
13
1837.
81
45
4
130
1787.
14
2
, ,
16
1838.
90
39
6
135
1788.
17
4
. .
21
1839.
88
36
5
129
1789.
18
3
21
1029
133
1840.
1841.
95
89
38
39
6
9
139
137
1790.
19
5
, ,
24
1791.
20
5
1
26
1842.
99
38
9
146
1792.
18
5
1
24
1843.
93
39
10
142
1793.
14
5
1
20
1844.
128
42
13
183
1794.
8
4
1
13
1845.
145
42
13
200
1795.
8
7
1
16
1846.
144
41
12
197
1796.
8
3
2
13
1847.
160
46
12
218
1797.
8
3
3
14
1848.
148
44
12
204
1798.
8
2
4
14
1849.
155
46
10
211
1799.
5
4
3
12
1777
176
1850.
1851.
180
212
54
53
11
13
245
278
1800.
5
3
2
10
1801.
6
4
1
11
1852.
238
57
15
310
1802.
5
4
1
10
1853.
237
71
14
322
1803.
5
5
1
11
1854.
223
89
15
327
1804.
5
6
1
12
1855.
266
107
16
389
1805.
4
7
1
12
1856.
286
121
16
423
1806.
5
5
1
11
1857.
297
130
13
440
1807.
6
7
1
14
1858.
309
135
13
457
1808.
20
9
1
30
1859.
327
131
14
472
1809.
19
11
30
3663
151
1860.
1861.
411
466
122
134
19
26
552
626
1810.
18
7
..
25
1811.
6
10
, ,
16
1862.
507
192
32
731
1812.
6
11
1
18
1863.
564
206
47
817
1813.
5
7
1
13
1864.
671
240
56
967
1814.
6
7
1
14
p2
196
REPORT 1865.
The collection of these records has heen spasmodically attempted hy several
persons, Dr. Dalton being among the earliest and most successful : he, in the
year 1799, submitted to the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society
by far the best paper on rainfall published until many years after. Still,
owing probably to the absence of postal and other means of communication,
his paper by no means included all that had been done up to the time of his
â– writing it.
The following list (Table II.) of old stations prior to 1800, is not only
handy as such, but also available as a check on the completeness of Dr.
Dalton's search, and of my own. The result appears to be that the Doctor,
who undoubtedly took great pains with his Table, and most truly described it
as " the most complete hitherto published," had not half of the records then
existing, and which I and my friends have hunted up. On the other
hand the Doctor has one station, " Crawshawbooth near Haslingden," of
which I can get no information.
Table II. — Showing the Stations at which the Fall of Eain was measured
previously to the year 1800.
ENGLAND.
Cornwall . .
Cumberland
Derbyshire
Devonshire
Counties.
Durham . ,
Essex
Gloucester
Hampshire
Hertfordshire
Kent
Lancashire
Stations.
Ludgvan
Carlisle
Keswick
Chatsworth
Plymouth
j?
Darlington
Upminster
Bristol
Andover
Fyfield
Selborne
Ware
Chislehurst
Dover
Townley
Bury
Crawshawbooth 1
near Haslingden J
Lancaster
Liverpool
„ "Walton
Manchester
„ Holme
„ Salford
Fellfoot
Years in hand.
1762, 1767-71
1767
1788-94
1777-99
1731-35
1767 and 1768
1734 and 1735
1697-1716
1774-78
1785-89
1784-92
1780-93
1787-91
1729 and 1730
1789-93
1677-86,89-93,97-1704
1797-1799
None
1784-93
1775-92
1791-99
1784-92
1794-99
1765-69
1786-93
1788-91
-2 «
ft
6
1
7
22
5
2
2
19
4
5
8
13
5
2
5
23
3
None.
10
17
9
9
6
5
8
4
5
1
7
15
?
3
7
9
5
5
9
10
18
8
3
ON THE RAINFALL OP THE BRITISH ISLES.
Table II. ENGLAND (continued).
197
Counties.
Stations.
Tears iu hand.
a
fciB
*•* 2
^ 2 .
Middlesex .
Norfolk ..!.".'!
Northampton . .
Northumberland
Rutland
Somersetshire . .
,, . . . .
Surrey
Westmoreland . .
Yorkshire
Banffshire . .
Dumbarton
Dumfries . .
Edinburgh
Elgin . . .
Forfar . . .
Lanark . . .
Peebles. . .
Perth ...
Roxburgh
Selkirk . . .
Antrim
Dublin
Londonderry
Longford . . .
Edmonton
Crane-ct., London
Royal Society . . .
Temple Bar
Norwich
Oundle
Widdrington . . .
Lyndon
Bridgewater . . . . ,
Minehead ,
South Lambeth . . . .
Kendal ,
Benson Knott .
Waith Sutton .
Leeds, Barroby .
Garsdale
1792-
1729
1787-
1795-
1749-
1726-
1722-
1736-
1767-
1782,
1782-
1788-
1767-
1790-
1789-
1772-
1777-
â– 96
35
99
99
-62
39
23
94
69
92
92
â– 99
91
93
81
79
SCOTLAND.
Gordon Castle
Kirkintillock
Dumfries
Langholm ....
Dalkeith
Edinburgh . .
Hawkhill
Urquhart
Dundee
Glasgow
Peebles
Belmont Castle .
Branxholm . . .
Wool
1799
1788
1776-
1773-
1773-
1785-
1 795-
1796-
1731-
1771-
1795-
1790-
1765,
1766-
1789-
1773-
1773-
93
â– 77
77
95
99
99
35
76
97
95
75,
79
95
85, 88, 95
83 ...
76,80.
Belfast
Dublin
Londonderry
Edgworthston
IRELAND.
1796-99
1791-99
1797-99
1798....
5
7
13
5
14
14
2
59
3
1
11
5
13
2
5
10
3
1
1
18
5
5
11
5
4
5
6
3
6
5
14
/
11
5
4
9
3
1
13
14
1
21
3
9
11
5
6
3
After Dr. Dalton's collection in 1799 there was a long interval in which,
though observations were steadily continued, no one seems to have thought of
collecting and discussing them. Dr. Dalton's averages were (and, I am s^rry
198 report — 1865.
to say, are still sometimes) constantly quoted, and no notice was taken o
subsequent observations. This is the more to be regretted since some of the
gauges quoted by Dr. Dalton were on roofs, others on the ground, and no dis-
tinction was made between them.
I am not at present aware of any extensive collection between 1799 and
1840, or thereabouts, when Mr. Joseph Atkinson, of Harraby near Carlisle,
published a rain-map of the British Isles : to my great vexation I cannot ob-
tain a copy ; and there is not one in the British Museum. It only gives the
mean fall, and contains only two or three places besides those I possess ; but
it is provoking that a copy of so recent a publication (1841 or 1842) cannot
be obtained. During the last ten or twenty years several collections have
been made, those of Mr. Glaisher for the British, and Dr. Stark for the Scot-
tish, Meteorological Society having been published, with other meteorological
details, quarterly by the Registrars-General of the respective countries. The
prize offered by the Marquis of Tweeddale for an essay on rainfall, and
awarded to Mr. Jamieson, of Ellon, led to the collection of the yearly fall at about
twenty British stations, and the collection in Mr. Beardmore's splendid ' Ma-
nual of Hydrology' completes the list of my precursors. The two last ha^e
been published since 1860, but it seems appropriate to notice them here :
the most copious of these Tables, however, did not contain a tenth of the ex-
istent observations.
It is a singular fact, that, with the exception of the last two works, no notice
has ever been taken of the position of the gauges, on which so much depends
that a West-country roof record will often be less than an Eastern -counties
ground-record ; that is to say, the difference due to elevation is often greater
by far than that due to a hundred miles geographical distance. Paramount
as is the importance of distinct information on this point, it is never referred
to in any of the old or many modern Tables.
This omission naturally leads me to refer to the variation in the amount
collected according to the height at which the gauge is placed above the sur-
face of the ground. This was first noticed in 1705 ; and in 1 766 Dr. Heberden,
F.R.S., placed a gauge on the square tower of Westminster Abbey, another on
the roof of an adjacent house, and a third in a garden, and found the fall to be,
— garden, 22-61 ; roof, 18-14; abbey-tower, 12-10. These experiments were
promptly repeated at "Bath, Liverpool, Middlcwich, and elsewhere;" but I
have not been able to find any notice beyond the simple fact that " the results
were similar to those at Westminster." (This shows how much is either still
buried, or lost altogether.) Shortly after this, the Hon. Daines Barrington
erected two gauges in the vicinity of Bala, in North Wales — one at Eennig,
and one on the summit of Bochyraidr (1700 feet?) — and ascertained therefrom
that the decrease did not depend on actual elevation, but on the height
above the surface of the ground. This subject, I need hardly remind mem-
bers of this Association, was carefully investigated by our esteemed President,
Professor Phillips, when living at York in 1832; in fact it was one of the
first subjects this Association took in hand.
The heavy fall of rain in mountainous districts was noticed at a very
early period ; but very little was done, until a comparatively recent date,
towards systematic observation and the determination of the laws governing
the distribution of rain in mountainous districts. Mr. Bateman's observa-
tions in the Derbyshire and Yorkshire hills, followed as they were by the
elaborate investigations carried on by the late Dr. Miller in the Lake-dis-
trict, have left for future examination only the subsidiary and minor vari-
ations to which the laws they deduced are liable.
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 199
2. What has been done since 1860. — Having thus described what had been
done previously to 1860, I proceed to mention briefly what has been done
since then ; and if it seems that this portion is egotistical, I reply I cannot
help it : it would be strange indeed if the one person who has devoted him-
self solely to the subject were not mixed up with most of its ramifications.
In the first place, then, it has already been stated that prior to 1860
there had been no general collection of all reliable rainfall-records ; this
was the primary object I had in view, knowing that without such a col-
lection it was impossible to determine, with any approach to accuracy,
either the geographical distribution or secular variation of British rainfall.
To what an enormous magnitude this collection has grown may be inferred
from the Tables attached to this Report ; but as a ready means of enabling
engineers and others to estimate the stores awaiting them, I may say that,
supposing the lists closed at once, I believe the publication of the monthly
values and discussion of the observations would fill two of the bulky annual
volumes of this Association. Of course bulk is a poor test of value ; but I
wished to give some better description than that of " twenty-three folio
volumes of MS.," which are already full. I should not omit to state whence
these observations have been copied. Most of them have been obtained from
the observers, many of whom have sent me registers of ten, twenty, thirty,
and even more years in length ; some are from privately printed papers,
others from magazines, scientific journals, and Transactions of the Royal and
other Societies. Particulars as to the position of the gauge are always care-
fully noted along with the observations, when they can be obtained. I had
not been at this work very long before I felt the desirability of publishing
some information of a reliable character, and at the close of 1860 I published
a Table giving the total depth in that year at 168 stations, being more than
double the number ever previously collected ; this Table has grown into an
annual volume, both by giving additional information on the undermentioned
and other subsidiary investigations, and by its increased body of contributors,
now numbering over 1000.
Next to compiling the general Tables and annual reports, the most trouble-
some, but probably also the most important, work is the examination of the
gauges actually in use, both as to their own accuracy and also as to the suita-
bility of their position. I need not point out how necessary this is ; it must
be evident to everybody that until it is done there will be liability to all sorts
of errors in deducing results from observations with gauges either themselves
incorrect, or badly placed. I do not wish to be discursive ; or I coidd quote
man} - positions in which I have found gauges, nothing less than absurd. (Very
gross errors are now impossible, owing to the number of new tested gauges
interspersed among the old ones and available as checks upon them.) This
examination of the gauges in situ involves an amount of travelling which takes
far too much time and too much money for me to make any very great progress
with it. However, I have visited 113 ; and if this Association will find the
needful funds, I will endeavour to double the number before I draw up the
next annual Report.
Next to personally visiting each gauge, the best plan is to test the gauges
before the opticians send them off to their destinations. Of the exact number
thus tested I have no record, but believe it to be about 300, a number easily
mentioned, but by no means so easily examined.
At the outset of the investigation an attempt was made to collect returns
of the number of rainy days or days of rain ; but it was speedily found that
utter want of uniformity prevailed, and that it was useless to attempt to do
200 report — 1865.
anything with them. After consulting the observers, each of whom was
asked to send in his or her definition of a rainy day, the plan I recommended
was to count as a day of rain every one on which O01 inch fell. How this
will work remains to be seen ; but it is certainly a step in the right direction —
that is to say, towards uniformity.
Another point noticed at an early period was the unequal geographical
distribution of the stations, some parts of the country being amply provided,
while in others the gauges were fifty or sixty miles apart. Thanks to the
,£55 granted by this Association, this state of things no longer exists ; how it
has been removed may be learnt from my previous Reports, or from the
accompanying Map. Of course there are still great inequalities, but they are
as nothing compared with what existed in 1859.
It remains to notice the series of experimental gauges which have been
recently started to settle various disputed points. Reference has already been
made to the decreased amount of rain caught in gauges placed on high build-
ings, and to the experiments of Dr. Heberden and Professor Phillips on the
subject. On finding that (owing to the previous absence of any rainfall
centre, if I may so term myself) the gauges throughout the kingdom were
at all sorts of elevations, from 90 feet downwards, it was evident that
some means must be devised for correcting these observations and redu-
cing them to what they would be if made at one uniform level. Many of
the gauges being elevated on pillars or pedestals, it was urged, and with
apparent reason, that as all previous elevation experiments had been made
upon, and in the vicinity of, buildings, the laws of decrease deduced there-
from were not, or at any rate might not, be applicable to gauges mounted
as above described. In order to test this point, Colonel Ward, of Calne,
kindly undertook the cost and trouble of mounting a set of gauges on part
of his lawn, a description of which I read to this Section at the Newcastle
Meeting ; they are now eleven in number, and at heights varying from level
with the ground to 20 feet above it. In order to check the applicability of
the Cable results to other localities, a similar but less extensive set of gauges
lias been established near Manchester by the Rev. J. Chadwick Bates.
It was rather singular that, although, as before stated, rainfall has been
measured in this country nearly two hundred years, there had been prior to
1860 no published experiments on a comprehensive scale to determine the
best size and form of gauge. It would be inappropriate here to enlarge to
any extent upon the various theories put forth upon the subject ; and I will
only remark that the gauges principally issued by the Scottish Meteoro-
logical Society are but 2 or 3 inches in diameter, while a high Scottish
authority '•' has no faith " in anything less than a foot in diameter. Mr.
Olaisher's gauges, everybody knows, are 8 inches in diameter, Luke How-
ard's 5 inches, and the Royal Engineers' are 1 foot square. An exhaustive
set of experiments have therefore been undertaken on this point also, by
Col. Ward and Mr. Bates, the gauges varying from 1 inch to 2 feet in dia-
meter — square gauges, turf-gauges, snow-gauges, &c, being also tried. Col.
Ward has altogether 29 gauges at work ; and Mr. Bates has, I believe, 13,
beside the thermo-rain-gauge mentioned below.
Reference was made in the earlier part of this Report to the peculiarly
heavy rainfall in mountainous districts, which had been carefully observed in
Cumberland during the years 1844 to 1853. It was felt that it would be
very interesting to ascertain if similar physical configuration received similar
fall in other parts of the country, and that the district round Snowdon
appeared very suitable for the experiments. Favoured by the assistance of my
friend Mr. Rogers Field, of Hampstead, and that of Captain Mathew, of Wern,
OX THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 201
Carnarvon (who really did most of the work), we now have returns from more
than thirty tested gauges in that district, at elevations varying from 15 feet
to 1100 feet. Simultaneously with the establishment of these, the Cumber-
land gauges have been reestablished by Mr. Isaac Fletcher, F.ll.S. ; so that we
now have for the first time full records from both districts. At present
the Welsh records are far below the Cumberland ones ; whether this is due to
the fact that the wet places in Snowdonia have yet to be found, or whether
the deficiency is due to the Cumberland gauges lying near the track of the
centres of British cyclones, or to some other cause, has yet to be determined.
3. What remains to be done. — On this point it is not so easy to speak
clearly and decisively as on the preceding ones, because every one knows
that just as an investigation progresses so do new branches claim attention.
Some of the leading items may, however, be easily specified. In the first
place, the collection of old observations must be rendered as complete as
possible, by diligent search at the British Museum, in the libraries of the
various scientific societies, and elsewhere. As an illustration of the meaning
of that simple word " elsewhere," I may mention that on the day I was
writing this Keport I received a note from the Secretary to the Board of
Northern Lights, respecting the rain-records kept at their lighthouses, with
copies of the current returns of which I have been favoured during the past
three years. From this note I find that the returns have been kept ever
since 1813, but that they have never been tabulated or discussed. As far as
I can at present tell, there seems to be about fifty years' records of twenty-
five stations ( = 1250 yearly records) to copy out. This T have ordered to be
done ; but of course the expense will fall upon me. This however, is, only
quoted as a specimen of the work to be done in collecting. After it, will
come the discussion, which will also occupy a considerable time. The current
returns for each year have of course to be examined and prepared for publi-
cation at its close (this takes two persons six weeks). About 900 gauges
remain to be visited ; and this involves perhaps 10,000 miles' travelling, much
of which must be on foot, and all of which involves a heavy expenditure of
time and money. I need not dwell on the testing of new gauges, since the
time so occupied is comparatively trivial. A more serious item will be the
analysis and discussion of the experimental-gauge records of Col. Ward and
Mr. Bates, and the mountain gauges of Mr. Fletcher and Capt. Mathew. I
have been already much helped by volunteer labour ; perhaps some careful
person, who does not mind voluminous work, will relieve me of one or other
of these discussions.
In drawing this section of my report to a close, I may just mention a few
other matters I have in hand : — The construction of a cheap and accurate
gauge for ordinary use : the one here shown is the last improvement and
most compact I have seen ; and the maker, Mr. Apps, of 433, Strand, under-
takes to supply them at 10s. M. each ; so I hope no one will say they use a
home-made gauge because the opticians charge so much. Mr. Apps is also
making a self-recording gauge, to show the exact duration and intensity of
each shower. The Kev. J. Chadwick Bates has at Castleton Moor started a
thcrmo-rain-gauge for ascertaining the temperature of falling rain, on which
the variation according to elevation is supposed to depend. Then I have on
hand some experiments suggested by Mr. Smith, of Jersey, for measuring, by
nitrate of silver, the percentage of sea spray mingled with rain-water at
West-country stations.
I close this programme of work to be done, trusting that I have shown
that far more remains to be done than I have yet accomplished, and that, if
I am only efficiently supported, important points may be cleared up. Into
202
REPORT — 1865.
financial matters I believe I must not enter ; but there can be no harm in
stating that by what has been done I have lost over ,£300, and a lucrative
post ; and inasmuch as it is impossible for me to continue under such con-
ditions, the " work to be done " will not become " work done" unless I am
protected from further loss. The Royal Society have recently granted £50
towards the general expenses of the investigations ; the observers naturally
think that by observing they do their share, at the same time they have
subscribed about £150 ; but the total of £200 by no means meets the outlay
of so extensive a work as mine.
4. A few particulars respecting the rainfall of the last fifty years, and the
fall in 1864. — And first with reference to the fall during the past half
century, to an examination of which I gave some little attention during
the last spring. The accompanying diagram* best explains the result of this
Eainfall 1815 to 1864 — Mean of Ten Stations.
40 in.
30 in.
20 in.
Oin.
igiiiiimmiDiimiiii
10 in.
!■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■»
â– â– â– â– â– â– â– â– â– â– â– â– â– â– â– aaHNHi
â– â– HHBHMHHBBBMHBBI
â– â– â– â– â– â– â– HHHHBIBIHHill
â– BBBBBBBBaaBBBBBBBflflBBB!
â– â– â– â– â– BRaBaDBBBBBBSBBBBHI
IBBBBBBBBBBOBBBflBBBBBBBI
IBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBI
" laaaBBBBBBBBBBBaBBI
JBBBBBOBBaiBaBDBBSl
IBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
IBBBBBBBBBBBBBB9BH
_ JgBBflBBHBGHBBBBBBBi
flBIMBEBHBaBBBBBBBBBBBBI
BBBBBBBBBBBBBHBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBi
BBBBBBBHHBBBBBB
â– â– â– â– â– â– DNUIMIi
aBBBBBBBBBBBBBBl
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBi
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
SBBBBBBBBBBBBBBI
20 in.
10 in.
in.
[„. Mi— .■■■■■—.^■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■HBiq
temporary investigation. I wish to emphasize that word temporary very
strongly, because one can never be sure that a partial investigation, based
on a few records, yields the same result as if all were combined, as I hope
eventually to have them, when, instead of discussing the variation in half a
century, we may hope to discuss the records of two centuries.
So much interest is now taken, both in and out of Parliament, in questions
of drainage, water-supply, and the condition of our rivers, and I am so con-
stantly urged to give some information on the point, that 1 rather feel as if
I was acting the part of the dog in the manger, in gathering volume after
volume of rainfall-observations and yet deducing no results. My objection
has been, that though much has been collected, as much (or more) remains
to be done, and I have a great horror of incomplete work ; but not having
hitherto had the least assistance, and seeing no prospect of getting any except
* It is almost superfluous to state that the total fall in each year is shown by the top of
the column, whether black or shaded, the difference being only made to show prominently
the years above and below the dotted average line.
ON THE RAINFALL OP THE BRITISH ISLES.
203
by paying clerks' salaries out of my own pocket, it will be some years before
the inquiry can be completed. Under these circumstances, it seemed un-
reasonable to persist in my refusal of an interim investigation, and I have
therefore drawn up the following statement.
My object has been to determine (1) whether the decreased annual fall of
rain which has been observed at Greenwich is a local variation, or whether
it prevails generally throughout the country ; (2) (having ascertained that
the present, temporary investigation shows it to be general) to ascertain in
what districts the decrease is most marked.
Unfortunately there are very few continuous records extending back
more than about thirty years. A few, however, are available and, having
carefully interpolated for one or two missing years, I have been able to form
the following Table from the mean of ten widely separated stations — one in
each of the following counties : Devon, Kent, Middlesex, Surrey, Essex,
Lincoln, Lancashire, York, Edinburgh, and Argyll.
It may be well to add that on carrying the examination back to 1800, the
fall seems to have been less than it was about 1815, when the following more
reliable Table commences.
Mean depth of Eain at ten stations, 1815-1864.
Year.
Depth.
Year.
Depth.
Year.
Depth. '
Year.
Depth.
Year.
Depth.
1815
2712
1825
26-57
1835
28-56 ,
1845
27-S7
1855
23 37
181G
29-26
1826
23-76
1836
33-49
1846
29-57
1856
25-89
1817
29-73
1827
29-53
1837
2454
1847
25-80
1857
25-70
1818
30-34
1828
33-02
1838
2711
1848
35-98
1858
22-79
1819
30-46
1829
28-70
1839
31-27
1849
28-51
1859
28-53
1820
24-63
1830
30-83
1840
24-67
1850
26-35
1860
33 34
1821
29-92
1831
32-28
1841
33-51
1851
26-70
1861
26-98
1822
26-63
1832
2(1-20
1842
25-53
1852
35-53
1862
30-37
1S23
3109
1833
29-71
1843
30-40
1853
27-38
1863
26-93
1824
30-91
1834
24-52
1844
23-72
1854
22-38
1864
2211
Mean
28-999
Mean
28-512
Mean
28-280
Mean
28-607
Mean
26-601
Several curious results may be noticed in this Table : for instance, in the
first ten years, seven were above the average of fifty years ; in the next ten,
six ; in the next, five ; in the next, four ; in the last, three. Again, out of the
first twenty-five years, sixteen were above the average ; and in the next, six-
teen were below it.
Means from the above values.
Five-year Means.
Ten
-year Means.
Years.
Mean.
Difference.
Years.
Mean.
Difference.
1815-1819
29-38
+ 1-18
1815-1824
29 00
-f -80
1820-1824
28 62
+ -42
1825-1834
28-51
+ -31
1825-1829
28-32
+ -12
1835-1844
28 28
+ -08
1830-1834
28-71
+ -51
1845-1854
28-61
4- -41
1835-1839
•28 99
+ -79
1855-1864
26-60
-1-00
1840-1844
27-57
— -63
1845-1849
29-55
+1-35
1820-1829
28-40
+ -26
1850-1854
27-67
- -53
1830-1839
28-85
+ -65
1855-1859
25-26
-2-94
1840-1849
28-56
+ -36
1860-1864
27-95
-•25
1850-1859
26-47
-1-73
Mean of 25 years,
)» »
„ 50 „
1815-1839 = 28-80.
1810-1864 = 27-60.
1815-1864 = 28-20.
204 report— 1865.
From these Tables we find that when, as in this case, local irregularities are
neutralized by the combination of observations from a large tract of country,
rainfall- records evince a regularity not before expected, the main and marked
feature being the drought in the years 1854 to 1858 ; omit these five years,
and the records run in five-year means without a single departure of an inch
from the average. But it will not do thus to omit them ; they were excep-
tional, but are part and parcel of the whole, and must by no means be sepa-
rated, but the whole carefully examined. For several reasons it seems better
to take the ten-year means ; and from them we find that the annual fall in
each ten years from 1815 to 1854 was nearly equal, and always greater than
in the last ten years, 1855 to 1864, and, moreover, that the ten years 1845
to 1854 had a rainfall (28-61) nearly identical with the mean (28-60) of the
preceding thirty years, 1815 to 1844. Hence it is evident that at any
stations where observations have been made continuously from 1845 to 1864,
we may take the ten years 1845 to 1854 as representing the forty years,
1815 to 1854, and the difference between the first and last ten years as
representing approximately the decrease of rainfall at that place.
The results of this investigation are condensed in a Table, and laid
down on a map* (not printed), which shows the percentage by which the
rainfall in the last ten years fell short of the mean of the previous ten ( = 40)
years, the numbers being enclosed by a ring in those few cases where the fall
in the last ten exceeded the previous ten. It will, I trust, be evident to all,
that though there are some stations which yield discordant results, yet the
general harmony is quite equal to what could be expected of a preliminary
investigation. Still the results are only those of a partial examination of the
question, and of course may be proved fallacious by observations subse-
quently received. The leading features at present seem to be (1) a decrease
averaging 4 per cent, over the whole British Isles, but unequally distributed,
the decrease being exchanged for an increase in parts of Ireland and the
south of Scotland. (2) In England, although the amount of decrease varies
up to 18 per cent., it never falls below an excess (if the expression may be
allowed) of 2 per cent. (3) Although at first the figures seemed very dis-
cordant, yet on drawing the lines shown on the map referred to, someorder
seems to become evident, viz. that the maximum deficiency has existed along a
line running nearly S.W.-N.E. from Cornwall to the Wash. Proceeding north-
westward, the deficiency becomes less, until the parallel line running through
the centre of Ireland, and passing into the North Sea at Edinburgh, marks a
district in which no deficiency has existed, but, on the contrary, an excess of
nearly 10 per cent. The next districts follow nearer to each other, and seem
to involve the eventual adoption of W.-E. instead of S.W.-N.E.: possibly this
is not really the case, but due to errors of observation at the lighthouses,
whence most of the values herein assigned for Scotland are derived ; or it
may arise from the modifying influence of Ireland not being felt in those
higher latitudes. I might further point out that the deficiency seems in
some degree connected with the large drainage operations in the midland and
eastern counties of England; but until, either by my own efforts, or the
assistance of this Association, the observations are rendered more complete,
it is not safe to attempt to determine the causes of the recent fluctuations.
The next point (and one on which I reserve full particulars for the next
Report, so that 1864 and 1865 may be considered together) is the rainfall of
1864, which, as everybody knows, was far below the average in most parts of
England ; and in the eastern counties scarcely half the usual quantity of rain
* The map can be seen at Mr. Symons's residence, 136 Camden Road, N.W.
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
205
fell ; in Cornwall also, and in Devon, where ordinarily water in abundance
runs to waste, great inconvenience and loss arose from its deficiency. The
most singular case was that of the Pentland Hills and the south-east of Scot-
land generally, where the drought was equally severe, but in less than a
week the rivers rose from almost the lowest point previously known, to a
higher level than had been known for eighteen years. The Edinburgh
Water- works reservoirs had been so empty that the city was put on short
supply ; the floods of October 22-24 came and almost filled them ; the rivers
rose, and carried away farm-produce, buildings and bridges ; and the rain-
returns for that district eventually show a yearly total nearly as much above-
the average as our English returns are below it.
Explanation of Arrangement ami Symbols used in the following List.
The stations are classed primarily into countries, secondarily into counties
(which are in alphabetical order) ; and in each county the stations are ar-
ranged alphabetically under their own name, if a well-known one, as " Want-
age ;" if the place is not one generally known, they are placed under that
of the nearest well-known name : for example, " Tiverton (Hayne)," H ayne
being the absolute place of observation, and being near to Tiverton. When
a station is on the edge of a county, and the most prominent adjacent town
is in the next county, the station is classed under its own name, and that of
the town is in brackets : thus, " Stotfold [Baldock]." The column headed
" Elevation " states the height of the gauge above mean sea-level. An
asterisk (*) prefixed to a station shows that the gauge was tested by
Mr. Symons before it was used ; a dagger (f), that it has been visited, tested,
and its position examined. The letters B.A. indicate its having been
supplied out of the grants made by the British Association. The column
headed " Observer" is added principally as a means of identifying the returns
when there are two or more in the same place. The column headed
" Period" states the years of which the monthly fall has been collected; the
letters C and T denote respectively the commencement and termination of
the register ; in all other cases there may be, or are, additional years con-
stantly accruing. A bar between the date thus, 1846-52, shows that every
year from 1846 to 1852 is in hand ; a bar at the end thus, 1851-, shows
that every year from 1851 to the present is in hand, and that the register is
still kept up. When no date is given, no observations have been obtained.
When a date is given in parenthesis (1840-8), it indicates the date during
which I behove it to have been at work.
ENGLAND.
Bedfordshire.
Station.
Ampthill
Bedford (Britannia Farm)
(Harpur Street)...
(Observatory)
(Cardington Staff gauge)
(Obs. gauge) ,
(36 ft. + ground) ...
(Sharnbrook)
Potton (Sutton Park)
Stotfold [Baldock]
Woburn (Aspley) ,
Eleva-
tion.
112
IOO
IOO
136
220
460
Observer.
W. S. Slinn, Esq,
Mr. T. Bowick...
Dr. Barker
Admiral Smyth...
Mr. M'Laren
B. S. Stedman.Esq.
Sir J. M. Burgoyne
W. Denne, Esq. ..,
Rev. G. W. Mahon.
Period.
C 1865-
C 1865-
C1851-
1831, 1833-38
C 1846-
C 1848-
C 1848-
C 1864-
1864-
C 1856-
206
REPORT 1865.
Berkshire.
Station.
Abingdon (Kington Bagpuze)
„ (Long Wittenham)
Hungerford
Ma idenhead ( White Waltham )
Newbury
„ (Greenham)
Reading ( Aid worth )
,, (Mortimer Lodge) .
Sandhurst
Wallingford (The Castle) ...
(Moulsford) ...
„ (Streatley)
Wantage
Windsor (CumberlandLodge)
„ (Parkside)
Eleva-
tion.
Observer.
170
320
500?
246
175
200
100
200
A. Murdoch, Esq.
Rev.J.C.Clutterbuck
Rev.T.E.Blackwell
J. Silver, Esq. ...,
J. Ward, Esq
Rev. J. T. Austen ,
Dr. Collins
J. K. Hedges, Esq.
Mr. J. B. Spearing
Rev. J. Slatter
E. C. Davey, Esq.
Major-Gen. Hood
W. Menzies, Esq...
Period.
1845
! 1851-
1838-44,1846-49
1859-60.
1845 imp.
! 1865-
01838-41,1843-481
(1832-9).
C 1817- imp.
C 1863-
C 1861-63 T
C 1862.
C 1865-
C 1862-
1862-
BuCKIXGHAMSHIRE.
Amersham (Latimer)
Aylesbury
„ (County Asylum)
Fenny Stratford (Linslade)..
Hartwell House
„ Rectory
High Wycombe
Newport Pagnel . .
Slough (Chalfont)
Wendover
250
290
Dr. King
T. Dell, Esq
Dr. Miller.
Mr. J. Osborne.
1848-50
1838-39,
841
Abington Pigotts
Cambridge (Beech House) ...
(Christ College)
„ (Observatory) ...
( „ new gauge)
Deeping Fen
Fulbourne
Outwell Sluice
Ely (Stretham)
Swaffliam Bulbeck
Wisbech (North Brink)
„ (Observatory)
.. ( „ 8 ft.)
( „ 35 ft.)
(St. Mary's) ...
Altringham (Bowden)
Birkenhead (Woodside)
Frodsham (Kingsley)
Handford (Quarry Bank) . .
Hyde
„ (Kingston Mills)
Knutsford ( Alderley)
Macclesfield
„ (Park Green) ..
,, (Bollington)
v, (Bosley Minns)
130 1
46
"88
88
"16?
11
8
18
45
10
Dr. Lee
Rev. C. Lowndes . . .
J. G. Tatem, Esq....
S. L. Kent, Esq. ...
R. Littleboy, Esq....
Rev. T. Skeen
1860-63
1829, 33, 1836-40
C 1823-37,1839-42
C 1864-
(1860)
1838-39, 1 g 4 i
G. Pigott, Esq. ...*..
J. Nutter, Esq
Rev. J. Hays.
Prof. Adams
C 1863-
C 1862-
1860-63 imp.
C 1864-
Rev. J. H. TJsill ...
R. Lunn, Esq
Mr. Stanlev
C ig6i-
1852-56, 1858-
1S64-
1842-3,1845,1849
C 1859-
C 1861-
C 1863-
C 1862-
C 1863
Rev. L. Jenyns .,
A. Peckover, Esq....
S. L. Miller, Esq....
H. J. Little, Esq....
Cheshire.
'93
295
350
539
500
1279
1210
A. Nield, Esq
W. Armistead, Esq.
Rev. R, Tyas
J. Henshall, Esq
Mr. Ashton
H. H. Clayton, Esq.
Rev. E. Stanley
M.S.&L. R, 1
W. Jefferey, Esq. ...
M.S. &L.R
1838
1861-
1860-
1831-40.
1863-
1815-24.
1855-
1850-
1850-
1850-
* M. S. & L. R. denotes gauges kept for the Canal Department of the Manchester, Shef-
field and Lincolnshire Railway Company.
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
207
Cheshire (continued).
Station.
Macclesfield(Bosley Reservoir
Marple (Aqueduct)
„ (Top Lock)
H ,- Soc. gauge
Mottram (Hill End)
(Matley's Field) ..
Nantwich ( Wrenbury)
Newton ,
Northwich ,
Parkgate (Willaston)
Runcorn (Weston Point) ...
Staleybridge (Arnfield) ,
(Sandy Vale) ...
(Godley)
Tarporley (Alpraliam Green)
Thelwall [Warrington]
Whaley
Woodhead l
,, (Brinks Edge).
„ (Brushes)
,, (ButterleyMoss)
,, (Crowden Hall).
„ (Rakes Moss) ...
„ (Windyate Edge)
Eleva-
tion.
59°
321
543
680
399
396
42
'5
575
320
500
â– 96
602
680
1500
480
1750
700
1620
1700
Cornwall.
Observer.
M.S.&L.R..
ManchesterMemoirs
M.S.&L.R
Mr. Hardacre.
M. S. &L. R
E. L. Williams, Esq.
— Waring, Esq. ...
E. L. Williams, Esq.
J. F. Bateman, Esq.
J. F. Bateman.
A. Winkfield, Esq. .
J. Atkinson, Esq....
M. S. &L. R
J. F. Bateman, Esq.
Manchester Memoirs
Period.
1850-52, 1855-
1851-
1840, 1844-7, 59-
1844-47
C 1860-
1851-5 imp., 1857
1851-
C 1863-
C 1861-
C 1S63-
1855-
1844.
1854-
C 1864-
1861-63 T
1850-
1855-
1847
1845-51
1846-48, 1850-51
1846-51
1846-47
1845-51
325
390
230
800
580
460
120
115
570
â– 96
"50?
94
210
100
300
80?
90
Capt. Liddell, R.N.
1850-
C 1865-
1841, 42, 45, 60-
1860-
1842-43
(65 ft.)
,, (Warleggan)
Callington (Pentillie)
Rev. D. Clements...
Rep.R. Corn. Pol. S.
A. Coryton, Esq.
Miss Pearse ....
1862-
,, (Lantefflos)
Rev. J. Wilkinson .
H. M. Harvey, Esq.
M. P. Moyle, Esq. .
C. U. Tripp, Esq....
Gardeners' Chronicle
Rev. Sir H. Moles-
worth, Bart.
Mr. Giddy
1863-
C 1835-57 T
C 1865-
C 1841-
C 1864-
1850-53
1855 imp.
1864-
1855 imp.
1855-61 T
(1859)
1821 28
*
Padstow(S. Petroc Minor)...
,, (S. Minver)
W.H.Richards.Esq.
Rev. W. Borlasse ...
C 1859-
1833
'855-57
1762, 1767-71
C 1856-
1859-
C 1863-
C 1865-
1848-53, 1855
1855
1862-
„ (Ludgvan)
Redruth (Tehidy)
#
St. Austell (Trevarna)
W. Coode, Esq. ...
St. Columb (New Quay)
1 See also Derbyshire.
208
REPOKT 1865.
Cornwall {continued).
Station.
Eleva-
tion.
Observer.
Period.
St. Germans (Port Eliot) . . .
„ (Tideford) . , .
Scilly (St. Mary's)
5°
3°
475
65
190
56
3°3
Mr. Lynch.
Rev. T. Hullah
J. G-. Moyle, Esq....
Rev. A. Thynne . . .
K. Whitley, Esq. ...
C 1861-64 T
C 1855-62.
1841-43 imp.
C 1864-
1 8 52-5 3
C 1857-
C 1838-
1837-50
C 1853-
Scilly
*
Stratton.
„ (Kilkhampton) ...
Truro (Alverton)
,, (Penarth)
„ (Royal Institution) ...
Wadebridge (St. Breocke) ...
„ (Treharroek Ho.)
Rev. Sir H. Moles-
worth, Bart.
F. B. Hambly, Esq.
Cumberland.
South Mountain Districts *.
Brant Rigg
Crummock Lake .
Ennerdale Lake .
Eskdale Foot
„ Head ....
Esk House
Gatesgarth
Gillerthwaite ....
Great End
Great Gable
Langdale Head
Loweswater Lake .
Mosedale
Sea Fell Pike ....
Seathwaite.
(10 in.)
(22 in.)
Seatollar Common
Sparkling Tarn
Sprinkling Tarn . .
Stonethwaite
Stonywath
Stye, The
„ (Head Tarn)
Wastdale Head
695
924
260
246
2550
326
396?
3000
2925
250
336
624
3200
3166
422
422
405
1388
1900
1985
33°
94 8
1472
1448
247
247
I. Fletcher, Esq. ...
Dr. Miller.
I. Fletcher, Esq.
Dr. Miller
I. Fletcher, Esq. ..,
Dr. Miller
I. Fletcher, Esq. ...
Dr. Miller
I. Fletcher, Esq. ...
Dr. Miller and Mr.
Dixon
Dr. Miller
I. Fletcher, Esq.
*»
Dr. Miller
I. Fletcher, Esq. ...
Dr. Miller
I. Fletcher, Esq. ....
Dr. Miller
Cumberland.
Alston
Brampton .
n
Carlisle .
(Croft House) .
(Shaddongate).
(Cemetery) ....
(O. S. Office) .
370
40
40
114
123
J. Coulthard, Esq..
Mr. Pitt
Mr. Cameron
Capt. James, R.E. ..
864-
846-53 T
845-53 T
845-46.
846-49.
847-53 T
865-
845-53 T
846-51 T
865-
846-53 T
845-52 T
844-53 1
865-
864-
846-53 imp. T
865-
846-
845-53 T
846-53 T
846-53 T
864-
864-
847-53 T
844 imp.
850-53
864-
846-53 T imp
864-
845-53 T
1851-52 imp.
1851-imp.
1851-2, 1854-55
1767
i 8 5i-53
1801-24 T
186c-
1859-61 T
1 A copy of the Table of the monthly fall at Dr. Miller's Mountain Stations in 1844 is
very much wanted by Mr. Symons.
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
209
Cumberland {continued).
Station.
Carlisle (Ilarrabv)
„ (Scalebyj...
,, (Scotby) ...
Cockermouth
(8 ft.)
„ (Bridekirk) ...
„ (Highani)
(WhinfellHall)
" it
Derwentwater (Crow Park)...
Keswick
Eleva-
tion.
„ (Bassenthwaite Hall) . . .
,, (Mirehouse)
Linginell
Maryport (Tarnbank)
,, (Broughton Moor)
Penrith
„ (Crewgarth)
„ (Edenhall)
„ (Greystoke)
Silloth
Tirrill
Whitbeck
Whitehaven
„ (Round Close)...
„ (St.James'Church)
„ (Bootle)
„ (Braystones) . . .
„ (Flosh, Cleator)
Wigton
(Holme Rook).
(Broolcfleld School)
1 20?
100
127
158
164
266
250
250
210?
300
225
230
410
28
90
4S0
90
87
36
240
[30
Observer.
J. Atkinson, Esq. ..
R. A. Allison, Esq..
Mr. J. Clark........
Dr. Miller
Dr. Dodgson
>j
Rev. J. Carter.
T. A. Hoskins, Esq
W. Robinson, Esq.
H. C. Marshall, Esq
Mr. Crosthwaite . . .
Dr. Miller
T. S. Spedding, Esq,
Dr. Miller
I. Fletcher, Esq. ...
Period.
Mr. Bird
J. P. Spedding, Esq
Mr. Bowstead
Rev. F. Redford ...
Rev.T. Ormandy ..
Dr. Miller
Rev. A Wilkin
J. D. Watson, Esq.
T. Ainsworth, Esq.
Rev. C. Pratt.
Rev. R. Matthews
Belper
Buxton
Chapel-en-le-Frith
R.M.Lidbetter,Esq.
Derbyshire.
J. G. Jackson, Esq.
G-. Drury, Esq
965 M. S. & L. R.
„ (Combs House)
1, ( „ Moss or Ridge)
,1 ( ,, Reservoir)
11 ( n „ Soc. gauge)
Chatsworth
Chesterfield
(Brampton)
Derby
186.").
(All Saints Church).
( Mickleover)
(Morley)
1669
710
850
404
404
248
140
180
349
Manchester Memoirs
Mr. Stewart
Mr. Taplin
M. S. & L. R
Rev. J. M. Mello..
J. M. Hewitt, Esq.
Mr. Swanwick
J. Davis, Esq.
Dr. Hitchman.
Rev. S. Fox.
1851
C 1863-
1851
1845-50
C 1861-
C 1864-
C 1856-
C 1829-33 T
C 1864-
C 1788-94
1845-
C 1865-
1847-52
1854-
1850-53
C 1863-
C 1863-
1849-51
1851-54
1850-52
C 1864-
1846-51
C 1855-
1 845 total only.
C 1864-
C 1833-53
1846-48
1844-53 T
C 1863-
C 1864-
1844-53, 1855-
61, 1863
1845-52
1854.
C 1861-
C 1865-
1840, 1844-47
1851-54, 1858-
1855 ' m p-
1847, 1851-
1840,1844-47,1850-
1844-47
1777-93
C 1860-63
1865-
1855-
C 1864-
1809-35
1837
C 184.3-
C 1862 T
210
REPORT — 1865.
Derbyshire (continued).
Station.
Eleva-
tion.
Observer.
Period.
Derby (Ockbrook)
270
500
1500
300
1600
238
170?
200?
939
1700
>EV0NSIH
584
3i
40
"96
6go
500
250
200
200
95°
900
1400
1400
1596
1360
1200
62
118
*95
146
180
184
i55
140
160
141
5°
Rev. M. A. Smelt...
Rev. C. Newdigate
Hon. Rev. 0. Forester
Manchester Memoirs
P. Arkwright, Esq.
M. S. & L. R.
Mr. Windle
C 1865-
„ (West Hallam)
C 1861-
Glossop (Hillfoot)
1839, l8 4°> ,8 4*
(Hurst}
1842-4 imp.
( ,, Brook)
Hathersage (Bamford)
Hay field (Kinder Scout)
Matlock (Willersley Castle)
1839-42
1839-41
1839-41
1858-
M
C 1864-
T. C. Cade, Esq. ...
Rev. U. Smith
M. S. & L. R.
Manchester Memoirs
RE.
Miss Trovte
1864-
Stoney Middleton
C 1865-
Woodhead (Station) 1
C 1851-
(Black Clough)...
I
Bampton (Huntsham Court)
1849-51
1859-62
C 1857-
T. Mackrell, Esq....
Rev. H. S. Pinder .
Rev. J. H. Kirwan .
Rev. J. H. Gossett..
J. Divett, Esq
Mr. Scott
#
„ (Bratton Fleming)
„ (BrauntonLighthouse)
Bideford (Appledore „ )
(Buckish)
C 1865-
1855 imp.
1855 imp.
C 1865-
(Northam)
C 1865-
+
ig52, 1856-
(Holne)
1861
Rev. T. Hullah ....
F. Sullivan, Esq.
Mr. H. Matthews...
Rev. J. Huyshe ....
C. R. Collins, Esq. ..
H. Terrell Esq
H. H. Treby, Esq. ..
Dr. Roome
C 1851-56 T
Buckland Monachoruni
1857-58, i860 T
*
+
Chumleigh (Chawleigh)
„ (Witheridge)
Collumpton (Bradninch) ...
(ClystHydon)...
„ (Strath Culme) ..
Dartmoor(Burrator,Sheepstor)
(Lee Moor)
1857-59
1855 imp.
C 1841-
C 1847-
C 1864-
«85 5-58
C 1860-
„ (Prison Roof)
„ ( „ Reservoir) .
„ (North Hessary Tor)
., (Prince Town)
„ (RoughTorConsols)
C 1853-
t
t
Mr. Watts
C 1862-
C 1862-
Gardener'sChronicle
P. J. Margary, Esq.
Mr. T. Lancaster . . .
Mr. Mould
1838-40
1852
t
C 1857-
1852-53
(Stoke) .
C 1817-29 T
1847-58
4-
„ (Brampford Speke) . . .
(High Street)
W. H. Gamlen, Esq.
W. H. Ellis, Esq....
if • ■•
G. Kennaway, Esq.
Mr. Parfitt
C 1865-
1860-
C 1S64-
4.
C 1864-
C 1817-
I 840-42
t
W. Vicary, Esq. ...
)> ' * â–
R. Dymond, Esq. ..
C 1861-64 T
t
C 1860-64 T
f
C 1S60-
t
„ (St. Thomas)
C 1814-61
1 See also Cheshire.
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
211
Devonshire (continued).
Station.
Eleva-
tion.
Observer.
Period.
t
*BA.
t
t
BA.
t
Exinouth (Bystoke)
Hartland
Honiton
,, (Broadhembury)
„ (Otterhead)
(Overday)
Ivybridge (Torrhill)
Kentisbury (WestlandPound)
Kingsbridge (The Knowle)..
Bedford ( Hex worthy )
Milton Abbot (Beckwell) ..
„ (Edgecumbe)
„ (Endsleigh)
Moreton Hampstead (Chag-
ford)
Newton Bushel (High Wick)
North Tawton
Plvmouth
„ (Compton Hartley)
„ (Flora Place) ...
„ (Whimple Street)..
(Ham)
Plyrapton St.M.(Goodamoor)
(Ridgeway)
„ (Saltram) .........
Sidmouth
„ (Blackmoor) . . .
,, (SaleombHillHouse)
South Molton (Castle Hill)..
„ (Meshaw)
South Sydenham
Tavistock
„ (Bradstone)
„ (Library)
( ., New)
„ (Mount Tavy)
Teignmouth
„ (Westbrook) . . .
„ (Bishop'sTeignton)
Tiverton (Cove)
„ (Hayne)
Topsham (Clyst St. George)..
Torquay (Lamorna)
(Melville)
(South Town Villa)..
(Woodfield)
Torrington (Great)
280
600
240
930
H3
660
250?
45°
30
30
94
580
116
96
30
74
150
472
273
61
5°
100
450
400
205
150
450
E. Divctt, Esq.
Rev. T. Chope
Rev. W. Heberden
Miss Beadon
R. T. Abraham, Esq
J. Widdicomb, Esq
Mr. Smith
Mrs. Harris
Mr. Easterbrook
H.Clark, Esq. ...
Mr. Cornelius ...
R. L. Berry, Esq.,
Dr. Barhani
Dr. Huxham
Dr. Farr
Miss Molesworth ,
Mr. Jeffery
Rev.C.T.Trelawney
H. H. Treby.Esq....
Miss Phillipps ...
Mr. Snow
Dr. Cullen
Dr. Mackenzie ...
W. Strahan, Esq.
A. North, Esq....
Mr. Saul
Rev.W.H.Karslake
Mr. Windeatt
Dr. Barram
Rep. Cor. Pol. Soc.
Mr. Merrifield
J. Carpenter, Esq.
W. C. Lake, Esq. ...
Miss Clark
Rev. S. M. Scroggs.
W.N. Row, Esq. ...
W. H. Gamlen, Esq
Rev. H. Ellacombe ,
W. PengeUy, Esq. ..
T. G. Braden, Esq.
Rev. C. Maiden ...
E. Vivian, Esq
Rev. S. Buckland...
Dorsetshire.
Beaminster (Netherbury) ...
Blandford
Bridport (The Cedars)
Cerne Abbas (Melbury House)
120?
85
Rev. C. B. Mount...
W. Shipp, Esq
A. Stephens, Esq. ...
Earl of Ilchester ...
C 1860-63 T
C 1864-
1841 imp.
C 1837-
C 1856-63 T
1862
C 1857-
1855 imp.
C 1857-
C 1863-
C 1863
1860-63 T
1832
C 1863-
C 1862-
C 1851-
1826-34, 1838
1731-35 imp-
1767-68
1864-
1841 imp.
1864-
1842-
1834-
1857-
1855-
(1843-?)
C 1865-
C 1864-
C 1861, 1863-
C 1851-
C 1861-
1858
1838-42
1840, 1842
1844-
1865-
1864-
1860-62 T
1859-
1864-
1862-
1853-64 T
C 1865-
C 1864-
C 1865 T
1860-1, 1864
C 1863-
C 1857-65 T
C 1864-
C1855-
1852-54 imp.
q2
212
REPORT — 1865.
Dorsetshire {continued).
*
*B.A.
tB.A.
Station.
Dorchester
(Little Bridy) ...
(Upwey)
,, (West Lodge) ...
„ (Abbotsbury) ...
Forde Abbey [Chard]
Gillingham
Portland (The Grove)
„ (Breakwater)
Shaftesbury
„ (Fontmell Magna";
„ (Sutton Waldron)
Sherborne
Wareham (Encombe)
Wimborne (Chalbury)
Bishopwearmouth
Darlington
„ ( Long Newton) . . .
„ (Dinsdale)
,, (Raby Castle) ...
Durham
(Esk)
,, (Ushaw College) ...
Gateshead(BurghfieldGrange)
Seaham Hall
Sunderland (Esplanade)
(Field House) ..
(HendonHill)..
(West Hendon) .
Washington
Winston (Stubb House)
Whorlton
Eleva-
tion.
Billericay
Braintree (Booking)
Colchester
„ (BroomHillHouse)
(Birch Hall)
(Frating)
Dunmow
Eppnig
Harlow ( Sheering)
Hedingham Castle
Ley ton
Plaistow
Rochford (Clements Hall) ...
Romford (Upminster)
Saffron- Walden (Ashdon) ...
Witham (Dor wards Hall) ...
348
70
no?
220
5*
120
150
Observer.
J. Jowett, Esq
II. S Eaton, Esq....
J. Miller, Esq
Mrs. Wyndham . . .
Earl of Ilchester.
G. Miles, Esq
T. Thompson, Esq.
Dr. Houghton
J. T. Leather, Esq.
T. Ackland, Esq. ...
W. J. Salkeld, Esq.
Archdeacon Huxt able
J. Kidd, Esq
O. W. Farrer, Esq. .
Rev.G.H.Billington
Durham.
130 Dr. Ogden
140
339
600
68
100
"85
120
125
125
130
120
458
Mr. Richardson ...
F. H. Dyke, Esq.
Rev. J. W.Smith...
Mr. M c Intosh.
M. R. Dolman, Esq.
Rev. T. Chevallier . .
Rev. J. Gillow
G. Wailes, Esq. ...
R. Draper, Esq. ...
Dr. Pyle.
Rev. G. Iliff
J. W. Mounsey, Esq,
T.W.Backhouse.Esq
J. Watson, Esq. .
T. Dodgson, Esq. .
Rev. A. Headlam.
Essex.
55?
80?
234
360
100?
93
"25?
300
20
F. Carter, Esq
S. Tabor, Esq. ....'..
Army Med. Corps.
Capt. Walker
C. G. Round, Esq. .,
Rev. R. Duffield ...
H. E.Cockayne.Esq.
H. Doubleday, Esq.
Rev. E.Hill
L. A. Majendie, Esq.
J. G. Barclay, Esq. .
L. Howard, Esq. ...
A. Holt White. Esq.
Rev. W. Derham ...
Rev. J. T. Walker ..
H. Dixon, Esq
Gloucestersii ire.
Period.
C 1865-
C.855-
C 1862-
1852-53 imp.
C 1861-64 T
C 1832- imp.
C 1851-58 T
C 1856-
C 1864-
C 1864 T imp.
C 1864 T
C 1863-
C i 8 6o-
C 1865-
C 1835-
1734-35 lm P-
C 1859-
C 1865-
1850-
C 1861-
1864-
C 1862-
1854-
C 1862-
C 1859-60 imp.
C 1860-
1856-59
1856-58, i860
1856-
C 1865-
C 1851-
C 1864-
C 1S65-
C 1854-62 T
C 1851-
C 1S22-
C 1863-
1864-
1861, 1863
1806-12
C 1863-
1697-1716
C 1858-
1847-
Berkeley
Bristol ..
Rev. C. T. Pratt
C 1865-
1774-78
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
Gloucestershire {continued).
213
Station.
Bristol ( Institution)
„ (ParkEow)
„ (Small Street)
Cheltenham (Charlton Kings)
„ (Hospital) ...
Cirencester (Further Barton)
„ (Royal Aer. Coll. )
Clifton
Frampton-on-Severn (Saul
Lodge)
Gloucester ( Ayslum)
,, (BarnwoodHouse)
„ (Clarence Street)..
„ (Gas Works)
„ (Quedgeley)
(The Spa)
„ (Twigworth)
(Waterworks)...
„ (Whitcomb Court)
Stroud (Bedford Street)
Eleva-
tion.
Observer.
98
140
40
200
446
192
242
42
100
60
5°
84
5°
Eev. C. T. Pratt . .
C. W. Bragge, Esq.
Eev. F. H. Potter .
Dr. Williams
Mr. Moss
Mr. Moon
T. C. Brown, Esq. .
W. C. Burder, Esq.
W. B. Clegram, Esq
Dr. Williams
Dr. Wood
C. J. Fowler, Esq....
R. Spinney, Esq. ...
J. C. Hayward, Esq.
A. Price, Esq
W. B. Clegram, Esq.
Mr. Richardson.
A. Bubb, Esq.
J. Bateman, Esq. ...
Dr. Paine.
Period.
1860-61
C 1859-
C 1855-
C 1864-
C 1864-
1833-39
C 1862-63 T
C 1844-
C 1853-65 T
C 1853-65 T
C 1862-
1860-62
1864-
1858-59
1837 imp.
1849-
C 1860-
C 1864-
1858-62 T
C i°6 S -
Aldershofc
,, (25 ft.)
„ (Bourley)
Alresford ( Arle Bury) ....
(New)
Alton (Newton Valence)
„ (Medsted)
Andover
„ (Abbots Ann)
(Fyfield)
Basingstoke (Sherborne)
„ (Strathfield Turgess)
Christehurch (Bournemouth)
(Mudieford House)
Fareham
(North Brook)!!!
Gosport
Havant ( Leigh Park)
Isle of Wight (Carisbrook) . . .
(Newport)
(Osborne)
( » )
(Parkhurst)
(Ryde)
( » )
(St. Lawrence) .
( „ )
( Ventnor)
Lyndhurst
Petersfield
Hampshire.
325
J. Arnold, Esq
C 1858
35°
C 1864
370
E. Shaw, Esq
1864-
80?
F. Marx, Esq
1862-
Mr. Fielder
1861
Rev. J. White.
W. Curtis, Esq.
680
Rev. M. A. Smelt...
C 1863-64 T
Mr. Holt
C 1785-89
C 1847-62 T
*77
Rev. F. H. White ..
1784-92
Rev. C. H. Cholmely
169
Rev. C. H. Griffith ..
1862-
30?
Dr. Falls
1862-63
1864-
10
F. Moser, Esq
8
R. Porter, jun., Esq.
C 1861-
26
H. Sharland, Esq....
C 1 860-
1837-40,1842,1856
J. H. Maverly, Esq.
1841-42
40?
W.H.Stone, Esq....
C 1864-
1847-48 imp.
24
J. C. Bloxam, Esq. . .
1841-56
172
J. R. Mann, Esq. ...
1852-56 imp.
172
Army Med. Corps.
C 1858-
no
B. Barrow, Esq. ...
1860
'5
R. Taylor, Esq. ...
C 1860-
Rev. C. Maiden
C 1865-
W.T.King, Esq. ...
C 1865-
150
Dr. Martin
C 1840-
1860, 62, 63
Dr. Peskett
C i860-
214
REPORT 1865.
Hampshire (continued).
Station.
Eleva-
tion.
Observer.
Period.
Petersfield (Heath Lodge) . . .
„ ( . ,. ) ...
(Liss)
200
200
500?
500?
20
74
92
230
«S
102?
156
300?
112
...
EREFORE
I58
194
160
450
250?
700?
229
150?
[ertpori
370
250
90?
250
242
82
266
300
300?
380?
200?
190
Rev. M. A. Smelt ...
Rev. H. Haigh ....
G. E. Coryton, Esq.
Army Med. Corps.
Gilbert White, Esq.
T.Bell, Esq
C 1857-63 T
C 1864-
1853-
Selborne (The Wakes)
C 1780-93 T
( „ )
C 1851-
C 1848-61
Southampton (Gas Works)...
(O.S.O.)
( ,, )
(Bassett Wood)
(Cadland)
„ (Eling House)
(Netlev)
Mr. Sharp
*
Col. Sir H. James. . .
J. Bullar, Esq. ,
E. Drummond, Esq.
W. C.Spooner,Esq.
Army Med. Corps . . .
R.C.Hankinson,Esq.
Mr. Sharp
Rev. S. M. Scroggs .
Rev. W. W. Spicer .
J. B. Yonge, Esq....
Army Med. Corps.
SHIRE.
E. J. Isbell, Esq. ...
W. Cook. Esq
T.Curley, Esq
A. Thompson, Esq. .
H. Lawson, Esq, . . .
J. Pendergrass, Esq.
Rev. H. C. Key
R.R.Boddington,Esq.
Rev. T.S.Hewitt...
E. P. Southall, Esq.
J. M. Herbert, Esq.
SHIRE.
W. Squire, Esq. . . .
Rev. A.P. Sanderson
T. Jones, Esq.
W. C. Baker, Esq. .
Rev. R. P. Davies .
W. Lucas, Esq
N. Beardmore, Esq.
H. Wortham, Esq. .
Mr. Bogue
1855-
1855-
C 1865-
(1863-)
1848-
„ (Shirley Warren)
Winchester (Gas Works)
(Hurslev)
1862-
C 1842-47 T
C 1861-63 T
„ (Itchen Abbas)...
„ (Otterbourne) ...
1850-62
1864-
*
B
Hereford (Blue School)
(EignHill)
C 1863-
C 1864-
C 1864-
1858, 1861-3.
18-16-4.1
*
„ (Broomy Hill) . . .
„ (Pool Cottage) ...
( Stretton)
C 1818-43 T
1860-
Kington (Titley or Burches) .
C 1841-52
1861-
„ (West Lodge) ...
C 1857-
1852
1856-57 imp.
C 1848-
C 1865-
1852, 1854-56
C1833-
C 1864
C 1859-
C 1864-
1850-
1861-
C 1842-
CI853-
1852-55, 1859
1864-
1787-91
1854, 56-59 T
1818-20 imp.
1820 imp.
C 1861-
I
Ba 1 dock (Hinxworth)
Berkhampstead
Buntingford ( Aspeden )
Chipping Barnet (Totteridge
Park).
Hatfield House
Henielhempstead(Nash Mills)
„ (Kensworth)
Hertford (Bayfordbury)
(Parkeate)
Hitchin
Hoddesdon (Fields Weir) . . .
St. Albans (Gorhambury) ...
„ (Rothamstead) . . .
( „ small gauge)
Stevenage
J. B. Lawes, Esq....
C. B. Pearson, Esq.
J. B. Denton, Esq. .
R. Littleboy, Esq. .
Capt. Beaufoy
»»
D. Carnegie, Esq. .
R. Littleboy, Esq. .
R. Clutterbuck, Esq
C. Trueman, Esq.
„ (Woodfield)
,, (Bushey Heath) ...
( „ Roof)
(Eastburv)
„ (Hunton Bridge) . . .
„ (Watford House) ...
Welwyn (The Hall)
C 1 860-64 T
C 1857-
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
Huntingdonshire.
215
Station.
Conington Rect. [Peterboro]
Huntingdon (Ramsey) ...
„ (Wistow)
Kimbolton (Hamerton) ...
St. Ives (Earith)
St. Neots (Tetworth)
„ ( WarSsley)
Eleva-
tion.
Bexley Heath (Danson Hall).
(Welling)
Canterbury
,, (Chartham)
„ (Patrixbourne)
Chatham
Chislehurst
Crossness
Dover
„ (Castle Keep)
„ (Castle Street)
Edenbridge(NewFalconhurst)
Greenwich
„ (Observatory)
„ ( „ , various gauges)
Hythe
„ (Horton Park)
„ (Saltwood)
Lamberhurst (Court Lodge) .
„ (Scotney Castle)
Lewisham
Maidstone
„ (FantRoad) ...
Margate (Acol)
,, (R. Sea-B. Infirmary)
Ramsgate (Trafalgar Place) .
Sandgate
Seven Oaks (River Head) ...
(River Hill)
Sheerness
Shorncliffe
Staplehurst (Hunton Court) .
,, (Linton Park)...
Tunbridge
Wells
Walmer
Westerham (Chartwell)
West Wickham
Woolwich .
170
Observer.
Rev. G. Heathcote .
Lady Bayning
Rev. T.Woodruff...
Rev. A. P. Stopford
Mr. Brown
H. M.Kaye, Esq. ...
Rev.W.M.H.Elwyn.
Kent.
150
97
512
16
400
'55
280?
200?
60
60
25
25
520
200?
125
80
400
300
500?
Mr. H. Johnston.
H. S. Wollaston, Esq.
Army Med. Corps.
C. J. Drew, Esq. . .
Rev. M. A. Smelt...
Army Med. Corps.
J.W.Bazalgette.Esq.
Army Med. Corps.
Mr. Mantell
H. J. Poulter, Esq.
J. G. Talbot, Esq. .
W. Rogerson, Esq. .
J. Glaisher, Esq. . . .
H. Mackeson, Esq.
J. Kirkpatrick, Esq.
G. S. Court, Esq.
W.C. Morland, Esq
E. Hussey, Esq. . . .
J. Glaisher, Esq.
F. Dobell, Esq
J. H.Baverstock, Esq.
Dr. Fielding
E. S. Lendon, Esq. .
V. W. Maude, Esq. .
C. J. Fowler, Esq. .
R. Cramp, Esq.
T. Du Boulay, Esq.
Rev. J. B. Murdoch
J. T. Rogers, Esq. .
Army Med. Corps.
Mr. P. Goddard
Mr. J. Robson . .
Dr. Fie:ding
Army Med. Corps.
J. C. Colquhoun, Esq.
Rev. J. T. Austen...
W. Steuart, Esq. ...
Army Med. Corps.
Lancashire.
Blackpool (South Shore)
Bolton-le-Moors (The Folds)
„ (Belmont)...
„ ( „ Old Lyons)
29
286
800
G. Sharpies, Esq. ..,
H. H. Watson, Esq.
H. Baylis, Esq
Period.
1864-
1836-42 imp.
C 1864-
C 1853-
1862-63
1862-
C 1863-
1852-
1864-
C 1855-56 T
1729-30, 1731-35
C 1864-
1789-93 imp,
1863-
1859-61, 1864-
1864-
1833,1838-51
C 1815-
Various.
C 1858-
C 1862-
1862- imp,
1856-
C ,857-
C 1848-57 T
C 1864-
C 1864-
1860 imp,
C 1864-
C 1865-
1860-
1858-
C 1855-
C 1857-
1840, 1848-49
1840-43 imp.
C 1862-
C 1848-
C 1861-
C855-
1831-
C 1X^3-
1844
216
REPORT 1805.
Lancashire (continued).
Station.
Eleva-
tion.
Observer.
Period.
Bolton-le-Moors (Heaton) ...
,, (Vale Bank)
Broughton in Furness.
Burnley ( Townley)
500
300
450
3i3
320
170
88
60
25
155
474
150
"34?
600
455
30
114
120
82
103
23
5 2
194
130
324
"5
312
320
263
106
104
295
H. Baylis, Esq
J. Watkins, Esq. ...
R. Townley, Esq....
W. Wanklyn, Esq. .
T. Norris, Esq
T.R. Croasdale, Esq.
T. Norris, Esq
J. B Binyon, Esq. .
Mr. Nash
C .859-
C 1863-
1677-86,1689-93,
1697-1703
1861-63
1830-45 T
1861, 1863
1797-1801
1861-63
C 1860-
(Rock Street)
t
t
Cartmel (Pit Farm)
(Allithwaite)
(Aynesome)
H. Remington, Esq.
D. Ainsworth, Esq.
A. Beardsley, Esq. .
Mr. Wilson .
C 1854-
1864-
C 1849-
C 1855-
1850-
C 1865-
1854 imp.
i853-57
C 1860-62 T
„ (Back barrow)
t
t
(Holker)
Clitheroe (Downhani Hall)...
R. Assheton, Esq
J. G. Marshall, Esq.
R. J. Bywater, Esq.
Rev. W. Dawson . . .
J. Hill, Esq
(Rampside)
Grarstang (Blcasedale)
,, (Vale House)
J. Jackson, Esq. ...
Rev. A. Christopher-
Bon
C 1863-
1800-02, 1804-17
(South Road)
(Caton)
C 1849-51 T
1861-
t
W. Roper, Esq. ...
Rev. A. Christopher-
son
„ (Hest Bank )
C 1852-
1860-63
1864-
1784-93
1826 imp.
1845
1775-1792
1842
1861-63 T
1840-41
C 1864-
1846-
1860 T
C 1791-1801
1838 imp.
1802-04
1784-92, totals.
1808-10
R. B. Peacock, Esq.
C.H.Lethbridge.Esq.
Dr. Campbell
Mr. Hutchinson ...
W. Lassell, Esq. ...
W. Lassell, jun.,Esq.
Mr. Abrahams
J. Hartnup, Esq. ...
W. Lassell, Esq. ...
Mr. Holt
„ (Hornby Castle) ...
Liverpool
(Dock Offices)
„ (Starfield)
,, (Brook)
„ (Observatory)
( ,, )
(SandfieldPark) ...
„ (Walton)
Nicholson's Journal
Dr.Dalton
Manchester
1794-1840
1830-53 T
1850-
C 1853-
1S25-39T
1854-
C 1861-
„ (Market Street) . . .
(Piccadilly)
J. Casartelli, Esq
M. S. & L. R.
J. Casartelli, Esq
L. Bucham, Esq. ...
J. F. Bateman, Esq.
T. Mackereth, Esq.
M. S.&L.R
J. F. Bateman, Esq.
G. Lloyd, Esq
G. V. Vernon, Esq.
J. Curtis, Esq
W. Horrocks, Esq.
,, (Ardwick)
■i ( » Green)
,, (Crumpsal).
„ (Denton)
(Eccles)
(Fairfield)
1840, 1845-47,1851-
1845-47
1854-
1765-69
1850-
C 1862-
1860-
„ ( „ Soc. Gauge)
„ (Gorton)
,, (Holme)
t
t
(Old Trafford) ...
,. ( » )
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
217
Lancashire (continued).
Station.
Eleva-
tion.
Observer.
Period.
Manchester (Rhodes Wood).
„ (Sale)
,, (Salford)
Middletou ( Slattocks)
„ ( „ Soc. gauge)..
Oldham (Brushes Clough) . .
,, (Gas Works)
(Royton)
.. ( .. )
,, (Strines Dale)
„ (Waterhouses) ..
Ormskirk (Rufford)
Preston (Fish wick)
„ (Holme Slack)
„ (Howick)
„ (House of Correction)
.. ( ., )
Eadcliffe (Mount Sion) ....
Rochdale
„ (Castleton Moor) .
ii ( ., Exp. gauges)
(Castle Hill)
„ (Heywood W. W. Res.)
„ (Moss Lock)
( „ Soc. gauge)
Southport (Virginia Farm)..
Todds Brook
Ulverston
Waith Sutton
Warrington
(Penketh School)
„ (Winwick)
„ (Walton Lea) ...
Whalley (Stonyhurst)
Wigan (Waterworks Resery.)
„ (Standish)
Windermere ( Fell Foot)
„ (Wray Castle) ...!
Yealand [Burton on Kendal].'
520
134
45°
450
950
600
484
480
800
345
38
i54
H3
72
140
187
250
475
500
900
500
500
620
98
33
381
225
300
250
J. F. Bateman, Esq
J. Curtis, Esq
Mr. Walker
Manchester Mem. . .
J. Taylor, Esq. .
Mr. Heap
J. Taylor, Esq. ..
M.S. &L.R
J. Porter, Esq. . .
T. Oddie, Esq. ..
J. Newton, Esq.
T. Norris, Esq. ..
Mr. Hesketh
Army Med. Corps.
H. Eaton, Esq
M.S.&L.R
Rev. J. C. Bates .
Mr. Ecroyd
C. E. Cawley, Esq.
Manchester Mem.
R. Stokes, Esq
Manchester Mem...
J. H. Matthews, Esq
Manchester Mem. . . .
T. G. Rylands, Esq.
L. J. Reynolds, Esq.
E. Rothwell, Esq. . . .
G. Crosfield, Esq.
Rev. W. Sidgrcaves
J. L. Hunter, Esq. .
»»
Manchester Mem. . . .
Dr. Dawson
Leicestershire.
Appleby School
Bel voir Castle [Grantham]
Leicester (Museum)
(Hotel Street) ...
Loughborough (Emanl.Rect.)
,, (Belton)
(Rothley)
„ (Woodhouse)..
Market Harbro' (Fleckney)..
Melton Mowbray
(DalbyHall)
(Waltham)
Owston [Oakham]
Thornton (Reservoir)
,, (Vicarage)
Wigston Grange
34°
237
220?
150?
300?
210
54o?
580?
420?
500?
220
Rev. B. F. Falkner
W. Ingram, Esq. ..
J. Payne, Esq
H. Bi'llson, Esq. ..
Rev. R.J. Bunch...
Rev. R. Dalby
Rev. R. Burton ...
Rev. J. Hiley
J. B. Putt, Esq. ...
Rev. C. A. Holmes
E. B. Hartopp, Esq.
Rev. G. E. Gillett...
Miss Gilford
J. Bevins, Esq
Rev. R. S.Adams...
T. Burgess, Esq. . . .
1855-
1855-61 T
1786-93
1833-40,1845-47
1844
1861-
1860-
1836-
C 1865-
1859-
1845-47,1850- imp.
C 1847-
C 1850-
C 1861-
C 1845-
C 1849-
C 1848-
1862-
1863-
C 1863-
Various.
1832-47
C 1848-
1825-40, 1844-47
1844, 1846, 1847
1843
C 1861-63 T
1847
C 1864-
1852-58 imp.
17S9-93
1849-55
C 1S65-
1 844 imp.
C 1846-
C 1863-
C 1858-
1788-91
C 1849-
1826 imp.
C 1864-
1855-
1856-63 imp.
C1861- .
C 1S61-
C 1863-
C1860-
C j86 5 -
C 1863-
C 1861-
C 1863-
C 1860-
C 1864-
C ,855-
C 1857 T imp.
c i 8 35-43. 1845-
218
REPORT — 1865.
Lincolnshire.
Station.
Eleva-
tion.
Observer.
Period.
*t
t
Boston
»)
Brigg
(Appleby Hall)
( „ Vicarage)...
„ (Barnetby)
„ (Ferriby)
( „ Sluice)
Gainsborough (Belmont Ho.)
Grantham .
(Grate Burton) .
(Stockwith) ....
Grimsby
Horncastle (Vicarage)
„ (Minting Vicarage)
Lincoln
„ (Coleby)
Market Deeping (Greatford
Hall)
„ (Wytham on the Hill)
,. ( » )
Market Rasen
New Holland
Sleaford
„ (Heydour Vicarage)
„ (South Kyme)
Spilsby (Welton-le-Marsh) . .
Stubton [Newark]
Wainfleet (Croft)
Camden Town
Chiswick
Colney Hatch
Edmonton ...
(Lower)
Enfield (Back Hill)..
„ (Vicarage) . .
Finchley Eoad
10
10
16
Si
"38
76
96
21
179
42
26
100?
100
18
5*
46
80?
Dr. Adam
W.Veall, Esq
M. S. &L.E
Mr, Usher
Rev. J. E. Cross . .
M.S.&L.E
Nicholson's Journ.
Mr. Smith
T.Dyson, Esq
M.S.&L.E
J. TV. Jeans. Esq....
Mr. Eead
M.S.&L.E
Eev. W. H. Milner
Nicholson's Journ.
Eev. F. Bashforth.
M. S. &L.E
Eev. T. T. Penrose
Capt. Peacock ...
Gen. Johnson . . .
A. C. Johnson, Esq.
M.S.&L.E. ...
Mr.B. Heald ...
Eev. H. S. Neucatre
Eev. Gordon Deedes
Eev. H. S. Neucatre
Eev. A. Wright...
G. Nevile, Esq....
Eev. A. Wright. . .
C 1864-
1830-56, 1860-64
C 1859-
1849-55
1858-
C 1859-
i8c8-io
C 1860-
C 1851-
C 1859-
1860-
1855-
C 1851-
1851
C 1859-
C 1863-
1808-10
C 1859-
1855-61
1860-
C 1820-62 T
C 1864-
C 1859-
C 1859-
1864-
1826-39 T
C 1865-
C 1840-
C 1864-
C 1862-
1862-
Hackney
Hammersmith
Hampstead
Harrow-on-the-Hill
Highgate
London (Bryanstone Square)
(Chiswell Street) ...
„ (Crane Court)
„ (Gray's Inn Eoad)...
„ (Guildhall)
., ( „ )
„ (Hatton Garden) ...
„ (Mile End)
(OffordEoad)
Middlesex.
100
G. J. Svmons, Esq.
C 1858-
Eoyal Hort. Soc. . . .
1825-
E. G.Rose, Esq. ...
1857-
C. H. Adams, Esq.
1792-96
1 8 1 1 , 181 6-40
C 1860-
89
W. Mylne, Esq. ...
1864-
no
Eev. J. M. Heath....
1849-
270
G.W. Moon, Esq....
C 1860-61 T
306
C 1860-61 T
40
12
Dr. Tripe
1856-58, 1860-
1856-58, 1860-
F. J. Burge, Esq....
360
E. Field, Esq
C 1862-
375?
394
Dr Hewlett
1864-
C 1862-
J. Cutbush, Esq. ...
93
C. 0. F. Cator, Esq.
1861-
W. Fletcher, Esq....
1850-59, 1861-
Eoy. Soc. Trans. ...
1729-35
55
Mr. Strachan
C 1862 T
5°
W. Haywood, Esq.
C 1857-
123
,,
C1857-
Mr. B.C. Woods...
1838 imp.
F.Charrington, Esq.
C 1862-
90
Mr. Strachan
C 1864-
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
219
Middlesex {continued).
Station.
London, (Somerset House) ...
,, (Spring Gardens) ...
„ ( ,. )••â–
,, ( „ )••â–
„ (Temple Bar)
„ (WestminsterAbbey)
„ ( „ House)
„ ( „ Garden)
(Whitehall)
NottingHill
Paddington
Poplar
St. John's Wood (Lit. Soc.)...
„ (Melina Place)
Spring Grove
Tottenham (Vicarage)
„ (Lordship Lane)
Twickenham (Observatory) . . .
Usbridge (Harefield Park) . . .
Winchmore Hill
Eleva-
tion.
150
36
95
95
65?
25?
25
161
70
60
24
Observer.
Philos. Trans.
J.W.Bazalgette,Esq.
Bent's Met. Jour.
Dr. Heberden ...
J. C. Haile, Esq. ..
Nicholson's Journ.
Lady Bayning
S. B. Blunt, Esq. ...
Mr. Gaster
H. J. Montague, Esq
G Leach, Esq
T. E. Wyatt.Esq....
Rev. J. S. Winter...
Fowler
W. D. Howard, Esq
A. Wiss, Esq
W. Vernon, Esq. ...
Mrs. Feltham
Period.
Monmouthshire.
Abergavenny
Chepstow
Monmouth
Newport (Abercarn)
„ (Glanusk Park) ...
„ (Isca Foundry)
„ (Llanfrechfa Grange)
Tredegar (Blaina)
5°
160
360
1 1 00
Dr. M'Cullough
J. G. Wood, Esq.
Rev. D. Charles ..
Sir J. Bailey, Bart.
J. Laybourne, Esq.
F. J. Mitchell, Esq.
H. Soper, Esq
Norfolk.
Acle ....
Cromer
Diss ....
, , (Dickleborough)
Downham Market (Bexwell)
„ ,, (Fincham)
East Dereham (Mattishall)...
Hunstanton
Lynn (Hillington)
Norwich
(Grey Friars)
(Institution)
(Carron House) ..
(Clench wharton) ..
(Cossey)
(Felthorpe)
(Hiverland)
(Honingham)
(Stoke Holy Cross)
(Thorpe)
no
180
60?
'55
60
5°
100
...
no
...
Rev. R. W. Kerrison
— Ccoper, Esq.
Dr. Stewart
Rev. E. J. Howman
Rev. W. Blyth
Rev. J. M. Du Port
Mr. Rippingale
Rev. H. Ffolkes ..
Philos. Trans
W. Brooke, Esq. ..
C. Evans, Esq.
W. Brooke, Esq. ..
J. J. Colman, Esq.
Rev. F. Currie
H. Culley, Esq. ..
— Fellowes, Esq...
Lady Bayning
J. J. Colman, Esq.
W. Birkbeck, Esq.
1774-81
1812-27
1863
1863
1863
1795
1766
1766—
1766-
C 1854-
1808
1817
1836-
C 1865
1854
C 1862-
1857-
1852-
C 1864
C 1861-
1842-
1847
C 1863-
C 1864-
C 1858-
1787-1809,
, 1 829-42 T
1S07
67 imp.
67 imp.
67 imp.
60
10
21
42 imp.
56
63 T
57 i m P-
62 T
45-
C 1863-
C 1861-
1859
C 1864-
C 1865-
C 1865-
C 1863-
C 1865-
C 1860-
1862-63
1 840 imp.
1864-
1864-
1863-
1856-
1865-
1749-62
C 1836-
1861-62, 1864.
1853-59
1862-
1848-55
1835-42 imp.
1843-
220
REPORT 1865.
Norfolk (continued).
Station.
Eleva-
tion.
Observer.
Period.
*£.A.
*B.A.
t
Reepham
Swaffham
Thetford 75
(Watton) ,
Wells (Burnham) j 102
(Egmere) 1 150
(Holkham)
T. Aldate, Esq
C. J. Drury, Esq. ,
Dr. Bailey
Mr. Martin
H. E. Blyth Esq..
B. Overman, Esq..
(
)
39 I J. Davidson, Esq.
43
Northamptonshire.
Brackley ,
Kettering
Northampton
„ (Althorpe House)
( „ )
(Holdenby)
,, (Yardley Hastings)
Oundle
,, (Southwick)
Peterborough (Marholm) ...
Potterspurv[StoneyStratf'ordj
Towcester (Blakesley)
Wansford (Kings Cliff)
Weedon Beck
Wellingborough
398
310
180?
124
Eev. B. F. Falkner
J. Wallis, Esq
Mr. Ellick
Mr. Jakeman
Rev.C.H.Hartshome C
Rev. E. W. Prichard C
Mr. Ellick j C
G. Lynne, Esq '
Rev. R.S.C. Blacker C
Rev. R. E. Crawley C
Rev. F. H.White... C
M. J. B.
Rev. J. S. Winter..
Allenheads [Alston]
( .. )
( ., )
Alnwick (Glanton Pike)
„ (High House)
„ (Howick)
,, (Roddam)
Bellingham (Hesleyside)
,, (Otterbourn) ...
Berwick (Cheswick)
By well
Deadwater,55°17'N.2°38 , W.
Hexham (Bingfield)
, , (Newborough)
,, (Ovingham).
,, (Parkend)
Morpeth (Brenckburn Priory)
„ (Cresswell)
„ ( Widdrington )
Newcastle-on-Tyne (O. S. O.)
,, (Institution)
„ (Stamfordham)...
11 ( H Church)
„ (West Denton)...
(Wylam)
/'(Camphill)
(Fawcett)
(Green Crag) ...
â– { (Hallington)
(Vallcv N. Tyne)
(Whittle Dean)...
v (Woodford)
M. Sharman, Esq. . .
Northumberland.
Rev. W. Walton ..
T.J. Bewick, Esq...
-a
u
o
&
1400
1369
'375
534
400
120
545
420
95
87
410?
277
200?
187
400
250
96
400
380
F.Collingwood, Esq
Mr. Scott
Earl Grey
Mrs. Roddam
W.H.Charlton, Esq.
Rev. T. Wearing ...
J. D. Selby, Esq. ...
Mr. Dawson
Mr. Scott
Capt. Orde
Rev. H. Wastell ...
M. A. Ridley, Esq.
C. H. Cadogan, Esq,
B. Cresswell, Esq.
Lieut. Sit well
W. Lyall, Esq
Rev. J. F. Bigge ...
G. C. Atkinson, Esq.
D. D. Main, Esq. ...
1865-
1865-
1840-63 T
1865-
1S40-
1853-
1848-
j86o-
S64T
863-
863-
841-
827
864-
862-
860-62 T
726-39
859-62 T
865-
824-46 T
864-
840 imp.
860-
841-43
854-
852-
862-
860-
864-
861-
863-
865-
842,1 845~49imp
855-
862-
864-
821-24
846-52, 1860-
864-
722-23 imp.
852, 1856-62 T
865-
854-
865-
845-52 T
854-
864-
864-
864-
864-
864-
864-
864-
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
221
Northumberland {continued).
Station.
North Shields (Eosella Place)
( » )
„ (Low Lights)
„ (Tynemouth)
(Wallsend) ...
(Whitley) ...
Shotley
Wooler (Lilburn Tower)
„ (Middleton Hall)
„ (Millfield)
Eleva-
tion.
120
124
20
61
100
83
309
290
240
200
Observer.
R. Spence, Esq. ..
J. R. Proctor, Esq.
P. J. Messent, Esq.
R. R. Deas, Esq. ...
Rev. R. F. Wheeler
Mr. Routledge
E. J. Collingwood...
J. T. Leather, Esq.
G-. A. Grey, Fsq.
Nottinghamshire.
Nottingham
„ (Beeston Observatory)
„ ( „ Meadow) ...
„ (Bromley House)
„ (Highfield „ ) ...
»> ( >> " )
„ (West Bridgeford) ...
Retford
» (East)
„ (West) .'..
Southwell
,, (Oxton)
Worksop
(Welbeck)
162
184
52
5°
5°
200
127
Nicholson's Journ.
E. J. Lowe, Esq.
Mr. W. Barker
R.N.Harris, Esq....
E. J. Lowe, Esq. ...
>»
Nicholson's Journ.
M. S. &L. R
J. S. Piercey, Esq.
Rev. D. Butterfield
W. W. P. Clay, Esq.
H. Sherbrook, Esq.
M. S. &L. R
Mr. Tillery
Oxfordshire.
Banbury
(High Street)
„ (Grimsbury)
„ (Neithrop)'
Bicester
„ (Heyford Warren) ...
,, (Stratton Audley) ...
Chipping Norton (Kingham)
Enstone (Radford)
Henley-on-Thames
Oxford (Radcliffe Observatory )
•• ( i> ,1 )
" v » i» )
» ( " >i )
„ (Rosehill)
340
345
320
470
220
270
83
234
210
J. Jarvis, Esq
T. Beesley, Esq. ...
W. Johnson, Esq
T. Beesley, Esq. ...
f J
W. Johnson, Esq...
Rev. C. B. Muunt...
G. Glen, Esq
Rev. J.W. Lockwoud
Rev. E. W. Winter
T. F. A. Byles, Esq.
Rev. R. Main
Rev. J. Slatter
Oakham (Enipingham)
Rutlandshire.
Mr. Fancourt
(Lyndon)
(Ryhall)
Burford [Tenbury]
Church Stretton (Acton Scott^
J. » (Longnor)...
i. ,, (Woolstaston)
Cleobury Mortimer (Mawley
Gardens)
T. Barker, Esq....
Rev. C. Potchett
Shropshire.
Lord Northwick
Rev. D. Carr.
Mr. Hunter.
Period.
1S56-58
1860-
1862-
1864-
1863-
1864-
1859-
1860-
1864-
1864-
1808-10
C 1861-
1836, 1839 imp.
1860-
1860-
1808-09
C1855-
1860-
C 1858-
C 1844-
1862-
C 1855-
1840-
1850-63
C 1851-57, 1860-
C 1861-
1862 imp.
1862
C 1853-60 T
C 1865-
C 1865-
C 1865-
C 1863-
C 1864-
C 1815-
1851-
C 1848-61 T
1828,1833,1836-41
1844-61
1736-94
1865-
1847-
1852-53 imp.
1852 imp.
1852
C 1865-
222
REPOKT 1805.
Shropshire {continued).
Station.
Eleva-
tion.
Observer.
Period.
Cleobury Mortimer (Mawley
T Farm)
600
1000
47i
430
450
400?
192
200
C 1862-64 T
Bev. J. B. James . . .
Eev. A. E. Lloyd...
Miss Elwell
1852-
1856-
„ (Whittington)
Shifnal (Badger)
1852 imp.
fFvelith")
1863-
„ (Haughton Hall)
„ ( „ Vicarage)
H. C. Marshall, Esq.
T. Howells, Esq. ...
Eev. B. Banning ...
Eev. J. E. Yeadon. . .
C 1847-
C 1835-46 T
1860-
(Highfield)
1860-
C 1865-
*B.A.
1864-
Somersetshire.
Axbridge (Sidcot)
Barrow Gurney Eeservoir .
Bath (Larkhall)
„ (Axford Buildings) . . . .
„ (Batheaston)
„ (Hospital)
„ (Swainswick)
„ (Literary Institution).
„ (Weston)
Bridgewater
Brislington (Bristol] ...
Burnham (Highbridge)
Chard (Tudbeer)
Frome (Beckington) ...
„ (Mells)
„ (North Hill)
Glastonbury (Street)
( .. ) •
Harptree (Sherborne Eeserv.)
Ilchester
Ilminster (South Petherton)
Langport (Long Sutton)
Minehead
Eadstock (Eectory )
,, (Downside College)
Shepton Mallet (Doulting)..
Taunton (College School) . .
„ (Fulland's School)
„ (Paul's House)
,, (Wey House)
Watchet (Kilton)
Welhngton (Foxdown)
Wells (Dinder)
Weston-super-Mare
Wiveliscombe
250
310
150
226
56
198
45
181
265
300
100
100
360
30
150
250
601
38
40
140
8
H. Dymond, Esq...
C. W. Bragge, Esq.
C. S. Barter, Esq...
A. Mitchell, Esq. . .
C. S.- Barter, Esq...
Eev. F. Lockey
C. P. Eussell, Esq.
A. Haviland, Esq. . .
Dr. C.J. Fox
Mr. Hull
Mr. Eaynes
Eev. J. Horner
Mr. Boycott
Mr. W. S. Clark ...
Mr. J. Clark
C. W. Bragge, Esq.
J. W. Bourne, Esq..
W.Blake, Esq
E. Palmer, Esq. ...
Mr. Atkins
Eev. T. B. Snow
Eev. W. Tuckwell
W. Eeid, Esq
Dr. Gillett
F. H. Cator, Esq....
Mr. Govett
W. Elworthy, Esq.
Eev.T.J.Bumpstead
Mr. Boycott
B. Boucher, Esq —
854-
855-
841-43 imp.
855-61 T
862-
862-
834-
862-
767-69
860 T
848-
S55 imp.
859-
845-48
852-62
865-
859-63 T
860-62
861-
855-
863-
864-
856-
782
1841)
863-
855 imp.
865-
865-
855-
864-
831-58
865-
863-
863-
864-
Staffordshire.
Dudley (Abberley Street)
„ (Brierley Hill) ..
Knypersley [Congleton] . .
Leek (Church Lane)
560
500
59 1
H. B.Biden, Esq...
J. Forbes, Esq.
Mr. Farrow ...
C 1865-
C 1861-64 T
1863-
1856-
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
223
Staffordshire
{continued).
Station.
Eleva-
tion.
Observer.
Period.
500
350?
440
55°
500
47°
521
400
S3 1
S3i
553
J. Forbes, Esq
Eev. Sir C. P. Ligh-
1863-
C 1864-
,, (Etruria)...
„ (Stanley)...
Uttoxeter (High Wood)
Wincle [Macclesfield]
J. Forbes, Esq,
J. F. Bell, Esq
J. Forbes, Esq
H. Ward, Esq
W.H.Ford, Esq....
T. W. Gifford, Esq.
Rev. B. S. Maiden
Lord Wrottesley ...
»»
1863-
1863-
1864-
1864-
1860-
1863-
1864-
1858
1859-
1843-
Wolverhampton (Oaklands)
(Goldthorne Hill)
(Patshull)
„ (WrottesleyObserv.)
„ ( „ mean of
two gauges)
„ ( „ Osier's gau.)
Suffolk.
Brome [Diss]
Bury St. Edmunds —
„ (AbbeygateSt.)..
„ (Beech Hill)
(Barton Hall) ..
,, (BotanicGardens)
(Culford)
„ (Fornham Hall).
,, (Thurston Lodge)
(Nether Hall) ...
(Westley)
Eye (Yaxley)
Hadleigh (Aldham)
Ipswich (Grundisburgh)
Lowestoft (Carlton Colville) .
„ (Gisleham)
„ (Burgh Castle) ...
(Hopton Hall) ...
Mendlesham (Thwaite)
10
70
Lady Bayning 1843-47 imp.
E. Skepper, Esq. ..
H. Turner, Esq. ..
Mr. Allan
E. Skepper, Esq. ..
Mr. Grieve
Mr. Halliday
Rev. W. Steggall ..
W. C. Bassett, Esq.
R. Burrell, Esq. ..
Rev. W. H. Sewell
Rev. J. H. Lloyd..
P. Harris, Esq
G. Edwards, Esq...
Sir F. Crossley
Rev. J. Jodrell
C. Cory, Esq
Mr. Whistlecraft ..
Surrey.
Bagshot
„ (Duke's Hill)
„ (Park)
„ (Windlesham)
Battersea
Betchworth (Brockham) ....
(The Holmes) .
„ (Buckland) ....
Brixton Hill
Caterham
Clapham (Cedars Road) ....
Cobham Lodge
Croydon
„ (Waddon House).
Dorking (Box Hill)
(Bury Hill)
„ (Deepdene)
„ (Denbies)
„ (Kitlands)
43°
230
205
13
130
300
37°
100
500
377
600
580
Dr. Blount
H.J.B.Hancock.Esq.
Sir J. Clark, Bart....
G. Dines, Esq
J.B.Faunthorpe.Esq
W. Bennett, Esq. . . .
E. T. Bennett, Esq.
Rev. W. F. Hotham
Miss Sweeting
Dr. Westall
H. Doxat, Esq
Miss Molesworth . .
Dr. Westall
S. Courtauld, Esq.
E. Boorman, Esq....
A. K. Barclay, Esq.
Mr. Whiting
Mr. Drewett
D. D. Heath, Esq.
1860-
1861-
1859-
1863-
1858-
1847
1834, 1860-63
1860-63 T
1860-
1865-
1851-
1860-
1864-
(1865)
1862-
1858-64 T
1864-
1830-
1860-
1865-
1864-
1864-
1856-
1860-
1861-63
1865-
1862-63
1859-
1824-
1860-
1865 T
1864-
1852-59
1851-
1861
1S52-
22 i
REPORT 1865.
Surrey [continued).
Station.
Eleva-
tion.
Observer.
Period.
t
Godalming (Dunsfold)
„ (Wonersh)
19
70
120
SUSSE
316
'95
12
22
9
200
5°
20
12
284
554
70
61
260
250
10
300
340
80
450
500
60
212
10
10
120
45
245
200
301
W. L. Woods, Esq.
B. Stewart, Esq. ...
T. Chalk, Esq.
Dr. Martin.
J. G. Marriage, Esq.
Dr. Thomson.
G. Dines, Esq
R. Coleman, Esq
W. F. Harrison, Esq.
X.
J. C. Fletcher, Esq.
Rev. M. Smelt ...
H. Upton, Esq
J. Graham, Esq. ...
J.A.Hingeston, Esq.
Mr. Mossop
1861-
1860 T
C 1856-
Reigate.
(Ham, Red Hill)
1860-63
South Lambeth
1782-92
C 18 58-64 T
C 1861-
C 1856-
1846-52, 1860-
1860-63
C 1860-
Wandsworth (St. Ann's Hill)
(South Fields)
Weybridge (Heath Bartropps)
Arundel (Dale Park)
,, (Slindon)
( )
C 1863
C 1845-52 T
«855-57
1790
C 1859-
1808-10
„ (Upper Brunswick PL)
Dr. Kebbel
Nicholson's Journ.
W. Hills. Esq.
Dr. Tyacke
Ci8 35 -
1854-
C ,834-
C 1864-
1860-63
C 1850-
1842-43
C 1845-
C 1834-49 T
1860-
C 1856-
C 1862-
1863-
C 1865
„ (West Gate)
W. L. Woods, Esq.
G. M.'Fort, Esq. ...
Rev. G. H. Woods.
H. Paxton, Esq. ...
Rev. G. II. Woods
F. Padwick. Esq. ...
E. S. Bigg, Esq. ...
J. A. Han key, Esq.
T. Dyke, Esq. ...
Dr. AUnatt.
— Phillips, Esq. ...
F. Webster, Esq. ..
Mr. Banks
(Bepton Hill)
„ (Funtington)
„ ( Westbourne) , .
,, (West Dean)
(WestThomey) ...
Crawley (The Hyde)
Cuckfield i Balcombe Place)...
Eridge Castle
#
Forest Row
Frant
(1838)
(1842-46)
C 1861-
(Battle)
t
C 1 846-
Mr. Field
1862
t
t
t
♦
(Fairlight)
J. Rock, Esq.
J. A. Langham, Esq.
E. Field, Esq.
J. C. Savery, Esq. . . .
)»
J. Rock, Esq
Rev. J. Gorham ...
J. Macleod, Esq. ...
Mr. W. Smith
Rev.C. Holland ...
Major Vidler.
Mr. S. Boorman ...
Hon. I. J. Carnegie
C. L. Prince, Esq....
Capt. W.Noble ...
C 1857-63 T
1861 T, imp.
C 1859-
1860-62
1860-62
C 1865-
C 1860-
„ (High Street)
, , ( High Wickham ) . . .
„ (St.Leonard'sMarina)
„ ( „ 39 Tower)...
„ (Otley House)
1856-57 1859,
i860, 1863-
1852
C 1862-
„ (Landport Cottage) ...
Petworth Rectory
Robertsbridge (Salehurst) ...
Rogate (Fair Oak)
C 1864-
1860-63
1850, 1852, 1856-
C 1856-
Uckfield
„ (MaresfieldForestLod.)
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
Sussex (continued).
221
Station.
Uckfield (Maresfield Rectory)
„ (Buxted Park)
„ (Moulsey Gore)
„ (Newick, Beechland)..
„ ( „ Ketches) ...
Worthing
Eleva-
tion.
250
2 00
Observer.
Eev. E. Turner.
R Brodie, Esq.,
(Findon) 150
Miss Shiffner
Dr. Barker
Rev. Dr. Cholmelej
Period.
1859-
1856-57, 1859-
C 1863-
1862-
C 1865-
1853-61
C 1864-
Warwicksiiire.
Birminghaui (Phil. Institute).
„ (Midland „ )
„ (Bloomsbury St.)
(Camp Hill) ...
„ (Edgbaston) ...
„ (Moseley)
(WellingtonEd.)
Coventry (Walsgrave-on-Sour)
Henley-in- Arden
Leamington (Upper Parade)
,, (Stoneleigh Abbey)
Rugby j
490
557
340
425
510
481
450
195
3i5
Dr. Ick
C . J. Woodward,Esq
D.Smith, Esq
T. L. Plant, Esq. ...
W. Southall, Esq....
T. L. Plant, Esq. ...
T. Southall, Esq.
Rev. H. H. Pinniger
Gr. E. Dartnell, Esq.
S. U. Jones, Esq. . . .
Mr. T. Bowick
F. Fuller, Esq
Westmoreland.
Ambleside (Lesketh How)
(Lough Rigg)...
(Low Nook) ...
Appleby
Bowness.
(Craig)
„ (Craigfoot).
Brougham Hall [Penrith]
Eusemere Hill [Penrith] . . .
Grasmere
„ (Lancregg)
Great Strickland [Penrith] .
Halsteads [Penrith]
Kendal '
1865
,, (Benson Knott) .. .
„ (Selside)
„ ( „ Low Bridge
House).
„ (Waith Sutton)
Kirkby Lonsdale
„ (Vicarage)
„ (Biggins House).
(DaltonHall) ...
» (Rigmaden)
n (Whelprigg)
,, Stephen
Lowther Castle [Penrith] . . .
Milnthorpe (Sedgwick)
Patterdale
Troutbeck (The How)
200
580
150
242
516
360
240
300
700
149
736
209
210
400 '
'55
840
500
470
Dr. J. Davy
E.B.W.Balme,Esq
J. C.Wilson, Esq...
Dr. Armstrong
Adm. Sir T. S.Pasley
W. Brougham, Esq.
Mrs. Angas
J. Green, Esq
Sir J. Richardson..
H. H. Plumer, Esq.
W. Marshall, Esq. .
Dr. Dalton
Nicholson's Journal
S.Marshall, Esq. ..
J. Gough, Esq
Manchester Memoirs
W. Harrison, Esq. .
Rev. H. Ware
A.B.Tomlinson,Esq.
E. G. Hornby, Esq. .
E. Wilson, Esq. . . .
Mrs. Gibson.
T. Mason, Esq
J. Parkes, Esq.,C.E.
J.Wakefield, Esq....
Mr. Sinclair
J.Wilson, Esq
1836-45 imp.
1862
C 1861-
C 1853-63 T
C ,855-
C 1864-
C 1853-60 T
C 1865-
C 1865-
C 1862-
1858-62 T
C 1854-
1844, 1848-
1863-
C 1859-
C 1856-
1847-52 imp.
1852
C 1863-64 T
1S62
C 1859-61 T
C 1864-
1820-33, 1863
C 1788-92 T
1808.
C 1809-
1787-99 imp.
1790-91 imp.
1849-53
1789-93
C 1S63-
C 1864-
1864-
C 1864-
C 1864-
C 1865-
1860, 1863-
Imp.
1863-
1844-
R
226
REPORT 1865.
Wiltshire.
Station.
Eleva-
tion.
Observer.
Period.
t
» ( » ), Expe-
rimental gauges
282
zoo
500
456
300
435
400 ?
Col. Ward
C 1861-
*t
"Various.
Chippenham (Badminton) ...
Devizes (Gore, Lavington) ...
Mr. J. Trotter
F. Stratton, Esq. . . .
Mr.R.Hayward,Jun.
W.C.Merriman,Esq.
Rev. T. A. Preston .
G. Fort, Esq
C 1861-
C 1865-
1864-
Marlborough
(College)
C 1861-
C 1864-
1860-63
C 1830-
C 1862-63
C 1865-
1861-
(Woodford)
Archdeacon Hony. . .
H. Hinxman, Esq. . . .
E. E. Dymond, Esq.
Mr. Fryer
Trowbridge (Holbrook Farm)
W. J. Mann, Esq.
Mr. Boycott
(Winkfield)
Warminster
C 1858-59 T
C 1857-59 T
1855-60
C i860-
Rev.W. Slatter
F. Singer, Esq.
Rev.W. Slatter
,, (Chapmanslade)
,, (Longbridge Deveril)
t
*
*B.A.
t
t
Worcestershire .
Kidderminster (Spring Bank)
Malvern, Great
West
Northwick Park [Moreton-in-
Marsh]
Stourbridge
Tenbury (Brockleton)
„ (Orleton)
Worcester (Gas Office)
„ (Railway Offices) ..
)> (. " " ) ••
(Lark Hill)
„ (Belmont House)..
500
900
125
>57
Rev. C. Trotter.
Dr. Williams
II. Hartland, Esq.
Lord Northwick . . .
R. Leach, Esq.
Rev. J. Miller
T.H.Davis, Esq. ...
F. N. Gosling, Esq. .
E. Wilson, Esq. ...
N. Edis, Esq
W. Burgess, Esq. . . .
T. M. Hopkins, Esq.
1S62-
C 1861
1859-
1850-52
C 1831-
C 1865-
C 1858-
1855-56
C 1854-
Yorkshire, East Riding.
Driffield (Middleton)
, ( , )
„ (Nafferton Lodge)...
Filey
Hull (Baker Street)
„ (Beverley Road)
„ (Manor House Street)..
„ (Tranby Park, Hessle) .
„ (Roos, Hedon)
Market Weighton (Holme-on-
Spalding Moor)
Patrin gt on
„ (Keyingham)
Pocklington (Huggate)
Wheldrake [York]
(Thicket Priory).
150
87
10
12
32
32
36
26
Rev.H.D.Blanchard
W. C. Laybourne.Esq.
D. Philliskirk, Esq. .
A. O. Atkinson, Esq.
J. Smith, Jun., Esq.
W. Lawton, Esq. ...
F. Hoare, Esq
Phillips' Yorkshire .
G.Dunn, Esq
W. B. Pugh,Esq. ...
M. Harrison, Esq.
Rev.T.Eankin
Rev. R. B. Cooke ...
Miss M. D. Jefferson
1834 imp.
1843-
1S64-
1865-
1864-
i857-.;
1849-
1863
1834
C 1860-
C 1846-
1842-63 T
C 1S44-65 T
C 1865-
Yorksiiire, North Riding.
Helm si ey (Beadlam Grange)
Ley burn
Malton
200
650
73
J. H. Phillips, Esq.
G. M.Wray, Esq. ..
H. Hurtley, Esq. . . .
1856,
C 1863-
C 1859-
1862-
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
227
Yorkshire, North Riding (continued).
Station.
Eleva-
tion.
Observer.
Period.
Malton (Brandsby)
21
120
55°
9 1
20
33°
184
35°?
HIRE, Wl
I50O
1200
IOOO
IOOO
37°
634
496
389
320
30
475
1300
135°
1375
880
268
300
1425
487
420
800
95°
850
600
410
55°
780
34°
108
127
F. Cholmelly, Esq.
G. Turn bull, Esq. ..
W. Fallows, Esq. ..
W.F.Bolcklow.Esq
W.T.Jefferson, Esq
Earl of Zetland
Dr. Hickson
1834 imp.
1841-42
C 1864-
1864-
C 1864-
1S42-
1832-41,1844-
1849
i860
1859-
1863-
C 1864-
C 1S65-
1841 imp.
1819-40, 1845-
1844-47
1831-40, 1845-
1844-47
1834
C 1862-
C 1852-
1850-63-
C 1865-
1863-
1863-
C 1864-
1853 imp.
C 1860-
1852
1863-
C 1865-
C 1852-61 T
C 1856-
C 1852-
1832-40, 1845-
1844-47
1862- *
1828-40, 1845-
1844-47
C ,853-
C 1829-
C 1861-
1859-60, 1862-
1859, 1863-
1859-60, 1862-
C 1859-
C 1858-
1852-63
1863-
1845 imp.
1772-81
1844-
C 1864-
1820-37
1842-
R 2
#B.A.
„ (Marton Hall)
Richmond (Aske)
a6
t
C. C. Oxley, Esq. ..
Earl of Zetland
„ (Upleatham)
♦B.A.
Whitby
*B.A.
YORKS
Barnsley (Felkirk)
A. S. Palmer, Esq....
st Riding.
Rev. J. B. Graham .
Manchester Memoirs
s»
n
Rev. T. Steniforth...
C. Gott, Esq
BlackstoneEdge[Todmorden"
„ (Whiteholme)
„ ( „ Soc. gau.)
(Toll Bar)
-47
( „ Soc. gau.;
Bolton -by-Bolland [Clitheroe]
Bradford (Mechanics' Inst.) ..
„ (Chellow Dean) ...
(Horton Hall) , , ,
,, (Queensbury)
„ (Queensgate)
47
t
*
Mr. G. Abbey
W. Foster, Esq. . . .
J. M'Landesborough
E.B.W.Balme.Esq.
Mr. J. Howorth . .
J.W. Childers, Esq.
■— Cooke, Esq
T. Eendall, Esq. ...
L. J. Crossley, Esq. .
G.W. Stevenson,Esq.
n
11
Manchester Memoirs
11 11
R. Richardson, Esq.
Manchester Memoirs
11 11
G.W. Stevenson, Esq.
J. Waterhouse, Esq.
Dr. Bainbridge
J. F. Bateman, Esq.
n
C. Hare, Esq.
A. Clay, Esq
Dewsbury (Mirfield)
*
Doncaster (Magdalens)
„ (Cantley) .
,, (Owston)
t
Halifax (Dean Clough Mills)
(Hunter's Hill)
„ (Midgeley Moor) . . .
,, (Ovendon Moor) ...
„ (Ripponden, Blk. Hou.)
» ( „ ,i Soc. gau.)
„ (South Owram)
„ (Sowerby Bridge) . . .
.. ( » ,1 Soc. gau.)
„ (Warley Moor)
(Well Head)
47
47
t
Harrogate
High Flats.
Holmfirth(Bilberry Reservoirs)
,, (Boshaw Whams)...
,, (Holme Styes)
Huddersfield (Long wood) ...
Ingleton (Clapham)
W. T. Walker, Esq.
A. Shackleton, Esq. .
G. Lloyd, Esq.
E. Filliter, Esq
H. Roberson, Esq....
H. C. Marshall, Esq.
11
Keighley (Braithwaite)
Leeds
„ (Barrowby)
„ (Eccup)
„ (Harewood Bridge) . . .
„ (Headingley)
t
„ (Holbeck)
228
REPORT 1865.
Yorkshire, West Riding (continued).
Station.
Eleva-
tion.
Observer.
Period.
t
t
Leeds (Holbeck Manor Road)
„ (Leventhorpe Hall) . . .
„ (Philosophical Hall)...
„ (Red Hall)
95
9°
137
452
238
206
500
764
717
1075
954
135
135
30
186
172
640
540?
1150
498
750
337
600
170
336
1 100
188
430
500
364
74
456
61
"5
5°
40
E. Filliter, Esq ....
J. T. Leather, Esq. ..
H. Denny, Esq
F. W. Stow, Esq. ...
W. Peel, Esq.
H. Thorns, Esq. ...
R.C.Taylor, Esq....
1849-
1855-
C 1823-63
C 1857-62 T
„ (Wind Hill)
1861-62
Otley
C 1860-
„ (Ben Rhydding)
(Chevin") ...
1860-62
C 1861-63
(Ilklev - )
1865-
M. S. &L.R
1850-55 imp., 1859-
,, (Dunford Bridge). . .
Pontefract (Ackworth Moor-
top)
1860-
1852-57 imp., 1859-
J. Brown, Esq.
Luke Howard, Esq. .
C. O.F. Cator,Esq.
F. W. Stow, Esq. ...
W. M. Burman, Esq.
Rev. J. Boyd
*
( „ School)
„ ( ,, VUla).
„ (Ferrybridge)
„ (Kii'k Smeaton) ...
1854-57
fC 1842-53 T
\C 1858-63 T
1 842-46
1864-
C 1865-
C 1864-
Rotherham —
„ (Wath-upon-Dearne)
„ (West Melton)
Saddleworth (Station)
1862-
C 1861-
E. Greenwood, Esq.
Rev. G. Venables ...
E. Greenwood, Esq.
1853-
,, (Standedge) ...
C 1864-
1850-
1777-79
C 1837-
J. Tathani, Esq
Rev. W. Bovd
Rev. J. Stansfeld.
W.J.Simmonite.Esq.
D. Doncaster, Esq. .
>i
M.S.&L.R
1853-
Sheffield
„ (Broornhall Park)...
„ (Crookesmoorside) .
„ (Doncaster Street) ..
CThe Edee)
IS53-
1864-
1864-
C 1860-
J. Gunson, Esq. ...
M.S.&L.R
C 1836-
1850, 1855-57 imp.
R.H.Sidgewick, Esq.
J. Heelis, Esq.
J. Fielden, Esq
Manchester Memoirs
F.R.Carroll, Esq....
T.Wilson, Esq
1858-
C 1863-
* (Woodlands)
Stansfleld Hall [Todmorden].
Stubbins [Todmorden]
1864-
1825-40
1853-
C 1863-
Tiekhill
C 1859-
t
t
Wakefield (Prison)
W. R. Milner, Esq. .
Nicholson's Journal
1848-
(The Heath) , ...
York (Boothaml
1808-10
1831-
(Coney Street)
Prof. Phillips.
»
C 1864-
WALES.
Anglesea.
Beaumaris (Henllys) ...
Llandyfrydog
Llanfairynghornwy
Menaifron [Carnarvon]
150
92
Miss Hampton
H. Webster, Esq. ...
I. Williams, Esq. ...
Rev.W.W.Williams
C 1864-
C 186C-63
C 1865-
C 1865-
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
Brecknockshire.
229
*B.A.
#
*B.A.
#
*
t
t
*t
*
*
#
*
#
*t
*
#
*
#
#B.A.
*t
Station.
Criekhowell (Buckland)
Hay (Pen-y-Maes)
Eleva-
tion.
Observer.
Mrs. G. Holford
Capt. Brown
Cardiganshire.
Aberystwith
Cardigan ...
Frongocli
Goginan
Lampeter
12
iS
855
290
420
T.Paul, Esq
G. B. Osborne, Esq.
Miss Parry.
H. Thomas, Esq. ..
,, ...
Bev. J. Mathews ..,
Carmarthenshire.
Carmarthen
„ (Gaol)
„ (Plas-cwrt-hyr).
Llandissillio (Bhydwen) ....
Llanelly
„ (Bridge Parade) ....
„ (Pont Amman) ....
70
78
150
150
20
J. Rowlands, Esq...
G. Stephens, Esq. . .
W. E. Gwyn, Esq...
H. S. Morgan, Esq.
E. Bagot, Esq
J. H. Jenkins, Esq.
E. S. Morris, Esq. ..
Carnarvonshire.
Bangor
„ (Llanfairfechan)'
„ (Llanllechid)
Beddgelert (Sygun) ,
Bethesda (Brynderwen) ,
,, (Penrhyn)
Bettws-y-coed
,, ,, (Minvie)
Carnarvon (Plas Brei-eton) ..
Hendre
Llanberis (Dinorwic Quarry)
1, (Glyn Padarn) ...
(Roy. Vic. Hotel)...
Llangybi (Cefn)
Llanllyfni (Cilgwyn)
Llanystyndwy (Talarvor) ...
Port Madoc
Pwllheli
Sam (Aberdaron)
105
140
330
500
1200
70
85
90
850
377
320
200
500
5°
30
34°
Rev. J. H. Purvis ,
R. Luck, Esq
Rev. J. Evans ....
Mr.T. Searell ....
J. Francis, Esq
Rev. I. "W.Griffith..
Capt. W.D.Lowe...
T.Turner, Esq
F. Ball, Esq
G.Ellis, Esq
W. W. Craig, Esq. ..
Mr. Williams
Rev.S.GA.Williams
W. Hayward, Esq. ..
Dr. Roberts
Capt. Mathew
J.T.Evans, Esq. ...
Mr. Jones
Denbigh (Plas Clough)
Llandudno (Warwick House)
Wrexham (Gwersyllt Hill)...
Denbighshire.
J.H.S. Harrison, Esq.
80 Dr. Nicol
350 W.Lassell,Jun., Esq.
Ha warden
Holywell (Maes-y-dre)
Mold (Bryn Alyn)
„ (Gwynsanny)
Rhyl
„ (Gas Works)
Flintshire
260
400
Dr.Moffatt
J. Williams, Esq
Rev. R. B. Cooke ...
P. D.Cooke, Esq. ...
Mr. E.Evans
Period.
Glamorganshire.
Cardiff
Cowbridge (The Ham)
5°
55
Dr. Vachell ..
G. W. Nicholl,
Esq.
1861-
1860-
C 1864-
C 1864-
1863-
1863-
1855-
C 1864-
C 1863-
C 1864-
1859-
C 1864-
1 842 imp.
C1865-
1861-
1864-
1865-
1864-
1864-
1864-
1864-
(1865)
1864-
1864-
1864-
1864-
1864-
1864-
1864-
1864-
1864-
1865-
1863-
C 1865-
C 1859-
C 1863-
C 1850-
1858-
C 1865-
1852
C 1860-64 T
C 1865-
1863-
1864-
230
REPORT 1865.
Glamorganshire (continued).
Station.
Eleva-
tion.
Observer.
Period.
*
*B.A.
*B.A.
*
*
*
*B.A.
*B.A.
*B.A.
Merthyr-Tydvil (Trondyrhiew
House)
Swansea (Wind Street) ...
„ (Harbour Office)
» (AUtygrug)
„ (Graigarw)
„ (Penllegare)
„ ( Yniscedwyn) . . .
„ (Ystalyfera)
500
700
356
276
368
5*
E. W. Scale, Esq. ...
J. W. James, Esq...
J. Rogers, Esq
J. D. Llewellyn, Esq.
D. Smith, Esq
J. Rogers, Esq
J.W. Gutch, Esq....
— Moggridge, Esq.
Merionethshire.
Bala
„ (Llandderfell)
Corwen (Rhug)
Dolgelley
„ (Brithdin)
„ (Llanelltyd)
Festiniog (Blaenyddol)
Moentwrog (Cam-y-coed)
Talgarth Hall [Machynlleth].
Towyn
Trawsfynedd 700
43
500
20
600
iS
150
18
Capt. Mathew ....
W. Pamplin, Esq. .
J. Wagstaffe, Esq.
J. Hill, Esq
H. Moon, Esq
G. Carson, Esq
Rev. W. H. Trendel
C. E. Thruston, Esq.
Dr. Williams ! C 1864-
Mr. Jarrett I C 1864
C 1863-
1844-45
C 1862-
1852
1852
1852
C 1852-
1836-39 imp.
C 1865-
C 1865-
C 1865-
C 1864-
C 1861-62 T
C 1864-
C 1864-
C 1864-
Berriew (Henllys)
Llanidloes (BroomclifT)
Machynlleth
Montgomeryshire.
Miss Williams
T. F. Roberts, Esq.
Rev. J. Evans
Haverford West
Kilgerran
Pembroke Dock
Tenby (Caldy Island)
Pembrokeshire.
60
30
E.P.Phillips
Rev. D. Evans
E. Chevalier, Esq....
Mr. Fletcher
Radnorshire.
Presteign 1
Rhayader (Cefnfaes) | 880
Capt. Haman
Mrs. Jones ..
C 1864-
C 1865-
C 1861-62 T
1849-
C 1865-
C 1860-
C 1865-
C 1865-
C 1858-
CHANNEL ISLANDS.
Guernsey
Jersey
(Fort Regent)
(Gorey, Rockmount).
(Millbrook)
(St. Heliers)
(St. Lawrence)
90
45
5°
Dr. Hoskins
Dr. Fung
Serjeant Wiseman.
Capt. Tompson
P. Langlois, Esq. . . .
A. W. P. Smith, Esq.
G. Gibb, Esq.
THE ISLE OF MAN.
Balasalla
Calf of Man .
Point of Ayr.
Douglas Head
100
3 2 5
2 7
J. Burman, Esq. . . .
Bd. of North. Lights
R. Stewart, Esq. . . .
Bd. of North. Lights
1847
1843-
1850-56
1864-
1858-
1864-
1848
C 1853-61 T
C 1824-
C 1822-
1824-30
C i860-
ON THE RAINFALL OP THE BRITISH ISLES.
231
SCOTLAND.
Aberdeenshire.
Station.
Eleva-
tion.
Observer.
Period.
112
"5
103
161
55
ICO
163
420
420
656
680
11 10
360
213
307
300
64?
506
l 34
"3 5?
9"5
713
Aberdeen Herald . . .
T. D. Gray, Esq. ...
Rev. A. Beverley . . .
,, ...
1842
1856-59 imp.
„ (Ashley Place) ...
( „ )•••
„ (Gordon Hospital)
„ (Grammar School)
( „ )
„ (Marischall College)
„ (North Broadford)
(Kemhill)
C 1864-
C 1864-
C 1837-41
Eev. A. Beverley ...
,, ...
Eev. A. Beverley ...
Mr. W. Smith ...
A. Cruickshank, Esq.
R. Catto, Esq
Rev. J. Farquharson
C 1864-
C 1864-
1829-37 T
1863 T
C 1850-54, 1858
t
„ (Rose Street)
(Wallfield)
C 1860-
C 1864-
Alford
1835-42
(Balflui'*')
1843-48
J. W. Paterson, Esq.
Mr. J. G. Michie ..
Mr. Howitt.
Mr. W. Hay
C 1861-
,, (Coldstone)
C 1863-
1856-
Ellon (Castle)
(Tillvdesk)
C 1861-
Fraserburgh (Lonmay)
Statistical Account .
Rev. J. Davidson ...
Rev. G.Peter
Bd. of North. Lights
Mr. D. Sturrock ...
Bd. of North. Lights
Mr. A. Walker
W. N. Fraser, Esq. .
1832 imp.
1821-29 imp.
C 1862-
„ (Kenmay Manse) ...
1863-
1864-
C 1813-
C 1862-
Old Deer (Manse)
1863-
Peterhead
1808-10 imp.
C 1827-
Strathdon (Castle Newe)
C 1849-
1864-
Argyllshire.
82?
Bd. of North. Lights
A. Buchan, Esq. ...
,, (Camusinas) .
Campbelltown (Devaar)
75
Bd. of North. Lights
„ (Southend) ...
Statistical Account .
Can tire (Mull of)
279
500
Bd. of North. Lights
Dalmally (Bridge of Orchy) .
A.E.M c Dougall,Esq.
(Drishais)
250
80
Dunoon (Castle Toward) ...
Mr. W. Milne
(Haft on)
40
Mr. D. Doig
(Kirn, Oak Bank)...
J. Richardson, Esq. .
FortWilliam(Rosse Parsonage)
Rev. W. Simpson...
30
300
74
106
Mr. J. Caie
(Glenarv)
Statistical Account .
Bd. of North. Lights
Islay (Rhinns of )
„ (M c Arthur's Head) ...
»j
„ (RhuVaal)
Jura Sound (Fladda)
20
Lismore (Mousedale)
37
60
A. Maclean, Esq. ...
'4
Bd. of North. Lights
Lochgilphead (Baltimore) ...
• •*
Statistical Account .
„ (Calton M6r) .
65
Mr. J. Russell
,, (Kilmartin) ...
64
Mr. H. Gillies
„ (Kilmory)
100
Sir J. P v Orde,Bart.
C 1849-
1864-
C 1854-
1831
C 1S13-
1864-
1862-
1824-
CI853-
C 1865-
C 1865-
1833, 1860-
1834, 1835
C 1826-
C 1861-
C 1859-
C 186c-
Ci8 3 3-45,.i848-
1862-63 imp.
C 1860-
1833-40, 1S42-55
C 1855- [imp.
i36 t -62, 1864
1835-37, 1849-
232
REPORT 1865.
Argyllshire {continued).
Station.
Lochgilphead (Kilmory)
,, (Otterhouse) ...
Lochgoilhead (Glen Croe) ...
Moile, The
Mull ( Aclmacroish)
„ (Bunessan)
*B.A. „ ( „ Ardfinaig)..
,, (Erray, Tobermory) ..
„ (Some)
,, Sound of
, , (Torosay Castle)
„ (Ulva)
Oban (Manor House)
Isle of Seil (Easedale)
Stuckendroin
Tarbert (Stonefield)
Tiree (Hynish)
Eleva-
tion.
ioo
130
320
12
18
10
90
Observer.
Sir J. P. Orde, Bart.
Dr. Rankin
A.E. M l Dougall,Esq.
T. Bell, Esq
J. Campbell, Esq....
Mr. Maclean
J. Campbell, Esq.
— Robartson, Esq. .
Mr. Pettigrew ...
Bd. of North. Lights
Mr. J. Pettigrew
F. W. Clark, Esq
Capt. Bedford ...
Mr. Whyte
A. E. M'Dougall.Esq.
C. G. Campbell, Esq.
Bd. of North. Lights
Period.
Ayrshire.
Ayr (Auchendrane House) ,
„ (Gadgirth)
„ (O.S.O.)
Blair
Galston Muir
Girvan
Irvine (Auchen's House)
Largs (Brisbane House) . . .
„ (Mansfield)
Mauchline (Beechgrove) ...
„ (Catrine)
„ (Some Manse)
Banff (Literary Institution) .
„ Castle
Fochabers (Gordon Castle) . .
94
150
150
IS
125
30
400
250
E. Cathcart, Esq. ..
J. J. Burnett, Esq.
Capt. Blair, E.N.
Mr. Paterson —
Mr. John Dunlop.
Mr. Beveridge
Dr. Campbell ....
Major Adair
Banffshire.
Mayen House
Portsoy
60
Statistical Account
Gardener'sChronicle
J. Bissett, Esq.
C 1862-
C 1858-
1864 imp.
1857-58
1835-37
C 1865-
(.865-)
1862-
1862
C 1858-
1849-
C 1855-
C 1857-62 T
1864-
1847-
C 1842-
C 1856-
1857-59 imp.
1857 imp.
C 1863-
1832-3
C 1862-
1808-09, 1811-12
1844- [imp.
1842-
1863-
1830-36
1830-36
1832
1831-32 imp.
1 799-1 807 imp.
1828-41
1847-48
Berwickshire.
Coldstream (Milne Graden) . . ,
Dunse (Abbey St. Bathans) ..,
„ (Mungos Walls)
Lauder (Thirlestane)
St. Abb's Head
Cumbrae (Milport)
Lam lash (Eilbride)
Pladda
Rothesay (Cotton Mills) .
(Mount Stewart House)
450
267
558
211?
Bute
5°
55?
Mr. Ren wick
Rev. J. Wallace ...
Mr. J. Thomson ...
Mr. J. Whitton ...
1856-62
1835-39 T
C 1857-
1861-
Bd. of North. Lights C 1 862
J. Miller, Esq.
Dunnethead 1 300?
Pentland Skerries | 72?
Bd. of North. Lights
Sharp, Thompson &
Co.
40
Caithness.
Bd. of North. Lights
1859-
(1860-)
1833-35 imp.
C 1813-
1835, 1840,
1860-61
1803-45
C 1831-
C 1813-45,1848-
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
233
Caithness (continued).
Station.
Eleva-
tion.
Observer.
Period.
#B.A
Thurso
60?
127?
C 1865-
C 1862-
1840
C 1849-
„ (Holburnhead) .
Wick
Bd. of North. Lights
Statistical Account..
Bd. of North. Lights
„ (Noss Head)
Clackmannanshire.
Alloa
„ (Craigwood Cottage) ...
Dollar Academy
67
170
Dr. M c Gowan .
Mr. Bald
Mr. Westwood .
Dumbartonshire.
Dumbarton (Cardross)
Gareloch (Row)
5°
75
5°
9i
100
80
10
J. W. Burns, Esq...
G. S. Thomson, Esq
Kirkintilloch
Loch Lomond (Ardvoirlich I.)
„ ( „ II.)
„ ( „ HI.)
„ „ (BallochCastle)
„ „ (Luss)
„ „ (Stuckgown)...
Loch Long (Arddarroch) ...
„ „ (Ardincaple)
„ „ (Arrochar)
A.E.M c Dougall,Esq
')
A. L.D.Brown, Esq
A.E.M c Dougall,Esq
Capt. Ainsworth . . .
J. White, Esq
Lord Campbell
A.E.M c Dougall,Esq.
Dumfriesshire.
Annandale (Annan)
„ (Applegarth Manse).
„ ( „ School).
„ (Dalton)
„ (Dry fesdale, Lockerbie)
„ (Hutton Corrie Sch.)
„ (Johnstone Goodhope)
„ (Kirkmichael)
„ (Kirkpatrick juxta) ...
„ (Loch Maben)
„ (Moffat, Evan Water
School)
„ ( „ Town)
,, (Wamphray)
Dumfries
„ (March Hill Cottage)
, , (Crichton Asylum) . . .
Eskdale (Canobie School) . . .
,, (Carlesgill)
( „ Hill Top)...
(Eskdalemuir)
(EttrickPenTop)...
(Ewes)
(Langholm)
(Westerkirk)
Kippoch
Liddesdale (Whithaugh)
Nithesdale (Closeburn, Wal-
lace Hall) ...
„ (Drumlanrigg)
„ (Durrisdeer)
180
224
296
680
374
239
338
171
549
348
317
70
182
140
370
1 1 64
612
2265
407
270
420
400
206
1S6
459
Mr. Scott
Eev. W. Dunbar ,
Mr. R. Little.
Dr. Copland . .
Mr. Hogg
Dr. Gilchrist
J. Little, Esq.
Trans.Roy.Soc.Edin
J. Little, Esq
J. Little, Esq.
Mr. M c Intosh
Edinb. Phil. Journ
1856
C 1838-53 T
C 1839-58, 1862-
1864-
1857 imp.
1781-88 imp.
1864
1864
1864
1862-
1864
C 1863-
C 1848-
1832-34
1862-
C 1865-
C 1827-51 T
C 1854-55
C 1854-55
C 1854-55
C 1854-55
C 1854-55
C 1854-55
C 1854-59
C 1854-55
C 1854-55
C 1854-55
C 1854-55
1776-93 imp.
1850-
1860-
C 1855, i860, 1862-
1844, 1 846, 1848,
1850, i860, 1862-
1856-60, 1862-
C 1855-60, 1862-
1856-60, 1862-
C 1855-60, 1862-
C 1855-60,1862-
1773-77
C 1855-60, 1862-
1832
1864
C 1855-59
1856-62, 1864-
C 1855-58
234
REPORT 1865.
Dumfriesshire {continued).
Station.
Nithesdale(Glencairn,Hastings
Hall)
,. (Keir)
„ (Kirkconnel)
„ (Morton, Thornhill)
„ (Penpont)
„ (Sanquhar)
„ (Tynron,Auehenbrack)
,, (Wanlockhead) ...,
„ ( » ) .».
Eleva-
tion.
354
i5S
534
244
195
499
629
1400
r 33°
Observer.
Mr. Reid
Mr. Dawson ,
Period.
Edinburgh.
Barn ton
Calder (Cobbinshaw Loch).
„ (Colzium)
Colinton (Fernielaw)
Costorphine
Dalkeith (Park)
Edinburgh
(one mile from)
(Botanic Gardens)
(Canaan Cottage)
(CharlotteSq.,Green)
( „ Roof)
(Hawkhill)
(March Hall)...
(Nelson Monument)
(Observatory)
(O.S.O., No. 1)...
( „ No. 2)...
(Prince's Gardens)
(Regent's Terrace)
/'(Black Hills)
( „ Spring) ....
(Cape Law Hill)....
(Clubbiedean)
(Crawley Cottage) .
(Glencorse Cottage)
( „ Filters).
( „ Island).
(Harlaw)
(Logan Lee)
(Swanston)
( (Torbray Hill) ....
Inchkeith
Musselburgh (Inveresk) ....
n3
S3
a
<o
P4
d
S a
C3
Covesea Skerries
Elgin
„ (Ashgrove)
,, (Anderson'slnstitution)
„ (Urquhart)
Forres
863
500
183
250
100
246
230
300
270
197
386
760
787
807
171
555
182?
60
J. Deas, Esq
Ed. Phil. Journal.
J. Leslie, Esq
A. Paterson, Esq.
Mr. W. Thomson .
Medical Essays.
Capt. Kerr
Dr. Playfair? .
Dr. Rutherford.
Mr. Adie
J. Leslie, Esq. .
Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed
A.K.Johnstone, Esq
Capt. O'Grady
Mr. Adie
J. Leslie, Esq., and
A. Ramsay, Esq.
Bd
Mr.
of North. Lights
M'Auslane...
Elgin.
59?
28
33
38
53
Bd. of North. Lights
Dr. Geddes
W. Topp, Esq
Mr. J. Martin
Mr. M'Farlane
1855-59
1855-59
1855-59
1855-59
C 1855-58
C 1855-58
C 1855-59
C 1855-60 T
1859-
1 804-9
C 1850-
1856, 1859-61
C 1850-
1851-
1773-77.1807-12,
1822-24
1731-35
1792 imp.
1808
1812
1852
1785-95
1796-99
1795-1805, 1822-47
1850-
1847-
1771-76
1862-63
18 1 8-21, 1829 imp.
1817-18 imp.
1854-58 T
C 1858-61 T
1860-
1847-49- imp.
1847 imp.
1850-54 imp.
1847-49 imp., 1864-
1831-45
1846-
1852-59
1849-54
C 1854-
1847-49 imp.
1864-
1847-48 imp.
C 1813-
1837-
C 1846-
1856-61
1862-
1835-38, C 1862-
1795-97 i m P-
C i860-
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
Fife.
235
Station.
Burntisland
Dunfermline (Waterworks).
Isle of May
Kirkcaldy (Abbotshall).
Leven (Nookton)
Markinch (Balfour) :
Pittenweem
„ (Balchrystie)
St. Andrews
Eleva-
tion.
8°
182?
80
129
75
135
Observer.
Mr. Macbean
Bd. of North. Lights
W.M'G. Miller, Esq
Mr. Dewar
Mr. Tennant
Mr. Forgan
Statistical Account
Forfar.
Arbroath (Kepty Eoad)
»i
(Constitution Eoad)
(Hill Head)
(Kinloch)
(Manse)
j>
(Powder Magazine) . . .
»
(Somerville Place) ...
CTavhank'*
(Asylum)
»
(Bridge Street) ...
(High Street)
(Museum)
»»
65
35
60
44°
500
45o
55°
240
5°
218
20
200
25
21
8
150
A. Brown, Esq
Bd. of North. Lights
Mr. Proctor
R. Adamson, Esq...
Mr. Fairweather ..
R. Adamson, Esq...
J. Leslie, Esq
R. Adamson, Esq.
J. Kerr, Esq
Mr. Gibb
J. Aberdein, Esq. ...
Dr. Howden
D. Scott, Esq
Mr. Leigh ton
Mr. Campbell
Mr. Wyness
Haddingtonshire.
Drem (Dirleten)
,, (Fenton Barns)
Dunbar (Thurston)
Gififord (Yester)
Haddington (East Linton)
(Millfield) ...
Prestonkirk (Smeaton)
ICO
320
420
90
140
â– 100
C. Stevenson, Esq.
G. Hope, Esq
Mr. Mossman
Mr. Shearer
Mr. Storie
Mr. Doda
Mr. Black
East Inverness-shire.
Beauley (Beaufort Castle)
„ (Belladrum).
Fort Augustus(Inverie House)
,, (Knoydant) ...
Inverness (Culloden House)
„ (Gordonville)
(High School)
„ (Royal Academy)
Kingussie
(Laggan)
,, (Rothiemurchus)...
Loch Lochy (Clunesj
Moy (Tamitin)
Strath Errick (Farraline) ...
„ (Migovie)
Urquhart (Corrimony)
40
104
3°
800
700 i
700
320
Lord Lovat
Mr. McDonald
J. Band, Esq
A. Forbes, Esq. ...
W. Carruthers, Esq.
J. Robertson, Esq. . .
M. Adam, Esq
Mr. Rutherford ...
Mr. A. M'Intosh ...
W. Grant, Esq. ...
Mr. A. C. M c Intyre
Mr: M l 'Dougall
Capt. Fraser
Mr. M c Leod
T. Ogilvy, Esq
Period.
863-
853-59
817-
857-
857-
831-
841-51
835-36
844-
840-52 T
856-
836-39 imp.
853-
850-
790-95
836-41
838
836-41
837-40
836-41
856-
836-45 imp.
836-38
856-
842-56
864-
864-
858-
857-
861-
1844-
1841-
847
863
840-
856-
856-
835-
83,-
860-63
865-
865-
855-
865-
865-
829-31
841-43
865-
865-
865-
865-
864-
865-
863-
52 imp.
236
REPORT — 1865.
West Inverness-shirk.
*B.A.
Station.
*B.A.
*B.A.
*B.A.
N
Barrahead
Glen Quoich
Harris (Island Glass)
Skye (Kyleakin)
(Oronsay)
(Portree Moss Bank) . . .
( „ Poor House)...
( „ Prison)
( ,, Waternish Manse)
(Raasay)
(Rona)
(Sligachan)
Uist (Baleloch)
„ (Loch Maddy) ...
S. Uist (Ushenish)
Eleva-
tion.
640?
700
is?
30
60
*8o
196?
'9
30 „
157?
Observer.
Bd. of North. Lights
Mr. Ballingal
Bd. of North. Lights
T. Fraser, Esq....
Mr. M c Grigor ...
Mr. Grant
Rev. J. Lamont.
G. Rainey, Esq.
Bd. of North. Lights
Mr. M c Kenzie ...
Rev. J. A. Macrae
C. Shaw, Esq. ...
Bd. of North. Lights
Period.
1833- [1863-
1853-56,1858-59,
C 1813-
C1857-
C 1857-
1863 T
C 1865-
C 1860-
1851-
1857-
1864-
1860-65 T
1859-
1857-
KlNCARDINESIIIRE.
Banchory House [Aberdeen]
„ Ternan (Strachan)
Brechin (The Burn )
Fettercairn
(Balnakettle)
(Bogmuir)
Girdleness [Aberdeen] ,
Lawrencekirk
99
200
237
450
200
86?
A. Thomson, Esq....
Mr. M c Connachie. . .
Col. M c Inroy
Mr. A. C. Cameron
D. Scott, Esq
R. Vallentine, Esq.
Bd. of North. Lights
D. Robie, Esq. ...
1835-49,1855-57,
1859-
C 1854-
1843-
C 1862-
C 1858-63 T
1860-
C1833-
1856
Loch Leven
Kinross-shire.
..I ... I Mr. Farnie
,| 1842-56, 1860-
Kirkcudbrigiitshire.
Cargen [D ivmfries]
Carsphairn
Castle Douglas (Slogarie) ..
( ,. ) ••
Dalbeattie
Kells (Kenmuir Castle)
Kirkcudbright (Little Ross)
New Galloway (Glenlee) ..
„ (Waterside) ..
85
300
800
30?
P. Dudgeon, Esq....
Mr. Hannah...
T. R. Bruce, Esq....
Mr. Grieve
Bd. of North. Lights
W. Maxwell, Esq...
P. Dalziel, Esq
Lanarkshire.
Airdrie (Auchengray) ....
„ (Hillend House).
Avondale (Gilmourton) .
Douglas Castle
Glasgow
(Uddington)...
(Baillieston)
(Cessnock Park)
(Ibroxholm)
(Macfarlane's Obs.)
(Observatory) ...
(O. S. O.)
(Park)
650
620
600
783
75
230
34
20
80
200
166
Dr. Rankin
Mr. Thomson
Beardmore' s Hy dro-
[ lo gy
Mr. Russell
Mr. Anderson
Mr. P. Jarvie ...
R. Hart, Esq. ..,
Messrs. Gardner
Prof. Grant
Major Bayly ...
Messrs. Gardner
C 1859-
C 1865-
1864-
1864-
C 1865-
(1832-38)
C 1843-
C 1865-
C 1865-
C 1856-58 T
C 1852-
1845-47
C 1860-
1862-
i7 6 5> '775-78, 1788,
1795,1805 imp.
1851
C 1856-
1850-
1846-50, 1854-60
C 1801-37
1856-62, 1864
C 1855-62 T
1843-51
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
237
Lanarkshire {continued).
Station.
Eleva-
tion.
Observer.
Period.
Hamilton ( Auchinraith)
.,(,,)
,, (Both well Castle)
150
147
1280
LiNLITH
165
ruE Ork
27
55
190
8
78
94
21
29
5°
Peebl
600
1150
PERTHSf
823
35°
370
170
172
100
133
300
150
345
247
130
100
463
60
270
1800
R. Ker, Esq
C ,853-
1833-46
1807-21, 1844
1830 imp.
1813-20 imp.
1857-59
C 1858-
C 1851-
C 1851-
1863-
C 1865-
C 1860-61 T
D. Alston, Esq
Mr. Turnbull
GOW.
KEYS.
Bd. of North. Lights
J. G. Heddle, Esq.
Rev. 0. Scott
Lead Hills 1
New Liston
:
Hoy (Cantick Head)
„ (Graemsay, High, E.) ...
„ ( „ Low, W.)...
,, (Melsetter)
#B.A.
Pomona (Holme Manse)
„ (Inganess Cottage)
t
Mr. J. G. Iverach
Rev. C. Clouston ...
Bd. of North. Lights
— Traill, Esq.
Bd. of North. Lights
D. Balfour, Esq. ...
ss.
[IRE.
J. S. Hepburn, Esq.
Mr. Wylie
C 1862-
t
t
„ (Sandwick Lawn)...
( „ North Park)
1840-
1862-
C 1854-
C 1865-
C 1814-21, 1823-
C 1856-
1811 imp.
1765-79
1857-59, 1861-62
C 1850-
C 1863-
1861
#B.A.
Sanda (Start Point)
Shapinsa (Balfour Castle) . . .
,, (Stobo Castle)
Pennycuick (North Esk Res.)
Aberfeldy (Black Hill)
(Bolfracks)
C 1861
Annat Cottage [Dundee]
Auchterarder House
Mr. Gorrie
C 1846-57 T
C 1860-
Lieut. -Col. Hunter
J. S. Hepburn, Esq.
Mr. Wylie
„ (Colquhakie) . . .
„ (Trinity Gask)..
Blairgowrie (Bosemount) ...
,, (Clunie Manse)
Callander (Blairhoyle)
,, (Lanrick Castle) . . .
,, (Leny)
1857-
C 1856-
1863-
1834-36-
C 1862-
Mr. Gibb
Rev. W. Macritchie
Mr. Munro
J. B. Hamilton, Esq.
Rev. A. J. T. Morris
Mr. M'Owen.
J. Finlay, Esq
J. B. Murdoch, Esq.
J. Stirling, Esq. ...
D. Carnegie, Esq....
J. M. Gale, Esq. . . .
,, ...
,, ...
,, ...
1853-62, 1864-
1852-55, 1860-
C 1863-
Crieff (Muthill)
Doune (Deanston)
CI837-
1853-60
1852-
1846-47 T
1853-54, 1859-
C 1853-
1855 imp.
Ci8 53 -
C 1853-55,1857-
,, (Gartincaber)
Dunblane (Kippenross)
Errol.
LochEarnHead(Balquhidder)
,, (Stronvar) ...
Loch Katrine ( Aberfoyle) . . .
„ (Bridge of Earn)
( „ Turk)
„ (Glen Finlas) ...
1 See also Dumfriesshire, Wanlockhead.
238
KEPORT 1865.
Perthshire (continued),
Station.
Eleva-
tion.
Observer.
Period.
Loch Katrine (Glen Gyle) . . .
,, (Ledard)
380
1500
3 2 5
420
275
830
300
204
79
66
185
20
129
130
80
200
792
Ienfrew
600
700
700
55°
310
280
296
30
5°
120
600
560
800
54°
472
180
35°
35°
693
379
85
160
62
J. M. Gale, Esq. ...
1)
), ...
J. M. Gale, Esq. ...
Rev.G.D.R.Munro
Mr. Stewart
C ,853-
C 1853-
C 1861-
C 1861-
1846-48 imp.
C 1861-
C 1861-
C 1865-
(1813-18)
1860-61
*B.A.
,, (Loch Dhu)
( „ Drunkie)
„ ( „ Lubnaig)
„ ( „ Vennachar)
(Tunnel Hill Top)
Logierait
(Mouline)
Meigle (Belmont)
( „ Castle) ...
Perth Academy
Mr. Robertson ....
Dr. Miller
1789-95, 1799
1852-54, 1856-
C 1845-62
C 1817-25
1815-30,1832-43
1815-30, 1832-41
1830-36 imp.
C 1812-16 T
„ (Early Bank)
Rev. R. Gordon ...
Earl Gray
„ (Kinfauns)
„ ( „ Castle)
„ ( „ Tower)
„ (Methven)
Rev. R. Gordon ...
Mr. Halliday
Rev. W. Mather . . .
Mr. M'Laren
SHIRE.
J. Arneil, Esq. .
Mr. Scott
„ (Rose Bank)
„ (Scone Palace)
1860-
St. Fillans (Dunira).
C1833-
1857-61 imp.
1864-
1862, 1864-
1854-58, 1861-
1854-
1854-58, 1860-
1854-58, 1860-
1849-50, 1852
1833
1 846-49
1847-55
1853-
1820-38
1836-37 imp.
1864-
1864-
1864-
1864-
1864-
l8 35-39. J841-55
1827-33
1860-
i8 3I
1831-52
1831
l8 3i-33. J835-37
C 1865-
1841-50, 1860-
1836 imp.
1849-50 imp.
1858-
1861 62
Tyndr urn ( 5 6°2 4 'N. , 4V W.)
]
Eaglesham (Cross Keys)
„ (Revoch)
Gorbals (Black Loch)
J. M. Gale, Esq. ...
))
>»
)>
J)
Capt. M'Kellan
J. Gardner, Esq. ...
P. Morison, Esq. ...
.»
».
».
».
J. C. Burns, Esq. . . .
W. Mather, Esq. ...
Statistical Account
Mr. Stewart
„ (Middlefon)
„ (Ryat Linn)
(Waulk Glen)
Greenock
(Bagatelle)
„ (Hamilton Street)
,, (Infirmary)
„ ( „ Garden)
„ (Shaws W. works I.)
,. ( „ II.)
,» ( „ HI.)
>, ( „ iv.)
,, ( ,, Everton Cottage)
„ ( ,, Meanof 5 gauges)
Johnstone (Castle Semple) . . .
„ (Kilbarchan)
,, (House)
„ (Old Gauge)
*
Lochwinnoch (Lochside Ho.)
Mearns (Nither Place)
Paisley.
„ (Back Thornly Muir)
,, (Craig Park)
„ (Ferguslie House) ...
„ (Locherfield)
Mr. Hardie .
„ (Nether Craigs)
Statistical Account
j.
C 1834-36
1836 imp.
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
239
Eoss-sniRE, East.
Station.
Eleva-
tion.
Observer. Period.
Cromarty
45°
28
90
48
61
Mrs. Matheson , 1 1862-
Bd of North Lights f! rS/ifi
Dingwall
Statistical Account
K S. M'Kenzie, Esq.
J. Boyd, Esq.
A. E. Maclure, Esq.
— ■Gordon, Esq. . . .
Mr. Maclean
j83°-35
C 1865-
C 1865-
C 1865-
1862-63
C 1865-
C 1830-56, 1861-
*B.A.
•
„ (Brahan Castle) .. .
„ (Free Church Inst.)
Invergordon Castle
Tain
*BA.
„ (Fearn)
Tarbetness
Bd. of North. Lights
Koss-siiire, West.
Applecross
Lewis (Bernera)
„ (Butt of)
„ (Galson)
„ (Stornoway)
„ (Lewis Castle)
„ (Uig Lodge)
Loch Broom
„ Duich (Inverinate Ho.)
„ „ (Shiel House)
Hawick (Borthwick Brae) . . .
„ (Branxholin)
„ (Falnash)
„ (Goldielands)
,, (Kirkton)
» (Langraw)
,, (Linton)
,, (Lynnwood)
„ (Menslaws)
„ (Sillerbit Hall)
Jedburgh (Sunnyside)
Xelso
„ (Springwood Park) ...
Makerstown
„ (Garden, 6£ ft.)...
„ (Greenhouse, 18 ft.)
„ (Observatory) ...
,, (Blagden Cur) ...
,, (Grange of Hownam)
Boxburgh (Sunlawshill)
Yetholm (Mowhaugh)
Bowhill
Eoberton (Wool) .
Bressay (Lighthouse)
,, (Manse)
East Yell
Sumburghead
50
15
65
31
70
30?
Dr. Haynes
C 1865-
C 1859-
C 1863-
1856-58 imp.
C 1859-
1853-
C 1865-
C 1864-
1860
C 1860-
1773-83
1862-
1862-
Mr. Matheson
Bd. of North. Lights
Eev. J. Gunn
Bd. of North. Lights
SirJ.Matheson.Bart.
Mr. J. M'Kay.
Mr. M'Leary
100
30
XBURGH
800
800?
5°5
Mrs. Matheson
A.E.M'DougalLEsq.
shire.
A. E. Lockhart, Esq.
Trans.Eoy.Soc.Edin.
Mr. Turnbull
Dr. Elliot
Mr. Welsh
1862-
570
Mr. Oliver
1862-
Mr. Barton
1863-
1862-
387
Mr. Nixon
Mr. Cockburn
Mr. Elder
1862-
C 1865-
C 1864-
I 840-43
1864-
1855-59
1832-45
1837-45
C 1842-45,1847-53
1 842-44
1840-43 imp.
1862-63
1863-
1856-
1773-76
C 1859-
C 1849-
C 1858-
C 1822-24, 1826-
333
120
130
213
G. Hilson, Jun., Esq.
Tweedside Nat, Club
Sir G. Douglas, Bart.
Mr. Hogg
171
192
1783
367
612
Trans.Eoy.Soc.Edin.
Tweedside Nat'.' Club
Trans.Eoy.Soc.Edin.
Mr. Carter
ELKIRKS
597
E SHET)
72
12
I76
265
HIRE.
Mr. Mathieson
Trans.Eoy.Soc.Edin.
-.ands.
Bd. of North. Lights
Eev. Z. M. Hamilton
Mr. Mathewson
Bd. of North. Lights
Stirlingshire
Ben Lomond | 1 800
Drymen |
J. M. Gale, Esq.
Eev. A. Lochore
C 1853-
1834-37
240
REPORT 1865.
Stirlingshire {continued).
*B.A.
*B.A.
Station.
Fintry Hills (Source of the
Endrick)
Millfield (Gardens)
„ (House)
Monteith (Cardross)
Polmont
Stirling (Ordnance S. O.)
,, (Polnaise Gardens)...
Strathblane (Carbeth)
„ (Mugdock Res.) ..
Eleva-
tion.
75°
165
169
233
12
470
320
Observer.
J. Miller, Esq.
Mr. Scott
Mr. Wyber . .
Mr. Gorrie
W.Smith, Esq..
J. M. Gale, Esq.
Period.
SUTIIERLANDSHIRE.
Cape Wrath
Golspie (Dunrobin Castle) ..
Helmsdale
Lairg (Invershin)
Scourie
Tongue House
355
6
34
20
20
33
Bd. of North. Lights
Mr. Mitchell
Mr. Campbell
Mr. Young
J. Simpson, Esq. ...
J. Crawford, Esq. . . .
1853-55 T
1863-
1849-54, 1856-59
1860-
(1821-37)
1858-60
1852-
C 1815-
C 1862-
C 1829-
C 1860-
C 1865-
1863-
C i856-6i,i862imp.
C 1856-
WlGTONSIIIRE.
Corsewall
Mull of Galloway
Stranraer (Castle Kennedy).
„ (South Cairn) ....
Wigton (North Balfern) ....
22
209
Bd. of North. Lights' C 1816-
C 1S32-
Mr. Burnett I 1837
Mi-. Kennedv ! C 1S59-
W.MacLelland.Esq. C 1865-
IRELAND.
Antrim.
*B.A.
t
t
Antrim
Belfast (Harbour Office) .
„ (Linen Hall)
„ (Queen's College).
150
47
Eev. J. H. Orr ,
O. Shaw, Esq. .
Mr. Stevens ...,
Mr.Bell
12
58
Armagh.
I Armagh Observatory | 247 | Eev. Dr. Robinson .
Cavan.
C 1864-
1863-
C 1796-99 T
Ci8i2-32imp.i835-
1851-
1836-
*B.A.
*B.A.
Bawnboy (Owendoon) i 218
Belturbet (Redhills) !
Cavan i 230
G.HL'Estrange.Esq
Rev.E.B.W.Venables
J. Price, Esq ,
Ennis . . .
Killaloe .
Clare.
35
128
(5 in. -f- ground) 123
Cork.
Rev. S. L. Breakey
Rev. C. Mayne
C 1864-
C 1864-
C 1863-
C 1864-
C 1846-
1861-63
#B.A.
Cork (Qneenstown)
,, (Queen's College) .
,, (Royal Institution).
D unman way
Fermoy
65
80
Dr. Scott I 1844-48 imp,
Prof. England 1862-
R. Caulfield, Esq.... 1838, 1851-52, 1860-
Mr. Donovan C 1865-
Mr. Campbell.
ON THE RAINFALL OP THE BRITISH ISLES.
Donegal.
£41
Station.
Letterkenny
Milford
Eleva-
tion.
107
230
Down.
Observer.
Rev. H. Kingsmill. .
Rev. A. Delap
Period.
Ardglass Castle
Ban bridge (Milltown)
„ ( „ 40 ft.)...
„ (Bann Reservoir) . . .
Downpatrick (Seaford)
Holywood (Green Mount) ...
Lurgan ( Waringstown)
200
240
440
208
A. Beauclerk, Esq.
J. Smith, jua., Esq.
190
Dublin.
G. W. Kyle, Esq.
T. Waring, Esq.
Dublin
(Black Rock)
»1
(Broadstone Station)
(Clonsilla)
)J
(College of Surgeons)
(Glasnerin)
(Monkstown)
( „ 40ft) ...
( „ 90 ft.) ...
(Phoenix Park)
( „ )
J*
n
(Trinity College)
(Vicar's Lodge)
95
95
220
66
100
140
200
166
42
89
A. Semple, Esq. .
T. Bewley, Esq.
J. Price, Esq
Dr. Kirwan ....
J.Price, Esq
D. Moore, Esq.
A. Pirn, Esq....
Capt. Wilkinson, R.E
Rev. Prof. Galbraith
S. Yeates, Esq
C 1864-
C 1864-
C 1861-
1864-
C 1861-
1863-
(C 1865-)
C 1861-
1823-24
1840-
C 1863-
1791-1808
C 1863-
1839-44 '
J 860-
C 1859-
C 1864-
C 1861-
C 1837-52 T
C 1853-55, l86l ~
C 1841-60, 1863-
1843-60, 1862-
1835-39 imp.
Fermanagh.
Enniskillen (Florence Court)
„ (Royal School, Portora)
300
Earl of Enniskillen
Mr. Steel.
Galway.
Galway
„ (Drainage Office)
„ (Prospect)
„ (Queen's College)
Gort (CregPark)
Outerard (Innishambo) ...
40
40
2 5
130
J. Price, Esq
G. H. D'Arcy, Esq.
Prof. Curtis
R. J. Lattey, Esq..
J. D'Arcy, Esq
Kerry.
Killarney
>>
Knights Town (Valentia).
Mr. Spillane ,
Inistogue (Woodford)
Kilkenny
„ (Gowran Castle) ..
Stoneyford (Inisnag)
30 I The Knight of Kerry
Kilkenny.
Rt.Hon.W.F.Tighe-
Messrs.Duffy &Boyd
Rt.Hon.LordClifden
Rev. J. Graves ......
i 8 44-45. 1854,1856-
C 1863-
1852-60
1838 imp.
C 1861-
C 1864-
C 1864-
C 1865-
C 1865-
i86j-
200
King's County.
Cangort Park [Roscrea]
Parsonstown (Birr Castle) ..
Tullamore
340 H. B. Trench, Esq.
200 Earl of Rosse
235 H. J. B. Kane, Esq.
Limerick.
Limerick
1865.
(Blackwater) | 52
Rev. C. Mayne ,
S.Caswell, Esq..
C 1865-
1863-
C 1865-
C 1865-
C 1863-
1862-
1850-
1861
C 1864-
242
REPORT — 1865.
Londonderry.
Station.
EleTa-
tion.
Obserrer.
Period.
120
150
H. E. Morrison,Esq
Dr. Cuthbert
C 1864-
1797-1800 imp.
„ (Literary Association)
1861-
D. Watt, Esq
1862-
Longford.
...
H. Edgeworth, Esq.
(1865)
1798, 1807-08
1862-63 T
M.W.O'Connor.Esq.
C 1864-
Mayo.
130
G. H. D'Arcy, Esq.
— Guineas. Esa.
C 1863-
1852-56, i860
Meath.
... | J. D. Fanell, Esq. ...| (C 1861-)
Q
ueen's County.
236 | M. Hanlon, Esq. ...| C 1844-
Eoscommon.
... | H. Smyth, Esq | C 1864-
Sligo.
'45
45
5°
Mr. O'Dowd
C 1864-
C 1833-
Et. Hon. J. Wynne...
C 1863-
C 1863-
TlPPERARY.
300?
C 1865-
C 1864 T
*
Tipperary (Bally tristreen) ...
J. Bolton, Esq
C 1865-
C i86a-
11 \-"r- — oo — - — "/
Tyrone.
| 260 | Eev. J. C. Maxwell C 1861-
Waterf
ORD.
1840-49, 1852, 1860-
C 1841-
140
„ (Eathculliheen) ...
1859-
Westmeath.
| 150 | J. Price, Esq | C 1863-
Wexford.
*B A
8S
1
Earl of Courtown . . .
J. D. Farrell, Esq...
C. M. Palliser, Esq.
C 1864-
1863-
„ (Eeclaimed Lands)
1863-
WlCKLOW.
2<o 1 E. Barrineton. Esa. 1 C i8«-
ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS FOR IRON SHIPS. 213
On the Strength of Materials considered in relation to the Construction
of Iron Ships. By William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S., fyc, and
Thomas Tate, Esq.*.
V. In the following investigation it will be assumed that, under the action of
equal forces, the extension of the fibres of a beam will be equal in amount to
their compression, and that the amount of the extension or compression, as
the case may be, is proportional to the magnitude of the force producing it ;
and in order to render this hypothesis more fully in accordance with the fact
that the ultimate resistances of the two forces of compression and extension
in a beam are in almost all cases different, it will be further assumed that the
material reaches its ultimate limit of resistance to the one force before it
reaches its ultimate limit of resistance to the other force.
Section I.
On tlie Qualities of Iron hesl adapted for Iron Ships, especially Ships of War.
2. The work expended in the elongation or compression of a bar is equal
to one-half the force multiplied hy the corresponding elongation. Moreover,
for bars of the same material, the work varies as the solid content of the bar ;
that is,
U=mKL, (1)
where TJ— the work of elongation, K= the section of the bar in square
inches, L= its length in feet, and u a constant for each class of material,
being the work done upon a bar .1 foot long and 1 square inch in section.
Hence
u= mriKV (2)
which determines the value of u from experimental data for different kinds
of material, where P is the strain in lbs., and I is the extension of the bar
corresponding to this strain.
3. The value of u, determined for different kinds of material, gives us a
comparative measure of their powers of resistance to a strain of the nature of
impact, or of dynamic effect; hence the coefficient u may be called the
modulus of dynamic resistance, or, as Tredgold named it, the modulus of resi-
lience. It is presumed that the best kind of iron for resisting the impact of
shot or shell is that whose modulus of dynamic effect is greatest.
4. The values of u, determined by Mr. Fairbairn's experiments for different
plates or bars of iron, show that the dynamic resistance of thick plates to
rupture is about twice and a half that of thin ones, that the resistance of
thick steel plates is about one-tenth greater than that of the Low Moor iron
plates A, and that the resistance of these latter plates is one-half greater than
that of the rolled plates D.
5. Similarly the work expended in the deflection of a bar supported at its
extremities, by a force applied at its centre, is equal to one-half the pressure
multiplied by the corresponding deflection ; and, moreover, we also have
U=mKL, (3)
where u, the modulus of dynamic resistance, being constant for the same kind
of material, gives us a comparative measure of the resistance of different kinds
of material to a force of impact tending to produce transverse rupture.
* In this inquiry Mr. Tate has deduced useful formulae from Mr. Fairbairn's experi-
ments — independent of other researches — on the strength of iron ships.
s2
244 report — 1865.
Section II.
Transverse Strains produced on a Ship under various conditions.
6. The value of M, or the strain tending to rupture a beam, depends on
the magnitude and the relative position of the pressures applied to the beam.
When the pressure "W is applied at the middle of the beam A B, supported
at its extremities (fig. 1), the pressure p- -i
W °'
on the support at A is equal to — ; and > ■j
A Q ' C n
the moment M, of this pressure tend- Q w **
ing to rupture the beam at any point,
W
Q, is equal to the product of the pressure -^ by its leverage A Q ; that is,
—
M 1= ^xAQ (4)
Now this will become a maximum when AQ=AC; that is, the greatest
strain will take place at the centre of the beam, or at the point where the
weight is applied.
7. A beam AB, fixed at the extremity B, is acted upon by a series of ver-
tical pressures, p v p 2 , p n , whose distances from B are respectively
a 1} a 2 , a n . To find the value of M.
Here the greatest strain must take place at B ;
.-. TL=p x a x + . . . . .+p n a n =(p 1 + p n )QB), (5)
where GB is the distance of the centre of gravity of all the pressures from
the point of support B.
8. A beam AB, supported at its extremities, is acted upon by a series of
pressures on each side of the central pressures p 2 ,p 3 ,p v applied at the points
E, F, H. To find the great-
est value of M. Fl g- 2 -
Let p 1 be the resultant of « |. « I D 1.
the pressures applied be- a . * r ' * Ha *^ — jJ^X_gg_ b
tween A and E, and p s the f^ D K Ci Q F H I J
residtant of those applied jjj 4
between B and H. p i l '*
By the principle of the equality of moments, we get
P lS =-L ( Pl x DB +p 2 X EB +p 3 x EB +p t x HB +p s x IB)
A_b
=«(*>■+ +A)GB=^? ( (0)
which gives the pressure on the prop A, where "W is put for the sum of the
pressures, and G is their centre of gravity.
Supposing Q, lying between the pressures p 2 and_p 3 , to be the point corre-
sponding to the greatest strain, or, in fact, the point where rupture would
take place in a beam of uniform dimensions.
Now when the lever AQ, turns on Q as a centre, we get
M=P 1 x AQ-fo X DQ+p 2 x EQ)
=*( P i-JPi— Pa) A Q+Pi X AD+p 2 X AE
= A QJWxGB-ABCp 1 +^ 2 )} +p 1 AD+p 2 AE (7)
by substituting the value of P x given in equation (6).
M--
ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS FOR IRON SHIPS. 245
Substituting the value of W X GB given in equation (6), and putting g r for
the distance of the centre of gravity of p v p 2 from A, and g 2 for that of p 3 , p if
p 5 from B, we get
M= lt { (P*+P*+PJ9-^+PJ9i } +(Pi+ft)fc (8)
By interchanging the symbols of this expression, the moment taken in re-
ference to the pressure P 2 will be
[= AB { CPi+i , 2>fl r -(P 3 +Pi+P 6 )ff2 } + (P 3 +P*+P s )ff 2 (9)
This expression may be shown to be identical with the former by putting
AB-AQfor BQ.
Similarly, supposing the point Q to lie between F and H, we get
U= TE { W x GB ~ AB Oi +P*+P*) } +f>, x AD +jp a x AE +_p 3 x AF. (10)
Now, if the quantity within the brackets of equation (7) is positive, while
that of equation (10) is negative, the value of M expressed by equation (7)
will increase with AQ, attaining a maximum at F ; on the other hand, the
value of M expressed by equation (10) will increase as AQ is decreased, at-
taining a maximum at F ; hence it follows that the point F under these con-
ditions will undergo the greatest strain, and equation (7) will express the
maximum value of M by substituting AF for AQ, the test for the point F
of greatest strain being as follows : —
fx GB— AB 0^+^) = positive (P)
Â¥x GB- AB ( Pl +p 2 +p s ) = negative (N)
Example.— Let AB=40, p 1 = 6, p o = 10, p 3 =20, p t =8, p 5 =6 tons,DB =
32, EB=25, FB=22, HB = 12, IB ="4. Then from (P) and (N) we find that
F is the point of greatest strain, and from equation (7) we find M, the greatest
moment tending to rupture the beam, to be 361 nearly.
9. When W x GB=AB fa+pj, or (p a +p t +p t ) &=(*>, +J> 2 ) g lf eq. (7)
becomes
M=p I xAD+p 2 xAE (11)
Now as this expression is independent of AQ, it follows that the value of M
is the same for all points lying between E pj ff g
and F. This remarkable result may be rea- ^ "
dily verified by observing that in this case A E g â– B
When there are only two pressures, p 2 , p 3 , (J) q
appUcd to the beam — that is, when p l —p i = ■** ■**
p 5 =0 (see fig. 3), then equation (8) becomes
M=f§(p 3 xBF-p. 2 xAE)+ i32 xAE (12)
AU
If p 3 X BF>p 2 x AE, then M becomes a maximum at F ; that is, AQ=AF.
When p 3 x BF=p 2 x AE, then this expression becomes
M=p 2 x AE, or p 3 x BF, (13)
which, being independent of AQ, shows that the moment is constant for all
points lying between E and F.
10. When a ship has its load unequally distributed throughout its length,
to find the point of maximum strain, &c, the ship being supported at the
extremities A and B.
24G
REPORT — 1865.
Fig. 4.
A^D KHGiEQ
Suppose the ship to be uniformly loaded over the parts AK, KE, &c,
and let p x , p 2 , &c. he the loads over these parts respectively. Put £ = AB;
Tc =AE ; fc=EF j A-.,=FB ; a=CB, the centre of gravity of EF being at C ;
w — the weight of the mass over AE, r/ 1 = the distance of its centre of gra-
vity from A ; w o= the weight of the mass over FB, g 2 = the distance of its
centre of gravity from A ; %> 3 — the weight of the mass over EF ; x= AQ, the
greatest strain being supposed at Q, ; then
H^ X AQ-w x (AQ-^)-%2 x (AQ-AE) x| AQ-AE)
= P r r- W , (^-grj -% (.r-/.-,) 2 ;
,^r=R_ Wi _^» (.t-^) = 0, when M is a max. 5
" a? =^-{ fc ( P i- w >) +2& ^»}
(2)
(3)
Substituting the value of J > 1 given in equation (1), this expression de-
termines the point Q of greatest strain ; and substituting the values of
P £ and .v, here found, in equation (2), the maximum value of H will be
determined.
(1) 'Hw 1 <7 1 =?0 2 27 2 ,and& 1 =Z.'=£ 2 =s, then from equation (1) we get
which, substituted in equation (3), gives a7=o 'â– > that is, the point of greatest
strain is at the centre.
Again, substituting these values in equation (2), we get
M = T2 P 3 l + W tfi ( 4 )
(2) If 2p s =0, and w l c) l =w 2 g , then P ] = tc 1 , and M.=w 1 g J , which ex-
presses the moment tending to rupture all points lyiug between E and F.
11. Suppose the length of the ship to be divided into six equal spaces,
AK, KE, EC, CF, FI, IB, the loads on each part being p v p„ P„, P& 2 3 *> Pe
respectively; then
AK=KE=&c. = g, and
â– P 1 =^{p,xLB4- J p 4 xVB + &c.}
= V2 {ft+^+^+TiPi+^i+llA } (5)
ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS FOR IRON SHIPS. 247
M=P^-^-^)-^-|)-^^-|) J (6)
And to render M a maximum, we find
»4{ ^'% p '- p ' }-~ (?)
The values of P L and x, substituted in equation (6), give the greatest mo-
ment, M, tending to rupture the ship.
(1) If.p 5 =2V an ^jPi = 2 J 2> then equation (7) becomes #=o; that is, the
greatest strain will be at the centre C.
And from equation (5) we find P 1 =i> 1 +i> a +p 3 5 and substituting in
equation (6), we get
^=^(^+3^ + 5^3) (8)
(2) If ^- be put for the sum of- the pressures, p v jo 3 , jo 3 , on each half of
the ship, and let G x be the centre of gravity of these pressures, then
w w w ^
M=P l x AC- J x $£=■% X AC— g x G,C
.(9)
= 2-xAG l5
that is, the moment tending to rupture the beam at the centre is equal to the
load on one half of the ship multiplied by the distance of its centre of gravity
from the extremity.
12. Now let us suppose that the ship is balanced upon its centre C (see
fig. 4) ; then, in this case, the greatest strain will obviously be at the point
of support C ; hence we have
M=j Pl X DC +2> 2 X HC +p 3 x |EC ;
but
DC= T \ I, HC=^ I, and \ EC=Jj I ;
...M= 3 ^(5 i > l + 3 Pa + i > 3 ); (10)
or proceeding as in equation (9), we get
[^xG^orf (l-AG,) (11)
Comparing this expression with equation (9), it will be observed that as the
load is accumulated towards the centre of the ship, AG t will be greater than
G,C, and therefore (9) will be greater than (11).
"W
13. If the load be equally distributed, or j> 1 =j) a =&c.=-g, then AG^I of
-=- and equation (9) becomes
*4©-T. a*)
and from equation (11) we get
-KH)-? (13 >
where the results of equation (12) and (13) are the same ; that is to say, the
M=
248
REPORT — 1865.
Fig. 5.
moments tending to rupture the ship, in the two positions, are the same
when the load is uniformly distributed throughout its length.
14. "When the load has the form of a trapezoidal figure ADEFB, to find
the greatest moment tending to rupture
the b.e.am , AB supported at its extre-
mities.
Let AB = 7, AI=«, IB=a lt EI = e,
AD = 6, BF = 6 i; AQ =.?,// = the weight
of a unit of surface in the load.
Now, observing that the moment
of the surface ADEFB is equal to the
moment of the rectangle AJLB minus
the sum of the moments of the triangles
DJE and ELF, we find, after reduction,
> = fi { 3«?-«(«-&)( 2 «+ 3a i)-( e
-AX*}
When a 1 =a, this expression becomes
^=^(6^+55 + 6,)
12
(14)
(15)
The, trapezoid ADRQ being composed of the rectangle ADVQ and the
triangle DVB, we have
,, ^ , x x e—
M = P,a? — phx x g - g x ~ a
e—b
XXX n±x
(16)
Hence for the maximum value of M,
dx-^-^
2a "
! = 0:
â– -â– â– *&{*/*?*<**-*}
(17)
which gives the point Q where the greatest strain takes place.
The values of P, and as being substituted in equation (16), we find the
maximum value of M as required.
(1) When a x =a, then P x is expressed by equation (15), and we get
x= 7Zb { V*(«-&)(6« + 5&+& 1 ) + 6 a -6 } (18)
Substituting these values in equation (16), we find the maximum moment
required.
(2) WTien 6, = b in the last equalities, we find x=a ; that is, the greatest
strain will take place in the centre of the beam ; and from equation (16) and
(15) we get
â– &=ya\2e + b) (19)
Section III.
Strength, SfC, of Beams.
15. The moment of the forces tending to rupture a beam being always
equal to the moment of the forces resisting rupture, the symbol M may be
ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS FOR IRON SHIPS.
249
Fig. 6.
-N.
used to express either of these moments. It must be observed, therefore,
that all the expressions hereafter given for M, the moment of rupture or
the moment of flexure, as the case may be, are equal to the moment of the
forces tending to break the beam.
16. Let h equal the distance of the upper edge of the section of rupture
from the neutral axis passing through the centre of gravity of the section ;
7*, the distance of the lower edge from the neutral axis ; S= the resistance
of the material, per square inch, to compression at the upper edge ; Sj = the
resistance of the material, per square inch, to extension at the lower edge ;
and I == the moment of inertia of the section about its centre of gravity ;
then
M =f'*o' OT |-Io (1)
The value of I depends solely on the geometrical form of the transverse
section of the beam.
17. The following values of I for different sections of material will be
found useful in calculating the transverse strength of a beam having a com-
plex section, such as that of an iron ship.
(1) For a thin plate, AB, about any axis,
NCO, passing through its centre of gra-
vity C,
I o = T VE7 2 sin 2 0,
where K is the area of the section, and I sin
the projection of I, the length of the plate,
upon the vertical or upon a line perpendicular
to the axis.
(2) For a hollow rectangle,
where b= the breadth of the section, d= its depth, b l = the internal breadth,
and rf,= its internal depth.
(3) For an ellipsis about any axis NO passing
through the centre C,
WW
where 2p=AB, the vertical depth of the section
when the major and minor axes are equal, p=r the
radius of the circle.
(4) For a hollow circle,
where d and cZ, are the external and internal
diameters respectively.
When the plate is thin, I =£foP very nearly, which also approximately
expresses that of a hollow elliptical section, d being the vertical axis.
(5) "When the depth of any surface is small as compared with its distance
from the axis,
I=aa, 2 very nearly,
where «= the area of the section, and a= the distance of its centre of gravity
from the axis about which the moment of inertia is taken.
(6) The moment of inertia of a square is the same for all axes passing
Fig. 7.
250
REPORT — 1865.
through the centre, whatever may be the in-
clination. Thus
where 1= the length of the side.
And for a square hollow girder of uniform
thickness, T i n* 7 *\
where l x = the length of the interior side.
(7) For a parallelogram CEFG about any axis AB passing through
the centre,
I = T \K{1 2 sin 2 (0, + 6) + e 2 sin 2 flj, Fig. 9.
where Z=CG=EF; e=CE = GF; E= area of
parallelogram; 0=angle GCE, 1 =angle B, the
angle which the side CE or CE produced makes
with the axis of moments.
When 0=90°, or the surface becomes a rec-
tangle,
(8) For angle-iron AMRFE about any axis
NO,
where Z=AM=MR, Z 1= =EF=FL, x, x l = the
distance of the centres of the squares MC and
FC respectively from NO. Fig. 10.
(9) If A and B be put for the moments of
inertia of a surface about its two principal axes,
perpendicular to each other respectively, then
the moment of inertia of the surface about any
axis passing through the centre will be
I o =Acos s 1 + Bsin 2 1 ,
where t is the inclination of the oblique axis
to the principal axis corresponding to the mo-0 c ST
ment of inertia A.
(10) For a plate KB in the form of a quadrant, about the axis NO parallel
to the radius CB,
I= TB { r\^ + 4e^-r l \r^ + 4e') } +§<r*-r 1 s ). Fig. 11.
where r is put for the external radius of the plate, r t
for its internal radius, and e is put for the distance of
the axis NO from the radius CB.
When the thickness of the plate is small as com-
pared with its distance e from the axis, then
I=lK(r 2 +4e 2 )+f<r 3 -r 1 3 ).
Section IV.
To find tlie Moment of a Complex Girder, such, as an iron sTiip, composed
of a series of parts.
18. Let a , a l9 a n represent the sectional areas of the portions com-
ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS FOR IRON SHIPS. 251
posing the transverse section of the heam ; a , « 1( . . . . a n the distance of the
centres of gravity of these areas respectively from the upper edge AB of the
section ; Q , Q p Q n the moments of inertia of these areas respectively
about their respective centres of gravity ; h the distance of the neutral axis
of the whole section from the upper edge.
For the neutral axis we have
q g + q lgl + ... +a «, t _l_ n
h= a + a 1+ ....a n 1»A (1)
The distance of the centre of gravity of the area a n from the neutral axis
is (Ji—a n ), and so on to the others; hence we find
I =Q + Q l + . . . Q n +a (7 i -a ) 2 + « 1 (7 4 - a .) 2 + . . . +ajk-*j
= 2"Q„ + SX(^-0% • (2)
where it will be observed that (h—a n ) 2 is always positive.
Hence we have the following general theorem : —
General Theorem I. — If the section of a compound girder be composed of a
scries of sectional areas, the moment of inertia of the whole section, about its
neutral axis, is equal to the sum of the moments of inertia of the different
sections about their respective centres of gravity added to the sum of all the
areas multiplied respectively, by the square of the distance of their centres of
gravity from the neutral axis.
N.B. — It may happen that the moment of inertia Q l of some part of the
section can be most readily found by referring at once to the neutral axis
NO of the whole section ; then, in this case, the value of Q 1 must be added
to equation (2).
19. If Q , Q x be taken as the moments of inertia of the sectional areas
which meet or pass through the line of the neutral axis, or which may have
a considerable depth, as, for example, the side plates of a tubular girder ; and
supposing the. other sectional areas to be accumulated toward the upper and
lower parts of the section of the beam ; then the depths of these sectional
areas being small as compared with their respective distances from the
neutral, axis, Q 2 , . . . ., Q n may be neglected without incurring any consi-
derable error ;
••• Io = Qo + Q 1 + 2X(7*-a„) 2 (3)
And if Q , Q 1 be neglected, then
I =2X(fc-«J 2 (4)
Hence we have the following general theorem : —
General Theorem II. — When the different depths of the sectional areas of
a series of plates, forming a compound girder, are small as compared with
the distance of their respective centres of gravity from the neutral axis, then
the moment of inertia of the whole section is very nearly equal to the sum of
all the areas multiplied respectively by the square of the distance of their
centres, of gravity from the neutral axis.
20. To determine the strength, Sfc, of a tubular learn, ABCD (fig. 12),
composed of a series of cells AF, with angle-iron, at the top part, and of
thick solid plates CD at the bottom part.
Here the section of the beam may be divided into three portions, viz. the
cells at the top, the bottom plates, and the side plates.
252
REPORT 1865.
For the position of the neutral axis NO we
have by equation (1), art. 18,
7l =£(«o a o +«!<*, + tf 2 aj, (1)
where a , a v a 2 are the areas of the material in the
sides, in the top cells, and in the bottom plates re-
spectively, and so on.
If D = AC, the depth of the beam, then
7 h =J)-h.
From equation (2), art. 18, we get
I =Q + Q 1 + Q 2 +«„(> t -O 2
+ a 1 (h-* i y + a 2 (h-ccj, (2)
where Q =the moment of inertia of the side plates
about their centre of gravity, Q 2 that of the top
cells, and Q, 2 that of the bottom plates.
If the beam be loaded in the middle and sup-
ported at the ends, then M=|WZ, and
iWZ=M=|l or^I ;
Fig. 12.
W=
4SI
-J or Sk
hi ° \l '
which gives the load corresponding to any assumed value of S or S r
versely S or S x may be determined for any given load, W.
(1) The following is a more simple and practical method of calculating
(approximately) the strength of these beams.
Putting a, rtj for the areas of the top and bottom parts respectively, g, g i for
the distance of their respective centres of gravity from NO, and (i=g-]-g 1 ,
neglecting the side plates, for the position of the neutral axis, we have
a ff= a iffi
And from General Theorem II., art. 19, we get
Io =a 9*+ a i9i*= a 9(9+9i) or a i9,(9+9d
= agG or a^fi ;
.-. M=t«5 , G or j^a^gfi
(4)
(5)
= SaD X |jj or S^D X j±q
(6)
=S«D or SjfitjD nearly,
taking K~. and 'Apr as constants, each being nearly equal to unity.
Here the strength varies as the top or bottom areas multiplied by the depth.
If K be put for the whole section, and taking ~rfr= I -^ — a constant, we
get
M=C(a+a 1 )D=CKD
Here the strength varies as the whole section multiplied by the depth.
When M=5WZ, we get
_ 4SaD 4S,«,D
W= — 7— or
(7)
I
I
(8)
ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS FOR IRON SHIPS.
253
A similar formula may be derived for beams with double flanges.
From the experiments on the model Conway tube we find S x = 16-5 tons ;
hence we have
wJ°p,
(9)
which is the formula usually employed for calculating the strength of these
beams ; where W is expressed in tons, a t being the area of the bottom plate
in inches, D the whole depth of the beam, and I the distance between the two
supports expressed in the same units as D.
In cast-iron beams with double flanges, as derived from the experiments
of the late Mr. Hodgkinson,
W _2KP
(10)
Strength of an Iron Ship.
21. To determine the strength, <fcc, of an iron ship, the transverse section
being represented in the annexed diagram, AB and EF the upper and lower
decks, AD and BD ; the sides down to the bilge, LR, US, SD, &c. a series
of plates, assumed to be straight, forming the bottom, and so on.
Fig. 13.
Or
Ml
Y G 3
F
O
Having divided the section into a convenient number of parts, formulae (1)
and (2), art 18, give the most exact method of calculating the moment of
inertia of the whole section ; where the moment of inertia of each part about
its centre of gravity must be determined, and so on. But the following method
of calculation is more simple and sufficiently exact for all practical purposes.
Put a, for the area of the material in the upper deck ; a 2 for that of the
lower deck ; a 3 for the lower hold stringers ; a 4 for the bilge keelsons ; a. for
the sister keelsons ; «„ for the middle keelson ; a 7 for the keel piece L ; a t
for the plates LB,, LR X ; a 3 for the plates RSjR^ ; a 10 for the plates SD, S 1 D 1 ;
254
REPORT 1865.
a for the side plates AD, BD 1 down to the top of bilge, d being their depth ;
and so on, as before ; the equations (1) and (3), art. 18, 19, will become
-io„
l =Qo+2j a ^- a J 2 = 1 Vo^+2:J « ! (7 i - a J 2
(1)
(2)
where Q is the moment of inertia of the side plates about their centre of
gravity. It will be observed that (Ji — a t J' is always positive.
And we further have
8
M=|l
h
and
' r ^o
S=
m
R ma 2
O, as — f — .
(3)
W
Fiar. 14.
If the plates AE, ED have not the same thickness, then Q, of formula (3),
art. 19, must be retained, and Q and Q x calculated accordingly.
22. If a ship is supported at its extremities, and the load distributed as de-
scribed in art. 10, then equations (6) or (2), accord-
ing to circumstances, will give the value of II in the
foregoing formulas ; or if the ship be supported at
the centre, then equations (10) or (11), art. 12, will
give the value of M, and so on to other cases.
To adopt a more summary though less accurate
method of calculation, let AI) represent the section
of the material of an iron ship ; the flange «, the
section of the materials of the main deck ; the
flange a. the section of the lower deck ; the flange
a the section of the bottom ; a the section of the
material in the side plates or rib, d being the
depth, and so on, as before. In this case equations
(1) and (2), art. 21, become
I
h=^(a u a + a l a. L + a.jt 2 + a 3 a 3 ),
(5)
l^^a^l + a.ih-ccJ + a^h-ccJ' + aXh-aJ + a.Xh-cc.Y (6)
If we take d =~D, the whole depth of the section, « 2 = D, « =^ D, and
a = 0, these formulas become
h=l^a + a 3 )J) + a 2a2 ], (7)
Io=«o{-iVD 2 + ^-P) 2 } + ^ 2 + ^-« 2 ) a + ^^-D) 2 (8)
VTJien the depth and the amount of material in the transverse section are
given, to determine the distribution of the material so that the beam may have
the greatest strength.
23. The first and most important condition of maximum strength is, that
the material should be accumulated, as far as practicable, at the upper and
lower edges of the beam.
In tubular girders, where the material is accumulated at the upper and
lower edges of the girder, the sectional areas at these parts should be in the
inverse ratio of the ultimate resistances of the material in these parts re-»
spectively.
ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS FOR IRON SHIPS. 255
The results of experiments closely confirm the truth of this deduction. In
wrought-iron girders, for example, the bottom section is about fths of the
top section ; and in cast-iron beams the section of the bottom flange is about
6| times that of the top flange, -which is approximately, in the case of cast
iron, the ratio of the resistance of compression to that of extension.
The next condition of maximum strength determines generally the relative
amount of the material on each side of the neutral axis. The principle
upon which this distribution of material depends is this : when the material
at the upper edge of the beam is upon the point of yielding by compression,
the material at the lower edge must at the same time be upon the point of
yielding by extension ; hence
S S. S h ..-.,.
*=V or s;=*- ; (1)
that is, the distances of the neutral axis from the upper and loiver edges of the
beam should be in the ratio of the ultimate resistances of the material at these
parts respectively.
o
If r=o-, and D=the whole depth of the beam, then
£=-^-...(2), and^— (3)
In the case of wrought iron, r=% nearly; that is, the ultimate resistance
of wrought iron to compression is about £ of its ultimate resistance to ex-
tension.
24. To determine the area, a t , of the material in the transverse section of
the upper deck (art. 22) so as to have a maximum strength with a given
amount of material.
The strains on a ship afloat are somewhat different from the strains on an
ordinary fixed girder ; for it is found that the upper part of the transverse
section of a ship when afloat is sometimes subjected to compression and at
other times to that of extension. But of these two strains the former is
generally the more violent. It will therefore be expedient, in calculating the
distribution of the material in the section of an iron ship, to regard the upper
portion of the section as that which is subjected to extension ; and therefore
in this case we should have
A= — —T'
r-fl
Making this substitution in equation (7), art. 22, and putting a -f a 1 + a 2 -f a 3
for K, we get
«i=^- {.(K+«.) D + «*«» } -(«»+«>+««) (1)
If we assume r=l, then this expression becomes
In one of our most approved iron ships, ffl =440 square inches, a 2 =156,
a 3 =490, D=23| feet, a 2 =7| feet, required a v
Substituting these values m equation (1), we find a v or the area of the
upper deck, to exceed 300 square inches. Now in this iron ship the equivalent
area of the upper deck is only about 230 square inches ; hence it appears
that this portion of the ship should be about one-half stronger than it is, in
order to have a proper distribution of the material.
256 report — 1865.
It may not be practicable in all cases to construct iron ships with such a
large section of iron at the upper deck ; yet such should be the distribution of
the material in the section in order to secure a maximum of strength with a
given amount of material.
In the distribution of the material there is another consideration of some
importance ; and that is, that all bodies in the form of beams, whether hollow
or solid, follow the same law as regards a transverse strain, viz. that in a beam
uniformly loaded the strains are always greatest in the middle and progres-
sively diminish to the points of support at either end. These facts arc self-
evident, and show in the case of an iron ship that the same thickness of plates is
not required when working from the centre at midships to the stem and
stern. In fact, they should taper or be reduced in thickness according to
a certain ratio of their distances from the centre till they reach the extremes
at each end. Theoretically this is true ; but in practice we have to consider
how much the thickness can be reduced without danger to the structure, and
in general we may here observe that the reduction should not exceed one-third
between the centres and the two extremes. Or, in other words, if we assume
the strakes or sheathing plates of the bottom and round the bilge to the height
of the interior floor, or one-fifth of the depth, to be seven-eighths of an inch,
it then follows that their thicknesses may be safely and progressively reduced
to five-eighths thick towards the bow and stem. The same reduction to
five-eighths may be made from that point, one-fifth of the depth, to the
neutral axis of transverse strains, or about halfway up the ship's side, when
they shoidd again increase to seven-eighths thick for the top strakes at the
deck, on each side, where they have to perform the office of stringers and
columns under the action of the two forces of tension and compression.
From these remarks it is obvious that a careful distribution of the material
is a consideration of great importance in ship-building ; and although it may
be necessary in some constructions to deviate somewhat from the absolute
rule, yet it is nevertheless essential that the law of strains should be carefully
observed, and weak parts sufficiently guarded against.
Section V.
On the Penetration of Iron Armour-Plates by flat-faced tempered Steel Shot.
25. The experiments conducted at Shoeburyness seem to warrant the con-
clusion that, in firing at strong armour-plates with cast or wrought-iron shot,
about one-half of the effect is lost in distorting or in breaking up the shot
itself, and, further, that with steel shot of tough temper nearly the whole
of the work stored in it is expended upon the plate.
Mr. Fairbairn's experiments on punching led to the following general laws
relative to the resistance of iron plates to a force tending to rupture them : —
The diameter of the punch being constant, the pressure requisite to pro-
duce rupture varies, approximately, as the thickness of the plate.
"When the thickness of the plate is constant, the pressure requisite to pro-
duce rupture varies, approximately, as the diameter of the punch.
And, generally, the pressure requisite to produce rupture varies as the
thickness of the plate multiplied by the diameter of the punch, or, what
amounts to the same thing, as the area of the shearing surface abraded in
the process of punching ; that is,
Vttrt,
where P is the ultimate pressure in lbs., (the thickness of the plate in inches,
and r the radius of the end of the punch.
3j 'Report BrvaahAsso datum 286
TlaXe 2
Tiew of -portion of fixe S. W. Coast of Malta- from- the Secb, showrna the. relative
-positions of the strata-, fossiUferons Caverns, and. Fault,, with the aXbuviaZ tie,
-posit on flie surface of the depressed land '._ â– Fi j /
B B R r L l mest ™ Miocene Z ™ e " f Fmdt -marked ty — K™ and sliekensides C.Z.of Ditto. ,
ult / ? T , , -r . T-MTosiium* of the three Caves cnt.nn.m. eazovi* pfSUpha* '
VA^nsis.mppopvtcrna .Won ,hfi of A as recorded Man 4 Debris of the, Cave L Mahik Cure
j.llluvium am] breccia cantouim,, remains of E Mehtensis. 6 Modem AHumon coverma 6 hlslet ofFOfla
pmposed a, 6u ^per Limestone ffaeValak Cave Wppopotanu* Mvoxus &,. Z Mi£& late fyJaZrWOmte
Jrvuola Land .shells &c. 3 Urudira love Elephas Mutmsis MvoaZis &c. ' mauensu
Section of the coast showiru, the positions of the Middle and
Mn.ndra Caves with reference to the downthrow and
/psnUferous deposit thereon . sJStSZT
-cr?_
i. Islet of FJil.i composed of the,
cpi>ei- limestone
B Drecda and red earth corvtaaana
remazns of X:JXeitensis
' '/,■,/, j „ Mln yuan coverings
D. Bent and contorted Strata
conse</uent cm die {LownHhro-w
R. Section of Middle Carte
F. Section, of Mruztihra Cave
.rjVXriri-e fcuZp\
«*»
x&
w&l
3 $â– * Report British Association 186S
Tla-tf- S
A, Superficial drift containing trace*? of II vacus 3Iclitensis , and, masses of Ore parent rock,
/Lower Limestone ,_B , Shelf of Stalactite containina land shells , teeth andhcmes of th, lain,
Bodent Mvo.nts 3Ielitensis, Elephas Mclitensis ,and Birds hones C, Bed clay and rounded stones
mostly ??i the centre , -with remains similar toB_D, A shelf of Stalactite and rounded stones at
the oottom/JVi Bed loam hcaren of organic remains^. Yellow hand, Ditto G, Reddish black .
loam, Ditto — H Wlate calcareous dnppina witJv a hlack seam an the, tap. Ditto ^The dark,
majkinas indicate where oraanic remains ate found.
Section at the farthest UrnCt of fa &.-a>a.-vation,,Mav 10. 1865 fFu?.4.)
"West East
FCa 5
A, Superficial drift with fragments of -parent rock andremains of Myoazus Mclitensis _]3,
Stalactue of roof — C.Red earth and rounded, stones wim organic, remains, Elephas, Mv, >.rus.
Birds, &c._E,Yellow hand depending fi-orn D a gap in me roof 'with hi 'aclc seams 1& Z above &
helow it_T>,Fossiliferaus deposit similar to C —G.Bardened shelf of Stalagmite wifhrowtded
stones and org ante remains, chiefly Birds-R.Red, loamy devoid, of organic remains— I Band
of ' yellow loam, Ditto- J, Reddish hlack loam, Ditto -K.White calcareous Stalagmite with a
hlack seam on its surface at cc_L, Gaping horizontal fissui-es containing red earth
~XL,£ast corner where the left ramus of the, lower jaw of E. Mclitensis was foxmR .
Fig 5, Ground plan, of Cave, dark lines show the. eartent & course offhefossiUferous hand
Z, The edge of a shelf of rock raider which, the. cave zs supposed, to eavtend inwards.
Enaraved. bv JWLowr\
1 Sgis-
: i
l l ^ ft; ,-- 1 *, . /
â– \
i -'
MALTESE CAVES. 257
Now the work TJ expended in the penetration of a plate by a force vary-
ing as the depth of penetration is expressed by the formula
U=!Px T V;
.-. ~U = Crf, (1)
where the work requisite to penetrate a plate varies as the square of its thickness
nmltiplied by the radius of the shot.
Substituting the value of the constant C, deduced from the experiments
with ordnance, we get
U=24400jA (2)
w v
where TJ= t - — , the work in the projectile at the instant of impact.
Hence we have for the depth of penetration by a shot with a given weight,
size, and velocity,
(3)
-v;
24400?
From this formula it follows that a 100 lb. steel shot of tough temper, 6
inches diameter, with the velocity of 1200 feet per second, will completely
perforate an armour-plate 5 inches in thickness. This result is fairly borne
out by the results of experiments with ordnance.
If 3f inches be taken as the average radius of a shot, then formula. (3)
becomes
*«-*foV& (4)
which may be regarded as a rough approximation of the damaging effect of
shot not differing widely from this dimension.
Maltese Caves. — Report on Mnaidra Cave.
By A. Leith Adams, M.A., M.B., F.G.S.
1. The strata composing the Maltese Islands belong to an early Miocene
period ; and attain a maximum height of about 720 feet above the sea-level.
They consist, from above downwards, of the Upper Limestone, underlaid by
beds of Sand, Marl, Calcareous Sandstone, and last of all, a rather compact
and durable rock called the Lower Limestone. The latter attains its greatest
height on the south and south-west coasts, reaching an elevation of 300 feet
above the sea-level. Several cliffs of this bed contain natural caves, one of
which, the subject of this Report, was discovered by me in 1863.
2. The Maltese strata are all more or less displaced by faults, whilst their
exposed surfaces well attest the denuding effects of bygone atmospheric and
aqueous agencies. This is very apparent in many situations ; indeed the
generally bare aspect of the islands, and the accumulations of soil and frag-
ments of rocks in the fissures and hollows, together with depressions existing
here and there, fully testify to the great changes which the area underwent
during and subsequently to the period or periods when the remains of its post-
tertiary fauna were being buried in those situations.
3. The alluvial deposits of the Maltese Islands consist — 1st, of a calcareous
red clay, containing peroxide of iron, and similar to that of many of the other
islands and along the shores of the Mediterranean ; and 2ndly, a blue marl,
which is obtained from the degradation of the bed of that name, found in situ
1865. t
258 report — 1865.
in the higher parts of the islands. Intermediate varieties of both, consequent
on the destruction of the rock formations, are also common, but it is in the
deposits of one or other of the first two sorts that the remains of the extinct
fossil fauna are usually found. These are generally intermixed with angular
or rounded fragments of the rocks, forming compact breccias or conglome-
rates, which in the caves are often covered up by stalagmitic infiltrations and
red earth ; again, in fissures and hollows, large and loose accumulations of
red soil, stones, and animal remains, huddled together in great disorder, display
states of arrangement clearly referable to aqueous agency, and that of no
common order and intensity.
4. Turning to the caverns, many may be said to be merely water-worn rents
or fissures hollowed out at some period anterior to the introduction of the
deposits and organic remains ; for in many I have examined there existed
communications with the surface by means of either perpendicular or lateral
rents, through which their contents might have been introduced, or at least
water in sufficient quantity to have rearranged any remains that were lying
on the floors of the caves.
5. The subject of this Report I have named Mnaidra Cave*, after a re-
markable ruin of that name in the immediate vicinity (supposed to have been
constructed by the Phoenicians), and also to distinguish it from two other
caves close by, one of which, viz. the "Middle Cave," is situated on a terrace-
cliff within a few yards of the last and about 12 feet below it, whereas the
third, called the " Hippopotamus" " or Malak Cave," opens on the same ter-
race cliff with the " Middle Cave," and is 200 feet distant from the Mnaidra
Cave. The latter stands on the edge of "a steep declivity overlooking the sea
and above-mentioned terrace cliff, and is about 300 feet above the level of the
former. Perhaps none of these caves maintain their original dimensions ; for
although at the time of their discovery each opened independently of the
other, I have since been enabled, in the cases of both the " Malak " and
" Middle Cave," to trace their lower deposits outwards from their entrances
to the edge of the cliff, a distance of from 60 to 70 feet. It will be under-
stood, therefore, that all these caves were situated close together on the side
of a limestone cliff which faces the sea on the south-west coast of the island
of Malta.
6. Nowhere in any of the islands forming the Maltese group is there a bet-
ter illustration of the disturbances that have brought about the present insular
condition of this area than at the point (represented in Plate II.) ; for along
the base of the cliff there runs a fault by which the Upper Limestone of the
series had been let down several hundred feet, and is now submerged, except-
ing a narrow belt that fringes the coast and spreads out into a stony flat west-
wards, whilst three miles out at sea the islet of Filfla forms its " outlier."
On the surface of the depressed fragment, and washed by the waves, are
masses of alluvial deposit and breccia formed of red earth, angular and par-
tially rounded stones, of not only the parent rock, but also the Calcareous
Sandstone and Lower Limestone, besides small portions of a black limestone
rock, nowhere found in situ in the islands. These superficial deposits run up
the incline towards the " fine of fault," and are to all appearance the " talus "
or washings of the slope above the caves. From among this mass of breccia
and loose red earth and stones, my learned friend Dr. Errington, Archbishop of
Trebizond, assisted me in removing the upper jaw and teeth of the " Pigmy
* 'Mnaidra' in Arabic means a "sheepfold," from the fancied resemblance this mega-
lithic circle presents to a " sheep or cattle pen."
MALTESE CAVES. 259
Elephant" (Elephas melitensis), which were found jammed between large
blocks of limestone ; their chipped and fractured condition, together with that
of subsequent teeth and bones found in the same situation, clearly testify to
the rough usage they had sustained from having been rolled along with stones
and earth. The point therefore where the above remains were discovered
was almost directly below the caves, and within a few feet of the sea-
level. It is apparent, moreover, that the remains were deposited at a time
when the depression was either taking place, or at least when it was below
the level of the caves, else how could the fragments of the Lower Limestone
have found their way into the deposit, seeing that the caves are situated at
or about the uppermost limit of the Lower Limestone bed ?
7. Before proceeding to give an account of the deposits of the Mnaidra
Cave, it appears to me requisite that I should describe the chief particulars in
connexion with the contents of the two other caves in its immediate vicinity,
in order that the members of the Association may fully realize all the pheno-
mena presented by the former. This I shall now do as briefly as possible.
8. The Malak Cave was discovered in 1858, but its outlet was destroyed
and deposits disturbed, and the greater portion of them removed before any
geologist examined it. The quarrymen who found it stated to me that it
formed a simple excavation of an oval shape, and had a small opening looking
on the afore-mentioned terrace-cliff. Its roof was seemingly entire (but that
has not been proved). On its floor there was a hard conglomerate formed of
light blue and red clays, intermixed with very rounded and water-worn stones,
belonging to the parent rock only. Throughout this deposit, in great disorder,
were strewn teeth and bones of two species of Hippopotamus, together with a
few bones of large birds. One solitary lower molar of the Pigmy Elephant
was found by me among the debris. It was very much worn, and adhered
to the rounded pebble with which it had doubtless been rolled. This is the
only instance I know where the Pigmy Elephant's remains have been found
in connexion with the Hippopotamus. Not allowing for w r hat had been re-
moved by visitors and lost or destroyed, I counted the straight tusks of no
less than thirty Hippopotami among the debris and in public and private
collections, all I may add, procured from a deposit not exceeding a few yards in
circumference, and certainly not more than three feet in thickness. No traces
of gnawing were noticed on any of the remains I have examined, but many
teeth and bones bore signal marks of having been much rolled. I may here
state that in another deposit of Hippopotamus remains, found many years since
at the entrance of the Melleha Valley, at the N.E. side of Malta (possibly
also in a cave), they presented the exact appearances disclosed by those from
Malak (t\ e. both as to the nature of the deposit and condition of the remains).
Upon the top of the Hippopotamus remains of the Malak was a stalagmite
sparsely mixed with red and blue clays, where abundant remains of the
Gigantic Dormouse (JMyoocus melitensis) had been gradually introduced during
the period that the cave was also being filled by calcareous drippings and soil.
The bones of this rodent were also much broken and mixed in great disorder;
teeth and jaws predominating, and just as I have seen the bones and teeth of
the Egyptian Jerboa strewing the bottoms of caves in that country, after
having been ejected in pellets from the craw of the Horned Owl (Stria: asca-
laphus). So much for the Malak Cave, which, as regards the order and nature
of its organic remains and deposits on its floor, differed entirely from the
Middle and Mnaidra Caves.
9. The deposits of the Middle and also the Mnaidra Cave were very simi-
lar. On their floors at the entrances were found the usual white calcareous
x2
260 report — 1865.
dripping with a black seam on its top, resembling coffee-grounds, and pos-
sibly chiefly consisting of the droppings of Bats. Over this deposit there lay
three feet of a reddish black loam, much hardened here and there by stalag-
mitic infiltrations ; and over this a seam of yellow earth, from half an inch
to three inches in thickness, preceded* by a bed of a brick-red clay, averaging
from 3 to 4 feet, and also interspersed with shelves and hardened masses of
dripping.
So far, as regards Mnaidra Cave, not a trace of organic remains was visible ;
and, excepting in the Middle Cave, two teeth (much worn) of the Miocene
Shark (Careharodon megalodon) (a fossil found in the calcareous sandstone
overlying that in which* the cave existed, and possibly washed out of it), also
in the brick-red clay a jaw of Armenia, closely allied, if not identical with,
A. pratmsis, and frog's bones, both caves seem so far to have been filled up
at the same time, and subjected to exactly the same influences. The Middle
Cave continued to receive red earth slowly until within 6 feet of its roof,
where a shelf of stalactite, containing abundance of recent land shells, bones,
and teeth of the Gigantic Dormouse, marked a period of prolonged tranquillity,
which was again broken by an influx of red earth to within 3 feet of the
roof, when the stalagmite filled it up. There was no appearance of fissure on
the roof of this cave, but it had many lateral rents ; I did not, however, pene-
trate beyond a few yards on account of the great difficulty in working the
deposits ; I could see, however, that at no period in the history of the filling
up of this cave was there any evidence of a large body of water having
passed down it.
Turning back to Mnaidra Cave, it was now very clear that a decided
change had taken place in the mode and nature of its deposits ; for on the
afore-mentioned shelf of stalagmite, and about halfway up, were rounded
water- worn pebbles, interspersed among the red earth and calcareous infil-
trations. Here were found many fragments and a few entire teeth of the
Elephant, together with abundant remains of birds' bones of large dimen-
sions, and teeth and bones of Myoscus melitensis. As the adit was being
pushed inwards the fossiliferous deposit increased from 4 to 6 feet in thick-
ness, and ran along the eastern wall, where it changed to a blue and red clay
in nodides, whilst here and there depended masses of stalactite and dripping,
in which were also found many Elephant's teeth and bones, associated with
land snails of such species as Helix aspersa, H. candidissima, H. vermimlata,
H. aperta, Bulimus decollatus, Clausilia syracusana, &c. As the tunnelling
proceeded inwards another yellow seam began to appear about 4 feet from
the bottom of the fossiliferous stratum, and to increase in depth until at the
distance of from about 45 feet from the entrance it suddenly deepened and
ran towards a depression on each side, and near the roof of the cave, where
it measured 4^ feet in thickness. It was composed entirely of the same
ochre-yellow earth as the underlying stratum before mentioned, and like it
was totally devoid of organic remains ; moreover, from the manner in which it
rose towards the opening on the side, there can be little doubt that it had
been either partially or wholly introduced into the cave through the above
epening. Although no alluvial deposit of the same description now exists
in the surrounding area, there is every likelihood that it was obtained from the
breaking up of the yellow variety of the calcareous sandstone, which has been
entirely denuded from the surfaces around the cave, and for a little distance
inland. On this yellow band lay another black seam, which thinned out on
* [The author probably means ' succeeded.'— Cr. Busk.]
MALTESE CAVES.
261
elevated parts of the floor, but was several inches in thickness in the hollows.
Large pillars of stalactite depended from the roof, and one central mass at
the furthest limits of the adit, with its lower end resting on the black seam,
seemed to divide the cave into two parts. On the eastern side of this pillar
there was a deposit of black earth lying on the seam, through which ran a
stratum of organic remains fully a foot in depth, rising upward towards the
above-mentioned gap on the side of the cave near the roof. In this corner,
and on a surface not 2 feet square, lay the left ramus of the lower jaw and
tooth of a young Pigmy Elephant with several detached teeth, one cervical
and six dorsal vertebrae of the animal, besides bats' bones, and bones and
skulls of large water birds, and a vast assemblage of the remains of the Dor-
mouse, together with very perfect specimens of land shells, all huddled toge-
ther among minute fragments and splinters of bones. Poth the deposit and
organic remains in this side of the cave showed clearly that they had been en-
veloped by the slow introduction of the black loam, which was soon hardened
by calcareous drippings, in fact that the pillar of stalactite here divided the
cave into a wet and dry side (Plate III. fig. 4). On the western or wet side
of the pillar very different causes had evidently been at work. The soil there
was loose and mixed with the rounded pebbles of calcareous sandstone, only
the latter were larger than any I had met with before, but like them they
were nearly all hardened by calcareous infiltrations. Among the stones and
clay numerous teeth and fragments of tusks and heads of bones of the Ele-
phant were found. The organic remains seemed most abundant near the
bottom of this fossiliferous deposit, which varied from 6 to 7 feet in thick-
ness, and from 5 to 6 feet in breadth ; but fragments of bones and plaits of
teeth were met with even on the upper limits of the stratum close to the
stalactite of the roof, which was upwards of 3 feet in thickness.
Such was the sequence of the various deposits in the Mnaidra Cave from
below upwards, and for the distance of 54 feet inwards to the limits of my
excavations ; and how much further remains to be seen, as from the great
heat of the weather and the Association's grant being expended, I have
been obliged to defer any further researches until the return of the cold
months, when I propose tracing the fossiliferous stratum to its limits. The
Mnaidra Cave at its entrance measured 22 feet in height, and about 11 feet
in breadth, when it gradually expanded and contracted, expanding a second
time at the termination of the excavation, where its height was about the
same as at the entrance, and breadth fully 13 feet. The sides of the cave
were smooth, excepting where horizontal fissures formed gaping rents, into
which the fossiliferous deposits had been washed, and much water and the
finer portion of the clay introduced. The entire roof of this cave had evi-
dently been cleared away from the entrance to the limits of the explorations,
leaving merely the stalactite, and here and there a portion of the parent
rock, the interstices being filled with soil drifted from the slope above,
and composed of red earth and disintegrated fragments of the rock surfaces
around. In this deposit I found remains of the great Dormouse, which I had
previously met with in the stalactite on the roofs of other caves and superfi-
cial deposits in other situations in the island, all leading towards the belief
that the above-named rodent may have lived on the area up to comparatively
modern times.
10. With reference to the organic remains in this cave, it will readily be
surmised, from what has been already stated, that the most prominent be-
longed to Elephas melitensis and Myoxus melitensis, just as the Hippopotamus
262 report— 1865.
and the latter predominated in the neighbouring cave, with this exception, that
in no instance were the remains of the rodent found in connexion with the
Hippopotamus, whereas they were always intimately associated with bones
and teeth of the Proboscidian, and not only in this cave, but in several other
localities in the island.
11. Of tbe teeth of the Pigmy Elephant, either entire or in fragments, and
guessing what were destroyed by the workmen to be equal to one half, I
surmise that the remains of upwards of fifty old and young Elephants were
brought to light during the late excavations in Mnaidra Cave. They include
individuals of all ages, from the calf to the adult. Many teeth were in
good states of preservation, others were much decayed and broken, especially
the " true molars." The large bones were nearly all reduced to fragments
but vertebra? and feet bones were usually entire. Many articulating sur-
faces of bones had their outer tables removed, and were firmly encrusted
with stalactite, especially the specimens lying on a black seam and among
the rounded freestones. It was clear, however, that they could not have
been conveyed for any very long distance, as will appear from the specimens
I have forwarded for the inspection of the members of the Association.
Among the remains were found certain foot bones not referable, apparently,
to this species, and at present undetermined ; these I forwarded in another
collection, now, I believe, in Mr. Busk's charge*.
12. The remains next in the order of frequency, and even, perhaps, more
abundant than the last, were those of the Gigantic Dormouse (Myoxus Meli-
tensis). The number of bones of this rodent brought to light during our ex-
cavations was almost beyond conception. They embraced all ages, and were
strewn about in great disorder, but were far more entire than any of the others,
or than those I have referred to in connexion with the Malak Cave ; so much
was this the case that I had seldom much difficulty in removing the greater
part of skeletons, which enabled me to determine the relative dimensions of
the animal with accuracy. Eor example, the total length of the skull, taken
from many specimens, averaged in the adult from 2 - 3 to 2-5 inches ; length
of the humerus 1-6 inches; length of femur 2-2. The hind foot from the
extremity of the calcaneum to the tip of the last phalanx of the middle toe
measured 0-7 inch.
13. The avifauna of this cave embraced numerous remains of birds of
various species, differing considerably in dimensions. Some of very large size
were evidently water-birds. The collection I have forwarded for studyf.
14. The Mollusca include the majority of the land-shells at present met
with in the islands. The following have been identified by the late lamented
Mr. S. P. Woodward :—
Helix aspersa. Helix striata.
„ vermiculata. Pmlimus acutus.
,, candidissima. Cyclostoma ?
„ aperta. Clausilia syracusana.
The shells were found in such excellent states of preservation in the " Mid-
dle Cave," and with the rodent's remains in the " Malak," also with the jaw
* [So far as I have been able to determine these bones, they all appear to belong to one
or other of the small Elephants. — Gr. B.]
f [These bones have been subjected to the inspection of Mr. W. E. Parker, who has
detected among them many remains of the Gigantic Swan, which he had already observed
in the collection of Fossils from Zebbug brought by Captain Spratt. — Gr. B.]
MALTESE CAVES. 263
and bones of the Elephant in the corner east of the pillar of stalactite in
" Mnaidra Cave," as to lead to a belief that they had crawled in and had
been enveloped during the gradual filling up of the caves.
15. From the evidences here adduced and other proofs too lengthy in
detail for this Report, it would appear that the lowermost deposits and organic
remains of the Malak Cave were not deposited at exactly the same time
with those of the other two in the vicinity. Its clayey bottom and conglo-
merate, formed solely of water-worn portions of the parent rock, seemed
to indicate that the cave had at one time opened on the side of a river or lake,
which occasionally washed its floor, whereas the lower deposits of both the
Middle and Mnaidra caves show clearly that they were gradually filled by red
earth and dripping from the roofs and sides, until some change in the phy-
sical condition of the surrounding area caused the roof of the Mnaidra Cave
to be in great part removed, when bodies of water either swept the organic
remains into the cave, and beyond it into the breccias and deposits, forming
below on the sinking portion, or else disturbed and rearranged whatever
remains may have been lying on the floor of the cave on the western side of
the pillar of stalactite, leaving the remains on the east side unaffected. This,
however, will become more evident when the fossiliferous deposit has
been worked out, which I am of opinion ought to be done, not only with
the view of ascertaining that point, but in hopes of finding new forms, and
especially remains of the carnivorous quadrupeds which undoubtedly roamed
over the area at the same period with the River-horse and Elephant, as the
bones found by Captain Spratt and others in the cave of Zebbug clearly
show. Every relic, of course, with reference to this point must be in-
teresting ; I therefore take the liberty of forwarding the lower jaw, femur,
and tibia, appearing to belong to the " Common Weasel " (Mustela vulgaris),
removed by me from a mass of clay that had been excavated from the deposit
on the floor of the Zebbug Cave, where abundant remains of Elephas meli-
tensis, &c, were discovered by Captain Spratt in 1859. It is the same
locality described by that gentleman and the late Dr. Falconer at the Cam-
bridge Meeting of the British Association in 1862.
16. Taking into consideration all the facts and probabilities furnished by
careful examination of the Maltese caves, fissures and alluvial deposits, and
the physical aspects of the various localities, I think there can be little doubt
that at a late geological epoch in the history of the Maltese islands large
bodies of water flowed over, at least, the greater part of the island of Malta,
washing whatever soil or organic remains then happened to be lying on the
surface into gaps, hollows, and depressions. No sea-shells have hitherto been
met with in the soils and superficial deposits to indicate that the islands had
been submerged and reelevated ; on the contrary, from all appearances the
last movement to which these islands were subject was a downward one.
Unless, therefore, we suppose the giving way of lake barriers, divergence of
rivers or streams, or the agencies of violent floods and freshets during
changes consequent on oscillations of level, I see no other way of accounting
for the phenomena represented by the above deposits and the fossil remains.
In fact, I opine much the same conditions existed in Malta during the
period of the fossiliferous deposits in Mnaidra Cave and others as obtained
at Gibraltar when the " Genista " Cave was receiving its Pachydermata and
other quadrupeds.
264 report— 1865.
Report of the Gun-cotton Committee, consisting of William Fair-
bairn, LL.D., F.R.S., Joseph Whitworth, LL.D., F.R.S., James
Nasmyth, C.E., F.R.A.S., J. Scott Russell, C.E., F.R.S., John
Anderson, C.E., Sir William G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S.,
Dr. Gladstone, F.R.S., Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S., Prof.
Frankland, F.R.S., and F. A. Abel, F.R.S.
After the report presented by this Committee at the Newcastle Meeting
two years ago, the British Association, through a deputation headed by
General Sabine, drew the attention of the Minister for War to the probable
usefulness of Gun-cotton. In January 1864, the Government appointed a
Committee to investigate the subject in all its bearings. This Committee
consists of General Sabine as President, General Hay, Captain Brandreth,
B.N., Commander Liddell, B.N., Colonel Boxer, E.A.., Colonel Lovell, R.E.,
F. A. Abel, Esq., T. Sopwith, Esq., Professor W. A. Miller, Professor G. G.
Stokes, and Dr. J. H. Gladstone, with Major Miller, R.A., as Secretary;
representing thus the army, the navy, military and civil engineering, as well
as chemical and physical science, and comprising three of the members of
the British Association Gun-cotton Committee. Experiments on an exten-
sive scale, and in a systematic manner, have been carried on by this Govern-
ment Committee, and are still in progress ; but no report has yet been published.
Until that report is made, your Committee have suspended their labours.
On the Horary and Diurnal Variations in the Direction and Motion
of the Air at Wrottesley , Liverpool, and Birmingham. By A.
Follett Osler, F.R.S.
[A communication ordered to be printed among the Reports.]
Anemometkical observations having been taken hourly with considerable
accuracy for several years, and those at Wrottesley, Liverpool, and Bir-
mingham having been recorded on exactly the same principle (originally
commenced by Mr. Hartnup in 1852), I was desirous of tabulating the
results from those stations on a plan which I thought might prove of some
value in extending our knowledge of the motion of the air in these latitudes,
and possibly of developing some further laws bearing on that subject.
Having observed that the hourly records of certain currents obtained from
the integrating anemometer seemed to exhibit some peculiar features different
from those I had obtained from the registration of the force of the wind, I
wished, in the first place, to carry out some investigations on the horary
variations by taking out the amount of horizontal motion instead of the
force ; the records of Dr. Kobinson's integrating instrument have therefore
been arranged in conjunction with those of time and direction, these
registers being peculiarly suited for accurate tabulation, much more so than
those of the force, which are most available for examining storms and sudden
changes and marked variations in the aerial currents.
Besides these hourly results, I desired to investigate the records of the
daily variations in the atmospheric currents throughout the year, with a view
of ascertaining whether indications of any laws could be detected respecting
their periodicity and amount.
Accordingly I applied to Lord Wrottesley, who most kindly placed the
whole of the valuable anemometrical records taken at his observatory at my
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ON VARIATIONS IN DIRECTION AND MOTION OF THE AIR. 265
disposal ; my friend Mr. Hartnup did the same, and furthermore aided me
very greatly by allowing his assistants to tabidate, in the manner I required,
the observations of the direction and horizontal motion of the air as recorded
at the Liverpool observatory. I have worked out the Birmingham observa-
tions on the same plan.
To commence with the horary variations. These extend over a period of
nearly eight years at Wrottesley and thirteen years at Liverpool. The
amount of motion of each wind for each of sixteen points of the compass is
taken note of for every hour, from the daily records, and tabulated for every
month. Commencing with the N.N.E. wind, the number of miles of air
from this point that passed between midnight and one o'clock in the morn-
ing during the month of January in each year is tabulated ; next between
one and two o'clock, aud so on through the twenty-four hours of the day.
February is then treated in the same way, and thus through every month
in the year, for each of the sixteen points of the compass, as shown in
Table L, which is given as an example, exhibiting the amount of motion and
duration of the south wind during each hour in December for each year.
From the mean of the seven years thus obtained, the monthly curves of
horizontal motion for each hour at Wrottesley are projected. See Plate IV.
The means of the separate months are also combined so as to obtain averages
for the seasons and the whole year. In Table II. an example of this is given
in the horary variations in the S.E. wind at Liverpool.
Plate V. exhibits the curves projected from tables so arranged for Wrot-
tesley, and Plate VI. for Liverpool.
Beginning with the N.N.E. (Plate IV.), and proceeding through the
easterly points to S.E., the curves present no very striking features ; in some
months they approach that of temperature, as the N.E. in April, the E.N.E.
in February, May, and October, also the E. in February, May, June, Octo-
ber, and November. The prevalence of winds having an easterly or north-
easterly bearing during the spring and early summer is also seen, but their
particular periods and amount are more perfectly shown in the diagrams of
"Diurnal Variations" than in those which are prepared for exhibiting the
horary variations.
The S., S.S.W. and S.W. currents, or anti-trade-winds, are the next in
order, and exhibit some remarkable features. Independently of the great
and sudden increase in the amount of these, especially of the south, when
compared with any of those from the east, it will be observed that they
exhibit a striking peculiarity in the horary curves ; for while the greatest
amount of air passes from the south before noon, diminishing rapidly for
several hours after noon, with the S.W. the reverse of this takes place, the
greatest quantity passing after noon and the least before — the intermediate
wind, namely, the S.S.W. showing the most in the middle of the day. It
will be observed that the winds on either side of these three, namely,
the S.S.E. and W.S.W., partake of the same peculiarity, but in a less degree,
the former having its maximum in the morning, and the latter in the
afternoon.
The west and north-westerly currents present variations that show the
greatest difference between the amount of air that passes by day when com-
pared with the night, and correspond most nearly with the curve of tempera-
ture. The N.N.W. winds in the summer months, and especially in June
and July, show the greatest extreme, while the winter months indicate the
least difference between the day and night.
266
REPORT 1865.
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ON VARIATIONS IN DIRECTION AND MOTION OP THE AIR. 267
On reference to the diagrams of the Liverpool horary variations (Plate
VI.), it will be observed that the same general character of curves exists as at
"Wrottesley, though the amount of air indicated as passing from the various
points differs considerably. The amount of east and north-easterly winds re-
corded is, however, much less, owing to the observatory being somewhat shel-
tered on that side by the town. The peculiar horary variations which at Wrot-
tesley are exhibited in the S. and S.W. winds, extend at Liverpool from the
S.E. to the W.S.W., the former showing the greatest amount in the morning,
the latter in the afternoon. The extension of these variations over so
many points of the compass forms one of the most striking differences
between the observations taken at this station and those at Wrottesley.
~No doubt the course and valley of the river Mersey lying in a S.E. direc-
tion, also the town of Liverpool situated to the N.W., would have a consi-
derable influence in deflecting these south and south-westerly currents, and
in giving them a more easterly bearing ; though probably there are other
causes in action yet to be discovered.
The west and north-westerly currents show the same peculiarities as to
the difference between the amount of motion in the day and night as at
Wrottesley, and at this station exceed that of any other wind.
The integrating registers for Birmingham having been taken for only
three years and a half, have not been engraved; they present much the
same features in their horary variations as the observations taken at Wrot-
tesley, the only difference worth mentioning being in the great S.W. or
anti-trade-current, which has a rather more westerly bearing at Bir-
mingham than at Wrottesley.
The curves that have been obtained by projecting these integrating re-
cords of horary variations, especially those of the south and south-westerly
winds, differ much from those of force or velocity as given by me in former
papers to this Association, when it was shown that the latter nearly
coincide with the curves of temperature, the greatest force occurring at or
shortly after noon ; but by subjecting the present observations to the test of
velocity by dividing the number of miles of air that pass during each hour
of the day throughout the year, by the number of hours occupied in passing
(see Table II.) it will be found that the law as. to the period of greatest
force or velocity is still correct, notwithstanding that some of the curves
show a larger amount in other parts of the day. These curves are there-
fore interesting and important, as showing that the different currents have
forces acting on them producing horary variations, besides those of acce-
leration from increase of temperature. In the last row of diagrams. Plates
V. and VI., curves are projected on an enlarged scale, showing the horary
variations in the velocity of the air at Wrottesley and Liverpool.
The next series of observations have reference to the amount and direction
of the various winds throughout the year. In tabulating these, it was neces-
sary that each day should be recorded separately, for by throwing together
an arbitrary term of days, as a month or even a week, many important facts
would be lost. The records have therefore been tabulated so as to give the
direction, duration, and amount of horizontal motion of the air for every day
in the year for seven years, referred to sixteen points of the compass. Com-
mencing with the 1st of January in each year, the number of hours that
each current has lasted, and its amount of horizontal motion during the day,
are obtained from the diaries in which the indications registered by the instru-
ments are recorded, and this is repeated in rotation for every day during seven
268
REPORT 1865.
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ON VARIATIONS IN DIRECTION AND MOTION OF THE AIR. 269
years, thus sorting, as it were, all the winds. The mean amount of these is
then taken for each day, as represented in Table III., showing the daily
amount and duration of south wind during the month of January.
From these Tables diagrams are drawn (see Plates VII. & VIII. ), repre-
senting to a scale the comparative number of miles of air that passed from
each point of the compass for every day in the year, taken from a mean of
seven years, the length of the line being in proportion to the length of the
current from each point on each particular day. An approximate meteor-
ological division of the year is thus obtained, having reference to the currents
that pass each station.
When examining these diagrams it is important not to be misled by the
extent of a current that was due to one or two years being mistaken for the
type of a period of years. A space is therefore allotted under each day,
which is divided into seven parts, representing the seven years. One of these
divisions is then marked to indicate the year in which each wind occurred,
the size of the mark having reference to its duration on its particular year.
By these means the prevalence or otherwise of any wind at any period of the
year is at once rendered conspicuous.
The diagrams explain this mode of illustration. Thus at Wrottesley
(Plate VII.*), commencing with the north-easterly and easterly winds, a re-
markable cessation is observable towards the end of January and beginning
of February, again at the end of June, also at the beginning of August and
September, and in the early part of December, while the amount towards
the end of February, and the prevalence in April, and more particularly in
May, often extending to the early part of June, is very clearly shown.
The S. to the W .S.W. winds have their maximum in January, increasing
greatly towards the end of the month. They also prevail in the early part
of April, during the latter half of July, and through the month of August,
and more than any other current in September.
The winds from the W. and N.W. prevail in March, towards the end of
May and in June, especially in the latter half of that month. During the
last four months of the year currents from these points are exceptional.
On reference to the diagram representing the diurnal variations of the
wind at Liverpool (Plate VIII.), it will be observed that there is the same
cessation of the easterly and north-easterly winds at the end of January and
beginning of February as at Wrottesley, also at the end of June, &c. The
times of prevalence also occur about the same periods. The S.E. and S.S.E.
winds, however, correspond to the periods of the S. and S.S.W. at Wrot-
tesley, and the S.S.W. and S.W. at Birmingham.
The W. and W.N.W. winds prevail with considerable regularity in March,
also at the end of April and beginning of May, again at the end of May, and
particularly at the end of June, extending into the early part of July, and
at the end of August and first portion of September. The diagrams show
better than any written description the features of each current.
The last row of diagrams in each of the Plates VII. & VIII. represents
the mean amount of horizontal motion of the air, without reference to direc-
tion, for every day in the year — projected on the same scale as the separate
winds. From these it will be observed that a considerable amount of mo-
* In Plate VII. a, the portions of Plate VII. which exhibit the duration of each wind
on every day throughout the seven years, are brought together in such close juxtaposi-
tion, as to give a comprehensive view of the periods of prevalence of each wind during
that term of years at Wrottesley. The points from N.N.E. to S.S.E. are repeated.
270
REPORT 1865.
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ON VARIATIONS IN DIRECTION AND MOTION OF THE AIR. 271
tion takes place throughout the year, and that no period can he regarded
as calm. The early part of January is, however, much calmer than might
he expected, while the latter portion of that month and beginning of
February are just the reverse, as is also March. The great increase ob-
servable in the portion of the diagram that shows the amount of motion of
the air that passes Liverpool at the end of June and beginning of July, is
due to the very strong W., W.N.W., and north-westerly currents at that
period of the year. At Wrottesley the same currents exist, and at the same
period, but their violence is so much diminished as not to disturb the general
averages.
These observations seem to indicate, both from the diagrams of each day
as well as from those exhibiting the horary variations, that there are three
principal currents or groups of winds that may be classed together. First
the north-easterly, prevailing mostly in the spring, and also appearing in
the autumn. Whether they may be regarded as a temporary extension of
the trade-winds will require further observations to determine. They possess
some of the characteristics of that wind.
The next group is the great south and south-westerly current, or anti-
trade-wind, the peculiar horary variations of which and periods of greatest
motion have already been referred to.
The currents from the N.W., including those from "W. to N.N.W., form
the last group.
Although the north-west and south-west groups are in many respects
distinct from one another, yet they often blend so much that it is not pos-
sible to draw a definite line between them.
Further observations on a more extended scale are required to define with
accuracy the periods of prevalence or otherwise of the various currents, and
to determine many interesting points regarding their course and action,
which can now be only dimly shadowed forth. It is, however, hoped that
what has here been done will aid in showing the importance of keeping a
constant record of the movements of the air over as large an area of the
earth's surface as can with convenience be arranged. The geologist, whose
researches also extend over the whole earth, finds in the great globe itself a
vast registering instrument, where the changes that he is studying have been
permanently written, enabling him at his leisure to examine its records, and
refer to periods so immeasurably distant that he may, by reversing his train of
thought, have glimpses of eternity. The meteorologist, on the contrary, finds
himself lost by reason of the ephemeral nature of the forces and conditions
which he has to deal with ; he requires all the artificial appliances that can
help him, to take note of and record the various changes that occur ; but of
all the conditions, there are none more important than those of the great cur-
rents of the atmosphere. A knowledge of the quarter from which the air
arrives at given points on the earth's surface, and the duration of the current,
will be a key to its various conditions of temperature, humidity, weight, and
all the other features it may possess ; while to trace it onward, over a large
area, will materially aid in unravelling the secrets of the producing causes,
and the laws that determine its course.
272 report — 1865.
Second Report on the Physiological Action of certain of the Amy I Com-
pounds. By Benjamin W. Richardson, M.A.,M.D., F.R.C.P.
At the last Meeting of the Association, I read before the Physiological Section
a " Report on the Physiological Action of Nitrite of Amyl." On that occa-
sion the members were good enough to express a wish that I should continue
the inquiry. The present Report is the result.
In accordance with the desire of the Committee, I have in this Report
carried out a more general enquiry. Instead of confining myself to one spe-
cial body in the amyl series, I have taken several of them, viz. amylene or
valerene as one of the simplest of the type, amylic alcohol, acetate of amyl,
and iodide of amyl.
I hope, from the researches I have made, to leave in the hands of the
Association a fair history of the physiological value of all these compounds.
Before proceeding further, permit me to invite the attention of the Section
to a very brief summary of the facts brought forward at our last Meeting,
in 1864, respecting the nitrite of amyl. I showed then that nitrite of amyl
was —
1. The most powerful excitant of vascular action known.
2. That in animals whose bodies admit of its spontaneous evaporation,
the nitrite suspends animation ; and that in animals of higher organization
it induces a condition resembling cataleptic insensibility.
3. That it is not an anaesthetic.
4. That the effects produced by it are developed on the motive powers of
the organism, which it first vehemently excites, and then paralyses.
5. That it arrests the process of oxidation.
I shall not trouble the Section with further observations in detail on this
compound, inasmuch as the report upon it, as a whole, is published in the
Transactions of the Association. I pass therefore at once to the other
compounds of the amyl series.
Amylene.
The substance called amylene was first separated by Balard, of Paris,
twenty-one years ago. It attracted but little attention until 1856, when
Dr. Snow having read of it, and learned theoretically its composition and
physical characteristics, came to the conclusion, on theoretical grounds only,
that it was possessed of anaesthetic properties. In process of time he ob-
tained some of the fluid ; he found that his theory proved correct in prac-
tice, and he was so satisfied with the action of the substance, that he em-
ployed it as an anaesthetic in 238 cases. M. Giraldis, of Paris, also em-
ployed it in seventy-nine cases. I used it myself in connexion with Snow
in three cases, and many other physicians and surgeons' used it also. For a
time, indeed, it seemed that amylene would in the end take the place of
chloroform, but the promised success was marred by the occurrence of two
fatal cases, from its inhalation, in the hands of Snow himself.
Since that period, (July 30, 1857, date of the second fatal case,) amylene
has fallen into entire disuse. Snow during the last year of his useful life
'returned to chloroform, and I have occasion to know, from my intimate
friendship with him, that the occurrence of the fatal accidents caused him
as much anxiety as surprise. It has been suggested since Snow's- death
that the specimen of amylene which he used was not pure, but was in fact a
compound of various substances. This may be true, but it is certain that
he had used the same specimen successfully in other cases, and I have experi-
ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OP CERTAIN AMYL COMPOUNDS. 273
mented on animals with a little that remained from the same store, without
producing any dangerous symptoms.
I introduce amylene to notice in this place, because it not only links itself
naturally with the series, but is, in fact, a proper body of the series from
which to date observations as to variation of action.
Amylene is made by acting on pure fusel oil or amylic alcohol with
chloride of ziuc ; it has also been obtained, together with hydruret of amyl,
by the action of zinc on iodide of amyl. In the distillation of the amylene
other products are almost certain to pass over, and I think I am right in
saying that the substance has never been obtained actually pure for physio-
logical purposes. It ought, -when quite pure, to be neutral to potassium,
and to preserve that element from oxidation ; but, as far as I am aware, this
degree of purity has not been secured. The liquid has an oily character,
and an odour compared by most persons to raw whiskey. It boils at the
temperature of the blood, 98° Fahr. ; it is soluble in alcohol and ether to any
degree, it is soluble in water to the extent only of one part in 9319, and the
specific gravity of its vapour, according to Snow, is as low as 2--I5. As a
fluid it is nearly colourless. It is composed of two elements, C 10 H 10 .
Antiseptic Properties. — Like the nitrite of amyl, amylene is antiseptic ; if
dead tissue be placed in the pure vapour of amylene securely it remains un-
changed, but the great difficulty consists in retaining the vapour in the
• vessel. If 60 grains of amylene be placed in a jar having a cubic capacity
of 80 inches, the ox-ganic substance to be preserved being previously put into
the jar, sufficient amylene may be diffused by the warmth of the hand to
enable the specimen to be kept in preservation. Animal tissues in amylene-
vapour do not gelatinize as in ammonia ; they become soft, evidently from
the action of water retained in them, but not offensive. Decomposed animal
tissue placed in vapour of amylene does not become less offensive, although
the process of putrefaction is for a time arrested.
Amylene preserves blood from putrefaction so long as it is present in the
mass. During the past weeks of extreme heat I have retained blood un-
changed in my laboratory by simply treating it, from time to time, with
sufficient amylene to render the odour of the substance detectable. After it
has been for a time in contact with blood in a closed bottle, the odour evolved
resembles rosemary so closely as not to be distinguished from it.
Effects on Flowers. — Amylene prevents the decomposition of fresh flowers,
but it is not applicable as a preservative, owing to the change it produces in
colour. The leaves pass from green to a dirty brown, the yellow colour
grows slightly dingy, and the red fades. The colour least influenced is
yellow.
Physiological Effects on Living Organisms. — Amylene does not in any de-
gree irritate either the skin or mucous membrane ; it acts feebly when exhi-
bited by the mouth or by injection under the skin. It is by inhalation only
that we can bring out its actual properties.
I have administered amylene in vapour to dogs, cats, guineapigs, and
men. The symptoms presented in all are in the main the same. There
is not the terrific excitement of the circulation which is seen when the
nitrite of amyl is used, but there is some excitement, and there is quick
inebriation.
This is followed by powerlessness of the limbs, and sudden collapse and
coma, with total insensibility to pain, but not always, and indeed rarely,
with an equivalent loss of consciousness. In one case I saw a person who
was under amvlene, and entirely senseless to a severe surgical operation,
1865. v
274 report — 1865.
talking with considerable correctness on the topics of the day, seizing ob-
jects with precision, and showing scarcely a perceptible gradation during re-
covery from mental inebriation to perfect and sober consciousness. In a psy-
chological point of view this fact is doubly interesting, for the expression of
consciousness is but a semblance. The person on recovery does not remember
the period when, to the bystander, he seemed as wide awake as one unaf-
fected. To test this phenomenon I myself inhaled amylene alone, and, before
inhaling it, made up my mind that I would test for sensibility by pinching
my hand. I inhaled, sitting in an arm-chair, 10 grains of amylene from a jar
holding 100 cubic inches of air ; the air was thus charged with rather more
than 13 per cent, of amylene-vapour ; this quantity is small, except it be
inhaled backwards and forwards in the manner I then followed, when the
action is quickly decisive. Soon after inhaling I forgot myself altogether,
but four minutes from the time I took up the jar I was quite conscious again,
waking as if with a start. Ah ! I thought, this experiment will not do ; the
amylene acts so quickly that there is no interval during which a man may test
his own sensibility ; but turning now to my wrist, I found I was wrong in
this suspicion, for there were deep marks of pinches in several places ; and
further, the bottle containing the amylene-vapour had been replaced on the
table with the stopper firmly adjusted, as I had intended. Thus I had, in
fact, been performing acts of consciousness preconceived and carefully carried
out without remembering any single fact connected with the process.
I have seen a phenomenon nearly similar under chloroform, but never so
marked as under amylene-. Snow had an experience of the same in kind.
During a severe operation on a child under the influence of amylene, the
child was playing with a ball, throwing it into the air, catching it with pre-
cision, and talking and laughing the while.
I presume that there is not one hearer present who, quite irrespectively of
the special subject of this report, will not, on contemplating the pheno-
menon just cited, be struck with the facts adduced. It is clear that the
human mind, through its manifestations, may exhibit a mere objective con-
sciousness apart from the ordinary subjective consciousness of daily life. It
may exhibit a consciousness of which it is itself unconscious, and this under
the mere influence of a volatile liquid obtained from common potato-starch,
and which mixes so indifferently with blood at 96° Fahr., that one part only
will combine with 10,550 parts of blood.
Have we any analogous phenomena apart from experiment, and spon-
taneous or natural like this ? You will all anticipate me when I say yes,
there is the very counterpart in somnambulism. The somnambulist is in pre-
cisely the same state as the experimentalist under this amyl-compound : he
pursues acts of consciousness of which he is not self-conscious ; he presents to
us, i. c, mere objective consciousness. Have we not here a key to the hitherto
mastery of sleep-walking and acting ? I will not say it is certain, but the
evidence is as clear as inferential evidence can ever be, that persons who are
subjects of somnambulistic movements do, through some abnormal process of
digestion or respiration of the starchy elements of food, produce in their
own organisms by their own organic chemistry, an agent which, like amy-
lene, destroys remembrance, and perhaps judgment and reason, but which
leaves the brain still able to act and to direct the limbs to do things which
they could not do better in the most wakeful hour.
One might linger long on this subject, but I must leave it after noticing
yet one other peculiarity of what may be called amylene dreaming. It is
this, that during the period of insensibility the mind is capable of carrying on
ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF CERTAIN AMYL COMPOTJNDS. 275
certain proceedings upon winch it was predetermined. We have a similar
phenomenon to this in our daily range of experience, in the fact that we can
under pressure go to sleep determining that we will wake at a certain time,
and do so almost to the minute. In both these cases it seems as though
the dark sleep were pierced by one pervading conscious gleam of light
which obeys the orders it has received, and watching the slumbering spirits
around it, calls them forth into activity at the proper time, and then itself
dies away.
The insensibility produced by amylene is very complete but exceedingly
transient ; recovery after the vapour is withdrawn is sudden, and it is
therefore necessary to keep up the effect by constant inhalation of large
quantities of the vapour. Between the period of full sensibility and com-
plete insensibility there are three well-marked stages. The first is one of
mild excitement, during which the face becomes red and injected; then a
period of staggering inebriation ; and thirdly, a period of collapse and insen-
sibility. Snow added a fourth stage of entire muscular relaxation, but I
have myself not been able to follow it. During narcotism from this agent there
is no convulsion, but not unfrequently there is a peculiar tremor of the muscles
very general, but, if I may use the term, minute. Carried to an extreme,
the vapour kills animals. The only structural peculiarity found after death,
is engorgement of the right side of the heart. The lungs are healthy, and
the blood is unchanged in its general physical properties. I would dwell
on this last fact with emphasis in order to correct an error made by the
reporter on amylene to the Academy of Medicine of Paris, to the effect that
amylene removed the red colour from arterial blood, whereas chloroform does
not. This is a mistake, founded obviously on an inference derived from imper-
fect observation. When amylene is added in quantity to arterial blood drawn
from the body, it does unquestionably produce darkness of coloiir ; but in the
living animal, during its exhibition by inhalation, no such event occurs ; for
I have taken the blood from artery and vein, and have compared the specimens.
The colour of both bloods is normal, the period of coagulation is natural, and
the corpuscles are unchanged.
Owing to the fact that amylene is feebly soluble in water, and therefore
feebly soluble in serum of blood, a very large percentage of it requires to be
inhaled before any effect is produced. Snow estimated that the air must be
charged with 40 per cent, in order to produce entire insensibility, and in
fact he under- estimated the quantity by working on water at a temperature
of 56° instead of 96° Fahr. I find that, instead of 40, 50 per cent, of the
vapour actually is required. But as the blood at its ordinary temperature
can only absorb ju-jjy-g-th part of the vapour of amylene, it cannot, even in
an adult man, receive at any time more than from 4| to 5 grains. It is
clear, too, from the rapidity with which recovery takes place, that the fluids
of the tissues receive but feeble impregnation.
In order to institute a physiological comparison, I tried the effect of the
analogue of amylene defiant gas. Olefiant gas is the hydruret of acetyle,
but, like amylene, it is a pure hydrocarbon ; its composition is different only
in one respect, viz. that it is composed of four equivalents of carbon and
four of hydrogen. As I had anticipated, the action was nearly the same ;
to produce perfect insensibility, 50 per cent, of the gas was required in inha-
lation. The effects also were transient.
The effect of amylene on the muscular tissue was studied in various
ways. As will already have been gathered, it reduces the muscular power,
but the effect is not abiding. In fact amylene approaches the class of
v2
276 report — 18G5.
negative narcotics, and enters into no chemical combination with the tissues.
This fact led Dr. Snow to say that in action it almost resembled nitrogen.
I should myself rather compare it to carbonic oxide ; only that carbonic
oxide produces convulsive movements and vomiting, which amylene rarely
does.
When an animal has died from amylene, the peculiar odour of the sub-
stance may be detected in the tissues for many days. This circumstance
may seem at first sight to be opposed to the statements already made re-
specting the feeble absorption of tbe vapour by the blood. However, there
is no contradiction ; the phenomenon is due to the circumstance that amy-
lene possesses the power of charging water with its own odour and taste
when in extreme division. This fact was observed by Snow with his usual
precision. "Amylene," he says, "requires 9319 parts of water for its
solution ;" and, he adds, " the water which has dissolved this small quantity
of amylene tastes as distinctly of it as amylene itself." I notice this pecu-
liarity, as it might happen some day to be of service in medico-legal inves-
tigations.
Ajitiic Alcohol.
Amylic alcohol, the hydrated oxide of amyl, is obtained in the fermenta-
tion of potato-starch or starch of grain. It is an almost colourless fluid,
and boils at 270° ; its density is 0-818. Its smell is sweet, nauseous, and
heavy. In composition it difiei's from amylene in that it contains oxygen ;
its chemical composition is C 10 H 12 2 . Its solubility in water is about the
same as amylene.
In action it resembles amylene in being antiseptic, and in changing the
colour of flowers and plants. It acts on the body, whether administered by
the mouth or by inhalation, but it is most effective when inhaled in minute
subdivision from an atomizer.
Administered by inhalation in small quantities, it produces in the first
instance signs of irritation of the nostril and then of drowsiness, but there
is no anaesthesia ; if the inhalation be continued, and the quantity increased,
the symptoms of coma or sleep are more fully developed, but without any
insensibility, and with almost immediate recovery on the animal being re-
moved. Pushed further still, the animal sinks on its side and loses the use
of the limbs. At last the coma becomes very profound, and it may be intensi-
fied up to the point of insensibility. At this stage of the process, and some-
times a little before it, a peculiar symptom is developed, viz. a universal
tremor, accompanied with a very deep inspiration. There is no spasm, no
pain, no rigidity, but in medical language rigors of an intense kiud. These
rigors ai~e soon established in regular rhythm, and by maintaining the expe-
riment cautiously, they may be kept up for several hours. I have seen them
for one hour at the rate of sixteen in a minute as regularly as possible, and
by reduction of the agent have lowered them to twelve, eight, and four per
minute. All through the breathing is tranquil and the action of the heart
good. The rigor occurs spontaneously in this manner, but it can be excited
at any moment by touching the animal or blowing upon it, or even by a
sharp noise, such as the snap of the finger. When the animal is reduced to
entire insensibility, if it be laid in the open air, it begins to recover its sensi-
bility at once, but the power to move is suspended for two or three hours,
and the rigors also continue, but with decreasing force and frequency.
Ultimately the animal recovers thoroughly, and is always very eager for food.
When these urgent and, as they would seem, extreme symptoms are carried
ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF CERTAIN AMYL COMPOUNDS. 277
to their full extent, even an experienced observer would think that recovery
were impossible ; but in truth the animal cannot be killed by any fair play
with this vapour. In order actually to kill, it is necessary to complicate the
experiment by actual reduction of air, or by closing the chamber and retain-
ing the carbonic acid of the breath. Aniylic alcohol produces a crenate and
slightly shrunken condition of the blood-corpuscles, and the red blood is
slightly darkened by it, but no change is produced in the property of coagu-
lation. The odour of the substance remains for many hours in the tissues.
The oxide has little action on the skin.
Acetate op Amyl.
The acetate of amyl is made by distilling together 1 part of potato oil, 2 of
acetate of potassa, and 1 of concentrated sidphuric acid. The distilled fluid is
washed with alkali, and distilled from chloride of calcium. It boils at 272°.
Its composition is C 4 H 3 3 .
Acetate of oxide of amyl is a compound of oxide of amyl with acetic acid.
It is a clear fragrant fluid, and is sold for flavouring purposes under the name
of essence of pears. It acts like the other preparations in preserving organic
substances.
Physiologically the effects of the acetate of amyl may be induced feebly by
subcutaneous injection, or by administration by the mouth, but best by inha-
lation from the atomizer. It is very pleasant to inhale, and produces scarcely
any irritation. "When inhaled by an animal, it produces the very same sym-
ptoms as amylic alcohol ; indeed these are so closely alike, that I could not by
mere observation of the symptoms tell which agent was being employed. It
is quite possible to induce perfect insensibility to pain by this agent. The
rigors, so remarkable as regards their regularity of occurrence, are presented
in marked degree ; a touch or noise calls them into action, and the paralysis
of the voluntary muscular system is complete ; but by itself the acetate does
not destroy, and I have held an animal under its influence for ten hours with
perfect recovery afterwards.
I have inhaled the vapour myself in proportions varying from fifteen to
twenty-five per cent, without any unpleasant symptom. It slightly quickens
the action of the heart, and it produces a little irritation of the throat, such
as follows the inhalation of vapour of vinegar, but, on the whole, the effect
is pleasant. After a short time there is a gentle sensation of drowsiness, but
no loss of sensation nor of consciousness, no faintness, no nausea, but a slight
tremulousness of the muscles, the same unquestionably as the tremor which is
seen in the more determinate manner in the lower animals.
The acetate of amyl does not interfere with the process of coagulation of
the blood, but it renders the blood darker in colour, and the corpuscles are
made irregular and crenate. The odour of it does not remain long in the
tissues. The acetate exerts a feeble action upon the skin, causing some vas-
cularity and soreness when long applied.
Iodide of Amyl.
The iodide is made by distilling together 15 parts of potato oil, 1 of phos-
phorus, and 8 of iodine. It volatizes, without being decomposed, at 294°.
The iodide of amyl is a compound of amyl with iodine. Its composition
isC 10 H n I.
It is a slightly pinkish liquid, the odour is less agreeable than that of the
acetate of amyl, but is more pleasant than that of amylic alcohol. It rapidly
changes the colour of flowers and plants, and although it is an antiseptic
278 report— 1865.
when brought into contact with dead organic material, it is much less activo
in this respect than any of the compounds which have up to this time been
before us.
The physiological action of the iodide of amyl is well illustrated when
the substance is administered with the atomizer, but it may be admi-
nistered by direct inhalation. The symptoms induced are peculiar, being a
mixture of those brought out by the nitrite of amyl, the hydrated oxide and
the acetate. In the first stage of inhalation there is a profuse flow of
tears and increase of saliva, followed by rapid breathing and vehement action
of the heart. In the second stage there is prostration of the muscular
system with commencing rigors ; in the third stage there is entire prostra-
tion, and precisely as with the oxide and acetate, there are regular series
of general tremulous movements which can be excited at any moment by
touching or by a sharp noise. During the tremor the limbs are agitated in
movements which are so rapid that they cannot be counted. Pushed to
a fourth degree, the breathing becomes paralysed, and the action of the heart
intermittent and at last prolonged. But at this last degree, when extinction
of life is within a second, there is no insensibility to pain. The merest prick
causes expression of consciousness. Removed from the vapour, even when
the existence of life is almost doubtful, recovery, if there be the faintest de-
tectable action of the heart, is certain, and not only so, but it is rapid also.
In the course of recovery the tremors quickly subside, but a special and
curious phenomenon is commonly presented, consisting of a series of revolu-
tions of the body in a circle. At first the animal moves round almost on its
own axis ; as it regains power, it makes a little circuit, and then a wider
one ; at length it moves less methodically in jerks, and last of all attains the
straight line. It seems at no time to suffer anything, and yet always to be
alive to what is passing. It eats food voraciously on recovery. I shordd
add that during the whole process there is copious elimination of water from
the lungs, skin, and indeed all the cniunctory organs.
If the blood be examined microscopically before, during, and after the in-
halation, several changes are observed. The colour of the blood is not
darkened, but tbe fibrine appears to imdergo entire solution, while the blood-
corpuscles in greater part retain their natural characteristic form. The
dissolved condition of the fibrine lasts many hours, and if the skin be pricked
the blood flows for an unusual time, but it is bright red in colour. When
added to drawn blood, the iodide renders the coagulation loose and feeble, but
does not stop the process altogether, possibly because its molecules do not
come into such minute contact with the blood as when they are brought into
union with the blood in the lungs. The upper surface of blood charged
with the iodide becomes oxidized quickly in the air, and exhibits a bright
red layer very deep and regular. '
The iodide causes little irritability of skin or of mucous membrane. It is
not disagreeable to inhale, but it excites secretion of saliva. It also produces
vascular redness of the extremities during its inhalation.
In regard to the whole of the amyl-compounds, the properties of which
I have investigated, I may state that, while they destroy the voluntary power
of the muscles, they seem in no way to destroy the muscular irritability, the
vis insita of Haller. This is proved by the facts that when the animal lies
most prostrate any muscle or any group of muscles can be called into brisk
action by the application of the galvanic stimulus, and that when an animal
is actually destroyed by them, the muscular irritability remains for many
hoiu-s after death. When the nitrite is employed as the destructive agent,
ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF CERTAIN AMYL COMPOUNDS. 279
the muscular irritability of the heart is retained in some cases for so long a
period as eighteen hours; hence I think it follows conclusively that the
influence of the poison is exerted mainly on the nervous centres, and that the
stimulus to muscular action or the tension of force derived from those" centres
is simply reduced or withdrawn. I conceive also it is another fair inference
to suppose that the compounds exert their influence first on those portions
of the nervous organism from which the motor power, as apart from the sen-
sory and conscious, is derived.
Before closing this descriptive section of my report, I would add that, in
the experiments to which attention has been drawn, dogs, rabbits, and guinea-
pigs were the animals subjected to observation. To make the experiments
strictly fair, to forbid any suspicion to the effect that the differences or even
the analogies observed were due to peculiarities of the animals, one animal,
a strong guineapig, was subjected at intervals of ten days to the extreme
action, short of actual death, of the various compounds submitted to exami-
nation.
Practical Conclusions.
It remains for me now, in a few short paragraphs, to sum up the lessons
which are taught by these experiences.
I. — In the first place, something is added to our knowledge of therapeutics
or rational principles of remedies. This is hardly perhaps the place to descant
on special remedies for the treatment of disease, and I shall forbear on this
point ; but I may state generally that, according to present knowledge, none
of the amyl-compounds can be said to replace either ether or chloroform as
anaesthetics : amylene, the best of the series, is known not to be free of
danger, and it is less manageable than chloroform without being devoid of any
of the objections of chloroform, except the one, that it does not so often
produce vomiting. This advantage, though most important, is after all insuf-
ficient as a single favourable recommendation.
But there is one direction towards which our minds cannot fail to be di-
rected, and following which we may expect useful results in a therapeutical
inquiry, — I refer to the application of these substances as remedies in certain
convulsive and spasmodic diseases, in which the symptoms are obviously in-
duced by morbid sensibility or excitability of the motor tracts and centres of
the nervous system. "When we know that in these agents we possess reme-
dies which produce lessened action of the motor force resident in nervous
matter, but which at the same time affect the consciousness in a secondary-
degree only, and do not affect the muscular irratibility at all, we cannot but
be impressed with the feeling that they would largely control the nervous
excitation in cases where that is dangerously and fatally called forth. I
refer more particularly to cases of tetanus or locked jaw. Here I think it
would be rational to bring these agents into requisition as remedies, and
comparing the agents one by one, and after studying carefully their effects, I
should conclude that the iodide of amyl would on the whole be most pro-
mising. It has the advantge of being readily administered by inhalation ;
it produces less muscular excitement than the nitrite, and it is, I believe,
chemically a safer preparation ; it does not so determinately check oxidation
as the rest ; it promotes secretion ; it is more permanent in its effects than
amylene, and it is less persistent than either the acetate or the amylic alcohol.
In a case of hopeless tetanus I should have no hesitation in administering
iodide of amyl until decided reduction of nervous excitability was indicated,
280 report — 1865.
nor do I doubt the possibility of sustaining such reduction of irritability for
several hours.
The iodide of aniyl might possibly also be found useful as a means for
bringing forth the medicinal virtues of iodine itself in the many cases for
which that element is now, under other forms, so usefully employed. It
would make, for example, an excellent embrocation for glandular enlarge-
ments, and would come in efficiently in other ways, as will occur to every
medical practitioner. It is unnecessary, however, to dwell on these matters;
having pointed out the physiological bearings of the question and framed the
institute, I leave the practice to experience.
II. — In the second place, a lesson is taught by these researches relative to
the possible cause, or to some allied cause, of certain diseases as yet most
obscure in reference to their causation. I showed last year that the nitrite of
amyl produced a condition of system closely allied to the disorder known as
catalepsy. On this occasion I have indicated that another of these compounds
produces symptoms analogoiis to those which characterize the disease known
as sleep-walking or somnambulism. But it will further occur to the mind
of the philosophical pathologist that hysteria and certain sudden and as yet
unexplored forms of paralysis of voluntary muscular power, following peculiar
dyspeptic derangements, admit of explanation on the hypothesis of a perverted
animal chemistry, and the formation in the organism itself of a substance
made from the same organic material and approaching in character one of
these amyl-compounds. If, as we know is the fact, a peculiar fermentative
process of amylaceous material out of the body leads to the production of the
base of the amyl series, it is hard to avoid the thought that in the body,
where the zymosis of amylaceous matter is a constant process, no similar per-
version should occur.
III. — The last lesson suggested by this research relates to the modifications
of action exhibited in animals by charging them with the same chemical base
but with diverse compounds of the base. A very shrewd and profound
question was asked me last year by Dr. Heaton of Leeds, when my report on
the nitrite of amyl was read, to this effect : — Is the action of the compound
due to the base, or to the compound' as a whole ? I was unable then to
answer that question properly. Now I can answer it; and I do so by
saying, that in the midst of the phenomena observed the base amyl is, if I
may use such an expression, the key-note, but variations are introduced as
new elements are added. The order of variation is most interesting. Vo
take a simple hydrocarbon, the hydruret of amyl, and we have an almost ne-
gative body acting not unlike nitrogen and destroying motor force and con-
sciousness partly but no more. AVe introduce the element oxygen into the
inquiry by using the hydrated oxide of amyl or the acetate, and there is
added to the above-named phenomena violent and persistent tremor. AVe
move from this to another compound, and bring iodine into the field, and the
phenomena now embrace free elimination of fluid from the body, vascularity
of the extreme parts with increased action of the heart and of respiration.
We change the combination once more to bring nitrogen and oxygen into
operation with the base, and the vascular action is raised beyond what is
seen from any other known substance, to be followed by a prostration so pro-
found that the still living animal might for a time pass for dead.
It seems to me, but I put out the thought with the profoundest sub-
mission, that in these experimental truths, so simple and yet so striking,
ON THE LINGULA-FLAGS OF SOUTH WALES. 281
we have presented to our minds a new line of therapeutical inquiry run-
ning somewhat parallel with that line of inquiry so prominent amongst our
learned and more exact brethren of the Chemical Section, which they follow
under the term " the law of substitution." I would ask, — Is there not a
physiological law to be worked out similar in character ? and might we not by
looking into it become more sure and determinate in our knowledge and
application of medicinal remedies ? "What if, after having learned the exact
action on the economy of the organic bases, we followed the chemist, and
by taking the compounds moulded on those bases, we learned their true phy-
siological vahies '? Surely, if we did this, long though the labour should be,
we might in time venture to lay down.
" This osier cage of ours
With baleful weeds and precious juiced flowers" —
and without forgetting the words of that wise friar, whom we of physic still
so blindly follow,
" Oh rnickle is the powerful grace, that lies
In herbs, plants, stones, and their true qualities,"
might begin to approach to that accuracy of knowledge, the absence of which
makes us so weak and the charlatan so presumptuous ; the possession of
which makes the other physical philosophers so proof against presumption
and so proudly certain in their stupendous knowledge.
In conclusion, were I a youth, just entering one of the best professions, I
should be glad to devote my first years simply and solely to the branch of
therapeutical research which I have here so faintly sketched out. As it is,
I can but feel fortunate in that, supported by the fostering care of this Asso-
ciation, I have been enabled to do even so much as turn the first sod in this
great and novel field of labour, — I mean the investigation, physiologically, of
the organic chemical compounds on a plan that aims at least at a principle in
science, however obscurely it may have been propounded. To say I shall be
happy to do more, and again to lay what I may have done before this Section,
is to say the least I can in return for the kind consideration I have received
at your hands.
Report on further Researches in the Lingula-flags of South Wales.
By Henry Hicks. With some Notes on the Sections and Fossils,
by J. W. Salter, F.G.S., A.L.S.
The district to which the following Eeport refers, and for the examination of
which a grant was made at the Meeting of the British Association last year,
is in the N.W. of Pembrokeshire, and in the immediate neighbourhood of
the city of St. David's. The principal section occurs to the S. and S.E. of
St. David's, along the north coast of St. Bride's Bay. It is, moreover,
bounded by two well-marked faults, which run up in a JsT.-westerly direc-
tion, and which serve rather to isolate it. One only of these faults is marked
on the Survey Map, that forming its eastern boundary, and which may be
seen running up almost immediately behind the now well-known creek of
Porth-y-rhaw, and which cuts off the upper and principal part of the Middle
Lingula-flags, leaving only a few hundred feet to rest conformably upon the
Lower Lingula-flags. The western fault occurs directly to the south of
St. David's, at a place called Nun's Well, and just at the spot where the
Conglomerate and lowest Cambrian beds are exposed on the coast line, so
282 report — 1865.
that within the boundary of these two faults we have an exposed section of
all the Lower Cambrian beds, the whole of the Lower Lingula-flags, and a
part of the Middle Lingula-flags, following one another in true succession.
I have taken three parallel sections across the hue of strike, as follows : —
1st. Caerbwddy section, to the west of Porth-y-rhaw, including nearly the
whole of the Lower Cambrian beds exposed in this neighbourhood, and above
400 feet of the Lower Lingiila-flags.
2nd. Porth-y-rhaw section runs along the east side of that creek, and in-
cludes the uppermost beds of the Lower Cambrians, and nearly the whole of
the Lower Lingula-flags.
3rd, or Cradle Rock section, includes the remaining beds of the Lower Lin-
gula-flags, and the Middle Lingula-flags as far as they are exposed here in
true succession. It extends from a point inland of Porth-y-rhaw to the
Cradle Rock — the latter an islet about midway from Porth-y-rhaw to the
mouth of Solva Harbour. The first, or Caerbwddy section, cuts across the
beds in a direction from N."W. by N. to S.E. by S., and includes about 1980
feet of conformable strata, comprising, in ascending order, —
Syenite.
Fine-grained shales, altered.
feet.
1. Some Conglomerates (chiefly quartz pebbles in a purple ( kq
base) |
2. Greenish sandstones in thin beds 280
3. Purple sandstones, massive 8(30
[ A variable series. Yellowish sandstone and ) > Lower
4. Upper Grey J shale in thin beds, and grey grit, with ( ,~ Cambrian.
series . . 1 purple bands in thick beds, a few beds f '
( of purple slate among them J
)a. Hard grey compact beds 100^
b. Black and dark grey striped shales, with I Upper
interbedded trap 330 ( Cambrian.
1980
The lowest third, or base of the fossilifcrous scries, is especially worth
notice, as resembling very nearly in lithological character the immediately
underlying Lower Cambrian beds, and distinguished from them only by the
absence of the purple bands. It must be understood also that the absence
of these bands by no means contradicts us in assigning these fossiliferous
beds (No. 5 a) to the upper portion of the true Lower Cambrian or " Harlech
Grit" series, since many beds of the immediately underlying series are as free
from purple colour as are any of these. Purple and red beds, moreover, are
not found to be favourable for the exhibition of organic traces. In the true
purple beds (No. 3), and, indeed, in the whole of the Lower Cambrians of this
district, worm tracks only have as yet been found, though it is to be hoped
that the presence and true position of the Ohlhamia will also be determined
here ere long.
As we ascend from the coarse-grained compact beds already mentioned,
the beds gradually become darker in appearance, of a finer grain, and more
flag-like ; the dip is very high, and often vertical.
The 2nd, or Porth-y-rhaw section, extends along the east side of that
creek, in a direction from N. by E. to S. by W., includes about 700 feet of
strata, nearly all fossiliferous, and shows the most perfect section of the Lower
Lingula-flags anywhere exposed in this neighbourhood.
It begins in the Grey grit, or lowest fossiliferous beds (5 a), and upon
ON THE LINGULA-FLAGS OF SOUTH WALES. 283
these, in ascending order, lie the Grey flag with black bands, and the true
black beds (5 b), all well marked, and easily traced through their transitional
states into one another. The passage, moreover, is quite perfect. The upper
part of this section contains a thick bed or two of trap, — a circumstance com-
mon throughout the Lingula-flags in this district, as also occasionally in the
Upper Grey series of the Lower Cambrian, though I have never seen it occur
lower down. Mr. Salter has found it abundantly in the same beds in North
Wales.
The 3rd, or Cradle Bock section, is a continuation of the second. The first
beds in this section are the thick sandstone ones which terminated section 2;
and upon these we have thin alternating beds of sandstone and shale of a
dark grey colour, fossiliferous, and occupying a thickness of about 250 ft. ;
next, a series of beds still dipping in the same direction for about 450 ft., and
composed of grey flaggy sandstone in thin beds, alternating at first with dark
grey or black shale, and afterwards -with yellowish shale. These last are
evidently the base of the Middle Lingula-flags. After this the beds curve into
a synclinal, which is again repeated about 600 ft. further on, so that but a
portion only of the Middle Lingula series is in consequence exposed here.
The general section thus sketched includes about 3000 ft. of conformable
strata, and may well be looked upon as the typical section. Several other
sections are also exposed inland, and along the coast, but in no case do we
find one so continuous or uninterrupted by faults. Again, all others that I
have examined, and which I may say include all the chief Cambrian masses
exposed in N.W. Pembrokeshire, tend in every case to prove the facts exhi-
bited clearly in this one. In most cases I have found the lithological charac-
ters of the beds, the thicknesses of the various series, and the fossils, when
present, to tally in every particular with this section.
In section 2, or that of the east side of Porth-y-rhaw Creek, we meet with
all the principal fossil types. By means of a fault, the purple-stained beds
(4) are immediately followed by a set of beds, excepting in colour, appa-
rently identical with them, hard Grey grit (5 a) in thick compact beds, which,
as in the first section named, appear to be the top of the Lower Cambrian.
In these beds, and within a few feet of true purple beds, I found a new
Parado.rides, now named P.Aurora ; associated with it a new Conocori^he, of
large size ; a new TJieca, a LinguleUa, an Obolella, and fragments of Agnostus
and JIurodiscus. Unfortunately the first two are very fragmentary as yet,
but there is quite enough to pronounce them new ; and the Paradoxides is a
very peculiar species. Fragments of these lowest fossils are also found in the
creek to the west of Porth-y-rhaw, and through which I have taken section 1 ;
and at two or three other places, where they hold exactly the same relation
to the underlying purple beds, and to the series above. Though the purple
band series have not yet yielded any definite traces of these higher forms of
fossils, we arc scarcely, I think, warranted in looking upon that as proof of
their absence ; neither is it, I think, likely that so rich, though limited, a
fauna should come so suddenly into existence. About half a dozen only of
the lowest beds are distinctly fossiliferous, the succeeding 150 ft. having
yielded scarcely any traces as yet, though we may expect to find them.
These last beds are much lighter in colour, being a grey grit, and having
only a few narrow dark bands. Rather abruptly the beds now become darker
in colour and of a finer grain,— a dark-grey flag. In these we meet with
Parad. Hiclcsii, not a new species, but one described already as P. Forchham-
meri, from some unknown locality in North Wales, according to the testimony
of my colleague, Mr. Salter, who has been trying for the last twenty years to
284 report — 1865.
find out the true position and locality of this fossil. Associated with this
second species of Paradoxides are three or four other trilohites, two or three
shells, &c.
From this point the beds become still darker in colour, black, flag-like,
and slaty beds, full of fossils. A small cavern marks a good line for these
highly fossiliferous beds, and here we meet with numerous new species, and
even genera, which are not found elsewhere. The beds between the cavern
and the traps are the chief repository of our species ; and I will mention
more particularly as occurring there two or three new species of Sponge, a
Cystidean or two of undescribed form, several minute Braehiopoda, which
range through a considerable space, and a host of trilobites, of which the
more conspicuous genera are Agnostus, Microdiscus, Conocoryplie of four or
five species,'a new genus tEvinnys, allied to Harpides, a new genus Holo-
cephalina, and last of all, the great Parad. Davidis, already well known to
British geologists. It sometimes attains the length of 18 inches.
The genus Theea here, as elsewhere, accompanies the primordial fossils ; it
is in considerable abundance, and of two or more species.
Prom a Table which contains the distribution of the fossils in these beds,
and which has been carefully drawn up according to observations made by
Mr. Salter and myself during the last three years, we are enabled to observe
how that many of these species were very short-lived, whilst others on the
contrary ranged through considerable spaces, more particularly the smaller
species, such as Agnostus, Microdiscus, Lingulella, Obolella, &c. This Table
also shows altogether 6 or 7 new geneva of trilobites and about 16 species,
and with brachiopod and pteropod shells, Cystideae and Sponges, an addition
â– within the last three years to British palaeontology of about 33 new species.
Notes on the Sections and Fossils. By J. W. Saltek, A.L.S.,F.G.S.
I find but little to say regarding the fossils, my friend and colleague having
forestalled me, and completed in a masterly way the section I roughly
sketched out in 1862. The district around St. David's will soon become
popular, as it exhibits the most accessible section of the Cambrian rocks,
Lower and Upper, to be seen anywhere in "Wales. Those in the estuary of
the Ffestiniog valley are perhaps more complete, but are not seen, except
partially, in coast sections ; and nowhere in one continuous series. More-
over, lying at lower angles of dip, they are extended over a much greater
space.
Of the following list of 33 species— an ample fauna for the purpose —
I may say at once, there are none common to other horizons of the palaeozoic
group, and as the thickness of the series is considerable, 3000 or 4000 feet,
we only follow the precedent of older and better geologists by proposing a
new name. The classic name of the district is Menevia, and we propose
that the term ' Menevian' should stand for the Lower, as the ' Ffestiniog' of
Prof. Sedgwick already stands for the middle and upper groups of the Lin-
gula-flags. The 'Menevian' group, therefore, rests immediately on the
'Harlech' or Bangor group of Prof. Sedgwick, and passes imperceptibly
into it.
The Cambrian groups will then stand as follows : —
( Tremadoc group (Upper and Lower).
Upper Cambrian (Lingula-flags) < Ffestiniog group (Lingula-flags).
( Menevian group (Lower Lingula-flags).
( Harlech group (Grey grits and purple beds).
Lower Cambrian •! Longmynd group (sandstones and conglome-
( rates).
ON THE LIXGULA-FLAGS OF SOUTH WALES.
283
Fossils of the ' Menevian group,' or Lower Lingula-flag.
Upper Grey series.
Lower Cambrian.
Black Slate series.
Base of Upper Cambrian.
Lower Lingula-flags.
#
Davidis
—
Lingulella unguiculus
""^â„¢ "
1
This list will surely he increased. But it may serve already to show the
near resemblance the group bears to other parts of the Lingula-flag or Upper
Cambrian series in some points, and the wide difference in others. ATI the
species are distinct. Many of the genera are only known here at present,
e. g. Paracloxides, Microdiscus, Anopolenus, Erinnys, Holocephalina, and the
peculiar sponge, Protospongia. The Cystidean may be different from others.
But we cannot yet prove this, though it seems likely.
In beds higher up in North Wales Olenus is found. But of this more
hereafter.
The " Menevian group" is distinguished by possessing the largest and
smallest of Trilobites — those with the most multiplied segments, and those
with the fewest. Paradoxides, Erinnys, and Olenus are the opposites in every
respect of Agnostns with 2, and Microdiscus with 4 segments to the body.
Indeed Erinnys (if it can be thoroughly separated from Harpides, which we
doubt) has nearly the greatest number of free segments known in the order,
more than Paradoxides ; but probably fewer than Harpes.
* The length of the lines indicates the range of the species, long or short, as the case
may be.
286 report — 1865.
"We have here a larger proportion of blind Trilobites, and those without
facial sutures, than in higher formations. Agnostus, Microdisms, and Erin-
nys are destitute of facial suture, and probably of eyes. HolocepTudina seems
to have been furnished with very minute eyes, so far out as nearly to be lost.
And Anopolenus, while it has immense eyes, has a most singular restriction
in the development of the free cheeks, and is in many respects abnormal.
The Braehiopods are such as we were led to expect. Minute and almost
rudimentary forms of Lirigulce and Discince, with some kindred genera, form,
with Theca, the whole of the shells. The Sponge seems to be a peculiar form ;
yet not so different from the Silurian ones as at first supposed. The fibres are
very rudimentary in structure. The Cystidean is as yet imperfectly known.
Perhaps the most curious point about this fauna is the greater resemblance
it bears to the Bohemian primordial group than is borne by any other
member of the Lingula-flag. Tbe Paradoxides which mark several distinct
horizons here, are not known in the Upper Lingula-flag. The species of
Conoeoryplie resemble Bohemian and Spanish types. Erinnys or Harpides
is like the Bohemian species. Holocepludina resembles Arionellus, &c.
If from such scanty indications we may judge anything, it would be that
the Bohemian primordial group represents our Lower, and not our Upper
Lingula-flags. These last are rich in (Menus, a genus absent altogether from
Bohemia, but abundant in Northern Europe. It is accompanied, according
to Angelin, by Paradoxides in Sweden. But with us, the genera follow a
very regular order. Paradoxides appears first, Anopolenus second, and then
various species of Olenus last.
Several of the forms above catalogued (Microdiscus, Erinnys, &c.) are
found in beds' of the same age near Ffestiniog in North Wales ; and the great
Paradoxides Davidis occurs in black slates on the same horizon at the gold-
mines of Dolgelly, North "Wales (see Decades, Geol. Survey, No. 11, PI. 10).
We have included in our list those species found in the uppermost grey beds
of the Lower Cambrian ; but all may for the present be included provisionally
in our ' Meneviaw group.
Report of the Lunar Committee for Mapping the Surface of the Moon.
By W. R. Birt, at the request of the Committee, consisting of James
Glaisher, F.R.S., Lord Rosse, F.R.S., Sir John Herschel, Bart.,
F.R.S., Professor Phillips, F.R.S., Warren de la Rue, F.R.S.,
President of the Royal Astronomical Society, Dr. Lee, F.R.S., Rev.
W. R. Dawes, F.R.S., Rev. T. W. Webb, F.R.A.S., J. N. Lockyer,
F.R.A.S., H. S. Ellis, F.R.A.S., and W. R. Birt, F.R.A.S.
The first object of the Committee appointed at Bath in the year 1864 was to
prepare forms suitable for the registration of lunar objects, for recording
original observations, for facilitating the formation of a catalogue, and for
computing the coordinates of the positions of objects. The results of the
labours of the Committee are now presented to the Association in the shape
of Form No. 1, for recording observations ; Form No. 2, for facilitating the
arrangement of objects in a catalogue ; Form No. 3, for recording the posi-
tions, extents, heights and depths, brightness and alignments of lunar objects,
with descriptions, synonyms and references to existing authorities ; and Form
No. 4, for computing positions of the second order. The annexed form is
that for recording general observations of the moon.
ON MAPPING THE SURFACE OF THE MOON. 287
[Form No. 1.] British Association for the Advancement of Science.
Observatory,
General Observations of the Moon, made at the
By
Telescope
Eye Piece
Tear and
Month.
Day.
Hour.
Subjects of Observation.
Estimate
of
Brightness.
Symbol
of
Reference.
No.
This Form is intended to be bound in volumes for use in observatories. It
contains the usual columns for registering the year, month, day and hour of
observation, a "wide column for the reception of the observations themselves,
and two additional columns, one for the registration of the brightness of objects,
the other for receiving a symbol of reference on which a word or two in ex-
planation may be appropriate.
Whatever object may be the subject of observation, either physical or
micrometrical, as soon after the observations as may be convenient, the pro-
per symbol of reference which is described in Form No. 2 is to be inserted in
the last column against the name or description of the object observed ; and
as Form No. 1 is intended as a chronological record of observations of all
kinds, the entries in this column will indicate the proper sheets of Form No. 3,
in which the data obtained by observation are to be entered. Employing a
commercial simile, Form No. 1 is the day book, Form No. 3 the ledger, and
Form No. 2 the directions for posting.
A vast amount of detail having reference to the moon's surface has been
accumulating since the time of Hevelius, but up to the present period a
systematic arrangement of the objects discoverable on the surface has not
been attempted ; for although Beer and Madler in their " Der Mond " have
arranged the descriptive part of their work in quadrants, commencing with
the north-west and ending with the south-west, it embraces only the most
conspicuous objects ; numerous features, some even of large extent, are
entirely passed over, and indeed those which have been noticed by Beer and
Madler form a very small portion of the objects that may be detected with a
telescope even of small aperture, or an object glass of two or three inches
diameter. It is also not a very easy matter to arrange objects on the moon's
surface, inasmuch as they are unlike those celestial objects which have been
arranged in catalogues. The fixed stars, double stars, variable stars, and
nebulae find a natural arrangement in the order of right ascension ; not so the
objects on the moon's surface ; it is true they are invariably situated with
regard to the central meridian of mean libration, but to arrange them in the
order of selenographical longitude east and west of the central meridian, it
is necessary that the position of each should be rigorously determined, a
work that still remains to be done, and it may be many years before it can
be accomplished.
In order to meet this desideratum, the Committee have drawn up and
issued the following Form (No. 2) for facilitating the arrangement of a cata-
logue by means of symbols ; and in accordance with it more than 1000
objects are now symbolized and entered in Form No. 3.
288
REPORT 1865.
[Form No. 2.] British Association for the Advancement of Science. — Lunar
Committee. — Table of Areas.
Zones and Limiting Latitudes.
Limitingj
I. II.
III. IV.
V. YI.
VII. VIII.
longitudes.
0° to 5°.
5° to 10 3 .
10° to 15°.
15° to 20°.
o o
Oto 5
A«
A^
A*
A*
5 „ 10
A/ 3
A 2
AP
AP
10 „ 15
A X
A 9
K
A"
15 „ 20
A*
A 1
. A*
A T
20 „ 25
A e
A K
A
A v
25 „ 30
K
B«
B*
B*
30 „ 35
B^ 3
B 2
B/»
BP
35 „ 40
BT
B 9
B*
B*
40 „ 45
B"
B l
B*
B r
45 „ 50
B e
B K
B°
B"
50 „ 55
0«
d
C*
CH-
55 „ 60
C/ 3
c 2
a*
OP
60 „ 65
ci
c 9
on
c
65 „ 70
c°
&
c5
c r
70 „ 75
C E
C K
c°
C"
75 „ 80
D«
D?
D*
D 71-
80 „ 85
dP
D 2
D/ 1
DP
85 „ 90
D7
B 9
D"
T> a
a
b
c
d
Limiting
IX. X.
XI. XII.
XIII. XIV.
XV. XVI.
longitudes.
20° to 25°.
25° to 30°.
30° to 35 
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