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Biers
eat

REPORT

OF THE

PieeninTy-NINTH MEETING
ARH EMO.
i YP

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

OF THE

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE:

' HELD AT F

EXETER IN AUGUST 1869.

i "LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
i 1870.

PRINTED BY

TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET,

CONTENTS.

Oxssects and Rules of the Association............ 02 seer ee eeeees xh
Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement ............-. Xx

Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from com-
MPSALESLL ETS os) ooo. cic)o6 susscias stays secre [ici oo a]s ctacele eleuettte et ehe 4) ers) 'e" XXV
MEL CE LILO Fy 35). ot, fs rei vik 'w, pi aiiaties bee cso) 8o: Ayer, pe brey oto reab le dio a moe XXXIV
@eetares to the Operative Classes .........55.6.fe0 cece ebeecies XxXxvi
Officers and. Council, 1869-70 «1... see cece eee eee ees XXXVii
_ Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at previous Meetings .. xxxvili
BRU HBHEGTSSCACCOUM. 5°) ¢ x's os vo S etnMOtel « leMelere Bele OB\e dre toh 6 ee eye xl
Oificers of Sectional Committees... 2... ccc eens eee es ecennene xli
Report of the Council to the General Committee ..........0.000, xlii
Report of the Kew Committee, 1868-69 .......... ccc cece eens xliv

Recommendations of the General Committee for Additional Reports
mnd Researches in Science .. 0.4... .65i ect eer e eee erenes oeds lxxy
Memopsis Of Money Grants ©. i ics. eee ec fee tne ob hee eecnees lxxx

_ General Statement of Sums paid on account of Grants for Scientific
RM orca sa RA r Stale enc aes ys" Sic sopelsiin © virial is < nies seatn os lxxxi
Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee ............ lxxxyii
Arrangement of the General Meetings ©........-:.ee eee eeeeee lxxxvii

Address by the President, Professor Stokes, D.C.L., Sec.R.S. ...... Ixxxix

REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE.

Report of a Committee appointed at the Nottingham Meeting, 1866,

for the purpose of Exploring the Plant-beds of North Greenland,
a2

iv CONTENTS.

consisting of Mr. Rosrert H. Scorr, Dr. Hooxrr, Mr. E. H. Waymerr,
Dr. E. P. Wrieut, and Sir W. C. Truveryan, Bart...............

Report of a Committee, consisting of Mr. C. W. Merrtrrrezp, F.R.S.,
Mr. G. P. Broper, Captain Doveras Garon, F.R.S., Mr. F. Garon,
F.R.S., Professor Ranxryz, F.R.S., and Mr. W. Frovpn, appointed to
report on the state of existing knowledge on the Stability, Propulsion,
and Sea-going Qualities of Ships, and as to the application which it
may be desirable to make to Her Majesty’s Government on these sub-
jects. Prepared for the Committee by C. W. Merrrriztp, F.R.S. ..

Report of the Committee appointed to consider and report how far
Coroners’ Inquisitions are satisfactory Tribunals for the Investigation
of Boiler Explosions, and how these Tribunals may be improved, the
Committee consisting of Wirtram Farrparen, C.E., F.R.S., LL.D., &e.,
JosEPH WuuitwortH, C.H., F.R.S., Joun Prnn, C.E., F.R.S., Jonw
Hick, C.E., M.P., Freperick J. Bramwett, C.E., Tuomas Wessrer,
Q.C., Hue Mason, Samurt Ricsy, Wittram Ricwarpson, C.E., and
LE AAV INGRONDREE TCHR OB 008. cccc.e sinc oo ereleleceie ale eee

Preliminary Report of the Committee appointed for the determination of
the Gases existing in Solution in Well-waters. By Dr. E. Franx-
LAND, F.R.S., and Hrersert M‘Leop, F.C.S. (Reporter, Herserr
IME AOD A) P aystetararavolMeTe Stee cvole and ta fetch ave) ee fale tollesl, AMIE tla ne eon

The Pressure of Taxation on Real Property. By Freprrick Purpy,
Principal of the Statistical Department, Poor Law Board, and one of
the Honorary Secretaries of the Statistical Society................

On the Chemical Reactions of Light discovered by Professor Tyndall.
By-Protessor Morrun, of Marseilles .:\.......2 Ts. ose eee

On Fossils obtained at Kiltorkan Quarry, Co. Kilkenny. By Wu. Her-
sone ley warpage Oedl Pause Ne CAs ei we eNO CE

Report of the Lunar Committee for Mapping the Surface of the Moon.
Drawn up by W. R. Brrr, at the request of the Committee, consisting
of James Guaisuer, F.R.S., Lord Rossz, F.R.S., Sir J. Herscuen,
Bart., F.R.S., Professor Purties, F.R.S., Rev. C. Prrrewarp, F.R.S.,
W. Hvueerns, F.R.S., W. Grove, F.R.S., Warren Dr La Roz, F.R.S.,
C. Brooxr, F.R.S., Rev. T. W. Wess, F.R.A.S., Herr Scurpr, Ad-
miral Manners, President of the Royal Astronomical Society, Lieut.-
Col. Stranex, F.R.S:, and W. R. Bret, F.R.AS. 2.2.2.2,

Report of the Committee on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron. The
Committee consists of F. A. Azer, F.R.S., D. Fores, F.R.S., and A.
MiATTHTESsEN, BRS. Nok retio. tee Se i sci Re) rr

Report of the Committee appointed to explore the Marine Fauna and
Flora of the South Coast of Devon and Cornwall.—No. 3. Consisting
of C. Spence Bats, F.R.S., T. Corntsu, Jonaraan Coucn, F.LS., J.
Gwyn Jerrrrys, F.R.S., and J. Brooxtye Rowz, F.L.8. Reporter,
CG. Spence BATER ZF Ue hiked ch eh ek ee Le eee

Report on the practicability of establishing “ A Close Time” for the
protection of indigenous Animals. By a Committee, consisting of

Page

CONTENTS. Vi

Page
F. Bucxianp, Rev. H. B. Trisrram, F.R.S., Tecrrmerer, and H. E.
MerareR (IMEPOTLCr) 6. 2. ee ee Me oe ve ee nelales oe oe 91
Experimental Researches on the Mechanical Properties of Steel. By
eR AEBATRN, Vila. D., FOR.SS, GO... 2. uc cel Me es oe det ade ne noes 96
Second Report on the British Fossil Corals. By Dr. P. Marry Duncan,
RM Eom ECs, (LEOLE IOC. o Veriascisra's wale cries Ob chee email eles wrote ® 150

Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared Sections of
Mountain-Limestone Corals for Photographing. ‘The Committee con-
sists of Henry Woopwarp, F.G.S., Dr. Duncay, F.R.S., Professor
Harxyess, F.R.S., and James Tuomson, F.G.S. (Reporter) .......- LEY

Report on Ice as an Agent of Geologic Change. By a Committee, con-
sisting of Professor Orro Torri, Professor Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S8.,
and H. Bavermwan, F'.G.S. (Reporter). 2.0.51. 5 ede eee es 171

Provisional Report of a Committee, consisting of Professor Tarr, Pro-
fessor Tynpatx, and Dr. Batrour Stewart, appointed for the purpose
of repeating Principal J. D. Forsus’s Experiments on the Thermal
Conductivity of Iron, and of extending them to other Metals. By
ET EORMERIMNU Ae. TEE, « Scurtcts) Cystceeoaty «We velereilags Mousa, ate Turear aael 6 vai 175

Report of the Committee for the purpose of investigating the rate of
Increase of Underground Temperature downwards in various Loca-
lities, of Dry Land and under Water. Drawn up by Professor Evz-
REIT, at the request of the Committee, consisting of Sir Wini1aM
Tomson, LL.D., F.R.S., E. W. Bryyey, F.R.S., F.G.8., ArcurBaLp
Gem, F.R.S., F.G.S., Jawes Gratsner, F.R.S., Rev. Dr. Granam,
Prof. Firremrmne Jenxin, F.R.S., Sir Coartes Lrett, Bart., LL.D.,
F.R.S., J. Crerx Maxwett, F.R.S., Grorce Maw, F.LS., F.G.S.,
Prof. Parures, LL.D., F.R.S., WinrtAm Pencetty, F.R.S., F.G.8.,
Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S., F.G.S., Banrour Srewart, LL.D., F.R.S., G. J.
Symons, Prof. Jams Tomson, C.E., Prof. Youne, M.D., F.R.S.E.,
and Prof. Evrenert, D.C.L., F.R.S.E., Secretary.........0..0000es 176

Fifth Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent’s Cavern, Devon-
shire. The Committee consisting of Sir Cuartes Lyett, Bart., F.R.S.,
Prof. Pures, F.R.S., Sir Joun Lussock, Bart., F.R.S., Jonn Evans,
F.R.S., E. Vivtan, Grorce Busx, F.R.S., Wittram Boyp Dawxrys,
F.R.S., and Wittram Peneetty, F.R.S. (Reporter) .............. 189

Report of the Committee on the Contiexion between Chemical Consti-
tution and Physiological Action. The Committee consists of Dr. A.
Crum Brown, Dr. T. R. Frasrr, and Dr. J. H. Batrour, F.R.S. The
investigations were conducted and the Report prepared by Drs. A.
Oru bRowNaNd TPR. BRASER) G./. 2% iets cals veltlee we Ba eae 209

Report of a Committee, consisting of Lieut.-Col. Srranex, F.R.S., Prof.
Sir W. Tomson, F.R.S., Prof. Tynpatt, F.R.S., Prof. Franxianp,
F.R.S., Dr. Srennousz, F.R.S., Dr. Mann, F.R.A.S., W. Huaerns,
F.R.S., Jamus Guaisuer, F.R.S., Prof. Wittramson, F.R,S., Prof.
Sroxes, F.R.S., Prof. Fieemine Jenxriy, F.R.S., Prof. Hirst, F.R.S.,
Prof. Huxtey, F.R.S., and Dr. Batrour Srewart, F.R.S., appointed
for the purpose of inquiring into, and of reporting to the British As-

vi CONTENTS.
Page
sociation the opinion at which they may arrive concerning the follow-
ing questions :—

I. Does there exist in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ire-
land sufficient provision for the vigorous prosecution of Physical
Research ?

Il. If not, what further provision is needed? and what measures
should pe taken).to secure it? . . ... .:c'.:<75 00 sisis ale alata eee 213

On Emission, Absorption, and Reflection of Obscure Heat. By Prof.
INVITE pecs forcpeicna Mo aot hse are bse pice. d ele a etal) ac blane PO ee 214

Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1868-69. By a Com-
mittee, consisting of James Guatsner, F.R.S., of the Royal Obser-
vatory, Greenwich, President of the Royal Microscopical and Meteo-
rological Societies, Roperr P. Gree, F.G.S., F.R.A.S., E. W. Brayzey,
F.R.S., Avexanper 8. Herscuer, F.R.A.S., and Cuartes Brooxs,
F.R.S., Secretary to the Meteorological Society .............0 0005 216

Report on the best means of providing for a uniformity of Weights
and Measures, with reference to the Interests of Science. By a
Committee, consisting of Sir Jonny Bowrrye, F.R.S., The Rt. Hon.
C. B. Avprertey, M.P., Samvret Brown, F.S.S., Dr. Farr, F.R.S.,
Frank P. Fexrows, Prof. Franxranp, F.R.S., Prof. Hennessy, F.R.S.,
James Hueywoop, F.R.S., Sir Roserr Kang, F.R.S., Prof. Lronz Levr,
Prof. W. A. Mirier, F.R.S., Prof. Ranxrye, LL.D., F.R.S., C. W.
Sremens, F.R.S., Col. Syxzs, F.R.S., M.P., Prof. A. W. Wixtramson,
F.R.S., James Yares, F.R.S., Dr. Gzorczr Grover, Sir Joserpx Wutit-
wortH, Bart., F.R.S., J. R. Narrer, H. Drecxs, J. V. N. Bazatexrrre,
W. Suirn, Mr. W. Farrzarry, D.C.L., F.R.S., and Jonn Rosryson :—
Prat Luona Envi, Secretary”)... 2. 308

Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage. Drawn up by Dr.
Bensamin H, Pavt, at the request of the Committee, consisting of J.
Barizx Denton, M. Inst. C.E., F.G.S., Dr. J. H. Grtsert, F.R.S.,
Ricard B, Grantnam, M. Inst. C.E., F.G.S., Chairman, W. D. Harp-
1nG, J. Tuornnit Harrison, M. Inst. C.E., Dr. Bensamin H. Pav,
Ph.D., F.C.S., Dr. R. Anevus Surra, F.R.S., and Prof. J. A. Wanktyn, 313

Supplement to the Second Report of the Committee on the Condensation
and Analysis of Tables of Steamship Performance................ 330

Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions. By
W.. HH. L Rugsens, ERIS wes ae tia Sy aielatb as ateye aoe ah geeeO eee ra ee 334

Report on Mineral Veins in Carboniferous Limestone and their Organic
Contents. By Cranes Mounz, F'GIS. 0. ee 360

Notes on the Foraminifera of Mineral Veins and the adjacent Strata. By
Henry B. Baapy, FES. oo oo. es eto e les oo Oa eee 381

Report of the Rainfall Committee for the year 1868-69, consisting of
C. Brooxr, F.R.S. (Chairman), J. Guatsuer, F.R.S., Prof. Purxes,
F.RS., J. F. Bareman, C.E., F.R.S., R. W. Myunz, C.E., F.B.S.,
T. Hawxstey, C.E., Prof. Apams, F.R.S., C. Tomzrson, F.R.S., Prof.
Syivesrer, F.R.S., and G. J. Symons, Secretary ...........00005 383

CONTENTS. vii
P

_ Interim Report of the Committee on the Laws of the Flow and Action a

of Water containing Solid Matter in Suspension, consisting of T.

Hawxstey, Prof. Ranxrye, F.R.S., R. B. Granraam, Sir A. 8. Waven,

Pea aHe) Lee OGL. offi nye srt srsvorwsd 3 4yo io: open 0% wie ole SPe eae nnocwsialk 402

Interim Report by the Committee on Agricultural Machinery, consisting
of the Duke of Buccteucu, F.R.S., The Rey. Parrick Bert, Davi
Grete, J. OrpHam, Wittram Suira, C.E., Harotp Lrrrieparz, The
Karl of Carrayess, F.R.S., Roperr Neruson, Prof. Ranxrye, F.R.S.,
F. J. Bramwett, Rev. Prof. Wrius, F.R.S., and Coartes Mansy,

F.R.S.; P. Le Neve Foster and J. P. Smita, Secretaries.......... 404
Report on the Physiological Action of the Methyl and Allied Series.
By Bensamin W. Ricwarpson, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. 0.0.2... . cee 405

On the Influence of Form, considered in Relation to the Strength of
Railway Axles and other portions of Machinery subjected to rapid
alterations of Strain. By F. J. Bramwett, C.E. ...............- 422

On the Penetration of Armour-plates with long Shells of large capacity
fired obliquely. By JoserpH Wurrworrn, C.E., F.R.S., LL.D., D.C.L. 480

. Report of the Committee on Standards of Electrical Resistance ...... 434

NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS
OF

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.

MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
Address by Professor J. J. Sytvester, LL.D., F.R.S., President of the Section. 1

MaTHEMATIOS.
Mr. W. K. Crirrorp on the Theory of Distance ........-ceecceeeeceeues 9
—__—__—_——— on the Umbilici of Anallagmatic Surfaces .......... 9
Mr. M. Cottrs on the Common Tangents of Circles ..,........00ceeceee 9
Mr. R. B. Haywanrp’s sketch of a Proof of Lagrange’s Equation of Motion
referred to Generalized Coordinates ... 2500. .ce ccc cece eset eu ant 10
Mr. F. W. Newman on Curves of the Third Degree, here called Tertian.... 10
on the Curvature of Surfaces of the Second Degree .... 18
CHACON Or ouMilen cote chin sductochorpicc dogmounc 13.

Dr. W. J. Macquorn Ranxrye’s Summary of the Thermodynamic Theory
of Waves of Finite Longitudinal Disturbance........ ccc cere ee eenee 14

Vill CONTENTS.

Mr. W. H. RussExt on the Mechanical Tracing of Curves ...........00005

Professor SyivEesTER on Professor Christian Wiener’s Stereoscopic Represen-
tation of the Cubic Eikosi-heptagram ......... 6... ccceeeee ene eens

on the Successive Inyolutes to a Circle ..........0005

ASTRONOMY.

Mr. W. R. Brat on Secular Variations of Lunar Tints and Spots and Shadows
OM PAM Penaparivaiorie les fois, Sins wveisin ora, 0/% ahah 3 wie fe « oho. olga aig eee .

The Rev. R. Main on the Longitude of the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, as
deduced from Meridional Observations of the Moon, made at Greenwich
and\Oxford, an the years 1864-66 - 0.0. . eae fave oes vated eee

———————— on the Discordance usually observed between the results of
Direct and Reflexion Observations of North Polar Distance............

’s Remarks on the British Association Catalogue of Stars. .

Dr, A. NEuMAYER on the recent fall of an Aérolite at Krihenburg in the Pa-
aint Narreciountte olapiocis Alncstatese's quieys # vic q's'e vias Say Ce ee ee

The Rey. Dr. Roprnson on the Appearance of the Nebula in Argo as seen in
the Gjeat Metbourne Telescope. 3s...) bas aseas cada cae cup dee seems

Professor PAG. Paar oniComets” 4.0... cccelearsladass solace mlyegethicce hee neem

Optics.

Mr. Cuar.Es Brooke on the Influence of Annealing on Crystalline Structure

Dr. J. H. Gladstone on the Relation between the Specific Refractive Energies
and the Combining Proportions of Metals ........... 0... ecese eee

Dr. JANSsEN’s Méthode pour obtenir les Images Monochromatiques des Corps
POUR halos oc Fsness cus 0.8 NaC MM he < Coie cle hep ds er

The Rey. Professor JELLETT on a Method by which the Formation of certain
definite Chemical Compounds may be Optically established............

Professor Auc. MorreEn on the Chemical Action of Light discovered by Pro-
PESBOT OU VNAA asics cle steers sien sie tice Gre. clahsis te + 5.46 «ents eee

Mr. G. JoHNsSTONE StoneEy on the Numerical Relations between the Wave-
Leupths'of the Hydrogen Raya... ....ssasdasss ss ss ve 2s ee

Heat.

Professor Gustav Maenus on the Absorption, Emission, and Reflection of
RICA iazttoe Fs F aOwenie sine ce eae ais mle RSG Ves cae en ee Ee

METEOROLOGY.
Mr. Roaers FIexD and G. J.Symons on the Determination of the Real Amount
of Evaporation from the Surface of Water ...........ccceeeeeveecees

Mr. James GLAISHER on the Changes of Temperature and Humidity of the
Air up to 1000 feet, from observations made in the Car of M. Giffard’s
PCa Gay AMOR 5 IS ow 25s uhe'e as Sag Othe ass hee en ee

Dr. Henry Hupson on the Formation of Dew, and its Effects ............
Dr. JANSSEN’S Faits divers de Physique Terrestre ..........00cceeeeeeeeee
Dr. Mann on the Rainfall of Natal, South Africa ............cceeeueueees

Mr. Batrour Stewart’s Remarks on Meteorological Reductions, with
especial reference to the Element of Vapour .......cceeeecereueseees

27
39
41
41

CONTENTS.

ELECTRICITY.
Professor G. C. Fostrr’s Description of some Lecture-experiments in Elec-
cp DS UINNRSHRISASSS Sets Lee ee

Mr. J. P. Gassror on the Metallic Deposit obtained from the Induction-dis-
charge in Vacuum-Tubes .......ssesereeeserecesessseseereeeess

The Hon. J. W. Srrurr on an Electromagnetic Experiment ......+++++++-
Mr. F. H. Varzey on the Electric IBalANGE. vaicae ch utcrerave © ere belt si Tiret anere Lereite
Mr. Tuomas T. P. Bruck WARREN on Blectrification.....ssseeceeveeeees

INSTRUMENTS.
Mr. A. E. FuETcHER on a new Anemometer for Measuring the Speed of Air
in Flues and Chimneys ........-eesseeeeesceeerensesessscaseranes
Mr. F. Marrin’s Description of a New Self-recording Aneroid Barometer ..

Mr. FrepEerick T. Morr on the Maury Barometer, a new Instrument for
Measuring Altitudes .....-.-sseseseseeeececcecesesrensersesccees

Dr. BALFour STewarr on a Self-recording Rain-gauge.....++.+++sseeees
Mr. G. Jounsrone Sroney on Collimators for adjusting Newtonian Telescopes
on a cheap form of Heliostat.........-..+4++45

Lieut.-Colonel A. SrRANGE on the best Forms of Numerical Figures for Scien-
tific Instruments, and a proposed Mode of Engraving them ..........--

Mr. E. Vivian on Self-registering Hygrometers......++.+sseeererecreeees
Mr. T. Warner on Chambered Spirit-levels... 1... -+ esse seer seen certs

Mr. C. J. Woopwarp on a Self-setting Type Machine for recording the Hourly
Horizontal Motion of Air ..... cc cece ee eee er nee etree een neenenees

CHEMISTRY.

Address by H. Drsvs, Ph.D., F.R.S., President of the Section
Dr. Tuomas ANDREWS on the Absorption-bands of Bile......-.-...++s0++

Mr. Henry K. Bamser on the Water Supplies of Plymouth, Devonport,
Exeter, and St. Thomas ........-. sess cece erence eet seeeeerencnes

Mr. y LowrHtan Bett on the Decomposition of Carbonic Oxide by Spongy
ron

Pe ee

Saute tale: wiasikkohal e)'si-of a) eveiv: Dyerayele: i @) mative a Ste elie) er adeKelsheneore ele 6. s,s er'e'e BS) 970

Mr. Freperick Brasy on Extraction of Ammonia from Gas-Liquor ......

Dr. H. Coox on the Registration of Atmospheric Ozone in the Bombay Presi-
dency, and the chief Causes which influence its appreciable amount in the
WR GRONOEG Gs wic/sjjcn ¥en se'e sss Soom o sna ates sora te he thy eels ssieainins

Professor F. CRacE-CALVERT on the Amount of Soluble and Insoluble Phos-
phates in Wheat-Seed .........sseseeeee sere ress s ee ceee nets renee

Mr. J. Dewar and G. Cranston on some Reactions of Chloro-Sulphuric Acid
Mr. D. Frirscun’s Notes on Structural Change in Block Tin
M. H. M. Jacost on the Electro-deposition of Iron
Dr. JANSSEN sur le Spectre de la vapeur Meat .. 1... eee eee eee eee eens

, Note sur une nouvelle Méthode pour la recherche de la Soude
et des composés du Sodium par l’Analyse Spectrale ......-.++.++++05:

The Rev. Professor JELLETT on a Method of determining with accuracy the
Ratio of the Rotating Power of Cane-sugar and Inverted Sugar

Page

46
46
46
47

x CONTENTS.

Dr. A. MATTHIESSEN and C. R. Wricut on the Action of Hydrochloric Acid
BaPMorpiia Coden so. cies caeie adie wes otis ee ose ceedon as. 0a hoe

Mr. W. D. Mircuet1, Are Flint Instruments of the first Stone Age found in
COPE NTUTL Cay secterery ele tavern ae loieiniey telat, « cvelsiese ters sic’ NeupiotoGrat eran + oe INS

Dr. STEVENSON Macapam on the Economic Distillation of Gas from Cannel-_

Coals. : as CASO y TE Ap wig segehintere lel °s a. betel e.0'-e, esto Eheta Wied enatle Fad cuts gee an

Dr. THomas Morrar on the Oxidation of Phosphorus, and the Quantity of
Phosphoric Acid excreted by the Kidneys in Connexion with Atmospheric

GnichihOnyqhebseoseocige suingod SpHa od BHnnnoDMMndonoosdinddn bo doc
—— on the Phosphorescence of the Sea and Ozone........
Dr. A. OPPENHEIM on Aceto-sulphuric Acid ........0.-000.00sceenseanrs
——_- on Bromo-iodide of Mercury ............. BETO oir bc
Dr. T. L. Purpson on the Solubility of Lead and Copper in pure and impure

AWD dino d Gita bitcio och a Oo aeeMnOmeran Dear oes gapraccbas occ
— on some new substances extracted from the Walnut
Mr. Wiri114mM CHANDLER RoBERTs on a specimen of Obsidian from Java .

Mr. W. J. RussELu on the Measurement of Gases as a branch of Volumetric
PAVISEMSTS atevers teleteiev- fe epe Mersin tereiieters ate oie cities starereieters oistsihstetetetce eet eae

Mar BSC SORB YONI ATSOMe Fraiaiteve see eet act ete ee meee oedema

Mr. Peter SPENCE on raising a Temperature higher than 212° F. in certain
Solutions by Steamteti 2122 Bo. staal. ianl.tehws see eles ob eee

Mr. Epw. C. C, Sranrorp on a Chemical Method of treating the Excreta of
{MS Saar SDN AOR AMEIOR Grin nD COOTER OROONT Ceci ontcg ul thine

Mr. Cuar_es ToMLINSON on a remarkable Structural Appearance in Phosphorus
— on the Supposed Action of Light on Combustion... .

Mr. Water WELDON on the Manufacture of Chlorine by means of perpetu-
ally regenerated Manganite of Calcium ..............c.ssecereceece

Mr. SrrpHEN WILLIAMS on the Action of Phosphoric Chloride on Hydrie
SUP S Re erin ha scion ako 0 Or Cet AC Os ic ocuc WO CACO aor oe Gee ee

GEOLOGY.

Address by Professor Harkness, F.R.S., President of the Section..........
Mr. Robert Brown on the Elevation and Depression of the Greenland Coast
Mr. Witt1am CarruTHERs on Reptilian Eges from Secondary Strata......
oni“*\Slickensides?”4,/)4. ic sew es ween nee eee

PRD Tae ors ever e aenlg's Srele Wald Dele O& arwrel.ahe ieheMerd sratalaln nem Crate een

Mr. Ropert ETHERIDGE on the occurrence of a large Deposit of Terra-Cotta
Clay absWatcombe;Vorqudy ne we viritats aedlen's neve Acts erative trier naman

Mr. T. Davipson’s Notes on the Brachiopoda hitherto obtained from the
“ Pebble-bed” of Budleigh-Salterton, near Exmouth in Devonshire ....

Mr. C. Le NEvE Foster on the Occurrence of the Mineral Scheelite (Tung-
state of Lime) at Val Toppa Gold Mine, near Domodossola, Piedmont ..

Mr. R. A. C. Gopwin-AvsTEN on the Devonian Group considered Geologically
and Geographically.............. SOO aoeneennautoe rlabas oor

Dr. Hicxs’s Notes on the Discovery of some Fossil Plants in the Cambrian
(Upper Longmynd) Rocks, near St. David’s ........sseeeeeeeeeecees

Mr, H. H. Howorrs on the Extinction of the Mammoth ........... andes

9€

CONTENTS.
Mr. Epwarp Hutt on the Source of the Quartzose Conglomerate of the New
Red Sandstone of the Central portion of England .,.... ace poonpren tac
Mr. Cuarres JecKS on the Crag Formation .......+-seesseseee seen eeees

Mr. Jutius Jerrreys on the Action upon Earthy Minerals of Water in the
form of heated Steam, urged by wood fuel, an experiment reported to the
Association at its Meeting at Glasgow in 1840 ......... sees eee eee

The Rey. J. D. La Toucue on an Estimate of the quantity of Sedimentary
Deposit in the Onmy oe... see e eect e eee eee nett eee eee eeeatenes

on Spheroidal Structure in Silurian Rocks ....

Mr. Jonn Epwarp Lur’s Notice of remarkable Glacial Striz lately exposed at
RTE OG. 0: x sce, o'n 07510 acoso) qaxqialeim ail et sax sig rie, <0 (ole Biel elem af esela

Mr. G. A. Lrzour on the Denudation of Western Brittany....,.......004.
’s Notes on some Granites of Lower Brittany............

My. James Logan Lostey on the Distribution of the British Fossil Lamelli-
branchiata... 1.0.0... cece eee ee eee eee entrance tense acne bannceeue

Menie ne NAN: On the Goldvot Natal sc cictelcletsista't's'slstele cileesicls eloesiecrecs

Mr. G. Maw on the Trappean Conglomerates of Middletown Hill, Montgome-
TY SHITON gis « oleeleeais aoe nee en PIAS cies antl Sinicrd Septet as Oe N Lan PRIA MALE See

— on Insect Remains and Shells from the Lower Bagshot Leaf-bed
Qh Soudland Bay, Dorsetshire. sos so. 6 oe wees ese sn sieieisie sla slonielals diele

Mr. L. C. Mrav’s experiments on Contortion of Mountain Limestone
Mr. C. Moors on a specimen of Teleosawrus from the Upper Lias
. H. ALLEYNE NicHOLSON on some New Forms of Graptolites..........

Mr.
Mr. G. Warerwwe OrmerRop’s Sketch of the Granite of the Northerly and
Easterly Sides of Dartmoor .........ceses chores og citer g few screen fed

Mr. C. W. Pracu’s Notice of the Discovery of Organic Remains in the Rocks
between the Nare Head and Porthalla Cove, Cornwall................

Mr. W. PENGELLY on the alleged occurrence of Hippopotamus major and Ma-
chairodus latidens in Kent’s Cavern

Sec ee Papa pp sseisiae es Ce Kees Soe eis

on the Source of the Miocene Clays of Bovey Tracey....

Mr. Joun Ranvaty on the Denudation of the Shropshire and South Stafford-
RMIe MU OWL IOS oyy veh nicgrintl= ancl sia Gorehie shale sbadanld acl «cntck stalatos. 5

Mr. J. W. Re on the Physical Causes which have produced the unequal
Distribution of Land and Water between the Hemispheres ............

Mr. J. E. TaAytor on certain Phenomena in the Drift near Norwich ........

on the Water-bearing Strata in the neighbourhood of Norwich
M. Tcenraatcuer’s “ Paléontologie de l’Asie Mineure” ...............4-

Professor J. TENNANT on the Diamonds received from the Cape of Good Hope
during last year

Mr. James THomson on new forms of Pteroplax and other Carboniferous
Labyrinthodonts, and other Megalichthys, with Notes on their Structure
by Professor Young

Boe (et Cl aenele @ orp a ies ee es ¢ a he eee We 6s MLO ee Wom eee Boe ee 0,0..¢

on Teeth and Dermal Structure associated with Ctena-
CUTGUGH OR AAMOLS okentien BAO Oe ee eee beni res

My. N. Wuittey on the Distribution of shattered Chalk Flints and Flakes in
i Esvestiwceriee @ OPT BLL: ~,, cccs, vcvetstoe cae cei eresnvorter elec e chactse oie wtowial hale. a.'06

a H. Woopwarp on the Occurrence of Stylonwrus in the Cornstone of Here-
ord

——__——__——— on the Discovery of a large Myriapod of the genus Ev-
phoberia in the Coal-measures of Kilmaurs ,

Pee eee nee Ce ee

Page

xl CONTENTS.
Page
Mr. H. Woopwarp oy Freshwater Deposits of the Valley of the River Lea,

VENA D1 Ait SO he ha ae MR ere rates Sra Ae Ey esi 103

BIOLOGY.

Address by C. SprencE Bars, F.R.S., F.L.S., Vice-President of the Section to
the Department of Zoology and Botany ...........0cccceceeseeerernes 104

Botany anp Zoonoey.

Miss Lypra E. Becxer on alteration in the Structure of Lychnis diurna, ob-

served in connexion with the development of a parasitic fungus .......... 106
Mr. W. T. Buanrorp on the Fauna of British India, and its relations to the
Hthiopian and so-called Indian Fauna sc. .is cee eee ances ese Oaee 107
Dr. Brrpwoop on the genus Boswellia, with Descriptions and Drawings of
PMS IN SW. iS POCLES) «i518 ore oicvaate ore steve, w rie veus-4 lefecdlal shes inlectle belay clepe ie ee a 108
Mr. C. E, Broomn’s remarks on a recently discovered Species of Myxogaster 108
Mr. R. Brown on the Mammalian Fauna of North-west America.......... 109
Mr, Frank BuckLanpd on the Salmon Rivers of Deyon and Cornwall, and
how to.improve thems... 0 .n..sensenssvssceeecseues Se eie se: see setae
Dr) RoseRtT On CunNINGHAM On Chiaris Q10G) vice. c ccc c seu eee scenes 111
—_—__—_—————— on the Flora of the Strait of Magellan and
WWiesia© OAStiOl ALE O ONS Fy. cop -iaislvapseeiegefsi cue) din’ 2 eee Role nee Mae 112
Mr. GrorGE GLADSTONE’s Microscopical Observations at Miinster am Stein. 113
Mr, F. F. Hatierr on the Laws of the Development of Cereals ........., 113
Mr. Arpany Hancock on some curious Fossil Fungi from the Black Shale of
fhe wWNorsnumiberland: @oal=feld! vii. te. ss srs ttle tele ss chit rhea een 114
Mr. W. P. Hern on the Occurrence of Rapistrum rugosum, All., in Surrey,
omit, GMS OMOLSCHSIITOs sin bc ctrele evs) soe clo ntels erersrelsicee are ieins aieenr rer eee 114
Dr. Maxwett T, Masters on the Relative Value of the Characters employed
in the @lassification/of Plarits; /.ri)!sscrets a7. kejsiees ieee lane eos ne 114
Letter from Prof. Wyvitte THomson to the Rey. A. M. Norman on the
successful Dredging of H.M.S. ‘Porcupine’...................000ess ee 115
Mr. W. PENGELLY on Whale Remains washed ashore at Babbacombe, South
DEV) SEER Ra a rand oil aah Sica Sela ond hatiol aOR slo 4 atatenns 116
Dr. W. R. Scorr on a Hybrid or other variety of Perdix cinerea found in De-
BOHSEITG ors 5.16 Vida apaeswjayele aio Wlepsste RIN tw ik « yim te ale ures he ec a HEA
Mr. Ratpx Tarte on the Land and Freshwater Mollusca of Nicaragua...... 117
The Rey. H. B. Tristram on the Effect of Legislation on the Extinction of
MALITTR SAIS, 23 aie vae ata ott oraushe ie onfetel sac naneataral sks oauspe ts toleee inc he ee eee ea 118

Mr. W. F. Wesp’s Five Years’ Experience in Artificial Fish-breeding, show-
ing in what waters Trout will and will not thrive, with some Remarks on
Hash and British) FIShorles., 0%. «4s <:.4 amacialem oa nausea ae ak eee 118

Mr. Henry Woopwanrp on a new Isopod from Flinder’s Island .......... 118
Prof. E, Perckvat Wricut on Rhinodon typicus, the largest known Shark, 118

ANATOMY AND PHystroLoaey.

Dr. Henry Branco, Human Vaccine Lymph and Heifer Lymph compared .. 118
Mr. W. Kencrty Bripeman on Voltaic Electricity in relation to Physiology 119

CONTENTS. xiil

Prof. CLELAND on the Interpretation of the Limbs and Lower Jaw ........ TD

on the Human Mesocolon illustrated by that of the Wombat. 120

Mr. Joun CO. Gatron on the Myology of Cyclothurus didactylus... 1.6... 405 121

Mr. R. Garner on the Homologies in the extremities of the Horse ........ 121
The Rey. W. V. Harcourt on the Solvent Treatment of Uric-Acid Calculus,

and the Quantitative Determination of Uric Acid in Urine .............. 2

Dr. Cuartes Kipp on the Physiology of Sleep and of Chloroform Anesthesia 125
Dr. J. D. Heaton’s further Observations on Dendroidal Forms assumed by

NNR Ra EMP Ets Pig icia oe Seetel oi avalle a) aves trai eielahc’s is) tral wiellese Ws efefavaress cleters 127
Dr. J. Burpon Sanperson’s description of an Apparatus for Measuring and
Recording the Respiratory and Cardiac Movements of the Chest ........ 128
Dr. Bensamin W. RicHarpson on the Physiological Action of Hydrate of
land! . .2 0S SERS eae Soe o BAUD aT COM OIGnE Ine on erODL ICH roc pee 129
Dr. Winson on the Moral Imbecility of Habitual Criminals, exemplified by
ME MTUAVGARTTOMONUS seis sein «sds sieie oe aley- efate/alolaievaraihevsce siapeisl tiasas cle cr ays 129

ErHNoLOGY, ETc.

Vice-Admiral Sir E. BeELcHER on Stone Implements from Rangoon........ 129
Mr. C. Carter Buake and R. 8. Coarnocx’s Notes on Mosquito and Wulwa
“LRLEcie: | 6654 Oh RSGo:0 AED Oe a OCR nin Aids Otis e CT onan crceee ae saci ne naan 129
Mr. James Bonwick on the Origin of the Tasmanians, Geologically considered. 129
Mr. W. C. Drenpy on the Primitive Status of Man ...................05. 130
Mr. Francis Drake on Human Remains in the Gravel of Leicestershire .. 130
Rey. Epgar N. DumMBLETON on a Crannoge in Wales...............0.000 130
Dr. P. M. Duncan on the Age of the Human Remains in the Cave of Cro-
Maeno inthe Valley of the Vezere .... 1... cee recs nasaeneevresne 130
Colonel A. LANE Fox on the Discovery of Flint Implements of Paleolithic
Type in the Gravel of the Thames Valley at Acton and Ealing .......... 15
Mr. AncHDEACON FREEMAN on Man and the Animals, being a Counter Theory
to Mr. Darwin’s as to the Origin of Species ........... cee eee cece e ees 132
Me h..Gannier.on the Brainiof a Negro... 00... c ccc cee dee cteccavaveuas 132
Sir Duncan Grp on the Paucity of Aboriginal Monuments in Canada...... 133
on an Obstacle to European Longevity beyond 70 years ,, 133
on a Cause of Diminished Longevity among the Jews..., 134

Mr. TownsHEND M. Hatz on the Method of forming the Flint Flakes used

by the early inhabitants of Devon, in Prehistoric Times ................ 134
Mr. W. 8S. Hatt on the Esquimaux considered in their relationship to Man’s
oT Sib ob bee dae ot OO Boma bc Dc Aa ne mre IIa Sethe 135
Mr, H. H. Howorru on the Circassians or White Kazars ..............4. 185
—______—_—— on a Frontier of Ethnology and Geology ............ 135
The Rey. A. Hume on the so-called “ Petrified Human Eyes,” from the Graves
PamieHR CHP ATIGARBE CTU 0 7fe'i cares 'Sa'o'e''c secede tact sels cie s Wieidlaracecats 135
Mr. G. Henry Kinanan’s Notes on the Race Elements of the Irish People.. 136
Dr. RicHarp Kine on the Natives of Vancouver’s Island ................ 137
Mr. A. L. Lewis’s Notes on the Builders and the purposes of Megalithic Mo-
APRRIESTALS par Tree tat tart "(0 oss seen eae rae esha eae ie tere weenie Cohen scare 137

Sir Jonn Lussocx on the Origin of Civilization and the Primitive Condition
of Man.—Part Tl. ......... eeu aee edere teint rate efataltere aprcihtrat eaten stots “antag 137

XV CONTENTS.

P.
The Rey. J. M‘Cann’s Philosophical Objection to Darwinism or Evolution. , 151

The Rey. F. O. Morris on the Difficulties of Darwinism ...........0.005 151
Mr. T. 8. PrmpEavux on the occasional definition of the Convolutions of the
Brain-on the Sxberior Or HME WSK leges, +f diesio wiels, a6 ov-seidleereusie Sheena sneered 151
Mr. J. Strruine on the Races of Morocco .......... rere fee
Mr. Ratpxu Tate’s Notes on an Inscribed Rock .........05- ors aes etree oe 151
Mr. C. Stanttanp WAKE on Initial Life ....... Vide eins sisis Atlas ls Serie LOL
on the Race affinities of the Miele 3 eh Jbl
GEOGRAPHY.
Address by Sir Bartir Frere, President of the Section .......... sopiecn 152
Dr. C. BEKE on a Canal to unite the Upper Nile and Red Sea ............ 159
Vice-Admiral Sir Epwarp BetcuER on the Distribution of Heat on the Sea-
surtace throushout theiGlobe.<.i)< sere leisle «10 +1s «cles oe « viele eR 159
Dr. Brrpwoop on the Geography of the Frankincense Plant ... want Lene 159
Mr. W. T. BLuanrorn’s Notes on a Journey in Northern Abyssinia ........ 159
Captain C. Dopp on a Recent Visit to the Suez Canal.........sceeseveues 160
7S Notesion the Runn of Cutch §- 20 ens +e. Rie 160
Mr. R. Epmonps on Extraordinary Agitations of the Sea .............6-. 160
Mr. A. G. Frypiay on the Supposed Influence of the Gulf-stream on the Cli-
HUE OUINoraina\ N/E pe Dik) eG UO Oneo AO UO UCDO UCMIGOnU OOS Sdo oo Gar 160

My. T. D. Forsytu on Trade Routes between Northern India and Central Asia 161
Dr. C. Lz Neve Foster on the Existence of Sir Walter Raleigh’s El Dorado 162
Sir BartLe FRERE on the Runn of Cutch and the Countries between Raj-

POOUATIA NAN SIT) ter ojs efossiolayesedateieroteys/a) foley stclols alleraisiatelsteel-telote tate ae ae 163
Captain R. V. Hammon on the best Route to the North Pole............ 164
M. Nicuoxas DE Kuanixor on the Latitude of Samarcand .........0.055 164
Mr. R. J. Mann on Erskine’s Discovery of the Mouth of the Limpopo ...... 164
Captain R. C. Mayne on the Straits of Magellan and the Passages leading

Northward ‘forthe Gulf of Penas _.a.5;./o.a are'h.« «ios aro's einya)alel oie ge = eee 164
Dr. G. NEuMAYER’s Scheme for a Scientific Exploration of Australia ...... 165
Dr. Gustav OpperT on the Kitai and Kara Kital ............000. oties s LES

My. G. Peacock on the Encroachment of the Sea on Exmouth Warren ,... 166

Mr. T. Wyarr Rem on the Influence of Atmospheric Pressure on the Dis-
placement of the Ocean ..........6cceeee s ojo leyeminlaldolnje (pines on eae 166

Mr. TrELAwNEy W. Saunpers’s Account of Mr. Cooper’s Attempt to reach
Indiaifrom sWiesterns Chinsives = ytcate/ain-|ncapee\evates) obese it)s elec kieueteYs ee ames 166

, The Himalayas and Central Asia........ 167

Mr. Francis F. SEARLE on Peruvian Explorations and Settlements on the
Upper ATIAZONS, <5 eis teia!o afolctei> cleberel= solletete)clistels oats =faoiAs ols ac ie 167

Mr. J. Strrtiné on a Visit to the Holy City of Fas, in Marocco .......... 168

Lieut.-Colonel A. StrRANGE on a small Altazimuth Instrument for the Use of
lop d Giss) Go CooUdOUS Good arnoubOr Pop par op obo oceatnods goons 168

M. Pozrre DE TCHIBATCHEF on Central Asia .........ccrccsrevececores 168

Captain T. P. Wutre’s Notice of a Bifurcate Stream at Glen Lednoch Head,
GnipLerchahire a. aie toi oa ete wales ies a a leyet ule aap wre niehatelete oie ele vinie eel Oe eee Panam de

CONTENTS, XV

“ECONOMIC SCIENCE ann STATISTICS.
Address by the Right Honourable Sir Starrorp Norrucors, Bart., C.B.,

err Mee. President: of the Section: /.. .c/.)/ Gm: . n-ne reese reese» 173
Mr. Witx1am Bot ey on the Condition of the Agricultural Labourer ...... 179
Sir Jonn Bowrrne on the Devonshire Association for the Advancement of

ABA ReeenE See MRED ATU 0) 0, cin: veniam vrareie ie7, C20 fial Alsace] ate ooles Stare WeRGalayey bees eed wk 179

on Penal Law as applied to Prison Discipline.......... 180
Mr. Ratpu Branvon on some Statistics of Railways in their Relation to the
EIST: Tara aicieta'e sid dois ne Ate oak SAslaidio Cowal. fiamiaate Mu Way bcos 180

Mr. Hypr Crarke on the Want of Statistics on the Question of Mixed Races 181
——_— on the Distinction between Rent and Land-Tax in India. 181
’s Note on Variations in Rapidity and Rate of Human

1 EDELTE 56.0 SSB SRR Be ea neee pare ae ME GALA tt oh PR OLE aT Stak 181
JussE CoLLines on some Statistics of the National Education League...... 182
Mr, J. Bartey Denton on the Technical Education of the Agricultural La-

ERT arate SL re sat ea ee eee rile a ee ce an soso kOD
Mr, Henry Dircks’s Statistics of Invention illustrating the Policy of a Pa-

ULES 2 od on lie. d cra Sicaaa aaah a ARR I ia Sra Diselion tag bene ae ayes a bo 182
ire. bars on International Oomage ... 00.0565. . s sede ves bec cease awe 183
Mr, Frank P. FELLOWES on our National Accounts..............000ee0es 190
Rey. Canon GirDLESTONE on the Maintenance of Schools in Rural Districts 191
Mr. Joun GLoveRr on the Decline of Shipbuilding on the Thames ........ 191

Mr. ArcuipaLp Hamiiron on the Economic Progress of New Zealand .... 192
Mr. W. Nettson Hancocx’s Account of the System of Local Taxation in

EMMA era tio eas festy safc tse Fea RSs «oe ves seey cae eso eonadee 193
Mr. J. Heywoop on the Examination Subjects for Admission into the Col-
emmmrmy Peortietl tute LVUGCHI FAN Gu esc ee ce iescacdeecvcsasvecs 195

on Municipal Government for Canadian Indian Reserves .. 195
Mr. James Hunt Horrry’s Remarks on the Need of Science for the Deve-

MSRP PTICUT UTC 5, stgtess rons cu-tata s/c sye\p c's pian o(@isl'o eid ohs ole eee na abe 195
Prof. Lrone Levi on the Economic Condition of the Agricultural Labourer
MCRAE TSE Fs gO Sot tries Ce eae ce she per ne cet ee oy tan 195
on Agricultural Economics and Wages .............. .. 195
fee MAIN On Naval Finance .......0..ccceecccserencnnes Parc ere 196
Prev d. MANN on Assisted Mmigration... ccc sacccgccesvevsecssnasceuc 196
Mr. F’, Purpy’s Statistical Notes on some Experiments in Agriculture...... 197
on the Pressure of Taxation on Real Property.............. 199
Mr. W. H. Sanxey on Weights and Measures ...........c0ccscccccseces 199
Mr. James Srarx’s Contributions to Vital Statistics ............ceeceaee 199
Mr. P. M. Tarr on the Population and Mortality of Bombay, derived from the
last Census and the Reports of the Health Officers of Bombay to the latest
RMS Iota fata ocas, 6 a 4, sheoe Date, eg Halen oan te sie ee sani 199
Rey. W. Tuckwett on the Method of Teaching Physical Science.......... 199

MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
Address by C. Wiri1am Siemens, F.R.S., President of the Section ,....... 200

Xvi CONTENTS.

: Page
Mr. Joun Freperic BATEMAN and JuLIAN JoHN Ri-vy’s Description of a

proposed Cast-iron Tube for carrying a Railway across the Channel between

the Coasts of England and France ...........seeee eee eeeeeenneeeeeee
Mr. T. D. Barry on the Utilization of Town Sewage .....--.sseeeeeeeees 209
Vice-Admiral Sir Epwarp BELCHER on a Navigable Floating Dock........ 209
Mr. J. T. CHmmLInGWoRTH on an Air-Engine...... eee eee e eee ees eeeees 209
Mr. Larmor Cxiark on the Birmingham Wire-Gauge .......... iontioos 209
Colonel H. Cierxk on the Hydraulic Buffer, and Experiments on the Flow of

Liquids through small Orifices at High Velocities............. cess ee eee 209

Mr. R. Eaton on certain Economical Improvements in obtaining Motive Power 210
Mr. Lavineron E. FiercHer on Government Action with regard to Boiler
IDK GOTO aa oo he a DA aOR De 2an SUS OM OOU ODO aN oo orc obo 6 210

Mr. R. E. Froupk on the Hydraulic Internal Scraping of the Torquay Water-
RIVALTUB rT eReress oheueereieie wierest ci nidvelert are tac w wlasb.0 gisce’e wits eutpierepetelele et ears 210

Mr. Wrut1am FRovupr on some Difficulties in the received View of Fluid
EG Cop) 7 Rae = See a ee ree reer fs coros do00507 211

Mr. THomas Loar on Roads and Railways in Northern India, as affected by
the Abrading and Transporting Power of Water ..............eee sees

Mr. J. D. Morrtson’s Description of a New System of House Ventilation .. 219
Mr. Wrtr1am Suiru on an Improved Vertical Annular High-pressure Steam-

Oiler seeamieiswaiaie veer scrieNts oe e+ od pie vas spa 0 w lenie woptate, cunke ohieetate ketene 219
Mr. G. J. Symons on a Method of determining the true amount of Evapora-
CIOMMELOM AAV ALL SUTLACO. a. sso ecisics ie e+ cls ols vies siels.0 elejetes (eee 220

Mr. ALFRED VaRrL¥Y on Railway Passengers’ and Guards’ Communication. . 220

Mr. JosrpH WHITWORTH on the Penetration of Armour Plates by Shells with
Heavy Bursting Charges Fired Obliquely .......... 0 cece cece eee eens 222

APPENDIX.

Dr. Brensamin W. Ricuarpson on the Physiological Action of Hydrate ah
Soret cere, uals eres ceveiNe aves sfoliaje sites etuaiete hie Me eiele sttrelsinc a tale Rien eee ene

Dr. RicHarp Kine on the Natives of Vancouver’s Island and British Columbia 225
Mr. T. S. PripEavux on the Occasional Definition of the Convolutions of the

pram on the exterior of the Head vce vvjer.ane 01 ye +e etn ost 225
Prof. LEonE Lrvti on the Economical Condition and Wages of the Agricultural
Wmapourern any Bing land® x 752.2). seis tsiecicis ae eae «ene «eevee Clete ett ereer Eee 226

Mr. Ricuarp Eaton on certain Economical Improvements in obtaining Mo-
HAVO POMTER Wh litartiey’eisGs sb biv'afastalevaw sy Tote ics Sy Kivin te platen ate ety etn nn 228

LI8T OF PLATES,

PLATE I.

tive of the Report of the Committee on the Stability, Propulsion,
and Sea-going Qualities of Ships.

PLATE IIT.

‘ay PLATES JL, TV.
ative of Mr. Bramwett’s Report on the Influence of Form on Strength.

PLATE VI (should be Plate V).
tive of the Report of the Committee on Electrical Standards.

ERRATA IN REPORT FOR 1868.

Reports, p. 399, lines 20-22, for maximum still ocewrs.. ... November. 7ead maxima have
occurred on the 6th—7th of December, but of which symptoms (Greg’s Aj.)
can be distinguished as early as the 25rd of November.

p- 599, lines 25, 24, for on... on... date. read in... in... month,

p- 399, line 27, for May read March or April

p. 400, last line, for Chapelas. read Chapelas-Coulvier-Gravier.

p. 403, line 4 from bottom, for Max. 1848-52. read Max. Dec. 6-7, 1798 (?),
1838, 1847, 1848-52. Perhaps connected with Biela’s comet.

p. 407, line 11 from bottom, for 12th of December, including, perhaps, read
beginning of December, including

p. 407, last line, add, and Father Secchi that of ‘ wranoliths” to designate aérolites.

ERRATA IN THE PRESENT VOLUME.

Reports, p. 274, 20th line from bottom, for northward read southward

=) 19th 3 » Jor fifty-four read fifty
sy llraan as » for south read north
So 6th ;. » for northerly read southerly

OBJECTS AND RULES

THE ASSOCIATION.

—

OBJECTS.

Tae Assocratton contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by
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who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one an-
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the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind
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_ The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So-
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_ Awynvat Svunsortprrs shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive
gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this Subscription in any particu-
lar year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and all
_ future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association gratis :
but they may resume their Member: ship and other privileges at any sub-
sequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the sum of
; One Pound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association.

' Associates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of one Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serye on Committees, or to hold any office.

1869, b

xviii RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

The Association consists of the following classes :—

1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.

2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on ad-
mission Ten Pounds as a composition.

3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to the
payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership after in-
termission of Annual Payment. |

4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the pay-
ment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each following
year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of Annual Pay-
ment.

5. ae for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.

6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.

And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’) price,
according to the following specification, viz. :—

1. Gratis —Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845, a
further sum of Five Pounds.

New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a composition.
Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.

2. At reduced ov Members’ Prices, viz. two-thirds of the Publication
Price.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a
composition for Annual Payments, but no further {sum as a
Book Subscription.

Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subseription.
Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only. |

3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the first seventeen volumes of Transactions of the Associa-
tion, and of which more than 100 copies remain, at one-third of
the Publication Price. Application to be made (by letter)_to
Messrs. Taylor & Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet St., London.

Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can only
be issued by direction of the Council.

Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries,

MEETINGS.

The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place
of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee at the pre-
vious Meeting ; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Officers
of the Association.

GENERAL COMMITTEE.

The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—

1. Presidents and Officers for the present and preceding years, with
authors of Reports in the Transactions of the Association.

2. Members who have communicated any Paper to a Philosophical Society,
which has been printed in its Transactions, and which relates to such subjects
as are taken into consideration at the Sectional Meetings of the Association.

—s”.h CU

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION, xix

3. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, altogether not exceed-
ing three in number, from any Philosophical Society publishing Transactions.

4. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, not exceeding three,
from Philosophical Institutions established in the place of Mecting, or in any
place where the Association has formerly met.

5. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who
are specially nominated in writing for the Meeting of the year by the Presi-
dent and General Secretaries.

6. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections are
ex-officio members of the General Committee for the time being.

SECTIONAL COMMITTEES,|

The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, Committees, con-
sisting severally of the Members most conversant with the several branches
of Science, to advise together for the advancement thereof.

The Committees shall report what subjects of investigation they would
particularly recommend to be prosecuted during the ensuing year, and
brought under consideration at the next Meeting.

The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and progress of
particular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent persons,
for the information of the Annual Meetings.

COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS.

The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which
shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees,
and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise
to be adopted for the advancement of Science.

All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects, shall be submitted to the Com-
mittee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General
Committee, unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recom-
mendations.

LOCAL COMMITTEES.

Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to
assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.

Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those
Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.

OFFICERS,
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a
Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.

COUNCIL.
In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be
managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council
may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the
Meeting.
PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS.
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve
his right of property therein.
ACCOUNTS.
The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors

appointed by the Meeting.
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“SSINVLAUDIS IWOOT *SLNAGISSYd-35SIA "SLNAGIS3Yd

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS,

XXV

Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.

_ Date and Place.

ee ee

1832. Oxford
1833. Cambridge
1834, Edinburgh

1895.
1836.
1837.
1838.
1839.
1840.

$ 1841. Plymouth...
1842. Manchester

Liverpool ...
Newcastle...
Birmingham
Glasgow

ween ennee

ate ewweee

1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh...

fen teenes

beens

me tErotwHorbes; HRS: cos. cesecas ones

..|The Very Rey. the Dean of Ely .

The Dean of Ely, F.R.S. .........

R.S.
...[Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A., F.R.S.
L. & E.
Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S. ...
Rev.T. R. Robinson,D.D.,F.R.S.,

Presidents.

Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S....
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S.............
Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.......... |

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS
Rey. Dr. Robinson

Rey. William Whewell, F.R.S....
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S.............

Sir J. F, W. Herschel, Bart.,
ERS.
Rey. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S. ......

Rey. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S. .........

Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D.,
ERS.

Prof M‘Culloch, M.R.I.A. ......

The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S..........

Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
EBS.
Rey. Prof. Powell, M.A., F.R.S. .

Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. .......
William Hopkins, F.R.S..........

Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S., See.
R.8.E,

Rev. W. Whewell, D.D., F.RB.S.,
&e.

Prof. W. Thomson, M.A., F.R.S.
L. & E.

Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec.
8

M.R.LA

Secretaries.

MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS.

Rey. H. Coddington.
Prof. Forbes.
Prof, Forbes, Prof. Lloyd.

AND PHYSICS.

Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof,
Wheatstone.

Prof. Forbes, W. 8S. Harris, F. W.
Jerrard.

W.S. Harris, Rev. Prof. Powell, Prof,
Stevelly.

Rev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
Prof. Stevelly.

J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof.
Stevelly.

Rey. Dr.Forbes, Prof. Stevelly, Arch,
Smith.

Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev.
W. Scoresby.

J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly.

Rey. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly.

Rey. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly, G.
G. Stokes.

John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes,

Rey. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.

-.(Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes.

Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W.
Ridout Wills.

W. J. Macquorn Rankine, Prof.
Smyth, Prof, Stevelly, Prof. G. G.
Stokes,

8. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Dixon, W. J. Macquorn Ran-
kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall.

B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt,
Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh.

J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof.
Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh.

Rey. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof.
Tyndall.

C. Brooke, Rey. T. A. Southwood,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull.

Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A,
Ninnis, W. J. Maequorn Rankine,
Prof, Stevelly,

XXVi

REPORT—1869.

Date and Place.

1852.
1833.
1834,

1835.
1836,

1837.
1838,

1839.
1840.

1841.
1842.
1843. C
1844.
1845.

1846.Southampton

1847.

2, Cambridge

Presidents.

Rey. W.Whewell, D.D., V.P.R.S.

- |The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P.,

. Manchester .

. Newcastle...

see teeeee

. Norwich .
LEEXCLED stses

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES,

Oxford
Cambridge..
Edinburgh...

Dublin
Bristol

wanes

Liverpool...
Newcastle...

Birmingham
Glasgow

Plymouth..

Manchester.
York ....1....
Cambridge...

Rey. B, Price, M.A., F.R.S.......
G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L., F.B.S.

..|Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., F.R.S.

Prof. W. J. Ma Rankine,
C.E., F.B.S.
Prof. Cayley, M.A, F.RS
F.R.AS.

oe ae W. Thomson, D.C.L.,
lpsof : Tyndall, LL.D., F.RB.S...

Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.,
F,R.S8.

Secretaries.

Rev. 8. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,
Prof. Steyelly, H. J. 8. Smith, Prof.
Tyndall.

J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.J.8.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison,
Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J.S§.
Smith, Prof Stevelly.

Rey. N, Ferrers, Prof. Fuller, F. Jen-
kin, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. 7.
Whitley.

.,|Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rey. G.
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.

: 5. Birmingham|W~ Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R.S.,/Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G.
F.R.AS.

S. Mathews, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith,
J. M. Wilson.

- Nottingham |Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L., F.R.S.|/Fleeming Jenkin, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith,
. Dundee

Rey. S. N. Swann.

Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,
Prof. Fuller, Prof Swan.

Prof. G. C. Foster, Rey. R. Harley,
R. B. Hayward.

Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
W. K. Clifford.

CHEMICAL SCIENCE.

John Dalton, D.C.L.,
John Dalton, D.C.L.,
Dr. Hope

LHS foncce
F.R.S...

CEM ewe ener arene wane eeweeee

IT1.— CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY.

|James F. W. Johnston.
....[Prof. Miller.

|My. Johnston, Dr, Christison.

SECTION B,—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.

Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S.
Rey. Prof. Cumming....... Revaetes

Michael Faraday, F.R.S. ..
Rey. William Whewell, F.R.S...
Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S.

...|Dr. Thomas Thomson, F. R. Si
.|\Dr. Daubeny, BRS. .......0es0e0e-

John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.......
Prof. Apjohn, M.R.LA. .......
Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. .........
Rey, Prof. Cumming

Cee ie

Oxford

Michael Faraday, D.C.
Rey. W.YV. Harcourt, M.

..|Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston.

Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera-
path.

| Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr.

Reynolds.

.|Prof. "Miller, R. L, Pattinson, Thomas
Richardson.

..|Golding Bird, M.D., Dr. J. B. Melson.

..|Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark,
Dr. L. Playfair.

J. Prideaux, Robert Hunt, W. M.
Tweedy.

Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham.

..|R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.

Dr. R. Playfair, B. Solly, T.H. Barker.

'R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof. Miller,
BE. Solly.

Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall.

SB. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly,.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. XXVil

Date and Place. Presidents. Sceretaries.

1848. Swansea ...|Richard Phillips, F.R.S. .........

T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams.
1849. Birmingham|John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......... R. Hunt, G. Shaw.

; 1850. Edinburgh .|Dr. Christison, V.P.R.8.B. ......|Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson.
}

1851. Ipswich ...|Prof. Thomas Graham, F'R.S..../T. J. Pearsall, W. 8. Ward.
1852. Belfast ...... Thomas Andrews, M.D., F.R.S..|Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.

Ronalds.
eps: Hull o....6.s. Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A:,/H. S. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J.
FE.R.S. Pearsall.
1854, Liverpool ...|Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S.|Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr.
Price.

1855. Glasgow .../Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S. .|Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe.
1856. Cheltenham |Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ...... J ors P. J. Worsley, Prof.
Joelcker.

: 1857. Dublin ...... Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.R.S.,|Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-
M.R.IA. livan.

1858. Leeds ...... Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,/Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey-
D.C.L. nolds.

1859. Aberdeen ...!Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S..|J. 8. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D.
Liveing, Dr. Odling.

1860. Oxford ...... Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ...... A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing,
A. B. Northcote.

1861. Manchester .| Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S.|A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing.
1862. Cambridge .|/Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S8./H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof.

Roscoe.
1863. Newcastle...!Dr. Alex. W. Williamson, ¥.R.S.|Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.
“igh Stevenson.
1864. Bath......... W. Odling, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S. |A. Vv. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R.

Biggs.

1865. Birmingham|Prof. W.A. Miller, M.D.,V.P.R.S.|A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof.
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.
1866. Nottingham|H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S..../J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.
. Russell, J. White.

_ 1867. Dundee .../Prof. T. Anderson, M.D., F.R.S.E.'A. Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing,
W. J. Russell.

1868. Norwich ...|Prof.E.Frankland, F.R.8., F.C.S8.|Dr. A. Cram Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus-
sell, F. Sutton.

1869, Exeter ...... Dr. H. Debus, F.R.S., F.C.S. .../Prof. A. Cram Brown, M.D., Dr. W.
J. Russell, Dr. Atkinson.

GEOLOGICAL (ann, unt 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III.— GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY,

1832. Oxford ...... R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. .......8. John Taylor.

1833. Cambridge .|G@. B. Greenough, F-.R.S. ........./W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.

1834, Edinburgh .|/Prof. Jameson wissssssssseeeesseeee Prof. Phillips, T. Jameson Torrie,
Rey. J. Yates,

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

1855. Dublin ...... BiG GUM? eb ah hs de ccsas angen Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.
1836. Bristol ...... Rey. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.— Geo-|William Sanders, 8. Stutchbury, T. J.
graphy. R.1.Murchison,F.R.S.| Torrie.
1837. Liverpool ...|Rev.Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.8.— Geo-\Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.—Geo-
graphy. G.B.Greenough,F.R.8.| graphy. Captain H. M. Denham,
R.N.

1838. Newcastle...|C. Lyell, F.R.8., V.P.G.8.—Geo-|W. C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.—
graphy. Lord Prudhope. Geography. Capt. Washington.

1839. Birmingham/Rey. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S8.— Gco-|George Lloyd, M.D,, H. B. Strickland,
graphy. G.B.Greenough,F.R.S,| Charles Darwin,

XXVill

Date and Place. Presidents.

1840. Glasgow ..
phy. GB. Greenough, E.RB.S.

1841. Plymouth. .!H. T. Dela Beche, F.R.S.
1842,

1843. Cork......... Richard E. Griffith, F-.R.S.,/Francis M. Jennings, H. E. Strick-
M.R.1.A. land.
1S44. SVOrk .-- sess. Henry Warburton, M.P., Pres./Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury.

Geol. Soe

1845. Cambridge '.|Rev. Prof. Sadeeiok, M.A.,F.R.S.|Reyv. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay,

1846. Southampton|Leonard Horner, F.R.S.— Geogra-
phy. G. B. Greenough, F.R.S8.7

1847. Oxford...... Very Rey. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.
1848. Swansea .../Sir H. T. De la Beche, C.B.,
F.R.S.

1849. Birmingham Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S., F.G.S8.

1850. Edinburgh ve Roderick I. Murchison, F.R.S.

Manchester |R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. .........

REPORT—1869.

Secretaries.

.|Charles Lyell, F.R.S.—Geogra-|W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh
Murray, H. E. Strickland, ides

Scoular, M.D.

W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore,M.D.,

R. Hutton.

E. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R.

Lloyd, H. B. Strickland.

Rey. W. Thorp.

Robert A. Austen, J. H. Norten, M.D.,
Prof. Oldham.— Geography. Dr. C
T. Beke.?

Ramsay, J. Ruskin.
Starling Benson, Prof. Oldham, Prof.
Ramsay.

A. C. Ramsay.
A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller, Pro-
fessor Nicol.

SECTION © (continued),—GEOLOGY.

1851. Ipswich ...

1852. Belfast...... Lieut.-Col. Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.)
Iksts3 yi 8 [Fl ener Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S. ............

1854. Liverpool ..| Prof. Edward Forbes, F.R.S

1855. Glasgow ...|Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......

1856. Cheltenham|Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S. ......

1857. Dublin...... The Lord Talbot de Malahide ...

1858. Leeds ...... William Hopkins, M.A., LL.D.,

1859. Aberdeen... Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D., D.C.L.,

1860. Oxford...... ioe gee Sedewick, LL.D.,
FRS., F.GS.

1861. Manchester|Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.RB.S., &e.
1862. Cambridge |J. Beete 5 ukes, M.A, Recs

1863. Newcastle...|Prof. War ington, W. Smyth,

E.RS., F.G.S
1864. Bath ...... Prof. J. ‘Phillips, LL.D., F.B.S.,
EGS.

William Hopkins, M.A., F.R.S...

C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod,
Searles Wood.

James Bryce, James MacAdam, Prof.

| M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol.
‘Prof. Harkness, William Lawton.
..!John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness,
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
James Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof.
Nicol.

Rey. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hepworth,
Edward Hull, J. Scougall, T. Wright.

Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders, Ro-
bert H. Scott.

Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W.
Shaw.

Prof. Harkness, Rev. J. Longmuir, H.
C. Sorby.

Woodall.

Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T. Ru-
pert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.

Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert Jones,
is EOe Sorby.

E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C. Sor-
by, Thomas Sopwith.

W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C.

Sorby, W. Pengelly.

* At the Meeting of the General Committee held in Edinburgh, it was agreed “That the

Prof. Ansted,’ Prof. Oldham, A. C.

J. Beete Jukes, Prof. Oldham, Prof.

Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt. -

subject of Geography be separated from Geology and combined with Ethnology, to consti-
tute a separate Section, under the title of the “ Geographical and Ethnological Section,”
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page xxxi,

ee Le ee oe a, ee

Date and Place.

1865. Birmingham

1866. Nottingham
Se67. Dundeo......
1868. Norwich ...

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Presidents.

Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart.,K.C.B.
Prof.A.C, Ramsay, LL.D., F.B.S.
Archibald Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S.
R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, F.R.S.,

et) nad

1869, Exeter

Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S., F.G.S.

XXiX

Secretaries.

Rev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rey. E.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.
R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
son, G. H. Wright.

Edward Hull, W. Pengelly, Henry
Woodward.

Rey. O. Fisher, Rey. J. Gunn, W.
Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.

W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins, Rev.

HH. H. Winwood.

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY,

1832. Oxford
1833.
1834.

1835.
1836.

1837.
1838,

1839.
1840.

‘1841.
1842.

1843.
1844.

1845.
1846.

1847. Oxford

Dublin
Bristol

Liverpool ..
Newcastle...

Brimingham
Glasgow

Plymouth...
Manchester

Cambridge
Southampton

steeeee

1848. Swansea

teeeee

1851. Ipswich
1852. Belfast

...|Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D

Rey. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. ....../Rev. Prof. J. S. Henslow.
Cambridge */Rey. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L.S....|C. C. Babington, D. Don.
Edinburgh |Prof. Graham.,..............sssscoees W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett,

SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.

eee eee eee eee cere eer er rey
Peer eereeeeeees

W. S. MacLeay

Oe e nent ent eeeeeees

Sir W. Jardine, Bart...

Prof. Owen, F.R.S. ...... Nadeine'ss

John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S8..
Hon. and Very Rey. W. Herbert,
LL.D., F.L.S.

W. Ogilby

William Thompson, F.I.8. ......

Very Rey. The Dean of Manches-
ter.

Rey. Prof. Henslow, F.I.S. ......

Sir J. Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.

H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.\R.S....

|\J. Curtis, Dr. Litton.

J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, 8S.
Rootsey,

C. C. Babington, Rey. L. Jenyns, W.

Swainson.

...|J.E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen, Dr.

Richardson.

E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.

Prof. W. Couper, EH. Forbes, R. Pat-
terson.

J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.

Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.
Turner.

G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R. Pat-
terson.

Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King,
Dr. Lankester.

Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston.

Dr. Lankester, 'l'. V. Wollaston, H.
Wooldridge.

Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T, Y.

Wollaston.

SECTION D (continued).—zooLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.

For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Subsections
and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see pp. xxx, XXx1.]

ou-| Es, Wir Dillwyn; FURS: ......00e002- |Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen-

frey, Dr. Lankester.

1849. Birmingham|William Spence, F.R.S............. '\Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell.
1850. Edinburgh. ./Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & E....|Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-

kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.

Rey. Prof. Henslow, M.A., F.R.S.|Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E.

errr errr i

Lankester.
Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr.
Edwin Lankester.

* At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee, for
_ Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. xxx.

REPORT—1869.

XXX
Date and Place. Presidents. Secretaries.
1853. Hull ..:...... C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S..../Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester.

1854. Liverpool ...
1855. Glasgow
1856. Cheltenham.
1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds.........
1859. Aberdeen ..
1860. Oxford

1861. Manchester..

1862. Cambridge...
1863. Newcastle ...
1864. Bath

1865. Birmingham

1866. Nottingham.

1867. Dundee

1868. Norwich

1869. Exeter

Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S.......

..,|Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E. ...

Thomas Bell, F.R.8., Pres.L.S....
Prof. W.H. Harvey, M.D., F.R.S.
C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S....

.|Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E..

Rey. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S. ......
Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S....

Prof. Huxley, F.RB.S.
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.B.S. ......

Dr. John EH. Gray, F.R.S.
T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. ......

Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.
William Keddie, Dr. Lankester.

Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman,”

Dr. Lankester.

Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester,
Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele.

Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E.
Lankester, Dr. EH. Perceval Wright.

Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,
Dr. Ogilvy.

W.S. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P.
L. Sclater, Dr. H. Perceval Wright.

Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr.
P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright.

Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.

Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rey. H.
B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.

H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H, T.
Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright.

Dr. J. Anthony, Rey. C. Clarke, Rey.
H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright,

SECTION D (continued ).—BIOLOGY*.

Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.—'Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H.

Physiological Dep. Prof. Hum-| B.

phry, M.D., F.R.S.—Anthropo-

logical Dep, Alfred R. Wallace, |

F.R.G.S.

Prof, Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.—
Dep. of Zool. and Bot. George
Busk, M.D., F.R.S.

Rey. M. J. Berkeley, F.U.S.—
Dep. of Physiology. W. H.
Flower, F.R.8.

George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.8.,Dep.
of Bot. and Zool. C. Spence
Bate, F.R.S., Dep. of Ethno. E.
B. Tylor.

Tristram, W. Turner, E. B.
Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright.

C. Spence Bate, Dr. 8. Cobbold, Dr.
M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.

Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.
M. Foster, Prof. Tawson, H. T.
Stainton, Rev. Dr. H. B. Tristram,
Dr. Ei. P. Wright.

Dr. 8. Cobbold, Prof. Michael Foster,
M.D., E. Ray Lankester, Professor
Lawson, H. I’. Stainton, Rey. H. B.
Tristram.

ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.

COMMITTEES OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

1833, Cambridge...|Dr. Haviland
1834, Edinburgh...|Dr. Abercrombie

sree e teem nee eneteneus

Peewee rene nereee

Dr. Bond, Mr, Paget.
Dr, Roget, Dr. William Thomson.

SECTION bE. (UNTIL 1847.)—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.

1835. Dublin ...... Dr. Pritchard! ustaaussssessteogete |Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.

1886. Bristol ...... Dr. Roget, F.R.S. .........000+e0...|Dr. Symonds.

1837. Liverpool ...|Prof. W. Clark, M.D. ........04.. Dr. J. Carson, jun,, James Long, Dr.
J. R. W. Vose.

1838. Neweastle...|T. E. Headlam, M.D. ............ T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose.

1839. Birmingham|John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S. ....../Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland.

* At the Meeting of the General Committee at Birmingham, it was resolved :—‘“ That the
title of Section D be changed to Biology;” and ‘That for the word ‘Subsection,’ in the
rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word ‘ Department’ be substituted.”

ee ee ee eee ee ee

wth,

Date and Place.

1840, Glasgow ...
1841. Plymouth...

q 1842. Manchester.
1843. Cork

/ 1846, Southampton
_ 1847. Oxford* ...

1850.
1855.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864. Bath........
1865. Birminghm.t

Edinburgh
Glasgow ..
Dublin
Leeds

Oxford ......
Manchester.
Cambridge .
Newcastle...

1847. Oxford

wee eee

.|Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Presidents.

James Watson, M.D.............608
P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec.R.S,
Edward Holme, M.D., F.LS. ...

Sir James Pitcairn, M.D..........
J. C, Pritchard, M.D. ............

XXX

Secretaries.

Dr. J. Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof.
Reid.

...|Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. R. S.

Sargent.
Dr. Chaytor, Dr. Sargent.
Dr, John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent,
I. Erichsen, Dr, R. §. Sargent.

SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY,

1845. Cambridge .|Prof. J. Haviland, M.D. .........

Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S..........
Prov Ogle M.D., FURS...

PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS
Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E.

Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. .........

Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart..F.R.S.

Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S. ...
Prof. G. Rolleston, M.D., F.L.S.
Dr. John Davy, F.R.S.L. & E....
OxtePaget, MED: ote. cca saeco
Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S. ...
Dr. Edward Smith, LL. 0

1846.Southampton|Dr. Pritchard
Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A.

D., F.B.S.
Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.

ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS

seeeee

eee eee ee eee rere ee eee eee eer eee re

3 1850, Glasgow

1852, Belfast

851. Ipswich ...|Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S., Pres.
R.G.S

Cee ee eee ee cece eee ee eee rere reer erry

|Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster.

C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sargent.

Dr. Thomas, K. Chambers, W. P.
Ormerod.

OF sEcTION D,

.../Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dv. J. Struthers.

Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern.

C. G. Wheelhouse.

Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern.

Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith.
Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith.
G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.

Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner.
J.S. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner.

Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop, Oliver
Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner,

GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES,

[Por Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C, p. xxvii.]

OF SECTION D,

Dr. King.

Prof. Buckley,

G. Grant Francis.
Dr. R. G. Latham,

...|Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm .../Daniel Wilson.

SECTION E,—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

R. Cull, Rey. J. W. Donaldson, Dr.
Norton Shaw.

R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton
Shaw,

..|R. Cull, Rev, H. W. Kemp, Dr. Nor-

ton Shaw.

Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr.
Ihne, Dr. Norton Shaw.

Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw.

R, Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H. Rum-
sey, Dr. Norton Shaw.

* By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were incorporated
under the name of ‘Section D—Zoology and Botany, including Physiology” (see p, xxix).
The Section being then vacant was assigned in 1851 to Geography.

t Vide note on preceding page.

XXxxil

Date and Place.

———

1857. Dublin
1858.

eee eee

Leeds

1859. Aberdeen ...
1860. Oxford
1861. Manchester.

1862. Cambridge
1863. Neweastle...
1864. Bath.........

1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham

1867, Dundee

REPORT—1869.

Presidents.

——+_

Rey. Dr. J. Henthawn Todd, Pres.
R.1.A.

Sir R. I. Murchison, G.C.St.S.,
E.R.S.

Rear-Admiral Sir James Clerk
Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Secretaries.

R. Cull, 8. Ferguson, Dr. R. R. Mad-
den, Dr. Norton Shaw.

R. Cull, Francis Galton, P. O’Cal-
laghan, Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas
Wright.

Richard Cull, Professor Geddes, Dr.
Norton Shaw.

L.,\Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C.

Lempriere, Dr. Norton Shaw.

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.
E.R.S.

John Crawfurd, F.R.S............-

.|Francis Galton, F.R.S. ......0..06-

Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,

E.R.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
E.B.S8.

Major-General Sir R. Rawlinson,
M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S.
Sir Charles Nicholson,

LL.D.

Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S.......

Bart.,

1868. Norwich . "|

1869, Exeter

1833. Cambridge
1834, Edinburgh

1835, Dublin
1836. Bristol

1837. Liverpool...

feeeee

1838. Newcastle..
1839. Birmingham

1840. Glasgow
1841. Plymouth...
1842. Manchester.
1843. Cork
1844. York
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southampton

1847. Oxford

.|Prof. Babbage, F.R.S8.
./Sir Charles Lemon, Bart. .........

.|Colonel Sykes, F.R.S.

Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N., F.B.S.

Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Norton
Shaw, W. Spottiswoode.

J. W. Clarke, Rey. J. Glover, Dr.
Hunt, Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.

C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,
C. R. Markham, R. 8. Watson.

I. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt,
R. M. Murchison, T. Wright.

H. W. Bates, S. Evans, G. Jabet, C.
R. Markham, Thomas Wright.

H. W. Bates, Rev. EH. T. Cusins, R.
H. Major, Clements R. Markham,
D. W. Nash, T. Wright.

H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, C. R,
Markham, 8. J. Mackie, R. Sturrock,

T. Baines, H. W. Bates, C. R. Mark-

ham, T. Wright.

SECTION E (continued ).—GEOGRAPHY.

Sir Bartle Frere, K.C.B., LL.D.,/H. W.

F.R.G.S.

Bates, Clements R. Markham,
J. H. Thomas.

STATISTICAL SCIENCE.

COMMITTEES OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS.

eect eee eneee

J. E. Drinkwater.
Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.

SECTION F.—STATISTICS.

Charles Babbage, F.R.S. .....
Sir Charles Lemon, Bart., FR. s

Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon

Henry Hallam, F-.R.S. ............

...{Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, F.R.S.,

M.P.
Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S. .....

G. W. Wood, M.P., F.LS. .

Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ......
Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S., F.L.S.

Rt. Hon. The Earl Fitzwilliam...

GOR: Porter BURIS: sosc4.s0.cauebe
Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S....

... |W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.

Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp,
James Heywood.

W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.

W. Caen J. Heywood, W. R. Wood.

F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C.
Tayler,

C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
Rawson.

...|Rey. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R.

W. Rawson.

../Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr,

W. C. Tayler.
Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.

J. Fletcher, W. Cooke Tayler, LL.D.
C. Tayler, Rey. T. L. Shapcott.

P. Neison.

J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Laycock.
J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W.
Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G,

¥
:
4
i

Wi. - (nar el iy

<abee-

- or Ff

gl Bt ws

Se a eS Se

~ 1861. Manchester

1836.
— 1837.
1838.
1839. Birmingham

1840. Glasgow

1842. Manchester .

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF TIIE SECTIONS.

XXXIlk

Date and Place.

1848. Swansea .
1849. Birmingham

1850. Edinburgh ..

1851. Ipswich......
1852. Belfast

1853. Hull
1854. Liverpool ...|

eens

1855. Glasgow

SECTION F (continued ).—ECONOMIC §

1856. Cheltenham

teeeee

1857. Dublin
1858.
1859,
1860.

Mite. Vavian, MP. ERS. 23.4

Presidents.

Secretaries.

Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton

Very Rev. Dr. John Lee,
V.P.B.S.E.

Sir John P. Boileau, Bart. ......

Dublin.

James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S....

Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. ...........-

R. Monckton Milnes, M.P. ......

Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P. ...

Dublin, M.R.1.A.
Edward Baines

(Col. Sykes, M.P., F.RB.S. :........

Nassau W. Senior, M.A. .........

1862. Cambridge..
1863. Newcastle ...

1864.
1865. Birmingham
1866.
1867.
1868.
1869,

Nottingham
Dundee

Bristol
Liverpool ...
Neweastle ...

Peete

1841. Plymouth...

1869.

William Newmarch, F.R.S. ......

Edwin Chadwick, C.B. ............
William Tite, M.P., F.R.S. ......

William Farr,
E.BS.

Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,
M.P.

Profeds Ho TROLS: ere ss-en

M. E. Grant Duff, M.P.

MD., D.OL.

..(Samuel Brown, Pres. Instit. Ac-

tuaries.

Rt. Hon.Sir Stafford H.Northcote,

Bart., C.B., M.P.

His Grace the Archbishop of

.|J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede.

Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. G. P.
Neison.

Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J.
Stark.

J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.

Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James
MacAdam, Jun.

Edward Cheshire, William Newmarch.

E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. Hi.
Duncan, W. Newmarch.

J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-

His Grace the Archbishop of

march, Prof. R. H. Walsh.
CIENCE AND STATISTICS,

Rey. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr.
W. N. Hancock Newmarch, W. M.
Tartt.

Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.
Newmarch.

T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, 8. Brown,
Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang.
Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M.

Smith, Dr. John Strang.

Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch,
Rey. Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.

David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie,
E. Macrory, Rey. Prof. J. H. T.
Rogers.

H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory.

T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory,
Frederick Purdy, James Potts.

KE. Macrory, E. T. Payne, F. Purdy.

G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston,
HE. Macrory.

R. Birkin, Jun., Prof. Leone Levi, E.
Macrory.

Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J.
Warden.

Rey. W. C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.

Edmund Macrory, Frederick Purdy,
Charles T. D. Acland.

MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S....
Rey. Dr. Robinson
Charles Babbage, F.R.S. .........

Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and Robert
Stephenson.

Ea Sunt J Ohne AODINSON: stasceaeehoneneet

John Taylor, F.R.S. .....:0seps4+:
Rey. Prof, Willis, F.R.S. .,.....:-

T. G. Bunt, G. T, Clark, W. West.

Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.

R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, 'T'’. Web-
ster.

W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, Tho-
mas Webster.

J. Seott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod,
C. Vignoles.

Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster.

J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J.
Thomson, Charles Vignoles.

XXXIV

REPORT—1869.

Date and Place.

1848. Cork .........
1844. York

1845. Cambridge ..
1846, Southampton
1847. Oxford
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh ..
1851. Ipswich
1852, Belfast

. Liverpool ...
. Glasgow
. Cheltenham

. Leeds....:.:..
59. Aberdeen

. Oxford ......

. Manchester

2. Cambridge ..
. Newcastle...

mes atlieessteeaee
. Birmingham

. Nottingham
. Dundee......
. Norwich

. Hseter

Presidents.

Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.LA.....
John Taylor, F.R.S. ....:..00..08.
George Rennie, F.R.S.

Rey. Prof. Willis, M. re 2.8.

Rey. Prof. W: alker, M. me oA i RS:
.|Rey. Prof. Walker, M.A., F.R.8.
Robert Stephenson, M.P., FBS.

RVs Dey RGBINSON + ssicocesecccess
William Cubitt, FVR.S.............
John Walker,C.E., LL.D., F.R.8.

.|William Fairbairn, C.E., F.R.S..

John Scott Russell, F.R.S. .

...|W. J. Macquorn Rankine, C.E.,

E.RB.S.
George Rennie, F\R.S. ............

The Right Hon. The Warl of
Rosse, F.R.S.
William Fairbairn, F.R.S.

Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.

J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S.......

William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S8.
(Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S. .isiiis.s..:
Sir W. G. Armstrong, LL.D.,
Hawksley,

E.R.S.

[Thomas V.P. Inst.
C.E., F.G.8.

Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine,

LL.D., F.R.S.

|G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.G.S. ...

C. W. Siemens, F.R.S. ............

Secretaries.

../James Thompson, Robert Mallet.

Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.

..|Rev. W. T. Kingsley.
.|William Betts, Jun., Charles Manby.
J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier.

R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé.
Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall.
Dr. Lees, David Stephenson.
|Jobn Head, Charles Manby.

John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock,
Charles Manby, James Thomson.
James Oldham, J. Thompson, W. Sykes

Ward.

aa gee Grantham, J. Oldham, J. Thom-

ifs “TOI, Jun., William Ramsay, J.
Thomson.

C. Atherton, B. Jones, Jun., H. M.
Jeffery.

Prof. Downing, W. T. Doyne, A. Tate,
James Thomson, Henry Wright.

.ioe(d» GC, Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wrig ht.
.».|Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F-R.S..

R. Abernethy, P. Le Ne eve Roster. H.
Wright.

P. Le Neve Foster, Rey. F. Harrison,
Henry Wright.

P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson, H.
Wright.

W. M. Faweett, P. Le Neve Foster.

.|P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott, J.

F. Spencer.

P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt.

P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea, W. P.
Marshall, Walter May.

P. Le Neve Foster, J. 7. Iselin, M
A. Tarbottom.

P. Le Neve Foster, John P. Smith,
W. W. Urquhart.

P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, OC.
Manby, W. Smith.

P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.

List of Evening Lectures.

Date and Place.

1842, Manchester .

1843. Cork

1844. York

1845. Cambridge ..

Lecturer.

Charles Vignoles, F.R.S.......

Sir M. I. Brunel ...sisssiss...0035
Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart. ......
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.8.
Prof. Forbes, F.R.S.

Dp ROPINGON. asks ecasssdecsseeter
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........06.
Dr. Falconer, F.R.S.

en ne

tear we aneee

G. B. Airy, F.B.S., Astron. ee

R. I. Murchison, Fr, B.S...

Subject of Discourse.

..| The Principles and Construction of

Atmospheric Railways.
The Thames Tunnel.
The Geology of Russia.

.| The Dinornis of New Zealand.

The Distribution of Animal Life in
the Afigean Sea.

The Earl of Rosse’s Telescope.

Geology of North America.

The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik
Hills in India.

Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.

Geology of Russia.

1848, Swansea
1849. Birmingham

1850. Edinburgh.

1851. Ipswich......

1852. Belfast ......

1854, Liverpool ...
1855. Glasgow......

1856. Cheltenham

mfeo7, Dublin .,....
1858. eedH sa,5..-:

(1859. Aberdeen ..

1860. Oxford ......
y 1861. Manchester .
1862. Cambridge .

_ 1863. Newcastle-
J on-Tyne,.

LIST OF EVENING LECTURES. XXXV

Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S. ......
Hugh #. Strickland, F.G.S8.

W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S. ..
Dr. Haradays, BURN... c0se..<-0c8s.
Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.,
E.RB.S.E.

Dr: Mantel, HUES. vccrvscesccaes
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.

G. B. Airy, F.B.S., Astron. Roy.
Prof. G.G. Stokes, D.C.L., F.R.8.

Colonel Portlock, R.H., F.R.S.

Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S.,

Robert Hunt, F.R.S: ........000
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S....
Col. E. Sabine, V.P.R.S. .........

Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. ...
Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson ......

Col. Sir H. Rawlinson ............

We. Be Grove, BURG) ivcekees.
Prof, Thomson, F.R.S............-
Rey. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L. ...
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...

.| Sir R.I. Murchison, D.C.L. ......

Rey. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ......

Rey. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ......
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N. .
Prof. W. A. Miller, M.A., F.R.S.
G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron. Roy. .
Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. ...
Prof. Odling, F.R.S........ Ci Rosace
Prof. Williamson, F.R.S. ......

James Glaisher, F.R.S. .....05.-

Date and Place. Lecturer. Subject of Discourse.
_ 1846.Southampton} Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ......| Fossil Mammalia of the British Isles.
; Charles Lyell, F.R.S. ............ Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.
W. R. Groye, F.R.S. ...........,] Properties of the Explosive substance
discovered by Dr. Schénbein ; also
some Researches of his own on the
eB Decomposition of Water by Heat.
1847. Oxford .,....| Rey. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S, ...| Shooting-stars.

Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno-
mena.

...| The Dodo (Didus ineptus).
...| John Perey, M.D., F.R.S. ......

Metallurgical operations of Swansea
and its neighbourhood.

.| Recent Microscopical Discoveries.

Mr. Gassiot’s Battery.

Transit of different Weights with
varying velocities on Railways.

Passage of the Blood through the
minute vessels of Animals in con-
nexion with Nutrition.

Extinct Birds of New Zealand.
Distinction between Plants and Ani-
mals, and their changes of Form.
Total Solar Hclipse of July 28, 1851.
Recent discoveries in the properties

of Light.

Recent discovery of Rock-salt at
Carrickfergus, and geological and
practical considerations connected
with it.

Some peculiar phenomena in the Geo-
logy and Physical Geography of
Yorkshire.

The present state of Photography.

Anthropomorphous Apes.

Progress of researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism.

Characters of Species.

Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities
and Ethnology.

Recent discoveries is Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of Cunei-
form research up to the present
time.

Correlation of Physical Forces.

The Atlantic Telegraph.

Recent discoveries in Africa.

The Ironstones of Yorkshire.

The Fossil Mammalia of Australia.

Geology of the Northern Highlands.

Electrical Discharges in highly rare-
fied Media.

Physical Constitution of the Sun.

Arctic Discovery.

Spectrum Analysis.

The late Eclipse of the Sun.

The Forms and Action of Water.

Organic Chemistry.

The chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
tery considered in relation to Dy-
namics.

The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association, 5

XXXVI

Date and Place.

1864. Bath

1865. Birmingham

1866. Nottingham.

1867. Dundee

Henne rene

1868. Norwich ....

1869. Exeter

1867. Dundee

1868. Norwich ....

1869, Exeter

REPORT—1869.

Lecturer.

Prof. Roscoe, F.R.S..............5+
Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. .........
J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S. ....0.......

William Huggins, F.R.S..........

Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S..........
Archibald Geikie, F.R.S..........

Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S....
J. Fergusson, F.R.S. ...........-
Der Wwe Odlingy BURN. crc snese.:

Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S8.
J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S.......

Subject of Discourse.

The Chemical Action of Light,

Recent Travels in Africa.

Probabilities as to the position and
extent of the Coal-measures beneath
the red rocks of the Midland Coun-
ties.

The results of Spectrum Analysis
applied to Heavenly Bodies.

‘Insular Floras.

The Geological origin of the present
Scenery of Scotland.
The present state of knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.
Archeology of the early Buddhist
Monuments.

Reverse Chemical Actions.

Vesuyius.

The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebule.

Lectures to the Operative Classes.

Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.| Matter and Force.
Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. aL ON piece of Chalk.
Prof. Miller, M.D., F.R.S. ......| Experimental illustrations of the

modes of detecting the Composi-
tion of the Sun and other Heavenly
Bodies by the Spectrum.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1869-70.

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

i. Sir RODERICK I. MURCHISON, Bart., K.C.B., G.C.St.S., D.C.L., F.R.S.

| Lieut.-General Sir EDWARD SABINE, K.C.B., R. A., D.C.L,, Pres. B.S,

Sir PHILIP DE M. GREY EGERTON, Bart., M.P., F. R. 8.

( PRESIDENT.

_ GEORGE G. STOKES, M.A., D.C.L., Sec. R.S., Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in the University
a of Cambridge.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

The Right Hon. The EArt or Devon.

The he igh t Hon. Sir STarrorD H. NoRvrHCOTE,
art., M.P., &c.

sis JouN Bownrin G, LL.D., F.R.S.

WILLIAM B. CARPENTER, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
RoBERT WERE Fox, Esq., F.R.S
W. H. Fox Taxzor, M.A., LL.D., /ER, S., FL,

PRESIDENT ELECT.

T. H. HUXLEY, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Pres. Ge, Professor of Natural History in the Royal School of
ines.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
Right Hon. The Fart or Derpy, LL.D., F.R.S Sir JosEPH WHITWORTH, Bart., LL.D., D.C.L.,
Sirk Puitir Dr M. Grey EGERTON, Bart., M.P. F.R.S.
The Right Hon. W. E. Guapstone, D.C, Ti, M.P, | JAMEs P. JOULE, Esq., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
8. R. GRAVES, Esq., M.P. JOSEPH MAYER, Esq., ES. A., ER. G.S

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT LIVERPOOL.
Rey. W. BANISTER.
Rey. HENry H. Hie@erns, M.A.
Rey. A. HumE, D.C.L., F.8.A.

LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT LIVERPOOL.
H. DuckwortH, Esq., F.R.G.S.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

BATEMAN, J. F., Esq., F.R.S. Pray¥alir, Lyon, Esq., M.P., C.B., F.R.S,
Busk, GEORGE, Esq., F.R.S. RAMSAY, Professor, F.R.S.
De La RvuE, WARREN, Esq., F.R.S. RANKINE, Professor W. J. M., F.R.S.
Eyans, Jouy, Esq., F. RS. RicHarps, Captain, R.N., F.R.S.
GALTON, Capt. Doveras, C.B., R.E., F.R.S. SHarRPeEY, Dr., Sec. R.S
GALTON, FRANCcIs, Esq., PRS. SMITH, Professor H. J. 8., F.R.S.

: Gassior, J. P., Esq., F.R.S. STRANGE, Lieut.-Colonel A., F.R.S.

} Gopwin-AUsTEN, R. A. C., Esq., F.R.S. SyYKESs, Colonel, M.P., F.R.S.
Hoveuton, Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L., F.R.S. SYLVESTER, Prof. as a LL.D., F.R.S

y. HuvGGins, WILLIAM, Esq., F.R.S. TrTE, Sir W., M.P., F. R. Ss.

. LuBpBock, Sir Joun, Bart., F.R.S. TYNDALL, Professor, FE.R.S.

1" MILLER, Prof. W.A., M. D., F.R.S. WHEATSTONE, Professor Sir C., F.R.S.
NewMarcu, WILLIAM, Esq., F.R.S. WILLIAM‘ON, Prof. A. W., F.R.S.

ODLING, WILL1AM, Esq., M. B., F.R.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The President and President Elect, the Vice-Presidents and Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and
Assistant General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presidents of former
years, viz. :—

_ Rey. Professor Sedgwick. Lt.-General Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B.| Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D.
The Duke of Devonshire. The Earl of Harrowby. Sir Chas. Lyell, Bart., M.A., LL.D.
Rey. W. V. Harcourt. The Duke of Argyll. Professor Phillips, M.A., D.C.L.
Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. |The Rey. H. Lloyd, D. oy William R. Grove, Esq., F.R.S.
Sir-R. I. Murchison, Bart., K.C.B. | Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. The Duke of Buccleuch, K.B.

Sir W. Fairbairn, Bart., LL.D. Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S.

The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D.
The Rey. Professor Willis, F.R.S,)

G. B, Airy,Esq.,AstronomerRoyal. |

GENERAL SECRETARIES.

T. ARCHER Hirst, Esq., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Mathematicsin University College, London,
Dr. THoMAs THOMSON, F.R.S., Kew Green, Kew.

ASSISTANT CENERAL SECRETARY.
GEOKGE GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., 1 Woodside, Harrow.

y GENERAL TREASURER.
WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., 50 Grosvenor Place, London, 8.W.

AUDITORS.
Professor W. Allen Miller, F.R.S, G. Burk, Esq., F.R.S. Trofessor G. C. Foster, F.B.S.

XXXVili

REPORT—1869.

Table showing the Attendance and Receipts

..| The Duke of Northumberland...

Date of Meeting. Where held.
DSA ENO M27, (cel WOMK. tmactevesen sarees
TO32, chUNO' TQ) te] OXCOKG, caiingas ade sacs
1833, June 25 ...|Cambridge .........
1834, Sept. 8 ...| Edinburgh .........
TSSS AUS. TO vs ne| WUBIN fore crosscen das
TO ERO coals inl: saat anaeeyeac:
1837, Sept. 11 ...| Liverpool ............
1838, Aug. 10 ...| Newcastle-on-Tyne
1839, Aug. 26 ...| Birmingham .........
1840, Sept. 17 ...| Glasgow .........0e
1841, July 20 ...| Plymouth ............
1842, June 23 ...| Manchester .........
MSA Gree. 17 el COLk: .... eit pan davines
DSA SEU 20.008) YODK cays ssaeedeaacrgne
1845, June 1g ...|Cambridge .........
1846, Sept. ro ...|Southampton ......
BAT tO 90s. OMONE Oe see sees exces
1848, Aug. 9...... Swansea .....-ceeeceees
1849, Sept. 12 ...) Birmingham .........
1850, July 21 ...]Hdinburgh .........
1851, July 2...... TpswiAGh! yactqtnaas ease
Dos mepi.t .,.| Bblfast — se.sicsdecees se
Rippeeieepuea s/t. .c\ dull eee el patet
1854, Sept. 20 ...| Liverpool ............
1855, Sept.12 ...| Glasgow ..........6.
1856, Aug. 6...... Cheltenham .........
ERGY AUS (26) so) Dublin ici csccevcco-
1858, Sept: 225...| Leeds... ..icccdecrveses
1859, Sept. 14 ...| Aberdeen ............
1860, June 27...) Oxford .........00....
1861, Sept. 4 .|Manchester .........
7862, Oct.it noe. Cambridge .........
1863, Aug. 26 ...! Newcastle-on-Tyne..
SEDARIS NSIC preadliel SF yirig Gees ae a
1865, Sept. 6 -| Birmingham .........
1866, Aug. 22 ...| Nottingham .........
1867, Sept. 4. ..<.| Dunde® .:.scsasacerres
1868, Aug. 19 ...! Norwich ...... .....
1869, Aug. 18 ...| Exeter

1870, Sept. 14. ...

Presidents.
Old Life | New Life
Members. | Members.

The Harl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L. ...
The Rey. W. Buckland, F.R.5S. ..
The Rey. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S....
Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L. ......
The Rey. Provost Lloyd, LL.D.
The Marquis of Lansdowne
The Earl of Burlington, F.R.8. .

The Rey. W. Vernon Harcourt .
The Marquis of Breadalbane ...
The Rey. W. Whewell, F.R.8....
The Lord Francis Egerton
The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ......
The Rey. G. Peacock, D.D.......
Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. .
Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart.
Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart. ......
The Marquis of Northampton...
The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D..
Sir David Brewster, K.H. ......
G. B. Airy, Esq., Astron. Royal .
Lieut.-General Sabine, Pres. R.S.
William Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S. .
The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S. ..
The Duke of Argyll, E\R.S. .

Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M. Di. :
The Rey. Humphrey Lloyd, D. D.
Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. .
H.R.H. The Prince Consort ace
The Lord Wrottesley, M.A.......
William Fairbairn, LL.D.,F.R.S.
The Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A. ok
Sir William G. Armstrong, C.B.
Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A...
Prof. J. Phillips, M.A,, il, 1 Bae
William R. Grove, Q. G., F.R. 8.
The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B.
Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S. .
Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L. ......
Prot. Ti tinxley mili) sa

| ; ATTENDANCE AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS, XXXIX

Sums paid on
reuse! Account of

Le 8 ds |) & is.

B. Ay BREE ee cet seeds cai

tee sto GaN eeorom allo apsene pelere
yee MeOnte ip 1. t1e~ ZO) O10
ees Bcc ses ves Bise “8 | | oarsronees 167 0 0
ees te ae 5p a ARE 9) | aerénacse 43414 ©
es aoe oe ate 1840 Ahora gi8 14 6
aes Bac Se 1100* de GINSS Ve abe rdnioo 956 12 2
aad ae nee ee: 34 AGE MIE seegsies 1595 1% ©
Sa Mee She cee 40 Uae | ler acter ae 1546 16 4
46 317 cide 60* ae BOE MPA cneay sr cs 1235 10 II
75 376 331 351% 28 re VOT! | yAeam areas 1449 17 8
71 185 eee 160 ee Tate nee ject ac 1565 10 2
45 190 gt 260 ae Pry ay| ae nee 981 12 8
94 22 407 172 35 TOPOL Mi! asstatoee 830 9 9
65 39 270 196 36 BR GM Oe tage o: 685 16 o
197 ~ 40 495 203 Bg BZOO FY FS aseasnts 208 5 4
54 25 376 197 15 92.9 707 00} 275 i 8
93 33 447 arr 22 1071 963 9 0 159 19 6
128 42 510 273. | 44 1241 1085 00} 345 18 o
61 47 244. 141 37 710 62000] 391 9 7
63 60 510 292 9 1108 10g5 00| 304 6 7
56 57 367 236 6 876 903 09] 205 a Oo
121 I21 765 524. 10 1802 1882 0 O{ 33019 7
142 101 1094 543 26 2133 231100] 48016 4
104 48 412 346 9 IIIS 1098 0° /] 73413 9

156 120 goo 569 26 2022 20150 0| 50715 3

ear gt 710 509 13 1698 19310 0| 618 18 2

125 579 1206 821 22 2564. 278200] 684 11 I

Th 59 636 463 47 1689 160400] 1241 7 O

184. 125 1589 791 15 3139 394400] II1II 5 10

B x50 57 433 242 25 1161 1089 0 0 | 1293 16 6
154 209 1704. 1004 25 3335 3640 0 0 | 1608 3 10

182 103 IIIg 1058 =m 73 2802 2965 0 0/} 1289 15 8&

215 149 766 5c8 28 1997 2227 0.0 | HO 7 10

218 105 960 771 II 2303 2469 00/ 175013 4

193 118 1163 771 7 2444. 2613 0 0 | 1739 4 0

226 117 720 682 145 2004 2042 00] 1940 0 O

229 107 678 600 17 1856 1931 0 0

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t Tickets for admission to Sections only. + Including Ladies

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OFTICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. xli

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE
EXETER MEETING.

SECTION A.— MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS,

President.—Professor J. J. Sylvester, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Professor J. C. Adams, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.; J. P. Gassiot,
V.P.R.S.; William R. Grove, M.A., F.R.S.; Rey. Professor Bartholomew Price,
M.LA., F.R.S.; Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D., F.R.S. ; Professor Sir Charles Wheat-
stone, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Secretaries.—Professor G. C. Foster, B.A., F.R.S.; R. B. Hayward, M.A.; W. K.
Clifford, B.A.

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, INCLUDING THEIR APPLICATIONS TO
AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTS,

President.—Dr. H. Debus, F.R.S., F.C.S.

Vice-Presidents—Dr. Andrews; Dr. J. Hall Gladstone, F.R.S.; Professor W. A.
Miller, M.D., F.R.S. ; Dr. Voelcker, F.C.S.; Dr. Williamson, F.R.S. Pres.C.S.
Secretaries.—Professor A, Crum Brown, M.D., F.C.S.; Dr. W. J. Russell, F.C.S. ;

Dr, Atkinson, F.C.S.

SECTION C.— GEOLOGY.

President.—Professor R. Harkness, F.R.S., F.G.8.

Vice-Presidents_R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, F.R.S., F.G.S.; Sir P. de M. Grey
Egerton, Bart., F.R.S., F.G.S,; Professor Phillips, LL.D., P.R.S.,F.G.8, ; Pro-

_ fessor Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S., P.G.S.; Edward Vivian, F.G.S.

Secretaries.—W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.G.S.; W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A.,F.R.S.,F.G.S
Rey. H. H. Winwood, M.A., F.G.S.

f.!

SECTION D.— BIOLOGY,

President —George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.

Vice- Presidents Professor Balfour, F.R.S.; C. Spence Bate, F.R.S., F.L.S.; Dr.
Hooker, F.R.S., F.L.S.; Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.; Dr. W. Ransom;
is ie Tylor;.A. R. Wallace, F.R.G.S. ; Professor E, Perceval Wright, M.D.,

LS.

Secretaries.—Dr. Spencer Cobbold, F.R.S.; Professor Michael Foster, M.D., F.R.S.;
ii. Ray Lankester ; Professor Lawson; H. T. Stainton, F.R.S., F.L.S.; Rev. H.
B. Tristram, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

President.—Sir Bartle Frere, K.C.B., F.R.G.S., LL.D., G.C.S.L

Vice-Presidents_Sir G. Grey, K.C.B., F.R.G.S.; A. G. Findlay, F.R.G.S. ; Major-
General Sir A. Scott Waugh, R.E., F.R.S.; Captain Richards, R.N., F.R.S. ;
Vice-Admiral Sir E. Belcher, K.C.B., F.R.G.S.

Secretaries.—H. W. Bates, Assist. Sec. R.G.S.; Clements R. Markham, F.R.G:S.;
J. H. Thomas, F.R.G.S,

SECTION F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS,

President.—The Right Hon. Sir Stafford H. Northcote, Bart., C.B., M.P.

Vice-Presidents.—T. D, Acland, M.A., D.C.L., M.P.; The Earl of Derby, F.R.S. ;
The Right Hon. Lord Houghton, D.C.L., F.R.S.; Sir W. Tite, M.P., F.R.S, ;
Dr. Wm. Farr, D.C.L., F.R.S.; Professor J. E. Thorold Rogers, M.A.

Secretaries—FEdmund Macrory, M.A.; Frederick Purdy, F.S.S.; Charles T. D,
Acland, M.A.

xlii REPORT—1869.

SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE,

President.—C. W. Siemens, C.H., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents—G. P. Bidder, C.E.; C. Vignoles, C.E., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.; Pro-
fessor W. M. Rankine, LL.D., F.R.S.; Rev. Professor Willis, F.R.S.; C. H.
Gregory, Pres.I.C.E.; Admiral Sir E. Belcher, K.C.B. ; Captain Douglas Galton,
O.B., R.E., F.R.S.; J. F. Bateman, F.R.S.; F. J. Bramwell ; Sir Joseph Whit-
worth, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S.

Secretaries—P, Le Neve Foster, M.A.; H. Bauerman, F.G.S.

Report of the Council of the British Association for the year 1868-69,
presented to the General Committee at Exeter on Wednesday,
August 18, 1869.

The Reports of the General Treasurer and of the Kew Committee for the
past year have been received, and will be laid before the General Committee.

At the Meeting of the Association at Norwich, the General Committee
referred two Resolutions to the Council for consideration and action, if it
should be deemed desirable.

The first Resolution was :—

That the Council be instructed to prepare and cause to be presented to
the Houses of Lords and Commons petitions on behalf of the Association,
praying them without loss of time to pass such measures as will remedy
the existing defects in Secondary Education in Schools, and that the
Council be empowered to take such other steps as in their judgment may
be best calculated to promote the object of these petitions.

The Council, after receiving the report of a Committee specially appointed
by them to consider the question, resolved to act in accordance with this
Resolution, They consequently prepared the following Petition, which was
presented by the Right Hon, Lord Lyttelton to the House of Lords, by Sir
W. Tite to the House of Commons.

The Humble Petition of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science

Sheweth,—That one of the ends for which the Association was established
was to “obtain a more general attention to the objects of Science, and a re-
moval of any disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress.”

That some of the chief impediments to the progress of Science in the
United Kingdom are to be found in the limited and defective state of Se-
condary Education, and in the condition of the Endowed Grammar Schools,
which, having been founded in past times, represent for the most part the
knowledge and wants of the past, rather than of the present.

That, notwithstanding the defects of the Endowed Grammar Schools, they
are enabled, by their number, antiquity, and endowments, to maintain a
prescriptive rank and influence, and seriously to impede the adoption of im-
proved systems of education.

That the necessity for inquiry into the state of the Endowed Grammar
Schools, and into the education given in schools generally, above the Ele-
mentary, has already been recognized in the appointment by Her Majesty of
three Commissions to report on this Class of Schools in England and
Scotland.

That in the year 1866 the Council of the Association appointed a Com-
tnittee to consider the best means of promoting Scientific Education in Schools,
and that thig Committee drew up a Report on the subject, which is printed

Oe, tS: ©

g
t

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xhii

in the “Report of the Schools-Inquiry Commission,” presented to Her Ma-
jesty, and laid before your Honourable House.

That the recommendations of the Schools-Inquiry Commission, in regard
to the introduction of the study of Natural Science into all Secondary Schools,
are in general accordance with the views of the Association.

That, in the opinion of the Association, the study of Natural Science,
whether as a means of disciplining the mind, or for providing knowledge
useful for the purposes of life, is of essential importance to the youth of this
country; and that it ought to form a part of education in all Secondary
Schools.

That the Association consider the Secondary Education of the United
Kingdom, both in regard to the quality and the range of the subjects of
study, to be incommensurate with the needs of a well-organized state; they
therefore request your Honourable House to enact such laws as shall make
Natural Science an essential part of the course of education, and to put it on
a footing of equality with the most favoured subjects of study.

The Second Resolution referred to the Council by the General Committee
at Norwich was :—

That the Council of the British Association be requested to urge upon
Government and through the British Government upon the Governments of
Foreign Nations, the importance of fixing, by permanent bench-marks, cer-
tain points of level, and also of position in reference to secular changes (1st)
in the elevation of the land as referred to the sea-level, and (2nd) in relation
to changes of coast-line, and to the position of ice-masses.

That the Council of this Association be requested to ask the support and
cooperation in this of the Council of the Royal Society ; and that the fol-
lowing be a Committee to assist the Council and that of the Royal Society
in the definition of the works proposted to be executed :—W. Sartorius von
Waltershausen, Lieut.-Colonel Sir Henry James, R.E., F.R.S., Robert A. C.
Godwin-Austen, F.R.S.

The Council appointed a Committee, consisting of Sir Henry James, Sir
C. Wheatstone, Mr. Godwin-Austen, Professor Tyndall, Professor Ramsay,
the President, General Secretaries, and Treasurer, to consider this resolution
and to report thereon.

This Report being favourable, your Council applied to the Council of the
Royal Society, who at once promised their support in any application to
Government, but deemed it unnecessary to augment the Committee already
elected by your Council for the purpose of defining the works proposed to
be executed. This Committee has not yet concluded its labours.

The following foreign men of Science, who were present at the Norwich
Meeting, have been elected Corresponding Members :—

Baron von Midler, Dorpat. Professor L. Radlkofer, Munich,
Padre Secchi, Director of the Obser- | Professor Karl Koch.

vatory at Rome. M. D’Avesac, Mem. de l'Institut de
Professor Aug. Morren, Doyen dela! France.

Faculté de Science, Marseilles. Dr. H. A. Weddell, Poitiers,
Professor Vogt, Geneva. M. A. Heynsius, Leyden.

Professor Broca, Paris.

The Council are able to report that the Annual Volume was this year
again issued in June-; a still earlier publication being desirable, however, it
is proposed to publish the next volume at Christmas: but in order to do so
it will be necessary to defer until the following year the publication of

xliv REPORT—1869.

reports which are not ready for the press immediately after the close of this
present Meeting of the Association.

The Council have been informed that Invitations for 1870 will be pre-
sented to the General Committee by Deputations from Liverpool, Edinburgh,
Brighton, and Bradford.

Report of the Kew Committee of the British Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science for 1868-69.

The Committee of the Kew Observatory submit to the Council of the British
Association the following statement of their proceedings during the past

ear :—
‘ The nature and amount of assistance to be rendered by this Committee to
the Meteorological Committee of the Royal Society have now been clearly de-
fined, and the duties undertaken at Kew Observatory may, as in the last
Report, for clearness’ sake be again considered under the two following
heads :—

(A) The work done under the direction of the British Association.
(B) That done at Kew as the Central Observatory of the Meteorological
Committee.

This system of division will be adopted in this Report, and it has been
thought desirable, for the information of the Association, in the financial
statement hereto appended, to include the sums received from the Meteoro-
logical Committee as well as those received from the British Association. It
will thus be clearly seen that the work done at Kew for the Meteorological
Committee has been paid for from funds supplied by that Committee, and not
in any way from money subscribed by the British Association.

(A) Worx pone by Kew OnsEerRvATORY UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE
Bririsn Assocravion,

1. Magnetic work.—The Self-recording Magnetographs ordered by the
Mauritius Government for Mr. Meldrum, after haying been verified at Kew,
have been forwarded to their destination.

A Unifilar and Dip-circle for Mr. Meldrum have likewise been verified.

A Unifilar and Dip-circle have been repaired and verified for the Rey. M.
Colombel, who has gone to Nankin, where he intends making magnetical
observations.

M. Colombel as well as M. Berg, of the Wilna Observatory, have received
magnetical instruction at Kew.

A Dip-cirele is in the course of being verified for Licut. Elagin, of the
Russian Navy.

The usual monthly absolute determinations of the magnetic elements con-
tinue to be made by Mr. Whipple, Magnetic Assistant. During the last year
it has been found necessary to replace the wooden pillars of the magnetic
house with pillars of Portland stone, which had been previously ascertained
to be non-magnetic. it has also been found necessary slightly to repair the
Unifilar and Dip-circle hitherto used in these monthly determinations.

The Self-recording Magnetographs are in constant operation as heretofore,
also under the charge of Mr. Whipple, and the photegraphie department
connected with these instruments remains under the charge of Mr. Page.

The task of tabulating and reducing the magnetic curves produced at Kew

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEL. xlv

subsequent to January 1865 is in progress under the direction of Mr.
Stewart. Considerable advance has been made in these reductions during
the present year, and it is hoped that during the next session of the Royal
Society a paper may be communicated to that body by Mr. Stewart, giving
certain results of these reductions, as well as results of the absolute magnetic
observations made every month.

Lieut. Elagin has communicated through Mr. Stewart to the Royal Society
an account of observations made at the various Kuropean observatories, by
means of a Dip-circle which had been lent to him from the Kew Observatory.

Mr. Stewart has likewise communicated to the Royal Society a short paper
by Senhor Capello “ On the reappearance of certain periods of Declination-

disturbance during two, three, or several days;” also a joint paper by the

Rey. W. Sidgreaves and himself, embodying the results of a preliminary
comparison of the Kew and Stonyhurst declination-curves; also a paper em-
bodying the magnetical results obtained by Lieut. Rokeby at the island of
Ascension, reduced by Mr. Whipple, Magnetical Assistant at Kew. Finally,
Mr. Stewart has communicated to the Royal Society a paper containing a
preliminary discussion of the peaks and hollows of the Kew magnetic curves
for the first two years during which the Magnetographs were in operation.

2. Meteorological work.—The meteorological work of the Observatory
continues in the charge of Mr. Baker.

Since the Norwich Meeting, 157 Barometers have been verified, and 27
have been rejected; 1153 thermometers have been verified, and 24 have
been rejected. Two Standard Thermometers have been constructed for the
Standards’ Commission*, one for Stonyhurst College, and nine for Professor
Tait. 38 Hydrometers have likewise been verified.

The progressive nature of this department of the Kew work will be seen
by the following statement of the numbers of Barometers and Thermometers
verified during the last few years :—

Barometers. Thermometers.
MUO eae athe Sess p.hsiaks wih OL cee sh ctbee'e 389
USGS AS Sa ee Gore rameerees | te oo 420
Pea OU Bl lala scot afk ce TU ah eM ee ee 395
SO =O:0 oo oad os is ne ae Ue ee tek we 608
LS (Si GES) ea eee ee (Oe Ce 11389
Ll S010) ee aa eee SF anes Pree eee ae 1153

The self-recording meteorological instruments now at work at Kew will
be again mentioned in the second division of this Report. These are in the
charge of Mr. Baker, the photography being superintended by Mr. Page.

A Self-recording Barograph verified at Kew for Messrs. R, & J. Beck has
been disposed of by these opticians to Mr. Meldrum, of the Mauritius Obser-
yatory. A Barograph and Thermograph have been verified at Kew and dis-

patched to Mr, Ellery, at Melbourne, and a Barograph has recently been veri-

fied for Mr. Smalley, of Sydney,
At the request of Mr. G. J. Symons, the old Kew Thermometer frame has

_ been lent to him for certain experiments, which are being carried on by him

in conjunction with the Rey. C. H. Griffith, at Strathfield Turgis.
The attention of meteorologists is directed towards an instrument devised
by Mr. Beckley, mechanical assistant at Kew, for the purpose of registering

* While this Report was being printed, an application was received from the Warden of
the Standards, through Lieut.-Gen. Sir Edward Sabine, for an Air Thermometer,

xlvi REPORT—1869.

the rainfall automatically. A description of this instrument will be submitted
to the Association at Exeter.

Attention is likewise directed to a paper to be communicated by Mr.
Balfour Stewart to the Association at the Exeter Meeting, entitled “ Remarks
on Meteorological Reductions, with especial reference to the Element of Va-
pour ;” separate copies of which will be at the disposal of Members.

The following revised fees are charged for the verification of meteorological
instruments at Kew :—

& di
Barometers (requiring index- and capacity-corrections) .. 10 0
Ditto (not requiring capacity-correction—inches measured) 5 0
Thermometers (ordinary)eri: cesi ce si. 60555 GN eae 0
Boiling-pomt Thermometers isis. sc cote cee tee 2 6
Pydrometers. wiwss essere es ssa ese ts tela ER RS LetO

3. Photoheliograph.—The Kew Heliograph, in charge of Mr. De La Rue,
continues to be worked in a satisfactory manner. During the past year 274
negatives have been taken on 168 days: 40 pictures of the Pagoda in Kew
Gardens, as a fixed terrestrial object at a known distance, have likewise
been taken, with the object of determining, by measurements of these
pictures, which are taken in different parts of the field of the telescope,
both the optical distortion of the sun-pictures and the angular diameter of
the Sun.

A paper communicated to the Royal Society by Messrs. Warren De La Rue,
Stewart, and Loewy, entitled « Researches on Solar Physics—Heliographical
Positions and Areas of Sun-spots observed with the Kew Photoheliograph
during the years 1862 and 1863,” is the first of the series of reductions of
the photographic solar records; it is in the course of publication in the
‘Transactions’ and will shortly be distributed.

It is hoped that, during next winter, a paper containing the heliographical
positions and areas of the spots observed at Kew during the years 1864,
1865, and 1866 may be communicated to the Royal Society, as well as a
paper representing, both numerically and graphically, the spotted area of the
sun during three complete solar periods, the results being partly derived
from Schwabe’s and partly from Carrington’s observations, in addition to those
made with the Kew photoheliograph.

Another paper by the above authors, entitled “‘ Account of some Recent
Observations on Sun-spots made at the Kew Observatory,” has likewise been
ordered to be published in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions.’

M. Berg, of the Wilna Observatory, has during the past year received -
instruction at Kew in the method of taking Solar Photographs and in that of
measuring the positions and areas of sun-spots, the Director of the Obser-
vatory with which he is connected being desirous of working along with
Kew, and of following out the same methods of observation as well as the
same researches.

The number of sun-spots recorded after the manner of Hofrath Schwabe,
together with a Table exhibiting the monthly groups observed at Dessau and
at Kew for the year 1868, have been communicated to the Astronomical
Society, and published in their ‘ Monthly Notices.’

We regret to mention that Hofrath Schwabe, owing to his great age, has
found it necessary to discontinue his observations ; but the Committee have
satisfaction in stating that arrangements have been made for continuing, at
Kew, the grouping of sun-observations which has been carried on for some

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. xvii

time according to Hofrath Schwabe’s plan, and for publishing the results
annually.

A minute comparison of the records of Hofrath Schwabe with the simul-
taneous photographic records at Kew has revealed the great trustworthiness
of his drawings, which are at present in the possession of Kew Observatory.
The proposed communication already alluded to as representing the spotted
area of the sun during three complete solar periods is thus rendered possible ;
and while it is imagined that by this means a valuable record of the past will
be obtained, it is hoped that the interest now displayed in solar research will
secure the uninterrupted continuance of such a record for the future.

4, Miscellaneous work.—The Superintendent has recently received a grant
of £60 from the Government-Grant Committee of the Royal Society for the
purpose of continuing certain experiments by Prof. Tait and himself on the
rotation of a disk i vacuo; and means are in progress for obtaining a nearly
perfect vacuum, Mr. Beckley, Mechanical Assistant at Kew, having devised
an apparatus for this purpose.
~ An account of preliminary observations made with Kater’s pendulum by
the Superintendent, in conjunction with Mr. B. Loewy, has been communi-
cated to the Royal Society.

The instrument devised by Mr. Broun for the purpose of estimating the
magnetic dip by means of soft iron, constructed at the expense of the British
Association, remains at present at the Observatory awaiting Mr. Broun’s
return to England.

_ The Observatory was honoured on June 25th by a visit from the eminent
French chemist, M. Dumas, permanent Secretary of the Imperial Academy
of Sciences, Paris, accompanied by M. Hervé-Mangon.

(B) Work ponz at Kew as rue CenrraL OpsERvATORY OF THE
Merzorozoeican Commrrrer.

The relation between the two Committees, the Kew and the Meteorolo-
gical, has during the last year been definitely settled.
The Kew Committee have undertaken to maintain the self-recording in-

struments belonging to the Meteorological Committee in regular operation at

Kew, to tabulate from the traces, and to forward the traces and tabulations
once a month to the central office of the Meteorological Committee in London,
where they will be finally reduced, under the supervision of the Director of
that office. They have also sanctioned the employment of such assistance
by Mr. Stewart as may be necessary to enable him to examine the records
which arrive from the various outlying observatories of the Meteorological
Committee in accordance with a plan which has been approved by that body.
Once a week, therefore, documents from these various observatories arrive at
Kew, and about the middle of each month the documents for all the obser-
yatories (including Kew) for the previous month, after haying been well
examined, are forwarded to the Meteorological Office with a few remarks,
which are printed in the Minutes of the Meteorological Committee.

Besides these duties which they have undertaken, the Kew Committee are

_ glad to render the Meteorological Committee any occasional assistance which

it may be in their power to bestow.

1. Work done at Kew as one of the Observatories of the Meteorological Com-
mittee—This consists in keeping in constant operation the Barograph, Ther-
mograph, and Anemograph furnished by the Meteorological Committee. Mr.

_ Baker is in charge of these instruments, From the first two of these instru-

xlvill REPORT—1869.

ments traces in duplicate are obtained, one set being sent to the Meteoro-
logical Office and one retained at Kew; as regards the Anemograph, the
original records are sent, while a copy by hand of these on tracing-paper is
retained. The tabulations from the curves of the Kew instruments are made
by Messrs. Baker, Page, and Foster.

2. Verification of Records.—In order to maintain uniformity in the system
of observation at the various meteorological observatories, it is arranged by
the Meteorological Committee that Mr. Stewart shall personally visit all the
observatories once every year, in addition to which, when necessary, some
one of the Kew assistants will occasionally visit particular stations with a
specific object in view. At the request of the Meteorological Committee,
a system of checks has been devised by the Kew Committee for testing the
accuracy of the observations made at the different Observatories. This system,
with slight modifications, is now in operation*. As this revision takes place
at Kew, it has been found necessary to engage an additional assistant for the
purpose of undertaking it. Mr. Rigby has been engaged for this duty—Mr.
Baker, Meteorological Assistant, having the general superintendence of this
department.

3. Occasional Assistance.—In addition to devising the system of checks
mentioned above, the Kew Committee have also, at the request of the
Meteorological Committee, examined the subject of instrumental verifica-
tions, and it has been found that, owing to improved construction, a higher
standard of excellence in meteorological instruments may be insisted upon
without rejecting more than a very small percentage of those furnished by
good makers,

It has therefore been resolyed by the Meteorological Committee that in
future the following limits of error shall be allowed in the construction of
their instruments :— .

Marine Barometers of the pattern adopted by the Meteorological Office.—
Reject all for which the index-error at the ordinary pressure is greater
than ‘015 inch, or the capacity-error greater than -004 inch, or for which
the mercury does not fall from 14 inch to 3 inch above the present pressure
in a time between 3 and 6 minutes. But for barometers purporting to be
standards, reject all for which the index-error at the ordinary pressure is
greater than ‘010 inch.

Thermometers (graduated on the stem) of the pattern adopted by the Meteo-
rological Office—Reject all in which the largest error at any point is greater
than 0°-3, or in which any space of 10° is more than 0°3 wrong.

Hydrometers of the pattern adopted by the Meteorological Office—Reject all
in which the largest error at any point is greater than 1 division of the scale
(equal to -001 sp. gr.), or in which any space of 10 divisions is more than
0-6 division wrong.

Models of Pantagraphic Apparatus, designed by Mr. Galton, have been
made and experimentally used at Kew, at the desire of the Meteorological
Committee, to reduce the tracings of the self-registering instruments in any
desired proportions, either in length or in breadth, with a view to the ulti-
mate publication by that Committee of all the tracings supplied by the seven
Observatories in a compact volume.

It may also be mentioned, under the head of Occasional Assistance, that
at the request of the Meteorological Committee, Mr. Beckley, Mechanical

* This scheme, having been extracted, with permission, from the Report of the Meteo-
rological Committee, will be found in the Appendix to this Report,

xlix.

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE.

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Lyi REPORT—1869,

Assistant, was sent to Armagh to examine the Barograph there, and to Sand-
wick-manse, Orkney, to superintend the erection of an anemometer. The
expenses haye, on both these occasions, been repaid by the Meteorological
‘Committee.

In conclusion, the Kew Committee desire to bring under the notice of the
British Association, that the system of automatic records established and in
actual work at the Kew Observatory, comprehends magnetic, barometric, and»
thermometric observations, as well as those of the direction and velocity of
the wind, to which an electric self-recording instrument will soon be added.
They think that it would be very advantageous to magnetical and meteo-
rological science if a fully illustrated work were published descriptive of these
instruments, and of the method of working them, together with the method
of reductions actually employed.

J. P. GASSIOT, Chairman.

Kew Observatory,
15th July, 1869.

APPENDIX.

A Drscrirtion of the Muans adopted by the MutroronoercaL Com-
mittee for ensuring Accuracy im the Numerrican VALvuEs
obtained from their SuLr-Recorpine [nsTRUMENTS.

(Extracted, with permission, from the Report of the Meteorological Committee.)

Iy the first Report of this Committee the principles of construction of their
self-recording instruments were fully described, and enough was said to ren-
der it probable that good results would be obtained; but the final method
of tabulating from the traces of these instruments was not then decided on,
nor had any scheme been devised for ensuring accuracy in the tabulated
numerical values.

The labours of the Committee in this department have been materially
aided by suggestions from the superintending Committee of the Central (Kew)
Observatory, and also from the Directors of the various outlying observatories,
and'as a result the Committee are now satisfied that the process of examina-
tion to which the tabulated values are subjected before reaching the central
office is such as to afford a satisfactory guarantee of accuracy.

Tt may be a fitting sequel to the description of these instruments (already
given), to give here an account of the method adopted for ensuring accuracy
in the results which they afford. .

In the first place, the nature of the various instrumental errors and the
best method of avoiding these may with propriety be described, and in the
next place it may be desirable to give in detail the code of regulations
adopted by the Committee for the guidance of their various observatories.

BaroGRrarn.

The values of atmospheric pressure derived from this instrument are
liable to have their accuracy affected by three causes :—

(1) By an imperfect temperature compensation.
(2) By a sluggish action of the mercury in the Barograph tube,
(3) By imperfection in the system of recording and tabulating.

Temperature compensation.—The method by which the Barographs are
compensated for temperature has been described in the Report of the
Meteorological Committee for the year 1867. The precise position of the
fulcrum of the glass rod was determined by means of some preliminary expe-

=. a

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. hi

riments made at Kew upon the first Barograph. These experiments consisted
in subjecting the instrument to a very considerable range of temperature
artificially produced, while frequent comparisons of its indications with those
of a Standard Barometer gave the means of determining approximately
what ought to be the position of the fulerum. It may be presumed that the
determination thus arrived at cannot be wrong more than one-tenth of the
whole, and assuming this to be the case, the next point is to find what is the
actual daily temperature range at the various observatories.

The following Table exhibits both the mean and the maximum daily range
for each month for each of the seven observatories up to the end of 1868. In
all these, with the exception of Stonyhurst, a night observation is made of
the temperature of the Barograph at 10 o’clock, but the result will show that
in Stonyhurst such an observation is unnecessary. It ought here to be borne
in mind that from the system adopted in these instruments, namely, constant
reference each day to a standard, it is only the daily range of temperature
that we have to consider,

Daily range of temperature, in degrees Fahrenheit, as given by the
observation hours.

Aberdeen.| Armagh. | Falmouth. | Glasgow.| Kew. | Stonyhurst.| Valencia.
eee) fe) ets lalatel adele
Sleifalial/alajsalalaelal|as lala la
January......) ... SE Selgceh ates [I scsi Le9te 4c9)|| Mevon|(vasen | Ooi Ore
February ...| ... eae iecsap |) catia | even Iida °Ou/Oronh Epil! orzah a:b
AVP sa eo| oe. Ey ab [Pesca ketenes setle Plea TueOcGllts 7) |e OFZ le Tao
J. eae wee I cste ll sane (eLeGeara ten Som Orsi |p ord
REV os4 05.0 POS Oar ara |e Lede || 3.0) Aca le 3-Ol Be ges O72 1 O-6
June ......... 2x ae set a-nrl, FF Og) WO 4m I ot 37 | OA: [Vrs
BMY. ech ces... Arca PATS Pena tenet AON, 3,08 | 2m eAra ZO.) GG |) OrGr Ik egOnt «sayy (eo.
August ...... Ig | 3°2| 1:7) 379) 17 | 2°8 | 19] 478] 2°7) Jo] O'5 | 373. | 2°4 | 2°5
September 2>9)| 4:6)) 18) 3°38) 1:8 | 673 | 2°) 7°39) 2°4.| 87 | O75 |, 1:2, | r21!2°6
October ...... 1°5 | 2°5| 1:9] 3:6| -1'4.-| 3:0 | 2:0] 6'0| OB 2°g] 0°6| 2°7-| ¥°2) 2°7
November Beg | Lcgi) 3°0)] Tan 26. | E'S) 3B TO Xo |) O77 Ea.) Xa) aA
December 2°0| 6°3] 1-4] 2:2] rz | 2°3 | 1°3] 4°9] O'9| 2°5| O'7 | 2°4 | TO] 4°3

From the results of this Table it would appear that, assuming the tempera-

_ ture adjustment to be one-tenth wrong, the greatest error introduced from

this cause into any of the observations during the year 1868 would be about
00024 in., while the mean monthly error would be inappreciable in all
cases.
We may therefore with confidence presume that in these Barographs the
method of tabulation exemplified in the Report for 1867 and now practised is
sufficiently accurate to obviate all effects of changes of temperature, and that it
is unnecessary to resort to that more complicated but perfect system of reduc-|
tion alluded to in the same Report, by which the influence of temperature
may be completely eliminated. ‘The near correspondence between the simul-
taneous Standard and Barograph readings, as exhibited in page lvii of this
Report, is another proof that the temperature correction is practically perfect.
Sluggishness of Mercury.—As the Barograph tube is always in perfect
d2

li REPORT—1869.

repose, and the adhesion of the mercury to the glass is not counteracted by
tapping or moving the tube, it is desirable to test the results obtained in order
to see if the influence of adhesion causes a perceptible sluggishness of the
mercury. ‘The Standard Barometers, to which in all cases the Barographs
are referred, are, on the other hand, subject to motion, and are probably
sufficiently moved in the operation of reading to counteract any sluggishness
of the mercury.

Now, four or five times each day, while the light is cut off from the re-
cording cylinder of the Barograph by the clock arrangment, the Standard
Barometer is read. We can thus compare these standard readings with the
simultaneous measurements of the Barograms, these latter being of course
properly tabulated, converted into true inches, and the residual correction
applied as described in the Report of the Meteorological Committee for 1867.

Should there be any sluggishness in the mercury of the Barograph we
might expect to discover it by means of this comparison, for in such a case
the Barograph would lag behind, and thus read too low with a rising and too
high with a falling barometer.

If therefore we presume that the Standard Barometer is free from slug-
gishness, and denote its readings by 8, and those of the Barograph by B,
then S—B ought in the case of sluggishness of the Barograph to be positive
for a rising and negative for a falling barometer.

Several months’ observations have been discussed in this manner for each
of the observatories, and the result is exhibited in the following Table :—

Name of S—B (Baro- S—B (Baro-
Observatory. Months used. meter rising). | meter filling).
in. in.
Aberdeen ........- July to December ............ +0'00033 —0"06028
ATMAPT 216.5006. September to December ... +-0°00045 — 0700032
Falmouth ......... August to December ...... +0°00006 — 000020
Glasgow ......... July to December ............ +0°00027 — 000025
RP Was arserdeccrces January to June ............ +0°00027 —o'00019
Stonyhurst......... | January to June ............ — 0700042 +0°00058
Walencia <.......: August to November ...... -++0'00005 +o'00015

From this Table we see how inappreciable in all the observatories is the
retardation of the Barograph Barometer as compared with the Standard,
while in Stonyhurst the Standard even appears to be a ae: more retarded
than the Barograph Barometer.

Errors of recording and tabulating—Under this head we may inelude
(A) errors of adjustment and attachment of paper, (B) errors of time and
date, (C) errors in tabulating from the traces. To begin with the first of
these :—

(A) Errors of adjustment and attachment of paper.

Want of definition arising from an improper adjustment of the lens ought
to be noticed, but it is believed that the definition is good in the case of all
the observatories, As the instrumental constants for all the various Baro-
graphs have now been determined, it would hardly seem expedient to alter the
position of the lens, which wwould alter these constants, for the purpose of
procuring greater perfection i in definition.

The photographic sheet which is attached to the cylinder of the Barograph

eer ee Le eT

REPORT GF THE KEW COMMITTED. lh

ought to be evenly put on without any bagging or bulging; as, if it bulged,
besides giving a bad result, it might come into contact with the end of the
temperature adjustment bar.

Care ought to be taken that there is no want of light, especially in the case
of a low barometer ; and finally, great precaution should be taken to avoid
Jinger-marks and every species of bad photography.

(B) Errors of Time and Date.

Suppose that the sheet has been placed in an unexceptionable manner
upon the Barograph cylinder, the next point is for the operator to set the
instrumental clock before starting to correct Greenwich mean time, as given by
his chronometer. Now the instrumental clock has an arrangement for cutting
off the light for four minutes every two hours, beginning to do so two minutes
before an even hour and ending two minutes after it, and the practice is for
the observer to read the Standard Barometer about five times every day at
periods two minutes after even hours, as ascertained by his chronometer, or
when the light should be about to be restored after having been cut off by the
clock-stop. If therefore the instrumental clock keeps good time and its stop
acts, and if the observer reads the Standard Barometer correctly and at the
proper moment as ascertained by his chronometer, and if he finally reduces
his curves properly, the near coincidence between the corresponding curve
and Standard readings will be a good practical test, not only that all these
operations have been properly performed, but also.that throughout the curve
the instrumental clock keeps good time with the chronometer. A further
check with regard to time is afforded by the comparison made between the
chronometer and the instrumental clock at the moment when the curve is
taken off the cylinder, the results of which are recorded on the curve.

The clock may sometimes possibly stop, or the clock-stop may go wrong.
Without discussing minutely these possibilities, it may be sufficient to state
that when any such misadventure occurs the curve ought to be inspected by
the Director of the Central Observatory.

There still remains the question of date. The security that a curve is

rightly dated depends ultimately on the strong improbability that an obser-
yer at any of the observatories should make a mistake with regard to the
first day of the week. When therefore he returns the Barograph journal
filled up, we may be quite certain that the observations entered on the line
with Sunday were really made on that day, although he may possibly put
the wrong day of the month on the form beside it.
' Again, the photographic operator when he takes off a curve, should mark
on the back in pencil the day of the week and month when the curve was
taken off, and should also, after drying, write upon its face the hour and day
of putting on and taking off as recorded by the journal. If, therefore, the
accuracy of the observer in assigning the proper day of the month to Sunday
be checked at Kew as each weck’s journals are transmitted to that establish-
ment, and if it also be seen that the date written in pencil on the back of the
curve corresponds to that written on its face, and if the times of starting and
ending of the curve as described in front are found to agree with the curve
itself as measured by a simple time-scale, there can hardly be any doubt that
the curve has been properly dated; if there still remain any doubt it will be
dispelled when the tabulations from that curve are examined and it is found
that the tabulated readings agree well with the simultaneous readings of the
Standard Barometer. j

liv REPORT—1869.

It will, in the first place, be necessary to discuss some arrangement for en-
suring the entry under the proper date into the tabulation forms of the mea-
surements from each curve; for even supposing that by the method now de-
scribed we can ensure the proper dating of the curve, yet the tabulations from
this curve may be entered under the wrong date in the tabulation form.

The appropriate check would seem to be the independent entry from the
journal of the Standard readings reduced. For if either of these two inde-
pendent entries be wrongly made, this will be seen by a non-coincidence
of the reduced readings when compared with the simultaneous Standard
readings. Our security becomes, therefore, the security which we have that
these two independent readings cannot both be erroneously entered, and this
may be converted into a certainty if the assistant at the Central Observatory
sees that the journal readings are entered under their proper dates into the
Barograph tabulation forms.

Having thus ascertained the entry into the tabulation forms under their
proper dates of the tabulations and of the reduced standard readings, we come
next to inquire what check there is for accwracy of tabulations ; and here we
may consider separately the cases of large and small errors.

But before proceeding to this part of the subject it may be desirable to say
a few words regarding the system of Barograph tabulation.

The progress made in tabulating the Barograms up to the date of publica-
tion of the last Report of the Committee has been described in that Report.
The first operation is to measure by the aid of a simple tabulating instru-
ment, carrying a scale with a vernier attached to it, and capable of being
read to the thousandth of an inch, the whole depth of the Barogram for every
hour.

This system is nevertheless laborious, implying two measurements and one
subtraction for each hour, besides the application of tables of conversion,
and the consequence is the liability to make an occasional mistake. But
although at first it is absolutely necessary to haye in the case of the
Barograph a tabulating instrument measuring inches, in order by its means
to determine the constants of each instrument, yet when once these instru-
mental constants have been accurately determined, it has been found ser-
viceable to replace the tabulating instrument by another which gives the true
pressure in one measurement, instead of requiring two measurements, one
subtraction and one conversion. Instruments of this nature have been ob-
tained by this Committee for their various observatories, by which the labour
of tabulation has been greatly reduced and accuracy of result much in-
creased.

Nevertheless there is still the liability to make an occasional blunder, and
as this may take the shape of a large error, it is necessary to devise some
means for detecting and obviating all such mistakes.

The best remedy appears to be the use of a simple kind of subsidiary tabu-
lating instrument, consisting of an ivory scale having a breadth equal to one
hour of the time-scale, by means of which the hoarly depth of the Barogram
may be read to the hundredth of an inch. If these readings be compared
with the readings taken independently by the tabulating instrument, any
error in the latter will be at once discovered; for the errors to which the
tabulated measurements are liable are such as five hundredths of an inch, or
one-tenth of an inch,—errors of a large size, which may easily be detected by
the system of sudsidiary measurement.

ee ee

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE, ‘lv

The following is an example of a day’s comparison after this method, ex-
hibiting an error which has thus been brought to light :—

Tabulated reading Sibsidiney’
from weekly tabu- bul * pai ree A—B in
August 29th. lation sheet to the uae al hundredths
nearest hundredth. pote se of an inch.
ve .
DT AMe cesccseccccccecees 30°22 30°21 +1
CMM ednisccccuacataice 22 ‘22, fo)
2 pp MaCeuigad Bae aaa 21 "21 °
Ny Ctaucsesdcedecsuss 22 23 —I
SCORE TCEEEELE EEE £2, =o
rs oral ceanqs tyes 6. 23 "22 +1
7) gy, MRCRRERREReBrecee 24. "2.4. °
3! ere vepOodBROSdeeeadade an *2.5 °
O) Aspe eprtoenonecneeecore 25 25 °
3 Rr Ulex (CO CeC OREO 2.6 “2 fo)
UD TAR Si s'eriegcicaveas «9a: 26 27 ssi
PAIS sev cacbacs chat sgeot 26 27 —1I
MEAN ono cp ip aa iain's velo S218 ‘25 fc)
2 cp) sBecbotspsgseeocoar “25 "25 fo)
2 pth Wace OST eee 26 27 —I
Dc; alt Gor ENCo Ey Bene Ge "25 26 —I
(2 ae gee REE Hee Seee ree oot sap °
WM yy ses ta ccinisieee passe ‘24. "34. —1o Error.
ET ssvies sc cts ascot: "24. vz fo)
UTE Pha cdstercsnt dees 24 ‘25 —I
RUMMPe ees gia ds dedi dca gaa «aie 25 26 —I
eM Utaducsn cide nacqans "24. "24. °
HEI Dc csindsc cece naio "24. "24, )
Midnight : coke caee 30°24 30°25 —1

It ought to be remarked as necessary to the completeness of the check,
that the observer should first of all by meaus of his subsidiary ivory scale fill
in column B, and then (meanwhile concealing B from his view) fill in column
A from the ordinary tabulation sheets. The correctness of the column A—B
should be tested at the Central Observatory.

Having by this means obtained correct tabulations, the next point is to
check the accuracy with which the residual correction has been obtained and
applied (see Report for 1867, page 46). And first, with regard to the method
by which it is obtained, the latest practice has been to calculate it for each
day separately, making the day begin at 11 a.m. The advantage of this ar-
rangement is that each fresh paper, which is always put on between 10 and
11 a.m., will have its own residual correction*. The accuracy of caleu-

lation of this correction ought to be checked, and such a check may be

devised out of the practice pursued at Kew, of taking the mean monthly
difference between simultaneous readings of the Standard and Barograph
readings corrected. If these differences are taken for each day apart,
beginning the day at 11 a.m. and giving each difference its appropriate sign,

then the residual correction may be presumed to be accurate, when for

that day there are as many minus as plus differences. Also, when any
such difference exceeds, say, ‘005 of an inch, the accuracy with which the

* A special arrangement regarding the residual correction has been made for Sundays
and those days on which there are few observations of the Standard Barometer.

lv REPORT—1869.

Standard readings have been reduced to 32° ought in this case to be ex-
amined, When a Standard reading is evidently wrong it ought to be noted
as such on the curve, and should not be made use of either in calculating the’
residual correction or the monthly mean difference between the Standard
and Barograph readings. By applying both the above tests any error in the
calculation of the residual correction will be detected, and ought to be remedied
at once. Having by this means obtained an accurately calculated residual
correction, the accuracy with which this is applied to the various hours ought
to be tested by the Kew assistant, who, obscuring from his view the column
which embodies the values after the residual correction has been applied,
should independently apply it on a separate piece of paper, thus producing
a new column of corrected pressure, which ought to be compared with the old
one; any error discovered by this comparison should be corrected at once.
Before leaving this subject, it ought to be stated that the tabulating instru-
ment as well as the subsidiary ivory scale are so arranged as always to ensure
reading the proper point of the curve for every odd hour.

Should any portion of the curve be too faint for measurement with the
ordinary tabulating instrument, but not too faint for measurement with the
ivory scale, it ought to be measured with this scale, applying to the mea-
surements so obtained their own appropriate residual correction. Such read-
ings ought to be specially noted in the tabulation forms.

Should any part of the curve be deficient from want of light or any other
cause, it ought not to be inked in. If the deficiency be in the border of the
temperature curve, it will be possible to correct it, but if it be in the baro-
metric curve, this cannot be done.

All curves in which the clock has stopped or the clock-stop has been out of
action, should be personally inspected by the Director of the Central Obser-

vatory, in order that he may ascertain if the tabulations have been properly .

made.

Finally, it is right to state that the accuracy of the method of checking
the tabulated values now described, has been practically confirmed by the
month of October at Kew being independently measured by two observers.
The results of the two sets, when compared together, are found to differ very
slightly from one another, the greatest difference being -008 in., which may
be supposed to denote a difference in each of :004 on either side of the truth.
This extreme difference only occurs three times in the course of the month,
that is to say, in 744 observations.

The method of subsidiary tabulations now described is thus proved to be
effective in discovering the larger errors that the observer is liable to make
when he measures the curve. But to ensure an efficient standard of correct-
ness, it is not only necessary that the larger errors should be altogether
eliminated, but smaller errors should be reduced to a minimum. Thus an
observer might be sufficiently cautious in reading his scale to make no large
error, yet sufliciently incautious to read erroneously when he came to the
third figure of decimals. For rough results such an observer might be
reckoned a good one, but for the more delicate class of investigations his
figures would be of less value.

The only way of perfectly eliminating this class of errors is for two inde-
pendent observers to make separate measurements, each with a tabulating
instrument, a course involving much additional labour and expense. But it
is obvious that the Standard Barometer affords a ready approximate means
of estimating the correctness of an obseryer’s results. For should he be an
incautious observer, the mean difference between the simultaneous readings

Ai Din

ee a oe

opm,

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. lvii

of the Standard and the Barograph Barometer will be comparatively great,
but if he both observe his Standard and measure his curves well, the mean
difference will be small.

The following Table exhibits the results of monthly comparisons between
simultaneous Barograph and Standard readings for the year 1868 for all the
observatories.

Mean Differences between Barograph and Standard Readings.

SR eases ceisi lt soxse5 ils pesiesty lpe.eceacs O;0067), |), O;00274" |}, (076042) |} =, 50
PUMNEOMME eciecae (0 etciaci ||). avevee | > oe-sa0 Oro | O;cO2 7s | NOrOOsZ, Nase
“0A. ade egal lige eatin lO OerSal MlaeaeE 070039 | 00028 | o'002z5 | ......
2 joa Re Grogs ME .ceseaee || toacse G'0035. |(o:0027' || orcon7 || 1 t...8.
MMGigeveevet=oss<-.|/.0°CO32: ||... 070042 | 0°0036 | 070025 | o'0031 | ......
IMNC) 5 .caec00ee 0°0029 | 0'0049 | 070029 | 0'0036 | o:0021 | ovoozt | ......
SUV cas ece. 5 =~ 070032 | 00045 | ...%.. Q'0026) | GroogT) |G:oo3ma ly jc.
August .........] 0°0031 | 0°0033 | 070032 | 0°0038 | 00025 | 00023 | 00033
September ...... 0°0023 | 0°0031 | o004I | 0'0031 | 0°0025 | 0°0025 | 0:0027
October .........} 00028 | 00029 | 0°0024 | 070030 | 00017 c*0028 0'0031
November ...... O'00Ig | 010024 | O-0017 | 070029 | o'0015 | o:001g | 0':0038
December ...... 070022 | 0°0022 | 0°0022 | 0'0028 | o-0018 | 0'0030 | 0:0033

It is imagined that the mean differences shown by this Table have for all

the observatories by the end of the year reached a minimum value not much
larger than would be obtained by two observers reading the same Standard,
or by the same observer reading it twice.
_ But while the simultaneous readings of the Standard and Barograph Baro-
meter afford us one means of testing the correctness of the observation mea-
surements, they do not yet do quite enough; for, in the first place, these
simultaneous differences may be caused in part by an instrumental error or
by some local peculiarity, such as rapid heaving of the barometer, and in
the next place, an observer may unconsciously bestow a greater amount of
pains upon these measurements, which are simultaneous with Standard read-
ings, than he does upon his other measurements, and the above differences
may not therefore be a true representative of his general correctness. A
certain number of remeasurements of the curycs of each observatory should
therefore be made at the Central Observatory, and the monthly mean differ-
ence between these and the corresponding measurements by the local observer
be recorded *,

* It was not until the various observatories had been supplied with their improved
tabulating instrument that the final method of making these measurements was decided
on. Since the beginning of 1869 the plan has been to make for each month for each
observatory forty remeasurements of the curve at Kew, obtaining also independently the
residual correction. These final values are then compared with the corresponding values
obtained at the outlying observatories, and the result of this comparison for the first
three months of 1869 has been as follows :—

Mean Difference between Ist and 2nd Measurements.

kh ed «ae ee ge ee

1869, in. in. in, in. in. in. in.
January seeeeees| O'0020 | 0'0017 | 0°0026 | 0'0022 | o'0012 0°0029 O°0017
February sabe ot 070030 | 070025 | 0°0023 | 0°0022 | 070023 00031 0'0026

PARODY veces ce. 9°0024. | 0'0021 | o'0025 | 0°0026 | o'0018 | 00030 | o'0025

lvili REPORT—1869.

THERMOGRAPH.

The accuracy of the Thermograph results is liable to be deranged by three
causes :-—
(1) By a cause depending on the situation and exposure of the instru-
ment.
(2) By instrumental deficiencies, and especially the arrangements con-
nected with the wet bulb.
(3) By a deficient system of tabulation.

Situation of Instruments.

The situation of their various Thermographs was a point carefully con-
sidered by the Meteorological Committee, and there is no reason to think
that the effect of local peculiarity is considerable in the case of any of their
instruments.

In the Report for 1867 this subject was alluded to, and the result of
simultaneous comparisons made at Kew between the readings of two sets of
dry and wet bulbs was given for the month of February, one of these sets
being placed in a frame detached from the main building of the observatory,
and the thermometers haying very small bulbs, the other set being the wet-
and dry-bulb Standard Thermometers of the Thermograph frame.

The result seemed to indicate that the local peculiarity of either frame
was comparatively small; indeed, taking the average of the month, there
was no residual difference between the dry bulbs, while, on the whole, the
Thermograph wet bulb stood 0°12 higher than the other.

A similar comparison made for the month of July gave no residual differ-
ence either for the dry or wet bulbs.

Dr. Robinson, of Armagh, has likewise made a similar comparison between
his Thermograph dry bulb and another Thermometer placed at a higher
elevation, and has obtained as the result of 150 observations made during
the months of April and May, a mean difference indicating that the Thermo-
graph Thermometer read on the whole 0°27 less than the other. While
this difference is not large, Dr. Robinson is of opinion that the upper ther-
mometer is more liable to be affected by the sun, and that the Thermograph
Thermometer is in consequence the most correct. No other observations
have been made on the subject.

Instrumental Deficiencies,

The wet-bulb arrangements are peculiarly liable to go wrong, and the fol-
lowing course of action is suggested in order to reduce this source of error to
a minimum.

The Standard Thermometers should be read at least five times a day at
those moments when the light is cut off by the clock arrangement. The
light remains cut off by this arrangement for four minutes, and it is neces-
sary to read the Standard Thermometers at the beginning of this interval ;
the exact points in the curves corresponding to certain known readings of
the Standards may thus be determined. When the Standards are read, the
observer ought to notice if both wet bulbs are acting properly. If both are
right, the sign »/ should be made after the recorded temperature of the wet
Standard. If the Thermograph wet bulb is wrong, the sign ¢ should be
made, and if the Standard wet bulb is wrong, the sign s. Hither wet bulb,
if found wrong, ought to be put right at once. Should it happen that the
wet bulbs are frozen at the moment of observation; the present temperature

Fe a ne | ee

Beastie y"I-saae tee ec

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE, lix

being also below 32°, cold water should be poured over the wet bulbs and
the connecting strings. In a few minutes the wet bulbs will by this means
be covered with a fresh coating of ice; this should be repeated if necessary.
If this operation is performed two or three times a day during very cold
weather, there is reason to believe that the wet bulb will always be covered
with a sufficient coating of ice. But if the wet bulb and the water of the
water-vessel be frozen from previous cold, the present temperature being
above 32°, the ice of the water-vessel may be thawed by warm water, using
no more than is necessary for the purpose.

If these regulations be followed during the cold months of the year, it is
believed that there are comparatively few instances where we may not know
the temperature of evaporation during frost.

During dry weather the wet-bulb arrangement is again liable to go wrong,
although from a different cause. The thread, which in the arrangement
adopted lies along a copper groove, gets dry in its passage from the water-
vessel to the bulb, the capillary action ceasing. Sometimes it apparently
rights itself without aid, but sometimes it continues wrong until it is put
right at the next observation hour. The commencement and termination of
such a wrong state of the wet bulb are generally so clearly indicated by the
curve itself, that there appears to be little or no uncertainty in ascertaining
what observations ought to be rejected. This action would best appear to be
prevented by the use of an india-rubber tube lying along the metallic groove,
and having one end dipping into the water of the water-vessel; and through
this tube the thread ought to be carried in its passage from the water-vessel
to the thermometer. Evaporation is thus avoided, and the arrangement
will probably answer in winter. When the supply of water is too rapid, it
may be easily and safely altered by turning up the tube.

Kyen when the action of the wet bulb is unexceptionable, water must fre-
quently be added to the water-vessel. It is usual for this water to have the
temperature of the air; but in cases of a great difference between the two
bulbs, this will be much above the temperature of evaporation; the con-

Sequence is found to be, that in such cases there is a rise in the wet-bulb
_ curve which, in extreme cases, may not completely right itself until a quarter
_ of an hour has elapsed. This can only be remedied by each observatory
- doing all in its power to ensure that under such circumstances the water
_ supplied to the water-vessel shall represent as nearly as possible the tem-
_ perature of the wet bulb at that moment, and also that the supply of water
_ from the water-vessel-to the wet bulb shall be no greater than is necessary
to keep the bulb thoroughly damp without dripping.
With regard to other deficiencies, it will only be necessary to remark here
_ Such as are peculiar to the Thermograph, since all those common to this in-
a and the Barograph have already been stated under the head of the
latter.
7 In the first place, it should be noticed that there is sufficient light to illu-
_ minate the whole range of the curve in a proper manner. In order to ensure
_ this, and at the same time procure the best possible definition, the heights of
the thermometers may, as occasion requires, and without detriment to the
‘instrument, be altered so as to bring the mean temperature of the time into
-acentral position with respect to the lens and light. This change ought,
however, to be made as seldom as possible (perhaps twice or thrice in a year),
and when made great care ought to be taken that there is no strain upon the
wet-bulb Thermometer through tightness of the thread, whether arising
from frost or any other cause.

lx REPORT—1869.

Errors in Trace and Tabulation.

The arrangement proposed for ensuring the entry under the proper date
into the tabulation forms of the measurements of the Thermograph curyy's,
and of the Standard readings corrected, is almost precisely the same as that
stated in the case of the Barograph. ‘

Having ascertained the entry into the tabulation forms under their prop”
dates of the tabulations, and of the Standard readings corrected, we come in
the next place to consider the check upon accuracy of tabulation, and here,
as in the case of the Barograph, it will be necessary to consider separately
large and small errors.

In the first place, with respect to large errors, in order to prevent entirely
their occurrence, it is necessary to resort to the system of subsidiary tabula-
tions. An instrument for this purpose has been devised at Kew. It is un-
necessary here to state its principle of construction; suffice it to say, that
the results furnished by it are used in the same manner as in the case of the
Barograph ivory scale already mentioned. By this means correct columns

of tabulated readings may be obtained. Again, with regard to the Standard |

readings, all that appears to be necessary is to examine both the accuracy of
entry of the Standard reading corrected, and the accuracy of tabulation for
all those cases in which the recorded Thermograph temperature is more than
half a degree different from the corresponding Standard reading, and to make
any correction that may be found to be necessary. When a Standard read-
ing is evidently wrong, it ought to be noted as such on the curve, and should
not be made use of in calculating the monthly mean difference between
Standard and Thermograph readings. Before leaving this subject, it ought
to be stated that the tabulating instrument as well as the subsidiary scale,
are both so arranged as to ensure reading the proper point of the curve for
every odd hour.

It ought to be noted that, in tabulating from the Thermograph curves, the
tabulating instrument should be set from those observation hours where
there is little thermometric fluctuation.

All the dry-bulb readings ought to be compared with the corresponding wet- :
bulb ones, and should the latter ever appear higher than the former, the case —

ought to be marked.

The maximum and minimum temperatures furnished by the outlying ob- |

seryatories ought to be checked.

All large errors may, it is hoped, be completely obviated by the means now
described.

With regard to small errors, the plan adopted is the same as that for the
Barograph, viz. :—

(1) To record the monthly mean difference between the simultaneous
Standard and Thermograph readings.
(2) To make forty remeasurements from each month’s curves at Kew.

The following Table exhibits the results of the method employed for test-—

ing the accuracy of the Thermograph tabulations as regards small errors ;—

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE.

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“4samyfu0j}g

a i - REPORT—1869.

It is believed that the results of this Table afford satisfactory evidence not
only of the accuracy with which the Standard Thermometers are read,
but also of the accuracy of tabulation from the traces. A tendency in the
monthly mean differences to decrease from their first values at starting will
be noticed in the case of all the observatories.

ANEMOGRAPH.
The accuracy of the Anemograph is, like that of the Thermograph, liable
to be deranged by three causes :—
(1) By a cause depending on the situation and exposure of the instru-
ment.
(2) By instrumental deficiency, such as friction.
(3) By deficient traces and tabulations.

Situation of Instruments.

These instruments are placed on the highest points of the various obser-
vatories, and as far as possible out of the reach of local influences, The
exposure may therefore be considered good in the case of all the obser-
vatories.

Instrumental Deficiencies,

Friction is the most important of these, and may be supposed to affect to
a small extent both the records of direction and velocity. The axle of the
direction-vane moves in a wooden bearing, which is saturated with oil. It
is believed that when the instrument is regularly attended to, the friction
consequent upon this arrangement can be kept very small.

As regards the influence of friction upon the velocity-records, this has
been determined in the case of the Kew instrument, and also by Dr. Robin-
son for his Anemograph, which has been for many years in operation. The
following friction coefficient has been adopted, with the concurrence of Dr.
Robinson, as applicable to the records of all the Anemographs belonging to
the Meteorological Committee :—

Observed, miles, miles,

For velocities ap } add-1°5
% t Ae } add 1:0

» fo 10.0 ¢ add 05

Errors of Trace and Tabulation.

It ought to be noticed that both the direction- and the velocity-pencils are

working well and freely on the paper.
It is also to be noticed that, for all the observatories except Falmouth,

the needle on the cylinder goes through the centre of the crosses marked on

the metallic paper.
In Falmouth the yelocity-pencil is slightly out in position, and in con-

sequence that observatory has been directed to set to a point which is not

quite in the centre of the crosses. The Falmouth instrument has also been
oriented for this position of setting. A note of the proper position of setting
for Falmouth is preserved at Kew, and the assistant there ought to inspect
each Falmouth Anemogram to see that it has been properly set.

aMes eee ee ey

Vi ea x

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. xii’

With regard to date, each curve when taken off the cylinder should haye
both the day of the week and of the month written upon it, and when it
reaches Kew it ought to be inspected by the assistant there in order to see
that the observer has attached the proper day of the month alongside the
day of the week.

___ He should also see that the week’s curves sent are dated consecutively.

___ With regard to time, a prick made in the small time-scale of the metallic
sheet denotes in terms of the hour-lines ruled on this sheet, the moment of
starting, and a similar prick that of taking off. These pricks ought to denote

_ the true chronometer times of starting and taking off very nearly, if the in-
strumental clock has been properly regulated. All stoppages of the instru-
mental clock ought to be marked.

Tt ought also to be noticed that the cylinder is well clamped, otherwise the
friction of the pencil upon the cylinder may occasionally overcome that of
the clamp, in which case the cylinder will slip. -

With regard to errors of tabulation, the assistant at Kew ought in the first
place to ascertain that the curve is tabulated under its proper date. Probably
an intelligent inspection of the direction- and velocity-records in connexion
with the tabulated results will be sufficient to determine this point.

A simple system of subsidiary tabulations has been adopted in order to
check the direction-results. The observer at the outlying observatory is
requested to write down on a separate sheet in numbers the direction of the
wind at each hour as read from the curve by his eye, and compare it, as in
the case of the Barograph and Thermograph, with the tabulated results. The
differences between the two columns or A — B ought to be inspected at Kew,
and when they are greater than two points the case ought to be examined,
and any error detected ought to be corrected at once. With respect to direc-
tion, fractional parts of a point ought not to be recorded.

With regard to velocity-traces, the action of the instrument ig such as to

give by a glance at a curve the whole space travelled over by the wind for
that day. Perhaps, therefore, it will be a sufficient check upon the yelocity-
records if, in addition to an intelligent comparison of the traces and tabula-
tions, each day’s results are added up and the sum total compared with that
derived by glancing at the curve. When the difference between these two

"daily sum totals is greater than one-twentieth of the whole, the tabulated velo-
_ cities for that day ought to be gone over again, and if any error is detected
zt ought to be put right at once.

___Itis probably unnecessary to check the recorded oscillations, as these are
of inferior scientific value, and additional labour bestowed upon them would
appear to be superfluous.

_ Finally, in order to keep a check upon small errors, the system of making

_ at Kew forty remeasurements for each month, both for direction and velocity;

: been adopted.

__ The following Table exhibits the results of the method employed for testing
_ the accuracy of the Anemograph tabulations as regards small errors,

It will be seen from this Table that the standard of accuracy as.repre-
‘Sented by the smallness of the mean monthly differences has gradually in-
creased up to the end of the year.

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lxiv

ie i al a eS ey a a el Eee eee ee ee ee

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTED. lxy

Copr of Recunations adopted by the Mrrgorozoeicat ComMitrTEE
for ensuring Accuracy in the Resuurs derived from their Srxr-
RECORDING INSTRUMENTS.

In the first place a set of rules have been framed for the guidance of the
yarious observatories, including the Central Observatory at Kew. Secondly,
a set of forms have been constructed on which to register the deficiencies and
mistakes in the returns from the various observatories, copies of which when
filled up are forwarded to the Directors of these observatories on the one
hand, and to the Meteorological Office on the other. Thirdly, a diary of
operations has been constructed, from which each observatory may know the
times at which the various documents ought to be sent to Kew. Fourthly,
each month’s results are laid before the Meteorological Committee, accom-
panied with the remarks of the Director of the Central Observatory, which are
then printed in the minutes of that body*.

REGULATIONS FoR BAROGRAPH.

Outlying Observatory.

(1.) The curves, journals, and tabulation forms to be written upon accord-
ing to the pattern furnished.

(2.) Always begin a new month with new forms. The curves and forms
are to be numbered consecutively from the beginning of the year,
as will be seen from the diary.

(3.) Clock to be set to Greenwich mean time at starting, and its error
not to exceed two minutes in two days.

(4.) The Barograph Thermometer and the Standard Barometer, and its
attached Thermometer, ought to be read five times a day if pos-
sible while the light is cut off by the clock-arrangement. The
light remains cut off by this arrangement for four minutes, and it
is necessary to read the Standard Barometer at the end of this
interval—the exact points in the curve corresponding to certain
known readings of the Standard may thus be determined. It ought
to be noticed when the Standard is heaving or oscillating.

(5.) The instrument should always be started between 10 and 11 a.m.
Greenwich mean time on those days mentioned in the diary.

(6.) Every change made in the instrument, every stoppage of clock, &c.,
and all peculiarities in the curve, noticed by the observer, should
be inserted in the journal under the head of “ Remarks,” with the
exact time attached thereto. Should the height of the Barometer-
cistern be altered, or any change made which will affect the curve,
this ought, as already mentioned, to be noticed; it is, however,
considered that all such changes ought to be avoided.

(7.) The previous week’s curves, journals, and tabulations should be sent
to Kew every Thursday, as mentioned in the diary.

-* Tn these remarks there is recorded, amongst other things, each blank in the traces
during the month. The following were the blanks for February 1869 :—

Anemograph (direction) ............ 10 hourly records lost out of 4704.
Ditto (velocity) %..5...:senesesees 20 i ig » 4704.
BEALOPEAN iis cabetelecsv--sscceredeoete 13 rf iS 4 4704,
Thermograph (dry bulb),........... 2 i" i sp n04.
Ditto (wet bulb).......... Soveepeseereat 12 » Bn Waa qlee

1869, €

xvl REPORT—1869.

Central Observatory (Assistant). j

(8.) The assistant at Kew shall examine each curve in order to see if
there is any want of light or appearance of bagging, or of finger-
marks, or of bad photography, and he shall occasionally see that
the temperature bar is in proper action.

(9.) He shall see that the clock and clock-stop have been in good action
for the time of the curve.

(10.) That the instrumental clock does not differ more than two minutes
from the chronometer as recorded on the curve.

(11.) That the date written on the back of the curve agrees with that on
the face.

(12.) That the curve is properly written upon after the pattern.

(18.) That in the Barograph Journal the proper day of the month is placed
alongside of Sunday, and that the others follow consecutively.

(14.) That the times of starting and stopping the curve as recorded in the
journal have been properly recorded on the face of the curve.

(15.) Finally, he shall ascertain, by means of a simple inspection of the
curve, that the beginning and ending, as shown by the curve itself,
are the same as those described on the face of the curve.

(16.) He shall see that the journal readings of the Standard Barometer
are entered under their proper dates into the Barograph tabulation
sheets.

(17.) Then examine in a general manner the accordance of the Barograph
and Standard readings for each day. If these two tests be satis-
factory, he may conclude that the tabulations and Standard read-
ings have both been entered under their proper dates.

(18.) Check the accuracy of the subtractions made in the tables of sub-
sidiary measurements furnished by the outlying observatory.

(19.) Investigate all cases where A — Bis greater than ‘02 in. ; if an error
be revealed in the tabulations, this error ought to be corrected at
once. These corrections ought to be made before the next step in
the process is commenced.

(20.) Then ascertain the accuracy with which the residual correction has
been found according to the method described, and whenever it
has been found necessary to alter the residual correction, a cor-
rection should also be made in the last column of the tabulation
papers.

(21.) Then check after the manner described the accuracy with which the
residual correction has been applied, producing a new column of
corrected pressure, which he shall compare with the old one, and
any error discovered by this comparison shall be corrected at once.

(22.) Portions of the curve too faint for the ordinary instrument, but
capable of being measured by the ivory scale, shall be measured,
corrected, and marked as specified.

Central Observatory (Director).

23, The assistant at Kew shall bring all curves and tabulations which
exhibit deficiencies personally before the Director of the Central
Observatory, and the latter shall make the necessary remarks on
the curves and tabulations, or cause them to be made, and shall
communicate all cases of failure to the Meteorological Committee
on the one hand and to the Director of the observatory where the

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. lxvil

failure occurred on the other, making any remark that may tend
in his estimation to obviate in future the cause of failure.

(24.) He shall also communicate as above the monthly mean differences
between the Barograph readings reduced, and the simultaneous
Standard readings.

(25.) He shall also communicate as above the result of forty remeasure-
ments for each observatory for each month, to be made at Kew,
noting (1) the greatest difference, (2) the mean difference irre-
spective of sign, (3) the residual difference (if any), taking signs
into account.

REGULATIONS FOR THERMOGRAPH.
Outlying Observatory.

(1.) The curves, journals, and tabulation forms to be written upon accord-
ing to the pattern furnished.

(2.) Always begin a new month with new forms. The curves and forms
are to be numbered consecutively from the beginning of the year,
as will be seen from the diary.

(3.) Clock to be set to Greenwich mean time at starting, and its error not
to exceed two minutes in two days.

(4.) The Standard Thermometers should be read at least five times a day
at those moments when the light is cut off by the clock-arangement.
The mode of dealing with the wet bulb has been already de-
seribed, p. lviii.

(5.) The instrument should always be started between 10 and 11 a.m.
Greenwich mean time, on those days mentioned in the diary.

(6.) Every change made in the instrument, every stoppage of clock, &c.,
and all peculiarities in the curve noticed by the observer, should be
inserted in the journal under the head of “ Remarks,” with the
exact time attached thereto.

(7.) The muslin and connecting threads ought to be taken off the bulbs,
washed and replaced as often as they become soiled.

(8.) The previous week’s curves, journals, and tabulations should be sent
to Kew every Thursday, as mentioned in the diary.

Central Observatory (Assistant).

(9.) The assistant shall examine each curve in order to see if there is any
want of light, bagging, finger-marks, bad photography, or defective
action of wet bulb, during however short a space of time.

(10.) He shall see that the clock and clock-stop have been in good action
for the time of the curve.

(11.) That the instrumental clock does not differ more than two minutes
from the chronometer as recorded on the curve.

_ (12.) That the date written on the back of the curve agrees with that in
front. =

(13.) That the curve is properly written upon after the pattern adopted.

- (14.) That in the Thermograph Journal the proper day of the month is

placed alongside of Sunday, and that the others follow conse-
cutively.
(15.) That the times of starting and stopping the curve as recorded in the
journal have been properly recorded on the face of the is
€

Ixvill REPORT—1869,

(16.) He shall ascertain, by means of a simple inspection, that the be-
ginning and ending, as shown by the curve itself, are the same as
those described in front of the curve.

(17.) That the journal readings of the Standard Thermometer are entered
under their proper dates into the Thermograph tabulation sheets.

(18.) He shall examine in a general manner the accordance of the Ther-
mograph and Standard readings for each day. If these two tests
be satisfactory, he may conclude that the tabulations and Standard
readings have both been entered under their proper dates.

(19.) Check the accuracy of the subtractions made in the tables of the
subsidiary measurements.

(20.) Investigate all cases in which A — B is greater than 0°5 Fahr. ;

and if an error is revealed, it ought to be corrected at once.

(21.) Examine both the corrected Standard reading and the corresponding
tabulated one for all those cases in which there is a difference
greater than 0°-5 between the two.

(22.) Compare the dry-bulb readings with the corresponding wet ones,
marking and examining all those cases in which the latter appear
higher than the former.

(23.) Check the accuracy of the maximum and minimum temperatures
furnished by the outlying observatories.

(24.) Record the monthly mean differences between the simultaneous
Standard and Thermograph readings.

(25.) Make forty remeasurements as specified.

Central Observatory (Director).

(26.) The assistant at Kew shall bring before the Director of the Central
Obseryatory all curves, with their corresponding tabulations, that
are deficient from any cause, and the Director shall make the ne-
cessary remarks on the curves and tabulations, or cause them to —
be made, and shall communicate all cases of failure to the Meteo- j
rological Committee on the one hand, and to the Director of the
observatory where the failure occurred on the other, making any
remarks that may tend in his estimation to obviate in future the
causes of failure. -

(27.) The Director of the Ceutral Observatory shall also communicate as
above the monthly mean differences between the simultaneous
Thermograph and Standard readings, as well as the result of the
forty remeasurements made at Kew.

RecuLatTions ror ANEMOGRAPH.
Outlying Observatory.

(1.) The curves and tabulation forms to be written upon according to the
patterns furnished. :

(2.) Always begin a new month with new tabulation forms. The curves
and forms are to be numbered consecutively from the beginning of
the year, as will be seen from the diary.

(3.) The pricks on the curve, when compared with the Greenwich mean
times of commencement and taking off, ought to agree with the
latter within five minutes at each end. »

er Teer ee ere eS

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. ]xix

(4.) The curve should be taken off at 10" 30™ a.w., and a new one replaced
if possible at 10" 32", Greenwich mean time.

(5.) Every change made in the instrument, every stoppage of clock, &c.,
and all peculiarities in the curve noticed by the observer, should
be recorded on the blank part of the sheet of metallic paper, with
the exact time attached thereto. The orientation should be tested
once a month.

(6.) The previous week’s curves and tabulations should be sent to Kew
every Thursday, as recorded in the diary.

Central Observatory (Assistant).

(7.) The assistant at Kew shall examine each curve in order to see if both
pencils work well and freely, and if the paper has been accurately
attached to the cylinder, and if the cylinder has not slipped.

(8.) He shall see that the clock has been in good order during the time of
the curve.

(9.) That the curve is properly written upon after the pattern adopted.

(10.) That in the writing upon the curve the proper day of the month is
placed alongside the day of the week.

(11.) That the times of putting on and taking off as recorded by the
pricker do not differ more than five minutes from the chronometer
time.

(12.) He shall inspect the direction- and velocity-curves in connexion with
the tabulated results, in order to ascertain that each curve is
tabulated under its proper date.

(13.) Check the accuracy of the subtractions made in the tables of the
subsidiary direction measurements.

(14.) Examine all cases in which A — B is greater than two points, and if
an error is revealed it ought to be corrected at once.

(15.) Check the accuracy of the velocity tabulations, according to the
method herein indicated.

(16.) Make forty remeasurements for each month, both for direction and
velocity, as in the case of the other instruments.

Central Observatory (Director).

(17.) The assistant at Kew shall bring before the Director of the Central
Observatory all curves, with their corresponding tabulations, that
are deficient from any cause, and the Director shall make the neces-
sary remarks on the curves and tabulations, or cause them to be
made, and shall communicate all cases of failure to the Meteoro-
logical Committee on the one hand, and to the Director of the ob-
servatory where the failure occurred on the other, making any
remarks that may tend in his estimation to obviate in future the
causes of failure.

(18.) The Director of the Central Observatory shall also communicate as
above the result of the forty remeasurements made at Kew.

Ixx REPORT—1869,

I—WEEKLY FORM FOR REGISTERING DEFICIENCIES.

BAROGRAMS, &c.

Tabulation No.
(Received at Kew, 3) and corresponding
Documents.
Points noticed at Kew. Results and Remarks.

1. Deficiency in number of documents sent .
2. Errors in numbering and writing upon them
(A.) Want of light in curves
(B.) Bagging in OG. ho wen aes
(C.) Finger-marks, &c.,indo. . .
3. Action of clock .
4, Regulation of do, ents Uataks
(D.) Action ofelock-stop . .... =.
5. Hrrors in dating curves

KE.) Do. in entry or date of entry of pers readings
y y of J
of standard into tabulation sheets ‘
6. Do. in date of entry of tabulated readings into
tabulation sheets :
7. Do. of subtraction in subsidiary ‘tables 5
8. Do. of tabulation discovered by subsidiary tables
(c.) Do, in caleulating residual correction .
(d.) Do. in applying residual correction
9. Ten remeasurements
(1.) Greatest difference

(2.) Mean difference invespective of St m 3
(3.) Residual difference .

— Se ee

_—

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE, xxi
q II.— WEEKLY FORM FOR REGISTERING DEFICIENCIES.

_ THERMOGRAMS, &c.

Tabulation No.

eadiekeam, pd gee snaedttg

Points noticed at Kew. Results and Remarks.

1. Deficiency in number of documents sent . :
2. Errors in numbering and writing upon them .

(A.) Want of light in curves
(B.) Bagging in do.
(C.) Finger-marks, &c., in do.

(a.) Defective action of wet bulb .

3. Action of clock .
4, Regulation of do.

(D.) Action of clock-stop
| 5, Errors in dating curves . :
| (Z.) Do. in entry or date of entry of Acosta asics

4 of standard into tabulation sheets . . . .
_ 6. Do. in date of entry of tabulated readings into
tabulation sheets . .

7. Do. of subtraction in subsidiary ‘tables /
8. Do. of tabulation discovered by subsidiary tables
(6.) Do. in maxima and minima. . ....

@ Tenremeasurements . . . i: + » «
(1.) Greatest difference :
(2.) Mean difference invespective of sig ‘
(3.) Residual difference . :

Ixxil REPORT—1869.

IIl.—WEEKLY FORM FOR REGISTERING DEFICIENCIES.

“4

ANEMOGRAMS, &e.

Tabulation No.
. ¢ and corresponding ‘
(Received at Kew, ) Doe ;
:
Points noticed at Kew. Results and Remarks. :

1. Deficiency in number of documents sent .
2. Errors in numbering and writing upon them

(e.) Action of pencils . . Pt er

(f.) Errors of attachment of paper

(g.) Slipping of cylinder

Action of clock . hae hee sees
MANS ET LU ete te ae i oa a ae ar

5. Errors i in dating curves.

6. Do. in date of entry of tabulated readings into
; .
8.

tabulation sheets .
. Do. of subtraction in subsidiary tables :
Do. in direction discovered by subsidiary tables .
(h.) Do. in velocity discovered by ine arrange-
TCT ads, 1 (0 Ge abences Uke Sills, Wi ete eaate
9 (a.) Ten remeasurements (direction)
(1.) Greatest difference
(2.) Mean difference irr espective of si gn
(3.) Residual difference a ae
9 (6.) Ten remeasurements (velocity)
(1.) Greatest difference

(2.) Mean difference irrespective 0 of si ign
(3.) Residual difference :

Specimen of Diary of Operations for 1869. JANUARY.

lxxiv BEPORT—1869.

FEBRUARY,
Se er eels Ee SS ee
eS s is! ay, Send to Kew.

a | m ,° €.o8
E gf2 (Gs | £32 | por ond Journal

Da: Hes | £8 apes ar, ani ournals
a De iat 4 =I < a & ES 4 = Ther. om and Weather| Remarks.
re} Seq | Sed| CA8 Curves, INGE: » | Tabula- | Report
iy 324 | 3.2| suc | Nos. Prelanioe tions, for
fas} eas | ats] 288 |inclusive. : S.
TeNLONCAY G.-|' sconce 32

.| Saturday...) 36-37 | 37 7

7.,Sunday:..| -.. | 38

8.| Monday ...! 38-39 | 39

g.| Tuesday...) ...... 40
1o.| Wednesday| 40-41 | 41
11.| Thursday..| ...... 42 ... {32 to 39/32 to 38) 6 and 7 |January
12.| Friday ...| 42-43 | 43
13.) Saturday...) ...... 44 8
14.| Sunday...| 44-45 | 45
15.| Monday ...} «+... 46
16.| Tuesday ...| 46-47 | 47
17.| Wednesday] ...... 48

18.| Thursday..| 48-49 | 49 ... |40t0 45/39 to45|) 8

19.| Friday ...] ...06. 5°

20.| Saturday..| 50-51 | 51 9

21.) Sunday:-.| ..... 52 Kew to send
in January

22,.| Monday ...} 52-53 | 53 documents
to the central

23.| Tuesday ...| ....0 54 office.

24.| Wednesday] 54-55 | 55

25.| Thursday. .| ...... 56 we: (46 to 53/46 to 52) 9
26.| Friday ...! 56-57} 57
27.|Saturday..| ...... 58 10

28.) Sunday... 58-59 | 59 II

a —

'' , ee

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE, Ixxv

RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL Commitrer AT THE EXETER
Meetine In Avetsr 1869.

[When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the Secretary,
except there is a specific nomination. ]

Involving Grants of Money.

That the sum of £600 be placed at the disposal of the Council for main-
taining the Establishment of the Kew Observatory.

That the Committee, consisting of Dr. Joule, Sir W. Thomson, Professor
Tait, Dr. Balfour Stewart, and Professor G. C. Foster, be reappointed to effect
‘a determination of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat; and that the sum of
£50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That the Committee for reporting on the Rainfall of the British Isles be
reappointed, and that this Committee consist of Mr. Charles Brooke, Mr.
Glaisher, Professor Phillips, Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. J. F. Bateman, Mr. R.
W. Mylne, Mr. T. Hawksley, Professor Adams, Mr. C. Tomlinson, Professor
Sylvester, Dr. Pole, and Mr. Rogers Field; that Mr. G. J. Symons be the
Secretary, and that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the ordinary
purposes of the Committee, and that a further sum of £50 be granted for the
purpose of providing additional rain-guages in certain districts where obser-
vations are not at present made.

That the Committee on Underground Temperature, consisting of Sir William
Thomson, Dr. Everett, Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., Principal Forbes, Mr. J.
Clerk Maxwell, Professor Phillips, Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. Balfour Stewart,
Professor Ramsay, Mr. Geikie, Mr. Glaisher, Rev. Dr. Graham, Mr. E. W.
Binney, Mr. George Maw, and Mr. Pengelly, be reappointed with the addi-
tion of the name of Mr. 8. J. Mackie; that Dr. J. D. Everett be the Secretary,
and that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That the Committee on the Thermal Conductivity of Metals, consisting of
Professor Tait, Professor Tyndall, and Dr. Balfour Stewart, be reappointed ;
that Professor Tait be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be placed at
their disposal for the purpose.

That the Committee on Tides, consisting of Sir W. Thomson, Professor
_ Adams, Professor J. W. M. Rankine, Mr. J. Oldham, and Captain Richards,
_ be reappointed, with the addition of the name of Mr. W. Parkes, and that
_ they be instructed to institute as soon as possible a comparison between the
results of the formule arrived at in their reports (those of observation and
_ those of previous methods of reduction and calculation), and that the sum of
£100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That the Committee on Luminous Meteors, consisting of Mr. Glaisher,

_ My R. P. Greg, Mr. E. W. Brayley, Mr. Alexander Herschel, and Mr. C.

_ Brooke, be reappointed ; and that the sum of £30 be placed at their disposal
_ for the purpose.

That Dr. Matthiessen, Professor Abel, and Mr. David Forbes be a Com-
mittee for the purpose of continuing their researches on the Chemical Nature
of Cast Iron; and that the sum of £80 be placed at their disposal for the

ose.
‘That Mr. R. B. Grantham, Mr. J. Bailey Denton, Mr. J. R. Harrison, Mr.
_ J. W. Wanklyn, W. Hope, and Dr. B. H. Parl be a Committee for the pur-
_ pose of continuing their irvestigations on the treatment and utilization of
sewage; and that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., Professor Phillips, Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,

Ixxvi REPORT—1869.

Mr. John Evans, Mr. Edward Vivian, Mr. William Pengelly, Mr. George Busk,
Mr. W. Boyd Dawkins, and Mr, W. Ayshford Sandford be a Committee for
the purpose of continuing the exploration of Kent’s Cavern, Torquay ; that
Mr. Pengelly be the Secretary, and that the sum of £150 be placed at their
disposal for the purpose.

That Dr. P.M. Duncan and Mr. Henry Woodward be a Committee for the
purpose of continuing their Researches on British Fossil Corals; that Dr.
P. M. Duncan be the Secretary, and that the sum of £50 be placed at their
disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. Henry Woodward, Dr. Duncan, Professor Harkness, and Mr.
James Thomson be a Committee for the purpose of making and photographing
further sections of such Mountain Limestone Fossils as require to be cut in order
to display their structure; that Mr. Woodward be the Secretary, and that the
sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That the Rev. W. 8S. Symonds, Mr. Lightbody, and the Rev. J. B. La
Touche be a Committee for the purpose of investigating Sedimentary deposits
in the river Onny; that the Rev. J. B. La Touche be the Secretary, and that
£3 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Dr. Bryce, Sir W. Thomson, Mr. D. Milne-Home, and Mr. Macfarlane
be a Committee for the purpose of continuing the researches on Earthquakes
in Scotland; that Dr. Bryce be the Secretary, and that the sum of £4 be
placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Professor Huxley, Mr. Westroppe, and Mr. W. H. Baily be a Com-
mittee for the purpose of continuing the investigation of the fossil contents of
the two Kiltorcan quarries, co. Kilkenny ; that Mr. W. H. Baily be the
Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose. :

- That Mr. W. 8. Mitchell, Mr. Robert Etheridge, Professor J. Morris, Mr.
G. Maw, and Mr. Henry Woodward be a Committee for the purpose of con-
tinuing the investigation of the Leaf-beds of the Lower Bagshot Series of the
Hampshire Basin ; that Mr. Mitchell be the Secretary, and that the sum of
£15 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Dr. B. W. Richardson, Dr. Sharpey, and Professor Humphry be a
Committee for the purpose of continuing researches on the physiological
action of Organic Chemical compounds; that Dr. Richardson be the Secretary,
and that the sum of £30 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. W. Carruthers, Professor Balfour, Dr. J. D. Hooker, and Professor
Dickson be a Committee for the purpose of continuing investigations in the
Fossil Flora of Britain ; that Mr. Carruthers be the Secretary, and that the
sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. Spence Bate, Mr. Joshua Couch, Dr. McIntosh, Mr. Rowe, and
Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys be a Committee for the purpose of continuing their
research on the Marine Fauna of Devon and Cornwall; that Mr. Spence Bate
be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.

That Mr. George Busk, Mr. H. T. Stainton, and the Rev. H. B. Tristram
be a Committee for the purpose of drawing up a record of Zoological Literature
of 1869; that Mr. George Busk be the Secretary, and that the sum of £100
be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. C. Stewart, Dr. Giinther, and Mr. W. H. Flower be a Committee
for the purpose of investigating the structure of the Ear in Fishes, and that
Mr. Stewart draw up the Report on the subject, and that the sum of £10 be
placed at their disposal for the purpose.

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Ixxvil

That Dr. Arthur Gamgee, Mr. E. Ray Lankester, and Dr. M. Foster be a
Committee for the purpose of investigating the amount of Heat generated in
the Blood, in the process of arterialization; that Dr. Arthur Gamgee be the
Secretary, and that the sum of £15 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That the Metric Committee be reappointed, such Committee to consist of
Sir John Bowring, The Right Hon. Sir Stafford H. Northcote, Bart., C.B.,
M.P., The Right Hon. C. B. Adderley, M.P., Mr. Samuel Brown, Dr. Farr,
Mr.Frank P. Fellowes, Professor Frankland, Professor Hennessy, Mr. James
Heywood, Sir Robert Kane, Professor Leone Levi, Professor W. A. Miller,
Professor Rankine, Mr. C. W. Siemens, Colonel Sykes, M.P., Professor A. W.
Williamson, Mr. James Yates, Dr. George Glover, Mr. Joseph Whitworth,
Mr. J. R. Napier, Mr. H. Dircks, Mr. J. V. N. Bazalgette, Mr. W. Smith,
Mr. W. Fairbairn, and Mr. John Robinson ; that Professor Leone Leyi be
the Secretary, and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose of being applied solely to scientific purposes, printing, and corre-
spondence.

Applications for Reports and Researches not involving Grants
of Money.

That the Committee, consisting of Mr. IE. J. Lowe, Professor Frankland,
Professor A. W. Williamson, Mr. Glaisher, Dr. Moffat, Mr. C. Brooke, Dr.
Andrews, and Dr. B. Ward Richardson, for promoting accurate Meteorological
Observations of Ozone be reappointed with the addition of the name of Sir
Edward Belcher.

That Professor Sylvester, Professor Cayley, Professor Hirst, Rev. Professor
Bartholomew Price, Professor H. J. S. Smith, Mr. W. Spottiswoode, Mr. R. B.
Hayward, Dr. Salmon, Rev. R. Townsend, Professor Fuller, Professor Kelland,
Mr. J. M. Wilson, and Mr. W. K. Clifford be a Committee (with power to add
to their number) for the purpose of considering the possibility of improving
the methods of instruction in elementary geometry, and that Mr. W. K. Clifford
be the Sccretary.

That the Committee on Electrical Standards, consisting of Professor
Williamson, Professor Sir Charles Wheatstone, Professor Sir W. Thomson,

_ Professor W. A. Miller, Dr. A. Matthiessen, Mr. Fleeming Jenkin, Sir
_ Charles Bright, Mr. J. Clerk Maxwell, Mr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. Balfour

Stewart, Dr. Joule, Mr. C. F. Varley, Professor G. C. Foster, and Mr. C.

Hockin, be reappointed ; and that Professor Fleeming Jenkin be the Secretary.
That Mr. W. H. L. Russell be requested to continue his Report on recent

progress in the theory of Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions.

- That Dr. Frankland and Mr. M‘Leod be a Committee for the purpose of

continuing their researches on the composition of the gases dissolved in deep-

well water.

That Dr. Anderson and Mr. Catton be a Committee for the purpose of

continuing the researches of Mr. Catton on the Synthesis of Organic Acids.

That Mr. Mallet be requested to prepare a Report on the ascertained facts
of Volcanoes, on the general plan of his Report on Earthquakes.

That Mr. H. E. Dresser, Rev. H. B. Tristram, Professor Newton, Mr.
J. E. Harting, and the Rev. H. Barnes, be a Committee for the purpose of
continuing investigations on the desirability of establishing “a close time”
for the preservation of our indigenous animals; and that Mr. H. E. Dresser
be the Secretary.

lxxvili REPORT—1869.

That Colonel Lane Fox, Sir John Lubbock, Mr. Busk, Mr. Evans, and Mr.
Stevens be a Committee for the purpose of examining the interior of Stone-
henge, with instructions to apply to Sir Edward Antrobus for permission to
do so.

That the Committee on Agricultural Machinery, consisting of the Duke
of Buccleuch, the Rev. Patrick Bell, Mr. David Greig, Mr. J. Oldham, Mr.
William Smith, C.E., Mr. Harold Littledale, The Earl of Caithness, Mr,
Robert Neilson, Professor Rankine, Mr. F. J. Bramwell, Professor Willis,
and Mr. Charles Manby, be reappointed ; and that Messrs. P. Le Neve Foster
and J. P. Smith be the Secretaries.

That the Committee on Boiler Explosions, consisting of Mr. W. Fairbairn,
Mr. Joseph Whitworth, Mr. Lavington E. Fletcher, Mr. F. J. Bramwell
(with power to add to their number), be reappointed with a view to their
considering and reporting on any legislative measures which may be brought
forward in 1 reference to the prevention of steam-boiler explosions.

Involving Applications to Government.

That the President of the British Association, the President of the Geological
Section, and Mr. Godwin-Austen, Vice-President of the Section, be a Com-
mittee for the purpose of calling the attention of Her Majesty’s Government
to the importance of completing, without delay, the valuable investigation into
the composition and geological distribution of the Haematite Iron Ores of
Great Britain and Ireland, which has been already in part published in the
Memoirs of the Geological Survey.

That the Committee on the Laws regulating the Flow and Action of Water
holding solid matter in suspension, consisting of Mr. T. Hawksley, Professor
Rankine, Mr. R. B. Grantham, Sir A. 8. Waugh, and Mr. T. Login, be re-
appointed, with authority to represent to Government the desirability of
undertaking experiments bearing on the subject.

That the Committee appointed to report on the state of existing knowledge
on the stability, propulsion and sea-going qualities of ships, and consisting of
Mr. C. W. Merrifield, Mr. Bidder, Captain Douglas Galton, Mr. F. Galton,
Professor Rankine, Mr. W. Froude, be reappointed; and that they be in-
structed to apply to the Admiralty to make the experiments recommended in
their First Report.

Communications to be printed in extenso in the Annual Report of
the Association.

That Professor Magnus’s communication “On the Emission, Absorption,
and Reflexion of Obscure Heat,” be printed in extenso among the Reports.

That Professor Morren’s communication ‘“ On the Chemical Action of Light
discovered by Professor Tyndall,” be printed in eatenso among the Reports.

That Mr. Glaisher’s observations made by the Captive Balloon be pub-
lished in the Proceedings.

That Mr. Frederick Purdy’ s paper on the “ Pressure of Taxation on Real
Property,” be printed in ewtenso among the Reports.

That Mr. F. J. Bramwell’s paper “ “On the laws determining the fracture
of materials when sudden changes of thickness take place,” be printed in ew-
tenso in the Report.

That Mr. Joseph Whitworth’s paper “ On the penetration of Armour Plates
by Shells with heavy bursting charges,” be printed i ewtenso in the Report.

RESOLUTIONS REFERRED TO COUNCIL. ]xxix

That Mr. Thomas Login’s paper “ On Roads and Railways in Northern
India as affected by the abrading and transporting power of Water,” be
printed in extenso in the Proceedings.

Resolutions referred to Council by the General Commitiee at Exeter.

That the following Resolutions be referred to the Council for consideration
and action if it seem desirable :—
(1) That the Council be requested to take into their consideration the ex-
isting relations between the Kew Committee and the British Association.
That the full influence of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science should at once be exerted to obtain the appointment of a Royal Com-
mission to consider—

on a eae pee ee

1. The character and value of existing institutions and facilities for
scientific investigation, and the amount of time and money devoted
to such purposes.

2. What modifications or augmentations of the means and facilities that
are at present available for the maintenance and extension of
science are requisite ; and,

3. In what manner these can be best supplied.

(2) That Professor R. B. Clifton, Mr. Glaisher, the Master of the Mint, Mr.
Huggins, Dr. Matthiessen, Professor W. Hallows Miller, Dr. Balfour Stewart,
Lieut.-Col. Strange, and Sir J. Whitworth, be a Committee for the purpose
of reporting on Metric Standards, in reference to the communication from
Professor Jacobi, appended hereto; and that the Council be empowered to
petition the British Government in the name of the Association if they judge

it expedient to do so. ;
| «The Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburgh, observing that the Standard
: Metric Weights and Measures of the various countries of Europe and of the
_ United States differ by sensible, though small, quantities from one another,
_ express the opinion that the continuance of these errors would be highly
ae to science. They believe that the injurious effects could not
be guarded against by private labours, however meritorious, and they have
therefore recommended that an International Commission be appointed by the
countries interested, to deal with this matter. They have decided to bring
the subject before the Russian Government, and have appointed a Committee
of their own Body, who haye drawn up a careful Report containing valuable
‘suggestions ; and they have deputed Professor Jacobi to lay this Report be-
fore the British Association, and to request the Association to take action in
Teference to it.”
_ (8) That the Council be requested to ascertain whether the action of Go-
-yernmentin relation to the higher scientific education has been in accordance
with the principles of impartiality which were understood to guide them in
this matter ; and to consider whether that action has been well calculated to
utilize and develope the resources of the country for this end, and to favour
the free development of the higher scientific education. That the Council
be requested to take such measures as may appear to them best calculated to
tarry out the conclusions to which they may be led by these inquiries and
_ deliberations.
(A) That the rules under which Members are admitted to the General Com-
mittee be reconsidered.

lxxx REPORT—1869.

Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes by
the General Committee at the Exeter Meeting in August 1869.
The names of the Members who would be entitled to call on the

General Treasurer for the respective Grants are prefixed.

Kew Observatory. £ os.

The Council,— Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Obser-
TI on AWE Ae KR So Gina eee hic Oe ERG ory 0 600 0 0

Mathematics and Physics.

*Joule, Dr—Remeasurement of the Dynamical Equivalent of
Hest (retiowed)| iio igiee osiileks wes 53816 oo 50 0 0
*Brooke, Mr.—British Rainfall .............0.cececeees 100 0 0
*Thomson, Professor Sir W.—Underground Temperature .... 50 0 0

Tait, Professor.—Thermal Conductivity of Iron and other
Metals 2. Fed sate hein tee OM. Ul ce elo Raseeteee 20 0 0
*Thomson, Professor Sir W.—Tidal Observations .......... 100 0 O
*Glaisher, Mr.—Luminous Meteors.............. 0.000005 30 0 0

Chemistry
*Matthiessen, Dr.—Chemical Nature of Cast Iron .......... 80 0 0
*Grantham, Mr.—Treatment and Utilization of Sewage...... 50 0 0
Geology.
*Lyell, Sir C., Bart.—Kent’s-Cavern Exploration .......... 150 0 0
*Duncan, Dr. P. M.—British Fossil Corals................ 50 0 0
*Woodward, Mr. H.—Sections of Mountain-Limestone Fossils 25: OO
Symonds, Rev. W. S.—Sedimentary Deposits in the River Onny o oe
*Bryce, Dr.—Earthquakes in Scotland (renewed) .......... 4 0 0
*Huxley, Professor.—Kiltorcan Fossils, Kilkenny .......... 20 0 0
*Mitchell, Mr. W. S.—Leaf-beds of the Lower Bagshot series. 15 0 0
Biology.
*Richardson, Dr.—Physiological Action of Organic Compounds 30 0 0
*Carruthers, Mr.—Fossil Flora of Britain ................ > 0 0
*Bate, Mr. Spence.—Marine Fauna of Devon and Cornwall .. 20 0 0
*Busk, Mr.—Record of the Progress of Zoology .......... 100 0 0
Stewart, Mr. C.—Structure of the Ear in Fishes .......... 0” Opae0
Gamgee, Dr.—Heat generated in the Arterialization of Blood 15 0 0
Statistics and Economie Science.
*Bowring, Sir J—Metrical Committee...... Pete test dae, 25 0 03

Total...... £1572 0 0

* Reappointed.

GENERAL STATEMENT.

Ixxxi

General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants
for Scientific Purposes.

Sie Sai ie
1834
Tide Discussions Space nue pro VS)
1835.
Tide Discussions ....... Ropeepeasee G2) 0" 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ...... 105 0 0
£167 0 0
1836.
Tide Discussions ..........+0.065 a 16a) 00
British Fossil Ichthyology ...... 105 0 0
Thermometric Observations, &c. 50 0 0
Experiments on long-continued
Gat Se. cc08 Ramaeenehasea st snesss's Mae? <1 +0
BUA GRAUSER 6. .cccerescecossscesees 913 0
Refraction Experiments ......... 15 0 0
Lunar Nutation.......... eouseteezee) LOGUE O™ O
Thermometers ... Becnmeneeae 15 6 0
£434 14 0
1837.
Tide Discussions .........e0s.000 284 1 0
Chemical Constants ...... sores, 24 13° 6
Lunar Nutation........ Sedees ateciwee OP OO
Observations on Waves............ 100 12 0
MMe AL Bristol .....0..cssencesceese 150 0 0
Meteorology and Subterranean
Memperature ....0ceccce..es scram, thu all
Vitrification Experiments...... as 150! 0 0
Heart Experiments .......... aa 8 4 6
Barometric Observations ......... 30 0 0
Barometers ......... ABCOORRCEOL cone LOB) 6
£918 14 6
1838,
Tide Discussions .......... Secaseee 29) 040
British Fossil Fishes ....... wace O08? OL O
Meteorological Observations and
Anemometer (construction)... 100 0 0
Cast Iron (Strength of) ......... 60 0 0
Animal and Vegetable Substances
(Preservation of) ...........6-4- 19 1 10
Railway Constants .........00006- 41 12 10
Bristol Tides ......... saeeowac scans fo) 00) Oy 0
Growth of Plants .......0...sc0esee 75 0 0
Mud in Rivers .......... seiisieaicaees 3.6 6
Education Committee ............ 50 0 0
Teart Experiments .............++ 5 3 0
Land and Sea Level............006 PAs y ale a)
Subterranean Temperature ...... 8 6 O
Steam-vessels.c......sseceeeseee eee 100, 0. +0
Meteorological Committee ...... a LS
Thermometers ...... stewnceperessenne NO. i410
£956 12. 2
1839.
Fossil Ichthyologv.......... peeweans) 1/10 0) 10
Meteorological Observations at
Plymouth .,,...... neers wore are 63 10 0
Mechanism of Waves ...+0+..+0+e 144 2 0
BeristOl Tides ,,,.cerccesseccrsesseess 33 18 6

1869,

aan Ce

Meteorology and Subterranean
Temperature ......+22+. jeeneedge SL MS ay
Vitrification Experiments......... 9 4 7
Cast-Iron Experiments............ 100 0 0
Railway Constants ....... Baccano
Land and Sea Level......... emese 274 1 4
Steam-vessels’ Engines......- ance 00) 0). 6
Stars in Histoire Céleste ......... 331 18 6
Stars in Lacaille .......se.seeseeee 11 0) 26
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue......... 616 6
Animal Secretions.......00...+0+ ae) SLOUIOR AG
Steam-engines in Cornwall ...... 50 0 0
Atmospheric Air ....... Secannedieas Gt Ts 20
Cast and Wrought Iron............ 40 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ......... 3 0 O
Gases on Solar Spectrum......... 22 0 0

Hourly Meteorological Observa-
tions, Inverness and Kingussie 49 7 8
Fossil Reptiles .......seseccccsersee 118 2 9
Mining Statistics ..........000.... 50 0 0
£1595 11 0

. 1840.

Bristol Tides .......sse00e. aeessewccat LOGH) Oo. O
Subterranean Temperature ...... 13 13 6
Heart Experiments .....+.sssse00e 18 19 0
Lungs Experiments ......+++..se0e 813 0
Tide Discussions ......... senens asp 5 00/70) 10
Land and Sea Level ...........000 611 1
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ......... 242 10 0
Stars (Lacaille) ....0...secscssssseee 415 0
Stars bearers) Hon Secon Brroat 264 0 0
Atmospheric Air ........+. secttadn shi lo O
Water on Iron ......s0.000+ vescaratiy Gen O
Heat on Organic Bodies ..... aero di One 0
Meteorological Observations...... 5217 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs ...... 13 ee ea
Working Population......... Deedes 100 0 9
School Statistics..... evevcceesenes ace ret a
Forms, of Vessels). ..<csccassossencas 184 7 0

Chemical and Electrical Pheno-
MENA seeercsceccevees Sascaesese's - 40 0 0

Meteorological Observations at
Plymouth capevsaes sassvevecececespalt Ome Olmae
Magnetical Observations ........+ 185 13 9
£1546 16 4
ee ee

1841.

Observations on Waves.......+0..+ 30 0 0

Meteorology and Subterranean
Temperatureycscncacscesspseennssa a 8e 0
ActinometerS.sc..scorscesccsesrersee 10 0 O
Earthquake Shocks .........++.+0+ Diasdh, 0
Crd MOISONSanatestagasdsnesoase ces 6 0 0
Veins and Absorbents .........66. 3.0 «0
MQ NPIVERSs sarasstse-<ececesss6 ot Xone ON 10
Marine Zoology......sssessseseseoes 15 12 8
SKEletons Maps: Civiesssvccsseastenee 20.40) 0
Mountain Barometers ........... 6 18 6
Stars (Histoire Céleste)........-- 185 0 0

Ixxxti REPORT—1869.
EB atts, fl £3. dh
Stars (Lacaille) Soanuerpsdon eee. wes 79 5 0 | Meteorological Observations, Os-
Stars (Nomenclature of) «s+... 17.19 6 ler’s Anemometer at Plymouth 20 0 0
Stars (Catalogue Of) .......sseeeee - 40 0 0 | Reduction of Meteorological Ob-
Water on Tron ....ceeeeeeeeeeeeeees 50 0 0 Ervations ......0066 vateniscneceeeseenUL aL CO
Meteorological Observations at Meteorological Instruments and
Tniverfiéss °s:s2s0255csessestesscess 20 0 0 Gratuities ......... sisssesaasesae WO 10 O.
Meteorological Observations (re- Construction of Anemometer at
Guction Of) scscecsecseeserees ie coe 0 0 Inverness .,.ccrssccassresssessess 06 12 2
Fossil Reptiles ....... Secsetecenanct 50 0 0} Magnetic Cooperation .......++. « 10 8 10
Foreign Memirs ....sseeesseeee ..- 62 0 0} Meteorological Recorder for Kew
Railway Sections ......... broseogd Spd een! Gia Observatory ......0+096 seanseeeae ate 0 eat
Biorims| Of Vessels} id .cccreseonsssese 193 12 0 Action of Gases on Light ....... > 8 Tore
Meteorological Observations at Establishment at Kew Obserya-
PlYMOUth “soc.cccessssescesesestas ao OO tory, Wages, Repairs, Furni-
Magnetical Observations ......... 6118 8 ture and Sundries ...... deste Fo% . 1338 4 7
Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone 100 0 0] Experiments by Captive Balleuns 81 8 0
HIGGS at Meith epscsstesseccsw esses = 50 0 O0| Oxidation ofthe Railsof Railways 20 0 0
Anemometer at Edinburgh ....... 69 1 10 Publication of Report on Fossil
Tabulating Observations ........+ eS Gea Rieptiles...,..scsc+-s4dssceneneawe a 200)
Races of Meni ......cccsscscseceecs 5 0 0} Coloured Drawings of “Railway
Radiate Animals ............00¢ 2 Or '0 Sections iscscesssnrscssncyeeenerane 147 18 3
Fisis 10 11 Registration of Earthquake
ae Shocks ...... aausat en we eines sbeeee 30 0 0
1849. Report on Zoological Nomencla-
Dynamometric Instruments ...... 113 11 2] tute seeseeseeeees “ veer 10 0 0
Anoplura Britannia ......+0sseeee 52 12 0 | Uncovering Lower Red "Sand-
Tides at Bristol.........cce00 veeeee 59 8 O | Stone near Manchester ........ 4 4 6
Gases on Light ...........00088 ssese 30 14 7 | Vegetative Power of Seeds «4. 5 3 8
Chronometers ........00+ ieesecaed 26 17 6 | Marine Testacea (Habits of) ... 10 0 0
Marine Zoology........seeeesee seeee L 5 0 | Marine Zoology........+40. secseee 10 0 0
British Fossil Mammalia ......... 100 0 0 | Marine Zoology..... Secstpasencsdiy « 214711
Statistics of Education ..... secsose 20 0 0 | Preparation of Report on British
Marine Steam-vessels’ Engines... 28 0 0 Fossil Mammalia stveeeeess sisee 00! 705 18
Stars (Histoire Céleste)............ 59 0 0 Physiological Operations of Me-
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of) ....+ 110 0 0 dicinal A BENES \ ccacvcessussseace - 20. 408
Railway Sections ......+..+ fre 1647 10000 | Vital Statisiits «ccc cscssenecencsenes 386 5 8
British Belemnites.......06..sseeeee 50 0 0 | Additional Experiments on the
Fossil Reptiles (publication of Forms Of Vessels ...ccesseessees HO) “OR 0
Report) ..:...0000 Broantiocpdnacte 210 0 0 | Additional Experiments on the
Bormis of Vessels '33.5.csscr0sseeee 180 0 0 Forms of Vessels .s..scsssseseee 100 0 0
Galvanic Experiments on Rocks 5 8 6 Reduction of Experiments on the
Meteorological Experiments at Forms of Vessels ....... dace and 100 0 0
PAYIUOULM, wssserctssicsecsesesssss 68 0 0] Morin’s Instrument and Constant
Constant Indicator and Dynamo- Indicator . saceserseea Pett rrr 69 14 10
metric Instruments ........0+ .» 90 0 © | Experiments on the Strength of
Foyce of Wand! *ssccssscesccssscsas 10°00 Materials ....0.00. secsssessssssse 60 0 0
Light on Growth of Seeds ..... iby bet ae a) £1565 10 2
Vital Statistics ........0. saeteates tg 0 U0 —————
Vegetative Power of Seeds ...... 8 1 11 1844.
Questions on Human Race ...... 7 9 9| Meteorological Observations at
£1449 17 8 Kingussie and Inverness ...... 12 0 0
Completing Observations at Ply-
att 1843. MIOULW essa vvewesscccsrosdatseee « oo 0 10
Revision of the Nomenclature of Magnetic and Meteorological Co-
Stars ..... Auge sesbanvecs severe tet Z 0" 0 Operation * vivveesdscees teneeaeee eee 8 te
Reduction of Stars, British Asso- Publication of the ‘British Asso-
ciation Catalogue ............06 Joy W070 ciation Catalogue of Stars.. 35 0 0
Anomalous Tides, Frith of Forth 120 0 0 | Observations on Tides on the
Hourly Meteorological Observa- East coast of Scotland ......... 100 0 0
tionsat KingussieandInverness 77 12 8 | Revision of the Nomenclature of
Meteorological Observations at Starsiaancdeneciennss dfeoobtp 1842. 2 9 6
Plymouth eadueba'ese ese Wesessess 55 0 4] Maintaining the Establishmentin
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane- Kew Observatory ss..ssececee00e 117 17 8
mometer at Plymouth .,,...... 10 0 0 | Instruments for Kew Observatory 56 7 8

a i a

GENERAL STATEMENT.

; a che Ge.
Influence of Light on Plants...... 10 0 0
Subterraneous Temperature in

WEGMAN esses. ss ec ca50c8 Babccuns pam lal
Coloured Drawings of Railway

MPMI tedoecss dscvsscrs2tts seats se bY fea
Investigation of Fossil Fishes of

the Lower Tertiary Strata 100 0 0
Registering the Shocks of Earth-

PIES OV. csc -0scccescecece 1842 23 11 10
Strticture of Fossil Shells ......... 20 0 0
Radiata and Mollusca of the
_ ®gean and Red Seas.....1842 100 0 0
Geographical Distributions of

Marine Zoology.........++ 1842 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Devon and

BSGEMWANL cc. scccsseseoes paaancar 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Corfu ...... ae USO 0
Experiments on the Vitality of

BECKS «663.00. Bieadcanesiers tll anne oes
Experiments on the “Vitality of

CCUM sescccesso.cocceseescersl842 § 7 3
Exotic Anoplura .....ss..cc0eee 15 0 0
Strength of Materials ............ 100 0 0
Completing Experiments on the

Forms of Ships ........ atateacces 100 0 0
Inquiries into Asphyxia ......... 10 0 0
Investigations on the Internal

Constitution of Metals ......... 50 0 0
Constant Indicator and Morin’s

Instrument ...............1842 10 3 6

£981 12 8
1845.
Publication of the British Associa-

tion Catalogue of Stars......... 351 14 6
Meteorological Observations at

MEMEES wesc sccccesscsdsste soose 30 18 11
Magnetic and Meteorological Co-

BPESAON ca ycscceessccicsene icans 16.168
Meteorological Instruments at

MEGIGDULED. .éssscsseccecessesiseee Is1t 9
Reduction of Anemometrical Ob-

servations at Plymouth ......... 25 0 0
Electrical Experiments at Kew

MPRSCXVALOLY ...ceccscssccsverss a) 4h 17 8
Maintaining the Establishment in

Kew Observatory ...........06 . 14915 0

For Kreil’s Barometrograph ..... ~ 25.6 0
Gases from Iron Furnaces ...... 50 0 0
The Actinograph ......... sietanessh no Oe 0

_ Microscopic Structure of Shells... 20 0 0

_ Exotic Anoplura ......... -1843 10 0 0

‘Vitality of Seeds....... desse es LBA" 2-0): 7

Vitality of Seeds............06 S44) 06° 0).0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0

_ Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 0
Statistics of Sickness and Mor-

Malityiin York ..icsscsiiccosees 20 0 0

Earthquake Shocks rn veeeee 843 15 14 8
£830 9 9

1846.

British Association Catalogue of
CHEN ire ds seasw syaseends

«1844 211 15 0

Fossil Fishes of the London Clay 100 0 0

]xxxili

& s. de
| Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1839...... sesecseee 50 0 0
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory .....s.sesseees 146 16 7
Strength of Materials.......00es+06 60 0 0
Researches in Asphyxia....... vases) (OGREG3+ 2
Examination of Fossil Shells...... 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds .+s.....00. 1844 2 15 10
Vitality of Seeds ............1845 712 38
Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Britain ...... 10 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ...s.....00e 1844 25 0 0
Expensesattending Anemometers 11 7 6
Anemometers’ Repairs ......... sin rele. ti O
Atmospheric Waves ......+00 Seresgn ste tes
Captive Balloons ....... 1844 8 19 38
Varieties of the Human Race
(445 GG
Statistics of Sickness and Mor-
tality in) YOrke “Gissaccevesssccens L200
£685 16 0
1847.
Computation of the Gaussian :
Constants for 1839 ........06 - 50 0 0
Habits of Marine Animals ...... 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall ... 10 0 0
Atmospheric Waves ...scccceoreee 6 9 38
Vitality of Seeds ............ 220.88 i Ah NT,
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory ...,..0...005 107 8 6
£208 5 4
1848.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory .......00....6. 171 15 11
Atmospheric Waves ....sscessees eae: TORS
Vitality of Seeds) siscscisccqiceuess, 9 15 0
Completion of Catalogues of Stars 70 0 0
On Colouring Matters ........... 5 0 0
On Growth of Plants,.............. 15 0 0
£275 1 8
1849.
Electrical Observations at Kew
Observatory ........0.0. vecocceee 50 0 O
Maintaining Establishment at
GLO) oc secaceceesateacanate sis hei hOne 2eaon
Vitality of Seeds ......... Seocctess, 9 8 T
On Growth of Plants............. oF OF 6
Registration of Periodical Phe-
NOMENA seveseees sbeddctedecedua FSACLO es OF0
Bill on account of Anemometrical
Observations secesessssessrseseeee 13 9 O
£159 19 6
—_—_——eeeas
1850.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory .......0000s06. 255 18 .0
Transit of Earthquake Waves vw. 50 0 O
Periodical Phenomena ,........... 15 0 0
Meteorological Instrument,
BZOECSS sccectstveestressapesteaseh np. 0 0
£354 18 0

Ixxxiv rePoRT—1869,
Gis: a. sys d,
1851. Strickland’s Ornithological Syno-
Maintaining the Esteblishment at NYMS ..... eos dvsedeneseeuentes ssan00 00. 40
Kew Observatory (includes part Dredging and Dredging Forms.. 913 9
of grant in 1849) .......ssceeee 309 2 2| Chemical Action of Light ...ec0n ae20 10750
hepnyion Leal. ersccasessaseseeseas 20 1 1) Strength of Iron Piates Scccesenenes 10 0 0
Periodical Phenomena of Animals Registration of Periodical Pheno-
ati aPleantsiy weiee ee accscktedsee Be). (0 MENA fessecses Stedeeonenese eeescste eg eLO gO one
WitalityZof Seeds .....0c,ccc0s.+se0 5 6 4) Propagation of Salmon ........... 10 0
Influence of Solar Radiation...... 30 0 0 $734 13 9
Ethnological Inquiries .,.......+ vine ga10) nO —
Researches on Annelida ......... 10 0 0 A Teay
Maintaining the Establishment at
£391 9 7 | Kew Observatory sesseesseees w 350 0 0
1852. Earthquake Wave Experiments... 40 0 0
Maintaining the Establishment at Dredging near Belfast ...... rascend GLO Ue
Kew Observatory (including Dredging on the West Coast of
balance of grant for 1850) 233 17 8 Scotland......... SPhonosorecoseti 10 0 0
Experiments on the Conduction Investigations into the Mollusca
OfHeAt seers weameoyesaeces as ows Die iD of California ......... acc 10 0 0
Influence of Solar Radiations ... 20 0 0] Experiments on Flax ........ 5 0 0
Geological Map of Ireland ...... 15 0 OJ] Natural History of Madagascar.. 20 0 0
Researches on the British Anne- Researches on British Annelida 25 0 0
IGE iasn Fn snocer pasa onnocepecetoode 10 0 0} Report on Natural Products im-
Vitality of Seeds .......... aeqens’ 10 6 2 ported into Liverpool ......... 10 0 0
Strength of Boiler Plates ......... 10 0 0} Artificial Propagation of Salmon 10 0 6
£304 6 7| Temperature of Mines ..........+ T= 80
1853 Thermometers for Subterranean
Maintaining the Establishment at oe bcapteeaae eS iy 4 c H
ReetObicrvater 165 0 0 1fe- Boats cseccecsceeeereceeeneeevess )
Vanes toreeet ee =
Experiments on tie Influence of £507 15 4
Solar Radiation....... Soverasess eelio: OREO 1858.
Researches on the British Anne- Maintaining the Establishment at
Nina copmeer en sdeeesereecseassie. «<< 10 0 0 Kew Observatory .s....see0ee --. 500 -0 0
Dredging on the East Coast of Earthquake Wave Eepoomenias 25 0 0
DEOUANGE cs senasvcsceesenvecsss'ics 10 0 0} Dredging on the West Coast of
Ethnological Queries ...........- p05 00 Scotland “cstc.stsssceaccseeeteneee 10 0 0
£205 0 0 | Dredging near Dublin sesveseeennn Tal eo)
1854 Vitality of Seeds, \<i.cscsessescures <p Vomee
Maintaining the Establishment at Dredging near Bellet <= a oe
ieag ORcienics fields Report on the British Annelida... 25 0 O
balance BE Taner rant) : 330 15 4 i alg ae {bev penne
ee ies: ot i 4 0 of Heat by Motion in Fluids... 20 0 0
ER att ay ect ae ar aes Report on the Natural Products
= Stee emperatire on imported into Scotland ......... 10 0 0
ROMP MUATON |S sop dsnestveresasee 10 0 0 pai aie
Registration of Periodical Phe- £618 18 2
MOWER Gesdaptaisscsvconessstss* 0 1859.
BribshwAnnelida \c.s.ccecs sects 0 | Maintaining the Establishment at
Vitality sof/Seeds\ csc .ssssseccsse=3 3 Kew Observatory ....se000e seeds 200 BOlnEO
Conduction of Heat ...... meee 0 | Dredging near Dublin ......+++... 15 0 4
7 | Osteology of Birds,......sseeeseeeee 50 0 0
1855 Trish Tunicata .........cecssssses zo 0 OO
Maintaining the F blist Manure Experiments ......... oe 20 0 0
i British Medusidie .........+00005 a 5 MO; D
Kew Observatory }...... Nan@ongs AD 5ea0) G0lliyadoing Committees eee B. (Oma
li al “pte! Sennen 10 0 07 Steam-vessels’ Performance ...... 5. (O0
Vi AS Ae Ate Sagoo 11 8 51 Marine Fauna of South and West
italitvaGfiSGeds cccrsasasssecvere LO aul ‘
Maniofthe World eZ of Lveland ...sseseesreeseeeeereee 10 0 0
P bi aca l a » 15 0 0} Photographic Chemistry ......0. 10 0 0
Lthnological Queries..... ........ 5 0 0 L 4 aed meaals yi ceersee 20 0 1
Dredging near Belfast ......... 4 0 0 wiitat Teed ane Ce
eS rans me Balloon) ASCents.sesecessecsssscessne 389 Lae
o £684 11 1
SSS
Bao oh eee 1860. a.
ae ane Establish ent at Maintaining the Establishment
ae eee of Kew Observatory.s..u.e1e. 500 0 0
ace Esiors £500 ; ; 575 0 © | Dredging near Belfast............ 16 6 0
ies Dredging in Dublin Bay.,,........ 15 0 0

ee ee

GENERAL STATEMENT,

& Ss ds
Inquiry into the Performance of

Steam -vessels.........csesesseeee . 124 0 0
Explorations in the Yellow Sand-

stone of Dura Den..... Sacecoyns 20 Q 0
Chemico-mechanical Analysis of

Rocks and Minerals..........+++ 25 0" 0
Researches on the Growth of

BMIAMISE ds dae aadestcseecsacs Riess, LO) OF 0
Researches on the Solubility of

Sa Wevacasissacssencocts 30 0 0
Researches on the Constituents

of Manures.. Sonse 25 0 0

Balance of Captive Balloon ‘Ace

OMS ys: covecccers--ssccceceasccee? i hor 6

£1241 7 0
1861.
Maintaining the Establishment
_ of Kew Observatory ............ 500 0 0
Earthquake Experiments...... 25 0 0
Dredging North and East Coasts

of Scotland...... Store teen adsocum, Zoe. 0) = L0

Dredging Committee :—

W560 ...... £50 0 0

Bere 0, Ont wen”
Excavations at Dura Den......... 20 0 0
Solubility of Salts ............s00ees 20 0 0
Steam-vessel Performance ...... 150 0 0
Fossils of Lesmahago ............ 15 0 0
Explorations at Uriconium ...... 20 0 O
G@hemical Alloys ..........cceceses 20 0 0
Classified Index to the Transac-

SINT seeclasacsiacaxsasessesaducce 100 0 0
Dredging in the Mersey and Dee 5 0 0
PEITPUCIEEIG 00 nce: --ccecessacecccceses 30 0 0
Photoheliographic Observations 50 0 0

Bee rIBON Dict ....02...02000 Seadases =) UA 0-0
Gauging of Water..............0008 10 0 0
Alpine Ascents ...... sevcescsesccees Grp dead
Constituents of Manures ......... 25.0%, 0

SKI S510
1862.
Maintaining the Establishment
_ of Kew Observatory ..........4. 500 0 0

Mebatent Laws .........c00....ss00 wee ole 6 0
‘Mollusca of N.-W. America...... 10 0 0
Natural History by Mercantile

BREECH caisiocccccdacsovstecasenss. D0 10
Tidal Observations .............. - 25° 0 0
Photoheliometer at Kew ......... 40 0 O
Photographic Pictures of the Sun 150 0 0
Rocks of Donegal ..............0005 25 0 O

_ Dredging Durham and North-

Moiberland ............seereee oe 2 OO)

_ Connexion of Storms..........406... 20 0. 0
Dredging North-East Coast of

Scotland Ace OOOAEE Fedorarrcec cd onee: Ono
Ravages of Teredo .........00004- Selle 6
Standards of Electrical Resistance 50 6% 0
Railway Accidents ...... ...... TCR OF 10
Balloon Committee ..............- 200 0 0
Dredging Dublin Bay ............ 10 0 0
Dredging the Mersey ............ 5 0 0
BERIBOWLCPNGE So ecacsc ns: ase---t3e-+03 20 0 0
Gauging of Water.............0.065 12 10 0

2 EEN HC
Steamships’ Performance ......... 150 0 JO
Thermo-Electric Currents ...... ap ON AO
£1293 16 6
1863.
Maintaining the Establishment

of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 O
Balloon Committee deficiency... 70 0 0
Balloon Ascents (other expenses) 25 0 0
ENtOZ0R ae cov estter tanec seer beted 25 0 0
Coal! Fossilsicticsiscsaseteccseeeestss 20 0 0
Plerrinesy.-.sssancedotestawee atOeocwee 20 0 0
Granites of Donegal.............4+ 5 0 0
Prison Dictisaccecsme eesenentsenats 20 0 0
Vertical Atmospheric Movements 13 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............... 50 0 0
Dredging North-east coast of

Neotlandicsss:seeaesoaetosess cess 25 0 0
Dredging Northumberland and

Duthain. 0... See se- sce eaves es os 17 310
Dredging Committee superin-

fendence:s weeinssssssecdeectacee es LOY ORO
Steamship Performance Aeon 100 0 0
Balloon Committee ............... 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure..... ...... 10 0 0
Voleanic Temperature ............ 100 0 0
Bromide of Ammonium ......... S08 10
Electrical Standards............... 100 0 0

Construction and distribu-

TOW ste sacle Pacers 'dttedee saat 40 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............... 17 0 0
Kew Additional Buildings for

Photoheliograph ........+...... 100 0 0
Thermo-Electricity ....... settee 15 0 0
Analysis of Rocks ..............5 Se Ow <0
Hiydroida “sii ssss...ceeeces soot taeaes 10 0 0

£1608 3 11 10
1864.
Maintaining the Establishment

of Kew Observatory............ 650 0 0
Coal Fossils’ 225252 cceussesnansene 20 0 0
Vertical Atmospheric Move-

WENGE eee ssocenssseecaveldeseseiie 20 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............... FA ET,
Dredging Northumberland ...... Zo 100
BalloomCommittee 5... .«cassaca-s 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure............ 10 0 0
Standards of Electric Resistance 100 0 0
Analysis of Rocks............s00++ 10 0 0
JBOSGh Ce eGoeedpecunocoerdceoc acca LOWFOR 1G
Askham’s Gift .....0......s.000 seek OO AOI
Nitrite of Amyle ..............s008 10 0 O
Nomenclature Committee ...... 5 0 0
Rairi-Gaupes -tapessesennasdiese ens 19 15 8
Cast-Iron Investigation “ec pnate 4 ie Ui
Tidal Observations inthe Humber 50 0 06
Spectraly Rays sree eden acento es72 45 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............... 20,0) 0

£1289 15 8
1855.

Maintaining the Establishinent

of Kew Observatory ............ 600 0 0
Balloon Committee ............... 100 0 0
HATES ES oosccjcnpuceeredescdosporc 13-0 0

]xxxv1 REPORT—1869,

. 2 Os. at £ s. ad
AIN-GATPES ere casucearsseeaters » 30 0 O| Metrical Committee.............. 30 0 0
Tidal Observations in the Humber 6 8 0O| Kent’s Hole Explorations ......100 0 0
Hexylic Compounds............... 20 0 0O| Palestine Explorations...... ao 20 0 0
Amyl Compounds..............0668 20 0 0) Insect Fauna, Palestine ...:... awa 2.0
Trish Flora ...... aprereae Borcivesoss 25 0 0} British Rainfall............... Ree ee)
American Mollusca .......0...-++ 3 9 0} Kilkenny Coal Fields ..,... * 25.0 0
GreaniciACids ~. 2.250. .cpaserseaess 20 0 0] Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ...... 25 0 0
Lingula Flags Excavation ...... 10 © OJ| Luminous Meteors ............... 50 0 0
PUTHPUGEDS Woes. 60pe veevenessacees 50 0 0] Bournemouth, &c. Leaf-Beds... 30 0 0
Electrical Standards............... 100 0 O| Dredging, Shetland ............... 75 0 0
Malta Caves Researches ......... 30 0 0| Steamship ReportsCondensation 100 0 O
Oyster Breeding .4.........0.000 25 © 0] Electrical Standards.......... oot OO) saan
Gibraltar Caves Researches 150 0 0Oj| Ethyle and Methyle series ...... 25 0 0
Kent’s Hole Excavations....... + 100 0 O| Fossil Crustacea ......... wesseeugs 2am | a)
Moon’s Surface Observations... 35 0 0} Sound under Water ............... 24 4 0
Marie Wanna, 6 i; ecvescr-oky eat tea 25 0 0O/| North Greenland Fauna ......... 75 0 «0
Dredging Aberdeenshire ........, 25 0 0 Do. Plant Beds... 100 0 0
Dredging Channel Islands ...... 50 0 0} Iron and Steel Manufacture 25 0 0
Zoological Nomenclature......... 5 0 0O| Patent Laws ......... ssavadven seats 30 0 0
Resistance of Floating Bodies in

Water sieceie. Sailddees 100 0 0 EUS $0
Bath Waters Analysis ............ 810 0 1868.
Luminous Meteors ...... pense ries 40 0 0} Maintaining the Establishment
eLRO1 An of Kew Observatory............ 600 0
ei ae Lunar Committee....... socseveeese 120 0
1866. Metrical Committee............... 50 0
Maintaining the Establishment Zoological Record ...... ceesesae 100 0
of Kew Observatory............ 600 © Oj} Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 150 0
Lunar Committee.............6068 - 6413 4 Steamship Performances........ - 100 0
Balloon Committee .............4. 50 O Oj] British Rainfall .........ccececce 50 0
Metrical Committee............... 50 0 0O| Luminous Meteors .............0 50 0
IBGILISHARAIDGALL dsnc- spacers aceite 50 QO | Organic Acidsits.....20-0.n- eee 60 0
ikilkenny Coal Fields ............ 16 0 0O| Fossil Crustacea ...... ccovessseeee 20 O
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ...... 15.0 0.) Methyl series =). 54. teencee . 20 10
Luminous Meteors ............... 50 O O| Mercury and Bile........... smaabae 25 0
Lingula Flags Excavation ...... 20 0 0 | Organic remains in Limestone
Chemical Constitution of Cast ROCKS: ..csxvssspheeaten setae 25 0
MANGE eee eee siesine'ssieseiss's od os 50 0 0 | Scottish Earthquakes 20 0
Amyl Compounds................5. 25 0 0 | Fauna, Devon and Cornwall se Ma
Electrical Standards............... 100 0 0 | British Fossil Corals............... 50 0
Malta Caves Exploration......... 30 0 O | Bagshot Leaf-beds ..... raatenseee 50 0
Kent’s Hole Exploration ......... 200 0 O | Greenland Explorations ......... 100 0
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon and Fossil loka: ...,,accescpsanesseeaseneeoeaeae
NGUNEWALL Rist escccsescscsesccan. a 25 0 0 | Tidal Observations ........... cpeeed Ue
Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast... 25 0 © | Underground Temperature...... 50 0
Dredging Hebrides Coast......... 50 0 0 | Spectroscopic investigations of
Dredging the Mersey ............ 51010 Animal Substances ....... Pee aie ti
Resistance of Floating Bodies in Secondary Reptiles, &c. ......... 30 0
Wialertgess.cmeestartescs cere 50 0 0O| British Marine Invertebrate
Polycyanides of Organic Radi- BQUN AL ssecssonsserenee AE 100 0
CALS Taw lesee ened sitchen 20 0 0 a
Rigor Morus! sroscsccsneaceraseee 10 0 0 side
Irish ‘Annelida: ty. i.02285ttecee 15 0-0 1869.
Catalogue of Crania............... 59 0 0 | Maintaining the Establishment
Didine Birds of Mascarene Islands 50 0 0 of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0
Typical Crania Researches ...... 30 0 O | Lunar Committee........ copesbaase 50 0 0
Palestine Exploration Fund...... 100 0 O | Metrical Committee............... 25 0 0
> Zoological Record.................+ 100 0 0
BUN 18 ot Committee on Gases in Deep-
1867. ell Water cncts-sec%-scnssecaete 25 0 0
Maintaining the Establishment British eainfalls, si: 0<+sssesespage 50 0 0
of Kew Observatory............ 600 © 0 | Thermal Conductivity of Iron,*
Meteorological Instruments, Pa- BEB pants et es Maelc. eee aaa 30 0 0
REREING gece cans aceescenee iiaceen 50 0 0 | Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 150 0 0
Lunar Committee......... ssreveeee 120 0 © | Steamship Performances...,..... 30 0 0

o'o oOo COoCceocooeoo cocoececoocoeoco

4
4
q

in, tee oe!

GENERAL MEETINGS. Txxxyii

1 2 ; ; Leads £ 8. de
Chemical Constitution of Cast Underground Temperature ...... 30 0 0
MUTT cise scesceMesvincsr sees 80 0 0 | Spectroscopic Investigations of
Iron and Steel Manufacture ... 100 0 0 Animal Substances .....se000. 5 0 0
Methyl Series ..................065 BO: . OF “OF Organic Awiasl . 5 s0eeso oo. Sy siers 12;0 0
Organic remains in Limestone Kaltorean. Fossils...) vssyesecosn 2 20 0 0

BEACUSE ca scesets -arsactaniicsns 10 0 O | Chemical Constitution and Phy-
Earthquakes in Scotland......... 10 0 0 siological Action Relations ... 15 0 0
British Fossil Corals ............. 50 0 O | Mountain Limestone Fossils ...... 25 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-beds ..,............ 30 0 0 | Utilization of Sewage ............ 10 0 0
Fossil Flora ........ aaa Noateececense _ 25 0 O | Products of Digestion ............ 10 0 0
Tidal Observations ............505 100 0 0 £16220 0

Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee.

Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money for scientific pur-
poses have been entrusted, are required to present to each following Mecting
of the Association a Report of the progress which has been made; with a
statement of the sums which have been expended, and the balance which re-
mains disposable on each grant.

Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific purposes from the funds of the Asso-
ciation expire at the ensuing Meeting, unless it shall appear by a Report that
the Recommendations have been acted on, or a continuation of them be
ordered by the General Committee.

Members and Committees who are entrusted with sums of money for col-
lecting specimens of Natural History are requested to reserve the specimens
x) obtained for distribution by authority of the Association.

In each Committee, the Member first named is the person entitled to call on
“the Treasurer, William Spottiswoode, Esq., 50 Grosvenor Place, London, 8.W.,
for such portion of the sum granted as may from time to time be required.

In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate
the payment of personal expenses to the members.

In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua-
tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named shall be
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, the specified balance which may

- remain unpaid on the former grant for the same object.

General Meetings.

On Wednesday Evening, August 18, at 8 p.m., in the Victoria. Hall,
Dr. Joseph Dalton Hooker, F.R.S., F.L.S., President, resigned the office of
President to Professor G. G. Stokes, D.C.L., F.R.8., who took the Chair,
and delivered an Address, for which see page lxxxix.

On Thursday Evening, August 19, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place in the
Albert Memorial Museum,

On Friday Evening, August 20, at 8.30 p.m., in the Victoria Hall, Prof. Phil-

lips, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8., delivered a Discourse on “ Vesuvius.”

On Saturday Evening, August 21, in the Victoria Hall, Prof. W. A.
Miller, M.D., F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on “ Experimental Illustrations
of the modes of determining the Composition of the Sun and Heavenly Bodies
by the Spectrum” to the Operative Classes of Exeter.

Ixxxvlii REPORT—1869.

On Monday Evening, August 23, at 8.30 p.m., in the Victoria Hall, J,
Norman Lockyer, F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on the “ Physical Constitution
of the Stars and Nebule.”’

On Tuesday evening, August 24, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place in the Albert
Memorial Museum.

On Wednesday, August 25, at 2.30 p.m., the concluding General. Meeting
took place, when the Proceedings of the General Committee, and the Grants of

Money for Scientific purposes, were explained to the Members.

The Meeting was then adjourned to Liverpool*.

* The Meeting is appointed to take place on Wednesday, September 14, 1870.

— ——————

ADDRESS

or
GHORGE GABRIEL STOKES, M.A., Sec. BS.,

D,.C.L. OXON., LL.D. DUBLIN,

FELLOW OF PEMBROKE COLLEGE, AND LUCASIAN PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN
THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE,

PRESIDENT.

My Lorps, Laptns, snp GENTLEMEN,

As this is the first time that the British Association for the Advancement
of Science has met in the City of Exeter, and it is probable that many now
present have never attended a former Meeting, I hope the older members of
the Association will bear with me if I say a few words in explanation of the
objects for which the Association was instituted. In the first place, then,
it aims at fulfilling an office which is quite distinct from that of the various
scientific societies which are established in different parts of the country.

These, for the most part, have for their leading object to make the volun-

tary labours of isolated workers in science available to the scientific world
generally by receiving, discussing, and publishing the results which they may
have obtained. The British Association, on the other hand, aims at giving
a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry, and that in various ways.

In a rapidly progressing branch of science it is by no means easy to become
acquainted with its actual state. The workers in it are scattered throughout
the civilized world, and their results are published in a variety of Transac-
tions and scientific periodicals, mixed with other scientific matter. To make
oneself, without assistance, well acquainted with what has been done, it is
requisite to have access to an extensive library, to be able to read with faci-
lity several modern languages, and to have leisure to hunt through the tables
of contents, or at least the indices, of a number of serial works. Without
such knowledge, there is always the risk that a scientific man may spend his
strength in doing over again what has been done already ; whereas with
better direction the same expenditure of time and labour might have resulted
in some substantial addition to our knowledge. With a view to meet this
difficulty, the British Association has requested individuals who were more
specially conversant with particular departments of science, to draw up re-
ports on the present state of our knowledge in, or on the recent progress of, spe-
cial branches ; and the influence of the Association as a public body has been
found sufficient to induce a number of scientific men to undertake the great
labour of preparing such reports.

By thus ascertaining thoroughly what we already had, what we still
wanted was made more clear; and, indeed, it was one special object of the
reports I have mentioned to point out what were the more prominent desi-

xe REPORT—1869.

derata in the various subjects to which they related. The Association was
thus the better enabled to fulfil another of its functions, that of organizing
means for the prosecution of researches which require cooperation. When
the want is within the compass of what can be accomplished by individuals,
the demand may be left to create the supply; but it often happens that a
research can hardly be carried out without cooperation. It may, for instance,
require a combination of the most profound theoretical knowledge with the
greatest experimental skill, or an extensiye knowledge of very dissimilar
branches of science; or, again, the work to be done, though all of one kind,
may be of such an extent as to be beyond the power of any one man, In
such cases the limited power of the individual can only be supplemented by
the principle of cooperation ; and accordingly it becomes an important part
of the business of the Association to organize committees for the prosecution
of special researches. The researches thus undertaken at the request of the
Association are published at length, along with the reports on the progress
of science, in the first part of the annual volume.

In close connexion with the last must be mentioned another mode in which
the Association contributes to the progress of science. Many researches re-
quire not only time and thought, but pecuniary outlay; and it would seem
hard that scientific men who give their time and labour gratuitously to car-
rying out such researches should be further obliged to incur an expenditure
which they often can ill afford. The Association accordingly makes grants
of money to individuals or Committees for defraying the expenses of such
researches, It appears from the report which has just been published that,
reckoning up to the year 1867 inclusive, the sum of £29,312 4s, 1d, has been
voted by the Association for various scientific objects. Deducting from this
the sum of £23 16s, Od. for the balances of grants not wholly expended,
which were returned to the Association, we may say that £29,288 8s, 1d.
has been expended in the manner indicated. When we remember that these
grants were mostly of small amount, and do not include personal expenses,
and that very many of the researches undertaken at the request of the Asso-
ciation do not involye money grants at all, we may form some idea of the
amount of scientific activity which has been eyoked under the auspices of the
Association.

In the address with which the business of the Meeting is opened, it is
usual for your President to give some account of the most recent progress of
science. The task is by no means an easy one. Few indeed are familiar
with science in all its branches; and even to one who was, the selection of
topics and the mode of treating them would still present difficulties, I shall
not attempt to give an account of the recent progress of science in general,
but shall select from those branches with which I am more familiar some
examples of recent progress which may, I hope, prove to be of pretty general |
interest. Andeven in this I feel that I shall have to crave your indulgence,
for it is hard to be intelligible to some without being wearisome to others. %

Among the various branches of physical science, astronomy occupies in many
respects a foremost rank. The movements of the heavenly bodies must have
occupied the attention and excited the interest of mankind from the earliest
ages, and accordingly the first rudiments of the science are lost in the depths
of antiquity. The grandeur of the subjects of contemplation which it pre-
sents to us have won for it especial favour, and its importance in relation to
navigation has caused it to be supported by national resources. Newton’s
great discovery of universal gravitation raised it from the rank of a science
of observation to that of one admitting of the most exact mathematical de-

— A

Sa ee

ADDRESS, xc

duction ; and the investigation of the consequences of this law, and the
explanation thereby of the lunar and planetary disturbances, have afforded
a field for the exercise of the highest mathematical powers on the part of
Newton and his successors. Gradually the apparent anomalies, as they
might have been deemed, in the motions of the heavenly bodies were shown
to be necessary consequences of the one fundamental law ; and at last, as the
result of calculations of enormous labour, tables were constructed enabling
the places of those bodies at any given time to be determined years before-
hand with astonishing precision, A still more striking step was taken.
When it had been shown by careful calculation that the apparent motion of
the remotest of the planets then known to belong to our system could not
be wholly explained on the theory of gravitation, by taking account of the
disturbing powers of the other known planets, Adams in our own country,
and Le Verrier in France, boldly reversed the problem, and instead of
determining the disturbing effect of a known planet, set themselves to inquire
what must be the mass and orbit of an unknown planet which shall be capa-
ble of producing by its disturbing force the unexplained deyiations in the
position of Uranus from its calculated place. The result of this inquiry is
too well known to require notice,

After these brilliant achievements, some may perhaps haye been tempted
to imagine that the field of astronomical research must have been well-nigh
exhausted. Small perturbations, hitherto overlooked, might be determined,
and astronomical tables thereby rendered still more exact. New asteroids
might be discovered by the telescope. More accurate values of the con-
stants with which we have to deal might be obtained. But no essential

novelty of principle was to be looked for in the department of astronomy ;

for such we must go to younger and less mature branches of science,
Researches which have been carried on within the last few years, even
the progress which has been made within the last twelve months, shows
how short-sighted such an anticipation would have been; what an unex-
pected flood of light may sometimes be thrown oyer one science by its union
with another; how conducive accordingly to the advancement of science
may be an Association like the present, in which not only are the workers

at special sciences brought together in the Sectional Meetings, but in the

General Meetings of the Association, and in the social intercourse, which,
though of an informal character, is no unimportant part of our procedings ;
the cultivators of different branches of science are brought together, and
haye an opportunity of enlarging their minds by contact with the minds of
others, who have been used to trains of thought of a very different character
from their own.

The science of astronomy is indebted to that of optics for the principles
whch regulate the construction of those optical instruments which are so

essential to the astronomer. It repaid its debt by furnishing to optics a
result which it is important we should keep in view in considering the

nature of light. It is to astronomy that we are indebted for the first proof

we obtained of the finite velocity of ight, and for the first numerical deter-

mination of that enormous velocity. Astronomy, again, led, forty-four years
later, to a second determination of that velocity in the remarkable pheno-
menon of aberration discovered by Bradley, a phenomenon presenting spe-
cial points of interest in relation to the nature of light, and which has given
rise to some discussion, extending even to the present day, so that the Astro-
nomer Royal has not deemed it unworthy of investigation, laborious as he
foresees the trial is likely to prove, to determine the constant of aberration
by means of a telescope having its tube filled with water.

xcll REPORT—1869,

If in respect of these phenomena optics received much aid from astro-
nomy, the latter science has been indebted to the former for information
which could not otherwise have been obtained. The motions and the masses
of the heavenly bodies are revealed to us more or less fully by astronomical
observations; but we could not thus become acquainted with the chemical
nature of these distant objects. Yet, by the application of the spectroscope
to the scrutiny of the heavenly bodies, evidence has been obtained of the
existence therein of various elements known to us by the chemical examina-
tion of the materials of which our own earth is composed ; and not only
so, but light is thrown on the state in which matter is there existing, which,
in the case of nebuls especially, led to the formation of new ideas respecting
their constitution, and the rectification of astronomical speculations pre-
viously entertained. I shall not, however, dwell further on this part of the
subject, which is now of some years’ standing, and has been mentioned by
more than one of your former Presidents, but will pass on to newer re-
searches in the same direction.

We are accustomed to apply to the stars the epithet fiwed. Night after
night they are seen to have the same relative arrangement ; and when their
places are determined by careful measurement, and certain small correc-
tions due to known causes are applied to the immediate results of observa-
tion, they are found to have the same relative distances. But when instead
of days the observations extend over months or years, it is found that the
fixity is not quite absolute. Defining as fixity invariability of position as
estimated with reference to the stars as a whole, and comparing the posi-
tion of any individual star with those of the stars in its neighbourhood, we
find that some of the stars exhibit “proper motions,” show, that is, a pro-
gressive change of angular position as seen from the earth, or rather as they
would be seen from the sun, which we may take for the mean annual place
of the earth. This indicates linear motion in a direction transverse to the
line joining the sun with the star. But since our sun is merely a star, a
line drawn from the star exhibiting proper motion to our sun is, as regards
the former, merely a line drawn to a star taken at random, and therefore
there is no reason why the star’s motion should be, except accidentally, in a
direction perpendicular to the line joining the star with our sun. We must
conclude that the stars, including our own sun, or some of them at least,
are moving in various directions in space, and that it is merely the trans-
versal component of the whole motion, or rather of the motion relatively
to our sun, that is revealed to us by a change in the star’s apparent place.

How then shall we determine whether any particular star is approaching
to or receding from our sun? It is clear that astronomy alone is powerless
to aid us here, since such a motion would be unaccompanied by change of
angular position. Here the science of optics comes to our aid in a remark-
able manner.

The pitch of a musical note depends, as we know, on the number of
vibrations which reach the ear in a given time, such as a second. Sup-
pose, now, that a body, such as a bell, which is vibrating a given num-
ber of times per second, is at the same time moving from the observer, the
air being calm. Since the successive pulses of sound travel all with the
velocity of sound, but diverge from different centres, namely, the successive
points in the bell’s path at which the bell was when those pulses were first
excited, it is evident that the sound-waves will be somewhat more spread
out on the side from which the bell is moving, and more crowded together
on the side towards which it is moving, than if the bell had been at rest.

ee a a er

ADDRESS. x¢cill

Consequently the number of vibrations per second which reach the ear of an
observer situated in the former of these directions will be somewhat smaller,
and the number which reach an observer situated in the opposite direction
somewhat greater, than if the bell had been at rest. Hence to the former
the pitch will be somewhat lower, and to the latter somewhat higher, than
the natural pitch of the bell. And the same thing will happen if the ob-
server be in motion instead of the bell, or if both be in motion; in fact, the
effect depends only on the relative motion of the observer and the bell in
the direction of aq line joining the two,—in other words, on the velocity of
recession or approach of the observer and the bell. The effect may be per-
ceived in standing by a railway when a train in which the steam-whistle is
sounding passes by at full speed, or better still, if the observer be seated in
a train which is simultaneously moving in the opposite direction.

The present state of optical science is such as to furnish us with evidence,
of a force which is perfectly overwhelming, that light consists of a tremor or
vibratory movement propagated in an elastic medium filling the planetary
and stellar spaces, a medium which thus fulfils for light an office similar to
that of air for sound. In this theory, to difference of periodic time corresponds
difference of refrangibility. Suppose that we were in possession of a source
of light capable, like the bell in the analogous case of sound, of exciting in
the «ther supposed at rest vibrations of a definite period, corresponding,
therefore, to light of a definite refrangibility. Then, just as in the case of
sound, if the source of light and the observer were receding from or approach-
ing to each other with a velocity which was not insensibly small compared
with the velocity of light, an appreciable lowering or elevation of refrangibi-
lity would be produced, which would be capable of detection by means of a
spectroscope of high dispersive power.

The velocity of light is so enormous, about 185,000 miles per second, that
it can readily be imagined that any motion which we can experimentally
produce in a source of light is as rest in comparison. But the earth in its
orbit round the sun moves at the rate of about 18 miles per second ; and in
the motions of stars approaching to or receding from our sun we might expect
to meet with velocities comparable with this. The orbital velocity of the
earth is, it is true, only about the one ten-thousandth part of the velocity of
light. Still the effect of such a velocity on the refrangibility of light, which
admits of being easily calculated, proves not to be so insensibly small as to
elude all chance of detection, provided only the observations are conducted
with extreme delicacy.

But how shall we find in such distant objects as the stars an analogue of
the bell which we haye assumed in the illustration drawn from sound?
What evidence can we ever obtain, even if an examination of their light
should present us with rays of definite refrangibility, of the existence in those
remote bodies of ponderable matter vibrating in known periods not identical
with those corresponding to the refrangibilities of the definite rays which we
observe? ‘The answer to this question will involve a reference, which I will
endeayour to make as brief as I can, to the splendid researches of Professor
Kirchhoff. The exact coincidence of certain dark lines in the solar spectrum
with bright lines in certain artificial sources of ight had previously been in
one or two instances observed; but it is to Kirchhoff we owe the inference
from an extension of Irevost’s theory of exchanges, that a glowing medium
which emits bright light of any particular refrangibility necessarily (at that
temperature at least) acts as an absorbing medium, extinguishing light of the
same refrangibility. In saying this it is but just to mention that in relation

xciv REPORT—1869.

to radiant heat (from whence the transition to light is easy), Kirchhoff was
preceded, though unconsciously, by our own countryman Mr, Balfour Stewart.
The inference which Kirchhoff drew from Preyost’s theory thus extended led
him to make a careful comparison of the places of the dark lines of the solar
spectrum with those of bright lines produced by the incandescent gas or
yapour of known elements ; and the coincidences were in many cases so re-
markable as to establish almost to a certainty the existence of several of the
known elements in the solar atmosphere, producing by their absorbing action
the dark lines coinciding with the bright lines observed. Among other
elements may be mentioned in particular hydrogen, the spectrum of which,
when the gas is traversed by an electric discharge, shows a bright line or band
exactly coinciding with the dark line C, and another with the line F.

Now Mr. Huggins found that several of the stars show in their spectra
dark lines coinciding in position with C and F; and what strengthens the
belief that this coincidence, or apparent coincidence, is not merely fortui-
tous, but is due to a common cause, is that the two lines are found asso-
ciated together, both present or both absent. And Kirchhoff’s theory suggests
that the common cause is the existence of hydrogen in the atmospheres of
the sun and certain stars, and its exercise of an absorbing action on the light
emitted from beneath.

Now by careful and repeated observations with a telescope furnished with
a spectroscope of high dispersive power, Mr. Huggins found that the F line,
the one selected for observation, in the spectrum of Sirius did not exactly
coincide with the corresponding bright line of a hydrogen spark, which latter
agrees in position with the solar F, but was a little less refrangible, while
preserving the same general appearance. What conclusion, then, are we
to draw from the result? Surely it would be most unreasonable to attri-
bute the dark lines in the spectra of the sun and of Sirius to distinct causes,
and to regard their almost exact coincidence as purely fortuitous, when we
haye in proper motion a vera causa to account for a minute difference. And
if, as Kirchhoff’s labours render almost certain, the dark solar line depends
on the existence of hydrogen in the atmosphere of our sun, we are led to
infer that that element, with which the chemist working in his laboratory is
so familiar, exists and is subject to the same physical laws in that distant
star, so distant, that, judging by the most probable value of its annual paral-
lax, light which would go seven times round our earth in one second would
take fourteen years to travel from the star. What a grand conception of the
unity of plan pervading the universe do such conclusions present to our
minds !

Assuming, then, that the small difference of refrangibility observed be-
tween the solar F and that of Sirius is due to proper motion, Mr. Huggins
concludes from his measures of the minute difference of position that at the
time of the observation Sirius was receding from the earth at the rate of 41:4
miles per second. A part of this was due to the motion of the earth in its
orbit ; and on deducting the orbital velocity of the earth, resolved in the direc-
tion of a line drawn from the star, there remained 29:4 miles per second as
the velocity with which Sirius and our sun are mutually receding from each
other. Considering the minuteness of the quantity on which the result de-
pends, it is satisfactory to find that Mr. Huggins’s results as to the motion of
Sirius have been confirmed by the observations of Father Secchi made at Rome
with a different instrument.

The determination of radial proper motion in this way is still in its infancy.
It is worthy of note that, unlike the detection of transversal proper motion

a ie B=

eee SL in RRO cee, ap.

ADDRESS. ~ “Xev

by change of angular position, it is equally applicable to stars at al] distances,
provided they are bright enough to render the observations possible. It is
conceivable that the results of these observations may one day lead to a de-
termination of the motion of the solar system in space, which is more trust-
worthy than that which has been deduced from changes of position, as being
founded on a broader induction, and not confined to conclusions derived from
the stars in our neighbourhood. Should even the solar system and the nearer
stars be drifting along, as Sir John Herschel suggests, with an approximately
common motion, like motes in a sunbeam, it is conceivable that the circum-
stance might thus be capable of detection. To what wide speculations are we
led as to the possible progress of our knowledge when we put together what
has been accomplished in different branches of science !

I turn now to another recent application of spectral analysis. The pheno-
menon of a total solar eclipse is described by those who have seen it as one of
the most imposing that can be witnessed. The rarity of its occurrence and
the shortness of its duration afford, however, opportunity for only a hasty
study of the phenomena which may then present themselves. Among these,
one of the most remarkable, seen indeed before, but first brought prominently
into notice by the observers who watched the eclipse of July 7, 1842, consists
in a series of mountain-like or cloud-like luminous objects seen outside the
dark disk of the moon. These have been seen in subsequent total eclipses,
and more specially studied, by means of photography, by Mr. Warren De La
Rue in the eclipse of June 18, 1860. The result of the various observations,
and especially the study, which could be made at leisure, of the photographs
obtained by Mr. De La Rue, proved conclusively that these appendages belong
to the sun, not to the moon. The photographs proved further their light to
be remarkable for actinic power. Since that time the method of spectral
analysis has been elaborated ; and it seemed likely that additional informa
_ tion bearing on the nature of these objects might be obtained by the applica

tion of the spectroscope. Accordingly various expeditions were equipped for

the purpose of observing the total solar eclipse which was to happen on
_ August 17, 1868. In our own country an equatorially mounted telescope
provided with a spectroscope was procured for the purpose by the Royal
_ Society, which was entrusted to Lieut. (now Captain) Herschel, who was going
_ out to India, one of the countries crossed by the line of the central sha-
_ dow. Another expedition was organized by the Royal Astronomical Society,
_ under the auspices of Major Tennant, who was foremost in pressing on the
_ attention of scientific men the importance of availing themselves of the
opportunity.
_. Shortly before the conclusion of the Meeting of the Association at Norwich
last year, the first results of the observations were made known to the Meet
_ ing through the agency of the electric telegraph. In a telegram sent by
_ M. Janssen to the President of the Royal Society, it was announced that the
spectrum of the prominences was very remarkable, showing bright lines,
- while that of the corona showed none. Brief as the message necessarily was,
_ one point was settled. The prominences could not be clouds in the strict
_ sense of the term, shining either by virtue of their own heat, or by light
Teflected from below. They must consist of incandescent matter in the
gaseous form. It appeared from the more detailed accounts received by
_ post from the various observers, and put together at leisure, that except in
the immediate neighbourhood of the sun the light of the prominences con-
sisted mainly of three bright lines, of which two coincided, or nearly so,
with C and F, and the intermediate one nearly, but, as subsequent researches

XcV1 REPORT—1869.

showed, not exactly, with D. The bright lines coinciding with C and F
indicate the presence of glowing hydrogen.

This is precious information to have gathered during the brief interval of
the total phase, and required on the part of the observers self-denial in with-
drawing the eye from the imposing spectacle of the surrounding scenery, and
coolness in proceeding steadily with some definite part of the inquiry,
when so many questions crowded for solution, and the fruits of months of
preparation were to be reaped in three or four minutes or lost altogether ;
especially when, as too often happened, the observations were provokingly
interrupted by flying clouds.

But valuable as these observations were, it is obvious that we should have
had long to wait before we could have became acquainted with the usual
behaviour of these objects, and their possible relation to changes which may be
going on at the surface of the sun, if we had been dependent on the rare and
brief phenomenon of a total solar eclipse for gathering information respecting
them. But how, the question might be asked, shall we ever be able so to
subdue the overpowering glare of our great luminary, and the dazzling
iumination which it produces in our atmosphere when we look nearly in its
direction, as to perceive objects which are comparatively so faint? Here
again the science of optics comes in aid of astronomy.

When a line of light, such as a narrow slit held in front of a luminous ob-
ject, is viewed through a prism, the light is ordinarily spread out into a
coloured band, the length of which may be increased at pleasure by substitu-
ting two or more prisms for the single prism. As the total quantity of light is
not thereby increased, it is obvious that the intensity of the light of the
coloured band will go on decreasing as the length increases. Such is the case
with ordinary sources of light, like the flame of a candle or the sky, which
give a continuous spectrum, or one generally continuous, though interrupted
by dark bands. But if the light from the source be homogeneous, consisting,
that is, of light of one degree of refrangibility only, the image of the slit
will be merely deviated by the prisms, not widened out into a band, and not
consequently reduced in intensity by the dispersion. And if the source of
light emit light of both kinds, it will be easily understood that the images of
the slit corresponding to light of any definite refrangibilities which the mix-
ture may contain will stand out, by their superior intensity, on the weaker
ground of the continuous spectrum.

Preparations for observations of the kind had long been in progress in the
hands of our countryman Mr. Lockyer. His first attempts were unsuccessful :
but undismayed by failure, he ordered the construction of a new spectroscope
of superior power, in which he was aided by a grant from the sum placed annu-
ally by Parliament at the disposal of the Royal Society for scientific purposes.
The execution of this instrument was delayed by what proved to be the last
illness of the eminent optician to whom it had been in the first instance en-
trusted, the late Mr. Cooke; but when at last the instrument was placed in his
hands, Mr. Lockyer was not long in discovering the object of his two years’
search. On the 20th of October last year, in examining the space immediately
surrounding the edge of the solar disk, he obtained evidence, by the occurrence
of a bright line in the spectrum, that his slit was on the image of one of
those prominences, the nature of which had so long been an enigma. It

further appeared from an observation made on November 5 (as indeed might —

be expected from the photographs of Mr. De La Rue, and the descriptions of

those who had observed total solar eclipses) that the prominences were merely |

elevated portions of an extensive luminous stratum of the same general cha-

—— . ) eee

ADDRESS. XcVil

racter, which, now that the necessity of the interposition of the moon was

dispensed with, could be traced completely round the sun. Notices of this

discovery were received from the author by the Royal Society on October 21

and November 3, and the former was almost immediately published in No. 105

of the Proceedings. These were shortly afterwards followed by a fuller paper
on the same subject.

Meanwhile the same thing had been independently observed in another
part of the world. After having observed the remarkable spectrum of the
prominences during the total eclipse, it occurred to M. Janssen that the same

- method might allow the prominences to be detected at any time ; and on trial
he succeeded in detecting them the very day atterthe eclipse. The results of
his observations were sent by post, and were received shortly after the
account of Mr. Lockyer’s discovery had been communicated by Mr. De La Rue
to the French Academy.

In the way hitherto described a prominence is not seen as a whole, but
the obseryer knows when its image is intercepted by the slit; and by vary-
ing a little the position of the slit a series of sections of the prominence are
obtained, by putting which together the form of the prominence is deduced.
Shortly after Mr. Lockyer’s communication of his discovery, Mr. Huggins,
who had been independently engaged in the attempt to render the promi-
nences visible by the aid of the spectroscope, succeeded in seeing a pro-
minence as a whole by somewhat widening the slit, and using a red glass tu
diminish the glare of the light admitted by the slit, the prominence being
seen by means of the C line in the red. Mr. Lockyer had a design for see-
ing the prominences as a whole by giving the slit a rapid motion of small
extent, but this proved to be superfluous, and they are now habitually seen
with their actual forms. Nor is our power of observing them restricted to
those which are so situated that they are seen by projection outside the sun’s
limb; such is the power of the spectroscopic method of observation that it has
enabled Mr. Lockyer and others to observe them right on the disk of the sun,

an important step for connecting them with other ‘solar phenomena.

7 One of the most striking results of the habitual study of these prominences

_is the evidence they afford of the stupendous changes which are going on in
_ the central body of our system. Prominences the heights of which are to be
‘measured by thousands and tens of thousands of miles, appear and disappear

im the course of some minutes. And a study of certain minute changes of

position in the bright line F, which receive a simple and natural explanation

_by referring them to proper motion in the glowing gas by which that line is

p oduced, and which we see no other way of accounting for, have led Mr.

Lockyer to conclude that the gas in question is sometimes travelling with

velocities comparable with that of the earth in its orbit. Moreover these ex-
hibitions of intense action are frequently found to be intimately connected
with the spots, and can hardly fail to throw light on the disputed question
of theirformation. Nor are chemical composition and proper motion the only
physical conditions of the gas which are accessible to spectral analysis. By
comparing the breadth of the bright bands (for though narrow they are not
mere lines) seen in the prominences with those observed in the spectrum of
hydrogen rendered incandescent under different physical conditions, Dr.

4 Frankland and Mr. Lockyer have deduced conclusions respecting the pressure

) which the gas is subject in the neighbourhood of the sun. I am happy to

‘say that Mr. Lockyer has consented to deliver a discourse during our Meeting,

in which the whole subject will doubtless be fully explained.

lies have dwelt perhaps too long on this topic, and I cannot help fearing that

69. g

i ie |

Xevili REPORT— 1869.

I may have been tedious to the many scientific men to whom the subject is
already perfectly familiar. Yet the contemplations which it opens out to us
are so exalted, and the proof which it affords of what can be accomplished
by the union of different branches of science is so striking, that I hope I
may be pardoned for occupying your time. I cannot, however, leave the
subject of Astronomy without congratulating the Association on the accom-
plishment of an object which originated with it, and in the promotion of
which it formerly took an active part. It was at the Meeting of the Asso-
ciation at Birmingham in 1849, under the presidency of the Rev. Dr. Robinson,
that a resolution was passed for making an application to Her Majesty’s
Government to establish a reflector of not less than three feet aperture at the
Cape of Good Hope, and to make such additions to the staff of that obser-
vatory as might be necessary for its effectual working. This resolution met
with the hearty concurrence of the President of the Council of the Royal
Society, who suggested that the precise locality in the Southern hemisphere
where the telescope should be erected had best be left an open question.
This modification having been adopted by your Council, the application was
presented to Earl Russell, then First Lord of the Treasury, by representatives
of both bodies early in 1850. A reply was received from Government to
the effect that though they agreed with the Association as to the interest
which attached itself to the inquiry, yet there was so much difficulty attend-
ing the arrangements that they were not prepared to take any steps without
much further enquiry. This reply was considered so far favourable as not to
forbid the hope of success if the application were renewed on a suitable
opportunity. The subject was again brought before the Association by
Colonel (now General Sir Edward) Sabine, in his opening address as Presi-
dent at the Belfast Meeting im 1852. The result was that the matter was
again brought before Government by a Committee of the British Association
acting in conjunction with a Committee of the Royal Society, by means of an
application made to the Earl of Aberdeen. By this time the country was
engaged in the Russian war, in consequence of which, it was replied, no
funds could then be spared; but a promise was given that when the crisis
then impending was past, the matter should be taken up, a promise which
the retirement from office and subsequent death of Lord Aberdeen rendered
of no avail.

But though failing in its immediate object, the action of the British Asso-
ciation in this matter has not remained fruitless. A few years later the
subject was warmly taken up at Melbourne, and after preliminary corre-
spondence between the Board of Visitors of the Melbourne Observatory and
the President and Council of the Royal Society, and the appointment by the
latter body of a Committee to consider and report on the subject, in April
1864 a proposition was made to the Colonial Legislature for a grant of
£5000 for the construction of a telescope, and was acceded to. Not to
weary you with details, I will merely say that the telescope has been con-
structed by Mr. Grubb, of Dublin, and is now erected at Melbourne, and in the
hands of Mr. Le Sueur, who has been appointed to use it. It is a reflector
of four feet aperture, of the Cassegrain construction, equatorially mounted,

and provided with a clock-movement. Before its shipment, it was inspected —

in Dublin by the Committee appointed by the Royal Society to consider the
best mode of carrying out the object for which the vote was made by the
Melbourne Legislature ; and the Committee speak in the highest terms of its
contrivance and execution. We may expect before long to get a first instal-
ment of the results obtained by a scrutiny of the southern heavens with an

> ADDRESS. xcix

instrument far more powerful than any that has hitherto been applied to
them—results which will at the same time add to our existing knowledge
and redound to the honour of the Colony, by whose liberality this long-
cherished object has at last been effected.

As I have mentioned an application to the Government on the part of

_ the Association which was not successful, it is but right to say that such is

not generally the result; I will refer to one instance. At the Cambridge
Meeting of the Association in 1862, a Committee, consisting of representa-
tives of the Mechanical and Chemical Sections, was appointed for the pur-
pose of investigating the application of gun-cotton to warlike purposes. At
the Newcastle Meeting, in the following year, this Committee presented
their Report. It was felt that a complete study of the subject demanded
appliances which could be obtained only from our military resources, and
at the Newcastle Meeting a resolution was passed recommending the ap-
pointment of a Royal Commission. This recommendation was adopted, and
in 1864 a Commision was appointed, which was requested to report on the
application of gun-cotton to Civil as well as to Naval and Military purposes.
The Committee gave in their report last year, and that report, together with
a more recent return relative to the application of gun-cotton to mining and
quarrying operations, has just been printed for the House of Commons,

A substance of such comparatively recent introduction cannot be fairly
compared with an explosive in the use of which we have the experience
of centuries. Yet, even with our present experience, there are some pur-
poses for which gun-cotton can advantageously replace gunpowder, while
its manufacture and storage can be effected with comparative safety, since it
is in a wet state during the process of manufacture, and is not at all injured
by being kept permanently in water, but merely requires to be dried for use.
Eyen should it be required to store it in the dry state, it is doubtful whether,
with the precautions indicated by the chemical investigations of Mr. Abel,
any greater risk is incurred than in the case of gunpowder. In the blasting
of hard rocks it is found to be’highly efficient, while the remarkable results
recently obtained by Mr. Abel leave no doubt of its value for explosions such

as are frequently required in warfare. General Hay speaks highly of the
‘promise of its value for small arms ; but many more experiments are re-

quired, especially as a change in the arm and mode of ignition require a
change in the construction of the cartridge. In heavy ordnance, the due
control of the rapidity of combustion of the substance is a matter of greater
difficulty ; and, though considerable progress has been made, much remains

to be done before the three conditions of safety to the gun, high velocity of
projection, and uniformity of result, are satisfactorily combined.

By the kindness of Dr. Carpenter, I am enabled to mention to you the

latest results obtained in an expedition which could not have been under-

taken without the aid of Government, an aid which was freely given. Last

year Dr. Carpenter and Professor Wyville Thomson represented to the Pre-

sident and Council of the Royal Society the great importance to Zoology
and Paleontology of obtaining soundings from great depths in the ocean,
“and suggested to them to use their influence with the Admiralty to induce

them to place a gun-boat, or other suitable vessel, at the disposal of those

gentlemen and any other naturalists who might be willing to accompany
‘them for the purpose of carrying on a systematic course of deep-sea dredg-

ing for a month or six weeks. This application was forwarded to the Ad-
miralty with the warm support of the President and Council, and was readily
acceded to. The operations were a good deal impeded by rough weather,

c REPORT—1869. ;

put nevertheless important results were obtained. Dredging was successfully
accomplished at a depth of 650 fathoms ; and the existence was established
of a varied and abundant submarine Fauna, at depths which had generally
been supposed to be either azoic, or occupied by animals of a very low type ;
and the character of the Fauna and of the mud brought up was such as to
point to a chalk formation actually going on.

It seemed desirable to carry the soundings to still greater depths, and to
examine more fully the changes of temperature which had been met with in
the descent. Another application was accordingly made to the Admiralty in
the present year, and was no less readily acceded to than the former ; and a
larger vessel than that used last year is now on her cruize. Jam informed
by Dr. Carpenter that dredging has been successfully carried down to more
than 2400 fathoms (nearly the height of Mont Blanc), and that animal life
has been found even at that depth in considerable variety, though its amount
and kind are obviously influenced by the reduction of temperature to Arctic
coldness. A very careful series of temperature soundings has been taken,
showing, on the same spot, a continuous descent of temperature with the
depth, at first more rapid, afterwards pretty uniform. Thermometers pro-
tected from pressure by a plan devised by Dr. Miller were found to main-
tain their character at the great depths reached, the difference between them
and the best ordinary thermometers used in the same sounding being exactly
conformable to the pressure corresponding with each depth, as determined by
the experiments previously made in smaller depths. All the observations
hitherto made go to confirm the idea of a general interchange of polar and
equatorial water, the former occupying the lowest depths, the latter forming
a superficial stratum of 700 or 800 fathoms. The analyses of the water
brought up indicate a large proportion of carbonic acid in the gases of the
deep waters, and a general diffusion of organic matter.

T must turn for a few moments to another application recently made to
Government, which has not been successful. The application I have in,
view was made, not by the British Association or other Scientific Societies
in their corporate capacity, but by a body composed of the Presidents of the
British Association and of the Royal and other leading Scientific Societies ;
and its object was, not the promotion of Science directly, but the recognition
of preeminent scientific merit. In the history of science few names, indeed,
hold so prominent a place as that of Faraday. The perfect novelty of prin-
ciple and recondite nature of many of his great discoveries are such as to
bear the impress of genius of the highest order, and to form an epoch in the
advance of science; and while his scientific labours excited the admiration
of men of scierce throughout the world, his singularly genial disposition,
and modest unassuming character, won for him the love of those who had
the happiness of numbering him among their personal friends. At a
meeting of the Presidents of the Scientific Societies [to which I have al-
luded, it was resolved to erect a statue in memory of Faraday. He
was a man of whom England may well be proud, and it was thought
that it would be a graceful recognition of his merits if the monument
were erected at the public expense. The present Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer, however, did not think it right that the recognition of scien-
tific merit, however eminent, should fall on the taxation of the country,
though even in a pecuniary point of view the country has receiyed so much
benefit from the labours of scientific men. The carrying out of the resolu-
tion being thus left to private exertion, a public meeting, presided over by
H.R.H. the Prince of Wales; was held in the Royal Institution, an establishment

ADDRESS. ci

_ which has the honour of being identified with Faraday’s scientific career.
_ At this Meeting a Committee was formed to carry out the object, and a sub-
scription list commenced. By permission of the Secretaries of this Asso-
ciation, an office has been opened in the reception-room, where those Mem-
bers of the Association who may be desirous of taking part in the movement
will have every facility afforded them.

. In chemistry, I do not believe that any great step has been made within
the last year; but perhaps there is no science in which an earnest worker
is so sure of being rewarded by making some substantial acquisition to
our knowledge, though it may not be of the nature of one of those grand
discoveries which from time to time stamp their impress on different branches
of science. I may be permitted to refer to one or two discoveries which are
exceedingly curious, and some of which may prove of considerable practical
importance.

The Turaco or Plantain-eater of the Cape of Good Hope is celebrated for
its beautiful plumage. A portion of the wings is of a fine red colour. This
red colouring-matter has been investigated by Professor Church, who finds it
to contain nearly six per cent. of copper, which cannot be distinguished by
the ordinary tests, nor removed from the colouring-matter without destroying
it. The colouring-matter is in fact a natural organic compound of which
‘copper is one of the essential constituents. Traces of this metal had pre-
viously been found in animals, for example, in oysters, to the cost of those
who partook of them. But in these cases the presence of the copper was
merely accidental; thus oysters that lived near the mouths of streams which
came down from copper-mines assimilated a portion of the copper salt, with-
out apparently its doing them either good or harm. But in the Turaco the
existence of the red colouring-matter which belongs to their normal plumage
is dependent upon copper, which, obtained in minute quantities with the food,

_ is stored up in this strange manner in the system of the animal. Thus in

ge the yery same feather, partly red and partly black, copper was: found in
abundance in the red parts, but none or only the merest trace in the black.

_ This example warns us against taking too utilitarian a view of the plan

of creation. Here we have a chemical ‘substance elaborated which is per-

fectly unique in its nature, and contains a metal the salts of which are ordi-

4 -narily regarded as poisonous to animals; and the sole purpose to which, so
far as we know, it is subservient in the animal economy is one of pure deco-

on ration. Thus a pair of the birds which were kept in captivity lost their fine

; red colour in the course of a few days, in consequence of washing in the

¥ water which was left them to drink, the red colouring-matter, which is

soluble in water, being thus washed out; but except as to the loss of their
~ beauty it does not appear that the birds were the worse for it.

__ A large part of the calicos which are produced in this country in such enor-

1 ‘mous quantitics are sent out into the market in the printed form. Although

_ other substances are employed, the place which madder occupies among dye-

_ stuffs with the calico-printer is compared by Mr. Schunck to that which iron

occupies among metals with the engineer. It appears from the public returns

that upwards of 10,000 tons of madder are imported annually into the

United Kingdom. ‘The colours which madder yields to mordanted cloth

are due to two substances, alizarine and purpurine, derived from the

root. Of these, alizarine is deemed the more important, as producing faster

J colours, and yielding finer violets. In studying the transformations of aliza-

ae ‘Tine under the action of chemical reagents, MM. Graebe and Liebermaun

were led to connect it with anthracene, one of the Goal-tar series of bodies,

cri wei saul

cli REPORT—1869.

and to devise a mode of forming it artificially. The discovery is still
too recent to allow us to judge of the cost with which it can be ob-
tained by artificial formation, which must decide the question of its com-
mercial employment. But assuming it to be thus obtained at a suffi-
ciently cheap rate, what a remarkable example does the discovery afford
of the way in which the philosopher quietly working in his laboratory
may obtain results which revolutionize the industry of nations! To the
calico-printer indeed it may make no very important difference whether he
continues to use madder, or replaces it by the artificial substance; but what
a sweeping change is made in the madder-growing interest! What hundreds
of acres hitherto employed in madder-cultivation are set free for the produc-
tion of human food, or of some other substance useful to man! Such changes
can hardly be made without temporary inconvenience to those who are in-
terested in the branches of industry affected; but we must not on that
account attempt to stay the progress of discovery, which is conducive to the
general weal.

Another example of the way in which practical applications unexpectedly
turn up when science is pursued for its own sake is afforded by a result
recently obtained by Dr. Matthiessen, in his investigation of the constitution
of the opium bases. He found that by the action of hydrochloric acid on mor-
phia a new base was produced, which as to composition differed from the for-
mer merely by the removal of one equivalent of water. But the physiologi-
eal action of the new base was utterly different from that of the original one.
While morphia is a powerful narcotic, the use of which is apt to be followed

by subsequent depression, the new base was found to be free from narcotic
' properties, but to be a powerful emetic, the action of which was unattended
by injurious after-effects. It seems likely to become a valuable remedial
agent.

In relation to mechanism, this year is remarkable as being the centenary of
the great invention of our countryman James Watt. It wasin the year 1769
that he took out his patent involving the invention of separate condensation,
which is justly regarded as forming the birth of the steam-engine. Little
could even his inventive mind have foreseen the magnitude of the gift he wag
conferring on mankind in general, and on his own country more particularly,
In these days of steamers, power-looms, and railways, it requires no small
effort to place ourselves in imagination in the condition we should be in with-
out the steam-engine. It needs no formal celebration to remind Britons of
what they owe to Watt. Of him truly it may be said “si monumentum
requiras circumspice.”

With reference to those branches of science in which we are more or less
concerned with the phenomena of life, my own studies give me no right to
address you. I regret this the less because my predecessor and my probablo
successor in the Presidential Chair are both of well-known eminence in this
department. But I hope I may be permitted as a physicist, and viewing the
question from the physical side, to express to you my views as to the rela-
tion which the physical bear to the biological sciences.

No other physical science has been brought to such perfection as mecha-
nics ; and in mechanics we haye long been familiar with the idea of the per-
fect generality of its laws, of their applicability to bodies organic as well as
inorganic, living as well as dead. Thus in a railway collision when a train is
suddenly arrested the passengers are thrown forward, by virtue of the inertia
of their bodies, precisely according to the laws which regulate the motion of
dead matter. So trite has the idea become that the reference to it may seem

ADDRESS, cil

childish ; but from mechanics let us pass on to chemistry, and the case will be
found by no means so clear. When chemists ceased to be content with the
mere ultimate analysis of organic substances, and set themselves to study
their proximate constituents, a great number of definite chemical compounds
were obtained which could not be formed artificially. I do not know what
may have been the usual opinion at that time among chemists as to their
mode of formation. Probably it may have been imagined that chemical
affinities were indeed concerned in their formation, but controlled and modi-
fied by an assumed yital force. But as the science progressed many of these
organic substances were formed artificially, in some cases from other and
perfectly distinct organic substances, in other cases actually from their ele-
ments. This statement must indeed be accepted with one qualification. It
was stated several years ago by M. Pasteur, and I believe the statement
still remains true, that no substance the solution of which possesses the pro-
perty of rotating the plane of polarization of polarized light had been formed
artificially from substances not possessing that property. Now several of the
natural substances which are deemed to have been produced artificially are
active, in the sense of rotating the plane of polarization; and therefore in
these cases the inactive, artificial substances cannot be absolutely identical
with the natural ones. But the inactivity of the artificial substance is
readily explained on the supposition that the artificial substance bears to the
natural, the same relation as racemic acid bears to tartaric,—that it is, so to
speak, a mixture of the natural substance with its image in a mirror. And
when we remember by what a peculiar and troublesome process M. Pasteur
succeeded in separating racemic acid into the right-handed and left-handed
tartaric acids, it will be at once understood how easily the fact, if it be a
fact, of the existence in the natural substance of a mixture of two substances,
one right-handed and the other left-handed, but otherwise identical, may
haye escaped detection. This is a curious point, to the clearing up of which
it is desirable that chemists should direct their attention. Waiving then the
difference of activity orinactivity, which, as we have seen, admits of a simple

_ physical explanation, though the correctness of that explanation remains to

Oe eae ee ee ee

be investigated, we may say that at the present time a considerable number
of what used to be regarded as essentially natural organic substances have
been formed in the laboratory. That being the case, it seems most reason-

able to suppose that in the plant or animal from which those organic sub-

stances were obtained they were formed by the play of ordinary chemical
affinity, not necessarily nor probably by the same series of reactions by
which they were formed in the laboratory, where a high temperature is com-
monly employed, but still by chemical reactions of some kind, under the agency
in many cases of light, an agency sometimes employed by the chemist in his
laboratory. And since the boundary line between the natural substances
which have and those which have not been formed artificially is one which,
so far as we know, simply depends upon the amount of our knowledge, and
is continually changing as new processes are discovered, we are led to extend
the same reasoning to the various chemical substances of which organic
structures are made up.

But do the laws of chemical affinity, to which, as T have endeavoured to infer,
living beings, whether vegetable or animal, are in absolute subjection, together

_ with those of capillary attraction, of diffusion,and so forth, account for the for-
‘mation of an organic structure, as distinguished from the elaboration of the che-

mical substances of which it iscomposed? No more, it seems to me, than the
laws of motion account for the union of oxygen and hydrogen to form water

civ REPORT—1869,

though the ponderable matter so uniting is subject to the laws of motion
during the act of union, just as well as before and after. In the various pro-
cesses of crystallization of precipitation, and so forth, which we witness in
dead matter, I cannot see the faintest shadow of an approach to the forma-
tion of an organic structure, still less to the wonderful series of changes
which are concerned in the growth and perpetuation of even the lowliest
plant. Admitting to the full as highly probable, though not completely de-
monstrated, the applicability to living beings of the laws which have been
ascertained with reference to dead matter, I feel constrained at the same time
to admit the existence of a mysterious something lying beyond,—a something
sui generis, which I regard, not as balancing and suspending the ordinary
physical laws, but as working with them and through them to the attainment
of a designed end.

What this something, which we call life, may be, is a profound mystery.
We know not how many links in the chain of secondary causation may yet
remain behind; we know not how few. It would be presumptuous indeed to
assume in any case that we had already reached the last link, and to charge
with irreverence a fellow-worker who attempted to push his investigations
yet one step further back. On the other hand, if a thick darkness enshrouds
all beyond, we have no right to assume it to be impossible that we should haye
reached eyen the last link of the chain ; a stage where further progress is unat-
tainable, and we can only refer the highest law at which we stopped to the fiat
of an Almighty Power. T’o assume the contrary as a matter of necessity, is prac-
tically to remove the First Cause of all to an infinite distance from us. The boun-
dary, however, between what is clearly known and what is veiled in impene-
trable darkness is not ordinarily thus sharply defined. Between the two there
lies a misty region, in which loom the ill-discerned forms of links of the chain
which are yet beyond us. But the general principle is not affected thereby.
Let us fearlessly trace the dependence of link on link as far as it may be
given us to trace it, but let us take heed that in thus studying second causes
we forget not the First Cause, nor shut our eyes to the wonderful proofs of
design which, in the study of organized beings especially, meet us at every
turn.

Truth we know must be self-consistent, nor can one truth contradict
another, even though the two may have been arrived at by totally different
processes, in the one case, suppose, obtained by sound scientific investigation,
in the other case taken on trust from duly authenticated witnesses. Misin-
terpretations of course there may be on the one side or on the other, causing
apparent contradictions. Every mathematician knows that in his private
work he will occasionally by two different trains of reasoning arrive at dis-
cordant conclusions. He is at once aware that there must be a slip somewhere,
and sets himself to detect and correct it. When conclusions rest on proba-
ble evidence, the reconciling of apparent contradictions is not so simple and
certain. It requires the exercise of a calm, unbiassed judgment, capable of
looking at both sides of the question; and oftentimes we have long to sus-
pend our decision, and seek for further evidence. None need fear the effect
of scientific inquiry carried on in an honest, truth-loving, humble spirit,
which makes us no less ready frankly to avow our ignorance of what we can-
not explain than to accept conclusions based on sound evidence. The slow but
sure path of induction is open to us. Let us frame hypotheses if we will:
most useful are they when kept in their proper place, as stimulating inquiry.
Let us seek to confront them with observation and experiment, thereby con-
firming or upsetting them as the result may prove; but let us beware of pla-

ADDRESS. ev

cing them prematurely in the rank of ascertained truths, and building further
conclusions on them as if they were.
When from the phenomena of life we pass on to those of mind, we enter
egion still more profoundly mysterious. We can readily imagine that we
y here be dealing with phenomena altogether transcending those of mere
in some such way as those of life transcend, as I have endeavoured to
nfer, those of chemistry and molccular attractions, or as the laws of chemi-
al affinity in their turn transcend those of mere mechanics. Science can be
cted to do but little to aid us here, since the instrument of research is
the object of investigation. It can but enlighten us as to the depth of
ignorance, and lead us to look to a higher aid for that which most nearly
concerns our wellbeing.

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stig AW Fp
“ , ian ¥4: yt 3 ; roe) Ss,
; ee th faci >? on ae on Chi bese ig oe :
7 Se ~~ ; ote vin 1% af
bee Shy eee: it? fh sh pmb ‘ 7 ftiy 12 4e@nH ali gl 2

j fis lp et isw
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A wey : wine owe “

REPORTS

THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Report of « Committee appointed at the Nottingham Meeting, 1866,
for the purpose of Exploring the Plant-beds of North Greenland,
consisting of Mr. Rosrrt H. Scorr, Dr. Hooker, Mr. E. H.
Wuymrerr, Dr. E. P. Wricut, and Sir W. C. Trevetyan, Bart.*

In their preliminary Report, which was presented to the Association at the
last Meeting, the Committee stated that the sum voted by the Association
had been handed over to Mr. Edward Whymper, one of their members, who
was in Greenland at the time of the Meeting.

In the course of the autumn he returned to England, bringing his collection
of fossil plants with him.

The Committee then resolved to forward the entire collection to Prof. Heer, at
Zurich, for the purposes of identification and description, and they accordingly
made application to the Government-Grant Committee of the Royal Society
for a grant of money to pay for the carriage of the specimens to and from
Zurich. F

The Government-Grant Committee, who had formerly assisted the expe-
dition to Greenland by a most liberal grant of money, at once acceded to the
second application, and the fossils were sent to Switzerland in the course of
last spring (1868).

As soon as they are sent back, a complete series of the specimens will be
forwarded to the British Museum, in accordance with the conditions laid
down by the Association at the time the money was voted.

The Committee append hereto Mr. Whymper’s Report of his journey,
and a notice forwarded by Prof. Heer, giving an account of the most impor-
tant results obtained by this expedition.

Report of Proceedings to obtain a Collection of Fossil Plants in North Green-

land for the Committee of the British Association. By Kowarp WuyMPEr.
July 1868.

Srr,—TI arrived at the Colony of Jakobshavn, North Greenland, on the 16th

of June, 1867, but was unable to start for Atanekerdluk, distant northwards

about sixty English miles, before August the 19th. In the meantime I

purchased the only boat that could be spared, and obtained as much infor-

* Read at the Norwich Meeting, 1868,
1869. ’ B

<<?

2 REPORT—1869.

mation as possible from the Danes and from the natives respecting the loca-
lities we were about to visit. From the information so obtained, it was
evident that the fossil stores on the hill of Atanekerdluk had already been
well ransacked, and that we could not hope to meet with any great novelties
in that direction. I obtained, however, some amber, through the natives,
from a locality on Disco Island, which had not been examined, and heard of
two other places where fossil wood had been discovered. These places,
Ujarasuksumitok and Kudliset, are described at length further on. I also
secured by purchase several specimens from Atanekerdluk, and a few fossil
shells from Paitorfik in the district of Umenak *.

We were ready to start by the middle of August, but the natives on whom
we had relied for a crew preferred to go south, to a dance at Claushayn ; and
it was owing to the kindness of the trader at Jakobshavn, who gave us a
passage in a blubber-boat returning to Ritenbenk, that we were at length
enabled to start on our journey. We got to Ritenbenk at 1.30 a.m. on the
20th of August, and in spite of the inconvenient hour at which we arrived,
were received with the greatest warmth and hospitality by Mr. Anderson.
On the evening of the same day we again started; this time with a strong
force, by the advice of Mr. Anderson, the trader. There were now with me
two boats, one hired at Ritenbenk, eleven native men and women, and Messrs.
Brown and Tegner (naturalist and interpreter). I tried hard to engage the
natives to go as far as Umenak, but failed to get them to promise to go
further than Atanekerdluk.

We started at 10.30 p.u., and our course soon took us into the midst of
the Tossukatek ice-stream, a great assemblage of icebergs large and small,
which were given off from a glacier whose summit we could just see on the
horizon. This ice-stream was remarkable for the enormous number of ice-
bergs it contained, and was also notable for the small amount of moraine
matter upon them. Really large blocks of rock we did not see, and those of
a yard in diameter were rare; but there was abundance of small stones, of
grit, and of sand upon the bergs. There is no doubt that beneath the course
of the Tossukatek ice-stream, as below all others, there are conglomerate
strata in course of formation, which cannot now be seen, but which may
possibly be presented to the view of future travellers.

Shortly after passing through this ice-stream we arrived at the small
settlement of Sakkak+. This place stands by the water’s edge at the entrance
of a great valley running into the heart of the Noursoak peninsula. A con-
siderable river that flows down this valley falls into the sea a little to the
north of the settlement, and appears to form the boundary line of the granite
districts which we were just quitting, and the trap formation upon which we
were just entering.

A solitary Danish man lives at this place, and has done so for twenty-

* Astarte suleata, Costa. Mya truncata, Fadr.
crebricostata, Forbes. Cardium
elliptica, Brown.

t On the voyage up Davis Straits we were becalmed off Rifkol, a noted landmark, and
anchored on some banks in eighteen fathoms. These banks have certainly been greatly in-
creased, if not originated, by the deposition of matter from the icebergs of the Jakobshayn
ice-stream. At the time we were anchored a large number of small bergs were aground
upon them, breaking up and revolving all around. ‘We took the opportunity to put down
the dredge, and although we only worked from the ship side, and consequently over a very
limited amount of bottom, we brought wp in two or three hauls fragments of granite,
gneiss (some with garnets), syenite, quartz, hornblende, greenstone, and mica-slate. The
sounding-lead showed a fine sand bottom, and the anchor flukes brought fetid mud. i

{ The word Sakkak means, according to Giesecke, “sunside,” 7. e, southerly aspect.

ON THE PLANT-BEDS OF NORTH GREENLAND. 5

four years. He says that the glaciers which can be seen from his house,
both on the Noursoak peninsula and upon Disco Island, are steadily increas-
ing; so much so that their progress can be noted every year. This state-
ment coincides with the observation of Sir C. Giesecke nearly sixty years ago.
The latter says*, speaking of the route to Umenak, “ formerly they drove
generally over Gamle Ritenbenkt, but for several years the road has become
impassable in consequence of the ‘iceblink’ by which the whole continent
there is covered. The same will take place with the new road at present in
use.” -The glaciers to the south were, howeyer, as far as I observed them,
decidedly shrinking.

At Sakkak we were joined by a native guide for Atanekerdluk, named
Gudemann, and also by two others who volunteered their services. We con-
tinued our journey after a brief halt, and arrived at our destination shortly
after 1 a.m. on August the 22nd.

The name Atanekerdluk is applied by the natives to a basaltic peninsula,
about half a mile in length, connected with the mainland by a sandy neck,
which is apparently covered by the sea at spring-tides. A bay with a sandy
beach stretches about two miles to the south, and at its further extremity
there is another promontory, of columnar basalt, named Imnarsoit. Between
these two promontories, and indeed along the whole of the shore from the
above-mentioned valley at Sakkak to the most northern point of the Noursoak
peninsula, mountains rise from the water’s edge and attain in some places a
height of 5000 to 6000 feet. Behind the peninsula of Atanekerdluk they
do not, however, attain a height greater than 3600 or 3800 feet. They are
eut up by numerous small valleys and ravines.

The position of Atanekerdluk is indicated at a great distance by means of
three mountain-peaks of symmetrical form. The fossil bed is one-third way
up the most northern of these, and between it and the central one. Under
the guidance of Gudemann we started for it at midday on the 22nd. The
sides of the hill on which it is situate (an outlying buttress of the mountain
already mentioned) were of considerable steepness, and channelled in many
places by small streams. It was mainly composed of sand and of shales,
and was strewn with disintegrated fragments of hardened clays, sandstones,
and basalt. The most prominent features were the dykes of trap which
appeared in numerous placest, sometimes as regular in form as built walls,
and in others picturesque as Rhine castles. Five, if not six, of these dykes
appeared at different places in the section of the coast between the headlands
of Atanekerdluk and Imnarsoit.

It has been already mentioned that this locality had been frequently
visited§$ before 1867 for the sake of its fossil deposit. This was evident by

numerous fragments that we found in the course of our ascent, which had

been dropped by others in descending, and it seemed at first as if the deposit
Was yery extensive. We found it in fact to be confined within narrow

limits. It did not appear to extend a greater length than 400 feet, with a
“Maximum depth of 150 feet. In most places the portion exposed was

nothing more than a seam a few feet in depth. It was on a shelf of the hill
at the height of 1175 feet ||; the southern end was exposed on the north side

* Giesecke’s MS. Journal, year 1811.
t+ The Danish name for the settlement of Sakkak,
_ t These, as well as the other points of Atanekerdluk, were illustrated by a reference to
a photograph of a drawing made from my sketch taken on the spot.
By Danes, or by natives collecting for Danes.
i The mean of eight observations by aneroid. Capt. Inglefield gives the height 1084

feet.

a0 REPORT—1869.

of the most prominent of the ravines already referred to. The length of the
deposit, that is to say the face of the hill on which it was found, fronted the
Waigat, due west, magnetic.

I took from England, besides hammers, picks, and shovels, all the neces-
saries for blasting; but these latter were unnecessary. The seam was for
the most part enclosed by sand, and specimens were obtained with ease, The
division of labour was as follows:—The natives (fourteen) collected, Mr.
Tegner interpreted, and I selected. I directed Mr. Brown to collect speci-
mens of the different strata in order that sections might be prepared*. The
specimens are before me, and comprise :—basalt ; sandstone containing nodules
of basalt rather smaller than an ordinary walnut; indurated black mud, pro-
bably derived from decomposed basaltic rock; limestone; calcareous mud,
containing lime and alumina; calcareous mud with layers of vegetable matter ;
sandstones of different degrees of fineness; sandstone containing a large
amount of alumina; coarse sandstone, about equivalent to the millstone grit
of Derbyshire and Yorkshire ; coarse conglomerate sandstone, with fragments
of silica about the size of common horse-beans; calcareous sandstones of
different degrees of fineness (effervescing readily when hydrochloric acid is
applied); fine-grained calcareous sandstone, in which the lime effervesces
when hydrochloric acid is applied, and containing mica distributed in patches
with silica ; calcareous sandstone, with layers of vegetable matter; ferrugi-
nous conglomerate (grains of quartz, cemented together by oxide of iron) ;
hard clay of black colour; fine hardened mud containing vegetable impres-
sions; streaks of clay, with layers of coal one-sixteenth of an inch thick ;
bituminous shale; andlignitey. After a hard day’s work we returned to our
camp, in a ruined native house by the shore. It froze sharply during the
night,

On the 23rd we resumed work, and by the close of the day had made a
large collection of good specimens. It was my endeavour to select, as far as
possible, perfect specimens of individual species, rather than fine slabs con-
taining numerous species. Unfortunately a large number of the finest
specimens were irremediably smashed in transit down the hill; this was
due much more to the brittleness of the specimens and the steepness of the
descent than to carelessness, The natives indeed worked admirably.

On the 24th we finished our work at this locality. A trench had been
dug by this time 20 feet in length, to a depth of 5 feet, completely through
the seam, and the section showed :—

ft. in,
1. Stratum of fine sand, light grey colour ...... 1 7 deep.
2. similar to No.1, darker ........ Ses.
ae _ fine “Wihite: Sand as 6. sat saceveit)oiak« oes
4, 7 TECTED a Shes,
5. 39 ” No. 3 West Gespesr le = le tale als 6 ”
6. " yellow sand,

The impressions of leaves were found for the most part in stratum No. 1,
or upon the surface; they were also obtained from Nos. 2, 3, 4, but I
believe not lower. Those found in the uppermost and upon the surface were ~
ordinarily in hard clay, red in colour, due to oxide of iron. These did not
suffer much by transportation ; but the surface had apparently undergone a
careful scrutiny, and few very perfect specimens were obtained from it.

* The sections have not yet been handed to me.

_ +t These specimens have been named by Prof. J. Tennant, who has obliged me by examining
and naming all the specimens referred to in this Report.

ON THE PLANT-BEDS OF NORTH GREENLAND. 5

The impressions in the softer and more brittle shales were obtained some
depth below the surface; these yielded the best specimens, but they suffered
greatly in transit. Those found at the greatest depth were almost invariably
in lumps of hard clay that fractured irregularly ; these differed from the
others in being of an iron-grey colour. They have reddened since they have

_ been exposed to the atmosphere. The trench was dug about midway be-

tween the extremes of the deposit, and examination at other points showed
a similar arrangement. The hill at this part was mainly composed of sand,
enclosing numerous thin seams of brittle indurated clay, red in colour, con-
taining a good deal of iron and of moderately fine-grained sandstones.

We were unable to find the “ perfect stem, standing four feet out of the
side of the hill,” spoken of by Capt. Inglefield *, and it was unknown to the
natives. It was said to have stood on the edge of a precipice, in the ravine
on the south of the hill, and it has probably been buried in a fall that
appears to have taken place not very long ago. In the sides of this ravine,
both above and below the leaf-deposit, numerous beds of lignite are exposed,
at least one being of considerable thickness. I brought home from this bed
a block 1 foot 9 inches in thickness, a portion of which has been analyzed in
the laboratory of Mr. T. W. Keates of Chatham Place, with the following
result :—

Specific gravity sis 8) Se, 1:369
Gaseous and yolatile matter ...............0. 45°45
Mietrstier Pie PO Phd, 5 AE SY OORT ¢ “75
46-20
Spree RET APNE Td 28 NS WN a SPL POI OLS Ia ‘BD
Bixediear hon. s PO PPL: POLS TIT 47°75
mn {Ash HR Mi Depp Lmeposzyaied shad i 550
53:25
100-00

The lignite contains a trace of bitumen; the coke is non-caking, and of little
use.”

In this lignite we found small pieces of amber, the largest being about the
size of a common pea. We also found amber, but in still smaller fragments,
in the leaf-deposit itself. It was nowhere abundant.

The scantiness of the living vegetation at Atanekerdluk offered a marked
contrast to the luxuriance displayed in the leaf-deposit. Although this was
the sunny side of the Waigat Strait and the hills were completely free
from snow, vegetation was as meagre as upon Disco Island itself. The
drifting of the sand accounts for this doubtless to some extent. ‘The largest
dead wood measured less than an inch and a half in diameter, and the largest
growing wood less than an inch.

The most remarkable natural object at Atanekerdluk is a trap pinnacley.
The surrounding soil has been removed, leaving this portion of a former dyke
standing perfectly isolated. Its height is about eighty feet.

On the evening of August the 24th we rowed across the Waigat to a little
settlement on Disco Island, named Unartuvarsok, immediately opposite to
Atanekerdluk. At this part the Waigat is nearly twelve miles across, and
its passage took us more than four hours.

* Private Journal of Capt. E. A. Inglefield, quoted in ‘‘A Report on the Miocene Flora
of North Greenland,” by Prof. O. Heer, 1866. Journal of the Royal Dublin Society, vol. iv.
te photograph of which from a drawing made from a sketch taken on the spot was
ibited.

6 REPORT—1869.

Unartuvarsok is now the only inhabited place on the whole of the Waigat
side of Disco Island, and the sole inducement to visit it lay in the expecta-
tion that we should be able to find a native who knew the localities of Uja-
rasuksumitok and Kudliset. In this we were not disappointed; the native
catechist (teacher) offered to act as guide, and moreover invited us to pass
the night in his house. We did so, and found the atmosphere most filthy.

Early on the following morning we again started, passing at a short
distance from the settlement some remarkable peaks that stood in advance
of the great basaltic cliffs which are the chief features of Disco Island.
These cliffs are everywhere crowned by glaciers, which occasionally, but
rarely on the Waigat side of the island, pour over and advance towards
the shore. Near the settlement of Unartuvarsok there are two or three
points, at least, at which this glacier-plateau could be reached without much
difficulty *.

Coal-seams are exposed at a number of points both along the Waigat and
on the coast between Flakkerhuk and Godhayn. Dr. Rink mentions? five
places at which it is found along these shores; there are at least three others,
—one spoken of by Giesecke ; another near to Issungoak Ness, from which I
obtained amber through the natives; and a third nearer to Godhayn. At
the time of our visit fossil wood had been found :—Ist, at Iglutsiak, near
Godhayn; 2nd, at Signifik, between the last-named place and Flakkerhuk ;
3rd, at Ujarasusuk (Ujarasuksumitok); and 4th, at Kulfelden (Kudliset).
Specimens from these places are in the University Museum at Copenhagen,
and on my return I obtained, through the courtesy of Professor Johnstrup,
duplicate specimens from the first two named. Until the time of our visit
leaves had not, however, been found, with the exception of a few specimens
by Dr. Lyall. Amber had, however, been found at several places; and from
this fact, and from the statement by Giesecke that he had himself observed
impressions of leaves (apparently Angelica Archangelica), there was little
doubt but that a more careful search would yield results. It was most im-
portant to find the place spoken of by Giesecke as Ritenbenk’s Kulbrund.
There was difficulty in doing so: the natives differed among themselves ; but
we now know that this name is applied equally to all the places along the
Waigat coast of Disco from which coal has been taken for Ritenbenk, At
the present time coal for that colony is only taken from one place on Disco,
namely, Ujarasuksumitok; but it has been taken from several others, and
hence we were much puzzled to determine the precise point to which Giesecke
referred.

On arrival at Ujarasuksumitok it was found that the coal was exposed in
the cliff by the shore, at a height of about fifty feet above the sea. It had
been worked a length of fifty feet to a depth of four and a half: one could
not say what was the entire depth of the seam, as the lower part was covered
up by débris. All the natives were put to work, but for some hours we failed
to find anything more than wood (up to five inches diameter), charred stems,

* The coast-line of the Waigat strait is laid down very inexactly in existing maps. The
chart of Dr, Rink, which is probably the best, makes the Disco coast very nearly a straight
line from the promontory called Issungoak Ness to the shores opposite to Hare Island,
In fact the coast-line from the above-named point to halfway up the strait is formed by
one great bay that includes numerous smaller ones. We coasted these, and remarked that
for a considerable distance from the shore they were extremely shallow. At a distance of
a half English mile, or even more, there were places with a depth of only eight or nine
feet. The whole of the Waigat, indeed, appeared to be shallow. Small icebergs were
aground in numerous places in the very centre of it.

t Grénland Geographisk og Statistisk heskreyet, vol. i. pp. 172, &c.

ON THE PLANT-BEDS OF NORTH GREENLAND. 7

doubtful impressions, and a few grains of amber. I then went along the
coast towards the north, and was at length rewarded by finding a fair speci-
men, containing leaves, in the bed of a small stream. It was in hardened,
warm-coloured clay, similar to that obtained at Atanekerdluk. I followed
the stream to its source, a height of about 1000 feet, without finding
anything more. Then returning, I went to the south, and in another and
larger torrent-bed found several others. The natives, now put on the right
track, soon brought in a fair collection. Gudemann was the fortunate dis-
coverer of the Magnolia cone, to which Prof. Heer refers, and he was greatly
surprised at the reward it produced him.

All the specimens collected at this place were obtained from these two
torrent-beds: Mr. Brown, who followed the fossils up to their source, reported
that they came from a thin seam difficult to get at. As it was becoming a
question whether the boats would carry all the specimens we had already
collected, I decided to push onwards the same night to Kudlset, which, from
reports received, seemed a more promising place for investigation.

We arrived there about midnight, and camped very smartly. The weather
had already become sufficiently cold to freeze the salt water in the bays at
night, and during the whole day fresh water remained frozen in the little
pools on the land. The whole of this part of Disco Island was very dismal.
Its aspect allows the sun to shine upon it for but a small portion of the day*,
and all animal life seemed to shun it. A few ptarmigan were the only
living creatures we saw on the land during the days we passed on these
shores. There was little wonder that the natives were already wishing to
return. They were ill-protected from the weather ; for, from reasons which
need not be mentioned, it was impossible to allow them to enter the tents,
and they had only such shelter as they could obtain by piling up turf and
stones, and covering themselves with a few small blankets and spare skins
which we had brought with us.

At this place (Kudliset) coal (lignite) was exposed in a cliff on the south
side of the bed of a small stream in two seams, 4 feet apart, for a length of about
30 feet, difficult to get at. They were 105 feet (by aneroid) above the sea,
and distant from it about 300 yards. The lowest seam, 2 feet thick, was
resting on a bed of indurated clay, and between the seams was a coarse and
very loose, crumbly sandstone. The uppermost seam, one foot thick, was
capped by a finer and harder sandstone which I could not measure. The
whole, above and below, was enclosed by sand.

In the torrent-bed we quickly found some considerable masses of fossilized
wood, and I followed the stream upwards in hopes of finding leaves. Ata
height of about 800 feet I obtained agates in basalt, and following the stream
to its source (about 1000 feet above the sea), came nearly to the foot of the
great basaltic cliffs. The specimens collected here include hardened clays
which have taken form in cavities in the basalt. Returning to my party I
found that they had in the meantime obtained some indifferent and fair
specimens from the torrent-bed, and from the sandstone above the coal.
We afterwards added to their number, but the coarseness of the stone pre-
vented any very good specimens from being obtained. We also secured some
good specimens of fossil wood, about one foot in diameter. Nodules of argil-

* The Danish man at Sakkak informed me that the coal was got out easily enough
during the summer time, but that at a depth of 12 feet it remained frozen throughout the
year. On arriving at the frozen coal, they commonly wait two or three days to allow it
to thaw, before continuing to work it.

8 REPORT—1869.

laceous oxide of iron, having usually in the centre kernels of the same, were
abundant in the stream and in the soil at its sides.

After a half-day’s work we had apparently exhausted this locality. The
specimens obtained were again chiefly taken from the torrent-bed. It was
a matter of difficulty, if not of danger, to get any from the sandstone above
the coal; and as the natives were murmuring frequently at being taken
away further than they had agreed, I sent Mr. Brown to the south with one
boat, to examine the coast, and then proceed to Ritenbenk, vi@ Atanekerdluk,
while I went with the other boat as far north along the Disco shore as the
natives would go. A little further along the coast I found some doubtful
impressions of leaves in a great wilderness of stones brought down by a
glacier-torrent, and about three miles still further north came to the magni-
ficent gorge in the sandstone cliffs by the shore, to which I have vainly
endeavoured to do justice in the view exhibited*. One mile after this the
cliffs by the shore came to an end, and the coast apparently continued quite
flat until opposite Hare Island. The natives agreed that no coal was visible
along the whole of this shore, and we crossed to Mannik, on the opposite
side of the Waigat. Here there was a small thin seam of coal, exposed in a
cliff not far from the shore; but I obtained nothing from it, and we continued
our course to Atanekerdluk, arriving shortly after midnight; here ye passed
the night of the 27th August. The next day was occupied in loading the
boat with the specimens we had left there, in sketching, and in completing
the examination of the locality. At4 p.m. we started for Sakkak, and left
it at 8.30, arriving at Ritenbenk on the morning of the 29th August. Mr.
Brown had arrived about twelve hours before, but, like ourselves, had failed
to make any fresh discoveries.

At Ritenbenk we remained three days, with foul weather. During this
time the collections, including many hundred specimens, amounting to con-
siderably more than half a ton in weight, were repacked. We were then
favoured, by the kindness of Mr. Anderson, with a passage in a blubber-boat
to Godhavn, at which place we arrived on September the 4th, after a most
disagreeable voyage. On the 10th we sailed on board the brig ‘ Hoalfisken,’
and arrived at Copenhagen on October the 22nd.

In conclusion it is right to observe that these collections could not have
been made excepting by means of the facilities afforded by the Danish
authorities. We may feel a natural satisfaction that so many as eighty
species should have been discovered by the labours of Professor Heer; but
it should ke remembered that they are primarily due to the invaluable in-
formation given by Herr C.8. M. Olrik, the Director of the Greenland Trade.
Scarcely less are our thanks due to Herr K. Smith, the present Inspector of
North Greenland, and to Herr Anderson, of Ritenbenk; both of these
gentlemen gave much assistance, at considerable personal trouble, which was
of the greatest service.

To Robert H. Scott, Esq., Epwarp WHYMPER.

Secretary of the Committee of
the British’ Association.

Preliminary Report on the Fossil Plants collected by Mr. Whymper in North
Greenland, in 1867. By Prof. Oswatp Herr.

The fossil plants which have been sent to me by Mr. Whymper have come
partly from Disco Island and partly from Atanekerdluk.

* At this part some boulders of granite, probably transported by sea-ice, were lying on
the shore.

ON THE PLANT-BEDS OF NORTH GREENLAND. 9

The specimens from Disco occur in a coarse-grained sandstone which is at
times yellowish, and at times reddish-grey. They were collected at two
localities on the eastern side of the island, on the shore of the Waigat, in
lat. 70°, or thereabouts. One of these is named Kidlisot (Kudliset), the
other is Ujararsusuk (Ujarasuksumitok), and lies some miles to the south of
Kudlisot. This place is also called Ritenbenk’s coal-mine, because of a
considerable seam of brown coal which occurs in the sandstone, and is some-
times wrought by the colonists of Ritenbenk.

The collection contains thirteen species from these two localities, viz. eleven
from Kudlisot, and six from Ujararsusuk ; four species are common to both.
Two of these may be described as the commonest trees of the district. One
is a conifer (Sequoia Couttsiw), the other a plane. The collection contains
splendid specimens of the Sequoia; and with one twig from Ujararsusuk we
find the scales of the cone in good preservation, while among the delicate
twigs from Kudlisot there is an entire cone. The twigs and cones are
precisely similar to those which are so common at Bovey Tracey in Devon-
shire, and which have also been found in the Hempstead beds in the Isle of
Wight. This remarkable tree, which I have described as Sequoia Couttsie,
and which is closely allied to Sequoia gigantea ( Wellingtonia gigantea, Lindl.),
extends accordingly from the south of England to North Greenland, and has
ripened its fruit in the latter region. Not less remarkable is the plane, of
which the collection contains very fine leaves; it resembles the American
plane, from which it is not easily distinguishable.

Among the other plants from this locality we may name a fern (Asp7-
diwn Meyeri), which is covered with fruit, a reed, the amber-tree of
Europe (Liquidambar Europeum, Braun), a Christ-thorn (Paliurus Colombi),
and a Dryandra (D. acutiloba), which was only known to occur in the Wetterau
and at Bilin, in Bohemia.

The most remarkable discovery, without doubt, is that of two cones of
Magnolia. In my ‘ Flora Arctica’ I have already identified the leaves of a
Magnolia (M. Inglefieldi), and have shown that in respect of their size and
leathery texture they approach those of WM. grandiflora, L. Now we find
these cones coming to light and confirming the identification of the leaves.
In addition to a cone of the same size as that of MV. grandiflora, there is a
spray with a large bud, very similar to those of Magnolia. At Kudlisot

several fragments of leaves were collected.

Of the thirteen species from Disco three are entirely new, and besides
seven had not previously been recognized as Greenland species.

Atanekerdluk lies on the opposite side of the Waigat, on the peninsula of
Noursoak, and in the same latitude as Kudlisot. This locality has already
afforded the abundant collections which have been brought to Dublin and
London, and to Copenhagen and Stockholm, and which are described in my
‘Flora Fossilis Arctica.’ At this place Mr. Whymper has collected a great
number of plants, in fact the greater portion of his collection. The majority
of the species contained in the slabs were already known, as might have been
expected. The Poplars and Sequoce (S. Langsdorffi, Brgn.) are very abun-
dant, and the twigs and leaves at times cover the entire surface of the stone.
We can recognize the male and female flowers in addition to the cones. The
M‘Clintockias, which are in themselves so remarkable, and the leaves of
oaks and hazelnuts are not rare, and are sometimes very well preserved.

Ihave hitherto recognized sixty species; but as many of the slabs have
not yet been worked out, it is probable that this number will be increased.
One-fourth of these, 7. ¢. fifteen species, are new, or at least new to Green-
land, and of these the following deserve special notice :—

10 REPORT—1869.

1. A Sassafras (Sassafras Ferretianum), closely allied to the North-American
species. This species I had obtained from Menat in France, and it also
occurs at Senegaglia.

2. The fruit of a Nyssa, like a species from Bovey and from Salzhausen.

3. A very perfect leaf of a Snowball (Vibwnum Whymperi, Hr.).

4, Leathery leaves of a plant which probably belongs to the Aralias (Araha
Browniana, Hr.).

5. A new species of Cornus and a new Cratcegqus.

Important though the discovery of these new species is as extending our
knowledge of the Miocene Flora, it is not more so than the additional
information as to known Arctic forms which has been afforded by this expe-
dition, as tending to correct, or rather to confirm their identifications.

Among these we should name a very beautiful Fern (/Zemitellites Torelli’),
which differs widely from all those of the temperate zone; the leaf-part of
a Salisburia, which in its form approaches very closely to the Japanese
species; a perfect leaf of Quercus Lyelliit, Hr.; the leaf of a Vine (Vitis
arctica, Hr.); several fragments of leaves of nut-trees, and of Magnolia
Inglefieldi; and the fruit of Menyanthes, which species I have already
identified by means of the leaves.

On the whole the collection contains sixty-seven species, of which twenty-
two are new to Greenland, and are accordingly additions to our knowledge
of the fossil flora of the Arctic Zone.

To these may be added three specimens of the fauna, two insects and a
bivalve. One of the insects exhibits elytra in very good preservation, and
belongs to the Coleoptera, the other to the Hemiptera. The bivalve is a
freshwater species (Cyclas), and confirms the view that the deposit of Ata-
nekerdluk, which contains so many plants, is a freshwater formation,

Report of a Committee, consisting of Mr. C. W. Merririctp, F.R.S.,
Mr. G. P. Bipprer, Captain Dovetas Garton, F.R.S., Mr, F.
Gatton, F.R.S., Professor Rankine, F.R.S., and Mr. W. Froupe,
appointed to report on the state of existing knowledge on the Sta-
bility, Propulsion, and Sea-going Qualities of Ships, and as to the
application which it may be desirable to make to Her Majesty’s
Government on these subjects. Prepared for the Committee by C.
W. Mernirie.p, F.R.S.

Tue subject referred to us is a very large one, and haying regard both to
the space which a complete report on such a matter would require and to ©

the time at our disposal for making it, we have thought it best to lay before _
the present Meeting a First Report, in which we confine ourselves to the
resistance which ships offer to propulsion, and to their behaviour in respect of —
rolling. These are, in their several directions, the preliminary subjects neces- _
sary to the inquiry committed to us; and they are also the parts of naval —
science on which exact experiment appears to be most urgently needed, both
for the direct knowledge of these branches, and also as a foundation for ex-
periments on propulsion and the other applications which depend upon them. —
Knowledge of the work to be done should precede the selection of the tool —
with which it is to be performed. c

STABILITY, PROPULSION, AND SEA-GOING QUALITIES OF SHIPS. ll

RESISTANCE.
Total Resistance.

The question of resistance may be treated in two ways,—either in gross,
as regarding the power required to drive a vessel of certain form and dimen-
sions at a specified rate; or in detail, as regarding the exact way in which
the vessel and the propeller act and react upon the water which they disturb.
Hitherto there has been but little connexion established between the pheno-
mena of detail and the general result, the former not being understood with
any reasonable degree of certainty, and the latter also being far from settled
with precision.

The variable elements which go to make resistance what it is are chiefly
velocity, form, condition of surface, and absolute dimension. ‘The effect of
form is as varied as the number of forms which can be given to a floating
body. As regards dimension, assuming the forms te be geometrically the
same, it has been found that vessels of different absolute size do not corre-
spond in the degree of resistance which they encounter, whether in smooth
water or in waves. It will also be seen that the absolute length of a ship,
considered irrespectively of breadth or depth, has a direct influence on the
resistance,

As regards velocity, it is usual to assume, in books on hydrodynamics, that
the resistance of water varies as the square of the speed. For the purposes
of naval architecture, this can only be taken to be roughly true under certain
limiting conditions, beyond which the law of the squares deviates widely
from the observed facts. It appears to be probable that this increase, as the
square of the speed, is rather a minimum than a general rule of increase,
and that such a minimum is only attained by ships of good form, and of a
length which is a certain function of the speed. The vague words good form
are used designedly, it being still uncertain what the best form may be, and
what extent of deviation from it takes the vessel out of its operation. When
the vessel is shorter than a certain limit of length depending on the velocity,
the resistance seems to increase more rapidly than the square, and the power
needed to drive the ship consequently increases faster than the cube of the
velocity. .

_ It may save confusion to remark that the measure of resistance is referred
to a unit of distance, while power is referred to a unit of time. For any law
of resistance, therefore, the power yaries as the product of the resistance and
speed, and where the velocity varies we have simply to use the corresponding
integral formula.

As already remarked, the leading formule of the resistance of water are

Rav’, HPARVAOY',

the latter being the strictly necessary consequence of the former. There is
_ but little disagreement among writers up to this point. But the moment we
attempt either to assign values to the constants of the equations which they
imply, or to introduce the corrections depending on the complex phenomena,
which always, more or less, mask the mere question of fluid resistance, we
find very little agreement.

The chief elements of the resistance of water to a body moving through it
are :—

(1) The direct head-resistance due to the work of thrusting the water to
the right and left, with or without vertical motion, in order to make way
for the body to pass.

12 REPORT—1869.

(2) The skin-resistance, or friction of the water on the surface of the mo-
ving body, combined with the effect of surface eddies and other minute phe-
nomena.

(3) The back pressure, due to the diminished pressure in rear of the moving
body and in wake of any corners or unfairness of surface which may cause
eddies.

(4) In addition to these, there are the phenomena of capillarity and of the
viscosity of water. These are of importance as regards minute bodies,
including even small models; but for large ships they are sufficiently ac-
counted for in the arbitrary constant of skin-resistance. This fourth head
may therefore be neglected, except when we wish to pass from ships to
models.

For extreme shapes it does not appear that the three leading elements of
resistance can be grouped under one term; but there is reason to believe
that, for vessels of a certain form, they all involve, with a respectable degree
of approximation, the square of the velocity, and also that the forms for
which this is true are among those which offer, ceteris paribus, the least re-
sistance. Under these circumstances, the formule depending on skin-resis-
tance may be made to include the other two by merely altering the constants.
We conjecture that, when authors state that certain elements of resistance
may practically be neglected, they usually mean that they can be accounted
for in assigning the values to the arbitrary constants, which, in any case,
must be determined from experiment. We have named vessels of a certain
form; this form must be regarded as still unknown, except with reference
to some limitations of a negative character, even these being rather indefinite.
They include a fine entrance, and a fine run, and an absolute length of not
less than the length of the trochoidal wave moving with the same velocity.
The actual determination of the form of least resistance is not only unsolved,
but the data of the problem are yet unknown.

The first formule that occur are the well-known coefficients of steam-ship
performance—

(Speed)* x (displacement)
Indicated horse-power °

(Speed)* x area of midship section
Indicated horse-power ;

As affording a rough measure of comparison, the tabulation of these for-
mule for different ships is extremely convenient. But they are of very little
assistance in settling a theory. Even for the same vessel, tried under appa-
rently similar conditions, these coefficients do not appear to be constant
quantities. Moreover, the varying efficiency of the steam-engine and of the
propeller, considered as machines for the transmission of power, are inse-
parably grouped with the work of overcoming resistance. When the con-
sumption of coal is substituted for the I.H.P., the efficiency of the furnace
and boiler also comes in. Some of these remarks apply to Mr. Hawksley’s
approximate formula,—

Velocity in statute miles = 27 acon eee v
wetted surface in 1’

but this was only intended for rough purposes.

We may here mention a formula given by Mr. Greene, in a paper read at
the Franklin Institute of New York, and reprinted in the ‘ Mechanics’ Maga-
azine’ for 8th July, 1864. It proceeds on the assumption that the power

STABILITY, PROPULSION, AND SEA-GOING QUALITIES OF SHIPS. 13

expended in overcoming back pressure and friction in the engine varies
directly as the speed—

H.P.=Di V (1552 + 0046846 V’),

the constants being obtained empirically.

Most modern formule for resistance take account of the form of the vessel,
in such a manner as to require the use of the drawings of the exterior sur-
face of the ship. The Swede, Chapman, in his well-known treatise on ship-
building, assumes that the surface of the vessel may be divided into small
portions, the resistance of each of which will be proportional to the projection
of its area, to the sine squared of the inclination, and to the square of the
velocity ; with a certain small correction on account of the currents which
are set up by the ship’s own motion, and which modify the pressures. But
he himself saw reason from subsequent experiments to doubt whether the
law of the sine squared, or even that of the velocity squared, was applicable
to the forms which he used.

Euler* and most of the older writers use the sine squared of the incli-
nation as the factor representing the effect of obliquity; and this theory has
been revived by Mr. Hawksley in a discussion at the Institution of Civil En-
gineers, reported in their ‘ Proceedings’ for 1856, vol. xvi. p. 356. But we
think that there is now ample experimental ground for believing that, whether
or not this law be true with respect to an infinitesimal portion of a plane re-
ceiving the impact of a thin jet of water, it is not true either of plane sur-
faces of considerable extent, or, as a differential formula, of curved surfaces.
It evidently fails to take account of the effect of the stream which is set up along
the surface in deflecting the impact of water on the part of the surface further
back from the entrance. The assumption that this has no effect is not one
which can be admitted without proof; and the experimental evidence tends
the other way. Chapman’s later experiments, the experiments of the French
Academy, and those of Col. Beaufoyt are all against the hypothesis of the
sine squared of the inclination. The supposition that the sine squared of the
inclination represents the effect of the obliquity of the afterbody is still
more open to doubt than when it is applied to the forebody.

As a contribution to the history of the subject, the following translation
from a tract of M. Dupuy de Lome will be interesting :—

*“Romme, in his Memoir for the Academy of Sciences, in 1784, while
giving an account of the experiments made by him at Rochefort on models
of ships, one of which represented a 74, and, again, in his work on the ¢ Art
de la Marine,’ had very succinctly laid down that this resistance was inde-
pendent of form. ‘ Provided,’ he went on to say, ‘the water-lines have a
regular, fair curvature, as is the case in modern vessels, the greater or less
fullness of the bow or stern neither increases nor diminishes the resistance
of the water to their progress.’ i

“Tn direct contradiction to this too summary rule, which has long ob-
structed the progress of naval architecture, my experience leads to five prin-
ciples, which I state as follows :—

«Jo, Among vessels of similar geometrical form, of different size, but all
haying their immersed surface exceedingly smooth, and driven at the same

* See his ‘Scientia Navalis’ (St. Petersburgh, 1719), vol. i. p. 213. See also D’'Alem-
bert, ‘Traité de I Equilibre et du Mouvement des Fluides,’ ed. of 1770, p. 226.

t See Chapman (by Inman), p. 257; Bossut, ‘ Hydrodynamique,’ vol. ii. p. 396; Beau-
foy, p. Ixxxvii. See also Scott Russell’s ‘ Naval Architecture,’ p. 168; or Proceedings of
Civil Engineers, vol. xxiii. p. 346, as to the French experiments.

14 REPORT—1869.

speed, the pressure needed to attain this speed increases more slowly than
the surface of the greatest transverse section. It is near the truth to say
that, for similar forms, the resistance per square metre of midship section, at
the same speed, decreases as the vessel increases, in the ratio of the square
roots of the radii of curvature of its lines, these radii being themselves pro-
portional to the linear dimensions of the ships; it is therefore wrong to
compare the resistance of different ships by means of experiments made on
models to reduced scales*.

«20, If the same vessel be driven at different speeds, the force needed to
obtain these velocities increases less rapidly than the square of the speed,
while that is small. The force increases as the square for ordinary rates of
3 to 5 metres per second, according to the condition of the surface in respect
of smoothness. Beyond that speed it increases faster than the square f.

«3°, The diminution of the angle of entrance, and the lengthening of the
radius of curvature of the lines which the water has to follow, especially in
the replacement in wake of the stern by the water coming up from below, are
the principal means of diminishing the resistance. This has the greater in-
fluence the greater the driving-power. For very slow motion, the influence
of form is less than that of surface friction.

«40, The sharpness of the bow, both above and below the water-line,
which has in calm water the effect just mentioned, has more marked adyvan-
tages in a heavy sea-way.

«5°, The smoothness of the wetted surface plays a considerable part in
the resistance ; and this part, due to friction, varies but little with the speed.

“‘T add that the resistance of the hull increases markedly in narrow chan-
nels, and still more where the depth of water does not much exceed the
draught of the ship; so that experiments ought to be made in deep water.

* Finally, my numerous observations on the resistance of ships, in calm
weather and open sea, agree, with a close approach to exactness, with the
following formula, which I have since adopted as the measure of the resis-
tance :—

R=KS (V?+0:145 V*)+ KS tv V.

“Tn this formula, I call—

S, the area of midship section in square inches.

S', the product of the mean girth (wetted), into the extreme length,
also in square metres.

V, the speed in metres per second.

K, a coefficient varying with the form, diminishing inversely as the
square root of the radii of the curvature of the longitudinal sections, and
also diminishing with the mean angle of entrance. This second reduc-
tion amounts to about 15 per cent., as the mean angle of entrance comes
down from 45° to 15°. It is therefore about 4 per cent. for each degree
between those limits.

K’, a coefficient independent of the form, and varying only with the
smoothness of the wet skin. This coefficient may increase in the ratio
of 1 to 10, from 0:3 for bottoms very smoothly covered with good copper,

* M. Réech, Director of the Ecole d’Application du Génie Maritime, has long since
pointed out in his lectures the error frequently made of comparing the resistance of vessels
of various forms by means of experiments upon models driven at the speed proper to the
vessels themselves.— ote by the French author.

t I am here speaking of vessels only partially immersed, not of vessels which are en-
tirely under water.—Note-by the French author.

STABILITY, PROPULSION, AND SEA-GOING QUALITIES OF SHIPS. 15

and the heads of the nails well beaten down, to 3-0 for hulls covered
with weed and barnacles.

Ris the resistance expressed in kilogrammes, and corresponding to
the speed V.

“For each ship experimented upon, two trials are sufficient to determine
K and K'.
“ For the ‘ Napoléon,’ while clean, the copper being oxidized, not greased,
T found
K=1:96, K'=0-44,
from which I obtain for the general expression for the resistance to the
passage of the ship through the water,

R=1-968(V?-0-145V")-+ 0-4408' “W/V.

A Table previously given shows that during the trial trip of the ‘ Napoléon’
the values of 8 and 8* were—

S between 99 and 100 square metres.
S* between 1580 and 1610 square metres.

* * * *

«The power needed to obtain this speed is obtained from this calculation
by multiplying the resistance, so calculated, by the velocity.”

The above remarks are translated from a memoir published by M. Dupuy
de Léme on the occasion of his candidature for the French Academy in
1865-66. It is reprinted in M. Flachat’s ‘ Navigation 4 Vapeur Trans-
océanienne,’ vol. i. p. 206.

It may not be out of place to mention, in explanation of M. Dupuy de

_Léme’s remarks about the angle of entrance, that the architects of the Im-

perial Navy avoid the use of the hollow bow. There is at most a slight
concavity at the fore-foot. Hence the angle of entrance has a meaning
which is sometimes lost in modern English practice.

M. Bourgois, in his memoir* on the resistance of water, gives formule
which may be grouped under the general form of

R=BV| K 4K 4K 5

1 2 B 3 BV ?

B® being the area of midship section, S the wet surface, and7 the breadth

extreme. K,,K,, and K, are constants which vary with different classes of
vessels.

The dependence of the resistance of ships upon the theory of waves ap-
pears to have been first insisted upon by Mr. Scott Russell. That gentle-

man seems to have been the first to discover that there was a relation

between the length of the ship and the velocity of advantageous propulsion,

this relation being taken directly from the theories of the solitary and of
the trochoidal waves. We will state his theory of resistance in as few words
as possible.

Scott Russell's Theory of the Form of Least Resistance.

A vessel may be divided longitudinally into three portions, bow, straight
middlebody (if any), and afterbody. The midship section may be of any
shape whatever, the resistance due to it depending on its area and wet

* Published at Paris, by Arthur Bertrand, s.a. See also Sonnet, ‘ Dictionnaire des
Mathématiques Appliquées,’ art. ‘‘ Résistance des Fluides.”

16 REPORT—1869.

girth only. The forebody must have for its level sections curves of sines
(harmonic curves) whose equation may be written as

a y= tier cos 6),
Tv

b being the half breadth of the ship at any level, and 7 the length of the
forebody, which must not be less than the length of the “solitary wave,”
which has the same speed as the ship is intended to have, in order that the
resistance may be the least possible. The afterbody is to have trochoids
for its level lines, their equation being

L
PR +3) sin 6, y=3h(1+ cos 6),
Tv

7 being the length of the afterbody, which is not to be less than that of one
half of the oscillating or trochoidal wave of the same speed as the ship. The
straight middlebody may be of any length whatever, as it will only affect the
resistance by increasing the surface for friction; or, subject to these condi-
tions, the resistance of the ship will be expressed by

(KQ@+K'8) V,

where ® represents the area of midship section, and § the wetted surface.
K and K° are coefficients, the former of which may be roughly stated at 75
of that due to a flat plate drawn flatwise through the water, and the latter
depending upon the condition of the surface. For a pure wedge bow, whose

2
angle is e, Mr. Scott Russell considers that the resistance varies as (se ) ;
—e

e lying between the limits of 12° and 144° ; and where the bow is compounded
of this and of the wave form, he gives, as a rough measure of the resistance,
a formula obtained by compounding this, in such proportion as may properly
represent the geometrical combination of form, with the resistance due to the
wave form.

As far as can be judged by Mr. Scott Russell’s published writings, there
appears to be some unsettled ground in his theory relatively to the shape of
the afterbody. The form of the bow is simply that of one-half the profile

of a solitary wave of translation, laid horizontally instead of vertically. The —

form of the stern is also taken from the form of the wave, which is set up
when a hollow in the surface of water has to be filled up; but it is nowhere
made clear whether this form ought to be given to the level sections, or to
the vertical longitudinal sections, or whether some compromise should be made
between the two; and it seems probable that the author himself was doubt-
ful on the subject. The experiments recently made under the direction of the

Committee of the British Association appointed to make experiments on the ©

difference between the resistance of water to floating and immersed bodies
(Report for 1866, p. 148) seem to indicate that that doubt is still unsettled.
Without hazarding an opinion as to whether this form is really that of
least resistance, it appears certain that the curves used are among those
along which fluid particles can glide smoothly, without causing supernume-
- rary diverging waves in the liquid.
The general formula for the length of a ship given by this theory is :—

Forebody in feet=~™ V? in feet per second;
J)

Afterbody = 3" V’ in feet per second,

behchdl iepincemeedl ata San

bP iy

STABILITY, PROPULSION, AND SEA-GOING QUALITIES OF SHIPS. lf

The following are the values of the factor and its logarithm, which give
the length of the forebody in feet, when the velocity is given in—

Feet, per second. ...... 0°19518 log = 9-29045,
Knots, per hour........ 0:5561 log = 9-74515.
Statute miles, per hour .. 0°41985 log = 9°62310.

Professor Rankine states, as the result of his own observation, that it is
possible to shorten the bow to two-thirds of the length given by this formula,
without materially increasing the resistance, but that it is very disadvanta-
geous to shorten the afterbody.

In the ‘ Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. xxiii. (for
1864), p. 321, is a paper by Mr. G. H. Phipps, on the “ Resistance of Bodies
passing through the Water.” Mr. Phipps considers that the total resistance
may be subdivided as follows, into additive parts :—

Head-resistance—varying directly as the midship section, and inversely
as the square of the projection ratio of the bow.

Stern-resistance—a similar function for the stern.

Friction-resistance—varying directly as the surface immersed.

Additional Head-resistance—an empirical correction assumed to be a
function of the draught of water.

The sum of these resistances is then multiplied by the square of the yelo-
city.

The paper was followed by a discussion in which most of the leading
English writers on fluid resistance took part. The paper and discussion
thus constitute a very fair réswmé of the opinions then held on the subject in
this country.

Mr. Phipps considers that the coefficient of friction of water on the outer
surface of a vessel is less than on the inner surface of a pipe; and this is, to
a certain extent, in accordance with the experiments of Darcy on the friction
of water in pipes, which led to the conclusion that the coefficient of friction
consists of two terms—one constant, and the other varying inversely as the
diameter of the pipe.

Mr. John I. Thornycroft, C.E., in a paper read before the Institution of
_ Nayal Architects this year, and which will appear in their forthcoming volume
of ‘Transactions, gives the following formula, the form of which is derived
from experiments on the flow of water in pipes :—

= fava 28

_ where S = the wetted surface, a = the velocity in knots, 7 = the length,
h, f, n, C are constants empirically determined :
log h=3-65450,
log f =2°10170,
log C=2-20041,
n =380,
g¢S=/ (sin 0)? ds,
ds representing an elementary portion of the surface, 8, and @ the angle
which this portion of the surface makes with the line of motion. It will be
noticed that the formula involves a large number of constants, more or less

arbitrarily determined.
Professor Rankine, in a paper in the ‘Transactions of the Institution of
1869, c

I. H. P.=Vh {ites

18 REPORT—1869.

Naval Architects’ for 1864 (the substance of which is repeated in a treatise
on ‘Shipbuilding: Theoretical and Practical’), states that the processes
amongst the particles of water through which resistance to the ship’s motion
may be caused indirectly may be thus enumerated :—

1. The distortion of the particles of water.
2. The production of currents.

3. The production of waves.

4, The production of frictional eddies.

The first cause he regards as haying no appreciable effect on actual ships,
although possibly sensible in small models. Of the second cause (the pro-
duction of currents), Professor Rankine remarks that it ‘never acts upon a
well-designed ship; for such a ship is so formed that the particles of water
glide over her surface throughout its whole length, and are left behind her
with no more motion than such as is unavoidably impressed upon them
through adhesion and stiffuess ; and hence the failure of the earlier theories
of the resistance of ships, which were founded on experiments made with
flat plates, wedges, and blocks of unfair shapes.”

Mr. Rankine then gives a detailed account of the waves which accompany
a vessel driven at a speed greater than the limit to which she is properly
adapted, showing that they diverge from the course of the vessel at an angle
depending on the proportion in which their speed of advance is less than her
speed, and thus carry off energy, which is lost; .and he proceeds to state:
«‘The conclusion to be drawn from these principles is, that for each vessel
there is a certain limit of speed, below which the resistance due to the pro-
duction of waves is insensible; and that as soon as that limit is exceeded,
that resistance begins to act, and increases at a very rapid rate with the ex-
cess of speed..... Through the discoveries of Mr. Scott Russell, a vessel can
be designed in which this kind of resistance shall be insensible up to a given
limit of speed; and therefore the resistance due to waves has no sensible
action on a well-formed ship.” These remarks of course apply only to
waves formed by the ship, and not to sea-waves which she may have to
encounter, A “s

«The resistance due to frictional eddies thus remains alone to be considered.
That resistance is a combination of the direct and indirect effects of the ad-
hesion between the skin of the ship and the particles of water which glide
over it; which adhesion, together with the stiffness of the water, occasions
the production of a vast number of small whirls or eddies in the layer of
water immediately adjoining the ship’s surface.” Instead of assuming that
the frictional resistance is simply proportional to the actual immersed surface,
Mr. Rankine uses what he calls the augmented surface, which is obtained by
multiplying each infinitesimal element of the surface by the cube of the ratio _
which the velocity of gliding of the water over that portion bears to the speed
of the ship, and summing them. Lets be the actual surface, and q the velo-
city-ratio of gliding; then the augmented surface is fq* ds; and if, further,

V be the speed, g gravity, w the heaviness of water, and f the coefficient of —
friction, then

Eddy-resistance = V* ts ¢ ds.
I,

Taking the cubic foot as the unit, 5; does not differ much from unity for

sea-water, and the formula thus reduces.to V? f fq ds.
It is, of course, impossible to ealculate fq’ ds in detail for every ship; and

STABILITY, PROPULSION, AND SEA-GOING QUALITIES OF SHIPS. 19

it therefore becomes necessary to find some auxiliary formula. In the
‘ Philosophical Transactions’ for 1863, pp 134-37, Mr. Rankine has shown that
the augmented surface of a trochoidal ribbon on a given base and of given
breadth may be found by multiplying their product by the following coefti-
cient of augmentation :—

1+4 (sin ¢)’+(sin ¢)*,

in which ¢ is the angle which the inflexional tangent makes with the base.
For a ship in which the stream-lines or tracks of the particles of water are
trochoids, it would be a sufficient approximation to integrate,

length x 3 breadth x {1 +4 (sin 9)’+ (sin ¢)*}

with regard to the draught of water, considering both the angle ¢ and the
half-breadths as variable elements to be determined from the drawings.
Where the stream-lines are not trochoids, ¢ may be taken as the angle of
greatest obliquity. But the theory has been only partially extended to three
dimensions ; and indeed if it were possible to do so, the mere introduction
of a third variable would not meet the case, unless account were taken of
the vertical displacement of the surface of the water consequent upon the
uniformity of pressure at that surface.

The resistance determined by the calculation of the augmented surface
includes in one quantity both the direct adhesive action of the water on the
ship’s skin, and the indirect action through increase of the pressure at the
bow and diminution of the pressure at the stern.

For the coefficient of friction, Professor Rankine takes f=0-0036 for sur-
faces of clean painted iron. This is the constant part of the expression
deduced by Professor Weisbach from experiments on the flow of water in pipes.
The corresponding coefficient deduced from Darcy’s experiments is 0-004.

The augmented surface in square feet, multiplied by the cube of the speed
in knots, and divided by the I. H. P., gives Rankine’s coefficient of propulsion*.
In good clean iron vessels this ranges about 20,000; while in H.M. Yacht
‘Victoria and Albert’ (copper sheathed) it reached 21,800. Its falling
much below 20,000 is considered to indicate that there is some fault either
in the ship or in her engines or propeller, or else that the vessel is driven
_ at a speed for which she is not adapted. :

Professor Rankine adds that “as for misshapen and ill-proportioned ves-
sels, there does not exist any theory capable of giving their resistance by
previous computation.” ;

This, again, raises the question, What are good forms? According to Pro-
fessor Rankine’s theory, they are forms along which a particle of water can
glide smoothly. Among these, as a particular case, Mr. Scott Russell’s wave-
lines appear to be included. But these are by no means the only ones which
satisfy the problem of smooth gliding, or of stream-lines. Another method
of constructing curves fulfilling this condition has been given by Mr. Rankine
in a series of papers published respectively in the ‘ Philosophical Transac-
tions’ for 1863, p. 369, and in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for October
1864, and January 1865. Elementary descriptions of this method are given
in the ‘Engineer’ of the 16th of October 1868, and in a treatise on ‘ Ship-
building: Theoretical and Practical.’ Their theory has not yet been carried
very far; and when we have reference to three dimensions, it does not appear

* For examples of that coefficient, see the ‘Civil Engineer and Architects’ Journal’ for
October 1860, and the “ Report of the Committee of the British Association on Steamship
Performances,” 1868.

20 REPORT—1869.

that any specific mathematical form is to be preferred in respect of its total
resistance to a long, fine, fair ship, either drawn or modelled by eye by a
practised draughtsman or modeller.

A possible connexion between the resistance of ships and their depths of
immersion has been pointed out by Mr. Rankine in some papers published in
the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society’ for 1868, p. 344, in the ‘ Reports of
the British Association’ for 1868, in the ‘ Transactions of the Institution of
Naval Architects’ for 1868, and in the ‘Engineer’ of the 28th August and
30th October, 1868. He shows from theory, corroborated by his own obser-
vations, and by those of Mr. John Inglis, junior, that every ship is accompa-
nied by waves, whose velocity of advance is V qk, g being gravity, and &
the mean depth of immersion, found by dividing the displacement by the area
of water-section. So long as the speed does not exceed V gk, these waves
cannot produce any additional resistance; but when the speed exceeds
that limit, the waves are made to diverge from the ship at the angle whose
need and thus to carry away energy, like the other diverging

pee

cosine is

waves previously mentioned.

The form of the midship section does not appear to exercise any influence
on the resistance to propulsion in still water, except so far as it affects the
extent of wetted surface exposed to the action of the water. If the wet
girth and the breadth at the water-line be given, the form of greatest area
will be a segment of a circle; but this will not be the solution of the ques-
tion which usually presents itself, namely, given the breadth and the draught
required, the form for which the ratio of area to surface shall be the greatest
possible. In the particular case in which the draught is half the breadth, it
is easily seen that the ratio of area to girth is the same for a semicircular as
for a rectangular section, and therefore that the solution les between these
extreme cases. It does not appear that the general problem has yet been
solved, and perhaps, as the really practical problem relates to the ship and
not to the midship section, it is of secondary interest. A restricted solution
has been given by Mr. James Robert Napier in a paper read before the Glas-
gow Philosophical Society, and reprinted in the ‘ Mechanics’ Magazine’ for
24th April, 1863, vol. ix. p. 311, and in the ‘ Engineer’ for Ist May, 1863,
vol. xy. p. 245.

The best ratio for good propulsion of length to breadth and draught, even
when it is assumed that the length exceeds Scott Russell’s limit, is not yet
known. This is not perhaps of practical importance, inasmuch as considera-
tions of economy, capacity, and handiness generally settle these proportions,
without much reference to a theoretical maximum of efficient propulsion.
But the extent to which an increase of breadth or depth, leaving other things
unaltered, affects the propulsion itself can hardly be regarded as within our
settled knowledge.

The resistance of the air to a ship’s hull is not a point to be neglected in
practice or in experiment; but it is not one which we propose to discuss
here.

The above contains an abstract of nearly all that is known concerning the
TOTAL RESISTANCE of a ship in smooth and deep water. We do not consider
it necessary in this Report to enter into the question of the increased resist-
ances due to shallow water, narrow channels, or a rough sea. We may sum
up the result in the broad statement that there exists no generally recognized
theory or rule for calculating the resistance of a ship. Many such rules

STABILITY, PROPULSION, AND SEA-GOING QUALITIES OF SHIPS. all

have been put forth; but they do not agree in their form or in their result,
and the credit of each consequently rests, as a practical matter, on the repu-
tation of its author.

Resistance considered in Detail.

It cannot be said that our knowledge of the detailed phenomena which
accompany the motion of a floating body through the water extends far
below the surface of the liquid. Meanwhile the following things appear to
be known.

For any vessel driven through the water by any power which does not re-
act on the fluid there must be a certain movement of the surrounding liquid,
chiefly in the direction of the yessel’s motion, which shall be sufficient to
absorb the work done by the propelling force ; for this is really nothing else
than the work done by the power in overcoming the resistance. Much of
this is masked by oscillatory movement. Now the setting up of an oscillation
inyolyes an expenditure of work; but the maintenance of the oscillation,
once established, is independent of the force which caused it, to just the
same extent that it takes work to set a pendulum swinging, but once set
going, the continuance does not depend on the starting force. It follows
that making a wave takes up propelling work; but that a waye once started
maintains itself, or dies out, as the case may be, independently of the pro-
peller, which it can only affect by getting in its way.

In a yessel of good form thrust through a fluid, we first meet with a head-
pressure which relieves itself by the formation of a head swell, which dis-
perses itself all round if time be allowed for it, either by the sharpness of
the vessel’s entrance, or by a slow rate of advance. This fixes a limit of
speed, which cannot be advantageously exceeded, dependent on the length of
entrance as well as on its form,—on the length alone if the form fulfil cer-
tain conditions. If the vessel be pushed beyond the speed of dispersion of
this wave, it has to be pushed up hill at a loss of useful work.

The frictional resistance of the surface of the ship also carries a stream of
water in the direction of the ship’s motion. In fact, nearly the whole work
of friction is expended on producing this stream, which forms a part of the
ship’s wake.

The necesssity of filling up the vacuum which would otherwise be left in
rear of the ship also produces a following stream, accompanied with waves.

In vessels driven at a speed beyond what is suited to their form and dimen-
sions, there are also supernumerary waves, an account of which will be found
in Professor Rankine’s writings already referred to.

_ In vessels of unfair form there will further be violent eddies or whirlpools,
as well as extra waves. Seeing that it takes an expenditure of work to make
these, it is clear that least resistance means least disturbance. In reality
very little is known about these eddies. Their surface-action has been
observed, and may easily be seen in dirty water, with froth especially ; but

_ their extent in depth, and their amplitude as the depth increases, are utterly

_ unknown; and the other phenomena are not sufficiently well understood to

admit of the effect of these being got at by exhaustion, that is to say, by
being equated to the unexplained residue from the effects of the other known

causes. Very little, again, is known about the direction in which the replace-~
- ment aft takes place. The water may of course pour in either laterally or

from behind, or it may well up from underneath as a wave. More or less,
it probably does all three, and the proportion in which it does each is among”
the things which neither experiment nor theory has as yet revealed.

22 REPORT—1 869.

Theoretically it is of no importance whether we consider the ship in mo-
tion and the water at rest, or the ship at rest and the water in motion in an
opposite direction. Practically the conditions are modified by the consider-
ation that a stream of water almost always has a sloping surface, in which
case a resolved part of gravity is one of the active forces*. Besides this,
streams useful for experiment are restricted in depth and width, and the
conditions of narrow and shallow channels introduce foreign considerations
of a very complicated character.

Propulsion.

We do not consider it advisable in the present Report to enter into the
question of propellers, except so far as may be necessary to the choice of ex-
periments.

All propellers, except sails, tow-ropes, and punt-poles, do their work by
the reaction arising from their driving a stream of water in the opposite
direction to the ship’s motion, or to their stopping or reversing streams already
flowing in that direction. This is the case with oars, paddle-wheels, screws,
and water-jets alike. But while they thus have one principal action in com-
mon, they are wholly different in their detailed effect upon the currents and
waves which accompany the ship, and in the way in which these currents
and waves react upon them. ‘Thus the oars of a row-boat send two streams
aft, at such a distance from the sides of the boat as to interfere very little
with, and to be very little interfered with by, the waves and eddies due to
the boat’s motion. In the screw-propeller, on the other hand, a large pro-
portion of the wake current is either stopped or reversed by the action of the
screw, which also interferes with, and is it itself reacted upon by, the wave
of replacement. These interferences are so large in amount as not unfre-
quently to mask the whole of the slip, from the reaction of which the pro-
pulsion is obtained, giving rise to the phenomenon of apparent negative slip.
For a theoretical account of what is supposed to take place under these cir-
cumstances, we refer to the following Papers in the ‘ Transactions of the In-
stitution of Naval Architects,’ and the discussions which took place upon
them :—

Rankine, “ On the Mechanical Principles of the Action of Propellers.”

Froude, ‘“ Note on the above Paper,” vol. vi. for 1865, p. 13 et seq.

Reed, ‘‘On Cases of Apparent Negative Slip,” vol. vii. for 1866, p. 114
ét seq.

Ranting “On Apparent Negative Slip.”

Froude, On the same.

Rigg, “On the Relations of the Screw to its Reverse Currents,” vol. viii.
for 1867, p. 68 et seq.

Rigg, “On the Reverse Currents and Slip of Screw-propellers,” vol. ix. for
1868, p. 184.

See also Bourne, ‘On the Screw-propeller,’ second edition, chap. iii., and
Rankine, ‘Shipbuilding: Theoretical and Practical, pp. 88, 89, 247, and
259.

We consider it to be beyond doubt that the theoretical investigations of
this part of the subject have beén extended in advance of the point at which
fresh experimental foundations ought to be laid for them.

* This remark is due to Bourgois. See his Memoir, swp. cit. p. 3.

STABILITY, PROPULSION, AND SEA-GOING QUALITIES OF SHIPS, 23

Former Experiments on Resistance.

The first important experiments were those made by Bossut, Condorcet,
and D’Alembert, by direction of Turgot. The results were published as a
separate work in 1777, and a very full abstract of them is given by Bossut
in his ‘Hydrodynamique.’ The chief results are summarized by Bossut as
follows :—

That the resistance of the same body at different speeds, whatever be
its shape, varies very nearly as the square of the speed.

That the direct head-resistance of a plane surface is sensibly propor-
tional, at the same speed, to the area of the surface.

That the measure of the direct resistance of a plane surface is the
weight of a fluid column which has that surface for its base, and whose
height is that due to the velocity.

That the resistance to oblique motion, other things being alike, does
not diminish by a law at all approaching that of the squares of the sines
of angles of incidence ; so that for sharp entrances, at least, the former
theory must be completely abandoned.

Mr. Scott Russell has remarked that between certain limits the observed
resistances of wedge-bows could be represented with a close degree of ap-
proximation by a formula of the form

2
Re Bit 270 oy
pa

where K is a constant, ~ stands for 180°, and e is the angle of the wedge,
which is supposed to be of not less than 12°, and not more than 144°. See
his ‘ Nayal Architecture,’ p. 168, and ‘ Transactions of Civil Engineers,’ vol.
Xxiil. p. 346.

The next experiments of importance are those of De Chapman, published
in his ‘ Architectura Navalis Mercatoria.’ The result of these has already
been mentioned. He performed some fresh experiments at Carlscrona, in
1795, which seemed to lead to somewhat different conclusions. See Inman’s
translation of De Chapman, pp. 41 and 257.

We then come to Beaufoy’s experiments in the Greenland Dock from
1794-98. This enormous series of experiments can only be regarded as
establishing very few facts, among which we may mention :—

That the resistance to oblique surfaces does not vary as the sine

- squared of the angle of incidence.

That for unfair bodies, such as he experimented upon, the resistance
increases faster than the square of the velocity.
That increase of length, within certain limits, has a tendency to de-
crease resistance.
That friction of the wetted surface enters largely into the resistance.
That friction of the wetted surface appeared to increase in a ratio
somewhat less than that of the velocity squared,—between v*” and uv".
He also arrives at the conclusion that bodies immersed to a depth of
- 6 feet experience less resistance than at the surface; but in the case of an
iron plane towed flatwise, he found that resistance increased with the
_ depression.

The whole of these experiments lose much of their value from having
been tried on small models, and on bodies which are not ship-shape.

_ The ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ for 1828 contain an account of experi-
ments performed by Mr. James Walker in the East-India Import Dock. A

24 REPORT—1869.

bluff-bowed boat was towed across the dock by a rope and winch, worked
by labourers, the rope being fast to a spring weighing-machine on board the
boat. The boats tried were of somewhat bluff form, and it was found that
the resistance varied only roughly as the velocity squared, increasing faster
than that at high speeds. The drawings of the boats are not given with all
the detail that could be desired, nor is the condition of their surface minutely
described ; but the experiment was in the right direction, being upon
actual boats meant for use, and of a size far exceeding the models of pre-
vious experimenters.

Some experiments by Mr. Colthurst, both on the forms of floating bodies
as affecting their resistance to motion, and on the friction of wetted sur-
faces, are given at p. 339 of vol. xxii. of the ‘ Civil Engineers’ Trans-
actions,’

We also refer to the Report of the Committee appointed by the British
Association upon the comparative resistance of bodies wholly and partially
immersed (B. A. Reports, vol. for 1866, p. 148). The Committee decided to
print the observed facts without any deductions. It is not necessary to the
purposes of this Report that we should discuss them. We have already
alluded to the difficulty which they indicate as being felt with respect to
the way in which the water of replacement flows in at the stern.

We will next refer to the experiments of Captain Bourgois, which were
begun at Indret, in 1844. He first had several boats from 22 to 25 feet
long towed by the ‘ Pelican’ steamer, then under his orders, and later a
small merchant schooner of a little over 60 feet long, and afterwards the
‘ Fabert,’ a brig 98 feet long. These vessels were simply towed, and their
actual resistances measured with a traction-dynamometer. Similar experi-
ments have also been tried in France with the screw-steamer ‘ Sphinx,’ 109
feet long; with the screw despatch-boat ‘Marceau,’ 131 feet long (with its
screw upon deck), and with the 74-gun ship ‘ Duperré,’ 180 feet long, built
by Sané. Probably nothing could be better than the experiments thus made,
and it is from these that M. Bourgois has derived the coefficients of the
formule which he has given. But, unfortunately, the particulars of the
ships experimented upon are not given in great detail, nor are their draw-
ings published. The only particulars given are the length and breadth on
the water-line, the draught, and the area of midship-section immersed, but
without wet surface, or even displacement.

M. Bourgois’s memoir has no date; but it is evidently later than 1853,
since he mentions that as the date of the experiment. It also contains some
results of trials of propellers set to work against a dynamometer with the
vessel made fast, and some trials depending upon the measurement of the
power exerted by the engine. But we donot propose to discuss the trials on
steam-ship performance. Not only is this the work of another Committee,
but, inasmuch as they introduce the uncertain effects of the engine and
propeller, they fail to give any accurate account of the resistance of the
water.

In the earlier history of the subject, it was supposed that models would
most aptly represent ships at the same speed both for the ship and the
model. The experiments at the East-India Import Dock in 1827 and 1828
seem to show a dissatisfaction with the results of small models; and some time
later, M. Réech, the Director of the Ecole d’Application du Génie Maritime
in France, pointed out that models of different sizes intended for comparison
should be made to move at velocities varying as the square roots of their
lineal dimensions. In this case the actual resistances would vary as the —

STABILITY, PROPULSION, AND SEA-GOING QUALITIES OF SHIPS. 25

cube of the lineal dimensions. This would follow from the theory of the
resistance of submerged bodies, on the supposition that the resistance varies
as the square of the speed. If, again, we consider Mr. Scott Russell’s theory
of the length of ships (that their extreme speed should not exceed that of
an oscillating wave, bearing a definite ratio of length to that of the ship), we
arrive at the same conclusion, the length of the wave varying as the velocity
squared.

Proposed Experiments.

The experiments upon resistance which we consider most important to be
made are these :—

That a ship of considerable size and fine form should be carefully selected ;
a screw steam-ship, with a screw capable of being lifted, with a clear deck,
offering no unnecessary resistance to the air, and with little or no rigging.

That her form should be carefully measured in dock (her lines taken off,
as it is technically called), and sight-marks carefully laid down, so as to
ascertain whether she deforms in any way when afloat.

That she should be towed at various speeds, from the slowest that can be
rated to the fastest that can be obtained ; and that the resistance should be
ascertained by a traction-dynamometer, self-recording.

That the place selected for the experiments should be a deep inland water,
free from ground-swell, and such that the speed of the ship can be observed
from the land as well as from the vessel. The water also should be clear
enough to admit of being seen through to a considerable depth. The place,
if tidal at all, should be free from cross tides or irregular currents. These
conditions, it is believed, may be found both in Norway and on the west
coast of Scotland.

Careful observations should also be made with a view to ascertain the
direction and velocity of the local currents caused by the ship’s motion.
What these should be will demand careful consideration, having regard both
to the ship and to the place selected, and to the personnel of the observers.

The same remarks will apply to the precautions necessary to prevent
interference by the currents thrown back by the towing-vessel or vessels,
and to eliminate other sources of error. It is of especial importance that the
ship which is being towed should be kept clear of the wake of the towing-
vessel or vessels. It might be necessary for this purpose to have two tug-
boats with hawsers meeting at an angle in the form of the letter Y.

It is desirable that these experiments should be performed with at least
two vessels considerably differing both in size and proportions, and, for each
of them, with different condition as regards smoothness of surface.

A third class of experiments should also be made to determine the rate of
retardation of a vessel which has been made to attain a certain velocity, and
then (the propelling-power suddenly ceasing to act upon her) is allowed to
come gradually to rest through the resistance of the water.

It would be desirable that the same vessels (and as nearly as possible
under similar conditions of draught and trim) should be made use of for
trials of propulsion, and that in these, again, a dynamometer should be
interposed between the engine and the propeller; and in this case also the
local currents and waves due to the joint disturbance of ship and propeller
should be observed.

We consider that experiments of the kinds which we have proposed have
now become necessary, not only to the theory of resistance, but also to the
practical calculations of the effect of steering- and propelling-apparatus, and

26 REPORT—1869.

incidentally to the design of these and to the apportionment of engine-
power and driving-speed.

Such experiments are quite beyond the means of any body but the Govern-
ment of a naval power in time of peace, possessing ships which must be
exercised with their crews and staff of officers. There would of course be
extra expense attending such trials ; but this expense is in no way commensu-
rate with that of building experimental vessels, or arriving tentatively at
the suitable forms and positions for propellers.

We therefore recommend that the Council of the British Association
should authorize a deputation to apply to the Admiralty to provide for such
a set of experiments in the course of the summer of 1870; also, that the
Council should appoint a Committee, consisting of three Members of the
Association, to confer with officers of the Admiralty respecting the detail of
the experiments, and that the Admiralty should be requested to give an
opportunity to the Members of that Committee of taking a share in the
observations, in order that they may be enabled to make an independent
report upon the results.

ROLLING OF SHIPS.
Stability and Free Oscillation.

The statical stability of a ship in still water depends upon two equations
and an inequality.

Its weight must equal that of the fluid it displaces, or it will adjust itself
by changing its water-line. This involves a first equation.

The centre of gravity of the displaced water must be in the same vertical
line with the centre of weights, or there will be a couple which will produce
rotation ; after which the ship will take up a fresh position. This involves
a second equation.

In case of a small angular displacement, the centre of gravity of the
displaced water (or CENTRE OF BUOYANCY) must move out faster than the
centre of weights; otherwise, on the slightest derangement, there will be
an upsetting couple, that is to say, the equilibrium is unstable. This in-
volves an inequality.

The arm of the couple is the horizontal distance between the centres of
weight and buoyancy. The moment of the couple is the product of this
into the weight, or, what is the same thing, the displacement of the ship.
Tf the centre of buoyancy moves out faster than the centre of weight as the
ship heels, there is a righting couple; if not, there is an upsetting couple,
which tends to bring the ship to some new position of equilibrium.

If we consider a vessel having a plane of symmetry like that in which
the masts, stern, stern-post, and keel of ordinary ships he, and rolling trans-
versely, we gain much in geometrical simplicity, and also in simplicity of
language. We are enabled to deal with the mechanical questions by means
of plane geometry, and we are still able to extend them, when necessary, by
the ordinary rules of the composition of motion. For this purpose we have
only to consider the axis of motion as parallel to the plane of symmetry and
to the water-section. The statical stability, as already remarked, is measured
by the weight, and by the horizontal distance between the centres of weight
and buoyancy. But when these coincide in horizontal position, as they do
when there is equilibrium, we are driven to some other measure in order to
avoid indeterminateness at the limit. For this purpose we avail ourselves
of the point at which the vertical line through the centre of buoyancy strikes

STABILITY, PROPULSION, AND SEA-GOING QUALITIES OF SHIPS. 27

the plane of symmetry, or middle-line plane, as it is technically called. The
limiting position of this intersection, when the angular deviation is indefi-
nitely small, is called the meracentre. This metacentre is the critical
point below which, if the centre of weight be kept, there will be stable
equilibrium.

It is shown in books on hydrostatics that if a floating body receive a small
inclination, the two water-sections intersect in a line passing through the
centre of gravity of each, and also that the line passing through two suc-
cessive centres of buoyancy tends to parallelism with the water-section. It
follows that the stability of a ship, statically considered, may be measured
by the statical stability of a solid, whose centre of gravity coincides with
that of the ship, but whose surface, instead of floating in water, rests on a
horizontal table. This representative surface is the surface formed by the
centres of buoyancy of the ship at different inclinations. The metacentre
of the ship is then the centre of greatest or of least curvature of this repre-
sentative surface, called the surface of buoyancy, according to whether we
consider transverse rolling or longitudinal pitching.

When we pass from statics to dynamics, the righting or upsetting force
simply represents an acceleration. But if the ship be considered as concen-
trated at its centre of gravity (in disregard of the actual distribution of
weights in respect of inertia), the same geometrical considerations hold, and
the space through which the centre of gravity rises or falls as the surface of
buoyancy rolls is called the measure of dynamical stability*. It is simply
proportional to the integral of the statical stability taken with reference to
the angle of inclination. Its product into the displacement gives the mecha-
nical work required to heel the ship, considered as concentrated at its centre
of gravity, to a given angle. An example of its use is in the solution of the
problem of finding how much a ship would lie over to a sudden gust, strong
enough, if it came on gradually, to heel the ship to a given angle. The
rough solution is that she would lic over to double the angle of the statical
stability ; and this remark is of importance in judging of the safe limits of a
ship’s stability. This solution, it is to be observed, takes no account of the
moment of inertia of the ship about its centre of gravity, and very little
account of external form.

Experiment and theory both go to prove that the time in which a ship per-
forms a complete double oscillation varies but very little, whether the am-
plitude of the oscillation be small or large. Hence every ship has its equi-
valent pendulum. If x be the radius of gyration of the ship, p the distance
_ between the metacentre and the centre of sin ait the length of the equiva-

i?
lent pendulum is a the periodic timet is 2 , and the greatest angular

Jon

velocity is 2 0, where 6 is the amplitude, or departure from the

exer a F sin
vertical ; but the approximation in this last formula is much less than in that
for the time.

Dupin has shown that the free rolling of a ship, regarded without refer-

* The true dynamical stability is the actual work done in heeling ; but the words are
ordinarily used in the sense stated in the text.

The time here used is that of a double oscillation ; ¢.e. the time which elapses be-
tween the bob of the pendulum passing the lowest point twice in the same direction.
There is very often confusion between double and single oscillations, both with analysts
and in the records of experiments.

28 REPORT— 1869.

ence to the disturbance or resistance of the water, is analogous to the free
rolling and sliding, on a smooth plane, of the surface which is the envelope
of its planes of flotation, the centre of gravity, the upward pressure of the
fluid, and the moment of inertia being supposed to remain unaltered. But
although this statement reads simply enough, the expressions for the time
and the period, which result from it, are exceedingly complex. An inyes-
tigation of it, subject to the sole restriction that the transverse section of
the surface enveloping the planes of flotation shall be circular, has been
given by Canon Moseley in the ‘Philosophical Transactions’ for 1850,
p- 626, and is reprinted in his ‘ Engineering and Architecture.’ The result-
ing expression depends upon a hyperelliptic integral. But we are without
evidence as to how far the restriction is fulfilled by ordinary ships; and we
do not find reason for supposing that the variation of the radius of curvature,
which is thus taken as constant, has ever been practically investigated. There
is, however, no difficulty in extending the formula to the general case; but
it does not appear that the integration can be effected without introducing
restrictions. At any rate the value of the integral has not yet been traced,
except for small oscillations, when it reduces to the one previously given.
There is a reduction in some particular cases*, and notably in the case of
isochronous ships. Professor Rankine? has shown that the condition of
isochronism is that the curve of buoyancy should be the second inyolute of a
circle described about the centre of gravity.

It does not appear that the arithmetical consequences of the variation of
the law connecting time and angular velocity in unresisted free rolling have
ever been worked out. It would be a very laborious business ; and we shall
see by-and-by that it is not the chief problem.

* Let & be the radius of gyration, \ the height of the metacentre above the centre of
buoyancy, H, and H, the depths of the centres of gravity and buoyancy—all taken for the
upright position. Also let @ be the inclination and 6, the extreme, and p the height of
the centre of curvature above the actual plane of flotation. Then Canon Moseley’s formula
gives for the periodic time of the double oscillation

V2 : +9 k?+-(H, +)? sin? ‘

g ey {H,—H,+4A (cos 0+ cos @,)+ (cos @—cos 0,)

It will be observed that (H,+p) sin @ is nothing but the horizontal distance between the
centre of gravity of the ship, and that of the plane of flotation ; or, in other words, the
perpendicular from the centre of gravity on the normal to the flotation-envelope. It
seems, at the same time, simpler and more general to use this (which we may call v),
instead of considering the curvature. We thus get for the periodic time

3 (*%4 PEP
g he VS aH (cos 8+cos @,)} {cos 8—cos ab

Now, if v be constant, that is to say, if the flotation-envelope be the involute of a circle
described round the centre of gravity of the ship, this reduces to a complete elliptic inte-
gral of the first kind; but the solution is not mechanical unless y=0, or the flotation-
envelope reduces to a point. When, moreover, the centres of gravity and buoyancy coin-
cide, H, —H, vanishes, and the integral may be at once transformed to its regular expres-
sion by writing sin 6=sin 0, sin ¢. We then get for the periodic time

gnP+y? (7 d¢ :
NAG 0 NV 1—sin? 0, sin?
The time at any moment is got by integrating from —@, to any value of @ instead of to
+6,—C. W.M. .

+t See Trans. I. N. A. vol. v. for 1864, p. 34. See also Froude ‘On Isochronism of
Oscillation in Ships,” Trans. I. N. A. vol. iv. for 1863, p. 211.

b
i
+
:
{
j

STABILITY, PROPULSION, AND SEA-GOING QUALITIES OF SHIPS. 29

Reverting to the approximate formule for small oscillations—

k
periodic time=2 a t, suppose ;
IP

ON Gis.

greatest angular velocity =~“ sin 3 0,

se sin 40,

we see that the periodic time of the oscillation varies directly as the radius
of gyration, and inversely as the square root of the metacentric height. This
teaches us how to regulate the periodic time of a ship, either in settling her
design, or in the distribution of her weights. We see, for instance, that a
vessel with a rising floor and flaring sides tends to quick rolling, by having a
high metacentre ; that a cargo of railway-bars has the same effect, by bring-
ing down the centre of gravity ; and that running-in the guns and sending
down the masts has a similar tendency, by decreasing the radius of gyration.
The expression for the greatest angular velocity has been sometimes inter-
preted as indicating that quick rollers roll through large angles. The fact
appears to be experimentally true, but its inference from this formula involves
reasoning in a circle. The formula only shows that for the same amplitude
the greatest angular velocity varies inversely as the time; but this tells us
nothing about the amplitude, while the formula itself is obtained on the sup-
position that the amplitude is small.

The position of the ship’s centre of gravity and the length of the radius
of gyration cannot, practically, be obtained by calculation. The centre of
gravity is generally found by shifting some known weights through known
distances, and observing the angular motion. The displacement and meta-
centre are of course known by calculation, and the problem is then the same
as if the ship were suspended from her metacentre*. The radius of gyration
is found by observing the time of a small oscillation in still water, and
then eliminating the effect of resistance}.

As the metacentre depends upon the moment of inertia of the plane of
flotation, it is different for pitching from what it is for rolling, and so for
any intermediate positiont. Practically, the metacentre for rolling varies
from 0 to 20 feet (as an extreme limit) above the water-line, while that for
pitching is from 70 to 400 or more feet high. The moment of inertia of the
ship also varies greatly with the direction of the axis about which it is
taken.

Free Rolling in a Resisting Medium.

The experiments of Messrs. Fincham and Rawson, undertaken at the sug-
gestion of Canon Moseley§, led to the conclusion that for vessels of semi-
circular section in which the disturbance of the water is the least possible,

* The method, with an account of some experimental determinations on several of
H.M.’s ships, will be found in the Trans. Nay. Arch. vol. i. p. 39. See also vy. p. 1; vi.
p. 1; vii. p. 205.

+ As to this, see Mr. Rankine’s Note in Trans. I. N. A. vol. y. pp. 31, 32.

{ See Dupin, ‘ Applications de Géométrie.” He shows that the metacentric heights for
rolling and pitching are, in fact, only the two principal radii of curvature of the surface
of centres of buoyancy; and hence the metacentres for intermediate positions may be found
by the help of the ellipse of curvature.

§ See Phil. Trans. for 1850, and Moseley’s ‘Engineering and Architecture,’ pp. 616, 617.

30 REPORT—1869.

the dynamical stability found by experiment differed very little from that
derived from the rise and fall of the centre of gravity; but in the case of
a model of triangular section, the stability found by experiment was in
defect. In the semicircular model the extreme inclination produced by the
sudden application of the force was, with a fair degree of approximation,
double that due to its statical effect. With the triangular model the extreme
was less than double the statical inclination. This is nothing more than
might be expected from the disturbance of the water which would be set up
by the angular model, and which would, of course, take up part of the work.
But this experimental confirmation of theory is highly satisfactory; and,
however we may now look back upon the matter, it is really upon these ex-
periments that the confirmation of our theories rests.

In a resisting medium, the amplitude of the oscillations is yery quickly
affected, but the periodic time undergoes very slight change. But the period
is altered to a slight extent. On this subject we refer, first, to the account
given by Poisson, Stokes, and other writers on mechanics, concerning the
oscillation of a pendulum in air; secondly, to Mr. Froude’s experiments * on
a pendulum oscillating in water; and thirdly, to Professor Rankine’s paper
on keel-resistance +, in which the measure of diminution is given on a certain
hypothesis.

Bessel and Poisson have pointed out that the virtual loss of weight due to

oscillation in a resisting medium is greater than that due to the mere im-
mersion. Mr. Moseley makes the same remark with reference to the rolling
of ships.
» Professor Rankine has investigated the effect of the steadying-action of a
keel on the rolling in smooth water, on the assumption that the moment of
the righting couple is simply proportional to the inclination, and also that
the moment of resistanee to rolling, caused by the action of the water on the
keel and floor, is proportional to the angular velocity. He finds { that the
pericdic time is altered from

2ak 2ak

where c is a constant depending on the moment of the resistance ; so that

_ moment of resistance of water
displacement x angular velocity’

the effect of the resistance thus lengthening the periodic time in the same

* Trans. Inst. Nay. Arch. vol. iii. p. 31. Mr. Froude has there shown that when a
pendulum or ship performs isochronous oscillations in a medium the resistance of which
varies as the square of the velocity, the amplitudes of the successive oscillations, as reduced
by resistance, will form successive ordinates of a curve, which approaches, with a great
degree of exactness, to an equilateral hyperbola, referred to one of its asymptotes, equal
periods of the oscillations beg represented by successive equal increments of the abscissa.

The experiments with a pendulum as exhibited in the diagram (plate 2 of the yolume
referred to) accord very closely with the law which may be thus expressed :—If 0, be the
initial amplitude, and @,, that of the mth oscillation, then that at the end of any other, say
ath will be
2 m0, Om

(m — 2) Om + 2 9,

+ Trans. Inst. Nay. Arch. vol. y. pp. 30, 31. t Ibid.

~— «

STABILITY, PROPULSION, AND SEA-GOING QUALITIES OF SHIPS, 31

proportion as if the inertia of the rolling mass were increased in the ratio of
unity to

ge
Ank’
and periodic rolling in smooth water becoming impossible when g c? is equal
to or greater than 4 p k’.

Of Easy and Uneasy Ships.

There is much vagueness in the use of these terms. They are generally
applied promiscuously to the practical hindrance caused by motion to the
persons engaged in working or manceuyring the ship, to the inconvenience
felt by passengers, to the straining of a ship’s structure, or the tendency to
shift her cargo, or to break away half-fastened weights, like boats or guns.
3 These all appear to depend in varying proportions on the following exact

ata:—

The extent or amplitude of angular motion.

The rapidity of angular motion.

The acceleration of linear motion.

But the rapidity of linear motion and the angular acceleration (except so
far as this affects bending stress, or as it involves linear acceleration at a
distance from the instantaneous axis) do not appear to have much practical
influence.

In still water the only motion which is sufficiently great to cause incon-
venience is that of rolling. Rolling sometimes produces as secondary pheno-
mena both pitching and dipping; but neither of these are sufficient in extent,
in still water, to produce inconvenience. The rolling, however, may be con-
siderable, especially in the case of a ship going unsteadily before the wind.
But if the water itself be oscillating, even moderately, or if there be a gusty
wind, then a synchronism between any two of the five movements—the wind,
the waves, the rolling, the pitching, or the dipping* or even (to a lesser ex-
tent) their concord at regular intervals—may cause them to enhance the effects
one of another to such an extent as to become inconvenient, and in certain
cases dangerous. In the case of a thoroughly uneasy ship in the most un-

‘favourable circumstances, the axis of angular motion may assume any and
every position, and the linear acceleration may take all conceivable directions ;
but although any particular poimt may describe the most irregular curves,
both in form and speed, relatively to the vessel’s course, yet the chief source
of practical danger in open water depends upon the accumulation of motion
arising from synchronism.

It appears to have been generally observed that vessels which have a short
period of rolling, also roll through large angles. In this way the uneasiness
of the rolling undergoes a double increase as the period diminishes. Further
and more exact experiment is required before we can say how far it is con-
nected by synchronism with wave-motion, or whether it is an independent
phenomenon. Our present theories do not show it to be a necessary conse-
quence of rolling in smooth water.

Waves.
We do not consider it necessary to go into a formal discussion of this sub-
ject. As regards the behaviour of ships, it is quite sufficient to assume that

* Dipping is the name given to the vertical oscillation of the ship as a whole relatively
to the surface of the water.

382 REPORT—1869.

the profile of a simple wave is trochoidal, and that the particles of water
move in circles in a vertical plane, at right angles to the ridges and valleys
of the waves. The consequences of this motion are briefly as follows, on the
assumption that the depth of water is unlimited.

The diameter of the circle in which a surface-particle moves is the height
of the wave from hollow to crest. Particles which in still water would be at
a lower level, describe smaller circles in the same period. A horizontal plane
(in the still water) is thus converted into a wave-surface of the same period,
but of reduced amplitude of oscillation*. The velocity of the particles (and
on this depends the impact of a wave) is simply the circumference of one of
these circles divided by the periodic time.

If we consider a column of particles which is vertical in still water, that
column oscillates in wave-water like corn-stalks in a gust of wind, and it
also oscillates vertically. But it always slopes towards the crest of the wave,
and the obliquity thus induced goes to enhance that due to the wave-slope ;
so that if we regard the profile of a wave, a small portion of water, rectan-
gular when still, undergoes a double deformation, the horizontal surfaces
following the wave-slope, and the vertical surfaces being deflected towards
the crest, both causes tending to increase the angular deformation instead
of to preserve rectangularity.

The crest of the wave being sharper than the hollow, and the quantity of
water invariable, the horizontal plane which lies halfway between valley and
erest is higher than the mean, or still-water, level; and its elevation has
been shown to be equal to the height due to the velocity of revolution of the
particles.

Considered as trochoids, the wave-profiles are traced by a point within a
circle rolling wnder a horizontal line. The line midway between valley and
crest is the line of centres.

The particles of water above the line of centres are moving forwards, as
regards the direction of advance of the wave; those below that line back-
wards. The particles in the front face of the wave are rising, and those in
the rear-face falling.

The wave whose period is -th of a second has a length of X= si
Tv _
whence we find the number of waves to a second to be n = g The

Qanr
velocity of wave-propagation, that is to say, of the apparent adyance of the
ie Ci i Gh iy
wave in a deep sea, isn A = / a7 Sao In other words, the speed
of the wave-crest varies as the periodic time, and the length of the wave
varies as their product, or as the square of either.
4 an vertical disturbance of a particle whose depth in still water would
ek is
Qa
he =he—r_
h being the height of the surface-wave.

_ * Drawings of the structure of a trochoidal wave will be found in the British Asso-
ciation Reports for 1844, plate 56; Trans, I. N. A. vol. i. for 1860, plate 7, vol. iii. for
1862, plate 3, vol. iv. for 1863, plate 10, and vol. vi. for 1865, plate 10; ‘Shipbuilding : Theo-
retical and Practical,’ Rankine, p. 69; Scott Russell, ‘Naval Architecture,’ plate 117.

STABILITY, PROPULSION, AND SEA-GOING QUALITIES OF SHIPS. 33

No wave can be sharper than a cycloidal wave; for if the trochoid were
looped, the particles in the loop would be unsupported. When the wave
form tends to pass the cycloid, it must break.

The extreme observed height of ocean-waves appears to be about 40 feet,
and the greatest observed length 600 feet ; these would have a periodic time
of 11 seconds (roughly); their crest would advance at a rate of 33 knots an
hour, and the velocity of the surface-particles would be about 11-4 feet per
second. In short waves of the same height the particles of water move
faster, in the inverse ratio of the period; but the mass of moving water at

the crest of the longer wave is the greater in the ratio of

AX—awh:N — ch,

where \ and 2? are the lengths, and’ the height. If, therefore, the above-
mentioned wave were shortened to 200 feet, the surface-particles would be
moving at a note of 20 feet a second, while the mass of water in the crest
would be about one-sixth. From such data it is easy to infer both the de-
structive effect of impact from the top of a wave, and the relative quantity
of water which a ship would take on board in shipping a sea.

The front and rear of a trochoidal wave are exactly similar. Observation,
as well as theory, shows that this is true to an extent not commonly believed
for ordinary waves. The exceptions are, when the wind is sufficient to push
the tops of the waves at extra speed, and when the water shoals rapidly.
But even here the relative steepness of the advancing face is exaggerated by
most observers. Untila wave is about to break, the actual difference of slope
remains very small.

It should be borne in mind that circular orbits and trochoidal wave-

surfaces are only approximations, although near enough to the truth for
purposes connected with the rolling of ships. In particular, it appears both
from theory and observation that there is almost always some progressive
motion combined with the orbital motion ; and also that waves begin to break
long before their crests attain a form so sharp as that of the cusped cycloid,
the two slopes at the crest of a breaking wave cutting each other at right
angles, or nearly so*.

_ The ordinary wave of a rough sea is usually an aggregate of waves of
- different period, and not unfrequently of different direction. For reugh
purposes, it is sufficient to draw each system of waves separately and add
_ their corresponding ordinates, to get the resulting surface. This can hardly
_be relied upon in extreme cases; and, in any case, the motion of each par-
ticle is not according to any one or more wave-systems separately, bit it is a
“motion compounded of what would be due to each separately if the others

Oscillations of a Ship among Waves.

A Treatise on ‘Shipbuilding: Theoretical and Practicalt,’ edited by Pro-
fessor Rankine, contains, in a very clear and condensed form, a résumé of
nearly all that was known on this subject up to 1864 inclusive. ‘The fol-
Towing abstract is chiefly taken from that work :—
~ It is to be observed that what follows relates to the composition of the
ship’s oscillation with that of a simple trochoidal wave. The complete pro-
blem of a ship’s behaviour, depending as it does on wind, waves, rolling,
‘pitching, dipping, yawing, variable head-resistance and lateral resistance,

__ * See Phil. Mag. Nov. 1864. t See pp. 72, 77 of that work.
1869. D

34 REPORT—1869.

and direction of motion relatively both to wind and waves, is far too com-
plicated even for statement in an exact mathematical form.

If a ship floating passively in the water, and without any progressive
motion, were wholly without stability, her centre of gravity, centre of buoy-
ancy, and metacentre coinciding in one point, the motion assumed by that
point would be exactly that of the centre of gravity of the mass of water
displaced by the ship—that is to say, it would revolve once in each wave-
period in a vertical circle of the same diameter, with the orbits of the par-
ticles of water situated in the same layer.

This motion of the ship has received the name of passive heaving, that
term being understood to comprehend the swaying from side to side, as well
as the rising and sinking, of which the orbital motion is compounded.

Half the difference between the extent of heaving of the ship and the
height of the waves is the extent to which, during the passage of the waves,
her depth of immersion amidships is liable to be alternately creased above
and diminished below her depth of immersion in smooth water. It appears
that deep immersion and large horizontal dimensions, but especially deep im-
mersion, tend to diminish the extent of the heaving motion of the ship as
compared with that of the waves, and that the effect of those causes in pro-
ducing this diminution is greatest among comparatively short waves.

The weight of the ship, being combined with the centrifugal force due to
her heaving motion, gives a resultant reaction through her centre of gravity
inclined to the vertical in a direction which, for passive heaving, is perpen-
dicular to the wave-surface traversing the ship’s centre of buoyancy (a sur-
face which may be called the effective wave-surface); and that direction is
the apparent direction of gravity on board the ship, as indicated by plumb-
lines, pendulums, suspended barometers and lamps, spirit-levels, and the
positions assumed by persons walking or standing on deck. The equal and
opposite resulting pressure of the water, acting through the centre of buoyancy,
is in like manner compounded of actions due to weight and centrifugal force ;
and it acts in a line normal to the effective wave-surface, that is to say,
parallel to the resultant reaction of the ship. Those two forces balance each
other, not when the ship’s upright axis is vertical, but when it is normal to
the effective wave-surface; and when she deviates from that position, they
form a righting couple tending to restore her to it. Thus the stability of a
ship among waves, instead of tending to keep her steady, as in smooth water,
tends to keep her upright to the effective wave-surface ; and such is the motion
of any vessel or other floating body having great stability and small inertia,
such as a light raft. This may be called passive rolling, or rolling with the
waves.

Passive rolling is modified by the inertia of the ship, which makes her

tend to perform oscillations in the same periodic time as in still water, by —

the impulse and resistance of the particles of water against her keel and the
sharp parts of her hull, which tend, under certain circumstances, to make
her roll against the waves, that is, inclining towards the nearest wave-crest,
and by other circumstances.

The tendency to keep upright to the effective wave-surface may be distin-
guished from the tendency to keep truly upright, by calling the former sé/ff-
ness and the latter steadiness. In smooth water stiffness and steadiness are
the same thing; amongst waves they are different, and to a certain extent
opposed; that is to say, the means used for obtaining one of those qualities
are sometimes prejudicial to the other. Stiffness is favourable to the dry-
ness of the ship, and to the power of carrying sail; steadiness is favourable

STABILITY, PROPULSION, AND SEA-GOING QUALITIES OF SHIPS. 35

to her strength and durability, and the safety of her lading, and, in ships of
war, to the power of working guns in rough weather.

A ship whose course is either oblique or transverse to the wave-crests is
made by the waves to perform a series of longitudinal oscillations, which
may be called passive pitching and scending.

In all the oscillatory movements which a ship performs among waves, two
series of oscillations are combined—those in which the ship keeps time with
the waves, being her passive or forced oscillations, and those which she per-
forms in periods depending on her own mass and figure, as in smooth water,
being what may be called her free oscillations. The tendency and ultimate
effect of the resistance of the water is to destroy the free oscillations after a
certain time, so that the forced oscillations alone are permanent.

Passive heaving, or the motion of a ship when each of her particles per-
forms an orbital motion, similar and equal to that of a certain particle of the
water in which she floats, takes place when the ship floats amongst waves
without having progressive motion.

The progression of the ship, when under way, alters the action of the
waves upon her in various ways, which depend mainly upon the apparent
period of the waves relatively to the ship (that is, the interval of time between
the arrival of two successive crests at the ship), and upon the apparent slope
of the effective wave-surface in a direction athwart the ship, the latter
circumstance being connected mainly with forced rolling oscillations.

When the apparent periodic time of the waves is modified by the pro-
gressive motion of the ship, the time during which the forces act which
produce the heaving motion of the ship is altered in the ‘ratio of the appa-
rent period to the true period; and the extent of the heaving motion is also
altered in a proportion which, for moderate deviations of the apparent from
the true period, varies nearly as the square of that ratio. This law, how-
ever, does not continue to hold for a very great increase of the apparent
period, the extent of heaving being less than the ratio first mentioned.

Hence the heaving motion of a ship is more extensive than that of the
effective waye-surface, when the angle made by her course with the direc-
tion of advance of the waves is acute, and less extensive when that angle is
obtuse.

Yawing, or swerving of the vessel from side to side by oscillation about an
upright axis, is, when produced by the waves, the effect of the lateral sway-
ing, which forms the horizontal component of the heaving motion, taking

_ place with different velocities, or in opposite directions at the bow and stern

_ of the vessel. The forces producing it are greatest when her course lies
- diagonally with respect to the direction of advance of the waves.

_ For reasons already stated, a very light and stiff ship tends to float like a

raft rolling with the waves, and assuming at every instant the same slope

with the effective wave-surface.

4 Let a board, haying very little inertia, and no stability, be placed so as

a to float upright in smooth water; then, when the water is agitated by
"waves, that board will accompany the motions of the originally upright

_ columns of water—that is to say, it will roll against the waves, inclining at
every instant in a direction contrary to the slope of the effective wave-
surface.
_ It has been shown by Mr. Scott Russell * that the condition of the broad
and rounded parts of a ship, and of her hull between wind and water, is

* Trans. I, N. A. for 1863.
D2

36 REPORT—1869.

analogous to that of a raft; while the condition of the keel, the sharp part
of the floor, and the gripe and dead wood (or fine parts of the ends) is analo-
gous to that of the board floating edgewise, so that the ship is under the
action of two conflicting sets of forces—gravity, centrifugal force, and
pressure (constituting what may be called stiffness), tending to make her
roll with the waves, like the raft; and the action of the water on the keel
and sharp parts of the hull, which may be called keel-resistance, tending to
make her roll against the waves, like the board, and hence that she will take
some kind of intermediate motion.

It has been pointed out, however, by Mr. Froude and Professor Rankine *
that there is an essential distinction between the two sets of forces before
mentioned, in consequence of which, though conflicting, they are not directly
opposed—namely, that the stiffness is an active force, which tends not only
to prevent the ship from deviating from a position upright to the effective
waye-surface, but to restore her to that position after she has left it, with a force
increasing with the deviation ; while the keel-resistance is merely a passive
force, opposing the deviation of the ship from the position of the originally
vertical columns of water, with a force depending, not on that deviation, but
on the velocity of the relative motion of the ship and the particles of water,
and not tending to restore the ship to any definite position. Hence those
two kinds of force cannot directly counteract, but only modify one another.

For the mathematical investigation of the action of those forces reference
must be made to the original papers in the ‘ Transactions of the Institution
of Naval Architects.’ The following are the general conclusions :—

The permanent rolling of a ship of very great stability, and without any
sensible keel-resistance, is governed by the motion of the effective wave-
surface, so that she rolls with the waves or like a raft.

When the period of unresisted rolling of the vessel is to the wave-period
as 2:1, the permanent rolling is wholly governed by the motion of the
originally vertical columns of water; so that she rolls against the waves, like
a board of no stability floating edgewise.

In both of the preceding eases the vessel is upright when the trough or
crest of a wave passes her, and her angle of heel is equal to the steepest slope
of the effective wave-surface.

When the period of unresisted rolling of the vessel is less than the above
value, her upright positions occur before the arrival of the troughs and crests
of the waves, and her angle of heel is greater than the steepest slope of the
effective wave-surface.

The greatest angle of heel in permanent rolling occurs when the period of
unresisted rolling of the ship is equal to that of the waves, and it exceeds the
slope of the waves in a proportion which is the greater the less the keel-
resistance, and becomes infinite when the keel-resistance vanishes. Thus
isochronism with the waves is the worst quality that a ship can have as
regards steadiness and safety.

When the period of unresisted rolling of the vessel exceeds that of the
waves in a greater ratio than that of /2:1, her upright positions occur
after the arrival of the troughs and crests of the waves, and her angle of
heel is less than the steepest slope of the waves.

The forced or passive oscillations of ships are those which produce the
most severe strains, because of their continual recurrence, the free oscilla-
tions being gradually extinguished by the resistance of the water. It

* Trans, I. N. A, for 1868-64,

STABILITY, PROPULSION, AND SEA-GOING QUALITIES OF SHIPS. 987

appears, however, that the periodic time of the free oscillations has an im-
portant influence on the extent of the forced oscillations, especially in roll-
ing, the most unfavourable proportions for the periodic time of free rolling
to that of passive rolling being those which lie near equality, and between
equality and /2:1; for the equality of these periods tends to produce an
excess of rolling to which it would be difficult to fix a limit, and the ratio
of 2:1, and those near it, make the ship roll against the waves, thus
throwing her into positions in which there is a risk of the wave-crests
breaking into her.

A period of free rolling much less than that of passive rolling gives great
stiffmess, and makes the ship accompany the motions of the effective wave-
surface. A period of free rolling exceeding »/ 2 times that of passive rolling
is favourable to steadiness, provided that this lengthened period be produced
by the inertia of the ship, and not by insufficient statical stability.

The action of the water on a deep keel, on a sharp floor, or on fine ends
below water tends to moderate the extent of rolling produced by coinci-
dence, whether exact or approximate, of the periods of free and passive roll-
ing ; but at the same time it lessens the effect of a long period of free rolling
in producing the same result.

‘A deep draught of water is favourable, on the whole, to steadiness, but not
to stiffness.

Should the centre of gravity rise and fall relatively to the water in rolling,
and the periodic time of the dipping motion so generated happen to be either
exactly or nearly one half of that of the passive rolling, the result will be
uneasy motion.

The steady pressure of the wind on the sails promotes steadiness, at a
certain angle of heel depending on the moment of that pressure; the sudden
gusts of the wind produce lurching.

As to pitching, scending, and yawing, it is chiefly important that, for the
sake of dryness and safety, those oscillations should be performed in a lively
manner among waves; and that object is best promoted by keeping the
longitudinal radius of gyration short, as compared with the length of the
ship—that is, by taking care not to place heavy weights in her ends.

The true principles of a ship’s rolling among waves and their leading
consequences were first set forth by Mr. Froude, in a series of papers in the
‘Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects,’ in 1861, 1862, and
1863. Mr. Froude appears to have been the first to state the proposition
that the tendency of the ship to roll among waves is primarily due to her
tendency to keep upright to the effective wave-surface, and that the force
which induces this tendency is very approximately the same as her stiff-

‘mess or resistance to heeling in still water. The disposition of a ship to

follow the average motion of the portion of the wave which she displaces is,
however, controlled (as has been pointed out by Mr. Crossland) by the
circumstances that the wave-water is continually undergoing a deformation
of which the ship’s hull is not susceptible. Mr. Froude has also shown *
that if two plates be hinged together, so that, when in still water, they
would float at an inclination of 45° to the vertical, and if the hinge be pa-
rallel to the wave-crest, the effect of the wave-motion is simply to open or
close the angle between them, and not to alter (sensibly) the horizontal and
vertical lines which bisect the angle externally and internally.

As there is nothing to show that the rigidity of the angle between the

* See Trans. I. N. A. vol. vi. for 1865, p. 181.

88 REPORT—1869.

plates would tend to make any marked alteration in the invariability of
direction of the bisectors, the theoretical establishment of this fact is of
great importance. Its meaning is that the effect of bilge-keels is to increase
the time, and, in a greater degree still, to diminish the amplitude of the
oscillation, and that the use of bilge-keels is the direct mode of effecting
this object.

The problem of safe rolling is not quite the same with that of easy
rolling. A roll towards the wave-crest is well known as one of the most
dangerous things that can happen to a ship in a high-crested sea-way, for
the whole crest of the wave may then break inboard. Even when the ship
follows the oscillations of the vertical lines, the wave-particles come flat on
the ship’s bulwarks and side. If she floats quite vertically she is still in the
position of a cliff resisting a wave of the same period, whose height is the
difference of heights of the surface-wave and of the mean effective wave
acting upon her.

As regards the impact of a wave, the most violent blow that a wave can
give is against a surface parallel to the inflexional tangent and to the wave-
crest, and at a level with the line of inflexion. The motion of the particles
is then normal to the wave-surface. This remark, of course, does not apply
to shore-waves.

Throughout the discussion of the ship’s oscillation among waves, it has
been tacitly assumed that the wave-period itself might be regarded as con-
stant. This is very far from either representing the facts or the practical
problem of the shipbuilder. The wave which a vessel has to encounter may
be anything, from the 11-seconds wave, 600 feet long, toa mere ripple.
Practically, a vessel will not roll to waves whose length is much less than
her breadth, nor will she pitch much among short waves. But, dismissing
these from consideration, it may still be impossible to avoid some contin-
gency in which a ship’s period of free rolling may be equal to the wave-
period. Obviously, the remedy in this case is for her commander not to
keep her broadside-on. As a rule, no commander ever would do so in a
dangerous sea-way; and even where comfort only is concerned, it is usually
open to him either to shorten the effective (that is to say, the apparent
wave-period) by putting her head a little to the swell, or to lengthen the
apparent wave-period by putting her head a little off. He must do one of
these things if he meets with actual and exact synchronism in anything like
heavy weather.

As a practical matter, Professor Rankine remarks: “It would appear
that a very close approximation to the form and proportions which are
most favourable to steadiness has, in some cases, been realized by practical
trials alone, and that independently of the steadying action of sails; for
there are vessels which, when under steam alone, in any moderate swell
keep their decks very nearly parallel to the horizon. It is of great im-
portance that the lines and dimensions, and distribution of the weights of
ships, which have been found by experience to possess this excellent quality,
should be carefully recorded for the information of naval architects.

«On the other hand, there are vessels (especially screw-steamers) whose
ordinary extent of rolling each way is from three to four times the slope of
the waves.”

On the subject of Waves, we refer to the following papers and treatises :—

Weber, ‘ Wellenlehre.’
Airy, “On Tides and Waves,” Encycl. Metropolitana (reprinted in a
separate form).

OE =

STABILITY, PROPULSION, AND SEA-GOING QUALITIES OF SHIPS. 39

Scott Russell, Report to British Association for 1844. Also, ‘Modern
Naval Architecture.’

Stokes, ‘ Cambridge Transactions,’ 1842 and 1850.

Earnshaw, ‘ Cambridge Transactions,’ 1845.

Froude, ‘Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects,’ 1862,
p. 48, and (incidentally) in his papers ‘On Rolling.” Also, ‘* Remarks on
the Differential Wave in a Stratified Fluid,” Trans. I. N. A. vol. iv. for
1863, p. 216.

Rankine, ‘ Philosophical Transactions, for 1863; ‘Phil. Mag.,’ Noy. 1864;
‘Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ 1868; also, ‘Shipbuilding: Theore-
tical and Practical.’

Cialdi, ‘ Sul Moto ondoso del Mare.’

Caligny, papers in Liouville’s Journal, 1866,

T. Stevenson, ‘On Harbours.’

With regard to the rolling of ships in wave-water, we believe that almost
the only exact investigations are to be found in the ‘ Transactions of the
Institution of Naval Architects,’ some of which have been reproduced in
‘Shipbuilding: Theoretical and Practical, and reprinted in the ‘ Engineer’
and in ‘Engineering. They are as follows :—

Froude, ‘On the Rolling of Ships,” vol. ii, for 1861, p. 180, with Ap-
pendices, vol. ii. pp. 45 & 48,

Woolley, ‘On the Rolling of Ships,” vol. iii. for 1864, p. 1.

Crossland, ‘ On Mr. Froude’s Theory of Rolling,” vol. iti. p. 7.

Rankine, on the same, vol. iii. p. 22; “On the Comparative Straining
Action of different kinds of Vertical Oscillations upon a Ship,” vol. iv. for
1863, p. 205.

Scott Russell, “ On the Rolling of Ships,” vol. iv. p. 219.

Froude, “‘ Remarks on Mr. Scott Russell’s Paper,” vol. iv. p. 232.

Scott Russell, rejoinder, vol. iv. p. 276.

Woolley, Mem. on same subject, vol. iv. p. 284.

Rankine, “‘On the Action of Waves upon a Ship’s Keel,” vol. v. for
1864, p. 20. “On the Uneasy Rolling of Ships,” vol. v. p. 38.

Lamport, “On the Problem of a Ship’s Form,” vol. vi. for 1865, p. 101.

Froude, “ On the Practical Limits of the Rolling of a Ship in a Sea-way,”
vol. vi. p. 175.

Reed, “On the Stability of Monitors under Canvas,” vol. ix. for 1868,
p. 198.

An abstract of the leading principles will be found, as already stated, in
‘Shipbuilding: Theoretical and Practical,’ edited by Mr. Rankine.

Some valuable practical observations on the rolling of ships in waves will
also be found in a pamphlet, ‘Du Roulis,’ by Captain Mottez, of the
French Imperial Navy.

Measurement of Waves at Sea.

This is a thing which has seldom been done with any degree of accuracy.
Not only is the vessel moving, but the apparent direction of gravity is not
the true one. The result is, that the difference of direction between the
tangents to two waves from a point a little behind the spectator is generally
taken for the apparent angular height. This may evidently be far in excess
of the true apparent height *.

* See Mr. Rankine’s ‘‘ Remarks,” Trans, I. N, A, vol. iii. p. 27.

40 REPORT—1869.

Admiral Paris has invented a self-recording instrument for the purpose
of measuring both the height and form of waves. A description of this will
be found in the Trans. I. N. A. vol. viii. 1867, p. 279. It is unfor-
tunately a differential instrument, without any means of getting a good
datum line. It appears to be much better adapted for getting approximate
profiles of complex waves than for obtaining accurate measurements of
simple ones.

Observations on the lengths of waves present much less difficulty: a
float, sunk so as not to catch the wind (such as a bottle), and observed from
a considerable height, will give the periodic time with a fair degree of ac-
curacy, and the length may be inferred from the period.

General observations upon wayes* are not in point. The object in the-
J

present case is to ascertain what the particular waves are in which the
ship’s rolling is being observed,

Measurement of Rolling.

It is very well known that a pendulum at sea does not give a vertical
line, but a direction due to the joint effect of gravity, of its own free oscil-
lation, and of the forced oscillation due to the motion of its point of sus-
pension. A suspended clinometer is thus perfectly useless for this purpose.
Barometers, cuddy-lamps, and chandeliers generally oscillate through larger
angles than the ship.

Mr. Froude (Trans, J. N. A. for 1862, p. 41) suggests watching the
rattlins of the rigging come down to the horizon, as a ready and fairly
correct way of measuring the roll. The motion of the mast-heads rela-
lively to the stars may be used in the same way.

M. Normand, jun., of Havre, has invented a very ingenious clinometer
suspended on gymbals, like a chronometer, in such a way as to be as little
as possible influenced by the ship’s motion +. We do not consider that any
instrument depending upon gravitation is to be relied upon at sea, and
we have been informed that M. Normand himself is not quite satisfied with
his instrument.

Apart from observations depending on the stars, or actual sea-horizon,

the only instrument that can be relied upon as giving an invariable plane is
of the gyroscope class. A modification of Foucault’s gyroscope was tried in
the North Sea in 1859, by Professor C. Piazzi Smyth, who gave an account
of the instrument and its performance in the Trans. I. N. A. for 1863,
p. 118.
. An instrument upon the same rotatory principle, but self-recording, has
been invented by Admiral Paris, Hydrographer of the French Imperial
Navy. It consists of a spinning top, with its point of support above its
centre of gravity. It spins in an agate cup, and the top of the spindle
carries a camel’s-hair pencil which marks a paper band, driven by clock-
work, and passing through bent guides so as to keep close to the pencil.
It is described, and some of its curves copied, in the Trans. J. N. A.
vol. viii. for 1867.

What these instruments really give is the deviation from an undeter-
mined direction. They therefore give the time of rolling or pitching, and of
any intermediate oscillation of a periodic character, and the amplitude of

* Although very desirable for other reasons,
T See Trans. I. N. A. for 1866, p. 187.

———

STABILITY, PROPULSION, AND SEA-GOING QUALITIES OF SHIPS. 41

deviation from the mean line; but they evidently would not disclose any
steady inclination to which the rolling might be superadded.

The gyroscope or top will, of course, have its own proper oscillatory revo-
lution, which, however, soon spins out, on the same principle that a peg-top
“sleeps.”

On the whole, there does not seem to be much room for improvement in
Admiral Paris’s instrument, unless, perhaps, in diminishing the atmospheric
resistance. Possibly also provision might be made for adjusting the point of
support to the centre of gravity.

Recommendation of Experiments on Rolling.

The mathematical theory of rolling is very far from easy, and leads to equa-
tions of which there is no known solution. The time of a common pendulum,
for instance, depends upon an elliptic integral, and, beyond the degree of
complexity involved in such a function, mathematics are in the condition of
uncleared ground. Accordingly, while it is possible to give a rational
account of the immediate gross results of a compound oscillation, these
results cannot be expressed or measured with the requisite combination of
generality and accuracy. In order to treat them, we are obliged to intro-
duce simplifying suppositions, which do not necessarily belong to our pro-
blem—as, for instance, isochronism, or the neglect of certain elements of
resistance, or the grouping of others.

Now, when this occurs with any branch of practical knowledge, the proper
mode of applying mathematical investigation is to start, not from the known
principles of general mechanics, but from an advanced base of observations
peculiar to the science itself. In hydrodynamics, between minuteness and
number, the ultimate molecular unit escapes our notice, and we are only
able to observe effects in the gross; being thereby driven to a certain want
of detail, both of observation and of reasoning, which allows us to trust our
conclusions only when they have been made to rest on a broad experimental
foundation. Whether we regard the theory of the propulsion of ships, or
that of their rolling, our analysis has assuredly been pushed quite to the
extreme verge to which general reasoning can be trusted ; and a largely in-
creased extent of exact observation ought to precede further attempts at
inductive reasoning on these subjects. We have many exact experiments on

_ propulsion, although, from the complicated character of the phenomena in-

volved, it is difficult to separate the issues ; and this will probably not be set

right without further special investigation. With regard to rolling, how-

ever, we have much vague observation, and but little exact knowledge de-
_ rived from experiment.

«pg Meee

We are not aware of any one published experiment on the rolling of ships
in waves in which the details necessary to make any mathematical use of

¥ the results are supplied. The data required are, as a minimum for each

case,—

. A draught of the ship, and her calculated elements.

. The position of her centre of gravity.

. Her periodic time in still water.

. The condition of her wet surface.

. The extent and period of her roll.

. Was the rolling simple, or mixed with pitching ?

. The height, length, and period of the waves in which she was rolling.
. Were these waves simple ?

. What alterations have been made in her displacement, her trim, and

OMMTIMAMEPWNWHE

42. REPORT—1869,

the position of her weights, as regards both centre of gravity and moment of
inertia, previously to the trial ?

10. Force and direction of wind, and condition of ship as regards re-
sistance to it.

11. Full details as to manner in which, and the instruments or calcula-
tions by which, these data have been ascertained.

There is no doubt that for a comprehensive view of the subject, it would
be necessary that these things should be ascertained with care for a large
number of ships, of various classes, and under very varied conditions. But
this is too much to expect to get done, although we think it would be a
good thing for the Government, and other large shipowners, to keep in view
as an ultimate object. Meanwhile we think it would be a very great expe-
rimental aid to science if these things could be accurately settled for even
two or three ships, under different circumstances of weather and different
arrangements of weight, both in amount and distribution.

Similar experiments should also be made with reference to pitching,

The trials should be made with sails furled, and as little disturbance from
headway as possible. We have every wish to have parallel experiments
tried under any possible conditions of sail and propulsion, and, if it may be
done, on the same ships, consecutively with the simpler experiments ; but it
will be seen that the data are already sufficiently complex at the best, and
that they must be used clear of headway and leeway before they can be
discussed with reference to these.

No experiments are of use for the purpose of inductive reasoning in which
any one of the data mentioned above are wanting.

We think that the Government might fairly be asked to institute such a
set of calculations and experiments. We cannot find that the exact infor-
mation which we have suggested is in existence anywhere. We are certain
that it has not been published in any available form ; and we have reason to
believe that the knowledge is quite as much needed and desired by the
gentlemen responsible for the construction of the navy as by merchant
builders or by students of theory.

We therefore recommend that the deputation previously mentioned with
reference to the experiments on resistance be also instructed to urge upon
the Admiralty the importance, both practical and theoretical, of instituting
such a set of experiments, of providing suitable instruments for recording
exact observations, and of publishing the results. We also recommend the
appointment by the Council of the Association of a committee of three mem-
bers to confer with the officers of the Admiralty as to the drawing up of
detailed instructions for conducting these experiments; and that the Lords
of the Admiralty, in the event of their assenting to the proposals, be
requested to nominate a committee to confer with the committee named by
the Association.

In conclusion, we beg leave to recommend that this Report be officially
communicated to the Councils of the Institution of Naval Architects, the
Institution of Civil Engineers, and the Institution of Engineers in Scotland,
and the cooperation of those bodies sought, both in applying to the Govern-
ment and in making known among shipbuilders, and other persons con-
nected with Naval Architecture, as well what is the state of our existing
knowledge as what are the immediate desiderata for its extension.

Cuartes W. Merrirrep. W. J. Macquorn Rayxryg.
GrorcE P. Broper. W. Frovpe (sulyect to the fol-
Dovetas Garton, lowing explanations),

STABILITY, PROPULSION, AND SEA-GOING QUALITIES OF SHIPS. 43

Mr. Froude’s Explanations.

The subject of a ship’s resistance is one which I have for many years been
independently investigating, both theoretically and experimentally; and I
have been thus led to conclusions which are in very material respects at
variance with those which Mr. Merrifield has placed on record for the Com-
mittee as representing the existing state of knowledge respecting it, and
specially at variance with the consequent recommendations which he has
drawn up, as indicating the experiments for the performance of which the
assistance of Her Majesty’s Government is to be sought: I thus find myself
somewhat abruptly placed in a position in which I must ask permission to
present, as part of our proceedings, a supplementary report explaining the
reasons which oblige me to dissent from the recommendations to which I
refer. Until the Draft Report was in my hands, I was unaware that “ Re-
sistance” was regarded as included in the list of subjects submitted to the
Committee ; for I understood the terms “Stability” and “Sea-going quali-
ties” as having reference to the theory of “ Rolling motion,” and “ Propul-
sion” to the theory of the Action of Propellers. The subject of Resistance
appeared to belong already to the ‘Steamship Performance Committee.”

Let me say at the outset that Mr. Merrifield’s very full discussion of this
subject appears to me to set forth most lucidly what must be called “the
existing state of knowledge” respecting it; it has evidently involved much
laborious research and deep consideration.

And, on the other hand, the results at which I have arrived are in many
respects so far from complete that I have hitherto hesitated to bring them
before the public. But I believe I have so fully established those conclusions,
to which I shall now refer, and the difference in the line of action to which
they point is so serious that, under the present circumstances, I feel bound
to press them on the notice of the Committee.

The Report specially recommends, as the experiment which it is important
to try, the dynamometric determination of the scale of resistances for a
full-sized ship.

Now, without impugning, or rather, while fully asserting that any scale of
resistance, in terms of velocity, accurately determined for a full-sized ship,

_ would be of real value and of great interest, I shall nevertheless contend (1)
_ that experiments on the resistances of models of rational size, when ration-
ally dealt with, by no means deserve the mistrust with which they are usually
regarded, but, on the contrary, can be relied on as truly representing the
_ resistances of the ships of which they are the models; and (2) that in order
_ properly to open up the question, so great a variety of forms ought to be
_ tried that it would be impossible, alike on the score of time and expenditure,
to perform the experiments with full-sized ships. Both these propositions
require to be drawn out at some length. The kindred proposition, that as
aceurate results can be obtained far more easily and rapidly in experimenting
with a model than with a ship, though of great importance, is so obviously
true as to require no elucidation.

The natural expectation that the ascertained resistance of a model will
furnish a measure of the resistance of a ship similar to the model, depends
on the prima facie probability that the resistance for a given body will vary
as the square of its velocity; and that in comparing similar bodies of different
dimension at a given velocity, the resistance will be as the square of the
dimension, since that function expresses alike the proportion of the respec-
tive midship sections and of the respective friction--hearing surfaces. Were

44. REPORT—1869,

these propositions true, the ascertained resistance of a model, at given velo-
city, would supply a complete scale of resistance for all velocities, both for
the model and for any ship similar to the model.

Since, however, the resistance of a model or ship deviates from the law of
the square of the velocity, as under certain circumstances it is known to
do, in a manner dependent on its actual dimensions, it is obvious that
the simple scale of comparison, which seemed primd facie probable, can be no
longer accepted, and it has hence been hastily concluded that no assignable
scale of comparison can be found instead.

Now it appears to me to be pretty well established, and it is scarcely
questioned, that, for deeply submerged bodies of tolerable size and fair shape,
the resistance does follow the law of the squares with a high degree of
approximation. Such deviations from this law as appear in Beaufoy’s expe-
riments are, I think, explicable by the angularity of the shapes tried and by
the mode of trying the experiments, under which the considerable distance
between the bodies tried and the conducting float by which they were carried
involved some deviation of the body from true axial motion, when the velocity

and the consequent resistance became considerable.

‘That surface-friction, in particular, follows the law of the squares of the
velocity very closely, is well established by the experience of the flow of
water through pipes, in reference to which, I may observe, I have myself
experimentally verified on a five-mile length of 9-inch pipe, the law that the
delivery is almost exactly as the square root of the steepness of the hydraulic
gradient. The experiments were tried with very great variations in the steep-
ness*. Now Professor Rankine’s admirable stream-line investigations have
definitely established the conclusion that for symmetrically shaped bodies of
“fair” lines, not excluding by that description certain very blunt-ended
ovals, when wholly submerged, the entire resistance depends on the conditions
of imperfect fluidity, of which surface-friction is the only one so considerable
that we need take account of if we deal with bodies of rational dimen-
sions; and this, as I have pointed out, does follow the law of the squares.
I set aside the condition of “viscosity”; for though this defect, even as it
exists in water, is certainly sufficient to affect differently the resistances of
bodies of different dimensions, this is not sensibly the case unless the bodies
are very minute; and haying regard to the great vitality of such small sur-
face-waves as (say) one foot in length, and to the fact that discharge of water
through pipes and orifices exhibits no results indicative of this special action,
unless the diameters are very small indeed, it seems extremely improbable
that the resistances of bodies five or six feet in length will be affected by it.
If, therefore, we were dealing with submerged bodies, we should have no
reason to mistrust the primd facie deductions founded on experiments with
models.

When, however, we deal with a body moving at the surface, we at once
meet with a vera causa, which alters those simple relations that exist be-

tween the resistances of differently dimensioned submerged bodies. This —
vera causa is the generation of surface-waves, which accompanies the transit —
of the body along the surface; and it is, I believe, not merely the only

known cause, but a sufficient one.

What absolute conformation and magnitude of waves a given vessel moving
with a given velocity may create, and what excess of resistance may thus be —

* Though I regard these experiments as sufficiently conclusive in reference to the point

to which they were directed, I am inclined to think that the theory of surface-friction in —

its application to a ship’s resistance requires considerable revision.

STABILITY, PROPULSION, AND SEA-GOING QUALITIES OF SHIPS. 45

developed in any individual instance, it is not necessary for the present pur-
pose to determine ; for it will appear that, whatever the excess may be, how-
ever abnormally, in virtue of it, the law of resistance for any given ship may
vary in terms of her velocity, a very simple scale of comparison will express
the relation between the excess as developed in a model and as developed in
a ship similar to the model when moying at a corresponding velocity. I
shall show, in fact, that if the velocities of the ship and the model are as the
square roots, these excesses of resistance thus arising will be as the cubes of
their respective dimensions, a law which, as is easily seen, expresses also the
relation founded on those elements of resistance which vary as the square of
the velocity and as the squares of the respective dimensions.

The principles on which Professor Rankine’s stream-line investigations are
founded establish generally, in relation to all wholly submerged symmetrical
bodies moving in a fluid infinitely extended on all sides, that the stream-line
displacements which the motion of the body imposes on the surrounding
volumes of fluid are, for a given body, identical in configuration for all velo-
cities (an identity which assigns to them always a velocity proportional to
that of the body itself), and that the configuration is similar for all similar
bodies.

If we now suppose that the body is moving along the surface of the fluid,
and if we imagine the surface to be not under the influence of gravity or any
such force, it is obvious that here also the configurations of the stream-line
displacements will be identical at all velocities for thesame body, and will be
similar for similar bodies, including those displacements which consist of
upward disturbances of the surface.

When we impose the further condition appropriate to an existing water-sur-
face, that the replacements of the surface, when disturbed, are governed jointly
by gravity and by the volumes and velocities of the original impulses of dis-
turbance, it follows that those impulses of disturbance, being similar for all
similar bodies at all velocities, will retain their similarity wherever and in
the manner which the operation of gravity permits: and this will be when

the similar bodies are moved with velocities proportioned to the square roots
_of their respective dimensions; in these a similar wave-configuration will,
i each case, similarly dispose of the originally similar volume of displace- ©
ment, since similar‘waves have their velocities so related.
__ These waves (as is explained by Professor Rankine), when the velocity
proper to their length along the line of motion is exceeded by that of the
ship, so that they cannot squarely travel with her, satisfy the conditions of
et motion by travelling obliquely, and diverging into the surrounding
mid, the angle of divergence and their size forming a measure of the work
constantly running away from the ship, and consequently of the resistance
caused by their generation.
_ Now the similarity of the configuration which has been asserted involves
_ the condition that when the velocities of similar ships are as the square roots
f their respective dimensions, the angles of divergence will be equal, and
therefore equal lengths of similar wave~-crest will be “run off” for equal
_ distances travelled by the respective ships; and hence the energy abstracted
‘in each case by;these equal lengths of similar wave-crest is clearly as the cube
of the dimension (since the mass elevated is as the sectional area, and the
elevation is simply as the dimension); and since the forces which supply
proportionate amounts of energy while travelling a given distance must
be as the energy, it follows that the excesses of resistance thus called into
existence are also as the cube of the dimension, agreeing in this respect, as

46 REPORT—1869,

has already been pointed out, with the resistances derived from the surface-
friction. In fact, we are thus brought to the scale of comparison which was
just now enunciated, that the entire resistances of a ship, and similar model,
are as the cubes of their respective dimensions, if their velocities are as the
square roots of their dimensions.

In verification and illustration of the foregoing views, I tried, in the
autumn of 1867, a large number of resistance-experiments with a pair of
models of contrasted forms, six feet long, by towing them simultaneously
from the ends of a pair of ten-foot scale-beams connected with self-recording
dynamometric apparatus, and mounted on booms projecting sideways from the
nose of a steam-launch, lent me for the purpose by Mr. Bidder. The water-
lines of the models are shown in Plate I. fig. 1. One was of the wave-line
type, the other, having the same length, form of midship-section, and dis-
placement, had large rounded ends. I also tried similar experiments with a
pair of very nearly similar models of twice the dimensions and eight times the
displacement. I had already obtained a series of experimental results of the
same kind, but with less successful apparatus, from a similar pair of models,
three feet long. ‘These data enabled me to compile for each model a dia-
gram of resistance in terms of velocity.

The three pairs of such diagrams, proper to the three pairs of models, were
laid down to scales corresponding to the dimensions of the models, according
to the system of comparison I haye enunciated; thus the velocity-scale for

the six-foot models is ,/2 times, and that for the three-foot models twice
as open as that for the twelve-foot models; and the resistance-scales for the
six-foot and three-foot are respectively 8 and 64 times as open as that for
the twelve-foot. According to my proposition, were the three sets of models
exactly similar the three sets of diagrams should be identical,

Reduced copies of these diagrams are shown in Plate I. figs. 2, 3, 4.
Their general agreement, especially as to the position occupied in the yelo-
city-scale by the several salient features of the curyes and as to the relative
resistances of the contrasted forms, is very striking. It is true that on com-
paring the absolute resistances, the correspondence is not so close as it at
first sight appears. Thus the three-foot models exhibit throughout a
decided excess of resistance as compared with the six-foot; but I think this
is probably attributable to their being small enough to be within the range
of viscosity. On comparing the diagrams of the twelve-foot and six-foot
models, however, we find that it is the larger model that has an excess of
resistance. This excess, which is slight, may be partly due to certain
minor differences of form which had been introduced in the larger models,
It may also haye partly arisen from the fact that the twelve-foot models,
owing to their greater dimensions, swam relatively nearer to the towing-
boat, a circumstance which may naturally have tended to enhance their
resistances.

On the whole, I think that series of diagrams supplies a very fair yeri-
fication of the alleged scale of comparison.

Besides thus throwing light on the question of comparison of the per- —
formance of similar vessels of different dimensions, these experiments show
very clearly that strange forms may possess merits that are entirely un-
known and unexpected before experiment is made upon them ; for here we ©
find that an abnormal form (suggested simply by the appearance of water- —
birds when swimming), if moving with a high though not excessive ve- —
locity, experiences considerably less resistance than the wave-line form, the —
accredited representative of the form of least resistance, particularly at high

: ic ae
Of Waterlines of the Madels.
Pie rr |

meet As Se Siege os

Fig. 2.

Diagrams of Le fr. Models. | Aa al

N
N
Ny
~
5 2\|0
Resistance in pounds,

S40 3\6o 3/80 4\00 420 4\40
Velocity iv feet per minute.

Fig. 3. | ;
ae aa = by ood ae Ss :
Diagranes of Oft.. Uodels. | bigs a 3
saree ene | ak pO 48 ;
7 ri | =
| BM 8
a S} -2
Su ade 4 —p al 8
Ee i ! oo
cate Bip ca
2)50 2\70 2190 3yo

Velocity in’ feet per minute.

Fk. #.
Diagrams of 3 fe. Models.

ON CORONERS’ INQUISITIONS ON BOILER EXPLOSIONS. 47

speeds. This proves that we can have no ground for certainty that we have
found even an approximation to the best form, unless we have gone experi-
mentally over almost the whole ground and tested a very wide variety of
shape. But, independently of this aspect of the question, it is, I think, cer-
tain that on very many important questions, such as, for instance, the proper
ratio of length to breadth, there is no really established principle of judg-
ment on which reliance can be placed. Yet most weighty considerations
affecting economy and efficiency are involved in the settlement of even that
single question. But unless we build mere experimental ship-sized models,
there seems no possibility of determining the question by full-scale expe-
riments.

It is true that the circumstances under which my experiments were
tried did not admit of such exactness as to render them absolutely conclu-
sive as the sole basis of the theory of comparative resistance in terms of
dimension. Nor do I by any means pretend to be certain that there are
no elements of resistance other than I have taken account of in my theoretical
justification of it; but if any such do exist, they can be detected, and the
laws of their operation discovered with far greater facility and completeness
by small-scale than by full-size experiments. And I contend that unless the
reliability of small-scale experiments is emphatically disproved, it is useless
to spend vast sums of money upon full-size trials, which, after all, may be
misdirected, unless the ground is thoroughly cleared beforehand by an ex-
haustive investigation on small scale.

Report of the Committee appointed to consider and report how far
Coroners’ Inquisitions are satisfactory Tribunals for the Investiga-
tion of Boiler Explosions, and how these Tribunals may be im-
proved, the Committee consisting of Wit1am Farrparrn, C.E.,
F.R.S., LL.D., &c., Joserx Wuirworth, C.L., F.R.S., Joun Penn,
C.E., F.R.S., Joun Hicx, C.E., M.P., Frepericx J. BramMwett,
C.E., Tuomas Wupster, Q.C., Hucn Mason, Samuet Riesy,
Witiram Ricwarnson, C.L., and E. Lavineton Frercurr, C.E.

@
I. Boirer explosions continue to occur with their accustomed frequency and
fatality. Since the Meeting of the British Association held last year in
Norwich not less than 46 explosions have occurred, by which 78 persons
have been killed, in addition to 114 others having been injured; and as
these catastrophes take place with considerable regularity, there is every
reason to apprehend that a similar number of explosions, causing the loss of
a similar number of lives and a similar amount of bodily injury, will trans-
pire before the next Meeting of the British Association, unless some very
_ immediate measures are adopted for arresting these sad disasters.
The fearful explosion which occurred. on the 9th of June last, at Bingley,
_ by which as many as fifteen persons were killed and thirty-three others in-
_ jured, some of them very seriously, will be fresh in the remembrance of
every one; more especially from the fact that amongst those killed and in-
jured were a number of women, having no connexion whateyer with the
works at which the explosion occurred, as well as a number of little children.
These children were exercising in an adjoining playground, when just as

48 REPORT—1869.

they were passing close to the wall of a two-storied building on the premises
at which the explosion occurred, the boiler burst, demolishing the building,
burying the children in the ruins, and crushing eight of them to death, in
addition to seriously injuring seventeen others.

Sad as it is when those connected with boilers and who gain their liveli-
hood from working them are injured, it is even more so when outsiders, who
have no interest in their use or control over their management, are victimized
by their explosion, more especially when these victims are women and
children. Such, however, is by no means an infrequent occurrence. In one
case, a child asleep in its bed, unconscious of all danger, was killed on the
spot by a fragment of an exploded boiler sent through the roof like a thunder-
bolt. In a second case, a young woman working at her needle in an upstairs
room in her own dwelling, was struck by a boiler which was hurled from its
seat, and dashed against the window at which she sat. The injury she received
was serious ; her leg had to be amputated, and death shortly after ensued. In
a third case, just as an infant was making its first assay at walking across the
kitchen-floor in a collier’s cottage, a fragment of an exploded boiler came crash-
ing through the roof, and striking down the child, killed it on the spot. Ina
fourth case, a woman was standing at her own cottage-door with an infant in
her arms, when one of the bricks sent flying by the bursting of a boiler
struck her little one on the head, and killed it in its mother’s arms. Ina
fifth case, a group of boys were sporting in a meadow, when the boiler of a
locomotive engine, just drawn up at an adjoining railway-station, burst, and
scattering one of its fragments among the group, killed one of the boys on the
spot, and injured another. In a sixth case, a house in which an infirm old
woman lived, confined to her bed in an upstairs room, was demolished by a
boiler explosion, so that the poor woman, with the bed on which she lay, was
rudely brought to the ground. In a seventh case, a man passing through a
public thoroughfare on horseback was struck by the débris showered around
by a boiler that happened to explode at the moment; so that even those
casually passing by the premises at which steam-power is employed are not
safe from the attacks of bad boilers. It is no uncommon thing for dwelling-
houses in the vicinity of boilers to be invaded on the occurrence of an explo-
sion with huge fragments, and to have their windows and roofs riddled as if
they had been bombarded, while in some cases they are altogether de-
molished. Many other cases similar to the above might be added; but the
facts already given are, it is thought, sufficient to show that those who use
steam-boilers are not the only parties who suffer from their explosion. Thus
the subject acquires a wider interest, and becomes not only important to
steam-users, but also to the public at large.

Tt is therefore desirable that public attention should be thoroughly aroused
on the subject of steam-boiler explosions, while it is clearly well worthy of
the consideration of the Members of the British Association.

II. The Committee pass on, in the second place, to state that the attention
of its Members has for years been directed to the cause of these sad cata-
strophes, and that they have invariably found that steam-boiler explosions,
though so complicated and disastrous in their results, have sprung from
causes of the simplest character.

In some cases explosions arise from the boilers having been originally mal-
constructed, the furnace-tubes, for instance, not having been strengthened, as
experience has shown to be necessary, by encircling rings or flanged seams,
or other approved and suitable means; and, in consequence of the neglect of
these simple precautions, which may readily be adopted by any one, a con-

ON CORONERS’ INQUISITIONS ON BOILER EXPLOSIONS, 49

siderable number of furnace-tubes have collapsed and ruptured, when the
rush of steam and hot water resulting therefrom has been attended with
the most disastrous consequences both to life and property. Explosions of
this character are particularly prevalent in Cornwall, where it seems espe-
cially difficult to persuade steam-users that a furnace-tube can collapse from
any other cause than that of overheating through shortness of water. This
simple but obstinate prejudice makes Cornwall one of the most prolific
counties for steam-boiler explosions; and the Cornish boiler, which, when
well constructed and strengthened in the furnace-tube as just described, is
one of the safest and most reliable of any, has been raised to the undesirable
notoriety of being the most explosive, simply through the obstinate pre-
judice just referred to, so that the very county that gave this boiler birth and
name is doing more than any other to damage its reputation.

Other explosions arise simply through defective staying, as in the case of
the boiler that exploded at Aberaman on the 31st of May last, killing four
persons and injuring four others. In this case the front end of the boiler
was blown out, consequent on the removal of the furnace-tube in order to
metamorphose the boiler (most unwisely) from one fired internally to one
fired externally. When the furnace-tube, which formed a most valuable
longitudinal stay, had been removed, no adequate provision was made for re-
pairing its loss, and the consequence was that the end blew out from sheer
weakness. This explosion is by no means singular; and many similar
cases have been met with in which the flat ends of boilers have been
blown out through unwisely removing the furnace-tube in Cornish boilers in
order to exchange internal firing for external. One other explosion, resulting
from imperfect staying, may be referred to, which occurred on the 28th of
July, 1866, at Tunstall, and resulted in the death of two persons and in
injury to seven others. This boiler was of considerable size, being as much
as 36 feet long by 9 feet diameter, while it was worked at a pressure of
from 35 lbs. to 40 lbs. on the square inch. This boiler, which contained an
internal horseshoe-shaped flue, was constructed with a hemispherical end at
the back, and a flat one at the front. The flat end was insufficiently stayed,
in consequence of which it was blown out with the horseshoe-shaped tube

_ attached to it, and thrown to a distance of about 50 yards in one direction,
_ while the shell of the boiler recoiled to about the same distance in another.
_ Alongside this boiler was another, in process of completion, with two boiler-

makers and a boy at work inside it. On the occurrence of the explosion, not
only was the boiler first referred to torn from its seat, as just explained, but
the sister one alongside was thrown on to a public road, and as this road
happened to be on an incline, the boiler went rolling down, with the men,
the boy, and their tools inside it, so that their predicament was somewhat
similar to that of poor Regulus in his spiked cask.

Other explosions occur from defective material and workmanship, in illus-
tration of which, the explosion may be referred to which occurred at Norwich
on the 25th of September, 1866, by which the works were laid in ruins,
Seven persons killed, and two others injured.

_ Other explosions, again, arise from defective equipments, the manholes not
being guarded by substantial mouth-pieces, or the boilers not being mounted

with suitable safety-valves, glass water-gauges, or other necessary fittings.

_ Many explosions occur from the worn-out state of the boilers, the boilers
Bienes worked on till the plates are so reduced as to be no thicker than
_ asheet of brown paper. One such case occurred on the 24th of April, 1865,

at Wigan, and resulted in the death of one person, and in injury to four
1869, E

50 REPORT—1869.

others. Another took place at Leeds on the 27th of March, 1866, by which
two persons were killed, and six others injured. A third happened at Colly-
hurst, Manchester, on the 23rd of December, 1867, by which six persons
were killed and four others injured. Cases of this class are so numerous that
they defy enumeration, and the working on of old worn-out boilers, that
should long since have been discarded altogether, is a prolific source of
explosions.

Some explosions arise from neglect of the attendants, who have ignorantly
tampered with the safety-valves, or neglected the proper supply of water.
The number of explosions from this cause, however, is not by any means so
great in proportion to those that arise from malconstructed or worn-out
boilers, as is generally supposed ; and many more explosions arise from bad
boilers than from bad attendants, though it is often much to the convenience
of the steam-user to have the blame of an explosion thrown upon the atten-
dant rather than on the boiler.

Such are some of the leading causes of steam-boiler explosions, all of
which, it will be seen, are extremely simple; and the Committee consider
that, as a rule, boilers burst simply because they are bad—bad either from
original malconstruction, or from the condition into which they have been
allowed to fall ; while they wish to record their opinion that these lamentable
catastrophes, by which so many persons are annually killed, are not acci-
dental, but that they might be prevented by the exercise of common know-
ledge and common care.

III. The next point the Committee have to consider is, how far the pre-
sent inquiries conducted by coroners as to the cause of boiler-explosions
are satisfactory.

On referring to the verdicts returned by coroners’ juries on deaths occa-
sioned by boiler-explosions, it appears that the usual verdict is one of “ acci-
dental death;” in fact this seems to be returned on nearly every occasion,
whatever the cause of the explosion may be, and even when it has resulted
from the use of an old worn-out boiler, reduced to the thickness of a sixpence.
Added to this, the evidence commonly given at these inquiries is anything
but of a reliable and instructive character. The most visionary theories are
advanced, and the attempt is frequently made to show that explosions are
unaccountable and inevitable. Thus no suitable information is given to the
public as to the cause of these sad disasters, and the consequence is that
boiler-makers can palm off on the public bad boilers, and steam-users employ
them with the certainty that if they explode with fatal consequences, they
will, by the help of a coroner and his jury, be publicly absolved from all
responsibility, and the event proclaimed to be accidental. After the conclusion
the Committee have arrived at, that explosions are not accidental, but may
be prevented by the exercise of ‘* common knowledge and common care,” they
cannot but consider that such evidence and such verdicts are eminently un-
satisfactory, and that they call forimmediate attention.

IY. In the fourth place, the Committee have to consider how far the pre-
sent unsatisfactory character of coroners’ investigations can be corrected.

It has been proposed by the Manchester Steam-users’ Association that
every coroner, when holding an inquiry on a steam-boiler explosion, should
be both empowered and instructed to avail himself of the assistance of two
competent engineers having no connexion with the works at which the
explosion occurred, and that these engincers should visit the scene of the
catastrophe, investigate the cause of the explosion, and attend the inquest in
order to assist the coroner in his examination of witnesses, as well as to give

a ee

——— ee

il ON CORONERS’ INQUISITIONS ON BOILER EXPLOSIONS. 51
‘

their reports (which might either be joint or several, as found most con-
yenient in each case) being accompanied with explanatory scaled drawings,
showing the original construction of the boiler, and as far as possible the
lines of rent, as well as the direction in which the parts were thrown, and
the distances at which they fell; while, in order to secure to the public the
full advantage of the investigation, it is further proposed that the engineers’
reports, with the accompanying drawings, along with the verdict of the jury,
should be printed and deposited in the Patent Office, and lie there for in-
__ spection and purchase, as in the case of specifications of inventions ; and also
_ that copies of these Reports should be forwarded to the members of both
Houses of Parliament, as in the case of reports on railway catastrophes, as
_ well as to the various free libraries and scientific societies throughout the

- country.

The Committee consider that the adoption of this proposition would very
much raise the character of the present inquiries conducted by coroners, and
that the measure is well calculated to secure the truth being fully arrived at
and plainly spoken, to which they attach the greatest importance.

The fact of two engineers being appointed to investigate and report, those
engineers being altogether independent of the works at which the explosion
occurred, would, it is thought, secure an unbiassed opinion, while from the
publicity given to the verdict, the coroner and jury would be stimulated to
make a searching investigation. It is possible that in some cases, more
especially in the early adoption of this plan, some coroners might not select
the most competent engineers to assist them in their inquiry; but this, it is
thought, is an error that would soon be corrected from the publicity it is pro-

posed to give to the whole proceedings, which would make the coroners
careful to make a wise selection for the sake of their own reputation, while,
as they would not be limited in their choice to a special locality, but might
take the range of the whole country, there would be no difficulty in their finding
thoroughly competent men. Were two competent engineers selected, the
Committee consider there would never, or at all events but very seldom, be
_ any practical difference in their views as to the cause of an explosion; but
presuming that in a few instances such might be the case, the Committee
_ would not recommend that, as a rule, a third party should be called in to
S decide the point, since such a question should not be decided simply by a
majority of opinions. The better plan would be to record the facts and
the conclusions arrived at, and to leave to public discussion and time to show
__ how far the opinions advanced were correct or not.
One of the results of searching investigations and plain-speaking verdicts
would be, that when a steam-user has killed some half dozen people by the
use of a crazy old boiler, the widows and children of the deceased would be
_ able to claim from him compensation for the loss of their bread-winners.
This, it is thought, would operate as a most wholesome check both upon
boiler-makers and boiler-users, as the one party would be exposed if he sold
bad boiler, and the other if he bought it. Some timid steam-users object
his measure, lest they should ever be brought in for heavy damages; but
fears may be altogether dismissed by all those who are working honest
ers. Good boilers, as already stated in this Report, donot burst. Explo-
ms are not mysterious, inexplicable, or unavoidable. They do not happen
by caprice, alike to the careful and the careless. They may all be prevented
the exercise of common knowledge and common care, so that timid steam-
Sers may dismiss their apprehensions as long as they are doing their duty by
E2

|
evidence themselves before the jury, and report on the cause of the explosion,
;

52 REPORT— 1869,

their boilers and boiler-attendants. These improved investigations would at
the same time have a most wholesome effect upon the operations of boiler-
inspection associations and boiler-insurance companies, as in the event of the
explosion of an enrolled boiler, the case would be fully investigated by im-
partial parties, and the facts brought to light. Such a course would clearly
promote sound inspection.

Thus the Committee consider that the adoption of this measure would have
so wholesome an influence upon boiler-makers and boiler-users, as well as
upon boiler-attendants and boiler-inspectors, and indeed upon all those con-
nected with the use of steam, that it would, without any further Governmental
interference, do much to prevent the recurrence of steam-boiler explosions,
and they warmly concur with the proposition.

With regard to the manner in which the expense of these investigations
should be defrayed, the Committee recommend that this should be met from
the same source that coroners’ inquiries are met at present, viz. either from
the county or city rates, as the case may be. This course is deemed better
than that of throwing the cost of the inquiry upon the owner of the exploded
boiler by way of penalty, as in many cases his resources would be so drained
by the catastrophe as to be insufficient to meet the charges; while, in
addition, it is thought that scientific witnesses, called upon to discharge so
important a public duty as that now proposed, should not be dependent on so
uncertain and invidious a source for remuneration.

It has been proposed that the Crown should levy a heavy deodand on the
owners of all boilers that explode, unless it could be shown that the explosion

arose from causes entirely beyond their own control, the onus of the proof |

being thrown on the boiler-owners, and not on the Crown. Such a measure
has, at first sight, much to recommend it. It would doubtless act as a
powerful stimulant to care ; but inasmuch as the relatives of those killed by
boiler explosions are deprived thereby of their means of support, it is thought
that all payment should go to them in the way of compensation rather than
to the Crown. In many cases the owner of a boiler is so impoverished by its
explosion that, had he to pay a deodand, he would have nothing left to com-
pensate those who were rendered widows and orphans by the catastrophe, so
that the Crown would be robbing them of their legitimate compensation. It
is thought therefore it would be better not to impose any deodand, fine, or
penalty, but to leave the steam-user, in the event of explosion, simply to the
exposure of full investigation and plain speaking, combined with the liability
to an action for damages, which the improved verdicts would give increased
facilities for setting in motion.

The Committee would wish to add a few remarks upon the misapprehen-
sion that arises from the use of the word “ accidental” in the verdicts re-
turned by coroners’ juries, and the advantage they think would be derived
from the substitution of the expression “not due to malice aforethought.”
The Committee apprehend that the fundamental object of a coroner’s inquiry,
in the case of a sudden or violent death, is to determine whether that death
was occasioned by personal malice or not. Thus it may be legally correct for
the jury to return a verdict of “accidental death” from a steam-boiler
explosion, though the boiler may have been so worn out that, in an engineer-
ing and common sense view, the explosion was no accident at all. Thus the
jury use the word in one sense, but the public accept it in another, and the
term is taken to be an exoneration of the owner of the boiler. It is thought
that the obligations of the jury would be fulfilled, at the same time that the
prevention of steam-boiler explosions would be promoted, if juries, instead of

ON CORONERS’ INQUISITIONS ON BOILER EXPLOSIONS. 53

returning a verdict of “ accidental death,’ would state that they consider
there had been no “ malice aforethought,” and the following verdict is given
by way of illustration :—

** The jury find that X., X., X., &c. were killed by a steam-boiler explosion
that occurred at street, in town, on day of the week, month,
and year, on the premises occupied by ; and while they consider that
these deaths were not occasioned by any ‘ malice aforethought, cither on the
part of the owner of the boiler or others connected with it, they wish to re-
cord the fact that the boiler was a bad one, its plates being considerably
reduced by corrosion, and that it was to this cause that the explosion
was due.”

The Committee do not overlook the fact that juries have a third course
open to them, which lies between the announcement of “ accidental death ”
or “ wilful murder,” and that they have the power of committing owners
of boilers for “manslaughter,” a power which in many cases they are bound
in the discharge of their duty to exercise, and in the opinion of the Com-
mittee much more frequently than they do. The task, however, of com-
mitting a boiler-owner for manslaughter is frequently an invidious one for a
coroner’s jury, and in practice verdicts of manslaughter are very seldom
brought in by them. Were the suggestion thus made carried out, coroners’
juries would be extricated from an unpleasant position, and the truth with
regard to explosions would be more fully and freely spoken.

The following is a recapitulation of the conclusions to which the Committee
have arrived :—First, that a lamentable loss of life is annually caused by
steam-boiler explosions, which urgently calls for public attention. Secondly,
that these explosions, as a rule, are not accidental, but may be prevented by
the exercise of “common knowledge and common care.” Thirdly, that the
present investigations conducted by coroners with regard to steam-boiler
explosions are eminently unsatisfactory, and call for immediate improve-
ment. Fourthly, that coroners should, when conducting inquiries on boiler
explosions, be instructed and empowered to avail themselves of competent
engineering advice, so that the cause of every boiler explosion may be fully
investigated, while the information acquired should be widely circulated.

Fifthly, the Committee entertain a sanguine hope that this course alone
would do much towards the prevention of the present recurrence of steam-
boiler explosions, without any further Governmental action.

Before concluding this Report, the Committee feel it incumbent upon
them to allude to the general movement that has taken place within the last
year with regard to the adoption of some system of compulsory inspection.

During the past session a Bill was introduced to Parliament, and carried
through an early stage, for placing all steam-boilers under Government in-
_ spection, by the agency of the Board of Trade. By others it has been pro-
_ posed that every steam-user should be compelled to have his boiler examined
_ and certified by some private association or company instituted for that ob-
ject, and authorized by the Government. Others propose that insurance

_ should be an essential accompaniment to this arrangement, and that, to secure
_ the integrity of the service, the boiler-inspectors should themselves be in-
spected by the Government.
With regard to these propositions, the Committee would wish to express a
Strong and, as they think, a wholesome dread of any Government inter-
ference with the management of private concerns; and they cannot but con-
_ sider that the plan proposed of handing over all the boilers in the country to
the supervision of the Board of Trade would prove harassing to the steam-

5A . REPORT—1869.

user, and a barrier to progress. Such a system, it is thought, must soon
prove a system of limitation. Inspectors armed with Governmental powers
must be guided by a code of rules laid down by some higher and central
authority. They must be instructed what diameter of boiler and what
thickness of plate to allow for certain pressures of steam, also what area
and description of safety-valves, and what number and description of fittings
generally. Thus the responsibility of construction would be removed from
the boiler-makers to the Government, and the Board of Trade would become
the national boiler constructors. However wisely and liberally such a system
might be worked, and however carefully its code of rules might be devised, it
is feared it would shortly prove an irksome limitation, and that serious em-
barrassment would result. Whether any milder measures could be intro-
duced to extend the operations of private associations, is a question on which
the Committee are not in a position to pronounce an ‘opinion at present;
but the subject appears to them to be one of considerable importance, and
the more public attention is called to it, and the more it is ventilated and
discussed, the better.

The Committee would venture, however, to submit to consideration,
whether it would not be worth while to try the effect of more searching
coroners’ investigations, and plain-speaking verdicts, before any other steps
are taken. Were the course recommended kerein with regard to coroners
adopted, such a mass of well-authenticated information would soon be accu-
mulated that it would be shortly apparent whether this measure were of
itself sufficient to arrest the course of boiler explosions, or whether the reck-
lessness of steam-users was so great that more stringent measures were
absolutely necessary ; while, supposing that the latter unfortunately proved
to be the case, the amount of authentic information obtained would form a
sure basis for legislative enactment. The Committee therefore venture to
urge that the plan proposed in this Report be fairly tried before any further
steps be taken, and they recommend this subject to the best consideration of
this Mecting of the British Association.

It should not be omitted to mention that since the subject was brought
under the consideration of the Mechanical Section of the British Association
last year, the Manchester Steam-users’ Association memorialized the Home
Secretary with regard to the improvement of coroners’ inquiries in the
manner referred to in this Report. The deputation was favourably received,
and the Home Secretary stated, in his place in the House of Commons, only a
few days since, that he should endeavour, during the Recess, to prepare a
measure for the prevention of steam-boiler explosions. Thus considerable
attention has been drawn to this subject during the past year, and consider-
able progress has been made in educating public opinion with regard to it.
The Committee think that this affords ground for congratulation, and that,
from the interest now aroused in connexion with this subject, the attainment
of the prevention of steam-boiler explosions is not far distant.

(Signed on behalf of the Committee)

Witrram Farrparrn, Chairman.
August 18, 1869.

7
|

Date pity Sale, ition gh ste Cie,

GASES EXISTING IN SOLUTION IN WELL-WATERS. 55

Preliminary Report of the Committee appointed for the determination
of the Gases existing in Solution in Well-waters. By Dr. E.
Franxianp, F.R.S., and Hersert M‘Leop, F.C.S. (Reporter,
Herserr M‘Lnop. )

In consequence of the investigation being far from complete, this Report
must be considered as merely a preliminary one; a more detailed account of
the results obtained, and the inferences to be drawn from them, must be
postponed till a future occasion.

The apparatus employed in these and other experiments was described at
the last meeting of the Chemical Society, and has been published in the
Journal *,

In collecting the waters it is, of course, of the greatest importance that
they should be prevented from coming in contact with the air, otherwise
serious errors might be produced in the determination of the gases dissolved.
In order to avoid these errors, the tap delivering the water from the pumps
is connected by means of a caoutchouc tube with a tubulure at the bottom of
a tin cylinder, about 10 inches high and 7 in diameter. The water is turned
on and allowed to flow over the edge of the vessel; thus only the surface of
the water is exposed to the action of the air, and the liquid at the lower part
of the vessel is protected by the upward current and continual overflow.

The bottles used for collecting the waters hold a little more than 100

cubic centimetres, and a separate quantity is used for each experiment.
Into each bottle a piece of glass tube, bent in the form of a U, is intro-
duced ; one end of the tube is sealed, and in the closed limb a bubble of air
is confined by mercury which fills the open limb and the bend. In the col-
lection of each water, four of these bottles are lowered by means of pieces of
string into the tin vessel, while the water is flowing over its edge. After
being filled each bottle is carefully examined, and if any bubbles of gas
adhere to the sides they must be removed. The bottles are then again
lowered into the vessel and the temperature observed. A siphon is now
passed to the bottom of one of the bottles, and after it has drawn two or
three hundred cubic centimetres of water through the bottle, it is placed into
the second. The first bottle is now raised, and while its neck is still under
the water, a slightly greased stopper is put into the neck and carefully
pressed down. ‘his force compresses the air contained in the glass tube,
and if the pressure is sufficient, it prevents the escape of gas from the water,
a precaution which in some cases is very necessary. The siphon is then
transferred from the second into the third bottle, and the second is closed and
remoyed. When the four bottles have been filled, the stoppers are covered
with ground caps. The caps are next filled with mercury through small
holes at their tops, which are afterwards closed with glass stoppers.
__ The gases should be removed from the waters as soon after collection as
_ possible. In the following cases, the greatest length of time which was
allowed to elapse between these operations was five days, but usually the
remoyal of the gases was effected the day after the collection.

With so few results as have been obtained up to the present, it will be
impossible to do more than point out the small quantity of oxygen in the
waters from deep wells as compared with those from shallow ones, and with
rain- and river-waters. The quantity of nitrogen is also very remarkable, as
being in all the cases, except the river- and rain-water, in excess of the

* Journ. Chem. Soe, ser, 2, vol, vii. p. 307.

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REPORT—1869.

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No}

THE PRESSURE OF TAXATION ON REAL PROPERTY. a

amount absorbable by distilled water. To show this there is introduced
into the foregoing Table numbers taken from Bunsen’s ‘ Gasometry,’ indi-
cating the quantities of nitrogen absorbable by 100 volumes of distilled
water at the temperatures which are nearest to those at which the waters
were collected. The reasons of this apparent anomaly will be investigated
during the course of the ensuing year, and it is hoped that, by the next
Meeting of the Association, a much larger amount of information will have
been obtained. The prosecution of the experiments has been much hindered
by the necessity of perfecting the apparatus for the removal of the gases,
and the means of collection, so that it was not until after the beginning of
July that any systematic work could be commenced. Although the investi-
gation will be continued, it is not intended to ask for any additional grant,
as the amount voted last year will probably be sufficient.

The Pressure of Taxation on Real Property. By Freprricx Purvy,
Principal of the Statistical Department, Poor Law Board, and one
of the Honorary Secretaries of the Statistical Society.

{A Communication ordered to be printed im extenso among the Reports. |
I. Tux Pressure.

Tue question of the fiscal pressure caused by the incidence of imperial and
local taxation on real property is no new topic in this country. In 1846 the
House of Lords appointed a select committee to inquire into the “ Burdens
affecting real property.” This committee, of which Lord Beaumont was the
chairman, gathered from various sources a large body of information, and
made in the same session a rather brief report to the House upon the volu-
minous evidence which was subsequently published. A draft report which
Lord Monteagle, one of the members, had drawn up was not accepted; it
was, however, printed as a separate paper by the House of Commons in the
same year.

Both documents haye rather an historical than practical interest for us in
the present day. Our imperial financial policy has materially changed since
1846, and the local burdens of that time are quite dwarfed in absolute
amount by recent growths in the same field. It therefore appeared a useful
task to ascertain the taxation laid on real property at this moment with the
greatest precision that authentic records render possible. I propose to do
this statistically ; an economic treatment of the subject would be, no doubt,
as touching the pockets of a large number of people, a more exciting theme.
But admitting that the aggregate of imperial and local expenses must be
provided for, throwing a tax off one description of property means, in the
sphere of financial policy, placing it on another. The correlation of the
parts would be disturbed; the wide and intricate field of taxation must then
be entirely reviewed and readjusted, a task of no mean difficulty which
may be fittingly omitted on this occasion.

The nearest approach, at present, to the annual value of real property in
England and Wales is expressed by some figures supplied to me by the
courtesy of Mr. Frederick Gripper, Accountant and Comptroller-General to
the Board of Inland Revenue.

They show the gross sum to be upwards of £145,000,000 for the financial
_ year 1867-68, thus assessed :—

58 REPORT—1869.

£
Mb er AGO Wl LA. viele, ara joie aserzratets-cr corate) Oy ayete ety erayess's psa 116,341,387
Sum formerly charged under A, but since 1865 transferre } y
to Schedule D as profits mOlps UBIg po "aid gmbomeasack x 20851991
otal ics tecte Saas dhe Siw e as aes 145,399,378

The assessment upon which the Crown actually gathered the tax was
upwards of £9,000,000 short of this gross sum, the statement of the amounts
“charged” standing, for the same year, thus :—

Hinder | Schedulp A. ti4.0 sis seic's viaiveh Tooled boone oerewinelehte 107,092,692
Sum formerly charged under A, but since 1865 ieaashcie. 29,041,932

HO PULA SD LOMUM ter a'kya atalols © Cte nage rw itiec os cols apuiniatnete
(Notably i See ate AEM. eels 136,134,624

A difference between gross and net value of £9,000,000 and more, arising
upon those properties which are still retained in Schedule A.

What originally stood in Schedule A before any transfer was effected can
be shown in detail for the last year of the old series thus :—

Gross Annual Value of Property in England and Wales, Assessed under
Schedule A of Income-Tax Acts, Year ended 5th April, 1865.
r £

1. Lands, including tithe-rent charge ...........00.eeeee 46,403,000
Pe MCRIMAP ES atietcis tas cslva Vicia pls eA gut va giles! <6 0le:<10,5r015 Maele 59,286,000
ep eal heen Ob CONS UtED) Scr. a .cic a's cv crm oe ale 015, s when felatanlats 58,000
PL-eINTATORS: syuiattig ls eipitlc «5.5 <'G(a-> EvisnlSiem ols Seek eee alae 189,000
WP RNBES ee sacking ss dial dic o btaesi sal erets are obial sets trdkenmancerne dea 166,000
PML NARITER nino iowts « wi eisis, e's atte tec sate a Bins is ate eae D 526,000
me Mey. Beet ec canis tir oeitttr eset dic ie's top tise taste D = 4,277,000
G. eUNON=WOREN Ae See hieten ob doe Mae wre STOEL de cid mettle D ~ 1,248,000
pee tshnried: ser. Mee” Ie RIG totes SRK GOs BACs abe ds Stet hes D 31,000
UOMO An als, cuts scat hepa os saints Nawiies nevis av Beene D 786,000
Hibs Lhe gehen aOR earn AP Cee On aera ore D_ 15,882,000
MPP RTASRWOERD sort ioc sities ac wali Papin s atta os aesceTetushes re D 1,618,000
Am CUBR PNOPENly NEM! oot cricslae™ die rie's Meee so es ateneo ine 2,486,000
ASSENT Al TOGA. Ste. Vipin sheldjow is See an lawith se stots crema 387,000

Total 6 ..ctcdssa: wea tame ee 131,343,000

The principal items now placed under Schedule D have that letter marked
against the sum in the list above; probably considerable transfers have also
been made from “ other property ”’ and “ general profits ;” but this is certain,
quarries, mines, iron-works, canals, fisheries, railways, and gas-works hereto-
fore under Schedule A are now accounted for under Schedule D.

In the British fiscal system real property suffers an exceptional liability to
taxation. It bears fully three-fourths of our heavy and fast-increasing local
rates, and then in a variety of ways it is made to supplement the imperial
budgets. Here I may be permitted to remark that in this country we are
too much in the habit of discussing our imperial and local systems of rates
and taxes as things apart, yet their conjoint bearing on the interests of the
holders of real property is obvious and practical. This opinion I had the
honour of indicating to Section F, in a brief paper, when the British Associa-
tion last met at Cambridge.

The amount of local taxation incident upon real property is now known

* Salt-springs or works, alum-mines or works, docks, drains and levels; rights of
markets and fairs, tolls, bridges, and ferries.

t All other profits arising from lands, tenements, and hereditaments or heritages not

in the actual possession of the party to be charged, and not before enumerated.
{ See the Transactions of the British Association for 1862, p. 162.

i ee i

eT ae

THE PRESSURE OF TAXATION ON REAL PROPERTY. 59

with great fullness: much is also known of the imperial burden ; but, for the
reasons hereafter stated, approximate completeness is alone attainable in this
section of our taxes. As the heayiest in amount the local taxes are first
shown by the subjoined list :—

SE =

Local Taxation in England and Wales falling on Real Property in 1867-68,
according to Mr. Ward Hunt’s Return, Nos. 497 and 497—L. Sess. 1868.

1. Amount levied under the name of poor-rate ............ 11,061,000

2. County, hundred, borough police, xo¢ paid out of poor-rate 307,000

3. Highway-rate, not paid out of poor-rate .............00. 917,000

EPRICE TALON Ya ToS, Sl niera sci caine s's's « ae oh Getatyaatante d 217,000

5, Lighting- and watching-rate ......).....0cccdecevesecs 77,000

6. Improvement-commission rates .......... cece cece ee tees 445,000

7. General district-rates, levied under the provision of Public 1.797.000
Health and Local Government Acts .............00: ohh

8. Rates under Courts of Commissioners of Sewers, including 709,000
drainage and embankment rates ..............4-- Mop }

9. Rates of other kinds, and inclusive of £981,000 levied in 1.203.000
the metropolitan district as general and lighting-rates. . } at

ERG etl srw or a eratctovevcce net aceattiace ee 16,733,000

*,* Taken in round numbers and corrected by the most recent returns in possession of
the Poor-Law Board.

It may be well to remember that nearly half of this heavy sum is entailed
upon the ratepayers by the absolute right to relief which the legislation of
England has given to the poor. The expenditure last year for “ relief to the
poor” was £7,498,000; but law charges to the amount of £29,000, the
cost of making valuations £50,000, and “money expended for all other
purposes” £532,000, a large portion of which latter sum is solely contingent
on pauperism, are all items that are excluded from what, in official language,
is termed “relief;” though it is patent that if pauperism ceased out of the
land, most of these expenses would be determined. Add a due proportion of

the excluded items and we may fairly say that, in round numbers, English
_ pauperism last year cost little short of £8,000,000. sterling.
_The imperial taxes that are incident upon realty certainly exceed
£6,000,000 ; they probably approach to £7,000,000. So far as theirrespective
amounts can be discovered, they are exhibited in the following statement :—

Imperial Taxation in England and Wales falling on Real Property in 1867-68,
or thereabouts, according to Ieturns in possession of the Commissioners of

Inland Revenue. : :
£
; Bembenbroporty=tax; (lL S67. 07.6 66s sieGiwiels cinlesisi's swisl a orsie'ee de vote 2,354,000
i ema aS fa Kar SOAs cso) sh0id s.a)0 ecoinreseisiose mois avs PR eee 1,058,000
RAS Fee AA IZ ya USS aia oie cia ohefeis efsiisve, e421 BV sie) “Tatas, glen 3Yo/siars i 1,003,000
4, Succession-duty, average of 1867-68-69 ........-......... 562,000
5. Stamps on deeds and other instruments, not otherwise spe- 1,405,000?
Creel OOS (a) Mamiiaay tse} vw bs 7h mite Eh ob } ier girs:
SEES LIS SUITED. 2, °Sshahey SiG tipravore. spy gaucho veigesarac Wighaerea eee Mane Lee
7. Stamp-duty on wills and letters of administration? ........ 00 seceeeeeeese
BepUBrORi Le WOOULL ECE Toe. sos «21s uss o.0 4 tu 2h Retina teeLen te ioste ee

Approximate total ............500- 6,382,000

_ (a) Stamps on sales, conveyances, leases, mortgages, &c. will be included in this sum,
but what portion is not incident on real estate it is impossible to discover. The stamp-
duties on wills and letters of administration, some of which will be paid on leaseholds for
years, and therefore indirectly from real property, are excluded from the above, and that
exclusion may possibly balance the excess under the head of stamps on deeds. The duty

60 REPORT—1869.

on wills &c. in England and Wales in 1867-68 was £1,493,000. Probate Court fee
stamps, which in 1868 amounted to £124,000, are also excluded.

The succession-duty experiences considerable variations; according to
particulars furnished by Mr. Gripper, the sums collected in England and
Wales for the financial years 1867, 1868, 1869 were respectively £507,081,
£608,297, and £571,831. For the purposes of this paper the average of the
three years has been taken. Fire-insurance duty has ceased; it is noted
above as a reminder; very recently it was a tax that largely bore on certain
descriptions of real property. After trial it is found impossible to unravel
the stamp-duties so as to exhibit that portion of the impost with which
alone this paper is concerned.

Allowing for possible defects in the imperial tax table, the aggregate
burden is this :—

£
Maken by local ltaxati@ric) «seirtsielo.9<4ais: aie ete) s sysieie slo he erereuatedee 16,733,000
7 DInpenial Wa xAlOniea.< (a ls,<i0 haces aeoe tiene 6,382,000
Grand lotal mvs.eiis .:<:iye% nie vine seaere Ce EE OUO

upon the gross value assessed under Schedule A—£145,399,000. This is
equivalent to 3s. 23d. in the pound; on the net value (the amount “ charged,”
£136,185,000) it equals 3s. 43d. in the pound. Here, however, it should
be remembered that the standards of comparison are themselves averages of
a comprehensive sort; it is not every pound of gross or of *‘ charged”? value
that is taxable. For example, on many estates the land-tax is redeemed * ;
the inhabited-house tax is not paid by more than one-sixth of all the house-
holders of the kingdom; though measured on value alone, more than half the
house-rental pays. The assessment of houses &c. (other than farm-houses)
to the property-tax in 1864-65 was, as already stated, £59,286,000; but for
the purposes of the house-tax, the levy was made upon £30,405,000. Again,
many small proprietors, being outside the statutable limit of the income-tax,
altogether escape it. In a word, as a taxable corpus, the valuations here
cited must not be invested with an homogeneity they do not possess.

Though the Crown valuations under Schedule A be a much truer exponent
of the country’s wealth in real property than any assessment yet made for
the purpose of local ratings, it is nevertheless advisable to give, in a theme
of this kind, some attention to the latter.

There is no information in existence as to the “rateable value” of England
and Wales previous to the year 1840-41. This “rateable,” or, as it is
sometimes termed, “annual value,” when discovered from returns obtained
by the Poor Law Commissioners from the overseers of that time, was found
to be £62,540,000. The parish officers’ valuations were notoriously defective.
The annual value of real property was ascertained by the Commissioners of
the Income- and Property-Tax Acts to be £85,803,000 in the subsequent
year 1841-42, The whole excess of £23,000,000 or so must not, however,
be ascribed to under valuation in the poor-rate assessment. Some few things
are in Schedule A that are exempt from poor’s rate. ©The Parochial Assess-
ment Act of 1837 does not appear to have mended matters much}. The
increase of assessable property, and, latterly, the application of sounder prin-
ciples, introduced by the assessment committees in the practice of valuation,
though yet very short of attainable completeness, make themselves visible
in the next statement :—

* The annual tax redeemed up to 1856 was £770,000.—Statistical Journal, vol. xx.
t See ‘Statistical Journal,’ yol. xxiii, p. 292 et seg.

tof eeta rere pany

THE PRESSURE OF TAXATION ON REAL PROPERTY. 61

SSeS

Poor-Rate Valuation.

Parochial Years. Gr Net Annual Clear Interval

ross

Estimated Rental oF between the
: Rateable Value. Successive Returns.

ee EE
1840-41 ........ Not known. 62,540,030 —
hetOay 2.5... :- es 67,320, 587 6 years
1849-50 ........ 5 67,700,153 a BA
FS55—06 ........ 86,077,676 71,840,271 Stars
1865-66 ........ 110,079,308 93,638,402 Seems
1867-68 ........ 118,334,081 100,612,734 1 year.

A Parliamentary Return of some interest to the discussion of the incidence
of taxation was in 1853 obtained upon the motion of Mr. Moffatt. The
growth of the last fifteen or sixteen years has materially changed the relative
proportion of some of the data selected from the paper and placed hereunder.
Historically they have value now; hereafter, when we wish to ascertain
whither political and economic forces are in this matter of taxation carrying
us, their worth may be greater. The amounts payable in England and
Wales out of each sort of rateable property was, in the language of the
return, ‘‘ ascertained by the rule of proportion applicable to the poor’s rate.”

|
‘ ag | Poor’s Rate Proportion paid
Different Descriptions of (including ; by each Description
Property upon Highway
faa Kaisa wore County, te, Land-Tax. of Property.
sig Ee Borough, and , ee Wee 1
j Police Rates). Amount. | Per cent.
B; Yand, including farm-\) 9797,697 | 607,546| 593,112||3,848,285| 41-2
2. Tithe-rent charge ...... 295,056 59,123 60,563 || 414,742 44
3,002,683 666,669 | 593,675 || 4,263,027 45°6
3. Houses, including ware- 94 KO 2 = ‘
eee } 3,124,526 | 889,574) 478,816 ||4,492,916| 481
4, Coal-mines............ 61,191 14,082 5,981 | 81,254 o'9
5. Saleable underwoods .. 28,524 6,236 5,581 || 40,341 o"4
7 28,471 7,596 3,756 39,823 o'4
7. Railways...... minlaeseys's' 204,871 52,537) 30,171|| 287,579 308
ot crepe mtions 1) 109,082 | 25,881] 19,987|} 240,850] 1's
peebcdtus <n 6,552,293 | 1,662,575 | 1,130,917 | 9,345,790] 100°0

Note.—The poor-rate and highway-rate levy are for the year 1851-52; the land-tax for
the previous year.

Here it is seen that sixteen years ago landed property, including the tithe-
rent charge, bore 45-6 per cent. of the aggregate amount of the rates and tax
mentioned above, and the residual property 54:4 per cent. There is not, I
believe, any subsequent return to show what changes may have taken place
in these ratios when measured on the basis of the poor-rate valuations ;

__ though, from the comparatively slow growth of one and the rapid growth of

the other portion of assessabie property, the differences must be considerable.

In the absence of a means of comparison similar in each particular with
the table of 1851-52, we may, bearing in mind the necessary qualification,
take the property-tax assessment for 1864-65 as a guide, especially as the

62 REPORT—1869.

mere ratios are much less open to doubt, from the diversity of practice be-
tween Crown valuers and local valuers, than the absolute amounts.

Amount and Ratio of Gross Assessment in 1864-65, of Lands and of other
Real Property under Schedule A, in Englund and Wales.

7 Per cent.
Of lands, including tithe-rent charge ............ 46,403,437 353
Of all other descriptions of real property rae 29 929 ;
ATAGH IS BEHEAULE /-\s. cts, aihats IeiW pig le cvs s Wevale Sle S208, (008 Peg,
TPotalecshisiem 30% s. 8s six ogee 131,341,499 100°0

As against 1851-52, we may say that 10°3 per cent. has passed from the
land and gone upon other assessable property. Land would appear now
liable to bear rather more than one-third of any burden laid upon real
property generally, and real property, other than land, rather less than
two-thirds.

II, Tue Growrn or rou Property unpER Pressure.

It has thus been shown, I may submit, that the imposts upon real property
are in appearance exceptionally severe, taxed as it is both by the imperial
and the local assessor. Have these burdens in any wise injured or retarded
the growth of this species of wealth? is the next question. During the past
fifty years England has increased largely in numbers, and more largely in
material prosperity. Under such conditions, it is inconceivable of any com-
munity that a great impetus should not have been given to the development
of what English lawyers mean by the term “realty” or real estate.
Authentic records afford the means of instituting a comparison between the
years 1815 and 1868; or, roughly speaking, after the lapse of half a century.
In the first-named year the population of England and Wales was 11,004,000 ;
in 1865 it was 21,500,000, the increase being 96-2 per cent. In 1814-15,
the real property assessed under Schedule A was £53,495,000, and in 1867-68
it was £145,399,000, or 1718 per cent., and thus surpassing the rate of
development in the population by 75:6 per cent.

This increase of real property is the more remarkable when the circum-
stances of what was formerly its most eminent constituent (land) are
considered. This natural agent, in a country like England of the present
century, is within very narrow limits restricted in quantity. Houses, mills,
factories, railroads, &c. may and do increase indefinitely ; arable land cannot.
It is impossible to say what was the area under cultivation in 1815; and it
is, I believe, a matter of conjecture which way the balance would incline if
the loss by the expansion of our towns and by the introduction of railways
was measured against the acquisitions by enclosures, which, reckoning only »
from 1845 to 1867, amounted to 506,502 acres, a surface much larger than
the area now under cultivation in Dorset or in Cornwall. The estimated
quantity of land occupied by a lineal mile of railway, according to a Parlia-
mentary Paper of last Session, was 12-97 acres; the total extent 133,430
acres, or rather more than one-fourth of the quantity brought under culture
by the Enclosure Commissioners in twenty-two years.

The Government has published no return of the gross valuation in each
county, under Schedule A, for a period later than the financial year 1864-65 ;
but since a comparison of the value of land and of the other descriptions of
real property in that year, in the different parts of the kingdom, with the
official account in 1814-15, may be of some interest to the Section, the
details have been worked out and placed in an Appendix *.

* See ‘Statistical Journal’ for September 1869.

THE PRESSURE OF TAXATION ON REAL PROPERTY.

_ Taken divisionally, the results are these, for the aggregate of real property
other than land :—

A
J

Ill.

. The Metropolis and the extra

Divisions.

metropolitan parts of Mid- |
dlesex, Surrey, and Kent ..

. South-Eastern, less the extra |

metropolitan parts of Surrey
and Kent
South Midland, Jess the extra
metropolitan part of Mid-
dlesex

SOIC eC OC ae

ee ry

MPTURERETEIWe Geet ee icici oes Ch ce 8
. South-Western
. West Midland
. North Midland
. North-Western Siaecae c
Ub Gliese ght le Ra Sago dl
. Northern

. Welsh..

ee ry

England and Wales

Annual Value of Real: Property
other than Lands*.

1814-15.

£
6,914,492

921,408

664,948

1,032,175
1,782,524
1,429,248
473,185
1,856,841
996,986
712,777

450,791

1864-65.

Increase in

1864-65.
£

31,336,856 | 24,422,364

3,215,947

2,475,068

2,453,107
4,695,384
7,852,049
4,248,121
13,138,535
7,924,120
4,013,925
3,084,534

252945539

1,810,120

1,420,932
2,912,860
6,422,801
33774936
11,281,694
6,927,134
3,301,148
351335743

17,235,375 | 84,937,646 | 67,702,271

Increase
per
cent.

353 2
249°1

272'°2

137°6
163°4
449°5
7981
607°6
694°8
462°9
694°9

392°8

Under the house-tax the farmer’s dwelling is separately assessed, but for

property-tax purposes it is treated as an integral part of the land.

Vi.

) Vit.
VIIL.
Ix,

- South Midland, Jess the extra

Divisions.

The Metropolis and the extra
metropolitan parts of Mid-
dlesex, Surrey, and Kent ..

. South-Eastern, less the extra

metropolitan parts of Surrey
LSE ae
metropolitan parts of Mid-
dlesex
Eastern

i ee ed

West Midland

North Midland
North-Western
York

i ad

x. Northern
xr. Welsh

Annual Value of Lands (inclusive

1814-15.
£
2,018,000

1,956,000

3,716,000

3,209,000
5,294,000
4,893,000
4,339,000
2,397,000
3,764,000
2,498,000
2,176,000

36,260,000

Tnerease
per

cent.

of Tithes).
1864-65, |Tacreee
£ £
2,582,315 564,315
2,697,641 741,641
4,935,099 | 1,219,099
4,908,096 | 1,699,096
6,315,853 | 1,019,853
6,189,576 | 1,296,576
5,759,138] 1,416,138
2,826,389 429,389
4,431,864 667,864
2,628,592 130,592
3,135,290 959:290

46,403,853 | 10,143,853

32°38

52°9
19°2
26°4.
32°6
179
17°7

5°2
44°1

279

* With “lands,” wherever mentioned in this paper, tithes in the earlier years, an !
e-rent charge in the later ones, are always included,

64 | REPORT—1869.

In these comparisons no adjustment for the depreciation of the currency
in the earlier part of the century has been attempted. Professor Jevons has
given a table in the ‘Statistical Journal’*, showing that, in 1814, gold was
above the standard price of £3 17s. 104d. by 34 per cent., and in the next
year 20 per cent.; at the latter ratio one-fifth must be deducted from all
values in 1814—15.

From the absence of any authentic record of the land under cultivation in
1814-15, the means of computing the farm rental per acre are wanting.
We are in a better position now: the rent for the whole kingdom, as well as
for individual counties, can be worked out with, I believe, a useful approach
to accuracy. The rent for all England and Wales was, in 1866, £1 17s. 9d.
per acre. The statistics for this, as well as for the counties of the south-
western division, are displayed below.

Acreage under} Annual
Total Area | all kinds of Rental, Rent
in Crops, Bare | Schedule B,| per
Acres. Fallow, and in Acre.
Grass in 1866.| 1864-65.
& £8, 8
All England and Walest...... 37,024,883 | 24,546,607. | 46,403,853 |}1 17 9
South-Western Counties :—
Walls Sete taeete cane sick osc 865,092 636,786 1,161,656 |1 16 6
DGrsebt Hi .clitt cckusth heist ORGS 632,025 398,599 744,047 |1 18 10
DEV OOM G ici « cients isis fe 1,657, 180 919,336 1,780,976 |r 18 9
CORTE a crceue sci teysies a iisioiets 873,600 436,071 744,652 |1 15 6
SOT: Cieoteey cake Ge batted 1,047,220 735,604. 1,852,522 |2 10 -4

Note.—The agricultural statistics do not include the area of hill-pastures; holdings under
five acres are also excluded. In 1861, according to the census, there were 7656 holdings in
England and Wales under five acres each ; their aggregate area was, however, only 19,140.

These figures have, perhaps, no very immediate bearing on the subject of
the paper; but it seemed of possible utility to record them here for future
guidance.

While land and other kinds of real property have made, in the past half
century, the highly satisfactory progress already mentioned, it is certain that
trades, manufactures, and professions have enormously distanced agricultural
industry in the race for wealth.

The assessment “ for all profits or gains arising from any profession, trade,

employment, or vocation,” under Schedule D, is notoriously, and perhaps |

irremediably defective. In their last Report, the Commissioners of Inland
Revenue estimate, from circumstances within their knowledge, that the
return of income under this schedule is £57,250,000 short of the true
amount; no exaggeration can, therefore, be charged against the figures
which represent profits and gains in the annexed Table (p. 65).

The land rental in respect of which the farmer’s profits are assessed has,
during the fifty years ended with 1865, increased by £12,375,000, or 36
per cent.; the profits of trades and professions have, in the same interval,
augmented by £72,611,000, or 212 per cent., irrespective of the correction
due for depreciated currency in 1814-15. Two factors enter into the
increased assessments returned under Schedules A and B since 1864—real

* Vol. xxviii. 1865.

t The rent per acre for land, ¢. e. for 25,542,427 acres, under cultivation, in all England —

and Wales, according to the Returns of 1867-68, is £1 17s. 4d,

THE PRESSURE OF TAXATION ON REAL PROPERTY. 65

advance in quantity and in market value, and an apparent advance by
better assessment *.

Annual Value Assessed in
England and Wales under
1814-15. 1864-65.

or er fetta pa & &
Schedule B—

Farmers’ profitst ........ Mieteithe shea, ety) = 34,028,655 46,403,853
Schedule D—

Profits of trades and professions.......... 34,287,685 106,808,319

There is, I fear, no possibility of assigning the true value to each factor.
The Union Assessment Committees’ valuation of 408 unions, embracing
about half the rateable property of the kingdom, in 1863 amounted to
£43,298,000; in the following year, when it may be supposed these bodies
had obtained greater knowledge of their work, the assessment of the same
unions was raised £5,384,000, or 12°4 per cent.

III. Concrvsion.

Though in the preceding pages the taxes incident upon real property have
been termed a burden, this language requires some qualification when we
examine the objects to which a large portion of our local rates are devoted.
The charges entailed on the ratepayers by crime and pauperism might be
dispensed with, to the great advantage of the property now defraying the
cost, though English poor-rates largely supplement wages, and consumers
thereby gain some temporary, but in its consequences more than doubtful,
benefit. Expenditure upon the maintenance and repair of roads and bridges,
upon the drainage and embankment of marsh lands, upon the sewerage,
paving and lighting of towns, and upon many other services performed by
improvement commissioners, as well as the sanitary measures undertaken by
boards of health, are operations signally beneficial to rateable property.

So far, therefore, as the property is judiciously assessed, and the proceeds
honestly and intelligently administered for these purposes, the local rate is a
good investment, for which no enlightened owner will manifest an ignorant
impatience of taxation. The imperial taxes and the other part of the local
rates stand in a very different category.

[ Wote-—An Appendix, consisting of detailed Tables, will be found in the
_ * Journal of the Statistical Society’ for September 1869. ]

* Alluding, in 1864, to a new valuation of property then in progress, under the orders
of the Inland Revenue Office, the Commissioners mention that in many districts the
amount of duty was greater at 6d. than formerly at 7d. They state that, “so far as
Schedules A and B are concerned, this result is attributable in no small degree to the care
and judgment with which the assessments were made upon this occasion by our surveyors,
acting under special instructions from this office. We have also been much assisted by
the valuations under the Union Assessment Act, especially in the case of land in the occu-
pation of the owner, where the former unsatistactory parochial rating to the relief of the
poor was the guide upon which our officers chiefly relied.”—Ninth Report of Commis-
stoners, 1865.

_ t Farmers’ profits were estimated as equal to three-fourths of their rental in 1814-15,
and one-half rental under the Act of 1842. The full rental of both years is given above.

1869. ¥

66 REPORT—1869.

On the Chemical Reactions of Light discovered by Professor Tyndall.
By Professor Morren, of Marseilles.
[A communication ordered to be printed ém eatenso among the Reports.]

Srycr the last session of the British Association, Mr. Tyndall has published,
in several papers, highly interesting researches on a particular species of
luminous reactions, thus providing physicists and chemists with a new
instrument, both of synthesis and analysis, to which he invites the attention
and investigation of all whomit may concern. In obedience to this scientific
challenge, I have repeated, with the utmost care, ‘all the learned gentle-
man’s experiments. I have found them all as rigorously exact as they are
ably described. They refer to atomical evolutions in which we almost seem
to detect Nature in her most mysterious operations. The molecules of
bodies, when powerfully lighted, the observer himself being in absolute
darkness, may be easily perceived in their infinitely minute motions; in
following which, Mr. Tyndall, and eyery one who is passionately desirous
of penetrating the secrets of the constitution of bodies, cannot but feel the
most exciting curiosity. Mr. Tyndall has made use principally of electric
light, and has caused it to act mostly on organic bodies. I have followed in
this respect quite a different method and object.

Most favourably situated with respect to solar light, in Provence, where
for months together we enjoy a cloudless sky, I proposed to limit myself to
the use of solar rays only, and confine myself to those conditions which
the atmosphere affords us. I have carefully avoided organic bodies, the
molecules of which are highly complicated and most difficult to follow in their
multifarious evolutions. I have even preferred the simpler bodies of mineral
chemistry, as offering an easier field of observation to the physicist desirous
of arriving at clear and precise results.

In this exposition I shall follow, step by step, the order which, without
any preconceived or systematical ideas, directed my successive experiments.
It is, so to say, a journey in an unknown land. I shall thus the better
show the deceptions I met with, the incessantly supervening difficulties,
the necessities of modifying the apparatus, and the various incidents of the
route. Ehope by this means the better to illustrate the object I had in view.

At the outset I made use of an experimental apparatus entirely similar
to Mr. Tyndall’s—a glass tube 8 to 9 centimetres in diameter and 1 metre
long, fitted at each extremity into a broad brass ring luted with cement,
and carefully ground in the anterior part ; two plain picces of plate glass,
perfectly transparent, resting on the rings, and slightly lubricated on the
edges with a fatty substance, constituted an air-tight cavity when a vacuum
was formed. A glass cock, fitted on cach extremity, and let into the
cylindrical rings, allowed me to make the vacuum at one end, and to introduce
at the other the gas or vapour on which the experiments were to be made,
Extreme, if not absolute cleanness and perfectly dry tubes are indispen-
sable requisites.

The light arrives in the tube after condensation by a lens which every-
thing induces me to believe was not achromatic in Mr. Tyndall’s experi-
ments. In his apparatus, as in mine, two cones are formed joined at the apices,
the first, the converging cone, with an orange-red periphery, the other, the
diverging one, with a violet-blue periphery, circumstances which I notice
here, because the white molecules which are about to appear will often
assume, in passing through them, the hues of the luminous bands in which
they circulate. When a vacuum has been produced in the tube, the light

to peta

ON THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF LIGHT, 67

passes through it without the cones being in the least perceived ; the tube
is optically vacuous ; but when the gas or vapour is introduced, a blue cloud,
or blue precipitate, of an incomparable delicacy appears after a varying
lapse of time, first at the summit of the cones, then in the converging cone.
As long as the precipitate is of that beautiful blue colour, the light which it
sends to the eye is perfectly polarized as Mr. Tyndall has described it.
Then by slow degrees the precipitate increases, and slowly becomes white,
the light emitted still remaining polarized; but as the sides of the tube
lighted by the cones send to the eye light which is also polarized, and as it were
the product of a polarizer, the whitish vapour of the cones then behaves like
a thin polarizing lamina under inspection through the Nicol held by the
observer ; and when the two polarization planes are perpendicular to one
another, the whitish cones assume a magnificent blue colour, exactly as a thin
lamina of selenite of the required thickness would do; but in proportion
as the white precipitate increases, all polarization disappears. The precipi-
tated molecules become heated, both at the summits of the cones and against
the entrance glass plate, and there arises a motion, slow’ at first, which
brings to the cones other particles of the body under experimentation, not
yet acted on by the light; and as these particles, owing to transparency,
appear dark, their intermingling with the white particles produces a series
of the most beautiful, varying, and often most regular images, such as
have been described with expressions of genuine admiration by Mr. Tyndall.

The precipitated molecules seem to increase in diameter, and the two
cones are then resplendent with reflected light. But there are, for the eye,
certain points where the cone takes a fine rosy colour ; and the position of
these points varies in the course of the same experiment. They are some-
times on a line which forms an angle of 45° with the axis of the converging
cone, sometimes on a line forming an angle of 90°+45° with the same axis.
There is, as in the rainbow, a line of position, and for the precipitated
molecules a zone of efficacious rays, which demand special and ulterior
inquiries.

_ Let me resume the exposition of facts already so well described by the
English physicist.

It will be easily seen that either a synthesis or a decomposition of a body
has taken place, 7. ¢. a new grouping of the atoms, when under the influence
of concentrated solar light the blue cloud invades the cones.

_ The first body of which I have attempted the synthesis is that which I
_haye so often and so easily obtained by electricity, by causing the induction
spark to pass through a gaseous mixture, formed of one of oxygen, two of
nitrogen, and three of sulphurous acid*. It is the compound which is

formed in the leaden chambers in the preparation of sulphuric acid.
I submitted the gaseous mixture to the solar action immediately the
compound was produced. The same gaseous mixture enabled me to recognize,
Tike Mr. Tyndall; that the special rays which produce these reactions are
“neither the less refrangible calorific rays, nor the red rays even when highly
concentrated. I have for this object made use of the greatest variety of
Screens—smoky quartz, iodine dissolved in bisulphide of carbon, CS’, then
coloured glasses, red, orange, yellow, green; but I dislike and distrust the
glass screens; I prefer by far liquid ones. The action produced was insigni-
icant. It became, on the contrary, extremely energetic with blue and

Violet glasses.
It is therefore under the shock of the more rapid oscillations of the chemi-
* Vide Annales de Chimie et de Physique, vol. yi. series 4. 3
F

68 ; REPORT—1869.

cal rays that these reactions are produced. And here I wish to notice, in
passing, an interesting fact, important especially for photographers—I mean
the power of intercepting only the chemical rays of solar light, without
stopping the luminous rays, possessed by a solution of bisulphate of quinine,
well filtered and confined, by means of gutta percha, between two glass
plates. This screen, 5 millimetres in thickness, is of an extreme trans-
parency to light ; but the chemical rays are intercepted. It might be advan-
tageously used instead of the yellow glass, which, in photographic opera-
tions, casts on all objects such peculiar hues as to require a special education _
of the eye which has to judge of the reactions. This screen proved inestimable 7
to me, as it allowed of my disposing and regulating the apparatus suitably
beforehand, while it enabled me to permit the chemical rays, which the
sereen had intercepted, to act at the proper moment only.

After the experiments on NO*®2(SO*) (O=8), I tried to unite the most
resistant bodies. I introduced into the tube hydrogen and nitrogen perfectly
pure and dry, and my surprise was extreme when I beheld the formation of
a white cloud. This unexpected result, and one which I had considered as
utterly impossible, obliged me to look still more closely into the matter, and
to proceed with still greater caution.

The brass rings at the extremities of the tube were luted with the usual
resinous cement. Against this cement my first scruples were now directed ; it
might still contain some volatile essence (spirits of turpentine for instance)
which might have penetrated into the tube when a good vacuum was formed ;
and so small a quantity of matter sufficed perhaps to produce an appreciable
result ; this might have given rise to the unexpected cloud. It became
necessary to suppress these rings and simplify the apparatus, which I effected
in the following manner.

I took a cylindrical glass tube (a glass with a foot, Fr. éprowvette) 29 to 30
centimetres long and 8 to 9 in diameter, and 1200 to 2000 cubic centims.
in capacity. The upper edge, somewhat bell-mouthed and carefully ground,
of above 8 millims. thickness, was slightly lubricated with a little tallow, wax,
and oil melted together. A flat square of plate glass, very transparent, was
placed on the oil and sharply pressed down upon it, and some wax was melted —
all round the contact surface with a hot iron. At the bottom of the cylinder, on
the side, a glass stop-cock was carefully fitted in. With this apparatus the
vacuum may be preserved during a long time, even for months together, The

vacuum is produced, and the gases are introduced by the stopcock solely. But
there is another method, very important to notice, for introducing into the
tube the body to be examined, when it is solid or liquid and volatile. A very —

ON THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF LIGHT. 69

small quantity of the substance is put into a very fine thin cylindrical tube,
which is closed with the lamp at both ends after the introduction of the
body, and can be, when necessary, easily broken to pieces by a slight shock
against the tube. The mercury gas-holders which receive and conduct the
gases are glass, carefully divided, so as to measure the volume of the gases
experimented on. In lieu of an air-pump I have always made use of a
mercury exhauster, the only apparatus which can be absolutely relied on, and
which enables the operator, when the reaction is completed, to withdraw
the gases from the tube for analysis; the mercury exhauster likewise
enables us to measure the elastic force of the gases before and after the reac-
tion, and thus indicates the variations of volume of the gas employed.

- What therefore gives these experiments a peculiar character is the com-
plete elimination of,all gaseous vehicles employed to convey the vapour. The
conditions of my experiments differ in this respect from Mr. Tyndall’s.

The tubes, ‘of smaller dimensions, which I have employed do not give
indeed the splendid results which Mr. Tyndall presented to his delighted
audience ; but these tubes are easier to set up and to clean: the mercury
exhauster possesses moreover another advantage; it allowed me to ascertain
whether the gases were perfectly dry—a most essential point.

As to the means of conveying the solar light, the process was the following.
A broad mirror receives and reflects horizontally a voluminous pencil of rays
which is refracted by a lens 22 centimetres in diameter and of 40 centi-
metres focal length. The luminous cone is enclosed in a metallic box,
whence it issues to penetrate into the tube through the glass plate. The
summits of the two cones, the converging and the diverging, are situated
pretty nearly in the centre of the tube(A); the two cones are therefore easily
visible when the modifications of the bodies contained in the tube are pro-
duced. It must not be forgotten that the periphery of the two cones is
coloured, as we said before, in consequence of the non-achromatism of the
large condensing lens.

Under these circumstances I was very much surprised to see that a mix-
ture of hydrogen and nitrogen, perfectly pure and dry, produced the reaction
cloud. They had been dried by a very slow passage through pounded glass
which had been calcined and moistened with sulphuric acid, pure and highly
concentrated. I changed the desiccating substance, and successively made
use of potash, chloride of calcium, phosphoric acid, all recently melted. In
the three latter cases the cloud did not appear; the action was null, and the
solar light passed unperceived. What could the sulphuric acid, then, convey ?
evidently some little sulphwrous acid; for sulphuric acid is in fact a real
emitter of it, and always adds a certain quantity of it to any pure gas
which passes through it in minute and successive quantities; and this acts
in fact as an absorbent of the dissolved gas. Therefore hydrogen and nitro-
gen cannot be united by solar influence when perfectly freed from other
gases. But, in truth, what could the action of the sulphurous gas be?

_ L applied myself to a special study of sulphurous acid, and haye ascertained
: Ea easy the decomposition of this gasis. As soon as the light passes through
| it, the white cloud appears ; and if its manifestation is followed with care, it
b on easily be seen that it is produced not only at the summit of the cones,
but likewise on the blue periphery of the first part of the diverging cone,
and in the interior of the converging cone. I know of no body more
sensible to luminous action ; and the use of condensed light seems hardly
ee for the purpose, since the cloud is formed at other points than the
summit ofthe cones. With this body it is certainly both easy and admirable to

70 REPORT—1869.

behold the coloured bands which form the outline of the cones ; and then even
the violet rays (scarcely perceptible under ordinary circumstances) can be easily
seen in the interior of the first cone. One may thus easily follow and account
for the varied hues which the whitish vapour assumes when the variations of
temperature waft it about the cones, intermingled with the black streaks —
arising from such portions of the gas as have not yet been acted on.

But to return to the sulphurous acid: What was the substance, blue at
first, then whitish, thus obtained? The two hues so different were merely _
the consequence of a difference in diameter—the first hue belonging to
the bodies (perhaps atoms) precipitated in the minutest state of division. The
white and pearly colours appear when the diameter has sufficiently increased,
and goes on still increasing. These circumstances induced me to endea- _
vour to measure this diameter, a thing feasible by different means, but
not with ease and facility by microscopic inspection, however; for the small
spark-like bodies move too rapidly through the field of the microscope. But
there were other methods. It may be first observed that if you expose sul-
phurous acid for a sufficient length of time to solar action, the precipitated
substance becomes sufficiently abundant for a sort of haze to become per-
ceptible in the tube. A part of the gas has been acted on; and the two
luminous cones, when moved about in the tube, find everywhere reflecting
precipitated molecules. If the tube is left long enough in repose and dark-
ness, the cloud collapses, forms a deposit, and the gas is restored to its primi-
tive transparency. If at this point the tube be again placed under solar
action, the same successive phenomena of haze and return to transparency _
may be repeated indefinitely, till there remains no more gas to be decomposed,
which is a very long process, for the very formation of the precipitate inter-
cepts itself the chemical rays which form it.

But since transparency has been produced, a deposit of molecules must
have taken place ; and in this case, if the tube remains in a horizontal posi-
tion and a broad slip of glass be placed inside it, it is on this slip that the
molecules will be found. Their diameter might then be measured, either di-
rectly or by the rings of diffraction; but unfortunately it became impossible to
use this expedient: the sulphur was dissolved by sulphuric acid ; and instead
of the molecules which I expected to find, very small drops only were per-
ceived. But nevertheless it was possible to obtain the molecules of sul-
phur in large quantities, and to submit it to all requisite reactions so as to
recognize it completely. It is sufficient to place in the tube after the
sulphurous acid three or five cubic centimetres of distilled water ; and after
the solar rays have sufficiently acted on the gas, the tube is then shaken ;
the water dissolves the sulphuric acid and renders it powerless for dissolving
the precipitated sulphur ; the water then becomes milky and the sulphur
is collected. It is then boiled in a small glass vessel (to drive out the sul-
phurous gas) and filtered in order to collect the sulphur; the water then
gives abundant proof of the presence of sulphuric acid.

The atoms of the molecules of sulphurous acid are therefore not able to
support the shock of the undulations of the chemical rays; they divide into

sulphur and sulphuric acid, 380?=S+2 S03 (and from the form (i) oy
M)
®

they change to afiipo- in which state they are able to resist the shock of |
the chemical rays) ; but they exhibit other phenomena, to which I shall return —

ON THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF LIGHT. 71

a little further on. During sixteen days of uninterrupted sunshine, from the
14th to the 31st of July, I exposed to solar light 1900 cubic centimetres of
sulphurous acid in a tube of 2000 cubic centimetres capacity ; and the
decomposing action was, after that lapse of time, being still carried on in an
always sensible and wonderful manner. It was evident that every day the
solar action was only partial ; it stopped as soon as the precipitated molecules
of sulphur in motion in the tube were abundant enough to intercept all the
chemical rays as an opaque screen.

The action of light on sulphuric acid was interesting to study ; it is one of
the most beautiful and instructive experiments which can be executed. It
smokes abundantly on exposure to air; and this effect is attributed to the
absorption of aqueous vapour by this substance. This is not a correct ex-
planation, since in a perfectly dry vacuum the same phenomenon takes place.
In the tube with a dry vacuum of } to =}, of a millimetre I had introduced a
very fine thin tube containing anhydrous sulphuric acid. When I broke the
tube, the little explosion, and certainly the great and sudden expansion of
the substance, scattered about the vapour of the sulphuric acid, which, owing
to the cold generated, was condensed into a white cloud, and appeared with a
dazzling resplendency in the luminous cones. Here the chemical rays are
powerless, they cannot destroy what they have produced. There is no more
decomposition, but sulphuric acid is, if I may use the comparison, like water
in the vesicular state in a cooled medium through which heat is about to pene-
trate. Insensible to the chemical rays, the sulphuric acid absorbs the calorific
rays, on the contrary, with prodigious energy. This absorption is so perfect
that all molecular motion ceases instantly. The molecules remain motionless,
as if busy in absorbing the heat; and, as aqueous vapour does when heated,
they pass into the state ofa transparent gas, assuming previously to their
apparent annihilation all the most magnificent hues. If during the operation

_ the cock is rapidly opened and immediately closed, the great movement
of molecules so rapidly and so energetically produced ceases at once, by
the absorption of the heat.

This invisible vapour, when still further and sufficiently heated, will have
its component atoms so shaken by the amplitude of their new oscillatory
vibrations that they will be removed beyond the radius of their sphere of ac-
tion, and the molecular edifice of sulphuric acid is (in its turn) destroyed.

I am afraid of fatiguing the attention of my hearers if I develope at a
_ greater length the details of various experiments made with a large number of
gases and vapours. We must stop here. Yet what results are to be noted!
_ Thus, for instance, in the most natural, perhaps, of allthe groups that
constitute the family of metalloids (that which comprises chlorine, bromine,
iodine, fluorine) strange anomalies are observed. Chlorine and hydrogen
unite under the action of chemical rays and form hydrochloric acid. The
latter, either dry or humid, and prepared with pure crystals of mincral salt
of chloride of sodium, cannot be decomposed by chemical rays of solar light ;
| whereas hydriodic acid, on the contrary, can be decomposed ; it is true (and
_ this circumstance must not be overlooked) it is very difficult to procure this
| ga free from atmospheric air. A curious circumstance in the examination of
hydriodic acid is, that the first shock of light frees part of the iodine, which
‘appears with its peculiar violet hue at the summit of the cones, amidst the
movements which destroy the molecular edifices—movements, perhaps, pro-
a ced by the calorific rays only.
__ Bromine presents the peculiarity, that (as in the case of hydrogen with
chlorine) if pure and dry hydrogen is introduced with a small quantity of

le REPORT—1869.

bromine into the little tube which is placed inside the cylinder previously to the
experiment, and which is broken before it is submitted to solar action, after
a few seconds the brownish colour of the bromine disappears and hydrobromic
acid is formed, smoking abundantly on contact with atmospheric air.

I could increase still further the list of bodies submitted to this interesting
means of investigation and experiment. I shall limit myself to a summary of
the theoretical considerations which these facts have impressed on my mind.

We know that the calorific, luminous, and chemical rays are placed side by
side and are even intermingled in the solar spectrum, with undulatory lengths
successively decreasing.

Now all chemical bodies may be classed in two series: the first (haying sul-
phurous acid for prototype) comprises all bodies formed under the action of
calorific rays ; the second (having hydrochloric acid for prototype) comprises _
all bodies formed by the chemical rays.

The following are the conclusions which the foregoing facts induce me to
admit :—

If a body is formed and maintained under certain oscillatory conditions,
the peculiar oscillations of the atoms which constitute its molecules must
differ from those of the medium in which the body has been produced. But
if this body is transferred into another medium in which it meets with oscil-
lations isochronous to those of its own atoms, these oscillations increase, and
the vis viva which the atoms acquire may become so great as to drive the
atoms beyond the radius of their sphere of action; the atomic edifice is de-
molished ; and as the constitutive atoms preserve, nevertheless, their peculiar
affinities, they form a new edifice adapted to the oscillatory conditions in
which they are now situated. Thus they escape the shocks of the generating
medium, by ceasing to vibrate synchronously with it, exactly as an elastic
sonorous body does not vibrate and gives no sound when the aérial vibrations
which strike it are not synchronous with those which it is capable of re-
producing. But if the new edifice is again submitted to the action of other
synchronous rays it is again demolished.

Most curious evolutions! They seem to ask of the chemist :—

1°. Under what peculiar circumstances and influences are bodies formed?

2°, Under what vibrations precisely do their atoms oscillate ?

3°. Finally, under the action of what other vibrations may the molecular
edifice be destroyed ?

Ozone, and all bodies capable of uniting themselves with other bodies,
would be simply molecules whose atoms are possessed of a vis viva sufficient
to animate and set in motion the atoms of the other bodies with which
they unite themselves.

Will a simple body, even, always remain such to us, if it become possible
to discover what oscillations have assembled the atoms of its constitutive
molecule, and what can destroy it ?

Such is the question which future lovers of nature and science may be one
day enabled to solve.

One word more, upon a probable conjecture.

Thave often seen that, under some circumstances not yet determined by me, —
the concentrated action of solar light is not without effect upon atmospheric air. _
In such case an appreciable whitish-blue colour is produced; might it not, —
then, be presumed that the fine whitish-blue vapour which in Alpine ©
valleys bathes the foot of a mountain is produced by the action of a —
brightly luminous sky under favourable and unknown circumstances of heat,
light, and aqueous vapour ?

ON FOSSILS OBTAINED AT KILTORKAN QUARRY. 73

On Fossils obtained at Kiltorkan Quarry, Co. Kilkenny.
By Wo. Hexuier Batty, F.L.S., F.G.S.

Tuts celebrated fossil locality, in the Upper Old Red Sandstone, is situated
between Kilkenny and Waterford, about six miles south of Thomastown and
a mile south-east of Ballyhale, on a ridge of Old-Red-Sandstone hills rising
gently from beneath the Carboniferous Limestone plain to heights of from 400
to 500 feet above the sea-level, and sometimes to even 800 feet, as near the
boundary of the parishes of Derrynahinch and Jerpoint West.

This quarry has been visited from time to time by private individuals, by
the representatives of scientific societies in Dublin, and by the officers of the
Geological Survey of Ireland, on all which occasions it has furnished some
most interesting fossils, remarkable for their preservation and beauty, each
time yielding specimens either new to science or such as would assist in
elucidating those already collected.

At the meeting of this Association in Norwich last year, I advocated the

importance of further excavations at this place, and applied for a grant of
£40 towards that object ; £20 was, however, the only amount voted. I felt
some hesitation in accepting this sum in consequence of its insufficiency to
carry out the extent of excavation I had intended; and had I not been aided
by the Geological Survey, it would have been comparatively useless to attempt
reopening this quarry with the sum placed at my disposal.
' I did, however, proceed there last month, accompanied by an efficient and
zealous assistant, Mr. A. M‘Henry, and provided with tools, such as bars
and picks, for excavating with vigour. We were engaged for a fortnight,
working most laboriously ; and fortunately we had very favourable weather,
except that it was extremely hot in this exposed situation for the heavy
work we were occupied upon.

We engaged the services of two men, who ably assisted in removing the
superficial soil and unproductive strata to the depth of about four or five feet,
which was carted away at once; and we calculated that the total quantity
removed in this manner and excayated by us amounted to at least 200 loads
of stone and rubbish.

The character of the beds beneath this superficial covering, a fine-grained
greenish sandstone, admitted of great facility in working, splitting up into
layers, sometimes of large size; occasionally, however, it is much cut up by
joints and small dislocations, which prevents its being worked so readily.
Some of the surfaces of these layers are covered by plant-remains ; and when
first opened the fossils are most beautifully exhibited, as, from the dampness
of the stone, their darker colour makes them appear very conspicuously.

The following is an enumeration of the fossil plants observed :—

Paleopteris Hibernica, originally named by Prof. Edward Forbes Cyclo-
pteris Hibernica, then referred to Adiantites by Brongniart, and now placed
by Prof. Schimper in his genus Palwopteris, the name signifying ancient fern,
in allusion to the antiquity of its type and its first appearance with the most
ancient terrestrial vegetables known, before the commencement of the Coal
period*, that celebrated author on fossil plants observing that it differs
from Cyclopteris in the arrangement of its leaflets &c., and from Adiantides
(Adiantites) in its mode of fructification.

Two other ferns have been collected from this place; they are, however,
of less frequent occurrence. One of these has already been brought before
the notice of the members of this Association, and described by me as Sphe-
nopteris Hookert; the other, an undescribed species, I propose to name

* Traité de Paléontologie Végétale &c., par W. Ph. Schimper. Paris, 1869.

74 REPORT—1869.

Sphenopteris Humphresiana, after a gentleman (Mr. H. T. Humphreys) who
worked most indefatigably at this quarry, from which he obtained a large
collection of valuable specimens.

On our late visit we were fortunate enough to procure perhaps the finest
specimen extant of Paleopteris Hibernica, measuring about four feet in length,
with its base of attachment and fertile pinnules shown at the lower portion.

A few fragments only of Sphenopteris Hookeri were collected ; but we ob-
tained a finer example of S. Humphresiana than any that had been before met
with, being a branch or stem with several alternating pinnules arranged upon the

Large closely fluted stems, which I had formerly regarded as being iden-
tical with Sagenaria Veltheimiana, and which, with others of a somewhat
similar character, Dr. Haughton has described under the name of Cyclostigma,
are also of frequent occurrence at this quarry: one of these stems measured
six feet in length, with a diameter of six inches at its lower portion, and
even then its commencement or termination could not be ascertained; the
upper portion of this plant having divergent branches, was considered to be
a distinct species, and referred to Lepidodendron minutum. Its fruit, of
which we obtained remarkably fine specimens, is a cone-like body, formed of
elongated scales, some of the detached ones showing very large and distinct
sporules at their base ; to these are appended long grass-like or linear leaves ;
it is remarkable, as Dr. Schimper observes, from the fact that no other spe-
cies of Lepidodendron of which the fruits are known have such large sporules.
That gentleman, through whom we sent a small collection of these fossils
to the Museum d’Histoire Naturelle of Strasbourg, of which he is the Di-
rector, has done me the honour to name this remarkable plant after me, as
he considers it distinct from Sagenaria Veltheimiana, especially in the form
of the scales of the fruit, a part which I had not the opportunity of exa-
mining in the latter species.

Masses of roots with rootlets attached, such as I had observed in Mr.
Humphreys’s collection, and which he assured me were connected with the
last-mentioned stem, were obtained by us from a bed which was permeated
by fossils of this character,

The only example of mollusca found associated with these fossils, and of
which we obtained good specimens, is the large bivalve named Anodonta
Jukesii by Prof. Edw. Forbes, after the Director of our Survey in Ireland,
whose loss, by death, we have had so lately to deplore. This shell is not
unfrequent, and is so closely allied to the recent Swan Muscle, Anodonta
cygneea, of our freshwater rivers, that it becomes a valuable auxiliary to-
wards the presumption as to the freshwater origin of this deposit. It is,
however, amongst the class Crustacea, especially that of the Eurypteride
and Phyllopode, that the most important additions haye been made to the
list of organic remains from this locality by our late visit.

In one of the earliest collections of fossils made by the Geological Survey
at this place, a specimen was obtained, portion of a thoracic or body-segment,
ornamented with the peculiar scale-like markings characteristic of these crus-
tacea: this specimen was labelled by the late Mr. Salter Hurypterus? Forbesi,

with a query as to the genus. In the Journal of the Geological Society, vol. xv. ~

p- 229, the same paleontologist, in a paper on some species of Hurypterus,
alludes to this specimen, which he figures as being probably identical with
Eurypterus? Scouleri (Hibbert), a Coal-measure species from near Glasgow.
We have since met with other portions which favours the belief that this
specimen belongs to Pterygotus and not Eurypterus. Amongst the collection
just made are two which appear to be heads, although they are not clearly
defined; also a more definite but small example of the basal joint of a

ON FOSSILS OBTAINED AT KILTORKAN QUARRY. 75

swimming-foot (ectognath), showing very clearly the toothed edges of this
masticatory and locomotive organ, another specimen being apparently the
lower portion of a similar appendage. In a previous collection made by the
Geological Survey are specimens showing the pincers or chele: in one of
these the curved points of both rami are preserved ; the upper one is seen to
be armed with two large tooth-like projections; the lower one being imper-
fect does not show the corresponding parts.

Tt is possible all these fragments may belong to one species, which I propose
to name Prerygotus Hibernicus. Another and distinct crustacean is shown in
a well-marked head (or carapace), to which is attached portions of two of
the thoracic segments. This specimen I fortunately picked up amongst the
débris of the quarry immediately after visiting it. The form of this head,
with its central arched divisions, to which the eyes are attached, is not very
unlike that of a species of Belinwrus from the Coal-measures ; it is also pro-
yided with a border, and its posterior portion terminates on each side in a short
spine. I have provisionally named this species Belinwrus? Kiltorkensis.

Some detached body-segments, which were also procured at the same
time in the progress of excavation (one of the specimens showing two entire
segments, with portions of two others united), may possibly have belonged to
the above species.

Tn a former collection from this place made by the Geological Survey,
there are three well-defined examples of the detached carapace of a shrimp-
like crustacean, which in shape approaches more nearly to that of the Silu-
rian than to any of the Carboniferous species, and most nearly to Hymeno-
caris of the Lingula-beds. The anterior margin is broad and produced,
giving it a curved outline, having a sinus running somewhat parallel and
near to it, which is marked near the centre by a small elongated depression ;
the surfaces of these fossils are covered by fine labyrinthine markings. One
of the fossils recently collected, although differing in shape (which may have
arisen from pressure), is probably a carapace of the same species, it being
also marked by a similar sculpturing. Some of the detached segments may
also belong to this species, which, from its peculiar prow-shaped carapace,
I propose to name Proricaris MacHenrici.

Of fish-remains we were not successful in obtaining many examples on
this visit, a few detached scales only having been met with; those formerly
collected are of great interest, and we had hoped to have met with specimens

which might have thrown a better light upon some before collected ; in this

we were disappointed, but do not despair if another opportunity offers for a
more extensive excavation. The fish-remains already obtained consist of
large conical teeth, resembling those of Dendrodus or Bothriolepis, detached
scales, and a large portion of a fish which appears to be identical with Glyp-
tolepis elegans. The majority, however, appear to be referable to Coccosteus,

“some of them very closely resembling C. decipiens, Ag., especially a mass of

plates in juxtaposition, showing the under sides; they consist, for the most
‘part, of detached plates and jaws with teeth, which also resemble very much
corresponding parts figured by Professor Agassiz in his Old-Red-Sandstone fish.

_- There are also many detached smaller plates, and others with several plates

united, which may possibly belong to Pterichthys: as some of the latter are in
Prof. Huxley’s hands, we may expect some valuable information about them.

With respect to the disposal of the specimens, a large number of which
were collected, I would beg to suggest that the new species and those
te for working out details, should be retained for the Geological Suryey’s
collection in Ireland, and the duplicates distributed to such public insti-
tutions as it may be thought desirable to present them to.

76 REPORT—1869.

Report of the Lunar Committee for Mapping the Surface of the Moon.
Drawn up by W. BR. Birt, at the request of the Committee, consisting
of James Gratsner, F.R.S., Lord Rossz, F.R.S., Sir J. Herscwer,
Bart., F.R.S., Professor Pamures, F.R.S., Rev. C. Prircwarp,
F.R.S., W. Hucerns, F.R.S., W. R. Grove, F.R.S., Warren Dz
La Ruz, F.R.S., C. Brooxe, F.R.S., Rev. T. W. Wess, F.R.A.S.,
Herr Scumipt, Admiral Mannurs, President of the Royal Astro-
nomical Society, Licut.-Col. Strancr, F.R.S., and W. R. Bret,
F.R.AS.

In presenting the Report of the proceedings of the Lunar Committee re-
appointed at Norwich, it is desirable to refer as briefly as possible to the
progress of selenographical research during the entire existence of the
Committee. Since the Meeting of the British Association at Birmingham
four areas of the moon’s surface, each of 5° in extent both of longitude and
latitude, have been carefully and critically surveyed, not so much by the
determinations of positions (the means at the disposal of the Committee
being inadequate for instrumental and computative labour, which could only
be carried on in an establishment exclusively devoted to such an object, the
cost of which would far exceed the grants with which the Association has
aided the work) as in an examination of the physical aspects of 100 square
degrees of the moon’s surface by means of the comparison and measurement
of photograms, combined with observation at the telescope, by several
observers in concert. Outlines of the objects thus surveyed have been laid
down on the orthographical projection on a scale of 200 inches to the moon’s
diameter. The area thus surveyed includes 443 objects; a catalogue of
these objects has been prepared containing numerous selenographical and
selenological notices, those of the three areas completed previous to the re-
appointment of the Committee having appeared in the Appendices to the
Reports of 1866 and 1868. :

One of the principal objects which has been kept steadily in view is such
a description of lunar features that at any future time the similarity of the
description with the state of any particular crater, mountain, &c., or a depar-
ture therefrom, may be readily ascertained. The great question of continued
lunar change, either transient or permanent, as contrasted with apparent
change dependent upon illuminating and visual angles, is one more likely for
posterity to settle. If, in geological science, a region undergoing a series of
changes (during the progress of which, through a long period of geological
time, lakes have been drained, volcanos have burst forth, extensive plateaus
of igneous ejections formed, and vast denudations of softer materials effected)
has retained its grander and more imposing features in their integrity, so in
selenological science we may look for small, and in many cases to us almost
inappreciable changes in and around well-recognized and imposing lunar
forms, than expect to witness the obliteration of some very striking object as
an evidence of change. The following are extracts from the catalogue of
the area completed during the past year.

«The boundaries of Hipparchus differ materially from those of ordinary
walled plains, and the cliffs on the S.W. are very unlike those of a circular
form, inclosing large circular plains, as may be seen in the neighbouring
formation Ptolemeus. They present the appearance of haying suffered
erosion, the character of the S.W. side of these cliffs being remarkably
different from the exteriors of large rings, craters, and plains. These
features, combined with the gradations of level observable in the floors of

“a

ON MAPPING THE SURFACE OF THE MOON. i

Hipparchus, IV A*11, and the Sinus Medii, tend to invest them with peculiar
interest. The apparent cutting away of the higher ground forming the E.
slope of Hind, the projection beyond the general line of cliffs of the N.E.
border of Halley, the indentations of the cliffs N.W. of Halley by the ravines
scoring the E. slope of Hind, the general integrity of the cliffs 8.E. of Halley,
and the absence of similar indentations (these cliffs being cut through in one
instance by a fault and in another scored by an apparent lava-channel) are
phenomena which do not generally characterize walled plains. It is extremely
difficult in the present state of our knowledge even to conjecture the kind of
agencies which have operated in the production of a line of cliffs analogous in
many respects to a terrestrial coast-line. One thing, however, appears to be
certain, viz. the anterior existence of the E. slope of Hind as regards both
Halley and the line of cliffs, while the fault and lava-channel on the 8.E. are
apparently more recent than the cliffs in which they occur.”

“‘ Hinp is situated just W. of the fault IV A” 23, TV A® ®, and occupies the
highest point of the mountain-range IV A"’?. The slopes around it are of
yery different characters. On the 8.E., E., and N.E. the exterior slope is
grooved or furrowed with well-marked radiating valleys, while on the S.W.
and N. the slope is uninterrupted and destitute of any radiating markings.
The more recent production of Hind,as compared with the fault on the E., is
indicated by the valleys on its flank cutting through the fault. The posteri-
ority of the formation of Halley, as well as the production of the depression
IV A" 4 and the low floor of Hipparchus, is strongly suggested by the land
on which the grooved valleys occur being penetrated by Halley on the one
hand, and abruptly terminated on the other by the depression IV A” 24 and
the valley IV A” 47 on the S.E., and the cliff IV A”!6 forming the S.W.
border of Hipparchus on the N.E. The remarkable smoothness of the floor of
Hipparchus in close proximity with the cliffs is very significant.”

“The slope of Hind on the 8.E., E., and N.E., with its valley-like furrows
and interrupted continuity by Halley, and the cliffs on the 8.W. of Hippar-
chus before mentioned, may be advantageously compared with the crater
Aristillus on the Palus Nebularum, which to all appearance now exists in its
primeval state surrounded by its furrowed flanks, extending far on the
surfaces both of the Palus Nebularwn and the Palus Putredinis. Only a
small portion of the flank of Hind remains, the outer portions having been
eut off by the more recent formations. It is not a little remarkable that the
cliff TV A” 46 should be so distinct and precipitous in the neighbourhood of a
erater partly surrounded by the remnant of a furrowed slope; and it is
difficult to conceive with such phenomena, that ejecta from a volcano such as
Hind appears to be, should extend no further than so precipitous a cliff as the
S.W. border of Hipparchus. The order of production appears to be as
follows :—the fault on the ray from Tycho, Hind, Halley. It is probable
that the production of the floor of Hipparchus occurred at a still later epoch.
* x * The highest portion of the region in which Hind and Halley have
been opened bears some resemblance to the granitic plateau of central
France.”

“A very strong indication of the protrusion of Halley, subsequent to the
formation of the valley IV A¢ 7, [TV A” 1’, and IV A" }5, supposing the three
portions were once connected, is afforded by the valley being completely
blocked on the N.N.E. and 8.8.W. by the E.8.E. rim of Halley. Mr. Ingall,

on June 26, 1866, pointed out to me the connexion of the valleys N.N.E. and

S.S.W. of Halley. At first sight this connexion might appear to be in
direction only. The valley IV A‘ *7 is certainly closed, as appears on the

78 REPORT—1869.

photograms, at the S.W. end by the angle formed by the N.E. border of
Halley. The posteriority of the epoch of the valley IV A$ 27, TV A" 17, and
IV A" }3 to that of Hind is strongly indicated by the continuity of the S.E.
slope of Hind being interrupted by the valley, much in the same way as the
N.E. is by the cliff [V A” 16, We may trace here with great probability the
following sequences of formations :—1°, that of the highland IV A”7; 2°, the
fault IV A” 23, TV Af; 3°, the protrusion of Hind; 4°, the formation of
the valley IV A¢ 27, TV A” 17, TV A" 15 (several valleys hereabout are nearly
parallel with this); 5°, the formation of the cliff [V A” 1°; 6°, the protrusion
of Halley; and 7°, the cleft or wall on the E, of IV A” , which is the highest
in the locality.”

«The exactitude of direction of certain lines of valleys and mountains on
opposite sides of Hipparchus indicate a more recent epoch for the formation
of the floor of Hipparchus than for the production of the valleys and moun-
tains on the lines specified. In connexion with these circumstances the
following questions suggest themselves. Does the general parallelism of the
lines of mountains and valleys in the neighbourhood of Hipparchus point to
contemporaneity of origin? Has the present floor of Hipparchus resulted
from a subsidence, by which the former surface was depressed below the
surrounding levels? There are some indications that, prior to the production
of the fault IV A” 44, LV Af 2°, TV", the surfaces E. and W. of it were at
the same level. Was this the level at which the valleys and mountains
above alluded to were continuous? and has the surface between them, as well
as the floor of Hipparchus, generally become depressed below its former
level? If so, it would appear that Horrov was opened upon this former
irregular surface; and it may be interesting to inquire further as to what
may have become of the portions of the mountains and valleys which have
disappeared. This question may be very difficult to answer, especially in
the very imperfect state of our selenographical knowledge.”

«There is some reason to believe that Horrow was not the only crater
opened on this part of Hipparchus previous to the supposed epoch of de-
pression. The curved mountain-chain IV A‘ *° presents all the characters of
an ancient and nearly filled crater, slightly exceeding Horroa in size. Nearly
half the ring is left, two craterlets are opened in the line of wall, and the
surface which is traversed by a cleft is slightly depressed below the level of
the surrounding floor of Hipparchus. It is one of those instances which
Webb, in his paper on the Moon (Fraser’s Magazine, Sept. 1868), refers to
‘of cavities in proximity to the grey plains having interiors so flat, so grey,
so identical in appearance and level with the plain, that hardly a doubt
remains of their haying been subsequently filled up by intrusive matter of
the same origin and under the same pressure as that around them.’ If
TV A$ * be a nearly submerged crater, and the lines of mountains and valleys
on opposite sides of Hipparchus were once continuous, the intermediate
portions having also been submerged, the question to be resolyed is—Whence
came the material which has effected the submergence? The whole of the
floor of Hipparchus, as compared with the surrounding formations, strongly
exhibits indications of change of level; it is comparatively smooth, and of
different reflective powers. The most striking difference of level occurs near
the cliff IV A” 16 and the mountains IV A? 35 and ITV A*47. Does this at all
point to a subsidence of the floor of Hipparchus, accompanied by an invasion
of intrusive matter? Instances of subsidence may be found on the moon’;
Straight wall may be quoted, the surface on the E. being at a lower level
(about 1000 feet) than that on the W. The plain of Dionysius (Report Brit.

- ON MAPPING THE SURFACE OF THE MOON. 79

Assoc. 1865, p. 304) appears to be a depressed surface 8. of the cleft of
Ariadeus, the N. side being at a higher level. In like manner a portion of
‘the surface N.E. of the line of cliffs from Ptolemceus to Ritter and Sabine may
haye subsided and produced the depressed region known as Hipparchus.”

_ © While areas of depression, if not of subsidence, can be traced on the
surface of the moon, and also the presence of a material which has invaded
such regions and in many instances nearly buried preexisting craters and
other objects, it is not so easy to ascertain whence this material came ; still
closer scrutiny is indispensable to throw further light upon it.”

“In numerous portions of the moon’s surface, as on that of the earth, we
behold the results of the operation of two opposing forces,—one by which the
features are moulded and, as it were, built up, imparting to the objects so
produced an aspect of freshness that it is impossible to question their com-
parative recent production; the other by which objects once possessing all
the characteristics of a recent formation have yielded, it may have been
gradually, to surrounding influences, whatever they may have been, so that
at the present time they exhibit the semblance of vast ruins, which in some
localities are unrelieved by even the slightest indication of the operation of a
force of an opposite character.”

‘« Webb, in his very masterly paper on the Moon, in ‘ Fraser’s Magazine ’ for
September 1868, speaks of the possibility that the colossal lunar formations
may have been the result of forces acting in a more gradual manner and
with less temporary vehemence than may seem to comport with the term
explosion. It may be that astronomers may have paid much more attention
to those lunar features which are clearly the results of explosive action than
to those which manifest the presence of a degrading agency. It has been
considered that many of the larger forms have been produced by rapid,
violent, and tumultuary processes; and, however true this view may be, it
is certainly inadequate to account for the present appearances of still larger
tracts in which no explosive outburst of an epoch which may in any sense
be called recent occurs. Nearly filled as well as broken rings, interrupted
mountain-chains, and comparatively smooth tracts without any well-defined
boundaries are characteristic of such regions; and it may be asked in what
manner and by what agency have they attained their present condition?
Has the ‘ erosion’ of Chacornac destroyed the missing portions of the broken
rings? and has this ‘erosion’ acted suddenly or gradually? Has the ‘diluvial,’
restricted by Webb to the expression of comparative fluidity, independent of
the nature of the material, invaded and nearly filled previously deep craters,
so as to furnish a connected series of well-known forms, from the smooth,
floored, walled plain to the just perceptible ring above the surface? Has
this same ‘diluvial’ buried the lower portions and the lateral spurs of
continuous mountain-chains, so that now the higher portions alone remain
as short and detached ranges in the original line? One cannot help con-
trasting the continental region, to use a terrestrial analogy, in which this
area IY A” occurs, with the magnificent chains of the Apennines and Hemus,
and the lower and smooth levels of the Mare Imbriwm and Mare Serenitatis,
as exhibiting in a very marked degree the results of the forces already men-
tioned. In the latter we see the effects of comparative recent action in the
production of vast mountain-chains and the neighbouring extensive level
plains. In the former these grand features are wanting; the surface,
although far from being smooth as that of the Maria, is roughened only with
the remains of former mountains, rings, and craters; the degrading agency,
whatever it may haye been, appears to have operated almost unchecked in

80 REPORT—1869.

this region, and it is a subject of interesting inquiry as to how this state of
things has been effected. Has the filling up, has the wearing down, if such
is the case, been gradual? and what forces have been concerned in producing
the mutilated forms we now observe?” 3

‘Brightness and colour may ultimately become keys by means of which a
better acquaintance may be obtained with the chronological sequence of lunar
formations. Chacornac refers the great continental formations to an epoch
anterior to that of the production of the great plains, this, again, being anterior
to the period of explosive energy, contributing to the existence of numerous
objects, such as bowl-shaped craters and smaller blow-holes, within the
interior of which no intrusive matter is found. Reference, however, is not
prominently made to objects in mountainous regions similar to those which
we find in various portions of the great plains, viz. partly buried craters and
partially destroyed rings, of which we have evidence in this and adjoining
areas to the W. ‘The contrast of the general colour of the surface hereabout,
as compared with that of the grey plains, its mottled and rugged aspect,
arising probably from its altered character from that which it possessed at
a still earlier epoch, the absence of that sharpness of outline in its remaining
mountain-peaks or ranges so characteristic of those which we find nearer to
and often on the grey plains, together testify to a much earlier epoch than
even that of the production of the partly filled rings on the grey plains.
Bright, white, glistening surfaces, more or less in the neighbourhood of
bowl-shaped craters,"and dark patches of deep grey approaching black, appear
alike to indicate the most recent formations—the first, it may be, from loose
fragmentary incoherent materials ejected from adjacent craters; the last
from substances in a state at least of comparative fluidity, which have escaped
from the interior reservoirs at the times of eruption. Phillips compares the
bright glistening region of Aristarchus to one in which white trachyte abounds ;
and many of the basalts in terrestrial volcanic regions present a dark colour.
Between the brightest and darkest of such limited areas on the moon’s surface
every gradation of intermediate tint occurs; and from a careful consideration
of the physical aspect of those regions which, on the one hand, reflect con-
siderably less light than the brighter, and on the other considerably more
than the darker, it may be inferred that such regions are amongst the most
ancient of lunar formations.”

A very ancient formation has been traced on area IV A”, the earliest state
of which is considered to have been very similar to many of the more recent
districts, such as those in which perfect craters and mountainous regions
intermingle. The first change which appears to have taken place on this
formation is that of the production of a grey plain, traces of which still exist.
The material of this plain appears to have invaded certain craters, breaking
down the walls of those immediately facing the plain, and partially filling
others. The next change appears to have been of an elevatory character,
the evidences consisting of a line of low mountains which has in a great
measure obliterated the characteristics of a grey plain and introduced those
more in accordance with an ancient district, which are strikingly in contrast
with the features of the more recent craters to the E. The only instance of
volcanic outburst on this ancient district consists of a chain of craterlets of
quite an insignificant character.

The determination of the successive changes before alluded to rests on the ©
strong indications, afforded by the careful study of photograms, of the priority —
and posteriority of well-marked features, which can only be realized by
contemplating the lunar picture in the seclusion of the study. While the —

ON MAPPING THE SURFACE OF THE MOON. 81

telescopic view is far superior to the photographic, the continual changes of
illuminating and visual angle prevent that appreciation of the relations of
different features to certain epochs of production which can be so well studied
in the photogram; the detail thus seized upon by the aid of photography is
vividly realized by the eye at the telescope when the surface of the moon is
suitably illuminated.

While engaged upon area IV A” I have met with a remarkable instance of
difference between De La Rue’s photogram, Feb. 22, 1858, and Rutherford’s,
March 6, 1865. Lohrmann figures a plain, bounded on the W. by a moun-
tain-chain on which he gives a little crater, which he numbers 51. In
De La Rue’s photogram the crater, which appears to be shallow, is evactly in
the position given by Lohrmann. Not a vestige of this crater is to be discerned
on Rutherford’s photogram seven years later! Both photograms are under
nearly the same illumination.

I have also met with a few instances of apparent variations of tint and
brightness. The floor of the crater Hind, on the 8. W. of Hipparchus, appears
to have undergone a variability of tint during a period of eleven years
according to the following numbers :—

1858:14=5°9, 1865:18=7°-0, 1868-98 =3°6

The slopes of two valleys, IV A”® and IV A”, which cut through the
S.W. border of Hipparchus, manifest different degrees of brilliancy on the
two photograms. They are much brighter on Rutherford’s than on De La
Rue’s photogram, and IV A" ® appears to have become brighter in a greater
degree than IV A”,

EV AG. > EV Ae
De La Rue ...... 1858-14 4:6 4:8
Rutherford ...... 1865-18 74 7:0

A crater, IV A® 19, the middle of three conspicuous craters W. of Hippar-
chus, marked E Sec. I. Lohrmann and G by Beer and Miidler, appears to have
become brighter since 1858. The gradations are exhibited below :—

Beer and Madler.. 1831-34 = 7:00 .. Full moon.

meta Rue ....,.. 1858:14 = 6:30 .. Terminator just past Copernicus.
Rutherford ...... 1865:18 = 714 .. 7s zs 9
a 1868-98 = 7-56 .. i a :
a ae 186899 = 8:00 .. 6" 30™ past full moon.

The number of objects on the moon’s surface, registered in accordance
with the plan proposed in 1865 (see Report, 1865, pp. 294-299), is as
follows :—

781 on 185 areasin Quadrant LI.
6

Baa bg 8 “ Ss IL.
BE lon fee 59 i ia II.
Paik Se 63 oF 5 IV.

etal-...... 2099 343 5 On the moon’s surface.

Of these, 769 only have been published, viz. 492 in the Reports of this
Committee, and 277 in Mr. Birt’s Monogram of the ‘ Mare Serenitatis.’

1869, G

82 : REPORT—1869.

Report of the Committee on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron. The
Committee consists of F. A. Art, F.R.S., D. Forsus, F.R.S., and A.
MarrutessEn, F.R.S.

Tur Committee have to report that, during the past year, some material
progress has been made in this research. They entrusted the preparation
of the pure iron to Mr. Matthiessen, who carried out this part of the inves-
tigation in conjunction with Mr. Prus Szczepanowski. From a series of ex-
periments, which are detailed in the Appendix, pure iron appears to be ob-
tainable in considerable quantities, and we hope, if the Committee be re-
appointed, that next year a great deal of valuable information will be obtained
on the chemical nature and physical properties of pure iron and its alloys.
The iron obtained by the process described in the Appendix is almost abso-
lutely pure, containing only a minute trace of sulphur. According to an
analysis made by Prof. Abel, the iron contained, in a hundred parts, only
0:00025 part of sulphur. In another analysis, the amount of sulphur found
by Mr. Prus Szczepanowski amounted to 00007 per cent.* Phosphorus and
silicon were carefully tested for by both analysts, and found to be entirely
absent.

With regard to the physical properties of pure iron, owing to the want of
time, nothing as yet has been accurately determined. It appears, however,
that many of the physical properties of the pure metal differ considerably
from those of the commercial.

APPENDIX.

On the Preparation of Pure Iron. By A. Marrutessen, F.R.S., and 8. Prus
SzczEPANOWSKI.

After numerous trials, the general outline of which was given in the
Report of last year, the following method was found to yield nearly abso-
lutely pure iron, in quantities sufficient for the purpose of this research.
Pure dried ferrous sulphate and pure dried sodium sulphate are mixed in
nearly equal proportions, and introduced gradually into a red-hot platinum
crucible. The mass is kept in fusion until the evolution of sulphurous acid
gas ceases. The crucible is then allowed to cool, and the fused mass ex-
tracted with water. If the heat be properly regulated, the whole of the
iron is left as a very fine crystalline oxide. This oxide is thoroughly washed
by decantation to remove every trace of the sodium sulphate, and, after
being dried, is reduced by hydrogen in a platinum crucible ; the spongy iron
thus obtained is then pressed into solid buttons and melted in lime crucibles
with the oxyhydrogen-blowpipe.

Before proceeding further, it will be as well to mention the precautions
observed in obtaining the raw material in the purest state. The commer-
cial pure ferrous sulphate was freed from every trace of copper by leading
sulphuretted hydrogen through the warm acetic acid solution. After filtra-
tion, the ferrous sulphate was twice recrystallized and dried, first in a water-
bath, then in an air-bath. The commercial crystallized sodium sulphate was
recrystallized several times to get rid of the last traces of chloride of sodium,
and then heated on a water-bath to melt the erystals. As is well known,
anhydrous sodium sulphate separates out from this solution, which was
scooped out from time to time, dried on an air-bath, and powdered. The
purification of the sodium sulphate from chloride of sodium was found to be
necessary, owing to the fact that, when fusions were made with sodium sul-

* The amount of substance taken for each analysis was about 30 grammes.

ON THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF CAST IRON. 83

phate containing that salt, the resulting oxide of iron always contained
platinum. The hydrogen used for the reduction of the iron, as well as for
the blowpipe, was prepared by the action of sulphuric acid on zine, and
purified by leading the gas through two wash-bottles, the first containing
nitrate of silver and strong nitric acid, and the second caustic soda and
acetate of lead, both bottles being half filled with pieces of pumicestone.
The oxygen was prepared by heating a mixture of chlorate of potassium
with 15-20 per cent. of black oxide of manganese, and washed by leading
through caustic soda. All wash-bottle &c. connexions were made of glass,
lead, or pure india-rubber tubing.

The fusion took place in a large platinum crucible (the contents of which
was rather more than half a litre), enclosed in the usual manner in a clay
crucible. The dimensions were such that about a kilogramme and a half
of the mixture could be fused at each operation. After fusion the crucible
is allowed to cool, it is then boiled out with distilled water, and the accu-
mulated product of 6—8 fusions washed by decantation with boiling distilled
water. The crystalline oxide settles very quickly, and thus allows of a very
rapid and thorough washing. The washing was in every case continued
several times after the wash-waters ceased to give any turbidity with
barium nitrate*. The reduction of the oxide thus formed was made in a
covered platinum crucible, heated by means of a large Bunsen burner. The
hydrogen was introduced by means of a platinum-tube, reaching through
the cover to the bottom of the crucible. The gas, purified as described above
and dried by chloride of calcium, was always kept slightly in excess, a con-
stant stream of gas being obtained by not using a generator, but two large
gas-holders joined together, the contents of each being about 600 litres (20
cubic feet), two other gas-holders of similar capacity being used for the
storage of the oxygen, the one being used to collect the gas from the retort,
the other to contain the gas purified by passing through a strong solution of
caustic soda.

The resulting spongy iron was pressed into solid buttons by means of a
strong colning-press and a diamond mortar, the cylinder of which being
about 70 millimetres in height; the iron, when pressed, forms a cylinder of
about 15 millimetres in height, and weighs about 20 grammes. The melt-
ing of the compressed iron took place in lime-crucibles, the lime having been
previously burnt, slacked, and reburnt, thus forming a fine impalpable pow-
der, which was compressed in the crucible mould.

The best method of fusion was found to be as follows :—The lime-crucible
was placed in a slanting position on a piece of lime. One of the oxyhydro-
gen-blowpipes, used in the process, played on the outside of the crucible
whilst the flame of the other was directed inside. When white-hot, a cylin-
‘der of the compressed iron was thrown into it. It quickly melts, but at the
expense of a large quantity of the iron which is oxidized. The amount lost
by oxidation varies between 25 and 50 per cent. In order to obtain a good
solid button of melted iron, it is necessary to cool it in an atmosphere of
hydrogen, which is easily obtained, simply by turning off the oxygen from
the blowpipe playing inside the crucible. The button thus obtained weighs
about 15 grammes. On analysis, it was found that these buttons were free
from phosphorus, silicon, and calcium, but contained a minute trace of sulphur.

The preparation, on a large scale, of the pure ferrous sulphate and sodium

* Tt is worthy of mention that the above process to procure pure oxide from the mix-
ture of mixed sulphates yields the purest oxide we have as yet obtained.
G2

84. REPORT—1869.

sulphate was kindly undertaken for us by Mr. J. Williams, who prepared
for us more than a hundredweight of each of these substances. We are also
indebted to Mr. W. G. Underhay for the use of his large coining-press for
the pressing of the lime-crucibles and the iron buttons.

Report of the Committee appointed to explore the Marine Fauna and
Flora of the South Coast of Devon and Cornwall.—No. 3. Consist-
ing of Spence Bare, F.R.S., T. Cornisu, Jonatuan Coucn, F.L.S.,
J. Gwyn Jerrreys, F.R.S., and J. Brooxtne Rowse, F.L.S. Re-
porter, C. SpeNcE Bats.

In presenting to the Association the Third Report on the Fauna and Flora of
the Southern Coast of Devon and Cornwall, I have to state that, independently
of endeavouring to obtain a complete registration of all the more rare forms «
of life that exist upon the coast-line within dredging distance of the shore,
the Committee have, as far as practicable, endeavoured to_obtain information
relative to the development, growth, and habits of those animals of which
our knowledge has hitherto been imperfect.

CETACcHA.

I think it desirable to put on record the Cetacea that have been taken
within the last few years on the coast, specimens of most of which are pre-
served in the Museum of the Plymouth Institution.

Delphinus delphis. Dolphin.

_ Occasionally in the Channel: the last, January 1864. From the immense
mass of fat underlying the skin, and from some unknown reason causing the
skin to shrink, it was found impossible to preserve it.

D. tursio. Bottlenose Dolphin.

No record of any since the one described by Montagu in 1814.
Phocena communis. Porpoise.

Common.

P.orca. Gyrampus.

Occasionally in the Channel. In Mr. Ross’s collection, now in the Exeter
Museum, I believe, was a young one driven on shore at Exmouth in 1844.
The specimen in the Museum of the Plymouth Institution has been taken since.
P. melas. Round-headed Porpoise.

One captured off Plymouth in April 1839, and towed into the harbour.
Physeter macrocephalus. Spermaceti Whale.

One is stated by Bellamy to haye been thrown on shore near Plymouth
many years since.

Balenoptera boops.

This species has occurred several times. One in 1831 (the specimen now
in the British Museum) was tound floating off the Eddystone; a second ~
was captured in a herring-net in Torbay, in 1846. In 1863 one was ob-
tained off Plymouth, and the skeleton was purchased by the Alexandra Park
Company, and is now, I suppose, at Muswell Hill.

Beluga albicans.

Mr. P. H. Gosse writes:—*On August 5th, 1832, I was returning from
Newfoundland to England, and was sailing up‘the British Channel close
to the land, when just off Berry Head I saw under the ship’s bows a large

MARINE FAUNA AND FLORA OF SOUTH DEVON AND CORNWALL. 85

Cetacean of a milky-white hue, but appearing slightly tinged with green
from the intervening stratum of clear water. It was about 16 feet long, with
a round bluff head. It continued to swim along before the vessel’s head, a
few yards beneath the surface, for about ten minutes, maintaining our rate
of speed, which was five knots an hour, all which time I enjoyed from the
bowsprit a very good view of it. It could have been no other than the White
Whale, the B. borealis of Lesson.”
It frequently occurs on the Scottish coast.

Fisx.

Of the Fish there have been but few novelties that I can add to the pre-
vious lists. The most interesting specimens are those of a Double-spined
Ray and a variety of the Short-finned Tunny; the former is preserved in
the Museum of the Plymouth Institution, and the latter in that of the
Natural-History Society of Penzance. The Ray was taken off Plymouth, and
appears to coincide nearly with that of Raia aquila (L.), except in being
very much larger, and in the presence of two spines.

One point of interest that belongs to this specimen is the relation that it
bears to R. attavella (L.). Of this Mr. J. Couch says :—‘‘ Consulting Artedi,
and after him Linneus, and comparing them with Lacépéde, I find generally,
as characters common to R, aquila and R. attavella, the body smooth and a
slender tail. Linnzus says R&R. attavella has two spines often; but Lacépéde
makes the same remark of R. aquwila. The material difference is that R.
aquila has a very long tail, while attavella has it even less than the length
of half the body. According to Lacépéde (who says nothing of a Short-
tailed Eagle Ray), the pectorals of his aquila are gradually slender, like the
wing of an Eagle ; but Artedi says that in attavella the pectorals are broad.”

The dimensions of the recent specimen are 2 ft. 4 in. across the fins, 1 ft.
10 in. from the snout to the base of the spines, and 2 ft. 10 from the
snout to the extremity of the tail; while those of R. aquila, in the Mu-
seum of the Plymouth Institution, are 14 in. across the fins, 113 in. to the
base of spines, and 2 ft. 1 in. from the snout to the extremity of the tail.

Of the Tunny (Thynnus brachypterus), or Short-finned Tunny, Mr. Thomas
Cornish of Penzance says that the specimen that he captured in Mount’s Bay
differs from that given, both in figure and letterpress, vol. iv. Appendix, by
Mr. Couch, in his work on British Fishes, in having “more fin-rays in the
first dorsal than my specimen had, and does not show two free soft fin-rays
between the first and second dorsals, which were conspicuous in my fish.”

CrusTAcrA. :

I am not aware that there are any novel forms or species to be recorded
as the result of the dredging-operations of the Committee since the last
reported list of Crustacea. In fact, the Committee have thought that they
would be doing more to advance our knowledge of this class of animals,
in pursuing the life-history of those that are already known to us, than by
searching for the few stray specimens that have not hitherto been described
as inhabitants of these seas.

_ Mr. Cornish informs me that he has very recently obtained in Mount’s
Bay several specimens of Polybius Henslowii.

Stenorynchus phalangium.

The young of Stenorynchus is a true Zoé, but differs from the typical form
in the absence of the great rostral spine, and in the increased length of the
great dorsal spine, by a series of latero-dorsal spines on the three posterior

86 REPORT—1869.

somites of the pleon, and in the enormous development of two deciduous spines
on the base of second pair of antenne.

Homarus marinus.

Common as the European Lobster is, itis very remarkable that a very young
specimen has, as far as I know, never been met with. I have for several years
offered a reward for a very small specimen, but have never received one less
than 3 inches long from the rostrum to the telson. Many years since Erdl,
in a memoir on the subject, described the young Homarus as being hatched
in the form of the adult animal.

T have, during the last two summers that I have been engaged on this
Report, endeavoured to hatch and develope this among other forms. Having
specimens brought to me with ova, I have succeeded in hatching the same ;
but the mystery connected with the preservation of life, so as to enable us to
watch the development of the animal from one stage to the next, has yet to
be overcome.

Through the kindness of Mr. Alford Lloyd, curator of the aquarium in the
Zoological Gardens at Hamburg, I have been enabled to obtain a specimen
hatched under his knowledge about eight days old. This enables me to
prove that not only is the young hatched in a form distinct from that of the
parent, but, while it has continued to increase in size, and therefore cast more
than a single moult, that it retains that form for some time after its birth.
The ovum is about one-tenth of an inch in diameter, and contains a vitellus of
a dark, almost black, green colour. In the earlier stages of the develop-
ment of the embryo, the central or deciduous eye is distinctly seen, but
appears to be lost at the time of the escape of the larva from the egg-case ;
at this period the young animal has a short pointed rostrum, that at first is
bent back under the ventral surface of the cephalon; two large eyes, which
at first are bent under the lateral margin of the cephalon ; two pairs of short
antenne ; a non-appendiculated mandible ; two pairs of maxille, the third
pair or maxilliped being not yet developed; seven pairs of pereiopoda, each of
which carries attached to the third joint a long secondary multiarticulated
ramus. The third pair is developed into a strong chelate organ, whilst the
fourth and fifth pairs have rudimentary processes attached to the distal
extremity of the fifth joint that demonstrates their chelate conditions at a
very early stage. The pleon consists of six somites only, neither of which is
furnished with a pair of appendages, or, as far as I could see, the rudiments
of them. The posterior somite or telson is dorsally and ventrally flattened,
evenly excavate at the posterior margin, which has the lateral extremities
produced to a sharp point; while a large strong spine projects posteriorly
from the centre, on each side of which, between it and the lateral point, are
about twelve short stout pointed hairs.

Crangon vulgaris.

The young of the common Shrimp, although I have read of its resemblance
to that of A. mysis, has not, I am convinced from that description, ever been
described from the form in which it appears at the period when it leaves the
egg-case.

At this stage it has a long straight anteriorly projecting rostrum on the
carapace, a posteriorly projecting dorsal spine on the third somite of the
pleon, and a lateral one on the posterior margin on each side of the fifth —
somite. The eyes are large, the antenne short; the mandibles and two
pairs of maxill, as well as the three anterior pairs of pereiopoda, are alone
developed, of which the three last are furnished with. secondary appen-

MARINE FAUNA AND FLORA OF SOUTH DEVON AND CORNWALL. 87

dages: at a later stage in the development the posterior pairs of pereiopoda
are developed with secondary appendages like the Lobster in its primary
stage. At this time the resemblance to some of the Myside is so great that
it is highly probable that some of those Myside that are distinguished by
the development of their appendages in the form of true legs may be only
the young of the several species of Crangon.

Palemon.

The larva of the common Prawn differs but little from that of the Shrimp
in the early stages of its development. The chief points of distinction are
only such as could be called specific, and not improbably may be found in the
young condition of the larva of various species in either genus. They chiefly
exist in Palemon, having a longer rostral spine and a dorsal spine being pre-
sent on the posterior margin of the fifth somite of the pleon.

It would be interesting, should we have the opportunity, to compare the
larva of the enormous freshwater Prawn of Guatemala, a crustacean as large
as a half-grown Lobster, with that of our European species.

Palinurus marinus.

In my last Report are given figures of the young of the genus Palinu-
rus, an animal that has excited considerable attention amongst carcinologists
in consequence of its near resemblance to the form of Phyllosoma, a circum-
stance that has induced many zoologists to believe that they are but the same
animal in different stages of growth. Since the presentation of the second
Report, in which I gave certain reasons for not too readily accepting this con-
clusion, Dr. Anton Dohrn has given much time to the subject, and traced the
development of the ovum from the commencement to the period when the
young animal quits the egg-case. He writes to me from Messina, February
1869 :—“I only assure you that the thing is finished. The Phyllosoma are
the larvee of the Loricate. I have followed the development of Scyllarus and
Palinurus eggs, and both have brought out Phyllosoma. What is there so
anomalous in Phyllosoma? It is nothing but a depressed Megalops.... Ihave
followed the development of the interior organization as well, and there is no
difference of real value between Phyllosoma and Scyllarus, or Palinurus.”

This, which gives the author such confidence, is nothing more than has
_ been known for the last twenty years. The question is not as to the forms of

the larva of Palinurus, Scyllarus, &c., but whether certain animals that are
like them, but five hundred times as large, that we find mostly in exotic seas,
are the same but a little older specimens. If they are, as Dr. Dohrn and
other naturalists affirm, then they establish the remarkable fact that the larve
of these Crustacea grow from the one-tenth of an inch in length to that of
one or two inches in length, without any material variation of form, a
feature that is not consistent with the life-history of the development of the
animals of this class.

If we examine the progressive growth of other Crustaceans,.we find that
with every increase in growth there is a fresh moult, and every moult de-
velopes the animal a stage nearer the type of the adult animal. If the
Phyllosoma be, as contended, the young of Palinurus, then an arrest in pro-
gressive development takes place, while that of growth continues.

An argument in favour of this being the case (that Phyllosoma may be the
young of Palinurus) may be found in a species described by De Haan in
Siebold’s ‘Fauna Japonica’ under the name of Ph. Guerinii, in which an
intermediate progressive step exists, inasmuch as the carapace is developed
so far posteriorly as to cover the pereion. .

88 REPORT—1869.

I think, therefore, that although step by step we may arrive at the true
knowledge, yet the large amount of negative evidence, which is capable at
any day of being overthrown, must make us hesitate in accepting as a thing
proved the statement that Phyllosoma and the closely resembling larve of
Palinurus are one and the same creature.

The genus Scyllarus has now been so frequently captured on our coast,
that we must consider it not as a mere straggler, but as an old inhabitant of
the British seas.

Mr. Cornish writes :—‘“ Some years since I suggested to Prof. Bell, with
the first specimen that I took, that it was identical with the little lobster
described by Borlase (Nat. Hist. p. 274) as ‘that fine Shrimp (Squilla lata,
Rondeletii) I found in Careg-Killas, in Mount’s Bay ;’ but he thought that
Squilla lata was the other Scyllarus, and not mine. I now believe that I
was right and he was wrong. Looking at the rarity of the species in Mount’s
Bay, it is more probable that Borlase’s specimen and mine should be the
same species, than that they should be distinct.”

Borlase took his on Careg-Killas, in Mount’s Bay. This nameis lost; but
it means “ slate,” or “ killas-rock,” and it was (vide Borlase, Nat. Hist. p. 254)
‘© a ledge where loose stones could be turned over,” near Penzance (p. 206).

There are but two places in Mount’s Bay which satisfy this description,
and the one nearest to the Doctor’s residence is Long Rock, where the latest
specimen of Scyllarus was taken.

Besides which, Pennant (vol. iv. p. 17, No. 23, Lobster) speaks of Squalla
lata, Rondeletii, as the size of the Spiny Lobster. Dr. Borlase speaks of his
specimen as “ that fine shrimp.”

The specimen of which Mr. Cornish writes was captured alive, and, being
in full spawn, was sent on to me, with the hope that, should it arrive alive,
I might be able to hatch the ova, and so make out the hitherto undetermined
form of the young Scyllarus. Unfortunately the animal was dead when it
reached me that same evening. The ova were very abundant in quantity,
each being about J, of an inch in diameter, with an orange-coloured vitellus,
The embryo was in a very immature stage, so that little could be learned
from it as to the form or character of the larva when it quits the ovum. My
friend Dr. Andrew Dohrn, however, who has on the coast of Sicily been
giving his attention to this subject amongst others, informs me that the larva
of Scyllarus is identical with that of Palinurus, and consequently assumes the
form of Phyllosoma.

Squilla.

Several specimens of this genus have been recorded from the coasts of
Devon and Cornwall; but the scarcity of their appearance induces us to
consider them rather as stragglers drifted from the Channel Islands than
inhabitants of our southern shores. Two other genera of closely allied
animals are occasionally taken in the same locality. These have been de-
scribed by Prof. Milne-Edwards, and figured under the respective names of
Alima and Squillerichthys; specimens of both these have been taken during
the last summer, the former by Mr. Ray Lankester, and the latter by Mrs.
Collings of Serk. The former of these animals has much in its appearance
that is suggestive of an undeveloped condition; but it was difficult to define
the parent stock ; it might be a young Squillerichthys, or it might be a young
Squilla, from either of which it differs in having but two flagella to the
anterior appendage, and in the absence of the five pairs of pereiopoda; while
in Squilla and Squillerichthys there are three flagella to the anterior antenne,
and all the pereiopoda are present. The general form, however, of Alima is

MARINE FAUNA AND FLORA OF SOUTH DEVON AND CURNWALL. 89

nearer to Squillerichthys than is Squillerichthys to Squilla. This separation
appears to receive a wider demarcation from the circumstance that Mrs,
Collings took attached to her specimen several small ova ; two of these, with
the specimen, she kindly forwarded to me for inspection. These, however,
after due consideration, I came to the conclusion were only accidentally
entangled, or else deposited by some parasitic animal, since they were at-
tached to a large flexile membrane differing essentially from those that cover
the ova of Crustacea generally.

Fortunately, however, Dr. Power, while staying in the Mauritius, hatched
and forwarded to me a considerable number of the young of different Crus-
tacea; among these were those of a Squilla. This, although the young of
an exotic species, bears so close a relation to the genus Alima of Milne-
Edwards, that we can have no hesitation in accepting them as different stages
in the growth of animals of the same genus.

So with Squillerichthys, the features that distinguish it from Squilla being
clearly expressed in the larva of Squélla, and repeated in the form of Alima
in a condition that is a modification between it and Squillerichthys, conduces
to the conviction that, like Alima, Squillerichthys is but a stage in the de-
velopment of Squwilla, a circumstance that enables us with much confidence to
unite the three supposed genera as different stages in the progressive de-
velopment of one and the same genus.

In the entrance to the channel, during the present spring, large quantities
of the Crustacea named by Prof. Bell, in his ‘ History of the British Crus-
tacea,’ Thysanopoda Couchii, were taken in the stomachs of fish; of these a
considerable number were sent to me by Mr. Loughrin, but they were not in a
condition favourable for examination. The pendulous ovipouch, that affords
such a peculiar feature to the animal, was generally of a bright orange-colour ;
but, generally speaking, the contents had been so acted upon by the digestive
juices that little was determinable from them. This I think we may speak
with certainty, that they are not of the genus Thysanopoda.

OsTRACODA.

The following Ostracoda, which have been examined for us by G. §.
Brady, F.L.S., were dredged off the Eddystone in 40 fathoms of water :—

Pontocypris mytiloides, Norman. Loxoconcha guttata, Norman.
trigonella, G. O. Sars. tamarindus, Jones.
angusta, Brady. Xestoleberis aurantia, Baird,
Bairdia inflata, Norman. Cytherura angulata, Brady.
— acanthigera, Brady. cuneata, Brady.
Cythere pellucida, Baird. — striata, Sars.
tenera, Brady. similis, Sa7s.
— badia, Brady. acuticostata, Sars.
convexa, Baird. Cytheropteron punctatum, Brady.
— finmarchica, Sars. nodosum, Brady.
villosa, Sars. — multiforum, Norman.
— emaciata, Brady. subcircinatum, Sars,
— semipunctata, Brady. Bathocythere constricta, Sars.
— cuneiformis, Brady. turgida, Sars.
— antiquata, Baird. Pseudocythere caudata, Sars.
— Jonesii, Baird. Sclerochilus contortus, Norman.
— acerosa, Brady. Paradoxostoma ensiforme, Brady.
Eucythere parva, Brady. abbreviatum, Sars.
Loxoconcha impressa, Baird. Polycope compressa, Brady.
ANNELIDS.

Dr. M‘Intosh, F.R.S.E., F.L.S., says a considerable collection of Annelids

90 REPORT—1869.

from the neighbourhood of Plymouth was sent to me for examination by
Mr. Spence Bate and Mr. Brooking Rowe; the former likewise courteously
gave me the use of some careful drawings, from which sources the following
list is drawn up. As not unfrequently happens with such animals, the
specimens were in an indifferent state of preservation, especially those
which had been placed in glycerine. Although somewhat softened, how-
ever, they were of great interest, and much care had evidently been be-
stowed on their collection. As a series entirely from the southern shores of
England, they form an advantageous contrast with the collections of Mr.
Gwyn Jeffreys, which come from the opposite extremity of the British
Islands, viz. from the Zetlandic seas.

The majority of the species are well-known forms, and with regard to
these it is only necessary to refer to the list. Amongst the rarer forms,
Lepidonotus clava, Mont., seems to be plentiful, whereas on most of our
shores it is not commonly met with. Its speckled and adherent scales,
swollen and ringed cirri, and stout yellow bristles render it an easily recog-
nized species. The Nereis Marionii, Aud. & Ed., has not hitherto been re-
corded as British, and appears to be chiefly a southern form, for I have not
yet found it elsewhere than in the Channel Islands and in this collection
from Plymouth. It is characterized by the great development of the superior
lobe of the foot towards the posterior end of the body. Onuphis sicula,
De Quatref., is also comparatively common. The range of this species extends
from the Shetland Islands to the Mediterranean. It has jointed bristles, as
in Eunice, and the examples were in tubes of gravel and sand. The very
large size of some of the specimens of Cirratulus cirratus calls for notice. I
have not seen larger. The occurrence of Terebella medusa, Sav., a gigantic
form, is likewise interesting; and it is probable that Zerebella gigantea of
Montagu refers to this species. The hooks correspond with that figured by
Dr. Malmgren *, from a specimen procured in the Red Sea near Suez, and
have five (rarely six) distinctly separated teeth. The Terebella (Polymnia)
Danielsseni of Malmgren is a new British form, distinguished by the three
comparatively short branchie and the shape of the hooks, which have a
large fang and two or three small teeth above it.

List of Species.

Hermione hystrix, Sav. Lumbrinereis fragilis, Midl.
Lepidonotus squamatus, Linn. Eunice

clava, Mont. Leodice norvegica, L.
Harmothoé imbricata, Linn. Lysidice ninetta, A. & Hd.

—— longisetis, Grude. Hyalinecia tubicola, Mill.
Polynoé asterina (squamosa, Delle Chiaje). Onuphis sicula, Quatref.
Attached to Asterias aurantiaca. Notocirrus scoticus, Me.

Sigalion boa, Johnst. Glycera capitata, Grst.
Nephthys —— ?, softened fragment. Goési, Mgrn.
Notophyllum polynoides, rst. Arenicola ecaudata, Johnst.
Eulalia viridis, Mi/d. Cheetopterus norvegicus, Sars. (Drawing.)
Eteone pusilla, Grs¢. Nerine vulgaris, Johnst.
Syllis armillaris, Miil/. Scolecolepis cirrata, Sars.
Gattiola spectabilis, Johnst.? (Drawing. ) Cirratulus cirratus, Mill.
Nereis zonata, Malmgren ? Capitella capitata, Fabr.

pelagica, L. Ammochares Ottonis, Grude.

Marionii, 4. §& Ed. Sabellaria alveolata, L.

cultrifera, Grube. Pectinaria belgica, Pallas.
Nereilepas fucata, Sav. Amphictene auricoma, Mill.
Eunereis longissima, Johnst. Amphicteis Gunneri, Sars.

* Nordiska Hafs-annulater, tab, 25. f. 80.

ON THE PRACTICABILITY OF ESTABLISHING ‘‘ A CLOSE TIME.”

Terebella medusa, Sav.

nebulosa, Mont.

— littoralis, Dalyell, &c.

— Danielsseni, Mgrn.

Nicolea zostericola, Est.

Pista cristata, Mii/l.

Thelepus circinnatus, Fadr.

Leprea textrix, Dalyell.

Sabella penicillus, £. (pavonia, Sav.).
Dasychone Dalyelli (Dal.), Kolliker.
Protula protensa, Lam. §& Grube.
Serpula vermicularis, L.

Serpula reversa, Mont.
triqueter, LZ

Pontobdella muricata, LZ.
Borlasia olivacea, Johnst.
Lineus longissimus, Simmons.
Micrura fusca ?

Ommatoplea. Several.
Sipunculus ?

Thalassema Neptuni, Gertner.

ForAMINIFERA.

The Foraminifera, of which the following list was furnished me by Mr.
David Robertson of Glasgow, were taken in about 40 fathoms seven miles
south-east of the Eddystone, and some fourteen miles south-east of the
Dudman, in about the same depth of water.

Cornuspira foliacea, Phil.
Biloculina depressa, @’ Ord.
Spiroloculina limbata, d@’ Ord.
planulata, Lamarck.
Triloculina oblonga, Mont.
Quinqueloculina seminulina, d’ Ord.
subrotunda, Mont.
Trochammina inflata, Mont.
Lituola canariensis, d’ Orb.
Lagena levis, Mont.

striata, Mont.
semistriata, Wil.

— globosa, Mont.

— melo, d’ Orb.

Dentalina communis, @’ Orb.
Cristellaria rotulata, Lamk.
— crepidula, F. f WM.
Polymorphina lactea, W. & J.

Polymorphina oblonga, Wiil.
compressa, d@’ Orb,
myristiformis, Will.
Orbulina universa, d’ Ord.
Spirillina vivipara, Ehrend.
margaritifera, d’ Orb.
Textularia sagittula, Lamk.
Bulimina pupoides, d@’ Ord.
ovata, @’ Orb.

Bolivina punctata, d’ Ord.
Discorbina globularis, d’ Ord.
Planorbulina mediterraniensis, d’ Orb.
Truneatulina lobatula, Walker.
Rotalia Beccarii, L. ¢ M.
Patellina corrugata, W7//.
Nonionina asterizans, F’. ¢ W.
—— turgida, Will,

Report on the practicability of establishing “A Close Time” for the
protection of indigenous Animals. By a Committee, consisting of
PF. Bucxtanp, Rev. H. B. Tristram, /.R.S., Tecermeinn, and H.
E. Dresser (Reporter).

In accordance with the resolution passed at the Meeting of the British Asso-
ciation at Norwich in August last, appointing Mr. Frank Buckland, Rey.
H. B. Tristram, Mr. Tegetmeier, and Mr. H. E. Dresser as a Committee for
the purpose of collecting evidence as to the practicability of establishing a
close time for the protection of indigenous animals, this Committee met at
the Zoological Society’s rooms (which Dr. Sclater had kindly placed at their
disposal) on the 13th of January last, the Rev. Dr. Tristram being in the chair ;
and on Professor A. Newton tendering in evidence the information published
by the Yorkshire Association for the Protection of Sea-birds, respecting
the utility of sea-birds, it was resolved, inasmuch as the said Association was
working in the same direction as this Committee, that we should give every
reasonable assistance in furthering the object for which the Association had
been formed, viz. that of getting an Act of Parliament passed to protect the

92 REPORT—1869,.

sea-birds during the breeding-season, the reasons given being that sea-birds
are useful in destroying grubs and worms, in acting as scavengers in the
harbours, in warning vessels off the rocks during fogs by their cries, and in
hovering over and pointing out to the fishermen the locality of the shoals
of fish.

At the above meeting Mr. J. E. Harting, F.L.S. &¢. was proposed and
elected as a member of this Committee.

Since then the members of your Committee have to the best of their power
cooperated with the Association for the Protection of Sea-birds, and that
Association has fully acknowledged the assistance rendered. The Bill for
the protection of Sea-fowl was entrusted to the care of C. Sykes, Esq., M.P.,
in the Commons, and His Grace the Duke of Northumberland in the Lords,
where it met with a most favourable reception.

Before the Bill passed into Committee a meeting of naturalists was held at
the Hanover Square Rooms in order to consider and discuss the various
clauses. However, as the progress of the Bill has been so fully reported in
the newspapers, it is needless to enter into details here, and it will be suffi-
cient to say that at first it was proposed to make it illegal, not only to kill
the birds during the breeding-season, but also to take their eggs; and the
close time was proposed to extend from the 1st of May to the Ist of August.
However, it was found that so much injury would be inflicted on the poorer
classes living on the coast if they were prevented from taking the eggs or
young of the sea-birds, as they are often dependent on these for subsistence,
that the egg clause was struck out, and the young, when unable to fly, were
exempted. It was also considered that it would be expedient to exempt the
island of St. Kilda, the inhabitants of that island being so entirely dependent
on sea-birds for their subsistence.

With these modifications, and the close time being extended one month,
or from the Ist of April to the 1st of August, the Bill became law in June last,
and one conviction has already taken place. The person convicted under this
Act had dead sea-gulls in his possession, and was heavily fined. The Bill for
the protection of sea-birds having now become law, it has to be considered how
far it will be advisable to press for its extension to other birds and mammals.
That it will be well to afford protection to most, if not all, of our birds, at
least during the breeding-season, your Committee are fully convinced ; but it
yet remains to convince the farmer that he will derive benefit from so doing.

Our British agriculturist is in general no naturalist,.and takes it for granted
that every grain-eating bird must do him harm. He accordingly does his
best to exterminate sparrows and other small birds, little thinking of the
benefit they render him in destroying insects. Nor will the game-preserver,
we fear, countenance so sweeping a measure until he is fully convinced that
it is necessary to put some limit to the ravages made by his gamekeeper
amongst our feathered friends.

On the continent, and particularly where zoology forms a branch of study
in the schools of agriculture (as in Germany, Sweden, &c.), the utility of
many of our birds, which with us are persecuted as vermin, is fully recognized,
and instead of forming sparrow clubs, the agriculturists there take steps to
protect the feathered tribes.

In the grain-growing countries of Russia near and in every village small
boxes and sections of hollow branches may be seen fixed on to trees, barns,

* ‘We may here state that an Act protecting the sea-birds, not only during the breeding-
season, but during the whole year, has been for some time in force in the Isle of Man, and
has had the effect of almost entirely stopping the destruction of sea-fowl on that island.

ON THE PRACTICABILITY OF ESTABLISHING ‘fA CLOSE TIME.” 93

houses, &c., in order to induce sparrows and starlings to take up their abode
there, and assist in freeing the crops from destructive insects. Sparrows,
starlings, and particularly jackdaws swarm near most of these villages, and,
according to what the peasants say, are of infinite use in freeing the crops
from insects.

In Sweden, also, the starling is an especial favourite with the agriculturist,
and the Principal of the Boda Forest School, Jigmistare Boman, makes
every one of his pupils prepare and hang up a certain number of these nesting-
boxes, or “ holkar,” before leaving the school.

The late Mr. Charles Waterton also recommended the introduction into
England of this plan of providing nesting-boxes for starlings.

In speaking of the starling, we may refer to a letter from Universitiits
Forstmeister Wiese, published in the ‘ Journal fiir Ornithologie,’ 1866, p. 422,
in which he urges the necessity of putting up nesting-boxes for starlings, and
states that at Elisenhain in the Griefswald the oak-forests were suffering
severely from the devastations of Yortria viridana, when, to destroy this
insect, the starlings were protected, and these birds soon succeeded in keep-
ing down the numbers of this insect.

Some agriculturists of New Zealand are at the present moment endeayour-
ing, at considerable expense, to introduce into those islands the rook, the
jackdaw, and the starling, for the purpose of protecting their crops from the
ravages of caterpillars and locusts.

The best mode of judging of the good or harm done by birds is most cer-
tainly that of studying the nature of their food; and as almost all our smallest
birds, even those which are chiefly graminivorous, feed their nestlings on in-
sects, it would surely benefit the farmer and ;gardener were they protected
during the time when the insects are most destructive to the crops. Even
the Raptores should, we think, be protected ; and in proof of this we may refer
to Professor Newton’s paper on the “ Zoological aspect of Game-Laws,” read
at the last Meeting of the British Association, and the Rev. Dr. Tristram’s
theory propounded at the Meeting in 1867, viz. that the birds of prey are
the sanitary police of nature, and that if they had existed in their original
strength they would have stamped out the grouse-disease, inasmuch as hawks
in preference make sickly birds their quarry.

Regarding the food of our birds we may make the following short re-
marks :—

The common Buzzard (Buteo vulgaris), which was once, it is true, common
in Great Britain, but is now rapidly approaching the fate of the Great
Bustard, owing chiefly to the mistaken zeal of the gamckeepers, is a bird by
no means injurious to game. Its food consists chiefly of frogs, mice, snails,
&c., and but seldom or never of birds.

The Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) feeds almost entirely on field-mice, but also
eats beetles and grasshoppers.

The Merlin (Falco esalon) feeds chiefly on mice and small birds.

The Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) is perhaps the only true enemy of the
game-preserver ; though at the same time it is probable that if the good and
eyil it does were justly weighed, the balance would be in favour of the hawk,

its favourite quarry being the Woodpigeon, which is now increasing to an
extent injurious to agriculture.

As far as owls are concerned, Professor Newton clearly showed, at the
last Meeting of the British Association, that these birds are of the greatest
use to the agriculturist in destroying the small mammals which injure his
crops. Prof. Newton refers to the researches of Dr. Altum, the results of

94, REPORT—1869.

which were as follows :—In order to ascertain the nature of the food of the
different owls, Dr. Altum collected pellets, or castings, at different seasons of
the year, from different localities, which pellets he carefully examined.

Of the Barn-owl (Striv flammea) he examined 706 rejected pellets, which

contained remains of the following, viz. :—

4 Plecotus auritus.

11 Vesperugo pipistrellus.
1 Vesperus serotinus,
3 Mus decumanus.

237

nutus.
34 Hypudeeus glareolus,
23 amphibius.
588 Arvicola arvalis.
47 agrestis.

musculus, sylvaticus, and mi-

1 Arvicola campestris.
76 Crossopus fodiens.

349 Crocidura araneus (and leucodon).
1164 Sorex vulgaris,

1 ygmezus,

1 Talpa europea.
19 Passer domesticus.
1 Fringilla chloris.

2 Cypselus apus.

Of the Wood-owl (Striv aluco) he examined 210 pellets, the contents of

which he classifies as follows—

1 Mustela erminea.
6 Mus decumanus.
42 musculus, sylvaticus, minutus.
19 Hypudeus glareolus.
11 amphibius.
254 Arvicola arvalis.
12 agrestis.
1 Sciurus vulgaris.
5 Crossopus fodiens.
. 3 Crocidura araneus.
20 Sorex vulgaris.

48 Talpa europea.

1 Certhia familiaris.
1 Emberiza citrinella.
1 Motacilla alba.

15 Small birds (sp.?).
15 Carabus granulatus.
4 Harpalus ?

9 Ditiscus marginalis.
14 Scarabeus stercorarius.
1 sylvaticus.

1 Elater ——?

5 pygmezus.

and large quantities of Melolontha vulgaris, some of the pellets consisting
entirely of the remains of these insects.

Of the Short-eared Owl (Striv brachyotus) he examined a few pellets,
which he found to contain only remains of Hypudeus amphibius; but as
these were only obtained from one locality where this mouse is especially
abundant, Dr. Altum reserves his remarks on the food of this owl until he
can make further investigations.

Of the Long-eared Owl (Striz otus) he examined many pellets, which con-
tained remains as follows :—

1 Silpha rugosa.

14 Mus sylvaticus. |
1 Hypudeus amphibius.
12 glareolus.
193 Arvicola arvalis.

65 Arvicola agrestis.
2 Sorex vulgaris.

3 Birds, sp.?

The above proves most clearly that our owls should be protected, as in
destroying mice &c. they are benefitting the agriculturist. Not only, how-
ever, do the owls, as is above shown, feed chiefly on mice, but the Wood-
owl (Stria aluco) is often insectivorous; and Mr. Leopold Martin of Berlin
(Journal fiir Ornithologie, 1854, p. 93) states that he found in the stomach
of one of these birds the remains of no less than 75 Sphina pinastri.

Many of our smaller birds are entirely insectivorous, and are undoubtedly
useful at all seasons of the year; and of these we may in particular refer to
the Woodpeckers and Titmice, the latter of which feed largely on the eggs of
Bombyx pini, which is so destructive to the pine forests. Every female of

this moth will lay from 600 to 700 eggs, and were it not thet they are kept _

down in number by the tits they would increase enormously. Count C.
Wodzicki, in a small work on the influence of birds in destroying inju-

ON THE PRACTICABILITY OF ESTABLISHING “A CLOSE TIME.” 95

rious insects, published at Lemberg in 1851, calculates that a single tit
will devour 1000 insects’ eggs in a single day, and besides, the tits feed their
young chiefly on insects’ eggs and caterpillars. Count Wodzicki mentions in
particular Sitéa ewropea, Certhia familiaris, and the Regulide, as being
useful in destroying Bombya pini. He also mentions that the Woodpeckers
are of great utility in destroying the following insects, viz. Noctua pinastri,
Geometra piniaria, Sphine pinastri, Tenthredo pini, 7’. septentrionalis, Bos-
trichus typographus, and B. chalcographus. M. C. von Heyden also remarks
(Journal fiir Ornithologie, 1859, pp. 316, 317) that in the winter Sitta
ewropea and Parus major feed on the larvae of Cecidomyia fagi, the Beech-
gall insect, and states as follows :— The well-known conical gall of this
insect is often found in large numbers on the upper side of the beech-leaves.
In the autumn it becomes hard like wood, and falls off the leaf. These birds
then search carefully on the ground under the trees for the galls, and after
pecking a hole (generally in the side of the point of the gall), pick out and
devour the insect. The hole is generally so small that the insect cannot
be extracted with the beak, and the bird must use its tongue for that pur-
pose. It is curious that the bird should bore a hole at the hard point of the
gall when the base is merely closed by the thin paper-like web of the
insect.”

Professor Buckman has also recently observed that the Blue-tit (Parus
ccruleus) destroys the flies which make the oak-galls, which in many parts of
the country threaten to ruin the young oak-plantations.

Many of our seed-eating birds are useful, not only because they feed on
the seeds of injurious weeds, but also on destructive insects ; and our common
Yellowhammer (Hmberiza citrinella) feeds with avidity on the caterpillar of
the white Butterfly (Pieris rape).

Mr. Mewes, the well-known Swedish naturalist, states (Otversigt af Kongl.
Vetenskaps Akademiens Férhandlingar, 1868, p. 256) that at Borgholm in
Sweden he found the oak-woods near the castle almost stripped of their leaves
by Tortria viridana, and that numbers of birds were feeding on the larve of
this insect, amongst which he names the common Crossbill (Lowia curvi-
rostra), which, though in general a seed-eater, was in that instance doing
good service in eating insects. He states that flocks of these birds were
busily employed in destroying this insect.

The much-persecuted Sparrow (Passer domesticus) is also a good friend to
the agriculturist, and amply repays him for the little corn he may take by
destroying many injurious insects, and in eating the seeds of many rank
weeds.

During the winter the Tree-sparrow (Passer montanus) feeds chiefly on
the seeds of Urtica divica, Chenopodium album, and Polygonum aviculare, all
of which are injurious weeds.
| Itis true that the House-sparrow is a grain-eating bird, but its nestlings
are fed chiefly on insects. Mr. Berthold Wicke, of Gottingen (Henneberg’s
Journal fiir Landwirthschaft, 16 J ahrgang, 3 Heft) examined the contents of
the stomachs of 118 sparrows procured between the 21st of April and 24th of
June, and gives the following results of his investigations :—Of these birds, 45

were adults and 73 young, ranging from the small naked nestling to the full-
fledged bird. In the stomachs of three of the adult birds he found only grain,
im one nothing but the remains of a few bectles; one had the stomach and
erop so full of grain that he counted 50 grains; one stomach contained the
‘seed of weeds, pieces of peas and seeds of Stellaria media, and the rest con-
tained corn with the remains of beetles ; and in one was the entire skin of a
Melolontha vulgaris,

96 REPORT—1869.

Whereas, however, the stomachs of the adult birds contained chiefly grain
and but a small proportion of insect-remains, it proved to be entirely the
reverse as regards the young birds. Out of the 73 he examined, the sto-
machs of 46 contained insects, larve, caterpillars, &c., and only 9 contained
vegetable matter alone. Of the remaining stomachs 10 contained the re-
mains of insects mixed with a few seeds, 7 contained chiefly seeds with a
small proportion of insect-remains, and 1 contained eggshells and small
stones without trace of anything else.

Our American cousins have recognized the utility of the sparrow, and have
introduced it into New York, where it is now found comparatively numerous,
and has been most useful in keeping the trees free from caterpillars, which
before its introduction threatened seriously to injure them.

Our thrushes and blackbirds are also most useful to the gardener from
the quantities of slugs and snails they destroy, and our rook is universally
acknowledged to be a most useful bird.

Much information as to the nature of the food of birds is, however, yet
needed in order to judge correctly of the amount of good or harm they do;
and it would be well if the question were fully ventilated in the newspapers,
and naturalists resident in different parts of the country encouraged to make
investigations as to the nature of the food of the different species of birds,
and compare the results of such investigations.

Your Committee felt, however, sure that the good done by birds will be
found largely to predominate over the harm, and that it will prove expedient
to afford them protection during the breeding-season.

It is, however, a measure that will require considerable time to carry
through, and we would suggest that the best mode of affording the necessary
protection to birds would be to prohibit the carrying of a gun during the
breeding-season, as is now done in several parts of the continent, as, for
instance, in Switzerland, some parts of France, &c. In the United States of
North America, where freedom of action exists more perhaps than anywhere —
else, the close-time system is to a large extent carried out, and has proved
most beneficial, though, as may be supposed, it is most difficult to enforce in
a thinly populated country.

Much information is, however, yet needed as to the practical working of the
close-time system in those countries where it has been in force, and your
Committee hope ere long to be able to procure reliable particulars on this

oint.
: Generally it is said to work excellently, and, far from interfering with the
game-preservers, it has been found to act in harmony with their views.
Were it enforced here in England it would have the good effect of stoppmg —
the damage done by idle men and boys, who on Sundays are in the habit —
of going out in the neighbourhood of the towns to shoot small birds,

Experimental Researches on the Mechanical Properties of Steel.
By W. Farrzarrn, LL.D., F.R.S., &c.

In my last Report I had the honour of submitting to the Association an
experimental inquiry into the Mechanical properties of Steel, obtained from
the different sources of manufacture in the United Kingdom. On that occa-_
sion several important experiments were recorded from specimens a

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL, 97

from the best makers ; and bars were received from others, the experiments
on which were at that time incomplete. Since then I have had an opportu-
nity of visiting the important works at Barrow-in-Furness, and from there I
have received bars and plates of different qualities for the purpose of experi-
ment, and such as would admit of comparison with those recorded in my last
Report. I have also received specimens from Mr. Heaton for experiment,
illustrative of the new process of conversion from crude pig iron (of different
grades) to that of steel, as exhibited in the results contained in this Report.

In every experimental research connected with metals, it is necessary to
ascertain, as nearly as possible, the properties of the ores, the quality of the
material, and the processes by which they are produced. Generally this in-

_ formation is difficult to obtain, as in every new process of manufacture there
is a natural inclination (where the parties are commercially interested) to
keep it as long as possible to themselves, and hence the reluctance to furnish
particulars. Of this, however, I can make no complaint, as Mr. Bessemer,
the Barrow Company, and Mr. Heaton have unreservedly not only opened
their works for inspection, but they have furnished every particular required
(including chemical analysis) relative to the properties of the ores, and the
processes by which they are reduced.

From this it will be seen that in some of the experiments I have had the
privilege of recording the chemical as well as the mechanical properties of the
specimens which have been forwarded for the purpose of experiment, and of
ascertaining their respective and comparative values.

As regards the works at Barrow, I have, through the kindness of Mr.
Ramsden and Mr. Smith the manager, received every facility for investigation,
and they have kindly sent me the analyses of all the ores in use for the pur-
pose of manufacturing both iron and steel. In these Works, it will be noticed
that the manufacture is exclusively confined to the hematite ores, and that
by the Bessemer process.

It is curious to trace the progressive development of the manufacture of
steel from the earliest period down to the present time, and to ascertain how
nearly the more premature and early stages of manufacture approaches to
those of Bessemer and others in our own days. To show how closely they

approximate in principle (the exception being in the vessels used and the
power employed), I venture to quote from my own Report to the Barrow
Company, in which the coincidence between the ancient and modern processes
is exemplified.

In treating of the value of the hematite formation, I have stated that “we
haye no reliable accounts of the time when the hematite ores were first used
for the purpose of manufacture. They must have existed contemporary with
those in Sussex and the Forest of Dean; for the numerous cinder-heaps in
those counties and at Furness bear evidence of the smelting-process having
been carried on from an early period, until the forests became exhausted during

the reign of Elizabeth and her successors. The process by which the ores \
_ were reduced in those days was extremely rude and simple, and was probably
‘no better than what had been practised from time immemorial at the ancient
bloomeries, to which were attached artificial blasts, first practised in this
country after the Roman conquest. What was the nature of the apparatus
for producing this blast we are unable to ascertain ; but it is likely that two
or more pairs of bellows may have been used, or the method, still practised
_by the natives of Madagascar, might have been adopted of fitting pistons

- loosely into the hollow trunks of trees. In whatever form the hematite ores

| 2 ak it is clear that the smelting-furnace was not in operation in

’ i

98 REPORT—1869.

those days; and assuming that the bloomery was the only process in use, the
result would be a species of refined iron or steel, which, deprived of the greater
part of its carbon, would become malleable under the hammer.

- «Tt is interesting to observe how nearly our improved modern process of
making steel approaches to that of those rude and early times. The Bessemer
system is neither more nor less than the old process of the bloomery and the
Catalan furnace, the former being adapted to smelt the ore, and the latter to
decarbonize and refine it into the malleable state of iron or steel.

“That such was the state of the carly manufacture of hematite iron can
hardly be questioned, as the country around Ulverston was covered with
forests; and the name given to Furness Abbey shows that its site was in the
vicinity of furnaces, employed exclusively for the reduction of the ores with
which the surrounding country abounds. The remains of these ancient fur-
naces have to some extent been carried down to our own times, and Messrs.
Harrison and Co. still manufacture a fine quality of charcoal iron, the wood
being obtained from the adjoining forests. The new works at Barrow have,
however, entirely changed the nature of this process ; and the system of manu-
facturing direct from the ore has become a question of such importance, as to
induce an inyestigation of its value, and the improvements it is likely to effect
both in the manufacture of iron and steel. For this object the following
experiments have been instituted, in order to show the peculiar properties of
this manufacture, and the extent to which it is applicable for the general
purposes of trade and constructive art.

“The proprietors of the Barrow Works have confined themselves to certain
descriptions of manufacture, on the Bessemer principle, these being chiefly
steel rails, tyres, plates, and girders, manufactured at a comparatively low
price. From the nature of the ore and fuel (the latter of which is chiefly
brought by rail from the coal-fields of Durham and Northumberland) a
description of highly refined homogeneous iron and steel is produced; and
as this manufacture is intended for purposes where tenacity and flexibility
are required, it would not be just to compare it with other descriptions of
manufacture, where the object to be attained is hardness, such, for instance,
as that employed for carriage-springs and tools. The description of steel or
iron required for rails, beams, girders, &c. is of a different character; te-
nacity combined with flexibility is what is wanted, to which may be added
powers to resist impact. The same may be said of wheel-tyres and other
constructions, where the strains are seyere, and where the material is suf-
ficiently ductile to prevent accidents from vibration, or those shocks and
blows to which it may be subjected. Keeping these objects in view, the
Barrow Company’s Works have, to a great extent, been limited to this de-
scription of manufacture ; and, judging from the ductility of the material as
exhibited in the experiments, there is little chance of accidents from brittleness
when subjected to severe transverse strains, or to the force of impact.

“Tn calculating the value of the hematite steel, we have been guided by

the same formule as adopted for comparison with similar productions from
other works. Very few of them, however, will admit of comparison, as no

two of them appear to be alike. The hematite steel is manufactured, at the —

Barrow Works, for totally different purposes from those of other makers, and
having the command of a variety of ores for selection (as may be seen
from the analysis of the ores given in the-Table) the desired quality of steel
can be obtained at pleasure. We have therefore submitted the different
specimens to the same tests as those received from other makers, not only for
the purpose of ascertaining wherein their powers of resistance differ, but also

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 99

wherein consists their superiority as regards deflection, elongation, and com-
pression, from all of which may be inferred their nature and properties, and
the uses to which they may be applied. It is for this purpose we have
applied the same formule of reduction to each particular class of experiments
as in the former cases, and the results have been embodied in the summaries.
If, for example, it were required to know the modulus of elasticity, the
work of deflection, or the unit of working strength, these will be found in
their respective columns, carefully deduced from the experiments as given in
the Tables. The same principle for ascertaining the amount of work done to
produce rupture from tension has been followed, and the force required to
produce compression with a given load has also been calculated with the
same degree of care and attention to facts.

** As the Bessemer principle of manufacturing direct from the ore is calcu-
lated to produce great improvements and important changes in the produc-
tion of refined iron and steel, and as the homogeneous properties of the ma-
terial thus produced are of the highest importance as regards security, &c.,
it is essential to construction that we should be familiar with the mechanical
properties of the material in every form and condition to which it may be
applied.

* For this purpose I have given all the various forms of strain, excepting only
that of torsion, which is of less moment, as the strains already described in-
volve considerations which apply with some extent to that of torsion, and from
which may be inferred the fitness of the material for the construction of shafts
and other similar articles to which a twisting strain applies.

“The great advantage to be derived from the Barrow manufacture of steel
is its ductility combined with a tensile breaking strain of from 32 to 40 tons
per square inch. With these qualities I am informed that the proprietors are
able to meet all the requirements of a demand to the extent of 1000 to 1200
tons of steel per week, which, added to a weekly produce of 4500 tons of pig-
iron, will enable us to form some idea of the extent of a manufacture destined
in all probability to become one of the most important and one of the largest
in Great Britain”*.

From the above statement it may be inferred that the description of manu-
facture practised at Barrow is carried on upon a large scale, and the products
have reference to certain properties almost exclusively adapted to the formation
of wheel-tyres, rails, and plates. To the attainment of these objects the
greatest care and attention is devoted by the Company, as may be seen by com-
paring the reduction of the experiments in the summary of results.

In this extended inquiry I have endeavoured to deduce trueand correct results
from the specimens with which I have been favoured from the Barrow Steel
Company. In the same manner I have now to direct attention to the products
of an entirely new system of manufacture introduced by Mr. Heaton of the
Langley Mills, near Nottingham. The experiments on this peculiar manu-

facture require a separate introductory notice, as the process of conversion is

totally different to that of Bessemer, the Puddling-furnace, or that of the old
system of the Charcoal-beds.
For the finer description of steel the old process of conversion is still prac-

_ tised at Sheffield, from a fortnight to three weeks being required for the con-
t version of wrought iron into steel; and, with the exception of Mr. Siemens’s

__ Reverberatory Gas-furnace, there no improvements had been made on it until

* Tn round numbers, it is stated that the produce of the Barrow Mines is 600,000 tons
= sy per annum; of the Barrow Blast-furnaces 230,000 tons of pig-iron; and of the
ling Mills 60, 000 tons of steel rails, tyres, plates, Kc.
n 2

100 REPORT—1869.

Mr. Bessemer first announced his invention by means of which melted pig-iron
was at once converted into steel.

This new process of forcing atmospheric air through the metal in a molten
state took metallurgists by surprise ; and when it was taken into consideration
that the conversion was effected in twenty minutes and at one heat, the ques-
tion became one of absorbing interest to the whole of the commercial popu-
lation.

By the old process the metal was first deprived of its carbon and reduced
to the malleable state, when it was rolled into bars and retained (as above
described) from fourteen to twenty-one days in charcoal-beds until it had
absorbed by cementation the necessary quantity of carbon. The new process
of Mr. Heaton, unlike that cither of Mr. Bessemer or of cementation, simply
deals with the pig-iron, and, according to his own statement, eliminates the
superfiuous carbon, so that steel is in the first place produced and thence wrought
iron by a still further elimination of the carbon. This is totally different to
the puddling or the Bessemer process, which in the former was tedious and
expensive, whilst in the latter the pig-iron was rendered malleable without
any additional fuel and ready for the hammer or the rolls in a very short
period of time.

It is unnecessary to notice in detail the subsequent mechanical processes of
reheating, rolling, hammering, &c., which are common to all the systems of
conversion ; it is, however, important to mention that an admixture of spie-
geleisen, a description of cast iron containing an excess of carbon, is made into
the molten mass, without which the conversion is not easily effected by the
Bessemer process. '

It is asserted by some writers on this subject, “that, whatever are the merits
of the Bessemer process, the conversion cannot be effected without a destructive
action upon the conyerters, and a rapid wear and tear of the tuyeres, that
there is waste in filling the moulds, and that the heavy royalties attached to
the patents &c. are serious drawbacks to the extension of the process.” Mr.
Hewitt, a writer on this subject, comes to the conclusion “that good steel can
only be made from good material, no matter what process is employed ;” and
he further states “ that the Bessemer process will not, as Mr. Bessemer origi-
nally supposed, supersede the puddling-process, which appears to be as yet the
only method applicable to the conversion of by far the greater portion of pig-
iron made into wrought iron, because by far the larger portion of pig-iron
made is of a quality not good enough for the Bessemer process, which abso-
lutely exacts the absence of sulphur and phosphorus.”

There may be some truth in this statement, as it was found necessary, in
the selection of the hematite ores at Barrow, to make use of the best quality,
and only seyen or eight out of twenty sorts were found suitable for the pur-
pose. Itis, however, evident from the rapid extension of the process and the
estimation in which it is held by manufacturers and the general public, that
whatever objections the process is subject to (on purely economical grounds)
Mr. Bessemer has succeeded in carrying out the pneumatic principle of con-
version to the highest degree of excellence at present attainable by that
process.

In so important a branch of metallurgy it would be remarkable if Mr. Bes-
semer had hit upon the only feasible means of converting iron into steel.
Other minds have been inspired by Mr. Bessemer’s success in the same direc-
tion ; and the admixture of metals to effect a transmutation has been assumed
in many forms and proportions so as to increase our knowledge and lessen the
cost of production. Amongst those is the new process of Mr. Heaton, a de-

at a

a7 A

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL, 101

scription of which we venture to transcribe from a pamphlet published by the
proprietors of the Heaton process.

“The furnace (which is a common cupola) is charged with pig-iron and
coke, and fired in the usual way, and the iron when melted is drawn off into
a ladle, from which it is transferred to the converter.

«The converter is a wrought-iron pot lined with fire-brick. In the bottom
is introduced a charge of crude nitrate of soda, usually in the proportion of
2 ewt. per ton of converted steel, usually but not invariably diluted with
about 25 lb. of siliceous sand. This charge is protected or covered over with
a close-fitting perforated iron plate weighing about 100 1b., the diameter of
the plate being about 2 feet. The converter, with its contents, is then
securely attached, by moveable iron clamps, to the open mouth of a sheet-
iron chimney, also lined for 6 feet with fire-brick, and the melted iron taken
in a crane ladle from the cupola is poured in. The subsequent part of the
process is thus described by Professor Miller.

“<Tn about two minutes a reaction commenced. At first a moderate
quantity of brown nitrous fumes escaped; these were followed by copious
blackish, then grey, then whitish fumes, produced by the escape of steam,
carrying with it in suspension a portion of the flux. After the lapse of five
or six minutes, a violent deflagration occurred, attended with a loud roaring
noise and a burst of brilliant yellow flame from the top of the chimney. This
lasted for about a minute and a half, and then subsided as rapidly as it com-
menced. When all had become tranquil, the converter was detached from
the chimney, and its contents were emptied on to the iron pavement of the
foundry.

«« The crude steel was in a pasty state and the slag fluid; the cast-iron
perforated plate, which was placed as a cover to the converter, had become
melted up and incorporated with the charge of molten metal. The slag had
a glassy or blebby appearance, and a dark or green colour in mass.’ Professor
Miller proceeds to detail the subsequent parts of the process, and the results
of his analysis of some of the products.

_ “A mass of crude steel from the converter was then subjected to the
hammer.

« « About.43 cwt. of the crude steel was transferred to an empty but hot
_ reyerberatory furnace, where in about an hour’s time it was converted into
four blooms, each of which was hammered, rolled into square bars, cut up,
passed through a heating-furnace, and rolled into rods varying in thickness
from 1 inch to five-eighths of an inch.

«“«MThree or four cwt. of the crude steel from the converter was transferred
_ to areheating furnace, then hammered into flat cakes, which, when cold, were
_ broken up and sorted by hand for the steel melter.

“<«Two fireclay pots, charged with a little clean sand, were heated, and
into each 42 Ib. of the cake steel was charged; in about six hours the melted
_ metal was cast into an ingot.

««« Two other similar pots were charged with 35 lb. of the same cake steel,
7 1b. of scrap steel, and 1 ounce of oxide of manganese. These also were
poured into ingots.

_ «¢The steel was subsequently tilted, but was softer than was anticipated.
__ “These results are on the whole to be considered rather as experimental
than as average working samples.

««T have therefore made an examination of the following samples only :—

No. 4. Crude Cupola Pig. No. 8. Rolled Steely Iron.

No. 7. Hammered Crude Steel. No. 5. Slag from the converter,

102 REPORT—1869.

««J shall first give the results of my analysis of the three samples of
metal :—

Cupola Pig (4).| Crude Steel (7).) Steel Iron (8).

CES Sn Peery 2-830 1-800 0-993
Silicon, with a little Titanium 2-950 0-266 0-149
BUGS be odscav'e 5 01414. chou heeds 0-113 0-018 traces.
PhasnMOMus <5...) se14 « Semen 1:455 0-298 0:292
PAT BEDIC 3 sertevs ce ghle taicigeraas 0-041 0-039 0-024
WManPanege ; )., 5 2sipqes adh vel 0-318 0-090 0-088
Ba leianine.s, °, 17-3 a/sgiee aegis Mente te 0-319 0-310
OUI <:. bc curein Sat git ee les = 0-144 traces.
Iron (by difference) ........ 92-293 97-026 98144

100-000 100-000 100-000

«<< Tt will be obvious from a comparison of these results that the reaction
with the nitrate of soda has removed a large proportion of the carbon, silicon,
and phosphorus, as well as most of the sulphur. The quantity of phosphorus
(0-298 per cent.) retained by the sample of crude steel from the converter
which I analyzed is obviously not such as to injure the quality *.

««« The bar iron was in our presence subjected to many severe tests. It
was bent and hammered sharply round without cracking. It was forged and
subjected to a similar trial, both at dull red and a cherry-red heat without
cracking; it also welded satisfactorily.

««« The removal of the silicon is also a marked result of the action of the
nitrate.

‘<< Tt is obvious that the practical point to be attended to is to procure re-
sults which shall be wniform so as to give steel of uniform quality when
pig of similar composition is subjected to the process. The experiments of
Mr. Kirkaldy on the tensile strength of various specimens afford strong evi-
dence that such uniformity is attainable.

“««¢T have not thought it necessary to make a complete analysis of the slag,
but have determined the quantity of sand, silica, phosphoric and sulphuric
acid, as well as the amount of iron which it contains. It was less soluble in
water than I had been led to expect, and it has not deliquesced though left

in a paper parcel. F
“¢T found that out of 100 parts of the finely powdered slag, 11‘9 were _
soluble in water. The following was the result of my analysis :— "
Sand. 22%. 4- Pempast: on far sc @hueck ie ot A473 , j

Silica, in combination, .... © ..c..s05- 6-1 &

Phosphoric aed. 05 3 ss05t: oie game 6°8 t

Sulphypig: seid core gai eia ste spec sine MA HEF i

Tron (a good deal of it as metal)...... 12°6 4

Bods Sn WIE Fe ik ae ab se Ge ae ne 26-1 4

100-0

* Tt is important to point out that, as no analysis of the finished steel tested by Mr.
Kirkaldy is given, it is not improbable that this small percentage of phosphorus might haye
been still further reduced before it arrived at its final state of manufacture.

+ The use of lime was exceptional. Its use is now discontinued ; but its use on that
occasion no doubt accounted for the slag being less deliquescent and soluble than it is
usually found to be. ‘ 3

Pe - =

*
é

i
4

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 103

««¢ This result shows that a large proportion of phosphorus is extracted by
the oxidizing influence of the nitrate, and that a certain amount of the iron
is mechanically diffused through the slag.

*« The proportion of slag to the yield of crude steel iron was not ascertained
by direct experiment; but, calculating from the materials employed, its maxi-
mum amount could not have exceeded 23 per cent. of the weight of the charge
of molten metal. Consequently the 12:6 per cent. of iron in the slag would
not be more than 3 per cent. of the iron operated on.

<< Tn conclusion, I have no hesitation in stating that Heaton’s process is
based upon correct chemical principles; the mode of attaining the result is
both simple and rapid. The nitric acid of the nitrate in this operation imparts
oxygen to the impurities always present in cast iron, converting them into
compounds which combine with the sodium ; and these are removed with the
sodium in the slag. This action of the sodium is one of the peculiar features
of the process, and gives it an advantage over the oxidizing methods in com-
mon use:

“The slag produced is already utilized at the works, and forms the subject
of a new and valuable patent. There is every reason to believe that the
products of combustion may, by the means of a mechanical arrangement,
devised by Mr. Heaton, be further utilized and afford a large set-off on the
original cost of the nitrate. Itis also a great question whether the phosphorus
may not be most profitably reduced from the slag for commercial purposes.”

In addition to Mr. Miller’s statement, Mr. Robert Mallet reported on the
subject and expressed himself highly satisfied with the results, both as regards
the chemical and physical properties of the metal; and having been present
at the experiments made on Mr. Kirkaldy’s testing machine, he states the
results as under :—

Rupturing strain, in | Extension at rupture,
tons, per square inch | per cent. of original

of section. length.
Heaton’s steel iron...... 22-72 21:65 per inch.
Heaton’s cast steel...... 41-73 P20 os g

The results recorded in the above Table for cast steel are somewhat
below the results obtained in my own experiments, being in the ratio (for
the breaking strain) as 41°73: 44:94, or as ‘936 : 1.

The whole of these experiments appears to be correct; and assuming the
statement of cost to be equally satisfactory, we arrive at the conclusion that
“taking steel from the furnace in ingots, or made into steel rails, or bar iron,
or in any other form of ordinary manufacture, the net cost of production, after
adding 10 per cent. for management, including all cost of labour, fuel, and

_ material, and making all allowances for wear and tear and the like, is several

- pounds sterling per ton under the present market prices of similar descriptions
of the metal.” And this will cease to be a matter of surprise when it is

_ taken into consideration that, to repeat the words of Mr. Mallet, “steel can

P
4

—<

’ be produced from coarse, low-priced brands of crude pig-irons, rich in phos-

_ phorus and sulphur.” “Thus,” continues Mr. Mallet, « wrought iron and

cast steel of very high quality have been produced from Cleveland and North-

_ amptonshire pig-irons, rich in phosphorus and sulphur; and every iron-

master knows that first-class wrought iron. has not previously been produced
om pig-iron of either of these districts, nor marketable steel at all.”

104. REPORT—1869.

With these observations I have now to refer to the drawings of the furnaces
and apparatus which I have attached in illustration as an Appendix. In
conclusion I may state that, looking at this new process and its further develop-
ment as a step in advance of what has already been done by Bessemer and
others, we may reasonably look forward to a new and important epoch in the
history of metallurgic science.

Before entering upon the experiments, it will be necessary to repeat the
formule: of reduction as given in my previous Report of 1867. This appears
to be the more requisite, as it may be inconvenient to refer to the Transactions
of 1867, where it was originally introduced.

FormuLe or Repvction.
For the reduction of the Experiments on Transverse Strain.—When a bar
is supported at the extremities and loaded in the middle,
wl?

E = 45Kd”’ . . . . . . . . . (1)

where Jis the distance between the supports, K the area of the section of the
bar, d its depth, w the weight laid on added to 2 of the weight of the bar,
5 the corresponding deflection, and E the modulus of elasticity.

ESA it tots oh

when the sectiow of the bar is a square.
These formule show that the deflection, taken within the elastic limit, for

, : sel
unity of pressure is a constant, that is, "=D, a constant.

é;—-0; On . ;
Let We =a sat on be a series of values of D, determined by experiment

in a given bar, then

1 1 O, bn
D=;(F+2+ cee . «ee eee ee
which gives the mean value of this constant for a given bar.
Now, for the same material and length,
é 1
yw TDK KR a a ta he Loita eRe nee
and when the section of the bar is a square,
See neers
If D, be put for the value of D when d=1, then
D,=Dd*

aah 8, CF on it
=e w, tw, aioe +2). ; .) we ee (6) .

which expresses the mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and
section. This mean value, therefore, may be taken as the measure of the
flexibility of the bar, or as the modulus of flexure, since it measures the
amount of deflection produced by a unit of pressure for a unit of section.
Substituting this value in equation (2), we get
a

ch tse be oe

Be ty HOF

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 105

which gives the mean value of the modulus of elasticity, where D, is deter-
mined from equation (6).
The work (U) of deflection is expressed by the formula

1 6 wo
U=5X w X Jo=5y) ee OB tel ion, whe, 6.4 6 (8)

where 6 is the deflection in inches corresponding to the pressure (w) in Ibs.
If w and 6 be taken at, or near the elastic limit, then this formula gives the
work, or resistance analogous to impact, which the bar may undergo, without
suffering any injury in its material. This formula, reduced to unity of sec-
tion, becomes

aon it ~ a eee «a Ger) Bees

IfC be a constant, determined by experiment for the weight (W) straining
the bar up to the limit of elasticity, so that the bar may be able to sustain
the load without injury, then

peChdye. eek ede ee 2 UD)

where C= 1S, or } of the corresponding resistance of the material per square
inch at the upper and lower edges of the section,

Wl
C=aRy S&S MPR a & te « Stee GL

When the section of the bar is a square,

Wil
C=7» . ° . . . . . . . . . . . (12)

which gives the value of O, the modulus of strength, or the unit of working
strength, W being the load, determined by experiment, which strains the bar
up to the elastic limit. This value of C gives the comparative permanent or
working strength of the bar.

Up to the elastic limit the deflections are proportional to their corresponding
strains, but beyond this point the deflections increase in a much higher ratio.
Hence the deflection corresponding to the elastic limit is the greatest deflec-

-tion which is found to follow the law just explained.

For the reduction of the Experiments on Tension and Oompression.—The
work u expended in the elongation of a uniform bar, 1 foot in length and

1 inch in section, is expressed by

1 ee al
U=5 * K 9 Troh, . . . . . . . . (13)

=the cor-

Ei ~

2 .
where P, =; =strain in lbs. reduced to unity of section, and J, =

responding elongation reduced to unity of length.

The value of u, determined for the different bars subjected to experiment,
gives a comparative measure of their powers of resistance to a strain analogous
to that of impact.

By taking P, to represent the crushing pressure per unity of section, and
I, the corresponding compression per unit of length, the foregoing formula
will express the work expended in crushing the bar.

Haying given the formule for calculating the resisting powers of the steel
bars to a transverse, tensile, and compressive strain, and the amount of work
expended in producing fracture, we now proceed to the experiments, as
follows.

REPORT— 1869.

106

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ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 107

FIRST SERIES OF EXPERIMENTS.
TRANSVERSE STRAIN.

Exrrrment I. (June 1867).—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hamatite Steel
Company. Dimension of bar 1:02 inch square. Length between
supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “H1. Hard Steel.”

No. of | Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent

on, in in set, in
tap. lbs. inches. inches. Remarks.
1 50 065 =e Weight of scale &c. 36 Ibs.
2 100 ‘118
3 150 179
a 200 240
5 250 309
6 300 364
7 350 426
8 400 491
9 450 555
10 500 “611
na 550 676
12 600 *742
13 650 803
14 700 866
15 750 "946
16 800 1:006
17 850 1:076
mete 900 1:146
19 950 1-206
20 1000 1:266
21 1050 1-346
22 1100 1-406 000
23 1150 1-476 ‘000
24 1200 1:546 016
25 1250 1:646 "055
26 1300 1:796 133
27 1350 2-156 “429
28 1400 2:746 883 Experiment discontinued.

Results of Exp. I.

Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1210 lbs., and the corre-
sponding deflection (6) is 1546.

By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure
and section (D,) =-001308.

By formula (7)—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E)
= 30,096,000.

By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs.
pressure =33,830,000.

By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity
= 77-944.

By formula (9).—Work of deflection (uw) for unity of section = 77-917.

By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 6-860 tons.

108 REPORT—1869.

TRANSVERSE STRAIN.

Exp. II.—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Steel Company. Dimen-
sion; of bar ‘995 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet
6inches. Mark on bar, “ H 2. Medium.”

No. of Weight laid Deflection, Permanent
Exp. on, in _ in set, in Remarks.
lbs. inches. inches.
1 50 -065
2 100 *128
3 150 -201
4 200 -266
5 250 +330
6 300 -396
7 350 -466
8 400 534
9 450 -601 F
10 500 "682 “000
ine 550 *760 *027
12 600 *880 *052
13 650 1-020 “115
14 700 2-040 1-068
15 EUR ares ay mere Bar destroyed.

Results of Exp. II.

Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 510 Ibs., and the corre-
sponding deflection (6) is *682.

By formula (6),—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure
and section (D,) = -001280.

By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E)
= 30,754,000.

By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs.
pressure = 34,443,000.

By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity
= 14-242.

By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section =14°383.

By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 3-108 tons.

a ee ee ee

2 hie App rela? Yy wiricos 2)

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 109

‘TRANSVERSE STRAIN.

Exp. IfI.—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Steel Company. Dimen-
sion of bar 1-01 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet
6 inches. Mark on bar, ““H3. Soft.”

No. of | Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent

on, in in set, in Remarks.
xp. | lbs. inches. inches.
a! 50 “074
2 100 " aT
3 150 *195
4 200 +262
5 250 *330
6 300 *B395
7 350 “453
8 400 a 5
9 450 577 ‘000
10 500 *645 -007
ath _ 550 -716 ‘018
i | 600 -793 ‘019
13 650 873 032
14 700 1:029 118
15 750 1-279 +287
16 800 2-709 1:625 Experiment discontinued.

Results of Exp. III.

Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 610 1bs., and the corre-
sponding deflection (8) is *793.
By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure
and section (D,) = -001319.
_ By formula (7).—The mean value’ of the modulus of clasticity (FE)
_ = 29,717,000.
By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 bs.
pressure = 32,717,000.
By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity
= 20°155.
By formula (9).—Work of deflection (uw) for unity of section = 19-757.
By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 3'540 tons.

110 : REPORT—1869,

TRANSVERSE STRAIN.

Exe. IV. (January 1868).—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Steel
Company. Dimension of bar 1:071 inch square. Length between
supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ H1+.”

eight laid | Deflection, Permanent
ae < = in in set, in Remarks. ~
j lbs. inches. inches.
1 90 072 Bois Very soft steel.
2 146 ‘147
3 202 -200
4 258 ‘275
5 314 "352
6 370 “430
7 426 497
8 482 558 015
9 538 *635 1015
10 594 “691 021
a) 650 ag: 028
12 706 “891 053
13 762 1-437 ‘586

Results of Exp. IV.

Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity 1 is 660 lbs., and the corre-
sponding deflection (8) is ‘771.

By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure
.and section (D,) =-001383.

By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E)
= 28,460,000.

By "formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs.
pressure = 31,740,000, :

By = (8). ‘—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity
= 21-2

By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 18°48.
By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 3-228 tons.

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 111

TRANSVERSE STRAIN.

Exp. Y.—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Steel Company. Dimen-
sion of bar 1-032 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet
6 inches. Mark on bar, “ H2+4.”

No. of | Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent

on, in in set, In Remarks.
- lbs inches. inches.
1 90 +120 ‘000 Soft steel.
2 146 ‘190 “000
3 202 “254 ‘O11
4 258 B24 ‘012
5 314 “405 013
6 370 “A486 -021
ta 426 “554
8 482 -638
9 538 *692
10 594 -780
dh 650 *870
12 706 ‘968 ‘028
13 762 1:199 *150
14 818 1-448 “474.

Results of Exp. V.

~ Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 716 lbs., and the corre-
sponding deflection (6) is -968.

By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection of unity of pressure
and section (D,) = :001384.

By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E)
= 28,440,000.

By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs.
pressure = 28,610,000.
By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity
= 28-28. i

By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 25°95.

By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 3-938 tons.

112 REPORT—1869.

TRANSVERSE STRAIN.

Exp. VI.—Bar of Steel from the Hematite Steel and Iron Company. Dimen-
sion of bar 1:016 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet
6 inches. Mark on bar, “H3+.”

——

No. of | Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent

on, in in set, in Remarks.
=P. Ibs. inches. inches. :
1 90 ‘130 ap Very soft steel.
2 146 “199
3 202 “274 ‘009
4 258 "302 -016
5 314 428 ‘016
6 370 “505 020
7 426 -580 ‘042 ;
8 A482 *656 048
9 538 “734 *048
10 594 “808 *056
11 650 *882 ‘079
12 706 “990 ‘798
13 762 1-530 *998

Results of Exp. VI.

Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 660 Ibs., and the corre-
sponding deflection (¢) is ‘882,

By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure
and section (D,) = -001406.

By formula (7),—The mean yalue of the modulus of elasticity (E)
= 28,000,000.

By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs.
pressure = 29,080,000.

By formula (8)—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity
= 24-25.

By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 23°49.

By formula (12).—Value of C, the unity of working strength = 3-781 tons.

ae en ee

nm Sy $n

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 1s

TRANSVERSE STRAIN.

Exp. VII.—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Steel Company. Di-
mension of bar 1 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet
6 inches. Mark on bar, “‘H4+.”

No. of | Weight laid Deflection, | Permanent
Exp. on, in _in set, in Remarks.
lbs. inches. inches.
1 90 150 hse Soft steel.
2 146 °215
3 202 +285 -044
4 258 *352 -046
5 314 “432 -048
6 370 498 “054 Weight remained on bar
if 426 574 from 5 p.m. to 10 a.m.
8 482 -646 The deflection in that time
9 538 ‘734 increased by *004 of an
10 594 “804 inch.
11 650 ‘873
12 706 ‘968
13 762 1:136 51
14 818 1:528 ‘516

Results of Exp. VII.

Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 7161bs., and the corre-
sponding deflection (¢) is :968.

By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure
and section (D,) = ‘001330.

By formula (7)—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E)
= 29,600,000.

By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (EZ) corresponding to 112 lbs.
pressure = 28,590,000.

By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity
= 28:28.

By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 28:28.

By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 4-315 tons.

1869. T

114 REPORT—1869.

TRANSVERSE STRAIN.

Exp. VIII.—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Steel Company. Di-
mension of bar 1:051 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet
6 inches. Mark on bar, ‘‘H 5+.”

i al flection, Permanent
ne S eee ai in ai set, in Remarks.
Pe lbs. inches. inches.
att 90 “1/22 fae Rather harder steel.
2 146 196
3 202 271 “002
4 258 348 “002
5 314 “420 “004
6 370 "493 ‘006
7 426 +566 -008
8 481 648 ‘010
9 5388 *718 -012
10 594 *783 -014
11 650 “848 ‘016
12 706 -932
13 762 1:058 ae, Weight left on from 1 p.m.
14 818 1-182 104 to 2 P.M.
15 874 1-410 “295

Results of Exp. VIII.

Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 772 lbs., and the corre-
sponding deflection (6) is 1-058.

By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure
and section (D,) = ‘001658.

By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E)
= 23,740,000.

By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs.
pressure = 25,720,000.

By formula (8)—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity
= 34:03.

By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 30:81.

By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 4-108 tons.

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 115

TRANSVERSE STRAIN.

Exp. IX.—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Steel and Iron Company.

Dimension of bar 1-042 inch square.

feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “H 6+.”

Length between supports 4

No. of | Weight laid

on, in
a: lbs.

1 90
2 146
oS 202
4 258
5 314
6 370
7 426
8 482
9 538
10 594
if 650
12 706
13 762
14 818
US 874

= 24,680,000.

= 34-42.

DSRS re eee

Deflection,

Permanent
set, in
inches.

“000
“000
°018
"018
018
‘018
022
022
022
“022
"024

050 .
‘081
494

Remarks.

This steel is of the same
quality as bar 8.

Weight left on bar from 4.50
p.m. to 10 a.m,

Results of Exp. 1X.

Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 772 lbs., and the corre-
sponding deflection (6) is 1-07.
By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure

- and section (D,) = -001595.

By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E)

By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs.
pressure = 23,550,000.
By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity

By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 31-73.
By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 4-112 tons.

116 REPORT—1869.

TRANSVERSE STRAIN.
Expr. X. (April 1869).—Bar of Steel from the Heaton Steel and Iron Company,
Langley Mills. Dimension of bar 1-018 x 1:04inch. Length between
supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “1.”

No. of | Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent

on, in in set, 1m
ner bs. inches. inches.
IL 34 “054
2 62 094
3 118 162 “006
4 146 -190 -002
5 174 *228 “005
6 314 -436 “004
ff 370 +502 “004
8 426 578 025
9 454 “614 ‘026
10 482 +656 028
ii 510 696
12 5388 ‘730
13 566 ‘768
14 594 *802
15 622 *860
16 650 -940
ilve 678 *985
18 706 1-016
19 762 1:079
20 818 1141
21 874 it i62 *028
22 930 1:235
23 986 1:329
24 1041 1-391:
25 1097 1:443
26 1153 1-526
21 1209 1-610
28 1241 1-693
29 1321 1-860 ‘040

Remarks.

Hard cast steel.

Results of Hap. X.
Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1251 lbs., and the corre-

sponding deflection (8) is 1-693.

By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure

and section (D,) = -001481.

By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E)

= 26,580,000.

By formula (1).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs.

pressure = 26,060,000.

By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity

= 88°25.

By formula (9).—Work of deflection (uw) for unity of section = 83-410.
By formula (11).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 6-831 tons.

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 117

TRANSVERSE STRAIN.

Exr. XI.—Bar of Steel from the Heaton Steel and Iron Company, Langley
Mills. Dimension of bar 1044-028 inch. Length between sup-
ports + feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ 2.”

No. of | Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent
Exp. on, in _ in set, in Remarks.
Ibs. inches. inches.
1 90 120
2 146 186 008
3 202 "242 “009
+ 258 *312 ‘009
5 314 378 “009
6 370 470 ‘009
t 424 546 “010
8 482 *612 -010
9 538 ‘677 ‘010
10 594 “744
LE 650 *812
12 706 *888
13 762 952
14 818 1:016
15 874 1-084 O11
16 930 1:154
V7 986 1-212 014
18 1042 1-276
19 1098 1:336
20 1154 1-398
21 1210 1-460
22 1266 1-522
23 1322 1-615 016
24 1378 1/708 “042
25 1434 1-801 ‘082
26 1466 1-933
27 1522 2-086 208
28 1578 3°836 1:836

Results of Exp. XI.

Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1444 lbs., and the corre-
_ sponding deflection (6) is 1-801.
By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure
_and section (D,) = °001354.
_ By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E)
= 29,070,000.
By formula (1).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs.
pressure = 29,640,000.
By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity
=108-4.
By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 101-1.
By formula (11).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 7-879 tons.

118 _ REPORT—1869.

' TRANSVERSE STRAIN.

Exp. XII.—Bar of Steel from the Heaton Steel and Iron Company, Langley
Mills. Dimension of bar 1-022 x1:013 inch. Length between sup-
ports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ 3.”

|
Teight laid | Deflection, | Permanent
‘Ep a ae in set, in Remarks.
= lbs. inches. inches.
if! 90 144 “000
2 258 ‘310 “022
3 370 “524 032
4 482 672 “026
5 594 “812 047
6 706 “952
0 762 1-038 *022
8 828 1124
9 884 1-170 023
10 940 1°242
int 996 1:308
12 1052 1-402
13 1108 1-464 “021
14 1164 1:568
15 1220 1°622 ‘046
16 1276 sl (Oh%. ‘062
ily 1332 i erhgh “100
18 1388 1°819 *160
19 1444 2-652 “842
20 1556 4-652 2-588

Results of Exp. XII.

Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1398 Ibs., and the corre-
sponding deflection (6) is 1:819.

By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure
and section (D,) = 001419.

By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E)
= 27,740,000.

By formula (1)—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs.
pressure = 26,160,000.

By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity
== 105-0;

By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 102:3.

By formula (11).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 8-028 tons.

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 119

TRANSVERSE STRAIN,

Exp. XIII.—Bar of Steel from the Heaton Steel and Iron Company, Langley
Mills. Dimension of bar 1:008 x 1-012 inch. Length between sup-
ports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ 4.”

No. of | Weight laid | Deflection, Permanent
Exp. on, in in set, in Remarks.
lbs. inches. inches.
1 90 108 |
2 314 “406
3 538 -686
4 762 ‘975
5 874 1-090
6 986 1-198
1 1042 1:304
8 1098 1-408
9 1154 1-459
10 1210 1-543
iL 1266 1-592 ‘001
12 1322 1-676 *012
13 1378 1-769 ‘046
14 1434 1-908 “094
15 1490 2-428 572

Results of Exp. XIII.

Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1388 lbs., and the corre-
sponding deflection (¢) is 1:769.

By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure
and section (D,) = °001295.

By formula (7)—The mean yalue of the modulus of elasticity (EH)
= 30,400,000.

By formula (1).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs.
pressure = 35,120,000.

By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity

m— 102-3.

By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 100-3.
By formula (11).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 8-094 tons.

120 REPORT—1869.

TRANSVERSE STRAIN.

Exp. XIV.—Bar of Steel from the Heaton Steel and Iron Company, Langley
Mills. Dimension of bar 1:025x1:02 inch. Length between sup-
ports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “5.”

No. of | Weight laid | Deflection, Permanent
Exp. on, in _ in set, in Remarks.

lbs. inches. inches.

1 90 ‘117 ‘000
2 146 "193 ‘009
3] 202 257 ‘009
A 258 *328 “009
5 3814 403 “009
6 370 A477 “009
7. 426 HAO ‘010
8 482 -608 ‘010
9 538 673 ‘010
10 650 816 ‘O10
aa: 762 ‘O77 010
12 818 057 *012
13) 874 1S ‘012
14 930 1:189 “O11
15 986 1-263 ‘007
16 1042 1325 ‘008
iby 1098 1:387 “009
18 1154 1:457 -010
19 1210 1:543 ‘015
20 1266 1:607 -017
Al 1322 1-760 023
22 1378 1:928 “029
ao 1434 2-188 be SU (33
94 1490 rey aie stil!
25 1546 2-690 “797

Results of Hwp. XIV.

Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1276 Ibs., and the corre-
sponding defiection (6) is 1-607.

By formula (6).—The mean yalue of the deflection for unity of pressure
and section (D,) = 001351.

By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E)
= 39,140,000.

By formula (1).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs.
pressure = 31,140,000,

By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity
= 85:44.

By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 81-60.

By formula (11)— Value of C, the unit of working strength = 7-209 tons.

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 121

TRANSVERSE STRAIN.

Exp. XV.—Bar of Steel from the Heaton Steel and Iron Company, Langley
Mills. Dimension of bar 1:02x1-02 inch. Length between sup-
ports 4+ feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “6.”

Weight laid | Deflection, Permanent
a of ms in in set, in Remarks.
Le lbs. inches. inches.
iff 90 “132 ‘000
2 146 200 ‘013
3 202 *268 ‘016
4 258 “331 ‘019
5 314 “406 ‘019
6 370 A74 “019
fl 426 *550 -023
8 482 -610
9 5388 -680 ‘018
10 594 “774 ‘020
ila 650 *854. “024
12 706 *926
13 762 994 ‘014
14 818 1:078 ‘014
15 874 1:142
16 930 1-208
bz 986 1:274 ‘015
18 1042 1-344
19 1098 1-440
20 1154 1:502 -016
21 1210 1:578 *022
22 1266 1:719 SES 77
23 1322 1-753 ‘072
24. 1378 1-866 ‘078
25 1434 2-008 158
26 1490 3°378 1:378

Results of Exp. XV.

Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1220 Ibs., and the cor-
responding deflection (¢) is 1:578.
__ By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure
and section (D,) = -001372.
_ By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E)
= 28,690,000.
_ By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs.
“pressure = 27,590,000.
By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity
= S021.
By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 77-13.
By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 6-925 tons.

<
;
}
:

1869.

REPORT

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ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 128

SECOND SERIES OF EXPERIMENTS.

TENSILE STRAIN.

Exp. I. (June 1867).—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Steel and
Tron Company. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar,
“H1.” Diameter of specimen *744 inch. Area -4347 square inch.
Reduced diameter after fracture -744 inch. Area ‘4347 square inch.

Per unit of length.
oe ream Breaking-strain per 2 Remarks.
Exp. aid on. | square inch of section. Elongation. ei

Ibs. lbs. tons.

1 | 10249 ie a8

2} 11929

3 | 13609

4 | 15289

5 | 16969

6 | 18649

7 | 20329

8 | 22219 “bsg tenth

Results—Here the breaking-strain (P,) per square inch of section is
93,383 Ibs., or 41-7 tons, and the corresponding elongation (J,) is 0406. By
formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 1895.

Exe. I1.—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Steel and Iron Company.
| Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “H 2.” Dia-
meter of specimen ‘69 inch. Area -3754 square inches. Reduced
diameter after fracture 66 inch. Area -3401 square inch.

if; 15289 a Gh ee Bey ‘0062

2 18649 see Lye Bee ‘0195 -0178

3 22009 oe ree at: ‘0312 -0226

4 95369 of be in ATO “0522 ‘0515

5 27049 eee acne -0656 ‘0647

6 28729 2 ee Secs BS “0866 ‘0863

7 | 30309 | 80724 36:030 as © eee Broke in centre.

Results—Here the breaking-strain (P,) per square inch of section is
80,724 lbs., or 36-03 tons, and the corresponding elongation (J,) is -0866.
By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 3495.

124

REPORT—1869.

Exe. IJI.—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Steel and Iron Com-
pany. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “ H 3.”
Diameter of specimen *75 inch. Area °4417 square inch. Reduced
diameter after fracture ‘542 inch. Area +2306 square inch.

No. | Weight
Exp. tala Oi.
lbs.
ih 15289
2) 18049
3 | 22009
4} 25369
5 | 28729
6 | 30304

Breaking-strain per
square inch of section.

lbs.

68607

tons.

30-63

Per unit of length.

Elongation.

°0012
‘0180
"0290
‘0656
0656

Permanent
set.

0163
"0622
.0622

Remarks.

neck.
Broke 13 inch from

Results—Here the breaking-strain (P,) per square inch of section is
68,607 lbs., or 30-63 tons, and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of
length is 0656. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing

rupture = 2250.

Exe. IV. (January 1868).—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Steel
and Iron Company. LElongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark
on bar, “ H1+.” Diameter of specimen ‘763 inch. Area *4572 square
inch. Reduced diameter after fracture ‘51 inch. Area -2043 square

inch.

15289
18649
20329
22009
23689
25369
27049
28729
30304

OoyInawrwWhde

66281

29:59

“0006
“0062
*0222
“0281
‘0375
‘0546
‘0765
"1858

0195
0265
0343
"0483
0733
1765

Broke in centre.

Results—Here the breaking-strain (P,) per square inch of section is
66,281 Ibs., or 29°59 tons, and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of
length is -1858. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing
rupture = 6157.

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 125

‘Exe. V.—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Steel and Iron Company.
Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “ H 2+.” Dia-
meter of specimen *764 inch. Area 4584 square inch. Reduced
diameter after fracture ‘568 inch. Area -2696 square inch.

}
Per unit of length.
| Bo. Weight Breaking-strain per ene:
Exp. laid on. | square inch of section. lanPatiaes Cees
lbs. > Ibs; tons.

1 | 15289 ate ae igor

2 | 18649 eas « a oe
P|} 3| 22000 | <2.) | 222. | -003
: 4 | 28689 ere a “0004 *0003
, 5 | 25369 epee’ Eom We “0118 -0106
: 6 | 27049 Hepes Fee Se 0137 °0125
4 7 | 28729 a eee 5 ie ‘0171 *0156

8 | 30304 ie Fe wate 0233 ‘0218

9 | 32014 Pre ee "0312 0296 [from centre.

10 | 33574 73241 32:69 ar oe mo Broke 2 inches

Ztesults——Here the breaking-strain (P,) per square inch of section is
73,241 Ibs., or 32°69 tons, and the corresponding elongation (J,) per unit of
length is -0312. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing
rupture = 1142.

_ Exp. VI.—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Steel and Iron Company.
: Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “H3+.” Dia-
; meter of specimen -771 inch. Area -4656 square inch. Reduced
= diameter after fracture ‘598 inch. Area -2808 square inch.

1} 15289 neewae bone *0053

2 | 18649 eae ay Fe 0116

3 | 20329 og! ac 0187 0171

4 | 22009 sie er "0265 0187

5 | 23689 oe aga *0321 *0250

6 | 25369 Pe ape 0375 0296

7 | 27049 5 re Be ey “0450 0437

8 | 28729 Ey e3 rg 0718 "0593

9 | 30304 PT ee S245 0812 0786 [from neck.

10 | 32014 | 68758 30°69 see .... | Broke 13 inch

Results—Here the breaking-strain (P,) per square inch of section is
68,758 Ibs., or 30°69 tons, and the corresponding elongation (7,) per unit of
length is -0812. By formula (13).—The work (wu) expended in producing

rupture = 2791.

126

REPORT—1869.

Exp. VII.—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Steel and Iron Company.
Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “H4+.”
Diameter of specimen 768 inch. Area 4639 square inch. Reduced
diameter after fracture ‘768 inch. Area -4639 square inch.

“| Weight
BE aad on:

lbs.
18649
22009
23689
25369
27069
28729
30304
382014
33574
35304

SCOONAOTEWNH

Breaking-strain per
square inch of section.

tbs. tons.

Per unit of length.

Elongation.

“0051
‘0108
0226
0297
0343
0438
“0500
0671

75736 | 33-81

"0906

Permanent
set.

0187
0222
‘0375
0421
0491

0622
0875

Remarks.

Broke in neck.

Results.—Here the breaking-strain (P,) per square inch of section is 75,736
lbs., or 33°81 tons, and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of length
is 0906. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture

= 3430.

Exp. VIII.—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Steel and Iron Com-
pany. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “H5+.”
Diameter of specimen *76 inch. Area -4536 square inch. Reduced
diameter after fracture °558 inch. Area ‘2366 square inch.

18649
22009
25369
27049
28729
30304
32014
33574

BID WNWH

74016 | 33-04

“0027
0062
“0296
0375
0467
0622
0765

“0250
-0312
0437
0562
‘0750

centre.
Broke 1 inch from

Results—Here the breaking-strain (P,) per square inch of section is
74,016 lbs., or 33:04 tons, and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of

length is :0765,
rupture=2831.

By formula (13).—The work (wv) expended in producing

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 127

Exe, IX.—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hzmatite Steel and Iron Company.
Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “H6 et?
Diameter of specimen ‘772 inch. Area -4677 square inch. Reduced
diameter after fracture ‘581 inch. Area *3651 square inch.

No Per unit of length.
of | Weight | Breaking-strain per Fitts
Exp. laid on. | square inch of section. cies een Permanent
} lbs. lbs. tons.
me | 18649 .... a2 “0003
me) 22009| .... BS 0062
3 | 25369 Bova: B Rase 0250 0218
4) 27049 Si acre ce 0335 °0281
5 | 28728 Ber Ae “0406 0375
6 | 30304 Bec Alek “0500 ‘0468
7) 31864 aia: mo 0686 ‘0678
8 | 33424 OL AIe ae -1000 ‘0937
9 | 35124 | 75120 | 33-53 dts ..-- | Broke in centre.

Results—Here the breaking-strain (P,) per square inch of section is
75,120 Ibs., or 33°53 tons, and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of
length is -1. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rup-
ture = 3756,

Exp. X. (April 1869).—Bar of Steel from the Heaton Steel and Iron Company,
Langley Mills. Elongations taken on 8 incheslength. Mark on bar,
“J.” Diameter of specimen -748 inch. Area *4394 square inch.
Reduced diameter after fracture -748 inch. Area -4394 square inch.

ie acoco'| .... |... 2. 1-000
Dy} o3689| .... | .... | -000
mmr97049| .....| ....- | -000
mezog | |. 8 00
mm 30799 |... 12-900
39479; ... | ......| -eo12
im 34039) | 1.271’ cove
me a5659:| |.) *\ |. 8° .g908
Mm 37199; .... | ...° 1° 0985 4+ -0908

Meio} 38704 |... | |... | -0351 | -0315

ma 40264| .... | ....- | -0390° 4: -0351
L 12) 41104] 93545 | 41-761 vor Bees teste
a

__ Results —Here the breaking-strain (P,) per square inch of section is 93,545
_Ibs., or 41-761 tons, and the corresponding elongation (Z,) per unit of length
is 0390. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture
=1824.

128

REPORT—1869.

Exp. XI.—Bar of Steel from the Heaton Steel and Iron Company, Langley
Mills. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “ 2.”
Diameter of specimen *758 inch. Area *4512 square inch. Reduced
diameter after fracture *758 inch. Area ‘4512 square inch.

OSL aaieiehs
Exp. laid on.
lbs.
1 16969
2 23479
3 28669
4 382119
5 | 35479
6 38839
7 40519
8 42199

Breaking-strain per
square inch of section.

lbs. tons.

93526 | 41-752

Per unit of length.

Elongation.

“0019
“0024
“0024

*0125
0235
"0312

Permanent
set.

0103
0187
0235

Remarks.

Broke in neck.

Results——Here the breaking-strain (P,) per square inch of section is 93,526 lbs., or
41-752 tons, and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of length is ‘0312. By formula
(13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 1459.

Exp. XII.—Bar of Steel from the Heaton Steel and Iron Company, Langley
Mills. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “3.”

Diameter of specimen ‘746 inch.

Area ‘4370 square inch. Reduced

diameter after fracture -626 inch. Area *3077 square inch.

1| 16969
2) 22144
3 | 26149
4| 29794
5 | 32944
6 | 386019
7 | 37699
8 | 39379
9 | 41059
10 | 41899
11 | 42739
12 | 43379
138 | 44419
14 | 45259
15 | 46699
16 | 46939
17 | 47359
18 | 47779
19 | 48199
20 | 48619
21 | 49039
22 | 49459

113178 | 50-526

‘0019
0038

“0157
0208
0234
0277
*0312
"0375

0416
0468
“0520
0582
0625
0645
‘0781
0937

0125
‘0157
0227
"0250

"0250 ©

0253
0390

0400
0416
“0452
*0512

"0580
0728
0750

[centre.
Broke 2 ins. from

Results.—Here the breaking-strain (P,) per square inch of section is 113,178 Ibs., or

50°526 tons, and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of length is 09387. By for-
mula (13).—The work (7) expended in producing rupture = 5302.

Mee? op

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 129

Exe. XIII.—Bar of Steel from the Heaton Steel and Iron Company, Langley
Mills. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “ 4.”
Diameter of specimen -746 inch. Area -4370 square inch. Re-
duced diameter after fracture ‘746 inch. Area ‘4370 square inch.

‘| Weight
e laid on.

lbs.
16969
27484
35459
39224
40784
41628
43308
44988
45828

CO O10 Ore Whe

Breaking-strain per

square inch of section. | py dneation
=)

lbs.

104869

tons.

46-816

Per unit of length.

‘0019
0208
0234
*0250
0274
0364

Permanent’

set.

0131
0206

0312

Remarks.

Broke in neck.

Results—Here the breaking-strain (P,) per square inch of section is
104,869 lbs., or 46°816 tons, and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit
of length is -0364. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in produ-
cing rupture=1908.

Exe. XIV.—Bar of Steel from the Heaton Steel and Iron Company, Langley

Mills.

Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “ 5.”

Diameter of specimen ‘754 inch. Area -4465 square inch. Reduced
diameter after fracture -754 inch. Area 4465 square inch.

24049
33629
40784
42464
43304
43724
44144

“IDS Wher

98866

44-136

“0038
“0208
0393
0646
0781
0937

‘0307

‘0750
0821

Broke near neck.

Results—Here the breaking-strain (P,) per square inch of section is
98,866 Ibs., or 44-136 tons, and the corresponding elongation (i, ) per unit of
length is 0937. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing

rupture=4631.

1869.

130 REPORT—1869.

Expr. XV.—Bar of Steel from the Heaton Steel and Iron Company, Langley
Mills. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “6.”
Diameter of specimen °754 inch. Area ‘4465 square inch. Re-
duced diameter after fracture ‘528 inch. Area *2560 square inch.

Per unit of length.
- Weight Breaking-strain per | Remarks.
Exp. laid on. | square inch of section. Elongation. Hida
lbs. lbs. tons.
tT | 24049 HS <= ‘00388
2 | 32629 i Rcts SER
S.| go7e4: i tas were || 0412 | *-0875
4} 41464 PP ae i ee ‘0468 “0419 :
5 | 42304 Bit oe ‘0500 “0450
6 | 438144 .thig fay -0500
7 | 43984 pte eee -0520
8 | 44824 oe 4 -0663 :
Gy ADOAA hy Shewes .... | 70693 | -0663 |
10 | 45664 cite: AE “0702
11 | 46504 Sg Ack 1041 1012 [neck.
12 | 46924 | 105093 | 46-915 er .... | Broke 2ins? from

Results—Here the breaking-strain (P,) per square inch of section is
105,093 lbs., or 46-915 tons, and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit
of length is -1041. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing
rupture = 5464.

131

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL.

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132 REPORT—1869.
THIRD SERIES OF EXPERIMENTS.

COMPRESSIVE STRAIN.

Exp. I. (June 1867).—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Steel and
Tron Company. Mark on bar, “ H 1.”

Before experiment. After experiment.
Height of specimen ........ gi sfoil bpriit cl eye oper ey ‘784 inch.
Diameter of specimen ...... ‘zamed. |. ears 854 inch.
Area of specimen .......... “407089. in... ... “ovaeuse. amy
No. Weight laid Weight laid Com-
of on on per square inch | pression, Remarks.
Exp. specimen. of section. in inches.
lbs. tons. lbs. tons.

37438 | 16°713 91951 | 41-049 | :033
44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 | -042
52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198 | -050
58950 | 26°316 | 144786 | 64:°637 | -066
66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391 |. -075
73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233 | +100
80214 | 35°809 | 197023 | 87-952 | +138
88134 | 389°345 | 216465 | 96:°636 | -187 i

91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 | +200 No cracks.

Oa TIS Owe

Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,)causing ruptureis 225,568 lbs.,
or 100-7 tons, and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is -2.
By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 22556,

Expr. 11.— Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Steel and Iron Company.
Mark on bar, “‘ H 2.” ;

Before experiment. After experiment. i
Height of specimen ........ O71 IMChy owes 498 inch.
Diameter of specimen ...... "(ouneh. sae 3 1-066 inch,
Area of specimen .. 2. 5.5 5.9 ‘4071 sq. in.

37438 | 16°713 91951: |. 40-049 | +100
44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | (49-303 | +133
52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 577198 | -200
58950 | 26:°316 | 144786 | 64-637 | +266
66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72°391 | -310
73134 | 32:649 | 179722 | 80:233 | -350
80214 | 35°809 | 197023 7952 | 400
88134 | 39°345 | 216465 | 96°636 | -425
91840 | 41-000 | 225568 |100-700 | -450

Om HM PWNWrH

Results—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 lbs.,
or 100-7 tons, and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is 45. |
By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 50752.

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 133

Exp. IIT.—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Heematite Steel and Iron Company.
Mark on bar, “ H 3.”

. ; Before experiment. After experiment.
Height of specimen ........ EOOOUINCH « eG sar are -536 inch.
Diameter of specimen ...... fe Re 1-065 inch.
Area of specimen .......... ‘4071 sq.in. .... +8906 sq. In.
No. Weight laid Weight laid Com-
of on on per square inch | pression, Remarks.
Exp. specimen. of section. in inches.
lbs. tons. lbs. tons.

37438 | 16-713 91951 | 41:049 | -100
44966 | 20:074 | 110440 | 49-303 | -153
52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57:198 | -210
58950 | 26°316 | 144786 | 64:°637 | -275
66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391 | -312
73134 | 32°649 | 179722 | 80-233 | +350
80214 | 35:809 | 197023 | 87-952 | -400
88134 | 39°345 | 216465 | 96°636 | -412 ni I
91840 | 41-000 | 225568 |100-700 | -450 No cracks.

COOMA Wh

Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568]bs.,
or 100-7 tons, and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is -45.
By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 50752.

Ex. IV. (January 1868).—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Steel
and Iron Company. Mark on bar, “ H1+.”

Before experiment. After experiment.
Height of specimen......... MOOsinch: .). sais ‘51 inch.
Diameter of specimen ...... Ajeumch. 5 4 45,- a: 1:08 inch.
Area of specimen .......... -4071 sq. in. .... °9175 sq. in.

37438 | 16°713 91951 | 41:049 | -160 “) GOUEE | 4

44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 | -160
52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198 | +220 a
58950 | 26-316 | 144786 | 64-637 | -283 |
66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72391 | -340
73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233 | -383
0214 | 35-809 | 197023| 87-952 | -425
88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636 | -475
91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 | -480

| CHOISMBWH

Results—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs.,
or 100-7 tons, and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is -48.
By formula (13),—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 54136.

134 REPORT—1869.

Exp. V.—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Steel and Iron Company.
Mark on bar, “ H 2+.”

eee experiment. After experiment.
Height of specimen ........ ‘981 inch. » yes) (ODS TReR,
Diameter of specimen ...... °72 inch. nt as el Oe te
Area of specimen ........ 4. 4071 ‘sq. ia: **... “GlGo Bus it.
No. Weight laid Weight laid Com-
of on on per square inch pression, Remarks.
Exp. specimen. of section. ininches.
lbs. tons. Ibs. tons.

37438 | 16°713 | 91951 | 41-049 | -092
44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 | -120
52166 | 23°288 | 128124 | 57-198 | 175
58950 | 26°316 | 144786 | 64-637 | +220
66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391 | +283
73134. | 32°649 | 179722 | 80-233 | +325
80214. | 35:809 | 197023 | 87-952 | -380
88134 | 39°345 | 216465 | 96-636 | -412 | X
91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 | +525 No cracks.

OCOOITIMS.NFWNHe

Results.—Here the strain per square inch(P, ) causing rupture is 225,568lbs.,
or 100-7 tons, and the corresponding compression (1,) per unit of length is
"525. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture
= 59211.

Exp. VI.—-Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Steel and Iron Company.
Mark on bar, “ H3+.”

‘ Before experiment. After experiment.
Height of specimen...... *97 inch. “ss *S04in¢ehe
Diameter of specimen .... *72 inch. ..6. 107 inch,

Area of specimen........ ‘4071 sq. in. .... +8984 sq. in.

37438 | 16°713 | 91951 | 41:049 | -100 |
44966 | 20:074 | 110440 | 49-303 | -160
52166 | 23:288 | 128124 | 57-198 | -220 |
58950 | 26:316 | 144786 | 64-637 | -257
66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391 | -325
731384 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233 | -374
80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87-952 | -410
88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636 | -450
91840 | 41:000 | 225568 | 100-700 | -474 Slight cracks.

CONIA WNHeE

Htesults— Here thestrain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225, 568 Ibs, 34
or 100-7 tons, and the corresponding compression (J, ) per unit of length i is
474, By formula (18).—The work (u) expended in producing rupture —
= 53459.

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL.

135

Exp, VII.—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Steel and Iron Company.
Mark on bar, “‘H4+.”

Before experiment.

After experiment.

Height of specimen...... ‘974 inch. ‘581 inch,
Diameter of specimen.... °72 inch . 1:01 inch.
Area of specimen ...... 4071 sq. in 8011 sq. in.
No. Weigit laid Weight laid Com-
of on on per square inch | pression, Remarks.
Exp. specimen. of section. in inches.
lbs. tons. Ibs. (i121? | fp ie Rs agemees | | <aewer bay beacemes |
1 | 37438 | 16-713 | 91951 | 41-:049| -075 | [ |
2| 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 100 |
3 | 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198 133 | |
4 | 58950 | 26-316 | 144786 | 64-637 "190 mn mM
5 | 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391 225 | ay lh
6 | 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233 295 Hh Hit
7 | 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87-952 | -325 |Vam wl
8 | 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636 375 ti i
9} 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 392 No cracks.

Results —Here the strain per square inch (P,)causing rupture is 225,568 lbs.,
or 100°7 tons, and the corresponding compression~(/,) per unit of length
is 392. By formula (13).—The work (wv) expended in producing rupture
= 44211.

Exp. VIII.—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Steel and Iron Company.
Mark on bar, “H5-+.”

Before experiment. After experiment.

Height of specimen...... 968 inch. ‘58 inch.
Diameter of specimen.... °72 inch. *996 inch.
Area of specimen ...... 4071 sq, in. ‘7791 sq. in.

1 | 374388 | 16°713 | 91951 | 41:049 | -087 bis Cee |
2) 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 | +100 |
3} 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198 | -137 |
} 4 | 58950 | 26-316 | 144786 | 64-637 | +190 i
5 | 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72:391 | +233 iN
76} 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233 | -288 ,

7 | 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87-952] +325 |i
8} 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96°636 | -375 if
“9 | 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 | -400 No eracks.

Results.—Herethe strain per square inch(P,)causingrupture is225,568 lbs.,
or 100-7 tons, and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length
is -4. By formula (13).—The work (wu) expended in producing rupture
= 45113.

136 REPORT—1869.

Exe. [X.—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Steel and Iron Company.
Mark on bar, “H 6+.”

Before experiment. After experiment.
Height of specimen...... 985 inch. -2.. 586 inch.
Diameter of specimen.... °72 inch. <0. ee Oe Tiere
Area of specimen ~...... "2071 sq.m. **..7.5% | “B04 sqeamn,
No. Weight laid Weight laid Com-
of on on per square inch | pression, Remarks.
Exp. specimen. of section. in inches.

lbs. tons. lbs. tons.
37438 | 16-713 91951 | 41-049 ‘O75
44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 ‘100
52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198 +150
58950 | 26°316 | 144786 | 64-637 *200
66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391 *260
73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233 *300
80214 | 35°809 | 197023 | 87-952 +320
88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636 383
91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 “400 No cracks.

CONDE WH

Results.—Here the strain per squareinch(P,) causing rupture is 225,568 lbs.,
or 100-7 tons, and the corresponding compression (J,) per unit of length
is ‘4. By formula (13).—The work (wv) expended in producing rupture
= 45113.

Exp. X. (April 1869).—Bar of Steel from the Heaton Steel and Iron Com-
pany, Langley Mills. Mark on bar, “1.”

Before experiment. After experiment.
Height of specimen...... 1-00 inch. «2 on See RS
Diameter of specimen .... -*72 inch. .. +» «1906 inch,
Area of specimen ...... ‘4071 sq. in. .... °6448 sq. in.
44606 | 19-913 | 109572 | 48-916 030 [.- ke =]

|
52158 | 23°284 | 128366 | 57-366 040
59646 | 26°627 | 146514 | 65-408 065 |
68942 | 30-777 | 169349 | 75-602 130
76110 | 33°977 | 186956 | 83-462 "215
82382 | 36:777 | 202363 | 90-340 290
85070 | 37:977 | 208965 | 93-288 300
86862 | 39°670 | 213367 | 95-253 315
91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 333 No cracks.

OOBDNIMSPSAILWHH

‘Soe? Gp ait late yay!

Apres

Results.—Here thestrain per square inch (P,)causingrupture is 225,568 lbs.,
or 100-7 tons, and the corresponding compression (Z,) per unit of length
is oe : By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture
= 37557.

RN enn

————

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. a h337

Exe. XI.—Bar of Steel from the Heaton Steel and Iron Company, Langley
Mills. Mark on bar, “2.”

Before experiment. After experiment.

Height of specimen.......... 1-00 inch. .i ro aye med,

Diameter of specimen........ “72 inch. .... *908 inch.

Area of specimen *.::....... “40% Disq:..:* +22 2. PHOS Taq." 10.
No. Weight laid Weight laid Com-

of on on per square inch pression, Remarks.
Exp. specimen. of section. in inches.

lbs. tons. Ibs. tons.

44606 | 19-913 | 109572 | 48-916 060
52030 | 23-227 | 127806 | 57-056 080
59102 | 26-384 | 145178 | 64-811 110
66662 | 29-759 | 163748 | 73-101 "150
74390 | 33-209 | 182731 | 81-576 200
81558 | 36-409 | 200339 | 89-437 "240
88726 | 39:609 | 217946 | 97-297 27

92840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 288 No cracks.

ADIDAS WwWWr

Results ——Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 lbs.,
or 100-7 tons, and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length
is ‘288. By formula (13)—The work (w) expended in producing rupture
= 32481.

Exp. XII.—Bar of Steel from the Heaton Steel and Iron Company, Langley
Mills. Mark on bar, “3.”

Before experiment. After experiment.
Height of specimen.......... 1:00 inch. otf Sao inch?
Diameter of specimen........ “72 inch. £002 8866 inch:
Area of Specimen -.::.... 1%! 4071 sq: in.--.... °5898 sq. in-

44606 | 19-913 | 109572 | 48-916 “060
52030 | 23-227 | 127806 | 57-056 070
59102 | 26°384 | 145178 | 64-811 7090
66662 | 29-759 | 163748 | 73-101 120
74390 | 33-209 | 182731 | 81-576 ‘170
81558 | 36-409 | 200339 | 89-437 "200
88726 | 39-609 | 217946 | 97-297 230 ih Ma
91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 "257 No cracks.

aOrInawPrwhwor

dtesults.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 lbs.,
or 100-7 tons, and the corresponding compression (J,) per unit of length

is 257. By formula (13).—The work (wv) expended in producing rupture
= 28985.

138 REPORT—1869.

Exp. XIII.—Bar of Steel from the Heaton Steel and Iron Company, Langley
Mills. Mark on bar, <4.”

‘ Before experiment. After experiment.
Height of specimen.......... 1-00 inch. » + + pees aar a
Diameter of specimen........ *72 inch. ..-- °864 inch.
ATEPiOLSpeGIMeNn® oo. = ys -4071 sq. in. .... *5863 sq. in.
No. Weight laid Weight laid Com-
of on on per square inch | pression, Remarks.
Exp. specimen. of section. in inches.

Ibs. tons. lbs. tons. {
44606 19-913 | 109572 | 48-916 -050 |
52030 | 23-227 | 127806 | 57-056 ‘070
59102 | 26-384 | 145178 64°811 “080
66662 | 29-759 | 163748 | 73°101 120
74390 33°209 | 182731 81:576 -160
81558 | 36-409 | 200339 | 89-437 7190
88726 | 39-609 | 217946 | 97-297 | +230 /,
91840 | 41-000 | 225568 |100-700 | -247 | No eracks.

OID WON) e

Results. —Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 lbs.,
or 100-7 tons, and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length
is -247. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture
eae odie

Exp. XIV.—Bar of Steel from the Heaton Steel and Iron Company, Langley
Mills. Mark on bar, ‘' 5,”

‘Before experiment. After experiment.
Height of specimen........., 1-00 inch. » 2 oes ea
Diameter of specimen........ ‘72 inch. -wneianse Sous
Area of specimen .......... AQ71 sq.in. ~ .... «ed ae BG IE.

44606 | 19-913 | 109572 | 48-916 “050
52030 | 23-227 | 127806 | 57:056 ‘O70
59102 | 26-384 | 145178 | 64-811 “090
66662 | 29-759 | 163748 | 73-101 120
74390 | 33-209 | 182731.) 81-576 “106
81558 | 36-409 | 200339 | 89-437 *200
88726 | 39-609 | 217946 | 97-297 240 |
91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 -257 No cracks.

COnrT OOF Dr

Results—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 lbs.,
or 100-7 tons, and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length
is 257. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture
= 28985.

q
:
.,

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL.

1389

Exe. XV.—Bar of Steel from the Heaton Steel and Iron Company, Langley

Mills.

Before experiment.

Mark on bar, “ 6,”

After experiment.

Height of specimen ........ 1-00 inch
Diameter of specimen ...... *72 inch
Area of specimen .......... ‘4071 sq
No. Weight laid Weight laid
of on on per square inch
Exp. specimen. of section.
Ibs. tons. lbs. tons.
1 | 44606 | 19-913 | 109572 | 48-916
2 | 520380 | 23-227 | 127806 | 57-056
3 | 59102 | 26:384 | 145178 | 64-811
4 | 66662 | 29-759 | 168748 | 73-101
5 | 74390 | 33-209 | 182731 | 81-576
6 | 81558 | 36-409 | 200339 | 89-437
7 | 88726 | 39-609 | 217946 | 97-297
8 | 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 |

*734 inch.
903 inch.
.in. 5404 sq. in.
Com-
pression, Remarks.
in inches.
060 |
080
“110
"150
190
230 | Hf
‘270 i
288 No cracks.

Results —Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225-568 lbs.,
or 100-7 tons, and the corresponding compression (Z,) per unit of length
is 288. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture

= 32481.

1869.

REPORT

140

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Abstract of Eaperiments on Hematite Steel.
The strength of these bars, owing to their flexibility, is inferior to the

emer steel bars before experimented upon.

strength of the other Bess
Taking the average of all thes

working strength

e latter bars, the mean value of C, the unit of
whereas this constant for the hematite bars

te 2 oe
ot ft
RE
Sa
oe
~
a8
at
So
ce
Repos,
o
op
=|
o
ar
Se}
n

a
3
ght laid on the bars their power o

o that the former are about

, 1s 5°8 tons
fo)

only 4:2 tons, showin
With about 1 more wei

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 141

measured by about } of the whole deflection, showing that this load was
considerably within that requisite to produce rupture. Owing to the high
flexibility of the hematite bars, their modulus of elasticity is low. It may
be here worthy of observation that, for bars of the same length, the modulus
of elasticity varies inversely as the coefficient (D,) of the deflection for

unity of pressure and section, that is, E a

These bars underwent a great elongation by a tensile strain, and a large
compression by a compressive strain, the average elongation being, per unit
of length, -0792, and that of compression -+19; whereas these numbers for
the other bars, before experimented upon, did not, on an average, exceed
‘06 and -355 respectively, showing the flexibility and superiority of this
steel in its powers to resist Impact. The average tensile resistance of the
bars is about 35 tons per square inch, whereas the resistance for the other
Bessemer bars, before experimented upon, was about 42 tons; so that the
tensile strength of the latter is 1 greater than that of the former.

The quality of hardness of steel and wrought iron may be comparatively
measured by the amount of extension under a given tensile strain, and the
amount of compression under a given compressive strain. Applying this
test to the results of the experiments on the various steel bars, we find that
the hardest bars are the strongest, irrespective of the companies by whom they
were manufactured. We find, for example, that the elongation per unit of
length for eight of the best Bessemer bars did not exceed -018, and the
compression per unit of length did not exceed -25. These bars had a
temper probably exceeding that of spring-steel, and less than that for tools.
The hematite bars are of a totally different description of steel from that
manufactured for springs and tools, and this accounts for their compara-
tively low powers of resistance.

The experiments first made upon the hematite steel are anomalous. The
first bar experimented upon showed great powers of resistance, but the last
two gave results inferior to those obtained by the last experiments. At the
same time the value (D,) for unity of pressure and section, in the first expe-
riments, is somewhat below the general average of the results of all the
other experiments, thereby giving a considerable value to the modulus of elas-
ticity, 1 suspect that the temper of the first bar was high ; but whether the last
two bars had a temper too high or too low, I am at a loss to determine. If
it is desirable to have full justice done to the hematite steel bars as to their
powers of resistance, a series of bars of the same degree of hardness as to
the first bar mentioned, which gave considerably more than average powers
of resistance, should be made, in order to compare with the harder descrip-
tions of steel, as exhibited by other makers—numbers of which have, no
doubt, been melted in the crucible, and selected for the purposes of ex-
periment.

Abstract of the Experiments on the Heaton Steel.

This steel being the product of a totally different process of manufacture
from that of all the other steel bars previously experimented upon, and as
those bars were derived from the best known processes and received from
the best of makers, it is a matter of the greater moment to ascertain how it

stands in relation to them as regards strength and those other properties which

are peculiar to steel. It is for this object that an abstract separate from that
of the Barrow steel manufacture has been drawn up.

These bars, in their resistance to a transverse strain, show a very decided
superiority over the steel bars which I experimented upon before, and on

142 REPORT—1869.

which I reported to the British Association of 1867. For instance, the mean
value of C, the unit of working strength for these bars, is 7-494 tons, whereas
this value for the other bars was only 5-746 tons, showing that these bars
are ‘3 stronger. The value of u, or the work of deflection for unity of
section, for these bars is 90-970, whereas for the other steel bars it is only
51-696. This value of uw exhibits the powers of the several bars to resist a
force analogous to that of impact. It is therefore clearly shown that this
steel must be peculiarly well adapted to resist the force of sudden shocks,
considering that it is 2? superior in this quality to any other of the steel bars
before experimented upon.

The flexibility of this steel is slightly inferior to that of other steel; the
measure of flexibility (D,) being for these bars -001345, and for the other
bars ‘001361. The modulus of elasticity is somewhat low for steel, although
at the same time it is very little below the general average of those from my
former experiments.

This steel, I consider, well adapted to withstand severe transverse strains,
for it combines the two essential qualities of great strength and superior
powers in its resistance to the force of impact.

The mean breaking tensile strain, per square inch of section, of this steel is
45:28 tons; whereas this yalue for the other steel bars, before experimented
upon, is 41°77 tons. The Heaton bars are, therefore, ‘08 stronger in their
resistance to the force of tension than the average result obtained from
the steel bars previously experimented upon. ‘This result, whilst placing
the Heaton steel in a highly satisfactory position when compared with the
mean of the whole of the steel experimented upon, places it at the same
time below that produced by some individual manufacturers. The elongation
of these bars was considerable, and a good deal above the mean for the other
bars, thereby giving a large value for the work done in breaking the bar.

These bars show high powers of resistance to a compressive strain,
all the specimens haying undergone the test of 100 tons on the square inch
without any visible external signs of fracture.

It would be very difficult to compare the different bars in their resistance
to compression, for nearly all the specimens underwent a strain of above 100
tons on the square inch without exhibiting the slightest trace of a crack.
As the lever by which the specimens were crushed was not competent to
produce a greater strain, it was impossible to find out the crushing weight ; be-.
sides, even then, supposing it possible to produce the requisite strain, it would
be a task of extreme difficulty to find out at what precise weight the column
began to give way. Under these circumstances, it can only be left to the
judgment of the person wishing to select steel to resist a compressive force
to choose that which he thinks best adapted to his purpose, the choice being
regulated by the ductility of the metal as exhibited by the amount of compres-
sion. In looking through the experiments, however, one thing is clear, that
the hardest steels sustained very little compression, whilst the softer ones, in
the majority of cases, were reduced to almost half their original height.

From this abstract it will be seen that this steel, manufactured by Mr.
Heaton, stands in the most favourable light in comparison with steel pro-
duced by other manufacturers ; and if it be taken into consideration that
two-thirds of the iron from which this steel was converted, was composed of
Northamptonshire pig-iron, we may reasonably look forward to this invention
creating a considerable improvement in the production and cost of steel.

Comparison of Wrought Iron with Steel.
Having lately had occasion to experiment on some wrought-iron bars, of

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 143

the best quality, used in the manufacture of armour-plates, by Messrs. J.
Brown and Co., I avail myself of this opportunity of comparing the results
obtained from this iron with those obtained from the steel bars. The
wrought-iron bars were tested in exactly the same manner as the steel ones,
and were successively subjected to transverse, tensile, and compressive
strains; the results obtained from which will be found in the following ab-
stract, where they are compared in their several strains to the steel bars.

The average value of C, the unit of working strength for wrought iron,
is about 2-25 tons, whereas the value of this constant taken for fifteen of
the best steel bars is 7-4 tons, so that the strength of the latter is 3,3, times
that of the former. The average value, however, of C for the whole of the
steel bars experimented upon is 5-921, showing that the average strength of
steel in resisting a transverse strain is more than 23 times that of wrought
iron. The mean transverse resistance per square inch for the wrought-iron
bars, at the elastic limit, is equal to 6 C, or 6 x 2, or 134 tons, which is some-
what greater than the resistance usually assigned to wrought-iron bars.
The average value of D,, for unity of pressure and section, for the wrought-
iron bars is ‘00167, whereas the value of this constant for the steel bars is
about -0013, showing that wrought-iron bars have a much greater flexi-
bility than steel bars, and, as a necessary consequence, they have a much
lower modulus of elasticity. Under a transverse strain the work of de-
flection up to the limit of elasticity is exceedingly low for wrought-iron
bars; but the work expended in elongation up to the point of rupture is
greater than the average of that determined for the steel bars: this is owing
to the ewtensibility of the wrought iron; for whilst the unit of elongation for
the average of the steel bars is not quite -05, that of wrought iron is -14, or
about three times greater. The same observation applies to the work of
compression. The average compression per unit of length is -45, whereas
for the steel bars it is only about 3 of an inch.

The average breaking tensile strain, per square inch of section, of the
wrought-iron bars is 25; tons, while this average for the steel bars is 423
tons, showing that the latter are ? stronger than the former. With a
strain of 223 tons per square inch the wrought-iron bars had not entirely
lost their powers of restitution, or the power of regaining, to some extent,
the preceding set.

Although the short columns underwent a large compression under the
action of a compressive force, yet the pressure corresponding to the first
visible indication of rupture is considerable, being, on an average, about
seventy tons per square inch, which is about two-thirds of that of hard steel
columns. With comparatively soft material, like that of wrought iron, it is
difficult to determine the exact point at which the material in such columns
is fractured, so that the fullest reliance cannot be placed on the results of
such experiments.

I haye appended a general summary of all my experiments on steel, in
order that comparisons may be readily made without the inconvenience of
referring to the preceding Report. It may be stated that the experiments
have given good results, and prove that steel can be produced of double the
strength of wrought iron; and, at the same time, the homogeneity of its
structure can be depended upon. If the cost of steel be reduced and ap-
proximates closer to that of iron, we may soon look forward for the sub-

1869.

REPORT

144.

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“NIVULS ASHAASNVAL

‘SLTOSAY JO AUVWIWNS TVAHNO

145

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL.

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“NIVULS DIISNAL
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146 REPORT—1869.

Apprnprix I,

In addition to the foregoing experiments, it was considered desirable to
have a steel beam made of the usual form, in order to ascertain the compa-
rative merits of steel and wrought-iron girders. For this purpose two
beams were constructed, of that quality of steel best suited to ensure dura-
bility and safety. A much harder description of steel (40 tons to the square
inch) might have been chosen ; but that was not wanted, for the object sought
was ductility and moderate strength in its powers to resist impact. The fol-
lowing experiments will show the results.

Experiment on a Steel Girder from the Barrow Hematite Steel Company.
Length between the supports 13-9 feet. Sectional area 2-31 inches.

No. Weight laid Deflection, J :
: on girder. m pane t

Expt. inches.

lbs. tons. P j
1| 866| 0-386] .... | Weight of slings &e.

2 | 3106} 1:386
3 | 5346 | 2°386
4 | 7586)| 3386
5 | 9826] 4:386
6 | 12068} 5-386
7
8
9

14308 | 6:386

16550 | 7-386

18790 | 8-386
10 | 21020 | 9°386
11 | 23260 |10°386
12 | 26880 |12-000| - (0)
13 | 29120 |13-000
14 | 33600 |15-000
15 | 35840 |16-000
16 | 36060 |16-098
17 | 38080 |17-000
18 | 39200 |17-500
19 | 40320 |18-000

20 |40544/18-100| .... | Broke by tension through the angle-iron of the
bottom flange, as above.

1 |
we

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 147

A wrought-iron girder of the same dimensions would break with 11-8
tons. The comparison, therefore, stands as 18-1: 11:8, being in the ratio
of 1:°652. The resistance of this description of steel to a transverse strain
is therefore more than one and a half times greater than that of wrought
iron.

Experiment on a Steel Girder from the Barrow Hematite Steel
Company (April 1868).

Length between supports 13-9 feet. Sectional area 2°31 inches.

No.| Weight laid on _| Deflection, ;
girder. 4 Remarks.

inches.

lbs. tons.

ft | 12152 5:425 196 This weight remained on 120 hours.
2 | 18872 8-425 330
3 | 24192 | 10-800 “449
4 | 29512 | 13:175 “524 This last weight having remained
upon the beam a short time, it sud-
denly gaye way by lateral flexure,
and one of the angle-irons being
broken, the experiment was discon-
tinued.

There is great difficulty in testing beams of this description, arising from
the narrow top and bottom flanges, which, to prevent injury from lateral
flexure, should be loaded and broken through the sides of a rigid frame. In
this case the beam was identical in every respect with the previous one, and
would have carried the same weight but for the lateral injuries it received in
the early stages of the experiment. Taking, however, the strength of steel
beams and the amount of deflection when submitted to a transverse strain,
it will be found that they are not only one-third stronger than those of the
best wrought iron, but they are much superior in their powers to resist im-
pact, and therefore mcre secure under the influence of a rolling load or
severe vibratory action often repeated.

Taking into account the peculiar properties of this material, its superior
strength, the saving of one-third in weight, and other conditions of security,
it is (under the conditions of perfect uniformity of character in the manufac-
ture) admirably adapted for rolled joists and girders, as also for bridges,
where high powers of strength and elasticity are required to resist the united
_ forces of load and impact.

Apprenprix IT.

The ‘ Practical Mechanics’ Journal’ gives the following description of the
furnace and apparatus for the manufacture of steel on the Heaton system.
See Plate II. :—
__ The Heaton converter (fig. A) is nearly a cylindrical cupola, lined with 43-
inch fire-brick, the shell of boiler plate, and surmounted by a plate-iron coni-
_ cal cap and narrower cylindrical flue of a few feet in height. The cupola may
be supposed cut in two horizontally at about one diameter and a half in height,
L2

148 REPORT—1869.

and the bottom part *endered moveable and capable of being withdrawn on
wheels, without disturbance to the supports &c. of the remaining upper por-
tion of the converter. Ready means of temporary attachment by clamps and
cotters are provided to connect the two parts, which thus so far present a
close resemblance to the Calebasse cupola still in use in Belgium. At one side
of the cylindric fixed part of the converter, a sort of hopper, with a loosely
hinged iron-plate cover, is provided, which communicates with the cayity
within.

“The lower part, or “converting-pot,” has a cylindrical cavity with a flat
bottom, and with the sides near the top edge sloping inwards to a cone all
round. The cavity, up to the level of the lower edge of this cone, is prepared
to just hold the bulk of crude nitrate of soda required for the volume of liquid
iron to be operated on, and for the latter when converted ; the proportion of
nitrate, as at present employed by the patentee, being 2 cwts. to the ton of
liquid iron, or 10 per cent.—a proportion, we may remark, which both the
metallurgists who have been engaged in examining this process by the pre-
sent owners of the patents are of opinion is a good deal in excess of what
is needed, when the conditions for the most favourable reaction shall be more
completely and more scientifically understood. The “ converting-pot” is
lined with fire-brick and refractory clay. When the crude nitrate is filled
in and levelled up to, or a trifle beyond, the narrow part of the conical lining,
the cast-iron perforated plate is simply laid upon its level surface, and worked
round a little until its edges bed firmly into and upon the clay lining. In
this state the converting-pot is rolled in under the upper part of the converter,
clamped up to it, and the whole is now ready for work.

«The charge of crude cast iron is melted with coke in an ordinary cupola ;
at present it is tapped out into a crane-ladle. This is swung round by the
crane, and the contents at once emptied into the opened hopper of the con-
verter. The molten iron falls upon the cold cast-iron plate ; its lowermost
stratum is for the moment chilled and nearly consolidated by the heat with-
drawn by contact, and for some minutes there is no perceptible action. In
this state a vertical section of the charged and filled converter is repre-
sented by fig. 1. Soon, however, the lower stratum recovers its liquidity, and
begins to penetrate below the now more than red-hot and softened perforated
cast-iron plate, and reaction commences, evidenced by the appearance of white
and grey vapours at the top of the converter-funnel. The nitrate has no
doubt by this time got much impacted and partly fused at its upper strata.
The reaction producing a large accession of heat at the plane of contact of
the molten iron and of nitrate, the plate melts and disappears. A burst
of brilliant yellow flame at the top of the converter-funnel indicates that
the reaction is then at its height. This lasts steadily for some few minutes
(three to five usually, with 12 or 15 ewt. charges), and then rapidly subsides.
The conversion is now complete. The bottom of the converter, or ‘‘ converting-
pot,” is now detached and rolled away, and the converter is ready for another
bottom and another charge.

«When we examine the converting-pot withdrawn, we find its surface
covered to the depth of an inch or two with a dark “ blabby slag,” through
which brilliant jets of yellow sodium-coloured flame from escaping gases are
constantly spurting. This slag consists chiefly of the soda of the nitrate,
combined with silica and clayey matters derived from the lining of the con-
verter, and involving some “ shots”’ of metallic iron or steel, and some little
silicate of iron, &c. Beneath this is the converted metal, which the patentee
calls “crude steel.” It forms a white-hot, bowrsouflée, and tolerably liquid

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“This is th
as good and §
cast steel a5 ¢
‘Our illus
Heaton, at pr
at the Langle
to a foot
“Fig. 1 is
one-half of th
the same part
apparatus in
F, F in fig.
charged with
leading to it
from the cup
yerberatory fi
the reverber
bottom of a ¢
the converter
metal plate, 1
section of a c
soctional plar
converter-pot
is going on ;
* As given
ton of conve:

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 149

mass, not sufficiently fluid upon the small scale of the 12-ewt. converters to
be readily run or tapped out of the converting-pot, but quite readily capable
of that with a larger converter, and therefore larger mass of material.

“The converter is upset upon the iron-plated floor, some water is aspersed to
bring the mass to its frangible state at a dull red heat, and it is then broken
up intolumps of convenient size, to be brought, after receiving a little renewal
of heat, under the “shingling hammers,” and patted into “cakes of crude
steel,” as denominated by the patentee. It is purely a matter of “ metallur-
gical taste ” whether these are to be called crude steel or crude iron. The
material is in reality a form of steely malleable iron, or mild malleable steel,
whichever we choose to call it. It will not harden in water as perfectly as
complete steel ; it always (probably where the process is rightly conducted)
contains more combined carbon than usually belongs to wrought iron. Itis,
however, metal of the purest and finest quality, and from which, by two
different methods of treatment, either very strong, but soft, tough, and mal-
leable, wrought iron may be made, or fine cast steel.

“Tn the first instance the “cakes of crude steel” are piled, heated inacommon
balling-furnace, and at once rolled out into “steel-iron” bars, plates, or
rails, &c.; and so fine is the material that but little difference is produced,
except that of increased fibre, by cutting up, piling, and balling these bars
and rolling a second time.

“Then, for the cast-steel manufacture, these “ cakes of crude steel” are
broken or cut up, melted in 60- or 80-Ib. crucibles, with about 2 or 3 Ib. per
100 lbs. of spiegeleisen, or its equivalent of oxide of manganese, and some char-
coal, poured out into ingots of iron, 7. ¢. into the usual ingot moulds of iron.
These ingots of cast steel are then titled into bars, and are then fit for the
market, or for any use to which excellent steel is suitable.

“This is the whole process through its bifurcate train, up to wrought iron
as good and stronger than Low Moor or Bowling on the one side, and to
cast steel as good as any other process can produce upon the other.

“Our illustrations (figs. 1 to 6) represent the plant, as the patentee, Mr.
Heaton, at present advises its construction, and as proposed for the steel plant
at the Langley Mill Steel and Iron Works, to a scale of one-eighth of an inch
to a foot.

“ Fig. 1 is a side view of the apparatus, showing also a vertical section of
one-half of the cupola. Fig. 2 is a front view; and the same letters refer to
the same parts in both views. Figs. 3, 4, 5, & 6 show different parts of the

_ apparatus in plan. A, A are cupola furnaces in which the metal is melted ;
_ F, F in fig. 1 are the tuyeres; G the hole through which the cupola is
_ charged with metal and coke from a platform with an inclined tramway
leading to it. B, Bare the converters into which the metal is run direct
Di ftom the cupolas, and from which the melted crude steel is run into the re-
-verberatory furnace,C. Dis a steam-boiler, heated with the waste heat from
the reyerberatory furnace. Fig. 3 is a horizontal section of the moveable
_ bottom of a converter, showing the fire-brick lining, a, a, a. When charged,
the converter-pot is filled with nitrate of soda. Fig. 4 shows a perforated
| metal plate, which is placed upon the nitrate of soda. Fig. 5 is a horizontal
_ Section of a converter, showing the perforated plate in position. Fig. 6 is a
sectional plan of a converter, showing the cramps (c, ¢c, &c.) for holding the
converter-pot up to the cylinder of the converter whilst the converting process
is going on; these cramps are shown also in figs. 1 and 2.
* As given by the patentee, and we have no doubt correctly, the cost per
ton of converting crude pig-iron into “ crude steel,” exclusive of the cost of

150 REPORT—1869.

the pig, but allowing for the waste upon it at the ratio of 60 lbs. per ton, is
£2 4s. per ton, or £2 15s. in crude steel cakes ; the cost of making it into,
“ steel-iron ” bars, from the pig-iron, is £3 10s. per ton for finished bars, and
the cost of making tilted cast-steel bars, from the pig-iron, is £12 15s.
per ton. We have seen the invoices of cast-steel bars of this sort, sold from
Langley Mills, at prices equal to those now current at Sheffield for well re-
puted cast steel made by the process of cementation.”

Second Report on the British Fossil Corals. -
By Dr. P. Martin Duncan, F.R.S., F. & Sec. Geol. Soc.

Tuts Report comprehends the description of the Coral-fauna of the periods
when the strata of the Gault, Lower Greensand, Portland Oolite, Coral Rag,
Great Oolite, and Inferior Oolite were deposited. It contains a general view
of the physico-geographical conditions of the British area during the Tertiary
and Secondary periods so far as relates to coral growth, and also an enumera-
tion and a list of the species.

The result of the labour entailed by the study of the Tertiary and Secondary
British Fossil corals has been to add 146 species and many varieties to the
111 or 112 previously known.

Since the last Report was read, the fossil Corals of the Upper and Lower
Red Chalk and of the Upper Greensand have been published in my mono-
graph for the Paleontographical Society.

Much progress has been made in the Report on the Paleozoic Corals, but
the Report itself cannot be completed for some time.

Corals from the Gault.

Only six well-marked species of corals were known to MM. Milne-Edwards
and Jules Haime as having been found in the Gault. They were all simple
or solitary forms, and such as one would expect to find in moderately deep
water. It is evident that the area occupied by the English Gault was not the
coral tract of the period. The resemblance of the coral-faunas of the Gault
and the London Clay is somewhat remarkable, and probably the physical
conditions of the areas during the deposition of the strata were not very
dissimilar.

MADREPORARIA APOROSA.
Family TURBINOLIDA.

Subfamily CaryvorHyLiin.z.
Division CaryYoPHYLLIACE®.
Genus CaryorpHyrttia.

MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime have changed the generic term
Cyathina into that of its predecessor Caryophyllia; consequently Cyathina —
Bowerbanki, Ed. & H., is now called Caryophyllia Bowerbanki, Ed. & H. —
(Hist. Nat. des Corall. vol. ii. p. 18).

A very interesting variety of this species is in the Rev. T. Wiltshire’s Col-
lection, and has its coste running obliquely to the long axis of the corallum.
They are profusely granulated.

ON THE BRITISH FOSSIL CORALS. 151

Division TrocHocyATHACES.
Genus TrocHocyaTHuUs.

1. Trochocyathus Harveyanus, Ed. & H.°

This species was described by MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime in
their ‘ Monograph of the British Fossil Corals,’ part 1. p. 65, They associated
it with two species, which are, as they suggest, undistinguishable, viz.
Trochocyathus Konigi and Trochocyathus Warburton. The first of these
species is the Turbinolia Konigi of Mantell.

An examination of a series. of specimens attributed to Trochocyathus
Harveyanus, Ed, & H., and the consideration of the value of the Zrochocyathi
just mentioned, have led me to recognize five forms of Trochocyathi breves,
all closely allied and well represented by the original type of Trochocyathus
Harveyanus, Ed. & H. When placed in a series with this Trochocyathus at
the head, there is a gradation of structure which prevents a strictly specific
distinction being made between the consecutive forms; but when the first
and the last forms are compared alone, no one would hesitate to assert that
there is a specific distinction between them, All the forms are simple, short,
and almost hemispherical; all have four cycles of septa and the same propor-
tion of pali. These are the primary and most essential peculiarities of the
genus.

The costee differ in their size, prominence, ornamentation, and relation to
the septa in some of the forms; and the exsert nature of the septa, their
granulation, and the size of the corallum also differ. The structural differ-
ences are seen in many examples, and are therefore more or less persistent ;
nevertheless it is found that whilst several specimens have the septa spring-
ing from intercostal spaces instead of from the ends of the costa, one or more,
haying all the other common structural peculiarities, present septa arising
from the costal ends. This method of origin can hardly constitute a specific
distinction. I propose to retain Trochocyathus Harveyanus as the type of
a series of forms, the sum of whose variations in structure constitutes the
species.

Variety 1. The corallum is nearly double the size of the type; its septa
are rather exsert, and are very granular. The cost are very prominent,
ridged, marked with numerous small pits, and are continuous with the septa.
The epitheca is waved and well developed. The spaces between the larger
cost are more or less angular. The peduncle is large,

Locality. Gault, Folkestone. In the British Museum.

Variety 2. The corallum is as large as that of variety 1, but it is more
conical. The cost are less pronounced, and the septa, which are more
granular than those of variety 1, arise from the intercostal spaces. The
costal ends are very elegant in shape, and form a margin of rather sharp
curves.

Locality. Gault, Folkestone. In the British Museum,

Variety 3. The corallum is rather flat, but hemispherical. The septa are
not exsert, and they arise from the costal ends. The coste are equal; none
are more prominent than others. ‘They are all rather broad, flat, and beau-
tifully ornamented with diverging curved lines. Their free ends are equal
and curved.

Locality, Gault, Folkestone. In the collection of the Rey. T. Wiltshire,
F.GS.

152 REPORT—1869.

Variety 4. The corallum and coste are like variety 3, but the septa arise
from the intercostal spaces.

Locality. Gault, Folkestone.

In the collection of the Rev. T. Wiltshire, F.G.S.

Variety 5. The corallum is rather more conical inferiorly than in varieties
3 and 4. Thesepta are exsert, and project slightly beyond the costal margin.
The cost are allrudimentary. The epitheca is well developed, and reaches
up to the septa.

Locality. Gault, Folkestone.

The forms may be distinguished as follows :—

The type.

With more or less ridged cost ...... 4 Variety 1.
sa bales

With nearly equal flat costee ........ { Wear ‘
(COSLACETTGUSNENUADV a serssoue, lel sieasbesohelei oie io SEE
The type.

Septa arising from the costal ends .... + Variety 1.
» 3.

Septa arising from the intercostal spaces Yaniey -

All the forms have four cycles of septa and pali before the first, second,
and third orders.

2. Trochocyathus Wiltshiri, Duncan.

The corallum is straight, conical, and either cylindrical above or com-
pressed ; its base presents the trace of a peduncle for attachment. The
epitheca is scanty and in transverse masses. The costz are distinct and sub-
equal. The calice is very open and rather deep. The septa are unequal,
hardly exsert, and broad at the margin of the calice. There are four cycles
of septa, and six systems. The pali are large, and are placed before all the
cycles except the last. The columella is rudimentary.

Height 33, inch. Breadth of calice ;%, inch.

Locality. Gault, Folkestone. In the zone of Ammonites dentatus.

In the Royal School of Mines, and in the collection of the Rev. T. Wiltshire,
F.G.S.

This species is closely allied to Zrochocyathus conulus, Phillips, sp. The
compressed calice, the rudimentary columella, and the shape of the corallum
distinguish the new species from Trochocyathus conulus.

Genus Lreprocyatuvs.
Leptocyathus gracilis, Duncan.

The corallum is small, flat, and circular in outline. The coste are very
prominent, and join exsert septa; the primary and secondary cost are very
distinct, and the others less so. All the costz unite centrally at the base ;
many are slightly curved. The septa are thick externally, very unequal, thin
internally, and the largest are more exsert than the others. There are six
systems and four cycles of septa. The pali are small and exist before all the
septa. The columella is very rudimentary. The calicular fossa is rather
wide and shallow.

Height hardly ;4, inch. Breadth 3, inch.

Locality. Gault, Folkestone.

In the British Museum.

ON THE BRITISH FOSSIL CORALS. 153

This species is very closely allied to Leptocyathus elegans, Ed. & H., of the
London Clay. Leptocyathus elegans has not a flat base, and it has very gra-
nular septa. Moreover, its costz are large and small in sets. Nevertheless
the alliance is of the closest kind.

Genus BatnycyaTuvs.

MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime described a species of this genus in
their < Monograph of the British Fossil Corals,’ pt. 1. pp. 67, 68. Two spe-
cimens in the collection of the Rev. T. Wiltshire present all the appearances
recognized by those distinguished authors. The coste are very granular, and
_ not in a simple row. In one specimen the breadth of the base is very great.

Subfamily Tursrnotmyz.
Division TuRBINOLIACE®.

Genus SMILOTROCHUS.

Some species of this genus were described amongst the corals from the
Upper Greensand, and one was noticed as belonging to this geological
horizon which should have been included in the Lower Greensand forms.

The Upper Greensand Smilotrochi are :—

Smilotrochus tuberosus, Hd. § H. Smilotrochus angulatus, Duncan.
elongatus, Duncan.

There are four species of the genus found in the Gault, which are all
closely allied; one of them cannot be distinguished from Smzlotrochus elon-
gatus of the Upper Greensand.

The specimens of this species found in the Upper Greensand are invariably
worn and rolled, and are generally in the form of casts; but in the Gault the
structural details are well preserved, and even the lateral spines on the septa
are distinct.

The Gault forms are shorter and more cylindro-conical and curved than
those from the Upper Greensand. :

The species of the genus Smilotrochus from the Gault are as follows :—

1. Smilotrochus elongatus, Duncan. 3. Smilotrochus granulatus, Duncan.
cylindricus, Duncan. 4, —— insignis, Duncan.
1. Smilotrochus elongatus, Duncan.

This species was described in the first Report.

Locality. Folkestone.

In the collection of the Royal School of Mines,

The lateral spines of the septa are very well marked, and the coste are
equal in size in this species. Its septal number varies, on account of the very
late perfection of the fourth cycle of septa.

2. Smilotrochus cylindricus, Duncan.

The corallum is small, cylindrical, nearly straight, and has a truncated
base. The coste are equal, very distinct above, and rudimentary below and
in the middle; they are marked with a few large granules in one series.
The septa are subequal, very exsert, thin, close, and marked with large
granules, few in number. The septa are in six systems, and there are three
cycles.

"Height ;3; inch. Greatest breadth rather less than 5°; inch.

Locality. Gault, Folkestone.

In the collection of the Rey. T. Wiltshire, F.G.S.

154 REPORT—1869.

3. Smilotrochus granulatus, Duncan,

The corallum is conico-cylindrical in shape, and has a more or less trun-
cated base. The coste are subequal, prominent, very granular, and distinct
superiorly. The septa are subequal, thick, and very granular. The septa
are in six systems, and there are three cycles.

Height ;%, inch. Breadth 3, inch.

Locality. Gault, Folkestone.

In the collection of the Rev. T. Wiltshire, F.G.S.

4, Smilotrochus insignis, Duncan.

The corallum is trochoid, short, has a wide calice and a conical and
rounded base; the calice is circular in outline, the fossa is deep and small,
and the septa are wide, exsert, curved above, and so marked with one row of -
granules that their free margin appears to be spined. There are three cycles
of septa, and the orders are nearly equal as regards size. The coste are
large, prominent, broad at their base, and are marked with one row of
granules on the free surface.

Height ;%; inch. Breadth of calice ,%, inch.

Locality. Gault, Folkestone.

In the collection of the Rev. T. Wiltshire, F.G.S.

An analysis of the genus will be found after the description of the species
from the Lower Greensand.

There is a compound or aggregate Madreporarian found in the Gault of
Folkestone. It has much endotheca, and resembles worn specimens of the
well-known Holocystis elegans of the Lower Greensand. The specimens are
not sufficiently well preserved for identification with any genus.

Family FUNGIDZ.
Subfamily Funenz.

Genus Mricrapacta.
Micrabacia Fittoni, Duncan.

The corallum is nearly hemispherical in shape; its base is flat and ex-
tends beyond the origin of the septa in a sharp and uninverted margin. The
breadth of the base exceeds the height of the corallum. The coste are flat,
straight, convex externally at the calicular margin, and equal. The septa are
unequal, much smaller than the coste. There are four cycles of septa, in six
systems; the synapticule between the septa are large.

Height ;°; in. Breadth nearly 3 inch.

Locality. Gault, Folkestone.

In the collection of the Rey. T. Wiltshire, F.G.S.

The flat base, the flat coste, and the limitation of the septal number to
four cycles distinguish this species from Micrabacia coronula* of the Upper
Greensand, and from Micrabacia Beaumontiit, Ed. & H., of the Neocomian.

List of new Species from the Gault.

Variety of Caryophyllia Bowerbanki, Ed. Smilotrochns elongatus, Duncan.
& H. —— granulatus, Duncan.
Five varieties of Trochocyathus Harveyanus, insignis, Duncan.
Ed. & H. cylindricus, Duncan.
Trochocyathus Wiltshiri, Duncan. Micrabacia Fittoni, Duncan.
Leptocyathus gracilis, Duncan.

* Hist. Nat. des Coral. vol. iii. p. 30. t Ibid. p. 30.

ON THE BRITISH FOSSIL CORALS. ; 155

Last of species from the Gault *.

1. Caryophyllia Bowerbanki, Ed. § Hand 7. Cyclocyathus Fittoni, Ed. § H.
one variety. 8. Smilotrochus elongatus, Duncan t.
2. Trochocyathus conulus, Phillips, sp. 9. granulatus, Duncan.

3. Wiltshiri, Duncan. 10. eylindricus, Duncan.

a Harveyanus, Ed. § H., and five 11. insignis, Duncan.
varieties. 12. Trochosmilia suleata, Ed. & H.

5. Bathycyathus Sowerbyi, Ed. & H. 13. Micrabacia Fittoni, Duncan.

6. Leptocyathus gracilis, Duncan.

Corals from the Lower Greensand.

One species of Coral was described by MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules
Haime from the Lower Greensand, in their ‘ Monograph of the British Fossil
Corals.’

Fitton had noticed a compound coral in the Lower Greensand, and named
it Astrea in his “ Essay on the Strata below the Chalk,’ Geol. Trans.
2nd series, vol. iv. p. 352 (1843). In 1847 he called the species Astrea
elegans; and Lonsdale separated it from the Astrwide under the name
Cyathophora elegans in 1849 (Proceed. Geol. Soc. vol. v. pt. 1, p. 83,
tab. iv. figs. 12, 15: 1849),

MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime recognized the quadrate arrange-
ment of the septa of this species, and classified it amongst the Rugosa, in
the family Stauride. Their Holocystis elegans, Fitton, sp., is a very good
species, and specimens are found varying in the size of the corallum and of
the calices.

Since the publication of their ‘Monograph on the British Corals,’ MM.
Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime have named a species from Farringdon
Smilotrochus Austeni (Hist. Nat. des Corall. vol. ii. p. 71). I have noticed it
inadvertently in my description of the Upper Greensand Corals. In order to
complete this part it is introduced here again.

Family TURBINOLID.

Division TuRBINOLIACE®,

Genus SMILoTRocHUS.

Smilotrochus Austeni, Ed. & H.

The corallum is regularly cuneiform, very much compressed below, and
slightly elongate. The calice is elliptical; the summit of the larger axis is
rounded. Forty-eight cost, subequal, straight, fine and granular.

Height of the corallum about + inch.

Locality. Farringdon.

MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime do not mention where the speci-
men is deposited.

The genus Smuilotrochus has become of some importance in the palzonto-

* The following authors have written upon the fossil Corals of the Gault: MM. Milne-
Edwards and Jules Haime, ‘ Monograph of the British Fossil Corals’ (Pal. Soc); ‘ Hist.
Nat. des Coralliaires.’ Phillips, ‘ Illust. of Geol. of Yorkshire.’ Mantell, ‘ Geol. of Sussex.’
Lonsdale in Fleming’s, ‘ British Animals.’

The authors who have written upon the Corals of the Lower Greensand are :—MM.
_ Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime, op. cit. Fitton, ‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ vol. iii.
p- 296 (1847). Lonsdale, ‘ Proc. Geol. Soc.’ vol. v. pt. 1. p, 83. _M. de Fromentel has paid
especial attention to the French Neocomian corals, and OC. J. Meyer, Esq., has enabled me
to study the most interesting species in his collection.

+ Common to the Gault and Upper Greensand.

156 REPORT—1869,

logy of the Cretaceous rocks. The species are distributed as follows in
Great Britain :—
Smilotrochus tuberosus, Ed. §- H.
elongatus, Duncan. Upper Greensand.
angulatus, Duncan.

—— elongatus, Duncan.

granulatus, Duncan.

eee Gault.
insignis, Duncan.

— cylindricus, Duncan.

— Austeni, Hd. dH. Lower Greensand.

Smilotrochus elongatus, Duncan, is found in the Gault and Upper Green-
sand.

Smilotrochus Hagenowi, Ed. & H., is a fossil from the Maestricht Chalk
(Ed. & H. Hist. Nat. des Corall. vol. ii. p. 71).

Subfamily CaryorHyLiin a”.
Division CaRYoPHYLLIACER.
Genus Bracuycyaruvs.
Brachycyathus Orbignyanus, Ed. & H.

The corallum is very short. The coste are indistinct. The septa are
long, very slightly exsert, granulated from below upwards, and there are
four cycles in six systems. The primary and secondary septa are equal;
the tertiary are a little longer than those of the fourth cycle; all are
thin and straight. The pali are like continuations of the tertiary septa
before which they are placed ; or are granular.

Height ;, inch. Breadth ;8, inch.

Locality. ‘East Shalford, Surrey, base of -the Lower Greensand. Found
with Cerithium Neocomiense, D’Orbig. ; Exogyra subplicata, Tqm.; Arca
Raulina, Leym. ; Terebratula sella, Sow.

In the collection of C. J. Meyer, Esq., F.G.S.

The specimen upon which the genus was founded was found in the Neo-
comian formation of the Hautes Alpes, at St. Julien, Beauchéne. I have
added to the original description, as some portions of the English specimen
are better preserved than the type.

Family ASTRAIDA.
Subfamily Evsmrrmz.

Division TrocHosMILIACEz.
Genus T'’RocHOsMILIA.

Trochosmilia Meyert, Duncan.

The corallum is small, cylindrical or cylindro-conical ; its base may be
wide or very small, and was adherent. The epitheca is complete. The
coste are very small, and are occasionally seen where the epitheca is worn.
The calice is rather deep. The septa are crowded, unequal, spined near the
axis, and form six systems. There are four cycles of septa. The calice is
usually circular in outline, but it is occasionally ae The axial
space 1s es The endotheca is very scanty.

Height ;4, inch. Greatest breadth aan inch.

Variet, y ‘Whe corallum is short, broad, cylindrical, slightly constricted
centrally, and has a broad oes

Height 4, inch. Breadth ,8, inch.

: “

ON THE BRITISH FOSSIL CORALS. 157

Locality. Bargate Stone, upper division of the Lower Greensand, Guild-
ford, Surrey. Found with “ Avicula pectinata,” Sow.

In the collection of C. J. Meyer, Esq., F.G.S.

The small Zrochosmilie are common in the Bargate Stone, where they
were discovered by Mr. Meyer, from whom I have obtained the names of
the associated fossils. The presence of epitheca would apparently necessi-
tate these fossils being placed in a new genus; but after a careful examina-
tion of the bearings of the absence or presence of the epithecal structures
upon the natural classification of simple corals, I do not think the point
sufficiently important to bring about the separation of Mr. Meyer’s little
corals trom the TZrochosmilie; they form (7. é. the type and variety) a
subgenus of the T'rochosmilie.

Subfamily Astrmmnz.

Division AsTR#ACER.

Genus Isasrraia.

Isastrea Morrisi, Duncan.
' The corallum is flat and very short. The corallites are unequal and
usually five-sided. There is no columella. The wall is thin. The septa
are slender, unequal, and most of them reach far inwards. There are in
the perfect calices three cycles of septa in six systems; usually some of

_ the septa of the third cycle are wanting.

Breadth of a calice rather more than 54, inch.

Locality. Bargate Stone, Guildford, Surrey; with Yerebratella Fitton,
Meyer.

In the collection of C. J. Meyer, Esq., F.G.S.

This small Jsastrea is usually found as a cast, and the restored drawing
is taken from an impression. The central circular structure is due to fos-
silization.

The species is closely allied to Jsastrea Guettardana, Ed. & H., of the
Lower Chalk of Uchaux.

Family FUNGIDA.
Subfamily LopHosErin 2.
Genus TURBINOSERIS, gen. noy.

The corallum is simple, more or less turbinate or constricted midway
between the base and calice; the base is either broad and adherent, or
small and free.

There is no epitheca, and the coste are distinct. There is no columella,
and the septa unite laterally, and are very numerous.

Turbinoseris de-Fromenteli, Duncan.

The corallum is tall, and more or less cylindro-turbinate. The calice is

shallow, and circular in outline. The septa are very numerons, long, thin,

_ straight, and many unite laterally with longer ones. There are 120 septa, and

the cyclical arrangement is confused. The synapticule are well developed.
There is no columella, and the longest septa reach across the axial space. The
coste are well developed, and often are not continuous with the septal ends.

Height 15%, inch. Breadth of calice 1,3; inch.

Variety. With a constricted wall and large base.

Locality. Atherfield, in the Lower Greensand.

In the collection of the Royal School of Mines.

The necessity for forming a new genus for this species is obvious: it is

158 REPORT—1869.

the neighbour of T’rochoseris in the subfamily of the Lophoserine. This last
genus has a columella, and the new one has none.

The species has not been hitherto described, but it has been familiarly
known as a Montlivaltia; but the synapticule between the septa and coste
determine the form to belong to the Hungide.

List of new Species from the Lower Greensand.

. Brachyeyathus Orbignyanus, Hd. & H. 3. Isastraea Morrisi, Duncan.
. Trochosmilia Meyeri, Duncan. 4. Turbinoseris de-Fromenteli, Duncan.

Last of the Species from the Lower Greensand.

1. Brachycyathus Orbignyanus, Ed. § H. 4, Isastreea Morrisi, Duncan.
2. Smilotrochus Austeni, Ed. & H. 5. Turbinoseris de-Fromenteli, Duncan.
3. Trochosmilia Meyeri, Duncan: 6. Holocystis elegans, Lonsdale, sp.

Lust of the Species from the Cretaceous Formations.
A. Upper and Lower White Chalk.

1, Caryophyllia cylindracea, Reuss, sp. 11. Parasmilia centralis, Manfell, sp., and

2. Lonsdalei, Duncan. two varieties.

Ds Tennanti, Duncan. 12. —— cylindrica, Ed. §& H.

4. Onchotrochus serpentinus, Duncan. 13. —— Fittoni, Hd. & H.

5. Trochosmilia laxa, Hd.dg H., sp., and 14. serpentina, Hd. § H.

three varieties. 15. —— monilis, Duncan.

6. ecrnucopiz, Duncan. 16. granulata, Duncan.

7. —— Wiltshiri, Duncan. 17. Diblasus Gravensis, Lonsdale.

8. —— Woodwardi, Duncan. 18. Synhelia Sharpeana, Ed. § H.

9. —— granulata, Duncan. 19. Stephanophyllia Bowerbanki, Hd. & H.
10. —— cylindracea, Duncan.

B. Upper Greensand.

20. Onchotrochus Carteri, Duncan. 28.*Placosmilia magnifica, Duncan.
21. Smilotrochus tuberosus, Ed. g H. 29.*Astroceenia decaphylla, Hd. & H.
22. elongatus, Duncan. 30.*Isastreea Haldonensis, Duncan.
23. —— angulatus, Duncan. 31. Cyathophora monticularia, D’ Orbigny.
24. Peplosmilia Austeni, Hd. & H. 32. Favia stricta, Ed. & H.
25.* depressa, H. de From. 33. minutissima, Duncan,
26.*Placosmilia cuneiformis, Ed. § H. 34. Thamnastreea superposita, Michelin.
27.* Parkinsoni, Ed. & H. 35. Micrabacia coronula, Goldfuss, sp.

c. Red Chalk of Hunstanton.

36. Cyclolites polymorpha, Goldfuss, sp. 39. Micrabacia coronula, Go/dfuss, sp., and
37. Podoseris mammiliformis, Duncan. yariety.

38. elongata, Duncan.
vp. Gault.
40. Caryophyllia Bowerbanki, Hd. & H., 46. Cyclocyathus Fittoni, Ed. & H,
and a variety. 47. Smilotrochus elongatus, Duncan.
41. Trochocyathus conulus, Phillips, sp. 48. —— granulatus, Duncan.
42, Wiltshiri, Duncan. 49. —— insignis, Duncan.
43. Harveyanus, Ed. & H., and five 50. eylindricus, Duncan.
varieties. 51. Trochosmilia sulcata, Ed. & H.
44. Bathycyathus Sowerbyi, Ed. & H. 52. Micrabacia Fittoni, Duncan,

45, Leptocyathus gracilis, Duncan.
£. Lower Greensand.

53. Brachycyathus Orbignyanus, Hd.g§-H. 56. Isastreea Morrisi, Duncan.
54. Smilotrochus Austeni, Hd. df H. 57. Turbinoseris de-Fromenteli, Duncan,
55. Trochosmilia Meyeri, Duncan. 58. Holocystis elegans, Lonsdale, sp.

Micrabacia coronula is common to the Upper Greensand and the Red
Chalk, and Smilotrochus elongatus is found in the Gault and in the Upper
Greensand.

* The six species from Haldon marked * were described by me after the reading of this
Report (see Pal. Soc. vol. for 1869).

a ee

ON THE BRITISH FOSSIL CORALS. 159

The number of species of Madreporaria in the British Cretaceous forma-
tions is therefore fifty-eight.

MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime had described twenty-three species
before this Report was commenced; of these I have ventured to suppress
Parasmilia Mantelli, Trochocyathus Konigi, and Trochocyathus Warburtoni.

The coral-fauna of the British area was by no means well developed or
rich in genera during the long period during which the Cretaceous sediments
were being deposited. The coral tracts of the early part of the period were
on the areas now occupied by the Alpine Neocomian strata, and those of the
middle portion of the period were where the Lower Chalk is developed at
Gosau, Uchaux, and Martigues.

There are no traces of any coral-reefs or atolls in the British Cretaceous
area, and its corals were of a kind whose representatives for the most part
live a depth of from 30 to 600 fathoms.

Corals from the Oolitic Strata.

The following authors have contributed to our knowledge of the Oolitic
Corals :—Parkinson, ‘ Organic Remains,’ 1808. W. Conybeare and W. Phil-
lips, ‘ Outlines of the Geol. of Eng. and Wales, 1822. Fleming, ‘ British
Animals, 1828. HE. Bennet, ‘Cat. Org. Remains, Wilts,’ 1837. Fitton,
“ Strata below the Chalk,” Geol. Trans. 2nd series, 1843. Morris, ‘Cat. of
British Fossils,’ 1843. MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime, ‘ Monog.’ (Pal.
Soc.) 1851. M‘Coy, Ann. Nat. Hist. 1848 (several essays). W. Smith, ‘ Strata
Identified, 1816. J. Phillips, ‘Geol. of Yorkshire,’ 1829. R. C. Taylor,
Mag. Nat. Hist. 1830. 8. Woodward, ‘Synopt. Table of Org. Rem.’ 1830,
G. Young, ‘ Geol. Survey of York,’ 1828. R. Plot, ‘ Nat. Hist. Oxfordshire,’
1676. J. Walcott,‘ Descr. and Fig. of Petref. found near Bath’ 1779. T.
Wright, M.D., F.G.S., Cotteswold Club Trans, 1866.

An analysis of the work of these authors, with the exception of that of Dr.
Wright, is found scattered over the pages of MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules
Haime’s “‘ Monograph of the Oolitic Corals,” Pal. Soc. 1851. No newspecies
of fossil Corals have been described from the Oolitic rock since that date.
During the last year I have added to the species already known five from the
Great Oolite, and thirteen from the Inferior Oolite. A careful study of the
251 Thecosmiliew of the Inferior Oolite at Crickley has enabled me to distin-
guish five very remarkable varieties of Thecosmilia gregaria, M‘Coy, sp., and
to satisfy myself that the relations of the Thecosmilia of the Lias to the
genera Isastrea, Latimeandra, and others were repeated in the Inferior
Oolite. There are specimens of Thecosmilia gregaria in Dr. Wright’s collec-
tion which, had I not had a considerable series to examine from other
sources, might have been associated with Reuss’s new genus Heterogyra, with
Symphyllia and Latimeandra. The relation of these genera to Montlivaltia
has been noticed (except Heterogyra) in the first Report (Brit. Assoc. Report,
_ Norwich, p. 106 et seq.), and there is a clear proof that the same phenomena
of evolution may occur consecutively. That is to say, the St.-Cassian Vonili-
valtie and Thecosmilie varied and became permanent, compound, and serial
corals of such genera as Elysastrea, Isastrwa, and Latimeandra: then the
Liassic Thecosmilie did the same; and now it is evident that a Montlivaltia
of the Inferior Oolite occasionally took on fissiparous growth, and superadded to
others a marginal gemmation and a serial growth, and evolved forms which
cannot be distinguished from those of the genera above mentioned and Sym-
phylla and Heterogyra. There was evidently an inherent power of variation
which declared itself in the same direction during the ages which witnessed

160 REPORT—1869.

the formation of the St. Cassian and the Liassic and the Lower Oolitic deposits ;
and it is impossible to deny a genetic value to these oft-repeated structural
phenomena.

One of the Thecosmilie from the Inferior Oolite at Crickley, which I have
named 7’. Wrighti, is very closely allied to the Lower-Liassic species.

It is interesting to find the genus Cyclolites represented in the Inferior
Oolite by two well-marked species, one of which is like the rest of the forms
of the genus in shape, and the other is exceptional in its trochoid form. This
last species has, however, all the characteristics of the genus. The Cyclolites
are extinct; they flourished in the Lower Cretaceous seas, and lasted during
the Miocene. MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime (Hist. Nat. des Corall.)
mention that the genus originated in the Jurassic age, but they give no evi-
dence. The species now under consideration are, however, clearly from the
Inferior Oolite.

A form belonging to a new genus of the Fungide was found by Mr.
Mansel at East Coker in the Inferior Oolite. In general shape and the
arrangement of the calices the specimen resembles Dimorphastrea; but the
synapticule between the septa and costz necessitate its association with the
Fungide. There is a central calice, and the others are in a circle around it,
being separated by long horizontal septo-costal prolongations ; the whole
is surrounded by an epitheca, and forms a turbinate shape, the free surface
being flat and circular. The genus foreshadows the genera Cyathoseris and
Trochoseris of the Lower Chalk.

There are several new species of the genus Thamnastrea; TJ. Browni, nobis
(MS. sp.), isremarkable for haying in some specimens a long stalk surmounted
by a knob-shaped head. The calices are small on the stalk, and very large
on the head ; so that when the form is examined before it is mature, there is
a danger of producing two species instead of one. The stalk often attains the
height of 3 or 4 inches. In other specimens there is no stalk, and the knob-
shaped corallum is sessile.

A large specimen of Thamnastrea Manseli (MS. sp.), Inferior Oolite, is
pedunculate, short, and very expanded superiorly ; the epitheca is well pre-
served, and the endothecal dissepiments can be seen. ‘This is a very satisfac-
tory species, and I have had it very carefully drawn, so that the suspiciously
synapticular endotheca can be proved to be really dissepimental.

A specimen of Cladophyllia Babeana, d’Orb., sp., figured in the inedited
plates of the Paleontographical Society at my instance, is remarkable from the
disposition of the corallites to combine and form serial and fissiparous calices
as in Thecosmilia.

The new species of the genera Cyathophora and Isastrea are well marked,
and that of the last is a dendroid form.

MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime collected and described the following
Oolitic species* in their ‘ Monograph’ (Pal. Soc.), 1851 :—

Portland Stone. 6. Calamophylla Stokesi, Ed. g H.

1. Isastraea oblonga, Fleming, sp. 7. Cladophyllia cxspitosa, Con. § Phil, sp.
8. Goniocora socialis, Rémer, sp.

Coral Rag. 9. Isastreea explanata, Goldfuss, sp.
1. Stylina tubulifera, Phillips, sp. 10. Greenoughi, Ed. & H.
2. De la Bechi, Ed. §& H. 11. Thamnastrxa arachnoides, Parkins., sp.
3. Montlivaltia dispar, Phillips, sp. 12. concinna, Goldfuss, sp.
4. Thecosmilia annularis, Fleming, sp. 13. Comoseris irradians, Hd. & H.
5. Rhabdophyllia Edwardsi, ‘MCoy, sp. 14. Protoseris Waltoni, Ed. ¢ H.

* There are three species common to the Great Oolite and the Inferior Oolite, and one —

is common to the Coral Rag, the Great and the Inferior Oolite. The varieties of Thecos-

i ee

ee eee ee

ON THE BRITISH FOSSIL CORALS. 161

Great Oolite. Inferior Oolite.
1. Stylina conifera, Ed. § H. 1. Discocyathus Eudesi, Michelin, sp.
2. — solida, M‘Coy, sp. 2. Trochocyathus Magnevillianus, Miche-
3. —— Ploti, Ed. ¢ H. lin, sp.
4. Cyathophora Luciensis, d’Orb., sp. 3. Axosmilia Wrighti, Ed. & H.
5. Pratti, Ed. & H. 4. Montlivaltia trochoides, Hd. & H.
6. Convexastrzea Waltoni, Ed. & H. 5. —— tenuilamellosa, Hd. g& H.
7. Montlivaltia Smithi, Ed. § H. 6. —— Stutchburyi, Hd. ¢ H.
8. Waterhousei, Ed. § H. 7. —— Wrighti, Ed. g H.
9. Calamophyllia radiata, Lamourouc, sp. 8. cupuliformis, Ed. § H.
10. Cladophyllia Babeana, d’ Ord., sp. 9. De la Bechi, Ed. & H.
11. Isastraea Conybeari, Ed. § H. 10. lens, Ed. §& H.
12. limitata, Lamouroux, sp. 1 depressa, Ed. & H.
13. explanulata, M‘Coy, sp. 12. Thecosmilia gregaria, M‘Coy, sp.
14. serialis, Ed. § H. 13. Latimxandra Flemingi, Ed. & A.
15. Clausastreea Pratti, Ed. & H. 14. Davidsoni, Hd. & H.
16. Thamnastrsea Lyelli, Ed. ¢- H. 15, Isastreea Richardsoni, Hd. § H.
17. mammosa, Ed. §° H. 16. —— tenuistriata, M‘Coy, sp.
18. scita, Hd. & H, 17. —— Lonsdalei, Ed. § H.
19. Waltoni, Ed. § H. 18, Thamnastreea Defranciana, Michelin, sp.
20. Anabacia orbulites, Lamourouz, sp. 19. Terquemi, Hd. f H.
21. Comoseris vermicularis, M‘Coy, sp. 20. —— Mettensis, Hd. § H.
22. Microsolena regularis, Hd. § H. 21. fungiformis, Hd. § H.
23. excelsa, Ed. § H, 22. M‘Coyi, Ed. § H.

23. Anabacia hemispherica, Ed. § H.

Mr. Walton has forwarded me Zephrentis? Waltoni, Ed. & H., from the
Inferior Oolite at Dundry, which MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime felt
inclined to think was a remanié fossil. There is no doubt about the specimen
being a Zephrentis, and it is clear that it was derived from an older rock, just as
the Carboniferous corals mixed up with the Lower-Lias corals were.

I can add the following species to the list of Oolitic fossil corals, and most
of them have been figured, but are not yet published (in 6 plates of the Pal.
Soc.) :—

New Species.

Great Oolite. 3. Montlivaltia Morrisi, nobis.
1. Thecosmilia obtusa, d Orb. 4. Thecosmilia Wrighti, xodis.
2. Cyathophora insignis, 2odis. 5. Thamnastrea Walcotti, nodis.
3. tuberosa, nobis. 6. —— Manseli, nobis.
4, Thamnastrza Browni, nobis. Tie Etheridgii, xodis.
5, Isastreea gibbosa, nobis. 8. Isastreea Crickleyi, nobis.
; ; 9. dendroidea, nobis.
Inferior Oolite. 10. Dimorphoseris Oolitica, nobis.
1. Montlivaltia Holli, nodis. 11. Cyciolites Lyceti, nobis.
2. Temmincki, zodis. 12. Beanii, nobis.

The fauna may be divided as follows :— Species.
naman ne |: Wee: alr, Sty 6 oN aricdacrel
ete ie car ns wae cease ss wale ts aby fs 14
PecaOuler srs a ret Sorat ete rT ae 28
iitetion Onlitee22 #920 le. eset Rk. oo eee

The Oolitic corals, as a whole, indicate the geographical conditions incident
to reefs and atolls, and do not represent those bathymetrical states which the
Upper and Middle Liassic coralliferous strata appear to have illustrated. A
deep-sea coral-fauna is not found amongst the relics of the Oolites, and the

milia gregaria are not mentioned or considered as species, although they have a very fair
claim. There are three varieties very Symphyllian, and two very Heterogyran in their
aspect. There is a well-marked variety of Montlivaltia trochoides at Painswick in the
Inferior Oolite.

1869. M

162 REPORT—1869.

forms peculiarizing the reefs are positively aggregated in an upper and lower
mass at Crickley on the Inferior Oolitic beds.

Dr. Wright noticed some years since* an Oolitic coral-reef near Frith
Quarry, on the northern spur of Brown’s Hill, about two miles from Stroud.
There is a corresponding reef on the opposite side of the valley, the whole of
the intervening space having been excavated by denudation. The coral-bed
consists of large masses of coralline limestone imbedded in a fine-grained
eream-coloured mudstone. The corals are in a highly crystalline state, so that
the genera and species are determined with difficulty. The bed is from 15 to
20 feet in thickness, and forms one of the finest examples of fossil coral-reefs
that Dr. Wright is acquainted with in the district. The bed may be traced
along the escarpment, in a north-westerly direction, for several miles, to
Witcomb and Crickley on the west, and to near Cubberley and Cowley on
the east, where it was worked several years ago. Judging from the thick-
ness of the bed, and the abundance of corals it contains, it must have formed
a barrier reef of considerable magnitude in the Jurassic sea. The following
is a section showing the relative position of the Lower Coral-reef.

Section of the Lower Coral-reef, in the Inferior Oolite, at the Quarry, North
Frith Wood, near Brown’s Hill, Gloucestershire.

Lithological Characters Beds. Organic Remains.
and Thickness. Leading Fossils,
Urrver Freerstones.
Thamnastrea, Isastrea,

Cream-coloured Marl, with

several inconstant layers
of Mudstone, upper part
passing into a loose, fri-
able Freestone, with large
Terebratula fimbria.

OouitE, Mart.

Mippie Corau-Bep.

Axosmilia, Terebratula
Jjimbria, T. carinata, T.
maxillata, Rhyn. Lycetti,
TIneina Wrighti, Lima
pontonis.

From 20 to 25 feet.

Fine-grained Oolitic Lime-
stone, very white, and
emitting a metallic ring
when struck with a
hammer.

40 to 50 feet.

Shelly fragments, not

FREESTONES. determinable.

Coarse brown ferruginous

Terebratuia plicata.
Oolite.

Lowrr RaastTones.

Masses of Coralline Lime-
stone, imbedded in a
light-coloured Mudstone ;
the Corals highly erystal-
line, forming the chief
part of the bed.

15 to 25 feet.

Latimeandra, Thamnas-

trea, Isastrea, Axosmi-
Lower CorAL-REEF. lia, Thecosmilia, Pecten
Dewalquei, Trichites, Lu-
cina Wrighti.

Lima suleata, Hinnites
abjectus, Ceromya Bajoci-
ana, Avicula complicata,
Nerita costata, Trochotoma
carinata, Pygaster, Hybo-
clypus, Diadema.

Brown ferruginous Pisolitic
rock. Pea-grit structure PEA-GRIT.
not much exposed.

* Dr. Wright has kindly sent me these details. See “ On Coral-Reefs,” by T. Wright,
M.D., F.G.S., Cotteswold Club.

ON THE BRITISH FOSSIL CORALS. 163

The Middle Coral-bed is included in the Oolite Marl, and in some localities
as at Frith, Leckhampton, Sheepscombe, and others, it contains masses of
corals.

The Upper Coral-reef occupies the horizon of the upper Trigonia Grit, and
is very well exposed in many sections. That of Cleeve Hill has yielded the
best corals. The following section is open near Frith. Ascending the bank
above this quarry for a short distance some fields of arable land are passed
over, on which are several heaps of the Upper Ragstones, with J'rigonia cos-
tata, Gryphea subloba, and other shells of the higher zone. Walking in the
direction of the Grove, after passing over the summit of the hill and descend-
ing a short distance, a good section of the upper reef may be seen in the
Slad Valley.

Section of the Quarry at Worgin’s Corner, Upper Zone of Inferior Oolite*.
Lithology. Beds. Organic Remains.

Thamnastrea, Isastrea,
Thecosmilia, Magnotia
Forbesi, Stomechinus in-
termedius, Pecten, Trigo-
nia costata.

Masses of Coralline Lime-

stone, 4 feet-thick. Urrer Corat-reer.

Terebratula globata, Rhyn-
chonella spinosa, Pholado-
mya fidicula, P. Heraulti,
Ostrea, Gervillia, Tri-
chites.

Hard shelly Limestone,
full of the shells of
Brachiopoda, 5 feet.

TEREBRATULA-GLOBATA Brn.

Hard shelly sandy Oolite,

Gryphea subloba, Lima
full of Gryphea, 6 feet.

proboscidea,

Grypu#za Bev.

The remarkable varieties of Thecosmilia gregaria, which resemble the genus

_ Symphyllia and Heterogyra, are found principally in the lower reef, but they

exist in the upper also. Some species appear to be peculiar to the different reefs,
but it is unsafe to form lists at present. There is evidently a considerable
affinity between the faunas of the reefs, and there is nothing to indicate any-
thing more than a temporary absence from, and a return of the species to an
area.

The corals of the Great Oolite are found in the Upper Ragstones underly-

ing the Bradford Clay. Near Bath large masses of Calamophyllia radiata are

associated with the roots, stems, and heads of Apiocrinites rotundus, Mill.,
which flourished like a miniature forest on the reef, and luxuriated amongst
the polypes until the clear water was invaded by a current charged with mud,
which destroyed the Encrinites and the Corals also*.

The Coral Rag in Wiltshire is divisible into (1) Upper Caleareous Grit, (2)

Coral Rag, (3) Clay, (4) Lower Calcareous Grit. It is in the Coral Rag

proper (2) that the Coral-beds are found. Of these Mr. Lonsdale+ remarks :

* See Dr. Wright’s pamphlet. t Dr. Wright, op. cit.
t “ Oolitic District of Bath,” Trans. Geol. Soc. 2nd ser. vol. iii. p- 261.
mM 2

164. REPORT—1869.

“The irregular beds of Polyparia consist of nodules or masses of crys-
tallized carbonate of lime, which afford, invariably, evidences of the labours
of the Polypus; and associated with them are others of earthy limestone,
which bear only partial proofs of an organic origin. The whole are con-
nected by a pale bluish or yellowish stiff clay. It happens frequently that
a bed is composed of one genus of Polyparia.”

In Yorkshire the Coralline Oolite is well developed, and several reefs are
found at Hackness, Ayton, Seamer, &c. John Leckenby, Esq., F.G.8., of
Scarborough, gives the following details (see Dr. Wright, op. cit.) :—

“In various parts of the district occupied by the Coralline Oolite around
Scarborough are found patches of coral-reef sometimes occupying an area
of fully an acre; and although never attaining an altitude so high as the
beds on the inclined surfaces of which they rest, they are truly the uppermost
beds of the formation.

“They are sometimes from 10 to 15 feet in thickness, and consist of a
series of layers of crystallized coral from 18 to 24 inches in thickness, of the
species Thamnastrea concinna, Goldf. (which is the 7. micraston, Phillips),
each layer being separated by rubbly clay and mud, in all probability being
the decomposition of each successive reef. The rock is quarried to supply
material for repairing the roads of the district; but it is by no means so well
adapted for the purpose as the adjacent calcareous grit, which, at the cost of
a little additional labour, would furnish a material much more durable. The
crystalline coral-reef is quickly ground to powder, and its use affords less
satisfaction to the traveller than to the geologist, as the blocks which are
stored up for use along the sides of the road yield many a handsome specimen
to adorn his collection.

“The largest deposit is near the village of Ayton: there are others not
quite so extensive; one near the village of Seamer, another close to the
hamlet of Irton, and others in the neighbourhood of Wykeham and Brompton
—the intervening distances being about a mile in every case.”

Messrs. Leckenby and Cullen visited the coral-reefs of the Coralline Oolite
near Scarborough with Dr. Wright, who writes as follows :—

«One quarry, near Ayton, which may be considered as a type of the others,
consisted of masses of crystalline coralline limestone, the beds having an
irregular undulating appearance. The corals appear to have grown in areas
of depression of the coralline sea; the rock consists of large masses of highly
crystalline limestone, forming nodulated eminences and concave curyes, in
beds of from 12 to 18 inches in thickness, having a stratum of yellowish clay
filling up the hollows, and forming a horizontal line again to the stratification ;
then follows another stratum of crystalline limestone, which assumes the
same nodulated condition as the one below it, the surface of the coral
masses, where exposed, showing that the whole is almost entirely composed
of asmall-celled Astrea, Thamnastrea concinna, Goldf., Micraston, Phillips,
in some altered condition ; the reef is exposed to about 10 feet in section, and
rests on another, forming the floor of the quarry, and which descends many
feet deeper; the corals are bored by Gastrochene, and numerous shells were -
seen imbedded in the coral mass, which had nestled in the crannies of the
reef?

Dr. Wright sums up with regard to the French, German, and British strata
of the Etage Corallien as follows :—

“From this general view of the geographical distribution of the Coralline
zone, it would appear that this formation was composed of a series of coral-
reefs in the Jurassic sea, which, during the period of their construction, occu-

ON THE BRITISH FOSSIL CORALS. 165
pied a large portion of the region now constituting the soil of modern
Europe ; and that the bed of the Jurassic sea was a slowly subsiding area of
great extent, like many parts of the Coral Sea in the Indo-Pacific Ocean of
our day” *.

The restriction of species to very definite areas, and to limited zones amongst
these succeeding coral-reefs, is very remarkable, and, as was noticed to occur
in the Lias, the corals are occasionally persistent, and are associated with
different molluscan species. But the physico-geological changes which pro-
duced new reefs must have been preceded by considerable geographical changes,
for, as a rule, the species of the grand divisions of the Jurassic system are
different. Thecosmilia Wrighti of the lower reef of the Inferior Oolite has

- considerable resemblance to the Yhecosmilie of the Inferior Lias; but no
Liassic species pass upwards into the Oolites. Only four species are com-
mon to the Inferior and Great Oolites, and one to the Coral Rag and Great
Oolite; yet there was a succession of the physico-geographical conditions
favourable for the formation of reefs on the same area. The existence of
reefs in so high a latitude during the Oolitic period, and their formation by
polypes whose genera were all extinct during the early Cainozoic period, but
which are clearly represented by allied genera in the existing reefs, are very
suggestive. These were the last reefs of the British area; for there are no
traces of agglomeration of reef-building genera in the Lower Greensand, the
Gault, Upper Greensand, Chalk, or Tertiary formations. The nearest approach
to a reef must have been in the Lower Oligocene period, when the Tabulate
corals and Solenastree of Brockenhurst formed a small outlier of the European
coral sea of the time between the Nummulitic age and the lowest Falunian
deposits.

The succession of reefs and deep-sea or littoral coral conditions appears
to have been as follows on the British area south of Yorkshire, after the
termination of the Permian period :—

—— SS | ee

ES No corals (dry land).
hs aS erege Few corals. Littoral and deep water, from
5 to 200 fathoms.
q Zone of Amm. planorbis .. Scattered reefs and littoral corals.
3 ef angulatus.. Barrier reefs and deep-water corals.
= 3 Bucklandi . Scattered reefs and deep-water corals.
MemedierLias ................ No reefs. Littoral and deep-water corals.
MIS... dg. ee ee No reefs. Littoral and deep-water corals.
@mrerior Oolite .... 00... ee. Successive reefs.
MOOHEG., ee es Successive reefs.
a Reefs.

Portland Oolite
Lower Greensand............
Gault
— Red Chalk
Upper Greensand............
Lower and Upper Chalk ......
BPMERE RE © eh. oe Fee ate ener

tm, a Cee ee y eee el ane are

* Dr. Wright, op. cit.

Reefs rare. No other corals.

Littoral and deep-sea corals. No reefs.
Littoral and deep-sea corals. No reefs,
Littoral and deep-sea corals. No reefs.

Littoral corals. No reefs7.

Deep-sea corals. Few littoral corals.

Deep-sea corals. Noreefs. Littoral corals.

Deep-sea corals. Scattered reefs. Lit-
toral corals.

Deep-sea corals. Noreefs. Littoral corals.

+ Deep-sea and small reefs in the west.

166 REPORT—1869.

The reefs were doubtless developed on areas where depression and eleva-
tion of the sea-bottom was constant, and where old rocks were occasionally
sufficiently near the surface to afford a nidus for reef-species. The depths
around these rocks must have been considerable ; there could not haye been
any large bodies of fresh water near, and the sea-water must have been
pure and in constant motion. The littoral corals resembled the Caryophyllia
Smithi of our coasts in bathymetrical distribution, and the deep-sea corals,
like the existing Caryophyllia borealis and Lophohelia prolifera, were simple
solitary forms distributed at a depth of from 30 to 600 or more fathoms.

The British reefs of the early Secondary period were not necessarily
situated in a tropical climate; for there is no reason why reef-building corals
should not have been able to exist and multiply in the same temperature
of sea-water that deep-sea corals now do. The deep-sea corals are abun-
dant between Norway and the Shetlands, and are quite out of the range of
the Gulf-stream. The Bermuda reefs are dependent upon the Gulf-stream
for the supply of sufficiently warm water to produce the development of
ova. Itmay have.happened that the early Secondary species may not have
required a greater amount of sea-temperature than that in which the great
coral called Dendrophyllia ramea flourishes off Cadiz. These facts and
considerations must have some weight against the argument that, because
all existing reefs are tropical, all former reefs must have been so.

If the area of Europe is compared with that of Great Britain during the
periods that have elapsed since the Paleozoic epoch, the distribution of reefs
and centres of oscillation, and of deep-sea and littoral corals indicating very
stationary conditions, gives a very good idea of the successive physico-
geographies of the old seas.

Great Britain. Rest of Europe.

CRI AS Pe ess te eee eae. date cnes Uncoralliferous ............ Reefs in St. Cassian dis-
trict.
EEiioa tt CHM 9. Hoste eniagent here ane Few deep-sea and littoral Reefs in Lombardy and Swit-
corals. zerland.

(Zone of Amm. planorbis Scattered reefs and deep-

sea and littoral corals.

Scattered reefs in France,
Lombardy, and Switzer-

a land.
3 i angulatus Barrier reefs, deep-seaand Reefs in Switzerland. Vast
y littoral corals. areas with simple deep-sea
E and littoral corals in
& France.

{ 53 Bucklandi Scattered reefs ............ Rare deep-sea corals in Hu-

rope.
Middle Witass ic cadscasvesstoa dese Deep water and littoral Rare deep-sea corals.
corals.

Wippensiasin ces cestewcvesne Very uncoralliferous ...... Very uncoralliferous.

Inferior Oolite
Great Oolite

Successive reefs
Successive reefs

Coralia o;...deste: eae THe WinteeiSt ict Soins smear oni sc

Portland Oolite s)s..sze.c.0. seas IREeGiSWPARCG kis. bes ce sasiesses

INGQCONMAN PF «coef seems erdeiians Littoral and deep-sea
corals.

Ceaitilt h ks Sanco oeeeeeeenenteeaatees Littoral and deep-sea
corals,

@enomanian }i, |... 024% axon Littoral corals ............

Lower Chalk

i SRM So diss Deep-sea corals ............

(Wiper Ghalicte eee ashe

Deep-sea corals ............
PIG CONICS ALES akin SHRI AS Cacia 5

Deep-sea corals and a few
littoral.

Reefs in Western Europe.

Few reefs.

Reefs rare.

Reefs in France, Switzerland,
Germany.

Littoral and deep-sea corals.

Scattered reefs in France and
Western Germany.

Reefs in France, Spain, Swit-
zerland, Germany,

Few reefs and deep-sea corals.

Reefs in the Lombardo-Swiss,

_ Pyrenean, and Austrian
areas.

ON THE BRITISH FOSSIL CORALS. 167

Great Britain. Rest of Europe.
Lower Oligocene ............... Scattered reefs ............ Reefsin the Vicentin; deep-sea
corals in Germany, and
littoral species also,

BOWERS Pie caccc tes ctweads deewdaeeesg Deep-sea corals and lit- Deep-sea and littoral species
toral corals. in Sicily, south of Spain,

Belgium. Reefs very rare.

CO SuEL) Ufo fResBeacecoeneeedeeaee Deep-sea and littoral spe- Deep-sea and littoral species
. cles. in the Mediterranean and

western seas of Europe.

The Miocene reefs were in South France, Italy, Spain, and Germany,
where there were also deep-sea and littoral species,

The seas of Europe and Great Britain during the period of the Middle
and Upper Lias were most uncoralliferous, and also during the deposit of
the Gault. On the other hand, there were reef and atoll seas during the
deposition of the sediments of the zone of A. angulatus and bisulcatus of the
Lower Lias, of the Inferior and Great Oolite, and of the Oligocene.

The European area was more or less a centre of oscillation and of reef-
formation during the Triassic and the Lower-Liassic periods, during the Lower-
Oolitic periods, and from the Neocomian to the end of the Miocene, inclu-
sive of these periods. There was a great change in the depth of the seas
and of the physico-geographical conditions after the formation of the deposits
containing A. Bucklandi, and a second change produced the reefs of the
Oolites. Again, the deposits of the Portland Oolite and the Gault were pre-
ceded and followed by great bathymetrical changes.

The changes on the British area were before the Lower Lias and after it,
after the Great Oolite and Coral Rag, and after the Eocene and before the
Crag. Whilst the European area was coralliferous in the Trias, the British
area was uncoralliferous ; and whilst the Cretaceous reefs of Western Europe
flourished, the British area was characterized by deep-sea and littoral corals,
The lines and curves which may be drawn to explain these variations in
the two areas are as follows * :—

Sea-level. Sea-level.

7 r g ‘hy k Wy
en Ti, ee 8 Gentine Rare ee ee Sea-level.
a re
a, Trias. d. Oolites. g. Cretaceous. k. Miocene.
6. Lower Lias. e. Neocomian. h. Kocene. 7. Pliocene.
e. Upper Lias. f. Gault. zi. Oligocene. m. Recent,

The reef-areas of the Upper Lias and Gault have yet to be discovered.

It is very remarkable that the Tabulate corals, which were so abundant
in the Paleozoic Coral-fauna, and which constitute whole reefs at the pre-
sent time, should not be represented in the British Secondary Coral-fauna.
The first. trace of them is found in the Eocene beds. The perforate corals,
omitting the Fungide, which are not included in them by MM. Milne-Edwards
and Jules Haime, are unknown in the Secondary rocks of Great Britain,

* The upper diagram refers to the British area, and the lower to the European. The
“a” commences at the upper part of the Trias.

168 REPORT—1869,

yet they form masses of existing reefs, and were abundant in the Oligocene.
One of the class, 7. e. the Protarwa vetusta, appeared in the Lower Silurian
formation of Ohio; but the class was not apparently represented on our
area until the Kocene, if we except the Microsolenas, which are very ex-
ceptional perforate forms of the Oolites. The absence of these forms must be
accounted for by the deficiency of the geological record.

Enumeration of Species. Species.
Gsterabhi Cae wha = abet th ae 4161-1 epee 4
es dogma 1513) a EEE fac one inns ® coh 13
EXCEL eee Han i: ny See 38
Te Ghutieer aapordilicrn ie, rom, ye eae 19
Lower
Wiper OEPCOSAL ON fe, cismsis- 1» fb Day aad on eee ae 16
Red Chalk ..... POS Meee OIE INO 700 yO 4
CGT hee Ph pave asco. ssada E> es “ee pradewssds ake ate hee 13
Med eds io Wier MGMCCN SAT \sso01 2 aqntd dvikeas etnusycns 8) ae eae een 6
ee gPariland RODE... ot -nasoh eionceth tk 1
Coral FRAG pe censkahis Gusangiysvoe* leks ioigs ysis RET Ses eben d a 14
GAT NO OUT C Fa cas eto sya as wcliolds visas (Susncks Meeucck koe ae ee 28
Unter Or Ol be, os 5 i ncilcuess pa aus caged shai sak Ghee OE eae 35
DP POE ABE ie 5+ 6, ern ben nS orn) + bir ois adhe eel OR ERR 1
RISO TAB so salads bassin thn ieceysharngl dence ciel eae aE 2
MRO OT TA Si Thea Sines see ge fic ciel iar ee 65
259
Last of Tertiary and Secondary British Fossil Corals.
Crag.
Sphenotrochus intermedius, Miinster, sp. Cryptangia Woodii, Ed. § H.
Flabellum Woodii, Ed. & H. Balanophyllia calyculus, Wood.
Oligocene.
Solenastrea cellulosa, Duncan. Lobopsammia cariosa, Goldfuss, sp.
—— Keneri, Duncan. Axopora Michelini, Duncan.
Reussi, Duncan. Litharea Brockenhursti, Duncan.
gemmans, Duncan. Madrepora Anglica, Duncan.
Beyrichi, Duncan. Romeri, Duncan,
granulata, Duncan. — Solanderi, Defrance.
Balanophyllia granulata, Duncan.
Eocene.
Turbinolia sulcata, Lamarck. Paracyathus cylindricus, Duncan.
Dixoni, Ed. & H. Dasmia Sowerbyi, Ed. f A.
— Bowerbanki, Hd, ¢& H. Oculina conferta, Ed. § H.
Fredericiana, Ed. § H. incrustans, Duncan.
— humilis, Ed. & H. Wetherelli, Duncan.
— minor, Ed. ¢ H. Diplohelia papillosa, Ld. & H.
firma, Ed. & H. Styloccenia emarciata, Lamarck, sp.
Prestwichi, Ed. & H. monticularia, Schweigger, sp.
affinis, Duncan. Astrocenia pulchella, Hd. § H.
exarata, Duncan. Stephanophyllia discoides, Ed. § H.
Forbesi, Duncan. Balanophyllia desmophyllum, Lonsdale, sp.
Leptocyathus elegans, Hd. f& H. Dendrophyllia elegans, Duncan.
Trochocyathus sinuosus, Brongniart, sp. dendrophylloides, Lonsdale.
Austeni, Duncan. Stereopsammia humilis, Hd. g& H.
insignis, Duncan. Dendraceis Lonsdalei, Duncan.
Paracyathus crassus, Hd. § H. Porites panicea, Lonsdale.
caryophyllus, Lamarck, sp. Litharea Websteri, Bowerbank, sp.
brevis, Lamarck, sp. Axopora Forbesi, Duncan.

— Haimei, Duncan.

Parisiensis, Michelin,

——

ee =

ON THE BRITISH FOSSIL CORALS.

169

Chath.

Caryophyllia cylindracea, Reuss, sp.

Lonsdalei, Duncan.

Tennanti, Duncan.

Onchotrochus serpentinus, Duncan.

Trochosmilia laxa, Ed.d H., sp. and va-
rieties 1 2, 3.

cornucopie, Duncan.

— Wiltshiri, Duncan.

— Woodwardi, Duncan.

granulata, Duncan.

— cylindracea, Duncan.

Parasmilia centralis, Mantel, sp., varieties
1, 2.

—— cylindrica, Ed. § H.

— Fittoni, Ed. & H.

serpentina, Hd. g H.

monilis, Duncan.

granulata, Duncan.

Diblasus Gravensis, Lonsdale.

Synhelia Sharpeana, Ed. & H.

Stephanophyllia Bowerbanki, Hd. ¢ H.

Upper Greensand.

Onchotrochus Carteri, Duncan.
Smilotrochus tuberosus, Hd. & H.
elongatus, Duncan.

angulatus, Duncan.

Cyathophora monticularia, D’ Orbigny.
Favia stricta, Hd. ¢ H.

minutissima, Duncan.
Thamnastrxa superposita, Michelin.

Micrabacia coronula, Goldfuss, sp.
Peplosmilia Austeni, Hd. § H.
depressa, 2. de From.
Placosmilia cuneiformis, Ed. § H.
Parkinsoni, Ed. & H.
magnifica, Duncan. _
Astroceenia decaphylla, Hd. & H.
Isastrzea Haldonensis, Duncan.

Red Chalk of Hunstanton.

Cyclolites polymorpha, Goldfuss, sp.
Podoseris mammiliformis, Duncan.
elongata, Duncan.

Micrabacia coronula, Goldfuss, sp., and va-
riety.

Gault.

Caryophyllia Bowerbanki, Ed. § H., and a
variety.

Trochocyathus conulus, Phillips, sp.

Wiltshiri, Duncan.

Harveyanus, Hd. § H., and 5 varieties.

Bathycyathus Sowerbyi, Hd. § H.

Leptocyathus gracilis, Duncan.

Cyclocyathus Fittoni, Hd. g H.
Smilotrochus elongatus, Duncan,
— granulatus, Duncan.
insignis, Duncan.
cylindricus, Duncan.
Trochosmilia suleata, Ed. & H.
Micrabacia Fittoni, Duncan.

Lower Greensand.

Brachycyathus Orbygnyanus, Ed. § H.
Smilotrochus Austeni, Kd. § H.
Trochosmilia Meyeri, Duncan.

Isastreea Morrisi, Duncan.
Turbinoseris de-Fromenteli, Duncan,
Holocystis elegans, Ed. § H.

Portland Oolite.
Isastrea oblonga, Fleming, sp.

Coral Rag.

Stylina tubulifera, Phillips, sp.

De la Bechi, Ed. & H.
Montilivaltia dispars, Phillips, sp.
Thecosmilia annularis, Fleming, sp.
Rhabdophyllia Edwardsi, M‘Coy, sp.
Calamophyllia Stokesi, Ed. § H.
Cladophyllia czspitosa, Con. & Phil., sp.

Goniocora socialis, Rémer, sp.

Isastreea explanata, Goldfuss, sp.
Greenoughi, Hd. & H.

Thamnastrza arachnoides, Parkinson, sp.
— concinna, Goldfuss, sp.

Comoseris irradians, Ed. & H.

Protoseris Waltoni, Ed. g H.

Great Oolite.

Stylina conifera, Ed. § H.

— solida, M‘Coy, sp.

— Ploti, Ed. § H.

Cyathophora Luciensis, @’ Oré., sp.
Pratti, Ed. & H.

insignis, Duncan.

tuberosa, Duncan.
Convexastrea Waltoni, Ed. & H.
Montlivaltia Smithi, Hd. § H.
— Waterhousei, Kd. § H.
Thecosmilia obtusa, @’ Ord.
Calamophyllia radiata, Lamourour, sp.

Cladophyllia Babeana, d@’ Orb., sp.
Tsastraea Conybeari, Hd. § H.
limitata, Lamouroux, sp.

-—— explanata, M‘Coy, sp.

serialis, Hd. §& H.

ibbosa, Duncan.
Clausastreea Pratti, Ed. & H.
Thamnastrea Lyelli, Ed. & A.
— mammosa, Ed. § H,
— scita, Ed. §& H.
— Waltoni, Hd. § H.
— Browni, Duncan.

170 REPORT—1869.

Anabacia orbulites, Lamourouc, sp. Microsolena regularis, Ed. § H.
Comoseris vermicularis, M‘Coy, sp. —— excelsa, Hd. § H.

Inferior Oolite.
Discocyathus Eudesi, Michelin, sp. Isastraea Richardsoni, Hd. § H
Trochocyathus Magnevillianus, Michelin,sp. tenuistriata, M*Coy, sp.

Axosmilia Wrighti, Ed. § H. — Lonsdalei, Hd. § Z.
Montlivaltia trochoides, Hd. & H. Crickleyi, Duncan.
tenuilamellosa, Ed. & H. dendroidea, Duncan.

—— Stutchburyi, Zd. § H. Thamnastrea Defranciana, Michelin, sp.

—— Wrighti, Ed. & H. Terquemi, Ed. J: H.
cupuliformis, Ed. ¢ H. —— Mettensis, Ed. & H.
De la Bechi, Ed. § H. —— fungiformis, Ed. & H.

— lens, Ed. § H. — M‘Ooyi, Hd. § A.

— depressa, Ed. § H. Waleotti, Duncan.

— Hollhi, Duncan. — Manseli, Duncan.
Painswicki, Duncan. Etheridgi, Duncan.

— Morrisi, Duncan. Anabacia hemispherica, Hd, § H.

Thecosmilia gregaria, M‘Coy, sp. Dimorphoseris Oolitica, Duncan.
Wrighti, Duncan. Cyclolites Lyceti, Duncan.

Latimeandra Flemingi, Ed. § H.
— Davidsoni, Ed. § H.

Beani, Duncan.

Upper Lias.
Thecocyathus Moorei, Ed. § H.
Middle Lias.

Lepidophyllia Hebridensis, Duncan. Montlivaltia Victoriz, Duncan.
Lower Lias.
Lepidophyllia Stricklandi, Duncan. Astroccenia Sinemuriensis, d’ Orb.

Oppelismilia gemmans, Duncan.
Montlivaltia Wallizw, Duncan.
Murchisonix, Duncan.
— Ruperti, Duncan. reptans, Duncan.
—— parasitica, Duncan. parasitica, Duncan.
simplex, Duncan. —— pedunculata, Duncan.
— brevis, Duncan. costata, Duncan.
— pedunculata, Duncan. favoidea, Duncan.
polymorpha, Terg. e¢ Piette. superba, Duncan.
Haimei, Ch. e¢ Dew. dendroidea, Duncan.
— Hibernica, Duncan. minuta, Duncan.

gibbosa, Duncan.
plana, Duncan.
insignis, Duncan.

papillata, Duncan. Cyathoccenia dendroidea, Duncan.
Guettardi, Blainville. incrustans, Duncan.
—— nummiformis, Duncan. — costata, Duncan.
radiata, Duncan. —— globosa, Duncan.
—— patula, Duncan. Elysastreea Fischeri, Laude.
—— rugosa, Wright, sp. -— Moorei, Duncan.
mucronata, Duncan. Septastraa excavata, E. de From.
Thecosmilia Suttonensis, Duncan. de-Fromenteli, Terquem.
mirabilis, Duncan. — Evershami, Duncan.
serialis, Duncan. Haimei, Wright, sp.
— irregularis, Duncan. Latimzandra denticulata, Duncan.
Terquemi, Duncan. Isastreea Sinemuriensis, £. de From.
affinis, Duncan. — globosa, Duncan.

dentata, Duncan. Murchisoni, Wright.
— plana, Duncan. Tomesii, Duncan.
Brodiei, Duncan. endothecata, Duncan.
—— Martini, F. de From. —— insignis, Duncan.

—— Michelini, Terg. et Piette. Stricklandi, Duncan.
Rhabdophyllia rugosa, Laube. — latimzandroidea, Duncan.
recondita, Laube.

J) J a

ON ICE AS AN AGENT OF GEOLOGIC CHANGE. 171

Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared Sections
of Mountain-Limestone Corals for Photographing. The Committee
consists of Henry Woopwarp, F.G.S., Dr. Duncan, F.R.S., Pro-
fessor Harkness, F.R.S., and Jamus Tuomson, F.G.S. (Reporter).

Tue operations of this Committee have been carried on indefatigably during
the past year; the results are very promising, but much additional work
must be performed before any satisfactory conclusions can be arrived at.

We have cut several hundred sections, but many of them have been so
crushed and fractured, that they are absolutely useless for our purpose ;
thus in one lot of eighty-seven we found only two specimens sufficiently per-
fect to be of any use; this is to be regretted, as it is desirable to select as
perfect specimens as possible for photographing, and also for the use of Dr.
Duncan for describing in the Transactions of the Paleontological Society.

Those cut, and partly cut, consist of the following genera :—Cyathophyllum,
Cyclophyllum, Clisiophyllum, and allied forms, Lonsdalia, Zephrentis, Am-
plewus, Michelinia, Syringopora, Lithostrotion and its varieties.

The time and labour involved in superintending the cutting, examining,
and finishing those which are sufficiently perfect, will explain the impossibi-
lity of producing this year so complete a set as we could have wished.
However, we have been sufficiently successful to warrant us in saying that
with those made, and others in readiness to make, we will be able to produce
in another year a very full set of plates.

With the plates already finished we have been trying a number of experi-
ments in photography ; finding that by the usual process the colour fades by
exposure to light, we went to Newcastle and examined Mr. Swan’s carbon
process; and, being satisfied that it was an improvement, we left three plates
with him, and we now exhibit the results, satisfactory in two of them, while
the other has some defects; we are, however, in hopes that soon we will be
able to produce fac-similes on zine or copper plates. Mr. Swan has been
trying experiments for that purpose, and he is in hopes of being successful.
If so, we will be able to produce them in any number, and at such a mode-
rate price that they will be available for ordinary publishing purposes. If
not successful, we expect to be able, by the carbon process, to produce sets
of plates which will be placed in a few of the principal Museums when com-
pleted.

Report on Ice as an Agent of Geologic Change. By a Committee,
consisting of Professor Orro Toretx, Professor Ramsay, LL.D.,
F.R.S., and H. Baurrman, F.G.S. (Reporter).

We are of opinion that the work already done in the investigation of the
phenomena connected with ice is not sufficient to enable us to prepare a
Report showing the precise effect of “ice as an agent of geologic change ;”
but enough has been done to show in part the manner in which the subject
may be followed, for the purpose of obtaining information as to the quanti-
tative action of glaciers, both as regards their erosive and perenoriine
powers.

First. We would select a well-known glacier-region, such as the Alps,
and there for preliminary investigation fix on a large glacier, simple in
structure and easily accessible, such, for example, as the lower glacier of the

172 | REPORT— 1869.

Aar. Ifnot already done, the glacier and the surrounding mountains ought
to be well surveyed and mapped, and its moraines clearly expressed.

Secondly. The amount of rocky and earthy matter forming each medial
and lateral moraine would require to be determined as accurately as possible,
probably in the manner illustrated by the accompanying rough diagram of
an imaginary glacier.

Take of the medial moraine marked a a space, say, from 100 to 500 yards in
length, and estimate the solid contents of that portion of the moraine. This
should be done as near as possible to the place where the medial moraine is
formed by the union of the two lateral moraines wv and y; for lower down part

N
bs
L ks
at
SOM
\ g a
a
Ww

re Xue,
aS \

‘ Sun CL!
=
oe

WAM,

i —

A
5 el
M Ma

Mh, /

SEY)
4,

7
a WY SN

of the material may disappear by falling into crevasses. The same must be
done for the moraines } and ¢, or for each medial moraine ; and also, in several

ON ICE AS AN AGENT OF GEOLOGIC CHANGE. 173

places, for the lateral moraines d and e. Then ascertain the rates of the
onward movement of the glacier, according to circumstances, in various por-
tions of its length, and at various seasons of the year; and by these means
will be ascertained to a great extent (but not precisely) the quantity of
matter carried annually on the surface of the glacier to its termination, and
this matter will represent a very large part of the waste of the sides of the
mountains that bound the snow and glacier basins 0, p, g, and the sides of
the mountains that bound the glacier lower down towards its terminal
moraine.

Thirdly. The chief part of the remainder of the rocky and earthy matter
that is carried from the mountains to the level of the glacier will pass under
it at its sides, and mingle with the material that finds its way to the bottom
of the glacier through the means of crevasses and moulins, and also with
that which is the product of the erosive action of the glacier exerted on
its bed and on the stone blocks imprisoned at the bottom of the ice. A
small part of the above-named remainder may also be caught in the ice and
imprisoned in rejoined crevasses.

Fourthly. We see no way of precisely estimating the amount of erosion
produced by the weight and movement of the glacier—that is to say, the
rate at which any given glacier may deepen and widen its valley by pure
wearing action, owing to the circumstance that the sediments discharged
along with the water that flows from the end of a glacier do not represent
the amount produced by mere erosive force, for the reason stated under
head 3. But it is essential to the main question that correct estimates
should be made of the amount of solid matter brought from under the glacier
by the help of running water, and also of the amount carried away by the
continual wasting by streams of the terminal moraine.

As regards the matter in suspension in the river, and also that forced
along its bottom, it should be estimated, if possible, at a point 7, just below
where the various streams unite that flow from the ends of most great gla-
ciers. Where there is only one stream (as in the Aletsch glacier), the closer
to the glacier the better. The operation would be very laborious; for, unless
frost and snow prevented it, it would require to be done for every day in a
year or years, and several times each day, at least in summer and autumn,
and probably in spring and winter also. For example, in summer the quan-
tity of water varies largely, according to the heat of various periods of the
day; and it would probably be necessary to make an observation every day
before sunrise; another some time before noon, another between four and six
o'clock in the afternoon, and another after nightfall; in fact sufficiently
often to obtain an average for each day in the year.

With rgard to the transport of heavier matter from the terminal moraine
(which forms a portion of this part of the subject) by the glacier-streams
that waste it, an index to the amount may approximately be obtained by
means of the estimates indicated under head 2, assuming that all terminal
moraines are formed chiefly from matter transported on the surface of the
glacier.

Other methods involving special study on the spot would be required for
the terminal and lower side-moraines of such glaciers as those of La Brenva
and Miage, which on the sides that face up the valley towards the Lake of
Comballe are still growing.

Fifthly. If the foregoing methods are correct, they might afterwards be
applied to all the glaciers of the Alps, and the rate of waste and transport
by glacier-action might be approximately determined ; and in like manner

174 REPORT—1869.

they might also be used for well-known and comparatively accessible moun-.
tain-ranges like the Scandinavian chain, the Himalaya, the mountains of
New Zealand, and in time to the Rocky Mountains, the Andes, and others.

Sixthly. But the above only forms part of the subject, and to attempt to
estimate the existing importance of “ice as an agent of geologic change,”

‘the glacier and glacial phenomena generally as regards erosion and terrestrial
and marine transport of material must be taken into account in such regions
as Spitzbergen, Greenland, and Victoria Land in the southern hemisphere.
Something on a small scale may be done in Spitzbergen and the southern
part of Greenland; but at present we see no likelihood of definite observa-
tions being made on the western side of Greenland further north, and in the
extreme north of that continent, or on its eastern shores, either in respect to
the erosion produced by its great glaciers, the effect of floe and shore-ice, or
the transporting work done by the icebergs that float southwards from its
shores.

Something is known of the general results, but it seems very improbable,
with regard to the number and size of icebergs, and the quantity of matter
they bear southwards, that anything definite is likely to be ascertained at
present. The same remarks bear yet more strongly on the glacial pheno-
mena of Victoria Land.

Seventhly. But when so much remains to be done on the Alps and on
other accessible mountain-areas, such difficult points can afford to wait for
the present ; and we are of opinion that perhaps it is possible, after the sub-
ject has been investigated with regard to the existing glaciers of the Alps, to |
apply approximately the same method to the older extension of the Alpine
glaciers during the last glacial period, and to invent a process by which we
may be able in some degree to estimate the amount of erosive waste, and of
transport of moraine matter on the surface, of the great glaciers of that
epoch. Accurate surveys of the old moraines of that epoch would be essen-
tial to this end, such, for example, as that of the great moraine of Ivrea. The
extent of the glacier has been shown by Gastaldi, and the area occupied by,
and cubic contents of, the moraine must be estimated; and if it be possible
to feel our way towards the data, attempts must be made to estimate the
amount of waste of the moraine going on at the time it was deposited by the
streams flowing from the end of the glacier. Numerous other considerations
arise from this extended view of the question, one of which is, that perhaps
it may be applied to other glaciated regions where glaciers no longer exist,
such as the Vosges, the Black Forest, Wales, the north of England, Scotland,
&e., thus:—Given an area such as the Alps and the Lowlands of Switzer-
land, covered with glacier-ice ; if an approximate estimate can be formed of
the amount of waste suffered by that land due to glacier-action, so under
like circumstances is it possible more or less accurately to estimate the
amount of erosions and other waste suffered by an equal area in such a terri-
tory as the north of Greenland at the present day.

In conclusion, any qualified person, with proper assistance and time at his
disposal, could undertake the preliminary work on a single glacier ; but to do
what is necessary to complete it for such an area as the Alps would probably
involve national scientific cooperation.

eae

EXPERIMENTS ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF IRON. 175

Provisional Report of a Committee consisting of Professor Tarr, Pro-
fessor Tynpatt, and Dr. Batrour Stewart, appointed for the
purpose of repeating Principal J. D. Forsrs’s Experiments on the
Thermal Conductivity of Iron, and of extending them to other Metals.
By Professor Tart.

Iy consequence of a misunderstanding, the standard thermometers ordered
from the Kew Observatory did not arrive in time to be employed in the ex-
periments hitherto made, so that the results now to be stated, besides being
only approximate, are, for the most part, confined to a range of temperature
of about 100° C. merely. Before the next meeting of the British Association
the whole question will have been reexamined with far superior instruments ;
but with such thermometers as I had at hand (including some of those used
by Principal Forbes, of which, however, I have not succeeded in obtaining
the corrections determined by Welsh at Kew), results have been obtained of
a character sufficiently definite for publication, though, of course, subject to
(slight) future corrections and perhaps limitations.

The substances experimented on were iron, lead, and copper. Two spe-
cimens of the latter metal were employed, one of high, the other of low
electric’ conductivity, the resistances of equal lengths of wires of the same
gauge being about 1 to 1-64. The ratio of the thermal conductivities of
these bars was at once found to be within 5 per cent., the same as that of
their electric conductivities, a result certainly anticipated, but still very
striking. In specific gravity and specific heat, as well as in chemical com-
position, mode of manufacture, and drawing, these bars of copper scarcely
differ. As yet they have been treated for thermal conductivity in the hard-
drawn state alone ; but annealed wires of the same materials, while showing
a slightly improved electric conductivity, maintain towards one another a
ratio practically unaltered.

Two points have been observed which enable us materially to simplify the
determination of thermal conductivities by Forbes’s method, so long at least
as moderate ranges of temperature are concerned; and we seek no greater
accuracy than admits of 1 or 2 per cent. of error.

1. The Curve of Cooling is practically the same for all the substances I
have tried (even for gas-coke), merely foreshortened or elongated in terms of
a parameter, which involves the product of the specific gravity and the spe-
cific heat of the substance employed. This was, of course, to be expected,
provided the radiating power of the surface be kept the same, and provided
conductivity do not interfere with the results.

2. The Curve of Statical Temperature possesses, practically, the same pro-
perty, at least for the four different bars employed. This proves that within
the range of the experiments, and subject to the errors of the thermometers,
the law of change of thermal conductivity with temperature is the same for
lead and copper as for iron. I showed (Proc. R. 8. Edin., 1867-68) that
Forbes’s results for iron agree closely with the statement that the conduc-
tivity is inversely as the absolute temperature, a result which is identical
with Matthiessen’s determinations of electric resistance of pure metals at
different temperatures. With a view to follow up this analogy still further,
I have ordered a bar of German silver, a substance whose electric conduc-
tivity is but little altered by temperature. The results cannot fail to be
interesting.

Very simple reasoning from the (plotted) curves of Cooling and of Statical
{<nperature shows that, to the amount of accuracy before mentioned, the

176 REPORT—1869.

thermal conductivities of two metals are as the squares of the foreshortenings
in their respective curves of statical temperature. I have not considered my
observations sufficiently exact (chiefly on account of the imperfection of the
thermometers) to warrant my undertaking the labour of calculating the con-
stants of empirical formule to represent them, but have contented myself
with results derived from tracing, liberéd manu, curves closely representing
the result of experiment.

I may mention, in concluding this provisional Report, that an air-bath has
been found preferable to melted solder for heating the bars employed in the
cooling experiments, and that the conductivity of copper is so much superior
to that of iron that, when a source of heat above 100° C. is employed, the
further ends of the 8-feet copper bars require to be kept cold by a constant
stream of water. In this case the curve of statical temperature undergoes
an obvious and easily allowed for modification.

Report of the Committee for the purpose of investigating the rate of
Increase of Underground Temperature downwards in various Loca-
lities, of Dry Land and under Water. Drawn up by Professor
Everett, at the request of the Committee, consisting of Sir W1LL1AM
Tuomson, LL.D.,F.R.S., E.W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., ARCHIBALD
Geirxiz, F.R.S., F.G.S., James Guaisuer, F-R.S., Rev. Dr.
GrauamM, Prof. FLemmine Jenkin, F.R.S., Sir Cuartes Lye,
Bart., LL.D., F.R.S., J. Churk Maxwe tt, F.R.S., Georce Maw,
F.L.S., F.G.S., Prof. Poitires, DL.D., F.R.S., W1Lt1aM PENGELLY,
FR.S., F.G.S., Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S., F.G.S., Batrour Stewart,
LL.D., F.R.S., G. J. Symons, Prof. James Tuomson, C.E., Prof.
Youne, M.D., F.R.S.E., and Professor Everett, D.C.L., F.RS.E.,
Secretary.

In the last Report it was stated that several small hardy maximum ther-
mometers suited for rough work were being constructed by Casella under the
direction of the Committee. These instruments have now been in use for a
year and have been found to work well.

Their construction is as follows:—A Phillips’s maximum thermometer, about
10 inches long, graduated in Fahr. degrees from about 30° to 90°, is her-
metically sealed within a glass tube, which is about three-quarters filled with
air and one-fourth with alcohol, the thermometer being kept from touching
the tube by cork rings. The thermometer thus enclosed is inserted in a
copper case for protection, contact between the glass and the copper being
prevented by india-rubber. The air within the hermetically sealed tube
prevents the great pressure which acts upon the exterior of the tube in deep
bores filled with water from being transmitted to the thermometer within.
The use of the alcohol is to lessen the time required for the thermometer to
come to the temperature of the surrounding medium,

The Committee would take this opportunity of stating that they will be
happy to supply these instruments to any persons who will undertake to make
observations of the temperature in borings.

Mr. M‘Farlane (assistant to Sir W. Thomson), who furnished for the last Re-

ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE, 177

port a series of observations taken at Blythswood bore, now furnishes obser-
vations taken with the thermometer above described at two other bores.. At
Kirkland Neuk bore near Blythswood, his observations were made in March
and April 1868, and again in August and September of the same year. At
South Balgray on the north side of the Clyde, his observations were made in
July 1869. The following are the particulars of the observations.

Observations of Underground Temperature at Kirkland Neuk Bore,
Blythswood, 1868.
Diameter of bore 23 inches.

Taken during March and April. | een uae See

and September.
Depth Zemp: Temp. Fahr
pe Fahr. P. ;
feet. 5 "
60 44-67 Mar. 28. 48:0
45°50 seoole
120 48:15 = 20: 48-7
48°20 jae aes 48°65
49-0
49-0
180 50°29 Takes 50°20
| 50°30 me ake 50°35
240 51-70 ae les 51:3
515
300 53°10 an) Ve 52°5
52°5
304 53°60 Apr. 2. 53°5
53°53

This bore was originally 570 feet deep, but was filled with sediment to 354
feet from the surface. During March and April the weather was rainy, and
a continual flow of water from the surface passed into the bore, escaping at

some unknown depth. The temperature observed varied considerably at

different times, especially towards the surface. Those here recorded were
taken when the surface-flow was least, the others have been rejected from
their irregularity as not trustworthy.

In August and September the weather was dry, and the surface of the ©
water in the bore remained at a nearly constant depth of 30 feet, and the
temperatures observed are much more regular.

An attempt was made to have the sediment taken out so as to render the
whole depth available for observation, when an accident occurred to the iron
tube protecting the upper part of the bore, and nothing further has been
done.

Observations of Underground Temperature at South Balgray, west from
Glasgow, north from the Clyde. Diameter of bore 3 inches.

This bore, originally 1040 feet deep, is available to a depth of 525 feet,
The observations here recorded were made at the beginning of July 1869,
the surface of the water being constant at 53 feet from that of the ground.
Diameter of bore 3 inches.

Depth. Temp.

Date. Date.

feet. m feet.
OPE... ASD. 4 S.A ieee July 2, 1869. 60 ree: AO tees oa July 6, 1869.
2507) ee oeBeeE cr Oia Ta BB QD re ccees.docaes 9

” ”

1869. N

178 : REPORT—1869.

5 a Temp. Divs. tee Temp. até:
eet. eet,
PO's 53003 ese July 2, 1869. SEO) wesas 5 55:30 sesssee .....duly 9, 1869.
eee, en eee B5'45 ...cscesseee ae bet
aa sae Seas LG ites 5
msiEND) «hy O5'S5 G2. 8s Sieks bess
” 6 ?
age BOD cs 7k ha a
go Orcs 5B09% Hees POs
HGWS).eeeeecees eget ts ber Mr
180 ...... Heed at
Seat ig he BAD teenies 56:9 eo
A ee Bice 3. Oe
” 5 ” 57:20 abc ewaimee 39 5 A
ser Ve sy DTAO WM tees PGR
i ” 6 ”
240 seeeee ” 2 ” ” 9 ”
” : ” > 9 ”
oe 450 sca: Bo Be, bes
” : ” ” ”
eae. te, cage A
” 13 ” ” 13 ”
” 2 ” 480 eee eee ”” 2 ”
9 2 ”? ” 5 +h)
” u ” ” ”
Bee F ‘
” 9 ” A488 ....0e ” 9 ”
” 9 ” ” 9 ”
ee ZO Ney sues 59:3 HBAS
eu HG Greer s cen Be flies
On ae DOO Roe een cp se sein ane
” 6 ” 5OAD .Wecsens cece ” 6 ”
Sas) s Tks 5940: 22ers 0 OOH
59°46 oo. cseceee Loe Aaa

In regard to these observations, I have to remark that the thermometer
had to be drawn up with great caution, as I found that the thermometer
case, or a knot on the cord, meeting with a slight obstruction from rugged
parts of the bore, produced a sufficient shock to cause the detached portion of
the mercury to sink, which rendered the observation useless. The discre-
pancies in some of the observations marked (?) may be due to this cause.
In seyeral cases, when the shock was distinctly felt, I found the reading very
low, and at once rejected it.

The mode of procedure was as as follows :—the readings were taken gene-
rally at intervals of 60 feet (10 fathoms). For the smaller depths iced water
was used to set the thermometer below the temperature of the locality to be
tested, and on being brought to the surface, it was put into the water while
taking the reading for considerable depths ; this was unnecessary, as its
passage through the colder upper strata served the purpose sufficiently. Fre-
quently two observations were taken at one depth in succession, but never
more, before proceeding to the next greater; and in no case was a reading
taken at any depth after one had been made at a lower on the same day.

Between the depths 390 feet and 450 feet there is continuous shale, and I
thought it might be interesting to have the temperature of both these localities.

At the depth of 488 feet commences a bed of greenstone about 140 feet thick,
but the sediment prevented me from getting more than 37 feet into this bed.

ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE.

179

As it would be interesting to get through the greenstone, I am at present
making inquiries as to the expense of having the mud pumped out.
The following is an account of the strata penetrated by this bore, together
with an abstract of the foregoing results : —

Depth.

ft.

180

240

300

July 1869. South Balgray Bore.
Numb i oT - | Differ- Diff J
Nature of strata. |o¢jsvers, Thickness. / “taf '| ence. | per foot,
ft. In: “ 2 =

Surface-soil .... 1 LO
Sandy clay .... 7 3. 6
Dark fakes .... 1 26
Grey fakes ....| 2 |18 9
Dark blaes .. 8 22 63
Sandstone 1 AO aC)
Coals |. = 5.45). fepar 1 Amare:
Ironstone 4 0 9

19 60 O02 48-20
Dark fakes .... 2 6 9
Dark blaes .... 9 29 7
Sandstone 2 17 6 1:36 | 0-0227
COI Se bees a 3
Ironstone 6 Eg |

20 60 0 49-56
Dark fakes .. .. 4 9 6
Grey fakes ....| 3 | 16. 3
Dark blaes .... 3 8 52
Light blaes.... 1 Tigh 1:56 | 0:0260
Sandstone ...‘ 3 22. 2
Chall oe fone, Reo 2 Tye 5;
Ironstone ....| 3 1 03

19 60 0 51:12
Grey fakes .. $ 3 6
Dark blaes .. LO wieBsr eg 1:72 | 0:0287
Sandstone il 10 8
Ironstone 8 the

20 60 0 52°84
Dark fakes .... 3 Lin 3
Grey fakes... ..)| 2 °| 12°10
Dark blaes .... il a0 1:04 | 0-0173
Sandstone .... 1 Te ws
Ironstone th 0 38

7 60 0 53°88

180 REPORT—1869.
July 1869. South Balgray Bore (continued).

Depth.| Nature of strata. ae Thickness. Tonnes ae 4 nae
ft. ft. in. : ‘ a
Dark fakes .... 3 (41. 42 | 53°88
Fakey sandstone) 2 | 25 7
Dark blaes ... Sa ky GS 1:52 | 0:0253
Tronstone ‘i 5 6
360 —_—.
20 | 60 0 55°40
Dark fakes .... Bide. 8s
Dark blaes .... 1 6. 45 0-71 | 0:0237
Sandstone 3 3 11
390 —_——
|, 30, 0 5611 \e
1:03 | 0-0343 | &
420 | Dark blaes ....| .. 30 0 57:14 \ e
=
0-99 00820 E
450 | Dark blaes....) .. | 300 | 58:18
Dark plaeg': ..0| ~s 6 43
Dark limestone. 1 ok
Light do. hard) 4 inn 0-57 | 0:0190
Limey fakes 4 );13 1
Pari G. . jai ee il Or; 1
Fakey limestone) 1 0 43
480 —
LTS A) RO 58°70
Fakey limestone} .. 10 103
Greenstone .... 1 »| 84 12 0:82 | 0:0182
525
1 | 45 0 59:52

Difference of temperature for 465 feet . 11°82,
Mean difference of temperature per foot 0°-0244,

being at the rate of 1° for 41 feet. It will be remarked that the shale,
which extends from 390 feet to 450 feet, shows a more rapid increase of
temperature, and therefore smaller conductivity than the other strata*.

The following is an account of the strata penetrated by the Blythswood
bore (No. 1), together with an abstract of the temperatures observed in it.
The particulars of the observations of temperature were given in last year’s
Report.

a
F.

}

* As regards the relation between rate of increase of temperature downwards and

thermal conductivity, it is to be borne in mind that in comparing different parts of one
bore these quantities are generally in inverse proportion to each other; but this rule does
not apply to the comparison of two bores in different localities. See Mr. Hopkins’s paper,
Phil. Trans, vol. cxlvii.

ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 181

1867-68. Blythswood Bore, No. 1.

Depth. | Nature of strata. ee Thickness. ieee nee ie: meee 2
ft. ft. in. o a 4
Surface-soil.... al 16
Till with stones. 1. 46 6
Wane tills e- 1 oe)
60 ee
3 60 O 47°95
Wark till; ... Ie 20)
Bakes’... ss 2: 2 Gwe
Dark blaes ....| 10 | 12 42
Blaes and fakes.| 4 | 12 6 1-27 “0212
Sandstone ....| 6 | 15 72
‘CO Latte aiteeee 3 1 8
Ironstone...... 3 Qaiy
120 ¢ BE LBOGS |
28 60 0 49-29
Sandstone fakes.| 8 | 21 22
BGR rst esas fia PB coet e
Sandstone .... 4 Ils 1:28 -0213
Worle. ent: 2 1 63
Tronstone...... 4 0 104
180 es
D5 60 0 50:50
Sandstone fakes. 7 | 33 22
Sandstone .... 5 10 *4 1:08 “0180
DINOS Saatee o oe 9 eS Ss
Ironstone...... 4 0 9
240 —
DS 60 0 51°58
Sandstone fakes.| 2 | 10 02
Sandstone .... 2 8 62 1:18 -0197
Dark blaes ....} 12 36 11
Ironstone...... 11 4 53
300 —
27 | 59 112 52:76
Sandstone 2, ee 2
Dark blaes ....} 4 | 27 92 ‘93 | 0198
if
2

Our attempts to obtain the journal of the Kirkland Neuk bore, showing
the strata penetrated by it, have not as yet been successful. The mean rate

182 REPORT—1869.

of increase, calculated from the observations in August and September, is
0°:0187 per foot, or 1° for 53-5 feet.

This is the bore which was referred to in the following passage of last
year’s Report.

“Tt has been selected because the mining engineer states in his report
that the coal has been very much burned or charred, showing the effects of
heat; and it becomes an interesting question, Are there any remains of that
heat that charred the coal in ancient times, or has it passed off so long ago
that the strata are now not sensibly warmer on account of it?”

The observations seem to establish the latter alternative, this bore being
rather colder than its neighbour, the Blythswood No. 1.

Mr. G. J. Symons, Member of the Committee, has furnished the following
account of observations taken by him to the depth of 1100 feet in an artesian
boring at Kentish Town :—

“«‘ Observations have been made during a considerable length of time, and
with every precaution and care, through the London Clay, Thanet Sands,
Chalk, Upper Greensand, and Gault, in the vicinity of the metropolis, under
the following circumstances.

«There exists in the northern suburbs of London, between Kentish Town
and Highgate, a remarkably large well, 8 feet in diameter and 540 feet deep,
lined throughout with the finest brickwork, and reaching 214 feet deep into
the Chalk. This well was the property of a Company whose Act of Parlia-
ment bore date 35th Henry VIII. (a.p. 1544), and afforded a supply of
water to the surrounding neighbourhood until, in 1852, when, under the
joint influence of the Board of Health, who objected to hard water, of in-
creasing demand and decreasing quantity, the Company decided on seeking
afresh supply. It was represented to them as most probable that by sink-
ing a bore-tube to a depth of about 1000 feet, the Lower Greensand would be
tapped, and an abundant supply of excellent water obtained. The then
existing well being more than half the entire depth required, it was decided
to bore from its bottom, and thus save half the cost. The boring was carried
down to 1302 feet (nearly a quarter of a mile), but the Lower Greensand was
absent ; some unknown rocks were penetrated, and the Company, after spend-
ing on their works, well, and boring nearly £100,000, became bankrupt ;
the New River Company purchased the plant, but were advised not to con-
tinue the search; the buildings were sold for old materials, and the whole
left in a ruinous condition.

“TI consulted other members of this Committee as to the expediency of ob-
taining from the New River Comp. permission to experiment on this bore, and
consent having (through the courtesy of Mr. Muir, the Company’s engineer)
been obtained, it was decided that observations should be forthwith commenced.

«‘ Owing to the ruinous condition of the top of the well, and the depth of
the top of the bore-tube below the ground, very considerable danger and
discomfort attended the preliminary arrangements, although these very dif-
ficulties have eventually led to the detection of sources of error not previously
suspected, and to exceptionally accurate results.

“« The accompanying sketches explain pretty clearly the exact circumstances
under which the observations were taken, viz. that a hut was erected over
the top of the well to shut out, as far as practicable, external temperature
and to protect the apparatus; that a stout floor was fixed 10 feet down the
well to afford access to the tube * and safety to the observer, the top of the

* “Tt is scarcely necessary to say that the tube commences 9 feet below the surface of the
ground, and passes down through the well.”

ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 183

tube only rises one foot above the floor, and is plugged with a large ball of
felt to prevent external air having free communication with the tube. The
exact limits of the various strata are also shown, together with the constant

A, floor, 10 feet below surface of ground.
B, brick-ledge. ©, bore-tube, fitting tightly
in floor. D, steps leading to entrance door E.
G, opening into well, with trap-door. 4H,
beam suporting pulleys, over which pass two
cords Q Q, one leading to tube and the other
to well. J, windlass, separately represented
in second figure. LL, registering-apparatus,
with dials M, indicating amount of cord paid
out. N, stand of windlass, fixed to brick-
work B. R, thermometers for temperature
of observing room. O O, thermometers for
underground temperature.

depth at which water stands in the tube: this constancy is worth notice; for
whereas in most cases water-levels vary with the rainfall in the districts
whence they obtain their supply, the water at Kentish Town has not varied
more than six inches during the last ten months, and is very muddy. The
diameter of the bore-tube is 8 inches.

Two thermometers haye always been used in these obseryations,—one

184 REPORT—1869.

similar to those designed for the use of the Committee by Sir Wm. Thomson,
and the other an extra strong Six’s thermometer, as supplied to the Admi-
ralty by Casella. The influence of great pressure on the indications of ther-
mometers having recently attracted considerable attention, it may be well to
state that the greatest pressure to which those used at Kentish Town have
been submitted is about a fifth of a ton per square inch, and this causes the
Six’s thermometer to rise about 0°4; Sir W. Thomson’s thermometer being
protected by an outer glass tube is entirely uninfluenced by this pressure, or
even, as Professor Miller’s experiments have shown, by a pressure of two tons
and a half on the square inch*, Hence it is certain that pressure has been
deprived of all influence. The use of two thermometers of different con-
structions ensured the detection of any slipping or accidental error in the
observations, but in the regular series not a single instance of the kind has
occurred,

“In order to ascertain the depth of the instruments easily, accurately, and
independently of any variation in the hygrometric condition of the lowering-
cord, it was conducted from the windlass round a grooved wheel exactly
36 inches in circumference, to whose axle an endless screw was attached,
which worked a train of divided wheels, so that the exact distance could
be taken at any instant.

“ It was supposed that several trustworthy observations could be obtained
in the course of one day; but the following Table shows that this was not
the case, and confirms the expediency, where practicable, of allowing con-
siderable time for the instruments &c. to come to thermal equilibrium. At
Kentish Town the observations on which reliance is placed have been made
at intervals of not less thin six days, and generally of seven. On two or
three occasions, however, attempts have been made to obtain observations at
short intervals, and the following are the results:—

Depth, 3 uh ature | T
in feet, Time allowed. Date. ed | coientees eirar
100 | 1 hour, March 5. | 50-1 51:0 | —0-9
200 s re 51°8, 53°6 =1°3
300 a ss 56°1 56-1 0:0
400 a Ba 55:0 58-1 3}
500 a, 5 58-1 21
bb) ” 29 60:0 60-2 —0-2
” ” ” 60-2 0-0
550 ep Feb. 12. 61:0 61-0 0-0
600 , March 5. 58:0 : —3°2
” s ” 58:2 } sia a0
700 A 62:5 op {0s}
: 1 ‘ 62-6 } 628 moe
710 | Half-hour. + 62°8 ; == (eT.
‘ R 3 62-9 } ey 0-0
750 | 20 minutes. | Feb. 19. 63:0 63-4 — 0-4

* «Professor W. A. Miller's experiments were made with an hydraulic press, and are de-
scribed in the Roy. Soc. Proceedings for June 17, 1869 (No. 113). Several thermometers

|
:
|
|

‘ii Al ee Mer

Co.) constructed, a very delicate thermometer, which was

ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 185

«‘ Tt is well known that in the solid crust of the earth the influence of sea-
sons penetrates but a slight depth, say 60 feet; but it occurred to me that
this might not hold good in the case of such an opening as the Kentish Town
well. Itherefore decided on commencing my observations at midwinter,
continuing them regularly to midsummer, and then repeating every obser-
vation ; those at each depth will therefore have been taken twice at exactly
opposite seasons, and at intervals of six months. The necessity for this
extreme care did not appear obvious at first, and it seemed as if the various
precautions against the ingress of atmospheric temperatures had rendered it
superfluous ; but during recent hot periods its desirability has become abun-
dantly manifest : the temperature at a depth of 50 feet was 49°-2 in January
and 54°-1 in July; that at 100 feet was 51° in January and 54°3 in July ;
at 150 feet 52°-1 in January and 54°-7 in July. It is therefore evident that
under the circumstances existing at Kentish Town, it is more easy to deter-
mine accurately the temperature at great depths than at the lesser ones. It
is certain that but for the precautions taken, and the unusual mildness of the
winter, the temperature at 50 feet would have been much below 49°2.
Whence it further appears that though a single observation at depths below
200 feet will probably give accurately the true temperature at any selected
depth, yet in shafts and bores similarly circumstanced to that now under
notice, very discordant results may be obtained at lesser depths. Moreover,
it is obviously impossible, by any but long-continued observations, to deter-
mine accurately the surface-temperature of the ground, or the equivalent of
a depth of 0 feet; it may therefore be expedient, for the purpose of com-
pleting the series, to assume that the mean temperature of
the surface of the soil at Kentish Town, 187 feet above mean
sea-level, is identical with that of the air at Greenwich (49°)
at 159 feet above the sea, and it is satisfactory to find that
the observations hitherto made agree perfectly with this
hypothesis. Although, as we have already stated, the ex-
periments are by no means concluded, it may be convenient
to tabulate the results hitherto obtained. Being impressed
with the high importance of accurate knowledge of the
rate and amount of seasonal change in the shaft, Mr. Symons
designed, and Mr. Casella (aided in part by Messrs. Silver &

cased 5 inches thick in felt and non-conducting materials,
and enclosed in an ebonite box, as in the annexed section ;
the non-conducting powers of this instrument were such that
on one occasion it was raised into the observing-room show-
ing a temperature of 51°14, and after being in a tempera-
ture of 60° for thirty-five minutes it had only risen 0°-02.
By this means it was therefore possible to bring up the exact temperature of
any required depth, uninfluenced by the warmer or colder strata through
which it might have to pass. It was regularly observed for some time during
the present spring, and the following readings obtained :—

were experimented on. Sir W. Thomson’s is that which is designated ‘No. 9645. A
mercurial maximum thermometer, on Professor Phillips’s plan, enclosed in a strong outer
tube containing a little spirit of wine, and hermetically sealed, ”

Increase, April 3 to June 11,
0:89 or 0°-013 per diem.

186 REPORT—1869.
«Temperature by Insulated Thermometer 100 feet below Surface.
Increase
per diem.
“1869, April 3 na ole :
ae CEE eeataee eco
“nae setae hh Pho ly: Sai 0-011
pe ed eivrgggs Depangees aie
general ig Heine ee
ay tf OE OO 1.094.
“epaaales age oe ee ee OinaT
5 eral oa Oren. 0-011
ee a .. 51-92 “""" __ 9.003
» dune 4 ae epee eer +0-025 |
- pipet Polen es 2 hl

«The main results of the experiments in the bore-tube are shown in the

Depth
of

rain.

Depth to
surface of
water
in tube.

ft. in.

210 0

208 6 (a)
210 6

209 6
210 0 (2)

2219 0 (c)
211 0

209 0
210 0

210 6
210 6 (d)

210 6

50 |Jan. 8.| 49:2 ; ‘ 468 38:2
00 |) -11B-{it SBD aofolle Reh INE Ropes rf ABBA BO
150 9907 222 | eb 15 030 46:8 36:0
200 3): 2 29: |. 90° 2-4 048 43:0 318
250 |Feb. 5.| 56-0 01 002 48-4 39°5
300 go 12. |e tod 0-0 000 49:4 42-3
350 eM fee filer 2-0 040 48:2 39-2
400 Seb. |S SeL 1-0 020 46:5 36:8
450 |Mar. 5.) 59:1 at ‘oon | 465 | 852
500 SelZ.| 500.2 08 016 45:8 35:2
550 es? "6L:0 0-2 004. 44:0 34:8
600 Saez. |MeCG Nes 02 04 445 376
650 sted '| te GL: 1-4 028 43:0 349
700 |April 3.| 628 ae ‘12 | 436 | 360
750 By AZ.) .63°4 0-8 O16 54-0 37°3
800 3 li.|' 642 0-8 ‘O16 54-4 46-2
850 » 24.) 65:0 0:8 016 52:4 40:8
900 » 30.| 65°8 0-9 018 56-2 40°6
950 May "ie 66°7 i] ‘1 022 53:8 43°5
1000 4d 658 12 024 54:2 45-4
1050 ero. OaO ‘a 55:2 44-2

1070 » 24.1 69:3 ae ou
1085* | ,, 28.| 69°6 M3 rs 58-0 47-2
1085* |June 4.) 69°8 0-7 01 ry 56:0 43:0
TLOO* Seis ee 69-7 1-0 -020 61:9 485

LIOOe |; Ls: 70:0 3

RemARKS.

“‘(a) First observation in the water.
**(b) Water becomes muddy.

“(c) This water-measurement seems erroneous.
“(d) On attempting to lower the thermometers to 1100 feet, found the mud supported
them, and the cord became slack. The observations to which an asterisk is attached were
obtained by leaving the cord so slack as to allow the thermometers to bury themselves in
the mud; but there is much risk in attempting to withdraw them.”

ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 187

* Assuming 49° as the surface-temperature, and adopting 70° as the tem-
perature at 1100 feet, we find, for the mean rate of increase downwards,
*0191° per foot, or 1° for 52:4 feet.

« Comparing the first observation in the water (56°) with the temperature
at the bottom (70°), the mean rate of increase comes out °0165, or 1° for
60°6 feet.

' «During the remainder of the present year the repetition of the observa-
tions will be continued, and it is hoped the influence of seasonal changes will
be measured and eliminated. In conclusion, we have to acknowledge the
liberality of the New River Company in allowing Mr. Symons unreserved
access to their grounds, and permission to erect the necessary apparatus,
which has been efficiently protected by their servants. ”

I desire to say, in reference to the foregoing Report, that the length of
time which Mr. Symons found it necessary to interpose between his observa-
tions is a peculiar circumstance of which I can at present offer no sufficient
explanation, and I cannot help thinking that it might be obviated by some
modification of the arrangements. Mr. M‘Farlane, in three different bores,
has found 15 minutes amply sufficient to give the correct temperature. Can
the difference be owing to the greater size and smoothness of the bore in this
instance offering less resistance to vertical currents ?

As regards the first 210 feet, being the portion occupied by air, it is not
surprising that the influence of season should here be perceptible, seeing
that the well is 8 feet in diameter. The temperature of the air in an open-
ing of this size, even for the average of the year, cannot be taken to represent
that of the solid earth at the same depth, but will doubtless be found to be
intermediate between the latter and the mean temperature of the exter-
nal air.

The Rey. Dr. Graham (Member of the Committee) has taken observa-
tions in a bore at Logie Works, near Dundee, through the kindness of the
proprietors, Messrs. Edwards, from whom he received much assistance. The
bore was available to the depth of 640 feet, and was described, before the
observations, as being filled nearly to the surface with water, in which there
was no perceptible motion. Much difficulty was experienced from the shak-
ing down of the detached column of mercury in the thermometer ; but this
was at length obviated by fixing the thermometer horizontally in a hollow
cup in a piece of hard wood, which had a hinged glass cover to permit of
reading the indications, provision being made for the free circulation of the
water, and a weight being attached to the bottom to act as sinker. The
temperatures observed were exceedingly anomalous, being about 10° greater
at 100 feet than at 50 feet, then increasing to the depth of about 400 feet, and
afterwards decreasing to the bottom. Dr. Graham states that he and his
assistant observers were convinced that the water which filled the bore was
obtained at the depth of about 170 feet, and that while one portion rose to

the surface, another and smaller flowed downwards and escaped through the
lower strata.

Mr. John Hunter, Assistant to the Professor of Chemistry, Queen’s Col-
lege, Belfast, has taken a few observations in two shafts, sunk with a view
to salt-mining, at high ground near Carrickfergus. In both of them the
water stood only to the depth of a few feet. It was found that the tempera-
ture of the air within the shafts increased downwards, at any one time, with
tolerable uniformity, but varied greatly with the weather. The shafts were
kept constantly closed by boarded covers, except during the actual process
of observing. The temperature of the water at the bottom, which is as-

188 REPORT—1869.

sumed to represent pretty accurately the temperature of the soil at the same
depth, was 62°-4 in Dunerue shaft at the depth of 570 feet (observed No-
vember 7, 1868), and 66° in Mr. Dalway’s new shaft at the depth of 770
feet (observed November 14, 1868). Assuming 48° as the mean surface-
temperature, the increase of temperature downwards would be at the rates
of 1° in 40 feet and 1° in 43 feet respectively. The soil in both cases was
yellow clay.

Mr. David Burns, of H.M. Geological Survey, now stationed at Allendale
near Carlisle, has taken observations in that neighbourhood, which he thus
describes :—*‘ The first shaft I tried is over 50 fathoms in depth, and is
about half full of water. It is situated on the summit of a ridge a few
yards distant from a fault of some 900 feet throw. The flow, or rather
change, of water in it, from these or other causes, is considerable, as is
shown by the temperature. The result of my observations may be put
thus :—

“«« After a period of drought—

feet,

“ Depth 160 Temperature 47:5
», 200 £ 47
» 200 4 47-7
” 300 ” 47-7

«The minimum temperature is at 200 feet. This reading may be relied on,
as I repeated the observation to make sure of it. Perhaps at this level lies
the chief feeder of water.

“Shortly after heavy rains—

feet.

* Depth 160 Temperature 47
» 200 " 47:5
sal aU Re 47-3
Bs} 0) : 47:3”

Mr. Burns goes on to relate his unsuccessful attempts to take observations
in two other shafts, which turned out to be closed, probably by platforms, at
a depth of several feet below the surface of the water.

In concluding this Report, I would beg to direct attention to a valuable
summary of observations of underground temperature at great depths con-
tributed by Mr. Hull to the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Science’ for January
1868, from which the following Table of results has been condensed :—

Depth, Temperature at Average rate

in bottom, in of
feet. degrees Fahr. increase.
a feet.

Puits de Grenelle, near Paris ...... 1794:6 81:95 1 for 59
Boring at Neu Salzwerk, Westphalia. 2281 91-04 1 ,, 54°68
Boring near Genevaree ten eet. ot. Fay B Sirs ee Se
Boring at Mendorff, Luxemburg .... 2394 Me i Vegeta 397
Monkwearmouth Colliery.......... 1499 ue, ees 60)
Rose Bridge Colliery, near Wigan .. 1800 80 LO SOS
Astley Pit, Dukenfield, Cheshire .... 2040 75D Le SS 5-o

Mr. Hull strongly insists on the necessity of observations at greater
depths. He gives reasons for maintaining that, at depths exceeding 2000

i ea tar. =

ON KENT'S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 189

feet, no water would be found in ordinary Coal-measure strata, and offers a
recommendation in the following terms :—

«« After much consideration, the plan which we venture to recommend, in
ease of experiments being undertaken by the British Association, or any
other scientific society, would be, not to commence at the surface, but at
the bottom of a coal-mine, of not less depth than 600 yards.

‘There are several collieries, particularly in Lancashire and Cheshire,

sufficiently deep for the purpose. It would be an easy matter to excavate a

chamber in the coal and its roof, where the borings might be carried on. The
chamber ought to be a short distance from the bottom of one of the shafts,
and out of the way of mining-operations. As the process of boring pro-
gressed, observations should be taken at every 10 yards, and at every change
of strata, from sandstone to shale or coal. The boring might be carried
down at least to a total depth of 1000 yards from the surface, and having
been completed under proper supervision, could not fail to give results of
value to science. It is also probable that a proprietor of some colliery of
the required depth would willingly afford the facilities for carrying on the
experiment, for the sake of the information he would derive regarding the
minerals underlying the coal-seam then being worked.”

With respect to this recommendation, I may say, in the name of the Com-
mittee, that they consider it very valuable, and would gladly avail them-
selves of any opportunity of carrying it out, so far as the funds at their
disposal permit.

Fifth Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire.
The Committee consisting of Sir Cuartes Lysti, Bart., F.R.S.,
Professor Puituirs, F.R.S., Sir Jonn Lussock, Bart., F.R.S.,
Joun Evans, F.R.S., E. Vivian, Grorce Busk, F.R.S., Witt1am
Boyp Dawkins, F.R.S., and Witu1am PencE.ty, F.R.S. (Reporter).

Brrore commencing the Report of their researches during the last twelve
months, the Committee beg to call attention to a few facts connected with
branches of the Cavern explored in previous years.

In their Third Report, presented to the Association at Dundee in 1867,
they stated that in a part of that branch of the Cavern termed the “ Vesti-
bule,” there was beneath the Stalagmitic Floor, and generally in direct con-
tact with its nether surface, alayer of black soil, known as the “ Black Band,”
which varied from 2 to 6 inches in thickness, covered an area of about 100
square feet, and at its nearest approach was 32 feet from the northern en-
trance of the Cavern. They also stated that this Black Band contained a large
amount of charcoal, and that in it had been found 366 flint implements,
flakes, cores, and chips; a bone harpoon or fish-spear, and a bone awl; and
numerous bones and teeth of extinct and recent animals, some of which were
partially charred. They further remarked that were they to speculate re-
specting the probable interpretation of the Black Band—bearing in mind its
very limited area, its position near one of the entrances of the Cavern and
within the influence of the light entering thereby, its numerous bits of char-
coal and of burnt bones, its bone tools and its very abundant, keen-edged,
unworn, and brittle chips and flakes of whitened flint,—they might be tempted
to conclude that they had not only identified the Cavern as the home of an

190 REPORT—1869.

early British family, but the Vestibule as the particular apartment where they
enjoyed the pleasures of their own fireside, cooked and ate their meals, and
fashioned flint nodules and bones into implements for war, for the chase, and
for domestic use*.

To the foregoing description of the Black Band and its locality, it may be
added that, even during very wet seasons, that part of the Cavern is very little
exposed to drip from the roof.

It may not be out of place to state here that, in order to ascertain to what
extent the light penetrating the entrance of the Cavern was available, one of
the Superintendents of the exploration placed himself near the centre of the
Black-Band area, and found that without any artificial light he could distinctly

_see to write a letter and to read ordinary print.

But whilst the Committee have seen no reason to abandon or to modify
their interpretation of the Black Band, and whilst it has been generally ac-
cepted by those who by personal inspection have made themselves familiar
with the phenomena of the Cavern, they have found that by one very able
and experienced observer it has been regarded with some amount of scepti-
cism, on the ground that the smoke of a fire in the Cavern would either suffo-
cate or expel the inhabitants; that, in short, the interpretation was incon-
sistent, since it supposed the Cavern to have been inhabited under conditions
which would render it uninhabitable.

To test the force of this objection, six large faggots of wood were piled ina
heap and set on fire, as nearly as possible on the centre of the area which the
Black Band had occupied. The fire burnt brilliantly and threw out large
tongues of flame, which licked the roof, whilst a party of five persons, without
the least inconvenience from smoke or any other cause, sat on the rocky
sides of the Cavern and watched the experiment. They were unanimous in
the opinion that the objection that was thus put on its trial was utterly in-
valid. It may be mentioned, too, that the temperature of the Cavern is per-
manent, and stands by night and by day, in summer and in winter, at about
52° Fahr., or half a degree above the mean annual temperature of the district
in which Kent’s Hole is situated. Hence it may be concluded that, unless
the Black Band represents a period when the mean temperature of South
Devon was considerably below that which at present obtains, large fires would
not have been needed. Artificial heat would have been required, not to make
the Cavern tenantable, but perhaps for culinary purposes only.

Before quitting this subject, it may be stated that the smoke drifted to-
wards the interior of the Cave, and that one of the party, who from time to
time passed all round the fire and to various distances from it, reported that
in the narrower adjacent ramifications it was oppressive.

Soon after the Meeting at Norwich in 1868, Mr. Boyd Dawkins, a member
of the Committee, intimated his intention of visiting Torquay for the purpose
of examining and naming the remains of the Cave-animals which had been
collected during the exploration. It has been stated in previous Reports
that, from the beginning, a separate box has been appropriated to the speci-
mens found in each distinct “ yard” of deposit, that is, in each parallelopiped
of Cave-earth a yard in length and a foot in breadth and in depth, that
with each set of specimens was packed a numbered label, and that the
Secretary recorded in his daily Journal full information respecting the
precise position of the objects thus numerically defined, as well as the date on
which they were exhumed. It may be added that, as soon as the specimens

* Report Brit. Assoc. 1867, p. 32.

ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 191

were cleaned and packed, the boxes were stowed away in a room set apart
for them, the door was locked, and the Secretary never parted with the key.
It is obvious that the number of boxes of specimens waiting for examination
was equal to the number of “ yards” in which fossils have been found. On
the 3lst of December, 1868, this number was 3948; and though it is true
that some of the boxes contained no more than a single bone, it is also true
that in many of them there were upwards of a hundred; hence it will be
seen that the task Mr. Dawkins had before him possessed Herculean dimen-
sions. When he began his examination, there must have been in store for
him more than 50,000 bones; and though many of them were unidentifiable
chips merely, every one had to pass under review.

In order that this gigantic labour might be somewhat facilitated, the Secre-
tary commenced to unpack each box, and to write on every specimen it con-"
tained the number written on the accompanying label. While thus engaged,
on the 24th of September, 1868, with the box labelled 1847, he found amongst
its contents what appeared at first to be merely a very small bone, the greater
part of which was covered with a film of stalagmite. On being touched, the
investment fell off (a very common occurrence in the case of similar speci-
mens after having been washed and dried), and the object proved to be a por-
tion of a bone needle, having its point broken off but retaining its perfect
and well-formed eye. This part had been concealed and, happily, protected
by the calcareous covering. The remnant is about ‘85 inch long and is
slightly taper. Its section at right angles to its longest axis is subelliptical,
resembling that of a modern bodkin rather than that of a needle. Its greater
diameter-at the larger end is about -075 inch, and at the smaller -05 inch;
hence, assuming it to have been symmetrical in form and to have terminated
in a point, its original length must have been 2°55 inches. There are nume-
rous fine longitudinal striz on its surface, suggesting that it had been scraped
into form. The Secretary’s daily journal shows that it was exhumed on the
4th of December, 1866, and that it belonged to the Black Band beneath the
Stalagmitic Floor.

Since its discovery it has unfortunately been broken, the line of fracture
passing through the eye. Before the accident it had been seen by several
members of the Committee and by many other persons. The parts have been
very carefully and firmly reunited. The eye was capable of carrying a thread
about three-eightieths of an inch in diameter, or about the thickness of fine
twine.

On November 26th, 1868, while still engaged in preparing the specimens
for Mr. Boyd Dawkins, the Secretary had the good fortune to detect, under
precisely similar conditions, in the box labelled 2206, a bone “ harpoon” or
fish-spear barbed on one side only. When dug out of the deposit it was in
two pieces, one of which was almost, and the other completely, encrusted
with stalagmite. Indeed the latter was regarded as a pipe of stalactite, and
as such was preserved. It is recorded in the Secretary’s journal that it was
disinterred on the 7th of March, 1867, in the Vestibule, in the first or upper-
most foot-level of Cave-earth, beneath the Black Band, which was 4 inches
thick, and which was covered with a Stalagmitic Floor varying from 12 to
20 inches in thickness, and that this, again, was overlaid with Black Mould
containing pre-Roman and Romano-British objects.

The fact that remains of the extinct Cave-bear, Hyzna, and Rhincceros
have been met with not only i the Stalagmitic Floor just mentioned, but
quite at its upper surface, must be borne in mind when attempting to form
an estimate of the chronology of the needle and “harpoon” just described.

192 REPORT—1869.

Besides the foregoing, there was found during the preparatory examination,
_ In the box numbered 2067, a canine of a Badger, the fang of which had been
cut or otherwise reduced to a wedge-like form, and perforated obliquely as if
for the purpose of being strung. It was exhumed on February 4th, 1867, in
the “ Vestibule” in the second foot-level of Cave-earth, which is believed to
have been intact ; but as the overlying Stalagmite had been broken up and
removed by the earlier explorers, the Superintendents do not feel perfect
confidence in the trustworthiness of its position.

The foregoing are the only objects of peculiar interest which have been re-
cently detected among the specimens collected by the Committee, prior to the
last Meeting of the Association, from the deposits beneath the Stalagmitic
Floor. i

There have been found, however, two noteworthy objects, among those which
had been met with in the Black Mould overlying the Stalagmite, and which,
therefore, can have no pretensions to great antiquity. The first is a bone
needle, by no means so elegantly designed or so highly finished as that just
described. Its proportions also are such as to secure for it great strength, and
to enable it to carry a thread or cord of considerable size.

The second object is a ring, apparently of Kimmeridge Coal, or some kin-
dred substance. The diameter of the greater circle is upwards of an inch,
and of the inner one about half an inch. The annulus is about -2 inch thick
at its inner edge, and both surfaces are uniformly bevelled to a line at the
outer edge. Its breadth is not uniform, as the circles are not concentric.

Researches during the year 1868-69.—During the year which has elapsed
since the Meeting at Norwich in 1868, the Committee have, with very slight
modifications to be noticed hereafter, conducted the excavation on the method
described in detail in their First Report (Birmingham, 1865); the Superin-
tendents have continued their daily visits to the Cavern; the Secretary has
recorded in his daily journal such facts as have presented themselves ; monthly
Reports have been regularly forwarded to the Chairman of the Committee ; the
workmen have continued to be interested in their work, which they have per-
formed with great zeal and integrity ; the interest felt by the general public in
the progress of the investigation has suffered no diminution; and the arrange-
ments for the admission of visitors, which in previous years worked so satis-
factorily for all parties, have in all cases been carried out.

Since the last Report was sent in, the Superintendents have had the plea-
sure of showing the Cavern and explaining the operations to the Queen of the
Netherlands and her suite, the Right Honourable Sir George Grey, the Right
Honourable John Bright, and several Members of the British Association,
including Sir W. Tite, Mr. G. Griffith (Assistant General Secretary), Pro-
fessor Tyndall, Mr. W. A. Sanford, Mr. W. Froude, Mr. J. E. Lee, Mr. 8. R.
Pattison, and others.

Mr. Everett, who is about to proceed to Borneo to explore some of the
caverns in that island under the auspices of the Raja of Sarawak, recently
spent two days (July 31st and August 2nd) in Kent’s Hole, accompanied by
one of the Superintendents, for the purpose of studying the operations in de-
tail. It may be hoped that the British Association has in this way been able
to render valuable aid to the Committee who have undertaken the important
work of cavern exploration in the far east.

The South-west Chamber.—In the Fourth Report (1868) the Committee stated
that they were occupied in excavating that portion of the Cavern termed the
«‘ South-west Chamber,” which, so far as was then known, was the last or
’ most south-westerly branch of the Eastern Series of Chambers and Galleries.

= gemma

ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSIIIRE. 193

They added that the portion of the Chamber which they had reached was
completely closed with an enormous accumulation of Stalagmite, so that it
was not possible to form a correct estimate of the size of the apartment, that
it was probably much larger than was then supposed, that the only known
communication between the Eastern and the Western Divisions of the Cavern
was the Vestibule at its opposite or north-eastern end, and that the Super-
intendents inclined to the opinion that a passage would be found opening out
of the South-west Chamber, which would form a second channel of communi-
cation between the two Divisions. Respecting the deposits, the Fourth
Report stated that, in the eastern part of the Chamber, they were :—first, or
uppermost, Stalagmitic Floor, commonly of granular structure; second, the
ordinary Cave-earth, with flint implements and the usual Cave-mammals ;
third, an Old Floor of Stalagmite of great thickness, and of a peculiar crys-
talline structure ; fourth, or lowest, a Rock-like Breccia, in which fragments
of grit, not derivable from the Cavern hill, were abundant, and which, though
replete with remains of the Cave-bear, had neither bones nor any other indi-
cations of Hyena, Rhinoceros, or other prevalent Cave-species. It was added
that in proceeding westward the Cave-earth had thinned out and entirely
disappeared, so that the two Stalagmites, between which was its proper place,
rested one immediately on the other.

Soon after that Report was presented, the Committee found that a few feet
beyond the point where they had lost the Cave-earth, it once more appeared
in the section, occupying its accustomed position between the Stalagmites,
resting on the Old crystalline mass, and overlaid with that which is granular
and comparatively modern. It proved to be merely an insulated patch in
contact with the northern wall of the Chamber, along which it extended for
a distance of 11 feet. Its maximum breadth was 64 feet, and depth 32 inches.
No sooner did it enter the section than it brought with it the characteristic
flint and chert implements, teeth of hyena, mammoth, and fox, and gnawed
bones.

Three of the implements deserve more than a brief mention, as they are
very fine specimens, belong to different types, and can scarcely be said to be
represented by any previously met with in the Cavern.

The first (No. ma*) is of a dull light grey colour on the surface, but of
an undecided black within. In form it is a trapezoid closely approaching a
rectangle, but having the angles somewhat rounded off. It is about 4 inches
in length, 23 inches in breadth, and -8 of an inch in greatest thickness. It
is worked to an edge along the entire margin, and has apparently seen some
service as a scraper. With it were found a portion of a chert implement, a
molar of bear, molar of hyena, four other teeth, a gnawed bone, and several
small fragments of bone.

The second implement (No. 3918) is a beautifully white flint of porcella-
nous aspect. Its form is not easy to describe, but it may perhaps be said to
be rudely subovoid. Its extreme length is about 3:9 inches, breadth 2:5,
and depth 7 inch. It is flat on one face, and from a point near the centre
of the other side is unequally fined off to an edge all round the perimeter.

The third (No. 3922) is of the same kind of flint as the second. Lvery
part of its surface is elaborately chipped. It is flat on one side, uniformly
rounded on the other, and worked to an edge all round its circumference. It
may be described as a canoe-shaped implement, or a long, narrow, pointed,

* 3912, the denominator, is the number of the box or series of specimens ; 1, the nume-
rator, is the number of the specimen in the series ; and so on in other cases.—W. P.
tt)

194 REPORT—1869,

nearly symmetrical semiellipsoid, the principal diameters of which are 4°7
inches, 1-3 inch, and -6 inch. There were found with it several teeth of
hyzena, bear, and fox, and a small quartz crystal.

The Caye-earth in which these specimens were found was completely sealed
up with the ordinary overlying floor of stalagmite, which, though never
quite a foot thick, was at its upper surface almost everywhere in contact
with the limestone ceiling of the Chamber, and was nowhere separated from
it by an interspace of more than 3 or 4 inches.

The same sections, continued across the Chamber towards its southern
wall, successively and uniformly showed that, beyond the patch just men-
tioned, they contained no Caye-earth, but were made up of one undivided
huge accumulation of Stalagmite, every accessible part of which apparently
belonged to the Old crystalline Floor, and rested on the Rock-like Breccia.
The two, conjoined, not only filled the Chamber, but there was nothing to
show that the Stalagmite did not extend upwards to the external surface of
the hill. There was no trace of limestone visible ; and the workmen had to
hew their way through two kinds of material, each more intractable than
any ordinary rock, and manfully they addressed themselves to their pro-
tracted toil, feeling some gratification in the fact that every inch they ad-
vanced was so much added to what had been previously supposed the entire
extent of the Cavern.

With some reluctance, it was decided to abandon the practice of breaking
up the entire mass of Stalagmite. The men were directed to remove the
lower or basal portion of it only, to excavate the underlying Breccia to the
depth of five feet instead of four, which from the beginning to this time
had been the invariable practice, to leave the upper and greater part of the
Stalagmite intact overhead, and to cut a tunnel beneath it, laying bare
the limestone wall of the Cavern on each side.

The Stalagmite, as well as much of the Breccia, could only be removed
with the aid of gunpowder; and considerable care and judgment were
required in order that the remains of bear which both contained, and with
which the latter was crowded, should be injured as little as possible.

The Committee have remarked in previous Reports that, on account of its
comparatively loose texture, stalagmite is blasted with great difficulty. All,
however, that the workmen had previously experienced in this way was in-
considerable in comparison with what they have encountered during the
last twelve months. In addition to the usual difficulties, there were others
arising from the existence of cayities in the mass, one of which had a ca-
pacity of upwards of a cubic yard, into which the boring tool would unex-
pectedly plunge to inform the men that their labour had been in vain. Not
unfrequently a hole which had been bored with great labour, and appeared
to be quite satisfactory, would prove to be incapable of being fired on ac-
count of its rapidly filling with water, which oozed through the Stalagmite
as through a sponge.

The Crypt of Dates—The Western Division of the Cavern, no part of which
has yet been explored by the Committee, bifurcates towards its south-
western extremity, and, so far as is at present known, terminates in two ca-
pacious chambers, termed the “Cave of Inscriptions” and the “ Bears’
Den.” From the north-east corner of the latter, there extends a narrow
gallery between almost vertical limestone walls. The greater part of it was,
from time immemorial, occupied by a pool or “ Lake” of water about 20
feet long, 8 feet broad, and of unknown depth. It was commonly regarded
as the end of the Cavern, and was separated from the Bears’ Den by a consi-

= -s* -. -

ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 195

derable mound of Stalagmite. This Lake has called forth much speculation.
Mr. Northmore believed the Cavern, of which he was the earliest explorer,
to have been a temple of Mithras, and he spoke of the water as “the bap-
tismal lake of ‘pellucid water’’’*. Others have occupied themselves with
guesses respecting the source whence the Lake received its supply, and the
mode by which it was kept from overflowing. Some held that it was fed
by a small perennial spring; others that it was replenished by the drip
from the roof only ; whilst a third party contended that there was neither
waste nor supply, and that the water ebbed and flowed synchronously with
the tides of the ocean.

It is said that one adventurous visitor climbed along its northern or least
precipitous side from one end to the other; but, according to the current
belief, those who gained the further end usually did so by swimming.
They all are said to have brought back the report that the Cavern extended
“a yery little way beyond the water” Mr. M‘Enery, speaking of the
water, says, “the Cave beyond it deserves no particular notice; Admiral
Sartorius and others haye swam across ’’.

From the direction and length of the passages leading to them, it was
obvious that the Bears’ Den and Lake could not be far removed from the
South-west Chamber. In this opinion the Superintendents were confirmed
by the fact that when, from time to time, they visited the Den during the
progress of the excavation of the Chamber, they heard the sound of the work-
men’s tools with great distinctness, and increasingly so as the work ad-
vanced, until at length their voices were heard, and ultimately conversation
could be carried on, by means of shouting, however, rather than talking.
Finally, on removing the Modern granular Stalagmitic Floor in the north-
west corner of the Chamber, where it was in contact with the limestone roof,
a hole, about 3 inches across, and extending obliquely upwards, was dis-
closed in the limestone, and it was observed that a current of air occa-
sionally passed through it alternately in opposite directions. The workmen
were directed to enlarge the hole by breaking away the limestone, and to
ascertain whither it led. As soon as it was of sufficient dimensions, the
younger workman, John Farr, ascended through it, and after a short time
returned, stating that from the hole he entered a somewhat tortuous pas-
sage, having an easterly direction through the limestone, and so narrow and
low that it could only be traversed by lying prostrate, and adopting a ver-
micular motion ; that after a few feet he entered a longer passage in which it
was possible to turn round and, in some places, to stand erect; that this
second passage had a north and south direction, extending both ways a few
feet only beyond the point at which he had entered it; that the inner or
northern end was closed with stalagmite, on which he observed “ writing,”
and that it terminated southward on the end of the Lake most remote from
the Bears’ Den.

Farr’s report induced the other workman, George Smerdon, and one of the
Superintendents, to follow his steps, when they found his description to be cor-
rect in all respects. It was further observed that the floor of the longer or north
and south passage was entirely composed of stalagmite, and was, in fact, the
upper surface of the mass beneath which they had begun to tunnel, and the
greater part of which, on account of its enormous thickness and its intracta-
bility, they had reluctantly decided to leave intact. At the inner end
this floor rose in the form of a steep irregular talus, on which, as well as on

* See Trans. Devon. Assoc. vol, ii, p. 479-495 (1868),

+ Ibid. vol. iii. p. 242 (1869). vs
02

196 REPORT—1868.

the walls of the crypt, was the “ writing” of which John Farr had spoken.
This proved to be a series of initials and dates, amounting, probably, to up-
wards of a hundred, inscribed on the Stalagmite. Amongst the dates are
those of 1744, 1728, 1702, and 1618. In several cases the scribes cut the
figure of a square, and inscribed their initials within it.

Inscriptions in more accessible parts of the Cavern have long been well
known. The most famous is the following in the “Cave of Inscriptions :”’—
“ Robert Hedges of Ireland, Feb. 20, 1688,” which there is good reason to
believe is really as old as it professes to be, thus rendering it not improba-
ble that those discovered in the crypt are genuine also.

In looking at those dates, it seems impossible to abstain from reflecting on
the facts that they are cut on the upper surface of a mass of stalagmite up-
wards of 12 feet thick, in a locality where the drip is unusually copious ;
and that two and a half centuries have failed to precipitate an amount of
calcareous matter sufficient to obliterate incisions which at first were proba-
bly not more than an eighth of an inch in depth.

It is scarcely necessary to observe that if the Stalagmite had been entirely
broken up, as was at first intended, the inscriptions would have been de-
stroyed with it; or that the discovery of them confirmed the decision to re-
move no more of the nether surface of the floor than would suffice to give
the workmen sufficient height for their labour.

The Lake.—As the workmen advanced steadily towards the south-west,
every step rendered it more and more probable that a passage would be laid
open, leading out of the South-west Chamber in the precise direction of the
Lake, and thus furnished an additional motive for tunnelling beneath the
floor, in order that the Lake-basin might be preserved.

The removal of the Breccia, and of that part of the Stalagmite immediately
above it, disclosed the fact, with which, indeed, the Superintendents were
already familiar, that stalagmite is by no means impervious to water. In-
creased proximity to the Lake rendered this not only more and more patent,
but augmented the difficulty of blasting the mass, and caused the labour to
be one of great discomfort. It was therefore found necessary to tap the
Lake to allow the water to escape. As soon as it was sufficiently dry, the
workmen were directed to remove and examine carefully such deposits as
might be found lying on the Stalagmitic Floor of the basin. They proved to
be, first, or uppermost, the Modern Floor of Stalagmite ; second, the ordinary
Cave-earth, beneath which was the Old Crystalline Stalagmite of great
thickness.

The Stalagmitic Floor, overlying the Caye-earth, was from 10 to 12 inches
thick. It was finely laminated, and was soil-stained throughout; but, ex-
cept at the ends of the basin and along its northern side, where portions of
it remained i sitwin a coherent but brittle condition, it was everywhere
resolved into an almost impalpable paste, which, on being subjected to hy-
drochloric acid, rapidly effervesced and left very little residuum. A heap of
this paste thrown outside the Cayern has, on exposure to the weather, hard-
need into a coherent mass.

In this pulpy mass were found numerous objects, none of which were of
much interest, as the following list shows :— ,

_1. Extemporized wooden candlesticks, such as are commonly used by
those who visit the Cavern.

2. Pieces of candle.

3. Stems and bowls of clay tobacco-pipes, one of the former being un-
usually large.

ON KEN'T’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 197

4. Bottles of various kinds—wine, lemonade, and ginger-beer; some
entire, but most of them broken.
. Wine and other glasses, all broken.
. Fragments of earthenware and china cups.
. Numerous sticks and branches of trees ; many of them charred,
. A tin sconce.
- A small iron claw-hammer.
. The handle of a hammer.

11. A clasp-knife, shut.

12. A two-foot rule, closed.

13. The plate of a child’s iron spade.

14. A wooden ink-bottle (?).

15. An oyster-shell.

16. A pecten-shell, apparently used to hold some kind of paint,

17. A wooden spatula.

18. A wooden tally, having the initials W. R. cut on it.

19, A well-squared block of wood, above 5 inches long and broad, and
2# inches thick.

20. A wooden cover of a salting-pan, or of a small furnace.

21. A portion of a stout iron chain, 44 inches long, consisting of twenty-
four links and a swivel, and having a padlock at one end.

22. Numerous broken stalactites, pap-like stalagmites, pebbles, and blocks
of limestone.

Many of the objects (such as the candles, candlesticks, bottles, glasses, &c.)
present no difficulty. They were, no doubt, thrown into the Lake in frolic,
or by those who did not care to carry them further after they had ceased to
be of service. Others (such as the knife, foot-rule, hammer, &c.) were probably
dropped unintentionally ; and the cover of a salting-pan or furnace, as well as
the block of wood, may have been used to float candles by the curious.
It does not seem easy, however, to account for the chain. It is not an ob-
ject likely to have been useful during visits to the Cavern, nor is it such as
people commonly carry about with them. The pebbles were thrown in,
perhaps, in order to the formation of an opinion respecting the depth of the
water ; and the larger stones probably for the same purpose, or perhaps to
be used as stepping-stones by those who desired to traverse the Lake.

It is perhaps worthy of remark that there are no medieval or ancient
objects; nor any such as might have been cast in as votive offerings by
people who regarded the water with religious veneration.

Mr. M‘Enery seems to haye believed that there were probably objects of
interest in the Lake; he says, “ We ought to rake it out” *.

In the underlying Cave-earth in the Lake there were found a fragment of
an elephant’s jaw containing a perfect molar, the finest specimen of the kind
with which the labours of the Committee have been rewarded; a molar of a
horse; several more or less perfect bones, including a humerus, an ulna, a
scapula, and radii; and a fragment of a large horn-core.

That the Lake was supplied with water by infiltrations through the roof
exclusively there is now no manner of doubt, and that some portion of it
oozed away through the Stalagmite composing the bottom of the basin is no
less certain. The mechanism, however, which rendered it impossible for the
Lake to be filled to overflowing was, on examination, very patent and interest-
ing. In its left wall, which is almost naked limestone, there is a natural tunnel

ra
SO ONTO Or

* See Trans, Devon. Assoc. yol. iii. p. 242 (1869).

198 REPORT—1869.

or watercourse about 30 inches high and 20 inches wide, the base of which,
at its junction with the Lake, is 8 inches below the highest level to which
the water could rise, and forms an ascensive inclined plane, having an inceli-
nation of 3°, and a length of about 33 feet. Beyond this point the inclina-
tion is in the opposite direction, and is very much more rapid. Beyond a dis-
tance of 18 feet its course has not been traced, but it seems to ramify in
various directions through the limestone. At the common vertex of the two
planes, a diaphragm of stalagmite about 9 inches high and something more
than 1 inch thick, extends quite across the tunnel from wall to wall, having
its upper edge sensibly horizontal, and leaving above it a free open passage
several inches high. It is obvious that whenever the water attained to this
level the Lake was full, and that the surplus flowed over the diaphragm of
stalagmite or natural weir. The fact that this regulated the maximum level of
the water is confirmed by a corresponding and strongly marked high-water
line along the entire boundary of the Lake. It is equally evident that unless
there had been some other means of escape, this height, once reached, would
have been permanent. During protracted droughts, however, the water has
been known to fall upwards of 2 feet below this level—a fact accounted for
by the slow oozing of the water through the Stalagmite.

The entire circumference of the Lake, and especially the almost vertical
limestone wall on the south, is thickly studded with coralloidal tubercles of
arragonite of various sizes, extending from the high-water to the low-water
line. Indeed, they occur quite to the bottom of the Lake, but are less
abundant than in the zone just mentioned.

Many parts of the Cavern present phenomena and problems of interest to
the physicist as well as to the anthropologist and paleontologist. Thus, to
go no further than the Lake, there are :—first, the facts that, at one period,
the water entering through the limestone roof formed a floor by precipi-
tating carbonate of lime, and that subsequently water, finding access through
the same channel and lodging on this very floor, was capable of dissolving it
and reducing it to a mere paste, apparently as calcareous as when it was in
the coherent condition; second, that during the work of destruction, coral-
loidal masses of arragonite were formed on the naked limestone and Old
stalagmitic walls, but chiefly on the former; third, that the water had slowly
increased the capacity of the Lake, by building a weir of stalagmite entirely
across the narrow tunnel which formed its principal outlet ; and, fourth, that
had time been allowed, this latter process must ultimately have closed the
outlet and entirely changed the drainage of the Lake.

From the inscriptions in it, the number of persons who, from time to time,
visited the Crypt of Dates, must have been very great; and every one of
them must have taken the same route, namely, along the entire length of
the Lake. The earliest known mention of the water is that by Polwhele in
1797, in his ‘ History of Devonshire’*, when its condition appears to have
been identical with that in which the Committee found it. Assuming it to
have existed, and in the same state when the inscriptions were cut, the
scribes must have performed the journey by wading through it, by using a
float, by climbing along its almost precipitous northern wall, or by swim-
ming. The last is perhaps the most probable mode; but in either case
they must have provided themselves with the requisite tools and with an
adequate supply of candles. In some cases the work appears to have con-
sumed a considerable amount of time. If, however, it is supposed that at

* The ‘History of Devonshire,’ 3 vols. 1797, vol. i. pp. 50, 51.

ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 199

least most of the inscriptions belong to the time when the upper Stalagmitic
Floor of the Lake was yet undissolved, much of the difficulty will disappear, as
wading would then have been easy—the Stalagmite would have afforded firm
footing, and the depth of the water would not have been very considerable,
even if permanently at the overflowing level, and the weir had been as high
as it is at present.

The Water Gallery—Having completed the excavation of the Lake, the
workmen resumed their tunnelling operations in the recess or passage lead-
ing out of the South-west Chamber in a south-westerly direction, and which,
as had been anticipated, was found to extend beneath the floor of the
basin and along its entire length. To this branch it is proposed to give the
name of ‘The Water Gallery;” and probably no part of the Cavern sur-
passes it in interest or importance.

As might have been expected, the deposit it contained was made up of
the same materials as everywhere else were found beneath the Old Floor
of crystalline Stalagmite—dark red earth ; angular, subangular, and rounded
pieces of grit not derivable from the Cavern hill, but which the neighbour-
ing and loftier Lincombe and Warberry hills can supply ; angular pieces of
limestone, and pieces of stalagmite (some of them of great size), which, of
course, were remnants of a floor more ancient still than the Old crystalline
Floor which lay above the Breccia and below the Cave-earth. The points in
which the Breccia differed from the Cave-earth were the darker colour of
the red soil forming its staple and the much greater prevalence of fragments
of grit. By the latter character alone it is very easy to distinguish the ma-
terials of the two deposits when thrown into the huge mass of refuse which
the workmen have lodged outside the Cavern, especially after exposure to a
shower of rain. Many of the pieces of grit, both angular and rounded,
were of a very dark colour, and some of them had a polished metallic aspect,
somewhat like that of a black-leaded hearthstone. The removal of the
smallest splinter, however, showed that both colour and polish were su-
perficial.

Along a considerable part of the length and breadth of the Water Gallery
the Breccia, instead of being in contact with the nether surface of the Sta-
lagmitic Floor which formed the bottom of the Lake, was separated from it by
a yacuous interspace, sometimes 14 inches deep. It may be described as a
rudely lenticular space, as it was of greatest depth in the middle, and, if
the phrase is allowable, thinned off in every direction. A correct idea of
the complete insulation of this vacuity may be conveyed by stating that if
any animal, however small, could have become its occupant it would have
been a permanent prisoner unless it could have excavated for itself a passage
by which to escape.

Here and there, moreover, the vacuity was interrupted by what may be
called “ outliers” of Breccia, which reached, and were firmly adherent to
the Stalagmite above. In every other part, the ceiling, or lower surface of
the Stalagmite, retained traces of the deposit which had once been in con-
tact with it, and on which, indeed, it had been formed. To it there clung
angular and rounded pieces of rock, blocks of ‘* Older” Stalagmite, and bones,
teeth, and almost entire skulls of the Bear; whilst between them, in the
ceiling, were the cavities once filled by similar objects, but which had fallen
out and were found on the surface of the Breccia beneath. From the ceil-
ing, too, there shot downwards numerous thin pipes of stalactite, of the
thickness and colour of goose-quills, some of which reached the Breccia.
The surface of the latter deposit beneath was here and there covered with

200 REPORT—1869.

patches of modern stalagmite, occasionally incorporating pipes of stalactite,
such as have been just mentioned, which by some means had been broken
off. In fact a modern floor was in process of formation, vertically beneath
the old one, by the agency of water filtering through the latter, and carry-
ing with it the requisite calcareous matter.

As nothing would have been gained by their removal, the objects just
described are left adhering to the ceiling—a fact which induces visitors to
regard the Water Gallery as the most attractive branch of the Cavern.

All that portion of the Breccia which was not more than about a foot
from its upper surface, and about a yard from the south wall of the Gallery,
was invariably cemented into a firm rock-like concrete, but at all lower
levels, and at greater distances from the south wall, it was perfectly in-
coherent. Where it was cemented it was crowded with fossils, but where it
was not, there were none. ‘The former was its almost uniform condition in
the adjacent South-west Chamber and Lecture Hall, where its fossils formed
a very large percentage of the entire mass.

The problem of the severance of the Breccia from the Stalagmite closely
occupied the attention of the Superintendents whilst the excavation of the
Water Gallery was in progress. There appear, ad priori, to be three possi-
ble solutions,—first, that a stream of water had insinuated itself between
the deposit and the floor, and had carried off the detritus which once filled
the interspace ; second, that, through failure of support at the base, the
Breccia had sunk away from the Stalagmite to a slightly lower level; and,
third, that water passing slowly through the floor had carried the finer
particles of the detritus from the top of the Breccia to lower levels, lodging
a portion of them in such interstices as it encountered, and perhaps carrying
off the residue as colouring-matter.

The first is met by the fatal objection that there is no channel, large or
small, either of ingress or egress, for the hypothetical stream, or the matter
it is supposed to have removed.

Since the vacuity was both partial and discontinuous, the second sug-
gested solution requires that the supposed failure at the base should have
had the same characters, and hence that the Breccia should have been
faulted. To this latter point the closest attention was given from first to
last, and no trace of anything like a fault was ever detected.

The third hypothesis presupposes that both the Stalagmite and the Breccia
are permeable by water. On neither of these points is there any doubt.
Water has been seen oozing through this very Stalagmite, and it is well
known that pools which in wet weather are formed on the Breccia dis-
appear in a short time on the cessation of the drip. Indeed, when the Lake
was tapped, the water was led to a depression in the surface of the Breccia
in the South-west Chamber, and in less than a week the greater part of
it had disappeared. There seems to be little doubt that the third is the true
solution of the problem of the severance in the Water Gallery.

The animal remains found in that branch of the Cavern at present under
notice were, so far as is known, exclusively those of Bear; and many of
them are fine specimens, including some splendid canines and molars.
Many of the bones were found broken, and some of them had been certainly
fractured where they lay, as the parts remained in juxtaposition and, indeed,
are reunited by some natural cement. When first exhumed, many of them
were so soft that in cleaning them it was found that a soft brush left its
traces on their surfaces. Exposure to the air hardens them. Some of the
canines have obviously seen considerable service. Many of the molars are

ON KEN'T’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 201

beautifully white and fresh, and it is rarely possible to detect any evidence
of wear on them. This latter fact was noticed by Mr. M‘Enery when
speaking of the Bears’ molars found in a similar deposit in the adjacent
Bears’ }Den ; and was supposed by him to “ intimate that the Bears of those
days were less exclusively frugivorous than the modern species, and lived
partly on flesh ” *.

In their Fourth Report, the Committee, speaking of the deposit under the
Old crystalline Stalagmite, remarked, ‘‘ Up to this time the Rock-like Breccia
has been utterly silent on the question of the existence of Man; it has given
up no tools or chips of flint or bone, no charred wood or bones, no bones
split longitudinally, no stones suggesting that they had been used as ham-
mers or crushers. But whilst they have before them the lessons so empha-
tically taught by their exploration of the Cavern, the Committee cannot but
think that it would be premature to draw at present any inference from this
negative fact ” fT.

The cautiousness inculcated in this passage received its justification on
March 5, 1869, when a flint flake (No. 3991) was discovered in the Breccia
in question in the Water Gallery. The particulars of this discovery were
forwarded to Sir Charles Lyell, Chairman of the Committee, by the Super-
intendents, in the following passage in their Monthly Report, dated April 8,
1869 :—* It was found with portions of the teeth of the Cave-bear, lying
on a loose block of limestone, in contact with the north wall of the Gallery,
in the third foot-level; that is, from 2 to 3 feet below the surface of the
Breccia. A section at right angles to its longest axis would be a scalene
triangle. The face of the flake represented by the smallest side is the
natural surface of the flint nodule from which the specimen was struck.
It required no more than three or, at most, four blows to produce it. On its
larger face the bulb of percussion is well pronounced. It is partially coated
with a thin ferruginous film, occasionally dendritic, and resembling that
which ..... commonly coats the pebbles found in the Breccia. Beneath
this partial envelope it is of a light buff-colour. Its aspect is unlike that of
any implements or flakes found in the Cave-earth. None of its edges can
be said to be keen, yet it does not appear to have been rolled. One well-
rolled small flint pebble occurred in the Breccia in the Gallery.

“Though the flake cannot be regarded as a fine specimen, we think there

is little or no doubt that it was formed by human agency, and assuming
this to be the case, it appears to us to be of very great value, as it
_ was found in a deposit not only older than the ordinary implement-bearing
Cave-earth, but separated from it by the Old Floor, which in some cases was
_ upwards of 12 feet thick, and which is certainly of great thickness imme-
diately above the spot where the flake lay. In fact, it was found in a
deposit which, so far as the Cave evidence goes, was laid down before the
: introduction of that in which were entombed the first traces of the Cave-
hyzena, Cave-lion, Mammoth, and their contemporaries.
___ “ Being impressed with the probably great importance of the discovery, we
_ carefully addressed ourselves to the question, ‘ Did the flake originally belong
_ to the comparatively modern Cave-earth in the Lake above and find its way
through some crevice in the Old Floor which forms the ceiling of the Gallery?’
_ To this important question we are prepared to give a negative reply ; for—
1st. No crevice or hole of any kind is discoverable in either the upper or
lower surface of the ceiling or Old Floor.

* See Trans. Devon. Assoc. vol. iii. p. 366 (1869).
+ Brit. Assoc. Report, 1868, p. 54,

202 REPORT—1869.

«2nd. The flake was not found vertically beneath any part of the Lake, but
fully a yard beyond its nearest margin.

“3rd. It did not lie on the surface of the deposit, but from 2 to 3 feet be-
neath it.

“Ath, If the flake was originally lodged in the Cave-earth found in the Lake,
it must have been the only one deposited there; for when we carefully and
completely emptied the Lake no flint implement was met with.

“5th. If the flake had found its way through the Stalagmite, it might have
been expected that some such bones as were found in the Lake (Horse and
Mammoth, for example) would have descended through the same crevice ; but
instead of this, the remains of the Cave-bear alone are met with in the
Breccia, and teeth of this animal were found in contact with the flake itself.

‘‘ In short, there is no crevice through which the object could have passed ;
if it descended through the floor, it descended alone; and if it did so de-
scend, it ought not to have been where it was found. We haye no hesita-
tion in stating that the flake is of the same age as the Breccia which con-
tained it; and that if our opinion of its human origin is confirmed, it is
anthropologically by far the most important object the Cavern has yielded.”

On June 3rd, 1869, the flake was submitted to Mr. John Evans, F.R.S., a
Member of the Committee. He drew up the following statement, with the
intention that it should be inserted in the present Report :— No. 3991 is
undoubtedly of human workmanship. It is a flake of flint from the Chalk, °
one of the smaller facets of which shows the natural crust of the nodule from
which it was struck. he other external facet shows the characteristic de-
pression arising from the bulb of percussion on the flake previously removed
to form this facet. The flat or internal face of the flake shows a well-deve-
loped bulb, and the large but-end where the blow was struck has been
fashioned by two or three blows. It has therefore taken four or five blows,
cach administered with a purpose in view, to produce this instrument.

“Not only, however, has it been artificially made, but it carries upon it
evidence of having been in use as a tool ; for the edge produced by the inter-
section of the two principal artificial faces is worn away along its entire
length, and exhibits the slightly jagged appearance produced by the breaking
off of the sharp edge, such as I find by experience to result from scraping
bone or other hard substances with the edge of a flint flake.

“ (Signed) John Evans, June 3, 1869.”

Besides the above, a small perfectly angular piece of coarse-grained white
flint (No. 4037«) was discovered in the first foot-level of the Breccia in the
Water Gallery on Friday, April 23, 1869. It has all the aspect of having
been struck off in making an implement.

Having ascertained by careful measurements that a very few feet would
take the workmen into the Bears’ Den, it was decided to excavate the Water
Gallery no further, as it was deemed undesirable to commence the investiga-
tion of the Western Division of the Cavern so long as any branch of the Eastern
Division remained unexplored.

The South Sally-Port—Two long, comparatively narrow, and approxi-
mately parallel galleries extend in a south-easterly direction into the eastern
wall of the Eastern Division of the Cavern, one from the Great Chamber, the
other from the Lecture Hall. They were termed “The Sally-Ports” by Mr.
M‘Enery, who believed that they ultimately led to external openings in the
eastern side of the Cavern hill. On the discontinuation of the excavation of
the Water Gallery, the exploration of the South Sally-Port, opening out of

;

ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 203

the Lecture Hall, was commenced, and at present has been completed to up-
wards of 40 feet from the entrance.

For the first 15 feet there was the ordinary granular Stalagmitic Floor over-
lying the typical Cave-earth, but beyond that point there was no stalagmite,
except a thin and very limited patch in one or two places. At the junction
with the Lecture Hall the floor was 21 inches thick, but it became rapidly
thinner as it extended inward; and for some feet it did not exceed an inch
in thickness.

No part of the Cavern is at present less than this exposed to drip. It may not
be out of place to state here, as a fact of, at least, large generality, and to which
there is no known exception, that in those branches of the Cavern where the
drip is at present very copious the Stalagmitic Floor is of great thickness;
and where the drip is but little, there is either no floor or an extremely thin
one ; that, in short, the present amount of drip in any locality affords a good
index of the thickness of the floor there, so that the external drainage of the
Cavern hill appears to have undergone no change for a very lengthened

eriod.

; The South Sally-Port presented phenomena having no parallel in the ex-
perience of the Committee during the present exploration, but for which Mr.
M‘Enery’s “‘ Cavern Researches” had prepared them. Speaking of the Sally-
Ports, or “‘ Long Tongues,” he says, “ their entire area is honeycombed with
fox-holes, and the loam thrown up in mounds round their edges is mixed
with scales of the beetle, modern and fossil bones, all of which, as well as
the rocky contents, resembled bleached or calcined substances exposed on a
common.” Indeed his description of the South Sally Port is not very en-
couraging. He says, “ In attempting to reach the extremity of the lower
tongue at a point where it suddenly expands into a large grotto, the hollow
floor gave way like a pitfall with my weight and sank into a cleft of the rock.
I shall not dissemble my terror at my sudden descent. My efforts to escape
would but cause the ground to sink still deeper and deeper into deeper
abysses,

*** At subito se aperire solum vastosque recessus
Pandere sub pedibus nigraque voragine fauces.’

«The crash routed some animals from their subterranean abodes. I heard

_ them forcing their escape towards the outside through the incumbent earth,

4}
i
f

and perceived their footmarks. The hounds frequently assemble outside
about this point, and frequently earth foxes there” *.

Happily none of the present exploring party have experienced any incon-
venience during their researches ; but they are constantly meeting with tun-
nels in the Cave-earth, probably made by some burrowing animals, with
ancient and modern bones commingled both on the surface and at all depths
below it, with great clusters of the wing-cases of beetles exclusively on
or very near the surface ; and they have had impressed on them daily the
important but familiar truth that unless sealed up with a Stalagmitic Floor,
Cavern deposits are just as likely to be fraught with anachronisms as with a
trustworthy chronological sequence.

During the present month (August 1869) one of the Superintendents has
had occasion to pass frequently through ‘“‘The Labyrinth,” a branch of the
Western Division of the Cavern. As he entered it on the 6th he observed
some fresh Caye-earth lying on the floor where there was no stalagmite, and
he directed the attention of the workmen to it. They had all passed along

* See Trans. Devon. Assoc. vol. iii. p. 302 (1869).

204. REPORT—1869.

the same route the day before, and they were all satisfied that the earth was
not there then. On examination it was found to have been thrown out of a
newly made hole, in all respects resembling those made by rats, and extend-
ing from the edge of a slab of limestone obliquely through the Cave-earth
beneath*,

In the South Sally-Port, the Black Mould, which in most of the other
branches of the Cavern was found continuously overlying the Stalagmitic Floor,
did not extend many feet within the entrance. Beyond the point at which
the Stalagmite ended, the entire deposit was Cave-earth from top to bottom
of the section, and in all probability every part of it had been introduced be-
fore the formation of the calcareous floor began. In previous Reports the Com-
mittee have recorded the fact that in the Stalagmite itself are lodged remains
of the Cave-bear, Hyzena, and Rhinoceros. Indeed the only fossil found in
the scanty floor in that branch of the Cavern now under consideration was a
tooth of the last-named species, which is not only in quite the upper part of
the stalagmitic sheet, but, instead of being completely covered, projected
above its surface. Obviously, then, Ursus speleus, Hycna spelea, and Rhino-
ceros tichorhinus outlived the era of the Cave-earth, and therefore it would
not be surprising if their remains, together with palzolithic flint implements,
were found lying on the surface of this deposit ; nor, if they were left unpro-
tected, would there be anything inexplicable or strange if they were found
mixed with objects belonging to more recent periods, or even to the present
day. Such a commingling might or might not be the result of disturbance
and rearrangement when occurring on the surface, but could not be otherwise
explained when met with below it. ‘

Be this as it may, it is undeniably the fact that in this, but in no other
branch of the Cavern which the Committee have explored, ancient and modern
bones, and unpolished flint implements and rude pottery, have been found
lying together. Remains of the extinct brute inhabitants of Devonshire are
mixed confusedly with those of the present day, and the handiwork of the
human contemporary of the Mammoth is found inosculating with the product
of the potter’s wheel.

It is worthy of remark that whilst potsherds lie on the surface, and the
mouths of shafts, connected with the tunnels or burrows, stand open to
receive them, instances of their having fallen in are extremely rare. The
modern objects found in the body of the Cave-earth are almost without excep-
tion such as have been actually taken in by the recent animals which made
their homes there.

In a sensibly horizontal tunnel about the size of a fox-earth, at a depth of
4 feet below the surface, there was found a bell, such as huntsmen are wont
to suspend to the neck of a terrier when sent in after a fox—a fact which in
all probability explains its presence in the spot it occupied.

In other and smaller burrows bundles of moss, each about the size of a
man’s fist, haye been met with and supposed to be the nest of some animal.

Compared with the phenomena of every other branch of the Cavern ex-
plored by the Committee, those of this Sally-Port are no doubt anomalous ;

* The visits of rats to the Cavern and their habit of carrying off candles have long been
well known. In January 1867 the workmen observed a rat in the Cavern on several suc-
cessive days. At length he made his presence felt ina very disagreeable manner, At9 a.m.
the principal workman placed his dinner, carefully lodged in a bag, in a stout wicker basket.
At the dinner-hour (1 p.m.) he found that the rat had eaten a hole through the basket,
another through the bag, and carried off every particle of his meal. Poisoned food was at

once prepared for the intruder, and nothing further was seen of him until a few days after
his dead body was found,

CRs

ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 205

but regard being had to the condition of the deposit in which they occur, they
are certainly such as might have been looked for, and they present no diffi-
culty whatever.

Notwithstanding the obyious disturbance of the Cave-earth, the same me-

_ thod of exploration has been followed here as elsewhere ; and the specimens

found in each “ level” and “yard’’ have been kept apart in separate boxes
as heretofore.

Scarcely any branch of the Cavern has surpassed this Sally-Port in the
number of the fossils it has yielded, and in no part have finer or more per-
fect specimens been found. They are the remains of all the common Cave-

mammals, with a greater number of the teeth of the Mammoth than have

been met with by the Committee within an equal space elsewhere. The
bones are generally of less specific gravity, softer, and more brittle than those
found in the Cave-earth in other branches of the Cavern—a fact perhaps ascri-
bable to the absence of a calcareous drip. Many of them are gnawed, some
have entirely escaped this ordeal, and a few have marks on their surfaces
apparently unlike those produced by teeth. Most of them on being cleaned
retain impressions of the brush used for that purpose. The surfaces of seve-
ral are more or less covered with rudely circular punctures of various sizes—a
fact observed occasionally in those found elsewhere, but much less frequently
than in these in this branch of the Cavern. Lumps of fecal matter are by
no means rare.

The flint and chert implements and flakes are ten in number, three of which
were met with on the surface, one in the first foot-level, three in the second,
two in the third, and one the position of which is somewhat uncertain.

Four of them only need description. The first (No. 4155) is a splendid
heart-shaped chert implement. It was found June 12, 1869, lying on the
surface of the Cave-earth, beneath an overhanging ledge of limestone which
it almost touched, on the west side of the Sally-Port. It was wrought from
a chert nodule apparently selected from the supracretaceous gravel of Milber
Down between Torquay and Newton Abbot. It is about 4} inches long, 3
inches in greatest breadth, and 1? inch thick at 1 inch from its broad
end. The but-end only retains the original surface of the nodule. Itis the
only implement of the kind found by the Committee, and none of those figured
by Mr. M‘Enery at all resemble it.

The second (No. 4259) is of fine-grained silvery grey flint. It is symme-
trically canoe-shaped, 3°6 inches long, 1-2 inch broad, and -4 inch in greatest
thickness. It is flat on one side, somewhat rounded on the other, worked to

an edge all round the margin, and considerably chipped on both surfaces. It

belongs to the same type as the implement (No. 3922) previously described,
but is much less rounded on the outer surface. It was found on the Caye-

earth, July 5, 1869.

The third (No. 4263) is formed of rather coarse white cherty flint. It is
flat on the inner surface, carinated on the outer, and is not highly finished.

It is about 4 inches long, 1-3 inch broad, -6 inch in greatest thickness, and
was found July 6, 1869, 2 feet deep in the deposit.

The fourth is strongly carinated on the outer surface; the inner is very
concave longitudinally, and slightly convex transversely. It is 3-4 inches
long, 1-2 inch broad, and ‘5 inch where thickest. It is chiefly remarkable
from haying a square tang at one end, ‘8 inch long and °6 inch broad, as if
for fastening into a haft. Its opposite end is rounded, it is fined off toan
edge all round, andit appears to have been used as a scraper. It was found
August 5, 1869, 40 feet from the entrance of the Sally-Port, ina small mass

‘

206 REPORT—1869:

of Cave-earth which, without being observed, had slipped off the face of the
section ; hence its exact position is uncertain.

Charcoal has been found somewhat plentifully on the surface, where a few
burnt bones occurred with it. It has also been met with at all depths in the
deposit, though in no great quantity.

A few marine shells of common species were met with on the surface,

The fragments of pottery differ in colour and in finish, and probably belong
to more than one period. Two or three of them are rather longer than those
commonly found in the Cavern.

During the last twelve months Mr. Boyd Dawkins, assisted by Mr. Ayshford
Sanford, has made considerable progress in identifying and naming the fos-
sils. He has prepared and sent in a Catalogue of a large number of speci-
mens, accompanied by the following Report.

Tn the determination of the following animals from Kent's Hole Cavern I
have been aided by my friend Mr. Ayshford Sanford. By far the greater
portion of the labour has been undergone by him. We have examined up-
wards of four thousand specimens, or rather less than one-tenth of the whole
accumulation of the remains in the hands of the Committee. No bones of
birds or fish have been catalogued; the latter Dr. Giinther has kindly under-
taken to name before our Report is concluded. ‘The results of our work are
contained in the following catalogue.

Homo.—We have met with no bones or teeth from the Cave-earth that can
be ascribed undoubtedly to man. One or two much-worn or mutilated inci-
sors, however, may be human, but they may also belong to several other ani-
mals. The human remains from the prehistoric deposit of Black Mould are
exceedingly abundant, and many of them, in Mr. Sanford’s opinion, bear
evidence of the former existence of cannibals in the Cave. Some of them
have been cut and scraped by sharp instruments, the marrow-bones are
broken, and are mixed indiscriminately with the broken bones of Sheep or
Goat, Red Deer, Bos longifrons, and other animals. In one box there are the
remains of at least three individuals—a large man, a nearly full-grown woman
or lad, and a child about half-grown.

Man has also left his handiwork on some very remarkable fragments of
canines of Bear from the Caye-earth, which, in common with many other
splinters of bone, are in a totally different mineral condition to that presented
by the ordinary Cave-remains. They are much more crystalline, much
heavier, and of a darker colour than the ordinary teeth and bones, and have
been so mineralized that they present a fracture almost conchoidal, and
strongly resembling that of a Greensand chert. One of these had been
fashioned into a flake, and one of its surfaces presented the usual traces of
use. It had manifestly been formed after it had lost its normal dentinal
texture. It is clear, therefore, that they had become fossilized before the in-
troduction of the present Cave-earth. Viewed in connexion with the evi-
dence of the existence of an ancient floor that is now represented by masses
of stalagmite, sometimes ossiferous, we cannot resist the idea that they are
samples of the contents of the Cave which had in the main disappeared before
the introduction of the present Cave-earth.

Felis spelwa.—The Cave-lion is tolerably abundant in the Cave-earth.

Felis, sp.?—A single canine from the Caye-earth indicates an animal of
the size of Lynaw cervaria.

er ee* 0

)

ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 207

Felis catus ?—A: lumbar vertebra from the Caye-earth corresponds in size
with that of the Wild Cat.

Hycena spelea.—The Cave-hyena is very abundant in the Caye-earth.

Canis lupus.—The Wolf, on the other hand, is comparatively rare.

Canis domesticus.—The remains of the Dog are sparingly met with in the
Black Mould, and indicate the presence of more than one variety.

Canis vulpes.—The Common Fox is found in the Black Mould, and sparingly
in the older subjacent deposit.

Canis vulpes (var. speleus).—Vulpine bones, on the other hand, from
the Stalagmite and Cave-earth indicate an animal larger and stouter than
the English Fox. These are not found in the Black Mould.

Canis (size of C. isatis)—With the larger bones there are a few much
smaller than those of the Common Fox, that correspond most closely with
those of C. isatis. The vulpine skulls, however, in the Taunton Museum,
from the Mendip Caves, rather indicate a species closely related to C. isatis
than a specific identity, since the true molars are somewhat broader. It is
well to mention that Mr. Sanford has identified a portion of a skull found
along with the remains of Hyzena, in a cave on the opposite side of Torbay,
as belonging to Canis isatis.

Gulo luscus.—A single os innominatum of a nearly full-grown Glutton in-
dicates the presence of this rare mammal in the Cave-earth. Although it be-
longed to an animal not quite adult, it agrees almost exactly in size with that
of a fully grown male from Sweden.

Meles taxus.—The remains of the Badger are abundant in the prehistoric
Black Mould, rare in the Caye-earth. In the latter case we doubt the truly
fossil condition of the bones.

Ursus speleus.—The bones and tecth of the Cave-bear from the Cave-earth
indicate greater variation of size than those of any other wild animal with
which we are acquainted.

Ursus priscus =ferox.—This species, which has been proved by Mr. Busk
to be undistinguishable from those of the North-American Grizzly Bear,
oceurs abundantly in the Caye-earth, as it does also in the caves of the
Mendip Hills. The short stout bones of U. spelcus are represented by flatter,
longer bones of U. feroa, that are for the most part distinct from the rounder
bones of U. arctos. We therefore have attributed the isolated flat long bones

_ to the second of these species. Bones of intermediate form, however, occur

which appear to connect the two forms. They are more constant in size than
those of the other two bears.

Ursus arctos—Teeth and bones of the Brown Bear, still living in Europe,
occur, but not very commonly, in the Cave-earth. Some of those from the

Black Mould are evidently derived from the lower and older beds; but others,

from their condition, apparently belong to animals that lived at the same
time as Bos longifrons and the Sheep or Goat of the Black Mould.
Elephas prinugenius—The Mammoth is but sparingly met with in the

t Cave-earth.

Rhinoceros tichorhinus.—The remains of the Woolly Rhinoceros are

abundant in the Cave-earth.

_ Equus caballus.—The Horse is the most abundant fossil in the Cave-earth.

Many of the teeth are more or less plicident, but we are unable to draw
any sharp line separating the Equus plicidens of Prof. Owen from the re-
cent species. They present almost endless variations in this respect, and
were apparenly in a state of transition from the plicident to the common
type in the postglacial times.

208 REPORT—1869.

Bos primigenius.—The Urus exists somewhat sparingly in the Caye-earth.

Bison priscus.—The Bison, on the contrary, is much more common in the
same deposit.

Bos longifrons.—Bones and teeth of the Celtic Shorthorn occur in the
Black Mould. The small bones in the Cave-earth belong to the preceding
species.

Cervus megaceros.—The Irish Elk is not uncommon in the Cave-earth.

Cervus elaphus (=Strongyloceros speleus, Owen=C. destremiz, Serres).—
We have come to the conclusion that the Red Deer was more variable in size
during the postglacial period than at the present day. Some teeth are not
larger than those of a small hind from the Hebrides, while others surpass in
size those of the largest Haddon or Horner Hart. Some even almost rival
those of the smaller specimens of the Irish Elk. The animal occurs both in
the superficial Black Mould and in the Cave-earth.

Cervus tarandus.—The Reindeer is abundant in the Cave-earth.

Cervus capreolus—We have met with the Roedeer only in the Black
Mould ; it was evidently a common article of food.

Ovis aries, Capra hircus.—The Sheep and the Goat are abundant in the
Black Mould.

Sus scrofa.—The Pig occurs in the Black Mould only ; it is small in size,
and was evidently an article of food.

Lepus timidus.—The remains of the common Hare are abundant in the Black
Mould, but are rare in the Cave-earth and Stalagmite. In these deposits
they are for the most part replaced by larger and stouter bones, which may
perhaps be referred to Lepus diluvianus of the French naturalists. These
stout bones are very rare in the Black Mould.

Lepus cuniculus—Bones of the Rabbit are abundant in the Black Mould ;
a single bone has occurred apparently from the Modern Stalagmite, but none
from the Cave-earth.

Lagomys speleus.—We have met in the Cave-earth with a lower jaw of
the Cave Pika. It is rather smaller than the type, and is closely related to
that of Lagomys pusillus.

Arvicola amphibius—The Water-rat, or one of the closely allied varieties,
we have met with, but not abundantly, in the Cave-earth and Black Mould.

Arvicola agrestis—There are one or two specimens from the Cave-earth
of this species that show the same variation in the direction of A. ratticeps
which Mr. Sanford has remarked in jaws from the Mendip Caves.

Arvicola glareola (=A. pratensis)—We have met with a single lower
jaw from the Cave-earth.

Arvicola Gulielmt.—This new species of Vole, discovered lately by Mr.
Sanford in the caves of Mendip, is represented by a jaw from the Cave-earth.
It may be recognized by its uniting a size which nearly approaches that of
A. amphibius to the dentition of A. subterrancus.

Castor fiber.—We have met with five specimens of the Beaver from the
Cave-earth.

Phocena communis.—A_ solitary scapula of this cetacean has been fur-
nished by the Black Mould.

In this list we have merely noticed the species that have passed through
our pene without reference to the previously published list of animals from
the Cave.

—~s

ON CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION AND PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION. 209

Report of the Committee on the Connexion between Chemical Con-
stitution and Physiological Action. The Committee consists of Dr.
A. Crum Browy, Dr. T. R. Fraser, and Dr. J. H. Batrour, F.R.S.
The investigations were conducted and the Report prepared hy Drs.
A. Crum Brown and T. R. Fraser.

Drs. Brown and Fraser communicated to the Section, at the Norwick
Meeting, the results of some experiments (the details of which have since
been published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh) on
the connexion between change of chemical constitution and change of phy-
siological activity.

They have since that time continued their investigations by applying the
method described in the above communication to the alkaloids, atropia, conia,

and trimethylamine. The substances which they have compared in refer-

ence to their physiological action are, atropia and the salts of methylatro-
pium, conia, methylconia, and the salts of dimethyleonium, salts of ammonia,
trimethylamine, and tetramethylammonium. They have made in all about
120 experiments, and give in the accompanying Table the results of thirty-
six, in which the dose was not much above or below the minimum fatal.
It will be seen that these results confirm the conclusions at which they
formerly arrived, viz. that the action of compounds of triatomic nitrogen is
different from that of compounds in which the nitrogen is stably pentatomic,
and that salts of ammonium bases act on the peripheral terminations of the
motor nerves in the same way as curara. This action, and the absence of
convulsant action, appear to be generic characters of the salts of ammonium
bases. Besides this, the salts of the ammonium bases frequently retain cer-
tain of the special (specific) actions of the nitrile bases from which they are
derived.

Tabular Summary of Experiments with Doses that are about the
minimum fatal,

"| Substance |Animal and| Method of

employed. | its weight. | exhibition. i atin Effect.

Todide of |Rabbit,51b.|Subcutane-| 2°5 ers. Dilatation of pupils;
methyl- | 153 oz. ously. slight and then decided
atropium. paralysis; faint tre-
mors; and recovery (in
more than two hours
and ten minutes).

2. Do. Rabbit,3]b.| Do. 5 gTs, Ditto; and death (in
10 02. fifty-eight minutes).

3. Do. Dog, 8lb. 6 Do. 10 ers. Dilatation of pupils;
OZ. rapid and decided pa-

ralysis ; very faint tre-
mors; and death (in
thirty-two minutes).

4, Do. Frog,392er. Do. 0-005 gr.| Paralysis; complete
suspension of reflex ex-
citability (motor-nerve
conductivity being re-
tained) ; and complete
recovery (in less than
two hours).

1869. E

210

Number
of experi-
ment.

36,

“]

10.
Lute

REPORT—1869.

TABLE (continued).

Substance |Animal and} Method of
employed. | its weight. | exhibition.
Todide of |Frog,455gr.) Subcutane-
methyl- ously.
atropium.

Do. Frog,422er.| Do.

Do. ‘| Frog,260gr. Do.

Do. Rabbit,3 Ib./ by stomach.

12 oz.
Sulphate of Rabbit, lb.) subeutane-
methyl- | 73 02. ously.
atropium.
Do. Rabbit,2 lb. Do.
7 02.

Do. —_|Frog,460gr.| Do.
Jodide of |Rabbit,3 lb. Do.
ethyl-atro-| 83 oz.

pium.

Sulphate of Rabbit,41b.| = Do.
atropia. | 10 oz.

Do. Do. Do.

Do. 2 Ibs. 5 oz. Do.

Dose.

0-025 gr.

O-l gr.

0°3 gr.

30 grs.

2 grs.

2 ers.
0-1 gr.

ors.

5 ers.

10 ers.
15 gyrs.

Effect.

Complete paralysis,
with suspension of mo-
tor-nerye conductivity ;
and recovery (in less
thantwenty-fourhours).

Complete paralysis,
with suspension of mo-
tor-nerve conductivity,
during first, second,
third, and fourth days ;
and recovery on fifth
day.

Complete paralysis,
with suspension of mo-
tor-nerve conductivity
in thirty minutes ; mus-
cular contractility was
retained until the sixth
day ; loss of muscular
contractility and some

rigor (death) on seventh
day.
None.

Dilatation of pupils;
decided paralysis ; faint
twitches ; and recovery
(in about thirty mi-
nutes).

Ditto; and death (in
forty minutes).

Complete paralysis,
with suspension of mo-
tor-nerve conductivity
in about forty minutes ;
retained muscular con-
tractility until fifth day ;
loss of muscular con-
tractility with some
rigor (death) on sixth
day.

Dilatation of pupils ;
decided paralysis ; faint
tremors; and death (in
about thirty minutes).

Dilatation of pupils,
and no serious sym-
ptom.

Ditto.

Ditto, diuresis, ca-
tharsis, and languor,
followed by recovery.

« No symptom of exaggerated reflex activity occurred during this experiment.
> Same rabbit at intervals of several days.

18.

19.

20.

24,

'25.

826,

n27.

¢ Same dog as used in experiment 3.

Substance
employed.

Sulphate of
atropia.

Sulphate of

atropia.

Do.

Hydrochlo-

rate of me-

thylconia.
Do.

Do.

Todide of
dimethyl-
conium.
Do. ,

Do.

Hydrochlo-
rate of
conia.

Do.

Hydrochlo-
rate of
trimethyl-
amine.

ON CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION AND PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION.

TABLE (continued).

Animal and
its weight.

Dog, 8Ib. 6
OZ.

Frog ,447gr.

Frog,404gr.

Rabbit, 3lb.
144 oz.

Rabbit, 2lb.
10302.

Frog,175gr.

Rabbit,3 lb.
63 02.

Rabbit,4 Ib.

Frog,225er.

Rabbit,3 Ib.

ut
63 oz.

Frog,364er.

Rabbit,3 Ib.

21 02.

Method of

exhibition.| Pose

;subcutane-| 10 grs,

ously,

Do. 0-4 gr.
Do. 0-4 gr,
Do. O-ler
Do. 0-2 pr
Do. 0-2 or
Do. 2°5 ers
Do. 3 grs
Do. 0-1 gr
Do. 0-2 gr
Do. 0-1 gr.
Do. 7 ers.

© No evidence of exaggerated reflex activity.
f Dr. Christison’s preparation ; a specimen from Mr. Morson was found to be less active.
& Some evidence of exaggerated reflex activity.
» Strong odour in breath of trimethylamine in a few minutes. -

211

Effect.

Dilatation of pupils ;

decided paralysis; fre-
quent tetanus ; and re-
covery.

Incomplete paralysis
first day; spasms second
day; tetanus fourth to
sixth days; stiff reflex
movementsseventh day;
and recoveryeighth day.

Complete paralysis
first and second days;
tetanus third to ninth
day; spasmodic move-
ments tenth and ele-
venth days; and reco-
very twelfth day.

No obvious effect,

Exaggeration of re-
flex activity; decided
paralysis ; and death (in
twenty-two minutes).

Proof of paralysis of
motor wildcrand at
early stage. :

Slight paralytic sym-
ptoms and recovery.

Decided paralysis;
faint tremors ; and death
(in about one hour and
fifteen minutes).

Complete _ paralysis
for three days ; and re-
covery.

Tremors and decided
paralysis; exaggerated
activity ; and death (in
about thirty-two mi-
nutes).

Paralysis of motor
nerves, and death on
fourth day.

Very slight paralysis
&e. ; and recovery.

4 Some evidence of reflex exaggeration.

Effect.

Slight sleepiness, sali-

vation for a few minutes,
defeecation and urina-
tion, decided paralysis,
spasms, and death.
Tonic spasm in an-
terior and left posterior
extremities (right cut
off from poisoning by
ligature of its vessels) ;
complete paralysis of
left sciatic nerve (right
remaining active); and

Salivation (very pro-
fuse and long con-
tinued) ; lachrymation;
decided paralysis; slight
tremors; and recovery.

Ditto; and conyul-
sions ; and death.

Tonic spasm, and mo-
tor endorgan paraly-
sis; and recovery.

Ditto ; and death.

Partial paralysis; fre-
quent tetanus; and re-

Decided _ paralysis ;
frequent tetanus; and

Of the various substances included in this Table, atropia possesses the
most remarkable special (specific) actions, viz. a dilating action on the pupils
and a paralyzing action on the cardiac inhibitory branches of the vagi nerves.
It will be seen from the two following experiments that the salts of the

Partial _ paralysis;
starts and other sym-
ptoms of reflex exag-

geration ; complete pa-.

ralysis of motor nerves
and muscles ; and death.

i Evidence of motor nerves being paralyzed before muscles.

methyl derivative of atropia retain these special actions :—

Experiment 37. One minim of a solution of 1 grain of sulphate of methyl-
atropium in 100,000 minims of distilled water (= ,¢5a5 of a grain of sul-

phate of methyl-atropium) was placed on the right eyeball of a rabbit.

Before the application the right pupil measured +5 x 14, and the left 23 x 24 of an inch.
39 mns. after the application

1 hour ” ” ”
Lhr. 30 ms. ,, 7 aa
2hs.10ms. ,, 7 %
22 hrs,

” ” ”

15 4

” $5 X 4G ”
15y14

» Bo X50 »
1A5y 14

” 50% 50 ”
15414

” 5050 ”
15 4

” 35X45 ”

PROVISION FOR PHYSICAL RESEARCH IN GREAT BRITAIN. 213

Experiment 38. The two vagi nerves were exposed in the neck of a rabbit,
and on separately subjecting the trunk of each nerve to galvanic stimulation
of a certain strength (obtained by the use of Du Bois-Reymond’s induction-
apparatus), it was found that stoppage of the heart’s contractions resulted on
each occasion during the five seconds the galvanic stimulation was applied.
A solution containing half a grain of sulphate of methyl-atropium in fifteen
minims of distilled water was then injected under the skin of the abdomen.

5minutes.... after the injection the heart was contracting 28 times in 10 seconds.
98

” ” ” ay ” So's ” ”
7mus. 10 secs. ,, 5 the right vagus was galvanized for 10 seconds,
and the heart continued to contract during the
galvanism.......... 28 times in 10 seconds.

10 minutes... . after the injection the heart was contracting 29 op rh

” ” ” ” ” ” ”
BO’ piryy "3 hy the left vagus was galvanized for 10 seconds,
and the heart continued to contract during the
SAlVANISMI Ns vec. wey se 30 times in 10 seconds.
20 mns. 20 secs. after the injection the heart was contracting 30
2, O , ” ” ” ” ” ”
=|) | Ae , the right vagus was galvanized for 10 seconds,
and the heart continued to contract during the
galvanism........0. 50 times in 10 seconds.

” ”

It was also found that the special actions on the pupils and on the cardiac
inhibitory branches of the vagi nerves are possessed by the ethyl derivative
of atropia.

Report of a Committee, consisting of Lieut.-Col. Srranen, F.R.S.,
Professor Sir W. Tuomson, F.R.S., Professor Tynpaut, F.R.S.,
Professor FranKianp, F.R.S., Dr. Stennovuss, F.R.S., Dr. Mann,
F.R.A.S., W. Hueerns, F.R.S., James Guatsuer, .R.S., Professor
Wiurmson, F.R.S., Professor Stokes, F.R.S., Professor FLeEM-
ING JENKIN, F.R.S., Professor Hirst, F.R.S., Professor Huxuey,
F.R.S., and Dr. Batrour Stewart, F.R.S.*, appointed for the
purpose of inquiring into, and of reporting to the British Asso-
ciation the opinion .at which they may arrive concerning the fol-
lowing questions :—

I. Does there exist in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland sufficient provision for the vigorous prosecution of
Physical Research ?

Il. Lf not, what further provision is needed ? and what measures
should be taken to secure it 2

Your Committee, having sought the counsel of many of the most eminent
men of science of the United Kingdom upon these questions, so far as it was
found practicable to do so, and having carefully deliberated thereon, have ar-
rived at the following conclusions :—

I. That the provision now existing in the United Kingdom of Great Britain

* The following names have since been added to the Committee :—Alfred Tennyson,
E.R.S. ; Lyon Playfair, F.R.S., M.P.; J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S.

214. REPORT—1869.

and Ireland is far from sufficient for the vigorous prosecution of Physical
Research.

II. It is universally admitted that scientific investigation is productive of
enormous advantages to the community at large ; but these advantages can-
not be duly reaped without largely extending and systematizing Physical
Research. Though of opinion that greatly increased facilities are undoubt-
edly required, your Committee do not consider it expedient that they should
attempt to define categorically how these facilities should be provided, for the
following reason :—

Any scheme of scientific extension should be based on a full and accurate
knowledge of the amount of aid now given to science, of the sources from
which that aid is derived, and of the functions performed by individuals and
institutions receiving such aid. Your Committee have found it impossible,
with the means and powers at their command, to acquire this knowledge.
A formal inquiry, including the inspection of records to which your Committee
have not access, and the examination of witnesses whom they are not em-
powered to summon, alone can elicit the information that is required ; and, as
the whole question of the relation of the State to Science, at present in a
very unsettled and unsatisfactory position, is involved, they urge that a Royal
Commission alone is competent to deal with the subject.

Your Committee hold that this inquiry is of a character sufficiently im-
portant to the nation, and sufficiently wide in its scope, to demand the use of
the most ample and most powerful machinery that can be brought to bear
upon it.

Your Committee therefore submit, as the substance of their Report, the
recommendation that the full influence of the British Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science should at once be exerted to obtain the appointment of
a Royal Commission to consider—

1. The character and value of existing institutions and facilities for
scientific investigation, and the amount of time and money devoted
to such purposes.

2, What modifications or augmentations of the means and facilities that
are at present available for the maintenance and extension of
science are requisite; and,

3. In what manner these can be best supplied.

On Emission, Absorption, and Reflection of Obscure Heat.
By Prof. Maenus*.

TurrE was a time when heat was considered to be very different from light.
Now, however, we are persuaded that the only difference between them is the
length of the waves by which they are produced and propagated. Therefore
I thought that the well-known laws of the radiation and absorption of light
must also exist for heat. I followed in these thoughts Mr. Balfour Stewart,
who, ten years ago, and several years before Kirchhoff and Bunsen had pro-
pounded their theory, published a paper in which he developed nearly the
same ideas for heat as these philosophers did for light.

I will endeavour to give some of the results at which I arrived; but

* A communication ordered to be printed im eaxtenso among the Reports.

EMISSION, ABSORPTION, AND REFLECTION OF OBSCURE HEAT. 215

before doing this, I must mention that for these experiments it was necessary
to obtain the rays from the body examined unmixed with those of the flame
or of any substance by which the body is heated. I succeeded in this by
making use of a stream of heated air in which the body was suspended.

I found that different substances heated to 150°C. emit different kinds
of rays; some only one kind, or wayes of one length, and others waves of
many different lengths. To the first class belongs pure Rock-salt. There is
an analogy between the heat emitted by this body and the light produced
by its vapours, or rather of the Sodium it contains. The light from this sub-
stance gives only one line in the spectrum, and the heat also is only of one
waye-length. It is monothermic, as its vapour is monochromatic.

Rock-salt absorbs the heat given out by Rock-salt, while it absorbs almost
none of that given out by other substances.

There is another crystallized substance, the chloride of potassium, called
Sylvin, very like rock-salt in its behaviour ; but it isnot monothermic, because
it absorbs the heat from different substances, not in a very high degree, but to
a greater extent than rock-salt does.

If our eyes would allow us to see the dark heat as we see light, and we
could project a spectrum of the heat of rock-salt, we should see but one line.
But in making use of the heat emitted by chloride of potassium a longer
space would be illuminated, but not so long as from lampblack or from a
flame.

Here also is an analogy between the heat and light given off by chloride
of potassium.

I then made experiments on the reflection of heat, and I found that Silver,
Glass, Rock-salt, Sylvin, and Fluorspar reflect nearly the same quantities of
heat coming from a flame, from Lampblack, Glass, or from other substances.
But of the heat from Rock-salt, the Fluorspar reflects five times as much as of
‘that from other substances. Of the heat from Sylvin the Fluorspar reflects
three times as much.

It follows from these experiments that if obscure heat were visible,
and if Rock-salt were used as the source of heat, we should see the Fluorspar
brighter than all other bodies, as far as I know at present. With Sylvin as
the source of heat we should see the Fluorspar bright, but not so bright as in
the heat from Rock-salt.

Although invisible to the eye there are millions of rays of heat passing
between different substances, being partly absorbed and partly reflected ;
and although we are surrounded by these motions, we cannot observe them
but by special experiments.

The analogy between light and heat seems to me to be complete.

216 REPORT—1869.

Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1868-69. By a Committee,
consisting of James GuaisuER, F.R.S., of the Royal Observatory,
Greenwich, President of the Royal Microscopical and Meteorolo-
gical Societies, Ropert P. Gree, F.G.S., F.R.A.S., E. W. Brayey,
F.R.S., ALEXANDER S. Herscuet, F.R.A.S., and Cuartes Brooke,
F-.R.S., Secretary to the Meteorological Society.

Tux Catalogue of the Tenth Report of this Committee contains the results of .

assiduous observations of shooting-stars, directed principally to the periodical
dates when shower-meteors are usually expected to occur. Many observations
are, besides, recorded from the published accounts, and privately communi-
cated descriptions of observers on the large meteors which have appeared
with more than ordinary frequency during the interval of the year elapsed
since the presentation of the last Report.

The general insufficiency of some of the observations, for the purpose of
determining approximately the real distance of the meteors, is not greater
than must always be expected to arise, when a due allowance is made for
the unprepared condition of observers at the moment of the appearance of
such unusually large and brilliant meteors as have during the past year been
seen in some abundance. The comparison of some of the accounts contained
in the present list has, nevertheless, led to satisfactory conclusions re-
garding the real height and course of some of the splendid fireballs recorded
in the paragraphs of this Report. Among those which principally appear to
have afforded elements of strict mathematical calculation may be mentioned
the observations made in France on the large fireball of the 5th of September,
and those at Cambridge and in Paris on the detonating meteor of the 31st of
May last.

Some interesting communications on the same subject, bearing especially
on the extent, velocity, and direction of the currents observed to exist in the
loftiest regions of the atmosphere, are included with the heights of certain
persistent meteor-streaks determined by Professor Newton, in the United
States, on the 14th of November last. These observations, with the last-
mentioned descriptions of bright meteors seen at the same time in England
and on the Continent, are contained in the first Appendix of the Report.

The occurrences of new aérolites and of other large meteors are described
in detail, and frequent minor notices of similar appearances from foreign
sources are placed in the second Appendix ; to which is added a Catalogue
of recent fireballs, completing up to the present time the very comprehensive
list of such appearances which, since their first Report, Mr. Greg has continued
with unfailing industry to collect for the Committee.

The observations reported in the next Appendix show that the periodical
star-shower of August, in the past and present years, has been made the
subject of increasing attention in England and on the Continent. The sys-
tematic observation of the rate of frequency, time of maximum, and apparent
position of the radiant-point has not yet cleared up some of the perplexities
which surround the exhibition of this well-known but not yet thoroughly
explained phenomenon. ‘The possible prevalence of several maxima, and an
apparent oscillation of the radiant-point in successive years between tolerably
wide limits in the constellations Perseus and Cassiopeia, are features of this
meteoric current which especially call for further investigation. The charac-
teristic appearances of the meteors, both as to magnitudes and to the abun-

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 217

dance and duration of their luminous streaks, are also points of principal and
recurring interest.

Owing to the exceptionally overcast state of the sky in England during
the whole of the winter and summer months of the past year, the number of
observations of the ordinary shower-meteors of October, December, January,
and April last have not only been unusually deficient, but observers in
England were unfortunately deprived of more than partial views of the great
star-shower of the 14th of November last. Several interesting notices of the
bright display, from transatlantic and continental stations, will, however,
be found in the third Appendix ; and that and previous reappearances of the
star-shower are further illustrated by papers in the fourth Appendix of the
Report. Some insight into the physical structure of the November meteoric
cloud has, it will thus be seen, been derived from the simultaneous observa-
tions of its recent principal displays at places as far apart in longitude as
Shanghai, Calcutta, Greenwich, and the observatories of the United States.
Jt appears that the central and most compact portion of the stream was
twice encountered in the years 1866 and 1867, while in the years 1865 and
1868 respectively, two outlying currents of greater width, but of less consi-
derable density, were crossed, one on either side of the central stream, and
separated from it, the former in front of, and the latter behind its margin, by
an equally broad well-defined space comparatively devoid of meteors. This
curious circumstance, first pointed out by Mr. Marsh, of Philadelphia, is
drawn from observations at the conclusion of Appendix IV.

A review of several important papers published, and received by the Com-
mittee, during the past year, occupies the whole of the fourth and last
Appendix of the Catalogue. The consideration now generally bestowed upon
observations of luminous meteors is sufficiently rewarded by the occasional
perusal of such papers of eminent scientific interest in the special branches
of aérolitic and meteoric astronomy; while the present zeal of observers is

evinced by their association together in France and Italy to record in a

regular and systematic form, under the direction, at Metz, of a luminous
meteor committee like that of the British Association, the transitory pheno-
mena of meteors and falling-stars. In consequence of the combination of

_ observers to observe shooting-stars together on stated nights, it cannot be

1. .

doubted that a great accession to the present state of knowledge of this
class of bodies will thus, in the course of a few years, be obtained. The
star-showers of April last, which, on account of the unfavourable state of the
weather, were unperceived in this country, were yet conspicuously seen at
Moncalieri near Turin, and at Urbino, and the radiant-points of these
meteoric epochs of the 10th, 20th, and 30th of April, already previously
established by the British Association, received an unexpected confirmation.
With the object of furthering the views, and assisting the progress of meteoric

_ science in its most highly productive sphere of observation, the Committee,

in presenting this their Tenth Annual Report, express the hope that the

_ same success may continue to attend their future efforts which has rewarded

them in the first period of their existence, and which was originally be-

queathed to them by the great and talented author of the annual Reports to

the British Association on observations of luminous meteors, when, in the
year 1860, after compiling the present Catalogue alone and presenting it

‘unassisted to the British Association for fifteen years, he for the first time

_ placed the preparation of these Reports, and the annual collection of obser-

yations of luminous meteors, in the hands of a committee,
1869, Q

Place of

Hour. Observation.

Date.

1862./h m s

Nov.27| 5 52 p.m.|Between N. Fore-
land and Broad-
stairs.

REPORT—1869.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS

Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.

Apparent Size. Colour. Duration.

Apparent diameter|Rather

about one-fifth} blue.
that of the full
moon.

of about
above the hi

1866.
Sept.17|10 22 p.m./Birmingham ...|=3rd mag.* ...... ....{0°5 second ...
to 224° +48§
17M "22 30- |hid wos. cena: 7 =3rd mag.¥ ...... BING -.tq>nasaae 0°5 second ...|From 4 (é,
p.m. Draconis to
Cygni.
17|10 55 p.m.|Ibid ............-6 =Ist mag.x, then From « Persei tog
=z. and ruby.
VAT YON pane bide Oe eee =Ist mag.x ...... Yellow ...0..
17|11 22 p.m.|[bid ..............]=Srd mag.x ...... Blue .........{1 second ......
Oct. 28}10 46 p.m.|[bid............... =Ist mag.*......... Blue wees,
Nov.18} 5 40 p.m./Wadhurst Splendid meteor ...|...ssseeessseeee PA ning rite sees
(Sussex).
1867.
Aug.19| 9 27 p.m.|Birmingham ...|=2nd mag.x ...... Redienveresedses 1:5 second ...
20} 9 15 p.m.|Ibid ..........+.00 =3rd mag.* ...... by, Las 0-5 second .
21/11 30 p.m.|Ibid 3rd map vt... Bid) Os, Jee 0°5 second ... “wis k Bootis t
yre.
21{11 52 p.m,|Ibid ..........065: =Sirius ..... ‘slat White ......+.-|1 second ...... From ¢ Caprico)
to A Piscis A
tralis.
2711 3 p.m.|Ibid...........0...]= 1st Mag.% ...... White ,......../0°75 second... a= 0
From 305° + 20°
to 291 — 8)
27/11 3 p.m./[bid ....cscccoeeee.| OFA MAG. ....-. 1 second ,,....|Lhrough the bod
stars of Came’
pardus.
|
| 1

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 219
}

Cog

‘=

\
@

OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

EEE
4 Direction; noting also
ppearance ; Train, if any,| Length of | whether Horizontal, R
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or emarks. Observer.
_. Inclined.
Me : ELT hee dd
a: eee att a ee
te nucleus was followed)............... Inclining towards the)The horizon itself was|James Chapman.
a flame-coloured tail earth. invisible,
about 2° long. It was
twice nearly extinguish-
ed in its course, but
joth times regained its
luminosity.
eeteeerevenseecsesesseessseee|seereesereeeeee/ From Radiant Rj, ....... Maes oilers Mageudccsvedvarnvdaes W. H. Wood.
MMi asascscneuseosoasee|+-es0eccesev'ess From Radiant V ...se+...) i. csesssesscseeeseereeeeee IG.
a tail 12° longl.........++.../From Radiant R,,. ....../Beautiful colours......... Id.
or one second. Ruby-
oloured sparks issued
m the meteor.
éa train for 13 second]..........+6+- From Radiant U......... Devtem anlar tessuaees Deen:

ee seceeseeseeeees(Erom Radiant T.,5,, ...|Meteors five or six per|[d.

hour.
esc. fecaceescavssces] PrOn? Radiant Ryesiitees |i ccccssevessooees eee
not leave much train)...-..sses.seee[eeeee sscseeeesseeeserseseeeees|Though the moon was|Communicated

brilliant, the meteor] byA.S.Hersche!.
was yet very bright;

; . even brighter than
" those of November
14th, 1866.

Msireak ............... BREE COC. Pere From Radiant ¢ Cassio-}...... none ch rene teucmectenes W. H. Wood.
. peie.

seseails ecrinper From Radiant ¢ Cassio-|............ aval DER! Id.

peiz.

ee Pe vedebesex:/RrOme-Radiant: MG. <,.|..:.scusoaete wR Rose Id.

RE eee ...[From Radiant QG ......Jeccceeseeseee hetdeomiene’ Td.

4 -

ea ntecnoe Appr Conee- cBOee From Radiant e¢ Cassio-|This meteor nearly si-|Id.
peiz. multaneous with the

; next.

MMos iseccesesssse-{LO~ voevores./From Radiant @ Cassio-|..,.0c..ceseeeeesseedssdcese..| 1d.
y pei.

220 REPORT—1869.
Place ak : Position, or
Date Hour. Observation Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and
: Azimuth.
1867.| h m
Aug.2711 20 p.m.|Birmingham ...)=3rd mag.* «...-- BING pen pete 0°5 second .../From @ Delphini 1
a Pegasi.
27|11 20 p.m.|[bid .........se0e0 ESS inne ans Reeee Orange colour|l*5 second ... e= O0=
| From 329°—13°
to 310 —19
Pa Lleoo PDs Wid\.co¥sstcegeeces =2nd mage ...00 Blue, csavecsses 0°5 second ...|From e to 0 Aquil
21\E2. 10 psi |b) cgesessaves ses =3rd mag.x .... Blue® sestoreus 2 seconds...... eo
From 336°—21°
to 348 —18
Zales Ly Bel lid icseceee dence dee =2nd mag.% ....0.. Blue:' cestenses 1:5 second .../From # Aquatii
a Equulei. _
28102 7 pam |[)id'.....6..s06s00- = Ist mag.*..,.0000- BlGisnet scons. 1 second ......|From ¢ to B Ceti,
CSAS Sa MTG .os.ocsss<00 ess =]st mag.x.......--|Blue ......00 0°5 second ...|FromzAndromed
to y Pegasi.
Sept. 310 40 p.m.|[bid v.ee[== 3rd mag.x soee-/Blue cesses 1 sec.; slow a=
motion. From 335°+18°
to 350 +15
3) L042 Spam: |Thidzc5.<aesesucese > Ist mag.x se. White ......../0°3 sec.; rapid|From « oa
“2=
to 40°+32°
310 45 p.m.|[bid . evs.[= Ist mag.% “cases: Yellow ...... 0-5 second . a= d=)
From 347°— 7°
to 353 —18_
3)10 50 p.m.|[bid ooee[ = 3rd Mag.# .ee...[BIMC — ..eeeee.. 0°5 second ...|From @ Delphini |
a Equulei,
22/10 15 p.m.|[Did .........s0008. =3rd mag.x 4... Blue —..00000 15 second .. a= b=
From 0°— 6°
to 335 «14 |
24/10 20 p.m. |[bid ...........006 = 2nd mag.* ...... Blue. cecseses 0°75 second... a= oo
From 121°+61°
to 196 +71
28; 9 20 p.m.|Ibid......... seeee.[> 1st mag.* ....../Blue, then |0°5 second ...|From a Lyre to
white. Ophiuchi.
Oct. 3/10 3 p.m./Ackworth, =2ndmag.* ....../Bright white..|2 secs.; rapid a= 6
Pontefract From 12°+12°
(Yorkshire). to 13+ 8
8)10 10 p.m.|Birmingham ..,/>1st mag.* ......|Deep blue .../0°75 second... a= 6
From 298° +30)
to o Aquila.
18] 9 57 p.m.|/Ackworth, =Ist maz.x ..... Yellowish .../3 secs.; slow a= d=
Pontefract motion. From 70°+50
(Yorkshire). to 310 +60

Rather north
the zenith.

&
’

z A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 221

: Direction; noting also
‘ppearance ; Train, if any,| Length of | whether Horizontal,

and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or cones Observer.
Inclined.

—$—$ >

— | ——— Ce.

—_——

tetteeeeeccscesssseseeereeseee|sereeeeveeeees FLOM Radiant Qga .,...-|Lhis meteor followed at/W. H. Wood.
5 a brief interval by the
' next.
a eee seevseeseeeeee-/From Radiant Rjse....../AVerage rate of fre-|[d,
ra quency 12 per hour;
a fine clear night.
MNETER= a 9as 500050000000, 0|-cce0ecscesesss \From Radiant V.........,; Commencement of this [d.

meteor - shower not
seen; but meteors
came in groups be-
tween 9) 30™ and
11" p.m., with nearly
a quarter of an hour’s
interval of repose.

Heeeeeeeeneaseees Neelesien Sacer eevesesees-/From Radiant g Capri- qabuietdee ce Suderpiaésuvucesadss(HGle
corni,

AP ere eeeeeresesececs Buvaeewe:!, Uo ceccnewoanac From Radiant 6 Ceti ecs|**00Uueeeempuccnanseen due eodes Id.

MTR caeas assoc, <2 <COOSPALG [heated iam From Radiant B,.........|-+++ Backes saReycanseones Id.

PEaeeccenccsascescssccseesess| From Radiant € Cassio-|-+++++++» Bashevecstsceeeactent Id.
peiz.

Pee eceeneecceseceeeerectaces: -sseeseeeeeeee-|From Radiant Qy ......|Path eurved laterally ...!Id.

SH ree eeeeeeree eee ssereeeeeeeel eee essa seees From Radiant T,.........| Meteors four in ten/Id.

minutes. Clouds pre-
vented further obser-
vations.
sereeereneseetereeveeerceree-)eeseeeereeees-(From Radiant B;..esse0+./A Severe thunderstorm..|Id.

Co From Radiant B,...... was [uahatiec cosevesitatectustccat cel ties

EEBessseiseesevessenseeseeses|,.. oo... Vertically down, From)The last 10° of its path/Id.
Radiant RG. curved.

tatrain for 2 seconds sesecseseeeeee(/70M Radiant G ,,......./One meteor in an hour ;|[d.

. : fine night.

Ie.

tastreak ........ seerhe Mc, cthoa ene From Radiant ¢ Cassio-|Fine nights on thelId.

i peize. 10th, 19th, and 25th;

no meteors seen,
Night of the 28th

* overcast.

ae AG a, ETAL Fied,<,, | 35 uid v¥d5ss soca ctntsdonwulsd dardasesacenvsoodeommmaricnl dey Ee Cloris
course.
BPmoky streak ......|...,....,......|Erom Radiant B,....csss-lssssssessecccecconcies we..{W. H. Wood.
;

a fine train which did|50° ssseeess|Directed from Capella...|Two small meteors'J. E. Clark.
t last. about 9 o’clock.

222

SE eee eee ————— O00

Date. Hour.

1867.;/h m_ s
Oct. 18} 9 57 3
p.m.

18|10 16

19)10 11

19/10 20

19/10 33

20\10 14

2011 17

20/11 20

Nov. 3
p-m.
16) 6 10 to

p.m.

p-m.

‘pan.

About 9 0

6 40 p.m.
8 37 p.m.

8 20 p.m.|Ibid

Place of
Observation.

Ackworth,
Pontefract
(Yorkshire).

Did eenssnte: sects

eee weeeereesees

Seve eer eeeeeeee

Pe ee re enateeees

Birmingham

see meee ee enerne

Ackworth,
Pontefract
(Yorkshire).

Ibid

eee ee eeceteeeee

REPoRtT— 1869.

Apparent Size.

= Ist mag.xs.....00

=2nd mag.x

= Sirius

Pee erereeeee

=Ist mag.x.......+.

= 3rd mag.

=Ist mag.*.........,Orange colour|Q-75 second...

=Ist to 4th mag.x

as 2.

Position, or ©

Colour. Duration. Altitude and
Azimuth.
Yellowish .../14 sec.; slow a= O=
From 60°+50°
to 35 +47
Redeye i iaeece. 2 secs.; very|From 296°5°+1°
slow. to 289 —3
REG’ censcahvsnas 2 secs.; very|Near Rigel ......
slow.
Redtvcsestesnies 24 seconds ...|Disappeared ve
near Jupiter.
Wibit@y.s staves. 0°75 second ...|In the south;
the left of Jupit
Reds ch aeoare 34 secs.; very|In the south;
slow. the left of Jupit
White A ecsses 1:5 second ...|In the direction’
wards and ni
Jupiter.
Blue } ...00000. 0°5 second ...|From 7 to e J

=Ist mag.*.........(White ........./1°5 second ... a= 0
From 295° +485
to 283 +37
Half as bright again|Yellowish .../1 sec.; rapid|First appeared n

gasi.
From « Orionis|

Pereeee re err re ry

n Pegasi, ¢
disappeared —
clouds near |
piter. |

motion.

t A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 223

Direction ; noting also |
earance; Train, if any,| Length of | whether Horizontal,

and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer. |
‘ Inclined. |
——. res —— —

‘eft mostfeak = ....35..3. s.leeeseeeeeeeeeee(Erom Capella, towards|Another meteor at 104|J. E. Clark.

3 S.W. 12™ p.m.

Meniay tM thin train ......|11° ..csoeceelasscosscsseccoseseesseeesseeee| Very distinct. Another|Id.

meteor appeared at
hK 105 25™ p.m.

veft a fine train of a green-|10° ........-)....... secececeeeeceeeceeeeees/Very OSCillating motion|Id.
ish tinge.

eft a red train of varying)15° ......... Perr COPPER CRL Eon Two meteors about si-|[d.
brightness. multaneous with this.
weft a dull train............ Doicaceadissees Ate Mier Peeper cece From the same Radiant|[d.
as the last.
ueft a slight train ......... Ne SCOEee| koe nes eae: Ree ee ee ee Almost disappeared|[d.
during its course.
eft a slight train ......... LOPE cast sccsucasaseuessseseseseesssse.{Opposed in its direction/Id.
: to the last. Another
28 at 10° 16™ p.m.
a
ceseeeeeeaes ee thtisves: Aine. Bisatnc From Radiant Ry, gsese.[eereeerees sable bli W. H. Wood.
tees Pk, BUM ee as chvgecusece|oreee raaeseeses From Radiant S, (2) .s.[-ssseee++ PORE erty 3 Id.
MMPNTISSUTGSe dc Jhspcesseeses|sesseeses se0ee] secssscdessescdececseedcacesss[OM this night and thely, BsClark:
following five meteors
. were observed.
seseeeteeees Soper Wee tedasecsess|vecGeceseeneess|( eye Py cee! ae ei veeeese.|Hight meteors were seen|[q,
tee eeee eens sees ereneeeeeeeees TAS cea hshOese OURAAOLe |) PRR RD. sk nt) Fluctuated in its course.|[q,
i Another meteor ap-
a peared near Aquila at
a 8h 28™ p.m.
at
€ a bright train for 3/40° ......... Moved along a line The ; observer’s back'Td.
seconds. parallel to 6, « Pe- being turned to the
Ce gasi. meteor, his attention

was drawn to it by
the reflected light,
and its course was
marked by the per-
sistent streak.

Date.

1867.
Nov.21

10 8 p.m.|Ibid

22)About 7 20)[bid
p.m.
26/10 2 p.m.|[bid

26/10 34

Place of
Tour. Observation.
hm s
About 8 25/Ackworth,
p-m. Pontefract
(Yorkshire).

senate ween ees

28 a 17 p.m. Ibid. see e lee sesees
1868.
Hebi gall” So pim|lbId .c.ssccccvesss:

July 14}10 50 p.m.|Street

(Somerset).

15)10 35 p.m.|Ibid
30) 5 55

a.m.
(local time),

Aug.10)10 51 p.m./Rome

(local time).

POO e eee eeeesees

Italaya Observa-
tory, Brazils.

REPORT—1869.

Position, or
Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and —
Azimuth,
=3rd mag.x ...... White ......... 0°5 second ,..| a= b=
From 272°-+38°
to 267 +39
=2nd mag.* ...... White .escceees Almost instan-j/About 13° to righ
taneous. of Rigel.
=Srd Mag.x seeeee White ssaaeceet 2 seconds...... 2° to left of « Ce
tauri [?].
About 4’ apparent|Brilliant white|3 seconds...... a= 0
diameter. From about 48°—
to about 65 —
=Srd Mag. oor... |Red .....s02c0ee 15 second ... oS v=
From 55°—13°
to 55 —20
=2nd mag.x ......|White ........./025sec.;rapid/First appeared
almost in th
zenith, near
Persei.
=8rd mag.x .... ReU eveudyss ts '0'S sec.; rapid|Centre of pal
midway betwee!
the head of Arie
and the Pleiades
ami esacspestth ¢ veoo|White ...005...,2 Second ..../[n the WSW,
from about 30:
to 22° above th
horizon.
=Ist or 2nd mag.+',,..., Sacccduedses|aenaenuaeessuareat In Draco ...sccceee
=2nd mag.x ...... White \ccde<te.a|omeasacomeeen asses Commenced at
Draconis.
Apparent diameter|Colour of the|17 seconds ...{Commenced 30!
about 43’ of arc. | electric light. from the meri
dian in the eas
which it crosse
at S. Decl. 65°
(Zen. dist. 42!

Large meteor

eee eee eee ee ee

32’), and disay
peared behind

‘i
|
4]
i
1
hill 50° 15’ w |
|

of south.
beat ssereeeeeeses(Erom the head ¢
Bootes, —_acros:

the hand of Her-
cules to the hand
of Ophiuchus. —

7 A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 225
———_—_ _ ——
4 Direction ; noting also
ppearance; Train, ifany,) Length of | whether Horizontal,
~ andits Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer,
; Inclined.
oe eee
fe a small molten drop|11° ......... Perpendicular to the/Ten meteors seen from|J. E. Clark.
ling out of Vega Lyre. horizon. 8 to 8h 30™ p.m.
‘
cee ae gi ER oS aa Id
first BEAECEIVIVISIDIC .6,|2° ersesecsc|scccceaesecdssees toeeeeecereeslscnscssassesesseeesees pen ee Id.
e nucleus was followed|25° ........./.. ascenes Peccecnccecenes sence. Seen through light Id.
y a short bright red clouds, which ob-
ail, and proceeded by scured the smaller
hree successive jerks, stars. A large halo

gradually

-- Almost perpendicularly

..|Moving towards Cassio-

down.

peia.

the meteor,
sensibly
the landscape.

eee een eeeeeteee eee recs

Another meteor

at 85 45™ p.m.

of light surrounded’
which
illuminated

ap-)
peared above Orion

Id.

—

BeetsasdenvSscdsseccese. 7°. ..seeseeee./Directed from @ Persei Mee aaeas Bavhcont dash Sees
ed gradually from sight|10° .........|sscsseccseeees exerouccscess eaddececesecseceuacessnanep{lGh
ib

meteors appeared|....... aessbeeh|-tnissnoxs seeneeceseeseresceneels doersenacs “onpcche svbadaspa Id
yout the same time.

BUMPRENGCEMadoossesccesess 10° .........|Towards Corona Bore- iId.

oth tail and nucleus
ere as bright as the
tric light, emitting

vember shower.

followed by ajLength
9° long, oval and! visible path

reading at the end.| 77° 41’.

minous drops and
ery sparks.
a large BREPEHUIOL tHE] s0Sessacdsiece (seseenseceel sacks

of|[? Apparent] motion in-

alis.

clined 17° 40’ to the
ecliptic ; retrograde.

Cette e eee eeeeeeeeeneeeesesees

At the appearance of)‘ Anglo-Brazilian

the meteor, the com-| Times,’ August

pass-needle oscillated

7th, 1868. Dr.

15° from the north) F. Massena and
towards the west ; six) Messrs. Arsenio

minutes later, a deto-
nation was heard in
the south-west.

chia by Professor Pi-
nelli.

and Veija.

Seen also at Civita Vec--Mme. Scarpel-

lini, ‘ Annales
de Jl Observa-
toire de Brux-
elles’ for 1868
-69, p. 164.

226 ' REPORT—1869.

Place of

Position, or

5|A few mi-|Aosta, Piedmont|Manytimesbrighter/Brilliant Moved slowly,|Appeared in
nutes be- than a lst mag.*| white; with] asif resisted} east; trav
fore 8 30 yellowish or in its flight. | the whole v
p-m., Tu- pinkish horizon of
rin time tinge. valley of A
towards
W.N.W.,
disappeared

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

ypearance ; Train, if any,| Length of
and its Duration. Path.

a long tapering streak

sft a streak like the last),..............
aft a train on two-|..
thirds of its course.
Threw off a few small

see eeretee sees

oft a faint train which
faded instantly.

ft a train on about half
its course.

e whole length of the
meteor from the head
to the point of the
rocket-like tail 10°. It
neither changed colour
nor form during its
passage, and went sud-
denly out.

e meteor gradually de-
creased in volume as if
by the loss of sparks,
which remained without
descending to the earth
along the bright lumi-
nous streak. This re-
mained visible on the
W hole of its course for

but
no distinct ‘streak
It did

eee rereeeeeeees

ared gradually i in the
lowed by a long taper-|...............
ng tail of smaller width
han the nucleus, and
osing itself at last in a
aintly luminous vapour.

Direction; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.

From Radiant, near B
Camelopardi.

From the same Radiant
as the last.

eee ee eer reeeeereee eee eereeres

Downwards to left.|.
From Radiant, near B
Cygni.

From the same Radiant
as the last.

Direction exactly paral-
lel to the horizon.

From due E. to W.......

Remarks.

This and the next very
much alike. One
more meteor from
a Aquilez.

eee ee ery

A splendid meteor with
perceptible disk.

see ee eeeneneees Oe eeeeesecsees

Imperfect view .........

Very fine meteor ; colour
very marked.

The time of its ap-
pearance was about
half an hour before
the moon rose; a
very imposing meteor
both for magnitude
and steadiness __ of
movement. Another
large meteor was seen
at Ashford (Kent) on
the same _ evening
(The Times, Sept.10

A most brilliant meteor.

No sound was heard
after its disappear-
ance. (See a calcu-
lation of its path in
Appendix I.)

‘Comptes

227

Observer.

T. Crumplen.

Id.

B. F. Smith;
‘The Times,’
Sept. 8th, 1868.

Ren-
dus,’ Sept. 21st,
1868.

Its path was horizontal|/The commencement not|E. Jones.

Horizontal

eee eretereee

seen, but the light as
it passed caught the
observer's eye.

in the same direction
(from E. to N.W.) a
meteor of the same
appearance was ob-
served at Moncalieri.
Asplendid meteor was
also observed at the
same time (95 p.m.,
Roman time) at Flo-
rence.

At the same time andjF. Denza; ‘Stelle

Cadenti del
Periodo di
Agosto Osser-
vati in Pie-
monte nel
1868,’ p. 55.

228

Place of .
Date.| Hour. Obsiivaiel. Apparent Size.
1868.;/h m
Sept.10/10 11 p.m.|Tooting, London|=3rd mag.* ......
10/10 33 p.m.|Birmingham ...|=2nd mag.* ......
10/10 50 p.m.|Tooting, London|=$rd mag. ......
10/10 51 p.m.|Birmingham ...|=1st mag.* ......
1011 1 p.m.|Ibid....... coseees-|= Ord MAB .s.e0e
10)11 16 p.m./[bid....... soceosee/—=OIO MAP «220s.
12/About 11 0|Pitlochrie = Ist mag.%....seeee
p.m. (Perthshire).
12)About 11 Ol[bid.......... alesy | = CCNA RS aes:
p-m.
13\Between _|[bid....... Ssaemces|=—OLG INAEE! scene
9 15 and
10 5 p.m.
13\Between — |[bid ........+00008 =Srd mag.# ......
9 15 and
10 5 p.m.
13|\Between — [Ibid ...........005- =2nd mag. «.....
9 15 and
10 5 p.m.
13/Between — [Ibid .......seceeee =14 mage...
9 15 and
10 5 p.m.
13/10 31 p.m./Birmingham ,,,|=2nd mag.* ......
14) About 10 30/Pitlochrie =]t MAL.% veeesveee
p.m. (Perthshire).
14/About 10 30/Ibid ......... seesee| SOF MAGA sevens
p.m.
23} 9 26 p.m.|Ackworth, =3rd mag.* ......
Pontefract
(Yorkshire).
26) 3 26 am.|lbid............... =Ist mag.* ......
(lat. 53° 40' W.,
long. 1™ 20*'5.)
26] 3 27 am.|[Did ...........006 =2nd mag.* ......

REPORT—1869.

Colour. Duration. Altitude and —
Azimuth.
White, ..1...... Very brief . a= d=
From 222°+40°
to 226 +28
Blue ...seceee 0°5 second ...|From p Pegasi to
Aquari.
NWO ys vepeesn } second ...... a= O=
From 180°+70° |
to 188 +57 |
Yellow ...... 0°25 second ...|From 270°4+29° |
to 270 +10 |
Reddish ...... 0°5 second .../From 325°— 2° |
to 321 —11
Bluey ecas.nes= 1 second ...... From 270°+10° jj
to 267 + 5
Reddish white|2 seconds .../After pursuing one

White ........./0°75 second...|Close to L Came

Reddish ...... 0:5 second .../Commenced near dh

Dull reddish...|1 second ......

WWTtE) ve cbe ane 0°75 second ...|Commenced near
NWWGE ce ah renee 0°75 second...|Commenced nea
Dae tape seede 05 second ...|Midway between }

White ...,...../Slow motion ;|Commenced in

2 seconds.

Dull: spsdeeanes|qarce seoesseseess-(OMmMenced in tf]

White’ ce scssere 0°3 second ...

White .........{0°2 second .,./From 52°-+10°

White ........./0°3 second .../Near p Eridani

Position, or

third of its cou J
it passed over ¢
Lyre.

lopardi.
Persei.

Near 6 Bodtis ..«..,

]
]
}
Andromede,

and below @ An!
dromede.

Pegasi and 4
Arietis. ;

Custos Messiui
Disappeared 5°
below a Persei. |
square of Came)
lopardus. |
e= O=
From 280°-+87°
to 245 +78
|
|

to 484 9

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 299

a
7 | Direction ; noting also
pearance ; Train, if any,| Length of | whether Horizontal u
and its Duration. | Path. Perpendicular, or ; Remarks. Observer.
Inclined.
ft a streak which in-|.............0. Slightly curved path .../Sky clear; no moon ,/W. Jackson.
stantly disappeared. careful observation.
leus followed by an)}......e+..++-/Hrom Radiant T,, 5, 4..-\Fine clear night ......... W. H. Wood.
adhering tail.
BE MEELEAIE WHICH WAS! .0000bescn0cse-|....ccsessccbercassarscnscceet Stars brilliant ; carefully/ W. Jackson.
mediately extinguished. observed.
BENsiscagasccssssccccscees pasts | <ecenasaebs ace From Radiant Nios Tt stelt cos dc cossguaasacasssesacarae| tisvile WLODGs
BME EC sconces Rts ciseo|vone sessreeceeeErom Radiant Bs oes see Seinecasrsegesh<p Id.
ae iiesss0%: see vsessevoeses|Erom Radiant By .ssses],,.cesscessseesteessscsesseees/We Jackson.
‘isseeeeeeseseeseeeeees|More than|Directed from Cygnil,......... sapstetetecdnde wu {R. P. Greg.
25°.
srsseesrsesesseseeessees/ADOUt 2°,,,|Directed towards Ursa| |. tive ere ee Id.
Major.
phosphorescent}, ...........e0.|+eeeees Seucdsaducaveatee dnt Id
nd trained.
easmall nebulous body|5° ......... Directed + from Ursa, ob. 0...ccctecssesessecse: Id.
Minor.
B Streak sss sesseseeseee|Z°eesseeseses| Directed towards a Per-|From Radiant T,.+...+.. Id.
sei.
Biv cccoes “05, OEEELEE Pilndelocvsscecss viace Fell vertically ...... eeees-(From Radiant E in La-\Id.
certa.
MiP ei vdescessess sosseeeveee|More than|Directed from Radiant), ,,.,.....c...cesesccooccoeeee Id.
10°. QG or T,.
seenseteeerevesceeseseseeeee(12° seeoeeee.|Directed from Radiant}... ...........cccceeeeceeee (Id.
a N15(?).
ee... airs 64 Bree LOS ane oye. Fell vertically, nearly)... ped open Id.
from the direction of
‘ Cygnus.
Mevccnse deveese seeeceevesees NOP oe Wa le tceasscvetebws sacs Moree e een eel. cee cencnerenceeetscceeeece «J. E. Clark.
¥
>.
a train which lasted/42° ......... Directed from @ Tauri...|..........00. Melinevoendees +o (Id.

or 4 seconds.

PSs

@ train for 5 seconds|3° or 4° ...|...c.ccsesccecseesecceee oc ... Apparently directed [d.
from the same Ra-
diant-point as the

om last meteor.

230

Date. Hour.

1868.|h m

Sept.29|Evening ...|Troy, U.S. Ame-|Large meteor ......|Bright

Oct. 7/About10 15|Chirac, Lozére, |As bright as the full/Like moon-

p-m.
(Paristime).

7\At night ...

7|About 11 30
p-m.

7|About 11 45

p.m.

7\About 11 45
p-m.

711 48 pm.

Place of
Observation.

rica.

France.

Liskeard
(Cornwall).

Sandwich
(Kent).

Leytonstone

Walworth,
London.

...|varge meteor

REPOoRT—1869.

Apparent Size. Colour.

rose
and red.

moon. light; bluish.

20’ or 30’ in dia-|Red and blue..
meter.

Large meteor

Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.

Duration.

10 seconds ...\First appeared
an altitude
about 50° in t
N.E.

About 3 secs.|Disappeared ne
Ursa Minor.

eee meee teen eens lene e es ee eee eee

3 or 4 seconds
: centre of

Large meteor Purple and red

Wolverhampton |About the apparent|Colours of the

size of full moon.| train orange,
yellow, and

blue.

heavens and te
a southerly |
rection. "i
We wcaeten teelseam ‘Descended to 1
right of 1
cluster of st
known as ©
. siopeia’s Chail

Syexeueee veeeees..(Disappeared a
degrees p

and its Duration.

wed by a very bril-
fiant train.

it exploded and threw
out a great quan-
tity of brilliant white
sparks, the meteor
still pursuing its
course.

a train of brilliant
garks in the form of an
ongated cone, with its
se at Ursa Minor.

first an ordinary
hooting-star, expand-
ng almost instanta-
aeously to a deep red
Jall; followed by a
stream of vivid red

she ball, 1° wide, and
20° in length. Be-
ore disappearing, the
became

luminous
gments, which

ight, pale bluish near|

pearance ; Train, if any,] Length of

Path.

Length

rere reer e st

: instantly
inguished.
risingly grand and
illiant appearance.

ex-

eteor of remarkable

“We

me
‘

rst it was just like
tar, and in its course
increased in a start-
¢ manner, until at
¢ it reached the ap-
ent size of the moon
1 exploded, scattering
S of light in all di-
tions.

oeeeee eee eerons

eee e tee neeeae

About 15°
or 20°.

Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.

i When| the bright} at an angle of between
half way on its course} streak 30°. 70° and 80°.

From S. to N.

From nearly S. to N....

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

Remarks.

ofInclined to the horizon|A magnificent meteor ;/The Troy Whig,’

seen by many ob-
servers.

The sudden flash of
the light was like
that of the full

moon emerging from
behind a cloud. The
meteor itself not
seen. No detona-
tion heard. Time
certainly before 105
30™ p.m.

eee eee ret errr erry

The heavens appeared
for a moment to bea
mass of fire.

231

Observer.

Oct. Ist, 1868.

Abbé Trueize and
Abbé Boiral ;
‘ Les Mondes,’
2nd ser., vol.
xviii, p. 332,

‘The Times,’
Oct. 13th, 1868.

‘Daily Tele-

graph,’ Oct.
9th.

The observer’s attention|W. H. L. (Ibid).

was first drawn to
the meteor by an
unusual and startling
light.

The night was very fine|H. R. (Ibid).

and clear, and the
meteor cast an im-
mense glare around.
Doubtless the largest
meteor ever seen.

No meteor seen on the|W..H. Wood ;

lith of Nov. 1866
was equal to it in
magnitude. The light
with which objects
were illumined was
sufficient for the ob-
server to have picked
up a pin.

‘Midland
Counties
Express.’

232 REPORT—1869.

Place of Position, or
Date.| Hour. Olsercation. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and
Azimuth.
== pa ps jee
1868.|; h m s
Oct. 7)About 11 50/Brighton Large meteor ...... Blue, then red]....... Sa cal eesce Ne hcenseee ee
p.m. (Sussex).
7\About 11 50/Ramsgate A great fireball ...|The body Lasted fully|..... avanpesens een PF
Dal (Kent). white, and) half a sec.
the tail of!
all the co-
lours of the
rainbow.
7)About 11 50| Wimbledon ....../Very large meteor|Red .........++ Lasted several|.++...- <ovenccaaa
yuh seconds.
7\About 11 53\Gordon Square, |Large meteor ......|se++e++9 sesvsees|Lasted Only @].ccccecosesecccooal
p.m. London. moment.

7|About 11 55)sandown, Coast-|At first a small fire- Various ....../2 or 3 seconds|First appeared 4

pels guard Station,| ball, — gradually
Isle of Wight. enlarging.

711 59 54 Belleville, Paris Apparent diameter At first white, 7 seconds...... Passed from
p-m. 30/. then red. of « Cephi
(Paris time) The frag- north of 91
ments blue, Minoris, and
yellow, and wards betw
green. and Y Urse
noris.
7|About 12 0|Angers, France...|Large meteor ......|, eVacstoueeceavite About 1:5 sec.|At an_ appt
p.m. altitude of
(local time). above the
rizon.

———————— nn nnd

A CATALOGUE OF OLSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS,

= 7
pearance; Train, ifany,
and its Duration.

—_—_—_—_——_—__ -____

meteor itself not
nm. The whole
avens seemed _ to
be a mass of bright
blue light followed
immediateiy by a
rimson hue of equal
illiancy.
-like. A huge fire-
with a flare of light
the comet seen at
sondon some years
_. Tt came silently
d collapsed suddenly.
parks, and followed by
flaming tail of great
ongth.

4
Pi
»

treased from a
1 ball, so as, in
bout two seconds, to
Dscure the moon;
burst into “ varie-
ed stars, springing
a body which
med the shape of
e luminous di-
ell ;- I can liken
) nothing else.”’

lually increased until,
1 crossing Ursa Minor,
4 t; the fragments
ading ina cone, 15°
at the base, which
urned towards the
The meteor at!
/ Same time turned
and the fragments
blue, yellow, and

ed ball emitting bright)...

Length of
Path.

Sennen twee eee

dee eens

....-(Direeted towards N.E...

Direction; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.

st leeeee FOO e eee eee est eteseres

Descending towards the
earth,

eee eer ery

weeeeee

Descended in an easterly
direction at an anzle
of about 45° towards
the horizon.

i a

Remarks,

The night was clear and
frosty. The observer's
attention was attract-
ed by seeing the sha-
dows of houses clearly
thrown across the
parade.

A very startling and im-
posing meteor. The
whole sky seemed on
fire. The flash of light
illumined the interior
of a room, at Bekes-
bourne, for 4 or 5
seconds,
The sky was clear.
A vivid flash of
bluish light illumin-
ed surrounding ob-
jects, overpowering
the light of the
moon, and casting
actual shadows on
the ground.

A beautiful starlight
night. Seen also in
several parts of the
metropolis.

During twenty - eight

years’ night - watch-

From 8S. to N.

Observer.

iJ. Fuller ;
‘Midland

Counties

Express.’

(Ibid),

Adam Dickson

P. H. Lawrence;

‘The Times,’
Oct. 9th.

John Burt;

T. F. P. (Ibid).

‘Daily Tele-

ing, and twelve more] graph,’ Oct.
spent at sea, no me-| 10th.
teor was before seen
so large and brilliant.
About 5™ 28% after its|Mons. Treme-

disappearance, a loud
explosion like the
bursting of a mine
in the neighbour-
hood was_ heard.
The explosion was
heard at Paris also
by M. Le Bacilly
[Ibid.]; and the me-
teor was seen at
Diisseldorf, in Ger-
many [‘ Les Mondes,’
Second Series, xviii,
282].

An
meteor.
of an explosion was
heard.

chini ; ‘ Comp-
tes Rendus,’
vol. Ixvii,

771, Oct. 12th,

1868.

extremely bright/Mons. Morren
No sound} (Ibid).

{

234 - REPORT—1869,
Place of Position, or
i ion. i id
Date.}| Hour. Obsarvation. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration a
ree —————
1868.| h m
Oct. 7,12 0 p.m.|Tilloy les Conti,) Large meteor .....-)..-..-ssseeeeeeeee Very bricf du-.....+5 ne
(local time).| Somine, ration.
France.
7\About 12 0\Brussels, Large meteor; — |.ssccerseseeeseee- Very rapid ...|Disappeared in
p.m. Belgium. brighter than NeWs
(local time). the moon.
10/11 10 p.m.|Birmingham .,./=2nd mag.* ...... Blue — .ssseenee 15 second ... a= d=
; From 0°+25'
to w Pegasi.
10/11 17 p.m.|[bid .........eeeee =2nd mag.* ...... Dull white ...)/2 seconds...... a= OF
From 4°+15
; to 358 +15
11/12 45 a.m.|Ibid ...,.......... =3rd mag.* .....|Blue ......... 0°5 second ...|From ¢, to B
onis.
11)12 52 am.j[bid....... eee =I1st mag.x......+-/Blue ...+00.../0°2 second . a=
From 75°—3
; to 74 —7
11) 1 O am.|lbid...., sesoeecees/=OFd MAG X coves ‘Dat iaeetees cee 0°5 second ... “= -
From 60°+-2
to @ Aurigz
11) 7 1 p.m.jJAckworth, sea wo vascoadede neyo Re REA oa yressnseee- 15 sec.; very|In the west;
Pontefract slow speed.| above the ]
(Yorkshire). zon.
15) 9 22 p.m./Tooting, London|About=3rd mag.* White ........- L second ...+4. a= ia
From 269°-+-3!
to 260 +1
15] 9 22 pm/lbid.............. About=3rd mag.x White ......+6 1 second ...... From 3 (#, y)
(6, 6) Cygni
DG 45) acy MOY 2 gh ow gute sfaveecsdnowareene-|Soansensosns esse] coxveven hppa From the
(Yorkshire). to d¢hee
[? a] of A
meda, to %
the star
| H rith [?<
714 fe Some Taurus.

W112 1 oe ia gen] —=SFO MAH” cecue-| ISIE Geena. -u 0° second .,.|From @ Arieti
ss : Pegasi.
17.11 58 p.m. [bid «ssseeersseee. =drd mag.* ...... |Blue seasons lo-s second ... acta Orio)

y Ceti.

arance; Train, if any,
ind its Duration.

Veccen teteeeserees|seeeeeeeseeeess|Moving from E. to W.../The meteor cast a vivid|Mons. Roze;
light. A few mo-| ‘Comptes
ments after its dis-| Rendus,’
appearance there was| vol. Ixvii. p.
heard adullrumbling} 771, Oct.12th,
sound like that of a 1868,

a carriage rolling over
a pavement.
a luminous streak on)............. ..|From S.E. to N.W... ... The meteor threw ajM. Marchal;
§ course. strong light. Seen| ‘Annales de
also. at Louvain,} 1l’Observatoire
Liége, and Antwerp.| de Bruxelles’
According to the de-| for 1868-69,
F scription at Paris,| p. 168.
‘if a violent explosion
3 was heard a few
, minutes after its dis-
7 appearance.
Sete edass er ccsessece:|scccseccere ..-./From Radiant, y Ceti;]..... snavhescecdoxesVaveeccses| We lle IMNBOHE
4 or R,, »-
MM iiepere-s--.«0--\oreshor- {From Radiant Tyo) ...|...-cssssseceseacccconeesee ..|Id.
- tened
x course. .
UIE tray saa cerceses: is Me tesboxeue irom: Radiant: Porccciscvslocceee tone seeccaencs Pty: Id,
ro
Meas ccs yee 55050 Barercces | Jeraysdencsess Bromo Radiant) By resscssenlt, seeeeseeneerane a eee aes Id,
i
2. MER So CGR Gs s250005-|oc0ccecsesesse From), -Radiant;- y+ Ceti. owes ae Id.
or U.
ft a slight streak....... cl 2a eae a eAbEe yak Redasterance lung sehenards sesensSevesntorant nie Clare
bs a streak which wasj.,,,,.......... ae ies ..{This and the next two/W. Jackson.
guished at once. meteors were observed
| within a quarter of a
minute of time.
ift a streak which lasted)....0.......... Beco icy sean tah Enea ...|No moon; stars very|Id,
ather longer than that bright. Another mi-
of the previous meteor. nute meteor was seen,
j almost simultaneous
and nearly in the
int same position, with
z this one.
sy Eee ....(Directed from the Ra-/fwo other meteors ap-|B. Livingstone ;
j diant O in Orion. peared at about 11} ‘Daily News.’
p-m. from the bright :
star in the head of
Petus [? # Ceti] to the
head of Capricornus.
ee as's.0s sede SR ie OOREEA From Radiant R, ......|- nsltvneualecseesaseasseeeasaeco| We kts) MOOI:
+E REE eee sasaee| Directed from RAGIEULI| was <cdvessacesessascecccsanass|LCe

Length of
Path.

Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Tnelined.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS,

Remarks.

235,

Observer.

936 : REPORT—1869.

>
ee ee

Place of Position, or

Date. Hour. Onseerahion: Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. are i
a rad S| Se eemmsunsimease || Zac 88 oS ee ‘
1868.;h m s
Oct.17|/10 5 p.m.|Ackworth, =Ist mag.x ......|White ........./0°4 second ... —
Pontefract From 5°—17°9
(Yorkshire). to 38 —2)
17/10 50 p.m.|Somerton About=1st mag.x/Bright white...|.....s++ssee0...| Disappeared near ¢
(Somersetshire). Draconis,
18/12 8 a.m.|Birmingham ...|=3rd mag. ......|Dull............/0°5 second ,..|From « to
Orionis.
18/12 9 a.m.|{bid ......:.0..+0e-/>>1st mag.x ...... Green and red|1°5 sec.; slow e= o=m
speed, From 55° 0°
to y Eridani.
18/12 23 a.m.|[bid .............../=3rd mags ......|Reddish ...... 0-5 second .../From ia
a> =>
to 47°—998m
18/12 23 30 |[bid............5.. =2nd mag.x ...... ‘Blue ......... L second ....../From 6 to @ Arieti
a.m. +
MG 22 caer |LDId ess secescese-|== LSE Maz icsees cor White ........./0°5 second .../Shot from p Eri
dani towards
: Leporis.
18/Between Tooting, London/About=3rd mag.x Dull white .../2 or 3 seconds|Just beyond ar
9 15 and ; parallel with
9 35 p.m : the south edg
of the Mill
Way; near thi
zenith, ,
18] 9 54 p.m.|Birmingham .../=3rd mag.x ...... Blue .........|1 second .,..../from the Pleiade
to @ Trianguli. —
18/About 10 0, footing, London|Rather bright me-|.............0000 Moyed slowly, About halfway be
p.m. teor, tween the ‘Poit
ers’ (#, 8 Ur
Majoris) and (
pella.

1810 21 p.m./Hornsey Road ...|Large meteor «+e+++ Bright white... 4 to 6 seconds| lt passed from
little south of ¢
Cassiopeiz to
(y, 0) Cygnia
onwards
the way to
.| horizon.
18/10 26 p.m.|Tooting, London|=3rd-mag.% ......|.esssccceserseeee 4 second .,....|From between P
; jiades and Al
baran, a Ii
nearer the forn
than the latter
: ilk 3 (a, X) Orio
1810 47 p.m. [id ............../=2nd mag.x ; secoscseesveeseeee(2 SeCONd ......|Lt began under
“|* larger and jades and end
~ brighter than between (6 and 7
the last. Arietis. |

rr ti ars

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 237
Direction; noting also
ce; Train, if any,| Length of | whether Horizontal
ts Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or ? Remarks. Observer,
Inclined.
TEAK aiWse'ssise 15 |O costae Manes|eSensecpetscapssperaaterance: |t Seco Scviousees Rib ekivaeneates W. II. Wood.
a slight train}....... Beret rem inc ekeesoe Vesela ork PhShestaes te varcaa secs vee {d.
ich yanished im-
tely. ; 5
er cca cciclasccecsseees vas|Hrome Radiant’ O) faves aonlevcesvacberte ss sect Peccoreanae Id.
RUMRDSEr erat tceccsoco.|<sssceavssesee.[FTOM Radiant Aig sscost|.ecessccocccoocccdcacceedcsces lle
Pens eesessvenseveecesssessnceessoosseseeeeess/ FLOM Radiant Ajss 15 se+lesessscssseecsessessecesoveees| Ole
sehetessevessesseastelessseseeeesesss(From Radiant Ry, g.cseel. a ha eS eo
ttrersseesseseeesseeeseeee-(More than/From Radiant Aj, ...... ‘Intercepted view......... Id.
10°.
AS Gd

broad but not very
ight streak which
_ instantly — extin-
shed.

Pte eeeeeeneee SOO eeeeeeens
ry

ve Pent eee ete reeeeesesens

5
ODE r ere ereetenereeens|®

[ts course
curved
thus—

about
half a de-
gree.

arenes + feeeee

From Radiant O........

Almost horizontal, to-

teoras that seen at Horn-
sey Road at 10% (?94)
21™ p.m.;no moon; stars
less bright than on the
preceding night.

nutes; sky hazy; over-
cast at 105 45™ p.m.

wards Ursa Major.

a line ftom Tauri to
a Arietis,

p.m. three small me-
teors moved on a line
a few degrees below
and parallel to Plei-
ades and Jupiter, the
second below the first,
and the third below
the second; all of the
same length of course
as that line.

fine streak.

Ina direction parallel to Careful observation... - Id.

Probably the same me-|W. Jackson,

‘One meteor in 15 mi-|\V. H. Wood.

Between 10" and 114|W. Jackson.

pwede castes ee cs vabaresebecad Very fine meteor and|T. Blunt; ‘ Daily
News,’ Oct. Ist.

aivsisave Sehnvlsiesesseeneeevien alts sas aeteee tert EEE ete LC REGIS

238 REPORT—1869.
Date Tour. Hace pf Apparent Size Colour. Duration.
ss Observation. PP : :
1868.;}h m 8s

Oct. 18/10 58 p.m.|/Tooting, London|=3rd mag.% ...+0+Jesseeseeeees eieces| saad oeeoaviee vevee

19| 7 33 p.m.|Birmingham .../=3rd mag.* ...++.|Pale blue...... 1 sec.; slow
speed.
19/10 52 p.m.|[bid .........00008 =Ist mag.¥ ..... Yellow ...... 2 seconds
T9Q|LL 7 p.m. [bid .....ceeeseeess =3rd mag.* ......|Blue .../0°5 second ...
19/11 10 p.m.|Ibid sececoeerevsoes|—=2NG MASH sosens BIUE siseesee- 0°75 second ...
19/11 21 p.m.|[bid .........00004. 1st Mag.x......006 Pale blue...... 0-5 second ...
19/11 35 p.m.|Ibid ...........06. =2nd mag.* «.... Blue séesveues 0°5 second ...
19/11 40 p.m.|[bid ............06 =2nd mag.x ....0./ Yellow sereeeees 1 second ......
19/11 42 p.m.|Ibid .........000- =2nd mag.x ......- Blue. csdsereees 0:5 second ...
I9|11 42 30 |Lbid .cisccdcacccss =Ist mage ...0.- Yellow ...... 1 second .....
p-m. i
19/11 48 p.m. |[bid sssccsssieesess SSirius oo... White, orange,|4 seconds......
dull red.

D012. 4 apm: |Lbid ss siydseessaaces |=2nd mag.x ...... Yellow. sicfacces 0-5 second .
20/12 11 aim.|[bid :..sscscicciens S=STd MAg.x ....0 Dull... 2 0:25 second...
FOLD 12 armatlbid sssscoccscecses|—= SUIS ..seesecees White .....0..: 1 second ......
ZONA V7 apr |LDId wecressiicesanee =2nd mag. ....../Orange ....../0°5 second .
2012 29 a.m. [bid .........0.0- Roig sssnecer: Orange ~ <..00 1 second ......
: |
2H) 8 12 p.m.|Tbid .s..seccsen.se ==SFd MAGE sone Blue es../0°S second .
21 9 25 p.m. Tooting, London/=2nd mag.* ...... Witte, sass see. 3 seconds......

..|From 4 (Plei

Position, or —
Altitude and |
Azimuth.

Commenced a
below 4 (6
rige, Castor). ©

From « Cygni to
Draconis.

Si pie
b=)

to “0° + 24°
From 80°-+90°
to the Pleiades

From ¢ to B Tav
From B to @ A
rige, and 2°

ther.
Commenced at
Aurige.
Ci

to
From y Orionis |
o Eridani.

.\From ¢ Tauri to

Persei.
From ™ on ior

to rer

:
../From £ Ceti t .
Piscium.
.|Appeared a
=
“a4 |
From 120°+4§ ;
to 139 +45 |
..|From 105°+379
to 129 +51

From 0 pa

;
-
“

to 1 128° +5 |
.|Ap eee at

20°
From near T
- (%,-e) Hereu

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 239

Direction; noting also
ce; Train, ifany,) Length of | whether Horizontal,

d its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or

a Inclined.

Remarks, Observer.

——

SMUD ysks$ssdsccceseesvesleccssesseeesss.(Erom the direction Of a|-sssossessessovesseoessesseves|We Jackson.
Orionis.

PO e meee etre eater eae Fetes eee ataes From Radiant [vip OT] + ccccccccvecccscccveccccccsons W. ils Wood.

q z “ Ts, 374°.
green train 25° in|.............../From Radiant O ........./++ abiawsasb eater sR tgeintces | EOls

Meet iey.cteyes|sesssscassrreHETOM Radiant LrEL ‘Or Olisisss.cecsrecaccacccsdsesseaslLe

BOUPEAG sucess eases. eee sees Tt aa .../From Radiant O.. St eaves theeees seckeou beers Id.

ME GiE sy cocce sss|csececessessaes From Radiant Fees SE |From 10" 30™ to 11530m|Id.
p-m. four meteors
; i seen.
MPs. 2<:c0e...(20° .sss.....(Lowards Polaris, from|......:+.s0«. ABO aS Pe Id.
a Radiant O.
eft & green streal.........[e..c0-sesse00-{From Radiant O ...sscecsceseesseeeees sete estas
PSTN sts isos es séceec>ss|soeesesooessse.(/FOM Radiant O .....s00.[-sscanrerses ere in ey ee
ed streak............). cease tives, HOI Biadiant Orssyived\ tate cnnccassocdapoadussaneidl ts

showed @ twolThe first 5°/From — an — UNKNOWN swe sseeesescrnveeenesaeevenes Id.
‘ima and minima.| foreshort-| southern Radiant.
ed colour from| ened;
to red, nearly} whole
earing, and pro-| path 80°.
some di-

as a dull object.

streak of 30°

5 h, the first

reen, the last

‘ich lasted five

MOREA ech iscsesies Repeeee eh rerces LrOM tad an’ Gives sssveelsaeedecassaes or seus PED RN

teevseerseseesesee(10° sess es.(Directed towards 7,|From Radiant O ........./[d.
‘ Leonis.

siverevsessesevseveeoleenssesseesveee(EtOM Radiant F,...sssse.|esseesecescssessessessesessee Ede:

BEMEAMMocsesscat|<.ccctesssceess(HXOM Radiant O v.ss0000s For remarks on this|Id.
meteoric shower see
Appendix III.
2 ae ceecesscesee,/Evom Radiant O........./From 11" 30™ p.m, tojld.
a ” 12% 30™ a.m. ten me-
teors.
stessteestessssceesecereslZB". sassesee.| Directed towards @ Ceti,/The night of the 20th|Id.
from Radiant A,,. was overcast.
MG wreak fF Bi.cseicsssosac.|ssesssessveseveessveenseeve.4Moon set; sky clear; W. Jackson.

stars very bright ; two
faint lightning-flashes
in the east between
gb 45™ and 10" p.m.

————

249 RE?GRT—1869.
of ]
Date Hour Place of Apparent Size Colour Duration.
4 i Observation. i :
1868.| hm s
Oct. 21) 9 49 p.m.|Tooting, London|=3rd mag.x ...... Witte ie sesnes lisecond) sre.
21\/Between {Primrose Hill, |=4th mag,x ...... Like a Aurigze|Steady speed..
10 33 and |} London.
10 52 p.m.
21/10 38 p.m./Ackworth, =2nd mag.x .e.. White .........|0°5 second ..,
Pontefract
(Yorkshire).
21/10 57 p.m./Birmingham ...|/=3rd mag.x ...... Orange......... 1 second ......
SUMON SLD, j|Nbid).,nearesccesace =4th mag.x ....../Orange....0r. 0°5 second ...
p.m.
PAS LO) pem-|Ebid). o.c.cceee sac =drd mag.x ...... BIG A esapevend 0°25 second...
P10 GB I 35 05 0s =dth mage... Reddish i 0°75 second...
UTS SpimMs Pid! ...0secnee voces = Sirius aint... IWihhite) wsdeveses 2 secs.; slow
speed.
mu Ads pm. TDI <.a.sa+cescoes >Ist mag. oo... White ...00. ..{1 second ......
22/12 44 a.m.|Radcliffe Obser-|At first = 1st mag.x,|Nucleus Dright|-cosvcsereesecoees
vatory, Oxford.| then=2. white, then
green.
2210 32 p.m./Ackworth, =drd mag.x ...... White ........./0°3 see.; rapid
Pontefract speed.
(Yorkshire).
22'10 33 p.m.|[bid .,........0000./=3rd mag. ....../White ...... oo
slow.
23) 9' 50. p.m|{bid ......0.. See alee Mis caneracemiee: White ..50
|
|

..../2 seconds....../From 354°+4- 22°

0°5 sec.; very|From 352° —7®

Position, or
Altitude and —
Azimuth, —

From near y Cyg
to 4° south of
Lyre ies

In the N.E. or B

From 322°+12°
to 317+ 8

From 258°— 7°

to 335 —12
From ¢ to @ Aquai

2= 0=

From 77°+26°
to 845424
Appeared at
87° +17
Appeared at o ©

= ome
From 95°-+20°
to « Geminoru

Shot from a Peg
past a group
stars in the ¢
stellation Pisce

c=. Oa
From 12°—13°
to 2°99

to 3515-8

‘ance; Train, if any,
d its Duration.

cond or two.

Length of

a bright streak for a Length

oe:
Cygni to}
B Lyre.

Direction ; noting also

whether Horizontal :
Perpendicular, or , Remarks. Observer.
Inclined.
of Parallel to aline through]............08. SOSCE OSCE DCE W. Jackson.
y Cygni and 6 Lyra.

small meteors seen,|2$° to 15°../Radiant-point about 5°

g unusually per-
nt streaks.

red streak for 2 se-|.......se00.../From Radiant O

PEPE deed ereraseseetes 2

iaaaneccweseccss ee eeeeeee

for a moment

___ brightness
it disappeared.
a luminous
; the point of

; ‘searcely visible,|1°
ened gradually.

WAS AYF=|. cc. sessceees .

RILZGM ac teseens

B Persei.

eee eee eee eeeeeeeens

seen eeeee

Dei lcoveesessawens From Radiant O........

satslebenaees From Radiant R,.........

Dates Directed towards v Ori-

onis; Radiant O.

seoveesevseeeee Fell vertically, from Ra-

diant A,,, ,;-

eee From Radiant O.........

Oe e eee C ECE Pees cere cer

See EP Ree e Cee ere eeeeany

below, and 2° west of

"FO e ee meee eee teers etereeernee

...|Another meteor at 95[d,

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 241

A bright auroral glare)T. Crumplen.
visible all over the
north and north-east-

ky.
ina 7. EB Clark.

W. H. Wood.

STOOP Ree eee ee remo ener eseerans

Id.

ee eee eee eee errr fee

__|Id.

APO R Ree eee eee rete ener eeeene

Close to Radiant-point..|!d.

View of the path inter-|Id.
cepted 4° above the
horizon.
From 10" 45™ to 111d.
45™ p.m. six meteors
seen. Night of the
22nd cloudy.
On the same night|B- Lucas; com-
seventeen other me- municated by

teors were observed. | 2. H. Alnatt,
in nthe * Sussex
Mail.’

J. E. Clark.

seeee ween eee Per eereee oeecetee

Id.

HPN N eee Oe tee ne eeeranereetes

47™ p.m. moved at
right angles to this
one, near § Andro-
mede,

242

REPORT—1869.

.....|Moved slowly

Position, or

Duration. Altitude and
Azimuth,
Very brief .../From 358°+33°

to 355 +10
- {In the S.D. ....ceve

Very rapid |Descended in the
motion, S.E., and disap-)

Place of ; ;
Date.| Hour. Owseivatish, Apparent Size. Colour.
1868.) h m
Noy. 2) 8 20 p.m./Primrose Hill ...J= 3rd magi ...c0s|.ssssceccateoseees
3/About 3 15)Bilston, Stafford-|Large meteor ...... White and red
p.m, shire,
3)About 3 15)Leamington...,..|As large asa rocket]|.........s008
p-m.
3)About 3 15/Rugby .........66 Very large meteor| White, like ig-
p-m. nited mag-
nesium.
3/About 3 15)Birmingham ...|Appeared as large].............0000
p-m. as the crescent
moon.
sjAbout 3 15/[bid........ ee. Large and brilliant} White and red
p-m. meteor.
| Mondy ee DMO EDIC ca wesessenens Shorter axis 3; |Vivid white,
longer axis $ of] and red.
the moon’s ap-
parent diameter.
ANS) OD spiMiibid: .ccasabets nee =3rd mag.x ...... Pale blue

../2 secs.; slow z= =)
motion. From 23°+ 9°
to 20 +14

peared on
verge of the
rizon.

Geawinka eRe Shot across the s
and disapp
behind build
in the E.8.E.

jeasesespstettt (in the S.E,
apparently bi
tween the sp
tator and Y
ley church,
nearly in °
E.S.E.

3 seconds......|Commenced at azi-
muth 33°.
S., alt. 32°;
appeared at
muth 60° E.
S.

landmarks,

A CATALOGUE O¥ OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 243

Direction; noting also
mee; Train, if any,| Length of | whether Horizontal
its Duration. | Path. Perpendicular, or’ Remarks, Observer.
Inclined. =
‘train on its whole 20° ..........From Radiant Nagi@)int]sitetessatatecntessorassesstee/d’s Orutaplene
se which faded in-
tly. ye .
ite fireball wWith)...ccccsscsecseles teceecccccsscocesccssessosess/ THE Sun shone, and ‘British Daily
met-like smoky tail the sky was almost) Post’ and
lowing it. At Al- cloudless. Seen also} ‘ Times:

ter it resembled a
streak of fire emit-
much light and

at Sarsden, Chipping
Norton, and at Not-
ting Hill, in London,

$ in its course. as a large bright
meteor in the south,
going from west to
east. An explosion
was heard at the lat-
-_ ter place.
its course it appeared,........, ...» Descended towards the\[The meteor was also|‘The Morning
t ) have a zigzag form. earth. seen at Northampton, Star.’
. in full sunshine, emit-
ting bright flames,and
lasting a few seconds.
‘The Times.’]

MUP tecsssccsseccesces|éacssesseceseee Rushing downwards .../[Seen also at Hartle-|‘ The Times.’
bury, as a_ shining
silvery light descend-
ing in the south-east ;
and at Edmonton,
moving from _ the|.

south-west towards
the east. Mr. Wood’s
M.S.]

a crescent form,|.........2.066

+ seeeeseteeesesereeeeeeeeeeees|The wind was high, and|‘ Birmingham
e€ moon a few

clouds were passing} Daily Post.’
quickly. |

.|Directed from the same/The meteor appeared|‘ Birmingham
quarter as the wind,| during a strong gale. | Daily Gazette.’
or about W.S.W. to
E.N.E., descending at
an angle of 45° to the
horizon.

FEO e meee eee eeneenleaeeeeneaenans

Cent WAS Dright|......sseleccecsreserseeeesessseeeeeee/NOtwithstanding the|W. H. Wood.
the rest, near bright sunshine, the
ruby-red; red meteor was intensely
issued from the luminous. Had it ap-
_ Merged into peared at night, it
ail for about 1°. would have equalled
latter 15° in that of the 7th of
h, like smoke in October. A strong
ine, lasted only a gale from W.S.W.
ent. The meteor blowing at the time,
in transit; di- prevented any sound
ished, and changed from being heard. See
towards ex- figure in Appendix TI.
» as if burnt

SPOOR ROO e Oe ewer en sete eH ee eee nag eer eens iter TCP TT Terre eee e ere rey Id.

244

Date.

1868.;h m gs

Hour.

Place of
Observation.

Nov. 6; 7 35 p.m.|Primrose Hill,

8 6 56

8 8 18

810 51

810 55

9) 7 22

1310 16

14)

London.

p-m.|Ackworth,
Pontefract
(Yorkshire).

p.m.|Primrose Hill,
London.

p-m. TDM vesssesceas oe

P.m.|[bid ......eeereeeee

p-m.|Ackworth,
Pontefract,
(Yorkshire).

p-m.|Primrose Hill,
London.

a.m.|Madrid Observa-
tory (Spain).

9 57 40 |Ackworth,

Pontefract,
(Yorkshire).

Apparent Size.

=14 mag.x ......00

= 23 mag.x......0..

nerort—1 869.

= Ist mag.x......... Teed \iaccseniemaree

'=2nd mag.x ......|White ...... :-./0°8 second 2 56°4+-26°

= Ist mag.*......... REGYcwssaccsess

=1st Mag cveee.| WHIEE ...0r0ce-|eronsese

eae cnacuacasesteony TOU acasaeses

Cclour.

Bluish ....0...
From 290°+37°

Blwish <.sscccs|vosseerese eee ace

White .......0/. ee |
From 50°+23°

From about

secesseees(HOm 5 5°-F- 46%

Position, or i
Altitude and —
Azimuth.

e= =

From 310°+33°

to 293 +23;

beginning at
Cygni.

From about

a =

313°—20°

to about

275 —30

a= $=
to 261 +11;
ending near
Ophiuchi.

From 315°+16°

to 33 +145

to 58 +28

78°-+-35°
to about

to 91 +29

its Duration. Path.

streak

Be ¢

faint streak on its|..
e course.

bright train for half}2}° ..
‘cond which faded

eak. Brightest/3°....... ease
iddle of its

might Streak...)......-...00se.

bright Juminous|4? or 5° ...
which quickly
to a width
°, and faded
centre so as
Saerine. It
visible ten

nucleus. <A
mass 2° long
ad.

Seen for
about 80°.

; Train, if any,) Length of

Beeeee

EO Se cleswateeys

Peewee tene

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.

THO m emer e eee e rant eenes eens

~ very fnemsiredkiVery, (long). cosevecccsesessecscocesneees:
ts whole course] path.
faded instantly.
f a momentary streak..|....... Sa ec BAe supe cescansivnewsassissetyes sees

This meteor and the
next evidently ra-
diated from Pleiades.

Upwards towards «
Persei. A short path;
close to the Radiant-
point.

Direction ; noting also

wo
Hea

Remarks. Observer.

——

wleeeees

...|T. Crumplen.

Oscillated in its flight,../J. E. Clark.

A fine swift meteor ...

T. Crumplen.

Id.

{d.

id.

stat ee eeeees Fenn ee ee ee weseeee

Downwards towards the
left.

Towards « Urse Majoris

Peewee een eeeee

Emerged at appearance

On the night of the 13th
clear for ten minutes,
at 92 45™ p.m.; no
meteors seen. The
rest of the night over-
cast.

Sky clear about this

time for 15 minutes.

No Leo meteors !

J. E. Clark,

f. Crumplen,

-|M. Aquilar,

POO eee OOOO eet eer eee

F. E. Clark.
from behind a house.

Place of

Date Observation.

Hour.

1868.; hm 5s

Noy.14} 1 12 a.m./Newhaven, U.S.
(New York} America.
time).

14,5 6 45
am,
(Newhaven
time).

Lid ieee ccaxsceee

15|12 20 a.m.|/Madrid Observa-
(local time).| tory (Spain).

15) 1 30 a.m.|Bahia, Brazils,
(local time).} S. America.

15) 6 22 p.m.)Ackworth,
Pontefract

(Yorkshire).

is |eO- 3. pir: Ibid. wsnscesweee

eee

_ pEPoRT—-1869,

Apparent Size. Colour. Duration.

Large meteor ....../[ Nucleus

white; train} Pallisades.}

greenish

blue :—at

Palisades,

Vike 15 = (Cyt:

man. |
Large meteor ......|...... ser cnmbessealeaag age wetetas cess
ALPS IMELEOD Nas. .aprsciscpass+ssscnss hee meee Rt ete dans
Large meteor ,.....|-s:ssere-seneeeess A few seconds
=2nd mag. ....../White ..:....../4 seconds......

= 1st mag.x

Yellow. ....../0°5 second ...

[0°5 second; at|Centre of the per-

.|Between 6 and

Position, or
Altitude and >
Azimuth.

sistent luminou
streak 2° to the
right of Jupiter.

Passed 1° S. of f
Geminorum.

Ursze Majoris.

from £,S.E,
W.N.W.

From 297°— 3°

From 55°-+
to 64 +22

its Duration.

a nearly
5° or 8° in
which became
ed, the upper part
ards the right, and
he lower part towards
he left, thus—

finally became hori-
and was still
visible when the

n was visible six
and moved

left a cloud of
c light of varying
e; three or four
the apparent dia-
of the moon.

Left a well-
_ streak which
: unchanged
inutes; then
y faded, and
itself from W.
nto a luminous
brighter than
y Way, which
disappeared,
y moying, in
inutes.

POOH eee reat teasers

eus was not seen;...

a UO ec antease

entary train 3°)11° ....,

e;° Train, ifany,| Length of

Path.

at Palli-
sades. |

Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.

vertical|[50° or 60°: Apparently conformable
to the Radiant-point

in Leo.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

Remarks.

The meteor itself was
not seen. Also ob-
served at Poughkeep-
sie, Pallisades, Wash-
ington, &c. See Ap-
pendix I.

For the height of this,|Id.

and other meteor
streaks observed in
the United States on
the same date, see
Appendix I.

247

Observer,

A. Newton;
American
Journal of
Science, for
May, 1869.

Before a telescope could|M. Aquilar ;
be directed to it,] ‘Les Mondes’
it disappeared. Pro-| for Dec. 3rd.

bably the streak of
a meteor as large
as that which ap-
peared at 2h 33"
a.m. on the prece-
ding morning. Until
45 am., when the
sky became overcast,
the number of me-
teors observed was
very small,

The night was clear and
calm, with a slight
breeze from the east.
Several other meteors
were seen on the same
night, 24 hours later
than the _ predicted
time of their occur-
rence.

Curved path, thus— A,

=~" Fae

...|Directed from Pleiades

AR eee eet eee e ence teens

‘ Glasgow Daily

Herald.’

K. Brown.

Thomson.

248 REPORT—1859.

Pisee:at : Position, or
Date.| Hour. Gbcereation. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Aine
1868.;h m_ s
Noy.15| 8 40 p.m./Ackworth, =2nd mag.* ....... Wilteyesccssoe 0°3 second ,.. z= 0=3
Pontefract : From 347°+11° —
(Yorkshire). to 335 + 4
15,9 0 p.m.|Primrose Hill, |=3rd mag.x ...... BIISHG soy eee Moved swiftly|From 72°-5+450° —
London. to 55 +23
Dec. 5\About 10 30)Manchester...... =drd mag.¥ ...... Dull white .../A rapid flash.../From ¢ Geminorur
p-m. to the hind paw:
of Ursa Major. |
|
510 45 p.m./ Wilmslow Large meteor ...... lagesee.swae About 4 secs...|Plan of the ;
(twelve miles teor’s course a
S.S.E. from mong the stars.
Manchester). P|
x
* *
%
Ursa
Migor
ocyon io
, Eby ny
P SHlorizon
10; 9 32 p.m.|Ackworth, BD eeeiodncas dese White ........- 2 seconds...... From about
Pontefract — 4
(Yorkshire). 57°+13°R)
| to 4143
MOO) 63 250! ITB so. veeckarectlen =2nd MEG.% ...00e White: .cacccses O'l second ... From 40°+8°
p.m. | to 40 +7
10)10 LO Mans pierces haenckee =2nd mag.# ..... Wie scracnace L second ...... From 7194179
to 66 +13
HOMO 530) spin. Cid! -d.cc. cose eee =2nd magx ...... WVibiteeasesners 15 second ... From 55°+
to 45 —2
16/10 44 30 |ibid....... eres =Ist mag.x ...... Wihiter.#2.0%.. |L second ...... From 71°+414°
p.m. | | to 67 +10

nee; Train, if any,| Length of
d its Duration. Path.
OU eer err rena (16° seeeee fee
faint streak .........|.sccssc00.. note
BieaRccoestcactscess PN Biss.
| |
> the largest kind of 20° or 25

-rockets. Left a fine
e of fire, and burst
nto five or six splendid

é fire-balls like Ro-
man-candles. (See the
ich of its apparent

ce.

°\From about S.W.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS,

249

Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or -
Inclined.

OOO e meee eee eenee te eeentens

To right; almost hori-
zontal.

to
N.E. Inclining
slightly downwards.

Directed from Aldebaran

ed _—s suddenly ;/22° .....,...

no streak,
PREP eee eee re stoners ae
| Se aa

treet e eens

$e | a

tleeeees See needa reneareeteee ees

-. From the same direction

..Almost parallel in direc-

Remarks.

\A very fine blue meteor
was seen on the 23rd.

A magnificent object ...

A brilliant meteor. Path’
not quite straight.

Evidently not from the
same Radiant-point
as the last meteor.

From the same direction
as the meteor at 9)
32™ p.m.

Id.
as the last meteor.

Id.
tion to the meteor re-
corded before the last.

Observer.

J. E. Clark.

T. Crumplen.

R. P. Greg,

G. H. Greg.

J. E. Clark.

250

REPORT—1869.

Place of :
Date.} Hour. Observation. Apparent Size.
1868.; h m s
Dec.10)10 51 30 |Ackworth, =3rd mag.# ......
p.m. Pontefract
(Yorkshire).
10/10 57 p.m.|Primrose Hill, |= 2..scceeceeeeee
London.
10)10 58 p-m./Ackworth, po aaeapvenceneneeaa®
Pontefract
(Yorkshire).
11) 6 5 p.m.|Primrose Hill, |=3rd mag.* ......
London.
12\12 7 a.m.|Birmingham ...|=2nd mag. ......
12/12 15 a.m.|[bid .......ee.000.. =8rd mag.* ......
W225 LS bid! S...ccccse0s6 =2nd mag.% ......
a.m.
12\12 18 a.m.|Ibid SU eeasateesseeehaes
WAN 922) tari |[pid’..-s¢+-.ceese.: =3rd mag.* ......
12/12 25 am./Ibid ...........6. =Ist mag.x ......
12/Between _|Manchester...... =8rd mag.* ......
12 30 and
1 O am.
12/Between {Ibid ..........c..6- =3rd mag.# vs...
12 30 and
1°10 ‘aim:
12) Between Uidtet nn. =3rd mag.* ......
12 30 and
1 O am.
12\12 32 a.m.|Birmingham ...}=3rd mag.* as...
12/12 34 a.m./[bid .........00000. =Ist mag.x a...
12/12 43. a.m./IDid ..css..c.s0c00s = 2nd mag.¥ s..e0
12)12 46 a.m.|Ibid ............... =3drd mag.% 4...
12/12 47 a.m.|Ibid............... S-SITIUS -.cc4zes: 0:
12/12 52 a.m.|Ibid .......... seees| Ord Mage os.:..

Colour.

peeneneee

ste eeenee

serene

Biue

Blue

Deep red

eeeeetees

eeeenveee

nen eeaee

naeeeneee

eee weeeee

tereee

sere eeeee

Duration.

1 second ......

Moved slowly

2 seconds......

eet eeeee

0°5 second .

0°5 second

2°5 seconds ..

0°5 second

|0°5 second ...

A rapid flash..

0°5 second ...
3 secs.; slow
0°5 second .,.

0°5 second ...

2°5 seconds ...

0°5 second ...

Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.

_— =
From 83°+16°
to 77 +13

From 165°+60°
to 165 +40

From 69°+ 7°
to 50 —1

From 81°+45°
to 95 +70

_,{From @ to 7, Car

Majoris.

...(From » Androm(

e= O=
From 6°+15°
to 249

.|From 20°+13°

to 2 0-7

...|From 4 (a Andr

mede, y Pegas
to « Pegasi.

a= OO}
From 78°+36°
to 62 +35
From (6 Canis M
noris to the clusti
of stars in Cance}
From near y Orion!
halfway to y Er
dani. ‘
From 7 Aurigz |
© Persei.

From 4 (a, 0)
to ¢ Eridani. —

y Eridani. |
From 7 to 6 P
scium, and ¢
beyond. j
2=
From 99°
to Sirius.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIUWs OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 251

' | Direction ; noting also
Appearance; Train, ifany,| Length of | whether Horizontal,

4
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer.
q ; Inclined.
.
rT Chee eee reer erry POeeeeres ta eee Oe rr rr heer POO e meee meer e reese ee eeseeenes J. E. Clark.
ps
1 -
A large nucleus; faded|..........000.. Radiant doubtful; pro-|Path probably as stated.|T. Crumplen.
slowly. bably from near Po-| End only well ob-
' laris. served.
' . Bitcete its POOR eee ween teens 214° BREE COCR OOOO OCCOCUSO, EOC OCC OR OCG OCD OCC CccCCiCnCEIteHHe: BaAe J E. Clark.
eft a long thin train/15° ......... Directed -from® @ “Au-|...csccssessedeveaesclicesses T, Crumplen.
hich faded instantly. rige.
Beep Streaks 5.......5.1.|sceee eee enacts From Radiant G ...... A few meteors were|W. H. Wood.
‘ seen on the night of
, the 10th.
Becks 5 i: Be cA css, soesesee|sseseceoesces -/From Radiant G .,,...... On the night of the 11th|Id.
y ; the sky was overcast
until 112 30™ p.m.;
afterwards clear.
; Mrseeveeseessssesseseesvesss|esseesceseerees{From Radiant G@@ ssssecloccsssecssersessorcsscrscss., Id.
ie a faint streak ...,.....|.. Os ee ror Radiant Goa, scar. Pecoe ei caseaeecessmasctena Id.
, Bf no streak.......ss.s.004]esesveseeeeeee|From Radiant Ry csessess|ocsessesversesvsccsscaeseesss Id.
; no streak........., Bedls.y aiicierre Meare RatpasitG.3500;, les! A eyseesdscleSaccachactean: Id.
SS See Ae seee|From Radiant V (2)......|....cceseeeveeve 23 MAL R. P. Greg.
" BURNS Ve sssiccas PSH TOS” Bm cs: From Radiant G......... West eeWitaecideaaesodtetocendets Id.
a
| BUEN cable csie ce csces Waviges| eet Seaberseoeelh TOM IMACIANE G oo. cecceal cas tee ese leet eaeeeeccevdete. Id.
e t no ESR Bn dsaaehe BronieRadian G..ccsccas hee dboreaceressetoternte ete W. H. Wood.
BMETGHIE 0s 55.52, 2052] Jesu dasvasea: From Radiant T, near|Path curvilinear ........./Id.
‘ y Ceti. :
ee eel G) afcaonens Towards « Hydre ...... From Radiant RG ...... Id.
ico ee A seeedeneaees From Radiant LG......|.... eorebh ponaceaiccna ei Id.
e S white, with a red|.....0...- From Radiant R,, org...|....... Deeeearereo te AAOn eee Id.
scent. Left a faint
Streak (?).
Bis eseseess Lean Ge dsss....(Hrom Radiant G .cccessss|, cb dees, crits ess: Id.

Date.

1868. |
Dec. 12

a.m.

a.m.
p-m.
a.m.

a.m.
p-m.

a.m.

10) 7 35 p.m.

Mar.27| 9 55 p.m.

(Paristime).

‘Apr. 3

UVLO! oT pm.

(Turintime)|

Aberdeen, Scot-
land.

Paris

wee eet eres

Carlisle

wenereee

\Moncalieri,
Turin,
mont.

Pied-|

‘One-sixth

REPORT—1869.

Half the apparent
diameter of the
moon.

Reddish tinge

of the
apparent dia-
meter of the full

moon,

(Red, envelop-
ed in a white
atmosphere.

Position, or
Place of Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and
Observation. ‘Aginath.
Birmingham ...|=2nd mag.* ...... White .........|0°5 second ... a=) .0=
From 99°+10°
to 99 + 3
Rdisesben, see ress =Ist mag.x ...... Wihtte? star-csee 0-75 second ...|From 275° +55°
| to 272 +49
bid 300, cNarss =2nd mag.* ...... White ........./0°75 second .,.|From 185°+76°
| to e Draconis.
Ibid eisensecenccees =Ist mag.* ...... White ........./0°5 second ...|From 7 to B L
poris.
‘Manchester ......;=2Nd mag.* «00... sc... sesseeee/A rapid flash., Passed through t
Pleiades.
Tiida woa| = SLG MMAR vieoehs=[encaeeitdsveowes|aeseds sesseeeeess-/Passed through tl
Pleiades.
[Didnetoseeeescveee =2nd mag.* ...... ‘Rose colour -++|0°4 second ,../From ¢ to « Taur
Primrose Hill, |=33 mag.*......... laste Naaiecions sats sal canecanneeee ete z= | O=
London. From 199°+41°
to 198 +32
Glasgow ......... =2nd mag. ...... ‘White ..........0°8 second ...\Commenced at
| Tauri.
|
Sweden ........./Large meteor ...... | saves svuagenss cee] veveateaevameeememies seecastenuoeal an

Passed close to J

About 1 sec...
piter.

Not more than|First appeared

4or5secs. | tween Capel
and the consté
Jation Gemil

Crossing the lé
ter, and Cane
and passing —
bove Procyo

disappeared né
the head

ween eee eeeeee

Nearly as bright as|Greenish ......

Jupiter.

Hydra.
Travelled at ajPassing over t
quick speed.| city.

'Slow speed .,./From ¢ Leonis te

Corvi.

Tous sparks, issuing from
‘it, produced a luminous
ippendage; andit shone
brightly through clouds,

hich dimmed the stars.

esembled a sheaf of fire,
‘with connected stream-
ers of light, which at last
burst and cast a great
Jight around,

9
“

BPMSSseedeseceseressssssececces

eet e weer eeenee

seen eeeeeeen,

Course

From E. to W.

not
straight ; undulating.

quite..

ecliptic at 114 +21
disappeared

at 126 0

Cast a lurid glare on,
the landscape, and lit
up the heavens with
a singular brightness.
[The meteor was seen
at the same hour at
Manchester. |

Care nee eee eee ee eereeeeane

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 253
| _ Direction; noting also |
‘Appearance ; Train, if any,) Length of | whether {lorizontal, |
H = and its Duration. Pah, Perpendicular, or Remarks, Observer.
| Inclined.
= SELES? be 1 ie EEE ih ae ee
MEME Ras slicagscnisscosovcess sosseeeeeeee/From Radiant G ....cccceleccceccssssceeeceeserecseseees| We He Wood.
Re SC CSB SCRE Rcd GEER ence eas From Radiant Ga ...... Twenty meteors per [d.
hour were counted by
one observer. Obser-
vations discontinued
at 15 10™ a.m.
eee veeeee-/From Radiant G..........,0n the nights of the/[d,
12th and 13th the sky
was overcast.
MPT iscGsenascesvetesicccest|ssconcese cooeee(From Radiant Lig ssece.|-eeescconeeeces Po cosod nace Id.
Beate esaieessscusyicecsasts 12° ...+4.../Directed from 8 Tauri.../From Radiant G ......,..|R. P. Greg.
a ..|3°...seceeee./Directed from 6 Tauri.../From Radiant G .........\[d.
ae aise, $e ae ee -seees/From Radiant G ........./A bright meteor ......... Id.
Left a streak which faded 10° .........|Directed from near|.........6 Soucectrrcedcert cr be T. Crumplen,
_ instantly, Polaris.
Increased gradually in4° ....... ..|Directed from 6 PerseijClear sky; no moon./A. S. Herschel.
ie brightness ; drew a short No other meteor seen
_ tail of sparks after it. in twenty minutes,
_ Left no streak. pi}
Stonefall at Lake Malar, in|...,......... Palace se@ssdeasesacnuetys Sovers|easee sseeeesseeseeseseensseess| ASSOCiation
_ the Upland. Scientifique
if , de France,’
P| No. 105.
he meteor burst, and\10° or 15°. |From N.N.E. to S.S.W. |A very brilliant fireball'‘ Glasgow Even-
terminated in what ing Citizen,’
appeared to be three Jan, 12th,
globes of light, each
~ about one-third the ap-|
parent diameter of the
full moon.
At first as bright as Mars,.Not less |From N.W.to S.E. .../A large and_brilliant|M. Laussedat ;
it increased to one-sixth} than 40°, meteor. First appear-| ‘Comptes
_of the apparent diameter edat a= 6=| Rendus’ for
of the full moon, which 98°+36°; Mar. 29th,
ras near its path; nume- crossed the 1869; vol.

Ixviii. p. 784.

‘Glasgow Daily

Herald,’ April
5th.

Francesco Denza;

‘ Bulletins de
l’Académie de
Belgique,’ vol.
XXvil. p. 633.

254

Place of

Date. Observation.

Hour.

1869.|h m |
Apr.11|10 . 1 p.m.|Bergamo, Italy...
(Turintime)

11}10 35 p.m./Moncalieri,
(Turintime)| Turin,
mont.

Pied-

11/About 10 34 Bergamo, Italy..
p.m

(Turintime)

Moncalieri,
Turin,
mont.

May 5/Abont11 30
Pied-

p-m.
(Turintime)

15} 3 20 p.m. Oxford

22)About 9 45

p-m.
(Paris time)

Vannes, France...’

29 Regent’s Park,

11 20 p.m.|
London.

29.11 22 p.m,|Hurstgreen

(Sussex).

REPORT—1869.

Apparent Size.

Bright meteor......

Appeared about as
large as Jupiter. |

Bright.meteor ...)

Large meteor

Very large meteor..

As bright as Mars,
| or Jupiter.

»/Reddish ......|

Colour. Duration.

Red and green/Slow speed

etme e eee eee ence teem e eee eee weenee

Moderate
speed.

Pale red; About 12 secs.
Sparks pur-

ple.

Pee e eee teeta ee

Like the elec-/Slow and
trie light. stately mo-
tion.

{
|

|
|Slow speed ...

Orange-red ...

...From near 9 Ursa}

Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.

144°°5—13°

Majoris to nea
x Bodtis.

First appeared be-|:
tween y and @
Leonis. Disap-
peared at a point)
in Cancer, at

= — i=
136°+17°

From near Spica
Virginis to near};
y Hydre.
appeared

guérec.

From between
Ursa

it passed 10° ¢
12° to the lef
of Saturn, belov
which point
burst.
From altitude

bout’ 20°°aa
the south-west
to about e

above the ho.
rizon, one poin
more towards}
the south.

! D pearance ; Train, if any,| Length of
Path.

~ and its Duration.

Seen eee eee ease eet etaseens

Fe a ee
3 :
. z
:

ollowed by a tail of
‘Sparks. At a point
about two-thirds along

it ap-

ike a large shooting-
s It. burst into
seemed to be

teen enee

of purple
parks, which gradually
b anished.

cleus kite - shaped.
urst like a rocket, the
Se burning out

gradually.!

15°

30°.

Heber ereeeenees

ateeeee

than

weet eenee

el eeereeeee FOP meee een sa esr teeees

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or

Inclined. |

TOO Oe ee nee e ene eeesees

Poe PeeRUCUOSUOEO TOOTS eer ery

eee Pee eee eee rere ery

From W. to E.

Descending _ obliquely
towards the left.

.|Stones fell at Clégué-

Mate sees nals sasceeacesstenue)HEGMSELY:

The sky in that direction

Remarks.

the last.

Two other bright me-

teors on this even-
ing cast such a
strong reflected light
as to attract the at-
tention of observers
who were looking in
the opposite direc-
tion.

Possibly identical with
the last.

Rocket-like. Appeared
suddenly.

see eeeeee

rec, Vendée, south of
France. [Seen also
at L’Orient, by Mons.
Bourdillon.
luminous,
lighting up the hea-
vens. Commence-
ment of the meteor’s
course not seen.

was quite clear.

255

Observer.

Possibly identical with|M. Zezioli ;

‘Bulletins de
l’Académie de
Belgique,’ vol.
XXVil. p. 633.

Francesco Denza
(Ibid.).

M.Zezioli (Ibid.)

FrancescoDenza;
Ibid. p. 632.

‘The Standard,’
May 16th.

M. Arrondeau ;
* Association
Scientifique
de France,’
No. 123.

Communicated

by T. Crumplen.

Communicated
byA.S. Herschel.

1869.
May 3]

hm
10 52 p.m.

About 11 0,

About 11 0

REPORT—1869.

Hour.

p.m.

p-m,

About 11 0
pm.

About 11 0
p-m.

Christ College,

Battle (Sussex).

Hurstgreen

Horsemonden,

Place of
Observation.

Cambridge.

(Sussex).

Brenchley
(Kent).

Large meteor

Wrotham, Maid-
stone (Kent).

Apparent Size.

Larger than any of

the planets.

moon.

moon,

sees

Appeared nearly as
large as the full

Large fireball ......

As large as the full’.

Colour.

——

Deep. yellow,
then orange,
then light
blue.

colour.

Yellowish

Yellow,
and purple.

Seeeeeeeeerere

Bright flame-|

..-|Moderate

red,

Duration.

2 or 3 seconds

Ophiuchus

speed.

About 8 secs.;
slow speed.

Fee e ewer eeeee ae

Position, or —
Altitude and
Azimuth.

From 4 (A, oc)

a (7, 7) Op

uchi, and
further. Disa
peared _behi
houses,
©
of
oF °
a ean °°
Seorpins

Cerne eetee been eee eee

From some heig'

above the 8.8.
horizon to ve
near the east h
rizon. ;
First seen at al
tude 35° or 4
in the E.S.
Disappeared

hind trees 3° ¢
4° above ti
E.N.E, horizon,

Proceeded
slowly.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS,

pearance; Train, if any,
‘ and its Duration,

e shape of the meteor
was rounded in front,
throwing off flakes of)
lame behind.

et-like. Nucleus as!
right as the Drum-

mond light, brightly
efined in| front, draw-|
f to a

round ball, which gra-
ually disappear ed with-
leaving any streak
‘sparks,

mass of fire: pear-,

Ba eth

Length of
Path.

About 30°

ADout 50°

see

«/From W. to E.

From W.S.W., to E.N.E.

‘From S.W. to N.E....

Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.

Directed nearly from «

Serpentis,

Peeeeee

Remarks.

_—_—_——__
t

The view of the last part
of the meteor was
intercepted by houses.

| |
|The light cast was suffi-

cient to have picked
up a pin. <A clear
night.

About four minutes and
a half after its disap-
pearance a report was
heard as of a distant
explosion.

Positions carefully ob-
served by landmarks.
Five minutes after
the disappearance a
report was heard

..Shortly after its disap-

which shook the
earth and made the
windows rattle. [The
flash of light and
the report were per-
ceived within doors
at Horsemonden, and
at Hawkhurst, with
an interval of four
or five minutes be-
tween them. Both the
flash and the report
were double.—A.S.H.]

pearance three re-
ports were heard as
of distant cannons.
The houses shook at
Meopham. Seen gene-

rally around Wrotham.

257

Observer.

A, T. Atchison.

J. Warmer ;
communicated
by A. S. Her-
schel.

‘Communicated
byA.S.Herschel.

H. Marriot ;
communicated
by A. S. Her-

schel,

W. E. Hickson.

258

Date.

1869.

May 31/11 2 p.m.

Hour.

h m

ll 4 p.m.

ll 4 pm.

ll 5 pm.

ll 5 pm

About 11 5
p-m.

11 14 p.m.

(Paris time)

About 11 15
p-m.
(Paris time)

Place of
Observation.

Llandudno, N.
Wales.

Torquay (Devon-
shire).

London

eee enee

-|Rickmansworth..

Ormskirk (Lan-
cashire).

Paris

sel, Paris.

|Large meteor

Place du Carou-|Large fireball

REPORT—1869.

Apparent Size.

Appeared as large
as the full moon.

Very large meteor..

Large fireball

Large meteor; half
as bright as the
moon.

Large fireball ......

Half the apparent
diameter of the
full moon.

Colour.

Intense green.
Tail red with
red sparks.

Bright red,
with red tail.
Reflected
light green.

Yellowish

Duration.

Henne eee e een ee eee

Moving with
great velo-
city.

Oe ee eee ee etaee

White, like the

magnesium
light. Tail
red.

Blue, red, and
yellow.

White, then
red.

About 1 sec. ;
motion not
very rapid.

Steen eee ten enee

5 or 6 seconds

In the direction of

Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.

Passed a little
below Arcturus:
Disappeared
behind Little
Orme’s Head
(nearly due
east).

First appeared 2
bout 30° above
the horizon,
little south of
east, and disap-
peared below the
east horizon.

Appeared over the
houses, moving
eastwards.

Disappeared abou
6° or 8° above
the horizon. |

Disappeared at the
horizon.

Commenced in
melopardus,
or 8° west of
north, at
same altitude

stars of Cas
peia, and cros
the constella’
Perseus toward

Taurus. Dis

peared _ before
reaching the ho-
rizon. oy,

the Buttes Mont-
martre. -

pearance ; Train, if any,
_and its Duration.

———
s

drawing behind it a
str eak of red light 5°

r 6° in length, from
wh ich red fire seemed

10 drop.

o
C

hind it a tail of con-
erable length, and of
the same colour as the
head. All the sky and,
tl he landscape was light-)
+ a with a pale green

it |

Then within 20° of the.

izon it broke up.

4 '}

train of sparks like a
comet. Burst into
everal balls, like those
of Roman candles.
iped like a Tadpole.
The body elongated
and well defined. The
ail, which was fiery-
» Shook, as if vio-
tly contorted.
> a ball of blazing’.
ow, emitting flames of
blue e, red, and yellow
. ht.
first appearance it
ased, almost stati-
, to ‘half the appa-
Seach, and at least.
full brightness of
if moon. As it ad-
ed, it drew behind
white tail, and
ed its colour to
‘red.

e, drawing a long

- “tail, and scat-|
fering sparks on its
aurse.

es \

la rge Tuminous body, vas

je bright red body left|..........

iant hall of fire and)..

Length of
Path.

Peter ereeee

let eeteenes

sete newereeees

.|From W. to E.

.../From due W. to E.

. Fell

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

259

— $$$ as

Direction; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.

—_—

ser eee eeeereseaeeeeseees eeeeeeene

PORTO Tere ee eeeee nese sueenes

.|From W. to E.; parallel!

to the horizon.

left.

Pee eee e eee ee eee eee ee eee reer

down-

Fell vertically
wards.

.|Cast shadows as bright

obliquely down-
wards, from right to

Remarks.

Immediately after its
passage two bright
flashes of light fol-
lowed which _ illu-
mined the whole sky.
Seen by many persons
on the Parade.

It did not describe

a perfect arc, but

about halfway

through its course
it made a sudden
rise, when the light
flashed out with far
greater _ brilliancy ;
after that it again
tended downwards.

No sound of an ex-

plosion was heard.

[Seen also from the

bridge in St. James’s

Park, descending ap-

parently into the

water ; like a firework
at the Crystal Palace.

—A. S. H.]

as those of sunlight,

The night was bright
with starlight; an
the meteor appeared
to fall in a neigh-
bouring field.

The houses and all sur-
rounding objects were
brilliantly illumined
by its light.

The same meteor was‘

also seen at Havres.

‘Morning

T. J. Buckton.

Observer.

Communicated
by J. B. Dancer.

H. T. Mackenzie.

L.; ‘The Times,’
June 3rd.

Herald,’
June 3rd.

W. Newsam.

Mons. Robinet ;

‘ Association
Scientifique
de France,’
Nos. 124 and
126.

Le Temps,’
June 2nd.

260 REPORT—1869.

PI f | Position, or
Date. Ilour. Ob. peat Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and
servation. Azimuth.
1869.|h m
May 31|About 11 15/Brussels .........|Half the apparent|Nucleus yel-|...........4 .»...(Appeared in
p-m. diameter of the| Jowish white. W.S.W., at al
(Brussels full moon. Tail red and tude about 4
time). green. and disappea:
behind trees,
west, at altit
about 35°.
31)About 11 15)[ghtham Large and brilliant].....cseeesseeee soesvesootdspaleepad | SDD CATED egal
p-m. (Sussex). meteor. easterly diré
tion
June 5} 8 55 p.m.{Greenwich Park. Brighter than Ju-|White ......... About 1 sec...|From near
| piter. zenith to ne
Arcturus.
6| 1 29 am.|London ......... =3rd mage so... White ......... 0°5 second ...,\Commenced at |
Draconis.
10)11_ 0 p.m.)Hawkhurst =Ist mag.* ...... White ...:..... 0°3 sec.; very|From 7, Serpent
(Kent), swift. two-thirds of ti
way to z Virgin’
July 2/Morning ...|Littlehampton Large meteor ......|sseesersssessssse.|tteeeeeneeeeennees At an altitude |
(Sussex). 45°,
7/10 55 p.m.|Hawkhurst =Ist mag.x......00. Wa eyse0sses: 1 second ...... From « to 2° fe
(Kent). lowing « Booti
911 0 pam.|[bid............04.. =Ist mag.x......... Yellow ...... 1 second ...... Commenced at
Aquile.
10)10 56 p.m. [bid ............. =3rd mag.¥ ...... Vellaw.» 5... 0°8 second ,../From y Herculis
n Urse Majoris
1011 7 p.m.\[bid........ outs Se GYT 10.5 devas ve Wihitei<sc.te.<s ‘1-4 second ...\Commenced at
Serpentis.
10/11 22 p.m.|Ibid ..........00... =3rd mag.+ ......) Yellow. .,....,0°8 second .../From A Draco
; to ¢ Urse M
noris.
LOL 26 p.milbid vitsscnscane =2nd mag.% ...... White. cschewce 0°5 second ...\Centre of path at
(Z, ») Herculis
11044: p.m. |Thid'!!....saaee =2nd mag.x ...... White ......00. 0°7 second ...|From { to $ of th
way from @ Ca
Siopeiz to / Té
randi,
11)10 49 p.m. |[bid .............. =Ist mag.* ...... Yellow, .j::.. 0°5 second ...|Commenced a
Bodtis.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 261

a
| Direction; noting also |
earance; Train, ifany,| Length of | whether Horizontal, .
APP and its Duration. u Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks, Observer.
Inclined.
Blongated PAGTETIS Ara We) lcs sects euusscifrodeeeiescsras es! The glare which it)‘ Bulletins de
ing a tail of sparks, cast was so bright} l’Académie de
_ which was at first red, that a person stand-| Belgique’ for
and afterwards of a ; ing at a window,| June1869,vol.
greenish tinge. facing towards the| xxvii. p. 63].
* north, thought that
o.. it lightened. Seen
also at Verviers, Tour-
nay, Stavelot, &c.
EMUEL UR ssceoissessiessisees vee vonesseveee/EFOML Wy tO-Es s.ccesees Some who saw the me-|‘Sussex Express,’
P| | teor heard a loud) June 4th.
q report follow its ap-
| pearance.
4eft no streak or sparks.../About 15°. |... .ececeeecsedecescseues .. [In twilight. | Arcturus|Communicated
; | the only star visible] byA.S.Herschel.
in the sky, which was
| quite clear.
weft no streak.............5. |4° . ........./ Directed towards Z Ursee|No other meteor in an/A, S. Herschel.
| Minoris, hour, in a fifth part

| of the sky. Clear;
no moon. Dawn be-
ginning to appear.

eft no streak.........s00.0.)seeeeeseseeeeee/Curved path, thus— |Turned in the middlel[d.
' of its path towards
Ophiuchus. No other
meteor seen in thirty
minutes. Sky half
clear; no moon.

urst with the appear-|.............../Passed from S. to N. .../A very brilliant meteor..|‘ Sussex Express,’

ance of a rocket. July 6th.
rightest Baeble; MIAIE1Of]. ....sccees0ses|.0ccecce. seers Bae sesees|NO Other meteor seen|A.S. Herschel.
its course. Left no in forty-five minutes.

streak. Sky hazy; no moon;

one observer.
rightest at the middle of 8° ........./Directed from @ Ser-|No other meteor seen|Id.

its path. Left no streak. pentis. in forty-five minutes.
Sky hazy ; no moon.

f{nostreak ......... AaB ene wcranrs|te SAME yc, ease RETO RF ssecareaeinsee AWA dy, 4 Id.

eft a streak at the mid-|30° ..........Down the division Of!......c....ccccceee ee uelt SALGe

dle and brightest part | the Milky Way.

of its course for half a

second.

BNE s ath re caas|<cccrcesseceecstcce eas ratNG wes eaos us ceeeauel KosadeeechaueuseteecsanseesenllGs
ightest at middle of its/4°...,.., ..-».|Directed from ¢ Her-'Four meteors seen in|[d.
course. Left no streak. culis. forty-five minutes. Very
é clear sky ; no moon.

eptreakwat the mMid=|..Je.....eccsc|ecscsenes VeseadaaaWer tence ner oeae, am gee. pieeerelids

dle and brightest part
of its course for half a
second.
rightest at middle of 4°............ Directed from % Bodtis|......... F-ooducdedbcepnue .. (Id.
its course. Left no |
streak.

262

Place of

REPORT—1869.

i lour.
Date.| Hour. Olsen. Apparent Size. Colour
1869.; hh m s :
July 11/11 5 p.m./Hawkhurst =2nd mag.* ...,.. White ....» seve
(Kent).

11/11 10 p.m.Ibid..............)=2nd mag.* ...... Yellow ..s00e

1111 15 p.m.|Ibid aisaenerieniba. =3rd mag.+ ....../Yellow .....-

MUL. Ls opin. [bid j.ewent. dees es =8rd mag. ...00- Yellow) ......

14/11. 7, p.m.jIbid.......-+.0. es.) = ord mag.x ...... Yellow. .+é:

15|10;42; pim;|Lbid ..c-..c.s0s<s0s =2nd mag.x ...... White) res. unns

15}10 42 30 |[bid .........00000 =Ist mag.x......... WISE Ts acases
p.m.

15|10 56 p.m.|[bid .........s0008 .|=Sirius, then=I1st}/White, then

mag.*. orange-yel-

low.

15/11 20 p.m.|[bid .........se000 = ]st mag.#.........] White ...00000-

U/L 92080) libid =.......-..0995 = Ist mag.x......... White .........
p.m.

15/V10 32 Spi: |Tbid 55.55.45. 05-57, =3rd mag.* ...... Vellowit) sau

16|About 9 30\[bid............... Large meteor ...... White: tascesce
p.m.

16/11 35 p.m.|[bid «......ccesesss pa ON eeeaseeussates White cites

Duration.

1:2 second ...

0°5 second ...

0°6 second ...

0°7 second

0°6 second ...

0°5 second ...

05 second ..

3°5 seconds ..

O'S second ..

0-6 second ..

0-2 second

About 2 secs...

0°8 sec. while From 4° above

in sight.
Total dura-
tion 2°5 secs.

«..|Erom A Dracon

-|From oto 4 (n, F

-|From 4 (8 Aquil

-|From & to wv Cyg

-|From ct Draconis

Position, or —
Altitude and
Azimuth.

From y Lyre to
Herculis, and
further.

Commenced at
Camelopardi.

From @ Draconis °
4 (», 7) Un

Minoris.

to 4 (%, 8) Urs
Minoris, and 4
further.

From 3 (0, 7)
Draconis.
Draconis.

e Delphini) to ¢
following xy Ci
phei.

6 Bodtis.

---|From g to A D

conis.
Disappeared ak
10° above
horizon, due |

Delphini to
west of « Pegas

*
“ A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 263
had Direction; noting also
ippearance; Train, ifany,| Length of | whether Horizontal, i
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer.
: . Inclined.
ft a streak for 1 second|....cc..cccscecfececseees Sea ccnemehtims isatee’s siseeeseeeeesesetessssssseseee(Ae Se Herschel.

no streak

gf
rightest at the middle of
its course. Left no
Streak.

tightest at the middle of

its course. Left no
streak.
the first half of
course a_ bright
white meteor equal to
Sirius, leaving a slight

; then collapsed
a yellow first-mag-
litude star, drawing
A short tail of red
arks ; it disappeared
suddenly.

‘ightest at the middle of
Left no

S course. Left no
treak,
Hin0 streak .............
) Sparks or streak; dis-
appeared gradually.

ob lar nucleus, with!
very quickly intermit-
tlight. Disappeared
suddenly. No streak or
sparks. -

eee eeeeeeeniee

ightest at the middle ofi...,

sight.

sere eens

BO Sisicass:

see eeeeeeeeses

15° or 20°

S- or 10°
while in

sight.

Fell vertically. Directed
from 3 (w, y) Cephei.

eee eee reece eee ery

Almost vertically up-
wards to the zenith.

teneee

ice

Directed from near 7
Cygni. Radiant Bg,
in head of Draco.

../Six meteors

Two rapid white flashes

A side view, only, of the
meteor was seen.

ee err

seen in
forty - five minutes.
Very clear sky; no
moon ; one observer.
No other meteor seen
in forty-five mi-
nutes. Clear sky ;
no moon.
Two very similar me-
teors following each
other, almost imme-
diately, in the same
part of the sky.

Peer eee ee

|A very striking meteor

This meteor and the
next followed each
other in quick suc-
cession.

seeenee

[n twilight. Very bright
meteor; seen by se-
veral persons.

in one second drew
the observer’s atten-
tion to the meteor.
The final part, only,
of the meteor’s course!
was seen, in a clear

A. S. Herschel.

Id.

Communicated
byA.S.Herschel.

space between clouds.

SS rie

264 rEPORT— 1869.
Place of Position, or
Date.| Jour. Olicervation Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and
ca aad Azimuth.
1869.;h m |
July 1611 35 p.m.Kensington, Splendid meteor... Light of in-[mmensely Shot from t
London. tense white-| rapid. zenith towa
| heat. the S.S.E.
1611 35 p.m.In the north of Large meteor ..... Nucleus quite Rapid motion..|..........scseeeeeees
| London. | white.
|
| |
|
| |
1611 36 p.m. Beckenkam —.......4. Seep tees ee Reddish- 1 or 2 seconds Disappeared abe
| (Kent). | yellow. 4° to the rig
of ¢ Pegasi. —
|
|
|
1710 34 p.m. [awkhurst |=2nd mag.* ...... Yellow { sssece '0°6 second ...' Disappeared
(Kent). | . Draconis.
20; 9 35 p.m. New York, \Half the apparent Emeraid- 5 seconds
(local time). United Statcs. diameter of the green.
| moon.
| |
| |
| |
direction.
21/11 40 p.m. |[bid ...........-.+ =2nd mag.* ...... Yellow ...... '0°6 second ...|Disappeared
Tarandi.
Aug. 3) 9 10 p.m. Brieg, Vallais, | =Ist mag.#......++. White ........./1'5 sec. ; slow From % Cassiop
(Geneva | Switzerland. | motion. to y Persei. ©
time). |
| | |
/ |

pearance; Train, if any,

ind its Duration.

began in a thin streak
red sparks, and ra-
idly increased to its
greatest splendour; of
an intense white heat,
giving off jets or sput-

whole course, from both
sides of its body. Its
disappearance was ex-
tremely sudden, as if
its substance were
Wholly consumed. For
a second there was left
train of sparks.

not continuously _ illu-
minated, but appeared
roken, for quite half

the length of its
ight, into a train of
illiant sparks. It

erminated in an ex-
ion of vivid incan-
escence, dividing the
rincipal mass _ into
maller bodies, which
re very quickly ex-
guished.

——

terings of light, on its

6 meteor’s path was).........

a glance at the meteor, Very
the instant of its dis-| course
pearance, it was of, while

this form :— sight.
as

train of red, yellow,
blue light. Disap-
without bursting.

ntest at the middle of 1
urse. Left no

nucleus. No train,

eus was followed|/30°

g°
Cente ee eeeee eee ee ereenes

brief

eeeeeees

The prolongation of the
brief stage of its ap-
parition which was;
visible was directed,
apparently, from A-
quila.

Directed from o Cephei

wae

After midnight meteors
frequent (one in two
or three minutes in
halfthesky). Radiant

Two flashes in quick

Directed from ¢ Lyre...|.

....| The meteor cast a strong

Sky quite clear.

Another meteor appear-

The atmosphere was
quite clear and calm.
No sound of a report
was heard after its
extinction.

succession, with half a
second between them,
like faint lightning
reflected upon sur-
rounding objects, drew
the observer’s atten-
tion to the meteor.
No sound was heard.

seen nereee Cee ee reer etaesers

shadow, even during
moonlight.

No
other meteor in fifty
minutes seen in + of,
the sky. Fullmoon;
one observer.

ed very shortly after-
wards in Andromeda.
Very clear sky.

Cassiopeia, Perseus,
and Auriga.

Communicated
by R. P. Greg

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 265
Direction; noting also
Length of | whether Horizontal, f a
Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer.
Inclined. |
‘The whole From N.N.W. to S.S.E./The sky was very clear, The Duke of
course of, and the meteor was} Argyll; ‘ The
| the me-| well seen from first to} Times,’ July
| teor was) last. No sound of a) 2st.
extremely, report was heard.
short.

John Spiller ;

‘The Times,’
July 21st.

Howlett.

S. Herschel.

266 REPORT—1869.
Pl f Position, or
Date. Hour. Ob Meo Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and
servation. Azimuth.
1869.}h m
Aug. 4\Evening .,.|Manchester ...;= 2nd or 3rd Mage|.ssssseeeserennees|eeesseterers sasssclececedectecescsesseeos
8) 8 45 p.m./Rigi, = OIMUS Megelestesenes White .........{1 second ......|From g Honorum
Lucerne, to w Pegasi.
Switzerland.
9110 37 p.m.|Birmingham ...|=3rd mag.x ..... veeee.(0°D second ... a= 0=
p g g. Pale blue From 24° 52°
to # Trianguli.
9/10 38 p.m.|[bid ...........00 = Ist mag.s........{Pale yellow «../0°75 second.,.|From 9 to a Cas
siopeiz.
9}10 43 p.m.|[bid .........00006./= 2nd mag.x ......|White ......06 0°5 second ... a=
From 18°-++42°
to 17427
910 48 p.m.|Ibid.............+./2-Ist mag.* ....../Brilliant blue..|0°5 second ... From ¢ to y An:
dromede.
9]10 55. p.m.|Ibid .....cccec0e0e =2nd mag.* ......|White ....+....{0°75 second ...|From @ Pegasi to «
Aquarii.
9/10 59 p.m.|Hawkhurst > Ist Magei......s0e/Vellowish- [esesereesseseeeees Passed between
(Kent). green. and 6 Andcrome
dee ; near the eas’
horizon.
911 O p.m.|Birmingham ...|>I1stmag.* ...... Pale blue...... 0-5 second .../From « Lyre to ¢
Ophiuchi.
911 5 p.m.|[bid .........00++-/>>1stmag.* ....../Pale yellow ... 05 second ...|/From } (a, 6) Ursal
Majoris,
—— =
to 186°+50° |
9)11 12 p.m.|[bid .........ce0eee}= Tst Magee...s see Blue ...«...../0°75 second .../From y to 3 (B, @
Persei. :
9|About 11 15|Hawkhurst =I[st mag.% eoeee.|Bluish .. 00... |eceeeseeeeeteeeens Close to, and almo:
p.m. (Kent). across @ Andro
mede. a
9\11 16 p.m. Birmingham =3rd mag.x ...... Blue vdecocas. |) SECONG eens From A to p» Perse
9/11 19 p.m.|Ibid .......c0eeeeee/= 3rd Magee ...00. BIG . catves.ea L sec. ; slow|From 4 (y, A) te
: speed. Aquarii.
9|About 11 20|Hawkhurst 35 CRED. eeoccocen Pale yellow ...|..-seeeseeseneeres From just below
p-m. (Kent). to Z Pegasi.
911 24 p.m. Birmingham ...|>Ist mag.* ....../Yellow........./1 second «..... a= d= |
From 354°+3°
to 6 Aquarii.
9|About 11 25|Hawkhurst =a Cygni ....... BS peace sesseeeeees/Swift ...eee...(Commenced at
p-m. (Kent). Aquila.
9}About 11 30|[bid .........c000..| ce Ly Ta... ceeeeeeee Yellow sessesecclecesseecessseeeeeefPassed near d ©
p.m. melopardi.
911 $8 p.m.|Birmingham ...)=3rd mag.x ....../Blue ......++ 0°5 second ...|Commenced at
Piscium. {
9/11 39 p.m.|[bid .............-/=2nd mag.# ..... Blue seeseeee-/L sec.3 slow a=
motion. From 23°+2
} to
ol Abont Hawkhurst > Ist mag.* wi... @yeenishs Mocs. c. nceeuvenees From g Honor
50 11 48 (Kent). white. g Pegasi.
p-.
|

Ice 5 Train, if any,
s Duration.

Cs ceneeevece
lat

he. >
BOO eee eee tase seseressconeee

NM
a red streak

Length of
Path.

teneeees

Pee eee etereene

see ew en eeeee

Seer ee eeeerenes

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

267

Direction; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.

‘Two of them, only,
were directed from
Perseus.

Path curved, concave
towards Lacerta.

- Directed from e Cassio-

peie.

.-|Directed from e€ Cassio-

peiz.

Directed from e Cassio-
peiz.

Directed from y Persei..

Directed from ¢« Cassio-
peia.

Remarks.

Very clear sky; no
moon; one observer.

No other meteor seen
in twenty minutes,
until 9 p.m. Sky
one-fifth cloudy; no
moon.

Clear sky.....

eee eee eee ees

wee ween renee

Seen through a massive
cloud.

eee ee eee eee eee eee

Observer.

R. P. Greg.

A. S. Herschel.

W. H. Wood.

Id.
Id.

Communicated
by A.S. Herschel.

W. H. Wood.

Ceovrerct Pree Dinected froma) Merseis, |hss. see sacevccoseceeeens saves (Kee
Seatsuss seseee(Directed from) y OF K]-sscevsceecsserees reesesceetnclithe
Persei.
HS ee Eee Directed towards Cas-|.cc..sscescseees ae Ach: Communicated
siopeia. by A.S. Herschel.
seeseeceeeseees| Directed from 7 Persei.,|ssessseserseeees asseruas «|W. H. Wood.

wee e eee tenes

LO ee tene) cars

seen eee eeneee

‘|From Radiant Ty, 4,4 +

Fee eee eee treet eee n ee etnns

Directed from y Persei..

Directed from y, 7 Per-
sei.

eee eee oe

Directed from y Cygni..|-+-

ee eee eee eee ee es

Disappeared behind a
cloud. Exact obser-
vation.

‘Seen through a slight
cloud.

in one hour by one
observer.
fxact observation ......

+ Id.

Communicate d
by A.S.Herse he

W. H. Wood.

Communicated
by A.S. Herschel.

Id.

- Directed from 7] Persel,,|oesscesseccacceces Peeeeesees ..|W. H. Wood.

From Radiant T,........./Sixteen meteors counted) Id,

Communicated
hyA,.S. Herschel.

268 REPORT—1869.
1! Date Tour, Place of Apparent Size Colour, Duration
; Observation. PP ae ¥ 4
1869.| h m s
Aug. 9/11 55 p.m.|/Hawkhurst DS Ist Mage ..eeeelessseees seeeeeeees/A Sudden flash;
(Kent). 3 second.
10/12 3 am.|Ibid.............../Nearly =Capella...|Whitish-green|Nearly 2 secs.
10/About 12 20|[bid .......... sevelD>Dst Mare seeeee[GTECM ....eeeesleeeeeeees atten
a.m.
10] 0 31 a.m.|[bid........000...- > Ist mag.x.........|Greenish ....../Nearly 1 sec.
10} 9 57 p.m.|Birmingham ...)=Istmag.* ...... Greenish! ?...001). cs seb see ee seis
10/11 7 p.m.|Chalons, Sur |=I1st mag.x......... White .........|1 second ......
Marne, France.
10)11 12 p.m.|[bid ............... =38rd mag.* .....- Yellow pvc 0°5 second .
11/10 27 p.m.|Birmingham .../=3rd mag.* ....../Blue ...... .+/0°5 second ...
11|10 30 p.m.|Hawkhurst =3rd mag.+ ....+.| White .........|0°8 second ...
(Kent).
11/10 31 p.m.|[bid ...........6 =Ist mage ...... White ......... 1 second ......
11/10 31 p.m.|Birmingham .,./=2nd mag.* ......|Blue ws... 0-5 second ..
11/10 35 p.m.|Hawkhurst =Ist mag.+.........,|GTeeN .++.,...|1 second ......
(Kent).
11/10 37 p.m.Ibid......... seeee.{=2nd mag.* ......|/ White .........{1°2 second ...
11\About 10 40|[bid ...............,—= 1st mag.x ....../Green ........./0°75 second...
p-m.
DU GO 41 pm |bids ss. .cecenens =2nd mag.# ....../White ........./0°8 second ..
11|10 £4 p.m./[bid .......66. SePe==CrGUMALH conscee Yellow) ceo+es 1 sec.; slow|f
speed.
| 1110 £4 30 [[bid.... ..........,=3rd mag. ...... White ...... .-.(0°S second ..
p-m.
11/10 45 p.m.jtbid.......... soeee| = 1St MAQiHeoeseeee. White ....000.- 0-8 second ...
T1/About 10 45/(bid 2nd MAQvt vecseclerrenverenes sajoina| cigsele ee a calsenlentia®
p-m,

.{Commenced

.|From o, to B Ursa

Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth,

Near d Camelopardi|

From y to 6 Cas-
siopeiz, and on
wards as far as
c Lacerta.

be-
tween 6 and 9
Cygni, and shot
across Del phinus.|
Close to the left
upper side of the
Cluster at x Per-
sei. d
From @ Sagitte to
o Aquile.
From F (F, K) Her:

From 4 (6 Urse
Majoris, Cor Ca.
roli), to Cor Ca.
roli.

From B Herculis t¢
e Delphini.

Crossed E Psalteri

|
Majoris.

Passed e« and 6

towards ~ Dra

.|\Commenced at

y Cephei) to |
Draconis, n
some
further.

halfway to
Cygni.

Pegasi.
From e Herculis t
a Ophiuchi. —
From g Honorun

t0 « Pegasi.

irst part of its course,
from y to 6 Cassiopeiz,
or half a second.

A
17/007) ae

hort but very dense
distinct streak of a
ish-blue colour for
a second.
green streak for 2

: LA . .
f a fine train in the...,

]

Length of

Path.

10° or 12°...

{pen ecnceasaainns

treak for 1 second)............ ai

Eippbased west

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS,

269
Direction; noting also
whether Horizontal, Se ae
Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer.
Inclined.
abealeit taleia' bola Slewisin'e)s avd eateelsiahs See c ty clades see eneren ae ++eeee|COMmunicated
by A. S. Her-
schel.
Weebercrensce seececeeeceeessoee EXact observation. Id.
Three more conform-
able meteors, very
swift, in Aries, Del-
phinus, and Cygnus,
were seen before 12h
40™ a.m.
deneeneeeeceresseeeetceeereens sotessteencsesesscettsceesenes (IC,
Directed towards @ Cas-|A very well-defined and [q,

siopeix,

Directed from e Cassio-
peiz.

Directed from 5 Vulpe-
cule.

Directed from y Persei..|

beautiful object.

About half of the sky
overcast.

Five meteors seen
30 minutes in 4th of
the sky; generally
clear; no moon.

A very fine night ......

.|W. H. Wood.

in!

.../4. S. Herschel.

A.S. Herschel.

{d.

W. H. Wood.

ne dee Bcc Stor rneraeceer Aner Se tee Daranccesse eens - |
i B° .eoseeeeeeee| Directed from yx Viscium|..........ssscs0sseeececeee0e.| Ee |
teeeteeeeeeeceenaae settee eae s*++-(Directed from a Persel, |:<:s+:seersseceescccescececees W. H. Wood.
streak ETTGIE Slee snes oon Och [ena e eae met ae nieiaies <te eerncrheall Os ofa astute staraisiafaean eaten ach nace Communicated
Ried PG as cet enn hres egese byA.S.Herschel.!
ake for 1 second).---++-200e-es:|.....ccceecsesesoeeeecce Se eee nee aoe ae A. S. Herschel.
treak in the first s+... som) ROWALGS y DrAcOnis, <oc|cosacecsuscaveveceee foriesonae Communicated
its course, byA.S.llerschel.
a si eak for 1 second!.......00...... eat eae theatres sibveasaventejdecatu ees Als Stblerschielont|
5) |
madediout. Left|-..... ........ ents Prtivaccccesss se. eee From a southern Radiant [d.
k. |
Mesissne sss snobeeee Be cree reese. | DILECued) from) \OVENT| sscccetsacereeteeeee meee Td.
SESS OS Se an She | ts svetedentce eeecentiee w: Id.
ee Lee oacod anes eta ee soaveuuec en leans baie ah eee ee Communicated

byA.S.Herschel. |
|

Date.

13869.
Aug.11

1]
1

—

1]
1

1]
11
1
1B}

soos (SWitt

70 REPORT—1] 869.
Place of ;
Hour. Observation. Apparent Size. Colour.
hm s a
About 10 45 Hawkhurst =drd mag.* ...... [White ...c0. be
p-™. (Kent):
About 10 45)Ibid ......- aeearate SOMO AP a) toenieits| emeisis'a dep ueres
p-m.
About 10 45)Ibid......... jooee(==end Magee 6... White ......00.
p-m.
About 10 50)[bid.......... Pepe iste senses ccesins os Iadcadrso0n0 pee
p-m.
10 54 p.m.|Birmingham .../=Ist mag.#...... son WW DICE sane re
About. U0) 55|Lbid .... tes... —GLAMMAPE ccsaneelacsesaneeenrse nt
p.m.
10 56 p.m.| Hawkhurst =drd Mag.% ......Je.000 3303 103 *
(Kent).
LOSS) pm Tbid so .s..000s059s [== ZO MAP eo. -cps|assieasncncches=ss
Mea BOM NOU va ccostecesmere SS2Nd MAG H ...cin|nevescreesss fects:
p.m.
11 10 p.m.|Birmingham .../=3rd mag.* ...... Dullisss...5.<.02
VUNG. p.ral| lb idiasenss wae a-te =<drd mag.* ...... Blue: s-ss0rse
11 17 30 |Hawkhurst S86 MAREK incense luce suse see teins
p-m. (Kent). |
TORTS social Mb) lel eas hepoeqarnoe S=SUMUS, scye-n nen Green ...5..0
11 30 p.m|Birmingham .../>Ist mag.* ...... [Green .........
TSG Opa RIG ci eecns cece: SUSE MAG He sasasces/GLECN sna sce
11 31 p.m. Hawkhurst S=OLGMMAage®, s-rerdlenas .
(Kent).
11 54 p.m. Birmingham so /==OLQ MARTH ceoeeul VWWULUE. vavsinechs
11 57 p.m.|Ibid ...............)=2nd mag.* ...... NUE lcm ont st
}11 58 p.m.|Ibid .........ccs0- =Ist mag.x ...... Deep blue
EEE yore gleNtehe « scnhpoi oo: |>Ist mag.¥ ...... Deep blue
Neo alan, |TG 5 .. noses oe =Srd mag. vere BUC eee eee
/ |

.../0°5 second

. 0°5 second

Duration.

0°7 second

bl eee were ne eereseeee

.|Prom 6 Cygni to

.|Centre

Position, or |
Altitude and —
Azimuth. |

Lyre.
From under $8 A
dromede to und
y Pegasi.
From « Cygni to-
Herculis. .
Passed close to
Lacertz.

Commenced at
Ursze Majoris. |
at 4

Cephei, i
certz).
Shot across y Cygy

I second ......
0°5 second ...

Slow speed ...

.|Pully 1 second

05 second .

0°75 second...

0°75 second ...

0°5 second ...

.../0°75 second ...

05 second ...

.. Centre of path

From 3 (y, ) to
Andromede.
Commenced at |
Pegasi.
Centre at K If
culis.
From « Cephei
between y an
Cygni, disappea
ing close to
Cygni.
a= =
From 307°+19
291 +13 |
From 6 Cygni
a= ©
278°-+-12
Passed near y
anguli.

From z Cassiop
to B Pegasi.
From v Cassiopi
to « Androme

é Arietis.

to 37 +22

Commenced at
(# Arietis, « T
anguli).

[ ft a streak for 1 second

Ree eee eee tae wee ee eee eee

eee eee ee enes

t
iy

SP eee eee eeeee

.../Directed on a line from),

Inclined.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 271
= a ee EE eee
. Direction; noting also
pearance; Train, if any,) Length of | whether Horizontal, : =
and its Duration. °'| Path. Perpendicular, or perearke- Observers

—_—_——

A. 8. Herschel.

mS Ret bos papi “tenc- Paslauste efslepbemtbginns \ictes toa. cl OOMmuhieated
byA.S.Herschel.
Aveneek/ sisetaies bgniieas sevatloetsthateaauersctestatieoser ee A. S. Herschel.

a Cygni to « Andro-
medz.
.|Directed from e Cassio-
peiz.

..|Communicated

byA.S.Herschel.
W. H. Wood.

On a line from 6 Cas-|,.,,,....cccccccoseces t heal Communicated
t siopeiz to ¢ Cygni. byA.S. Herschel.
BRED celsccsetecssessserse| Towards # Aquila...) fikseeettelis Coa Malls
coo Eee ask |Sbbh> abIEETNY HOU eves poeusasst freee Ase thce etsy Bae Id.
.
:
Pebeesecsvevereeesseesseeeeseeee) ee WUlli vertically’ ..5%: asvvesl’.sopereeetcte eee Id.
eft no streak ............|) [Directed from » Persei.. Be IS ee ae i ee veea.{W. H. Wood.
Gastreak .........., *+/25° ,,...,,,,|Directed from m Persei..) eevetvossie Pens Id.
streak about 8° long g° or 10° ..| Directed from Cygnin. |... a, sessssvesssses, Communicated
byA.S.Herschel.
eft 0 streak “UAT REC | a sescetepensspacenvsceese| es wi ts » Belt Beha Id.
a green streak for two! |From Radiant ee +-/This meteor and the \WV. H. Wood.
ids. next appeared within
a 3 seconds of each other.

meteor flickered ......
j ad

een streak for two|. +

meteor flickered ......|.......

Mere ee ree ree seesessvereress(D©

.|Directed from 7 Persei..

......|Directed from y Persei..

or from Radiant T,,,, ,.

sees eens Oe ee ween eens teens

Directed from @ Persei.,

on
omi

list.

Intermittent light ..,

this

nee

The particulars of many
* minute meteors seen

nana Gorse... ..\Wimected Irom! y Perselss|.-.4-.0--cccescsaserecccccness
st eae 2k. Nee duped uss vuedsssdacder ct Pedgvhs Mik Bask cos eee
@ green streak..,......|........00....{Directed from 7 Persei,|......c.sssssceceees aaeesril

\Intermittent light ......

night are
tted in the present

Id.

Communicate %
by A. S, Hor-
schel.

W.H. Wood.

Id,

REPORT— 1869.

cw)
~J
ce)

APPENDIX.
I. Mrrrors Dovsiy OBSERVED.

Srverat of the large meteors described in the foregoing catalogue having,
from their extraordinary brightness, attracted the attention of observers at
many places in England, as well as in neighbouring places on the Continent,
to which the course of their aérial flight was more immediately directed, the
comparison of the accounts affords, in some instances, approximate estimates
of the real heights and distances of their luminous paths.

The course of the large meteor seen in central France on the evening of
the 5th of September, 1868, although imperfectly determined by the English
observations in Auvergne and at Geneva, must yet have been little less than
100 miles in length over the valleys of the Seine, the Yonne, and the Loire,
north and west of the mountains of Cote d'Or and Auvergne, directed, ap-
parently at no great inclination to the horizon, from north-east to south-
west, at a height of upwards of fifty miles above the earth. In the absence
of more complete descriptions of its apparent course, only the general direc-
tion of its real path and the nearest departments of France (Yonne and
Cher) over which the meteor must have been conspicuous can be pointed
out. The very distant observations of the same meteor at Aosta and Florence,
however, indicate for the earlier portion of this meteor’s flight a far more |
extraordinary length of course than is common among large fireballs. The
following notice of a careful study of its real path and altitude will accord-
ingly be read with more than ordinary interest. (See Comptes Rendus for
August 2, 1869, vol. lxix. p. 326.)

“* Meteors.—In a paper addressed last week to the French Academy of
Sciences, M. A. Tissot examines the circumstances accompanying the passage
of the remarkable bolis of the 5th of September, 1868. It was seen to pass
over Belgrade, Laybach, Bergamo, Saulieu, Civray-sur-Cher, and Mettray*.
At Bergamo, M. Zezioli found that in 17 seconds it described an are, the
extremities of which were respectively, in right ascension 17°, N. declin.
3°; R.A. 202°, N. decl. 27°. At Trémont, M. Magnin, while observing
Jupiter, had at one moment both the planet and the fireball in the field of his
telescope. M. Mugnier at Saulieu and M. Badiller at Civray-sur-Cher both
saw it in the zenith. Letting alone the two latter data, which are somewhat
uncertain, there is Just enough left to enable us to determine the position of
one point of the meteor’s path, and those of two right lines between which
it moved during a known space of time. From this may be obtained the
minima of velocity with respect to the earth and the sun, and which are re-
spectively 80 and 71 kilometres per second. Now were the orbit described
elliptical, or even parabolic, the velocity could not exceed 42 kilometres ;
there can therefore be no doubt that the trajectory was an hyperbola. This
is, we believe, the first time that the path of a fireball has been ascertained
from reliable mathematical data. From this starting-point M. Tissot pro-
ceeds to correct the doubtful observation of Civray, and finds that the meteor
passed over that place at a distance of 3° 12” from the zenith. The lowest
altitude of the bolis was 111 kilometres; the eccentricity of the geocentric —
hyperbola was 124, and its two asymptotes formed an angle of one degree

* M. Tissot states that the path of the meteor was vertically over these places; its
altitude at its disappearance over Mettray, in Indre et Loire, 798 kilometres (496 miles)
from Gergamo, being 307 kilometres (191 miles), and the lowest altitude of its course
was 111 kilometres (69 miles). The meteor therefore shot upwards(!); and the whole
length of its course from Belgrade, in Servia, to Mettray was nearly 1000 miles!

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 273

only. Our author now has sufficient data to caleulate the orbit of its helio-
centric motion, and finds its elements as follow: Longitude of ascending
node 343° 28’ ; obliquity to ecliptic 68°; angle of transverse axis with line
of nodes, 87° 32’; eccentricity 2°59; semiaxis major, in parts of mean ter-
restrial radius taken as unity, 0°20; period of perihelion passage, 1868,
Sept. 25th, 19 hours; velocity at perihelion 100 kilometres per second. Mo-
tion retrograde. The meteor merely passed through our solar system ; twenty
days after it made its appearance it passed through its perihelion, the dis-
tance of which from the sun is about the same as that of Mercury. The
bolis is now further away than Saturn, but has not yet got beyond
Uranus.”
- From a comparison together of some of the principal descriptions of the
detonating meteor of the 7th of October, 1868, Mr. W. H. Wood considers that
its point of first appearance was between 80 and 100 miles above Avranches,
in the north of France, and that it descended in about five seconds, with a
luminous course of about 180 miles, toa height of not more than eight miles
above the English Channel, twenty miles from Hastings. in the direction of
Dieppe. The detonation distinctly heard at Paris would, in this case, ariso
from an earlier portion of the meteor’s flight. In relation to the height and
other particulars of this meteor, the following remarks of the Abbé Lecot, of
Noyon (Les Mondes, vol. xviii. p. 333), proceeding upon the basis of good
observations, deserve attention.

«The principal remarkable feature of the fireball of the 7th of October,
1868, was its vast volume, much larger than that of any other meteor seen

_ for many years. Two other circumstances appeared also to be of some im-

portant interest; viz. 1st, the immense distance to which the series of deto-
nations was heard over an area of more than eighty leagues (190 miles) in
width, incomparably surpassing the distance to which the loudest claps of
thunder, or the discharges of the largest cannons can be heard. If, more-
over, the statements of the majority of the observers may be trusted, the in-

_ terval between the bursting of the meteor and the sound of the report was so

great that the phenomenon must have taken place at a prodigious height.
Less than five minutes cannot be allowed, on the most moderate estimation,
from the explosion of the meteor to the arrival of the first sound of the
report; and this would imply a distance of more than twenty-five leagues
(sixty miles). Taking into account the direction of the meteor as seen by
the observers, it would be difficult to admit a height of less than twenty
leagues (forty-eight miles). This height is confidently within the limits

_ which it would be necessary to assign to it when the greater number of exact

descriptions of the meteor given by competent observers are taken into
the account.
«The second peculiarity which appears hitherto to have been overlooked

is that the meteor was not solitary, but appears to have been connected with

a long list of similar appearances, which have been more numerous than
ordinary at this season of the year. Last night (October 19th), on two
occasions, about 8 and 10 p.m., I saw each time, in less than two minutes,
five bolides of considerable brightness, leaving behind them a persistent streak,
and moving from south-east to north-west. Their apparent brightness was
about that of the planet Jupiter. On every previous evening since the 8th
of October, when the sky was clear, I have been astonished at the number of
shooting-stars that have presented themselves, generally without my paying
any particular attention to record their appearance.”

_ By extending backwards some of the given apparent paths, Mr. Wood

274: REPORT— 1869,

infers that the direction relatively to the earth, or the apparent point of ra-
diation of this great meteor, was probably the radiant T, a general centre of
divergence of shooting-stars near a and y Pegasi during the months from
July to November.

A collection of fourteen original accounts of the appearance of the great
daylight meteor of the 3rd of November, 1868, was carefully examined by
Mr. Wood, to determine as accurately as possible its real path. A radiant-
point, or general vanishing-point of the apparent paths prolonged backwards,
near Arcturus, is pretty clearly indicated as the most probable direction from
which the meteor actually approached and entered the earth’s atmosphere.
Assuming this direction as established, and the apparent points upon its path
observed by Mr. Wood at Birmingham as certainly very near approxima-
tions to the true positions of the metcor at its first and last appearance, the
comparison of the remaining observations with these first assumptions re-
garding the computed path enables the latter to be at least provisionally
fixed with moderate precision. The point of first appearance of the meteor
was seventy miles over Cuckfield, in Sussex, and its point of disappearance
twenty-five miles over Herne Bay, in Kent. The whole course of about
eighty miles, performed in about three seconds of time, was directed from
the west-south-west, descending at an inclination of about 35° to the horizon.

Should the real course of the meteor be assumed to be more nearly from
west to east, the apparent radiant-point would be nearer to e Virginis than
to Arcturus ; and preserving the same place of first appearance, the point of
disappearance will be found to be at a height of about thirty miles over the
neighbourhood of Calais.

Meteors of November 14th, 1868.—From a large number of meteors ob-
served in the United States of America on the morning of the 14th of
November last, Prof. Newton has selected several instances of meteors of
conspicuous brightness, which were simultaneously observed by observers at
distant places. The results, accompanied by two excellently executed plates
of the persistent. streaks, some of which presented peculiar features, are given
in the ‘ American Journal of Science’ for May 1869 (vol. xlvii. p. 399), and
lead to the supposition, from the observed motions of translation and distor-
tion of form of some of the streaks, that a northward current of the upper
air prevailed below an altitude of about fifty-four miles, and that above this
level, to a height of about sixty miles, a current of air existed moving
towards the south, succeeded, ata greater height, by another current moving
in a northerly direction.

The double appearance of the streaks observed with the telescope in some
of the meteors of the shower suggests the conjecture, entertained by Prof.
Newton, of an actual duality in the meteor itself; and a very possible ana-
logy may thus evidently be recognized among the November shooting-stars
to the double or multiple character, which is a common feature among the
detonating and stone-producing meteors.

1. Meteor and meteor-streak observed at Newhaven &e. at Lh. 12m. a.m.
New York time (see Catalogue). ‘The central point of the cloud may be
regarded as fifty-four miles high, over N. lat. 40° 43’, and W. long. 76°, and
its course 8. 78° W., with an angle of depression of 20° upon the horizon of the
places beneathit. The heights of its eastern and western ends were fifty-nine
and forty-nine miles, or ninety-five and seventy-nine kilometres.” In the
earlier part of its course the meteor “ passed the meridian of Haverford at a
height of about sixty-eight miles, but may have been visible before it
reached that point, . . , <A note in his observation of the meteor at Pali-

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 275

sades, by Mr. Gilman, would imply a first altitude of eighty-five or ninety
miles. This estimate, however, is not to be taken strictly.”

2. Meteor and meteor-streak observed at Fern Lodge Observatory, Pali-
sades, and at Stamford, Conn., at 2h. 48m. a.w. New York time. Although
the base-line and the corresponding parallax are small, the two observed paths
agree well together, and give an elevation of fifty-two miles for the end of
the track, and sixty-five for the beginning, with a length of path of twenty-
seven miles. A portion of the luminous streak, which in the field of view of
a telescope magnifying forty times appeared double, and terminated by an
oval cloud, was, allowing for the inclination and diameter of the field of view,
0°89 mile in length.

3. Meteor and meteor-streak observed at Portland and at Boston, U.8.A,, at
3h. 51m. 30s. A.M. Portland time. <A parallax of 53° upon the base-line of
121 miles gives for the height of the meteor, at a point near the beginning
of its path, seventy-seven miles. The length of the luminous cloud, which
gradually curled up and floated northward as it faded, remaining visible at
Boston for three minutes, must have been ten miles.

4, Meteor observed at the same stations at 5h. 6m. a.m. Portland time. The
altitude of this meteor at disappearance was about forty-eight miles. Its
first appearance, judging from observation, was at a height of nearly 150
miles; but the track was so near to the radiant, that a difference of three
or four degrees in the apparent length would reduce the first altitude below
100 miles.

5. Meteor and meteor-streak observed at Newhaven and at New York by
Professors H. A. Newton and A. C. Twining, at 5h. 6m. 45s. a.m. Newhaven
time (see Catalogue). The altitude of the beginning and end of the visible
path of the meteor is, from these observations, eighty-five and sixty miles
respectively. ‘The motions of the train seem to indicate an upper current
from the north above that from the south, which was shown by the motions
of the train of the meteor of Lh. 12m. a.m. New York time.

6. Meteor and meteor-streak observed at Boston and Fairhaven, &c., U.S.,
_at 5h. 30m. 30s. Boston time. The meteor left a streak, which at Boston
remained visible for seven minutes, drifting northwards; and at Fairhaven
it also remained visible as a pale cloud for five minutes, widening and becoming
nearly circular and larger than the full moon. The observed paths
agree very well with the necessary conditions, and indicate an altitude of
_ about fifty-nine miles for the lower part of the cloud. The northward mo-
tion of the cloud showed that it did not penetrate through the upper into the
_ lower current, which swept away southward the lower part of the train of

_ the meteor at 1h, 12m. a.. New York time.

1868, December 10th, LOh. 57m. p.u., London, and Ackworth, Yorkshire
(see Catalogue). The resemblance between these two meteors in time and
other particulars of their appearance, although singularly close, is only acci-
- dental, as the difference of the positions of their apparent paths at the two
? places does not agree with that which would be produced by the effect of
parallax.
1869, May 31st, about 11h. p.a., Cambridge and Paris, &c. (see Cata-
- logue). Among the many descriptions of this large detonating fireball, the
apparent path is indicated at very few places with precision. An approxi-
- mate determination of its real path by means of the reference to certain
stars contained in the careful observations by Mr. Atchison at Cambridge,
_ and by M. Robinet at Paris, leads to the result that the meteor first appeared
ata height of about seventy miles above Eastbourne in Sussex, and disap-

276 REPORT—1869,

peared about twenty miles above the English Channel, halfway between North
Foreland and the opposite coast of France. The distance of this course,
about fifty-five or sixty miles from Hawkhurst, Wrotham, and the other
places in Kent where the detonation was distinctly heard at an interval of
about five minutes after the meteor’s disappearance, affords a verification of
its correctness, while it is in good agreement with the apparent course of the
meteor as observed at Brussels. The direction of the meteor from near é (in the
spear-hand) of Bootes is probably an outlying example of the occurrence of
the Radiant Q,, in Corona, of shooting-stars during the greater part of the
months of May and June.

1869, July 16th, 11h. 35m. p.w., London, Hawkhurst, and Beckenham
(see Catalogue). The small parallax indicated by the observations at the
two latter places of the point of disappearance of the meteor ‘near the
star e Pegasi” may partly be attributed to the great height of the meteor,
which perhaps prevented any sound of its explosion from being heard, and
partly to the direction of its apparent path, being at both stations nearly
parallel to the straight line joining the two places of observation. The de-
scriptions of the meteor’s course at London are not sufficiently exact to afford
any confirmation of this result. A similar meteor observed nearly at the
same hour on the same date, in 1861, was likewise found to disappear at a
great height (sixty-five miles) above the surface of the earth (see Report
for 1862, p. 77).

1869, August 9th, 10h. 59m. p.., Hawkhurst and Birmingham (see Cata-
logue). The resemblance of these meteors, like that of the two metcors
almost simultaneously observed on the 10th of December last, is only acci-
dental, the apparent paths at the two places not satisfying the necessary
conditions of identity, although the two meteors approximate to each other
very closely in their remaining features.

II. Airorrris anp Lance Meteors.
a. Aérolites,
Daniel’s Kreil, Grigua Territory, South Africa, March 20th, 1868.

The fall of the meteorite was witnessed by a native, who picked it up
whilst still warm. The specimen, which weighs 2 lbs. 5 0z., was brought to
England by a well-known mineralogist, Mr. J. R. Gregory, and analyzed by
Professor Church. In composition it is a meteoric stone, containing much
free iron disseminated through its mass, together with some troilite and
schreibersite. The following is Professor Church’s analysis of the aérolite :;—

Nickel 10nd tarinccs eekcstiteysic 29-72
AMriaull Peas Aten Oe eR ee ee 6:02
SGHRGIDETSILC aid cv ae een ee ee 1-59
Silica sand Silicates...: 2. 0-450 0ledo
Oxygen &ic.iandJoss .......... 1:14

100-00

A new mass of meteoric iron, from South Afiica, was also noticed by Mr.
Gregory. It fell in 1862 at Victoria West, and is preserved in the Museum
at Cape Town. (Quarterly Journal of Science for J anuary 1869, No. xxi.
p- 133).
Pnompehu, Camboja, Cochinchina, 1868, between June 20th and 30th,
about 3" p.m. (local time).
The meteorite separated into three pieces, of which one fell at the door of

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 277

the king’s palace, the other two pieces were picked up at a considerable dis-
tance. The first piece, forwarded to France by M. Lafon, Naval Surgeon,
residing at Pnompehu, is pyramidal, weighing about 2 Ibs. (1 kilogr.). It is
covered with a black shining crust =; inch in thickness, in which nickel-
iron is scattered in fine grains. The fracture is granitic, and speckled
with dark spots. The substance of the meteorite dissolved in muriatic acid
leaves a residue of graphite and of crystalline silicates. A portion was sent
to M. Peyremol, Professor at the medical school at Rochefort, for more exact
analysis. (‘Les Mondes,’ 1868, Noy. 20th.)

Namur, Belgium, 1868, July 5th, 11" 45™ p.m. (local time).

During a violent storm a fireball fell on the roof of a house at Namur, and
broke a tile. The fall coincided with a clap of thunder. ‘The only residue
found of the ignited body was a small meteorite weighing about a third of
an ounce (10 grammes) ; some grains of which were detached for analysis,
and the remainder now weighs 137 grains. It is entirely covered with a
slight crust of olive-colour speckled with bright-yellow, but not crystalline-
looking points, giving evidence of its exposure to a glowing heat. The inte-
_Tior substance is a friable dark-grey cinder, interspersed with black and
yellow crystals, but without metallic grains. The density, 3-0004, is
rather less than that of ordinary aérolites. It exhibits opposite magnetic
poles at the two ends of its longest axis, and is highly magnetic. Attacked
by hydrochloric acid it is partly dissolved, disengaging sulphuretted hy-
drogen, and leaving a pretty abundant residue containing graphite and free
sulphur. The solution is found by the ordinary tests to contain iron, nickel,
and chromium. (‘ Les Mondes,’ 2nd ser. vol xviii. p. 332.)

Ornans, Doubs, France, 1868, July 11th.

The following extract from a French newspaper of September last, an-
nounces the fall of an aérolite in central France.—*“ On the 11th of July in
the present year” [1868] “a meteorite fell at Ornans in the Department of
Doubs. M. Pisani has submitted it to analysis, and he finds that it contains
a very small quantity of nickeliferous iron, a small quantity of chrome-iron-
ore, and magnetic iron-pyrites; it is besides very rich in peridot. Its struc-
ture is friable and porous, and its general aspect is of a deeper grey colour
than is commonly observed in aérolites.” (See M. Pisani’s analysis, in
‘Comptes Rendus ’ for Sept. 28, 1868, vol. xviii. p. 663.)

Sauguis, Mauléon, Basses Pyrénées, 1868, September 7th, 2" 30™ a.m.
(local time).

After a meteor of the usual appearance a report was heard as far as Irun,
on the Spanish border, 50 miles distant from Sauguis, where a meteorite
_ weighing 43 Ibs. (2 kilog.) fell into a small stream, 30 yards from the church,
and broke into pieces. The pieces, which were further broken by those who
_ found them in search of a supposed hidden treasure, were sent to the Museum
of Geology in Paris, and analyzed by M. Stanislas Meunier. They closely
_ resemble those of the meteorite of Casale, which fell (on the 29th February)
six months and seven days before the present occurrence, appearing thereby
to indicate two nodes of this meteoric orbit, intersecting the earth’s orbit at
_ 180° apart. The siliceous mass contains grains of nickel-iron, troilite, and
_ chromite. (Report of M. A. Daubrée, ‘Comptes Rendus’ for Noy. 2, 1868 ;
and ‘Les Mondes,’ Noy. 5th, 1868.)

278 REPORT—1869.

1869, January 1st (morning).

Stonefall at Lake Malar, Upland, Sweden. (‘ Bulletins de l’Association
Scientifique de France,’ No. 105.)

Kriihenberg, near Zweibriicken, Bavaria, May 5th, 1869, 6" 30™ p.m.
(local time).
A specimen of this stonefall is in the Mineralogical Museum of Vienna.—
(Communicated by R. P. Greg. See also the Report on this meteorite by Dr.
Neumayer, in the ‘ Proceedings of the Sections.’)

Kernouve, Cléguérec, Morbihan (Vendée), 8. France. (Comptes Rendus,
No. 25, 1869.) May 22nd, 1869, 9" 45™ p.m. (local time).

Stonefall after a brilliant meteor, which was seen at l’Orient, and at
Vannes by M. Arondeau, leaving a long streak, and followed by a violent
detonation. (‘ Bulletins de |’Association Scientifique de France,’ Nos. 123
and 124.) f

A large meteor, casting a bluish glare over the whole town, was seen in a
northerly direction from Vannes, and was followed in 24 or 3 minutes by a
violent explosion, which shook the doors and windows of the houses. A
meteorite, which appears to have been of conical shape, and to haye weighed ~
about 160 lbs. (English), struck the earth, at Kernouve, a few yards from a
young girl, who was the only witness of its fall, and it penetrated a little
more than a yard into the ground. On the following morning it was dug
out, broken in pieces, and the fragments were distributed among the villagers
as mementos of a stone supposed to have fallen from the moon. Unable to
disabuse its possessors of the supposed value of the relics, Professor Felix
Pisani, of Paris, at considerable expense, succeeded in securing possession of
‘almost the entire aGrolite for his mineral cabinet, where the larger half is
now destined for one of the European museums. A specimen weighing
32 lbs. he presented to the Paris Academy, with a careful analysis of the
meteorite. The interior of the stone presents a dark grey granular mass,
with iron-pyrites, and much metallic iron in bright grains, some of them a
few millimetres wide, and others like thin veins or filaments scattered through
it. The iron-pyrites, although magnetic, is not attracted by the magnet, and
the metallic iron is thus easily separated from it. The entire meteorite is
highly magnetic, and its specific gravity is 3-747. Its substance is fused by
the blowpipe to a black magnetic bead, in which the spectroscope reveals the
presence of sodium and calcium. It is partly attacked by muriatic acid; and
a specimen thus treated offered to M. Pisani the following proximate che-
mical analysis :—

WNickelifenotis Amott os -a.e arden ivi e tite eee 20:5
Magnetic iron-pyrites (Fe,8,)............ 5°45
Silicates soluble in muriatic acid .......... 34:6
Silicates insoluble in muriatic acid ........ 40:22
100:77

b. Large Meteors.

September 5th, 1868, 1"4™p.m. (G.M.T.). Passage of a black body across
the sun’s disk.

On the same date as that of the large meteor seen at Geneva and in Central
France (see Catalogue), Mr. G. Forbes commuicates the following observation
of a black body seen to transit the sun’s disk at Pitlochrie, in Perthshire.

The sun’s disk was projected on a white sereen with a 2}-inch achromatic

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 279

. (of the late Mr. Dolland), magnifying about 60 times. A B, in the figure, is
the projection of the vertical line; C D is the path of the meteor. “It was

; Fig. 1.
7.3

E
@
B

_ not round, but shaped like E, the pointed end moving first. I was at the
_ time watching a faint spot near which it passed, and it was much blacker
than the spot. It took about 11 second to cross. I also drew the apparent
size of the meteor and of the sun at that moment. By this means I find its
apparent diameter to be 27" approximately, i. ¢. greater than the mean dia-
meter of Saturn, and less than that of Jupiter. To have moved so slowly it
must surely have been beyond the limits of visible meteors; andif at so great
a distance, how great must its size in all likelihood have been!

“TJ have here taken for granted that it was a meteor, which some may
question. Its motion was perfectly steady, quite unlike a bird crossing the «
field of view, which I have often seen. Another person was watching the
spot with me at the time, so that there is corroborative evidence. I-was
_ enabled to take the time, position, shape, direction of flight, apparent size of
_ the meteor (as a fraction of the sun’s diameter), all except the duration, with
great exactness. I may mention about the spot, that it was quite in focus
for yery distinct vision.”

Kansas, U.S. America, June 6th, 1868, 11" 40™ 4.1, (local time).

At Manhattan a meteor was first seen in the western sky at an elevation
of about 60°, descending at an angle of 75° to the horizon, and leaving a
luminous streak which remained visible nearly a minute. The nucleus, of a
vivid pink colour, was about 15’ diameter. It fell in less than one second to
within 12° of the horizon, where it burst, and thence descended in a double
‘stream of fire. About 42 minutes afterwards a double report, like 12-pounder
annons at a distance of a mile, was heard. A light-blue cloud remained
at the point of explosion, 12° long and nearly 1° wide, which remained -
Yisible, without much change of shape, until it was obscured by cirro-cumulus
clouds. The report was heard over an area 120 miles in width, and the
Meteor was seen at Topeka, Marysville, Forts Harker and Zarah, and at
other very distant places. Its flight was apparently from south to north.

Height of the meteor when first seen ................ 81 miles
@meipht whien it exploded................ cc cs ccces. U2HS age
Length of the luminous persistent cloud .............. 1:44 ,,
MEME. A as os ie soe ce 0-96 ,
Bemecter ofthe mucléus i... 2.0... ee 1890 feet

Distance of the explosion from the place of observation. . 58 miles

280 REPoRT—1869.

The above measures of the meteor’s course are calculated by Professor
Mudge, of the Agricultural College of Kansas, who adds that the meteorite
must have exploded over the country halfway between the Republican and
Solomon Rivers. This district has few inhabitants, and no aérolite has yet
been picked up. (‘ American Journal of Science’ for Noy. 1868, 2nd ser.
vol. xlvi. p. 429.)

Birmingham.—Large meteor seen in daylight, Noy. 3rd, 1868, 3" 17™ p.m.

Mr. Wood’s description of the meteor (see Catalogue) is accompanied by
the following careful drawing and explanations :—

«*The meteor was pear-shaped, the rectangular diameters being ? and
2 the diameter of the moon (fig.1). The body, brilliant white in front,
and ruby-red near the tail, flickered considerably in transit, and diminished
towards extinction, as represented in the drawing (fig. 2). Red flames,
or the substance of the meteor, issued from the nucleus, and extended to- .
wards the tail one degree, as shown in fig. 1. The tail, 15° long, resem-
bled ordinary smoke in sunshine ; only a small section of it is represented in

Fig. 2.

Great daylight meteor of November 3rd, 1868, as seen from Birmingham. Diameter
ab=24'; cd=14'. ff, Red flames (or particles of the meteor)=1°.

Space 74 ¢ of nucleus ruby-red. Space 7 a e of nucleus brilliant white. ¢, portion of
tail 1° long, bluish-white, smoke-like, lasting 14 second.
Fig. 1. Size at appearance. Fig. 2. Relative size at extinction, devoid of lustre.

the figure. The nucleus preserved its intensely white light until near the
last 5° of its course, when there was a perceptible diminution in its lustre; —
its size was then about equal to Venus. At the time of collapse I thought —
it dark red, or non-luminous, probably from the contrast with sunlight, as .
the effect of the sun’s presence would be to deprive the meteor of the usual
bordering rays of light.

“The same object at night would certainly have appeared much larger,
and have produced an extraordinary illumination over England. The path
appeared slightly undulating, if it were not an optical illusion produced by
the fluctuation of its light.

“« A few clouds were rapidly driving across from the W.S.W., and the sun
shone brightly ; yet the meteor stood prominently out, in bold relief, on the
greyish background of the sky.”

The following additional notice of this large meteor is communicated by
Sir J. Herschel, Bart. Extract of a letter from H. Griesbach, Esq.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSZRVATIONS OF LUMINOUS MiTHORS. 981

“Travelled from Worcester to Morton on Thursday last” [Nov. 4th] ‘ with
a lady and gentleman who reside at Morton. They told me that on Wednes-
day last [Nov. 3rd] about 3 o'clock, they were walking from their residence
at Morton to call on some friends at Toddenham, when they saw a most
brilliant meteor which fell to the earth about a furlong from them. They
described the light from the meteor as extremely bright and white, the sun
shining brightly at the same time. They did not hear any noise from the
motion of the meteor. The gentleman said he thought that he should be
able to find the spot where the meteor fell, and promised to take two of his
men to search for some relic.”

The meteor was also observed at Southam, South Warwickshire, as a large
fiery body, travelling in the direction of the wind (which was from W.S.W.:
see Weather Reports)—‘ Birmingham Gazette,’ November 7th.

Bolides observed in France, 1868-69.

M. A. Guillemin, author of the French work on Astronomy ‘Le Ciel,’
communicates the following notes of observations of large meteors contained
in the Numbers of the weekly ‘ Bulletins’ of the ‘French Association for the
Advancement of Science,’ of which two annual volumes, under the active
presidency of M. Le Verrier, have now appeared :—

No.
1868. Sept. 5th.—Notes by Messrs. Denza and Schiaparelli...... 108
1869. Jan. 1st.—Swedish aérolite, observed at Stockholm, Upsala, &c. 105
Feb. 2nd.—Bolide at Bordeaux: M. Rousanne

ee 8th. 4, Nancy: MYA: Masog’ | pret 108
», Feb. 24th. - Marseilles: M. Borelly ares
», March 2nd. ,, Bordeaux: M. Rousanne f ‘**°"*"*

April 28th. _,, Pont Pierre (Moselle): M. Richard .. 120
May 22nd.—A€érolitic meteor observed at L’Orient and Vannes,

Hail of stones at Clésuéree’ |... + clteaclS. as week 123
May 22nd.—Fragments presented to the French Association 124
May 22nd.—Details of observation at Vannes: M. Arrondeau 126
May 31st.—Bolide at Paris: M. Robinet (see Catalogue) .. 124
May 3lst.—Seen also at Albert (Somme); M. Comte; and

an, Fomtarme, near Senlig’.... -.,...\. <a. c.da8leke ot. tek. 126
» June 17th, 8°34" p.ma.—Bolide at Marseilles: M. Borelly.

Seen also at Narbonne and Aix-les-Bains............. ibid.
», June 17th.—The same at Annecy (Savoy), at Montpellier,

Perigueux, and Sarlat (Dordogne) .................. 12a
» June 18th, 1° 12™ and 1° 50™ a.1.—Two Bolides observed

a Deampetlles.: Mi\Borelly ,ocies. Tee ek 126

In the ‘ Zeitschrift der dsterreichischen Gesellschaft fiir Meteorologie,’
vol. ii., large meteors are recorded as having been observed at certain
places in Germany during the nights of the 17th of September and 17th and
26th of October, 1868.

In continuation of his former list, Mr. Greg has added the following sup-
plementary Catalogue of large meteors observed in recent years to the nu-
merous records of such occurrences contained in the Appendix of the last
Report (for 1868), and collected in similar lists in the Reports for 1860 and
1867.

1869, U

282

REPORT—1869.

Catalogue of Aérolites and Meteors. By R. P. Greg.—Supplement No. III.

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“4 Feb. 3...\Stromboli ............
3 Ware Xs (ARUOAU eaecnternssrsanes
54 Aug. 24...|Blansko- ...0.i..000008-
5 Oct. phe Naplesies.cis2:da00..83
55 Noy., 2...|Cronstadt: ..:...:..00.
$ 16, ..(Hamburehy ._.¢.6t.-
~ Dec. 2...|Lemberg .............-.
1955. | Mar. 27.) .\Thurgaw . ts .e2s. ee
” May 29. NSIQIGS gecce semanas sce
1856. | May 25...|Petersburg ............
7 Aug. o..\Olmutz. 6.27. 200.8ocssea
fy OCG. :CERGSG sarees ceonaseesie
3 NOY! 5-7. ELOPPall ere. ncnue. cases
53 Dee. . 14...\Olimtitz a ....1 70 ees
5 7p WO thea hoc: Be
1857-.| Heb. 16...\|Holland ......:..+.-0.-
Pe Wars) 2 42-5 | Suvi ha ech camera eter
. Xe er lefelala\siyk: Osean enBeOr
3 Vy Te OUI tecn cstreh igre rs
” PUNE MG IDO MMI: «rae beets a
> Ale ss rib ill DOM emee- ep dhe decile -
sa Sept. 13...,;Wimpassing .........
= Octis _ Feex\OlmiitZ 2 iasehe-nacue-
* Dec: 18...\Oldenburg -..-.......:
1858. | Jan. 15.../Troppau ...............
4 TG vee NavOUNa then eens te
" 2.0 qee| OMNES, sep se gacpe aces
* D2 nee! COMMOV GO aan asnep renee.
#4 23...|MenyhaZ7a <..-..2.-.¢-

Size &e.

large

...| > Venus

large

Observations.

Whitish ; 7 seconds.
Greenish.

Two seen.

And other places.

Greenish.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 283

TABLE (continued).

Day of

month. Locality. Size &e. Observations.

April 24.../Van Diemen’s Land .|=4 moon |Bluish white; 4 secs., 8 p.m.
Woe Sy. Olu ors sctene0e6-
Woven 128--|Oxtordisrcacesend:+2<0-:
Seno 452: Molsteini a5. 02. . eek large

A PALHEUB sacs opiates tee sd), a2 eases (Julius Schmidt» &c.)
WONC 2.74, DOR = Jasess gate ~ 0a dee
Cle tral i Qbes |DOnws ermaretsg ges saetclal scm cans 12 secs., greenish.
NOV: © 2dka| DO: yeagadan teed cacsans 4

Gola DOS cate hese dace ds sso
MUNG! 16,45) DOseraaas arta «2 0500500) os ceneen Greenish.
Daenp2Gra\D0wves. deraaedee fais
April? §2-\Coblenz, jeaw-ag.. casas
June 30...|AtHENSs i tewec..cc.secces
Delve Ys Dons. Hitec. snc

27203 (DOs, scseqonessioeeeens
Oct. 31.../Dara, Arcadia......... large {5.50 p.m.

25...|Van Diemen’s Land..| =3 moon |Streak 10'’; greenish; 10 p.m.
May’ 16...|Athens. ....-0.0.4.-0. 00

Qi. <WDOS . Basarilvds...s ...| large [Streak 20”.

July 16...{Levant? ...csssesssse.,
20...|AtheNS.....0ss0ee sees large |7 p.m.

Bad F365. (DO.y.cesstiee...:- ate! large 6.15 p.m.
Feb. afess Geneva 2 | ee See Se Pr Bluish, 15 secs.

May 31.../Washington .........
June 6.,..jOxford...............0..

May 12...|Psara, Greece ......... large
Aug. 2...|Kephissia, Greece ...
22 teal Oapn edassets..chs.c.00

Mar. 30... Tyrol eearieels -yaina2 woseeeeee (Streak 10!'.

April 12...|Palermo .............+.
2g...|Somersetshire ......... large |8.15 p.m.

Daly: ~Sr..|Nataliqaode iiads sages. large |H. to W.; detonation in 2 seconds.

MO MAGNONS Aste. ako.chewa| wedess sr Streak 157’.
Mephet tared Dany. ciate. .t.vs..:

zo...|Aube, France ......... large |Detonated in § minutes, after divid-
ing into two halves; 5 a.m.
CA tN Month gas daeticasstsede<| Whassdecs 7.48 p.m.

DAME WD On tivasaistadescses cee

Nov. 27.../Essen, Prussia ......

Jatt Ora London; Geri ts aces} | aerc sees Also at Greenwich.
22h, «| ADAREW sate. <a 52005 =moon 17.18 p.m.

DA ga| WOLD a icsvsanstene .-..| =+ moon |112 p.m.; 60° in 2".

REPORT—1869.

TABLE (continued).

mieath Locality.
Ay iets ons) KCCTIb | tena etee Uaaindy ieee
DT 9p AGMELS, cin eseseinetlese sx
ANTE = Bana [Closet Spoomoconee seeeeee
24.../South Australia ......
Sept. 9...|Athens...............+0
Oct. 19.../Holyhead and Dublin
24.../Kildare, Ireland......
INOV. 6...\SUSSOX. . ..cccnotewes veces
g.../Buckinghamshire ...
13—-14/Athens...............05
,», --.(London, England ...
20...| Nashville, Tennessee .
Dec. 6.../Santander, Spain ...
Ses MOT <e...nstiwiguaieoree
TOhss WO. geasspanvcevseieneecrs
12...|Kishnaghur, India ...
T20ee| MODs jactacecougeconts
T2rer|LMCIANG. Sonenseasuen te
12...|Constantinople ;
Athens.
15...|Brest, France.........
14...|Alderly, Cheshire ...
30 «=| Athens.
May 6...\London ...............
June 9...|Setif, Algeria .........
11.../Switzerland; Paris...
Aug. 19.../Dobbs’s Ferry, New
Nork, USS..4.00000-
Jan. 30.../Pultusk, Poland......
A ..|Dantzic and Poland..
Feb. 29...|Alessandria & Casale ;
Piedmont.
29...\Chiavary, Italy ......
29 vee DDbbO tine ae een eee teen
Mar. 20...|Iriqualand, 8. Africa
June 6.../Kansas, U. 8. A.......
Sept. 7.../Tardet, Basses Pyré-
nées.
Oct: 7/23 Londonye eae yee
Noy. 3... Rugby, Birmingham,
&e.

| Size &e.

noon

large

5'd

large
3> Venus

=sun

3> Venus
10.30 p.m.

=} moon

.. |Stone-fall; regular shower, like that:

eeetereee

=} sun

2.30 a.m.

large
=} moon

. |Large meteor, 8. to N., horizontal.

Observations.

In sunshine ; large.

Brilliant; S. to N.; 3 a.m.

4.40 p.m.; moved slowly.

Very slow ; sparks.

Lighted up the sky; 8.40 p.m.

3 very large ones.

Several very large ones.

4 a.m.; moved S.W.; detonated
loudly.

Stone-fall (not Nov. 30?)

Red; 1 sec.; 18° path; 8.47 p.m.

Followed by a loud detonation. |
Also seen at Manchester.

\Kite-shaped, 7.50 p.m.

‘Stone-fall ; no crust; meteor and
detonations.

Streak remained for an hour; di-
rection N.W. to 8.E., between 65
and 85 miles high; from over
Dunkirk to over Cambray; de-
tonated.

Elongated ; divided into three.

of l’Aigle in 1803.
Large meteor at 6.18 p.m., same
|. as the last.—J. G. Galle.
Stone-fall ; detonation from a fiery
cloud ; 3 stones =9 kilogrammes,
3°6 sp. gr.
Large fireball from S.W.

Stone-fall (23 Ibs.).-— Quarterly
Journal of Science.

Fell down ver. 75°; 11.40 a,m.;
heavy double explosion in 43
minutes from a light blue cloud,
which was seen for 17" after-
wards; report heard over 120
miles area; S. to N. Probably
124 miles high when it burst.

Stone-fall, meteor, and great de-
tonation. N.W.toS.E.; sp. gr.
of the stone 3°37.

Large meteor at 34 p.m. In bright
sunshine.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 285

III. Srar-SHowers.

1. The August Meteoric Shower in 1868.—Signor Francesco Denza, Director
of the Observatory at Moncalieri, in Piedmont, has published a pamphlet
of the observations made on the nights of the 9th-12th August in Italy,
comprehending some fifteen stations. It appears that the largest number
to be seen by a single observer in one hour was at Florence, viz. 26-9 on the
night of the 10th August, at 13"-14". Three observers, under the super-
vision of Prof. Donati, registered :—

August. | 10%-1 aa roha2h| yh qm

13>-14".| 14-1 a Totals.

9 45 40 30 30 42 187
10 64 79 88 98 83 403 813
II 63 46 48 31 35 223

Of these, about 5 per cent.on each evening were sporadic, or not Perseids.
Out of these 813 meteors Prof. Donati classifies 164 as large ones, 221 of
ordinary size, and 428 as small. As compared with the Perseids of 1867, the
result appears, as reduced for the same days and hours of observation, for a
single observer :—

| Aug. 9. | Aug. 1o. | Aug. 11. | Totals.

1867
1868

67°0
62°3

104°8 79°3
134°3 | 74°3

251°1
270°9

From whence it does not appear that there was any great difference in the
richness of this shower for the two years. Signor Denza gives the positions
assigned to the radiant-point of these August meteors, as determined by com-
petent observers, at 6 out of the 15 Italian stations, and the results are re-
markably accordant :—

R. A. | N. Decl
° °
BERGAMO) ao 2. ccs cnasw Ge ncnapcncacmanaes 43 57
NUL DW ats tac asiscowinenneacneetemannes ? 57
De See arace an one cot CeO ScUEaocticcae 45 56
Monealie iy Cecvses de conc ssh aah seeds cl 44 57
UPD Oiraes et... Peaceteaes te «oeceea)e oaks 45 56°5
BE PBI OLN ON na cs active acieapaa teat sees ox 43°4 56°7
Mean or average............... 441 56-7

The position of the Perseid radiant, as determined by A. 8. Herschel in
1863, was R. A. 43°°8, N. Decl. 56°:2 (Report for 1864, p. 98).

For the fifteen stations in Italy, the horary numbers, reduced for a single
observer, gave as average :—

GuAUPUBIE sascnacaestadaeinacener 8:2
MOF) Sb As secctacs dratseetete aan 14°7
ICT ar gle = Annceber ec rneccecec ace 10°5
T2brig le wads ssuecseck asp euee © 3 51

At Urbino Prof. Serpieri gives the radiant positions as follows :—

286 REPORT—1869.

The path of one meteor, observed at Moncalieri on the evening of the 9th,
at 10" 5™, was cuvilinear (tortuosa), and the light of another, at 10" 12™
(Turin time), was intermittent. Bolides of considerable brightness were
observed on the 7th at 9° 15™ p.m., on the 9th at 9" 35™ p.m., and a third
on the evening of the 10th at 10" 49" p.m. The first, brighter than Venus,
of a reddish colour, made its appearance at an altitude of 40° above the S.E.
horizon, between a and 6 Lyre, and descended vertically with very slow
speed to » Serpentis, near the same point of the horizon; it left behind it a
most brilliant-white, persistent streak. The last of the three bolides was so
bright as to ilumine the clouds near which it passed.

At Bra, in Piedmont, two meteors were observed, with curved paths, on
the morning of the 10th, at 12" 20" and 12"30™ a.m. On the same morning,
at 12" 53”, local time, a bolide, more brilliant than Jupiter, of bright white-
ness, was seen at the Observatory of the College at Rome, moving from the
south towards the east. Madame Scarpellini, at Rome, saw asimilar meteor
on the evening of the 10th, at 10" 50™ p.m., which was also seen by Prof.
Pinelli at Civita Vecchia. The latter observed another bolide of equal bright-
ness at Civita Vecchia on the morning of the 11th, at 1" 53™ a.m.

At Palermo very brilliant bolides were observed by Prof. Tachini on the
nights of the 5th and 6th of August, 1868 (Bulletino Meteorologico del R.
Osservatorio di Palermo, vol. iv. Nos. 8 & 9).

At the Meteoric Observatory of the Luxembourg M. Chapelas-Coulvier-
Grayier noticed the greatest frequency of meteors (1-3 per minute) on the
morning of the 10th, between midnight and 1" a.m. The number of meteors
recorded during the night of the 10-11th was 237, of which 113 were of
the 3rd magnitude, or brighter, and 49 left persistent streaks. A bolide
presenting very remarkable features was observed at 11" 27" p.m. on the
night of the 10th. The meteor was “ conformable to the general direction
of the meteoric current,” and moved slowly, as if resisted in its course, so
that, instead of the usual spherical form, it appeared internally agitated, and
assumed the form of a cone, with base foremost, from which the material of
the meteor fell off in red sparks along the dazzlingly bright luminous
streak. (Comptes Rendus, vol. xvii. p. 498.)

Prof. Tachini, of the Royal Observatory of Palermo, in the ‘ Bulletino
Meteorologico’ of that Institution for August and September 1868, gives a
very full account of the meteor observations made at that observatory on the
evenings of the 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th of August, 1868. The number of
meteors seen by four observers in three hours (after 10 p.m.), on the evenings
of the 8th, 9th, and 10th August, were respectively 44, 101, 195; in two
hours ten minutes on the 11th August 115 meteors, and in one hour and
eight minutes on the evening of the 12th August 24 meteors. This would
give a relative frequency of

14:7, 27°3, 52:7, 39°7, 13-3;
and would probably indicate a maawimum frequency on the morning of the

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 287 |

11th August towards 7 a.m. This result was confirmed, it appears, by the »
observations made by the astronomers at Rome.

In all a catalogue of 393 meteors are given for these five evenings, with
the precise time of observation, apparent magnitudes, and exact positions of
the paths of each observation, determined by the fixed stars; as well as
colours.

In the rst quadrant............ = 78
Semele ca ‘lernacrreare? =112
PRB tonsa Ore keesasedeedte = 97
sp), Ab Prime edaeas eae tyes =160

Professor Tachini himself observed, with the aid of his meteorometre,
which he had made use of for the 14th-November meteors of the preceding
year, and described in the Journal of the Observatory, No. 11 of vol. ii.

His observations in R. A. and N. Decl. were then drawn upon a celestial
map, and the following results are given in relation to the radiant-point :—

Another Table is given, showing the reductions of all the observations
made during the five evenings by himself and the four other observers in
reference to the radiant-point :—

R. A. D.

43°5 | +57°0
45°09 | +5370
41°0 +57°0
40°09 | 1+57°5
FES pi E59'0

Means..43°4 | +56°7

Rejecting the observations of the evening of the 12th August, on account
of their comparative paucity, we obtain as the best average result for the
radiant position R, A.=43°3, N. Decl. =+56°8; and this is probably a,
pretty accurate determination. .

Other meteors were seen on these evenings, which may have belonged to |
other radiants ; five seen on the evening of the 10th August had a radiant-_
point at R. A.=3°5’, N. Decl.=+71°. :

The trajectories of all were in straight lines, and the streaks of the meteors |
well marked, appearing as a slight or feeble residuum of.the substance of the.
burning meteor itself, whose diameter generally appeared larger than that of,
the streak or train. -

Prof. A. Serpieri, of Urbino, gives, in the monthly ‘ Bulletino Meteorologico’
of the Osservatorio del Collegio Raffaello, occasional observations of meteors.
On the evening of the 21st of May, 1868, the positions and times of seven-

288 REPORT—1869.

teen are recorded in R. A., and N. Decl.; and a considerable number for the
evenings of 23rd-26th of June.

Tracks of meteors recorded at the Royal Observatory of Palermo. on the 8-12th of
August, 1868, showing the position of the radiant-point. By Professor Tachini.

Professor Serpieri, with three other observers, found that the horary
numbers on the following evenings were,—

No.
oth August ...... 51
1oth ,, fens akon
TG aes, acocce Fh

Fach evening the chief radiant-point was near » Persei, with two minor ones
near Camelopardus, at about R. A.=40°, Decl. + 58°5, and 49°5, + 58°5.
The meteors on the evening of the 10th August appeared finer, and gave
longer paths than those of the 9th and 11th August. There appeared to be
a considerable number of meteors on each evening belonging to other radiants
(or sporadic), most of which, however, seemed to lie around, as it were, the
sides of a polygon, with the constellation Perseus itself a centre of them.

Prof. Serpieri considers that the radiant presented itself rather diffusely,
taking into account all the meteors which passed near k Persei. Projected
on a chart, the tracks approximately crossed each other.

On the oth August, from R. A. 46 to 36, and Decl. 61 to 54.
sf roth 1, 3 ne 50 to 40, 5 54 to 59.
gene TE: org wy » 49 to 40, ve 55 to 58.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 289

Taking the average of these positions,

R.A. Decl
° oO
for August 9 .......... 4l +57°5
4 Oi wi<tahutel vel ove 45 +56'5
- Ti Seg ee 44°5-+56°5
The average of 3 days....=43'5 56°8

which agrees well enough with the result of Schiaparelli’s and Zezioli’s ob-
servations for this year.

At Milan, Prof. Schiaparelli considered the Perscids of August 1868 more
conformable than usual; the declination of the radiant-point was determined
more precisely than, perhaps, its right ascension, as about 57°. Zezioli, at
Bergamo, found

R, A. =43°. Decl. +57°.

Signor Zezioli, of Bergamo, has also sent to Mr. R. P. Greg particulars of
about 600 meteors seen in March and April 1868, most of which Mr. Greg
has reduced upon the charts prepared by Mr. A. 8. Herschel for the British
Association, and the results as to radiants are given in the second edition of
the Atlas of Meteor Charts*.

At Rome, Mancini states the horary numbers for three observers thus,—

No.
oth August)... 0.20.25
meth . ivy, sist nels 46
TA eM Be) Yee ae ee 2
Bee ee Ao ete eas 18

Mr. R. P. Greg, at Whitby, considered the principal radiant for the earlier
part of the August shower (from 2nd August to 8th August) as very close
to & Persci, or about R. A. 44°, N. Decl. +57°.

2. The November Meteoric Shower in 1869.—* Captain Donald of the < Pres-
ton,’ from Bombay to Liverpool, reports that on the 14th inst., when thirty-
cight miles §.8.W. of Kinsale (N. lat. 51° 42’, W. long. 8° 31’), from 2h. a.m.
tall after daybreak, meteors appeared to be bursting in every direction, like
innumerable rockets flying across the heavens. The principal direction was
from 8.E. to N.W. The weather was rather overcast at first.” —Liverpool
Mercury, Nov. 28th, 1868.

From the logs of various vessels transmitted to him for analysis, Captain
H. Toynbee, head of the Ocean-Meteorological Department of the Board of
Trade, has kindly extracted, at the solicitation of the Committee, the follow-
ing entries, in which the occurrence of this star-shower is noticed as having
been observed at sea.

Extract from the log of the ship ‘Spray of the Ocean,’ Capt. P. Slaughter,
from Bombay to Liverpool, “ Noy. 14th, 1868, N. lat. about 15°, W. long.
about 32°” [in the N.E. trades of the Atlantic Ocean].—* From midnight
until daylight a continual succession of meteors; countless ; many of them
of great magnitude and brilliancy, their direction mostly from between N.E.
and N.W. towards the latter point. Their tracks, also, mostly parallel to the
horizon, at altitudes from about 10° to about 35.”

Under the same date and hour, in a corresponding position of the S.E.
trades, where no lightning is usually seen, an entry in the log of another
vessel contains a memorandum of the appearance of constant lightning.

* These charts, containing 26 plates, can be obtained on application to Messrs. Taylor
and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street, London.

290 REPORT—1869.

Tn an excellent meteorological register kept on board of the ship ‘Siberia,’
between Boston and New York, by Captain Mostyn, there is recorded on the
night of the 13th and early morning of the 14th of November, 1868,
“ Meteors glancing from east to west, at an average rate of five or six per
minute, at times leaving a luminous track extending 15° or 20°, which re-
mained visible 4 or 5 minutes. The night being perfectly clear gave an ad-
ditional effect to the gorgeous display.”

A good Weather-register kept by Captain C. T. Raymond, on board of the
ship ‘ British India,’ gives a description of the shower as it appeared to him
in southern latitudes.

«November 13th, 1868, at 10h. 30m. p.m. in S. lat, 26° 3’, W. long. 27°
37'—A perfect shower of shooting-stars commenced, and continued until
the rising sun extinguished their light. It might be best compared to a
shower of rockets; for, like them, they left long trains behind, moving con-
fusedly in all directions, some falling perpendicularly, some obliquely, some
horizontally describing curves, and some even slightly ascending. Some
shone with a bright green light, exploding at last into many pieces, but
without report ; some with a dull red, and some with a faint yellow. It re-
sembled in every respect a similar shower which I witnessed in Bombay,
14th November, 1866. At times the meteors fell as dense as snow-flakes.

“‘T could not detect any uniformity, either with regard to the point of the
heavens whence they started, or whither they fell. Most fell perpendicu-
larly, and with a prodigious velocity.”

The following description of the meteoric shower in America, as observed
at Haverford College, Pa., by Prof. Samuel J. Gummere, was received, at
the time of its occurrence, by the Committee from Mr. B. V. Marsh :—

“Meteoric Shower, November 13-14th, 1868, as observed at Haverford
College, Pennsylvania, ten miles west of Philadelphia. Latitude 40° 0’ 46”,
longitude 5h. 1m. 138s.

“The watch commenced at 10h. 45m. p.w., November 13th. About eleven
o’clock two or three very fine meteors were seen coming from the direction
of Leo, which was yet below the horizon. At 11h. 17m. one directly from
Leo. The train, of a spiral form, remained visible ten minutes near the con-
stellation Perseus. Seventeen minutes later another in the south-west ex-
hibited a train of similar form for the space of seven minutes. Persistency
and brilliancy of train, with variety of colour, continued to be a marked
feature of the whole display.

« At midnight about two hundred meteors had been counted. From this’
time the reckoning was as in the following Table :—

h_ m |Meteors. || h m |Meteors.|} h m | Meteors.

1220 300 Piel O 1900 4 38 3500
34 400 47). 2000 43) 3790
46 500 53 2100 47 3800
58 600 3 9 | 2300 51 3900
Teel? 800 18 | 2400 54} 4000
34. | 1000 31 | 2600 56 | 4100
42 | I100 45 | 2800 5 © | 4200
47 | 1200 51 2900 26 | 4700
55 1300 58 4000 31 | 4800
2 I 1400 4 7 3100 36 | 4900
9 | 1500 14] 3200 41 | 5000

234) 2700 22 | 3300

31 1800 30 |. 3400

«The counting was discontinued at 5h. 41m., although several hundreds:
were seen between that time and sunrise.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 291

«‘ At 1h. 10m. the finest meteor of the night was seen. It appeared near
the Pole-star, increasing in brilliancy as it approached Cassiopeia, and
vanishing near « and 3 Cassiopeie witha flash of extraordinary brilliancy.
The train at first had a direction nearly parallel to the line of these two
stars, and about 15° in length. Immediately it commenced to spread, and
soon assumed the form of an inverted 8, thus ¢. Then the form became
that of an ellipse with a hollow ellipse at each of the two foci, all the time
drifting slowly towards a Andromede. At lh. 55m. the train was still
faintly visible at ¢ Andromede, the whole time of visibility exceeding forty-
five minutes. .

« At about 4h. 30m., and at 4h. 31m. two meteors left trains in the vicinity
of Sirius and 8, of Canis Major, each assuming the form of the Greek Q, and
continuing visible together for several minutes.

“ As day began to dawn the meteors, which shot down towards and below
Venus, were in many cases of a bright red or crimson colour.

‘Many unconformable meteors were observed during the night, and the
tracks of many of these corresponded to a radiant between the Pleiades and
the Haiades.

“Tn several cases the remarkable phenomenon was noticed of a disappear-
ance, and almost immediate reappearance, as of a light extinguished and re-
kindled.

«In general the finest meteors were seen in the north and north-west.”

The state of the weather in England on the night of the 13-14th of
November was not in general favourable to observations of the shower:
Yet a clear condition of the sky beginning to prevail at Glasgow at 3h.
30m. 4.u., and being finally established at 4h. 30m. a.m.,.a perfect view of
the principal portion of the display was obtained by Prof. Grant. The
meteors resembled those of the 14th of November, 1866, in three or four
instances leaving streaks which remained visible for two or three minutes
after the disappearance of the meteor. Their colour was white, in some in-
stances with a slight tinge of red, and the colour of the streaks was less
inclined to green than in the former shower. ‘Three or four of the meteors
far exceeded Jupiter in brightness, but not equalling the planet Venus, which
shone at the same time with intense brilliancy in the east. Their rate of
frequency appearing to increase, their number observed in successive minutes
was recorded from 4h. 56m. a.m. until 6h. 5m. a.w., when 256 meteors had
been counted by one observer. The number really visible during the in-
terval of one hour and ten minutes was in all probability three times as great
as this, or as many as seven or eight hundred. The time of greatest fre-
quency was observed at 5h. 15m. a.m., the number afterwards diminishing
considerably during the continuance of the observations. In the successive
intervals of ten minutes,

Ending at .. 5h. 6m. 16m. 26m. 36m. 46m. 56m. 6h. 6m.

There were | a ses: é p
counted J ov 54. 36 .39 26 24 | 27 =956 meteors.

Shortly after six o’clock, while the shower was still active, although the
period of its greatest intensity seemed to have already passed, the sky became
cloudy, and no further observations could be made. (Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society for December 11th, 1868, vol. xxix. p OU*:)

At the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, the sky was densely overcast, on the

* The same Number of the ‘Monthly Notices’ (p. 62) contains a memorandum on tiie
shower by Prof. D. Kirkwood, of Bloomington, Indiana, in the United States. The

number counted in 6h. 3lm. was 3280; one “chserver counting 780 in lh. 16m., ending
at Gh. 11m. 4.a. The maximum was at about 3h. 30m, A.M.

292 REPORT—1869.

morning of the 14th of November, until 1h. 57m. A.M. ; it was clear from this
time until 2h. 50m. a.m., and during this interval forty-six fine meteors were
observed, and their apparent paths described. The number of meteors at
this time was very great, both large and small, and quite bewildering ;
several large meteors were present at the same time, and all could not be
observed. The sky then became overcast until 3h. 53m. a.m. It was clear
but hazy from 4h. to 4h. 23m., when clouds began to collect increasingly
until 4h. 48m. a.m, after which time the sky was overcast throughout the
night. Sixty-nine fine meteors were observed, some of which were exceed-
ingly brilliant, leaving streaks varying in duration to more than one minute.
When the sky was cloudy, lightning-like flashes were frequently observed
until after six o’clock, evidently connected with large meteors, lighting up
the whole sky as several of the meteors were observed to do when the
sky was clear. A meteor which burst, and left a streak for eight seconds
midway between y Leonis and Mars, was without motion. The majority of
bright meteors observed were conformable to the radiant in Leo, other
radiant-points which were discernible being generally connected with the
smaller meteors.

The ‘ Times,’ Dec. 7th, 1868, contained a letter from Dr. J. M. Hamilton,
describing the meteoric shower as it appeared in Shetland. The meteors
were abundant from 3h. 30m. a.m. until sunrise, sometimes appearing two
or three at once, many of them brighter than Venus, and a few so bright
that one could have read ordinary print, for an instant, by their hght. The
streaks were bright white, or in some cases of a bluish or reddish tinge ;
those left by some of the brightest meteors remained visible for one to three
minutes, and were even visible towards daybreak. The sky was generally
clear, and when it was partly overcast the meteors shone between the in-
terstices of the clouds. The point in Leo from which the meteors appeared
to emanate remained stationary among the fixed stars from 3h. 30m. a.m,
until nearly the time when the sun rose.

A letter from Mr.G.T. Kingstown, Director of the Toronto Magnetic Obser-
vatory, in the ‘ Times’ of December 8th, states that the sky was clear, except
between 5h. and 6h. A.m., on the morning of the 14th of November, and that
3000 meteors were counted before that hour, 99 per cent. of the meteors radia-
ting from the constellation Leo. Some, which exceeded Sirius in brightness,
exhibited a variety of colours. The luminous streaks often continued visible
from two to four minutes. The following Table shows the number of meteors
seen at different parts of the night, together with the state of the sky :—

Number of
Interval in Toronto time. meteors State of the sky.
seen.
ae Fae m — h ay
From 10 45 p.m. to 12 P.M. a7 Very clear.
He al2TS 20 oe ine: 329 Ditto.
- 1 SO Aree oe 583 Ditto.
Occasional very
dv och eee pig 489 { light haze.
” 3 0 ” 4 ays) Ditto.
gh AA ae 5°) 572 Haze increasing.
pe wD >, 365 { patente very
2886

A CATALOGUE O# OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 293

At Rome, on the night of the 13-14th of November, 1868, the meteors
began to appear about midnight, with diffuse light in the N.N.E. and N.E.,
several meteors being seen near the Lion’s “ Sickle” at 12h. 9m. From 12h.
30m. until 1h. 20m. an interval of cessation occurred, in which very few
meteors appeared ; but at lh. 10m. asplendid fireball made its appearance in
the Lynx (see Catalogue). From Lh. 30m. to 2h. 30m. a shower of meteors
appeared in all parts of the sky, radiating from a point at the centre of the
stars y,e, u,¢, Leonis. In the N.E. and N.N.E. directions only, ninety me-
teors were counted in twohours. The maximum, which was also noted at the
same time by Prof. Pinelli at Civita Vecchia, took place at 4h. 50m. a.m.,
on the 14th. The total number of meteors visible between midnight and
6h. A.M., in all parts of the sky, was probably not less than 3000. (Annuaire
de l’Observatoire Royal de Bruxelles for 1868-69, p. 166; letter of Madame
Searpellini to M. Quetelet.)

The numbers of shooting-stars seen by three observers at the Observatory
of the Capitol at Rome, on the night of the 13-14th of November, 1868, is
thus stated by Father Secchi in a letter to Abbé Moigno, printed in ‘ Les
Mondes’ for November 26th, 1868 :—

In the successive quarters of an hour ending as below, Rome time,
November 14th a.m., there were seen,—

h m Meteors. | h m Meteors.

Dt AS 29 4 30 .. 208

on “Oy. 50 | A We ah see eee
WD5yt tv. 48 5 Oi, 22.0, 264.
OKT 5-2 84 1 a ee 2710
AB to N40 SUM Aleoo

20h i LAS | 45 .. 250
5s AL |

Total, in three hours, 2204 meteors.

According to another letter in the ‘ Times,’ the meteoric shower was also
seen with great brilliancy at Naples. A brief extract from a letter received
by Sir John Herschel states that at Florence the meteoric shower was also
very splendid.

At Moncalieri, and at Bra, in Piedmont, the sky was cloudless for a few
hours after midnight, and the beginning of the star-shower was observed.
The hourly numbers of meteors seen at Moncalieri on the nights preceding
the 13th of November were :—

On the night of the 9th. 10th. 11th. 12th.

Le *8 23 24 | *Sky very
(eg ae aie of ABTA Tes Bo sia lac) hor sifegeck 21 hazy.
; At Alessandria.......... 45

As soon as the constellation Leo rose above the horizon at Moncalieri and
at Bra, the meteoric shower appeared in groups of three, four, or even five
meteors at once. The following Table shows the number of meteors counted
at each place in the successive hours before midnight, and half-hours after
midnight on the morning of the 14th of November. The sky became almost
overcast at Bra at one o’clock, and completely so at Moncalieri at ten minutes
after two o’clock a.m.

294: REPORT—1869.

Intervals ne he eh- pay ety h h hoon: ih dean See dd
lor A
ri

& a.m.) ending ity # 9 19 ‘ °
ai Noe, 13-14 3 9 101 2 230 i SO eee

Mo St vil Mone Jeb i
Gap en calieri7 1418 24 26 25 40 46 70. 94 42*
Brae a ilo 266) 2 L9it 19 35», 26),.),9*
Total :—At Moncalieri, 406; at Bra, 179.

The meteors seen after midnight presented the same appearance as those
of November 14th, 1866, leaving brilliant streaks which often remained
visible for several seconds. Their brightness exceeded that of Jupiter or
Venus, of a reddish hue. Their directions were all conformable to a radiant-
point in Leo, situated exactly between y and ¢ of that constellation, The
gradual increase of the horary numbers shows that the maximum was not
attained, and that the meteoric shower probably commenced a few hours
before midnight at Moncalieri. At the neighbouring station of Mondovi,
where the sky was partially clear from 4h. until 4h. 15m. a.m., eighteen
bright meteors were counted in the few clear spaces; and after this time,
when the sky was completely overcast, two meteors and fifteen lightning-
like flashes were seen through the clouds by Prof. Bruno, in the space of a
quarter of an hour, between 5h. 30m. and 5h. 45m. a.m.

On the night of the 14th-15th, observations of meteors in Piedmont were
prevented by bad weather at all the stations. (Letter from Father F. Denza
to the Secretary of the Committee.)

At the Royal Observatory of Madrid the horary number of meteors did not
surpass six or eight on the night of the 12th—13th, and before midnight on the
night of the 13th. From that time until 2h. a.m. on the 14th 200 meteors were
counted by two observers, among which six or seven bolides illuminated the
country round the observatory with the brilliancy of moonlight. The radiant-
point of all the meteors was in Leo. Between 2h. and sh. a.m. the number
of meteors seen by the two observers rose to 350 in one hour, A splendid
fireball (see Catalogue) appeared at 2h. 33m. a.m. Between 3h. and 4h. a.m.
the number of meteors seen remained about the same as in the previous hour,
after which time they became more frequent ; and between 5h. and 5h. 30m.
A.m. twenty meteors could be counted in a minute. One meteor in every
ten was then brighter than a first-magnitude star; their course was short,
especially near the radiant-point, which was close to » Leonis. After 5h,
30m. a.m. the intensity of the shower began to decline, the approaching
dawn at the same time obscuring some of the smallest meteors.

The majority of the nuclei were bluish, many white, a few bright red,
and a very few bright emerald-green. The maximum probably occurred
soon after daybreak, as thirteen bright meteors were counted between 6h.
and 6h. 35m. A.m., when Mars, Sirius, and even Venus had disappeared, and
the last meteor observed was recorded five minutes before the sun rose.

During the night of the 14th—15th, as on that of the 12—13th, the number
of meteors was very small. A large fireball must, however, have appeared
at 12h. 20m. a.m. (see Catalogue), as its bright persistent streak remained
visible for several minutes.

The appearance of the maximum of the shower in 1868 was accordingly
chiefly visible in America, and the first commencement of the shower was
not discernible in Europe. Although less dense in its frequency, yet in the
greater extent of its duration, and uniformity of its structure, the meteoric

* During these half-hours the sky was partly overcast.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 295

cloud in 1868 considerably surpassed that traversed by the earth on the
13th-14th of November, 1866.

3. Meteoric Shower of December 12th, 1868.—The cloudy and unsettled
state of the weather in England on the periodical night of the annual return
of this meteor-shower prevented any continuous observations of shooting-
stars. A considerable shower of meteors was, nevertheless, noted by Mr.
Wood, at Birmingham, who reports as follows :—

«< Some meteors were observed on the 10th, but the overcast state of the
skies on the nights of the 11th, 12th, and 13th prevented observations re-
quisite to fix the time and intensity of the maximum (except within wide
limits). An hour’s observation, however, on the morning of the 12th gave
evidence of a good display, namely, twenty meteors per hour for one observer,
of which 53 per cent. radiated very accurately from @ Geminorum, and the
remaining 47 per cent. from the coexistent radiants, Ga, LG, R,, RG. The
shower presented the usual features,—meteors white, with an occasional
bluish tint, brief in duration and trainless.”

4, Meteoric Showers of January 2nd, April 11th and April, 20th, 1869.—At
London and Manchester the sky on the night of the 2nd of January was densely
overcast. On the night of the 3rd the sky was remarkably clear in the
neighbourhood of London. Mr. Crumplen, and two other observers, watch-
ing there, independently, for several hours failed, however, to get a glimpse
of any shooting-stars. If the shower took place on the previous night it
must accordingly have been short-lived, and its limits must have been de-
fined within very narrow bounds. Mr. Crumplen also watched for meteors
on the night of the 24th of December, 1868, when the sky was partially
clear, without success. The unfavourable character of the weather for ob-
servations of luminous meteors in England throughout the last winter and
early part of the spring was equally attended by negative results on the
10-11th, and 20th of April, 1869.

At Moncalieri, in Piedmont, forty meteors were observed on the evening
of the 11th of April, of which two were bolides (see Catalogue) whose
apparent paths were accurately recorded. Two other bolides appeared on
the same evening with such brilliancy that the attention of all the seyen
observers stationed on the terrace of the observatory, and looking towards
different parts of the sky, was drawn towards them by their light. Father
Denza is preparing for publication the observations of meteors made in
Piedmont during the first four months of the present year, among which the
number of bolides recorded has been unusually large.

On the morning of the 21st of April, 1869, between 2h. and 4h. a.m.,
eighty-four meteors were counted at Moncalieri, of the usual characteristic
brightness, and radiating, with the general uniformity of the meteors of this
shower, from a point in the neighbourhood of the constellation Lyra. (Bul-
letins of the Royal Academy of Belgium for June 1869, vol. xxvii. p. 632-4.)

In the Meteorological Bulletin of the Observatory of Urbino for April and
May, 1869, Prof. A. Serpieri records the apparent paths of forty-one shooting-
stars, observed during the evenings of those months; nine of which were ob-
served in 1h. 10m. on the morning of the 21st of April. The last of these
nine April meteors was of red colour, moved slowly, as if resisted in its
flight, and left sparks of light upon its track. In a reply to Prof. Serpieri,
who sent these observations to him at Milan, Prof. Schiaparelli writes :—
“Seven of the nine meteor-tracks proceed from a radiant-point at about
R.A=267°, N. DeclL=+435°. The radiant-point of the Comet I., 1861, is at
about R. A.=270°4, N. Decl.= + 33° 5,

996 REPORT—1869.

«The positions of the radiant of this meteor-shower, as stated by other
authors, are as follows :—

fe}
Giese tetdgirs leilininn R. A. 282 N. Decl. 433
‘ASetlerschele yy Poe re: 277°5 +34:5
Heist et tt oe ee 277 +38
Galle and Karlinski.... 27 +345

“ Your observations, accordingly, are more nearly conformable to the
radiant-point of the comet than those of all the other observers.”

Eight meteors observed in one hour, on the evening of the Ist of May,
diverged from a radiant-point which remained sensibly fixed at about R. A.
202°, N. Decl. 62°. The position of the radiant-point M7, 8, near » Ursex
Majoris, as given by Mr. Greg in the last edition of the ‘ British Association
Atlas’ (see Report for 1868, p. 401), for the interval between April 25th
and May 25th, is at R.A. 202°, N. Decl. 52°, about 10° from the position
assigned to the vanishing-point of these meteors at Urbino.

5. The August Meteor-shower in 1869.—The following Table contains a
summary of observations by Mr. Greg, at Manchester, on the periodic nights
of the 9-11th of August. During the intervals of time recorded in the list,
the sky was generally clear.

Average rate |
: of frequenc
Date and interval GE Obear- of the Paciphies Remarks and average radiant-point.
yations.
seen by one
observer.
1869. fa eerie eet m Mm!
Aug. 9. 10 5 torr 25?P.M..../1in 5 or 6 /Radiant about B Camelopardi.
Die tz, 5 Di25 AM.s.| T 23 Mostly Perseids ; radiant / Persei.
Wve TO We) PMT ASIA MeswalyT ond. One half appeared in 20m., between 10h.
15m. and 10h. 35m, a.m.

Mr. Greg observed a fireball, three times as bright as Jupiter, on the evening
of the 9th, at 10h. 23m. p.w. It was bluish white, and lasted one second,
commencing at y Pegasi, and proceeding 12° or 15° in a direct course from
n Persei. The meteors on the night of the 10-11th were bluish white, of
short course, and leaving momentary streaks in those of first and second
magnitude, and dull yellowish-red in the smaller stars; they radiated from
near 7, & Persei, instead of from Cassiopeia as during the previous years, or
from B Camelopardi as on the preceding night, and were about twice and a
half as frequent as on the evening of the 9th, coming occasionally in groups
of two or three in a minute, after a lull of five or six minutes without any
appearance of a shooting-star. No large meteors were seen on the nights of
the 10th and 11th.

At Broadstairs, in Kent, Mr. George Chapman noted the appearance of
eight meteors, about the average brightness of second-magnitude stars, two
of which left momentary trains, during the half-hour from 9h. to 9h. 30m.
p.a. on the evening of the 10th, and two similar shooting-stars during the
quarter of an hour ending at 10h. 15m, p.m. on the evening of the 12th of
August. The duration and length of path of these meteors was about 10°
in less than two seconds. Their colour was principally white, and the
apparent paths of all were remarkable for the uniformity with which they
radiated from a point about midway between y Persei and the bright stars
of Cassiopeia. On the night of the 11th the sky was overcast.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 297

The particulars of the observations of the meteoric shower at Birmingham
are summed up by Mr. W. H. Wood in the following remarks :—

. . Numbers of Aa
Date and interval of observation. Se outa Condition of the sky.
1869.
Aug. 8 At night ............6 Sc eeenCceH | eC eRe Quite overcast.
Mee Os, 102.30" Pi. to nr! 40% pas, 16 Quite clear.
PEE TOoe CAS; DPN nc esecasachanantie e<. I Overcast (occasional clear spaces).
» Ix. ro" to rm5 pM. 4 Clear.
er zto rx” fol 12! pails ae 12 Clear.
Meme Ll om E Tipe ee ek es ssete kash Sh ack |W) Md das Overcast.
Number of
meteors ob- Number
Active radiant points served, per é of
observed. cent., from Magnitudes as per stars. meteors
each per cent.
radiant.
MIPECESEM aces tg steavececessaace ae 30 Equal to or brighter than
WPM CENOU Vince cdesee sites tide call 16 Ist-magnitude star............ 30
e Cassiopeiz ............ Te 16 2nd-magnitude star ......... 25
WD De s.ax¢ (U2 Pegasus) «..... 10 drd ditto, and under ......... 45
3) » KR, (x; *, a Persei), and
other radiant-points ...... 28 100
100

“Colours of the meteors bluish white, yellowish white, pale green. The
present display exhibits a decline below the average of the past ten years in
hourly numbers and apparent magnitudes, which differ strikingly from the
corresponding data of the August meteor-shower in 1868 (see the Report for
_ that year, p. 381). The proportion of small meteors will be found to have in-
ereased twofold, and of the more conspicuous ones to have diminished in the
ratio of about 3:5. A curious feature is presented by the fact that the per-
centage number of meteors diverging from y Persei in the present year is
the same as that of the meteors radiating from the same centre in the year
1868, and that the percentage numbers of meteors from y Persei and e Cas-
siopeize are, as in that year, equal to each other, and only less by four than
in the year 1868. The frequency of meteors from the radiant-points in
Pegasus is this year a little in excess. The data furnished by this year’s
observations regarding the other coexisting radiant-points are insufficient
for comparison with those of former years. There were no sporadic meteors.”

Up till the 8th of August the number of meteors observed during the
month, in Piedmont, exceeded 1500, of which Mr. Denza will publish a
description and chart in the ‘ Bulletino’ of the Observatory of Moncalieri. At
Monealieri itself the following numbers of meteors were observed on the
nights of August

Ist. 2nd. 3rd. 4th. 5th. 6th. 7th.
15* 72 87 69 overcast 3897 Lia

The sequel of the remaining observations of the August period at Mon-
ealicri, and at other places in Italy, will be published in the Monthly
Bulletin of that Observatory. Many of the meteors radiated from Cygnus,
and from Cassiopeia. (Letter of F. Denza to Mr. R. P. Greg.)

* Overcast. t Partly overcast.
1869. x

298 REPORT—1869.

A letter from M. Amadée Guillemin to the Secretary of the Committee,
describes the state of the sky, at Paris, on the night of the 10th of August
as overcast, and, accordingly, unfavourable for observations of the August
meteoric shower.

General Radiant-points of Shooting-stars—Copious lists of shooting-
stars observed in Piedmont and Italy during the last two years have been
communicated by their authors to the Committee, whose object it has been
to reduce them, for comparison with the results obtained from the British
Association Catalogue, whenever a constant divergence appeared to present
itself among the meteors, to specific radiant-points. In this inquiry their
labours have met with encouraging success by the complete verification of a
considerable number of the known radiant-points, and by the means of rec-
tifying the positions and durations of others, less certainly established by the
paucity of previous data, afforded by the additional observations.

Mr. R. P. Greg having lately projected on the Celestial Maps, in use by
the Committee of the British Association, about 150 meteor-tracks, from
observations made last year under the care of Signor Denza, Director of
the Observatory at Moncalieri in Piedmont, and since published in the Me-
teorological Bulletin of that Institution, has been enabled to redetect and
verify the pepanle AG,, M,,., M,, MG, A, ,; and more slightly the radiants
Ay a 8G,, 8,,,, NG, M,, The obsérvations in question were made on the
evenings "of the 7th-19th J anuary ; and 30th January to 6th February, 1868.
Two new radiants were also fairly obtained, not before noticed by Greg
and Herschel,—one for the evenings between the 29th of January and
(?) 6th of February, near Quadrans, R. A.=223°, N. Decl. 54°; and the other
near p Eridani, R. A. =73°, 8. Decl. 2°, for the evenings of the 9th-19th
January, and at 7 Orionis, R. A.=68°, N. Decl. 6°, for 30th January to 5th
(? 11th) of February.

The former of these, at Quadrans, is evidently identical with Heis, K,, at
R, A. 227°, N. Decl. 60°, for 15th-31st January, but must certainly not be
identical with the special shower, K,,,, of Greg and Herschel for January
2nd, which, there is good reason to believe, is a shower of only twenty-four
hours’ duration.

Mr. Greg also finds in Signor Zezioli’s observations, made at Bergamo,
April 25th-May 3rd, 1868, abundant confirmation of the radiants W, WG,
Q,, DG,; also of N,, OZ, and OZ.

Prof. Serpieri, in the ‘ Bulletino Meteorologico’ of Urbino for August 1868,
gives a radiant for eight shooting-stars on the 11th of July, 1868, the posi-
tion R, A. 200°, N. P. D. 35°, which almost exactly agrees with the radiant
MG, for July 1st-11th, as determined last year by Mr. Greg (Report for 1868,
p. 403) from Signor Zezioli’s observations, made at the same time at Bergamo,
the position determined being at R. A. 210°, N. P. D. 35°, as given in the 2nd
edition of the ‘ Celestial Atlas,’ published last year by the British Association.

Considerations of the space usually allotted in these Reports to observations
of luminous meteors (which in the present year is amply occupied), and a
sense of the scientific importance of the papers communicated, during the
past year, by their authors to the Committee, will only permit a list of their
titles and of the principal contents of their pages to be here appended. The
annually decreasing splendour of the November meteor-shower, and the
absence of its attendant observations, will, in a future year, enable the
recent contributions of special importance to meteoric literature to be care-
fully reviewed.

1. “Le Stelle Cadenti del Periodo di Agosto osservate in Piemonte ed in

‘a i

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 299

altre contrade d’Italia nel 1868” (Fourth Memoir on Shooting-stars ob-
served in Piedmont and Italy, by Francesco Denza, Director of the Obser-
vatory of the Royal University of Moncalieri, near Turin).—Several extracts
and references to the memoirs have been made in former Reports, and
principally to the present memoir in this Report (Appendix III.) on the
August meteoric shower in 1868.

2. “Le Meteore Cosmiche,”’ Milano, E. Treves & Co., Biblioteca utile, 1869,
by the same author, is a brief but lucid lecture, delivered to a popular
audience at the Museum of Natural History and Philosophy in Florence, on
the subject of the recent discoveries in cometic and meteoric astronomy. —The
author, in common with Schiaparelli, regards comets, aérolites, and shooting-
stars as bodies of a common origin in the nebulous ‘matter of the universe,
differing only from each other in the degree of concentration wrought in them
by the effects of universal gravitation ‘and of time. The gaseous and self-
luminous character of the nnéleus of Tempel’s comet, observed by Huggins,
which is not referred to by Father Denza, differing so essentially from that of
aérolites, does not receive any very obyious or satisfactory explanation on
this hypothesis.

3. “ Etudes géométriques sur les Etoiles filantes,”’ par G. M. Goulier (in
8yo, pp. 154, with plates: Metz, F. Blanc, 1868).—The principal object of the
work is an instructive manualintended to direct the observations of shooting-
stars projected by the recently instituted Meteor-Committee of the Imperial
Academy of Metz. The phenomena of visibility, rate of apparition, appa-
rent position, and hourly variation of the radiant-point, and the calculations
of the real heights, velocities, and dates of the periodical returns of shower-
meteors are discussed, with mathematical formule intended to adapt the
careful observations of luminous meteors conveniently and with increased
accuracy to the development of the new cosmical theory of shooting-stars,
The same clear arrangement and demonstrations of all the fundamental pro-
positions of Professors Newton and Schiaparelli on the apparitions of shower-
meteors and their orbits are given in subsequent chapters of the work. The
sixth and last chapter contains a review of the conjectures to which the
cosmical theory of luminous meteors has given rise, and suggests some brief
considerations on the possible identity of shooting-stars and aérolites.

4. “Zur Theorie der Sternschnuppen,’ von A. Erman (extracted from
Erman’s ‘ Archives,’ vol. xxv. part 3: Berlin, 1867).—A detailed account of
the attempts is given, which were made before the time of Schiaparelli, to
determine the form and dimensions of the August and November meteor-
orbits,—first, on the method employed by Erman, and adopted by other
observers of determining by direct observations the real velocities of the
meteors, relative to the earth; and, secondly, in the manner adopted by
Professor Newton, of determining the periodic time of revolution by exam-
ining the dates of ancient star-shower records. The description of the first
of these two methods, adopted by astronomers from the time of Ben-
zenberg and Brandes, occupies the principal and most extensive portion of
the narrative. The third, and last method, which led Schiaparelli to discover
the quasi-cometary character of the meteor-orbits by calculating the velo-
cities of shooting-stars from the laws of their annual and diurnal variations
of frequency, receives full exposition in the last few pages of the pamphlet.

5. “ Expériences synthétiques relatives aux Météorites. Rapprochements
auxquelles ces expériences conduisent,” par M. A. Daubrée (in 8yo, pp. 68:
Dunod, Paris, 1868)—The experiments of fusion and crystallization of
meteorites and terrestrial rocks, and on the imitation of aérolites by the

200 REPORT—1869.

reduction and oxidation of various minerals (see Report for 1868, p. 415),
led M. Daubrée to the conclusion that the latter process of «imperfect scori-
fication, like that which the materials of the earth’s crust appear to have
completely undergone by oxidation, represents the original process of forma-
tion of meteorites. In the rare aluminiferous meteorites of Juvenas, Jonzac,
Stannern, and Petersburgh (U.S.), the crystallization, like that of granite on
the earth, can only have taken place in the presence of water; since their
felspathic ingredients are converted into glass or vitreous slags by fusion.
Some new points of interest on the classification of meteorites *, and on the
recent acquisitions in the Paris Museum of Geology of aérolitic specimens, are
added by M. Daubrée to the former chapters of his original researches,
which are otherwise reproduced in the present pamphlet without change.
Among the recent specimens acquired at Paris, not less than 950 perfect
aérolites of the stonefall of Pultusk (1868, January 30th), varying from
the size of a hazel-nut to that of a hen’s egg, have lately been deposited by
M. Daubrée in the Geological Museum.

6. In ‘Cosmos’ for January 18th, 1868, M. Stanislas Meunier communi-
cates a new chemical test for distinguishing the protosulphuret of iron (Fe 8)
from the ordinary terrestrial magnetic sulphuret or pyrrhotine (Fe, $,). The
former, even when slightly supersulphuretted, precipitates metallic copper from
its solutions ; but when the proportion of sulphur approaches to that contained
in pyrrhotine, and in the case of the mineral pyrrhotine itself, no such pre-
cipitate is produced. The fact that the magnetic sulphuret of iron (troilite)
found in meteorites remains inactive, or “ passive,” when placed in a solution
of sulphate of copper, leads M. Meunier to conclude that its chemical
formula and mineralogical characters approach more nearly to those of
pyrrhotine (Fe, §,) than to those (with which it is usually compared) of the
protosulphuret of iron, FeS. A paper by the same author, in the ‘ Cosmos’
for March 21st, 1868, describes at length the process employed in the labora-
tory of the Paris Museum of Geology for analyzing meteoric irons.

7. “Licht, Wirme, und Schall bei Meteoritenfiillen,’ von W. v. Hai-
dinger (extracted from the Vienna Academy Sitzungsbericht, vol. lviii.
part 2, for October 8th, 1868)—An English version of the paper appears
in the Philosophical Magazine for April, 1869.

Some remarks by M. Daubrée and M. Meunier in the foregoing papers
appearing to admit of theoretical exceptions, the opportunity of reviewing the
facts recently observed regarding the falls of the meteorites in different parts
of the globe, and the conclusions to which they lead in confirmation of M.
Haidinger’s views of their interpretation, is made the occasion of a clear
exposition by the eminent mineralogist of Vienna of the progress of aérolitic
science during the long time in which it has engaged his attention, and
especially of the rapid strides which, owing to the able geological and astro-
nomical inquiries which have recently been devoted to the subject, it has
principally been enabled to make during the last few years.

8. “ Recherches sur la composition et la structure des Météorites,” par M.
Stanislas Meunier (in 4to, pp. 73:,Gauthier Villars, Paris, 1869.—A thesis
presented to the Faculty of Sciences of Paris for the award to the author of
the degree of Doctor in Physical Science).—The results of special methods of
analysis employed in foreign, and original researches on the composition
of a large number of meteoric irons are recapitulated by M. Meunier at
the end of the memoir, in the following general conclusions :-—

%* ‘Comptes Rendus’ for March 25 and April 2, 1867, and subsequent Numbers.

os ee ee

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 301

1°. Meteoric irons consist of a small number, only, of different minerals
combined together in variable proportions.

2°. These minerals, which may be called proaimate ingredients of meteoric
trons, possess physical and chemical characters which enable them to be
separated from each other in a state of purity.

3°. The majority possess a definite composition, capable of being expressed
in simple chemical formule.

4°. They are not mixed together at random in the masses which they
compose, but their positions relatively to each other obey certain fixed laws.

5°. Lastly, proximate chemical analysis of meteoric irons affords the only
effectual means of obtaining a satisfactory classification of these bodies.

9. Observations on the recent November meteoric showers.

“‘Shooting-stars on the morning of November 14th, 1867,” by H. A.
Newton (American Journal of Science for January 1868, vol. xlv. p. 78),
contains a discussion of the principal observations of frequency of the
meteors, and a curve showing the time of maximum of the star-shower, as
observed in the United States, together with some remarks cn its geogra-
phical extent of visibility, on the probable width of the stream, and its
possible connexion with the comet observed in China on the 25th of October,
A.D. 1366. :

‘On the ‘ Shooting-stars’ [of November 1867] as observed at Shanghai,”
by B. V. Marsh (Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, vol. x.
p. 384).—The following notes of a meteor-shower which occurred in China
on the 15th of November, 1867, were received by Mr. Marsh from Mr. B. R.
Lewis, U. 8. Deputy Consul-General at Shanghai.

Log of U. 8S. steamer ‘ Ashuelot,’ Capt. Febiger, at Shanghai :— Nov.
15th, 1867, 4" to 8" a.w. Large number of shooting-stars to the N. and E.
falling to the N.; visible until broad daylight. Clear and cold; light N.W.
winds.”

Log of U.S. steamer ‘ Monocacy,’ Capt. Carter, at Shanghai :—“ November
15th, 1867, from midnight to 4" a.m, At 2" aw. observed a number of
meteors falling from the westward towards the east. This shower of meteors
continued till 4" 4.1., decreasing in number from 3°, seven or eight being the
largest number visible at one time.

“ From 4" to 8" a.at. Between 4" and 5" observed several meteors falling
to the eastward.”

Extract from the ‘Shanghai News Letter’ of January 16th, 1868 [*].—
“ From Mr. O. B. Bradford of the U. 8. Consular Service we obtain the fol-
lowing glowing account of the meteoric shower of 1867, as witnessed by him
not far from the great wall of China. It was on the morning of the 15th of
November, while on his way back from the Nankow Pass, and when about
fifty miles N.N.W. of Pekin, that Mr. Bradford observed these grand pheno-
mena of the heavens. The grand spectacle was displayed in an are of not
less than 120° in the north-east part of the sky, which at times seemed to
be rent in twain, from about 25° of the zenith, by solid masses of luminous
bodies, of various magnitudes and surprising brilliancy, darting across his
vision. Several hundreds [!!] of these meteors would be visible at the same
time, all emitting the most intense light, and the nebule of the largest lasting
sometimes three minutes. One of the largest shone with brightness above
that of the moon as it issued from about 15° of the north star and passed to
the horizon, giving off as it fell coruscations of various bright colours, and,

[* The paragraph is considerably curtailed from the figurative language and descrip-
tions of the original article. ]

802 REPORT—1869.

when disappearing, a nebula, which resembled a waterspout in high latitudes.
It was not until 6" 30™ a.m. that approaching dawn and sunrise put an end
to the display.”

In reference to these accounts, it is stated by Mr. Marsh that the observa-
tions of 1866 afforded no ground for expecting this Asiatic display of 1867,
since the star-shower appeared and disappeared in the United States of
America within two hours of its appointed time, or at about 4" 30™ a.m.,
New York time, on the 14th of November. Since the latter hour would,
from the difference of longitude (12" 40™ east of New York), and from the
commencement of the day earlier (by that space of time) in China than in
America, correspond to about 5" 10™ p.m. on the afternoon of the 14th of
November at Shanghai, it follows that the Chinese shower of November 15th,
1867, was observed ten or twelve hours later, in absolute time, than the time
of the great appearance of the November meteors in the United States. On
the other hand, it has since been pointed out by Mr. Marsh, in a more recent
communication to the Committee, that the maximum of the great November
star-shower of 1865 was visible in America, and in Europe, on the morning
of the 13th of November, about twelve howrs earlier than corresponded to the
time of the principal apparition of the shower in the years 1866 and 1867.
The central and densest portion of the meteor-stream through which the
earth passed in the latter years appears accordingly to be flanked on either
side by lateral and somewhat less dense but wider meteoric currents at a dis-
tance from the orbit of the main stream, which the earth crossed in about
twelve hours on the mornings of the 13th of November, 1865, and 15th of
November, 1867. The Asiatic shower of the latter date accords almost exactly
in its epoch with the unexpected reappearance last year in Europe and Ame-
rica of the great display of meteors on the morning of the 14th of November
1868.

The following extract of a letter from Mr. Marsh to the Secretary of the
Committee, dated Philadelphia, January 15th, 1869, contains an ingenious
and clear statement of the above interesting result derived from the recent
observations :—

“The Chinese maximum was at about 3" 30™ p.w. November 14th, Phila-
delphia time, so that we should have been in the centre of that group, or
stream, this year at 9" 30™ p.m. November 13th. The shower which we
actually encountered was in full progress here by 11" 30™ p.m., and from the
European observations it is proved to have begun two hours earlier. Whereas
the American shower of 1867 should have begun at 9" a.m, November 13th,
and ended at about noon on that day, our shower of this year seems much
more directly to represent the Chinese than the American shower of 1867.

‘We had, on the 13th of November, 1865 (maximum at about 3” a.m.),
quite a fine display, much exceeding (I judge from your Reports) yours of
the same year, so that the principal displays of the present series were as
follows :—

“Place, year, and local time of maximum. Philadelphia time of de.

“Shower A. Philadelphia, 1865, Noy. 13, 3 O™ a.m. ... 1865, Nov. 13, 3 O™ a.o,
> 3B. London, B60; |, , 14,1, 15° ~,, p02 1866, 2.) lS aaeeen ee sare

3 ©. Philadelphia, 1867, ,, 14,4 30 ,, ... 1867, ,, 14,4 30 am.

» D. Shanghai, L867). 5;900'5,.41'90:9_ fo. 1867 5s? 14535 SO ae

» E. Philadelphia, 1868, ,, 14.3 0 ,, ... 1868, , 14,38 0 am.

«Philadelphia should have crossed those several streams, this yedr, as
follows :—

ixd

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 335

“ Meteoric stream, and its duration. Time of maximum.
A. 1868, Nov.12, 75 O™ p.m. to 92 O™ P.M. ceccccesceee 1868, Noy. 12, 92 O™ p.m.
Eres) Seca Ce Ok Ramee) OS ACM sia nsince Ss Pr sine Gin dé Ons AaMa
ce i rk ee es Ob ee tOsl aug 5 (TOON) nue sis0 ie ac # eects nl Ores a Acar:
) sapie Pebitc ¢ OU MEMO Ln SO P.Me cre, csce. _ > lo,’ 9 30 PM.
Hw) *,, » 13,10 0 Ppmw.to 8 O am. (Nov. 14) ,, se aS) Ors aa]

The accompanying diagram, subjoined to the last Table by Mr. Marsh,
most clearly illustrates its meaning, and the relation which the several
November meteor-streams recently observed bear to each other when reduced
to a common epoch :—

6h. 1868, Mid- 6h. 12h. 6h. Mid- 6h.

P.M. Nov. night. 13th. A.M. Noon. P.M. night. 14th. A.M. Noon,
FI 1865
ae elivolay. s4ncd).¢ 3.1. BIS canisters iacand oped datids «dablai laces Bi asides wag
z 1866
Messe SoA ote dati so) 50 clas BOSE A AN Lal Ae cae Pte Gone wale caver ns
3 1867
Rete se. Bae Ma, EN 0. BITE), eM Be, 2d a LEA

1867
oo | ooo CORE ERIE ae! BDEEBEEEC Gs a soooherrcna lareacesacos Spey America, 1868

“November Meteors of 1868, observed at the U. 8. Naval Observatory
Washington” (Report of Professor J. R. Eastman, with a chart of the
meteor-tracks).—For the purpose of determining with accuracy the positio~
of the radiant-point, and to afford means for calculating the real altitudes
and velocities of the November meteors, gnomonic charts of the heavens,
haying the constellation Leo in the centre of the map, were last year distri-
buted by the Meteor-committee of the Newhaven Academy. The tracks of
90 meteors were recorded on such a chart, which accompanies the Washington
Report; and by its means the position of the radiant-point was fixed at a
well-defined point in R. A. 148° 30’, N. Decl. 22° 30'. The points of beginning
and end of these apparent tracks are given, in a table, by their right ascen-
sions and declinations. The maximum frequency occurred at about 5" 0",
when they fell at the rate of about 2500 per hour, and by 6" a.m. 5078
meteors had been counted. The display continued until after daybreak, and
was the grandest ever witnessed at the Washington Observatory. The majo-
rity of the meteors, although obscured by the full moonlight, surpassed in
brightness those of the previous year. The trains of two large fireballs, after
passing through colours of red, green, and blue, at last formed light fleecy
clouds, and remained visible, respectively, for ten, and thirty minutes.

“Meteors of November 14th, 1868,” by H. A. Newton (American
Journal of Science and Arts, vol. xlvii. p. 399, with two plates).—Especial
provisions were made by the Newhaven Luminous-Meteor Committee, in
November last, to obtain carefully recorded observations of the apparent paths
of meteors, at the return of the expected star-shower. Among the shoot-
ing-stars whose positions were thus mapped, or sufficiently described,
accounts are given in the memoir of ten large meteors; and of this number,
five were observed at distant places, so that the real altitudes of the meteors,
or of their luminous streaks, could be determined. The largest fireball was
observed at 12 12™a.m., N.Y. T., the streak of which remained visible for
forty minutes over the south-eastern part of Pennsylvania, between Newhaven

and Washington, at both of which places its apparent place was noted. Par-

[* Time of the shower as actually seen in 1868.]

304: REPORT—1869.

ticulars of this brilliant fireball and of the remaining large meteors, whose
real altitudes were ascertained, are described in Appendix I. of this Report.

10. “Das November-phiinomen der Sternschnuppen in seinen einzelnen
Erscheinungen yon den iiltesten Zeiten bis 1866,” von G. von Boguslawski, in
Stettin (no date or reference).—The catalogue is completed until the 12th—14th
of November, 1849, and its continuation is reserved for a future publication.

11. “On Shower Meteors,” by Dr. Edmund Weiss (Astronomische Nach-
richten, No. 1710).—On the supposition that comets must, in general, be
accompanied by meteoric clouds, Dr. Weiss has computed the following data
regarding the comets whose orbits nearly intersect the orbit of the earth,
either at their ascending (§) or descending nodes (3). The following
‘Table gives the longitude and date of passage of the earth through the comet’s
node, the difference (at that point) of the sun’s distance from the earth (KR),
and from the comet’s orbit (7), the apparent position of the radiant-point of
the cometary particles, and (the tabular logarithm of) their velocity, relative
to the earth.

The distance (R—7r) of the earth (at node) from the comet’s orbit in the
direction of the sun is expressed in terms of the earth’s distance from the
sun as unity.

Radiant-point. | Log. of

No. Comet. mee Date. R—-r. memes st | deounntens
R.A. |N. Decl.| velocity.

1.|1792 IT. 9 | 284-1 | Jan. 5.| —0-066 | 193-8|424-6| 0-3447
2.|1840 I. 8 | 300-1 20.; +0-086 | 128:4|—28-6| 0-1112
3.| 1718 8 | 309-8 29.| —0-042 | 208°4|—31°2| 0:3714
4.|1857 I. 8 |313-1 | Feb. 2.) —0:028 | 261-°3/+4 23:2 | 0-2352
5. | 1092 83 | 316-1 5.| —0°012 | 103-2|—34-4| 98977
6.| 1854 IV. 8 | 324-4 13.| +0:015 | 304-0 |+37-3 | 0-0132
7.|1858 IV. 8 |324:9 13. | +0:045 | 271°8/4+11°8| 0-2661
8.| 1862 IV. 9 | 355-6 | Mar. 16.| +0°013 | 249-4}4 1:0} 03467
9.| 1683 9 | 3d5°6 16. | —0°052 | 206:9|—48-4| 0-2574
10. | 1763 93 | 357-6 18. | —0-026 | 312°4/421°6| 0-1884
11.) 1861 I. 9] 29-8 | Apr. 20.) +0-002 | 270-4|4+33:5| 0-2001
12.| 1790 IIT. 3 | 340 24. | —0-:063 | 319-1|+19-0| 0-3020
13.| 1863 IL. g | 71:1 |June 2.) —0-054 0:5 |—44-7 | 0°3015
14. | 1684 Q | 90°6 22.| —0:010 | 62°7|—47-1| 0-1323
15.) 1850 I. 8} 92:9 24,| —0-065 | 312-+}4+60°6 | 0-1405
16.| 1864 IT. 8 | 95:0 27.| +0:047 | 12:0|4+ 6-3) 0°3742
17.) 1737 II. 9 | 125-5 | July 29.) +0-025 | 175-2|+70-9| 9-9872
18.| 1852 II. g |187-°5 | Aug. 10.| —0-013 | 40-°7|—13-4| 0:3336
19.| 1862 II. g | 146-4 19.| —0:027 | 47:5)/+13-0| 0°3750
20.) 1854 IIT. g | 167-6 | Sept.10.) —0-018 | 53-0|—15°8 | 0-2819
21.) 17905) bs ee ay 16, | —0-053 | 108-1 |437-7 | 0°3519
22.| 1763 3 |177°6 20.| +0:029 | 44:5|—24-1| 0-1856
23.) 1864 IV. 9 | 203-0 | Oct. 16.) —0-044 | 209-6 |+442-7 | 0-0778
24.| 1779 8 | 206-0 19.| +0°022 | 39-3|—29-7| 9-9863
25.) 1849 I. 9 | 215-2 29. | —0°027 | 185-0|4 61-1 | 0-2236
26.| Biela 9 | 245°8 | Nov. 28.}-+0-011 | 23:4/+43-0| 9-7282
27.| 1819 IV. & | 257-6 | Dec. 9.| +0-086 | 346-2|—44-5| 9-5504
28. | 1680 & | 2745 26.| +0:050 | 182-0|+21-4| 0:2347

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 305

The comet No. 21 agrees too closely in all its particulars with the course
of the meteors of the 20th of April, from an observed radiant-point about in
R. A. 278°7, N. Decl. 35°, to leave any doubt of its connexion with the
star-shower of that date. Dr. Oppolzer, who observed the comet, remarks
that the visible connexion between its tail and nucleus was so slight as to
appear as if it would shortly be dissolved ; and the possibility that the comet
is gradually becoming broken up into portions is not an improbable assump-
tion to account for the extremely irregular returns of this great meteoric
shower. ‘The occurrence of a meteoric shower with a radiant-point in
Cerberus (R. A. 273°-0, N. Decl. 25°-5), observed by Professor Herschel on
the morning of the 13th of April, 1864, agrees well with the elements of the
same comet as computed by Oppolzer.

Orbits of the Meteoric Streams of Orbit of Comet T., 1861.
April 13th and April 20th. Oppolzer.
(Ee ae SOA] Teco wt stots 5 Se RPE meee 29°-8
Bre ers ke 235° garden Semen oOee |) eae eee, 243°-2
Os eae Da W Wide ernst Sela, | kabobs clkoeare 79°°8
dae gq) 6. «3 DO TOG F hare braced SD IOG IS he... 9:96412
CG) SOC n Ie WeQt— se ensie eg IsQer- —-adeeret: 0:98346

Again, reducing the nodal passages of Biela’s comet at former returns to
the fixed equinox for 1850-0, they are found to be, with the corresponding
positions of the radiant-point :—

ae Long. of Nodal passage Position of the Radiant.
: 8 of the Earth. R.A. N. Decl.
Pre nts. DOO 4s ee Sts Dee BO" e's es Le alt Paka 58° 1
PSG ...... BO Be ARE ate %, re NG, ae sss. 47°-7
PEGs ./.:. BASB YU, 2h y-o2 Noyvéad atest ee A ad BN 43°°0

The meteors observed on the 6th—8th of December by Brandes in 1798, by
Flangergues and Herrick in 1838, and by Heis in 1847, are stated by the
latter observer (Die Periodischen Sternschnuppen: Céln, 1849) to have
radiated from a point in Cassiopeia at about R. A. 25°, N. Decl. +40°. In
his latest list of radiant-points the radiant A,, for the first half of December
is placed at R. A. 21°, N. Decl. + 54°, while in Greg’s list of radiant-points
(see Report for 1868, p. 403) the elongated radiant A,,, ,,, producing meteors
in November and for some weeks earlier, is situated between @ and $ Cassio-
pei from R. A. 10° to 25°, and N. Decl. 54° to 60°. The radiant is sup-
posed to be continuous with A,, (Nov. 23-Dec. 18), near B Camelopardi,
whose position is about at R. A. 45°, N. Decl. 60°. Observations on shooting-
stars on the nights of the last week of November and first week of December
accordingly deserve particular attention, with a view to determining the
exact position of their point of radiation.

The following are some other comets of the list, all the particulars of whose
nodal passages and radiant-point appear to agree approximately with those
of meteoric showers included in Greg’s catalogue of radiant-points for the
northern, and Heis and Neumayer’s catalogue for the southern hemisphere.
The particulars of the meteor-showers apparently indicated are placed for
comparison, in the Table, adjoining those computed from the cometary orbits
to which they appear to correspond :—

306 REPORT—1869.
In the Northern Hemisphere.

Radiant. , Radiant.
No.| Comet. Date. |————_-——_ evens ——— Epoch. seas q
A. |N.Decl| "| R.A. | N. Decl. inet
1/1792 I. Jan. 5 ...| 198:8|424-6] Ma, | 187-172 +40 to+30\Jan. 1-25 ...... CanesVenatic
(?) 61854 IV. &\Feb. 13 | 3040/4373 WZ. | 305 +37 Mar. 15-Ap. 20 |y Cygni.
8/1862 IV. %|March 16} 2494/4 1:0} SZ | 247 — 3 Mar. 3-25 ...... 6, « Ophiuchi,
15/1850 I. @\June 24 | 312-4/+606) B, | 325 +60 June 11-July 11a Cephei.
17/1737 IL. 8\July 29 | 175°2)+70-9| V 172 +60 July 29- Sept. 6 |a, d Urse Ma4 |
joris. |
No. of
In the Southern Hemisphere. meteors
mapped.
2 \1840 I. g\Jan. 20 | 128:4/—286| I, | 105 —27 January ........ 30
5 |1092 > lab, 5 ...| 103:2}|—34-4|} 1, | 105 —45 February......... 15
9 11683 Paice 8 16) 206-9 |—48-4 ieee WEE. —38 March .72ccaeoc 15
24 |1779 gq Oct. 19. : 39:2/-297| X, | 10 eat October -.......-- 12

Meteoric Observations, continued from n previous Report.
Observer—W. H. Woop. Place of observation—Birmingham
March 1869.

Mag.
Hour Dura- Accordant
Date Tas per | Colour. |’); Apparent Path. : Remarks.
G.M.T. 7 any tion. yom To Radiant.
P.M. | secs. |.
18 |10®8™) >1 | Yellow | 25 “yz Leonis to @ Hydrx, +5°|M G2) or Q Ha)|Tail. See remarks
previous mony
below.
April.
bm White oa F |
10 | 9 37] >1 Yell a 2-5 107°-136° to y Geminorum WAS sy cues -hges cee Trregular flight
ene decreasing speed)
10 |10 26) 4 Blue 05 |wto a Persei ...........000000 As,4 or Sq)...... One meteor per hoy
A.M. |
11 112 34) 1. |Pale blue} 1:0 j« Urse Majoris, towards|Q, H2 or G De |Intercepted view. |
pe Lyncis, path 25°+
P.M. Polaris, Capell:
20/10 21| 1 | White | 10 ee to Capella |N(g) ....seseseeeee: 19th overcast.
20 | 10 38) Sirius} White | 0°75 Capella’ towards y Gemi-|N(5).......--..+.+ Imperfect view.
norum.
20 |11 38 2 Blue 10 |@ to ~ Herculis breenseetaeees Ng or D Ge ...|Slow.
i —— i. C= o— |
90 11.6 | » | Yellows | 1-5 [298°-+26° to 306°-+28° ...18 Gia)... Tail; slow. Mele
ePre pear-shaped ; b
with a flash.
— = a= o=
20 | 11.33) 2 Blue 1:0 |237 0 to 245 O35 rc | Satie neus traetsenee 19th overcast.
20 |11 38} 2 Blue 0-5 2: Ophiuchi to 6 Serpentis|S5, 6 .....-+--+--++ See remarks below
20 |11 52) >1 | White | 03 ot 56° to y Cephei ...... Qi ein SPS he Four meteors pei

Tin 1$h.; 21st,
11.30 p.m. no m

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 307

July.
Mag.
Hour, Dura- Apparent Path. Accordant
|G.M.T,| 88 Per Colour. tion. | From ne To Radiant. Remarks.
stars.
hm secs. :
11 15} 1 Blue 05 ja Sagitts toA, Herculis ...|H.............0.00 Sky hazy,moon 3rd qr.
One meteor in half
an hour.
11 35] 3 |Pale blue} 0:5 |A Pegasi to 7, Cygni......... RGD), Or Ell. 37. 29th overcast.
11 37| =1 | Intense | 0:2 |« Pegasi, path 1° towards|Re .......:....... An elongated steel-
blue. Delphinus. blue flash.
ll 44] 3 Red. | 0°75 |y Delphini to Ve EAPaee TEA Te coer Overcast till 11.30,
y Delphini, ¢ Cygni then 3 mtrs. in 20 ms.
) ‘ Night of 31stovercast.
Remarks,

January Ist and 2nd, overcast at night; 3rd, 9-10 p.m, cloudy, with
rain; lightning in N.N.W. horizon at 10" 5™, sky clear after 10 p.m.; no
meteors in three-quarters of an hour.

April 15th, 10-11" p.m. and after, fine display of Aurora Borealis ;
streamers, pink, green, and crimson colours, reached and radiated from the
zenith, seen simultaneously in the U. 8., America.

The Meteoric Shower of April-20.

There was a pronounced display of Meteors on this date at the rate of four
meteors per hour for one observer, showing no tendency to maximum further
than an absence on the succeeding night. The night was clear and moon-
light after 10", moon Ist qr. There was no prominent radiant, but a feeble
emission from seven or eight radiants common to the month, and mentioned
in the list of meteors.

July 15th and 16th, from 10" 30™ till 11° 30™ p.m, sky cloudy at times,
remaining clear about zenith ; no meteors seen. 17th and 18th, overcast at
10° 30" p.m. 19th, sky clear, moonlight 10" 30™-11"; no meteors.

Notices of Meteors from Newspapers, 1869.

An aérolitic fall in Sweden, mid-day, January 1st.

Large meteor (?) seen at Weston-super-Mare, Jan. 3rd.—* A meteor of
unusually bright appearance between the hours of 9 and 10 shot from the
heayens and disappeared beneath the waves. So vivid and instantaneous
was the appearance and disappearance of the meteor that, although seen by
a number of persons, there were many speculations as to its real nature.
Many, by whom the reflection alone was seen, were of opinion that it was
a vivid flash of lightning, whilst others thought it a rocket of unusual mag-
nitude.”’—Bristol Daily Post.

Jan. 13, 1.20 s.m.—A bright meteor observed at Brighton in W. of N.;
two detonations in three minutes; meteor calculated, according to sound, to
have burst thirty miles from observer.— Writer in ‘ Standard,’ Jan. 14.

The same seen at Hampton, rising in N. Colour, indigo Writer in
‘ Standard.’

April 3rd, between 4" and 5" a.m., a large meteor seen in Scotland. (See
enclosed paragraph from ‘ Lloyd’s News,’ and various other papers.)

May 31, 11.5 p.m, a large meteor seen at Norfolk, also at London. (See
‘The Times’ of June 2nd and 8rd, also the ‘Standard’ of June drd, and
other papers.) ©

308 REPORT—1869.

Meteor seen at New York.

May 20th, at night a meteor equal to the full moon was seen at New
York. It changed colour from red to green and burst into fragments. It
cast deep shadows, and had a long tail, Appeared 10° N.N.W. of « Aquile ;
path 30° N. westerly.—From American papers— Morning Star, June 3rd.

Report on the best means of providing for a uniformity of Weights and
Measures, with reference to the Interests of Science. By a Com-
mittee, consisting of Sir Joun Bowrine, F.R.S., The Right Hon.
C. B. Appertey, M.P., Samuret Brown, F.S.S., Dr. Farr, F.R.S.,
Frank P. Fettows, Professor Frankiann, F.R.S., Professor Hen-
nessy, F.R.S., James Heywoop, F.R.S., Sir Roperr Kang, F.R.S.,
Professor Leone Levi, Professor W. A. Mitier, F.R.S., Professor
Ranginez, LL.D., F.R.S., C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., Colonel Syxzs,
F.R.S., M.P., Professor A. W. Wititamson, F.R.S., James Yates,
F.R.S., Dr. Gkorcz Grover, Sir Josern Wurtworth, Bart.,F.R.S.,
J. R. Navier, H. Dincxs, J. V.N. Bazaterrre, W. Smirn, Sir W.
Farrparrn, Bart., F.R.S., and Joan Rosinson :—Professor Lronz
Levi, Secretary.

Your Committee have much pleasure in reporting that during the year con-
siderable progress has been made towards the assimilation of weights and
measures in all countries. As briefly stated last year, the North-German
Confederation, by a law dated 13 June 1868, adopted the metre as the basis
of measures and weights, and they resolved to take as the primary standard
measure of length the platinum bar in the possession of the Prussian Govern-
ment, which in the year 1863 was found by a Commission appointed by the
French and Prussian Governments to be equal to 1:00000301 metre at the
temperature of melting ice by comparison with the metre deposited at the
Archives in Paris. Whilst adopting the metric nomenclature, the North-
German Confederation added corresponding idiomatic names wherever pos-
sible, as, for instance, the Metre is also called the “Stab” or “ Ell,” the
Centimetre the new “ Zoll” or “Inch,” the Millimetre the “Strick” or
“Tine,” the Dekametre the “ Kette” or Chain, the Litre the “Kanne” or
Pot, the Hetolitre the ‘‘ Zass ” or Cask, the half Kilogram the “ Pfund”’ or
Pound, and the 50 Kilograms or 100 pounds the ‘“ Zentner” or Hundred-
weight. In the United States the use of metric weights and measures has
been rendered legal, and they are employed in all post-offices exchanging
mails with foreign countries. In the Postal Convention with this country,
signed at London on the 18th June 1867, the authorized weight of a single
letter was stated to be halfan ounce in the United Kingdom, or fifteen grammes
by the metrical scale in the United States. It were much to be desired
that the Post-Office of this country would second the enlightened opinion of
the Americans and adopt fifteen grams as the minimum weight of letters
sent to foreign countries. But still greater progress has been made in the
introduction of the Metric System into India. The question of revising the
Indian system of weights and measures had engaged the attention of the-
Government of India at various periods since 1837, and, in consequence of —
representations from the Madras Government and the Chambers of Com-
merce, the Government of India passed a resolution in 1864 authorizing

UNIFORMITY OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 309

the appointment of local Committees in each Presidency to deliberate and
report on the whole matter, with instructions to submit their views to the
Central Committee at Calcutta for their consideration. In course of time,
when these answers were received, it was found that in Madras and Bombay,
the North-west Provinces and the Punjaub, the Committees were in favour
of a uniform system, based on the Imperial, their recommendation being that
the unit of weight should consist of a Seer fixed at two lbs. avoirdupois, that
the Imperial quart should be the unit of capacity, and the Yard and Acre
the units of linear and superficial measure. The Bengal Committee, however,
thinking that the days of the Imperial System were numbered, and that
when all the rest of the world had adopted, or is about to adopt, the French
Metric System it would be a retrograde step to adopt the English weights
and measures, proposed the gradual but complete adoption of the French
Metric System, and their recommendation received the support of the Bengal
Government.

On the 1st October, 1867, Colonel Strachey, the President of the Central
Committee, with the view of bringing forward an expression of public opinion,
published a memorandum in which he supported the proposal of the Bengal
Committee. In his opinion, the assimilation of the English weights to those
of France was a mere question of time, and the existing English system could
not last, and he therefore advocated the adoption of the French kilogram as
the basis of the new system of weights in India. But Colonel Strachey’s
memorandum did not meet with the assent of a majority of the Committee,
and he retired from it almost at the beginning of its labours, whereupon the
Committee, with a new President, completed their labours, and concluded by
recommending a new system based on Imperial units with decimal multiples
and binary divisions. Thus the question stood when a Deputation from your
Committee and the Council of the International Decimal Association waited
on Sir Stafford Northcote, the then Secretary of State for India, for the pur-
pose of urging the importance of introducing the Metric System in India; and
it is gratifying to your Committee to state that, in a despatch dated Ist Feb.
1868, in conveying to the Government of India a full report of the represen-
tation of the Deputation, Sir Stafford Northcote wisely urged that whilst it
would be better for the Committee to endeavour to establish a system more
nearly approaching the best theoretical system than to adopt the English,
the Government should be cautious not unduly to sacrifice practical conve-
nience to theoretical symmetry. Soon after this a change of opinion appears
to have taken place in the Indian Government. A decisive minute was made
by the Commander-in-Chief, Sir W. R. Mansfield, dated 5th September 1868,
in favour of the Metric System. The same was confirmed by the Governor-
General, Sir John Lawrence ; and after the subject had been fully discussed in
Council, the whole matter was summed up in a despatch to the Secretary of
State for India, recommending that the new unit of weight should be a Seer
equal to the Kilogram, or 2-205 lbs. avoirdupois, and that a system of decimal
multiples and subdivisions of the unit of weight should be accepted as a
fundamental part of the new scale to be recognized by law. The Govern-
ment of India further urged that the best preparation for the general adoption
of the new metric weights would be their introduction and authoritative use
in the first instance by all the Departments of the Government, by all Muni-
cipal bodies, and on the Railways. On the receipt of this despatch with the
accompanying documents, the Duke of Argyll, the new Secretary of State for
India, remitted the whole question to the Board of Trade, and asked them
whether any measure is under consideration for a change in the weights of

3810 REPORT—1869.

this country. At that time, the subject being under the consideration of the
Standard Commission, the answer was delayed; but as it became known that
the Commissioners were favourable to the introduction of the Metric System,
and that a decided opinion existed in this country in favour of advancing still
further in the policy of the Permissive Act of 1864, the Duke of Argyll sent
a despatch to the Indian Government approving of the introduction of the
kilogram as the unit of weight throughout British India; and thus nearly
15,000,000 more of people will in a short time join the large family having
one common system of weights, the adoption of the metric unit of length
being certain to follow at no distant date. From India, with reference to
the many colonies and dependencies of the empire, your Committee waited
upon the Secretary of State for the Colonies, urging the advantage of at least

a permissive law to use the Metric System in all the Colonies, and also the,

need of having the system taught in all their schools ; and, with the consent
and cooperation of the Secretary of State, your Committee, in conjunction
with the Council of the International Association, sent a letter to all the
Governors of the Colonies to the same effect. Judging from the great success
achieved in India, we trust it will not be long before a decided uniformity of
weights and measures shall be realized in Canada and Australia, the Cape and
the West Indies, Malta and Gibraltar, in short in every colony of the empire.

In their last Report your Committee alluded to the unsatisfactory condition
of the law in this country, which, whilst making it permissive to make con-
tracts on the terms of the Metric System, made no provision for the stamping
of metric weights and measures in general use. This anomaly haying been
brought by your Committee to the notice of Her Majesty’s Government, the
subject was remitted by the Board of Trade to the Standard Commission for
their consideration, and your Committee are pleased to state that the second
report of that Commission, just published, recommends the removal of every
difficulty and the full and legal introduction of the Metric System. The
resolution of that Commission on the subject is as follows :—

‘Considering the information which has been laid before the Commission,
of the great increase during late years of international communication equally
in relation to trade and commerce, of the general adoption of the Metric
System of Weights and Measures in many countries both in Europe and other
parts of the world, and more recently in the North-German Confederation
and in the United States of America, of the progress of public opinion in this
country in favour of the Metric System as a uniform international system of
weights and measures, and of the increasing use of the Metric System in
scientific researches and in the practice of accurate chemistry and engineering
construction, we are of opinion that the time has now arrived when the law
should provide and facilities be afforded by the Government for the introduction
and use of Metric Weights and Measures in the United Kingdom, and that for
this object Metric Standards, accurately verified in relation to the primary
Metric Standards of Paris and deposited in the Standard Department of the
Board of Trade, should be legalized, and that verified copies of the official
Metric Standard should be provided by the local authorities for inspection of
such districts as may require them.” The Commissioners were not favourable
to the compulsory measure on the subject; but they recommended that
customs duties should be allowed to be levied by Metric Weights and Mea-
sures as well as by Imperial weight and measure; that the use of the Metric
System concurrently with the Imperial System should be adopted by other
public departments, especially the Post-Office, and in the publication of the
principal results of the statistics of the Board of Trade, as well as for the

> We 4 Re ed 6c

UNIFORMITY OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 311

admeasurement and registration of the tonnage of shipping; and that Mural
Standards of the Metric} System as well as of the Imperial System be
exhibited in public places. Your Committee regret the recommendation of
the Commissioners to maintain for an indefinite time two legal systems in
general use, it being subject to trouble and confusion. Nor do they agree
with the reason assigned for any hesitation in this matter. It is asserted
that there is no immediate cause for a change for the purpose of internal
trade. But what say the Chambers of Agriculture and the Chambers of
Commerce on the subject? The Barnstaple Farmers’ Club recently peti-
tioned Government in the following terms :—

“That your Petitioners, in common with the rest of the community, and

_ more especially of the farmers, suffer much needless disadvantage, and are

burdened with much unnecessary labour, by the great variety and compli-
cated character of the legal, and still more of the customary, Weights and
Measures in use in the United Kingdom, which add much to the number and
difficulty of the calculations required in business transactions, and deprive your
Petitioners of a great part of the benefit to be derived from the publication of
the prices current at the different markets in different parts of the country.

“That while under different heads, such as Long Measures, Land Mea-
sures, Liquid Measures, Dry Measures, and Weights of different kinds, for
different sorts respectively of lengths, of surfaces, of work, and of articles,
dry and liquid, there are at least ten distinct sets of well ascertained, though
utterly unsystematic, Weights and Measures recognized by law, besides an
unknown multitude of customary Weights and Measures in use, in different
localities in the United Kingdom, your Petitioners hear with envy of the
superior facilities enjoyed by their rivals abroad in those foreign countries
where a uniform Decimal System, comprising five series only, all equally
easy to be learnt and all founded on the same scientific basis, has been
established by law for the measurement respectively of length, of surface, of
capacity, of solid bulk and of weight—a system which, owing to its obvious
convenience, has either already become, or is rapidly becoming, general in
practice wherever legally established.

«That this System (known as the ‘ Metric,’ because wholly based on the
Metre) was unanimously recommended in 1862, after a full inquiry, by a
Committee of the House of Commons, comprising distinguished men of all
political parties ; and has already been adopted in its entirety by countries
with a population of nearly 150,000,000, and a trade with the United King-
dom of nearly £180,000,000 sterling, and adopted in part by countries with
a population of nearly 70,000,000, and a trade with the United Kingdom of
£50,000,000, each class of countries comprehending some of the most highly
civilized nations in the world, and each, as might be expected, continually
receiving additions, notwithstanding the refusal hitherto of this country and
the United States to do more than render the use of Metric Weights and
Measures permissive, and that of Russia to recognize it at all.

“The existing confusion in Weights and Measures in this country and its
Indian and Colonial Empire, equally complained of by the opponents and
supporters of the Metric System, renders the present time, in the opinion of
your Petitioners, particularly favourable for its legal adoption in its entirety;
since a change to this, the simplest, most convenient, and most widely used
System ever yet known, would cause hardly more trouble or inconvenience
than would the rigid general enforcement of our cumbrous and utterly irra-
tional Imperial set of Weights and Measures.

*‘ Your Petitioners therefore humbly pray your Honourable House to take

312 REPORT—1869.

measures for rendering the use of the Metric System not only legal but com-
pulsory, at the earliest practicable period, throughout the United Kingdom
and as many as possible of its dependencies.”

The Scottish Chamber of Agriculture have deliberated on the subject of the
grievance of having so many weights and measures in use. Grain is some-~
where sold by the quarter or bushel, and elsewhere it is weighed and sold by
the cental or other weight. ‘lhe practice differs in every county, nay in every
market, in the United Kingdom. The Royal Commissioners further urge, as
a reason against the immediate complete introduction of the Metric System,
that there are nearly thirty millions of ordinary weights and measures of the
existing Imperial System now in common use. But how many of these are
altogether unreliable? And is the temporary inconvenience of having to
substitute new weights and measures to be considered a sufficient reason for
delaying a reform of such importance to the trade and interests of the empire?
The example of France and all countries where the Metric System has been
introduced points out that it is necessary, in order to facilitate the change, to
indicate a time when the introduction of the change must be effective, and
your Committee hope that when Her Majesty’s Government bring forward a
Bill on the subject, the Legislature will see the necessity of providing that
after a definite time the concurrent use of the Imperial and Metric Systems
shall cease, and the Metric be finally adopted as the new Imperial System of
weights and measures in the United Kingdom.

Your Committee have already observed that the Royal Commissioners re-
commended that the Metric Standards should be accurately verified in relation
to the primary Metric Standards at Paris. These standards are a platinum
metre and kilogram, deposited at the Palais des Archives in 1793. But it
is not by these that new standards are now made. A copy of these standards
was made at the same time to save the original standards, and for the pur-
pose of verifying the Metric Standards of foreign countries where the Metric
System is adopted; and this copy was first deposited at the Observatoire,
and afterwards, in 1848, transferred to the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers.
The practice, therefore, is to verify any new standard by that copy, which,
notwithstanding the lapse of time, differs very little from the standard
of the Archives. It is objected, however, to such a practice, first, that it is
inconyenient in all cases to resort to Paris for such verification ; second, that
if each country prepares its own standards and in its own way these will be
found to differ from one another, and there may be not one but many metres;
and, third, that the standards themselves are not complete. Upon this sub-
ject your Committee have recently received a Report of a Committee of the
Physico-Mathematical Department of the Academy of Sciences of St. Peters-
burg, recommending that the different States should be invited to nominate
an International Commission for the purpose of preparing prototype standards
of the metre, and so create a unit of measure truly universal and effectively
international. Your Committee are glad to hear that M. de Jacobi, to whose
able pen we owe the valuable Report issued by the Committee of Weights and
Measures for the International Conference in 1867, will be present at this
Meeting to advocate this suggestion. The mode of obtaining a correct stan-
dard is a question of administration which may be safely left to the Warden
of the Standards ; yet your Committee are of opinion that the Commission thus
suggested may prove most beneficial, especially in endeavouring to correct
any small scientific defects in the system itself, and in the weights and mea-
sures separately in connexion with it. Your Committee are happy in re-
porting that the Mural Standard, made under their direction, of the Metre

ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 313

is highly appreciated, and during the year copies of the same have been
forwarded for public exhibition at Norwich and Exeter, and to the Harvard
University in the United States. Your Committee are desirous of making
further grants of such Mural Standards, but the funds at their disposal do
not allow them to use these efficient means for diffusing the knowledge of the
Metric System. Your Committee have much pleasure in reporting that
considerable stimulus has been given to the study of the Metric System by
the prizes offered to the students passing the examination of the Society of
Arts and the British and Foreign School Society on the subject; and that the
prize of £10 offered for the best school-book on the Metric System was gained
by W. C. Vaughan for an excellent treatise on the subject, which your Com-
mittee trust will soon be published and become extensively useful.

Upon the subject of International Coinage no step has been taken since
the report of the Royal Commissioners.

The Chancellor of the Exchequer, however, has recently enunciated his
views in favour of imposing a seigniorage of about one per cent., and of taking
it from the coin with the view that the sovereign may become identical with
the 25-frane piece. In his opinion, whilst the sovereign would still remain
as a current coin in this country of exactly the same value as now, it would
have the additional advantage that it would be identical in value with the
25-frane piece. The subject has been frequently before your Committee,
but they conceive that a general understanding on this and many other points
of extreme difficulty and magnitude should be arrived at by those conversant.
with the practical administration of the mints in different countries before
the subject is deliberately submitted for the approval of the country ; and your
Committee content themselves in echoing the recommendation of the Royal
Commissioners on International Coinage, that another International Confe-
rence may speedily be held for that purpose. The question is well worthy of
the attention of the British Association, and your Committee recommend
that the Council of the British Association should make a representation to
that effect to Her Majesty’s Government. In conclusion, your Committee
are persuaded that their efforts have not been in vain in stimulating the
early realization of one uniform system of weights, measures, and coins in
all countries, an object of the highest importance in the interest of science,
education, commerce, and peace; but their task being far from complete,
and with a view to labour still further towards that end, they recommend
the reappointment of the Committee, with a grant of at least £50 for the
purpose.

Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage. Drawn up by Dr.
Bengamin H. Pauvt, at the request of the Committee, consisting of *J.
Battery Denton, M. Inst. C.E., F.G.S., Dr. J. H. Gusert, F.R.S.,
*Ricuarp B. Grantuam, M. Inst. C.E., F.G.S., Chairman, W. D.
Harpine, *J. THornuityt Harrison, M. Inst. C.E., *Dr. BensaMin
H. Paun, Ph.D., F.C.S., Dr. R. Ancus Soiru, F.R.S., and Professor
J. A. WANKLYN.

Propasty one of the most important results of modern scientific inquiry is
the general recognition of the fact that attention to the hygienic requirements

18 * These Members only have attended the Meetings of the Committee.
69, Y

314 REPORT—1869.

of towns and populous places has a great influence on the preservation of
health and life. Hygienic measures calculated to prevent disease have
therefore come to be regarded even of more importance than the knowledge
gained by two thousand years’ experience in the art of medicine.

Pure air and water are two of the most essential requirements of all
populous places. The removal of water from the surface and from the
subsoil by some kind of drainage has also been found essential to the healthi-
ness of a place; but the thing most of all important in its influence on the
sanitary condition of towns &c., and as affecting the purity of the air and
water, is undoubtedly the mode in which the excretal refuse of their
population is dealt with.

Eyen in the most primitive states of society it has always been found
necessary to dispose of excreta and other refuse materials from dwellings in
such a manner as to prevent them from becoming a nuisance ; and the most
simple mode of effecting that object was probably the plan prescribed by
Moses to the Jews *.

The fact that animal excreta are useful as manure has also led, in many
cases, to the adoption of some plan of dealing with them for that purpose, by
which their accumulation in the vicinity of dwellings would be prevented to a
great extent; and in that way no great difficulty would be experienced in
thinly populated places in devising simple measures sufficient to meet all re-
quirements. Under such circumstances the mode of effecting the object in
view would be a matter to be determined and carried out by the individual re-
sidents of a place. But wherever the population became concentrated in
villages or towns, difficulties arose as to the disposal of excreta or their
immediate removal and use as manure, in consequence of which it became a
practice almost universal to allow them to collect, together with other refuse,
in pits dug in the ground near each house or group of houses, and then at
intervals to remove the accumulated contents of these pits for use as manure.
As the magnitude of towns increased, the difficulty of thus dealing with
excretal refuse became greater, and the offensive consequences of its accu-
mulation near dwellings more sensible. Hence this subject became more
and more a matter to be dealt with by the local authorities, at first by regu-
lation of the practices adopted by the inhabitants of a place, and eventually
it became a duty to be provided for and performed by the authorities them-
selves in such a way as to ensure the common convenience and well-being
of the population.

However, the full importance of this subject in other respects was far from
being appreciated until within the last thirty or forty years. It is only
within this recent period that there has been anything like an adequate
recognition of the fact that the sanitary state of dwellings and towns, the
health and mortality of their population, the condition of rivers, and other
matters of importance are, as a general rule, largely influenced by the practices
adopted in regard to excretal refuse. Within that period inquiry and expe-
rience have shown that excretal refuse, besides being offensive and, in some
cases, a great nuisance when accumulated in a state of putrefaction or decay
near dwellings, may be, and often is, a source of vast injury to the public
health. Opinions may vary as to the precise mode in which that influence
is exercised—whether by the evolution of deleterious gases, by the pollution
of water, by the development of those minute organisms which are now very
generally considered to be the media of infection, or in all of these ways
conjointly ; but there is no longer any doubt or difference of opinion as to

* Deuteronomy, ch. xxiii. ver. 12 ef seg.

ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 315

the general truth that, in regard to the mode of dealing with excretal refuse,
the sanitary point of view is far more important than any other. If, then,
the weightiest question to be solved by a municipal body be, how best to
preserve the health and life of the population committed to its charge, it is
evident that one of the first duties of such a body is that of providing for the
disposal of excretal refuse in a suitable manner. The recognition of this
sanitary axiom has been so imperatively enforced during the present century
by the frequent prevalence of epidemic diseases, such as cholera and fever,
that it may perhaps now be regarded as unquestionable, except where igno-
rance overcomes intelligence, and where mistaken notions of economy prevail.

Under this aspect the subject has lately attracted very general attention,

- not only in this country but also in most civilized countries abroad. It will

therefore be desirable to recite briefly the circumstances under which excretal
refuse may become a source of injury to health, and to trace the course events
have taken in regard to this subject since public attention was first directed
to the sanitary condition of towns, and since measures have been adopted
with a view to its amelioration.

Besides the inconvenience and offensive character of the system of collecting
excretal refuse in pits or vaults near dwellings, the evils consequent on that
plan arose chiefly from the impregnation of the surrounding soil with decom-
posing material, and sometimes also from the pollution of water used for
domestic purposes. The pits or reservoirs were in some cases provided with
overflow channels or with drains, by which the liquid contents were discharged
into a neighbouring watercourse or into a sewer; but in many cases that was
unnecessary, where the soil was of a sufficiently porous nature to admit of the
continuous free escape of liquid from the pits. By this natural drainage,
according to the nature of the soil, the liquid portions of the excreta would
permeate the soil and gain access to the wells, which were, as a very general
custom, placed close to the pits where excreta were collected. Moreover this
foul drainage would be augmented in many cases by the access of surface-
water to the pits, especially during wet weather.

These evils were often much aggravated by the absence of any systematic
drainage or sewerage of towns suflicient for the removal of subsoil water,
which became stagnant and putrefied beneath the dwellings. Even where
underground sewers existed they appear to have been intended only for the
removal of surface-water; the connexion of house-drains with these sewers
was prohibited, and it was penal to discharge or throw any excretal or other
offensive refuse into rivers.

At that time the water-closets (introduced by Bramah in 1793) were very
rarely in use; they had been adopted only in the better class of houses ‘in
towns, and then they were used in conjunction with underground vaults for
receiving the material discharged from them. Their subsequent more general
adoption, and the concurrent acquisition of a better and more copious water-
supply, were no doubt largely conducive to domestic comfort and convenience ;
but, in regard to the condition of towns, these changes were attended with

_a decided aggravation of the evils arising from the use of vaults or pits as

receptacles of excreta; for the drainage or overflow from these pits became

continuous on account of the use of water in the closets, and it was no longer

‘

.
;
:

.
a

dependent on the occasional access of rain. Under these circumstances the
pits or vaults became cesspools*, constantly charged with liquid, and in
most cases they had no outlet into the sewers. Evenso late as 1844 the Health

* This term appears to be of recent origin, as it is not to be found in old dictionaries.
x2

316 REPORT—1869.

of Towns’ Commissioners state, in their first Report, that “in some of the
larger and most crowded towns all entrance into the sewers by house-drains
or drains from water-closets or cesspools is prohibited under a penalty ;”
while in other places, including part of the metropolis, the entrance of house-
drains was deemed “the concession of a privilege subjected to regulations
and separate proceedings with attendant expenses,” tending either to restrict
the use of sewers for the purpose of removing excretal refuse and the drain-
age from pits containing it, or to confine the advantages of this plan to
the wealthy.

The removal of the domestic nuisance and inconvenience attending the use
of privies and pits for collecting the refuse, by the introduction of water-
closets, gave rise in this way to the creation of a town nuisance; the old town
sewers or drains proved inadequate to the duty thrown upon them; for in
some instances an improved water-supply was taken into a town without
any means being provided for taking it out again: the pent-up overflow
from cesspools, connected with water-closets, saturated the subsoil, the water
of wells became permanently polluted, fcetid water rose in the cellars of
houses, rendering the air impure by its exhalations, sickness followed, and
eventually there arose a loud outcry against the cesspool system as an into-
lerable nuisance, affecting not merely individual houses but the town generally.

The plan proposed as a remedy for this evil was the general adoption
of water-closets, combined with a system of thorough town sewerage, the
connexion of house-drains with the sewers being made compulsory on the
owners of houses under certain conditions. By this means the necessity for
allowing excretal refuse to accumulate at all near dwellings or within towns
was to be done away with; this refuse was to be at once removed from dwell-
ings into the sewers by a copious use of water, and swept rapidly through them
out of the town with the waste water from houses and the surface-drainage.

By this plan the whole of the water entering a town is eventually
polluted either by use or by admixture, and then constitutes what is now
commonly termed town-sewage, the expeditious removal of which from the
vicinity of towns is indispensable for the health of the neighbourhood.

This system, known as the water-carriage system, has been largely
adopted in this country, and, as a consequence, both the drainage of towns
and the removal of the excretal refuse have been in many cases effected by
the same means. The utilization of this town-sewage as manure, by irri-
gating land, was contemplated at the outset, but it was not enforced, and it
has been carried out only in a few cases, the sewage as a rule being dis-
charged from the sewers into any adjoining river or into the sea, this being
permitted so long as it does not create a nuisance. Individuals or towns
injured by the discharge of sewage in this way were left to obtain what
redress they could by legal means. The adoption of this system is well
known to have given rise to much litigation, and many towns where it has
been adopted have been placed in a very difficult position in consequence of
injunctions by the Court of Chancery prohibiting the discharge of their
sewage into watercourses.

Moreover the adoption of the water-closet and sewerage system of dealing
with excretal refuse has been followed by a greatly augmented pollution of
rivers, which is now acknowledged to have become an evil of national
importance, and is still a subject of official inquiry. At this point, when the
measures adopted for removing successively the domestic nuisance and the
town nuisance, arising from the disposal of excretal refuse, have given rise to
a national nuisance, it has become a yery serious matter to determine what

ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 317

is to be done with the sewage of towns. The importance of this question
is shown by the fact that, besides engaging the attention of the late General
Board of Health, besides being frequently discussed in Parliament and by
the various local authorities throughout the kingdom, it has within the last
thirteen years given rise to the appointment of three Royal Commissions
charged with the duties of investigating the subject and of suggesting
remedial measures, viz. :—

I. The Sewage Commission, dated 5th January 1857, “to inquire into the
best mode of distributing the sewage of towns and applying it to beneficial
and profitable uses,’ from which three reports have issued, bearing date
March 1858, August 1861, and March 1865. The conclusions the Com-
missioners arrived at were to the effect that the direct application of sewage
to land favourably situated, if judiciously carried out and confined to a
suitable area exclusively grass, is profitable to persons so employing it; that
where the conditions are unfavourable, a small payment on the part of the
local authorities will restore the balance ; that this method of sewage appli-
cation, conducted with moderate care, is not productive of nuisance or injury
to health.

That methods of precipitation are satisfactory merely as a means of
mitigating a nuisance.

That the only radical way of restoring the rivers to their original purity is
to prevent the discharge of foul matters into them, and especially the dis-
charge of sewage and other refuse of large towns.

That the right way to dispose of town sewage is to apply it continuously
to land, and that it is only by such application that the pollution of rivers
can be avoided.

That the magnitude of a town presents no real difficulty to the effectual
treatment of its sewage, provided it be considered as a collection of smaller
towns.

Il. The Rivers’ Commission, dated 18th May 1865, “to inquire how far
the present use of rivers for carrying off the sewage of towns, populous
places, &c. can be prevented without risk to the public health, and how far
such sewage &c. can be utilized,” from which three reports have already
issued, bearing date March 1866, May 1867, and August 1867, and further
reports are expected.

And III. The Royal Sanitary Commission, dated November 1868, “to in-
quire into and report on the operations of the sanitary laws for towns, villages,
and rural districts in Great Britain and Ireland, so far as these laws apply
to sewerage, drainage, water-supply, removal of refuse, prevention of over-
crowding, and other conditions conducive to the public health.” This latter
Commission is now engaged in its first proceedings, which are limited to the
consolidation and improvement of existing laws, and the establishment of a
better recognized central control. It is expected that a preliminary report
from this Commission will shortly appear.

The object of your Committee has been understood by its Members as that
of supplementing the above-mentioned public inquiries, with special informa-
tion, as to the local circumstances and practical experience of various towns
throughout the kingdom, and with other positive data relating to the subject,
such as the Royal Sewage Commission have pointed out as requisite to be
ascertained.

Your Committee, in entering on its duties, came to the conclusion that
since town sewage, as it is now most commonly known in this country, is a
source of nuisance, inconvenience, and injury to health, chiefly by reason of

318 REPORT—1869.

its containing the excretal refuse of the population, it was desirable the term
sewage should not be restricted to the liquid discharged from sewers in places
where there is a thorough system of sewerage combined with water-closets
and a copious supply of water, or, in other words, where the water-carriage
system of disposing of excretal refuse has been adopted, but that it should,
for the purposes of this inquiry, be understood as comprising excretal refuse
in any state. This extended application of the term sewage seemed to be
the more desirable, since there are many towns and places that are at present
debarred from adopting any measures for dealing with their excretal refuse
by doubts entertained as to the sanitary efficacy of such a system as that just
mentioned, and by a knowledge of the difficulties attending the disposal of
the sewage produced under that system. In order to ensure an explicit
understanding on this point in all correspondence and communications, the
following resolution was passed at a meeting of your Committee on the 5th
of January, 1869, viz. :—

“That the Committee do interpret the word ‘sewage’ in the instructions
of the Association as meaning any refuse, from human habitations, that may
affect the public health ;” and this interpretation of the term was specified in
all applications for information.

Bearing in mind the circumstance, already referred to in the introductory -
remarks, that formerly town-sewers were essentially drains, the objects of
which were simply and exclusively the removal of surface- and slop-water
by the most direct course to the nearest stream, as well as the fact that such
sewers, originally intended only for drainage, have in various ways come to
be confounded with and used as sewers for removing excretal refuse as well
as the surface and subsoil water, it was, for these reasons, considered to be
especially important to make a marked distinction between drainage and
sewerage, and, with that object, to designate the removal of surface and sub-
soil water from land by permeable channels “ drainage by drains,” and the
removal of excretal or other refuse from dwellings, factories, streets, &c., by
water through impervious conduits, ‘“‘sewerage by sewers.” According to
this distinction, a drain should be understood as a permeable channel adapted
throughout its entire length to remove water from the soil surrounding it ;
while a sewer should be understood as a channel sufficiently impermeable to be
adapted for conveying away house refuse without allowing either the refuse
to escape through its sides or water to penetrate from without.

One of the first steps taken by the Committee was to apply to Her
Majesty’s Secretary of State for the Home Department for his assistance in ob-
taining information from foreign countries respecting the practices prevailing
abroad for disposing of the refuse of towns, villages, public institutions, facto-
ries, dwellings, &c., and having reference to the sanitary condition of the dis-
tricts in which they are situated, the state of rivers, or the support and in-
crease of the produce of the soil; to this application Mr. Secretary Bruce has
given effect by transmitting from time to time very valuable information,
received from the following countries.

Recewed from the Home Office.

15th March, 1869. From Hamburg.—1. Statement as to the sewerage in
Hamburg. 2. Plan of sewers in Hamburg forwarded by Mr. Ward to
Lord Clarendon.

16th March, 1869. From Saxe Coburg Gotha.—Statement as to removal
and disposal of refuse from dwellings in Gotha, in a despatch from Mr. C.
T. Barnard to Lord Clarendon.

ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 319

25th March, 1869. From Holland.—1. Statement addressed by M. Boest
van Limburg to Vice-Admiral Harris. 2. Statement of the Minister of
the Interior at the Hague.

30th March, 1869. From Bavaria.—1l. Despatch from Prince Hohenlohe
to Sir Henry Howard. 2. Die Kultur-Gesetze Bayerns unter der Regie-
rung Maximilian II. (The agricultural laws of Bavaria under the govern-
ment of Maximilian the Second.) 3. Die bayerische Gesetzgebung und
Verwaltung im Bereiche der Landwirthschaft. (Legislation and adminis-
tration relating to agriculture in Bavaria.)

14th April, 1869. From Baden.—1. Despatch from Mr. E. W. Cope to Mr.
G. I. R. Gordon, describing the modes of emptying cesspools in Carlsruhe
and Freiburg, and disposing of the refuse. 2. Statement addressed by
Baron Freidorf to Mr. E. W. Cope as to the treatment of house-refuse in the
Grand Duchy. 3. Vertrag iiber die Vornahme und Besorgung der geruch-
losen Entleerung der Abtrittsgruben, Abfuhr des Strassenkehrichts und der
Haushaltungsabfiille, sowie der Reinigung der unterirdischen Kaniile in
Karlsruhe, nebst einem Anhange enthaltend die hierher beziiglichen ortspo-
lizeilichen Vorschriften. (Contract relating to the inodorous emptying of
cesspits, removal of rubbish from the streets and dwellings, as well as the
cleansing of the underground sewers in Carlsruhe, together with an Ap-
pendix containing the local regulations relating thereto.)

26th April, 1869. From Saxony.—1. Statement respecting the treatment of
town-refuse addressed by M. de Bosse to Mr. Hume Burnley, with extracts
from the official regulations on this subject.

26th April, 1869. From Prussia.—1l. Despatch from Baron Thiele to Lord
Aug. Loftus, stating that the practice in use for transporting and disposing
of the refuse of towns and villages in Prussia are at present very different,
and in general unsatisfactory, and that very great difference of opinion
prevails as to the necessary regulations to be made. 2. Gutachtliche
Ausserungen des Landes-Melioration Bau-Inspectors Réder und des Pro-
fessors der Agricultur-Chemie Dr. Eichhorn wher die Verwerthung der
Dungstoffe der Stadt Berlin fiir die Bodenkultur mit Bezugnahme auf das
Project des geheimen Baurathes Wiebe “ Ueber die Reinigung und Ent-
wisserung der Stadt Berlin.” (Report of Herr Réder, Inspector of Build-
ing and Improvements, and Dr. Eichhorn, Professor of Agricultural Che-
mistry, on the utilization of excreta from Berlin for agriculture with re-
ference to the plan proposed by Herr Wiebe “On the Cleansing and
Drainage of Berlin.”) 3. Proposition des Landes-Oeconomie Rathes Weyhe
betreffend die projectirte Kanalirung Berlins und die Anwendung eines
zweckmiissigen Systems zur Entfernung und Nutzbarmachung der Dung-
stoffe der Stadt im Interesse der Bodenkultur, u.s.w. (Memorandum by
Hr. Weyhe in reference to the proposed sewerage of Berlin, and to the appli-
cation of an efficient system of removing excreta from the town, and
utilizing them for the advantage of agriculture, &c.) 4. Die Abfuhr und
Verwerthung der Dungstoffe in verschiedenen deutschen und ausser-
deutschen Stidten, und darauf beziigliche Vorschlige fiir Berlin. Bericht
der von Seiner Excellenz dem Minister fiir die landwirthschaftlichen An-
gelegenheiten Herrn von Selchow ernannten Kommission C. von Salviati,
O. Réder, und Dr. Eichhorn. (Report of the Commission appointed by the
Minister of Agriculture to inquire into the removal and utilization of
excreta in various German and other towns, and to consider the plans pro-
posed with those objects for Berlin.) 5. Ueber die Kanalisation von Berlin.
Gutachten der Kénigl. wissenschaftlichen Deputation fiir das Medicinal-

3820 REPORT—1869.

wesen nebst einem Nachtrage mit zusatzlichen Bemerkungen yon Rud.
Virchow. (Reportof the Royal Medical Commission on the Sewage of Berlin,
with Appendix and remarks by Rud. Virchow.)

18th May, 1869. From Switzerland —1. Report from the Department of the
Interior at Berne to the Federal Council, forwarded by Mr. Bonar to Lord
Clarendon, and containing information collected from the municipal bodies
of various Swiss towns. 2. Ueber Anlage stidtischer Abzugs-Kaniile und
Behandlung der Abfallstoffe aus Stiidten. Von A. Biirkli. (The construction
of town-sewers, and treatment of the refuse of towns.) 3. Ueber die
Kloaken-Verhiiltnisse der Stadt Berne yon Dr. Adolf Vogt. (The sewerage
of Berne.) 4. Die Wasserverhiiltnisse Berns in Beziehung zu den Infec-
tions Krankheiten von Dr. A. Ziegler. (The connexion between water-
supply and infectious diseases in Berne.) 5. Instruction sur I’Assainisse-
ment des habitations et des rues. (Directions for improving the sanitary
condition of dwellings and streets.) Drawn up by the Special Sanitary
Commission appointed by the Municipality of Lausanne in 1867, and ap-
proved by the Municipal Board of Health.

20th May,1869. From Austria and Hungary.—1. Despatch from the Minister
of Foreign Affairs at Vienna to Lord Blomfield, describing the methods in
use in both portions of the empire.

20th May, 1869. From Belgium.—1l. Report from M. Vanderstichelen to
Mr. Savile Lumley on the regulations for disposing of refuse in towns and
villages in Belgium. 2. Police des Etablissemens dangereux insalubres
ou incommodes. (Regulations concerning works that are dangerous, un-
healthy, or a nuisance.) 3. Mémoire sur la révision de la Législation des
cours d’eau non-navigables ni flottables, &c. (Memoir on the revision of
laws relating to watercourses that are not navigable.) A prize essay by
M. Jules Sauveur.

20th May, 1869. From Sweden.—1. Despatch from Count Wachtmeister to
Mr. Jermingham. 2. Report presented to the Grand Governor in Stock-
holm by the Board charged with the removal of refuse from the town.
3. Statement of expenditure and receipts of the Board during 1868.
4. Ofver-Stithallare-Embetets Kungirelse angfiende sirskelda ordnings-
foreskrifter for Stockholm utéfver hoad Kongl. Majts. Nadiga Ordning-
stadga for Rikets Staéder innahaller, 11 Jan. 1869. (Regulation issued by
the Grand Governor respecting removal of refuse.) 5. Project for re-
moving refuse by railway as suggested to the Town Council of Stockholm
by M. A Hanongren.

20th May, 1869. From Denmark.—1. Despatch from Sir C. L. Wyke to the
Ear] of Clarendon, stating that no precise data can be obtained.

20th May, 1869. From Turkey.—1. Extract from Mr. Elliot’s despatch,
stating that in Turkey matters are conducted in the most primitive manner.

20th May, 1869. From Greece.—1. Despatch from the Minister of Foreign
Affairs at Athens to the Hon..E, M. Erskine, stating that the refuse of
dwellings is generally carried out of the towns in carts at the expense of the
municipal authorities, and that its application in agriculture is very limited.

20th May, 1869. From Russia.—Statement of the regulations as to removal
of town refuse and its application in agriculture, for preventing pollution
of water and other matters relating to public health.

20th May, 1869. From the United States of America.—1. Despatch from
Mr. Thornton to the Earl of Clarendon, containing information furnished
by H.M. Consuls at some of the principal cities in the United States.
2, Annual Report from the Superintendent of Health in Boston to the

BO Ae

ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 321

City Council for the year 1868. 3. Copies of ordinances issued by the
Health Office and Mayor of the City of Boston in reference to house-offal,
ashes, &c. The construction of vaults and privies. Sanitary visitation.
4. Description of a plan for the Drainage of Washington proposed by Mr.
P. H. Donegan. 5. Letter addressed from the Mayor's office of the City
of Salem to Mr. Consul Lousada, stating that a system of sewerage is being
constructed in that city by which the whole of the town-refuse will be
carried into the two rivers between which it stands, instead of being
‘collected, as heretofore, in vaults or cesspits, and carted away at intervals
to serve as manure. 6. Municipal Register containing the ordinances,
regulations, &c. of the City of Salem for 1867.

20th May, 1869. From Wirtemberg.—1l. Despatch from Mr. Gordon to the
Earl of Clarendon. 2. Strassen-Polizei-Vorschriften fiir die Stadt Stutt-
gart. (Police regulations for the streets of Stuttgard.) 3. Report on the
disposal of refuse in towns and dwellings, addressed to the Minister of the
Interior by the Central Board of Agriculture in Stuttgard.

It appears from these documents that in most cases (both in town and
country places) the use of privies is very general, water-closets being rare
even in large towns, and that the usual method of dealing with human
excreta is to allow them to collect in pits (Abtrittsgruben, fosses), which are
sometimes drained, either naturally by the permeable character of the soil, or
artificially, so that most or all of the liquid portion of the contents of the pits
flows away or infiltrates the surrounding soil. Frequently privies are built
over rivers, with the object of getting rid of the excreta at once; and at
some places methods still more objectionable are adopted, many houses are
without either water-closets or privies, the common custom being to use
nightstools, which are emptied into pits near the house ; thus, for instance, in
Berlin, with a population under 600,000, there are said to be no less than
50,000 nightstools in daily use.

Only in some few foreign towns is there any system of sewerage for the
removal of excreta by means of water; this is the case in Hamburg, Paris,
Brussels, Hanover, Washington, Philadelphia, San Francisco, and some other
American towns to a greater or less extent. In some other towns modified
arrangements of the privy and pit system have been to some extent adopted.
These consist in substituting for the ordinary pit either a fixed or a portable re-
servoir for receiving the excreta. These reservoirs are sometimes constructed
with a drain by which the overflow or the liquid contents escape, and some-
times they are both water- and air-tight, the discharge of the liquid contents
into the sewers being prohibited. In some cases such reservoirs are con-
structed so as to receive only the excreta, and sometimes so as to separate the
solid and liquid excreta ; but they are also used in combination with water-
closets, and sometimes they receive rain-water from the house-roofs &c. as
well.

The contents of the fixed reservoirs are removed periodically in several
different ways, and according to divers local regulations. Sometimes the
contents are simply dipped out, and sometimes they are removed either by
pumping into closed tank-carts with lift-pumps, or by means of a vacuum
previously produced in the tank-cart. In some few cases the time that may
elapse between the removal of the contents of these reservoirs is fixed by the
local authorities. The portable reservoirs are from time to time removed
and replaced by empty reservoirs, then carried outside the town, and their
contents used as manure in some way. Both the fixed and portable re-

322 REPORT—1869.

servoirs are frequently ventilated by means of shafts rising above the house-
tops. Fixed reservoirs are used in Carlsruhe, Ostend, Antwerp, Strasburg,
Berlin, Dresden.

Portable reservoirs are used in Gratz, Dresden,L eipzig, Strasburg, Berlin,
Paris. Generally the contents of pits and of fixed or portable reservoirs are
used as manure. In some cases each householder pays for the removal of
excretal refuse, in others the contents of pits and reservoirs are sold. At
some places the town authorities pay for the removal of the refuse and
street-sweepings. Thus in Carlsruhe, a town with about 25,000 inhabitants
and 1400 houses, about £500 a year is paid to the contractor for this service,
and the contractor sells the manure.

Sometimes a town derives some return from the excretal and other refuse
removed and used as manure. In the town of Groningen the yearly profit
amounts to about £1600, in Antwerp it is £2700, at Ostend £700. In Stras-
burg the cost of removal is only just covered by the sale of the manure. The
sale of the refuse from the barracks at Carlsruhe, where 2800 men were
quartered, has realized aprofit of £300 a year, and the attendant expenses
amounted to about £40 a year.

According to experience in the neighbourhood of Berne, Basle, Munich,
Zurich, Ghent, and other towns where excretal refuse is removed and used
as manure, there is always a profit realized after payment of the cost of
removal and transport; and it appears to be considered probable that the
expense attending this system would be reduced by the adoption of portable
reservoirs. In some other towns the cost of removal and transport exceeds
the return; thus, in Stockholm, with a population of about 150,000, the
expenditure amounts to £35,000 a year, and the income derived from the sale
of the refuse as manure is £33,000 a year.

In Hamburg there is an extensive system of sewerage, and in a large part
of the town the excreta are removed by water-carriage through sewers. In
Brussels, Paris, Lausanne, and Lugano the water-carriage system is also
more or less adopted in some form adapted to local conditions. However,
in the two latter towns water-closets are but rarely used, and in Basle likewise
the privies are situated so as to discharge into the Rhine, or into one of its
tributaries. In the case of Hamburg the water of the Elbe is stated to be
much polluted by the discharge of sewage, but without any apparent serious
influence on health. However, statistics furnished by the Secretary to the
Hamburg Board of Health show that the rate of mortality has kept pace with
the increase of population. In 1840, before the construction of the sewerage,
the population was 137,000, with a mortality of 28 per thousand. In 1848
the population was 148,000, with a mortality of 22 per thousand; in 1859
the population was 174,000, with a mortality of 26 per thousand; and in
1866 the population was 195,000, with a mortality of 28 per thousand.

The general purport of the communications received from foreign countries
is to show that the question as to the means by which excretal refuse may be
disposed of and removed from dwellings, villages, and towns, so as to prevent
nuisance or evil consequences as regards the sanitary condition of the locality,
is, at least, quite as much an open and disputed question as it is in this
country. In these documents there is abundant evidence that, wherever the
subject has been considered, there is a strong, though vague sense of the
injury to health resulting from the accumulation of excretal materials in pits
&ec. within populous districts, by the impregnation of the soil, by the pol-
lution of rivers and well-water with drainage from such accumulations, or
from the discharge of excretal materials into watercourses directly or indi-

ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 3823

rectly ; and it appears to be generally admitted that these are serious evils
that require to be remedied.

Besides these views as to the sanitary aspect of the subject, there is still
more decisive evidence of the conviction that a vast quantity of material is
now wasted which might be of great service in agriculture for sustaining and
augmenting the fertility of cultivated land. There is, however, no instance
in which decisive conclusions have been arrived at as to the best mode of
dealing with town-refuse so as to secure a satisfactory state of public health,
and at the same time admit of the agricultural value of that refuse being
realized without concurrent disadvantages. It does not appear that any par-
ticular improved system of dealing with house-refuse has been generally
adopted as a substitute for the old practice of collecting such refuse in pits
with periodical removal of the contents; neither is there any case where an
attempted improvement has been long enough practised to furnish satisfactory
evidence as to the efficacy of the means adopted, and their influence on public
health. In both these respects it may safely be said that foreign towns are,
as a rule, far behind some towns in this country.

The method of removing excretal refuse by pumping it into carts and carry-
ing it out of the town to the neighbouring land, has in some instances been
continued with satisfaction, while in other instances it has been abandoned
after trial.

The plans of collecting and removing excretal refuse in portable closed
reservoirs has been largely adopted in France, Saxony, Switzerland, and other
countries ; but in no case is any specific information given as to the extent to
which the liquid portion escapes, spontaneously or by drainage, to pollute the
adjoining soil and watercourses, or how far the portion of the refuse that
remains represents the original value of the excreta for agriculture. In some
towns it is evident that only the solid excreta are used as manure ; thus in
Zurich there is a system of sewerage which carries off both the rain-water
and liquid drainage from gutters, houses, and reservoirs for collecting excreta.
Probably in most cases, where cesspools or fixed and portable reservoirs are
in use, the greater part of the liquid excreta drains away.

In some towns, as in Berlin for instance, the use of water as a means of
transporting the refuse has been proposed, and it is still under consideration.
Some of the scientific authorities deputed to inquire into the subject have,
however, recommended that any general system of sewerage; based on that
principle, should not be adopted, because of the increased difficulty it gives
rise to in the realization of the value of the excreta as manure, and because
of the anticipated prejudicial influences on the air of the district if the
sewage were applied to land, and upon the water of rivers if the liquid
refuse were mixed with it.

There does not appear to be, in any country, general or systematic legisla-
tion in reference to sanitary matters. Almost everywhere the regulations
with that object are in the hands of the police or other local authorities ; and
though the provisions relating to removal of refuse, cleaning of streets, &c.
are often very minute and stringent, they are seldom or ever of such a
nature as to deal effectually with those tendencies to unhealthiness which
result from accumulation of excretal and other refuse material, especially in
large towns or densely populated districts.

As to the precise conditions that affect the public health, the connexion
between the sanitary state of towns and the drainage, water-supply, mode of
disposing of excretal refuse, &c., there appears to be, even more than in this
country, an absence of definite knowledge or of demonstrative evidence in

824 REPORT—1869.

favour of any particular view, though at the same time there is everywhere
in civilized countries an earnest consideration of these subjects in all their
bearings—sanitary, municipal, and agricultural.

While this information was being collected from foreign countries, the
Committee prepared a series of questions with the object of eliciting infor-
mation as to the several cities, towns, and rural districts throughout the
United Kingdom, so far as the means at its disposal would permit. These
questions were sent to 340 local sanitary and sewer authorities, representing
a population of about 10 millions. Up to the present time replies have been
received from 107 places having an aggregate population of more than 4
millions.

Number and Population of Towns &.
Applied to. Answered.
8

Towns with upwards of 100,000 ............ 16
B >» between 100,000 and 50,000.... 23 13
i 3 Hf 50,000 and 20,000.... 59 22
a "- a 20,000 and 10,000.... 69 23
i x a TOKOOO Y= Vetee Bet 134 33
Riralhdistricis RE RAh See Cea Ae Oe 39 8
340 107

Total Area, Number of Houses, and Rateable Value—Of the 107 places
from which replies have been received, the total area of 78 of them is stated
to be 413,218 acres. The areas of the remaining 29 places have not been
specified.

In 93 of these places the total number of hous?s is stated to be 727,816,
and their aggregate rateable value £14,849,556.

In fourteen instances no particulars were stated as to these points.

Water-supply.—It appears that the sources of water-supply in these

places are as follow :—
Number of towns. Aggregate population.

Surfaco-wellg 0s Hoe? EN 24 354,890
SERA ES A RH ERE Bt 8 63,680
Springs and gathering-grounds .... 16 1,210,906
Gathering-grounds and wells ...... 3 606,552
Gathering-grounds and rivers ...... 2 59,000
Rivers and streams .............. 26 843,140
enkesMUULEE 8 DSA), LMA 1 19,000
Artesian! wells S22. 082 80. See eS 12 263,500
Artesian wells, rivers, and surface-

WVelEReA REREN ok cM iets ene Meteaats 2 446,000
No information given ............ 13 393,746

Of these places, 80 are provided with waterworks,
27 are without waterworks, or give no definite information.
The quantity of water supplied per head of the population is stated to be

as under :—
Number of towns. Aggregate population.
0

From 50 to 30 gallons............ 7 596,800
7 SO eee Chee AOE 25 1,477,007
9, tO enttes SN tei, duet, biaae 13 455,500
OAS Sy TO ag Tt PRB ADE 15 370,500
Under or? AF) Pe ee 3 42,500

Not istated ews. M, Fa DSIRE, 43 1,444,000

ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 825

The largest amount of water supplied is in the case of Lynn, where it is
stated to be 56 gallons per head daily, and the smallest amount is said to be
supplied in the case of Stroud, where it is only 4 gallons per head.

Disposal of Excretal Refuse—Of the 107 places there are 42 where the
old system of using privies with pits for collecting the refuse is general, and
25 where it is partially adhered to. In 42 places water-closets are general,
and in 25 places they have been adopted partially to a greater or less extent.

Sewerage.—Out of the 107 places there are only 11 where no system of
sewerage exists; in the remainder the sewerage of the towns is either
general or partial, but in some instances very defective.

Number of Houses, Population.
SS SS as
Number of Discharging
towns. Total. Sewered. Total. into
sewers.

Completely sewered 48 375,002 375,002 2,230,578 2,230,578
Partially sewered.. 48 337,299 152,785 1,973,753 1,039,731
Not sewered...... Tal PAISOOKN Aq shackerae 145,000

107
Of the places which are completely sewered there are,—
29 where water-closets are general.

12’ ,, privies as 3
7 ,, both are used.

Of the places which are only partially sewered there are,—

12 where water-closets are general.
22. ~=«4,, ~‘~privies Days,
14 ,, both are used.

Of the places which are not sewered there are,—

1 where water-closets are general.
6 4, privies 3 a5
3 ,, both are used.

Disposal of Liquid Sewage and Contents of Pits §ce— At 71 places
out of the 107 the liquid sewage, consisting either of the discharge from
water-closets, or of the drainage and overflow from pits and cesspools, is
discharged into the adjoining stream or river, and in two instances it is dis-
charged into pools of water. At a few of those places the sewage is first
submitted to some kind of treatment, chiefly with the object of preventing
or mitigating nuisance. At Bury St. Edmunds the liquid sewage is partly
got rid of by means of dead wells.

In 38 places the contents of pits and cesspools are carted away.

At 15 places the liquid sewage is applied to land, either wholly or partially,
and at 2 of those places it is previously subjected to treatment.

The number of towns where these different plans are adopted is shown by
the following Table :—

326 REPORT—1869.

Sewage dis- Séwage Contents of
charged into usedfor pits carted

rivers&c. irrigation. away.
Towns com- Water-closets general 29 26 3 ”
pletely sew- } 48 < Privies............ 12 15
rater RR eh Both weed +)... 2 2% 7 2 5
Towns parti- Water-closets general 12 9 3
ally sewer- } 48 PEIVIES br reins Pe tie be 22 17 2 18
eden s Both aised 2 aes, 14 12
Migeeae eho Water-closets used .. 1 .
eee lata" Derrygerencr: Gece ato 6 a 5
a Boe Pear ed tse 4 1

Total number 107

It will be evident that, according to local conditions, there will be great dif-
ferences in the nature of the liquid sewage of different places, and that even the
contents of pits, cesspools, &c. will vary, according as the soil is readily or
slightly permeable. The amount of the water-supply and the admission or ex-
clusion of surface-water from the sewers will also be of influence in this way.

Total Quantity and Amount of Liquid Sewage.—Among the 96 places
where there is a system of sewerage, either general or partial, combined
with water-closets and a copious supply of water, the minimum daily quan-
tity of liquid sewage discharged varies from 20,000 gallons as at Alton, to
17 million gallons as at Birmingham, and 130 million gallons as at Liverpool.

The storm-discharge at places where the surface-water is admitted to the
sewers varies from one and a half to twenty times as much as the discharge
during dry weather, and at places where the surface-water is wholly or par-
tially excluded it varies from one and one-tenth to seven times as much as
the dry-weather discharge.

The average amount of liquid sewage per head of the population in places
where the surface-water is admitted to the sewers varies from 10 to upwards
of 100 gallons, and at places where the surface-water is excluded it varies
from 6 to 100.

Treatment of Liquid Sewage—At 15 of the places which are sewered
wholly or partially, the liquid sewage is subjected to treatment either by
allowing it to remain for a time in settling-tanks, from which the deposit is
occasionally removed, as at Burton-on-Trent, Birmingham, Epsom, Fareham,
and Andover, or by filtering, as at Uxbridge and Ealing.

In eight instances deodorizing materials are added to the sewage. Lime and
carbolic acid are used at Carlisle and Harrow, lime alone is used at Leicester,
lime and chloride of lime at Luton, perchloride of iron at Cheltenham, perchlo-
ride of iron and lime at Northampton, ferruginous clay treated with sulphuric
acid at Stroud, and at Leamington the lime treatment has lately been super-
seded by the method proposed by Messrs. Sillar and Wigner. By this treatment
the sewage is clarified, and a deposit is separated which is sold as manure.

In regard to the effects thus produced, it is stated that at Leicester the
sewage runs off as pure as ordinary rain-water ; at Ealing it is said to be free
from smell, colourless, and harmless to vegetable or animal life; at Stroud
and Luton the effect is stated to be satisfactory. At Harrow the nuisance is
said to be somewhat mitigated, and at Abergavenny the stench is said to
be abated by the treatment of the sewage. At Bury St. Edmunds upward
filtration through charcoal and gypsum has been abandoned as too costly and
in favour of irrigation. At Banbury treatment of the sewage has failed, and
irrigation is now resorted to. At Hereford, where it was proposed to he
adopted in the Parliamentary plans, it has not been tried, on the score of ex-
pense. At Tonbridge it is about to be tried; and at Hastings and Cambridge
experiments are being made.

ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 827

The cost of treatment amounts to £1200 a year at Leicester for a popula-
tion of 89,000 discharging into the sewers. At Ealing, with a population of
7500, the annual cost is £300, and the cost of the plant for the purpose was
£3000. At Luton, with a population of 18,000, the annual cost is £500; at
Cheltenham, with a population of 36,000, it is £350; at Uxbridge, with
7000 population, it is £200 ; and at Alton, with 3300 population, it is £46.

The solid deposit obtained by treating liquid sewage is sold at prices
varying from 6d. to 2s. 6d. per ton. At Leicester as much as 5000 tons is
produced. At Luton the deposit is mixed with night-soil, at Banbury with
street-sweepings, and at Stroud it is made the basis of a manure that is said
to be sold at £7 10s. per ton.

Application of Liquid Sewage for Irrigation—In only 15 places out of the
96 where the water-carriage system of removing excretal refuse is adopted,
either generally or partially, is the sewage applied for irrigating land. Of
these places 8 are completely sewered; in 11 of them water-closets are
general, and in 2 they are partial. The remaining 7 towns are only partially
sewered, and in 3 of these water-closets are general, while privies are gene-
ral in the other 4 towns.

The areas of land to which the sewage of these places is applied are shown
by the following Table :—

Population dis-| Area of | Area re-
Towns. ae aa They crc Sadan Character. Additional land.
‘ Acres. | Acres

3 (Edinburgh ......... 190,000 Boi. ||. wets Various.
q & | Carlisle ............ 31,000 110 110 |Pasture. Some in hands of lessee.
b/ée | UIE D YG tase Sei-idn «sonck 8,700 65 50 |Gravel&clay. [reach.
| e4 Chelmsford ......... 8,500 50 19 el ba eat, 150 acres, too high to
Seis) | Epsom............... 4,000 BO POS a, eee sa crags 90 ,,
4 | | Harrow ............ 3,500 G2 ese 3k Clay. None.
Ss & | Banbury ............ 10,800 120 | 1384 (Stiff 14 nv
= | 6 \ Newmarket......... 3,500 [soil.
fa S / Bedford ............ 16,504 OD\e | seaersaees Gravel sub-
= re | Braintree............ 15(0, 000 ell Wee Seo ibe cee Pasture.

| 5 40
a f E | Malvern ....:....... 5,000 {' | yore midi ee. eet eel Oe 100 ,,

a 50
_, p| Tenterden ......... 4,000 [gravel.

Seetiiaiishan 360,000 | 135 |......... Oliy and

& | Chorley ............ 13,300 iM ee Clay subsoil.| 46 ,,

(4 | BurySt.Edmund’s} 14,000 |......... 15 |Light.

_ The following towns are about to apply their sewage for irrigation, or
they contemplate doing so :—

Population dis-| Area of |

Towns. altri g tka pri bape Character. Additional land.
Acres.
Tunbridge Wells ...| 12,800 Tes, Seemase cts deders 170 acres.
BOLDILON ie. 2)..eees5: + 7,100
Kingston-on-Thames| 12,000
Nottingham............ 86,000
Inverness............... 18;000:2., | .5..25.. Light loam.
BOM acacia scion sve TRO00 Tne. ac Sandy.
Aberdeen ............... 60,000
PN ONWIGH) Wi2s.0e4ssh002 57,000 700 {Light 500 ,,
Skipton 5,500
Reigate” .....c0s..bo00s 9,000
Aylesbury
Evesham

3828 REPORT—1869.

At Tonbridge it is stated that the application of the sewage for irrigating
land would be almost impossible, and the local authorities believe all trials
that have been made to apply sewage in this way are failures and a source of
dissatisfaction on account of nuisance and expense. Lincoln is also said not
to admit of this application of sewage. At Cambridge the subject is under
consideration.

Comparing the extent of land irrigated and the population discharging
into the sewers at the places above named, it appears that in the case of Bir-
mingham there is only ‘4 of an acre per 1000 of population; at Edinburgh
there is 1*7 acre per 1000; at Carlisle, Bedford, and Chorley there is from 3
to 3:5 acres; at Harrow, Reigate, and Chelmsford there is from 5 to 6:6
acres; at Epsom, Rugby, and Malvern’ from 7:5 to 10 acres; at Tunbridge
Wells, Banbury, and Norwich from 10 to 12 acres per 1000.

There does not appear to be any provision in most cases for additional
land for irrigation except at Carlisle and Norwich. At Chelmsford there is
some, but it is too high to be reached; andat Tunbridge Wells the purchase
of additional land is contemplated.

At Carlisle, Reigate, Epsom, Inverness, and Tenterden the land selected
for irrigation is situated within the district, under control of the local sewer
authorities, at a distance of from one-fifth of a mile to half a mile from the
centre of the town, and within a quarter of a mile of the outskirts. At
Edinburgh, Bedford, Rugby, Chelmsford, Harrow, Skipton, Norwich, Perth,
and Bury St. Edmunds, it is outside the district, at a distance of from half a
mile (Perth) to 3 miles (Norwich) from the centre of the town, and from half
a mile (Bury St. Edmunds, Harrow, Chelmsford, Bedford) to 13 mile (Norwich)
beyond the outskirts; at Birmingham, Chorley, Braintree, Banbury, and
Malvern the land is partly within and partly outside the district under the
sewer authorities.

The distance of the irrigated land from the lowest sewer-outlet of the town
varies from 100 yards to upwards of a mile. In some cases it has been pur-
chased, as at Harrow, Reigate, and Tunbridge Wells ; but in most cases it
has been leased. Sometimes it is occupied by the sewer authorities, some-
times let to a farmer, as shown in the accompanying Table, which shows also
the cost of delivery to the land by gravitation or pumping, and other details.

At most places the application of the sewage to land has been found to
exercise a most beneficial influence on the condition of the streams and
rivers receiving the drainage of the district. At Epsom there was some
damage done to the Hog’s Mill River, but no complaint is now made, Even
where only the solid portion of the sewage is separated by filtration or preci-
pitation, the state of rivers receiving the discharge is to some extent improved.
At Northampton an application for an injunction has been made by a miller
resident on the stream.

Generally speaking no objections appear to have been made to the applica-
tion of sewage for irrigation; and where such objections have been urged, on
the ground that the application was offensive and injurious, they do not
appear to have been supported by medical authority, and in several instances
they have ceased.

As regards the sanitary condition of these districts, it appears that in most
cases the application of sewage for irrigation has not been attended with any
apparent change ; but there is said to be a marked improvement at Braintree.

It is to be understood that, in all cases, the data given in this Report and re-
lating to this country, have been obtained from the local sewer authorities, in
reply to letters of inquiry sent by the Committee, and that since there has

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ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 829

not yet been any opportunity for examining in detail the circumstances of any
- particular locality, it would be premature at present to venture on any con-
clusions as to the numerous questions arising in reference to the treatment and
utilization of sewage, or even to trust implicitly to the figures &e. given. Evenon
the assumption that the information furnished to the Committee does fairly re-
present the whole of the circumstances to be considered, that information pre-
sents so much variation and even discrepancy in several important details, that
it seems indispensable there should be, in many instances, a minute investiga-
tion upon the spot, which the Committee has not yet had the power to make.

Although the Committee regards the present Report as dealing only par-
tially with the subject of sewage, and as being in fact only a preliminary step
towards the work required to be done, it is considered that there are two
points (viz. the cost of various methods of dealing with excretal refuse, and
their influence on the sanitary condition of towns) which must be referred to
here, so far as the data obtained will permit.

The removal of the contents of pits and cesspools by cartage appears to be
in some few instances conducted with some profit; more frequently, how-
ever, the cost is at least equal to the return obtained, and very often it is a
source ofloss. In regard to this point there is a marked difference between the
results obtained in this country and those obtained on the Continent, where
the removal of the contents of the pits is frequently profitable, either to indivi-
duals or to towns. The treatment of liquid sewage does not appear to have
been advantageous in any instance, except in lessening the nuisance that would
otherwise be caused by the discharge of sewage into rivers, and in most in-

_ stances it has been a source of loss to the towns where it is practised.

The cost of the application of sewage for irrigating land appears to be
dependent on a number of local conditions, and consequently to vary consider-
ably. It would seem, from the data obtained, that in many instances the outlay
requisite for this purpose would exceed what a farmer could be expected to
incur, and that, in such cases at least, it would be proper to regard this outlay
as coming under two distinct heads, viz. that which a town may reasonably be
expected to bear for the mere object of getting rid of its refuse, and that which
landowners or farmers may be able to incur for the improvement of their land.

_ It is probable that, when viewed in this light, the application of liquid sewage
to land would become a source of revenue to towns only under specially
favourable circumstances ; and that, in opposition to the opinions which have
been somewhat hastily formed in certain cases, it will more frequently entail
some amount of expenditure on the towns themselves. At the same time the
benefit to land, and the improvement in the condition of rivers to be realized
by the mode of dealing with liquid sewage, can scarcely be matter of doubt or
uncertainty any longer.

In regard to the sanitary aspect of the subject, it may be regarded as
beyond question that the practice of allowing excretal refuse to accumulate
and remain neglected for a long time near dwellings, in pits, middens, cess-
pools, or otherwise, is almost invariably accompanied by prejudicial effects on
the sanitary condition of the places where it is adopted, either by the im-
pregnation of the soil with decaying material, by the pollution of water, or
by noxious exhalations.

Buteyen in someplaces where the water-supply has been improved, where a
‘system of sewerage has been adopted, and other measures have been taken
with the object of getting rid of excretal refuse, the fact that the rate of
mortality has not been sensibly, if at all diminished, appears to point to some

circumstance, as yet insufficiently guarded against, which still exercises a pre-
1869, Z

330 REPORT—1869.

judicial influence. The imperfect or defective nature of the sewerage may, by
allowing infiltration of sewage into the soil and its passage to the foundations
of houses, in some cases be the cause to which this result is referable. But
one part of the sewerage system which most urgently demands attention at
the present time is the ventilation. Gases of a poisonous or deleterious nature
are freely given off from liquid sewage in its passage along the sewers, or
from deposits collecting in them and in the house-drains. These gases na-
turally ascend the sewers, and find egress, either into the streets of a town or
into the dwellings, by means of the house-drains and otherwise. The means
adopted for getting rid of these gases, without injury to the sanitary state
of a town or of the houses in it, are rarely of such a kind as to be effective ;
and the returns already obtained in reference to this matter sufficiently show
that attention has not been directed to it in a degree commensurate with its
importance.

On these grounds the Committee considers that it would be in the highest
degree desirable to institute an inquiry into the nature of the gaseous ema~
nations from sewers in various places, that being one of the points now most
important in connexion with the system of disposing of excretal refuse which
is rapidly being adopted throughout this country. In reference to the appli-
cation of liquid sewage to land, it is also considered that, in addition to va-
rious other points relating to the application and purification of sewage~water
by irrigation, it would be very serviceable to make some inquiry into the
nature of the sewage discharged in various places, so as to ascertain the dif-
ferences that exist in liquid sewage so far as its value as manure is con-
cerned, and at the same time to endeavour to obtain more definite information
as to the cost of remoying night-soil, and as to its agricultural value as esta-
blished by practice.

Supplement to the Second Report of the Committee on the Condensation
and Analysis of Tables of Steamship Performance.

Tux Committee have to report that the sum of £30 granted to them has
been wholly expended in the payment of Mr. Quant, their calculator, as
authorized in the resolution by which they were appointed. The calculator’s
time was employed partly in revising the printed Tables, which appeared in
the volume of Reports for 1868, and partly in making an additional analyzed
Table. The last-mentioned Table in MS. was delivered to the Secretary
of the British Association early in the present year, and is annexed hereto.
The Committee beg leave to represent that it is desirable that they should be
reappointed, for the purpose of superintending the printing of that Table; but
that no further grant of money will be required. They have again to express
their satisfaction with the manner in which Mr. Quant performed his duties.

Revised Analysis, according to the method of Mr. Scott Russell,

In the Table of analyzation according to Mr. Scott Russell’s method, as
originally computed, the length of forebody was assumed at -55 of the length
of the ship, which in practice is generally the place of the midship section.
This length of bow belongs to the displacement of the ship, but not to the
speed. ‘Therefore in calculating the resistance there are introduced a coeffi-
cient of diminished resistance belonging to one bow and a speed belonging to
another bow, or, in other words, two ships have been used.

ON STEAMSHIP PERFORMANCE. 3831

In the following Table this has been rectified by taking a length of bow
belonging to the speed and also to the displacement. For example, the speed
of a ship is 11-22 knots, or 18-96 feet per second; to this belongs a bow of
70 feet, and an afterbody of 47 feet; the ship is 336 feet long, hence there

remains for middlebody 219 feet. Now the question arises, what is the

corresponding area of midship section ? because if the area of midship section
as given in the Tables were used, it would result in too large a displacement
with the above dimensions of fore, after, and middlebody. For this purpose
we have as follows :—

Area of midship section x (‘57+ -51'+7" + 19635 B)=D x 35.

Substituting 7=70, l’=47, l'’=219, B=40-92, and D=3979, the result is
an area of midship section=487-7 square feet. By the Tables it is given as
653; and the calculated section is therefore 165-6 [_]'’ too small, or the
vessel under the above dimensions sits lighter on the water. It is the lighter
midship section which has been used in the following Table. To find the
corresponding draught, taking the sides of the ship at the midship section as
nearly vertical, the difference is divided by the beam of the ship and the
quotient subtracted from the given draught. This results in a lighter

‘draught of 14:3 feet instead of 18-35 as given by the Table—a difference
_ of 4-04 feet. The difference is not always so large; in some vessels it does
_ not amount to a foot.

Twice this difference in draught has been deducted from the actual girth

_ of the midship section in order to find a girth suited for calculating the

wetted surface ; in the example this gives G=54-72 instead of 62°8.

The coefficient of diminished resistance has been taken to belong to the
bow as assumed above, and has been calculated by taking the square of the
sine of the angle formed by half the beam and the length.

The skin has been calculated by the following formula,

(:58G +°84d)(7+7')4+7'G=skin or wetted surface,

in which formula the lighter girth at the midship section and the lighter
draught must be substituted.

The calculations of resistance due to ship’s way, skin, &c. have been made
in the manner explained in the second Report. It may happen that the length
of bow belonging to speed is greater than the ship itself as given in the Tables,
as in the case of the ‘Midge’ and ‘ Penelope.’ In such cases an afterbody
is added to the forebody belonging to that speed, and with the two lengths

_and the given displacement the area of midship section, draught, and girth

have been calculated. es

It will be seen that in the following revised Table most of the negative
quantities which appeared in the former Table have disappeared. The quan-
tities in the following Table belong to ships of the same displacement, same
speed, same length, same beam, and same indicated horse-power with the
actual ships ; whilst those in the former Table belong to ships of the same
displacement, same length, same breadth, same draught, and same indicated
power, but not the same speed, although that speed was introduced in the
calculations resulting for the most part in the negative quantities as found
for slip or engines.

Speed of ship, in knots
per hour
Speed of ship, in feet
per secondsetrrnesses -
Length of bow belong-
ing to speed, in feet
Length of stern, in feet...
Length of middlebody,
BCC banaemeve mace tees
Total length of ship as
calculated, in feet ... }
Total length of ship etl
actual, in feet
Breadth of ship, in feet...
Areaofmidship section, \
as belonging to cal- |
culated ship

ste eeneee

CUBA.» ¢. « deetemnetetes
Displacement, in cubie ft.
Draught of water be-

longing to calculated

ship D
Draught

renee Apne asacanoee
Slip, in feet per second...
Coefficient of dimi-

nished resistance vi
Indicated horse-power ...
Girth, corresponding

to lighter draft D....
Skin or wet surface, in

square feet............
Resistance due to ship’s

way, in pounds }
Resistance due to skin,

in pounds ,...........
Total resistance, in lbs...
Horse-power required }

for ship’s way ;
Horse-power required

POT SKIN. Saavnrarstes <%
Horse-power required |

for siip ..... Acaohoengs J
Horse-power required

for engines and pro-

(eee iasacen ceed sashes
Percentage of total

horse-power required
for ship’s way.........
Percentage of tota
horse-power required
for skin

denen ree eereees

Percentage of total
horse-power required
POLISH daassanccs eons
Percentage of total

horse-power required
for engines and pro- [
peller |

Seem ener t eee e eres

Atrato
(paddle).

“33

15°

REPORT—1869,

Tasmanian
(screw).

14°25
24°08
116°

78°
138°

332°
332°
39°
500°
57 *
118125
17°08
19°08
4°92
*0274
2800°

57°72

17240°
795"
35008"
42960"
348°
1532"
384°

536°
12'4

54°7

Revised Table of Analysis, accordir

Valparaiso Leonidas
(paddle). (screw).
11°53 117
19°48 19°77
76° 76
51° 5x
105° 76°
232° 203°
Big2: 203°
29° 29°12
246° 195°
308° 207°
42700" 28350"
9°53 7°34
11°67 7°75
9°22 iy
0351 10353
800" 340°
36°54 33°53
6772" 5799°
3277" 2692"
goo2: 7938
12279" 10630
116° 96°7
318°8 285°
206° 71°
TEOW. Weil, wiacore.
14°5 21°
39°8 80°
25°7 19°
ov. “Se ate ae

Pera
(screw).

127556
21°22
89°5
59°6
151°

300°!
300°
42°08
ay
ay
104020"
14°74
18:25
1°53
0524
1414"
5V

13957
10476"
22003°
32479"
404"
850°
90°

28°

60"

Ceylon
(screw).
13°34
22° 54
10116
67°44 |
13140
300"
300°
40°
460°
582°

102900"

(screw).

| a475 12°

19°85
792
| 55°
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82°
55°
58°

a 192" 195°

195°
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192"
ac

i 185°76

222°

260° 260°

24500"

29400°

10°

600°

6409"
2956"
9228:
12184"
109°

340°

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140°
18°
56°

2°

23°

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20°28

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9°52
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ON STEAMSHIP PERFORMANCE,

r. Seott Russell’s Method.

Delta
(paddle).

14°67

24°79
122°

81°
105°

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1624"
59°34
13626"
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2.9324"
34056"
213°

1321°

247°

12°

14°

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(screw).

9'6
16°22

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Undine Penelope
(screw). (screw).
9°26 10°85
15°64 18°33
47°5 67°
34° 44
Ae Se eter || Moers oss
125° III
125° 74°33
25° 12°75
11542 28°
154°3 32°
10290" 1627"
7°69 :
without keel. } 377
7°66 ,
without keel. i 498
3°29 717
0648 0089
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32°84 ;
without keel,| f 75°48
4106°79 :
with keel. } 134643
1830" 84°34
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5351° 1669°34
52° 2°81
100° 52°82,
32° 21'7
Sebeaeaes 15°67
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333

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16°28
27°51
148°

99°
80°
327°
327°
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63525°
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13°37
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4160"

42°9

12185"
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2020°

304: REPORT—1869.

Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions.
By W. H. U. Russert, FR.S.

I suatt never forget the evening when I first became acquainted with Mr.
Ellis’s report on the present state of Analysis published by this Association.
I felt like a traveller who, on entering an unknown country through dark
and narrow paths, suddenly arrives at an eminence from which he sees the
whole region spread out like a map before him, and perceives at a glance the
roads leading to the principal cities, and the most desirable mansions. JI fol-
lowed this guidance in my reading, and, as I proceeded, became anxious to
attempt for others what Mr. Ellis had effected for me, and in consequence to
undertake the present Report. it

I shall keep steadily in view three main objects. In the first place, I shall
endeavour to prove theorems enunciated by their authors without demonstra-
tion. Secondly, to explain passages which may present difficulties, and to give
such directions as may enable the reader to arrive with the least difficulty at
the most important parts of the different memoirs which will come under re-
view. And, thirdly, to give such a connected view of the whole, as will
enable anyone entering on the study of our present subject to know before-
hand the nature of the results which have been obtained.

Elliptic functions will first be considered; and I shall divide the subject
into four parts.

(1) I shall consider recent researches in this branch which do not involve
the idea of periodicity.

(2) Recent investigations relative to function 0, and its allied series.

(3) Modular equations, and some other researches of a similar description.

(4) Some of the most important geometrical and physical applications of
elliptic functions.

Part I,

Section 1.—It will be proper to commence by giving a list of the principal
algebraical integrals which can be reduced to elliptic functions. ‘They are
taken from Schellbach’s ‘ Lehre von den Elliptischen Integralen,’ and from a
paper by Rothig in the fifty-sixth volume of Crelle’s Journal. Along with
the integrals I shall indicate the transformations necessary for their re-
duction,

duvR(«)

: (1)
V a +a,e+a,0 + 40° 4+- a,a* + a,2° +a,0°

I know not if it has ever been remarked that the same
dxR(«)
V at ba + ca* + bx? + axt

substitution will enable us to integrate in loga-

rithms or circular arcs.
Hence we can reduce to elliptic functions

ae a

by putting «=z, to which can be reduced

ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 335
daR(a) :
woqqo>oosse0s————————= > .
Va, + 4,0 + 4,0" + a,0° +a,0°

since Re=R,2?+2R,2°.
We can also reduce

dz
Qype

by putting ca®=az’.
So also

+ deR)
V a+be* + ex! + cx® . . . . . . . . . (
by putting v?=z, to which can be reduced
dx R(x)
V a+ba® ex +ex” * - (6)

since R(w)=R,a?+ aha.
We are also able to express

> dx R(x
_ by elliptic functions, if we put wz= i/ar+bxe-+cx*, to which can be reduced
dz R(x
by putting e=y-+p, where a+bp+ep?+ ep*=0.
Again, we can reduce ~
dx R(a*)
Vatbeter *
to elliptic functions, if we make w'zt'=a+bx*+cx*; and also
dx «R(ax*)

: / a+ bat cx : (10)
if we make z=4/a+brtcx.
Moreover
dx R(x)
SSS, . . . . 11
A/ a+ ba? + cx" Gy

can be reduced to the two last cases, since
R(w)=R,a?+cR, 2’.

Lastly, the more general integral

dx. R(x)
Se we ee
fp atbatce + eatha' ( )

: F +2
| d g2=—
ean be reduced to (11) by putting w ay

functions.

, and proceeding as in elliptic

336 REPORT— 1869.

Section 2.—In the eighth volume of the ‘ Cambridge and Dublin Mathema-
tical Journal’ there is a paper by Mr. F. Newman “ On the Third Elliptic
Integral.” The principal object of this paper is to apply Lagrange’s trans-
formation to this integral so as to obtain available results. The interest and
difficulty attaching to this are great, and I think it well, therefore, to pre-
sent Mr. Newman’: s leading theorem to the reader in a form which he will
find it easy to follow.

Let

A, =V1—c?sin?@,, A=V1—csin’@,
dé
Hien e)= Serna oye
F(c, 0)
P(c, n, 0) =M(e, n, 6)— F() I(c, 2).

Then, following the usual scale of Lagrange, if

: sinfcos@ , ——s 1—e
sin es se = V1—¢, °L= Tee?
we have
dd, ; Ad@
a ee (Lise : » een 2
Jd +n, sin’ 6,)A, ide | A’+n(1+c') sin’ 6 cos’ 6 @)

Let us assume
A’ -+n,(1+c’) sin? 6 cos? @=(1+7 sin® 6)(1—m sin? 6),

where m and —n are two new parameters. Then

nm=n,(1+c')?, (1+n)(l—m)=c%, . 2. 1. 2... (2)
VCO) ewe | a
a/ (G+) (145 =) b= me Gs | _. ae

whence, since remembering the second of equations (2),

A
(1+ sin’ 6)(1—m sin? Saal
mn i l+n i! 1—m Ik
m+n n se +n sin* §)A om : (1—m sin’ §)A }

Therefore from (1),

Il(c,, n,, 0,)=(1+e ym {NG n,6)+ ==" 1( —im, 0},

putting ee ry and therefore 6,=7,

211 (¢,, n,)= (l+e ey {nen

=m}.

ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 337

Multiply this by 3 Fe, Fe)
1

and we have by definition

P(e, 1, 0,)= (1+¢’)

,and subtract from the last equation,

mn
m+n
But (Hymers’s ‘ Integral Calculus,’ p. 284)

l+n 1l—m I(e,—m, 0)=o F(¢, 6)
2 ai m

i P(e,n,0)+ 2 —"P(c, —m, 0 } » (4)
n

II(c, n, 0)—

1 _1 f ¥ mn sin @ cos 6
eo fot { iS afte ah eae) oe
V mn A
From this we obtain
ae)

n ™m

m P(e ej0) =

nr =
-1 7 .
pm tan“(¥n,sin@,); . (5)

therefore we have from (4) and (5), remembering (2),

/ fa+m(i+5)} Pon. )=24 / {d+m)(t+ =) P(e, m,, 8,)

+1 tan (Wn, sin 0,);

whence it is easy to see that if 0, and n, &c. are formed from 6, and n, as 9, and
n, were formed from @ and x, we have

a / { (1+) ( + )} P(end)=+ tan (Vn, sin 0,)

+ tan (Vn, sin 0,)+ 3 tan—} (Vn, sin 0,)+..+-

This very beautiful theorem applies to the third elliptic integral with cir-
cular parameters; but it is obvious that it may be easily extended to loga-
rithmic parameters, as has been done by Mr. Newman. In a subsequent
part of his paper, Mr. Newman points out the connexion between his own
researches and some of Jacobi’s discoveries.

Section 3.—In the 36th volume of Crelle’s Journal there is a Memoir by

Tdx Sere!
the late Professor Plana, of Turin, on the reduction of ( _ to elliptic

functions, where

a Ge ae | BP yl
[GC 11, VT 942 a5 3 = —
ene PT (EER ie SEK Ey ie
and X=e'+)a?+ Aa’? + Bet.

It would be impossible to give an analysis of this memoir without repro-
ducing it, which is the less necessary as so much has been written on this
subject. I shall therefore confine myself to directing the reader’s attention
to a particular portion of it.

At the beginning of the ninth section there is a method for reducing the
sums of two elliptic functions of the form —

af iin >, HO dips oa
a-fy) VY IJd—-fyY)VY

338 REPORT—1869,

where f=g thy —1, f’=g—hy —1,
Y=(M+Ny")(P+Qy’)
to the sum of two of the form
dy dy
Jd+n'y’) VY ; La + n'y?) WX...

where »’ and »” are real. The method is founded on substituting

patti) in (2,
VY 1+ ep?
and then finding two suitable yalues for Z. The section to which I refer
is almost detached from the rest of the memoir, and may be read without
_ difficulty. There is another paper by Richelot on this subject in the 34th
volume of Crelle’s Journal.

Section 4.—Of late the theory of continued fractions has received a very
wide extension. A very beautiful example of this will be found in the 56th
volume of Crelle’s Journal, in which Laplace’s coefficients are applied to the
expansion of functions in continued fractions. It is not, therefore, surprising
that the expansion of elliptic functions in this manner should have been the
subject of several successful efforts. In the 39th volume of Crelle’s Journal
there is a paper on this subject by Professor Malmsten. The known equa-
tions

i =H, mer aH 2. bu) | owt losnat ay

easily lead to the differential equation
(Gf —2hy Lk) dk + kk" dy=0..0. 5 =» . « 2 (2)

EX
where y= yr

If we put
us T= ¢ n\2
k= { ma+=F* | 2 y=4(—c—2me) 4 Pm) « ab we J

this last equation may be written

( ma? +-mev+ 3 (e—1) Ge = ) +mu(2me+c)+jim?=0 . . (A)
ae
But from (3),

Hk : U x.
seen dehy 2? —®,
Fk sis m
Therefore by the second of equations (1),
wan
keke
OA27/2M ‘nee dk
m ~~ ¥
or dk" dE’ dF’

m , dk dk, dk _ dx

ie pa a eee
Dit..B yd EY ae!

* I have been the fuller here because several steps are omitted by Malmsten.

ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELIIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 339

Hence if z=F (met - “= = the equation (4) becomes

2 2
(m*2* +mea+° a =) 2" + m(2Qme + ¢)z' +72 =0.
| Therefore, differentiating (n—1) times, we have
a (a41 (n) —])2772 (n—1)
: ma? + mea +° Z =): a 4mm (ina oye +See z =0;
from this we have
_ (2n—1)?m

4 grins 4(2mx +c)
3 (=I) e—l ;

z ma? + ema + (n+1)
4 Zz
n+

}
. 2Qm?a + me * gin)

. an expression which of course leads to the development of (w) in a continued
fraction.

From this Malmsten obtains several results. A very elegant consequence
of this investigation is the following theorem ;—

Let
a Ve
then
ee (Ae 1a2J2
2) {eae
; ad eee OO a oe ee OED. a8
task y ep te, oe oer

which, with several others, will be found fully demonstrated in the paper.

Part II.

Section 1.—In entering on investigations relative to function 9, it is proper
to observe that two distinct notations are used to express the same four
series. It is now usual to write

0@x=1—2¢ cos 2x+ 24! cos 4u—299 cos 6u+...
1 9 25
Oe= 2q*sin x—2Qqisin3x+42Qg7 sinde...
9 25
6,70 Qqt cos w+ 2qi cos 37+ 297 cos 5x
0,0=1+42¢ cos 2a+ 29* cos 4v+ 29° cos 6r+...
These four series are written in ‘ Fundamenta Nova’
a4 Hane, W2X v+7), e-k 2+),
7 7 7 2 7 2
| The former notation is obviously more convenient ; and as uniformity is
most desirable, I shall usually adhere to it. It will, however, be occasionally

_ hecessary to make use of the second, as it is employed in Crelle’s Journal in
: many papers which I shall have to bring before the reader.

val

340 REPORT—1869,

Section 2.—It will be proper, on every account, to commence this division
with an account of Jacobi’s later researches relative to function ©. Three of
these are contained in the 36th volume of Crelle’s Journal, and I shall con-
sider them in succession. The first of these is entitled “ Uber die unmit-
telbare Verification einer Fundamental-Formel der Theorie der elliptischen
Functionen.”

It is proved in the ‘ Fundamenta Nova’ that if

S=l—qz42)4+G¢(@+2%)-—G(H+e7)4+ ...
W=(1—q’) (1—q’)..»d—q@) d—¢’z)...(1—qe7) (l—qe)....
S and II are equal, and we must therefore have
dS _gdl log TT dS _ gd log ua
dq dq

dz dz

It appears, without much difficulty, that if (m) represent every whole
number from 1 to ©, Y(m) the sum of the factors of (m), p all odd numbers
from 1 to infinity, 7 all whole numbers from —a to +0, these equations lead
to the following :

— P= 23m) qr” + B3(—1) "pq te 4 em 1) "pgm tPt2)

— T2( ae yy ae 2 Ge Lye
where =3 refer to m and p as above explained. The object of the paper is
to prove these formule, and I make the two following observations to faci-

litate its study.
The first observation, in which & refers to p, is intended to illustrate

page 77.
C) m __m(m+p—2%) = m mn 2
B (Hyper es (1) pgrnte
4i—1

m_ m(m+p—2i) = m Mmm+p—2i) wo ‘m i
= (mg F2,.,0 +2faipgerr™

2i--1

SED Ci wget +BP (—1)(dit ppg

a =e (aye

2i-1

Toga; aah —1)"(i+ mr) grt BE, (—1)"(4i+ 2p)pqrr*? #9,
The second refers to page 78; there we have the following equation—
B3(—1)" gn = Sym) q
It would be better to write this in the following way—
m+ m(m-+p) 2r
BE(—1)" "pg = r)q

since m(m+p) and 2r are intended to be equivalent.

Section 3.—Jacobi’s second paper is entitled ‘‘ Ueber die partielle Differential
gleichung welcher die Ziihler und Nenner der elliptischen Function Genuge-
leisten.” Jacobi at the commencement of his paper gives the following for-
mula without demonstration :—

u E/u2
a ff" Bons
a(oaa / ae ? F,

a i

ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 341

To prove this, we remember the well-known expression
, I
___ f ® -PES—E'F6
oe S a ae

0(2) = € ;
rig

8,() is derived from 0(«) by changing q into —q.
ow if we change q¢ into —q,

J 2KE' pecomes ahs 2K | #’=K becomes Kr’,
T T

E' becomes ahd A becomes Es
k A

$ an od
B= ( dg 1—K sin? » becomes k’ “
0

| Pdp _ =p K? sin ¢ cos }
Ai Ae i’? Ee— ke? 2 A iF
and therefore Eg becomes

1 k? sin COS @
-' A -

l id
Fy becomes k'Fg, and o becomes & 2.

Substituting all these in the expression for @(x), we have

2 K q 1 EG k2 sin (0) cos q E F p k dp
{ k! kf A Kk } A
0,(«) 7

Fics aay ata Ne ah ple
= = 67.0

— ® EgdG 1 E'

5) —t— —- —_ E¢?
— defo & 2%",

which is, in fact, Jacobi’s expression for @,(v). In the memoir now under
consideration, Jacobi arrives by partial differentiation at the following theorem:

Let

t
v= re eer) amy @ Wee)
0
1
. ea — sj?" —rt) “ae,
t)
A= “A Sent Cs ‘yedr, v= Y

® Furidamenta Nova, p, 111.
+ Hymers’s Integral Calculus, p. 220.

342 REPORT—1869.

Vagr"(l—ny Pty oy =)

dr dr
= tay (r ana —rt)~*"ydp :

then V, considered as a function of v and X, satisfies the partial differential
equation
dV YS) tyan atB—y ,2B-1/y _ 4y27-28-1 —2at1d°V
— —2V —+r —r —t 1—rt —— =0,
dx: 8 du eer ie pica a ls dv*

Let y=1, c=?=4, and the differential equation becomes
dV pee
dy dv a.

and Y becomes

t dt 9 (“ do
; I V¥ri—td—rt) ),V1l—rsin?go
where t=sin? ¢.
From this Jacobi shows that

77
= Fd Eudu—3 El.
2K 0 K
==Ae

0,¢=

satisfies the partial differential equation, originally seen to be true from the
nature of the series
10,(2). °0,(x)
mshg Gee) _ PNP)
d dg. ~~ i idar

Section 4.—Jacobi’s third paper is a very remarkable one, and there is a
French translation in Liouyille’s Journal. It is entitled « Ueber die Differ-
entialgleichung welcher die Reihen 1+2¢+2q'+...2'¥qt2'vVq@+...
Genuge leisten.’’

The main object of the paper is to show that

UE ELS yaa /E, OS oe ,
Tv

each satisfy the following differential equation,
{y'd’y—ldy dy @y +30dy} +32 {yd'y —B3dy"}? =y" (yy —3dy?}*(d log. 9g)’.
By differentiating the equation

: dé
K =" V 1—k*sin? @
0 :
with respect to ? it is proved without much difficulty that if y= —
wv

PS Le
dey?
TTT ae Te * Oe (1) 4

ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 343

and from this that

x? =1 4 . . . . . . . ° . (2)
dlog. 4 : :

d . log,

Combining these equations together, we have

4 d 27 :
5) A = = —}?}”
y (3 log. ‘) ¥ j

from whence we obtain

it e 1 16 e 1
a ae ee ee Voting gt,
cats amma z! VE, “(Tog gy * jy ge

which immediately leads to the required differential equation. A similar

investigation applies to y= a/ 2Kk Y= / 2KK
Tv Tv

We may find a more general solution of Jacobi’s differential equation thus
It is easily proved that if & and k' are interchanged, equation (1) is un-
altered, and therefore K’ is a particular solution of it. Therefore

Q=aK+b¥ —1K', Q'=a'K+8'¥ —1R’

are also solutions of equation (1), and consequently

a2 ya {==} = {=H

dk dhs |. x =

Moreover, it is proved in the ‘ Fundamenta Nova,’ p. 74, that

ae, (aa' + bb')d log al

deT

O 2a
Tae)
These equations exactly correspond with (1) and (2), and therefore

Divi log.q —— 7Q’
aM aa’ +bb' Q

satisfy Jacobi’s differential equation.

Section 5.—In close connexion with this paper is another left by Jacobi
among his manuscripts, “ Darstellung der elliptischen Functionen durch Po-
tenzreihen,” published in the fifty-fourth volume of Crelle’s Journal. Its
object is to expand the four functions 6(«), 0,(w), 0,(x), 0,(@) in terms of (x).
I shall give the outlines of the investigation for 0,(«). ?

. We
27,12 dlo =S

* Because @ 108e *A? _ { Efi ahi aks aight ace pee. *, Ihave followed

- dlog.¢ kh k'2 § dlogeg d lo

ae ee Seg i :
a route somewhat differing from Jacobi’s, and easier if we only wish for the differential

equation for, / 2K Tshould advise the reader to follow the method for ya 2c indi-
: ; wT

Tv
cated here, and then to read Jacobi entire,

344 REPORT—1869.
It is easily seen that if

:
h=log. 4/, hao:
T

2K
0,(#) _ (1) m/s =(—1n va;

da’™ dh” dh™

dVA x AN at
; = : te
Rp > Tee dh? ‘2. sree ()

02 (2 2
and therefore, putting B= Zk Hen sl
7 Jo ¥1—k’* sin’ »

a=4(1—2h?), b= 22K,

°. 6(c)=VA—

we obtain, by a process similar to that used in obtaining equations (1) and (2)
of last article,

ne se OD ya Ob = aps ya ~ M0 e
Th =o B, ap OM a= 166A2, a OA s+ ey
If H is a function of A, B, a, 6, we obtain from these equations the fol-
lowing :—
dH op dH dH dH dH
=== DAT B et BA® 2. — 1660 —— See
dh ae Daa is dB igeeare db Ae da (3)
Differentiating “A a certain number of times in accordance with (3), we
are led to suspect that

d™V AK
dhm

2m+1 2nm+1
=n” Aksoy BR" $f nd Sie

2Qm+1

x a= amc t n—
ni r,A 2 ia acme Se oh a ee ft ee is

2m+1 4m
’

m
+ 11m rm A 2

where »,”’, n,™, &c. are certain integers, r,, r,, &c. certain functions of a

; a tity _mtp—i.
and b independent of (m); so that the coefficient of A B in the
aR ALS :
expansion of aioe is n™*?);, It will be observed that 7, =0.
dh™*?

Furthermore, we are led by induction to suspect that the numbers n™ are

such that

= —iABz? estigiee Afa® }
= Zi 1 et foe os 5
0,(v)= V Ae { A anion gegen SETS eee eo ©)

These assumptions may be thus verified :—

Daaxiniee tc ery

ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 315

Equating coefficients in the two expressions for 0, &c. in (1) and (5), we
have

me FA as BS) {m,B” +m,7,B">? A?
dh”

m—-3\43 Le ™
m,t,B™ AS. eb mtmA j

av A am+1
(6)
where the coefficient

am, =(2i-F1Y(2I4-B). «. 2m—1) , MP Dm ett) hea

we find from (6), in consequence of (3), that
f{(Qin+ Qi + 1)m,—(m+1) r+ (M—t+2)nj-2 brj-2

dr;—1 drj_y
iN; ea — 116 — b
+im;_ ub ab Mj—1 7a

which being transformed by means of (7), gives

Sea

‘ . dr; dr;—
rete For So a! — 16 4 >
r3—(t—1)(2t—3)brj_-2 \¢ ab re

which is independent of (m), as it should be, according to the assumption.
m+1 ks

Moreover the value of ee found by equating coefficients in (1) and
Cult
(5) is

dm™th V/A zs il . s

a = ATE {(m+1),B™* + (m+1),7,B"1A" + «45
and this can also be found by differentiating (6) with regard to 4. The induc-
tion is completely proved. I think the reader will find no ‘difficulty after
these remarks in reading this paper,—one of the most beautiful productions
of its illustrious author, the paper reviewed in last section having been
previously studied.

Section 6.—In the thirty-seventh volume of Crelle’s Journal there is a me-
moir of Jacobi of a very different nature to those we have been reviewing.
Its title is “ Ueber unendliche Reihen, deren exponenten zugleich in zwei
verschiedenen quadratischen Formen enthalten sind.” Many parts of this
memoir relate to the theory of numbers, and contain no allusion whatever to
the subject of this Report; nevertheless, as'these investigations were sug-
gested by a formula in the ‘ Fundamenta Noya,’ it will be right to give some
account of it here.

From the well-known formula in the ‘ Fundamenta Nova,’

d—7)d—q')\1—-9’)... d-qa\—-¢2)d-72).--
(l—ge )(1—q’z)(1—g’2“"). =
1—q(z+27}) +(e +272) —9°(2 +273) $s
we deduce, by putting q” for g and +q#” for z, the following expressions :—
Beg gts) pac gate tay _—_gimirimyy =3(—1)igt? apes (1.)
If pitta) yagi ey aaisg™ tm j (II.)

It is easy to see that these equations will lead to a multitude of others of
69, 2A

346 -REPORT—1869.

the form
T(1—9"'+#)(1 —gt# Wig). =3x(-1)

where z in the products has the values 0, 2, 3, &c., and in the summations 7
and & have the values 0, +1, +2, +3,....

Jacobi has given a Table of these equations. I select three of them for
demonstration, which will give an idea of the whole sufficient for our present
purpose.

(1) (1 =y)"**(1 ae ol ee aa) = 3( 1) th oP tse ti
(2) m{(1 —ftya ge )ae ght (1 gf syar
= >(— 1) +h Gish +6h2+)
(3) h{(l—q"t?)(1— gt 473 aes x re ire ta
By the formula (1.),
Sieg et ee

nip (l—q"*8)(1 al qt) m1 —g ya cz ql ge yh
consequently formula (I.) reduces itself to
n(1— git?) = nn(1 re — 9 hy,
or
11(1—q*'*5) =T(1 Saget it — ght),
which is at once seen to be true.
To prove the second formula, we observe that

B(—1)i+# hit 62+)
by formula (1.) is equivalent to
Bg XA — 9 OL gt yr — 9") — 9") tage
and the equation reduces itself to

m1(1 —gt3\(1—gt6) — (aS y Pts,
the same as before.
We also have
ety thi Oht hh cr ety cya Syl

a formula not noticed by Jacobi.
To prove formula (3), we have

=(—1)i+ i aa 2k24-7
e Nl —g™*\1—g+4y(1_— 9+ 5) ai al Ber saga = oe) ;
and the equation reduces itself to
Nd age Ge neg ae

each member of which is immediately seen to be equivalent to n(1l—q?**),
In this manner the following expressions for the modulus are deduced
which will be found deronstrated on pages 76 and 77.

ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 847

From
me Odea)... a ee Ja bo 1 t-9*)(1 +9’). -
VF=Geodspdte).. V8 =Viaend4 ate) —
i= X(—1)'g? 8? rr 3(—1jes

=x(— Lye pert Beri
= X(-1)q* _ 1g?”
1g >
/k= V20/ ga(—1yg V2 gag
x(— hess 2(322++4) > ioe

a VAUD _ V/V gag
3(—1)'9"" 3g, xg”
Section 7.—Two papers by Heine next come under our notice. The first of
these, ‘“‘ Untersuchungen iiber die Reihe

=20=7) oy CoM Gg tN gaat) pe
(1—q)(1—q”) GA—gd—9)d—q)d—gr*!)
is in the thirty-fourth volume of Crelle’s Journal. ;
This series is denoted by Heine by the symbols ¢(a, 3, y) or o(a, B, y4;2),
as may be most convenient. I shall consider those parts of the paper which

relate to elliptic functions. Heine commences by showing that the elliptic
functions

2Kx OR:
oa cos am ——— >yr Slam ——
2n'K 2K pi

b) ema ce ete es ee
2K a 2Ka

cos coam —— sin coam ——
T T
2K * . Bae 2Ka
—— sin am —— sin coam —",
TT T vie
as 2kK sin coam ake
: 2Ka’ 7. T
m Sin coam ——~
Tv
can all be expressed by means of this series.

2hK 2Ka
Thus we find —— sin coam —— equivalent to
Tv T

ove qe*o(1, 25 of q; —qe**)-+ e-*9(1, 2) = q: ge—i*)},
as

as is immediately seen by expanding the functions.
Following the methods employed by Gauss for the hypergeometrical series,

Heine deduces a large number of equations, easy of proof, of which I write
down the following :—

$4; Bs 159 x)—9(&; Bs y; J, Ya)
mero er: mo 54
= Cath eg) i - Jeg(a+1, B+1, y+1,9, «) a
La gi)(L—get?-t0)9(a-+1, 8, 7) + 9*?-re(1—g-P)4(a 41,741) 5
| eed (7)
—(1= g(a, B, y)=0 he
F 2A2z

’

348 REPORT—1869.

(4, B, y—1)—9(4, B.y)

= yt COX g(a 1, 6+1, ¥$1)) 24 ee)

go B+1, y+1)—9(@, B; y)

1—9*1—9r-#

=o OTL B+L +2) . ae oe
1—q

(25 B+1, 7) $4, Bs) = eT MAtL, B41, yt). . )
—g8

1
¢(2+1, 6, y)—9(a, B y)=greT— oat] Pt+lytl) - + ©)
¢(a@+],~,y+1)

ape Pl=g-) ;

Se ery MAL B41, yF2) - ee
¢(@—1, B+1, y)—9(a, B, y)

1—gf—-«+1
ag Me BAL yt) og ee ee

g(a+ 1, B—1, y)—$9(a, B, y)

1—g8-2-1
See Mtb BTW) sees ares 2)

ope

=—g 4

These formule are applied by Heine to the expression of the fundamental
series in continued fractions. Thus from (4) we immediately obtain

9(%, B+1,y+1) _ 1 4
¢(%; P, y) being aa aC a gat, b+1, y+2)

(l=q)(—g"*!) oa, B41, y+1)
Since
g(a+1,6+1,y+2) _ o(6+1,4+4+1, y+2)

O(a, B+1,y+1) —— g(B+l,a,y+1) ”
by the very nature of the series represented by the functions, we can repeat

this process and expand a ; oe’ in a continued fraction. The re-
al, ¥v
sult is
g(@,B+l,yt+])_ 1 avraye aw ae
p(@, P, y) 1- I— 1=1- 1—’
where

po )—g-8), _ 9, (19-249)

a=¢ ae al & ?
(l—q*)1—q*") (Lge) kA)
Derg P te) 1—g*) (l= gee
(l—gr+#)(1—qvt8) (-—g =) eae
When 6=0, ¢(a, B, y) becomes unity, and we obtain a continued fraction
for ¢(1,a, y+1), which is immediately applicable to elliptic functions,
From the nature of the series we have at once’

¢(a+1,6+1,8+1)=d(ae+]1, B, f).

a,=qett ( a,=qet! (

ee. « ee

ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 349

Consequently putting G=y=1 in (1) and (6), we immediately obtain the
following equation :—

1—qax
¢(@,1,1,9q,7)= I ~~ o(a, 1,1, 9, gx);

—w
(1—g*x) . ..(1—getn-1)
(—a)...(1—q"—"2)

and since g is supposed less than unity, the series g(a, 1,1,¢, qv) always
approaches unity as (7) indefinitely increases, and consequently

(1—q*v)(1—9q2t!w)(1—g2t2z)....
(l—«#)1—qe)(1—q’a)....
Again, putting «=q’~*~* in series (2), we have

on g(a, 5 1, dq t)= g(a, Le t, vB) q”%);

o(@, I,J, q xv)= WP (10)

B
o(a+1,B,y+1, 9, g’~#-8);

o(@, B, VM q’-*-B) =

and repeating this process,

1—qi-
l—q

Seng) (ho). «Ceara
(4; Bs ys q Q’-*-8) = (—)....d—qt}) Ke.

o(e-+n, By y+n, g, Q’-*-8).

Now we have generally
o(atn, B, Y+N, 4 x)
14 (1-91-99) 5 oat a) La) a
G—qi—_'"*) Gd=—¢)0d—7)0-—g yd)

Ag (n) increases without limit, this series approaches

Tg, —g*)—¢*t!)'
1+ e+ OR ie | al db igakt)s
mnt Gepdep) 1c aa ben

Hence when () is infinite, we have by (10)

bliss (1—qr-*)(1—qy-4t1)....
oan, By +m, g-*-F)=7 ee ee sa

and therefore

o(a, B, YD gi=*-8)
(1—q7-*)(1—qrv-2+).... (L—gqy-8)(1—gy—8+1)....
= G=g)(l=q).... agregar, > > GD

From these formule it will readily be perceived that the leading properties
of functions @ can be deduced. For the details I refer to Heine’s second
paper, ‘‘ Abriss einer Theorie der elliptischen Functicnen,” which will be
found in the thirty-ninth volume of Crelle’s Journal, and which, after the
remarks here made, will offer no difficulty.

There are some consequences of formula (11) just proved which I shall
insert in this place.

If we put

soto) (Lo )(t 9). 3
*O= Gee g VIG).

350 REPORT—1869.
we shall obtain from (11)
g(a, Bs Ys qi-7-P)=

From this Heine deduces easily

w(4; y—1)o(4, y—a—B—1)
w(q,y—a—--1)w(9, y—B—1)

log. Y a ne ~o(¢, ee ve , Ge ? Be xs,
i log. q leat

whence we have

oa) =9, (oye. RE,

2/4 TS
1—2 Hon ae (1—2¢ cos 2+ 4°) (1—2¢’ cos 24+")
140-24 1) gp a9 2g Tas:
(l—¢’)—¢’) a-d-aa—fa—¢) 7 * j

and asimilar formula for 6,7.

Heine also gives some formule for the multiplication of elliptic functions,
of which I shall give one here.

From the equation

1 2 a
w(q”, a)a(a" a= = w (0 a— =). - oa, a— =") =cw(q, na),
y n n
where

7 1GenG=f0—™).: Be
d—gd—9¢)d—¢q).--’
-e have, where (7) is odd,
no | @1.2Xmb—milog 9) | = cy 10(4 =),
m=0 T ‘ gn iy Tv
and when (7) is even,

m=0

3n_ ix

ovis diet ; ee E( _
Vga

=") bears the same relation to q” that o(= ") does to g, and

rile | CES CES ae DS
(l—q?)\1=9")..-

Section 8.—The comparative simplicity of the functions @ naturally sug-
gested to mathematicians the utility of adopting these series as ground- forms
in the theory of elliptic transcendents. These functions have therefore been
in these last times the subject of many investigations. Among the memoirs
relating to these series, three may be particularly mentioned as having re-
markably contributed to the advancement of our knowledge of their proper-
ties. These three papers are Jacobi’s memoir “ Sur la Rotation d’un Corps,”
in the thirty-ninth volume of Crelle’s Journal, a paper by Krusemarck, “ Zur
Theorie der elliptischen Functionen,” in the forty- -sixth volume, and a paper
by Richelot, «‘ Ueber eine Merkwurdige Formel in der Theorie der elliptischen

9
«vhere o(9— ae

* For the value of 0;'(0) see a little further on.

ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 351

Transcendenten,” in the fiftieth volume of the same Journal. These me-
thods have been admirably harmonized and developed by Schellbach in his
‘Lehre von den elliptischen Integralen und den Thetafunctionen,’ Berlin,
1864. I proceed to lay a summary of the results thus obtained before the
reader, accompanied by such remarks as may obviate difficulties. I commence

by writing in full the notation to be employed.

0(v)=1—2q cos 2v+42q* cos 4v— 29° cos6xr+...,

Bese 9. xe ms) ve
0,(v)= 2Qqisin x—2Qqisinda+2q7 sindx—...,
Bi 9 25
6,(x)= 2q1cos x+2qicosdr+2q4 cosdxr+...,

0,(v)=1+2¢ cos 2r+2q' cos 4uv+2q° cos6r+....

If g=e-”, we shall sometimes use the following abbreviations for the
four series, 0(«, v), 0,(«, v), 0,(#, v), 0,(@, 7). Let also

5 0a 6.2
= ——, 0. hes 2
I= Ge I ee
Then
Ok 1
sin am 2Ke = Eh ett cos am 2Ke = WEE oe,
0 Vie Tv I:
2Ke =
Aam = =V ithe

The periods of these functions are given by Schellbach (section 22, p. 34).
By direct multiplication we find that
9,20,y=0,(a+y, 2v)0,(a—y, 2v)+0,(a+y, 2v)0,(a—y, 27),
0 x) y=0,(e+y, 2v)0,(x—y, 2v)—0,(a+y, 2v)0,(x—y, 27),
0,270,y=8,(a+y, 2v)0(a—y, 2v)—0,(e+y, 2v)0,(~—y, 2r),
0,20,y=0,(x+y, 2v)0(e—y, 2v)+0,(a+y; 2v)0(2—y, 2r).
I need hardly point out the close analogy between these and the ordinary

trigonometrical formule.
From these formule are easily deduced the following :—

0 {a(@+y); 250 {2(@—y), av} =0,00,y —0,20,y «dy ont (1)
0,{2(x+y), 4v}0,{2(a—y), dv} =0,20,y—0,00,y . - + (2)
0,{8(@+y), dv}0,{(e—y), dy} =0,00,y +,00,y ~~» (3)
6,{2(@+y), 2v}0,{a(@—y); 2V} =0,00,y + 0,00,Y Taree |)
9 {2(@+y); 2r}0,{2(e—y), av} =0 vB yt+O,00y - - - (9)
6,{4(e+y), 4v}0,{4(e—y), bn} =0.70y+0c0y . « ~ (6)
6,{3(e+y), 3r}0,{2(@—y), 47} =0,70y—O0 roy . . + (7)
0,{2(@+y), drt0 {2(@—y), iv} =0 ab y—O.ay . . . (8)

20 (x+y, 2v)0 (a—y, 2v) =O 20.y--Ovby) + .' . (9)
20, (a+y, 2v)0,(x—y, 27) = 0 x0,y—O,coy = .*. |. (10)
20,(@+y, 2v)0(a—y, 2r) =0,70,y—O0 e0y. . . .(11)
20 (a+y, 2v)0,(a—y, 2”) =6,c0,y+0xby. . . . (12)

302 REPORT—1869.

These are taken as fundamental formule by Schellbach, and the following
four groups deduced from them :—

6x0,7 =0(0, 2v)9 (2x, 2v),
6,20,70=0(0, 2v)6,(2a, 2), i
Ax0,a =20,(0, 2v)0,(a, 3r), | oot CLs Sle tags Fe a i)

6,70,7=30,(0, 1y)0,(a, 37).

0 (0)6,(0) =6,(17, 3v) =0(57, fa

8 (0)0;(0)=6(0, 2v)”=O(47, 3”), (3)
0,(0)0;(0)=30,(0, 3¥)”.
ho? hx’ —go* gu’ =1,
ho? fe?+ gu’=go°, t be ee
go far + ha?=ho’.
From (5) and (8), using the first of equations (a), we haye at once
O(a-+y) O(e—y) XS
6 an SS ie 2.
0 Ba By? 1—fx’ fy’;
and similarly
o?. O(@+y) tea =fu'—fy’,
bu* Oy" : (c)
P ja) |
0,07 ; 0,(w +y) 8,(2 y) = 9? hy?—1,
Oar" bY”
0,(e7+y) 0,(e—y) 5
test Nac I Be AS A | a qy?,
3 Oa® 8y? +9" gy

Several of these methods and formule appear to be due to Krusemarck.
Section 9.—The following formule are derived by multiplication from
(1)... (12) of last section :—

20x 0,0 Oy 0,y=000,0{0(e+-y) O,(a—y) +0 (w—y) O,(e+y) . . (1)
20, 0,0 0,y0,y=000,0{0(x+y) 0,(e—y)—0 (w—y) O,(a+y)}. . (2)
26,0 0,0 by 8,y= 000,018, (a+y) 0,(e—y)+0(a—y)0,(at+y)t. . (38)
20a 0,0 0,9,y=800,010,(«@+y) 0,(e—y) —0,(@—y)0,(e@+y)t. . (4)
202 6,4 0,40,y=0,00,010,(a+y)0 (a—y)+0(w+y)0(w—y)t . . (5)
20,v9,0 by 0,y=8,00,010,(e+y)0 (w@—y)—0 (w+y)0(v—y)}. . (6)
20,00, Oy 0,y=80 0,010, (~+y)0,(~—y) + 0,(w@—y)O,(a+y). . (7)
20a 0,2 0,y9,y = 00 0,0{8,(~+y)0,(~—y)—8,(a—y)0,(~+y)}. . (8)
23x 0,0 By 0,y=00 0,010,(e+y)0 (w@—y)+0,(~—y)0 (wt+y)} - . (9)
20,09.,0 0,Y0,y= 90 0,0, 0;(~—y)0 (v+y)—O,(a+y)0(a—y)t . . (10)

Let 9T=1 —fu? fy= 602 O(a+y) W2—y)
; 6a? Oy?

’

ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 353

then
Thflety)+fe-= eee
_ Oo? Oe Oy By
~ 0,0 0,0 aaa! by by
by (5), or

gohoTifiwat+y)t+fa—y~)p=fegyhy « « se we ew . AY
In the same way may be derived the following :—
goho Tifleat+ty)—fa—y)t}=fyguhe . . . . «+ « « (12)
goTig(a—y)+g(aty)p=9rgy. + 6 «+ 2 6 we 2 « (18)
go Tiga—y)—yaty)j=fehafyhy +... » « » « (4)
ho Tih(a@—y)+h(ety)p=hehy . . . . . «. « « « (15)
ho T{h(a—y)—hMaty)} =fegrfygy - » + » + + « (16)
goTif(etyh(a—y)t+he-yhaty)pafehegy . . . (17)
go Tiflatyh(e—y)—fla—yhaty)j=fylyge . + « (18)
ho Ti flietyge—y)t+fhe-yyletyj=afegehy . . . (19)
hoT{ flet+y)y(a—y)—fle—yg ety) s=fy gyhe . . « (20)
goho Tig@aty)e—y) +9(@—y)h(aty)} =grhe gyhy . (21)
goholigat+y)h(a—y)—ge@—y)haty)} =fegefy gy + (22)
From these formule the ordinary expressions for the addition and subtrac-

tion of elliptic functions may of course be easily deduced.
We also find

0,'0=00 0,0 0,0, f'0=6,0 6,0, \ (2)
fue=6e’ gvhx, gx=—6,0° fahx, h'x=—0,0°fx gu.

It is obvious that from the above the following may be immediately formed
by addition, &c. :—

fe gy hy + fy ge he }
ohofiaty)=
gohoflary Lee
=o ge hy tty gy he _ 24,2 Sv hy’
a gx gy +fufy ha hy ay Fe gy hy —fy ga he © ee
_ ho fr gy ha+fy gehy
~ go hz hy +fefy ge gy
xv gy —fx fy hx hy hx® hy? —1
wpe ee ly tele 7 5
1— je’ fy ge gy t+frfy he hy ~ (24)
pf @ ge hy—fy gy he _ ge gy ha hy— —fe fy.
" fegyly—fy gohe hehytfejygegy J
ho h(a-+y)= he hy—fe fy ge gy _ fe fyt+ge gy ha hy
1—fa* fy" g# gy + fa fy ha hy a (By

—pottgyla—tyguhy _ — 1+ga° gy’
Se gy hy—fy guha he hy +fafy ge gy

From these formule we may deduce as follows :—~

354. REPORT—1869.

It follows from (23) that
WO ea y= fe ge hy +hy gy he
go ge gy + fr fy he hy
go—hoflat+y) _ (gy—fe hy )(gx—ha fy)
gorhofiaty) (gytfe hy) get hafy)
But from the identical equation
go’ —ho* fix" + (go* fx? —ho*) fy”
=o" —ho* fy’ +fr* (go fy’ — ho’)
we obtain from Section 8 (y)
ge — he fy =gy fe hy’;

Hence

or
ge—he fy _ gy—frhy
gy +fe hy ge+he fy

and hence substituting

\/ go—hoflat+y)| _gr—hafy _ gy—fe hy.
(Sor afaty) J gytfe hy gx+he fy’

and similarly
af {epee } = _fehythefy _ gi—gt
gotgy(u+y) gytge — fehy—hefy’
{eet \= _ Se gy tSy.ge hy —he

ho+h(x+y) hy+he ~~ fe gy—gafy
Section 10.—We now come to an entirely distinct series of theorems, which
constitute the most important and interesting addition which has been made
to this division of our subject since the publication of the ‘ Fundamenta

Nova.’
It is known that the decomposition of algebraical fractions leads to the fol-

lowing proposition :-—

sin (#—a) sin (a@—b) __ sin (a—a) sin(a—b) 1
sin (w—a)sin(w—B)sin(w—y) sin (a—)3) sin (a—y) sin (a—a)
sin (§—a) sin (3 —b) 1 sin (y—a) sin (y—)) i

sin (8—a) sin (G—y) " sin(w—f) © sin (y—e) sin (y—/3) sin(a—y)’
Similar reasoning, when applied to the expression

F(x) = 2 AT) 6,(u—2) 0,(p—2)
0,(a—ax) 0,(G—w) 0(y—a)’

leads to the theorem

; in A,(A—a) 0,(u—a) A (e—a) x GF (e@sb+ adi )
ra) wE (a eee: Sa 4
eS 0,(8B—a) O(y—a) eae ein (a—x+sri)
44 (A —B) O,(—f) 0 (P—B) y gre Qe+Byi eae
6,(a—[3)0,(y—) ~* sin (B—a'+sri) [ ;
a = yO We beaph gee mete |
)

0 (a—y) A(p—-y) ee sin(y--x-+sit)

ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 355

where
d=A\+p+p—a—f—y.

The reader will find this important theorem, which appears to be due to
Richelot, fullydemonstrated in Schellbach. If we put p»=/3 and p=y in this
equation and at the same time put y for \X—a, and wx for a—x, we have

Picea ee seh . a)
0,0 Oy “—* sin (2#+sr2)

putting in this «—3vi for x and y—4yi for y, we have

6'o O(e+y) o e(2s—l)yi (2)
‘6x Oy —“—# sin (@+(s—4)v2) :
and similarly
1 .O(a@+y) L, e2syt 3
ale Ody ~~ —=sin (x+syi) (3)
. 0,(a+y) wo e2syt 4
Soil "09% Oy ~~ ~-» cos (a@+svi) * P se
Be te a ee PCE WA old perraty at
0,00y =~ coe (s—})ni)

Ging, Sal coa) cory tun toh our win 9 W—.11_aciheaggy
6,2 0,y ~* sin (a+ sv?)
gM (CO A ae ese (Le oth

6,2 0,y © COS (w+ svi)

Biko aE) a Gee Ne the than (8)

meee ed

l 0,2 Oy —2c0s (@+ (s—4)v7)
1, 9(a+y) 9» (—1)%q8 ee t25y)i
G0. = Se ee ee
a° 0,2 O,y —© sin (v%+sy2) (9)
6,'0. Oe) = amas) Pret a a oe CUB)
0,2 Oy —* cos (a+svi)

From these important theorems the series given by Jacobi in his memoir
“Sur la Rotation dun Corps” are easily deduced. If we put y=0 in
series (2) and reduce, we obtain

ght iL+gtt)
1—2¢?5+1 cos 2x gist?’
and by similar means pointed out by Schellbach ;
er — ert)
(es Aqeet) cos 2x = gist?"
90 0,0 ha=60,0°—8 sin? 2S" - ae Cg tly s
(1—q?s+ 1 )\A—2¢4?841 cos 2a +-q48+2)

6,0 0,0fe=4 sin 23,

Go 0,0 ge=4 cos 2,

IGS Gia a a0 8 -Gabos
60 80% =cotan a +4 sin 20E TBs cod Sn eae

har on S75 Q
= ag gi +4 sin v (~I7d+¢e)
wv S1n wv 1

é ‘
ou a, 1—29* cos 2r+q%

306 REPORT—1869.

0,00,05- = . cA Spiel Cacia I
B ie peslilne 1 T—2q** cos 2x tq"

Go 002%. =tana+4sin 2d" > .
1 1 1+ 29% cos 2e+-q48

6,0 @,0% = eee cos eS wey

cos x 1 [+2929 cos 2a +-q4""
60 0,0 OE Eg mas ei
“gt cose 1 1429 cos 27+ 4%

2 (— 1)sqs-4(1 +q-} )

0 1 +2978! cos 2a + q'8-2”
ee Le)

0 1+ 29°8-! cos 22+ q8-*

60 0oF2 <4 cos v=

6,0 0,0 = =4 cos xB

The reader will perceive that these series essentially differ from those in
the ‘ Fundamenta Nova.’ The series given in the ‘ Fundamenta’ may be easily
deduced from formule (1)....(10). As, however, my object is to exhibit
the progress which the theory of elliptic functions has recently made, I care-
ed abstain from writing down any series which are given in J. acobi’s great
work.

Section 11.—We now return to theorem A of last section. Transforming
the series in the second member of this equation by means of expression (1)
in last section: since

Fs grersyi iene O(a+y)

-"sin(a+svi) OF Oe Oy?
whence

<3 gse2sei

—” sin (@—a#+ svt)
and similarly for

ae, _.); O(a—a+o
=6,'(0)e@— ai MAA 4T 0)
; O,(a—ayO,0-

" ee rake and 3 = ME Ma
—» sin (3—a#-+sv2) -" sin (y—a+syi)
we obtain
6,3F (x)= 0,(A—@) 0,(4—a) 0,(p—a) ‘ O(a—a+ 0)

6,(B—a) O(y—@) 0,(a —x)

4 9(A=B) 0(H—B) O,(e—B) | 0,(B—#+8) .
8,(4—B) 9,(y—B) 0,(B—2) |

4 AA=Y) Hay) He—y) | Aly—#+ 8)
0\(a—v) 0(B—y) A(y—a) —

For v=0 we haye

6.0,10,p _O(a+a) 0,A—a) 6(n—2) O(o—a)
6,0.0,/3 0,7 6,6 0,4 6,(8—a) Oy—a@ |
1 6,(B-+8) 0X8) 0(u—6) 0(o—6) | a
6,0 7 6,3 0,(a@—/3) 6(y—B) ° pes )

O(y+8) O(A—y) O(p—y) O:(o—y) |

+ :
0,6 Ay O(a—y) O(b—y) J

ON ELLIPTIC AND IYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS.

where, replacing a, 3, y by a+4vi, B+45ri, y +32, we have

0,A 0,4 0,0 _ 0,a+0 O(A—a) O(pp— a) O(p—a)
0a 05 By 66° (0a0,(B—a) O(y—«)

4 9(6+8) O(A—B) O(u—B) O(o—B) s
06 * 08 6(a—f) 6,(y—/)

4 (7 +8) OA=y) Hay) He—y)
65. by 0,(2—y) (B—7) J

Putting p=y in (1), we have

B07

(2)

ONOn _ O(a-+8) O,(A—a) O(u—a) , 0,(B+8) 0,(A—B) 0,(u—B),

0,00,/3 0,6 6a 0,(3—a) 0,6 ° 6,66,(@—B)

and (2) replacing \ by a+4vi, p by X, and y by «, we have

AAO,n a+) OA—#)O(u—a) , A(B+6) AA—P) e—P)

02/3 05 0a0—a 0,0 08 A(a—P) ’
_ where in each formula 6=\+p—a—/[.
| Putting
A—a=a, P=), p—a=c, A+p~p—H=d,
and then

2s=at+b+e+d, 2o=a+b+c—d,
these formule become

6,0 0, 0,c 0,d=0,0 0,(s—a) 0,(s—b) 6,(s—c)—6,s 0,(¢ —a@) 0,(¢ —b) 0,(¢—c),
6a0b0cOd =O6,00,(s—a) 0,(s—2) 0,(s—c) +s O(c —a) O(¢ —b) O(0—c).

From these it has been fully shown by Schellbach that the following for-
mule may be derived, which were given by Jacobi under another shape in

the thirty-ninth volume of Crelle :—

ho hu=hy h(xt+y)+gogx fy flet+y);
ho hy=he h(wty)+gofz gy flat+y),
ho gx fy=go hx flat+y)—fx gy ha+y);
ho gy fa=go hy fiet+ty)—gafy Wa+y),

ho gu fie+y=fehy gat+y)+ge hefy,
ho gy flaty)=he fy ga+y)+gofe hy;
ho h(a+y)=he hy—gofxfy g@+y):

hofy fa+y)=he gy fiat+y)—gofah(e+y),

ho fx hy f(at+y)=90 gy—gxgaty)s
ho hx fy f(a+y)=9o gx—gy Katy),

ho ga hy g(a+y)=gogy hz h(w+y)—feflet+y),
ho ha gy g(a@+y)=9o gx hy h(at+y)—fyf(et+y),

ho fx fy h(wt+y)=9x gy—gogaty),
ho gu gyh(at+y)=fa fy +90 ha hy g(@+y),
hohe hy h(a+y)=1+4+ 90 gx gy g(at+y).

358 REPORT—1869.

Section 12.—We now proceed to give certain formule relative to the differ-
ential coefficients of the logarithms of functions 6, essentially the same func-
tions, be it remembered, as those which Jacobi writes with the letter Z.

Schellbach’s four fundamental equations are as follows :—

" 1
'0,e—1' y= =00' 0 (5 =z) ee
2"0.2—U'0 y=0,0" 0,0°( fy’ —f") «2 te 2 ee ()

l0,¢—1"0,y= 00° 0, (= — <3) re: (3)
Te

i il
"0,.0— Sines ais & ee he
10,7 —U'0,y =60* 0,0" (a- i) (4)

Of these, Schellbach has fully proved the first. The second is immediately
derived from the first by putting #— vi for w, and y—4yi for y. The third

may be found by putting in the second «+ = 3r¢for w, and yto—li for y.
We thus obtain

10,0 —0'0 y=0,0° 0 ,0° 17 (y+ 3 —tyi) ae ( w+ 572) j
=0,0° 0,0" ie —— i = 0,07 0,0" { 1+9o" gy" 1 to |

ho” gy" ho® gx?
= 60° 0,07 foe | -
ge J

Formula (4) may of course be demonstrated in the same way.
Putting y—41¢ for y in the second of these formule, we have

wt we 9 2 1 =
L'da—1'"0,y =0,0° 0,0 e = ) +

also we find
Ue —1'0,y = 00" O.0*(— i op. ae
qy-
10 —1'9,y = 00" 0,07 (te 7 eel; see

hy?
Let «=y in these formule, and we have

Ife) =0.0 0.0 (fet— =) PA COR ee

Igor — 00" 09 (ga" + =) A Sle. 1? ee wae

uw 2 9 9 If
I"hw=—60" 6,0 (t2*- ie): hon eae

From these Schellbach deduces the following series of formule by easy
methods :—~

ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPLIC FUNCTIONS. 359
0,0° 6,0° fc" = L"0—1'Ox,
is) 0” 0,0°gac* =/"0xr— 10,0,
00° 0,0° hau’ =1'0x—l''6,0;
0,0° 60°, =1"90—l'0,«, |
fi |
1 1
60° 0,0? —, =1'0,0—1'0,7, >
ag |
60" 6,07 et =1"9,7—1'0,0, |
eh ; bis

a
6,0° 60 2S =1"80—1'0,0, 0,07 0,0" he "96 L"6,a,
ja

60° 6,0 — =1'0,c—I'0,0, 00° 8. oe =1"0,0—1"0,2, >
60? 0,07" —1'6,0—1'0,2,. 00°0,0°!*. 10,0 "due,
‘lian ye

We now come to a group of an entirely different kind,
l"(Ox 0,2) + (Ufx)’ =1'(6,0 6,0),
U'(Oax 0,0) + (Ug)? =2"(00 0,0),
L" (0x 0,v)+(Uhx) =1'(0 0,0).

These formule were discovered by Meyer, who gave them, in the thirty-
seventh volume of Crelle’s Journal, under the following form :—

" as Tv wr
ipl )! 47) elt
a'r, e («+ 5) ‘ red (e+ 5) _ 2, eM)

ps 0(#+5) 020(2+5) ez 2°)

nw Q! al
0"x H''x Ores 2 2.
Ox He Ox He fa HE em
5) >
H” (e+ 5) @'z Ht (2 ) ae
e"'x 2 2 rs aF - 2 e"0

where the reader may see them fully demonstrated from the ‘ Fundamenta
Nova’ of Jacobi.

They are applied by him in a memoir in the fifty-sixth volume of Crelle,.
entitled “Ueber dierationale Verbindungen der elliptischen Transcendenten,” to

prove that if U= i = ae , where @ is supposed a function of qg, then

Ze .U can be determined from U by simple integration with respect to («)
only.

360 REPORT—1869.

In the course of the investigation he gives the following expressions :——

diene pee: dki__ ‘Mj 2K?
eg rl ee ie

T shall conclude this portion of my work by a remark of Riemann, that if

oo . , Lend . .
Su=S ev’+2nu, then if (r) and (s) be any two positive or negative in-

tegers, Su vanishes if w=(r+4)ri+(s+3)a. In mentioning the name of
Riemann, I am glad to take the earliest opportunity of paying a humble
tribute to the memory of one of the most illustrious mathematicians which
either his country or the world has ever seen.

Report on Mineral Veins in Carboniferous Limestone and their Organic
Contents. By Cuaries Moort, F.G.S.

A CAREFUL consideration of the phenomena attending mineral veins needs
the aid of the physical geologist, the electrician, the chemist, the mineralo-
gist, and also, as I shall presently show, that of the paleontologist, in order to
arrive at correct conclusions respecting their age, the materials they contain,
from whence those materials were derived, and the time when they were
subsequently deposited in them. Unfortunately I do not profess to have
any knowledge of some of these sciences, and the conclusions to which I
have arrived will therefore be based upon general observations, such as
could be given to the physical conditions of various mineral districts, and
the manner under which some of the veins have been formed and refilled.

There are few subjects connected with the physical history of our globe
which have presented greater difficulties in their elucidation, and few the
study of which have, up to this time, had less satisfactory or certain results
than the laws which have regulated our mineral deposits, the views enter-
tained having the wide divergence between a Plutonic and a Neptunian
origin for our minerals ; and although the tendency of opinion is probably in
the latter direction, it may be almost said that at this time there is no fixed
view on a subject of such great economic importance.

The opinions of various authors may be chiefly classed under the heads of
“ sublimation” and “ segregation,” whilst those of Werner, that the minerals
in the veins haye been derived from the waters of the ocean, and those
recently propounded by Mr. Wallace, that they owe their presence to atmo-
spheric causes and conditions in connexion with segregation, deserve at-
tention.

1st. By sublimation is meant that all our minerals have been entirely
derived from the passage upwards of certain vapours yielding the minerals
through the veins, which have been vents from the heated interior of the
earth.

2nd. By segregation, that the minerals now found in veins were contem-
poraneous with, and deposited in very minute quantities in the horizontal
strata which now form the walls of the veins, and that by some mode or
other they have subsequently been remoyed from the surrounding rocks and
redeposited as they are now found in the veins.

Minerals are only met with in the crust of the earth, in stratified beds,
and in mineral veins.

~~ oh) Al oe

—— mC

ON MINERAL VEINS IN CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. 361

Under the first condition, it will be very generally admitted that the
materials from whence those minerals were derived must have been held in
solution in the waters of the ocean at the different periods when the stra-
tified beds containing them were being deposited, and that the lime, the silica,
the iron, which will be found more or less abundantly in every formation,
must have been, with few if any exceptions, precipitated contemporaneously.
Although the ores of copper, tin, lead, and other rarer minerals which are
found most frequently in veins may occasionally be detected in stratified
beds, it is evident, from the mere traces of them that are obtained over the
widest areas and in geological time, that the laws which were necessary to
their deposition so abundantly in veins, were in their case to a considerable
extent inoperative.

Physical conditions necessary to Mineral Veins.—It is only stating a
truism to remark that the rocks in association with which our mineral veins
are found are almost entirely of marine origin; that they once formed the
bottom of ancient seas, and in their undisturbed conditions were laid down
horizontally, and were continuous, and without the enormous rents and
fissures which now traverse them in every direction. The mere contraction
of the beds during solidification would not be sufficient to account for the
phenomena, as in this case the fissures would not pass down continuously to
any depth. It appears, therefore, clear that all veins must be due to the
elevation or depression of the portion of the earth’s crust in which they are
found, and that they are younger than or formed subsequently to the con-
solidation of the rocks enclosing them, their age depending on the period of
physical change.

It would be difficult for any one not acquainted with mining operations to
realize the enormous forces that have been in operation in different ages
to produce the dislocations necessary for the reception of our mineral lodes.
To the physical geologist there can be few more remarkable phenomena
than mining districts present, or than the study of a well-prepared map of
any of our larger districts would show. As an instance, I may mention a
map of the Alston district, in Cumberland, prepared by Mr. Wallace, in
which it may be seen that, occupying very large areas, there is a complete
network of fissures, the same veins being traceable through many miles of
country, crossed by others at varying angles. I have also shown this to be
the case in the Mendip district*, where the east and west veins in passing
parallel with one another through that line of country are repeatedly in-
tersected by cross courses, and to such an extent that numerous examples,
especially towards Frome, may be seen in almost every limestone-quarry.

It being admitted that through the volcanic disturbances indicated the
fissured character of our rocks has been produced, it will be desirable to
consider the influence exercised by the ocean in refilling the veins thus
caused.

On examining caverns and fissures of the Carboniferous Limestone which
are now open, it can at once be seen, by the honeycombed and worn cha-
racter of the roofs and sides, that they must at some period have formed
channels or passages for large bodies of water. Although in most Carboni-
ferous-limestone districts it is known that “swallet holes” occur, through
which the water now passes down and traverses certain lines of open fissures
below, which form the natural drainage of the country, the stream some-
times reappearing miles away from whence it entered, still these are excep-

* “ Abnormal Conditions of Secondary Deposits,” &c., Geol. Journ. Dec. 1867.
1869. 28

362 ; REPORT—1869.

tional cases ; the great majority of the open fissures are beyond and without ~
this influence, and it must be obviously impossible, to any great extent, —
where the fissures have been refilled, that there could be the passage of any
considerable bodies of water through them since they have obtained their
present elevations, in some instances amounting to several thousand feet
above the sea-level.. It appears to me, therefore, more probable that the de-
nudation to which they have been subject is due in great measure to the long-
continued action of marine currents, whilst the fissures, the upper parts of
which afford the most striking evidence of this condition, still remained
open beneath the surface of the ocean. This might have been for greatly
extended periods, as there is evidence throughout the Mendip and South
Wales districts that the Carboniferous Limestones formed the floor of the.
sea through Triassic, Liassic, and Oolitic times.

After the disturbing influence by which the fissures were caused, their:
filling up by derived materials, and the time occupied thereby, must have
depended upon local causes that were in operation in the several areas in
which they occurred. In some instances, where little or no sedimentary
matter was being derived from adjoining lands, or where no preexisting
stratified deposits were being denuded, few materials for this purpose would:
be supplied, and a greater length of time would elapse before the fissures re-
ceived their vein-stuff, of-whatever kind, whilst on the contrary they would
more or less speedily have received the deposits with which they are now
filled, subject, in either case probably, to a scouring out and occasional mo-
dification of the material within their walls.

Contents of Fissures—In working for various minerals, it is usually found
that the more precious contents of the veins are either in vertical strings, in
bunches or pockets, or more rarely in flats, and that they form but a very
small part of the contents of the fissures. When attention is given to the
other materials which form by far the greater bulk of the infilling, it will be
found in some instances to be of a very varied character, those even in
the same mine being most remarkable. Though in general there might be an
agreement in the character of the deposit in the same mineral field or area,
when separate districts are examined, the distinction is more marked ; often
the material brought into the vein is conglomeratic, consisting of both angular
and rolled pebbles—in the former case probably derived from the adjacent
walls of the vein, or from a source not far removed ; in the latter case, which
is not an unfrequent one, the pebbles are from rocks not contemporaneous,
some of which have therefore a foreign origin, and, either in being brought
from a distance or from the subsequent action of the water in the fissure, |
have been as much rounded as are some of those found in the drifts of our
superficial quaternary deposits. The cavernous interstices left in such con-
glomerates are fayourable to the deposition of minerals for which the veins
are worked; and where this is not the case, they are usually cemented to-
gether by carbonate of lime, quartz, or some other material incident to the
infilling.

Still more frequently, in many districts, from forming the great bulk of
the infilling, the “dowky” portions, or the clays, of the veins are charged
with varying deposits of a sandy nature, with marl or clay, or with a me-
terial assuming a variegated or finely conglomeratic character, showing an
admixture brought from different sources, or by the denudation of beds of
different mineralogical conditions, analogous to stratified deposits when
brought together by opposing currents. The variety in the character of the
vein-stuff is at times most marked; and there may be obtained from the

ON MINERAL VEINS IN CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. 363

same vein samples of “dowks’’ which, when washed, give almost every
conceivable hue of colour, from the most delicate French white to the
' densest shades of black or indigo, all being due to the different chemical
or mineralogical conditions of the matrix. Additional evidence is afforded
of the derived nature of the ‘‘ dowks” by the occasional presence in them of
fossil wood. JI have found a piece in the Charterhouse Mine, converted
into jet, with the cellular portions containing galena; and another example
is recorded from the Hudgill Burn Mine, the exterior of which was covered
with galena. Whenever in a given area a series of fissures were open at
the same time, and subject to the same conditions of deposition, it is quite
possible that certain horizons of infilling might be found in them, though,
from the peculiar circumstances attending them, their recognition would
inyolve close observation.

Having said thus much of the fissures and their more unprofitable con-
tents, I now proceed to consider the views that have been usually enter-
tained as to the deposition of the minerals therein.

Views of Mineral Deposition.—Next to the one which I shall hereafter
suggest of a purely marine origin for the minerals, I believe that of sub-
limation to have the greatest probability; but there are, I think, many
reasons against this supposed cause.

It necessarily involves, what was most likely the fact, that the fissures
originally continued downwards until they reached the source of volcanic
action, which in some instances must have been seated at an enormous
depth. The moment the fissures were opened, of whatever width, if within
the influence of the ocean, they must have been filled by its waters, and
liable more or less quickly to receive their now varied contents. Their
lower depths would naturally be first filled. Where the rents passed
through, as must often have been the case, soft and yielding beds, this might
often have occurred quickly, in others only after a great lapse of time. Were
the doctrine of sublimation true, we ought, I think, to have greater evidence
of the continued passage upwards of volcanic fluids, in the very lowest depths,
instead, as is most often the case, of finding our minerals high up in the veins,
or occurring chiefly on given horizons in them, or even in pockets at their
surfaces. It appears to me also that the “dowks” or clays through which
so subtle and potent an agent must have been continually passing, charged with
its varied minerals, must have shown much greater evidence of its effects than
is now seen in them, and that they would more frequently have tended to
precipitate the minerals before they could have passed so far upwards in the
vein in which they are now more frequently found.

The doctrine of segregation, which at this time appears to have most
believers, is, I think, open to greater objection than that of sublimation,
Its disciples believe that, subsequently to the movements which have caused
the fissures, a process has been going on which even now is collecting the
various minerals together towards a fixed point, according to their natural
affinities, extracting them from the adjoining rocks, and redepositing them
in the veins. This view is purely imaginary and incapable of proof, and
seems to me as impossible as the idea I had when a boy, that if you planted
a stone, in process of time it might grow into a mountain. There seems to
me no possibility how, under this supposition, any mineral can be with-
drawn, and necessarily replaced by another totally different, involving a cir-
culatory movement continually in progress in the matrix of some of our
most extensive geological formations. Probably, as regards their chemical
constituents, there are no more homogeneous rocks than the great series of the

232

364 REPORT—1869.

Carboniferous Limestones, the veins of which yield a considerable proportion
of our lead, calamine, and iron-ore ; and chemical analysis will show that the
constituents necessary to the production of these minerals are almost entirely
absent from them over the widest areas. The limestones that come nearest
in contact with the walls of strong mineral lodes ought, with this view,
to yield the best evidence that the minerals have been thus segregated to-
gether ; but it will be found that they are as free from the minerals that are
in the veins as would be samples taken at any distance from the fissures.

Under this head it is desirable I should notice a view lately suggested by
Mr. Wallace. This gentleman has lately published an elaborate work on
‘The Laws which regulate the Deposition of Ores in Veins,’ which, though
having special reference to the Alston-Moor district, is proposed by him as a
law explaining the ore-deposits in all mineral veins. His work shows an
intimate knowledge of the complicated physical details of that extensive
mining-region, in which, in opposition to sublimation, he remarks, that all
the lead-veins are found most productive where furthest removed from the
seat of Plutonic action, the richest deposits being in the upper part of the
Carboniferous Limestone where no igneous rocks are found, and that in that
district there is nothing to support the theory that lead is due to exhalations
from below, or to matter injected in a fluid state among the consolidated
sedimentary rocks. Instead of this he states that the more probable cause
of the lead-ore at Alston is owing to segregation from, or decomposition
of, the rocks which form the walls of the veins where they are found. In
adopting the doctrine of segregation, he proposes, for the first time, to com-
bine with it another cause, without which there would be no important de-
posits of minerals, viz. that of recent hydrous and atmospheric agency.
Without the passage of large bodies of water downwards from the surface,
derived from the rainfall of the district, and their free circulation in the
veins, there would be no conditions favourable to the deposit of minerals ;
in all cases he states such deposits are found only where fluids most freely
percolate the surface and circulate in the veins, and that these conditions
only occur where the strata are situated at moderate depths from the sur-
face, and at some considerable distance from the watershed of the moun-
tain ; that, combined with electrical action, these agents have been the means
of extracting the minerals from the adjoining rocks; that the operation is
still in progress, and that all has been accomplished since the Glacial period.

The examination I have given to mineral veins and their contents does not
support this view. The chief material of all mineral veins I find to be of
marine origin ; all the organic contents are fossil, and their precise geologi-
cal age can be arrived at without much difficulty. Wherever they contain
land shells, as on the Mendips, or freshwater shells, which occur in the
veins of Alston, and are wide-spread elsewhere, they are also fossil and of
contemporaneous age with the other remains*. It is certain from this that
the veins received their infilling when within the influence of the ocean, and
before their present elevation, since which time, as I have before stated, I
doubt if there could be any material alteration in their contents.

But supposing their vein-stuff to be postglacial, and that their deposit had
been effected by large bodies of water passing down through them from the
surface, ample evidence would have been present of the fact; for in the place
of fossil organic remains, which in some instances indicate the exact age of
the minerals, there would have been found recent land and freshwater

* See remarks on the presence of Land and Freshwater Shells, p. 369.

ON MINERAL VEINS IN CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. 365

shells and plants abundantly. Of this, through a long examination of the
contents of mineral veins, I have seen no evidence either in the Alston or
any other mining-district.

Postpliocene caverns and fissures have, however, remained open to this
time, in many instances, in our Carboniferous-limestone ranges ; and although
they have been within the influence of, and subject to, the effect suggested by
Mr. Wallace, their organic contents consist chiefly of the extinct mammalia
of that period, whilst their mineral deposits are confined to the stalactitic
and stalagmitie deposits on their roofs and floors which have been slowly
accumulating since the postpliocene period.

The Neptunian theory, first advanced by Werner for the origin of mine-
rals, would probably before this have received greater attention but for the
other extravagant ideas he connected with it. I shall now offer some sug-
gestions regarding its probable truth.

It appears to me necessary, in the first place, that, for the production of
minerals, there should be the following elements or conditions, viz. the pre-
sence of the minerals themselves in the waters of the ocean, open fissures
communicating therewith, favourable electrical conditions, and time for
their precipitation.

It has now been established, without doubt, by the highest chemical
authorities, that many of our most important minerals are present in minute
quantities in the waters of the ocean. This is admitted by those who be-
lieve in segregation, the difference being that they think it was first de-
posited and afterwards extracted from the parent rock, and redeposited in
the veins, rather than originally collected in the veins themselves.

As regards the connexion subsisting between the ocean and the vein-
fissures, I believe it will be recognized to be the case that, in the great
majority of instances, the different veins come directly to the surface, and
wherever a later rock has been deposited, which is only in exceptional cases,
covering up the mouth of the vein, there will still be found a break in the
sequence of the strata, which might give almost unlimited time for the pre-
cipitation of the minerals therein. Wherever systems of veins occur, it is
probable there will be found connected therewith an abnormal condition
and considerable breaks in the deposition of the rocks. I have shown this
to be the case in connexion with the Carboniferous Limestone of the Mendip
range, and its continuation through South Wales, in which districts it can
be seen that those rocks were, through enormous periods, exposed to the
influence of the ocean, possibly forming reef-like barriers around the edges
of the carboniferous basin, the’ fissured veins and floor of this sea-bottom
receiving at some periods materials of Rheetic or of Lower or Middle Lias
age, whilst an occasional capping of the beds of Inferior Oolite, left in some
Carboniferous Limestone trough, now and then cover up the mouths of the
veins that had received all their contents prior to its deposition. Some
most instructive examples are present in this district, in which it may be
seen that whilst there are on the walls of the vein the usual vertical con-
ditions of vein-stuff, such as calespar, sulphate of barytes, &c., with occa-
sional hematite iron-ore, calamine, and galena, the central portion of the
vein is unmistakably of Liassic or Rhetic age. In all such instances there
are combined the elements of open fissures communicating with the ocean,
and greater or less time in the reception of their contents.

Various Ages of Minerals.—It will be found that minerals generally occur
in the outcrops of lines of strata, possibly occupying, to some extent, the
same relative positions, as regards the strata by which they are now sur-

366 REPORT—1869.

rounded, as in earlier times, and that the mineral-bearing rocks formed the
floor or backbone on which the later beds were laid down. This is the case
with Australian and Californian auriferous regions, the enormous denuda-
tion and consequent drifts of Tertiary age in the former case having laid
bare the backbone of the auriferous-bearing rock below. I have already shown
this to be the case with the Carboniferous Limestones of the west of England
and South Wales, where, in connexion with them, veins and pockets of
mineral-bearing lias are found. Liassic minerals, again, oecur on what is
probably a continuation of the same great barrier, which, passing under the
south-eastern counties, crosses the channel to France, where they are seen
on a floor of granite. The outcrops of some of the limestones of North
Wales and the north of England have been exposed to the influence of seas
certainly as late as the Coal-measures and the minerals found in the great
mining-districts of Cornwall, whether in the killas or the granite itself, are
found connected with, or resting upon, a great backbone of the latter rock.

It is also worthy of remark that the conglomerates usually skirting the
edge of the limestone, which must long have been subject to the action of the
ocean, are large receptacles of iron, calamine, and lead, the veins in which
seldom, if ever, pass downwards into the limestone, and which, though open
to the ocean, are cut off from sublimation beneath. The fissures in these great
lines of submarine mountains must necessarily have been chiefly filled with
marine matter, whether mineral or otherwise; sometimes, where the mate-
rials were friable, supplied by the walls of the fissure, but perhaps oftener
derived. Wherever there has been a rapid filling up of the veins by a homo-
geneous material, the element of time is excluded, such as with the “ dowky”
portions of the veins, and in such cases workable minerals are seldom found.
The same occurs where there is a sequence of deposition, and stratification
follows without a break in natural order. If the above view be correct, it
follows that the longer a fissure has been exposed to the influence of the
ocean, the greater will be the probability of a larger supply of minerals
therein. Where veins have been slowly filled, where they have been
cavernous, or by subsequent movements have been opened on several occa-
sions, where they contain conglomeratic infillings, or have been kept open by
currents, favourable conditions to deposition occur; and it is a well-known
law of mining that, at the junction where veins intersect, rich deposits or
pockets of minerals are most usually found, from the fact that at such points
there has been a scouring out of the fissures, and a longer time given for
precipitation.

Paleontology of Mineral Veins.—The physical views I have suggested are
strongly supported by the investigations I have for some time been pursuing
regarding the presence of organic remains in mineral veins. During those
investigations I have examined materials derived from Carboniferous-lime-
stone veins and fissures from the mining-districts of Wharfedale, Wensley-
dale, Weardale, Teesdale, Swaledale, Alston Moor, Keswick, North and
South Wales, and Somersetshire ; and I am much indebted, for the facilities
they have afforded me in their several districts, to Lord Bolton and Messrs.
Wallace, Walton, Eddy, Bainbridge, Cain, Peart, Wasley, and Sopwith.

It is remarkable, considering the enormous mine-workings and the quan-
tity of vein-stuff brought to the surface in every part of the world, that so
few notices of the presence of fossils in them should have occurred. In his
‘ Elements of Geology,’ p. 762, Sir Charles Lyell mentions that M. Virlet
had found a Grypha in a lead-mine near Semur in France, and that a
madrepore had been seen in a compact vein of cinnabar in Hungary, the pre-

ON MINERAL VEINS IN CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. 367

sence of which were accounted for by their being transported thither during
submarine earthquakes.

_ Anexamination of the veins in the former case might indicate the presence
of many other shells, and probably show the age of the veins of that district
to be Liassic or Oolitic. In the latter case, also, other remains might be found,
and yield additional confirmation of the views I have propounded.

One reason for the non-discovery of organic remains has arisen from their
being generally of small size, and that the vein-stuff in which they have to
be sought for is often of a very intractable character, resisting the action of
the water by which it has to be dissolved before they can be washed out of
it, after which the residuum requires almost microscopic examination for
their separation. In the process of washing away the “dowks,” it is inter-
esting to notice the very varied tints with which they colour the water,
according to the mineralogical character of the material to be operated upon,
which differs in separate districts, and on different levels or horizons in the
same mine.

The organic remains thus obtained are occasionally even more varied, as
regards genera and species, than if they had been derived from a given
horizon of stratified deposits, arising perhaps from the length of time within
which the fissure might have been open, and the necessarily mixed condition
consequent upon the filling up of the vein. Some from the Carboniferous
Limestone itself are associated with those which are foreign or derived.
In the case of the Charterhouse Mine on the Mendips, those which are of
Liassic age, and consequently derived, are in the proportion of about 90 to
30 from the older rocks within the walls of which they are found. In the
Carboniferous-limestone districts of Holwell and Frome, Rhetic and Liassie
organisms are also in large proportion; and the same may generally be said
throughout the Mendip range and South Wales. In North Wales and the
north of England, on the contrary, Carboniferous-limestone remains are the
most frequent ; those of later age are the exceptions, some of these being
Entomostraca of Permian species, which may be common to the two series,
and Foraminifera, which have a long range upwards. The precise later age
of the vein-infillings is therefore, in their cases, not so clearly defined as in
the south-west of England. In the Fallowfield Mine and the Silver Band
Mines, Flemingites gracilis, a seed of the coal-period, occurs, whilst at Gras-
sington and Mold small particles of coal are occasionally present in the
“dowks,” which at Fallowfield and in the Swaledale district are so like
material from the coal-shales that it is reasonable to infer that the veins are
contemporary with, or subsequent to, the coal-period.

Nothing can well be more remarkable than the Mendip veins with their
infillings of secondary age, high up on the Carboniferous-limestone table-
land, and with no stratified deposits of lias within several miles. . In the
case of the Charterhouse Mine, from the variety in the contents of the
fissures, there is ample evidence that a considerable time must have elapsed
within which they remained more or less open, and during which various
oceanic influences were at work. At 270 feet, the lowest depth of the
shaft, there is found a deposit of blue or greenish clay, 10 feet in thickness,
which has yielded the Liassic fossils given below. This, on the same level,
occasionally changes from a homogeneous marl to patches of a more conglo-
meratic material with enclosed water-worn pebbles. Higher up the vein it
becomes a dense conglomerate. Above this, sandy-looking deposits occur,
which, when washed, are seen to be almost entirely composed of the de-
tached stems of encrinites very much abraded, with small washed pebbles of

368 REPORT—1869.

hematite iron-ore, showing that, after the deposit of the Lias in the vein
below, a denudation of the Carboniferous Limestone had been going on ; and
above this, again, occurred calespar and the largest deposits of lead-ore ;
all these changes, and others which might be mentioned, indicate the many
conditions that were in operation before the fissure had finally received its
contents, whilst still within the ocean’s influence, and possibly before the
final elevation of the Mendip range. In this district the minerals “ prove”
near the surface, but they are occasionally found below, and detached
crystals of galena are not unfrequent in the Liassic clay at the bottom.

In the following list, which is extracted from my paper “On the Abnormal
Condition of Secondary Deposits,” &c., it will be seen what a large fauna
occurs within the walls of the lead-vein, that most of the great palzontolo-
gical groups are therein represented, and that they clearly indicate its precise
geological age.

List of Organic Remains from Charterhouse Lead-mine, 270 feet from the

Surface.

Or Liasstc AGE. Nucula, sp.
Chara liassina, Moore. Opis, Sp.
Drift-wood, Jet. Cerithium gratum, Terg.
Cristellaria rotula, Zamk. rotundatum.

costata, D’ Orb. a Terg.
Dentalina communis, D’ Orb. sS emele, D’ Orb.
—— obliqua, Linn. Chiton.
Fissurella.

obliquestriata, Reuss.
Frondicularia striatula, Reuss.
Inyolutina liassica, Jones.

, Sp.

Marginalina lituus, D’ Orb.
Nodosaria raphanistrum, Linn.
radicula, Linn.

—— paucicostata, Reuss.
Planularia Bronni, Roem.
Textularia, sp.

Pentacrinites, joints of.
Cidaris Edwardsii.
Echinodermata, several species.
Ophioderma, joints of.
Serpula, sp.

Pollicipes rhomboidalis, Moore.
Crustacea, claws of.

Bryozoa, sp.

Argiope.

Crania,

Lingula.

Rhynchonella yvariabilis, Schloth.
Terebratula punctata, Sow.
Spirifer, fragments, several sp.
Thecidium Moorei, Dav.

—— triangularis, D’ Orb.
Zellania Davidsoni, Moore.
Laboucherei, Moore.
Lima, sp.

Plicatula spinosa, Sow

Astarte, sp.

Cardinia multicostata.
Cuculleea,

Leda Heberti, Martin.

Melania alternata, Terg.
Nerinzea Mendipensis, Moore.
Orthostoma frumentum, Terg.
triticum, Terg.
Pleurotomaria expansa, Sow.
Mendipensis, Moore.
Straparollus tricarinatus, Mart.
—— Oppeli, Mart.

Solarium lenticulare, Terg.
Trochus nitidus, Zerg.

edulus ?, Séol.

——, sp.

Turbo, sp.

—— Piettei, Martin.

aranus, Martin.

—— Martini, Zerg.

tumidus, Moore.
Turritella Humberti, Martin.
Howsei, Moore.

- Ammonites, 2 sp.

Belemnites acutus, Ifill.

Fish remains abundant, including teeth
of Acrodus, Hybodus, Lepidotus, &c.,
representing about ten species.

Ichthyosaurus, tooth of.

Derived from the CARBONIFEROUS
LIMESTONE.
Helix Dawsonii, Moore.
Hydrobia, sp.
Planorbis Mendipensis, Moore.
Proserpina Lyelli, Moore.

ON MINERAL VEINS IN CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE.

Valvata anomala, Moore.
pygma, Moore.
Vertigo Murchisonize, Moore.
Bairdia plebeia, Fewss.
brevis, Jones § Kirkby.
Cythere bilobata, Miinst.

—— intermedia, Miinst.
ambigua, Jones, MS.
—— qualis, Jones, MS.
—— spinifera, Jones, MS.
—— Thraso, Jones, MS.

fabulina, Jones § Kirkby.

Kirkbya plicata, Jones § Kirkby.

Moorea tenuis, Jones, MS.
Terebratula hastata, Sov.
Orthis Michelini, Kon.
Atrypa, sp.

Spirorbis.

Serpulee.

Encrinites.

Bryozoa, various species.
Corals, several species.
Echinodermata.
Conodonts.

369

Considerable paleeontological interest attaches to the presence, under these
peculiar conditions, of such genera as Heliw, Proserpina, and Vertigo, as,
with one exception, they are the earliest recognized land shells, and also to
Valvata, Hydrobia, and Planorbis, the oldest freshwater genera yet known.
In the paper above mentioned, I referred to the difficulty that exists in
always assigning the shells of different ages, when thus mixed together, to their
true geological horizons. Although in general this difficulty does not occur,
it may happen with those which are new, or have not been previously stra-
tigraphically recognized.

It was not unnatural that I should have supposed these land and fresh-
water shells, when accompanied by a large Liassic fauna, to be of the same
age; but with regard to the Valvata anomala, the V. pygmea, and the
Planorbis Mendipensis, the evidence I have since obtained of the presence of
these shells in the mining-districts of the North, leads me to the conclusion
that it is probable that these land and freshwater species are rather to be
assigned to the earlier period of the Carboniferous Limestone, a fact that
will still enhance their paleontological interest. The presence also of other
freshwater genera, to be hereafter noticed, occurring in considerable num-
bers in the veins, induces me to think that there are some freshwater beds
connected with the Carboniferous Limestone from whence they may have
been derived which have yet to be discovered; and I hope my geological
friends who are working in Carboniferous-limestone districts will turn their
attention to this point; for of all formations, less, I believe, is really known
or realized of the great physical, paleontological, and other changes which
have occurred during the Carboniferous period than of most other geological
deposits, and there yet remains a great work for some geologists to take up in
this direction.

In other mining-districts organic remains are generally less plentiful
than in the Mendip area; but I have not failed to detect them, more or less
abundantly, except in one instance, in that of the Cononley Mine in the
Airdale district. It often happens that, though they are wanting in some
samples of the “ dowks,” they may still be obtained from others at higher or
lower levels in the same mine. Although they have in all instances been
selected promiscuously for examination, fossils have been found in more
than one half of the samples.

The following lists of “‘ dowks,” with notes of their organic contents, are
selected to show the general character of the vein-stuff after it has been
prepared by washing.

Keld-Head Mines, Wensleydale.

48 ft. from surface. A very mineralized, brownish, or drab marl; when
washed chiefly a residuum of quartz grains. Organisms rare, consisting
of Encrinites, Serpulce-like tubes, Involutina.

370 REPORT—1869.

90 ft. Dowkey Vein, Ashbank Limestone, with occasional galena and iron

ites. Enerinites very abundant. Serpule, Orthis, Involutina, rare.

192 ft. Keld-Head Vein, Ashbank Limestone, a drab marl, leaving a very
quartzose residuum, with iron pyrites. Enerimites abundant ; Involu-
tina rare.

210 ft. Cobscar Vein, Undersill Limestone, a brownish marl, with yellow
sandy patches. Valvata anomala (Moore), Entomostraca, Echini, Bry-
ozoa, Seed ?, Enerinites, abundant, Brachiopoda.

240 ft. West-Bank Vein, Ashbank Limestone, a greyish marl, with nume-
rous Foraminifera of the genera Jnvolutina, Entomostraca, many Eneri-
nites, Serpule, Bryozoa, &c.

450 ft. Keld-Head Vein, Bottom Limestone, a blue marl, with galena,
blende, iron pyrites, quartz, selenite. Planorbis Mendipensis (Moore)
and other univalves; Huomphalus, Entomostraca, many Encrinites,
Echini, Serpule, Bryozoa, Discina nitida, Terebratula, very numerous ;

Involutine, Dentalina pauperata, very rare.
Aysgarth Top Limestone, a dark-blue mineralized residuum with

galena, blende, iron pyrites.

Entomostraca, numerous Foraminifera.

Thornton’s Scar Limestone, a blue marl. Casts of bivalves, Encri-
nites abundant, and many Foraminifera.

List of Fossils in Keld-Head Mines.

Seed?

Tnvolutina silicea, Terguem.
polymorpha, Zerg.
liassica, Jones, sp.
radiata, Brady.

lobata, Brady.
Dentalina pauperata, D’ Orb.
Bairdia curta, M*‘ Coy.
plebeia, Reuss, long var.
s

ip:
Cythere cuneolina, J. § K., MS.

—— fabulina, J. § K., MS.
——, n. sp.

Corals, sp.

Encrinites.

Echini, sp.

——, sp.

Serpula, sp.

Spirorbis caperatus, M*‘Coy.
Bryozoa, several sp.
Atrypa, sp.

Discina nitida, Phil.
Chonetes, sp.

Orthis, sp.

Lingula, sp.

Productus, sp.

Rhynchonella, sp.

Terebratula hastata, Sow.
Zellania, ? sp.

Bivalves, fragments, sp.
Hydrobia, n. sp.

Stoastoma ?, n. sp.

Valyata pygmza, Moore.
anomala, Moore.
Planorbis Mendipensis, Moore.
Loxonema brevis, M‘Coy.
Lacuna antiqua, 1 Coy.
Macrocheilus tricinetus, JZ‘ Coy.
Murchisonia quadricarinata, M*‘Coy.
Larcombi, Jf Coy.
tricincta, ‘Coy.

Sp.

——, sp.

Pleurotomaria multicarinata, M*‘Coy.
—— sulcata, Phil.

— — limbata, Phil.

Fallowfield and Brownley Hill, Cumberland.

90 feet from surface. Fallowfield Vein, a very micaceous grey marly residuum,
with black carbonaceous particles, fragments of coal, crystals of sele=
nite, iron pyrites. Flemingites gracilis (Carr.), porcelain-like casts of
Turbo and Turritella, Entomostraca, Foraminifera.

270 ft. Fallowfield Vein, a dark marl, with iron pyrites. Zurbo, Turri-
tella, Entomostraca, Encrinites.

450ft. Brownley Hill Old Vein, a black micaceous marl, with selenite. Stoa=

ON MINERAL VEINS IN CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. 371

stoma? in considerable numbers ; Hydrobia, n.sp., Pisidium, Unio ?,
Spirifer, Dentalina, Serpule, Entomostraca, Bryozoa.

480 ft. Brownley Hill Middle Vein, a black micaceous marl. No or-
ganisms.

600 ft. Brownley Hill West High Cross Vein, a dark mineralized micaceous
slaty deposit, with encrinite-stems rarely.

80 ft. Guddamgill Burn Cross Vein, a black slaty marl, like Coal-measure
shales. Encrinite-stems, remains rare.

Fossils in Fallowfield and Brownley Hill Veins. Brownley Hill 1400 feet,
Fallowfield 100 feet above Sea-level.

Flemingites gracilis, Carr. Unio ?, n. sp.
Tnvolutina. Biyalves, sp.
Dentalina pauperata, D’ Orb. Spirifera, sp.
Echini, sp. Stoastoma ?, n. sp.
Serpule. Hydrobia, n. sp.
Serpulites, sp. Valvata anomala, Moore.
Bryozoa, sp. Dentalium inornatum, ‘Coy.
Encrinites. Turbo, sp.
Cythere fabulina, J. § K., n. sp. Turritella, sp.

cuneolina, J. § K., n. sp. Conodonts.
——,, I. sp. —
Pisidium, n. sp. Coal.

Grassington Mines, Wharfdale, Yorkshire.

24-fathoms level. New Rake Vein, residuum a yellow sandy ferruginous
marl, with hematite iron-ore, quartz, &c., fragments of coal and coal-
like shale. Encrinital stems.

28-ft. level from the shale, a brown and red-mottled marl, with a very
mineralized residuum, manganese, iron-ore, quartz, &c. Tooth of
Petalodus, Conodonts, Echini, Serpule.

60-ft. level, near the junction of Eddey’s and Cannister’s Veins, a yellow
marl, residuum almost entirely composed of encrinital stems.

60 ft. on Eddey’s Vein, a brown marl, with manganese, iron-ore, quartz,
fish-teeth and scales, Conodonts, Encrinites, Serpule.

60 ft. on Middle Vein, a greyish marl, in great part encrinital. Small fish-
palate and other fish-remains, Conodonts.

60 ft. at Moss Middle Vein, a yellowish marl, leaving a variegated irony
residuum. Teeth of Petalodus and Orodus, and fish-scales, Conodonts
of two forms, Serpule, Encrinites, Involutina.

60 ft. Old Moss Vein at Moss, a yellowish sandy marl. Scales or teeth of
Ctenoptychius ; organisms rare.

40 ft. Middle Vein, Coalgrove Head, a drab marl, chiefly encrinital. Tooth
of Orodus, small vertebrae and fish fragments, vegetable-like fragments,
Conodonts, Bryozoa, Involutina.

40 ft. Old Ralph’s String Level, Coalgrove Head, a grey mottled marl.
Fish-teeth, Conodonts, Encrinites, Seed?, Involutina.

18 ft. Cavendish Vein, at Sarah Top, Millstone-grit, a cream-coloured marl,
with galena. No organisms.

37 ft. Cavendish Vein, Sarah Top, part of Millstone-grit, a brownish-
looking sample, conglomeratic, with limy streaks in the lamine. He-
matite iron-ore, micaceous sandstone, lignite or coal, quartz, galena,
leaving a large limy deposit in the water. Encrinital stems.

372

REPORT—1869.

42 ft. No. 2 Vein, north of Middle Vein, Friendship, a brownish marl,
with Planorbis, Bryozoa, Serpule, Enerinites.

42 ft. No. 4 Vein, south of Middle Vein, at Friendship, an ochreous marl,
with Hydrobia, Entomostraca, Conodonts, Serpule, Encrinites, Involu-

tina, Nodosaria.

45 ft. Alexander Vein, West Peru.

Hydrobia, Conodonts, &e.

40 ft. Alexander Vein, West Peru, a brownish marl, with fish-remains,
Conodonts, Entomostraca, Rhynchonella, &e.

45 ft. New Vein, West Peru, a brownish-mottled marl, with part of fish-
jaw, teeth of Petalodus and Orodus, fish-vertebre and scales. Hydro-
bia, Discina nitida, Lingula, Conodonts, Dentaliwm wmornatum, Eneri-

nites, Bryozoa, Echini.

Crustacean fragments ?

24 ft. No. 2 Vein, south of West Turffit’s shaft, a grey clay, with Psam-
modus tooth, Univualves, Bryozoa, Encrinites, Coral, Involutina.

25 ft. On Ringleton’s Vein, a brownish-mottled marl. Tooth of Orodus,
Hydrobia, Valvata anomala, Crania?, Conodonts, Entomostraca, Bry-
ozoa, Dentalium, Serpule, Encrinites, Involutina.

20 ft. New Rake Vein, a brownish-mottled marl. Piece of large tooth,
fish-spines, and small teeth, Valvata anomala, Hydrobia, Inthoglyphus,
Planorbis, Conodonts, Entomostraca, Bellerophon, Encrinites, &c.

24 ft. Branch, north from New Rake Vein, in shales and limestone, an
irony-looking marl. Encrinital stem.

List of Fossils in the Grassington Mines, 1300 feet above Sea-level.

Vegetable-like fragments.
Seeds ?

Inyolutina vermiformis, Brady.

aspera, Brady.

recta, Brady.

ineuta, Brady.

—— nodosa, Brady.
cylindrica ?, ?, Brady.
polymorpha, Terq.
Nodosaria, sp.?

—— radicula, Linn. ?
Corals, sp.

Encrinites.

Echini, remains.

Serpula.

Serpulites, sp.

Cythere nigrescens.
munda.

—— equalis, sp. n.

—— bilobata, Miinst.
intermedia, Miinst.
—— Miinsteriana, J. § K.
— mee J. 5 K., MS.

Ep:
ae Okeni, Miinst.
Crustacean fragment.

Conodonts.

Bryozoa, sp.

Discina nitida, Phil.
Lingula, sp.
ae sp.
Leptena, 8

Thecidium ?, sp.

Zellania ?, sp.
Terebratula hastata, Phil.
Bivalves, fragments.
Hydrobia, n. sp.
Lithoglyphus, sp.
Planorbis Mendipensis, Moore.
Valvata anomala, Moore.
Dentalium inornatum, M‘ Coy.
Turbo, sp.

Cladodus, tooth.
Psammodus, tooth.
Petalodus, tooth.

Orodus, tooth.

Part of fish-jaw.
Vertebree and fish-scales.

Coal or coal-like shale.
Various minerals.

List of Fossils from the Alston Mines, 1240 feet above Sea-level.

Carteria, sp., noy. gen.
Encrinites,

Echini.

Serpula.

Serpulites.

Corals, sp.

Cythere pyrula, J. § K., n. sp. MS.
—— nigrescens,

ON MINERAL VEINS IN CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. 373

Cythere Moorei, Jones.
Leperdita Okeni, Miinst.
—— parallela, J. § K.
Arca, sp.

Nucula, sp.

Bryozoa, sp.

Terebratula hastata, Sow.
Spirifera.

Buccinum imbricatum, Sow.

Cirrus Dionysii, Goldf.
Hydrobia, n. sp.

Dentalium inornatum, MZ‘ Coy.
Natica.

Macrocheilus curvilineus, Phil.
canaliculatus, MW‘ Coy.
Murchisonia Larcombi, M‘ Coy.
Pleurotomaria suleata, Phil.
—— interstrialis, Phil.

Turbo, sp.

Univalves, several sp.
Petalodus, tooth.

List of Fossils from Weardale Mines.

Carteria, sp., nov. gen.
Corals.
Encrinites.

Echini.

Spirorbis caperatus, MZ‘ Coy.
Serpula.

Leperdita Okeni, Miinst.
Cythere, sp.

Atrypa, sp.

Orthis, sp.

Spirifera Urii, Flem.

Arca, sp.

Nucula, sp.

Bellerophon globatus ?

Elenchus antiquus, ‘Coy.
Loxonema brevis, ‘Coy.
Murchisonia quadricarinata, M‘Coy.
Turbo, sp.

Univalves, several other sp.
Conodonts.

Vegetable-like impressions.
Sponge-like bodies.

List of Fossils from Allenhead Mines.

Plante.

Sponge-like bodies.
Corals, sp.

Encrinites, sp.

Echini, sp.

Serpule.

Serpulites.

Leperdita Okeni, Miinst.
Cythere pyrula, n. sp.
Geinitziana, Jones.
nigrescens.

— Moorei, n. sp.
—— fabulina, J? & K.
Bairdia plebeia, Reuss.
elongata, Minst.
Atrypa, sp.

Chonetes, sp.
Terebratula hastata, Phil.

Productus, sp.

Spirifera, sp.

Bivyalves, portions.

Area, sp.

Psammodus, tooth.
Hydrobia, n. sp.

Valvata anomala, Moore.
Elenchus antiquus, Jf Coy.
Loxonema brevis, M‘ Coy.
Murchisonia quadricarinata, ‘Coy.
Natica.

Bellerophon.

Conodonts.

Coal-like fragments.

Last of Fossils from the White and Silver Band Mines.

Flemingites gracilis, Carr.
Seed ?

Spongiform bodies.
Encrinites, sp.

Serpulze, sp.

Serpulites, sp.

Corals, sp.

Echini, sp.

Tnyolutina silicea, Zerg.
—— liassica, Jones.

Dentalina pauperata, D’ Orb.
Bryozoa, sp.

Bivalves, in pieces.
Euomphalus!

Stoastoma ?, sp.

Hydrobia, sp.

Valvata anomala, Moore.
Psammodus, tooth.
Conodonts, two kinds.

374 REPORT—1869.
List of Fossils from Mount Pleasant Mine, Mold, Flintshire, about 1000 feet

above Sea-level.

Seeds ? Orodus cinctus, Ag.
Encrinites, Psammodus, teeth.
Serpulze. Petalodus, teeth.
Inyolutina. Saurichthys-like teeth.
Dentalina ? Cladodus, teeth.
Cythere Wardiana, J. § K., n. sp. Squaloraria-like scales.
Chiton-like valves. Tooth, with serrated edges.
Bivalves, in fragments. Reptilian-like tooth.
Terebratula, sp. Scales, lozenge-shaped, of fishes.
Spirifera, sp. Conodonts,
Hydrobia, sp.
Euomphalus, sp. White siliceous fragments of stone, with
Ctenoptychius, tooth or scale. numerous scattered fish-remains.
List of Fossils from the Coldberry and Red Grove Mines, Teesdale.
Seed ? Nucula, sp.
Encrinites. Impressions of bivalves in vein-stuff.
Echini. Terebratula hastata, Phil.
Serpulites. Bellerophon, sp.
Involutina. Dentalium inornatum, M‘ Coy.
Cythere bilobata, Miinst. Hydrobia, n. sp.
—— pyrula, J. § K., MS. Planorbis Mendipensis, Moore.
Cytherella aspera, Jones, n. sp. Valvata anomala, Moore.
Corals. Psammodus, tooth.
Arca, sp. Spine-like bodies.
List of Fossils from a Vein at Weston-super-Mare.
Encrinites. Kirkbya impressa, n. sp.
Leperdita Okeni, Miinst. Bairdia plebeia, Reuss.
Cythere pyrula, n. sp. Glauconome grandis, MM Coy.
nigrescens. Buccinum imbricatum, Ph.
: fabulina, J. §& K. Melania, sp.
Moorei, n. sp. Natica variata, Phil.
Beyrichia arcuata. Hydrobia, n. sp.
subarcuata. Univalves, several sp.
—— P impressa, n. sp. Fish-scales.
Kirkbya plicata, n. sp.
costata, MW‘ Coy. Galena and copper-ore.

Whilst the various mines and mineral deposits I have examined have
certain species in common, it may be said that they have each special pale-
ontological features of their own.

In the Keld-Head Mines organic remains are very abundant at about
450 feet from the surface, amongst which are many Foraminifera, chiefly
of the genus Jnvolutina, of which there are six species, and univalves of
about twelve genera, the freshwater genera Valvata anomala, Moore, and
Planorbis Mendipensis, Moore, being present, and also Entomostraca of
several new species.

The Fallowfield mines, although not yielding a very long list of species,
have their special interest in the presence of the land and freshwater
genera Stoastoma ?, Hydrobia, and Pisidium ; Involutina, as in the Keld-Head
mines, though rarely ; and a single seed of the Memingites gracilis, Carr.
The richest samples from this mine are at 90 and 450 feet from the surface.

The Grassington mines are not only very rich in individual specimens,

but have yielded the greatest number of species, amongst which are again ©

apni enn oes

‘-

ON MINERAL VEINS IN CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. 375

freshwater remains of Hydrobia, Planorbis, Valvata, and Lathoglyphus.
Entomostraca of at least ten species, Conodonts of several varieties, and fish-
remains of the genera Petalodus, Orodus, &e.

The Alston mines have yielded about twelve species of univalves, though
they are not in good condition; Foraminifera are present, but are rare, and
fish-remains of the genera Petalodus.

The Weardale mines, and those of Allenheads, are comparatively not rich,
the vein-stuff in them being much mineralized. Conodonts occur in the former,
Entomostraca rather abundantly in the latter, and also, though rarely, the
genus Hydrobia. In these veins, and also at Alston, I have detected, for
the first time, large cells of a foraminiferous shell, for which Mr. Brady
suggests the generic name Carteria.

In the White and Silver Band mines remains are somewhat rarely dis-
tributed, the richest deposit being a friable ochreous sandstone, on the “sun”
side of the Silver Band Old Mine, which yielded many specimens of Hydrobia,
and one or two of Valvata anomala, several genera of Foraminifera, includ-
ing Involutina and Dentalina, with Conodonts and portions of teeth of Psam-
modus.

The Mount-Pleasant mines of Mold contain Foraminifera, and also the
freshwater Hydrobia, though rarely, and Conodonts rather abundantly ; but
they are especially remarkable for the great variety of fish-remains they
yield, which appear to represent at least ten different genera. Mixed with
the “dowks” of the mine are occasionally small pieces of laminated stone,
the surfaces of which exhibit numerous traces of fish-scales.

The researches I have been making have involved very considerable labour
and minute investigation; but as they will to some extent have opened up a
new field of inquiry, I hope they will not be without some results. Before
concluding, I desire to refer to several of the more interesting paleontological
facts which have been obtained.

Flemingites gracilis, Carr—These are the almost microscopic sporangiv or
seeds of a coniferous tree of the Carboniferous period, which have been
described and figured by my friend Mr. Carruthers in the ‘ Geological Maga-
zine,’ vol. ii. p. 443, my first acquaintance with which was by finding a
single specinren in the Fallowfield Mine, followed soon after by another
from the Silver-Band mines. It is remarkable, when a key is once obtained
to the discovery of certain organic remains, how soon our knowledge of the
elass may be increased. In the instance of these minute seeds, I have since
found them abundantly in the Carboniferous series of Staffordshire, and within
the last few weeks more abundantly still in the Coal-measures of Radstock,
Somersetshire. At this place there is a horizontal bed of some thickness,
intercalated with the coal-seams, which appears to be almost wholly composed
of these little organisms ; and, extraordinary as it may seem, it is not far
from the truth when I say that I could supply specimens of them by the
ton weight !

Conodonts.—In many of the lists of fossils I have given, the presence of
these curious organisms may be seen. Hitherto they have not been found
by any one but myself above Lower Silurian rocks, though no doubt they
may henceforth be detected in the strata of great thickness intervening be-
tween the Ludlow bone-bed and the Carboniferous period from whence my
specimens come. I have not only found them in the lead-veins, but also in
stratified beds of Carboniferous Limestone at Almondsbury near Bristol.

The series of these remarkable microscopic bodies I have discovered yield
much greater variety than any hitherto obtained, and consequently present

376 REPORT—1869.

additional difficulty in determining their affinities. They are generally cither
lustrous or horny in their appearance, or dull, according to the matrix in
which they are found. My collection of them affords certain well-marked
recurrent types, which enable a certain amount of classification to be given
to them ; and though, taking the group as a whole, their forms are about as
eccentric as can be imagined, they still do not appear to pass one into
another. The simplest form is almost identical in shape with that of a
minute conical fish-tooth. Next comes another, not unlike the central cusp
of a hyboid tooth, with lateral bosses at the base. Another group possesses
an arched base, the simplest form in which has an elevated central curved
tooth, with a smaller projecting tooth on either side. A second form has
four elevated slightly curved teeth, with smaller teeth at the sides and in
the interspaces, whilst a still more elaborate one possesses a single elevated
central curved tooth, with about twelve regularly arranged, close-set smaller
ones on either side. A third group have their teeth arranged on an irregular
or waved base, the forms of which are almost too eccentric for description.
In one there are nine curved teeth, arranged somewhat symmetrically, gra-
duating in height to the centre, but with a much larger fang at one end;
a second form has five tapering teeth, followed by four others, much more
depressed and extended beyond the base. One kind presents a miniature
representation of the jaw of Fhizodus, with large teeth widely separated,
and irregularly dispersed small teeth within. A remarkable form possesses
along curved tooth at one end, throwing off a semicircular spur, which passes
under a base-line, on the top of which follow numerous small depressed re-
gular teeth, the next two becoming much elevated, whilst the last is still
more so, extending much beyond the basal end, Another series, which has a
lengthened straighter base-line, is furnished in some instances with ser-
rations as close-set and minute as are the bristles on an insect’s limbs.
In the width, form, and curvature of the teeth, these present various modi-
fications. Although in the above short descriptions I have by no means
exhausted the variety they present, I shall only notice here another kind,
which is the most abundant, and similar to one previously found in the Ludlow
bone-bed. This presents a somewhat club-shaped form, the thicker end
having in the centre a depression, bounded on the margin by a raised edge,
furnished with very minute serrations, which are united at about the centre
of the body, and are continued beyond in a very thin slightly curved handle,
which is also furnished with close comb-like teeth. A familiar illustration
of this Conodont would be that of an old-fashioned rat-trap. Its base pos-
sesses a somewhat triangular hollow, indicating that it might have been
attached at this part to some soft body.

These curious fossils were first found by Pander, in Silurian beds in
Russia; and considering that they belonged to and were the teeth of fish,
he created 13 genera and 56 species, according to the forms they presented.
In almost every instance the specimens I have found differ from those of
the Silurian beds, and present much more diversity. Several of the Russian
varieties were, for the first time, noticed in the Ludlow bone-bed by Dr.
Harley, who, in a paper in the ‘Geological Journal,’ 1861, p. 549, suggests
that they may be minute spines attached to the tail of a crustacean, such as
Ceratiocaris.

They have more recently been noticed by Professor Owen, in a note to
the last edition of ‘ Siluria,’ p. 544, in which he also points out the improba-
bility of their being allied to fish. He then remarks that certain parts of
small crustacea, such as the pygidium or tail of minute Entomostraca, resemble

ON MINERAL VEINS IN CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. 377

in shape the more simple Conodonts; but that against this view was the fact
that no shells of Entomostraca or other crustaceans had ever been found
in the Conodont beds, and that it was improbable therefore that they could
have belonged to an organism as susceptible of preservation as their own
substance. Although I may agree with the opinion of Professor Owen, that
these bodies do not belong to Entomostraca, I do so for other reasons. In
the first place, although his remarks may apply to the Silurian Conodonts,
he is wrong in supposing that they do not occur in the same beds with
Entomostraca; for it happens that most of my specimens from the Carboni-
ferous Limestone are found in beds crowded with Entomostraca, which occur
also in the lead-veins, these two sources having yielded me about 40 species.
The great variety my series of Conodonts presents is decidedly against refer-
ring them to Entomostraca; and what is, I think, sufficiently conclusive is
the fact that they are usually of greater size than the crustaceans, to which
they would thus be attached. The conclusion to which he arrives respect-
ing them is, that they were united to a soft perishable body, and that
they have most analogy with the spines, hooklets, or denticles of naked
Mollusks and Annelides. There is no doubt great difficulty attending their
elucidation, and the above view, though not, I think, quite satisfactory,
appears as probable as any other that has been advanced. One objection to
it is the variety of forms they present, and that we have no existing ana-
logues. To whatever they belonged, the creatures yielding them probably
passed away with Paleozoic times, as I have found no trace of them in my
examinations of any later deposits. It has always been my object, when
seeking them in the Carboniferous Limestone, to find their association with
some other organized body, but in this I have always failed. They invari-
ably occur as separate detached specimens, and without any arrangement as
regards one another.

Entomostraca.—The bivalve crustacea included in this family, although
not individually numerous, are present in nearly every vein I have exa-
‘mined. They have been in the hands of my friend Professor Rupert Jones,
who has provisionally determined about 29 species from the veins, including
those of Charterhouse and Weston, the great majority of which are new.
They include the genera Bairdia, Beyrichia, Cythere, Cytherella, Kirkbia,
and Moorea, the genus Cythere alone having as many as seventeen species.

Foraminifera.—Our knowledge of some of this very beautiful class of
microzoa will be considerably extended by those I have been fortunate
enough to obtain from the lead-vein deposits. This will especially apply to
the genus Jnvolutina, which until lately was chiefly known by a single
species of J. Liassica, Jones, sp., many specimens of which I have found in
the Liassic deposit in Charterhouse Mine. More recently M. Terquem’s
researches in the Lias of the north-west of France have brought to light
several new forms belonging to the same type, four of which, viz. J. poly-
morpha, I. aspera, I. silicea, and I. nodosa, all supposed to belong to the
secondary age, are represented in my gatherings from the Carboniferous-
Limestone veins. My series not only carries back the above secondary species
to deposits of Paleozoic times, but associated with them are nine others, so
that under these peculiar conditions there are not less than fourteen species of
this hitherto little-known genus. Dentalina pauperata, D’Orb, a now living
species, which has been traced back through Tertiary, Liassic, and Permian
formations, not only in this series goes back to the Carboniferous Lime-
stone, but I have also obtained it in the Wenlock shales, an evidence of a

delicate microscopic shell having existed through a long series of ages to our
1869. 2¢

378 REPORT—1869.

own times. The Tinoporus levis, P. & J., another recent species, will pro-
bably be added to the list, though it requires more examination, together
with the recent species Textularia sagittula, Defrance, and the genus Fusw-
lina. The cells of the new genus Carteria have since been found somewhat
abundantly on the decomposed edges of the Carboniferous-limestone rock of
Elfhills. Thus there are twenty-one species of Carboniferous-limestone
Foraminifera unexpectedly making their appearance for the first time in
mineral veins, three of which have lived on to this day.

Land and Freshwater Shells—Not the least important fact in my mine
explorations has been the discovery of a land and freshwater fauna.
Until I obtained the three genera of Helix, Vertigo, and Proserpina, with
the freshwater genera Planorbis and Valvata, in the Charterhouse Mine,
the only known terrestrial shell below the secondary beds was the Pupa
vetusta, Daw., found by Sir Charles Lyell and Dr. Dawson in the Coal-
measures of Nova Scotia. To the above genera I have now to add those of
Hydrobia, Stoastoma?, Lithoglyphus, and Pisidiwm, from the mines of the
north of England, some of which I have little doubt are older than the
Pupa vetusta of the coal-beds. There is thus the fact of the presence of
nine genera of land and freshwater shells in the lead-veins of this country.

Tn addition to the list of organic remains which follows, numbering about
112 species from the north of England and North-Wales mines, eight,
which are not in common, have been obtained from Weston, and to these
again are to be added 89 in the list previously given from Charterhouse,
so that in true and workable mineral veins I have found 209 species. In
the Carboniferous Limestone\of the Frome district precisely similar pheno-
mena occur, though the fissures are not worked. These Rheetic and Liassic
veins have yielded me about 70 species, so that, including the districts I
have enumerated, I have obtained from vein-fissures, with their deposits of
different ages, about 279 species of organic remains.

Under these peculiar circumstances, I have discovered the oldest known
Mammalia, the oldest land and freshwater Mollusca, about 52 species of
fish, and about 8 of Reptilia, besides the other groups to which reference
has been made.

The list of species from Charterhouse Mine previously given and those
from Weston are not included in the following list. The species of Forami-
nifera marked “ Brady” are new to science, and descriptions of them will be
found in Mr. H. B. Brady’s “Notes on the Foraminifera” immediately
following this Report, as well as a provisional notice of the new genus
Carteria.

Mines.
mH
Es 4
: ‘ Say EI
List of Species. ; | 3 , | 2
sia rk Z 3 | 8
, 2 | a fe A lise 3 | os
fo } ey |S _-| oO | & 2 | A
>| See Zils | 4 y Muspate Ps
q i=
g etal Z q ee a
i o ~ =]
E/2 27) Sia) eyes
S/H F |e lai4ie le
Flemingites gracilis, Carr............ Bae Vd el Lae
CCU Se tid. Meier thc theittens Aes - ; ¥
: s % x | # * | *
Plante, impressions on shale ........ oe Sil) Dvealieekt *
Sponge-like bodies...............05. teeny meet dle *

ON MINERAL VEINS IN CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. 379

TABLE (continued).

Mines
[ros ro Z
J 1 ga 5 <s 3
List of Species. 2 JES|eS 2/8 |g log 5 8
2 Siecle s| e/a] e ess
a Soe) 3s |S \a sass
io) Rena | a |< pu
Nodosaria radicula, Zinn.? ....... veel
RUE Fw ve ota es anie se ned oc cele ois ao *
Textularia sagittula, Defrance........
MAOPOFOS, Sp. ? ,.. 2.0. . cee, esis i Ars) vied scree te
Dentalina pauperata, D’Orb. ...... oi lg 35 ile ackell > Seo esta eat oo Ge
Pusuling?, young ........4.5,-6 aah coos Sec ste. pA AMe MEAS
Inyolutina polymorpha, Terguem......|. % ef lier
—— aspera, Terg. at he eae tra See tlie Pees betel, secullh che (OR aaa
“ila, TAIT Ce TORE Een Sy Ak Lobel ae eel te othel heads *
——— nodosa, Lerg. . .. 0 a0. 6. a9 AER | bul phen le
—— Liassica, Jones, sp. ........ axel aiaiy' [holes Pinsrey dlpa'als |p witha pfitoo POs
LRU ELLA PSEC) leroy «sh sigue. ols! ane 'oi> Jeclynws as subens sa teepenl are ase
—— subrotunda, Brady .............- Epa Pecos Webi vell! ae
aE 27007 aan nec ene ESE Ba Gear al echo apete lleboral beer ir 1%:
crassa . W&OY....... MV eigye sh vial ee
vermiformis, Brady ......0..... *%
Ts TS, J eh on a *
—— recta, Brady......... Bib 30) ef sisted *
—— cylindrica, Brady .........00005 *%
—— obliqua, Brady ............00-
Carteria, sp., noy. gen..... Labi. oe Gremciens “A onl spine
PIERS eh, ft on Saini de wade vee ee ao * * | «| «x | x
Encrinites, sp....... sheila BOD AT EMAL ¢ Po ery Moran ti cag stl he leer
GDINOGETIAALA, SP. os ss uecs nas canes * |e | # | ele |e |e | «
- SP. ....eeeee Sim efdte, 6,2 9) ones ele 0 eke * oo oa * * * * *
sempula ...... slots Gl oecenoc ois che Bis if sodoe Haars AREAS it eget | ara ae
Serpulites ENE ayo 3. pup ister © dae Fe Pec e\nare ? * * # * * * *
emmemenperas, Coy. ace os ss alate oy «he Wp) olds (pre slit) ome. I} deren age
Crustacea, fiat 16 are Rero-crs Rr © *%
Bairdia plebeia, Reuss ......... a patel tae |e aS ell ete tga Insti oleae
eee CHIL eS (COI) 515 cs «00's vseue 8.99 on Five Kesey ces *
a elongata, Miinst, . 2.0. ccccceeee phat hassel ears sO Mg
ReEETIIE ETS) eile siwiedn 0a 916 6 slo's 4, ae eese.8 00 0 010 a o oo o- oa wr *
Beyrichia ...... oie Bae Ieee, orc MR}
Wymbere Obata | oc 5 cle sae e see sme oo Po) eee eae Pe
—— pyrula, n.sp,....... oyipoete se F Pip | seen]! oavecall age SR SE
SUUSTERCENIS seth. b iets «a's s.0n0 Feist bila cel suckin dle as ole AMD aes. elas
MAUNA OEP: 2 Hes itis a's lee Bcc, poe & %
——— HQualis, W.8P. ....cacvaacsvaees +
intermedia, Miinst. ....eccceeee| %
fabulina, J. & K. vee eee sees eeel| * oe oa * oe *
ambigua, Jones, n. sp. ......-005 *
—— Moorei, Jones, n. sp. ......... =Vahallis eis ie |) psatp ul sel eas ult eek
— cuneolina, J.§ K.,n.sp. ........ wien |b ede fio sin] > s 2d OUR a i Ie eS
Muensteriana, J.§ K. .......... *%
eee Vv ardiand, J, GAG, 1; Bp... as age alalse | aoe sae foo s | eee MeO
——) DSP... cer eevccseee eevee enee * . os oe . oe *
——, Geinitziana, Jones ............ aya fh heise (mor alleen
Cytherella aspera, Jones, n. sp......... Sen gl: Srey] Padin || 2
Leperdita Okeni, Miinst. ............ «>efrschoe |p os tn] 9 REO eae
s——parallela, J. & Bo... aces aes Be ee Mees | Na sii. = alba
Bryozoa, various sp. ..........+. Se hl vsheoe Ia Hen aes we OG ae cect ease
og TS aa i ae soe pense dp 5 9 OSAMA ag
Chonetes, sp. ......... BOOS Nace Re Aeon Poee | ees cela salto ular

380 REPORT—1869.

TABLE (continued).

Mines
' ye) em ee le 45
List of Species. P les a8 a|s|4 33 E 5
B2aSolf's| 3 | a |e iss es
gsc) 3 \2)\4 Agee
WMiseina Witida, Pht), cole. cane ai dese *% : hal (ha 3
HRC USTIA SPs |e +» fel e- oyslalelsielatelsiot okeicye *
ibvis UIE, Sh daar odo snd 0 cding asp tc % *
Px OUNCES, SPs .juiorcte We oe atcha weretn ete & ; a *
Orthings iSpiv atae cieletsteretetsy CaP Moke local deel * *
Rhynchonella, sp. . 06.5 00-2... Ee aolec we : SR
SPITE A, TSP acikie sala Mei iaartetelaieleke pe: Mls s we lox oe loa | we fee | #
WU WeCi@ Mise, Fi eesstah Aes Mahe a as,6 ce whit. t x
VAAN CSCW AR ER AS AAS > Ob Saat Sees: ae ca 4 Rae *
Terebratula hastata, Phil. ...........4. ne x | x | x | * | *
Brachiopoda, Sp... 066.2 see.svveesees oaldfesis = {itor |] Mforont| Mien ine
Bivalves, fragments ........ SES ea de Le Se = gee) Fn SS OA
PATEASPoisteclets atolehebeMete baer, fol sie Make Gioiels didi delay «|p sate TLS Ps eee aa gs
INIOTERIINS 208 Cdn go oondeyo.0 9,0 Coad Seer a eon, «RN ee
DIBIGINTH ASD; Bois sieiebstsncieraicl ol acretetekoor *%
SEGASEOMS Fy BPs. oateisls aves eco eels ahaha oon doc eaess [+ age ANDRE ESAT aa eee
Hydrobia..... st ahehs, apie Bis say oiuie ety the e | ep oe | we | e |e | eT *
eto pyPHUB He ec she cick siecle oleate oe ak *
Planorbis Mendipensis, Moore........ Pome ied ote a) Sr *
Valvata anomala, Moore ............ ae d+ ae b eae d oe ay * | *
—— pygmea, Moore...........0000, oct i gone ty) APTN el MN ett Ria
Buccinum imbricatum, Sow........... oh *
Cirrus, DionystiyiGoldf. |. 0.6 swiss dee oe anee at ied *%
Dentalium inornatum, M‘Coy ........ Se ales ae 1% ae
Elenchus ambiguus, M‘Coy.......... vd oe | oR
Lacuna antiqua, M‘Coy ........ ; F ws *
Loxonema brevis, M‘Coy ........0.45 ae «| oti Rie
Murchisonia Larcombi, M‘Coy ...... : oo | ey
quadricarinata, M‘Coy.......... e [ee | #
Macrocheilus curvilineus, Phil... ...... ‘ a ee
canaliculatus, M‘Coy .......... : *
PLIGINCHNS gM Coy ose. 5 saci bis,0 0 5 ees 3
INGTIGAVEcralcta aap eet byiaeticn Gat sat x | x
Pleurotomaria sulecata, Phil........ oes |e ces | ope om ee
Interstrialis, PRA. |... sie ss et ale swieallh te oi9 Merete *
—— multicarinata, M‘Coy .........'.|. oe | ®
limbata, M‘Coy.......... ts Meise ee : : . *
uammitella gp atic asies-fAcs pei.y cache owes ome
Turbo, BPD: iwi Jato fe 10 (0'101\e tole (a ello fe'o [eane (alfale fy * * . o *
Bellerophon, sp., young.............. le alk mri ame *
Euomphalus, sp.......... F18- 50 oe 3ac ve #
Goniatites, sp..........0.. aGIG a3 Aallense oe *
Cladodus, teeth........... aioe opaleitele te * as | *
Ctenoptychius, tooth............ F it +
Orodus, teethi veon.n ee oie hie ee * . *
Retalodus, teethic a.ceerr sion tee stil: * of GO Ae oe lege *
Psaammodus, teeth\nethen.). ns. ce * Pe ce ee *
Saurichthys, tooth. . 0)... 1.00.00 coh] Aes so Weel he aie
Squaloraia-like scales .............. 3s *
Jaw of Fish, portions... .3.....c6.00: *%
HRISH-BGHIOS 2). «sate use cite Lame de etek * - . *
ish=yertebre. oav.. isk «sete te Meek *
Tooth, serrated edges ...........0.- «stelle c's inert oe [ee [oe | ae
(Conodomts: efi. de <ctthmene See eee je lege = Alaiers xe ote ae

ON THE FORAMINIFERA OF MINERAL VEINS. 381

Notes on the Foraminifera of Mineral Veins and the adjacent Strata.
By Henry B. Brapy, F.L.S.

Tue following “ notes” on the Foraminifera obtained by Mr. Charles Moore
in his investigations on the paleontology of mineral veins are necessarily
incomplete. When presented there had been neither time nor opportunity
for any close comparison of the specimens with the fossil Rhizopoda of
periods immediately preceding and succeeding the horizon at which the veins
occur. Hitherto the Foraminifera of the Carboniferous epoch have never
been seriously studied, partly from the difficulty of obtaining rocks that can
be disintegrated without injury to the fossil microzoa, and partly from the
obscurity in which the early types are involved, owing to the obliteration of
many of their structural peculiarities.

Under these circumstances it is not surprising that a large proportion of
the specimens in the collection represent forms not previously described.
Excepting those belonging to the genus Jnvolutina, the Foraminifera are
remarkable for their want of well-defined characters—zoological and physical
causes having alike contributed to obscure the peculiarities they may have
had when living.

The Nodosarine are represented by examples of two forms, namely, a
single specimen identical in contour with Nodosaria radicula, Linné, sp.,
having well-defined subglobular chambers, and two or three shells having the
general characters of Dentalina pauperata, D’Orbigny,—a cylindrical, slightly
arcuate, and tapering test, with little or no constriction at the septa. The
roughened and possibly partially sandy investment which all these specimens
present, throws some difficulty in the way of placing them amongst the No-
dosarine ; but inasmuch as the doubtfully arenaceous appearance may be due
to the subcrystalline structure of the matrix on the one surface or the mine-
ral infiltration of the chambers on the other, whilst in all morphological re-
lations their characters are completely Nodosarian, separation from the group
seems scarcely justifiable.

The Yextularie in the collection are very irregular in their growth, and
by no means constantly biserial. They resemble some of the varieties of
T. sagittula, Defrance, more than any other described species ; but it may be
necessary, or at least convenient, to assign a distinctive name to this primi-
tive and variable form.

One or two obscure shells, regarded originally as Tinoporus levis, P. & J.,
are more probably a new species of Jnvolutina, having an analogous acervu-
line mode of growth.

Some other minute and very obscure organisms in Mr. Moore’s collection
appear to be young examples of Fusulina, a genus of Carboniferous Forami-
nifera well known in its mature condition.

A number of bodies of larger size, shaped like spheres drawn out at two
opposite portions of their periphery, and distinctly arenaceous in their struc-
ture, have been regarded as joints of a gigantic Litwola, pending material for
more complete examination. The produced ends appear to have been slender
stoloniferous tubes; and a number of the chambers may have been joined
together, forming a moniliform test of some length*.

But the most interesting portion of the collection consists of the series of
specimens of the genus Jnvolutina, which place the relations of that type in

* Since the examination of the specimens from mineral veins, the author has learnt
that the same fossil has been discovered in the Carboniferous Limestone of Northum-
_berland by Sir W. C. Trevelyan. The anticipations above expressed are found in the

main to be correct, but it has been thought necessary to separate the organism from Lituola
proper, and the new generic term Carteria has been employed for it.

382 REPORT—1869.

an entirely new light. The varieties of this genus described by M. Terquem
from specimens found in the Lias formation of the north-east of France,
comprised only a few outspread, discoidal, rotalian forms of finely arenaceous
texture and variable septation—a series, in point of fact, structurally allied
to Trochammina, but with some morphological resemblance to Rotalia.

The modifications, both in structure and mode of growth, exhibited in the
forms about to be described, place the type on a much extended basis; and
it will be seen how large a number of the simpler Foraminifera have their
analogues in the varieties of this polymorphic genus.

So far from being, as hitherto supposed, an essentially Liassic type, the
genus Jnvolutina has its fullest and most characteristic development in the
Carboniferous period.

Of already described species the following have been found in mineral
veins and the adjacent stratified rocks ;—

Involutina Inassica, Jones, sp. Involutina nodosa, Terquem.
* polymorpha, Terquem. 44 aspera, Terquem (?).
53 silicea, Terquem.

In addition to these there are a large number of forms not before noticed,
of which brief descriptions are now presented. The definition of their cha-
racters must be regarded as provisional to some extent, and founded on Mr.
Moore’s specimens. The elucidation of the type is as yet by no means com-
plete; but, through the kindness of Mr. Young of Glasgow, Mr. Leipner, and
Mr. W. W. Stoddart of Bristol, materials for more extended observations have
been placed at the author’s disposal, which will form the basis of a future
memoir.

Genus Ixvorvuria, Terquem.

I. cylindrica, n. sp. Test elongate, cylindrical, arcuate, tapering; septation
imperfect.

I. incerta, n. sp. Test biconcave, helicoid, the terminal portion leaving the
spire at an angle; septation very obscure.

I. recta, n. sp. Test crozier-shaped; earlier chambers arranged spirally,
later ones in a single straight series; chambers somewhat ventricose ;
septa constricted and well defined.

I. lobata, nu. sp. Test lenticular, rotalian, lower surface sometimes concave ;
periphery rounded ; chambers ventricose ; septa constricted. |

I, radiata, n. sp. Test nautiloid, lenticular; periphery sharp, subcarinate;
chambers long, narrow, often curved; septal lines not constricted, but
in many cases marked by a radiate sutural limbation.

I. crassa, nu. sp. Test rotalian, turgid, subglobose; chambers numerous,
ventricose ; terminal chamber especially large and inflated.

I, obliqua, u. sp. Test inequilateral, compressed, formed of long curved
chambers, coiled irregularly on an oblique axis; septation indefinite ;
terminal chamber investing one-half of the shell.

I. subrotunda, n. sp. Test subspherical, formed by the acervuline growth —
of minute chamberlets on a central disk.

In addition to these, two other more obscure varieties have been met with, :
requiring further investigation. One of these, provisionally named J. vermi-
formis, resembles J. cylindroides, but has a test of uneyen diameter and —
irregular twisted contour, suggesting an uncoiled spiral with rudimentary
septa. The other, J. macella, has a large complanate nautiloid test, the
chambers marked by depressions, the septation very indistinct.

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 383

Report of the Rainfall Committee for the year 1868-69, consisting of
C. Brooks, F.R.S. (Chairman), J. Guaisuer, F.R.S., Prof. Pai.uies,
F.R.S., J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S., R. W. Mytnz, C.E., F.R.S.,
T. Hawxstry, C.E., Prof. Apams, F.R.S., C. Tomuinson, F.R.S.,
Prof. Sytvester, F.R.S., and G. J. Symons, Secretary.

Tue attention of the Rainfall Committee has during the past year been
largely devoted to various arrangements and details calculated to secure in-
creased uniformity and accuracy amongst their observers; a very consider-
able number of stations have been visited during the past year by our Secre-
tary, and the observers have been further instructed on any points in which
their practice was incorrect ; besides which the following code of rules has
been drawn up for their guidance.

I. Srre.—aA rain-gauge should not be set on a slope or terrace, but on a
level piece of ground, at a distance from shrubs, trees, walls, and buildings
—at the very least, as many feet from their base as they are in height. Tall-
growing flowers, vegetables, and bushes must be kept away from the gauge.
If a thoroughly clear site cannot be obtained, shelter is most, endurable from
N.W.., N., and E., less so from S., S.E., and W., and not at all from 8.W. or N.E.

Il. Oxp Gavexs.—Old established gauges should not be moved nor their
registration discontinued until at least two years after a new one has been
in operation, otherwise the continuity of the register will be irreparably de-
stroyed. Both the old and the new ones must be registered at the same time.

Il. Lever.—tThe funnel of a rain-gauge must be set quite level, and so
firmly fixed that it will remain so in spite of any gale of wind or ordinary
circumstance.

IY, Heteur.—The funnel of gauges newly placed should be 1 foot above
grass.

Y. Rusr.—If the funnel of a japanned gauge becomes so oxidized as to
retain the rain in its pores, or threatens to become rusty, it should have a
coat of gas-tar or japan black.

VI. Froar Gavers.—lIf the measuring-rod is detached from the float, it
should never be left in the gauge. If it is attached to the float, it should
be pegged or tied down; and only allowed to rise to its proper position at the
time of reading. To allow for the weight of the float and rod, these gauges
are generally so constructed as to show 0 only when a small amount of
water is left in them. Care must always be taken to set the rod to the zero
or 0.

Vil. Can- ann Borriz-Gavcrs.—The measuring-glass should always be
held upright ; the reading is to be taken midway between the two apparent
surfaces of the water.

VIII. Tro: or Reaprve.—Nine a.m. daily; if only taken monthly, then
9 a.m. on Ist.

IX. Dare or Entry.—The amount measured at 9 a.m. on any day 1s to
be set against the previous one, because the amount registered at 9 a.m. of,
say, 17th contains the fall during 15 hours of the 16th, and only 9 hours of
the 17th. (This rule, approved of by the Meteorological Societies of England
and Scotland, cannot be altered, and is particularly commended to the notice of
observers.)

X. Move or Eytry.—If less than one-tenth (-10) has fallen, the cipher
must always be prefixed ; thus, if the measure is full up to the seventh line,
it must be entered as ‘07, that is, no inches, no tenths and seven hundredths.

384 REPORT--1869,

For the sake of clearness, it has been found necessary to lay down an inva-
riable rule that there shall always be two figures to the right of the decimal
point. If there be only one figure, as in the case of one-tenth of an inch
(usually written *1), a cipher must be added, making it -10. Neglect of this
rule causes much inconvenience. All columns should be cast up twice.
When there is no rain, a line should be drawn rather than ciphers inserted.

XI. Cavrtoy.—The amount should always be written down before the
water is thrown away.

XII. Suari Quantitres.—The unit of measurement being ‘01, observers
whose gauges are sufficiently delicate to show less than that, are, if the
amount is under ‘005, to throw it away; if it is ‘005 to -010 inclusive, they
are to enter it as ‘01.

XIII. Every observer should train some one as an assistant ; but where
this is not possible, instructions should be given that the gauge should be
emptied at 9 a.m. on the Ist of the month, and the water bottled, labelled,
and tightly corked, to await the observer's return.

XIV. Heavy Raiys.—When very heavy rains occur, it is desirable to
measure immediately on their termination ; and it will be found a safe plan,
after measuring to return the water to the gauge, so that the morning regis-
tration will not be interfered with. Of course if there is the slightest doubt
as to the gauge holding all that falls, it must be emptied, the amount being,
in accordance with Rule XI., previously written down. ee

XY. Syow.—In snow three methods may be adopted; it is well to try
them all. (1) Melt what is caught in the funnel, and
measure that as rain. (2) Select a place where the snow
has not drifted, invert the funnel, and turning it round,
lift and melt what is enclosed. (3) Measure with a rule
the average depth of snow, and take one-twelfth as the
equivalent of water. Some observers use in snowy wea-
ther a cylinder of the same diameter as the rain-gauge,
and of considerable depth. If the wind is at all rough,
all the snow is blown out of a flat-funnelled rain-gauge.

The desirability of more accurate information of the
maximum fall of rain in the minimum time has recently
been strongly felt. It will be supplied by the use of the
instrument shown in figure 1. Its principle is very sim-
ple, consisting merely in the employment of a collecting
area about twenty times that of the measuring-tube ; an
inch of rain is therefore expanded to a length of nearly
2 feet, and the rising rain-water in the tube carries on its
surface a small white glass ball which renders the reading
of the gauge visible from a considerable distance; an
overflow pipe is also provided, by which the measurement
is continued up to 2 inches.

In the year 1863 Mr. Symons read a short paper before
the Mathematical Section of this Association, at the New-
castle-upon-Tyne Meeting, wherein he briefly notified the 5
inauguration of the now well-known Calne rain-gauge experiments. The
observations having been stopped in the year 1868, in consequence of the re-
moval of Colonel Ward from Calne, considerable attention has been given to
the discussion of the very voluminous record sheets. Those connected with
the variation in the amount of rain collected at various heights above the
ground are in the hands of the Rev. J. M. Du Port, M.A., for examination.

Fig. 1.

an abstract of the same.

a
4

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES.

385

Our last Report contained particulars of the remarkable accuracy of the whole
of the instruments; in the present we give the amounts collected by all the
gauges in the magnitude series during the five years, an analysis thereof, and
the results obtained at Calne, and an interim note on those indicated at
Strathfield Turgis Rectory, Reading, to which, as explained in our last Report,
the gauges were removed in the spring of 1868.

Table I. contains the monthly amounts for the whole period, Table II. is
an abstract of the same; Table III. gives the ratio of the fall collected by
each gauge to that collected by the gauge 12 inches in diameter, Table IV. is

Taste I.—Castle House, Calne, Wilts; lat. 51° 27’ N., long. 1° 59’ W.
Magnitude Series 1 foot above ground.
Depth of Rain collected.
r mE : ; ; ‘ slog esy | Sams | 10 in. |).0 20:
Lin. | 2 in. tik 5in. | 5in. | 6 in. | 8 in. 12 in. | 24 in. square | square Sacw
Dp MP lapright| ORs | ie) Ope | ae) ap | oe | up. | up. [teen
right. | right. | right. (flange. | right. | right. | right. | right. right. | right. upright.
. as at tes pes Se =
1863. in. | in. in. ie eae in. oe planes delete ms) || arta lia’
August ...... 2°572| 2°706| 2°852 | 2°762| 2°890) 27866) ... | 2°921] 2°913]| 27638] 2°903
September ...) 2°693) 2°811) 2°864 | 2°913| 27926) 2°940) ... | 2°951] 2°913) 2°711) 2°853
| October ...... 3°255| 3°411| 3°458 | 3°473| 3°478| 37529] --- | 37540] 3509] 3°217| 3°483
November ...} 2°072| 1°956| 2°155 | 2°198] 2°167| 2°250| ... | 2°192| 2°171| 2°118| 2°174
December ...) °975| 1-017| 1°064 | 1°139| 317139] 17189] 1°167| 17158] 17148] 1016] 1°139
I1gol| 12°393 | 12°485| 12°600] 12°774| 1°167 |12°762 |12°654 |11°700 |12°552
1580] 1620] 1°614) 1°658| 17674] 1°682| 1°635] 1°61g9] 17542] 1624
rro12| 17093 | 1°093| 1110) 1°141) 1°143]| 1°089] 17083) 1°029] 17096
2°453) 2°545 | 2°533) 2°554] 2°449| 2°566| 2°474| 2°487) 2°398| 2°483
1°772| 1°792 | 1°819| 1°813, 1°832) 1°856| 1°831| 1°793|] 1°761]| 1°819
1'032| I'099 | 1104) 1410] 17108) 1'11g9| 1°088| 1'072| 1°043] 1-084
1485} 1°628 | 1°620! 1°608| 1°678| 1°673| 17582] 1°561| I°500| 1°517
"565| 655 | 647; -638| 679} *695| *661| “648) ~637| -643
*552| 634 653| °637| ‘*692| -671| “618| <619| ‘604| °583
2°465| 2°586 | 2°609| 2:651| 2°700| 2°713| 2°583]| 2°543| 2°458] 2°544
2°062| 2°117 | 2°082| 2°133| 2°116| 2°176| 27116] 27098] 2°104| 2122
1°688| 1°784 | 1°767| 1806) 1°855|) 1°880| 1°834] 1829] 1°785| 1-810
2421) 2°461 | 2°413) 2°547| 2°499| 2°580| 2°543| 2°534| 2°571| 27576
19'087| 20°04 | 19°954| 20°265] 20°423/20°754 |20°054 |19°886 |19°432 |19'go1
3°257| 3°435 | 37614] 3°591| 3°481| 3°558| 3°416| 3°400] 3°462| 3°397
2'768| 2°729 | 2°738| 2°907| 2°833| 2°901| 2°839| 2°860/ 2°863] 27825
816) “891 *857| °893| 903] °936) °870| ‘862) 873) °857
688) °719 | °735} °738| °740| °738| °714| °706/ *700} *705|] °647
2°164) 2°285 | 2°284| 2°317| 2°315] 2°320| 2°226| 2°200] 2°223] 2°205] 2°198
17530) 17568 | 1°532| 17543] 17568) 1°565| 17543) 1°526) 17564) 1°559) 1°553
2°751| 2°857 | 2°871| 2°909| 2°965) 2°946| 27823] 2°842| 2°817| 2°796| 2°924
3°997| 4°124 | 4173] 4185] 4:229) 4239] 4'112| 4'115| 4°080| 4:069) 4°257
*106| *122 130] *125| 141] °153] "I20] ‘115| ‘118| ‘113| ‘158
57360) 5456 | 5258) 5427) 5°375| 5°479| 5°443| 5°44] 5°452| 5°443| 57585
3:087| 3165 | 3°209| 3°174) 3°316) 3°134| 3°213| 3°195| 3°153| 3°186| 3°348
2°353/ 2°352 | 2°365| 2°358| 27520) 2°443) 2°435| 2°455| 2°405| 2°456) 2°558
29°793 | 29°766| 30°167) 30°386)30°412 |29°754 |29°690 |29°710

386 REPORT— 1869.

Tas e I. (continued).

Magnitude Series 1 foot above ground.
Depth of Rain collected.

lin. | 2in.] 4,, | Sin. | 5in. | Gin. | Sin. |12 in. | 24 in, sate ces abd

7a eeeg wat a he We Pde Fee are econ py | eae

1866. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
January ...... 3°237| 3°665| 3°760 | 3°623] 3°786| 3°856| 3-910) 3°656 3°753| 3°648| 3°678) 3°8
February ...| 3-683 3°925) 4119 | 3°977| 4°051| 4°186) 4°193| 4°068] 4:145| g:oor | 4°047| 4:2
Marchiss..s¢2- 1-792) 1859) 1°970 | 17963) 2°044) 1°998| 2-046] 2°047|. 2°014| 1°970 1°987 | 2°1
PANE! Seoscacies: I°910| 2°c29| 27156 | 2°206| 2:224| 2°218| 2°230] 2°145| 2°126| 2°117 2114] 2°2
May ..:, i: ee) F035) 17047) 1139 | 1160] 1166) x-218] 3°175] 1119] 1115] 1°097 1085] 1°r
RUNG Ge srecs = ce 2°805) 2°845) 2°976 | 2°985| 3-014) 3°046| 3°077| 2 927] 2°904| 2°916| 2°845] 3°0
daly” Sees.st: 1°247| 1°343| 17452 | 1°466| 1-478] I°502| 1°515 1.394] 1°408| 17397] 1°354]| 3-4
August ...... 2°052| 2°188) 2°395 | 2-419] 2-423) 2°481| 2°513| 2°332 2°342| 2°292| 2°241| 274
September ...! 6-354) 6'448) 6638 | 6-647 6685) 6°781| 6°799| 6°641| 6°633] 6:525| 6°538| 68
October ...... 2°007) 2°028/ 2°101 | 2°108| 2°126| 2°117| 2°146] 2°098] 2°118] 2°083| 2°082| 2-1
November ...| 2°251] 2:204| 2:216 2°095| 2°307| 2°407| 2°415 | 2°334] 2°335| 2°285| 2:297| 274
December ...| 2-867] 2°737| 27782 2°859| 2°890} 3°049| 3°027| 2°941| 2°974| 2°837] 2°958| 3°
ia 31°24) 32°318) 33°754 | 33°508) 34194! 34°859135°046 |33°70 2|33°867 |33°168 |33°226

January ...... 3°146) 3°370) 3°404 | 3°268] 3-591 3°448) 3°545| 3°441| 3°784| 3°417| 3°519| 94
February ...! 2°075| 2°066| 2070 1°796| 2°176) 2°003| 2°097| 2°104| 27140] r°99r| 2°073] 2
March......... 2°361) 2°965| 3°042 | 3135] 3140] 3°050| 3-068 3°192] 3°317| 2°620] 3°328] 2
Aprile 5, 2..2 3°093) 3°135) 3°21 | 3°126| 3°284) 3:206] 3-272] 3°187| 3°210| 3°124| 37118] 3
May; #.2.%..:: 1788) 1°740| 1°820 | 1-819] 1-828] 1°867| 1-850 1°765| 1808] 1°750] 1°695| 319
dune C288 2°021| 2°186) 2:217 | 2°158| 2°237| 2°231 2°237| 2°148] 2°176] 2°075| I*g90| 2
duly ......... 3°442| 3°691) 3°733 | 3°733| 3°806| 3°756| 3°803| 3°645| 3°651| 3°530| 3-51] 3
August ...... 2°925) 37000) 3°019 | 3°071/ 3°077| 3°034| 3°031| 2°953| 2°941| 2873] 2°814| 3%
September ...) 1-720) 1°727] 1°773 1771! 1801] 1°792| 1°818| 1760] 1°758| 1°667| 1°630] 3
October ...... 2°785| 2°807| 2°795 | 2°824| 2°831| 2°831 2°875 | 2°828| 2°830] 2°771| 2°710/ 2°
November ...| 1°228) 1200] 17225 1-308) 1°300] 17313) 1:298| 1°282] 1°258] 1°269| 1:253 |r"
December ...! 1°610) 1-711} 1°663 | 1°630| x 740| 1°683) 1°720| 1°717| 1°721| 1°694| 1°652| 1°

28°194) 29°598| 29°972 | 29°639| 30°811| go°214 30°614'| 30°022|30°594 |28°781 |29°293 |29°9

Tasrz II.—Strathfield Turgis Rectory, Winchfield, Hants ; lat. 51° 20'N., long. 1° 3’ W

Magnitude Series 1 foot above ground,

Lin. | Qin. | 4in. | 5in. | Sin, | 6 in. | Sin. |12in.|94in,| 5 im | 10in.
Bleek aone Qe {eee | ka) 2? | lr
right. | right. | right. | right. |flange.| right. | right. | right. right. right. | right, |4
1868. in. in. in. in, in. in. in. in. in. in. in.”
March,partof] 450] -489| 515] “482 *§00| 482] *508| 502] +535] -470 “472
April 22 .8..01 2°420| 2°406| 2°445| 2°411| 2°446| 2-419 2°459 | 2°411| 2°495| 2°394] 2°358
May) 022.5. 2! 834! °878| -917| °923] °937| ‘941 911] “919| ‘960! “899| +888
June ...... ss] "510] “494| “510! *507| 520] 508] -495| sor] 512] “505 "499
diily CFs... 2'063| 2°028) 1°939| 1-818] 1-934] 1°886 1°943| 1°916| 1°896| 1-944 1°903
August ...... 3°086| 3°087] 3181 | 3°120] 37144] 3°182 3°167| 3°164| 3-211] 3°151 3°076
September ...! 3°494| 3°537| 3°550| 3°506| 3°558| 3°570| 3°539| 3°553| 3°687| 3-46a| 3°52
October ...... 2°152) 2°142| 2°215| 2°186) 2°217]| 2:229| 2:219 2°225 | 2°250| 2181] 2°185

November ...) 1-714} 1°738] 1°782] 1°737| 1°780 1°747 | 1°807| 1°752| 1°834| 17758 1°790
December ...) 4659) 4°790| 4°983| 4°943| 5:028| 4°996| 4:967| 4°986 5°083| 4°897| 4904

Total .<..: 21°382 |21°589 |22°037 |21°633 |22'064 |21'960 22°O15 |21°929 |22°463 |21°663 |21°617 |22°304

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES.

387

Tasrz III. Abstract.—Castle House, Calne, Wilts; lat. 51° 27’ N., long, 1° 59’ W.
Magnitude Series 1 foot above ground
Depth of rain collected.
: a. Rant tuna | Sac
lin. 2in. | 4in. | 5in. | with | Gin. | Sin. | 12in. | 24 in. poe ae ae
flange. square. |square. on
pattern,
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
Part of 1863..) 11°567| 11°901| 12°393/ 12°485| 12600 12°774| 12°762| 12°654| 11°700] 12°552
1864..| 18483 19'087| 20'014| 19°954 20°265 | 20°423 20°754) 20'054| 19°886| 19°432| 19 gor
r 1865..| 28:007| 28°877| 29°703| 29°766| 30°167| 30°386| 30°412 29°754| 29°690| 29°710| 29°611
iy 1866..| 31-240] 32°318| 33°754| 33°508| 34°194| 34°859| 357046) 33°702| 33°867| 337168] 33°226 34°939
1867..| 28*194| 29°598 | 29°972| 29°639| 30°811| 30°214 30°614| 307022! 30°594| 28°781| 29°293| 29°969
Total 1863-67 |117°491 \12.1°781 |12.5°836| 125352 |128°037 |128°656 126°294 |126°691 |122°791 |124°583
Total 1864-67 | 105*924|109*880 |113°443 |112°867 |115°437 |115°882 116°826 113°532 |114°037 |111'091 |112'031
Total 1866-67 | 59°434) 61°916| 63°726| 63°147| 65°005| 65°073| 65°660 63°724| 64°461| 61°949| 62°519| 647908
ty Abstract.—Strathfield Turgis, Winchfield, Hants.
\
Part of 1868 ...| 217382] 21°589| 22°037| 21°633 | 22°064 21'960| 22°015| 21°929| 227463 | 21°663 2r6n|
SS a

Taste IV.—Castle House, Calne, Wilts ; lat. 51° 27’ N., long. 1° 59’ W.

Magnitude Series 1 foot above ground.

; Ratio of the amounts collected.
A
" 5 in
. - . [-b)
Lin, |2in.| 4in. | 5in. | with | 6 in. | 8in. [12 in, [24 in, | 5 i. | 10in. 2
flange square.|square. a
. Se 2 het a ae eee NOI a |
1863. ge
August ...... 88—| 93 98 95 99 98 SS | 100+] 90 99 12
September...) 91—| 95 | 97 | 99 | 99 | 1004 Si [9S fh 92—-|-<97 9
BE 92 | 96 98 98 98 100+ Ss 99 gI—| 98 9
aa 95 as 98 100 99 103+ Sp.2 99 97 99 14
ecember 4—- 92 98 9 103+) Io1 aa 99 8 I
1864. SB ; :
Basins 98 97 99 99 IoI 102 103+ 4 g 99 94—| 99 9
91—| 93 100 100 Iol 105+] 105+ g% 99 95 IOI Tq)
arch......... 96—| 99 | 103 | 102 | 103 99 | 104+] Sq | 100 97 | 100 8
-S0WedeR 95—| 97 98 99 99 | 100 | 1or+/ 2 | 98 96 99 6
ecrsb33 93—| 95 | ror’ | ror | 102 | 102 | 103+] ZS | 98 96 99 10
Beene. ss 84—| 94 | 103 | 102 | 102 | 106+] 106+ zs 99 95 96 22
ee 72—| 85 | 99) 98 | 97° | 103° | tog) FSP g8 V'g7 | 97 33
seers] 77—| 89 | 103 106 | 103 112+| 109 a3 100 97 94 35
ptember ...) 93—| 95 | 100 | ror | 103 | 105+] rog+] & 2 98 96 98 12
Briss 98 | 97—| 100 98 IOI Ioo | 103+ 5 o 99 99 | Ioo 6
ovember 93 | 9215 OF 96 99% | LORY | 103 oe 100 97 99 II
Jecember ...| 91—| 95 97 95 | 100 99 | 101+| G&S | roo: | ror+} 101+ 10

388

1 in. | 2 in.
1865.
January ......| 91—| 95
February ...| 96—| 98
March......... 85—| 94
1: oll eaaracpee 88—| 96
MY, wecceea se 93—| 97
UMN Mewes et gi—| 99
raliyiaescose= <1), 93.—|\.9,7.
August ...... 96—| 97
September 46—| 88
October ...... 98 | 98
November ...| 96—| 96—
December ...| 94—| 97
1866.
January ...... 89—|100
February ...| 91—| 97
March....... --| 88—| gt
IAipYal eenraeewe'e 89—| 95
WWE fs acon a gz—| 94
UME? .ccenese 96—| 97
PEUIMV recs os ens go—| 96
August ...... 88—| 94
September ...| 96—| 97
October ...... 96—| 97
November ...| 96 | 95
December 97. | 93—
1867
January ...... 92—| 98
February ...| 99 | 98
March......... 74—| 93
Jysyail le pssapanee 97—| 98
LUE eee gnsacmons 10r | 99
June ......... 94 |102
@itly, 2.4. ced 94—t0l
August ...... 99 |102
September cox) ge, 1-98
October ...... 99 | 99
November ...| 96 | 94—
December ...| 94— 100
Mean ©..205 | 914} 95°6

REPORT—1869.

Taste IV. (continued).

Magnitude Series 1 foot above ground,
Ratio of the amounts collected.

5 in.
5in. | with | Gin. | 8 in
flange.
106+) 105 102 104
g6—| 102+] 100 | Ioz+
99 103 104 108+
103 103 104+] 103
103 | 104+] 104+] 104-+
99 100 1oI+]| Ilor+
102 103 105+] 104
IoI 102 | 103 103
108 104 | 118 127
97—| 100 99 IOI
100 99 | 103 98
97 97 103 100
9951 2OF5 8] 295 107+
98 100 103 103
96 | 1co 98 | 100
103 104+] 103 104+
104 104 109+] 105
102 103 104 Io5+
105 106 108 Iog+
104. 104 106 108+
100 101 102+) Io2z+
IOI IOI IOI 102
Jaa) ee) 103 104.
97 | 98 | 104+] 103
95 | 104 | 100 103
85—| 103+] 95 100
98 | 98 | 95 | 96
98 103+| Ior 103+
103 104. | 106+] 105
IOI 104+} 104-+| 104+
102 104+/| 103 104+
104+] 104+] 103 103
IOI 102 102 103+
100 100 100 Ioz+
102+} IoI 102+] Ior
95 Io1+| 98 100
99°6| 101"5| 102°6| 103°6

100.

parison

Note.—The amount measured in this gauge has been taken as the standard of com-

1co’o

24 in, | ©
square
100 Iol
IOI Iol
99 100
99 | 98
99 100
99 ToI+
IOI 100
100 99
96 | 98
99 100
99 98
IOI 99
103 100
102 98
98 96
99 99
100 98
99 100
101 100
101 98
100 98
IOI 99
100 98
101 96
110+] 99
102 95
104. 82
IoI 98
102 99
IOI 97
1co 97
99 97
100 95
100 98
98 99
100 99
100°0| 97°I

10 in.
. Square.

101+
99
99
94

100

99
101

5 in.
Snow- | ¢
don pat-| ¢
tern |
upright.|=

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 389

ante Y.—Strathfield Turgis Rectory, Winchfield, Hants ; lat. 51° 20' N., long. 1° 3’ W.

Magnitude Series 1 foot above ground.
Ratio of the amounts collected.

: . ee
1in.| 2in. | 4 in. | 5in. | with | 6in. | 8 in. | 12in.|24in, | 5m |10im.| Qin | &
square. |square. 3

go—]| 98 | 103 96 | 100 96 |101 § 106+) 94 94 |102 |16
Ioo {100 |101 |100 |1Ior |100 | 102 2 103+! 99 98 —| 103 +] 5
gt—| 96 |100 |100 |102 | 102 99 2 | 104+] 98 97. |102 |13
..|102 99 —|102 |10r | 104 +} 101 99 — 5 102 |10r |100 | 102 5
108+] 106 | 101 99 —| 101 99 —| 101 a 99—| 101 99 —| 103 +] 9

-| 98 97 —| 100 99 99 100 100 S 101+) 100 97 —| 101 4
| g8—| 100 | 100 99 100 IOI 100 z 104+] 98— | 100 IOI 6
97 96 —| 100 98 |100 |100 |100 as} 1o1+| 98 98 |101+] 5

-| 98—| 99 | 102 99 |102 |100 | 103 E 105+|100 |102 |103 7
-| 93—| 96 I0o 99 Iol 100 10> R 102+] 98 98 Iol 9
eee a 97°5| 98°5 | 100°5 | 98°7 | 100°6 | 100°3 | 1004 | ... | 10275 | 988 | 98°6 1o1'7 | 8

Taste VI. Abstract.—Castle House, Calne; lat. 51° 27’ N., long. 1° 59’ W.

Magnitude Series 1 foot above ground.

5 in.
5 in. : : Snow-
lin, | 2in, | 4in, | Sin, | with | Gin, | sin, | 12in. | 24in, | Sin. | 10in. | OoOr
flange. kbc oy pattern
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in, | in. in. in. in,
Part of 1863..| 90°6 | 93°3 972 | 97°99 | 988 |100°0 ae 991 | 917 | 98°5

1864... 922 95°2 99°7 99°5 |TOO°r |ror°8 = | 103°4 99°2 96°9 99°4
998 | 999 | 99°5
Too'4 | 983 | 985 |103°7
Iorg | 958 | 976 | 99°8

1865..| 94°3 97‘ |100°0 ~|Ioo'r /I0I"4 |102°2 |102°2

1866..| 92°7_ | 958 |100'r | 99°6 |1014 |103°4 1040

Standard of com-
parison

1867.-| 93°8 | 986 | 988 | 987 |102°6 |100°6 |r102"0

Average
1863-67 | 931 | 965 | 997 | 993 |10I'4 [1019 ne +. |100%4 | 97°3 | 98°7
1864-67 | 93°3 968 |100°0 | 994 |10I7 |102"1 = |102°9 +» |T00°5 | 97°99 | 98°7
1866-67 | 93°4 | 9773 |100°0 |99'2 |1021 [1022 |103°1 +. |¥or2 | 97°3 | 983 |ror'g
Abstract.—Strathfield Turgis, Winchfield, Hants.
Part of 1868. | 97°5 | 98°5 |T00'5 | 98°7 [1206 100°3.|100°4 | 1025 | 98°'8 | 98°6 |

From these Tables it appears :—

(1) That the variation in this ratio for the same gauge in different months
is often greater than that between different gauges in the same month.

(2) That (excluding the gauge 1 inch in diameter, which everywhere col-
lects less pro rata than any other) the gauges while at Calne only differed

390 REPORT—1869.

5:8 per cent., the largest quantity being recorded by those gauges which were
most easily managed, viz. those 5, 6, and 8 inches in diameter.

(3) That at Strathfield Turgis the agreement has been still closer, all but
the 1 inch and the 24 inch agreeing within 1-5 per cent.

This last result might partly have been anticipated from two causes,—
(a) Colonel Ward’s health appears to have compelled him frequently to em-
ploy a substitute, and (6) Mr. Griffith commenced with the preliminary dif-
ficulties removed, and information as to possible sources of inaccuracy which
previous experimentalists had had to discover by continuous observation.

Considering the absence of any trustworthy published observations upon
the subject until those under notice were commenced, the lengthy articles
published upon it in some of the scientific journals, and the almost universal
ignorance upon it which recently prevailed, it is by no means an unimportant
matter to have brought to a definite issue.. Moreover, considering the various
sizes of the gauges used simultaneously in different parts of the country, it
is especially satisfactory to find that, instead of having, as was anticipated, a
correction to apply to the observed values, when measured by a gauge of any
but a standard size, to convert them into the equivalent indications of that
standard size, no such correction is necessary; for all the most usual sizes,
5, 6, 8, and 12 inches diameter, agree within 13 per cent.

It seems probable that the small quantity registered by the l-inch gauge
is solely due to the great difficulty of emptying the last drop—by no means
an unimportant matter with so diminutive a gauge, for a single grain weight
of water corresponds to 0-008 inch, or nearly one ton of water per acre.
The excess collected by the gauge 24 inches in diameter is probably ex-
plained by the influence of the large mass of metal of which it is composed ;
for after nights of heavy dew it generally contains more than any other, and
this would naturally result from its greater radiating-power.

Some slight alterations were made at Strathfield Tur- Fig. 2.
gis, on January 1, 1869; and with their conclusion on
January 1, 1870, the investigation there of the question
of the influence of magnitude will probably be termi-
nated.

The results of the examination of rain-gauges during
the year are given in exactly the same form as in the
last Report, and we are not aware that they call for any
comment beyond referring, for explanation, to our Report
for 1867, p. 466, and the plate there given. Gauge
No. 278 being unlike any of those previously engraved,
we add the annexed sketch, fig. 2. A isa funnel 4 inches
in diameter, B a divided glass tube into which the rain
passes. F a stout post, the upper part of which is hol-
lowed out at C, half the outer portion, D, being hinged
to afford access to the glass; E is a pad to keep B close
up to A.

It will be noticed that the errors of some of the
larger float gauges are not given in detail, the testing
apparatus not being adapted to them.

It has been the practice of the Committee in their
_ various Reports to adopt, for convenience of comparison,
a decennial grouping of returns, such as 1840-49, ——
1850-59, &. We are now on the eve of completing = a
one of these decennial periods, and it behoves us there- = ae

2 Aig r
z mann = 2 826 8-2

ae ee eee eeee

7
eae neawwnns 18.222.

i, lee elle 9 Bl

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 3891

fore to consider how we may best secure for the ensuing period the attainment
of the objects for which we were originally appointed. One of these is ex-
pressed in the first grant in the following words :—‘ For the purpose of
constructing and transmitting rain-gauges to districts where observations are
not at present made.”

Even to those least acquainted with the subject, it will be apparent how

-much more desirable, as well as easy, it is to compare simultaneous obser-

vations than those wherein both the observed values and their times
are different. Your Committee have therefore felt it to be their duty to
examine how far the existing stations adequately represent the true rainfall
of the British Isles. The result shows that their number and distribution,
though incomparably superior to that which existed when your Committee
were appointed some years since, is still capable of great improvement ;
tracts of land the rainfall of which as water-supply for towns is of high im-
portance are without adequate observations, while other places are, if pos-
sible, too well provided.

To take Devonshire as an example; excepting two gauges at the Convict
Prison, one on the northern edge at Chagford, and one on the south at Lee
Moor Clay Works, Dartmoor (that wettest of Devonshire districts) has no re-
presentative, Exmoor has none at all, and there is no gauge between Torquay
and Plymouth. On the other hand, Sidmouth has four or five observers, and
Exeter an equal number.

Similar cases of unequal representation occur in various parts, and should
be removed. ‘The Tyneside Naturalists’ Club are about to establish a series
of gauges along the Cheviots, the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society are doing the

- same in South Wales, and other instances could be quoted.

We have already shown that there is a special reason for endeavouring to
equalize the representation during the ensuing autumn, so that the new
observers whom we hope to obtain may have a few months’ practice before
the commencement of the decennial period 1870-79.

We hope that the landed proprietors of Great Britain and Ireland are be-
coming sufficiently aware of the importance of rainfall statistics in engineer-
ing and draining operations to see their own advantage in helping us by
haying observations regularly made by careful persons under their own
supervision. There are, however, some districts for which your Committee
will have not only to provide the instruments but also to pay some small
fee to the observers. To meet this special charge we have to ask for a special
grant, in addition to the small ordinary one required for current expenses in
the examination of gauges and other kindred matters.

Reference
number.

Construction
of gauge

nv
a
-

266.

268.

269.

270.

271.

272.

273:

274.

examination

.| Sept. 4.

Sept. 4

| Sept. 5.

Sept. 5.

Sept. 7.

Sept. 8.

Sept. 11.

Sept. 12.

Sept. 14.

REPORT—1869.

EXAMINATION OF

COUNTY.
Station.
OWNER.
Observer.

NORFOLK.

Thorpe Hamlet Parsonage, Norwich.
M.

RS. COOKE.
Mrs. Cooke.

NORFOLK.
Thorpe, Norwich.
W. BIRKBECK, ESQ.
W. Birkbeck, Esq.

NORFOLK.
St. Catherine’s Close, Norwich.
C. EVANS, ESQ.
C. Evans, Esq.

NORFOLK.
Kast Dereham.
G. H. COOPER, ESQ.
G. H. Cooper, Esq.

NORFOLK.
Honingham.
THE LADY BAYNING.
The Lady Bayning.

NORFOLK.
Mattishall Vicarage.
THE REV. J. M. DU PORT.
The Rev. J. M. Du Port.

NORFOLK.
Hockering.
THE REV. M. J. ANDERSON.
The Rev. M. J. Anderson.

SUFFOLK.
Gisleham, Lowestoft.
THE REV. H. JODRELL.
The Rev. H. Jodrell.

SUFFOLK.
Carlton Colville, Lowestoft.
G. EDWARDS, ESQ.
G. Edwards, Esq.

NORFOLK.
Geldeston, Beccles.
E. T. DOWSON, ESQ.
E. T. Dowson, Esq.

SUFFOLK.
Somerleyton Hall, Lowestoft.
SIR F. CROSSLEY, BART.

Til

XII

Til

III

Height of
gauge.
Maker's name. | © =f
=| 3 Above shee
ae ground.) jevel,
ft. in.| feet.
Negretti& Zambra}ga.m.| 1 0 | 33
Casella .........04 ga.m.| 1 0 | 137
Casella ....c0....0 1oa.m.| 2 2 | 123.
Negretti & Zambra| week- | 1 3 | 161
ly.
Kmighti..c.sean ves. gam.|o 9] 88
Negretti& Zambra| ga.m.| 1 3 | 165
Negretti& Zambra|ga.m.| 1 3 | 140
Casella ........./ga.m.| 1 3 | 36

Negretti& Zambramonth-| 0 8 6

Casella

Negretti& Zambra} 7a.m.| 3 0

ly.

3°

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 393

RAIN-GAUGES (continued from last Report).

Equivalents of | Error at | Azimuth and an-

water. scale-point | gular elevation of 8%
specifiedin| objects above Remarks on position &e. 5g
Seale- | Grains | Previous | mouth of rain- eS
point. column. gauge. Py
in. in.
1 500 —oor |H. House 40°. | On lawn, sloping slightly to W., |264.
Bw 1000 —"002 good position.
3 1500 —"003
ra 1980 + ‘oor
5 2480 correct.
ny 504. —ooz -|S.8.W. Fir 25°. | On crest of hill, sloping gently to |265.
ee 1020 —*006 the Yare in 8.
€) I 5 To I “005
"4. 2020 —‘007
5 2.520 —*o08
‘or 50 correct. |S.W. Tree 25°. | On dwarf post on large lawn. 266.
"IO 500 —-oo1
"20 1000 —"002
*30 1490 — ‘ool
*40 1980 correct.
“50 2480 —‘ool
Beaaasans|ss Rccpandaes|s<cursseceevoon| NB lie eas On slight mound on lawn; ground |267.
level. Observer absent and mea-
suring-glass not accessible.
“TD 495 correct. |N.W. Angle of | On edge of flower-bed; ground |268.
“2, 990 correct. House 55°. level.
“3 1520 —‘007
4 2020 —*007
5 2520 —‘008
‘ol 80 +004 |E. Trees 45°. Tn kitchen garden, somewhat shel- |269.
“I 1260 +"oo1 S-H:..45, 45% tered; ground level.
es 2550 oor |S. W.| ,,° 25%
a 3830 +002
4 5030 + "004
‘Or 127 correct. |N. Trees 60°. | On lawn, surrounded by trees; to |270.
by 125° +:oor |N.E. ,, 60°. be moved to another position
2 2560 —‘ooz | E. 3 GOR where nothing will rise 30°
2 3820 wor |\8.W. |; 40°. above gauge except one tree in
4 5050 +002 S.E.
ci 500 —oor |N.E. Trees 40°. |In kitchen garden, and rather |271.
2, 1050 —'o2 Sw. 3 aes sheltered.
Cr 1520 —'007 N.W.i 5, 40%.
4 2030 —‘o12
5 2510 —"006
Tr 1340 —‘oo6 §=6|8.W. Rose-bush | Open position, except as noted ; |272.
2 2550 —‘oor 50°. ground level.and as noted in other
“3 3910 —"009 columns; gauge only 6 ft. above
"4. 5050 + oor mean sea-level, and therefore
5 6330 correct. only 3 ft. above high-water mark.
‘ol 50 COTTECE, |[ecesscoeces-eeeese sesee.| Very good open position in ter- |273.
10 500 —‘oo1r raced garden.
20 1000 —*002
"30 1490 —"ool
"40 1980 correct.
*50 2480 —‘oor
on 1300 S202) Wovsidescponces semeae nace Gauge fixed on a stool in centre of |274.
2 2550 —‘ool large lawn; quite open.
3 3850 57903
“4 5080 correct
on 6319 |. +7003

394: REPORT—1869.
EXAMINATION OF

Height of

COUNTY.

6 ae. Maker's name.

eference
number

Observer.

Date of
examination.

| R

Sept. 14. SUFFOLK.
Somerleyton Rectory, Lowestoft.
THE REV. C. J. STEWARD.
The Rev. C. J. Steward.

275.

-| Sept. 14. SUFFOLK.
Hopton Hall, Lowestoft.
C. CORY, ESQ.

Sept. 15. SUFFOLK.
Acle, Yarmouth.
THE REV. R. W. KENNION.
The Rev. R. W. Kennion.

278.| Sept. 16. NORFOLK.
Runham.
THE REV. E. GILLETT.

The Rev. E. Gillett.

279.| Sept. 17. NORFOLK.
Filby, Yarmouth.
MR. G. CRISP.

Mr. G. Crisp.
280.) Oct. 27. HAMPSHIRE.

Strathfield Turgis Rectory, Winchfield.
G. J. SYMONS, ESQ.
The Rev. C. H. Griffith.
281.| Oct. 27. HAMPSHIRE.
StrathfieldTurgis Rectory, Winchfield.
G. J. SYMONS, ESQ.
The Rev. C. H. Griffith.
282.| Nov. 2. NOTTINGHAM.
Highfield House, Nottingham.
EL. J. LOWE, Esq., F.R.S.

1869.
Mar. 27. HAMPSHIRE.
Wote Street, Basingstoke.
T. SWEETING, ESQ.
T. Sweeting, Esq.

283.

284.) Mar. 27. HAMPSHIRE. Wheeler............
Eastlands, Basingstoke.
G. STEPHENS, ESQ.
G. Stephens, Esq.
235.) April 7. YORKSHIRE. Crosley
Saddleworth Station.
L. §& N.-W. RAILWAY.
The Station Master.

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 395

RAIN-GAUGES (continued).

Remarks on position &e.

Peleg ae cael ..sereas.| In kitchen garden, open position ;
suggested its being raised a little
to avoid in-splashing.

1290 —oor |S.E. Tree 32°. Sunk in a large pot, on lawn;

quite clear, except as noted.

1260 correct. | N.E. Laburnum
2580 —"004 55°.

On edge of carriage drive, and
near a light iron railing.

3 3850 —o04 |S.W. House 32°,

4 5130 | —"006

a 6380 — "004.

5 300 +006 =| N.E. Trees 50°. | In garden, position not the best
"2 600 +'o12 Wise hess eeeies available; suggested removal
cf 1550 +015 NEWT Oo: on January 1, 1869,
I'o 3150 +°014

i 500 —‘oor N. House 54°. Very much sheltered ; to be raised
2 1000 —oor |S.E. Trees 30°. 3 ft., which will make it nearly
3 1500 —=ao2. |IN-W.} 5, 47°: clear.

“4 1990 = 00%

5 2480 correct.

x 160 EPSON (She SEE See eee Re In experimental rain-gauge en-
°2, 350 +:004. closure; clear of everything.

23 54° mee

“4 720 — "004.

5 goo —"004.

I 450 SR OAM |voccbhcadeccsesaedaacses Close to No. 280.

2 goo —'008

3 1345 "O12

“4 1800 —"o16

“6 2250 —"024

Mec BOE) 2 CCP RRPRCRE TEE On N.E. parapet of house. Glass

not measured.

ti 520 —'o04 |S.E. Pear 55°. | Part of pear-tree will be cut off;
2, 1020 —*004. position will then be very good.
<3 1500 correct.

“4 2010 =-"003

‘5 #5iG |) ='003

a 500 —oor |W. House 32°. | In kitchen garden; ground level,
2 1000 —‘oo1 and position good.

$3 1500 —"002

4 1990 —‘oo!l

5 2480 +'oor

On a stone column on the top of
a railway-cutting; nearly level
with the chimnies of the station.

tet eweeee SOO ee eee eee Heat E EOF ae seen ee tO ener neeeeeeeeee

2n2

Reference
number

nN
N
wn

276.

277.

278.

279.

280.

281.

282.

283.

284.

285.

396 REPORT—1869.

EXAMINATION OF

. f= i.
A o% Height of
Q8 one COUNTY. S & gauge.
alee Station. ES ey “8 bb
B's] o8 eae tz aker’s name.
B5| B34 OWNER. ie gs Above | Above
2 S| A z Observer. & rs) aa s ground. Ca
1869. ft. in. | feet.
286.) April 7. YORKSHIRE. XI | Negretti& Zambra| 9 a.m.| 3 6 | 550
Friesland Vicarage, Greenfield.
THE REV. G. VENABLES.
The Rev. G. Venables.
287.| April 7. YORKSHIRE. IEE 9 RE ST. Ao eee
Standedge.
L. §& N.-W. RAILWAY.
288.) April 8. YORKSHIRE. X | Negretti & Zambra).........
Harden Moss, Meltham.
HUDDERSFIELD WATER
WORKS.
289.| April 8. YORKSHIRE. 1 PEE och SERA atc, 4
Bilberry Reservoir, Holmfirth.
290.| April 8. YORKSHIRE. Hh SNES couedee eee ecccmer evens
Boshaw Whams.
291.| April 8. YORKSHIRE. To Rees oesafeare lle eae
Holme Styes Reservoir, Holmfirth.
292.| April 8. YORKSHIRE. s+ Newman 2 -4...aacl.ccaeeee
Dunford Bridge Reservoir.
DEWSBURY WATER WORKS.
Mr. G. Whitfield.
293| April 8. YORKSHIRE. VIII | Casartelli ...%:.:::
Dunford Bridge Station.
M.S. § L. RAILWAY.
294.| April 8. YORKSHIRE. VIII | Casartelli .........
Carleotes.
M.S. § L. RAILWAY.
295. April 9. YORKSHIRE. X | Negretti & Zambraj.........
Meltham Grange.
HUDDERSFIELD WATER
WORKS.
296.| April 9. YORKSHIRE. VEIL | Casartelli- .:::....:

Scope, Meltham.
E. C. GOODDY, ESQ.
Mr. J. Taylor.

RAIN-GAUGES (continued).

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES,

it bs, = Equivalents of | Error at | Azimuth and an-
B26 water. scale-point | gular elevation of
gas : specified in ober ests
= | Scale- < revious | mouth of rain-
‘ti i | point. | Grains. ‘aliens gauge.
an. in. in.
oe . 502, *1 490 +:00z2 |E. Church 42°,
Re we 970 +'006 |S. House 28°.
5700 £3 1460 +'oo8 |W. Trees 30°.
_ 504 | 4 1955 +'009
Mins 020 | °5 2460 +008
BEN OIGG. |..-000...|... SEG 3608 HEAT Yeas}. tews sce asseteceed «a
8:03 correct.
8°05
7°98
M 8-028
ISI stp | aoe Po oceals =| a Babigeessselvg| SECS es never ecescencnes
8:02
7°99
8-01
M .
Eee Patetesenste| ste coichatiailen correct |N.E. Wall and
7°98 rising ground
8:01 PANGS
799
M 8-000
0 o | AAB Sees neet lah GOLTECHY ||. 22%. .enccvenesinactes
97
, &95
. 8°94
M 6945
EN EEE ate csv cvdelsipvavavacdeecss|accdbvscatnessscsesenees
6°80
B 6792
>
fy M 6°835
TE Ee Bee COBTEGIE | seetaeiddeendecaades sess
12°02
1£93
ee 12701
M11°943
- 8-48 x 1400~ +pSOO2 Hy | tod aestecssaweeee sors
8-50 2 2760 +007
8°46 e) 4200 +:006
850 "4 5550 + orr
M 8-485) °5 7000 +:o10
t 8°55 =i 1430 correct |N.N.E. Tree 33°.
8°46 2) 2780 +005
me 842 3 4150 +:009
848 | 4 557° +009
M 8-478) °5 7050 +:005
RPE Woe soa nk ian | >= cz rns peal eds dekhiaeawa Vea) on oBaseoveacnsude dts sees
8:02
7°98
TERS)
MM 7982
e850 “Ne «|, 1460 2002) 6 | ad bU. s enncddogevce tes
851 2 2900 —"003
j 8-48 oe 4310 —‘oo!
ie «6850 "4 5700 +002
M 8498} °5 7050 +:008

397

Remarks on position &e,

Fixed on dwarf postin the garden,
which is somewhat shut in by the
railway embankment; ground
hilly.

Very exposed position on a slight
slope, but nothing rises more
than 5° above the gauge, which
is very much weather-worn.

On level piece of moor, quite ex-
posed, but surrounded by a 5-ft.
iron hurdle fence 6 ft. square.
Glass not accessible.

On a flat bank on a steep hill-side
facing 8.W. Orifice so large
as unduly to facilitate evapora-
tion.

In a flat field E. of the reservoir ;
very open. When visited the
top was not properly on the
cylinder, and much loss must
have resulted.

In a box made of inch-wood, the sides
of which being level with the rim of
the gauge produce in-splashing. The
orifice of the gauge being very large
will compensate for this error. Hilly
ground.

On west end of embankment, very
exposed position.

A short distance E. of station, on
flattish ground. Hills rise toa
considerable height in N.E.

In field. The box holding this
gauge was tilted nearly 5° to
S.W., and had been so for some
little time ; had it levelled.

Good position in large flat field.
Glass not accessible.

Near the centre of the moor, slight
ridge in W.S.W., but its eleva-
tion only 10°. Position good.

Reference
number.

Nv
co
a

287.

289.

290.

2gl.

292.

293.

294.

295.

296.

398 REPORT—1869.

eference
number

| R

297.

298.

299

300.

301.

302.

303.

304.

305.

306.

3°7-

COUNTY.
Station.
OWNER.
Observer.

Date of
examination.

April 9. YORKSHIRE.
Broadstone Reservoir.

DEWSBURY WATER WORKS.

April 9. YORKSHIRE.
jp e) :
Ingbirchworth.
BARNSLEY LOCAL BOARD.
Mr. Brown.

April 9. YORKSHIRE.
Penistone Station.
M.S. § L. RAILWAY.

April 14. YORKSHIRE.
Redmires.
SHEFFIELD WATER WORKS CO.

April 1s. LANCASHIRE.
Blackstone Edge.
ROCHDALE CANAL COMPANY.

April 15. YORKSHIRE.
Longwood Reservoir.
HUDDERSFIELD WATER
WORKS.

April 16. YORKSHIRE.
Fartown, Huddersfield.
CAPT. CHICHESTER.

Capt. Chichester.

April 16. YORKSHIRE.
Dalton, Huddersfield.
J. W. ROBSON, ESQ.
J. W. Robson, Esq.

April 19. MIDDLESEX.
ove House, Tottenham.
C. ASHFORD, ESQ.
C. Ashford, Esq.

Construction
of gauge

Vee

VEE

Tit

III

EXAMINATION OF

Maker’s name.

Negretti & Zambra

Casartelli .........

Negretti & Zambra

Watkins & Hill.

see ee eee

sweet neee

Negretti & Zambra

Smith & Beck ...

g a.m.

9g a.m.

Height
of gauge.

4 3 | IL00

4 3% 1100 |

4 11 | 600 |

Wat)

“nN
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 3899

RAIN-GAUGES (continued).

Equivalents of | Error at | Azimuth and an-

water. scale-point | gular elevation of 38

specified in| objects above Remarks on position &e. oq

Suale- : previous | mouth of rain- & 3
point. | Grains. 3

column. gauge.

| Ri

in.

in.
Ween ae ceeisnienins] oeepi Rawat ce -|ccl dad. at aocnsesseecens Gauge leaky, and not in use, level
with reservoir bank.
oo “I 1200 +:004 | W. House 20°. | In cottage garden N. of reservoir ;
1 7°82 2 2520 —oor | N. Tree 40°. country gently undulating.
m ” 7°93 ce 377° correct.
ft 8:or 4 5050 —"'002
1 M 7955] °5 6290 —"ool
| 8°50 “I 1350 SPROOGM || ahaecad onsen sascnnecs Gauge tilted # of an inch to 8.E. ;
| 8-50 2 2850 +-oo1 position bad, being close to the
| 8*50 "4. 5700 +'oo1 top corner of a wall which drops
| 8-46 5 7040 +008 25 ft. abruptly below the gauge.
| M 8-490
: 8:00 or 1300 P= FOON MR ncdehccctecesnsencsesses In garden on N. bank of reservoir,
8-00 2 2600 —'005 rather exposed.
8:00 oa 3810 correct.
8-00 "4. 5050 +'002
M 8-000] °5 6260 +007
eR ie Ne on opernscin-|aattaadaWde ds .s|-odasseesaccuescees=-ece 15 ft. E. of No. 300.

ij To°00
eg 10°00

broken. ‘To be revisited.

400 REPORT—1869.
EXAMINATION OF

Height

COUNTY. bee

Station.
OWNER.
Observer.

Maker’s name.

Date of
examination.
Construction

of gauge.

Reference
number.

6 &% |—_" — _
ag Above NEO
ra 2 ground. level.

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

_
co
fo)

—

Woodhead Station.
M. 8. § L. RAILWAY.
Station Porter.

309.| May 3. CHESHIRE. XII
Woodhead Reservoir.
MANCHESTER WATER WORKS.

310.| May 3. CHESHIRE. EL, Newman) |..938! 6a.m.| o to 680
Woodhead Reservoir.
MANCHESTER WATER WORKS.

3i1x.| May 4. CHESHIRE. II | Newman ......... 7am.) 1 6-| 600
Torrside.
MANCHESTER WATER WORKS.

312.| May 4. CHESHIRE. II | Newman
Rhodes Wood Reservoir.
MANCHESTER WATER WORKS.

venaneRe 6am.| 1 0] 520

313.| May 17. MIDDLESEX. III | Private
Squires Mount, Hampstead.
R. FIELD, ESQ.
R. Field, Esq.

seeidatestentes gam.| r 0} 380

314.| May 17. MIDDLESEX. NT) Casellas.c.cccmis
Squires Mount, Hampstead.
R. FIELD, ESQ.
R. Field, Esq.

-|gam.| ro

315.) May 17. MIDDLESEX. TIT | Casella ........
Squires Mount, Hampstead.
R. FIELD, ESQ.
R. Field, Esq.

«|g am.! 1 0

316.) May 17. MIDDLESEX. j XIT | Casella
The Grove, Hampstead.
H. SHARPE, ESQ.
H. Sharpe, Esq.

oa ceesecoees gam.i50 0

317.| May 17. MIDDLESEX. XII
The Grove, Hampstead.
H. SHARPE, ESQ.
HH, Sharpe, Esq.

318.| July s. HAMPSHIRE. XII
Highfield Park, Winchfield.
H. MARSON, ESQ.
H. Marson, Esq.

RAIN-GAUGES (continued).

Equivalents of { Error at | Azimuth and an-
water. scale-point | gular elevation of
specified in] objects above
Seale- | Gains, | Previous | mouth of rain-
point. column. gauge.
in. in.
I 1450 me TED, || sale dias ods ic ns visicanuiee ay»
2 2850 + "001
na 4250 +:003
*4. 5650 +:006
“45 6450 correct.
I 470 EGOS A |. Ates 05. cbs seisededaes
ne 980 +'oo1
ae 1490 —"o02
“4 1990 —*004.
5 2460 + oor
aceite TACHI WW CORS| soca vcnoeaseacoaaetiet
rect, but see
remarks.

20 haere an Correct Wes teen ones vaca. aes
jo cracee Heatlye. Oks cae emcee ee
correct.
cE 498 correct. | N. Bush 40°.

2 990 correct. | E. Trees 73°.

3 1500 —'oo3_ | W. Trees 38°.

4+ 1990 —'00l

=5 2480 correct.

"i 498 correct. | N. Bushes 49°.
2 99° correct. | N.E. Elms 58°
3 1500 —‘oo2 | W. Poplars 46°.
“4 1990 — ‘ool

F5 2480 correct.

I 498 correct. | N. Trees 58°.

2 990 correct. | E. Elms 42°.

3 1500 —o0o3 | S.W. Poplars88°.
“4 1990 —‘ool

5 2480 correct.

I 498 == 01.9) ioe OB sndcoodBoea cour Ses oe
2 998 —‘ooI

BE: 1500 —"003 ‘

“4 1980 correct.

a 2470 "002

Ch 498 eee N.E. Wall 28°.
2 998 —oor |8.E. Tree 40°.
3 1500 —‘oo3 |S. Shed 32°.

4 2000 —"003

5 2480 correct.

ou 495 +oor | S.W. Apple 41°.
2 1000 correct.

3 1500 elo}!

"4 2005 —‘002

5 2500 —"ool

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES.

Remarks on position &e.

On slight mound, in gorge, 300
yards W. of W. entrance to the
Woodhead Tunnel.

Near keeper's house, Woodhead
reservoir ; on ground sloping to

S.W.

In valley near the reservoir; quite
open; rod attached.

In valley near keeper’s house;
good position.

Open situation in valley, running
E.W.; rod attached, and rim

curved.
’

The grounds being much wooded,
this and the two following gauges
are so arranged that from what-
ever point the rain has fallen,
one of the gauges will be unin-
fluenced thereby, and the ob-
servations are tabulated accord-
ingly.

Pee eee ee cee eres eres Oe eee teeter eee eneeee

On corner of gallery surrounding
tower of house; very exposed
position.

In small garden, rather shut in by
walls and trees.

In level garden ; very good posi-
tion except as noted.

491

Reference
number.

w
fe)
co

309:

310. |

311.

giize

313-

314.

315.

316.

317.

318.

Reference
number

w
»
\o

—

F 8 Height
2 COUNTY. ne 8
Se Station. = & , etx |__ oF BBUBe:
23 OWNER. £5, Maker’s name. e A
A 5 Observer. Be = S ground
1869. ft. in
| July 8. BERKSHIRE. XI | Negretti& Zambra) 9 a.m.) 1 1
Forbury Gardens, Reading.
BOARD OF HEALTH.
Mr. Davis.
| July 8. BERKSHIRE. TY, || -Kanightis ..esgseaes gam.) r 6
Russell Street, Reading.
DR. WORKMAN.
Dr. Workman.

402 REPORT—1869.
EXAMINATION OF

Interim Report of the Committee on the Laws of the Flow and Action
of Water containing Solid Matter in Suspension, consisting of T.
Hawsgstey, Professor Ranxtnu, F.R.S., R. B. GRantuam, Sir A.
S. Wauveu, F.R.S., and T. Loein.

Your Committee considered, in the first place, what experiments would
be necessary in order to furnish the data required for the determination of
the laws of the flow and action of water containing solid matter in suspen-
sion, and what would be the probable cost of these experiments. Their
estimate of that cost was £5000, and they came to the conclusion that this
was beyond the means of the Association. They had no authority to apply
to the Government in the name of the British Association; but in their
individual capacity they addressed a memorial to Her Majesty’s Secretary
of State for India, representing the practical value of such experiments, and
especially their importance to the interests of India. That memorial was
accompanied by a general description of the experiments required, and an
estimate of their cost; and copies of all these documents are appended
hereto. The Government, however, declined to accede to the application.
Your Committee beg leave to represent that, if reappomted, and invested
with power to apply to the Government in the name of the British Asso-
ciation, their future application might meet with better success,

APPENDIX.

I. Flow of Water with Solid Matter in Suspension.

Sketch of proposed Course of Experiments.—1. It is proposed to apply for
the temporary use of a piece of ground near London, and, if possible, in the
neighbourhood of the Kew Observatory. ae

2. A canal to be constructed with a smooth bottom and sides of plate glass
about 500 feet long, 5 feet broad, and 3 feet deep, and capable of being
covered when required.

3. At one end of the canal will be a reservoir supplied with water by means

ON THE FLOW AND ACTION OF WATER CONTAINING SOLID MATTER. 403

RAIN-GAUGES (continued).

column. gauge.

efcrence
number,

| R

8. Wellingtonia | In the gardens near the station ; 319.
38°. good position.

S.W. Apple 51°. | In garden in rear of house on slight |320.
W.N.W.. 5, 85°. bank, and sheltered as noted ;
no material improvement in po-
sition practicable, except by cut-
ting down one or two good trees.

aj
*2
3
4
5
cs
°2
"3
4
‘5

of a small pumping steam-engine, and containing mechanism for diffusing
solid matter of different kinds in the water.

4. The water will be made to flow along the canal at first pure, and then
with different proportions of different kinds of solid matter in suspension, and
with different depths of current.

_ 6. Observations will be made of:—

. The declivity of the surface of the water.

. The velocity of the current at the surface, bottom, sides, and in-
termediate points, also the mean velocity.

. The mode of motion of the particles as seen through the plate-glass
sides of the trough.

. The rate at which solid matter is either deposited or swept away
by the current under various circumstances.

. The temperature of the water.

. The direction and velocity of the wind when the trough is exposed
to it.

_ 6. Experiments to be made to determine the quantities of solid matter

contained in samples of water taken from different points in thelength, breadth,

and depth of the trough.

7. Observations and experiments to be made with the inner surface of the
trough roughened in various ways.

8. Also with weirs and other obstacles of different forms and in different
positions.

9. The results of the observations and experiments to be compared with
those of observations (so far as these have been recorded) made upon actual
rivers and on the great scale.

10. The whole results to be submitted to mathematical analysis, in order to
deduce general laws and practical rules from them.

11. The rough estimate of the outlay required for materials, work, and pay
of assistants and workmen till the next Meeting of the British Association
is £1500.

This is exclusive of the pay of the engineer from the Public Works De-

Pike (Se 1S) >

AOA: REPORT—1869.

partment of India, to whom it is proposed to entrust the superintendence ; but
it is believed that the entire series of experiments and investigations will not
exceed £5000.

Il.

To His Grace The Duke of Argyll, K.T., Her Majesty’s Secretary of
State for India. The Memorial of Thomas Hawksley, Civil Engineer, Vice-
President of the Institution of Civil Engineers ; Major-General Sir Andrew
Scott Waugh, Knight; William J. Macquorn ‘Rankine, Civil Engineer, Re-
gius Professor of Civil Engineering and Mechanics in the University of Glas-
gow; Richard Boxall Grantham, Civil Engineer, Member of the Institution
of Civil Engineers; and Thomas Login, Civil Hngineer, Member of the In-
stitution of Civil Engineers.

Sheweth,—That your Memorialists respectfully solicit Your Grace’s atten-
tion to a subject of great importance in the construction of artificial rivers for
irrigation and drainage.

That at a Meeting of the British Association in August last at Norwich, a
paper was read by Mr. Login, one of your Memorialists, on the abrading and
transporting power of water, in which he laid before the Association the
results of his experience in India regarding the power of flowing water for
holding solid matter in suspension.

The subject was considered to be of so much practical importance, that
your Memorialists were appointed a Committee to report upon it to the Me-
chanical Section of the British Association ; but they have found the present
state of scientific knowledge to be so vague and imperfect that it is in their
judgment necessary to obtain, in the first instance, a complete series of
experimental data.

To institute experiments would, however, require some expenditure for
apparatus and attendance beyond the means of the Association.

Moreover, since the results of the investigations would, in the opinion of
your Memorialists, be of great public utility, they venture, independently of
the Association and solely in their individual capacities, to lay this matter
before Your Grace in the hope that the Indian Department of Her Majesty’s
Government will take the subject matter of this Memorial into their considera-
tion, and if deemed expedient direct that the requisite investigation may be
undertaken at the public expense.

(Signed) T. Hawxisry, V.P.Inst.C.E.
Anprew Scorr Waveu, Major-Gen. R.E., F.R.S.
W.J. Macavorn Ranxine, C.E., LL.D., F.B.S.
Ricuarp B, GrantHam.
T. Loer.

Interim Report by the Committee on Agricultural Machinery, consist-
ing of the Duke of Buccievcu, F.R.S., The Rev. Parrick Bett,
Davin Greic, J. OLDHAM, Winiram Surra, C.E., Haroup Lar.
TLEDALE, The Earl of Carraness, Et ise Roserr. Nettson, Pro--
fessor Rankine, F.R.S., F. J. Bramwett, Rev. Professor W1x11s,
F.R.S., and Coartes Mansy, F.R.S.; P. Le Neve Fosrer and J.
P. Smiru, Secretaries.

Tuts Committee have to report that several of its members have been
engaged in collecting and arranging the information necessary in order to

> ee

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF THE METHYL AND ALLIED SERIES. 405

enable a final report to be prepared; but that, in consequence of the great
extent and variety of the subjects to be reported on, and the very recent
date of the trial of implements by the Royal Agricultural Society, and by
the Highland Agricultural Society of Scotland, on the results of which trials
the Report must to a great extent be based, it has been found impossible to
complete a final Report in time for the present Meeting. A short Report
upon reaping-machines has been furnished by Mr. Oldham; but the Com-
mittee consider it advisable to defer publishing it until it can be included in
a general Report, especially as some important trials of reapers have been
made since it was written.

Your Committee beg leave to represent that, if reappointed, they are

confident of being able in due time to present a satisfactory Report to the

Association.

Report on the Physiological Action of the Methyl and Allied Series.
By Brensamin W. Ricwarpson, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.

In introducing the present Report to the Association, I would, as preliminary
to new matter of research, record that the substance known as bichloride of
methylene (the properties of which I was led to study as a part of the work
entrusted to me in previous years) has, during the past twelve months,
increased very greatly in practical importance. The bichloride has been used
for general anesthesia on a large scale in Guy’s, the London, Charing
Cross, Ophthalmic, and Samaritan Hospitals. It has also been largely em-
ployed for the same purpose in the provinces of England. In France its
action has been carefully studied, and one of the graduation theses at Stras-
bourg has been devoted to the subject of its action. In Italy the bichloride
has made its way, and in Germany it is employed by the distinguished Von
Graefe (who learned its application from Dr. Taylor of Nottingham), and by
several other eminent surgeons.

Respecting the action of the bichloride of methylene and its advantages
over other anesthetics as yet discovered and rendered applicable, I have re-
ceived special reports from the following gentlemen :—Peter Marshall, Esq.,
Administrator at the Charing Cross Hospital, Dr. Junker, Administrator at
the Samaritan Free Hospital, J. Rendle, Esq., Administrator at Guy’s, J. Adams,
Ksq., of the London Hospital, J. Bader, Esq., Ophthalmic Surgeon at Guy’s, Dr.
Taylor, Surgeon to the Ophthalmic Hospital of Nottingham, and Mr. Wood of
Brighton.

Lam happy to add that up to this date (August) no accident has occurred in
the administration of the bichloride. I have never held that it is free from
danger, and [reported in regard to it, at first, that it could not be considered as the
safest agent of its kind until it had been administered twenty thousand times
with a totality of less than ten deaths as the result. I hope, however, now
that it may even go safely through this very severe ordeal; for at the lowest
estimate it has been administered 4500 times in England alone without
a fatal catastrophe. In the experience which has sprung from the adminis-
tration of this anzsthetic, one very interesting and valuable practical truth has
come forth, viz. that with skill on the part of the administrator the most rapid
and safest insensibility can be induced with a quantity not exceeding sixty
minims ; thus for small operations, or, I had better said, short operations,
such as tooth-extraction, operation for cataract, &c., the required anesthesia

406 REPORT—1869. ©

can be induced in from twenty to forty seconds, with perfect recovery in from
three to five minutes. The mode of administering, in order to produce these
effects, is simple: the inhaler I showed last year is modified by being
lengthened, and the fluid is not introduced as spray, but is poured directly
into.the inhaler. The inhaler itself is made of leather, and is lined with
loose demette ; it is perforated at the end furthest removed from the mouth,
so as to admit air. For this modification of inhaler, and for demonstrating
the extremely rapid action of the bichloride with it on the human subject, we
are indebted to Mr. Rendle. The method has been successfully employed
now in four hundred operations. I may be pardoned for dwelling on this
practical fact for one reason alone; for this reason, that it shows the true
value of a correct theory in estimating the properties of chemical substances
on living animal bodies, based on the physical characters, purely, of the sub-
stances themselves. From the chemical composition of the bichloride of
methylene, from its boiling-point, and the density of its vapour, I was able
to claim for it its probable place as an anesthetic before it was subjected
to the test of experience, and especially to claim for it that its power to take
effect would be as rapidly developed as would be the recovery from it when
it was withdrawn. ‘The practice has proved the theory to have been in this
case safely founded; and the fact may be accepted as an encouragement to all
who are or may be striving to reduce our knowledge of the action of
medicinal agents to fixed principles. For my part I am certain (and I think
the after pages of this Report will help to prove the idea) the day is at
hand when the mere chemical and physical characters of any substance being
known to the physiologist, he will be able to foresee clearly what are the
physiological values of the substance, and to calculate the symptoms and
changes it will induce in the animal economy from pure theoretical formulas
and with perfect precision.
Mernyiat.

The substance methylal, C,H, O,, to which I called attention last year,
deserves another brief word. I confirm what I said concerning it last year,
viz. that it is a slowly acting anesthetic, producing by its inhalation a sleep
which is very deep and prolonged. I would add to this Report that methylal
may be taken internally in the same proportion as common ether (it could be
used also in the form of hypodermic injection), and that, as it is soluble in
water, it promises to be a very valuable addition to our list of anodyne
remedies. During the past months Liebreich of Berlin has brought out the
substance chloral (C, H Cl, O) as a body which possesses the power of inducing
long-continued sleep. I have not yet been able to obtain chloral for ex-
periment *.

PLAN OF NEW RESEARCHES.

In the new researches to which I have devoted my attention since last
Meeting, I have aimed, while studying the action of several compounds which
have not previously been considered by the physiologist, to bring the present
work, together with the past, into systematic arrangement, to group under
their proper chemical heads the agents submitted to inquiry, and to ascertain
whether any distinctive physiological characteristics could be discovered as
connected with distinct chemical series of organic bodies, I commenced,
therefore, by placing before myself a set of Tables which I now put before the

* After the reading of this Report Dr. Richardson was supplied, at Exeter, with a spe-

cimen of chloral by Daniel Hanbury, Esq. He was thus enabled, at the request of the
Section, to bring up a supplementary report on chloral during the Meeting.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION.OF THE METHYL AND ALLIED SERIES. 407

_ Section. I have grouped in these Tables certain representatives of different
series in their natural place and in five divisions, viz. nitrites, hydrides,
alcohols, chlorides, and iodides. Under each division the two first represen-
tatives of the series are tabled, and the fourth and fifth. The propylic com-
_ pounds, which would form the third representatives, are omitted in every case,
owing to the difficulty of obtaining perfectly reliable specimens. The sub-
stances named in italics have been considered in previous Reports.

92 1604 'h 120 | 248 69-4
99 bl tis Rey 146 | 295 64°1

Chemical | Vapour- Specific Boiling-point. evanied
compo- | density, | gravity. tg ane ia
sition, H,=1. | Water 1000.| C. F. = odidida.
g Methyl...\Protylen |C H, H 8 Gas. Taal tat
5} |Ethyl ...|Deutylen\C, H, H 15 Gasser nt, 252.4 (I.
& | |Butyl .../Tetrylen |C, H, H 29 Gas Brood |igeateee
fi L|Amyl ...{Pentylen|C,H,,H | 36 25 30 | 86
a | Methyl ...|Protyl...\C H, NO,| 80°5 Gass Mltescece, |p caeece
E | \Ethyl ...|Deutyl....\C,H, NO,| 37:5 917 18 64
& | Butyl ...|Tetryl ...\C,H, NO,| 515 | we. 64 | 147
z \|Amyl ....|Pentyl...\C,;H,,NO,| 58°5 877 96 | 205
% ( \Methylic |Protylic |C H, O 16 814 at 0°C.} 60 | 140
& } Ethylic .|Deutylic |C,H, O 25 “792 at 16°C.| 78 | 172
S | |Butylic . |Tetrylie |C, H,, O 37 B03; 110 | 230
3 Amylic...|Pentylic |C, H,, O 44 "BIL, jay 132 | 270
2 (|Methyl...\Protyl....C H, Cl | 25-25 Gas.
5 Ethyl ...\Deutyl....\C, H, Cl 32°25 | ‘921at0°C.} 11 52
g } [Butyl .../Tetryl ...\C, H, Cl 46°25 | 880at16°C.| 70 | 158
\|Amyl ...|Pentyl...|C; H,, Cl SRB! Nye heaks od 102 | 216
J iss vy . 5 11
if Methyl...|Protyl ....\C. H, I 71 2240 at 16°C.) 42 | 108 89-4.
Ethyl ...|Deutyl... I 78 TOG 72 | 162 81-4
I
{ I

C
Cy
Butyl ...|Tetryl .../C,
Amyl ...|Pentyl ...|C;

Toprpzs,

While in this manner studying the various substances in great groups, I
have tried also to study peculiarities of action in members of the same group,
with special reference, in each case, to the effect of the aggregation of carbon
and increase of weight.

To these observations I have been able to add others, which refer to the
individual peculiarities of some special compounds; and when those peculia-
rities have suggested a practical and useful application, I have noted the facts
with care, and embodied them in my remarks.

Lastly, as in the course of my research many opportunities were offered of
studying the dangers in the administration of some of the chemical bodies
named in the Table, I took advantage of such opportunities to test by experi-
ment the best means of counteracting those dangers when they occur. This
therefore forms a concluding and special part of the present Report.

In preparing for experiments, certain rules were followed which it is right
at once to name.

In all cases where the substance to be examined was a gas, it was adminis-
tered by inhalation ; in cases where the substance was a very volatile liquid,
it was administered by inhalation chiefly ; and in cases where the substance
was less easily volatilizable, it was administered not merely in the form of
vapour, but either by the mouth or by subcutaneous injection.

“4

As it soon became apparent that, under all forms of administration, the
results were materially modified by temperature, care was taken to secure,
in analogous experiments, the same ranges of temperature. This was effected
by means of specially constructed chambers, into which the air could be ad-
mitted in measured quantities, and in which the air or atmosphere could be
maintained for any length of time at a nearly fixed degree, the variations at
the extremest being under three degrees in Fahrenheit’s scale. (The chamber
was defined in a diagram. In it the air could be raised to 120° Fahr. and
sustained at that heat, or reduced to 10° below freezing-point and kept at that
low temperature steadily.)

Another chamber was also used in experiments where inhalation of an
atmosphere charged with a foreign gas or vapour was not wanted; this con-
sisted of a simple metal chamber with a double lining, through which warm
or cold air could be passed at pleasure. Within it was slung a cradle lined
with thick felt, made after the manner of a hammock. In this chamber the
air could be readily raised to a temperature of 160°, or even 200° Fahr. ; but
the chamber was not air-tight, and was not adapted for holding in cireuit
atmospheres of common air mixed with vapours or gases. It was always
well ventilated with pure air, and was used for inducing recovery, or for
proving the conditions adverse or favourable to recovery from certain of the
agents employed when they were administered in excess.

The classes of animals subjected to the vapours or fluids were batra-
chians, birds, small herbivorous and carnivorous mammals. In every in-
stance where comparative inquiries were made the utmost care was taken to
estimate mere apparent differences of phenomena from the same agent from
differences in the character or constitution of the animal submitted to the
action of the agent. The natural temperatures of all the warm-blooded
animals was recorded from time to time, and the mean temperature was cal-
culated and adopted as the natural standard.

Advantage was taken of different seasons of the year, and of extreme
natural variations of heat and cold, for the carrying on of many of the in-
quiries. This point of practice, followed out at first without reference to any
other than the present research, was found to have a distinct and important _
bearing on the general question of the use and administration of chemical
medicinal agents.

I now pass to the first part of this Report, taking up the study of the —
groups of substances in the order of the Tables.

408 REPORT—1869,

PART I—THE NITRITE SERIES.

In previous Reports I have called the attention of the Section to the action
of the nitrites of methyl, ethyl, and amyl. I have experimented during the
past year with the nitrite of butyl, and have thus completed the elementary
study of the group up to the amyl or pentylic series. The specimen of nitrite
of butyl I used was made for me by Professor Wanklyn. It is obtained by
the action of nitrous acid upon butylic alcohol.

Nitrite of butyl isa slightly coloured fluid, having an odour like nitrite of |
amyl, but it is not so overpowering. Its physiological action is nearly the
same as that of nitrite of amyl, but less intense and protracted ; it quickens
the pulse, produces suffusion of the countenance, causes great oppression on
the brain, and those singular noises or sounds in the head which resemble
the sounds produced by the rushing of water. The breathing also is affected,
and the respiratory muscles are influenced as after running sharply until out
of breath. In a case where a young friend of mine (who has naturally a

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF THE METHYL AND ALLIED SERIES. 409

yery hard and quick pulse) inhaled the nitrite, I noticed, during the time
when the face was suffused, that the pulse, which previously had been beating
at 80 per minute, did not rise to more than 86 beats, but became much
relaxed and even feeble, regaining its tone within a few seconds after the
agent was withdrawn. Jor practical purposes, the nitrite of butyl presents
to me no advantages over the nitrite of amyl, andit has the disadvantage that
it is more easily decomposed.

GeneRAL Review or THE NITRITES IN REGARD TO PuysroLocicaL ACTION.

With these observations on nitrite of butyl we may, I think, consider that the
_ physiological properties of the nitrites is, in an elementary sense at least,
understood. They all present a beautiful unity of action, varied only in in-
creasing force and persistency of action as the weight of each representative
in the series increases with and from increase of carbon. The summary of
their action is briefly as follows: they act instantaneously on the nervous
system of organic life, reducing the power or force of that system, and re-
ducing, as a result, the vascular tension; thus they cause relaxation of
extreme vessels, and that suffusion of blood which is the most prominent
visible sign of their effect; thus they cause intense action of the heart,
followed by quickened respiration, due to the liberation of the heart from
the tension to which it is normally subject; thus, administered internally,
they cause (and this is specially the case with nitrite of ethyl or nitric
ether) free secretion of organs, such as the kidneys, which are under the
control of the organic nervous ceutres.

_ Acting in the manner thus stated on the vascular tension, they produce an

action on the voluntary muscles and on the brain, leading to paralysis of
muscular and mental power, when carried to extremity. But this paralysis
is in every sense a secondary action of the nitrites ; they produce no anes-
thesia showing primary action in the cerebral organs ; they cause no con-
yulsion of the voluntary muscles showing primary action on the cerebrum,
cerebellum, or spinal cord. Unconsciousness and muscular prostration, when
they follow, are due to destruction of organic nervous control over the vessels
which supply the great nervous centres with blood; and the final general
prostration is syncope, syncope as pure as that emotional syncope which
awaits fear or intense anger, or the equivalent of these, sudden loss or re-
moyal of blood from the centres of volitional power.

I hope I do not seem to press these facts unduly ; for in reality, when the
whole question is seen by the experimental physiologist, it cannot be too
strongly urged. In the organic nitrites we hold in our hands a series of che-
mical agents which exert an influence over a specific set of organs in animal
bodies, and over those organs in one specifie way. Further, these agents,
against our wills, act through precisely the same means and in precisely the
same manner as do the more obscure, because more refined, influences which
excite daily in us what we call emotions. An act which shall call forth a
plush, an act which shall call forth the pallor of terror, an act which shall
produce involuntary secretion, an act which shall make the heart beat with
an intensity that is painfully felt,—all and any of these acts, which would be
called psychical, have their precise physical analogues in the actions of the
organic nitrites. In this study the physiologist meets the psychologist on
common ground; his facts as to effects from the physical cause are as sure
as are facts from the effects of mental causes; but how either the physical or
_ the psychical impression is made remains yet to be discovered. It may in either

ease be an immediate impression conyeyed by the neryous expanses of the
1869, 25

a Hi oes

410 REPORT—1869.

senses direct to the organic nervous sympathetic chain. It may be in either
case an indirect impression conveyed from within the body, and, as one would
imagine by the blood, to that nervous chain. But why the nervous chain
should thereupon lose its controlling power, what molecular change is com-
municated to it to make it lose its power, we cannot answer at present. We
must be content to wait, satisfied for the moment with the possession of a truth
which fifty years ago the most sanguine physiologist would not have dreamed
of, that there is a class of organic bodies by which we are able to induce,
in a simple physical way, what have been called up to this time emotional
phenomena. .

One other observation deserves a moment’s expression, inasmuch as it
explains a well-known symptom which many persons have experienced.
If the heart be thrown into sudden action by any external cause, by breath-
ing, for example, the vapour of nitrite of amyl, there is produced in the head
a peculiar pulsating burring sound, which sometimes amounts to a whistle or
coo. In some forms of disease, especially in debility following upon emotional
distress or anxiety, this sound becomes persistent and intensely distressing.
In both cases the sound is produced by the same cause. The vascular ten-
sion reduced at those points of the body where the vessels pass through
rigid canals or openings, there is vibration set up in the resistant parts,
which vibration produces audible sound. In the entrance of the internal
carotid artery into the skull by the carotid canal, we have a perfect arrange-
ment for the production of this pulsating murmur; and as the canal is in close
and solid connexion with the organ of hearing, the murmur is clearly and
often painfully audible whenever the artery (if I may use the expression) is
not under guard, z. ¢. is not under the full control of the organic nervous
power.

THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF HYDRIDES,

The first of the hydrides named in the Table, and the last, have been
studied in regard to their physiological action and values.

Hydride of Methyl or Protylen.—This body, known commonly as fire-
damp in mines, and as marsh-gas on land, is made by heating together
acetate of soda, caustic potassa, and well-dried lime. Its properties and
composition will be seen in the Table. I have already (at Dundee) reported
on the action of this hydride and have little to add to what was there
recorded. To make it produce rapid anwsthesia the gas must be inhaled nearly
undiluted with air. It produces no excitement, and recovery from its effects,
if the inhalation be stopped in time, is extremely rapid: a few seconds are,
indeed, sufficient to restore consciousness and muscular power. The gas can
only kill by a process of gradual negation of respiration, by replacing air re-
quired for the oxidation of the blood. It has no irritating properties, and is
breathed without causing spasm. I repeat here what I was able to state at
Dundee, that death from fire-damp must be of the easiest kind, must in fact
be as easy as going to sleep, a circumstanee which accounts probably for the
sleep-like placidity and posture in which the dead have been found after fatal
accidents from inhaling this substance. From the circumstance that the hydride
is found in the air of marshes,it has been taxed as the cause of malarious fevers.
There is no evidence whatever to support this view—no evidence whatever
that the gas is anything more than an immediate and simply negative poison,
the effects of which cease so soon as the animal body has been removed from
its influence. It is certainly possible that a person exposed for several hours

to the gas mixed with air would be reduced in power, and would suffer from

OE amet cend tapes. 4s

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF THE METHYL AND ALLIED SERIES, 411

reduction of temperature ; but from this he would recover, if there were no
other conditions acting injuriously at the same time. It is fair, therefore, to
assume that in the atmosphere which generates malarial fever, the hydiide is
only a coincident with the true cause of fever, and that either dampness or
the presence of some other organic poison is at work to produce the more
serious and persistent consequences of exposure to marsh-air.

Hydride of methyl in the pure state might be used as nitrous oxide is
often used, viz. to produce insensibility to pain by gaseous suffocation ; but
the principle of the method is rude and unworthy of science. ,

Hydride of Amyl.—Hydride of amyl may be made by adding iodide of amyl
to water with zinc, and applying heat at 288° F. (=1422° C.) for some hours.
On distillation a fluid comes over composed of amylene and the hydride ; the
mixture is left in contact with caustic potassa for twenty-four hours, and is
then rectified from a water-bath at 35°C. The distillate is immersed in a
freezing-mixture, and treated with anhydrous and fuming sulphuric acid,
which retains the amylene, and the hydride is distilled over. This, which is
Frankland’s process, is described in full in Watts’s Chemical Dictionary ;
but to get by this plan any sufficient quantity of fluid for a series of physio-
logical researches would be practically out of the question. Fortunately the
hydride forms one of the parts of American petroleum, and from a specimen
of this petroleum Dr. Versmann has been able to distil for me a sufficient
quantity of the fluid for my purposes. The specimen presents all the cha-
racteristics of the hydride; the specific gravity is 0-625, and it boils at
86° F. (=30°C.). Asa fluid it is colourless and odourless ; itis very agreeable
to breathe, and creates no irritation. There is a specimen before the Section.

A distillation from petroleum, having all the properties of hydride of amyl,
was tried in America about two years ago as a general anesthetic, and was
reported on favourably. I therefore subjected the hydride to careful experi-
ment, and found it to be truly a general anesthetic that might admit of
practical application. In order to produce decided effects, 40 per cent. of the
_ yapour of the hydride must be present in the inspired air; and so volatile is
the fluid that constant repetition of it is necessary, unless it be placed in a
_ receiver admitting very little air. Administered by inhalation to pigeons, in
sufficient quantity to produce determinate insensibility, the period required
_ for the production of symptoms was found to be under a minute, and the in-
sensibility to be profound in a period a little less than two minutes. The
insensibility in the bird is attended with some convulsive movement and
drawing back of the head. Recovery from the effects of the hydride is
_rapid, not so rapid as in the case of the hydride of methyl, but still rapid, the
animal regaining its full consciousness and muscular power within two
minutes. The temperature of the body remains nearly unchanged. The
inclination is towards a reduction of temperature, but it does not exceed the
a of a degree on Fahrenheit’s scale. The blood undergoes no obvious
change.

To observe the extreme effects of the hydride, animals, after they had be-
come insensible, were allowed to sleep into death. The process of death is
gentle, and the respiration and circulation cease nearly simultaneously, the
_ respiration failing a little first. The temperature of the body falls during the
last few minutes of life from 1° to 14° of Fahrenheit’s scale. The pupil
dilates. After death the heart is found well charged with blood on both
sides, and the organ on exposure to the air starts into vigorous action. The
blood on the left side is darkened in colour, but the coagulation is natural, and
the corpuscles are uninfluenced, The lungs, as is common when both sides of
2E2

ee a a.

412 REPORT—1869.

the heart are left full of blood, are natural in colour ; they are not blanched,
as after chloroform, nor congested, as after ether. The brain is natural.
The muscular irritability is long retained.

To put the hydride to further test, I inhaled the vapour of it myself from a
Vulcanite inhaler, such as I employ for bichloride of methylene: the vapour
was very agrecable to breathe, caused no cough and no irritation, but a sen-
sation as of a gentle warmth or glow in the chest. After six inspirations I felt
evidences of change in the cerebral circulation, giddiness, and inability to
stand, with the common swaying movement, or sense of movement, which
marks the first degree of anesthetic sleep. In a little time I lost conscious-
ness for a few moments; but the inhaler being removed I quickly recovered,
and in three minutes was perfectly well. Neither nausea, nor headache, nor
chilliness followed.

Owing to the low boiling-point of this hydride, it admits of being employed
by the physiologist for many inquiries bearing on the restoration of animal
life after some forms of death. Thus, after destroying in frogs, by the action
of extreme cold, those functions or acts which constitute what is called life,
the process of recovery is best determined by regulating the slow restoration
or return of heat, and by preventing a suddenness of reaction which ordinarily
is fatal. Now, by immersing the animal in the hydride of amyl, and then
warming, there is no danger of warming too quickly, as the fluid boils at 86°
Fahr. ; neither is there any necessity for removing the animal until, by the
escape of a bubble of gas from the mouth, the first indications of restoring
respiration are afforded; then the animal removed will, in most cases, re-
cover in the open air. I have seen the frog recover after immersion under
this hydride for a period of seven minutes.

On the whole, I am of opinion that pure hydride of amyl might, if it were
needed, be employed as a general anesthetic, and that, for short operations
especially, it would be effective. I do not, however, put it above the other
anesthetics, but would rather assign to it the same position as belongs to
ethylic ether, amylene, and nitrous oxide gas.

I must not, however, pass over some other minor but, in the aggregate,
important uses of this agent. At a very moderate cost now, a hydride may
be obtained which, though not absolutely answering to its pure chemical
character, is sufficiently pure for the purposes I shall name, and which must,
when the value of it is made known, ensure, I think, its employment by all
practitioners of the healing art. Iwill notice some of its applications in
detail, but by no means all of them.

From the fact that the hydride boils at a temperature twelve degrees below .

the natural temperature of the human body, it is very useful as a fluid for
producing, in form of spray, rapid local insensibility. In most persons it
produces insensibility, in this manner, in a period of from one to two
seconds, and for mere punctures or slight incisions it answers well; but for
larger essays it is too volatile, and does not cover a sufficient surface. It is
advisable, therefore, to dilute it with absolute ether, by which means the
best ga that can be employed for producing rapid local insensibility is
secured.

The hydride of amyl dissolves some juices and fats with great facility.
Camphor and spermaceti dissolve in it freely, and the vegetable and animal
oils mix with it. Advantage may be taken of these properties for making a
solution I have placed before the Section, and which is most valuable for re-
lieving the pain of burns. The solution is made by saturating the hydride
with spermaceti, then adding camphor until that ceases to dissolve, and finally

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF THE METHYL AND ALLIED SERIES. 413

mixing the compound which has been produced with an equal quantity of
olive-oil. When this solution is applied on wool, over a burned surface, the
cold produced by the evaporation of the hydride gives instant relief; while
the thin layer of fatty substance left behind effectually excludes the air, and
forms a false pellicle or skin, which greatly promotes cure.

Iodine dissolves readily in the hydride, as is seen in another solution which
is before us. ‘The solution thus formed is the best of all solutions of iodine,
for a variety of purposes ; when the solution is applied to the skin, the hydride
psses away at once, and the iodine is left ina thin and even layer. The solu-
tion is also useful for deodorizing ; for this purpose pieces of cloth may be satu-
rated in it, and when the iodine is deposited on the fabric it may be suspended
in the air, when the iodine is quickly diffused mechanically, but evenly, through
the air. Iodine inhalation, weak solutions of the compound being used, may
be readily and elegantly applied by means of this compound.

If strong solution of ammonia be well shaken with hydride of amyl, and
then allowed to stand, small bubbles of gas are steadily evolved, and after a
time the hydride containing a large quantity of ammonia may be decanted
off; this ammoniated hydride is an excellent antiseptic, and can be used with
advantage by the anatomist for the preservation of animal structures in the
fresh state in a closed jar. The same solution charged with camphor can be
used by the student of natural history as a preservative of his specimens.
Lastly, the ammoniated hydride can be applied medicinally by inhalation in
eases where the physician wishes to administer ammonia rapidly, as in
searlet fever and in states of great prostration. The ammonia can be so
diluted in this manner as to be rendered agreeable for inhalation.

I could enumerate other uses of the hydride of amyl, but must pass them
by with the further remark that, so soon as its value is known and appre-
ciated, it must become as common an agent in medicine as ammonia, or ether,
or alcohol.

Review or tHe Hyprives.

Reviewing the action of the class of hydrides up to the hydride of amyl,
We may consider each body of the series to be, in a physiological sense, nega-
tive in character. Very stable as chemical compounds, practically insoluble
in the blood, boiling at a lower temperature than the living body, producing
no irritation, they inflict no injury on the living economy unless they are in-~
haled in such quantities as to exclude air. Then they produce, like amylene,
a temporary insensibility, their power in this respect increasing with the
increase of the carbon in the series; but, owing to the insolubility of the
agents in the blood, the insensibility is in all cases of very brief duration,
and would quickly be a fatal insensibility if, by continuous administration, it
were prolonged.

THE ALCOHOL SERIES,
Mernyiic Atconon,

At the Meeting at Dundee I reported at length on the action of methylic
alcohol. I have now to add to the Report then made respecting it some
observations in relation to its influence on the animal temperature. In its
effects, in this particular, methylic alcohol resembles chloroform, but in a
more striking degree. In birds (pigeons) I found, when the third degree of
intoxication was produced, that in so short a period as ten minutes the tem-
perature was reduced four degrees Fahr., and that the decline of tempera-
ture continued during the whole period of recovery, reaching at the lowest a
decline of eight degrees on Fahrenheit’s scale. The temperature begins to

AVA REPORT—1869.

rise about two hours after the first indications of recovery; but a period of
from seven to eight hours is required to restore the body, even under fayour-
able conditions, to the natural temperature. In one case these effects of
reduction of temperature were obseryed when the external temperature of the
air was 80° Fahr. (263° C,).

Ernyiic ALconon.

Much research has been made of late years on the physiological action of
ethylic or common alcohol, much controversy has followed research, and
points unsettled are too numerous to mention. Feeling it quite impossible
to enter into one point of controversy without involving myself in many
others, I determined simply to make one or two new and independent in-
quiries, and to place on record the results. What I have done relates to the
influence exerted by alcohol on animal temperature, the condition of the
organs of the body during extreme alcoholic intoxication, and the mode of
death when the poison is carried to the fatal degree.

On the particular points of temperature, I have to record that in the pro-
eressive stages of alcoholic intoxication, the tendency in all cases is to a de-
erease of animal heat. In the progress towards complete intoxication under
alcohol, however administered, there are, as under chloroform, four distinct
degrees or stages. The first is a stage of simple exhilaration, the second of
excitement, the third of rambling insensibility, and the fourth of entire
unconsciousness, with muscular prostration. The duration of these stages
can be modified in the most remarkable manner by the mode of administra-
tion ; but whether they are developed and recovered from in an hour or a
day, they are always present except in cases where the quantity of alcohol
administered is in such excess that life is endangered or instantly destroyed.
In the first or exhilarative stage the temperature undergoes a slight increase ;
in birds a degree Fahrenheit, in mammals half a degree. With the stage of
excitement, in the second stage, during which there is vomiting in birds, or
attempts at vomiting, the temperature comes back to its natural standard and
soon begins to fall ; and during the third and into the fourth degree the decline
continues. In the fourth degree the temperature falls to its first minimum,
and in birds comes down from five and a half to six degrees; in rabbits from
two and a half to three degrees. In this condition the animal temperature
often remains until there are signs of recovery, viz. conscious or semicon-
sclous movements, upon which there may be a second fall of temperature
of two or even three degrees in birds. In this course of recovery I have seen,
for instance, the temperature of a pigeon which had a natural standard of
110° reduced to 102°. Usually with this depression of force there is desire
for sleep, and with perfect rest in a warm air there is return. of animal heat;
but the return is very slow, the space of time required to bring back the
natural heat being from three to four times longer than that which was re-
quired to reduce it to the minimum.

In these fluctuations of temperature the ordinary influences of the ex-
ternal air play an important part as regards duration of fluctuations, and to
some extent as regards extremes of fluctuation.

The introduction of alcohol into the body in frequent and small quan-
tities, so as not to produce any of the stages of true intoxication, is attended
with a reduction of temperature limited to one and a half degree in small
mammalia, The effect is definite on the administration, and occurs under
varying circumstances—hefore food, after food, and in atmospheres of different

warmths. It is most definite when the alcohol is administered by the hypo-
dermic method. :

ee eee ee ee

.
4

A ee a

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF THE METHYL AND ALLIED SERIES. 419

When the alcoholic sleep from ethylic alcohol is pushed to the fullest extent,
a very long time elapses after perfect unconsciousness is developed before the
respiratory, circulatory, and even some of the voluntary muscles cease to act.
The movement of the voluntary muscles is not, however, by an act of consci-
ousness ; it is not reflex, and it cannot be excited by the touch. It is usually
an automatic moyement, and will continue in the limbs for a long time. At
last nothing remains to give evidence of the continuance of life except the
motion of the heart and diaphragm, the persistency of the action of which is
amongst the most curious facts in physiology. The final act rests with the
heart ; the heart continues to contract when the breathing has ceased, and
is found contracting on the right side in both auricles and ventricles, on
opening the body, when all the outward indications of motion are over.

I notice particularly that prolonged tremors do not seem to be produced by
ethylic alcohol.

The appearances immediately after death from ethylic alcohol intoxica-
tion are very distinctive. The brain is found charged with fluid blood, the
sinuses distended with exudation of serum in the ventricles and in the mem-
branes. The small vessels of the brain are greatly injected. The lungs are
white, free from congestion, and well inflated with air. The heart is full of
blood on both sides, and its air-vessels are engorged. The liver is natural,
and the gall-bladder is not distended. The inner surface of the stomach,
eyen when the intoxication is induced by the gradual inhalation of the vapour
or by subcutaneous injection, is very much congested, and a strong odour of
the alcohol pervades any contents that may be within the stomach. The
spleen is normal, and the alimentary tract below the stomach is normal. The
kidneys are intensely congested, blood exuding freely from the cortical part,
in points or specks. The bladder is usually empty. The blood on the left,
as well as on the right side of the heart, is dark, but on exposure to air it
soon reddens, and coagulation is firm. The corpuscles undergo great changes,
even before death; they are shrunken, crenate, and some are elongated and
flattened, with truncated ends.

Buryrtic ALconon.

Butylic alcohol, obtained by fractional distillation from fusel-oil, or from
the oil of beet-root, or from molasses left after distillation of ethylic alcohol,
differs, as our Table shows, from ethylic alcohol in the proportion of carbon
and hydrogen. Compared with common alcohol, its vapour-density is as 37 to
23, its specific gravity is as ‘803 to -792, and its boiling-point is as 230° F,
to 172°. It is a heavier alcohol: it mixes indifferently with water, but is
not unpleasant to take when diluted and sweetened. Applied to the lips and
tongue in the purée state, it burns more than ethylic alcohol, and it leaves
a very peculiar and prolonged local numbness, not unlike the numbness left
by tincture of aconite. The knowledge of this fact may prove of service in
the application of the alcohols for the local relief of pain.

The physiological action of butylic alcohol is that of ethylic alcohol exerted
in a slower and more marked degree, and with some symptoms added. The
period required for producing intoxication is full double that required by
the ordinary spirit, and the time required for recovery is longer still. The
variations of temperature run parallel with those which we have seen under
ethylic alcohol, and indeed, with the exception of time, there is a complete
parallelism up to the third degree of intoxication and the stage of recovery.
In the third degree, after the temperature is depressed to the minimum of
that degree, distinct tremors of the muscles appear. They come on at

416 REPORT—1 869.

regular intervals spontaneously ; but they can be excited by a touch at any
time, and in the intervals, when they are absent, there is frequent twitching
of muscles. The tremors themselves are not positively muscular contrac-
tions, but are rather vibrations through the whole muscular system, and are
connected with extreme want of true contractile power. While they are pre-
sent the temperature declines, and a difference of a full half degree may be
observed both before and after each paroxysm. When the tremors are once
established, they may continue without further administration of alcohol for
ten and twelve hours steadily ; and so slowly do they decline, that I have seen
them occurring in the pigeon thirty-six hours after the intoxication. They
subside by remission of intensity and prolongation of interval of occurrence.

There cannot, I think, be a doubt that these tremors, produced in animals
by the heavier alcohol, are identical with the tremors observed in the human
subject during the alcoholic disease known as delirium tremens. What the
nature of the muscular moyementis, what unnatural relationships exist between
the nervous system, the muscles, and the blood to cause them, these are ques=
tions of singular interest. Involuntary, developed even against the will, ex-
cited by any external touch that sets up prostration, attended with great
reduction of temperature, and remaining so long as the temperature is low,
they indicate clearly an intense depression of animal force, a condition in which
all the force that remains seems to be expended on the organic acts of life,
on the support of the motions of the heart, the muscles of respiration, and the
functions of the secerning glands. The voluntary systems of nerve and muscle
are indeed well nigh dead, and recovery rests entirely on the maintenance of
the organic neryous power.

In the extreme stage of intoxication from butylic alcohol the arterial
blood loses its red colour, and the blood, which flows with difficulty from
veins, is of dirty hue. Coagulation occurs readily, but the clot is loose, and
yields much coloured serum. ‘The corpuscles are closely massed together in
rolls, several appearing as if they made one distinct column. The fibrine
separates in masses or bands, forming a coarse network or mesh very di-
stinctive in character.

Amytic ALCoHOoL.

I have already reported, at the Birmingham Meeting of the Association,
on amylic alcohol. In its effects, as a reference to my Report will show, it
differs only from butylic alcohol in that the symptoms are even more pro-
longed. The tremors are most persistent, and complete recovery, as indicated
by restoration of the natural temperature, is not often attained in a shorter
interval than three days. At the same time, owing probably to the compara-
tive insolubility of this alcohol by the blood, it is very difficult to destroy life
with it by simple gradual administration. When to the ordinary observer
recovery seems impossible, when there is perfect insensibility, when there is
perfect paralysis of voluntary muscle, when even tremors cannot be excited,
and when the only evidence of life is a feeble respiration at intervals of
many seconds, recovery may be made certain.

ReEvIEw oF THE ALCOHOLS.

Reviewing the alcohols as a class, we find that their physiological action,
less extended in regard to particular organs than the nitrites, and more ex-
tended than the insoluble hydrides, is expressed both on the organie and
cerebro-spinal centres, reducing the active functions of both systems, and
at last so reducing the function of the cerebral hemispheres as to remove con-

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF THE METHYL AND ALLIED SERIES. 417

sciousness altogether. The leading peculiarity of the action is the slowness
with which those centres which supply the heart and diaphragm with power
are affected. In this lies the comparative safety of alcohol; acting evenly and
slowly, the different systems of organs fall together, with the exception of
the two on which the continuance of mere animal life depends. But for this
every deeply intoxicated man would die.

The alcohols are strictly anesthetics; and indeed the first published case
of surgical operation under anesthetic sleep was performed, in 1839, by Dr.
Collier on a person who was rendered insensible by breathing the fumes of
alcohol. But the anesthesia is not commendable; it is too slow and too
prolonged. Methylic alcohol, if it could be entirely purified and made inodo-
rous, might be used, and with methylic ether it would be one of the safest of
agents ; but as yet its inhalation is disagreeable.

The difference of action of the alcohols, as they ascend in the series and as
the carbon increases, is most striking. The slowness of action, the prolonga-
tion of action step by step, from the lighter to the heavier compounds, is a
fact as definite as any in physiology. Curious is it also that neither
the methylic nor the ethylic alcohols produce those tremors in the inferior
animals which we recognize and specially name from their occurrence in
man; while the butylic and the amylic most effectively call them forth. -
Considering how much of the heavier alcohols is distributed for consumption,
especially among the lower orders, I think it is possible that the heavier
fluids may also be the cause of delirium tremens in the human subject, as they
are frequently the cause of that continued coldness, lassitude, and depression
which follow the well-known dinner with “ bad wine.”

Speaking honestly, I cannot, by any argument yet presented to me, admit the
alcohols through any gate that might distinguish them as separate from other
chemical bodies. I can no more accept them as foods than I can chloroform,
or ether, or methylal. That they produce a temporary excitement is true;
but as their general action is quickly to reduce animal heat, I cannot see
how they can supply animal force. I see clearly how they reduce animal
‘power, and can show a reason for using them in order to stop physical or

to stupify mental pain; but that they give strength, 7. ¢. that they supply
_ material for construction of fine tissue, or throw force into tissues supplied by
other material, must be an error as solemn as it is widespread.

The true place of the alcohols is clear; they are agreeable temporary shrouds,
The savage, with the mansions of his soul unfurnished, buries his restless
energy under their shadow. The civilized man, overburdened with mental
labour, or with engrossing care, seeks the same shade; but it is shade, after
all, in which, in exact proportion as he seeks it, the seeker retires from per-

fect natural life. ‘lo search for force in alcohol is, to my mind, equivalent to
the act of seeking for the sun in subterranean gloom until all is night.

As yet alcohol, the most commonly summoned of accredited remedies, has
never been properly tested to meet human diseases. I mean by this, that it
has never been tested as alcohol of a given chemical composition, of a given
purity, and in given measures. Wines, beers, spirits, are mixtures—com-
pounds of alcohols, and compounds of alcohols with ethers and other organic
substances. It is time, therefore, now for the learned to be precise respecting
aleohol, and for the learned to learn the positive meaning of one of their
‘most potent instruments for good or for evil; whereupon I think they will
place the alcohol series in the position I have placed it, even though their
prejudices in regard to it are, even as mine are, by moderate habit and
confessed inconsistency, in its favour,

NO ee

—— —. fs

418 REPORT—1869.

THE CHLORIDES.

I have in previous Reports brought forward the properties of the chlorides
of methyl and ethyl. The first is an admirable anesthetic, when inhaled in
the proportion of 15 per cent.: it ranks in safety next to methylic ether, and
a compound made of it with absolute ethylic ether is perfect. The objection
to itis that, being a gas, it is not easily manageable.

Chloride of ethyl stands in the same position as chloride of methyl ; but
the action of it is much more prolonged, and a longer time is required for the
production of action. With absolute ether it forms an excellent compound,
the objection to which is, simply, its instability.

The chlorides of butyl and amyl have an action so much alike that they
may be taken together; both are simple and effective anesthetics, and both
are pleasant to inhale, the butyl chloride being most agreeable.

The peculiarity of their action is that the sleep they induce is extremely
prolonged, this being specially the fact with chloride of amyl. Pigeons when
put to sleep by breathing ten per cent. of chloride of amy] pass slowly through
the three degrees of anesthetic insensibility easily and without convulsion,
but invariably with slight vomiting. From ten to twelve minutes of inhala-
tion are required to produce perfect sleep, and the temperature of the body
falls full four degrees. The sleep once produced will continue in the common
air at 70° Fahr. for fifteen minutes profoundly. The awakening is quick, and
recovery is perfect.

In rabbits the action is much the same; seven minutes are required to
produce safe narcotism, and the sleep produced is very profound. The
breathing is tranquil, and the eyes, as is the case from amylene, usually re-
main open. A rabbit will lie five-and-thirty and even forty minutes in
this state of insensibility before showing signs of recovery, and the tem-
perature will fall from 3° to 4° Fahr. If the inhalation be carried too far,
the profound sleep I have mentioned passes slowly into death, the sleep
being prolonged in the common air at 70° Fahr. a full hour and a half prior
to death. During this time the respiration for the most part is natural, with
occasional double breathing ; but the temperature of the body is all the
while gradually declining, and is even reduced, while yet the animal is breath-
ing, to 21° Fahr. below its natural standard. Thus in one case the temperature
of a rabbit fell from 103° Fahr. to 82° Fahr. ‘This is the lowest reduction I
have seen in connexion with symptoms of living action ; but from this extreme
condition recovery is possible if the respiration be sustained in a warm air.

After death from the chloride of amyl the heart. is found charged with
blood on both sides, and the action of the auricles and ventricles is long per-

sistent. The blood is very slow to coagulate; but the venous and arterial _

bloods retain their colour. The lungs are natural. The blood-corpuscles are
much changed; they are shrunken, stellate, and elongated, with truncated
ends,

The brain is left bloodless and of the purest white.

Nove on THE CHLORIDES.

The whole of the substances in the chloride series are simple and pure anes-

thetics, andthe power of their action obviously increases in proportion as there is
increase of carbon. They act most readily and determinately on the cerebrum,

and on the centres of volition and common sensibility. They have little action —

on the organic nervous system, and they interfere, even in full doses, but very
gradually yith the movements of the heart and respiration. The chlorides

ee ee Tae

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF THE METHYL AND ALLIED SERIES. 419

of butyl and amyl have yet to take a very important part in medicine ; they
admit of being applied in many cases where a prolonged sleep is required ;
for this purpose they may to a considerable extent replace opium,

THE IODIDES.

The action of the iodides of methyl and of amyl have already been reported
on: they both produce insensibility; the first causing free elimination from
glands, and the second causing tremors resembling those induced by amylic
alcohol.

The iodide of ethyl resembles the methyl compound closely in its action,

_ but it produces sleep more quickly and with less irritation. The vomiting

produced by it is severe, and its action, if carried to the production of insen-
sibility, is not comfortably safe. It may be administered cither by inhalation
with ether or by subcutancous injection ; it brings down temperature six
degrees in birds. The iodide of butyl is very slow in its action, and produces
symptoms closely resembling those caused by the amyl iodide, viz. tremors,
and, during recovery from the insensibility, motions, partly voluntary, in a
circle or semicircle, which continue for a long period. The temperature falls
under the influence of this agent from five to six degrees in pigeons, and from
two to three degrees in rabbits. The colour of the blood is much heightened,
the venous appearing as arterial blood, and the coagulation is very slow. The
corpuscles are not injured, and show no disposition to coalesce. Recovery
from the insensibility produced by the butyl iodide is good. The iodide may be
administered by inhalation with ether or methylic alcohol, or by subcutaneous
injection ; and it has this advantage, that of all the iodides it shows least dis-
position to undergo change on accidental exposure to the air.

Nor on tue Loprpes.

The substitution of the element iodine in the organic bodies, marked in our
Table, induces evident difference of physiological action. The action of the
iodine is throughout on glandular structure, an excitation of glandular action
and elimination, the action declining as the quantity of iodine is reduced.
The whole of these organic iodides exert an eliminatory as well as an anodyne
influence, and for this reason they promise to be of great service in medicine.
lodide of butyl will probably be found to be the best of the series.

To make them applicable as internal remedies, I have studied carefully
the best mode of preparing them, and find the form of syrup by far the most
effective and conyenient. Specimens of syrups are before the Section.

PART IL—MEANS OF RESTORATION.

The second and concluding part of my Report has reference to the all-im-
portant question of the best means of meeting what seem to be fatal accidents
arising from the administration of those agents which are mos commonly in
use. In this direction of research I have had unexampled opportunities of
study, and I regret only that the length of my Report necessitates an undue
brevity on this one particular topic.

The substances which commonly produce dangerous symptoms divide them-
selves into two classes,—those which produce prolonged intoxication, and
those which produce quick insensibility and immediate death. The alcohols
are illustrations of the first of these series; the chlorides and ethers, and,

sey all the very yolatile and gaseous narcotics, are illustrations of the
second,

420 REPORT—1869.

Respecting the means of recovery from the intoxication by the slowly acting
narcotics, the rules are extremely few and simple: they are two only, and they
include all; they are (a) exposure of the animal to warm air, and (6) in
extremity the steady and efficient maintenance of artificial respiration.
When these rules are rigorously followed, death from the profoundest intoxi-
cation is rare. This remark applies even to those extreme examples where
there are tremors of muscles and all the signs of instant dissolution. The
temperature of the air should be, as a rule, about ten degrees below that of
the natural temperature of the animal. But in intervals of great depression
the temperature may be raised to ten and even twenty degrees above the
degree of temperature natural to the animal.

In regard to recovery from the extreme and sudden effects of the second
class of substances, moderate warmth of air is again an advantage; but
sudden extreme warmth is often fatal, from the expansion of gaseous matter
in the lungs. From 60° to 65° Fahr. is the best temperature for recovery
from the more volatile agents.

In both classes of cases artificial respiration is often all essential; but it
may be used to kill as well as to save, unless it always be used with a perfect
knowledge of what it is to do.

And this I find to be a rule having no exception, that it is always bad
practice to excite artificial respiration so long as there is anything like a
natural respiration. If the subject be breathing once in ten or even fifteen
seconds, it is best to let well alone. The reason for this rule is simple, and
rests on the fact that the balance of circulatory and respiratory power must
be sustained. In health there is a nicely adjusted balance of pressure be-
tween the blood brought by the action of the right side of the heart to the
lungs to be aérated, and the air brought by the muscles of respiration to effect
aération. To resort to any violent means to enforce respiratory movement is
to destroy this delicate balance, to cause rupture of the air-vesicle, and infil-
tration of air into the surrounding tissue—emphysema. In brief, when the
current of blood passing from the right to the left side of the heart is
reduced, as it is in the cases we are treating of, to the extreme of debility,
the point of practice is to bring back the respiration and the circulation toge-
ther. We must treat the body, in a word, as we would a candle or lamp, the
active flame of which is extinguished, but the wick of which is still burning
without flame. It is also important, in performing this act, not to disturb
the body by any sudden movement, for the least motion, when the cireulation
is ebbing, is often sufficient to stop the enfeebled and hesitating heart.

To meet these refinements in the method of restoring animation, I have
invented the simple pocket-bellows which I place before you; they are made
of india-rubber, and the bellows part consists of two round balls, which can
be grasped by one hand. When the bellows are compressed, the ball on the
right-hand side yields the air it contains to the long exit-tube, while the
ball on the left hand yields the air it contains directly to the outer atmo-
sphere. When the bellows are allowed to fill with air, the right ball fills
directly from the pure air,the left from the long exit-tube. When, then,
the long exit-tube is inserted in the nostril, and the bellows are worked
together, one bellows fills the lungs, during compression, with pure air, the
other empties the lung, during expansion, of impure air. Thus the natural
conditions for breathing are carefully imitated, and the manipulation is
simple to the last degree. In using the bellows I commonly leave one nostril
quite open, putting the tube of the bellows firmly into the other. Then I
commence gentle inflation, and continue until such time as the action of

A heen

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF THE METHYL AND ALLIED SERIES. 421]

the heart has ceased, and all further attempts are useless, or until there is
evidence of natural respiration. But when there is once evidence of natural
respiration, [ am specially cautious to do no more unless the natural act
should of itself cease, when I repeat as before. In all my experiments I
have never seen the respiration cease after it has been restored, except in one
solitary case, and then the relapse was probaby due to injury due to forcing
the artificial respiration too strongly at first. On the other side I have fre-
quently seen the continuance of artificial respiration, after the establishment
of natural respiration, from the doing too much, destroy effectually the good
which had previously been accomplished.

With this convenient instrument, after cessation of breathing by any
of the narcotic vapours not heavier than chloroform, life seems to me to be
restorable in a large majority of cases, if the respiration be artificially com-
menced within three minutes after its cessation.

CONCLUSION.

I haye thus, Mr. President, brought my labours this year to aclose. Had
time been permitted for further research, I should have entered upon the
study of one or two new series of bodies; but the labour must be held in
reserve.

We cannot pretend in Reports like these to vie with our more fortunate
brethren in other departments of science. The physiologist has no ground of
pleasant work in common with the astronomer, the geographer, geologist,
ethnologist, or chemist. His researches are hard (unrelenting I had almost
said), excessively minute, laborious, and at all times, however absorbing,

painful; many of them can, in fact, only be carried on under a sense of duty
amounting to necessity, and with the sincerest, the most solemn feeling that
they are being conducted for the ultimate benefit of all the higher classes of
animal existence. In the preparation of this Report I have held on through-
out py this sense of duty, and earnest faith that good must come out of the
labour.

One object which I had directly in view has been to introduce certain new
substances which may be directly applied in our treatment for the cure of
disease, or for relief of pain; another object has been to discover the best
means of removing danger, from the use or abuse of some of the more
potent agents; but the leading idea of the Report is that which I brought
forward at the Birmingham Meeting—the idea of studying the action of
substances which are to become remedies, not by the old and faulty method
of so-called experience, but by proving physiological action and the relation
of chemical constitution to physiological action. I am certain the time must
soon come when the books we call “‘ Pharmacopeeias ”’ will be everywhere re-
constructed on this basis of thought, and when the chemist and physician
will become one and one. That this huge reform may be commenced by
order of the legislative authorities in this country is to me an earnest hope.
But whether this shall be the final result or not, I shall always recall, with
satisfaction, the remembrance that the idea of the reform and the first work-
ing of it began in England, and under the auspices of the British Association
for the Advancement of Science.

422 REPORT—1 869.

On the Influence of Form considered in relation to the Strength of
Railway Axles and other portions uf Machinery subjected to rapid
alternations of Strain. By ¥. J. Bramwe xt, C.E.

[Plates IIT. & IV.]

Brrore the days of railways, when not only was there much less machinery
on which to found observations, but such machinery as there was was
worked under far lighter strains and with far fewer alternations of those
strains in a given time than the machinery of the present day is subjected
to, the question of the influence of form was not an obtrusive one; and, in
fact, so long as the weakest part of any piece of machinery, such as a shaft,
had the sectional area due to the efficient resistance of the strains that could
be ascertained as coming upon it, little or no attention was paid to the
manner in which this smallest sectional area was to be associated with en-
largements formed for the purposes, in the case of shafts, of receiying wheels
or of acting as collars.

As an instance of this, few engineers in the pre-railway days would have
hesitated to make a cast-iron crank-shaft for a steam-engine in the manner
shown in fig. 1, Plate III. They would have taken care to give the bearings
(or journals as they are called) A A such a diameter as was judged to be suffi-
cient, having regard to the area of the piston, the pressure, and the length
of stroke ; but they would have made the body part, B, of the shaft and the
end, C, in the eye of the crank of a much larger section than that of the
bearings A A, would probably have made these parts square, and would without
hesitation have formed the junctions of the small parts A A with the large
parts B and C abruptly with right angles, as drawn in full lines, and with-
out any attempt to ease off the change in form by a bold curve, as shown
by the dotted lines.

The square shoulder would be left, in order to get a good endway bearing
against the sides of the supporting brass; and few, if any, engineers in those
days would have imagined that if the bearings A A were large enough, the
making the shaft at B and C of a greatly increased section, and the making the
junctions of these sections with the sections A by right angles, could im any
way be prejudicial to the strength of the bearings AA. The opinion was
(and, on the face of it, by no means an unreasonable opinion) that if the
bearings A A were strong enough, the fact of any neighbouring part being
stronger could not in any way detract from the value of A A.

Occasionally, however, there were occurrences which might have aroused
attention, but which, it is believed, were allowed to pass by, being accepted
as mere workshop accidents, and not thought worthy of inquiry by the
skilled engineer of the time; and still less were they treated as problems to
be solved by scientific men outside the profession of engineering.

Fig. 2, Plate III., illustrates one of these occurrences. It shows a form of
eccentric rod commonly then in use. In such arod the ends A A were made
of long screws to carry nuts to tighten against the lugs of the eccentric
band, as shown dotted at BB; these ends (A A) were forged in short lengths,
say, from C, and after having been turned at the parts A A and screwed, were
welded at C to the body of the rod.

It was by no means a common thing, but occasionally it did happen, that,
in the act of making the weld at C, the screwed end snapped off at D close
to the enlarged part without any blow whatever having been struck upon
the end. It has been said the occurrence was not a common one; but it was

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ee ee

ON THE INFLUENCE OF FORM ON STRENGTH. 423

sufficiently well known to experienced smiths to induce a prudent workman
to hold up, by grasping it with his leathern apron, the screw A while the
weld was being made at C; and this precaution was generally found suffi-
cient to prevent the fracture.

When, however, the fracture did occur, it was usually attributed to the
iron having been originally bad, or to its having been injured by the great
amount of local hammering in reducing it from the size of the collar to that
of the screw, or to its having been “ burnt,” or to some other such cause.

Enough has probably been said to give an idea of the state of engineer-
ing practice and knowledge on this subject of “‘form” in the pre-railway
times.

The introduction of railways, however, caused machinery to live a very
fast life, and now subjects an axle in the course of two or three years’ work
to the reception of alternating strains and shocks which it would have re-
quired half a century to inflict upon the crank-shafts of steady-going old-
fashioned engines. On the first establishment of railways the loads were
lighter and the pace was slower than the loads and pace of the present day; but
more than twenty-five years ago attention was directed to the fact that rail-
way axles, which appeared from their dimensions to be amply strong, were,
nevertheless, frequently broken after one or two years’ work; and accidents
to passengers arose from these breakages, which accidents caused engineers
to consider the subject of the fractures.

Fig. 3, Plate III., exhibits, in a somewhat exaggerated manner, the construc-
tion of axle then in use on railways, where A A are the bearings or journals,
BB enlarged parts to receive the wheels, and at CC there were left projec-
tions against which the backs of the wheel-bosses abutted. The journals were
made with collars (D D) at their outer ends, and the junctions of these collars
and of the enlarged parts B with the journals were made (as in the case of
the old form of crank-shaft shown in Plate IV.) by right angles.

It was found that axles thus constructed were liable to fracture at the
junctions of the journals A A with the parts B, and also at the terminations
of the enlarged parts B up against the shoulders CC.

Such a fracture always exhibited evidence of a crack of long standing round
about the axle, which crack had reduced the section of sound metal to but a
fraction (three-fourths to one-half) of the original area. (See fig. 3a.)

On one or two occasions instances of these fractures and the consideration of
their causes made the subject of papers brought before the Institution of Civil
Engineers. In the papers so presented (with the exception of Mr. Rankine’s,
to be hereafter mentioned), and in the discussions which ensued upon the
reading of those papers, many curious causes, including magnetism and elec-
tricity, were assigned for the fractures; the prevalent opinion, however,
appeared to be that the iron had been deteriorated by the rapid vibration.

In 1843 Mr. Rankine read a paper before the Institution of Civil Engi-
neers, in which he combated the deterioration theory, and attributed the
fractures to the fact of the fibres of the iron not following the outline of the
axle, they having been stopped short at the square shoulder by the turning
down of the journal out of the solid, and to the fact that, on the axle being
subjected to impact, the inertia of the particles on the outside of the enlarged
parts B caused a greater strain upon the outer part of the journals A. Mr.
Rankine recommended that the axle should be forged to the shape so as
to ensure the fibre following the outline, and further recommended that the
junction between the two different sizes should be made by a curve.

Mr. Rankine gaye instances of the beneficial results obtained with certain

42 4, REPORT—1869.

experimental axles thus constructed. This suggestion of Mr. Rankine is
now, so far as regards the curvature, always followed by men of skill. .

As a matter of fact, all makers of railway-wheels and axles, and all me-
chanical engineers of experience, now know that, in order to obtain an en-
during axle, it should be made (as shown at Plate III. fig. 4) with bold
hollows at the junctions of the journals with the parts on which the wheels
fit, and with the least possible projection at the back of the wheel-boss and the
formation of a curve at the point of juncture with even this small projection.

The ordinary railway-waggon or -carriage axle has, from its simplicity,
been used for an illustration ; but it need hardly be said that the cranked
axles (those important parts of locomotives) were found to give way under
similar conditions of abrupt change of form.

The writer of this paper has the very strongest conviction of the ulti-
mately fatal effects of these abrupt changes. He has known instances
where, after many years’ work in slow-going engines, large shafts have
broken through where changes in the area of section were abruptly made,
although these changes of area were but to a very slight extent. The writer
is in the habit of introducing into his specifications the following clause :—
“ Bold hollows are to be formed in the angles of all the bearings and against
all collars or other projections, on all shafts or axles, and generally through-
out the engine ; care is to be taken that every change of dimension is to be
made gradually.”

Even at the present day, except in the case of those intimately ac-
quainted with the exigencies of railway work, the necessity of attending to
these rules is not always appreciated. As an instance, the writer may mention
that, having directed the swivel-hook of a large crane to be made with bold
hollows, as shown at Plate III. fig. 5, the workman finished it in a man-
ner which he considered ‘a nice square workman-like job,” as shown at
Plate III. fig. 6. The materials were all that could be desired; but the writer
was compelled to reject this hook, because he has not the slightest doubt that,
had it been kept at work, it would very shortly have broken through at the
line wy.

Having said thus much in relation to that which may be called the history
of the subject, and having brought that history to the point where it is ad-
mitted, by all men of skill in railway work, that, to obtain immunity from
accident, it is not sufficient the weakest part of an axle should be strong
enough, but care must also be taken that no neighbouring part shall be
abruptly stronger, the writer will endeavour to show, in a plain, familiar,
and, he might say, workshop manner, some only, it may be, among many of
the reasons which cause abrupt enlargements to be attended with the disas-
trous effects we now know to accompany them; and in doing this he will
consider four different propositions,

1. That abrupt change of form is detrimental even under a quiescent

load.

2. That under impact abrupt change of form is detrimental even if the
object suffering the impact be supposed to be made of imponderable
matter.

3. That, further, under impact abrupt change is still more detrimental
when the weight and inertia of the object are considered.

4, That abrupt change is detrimental when the object is subjected to a
vibratory action.

As regards the first of these propositions, viz. that abrupt change of form is

detrimental even under a quiescent load, let Plate IV. fig. 7 represent a

——_—

ON THE INFLUENCE OF FORM ON STRENGTH. 425

suspended bar of uniform sectional area in its body part, and let fig. 8 re-
present another suspended bar of the same sectional area at its lower part as
the bar of fig. 7, but having an increased section at its upper part, such in-
crease being abruptly made; then, if these two bars be supposed to be sub-
jected to equal loads, there will be more strain at the outside of the smaller
part of the bar fig. 8, say at A A, than there is on any part of the uniformly
small bar fig. 7.

Assume that the bars are composed of a number of equally elastic pa-
rallel columns (and to get rid of any question of what may be called the
natural fibre of wrought iron not following the outline of bar fig. 8, let it be
supposed that the bars are made of cast iron or cast steel) ; now if these
elastic columns are capable within certain limits of equal increase of exten-
sion with equal increments of load, it follows that if the bar fig. 7, when
unloaded, were to have a horizontal line drawn across it, as at ay, and the
bar were then to be loaded, the result would be to lower this line to the
position wv’ y’, the line still being horizontal.

In fig. 8, however, where the wide upper part contains a greater number
of such elastic columns than its lower part (or than the bar of fig. 7 con-
tains), then if the horizontal line were in the unloaded state of the bar
drawn at ay (the part where the dimensions abruptly change), and if the
load were afterwards applied, vy could not be drawn down so great a dis-
tance as in the case of the bar fig. 7, because there are more elastic columns
on the upper part of the bar fig. 8 to uphold the load than there are in the
bar fig. 7; and, moreover, vy could not be drawn down so as to preserve
its straightness, unless it could be assumed that the elastic columns at the
sides of the wide upper part were equally extended with those in the middle ;
but it is obvious that these outer upper elastic columns, not having any
columns below to pull them, can only be brought down by their lateral con-
nexion with the neighbouring upper elastic columns; but this connexion being
in itself elastic, the effect can only be to draw the outer parts partially down,
and thus to cause the lowered line # y to assume the curved form of w’ y'. Now
it will be seen that this curved form of the line w’' y' involves the outer elastic
columns being more extended than the internal columns of the lower part
of the bar; but as the strain on the elastic columns may be ascertained by
referring to their extension, this proves that the strain is not uniformly distri-
buted, as in the case of the bar fig. 7, and that the outer elastic columns of
the lower part of the bar fig. 8 are more strained than the columns of fig. 7,
and still more strained than the internal columns of fig. 8.

An endeayour will be made to explain and establish this proposition by
the diagrams figs. 9 & 10. In these diagrams the cross bar B B is taken as
the equivalent of the lateral connexion which exists among the elastic columns
in the bars figs. 7 & 8.

Let fig. 9 represent three spiral springs, A A A, suspended at equal distances
apart, and attached at the bottom to the bar B hinged in the middle, and let
CCC be three other similar spiral springs attached at their upper ends to
the bar B, and at their lower to a perfectly rigid bar D carrying the load L.

Under such an arrangement as this the load would be uniformly distri-
buted, and the result would be simply to stretch the springs equally and to
lower the parts B and D from their original positions indicated by the
dotted lines. Now let it be assumed that, as in fig. 10, two other springs,
A’ A’, each equal to one of the springs A, have been placed alongside of
them and have been attached to the outer ends: of the hinged bar B, and
that the load L has been applied to the bottom bar D as before; the result

1869. 2F

426 REPORT—1869.

of such a construction would be to pull down the hinged bar B, no longer in
a manner to preserve its horizontality, but to bring it down in a bent form,
and thereby to cause less of the load to be carried by the middle lower
spring C than its fair share of one-third, as carried by the middle spring of
fic. 9, and to throw of necessity this deficiency as an extra burthen upon the
two outer springs CC,

The writer trusts he has succeeded in making his meaning clear, and has
proved his proposition that, even under a quiescent load, a sudden increase of
dimension in a suspended bar carrying such a load is a source of weakness.
If the writer has not succeeded in making his meaning clear, he is at a loss
how to illustrate it further, unless it be by some such proposition as this.
Assume 100 men opposed in line to 100 men also in line, then the conflict
would be equal for all; and then assume that one of the contending parties is
increased to 102 men by placing one man on each flank ; the two men will
clearly exert but little influence upon those who are fighting in the centre of
the lines, but their presence will be most injuriously felt by the two flank men
of their opponents, as these two men will each have to contend with two
adversaries in lieu of one. In the same way the internal elastic columns
in the lower part of the bar fig. 8 have only similar fibres to deal with up
above; but the external fibres of the lower part have not only to deal with
their own proper continuations above, but have also to deal with the fibres
above them in the parts projecting at the sides.

The second proposition comes now to be considered, namely, the influence
of the abrupt change of form when the force of impact has to be resisted by
the elasticity of an assumed imponderable bar.

Let D, fig. 11, be a plain bar of uniform section in its body part, but with
an enlargement at the top to enable it to be suspended, and with one at the
bottom to receive a collar, B, on which the weight, W, is supposed to fall
through the distance A B.

The bar D’, fig. 12, is assumed to have in its body part four times the sec-
tional area of D, but to terminate at its bottom end in a short piece E,
having a sectional area equal to D, or one quarter that of the upper part, D’.
This bar, D', is also provided with a weight, W, falling through A B on tothe
collar B’.

Now let the spring arrangements of figs. 13 & 14 be substituted for the
bars D and D’.

In fig. 13 there is a single spring D suspended from a support, and carrying
a collar B on which the weight W can strike on falling through the distance
AB.

In fig. 14 there are four suspended springs, D' D' D’ D’, each equal to D of
fig. 18. These springs are supposed to be united at their lower ends to an
absolutely inflexible bar X, below which is a short single spring E, similar
in area and strength, so far as it goes, to either of the springs D, D’.

This spring, E, supports the collar B’, to be struck by the weight W on fall-
ing through the distance A B equal to the A B of fig. 13.

Now if, as in any of these figs. 11 to 14, the weight W be suffered to fall
through the distance A B, the accumulated work residing in it when it
reaches B will equal the weight into the distance.

Let this accumulated work be represented by the parallelogram (fig. 15)
ABWW.

This accumulated work it is intended, in the case of fig. 13, to transfer to
the spring D, by the extension of that spring; but as the resistance offered —
by the spring will increase directly as the extension of it, the efficacy of the

3
:

ON THE INFLUENCE OF FORM ON STRENGTH. 427

«spring to receive accumulated work may be represented by the triangle fig. 16,
where a} represents the extension, and the several horizontal lines represent
‘the strains due to the different extensions, the strains increasing from 0 at
“a”to bw; and in order that the accumulated work represented by the
parallelogram A BW may be transferred to the spring, its extension must
be such that the area of the triangle ab w shall equal that of the parallelo-
gram ABW. The maximum strain brought on the spring under these cir-
-eumstances will clearly be no more than that represented by the length of
the horizontal line } w.

Now assume that the area of ABW has to be transferred to the tour

springs D’ of fig. 14, it is clear that only one-fourth of the area will have
to be borne by each spring, and the triangle representing the extension and
strain of each of the springs will only have one-fourth of the area of that of
abw.
_ let fig. 17 represent such a triangle, then, in order that its area may be
one-fourth, it follows that its sides must each be half of those of the tri-
-angle aw, that is, the length of al, the extension, will be half of ab, and
the length of 7 m, the final strain, will be half that of bw ; but if this be true
ef each of the springs D’, the aggregate strain on the four springs must be
double that of the strain on D.

But this double strain has, in the case of fig, 14, to be put on to the four
springs D' by means of the short single spring E, therefore this spring, which
is equal to D, will be put to a strain twice as much as that put upon D.

It may be well to remark, in passing, that the fact of the ultimate strains
put on in arresting the accumulated work being double in the case of fig. 14
to those of fig. 13, although the weight is the same in both cases, is by no
means inconsistent with the fact that when the springs are settled to rest
.and are supporting W as a quiescent load, the sum of the strains of the four
Springs D’ must exactly equal that of the single spring D.

It has not been thought necessary to take into account the small increase
in the fall of the weight W, due to the lowering of the collars B B’ on the ex-

tension of the springs.

There now comes to be considered the third proposition, that change of
form produces increased strain under impact, when the weight and inertia
of the object suffering the impact are taken into account.

It is quite certain that in practice, where a falling weight is arrested by a
collar B or B’, the accumulated work of that weight would be partly taken up
by the elasticity of the bar D or D', and would be partly taken up by the
setting of the particles of the bar itself into motion, such motion being
greatest at the bottom of the bar, and diminishing in the higher parts, until
cat the top of the bar it would become nothing.

Reverting to figs. 18, 14, 16, & 17, let it be assumed, for the sake of
simplicity, and as an illustration only, that all the weight of the apparatus
resides in the collars B B’, and that the collar B’ of the four-spring arrange-
ment, fig. 14, is four times as heavy as the collar B of the single-spring
‘arrangement, fig. 13.

_ Further, reverting to fig. 16, the weight W would be brought to rest in the
time during which it would traverse with a decreasing velocity the height a6,
_and in fig. 17 the weight would be brought to rest in the height al, half of
that of ab; and the time to bring the weight W to rest in this latter case of
fig. 17 would be half that required to bring it to rest in fig. 16.

_ Following this out, if the lines a6,al be divided into the same number
of equal parts, say ten each, then the time to travel over part 1 in fig. 17

2¥2

428 REPORT—1869.

must be half that required to travel over part 1 in fig. 16, and the length of
part 1 in fig. 17 must be half that of part 1 in fig. 16.

But the respective collars (B B’) must have their weights put into motion
with these velocities, so that the weight B’ has to move through half of the
space that B has to move through, and has to do it in half the time; but to
move a weight through half the space that another weight is moved through,
and in half the time occupied by that other weight, requires double the
pressure ; therefore it would take double the pressure to move B’ that it
would to move B, even if B and B’ were equal in weight; but B’ is four
times the weight of B, therefore it will take eight times the pressure to
move B’ that it will take to move B, and in this case also the eight times
the strain has to be put on by the single spring E, which thus gets eight times
as much strain as the spring D.

The fourth proposition has now to be considered, namely, that abrupt
change of form is a cause of weakness when vibratory action has to be
endured.

As already stated, this cause is the one that has been most recognized by
those who have touched upon the question.

The writer will not pretend to investigate what the value of this source
of weakness is, as no means suggest themselves to his mind for doing so ;
it may, however, fairly be assumed that the times of vibration in the
large section part of the bar will be different from those in the small, and
that at a point where the change of shape occurs there must be a discord in
the vibrations, and that thus the metal in this part must be exposed to
strains which would not occur were the vibrations on the two sides this point
synchronous.

Propositions 2 and 3 have been dealt with as though the increased strains
brought upon the small sections by their neighbourhood to the large sections
were uniformly distributed over the small sections, which have, for sim-
plicity sake, been assumed to be composed of single springs.

But had these small sections been dealt with as being in themselves com-
posed of several smaller springs, as was done in considering the cases of
figs. 9 and 10, then it would have been found that the outer parts of those
small sections were doing more than their share of the increased work, and
therefore the evils arising from increased section, which have been treated
of in propositions 2 and 3, must be multiplied by the evils due to the abrupt
change of form considered in proposition 1,

The kind of fracture shown in end view in Plate III. fig. 3. a, namely, a frac-
ture which begins all round about the outside and gradually penetrates, is an
abundant practical proof that not only are strains arising from impact in-
creased on part of a small section by the neighbourhood of larger sections
abruptly joining on to the smaller ones, but that the increase is borne in an
undue proportion (as was shown in the case of quiescent weights) by the
outer particles of the small section at the part where they abruptly join on
to the larger section.

So far this paper has dealt with the evil influence of sudden change of
form when it is to be found in a suspended rod or in other positions where
the inflnences act in the direction of the length of the object under consider-
ation. Jn practice, the bolts which hold on armour-plating are instances to
which the foregoing considerations are applicable, as such bolts receive in the
direction of their length the quiescent strain, and also that arising from the
impact of the recoil of the armour-plating after it has been struck by the shot.

It may be well to allude to the fact that Major Palliser has overcome

ON THE INFLUENCE OF FORM ON STRENGTH. 429

_ the difficulty of the fracturing that took place in the ordinary bolts imme-

diately at the junction of the screw parts with the shank, by diminishing
the area of the shank, so as to be equal to that at the bottom of the thread,
and has thus given in his armour-plate bolts a practical instance that the
strength of parts may be added to by reducing that of their larger neigh-
bours.

Besides the armour-plating bolts and other bolts, there are no doubt many
cases in which both quiescent strain and the strain of impact are exerted in
the direction of the length of the object ; but there are probably a still larger
number of cases in which the strains are applied transversely, and among
them are the important instances of railway axles.

It may be well therefore to glance briefly at the influences exercised by a
sudden alteration of form when that alteration occurs in an object exposed
to transverse strain.

Let fig. 18 represent an elastic bar (A) of uniform section, placed on sup-
ports B B, and subjected to the action of the quiescent load L, the result will
be simply to deflect it as sketched.

In this deflection the central parts may be assumed to be extended on
the underside, and compressed on the upper, as represented by the con-
verging space abcd.

If, now, the depth of the bar be abruptly increased in the part that lies
between these lines abcd and the two ends, as shown in fig. 19, the result
will be to aggravate the strains at the parts abcd in a similar way to that
which was pointed out in respect of a perpendicularly suspended bar under a
quiescent load. But if the bars have to resist impact, then a more serious
difference, to the disadvantage of the bar with unequal sections, will be
found. It is well known that if one bar be double the depth of another, the
first bar will, under a quiescent load, deflect only one-eighth part of that
which the second would deflect, the deflections being inversely as the cubes
of the depths.

With respect, however, to the resistance offered to the flexure of the bars
under impact and not under quiescent loads, the writer believes it can be
shown that if there be two elastic imponderable bars alike in all respects
except their depth, and if they be exposed within their elastic limits to the
impact of equal forces, the result will be that, if the one bar be taken as
unity in depth and as deflecting unity under the force, the other bar, having

a depth of n, will deflect according to the formula = / =

Applying this formula to the case of a weight let fall upon a bar which is
double the depth of another, the deflection of this bar of double depth will

1
only be 5 Are or about °35 of that which it would have been if of the

single depth ; but to produce this ‘35 of deflection, the strain on the whole
section of the bar of the double depth will be 2-828 times as great as it would
be upon the bar of single depth.

So that if the bars (figs. 18 and 19) be exposed to the impact of similar
forces, the bar fig. 18 would deflect through a space of 2-828 with a strain
of -35 on the central parts, while before the bar fig. 19 could, so far as
the greater part of it (namely its enlarged ends) is concerned, be deflected
through a space of one, there must be put upon the middle section of it,
equal to one only in area, a strain of 2-828. As in the case of the vertical
bars, this extra strain would be aggravated by the fact that it would not

430 REPORT—1869.

be uniformly distributed over the area of one, but would be borne in a
larger proportion by the outside particles, where they join the increased
section.

It will not be necessary to go into the reconsideration, in respect of trans—
verse strains, of the effects of inertia and vibration, which haye already been.
touched on when considering direct strains; but it will be sufficient to say
that the strains brought upon railway axles are of a very severe character,
and that they are undoubtedly exaggerated by the large difference of dimen-
sions of the neighbouring parts, and that nothing but the greatest circum-
spection in the designing and manufacture of these parts can insure safety
to railway passengers.

On the Penetration of Armour-plates with long Shells of large capa-
~ city fired obliquely. By Sir Joserpn Wurrworrn, Bart., C.E., —
F.R.S., LL.D., D.C.L.

Ar the Meeting of the British Association at Norwich, I contributed a paperto
the Mechanical Section “ On the Proper Form of Projectiles for Penetration
through Water.” This paper was illustrated by diagrams, showing the effect
produced on an iron plate, immersed in a tank of water, by projectiles with
flat, hemispherical, and pointed heads. Copies of those diagrams are now
before you. In that paper I claimed for the flat-pointed form of projectile,
made of any metal, three points of superiority over the ogival-pointed pro-
jectiles adopted in the service :—(1) Its power of penetrating armour-plates,
even when striking at extreme angles; (2) its large internal capacity for
bursting charges when constructed as a shell; (3) its capability of passing
undefiected through water, and of penetrating iron armour below the water
line. This latter feature was, I think, satisfactorily proved by the experiments
described last year; and I desire to draw the attention of the Section, to
the experiments I have made for illustrating the penetrative power of long
projectiles with the flat front, fired at extreme angles against iron plates.
These experiments are illustrated by the projectiles actually fired, and the
plates they penetrated, which are laid on the table, and also by the diagrams _
before you.
The gun from which the projectiles were fired is called a 3-pounder, though
capable of firmg much heavier projectiles. It weighs 315 lbs., and the maxi-
mum diameter of its bore is 1-85 inch. The charge of powder used, in all
cases, was 10 ounces, and the weight of the 6-diameter projectile is 6 lbs.
No. 1 is a portion of a plate 2 inches thick, penetrated by the 6-diameter
flat-fronted projectile No. 1 at an angle of 35 degrees. No. 2 is a similar
piece of plate, 1-7 inch thick, completely traversed at an angle of 45 degrees
by the flat-fronted projectile No. 2, which buried itself toa depth of 30 inches
in a backing of iron borings. No. 3 isa piece of plate 1-75 inch thick, pene-
trated at an angle of 65 degrees by the flat-pointed projectile No. 3. No. 4
is a plate 1-7 inch thick, nearly penetrated, at an angle of 45 degrees by the
3-diameters flat-fronted projectile No. 4. No. 5 is a plate 14 inch thick,
against which the ogival-pointed projectile No. 5 was fired at angle of 45.
degrees ; the projectile failed to penetrate the plate, being deflected in con-
sequence of the pointed form of the head. The distortion of its shape shows:
the force with which it struck the plate, and proves the good quality of the:
material which could resist such a test. No. 6 is a plate also 14 inch thick,

ON THE PENETRATION OF ARMOUR-PLATES WITH LONG SHELLS. 431

against which an ogival-pointed projectile, of the service proportions, viz.
2; diameters long, made of Pontypool white iron, has been fired: the pro-
jectile has scooped out a furrow 4 inches long and seven-tenths of an inch
deep ; it broke up into fragments, of which 48 were recovered.

The plates Nos. 1 and 3 were purposely thicker than the projectiles could

“Whitworth” Fiat-headed Shells, 6 diameters long, containing large burstlng charges.

: No, 1. No. 2.
Z Y

a es

, i h

ze No. 4.
“NY Ba pct
Z ar 34 di
\ :
| =

i
\

\
<I
\)

Ay
wy

x e = Ui a \
iS
J “sy Vij

Z
=

SS — SE Z

quite pass through, in order that the “ work” of the projectiles might be as
severe as possible: an examination of the projectiles themselves will show
_- how well they have withstood the severe strain to which they have been
subjected. The data thus obtained fully establish, I think, the super‘ority I

432 REPORT—1869.

claimed for the flat-fronted projectiles made of my metal, and satisfactorily
prove :—(1) That the flat-fronted form is capable of piercing armour-plates
at extreme angles; (2) that the quality of the material of the shells enables

No. 5. No. 6.
Pointed Solid Shot, Pointed Solid Shot,
34 diams. 24 diams.

Y
Yj
Yj

Y
Wf)

No. 5 was made of “ Whitworth” Metal; No. 6 of Pontypool White Iron.

their length to be increased, without any risk of their breaking up on
impact, and materially augments their bursting-charge as shells ; (3) that
this increase in length, while adding to the efficiency of the projectile as a
shell, in no way diminishes, but, on the contrary, proportionally improves its
penetrative power; (4) that the amount of rotation I have adopted in my
system of rifling is sufficient to ensure the long projectiles striking ‘“‘end on,”
and consequently to accumulate the whole effect of the mass on the reduced
area of the flat front.

These experiments show, further, that the ogival-pointed projectile has but
small power of penetration when striking at an angle, solely on account of
the form of the head; a projectile of ‘‘ Whitworth” metal, with the like
ogival-pointed head, as a service projectile, having resisted the shock of impact
without breaking up, but being deflected in precisely the same manner as the
pointed service projectile, which was shivered into fragments. The objections
I made in my paper last year to the ogival-pointed projectile—(1) that its
form of head causes it to glance off from plane or convex surfaces when
hitting diagonally ; and (2) that the brittleness of its material renders it .
liable to break up on impact—I have now proved to the Section. The facts
illustrated by these experiments are not of recent discovery. Ever since 1858
I have constantly been advocating the flat front. I have on the table a small ]
plate 4 inch thick, experimented upon in 1862 with hardened steel bullets
fired from my small-bore rifle. No. 39 is the hole made by a flat-fronted
bullet, which has penetrated the plate at an angle of 45 degrees. No. 40 is
the indent of a hemispherical-headed, and No. 41 of an ordinary round-
nosed bullet, both fired at the same angle of 45 degrees. These three rounds
were fired in 1862. ;

Within the last few days I have had an ogival-pointed shaped bullet fired
at the same plate at the same angle, in order to confirm the effect with that
produced, on a larger scale, on the plate No.6. It is interesting to observe how
closely the results obtained with the small calibre of my rifle agree with those
of the 3-pounder gun, which form the subject of this paper. Those experiments

ON THE PENETRATION OF ARMOUR-PLATES WITH LONG SHELLS. 433

recorded in the paper were made with a gun of smaller calibre, from consi-
derations of economy and convenience ; but I have always found that what
Icould do with the smaller calibres of my system, could be reproduced in the
larger sizes; and from my past experience I feel warranted in asserting that
the effect of penetration now exhibited could be repeated on a proportionate
scale with my 9-inch guns at Shoeburyness, or with the 11-inch guns my
firm are now engaged in constructing.

A glance at the formidable nature of the projectiles thrown by these guns,
and a consideration of the effects they may be expected to produce, will show
the importance attaching to the question of penetration of plates by long
projectiles. The 9-inch guns to which I have referred weigh 15 tons each,
and are capable of firing powder charges of 50 lbs. A 9-inch armour shell,
5 diameters long, weighs 535 lbs., and will contain a bursting-charge of 25 Ibs.

I have no hesitation in saying that these projectiles would pierce the side
of a ship, plated with heavy armour, at a distance of 2000 yards, and at
some depth below the water-line. The 11-inch guns will weigh 27 tons, and
will be capable of firing 90 lb. powder-charges. The 11-inch shells, 5 dia-
meters long, will weigh 965 lbs., and will contain bursting-charges of 45 lbs.,
and would pierce the side of the ship ‘ Hercules,’ plated with 9-inch armour,
at a distance of 2000 yards.

Were it not that the increased destructiveness of war must tend to shorten
its duration and diminish its frequency (thus saving human life) the inven-
tion of such projectiles could hardly be justified; but believing in the really
pacific influences of the most powerful means of defence, I call these long
projectiles the “anti-war” shell. The principle I have always insisted upon,
and laid down for my own guidance in artillery experiments (when either a
low trajectory or penetration is required), is, ‘‘ that every gun should be in
strength capable of withstanding the largest charge of powder that can be
profitably consumed in its bore.” I have drawn up the accompanying Table
of the sizes of the bores of my guns, with their proportionate powder-charges,
and the guns will all be fully equal to this duty, and I believe the greatest
possible effect from the consumption of a given quantity of powder will be
obtained. But the guns adopted in our naval service are not equal to such
a test; nor, as I believe, are they so proportioned as to realize the best effect
from the quantity of powder they consume.

Four guns of 12-inches bore have lately been put on board the ‘ Monarch.’
They weigh 25 tons each, and charges of 50 Ibs. and 67 lbs. have been fired
from them with projectiles of 600 lbs. weight. I have no doubt that these
guns have been made with all possible care, and are as strong as their mate-
rial and construction admits; but if the weight of these guns was in propor-
tion to the capacity of their bore, and if the material were the best that our
metallurgical skill could supply for such a purpose, they ought to fire 117 Ibs.
of powder, and projectiles of 1250 lbs. weight. They would then be efficient
weapons ; but at present they are more formidable in name than in reality.

We are often flattered by being told that we have the best guns in the
world. That may or may not be the case. But I think that we should not
best contented while we are still so far from having attained as much as our
present advancement in mechanical and metallurgical science has rendered
possible for us.

434 EO 869.

Particulars of Ammunition for Whitworth Guns, from 5:5-in. to 13-in. bore.

Common Shells, Armour Shells, Whitworth metal.
cast iron, "SS Dee
Calibre | Powder | 3°5 diameters long. 3°5 diameters long. 5 diameters long.
of bore. | charge. ; l : :
Bursting- | Weight of | Bursting- | Weight of | Bursting- | Weight of
charge. shell. charge. | shell. charge. shell.
in. lbs. lbs. Ibs. lbs. | Ibs. lbs. lbs.
55 6 ie) 4°0 70 3°5 $4°0 60 120
70 23°0 8°5 150 75 180°0 12°0 255
8:0 34°0 13'0 220 10°5 265°0 18'0 375
go 50°0 | 18:0 320 1570 = |S 380°0 25° 535
10°0 70°0 24°0 440 21'0 525°0 3570 740
II‘o goo 32°0 580 28°0 680'0 45°0 965
12°0 1170 40°0 750 36°0 886:0 58'0 1250
13°0 150°0 510 960 47°4 1045'0 750 1615

Mr. Whitworth’s patent cartridge increases the range from 15 to 20 per cent.

Report of the Committee on Standards of Electrical Resistance.
[Plate VI.]

The Committee consists of Professor Williamson, Professor Sir C. Wheatstone,
Professor Sir W. Thomson, Professor W. A. Miller, Dr. A. Matthiessen,
Mr. Fleeming Jenkin, Sir Charles Bright, Professor Maxwell, Mr, C.
W. Siemens, Mr. Balfour Stewart, Mr. C. F. Varley, Professor G. C.
Foster, Mr. Latimer Clark, Mr. D. Forbes, Mr. Charles Hockin, and
Dr. Joule.

Tue Electrical Standard Committee have this year had comparatively few
meetings, and the results of the experiments made by the individual Mem-
bers do not call for a Report of any length. It is, however, thought desi-
rable to print at once, as Appendices, the important results obtained by
Professor Clerk Maxwell,.in determining the ratio of the electromagnetic
and electrostatic series of units, and also a description of Sir Wm, Thom-
son’s experiments on the same subject.

Description of Sir Wm. Thomson's Experiments made for the Determination
of v, the Number of Electrostatic Units in the Electromagnetic Unit, By
W. F. Krve.

The two principal pieces of apparatus used in these experiments were the
absolute electrometer and the electrodynamometer. The former of these in-
struments was described at the last Meeting of the Association, and a

description of it is printed in the Report. The annexed Plate illustrates the -

arrangements described in what follows.

The electrodynamometer consists of two large coils of fine copper wire, -

and a smaller coil of still finer wire. The two large coils are about 30
centims. diameter, and are placed vertical, in planes parallel to one another ;
the distance between the large coils is 15 centims. (equal to their radius). The
smaller coil is suspended between the large coils by a copper wire of such a

Me BP ee PE eis.. n

~~ 3 : ; "
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ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 435

thickness as to give the coil a time of vibration such that it completes a period
in about thirteen seconds. The upper end of the suspending wire is attached
to a milled head, and this head can be turned round by the fingers. The lower
end of the wire is firmly fixed to the coil, and is in metallic connexion with
one end of it. To the other end of the coil is soldered a spiral of very fine
platinum wire which hangs directly below the coil, and its lower end is
cemented to the dry woodwork of the instrument. To the fixed end of the

spiral coil a copper wire is attached, whose other end is soldered to a bind-

ing-screw in an accessible position.
_ On one side of the small or moveable coil is fixed a plane mirror, and in
front of the mirror, at a distance of about 450 centims., the scale is fixed on

which the observations are read. A paraffin-lamp wire, to give dark line in

image of flame, and lens are used in the ordinary way for finding accurately
the angle through which the coil turns. It is never greater than -05. Its
true amount can be determined to within +, per cent.

_ The connexions are not very intricate, and are traced thus :—Starting
from one pole of the battery (the battery used was sixty sawdust Daniell’s
im series), the current goes in at one end of large coil No. 1, and from the
other: end of No. 1 the current goes to either end of the moveable coil, and
the end of the moveable coil at which we suppose the current to be coming
out is connected with the end of No. 2 large coil, similar to the end of No. 1,
to which the battery was first attached, that is to say, the end which will
make the current go round in the same direction in both the large coils.

‘When the current leaves the extreme end of No. 2, it passes though a 10,000

B.A. resistance-box ; the current is completed by connecting the other end
of the resistance-box with the pole of the battery not already engaged.

The absolute electrometer is used in the ordinary way for measuring dif-
ferences of potential, and its electrodes are connected, one to the end of the.

_ dynamometer coil No. 1, which is joined to the battery, and the other elec-

trode is fixed to the end of the resistance-box, which is connected to the
other pole of the battery. Thus the greatest difference of potential in the

arrangement is measured by the absolute electrometer. An electrometer
_ key is used to reverse these connexions in the course of the experiments.

__. There is only one other part of the arrangement to be explained, and that
is the method of observing the resistance of the dynamometer coils while the

experiments are going on. This was done by means of the resistance-box in
the circuit and an electrometer. At one time the standard electrometer was
used for this purpose, but more lately the quadrant, rendered unsensitive,
was employed. Both these instruments are described in the last Report.

To take the resistance of the coils, the electrodes of the electrometer were
first placed on the extreme ends of the three coils, and the difference of po-
tential was ascertained. The electrodes were then shifted to the ends of the
resistance-box, and the difference of potentials of its two ends was found.
This gives at once the resistance of the coils.

There are two things which have to be done before the experiments are
commenced. One is the determination of the moment of inertia of the
moveable coil. This is done at the beginning and end of a long series of
experiments, by comparing it with a ring whose moment of inertia is known.
The other is done every day, and it is finding the time of vibration of the
small coil after all the connexions have been made, and the coil put into its
place. This was done both with the current from the battery flowing
through the coils and with no current flowing; but this variation was of
very little consequence, as no difference could be detected in the time. When

436 REPORT—1869.

the dynamometer is set up, care is taken to neutralize the effects of the
earth’s magnetism by a large number of magnets fixed at a great distance
from the coils. If the adjustment of the magnets is perfect, there is no
alteration of the position of the spot of light when the current is reversed
through the coils by the battery-key. Up to the present time (May 1868)
various causcs have prevented the obtainment of as satisfactory results as the
method described above allows us to expect. Eleven sets of experiments,
made at various dates, from March 10 to May 8 of the present year, have in-
dicated values for v, of which the greatest was 292x10°, the smallest
275°4x 10°, and the mean 282°5x10° centimetres per second. Sir W.
Thomson intends to continue the investigation, hoping to attain much greater
accuracy.

[P.S. Nov. 1869.—A new form of absolute electrometer has now been
completed and brought into use, with good promise as to accuracy and con-
venience. A glass jar constituting the ‘Leyden battery” contains within it
the “absolute electrometer” proper, the “ idiostatic gauge,” and the “re-
plenisher.” One observer can use it effectively ; although it is more easily
worked by two, one maintaining constant potential in the Leyden jar by aid
of the idiostatic gauge and the replenisher, and the other attending to the ab-
solute electrometer (main balance and micrometer screw). The main balance,
giving electric weighing in known weights, is as steady and as easily used as
any of the “ attracted disk” electrometers, whether portable or stationary,
described in previous Reports. ]

Errata In Pratt VI.

For Dy Scale read Dynamometer Scale.
5, Ideostatic ead Idiostatic.

Add a connexion between outside of Leyden battery and one terminal of the neighbouring
Electrometer key.

Experiments on the Value of v, the Ratio of the Electromagnetic to the Elec-
trostatic Unit of Electricity. By J, Currx Maxwett.

The experiments consisted in observing the equilibrium between the elec-
trostatic attraction of two disks, at a certain difference of potential, and the
electromagnetic repulsion of two coils traversed by a certain current. For
this purpose one of the disks, with one of the coiis at its back, was attached
to one arm of a torsion-balance, while the other, with the other coil at its
back, was capable of being moved to various distances from the suspended
disk by a micrometer screw. Another coil, traversed by the same current
in the opposite direction, was attached to the other arm of the torsion-
balance, so as to do away with the effect of terrestrial magnetism.

The fixed disk was larger than the suspended disk, and the latter, when
in its zero position, had its surface in the same plane as that of a ‘ guard-
ring,” as in Sir W. Thomson’s electrometers. Its position and motion were
observed by means of a microseope, directed to a graduated glass scale, con-
nected with the disk. When the microscope was adjusted so that the
image of the zero line on the glass scale coincided with the cross wires of the
microscope, the very smallest motion of the scale could be easily detected,
so that the observations were very rapid. The disk was brought to zero by
the tangent screw at the top of the suspension-wire, and its equilibrium was
always observed at zero. The equilibrium, when the electrical forces were
applied, was always unstable. This electrical balance was made by Mr.

ae ee ee oe ee

ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 437

Becker. The experiments were made in the laboratory of Mr. Gassiot, who
kindly gave the use of his great battery for the purpose. Mr. Willoughby
Smith lent his resistance-coils, of 1,102,000 Ohms, Messrs. Forde and Fleem-
ing Jenkin lent a galvanometer, a resistance-box, a bridge and a key, and
Mr. C. Hockin undertook the observation of the galvanometer, and the test-
ing of the galyanometer, the resistances, and the micrometer-screw.

The difference of potentials of the disks was compared with the current
in the coils as follows :—One electrode of the great battery was connected to the
fixed disk, and the other to the case of the instrument and the guard-ring

AE art |
a

Microscope

A. Suspended disk and coul. C, Hiectrode of uasca uisk.

A’. Counterpoise disk and coil. zx. Current through R.

C. Fixed disk and coil. x', Current through G,. «—-'. Current
B,. Great battery. B,. Small battery. through S.

G,: Primary coil of galvanometer. y. Current through the three coils and G,.
G,. Secondary coil. M. Mercury cup. T. Torsion head and
R. Great resistance. S. Shunt. tangent screw.

K. Double key. g. Graduated glass scale.

One quarter of the micrometer box, disks, and coils is cut away to show theinterior. The
ease of the instrument is not shown. The galyanometer and shunts were 10 feet from the
electric balance.

and the suspended disk. They were also connected through the great re-
sistance R, and the primary coil of the galyanometer G shunted with a re-
sistance S.

438 REPORT—1869.

A small Grove’s battery was employed to send a current through the three
coils and the secondary coil of the galvanometer G,,.

Equilibrium of the electric balance was obtained by working the micro-
meter, and so adjusting the distance of the disks. At the same time equili-
brium of the galvanometer was obtained by altering the resistance of Ne
shunt 8.

The simultaneous values of the micrometer and the shunt formed the deni
‘of each experiment. It was necessary also to ascertain the ratio of the mag-
netic effects of the two coils of the galvanometer immediately after each set
af experiments.

The method of experimenting appeared capable of considerable accuracy ; -
put some difficulties arose from want of constancy in the batteries, from
leakage of electricity, &c., so that many of the experiments were known to
be faulty. Twelve experiments, however, against which nothing could be
proved at the time of making them, in which the distance of the disks
ranged from } to 3 an inch, and the power of the battery from 1000 to
2600 cells, gave values of v of which the least was 28-4, and the greatest
29-4 Ohms; and in nine of these the values lay between 25-68 and 28°91.
The mean of the 12 was—

= 28-798 Ohms.
= 288,000,000 metres per second.
= 179,000 statute miles per second.

This result is much lower than that of MM. Weber and Kohlrausch,
which was v=310,740,000 metres per second, but agrees, I believe, more
nearly with values recently obtained by Sir W. Thomson, whose method, as
well as mine, depends on the B.A. unit. Weber’s method depends on the
measure of capacity. It is to be hoped that this important physical quan-
tity may soon be determined by methods founded on capacity, and disem-
barrassed from the phenomena of “ electric absorption,” which occurs in all
solid condensers, and which would tend to give too high values of v.

NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS

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NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS
or

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.

MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Address by Professor J. J. Sytvester, LL.D., F.R.S., President of the
Section.
Lapins anpD GENTLEMEN ,—
A few days ago I noticed in a shop window the photograph of a Royal mother
and child, which seemed to me a very beautiful group ; on scanning it more closely, I
discovered that the faces were ordinary, or, at all events, not much above the average,

and that the charm arose entirely from the natural action and expression of the

mother stooping over and kissing her child which she held in her lap; and I re-
marked to myself that the homeliest features would become beautiful when lit up

_ by the rays of the soul—like the sun “gilding pale streams with heavenly alchemy.”

By analogy, the thought struck me that ifa man would speak naturally and as he felt
onany subject of his predilection, he might hope to awaken a sympathetic interest
in the minds of his hearers; and, in illustration of this, I remembered witnessing
how the writer of a well-known article in the ‘ Quarterly Review’ so magnetized
his audience at the Royal Institution by his evident enthusiasm that, when the lec-
ture was over and the applause had subsided, some ladies came up to me and im-
plored me to tell them what they should do to get up the Talmud ; for that was what
the lecture had been about.

Now, as I believe that even Mathematics are not much more repugnant than
the Talmud to the common apprehension of mankind, and I really love my subject,
I shall not quite despair of rousing and retaining your attention for a short time
if I proceed to read (as, for greater assurance against breaking down, I shall beg
your permission to do) from the pages I hold in my hand.

It is not without a feeling of surprise and trepidation at my own temerity that
I find myself in the position of one about to address this numerous and dis-
tinguished assembly. ‘When informed that the Council of the British Association
had it in contemplation to recommend me to the General Committee to fill the
office of President of the Mathematical and Physical Section, the intimation was
accompanied with the tranquilizing assurance that it would rest with myself to
deliver or withhold an address as I might think fit, and that I should be only
following in the footsteps of many of the most distinguished of my predecessors
were I to resolve on the latter course.

Until the last few days I had made up my mind to avail myself of this option,
by proceeding at once to the business before us without troubling you to listen to
any address, swayed thereto partly by a consciousness of the very limited extent of my
oratorical powers, partly by a disinclination, in the midst of various pressing pri-
yate and official occupations, to undertake a kind of work new to one more used

1869.

2 REPORT—1869.

to thinking than to speaking (to making mathematics than to talking about them),
and partly and more especially by a feeling of my inadequacy to satisty the expecta-
tions that would be raised in the minds of those who had enjoyed the privilege of
hearing or reading the allocution (which fills me with admiration and dismay) of
my gifted predecessor, Dr. Tyndall, a man in whom eloquence and philosophy
seem to be inborn, whom Science and Poetry woo with an equal spell*, and
whose ideas have a faculty of arranging themselves in forms of order and beauty
as spontaneously and unfailingly as those crystalline solutions from which, in a
striking passage of his address, he drew so vivid and instructive an illustration.

From this lotos-eater’s dream of fancied security and repose I was rudely
awakened by receiving from the Editor of an old-established journal in this city a
note containing a polite but peremptory request that I should, at my earliest con-
venience, favour him with a “copy of the address I proposed to deliver at the
forthcoming Meeting.” To this invitation, my first impulse was to respond very
much in the same way as did the “ Needy knife-grinder” of the ‘ Antijacobin,’
when summoned to recount the story of his wrongs to his republican sympa-
thizer, ‘Story, God bless you, I have none to tell, Sir!” ‘‘ Address, Mr. Editor,
I have none to deliver.”

I have found, however, that increase of appetite still grows with what it feeds
on, that those who were present at the opening of the Section last year, and
enjoyed my friend Dr. Tyndall’s melodious utterances, would consider them-
selves somewhat ill-treated if they were sent away quite empty on the present oc-
casion, and that, failing an address, the Members would feel very much like the
guests at a wedding-breakfast where no one was willing or able to propose the health
of the bride and bridegroom.

Yielding, therefore, to these considerations and to the advice of some officially
connected with the Association, to whose opinions I feel bound to defer, and
unwilling also to countenance by my example the too ae opinion that
mathematical pursuits unfit a person for the discharge of the common duties of
life and cut him off from the exercise of Man’s highest prerogative, “discourse
of reason and faculty of speech divine,”—rather, I say, than favour the notion
that we Algebraists (who regard each other as the flower and salt of the earth) are a
set of mere calculating-machines endowed with organs of locomotion, or, at best,
a sort of poor visionary dumb creatures only capable of communicating by signs and
symbols with the outer world, I have resolved to take heart of grace and to say a
few words, which I hope to render, if not interesting, at least intelligible, on a
subject to which the larger part of my life has been devoted.

The President of the Association, Prof. Stokes, is so eminent alike as a mathe-
matician and physicist, and so distinguished for accuracy and extent of erudition
and research, that I felt assured I might safely assume he would, in his Address to
the Association at large, take an exhaustive survey, and render a complete ac-
count of the recent progress and present condition and prospects of Mathematical
and Physical Science. This consideration narrowed very much and brought almost
to a point the ground available for me to occupy in this Section; and as I cannot
but be aware that it is as a cultivator of pure mathematics (the subject in which

* So it is said of Jacobi, that he attracted the particular attention and friendship of
Bockh, the director of the philological seminary at Berlin, by the zeal and talent he dis-
played for philology, and only at the end of two years’ study at the University, and after a
severe mental struggle, was able to make his final choice in favour of mathematics. The
relation between these two sciences is not perhaps so remote as may at first sight appears,
and indeed it has often struck me that metamorphosis runs like a golden thread through
the most diverse branches of modern intellectual culture, and forms a natural link of
connexion between subjects in their aims so unlike as Grammar, Ethnology, Rational
Mythology, Chemistry, Botany, Comparative Anatomy, Physiology, Physics, Algebra,
Music, all of which, under the modern point of view, may be regarded as having morphology
for their common centre. Even singing, I have been told, the adyanced German theorists
regard as being strictly a development of recitative, and infer therefrom that no essentially
new melodic themes can be invented until a social cataclysm, or the civilization of some
at present barbaric races, shall have created new necessities of expression and called into
activity new forms of impassioned declamation.

‘wuded

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3

my own researches have chiefly, though by no means exclusively lain*) that I have
been placed in this Chair, I hope the Section will patiently bear with me in the
observations I shall venture to make on the nature of that province of the human
reason and its title to the esteem and veneration with which through countless
ages it has been and, so long as Man respects the intellectual part of his nature,
must ever continue to be regardedt.

It is said of a great party leader and orator in the House of Lords that, when
lately requested to make a speech at some religious or charitable (at all events a
non-political) meeting, he declined to do so on the ground that he could not speak
unless he saw an adversary before him—somebody to attack or reply to. In
obedience to a somewhat similar combative instinct, I set to myself the task of
considering certain recent utterances of a most distinguished member of this Asso-
ciation, one whom I no less respect for his honesty and public spirit than I admire
for his genius and eloquence {, but from whose opinions on a subject which he has
not studied I feel constrained to differ. Gothe has said—

“ Verstandige Leute kannst du irren sehn
In Sachen namlich, die sie nicht verstehn.”
Understanding people you may see erring—in those things, to wit, which they do not
understand.

I have no doubt that had my distinguished friend, the probable President-elect
of the next Meeting of the Association, applied his uncommon powers of reasoning,
induction, comparison, observation, and invention to the study of mathematical
science, he would have become as great a mathematician as he is now a biologist ;
indeed he has given public evidence of his ability to grapple with the practical side
of certain mathematical questions; but he has not made a study of mathematical
science as such, and the eminence of his position and the weight justly attaching
to his name render it only the more imperative that any assertions proceeding from
such a quarter, which may appear to me erroneous, or so expressed as to be con-
ducive to error, should not remain unchallenged or be passed over in silence §.

He says “ mathematical training is almost purely deductive. The mathematician
starts with a few simple propositions, the proof of which is so obvious that they
are called self-evident, and the rest of his work consists of subtle deductions from
them. The teaching of languages, at any rate as ordinarily practised, is of the
same general nature—authority and tradition furnish the data, and the mental
operations are deductive.” It would seem from the aboye somewhat singularly

* My first printed paper was on Fresnel’s Optical Theory, published in the ‘ Philo-
sophical Magazine;’ my latest contribution to the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ is a
memoir on the “ Rotation of a Free Rigid Body.” ‘There is an old adage, “ purus mathe-
maticus, purus asinus.” On the other hand, I once heard the great Richard Owen say,
when we were opposite neighbours in Lincoln’s-Inn Fields (doves nestling among hawks),
that he would like to see Homo Mathematicus constituted into a distinct subclass, thereby
suggesting to my mind sensation, perception, reflection, abstraction, as the successive stages
or phases of protoplasm on its way to being made perfect in Mathematicised Man. Would
it sound too presumptuous to speak of perception as a quintessence of sensation, language
(.é. communicable thought) of perception mathematic of language?. We should then
have four terms differentiating from inorganic matter and from each other the Vegetable,
Animal, Rational, and supersensual modes of existence.

t Mr. Spottiswoode favoured the Section, in his opening address, with a combined
history of the progress of Mathematics and Physics; Dr. Tyndall’s address was virtually
on the limits of Physical Philosophy ; the one here in print is an attempted faint adumbra-
tion of the nature of Mathematical Science in the abstract. What is wanting (like a fourth
sphere resting on three others in contact) to build up the Ideal Pyramid is a discourse on
the Relation of the two branches (Mathematic and Physics) to, their action and reaction
upon, one another, a magnificent theme with which it is to be hoped some future President
of Section A will crown the edifice and make the Tetralogy (symbolizable by A+ A’, A, A’,
A.A’) complete.

_t Although no great lecture-goer, I have heard three lectures in my life which have left
a lasting impression as masterpieces on my memory—Clifford on Mind, Huxley on Chalk,
Dumas on Faraday.

§ In his éloge of Daubenton, Cuvier remarks, “ Les sayants jugent toujours comme
vulgaire les ouvrages qui ne sont pas de leur genre.”

A. REPORT—1869.

juxtaposed paragraphs that, according to Prof. Huxley, the business of the mathe-
‘matical student is from a limited number of propositions (bottled up and labelled
ready for future use) to deduce any required result by a process of the same
general nature as a student of language employs in declining and conjugating his
nouns and verbs—that to make out a mathematical proposition and to construe or
parse a sentence are equivalent or identical mental operations. Such an opinion
scarcely seems to need serious refutation. The passage is taken from an article
in ‘Macmillan’s Magazine’ for June last, entitled “ Scientific Education—Notes of
an After-dinner Speech,” and I cannot but think would haye been couched in more
guarded terms by my distinguished friend had his speech been made before dinner
instead of after.

The notion that mathematical truth rests on the narrow basis of a limited
number of elementary propositions from which all others are to be derived by a
process of logical inference and verbal deduction, has been stated still more strongly
and explicitly by the same eminent writer in an article of even date with the pre-
ceding in the ‘ Fortnightly Review,’ where we are told that ‘“‘ Mathematics is that
study which knows nothing of observation, nothing of experiment, nothing of in-
duction, nothing of causation.” I think no statement could have been made more
opposite to the undoubted facts of the case, that mathematical analysis is constantly
invoking the aid of new principles, new ideas, and new methods, not capable of being
defined by any form of words, but springing direct from the inherent powers and
activity of the human mind, and from continually renewed introspection of that inner
world of thought of which the phenomena are as varied and require as close atten-
tion to discern as those of the outer physical world (to which the inner one in each
individual man may, I think, be conceived to stand in somewhat the same general
relation of correspondence as a shadow to the object from which it is projected, or
as the hollow palm of one hand to the closed fist which it grasps of the other), that
it is unceasingly calling forth the faculties of observation and comparison, that one
of its principal weapons is induction, that it has frequent recourse to experimental
trial and verification, and that it affords a boundless scope for the exercise of
the highest efforts of imagination and invention.

Lagrange, than whom no greater authority could be quoted, has expressed em-
phatically his belief in the importance to the mathematician of the faculty of ob-
servation; Gauss has called mathematics a science of the eye, and in conformity
with this view always paid the most punctilious attention to preserve his text free
from typographical errors; the ever to be lamented Riemann has written a thesis to
show that the basis of our conception of space is purely empirical, and our know-
ledge of its laws the result of observation, that other kinds of space might be
conceived to exist subject to laws different from those which govern the actual
space in which we are immersed, and that there is no evidence of these laws ex-
tending to the ultimate infinitesimal elements of which space is composed. Like
his master Gauss, Riemann refuses to accept Kant’s doctrine of space and time
being forms of intuition, and regards them as possessed of physical and objective
reality. Imay mention that Baron Sartorius von Waltershausen (a member of this
Association) in his biography of Gauss (“Gauss zu gedichtniss”), published
shortly after his death, relates that this great man was used to say that he had laid
aside several questions which he had treated analytically, and hoped to apply to them
geometrical methods in a future state of existence, when his conceptions of space
should have become amplified and extended ; for as we can conceive beings (like
infinitely attenuated book-worms* in an infinitely thin sheet of paper) which possess
only the notion of space of two dimensious, so we may imagine beings capable
of realizing space of four or a greater number of dimensions}. Our Cayley, the central

* Thave read or been told that eye of observer has never lighted on these depredators, living
ordead. Nature has gifted me with eyes of exceptional microscopic power, and I can speak
with some assurance of having repeatedly seen the creature wriggling on the learned page.
On approaching it with breath or finger-nail it stiffens out into the semblance of a streak
of dirt, and so eludes detection.

+ It is well known to those who have gone into these views that the laws of motion
accepted as a fact suffice to prove in a general way that the space we live in is a flat or
level space (a “homaloid”), our existence therein being assimilable to the life of the

4
;

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 5

luminary, the Darwin of the English school of mathematicians, started and elabo-
rated at an early age, and with happy consequences, the same bold hypothesis.
Most, if not all, of the great ideas of modern mathematics have had their origin
in observation. Take, for instance, the arithmetical theory of forms, of which the
foundation was laid in the diophantine theorems of Fermat, left without proof by
their author, which resisted all the efforts of the myriad-minded Euler to reduce to
demonstration, and only yielded up their cause of being when turned over in the
blowpipe flame of Gauss’s transcendent genius; or the doctrine of double periodi-
city, which resulted from the observation by Jacobi of a purely analytical fact of
transformation ; or Legendre’s law of reciprocity ; or Sturm’s theorem about the roots
of equations, which, as he informed me with his own lips, stared him in the face in
the midst of some mechanical investigations connected with the motion of compound
pendulums ; or Huyghens’ method of continued fractions, characterized by Lagrange
as one of the principal discoveries of “that great mathematician, and to which he
appears to haye been led by the construction of his Planetary Automaton; ” or the
new algebra, speaking of which one of my predecessors (Mr. Spottiswoode) has
said, not without just reason and authority, from this Chair, “that it reaches out

_and indissolubly connects itself each year with fresh branches of mathematics, that

the theory of equations has almost become new through it, algebraic geometry
transfigured in its light, that the calculus of variations, molecular physics, and me-
chanics” (he might, if speaking at the present moment, go on to add the theory of
elasticity and the highest developments of the integral calculus) “have all felt
its influence.”

Now this gigantic outcome of modern analytical thought, itself, too, only the pre-
cursor and progenitor of a future still more heaven-reaching theory, which will
comprise a complete study of the interoperation, the actions and reactions, of
algebraic forms (Analytical Morphology in its absolute sense), how did this origi-
nate? In the accidental observation by Eisenstein, some score or more years ago,
of a single invariant (the Quadrinvariant of a Binary Quartic) which he met with in
the course of certain researches just as accidentally and unexpectedly as M. Du
Chaillu might meet a Gorilla inthe country of the Fantees, or any one of us in London
a White Polar Bear escaped from the Zoological Gardens. Fortunately he pounced
down upon his prey and preserved it for the contemplation and study of future
mathematicians. It occupies only part of a page in his collected posthumous works.
This single result of observation (as well entitled to be so called as the discovery of
Globigerinze in chalk or of the Confoco-ellipsoidal structure of the shells of the
Foraminifera), which remained unproductive in the hands of its distinguished
author, has served to set in motion a train of thought and to propagate an impulse
which have led to a complete revolution in the whole aspect of modern analysis,
and whose consequences will continue to be felt until Mathematics are forgotten
and British Associations meet no more.

I might go on, were it necessary, piling instance upon instance to prove the para-
mount importance of the faculty of observation to the process of mathematical
discovery*. Were it not unbecoming to dilate on one’s personal experience, I
could tell a story of almost romantic interest about my own latest researches in a
field where Geometry, Algebra, and the Theory of Numbers melt in a surprising

bookworm in an wrrumpled page: but what if the page should be undergoing a process
of gractual bending into a curved form? Mr. W. K. Clifford has indulged in some re-
markable speculations as to the possibility of our being able to infer, from certain unex-
plained phenomena of light and magnetism, the fact of our level space of three dimensions
being in the act of undergoing in space of four dimensions (space as inconceivable to us
as our space to the supposititious bookworm) a distortion analogous to the rumpling of
ie =page to which that creature’s powers of direct perception have been postulated to be
imited.

* Newton’s Rule was to all appearance, and according to the more received opinion,
obtained inductively by its author. My own reduction of Euler’s problem of the Virgins
(or rather one slightly more general than this) to the form of a question (or, to speak more
exactly, a set of questions) in simple partitions was, strange to say, first obtained by myself
inductively, the result communicated to Prof. Cayley, and proved subsequently by each of
us independently, and by perfectly distinct methods.

6 REPORT—1869.

manner into one another, like sunset tints or the colours of the dying dolphin,
“the last still loveliest” (a sketch of which has just appeared in the Pro-
ceedings of the London Mathematical Society*), which would very strikingly illus-
trate how much observation, divination, induction, experimental trial, and verifica-
tion, causation, too (if that means, as I suppose it must, mounting from phenomena
to their reasons or causes of being), have to do with the work of the mathema-
tician. In the face of these facts, which every analyst in this room or out of it
can vouch for out of his own knowledge and personal experience, how can it be
maintained, in the words of Professor Huxley, who, in this instance, is speaking of
the sciences as they are in themselyes and without any reference to scholastic
discipline, that Mathematics “is that study which knows nothing of observation,
nothing of induction, nothing of experiment, nothing of causation.”

I, of course, am not so absurd as to maintain that the habit of observation of
external nature will be best or in any degree cultivated by the study of mathematics,
at all events as that study is at present conducted ; and no one can desire more
earnestly than myself to see natural and experimental science introduced into our
schools as a primary and indispensable branch of education : I think that that study
and mathematical culture should go on hand in hand together, and that they would
greatly influence each other for their mutual good. I should rejoice to see mathe-
matics taught with that life and animation which the presence and a of her
young and buoyant sister could not fail to impart, short roads preferred to long
ones, Euclid honourably shelved or buried “deeper than did ever plummet
sound” out of the schoolboy’s reach, morphology introduced into the elements
of Algebra—projection, correlation, and motion accepted as aids to geometry—the
mind of the student quickened and elevated and his faith awakened by early initia-
tion into the ruling ideas of polarity, continuity, infinity, and familiarization with
the doctrine of the imaginary and inconceivable.

It is this living interest in the subject which is so wanting in our traditional and
medieval modes of teaching. In France, Germany, and Italy, everywhere where
I have been on the Continent, mind acts direct on mind in a manner unknown to
the frozen formality of our academic institutions; schools of thought and centres
of real intellectual cooperation exist; the relation of master and pupil is acknow-
ledged as a spiritual and a lifelong tie, connecting successive generations of great
thinkers with each other in an unbroken chain, just in the same way as we read, in
the catalogue of our French Exhibition, or of the Salon at Paris, of this man or that
being the pupil of one great painter or sculptor and the master of another. When
followed out in this spirit, there is no study in the world which brings into more
harmonious action all the faculties of the mind than the one of which I stand here
as the humble representative, there is none other which prepares so many agree-
able surprises for its followers, more wonderful than the changes in the transforma-
tion-scene of a pantomime, or, like this, seems to raise them, by successive steps
of initiation, to higher and higher states of conscious intellectual being.

This accounts, T believe , for the extraordinary longevity of all the greatest masters
of the Analytical art, the Dii Majores of the mathematical Pantheon. Leibnitz, lived
to the age of 70; Euler to 76; Lagrange to 77; Laplace to 78; Gauss to 78; Plato,
the supposed inventor of the conic sections, who made mathematics his study and
delight, who called them the handles or aids to philosophy, the medicine of the
soul, and is said never to have let a day go by without inventing some new
theorems, lived to 82; Newton, the crown and glory of his race, to 85; Archi-
medes, the nearest akin, probably, to Newton in genius, was 75, and might have
lived on to be 100, for aught we can guess to the contrary, when he was slain by
the impatient and ill-mamnered sergeant, sent to bring him before the Roman
general, in the full vigour of his faculties, and in the very act of working out a
problem ; Pythagoras, in whose school, I believe, the word mathematician (used,
however, in a somewhat wider than its present sense) originated, the second
founder of geometry, the inventor of the matchless theorem which goes by his
name, the precognizer of the undoubtedly mis-called Copernican theory, the dis-
coverer of the regular solids and the musical canon, who stands at the very apex
of this pyramid of flame (if we may credit the tradition), after spending 22 years

* Under the title of “ Outline Trace of the Theory of Reducible Cyclodes.”

PE ——

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 7

studying in Egypt, and 12 in Babylon, opened school when 56 or 57 years old in
Magna Grecia, married a young wife when past 60, and died, carrying on his work
with energy unspent to the last, at the age of 99. The mathematician lives long
and lives young; the wings of his soul do not early drop off, nor do its pores
become clogged with the earthy particles blown from the dusty highways of
vulgar life.

Some people have been found to regard all mathematics, after the 47th proposi-
tion of Euclid, as a sort of morbid secretion, to be compared only with the pearl
said to be generated in the diseased oyster, or, as I have heard it described, ‘‘ une
excroissance maladive de l’esprit humain.” Others find its justification, its “ raison
d’étre,” in its being either the torch-bearer leading the way, or the handmaiden
holding up the train of Physical Science ; and a very clever writer in a recent maga-
zine article, expresses his doubts whether it is, in itself, a more serious pursuit, or
more worthy of interesting an intellectual human being, than the study of chess pro-
blems or Chinese puzzles. What is it to us, they say, if the three angles of a tri-
angle are equal to two right angles, or if every even number is, or may be, the sum
of two primes, or if every equation of an odd degree must have a real root. How
dull, stale, flat, and unprofitable are such and such like announcements! Much
more interesting to read an account of a marriage in high life, or the details of an
international boat-race. But this is like judging of architecture from being shown
some of the brick and mortar, or even a quarried stone of a public building, or of
painting from the colours mixed on the palette, or of music by listening to the thin
and sereechy sounds produced by a bow passed haphazard over the strings of a
violin. The world of ideas which it discloses or illuminates, the contemplation of
divine beauty and order which it imduces, the harmonious connexion of its parts,
the infinite hierarchy and absolute evidence of the truths with which it is con-
cerned, these, and such like, are the surest grounds of the title of mathematics to
human regard, and would remain unimpeached and unimpaired were the plan of
the universe unrolled like a map at our feet, and the mind of man qualified to
take in the whole scheme of creation at a glance.

In conformity with general usage, I have used the word mathematics in the
plural; but I think it would be desirable that this form of word should be re-
served for the applications of the science, and that we should use mathematic in
the singular number to denote the science itself, in the same way as we speak of
logic, rhetoric, or (own sister to algebra *) music. ‘Time was when all the parts of
the subject were dissevered, when algebra, geometry, and arithmetic either lived
apart or kept up cold relations of acquaintance confined to occasional calls upon
one another; but that isnow at an end; they are drawn together and are constantly
becoming more and more intimately related and connected by a thousand fresh ties,
and we may confidently look forward to a time when they shall form but one body
with one soul. Geometry formerly was the chief borrower from arithmetic and
algebra, but it has since repaid its obligations with abundant usury; and if I were
asked to name, in one word, the pole-star round which the mathematical firmanent
revolves, the central idea which pervades as a hidden spirit the whole corpus of
mathematical doctrine, I should point to Continuity as contained in our notions of
space, and say, it is this, itis this! Space isthe Grand Continuum from which, as
from an inexhaustible reservoir, all the fertilizing ideas of modern analysis are de-
rived; and as Brindley, the engineer, once allowed before a parliamentary com-
mittee that, in his opinion, rivers were made to feed navigable canals, I feel almost
tempted to say that one principal reason for the existence of space, or at least one
pope function which it discharges, is that of feeding mathematical invention.

verybody knows what a wonderful influence geometry has exercised in the hands
of Cauchy, Puiseux, Riemann, and his followers Clebsch, Gordan, and others, over
the very form and presentment of the modern calculus, and how it has come to
pass that the tracing of curves, which was once to be regarded as a puerile amuse-

* T have elsewhere (in my Trilogy published in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’) re-
ferred to the close connexion between these two cultures, not merely as having Arithmetic
for their common parent, but as similar in their habits and affections. I have called
“ Music the Algebra of sense, Algebra the Music of the reason; Music the dream, Algebra
the waking life, —the soul of each the same !”

8 REPORtT—1869.

ment, or at best useful only to the architect or decorator, is now entitled to take
rank as a high philosophical exercise, inasmuch as every new curve or surface, or
other circumscription of space is capable of being regarded as the embodiment of
some specific organized system of continuity *. }

The early study of Euclid made me a hater of geometry, which I hope may plead
my excuse if 1 have shocked the opinions of any in this room (and I know there are
some who rank Euclid as second in sacredness to the Bible alone, and as one of the
advanced outposts of the British Constitution) by the tone in which I have pre-
viously alluded to it as a school-book ; and yet, in spite of this repugnance, which
had become a second nature in me, whenever I went far enough into any mathemati-
cal question, I found I touched, at last, a geometrical bottom: so it was, I may
instance, in the purely arithmetical theory of partitions; so, again, in one of my
more recent studies, the purely algebraical question of the invariantive criteria of
the nature of the roots of an equation of the fifth degree: the first inquiry landed
me in a new theory of polyhedra; the latter found its perfect and only possible
complete solution in the construction of a surface of the ninth order and the sub-
division of its infinite content into three distinct natural regions.

Having thus expressed myself at much greater length than IJ originally intended
on the subject, which, as standing first on the muster-roll of the Association, and
as having been so recently and repeatedly arraigned before the bar of public
opinion, is entitled to be heard in its defence (if anywhere) in this place,—haying
endeavoured to show what it is not, what it is, and what it is probably destined to
become, I feel that I must enough and more than enough have trespassed on your
forbearance, and shall proceed with the regular business of the Meeting.

Before calling upon the authors of the papers contained in the varied bill of
intellectual fare which I see before me, I hope to be pardoned if I direct attention
to the importance of practising brevity and condensation in the delivery of com-
munications to the Section, not merely as a saving of valuable time, but in order
that what is said may be more easily followed and listened to with greater plea-
sure and advantage. I believe that immense good may be done by the oral inter-
change and discussion of ideas which takes place in the Sections; but for this to
be possible, details and long descriptions should be reserved for printing and reading,
ane only the general outlines and broad statements of facts, methods, observations,
or inventions brought before us here, such as can be easily followed by persons
having a fair average acquaintance with the several subjects treated upon. I
understand the rule to be that, with the exception of the author of any paper who
may answer questions and reply at the end of the discussion, no member is to
address the Section more than once on the same subject, or occupy more than a
quarter of an hour in speaking.

In order to get through the business set down in each day’s paper, it may some-
times be necessary for me to bring a discussion to an earlier close than might
otherwise be desirable, and for that purpose to request the authors of papers, and
those who speak upon them, to be brief in their addresses. I have known most
able investigators at these Meetings, and especially in this Section, gradually part
company with their audience, and at last become so involved in digressions as to lose
entirely the thread of their discourse, and seem to forget, like men waking out of
sleep, where they were or what they were talking about. In such cases I shall
venture to give a gentle pull to the string of the kite before it soars right away
out of sight into the region of the clouds. I now call upon Dr. Magnus to read
his paper and recount to the Section his wondrous story on the Emission,
Absorption, and Reflection of Obscure Heatt.

Postscript.—The remarks on the use of experimental methods in mathematical

* M. Camille Jordan’s application of Dr. Salmon’s Eikosi-heptagram to Abelian func-
tions is one of the most recent instances of this reverse action of geometry on analysis.
Mr. Crotton’s admirable apparatus of a reticulation with infinitely fine meshes rotated
successively through indefinitely small angles, which he applies to obtaining whole families
of definite integrals, is another equally striking example of the same phenomenon.

t Curiously enough, and as if symptomatic of the genial warmth of the proceedings in
which seyen sages from distant lands (Jacobi, M: agnus, Newton, Janssen, Morren, Lyman,

uate

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9

investigation led to Dr. Jacobi, the eminent physicist of St. Petersburg, who was
present at the delivery of the address, favouring me with the annexed anecdote
relative to his illustrious brother C. G. J. Jacobi.

“in causant un jour avec mon frére défunt sur la necessité de contrdler par des
expériences réitérées toute observation, méme si elle confirme ’hypothése, il me
raconta avoir découvert un jour une loi trés-remarquable de la théorie des nombres,
dont il ne douta guére qu'elle fat générale. Cependant par un excés de précaution
ou plutét pour faire le superflu, il voulut substituer un chiffre quelconque réel aux
termes eénéraux, chiffre qu'il choisit au hasard ou, peut-étre, par une espéce de
divination, car en effet ce chiffre mit sa formule en défaut; tout autre chiffre qu'il
essaya en confirma la généralité. Plus tard il réussit & prouver que le chiffre
choisi par lui par hasard, appartenait 4 un systéme de chiffres qui faisait la seule
exception a la régle.

“ Ce fait curieux m’est resté dans la mémoire, mais comme il s’est passé il ya plus
d'une trentaine d’années, je ne rappelle plus des détails.

“M. H. Jaconi.”

“ Pxeter, 24. Aovt, 1869.”

MarnemMatics.
On the Theory of Distance. By W. K. Cuirrorp.

This communication relates to the following two theorems on the foci and asym-
ptotes of curves.

Theorem [.—L, M, N,... are the m tangents from a point ato a curve em of the
mth class; B is any line through a, meeting the curve in m(m—1) points; J, m,n,..
P,Q, R, ...are the m(m—1) asymptotes of the curve, and p,q,r,... areaset of
m foci.

sin? LM. sin? LN . sin? MN.(ap"- aq’. ar’. .)"~4
al.am.an...sin BP.sin BQ. sin BR...

_ Theorem IT.—J, m,, .. are the n intersections of a line A with a curve Cy of the
nth order; 6 is any point on A from-which are drawn the n(m—1) tangents; L, M,
N,...2,9,7,... are a set of n(m—1) foci, and P, Q, R, ... are the m asymptotes.

Im? . In? . mn”... (sin? AP. sin? AQ. sin? AR..
sn AL.sin AM. sin AN... lp.dg.lr...

The numerator and denominator of the fraction on the left-hand side of the equa-
tion in Theorem I. are quantities either of which I call the distance of the point a
from the curve Cm. The corresponding quantities in Theorem II. I call the Distance
of the line A from the curve Cy. The reason of this is in the similarity of the ana-
lytical expressions for the distance of two geometrical forms in all cases, viz. the
distance vanishes when the two forms have contact, and is infinite when either of
them has contact with the “absolute.” The “absolute” in plane geometry (so
called by Professor Cayley) is the two circular points at infinity.

Talso consider the modifications undergone by these theorems in the case of
spherical curves.

The method of investigation employed is an extension of the “ geometric analy-
sis ” of Grassmann, itself a development of a remark of Leibnitz.

f betsy
=sin? PQ sin? QR.sin? PR...

On the Umbilici of Anallagmatic Surfaces. By W. K. Cutrrorp.

On the Common Tangents of Circles. By M. Coxttns.

Neumayer) took frequent part, the opening and concluding papers (each of surpassing
interest, and a letting-out of mighty waters) were on Obscure Heat, by Prof. Magnus, and
on Stellar Heat, by Mr. Huggins.

10 REPORT—1869.

Sketch of a Proof of Lagrange’s Equation of Motion referred to Generalized
Coordinates. By RK. B. Haywarn, M.A.

Suppose a material system with » degrees of freedom, 7. e. one for the determi-
nation of whose position and configuration z absolutely independent variables or
coordinates are necessary and sufficient. Denote one of these coordinates by g, and
suppose g to be changed tog+6g; then a given particle (mass m) of the system re-
celves a displacement definite in intensity and direction, which may be denoted by
kéq, where k may be regarded as a magnitude definite in intensity and direction,
which may be called the “ variation coefficient” of the particle m with respect to
the yariable g. Itis plain that / is in general a function of all the x coordinates.
If » denote the velocity of the particle min any possible state of motion of the
system, T(or }=mv*) the vis viva of the system, and gq’ the rate of change of g or the
differential coefficient of g with respect to the time, the author proves that, suppo-
sing T expressed in terms of the x coordinates g &c., and their differential coefficients

with respect to the time q' &c., and aT denoting the partial differential coefficient
a q d dq to) Pp

of T with respect to q’,

—— =3(mkv cos

dq ( S ?);
where ¢ is the angle between the directions of / and v, and the summation extends
to all the particles of the system. The quantity (mkv cos) may be appropriately
termed the partial momentum of the system with respect to the coordinate g ; and
it is easily seen that the » partial momenta with respect to the x coordinates com-
pletely determine the motion of the system. It thus appears that each of the well-
imown equations of motion in the Lagrangean form

1a
‘dg _ aT _dU

dt dq dq
does but express the relation between the rate of change of one of the partial mo-
menta with the time and the forces acting on the system.

This interpretation immediately suggests a direct proof of Lagrange’s equations
without any reference of the system to fixed rectangular or any other pica system
of coordinates as in the proofs hitherto given. The direct result of differentiating
(mkv cos p) with respect to the time ¢ is reduced to the required form by the help
of the equation

dv _ dk .

— =— cosf—ks ;

dq dt tia bata
where @ is the rate of change of the direction of k in the plane of v and k ; a relation
which it is not difficult to establish.

On Curves of the Third Degree, here called Tertians. By F. W. Newman.

The object of this paper was chiefly to suggest a nomenclature for those curves
of the third degree which are diametral or centric; but to make the argument
clear, a concise discussion of the curves was necessary, and a paper was annexed on
the roots of a cubic equation.

If ax*+382*+3yx2+6=0 be any cubic equation, and

B x oN— | # B

y 8 ’ 2D= y 6 ,

it is here shown that if AB—D*> 0 and also A<0, there are three real unequal
roots to the equations. But if A<0 and A—BD*=0, there are two equal roots.
Lastly, if either A+ 0 or B> 0, or AB— D? <0, there is only one real root, Suppo-
sing T,+T,+T,+C=0 to be the general equation, where

T, = aa +382°y + 3yay? + 67%,

Ao Laie

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 11

T, may be (1) an algebraic cube, (2) may have two equal factors, (3) may have
only one real factor, (4) may have three real unequal factors. Accordingly the
curves fall under four distinct groups.

The first group, if T,(or ‘Av?+2D‘ry+B'y*) contains in square the same factor
which in T, is in cube, is reducible to the single species ay’=2°, the Twisted
Parabola, here called the Whip-snake. If T, contains, once only, the factor
which is cubical in T,, the curve is known as the 7'rident, and is. reducible to

ay=x?—b°x—!; but this is neither centric nor diametral, but scalene. If T, has
no factor common to T,, then (in this group) the equation is reducible to y?=X,
and the curve iy here called Calyx. When further reduced to ay?=«+Ce+D
the new origin is here called the Pole. The curve is of at least six species, here
named Lily, when C=0, D=0; Tulip, especially when C and D are both positive ;
Hyacinth, when C=0 and D is positive ; perhaps Convolvulus when C=0 and D is
negative ; Pink, when C = —30?, D=2c’, if ¢ be positive and > }; but ife=—3b* and
D=26*, it is Fuchsia (or Fucia), the knotted Calyx. If c= — 302, and D=—26*, it
is the studded Calyx, or Anti-fucia. If C= —30? and D=2c°*, and c <4, the curve is
here called Bulbus ; being a calyx with a bulbous poot below it.

The curves of the second group here treated fall into two classes. First, the Palm-
stems, ry?=a’ ; the Archer’s Bow, zy?=30?(a—2); the Twisted Bow, x(y*+b*)= aby;
the Pilaster (?) a(y?—b?) =aby ; the Archway or Tunnel, 2(y°—4°)=ab?. A second
(diametral) class is called Vas, ry?= X=ma? + nx+p, in which m is always posi-
tive. The parabola, y2=mx+n, is asymptotic to it, and has elegant geometrical
relations with it. When X has no real factor, the curve 1s called the Urn, if
X=m{(x+6)’+e}; but the Goblet if X=m{(x—})2+c?}. When c=0, the
latter becomes the Knotted Goblet; but the case of X=m(«+b) is called
the Studded Goblet. An outlying conjugate point is in this paper entitled
a Stud (clavus), and the curve which has one, Studded (clavatus).; But_X
may have two real factors, under which division there are three species. For
zy?=a(x+b)(x+c) is an Urn with an outlying oval, and is called the Dripping
Ur. But 2y?=a(«—6)(a—c) is a Goblet with broken stem; zy?=a(#+5)(a—c)
further has the foot reversed.

The diametral curves of the third group are reducible to the form

pay? =D+3Cr+3B2?—2'=X,

where D is positive. They naturally fall into four classes, in strict analogy to
the four groups of Tertians. When X=(a—z)*, there is but one species, here
called Pyramid; but when p?=1, it is the Kissoid of Diocles. _ Pyramid is the
analogue of Lily. If X=(a—x)(b—z)*, and a=, we get the Festoon (Cirrus),
which is the analogue of Fucia, being knotted. But if a <b, itis the Overstudded
Hillock; and when X=(a—«)(x+b), the curve is in general the Understudded
Hillock. Yet if a> 8b, the head overhangs the sides, and it is called Capito
(Great Head); and when a=8b, the sides appear at one point perpendicular. The
last is called Cassis (Helmet). This makes five species in second class. But in fact
four of them are only degenerate forms of third or fourth class.

In the third class, X=(a—w){(w+b)?+c?}. That a curve may be a Conchoid,
generally, when X is a function of x of any degree, but essentially positive, we
must have xzy?=(a—ax)X. The simplest case is X=constant, which makes the
Archer's Bow in our second group. But in the third group, tor a Conchoid (here

regarded as a hill, whether Tumulus or Mons), = =9 must be impossible within
the limits of the curve,.. we need D> B*. Thus, if p2ay?=(a—x){(w+b)?+c*}
Satie But the chief Tertian Conchoid is zy?=
a@—zx', with polar equation p*cos@=a*. To this T,+C=0 is reducible in this

v
eroup. But when D=B’, 4 =0 has two equal roots, and a tangent parallel to x

and 7*=b2+c?, we need ar?> (

cuts the curve in its point of flexure. This is the Tombstone, Cippus. And when

B's D,@ =0 has three real roots, and y has both a maximum and a minimum.

12 REPORT—1869.

This curve is called the Sphinx. Capito isa studded Sphinx, and Cassisa studded
Cippus. In the fourth class X has three real unequal factors, and there is an outlying
oval. When X=(a—2x)(b—«)(c—2) it is called Mountain and Moon. When
X=(a—«x)(6+2z)(c+2), it is Mountain and Tarn, provided that D> B*. But if
B? > D, we get the Clock and Pendulum, differing from Capito only in having an
oval for a stud. If D=B*, you have the Bell and Clapper, which differs similarly
from Helmet.

The third group has also a small class of centric curves, a(m?x?+ p*y*) +2(Ex+ Fy)
=0; but they are most elegantly treated by the polar equation of their chief variety.
Under p?=a? tan 6+0? we include three curves, the third being obtained by b=0.
Each is a Twisted Bow; they differ only in the amount of twist. The triple sys-
tem is here called Cornutus. All centric systems are of the form T,+T,=0.

Under the fourth group we have an analogous centric system, reducible by alike

compact to pcos 26=a*tan 6+? ; but there are five species, as it is now important
whether a> bora<b. (We cannot have a=b without degeneracy.) These curves
are called the Butterfly. The Twisted Bow appears like two wings. Two hyper-
bolas are added. There are three rectilinear asymptotes, as always in this fourth
group.
E Ths here shown that fora single diameter it is essential either that the curve be
of the first group, o7 else the general equation must admit the form (a—ey)U’+C=0,
where the equation U’=0 represents a conic curve ; and the equation of the dia-
meter whose chords are parallel to z—ey=0 is precisely the same in the Tertianas
with this conic. But further, when T, has three real unequal factors, three diame-
ters become possible. Ifthe diametral equation in this group be expressed by
wry?=x? —2ax*4+Cx+D, we find two additional diameters when C=a’*, which
makes p2ay’=a(*—a)?+D; such curves are called Trijuga or Triga. There are
three species. First, when a=0, we have the Starry Triga, p°ay?=2°—b*. The
other two species are conjugate and expressible by p*ay?=2x(a—a)’?+b*, The chief
Starry Triga (when p?=1) has a remarkable polar equation.

When the three asymptotes make a triangle, this is called the Cloister. When
they all pass through one point, the figure is called Starry. The Cloister is here
ae drawn with its vertex upward. (Many drawings accompanied this

aper.

: aking peay?=a° —2ax?+Cr+D=X, when C is not =a? we may always suppose
a positive, except when a=0, which makes the system Starry. The height of the
Cloister is a. Now, first, if X=(«—m)*, we have an analogue to Pyramid; itis here
called the Crane. The height of the Cloister is 2x. Next, if X=(«—m)?(a—n)
and mz, it is Crane and Sack, with some analogy to Festoon. Both are special
cases of X=(x—m)(t—n)(x—p), which is called Swing and Chair, the oval being
conceived of as a chair. But if X=(2—m)(«+n)(v+p), the curve is called Trophy,
as it seems to show a Bow, with Shields and Spears. If in the last n=p, the curves
cross, and we have the Knotted Flower-pot. In fact if X has only one real factor,
say, pry?=(v—m){(e+b)+c*} and r°=)?+c%, If r?=(3m+b)%, we get Triga.
But if r? > (3m+5)?, the curve is the Swing without the Chair. But if (3m+)?z r2,
the curve is the Flower-pot, if we conceive of the upper hyperbola asa calyx. The
two lower hyperbolas are so twisted as to exhibit akind of urn. And whenc=0,
we regain the Knotted Flower-pot. This completes the enumeration.

It is observed that in certain cases the asymptotes have quadratic approach to
the curve ; and the paper contains various other details.

Postscript.

It is possible for the Swing and Chair to become a Triga. For this, in
pray’ =(«—m)(«—n)(«—p) we need as a condition (m+n+p)*=4(mn+mp+np), or
(m—n—p)?=4np, which can evidently be fulfilled. Indeed either side may be
the greater. Conversely, a Triga of the form p2y?=(2—a)?— b2—! (where a and 53
have the same sign) may at the same time belong to the species Swing and Chair;
that ws, have an outlying oval within the Cloister. The condition is that 2(«—a)?—b?
shail be resolvable into three real unequal factors ; so then must (+a)&—b; which

Se.

TRANSACTIONS OF TIE SECTIONS. 13

9
requires that G) be > _ In particular, examine

wy?=(e—3)— a7 182)? 0-1,
You find p7y? positive while z=}, and still positive when 7=24; but negative

when «=21, or when r=}. Thus the interior oval has limits somewhat short of
z=t, v=2 ; while the height of the cloister is 3.

On the Curvature of Surfaces of the Second Degree. By F.W. Newman.

Writing for the equation
Aa? + By? + Cx?+2Day + 2Exrz 4 2F yz+2er+ 28y4+2yz24+G=0;

ADE ARBs
taking also V=!]DBF|and W= ;
3 EFCy
EFC Y

a BpyG

we know that in ellipsoids and hyperboloids both V and W are finite; in the Cone
V is finite and W=0; in Paraboloids V is zero and Ww finite ; in Cylinders both
V and W are zero.

This paper shows by a direct process, (1) that if ite axes move parallel to them-
selyes without change of ABC, W remains unchanged; (2) that if the axis turn
about a fixed origin while C remains unchanged, the change in the value of W is

-easy to estimate. In fact if W, be the value when the axes are rectangnlar and W
belong to the same surface estimated from another system of axes in which

D,=cos («,y), E,=cos(x,z), F,=cos(y, 2),
it is here proved that

i ah
If then we take lengths Orx=Oy=Oz=1 along the axes, W is constant, while the
volume of the parallelepipedon, whose edges are Oz, Oy, Oz, is constant.

The relation of the function W to the curvature is cardinal; W cannot change
sign in a given surface ; and when W is positive, the curvature is concayo-conyex.

On Conie Osculation. By ¥. W. Newman.

The topic was treated from the general equation
Az*+By?+C+2Day4+2Er+2Fy=0.

First. Taking the origin on the curve, C=0, It then is shown that two curves
which have a common tangent at a common point may be denoted by

A a+ By?+2Dz2y+2E «=0,
m A, x? + By?+2D,r7y+2E,c¢=0,
and consequently that the two osculate if E,=E.
It immediately follows that (if 5 is the obliquity of the axes)
B(x? +y?+ 2xy cos 8)+2Ec=0

is the osculating circle, From this the results of the common treatises are deduced
very simply.

Secondly. If the origin be still in the curve, but neither axis be a tangent, put

ADE A,D, E
V=|DBF], V.=|D, BF
EFC EFC

14 REPORT—1869.

' (though here C=0); the two curves
A a2+B y?+2D ay+2Ezr+2Fy=0,
| A,z2+B,y?+2D, cy +2Exr+2Fy=0,

are shown to osculate when V=V,, and only then. Also if V, become v, when we
take A, =1=B, and D,=cos 4,

8
radius of curvature to former 63) ae
f +V sin 6
Thirdly. When two curves have a common point 2"y', the condition that they
may osculate there is expressed by an equation, U°V=T*V,, where U and T are
known integer functions of the coefficients of the equations which are supposed quite
general.

Summary of the Thermodynamic Theory of Waves of Finite Longitudinal
Disturbance. By W. J. Macauvorn Ranxine, C.E., LL.D., FBS,

This paper contains a summary account of the results of a mathematical inves-
tigation, the details of which have been communicated to the Royal Society. It
relates to the laws of the propagation of finite longitudinal disturbances along a
cylindrical or prismatic mass of an elastic substance of any kind, solid, liquid, or
gaseous. The investigation is facilitated by the use of a quantity called the mass-
velocity or somatic velocity of propagation; that is, the mass of matter through
which the disturbance is propagated in unity of time along a tube of the transverse
area unity ; also by expressing the relative positions of transyerse planes in such a
tube by means of the masses of matter contained between them, instead of by their -
distances apart. The first part of the investigation relates to the conditions under
which the propagation of a wave of longitudinal disturbance of permanent type is
possible ; and it is shown that the principal dynamical condition of permanence of
type is the following:

d
- - =m?’ (a constant) ;

in which p denotes the intensity of the longitudinal elastic pressure in absolute
units of force per unit of area, s the bulkiness of the substance (that is, the volume
of unity of mass), and the constant m is the mass-velocity already mentioned. (That
ee had been previously demonstrated in a less elementary manner by Mr.

arnshaw.) Then, by the aid of the thermodynamic function, it is shown what
conditions as to the transfer of heat between the vibrating particles must be fulfilled
in order that the above relation between pressure and bulkiness may subsist. Those
conditions are the more nearly realized, the more abrupt the changes of density
which constitute the disturbance; but they cannot be absolutely realized in any
actual substance ; whence it is concluded that absolute permanence of type for an
indefinite time in waves of longitudinal disturbance is impossible, and that it is
most nearly approximated to when the disturbance is abrupt.

The latter part of the investigation relates to adiabatie waves; that is, waves in
which there is no transfer of heat from particle to particle, and the thermodynamic
function is constant. In this part of the investigation, the results are to a great
extent identical with those previously arrived at by Poisson, Stokes, Airy, and
especially Earnshaw; but are obtained by methods that are comparatively of an
elementary kind. It is shown that in adiabatic waves there must be a change of
type as the wave advances; that during that change of type the greatest compression
and greatest rarefaction remain constant; that the compressed parts of the wave
gain upon the rarefied parts of the wave, and at length overtake them, converting
a wave which was originally one of gradual disturbance into one of sudden dis-
turbance; and finally, that the compressed and rarefied parts of the wave by their
mutual interference cause the dissipation of its energy in molecular agitation. It
is conjectured that this phenomenon. may be the cause of the non-existence of lon-
gitudinal vibrations in rays of light. It is analogous to what takes place in the
motion of rolling waves in shallow water, when the crests overtake the troughs
and at length break into them,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 15

The linear velocity of advance of a wave is expressed by mS, in which 8 denotes
the undisturbed value of the bulkiness, In all the various cases investigated the
limit towards which that linear velocity approximates when the disturbance dimi-
nishes indefinitely is the well-known value of the velocity of sound.

On the Mechanical Tracing of Curves. By W. H. L. Russetr, F.R.S.

In this paper the author gave an account of a machine which he has invented for
tracing the general equation of the xth order by continued motion.

On Professor Christian Wrener’s Stereoscopic Representation of the Cubic
Eikosi-heptagram. By Professor Sytvester, 2S.

The author produced stereographic drawings sent over to him by Professor
Christian Wiener, of Karlsruhe, of the famous complex of 27 right lines lying
on a cubic surface discovered by Salmon and rediscovered by Steiner. Dr.
Wiener, at the request of Professor Clebsch, of Heidelberg, had actually built up a
suitable cubic surface, and marked the lines in colours upon it; from this model
the stereograms produced had been photographed.

On the Successive Involutes to a Circle, By Professor Sytvxster, F.R.S.

The author referred to his communication to the Section at the Meeting held last
year at Norwich, “ On the General Theory of the Successive Involutes to a Circle
now called Cyclodes,” and went on to give an account of a particular kind of
eyclode which is the simplest of their respective orders, and from the lowering
of the degree which takes place in their arco-radial equation are termed reducible
eyclodes. He referred to his researches for determining their number and
groupings for any order of derivation, and to a new class of theorems in the
Partition of Numbers in which these researches have eventuated.

A sketch of his conclusions is contained in a Number recently published of
the Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, copies of which were
distributed among the Members of the Section present.

ASTRONOMY.

On Secular Variations of Lunar Tints and Spots and Shadows on Plato.
By R. W. Bret, RAS.

One of the most promising lines of research having reference to the physical
aspect of the moon’s surface consists in an examination from time to time of the
tints which characterize every portion of the visible disk. To take this in its en-"
tirety would be a most enormous labour; the only way to deal with a subject of
this kind is to select a few of the most prominent objects which differ in brightness
and colour, and regularly observe them at stated intervals; if even half a dozen
such objects were selected and observed on every occasion when the moon appeared
above the horizon, as the observations proceeded it would be found that not only a
large amount of labour must be expended before any valuable results could be ob-
tained, but the observations must be continued over a long period of years to eli-
minate the effects of those agencies which produce merely apparent changes. That
changes of tint and brilliancy occur on the moon’s surface is very evident; no lunar
observer is ignorant of the fact that many portions of the surface vary in tint durin
the course of the luni-solar day ; the variation of brilliancy in many of the brighter
spots is still more marked during the same period, and these variations have been
referred, probably with great truth, to the change of angle at which the sun’s light
falls upon the objects, but up to this time we are really destitute of the « proof”

16 REPORT—1869.

of this being actually the case. The scales of tint and brilliancy adopted by the
three leading selenographers of the present century differ from each other, and the
observations which have been referred to solar altitudes and azimuths are so ex-
ceedingly few, that legitimately to connect variations of brilliancy with change of
illuminating angle is quite out of the question ; still the presumption is strong that
the most striking changes of tint and brilliancy are connected with variations of
illuminating angle. It is not, however, light alone that affects the objects in the
way observed; the nature of the materials of which they are composed plays an
important part, some reflecting more, some less light than others.

‘When we enter upon a comparison of tints, either observed directly by means of
the telescope or recorded on photograms, with those given on our maps or recorded
in the works of selenographers, we are often struck with the differences thus de-
tected; but as we fail to connect by ordinary inductive processes apparent vari-
ation of brightness with change of illuminating angle, simply on account of the
absence, on the one hand, of a suitable scale of brightness, and on the other, of a
discussion of the observations with respect to solar altitudes and azimuths, so with
regard to the differences just alluded to, we fail to refer them to change of a phy-
sical character, just because we are destitute of the necessary evidence that the
spots were really darker or lighter than they are at present.

While the scales of Schriter, Lohrmann, and Beer and Madler differ among
themselves, the tints or brilliancy ascribed by each selenographer to the objects
recorded by him are comparable one with the other upon his particular scale, and
thus a means exists of ascertaining at the epoch of each whether one of any two
spots was brighter or darker than the other at the phase at which the brilliancy
was determined. It is obvious that now, observations of the brightness of the same
two spots may be obtained at about the same phase, provided the suitable oppor-
tunities be embraced, and thus a change of brilliancy or tint may be detected of
a different character to that dependent on change of illuminating angle ; for if the
observations be made at precisely the same phase as when the brightness was re-
corded, it is clear that the illuminating angle must be nearly if not quite the same,
consequently the variation of tint or brightness in one or both of the two spots must
be referred to some agency different from illumination.

Last year I solicited the attention of the Section to the difference of tint which
characterized a somewhat large shallow crater near Alpetragius, as compared with
the drawings of Lohrmann, Beer and Midler,and Schmidt. The floor of this crater
was seen to be darker in 1868 than the surrounding surface, and therefore darker
than delineated by the selenographers just named, The same dark tint, under every
phase at which it has been examined, has been observed without exception since
August 1868. The legitimate conclusion is, that during the period of the obser-
vations in 1868 and in 1869, the surface of this crater was permanently the darkest
in the neighbourhood. If Lohrmann, Beer and Midler, and Schmidt were correct
in their comparative delineation of the tint of this crater (and it is difficult to con-
ceive that three experienced selenographers could have fallen into the same error),
we have presumptive evidence of a phenomenon which may be termed “ a secular
variation of tint.” What it arises from is altogether another question ; it, however,
does not stand alone on the surface of the moon.

To enter into any speculation as to the cause of such variations, whether from
bright to dark, or the reverse, is manifestly premature; there is, however, a class
of phenomena which bears much on the same point ; the surfaces of many of the
larger smooth-walled plains are greatly diversified with spots, streaks, and in some
cases spreading fans of light ; the rays issuing from Proclus and spreading over the
Mare Crisium may be cited as examples of the latter. The walled plain Plato has
been the subject of numerous observations, both as regards its very interesting
mountain border and still more interesting floor. No two drawings of this floor
that I have seen precisely agree, a result to be expected when we consider that
the differences of illuminating and visual angle tend materially to influence its as-
pect as seen from the earth, added to which, we have the different impressions pro-
duced at different times on artists and observers; still the differences dependent
upon illumination &c, will have a limit; certain well-known features will always
be recognized, although somewhat altered in appearance at different times ; it is

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 17

after a lapse of years that a well-conducted series of observations will determine
if there be secular change in these stripes and tints. Should some disappear, and
others not observed before become visible, the presumptive evidence is that a secular
change has taken place. This appears to be the case with several spots on Plato.
The earliest record that I haye been able to find of any well-defined small spots on
the floor is that of Gruithuisen, who observed eight; later records furnish evidence
of eighteen additional spots having been observed. Of these, nine have been added
so recently as last February and since. Of the twenty-six recorded, six of the
earliest observed are still visible, and of the nine seen since January last five have
been more or less constantly seen by two observers, leaving fifteen which have
either become invisible or are very rarely seen.

When the sun is rising upon Plato the shadows of the peaks on the western wall
are admirably calculated to identify certain of these spots, and probably of deciding
between craters opened on the floor of Plato and those small white spots to which
Herr Tempel solicits attention as indicative of a warm chemical activity, and which
appear under a high solar illumination, there being no indication whatever of cra-
ters existing on their sites as the terminator passes them.

Beer and Midler measured the three peaks on the western wall, viz. y, 6, and
e, the heights being as under :—

y=7258 Eng. feet, 5=6369 Eng. feet, e=5128 Eng. feet.

Challis measured the shadows on May 16, 1853. The measures were made
parallel and perpendicular to a line coincident with the longest diameter of Plato.
At the time Challis observed Plato nine spots had been recorded as haying been
seen on the floor, four of which were delineated by Challis, numbered 1, 3, 4, and 5.
They have since been observed by Rosse, Dobie, Dawes, and Pratt, and some of
them by Knott and other observers.

Rosse in 1862, Dawes in 1863, and Birmingham in 1869, observed the shadow
of the peak y in close proximity with No. 5(?). Rosse and Birmingham have drawn
No. 1 with the shadow of 8 just receding from it, and Birmingham gives No. 3 at
the! extremity of the shadow of the northern peak «. As matter of observation
these are important ; for by the variations of the seasons at the moon the shadows
will fall somewhat differently in summer than in winter; the extreme range is,
however, but small, the azimuthal angle with the same altitude not exceeding 38° ;
and as solar azimuths at the moon are easily calculated, no real difficulty exists in
identifying these spots as lying near the shadows of the peaks. The peaks them-
selves merit attention; Challis’s shadow of 6 terminates by a straight line; he
measured the two extremities of this line. Rosse delineates the termination of the
shadow as from two pinnacles upon the summit, with the crater No. 1 between them.
Birmingham gives the south pinnacle only, with the crater No. 1 just beyond it. In
Dawes’s drawing No. 1 lies between the shadows of y and 6. There are other peculi-
arities about the shadows which require the solar azimuths to be calculated for illus-
trating them. It is to be hoped that good drawings, accompanied by descriptions of
the shadows of the west wall and craters visible on the floor, will be mudtiplied, as
in referring such drawings and descriptions to the respective periods at which they
were made in the luni-solar year, we may become better acquainted with the nature
of the summit of the wall, and by means of large apertures, small craters on the
floor, hitherto overlooked, may be detected.

Although this branch of lunar physics is confessedly difficult, it is by no means
insurmountable. The greatest drawback consists in the paucity of recorded obser-
vations of an earlier date, from which arises the uncertainty of the existence of the
more recently observed spots. The way, however, for precise observation and
careful discussion is gradually opening, and we may hope that Schmidt’s suggestion
of “ trying by the aid of more powerful telescopes to represent the topography of
the yet undelineated details of the surface of the moon,” may bear good fruit, al-
though the further we proceed the more unable are we to see the end of the work ;
“it is,” says Schmidt, “ as if from the ordinary determination of place of the brighter
stars down to the eighth magnitude, one passes on to that of the stars of the Milky
Way.” So, in like manner, each addition to our knowledge of lunar physics leads
us onward to the study of still more minute forms, in which perhaps lurk the germs
of future interesting and important discoveries.

1869. 2

18 ; REPORT—1869.

“On the Heat of the Stars*. By Wit11as Hvecrns, PRS.

On the Longitude of the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, as deduced from Me-
ridional Observations of the Moon, made at Greenwich and Oxford, in the
years 1864-68. By the Rev. R. Mary, M.A., F.B.S., F.RAS.

As the moon has been observed for several years at the Radcliffe Observatory
with the Carrington Transit-circle, Mr. Main has thought it desirable to make, by
means of the observations as compared with those made at Greenwich, a determi-
nation of the longitude of the Observatory. The whole number of observations
employed is 217, and include all that were made on the same day at the two Ob-
servatories from the year 1864 to 1868, both inclusive.

The following Table gives the;results deduced from the observations of each year,
together with the final result of the whole of the observations, and the probable
errors :—

Number | Resulting Probable er-
Year. of longitude patel ror of asin-| Weight.
observations.| — west. ; gle result.
m s s 8
1864. 32 5 4:72 0:52 4:28 18
_ 1865. 42 4:03 0:34 371 30
1866. 46 3°76 031 2:11 37
1867. 43 2-44 0-46 3°05 17
1868. 54 314 0:39 2°86 24
Means ...... 5 3°65 017

The longitude of the observatory which has been assumed since the year 1841

5™ 286, which is less than that given above by 1:05. This assumed longitude
was determined by the late Rey. R. Sheepshanks, by chronometers carried back-
wards and forwards between Greenwich and Oxford, and though, unfortunately,
the details haye never been published, there is no doubt that the determination was
most trustworthy. Assuming its correctness, and considering the difference be-
tween it and the lunar determination to be due to error in the observation of the
moon’s limb, this error would amount very closely to 0°04 to be divided between
the two observatories.

Now, as it is known that a personal equation peculiar to the moon’s limb does
occasionally exist, to the amount of two or three-tenths of a second, it is probable
that an error much smaller in amount may affect all transits of the limb, and the
preceding investigation will show that in the case of the Greenwich and Oxford
observers it is very small.

On the Discordance usually observed between the results of Direct and Refleaion
Observations of North Polar Distance. By the Rey. R. Mary, M.A., FR.S.,
F.RAS.

Tn this paper the author attempts to putin a clear light the origin of the singular
difference which has been generally observed, in the use of the mural or the transit-
circle, between the results of direct and reflexion observations. After attributing to
the present Astronomer Royal the merit of originally organizing the system of re-
flexion observations as now practised, and of keeping his attention steadily fixed
upon the discordance in question, Mr. Main remarks that the Greenwich obser-
vations are, both from the frequency and goodness of the observations, best cal-
culated for exhibiting the nature of the errors. He takes then for examination the
star-observations of 1865 and 1866, which are peculiarly suitable for the inyesti-

* Vide Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xvii. p. 309.

heed

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 19

gation, because the error changes its sign between these two years ; and his first
process is to examine, for all the zenith-point groups having a sufficient number of
star-obseryations, the results given by north stars, by south stars, and by observa-
tion of the reflected image of the wire. If the means of these separate results were
exhibited in the Greenwich observations, it would be easy to see at a glance that
the zenith-points given by north stars frequently differ considerably from those
given by south stars, though the mean of these always agrees well with the nadir
result. This would show that the circle-readings require a variable correction
depending on the sine of the zenith-distance, but none depending on the cosine,
or that the error has for its cause either an erroneously assigned flexure of telescope,
or something that produces a similar error in the circle-readings. Now, in any
one of these cases, as the assumed zenith-point is the mean of all the results (north
stars, south stars, and nadir), it is plain that, while it is applied back again to the
circle-readings for direct and reflexion observations of north and south stars, the
zenith-distances deduced from the direct and reflexion observations will be dif-
ferent, and that the difference will change signs at the zenith, or that the R D will
have different signs for north and south stars. Pursuing this investigation through
all the groups, Mr. Main succeeds in reproducing the mean results given in what
is usually called the RD Table, which appears in each Greenwich volume. This
discordance then is plainly traced to changes (much more frequent than is usually
supposed) in the state of the instrument, which render the corrections depending
on the sine of zenith-distance variable, and which we may therefore presume to be
of the nature of flexure.

Remarks on the British Association Catalogue of Stars.
By the Rev. R. Mary, I.A., F.RS., F.R.AS.

The object of this paper was to show the necessity which exists for the construc-
tion of a new general compiled catalogue of stars to replace that which was pub-
lished in the year 1845, under the direction and at the expense of the British As-
sociation. The author would not have ventured in his own person to bring this
matter before the Association, if his attention had not been directed to it by the
circumstance of his having nearly completed the reobservation of all the stars con-
tained in it which are visible at Oxford, and which require observation.

By this means a rather singular class of errors was brought to light, which, it
was thought, might be interesting to astronomers, and to which it is desirable to
give publicity.

_ The principal modern catalogues which were used by Mr. Baily for comparison
with the more ancient catalogues of Bradley, Lacaille, and Piazzi, were those of
Taylor and Brisbane, the places of the stars in both of the last-mentioned cata-
logues being, from causes which it is not necessary now to mention, very faulty.
ow, unfortunately, the differences of the right ascensions and declinations given
by the ancient and modern catalogues, when reduced to the same epoch, have been
attributed not to errors of the observations, but to proper motion, and the resulting
proper motion is not only set down in the column appropriated to it, but is used in
ringing up the star’s place to the epoch 1850. The results of the observations
of Bradley and Piazzi, which of themselves would have been very reliable, are
thus seriously vitiated ; and any one interested in the inquiry may convince him-
self of the truth of the above statement by consulting the notes appended to the
catalogues of stars in the Radcliffe Observations, commencing with 1862.

In addition to this, the author observes that the utility of the catalogue of the
British Association is greatly diminished, not only on account of the badness of
tke star-places, but on account of the interval which has elapsed since the epoch for
which the star-constants are calculated, namely 1850. For results of the utmost
exactness it isnow unsafe to use these constants; and, on the whole, it appears de-
sirable that the Association should shortly consider the propriety of undertaking
a new catalogue, which shall embody the plentiful and accurate results of star-
obseryations during the past quarter of a century.

20 : REPoRT—1869.

On the recent fall of an Aérolite at Kriéhenburg wm the Palatinate.
By Dr. A. NEUMAYER,

On the 5th of May last, at 6.32 p.m., the inhabitants of this village were startled
by a terrible noise like the discharge of heavy ordnance from some point high up
in the air, which at the time was perfectly clear. It lasted about two minutes, and
was followed with a rolling sound like thunder, which ended with a sort of whir-
ring, whistling sound. The people were greatly frightened, and nobody could
explain the cause; they saw at length the trees moved by some unaccountable
agency, though not a breath of wind was stirring. Two men working in the fields
near the village, however, were not at aloss for an explanation, for they saw a
mass of stone fall to the ground, shaking it for a considerable distance. It was
found the stone had penetrated the ground to a depth of two feet, which they soon
unearthed. It was still warm but not dangerous to touch. The walls of the hole
were perfectly perpendicular. The sound was heard over a district whose radius
was thirty miles. The meteorite (for such it was soon recognized to be) was care-
fully removed, and its weight ascertained to be 314 lbs. Several pieces had been
knocked off. It was of a grey colour, small specks of a‘metallic nature being every-
where visible, and likewise small discoloured particles of a globular form. Subse-
quent analysis gave the specific gravity 3-446. It was composed of chrome-iron 0°94,
magnetic pyrites 5-72, silica 43-29, alumina 0:63, magnesia 2-01, protoxide of iron
21:06, soda 1:03. It is of the class of meteors termed chondrites. This fiery
rushing body, though broad daylight, was seen flying through the zenith of a place
thirty-five miles south-east of the locality where it fell. The author gave other
trigonometrical and astronomical particulars showing the height at which it was
seen. When passing through the atmosphere it showed a bluish light, leaving a
bright stripe of light long after the body had disappeared. What made the fall of
this aérolite specially interesting is the fact that 1t was possible to determine the
radiant-point of the shower of meteors‘to which it evidently belonged. The author
said the radiant-point of this system was described in the Tables of the British As-
sociation Committee on Luminous Meteors as being “ well defined.” He hoped
that some day “we should succeed in finding the comet whose orbit will exhibit
elements identical with that of the meteors, placing us in the proud position of being
able to state that we have already a portion of that comet in our possession.”

On the Appearance of the Nebula in Argo as seen in the Great Melbourne
Telescope. By the Rey. Dr. Rosrysoy, F.R.S,

Owing to various circumstances this instrument was not available for work till
20th June last, when Mr. Albert Lesueur, the astronomer to whom it is entrusted,
turned it on the nebula in Argo, and communicated to Dr. Robinson the results of
his observations, with a pencil drawing laid down by comparison with adjacent
stars by means which, though not of the highest precision, are yet so exact that
future measures are not likely to make any material change. On comparing this
sketch with the admirable map of this nebula given by Sir J. Herschel (Cape Ob-
servations, p. ix.), it is evident that great changes have occurred in the last thirty-
four years. The most remarkable feature in the nebula is a black opening in the
brightest part of it, forming a kind of lemniscate. As Sir J. Herschel saw it, this
fizure had two constrictions, was closed below by a barrier of less bright nebula,
and had two small stars exactly on its edges. ¢ Argus, then larger then Sirius,
was south of the upper constriction and on a bright ground. Now the lemniscate
has only one constriction ; its southern part is of a totally different shape, and there
is but a bare suspicion of any nebulous bar there, even with the great light of this
telescope. The two stars referred to are now completely in the nebula and on the
parallel of the constriction. ¢ Argus, now only 63 mag., is on a faint ground and
remote from the bright nebula, and is nearly in the parallel of the north termina-
tion of the lemniscate. These changes are not in the stars; for Mr. Ellery has
found that down to 93 mag. they are in very close accordance with Sir J. Herschel’s —
places; there is also south preceding the top of the lemniscate, a V-like bay very —
nearly as black, and with edges as bright, which could not possibly have been

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21

overlooked in the 20-feet reflector had it existed. The amount of change thus in-
dicated implies such prodigious movements in this nebula, as to make it pro-
bable that its distance from us is less than was supposed by astronomers, and point
it out as deserving most careful watching, with circumstances as litte varied as
possible. It may even be hoped that the spectroscope will give some such evi-
dence of its motion as Mr. Huggins has obtained with Sirius.

On Oomets*. By Prof. P. G. Tarr, F.RSL.

The principal object of this paper was to investigate how far the singular phe-
nomena exhibited by the tails of comets and by the envelopes of their nuclei, the
shrinking of their nuclei as they approach the sun, and wee versd, as well as the
diminution of period presented by some of them, can be explained on the probable
supposition that a comet is a mere cloud of small masses, such as stones and frag-
ments of meteoric iron, shining by reflected light alone, except where these masses
impinge on one another, or on other matter circulating round the sun, and thus
produce luminous gases along with considerable modifications of their relative
motion. Thus the gaseous spectrum of the nucleus is assigned to the same impacts
which throw out from the ranks those masses which form the tail. Some of the
most wonderful of the singular phenomena presented by comets, such as the almost
sudden development of tails of many millions of miles in Jength, the occurrence of
comets with many tails, and the observed fact that there is no definite relation of
direction between a comet’s tail and its solar radius-vector, were here looked upon
as due to the differences of motion of these discrete fragments relatively to the
earth in a manner somewhat analogous to the appearances presented by a distant
flock of seabirds flying in nearly one plane, and only becoming visible as a long
streak when the plane of the flock passes approximately through the spectator’s
eye. The so-called envelopes are compared with the curious phenomena presented
by tobacco-smoke (which seem, however, to be emitted in a form apparently re-
sembling thin continuous films of small particles of carbon),and the so-called “gaseous

jets” which appear to be projected from the nucleus and to be repelled from the sun,

are not difficult of explanation, the author considered, from the general points of view
here taken. Investigation, mainly conducted by quaternions, show how a group
of discrete masses, so small that their mutual perturbations are not of great mo-
ment except in the case of actual impact, gradually changes its form, as it revolves
about the sun, independently of any hypothesis as to the cause, planetary attraction
or otherwise, by which it was first introduced into the solar system. The ideas
here brought forward occurred to the author more than two years ago, on his being
made aware of the identity of the orbits of the August meteorites and of Comet IL,
1862; but they seemed so obviously to follow from that identity that it was only
on reading Dr. Tyndall’s recent speculations, and on being informed by Prof. New-
ton that the question of tails, envelopes, and “gaseous jets” had been treated by
Schiaparelli, as proving the existence of a repulsive force, that he ventured to pro-
duce an explanation so apparently simple and yet so inconsistent with what appears
to be held i the majority of astronomers,

OPTIcs.

On the Influence of Annealing on Crystalline Structure.
By Cuantes Brooxe, M.A., FBS,

The author having been recently engaged in the construction of a rock-salt
spectroscope for observations on the heat-spectrum, met with an unexpected diffi-
culty in the construction of the prisms. In some of the optically best specimens
of rock-salt in his possession, it was found that, in forming equilateral prisms one
side of which was cut parallel to a cleavage plane, the opposite angle tended to
be the working angle of the prism was repeatedly traversed by spontaneous clea-

* Vide Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1868-69, p. 553.

22 REPORT—1869.

vage fissures, and the prism consequently became incapable of being worked, As
this was probably due to internal strains analogous to those in unannealed glass,
which were further rendered evident by a considerable action on the polarized
ray, inconsistent with the normal character of the crystal, it occurred to the
author that this inconvenience might probably be remedied by some process
of annealing; and the result proved to be completely successful. Owing to the
low heat-conductibility of rock-salt, and its great liability to fissure on change of
temperature, it was obviously necessary that that change should be effected very
slowly. With this view the rock-salt was deeply imbedded in sand in a tin box,
and gradually during twelve hours heated up to about 250° C. by a flame of gas
placed beneath; it was then allowed to cool gradually, and was subsequently
worked without any difficulty. It further appeared that the pee observed
action on polarized light was very sensibly diiuinished, as was shown by comparing
two sketches make by Mr. Browning before and after the process of annealing,

On the Relation between the Specific Refractive Energies and the Combining
Proportions of Metals. By J. H. Guapstong, Ph.D., F.RS,

The specific refractive energies of thirty metals had been determined by the
author mainly from aqueous solutions of their salts. These metals were arranged
in the order of their energies, and against them were placed their combining pro-
portions,—that is, the actual amount of the metal which forms a stable salt, when
combined with an equivalent of some other body, such as 35:5 of chlorine.

Specific Combinin,
spent Refractive ghoporiaort
Energy.

Hiv dno veaur seen resyssgeatscpinstssaaaecenttaanc steals teste 1300 1
WatGHttl a veeckocsce eves chess waste tee occ eecesceercvestyes 540 7
Aliarearianery (sak esse teceeae rec bocades dintet seurecee shee 307 9
Ghromium '\. 7, Wevscececased (d.058. Sees Wieceeeas hewes 305 7
MapMesiitin <.i52scecsseucceee casacsdseceteaesiass. descloas es 292 12
ADAG CECE, debs aitashbds abwsecdbenesyetbachoskansys pes | 260 20
PUT COMMA id sss abs 5 cathe vess cues be eeaahivewaded ouvncpeb 234 22
RG Nias v6 Sas bases ees vonh cit sbpasaweanepacse. comnts 232 oo
Mam pani ene smspemay se vsene sppasey #P Aber iond donne we hesncr 222 27
OTE tin: boars ceeeebnoe ia at schvaccap sho each > Saseshtaena> sane 214 28
Tay ATARI, 5 SRE SE Pee hashes: sectater anes tio Xe oper cadecadt 210 27
RUIatIaaT) wt ge sree ceus, ec Ac hacks cd ax tensacs cas adtp aves tho nen 209 23
PTAMLIIN esc rsbe eps Mcreeec sect orne ae aee enacts Veaeins > 207 39
«6 0) aie a ens AL ae Se ee bas scctoastpe hb atctses 184 29
EODGED ve sacs tacbars peas testassgie couse noes 183 32
Niokel. Sh. iS ee eR aa 177 29
Rubidium 164 43
WANE hee on 8 Ya oA oh MED eso ae bee 156 33
Strontium 155 44
Germs. ..c.heo.ts swosbaush ae chclewae saab dewaeetes eembanres p68 148 46
POULMOR Misaks Ses tuse nema octhaen om taae cat ERENCE Mere eons: coke 145 108
1D Sis nC TERED hao SARE Se eeanisied Chenin sSsasen ace 133 48 |
Platinumes 2.3254 eben te, SE eee 132 49
Golds. .4-ccntetes pebble es cxtaa eee eB: tebe 122 66 )
Cad miiiint\.cveastarecac case saspaye cop IS Pee 121 56
DAG scree Comte rseccstibereercnetcates sereie eta rr tes 120 1038
Barings: ee east eee errr ee eee Fle ace kear 115 68
Thalia 2: ahh Be ae Pas eae 106 204
CO bsariin SLi pee, Bb OES MOR ANS, 103 133
Moeroury® efish atic ick. WG TERED A, oe 101 100

It will be seen that while the numbers of the first column decrease, those of the

6 le ———E————E——EeEee

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 23

second increase. There are a few evident exceptions, the most notable being
silver, lead, and thallium, the combining proportions of which would have to be
halved to bring them nearly into their right places in the list. ;

Though the relation between these numbers has not the exactness of a physical
law, it shows some connexion between the power of a metallic element to refract
the rays of light, and its power to saturate the affinities of other bodies. The same.
relation does not hold good with reference to the non-metallic elements.

Méthode pour obtenir les Images Monochromatiques des Corps Lumineuc.
Par le Dr. Janssen.

A la suite de l’eclipse du 18 Aoit, 1868, j’ai proposé une méthode pour obtenir
les images monochromatiques des corps lumineux (voir les Comptes Rendus de
VAcadémie des Sciences de Paris, 11 Janvier 1869, et 22 Mars 1869).

J’ai Vhonneur de donner A l’Association Britannique, quelques détails sur cette
méthode. :

Imaginons qu’on fasse tomber l'image d’une flamme (pour prendre un exemple)
sur la fente d’un spectroscope; la spectre formé résultera, dans le sens de sa
hauteur, de la juxtaposition de tous les spectres linéaires fournis par les rayons
lumineux qui pénétrent par divers points de la fente.

Supposons maintenant qu’on place au point ov le spectre se forme dans la lu-
nette oculaire (tournée vers lil), une seconde fente paralléle a la premiere,
Cette fente isolera dans le spectre, une ligne lumineuse d'une couleur determinée
suivant le point du spectre ow elle aura été placée. La hauteur de cette ligne et ses
divers degrés d’intensité lumineuse seront en rapport avec celles de l'image de la
flamme au point ou elle est coupée par la fente du spectroscope.

Si l’on imagine maintenant que le spectroscope towrne autour d’un arc passant
par les deux fentes, alors les diverses parties de l’image lumineuse viendront suc-
cessivement produire leur ligne monochromatique dans la lunette d’exploration,
et sile mouvement rotatif est assez rapide, la succession de toutes ces lignes pro-
duira une impression totale qui sera l’image de la flamme formée avec les rayons
d’une seule réfrangibilité,

En déplacant la fente oculaire, on pourra obtenir la série des images monochro-
matiques de cette flamme.

Pour avoir plus d’égalité dans l’intensité des diverses parties d’une méme image,
on pourrait donner a la fente une ouverture plus grande vers les points les plus
éloignés de l’axe de rotation.

spp liquée au soleil, cette méthode pourrait fournir les images de l’ensemble des
protubérances.

Pour la vision d’une protubérance isolée, la méthode de M. Huggins appliquée
par M. Zoellner peut avoir certains avantages. Mais le moyen actuel permettrait
dobtenir l’ensemble du phénoméne, et d’ailleurs, c’est surtout comme méthode
pour obtenir la série des images monochromatiques des corps lumineux, que je la
considére comme intéressante.

On a Method by which the Formation of certain definite Chemical Compounds
may be Optically established. By the Rey. Professor Jrterr, M.A.

It is known that several of the vegetable alkaloids, when in solution, possess the
ower of rotating the plane of polarization of a transmitted ray. It is also known
that the addition of an acid, by which the base is converted (wholly or in part) into
a salt, modifies, sometimes very largely, the power; generally diminishing it, as in
the case of strychnia, brucia, morphia, and codeia ; sometimes increasing it, as in
the case of quinia and cinchonia; and sometimes reversing it, as in the case of
nicotine and narcotine.

Suppose, now, that an acid be capable of forming more than one definite com-
bination with any one of these bases, and let an amount of acid Jess than that
required to convert the whole of the base into the lowest, or least, acid salt, be
added to a given bulk of the solution. Let the amount so added be denoted by z,
and let «, A be the atomic weights of the acid and base respectively. Then, if the

Q4 REPORT—1869.

least acid salt be formed by the combination of m atoms of acid with » atoms of
base, the quantity of base which is so converted will be

NBL
me?
and the quantity of base remaining in its natural state will be

where 6, denotes the original quantity of the base present in the given bulk of
solution.

Now let 7, be the rotatory power of the base, or, in other words, the actual
rotation produced by a unit of length of solution containing in a unit of bulk a
unit of base, and let 7, be the rotatory power of the salt, the unit of salt being the
amount of salt produced from the unit of base. Then if the length of the column
of solution through which the light is transmitted be still unity, the rotation which
would be produced by that part of the base which is converted into salt, if it
existed alone in the solution, would he

nape
me!
and the rotation which would be similarly produced by the unconverted base

would be
nBx
(,- oe ry

Hence, assuming that these effects are produced independently of each other, we

have as the value of the total rotation produced by the acidulated solution,
nBx NBA,
ties (2 - ro '

Now, since }, 7, is evidently the rotation produced by the unacidulated liquid,

the change in rotation caused by acidulation is
WB. ses.
mM at ome 0).

Hence, if we measure along the axis of abscissa distances representing the
values of a in a series of experiments, and raise ordinates proportional to the
change in rotation caused by the addition of the acid, the locus of the extremities
of these ordinates will be aright line, provided that the quantity of acid be not
greater than that required to convert the whole of the base into the lowest or
least acid salt.

Suppose, now, that this limit has been attained, and that we continue the addi-
tion of the acid. By this continued addition we shall commence the formation of
a new salt from the first salt, just as before we formed the first salt from the base.
And if we continue the former construction, we shall still have as the locus of the
extremities of the ordinates a right line, but not in general the same right line.
The completion of the first salt is indicated by the transition from the one line to
the other. The same reasoning applies to every subsequent salt, the completion of
each definite compound being in general indicated by a break in the locus.

The author illustrated this reasoning by a diagram, exhibiting the action of
arsenic acid upon brucia.

On the Chemical Action of Light discovered by Professor Tyndall.
By Professor Ave. Morren.

[Printed tn extenso among the Reports, see p. 66.]

On the Numerical Relations between the Wave-Lengths of the Hydrogen Rays.
By G. Jounsronr Sronry, M.A., F.BS,

rhs}
or

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS,

Hear,

On the Absorption, Emission, and Reflection of Heat.
By Professor Gustav Maenvs,

[Printed in extenso among the Reports, see page 214. ]

METEOROLOGY.

On the Determination of the Real Amount of Evaporation from the Surface of
Water. By Roars Frexp, B.A., and G. J. Symons.

The authors begin by pointing out the extremely discordant results arrived at
hitherto by the hichest authorities as to the amount of evaporation from a water-
surface ; one observer, for instance, giving the amount as 44 inches, and another
giving it as 11 inches for the same year. Some difference in the results might be
- expected, in consequence of difference of locality, but such startling differences
can, it is believed, only be explained by the very faulty nature of the evaporators
in common use. After giving a quotation from Professor Daniell’s Meteorological
Essays, strongly condemning the ordinary evaporators, the authors proceed to cri-
ticize the mode of calculating the evaporation from hygrometric observations, pro-
posed by Professor Daniell as a substitute for quantitative measurements, and
come to the conclusion that this method is practically useless.

The great objection to ordinary evaporators is their diminutive size, in conse-
quence of which the water becomes unduly heated, and evaporation unduly
increased. The only-published experiments on a large scale of which the authors
are aware are those made at Dijon, and other places on the Burgundy Canal, with
tanks eight feet square, and these gave an evaporation of only about half that
generally adopted for the district. Moreover, a small tank one foot square placed
by the side of one of the large tanks, gave an evaporation 50 per cent. greater than
that from the large tank. Some experiments on a smaller scale at St. Helena
also show the way in which undue heating increases the evaporation. In these a
small evaporator, fully exposed, gave 50 per cent. more evaporation than a similar
eyaporator placed in a tub of water.

Large tanks, like those at Dijon, can, however, only be used in exceptional cases,
and it therefore becomes important to devise some simple arrangements which
should give approximately correct results. The authors have recently commenced
some experiments on the subject, and desire to place upon record some of the facts
arrived at.

In these experiments the depth of water evaporated was ascertained by direct
measurement, without emptying the evaporators, as is generally done. This mea-
surement was eflected by means of a small instrument, called a “hook-gauge,”
shown on the accompanying diagram. The point of the hook can be adjusted with
great precision to the exact level of the surface of the water, and the depth read
off on a vernier to the hundredth of an inch. By resting the clamped bar on the
top of the evaporator, the zero can be placed in any convenient position.

The arrangements adopted by the authors are shown on the diagram. Fig. 1 is
perhaps one of the best forms of ordinary evaporators, consisting of a copper
vessel fully exposed; fig. 2 is an arrangement designed by Mr. Symons, wherein
the vessel, still of metal, is sunk almost wholly in the ground; fig. 3 is a modifi-
cation of the St. Helena plan, consisting of a glass cylinder placed in the centre
of a much larger vessel of water.

A detailed Table is given of the observations for three weeks, ending August
12, 1869. The chief results are—

(1) The total evaporation from fig. 1 was 4:37 inches, from fig. 2, 3:13 inches,
and from fig, 3, 2:46 inches, numbers which are to each other in the

26. REPORT—1869.

ratio of 1:78, 1:27, and 1:00. Fig. 1 therefore lost 78 per cent. more
water by evaporation than fig. 3.

GAUGE

5
i

04—--->

/
-

2
§
5
€------/
=
mi

a) -.

(2) During the daytime the sunshine heats figs. 1 and 2 to such an extent
that the ratios of evaporation become about 2°50, 1:50, and 1-00.

(3) During the night there are indications of a slight addition to fig. 3 from
condensed vapour.

(4) The evaporation, as computed from the hygrometer, bears no regular
relation to any of the others, being sometimes greater than any of them,
and sometimes less. The total computed evaporation is 3°39 inches.

As already stated, the authors consider that the accuracy of an evaporator is
largely dependent on its capability of retaining the temperature of the water at
as nearly as possible that of large volumes of water, such as reservoirs. In the
few comparisons they have been able to make, they have found that the tempera-
ture of the water in fig. 3 has been nearly identical with that of a rather shallow
reservoir one acre in extent. The average temperature of the water about 2 P.M.
was in fig. 1, 80°7 ; in fig. 2, 75°°8; and in fig. 3, 73°-8, showing an average excess
of 7° in the temperature of fig. 1 over that of fig. 3. In sunshine there is an excess
ef wie that amount; in fact, at times the metal becomes so hot as to scorch the
hand.

The authors conclude with a strong plea for further investigation, by quoting
the words of M. Valles, the French engineer, who first called attention to the
ereat inconsistency of existing experiments. “ We do not understand how, in a
country like ours, and with reference to one of the most important hydraulic
data, we can rest content with only knowing that the numerical yalue to be attri-
buted to this datum lies hetween two limits, one of which is double the other.”

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 27

On the Changes of Temperature and Humidity of the Air up to 1000 feet, from
observations made in the Car of M. Giffard’s Captive Balloon, By Jauxs
GuatsHER, /.R.S., F.R.AS., Se.

[A communication ordered to be printed in extenso in the Proceedings. |

The necessity which existed in all the free balloon ascents I made in connexion
with the British Association of leaving the earth with a great ascending power
to avoid striking adjacent buildings, caused the first few hundred feet to be passed
through too quickly to enable me to determine satisfactorily the temperature and
humidity of the air at the lower elevations; at the higher elevations the obser-
vations were repeated at will, as I could descend by allowing an escape of gas,
or ascend by discharging sand as frequently as I thought desirable. The want of
the power of repetition of observation within 1000 feet of the earth has caused
our knowledge of the temperature and humidity of the air within this distance to
be more limited and less accurate than at higher elevations, The theory of the
decline of 1° of temperature in every increase of 300 ft. of elevation was proved to be
erroneous in every ascent; in some a decrease of 1° and more than 1° was experi-
enced within the first 100 ft. (see ascents, July 30th, Report 1862; July 11th,
Report 1863; and August 31st, Report 1863 and 1864), notwithstanding the
rapidity of motion ; and there is no doubt that if the balloon could have been kept
stationary at the height of 100 ft. on those occasions the decline would have been
much greater, whilst in others there has been no decrease of temperature within
this space (see April 6th, Report 1864; and Dec. 1st, 1864, Report 1865).

In some of the ascents a decline of 8° or 10° was met with within 1000 ft. of
the earth (see ascents of July 30th, 1862; August 18th, 1862; July 11th, 1865 ;
August 31st, 1863, &c.), whilst in others but little or no difference was found
within 1000 ft. of the earth. This was very remarkably shown in the descent on
June 13th, 1864, which was made at about sunset; after this ascent it was noticed
that whenever ascents had been made in the afternoon hours the changes of tem-
perature near the earth were smaller at the time of descent than at the time of
ascent; but this was not found to be the case with the ascents which had been
made in the morning hours. Two ascents only were made after sunset, the one on
October 2nd, 1865, with a clear sky, and the other on December 2nd, 1865, with a
cloudy sky; in the former, with a clear sky, the temperature increased on leaving
the earth, and continued to increase with elevation, began to decrease on descending
and continued to decrease till the earth was reached, the change of temperature
_ during the ascent being somewhat smaller than during the descent. The second
night-ascent on December 2nd, 1865, was made with a cloudy sky; the tempe-
rature at first decreased, then became stationary, then increased when between 1400
and 1800 ft. high ; at greater heights the temperature decreased ; thus towards the
end of the series of experiments, which were made for the British Association, it
was found that the observations indicated that the change of temperature near the
earth varied greatly, followed no constant law, in fact, appearing to differ at the
different hours of the day ; but the ascents were too few in number and too dis-
connected (haying been made in every month of the year, at different times of the
day and under different states of the sky) to be able to say positively that such was
the case.

These experiments, however, unsettled our previous views, and caused a suspi-
cion to rest on the amounts applied for correction of refraction in astronomical
observations.

The great captive balloon, recently located at Ashburnham Park, Chelsea, and
kept constantly inflated with 420,000 cubic feet of hydrogen gas, in connexion
with a powerful steam-engine, was admirably adapted to settle all these points,
and M, Giffard, its proprietor, most kindly placed 1t at my disposal for any series
of experiments to which I could apply it.

This balloon could ascend on a calm day to the height of 2000 ft. ; its rate of
ascension could be regulated, and the balloon could be kept all but stationary at
any point, for any length of time.

28 REPORT—1869.

The instruments were fixed on a stand attached to the outside ring of the cir-
cular car, so that the instruments were out of all influence of persons in the car,
and shielded from the sun and radiation in the manner described in the preceding
volumes of the British Association.

The ascents and descents were usually even and moderately slow, the balloon re-
maining at its highest point till the temperature and hygrometrical state of the air
at that point were assured. The readings of the several instruments were taken
on the ground just before an ascent and again just after its completion ; the mean
of these two readings was considered to be the temperature on the ground; in like
manner the readings were taken at every 100 ft., as near as possible, both ascending
and descending, and their means taken to represent the temperatures at these ele-
yations. Jn this way the numbers in the following Table were formed :—

° °
May 5...) 5 36r.M.to64P.M. | ground.| 54°99 | 50°38 | 46-9 74 (1)
100 541 | 50°2 | 464
200 53°6 | 50°2 | 469
300 | 52°99 | 49°5 | 462
4oo | 521 | 49°0 | 44°8
goo | 514] 484] 45°3
600 513] 481 | 44°83
700 510 | 48°6 | 46r1
800 | 50°0 | 47°99 | 45°7
goo | 494 | 472] 44°8
1000 492 | 475 | 45°7
I1co 491 | 47°77 | 462
1200 476 | 46°5 | 45°3
1300 | 47°3 | 46°5 | 45°7

AF ANEUAEEU ADDN 2
Q
>)

July 12.| 6 12 rm. to 6 33 P.M. | ground | 81°7 | 70'2 | 62°5 52 (2)
100 80°9 | 68°83 | 60°7
200 8c°3 | 68:1 | 59°8
300 80:0 | 68:0 | 59°8
goo | 79° | 67°6 | 59°3
500 791 | 671 | 58°8
600 786 | 67% | 59°2
7oo | (77°99 | 66°6)) 58°8
800 77°1.| 65°9 | 58°r
goo 767 | 65°6 | 57°8

1000 76°7 | '65°7 | 58°

HNWOPUBEUUDASG
wn
°

July 17.| 422 7.M. to 50 P.M. | ground. | 83°7 69°7 | 60°4 46 (3)
100 82:0 | 68:0 | 58°6
200 812 | 67°5 | 58°2
300 80°7 | 67°3| 58:2
400 80°6 | 67:1 | 57°9
500 802 | 66°6 | 57°3
600 796 | 66:9 | 580
700 792 | 667 | 58:0

Bve NNN D
$
XQ

(1) The sky was nearly free from cloud; the atmosphere was misty; the wind from
E.N.E., and its strength was found to be much greater at the height of 1000 ft. than on the
round,
(2) The sky was principally cloudy; the wind was from 8.W.
(3) The sky was cloudy ; the wind from the E. ; the strength of the wind much greater
than on the ground,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 29

TABLE (continued.)

| Weight
Year and Heights Ch eo baad of rater Degree | Refer-
dav Between what times. above the |———_,__] | ina_ |ofhumi-| ence to
y- ground. Air, | Evapo-| Dew- cubic ft.| dity. | notes.
* | ration. | point. | of air.
1869. | hm hm feet. % P a s. :
July 17.| 422 P.M. to 5 0 P.M. 800 73°8 | 664 | 57°9 2 50
goo 78°6 | 65°38 | 57°8 I 47
tooo | 77°7 | 64°3 | 55°0 6 | 46
1100 778 | 65°6 | 57°% I 50
1200 770%) 65°93. | 57°75 ° 5t
1300 762 | 64:9 | 56°9 I 51

July 17.| 55 p.M.to5237.M. | ground.| 81°0 | 70°8 | 63°9
100 804 | Jor | 63:2
200 79°8 | 69°4 | 62°73
300 791 | 69:0 | 62°0
400 73°7 | 687 |. 61°8
500 73°3| 68-1 | 61-1
600 78:0 | 67°9 | 6o'9
700 7pm) 68E } 6x7
800 76°7 | 681 | 621
goo 761 | 67° 610

1000 75°6 | 67°2 | 61°74

AW DAWA AADHD Hunthun®
co CO mem tO 00 BOO'D OO OO MWY

July 23.] 3 10 P.M. to 3.41 P.M. | ground.| 73°6 | 63°1} 554] 4°8 53 (1)
too | 718] 616] 53°99] 4°5 | 53
200 | 711 | 6ro0| 533] 44 | 53
300 Joo | 60°3 | 52°38 | 44 54
400 69°99 | 60°2 | 52°38 | 44 54
500 | 694 | 6o'o | 52°38 | 44 | 55
600 68°38 | 59°99 | 52°38 | 44 56
7oo | 680 | 593] 524] 43 | 57
800 67°5 | 586 | 52°21] 4°3 58
goo | 6770 | 587] 521 | 43 | 59

1000 66°3 | 585 | 518 | 4°3 58
1100 66°6 | 581 | 51°3 | 4°2 58
1200 663} 57°9 | 5I1 | gtr 59
1300 65°3 | 578 | §1'0 | 475 59
1400 | 65°5 | 57°5 | 510 | 41 | 59

July 23.| 342 P.M. to4 12 P.M. | ground.| 72°3 |} 62:4] 5570 | 4:8 54
Too | 718 | 61°6 | 53°99 | 45 | 54
200 709 | Grr | 536) 4°5 55

300 | 69°7 | Gor | 52°77 | 44 | 55

400 | 692 | S99 | 527 | 44 | 55

500 | 683 | 59°7 | 526 | 44 | 56

600 | 686 | 594 | 52°3| 43 | 56

7oo | 683] so4 |] 521 | 42 | 56

800 68:0 | S970 | 51°99 | 4°2 56

goo | 67°5 | 587 | 519] 42 | 57

1000 66:9 | 58°5 | 51°83 | 4:2 59

1100 664.) 582 | 51°7 | 4.2 59

1200 65:7 | 580 | 517] 4:2 60

1300 | 65°3 | 57°77 | 515 | 42 | 61

1400 65:0 | 57°95 | 514] 4°2 61

1500 647 | S772 -| 5x0) aon 61

1600 64°5 | 56°99 | 506] a | 61

(1) The sky was overcast ; wind S.S.W.; very misty; scarcely any pressure of the wind
on the ground, but of considerable strength on leaving the earth; air very misty below 700ft.

REPORT—1869.

TABLE (continued).

ae Between what times,
1869. hm hm

July 23.| 4.15 P.M. to 4 34 P.M.

July 23.| 4 39 P.M. to § 4 P.M.

July 23.| 5 41 P.M. to 6 4 P.M.

Ju3 6 6 P.M. to 6 27 P.M.

Heights

above the | —

ground,

feet.
ground.
100
2c0
300
400
500
600
700
800
goo
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400

ground.
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
goo
1000
TI00
1200
1300
1400
1500

ground.
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
goo
1000
1100
1200

ground.
100
200
300
4.00
500
600
700

Temperature of the

F E -| Dew-
Aire Faten. pont,

oO ° ce)
718 | 62°0 | 54°6
mur} 613 | 53°9
70°6 | G08 | 53:2
7o1 | 604 | 52°9
696 | 60:0 | 52°6
69°3 | 59°9 | 52°6
68-5. 50:2 4) a52er
68:0 | 59:0 | 51°9
67°38 | 58°7 | 51°5
67°4 | 58°2 | 50°9
67°1 | 581 | 50°9
66°6 | 57°99 | 50°9
6675 | 57°83 | 50°8
66°0 | 57°5 | 50°6
65°6 | 572 | 504
7r8 | 618 | 54°3
70°4 | 60°83 | 5374
70°3 | 60°6 | 53'1
69°6 | 6o1 | 52°8
692 | 59°8 | 52°5
691 | 59°38 | 52°6
63°3 | 59°3 | 52°2
67°9.| 59°71 | 52°2
67°4| 58°38 | 52°0
6770 | 58°6 | 51'9
66°35] 58% | 51°5
661 | 580 | 514
65°99 | 58:0 | 51°6
65°6 | 57°38 | 51°5
653th 357°7 | 53'S
64°99 | 57°70 | 50°5
69°9 | 62°7 | 57°71
69°4| 62:0 | 56:2
68°3 | 61°76 | 56-4
67°99 | 61°5 | 56°5
674} 61°0 | 56:2
6770 | 60°5 | 55°3
67°70 | 602 | 54'8
6673 | 60°r | 54°8
65°7 | 59°6 | 54°8
654 | 59°5 | 548
64°9 | 594) 54°8
64°5 | sor | 54°8
63°99 | 59° | 54°9
69°99 | 62°8 | 57°3
Gor | 62°5 | 57°5
680 | 62:2 | 57°7
67°9 | 617 | 5772
67°5 | 61°6 | 56°8
67°12 | 61-0 | +5673
66°6 | 60°38 | 5671
66°3 | 60°5'| 56:0

Weight

of water) Degree
ina jof humi-

cubit ft.) dity.
of air

gers.
46 | 55
4°5 54
45 54
4°4 54
43 54
4°3 55
42 55
42 56
42 56
41 oS
471 56
4°1 58
471 58
40 58
40 57
46 | 54
45 55
4°5 55
44 a)
43 Sp,
4°3 55
43 | 56
43 57
43 | 58
43 | 58
42 60
i 60
42 59
42 60
4°2 61
40 5g
51 | 63
50 62
50 | 65
570 66
570 66
4°9 | 66
48 | 65
48 | 67
47 | 68
47 | 69
47 7°
47 72
48 | 73
52 | 64
52 | 65
53 | 68
572 68
51 68
50 68
50 69
59 | 69

—

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. $1

TABLE (continued).

Temperature of the Weight

Heights | of water) Degree | Refer-
yi tou Between what times. above the /———~«| ina |of bondi? Sey to
‘ ground. | ;,, | Evapo-| Dew- |cubicft.! dity. | notes.
* | ration. | point. | of air.
1869. h m h m feet. é é a prs.
July 23.| 6 6 p.m. to 6 27 P.M. 8co 66:0 | 602 | 55°99 | 4°9 70
goo | 65°7| 60'°0 | §5:7 | 49 | 71
rooo | 651 | 59°83 | 55°5| 48 | 72
1100 64°5 | 5972 | 552] 4°8 72

1200 642 | 592] 55:0 | 4°8 a

July 23.| 6 31 P.wt. to 6 soP.M. | ground.) 70°0 | 63°3 | 581
tco | 69°3 | 62°3 | 569
200 68°7 | G21 | 56°9
300 68:9) | G20: 5a
400 6727 |) area | Sao
500 67:2 | 614 | 568
600 | 665 | 60:7 | 55°8
700 66:0 | 605 | 54°83
800 65°7 | 60°3 | 5579
goo | 651 | 59°83} 55°7

BBRUAMAAWNNAnn
Bes ee ee eee ee
CO OF FR PN NWWY
aD
eo}

toco | 649 | 59°6 | 552 71

July 23.| 6 56 p.m. to 7 12 P.M. | ground. 6978. | 62°7 |e S72 | 5°I 64
100 | 69°3| 624 | 569) 5x | 64

200 68°38 | G20} §6°7 | 5rz 64

300 GBer | 165°5) 56's, [8 5/0 65

goo | 67:7] 611] 559) 49 | 65

g00 | 67°3 | 60°38 | 55:9 | 4°9 | 66
600 66°6 | 60°6 | 55°83) 4°9 69
yoo | 66:2 | 604} 55:3 | 4°9 | 69
8co 654 | Gor} 55°83) 4°9 71
goo | 653 | 59°7 | 553 | 48 | 70
1000 | 65:0 | 594] 558 | 47 | 70
1100 | 64°3) 59°0 | 546 | 4°77 | 71
1200 63°9 | 586 | 547 | 4°8 71
1300 | 63°99 | 585 | 547| 48 | 71

July 23.| 7 20 P.M. to 7 30 P.M. | ground. | 686 | 61°38 | 565 | 571 ' 65
100 68:1 | 61°4.| 56°2 | 50 65
200 67'7 | 60°7 | 5572 | 48 64.
300 6772, | Gor4. |) 5570 | 48 64
4oo | 672 | 603 | 54°38) 48 | 64 —

39 | (1)

July 24. | 3 23 P.M. to 3 51 P.M. | ground.| 76'2 | 60°5 | 49°4
too | 743 | 587 | 474
zoo | 738 | 58°5 | 47°5
300 73°90 | 57°38 | 46°6
400 7239) || 157°4 | 4672
500 Jat B71 | 45°83
600 | 713} 567 | 45°7
700 70°8, | §7°0 | 46°5
8co | 69°99] 55°7 | 44°9
goo | 6y°5 | 55°5 | 44°7

1000 68°38 | 54°9 | 44°0
1100 68°3 | 54°5 | 43°6

BYOB NBPWD PUN
w
we}

(1) The sky was free from cloud, the air was misty. It was calm on the earth, but blew
with a pressure of fully 1 lb. on the square foot at the height of 1000 ft. At this time smoke
was seen passing in all directions on the earth, whilst a strong W. wind blew at this height.

REPORT—1869.

TABLE (continued).

Year and
« day.

1869.

July 24.

July 24.| 4 12 P.M. to 4 30 P.M.

' Between what times.

hm h m

353 P.M. to 4 12 P.M.

July 24.) 447 P.M. to 5 8 p.m.

July 24.

5 23 P.M. to 5 47 P.M.

60Pp.M. to 6 18 P.M.

Heights
above the
ground.

feet.
ground.
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
goo

ground.
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
goo
1000
1100

ground.
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
goo
1000
Ir0o

ground.
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
goo
1000
1100
1200

ground.
100
200
300

Temperature of the

Air.

712
79°3

75°5

eee

75'5

13%
72'8
72°0
We
be
oD

74°2

GAS,

70'2

68°1

74°4
73°3
732
72°9

Evapo-
ration.

Dew-

point.

Weight
of water! Degree | Refer-
ina_ of humi-} ence to
cubic ft.| dity. | notes.
of air.

WWWHWW WwW

FEGUPEUNUUNUN AD BWUWNNWGU AHS HUW AUS
>
-_

WWWWWWHWWWWWW

WWW WW WWW WW ov)

WHOWYWWWWWWWW WD
PWWWWWW PBN DA~AIO
b
Lk

2 U2 02 3
Ano

Year and
day.

1869.

July 24.

July 24,

h m hm feet.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

TABLE (continued).

Heights
Between what times. above the
ground.

60 p.m. to 6 18 P.M. 400
500

600

700

800

goo

1000

1100

1200

1300

6 21 P.M. to 6 43 P.M. | ground.
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
goo

1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600

July 24.) 648 p.M.to78p.M. | ground.

July 24.

100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
goo
1000
I100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700

719 P.M. to 7 42 P.M. | ground.
Io0o
200
300
400
500
600

723 | 58:0 | 473} 3°5 | 41
717 | 57°38 | 474 | 3°5 | 43
70°9 | 571 | 467 | 34 | 43
yoz | 565 | 460 | 34 | 43
qoro | 56°5 | 461 | 34 | 43
69°38 | 563 | 459 | 34 | 43
692 | 55°38 | 454 | 3°3 | 43
684 | 551 | 447] 32 | 43
67°6 | 548 | 446) 32 | 43
669 | 544 | 444) 32 | 44
738 | 604 | 506 | 40 | 45
734 | 592 | 486) 3°77 | 42
72°38 | 587 | 482 | 3°77 | 43
723| 583 | 479 | 37 | 42
72°3| 58x | 47°5| 36 | 42
722 | 581 | 47°5| 36 | 42
716 | 57°38 | 4773 | 3°5 | 42
qvo | 575 | 474| 36 | 43
706 | 57°5| 475 | 36 | 44
yor | 5741-475 | 36 | 44
yoo | 572 | 474 | 36 | 45
69°38 | 570 | 4772 | 3°5 | 45
6972 | 56°83 | 46:0 | 3°5 45
691 | 560 | 45°83) 34 | 44
685 | 55°7| 456] 33 | 44
68:2 | 553 | 452 | 32 | 43
67°5 | 548 | 447] 32 | 44
727 | 604 | 51°3 | 42 | 47
720 | 586 | 486] 3°7 44
7v6 | 580 | 477| 36 | 43
7vo | 57°5 | 473] 3° | 43
7o6 | 572 | 470] 3°5 | 44
yoo | 569 | 4683 | 3°5 | 44
69°5 | 566 | 466 | 3°4 | 44
6g'0 | 562 | 461 | 34 | 44
68°7 | 558 | 457) 34 | 43
68'r | 55°5 | 455] 34 | 44
67°9 | 554 | 455] 33 | 45
67°6 | 552 | 452] 33 | 45
679) $49) 45°) 33 | 45
670 | 54°5 | 445] 32 | 45
666 | 54°3| 444 | 32 | 44
664 | 544 | 447] 32 | 45
664 | 546 | 448] 32 | 45
656 | 542 | 449] 33 | 47
70°9 | 587 | 49'4| 3°9 | 46
709 | 583 | 487 | 3°83 | 46
7os | 580 | 482) 37 | 45
795 | 575 | 476] 37 | 45
7o2| 5721 473 | 36 | 44
69°38 | 56°38 | 4772 | 36 | 44
69°5 | 563 | 4770 | 3°5 | 45
3

84: REPORT—1869.

TABLE (continued).

Weight

| ration. | point. | of air.

T8609, | #23 higon feet. 4 us grs.
July 24.) 7 19 P.M.to 7 42 P.M. 700 69't | 56°6 | 47°0
800 689 | 561 | 46'1

goo 68°5 | 56:0 | 46°2

roco | 67°9 | 55°5 | 45°7

1100 | 674 | 55°3 | 45°6

1200 669 | 55:0 | 45°5

1300 | 6675 | 54°38 | 45°4

1400 6670 | 54°5 | 45°2

1500 | 65°9 | 54°6 | 45°2

1600 65°38 | 54°5 | 45°2

1700 | 65°5 | 54°3 | 45°2

WWWWWWWWWH WH 2
BUOWHBHHBHUA
$
wn

July 28.| 5 30 p.m. to65Pp.M. | ground.| 615] 571 | 52°9 | 4°5 75 (1)
100 6o'9 | 564 | 52°76 | 4°5 74.
200 606 | 562) 5274] 4°4 74
300 599 | 55°7 | 522) 4°4 | 75
400 | 59°3| 55°5 | 52°r | 44 | 78
500 SOM) 5h Ol SEO As 77
600 588 | 55:0 | 51:6 | 42 717
7oo | 583] 545) 514] 42 | 78
800 | 57°7 | 543] 512) 42 | 79
goq SPEC 58°9 | S50 er z 79

1000 5Gizih 5B°6 | R077 | acd 80
1100 bGinak sR 5078 |) ack 81
1200 562 } 53°55 | 510] 42 83
1300 562 | 53:0 | soo] 4rr $1
1400 | 560] 52°7| 49°6| 4:0 | 79
1500 | 556 | 5271 | 48:7 | 3°9 | 78
1600 | 55°7 | 52°1 | 487 | 3:9 | 78

July 28.| 617 p.m. to6 43P.M. | ground.| 61:2 | 5676 | 52°6| 44 | 74
100 Gros) §6°3 | 52° | vaca | Bae
200 | 60°5 | 55°38) 519 | 4°4 | 74
300 | 60:0 | 55°5 | 516) 43 | 74
40o- | 59°5 | 55% | 515] 43 | 75
geo | 59% | 55°0 | 51°3 | 4:3 | 76
600 586) 54°8 | 512] 42 77
7oo | 582 | 544 | 5r'o| 42 | 77
800 | 57°7 | 53°99] 505] 41 | 76
goo | 57°3 | 534] 499 | 4o | 75

1000 563 | 53°3.| 50:1 | 4'0 78
1100 | 563] §2°8 | 49°99] 4:0 | 79
1200 | 558 | 52°7 | 49°77 | 40 | 80
1300 | 55°3 | 52°4 | 496 | go | 81
1400 | 549 | 52°21 | 49°5 | 4:0 | 81
1500 546 | 52°2 | 49°5 | 4°'0 82
1600 | 54°5| 519 | 494] 40 | 82

(1) The sky was overcast, and rain had fallen heavily, but had ceased. The wind was :
from E.N.E. At the height of 700 feet the mist was so thick that the earth was scarcely —
visible. At 1000 ft. high we rose out of the mist and Jooked down on the cloud. At 1200 ft.
and higher the sun shone on the upper surface of the cloud, gilding a sea of cloud for
some distance; then like plains of bright yellow sand, and far away like seas of snow of
sparkling and dazzling whiteness, the whole being broken up with hillocks and mounds of
the same colour as the plains on which they seemed to he placed. ‘The scene was very rich. |

EEE

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 35

TABLE (continued).

|
Weight |
ewe und é Heights Temperatugg of the | of water) Degree | Refer-
ag Between what times. ahove the ina_ |of humi-} ence to
y ground. Aig Evapo-| Dew- | cubic ft.| dity. | notes.
* | ration. | point. | of air.

7869.0 4. ee feet. é é ;
July 28.| 6 46 p.m. to 6 57 P.M. | ground.| 61:0 | 57:1 | 537 | 4°6 78
use 608 | 56°5 | 529} 4°5 75

200 60°5

300 Goro | 561 | 52°72] 44 74

400 595 | 554] 518 | 44 | 76

bac 5212

600 588 | sox | 518 | 4°3 78

Aug. 4..|10324.M. to 11204.M.| ground. | 69°1 | 62'°0 | 564 | 5'0 64 (1)
: b tele) 68:1 | 612 | 55°38 | 4°83 64
200 67'2 | 6o°5 | 5572 | 4°8 65
300 66:2 | Gor | 5572 | 4°38 68
goo | 652] 595] 54:9 | 4°77 | 68
500 | 64:8 | sor] 54°5| 46 | 68
600 6470 | 586 | 541 | 474 69
7oo | 632] 583] saz] 4°5 | 72
800 621 | 57°51 53°7| 4°4 69
goo | 6270] 574] 53°7| 4°4 | 7°
rooo | 613] 572] 53°7| 45 | 77
1100 610 | 57°: | 53°7] 4°6 7

Aug. 7..| 5 59 p.m. to 615 P.M. | ground.| 63°5 | 567] stto| 42 64
100 63:93 | 561 || 50:2 |) 40 63
200 6276 | 55:6 | 49°6| 4°0 62
goo | 621 | 548] 485] 3°9
4oo | 617 | 54°7| 487) 38
500 | 613 | 54°3 | 485 | 38 | G2
600 60°6 | 54:2 | 49:0 | 3°8
700 604 | 54°r | 486 | 3°38

(1) Overcast; wind W.8.W., with light pressure on the ground, but very strong on
leaving the earth, and caused a great strain on the rope, so great indeed that the observa-
tions were not repeated.

On July 23rd, 1869, with a cloudy sky, nine successive series of experiments
were made between the hours of 3 p.M. and 7.30 P.M.

The temperature of the air on the ground at the first series was 73°°G, and at
the last 69°°8, showing a decrease of 3°°8,

The temperature of the air at 1000 ft. high at the first series was 66°'8, and at
the last 65°.

The temperature of the air at 1000 ft. was therefore 6°-5 and 4°8 lower than on
the ground respectively at these two times.

On the ground the temperature declined 3°-8, whilst at the hei¢ht of 1000 ft.
the decline was 1°°8, or less than one-half that on the ground,

On July 24th, 1869, with a clear sky, a similar set of experiments were made
within the same hours, viz., 3 P.M. to 7.30 P.M.

The temperature of the air on the ground at the first series was 76°°2, and at
the last was 70°:9.

The temperature of the air at the height of 1000 ft. was 68°:8 at the first, and

' 67°-9 at the last series; it was therefore lower by 7°:4 at the first, and by 8° at

the last series, than on the ground; the decline of temperature on the ground was
5°:3, whilst that at 1000 ft. high was 0°°9,
Of the 5° less temperature at 1000 ft. high at the last experiment, 1° took place

36 REPORT—1869.

between 200 and 500 ft., and the remaining 2° between 500 and 1000 ft. Of the
7°-4 less temperature at 1000 ft. high at the first experiment about one-fourth part,
or 1°-9, took place in the first 100 ft. ; at the last experiment there was no decrease
yeas this space, the temperature being sensibly the same as on the ground up
to 200 ft.

In both states of the sky the temperature at the height of 1000 ft. underwent
less change than on the earth, and therefore the rates at which the temperature
changes with the height, is not independent of the time of day. The next Table
but one (see p. 37) contains the decrease of temperature for every 100 ft. as found
from the preceding Tables in every series of experiments.

On July 17th, 23rd, 24th, and 28th more than one series of experiments were
taken during the afternoon hours, and in every case the changes are smaller at the
later than at the earlier experiments. On July 23rd and 24th nine sets of experi-
ments were made on each day, between the hours of 3 p.m. and 7.30 p.M.; on the
former under a cloudy, and on the latter under aclearsky. In both series the largest
changes are those in the first set of experiments; and the smallest those in the
last set, so that experiments made at the same hours must be grouped together
and distinct from those at other times. Comparing the changes in the first 100 ft.,
it will be seen they are larger with a clear than a with cloudy sky. By comparing
the general results with the two states of the sky together, it will be seen that
the changes from hour to hour are less with the cloudy than with the clear sky,
and consequently the experiments in the two states of the sky must be treated
separately. The following Table has been formed by taking the means of obser-
vations between the same hours in the two different states of clear and cloudy skies,

Table showing the mean decrease of Temperature for every increase of 100 ft. of
Height depending on the hour of the day and the state of the sky.

10 to || 3 to 4 4. to 5 sto6 || 6to7 ||/7 to 7.30
II AM.|| P.M. P.M. P.M. || P.M. P.M.
Height above]
the ground,
e oS oS e =
2. 8 12 lS 12 lS 18 els lz cll ele
SE Ie BIS Bo BIS BI 2 bo bo BS BI 2 bo be
Od (OF CZO PC sO gO adlOg Odo sled
ft. ft. ° ° fe} ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
oto 100} ro || 1°7| 1°2]| 12] 1°3 || 1:0] 0°6 || 0°6| 0°5 || O70} O75
100 to 200] o'9 || 06] o8]] 07] 05 || o5] *7/] *4] “6i] sx] °5
200 to 300] 1'o “7\\\oreo I|ae6| @°b)|| “*Ai[ sy °6 I) Gece ors eee
300 to 400 ro 6 03 3 3 9 7 4 *5 °3 2
4ooto 500} o4 || 4] °5]/ 6) °3]/ 6] °"3]] “4] °S|| “4] “4
500 to 600 4 "4 “4. "4 ef 3 2 7 5 ea "7
600 to 700 os 5 Js 3 ‘4 3 7 °5 PE "4 "4
700 to 800] 1 *9)) C4 le gtO) all) 75 | Oil eat a | eee es
800 to goo ol °5 “el cs : °3 *6 5} "4 4 "4 “I
goo to 1000 4) “71 4 |. 96) 26) a). 953i] 3 Ones
tooo to 1100] 0°3 || o5] *4|/ Oo] *2|] or] “4i] “4] “51 °5] °7
1100 to 1200 c ae “5 |] « ‘4i| 13] °3 i! 6) “4i 5) 4
1200 to 1300 *5 || “5 org} cols 4]! °Siieee aero
1300 to 1400 3 "Zill exauf? tall 061° ieee giiees
1400 to 1500 Soil axe 5Ail| eee “4 i) °2) °3\) cr
1500 to 1600 O°, cll Ben oll fee se | LO"R Me e3illOrtel eames
1600 to 1700 = tific | ove / Code mee | feet!

These numbers were then laid down on diagrams, the heights as ordinates and
the decrease of temperature as abscissa; these points were joined, and a line
was drawn to pass through or near to them giving equal weight to every point.

In all these curves there was a decrease of temperature with increase of eleva-

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38 REPORT—1869.

tion, but of a progressively different form, being the most inclined the furthest
from, and the least so, the nearest to, the time of sunset.

By reading the temperatures from these curves at every 100 ft. of elevation up
to 1000 ft, the next Table was formed.

Table showing the decrease of Temperature with increasing elevation at every
100 ft. up to 1000 ft.

CLEAR Sky, Cuoupy sky.

Height above Times of ascent. Times of ascent.
the ground.

TSB. We | OGG | 7. Nog | Bae eS ah Gal aur,
to | to | to | to |. to | to |} to } to | to | to | to
1) 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |7.30) 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |7.30
A.M. | P.M. | P.M. | P.M.| P.M. | P.M. || P.M. | P.M. | P.M.| P.M. | P.M.

ft. ft. ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
oto 100 | IO} 1°5| 11] O'9}] 0°5} o'0|] 1°2] I'2| 06] 05] O'5
100 to 200 | 0°9| 0°38] o'7] *6| *5] ‘1 |] o'9| O'6| *6] “6] °5
200 to 300 9 8 "7 6 J 3 a) ie 6 25 a5
B00 10400! (PS FONE F7 I) MSGi] PEG FFE PA 6 | GH ERG) PET
400to 500} ‘8| *6 6.) Gs 8 eee ean se eas
5ooto 600] "8) *5) *5} *5] “41 °3]/ “4] “41°51 °5] °5
Gooto 7oo| *7) *5| *5| 4] “4] “41 4] ‘4| “S| “4 “4
7ooto 800) °7] ‘5| 4] “4) “4] “4il 5] “4] "5] °5) 75
Boo to goo] 6] *5| ‘4) “4| ‘4/ “3i “4] ‘4| ‘S| °5] °5
goo to 1000 | 0°5} 04] 074] 0°3} 0°3| O'2 || 0'5| 04 | 04] O74] O'5

The numbers in these Tables prove that which was indicated by the several free
ascents, viz. that the decrease of temperature with increase of elevation has a
diurnal range, and different at different hours of the day; the changes being the
greatest at midday and the early part of the afternoon, decreasing to (at or about
sunset, when with a clear sky there is little or no change of temperature through
several hundred feet from the earth; whilst with a cloudy sky it decreases from
the midday hours at a less rapid rate to (at or about) sunset, when the decrease.is
nearly uniform at the rate of 1° in 200 ft. I was not able to take any observations
after sunset; but such observations are greatly needed, as there seems to be a very
great probability that the temperature at the height of 1000 ft. may not undergo a
greater range of temperature during the night-hours than during the day-hours ;
and if this be the case, then the temperature at night must increase from the
ground with elevation: this inference seems to be confirmed by the after-sunset
observations of Oct. 2nd, 1865, but it is desirable and very important that the facts
should be determined by direct experiments. The law with a clear sky may be
thus represented :—Take the heights as ordinates of a curve of which the corre-
sponding changes of temperature are the corresponding abscissee (considered posi-
tive when the temperature decreases, 7. ¢.so that a decrease of 10° at 1000 ft. would
correspond to a point on the curye whose positive abscissa is 10 and ordinate 1000,
then the curve thus formed will be somewhat hyperbolic, for the changes are
greatest near the earth), the concavity being turned towards an ordinate through
the origin or axis, The concavity will be greatest when the curve represents the
decline of temperature at a time soon after midday; but as the afternoon advances
the curve gradually closes up to and coincides with the axis at or about sunset,
becoming then rectilinear; after passing this critical position, in which the tem-
perature is uniform and equal to that on the earth for the first 1000 ft., the curve
probably becomes hyperbolic again, its concavity still being turned towards the
axis, so that an increase of temperature corresponds to an increase of height, and
the extreme position is reached probably at or soon after midnight, when the curve

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 39

returns as before, the motion being probably nearly symmetrical on both sides of the
axis, and the time of a complete oscillation twenty-four hours, If this be so, the
numbers in Table VI. in each of my Reports in the years 1862-66, under the head
of means up to 1000 ft. high, both in the clear and cloudy states of the sky, must not
be considered as of general application, as supposed when the Reports were written,
but the individual results from which the means were deduced must be grouped
together according to the hour of observation.

On the Formation of Dew, and its Effects. By Henry Hopson, M.D.

The author contends that the condensation of atmospheric moisture tends
necessarily to produce an “ inversion of the normal law of its temperature.” From
a full analysis of all Mr. Glaisher’s balloon ascents, he shows that, in every in-
stance, there is an increase of temperature “above the clouds,” 7. e. where vapour
is condensed. The nieht ascents are peculiarly interesting. That on the 2nd of Octo-
ber 1865 distinctly proves an increase of temperature as we ascend 2 clear calm
weather, “when condensation takes place;” and the ascent on the 3lst of March
1863 is equally conclusive in proving that, “with a blue and almost cloudless
sky,” no such inversion of the normal atmospheric temperature may occur, simply
because “the dew-point, just before reaching the earth, was on this occasion
121 degrees below the atmospheric temperature, and was even much further
removed at the higher elevations.” Hence there was no condensation of vapour
during this ascent, and consequently the law of “diminution of temperature with
increase of elevation” was never subverted.

The author asserts that Dr. Wells, from not attaching its due weight to this
source of atmospheric heat, was led to adopt an erroneous theory, all his ingenious
experiments clearly showing that the phenomenon which required explanation in
“ dewy nights” is “increase of temperature in ascending from the earth,” and not
merely a chilled surface in reference to the air generally.

If we assume terrestrial radiation as a cause, it is evident that the maximum
absorption of heat must occur in the Jowest stratum of the atmosphere, and this
could not therefore in any way contribute to “ greater heat” at higher elevations.
Many of Dr. Wells’s assumptions are plainly inadmissible; for instance, “ that
dense clouds near the earth must possess the same heat as the lower atmosphere ;”
and again, “that terrestrial radiation must have a ready transit through an atmo-
aa which transmits solar heat copiously.” Also (as if to explain the mversion of
the normal atmospheric temperature) he assumes “ that the superficial stratum of
air proceeds to radiate back to the earth its excess of heat” (acquired by radiation
FROM the earth), “and that it is thereby more chilled than the superior strata,”
apparently forgetting that if it radiated to the earth it must do so also to the
upper strata, which (in like manner) must be considered to radiate both upwards
and downwards, and his hypothesis is therefore utterly worthless for explaining
the phenomena. The chilling effect of air descending from the higher regions
appears to be altogether ignored by Dr. Wells, and he assumes that clouds act as
radiators of heat to the earth, instead of merely “ screening it” from the extreme
chilling etherial influences (in a manner similar to the “raised board” m his own
experiments), and yet he admits that “ during nights, generally clear, if the zenith
be occupied by a cloud for only a few minutes, a thermometer on the grass will rise
several degrees.” A cloud “in the zenith” may well act as a screen and produce
such a result; but its influence cannot be attributed to “radiation of heat to the
thermometer.” It merely interferes to diminish the chill from above, and thus
enables the heat of the earth to regain its ascendency in warming the surface. The
author also adverts to the fact observed in Mr. Glaisher’s last recorded ascent
(29th May 1866), that “at the height of 6200 feet (the sun having set nearly
twenty minutes) the temperature was about 6 degrees warmer than at the same
elevation an hour before.”

In page 6 (Casella’s edition), Dr. Wells writes, “ Dew probably begins to appear
upon grass, in places shaded from the sun, during clear and calm weather, soon
after the heat of the atmosphere has declined;” and again, “I have frequently
felt grass moist, in dry weather, several hours before sunset ;” on the other hand, “J

40 REPORT—1869.

have scarcely ever known dew upon grass to exhibit visible drops before the sun
was very near the horizon, or to be very copious till some time after sunset.”
Again (page 27) he writes, “ According to a few observations made by me, the
greater coldness of grass than that of the air BEGINS to appear, in clear and calm
weather, in places sheltered from the sun, soon after the heat of the atmosphere
has declined.” Hence it is evident that the “ dew-process” was in active operation
long before he could possibly find any addition to the weight of his wool, and, as
regards the amount of heat received by the air, it is sufficient to point out that the
latent heat of 20 grains of moisture (which he frequently found in 10 grains of
wool) would raise the temperature of 20 cubic feet of air about 8 degrees ; hence
we see what an enormous amount of heat must have been given out by the vapour
deposited on the grass-plot, and wonder how such a “vera causa” has been ignored
in the explanation of the phenomena; and yet Dr. Wells only notices the fact in
the following terms (page 53) :—“The formation of dew, indeed, not only does not
produce cold, but, hie every other precipitation of water from the atmosphere,
produces heat.” He knew that heat was eliminated, and that it was not commu-
nicated to the surface, and yet failed to see in it the source of atmospheric increase
of temperature. In page 72 Dr. Wells admits that “bodies exposed in a clear
night to the sky must radiate as much heat to it during the prevalence of wind
as they would do if the air were altogether still, but in the former Mittle or no cold
will be observed upon them above that of the atmospheric.” That is to say, there
was little dew, and therefore the air had received Little or no heat from this source.
If Dr. Wells had given actual temperatures, instead of merely “ differences,” we
should have had far more satisfactory data to go upon.

In conclusion the author insists that Prevost’s Theory of Exchanges cannot be
reconciled to the different “radiation energies ”’ of surfaces. Imagine a thermo-
meter in the focus of a metallic mirror, and a cubic canister (two adjacent sides
being bright metal and the other two varnished) placed angalarly in the line of
the axis of the mirror; it will be admitted (supposing the temperatures of mirror,
thermometer, canister, and air to be identical) that, whether the metallic or var-
nished sides are “radiating” to the mirror, there will be no effect on the focal
ball, and yet the “radiating energy ” of the varnished sides is manifold greater
than that of the metal; why, then (on Prevost’s theory), does not the focal ther-
mometer indicate this increased effect, as concentrated by the mirror? It will be
understood that the angular position of the canister is to meet any hypothesis of
the “ metal reflecting the thermometer’s radiation back again to it.” A fortiori
(under the above arrangement), if the canister alone be reduced below the tempe-
rature of the air, why does the varnished surface chil the thermometer more than
the metal, although the former is so much more potent in radiating heat ?

Above thirty-four years ago the author devised what he considered an exper?-
mentum crucis on this subject. He had a vessel made of zinc, with one side of it
a mirror. This was filled with water at 173° F., and one ball of a delicate differ-
ential thermometer having been placed in the focus of the mirror, the other ball
was moved round until the instrument marked zero. A large tin screen was in
front of the mirror, at a distance of about 6 feet. The temperature of the room
being 55°, a cubic canister (as described) containing water at 67° was placed just
in front of the screen; the focal ball showed increase of temperature, and the rise
was greatest with the varnished sides of canister. On moving the canister nearer
to the mirror, these effects diminished, and at a certain distance the effect (from
both sides) became nil. On being moved nearer still the canister began to act as
of tt were {a cold body, and the varnished surface produced the greater chilling
effect. A paper, containing these results, was'read by the author in Section A at
the first Dublin Meeting of the British Association (in 1835), and was honoured
by having been printed zx extenso, amongst the Reports. The author did not then
call attention to the consequences of these experiments, saving that he considered
them only explicable ona “ Wave Theory.”

As Prevost’s theory is still received by the first physicists of Europe, the author
no longer hesitates to assert that it is not true. The facts adduced appear to
him to demonstrate that when any body is of the same temperature as the medium,
there is no “radiation,” but when it is either warmer or colder than the medium,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 41

waves (either of excess or deficiency) are propagated from it through the medium,—
a result to which a rude analogy may be found in imagining a bucket of water
poured into (or taken out of) one end of a long narrow channel of still water. The
previous equilibrium is thereby overthrown, and a wave is propagated either from
or towards the site of the disturbance.

Fits divers de Physique Terrestre. Par Dr. JANssEn.

The Rainfall of Natal, South Africa. By Dr. Many, F.R.GS. Se.

The British colony of Natal, situated on the south-east coast of Africa, 800
miles beyond the Cape of Good Hope, lies between the 27th and 31st parallels of
south latitude, and the 29th and 52nd meridians of east longitude, looks out
upon the Indian Ocean by a coast-line of 150 miles broad, and slopes down from a
height of 6000 feet, where the inland frontier is formed by the rim of the great
tableland of the Continent. The general set of the air-current is from the moist
spaces over the ocean, up this rapid land slope, and the rainfall of the colony is in
the main due to this cause. The result is a very remarkable climate, in which
tropical productions grow luxuriantly in the lower districts, and temperate produc-
tions thrive in the higher regions. The mean temperature of the year is 64°7 at
a height of 2000 feet, and 69°-2 on the coast.

The year is divided into a wet and dry season, rather than into a summer and
winter season. The six months from October to March are cloudy and moist, and
the six months from April to September are months of bright and rarely inter-
rupted sunshine. The entire rainfall, for a period of ten years, at an elevation of
2095 feet, and 45 miles inland, was 302 inches, giving a mean yearly fall of 30-22
inches ; of this 25:53 inches fall during the six summer months, and 5:09 during
the six winter months. The mean monthly fall for the summer period is 4:2 inches ;
the same for the winter period is 0°87 of an inch. The increase and diminution
of the fall is singularly regular, as becomes apparent when the progression is repre-
sented in a diagram traced out pictorially upon paper.

The months of April and September are properly intermediate months in regard
to rainfall. They haye each a mean fall of one inch and a half, while the mean
monthly fall for the rigidly dry period from May to August barely exceeds half
an inch.

The heaviest rainfall in one year during this period was 37°31 inches ; the least
rainfall in one year 22°34 inches. Upon eight months out of the 120 comprised
in the period of observation, no rain fell on 33 months only. The monthly fall
was less than one inch, on one occasion only. There were 107 days in succession
without rain. Eight other intervals gave rainless periods of between 40 and 68
days, and 13 intervals of between 20 and 33 days.

There were 19 months on which the monthly fall reached 5 inches, 9 months
on which it reached 6 inches, 2 months on which it reached 7 inches, and 1
month when it reached 8-95 inches. There were 49 days on which the daily fall
exceeded 1 inch, 13 days on which it reached 14 inch, only 5 days on which it
exceeded 2 inches. The heaviest daily fall was 24 inches. The heaviest fall at
Maritzburg on consecutive rainy days was 10°81 inches,

The rivers in Natal are low, but not dry in the winter season, and are swollen
during the six months of heavier rain. The coast district alone is subject to
occasional devastating floods. In 1857 there was one in which the river Ungeni,
near its mouth in the neighbourhood of the seaport of Durban, rose 28 feet above
its ordinary level, and overflowed a considerable space of low ground near the
port, carrying down cattle, large deposits of reeds and large trees to the sea. In
1868 another coast-flood took place, in which a fine iron-girder bridge, 900 feet
long, and recently erected over the same river at a cost of £19,000, was carried
away, and in which damage to the extent of £100,000 was inflicted on public
works and private property.

The aintal on the first occasion was 21 inches on the coast, and 11 inches at

42 REPORT—1869.

Maritzburg. On the second occasion 163 inches on the coast, and 10°81 inches at
Maritzbure.

The ordinary rains of Natal are caused by the moist sea-air rushing sud-
denly inland to considerable elevation, and thence becoming rarefied and depo-
siting the moisture suddenly in the midst of violent electrical demonstrations, con-
stituting thunderstorms. The storms occur soon after 2 p.M., and rain continues
to fall into the late evening, but this fall is followed by a fine morning, ‘The
storms occur. three or four successive days, with a low barometer, and there is
then a similar rainless interval, with a higher barometer. The devastating coast-
floods are, however, due to another class of rains, namely, rains accompanying
strong sea-gales from the south or south-west, and going in continuously for two or
three days at a stretch. They occur often with a high barometer. During these
rains the rainfall is much heavier on the intermediate coast than it is further
inland. On the higher hills it diminishes into a thick mist, like that which is
often found on the Scotch mountains. In one marked rain of this character, in
which the author was caught between swollen coast rivers, the fall on the coast
was 8°97 inches, and at Maritzbure, 2095 feet high, 1:23 inch.

Taken altogether, the coast rainfall is heavier than the rainfall at an elevation
of 2000 feet. The entire rainfall for the two years 1866 and 1867, on the coast
and at Maritzburg, was—

1866. 1867.
inches. inches.
‘Thevcosst 22s See 48°54 ...sis.s 3839°080
Maritzburg, 2095 feet high, and
45 miles inland............ SOLE STHE C8 31°49

The mean average fall at Maritzburg, for the several months of the year,
deduced from a period of ten years, extending from 1858 to 1867, was—

SADUALY oan toys 66 tales fio0n ay8ap 5 4:25 inches,
LAE) a AI cee TPO OOM ee y4 UN gi
MATE arate a setts, atiane onay8 bb BE ay 8.008 ahe 408 ,
NDT it 6648 PROMO Ne RI On Pi ety
INLAY iis ers jekaicss ya, Lisp RA Ra, AT BIN wie rass6 0-51 of an inch.
DTG fa hens oad eye oth sie 538 ekafe dopa ae 0:10 Fr
=) Tk PEERED Nets OPA FeL Maer PRON nok 0-21 3
PADIS 15.5.4 u0ph) sopers, 0B 50,8 9% Heid 6\ 96. 0ch aps 0:70 »
DSEPUGMDON ors ci a bore apis bid as yt so 1:73 inch.
COPECO BOSS micas, Coie ahs x bets 0 be 2:59 inches.
IN OV GRAD GI 5.40 pi itis exasiyi0p,8 aaye TIP © atohe BGS. = 5,
DD GCOMGEL 66,9. cape ao5.5.65, es tins 5 ase. 448,
The rainfall for each year of the period of ten years, at Maritzburg, was—
T8566: 22 STE PPR ee ARE 27-42 inches,
D859}. oie ba sists cet ees WRtCENG oon EEE 28:34
I OL I a ae Sr ie se Se we BRON Na aE ys 30°60,
LEG LEFETE Aaa AS, Be PS sa 22°34 4,
USGL AS PLE, Oe ie We eee 29:96,
1863. Le PRL a PEE BRE 3461,
UBGES, SPP INT PR, OEY PP BBL 4%;
L865 sais. PER DES SHRI FCT 8108 4p"
HSGGEP A NOEs BOP. Re NORE Psat Ue 2'QGres,
LBOTS Tae STS Ee eae eS, Pee OL QOi ey,

The comparative rainfall for Maritzburg, 2090 feet high, and 45 miles inland,
and for the Coast district, near the sea-level, for the several months of the two
years 1866 and 1867, was—

Merebank, Maritz-

near Durban, burg.
1866. inches. inches.
Januaty......... ye se Poe OTOe Teer same 5965
Bebruaiiys icmtereci« era cars 2670 © oc ch Mere 3°565

Mat, ee ee DOTSO! 7 ee, 4-448

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43

Merebank, Maritz-

near Durban. burg.

1866 (continued). inches, inches.
OTs ect tee el bes Gut SOOT cs tm bac 1:148
May...... I eee “102 8 at Ei a 0-000
June.....s Weaeattse ot UNL. ato oath: 0:250
VU: ha ate eben senns NEO ais at sake as 0-410
AOPUSD ect bay gas iate} AGL S 0 alate ARE ae 0:590
September.......... Pee eS. tus sts e.eene 1:850
October....... one Rea 12344 ar Sore 1:100
November.........000: DIG, vsasne oa 5:790
December........ Peet cOOlU we uns a cet 5150
48540 30°266

1867

Janwaty vv LEO iwi 3400
February..... Levaaives S410 vehi eek 5'660
Mareh's ease esas als S660 oe VET ES 3°860
April. i irecneaea GBI! MES 3:140
May ii ee it eas OOZOM Na eR 0-000
Tunes Verses a eat LIGOUMW ee’ 0000
aly ee ee O'1GO. LedeavesA 0-000
VAN OISE) 2 vt ¥e 4. cle bee ier ssa O'ABO ss TL 0:370
September.....s.....5. ODIO Moe HH 2-040
OstOHEr Ha EN ADAQ Gee 3:080
November..i.is.00.005 PAGO GF GA 6-690
December......... TEE GQ) VIVRE 3°250
33°080 31:490

Remarks on Meteorological Reductions, with especial Reference to the Element
of Vapour. By Batrour Stewart, ILS.

It will be desirable to preface the method of reduction herein proposed by a few
remarks on the objects contemplated in such reductions. These objects are two-

fold. In the first place, meteorological reductions may be pursued with the

immediate object of acquiring information as to the climate of a place; or
secondly, they may be pursued with the immediate object of extending our know-
ledge of meteorology, regarded as a physical science.

Thus, for instance, a certain kind of reduction might be imagined to be of
immediate practical benefit in determining whether a certain place might suit a
certain class of persons or a certain class of plants, but yet it might not materially
advance our knowledge of meteorology, regarded as a physical science. But, on
the other hand, all observations tending to advance our knowledge of meteorology
are of undoubted practical benefit. The amount of vapour present in the air is
without doubt a very important element of climate, inasmuch as this affects in a
marked manner the skin of the human body and the leaves of plants; but I am
not aware that it has yet been determined by the joint action of naturalists and
meteorologists what is the precise physical function which expresses proportionally
the effect of moisture upon animal and vegetable life. Is it simply relative humi-
dity ? or does not a given relative humidity at a high temperature have a different
effect from that which it has when the temperature is low ?

There is, in fact, an absence of information as to the precise physical formula
which is wished by physiologists as expressing the effect of moisture upon organic
life. On the other hand, physicists may be presumed to confine themselves to
meteorology regarded as a physical science. It is in this latter aspect that I pro-
ceed to discuss the question.

Regarding meteorology, therefore, as a physical science, it is one of our objects
to ascertain the distribution and laws of motion of the dry and wet components of
our atmosphere; and it cannot be denied that we are at the present moment in
very great ignorance of these laws,

44, REPORT—1869.

With respect to the motion of our atmosphere, it cannot be anticipated that
we shall ever possess the same sort of knowledge which astronomy gives us regard-
ing the motions of the heavenly bodies; for in the latter case the identity of the
object is not lost sight of, while in the former case it is clearly impossible to ascer-
tain the motions of individual particles of air. Our inquiries into the distribution
and motion of the elements of our atmosphere must therefore be pursued by that
method which enables us to ascertain the distribution and motion of any other
substance or product with the individual components of which we find it imprac-
ticable to deal.

Suppose, for instance, we wish to ascertain the wealth of our country in grain
or in spirits, and the distribution of this commodity over the earth’s surface. We
should first of all begin by taking the stock of the commodity corresponding to a
given date; we should next keep a strict account of all the imports and exports of
the material, as well as of its home production and home consumption.

Now, if we have taken stock properly at first, and if our account of the imports,
the exports, the production, and the consumption of our material is accurate and
properly kept, it will obviously be unnecessary to take stock a second time. But
if these accounts are not kept with sufficient accuracy, or if we suspect that our
material leaves us by some secret channel which we wish to trace, it will clearly
be necessary to take stock frequently; and thus a comparison of our various
accounts may enable us to detect the place and circumstances of that secret transit
which has hitherto escaped our observation.

Applying these principles to the vapour of our atmosphere, what we wish to
know is the amount of the material present at any one station at any moment, and
also the laws of its motion. It would appear that the best way of measuring the
amount present at any moment is by ascertaining the mass of vapour present in a
cubic foot of air, mass and volume being fundamental physical conceptions.

Next, with regard to the motion of the atmosphere, including its vaporous con-
stituent, the method of coordinates suggested by Dr. Robinson would appear to
be the natural way of arriving at this. Let us set up at a station two imaginary
apertures, one facing north and south and the other east and west, and gauge. the
mass of dry air and the mass of moisture that passes each of these openings in one
hour ; we shall by this means get the nearest attainable approach to the elements
of motion of the atmospheric constituents from hour to hour. We shall not, how-
ever, obtain by this means a complete account of this motion, for we haye at pre-
sent no means of measuring its vertical component. This vertical component
corresponds in fact to the secret channel in the illustration given above, which we
must endeavour to detect by some indirect method. Another thing that ought to
be determined is the production or consumption of the vaporous element of our
atmosphere as it passes from place to place. This might be done could we keep
an accurate account of the evaporation and the precipitation, the two processes
by which this element is recruited and consumed. This would, however, be a
very difficult observation.

Let us now recapitulate what information regarding moisture we can obtain
from such meteorological observations as are at present made. We have—
(1) The mass of vapour actually present at a station from hour to hour.
(2) The mass that passes a station in one hour, going east and west.
(3) The mass that passes a station in one hour, going north and south.
There is wanting—
(4) The vertical component of the motion of vapour.
(5) Its production or consumption as it passes from place to place.

These deficiencies may, however, be to some extent overcome by the following
considerations :—

First, the atmosphere moves as a whole when it moves, the dry and moist air
moying together; secondly, dry air is neither capable of production or of consump-
tion, but always remains constant-in amount.

To illustrate this part of the subject, let it be supposed we wish to investigate
the vertical motion of the atmosphere at a certain station. Make this station the
imaginary centre of a circle, the circumference of which may be supposed to be
studded with other stations at sufficiently frequent intervals, so that we can tell,

, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45
hour by hour, how much dry air passes in towards the centre of the circle through
its circumference, and also how much passes out.

Let us suppose that more is passing in than is passing out, or that the imports
into the area of the circle are greater than the exports out of it. Now, the dry
air that passes in is incapable of production or of consumption, and hence the
stock of the material at the central station, and in the area generally, ought to be
on the increase, since we have imagined the imports to be greater than the
exports. If, however, we ascertain from actual observation that the stock of dry
air is diminishing instead of increasing, we may be sure that some is carried off
by an upward current, which of course carries the moisture with the dry air.

So much for the vertical component; and in the next place, with regard to the

roduction or consumption of aqueous vapour as it passes from place to place.
Bur consideration has hitherto been confined to quantity ; let us now define what
is meant by the hygrometric quality of the air. It may be represented by the fol-
lowing quotient :—
mass of vapour in a cubic foot
mass of dry air in a cubic foot

Now this quotient can only alter by evaporation, by precipitation, or by mixture.
This hygrometric quality of the air may perhaps be considered as a quality
sufficiently constant to aid us in tracing the actual motion of air, just as we may
make use of the element of saltness to trace the actual path of an oceanic cur-
rent. But besides this aid, we may make use of it to enable us to tell the precipi-
tation or evaporation. For instance, a very damp air, in passing over a very dry
country, may be supposed to emerge less damp, having its hygrometric quality
changed ; or a very dry air, in passing over a very damp country, may be supposed
to emerge less dry, having its quality changed in the opposite direction. Thus,
by actual observation of the quality of the air at the time of its reaching some
particular tract of land or ocean, and at the time of its leaving it, we may pos-
sibly get much better observations of what goes on in the country, as far as this
particular research is concerned, than if it were studded with gauges.

I should therefore suggest that meteorological observations should, by a system
‘of reduction, be made to show—

1
(1) The mass of dry air and moisture in one cubic foot actually present at

i -_”

each station from hour to hour.

(2) The mass of dry air and of moisture that passes each station, hour by
hour, in two lines of direction at right angles to each other, namely,
north and south and east and west.

When these hourly elements are obtained, they might for seasonal changes be
reduced after the method of five-day means, or for the investigation of abrupt
changes of weather, such as storms, they might be utilized in some other way.

Retaining the belief that meteorology ought to be treated as much as possible
with the view, in the first place, of determining the actual motions of our atmo-
sphere, and, in the next place, of assigning the cause of these, it is no doubt the
greater movements of the atmosphere that will be indicated by five-day means.
It ought, however, to be remarked that the observations at any station are subject
to the influence of locality, none probably more so than those of wind. It would
appear that this influence ought to be eliminated before we can make any trust-
worthy quantitative deductions regarding the greater movements of our atmosphere.
I should, however, imagine that the quality of the air, as herein indicated, may be
made of immediate use in the study of storms.

It has been suggested by Mr. Meldrum, who expresses his concurrence with
the above remarks, that in addition to the five-day means indicated above, there
might be given a brief epitome of the weather. Thus, for instance, “The wind
blew from the N.E. at Kew from January Ist, 1 a.m., to January 4th, 3 p.m., in all
86 hours, at the average velocity of 16 miles an hour, with an average pressure of
30 inches, a temperature of 40° F., and an average hygrometric quality repre-
sented by ‘075.” The same remarks had previously occurred to myself, and Mr.
Airy also has recently suggested the study of the meteorological phenomena of
those periods during which the wind blows in the same direction.

46 REPORT— 1869,

ELEcrriciry.

Description of some Lecture-experiments in Electricity *.
By Professor G. C, Foster, F.R.S.

In this communication the author draws attention to the facility with which
the transient electric currents accompanying the production and disappearance of
electrostatical charge can be detected by the use of Sir William Thomson’s re-
flecting galvanometer; and, in illustration, describes the application of this in-
strument to the investigation of the action of the electrophorus, and to the comparison
of electrostatic capacities and electromotive forces. A description is also given of
a simple method of proving the existence of the inverse and direct extra-currents
in coiled conductors.

On the Metallic Deposit obtained from the Induction-discharge in Vacuwm-
tubes. By J. P. Gasstor, V.P.R.S.

The usual metallic deposit obtained from the discharge of an induction-coil in
vacuum-tubes is known to arise from minute particles of the negative electrode,
emanating in a lateral direction from the wire; these are thus apeened on the
glass with metallic lustre when examined by reflected light. Such particles are
very freely deposited from gold, silver, or platinum electrodes; less so from iron,
copper, and other metals, but not from aluminium, although the latter becomes red-
hot and ultimately fuses.

In one of Geissler’s tubes with which I have for some time experimented, I ob-
tained, by using my extended series of the voltaic battery, not only a very dense
opake deposit on the glass round the negative electrode, but five or six bands of dark
deposit along the tube; in carefully examining their position, I found they exactly
coincided with the dark bands between the stri, that they did not increase in
density by continuing the discharge like the deposit round the negative, but remained
without any further change.

I have not any record from Geissler as to the nature of the gas with which the
tube was originally filled, I therefore requested him to prepare other similar-shaped
tubes with the several simple and compound gases he had previously used, but
I have not as yet been able to obtain similar results in any of these vacuums. A
short time since, when examining some vacuum-tubes at Messrs. Cetti & Co., my
attention was directed to one in which I observed a series of brilliant metallic
rings deposited inside the glass; on inquiry Mr. Cetti informed me that the tubes
had been originally charged with arseniuretted hydrogen and then exhausted in the
usual manner; that almost immediately after he had passed the induction-discharge,
the stratifications were much reduced, the beauty, as he described it, of the ex-
periment was destroyed, while on the inside of the several uranium glass bulbs
through which the discharge passed, a thick metallic coating, apparently the metal
arsenium, was deposited.

This result appeared to me to explain that the deposit in Geissler’s tube already
referred to, did not arise from particles of the negative electrode, but from the gas

with which it was originally charged ; and if this is the case, their being deposited —

exactly in the spaces occupied by the dark portions between the luminous disks

may lead to a correct explanation of a phenomenon that has hitherto baffled the in- —

genuity of the experimentalist.

On an Electromagnetic Experiment. By The Hon. J. W. Srrvrrt.

On the Electric Balance. By F. H. Variny.

* This paper is printed in eatenso in the Philosophical Magazine for September 1869,
t Vide Philosophical Magazine, July 1869.

Eee

TRANSACTIONS OF TIE SECTIONS. 47

On Electrification. By Tuomas T. P. Bruce Warren.

When an insulated wire or cable is connected to a battery, and the deflection
noted on a galvanometer, the first rush of current into the cable is due to the
electrostatic capacity of the insulator. Battery-contact being still maintained, the de-
flection falls very rapidly at first, and gradually becomes reduced for some time after.
The ratio between the deflections for equal periods of contact is independent of the
length, and is greater or less according to the specific resistance of the dielectric.
The ratio is unaltered under different electromotive forces, so long as constancy is
maintained during the time of observation, and the deflection itself the same at
the end of the first period of contact. But when, with different electromotive
forces, the deflections at the end of the first period of contact are not the same, we
may obtain the deflections which should be given on prolonged contact, if we know
the deflection for a corresponding period by any electromotive force, since the
deflections for the first period of contact will have to one another the same ratio
which the deflections at any other period of contact have; thus, if with a given
electromotive force we obtain at the end of the first minute’s contact a deflection
of 84, which at the end of the second minute is reduced to 76, and with a different
electromotive force we have a deflection of 70 at the end of the first minute’s
contact, the deflection at the end of the second minute will have the same ratio to
76 which 84 has to 70, Under different temperatures the resistances corresponding
to one, two, three, &c. minutes’ contact follow the same law of variation; thus if
R =r X const. represent the resistance after one minute’s contact, then

t’ = X const. = resistance after 2nd min,
ype a7: ma
R" aint in eo ” » ord ,y,
BM ss lili ” » 4th ,,
R* =? = ? oe eth 5

”?

r, 7’, vr", vr’, r” are the resistances determined after 1, 2, 3, 4, » minutes’ contact
respectively, and R, R’, R’', R'”, R the required resistances for the same differences
of temperature ¢, and at the end of 1, 2, 3, 4, x minutes’ contact. Ifat any tempe-
rature T we obtain a deflection G after one minute’s contact which at the end of
the second minute falls to g, we may calculate what the deflection should be at the
end of the second minute for any other temperature by knowing only the deflection
after the first minute at this temperature. Let Gand g be the deflections after one
-and two minutes’ contact at a given temperature, and G’ the deflection at the end
of the first minute at any other temperature, then G : G’::g: 9’; g' will be the de-
flection at the end of the second minute at thistemperature. By calculating in this
way the value of g and comparing it with the actual reading, much more reliance
can be placed on the value‘of a test than can be done by correcting for temperature
in the usual way. We are thus quite independent of temperature for knowing
whether a core or cable has received the slightest injury in manufacture. Gand g
may readily be obtained by testing a core at a fixed temperature, as 75° F., as is
now done. Coils having the same dimensions have rarely the same tatio in their
resistances on prolonged contact with a battery; but when several coils are joined
together the ratio between the deflections for any two successive durations of con-
tact may be obtained from the reciprocals of the deflections of the several coils. In
reducing tests of insulation by discharge to measures of resistance, it is impossible
to obtain but approximations in the ordinary way of making the tests. The best
way is to charge the cable or core for one minute, and leave it free for another
minute, and then note the discharge, recharge the core, and take the instantaneous
discharge. By this method we know exactly the amount of electrification which
has been given to a core, but by taking the instantaneous discharge first, even
although contact with a battery is made for one minute, we cannot say how much
electrification is retained in the core. When a core is thus connected to a battery
for one minute, and afterwards removed, electrification still takes place, but of
course not precisely as if connected to a battery ; for the insulator, instead of being
acted upon bya constant charge, is affected by the variable charge consequent upon
leakage ; but when the core is held free for one minute it is very easy to ascertain
how much effect the electrification has added in reducing the loss. The amount

48 REPORT—1869.

of electrification retained at any given interval is proportional to the quantity of
charge remaining at that time. The longer battery-contact is maintained, the
slower will a core or cable lose its charge, and conversely. In a cable which has
been charged by contact with a battery for one minute, and afterwards held free
for one minute, the electrification will be the same as if, instead of being held free, it
had been left connected to a battery having the last tension, thus :—If the discharge
after one minute’s contact and one minute’s insulation be 180, and the immediate
discharge 200, the duration of contact being also one minute, the total effect for
electrification at the end of the minute’s insulation will be 95 per cent. of what it
would have been if connected to the same battery for two minutes. By taking
these considerations into account the formula of Professor Fleeming Jenkin,

t
— Leer as TN 6
B= (tog 0) x1

may be rendered strictly applicable for deducing from the loss of static charge in
time ¢, the resistance for the same period of contact in absolute measure, or in
terms of that system which makes i and K functions of each other; and we may
expect that the capacity K can be eliminated from this formula when Ris known,
if we can determine the constant for electrification for the interval of time during
which the core is held free.

In this formula if the test is performed in the manner here indicated ¢ will be 60,
and the value obtained for R will be the resistance at the end of the second minute

more nearly as = approaches 1, This resistance has then to be divided by a

number which expresses the ratio between the first and second minutes’ contact.
Approximately, and on short lengths of core, this may be obtained as follows :—
Recharge the core after being kept to earth for some hours, maintaining contact
with the battery for two minutes before noting the loss; then by dividing the
percentage of loss in the first experiment by the percentage of loss given in the
second experiment, we shall obtain a number by which, if R be divided, the re-
sistance corresponding to one minute’s contact may be found.

The following ratio expresses the rate of increase on prolonged contact :—Let D
be the deflection at the end of the first period of contact and d the deflection at
the end of the xth period, then D: d::d: deflection at the end of n? minutes,

IT have to acknowledge my obligation to Mr. Hooper for placing at my disposal
the necessary instruments and cores for the subject of this paper.

InstTRUMEN'S.

Ona New Anemometer for Measuring the Speed of Aix in Flues and Chimneys.
By A. E. Frercurr, F.C.S.

This paper is a continuation of one read at the Dundee Meeting in 1867.

Not able at that time to give a mathematical interpretation of the working of
his instrument, the author, resting on experiment, drew up an empirical table of the
speed of air indicated by it. Now independent calculations are given, and the
results corroborated by experiment.

The problem to be solved may be briefly stated thus :—

The lower end of a vertical straight tube, open at both ends, dips into a liquid.
To what height will the liquid be raised in the tube by the action of a current of
air passing with a given velocity across its upper end ?

On consideration, it will appear probable that the height of the column is but a
measure of the impact force of the air in motion; experiment proves this to be the
case ; it shows that the liquid is drawn up to the same height it would have reached
had the stream of air been directed against the surface of the liquid in the cistern.
The problem is now exchanged for one easicr of solution,

. Or

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 49

Let »=velocity of the air in feet per second.
g=gravity=52'18 feet per second. |
w=weight of a cubic foot of air at 60° Fahr., and 29:92 inches barometric
pressure =0-076107 lbs.
P=pressure in lbs. per square foot of a flat surface held at right angles to the
direction of the current of air.
Then v2w=gP.
Let p=the height of the column of liquid driven up the tube, measured in inches.
W=weight in lbs. of 31; cubic foot of this liquid.

Then P=pW; e2w=gpW ; v= fo:
w

= +s . a ‘ <- ay 5015 nae ee
Where the liquid used is water, W=5-20833, and v= vA p . 46-92, or arm
In the anemometer here described, ether of the specific gravity -740 is employed,

and the instrument is so used that the reading is double the actual column of ether

supported, In this case

a) EGY.

rh
2 w

= p . 28:55.
Tn order now to see what correction will be necessary when the temperature of
the stream of air is different from that of 60° Fahr.,
Let v'= velocity of air at some other temperature, say at the temperature of ¢ de-
grees Fahr.
w'= weight of a cubic foot of air at that temperature.
vol’= volume of a cubic foot of air at that temperature.

vol at 82°(1+ s )
_ vol _ 491) 45944

wo 0 eal at 309(14 588 ~ 519
491

t—32
Then w i vol’ ;

wow 519

but v= p gW or 2 = pgW= gpW I 459-+¢
2 w 2 w' 2° w 519
459-+7 92.5
= y a“ De
= hw L slg * 8:55,

But it is generally necessary to carry the correction a step further, and to give
the velocity in feet of air at 60° temperature.

_ vol _ 51944
Now dake an 759
a59-4t _. 459-44
a B19, * 785 x ig

Further, to correct for variations in barometric pressure,
Let v"=velocity of air at some other pressure than 29-92 inches, say at a
pressure of / inches.
w''=weight of acubic foot of air at that pressure.
vol" =volume of a cubic foot of air at that pressure. Then
w _ 29-92 2 d ignerlnste rep.
apa gh aD ak ape os

1869. 4

50 REPORT—-1869.

As above,
ne e43 gW_. /p gW 29-92
5 w' D)

2 WwW \ ma p

In cases where it is necessary to give the velocity in feet of air at a pressure of
29°92 inches,
v h ene
Snes ee es V= VD ————
vo §=29-92 29:92

= h 92.55
=\/vxigX® ov.

The complete formula, embodying the formule of correction for variations of
temperature, and also of barometric pressure, would therefore be

ee BP ee
v/v xhs Top O™

» being the velocity of air at a temperature of ¢ degrees Fahr., under a pressure of
h inches of mercury; but the velocity is measured in feet per second of air at the
normal temperature and pressure.

When drawing a sample of air from a chimney or fire-flue in order to examine it,
that sample is measured, by the aspirator employed, under the existing barometric
pressure ; we want, therefore, the velocity to be given in feet of air under the same
condition. The following is the formula then to be used :—

519 98-55,

Pam [Dae

459-+-¢

The number 28°55 thus obtained by calculation differs somewhat from the
number obtained by the experiments which were made two yearsago. These were
not carried out with the accuracy that might now be obtained by help of the experi-
ence which has been gained in the use of the instrument since that time; they have
therefore been repeated.

The same method was adopted as formerly. A regular current of air was esta-
blished in a long flue or air-channel, one end of which was in connexion with a
high chimney, and the other end open. The speed of this current was measured
by the anemometer, and at the same time measured by noting the time a puff of
smoke took in travelling from one end of the flue to the other. These experiments
were made in three separate flues, and many experiments were made in each.

The value of ¢ is found in each case from the formula

_ JF 29-92 45948
C=A/ ph Ble

. Speed of | Pressure | Tempe- 4

ment. by smoke. Seeendod wneter, fae: sure.

feet. eat. feet. | inch. deg. F. | inches.

ik 55 9 6111 | 0:045 54 30:10 | 28:56
2. 117 12:3 9513 | 0°1055 50 30:10 | 28:92
Be 94. ns) 6:963 | 0:0575 55 29°65 | 29:02
4, 94 16:5 5°757 | 0:038 5D 29°65 | 29°21
Be 145 8 18:12 04195 44 30°30 | 27°38
6. 145 16 9:06 0-101 44 30°30 | 27:90
AMONG: « Jigs qatecscctaaeuensGavensoueeet .| 28°50

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 51

The average value of ¢ in the experiments is 28:50, while the value arrived at by
purely mathematical considerations is 28:55. This close correspondence is the more
satisfactory when the difficulty of accurately measuring short intervals of time is
borne in mind.

The formula v= /pX 28:55 may therefore be adopted as correct. The author
has constructed a Table by means of it, showing the velocities which correspond to
the various readings of the anemometer; also a Table showing the correction to be
made for variations in the temperature of the air whose speed is to be measured.
The corrections to be made for small variations in barometric pressure are unim-
portant. When it is necessary to make the correction, recourse must be had to

the formula
' 29-92 he ‘
v =a/> i x 28°55, orv= P2909 «28 55,

according to the circumstances of the case. In the former the velocity is given in
feet per second of air measured under the barometric pressure existing in the air-
channel, in the latter it is given in feet per second of air measured under a
pressure of 29:92 inches of mercury.

It may be asked if allowance should be made for the expansion or contraction
which will take place in the ether of the manometer when exposed to varying
temperatures. The variations of temperature to which the manometer itself are
exposed are not great, being those of the external atmosphere only. It will be
found that for a variation of 10 degrees the error introduced is about one per cent.
Thus if the manometer has been exposed to a temperature of 50°, and the speed
of the air experimented on is by calculation 10 feet per second, the real speed will
be 10-1 feet. If the temperature of the ether in the manometer was 70°, then the
real speed in place of 10 feet will be 9-9 feet per second.

In order to test by experiment the corrections of the formula for making allow-
ance for variations in the temperature of the air whose velocity is to be measured,
the following trial was made:—In a furnace, constructed for an experimental
purpose, a current ofair entered through a pipe 9 inches diameter at a temperature
of 170°; after traversing channels of red-hot brickwork, it passed out through a
6-inch pipe at a temperature of 560°.

The reading of the anemometer at the inlet flue was 0012 inch. Referring to
the Table, the speed given is 3-127 feet per second. The correcting figure for the
temperature 170° is 09083. Multiplying the two together, we have 2:84 feet per
second as the speed of the air measured at 60°. The quantity of air passing was
therefore 1:255 cubic feet per second.

At the outlet pipe the anemometer reading was 0-102 inch, showing by the Table
a speed of 9:118 feet per second, to he multiplied by 0-7137, the figure of correction
for the temperature 560°. This gives 6-508 feet’ per second for the speed of air
measured at 60°; therefore the quantity of air passing was 1:278 cubic feet per
second. The error is less than two per cent. Such an approximation is perhaps
as close as could be expected in measurements of this kind, and may, it is thought,
be taken as a confirmation of the general correctness of the formulz.

Description of a New Self-recording Aneroid Barometer. By F. Marti.

On the Maury Barometer, a new Instrument for Measuring Altitudes.
By Freperick T. Morr, /.2.GS.

The author said that at present there was no instrument in the hands of the
engineer by which he could make a rapid survey across mountainous or hilly
country with ease and accuracy. At the suggestion of Captain Maury, Mr. E. T.
Loseby, a well-known chronometer maker, had invented a pocket barometer, which
promised to supply this desideratum.

The Maury barometer, like the aneroid barometer, measures the atmospheric pres-
sure by the expansion and contraction of a vacuum-box ; but this box is of larger size
in proportion to the instrument, and of superior construction ; and the measuring-
machinery consists simply of a fine micrometer-screw attached to the index, and a

be RoPoRT—1869.

thin steel drop-piece between the screw and the vacuum-box. All levers, chains,
and spiral springs are got rid of, and the vacuum-box has got no work to do in
moving the machinery, the required force being supplied by the hand of the
observer. In shape and size the Maury is precisely like an old-fashioned watch.
The outside diameter is 2! inches, the thickness about $ of an inch, the weight
from 3 to 33 oz. On the dial is a scale ingeniously arranged in spiral coils, on
which a range of 24 barometric inches, equal to 27,000 feet of elevation, can be
engraved, with 50 divisions to the inch; the smallest divisions, equal to about 20
feet, being perfectly jeginle to the eye, and large enough for readings to be esti-
mated accurately to 5 feet, and with care and practice almost to a single foot.
Various experiments were referred to, in which the Maury had been tested against
the aneroid, and found to be more regular and accurate.

A plan, suggested by Captain Maury, was also described by which two travellers,
each carrying a Maury barometer, and following each other at definite intervals of
time and space, could make a very rapid survey over any extent of country, cor-
recting each other for all changes of general atmospheric pressure. In conclusion,
the author said that the inventor of the Maury barometer claimed for his instru-
ment a general superiority over the aneroid in the ratio of 4 to 1; and that the ex-
periments and comparisons which had been described not only confirmed that claim,
but showed a much larger ratio of advantage.

Dr. Burpon SanpErson, F.R.S., exhibited an instrument for recording respi-
ratory movements, for a description of which see Section D.

On a Self-recording Rain-gauge. By Dr. Barrour Srzwarr, F.R.S.

The instrument described in this paper, and which was exhibited to the Meeting,
was invented by Mr. Robert Beckley, of the Kew Observatory, and made and patented
by Mr. James Hicks, of Hatton Garden, London.

It is designed to register the fall of rain by means of the varying immersion of
a float in a fluid, and consists of a vessel supported on an annular plunger resting
on a cistern of mercury, into which the rain collected in a funnel is conducted.

A pencil is fixed to the vessel, and in its descent traces a curve on a cylinder
which is moved round regularly by a clock. A siphon of peculiar construction is
precy to the receiver, so as to empty it immediately it becomes filled to a certain

eight.

In the instrument exhibited the funnel, receiver, and float were so proportioned
thata fall of 0-25 inch of rain traced a line 1 inch long on the cylinder.

The recording-cylinder is made of unglazed earthenware, and the whole of the
clock-mechanism employed to give rotation to the cylinder is enclosed in an air-
tight case, to protect it from the same injury by moisture, the motion being trans-
mitted by mercurial stuffing-boxes.

The whole apparatus is contained compactly in a cast-iron case, 14 inches square
and 10 high, and can be placed on the ground or elsewhere without any special
arrangements being made for its erection.

On Collimators for adjusting Newtonian Telescopes.
By G. Jounstonz Sronny, M.A., F.R.S.

The author of this communication had described in 1856, at the Cheltenham
Meeting of the British Association, a collimator for adjusting Newtonian telescopes.
The collimator resembles a small refracting telescope, with eyepiece and cross-
wires, differing from it only in the position of its object-glass, which is to be
pushed somewhat in, so that the light transmitted from the illuminated cross-wires
may leave the collimator as a divergent beam. To use this collimator, it is to be
substituted for the eyepiece of the telescope; its construction then enables the
rays emitted from its illuminated cross-wires to reach the great speculum of the
telescope normally, so that, after reflection by the speculum, they return upon their
path and form an image, which, if the great telescope be in adjustment, coincides
with the cross-wires,

ler a

ibis ye an

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 53

Several years before, Sir John Herschel described a very different collimator for
adjusting reflecting telescopes, which consists of a Kater’s collimator fastened
inside the tube of the telescope, parallel to its axis. In using this collimator the
eyepiece is not removed. The collimator emits a parallel beam of light, which,
falling on the speculum, enables the cross-wires to be seen as a distant object,
simultaneously with the heavenly body under review.

Moreover the adjustments which the two instruments are capable of effecting
are also different. For while Sir John Herschel’s collimator enables the observer
to bring the image of that point of the object towards which the axis of the tube of
his telescope is pointed, into the middle of his field of view, which is the adjustment
of most importance when the telescope is to be used as a surveying instrument, Mr.
Stoney’s collimator enables the observer, if his mirrors are out of adjustment, to
move the small mirror so as in the greatest possible degree to compensate for a faulty
position of the great speculum, which is the adjustment of most importance, when
the telescope is used as an optical instrument.

Thus the collimators themselves, and the adjustments they effect, are entirely dif-
ferent ; yet Sir John Herschel, after describing his collimator in the later editions
of the ‘Outlines of Astronomy,’ writes in the following words of Mr. Stoney’s
communication :—“It is to be presumed that Mr. Stoney, in bringing before the
British Association in 1856 this application of the collimating principle as a novelty,
has been unaware of this its prior use, since he has not alluded to it. The direct
reference of objects to the collimating cross described in the text would seem to
have been overlooked by him.”—Outlines of Astronomy, 8th edition, page 128.

It is true that Mr. Stoney was not aware in 1856 that Sir John Herschel had
suggested and used a different collimator for effecting other adjustments ; but it is
equally true that many readers have been misled by the foregoing passage into
supposing that Mr. Stoney reproduced in 1856 the instrument previously described
by Bir John Herschel. Moreover, the direct reference of objects to the collimating
cross was not overlooked by Mr. Stoney, as Sir John Herchel supposes, inasmuch
as no such reference is possible in Mr. Stoney’s collimator.

On a cheap form of Heliostat. By G. Jounstone Stoney, W.A., RS.

This heliostat was planned throughout with a view to cheapness. It costs only
five guineas, and yet, in the opinion of the author, who has used the first of them
for a year and a half, is quite as efficient as the more expensive instruments. It
has no second reflection, has the adjustments of the mirror under easy control, and
is adapted for use at any station within a range of latitude of five or six degrees.
It was made for the author by Messrs. Spencer and Son, of Dublin.

Mr. Stoney expressed the opinion that a heliostat could be made on the same
plan at small cost, and yet so large as to be of much use in printing photographs,
and especially in enlarging them.

On the best Forms of Numerical Figures for Scientific Instruments, and a
proposed Mode of Engraving them. By Lieut.-Colonel A. Srranen,
F.RS., FRAS.

Mr. G. J. Symon exhibited a Storm Rain-gauge.

On Self-registering Hygrometers. By EK. Vrvtan, M.A., FILS.

Mean results in meteorology are ordinarily deduced from one or more daily ob-
servations at specified hours, with corrections for diurnal range; or from curves
traced by photography or mechanical apparatus. In the rain-gauge, evaporating-
vessel, and certain forms of anemometer, the aggregate amounts, however fluctuating,
are obtained by accumulative action.

The latter of these methods is the most certain, and admits of being more readily
reduced into a tabular form for the fens ie of general averages. At a former
Meeting of the British Association the author exhibited self-registering instruments

54 REPORT—1869.

on the cumulative principle for recording the mean values of the difference between
the wet- and dry-bulb thermometers, and a self-registering maximum and minimum
hygrometer. The author now produced an improved form of the former instru-
ment, and a series of curves showing the comparative results of Leslie’s hygrometer,
his maximum and minimum differential, and his mean self-registering, which may
be regarded as the standard; also the curve of evaporation of water in an open
vessel,

It will be seen that these curves differ very widely as regards each period of
24 hours, but their monthly means are sufficiently uniform to show the approxi-
mate accuracy of the old methods during a long continuance of observations. This
is still more evident from the second table, which extends over the greater portion
of two years. The author briefly repeats that the action of the mean self-register-
ing hygrometer depends upon the condensation of the vapour of alcohol in the wet
bulb, the readings being taken from the fall of the column of spirit in the tube
which represents the dry bulb in Leslie’s hygremeter. If the temperature of both
is alike there will, of course, be no action; if a uniform difference, say of 5°Fahr., that
figure will be indicated on the scale ; and if there is a fluctuating difference, say of
from 0° to 10°, during the period which has elapsed since the last observation, then
the record will be 5°, or such other figure as shall be the sum of the differences.

The author has applied this principle to the recording of the aggregate dif-
ference of solar heat in sun and shade, and to the duration of rain (the wet
bulb being supplied by a funnel into which the rain is received), and to the
amount of nocturnal radiation, He also proposes to apply it, in conjunction with
an evaporating vessel, to the recording of mean temperature, Also as an anemo-
meter, by deducting the results due both to heat and hygrometrical action.

On Chambered Spirit-levels. By T, Warner.

On a Self-setting Type Machine for recording the Hourly Horizontal Motion
of Air. By C. J. Woopwarp, B.Sc.

The author referred in the first place to the methods in use for recording the
horizontal motion of air. With a view of testing the errors incidental to the
method adopted in the Birmingham instrument, he had had a series of readings
made by two independent observers, and he found that during the fifteen days over
which the observations extended, there were eighty-five differences of reading.
Errors, too, were liable to creep in when the first results were copied into the log-
book. To avoid these errors and with a view of obtaining the results in a neat
form, the author proposed a mechanical arangement in connexion with the cups of
an ordinary Robinson’s instrument, by which a series of type-wheels should be
acted upon so as to indicate the hourly horizontal motion of air. From these types
the results could be printed off into the log-book. The mechanical details of the
contrivance were in a great measure due to Mr. Alfred Cresswell.

A model to indicate the principle of the instrument was exhibited.

CHEMISTRY.
Address by H. Drnus, Ph.D., F.RS., President of the Section.

I BELIEVE it has been the custom with many of my predecessors in this office to
place before the members of the British Association a Report of the progress of
Chemistry during the year preceding their election. In attempting to follow
their example, I soon found that it would be impossible for me, without making
too great a demand upon your time, to give even a fae outline of the more import-
ant chemical work done during the year. A science the report of whose yearly
advances fills about 1000 large octavo pages cannot by any powers of mine have
its progress chronicled in an address of half an hour's duration. The best course

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 55

open to me under such circumstances is to direct your attention to the ideas which
at present guide chemists in their researches, to place in a clear light the objects
they are striving to attain, and to indicate the direction of scientific thought of our
time. To do this is by no means an easy task; for the more manifold and diver-
sified the objects of a science become, the more numerous and extensive its rela-
tions with other branches of knowledge, the more difficult it becomes to draw a
picture of its actual condition.

It is always an excellent recommendation of a theory or hypothesis when
amongst the cultivators of the science to which it pertains very little difference of
opinion exists as regards its admissibility and scientific value. This is in a high
degree the case with regard to the atomic theory. The vast majority of chemists,
I believe, accept this theory as the most suitable exponent of the fundamental
truths of their science; and certainly if the quality of the tree may be judged by
its fruit there is no other view which furnishes a clearer image to our minds of the
chemical constitution of bodies, and at the same time conducts to the discovery of so
many important facts and relations. According to Dalton’s profound hypothesis all
bodies are supposed to be composed of atoms of infinitely small dimensions. But
these atoms are supposed not to be single; two or more of them are held together
by certain forces and thus constitute what is called a molecule. One atom of carbon,
one atom of calcium, and three atoms of oxygen, joined together by the force called
chemical affinity, constitute a molecule of carbonate of lime. Vast numbers of
such molecules bound to each other by the force of cohesion form a visible piece of
chalk. Ifa chemist wishes to examine a body, his first endeavour is to ascertain
of what sort of atoms the body is formed. This is a mere matter of experiment.
He next determines how many of such atoms are contained in each molecule of
the body, and finally he ascertains how these atoms are arranged, or, more correctly,
combined within the molecule ; for it is quite clear that a substance like saltpetre,
which contains one atom of nitrogen, one of potassium, and three of oxygen, may
have these atoms arranged in very different manners and still have the same com-
position. We might assume the potassium and nitrogen in more intimate union,
nearer to each other than they are to oxygen, or we might consider nitrogen and
oxygen more closely packed together, and, so to speak, attached as a whole to the
potassium ; in both cases, saltpetre would have in each molecule the same number
of atoms, and the weight of the molecule would be the same. The three determi-
nations just mentioned are of fundamental importance to the chemist; not that
such inquiries are the only ones which interest him, for we shall in the sequel
notice others of almost equal importance.

Nor must it be supposed that questions of this nature are of quite a modern date ;
for Leucippus, 500 3B.c., appears to have sought to explain the nature of things by
the assumption that they are formed by the union of small particles, which latter re-
ceived the name of atoms from Epicurus. Itis true the notion of atoms as conceived
by the Grecian philosophers is not quite the same as ours, but their speculations
contain our notions pretty much in the same way as the acorn contains the oak tree.

The determination of the quality of the atoms in a molecule, or the analysis of
the latter, has not undergone many changes during the last few years, and the same
may be said about the finding of the relative weight of a molecule, or the determi-
nation of the number of atoms which are contained in it. With regard to the latter
point, however, if may be mentioned that Avogadro’s hypothesis, according. to
which equal volumes of gaseous substances, measured at the same temperature and
pressure, contain the same number of molecules, guides us chiefly in assigning to
each molecule its relative weight and its number of atoms; this hypothesis has
won more and more the confidence of chemists, and it is now admitted to hold
good in nearly all well-examined cases.

Our views relative to the combinations of atoms in molecules, and our methods
of ascertaining this arrangement, have, however, undergone great alterations and
received great additions during the last ten or fifteen years. To a consideration of
these changes I will now, for a short time, invite your attention. Since our modern
views, however, originated in a great measure from the study of organic bodies, and
since the majority of chemists now devote their time and labour thereto, I shall
confine my remarks principally to the organic branch of the subject.

56 REPORtT—1869.

Eighteen years ago Professor Williamson read before the members of this Asso-
ciation a remarkable paper which contained the germ of our modern chemical views,
and was the cause of many important discoveries. He proposed to regard three
large classes of bodies, acids, bases, and salts from the same point of view, and to
compare their chemical properties with those of a single selected substance. For
this term of comparison be chose water. Now water is composed of three atoms,
two of hydrogen and one of oxygen. Williamson showed that all oxygen acids, all
oxygen bases, and the salts resulting from a combination of the two can, like water,
be considered to be composed of three parts or radicals, two of the radicals playing
the part of the hydrogen atoms in water, and the third that of the atom of oxygen ;
thus :—

H K| NO] NO
H. O ii if O H wr O Kk O 4
Water. Potassic hydrate. Hydric nitrite. Potassic nitrite.

Potassic hydrate is water which has one of its atoms of hydrogen replaced by an
atom of potassium, hydric nitrite is water which has one atom of hydrogen replaced
by nitric oxide, and potassic nitrite is water with one of its hydrogen atoms re-
placed by nitric oxide and the other by potassium. This speculation, as every
chemist knows, is well supported by experiments; it embraces three large classes
of bodies which till then had been considered as distinct. M. Gerhardt, in 1853,
extended Williamson’s views by distinguishing two other types of molecular
structure, represented respectively by hydrogen and ammonia, and succeeded, by
help of the radical theory, in arranging the majority of the then known substances
under one or the other of the three types veel mentioned.

Like every theory which is in harmony with experience, the above considerations
led to results of unexpected importance ; for it soon became apparent that the ra-
dicals which thus replace hydrogen in water are not all of the same chemical
value, If we place together the formule of hydric nitrite and carbonic acid

NOL @ CO}O
Hydric nitrite. Carbonic acid.

we percéive at once that the atomic group N O has replaced one atom of hydrogen
in one moiecule of water, and carbonic oxide, C O, two atoms of hydrogen in one
molecule of water. Nitric oxide (N QO) is therefore said to be equivalent to one
atom of hydrogen, and carbonic oxide (C O) equivalent to two atoms of hydrogen.
The radical of phosphoric acid [PO] is found to be equivalent to three atoms of
hydrogen. Professor Odling was one of the first to observe this difference in the
equivalence of atoms and groups of atoms, or compound radicals, as they are termed,
a difference which he marks as shown in the following examples :—

Radicals.
SS a eee
Equivalent to one atom of hydrogen, Equivalent to two atoms of hydrogen.
~itric oxide (NO)! Carbonic oxide [C O}!'
Methyl (C H,)! Methylene Re EM
Ethyl (C,, H,)’ Ethylene (Coo

The notion of equivalence enabled Professor Kekulé to form most interesting
speculations on the constitution of organic bodies, and to explain the relation be-
tween composition and equivalence of such radicals as methyl, C H,, ethyl, C, H,,
methylene, C H,, ethylene, C, H,, and acetylene, C, H,,

If from one molecule of marsh-gas, C H,, one atom of hydrogen is abstracted,
the residue, C H,, called methyl, can combine with an atom of hydrogen again, and «
produce the original marsh-gas molecule, But methyl, instead of combining with
an atom of hydrogen, can unite with an atom of chlorine, or an atom of bromine,
that is to say, the place of the atom of hydrogen can be taken by an atom of chlo-
rine or bromine, Methyl being thus equivalent to an atom of hydrogen is said to
be monovalent. If from a molecule of marsh-gas two atoms of hydrogen are re-
moved, the residue, C H,, called methylene, can again unite with two atoms of hy.

;
z
Ss

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 57

drogen, or instead of hydrogen two atoms of chlorine or bromine, and form the
compounds C H,, CH, Cl,, C H, Br,, respectively. Methylene, therefore, being
equivalent to two atoms of hydrogen, is termed divalent. The radical C H, lett
after the abstraction of three atoms of hydrogen from marsh-gas, is able to reproduce
with three atoms of hydrogen one molecule of marsh-gas, or to combine with three
atoms of chlorine, and form chloroform, C HCl,. The residue, C H, is thus triva-
lent, or equivalent to three atoms of hydrogen. In the same manner carbon is
found to be tetravalent or equivalent to four atoms of hydrogen ; but carbon, for-
men [CH], methylene, C H,, methyl, C H;, not only combine with hydrogen,
chlorine, or other elements according to their equivalence, but also amongst them-
selyes, and thus produce the so-called hydrocarbons, native as well as artificial.
Methyl combines with methyl and produces dimethyl, or better known as ethylic
hydride, CH,+CH,=C,H,; methylene combines with methylene and forms
ethylene, CH,+CH,=C,H,. Methylene is divalent and methyl monovalent ;
therefore methylene combines with two equivalents of methyl and forms propylic
hydride, C, H,, CH,+2CH,=C,H,. Six equivalents of formen are supposed to
be contained in benzol [C, H, |, 66 H=C, Hy.

What has been said of marsh-gas also applies to ammonia and water. Ammonia,
N H,, minus one atom of hydrogen, forms the monovalent radical, N H., minus two
atoms of hydrogen, the divalent radical, N H, and nitrogen itself is trivalent, that is
to say, it can replace three atoms of hydrogen in compounds, or can combine with
three atoms of hydrogen. Water minus one atom of hydrogen produces the mo-
novalent radical hydroxyl, HO, and water without both atoms of hydrogen gives
us divalent oxygen. These radicals, NH,, NH, N, H O, and O, can combine with
each other, and with methyl, methylene, formen, and carbon respectively, in dif-
ferent proportions. Thus methyl, methylene, and hydroxy] are contained in com-
mon alcohol. The union of methyl, carbon, oxygen, and hydroxyl gives acetic

acid, C, H, O.,
CH,+C+0+H O=C, H, O.,.

Glycocoll is considered as a combination of methylene, amidogen [N H,], car-
bon, oxygen, and hydroxyl :

CH.,+N H,+C+0+H 0=C, H; N 0,=elycocoll.

The radicals C, CH, C H,, CH,, HO, O,N,NH, NH,, and C O are considered
to form the proximate constituents of the most important organic compounds. It
often happens that, from the union of the same radicals, two or more bodies of the
same composition, but differing from one another in properties, result. Glycocoll
as well as glycolamide contain the radicals methylene, hydroxyl, carbonic oxide,
and amidogen, NH,. In such cases the nature of the compound depends on the
arrangement of the radicals, as may be seen by the following formule :—

CH,.NH,.CO.HO=C,H, N 0,=glycocoll,
CH,.HO.CO.NH,=C.H; N O,=elycolamide,

Now the great problem with whose solutions scientific chemists are occupied,is—
To determine, first, what sort of radicals of the above natwre are contained in a given
organic body, and, second, how these radicals are grouped amongst each other.

There are several ways of solving this problem. The molecule may be built up
by placing the radicals which are supposed to exist in it under suitable conditions
in contact. Two molecules ofiodopropionic acid placed together with metallic silver
will lose their iodine, and the residues of the two molecules remain united. A new
acid, called adipic acid, is thus formed.

CO.HO a
Todopropionic acid {CH COHO
CH,1 CH,
jf CH,

= CH adipic acid.
Ht Cir

Iodopropionic acid CH, |
COHO L

58 REPORT—1869.

We know, therefore, the radicals of adipic acid and their arrangement if we
possess the same knowledge with regard to iodopropionic acid.

The above elegant synthesis has lately been performed by Professor Wislicenus
of Ziirich. M. Berthelot has now succeeded in producing representatives of the

rincipal classes of hydrocarbons from the elements of carbon and hydrogen, and
Tessrs. Bauer and Verson of Vienna have prepared from amylene, C, H,,, a
compound, C,, H,,, which appears to be identical with terebene, a body closely
allied to turpentine.

Another way to determine the proximate constituents of molecules, is to take
the little structures to pieces, and to form a judgment of their constitution from
the radicals which thus can be extracted. This plan has been adopted by Mr.
Chapman, and described by him at one of our former Meetings.

The more common and more reliable method for the determination of the
grouping of atoms in molecules is, however, the replacement of one or more of
them by atoms of another kind, and the careful examination of the properties of
the bodies thus formed. M. Gautier has recently obtained a new substance of
the same composition as acetonitrile, which he calls methcarbylamine. According
to their formation, acetonitrile, as well as methcarbylamine, can be considered as
combinations of cyanogen and methyl=CH,CN. ‘The two bodies, however, do
not possess the same properties; if they are heated with potassic hydrate and
water, methcarbylamine produces formic acid and methylia, whereas the same re-
agents cause acetonitrile to form acetic acid and ammonia. Thus

0,H,N + 2H,O = 0,H,0, + NH,
esate? Swat «Aga aia

0, HyWbyl-pu QAO: wwe OF: 0,6 Mudie ii

hi Mibaeaeh nent. Poinioeal. Methylia.

In the first case, the radical methyl remains after the decomposition in union
with carbon, and in the second case in combination with nitrogen. Accordingly
it is supposed that the same arrangement prevails in the undecomposed molecules,
and with this supposition all the other properties of methcarbylamine and aceto-
nitrile agree. In symbols these relations are expressed as follows :—

N \OH =methcarbylamine.
3
{C, H,= acetonitrile.

This case of isomerism is most interesting, inasmuch as it furnishes a most in-
structive lesson on the grouping of atoms. The homologous bodies of meth-
carbylamine in the ethyl and propyl series have also been obtained.

Isomerism, indeed, has received much attention during the last year, and a
great many interesting discoveries have resulted; of these one more example
may be mentioned. We know two compounds of the formula CN, H, O, the one
is ammonic cyanate, and the other urea. Until recently, only one corresponding
sulphur-compound, ammonic sulphocyanate, was known. Professor Reynolds has
succeeded in obtaining the true sulphur-urea, a body isomeric to ammonic sulpho-
cyanate.

Thus every year produces results which improve our conceptions of the atomic
and molecular constitution of bodies; and as our knowledge improves new questions
suggest themselves, and our power over the elements increases. It has already
become possible to prepare in the laboratory bodies of a very complex character,
such as a few years ago were only found in the bodies of animals or plants.

Alizarin, the beautiful compound of the madder root, has been obtained by arti-
ficial means in the course of the year by Messrs. Liebermann and Grebe. Results
of such a nature render it highly probable that, at no distant period, it will be in
our power to prepare artificially nearly all, if not all, the substances found in
plants and animals. Here I must not be misunderstood. Organic structures,
such as muscular fibre or the leaves of a tree, the science of chemistry is incapable

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 59

of producing, but molecules like those found in a leaf or in the stem of a tree
will no doubt one day be manufactured from their elements.

I must not conclude this address without reference to two or three papers of

eat importance.

Professor Bunsen, of Heidelberg, has published a paper on the washing of pre-
cipitates. Every one acquainted with practical chemistry knows how much time
is often lost in waiting for a liquid to pass through a filter. Bunsen ‘found the
rate of filtration nearly proportional to the difference between the pressures on the
upper and lower surfaces of the liquid. If, accordingly, the funnel be fixed air-
tight by means of a perforated cork to the neck of a bottle, and the air exhausted
in the bottle, the liquid will run faster through the filter in proportion to the di-
minution of the pressure in the bottle. Comparative experiments, some made
according to the old, and others according to the new method, showed that the fil-
tration, washing, and drying of a precipitate which took seven hours by the old
lan could be performed by filtration into an exhausted bottle in thirteen minutes,

ut a saving of time is not the only advantage of the improved method of collect-
ing and washing precipitates. A more perfect washing with less water than is re-
quired by the common way of proceeding is by no means the least recommenda-
tion of Bunsen’s ingenious method.

A very important paper has been published by Professor Liebig on the improve-
ment of the nourishing qualities of bread. Certain quantities of phosphates and
other salts form necessary ingredients of wholesome food. Now, it is well known
that most of these salts, which are naturally in wheat, remain with the husk.
Liebig proposes to add salts, of a nature similar to those remaining in the husk, to’
the flour, and at the same time to substitute for the carbonic acid developed by fer-
mentation, gas liberated from sodic carbonate. The bread prepared according to
Liebig’s recommendation is said to be of excellent quality, and to exceed in value
bread made by the ordinary method.

Mr. Graham, of Her Mejesty ® Mint, has continued his researches on the ab-
sorption of hydrogen by palladium. Palladium appears to be able to absorb more
than 900 times its volume of hydrogen, and to form a combination which consists
of nearly equal equivalents of the two elements. Hydrogenium, as Mr. Graham
calls the combined hydrogen, acts in this case like a metal, and thus the opinion held
by some scientific men, that hydrogen constitutes the vapour of a metal, receives
confirmation. The specific gravity of hydrogenium, as contained in the alloy,
was found to be 1°95. These experiments are remarkable in more than one re-
spect. The palladium, which absorbs and combines with the hydrogen, does not
change its state of aggregation, but remains solid and expands as if it had been
heated. The molecules of the palladium have consequently changed their relative
positions and combined with Anijdrodten, whilst the continuity of the metal re-
mained intact.

The last paper to which I have to draw your attention is an excellent one
by Professor Tyndall, on a new method of decomposing gaseous substances by
means of light. Tyndall’s experiments bring us face to face with the motions of
atoms in molecules, and the relation of these motions to chemical decomposition.
They will no doubt, at some future time, furnish valuable materials to chemical
dynamics.

On the Absorption-bands of Bile. By Taomas AnpREws, J0.D., PRS.

A solution of bile in water or alcohol exhibits, when examined by the spec-
troscope, characteristic absorption-bands, which differ from those of the red colour-
ing-matter of blood or its derivatives. The most conspicuous of these bands lies
nearly midway between the yellow soidum-line and the green line 8 calcium.
Another band occurs, chiefly in the orange, extending a little beyond the sodium-
line. A third band occurs in the green, bounded on its more refrangible side by
the magnesium group (6, Fraunhofer), These absorption-bands are also found in
solutions of biliverdin, but not in solutions of the yellow colouring-matter of bile.
They are not affected by reducing agents, but are weakened, and at last effaced by
the action of nitric acid.

60 REPORT—1869.

The absorption-bands furnish a ready test for bile in liquids, such as water or
urine, which have no absorption-bands of their own. With a column of liquid
21 inches long, the presence of bile was in this way discovered, when diluted 100
times, and with a column 8 inches long, when the dilution was carried four times
further. An estimate of its amount may also be made, and its fluctuations in
disease observed from day to day.

The Water Supplies of Plymouth, Devonport, Exeter, and St. Thomas.
By Heyry K. Bauer, 7.0.8.

The water supplied to the town of Plymouth is taken near Sheepstor, from the
River Meavy, which receives its water from the granite-hills in the neighbour-
hood, and has a drainage area of about 4000 acres.

The water is conducted from the river by means of an open leat as far as
Knackersknowle, a distance of about 12 miles, from thence the water for do-
mestic use is carried through iron pipes of 24 inches and 12 inches diameter, a
further distance of about three miles into reservoirs, from whence it is distributed
to the different parts of the town.

The surplus water is carried from Knackersknowle by the old leat around a
distance of about 10 miles, to supply several mills, and is then delivered into the
Great Western Docks at Milbay. The supply of the water is in the hands of the
Corporation.

Analyses of samples of the water, taken at the commencement of the leat at
Sheepstor, and in Plymouth, gave the following results. It was perfectly clear,
transparent, and colourless, and contained in an imperial gallon :—

At Sheepstor. In Plymouth.

grains. grains.

Imorpanicwmatiens sewer. oes gees a's ce 2°38 2°69
Organic and volatile matter ............ 0:57 0:54

Total solid matter .......... 2:95 3°23
(hlomde sot SOOM. 2 o)s0/.)0\e 5,0 nile nite? 1:25 1:29
PAUHTETIVSELI lene eres gone. 5 wkclose atoiu 'onsie oTea ter 0:0045 0-01
ONE ER terre ete ioke bets picistate Sip oie Win laleias als he none. slight trace.
Hardness before boiling .............+5. 0°61 0°75

The inorganic constituents were principally chloride of sodium and sulphate of
calcium.

These samples were taken after a continuance of dry weather, on August 5,
1869. Itis very good water, and for manufacturing, cooking, and washing pur-
poses, its extreme softness is a great advantage: but it acts rapidly on the iron
pipes, corroding them considerably, thereby diminishing their internal diameter,
so that now all the pipes are coated with asphalte before being fixed in their

laces,
‘ Devonport Supply.—The water supplied to Devonport is taken from streams
near the source of the River Dart, on Dartmoor, including one stream which
would be much better excluded; for, as its name (Blackwater or Blackabrook) indi-
cates, its water is highly coloured with peat, and colours the water of the Devon-
ort leat.
: The water is carried nearly all the way, a distance of 34 miles, in an open leat.
Some portion of the water, however, is detained at Knackersknowle, and from
thence is delivered through iron pipes into a reservoir at Stoke, to supply the
higher levels, but the largest portion is delivered into Devonport from the leat
direct.

I took a sample of the water from the leat at Downsland Barn, and also a
sample in Devonport, as supplied to the Company’s own offices. On analysis the
samples gaye the following results.

The water was clear and transparent, but had a brown colour of peat, the sample

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 61

taken at Devonport being the least coloured of the two. It contained in an imperial
gallon :—
i At Downsland Barn. In Devonport.

grains. grains.

Imorpanic matitery.y hr oimehe mabe ee ele iele ai 2°59 _ 236
Organic and volatile matter ............ 1-46 0:58

Total solid matter .......... 4:05 2°94.
@hloridé of sadium \...5.14).)e1-. sale Wetec 1:20 1:55
PNGTITAGITAL 15 No cbavc rere cio. oiehete aus. see eoket a aap © 0-004 0-01
INET LES secede eiarce ei) eetatete rath eke seins ost ae none. slight trace.
Hardness before boiling .............065 0°-9 1°-0

The inorganic constituents were the same as in the Plymouth water, but the
sample taken in Devonport contained a quarter of a grain of oxide of iron per
gallon, which had been dissolved as the water lay in the pipes; the action of the
water on the pipes also removed, as usual, a considerable quantity of the organic
matter.

This water, like the Plymouth water, is exceedingly soft, and on this account is
admirably adapted for culinary and manufacturing purposes; but from the pre-
sence of the colouring-matter, it is not so agreeable for drinking purposes as the
Plymouth water.

These very soft waters always rapidly corrode the iron pipes, not so much
by deposition from the water, as by converting the iron of the pipes into owide
of tron, pipes of 12 inches diameter becoming, after a few years, reduced to 10
inches in diameter. These waters also act on freshly cut lead.

Exeter Supply.—The water used for the supply of Exeter is taken from the river
Exe, at Upton Pines, about two miles and a half above Exeter. The water is

umped from there to the reservoirs and filter-beds at the back of the County

ison in Exeter, from whence it is distributed to the town, but the water used to
supply the higher levels is frequently pumped directly from the river to the
houses, without filtration. I took a sample of the water at the house of H. 8.
Ellis, Esq., the present Mayor of Exeter, from the tap as it was running from
the main into his cistern; the water was red with rust of iron, and deposited a
considerable quantity of earthy matter on standing.

L also afterwards obtained a sample of the water of the Hxe, above the entrance
of the river Culm, from the spot whence the future supply is to be taken.

Analyses of these two samples gave the following results.

After all sedimentary matter had been allowed to deposit, the clear water was
poured off, and contained, in an imperial gallon :—

In Exeter. _ Future supply.

grains. grains.
Tnorganic matter ...... iecadan uae cio aa 11-48 6°63
Organic and volatile matter............ 0:16 1-00
Total solid matter.......+.. 11°64 7°63
Chloride of sodium ........ aie cea. 2:15 1:75
ANGI Noein ee wee BIRO CEOaae PU SECU C 0:005 0-006
INDENT Nehlerde ole okies POC DOCOMO OCC E a trace. a trace.
Hardness before boiling .........+.00. 7-60 £57
» adtter LE? poo memset tac 2:27 2°72

The’inorganic constituents were carbonate and sulphate of calcium, carbonate of
magnesium, and chloride of sodium

In the case of the sample taken in Exeter, a considerable quantity of the organic
matter originally present in the water had been removed by the action of the
water on the iron pipes.

This is a good water, and that taken from the Exe, above the entrance of the
river Culm, is all that can be desired for a domestic and general supply.

62 REPORT—1869.

St. Thomas's Supply.—The supply for St. Thomas’s is taken chiefly, if not en-
tirely, from a well in the surface-gravel, and is pumped up into a reservoir, from
which it is distributed to the houses.

This water was cloudy when drawn, but after the suspended matter had been
deposited, the water was poured off, and was then clear, transparent, and colour-
less, and contained, in an imperial gallon :—

grains.
HONEA AM ATEN Met es shee cettse une esimreeeenanees 25°66
Organic and volatile matter .............0.. 1:82
Total solid matter..... pa eich oar, hitro ‘Uloat ». 27:48
Chloridevof gedium ¢) 0.2.0. vos Rie He olny Dio
PAMHITMOIMAN yamine en Aer oe AP eee S redetalet eaters 0-003
Nidaie eieid ) re Ge) ns atlas. 'e- i ativan ate 2-00
le}
Hardness before boiling ..... fF day hare gS 20:26
» after MG The das Type 3 Aero ee 773

The inorganic constituents consisted of carbonate of calcium, sulphate of calcium,
carbonate of magnesium, chloride of sodium, nitrates, and a little oxide of iron.

It is evident, from the large quantity of chloride of sodium, nitrates, and
organic matter in this water, that it is obtained from a well which receives sur-
face-drainage, and on this account, as well as from its hardness, is not a fit supply
for domestic use.

A considerable portion of the district is still supplied by the Exeter Water
Company.

All these samples were taken in the first week in August 1869, after a continu-
ance of dry weather.

On the Decomposition of Carbonic Oaide by Spongy Iron.
By I. Lowrutan Butt, F.C.S.

In a communication on the chemistry of the blast-furnace, made to the Chemi-
cal Society of London last June, the author mentioned a circumstance in con-
nexion with the action of iron on carbonic oxide, which, so far as he knows, had
not previously been observed.

On exposing fragments of ironstone, either raw or calcined, containing in the
one case FeO GO,, and in the other Fe, O,, to the escaping gases of blast-furnaces,
there was, when the current of heated gas had a temperature sufficiently elevated,
an impregnation of black matter, which was ascertained to be carbon.

The heat required to produce a slight appearance of this change was apparently
a little above that of melting lead, but at that of melting zinc the deposition of
carbon was very marked.

The explanation ventured upon at the time was, that the oxide of carbon was
resolved into carbon and carbonic acid, even at the low temperature of 337° to
361° C, as may be expressed by the formula 2CO=C+CO,.

It has since been suggested that the action in question might have been caused
by traces of hydrocarbons still existing in the coke employed in the smelting-

1rOCess.
° To satisfy himself that this explanation was not the correct one, the author has,
upon several occasions, repeated in the laboratory the decomposition performed by
the blast-furnace, employing carbonic oxide, prepared both from oxalic acid and
from ferrocyanide of potassium, in the usual way.

The author was induced to submit the results of these experiments to the
Association, not only from the interest they may have in a chemical point of view,
but also from the circumstance that it is, from recent observation, possible that
the decomposition of carbonic oxide at this low temperature may have a practical
value in the smelting of iron.

To prevent the reactions which accompany the deoxidation of an iron-ore compli-
eating the inquiry, a quantity of calcined Cleveland ironstone was reduced to a

“

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 63

coarse powder, and the oxygen expelled. It was first exposed in a mufile to a
red heat for some hours in a current of air, so as to secure its perfect oxidation,
and removal of every trace of organic matter. The powdered ore was then placed
in a red-hot porcelain tube, and a stream of hydrogen gas passed over it until all
the oxygen of the peroxide of iron was removed. The completeness of the de-
oxidation was judged of by weighing the water produced by the operation.

A quantity of carbonic oxide, in this instance prepared from ferrocyanide of
potassium, was examined, and its freedom from water, carbonic acid, oxygen,
and other impurity carefully secured by passing it successively through a series of
tubes containing pyrogallate of soda, potash, and sulphuric acid.

Two hundred grains (=12-9598 grammes) of the deoxidized ore were placed in
a glass combustion tube, and heated by a Hofmann’s gas-lamp, so that the neces-
sary temperature was under easy control.

Ten litres of the carbonic oxide were passed over the ore, which was never per-
mitted to be red-hot, and to secure the temperature being high enough, a piece of
zine placed on the tube was maintained in a melted state. Four hours and a quar-
ter were required for the operation.

The gas, as it passed away, was exposed to the action of a solution of potash,
which of course absorbed any carbonic acid generated, and which was found to
amount to 9°9 grains (=0'641 gramme).

The ore on cooling, without exposure to the atmosphere, was ascertained to
have increased 3 grains (=0:1942 gramme). The 203 grains (=15:155 grammes)
thus gored were mixed with chromate of lead, placed in a tube, and heat
applied.

; he resulting carbonic acid was collected in the usual way. It weighed 10-66
grains (=0-6903 grm.) equal to 2:907 grains (=0:1882 grm.) of carbon.

This experiment then gives 9‘9 grains (=0-641 gramme) of carbonic acid, pro-
duced directly by the action, and 10-66 grains (=0-6903 gramme) obtained by
the deposited carbon, the difference being probably due to error of manipulation.

In another form of experiment 1000 cubic centimetres of carbonic oxide were
passed and repassed from one graduated vessel over the heated ore into another
similar vessel (both over mercury), so that the change of composition, as denoted
by the change in volume, could be ascertained. It was found in this experiment
and in others that, as the temperature was raised above that of redness, the action

adually diminished. Ataheat approaching whiteness the carbonic acid obtained

om the ore which had been exposed for some hours to the action of carbonic oxide
was so minute (‘25 per cent of the weight of the ore) as to render it probable that
it was due to the occlusion of a portion of the oxide of carbon, a view which was
confirmed by the fact that no flakes of carbon were perceptible on dissolving the
ore in hydrochloric acid.

When the treatment is continued long enough, the deposition of carbon in the
interstices of some pieces of the ore is so copious that they are burst open as lime is
with water on being slaked. Upon one occasion the ore was found, after nine
hours’ exposure, to contain 24 per cent. of its weight of carbon.

On Extraction of Ammowa from Gas-Liquor. By Frepertcx Brasy, F.C.S.

Gas-liquor was formerly a drug in the market and a nuisance to the manufac-
turer; it was given away to any one that would use it, now it is the principal
source of ammonia and of its salts. The object of this paper is to show how the
demand for gas-liquor, which far exceeds the supply, can be met, and to prove how
(by reduction of bulk for transit) small and remote gas-works may export their
residual products at a profit; it is also to show how the production of ammonia
may be very greatly increased.

ind its crude state, gas-liquor usually contains one part of ammonia, by weight,
to eighty parts of liquor. For all purposes of transit, a very serviceable solution
would contain one part, by weight, of ammonia to four parts of water; this very
considerable reduction of bulk is effected by means of a rapid and economical
process, described in the specification of a patent recently secured by the author,
im conjunction with Mr. Baggs.

64 REPORT—1869.

According to this process, a quantity of slaked lime is added to the ordinary
gas-liquor. This is maintained at a temperature of between 100° and 200° F.,
the liquid being constantly stirred. A powerful air-blast, blown continuously
through the liquor, liberates the ammonia as gas in a very perfect and rapid
manner. The mixture of air and ammonia passes through water, leaving the
ammonia in solution, and the air passes off. With a very moderate-sized ap-
paratus, several thousand gallons of gas-liquor may thus be converted into a
portable form in a single day. Ammonic sulphate, or ammonic chloride, is ob-
tained by conducting the ammoniacal gas into sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid
respectively.

In the working plant at Deptford, constructed by the author, a wrought-iron
still, or ammonia-generator, 30 feet long and 6 feet diameter, is capable of being
charged from a reservoir that can contain over 9000 gallons of gas-liquor. The
gas-liquor is pumped from the reservoir into the still, and heat is applied by
means of an underneath fire. Air is forced into the hot liquor through suitable
apertures in the lower part of cast-iron pipes that proceed longitudinally through
the still at its bottom. The streams of air are thoroughly disseminated through
the liquor by the fans of a revolving stirrer. The various constituents of the gas-
liquor (water, ammonia, carbonic dioxide, sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphocyanides,
&e.) are thus brought continuously into intimate contact with ar and with
lime that has been placed in the vessel. The mixture of air and ammonia passes
into a purifier, which consists of a small wooden vessel containing lime, and
about one-third full of water. This purifier has a tight head and a perforated
false bottom, also a small agitator, together with trial-taps and a pipe for con-
veying away liquid accumulated from condensed vapour. The other adjuncts
are a “safety-tube,” safety-valve, and vacuum-valve ; the two latter are fixed on
the tube from the ammonia-generator. After passing through the purifier, the
mixture of ammoniacal gas and air traverses a coil (in a cold-water cistern) to a
deep closed vessel, or receiver, about one-third full of pure cold water. A series
of these receivers is used, so as to afford a succession of vessels to retain the am-
monia. The air, having fulfilled its function, passes off into the atmosphere. The
last receiver contains a strong solution of ferric chloride. The liquid residuum of
this process is run off into a draining pit, thence into the sewers ; the solid in-
odorous lime-compounds are carted away. In the draining-pit certain perforated
shelves carrying sand, also gravel and cement, facilitate the separation of the solid
from the liquid parts of the residuum.

The commercial value of the ammoniacal liquor augments in a ratio increasing
with its concentration. The advantages of the above-described system may be
summed up as effecting a considerable economy in labour, time, and occupation
in plant, together with a facility of extracting the whole of the ammonia from the
gas-liquor in a pure condition.

On the Registration of Atmospheric Ozone in the Bombay Presidency, and the
chief Causes which influence its appreciable amount in the Atmosphere. By
Dr. H. Cooxr, 7.G.S., P.R.GS., Surgeon HM. Bombay Army, late Mete-
orologist to the Abyssinian Expedition.

The registration of ozone was commenced in the Bombay Presidency by the
direction of the Government, at the author's suggestion, in the year 1863 at the
following stations, viz. Ahmedabad, Deesa, and Mhow in the northern division ;
Ahmednugger, Poonah, and Sattara in the Dekkan; Belgaum and Kholapore in
the southern Mahratta country; Bombay, Tanna, ind Surat on the coast; at Kur-
rachee and Hydrabad in Scinde; and at Mahableshwur, the Sanatorium, on the
western Ghats.

Previous to this no systematic observations had been made in India.

Printed forms, which when filled in would embody the following details, were
issued to the various stations, viz. the quantity of ozone by day and by night,
the direction of the wind, character of the clouds, amount of rainfall, occurrence
of dust-storms, thunder-storms, &c.; 2 summary of the temperature, and the daily

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 65

number of cases in hospital suffering from cholera, dysentery, diarrhcea, and inter-
mittent fever.

These forms were filled in and forwarded monthly to the author, who prepared an
annual report on the whole.

The results (to state them as briefly as possible) of the four years’ registration
go to prove that practically the same conditions of atmosphere are present in
India as in Europe when the full manifestation of atmospheric ozone is present.
Elevation above the sea-level, the prevalence of the equatorial current, proximity
to the ocean, and prevalence of sea breeze, a certain amount of moisture, the fall
of rain, hail, and dew, the occurrence of thunder-storms and dust columns, or other
indications of excited electrical conditions, all influence the evolution of ozone
alike in India as elsewhere. Thus at the station of Mahableshwur, which is
4500 feet above the sea, the daily mean average of ozone is 7 of the scale. At
Belgaum, in the southern Mahratta country, and at Poonah and Sattara in the
TDekkan, at heights from 1500 to 2000 feet above the sea-level, the average is from
4:3 to 55, while in the northern division (the mean distance from the sea of the
three stations which it includes being 194 miles) the average falls slightly below
2:0 of the scale.

During the prevalence of the S.W. winds and the rainfall of the monsoon
season, while the great equatorial current is sweeping up from the ocean to the
south, high averages are obtained, varying from 35 to 53 as a mean for all
stations ; but during the prevalence of the north-easterly or polar current, from
November to March inclusive, the average monthly mean falls to 2°6 or 2:9.

The influence of these winds on the presence of atmospheric ozone is shown in
the Table, where the returns of four consecutive years are grouped.

Table giving the Mean Monthly Quantities of Atmospheric Ozone deduced from
registration of four years at the several Stations.

Months. | 1863-64. 1864-65. 1865-66.| 1866-67. Means. Winds.
PANIPTUSHINy. faseds vanes 36 4-4 4:2 59 45 S.W. & W.
September ......... 3-4 2:9 32 48 36 S.W. & W.
Ortaber.......0.-5.- 40 31 2-4 39 3:3 W. & variable.
November ......... 30 36 2-4. 2:2 29 N. & Easterly.
December’ ......<... 35 2°8 2:6 22 28 N. & Easterly.
January ............ 32 2°6 2°8 2°3 2-7 N. & Easterly
Bebruary ........- 32 3:1 2°5 2:2 27 N. & Easterly.
o> 0 2:9 2°3 2-4 2:9 2°6 N. & Easterly
. be oe 37 30 23 3-4 a1 W. & variable.
7 eetagairenening 40 32 39 43 38 W. & S.W
pono scte. S28 5:0 36 61 55 5-0 S.W.
RIE ects -2--0ei-2-- 5-4 46 6:0 53 53 S.W.

The mean average for each month of the year, obtained from the results of all
stations, is here shown in separate columns for each year, and the mean for each
month deduced in the last column. The prevailing winds for every month are
also given. The Table, therefore, contains the broad results of the four years of
registrations.

The occurrence of occasional storms of thunder and rain during the dry weather
of the cold and hot seasons is always marked by a sudden and decided increase
in the amount of ozone, appreciable by the resulting coloration of the test-paper,
and the dust-storms ; and other remarkable indications of electrical disturbance,
which so frequently occur in the Dekkan and in Scinde, have a like, though less
marked effect.

A diagram was shown giving the curves of average monthly mean quantities of
atmospheric ozone for four years, an attempt being made to exhibit at a glance
the chief results obtained by the registration of these years, and the causes which
chiefly influence the depression of the ozone-line below its normal position.

The chief causes which influence the depression of the ozone-curve appear to be, the
dryness of the atmosphere, the occurrence of the land wind or N.E. or polar cur-

1869.

66 REPORT—1869.

Diagram illustrating the curves of average monthly mean quantities of Atmo-
spheric Ozone, and of the comparative eee of Epidemic Cholera during

No. of Scale.

four years’ registration in the Bombay Presidency.
1863-64. 1864-65. 1865-66. 1866-67.

+a —_——- qx oVojjyeeeo on
ie ct ac Bi enesi. Be SBR e Beyeteakaelee
2.90 - 8.20 -b ob §$.20-m

-2 na el nL Ome. Qe, ~2 OD be
SEC ee CECE absa... HaSeeasa..
pees = sp 2Sog5 os =| SScvos hea :
SESESESRE SEE SESE SESE SESEESEEHRSE SES SERED
28670 ceSs asec an6zases Afesasesanozasesa2ss5

* Thick line. Ozone-curve showing monthly variations of ozone.
Dotted line. Curve showing relative prevalence of epidemic cholera.
Thin line. Showing prevalence of north-easterly winds.

rent, and the prevalence of epidemic cholera, or of that materies morbi in the air
which brings about the epidemic condition. ;

The returns for the years 1863 and 1864 give many illustrations of the coincidence
of low ozone readings, ¢. e. readings below the average of the particular months or
relatively lower than those of the preceding weeks, and the occurrence of epide-
mic cholera; several instances of this were given in detail.

Although in many of them the presence of the epidemic was marked by an almost
total absence of ozone, as indicated by the test-paper, in the majority of cases it
was a relative deficiency that was most apparent, a decrease of ozone numbers below
the level of the normal quantities of those particular periods.

The depression of the ozone-curves during these two years of epidemic cholera,
as compared with the curve of the following years, is more decidedly marked if we
consider it in reference to the mean-level line afforded by the results of the four
years’ registration.

In the year 1864 the numbers of stations in which this condition was present,
from the month of February to the month of July inclusive, were consecutively
1, 3, 4, 6, 3, 2, thus amounting in the month of May to 6 out of the fifteen stations ;
while in the following year the numbers rose to nine-tenths, in the month of June,
of the whole number of stations under review.

The cone formed by the ozone-curve of this year was thus seen to be proportion-
ately small, extending only through part of June, July, and August in breadth,
and to the level of 4°6 in height; while that of the following year, in which there
was little or no epidemic cholera prevalent, extends from May to October in
breadth and to 6:2 in height.

On the Amount of Soluble and Insoluble Phosphates in Wheat-Seed.
By Professor F. Cracr-Catvert, F.R-S.

The author said that the result of various experiments he had made was that
100 paris of cotton-fibre yield, when repeatedly washed with water, a quantity of
acid phosphate of magnesia. Both husks and seeds also yield certain proportions,
and these results show that the phosphates exist in much larger quantity in the
seed than in the other parts of the pod. Experiments upon wheat-flour of various

No. of Scale.

for}

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 67

kinds show that whilst the flour contains only a trace of phosphates, especially
soluble ones, the bran contains a large quantity. These facts tend to prove that
the phosphates and the mineral matters contained in wheat are not combined with
the organic matter, but are in a free condition. Other investigations go to prove
that although habit and pride have gradually led us to prefer white bread to brown,
yet this is an error when we consider the nutritious properties of wheat, especially
as food for children, phosphates being essential for the formation of bone and blood.

On some Reactions of Chloro-Sulphuric Acid.
By J. Dewar and G. Cranston.

Notes on Structural Change in Block Tin. By D. Frirscue.

On the Electro-deposition of Iron*. By H. M. Jacozr, Member of the
Imperial Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg.

The fact that it is possible to deposit iron by means of electricity has long been
Imown, but the process has hitherto been beset with many difficulties. The author
has, however, completed a long series of experiments with M. E. Klein of St. Peters-
burg, the result of which proves that iron may be very readily deposited from a
solution of a double salt, the protosulphate of iron, combined with sulphate of
magnesia, offering great facility for the deposition of iron. The solution should be
as neutral as possible, and the strength of the current so adjusted that very little
hydrogen is developed.

Nature of the Tron.—Electro-deposited iron is hard, almost sufficiently so toscratch
glass, and it is somewhat brittle, but by annealing (particularly in hydrogen) it
becomes malleable, soft, and silver-white.

It shares with palladium the power of occluding hydrogen. By heating the
deposited iron iz vacuo seventeen to twenty times its volume of hydrogen gas was
extracted.

The specific weight is 7°675 ; after annealing it increases and becomes 7:811, equal
to that of the best forged iron.

Sur le Spectre de la vapeur d’eau. Par M. Dr. Janssen.

Mes études sur le spectre de la vapeur d’eau ont été continuées.

Pour identifier les raies de la vapeur d’eau dans le spectre solaire, j’ai fait passer
un faisceau de lumiére solaire dans le tube de 37 métres qui contenait la vapeur, et
a coté du tube, un second faisceau. Ces deux faisceaux étaient recus dans un méme
spectroscope et leurs spectres étaient superposés. Toutes les raies du spectre dues
a la vapeur d’eau étant beaucoup plus foncées dans le spectre correspondant a la
lumiére qui avait traversé le tube, on pouvait obtenir facilement la distinction.

Les raies du spectre solaire dues 4 la vapeur d’eau sont extrémement nombreuses.
De D a A f, leur nombre est décuple des raies solaires proprement dites.

Dans la partie de la chaleur obscure, l’absorption de la vapeur d’eau est trés-
énergique aussi, ce qui confirme les résultats obtenus d’une autre maniére par M.
Tyndall.

TI en est de méme pour la partie violette et ultra-violette du spectre. A Simla,
dans les Himalayas, }’étais a 7000 pieds environ d’altitude, et pendant les mois de
Décembre et de Janvier, j’avais une sécheresse extréme de l’atmosphére; or, j’ai pu
constater dans ces conditions, que le spectre ultra-violet, photographié par M.
Mascast, était directement visible (avec un spectroscope & vision directe du modéle
de ceux que j’ai proposés en 1862 {, et que M. Hoffmann a exécutés le premier).

* The paper was illustrated with beautiful specimens of the electro-iron.

t+ Dans son beau Mémoire sur le Spectre du Soleil M. Angstrom dit que j’attribue 4 la
vapeur d’eau laraie A. Ceci est inexact ; voir Compte Rendus de 1]’Académie des Sciences
de Paris, 27 Aott 1866, p. 411, et 29 Octobre, p. 728.
¢ Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences de Paris, 6 Octobre 1862, p. 976.
5x

68 REPORT—1869.

Ceci montre combien une atmosphére est transparente pour la lumiére ultra-violette,
et explique comment les phénoménes photographiques sont si influencés par la pré-
sence de la vapeur d’eau dans l’atmosphére. On soit, par exemple, que dans l’aprés-
midi, la puissance photogénique diminue rapidement. Ceci s’explique d’aprés les
observations ci-dessus, en remarquant que l’eau dissoute dans notre atmosphére
augmente & mesure que le soleil s’éléve sur l’horizon. En général, abstraction faite
des modifications apportées par les vents, la quantité de vapeur doit étre la plus
grande vers 2 et 3 heures de l’aprés-midi, et alors le soleil baisse rapidement; les
deux causes concourent donc pour amener une diminution trés-prompte du pouyoir
photogénique de la lumiére solaire. Le matin, avant que la chaleur solaire ait eu
le temps de vaporiser toute l’eau répandue a la surface de la terre, la puissance pho-
tographique doit étre la plus grande, et c’est en effet ce que l’expérience confirme.

Si l’atmosphére séche est transparente, d’aprés ces observations, pour la lumiére
violette et ultra-violette, elle l’est également pour la chaleur obscure. Ainsi, &
Simla, j’ai pu constater, par des ‘expériences pyrhéliométriques, que le rayonnement
calorifique du soleil augmente beaucoup avec la sécheresse de l’atmosphére, toutes
choses égales d’ailleurs, sous le rapport de la pureté de l’air, de l’élévation de la
station, etc.

J’ai pu constater aussi la puissance de la vapeur d’eau dans une classe d’étoiles
qui sont en général les étoiles rouges, et dans lesquelles manquent souvent les raies
de V’hydrogéne.

J’espére avoir bientét ’honneur d’envoyer a l’Association, des cartes du spectre
de la vapeur d’eau pour les régions obscure, lumineuse et ultra-violette.

Note sur wne nowvelle Méthode pour la recherche de la Soude et des composés du
Sodium par ? Analyse Spectrale. Par M. Dr. Janssen.

On sait que la recherche de la soude présente, en analyse spectrale, des difficultés
trés-grandes qui tiennent ace que la raie du sodium se retrouve dans presque toutes
oa siete: en raison de la présence presque constante du sel marin dans l’atmo-
sphére,

Or, on peut lever facilement cette difficulté en employant, au lieu d’une flamme
trés-chaude et fort peu éclairante comme celle de Bunsen, une flamme trés lumi-
neuse comme celle d’un bee de gaz ordinaire dans la partie la plus brillante.

En effet, tandis qu’on apercoit presque toujours la raie du sodium dans la partie
bleue et transparente de la flamme d’un bec de gaz, on ne l’apercoit plus dans la
partie la plus lumineuse & cause de l’abondance des rayons qui avoisinent la raie du
sodium dans cette région.

Voici donc la maniére d’opérer.

On dirigera le spectroscope sur la partie brillante de la flamme de maniére A
obtenir un spectre brillant et continu dans lequel la raie du sodium n’apparaisse pas
sensiblement. On prendra un fil de platine qui aura été préalablement porté au
rouge dans une flamme pendant quelques minutes, pour le débarrasser de toute
poussiére salée, et avec ce fil on portera une goutte de la solution a essayer, dans la
flamme du spectroscope. En cet instant, si la liqueur contient un composé du
sodium réductible par la flamme, la raie D apparaitre immédiatement.

On peut rendre aussi peu apparente qu’on voudra la raie du sodium en employant
les parties les plus brillantes des flammes, ou méme en plagant outre le spectroscope
et la flamme d’essai, une ou deux flammes auxiliaires qui rendront la raie D encore
moins perceptible. Dans ce dernier cas, il faudrait employer du sel en assez grande
sip dans la flamme d’essai pour voir apparaitre la raie D dans le pads os :
Si au contraire, la liqueur ou le corps & essayer contient fort peu du composé sodé,
on pourra employer une partie plus transparente de la flamme. Dans tous les cas,
il sera prudent de faire des expériences comparatives avec les fils de platine et de
Yeau distillée pour s’assurer que les raies qui apparaissent sont bien dues 4 la sub-
stance qu’on analyse.

_ Je continue ce sujet, et j’espére arriver & une analyse guantitative des substances
a analyser.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69

On a Method of determining with accuracy the Ratio of the Rotating Power of
Cane-sugar and Inverted Sugar. By the Rev. Professor Jettert, M.A.t

On the Action of Hydrochloric Acid on Morphia Codeia.
By Dr. A. Marrmussen, F.R.S., F.C.S., and C. R. Waren.

Are Flint Instruments of the first Stone Age found in the Drift?
By W. D. Mitcuett.

On the Economic Distillation of Gas from Cannel-Coal.
By Dr. Srnvenson Macapam, FRSE., FCS.

The experimental observations which form the basis of the present communica-~
tion were undertaken for the purpose of determining the quantity and quality of
gas obtained from certain mixtures of cannel-coals as contrasted with the gas dis-
tilled from the coals taken separately. The coals selected for examination by de-
structive distillation were sixteen in number, and they comprehended examples of
the larger coal-fields in Scotland. The experiments were conducted in a small gas-
work attached to the laboratory of the author, and connected with fully equipped
photometric apparatus. The quantity of coal experimented upon ata time was six

ounds, and the volume of gas yielded therefrom amounted to about thirty cubic
eet. Every possible care was taken to keep the retorts ata uniform temperature
during the course of the trials, and the testing of the same coal on several occa-
sions showed that such was practically done.

The coals employed in the experiments, and the quantity and quality of gas ob-
tained therefrom, may be observed from the following Table :—

‘Yield and Quality of Gas from Cannel-Coals taken separately.

Gas Tiluminating- Cost
N N febal per ton of coal as oe 10,500 cub. ft.
0. ame of coal, Poubid teak. gas cubic | of pas of 30-
| feet per hour) dl
in candles, {=
| Sm 1d.
#1. | Bredisholm or Provanhall ...... 9,434 26°81 12 52
BMSIGIOS (cece a.-saedese Sce0ssesvdes 10,703 21-22 13 102
Sema BTR, MAIN, BEAT, 6 jac sjenc'oes cede 11,524 19°82 18 73
RELA CHE WCE ofc tirad.t..uteetevcceessswated 11,452 29:39 14 11$
> |) WilSOntOwl 2 .....ccccuscscssecnee: 10,666 25°31 18 114
Pee nie WUBI ae st vesccce diet sescessecnens 10,552 37°16 16 104
Te NRUPSIOOY wsignessre sth: ab pbs cuenslcecets 11,490 32°31 20 42
Be dy| CUM Dye ben-td fis Menisemer cele Teoes 10,928 38°68 18 7
*9. | Bank, 5 ft. seam nies 9,768 27:07 16 1
BELO: |) Pollok: “Jin. scencnsacetosseveretianeses 11,525 30°26 14 0
ioe elamntershill ys csp ace cco nees «zee 10,030 22-66 12 538
12. | 8. Boig or Lower Lanemark ... 9,881 24:39 17 ‘7%
13. | Upper Lanemark................ 10,479 24:56 16 64
ete Ra LOCD iG rscevenasasscoaueeauscasss7- 10,966 17:05 16 10
#15. | Haywood .........- Rueceanees tones 11,153 30:97 15 6
PAM 1 | AECUIIMION cus ann creserenseemeasneca: 11,789 30°60 17 OF

Considering the original cost of the coals, the eight samples marked with an

+ Vide p. 28.

70 REPORT—1869.

asterisk were selected as most econom cal, and the basis was laid down that the
coals, or mixtures of coals, should yield 10,500 cubic feet of gas of 30-candle power.
Calculations were made so as to observe what coals or mixtures of such ought to
yield the requisite quantity and quality of gas, and the coals were used in the defi-
nite proportions calculated to yield the best results. The second series of trials
proved that the illuminating-power of the gas obtained from the mixtures of coals
as determined by experiment was always in excess of that arrived at by calculation
from the quality of the gas yielded by the individual coals taken separately, as may
be observed from the following Table :—

Gas from Cannel-Coals taken separately and mixed.

Quantity and quality of gas from one ton of
No. Name of coal. coals taken se- mixed coals. mixed coals.
parately. Calculated. Experiment.
Cub. ft. Candles. | Cub. ft. Candles. | Cub. ft. Candles.
1. | Poliok (1st trial)..... 11,525 | 30:26
1. | Pollok (2nd trial) ...| 11,018 31°52
1 Bank, 5-ft.seam...| 9,768 | 27:07 20.
2. { 3 Haywood ........0... 11,153 30.97 f 10,806}, 0:09 | 40,714)9) 98227
1 Provanhall .......... 9,484 | 26°81
Bsr ltl! Clawehey, Lay 11,452 | 29:39 }| 10,479 31:22 | 10,677 32°96
1 Muirkirk ............ 10,552 | 37:16
1 Provanhall ......... 9,454 | 26°81
40 2iClewchsie.7.8 83.2 11,452. | 29:39 4} 10,722 30°73 | 10,938 32°86
1 Muirkirk............ 10,552 | 37-16
2 Provanhall ......... 9,484 | 26°81
Dagulouclewebin fuss wepete 11,452 | 29:39 }| 10,618 30°94 | 10,603 30°02
2 Muirkirk ............ 10,552 | 37:16
AC limp veneer eee 10,928 | 38:68
6.4 | 2 Provanhall .....:... 9,484 | 26°81 +) 10,540 38030 | 10,565 32:91
DiCleweh. ii ....c.0ese: 11,452 | 29:39
4 Haywood ............ 11,153 | 30:97 ‘ ;
7. { 1 Provanhall ......... 9,484 56.81 | 10,809 30:24 | 10,640 32:19
i, Kanne) 4 8 ey 11,789 | 30:60
8.4 | 2 Haywood ............ 11,158 | 30:97 $] 10,882 29:97 | 11,125 31°38
1 Proyanhall ......... 9,434 | 26°81
ID Kanmetl. stews 11,789 | 30°60
2 Haywood 11,153 | 30:97 : y ;
9.1/1 Provanhall ......... 9,434 | 96-81 ¢| 1,011 | 3003 | 10,752 | 92:48
fl Polloktcsscasecenes 115525" |) 30-26
2 Provanhall ......... 9,434 | 26°81
2 Haywood ............ 11,153 | 30:97 it ‘ :
10-411 Clewch oo... 11'452 | 99-39 7| 10553 | 31-43 | 10864 | 33:96
2 Muirkivk ............ 10,552 | 37:16

These results will probably be best contrasted by throwing the quantity and
quality of the gas into lbs. of sperm, and the following Table gives the results of
the illuminating-power of the coals and mixtures as determined by calculation from
the yield of the individual coals taken separately, and the respective proportions
obtained by the distillation of the coal previously mixed, the value in each case
being given in lbs. of sperm.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 71

Illuminating-power of Gas from Coals in Ibs. of Sperm.

Tiluminating power of the
gas pe ™ | Difference in | Percentage
; P : ue of re- | of increase in
No. Name of coals. sults from the} illuminating-
Calculated | Calculated *" 8
from separate | from mixed marae: ob gs
results. results.
A. B. A and B.
k dene Fecoescetlabepet 1195-70 1190°16
ank, 5-ft. seam... p ‘ : 96
2. fie } 111481 1185:39 70°58 633
1 Provanhall ........
34 ll @leweht \:- 3532 f 1121-67 1206:56 84-89 757
WeMnrekerk: 7. 0.022
1 Provanhall.........
4.4 | 2 Clewch ............. 1129°67 1282°45 102°78 9:09
Murrkirk® s5+c.cc.:
2 Provanhall......... |
a eiOlewehy’ i cd.6. asks 1126:36 1211-29 84:93 7:54
2 Muirkirk .......... J
MOhmpyis..82. 202
a 2 Provanhall ........ } 109495 1192-09 97:14 8:87
2 Clewch ...... re
4 Haywood F :
7. { 2 Aidit aaa i 112068 117429 5361 4°78
1G] Eee
a 2 Haywood ........... } 111817 1116-92 78°75 7:04
1 Provanhall.........
PPICINTIEI co scc.cccuste
2 Haywood ........... j ;
| _ oe 1133-76 1197-34 63°58 5°68
1 Pollok ........... ae
2 Provanhall.........
2 Haywood ........... : ; : :
ma Glesch 1137-03 1264-94 127-91 11:25
2 Muirkirk .;........

Average percentage of increase in illuminating-power 7°57, or 4, of whole light.

The increase in illuminating-power is undoubtedly due to the presence of a larger
proportion of the heavy hydrocarbons, as the condensation by bromine rose in
each trial on an average of one per cent. of increase. The larger proportion of the
heavy hydrocarbons may probably arise from several causes :—

(1) The intermixture of the lighter gases of the inferior coals with the heavier
gases of the better coals, thus tending to save the heavy hydrocarbons from being
decarbonized or reduced by the heat of the retort.

(2) The mixture of the lighter gases with the heavier gases and vapours, tending
to keep the latter from separating in the condensers, purifiers, and gasholder ; and

(3) Probably also the reaction of the gaseous bodies upon each other during the
moment of their liberation from the coals by destructive distillation, and when the
gases are in the condition known as that of the nascent state, and when, as is well
Imown, chemical reaction is most energetic.

In England so much attention is paid to coke that necessarily the quality of the
resultant fuel obtained from the mixtures of coals must be considered. In all the
experimental trials referred to in this paper the mixed coke was at least of fair
quality. The general results of the inquiry therefore is, that, given a certain quan-
tity of coals of different gas-producing powers, it is more economical to mix these
coals, and thereafter heat the mixture in the same retorts, than to distil each coal
separately in different retorts, and thereafter mingle the gases in the ordinary way.

72 REPORT—1 869.

On the Oxidation of Phosphorus, and the Quantity of Phosphoric Acid ea-
creted by the Kidneys in Connexion with Atmospheric Conditions*. By
Tuomas Morrat, M.D., F.R.AWS., PGS.

On the Phosphorescence of the Sea and Ozone.
By T. Morrat, M.D., F.RAS., F.GS.,

The results given in this paper are deduced from observations taken between the
lat. 58° and 79° N., and long. 6° E. and 67° W.

It would appear that the phosphorescence of the sea takes place under the con-
ditions of the south or equatorial current of the atmosphere, and that there is a
connexion between periods of phosphorescence and ozone periods.

On Aceto-sulphuric Aad. By A. Orrennuim, Ph.D.

The subject of this note forms part of researches on the action of sulphuric
acid on organic chlorides with which the author has been occupied for some
time. The monochlorinated hydrocarbons generally exchange their chlorine for
HSO,. When they are non-saturated, then either a second molecule of H,SO, is
added to the compound so formed, as is the case with C, H, Cl, monochlorinated
propylene, which forms C,H, (HSO,),, decomposed by water into acetone and
sulphuric acid,or one molecule of sulphuric acid is added to the non-saturated chloride
without any separation of hydrochloric acid, as is the case with chloride of allyle.
The latter is thus transformed into C, H,Cl1HSO,, which with water yields mo-
nochlorhydrine of propylic glycol.

Hydrocarbons with more than one atom of chlorine are generally decomposed
entirely, and carbonized by the action of sulphuric acid. The chlorobenzole,
C,H, CHCI,, however, is entirely and easily transformed into C, H, CH (11S0,).,
which with water yield the theoretical quantity of oil of bitter almonds. Most
oxygenated chlorides are very easily attacked by sulphuric acid. They either
combine directly, as does epichlorhydrine, or they yield hydrochloric acid, as is the
case with the chlorhydrine of glycol, C,H, ClOH, which thus forms the acid
C,H ,OH SO,, formerly obtained in a different way by Dr. Maxwell Simpson.
The chlorides of acid radicals, such as chloride of acetyle or of benzoyl, give very
energetic reactions as sulphuric acid, streams of hydrochloric acid being evolved
as soon as the two substances are brought into contact. It appears probable at
first sight that the results of this reaction are the two anhydrides of the acetic and
the sulphuric acids, according to the equation

2 0, H, OCl + H, SO, = e HO} 0+80, + 2HCL

Such is, however, not the case; one molecule of each substance entering into the

reaction thus,
C, H, OC1l + H, SO, = HCl + C, H, 0 S80,H.

The resulting substance is half anhydride, half acid. The aceto-sulphuric acid or
acid anhydride is decomposed at about 180°C., and cannot therefore be distilled.
Water decomposes it into the two acids.

In following out these researches, the author intends to study the action of sul-
phuric acid on other oxygenated and nitrogenized chlorides.

On Bromo-iodide of Mercury. By A. Opprunnutu, Ph.D.

Iodide of allyle and bichloride of mercury, when mixed in alcoholic or ethereal
solutions, form at once a red precipitate of iodide of mercury, while the iodide of
allyle is transformed into the chloride. When bibromide of mercury is substituted
for the bichloride the reaction is somewhat changed. No iodide of mercury is then
precipitated, but in course of time yellow crystals separate out, which are parti-
cularly fine, when acetone is taken for dissolving the two substances brought into

Published in the ‘ Chemical News,’ Oct. 1, 1869.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 73

contact with each other. Most other organic iodides may be substituted for the
allylic iodide, those of amyle or ethyle for instance. The reaction is, however,
slower in these cases, and sometimes requires an elevation of temperature. The
crystals mentioned contain no organic substance; they are freely soluble in ether,
and show exactly the composition of one atom of bromine and one atom of iodide
for one atom of mercury. They form rhombic prisms exactly isomorphous with
the yellow unstable modification of biniodide of mercury. Dr. Grothe found the angle
of p : p=114° 25’, while for the yellow iodide Mitscherlich determined p : p=114°,
the corresponding angle in the bibromide being=111° 26’. The angular differences
of the three isomorphous compounds do not therefore correspond exactly with their
chemical differences.

It is quite evident that this iodo-bromide is not an isomorphous mixture, but a
chemical individual, although the author has not been able as yet to give the most
decisive proof of it by taking the vapour-density of the compound, its boiling-point
being considerably higher than that of mercury ; this being also the case with the
biiodide and bibromide of mereury. The bromo-iodide is, however, a very stable
compound. It may be sublimed without breaking up into the bromide and iodide ;
and what appears decisive, its melting-point lies just in the middle between the
fusing-points of the bromide and of the iodide, viz. at 229°C.

The fusing-point of Hg Br, is situated between 222° and 223°C., and that of Hg I,
at 258°. The latter compound is transformed into its yellow modification between
148° and 154°, the bromo-iodide shows no such changes. Lastly, it should be
remarked that when the quantity of bibromide of mercury acted upon by the or-
ganic iodide is insuflicient to produce the reaction described,

C, H, 1+ Hg Br, = C, H; Br+Hg I Br,
then crystals of red iodide of mercury are formed at the same time, but never any in-
termediate bromo-iodides, save the one described. Its existence may therefore he
fairly taken as an additional proof for the atomic weight of mercury, such as it is
now generally accepted.

The author has been particularly careful to ascertain the complete absence of bro-
mine in the crystals of iodide of mercury formed along withit, because they show a
peculiarity not hitherto observed. The red crystals, although belonging to the tetra-
gonal system, show the phenomenon of double refraction, but this evidently only in
consequence of a certain pressure they were subjected to in the mother-liquor from
which they crystallized. The reaction described is by no means the only one
which engenders the bromo-iodide of mercury. When corresponding quantities of
Hg Br, and HgI, are dissolved in acetone, the same compound will crystallize
out; as also when iodine is added to an acetonic solution of the bibromide.

On the Solubility of Lead and Copper in pure and impure Water.
By Dr. T. L. Purrson, #.C.8. ge.

In this paper the author compares the action of certain natural waters upon
various metals. The waters were—Surrey spring water, yielding 17 to 24 grains of
solid matter per gallon ; spring water from Crawford, yielding only 103 grains per
gallon; pure distilled water, and Thames water as supplied to the inhabitants of
Putney, yielding 40 to 49 grains per gallon. The metals were submitted to pro-
longed friction, and to contact of air whilst these waters acted uponthem. They
were iron, lead, union metal, copper, tin, and zinc, of various qualities, both pure
and commercial varieties. The most important conclusion arrived at in these ex-
periments was, that in the above conditions all these different waters attacked and
dissolved lead, union metal (an alloy of lead, antimony, and tin), copper, and per-
haps zinc. The method of experiment consisted in placing some 5 to 10 grammes
of the metal, cut into small pieces, into a pint stoppered bottle, three-fourths full
of the water to be tested. The whole was submitted to violent shaking for about
36 hours; the liquid was then filtered through the finest Swedish filtering paper,
and received in a white porcelain capsule 6 inches wide. A drop of sulphide of
ammonium added to the filtrate showed that metal had been dissolved by imme-
diately giving a brown tinge to the whole liquid. The experiment was slightly

74 REPORT— 1869.

altered for zinc. Iron was rapidly oxidized in these experiments, but none dissolved
in the water. Thames water containing a certain amount of sulphates and car-
bonates dissolved lead and union metal almost as well as pure distilled water did.

On some new substances extracted from the Walnut.
By Dr. T. L. Purrson, F.C.S. &e.

When the episperm of the walnut is digested for several hours in alcohol a yel-
lowish liquid is obtained, from which a new species of tannin, nucitannie acid, or
nucitannin can be procured. This is the principle to which the thin walnut skin
chiefly owes its disagreeable bitter taste. When itis boiled for eight or nine hours
with dilute hydrochloric acid, it yields, among other substances, glucose and an-
other acid, rothie acid, the composition and properties of which the author has
determined. Considerable quantities of ellagic acid and gallic acid are obtained at
the same time.

Rothic acid is easily separated from these by a weak solution of ammonia, which
dissolves the new product, forming a purple red solution from which hydrochloric
acid precipitates the rothic acid. A second treatment yields it quite pure.

Rothie acid is insoluble, or nearly so, in cold water, but dissolves somewhat in
hot water; it is readily soluble in alcohol; it forms a reddish-brown amorphous
substance, combining with ammonia, in which it is soluble, and with other alkalies,
but forming insoluble salts with lead, lime, and silver. Dried at 118° C. its com-
position was found to agree with the formula C** H’? O™~

The lead-salt leaves metallic lead when calcined ; its composition was found to
be C3 H!* 0 2PbO; it is insoluble in cold acetic acid. The lime-salt contains only
1 equivalent of base, C** H'* O"%CaO. The rothates of soda, potash, and ammonia
are soluble. The salt of silver is a fawn-coloured precipitate, becoming darker on
drying, but is not reduced, and does not appear to be very sensitive to the action
of light. Rothic acid belongs to a somewhat numerous group of substances, and is
evidently related to gallic acid, ellagic acid, and rufigallic acid :—

C* H™ OV=1 equiv. of Rothic acid.
CO H? 0??=2 equivs. of Gallic acid.
C* H® O=1 equiv. of Ellagic acid.
C* H® O%’=2 equivs. of Rufigallic acid.

The last of these is similar in many respects to rothic acid, but differs in its
colour and that of its solutions, as well as by its composition.

Nucitannin, from which rothic acid is derived, has not yet been submitted to
analysis.

On a Specimen of Obsidian from Java.
By Wiu1am Cuanvier Roserts, F.C.S8., GS.

This paper, which was illustrated by numerous drawings and microscopical
specimens, was intended to demonstrate the extreme importance of microscopical
examination of rocks and minerals.

The specimen of obsidian was from Java, but the exact locality is unknown.

Examination with a l-inch objective revealed the presence of three distinct
minerals, These were diopside, orthoclase,and magnetic iron. Each of these was
beautifully crystallized. The optical properties of the orthoclase crystals were
minutely given, but without drawings it is impossible to describe them here.

The obsidian contained fluid-cavities, but unlike many specimens of obsidian
from other localities, it was free from occluded gas.

On the Measurement of Gases as a branch of Volumetric Analysis.
By W. J. Russrrt, Ph.D., F.CS.
The object of the paper was to show that many quantitative determinations

could be made with great ease and accuracy by measuring the volume of gas
evolved in certain reactions. A specimen of calc-spar gaye a volume of carbonic

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 75

acid, in five experiments, which varied from 43°89 to 43:97, the calculated
amount being 44-00 per cent. Pure carbonate of soda gave 41°52, 41-50, and 41-48
per cent. CO,. The calculated amount is 41°51 per cent.

Peroxides are estimated by heating with sodic oxalate and hydric sulphate. A
specimen of manganese gaye—

Ist experiment, 58:16 per cent. Mn O,.
2nd experiment, 58°10 per cent. Mn O,.

It was further shown that potassic permanganate and potassic bichromate could
be easily and accurately analyzed by this process.

By dissolving certain metals in dilute acid and measuring the volume of
hydrogen evolved, the purity of the metal could be easily tested. It was shown
that different specimens of zinc gave an amount of hydrogen which varied con-
siderably. A specimen of pure iron prepared by Dr. Matthiessen gaye, in the first
experiment, a volume of hydrogen corresponding to 100 per cent. iron, and in the
second experiment to 99:95 per cent. iron.

Other experiments with steel wire and cast iron were also given. A specimen
of magnesium gave an amount of hydrogen corresponding to 99-18 per cent. of
metal. The atomic weights of nickel and cobalt it was stated had been determined
by this process,

On Jargonia*, By H. C. Sorsy, RS.

I herewith send for exhibition at the Chemical Section what I believe to be
nearly pure zirconia and jargonia, prepared by a modified combination of the
methods described by Mr. David Forbes and myself. You will notice at once
that the zirconia is perfectly white, whereas the jargonia is of a clear straw-colour.
This exactly corresponds with the difference between the opaque borax blowpipe
beads heated to redness, as described in my paper in the ‘ Proceedings of the
Royal Society,’ and I am strongly inclined to believe that it is a characteristic
peculiarity. At first I thought it might be due to the presence of a small quantity
of iron, since zirconia containing a little of this peroxide is of a similar yellow
colour. When, however, that is digested in sulphide of ammonium it quickly
turns to a deep green colour, whereas this yellow jargonia does not turn at all
green. Subsequent experiments may show that the colour is due to some other
substance ; but, taking all the facts now known into consideration, it seems ex-
tremely probable that, after ignition, jargonia is of a clear straw-colour, paler than
that of tungstic acid, but deeper than that of ceroso-ceric oxide.

On raising a Temperature higher than 212° F. in certain Solutions by Steam
of 212° F. By Prrer Spence.

Some twelve to fifteen years ago the author had occasion to require large masses
of liquor to be raised to a temperature of 228° Fahr. (108°-8C.), for the purpose of
extracting, by means of long-continued digestion at that temperature, alumina in the
form of sulphate of alumina from minerals containing that earth. As time was an
element of importance in his calculations, the author’s aim was to heat the liquors
as rapidly as possible, but lead vessels only could be used with the acid liquors, and
as it was requisite to have an iron outside vessel next the fire, the heating was a
tedious operation. To overcome this loss of time, the author fitted up a digesting
vessel so as to raise the heat rapidly to 212° F. (100° C.), by injecting steam from
a steam-boiler into the mass of liquor; and as soon as he had obtained that tem-
perature he stopped off the steam and allowed the external fire to operate alone, so
as to raise the additional 16° F’. (8°8 C.) required, and to maintain the temperature
at 228° F. (108°-8 C.), his impression being that above 212° F. (100° C.) the steam,
if kept on, would act as a cooling agent and prevent the temperature rising. The
combined operation was perfectly successful and went on for some time, acting, as
the author supposed, in accordance with his preconceived theory; but some
circumstances led him subsequently to doubt whether it was so. He found that if

* Extract from a letter to Mr. Crookes.

76 REPORT—1869.

inadvertently both steam and fire were left acting after the higher temperature was
obtained, the temperature continued notwithstanding. Again, when the fire was
in a condition, through neglect,in which it was obviously of no use, the author was
still astonished to find that, as the apparent result of the steam alone, the tempera-
ture was at a satisfactory point. This last observation led the author to test the
matter in the laboratory in the following manner. Being convinced that the high
boiling-point of his liquors had something to do with the phenomenon, he selected
a solution of a salt (nitrate of soda) having a high boiling-point, about 250° F.
(121°1 C.). The nitrate of soda was placed in a vessel surrounded by a jacket,
steam was let into the intervening space until a temperature of nearly 212° F.
(100° C.) was obtained ; the steam was then shut off and an open pipe immersed

in the solution. Steam from the same source was thrown directly into the liquor ;
ina few seconds the thermometer slowly but steadily moved, and minute after
minute progressed until it touched 250° F. (121°1C.). This thoroughly ex-
plained the results obtained in the digesting vessel, and became to the author of
immense practical value. He discarded the use of fire applied to his vessels,
which had not only been tedious and troublesome in operation, but involved a
loss of many hundreds of pounds per annum in destruction of apparatus, and used
only steam as a vehicle of heat. As a corroboration of the theory which seems to
explain the apparent paradox, the author finds that the temperatures of his solu-
tions are in the exact ratios of their specific gravities, and have no connexion
with the temperature of the steam, which never exceeds 212° F. (100° C.): the
greater the specific gravity of an acid solution the higher the boiling-point, and
therefore, whatever the boiling-point of the solution in water of any salt, to that
point, or nearly, will steam of 212° F. (100° C.) raise it.

A Chemical Method of treating the Excreta of Towns.
By Enw. C. C. Sranrorp, F.C.8.

In this paper the author advances arguments to”show that the present water-
closet system cannot be a permanent one, and submits a rational method by which,
using charcoal instead of earth, the dry system can be universally employed in
cities. The specified objections to the use of water are :—

1, The enormous cost of the works required in proportion to the small amount
of noxious material to be removed.

2. The large annual outlay required to keep the closets in order, and their unfit-
ness for the dwellings of the poor.

3. The immense quantity of water required (365 times the weight of the excreta)
where, as in many towns, there is much difficulty in obtaining it.

4, It results in a subterranean flood of filthy water, which must flow somewhere,
and wherever it flows it pollutes the region, thus disseminating and distributing
the evil. ; ;

5. The material removed has its value of 30s. per ton reduced by dilution to
1d. per ton, which it is impossible by any known chemical method to extract with

rofit.
: 6. The sewers generate an abundance of noxious gases, which diffuse malaria
into our streets and dwellings.

Instances are given of large outbreaks of gastric and other fevers entirely trace-
able to this source ; and authorities are quoted to show the extreme danger of these
poisonous emanations. Dr. Fergus, of Glasgow, first pointed out a fruitful cause of
escape of these gases into dwelling-houses. He frequently noticed a peculiarly
offensive sickly odour in attending patients suffering from gastric fever, and in all
cases traced it to the lead siphon ann soil-pipes of the water-closet. On examina-
tion, these were always found to be perforated with small holes, through which
the gases freely escaped into the house. In some cases the whole interior of the
pipe is eaten away, and lined with a light-brown re the nature of which was
investigated by the author of this paper. From the several aralyses given, it con-
tains 86 to 92 per cent. carbonate of lead and 2 to 3 per cent. carbonate of lime.
The carbonic acid, aided by the other gases of decomposition, act on the lead, pro-
ducing carlonate of lead under similar conditions which obtain in its manufactme

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ve

on the large scale, the carbonate of lime being derived from the solid excreta. The
evil exists in many houses where it is long unsuspected, and it shows that lead
pipes are quite unsuitable for conveying house excreta.

Dry System.—None of these disadvantages can be urged against the dry closet,
still less can any serious evil attend its use, for it meets every sanitary requirement.
Its machinery is simple and effective, cheap in first cost and in use. It effects at
once a great saving of water, and it enables us to secure the whole value of the
excreta.

When dry earth is used, the only objections to its adoption in large cities are,—

1. The difficulty of obtaining the supply of dry earth, three and a half times the
quantity of the excreta being required.

2. The cost of removal, involving the carriage of 33 times the weight of the
excreta into the city, and 43 times its weight out.

Both these difficulties are at once removed by the use of charcoal, of which only
one-fourth the quantity, as compared with earth, is required; and given a stock to
commence with, by reburning the product the supply of charcoal is obtained from
the excreta itself. It is not necessary to reburn it after each use; for dry closets it
may be dried and used again five times before being reburned, and for urinals alone
it may be used ten times. The reburning is conducted in apparatus which admits
of collecting the ammonia, acetic acid, and tar, which distil over, in the usual
condensers.

The whole of the ammonia is thus collected, whilst the phosphoric acid, potash,
and mineral matters accumulate in the charcoal, together with the carbon, from the
organic constituents of the excreta. The weight of the charcoal is increased to the
extent of about 5 per cent. with each use ; and if dried and re-used five times, about
25 per cent. with each reburning.

With this constant addition the charcoal does not require replacing with fresh
material, the ultimate result being that the excreta are absorbed and deodorized by
a charcoal derived from itseif. Thus a city working this process would, in addi-
tion to securing the whole of the ammonia and other products of destructive dis-
tillation, become sellers of a charcoal second only in value to that from bones, the
product in fact of disintegrated bone and muscle. A city of 500,000 inhabitants,
for instance, would produce 19 tons a day, or 6935 tons a year—the total quantity
of excreta to be removed being calculated at 385 tons a day, and its value at
29s. 6d. a ton = £568. The ultimate result being the same, any charcoal may be
used at first, but that from seaweed is preferred as the best and the cheapest.

Attention is drawn to the fact that in such a population as that referred to the
fat passed in the solid excreta would amount to 7 tons a day; and this would
appear among the fatty oils of the tar, and form another of the products recovered.

Starting with seaweed charcoal, a lengthened series of experiments with urine
were undertaken, the results of which were tabulated. The same charcoal was used
100 times, and reburnt 10 times, during which it had increased 183 per cent., and
given off ammonia equal to 316 per cent. of sulphate. The tables show the
increase of potash, phosphoric acid, &c. for each reburning, the phosphoric acid
appearing as phosphate of lime. The charcoal, containing at first 20 per cent. car-
bonate of lime and 5 per cent. phosphate, gradually decreases the carbonate to
2 per cent., and increases the phosphate to 25 per cent., at which it remains sta-
tionary, forming a sugar-refiner’s charcoal. The phosphate of lime thus gradually
deposited is equal to soluble phosphate for manurial purposes, from its finely
divided condition.

The results of a series of experiments with a dry closet were also tabulated. The
quantity of charcoal used was only 48 oz., to which 18 0z. were added after, the total
amount employed being 66 oz.; the amount at the end of the experiment was
125 0z., 57 oz. haying been derived from the excreta; this small stock had served
181 uses, and,absorbed 808 oz. of mixed excreta, having been dried and returned to
the closet 17 times, and reburnt 10 times. The analyses show this to be a prolific
source of ammonia, the average yield of sulphate being 7 per cent. of the wet ex-
creta, and 31 per cent.ofthe dry. The yield of acetate of lime was 4 per cent., and
of tar 9 per cent. of the dry excreta. A portion of the ammonia is combined with
acetic acid. The chars become uniform at about 24 per cent. phosphate of lime,

78 REPORT—1869.

and 12 per cent. carbonate. This process, then, presents the following advan-
tages :-—

1. Total freedom from all odour, even in an inyalid’s bedroom.

2. Certain prevention of infectious diseases arising from sewer-leakage into
wells, or sewer-gases into houses.

3, Enormous saving in water, and in cost of closets.

4, It contines the nuisance instead of distributing it. 1 ewt. of charcoal per
month is sufficient for each closet when used by six persons daily, and the whole
may be allowed to fall at once from the closet through a 12-inch pipe to a cesspit
below the house, and emptied once a year. The quantity is not more than the
house ashes.

5. By this process alone can the whole of the valuable material be recovered for
the use of the land. Instead of forcing on the farmer a large quantity of sewage
when he does not want it, it enables us to store up the manure in a convenieut
form until he requires it, and can pay its full value.

On a remarkable Structural Appearance in Phosphorus*.
By Cuartzs Tomuiyson, F.RS., FCS.

On the Supposed Action of Light on Combustion.
By Cuarres Touuinson, F.R.S., FCS.

There is a popular idea that “light puts out the fire,” and accurate experiments
on this point seem to be wanting; but it is difficult to get rid of disturbing causes,
as every one engaged in photometrical observations is aware. In comparing
candles of the same make, the light is affected both in quantity and economy by a
number of small circumstances, such as the warmth of the room, the existence of
slight currents of air, the extent to which the wick curls over when burning, and
soon. In testing the quality of gas, the standard candle defined by Act of Par-
liament is a sperm candle of six to the pound burning at the rate of 120 grains per
hour. From such a standard we get the terms “ 12-candle gas,” “ 14-candle gas,”
&c. Mr. Sugg, in his ‘Gas Manipulation,’ has pointed out some of the difficulties
in obtaining a uniform standard candle. The wick does not always contain the
same number of strands; they are not all twisted to the same degree of hard-
ness; the so-called sperm may vary in composition, one candle containing a little
more wax than another, or variable quantities of stearine, or of paraftine; the
candle may have been kept in store a long or a short time; the temperature of the
store-room may have varied considerably, and the temperature of the room in
which it was burnt may have been high or low. All these circumstances affect
the rate of combustion and the illuminating-power of candles irrespective of the
action of light, if such action really exist.

The author had a good opportuuity of testing this action at the works of Price’s
Patent Candle Company at Battersea. Under the direction of Mr. Hatcher, the
chemist of the Company, care is taken to ensure identity of composition and illu-
minating-power in candles of the same name. ‘Chere has lately been an extensive
series of experiments on the photometrical value of sperm candles, during which,
at the request of the author, Mr. Hatcher noted the rate of combustion of such
candles in a darkened room, and also in broad daylight and even in sunshine.

In the first observation, three hard and three soft candles were burned each for
four hours in a dark closet. A similar set of candles taken from one and the same
filling were burned during the same time in open daylight, partly in sunlight. The
average consumption per hour of each candle was as follows :—

Sperm inthe darks) oe ys. 134 grains.
perme ya Heit palace... coke ote 141 ,,
No. 2 composites in the dark ...... 133 ,,
Composites in the light............ 140 ,,

The temperature in the light was 72°, and in the dark 71°. There was also in
* Published in the Philosophical Magazine, Sept. 1869.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79

the light a much greater motion of the air than in the dark closet. Both these
circumstances would operate in producing a larger consumption of candle.
In a second trial with No. 2 composites the results were—

Tn the tana a ecard casio 140 grains each candle.
the ie bits seelaera se 134 a ~
In a third, also with No. 2 composites, the results were—
Rurthe dither seme a. ces « 131 grains.
Liriyid TOU hired erat Ie 129’ ,,

In these two trials the flames were protected as far as possible from currents of
air, and in the third trial the temperature both in the light and in the dark was
nearly equal.

The fourth trial was made on a bright sunshiny day with hard sperm candles,
which are less affected by variations of temperature than the composites. The
results were—

Instheidark (temp.-81°) cision. srasie le arora ees 544 grains,
or 136 grains per hour.
In the light (temp: 84°). 0.2.0... ..0.- 0% 567 grains,

or 142 grains per hour nearly.

It is evident that in this case the increase of temperature caused by the bright
sunshine led to an increased consumption of material.

It will be seen that in the first and fourth trials there is a greater consumption
of material in the light than in the dark, and in the second and third trials the
consumption is greater in the dark than in the light; but in any case the difference
is so small, amounting only to from 2 to 7 grains per hour, that it may fairly be
referred to accidental circumstances, such as differences in temperature, in currents
of air, and in the composition and make of the candles, the final conclusion being
that the direct light of the sun or the diffused light of day has no action on the
rate of burning, or in retarding the combustion of an ordinary candle.

On the Manufacture of Chlorine by means of perpetually regenerated Manganite
of Calcium. By Wauter WELpoN.

Since the last Meeting of the British Association chlorine has begun to be manu-
factured extensively by a process which depends on the production and perpetual
regeneration of a compound no mention of which as yet exists in chemical litera-
ture. This process, besides thus producing and continually reproducing what the
author believes to be a new compound, reduces by fully 80 per cent. the principal item
in the cost of the manufacture of chlorine, greatly increases the quantity of chlo-
rine which can be practically obtained from a given quantity of hydrochloric acid,
and, moreover, enables the manufacture of chlorine to be carried on without the
production of any offensive residue.

What has hitherto been the ordinary process of manufacturing chlorine consists
simply in digesting with hydrochloric acid ores containing peroxide of manganese.
The reaction which takes place, besides liberating chlorine, produces chloride of
manganese, which remains behind in solution after the chlorine has gone off, and
has hitherto been usually thrown away. There have been proposed and tried a
great number of esha for transforming this chloride into peroxide for use over
again, but the only one of them which has met with the slightest measure of prac-
tical success, prior to that which is the subject of this paper, is the one which is
known, from the name of its inventor, as Dunlop’s process. Dunlop’s process de-
composes the chloride of manganese by heating its solution, under a pressure of
from two to four atmospheres, with milk of carbonate of lime, and then, in the dry
way, transforms the resulting carbonate of manganese into a mixture or compound
of two equivalents of peroxide with one equivalent of protoxide, by subjecting it
for 48 hours to the action of air at a temperature of about 600° Fahr. The
product of Dunlop’s process is a sufficiently satisfactory one, containing about 72
per cent. of MnO,; but the process requires a very formidable amount of appa-

80 REPORT—1869.

ratus, and in this and other ways is so costly that its use has never extended
beyond a single firm of manufacturers.

Three years ago the author began to endeavour to work out the idea of decom-
posing by either lime or magnesia the chloride of manganese in the residual
liquors of the chlorine manufacture, and then blowing air through the resulting
mixture of hydrated protoxide of manganese with solution of chloride of calcium
or of chloride of magnesium, as the case might be. He took for granted that one-
half of the protoxide of manganese so treated was the largest proportion of it that
could thereby be converted into MnO,—in other words, that one could obtain only
sesquioxide by this method; but it was soon found that, when using lime to de-
compose the chloride of manganese, considerably more than half the protoxide
operated upon was frequently convertedinto MnO,. It was found eventually that
more than half the protoxide was thus peroxidized only when more lime was used
than simply the quantity necessary to decompose the chloride of manganese, and
when what was treated with air was thus a mixture of protoxide of manganese and
lime; and it was also found that in all such cases there was a definite relation
between the quantity of lime associated with the protoxide of manganese and the
quantity of the protoxide, in excess of half, which became peroxidized. This led
to the discovery that whereas when protoxide of manganese by itself is treated
with air in the wet way one-half is the maximum proportion of it which can
thereby be converted into MnQ,, the association of a certain proportion of lime
with the protoxide so treated will enable the whole of it to become converted into
MnO,. It is to this fact, together with that of the much greater rapidity with
which protoxide of manganese can be peroxidized by treatment with airin the wet
way when lime is present than when lime is not present, that the practical success
of the new method of manufacturing chlorine is mainly due.

The action of lime in increasing the proportion of protoxide of manganese which
can be peroxidized by treatment with air in the wet way, evidently consists in the
lime substituting itself for that ad of the protoxide which, when protoxide of
manganese not having any other basic substance associated with it is treated with
air in the wet way, does not undergo peroxidation. It would seem that the pro-
duction of MnO, in the wet way, by direct combination between hydrated MnO
and atmospheric oxygen, absolutely requires the presence of a base with which the
MnO, can combine as it forms. When protoxide of manganese, not haying any
other basic substance associated with it, is treated with air in the wet way, a part
of the protoxide itself has to act as the required base; and this is the reason wh
in that case, not more than half of the protoxide can become peroxidized, the other
half being required to combine, as MnO, with the half which becomes converted
into MnO,. When, however, the protoxide of manganese which is treated wich
air in the wet way has lime associated with it, the MnO, which forms (or a part of
it, according to the proportion of lime present) combines with CaO instead of with
MnO, thus leaving free to undergo peroxidation that part of the MnO which, but
for the presence of the CaO, this MnO, must have combined with, and which
would thus have got locked up in a state in which it would have been incapable of
being peroxidized, at least in the wet way and by air alone. Hence the presence
of enough lime to take the place of that half of the protoxide which, if no lime
were present, would have to go into combination as base, and also to supply enough
base for that half itself to combine with after undergoing peroxidation, will enable
the whole of the MnO operated upon to be raised to the state of MnO,. The
minimum quantity of lime which is enough for this purpose is an equivalent for
each equivalent of MnO operated upon, or the quantity necessary 1o supply an
equivalent of lime to all the MnO, which can be produced by the peroxidation of
all the MnO.

By treating with air, then, a mixture of protoxide of manganese and lime suspended
either in water or in solution of chloride of calcium, there is formed a compound
containing MnO, and CaO in the proportion of an equivalent of one to an equivalent
of the other. This compound may be regarded as sesquioxide of manganese, or
Mn,O,, the MnO in which is replaced by CaO. The author calls it manganite of
calcium, and believes it to be anew compound. Gorgeu, in 1862, described a com-
pound which he called manganite of calcium; but his compound contained five

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 81

equivalents of MnO, per equivalent of CaO, and the CaO in it was so feebly com-
bined that it readily decomposed chloride of manganese. The author’s compound
contains only one equivalent of MnO, per equivalent of CaQ, and has no action
upon salts of manganese.

This compound has now been produced and reproduced to the extent of some
hundreds of tons. The process of producing it and applying it to the manufacture
of chlorine is conducted as follows:—The residual liquor which remains after a
charge of manganite has reacted upon hydrochloric acid in any suitable still is run
from the still into a well or other receptacle in which it is treated with carbonate
of lime, to neutralize any free acid, and to decompose any sesquichloride of iron or
sesquichloride of aluminium which may be contained in it. The neutralized
liquor is then pumped up into an elevated cistern, in which it is left at rest for a
few hours in order that it may deposit certain solid matters which it now holds in
suspension. The most abundant of these is usually sulphate of calcium, due to the
somewhat considerable quantity of sulphuric acid which is nearly always con-
tained in the hydrochloric acid produced in alkali works; but there are also small
quantities of sesquioxide of iron, derived from the sesquichloride of iron in the
hydrochloric acid, and sometimes partly from the lime used in the process, and
larger or smaller quantities of alumina and silica, due to the lime. These im-
purities having deposited, the supernatant liquor, which is a mixed solution of
chloride of manganese and chloride of calcium, and is now quite clear and of a
beautiful rose colour, is run off into another vessel, where there is added to it the
quantity of lime necessary to decompose the chloride of manganese in it and nearly
an equivalent more. A blast of air is then injected into the resulting mixture, and
what was at first a perfectly white mud, all the manganese in which was in the
state of MnO, soon becomes a very black mud, nearly all the manganese in which
is in the state of MnO,. This is then allowed to settlo for about twelve hours, at
the end of which time it has separated into a denser black mud and a supernatant
clear solution of chloride of calcium. This solution of chloride of calcium having
been drawn off, what remains is ready for use in the still. It is used as mud,
without drying, being conveyed to the still by pipes and entering by a hydraulic
lute. In the still it meets with hydrochloric acid, from which it liberates chlorine,
at the same time reproducing exactly such a residual solution as was commenced
with, With this solution the round of operation is recommenced ; and so on, over
and over again, continually. ‘The samples exhibited were portions of a charge of
manganese which, at the works of Messrs. J. C. Gamble and Sons, of St. Helen’s,
has actually generated chlorine, from which bleaching-powder has been made,
about fifty successive times.

Hitherto the principal item in the cost of chlorine has been that for native
peroxide of manganese. Last year, in Great Britain, France, Belgium, and Ger-
many together, there were produced about 120,000 tons of bleaching-powder,
which cost, on an average, for native oxide of manganese, not much, if any, less
than £5 per ton. The author's process substitutes for this cost for native oxide of
manganese a cost for the regeneration of manganite of calcium not exceeding 15s.
per ton of bleaching-powder, being about 10s. for lime, 1s. for steam, 1s. for wages,
and 2s. for interest and wear and tear. Moreover, whereas hitherto, at least in this
country and in all but an extremely few exceptional cases, the production of a ton
of bleaching-powder has required the acid from about 75 cwt. of salt, this com-
eo yields chlorine enough for a ton of bleaching-powder from the acid from

ess than 45 cwt. of salt. This larger yield of chlorine is mainly due to the arti-
ficial manganite being so easily soluble that it can very readily be caused to neu-
tralize from 95 to 99 per cent. of the acid employed, which is a very much larger
proportion of it than can be neutralized when working with manganese ores. A
third very important advantage of the new process oyer the old one consists in this,
that whereas the immense quantities of aa which escape neutralization in the old
process are usually (and have almost necessarily to be) sent into the rivers, as
free acid, the only product of the new process which has to be thrown away is a
perfectly neutral solution of chloride of calcium.

1869. P 6

82 REPORT—1869.

On the Action of Phosphoric Chloride on Hydric Sulphate.
By Stepnen WILLIAMS,

Dr. Williamson first described this important reaction as the replacement of one
molecule of hydroxyl in hydric sulphate by monovalent chlorine, with the forma-
tion of chlorophosphoric acid and a body having the formula HC1SO,, which he
termed chlorhydrated sulphuric acid. ‘The further investigation of this reaction
quite confirms Dr. Williamson’s observations, but at the same time shows that the
operation goes further than was at first supposed ; the chlorophosphoric acid react-
ing on the hydric sulphate in the same manner as the phosphoric chloride. The
whole operation may - represented in three steps :—

1) H,S0,+PCl, =POCI,+HCl+HCI1SO,.
(5) H, 80,+ PO Cl, =PO, Cl+ HC1+HC1S0,.
(8) H, 80,+P0, Cl=HC1SO,+HPO,,.

It was also ascertained that the chlorhydrated sulphuric acid, when added to
hydric sulphate, breaks up into hydric chloride and sulphuric acid (SO,), which
explains the apparent contradiction in Gerhardt’s statement, viz. that one of the
products of the reaction of phosphoric chloride on hydric sulphate was sulphuric
acid.

GEOLOGY.

Address by Professor Harkness, /.R.S., President of the Section,

Ir has of late become the custom to open the several Sections of the British Asso-
ciation with an introductory Address.

This custom I believe had its origin in this Section when the Association
met at Aberdeen; and upon that occasion Sir Charles Lyell made the important
discovery of M. Boucher de Perthes of the occurrence of flint weapons with the
bones of large extinct mammals in the gravels of the Valley of the Somme the
subject of his opening address.

In some instances new matter of importance in connexion with geology has
furnished materials for this opening address, but more frequently subjects of local
interest have supplied the matter for this purpose; and it is in connexion with the
latter that I shall occupy fora short time your attention.

In no portion of Great Britain have we a better development of the series of
rocks which forms the link between the well-established Devonian formation and
the succeeding well-recognized Carboniferous group than in this county. The rocks
which form the link I have referred to are known to geologists as the Pilton beds,
deriving their name from the locality in Devonshire where they are best developed.
These rocks haye been made the subjects of investigation by Sir Roderick I. Mur-
chison, Prof. Sedgwick, Sir H. T. De la Beche, Mr. Weaver, Mr. Godwin-Austen,
Prof. Phillips, and others; and of late they have been carefully examined by Mr.
Jukes, Mx. Salter, Mr. Townshend Hall, and Mr. Etheridge.

My reason for referring to these rocks is to point out their relations to certain
strata which are very well exhibited in the south-west of Ireland, and which occur
in a horizon corresponding to the Pilton shales.

The Ivish representatives of the Pilton shales are marked by a mineral aspect,
very nearly allied to their equivalents in this country; and they contain organic
remains of a type very closely approximating to such as are found in the Pilton rocks.

Before alluding to the Pilton beds, I will refer to their Irish representatives, and
the rocks upon which these repose.

In doing so I shall ayail myself of the labours of the late Mr. Jukes, and the
officers of the Irish branch of the Geological Survey, who were for several years
engaged upon these rocks. Before doing so I must, however, pay a passing tribute
sae memory of one who has so recently been removed from the scene of his
labours.

For more than eighteen years the late Mr. Jukes filled the office of Director of

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83

the Geological Survey of Ireland; and the numerous maps and memoirs which
have emanated from this Survey while under his control speak alike of the labour
and accuracy with which this work has been done. Every geologist personally
acquainted with the late Mr. Jukes must know how ready he was on every occasion
to impart all the knowledge he possessed to those who sought it, and that earnest
love of his subject and kindness of heart which so distinguished him caused him
to be beloved by all who had the pleasure of his acquaintance. On many occasions
this Section of the British Association has had valuable communications from him, '
and many who are now present will well remember the apt and vigorous manner of
Mr. Jukes when he had anything to address to this Section.

The portion of Ireland nearest Devonshire where we have rocks which can be
compared with those of this country is the neighbourhood of the town of Wex-
ford. Here are strata reposing upon Cambrian rocks which have been assigned to
the Old Red Sandstone by the officers of the Irish Survey, attaining a thickness of
about 200 feet. At the western extremity of the County of Wexford, at Hook
Point, the Old Red Sandstones are from 600 to 700 feet thick. In the Comeragh
Mountains, to the north-west, they have a thickness of not less than 1700 feet ;
and south-west, from the Comeraghs near Dungarvyen, they are upwards of 3000
feet in thiclmess. In the west of the County Cork we have from 5000 to 6000
feet of Old Red Sandstones exposed; and here the upper portion is denuded, and
the base is not seen. In the Glengariff and Killarney country from 8000 to 10,000
feet of these strata are exhibited, and here also the base is not visible.

On the south side of the Dingle promontory the Old Red Sandstones occur
under different circumstances. They are here from 3000 to 4000 feet thick, and
are seen resting wnconformably on rocks which are of a reddish-purple colour, and
at least 10,000 feet thick. These reddish-purple beds repose conformably on the
representatives of the Ludlow series.

The strata of the south of Ireland which represent the Old Red Sandstones, and
which in the neighbourhood of Glengariff and Killarney attain a greater thickness
than 10,000 feet, are extremely barren in organic remains. Several thousand feet
of strata, consisting of purple, red, and green beds, which, from being well developed
in the district of Glengariff, have received from the Irish Geological Survey the
name of “Glengariff Grits,” have never yet afforded a fossil. It is only in the
upper portion of the series, which is comparatively thin, and which consists of
“yellow sandstones,’ that organic remains occur. These consist of remains of
plants, which at Kiltorkan, in County Kilkenny, are in a beautiful state of preserva-
tion. Fish-remains are also found, referable to the genera Coccosteus and Gyrolepis,
likewise a very characteristic shell, Anodon Jukesti, and crustacean remains in the
form of a species of Hurypterus.

In [reland, the strata which succeed conformably the Yellow Sandstones have
been called by Sir R. Griffith the Lower Limestone Shales. In the south of
Ireland these strata have a great thickness; and where they possess a slaty cleay-
age, the term Carboniferous slate has also been applied to them. These strata,
in the eastern portion of the County Wexford, where the Old Red Sandstones are
thin, have no distinct existence. In the western part of the same county, at Hook
Point, where the Old Red Sandstone deposits are thicker than in the eastern por-
tions of Wexford, the Lower Limestone Shales make their appearance as a distinct

‘oup, separating the Carboniferous Limestones above from the Yellow Sandstones

elow ; and here their thickness is between 10 and 20 feet.

We have already seen how the Old Red Sandstones have increased in thickness
in the neighbourhood of Dungarven. The Carboniferous slates also attain a much

eater development here than at Hook Point, for the officers of the Geological

urvey give their thickness at 700 feet; and near Youghal, still further westward,
they haye a thickness of about 900 feet.

On the west side of Cork harbour we have examples of a still greater develop-
ment of the Carboniferous slates, for here they are at least 1500 feet thick. At the
Old Head of Kinsale 6500 feet represent their thickness, and further westward they
attain to even a greater development.

In the County of Cork gritty bands make their appearance in the Carboniferous

slates. In the eastern portion of the area, where these grits first occur, they are
6*

84 REPORT—1869.

thin and very regular. They become very thick in the western portion of this
county, and in Coomhola Glen they have their greatest development, being at leas
3000 feet in thickness. These gritty beds have been termed ‘‘Coomhola Grits.”
They contain some peculiar fossils, and they have others in common with the Car-
boniferous slates. ‘They are interstratified with slate bands; and although most
extensively developed near the base of the Carboniferous slates, they are merely
local members of this series, emanating from conditions somewhat different from
those from whence the great mass of the Carboniferous slates have originated.

Having described generally the arrangement of the rocks of the south of Ireland
which represent the Pilton beds, and also the deposits which ee them, we
have now to refer to North Deyon. On the north side of Baggy Point and east-
ward thereof, there are hard purple sandstones, possessing many of the features of
the Old Red Sandstones of the south of Ireland, which immediately underlie the
“ Yellow Sandstones,” and upon these in North Devon are light-coloured beds,
which represent the Irish Yellow Sandstones.

In the neighbourhood of Marwood, reposing on the equivalents of the Yellow
Sandstone, are greenish-grey grits, affording a group of fossils intimately allied to
those contained in the Coomhola grits; and among these are plant-remains identical
with such as occur near the base of the Carboniferous slates. These have been
obtained by the Rey. M. Mules. The mineral nature and the fossil remains place
the Marwood sandstones and the Coomhola grits on the same horizon.

The fossil plants which occur near the base of the Carboniferous slate, and in
the Marwood sandstones, are specifically identical with such as are found at the
base of the Carboniferous formation in the north of England. Here Filicites hnearis
and Sagenaria Veltheimiana occur, and these are the forms which the base of the
Carboniferous slates afford.

The Pilton rocks succeed the Marwood sandstones, and these Pilton rocks in
their mineral nature are intimately allied to the Carboniferous slates. The strata
which make up the Pilton group consist of shales and slates, generally of a dark
colour, with associated sandstones and eritty beds, and occasional thin bands of
limestone full of corals. The fossils of the Pilton rocks are very closely connected
with those of the Carboniferous slates. Some forms, however, which occur in the
Pilton rocks have not yet been recognized in their Irish representatives.

There are species of Phacops, Strophalosia productoides, and a few other species.
But such fossils as are most abundant in the Pilton rocks are those most common
in the Carboniferous slates.

There is an idea prevalent among many English geologists that the Coomhola
grits are a series of rocks distinct from, and lying beneath the Carboniferous strata,
and this idea has, I believe, given rise to erroneous impressions concerning this
series. I have pointed out that this is not the conclusion of the officers of the
Trish Geological Survey, and my own observations have led me to results similar
to theirs. I hope this Meeting will afford more information concerning the Mar-
wood beds and the Pilton rocks, and that we shall have further evidence which
will enable geologists to say whether these strata shall be referred to the Devonian
group or to the Carboniferous formation. A band of pale slates, with a few bivalves,
lies between the purple sandstones of Mort Bay and the greenish-grey grits of the
Marwood series. It is desirable that further information should be afforded con-
cerning these strata and their fossil contents.

It appears to me that the boundary between the Devonian or Old Red Sand-
stone and the Carboniferous formation is in the British Isles placed in different
horizons. In Ireland the Carboniferous slates and interbedded Coomhola grits are
referred to the latter, while in this country the equivalents of these are looked upon
as appertaining to the Devonian formation.

Besides the Marwood sandstones and the Pilton rocks, there are other matters of
greater interest in connexion with the geology of Devonshire.

The Triassic strata of this country, in the neighbourhood of Budleigh-Salterton,
has within it some peculiar pebble-beds, which have been described by Messrs.
Salter and Vicary. These pebble-beds abound in fragments containing fossils
similar to those which the Silurians of Normandy afford. Recently these Triassic
strata have yielded to Mr, Whitaker important paleontological evidence, in the form

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 85

of reptilian remains, which Prof. Huxley has referred to the genus Hyperodapedon.
This evidence goes a long way towards supporting the conclusion that the Lossie-
mouth sandstones near Elgin are of a much newer age than their stratigraphical
arrangements would seem to indicate, and that they belong to the Trias rather
than to the Old Red Sandstones, to which they have previously been referred by
many geologists.

In Devonshire also we have a better development of Miocene strata than is to
be found elsewhere in the British Isles; and the locality where these strata occur
is within a short distance of Exeter: I refer to Bovey Tracey and its lignite beds.
These latter have been made the subject of a valuable communication to the Royal
Society by Mr. Pengelly. The plant-remains which have been obtained therefrom
have been described by the eminent Swiss botanist, Dr. Oswald Heer; and, thanks
to the generosity of that noble-hearted lady Miss Burdett Coutts, who is alike de-
sirous to promote science and to alleviate human suffering, the fossils obtained from
these Bovey Tracey lignites are now well known to geologists. The plant-remains
which these strata contain are the relics of a vegetation which, during the Lower
Miocene epoch, spread over a large portion of the Continent of Europe, and ex-
tended into the arctic regions of America; a vegetation which clothed not only
Europe with lofty forest trees, and a rich undergrowth of smaller plants, but which
also covered Greenland and Spitzbergen, lands which are now the abode of ice and
snow, with an equally rich vegetation.

This extensive diffusion of similar forms of plants during the older Miocene
period, speak to us of widely extended uniform climate, contrasting strongly with
the climates which now prevail in the temperate and arctic zones of the Northern
Hemisphere.

There is another matter connected with the geology of Devonshire which has
special interest—the caves of this county and their contents. These have been
made the subjects of many valuable communications to this Section by Mr.
Pengelly, and the gentlemen who are associated with him on the Committee for
the Exploration of Kent’s Hole.

Met, as we now are, in a locality so near the source from whence so much of in-
terest has come, I believe that this Section will again have before it important
matter referring to Kent’s Hole and other Devonshire caverns; and I cannot doubt
that many Members of the British Association will avail themselves of the oppor-
tunity of examining the spot from whence so much valuable information has been
derived, bearing upon the early history of the human race.

Geology and archxology are now blending into each other; and although the
early history of man remained for a long time, like distant land, dim and ill-
defined, of late, owing to the labours of Sir Charles Lyell, Sir John Lubbock and
others, we are now acquiring a clearer conception of our early ancestors, of their
mode of life, and of the conditions under which they existed.

On the Elevation and Depression of the Greenland Coast. By Rosrrt Browy,
F.R.GS., Geologist to the West Greenland Expedition (1867).

The author in this paper attempted to reconcile the conflicting statements of
different writers regarding the elevation and depression of the Greenland coast.
The American explorers in Smith’s Sound declare that the coast is rising, while
jt is a notorious fact, observed by the author and others, that in the Danish pos-
sessions, south of 73° N. lat., the contrary holds true. Both statements were par-
tially correct, but not in an exclusive sense. J. That there is a depression going
on is proved by («) the walls of old houses being submerged, (8) houses choked
in by ice, where no native would now build them, (y) poles on which the Eskimo
Kayaks are suspended being submerged; and amongst numerous other similar
instances quoted, (6) it was mentioned that the blubber-house of Claushayn, in
lat. 69° 7’ N., originally built on a little island off the shore, had in 1866 to be
removed, the lower floor being invariably submerged at high tide. From various
data supplied, the author did not consider that the rate of depression was more
than five feet in a century.

II. This depression had been noted as far as the Danish trading-posts extended

86 REPORT—1869.

and there was little likelihood that it ended there; only it had not been observed
further, no civilized men having passed a sufficiently long time in Smith’s Sound,
or elsewhere north of Danish Greenland, to obtain accurate data. Hence Drs.
Kane and Hayes, observing certain terraces near their winter-quarters, concluded
that the coast was there rising, and for want of further information, their opinions
have been tolerably extensively adopted, even though they were in direct contra-
diction of the long-continued and well-established observation made to the south-
ward of their point of observation.

The author explained these terraces by supposing that there had been a rise,
though there 7s now a fall goimg on. These terraces, or their counterparts, are seen
all along the Greenland coast, and were fully described from his observations made
in 1861 and 1867, The interval between Hayes’s and Kane’s winter-quarters has
been so little examined, either by the geographer or the geologist, that little could
be said about it, but southward of 73° N. lat., this raised portion of the sea-bottom
is seen atintervals. The hills (as described in the author’s ‘ Florula Discoana’*) are
in general low and rounded, and everywhere scattered with perched blocks and
boulders, many of them brought from more southern and northern latitudes.
These angular blocks are very different from the rounded and worn boulders which
have been subjected to the grooving action of superincumbent ice. They bear the
impress of haying been dropped on the former sea-bottom by icebergs, which had
borne them downward from the moraines of old glaciers. In other localities, in
the hollows or along the sea-shore, we see several feet of the glacial clays (the
counterpart, in fact, of the “brick-clays ” of some parts of Great Britain) full of
Arctic shells, Crustacea, Echinodermata, &c., such as are now living in the neigh-
bouring sea, while in other places the clay is bare of organic remains. In this
glacial clay of Greenland (which the author considered the counterpart of the
upper laminated boulder-clays of Great Britain and the North of Europe) all the
shells &e, are recent species, living in the Greenland sea to this day, with two
exceptions. These are Glycimeris siliqua and Panopea Norvegicat ; hut as both of
these are found in the Newfoundland sea, we may expect them yet to be shown to
be living in Davis Strait. This “ fossiliferous clay” has been found up to the
height of more than 500 feet above the sea, on the banks overhanging glaciers,
where frequently the old shells are deposited on the glacier among the moraine,
and carried out by icebergs, by which they are again deposited on the sea-bottom,
thus completing a second revolution of change. In some portions of this elay, in
knots, the author found impressions of the Angmaksak of the Eskimo, the Capelin
of Newfoundland (Madlotus arcticus,O. Fab.), which was doubtless the fish referred
to by Professor Louis Agassiz, when he speaks of knowing only one fossil fish as
perfectly identical with living species, “a Madllotus, which is found in nodules
of clay of unknown age in Greenland.” Among other instances given as evidences
of a former elevation was cited the fact of two huts, or their remains, being found
on an island high above the sea, in places where no Greenlander would ever fix his
habitation. He also heard of a lake in which there was said (on excellent autho-
rity) to be marine shells naturalized. The author of this paper therefore concluded
that there (1) had been a former rise of the land, and (2) that at the present
time the coast is gradually sinking. Thus we see in Greenland two appearances:
Ist, in the interior mer de glace, what Scotland once was during the glacial epoch ;
2nd, on the coast what Scotland now is, as far as her glacial clays and other
remains are concerned.

On Reptilian Eggs from Secondary Strata.
By Wrirtram Carrvtuers, £.L.S,

On « Slickensides.” By Wrurram Carrvruers, F.L.S.

* Transactions of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, vol. ix. p. 430.
t Moreh in Rinks, Grénland, Bind ii, Tilleg, p. 143.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87

On a Fossil Mussel-shell found in Drift in Ireland.
By Evernr A. Conwerr, M.R.I.A.

The author exhibited a marine mussel-shell measuring 3 inches in length, 1} inch
atits broadest part, and } inch in internal depth, still in as perfect a state of preserva-
tion as when worn by its ancient occupant. An oblong-shaped pearly excrescence,
about the eighth of an inch in length, is attached to the centre of the interior part
of the shell, and some of the fine sand in which this bivalvular fossil has lain
deposited for ages still adheres to the inside of it. It was pronounced to be a spe-
cimen of the Mytilus vulgaris inhabiting our present British seas. It was dug up on
Saturday, August 22, 1868, by a labourer employed by the author to raise gravel
for walks, from the bottom of an ancient sand-hill, or escar, within a quarter of a
mile of the town of Trim, in a portion of the grounds of the District Model National
Schools, established there by the Commissioners of National Education in 1849. This
fossil was found resting under the xgis of a large boulder, which in some degree
may account for its very perfect state of preservation, and in a situation at present
25 miles from the nearest sea-coast, and about 200 feet above the present sea-level.
And here the consideration arises, how vast must be the period of time that has
elapsed since the sand and gravel in which this shell has been imbedded were
rolled about by the waters of an ocean which has retreated at least 25 miles from
this spot ; and, still more, how vastness of time must be piled on vastness since the
lowest of the stratified rocks under this old escar was deposited ; and how many
times “ Old Ocean” must have advanced on this land and again retreated to sub-
merge other lands!

The gravel, or drift, in which it was found consists of dark Carboniferous limestone
pebbles, utterly devoid of flint nodules, thus proving the antiquity of the drift, and
rests upon a portionof that large bed of Carboniferous limestone-rock which occupies
the greater part of the middle of the island.

The hills and ridges of sand and gravel, so conspicuous across the centre of Ire-
land, are supposed to have been formed in the eddies of opposing and conflicting
currents, at a period when the present dry land was the bed of an ocean. Sometimes
they are to be seen in single heaps, and at other times in narrow ridges, of all degrees

- of fineness and coarseness of material, varying in height from 20 to 80 feet, and ex-

tending in some parts from 1 to 20 miles in length. The prevailing direction of the
line of subsidence of these ranges of drift in Ireland, running, as they generally do,
nearly due east and west, has always appeared to the author to be in some degree
connected with the rotation of the earth on its axis during the process of their being
accumulated on the ocean-bed.

' These hills of gravel are popularly known (and only in Ireland) by the name of
escars, from a purely primitive Irish word (etscir) meaning a ridge of high land, but
generally applied to a sandy ridge. The term, usually taking the form of esker (as
it is pronounced), is the name of about fifty townlands in Ireland, and combines to
form the names of many other places, more especially across the middle than in
either the north or the south of Ireland. Although the nomenclature of escar for
sand-hill is peculiar to Ireland, it is curious to remark that we have now a town
situated on a sand-hill, at the base of the Pyrenees, called Escar, which is a Basque
name ; and itis understood that the Basques have had a language peculiarly their
own, but they have also had easy communication with Ireland.

_ Not far from, or indeed belonging to, the escar in which this shell was found,
there is a line of gravel hills extending, with slight interruption, from Dublin to
Galway, called Esker-Riada ; and this is the most historically celebrated esear in
Treland, having been fixed upon as the boundary between the northern and the
southern half of Ireland when the country was divided, in the second century,
between Owen More and Conn of “The Hundred Battles.” This ridge probably
has its name, as the late eminent Irish scholar, Professor Eugene O’Curry, thought,
from the chariots that used to run on it.

On the Occurrence of a large Deposit of Terra Cotta Clay at Watcombe,
Torquay. By Roxert Erueriner, F.G.S.

88 REPORT—1869.

Notes on the Brachiopoda hitherto obtained from the “ Pebble-bed” of Budleigh-
Salterton, near Exmouth, in Devonshire. By T. Davison, F.R.S.

On the 16th of December, 1863, Messrs. W. Vicary and J. W. Salter made a com-
munication to the Geological Society on the pebble-bed at Budleigh-Salterton,
wherein some thirty-six different fossils were described, and attributed, with greater
or lesser confidence, to the Lower Silurian period. Of these, ten or twelve are
Brachiopoda. Subsequently the author of this paper, having had from Mr. Vicary
and others the opportunity of examining several hundred specimens from the same
locality, was able to deternrine beyond doubt that a large proportion of the shells
were of Devonian age, while others may be of Silurian origin.

A great mystery is stated to hang over the derivation of the boulders composing
that “remanier ” deposit ; the mélange of fossils does not seem to occur in the same
pebble, but, on the contrary, every individual boulder contains species referable to
the one or to the other epoch, so that no real mingling of Silurian and Devonian fos-
sils has been hitherto detected in the same pebble. The rock is usuaily a sandstone
or quartzite, and it is difficult to conceive how fossils of two distinct ages (if true)
should occur in the same kind of rock, and be accumulated in the same locality, so
that many geologists have, rightly or wrongly, supposed all the boulders to be of a
similar age. It has not hitherto been possible to discover from where these
pebbles have been drifted, or where is the parent rock, but they are supposed to be
of French origin, although no similar rock in Normandy or in Great Britain has
produced the assemblage of species contained in the Budleigh boulders.

The fossils occur in the shape of internal casts and external impressions, and only
a small proportion of the boulders are fossiliferous. The author has detected some
thirty-seven species of Brachiopoda, which he described and illustrated. Of these
about ten, or perhaps less, are considered to be Silurian, twelve or more are without
doubt Devonian, while fifteen are either new or not yet identified with described
species, or have not hitherto been found associated in the same pebble or rock with
any of the others recorded as Silurian and Devonian, but most of them seem to pos-
sess more of the Devonian than Silurian facies. It is highly probable that when
the species of the other classes, also occurring in these pebbles, shall have been care-
fully and critically examined, that the true age of the above fifteen species will be
established, as the whole series must be taken into consideration before we can
arrive at any definite conclusion.

On the Occurrence of the Mineral Scheelite (Tungstate of Lime) at Val Toppa
Gold Mine, near Domodossola, Piedmont. By C. Lz Neve Foster, B.A.,
DSe., F.GS.

The author stated that Scheelite (tungstate of lime) is now occurring at the Val
Toppa Gold-mine. It is associated with quartz, iron ) Redier galena, zinc-blende,
calc-spar, brown spar, and native gold; whilst wolfram, tinstone, molybdenite,
fluor-spar, apatite, topaz, and tourmaline, which usually accompany Scheelite, are
entirely absent. The Scheelite is cailed ‘“ Marmor rosso” by the Piedmontese
miners, and is looked upon as a good indication for gold.

P.S. Since this paper was written, the author has received a letter from Mr.
David Forbes about the occurrence of Scheelite. In his ‘Researches on the Mi-
neralogy of South America,’ p. 40, he speaks of Scheelite as one of the “ minerals of
the Post-Silurian Granite eruptions, and their accompanying metallic veins.”

The Devonian Group considered Geologically and Geographically.
By R. A. C. Gopwin-Avsten, F.R.S., F.GS.

The object of this paper was to define the general arrangement of Jand and water
over the northern hemisphere during the period of the accumulation of the ‘ De-
yonian ” group.

After a short account of physical changes during earlier Paleeozoic times, it was
shown that the northern hemisphere had acquired and presented a great extent of
terrestrial surface immediately antecedent to the “ Devonian ” or Middle Paleozoic

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89

period. Commencing the inquiry with reference to the American area, the extent
and range of the “ Hamilton marine group ” indicates that the relative position of
the coast-line, whence its materials were derived, was in the north and east,
whilst the arrangement of all the subordinate members of that group point clearly
to the direction of distribution having been south and west.

Tn like manner the marine Devonian group has a well-defined northern boundary-
line across the Europeo-Asian region. Wholly wanting in Jreland, it is well exhi-
bited, in its early facies, in North Devon (Linton), next seen in the Boulonnais,
and has been proved to underlie the Cretaceous formation of the north of France,
as far as beyond Lille and Tournay, from near which latter place it presents a
well-defined limit across Belgium eastwards. At Gembloux it is seen to have
been accumulated unconformably upon a much older Paleozoic series (Lower
Silurian).

The rie extension of the “ Devonian ” sea-beds is concealed for a considerable
interval by Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Nummulitic groups, but they reappear in the
mass of the Harz Mountains, where, as in the Belgian sections, they present un-
conformity.

The gradation of change, resulting from shallow to deeper water conditions, is
well marked in the Harz “ Devonian” series, and hence may be inferred with cer-
tainty that the boundary-line lay to the north. Like considerations applied to the
Devonian depositions of Germany, to the south and east of the Hartz, put that part
of Central Europe in the condition of sea, and place the boundary-line as trending
north-east, conforming to the mass of the old Scandinavian land, as from above
Magdebourg to the Gulf of Riga, and thence, by St. Petersburg, to the White Sea.

From this, its northern limit, the ‘ Devonian ” sea stretched southwards, over
Devon and Cornwall, France, the north-east parts of Spain, and over North Africa ;
eastwards, across Europe, to the shores of the Black Sea, into Central Asia (Altai) ;
and we have its characteristic fauna from Thibet and China.

The form of the continental area of the time is thus closely marked out. On the
American side it lay, for the whole breadth of that region, as at present, with
an irregular line on the south between 40° to 45° N.E., reaching as high as 75° to
80°N.E. Greenland and Newfoundland were portions of the same continent,

From the south-eastern extremity of this great continent there was an exten-
sion of the land south-west along the present Atlantic sea-board, much as
Tenasserim and Malacca stretch away at present from the East-Asian continent.

On the European side the extent of land-surface was much less ; it included only
the Scandinavian mass, together with the greater portion of the British-Islands
Froup, the whole having a common strike from north-east to south-west ; but this
and had a much greater extension on the Atlantic side than at present; and it
is very probable, on other considerations, that at that time this old part of our
present Kuropean land-surface was one with that of the American, the whole
forming a great circumpolar continent, ranging across more than 180° of longitude.

The positions of certain insular masses, such as the central plateau of France and
others, were indicated.

These geographical features of “ Devonian” times were represented on a map of
the northern hemisphere.

In spite of the persistency with which the notion of the marine origin of the
“Old Red Sandstone” of the British Islands, and its equivalency to the true
“Devonian ” group, has been maintained by a few geologists, contrary opinions
have very generally gained ground, both at home and abroad. The evidence in
this direction has been greatly strengthened, both geologically and zoologically :—
First, the Old Red Sandstone on the north side of the Bristol Channel is for the
most part distinguishable only by its external characters; viewed in this way, the
red sandstones and conglomerates of the Foreland, of Countesbury, and the hills
about Porlock (North Somerset) seem to be identically the same with the “Old
Red” of South Monmouthshire, whilst they are wholly unlike, and indicate a very
different origin from the sandstones of the Linton group, which are true fossiliferous
marine Lower “Devonian.” If this identification of the Foreland series, and of
Countesbury, be correct, then stratigraphically the lacustrine Old Red Sandstone
passes as a mass beneath the Devonian (Valley of the Lynn),

90 ; REPORT—1869.

Since Prof. Sedgwick and Sir R. Murchison proposed to substitute “ Devonian ”
for ‘Old Red Sandstone” very much has been done, by very accurate observers,
with respect to the latter local accumulations. It has been ascertained to be cer-
tainly a duplex, if not a triplex group, each division being dependent on contem-
poraneous physical changes, and each of which may be representative of the three
severally distinct stages, on the systematic marine scale; namely, of part of the
Upper Silurian of Sir R. Murchison’s system, of the true “ Devonian,” and, lastly,
in some cases of the Lower Carboniferous period.

The great geological interest which attaches to the true ‘ Old Red Sandstone”
consists in this—that, as does the ‘‘ Huronian ” for an earlier Paleozoic stage, and
as does the Purbeck- Wealden group for the great break in the Secondary (Jurassic
and Cretaceous) formations, it serves by its magnitude to illustrate the vast lapse
of time which really separates the marine groups of formations which geologists
place in immediate sequence, and serves also to show the nature of the subaérial
operations of the time.

Owing to the length of the communication the second part, relating to the geo-
graphical distribution of the Devonian marine fauna, was not read.

Notes on the Discovery of some Fossil Plants in the Cambrian (Upper Long-
myn) Rocks, near St. David’s. By Dr. Hicks.

The plant-impressions occur on some thin layers of shale facing the surfaces of
rough grit-beds, at a place called Trellerwr, two miles to the east of St. David’s.
These beds form a part of the section which underlies the “Menevian” rocks of
the well-Inown creek of Porth-y-Rhaw, and belong to the same series of grey
beds as those in which the fossils, mentioned in the author’s paper read at the
Norwich Meeting last year, were discovered; they are lower down than the
zone of the Trilobites (a bivalved crustacean and Lingulella ferruginea have
been discovered over 800 feet deeper in the section). These beds are strongly
ripple-marked, and five indications of having been deposited in shallow water.
The ones immediately above, and which contain the other fossils (Plutonia Sedg-
wicki, Conocoryphe Lyellii, &e.), ave of a finer grain, and indicate a somewhat deeper
water-deposit. No other fossils haye been discovered as yet along with the
plant-impressions, though, as already stated, others occur below, and also almost
immediately above. These beds are entirely separated from the “ Menevian
group” bya good thickness of purple and red rocks.

One of the specimens exhibited was obtained by the author some years ago from
the “ Menevian group ;” it was shown because of some amount of resemblance to
the plants just found. This, however, came from a deep-sea deposit, and is there-
fore most probably a distinct species.

The Extinction of the Mammoth. By H. H. Howorrn.

After a survey of all the authorities within his reach, the author concluded that
no existing theory accounted for the following facts, which are indisputable :—

1, That the Mammoth lived in the area where his remains are found.

2. That a great portion of that area is now a moss-covered tundra, or an ice and
boulder heap, as inthe Bear Islands.

3. That no herbivore of the size and plentiful development of the Mammoth
could find food in that area now.

4, That although covered with wool, and therefore adapted to a much more
rigorous climate than that of India and Africa, neither Mammoth nor Rhinoceros
could survive the present winter temperature of Northern Siberia.

5. The remains of the food eaten by the Mammoth and Rhinoceros, found and
examined by Midderndorff and Brandt, are remains of plants only found now in
more southern latitudes.

The only possible conclusion from these facts is, that the climate and condition
of things in Siberia have altered very greatly since the days of the Mammoth. In
support of this conclusion, such facts as the following are conclusive :—the bed of

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91

the Arctic Sea north of Siberia is rapidly rising, and exposing banks of sand con-
taining Mammoth-remains, the land is rapidly gaining on the sea along the whole
coast-line, and successive terraces or beaches are mentioned by Wrangel and
other travellers. The appearance of the tundra seems to point to a not very dis-
tant submergence of the whole of Siberia, as far south as the high lands, which
roughly mark the present northern limit of trees.

This being so, we have to ask ourselves what causes led to the change of con-
dition of things, and to the extinction of the Mammoth. The hand of man is
quite inadequate, and we must seek for it in the draining of the vast Mediter-
Tanean sea, which once existed from the Euxine to the Klingar Mountains, of
which the author gave descriptions from authorities. The drainage of this sea
must have been sudden and overwhelming, and not gradual ; for we findthe Mam-
moth remains aggregated in hecatombs on the pieces of high ground, and not
scattered indiscriminately. This alone would account also for such an immediate
change of climate (from an insular one to a continental) as should allow the
bodies of the mammoths to be immediately frozen and thus preserved intact.

On the Source of the Quartzose Conglomerate of the New Red Sandstone of the
Central portion of England. By Evwarp Hort, W.A., F.BS., PGS.

The source of the peculiar quartzite pebbles, which form the largest proportion
of the Conglomerate beds of the Bunter Sandstone of England, had formed a sub-
ject of inquiry for geologists from the days of the late Dr. Buckland downward.
Professor Ramsay, F.R.S., had shown that the quartz rock of the Lower Lickey
could not have given birth to the vast supplies of these pebbles of quartz, which
were originally spread over several hundred square miles of country, as this ridge
was buried under Permian strata at the Triassic period ; and Mr. Hull had come to
the conclusion, on mineralogical grounds, that neither the Carboniferous or Silu-
rian rocks of the north of England or south of Scotland were capable of supply-
ing pebbles of the nature of those found in the Bunter Conglomerate.

ith the exception of a few fragments of Carboniferous and Silurian rocks, the
Bunter Conglomerate was found to consist of rounded pebbles of coloured quartz-
ite. Their invariably rounded form and small size (seldom exceeding 6 inches in
diameter) had for some years suggested to the author that they might have been
subjected to attrition during more than one geological period, and he had antici-
pated that in the Old Red Conglomerate of Scotland the source of these pebbles
might be found.
ecent visits to the Old Red Conglomerate of Dumbartonshire and the district
of Lesmahago had confirmed this anticipation. In these districts the formation
was found to be composed for the most part of pebbles and boulders of quartzite,
recisely similar to the peculiar “liver-coloured”* quartzite pebbles of the New

d Sandstone; and in proof of this, specimens of the pebbles from the two
formations were exhibited to the Section f.

This view of the northerly drift of the quartzite pebbles was shown by the
author to be in harmony with the stratigraphical arrangement of the Bunter
Sandstone of England, which thins away towards the south-east of the country ;
and the absence in this formation of any of the large boulders of coloured quartz-
ite, such as were found in the Old Red Conglomerate, was attributed to the addi-
tional wear and tear to which the boulders had been subjected in travelling from
Scotland into England, or to the inability of a probably weak oceanic current to
impel blocks of large size to the required distance from their source,

On the Crag Formation. By Cuaries JEcKs.
The author considers that the Crag is but one formation divided into many

* A term often applied to them by the late Professor Jukes.
_ + These conglomerates have been described by Sir R. Murchison and Mr. A. Geikie as
they occur in the Lesmahago district, and by Prof. Nichol and Dr. Bryce in the district of
Dumbartonshire,

92 REPORT—1869,

sections, as Coralline, Red, and Fluvio-marine, &c., all these sections being only
different parts of one continuous deposit, occurring generally in estuarine or
shallow water, and subjected to gradual changes of temperature &c., by which
the character of the fauna was gradually altered, and that it thus presents a
striking instance of that continuity, not only of life, but of lithological forma~
tion, which we find more or less exemplified in all geological strata.

On the Action upon Earthy Minerals of Water in the Form of heated Steam,
urged by wood fuel, an experiment reported to the Association at its
Meeting at Glasgow in 1840, By Jurius Jerrreys, /R.S.

The experiment was made at Futtehgurh in India, in 1850, its object having
been to determine the action of water in the form of steam at an intense heat, as
a solvent of minerals insoluble in it at lower temperatures.

The instrument employed was a cylindrical kiln surmounted by a cone, and
interiorly about 30 feet high and 16 in diameter, employed for vitrifying stone-_
ware.

Four furnaces, 8 feet long and 4 wide, projected radially from the exterior of
the kiln, and heated it through fire-throats about 3 feet wide and a foot high,
each inrush of flame being allowed in part to how towards the centre of the kiln,
in part laterally, but the larger portion being turned upwards by dwarf chimneys
in the kiln, built against its sides. These chimneys were as wide as the throats,
say a yard, and about 18 inches from front to back.

For the experiment, a pit was dug between each furnace and the kiln, about
4 feet wide, 5 deep, and 10 inches broad from front to back. A fire-brick bridge,
or low wall, kept the fuel from falling into the pits. These pits were kept filled
with water.

Specimens of minerals, rock, and stones, and of ceramic ware and fire-brick
were ranged in the fire-chimneys, or fire-bags as they are called by potters, also
on the floor of the oven, and on the shelves on which were placed a few unbaked
specimens of the stoneware (chiefly bottles for mineral waters), for firing which
the kiln was usually employed.

It should he mentioned that the arched shelves were made ofa highly aluminous
and contractile clay, practically infusible, made into bricks (in a manner for de~
scribing which space is not here afforded) so dense that any fragments of them
would scratch glass readily ; whereas the fire-bags were built with an inferior and
much more porous and siliceous brick, nearly similar to English Stourbridge,
specimens of these being amongst them.

The fuel was wood of mango, dawk, and a peculiar light wood from the Tewai
Jungle. These woods abounded in alkali. They grow in the valley of the Ganges,
the soil of which is disintegrated mica and felspar.

The ordinary action of high firing with this fuel was to slightly melt the surfaces
of the fire-bags into a glassy coat, sometimes with tears of glass trickling down,
burning a little slag; but the dense shelf-bricks were but slightly affected by the
alkali.

After an intense firing of more than forty-eight hours, during which the water
had to be renewed in the pits, on opening the kiln all the glazing had disappeared,
and the minerals in the fire-bags had been reduced in volume. Their walls were
eroded to a depth varying from one to two inches. The specimens of ware on the
lower shelves were in some places eaten through. The unbaked stoneware was
fully vitrified, but the micaceous “‘slip”’ glaze on the surfaces, ordinarily a glossy
brown coat, was dissipated, the body of the ware being also eaten into. The dense
brick-shelyes were but slightly affected. The specimens of this ware on the
uppermost arch of the kiln, where the heat was not above a full red, were in the
usual state of any ware placed there, viz. under-fired in the body, and coated with
a rich brown glaze, the heat sufficing to melt it. But the surfaces, especially the
shoulders of the ware, were covered with a mineral hoar-frost—a loose incrusta-
tion evidently deposited before the glaze had melted, and under which the ware
had contracted in hardening, so as to raise up the frosty coat more clear of the

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 93

surface, excepting at the few points of contact, than the sugar on candied citron ;
and under this crust the glaze-wash had, as the heat rose, melted into a complete
lass.

W hat could thisincrustation be but a small part of the mineral matter which had
been so largely dissolved away below, by steam at an intense heat (aided no doubt
by the alkali in the wood fuel), as to have much exceeded two hundredweight, and
which left traces of its flight in a sprinkling of hoar-frost, precipitated at a red heat ;
the glaze happily intervening to prove that it had a source altogether extrinsic
from the ware on which it had lighted ?

An Estimate of the quantity of Sedimentary Deposit in the Onny.
By the Rev. J. D. La Tovcue.

The Onny is a small stream in the south-west of Shropshire, the waters of
which are collected over an area of 81 square miles. It is well known to geologists
as flowing through the principal strata of the Silurian rocks.

The following means have been taken to ascertain the rate of denudation of
this valley.

At the commencement of the present year a gauge-post was erected at a con-
venient spot in the river, at Stokesay, and a register has been kept of the height
of the flood by means of it.

A number of experiments have been made to determine the maximum surface-
velocity of the stream, and from these a Table (A) has been constructed, which at
a glance gives approximately the mean rate for every decimal of a foot, and the
amount of discharge per minute in cubic feet. For this purpose Table VII. in
Neville’s ‘Hydraulics’ was used.

At the commencement of each flood, at its full height and decline, specimens of
water were collected in ordinary quart bottles, which contain about 26 ozs. each,
and the sediment after subsiding was filtered and accurately weighed, the filter-
paper being first carefully dried. Table B is an extract from the register of these
experiments. The entries only include the more important floods.

he headings of the columns will speak for themselves; with reference to the
fourth column, it has been found that the number of grains in the 100 ozs. of
water varies considerably with the place from which it is taken. That collected
close under the edge of a weir was 20°5 per cent. higher than that collected about
thirty yards lower down. The difference is evidently due to the greater disturb-
ance of the water there than elsewhere.

I think of constructing a filter on a large scale, with wire gauze or some such
material, to be suspended for a certain time under the weir during a flood, to arrest
the coarser sand and pebbles, which cannot be estimated by the foregoing process,

The fifth column gives the number of pounds of dried sediment which pass down
the stream per minute.

To give an idea of what may be done with these data, I have made the follow-
ing calculation. The specific gravity of dry Silurian rock is about 2'5, Suppo-
sing the highest rainfall and the highest observed percentage of deposit to take
place for six weeks in each year (and this seems to be a very extreme estimate), it
would take 430 years to wear away a single inch of the surface of the valley of the
Onny. Of course this is far from being an accurate estimate, but it is evident
that it would be possible to approach indefinitely near to accuracy by these means,
and therefore to a true estimate of the rate of denudation of the land.

The last column gives the average rainfall of four rain-gauges placed at different
points of the basin of the Onny.

[t will be seen that, as might be expected, a certain relation exists between the
sedimentary deposit and the rainfall, though many things tend to interfere. The
suddenness of rain, its occurrence after a drought, or after long-continued wet
weather, will do so. But there is reason to expect that extended observation will
establish a general correlation between the average rainfall and the average rate
of denudation,

REPORT—1869.

TABLE A.
River~ |elocity per| locity per | section at | Discharge
gause- | 100 feet. min. gauge. ater
ft. sec. ft. sq. ft. cub. ft.
3
“4 110 45°95
5 80 62:65 122 7686
6 52 96:05 128 12288
oh 39 125:25 137 17125
8 34 146:15 146 21316
) 30 167-00 158 26386 :
1-0 28 179-55 164 29520 :
1-1 26 192:05 173 32225 :
1:2 24 208°75 182 37992
15 22 229°65 197 45310 .
1-4 20 250°50 206 51500 :
15 18 279°50 218 61040 |
16
TaBLeE B, .

Deposit in| Discharge | Average of

Date Hour of see 100 ozs. of | ofsediment| four rain-
day. gauge. water. per min. gauges.
1869. h ft. grs lbs in
SGT ces) eee eeasas Fle tracakeasee | hese raaicant 30
RO taseeal Paes ccteee walt siies ct 5 POR 09
acid cs Ssabloe nests tas fg Sa hh a atl Heed 8 Me 66
pyr NE RE 2:0 7:84 610°4 “54
Heboey Shel hiesae. cs ey 57 407 09
th Dessthel ib epeseds 10 3:8 147-41 19
la. Ages! Meitss dee 64 57 100 55
MGR UE) OF OAR DLC ees ar Peseta ILA ccd : 34
Ry Me ives ween eeeiat “75 77 290 043
«= 09 4pm SSD yi Ps eeeugies Wis abceecteets B86
wit 20 8 A.M Nel 73 307°8 07
aye 10 AM 9
ke 4PM 65
Pecanltes |eseaecacne! ||» ene 5:0 .
May Tes sescll\ wavecass oT bite Ba ies sth ellen sh acca “42 .
segeits ane 10.30 A.xt 85 Fea 190 “25
aan 3 P.M y)
rh at Pe ie 10 a.m Sd eae cere |) ere unate 40
Fa) he 9 aM 1:0 a f 1018 16
Rye osghkader 12 am 10
a 4 PM “75 11:9 4480
ag gb aa, 9 AM 85
5 DAR Rds Hibs SER RR CAT ERSLCe AUR [AME eRe lr (MAS, 305
by Poiatrs 9 AM 6 6:0 146'8 08
3) a eee 3 P.M [ODM ete eve |Wieaece ant 925
af Antec TPM 1:2 18°5 794-4
55, BOs ae - 11 a.m 1:65 17:0 1100°4 515
iis ay anes 2 PM 2:0
ay anhaet ee (2M 1:65
53) Al exawss 10 a.m 1:65

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95

On Spheroidal Structure in Silurian Rocks. By the Rey. J. D. La Toucun,

Spheroidal masses of various sizes are frequently met with in the Silurian and
some other rocks. In the Wenlock shale smaller nodules, arranged in lines with
the regularity of bricks in a wall, as well as huge masses of rich limestone, called
ball stones, may be observed. These latter concretions give plain evidence of
having been formed subsequently to the deposition of the whole stratum, inas-
much as they have disturbed the lines of stratification both above and below. A
discoloration, owing to the infiltration of moisture, is often found to accompany
nodular structure. The section of an oblong piece of Caradoc sandstone has been
found to exhibit three bands alternately of yellow and blue stone, the former appa-
rently more sandy than the latter. Here not only the colouring, but the physical
character of the stone seemed to have undergone a change from the effects of wea-
thering. A railway-cutting at the southern extremity of the Longmynd presents
an instructive example of the same kind. The cubical masses of rock almost
invariably weather into spheroids, the form of which is indicated by fine lines on
the faces of the stone, long before the edges fall off and reveal their perfect shape.

Another very beautiful instance may be seen in the Whitcliffe, near Ludlow,
where three large spheroids, of several feet in diameter, appear enclosed in concen-
tric layers of Upper Ludlow rock, which surround them like the coats of an onion,
the stratification of the general stratum, however, passing through them,

_ Has this peculiar structure been the result of an original deposition of nodules
or calcareous matter at certain spots, or is it owing to more recent causes ?

The fact that the shape of nodules frequently depends on the shape of the masses
in which they are contained, and that their position is determined by joints in the
rock, also that weathering produces a certain physical change in rocks, rearran-
ging to some extent their materials, would lead to the latter conclusion. It would
appear that if a quantity of soluble or crystallizable matter is equally distributed
Grinch a large mass, and that some external agent, such as moisture, is brought
to bear on it, it may drive inwards the more soluble constituents, produce those
concentric layers above alluded to, and in many cases be the cause of a central
nodule.

If this be so, we have here further evidence of an incessant change and motion
among the particles of the apparently motionless rocks, suggesting that some
important results are taking place in them, slowly, in immense periods of time,

Notice of remarkable Glacial Strie lately exposed at Portmadoe.
By Joux Enwarp Ler, F.S.A., F.G.S.

The object of this notice was to bring before the Section the fact, that probably
one of the best specimens of glacial action had lately been exposed in the small
town of Portmadoc, and will very shortly be destroyed, the locality being wanted
for building-sites. The part now exposed is about 100 feet wide by 50 feet long ;
many of the striz can be traced the whole length. It is nearly a plane, with the
exception of a furrow about 13 inches deep in the middle. Most of the stris run
from 8.E. to N.W., but a few run from S.S.E. to N.N.W. (magnetic). The angle
of inclination varies from 142 to 16°.

As the plane slopes to the N.W., and the hill behind is comparatively low,
while the highest ground in the neighbourhood is almost immediately in front,
though on the other side of the valley, it would appear that if the glacier which
caused these striz originated in the highest ground, it must have taken a sudden
turn when nearing the shore. If this is not thought probable, there must have
been two sets of glaciers meeting in the valley.

Denudation of Western Brittany. By G. A. Lnnovr, P.R.GS.

The conclusions brought forward in this paper are as follows :—
1. That, with the exception of a central range of Aills of elevation, Western Brit-
~ tany consists of two great plains of marine denudation.

96 ~ REPoRT—1869.

2. That the last time these plains were exposed to the levelling action of the
sea was probably during the Upper (?) Miocene period.

3. That the rivers of this district are identical, at least in their higher regions,
with those which flowed formerly from the central dry land into the Miocene sea.

4, That the valleys at the bottom of which these rivers run are the result of
their own erosive action, aided by other subaérial agents.

5. That the uniformity of width and depth of these valleys is due to the degree
of hardness of the rocks in this country, being in an order of succession exactly
corresponding to the time during which they have been exposed to the action
of subaérial denudation.

Notes on some Granites of Lower Brittany. By G. A. Lenovr, F.R.GS.

This paper is an attempt to determine, as far as possible, the relative ages of the
granites of Lower Brittany, and various sections are given, illustrating their appa-
rent bedding in the westernmost part of the province.

The author believes the granite to the north of Cléden to be metamorphic.

On the Distribution of the British Fossil Lamellibranchiata.
By James Locan Lostny, /.GLS,.

This paper gave the results of an investigation into the distribution of the fossil
Lamellibranchiata found in British strata; and was accompanied by a series of
diagrammatic tables showing the details of the distribution, and by lists of the
species hitherto discovered in each formation.

On the Gold of Natal. By R. J. Mann, MW.D., F.R.AS.

On the Trappean Conglomerates of Middletown Hill, Montgomeryshire.
By G. Maw, F.G.S., F.LS., FSA.

This was a description of the contemporaneous traps of Lower Silurian age in
the ridge known as Middletown Hill, running parallel with the Breiddens, on the
borders of Shropshire and Montgomeryshire. special reference was made to the
great beds of bouldered trap, consisting of boulders of compact felstone imbedded
in a softer matrix of felspathic tuff. The nodules occupy about half the mass of
the conglomerate, and are unaccompanied by pebbles of any other rock. They
vary from the size of a walnut to rounded masses of more than a hundredweight.
Sir R. Murchison’s description of these beds was referred to, and the author took
exception to the term ‘‘concretionary trap” employed in the ‘ Silurian System,’ as
he considered that the rounded outline of the boulders was unquestionably due
to mechanical causes. ‘The interbedded traps, bounded on either side by Lower
Llandeilo Flags, are of a collective thickness of about 780 feet, including
bouldered felstone, alternating with a whitish-green felspathic breccia. The line
of separation between the breccia-bed and boulder-trap is remarkably sudden, and
no gradation of character occurs between them. The breccia is worked for hard
felspar used for pottery purposes, and contains small nests of steatite. The boul-
dered condition of the felstone-bed was considered due to its partial breaking
up on being erupted under water, the soft matrix of felspathic tuff being the por-
tion more intimately divided, and the compact boulders fragments that had re-
sisted disintegration. The sudden alternation in Middletown Hill of eruptive
beds of very dissimilar character was noticed; they seem to have been emitted
in immediate succession, as, although overlain and underlain by sedimentary
deposits, there is no evidence of interstratification of sedimentary beds. The
author, in conclusion, pointed out the close geographical association with these
bedded traps of the much later porphyritic greenstone of the Breidden Hills,
which, it was suggested, might have been emitted from the same point of erup-
tion ; and the local association of the intrusive greenstone with the Lower Silurian
interbedded felstones was noticed as being very general in North Wales.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 97

On Insect Remains and Shells from the Lower Bagshot Leaf-bed of Studland
Bay, Dorsetshire. By G. Maw, F.GS., F.LS., PSA.

The author exhibited a large series of insect-remains, collected by Mr. W. R.
Brodie, from the Lower Bagshot Leaf-bed of Studland Bay, the species of which
had not yet been determined. Also six or seven shells belonging to the Unio-
nid ; these were of special interest, as being the first mollusca that had been
found in the beds separating the Middle Bagshots and London Clay, and deter-
mined the freshwater origin of the Lower Bagshot clays, a view Mr. Maw had
previously advocated from the physical characters of the beds.

Experiments on Oontortion of Mountain Limestone. By L. C. Mratu.

The author cited previous experiments illustrating the behaviour of various
materials when subjected to pressure, and briefly described the geological pheno-
mena of contortion. An apparatus was exhibited, which had been prepared to
produce artificial contortions in laminz of rock, and to ascertain the amount of
deflection capable of being caused by sudden and continuous strains respectively.

The lamina is clamped at one end to a block, the length to he bent is regulated
by sliding the block along a groove, and a known weight descends upon the free
end. Provision is made that the weight shall act upon a knife-edee, which is
always perpendicular to the surface of the slab, and always applied to the same
line. By means of an index the deflection can be read accurately to hundredths
of an inch.

In the annexed Table the results of one series of experiments are given. A
number of observed facts are neglected in order to give prominence to the chief
point, viz. the difference in the deflections produced by the sudden application of a
considerable weight, and by the prolonged action of a force of low intensity. The
angles haye been deduced from the amount of perpendicular deflection, and they
are consequently all taken as rectilinear.

No. 1, +45 inch.

2 Ibs. 7 02. 7 02. Recovered in
Immediately. 3 weeks. | 2 months. 3 weeks.
(Broke at) 2°:2. 7°°4. 11°°5. out
No. 2, ;85 inch.
2 Ibs. 7 02. 7 04. se
Immediately. 3 weeks. | 2 months. Bt Fi ater
(Broke at) 2°°5. 8°15, 10°15. ame
No. 3, 545 inch (bi-
tuminous). 2lbs. 7 02. 7 oz. Recovered in
Immediately. 3 weeks. | 2 months. 3 weeks.
(Broke at) 2°-75. 7°55. LISD SOME
No. 4, +3, inch (bi-
tuminous). 2 lbs. 5 02. 5 oz. O5u b
Immediately. 3 weeks. | 3 months. te ae
(Broke at) 2°*15. rents 12°-5 a

On a Specimen of Teleosaurus from the Upper Lias. By C. Moorn, F.GS.

In connexion with this paper the author exhibited a specimen of Teleosawrus
temporalis, Blainyille, about 4 feet in length, which was enclosed in fine sections
of nodular yellow stone, as they originally came from the Upper Lias quarry, and
which, when joined, looked like an elongated French loaf, in the centre of which
the bones were covered up. It was stated that, when developed, the Saurian was
likely to be found in very fine preservation. The beds in which it occurred and
the other associated organic remains were shortly noticed.

1869. 7

98 REPORT— 1869.

On some New Forms of Graptolites *.
By H. Atreyne Nicnorsoy, M.D., D.Sc., MA.

In this communication the author described twelve new species of Graptolites,
which had recently come under his notice. Of these, six were from the Skiddaw
Slates, raising the total number of Graptolites from this formation to thirty-four.
Three were from the Graptolitic Mudstones of the Coniston series, making, with
those already described by the author, a total of twenty-seven species (see Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xxiy.). The remaining three were from the Upper Llan-
deilo rocks of Dumfriesshire.

The following is a list of the species here described :—

Trigonograpsus lanceolatus. Diplograpsus Hughesi.
Dichograpsus fragilis. — sinuatus.

annulatus. Graptolites argenteus.
Didymograpsus fasciculatus. Diplograpsus insectiformis.
Diplograpsus Hopkinsoni. bimucronatus.
—— armatus. Climacograpsus innotatus.

Sketch of the Granite of the Northerly and Easterly Sides of Dartmoor.
By G. Waretne OrweErop, W.A., F.G.S.

The district known popularly as “Dartmoor” consists of the forest of that
name, and portions of the adjoining parishes ; it is estimated as being twenty-two
miles from north to south, and twenty from east to west, and is formed of granite
or granitoid rocks. The granite, for the most part, is a coarse-grained mixture of
quartz, felspar, and mica, which is sometimes white; large crystals of felspar are
often seen, and schorl or tourmaline is of very frequent occurrence both in veins
and as an integral part of the rock; near Chagford the author has found scapolite.
The granite to the north of the Teign is more crystalline than that to the south of
that river. The rock-basins, with very few exceptions, are in the district south
ofthe Teign. Perpendicular joints often occur; the greater part have a direction from
N.N.W. to 8.S.E., and other lines run at right angles to these. The joints that
have an easterly and westerly direction vary more from the perpendicular than
the others. Minor lines of joints, which cross at rather acute angles, give a ba-
saltiform character to the rocks in which they occur; these occupy only small
areas. The sides of joints are sometimes smooth and shining, and of a dark co-
lour, caused by schorl, and the faces are occasionally intersected by numerous
minute lines, which penetrate about an inch. The beds of granite rarely exceed
2 feet in thickness, and the adjoining beds, whether horizontal or perpendicular,
often differ in character. The division of granite into tabular masses and beds
having a stratiform appearance, is very general ; and the beds are occasionally seen
to curve beneath the schistose rocks (as near Belstone Tors), and to dip to the valleys
on each side of the range, probably causing the contour of the district, as at
Kestor and Middletor, between the North and South Teigns. To the south of the
Teign a spheroidal structure occurs, and-masses resembling boulders are seen in
situ in decaying granite ; a good example exists near the Lustleigh Station, and to
this peculiar structure the forms of the granite masses, often regarded as trans-
ported blocks, is in a great degree to be attributed. The Elvans of Dartmoor do
not equal those of Cornwall either in size or extent; veins of granite of the same
composition as the adjoining granite often penetrate the neighbouring sedimentary
rocks; these can be studied near Chagford, on the left bank of the Teign, at Hunt's
Tor and Sharpy Tor; at Sharpy Tor the vein is about 18 feet wide, and contains
large crystals of felspar, and masses of the adjoining carbonaceous rock. Veins of
porphyry rarely occur; a vein of coarse porphyry containing pseudo-opal is ex-
posed in the farmyard at Forder near Easton, and also at Sandy Park; and a vein
of fine-grained porphyry may be seen on the old road from Moreton Hampstead to
Exeter, near the cross of the roads at the top of the hill. The decay of gra-
nite was next noticed ; various particulars as to granite-gravel were pointed out,

* Published én extenso in ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History’ for Oct. 1869.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 99

and the manner in which the perpendicular joints, the stratiform beds, and the
spheroidal structure combine to produce the tors and rocking-stones, and the
most characteristic features of the mvor.

In conclusion, the author said that he had not seen any glacial markings on the
Dartmoor granite, but that Professor Otto Torrell, when visiting the Moor with
him last autumn, gave an unqualified opinion that many of the gravels were the
remains of moraines.

Notice of the Discovery of Organic Remains in the Rocks between the Nare Head
and Porthalla Cove, Cornwall. By C. W. Pracu, A.L.S.

In May last, after assisting to arrange a collection of Cornish fossils in the new
Museum of the Geological Society of Cornwall, at Penzance, the author examined
there the interesting series of the rock specimens of Cornwall, made by Dr. Boase
many years ago, to see whether any of them contained organisms. One of them, a
dark limestone, marked 733, from Porthalla Cove, attracted his attention; it evi-
dently contained organisms which were so indistinct that they had hitherto escaped

* notice.

The authorities kindly had it rubbed down and polished, and thus Encrinites and
a coral, probably Favosites polymorpha, were well shown.

Owing to this interesting discovery, the author resolved to visit the spot and to
try to find the rock zm situ. He met with a few specimens of blackened remains,
enclosed in a dark slaty rock, between tide-marks, in Nelly’s Cove, called “ Betsey’s
Cove” at page 95 of the ‘ Geology of Cornwall, Devon, &c.,’ by the late Sir Henry
De la Beche. One of the specimens shows one septum of an Orthoceras and part of
another. The others are evidently portions of organisms. Similar blackened
Orthocerites, &c. are not uncommon in a similar kind of rock at Fowey, Polruan,
&c.; many such obtained there by the author are in the Museum at Penzance.
Those from Nelly’s Cove are to be added to them.

On the alleged occurrence of Hippopotamus major and Machairodus latidens
in Kent’s Cavern. By W. Prneetry, F.R.S., GS.

The author, having reminded paleontologists that Prof. Owen (Brit. Foss. Mam,
&e. pp. 410 and 175, &c.) had mentioned Hippopotamus major and Machairodus
latidens as having been found in Kent’s Hole, and that the late Dr. Falconer had
not been convinced that either of them had been met with there, proceeded to give,
in each case, a brief summary of the evidence furnished, first, by the published and
unpublished statements of the early explorers of the Cavern, Mr. Northmore, Mr.
(now Sir) W. C, Trevelyan, Rey. J. M‘Enery, Rev. Dr. Buckland, and Mr. God-
win-Austen ; secondly, by their figures of the specimens they found ; and, thirdly,
by the specimens themselves.

The following are the chief conclusions at which he arrived :—

1st. That there is no trustworthy evidence that Hippopotamus major had been
found in the Cavern.

2nd. That Mr. M‘Enery found five canines of Machairodus latidens there.

3rd. That at present one of the five is in the British Museum, one in the Museum
of the Royal College of Surgeons, one in the Museum of the Geological Society of
London, one in the Oxford Museum, and one in the private collection of Sir W. C.

Trevelyan.

Source of the Miocene Clays of Bovey Tracey.
By Wri11am Penertty, F.R.S., F.GS.

Tn this communication the author stated, in reply to some remarks by Mr. Maw
(Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiii. pp. 892-393, 1867), that he had been led to the
conclusion (Phil. Trans. part ii. 1862, p. 1027) that the clays in question were
derived from the degradation of the Dartmoor granite, by the following facts :—

First, the proximity to Dartmoor ; secondly, that all the beds of clay and of sand
thin out eastward, that is, with increased distance from Dartmoor; ely; the beds:

100 REPORT— 1869.

of sand thin out in that direction before the beds of clay, and the coarse beds of
each kind before those which are finer; fourthly, because the beds of sand, and
especially the “ twenty-seventh,” are little more or less than disintegrated granite,
being made up of quartz frequently unrounded, crystals of felspar sometimes quite
angular, and grains of schorl; and fifthly, because of the presence of sand in the
clay-beds, and of clay in those of unmistakeable granitic sand.

Denudation of the Shropshire and South Staffordshire Coal-fields.
By Joun Ranpatu.

The author described a line of denudation in the Shropshire coal-field, familiarly
known as the Symon Fault, in which the coals and ironstones disappear in succes-
sion, more particularly at the Kemberton and Halesfield pits, in the Madeley Wood
Co.’s Field, where it was stated that the workmen of one pit were stripping the
Fault in the top coal, whilst workmen in the adjoining pit were doing the same
thing in the clod coal, 60 yards lower down, and 900 yards nearer to what is sup-
posed to be the trough of the estuary, which would give a slope of lin 15, In
some instances portions of coal were stated to have been broken off and rounded by
the action of waves or currents; in others, as at the Hill’s Lane and Shaw Field
pits, the strata on approaching the line of denudation was disturbed, and often
vertical. Instances were also given, as at Caughley, where the measures having
been denuded, excepting the lowest, a younger series had been formed above them;
and again, as at Linley, where, the whole of the older series having entirely disap-
peared, a younger group rested upon Old Red Sandstone. Looking at the island-
like form of the Brown Clu Hills, and at the wide tracts from which the coal-
measures had been swept clean away to the south, and along what might be
supposed to be the mouth of the estuary, also at the result of the borings made
through the red rocks, and at the fact that first the Permians, then the Bunter, and
lastly the Keuper sandstones came in one after the other as receding from the coal-
field, the author was of opinion that for sixteen miles (that is, from the margin of
the Shropshire to that of the Staffordshire coal-fields) the measures had been swept
away, with the exception of such portions only as might have been saved by de-
pression, the results of faults prior to denudation, or others to the north-east in the
direction of Cannock Chase, which might have been out of reach of the waters of
the estuary.

The author added that, so far as he was aware, there was nothing on the oppo-
site or western side of the South Staffordshire coal-field inconsistent with this view.
There were perhaps a greater number of slip faults on that side on approaching the
western boundary of the coal-field, but these and similar facts, when read by the
light of those found on the Shropshire side, afforded graye reasons for further
inquiry, if not for the belief that either by some strait or estuary the coal-measures
had, with the exception hinted at, been destroyed over a very wide surface.

On the Physical Causes which have produced the unequal Distribution of Land
and Water between the Hemispheres. By J. W. Rew.

On certain Phenomena in the Drift near Norwich. By J. BE. Taytor.

The Water-bearing Strata in the neighbourhood of Norwich.
By J. E. Taytor.

‘* Paléontologie de V Asie Mineure.” By M. Tontmarcuer.

M. Tchihatchef, in presenting to the Association a work entitled “ Paléontologie
de l’Asie Mineure,” and Atlas of Plates, stated that this work contained descrip-
tions of fossils collected by him in Asia Minor, by Viscount d’Archiac, E. de Ver-
neuil, and M. Fisher. All the new and rare species are figured in the Atlas.
The total number of species enumerated and described in this work is about

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 101
600; at the time M. Tchihatchef began his explorations in Asia Minor the total
number of the known fossils of this country did not amount to 30. It was
also stated that the treatise on the geology of Asia Minor, of which this work
was a part, had been lately completed. In conclusion, a reference was made to the
flattering notice of this work by Sir Roderick Murchison in his last Address to the
Geographical Society.
At the Nottingham Meeting, the author presented to the Association a topo-
graphical and geological map of Asia Minor, and on that occasion gave a sketch
of the principal geological features of Asia Minor.

On the Diamonds received from the Cape of Good Hope during the last year.
By Professor J. Tennant, GS.

On new forms of Pteroplax and other Carboniferous Labyrinthodonts, and
other Megalichthys. By Jamus Tomson (Glasgow), F.G.S. With Notes
on their Structure, by Professor Youne.

During the past year the author has continued his investigations into the ver-
tebrate forms of the Lanarkshire Coal-field, and has added many specimens of
reptiles and fishes to those brought under the notice of the Meeting last year.
Some of them are so well marked as to supply characters sufficient to admit of them
being referred to their systematic position, and he had been fortunate in securing
the cooperation, for their anatomical description, of Professor Young of the Glasgow
University. The author anticipated that in the course of the next year Professor
Young would be able to figure and describe them in a way which will satisfy the
systematic or anatomical student.

They are found resting upon a thin seam of coal, which varies from five to fifteen
inches in thickness ; upon the surface of this coal there occurs a thin seam of shale,
which forms a parting between the coal below and an ironstone band above. It is
in this parting that the remains are found, and to the fact of their having been
imbedded in the soft pulpy mass of the shale may be attributed the perfect state
of preservation in which they are found. In the superimposed ironstone are also
found similar remains, but owing to the hard matrix, they are seldom obtained in
good preservation.

The ironstone belongs to the Upper Coal-measures, and represents a basin of
limited extent, and is situated upon the south side of the river Avon. The same
stratum has been identified in other parts of the Lanarkshire coal-field, but in no

lace have there been discovered so many fossil remains as at Quarter, and it is to

e regretted that, from the limited extent of the basin and the length of time it
has been wrought, it is now almost exhausted, and a few weeks will terminate the
present workings.

Notes on their Structure, by Professor Youne.

Among the specimens in Mr. Thomson’s cabinet, Prof. Young distinguished two
new species of Labyrinthodonts, for which he proposed the generic name Mega-
lerpeton. Generic characters:—Cranium narrower than that of Anthracosaurus in
the proportion of 4 to 5; posterior nares between first and second pairs of tusks ;
pterygomaxillary apertures commence an inch behind them; mandible tapering
rapidly to symphysis, coarsely pitted externally; teeth regular, equal, their base
oval transversely to jaw; crown circular, blunt, slightly recurved. The vertebre
differ somewhat in proportion from those of Anthracosaurus; their transverse
processes are oblique downwards, those of Anthracosaurus horizontal.

Megalerpeton plicidens. Conyolutions sinuous, occupying larger part of transverse
section, encroaching very much on pulp-cavity.

MM. simplex. Pulp-cavity larger; folds straight, the alternate long plice reach-
ing only halfway from circumference to pulp.

Pteroplax brevicornis, nu. sp. The characteristic tooth (formerly known as RAi-
zodus lanceiformis) of Pteroplax is found associated with crania which differ from
P. cornuta, Hancock & Atthey, in the proportions of the muzzle, and the position

102 REPORT—1869.

and dimensions of the orbital cavities, as well as in the dimensions of the occipital
cornua. Measurements of two crania in inches :—length 12 and 13, breadth 6°5 and
95; breadth between cornua 2°87 and 2:75. The characters do not in the mean-
time justify the establishment of a new genus for these crania.

Megalichthys. The following species were defined from specimens in Mr. Thom-
son’s cabinet, obtained from the Lanarkshire coal-field :—

M. Hibberti. Scale covered with fine-grained, smooth, glossy enamel. In this
species occurs most frequently that imperfect development of ganoin referred to
in Q. J. Geol. Soc. 1866, pp. 607-8.

M. coccolepis, n. sp. Scale usually of a rich brown colour, set with stellar
tubercles, recalling the “ berry-bone” of the Old Red Sandstone.

M. rugosus, n. sp. A less frequent form ; the scale is usually pale, not enamelled,
covered with asperities more or less confluent, never stellar. With this scale is
associated a tooth which Dr. Young described as diagnostic of Rhomboptychius
(Q. J. Geol. Soc. 1866, p. 606), but which turns out to be common to two ‘distinct
genera.

On Teeth and Dermal Structure associated with Ctenacanthus.
By James Tomson, F.GS.

The author stated that he had discovered in the spring of this year, in the
neighbourhood of Airdrie, Lanarkshire, a slab of ironstone measuring 80x14
inches; although only a fragment, yet it exhibits, lst, a mass of shagreen ; 2nd, two
spines of Ctenacanthus major; 3rd, a number of teeth, Cladodus mirabilis, Agassiz,
evidently in their proper relative position, the slightly curved line in which they
are disposed suggesting the contour of the mouth, and lying at a higher level than
those which were exposed; 4th, a fragment of a small spine, the cross section of
which gives as its outline a spherical triangle with the posterior side less than the
others ; the anterior face is round and smooth, while the posterior face is flat. Along
the margins of the posterior face there are two rows of pointed tubercles curying in-
wards and downwards. Being thus formed on the upper surface of the head, it is
natural to infer that it was situated on the occipital region of the fish. This in-
ference is supported by subsequently finding another spine imbedded in another
slab, which, like the former, is associated with the teeth of Cladodus mirabilis.

On removing the ironstone from the underside of the slab immediately over the
mouth, the author laid bare the skin, and found imbedded on its surface numerous
minute bodies, consisting of two, three, and four curved diverging points rising from
an expanded base, from which asharp keel on the convex side passed to the apex of
each.

On other parts of the slab are found similar bodies, larger than those found on the
crown of the head, but possessing similar tooth-like characters, divided into two,
three, four, and in a few instances into six divergent points, and keeled along the
convex or dorsal side; and on aslab which Dr. Rankin Carluke allowed the author
to examine, were founda mass of similar teeth-like bodies, which exhibited similar
characters, in one instance divided into fifteen divergent points, and also associated
with the teeth of Cladodus.

In another slab, found at the same place and at the same time, were im-
bedded in a patch of shagreen the so-called teeth of Diplodus gibbosus, very nu-
merous, and crowded together without order. We have associated with these
another form of teeth-like tubercles, smooth, enamelled and circular in section;
they are relatively larger, while the recurved apex is more pointed than the tu-
bercles before described ; they are occasionally found in patches of greater numbers ;
in some instances in clusters of eight and nine, and are attached to broad flat bases.
Finding such an amount of co-related evidence, the author prepared microscopic
sections of patches which were detached from the mass. After doing so, he was led to
refer to the results of other investigators, and found that Professor Owen had got
forwarded to him from Mr. Crages similar forms found in the Newcastle coal-field,
and which he described in a paper read to and published by the Odontological So-
ciety. He describes them as teeth, some of which he names Ditodus divergens,
Mitrodus quadricornus, Ochlodus crassus, Gastrodus prepositus.

SE —_——— —-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 103

In a paper by Messrs. Hancock and Atthey, published in the Northumberland
and Durham Natural-History Society’s Transactions, they describe similar bodies,
which they found attached to patches of shagreen, and much resembling those
found in the Scottish beds.

As some of the forms described by Professor Owen agree in detail with the sec-
tions made by himself, the author felt much puzzled at finding the different forms
distributed over and attached to the same shagreen; in order to arrive at a some-
what satisfactory conclusion, he examined a number of the recent Rays.

Founding on the analogy of existing rays his conclusions are :—

Ist. That the two spines of Ctenacanthus belonged to the same animal, both pro-
bably spines of dorsal fins, the smaller being the anterior.

2nd. That the animal was provided with the teeth known as Cladodus of Agassiz.

5rd, That the body of the animal was covered with fine shagreen.

4th. That among this fine investure were scattered large structures of Diplodus of
authors, which stand to the shagreen in the same relation as does the placoid ar-
mature to the fine denticulate tubercles of existing Rays.

5th. That among the living forms the sexual differences are to be noticed in the
dermal development, differences which find their probable counterpart in the fossils.
The dermal characters in the fossils are those of Rays.

Whether the views here stated be accepted or rejected, the author hopes the
identification attempted may serve as a basis for further observation.

On the distribution of shattered Chalk Flints and Flakes in Devon and
Cornwall. By N. Wurtiey.

On the Occurrence of Stylonurus in the Cornstone of Hereford.
By H. Woovwarp, F.G.S.

The author exhibited drawings of the great Stylonurus Scoticus and of the smaller
S. Powriei, both which species have been obtained in a nearly perfect state in the
Old Red Sandstone of Forfarshire.

He referred to the finding of S. Symondsii in Herefordshire, a species agreeing
in size with the S. Powried of Forfarshire, and showed that in the new species we
have evidence in Herefordshire of a crustacean belonging to the Merostomata and
to the genus Stylonurus as large as the great S. Scoticus. The specimens (which
were exhibited) were discovered by Dr. M‘Cullough of Abergavenny.

On the Discovery of a large Myriapod of the genus Euphoberia in the Coal-
measures of Kilmaurs. By H. Woopwarp, F.G.S.

The author referred to the original discovery of a Myriapod (Xylodius Sigilarie)
in the coal of Nova Scotia by Dr. Dawson in 1859*, and to its subsequent disco-
very by Mr. Thomas Brown in the coal-measures of Kilmaurs, near Glasgow, in
1866, or earliert.

He mentioned the discovery of a much larger form of Myriapod in the Illinois
eoal-field, described by Messrs. Meek and Worthen in the ‘Geology of Dlinois,’
vol. iii. (1866), and stated that one equally fine (4 inches in length) had been found
at Kilmaurs by the late Mr. Thomas Brown, which he referred to the same genus

'-as that from [linois (Zuphoberia), and named it, after its discoverer, Euphoberia

Brown, This new Myriapod, of which a specimen and drawings were exhibited,
like Xylobius, occurs in the ironstone-nodule bed of the Coal-measures.

Freshwater Deposits of the Valley of the River Lea, in Essex.
By H. Woovwarp, F.G.S.

The author based his communication upon the observations made during the

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1860, vol. xvi. p. 272.
tT H. Woodward on Xylodius, Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, 1867, vol. ii. pt. 3. p. 234.

104 REPORT—1869.

formation of new reservoirs and filtering-beds by the East London Waterworks
Company. Two new reservoirs are now being made, covering 120 acres in extent,
and of an average depth of 10 feet. The “ puddle-walls” are excavated to a depth
of about 25 feet. The materials removed are all of posttertiary age, consisting of
surface soil, lcamy clay, peat, shell-marl, coarse and fine sands, rounded and sub-
angular gravels from the Chalk and Woolwich series, with pebbles of chert and
sandstone from the older rocks. The deposit is rich in vegetable remains, the peat
attaining a thickness of three feet, and containing evidences of the oak, the alder,
the hazel, and other trees and plants. The sbell-marl is at places equally thick, and
is rich in shells, twenty-six species having been determined by the author. The
bivalve shells are still united, and the Paludine &c. have their opercula still in
place. Of the animals may be mentioned human remains and works of art of the
stone, bronze, and iron age. The wolf, the fox, the beaver, horse, wild-boar, red
deer, roebuck, fallow deer, reindeer, the elk, the goat, three oxen (including Bos
primigenius, B. longifrons, and B. frontosus), the sea-eagle and some fish-remains
complete the list. In the deep trenches of the puddle-walls tusks of the Mam-
moth and horns of the gigantic Bos and Cervus have been found. Myr, A. W.
Franks, F.S.A., Keeper of the Ethnographical Collections in the British Museum,
has obtained from this deposit a flint scraper, two bronze spear-heads, one bronze
arrow-head, one bronze knife, an iron sword (late-Celtic), bronze sheath, a Kim-
meridge-clay armlet, a pierced axe-head of stag’s horn, a bone knife, a stag’s horn
club, various earthen pots (some hand-made and some turned on the wheel),
besides many cut bones. In 1300 all Essex was one vast forest. In 1154 the
forest of Middlesex commenced at Houndsditch and extended north and east for
many miles, and the forest is described as abounding in wolves, wild boars, stags,
and wild bulls. The Walthamstow marshes have not been disafforested more
than 100 years. Of the antiquity of these deposits no doubt can exist, for the
presence of the reindeer, the elk (determined by Professor Owen), and the beaver
is conclusive. Their preservation so near the surface is entirely due to the pro-
tective influence of forest vegetation, which has precluded the inroads of agri-
culture. The author expressed his belief that the deposits indicated, at places, the
effects of beaver-works, tracts of forest having been to all appearance submerged
and destroyed by the action of beaver-dams.

BIOLOGY.

Address by C. Spence Bare, F.RS., F.LS., Vice-President of the Section,
to the Department of Zoology and Botany.

ALLow me on taking possession of this chair to say, as a resident of Devonshire,
how gratified we all feel at receiving you as Members of this Association. It is
now nearly thirty years since this county had the honour of last receiving you. In
the year 1840 you paid a visit to Plymouth. You were then a Society young in
years, with many and powerful enemies to contend against. Since that time you
have grown in dimensions, and become a power in the State, and second to none in

your influence on, and encouragement of, science among the generally educated —

masses of the country.

With the importance that the Society has assumed, has sprung up a natural and
honourable rivalry among ihe more important towns in the country as to which
shall have the honour of receiving you. On this occasion the good fortune has
fallen to Exeter, and well we are assured that the hospitality of Devonshire may
be trusted in the safe keeping of the “ Ever-faithful City.”

But this desire to show welcome to you is not confined to this town; the ex-
cursions to Plymouth, Torquay, Bideford, &c. are evidence of a wish on the
part of the inhabitants of the county generally to bid you welcome, and to receive
you heartily ; nay, this desire is not confined to Devonshire, but further west; in

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 105

Cornwall the Natural-History Society of Penzance has projected an excursion to
the Land’s End, to visit the Druidic remains of interest in that district. This they
have arranged so as to suit the convenience of such members who, after the Meet-
ing, may like to extend their visit to that locality.

To the Members of the Association who are interested in this Section these two
counties must ever have peculiar features of interest. A peninsula jutting out
from the rest of England, surrounded on all sides by the Atlantic Ocean, with
the exception of a narrow neck of land of about thirty miles in length, must have
features exclusive its own.

This position gives it a peculiarity of climate,—a circumstance which also has its
influence on its vegetation as well as on its animal life. The isothermal line of
these counties is that of nearly the southern part of Europe. This can be best
appreciated in the fact that the glowworm may be seen to shine in December, and
strawberries not unfrequently gathered at Christmas. Perhaps there is no part of
England that affords such varied contrast as may be seen in this county. The
wild and rocky district of the north, the uncultivated waste of Dartmoor, together
with the fertile valleys of the southern shores, offer every inducement to naturalists
to extend their researches in their interesting paths of science.

The narrow neck of land that separates the ancient Damnonia from the rest of
England lies between Bridgewater Bay and Lyme Regis, a line running nearly due
north and south. It is one, moreover, which corresponds with the most westerly
limit of the Nightingale. This in itself has long been a subject of interest to the
inhabitants of these counties. That it is not due to food we think is evident ; for
in the more northerly latitudes the sweet songster keeps nearly to the same line of
longitude, and appears to avoid the western district of Wales also.

The influence of the geological character of soil in the growth of plants
may be well studied here. Examples may be seen in the luxuriant condition of
the elm-trees, when growing in the Red Sandstone valleys of this neighbourhood ;
while the oak may be seen to flourish as a weed in the abundant coppice, on
the slaty and granitic soils of the western extremity of the county. Perhaps to
the botanist no more curious and interesting sight can be seen in the west than
that of Wistman’s Wood. In the heart of Dartmoor has continued, without appa-
rently any young growth, a grove of oaks that have been recorded in the Duchy
annals within a short period of the Norman Conquest. Here for a thousand
years these knarled and knotted trees have spread out their branches and sent
forth their green leaves every year, without apparently having the power to gTow
higher than some few feet above a tall man’s head. "Their roots are amongst the
granite boulders, from which apparently they can procure no nourishment. They
exist as one of the greatest botanical wonders of the county.

But there are more notable distinctions than that of geological conditions to
account for the distribution of plants. On the slope of the Dartmoor hill-sides
every tourist must have noticed long grassy trackways where the turf has never
been encroached upon by the heather that luxuriantly flourished on either side.
Here is a suggestive hint that the chemist would be of service. It demonstrates
how nearly one branch of science is dependent upon another.

There are many plants more or less common in this county, which the botanist
will not find, or only rarely, in other parts of England.

To the zoologist, this western peninsula must have much of interest. Dr. Leach
and Col. Montagu stand side by side as pioneers in British zoology. They made
most of their collections in Devonshire, and it is but within a few weeks that their
old companion, Charles Prideaux of Kingsbridge, died, leaving his collection, many
specimens of which were procured in company with Dr. Leach and Col. Montagu,
to the museum of his native town.

The Reports to this Association from time to time show that in marine zoology
these western shores are among the most variedly rich in the country.

Besides the zoologist and botanist, those Members of this Section who study the
science of ethnology will find much to interest them in the antiquities that are
known, and which we should be among the foremost to preserve from destruction.
When a conspicuous monument of the old stone records is broken down, as the
Maen-rock of Constantine, a hue and cry is made, but there are less known, but

106 REPORT—1869.

not less important evidences of the unwritten history of the ancient inhabitants of
these islands continually being destroyed, and no man the wiser. A cromlech,
that a few years since was standing by Merivale Bridge, being part of a series of
antiquities in that locality, has this summer been wantonly cleft in two.

A short time since, near Padstow, a tumulus, in which was found a vessel with
bones, was carted away by the farmer of the neighbourhood for the sake of the
earth. It was only last summer that an interesting barrow near Tintagel, pecu-
liarly and carefully constructed, with a kistvean in the centre, with a waterproof
covering over it, containing bones in a good state of preservation, was opened, and
the things all lost. A large landed proprietor in the north of this county has told
me that he has often opened burial mounds in his neighbourhood, but found
nothing. Such things as bones, pottery, and stone implements he thought not
worth observing ; by nothing he meant no bronze or gold ornaments.

On the wastes of Dartmoor and the uncultivated lands in Cornwall stand many
an unrecorded monument of antiquity; year by year these are gradually passing
away. It appears to me that itis the duty of the ethnologists of this Section
earnestly to take steps to record all of those that are in existence, to explore those
that have not been examined, and to preserve all from destruction.

Zootoey and Borvany.

On alteration in the Structure of Lychnis diurna, observed in connewion with
the development of a parasitic fungus. By Lypra EK. Becker.

Specimens were produced of the common red campion, Lychnis diurna, infested
with a parasitic fungus allied to the “smut” in wheat, which fungus developes its
fructification in the anthers of the flower. The campion, in its ordinary healthy
state, has flowers bearing stamens only, or pistils only, but about half the plants
infested with the parasitic fungus bear flowers with both stamens and pistils in the
same flower. The writer had never seen bisexual flowers on healthy plants, and
attributed the occurrence of that condition in the specimens produced to the pre-
sence of the parasitic fungus. The diseased plants very rarely produced capsules,
but occasionally, late in the season, perfect capsules, bearing good seed, are found
on them. A few of these flowers had been submitted to Mr. Charles Darwin, and
he had suggested that the pollen being destroyed at an early period, the pistil
was developed in compensation. But though this explanation appeared probable
at first sieht, further examination of the facts did not seem to sustain rt. The
writer believed the influence exerted by the pollen to be of a much more subtle
and surprising character than this, and that instead of causing the development of
a pistil in a plant that would have produced stamens only if left to itself, the
fungus has the power to cause a plant which in its natural condition would have
oroduced pistils only, to develope stamens for the accommodation of the parasites,
She supposed that the spores of the fungus fell on the stigma of the flower, and
infested all the seeds produced by that capsule ; that of these, all the seeds which
would naturally have produced plants bearing stamens only remain unaffected in
structure, but they have their pollen destroyed by it; that those which would
naturally have produced pistils only develope these to a certain extent; but as the
fungus which pervades the tissues of the campion cannot produce spores without
anthers to fructify in, it compels the plant it inhabits to develope these for its
accommodation, and the effort of so doing exhausts the forces of the plant, and
causes the decay of the capsule, if indeed the previous stunting of the style does
not prevent fertilization. The parasite comes like a cuckoo, establishes itself in
the flower of the campion, and in order to nourish and find accommodation for
the spores of the stranger its own offspring perishes. The production of healthy
capsules late in the season may be accounted for by supposing that the vigour of
the fungus becomes exhausted, and the pressure being removed the plant resumes
its natural functions. The fact that only about half the diseased plants are bi-
sexual favours the theory that the latter are female plants, in which the growth of
stamens has been induced by the presence of the fungus.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 107

On the Fauna of British India, and its relations to the Ethiopian and so-
called Indian Fauna. By Writs T. Buayrorp, F.G.S., C.M.Z.S.

In the various works published of late years on the geographical distribution
of animals, it has been almost invariably assumed that the fauna of India proper
and the Malay countries is identical. This is not the case, however; the fauna of
the Himalayas, especially to the eastward, is purely Malay, and that of the hills
along the Malabar coast and in Ceylon has very marked Malay affinities; but the
fauna of the plains of India generally is, if anything, more closely allied to that of
Africa than to that of Malayasia.

Illustrations of this fact were given from the Mammals, Birds, and terrestrial
Mollusca, these being chosen as having been most carefully examined, and their
range most accurately ascertained. Thus, taking the common larger mammals
found in the very centre of India around Nagpur, excluding small rodents and
Cheiroptera, because their range is less accurately known, it is found that one
belongs to a genus peculiar to India, nine to genera common to Africa and the
Malay countries, eleven to genera, viz. Mellivora, Cynalurus, Hyena, Canis
(two species), Vulpes, Lepus, Antilope, and Gazella, found also in Africa, but wanting
in the Malay countries, and only five to forms, viz., Presbytis, Cuon, Rusa, Axis,
and Gaveus, represented in the Malay countries, but notin Africa. Of the species
two arecommon both to Malayasia and Africa, sixteen are peculiar to India, four
(Felis tigris, Cuon rutilans, Rusa Aristotelis, and Gaveus gaurus) extend to the
eastward into the Malay countries, but not to the westward, while three others
(Felis chaus, Cynailurus jubatus, and Hyena striata) are common to Africa and
Tndia, but extend no further to the east. The generic lists, however, give a far
more fair view of the real affinities of the Central-Indian fauna, because many
Indian forms, like Mellivora indica, Canis aureus, Lepus ruficordatus, Gazella Ben-
neti, are scarcely separable as geographical races from those inhabiting the distant
Ethiopian region, while such forms as Axis maculatus and Prochilus labiatus,
although represented in the much less distant Malay countries, are replaced there
by forms differing much more widely, and indeed classed by many naturalists in
distinct genera. Also it should be noticed that the African and Palearctic types
(excluding Himalayan animals), which extend to India but no further to the south-
east, comprise the Hyenide, Canide (with the sole exception of Cuon), Leporide,
and Antelopide, whilst the only great family of Mammals, which extends to India
from the Malay countries, and is not found in Africa south of the Atlas, is the
Cervide (Rusine). :

The same is seen amongst the Birds; for instance Neophron, Pterocles, and Otis
oceur throughout India, but are completely unrepresented in Malayasia. Amongst
common Central-Indian forms are :—

Neophron perenopterus. Lanius lahtora.

Aquila fusca. Hirundo filifera.

Circus Swainsoni and C. cineraceus. Motacilla dukhunensis.

Palzeornis torquatus. Pastor roseus.

Cypselvs batassiensis. Gymnoris flayvicollis.
affinis. Ammomanes pheenicura.

Malacocircus Malcolmi and M. Mala- Pyrrhulauda grisea.

baricus. Calandrella brachydactyla.
Chattarheea caudata. Pterocles exustus.
Oriolus kundoo. Otis Edwardsii.

All are either found in Africa or represented by closely-allied forms, but not found
or closely represented in the Malay countries. On the other hand, there are
several Malay types equally abundant, as—

Poleornis teesa. Tephrodornis pondiceriana.
Xantholema indica. Orthotomus longicauda,
Eudynamys honorata. Acridotheres tristis.

Lanius erythronotus. Pavo cristatus,

108 REPORT—1869.

But in most cases these are more or less represented in Africa, whilst a larger
number of the African types have no closely allied forms in the Malay regions.

In Bengal, however, Orissa, Malabar, and Ceylon, Malay forms are much more
largely repmec elles while the African types disappear. Throughout the southern
portion of the peninsula of India, south of the Kistna river, several peculiar forms
occur, like Presbytis Priamus, Macacus radiatus, Tapaia Elliotict, Lepus nigricollis,
some of which have Malayan affinities, though by no means all.

The distribution of the Carnivora and Ruminants was discussed, and that of the
Birds also treated at some length. Amongst the operculated land-shells it was
shown that the Cyclophoride, which are chiefly developed in Malayasia, exterd-
ing to South America, though largely represented in India, are almost confined to
the Bengal, Malabar, and Ceylonese subprovinces, whilst Cyclotopsis, a genus of
Cyclostomide, a family widely developed in Southern Europe and parts of Africa,
is widely distributed over India.

Tt was further shown that, although many of the African animals belonged to
desert types, others, such as Pterocles bifasciatus, Otis awrita, Tockus gingalensis,
belong to African bush or forest forms, and the absence of species of such marked
forest birds as the Treronide and Bucerotide, except those most uearly allied to
African types in the forests of Central and Western India, was commented upon.

The extraordinary divergence in the migratory birds of Bengal and Western
India received notice. Besides the better known cases, it was shown that Circus
melanoleucos, Erythrosterna leucura, and Gallinago sphenura were confined, so far
as is known, to the eastern portion of India, whilst Erythosterna parva, at least
five species of Sazicola, Emberiza Huttoni, two species of Euspiza, Circus cyaneus,
Cotyle rupestris, and others, are only found in the West and Centre.

In Upper Burma there are a few forms with Indian affinities, which are not
represented in the Malay countries proper. Such are Lepus peguensis, the Jackal
(perhaps introduced), Francolinus peguensis, Pericrocotus albifrons, a Chattarhea,
&e., and two African or desert forms of land shells, Pupa wsularis and P. cwno-

acta.
Altogether it was considered that India proper was not an integral portion of
the Malay zoological province, but a border land containing a mixture of the
Malay and Ethiopian faunas, and it was suggested that the name Indian region
might be advantageously changed to Malay, as the employment of the former
involves error.

On the genus Boswellia, with Descriptions and Drawings of Three new Species.
By Dr. Brrpwoop.

Remarks on a recently discovered Species of Myxogaster. By C. E. Broome.

Trichia flagellifer was discovered on shoots of Spruce Fir in the winter of 1865,
by the Rey. M. J. Berkeley, since which time it has occurred more abundantly on
rotten stems of Rubus frudicosus. The specific name was given to it on account of
the threads or elaters being repeatedly divided at their ends, thus resembling small
scourges. A more careful examination of its structure was made in the winter of
1868, and the result showed that it forms a connecting link between the genera
Trichia and Physarum, possessing the spiral threads of the former combined with
the adnate capillitium of the latter. Fries describes the capillitium of Trichia as
“ densely interwoven, and its threads adnate at the base,” by which he means, as
the context shows, that the threads are attached to each other, but not to the
peridia. Corda, in his ‘ Icones,’ followed by Wigand, ‘Annales des Sciences’ for
1862, describes the capillitium of Trichia as developed freely in the centre of
the peridium. Wigand says that “sections of the peridium of Trichia show the
capillitium occupying generally the central cavity of the peridium, the mass of
spores filling the space intermediate between the capillitium and the walls of the

eridium, and that the individual elaters are generally simple, or only slightly
bemehed and detached from each other, and characterized by spiral projections.”
In the nearly related genus Arcyria the threads of the capillitium often form reti-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 109

culations by their adhesion to one another, and are distinguished from the threads
of Trichia by annular, or unilateral, instead of spiral prominences. Abnormal
elaters of Trichia furcata are figured by Wigand, combining the spiral threads of
Trichia with the annular structure of Arcyria in one and the same elater, showing
the close affinity of the two genera. The elaters of all the species of Trichia known
previous to the discovery of 7. flagellifer are pointed at each end, and not attached
to the peridium. In the genus Physarum the branched threads are adnate to the

eridia at or near the base, as in Trichia flagellifer, but they have no spiral pro-
Jections. Physarum metallicum, Berkl., exhibits other characters, found also in
Trichia flagellifer, viz. a metallic lustre on its peridium, and flesh-coloured spores.
The latter plant is thus described in the ‘ Annals of Natural History’ for 1866 :—
“Trichia flagellifer, n. sp.; globosa sessilis, metallica; flocci apice flagelliferis;
sporis carneis.” This species is readily distinguished from its congeners by the me-
tallic peridium and colour of the spores, and from Physarwm by the spiral bands
of its threads, which appear to be four or five in number; its spores are smooth and
subglobose, and measure 0:0003 to 0-0004 inch in diameter; where the elaters branch
off a line of junction is perceptible a considerable way below the point of union, the
same spirals involving both threads. We may regard these gradations of structure
in the genera Arcyria, Trichia, and Physarum as a proof of the arbitrary nature of
generic characters, and, while we are compelled to retain such divisions for our
Own convenience, we must regard them as merely conyentional ; and, not to 20
the length of some naturalists, who deny the existence of species, even in a modi-
fied sense, we are forced to acknowledge that the more each plant or animal is
studied and investigated, the more nearly do we find it connected with other
individuals, the transition often becoming so gradual that it is impossible to say
where one species ends and another commences.

The Mammalian Fauna of North-west America.
By Rosert Brown, F.R.G.S. §¢., Botanist to the British Columbia Expedition.

Looking at North-west America as that portion of the country to the west of
the Rocky Mountains, north of California, an extended study of its mammalia had
led the author to divide it into several zoo-geographical regions, which may be
briefly classified as follows :—

1. The region east of the Cascade Mountains.

2. The region west of the Cascade Mountains.

Again, the region between the Rocky Mountains and the Cascade Mountains,
ze, east of the Cascade Mountains, is divisible into :—

(a) A north-eastern district. (8) A south-eastern district.

Tn the same manner the region west of the Cascade Mountains and between
the Cascade Mountains and the Pacific, can be classed into :—

(a) A north-western district. (8) A south-western district.

3. A mountain-region.

4. A littoral region, divided into four districts.

(a) Arctic. (y) A northern.
(@) Sub-arctic. (6) A southern.

I. Region East of the Cascade Mountains.

This region extends throughout the whole of North-west America, but ends
rather before the termination of forests, the Rocky Mountains, according to Mr.
W. H. Dall*, not extending straight north to the Arctic Ocean, but bending
off to the westward, and uniting with the Cascade range, to form the Alas-
kan Mountains of the peninsula of Aliaska. This latter range is the Northern
boundary of the true Pacific fauna, the species of animals as well as plants
found to the northward of it apparently belonging (when not members of
the Arctic fauna) to the fauna and flora of the east of the Rocky Mountains

* Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist. vol. xii. Nov. 4th, 1868 ; and with map in Petermann’s
‘Geographische Mittheilungen,’ 1869, p. 364, tafel xix.

110 REPORT—1869.

rather to the peculiar assemblage of forms included in the region to the west of
that range. This region is not so wooded as the one to the west of the Cascades,
and possesses a climate cold in winter and hot in summer. North of the limit of
trees, certain purely Arctic species (such as the white fox, the polar bear, and the
musk ox find a home. These species never come within the tree limit (which
is about Kotzebue Sound).

a. North-eastern District—The species characteristic of it are: Vulpes macrourus
var. decussatus, Erethizon epixanthus, Rangifer caribou, Alces Americana (rare),
Fiber ooogensis, Arctomys okanaganus, Lagomys minimus, and Gaulus luseus. The
Columbia River may be said to be about the dividing line between it and the next,
though their zoo-geographical lines can be but vaguely drawn.

B. South-eastern or Californian District.—The mammalian fauna here partakes
more of the Californian type*. The species characteristic are :—Lutra Californica,
Lepus artemesia, Cervus macrotus, Antilocapra Americana, with many other species
common to it and California.

Il. Region West of the Cascade Mountains.

Most of this province is densely wooded (the northern portion more especially),
with a greater rainfall than the country to the east, the rainfall at Sitka some-
times extending to 89 inches per annum. The southern portion of the region is
more open, and a break occurring in the range, where it joins the Sierra Nevadas,
some of the eastern species come over, but still the difference between the two
faunas is sufficiently well-marked to be divided into :—

a. The North-western District.—The characteristic species are all mammals of a
wooded country, and among typically representative species comprise—Sorex Suck-
leyi, S. Trowbridgit, Scalops Townsendii, Lynx fasciatus, Mephitis occidentalis, Aplo-
dontia leporina, and various species of squirrels.

8. South-western District.—Lepus Washingtonii, L. campestris, Canis latrans, &e.

III. Montane Region.

After ascending to an elevation, varying according to latitude from 3000 to 5000
feet on the whole of the higher mountain-ranges throughout N.W. America,
anew group of plants and animals make their appearance. They constitute the
Alpine fauna and flora of North-west America, Though there isa slight tendency
to form a northern and a southern type of mammalian montane fauna, yet the species
are very uniform in their distribution throughout this vast region. These are :—
Aplocerus montanus, Ovis montana, Lagomys princeps, Arctomys (flaviventer ?) and
Neosorex navigator.

IV. The Littoral Region.

We know too little of the marine mammalian fauna of this part of the world to
make any classification more than merely tentative. However, the author considered
the following geographical arrangement of the fauna tolerably near the truth :—

a. The Arctic District, represented by Balena mysticetus, Delphinapterus leucas, and
Trichechus rosmarus. They are almost wholly confined within the Aretic circle,
being only stragelers outside that limit.

B. The Subarctic District is represented by the now extinct (?) Rhytina gigas,
which at one time abundantly characterized this district. It is, however, distin-
guished by the presence of other animals, so that the division is still retained.

y. The Northern District, represented by Callorhinus ursinus, Halicyon Rich-
ardsv, a species of Orca, and a Phocena, closely allied to, if not identical with the
Phocena communis of the Atlantic. f

6. The southern type of marine mammalian fauna may be said to commence
about the Mid Oregon coast-line. It is represented by the sea-lions of San Fran-
cisco (Otaria, sp.), Arctocephalus monteriensis, Arctocephalus (Zilophus) Gilliespit,
A. Californicus, Macrorhinus angustirostris, and various species of Cetacea. The
littoral fauna, like the flora of North-west America, partakes of a Japanese type.
There are certain cosmopolitan species,—e. g., within the littoral fauna, Enhydra
marina; in the land fauna, Ursus horribilis, Cervus columbianus, C. canadensis, Ursus

* See Dr. Cooper’s List of the fauna in Kronises’ ‘Natural Resources of California,’ and
in Proc. Cal. Acad. Sciences subsequently.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 111

americana, Procyon Hernandezii, species common to several regions—while the
beaver, wolves of various species, the fisher (Mustela Pennantii), are found in all
the districts of North-west America.

The insular faunas of North-west America are identical with those of the nearest
mainland, with the remarkable exception of the Queen Charlotte Islands, about
forty miles off the north-west coast of British Columbia. On these islands there
are no deer or wolves, and there is rumoured to be no beaver or racoon either,
though all of these animals are exceedingly abundant on the mainland.

The prevailing habitats of the mammals of North-west America may be judged
from the following enumeration, the numbers affecting each locality being in a
direct ratio to the order in which the habitats are mentioned.

1. Sylvan : species affecting woods.

2. Campestral: species affecting prairies and open ground.

3. Periaquatic : species found in swamps, or around streams and lakes.

4, Marine: species frequenting or living in the sea.

Introduced or Extinct Species.

1. Inaddition to domestic animals, Mus decumanus and M. musculus have esta-
blished themselves. The horse was originally obtained from the Comanches, who
stole it from the Mexicans, into whose country it was introduced by the followers
of Cortes. Among the Indians it has much degenerated, and owing to the wooded
character of the country, is not found much north of the Frazer, or to the west
of the Cascades,

2. With the exception of the Rhytina, there is no evidence of any animal
having become extinct within historical periods, unless indeed the vague rumours
of the Mastodon having been contemporary with man be received as such. The
buffalo (Bos americanus) has, however, been exterminated in North-west America
within the memory of this generation.

Systematic History of the North-west American Mammals.

The following is an approximate enumeration of the species found in each
order :—

1. Cheiroptera, about 10 species. 5. Ruminantia, 10 species.

2. Insectivora, 6 species, 6. Pinnipedia, 7 species.

8. Carnivora, 31 species. 7. Cetacea (approximately) 12 species,
4, Rodentia, 47 species. Total—123 species.

On the Salmon Rivers of Devon and Cornwall, and how to improve them.
By Franx Bucxianp,

On Chiaris alba. By Roserr O. Cunntnenam, V.D., O.M.Z.S.

After referring to the different opinions of ornithologists as to the true place of
the Sheathbill in the class to which it belongs, on account of its peculiarities of
form and habit, the following notes on the digestive organs of a female bird
obtained in the Strait of Magellan were read :—

The tongue was rather thick and deeply hollowed on each side of the mesial
line. The entire length of the cesophagus (including the proventiculus) was 62
inches. It presented a well-marked enlargement, which, though not materially
differing in its structure from the rest of the tribe, may be regarded as a-modified
crop. This crop was empty. The stomach, which contained small pebbles alone,
was moderately muscular, and its lining membrane was of an orange-yellow
colour. Its long diameter measured 12 of an inch, and its greatest transverse
diameter { of an inch. The intestinal canal, from the pyloric orifice of the
stomach to the anus, measured a little over 40 inches. The ceca, two in number
and of equal size, were 7 inches long, and the distance between their origin and
the anus was 2} inches. They considerably exceeded the diameter of the intestine
at their extremities, and tapered to their origin in the intestine, at which point
their diameter was much less, They were filled with a pulpy yellow substance.

112 REPORT—1869.

On the Flora of the Strait of Magellan and West Coast of Patagonia.
By Rozert O. Conninenam, M.D., C.M.Z.S.

The author of this paper having been engaged during the years 1866-69 in
capacity of Naturalist to an expedition for surveying the Strait of Magellan and
neighbouring regions, had had many opportunities of studying the fauna and
flora of the district, and mentioned some of the principal facts regarding the

lants.

y Beginning at the eastern entrance of the Strait, and proceeding westwards to
Cape Pillar, and northwards through the long line of channels extending along
the west coast of Patagonia, between the western entrance of the Strait and the
Gulf of Penas, three regions may be recognized, the first and third of which are most
distinctly opposed to one another in their leading features; the second, or interme-
diate area, forint in some respects a connecting link between the other two.
Each of these areas possesses a certain number of species of plants and animals
peculiar to itself, as well as a certain number common to its neighbours.

The first region is limited to the north-eastern part of the Strait of Magellan,
extending from the eastern entrance to Cape Negro on the Patagonian, and rather
further in a south-westerly direction on the Fuegian coasts. It consists of a vast
tract of low-lying undulating plains, with here and there a range of low saddle-
backed hills ; and boulder-clay is the principal geological formation. It is entirely
destitute of trees, and almost so of shrubs, covered with yellow grass, dry and
arid in its nature, abounding in small lakes and ponds of salt water, and only here
and there presenting a green oasis where a small stream finds its way into the
waters of the Strait. It may be considered as a continuation of that vast tract of
Pampas which extends throughout Patagonia and the Argentine Republic as far
north as the extreme of the Plate. Over these plains the Guanaco, Puma, and
Rhea, hunted by the far-famed Patagonians, roam. The atmosphere is dry and
clear, and the climate a delightful and exhilarating one.

The third region is very different in all respects, being formed of very rugged
mountainous country, densely covered with impenetrable evergreen woods, with
intervals of bare boggy land. It may be defined as reaching from Port Famine to
the western entrance to the Strait, and northwards through the channels to the
Gulf of Penas. The climate is one of the most humid in the world, the atmo-
sphere being hardly ever free from mist, and heavy rain falling almost every day
throughout the year, frequently for many days and nights together. Magnificent
glaciers occur abundantly, and innumerable streams flow down the mountain sides
in most places, so polishing the rugged faces of the hills as to render their ascent
difficult, if not impossible, and feeding long chains of lakes and tarns which occupy
the narrow and winding valleys. Deer are occasionally to be met with in the
woods, and otter, seal, and porpoises in the water of the channels; but there is a
great paucity of animal life in this district.

The second region intermediate in position between the other two, and also as
regards its character, extends from the beginning of the wooded country at Cape
Negro as far as Port Famine. Its mountains are not so steep, and its forests not so
impenetrable as those of the third or western region; and it presents considerable
tracts of land available for pasture. The prevailing tree in the woods is the de-
ciduous or antarctic beech, which imparts a well-marked aspect to the landscape.
Though there is a considerable rainfall, the climate cannot be considered as a wet
one, and there is much fine bright weather, though the sun has no great strength. It
is in this district that the Chilian colony of Punta Arenas (Sandy Point) is situated,
and there cattle thrive in the open air, and various green crops come to maturity.
Parraquets, Woodpeckers, and a variety of small birds, inhabit the woods; and
geese, snipe, and an Zdzs frequent the open tracts of ground.

The distribution of the various orders, genera, and species of plants throughout
these three regions was then considered somewhat in detail, and the existence of a
considerable number of species not previously recorded as inhabitants of them was
noted. Among the additions to the flora of the first region, Adesmia boronioides,
Arabis Maclovana, Botrychium lunaria, Crantzia lineata, Hippuris vulgaris, and
Gnothera were specified. Instances of plants apparently peculiar to the second

CS eee

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 113

region, Codenorchis Lesson, Asarca Kingit, and a species of Maytenus were men-
tioned; while Metrasideras stipularis, Mitraria coccinea, Lomatia ferruginea, a
Weinmannia, a Panax, Campsidium gracile, Hymenophyllum cruentum, and H. pee-
tinatum, were enumerated as among the more remarkable additions to the flora
of the third region.

From an examination of the Phanerogamia and Cryptogamia occurring to the
north and south of the Gulf of Peitas, it was concluded that many more species
were common to these regions than was at one time supposed, and that no very
marked alteration in the flora of the south-western coast of South America was
apparent between the Strait of Magellan and Valdinia.

Prof. A. Dickson, M.D., exhibited a specimen of Primula sinensis, in which
short styles are accompanied by short stamens.

Microscopical Observations at Miinster am Stein.
By Grorce Guapstone, F.R.GS., FCS.

This communication contained a list of the principal freshwater animalcule
which the author had found within the week ending August 14 in the River Nahe
among the water-plants which border the river. It was very rich in the higher
forms of Rotatoria, including even that rare and beautiful creature the Stephano-
ceros. Floscularia ornata and proboscides were very common, as were also the
Limnia, Melicerta ringens and Lacinularia socialis were not rare. Rotifer vulgaris,
Salpina, Hydatina, Pterodina patina, Chetonotus, and other forms of free swimming
Rotifera were particularly abundant. Of the Infusoria, the Vorticellina were well
represented both in respect of number, variety, and size, many of the Vorticelle
and Epistylis being unusually large. Vaginicole also-occurred. The lower orders
included, amongst others, Chilodon, Amphileptus, and Amoeba princeps. Of Cypri-
dina there were Daphnia, Cypris, and Cyclops. Diatomacez and Desmider were
very abundant, the former class comprising Diatom vulgare, Fragillaria, Bacillaria,
Navicula, Cocconema, and Gomphonema; the latter, Closterium, Pediastrum,
Micrasterias, Arthrodesmus, and Euastrum.

The mineral water, or rather the brine, after having passed through the Gradir-
salinen, was also subjected to microscopic examination. Not much was expected,
as the water is highly saline, though the tanks contain millions of larvee, The only
other living creatures consisted of a very active kind of worm, some round and
oval monads, Actinophrys, and Ameba princeps. The tanks were full of Diato-

Macez, principally Fragillaria. The brine (which is used in Miinster and Kreuz-
nach for bathing) is of the specific gravity of about 1-11, and contains about 12 per

cent. of chloride of sodium, 2 per cent. of chloride of calcium, besides lesser propor-
tions of the chlorides of magnesium and potassium, and of the bromide of sodium.

On the Law of the Development of Cereals. By F.F.Hattert, F.L.S.

From his investigations the author had arrived at the following conclusions :—

That where room has been afforded to the plant for its natural development—

1. Every fully developed plant, whether of wheat, oats, or barley, presents an
ear superior in productive power to any of the rest on that plant.

2, Every such plant contains one grain which, upon trial, proves more produc-
tive than any other.

3. The best grain in a given plant is found in its best ear.

4. The superior vigour of this grain is transmissible in different degrees to its
progeny.

5. By repeated careful selection the superiority is accumulated.

6. The improvement which is at first rapid, gradually, after a long series of
years, is diminished in amount, and eventually so far arrested that, practically
speaking, a limit to improvement in the desired quality is reached.

7. By still continuing to select, the improvement is maintained and practically
a fixed type is the result.

The accumulation of improvement obtainable on the principles set forth in the
paper was very fully illustrated by specimens.

1869. ss 8

114 REPORT—1869.

On some curious Fossil Fungi from the Black Shale of the Northumberland
Coal-field*. By Atpany Hancock, F.L.S., and THomas Arruny.

In this paper the authors described some small lenticular bodies found in the
black shale at Cramlington, Newsham, and in other localities in the district ; and
from the internal structure, which is well preserved, they conclude that these
bodies are Fungi, related to the curious Indian form Sclerotiwm stipitatum, of
Berkeley and Currey. This relationship is likewise shown by the general form
and surface-characters.

Five species were described under the following names :—Archagaricon bulbosum,
A, globuliferum, A. radiatum, A. dendriticum, A. conglomeratum.

On the Occurrence of Rapistrum rugosum, All., in Surrey, Kent, and Somer-
seltshire. By W. P. Hinrn, M.A.

This plant the author first noticed on the 24th of June, 1869, in Surrey, near the
river Thames, below Barnes. On the 8th of July he also met with it in the Isle of
Thanet, growing in corn-fields, in company with Stnapis arvensis, L., and other
common weeds. Again, in a letter to Mr. Berkeley, dated the 18th July, Mr.
Broome writes from Batheaston, in Somersetshire, “ Rapistrwm rugosum, Koch,
turned up here the other day in some abundance in one place, and I have since
seen it in my own meadows.”

On examining the plant, the cruciform flowers, with tetradynamous stamens,
refer it to the natural order Cruciferze, Then the transversely 2-jointed fruit, with
the upper joint indehiscent, brings the genus into the tribe Cakilinese, which
limits the plant to about 40 out of the 1200 species or more that are contained in
Cruciferse. Further, the indehiscent and not very small lower joint of the fruit,
the conduplicate cotyledons, and the yellow flowers, bring the plant into the genus
Rapistrum, Desy. The nearest allied British genus is Crambe.

The upper joint of the fruit of this plant is hairy, globular, and without two horns
at the top, and is provided with meridional ribs like those of a mellon, except that

they are interrupted and rugose; and the lower joint is oblong, in the form of an
inflated pedicel, unlike the upper joint, and nearly as long as the fruit-pedicel.
These characters refer the plant to the species R. rugosum, All., R. hirsutum,
Host. Rapistrwm contains eight well-defined species, all of which occur in the
countries on the shores of the Mediterranean sea; most of them occur in Algiers, and
several in the Mediterranean islands. &. rugoswm has the widest distribution of all.
The author has seen specimens in the Kew herbarium from Constantinople, Syria,
Austria, Switzerland, and Algiers, from several places in Germany and France, and
from the islands of Sicily, Corsica, Teneriffe, Madeira, Canaries, and Azores,

On the Relative Value of the Characters employed in the Classification of
Plants. By Dr, Maxwett T. Masters, 7.L.S.

This paper was devoted to the consideration of some of the means employed by
botanists in elaborating the “natural” systems of classification, and to the estima-
tion of the relative value to be attached to'those means. The characters treated of
were the following:—1l. Characters derived, from the relative frequency of occur-
rence of a particular form, or a particular arrangement of organs ; 2, developmental
characters, whether ‘ congenital” or “acquired;” 38, teratological characters ;
4, rudimentary characters; 5, special physiological characters; 6, characters de-
pendent on geographical distribution.

To arrive at an estimate of the first class of characters, the plan followed in the
paper was to enumerate, in the case of any particular “cohort” or “ alliance,” all
the main points which had been employed by various authors to characterize the
group in question, or to distinguish it from its allies, and to arrange them according
to the frequency of their cccurrence in the several families, placing those characters
first which occurred most frequently, and afterwards, in order, those that occurred
less often. It this way it was shown that those characters which are most im-

* Published iz extenso in ‘ Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist.’ for October 1869.

mnt

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 115

portant, from their frequency of occurrence and invariability, are those that are
congenital in their origin, while those that are least often met with are “ acquired,”
z.e. later in their development. While the former are “general” in a physiolo-
gical sense, the latter are special and peculiar to the smaller groups, perhaps to
one family only. Further illustrations were given in explanation of these and
other characters, for the purpose of showing their applicability to particular cases.
In estimating the value to be attached to certain characters, it is necessary to con-
sider the purpose for which they are required. If the object be synthetical, if we
are seeking points of resemblance, so as to be enabled to group together a large
number of forms into one or more large aggregates, stress must be laid, in the first
instance, on the congenital characters, as serving to bind together the greatest
numbers; then on those dependent on frequency of occurrence and special physio-
logical office, afterwards on such others as may be forthcoming. If the object be
analytical and discriminative, the special physiological characters demand the first
attention, then those which have the merit of frequency and invariability, and then
those that are congenital. The systematist can very rarely act up to his own
standard. Individual cases have to be treated on their own merits, philosophy has
to be sacrificed to expediency, but the tact and insight of a first-class naturalist
often lead him to make combinations, or to allocate forms, on what seem. mere
grounds of expedience, but which afterwards prove, when fuller evidence is gained,
to be strictly consistent with philosophical views.

The Rey. A. M. Norman made some remarks in introducing to the notice of the
Section the following important letter from Prof. Wyville Thomson :—

“ Belfast, Aug. 7, 1869.

“My prar Norman,—You are already aware that, during the first cruise of
this year, Mr. Jeffreys and his party dredged and took most important thermome-
trical and other observations to a depth of 1476 fathoms. When I took Mr. Jef-
freys’s place for the second cruise, it was the intention to proceed northwards, and
to work up a part of the north-west passage, north of Rockall. I found, however, on
joining the vessel, the gear in such perfect order, all the arrangements so excellent,
the weather so promising, and the confidence of our excellent commander so high,
that, after consulting with Captain Calver, I suggested to the hydrographer that
we should turn southwards, and explore the very deep water off the Bay of
Biscay. I was anxious that, if possible, the great questions of the distribution of
temperature &c., and of the conditions suitable to the existence of animal life,
should be finally settled ; and the circumstances seemed singularly favourable. No

thoroughly reliable soundings have been taken beyond 2800 fathoms, and I felt

that if we could approach 2500, all the grand problems would be virtually solved,
and the investigation of any greater depths would be a mere matter of detail aud
curiosity. The Hydroerapher at once consented to this change of plan; and on the
17th of July we left Belfast and steered round to Cork, where we coaled, and then
stood out towards some soundings, about a couple of hundred miles south-west of
Ushant, marked on the Admiralty charts 2000 fathoms and upwards. On the
20th and 21st we took a few hauls of the dredge on the slope of the great plateau,
in the mouth of the Channel, in depths from 75 to 725 fathoms, and on the 22nd.
we sounded with the ‘Hydra’ sounding-apparatus, the depth 2435 fathoms, with a
bottom of fine Atlantic chalk-mud, and a temperature registered by two standard
Miller-Six’s thermometers of 36°°5 Fahrenheit. A heavy dredge was put over in
the afternoon, and slowly the great coils of rope melted from the ‘ Aunt-Sallies "—
as we call a long line of iron bars, with round wooden heads, on which the coils
are hung. In about an hour the dredge reached the bottom, upwards of three
miles off. The dredge remained down about three hours, the Captain moving the
ship slowly up to it from time to time, and anxiously watching the pulsations of
the accumulator, ready to meet and ease any undue strain. At nine o’clock p.m.
the drums of the donkey-engine began to turn, and gradually and steadily the
‘ Aunt-Sallies’ filled up again, at the average rate of about 2 feet of rope per second.
A few minutes before one o’clock in the morning 2 cwt. of iron (the weights fixed
500 fathoms from the dredge) came up, and at one o’clock precisely a cheer from

116 ; REPORT—1869.

a breathless little band of watchers intimated that the dredge had retwmed in
safety from its wonderful and perilous journey of more than six statute miles. A
slight accident had occurred. In going down the rope had taken a loop round the
dredge-bag, so that the bag was not full. It contained, however, enough for our
purpose—12 ewt. of “Atlantic ooze;” and so the feat was accomplished. Some
of us tossed ourselves down on the sofas, without taking off our clothes, to wait till
daylight to see what was in the dredge. The next day we dredged again in 2090
fathoms, practically the same depth, and brought up 2 ewt. of ooze—the bottom
temperature being 36°4; and we spent the rest of the day in making what will, I
am sure, prove a most valuable series of temperature observations at every 200
fathom-point from the bottom to the surface. These enormously deep dredgings
could not be continued. Each operation required too much time, and the strain
was too great, both upon the tackle and upon the nervous systems of all concerned,
especially of Captain Calver and his cfficers, who certainly did all that could be
compassed by human care, skill, and enthusiasm, to ensure success. We crept
home, dredging in easier depths. We start again to-morrow, and, as you may
suppose, I have enough to do. I can therefore only give you the slightest pos-
sible sketch of our results, anticipating fuller information when I have time to
collate the diaries and to look over the specimens. First, as to the temperature.
The superheating of the sun extends only to the depth of about 50 fathoms.
Another cause of superheating, probably the Gulf-stream, extends to the depth of
from 500 to 700 fathoms. After that the temperature gradually sinks at the rate
of about-0°-2 for every 200 fathoms. This is probably the normal rate of decrease,
any deviation being produced by some special cause—a warm or a cold current.
Secondly, the aération of the water. Mr. Hunter, who accompanied me as phy-
sicist, found the water from great depths to contain a large excess of carbonic acid,
and he found the water from ail depths to contain a considerable proportion of
dissolved organic matter; thus in every way bearing out the observations of Mr.
W. L. Carpenter during the first cruise. Thirdly, distribution of life. Life ex-
tends to the greatest depths, and is represented by all the marine invertebrate
groups. At 2435 fathoms we got a handsome Dentalivm, one or two crustaceans,
several Annelids and Gephyrea, a very remarkable new Crinoid with a stem 4 inches
long (I am not prepared to say whether a mature form or a Pentacrinoid), several
starfishes, two hydroid zoophytes, and many Foraminifera. Still the fauna has
a dwarfed and arctic look. This is, doubtless, from the cold. At 800 to 900
fathoms, temperature 40° Fahr. and upwards, the fauna is rich, and is especially
characterized by the great abundance of vitreous sponges, which seem to be nearly
related to, if not identical with, the Ventriculites of the Chalk. This year’s worl
has produced many forms new to science and many new to the British fauna.
Among the most remarkable in the groups I have been working at I may mention
a very singular Kchinoderm, representing a totally new group of the subkingdom,
a splendid new Ophiurid, many specimens of Sars’s Rhizocrinus Lofotensis, many
vitreous sponges, including species of Aphrocallistes, Holtenia, and Hyalonema;
a fine Solarium from the coast of Kerry, and many other things. As I am only
writing in the interval of scaling the boiler, with no opportunity of going over
the collections, you must accept this sketch. 1 trust to your contributing the
Crustacea, which will be sent to you as soon as possible. I will write again from
Lerwick.—Ever truly yours, WyVILLE THomson.”

On Whale Remains washed ashore at Babbacombe, South Devon.
By W. Prncurty, F.RS., EGS.

The author exhibited and described three cervical vertebrae which, at intervals
during the last six years, had separately been cast up by the waves on a beach near
Babbacombe, and which belonged to a whale new to the British fauna (DBalam-
ptera robusta, Lilljeborg = Eschrichtius robustus, Grey). The author stated that
an imperfect skeleton found imbedded in the sand on the coast of Sweden, and the
vertebrae laid before the Section, were the only known evidence of the existence of
the species of whale to which they belonged.

=. ==”

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 117

On a Hybrid or other variety of Perdix cinerea fownd in Devonshire.
By Dr. W. RB. Scort.

The author stated that in the year 1859-60 there appeared in the western part
of Devonshire a covey of partridges, differing considerably in colour from the
common species, Perdix cinerea, many of which were obtained and preserved. In
1861-62 a covey of twelve of these birds were observed, differing only from those
first seen by some of them having white feathers on their breasts. In 1862-63
birds of the same description were obtained, so that from the year 1859 to 1863
these birds appeared in this district. The plumage of these birds differed from
that of the ordinary species by being of a darker and richer brown uniformly spread
over the whole body, in having no grey markings, and in the entire absence of the
horseshoe on the breast. They had also a black patch on each cheek, extending
backwards, with a tendency to form a gorget across the throat. The question was
then, What were these birds? were they sports from the ordinary colour of
P. cinerea, or were they hybrids? In either case they were remarkable ; for if
considered as the former, then it was certainly unusual to find a whole brood de-
parting at once from the characters of the parents even in colour, while if they
were hybrids, they were equally exceptional, as there was no case on record that
he was aware of where P. cinerea and P. rufa had paired. For some time this last
supposition was inadmissible, since P. rwfa was not found in the west of England ;
but on stricter inquiry, it was ascertained that some had been introduced not far
from the district where the birds under consideration were found, and that one of
these had associated itself with a covey of the P. cinerea. In the eastern counties,
where both species are plentiful, no hybridity has ever taken place, and it is stated
that P. rufa drives the common bird away. But where both birds were numerous
and had a sufficient choice amongst those of their own species, remoter alliances
were not so likely to occur as when a single individual or so of one species only
existed, and was living with a covey of the others. In either case, however,
whether they were hybrids or mere varieties, the author considered them remark-
able and deserving of record.

On the Land and Freshwater Mollusca of Nicaragua.
By Rarrn Tare, A.LS., F.GS,

Nicaragua was stated to present two distinct types of soil, vegetation, and cli-
mate, and the terrestrial mollusca were found to be restricted to some extent to
one or the other of the districts. Of the 55 species of land and freshwater shells
catalogued by the author, the following are new to science :— Tebennophorus auratus,
Limax meridionalis, Helix cecoides, H. Blakeana, Tornatellina interstriata, T.
hyalina, Planorbis declivis, Unio Tatei. The molluscan fauna of Nicaragua presents
no marked facies, and is characterized by the absence of, rather than by the pre-
sence of peculiar genera. The geographical position of Nicaragua would lead us
to infer that its species would be in common with those of the Mexican province
on the one hand, and with those of the Columbian province on the other. This is
the case; thus Bulimus Berendti, B. unicolor, B. maculatus, B. mimosarum, Helix
Parkeri, Planorbis Fieldii, Cyclotus irregularis, Amiicola Panamensis, Unio Rowelli,
Spherium meridionale, and Mycetopus Weddelli ally the fauna specifically to that of
tropical South America; and Helix griseola, Glandina Dysoni, Succinea inflata,
Vaginulus floridanus, Planorbis tumidus, Helicina turbinata, and H. denticulata
are more northern forms, which in Nicaragua mingle with those of a more
southern origin. Bulimus zebra and Achatina octona are common to Central and
South America and the Antilles; Guppya Gundlachi and Bulimus costato-striatus
are Cuban species.

The generic alliances are Tebennophorus with North America, Glandina with Cen-
tral America, Tornatellina, Vaginulus, and Mycetopus with Tropical South America.
The species common to Nicaragua and the neighbouring State, Guatemala, are:—
Melania Gassiessi, Bulimus zebra, Achatina octona, Planorbis tumidus, P. kermatoides,
Physa purpurostoma, Ancylus excentricus, Helicina Salvini, and H. merdigera.

The land snails of Guatemala, Honduras, Yucatan, and Mexico resemble those

118 REPORT—1869.

of the West-Indian Islands in the prevalence of species of Cylindrella, Macroceramus,
Adamsiella, Megalomastoma, Chondropoma, Cistula, and Tudora, none of which genera
have been observed in Nicaragua, and south to the Isthmus of Darien. This cir-
cumstance, viewed in connexion with the distribution of the Nicaraguan species,

oints to a different origin for the fauna, and the author is thereby induced to regard
en as comprised within the Columbian region of the distribution of land
and freshwater shells, and not within the Mexican,

On the Effect of Legislation on the Extinction of Animals.
By the Rey. H. B. Tristram, LL.D., PRS.

Five Years’ Experience in Artificial Fish-breeding, showing in what waters
Trout will and will not thrive, with some Remarks on Fish and British
Fisheries. By W. F. Wess, F.R.G.S.

This paper gives the result of many experiments conducted by the author at
Newstead Abbey, both in lakes and streams, by which it is evident that tempera-
ture is the main point to study. Trout will thrive well in waters the midsummer
temperature of which does not exceed 62°, but wheu it attains 70° and upwards
they sicken and die off, even in swift-running streams. The author demonstrates,
by numerous examples, that both trout and all the Salmonide inhabit and thrive
best in waters of low temperature in every part that they are indigenous to. The
paper strongly advises the introduction of the Indian Mahseer into the fresh waters
of Great Britain, as the author states, from personal experience, that it is a fish
attaining very great weight, excellent for the table, giving sport to the angler,
and from not being migratory in its habits, exempt from the destruction caused by
sewage at the mouths of many rivers. The paper concludes by pointing out the
great devastation caused by trawl-nets throughout the narrow Lochs of the Western
Highlands, and to the rapid decrease of small fry of all sorts of fish already from
this cause, which calls for the immediate attention of the Legislature.

On a new Isopod from Flinder’s Island. By Huxry Woopwann, F.G.S.

On Rhinodon typicus, the largest known Shark.
By Professor E, Percevat Wricut, F.L.S,

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

Human Vaccine Lymph and Heifer Lymph compared.
By Henry Buano, MD., F.R.GS., Staff Assistant-Surgeon, Bombay Army.

Compulsory vaccination is a wise and proper measure, but this must be subordi-
nate to one essential condition, namely, that the vaccine lymph forced upon the
tae shall be as pure and as perfect as we can obtain it. The present human
ymph does not possess these characters. This leads us to examine the two fol-
lowing important questions :—

1. Gast other than vaccine disease be transmitted by humanized vaccine lymph ?

<m a lymph of long standing a trustworthy prophylactic against
smallpox =

If we can prove beyond reasonable doubt that the transmission of disease has
taken place, even if only in a few instances, these instances should render us less
positive in our denials when in presence of very strong probabilities only.

Science acknowledges two orders of disease that have been transmitted by human
vaccine lymph—certain affections of the skin, and syphilis.

On the 3rd of August, Dr. Depaul, the Director of Vaccination in France, in
concluding, at the Academy of Medicine of Paris, a very remarkable speech on

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TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 119

this question remarked, “ Within a very short time more than forty cases of vac-
cinal syphilis haye been observed and accepted as open to no doubt by many
scientific men. All the theories, all the false interpretations, all the subtleties of
those who, against evidence, persist in their denial, cannot in any way weaken
these facts. Syphilis introduced into the system by vaccination is no myth, it is a
sad and terrible reality.”

As we cannot deny the existence of the transmission of disease, the public
should be supplied, in presence of compulsory vaccination, “ with an uncontami-
nated vaccine lymph.”

Is humanized lymph of long standing a trustworthy prophylactic against small-
pox? Itis not. The present vaccine lymph is degenerated, and has lost much .
of its antivariolic power.

If we begin with Jenner, we find that at that date direct inoculation from the
cow, in other words, “ animal vaccination,” is a most perfect and lasting protection
against smallpox. A few cases of post-vaccinal smallpox were noticed as soon as
natural animal vaccination was superseded by the use of humanized lymph. This
percentage gradually increased. In the London Smallpox Hospital from 1835
to 1845, the admission of patients attacked with smallpox, after vaccination, was
already 44 per cent.; from 1845 to 1855 it rose to 64 per cent.; from 1855 to
1865 to 78 per cent.; and during the two years 1863 and 1864, it was as high as
eighty-three and eighty-four per cent. respectively.

The deaths from smallpox after vaccination have also gradually increased, from
none in 1800 they rose aboye nine per cent. in 1863; so that if we consider the in-
creased resusceptibility to smallpox, and the increased fatality amongst the vacci-
nated, we arrive at very discouraging results; for example, during the ten years
from 1855 to 1865, the mortality in the London Smallpox Hospital gives for the
unvaccinated only 69 more than for the vaccinated! the number being for the
yaccinated 459, for the unvaccinated 528! What does this teach us? To follow
the example of those who first practised animal vaccination; do as the milkers of
cows did, and seek for a perfect protection in a return to the prophylactic in all
its purity.

Animal vaccination offers the following advantages :—

1. The healthy heifer, inoculated with pure spontaneous cowpox, supplies a
vaccine lymph free from all morbid and diathetic principles.

2. Spontaneous cowpox, by being transmitted only through the bovine race,
retains all its essential qualities.

3. Vaccination direct from the heifer offers all the characteristics of the cowpox,
as described by Jenner, Ceely, &c., with such modifications only as are due to the
passage of the lymph through young and healthy animals.

4, By animal vaccination we have always on hand an unlimited supply of good
vaccine lymph.

Voltaic Electricity in relation to Physiology.* By W. Kuncety Bripemay,

At the Meeting held in Norwich in 1868, the author read a paper on “ Electro-
lysis in the Mouth,” having reference to an occurrence of a very singular character.
A ligature of silk-twist had been applied to some front teeth on account of their
malposition, and, when removed, it was found to have become encrusted with a
crystalline deposit, obtained from the enamel, the surface of which presented a
deep groove along the entire course of the ligature.

To identify this proceeding as one of electrolytic transfer, it was sought to
obtain a parallel effect with the metals, and which, according to the author’s ex-
periments, was successfully accomplished, clearly establishing their unity of origin.

On the Interpretation of the Limbs and Lower Jaw.
By Professor Creranp, M.D.

Tn this communication the following propositions were laid down and illus-
trated :—

* Published iz extenso in the ‘ British Journal of Dental Science’ for November 1869,

120 REPORT—1869.

1. The various systems of the body are, in at least all the more symmetrical
animal forms, arranged in more or less perfect circles round the digestive tube.

2. The visceral or costal arches of the vertebrate skeleton constitute, when fully
developed, circles external to those of the vascular system, and internal to the
primary stratum of the muscular system, and each visceral arch is a part of a
single segment of the body.

3. The limbs consist each of a girdle or limb-arch, and a radiation or appendage.

That the limb-arch is not a radiation is sufficiently evident from its circling
always more or less round the body, and being sometimes complete above, some-
time complete below.

4, Neither the limb-arch nor its appendage is the property of one particular seg-
ment. They receive nerves from various segments, not a very definite number,
and are very variable in position, especially the hind limb.

5. Probably the typical position of the limb-girdle is superficial to the primary
muscular layer, as in the pectoral girdle of most animals, but it varies in position, and
this is explained by the development. The appendage is developed before the limb-
arch, and is an extension outwards of the ventral plate, while as yet that plate may
be considered as forming the periphery of the embryo ; and the arch is developed in
connexion with the appendage, while as yet the dorsal plates extend little outwards.

6. The suspensorium and lower jaw form an arch corresponding with the limb-
arches ; and the opercular apparatus of fishes consists of appendages attached to it.

In proof of this it may be mentioned that,

a. The jaw is external to the visceral arches of the skull.

b. The jaw is composed of parts more complex than a visceral arch.

c. The suspensorium, quadrate bone, or incus, is usually connected with at
least two segments of the skull.

7. The difficulty of distinguishing the jaw as a limb-arch arises from the thin-
ness of the visceral walls in the cephalic and cervical regions. Hence the intimate
connexion between jaw and hyoid arch in fishes, and the connexion of the hyoid
bone in turn with the branchial arches, which are splanchnic.

8. The three limb-arches may be considered as corresponding with the three
great regions of the body, viz. the cephalic, the cervico-thoracic, and the abdomino-
pelvic regions, which are respectively the seats of greatest development of the
animal, vascular, and vegetative systems.

The crowding forwards of the limbs in many osseous fishes is in harmony with
the whole piscine structure, the great regions in fishes being comparatively undif-
ferentiated and crowded under the head, while the mass of the animal is a mere tail.

The Human Mesocolon illustrated by that of the Wombat.
By Professor Crrtranp, M.D.

The general arrangement of the small and great intestines in the Wombat is
very similar to what is found in the human subject, although they are of greater
proportional length. The paper pointed out that the arrangement of the perito-
neum in the Wombat exactly corresponded with the conditions which the writer
described in the ‘Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,’ May 1868, as existing in
the human fcetus cf three months. The descending, and half of the transverse
colon are provided, as in the human fcetus, with a mesocolon springing from near
the middle line; and the right half of the transverse colon, having crossed the
third part of the duodenum, is bound to the commencement of that part of the
intestine, near the pylorus, by a narrow fold of peritoneum, immediately above the
upper end of the mesocolon just mentioned. That narrow peritoneal fold marks
the neck of the primary loop of the intestine which formerly extended out at the
umbilicus, and the crossing of the duodenum by the colon is effected by the twist
which the loop takes to the right. The mesocolon has no connexion with the
pendulous mesogastrium or so-called great omentum. The position which the
writer lays down with regard to the human subject is, that while the left half of
the transverse colon, together with the descending colon, has originally a meso-
colon, and is distinct from the mesogastrium, the right half of the transverse colon
has no mesocolon,

Se es ee

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. pga

On the Myology of Cyclothurus didactylus.
By Joun C. Gatton, M.A., F.LS.*

That which Brants (Dissert. Zool. Inaug. de Tardigradis, p. 27: Lugdun. Batav.
1828) has remarked relative to the muscles of the limbs of the Sloths appears to
be fairly applicable to the Two-toed Anteater, namely, ‘ Vires motrices antice
corporis partis esse, posticam vero yalidis musculis ad anteriorem attrahi atque
hujus motus sequi debere,”—and the more so when we contrast the short humerus,
rugged with strong muscular ridges, with the long smooth femur, which lacks
eyen a rudiment of a third trochanter.

In addition to a long prehensile tail (at best but a stunted member in the
Sloths), naked for the lower third of its length, the fore and hind feet are marvel-
lously modified for arboreal progression, the functional absence of the pollex being
compensated for, as Meckel hints, by the enormous development of the pisiform
bone, to which are attached numerous strong muscles, while a long strigil-shaped
bone, passing backward from the scaphoid, more than makes up for the compara-
tiye shortness of the calcaneal process.

After the consideration in detail of the muscular system in this and other Eden-
tates, the question naturally arises—What zoological value do such details possess ?
None, it must be confessed. For, apart from their bearings upon the question of
the serial and general homologies of muscles, they do not enable us in anywise to

simplify and improve the classification, as yet very unsatisfactory, of the members
of this much-varying order.

On the Homologies in the Extremities of the Horse.
By R. Garner, F.R.C.S., FL.S.

The author expressed a doubt whether the cannon-bone in the horse is the
metacarpal or metatarsal of the third finger or toe (as the case may be) solely ;
and his doubts were derived from comparing the so-called monodactyle animal
with the fossil horse, and also with the ox; from the articulation of the cannon-
bone of the horse with two bones of the tarsus (confining himself to the hind
limb), the external cuneiform and the cuboid, and from one or two other conside-
rations, perhaps of less weight. He questions whether the horse is not monodac-
tyle by coalescence, with a trace of the fourth metacarpal or metatarsal; and again,
whether in the ox there is not a trace of the first metatarsal in that part of the
cannon-bone articulating above with the little hone which is probably the first or
inner cuneiform. He is hardly satisfied with the usual rendering of the subject in
the above and other points, as, for instance, the supposed want of homology between
the side hoofs in the hipparion and the little posterior hoofs of the ruminants.

Tt does not appear that any use can be attributed to the little horny bodies
called chataignes, which we see in the fore and hind legs of the horse ; they have
a musky odour when shaved or cut, and hence they might be supposed to be
scent-organs, which, however, is unlikely. They are not merely epidermic, but
connected with the cwés vera like nails and hoofs. There are traces of the same
parts in all other equine animals, and also of another little horny body called the
ergot, or spur, situated at the fetlock, behind the union of the cannon-bone with
the pastern. These cannot be reduced to the same category as the callosities
or mere epidermal hardnesses, placed where they are of use as protective shields in
certain animals, as on the legs and sternum of the camel. The chataignes appear
to the author to be the vestiges of the nails of the missing great toe and thumb,
the ergots of the nails of the two minor toes of the fossil horse. In such aberra-
tions, as deficient or supernumerary fingers or toes, itis notrare to find a nail to
exist where the phalanges have disappeared, and in some individuals a whole row
of phalanges has disappeared, whilst all the nails remain normal. The situation
of the bodies in question agrees sufficiently with the theory broached.

* This paper appears iz extenso in the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History’ for .
October 1869.

122 REPORT—1869.

On the Solvent Treatment of Uric-Acid Calculus, and the Quantitative Determi-
nation of Urie Acid in Urine. By the Rey. W. VY. Harcourt, F.R.S., §e.

The author of this paper haying been apprized of the presence of a calculus in
the bladder of considerable size*, and consisting in all probability of uric acid, re-
solved upon giving a trial to the solvent alkaline treatment as proposed by Dr.
Roberts, Physician to the Manchester Royal Infirmary, of which the first notice
will be found in the Report of the British Association for 1861, and of which he
has given a full account in his ‘ Treatise on Urinary and Renal Diseases.’

In one of the leading experiments made by Dr. Roberts, he passed the urine of
a patient who was taking citrate of potash at the rate of 40 grains in 5 ounces of
water every two hours, over a fragment of uric calculus, and by this process re-
duced it in twelve hours from 180°5 to174 grains, or at the rate, in twenty-four hours,
of 13 grains. If the action within the bladder resembles that without it, though
the action on an entire calculus could not be expected to equal that on a fragmen-
tary piece, yet there was reason to expect a difference between the quantity of
uric acid normally excreted and the excretions under the effect of the alkaline
treatment, determinable by chemical analysis. With this view the author insti-
tuted a series of experiments in his own laboratory, which, though they did not
fully realize his expectations, throw some light on this important subject. The
method first employed of precipitating the uric acid was that in ordinary use by
hydrochloric acid. The first seven determinations, from the 20th of August,
1868, to the 26th inclusive, were made each day on the urine of the preceding
twenty-four hours, in a neutral or slightly alkaline state, brought to that state by
doses of from 120 to 165 grains of citrate of potash. The quantities of uric acid
obtained varied from 11:08 to 8-45 grains. In the subsequent daily determinations,
down to the 5th of September, acid reactions were interpolated, due to the use of
smaller alkaline doses, which lowered proportionably the amount of uric acid ob-
tained ; and when no alkali had been taken for two days, and the urine was in
consequence strongly acid, the quantity of uric acid found was only 2°35 erains.

From this time commenced a course of large quantities of citrate of potash,
amounting, during fourteen days, to 315 grains in twenty-four hours, taken in a
state of effervescence, in doses of 45 grains, dissolved in 3 fluid-ounces of watert.
For ten of these days hydrochloric acid was used to precipitate the uric acid ;
and the determination of this gave from 11-95 to 6-00 grains. The preference,
however, assigned by Dr. Thudichum, in his able and well-known treatise on the
‘ Pathology of the Urine,’ to nitric over hydrochloric acid, as having given him
better results, led the author subsequently to employ his method. The quan-
tity of citrate of potash taken in twenty-four hours was then raised to 350 grains
for four consecutive days. On the first of these days the uric acid found was 1:54
grain, on the second 1:23 grain. These results were so extraordinary that, for
the purpose of corroborating them, or discovering any error, Dr. Thudichum was
requested to undertake an analysis of a portion of the urine of the latter day. Ac-
cording to his analysis the uric acid amounted to no more than 0°775 grain.

This result led to one of two conclusions; either independently of any question
of the solution of the calculus the presence of the uric acid in the bladder had
been almost entirely prevented by the alkaline treatment, or the process for ob-
taining it was altogether unreliable. The latter alternative appearing the most
probable, more attention was given to the method of determination. One half of
a urine which had yielded 8°42 grains with hydrochloric acid, was treated with
5 per cent. nitric acid and kept at the temperature of 90° F., the alkalinity and
dilution having been brought to a standard corresponding with the urine analyzed
by Dr. Thudichum. The uric acid thus obtained weighed 2-07 grains, showing a
loss by this method of 6°35 grains. The alkalinity was now determined for every

* The size of the calculus, as determined by Mr. Spencer Wells, and confirmed by Sir
H. Thompson, was 1:5 inch in one of its diameters.

+ The tides of acidity and alkalinity in urine, consequent on digestion, which occur at
different periods of the day and night, deserve attention in the distribution of alkaline
doses, especially when the quantity taken is small enough to leaye an apprehension of
uric acid being deposited in the bladder.

—_

;

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 123

voiding with hydrochloric acid. 2°5 per cent. of that acid was added to each ;
and as it had been observed that uric acid was lost by decantation, however
careful, the portions of urine operated upon were entirely filtered, and the water
with which the precipitates were washed was acidified with acetic acid. The
secretion of mucus being now a good deal in excess, the quantity of alkali taken
was reduced—for five days to 300 grains of the citrate in twenty-four hours, for
eight days to quantities varying from 270 to 240 grains, and for thirty-five days
more (with the exception of three days, on account of diarrhcea and bleeding)
to quantities varying from 285 to 120 grains. The details of these experiments
were given in the paper *; but it may be enough to mention here that no propor-
tion could be observed between the determinations of alkalinity and those of the
accompanying uric acid. Twenty days, in which the alkalinity of twenty-four
hours varied from’ 19-2 to 40:3, gaye an average of uric acid 7-94 grains; whilst
fifteen days, when the alkalinity was from 19:1 down to 1:4, gave an average of
uric acid 8-08 grains—a fact which would have shown that the alkali had exercised
no action on the calculus, in case the determinations of the uric acid could be
depended upon, and in case the alkaline treatment did not cause a diminution of
the uric acid secreted. The latter point could only be ascertained by a course of
experiments in cases free from calculus; the former point the author proceeded
to investigate. He found that the quantity of uric acid precipitated from the
urine was diminished by dilution, and augmented by concentration previous to the
addition of the hydrochloric acid. In forty comparative experiments, the two
extremes of excess in the concentrated over the natural urine were 1:08 and
4-13 grains, in the last fifteen of which the urine was reduced to a standard volume
of 6 or 3 fluid-ounces, according as half or quarter of the urine was employed; the
ayerage difference was 3-03 ; in the former twenty-five, reduced to the above pro-
portions, the ayerage excess in the weight of the precipitates was 3°09 grains. The
determinations were further improyed by the adoption of the following method :—
a fourth of the urine of twenty-four hours was evaporated to 3 fluid-ounces ; it
was treated with a mixture of hydrochloric acid and alcohol in equal parts, each
being 2°5 pe cent. of the quantity of urine employed ; the precipitate was washed
with alcohol (methylated spirit), and then with equal parts of acetic acid and
water. The colouring-matter and phosphates &c. were thus remoyed, and the
uric acid was of a light colour and completely, though confusedly, crystalline.

The advantage which this method possesses over those heretofore in use is shown
in the experiment which follows :—In urine having an acidity of 5 grains per pint,
the nitric-acid method gave 1:16 grain of impure uric acid; the ordinary hydro-
chloric-acid method 5:53 grains, the method above described 9-90 grains of uric acid.
The proportion of alcohol to the hydrochloric acid was then increased to the bulk
of the evaporate. The urine voided in twenty-four hours (35 fluid-ounces), of which
the acidity =15-7 grains of carbonate of potash, was neutralized and divided into
8 parts ; No.1 (11-7 fluid-ounces) was evaporated to 1°5 fluid-ounce ; an equal bulk
of alcohol was added with 2-3 drachms of hydrochloric acid. To No. 2, 17°5 grains of
carbonate of potash were added, and it was then treated like No. 1. No. 3 was
treated like No. 2, but with the addition of 3 grains of uric acid dissolved in car-
bonate of potash. The three precipitates were severally washed, first with alcohol,
and lastly with equal proportions of acetic acid and water. The result was fol-
lows :—

No.1. No. 2. No. 3.
Uiieta clus rete 697 651 962—3=6°62 grains,

The urine of twenty-four hours (35°5 finid-ozs.), of which the acidity=10 grains
of carbonate of potash per pint, was neutralized and divided into four parts. No. 1
was treated in all respects like No. 1 of the above series. No. 2 was similarly
treated with the addition of 30 grains per pint of carbonate of potash neutralized.
No. 3 was treated like No. 2, with the addition of 2 grains of uric acid dissolved in
carbonate of potash. No. 4 was evaporated only to 3 fluid-ounces; the alcohol
added was only 1-7 fluid drachm; in other respects it was treated like No. 2;

* The details here mentioned are to be found in the ‘Medical Times and Gazette’
(vol. ii. p. 482).

124 REPORT—1869.

but the precipitate of uric acid being more coloured than in Nos. 1, 2, and 3, it
was further washed with boiling alcohol, which removed 0:14 grain of colouring-
matter, and still left it darker than the others, retaining, thatis, more of the colouring-
matter. The weight of uric acid obtained in the four experiments was as follows :—

Now Now. No. 3. No. 4.
Unicacidisy,.f len. 744 780 950—2=750 7:30 grains.

Two further experiments were made, in both of which the proportion of one
grain only of uric acid was superadded to the urine of twenty-four hours, the pro-
cess employed being the same in other respects as that of No. 1 in the preceding
experiments. The results were as follow :—

1. Uric acid without addition=7-96 grains.
» with addition of one grain=8-74, or—1=7-74 grains,

2. Uric acid without addition =7:67 grains.
» » With addition of one grain=8-42, or—1=7-42 grains.

In the first of these two last experiments the alcoholic acid was decanted from the
precipitate previous to filtration after standing for only nineteen hours, and an
interval considerably less would probably suffice. The uniformity of these results
deserve to be remarked.

On the whole it appears that the best process for determining the quantity of
uric acid in urine is the following :—To neutralize a third or fourth part of the
urine of twenty-four hours, if alkaline with hydrochloric acid, or of acid with ear-
bonate of potash, to reduce this to 1°5 fluid-ounce, to treat it with 3 drachms of
hydrochloric acid, combined with 1:5 fluid-ounce of alcohol, to decant when the
liquid is clear, to wash the deposit first with alcohol, and when that dissolves no
more, with equal parts of acetic acid and water; and it also appears that the
amount of alkalinity in the urine, after being neutralized, does not effect the pre-
cipitate or detract from the accuracy of the determination. It may also be con-
cluded that notwithstanding the variability of the quantity of uric acid in dif-
ferent states of the system, if under uniform conditions of health and diet, expe-
riments be first made, in the manner described, on the natural urine, a sufficiently
exact average determination may be made of the normal quantity of uric acid an-
tecedent to the alkaline treatment, and that if the alkaline treatment subsequently
furnishes a grain or two more of uric acid, this may be relied upon as evidence
that the uric-acid calculus in the bladder is undergoing solution.

Though the foregoing researches have failed to realize the expectation of testing
by analysis the eflect of the solvent treatment on vesical calculus, a fact observed
during the whole course of that treatment, and not afterwards, appeared to indi-
cate that a solvent action was really going on. This fact consisted in a small but
constant amount of deposit, in which fragmentary particles of uric acid were
discerned by the microscope enveloped in mucus, resembling, in the opinion of Mr.
Spencer Wells, as well as of the author and his assistant *, the detritus left by the
incomplete action of carbonate of potash on uric-acid calculi, and such as might
have been washed out of the bladder in consequence of partial solution. That no
such solution should have been brought into evidence by the many determinations
of uric acid, however imperfect, here described, if it cannot be fully accounted for
by that imperfection, may possibly be due to a physiological effect of the alkaline
treatment in preventing the formation of uric acid, which may have counter-
balanced the excess expected. from solution of the calculus. To ascertain these
points, as has been stated above, two sets of experiments are required, one in a case
in which calculus is present, and one in which it is absent, in both of which the
process for determining the quantity of uric acid here recommended may be of use.

The author stated his conviction, from his own experience of the effects of
citrate of potash not exceeding 300 grains taken in twenty-four hours, and pro-
ducing an alkalinity equalling from 20 to 85 grains of carbonate of potash con-
tinued during three months, that no disadvantage to health need be feared from

* The author's laboratory assistant, Mr. William P. Horn, executed the experiments
detailed in this paper with great precision.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 125

such a course ; and this is the experience of a man eighty years of age, who has

been for some years an invalid. Neither during or since the treatment has any
irritation of the bladder &c. been felt, and the urine has been for many months
perfectly clear and free from mucus; it has never been ammoniacal when voided,
and has contained no albumen. The calculus was judged to be uric from the
previous passage of crystals of uric acid. Since the treatment no uric acid has
appeared in it, except once recently, and 25 grains of citrate of potash are found
sufficient to prevent its recurrence.

There is one prominent chemical fact attending these experiments which remains
to be noticed, viz. a great diminution in the quantity of the mineral acids subse-
quent to the alkaline treatment; whilst from 120 to 150 grains of citrate of potash
were required for neutrality in August 1868, in March and April 1869 from 30 to
60 grains sufficed for the same purpose. Dr. Thudichum’s analysis in September
1868 gave—of sulphuric acid 51:1, of phosphoric 45:7 grains. ‘The analysis made
in the author’s laboratory in March 1869 gave, sulphuric acid 25:9, of phosphoric
54-2 grains,—a difference scarcely to be accounted for without reference to the alka-
line treatment undergone in the first three months of the interval ; and it is worthy
of remark that a similar reduction seems to have taken place in the amount of uric
acid.

On the Physiology of Sleep and of Chloroform Anesthesia,
By Cuanwes Kinp, W.D., WR.CS.E., Se.

In further continuation of previous researches as to the clinical value and pecu-
liarities of chloroform, ether, and other anesthetics, the author invited discussion
on some conflicting opinions and ideas amongst physiologists, as to the precise
nature of anzesthesia itself, particularly under nitrous protoxide, contrasted with
chloral and chloroform ; the relation of sleep to anesthesia; the exact physiology
of sleep, so intimately bound up with medical treatment, in mania, fever, delirium
tremens, puerperal convulsions, and other diseases, where chloroform is sometimes
inadmissible, but at other times of great value, as in the “shock” of large surgical
or mechanical injuries to limbs, according as the practitioner has to treat pain and
irritation, or, on the other hand, exhaustion and inflammation.

Two, if not three forms of accident, as seen in hospital practice, as contradis-
tinguished from the simple suffocation of animals in experiments on the methy-
lene series, were explained; the chief one, sudden failure, not of the heart as
popularly believed, but of the laryngeal recurrent nerve and others distributed to
the larynx, causing spasm, or sudden apnoea. Deaths have occurred from the use of
“ether mixtures,” and while every precaution was taken; and while using the
“Clover-apparatus,” supposed to be safe; but in a vast number of cases, by proper
precaution at the moment, and notably by use of electricity, the danger may
be warded off. Fatal accidents, in fact, are most common, not in the deep nar-
cotism of chloroform, but in the early excitement stage when reflex action is still
active, and chiefly hitherto in healthy active adults for trivial small operations,
rather than in old unhealthy subjects with fatty heart or in large operations.

Again, connected not indirectly with the nature of anesthesia, is the nature of
ordinary “sleep,” the latter a state of rest of the active molecular work previously
going on, with a restoration of the power. Can this condition depend on venous con-
gestion of the choroid plexus and such vascular parts, or on the opposite state of
the brain vessels? Facts abound on each side, yet the question is undecided,
though at the threshold of a world of phenomena and accurate treatment in fevers,
delirium tremens, mania, bad surgical accidents, with delirium, &e. Nearly all
our recent vast improvements in surgery, ovariotomy, especially large amputations,
Cesarean section, are due to chloroform, and probably better views as to “shock,”
and how sleep is to be obtained, and rest for the nervous system; chloroform in
puerperal convulsions, in tedious cases requiring “version,” not only gives rest to
the nervous system, but is a directly curative agent, as well as taking away pain.
The author next illustrated various half-cleared up points as to sleep and anes-
thesia, by what has been learned during the year of the extraordinary action of the

126 REPORT—1869.

nitrous protoxide, or “laughing gas,” in London hospital practice. This “ gas,”
at first condemned from mere experiments on rabbits as the most deadly of all the
anesthetics, proves to be in man the least deadly. In one hundred thousand cases
there has been perhaps no death due to the gas itself. One or two accidents have
been noted in dental practice from foreign bodies, loose teeth, or the cork used
to keep the jaws asunder slipping into the relaxed glottis. This gas neither
enters into combination with the blood, as ether for instance, nor does it produce
change in the blood as carbonic oxide, nor is it changed itself; it is, in a word,
quite passive, and offers to the notice of physiologists, the author believes, a pas-
sive agent, taking the place of atmospheric air in the lungs.

As to the physiology of common “sleep,” opposite instances were cited of sleep
from venous congestion, and sleep from vascular anemia. In sleep the pupils are
contracted in children and fontanelles depressed. The ophthalmoscope, too, bears
out Mr. Durham’s theory of anzemia; or, is it because we sleep, the brain becomes
anemic (independent of vaso-motor or ganglionic action, as urged by Mr. Moore)?
Sleep is the chief remedy in delirium tremens; and here digitalis is superior to
chloral as a remedy.

Even the spectroscope can detect no change in the blood when the nitrous
oxide is inhaled—indeed there is not sufficient time in the forty or fifty seconds
during which the gas begins to act before sudden asphyxia takes place, for the
complex changes to occur supposed by Dr. Marcet and others; even the same ten
gallons of gas thus unchanged may be inhaled over and over again by the same
patient with like results of complete insensibility, going off almost in a moment
when the inhalation is stopped, and atmospheric air allowed into the ling. The
author in previous memoirs in the ‘Transactions,’ from observation in ‘London
hospitals in over 20,000 cases of chloroform administration, papers read at New-
castle, Oxford, &c., was led to doubt that the principle on which the Clover
apparatus, that of cardiac syncope, is constructed is always true, so that patients
die of cardiac exhaustion in every instance; he thinks now, if any fact or sugges-
tion were wanting to complete the proof, it is this cardiac exhaustion under this
gas far greater than under chloroform, and yet the patients invariably recover in
three to four minutes; the pulse under chloroform never sinks, it rises ; the pulse
under this gas gradually sinks till it is almost imperceptible.

The instantaneousness of the insensibility and the waking up are not unlike the
falling asleep under ordinary sleep ; deficient oxidation runs parallel with the sleep,
but the change is a “vital” one; oxidation alone will no more explain it than
explain a fit of chorea or epilepsy. The microscopic examination goes deeper, and
shows the blood-corpuscles and brain, or grey matter (protagon), altered by one set of
anesthetics but not by others; the author, in fine, concludes that deaths from
chloroform are more frequent from emotion or fright on the part of the patient
than cardiac exhaustion from deficient oxidation.

Experiments with methylene on animals, or chloral or ether “mixtures,” so
strongly recommended from theoreticideas by the Royal Medical and Chirurgical
Society (though previously abandoned in Austria, where they had been enforced
by government authority), experiments with the nitrous oxide, on the supposition
that it is more dangerous than terchloride of carbon, with voltaic narcotism,
or with some patent mixture or ether, are experiments that frighten patients and
lessen their faith in simple chloroform, and things that cause confusion, founded
on the theory of deficient oxidation alone, and have only retarded the progress of
anesthetics ; nor is a fatty heart one of the chief sources of danger, at least as far
as is shown by 300 cases of deaths from chloroform collected by the author from
journals,—mostly cases of healthy adult men attacked with sudden apneea from
alarm or fright at viewing the preparation of knives, saws, &c. for the operation,
the tears and grief of friends, &c., or of men who were bad subjects for opera-
tion, with healthy heart, from the presence of delirium tremens, want of sleep,
want of food, &e. The Association would now confer a great benefit on the public
if these 300 or 350 cases were carefully tabulated, and the deductions as to age,
sex, disease, character of accident (apnoea or asphyxia), post-mortem result, &c.
were marked out. Electricity to the diaphragm has proved in many late chlo-
roform cases most valuable, since the idea of apncea, in place of fatty heart, has

nek

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 127

impressed itself on the minds of practical men. yen in the asphyxia or apnoea of
other accidents, such as drowning, suffocation in coal mines, &c., the artificial
stimulus to respiration (electricity), not to the heart, but to the phrenic nerves,
has astonished good observers in Germany, America, Australia, &c.

Further Observations on Dendroidal Forms assumed by Minerals.
By J. D. Heaton, M.D.

In this communication attention was drawn to the peculiarities of the den-
droidal forms developed upon some purely mineral crystals when immersed in
weak solutions of silicate of soda, and some additions were made to the observa-
tions upon this subject read at the Meeting of the Association at Dundee in 1867.
It was then pointed out that when crystals of sulphate of iron, sulphate of copper,
or some other mineral salts are immersed in a dilute solution of silicate of soda, in
the course of a few hours branches shoot perpendicularly upwards in the liquid,

resenting a remarkable resemblance to the branches of some vegetation. These
feapites are straighter in a rather stronger solution, more contorted, and some-
times distinctly spiral, when the solution is somewhat weaker; but results are
only attainable within certain limits of dilution, of the solution ordinarily supplied
for commercial purposes, about one part in eight being most efficient. The trunks
of these mineral vegetations occasionally ramify and subdivide, and sometimes
parallel branches, after growing side by side for a time, will approximate and
again anastomose into a single trunk. At the base those developed on sulphate
éf iton may have a diameter of one-sixteenth or one-twentieth of an inch; as they
elongate they gradually narrow to that of a fine hair. They have a definite limit
of growth, restricted to a height of from four to six-inches. Those developed on
sulphate of copper are shorter and more delicate than those on sulphate of iron.
When the power of growth fails they terminate in fine needle-shaped extremities.
The author had stated at Dundee his opinion that the terminations of branches
still in process of elongation presented pointed extremities, which were carried
forward as growth proceeds, necessarily implying an interstitial mode of increase.
But having since made an arrangement by which branches may be observed mi-
croscopically in the act of growth, he must new correct that statement. No change
of size or form can be observed in a branch subsequent to its first development ;
but as a branch elongates, it narrows as the power of growth fails, and when the
needle-shaped point is formed, there is no more elongation. The erowing-point of
an elongating branch, as seen under the microscope, appears enveloped in a slight
cloudiness in the liquid medium, which is gradually lifted up and precedes the
extremity of the elongating branch, whose gradual ‘and continuous depalopthant
presents a very curious appearance. The branches are delicate tubes, haying thin
semitransparent walls ; they fall in pieces when taken out of their native fluid,
Under a high power of the microscope their walls present a finely granular struc-
ture, but no trace of crystalline form. Both the silica of the solution and the con-
stituents of the crystal on which the branches grow enter into their formation.
What is the nature of the force which determines the assumption of dendroidal
forms and a tubular structure by these strictly mineral formations, and their
upright growth, in opposition to the tendencies of gravitation, like the ascending:
axis of a plant? It is neither simple aggregation, not is it crystallization. It
presents certainly, in its results, a remarkable resemblance to that force by which
is effected the growth of living tissues under the influence of vitality, and upon
which it may serve to throw some light. And thus these dead structures, assu-
ming the forms, and increasing so much after the manner, of living tissues, seem to
effect one slight gap (amongst others) in that wall of separation by which it has
hitherto generally been held that the mineral world is absolutely divided from the
world of organization, but which now seems at various points to be giving way.
In connexion with this subject, the author noticed a communication by Mr. W. 0.
Roberts to the ‘Journal of the Chemical Society’ upon the occurrence of organic
forms in colloid silica, as obtained by Graham’s process of dialysis. These speci-
mens have all the appearance of microscopic fungi, presenting radiating fibres com-
posed of elongated cells, with occasional clusters of cells having the appearance of

128 REPORT—1869.

fructification, very much resembling common mildew. The Rey. Mr. Berkeley,
the eminent mycologist, has seen them, and recognizes their fungoid character,
and even their specific peculiarities.

Description of an Apparatus for Measuring and Recording the Respiratory
and Cardiac Movements of the Chest. By J. Burpon Sanperson, M.D.,
FLRS.

The purposes which this instrument is intended to answer are (1) to measure
accurately any given diameter of the chest, (2) to determine the extent of those
rhythmical variations of that diameter which are due to breathing and to the
movements of the heart, and (3) to record the results mechanically on a cylinder
revolving at a known rate by clockwork.

To accomplish these objects various methods have heen employed by physiolo-
gists. The most accurate is that contrived by M. Marey. The subject of obser-
vation is placed on a chair, against the back of which he is directed to lean. The
measuring-apparatus is supported on a table at a short distance from the front of
the chest. Its construction is such that the variations of distance between the
anterior surface of the chest and the instrument (7%. e. the table on which it rests)
are transmitted to a lever, by which they are inscribed on the recording-cylinder.
The instrument which has been recently introduced and exhibited in London by
Dr. Hawksley is constructed on the same principle. Both methods are subject to
a fundamental objection, namely that the curve inscribed on the cylinder expresses,
not the variations of the diameter of the chest, but the variations of distance between
the surface of the chest and the table. If it were possible to render the spinal
column of the subject of observation absolutely immoveable the objection would be
groundless, for the two variations referred to would be the same; but, practically,
any such fixation of the spinal column is impossible. Irregular contractions of the
muscles of the back oceur constantly, and are of such extent that no method of
measurement in which they are disregarded can pretend to accuracy. If it be
alleged that they are so trivial as not materially to impair the general accuracy of
the tracing, I reply that, although they are in themselves inconsiderable, they are
enormous in proportion to the extent of the rhythmical movements to be measured.
Some of these movements do not exceed =1,; of an inch ; consequently an accidental
jerk, even if it amounted to only half that distance, would entirely vitiate the
result.

In the instrument exhibited to the Section this error is entirely ayoided, It con-
sists of two parts, viz. (1) a light frame
of wrought iron which is applied to the
chest, and (2) the apparatus by which
the movements are transmitted to the re-
cording-cylinder. The construction can
be understood by referring to the sketch
in the margin. The letters a 6 ¢ indicate
the frame of wrought iron; dis a rod of
brass which is graduated, and slides
through a socket in the arm a, termi-
nating in a knob covered with wash-
leather, A. e is a steel spring which is
fixed to the frame adc at f,in such a
position that it is parallel to the arm e.
The end of the spring bears on its in-
ner surface a button, similar in form and
size to h, and on its outer surface a cir-
cular plate,7. A similar plate is screwed
on to the inner surface of the arm ec in
such a position that the two disks face
each other. Between the two disks is
placed, when the instrument is in use,
a disk-shaped bag (#) of vulcanized caoutchouc, the mouth of which com-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 129

municates with a long flexible tube; the opposite end of the tube is in connexion
with the drum of Marey’s cardiograph. The effect of this arrangement is, that
when the frame is adapted to any diameter of the chest—as, e.-g., the antero-poste-
rior—in such a manner that while the button / is applied to the spine, the button
g is pressed by the spring against the sternum, all, even the most minute, variations
of the particular diameter investigated are inscribed on the cylinder. The tracin
so obtained presents characters, as regards Shy and regularity of contour, whic
to the eye accustomed to the examination of kymographic tracings, appear exceed-
ingly satisfactory.

The author claims for this instrument the following advantages, viz. (1) that it
affords to the physiologist a means of recording the rhythmical movements of the
chest, either in man or animals, with greater accuracy than is possible by any method
previously employed, and (2) that from its simplicity itis applicable to the purposes
of clinical observation. Here, as in every case in which instruments of exactitude
are employed, especially for the investigation of the functions of respiration, the
fact that the patient is conscious that he is under observation is apt to interfere
with the accuracy of the result. This difficulty cannot be entirely overcome. In
consequence of it a large proportion of observations made on patients are rendered
valueless. Its existence affords, however, no excuse for contenting ourselves with
clumsy instruments and inexact methods of research. It rather points to the
necessity of improving and simplifying these methods and instruments to the
utmost, and of acquiring the greatest attainable skill in their use. At the same
time it is to be borne in mind that neither instruments nor skill will be of much
service unless the observer is possessed of that tact in the management of patients
by which alone disturbing emotions can be calmed and controlled.

On the Physiological Action of Hydrate of Chloral.
By Bensamin W. Ricwarpson, M.D., F.R.S.
[For Abstract of this Paper, see Appendix. |

On the Moral Imbecility of Habitual Criminals, exemplified by Cranial
Measurements. By Dr. Wixson.

ETHNOLOGY, ETC.

On Stone Implements from Rangoon.
By Vice-Admiral Sir E. Bercumr, K.C.B., F.B.AS.

Notes on Mosquito and Wulwa Dialects.
By C. Carrer Braxg, D.Sc., F.GS., and R.S. Caarnocx, Ph.D., FSA.

The authors entered into a minute comparison of the elements contained in Mr.
Collinson’s ‘ Vocabularies of Mosquito Dialects,’ and pointed out the large proportion
of words which occurred in them that were derived from Spanish or other European
sources. They contrasted the dialects of the Mosquito shore with those of the
Wulwas, and gave long vocabularies, showing the proportion of words in common,
and the range of linguistic variation observable in the very limited area of Eastern
Nicaragua and Mosquito.

On the Origin of the Tasmanians, Geologically considered.
By James Bonwicx, F.R.GAS.

The author called attention to the fact that Aborigines, evidently allied to the
Tasmanians, existed in the North Pacific, in New Guinea, New Caledonia, New
Hebrides, the Peninsula of Malaya, Cochin China, India, Madagascar, and most
probably the Pre-Maori inhabitants of New Zealand. Most of these, the Tas-
manians especially, were ignorant of the art of navigation, and knew not the con-

1869. 9

130 REPORT—1869.

struction of boats. Unless, therefore, the Polygenistic idea be received, that they
grew where they were found, they must have been at one period geographically
connected. Their migration could only have taken place on land.

A great number of interesting particulars, from such authorities as Dr. Hooker,
Dr. Owen, Prof. Huxley, &c., were adduced to show the plausibility of the theory of
the existence of a former southern continent. The remarkable relation of flora be-
tween Australia and South Africa, and Australia (with Tasmania) and New Zealand,
went to prove the position. Geology established the opinion of previous connexion
of anumber of the islands with the continent of New Holland. At the time of the
gradual submergence of the old southern continent, many of these ancient races
had reached to the outside limits, and were thus preserved.

The author contended for the high antiquity of man, in order to reconcile the
difficulties affecting the origin of the Tasmanians, as well as to support the doctrine
of the unity of the human species. On botanical and geological grounds, the
inhabited land of the Tasmanians was conjectured to have been part of a great
continent at a time when most parts of Europe and Asia were beneath the ocean.

On the Primitive Status of Man. By W. C. Dryvy.

On Human Remains in the Gravel of Leicestershire.
By Francis Draxe, F.G.S., F.R.GS.

On a Crannoge in Wales. By the Rey. Encar N. DumBreton.

In the Lake of Llangorse, Brecknockshire, is an island about 90 yards in circum-
ference, and situated about 120 yards from the northern shore. Until two years
ago no idea was entertained that this had anything remarkable about it.

The angular appearance of the stones exposed at the margin first suggested the
thought that this island was no part of the natural structure of the lake-basin, and
subsequent investigation has shown that the whole material has been conveyed
from the main land and heaped within flat piles. Of these about fifty may be
counted about the edge of the Crannoge. They are from 4 to 5 feet in lacuth, of
oak, and are well shaped, and pointed with a sharp metal instrument; the cuts are
plainly visible, and resemble those made by an adze. The material of the island
is—first, faggot wood and reeds, then loose mould, with but few stones, in which
is a considerable layer of charcoal, at about one foot from the level of the lake;
nearer the surface the stones are more frequent; the whole does not exceed 5 feet
above the surface of the water.

In all parts of the island, and at all levels, are found large quantities of bones, as
well as in the shallow water all round; very many of these are broken or split into
fragments. A package of these bones was sent to Professor Rolleston, who pro-
nounced them to exhibit two varieties of horse, also the remains of the ox, the
sheep, and pig. Other specimens of bones found on the island were shown at the
Meettng, and were asserted to be those of the wild boar, red deer, and Bos longi-

Tons.

Very little in the way of human implements has been found. One stone and a
bone appeared to have been shaped for use, and some fragments of leather, pierced
to admit sewing material, came to light. ‘That there have been wooden structures
about and upon this island appears evident, the remains being plentiful, both about
the edge and under the water.

On the Age of the Human Remains in the Cave of Cro-Magnon in the Valley
of the Vezére. Dr. P. M. Duncan, F.RS.

On the Discovery of Flint Implements of Paleolithic Type in the Gravel of the
Thames Valley at Acton and Ealing. By Colonel A. Layn Fox.
_ During the first six months of the present year (1869) the author devoted some
time to an examination of the gravels, brick-earth, and surface-soils on the northern
side of the Thames valley, between Shepherd’s Bush and Ealing.

Eh CC

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 131

In the nearly flat portion of the valley adjoining the river which lies between
Hammersmith, Shepherd’s Bush, and Acton, the surface of which averages 5 to 10
feet above high-water mark, several cuttings were being made in the brick-earth,
which here lies to a thickness of 10 to 12 feet upon the gravel.

The workmen had the appearance of flint flakes and implements explained to
them, by showing them specimens from other loealities, and rewards were offered
to induce them to preserve any similar implements they might find during the
excavations, but no trace of the fabrication of flint implements was found in the area
above specified. This would tend to give some confirmation to the conjecture that
this portion of the bottom of the valley may have been excavated by the river more
recently than the Paleolithic period.

At Acton the Uxbridge road passes over the natural slope which bounds the
ae on the north, and which rises from 10 to 40 and 80 feet above high-water
mark.

The upper portion of this slope near Acton. is capped with gravel, which overlies
the London Clay, and varies from 6 to 12 feet in thickness. In Acton village it is
18 feet thick, and it was shown, by a cutting made for a sewer in the direction of the
Great Western Railway Station, that it thins out northward. It is very variously
stratified, in alternate layers of subangular gravel and yellow and white sand, with
red and yellow stains. In some places the sand and gravel lie in horizontal bands,
of greater or less thickness, above each other; in others the strata are very much
contorted and undulating, thinning out in various directions, and sometimes turn-
ing up almost perpendicularly, indicating probably the existence of floods or currents,
or winding watercourses at the time when the river ran at this higher level. The
gravel consists chiefly of subangular flints, mixed with rounded quartz and quartzite
pebbles. No trace of freshwater shells or of animal remains have yet been found
in this drift-gravel.

This is the first patch of gravel as we go westward from London which lies so
high above the river, all the high ground to the north in the direction of Willesden,
and to the north-east in the direction of Hampstead and Highgate being composed of
the London Clay, whilst to the south and south-east, as already mentioned, the
gravel and brick-earth is at a much lower level. The position on the sides of the
yalley corresponds so exactly to that in which implements have been found in the
valleys of the Somme, the Ouse, and elsewhere, that the author determined to make
a close examination of the cuttings that were being made for the erection of new
buildings, and for that purpose paid almost daily visits to the place for some months.
The result has been to bring to light several implements of the antique form, usually
found in drift-gravel, and others of more modern type.

To the east of the East Acton Station, on the Willesden and Kew line, the gravel
had been disturbed at some former period. Some cuttings were being made for the
foundations of buildings at about 40 feet above high-water mark. All the worked
flints found here were of surface type, consisting of numerous small flakes, one or
two small scrapers, a chipped knife or spear-head, and, lastly, a chipped celt, with-
out any trace of grinding, corresponding in form to those, a large hoard of which
were lately discovered by the author at Cissbury in Sussex, and have been described
in the ‘ Archeologia.’ This class of implement may probably be regarded as form-
ing an intermediate link between the Palzolithic and Neolithic types.

To the west of the Station the gravel was undisturbed, and stratified in the
manner already described; the surface rises to 60 and 80 feet above high-water
mark. It was in this gravel that the implements of Paleolithic type were dis-
covered. They consist of numerous flakes, of larger size than those found at the
lower level to the east of the Station, one or two cores from which flakes had been de-
tached; but these were not in sufficient number to denote that the fabrication of flints
to any great extent had been conducted here—two large and roughly made scrapers
and five implements. One implement of oval type was found se 7 feet of strati-
fied sand and gravel, resting on the clay beneath, another of pointed type was found
in the middle of the gravel, about 10.feet from the surface, and beneath a layer of
sand 8 feet in thickness. Three other implements of similar forms were found on
the roads in the neighbourhood, in gravel that had been excavated from the same
locality, and from Mill Hill, half a mile to the westward; and one well-formed

132 REPORT—-1869.

flake was found in a cutting in Acton village, as much as 18 feet from the surface.
Although the author did not succeed in himself finding any of these implements
in situ, he took all the steps necessary to ascertain the correctness of the reports
given him by the workmen, and he has no reason to doubt the accuracy of the
positions here given. The majority of the flakes appeared to have been rubbed and
chipped by use, leaving concave scallops on the edges of the flint. All the imple-
ments and flakes were of the ochreous colour of the gravel, and they appeared by
their edges to have been much rolled in the gravel. The author also found two
very well-formed implements at Ealing Dean, at a spot the height of which is given
as 92 feet above mean water-mark in the Ordnance 6-inch map. (All these imple-
ments were exhibited at the Meeting of the Association.)

The value of the discovery consists in its extending our knowledge of the dis-
tribution of these implements higher up the main valley of the Thames than they
have been found hitherto. Itis well known that implements of Paleolithic type
have been found near Reculvers, at about 50 feet above the sea-level. The earliest
recorded discovery of a Drift implement was that found at the commencement of
the Jast century, near Gray’s Inn Lane, at a height of probably from 50 to 60 feet ;
and Mr. Evans has lately discovered one at a higher level near Highbury.

Though evidently of much less common occurrence in the Thames valley than
in those of the Somme, the Ouse, and other rivers in which they have been found,
there appears to be no reason to doubt that they are as widely distributed, and that
they occupy corresponding positions to those which have been found in the above-
named rivers.

On Man and the Animals, being a Counter Theory to Mr. Darwin’s as to the
Origin of Species. By ARXCHDEACON FREEMAN.

On the Brain of a Negro. By R. Garner, F.R.CS., F.LS.

The author, in a previous paper read at the British Association, described his
method of making casts of the brain, first hardening them in a solution of corrosive
sublimate, about 1 oz. to 1 pint of water at 60° F., that is of the specific gravity of
the brain itself, 1-038. The Negro, of whose brain a cast was shown, though by no
means of quite black skin, was apparently of pure blood, judging from the shape of
his head and face, and woolly hair. He was a tall man, and when able to follow
his employment, acted as cook on board a ship, and in private families. He was
intelligent, and apparently had been placed in more favourable circumstances for
mental development than the generality of his race.

The Negro skull is generally thick and heavy, as was the case here ; the parietals
are not unfrequently cut off from joining the sphenoidal wings in the temples, and
there appear to be one or two other little imperfections, so called. The brain is
commonly long and narrow, but high, as it was in the instance in question. Ac-
cording to Morton the Negro’s brain, compared with the Englishman’s in weight,
is only as 82 to 96, But the brain of the Negro in question weighed 49 z., the
full weight of the Englishman’s; and, generally speaking, the convolutions may be
called rich, more so than those of the ordinary Englishman, and more so than
those of an Enelishman’s brain exhibited, though the latter was of course wider or
brachycephalic. This Englishman was well known to the author. He could read,
write, and sum well, was quite of average intelligence, but self-indulgent in regard
to drink, and choleric, and had been a soldier and servant. If mere name were
anything he ought to be of our noblest blood, but probably he had no such claim.

The prognathousness of the Negro, to whatever due, is attended with a long
brain, but whether he is'the better or the worse for this, or whether any other un-
common shape of brain has very much effect on the faculties, or what, is difficult
to say. The Negro’s prognathousness seems to affect his voice, which is commonly
rather guttural than sonorous. The brains of imbeciles have commonly all the
convolutions, though of course less developed, and the author doubts whether the
performance of any particular faculty can be attributed to any particular convolu-
tion; language, for instance, as distinguished from its merely lingual and oral por-

“— lt), poe

a eal

——_—————

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 133

tion, requires the development of the conyolutions in general, and not of the ex-
ternal temporal gyri in particular. Wideness of skull, as seen in most of the
dominant races, the author would set down rather to bodily conformation than to
the reason the phrenologist would give. The Negro brain is well developed as
regards the posterior lobe, whether this be a perfection or the reverse ; probably it
is less a character of the brain of the Quadrumana, than of them and Bimana,
smooth in monkeys, with gyri in man.

The brain in the Negro in question is more developed than that figured so well
by Calori. The lobules of the orbit are certainly simple, but the frontal convolutions
are rather rich, the temporal lobes deep and long, the fissure of Rolando not
situated so far back as in many Europeans, but this is due rather to a fulness of the
conyolutions behind (where, at the summit of the brain, they are rich and extend as
far back as the post-parietal lobe, cuneus, and annectent gyri) than to the poverty
of those before.

The sulci were in places an inch deep ; the grey matter looked dusky, but there
was no dark pigment in the arachnoid as we see in some animals. The author
thinks that it is a misnomer to call the fissure of Rolando the coronal fissure, there
being another sufficiently well marked under the coronal suture, the direction ot
which the first does not follow.

Though our prepossessions may be that the Negro is in his place as the labourer of
the hot regions of the earth, servant and not master, and that he is not of the most
highly organized race of man, yet the cast seems to show that he may be very
capable of improvement though still retaining his peculiar characteristics, but to
what extent and in what direction has not perhaps been fairly tried, and not set
about in the right way.

The author anticipates that light will be thrown on the brain by a more precise
indication of the course of its formative fibres, respecting which no two authorities
agree. The mere topography of the organ has now been sufficiently made out, it
remains to connect it with fibrillation and formation.

The cast of an old man’s brain, et. 97, which was exhibited, exemplified how
much the gyri shrink in old age, whilst the sulci enlarge, corresponding atrophy
occurring in all the other organs of the body ; whilst the brain of the deceased con-
sumptive retains all the plumpness of the healthy organ.

In judging of the brain from its size, several qualifications must be made, the
size of the individual for instance. Unless we make such a qualification we might
conclude that the elephant is wiser than man, or the Chinese giant than all other
men, as he can get on no other man’s hat.

On the Paucity of Aboriginal Monuments in Canada.
By Sir Duncan Grp, Bart., M.D., F.GS.

The ordinary sepulchral remains commonly found in various parts of the country
with flint implements, pottery, &c., were excluded in this inquiry. It was confined
to true Aboriginal monuments built of stone, such as are met with in Central
America and Peru. Their scarcity and almost complete absence he attributed to
the peculiar character of the climate, which would be unfavourable to their pre-
servation, unless constantly looked after as in modern times. The mounds existing
in the heart of the country north of Lake Ontario, though often filled with broken
granite, were not regular buildings, and the frost and ice exerted no destructive
influence upon them. He anticipated the discovery some day of traces of the
ancient inhabitants in the great caverns north of Flamborough, and possibly in
similar caverns which he conjectured would be found in the island of Anticosti,
composed of similar rocks belonging to the Middle Silurian formation.

On an Obstacle to European Longevity beyond 70 years.
By Sir Duncan Giz, Bart., M.V., F.GS.
The author had previously drawn attention to the position of the leaf-shaped
cartilage at the root of the tongue, known as the epiglottis, in 5000 people of all
ages, and in 11 percent. it was found to be drooping or pendent in place of being ver-

134 REPORT—1869.
tical. He discovered the important fact that in all persons over 70 its position was
vertical, without a single exception—a circumstance of the highest importance bear-
ing upon the attainment of old age amongst Europeans. In a number of instances,
where the age varied from 70 to 95, in all was this cartilage vertical. Many of
‘these he cited as examples, such as the well-known statesmen, Lord Palmerston,
Lord Lyndhurst, Lord Gananbel, and Lord Brougham. He also gave some among
old ladies still alive at ages from 76 to 92, whose epiglottis was vertical. But the
most remarakable was that of a gentleman still alive, 102 years old, in whom it
occupied the same position. His facts clearly demonstrated that longevity beyond
70 could not be attained with a pendent epiglottis. The author summed up his
views in the following conclusions:—1. As a rule persons with a pendent epiglottis
do not attain a longevity beyond 70. Possibly a few may overstep it, but such
examples are exceptional. 2. With pendency of the epiglottis life verges to a close
at or about 70, and the limit of old age is reached. 3. A vertical epiglottis, on the
other hand, allows of the attainment of fourscore years and upwards, all other
things being equal, and affords the best chance of reaching the extremest limit of
longevity. Lastly, pendency of the epiglottis is an obstacle to longevity certainly
beyond the age of 70 years, and it is a peculiarity that occurs in 11 per cent. of all
ages amongst Europeans.

On a Cause of Diminished Longevity among the Jews.
By Sir Duncan Gisz, Bart., M.D., P.GS.

The author stated that a considerable portion of.the Jewish race possesses a
physiognomy to which he gave the name of sanguineo-oleaginous expression, cha-
racterized by varying degrees of flushed face, sleepy aspect, greasy look, guttural
or husky voice, and fulness of body. The best examples of the class are to be
seen in the furniture auction-rooms of the metropolis. With this expression is
usually associated pendency of the epiglottis. As a rule longevity is rare among
such persons, for they are liable to those diseases of a congestive character which
influence the heart, brain, and liver. The cause of all this is eating food, especially
fish cooked in oil, which tends to the destructive formative processes in the system,
and induces premature old age, although the individual may appear to be the per-
sonification of comparatively good health. The extensive use of oil in the south of
Europe has the same effect in giving rise to congestive diseases and diminished
longevity. Pendency of the epiglottis, associated with the sanguineo-oleaginous
expression, is of seriousimport. ‘The persistent use of oil, therefore, as an article of
diet, is pernicious, unless in persons of spare habit of body, delicate constitution,
and liability to disease wherein its employment would prove useful.

On the Method of forming the Flint Flakes used by the early inhabitants of
Devon, in Prehistoric Times. By Townsuenn M. Hatz, F.G.S. fe.

The flint flakes and chippings found distributed throughout the soil in several
parts of North Devon, and those associated with the submerged forest at Northam,
occur so abundantly that the question has sometimes been raised, whether or not
they may have been naturally formed, or whether they may not be the results of
some unknown kind of accidental fracture.

In about ten different localities flint cores have been found buried with the
flakes; and from a careful observation of them it appears that they are of great
importance in deciding this point ; for whilst a flake may possibly in some cases
be caused by an accidental blow, the cores show unmistakable evidence of design.
They show also that, owing to the extreme scarcity of flint all through the northern
parts of Devon and Cornwall, the early inhabitants appear to have adopted in these
districts a somewhat peculiar method of forming the flint flakes, which were pro-
bably used by them as Iaiives and scrapers for domestic purposes, or as darts and
arrowheads for war and the chase.

This method, the author stated, differed considerably from that which prevailed
in flint-producing countries, and it seemed as if the value of the material was such

———S ee

—— Oe a ee

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 135

as to induce the makers of these flint tools to adopt a plan by which the maximum
number were obtained with a minimum amount of waste.

All the flint flakes and cores from the ten different stations, ranging along the
coast from Croyde to Bude, show a singular uniformity in their design, and the
method by which they were formed appears to have been as follows. A nodule
haying been selected, a flat surface or base was first formed by striking off one end,
as near the point as possible. If the flint was cherty, or showed an uneven and
hackly fracture, it seems to have been rejected in this first stage of its manufac-
ture ; but if, on the other hand, it split with a smooth conchoidal fracture, a series
of blows were administered from the flat surface, at intervals round the margin,
so as to peel off the rough coating of the nodule on three sides. The second
series of blows produced the largest flakes, and a third or even a fourth set of flakes
could be obtained in this manner before the core was used up.

This peculiarity was noticed by the author about two years ago, in the course of
a communication to the Society of Antiquaries, and a subsequent examination of
many hundred flakes and cores has served to prove that the same process was in
use throughout the whole of this district.

The largest flakes hitherto found in North Devon are about three inches in length,
but between these and the smallest, which measure not more than three-quarters
of an inch, there are innumerable gradations in size. The results of the principal
excavations which have been made at Croyde and Northam, show that the average
proportion of cores to flakes is about 14 per cent.

On the Esquimauc considered in their relationship to Man’s Antiquity.
By W.S- Hatt.
On the Circassians or White Khazars*. By H. H. Howorru.
The author detailed the history of the Circassians and Kabardiens from the 12th
century downwards. Before the arrival of the Turks, Comans, &c. the chief race in
the plains of the Kuban and the Crimea were the Khazars, a race well known to

the Byzantines and Arabians. When the name Khazar disappears, that of Cir-

cassian appears, and from a comparison of the language, customs, and traditions
of both races, the author proved them to be one race under two names, and that
the Circassians are the descendants of the White Khazars.

On a Frontier of Ethnology and Geology*. By H. H. Howorrn.

The Isothermals in Europe are twisted far to the north of the normal course
they follow in Asia and America. This twisting has not always existed, as is
pared by the fauna and flora of prehistoric times, and by the remarks of the

reek and Roman geographers on the climate of Central Europe. Their gradual
movement, synchronous with the gradual pushing back of the limit of the fauna
and flora of prehistoric times towards Siberia, the author correlated with the
gradual intrusion of the Ivanian race of men, with its associated animals and
plants, into Europe, and the gradual displacement of the Ugrians; the Ugrian
being as much a paleontological witness to such a condition of things as we find
in Siberia, or as existed in prehistoric times, as the musk sheep or the reindeer.
The first intrusion of the Iranians into Europe, which the author could not date
before the 12th century B.c., marked the beginning of a new geologic period.
The climactic changes incident to it seem to be caused solely by the presence of
the Gulf-stream, so that if we can date the first giving way of the Ugrians, we
may possibly also date the first advent of the Gulf-stream.

On the so-called “ Petrified Human Eyes,” from the Graves of the Dead, Arica,
Peru. By the Rev. A. Humes, D.C.L., F.S.A., fe.

A yery large portion of the Republic of Peru, on the west coast of South Ame-

rica, lies in a district where rain is unknown; and in several important respects,

* This paper will be printed at length in the ‘Journal of the Ethnological Society of
London.’

136 REPORT—1869.

especially in the periodical overflow of many of its rivers, it resembles Egypt.
Starting from Arica on the coast, in lat. 18° 27'5, the railroad passes over 39
miles, to the town of Tacna, which is on the high road to the Cordilleras and
Bolivia. This is now a tree-less waste of sand, which sparkles with myriads of
hexagonal crystals of salt; indeed scarcely a blade of grass is to be seen. Yet it
was formerly known as “ the Forest of San Juan de Dios;” and no doubt trees
were abundant, where now the traveller sees the mirage every day of the year.

At various times there have been found near the mummified bodies, in the
graves at Arica, small hemispherical objects of amber-looking matter; and occa-
sionally they have been found in the eye-holes of the skulls. These objects have
naturally been supposed to be human eyes; but as they have become completely
solidified or hardened, they have been called incorrectly “petrified human eyes.”

Such being the simple facts of the case, I give the only theories which are
known on the subject, in the hope of eliciting some final decision, on the best
evidence, as to what the objects really are.

Ist. That they are bond fide human eyes.

2nd. That they are the eyes of fishes. Dy. MacDowell of Taboga, near Panama,
says, “‘ The substance is evidently organic, but in no other way has it any affinity
with the human eye. With the difference that the striated lines run transverse
instead of radial, it exactly resembles the eye of the shark. I lately made a dis-
section of one of these eyes, and hardened the lens in acetic acid, and it assumed
almost the exact appearance. I feel sure that they are the eyes of some similar
animal; but it is a question for the microscope and for comparative anatomy.”

3rd. That they are the crystalline lenses of a Cephalopod, as shown on the
authority of Professors Clift and Owen, and Mr. Bowman.

Ath. That they are vegetable matter, not animal.

Extract of a Letter from Dr. C, M. Tidy, of Cambridge Heath, Hackney :—

“ When I received the eye, I showed it to my colleague, Dr. Letheby, as well
as to the Professor of Comparative Anatomy at our hospital. We were all agreed
in this—that it was not a human eye, nor was it the eye of an animal at all. Dr.
Letheby’s impression at once was (and I perfectly agree with him) that itis a
resinoid exudation from some tree; and this I proved further by analysis. The
form is at once explained by this, the concentric laminz also; and the various
colours that are apparent may be explained by the length of time that elapsed
between the exudation of one lamina and another, and the amount of oxidation it
would undergo. I have myself no hesitation in stating that it is a vegetable and
not an animal substance.”’ ‘

To the last of these theories there is the obvious objection, that no such drip-
ping of gum is known, and in a district almost wholly destitute of vegetation
there is no tree to yield it. The second and third are open to a moral objec-
tion, viz. that the pagan Indian always regarded the future life as the repetition
of this one, with slight varieties ; and why should he represent a foreign body as
performing the functions of a natural part? The living would not attach to the
dead the teeth of oxen or the leg of a mule. The opinion that they are human
eyes is less extensively and less confidently held than formerly ; but the whole
subject still requires a more thorough investigation.

Notes on the Race Elements of the Irish People.
By G. Henry Krnanan, RLA. Fe.

The author called attention to the various and numerous different races that from
the earliest period up to the reign of William IIJ. came in masses into Ireland.
He took Co, Caray as an example, as it is believed to be one of the most Irish parts
of Ireland, and showed that nearly all the families in it are of foreign extraction.
He pointed out that in the hills of West Galway (Varconnaught), although the
worst land in Ireland, nearly all the inhabitants are of English descent, their an-
cestors being brought in at a comparatively recent date by the Martins, &c., to re-
generate the country ; the country, however, conquered, as their descendants became
so degenerate that the famous Colonel Martin had to get a law passed to prevent
them ploughing with the horses harnessed by their tails.

The author stated that he believed no real type-Celt can now be found, as people

~~ eo =n

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 137

having Celtic names are exactly similar to those of foreign origin in complexion,
form, stature, &c.; but he is inclined to believe that the nearest approach to the
true Celt will be found in some of the hill-countries, such as Slieve Phelin at the
junction of the counties of Tipperary and Limerick, or the Burren in county of
Clare, &c.

On the Natives of Vancowver’s Island. By Dr. Ricuarp Kine.

Notes on the Builders and the purposes of Megalithic Monuments.
By A.L. Lewis, F.A.S.L.

An almost unbroken chain of megalithic (Druidic) monuments extends from
India, through Persia and Asia Minor, the Mediterranean coasts and France, to
Britain and Scandinavia, those in India being still in use, and the whole having
throughout such a resemblance as could not possibly be accidental. This circum-
stance, with others, such as obscure but identical superstitions, traditions, &c.
existing throughout this chain, induces the belief that these monuments were con-
structed under a common influence of some kind. The consideration of a variety
of facts leads to the conclusion that in Europe they were constructed by the
Celts under Druidic influence, but whether that influence was derived from India,
or whether India has been subjected to a Celtic influence of some sort, or whether
both India and Celtica have been influenced from some common source, is at present
uncertain.

From the peculiar construction of the monuments, and from the uses to which
similar monuments are still put in India, it would seem that the alignments and
circles were used primarily as places of sacrifice, the dolmens or table-stones, of
which there are two classes, as places of sacrifice on the one hand, and places of
sepulture on the other, and the menhirs or single pillars as landmarks, comme-
morative pillars, tombstones, and possibly also, in some cases, as places of worship
or sacrifice.

On the Origin of Civilization and the Primitive Condition of Man.—Part IT.
By Sir Joun Lussocx, Bart., F.RS., VP. Ethn. Soc., §c. §c. Fe.

At the Dundee Meeting of the British Association I had the honour of reading
a paper “On the Origin of Civilization and the Primitive Condition of Man.”
The views therein advocated met with little opposition at the time. The then
Presidents of the Ethnological and Anthropological Societies both expressed their
concurrence in the conclusions to which I arrived; and the memoir was ordered
to be printed i extenso. It has, however, subsequently been attacked at some
length by the Duke of Argyll*. As the Duke has in some cases strangely mis-
understood me, and in others (I am sure unintentionally) misrepresented my views,
and as the subject is one of great interest and importance, I am anxious, with the
permission of the Meeting, to make some remarks in reply to his Grace’s criticisms,
as well as to bring forward some additional arguments. The Duke has divided
his work into four chapters :—I. Introduction; II. The Origin of Man; III. and
IV. His Primitive Condition.

I did not in my first memoir, nor do I now, propose to, discuss the subjects dealt
with in the first half of the Duke’s “Speculations.” In using the expression
“First men or first beings worthy to be so-called,” I did not intend to express any
opinion, but merely to indicate the alternative. I wish distinctly to point this out,
because the Duke so frequently quotes the expression, from which he draws an
erroneous conclusion. I am, however, glad to find that he is not himself suffi-
ciently satisfied with his arguments to dispense with an appeal to the wishes
and failing of his readers. I must also observe that in attacking Prof. Huxley for
proposing to unite the Bimana and Quadrumana in one Order Primates, the Duke
uses a dangerous argument; for if, on account of his great mental superiority over
the Quadrumana, Man forms an Order or even Class by himself, it will be im-

* Good Words: March, April, May, and June, 1868. Also since republished in a
separate form.

138 REPORT—1869.

possible any longer to regard all men as belonging to one species or even to
one genus.

The Duke is in error when he supposes that “ mental powers and instincts”
afford tests of easy application in other parts of the animal kingdom. On the con-
trary, genera with the most different mental powers and instincts are placed, not
only in the same Order, but even in the same family. Thus our most learned
hymenopterologist, Mr. Frederick Smith, classes the Hive-bee, the Humble-bee,
and the parasitic Apathus, in the same subfamily of Apide. It seems to me,
therefore, illogical to separate man zoologically from the other primates on the
ground of his mental superiority, and yet to maintain the specific unity of the
human race notwithstanding the mental differences between different races of men.

I did not, however, nor do I now, propose to discuss the origin of man, and pass
on therefore at once to the Duke’s third chapter; and here I congratulate myself
at the outset that the result of my paper has been to satisfy him that “ Whately’s
argument *, though strong at some points, is at others open to assault, and that, as
a whole, the subject now requires to be differently handled, and regarded from a
different point of view.” ‘I do not, therefore,” he adds in a subsequent page ft,
“aoree with the late Archbishop of Dublin, that we are entitled to assume it as
a fact that, as regards the mechanical arts, no savage race has ever raised itself.”
These are, indeed, important admissions; in fact the Duke, while supporting
Whately’s conclusions, altogether abandons the arguments by which Whately
. was convinced, and which he regarded as telling most strongly in their favour.

I feel, however, less satisfaction on this account than would otherwise have been
the case, because it seems to me that though the Duke acknowledges the Arch-
bishop’s argument to be untenable, he practically reproduces it with but a slight
alteration, and somewhat protected by obscurity. The Duke considers that “man
had instincts which afforded all that was necessary as a starting-cround.”’ He
admits, however, that monkeys use stones to break nuts; he might have added that
they throw sticks at intruders. But he says, ‘‘ between these rudiments of intel-
lectual perception and the next step (that of adapting and fashioning an instrument
for a particular purpose) there is a gulf in which lies the whole immeasureable
distance between man and brutes.” Yet in the very same page he adds the fol-
lowing sentence :—“ The wielding of a stick is, in all probability, an act equally
of primitive intuition, and from this to throwing of a stick, and the use of javelins,
is an easy and natural transition.” These two passages seem to me irreconcileable.

He continues as follows :—“ Simple as these acts are, they involve both physical
and mental powers which are capable of all the developments which we see in the
most advanced industrial arts. These acts involve the instinctive idea of the con-
stancy of natural causes and the capacity of thought, which gives men the convic-
tion that what has happened under given conditions will, under the same con-
ditions, always occur again.” Certainly I should uever have supposed that any
one who had studied the lower races of men would have considered that when
one savage knocked another down he thereby demonstrated his appreciation “ of
the constancy of natural causes,” or gave any evidence of “capacity for thought.”

The Duke blames the Archbishop of Dublin for not having defined the terms
“civilization” and “barbarism.” It seems to me that Whately illustrated his
meaning better by examples than he could have done by any definition. The
Duke does not appear to have felt any practical difficulty from the omission ; and it
is remarkable that after all he himself omits to define the terms, thus being him-
self guilty of the very fault for which he blames Whately. In truth it would
be impossible in a few words to define the complex organization which we call
civilization, or to state in a few words how a civilized differs from a barbarous
people. On the other hand, to define civilization as it should be, is surely as yet
impossible, since we are far indeed from having solved the problem, how we may
best avail ourselves of our opportunities, and enjoy the beautiful world in which
we live.

As regards barbarism, the Duke observes, “ All I desire to point out here is,
that there is no necessary connexion between a state of mere childhood in respect
to knowledge and a state of utter barbarism, words which, if they have any de-

* ‘Good Words,’ 1868, p. 156. + Ibid. June, p. 386.

— =

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 139

finite meaning at all, imply the lowest moral as well as the lowest intellectual
condition.”” To every proposition in this remarkable sentence I entirely demur.
There is, I think, a very intimate connexion between knowledge and civilization.
Knowledge and barbarism cannot coexist, knowledge and civilization are in-
separable. 5

Again, the words “utter barbarism ” have certainly a very definite signification,
but as certainly, I think, not that which the Duke attributes to them. The
lowest moral and the lowest intellectual condition are not only, in my opinion, not
inseparable, they are not even compatible. Morality implies responsibility, and
consequently intelligence; the lower animals are neither moral nor immoral; the
lower races of men may be, and are, vicious; but allowances must be made for
them; on the contrary (corruptio optimi pessima est), the higher the mental power,
the more splendid the intellectual endowment, the deeper is the moral degradation
of him who wastes the one and abuses the other.

Travellers who have lived much among savages differ greatly from the Duke in
his estimate of their moral condition. Thus, Mr. Wallace, our latest and one of
our best travellers, says*, “I have lived with communities of savages in South
America and in the East, who have no laws or law courts but the public opinion
of the villagers freely expressed. Each man scrupulously respects the rights of
his fellow, and any infraction of those rights rarely or never takes place. In such

a community all are nearly equal; there are none of those wide distinctions of
‘education and ignorance, wealth and poverty, master and servant, which are the

product of our civilization; there is none of those widespread division of labour
which, while it increases wealth, produces also conflicting interests ; there is not
that severe competition aud struggle for existence or for wealth which the dense
population of civilized countries inevitably creates. All incitements to great
crimes are thus wanting, and petty ones are thus repressed, partly by the influence
of public opinion, but chiefly by that natural sense of justice and of his neigh-
bour’s right, which seems to be in some degree inherent in every race of man.
Now, although we have progressed vastly beyond the savage state in intellectual
achievements, we have not advanced equally in morals.”

As regards the Bushmen, Le Vaillant says :—“ For myself, who, far from fearing
the Houzouanas, had felt pleasure from their society, and entertained an affection
for them, I once more confess that I did not part from them without regret; that
I found them an active, laborious, and intelligent race of men, ever ready to oblige

_ in spite of obstacles, and superior to other savages both in courage and ability . .

ee ae They inspired me,” he adds, “‘ with more love and
esteem than any other tribe in Africa; with whom I would have undertaken,
without fear, to traverse the whole of that quarter of the globe had my good
fortune permitted me to know them sooner ; and if ever circumstances allow me to
resume the project, which it has been so painful to me to relinquish, they are the
only ones that shall be my companions in the enterprise, and to them alone will I
direct my steps without delay.”

Speaking of the South Australians, Major Mitchell says:—“My experience
enables me to speak in the most favourable terms of the Aborigines” +.

The Flatheads of Oregon are described by those who have the best oppor-
tunities of knowing them, collectively as well as individually, as moral and honest
in all their dealings ; brave in the field, amenable to their chiefs, fond of cleanli-
ness, and decided enemies of theft and falsehood of every description. They are
also free from backbiting and laziness, which are so common among other tribest.

Lafitau §, also, speaking of the American savages, observes that, ‘‘ces peuples,
sans avoir de loix écrites, ne laissent pas d’avoir une justice rigoureuse dans le
fonds, et de se tenir en respect les uns les autres, par la crainte qui oblige les par-
ticuliers 4 veiller sur leur propre conduite, pour ne pas troubles Vordre et la tran-
quillité publique ; ce qui est le but de tout bon gouvernement.”

It may be said that these are exceptional cases, still they are enough for my
purpose, and on the whole, the fair inference seems to be that savages are more

* Malay Archipelago, vol. ii. p. 460.

t Stephens’s ‘South Australia,’ p.73. See also p. 80. ¢ Dunn’s ‘ Oregon,’ p. 311.

§ Mceurs des Sauvages Américains, vol. i. p. 501.

140 REPORT—1869.

innocent, and yet more criminal than civilized races; they are by no means in the
lowest possible moral condition, nor do they rise to the higher virtues.

In ny previous paper I laid much stress on the fact that even in the most civi-
lized nations we find traces of early barbarism. The Duke maintains, on the con-
trary, that these traces afford no proof, or even presumption, that barbarism was
the primeval condition of man; he urges that all such customs may have been,
not primeval, but medieval; and he continues—‘“ Yet this assumption runs
through all Sir J. Lubbock’s arguments. Wherever a brutal or savage custom
prevails, it is regarded as a sample of the original condition of mankind. And
this in the teeth of facts which prove that many of such customs not only may
have been, but must have been, the result of corruption.”

Fortunately, it is unnecessary for me to defend myself against this criticism,
because in the very next sentence the Duke directly contradicts himself, and shows
that I have not done that of which he accuses me. He continues his argument
thus :—‘‘ Take cannibalism as one of these. Sir J. Lubbock seems to admit that
this loathsome practice was not primeyal.” Thus, by way of proof that I regard
alk brutal customs as primeval, he states, and correctly states, that I do not regard
cannibalism as primeyal.

The Duke refers particularly to the practice of Bride-catching, whieh he states
“cannot possibly have been primeval.” He omits, however, to explain why not;
and, of course, assuming the word “ primeval” to cover a period of some length.
Mr. M‘Lennan has, I think, brought forward strong reasons for considering
Bride-catching to have been a primeval custom. As the Duke correctly observes,
I laid some stress on this custom, and am sorry that his Grace here meets me with
a mere contradiction, instead of an argument. It may perhaps, however, be as
well to state emphatically that all brutal customs are not, in my opinion, primeyal.
Human sacrifices, for instance, were, I think, certainly not so.

My argument, however, was that there is a definite sequence of habits and ideas ;
that certain customs (some brutal, others not so) which we find lingering on in
civilized communities, are a page of past history, and tell a tale of former bar-
barism, rather on account of their simplicity than of their brutality, though many
of them are brutal enough.

No one surely would go back from letter-writing to the use of the quippu or
hieroglyphics; no one would abandon the fire-diill and obtain fire by hand-
triction.

Believing that the primitive condition of man was one of civilization, the
Duke accounts for the existence of savages by the remark that they are “mere
outcasts of the human race,” descendants of weak tribes which were “ driven to
the woods and rocks.” But until the historical period these “ mere outcasts”
occupied almost the whole of North and South America, all Northern Europe, the
greater part of Africa, the great continent of Australia, a large part of Asia, and
the beautiful islands of the Pacific. Moreover, until modified by man the great
continents were either in the condition of open plains, such as heaths, downs,
prairies, and tundras, or they were mere “ woods and rocks.” Now everything
tends to show that mere woods and rocks exercised on the whole a favourable
influence. Inhabitants of great plains rarely rose beyond the pastoral stage.
In America the most advanced civilization was attained, not by the occupants of
the fertile valleys, not along the banks of the Mississippi or the Amazon, but
among the rocks and the woods of Mexico and Peru.

Scotland itself is a brilliant proof that woods and rocks are compatible with a
high state of civilization. My idea of the manner in which, and the causes owing
to which, man spread over the earth, is very different from that of the Duke. He
evidently supposes that new countries have been occupied by weaker races, driven
there by more powerful tribes. This I believe to be an entirely erroneous notion.
Take for instance our own island. We are sometimes told that the Celts were
driven by the Saxons into Wales and Cornwall. On the contrary, however, we
know that Wales and Cornwall were both occupied long before the Saxons landed
on our shores. The Celts were not driven away at all, but either destroyed or
absorbed.

The gradual extension of the human race has not in my opinion been effected by

—— FF.

is el <<

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 141

force acting on any given race from without, but by internal necessity, and the
pressure of population; by peaceful, not by hostile force; by prosperity, not by
misfortune. I believe that of old, as now, founders of new colonies were men of
energy and enterprise ; animated by hope and courage, not by fear and despair;
that they were, in short, anything but mere outcasts of the human race.

The Duke relies a good deal on the case of America. “Is it not true,” he asks,
“that the lowest and rudest tribes in the population of the globe have been found
at the furthest extremities of its great continents, and in the distant islands which
would be the last refuge of the victims of violence and misfortune? ‘The New
World’ is the continent which presents the most uninterrupted stretch of habitable
land from the highest northern to the lowest southern latitude. On the extreme
north we have the Esquimaux, or Inuit race, maintaining human life under
conditions of extremest hardship, even amid the perpetual ice of the Polar Seas.
And what a life it is! Watching at the blow-hole of a seal for many hours, in a
temperature of 75° below freezing-point, is the constant work of the Inuit hunter.
And when at last his prey is struck, it is his luxury to feast upon the raw blood
and blubber. To civilized man it is hardly possible to conceive a life so wretched,
and in many respects so brutal as the life led by this race during the long lasting
night of the arctic winter.”

To this question [ confidently reply, No, it is not true; it is not true as a general
proposition that the lowest races are found furthest from the centres of continents ;
it is not true in the particular case of America. The natives of Brazil, possessing
a country of almost unrivalled fertility, surrounded by the most luxuriant vegeta-
tion, watered by magnificent rivers, and abounding in animal life, were yet
unquestionably lower than the Esquimaux *, whom the Duke pities and despises so
much}. More, indeed, I think than the case requires. Our own sportsmen
willingly undergo great hardships in pursuit of game ; and hunting in reality pos-
sesses a keen zest which it can never attain when it is a mere sport.

“When we rise,” says Mr. Hillt, “ twice or thrice a day from a full meal, we
cannot be in a right frame either of body or mind for the proper enjoyments of the
chase. Our sluggish spirits then wants the true incentive to action, which should
be hunger, with the hope before us of filling a craving stomach. I could remem-
ber once before being for a long time dependent upon the gun for food, and feeling
a touch of the charm of a savage life (for every condition of humanity has its good
as well as its evil), but never till now did I fully comprehend the attachment of
the sensitive, not drowsy Indian.”

Esquimaux life, indeed, as painted by our Arctic yoyagers, is by no means so
miserable as the Duke supposes. Capt. Parry, for instance, gives the following
a of an Esquimaux hut. “In the few opportunities we had in putting their

ospitality to the test we had every reason to be pleased with them. Both as to
food and accommodation, the best they had were always at our service; and their
attention, both in kind and degree, was everything that hospitality and even good
breeding could dictate. The kindly offices of drying and mending our clothes,
cooking our provisions and thawing snow for our drink, were performed by the
women with an obliging cheerfulness which we shall not easily forget, and which
demanded its due share of our admiration and esteem. While thus their guest I
have passed an evening not only with comfort, but with extreme gratification ; for
with the women working and singing, their husbands quietly mending their lines,
the children playing before the door, and the pot boiling over the blaze of a cheer-
ful lamp, one might well forget for the time that an Esquimaux hut was the scene
of this domestic comfort and tranquillity ; and I can safely affirm with Cartwright
that, while thus lodged beneath their roof, I know no people whom I would more
confidently trust, as respects either my person or my property, than the Esquimaux.”
Dr. Rae§, who had ample means of judging, tells us that the Eastern Esquimaux
“are sober, steady, and faithful. . . . . Provident of their own property and

* See Martius, p. 77. Dr. Rae ranks the Esquimaux above the Red Indians (Trans.
Ethn. Soc. 1866).

+ When the Duke states that “ neither an agricultural nor pastoral life is possible on the
borders of a frozen sea,” he forgot for the moment the inhabitants of Lapland and of Siberia.

+ Travels in Siberia, vol. ii. p. 288. § Trans. Ethn. Soc. 1866. p. 138.

44.2 REPORT—1869.

careful of that of others when under their charge. . . . . Socially they area
lively, cheerful, and chatty people, fond of associating with each other and with
strangers, with whom they soon become on friendly terms, if kindly treated. . .
In their domestic relations they are exemplary. The man is an obedient son, a
good husband, and akind father. . . . . The children when young are docile.
; The girls have their dolls, in making dresses and shoes for which they
amuse and employ themselves. The boys have miniature bows, arrows, and spears.

. . . When grown up they are dutiful and kind to their parents. . . . .
Orphan children are readily adopted and well cared for until they are able to provide
for themselves.” He concludes by saying, ‘“ the more I saw of the Esquimaux the
higher was the opinion I formed of them.”

Again, Hooper* thus describes a visit toan Asiatic Esquimaux belonging to the
Tuski:—*“ Upon reaching Mooldooyah’s habitation, we found Captain Moore installed
at his ease, with every provision made for comfort and convenience. Water and
venison were suspended over the lamps in preparation for dinner; skins nicely
arranged for couches, and the hangings raised to admit the cool air; our baggage
was bestowed around us with care and in quiet, and we were free to take our own
way of enjoying such unobtrusive hospitality, without a crowd of eager gazers
watching us like lions at feed ; nor were we troubled by importunate begging, such
as detracted from the dignity of Metra’s station, which was undoubtedly high in
the tribe.”

I know no sufficient reason for supposing that the Esquimaux were ever more
advanced than they are now. The Duke indeed considers that before they were
“driven by wars and migrations” (a somewhat curious expression) they “may
have been nomads living on their flocks and herds;” and he states broadly that
“the rigours of the region they now inhabit have reduced this people to the con-
dition im which we now see them;” a conclusion for which I know no reason,
particularly as the Tinné and other Indians living to the south of the Esquimaux
are ruder and more barbarous.

It is my belief that the great continents were already occupied by a widespread,
though sparse population, when man was no more advanced than the lowest
savages of to-day ; and although I am far from believing that the various degrees
of civilization which now occur can be altogether accounted for by the external
circumstances as they at present exist, still these circumstances seem to me to
throw much light on the very different amount of progress which has been attained
by different races.

In referring to the backwardness of the aboriginal Australians, I had observed
that New Holland contained “neither cereals nor any animals which could be
domesticated with advantage,” upon which the Duke remarks that “Sir John
Lubbock urges in reply to Whately that the low condition of Australian savages
affords no proof whatever that they could not raise themselves, because the materials
of improvement are wanting in that country, which affords no cereals, nor animals
capabie of useful domestication. But Sir J. Lubbock does not pee that the
same argument which shows how improvement could not possibly be attained, shows
also how degradation could not possibly be avoided. If with the few resources
of the country it was impossible for savages to rise, it follows that with those
same resources it would be impossible for a half-civilized race not to fall. And as
in this case again, unless we are to suppose a separate Adam and Eve for Van
Diemen’s Land, its natives must originally have come from countries where both
corn and cattle were to be had, it follows that the low condition of these natives
is much more likely to have been the result of degradation than of primeval bar-
barism.”

But my argument was that a half-civilized race would have brought other
resources with them. The dog was, I think, certainly introduced into that country
by man, who would have brought with him other animals also if he had possessed
any. The same argument applies to plants; the Polynesians carried with them
the Sweet Potato and the Yam, as well as the dog, from island to island; and
even if the first settlers in Australia happened to have been without them, and
without the means of acquiring them, they would certainly have found some

* The Tents of the Tuski, czt. p. 102.

-_— =?

a —

)
*

thd

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 143

native Peer which would have been worth the trouble of cultivation, if they had
attained to the agricultural stage.

This argument applies with even more force to pottery; if the first settlers in
Australia were acquainted with this art, I can see no reason why they should
suddenly and completely have lost it.

The Duke, indeed, appears to maintain that though the natives of Van Diemen’s
Land (whom he evidently regards as belonging to the same race as the Australians
and Polynesians, from both of which they are entirely distinct) ‘must originally
have come from countries where both corn and cattle were to be had,” still “ de-
gradation could not possibly be avoided.” This seems to be the natural inference
from the Duke’s language, and suggests a very gloomy feature for our Australian
fellow-countrymen. The position is, however, so manifestly untenable, when once
put into plain language, that I think it unnecessary to dwell longer on this part of
the subject. Even the Duke himself will hardly maintain that our colonists must
fall back because the natives did not improve. Yet he extends and generalizes
this argument in a subsequent paragraph, saying, “there is hardly a single fact
quoted by Sir J. Lubbock in favour of his own theory, which when viewed in con-
nexion with the same undisputable principles, does not tell against that theory
rather than in its favour.” So far from being “ indisputable,” the principle that
when savages remained savages, civilized settlers must descend to the same level,
appears to me entirely erroneous. On reading the above passage, however, I passed
on with much interest tosee which of my facts I had so strangely misread.

The great majority of facts connected with savage life have no perceptible
bearing on the question, and I must therefore have been not only very stupid,
but also singularly unfortunate, if of all those quoted by me in support of my
argument there was “hardly a single one,” which read aright was not merely
irrelevant, but actually told against me. In support of his statement the Duke
gives three illustrations, but it is remarkable that not one of these three cases was
referred to by me in the present discussion, or in favour of my theory. If all the
facts on which I relied told against me, it is curious that the Duke should not give
aninstance. The three illustrations which he quotes from my ‘ Prehistoric Times’
seem to me irrelevant, but as the Duke thinks otherwise, and some may agree
with him, it will be worth while to see how he uses them, and whether they give
any real support to his argument. As already mentioned they are three in number.

“Sir J. Lubbock,” he says, “reminds us that in a cave on the north-west coast,
tolerable figures of sharks, porpoises, turtles, lizards, canoes, and some quadrupeds
&c. were found, and yet that the present natives of the country where they were
found were utterly incapable of realizing the most vivid artistic representations,
and ascribe the drawings in the cave to diabolical agency.”

This does not prove much, because the Australian tribes differ much in their
artistic condition; some of them still make rude drawings like those above described.

Secondly, he says, “Sir J. Lubbock quotes the testimony of Cook, in respect to
the Tasmanians, that they had no canoes. Yet their ancestors could not have
reached the island by walking on the sea.”

This argument would equally prove that the kangaroos and Hchidnas must haye
had civilized ancestors; it would have been equally impossible for ‘their ancestors
to have reached the island by walking on the sea.” The Duke, though admitting
the antiquity of man, does not I think appreciate the geological changes which
have taken place during the human period.

The only other case which he quotes is that of the highland Eskimo, who had no
weapons nor any idea of war. The Duke’s comment is as follows. ‘ No wonder,
poor people ! They had been driven into regions where no stronger race could desire

‘to follow them. But that the fathers had once known what war and violence

meant, there isno more conclusive proof than the dwelling-place of their children,”

It is perhaps natural that the head of a great Highland Clan should regard with
pity a people who, having ‘once known what war and violence meant,” have no
longer any neighbours to pillage or to fight, but a lowlander can hardly be expected
seriously to regard such a change as one calculated to excite pity, or as any evidence
of degradation. In my first paper I deduced an argument, the condition of religion
among the different races of man, a part of the subject which has since been

144. REPORT—1869.

admirably dealt with by Mr. Tylor in a lecture at the Royal Institution. The use
of flint for sacrificial purposes long after the introduction of metal, seemed to me a
good case of what Mr. Tylor has aptly called “Survival.” So also is the method
of obtaining fire. The Brahman will not use ordinary fire for sacred purposes, he
does not even obtain a fresh spark from flint and steel, but reverts, or rather
continues the old way of obtaining it by friction with a wooden drill, one Brahman
pulling the thong backwards and forwards while another watches to catch the
sacred spark.

I also referred to the non-existence of religion among certain savage races, and as
the Duke correctly observes, I argued that this was probably their primitive condi-
tion, because it is difficult to believe that a people which had once possessed a
religion would ever entirely lose it*.

This argument filled the Duke with “astonishment.” Surely, he says, “if there
is one fact more-certain than another in respect to the nature of Man, it is that he
is capable of losing religous knowledge, of ceasing to believe in religious truth, and
of falling away from religious duty. If by ‘ religion’ is meant the existence merely
of some impressions of powers invisible and supernatural, even this, we know, can
not only be lost, but be scornfully disavowed by men who are highly civilized.”

Yet in the very same page, with that curious tendency to self-contradiction, of
which I have already given several instances, the Duke goes on to say ‘the most
cruel and savage customs in the world are the direct effect of its ‘religions.’
And if men could drop religions when they would, or if they could even form the
wish to get rid of those which sit like a nightmare on their life, there would be
many more nations without a ‘religion’ than there are found to be. But religions

can neither be put on nor cast off like garments, according to their utility, or ac-

cording to their beauty, or according to their power of comforting.”

With this I entirely agree. Man can no more voluntarily abandon or change
the articles of his religious creed than he can make one hair black or white, or add
one cubit to his stature. Ido not deny that there may be exceptional cases of
intellectual men entirely devoid of religion; but if the Duke means to say that
men who are highly civilized habitually or frequently lose and scornfully disavow
religion, I can only say that I should adopt such an opinion with difficulty and
regret. There is, so far as I know, no evidence on record which would justify such
an opinion, and as far as my private experience goes, I at least have met with no
such tendency.

It is indeed true that from the times of Socrates down to those of Luther, and
perhaps later, men in advance of their age have disavowed particular religions, and
particular myths; but the Duke of Argyll would, I am sure, not confuse a desire for
reformation with the scornful disavowal of religion asa whole. Some philosophers
may object to prayers for rain, but they are foremost in denouncing the folly of
witchcraft; they may regard matter as aboriginal, but they would never suppose
with the Redskin that land was created while water existed from the beginning ;
nor would any one now suppose with the South-Sea Islanders that the Peerage
were immortal, but not Commoners. If, indeed, there is “ one fact more certain
than another in respect to the nature of man,” I should have considered it to be
the gradual diffusion of religious light, and of nobler conceptions as to the nature
of God.

The lowest savages have no idea of a Deity at all. Those slightly more ad-
vanced regard him as an enemy to be dreaded, but who may be resisted with a
fair prospect of success ; who may be cheated by the cunning and defied by the
strong. Thus the natives of the Nicobar islands endeavour to terrify their deity by
scarecrows, and the Negro beats his fetish if his prayers are not granted. As
tribes advance in civilization, their deities advance in dignity, but their power is
still limited ; one governs the sea, another the land; one reigns over the plains,
another among the mountains. The most powerful are vindictive, cruel, and un-
just. They require humiliating ceremonies and bloody sacrifices. But few races

ave arrived at the conception of an omnipotent and beneficent deity.

Perhaps the lowest form of religion may be considered to be that presented by

* It is hardly necessary to explain to anyone that I did not intend to question the
possibility of a change in, but a total loss of religion.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 145

the Australians, which consists of a mere unreasoning belief in the existence of
mysterious beings. The native who has in his sleep a nightmare, or a dream, does
not doubt the reality of that which passes, and as the beings by whom he is visited
in his sleep are unseen by his friends and relations, he regards them as invisible.

In Fetichism this feeling is more methodized. The Negro, by means of witch-
craft, endeavours to make a slave of his deity. Thus Fetichism is almost the op-
posite of Religion; it stands towards it in the same relation as Alchemy to Che-
mistry, or Astrology to Astronomy; and shows how fundamentally our idea of a
deity differs from that which presents itself to the savage. The Negro does not
hesitate to punish a refractory fetish, and hides it in his waistcloth if he does not
wish it to know what is going on. Aladdin’s lamp is, in fact, a well-known
illustration of a fetish.

A further stage is that in which the superiority of the higher deities is more
fully recognized. Everything is worshipped indiscriminately—animals, plants, and
even inanimate objects. In endeavouring to account for the worship of animals,
we must remember that names are very frequently taken from them. The children
and followers of a man called the Bear or the Lion would make that a tribal name.
Hence the animal itself would be first respected, at last worshipped. This form of
religion can be shown to have existed, at one time or another, almost all over the
world.

“The Totem,” says Schoolcraft, “is a symbol of the name of the progenitor,—
generally some quadruped, or bird, or other object in the animal kingdom, which
stands, if we may so express it, as the surname of the family. It is always some ani-
mated object, and seldom or never derived from the inanimate class of nature. Its
significant importance is derived from the fact that individuals unhesitatingly trace
their lineage from it. By whatever names they may be called during their life-
time, it is the Totem, and not their personal name, that is recorded on the tomb or
‘adjedating’ that marks the place of burial. Families are thus traced when ex-
panded into bands or tribes, multiplication of which, in North America, has been
very great, and has decreased, in like ratio, the labours of the ethnologist.” Tote-
mism, however, is by no means confined to America, In Central India “the
Moondah ‘ Enidhi,’ or Oraon ‘ Minijrar,’ or Eel tribe, will not kill or eat that fish.
The Hawk, Crow, or Heron tribes will not kill or eat those birds. Livingstone,

uoted in Latham, tells us that the subtribes of Bitshuanas (or Bechuanas) are
similarly named after certain animals, and a tribe never eats the animal from which
it is named, using the term ‘ila,’ hate or dread, in reference to killing it’*.

Traces, indeed, of Totemism, more or less distinct, are widely distributed, and
often connected with marriage prohibitions.

As regards inanimate objects, we must remember that the savage accounts for all
action and movement by life; hence a watch is to him alive. This being taken
in conjunction with the feeling that anything unusual is ‘“ great medicine,” leads
to the worship of any remarkable inanimate object. Mr. Fergusson has recently
attempted to show the special prevalence of Tree and Serpent worship. He might,
I believe, have made out as strong a case for some other objects. It seems clear
that the objects worshipped in this stage are neither to be regarded as emblems,
nor are they personified. Inanimate objects have spirits as well as men; hence
when the wives and slaves are sacrificed, the weapons also are broken in the grave,
so that the spirits of the latter, as well as of the former, may accompany their
master to the other world.

The gradually increasing power of chiefs and priests led to Anthropomorphism
with its sacrifices, temples, and priests, &c. To this stage belongs idolatry, which
must by no means be regarded as the lowest state of religion. Solomont, indeed,
long ago pointed out how it was connected with monarchical power :—

“Whom men could not honour in presence, because they dwelt far off, they took
the counterfeit of his visage from far, and made an express image of a king, whom
they honoured, to the end that by this, their forwardness, they might flatter him
that was absent, as if he were present.

*¢ Also the singular diligence of the artificer did help to set forward the ignorant
to more superstition.

* Trans. Ethnological Soc. N. 8. vol. vi. p. 36. t Wisdom, xiv. 17.

1869. 10

146 REPORT—1869.

“ For he, peradventure willing to please one in authority, forced all his skill to
make the resemblance of the best fishion.

“ And so the multitude, allured by the grace of the work, took him now for a
God, which a little before was but honoured as a man.”

The worship of principles may be regarded as a still further stage in the natural
development of religion.

It is important to observe that each stage of religion is superimposed on the
receding, and that bygone beliefs linger on among the children and the ignorant.
hus witchcraft is still believed in by the ignorant, and fairy tales flourish in the

nursery.

It certainly appears to me that the gradual development of religious ideas among
the lower races of men is a fair argument in opposition to the view that savages
are degenerate descendants of civilized ancestors. Archbishop Whately would
admit the connexion between these different phases of religious belief, but I think
he would find it very difficult to show any process of natural degradation and decay
which could explain the quaint errors and opinions of the lower races of men, or to
account for the lingering belief in witchcraft, and other similar absurdities in
civilized races, excepting by some such train of reasoning as that. which I have
endeavoured to sketch.

There is another case in this memoir wherein the Duke, although generally a fair
opponent, brings forward an unsupportable accusation. He criticises severely the
“Four Ages,” generally admitted by archeologists, especially referring to the
terms “ Paleolithic” and “ Neolithic,” which are used to denote the two earlier.

I haye no wish to take to myself in particular the blame which the Duke impar-
tially extends to archzeologists in general, but having suggested the two terms in
question, I will simply place side by side the passage in which they first appeared,
and the Duke’s criticism, and confidently ask whether there is any foundation for

the sweeping accusation made by the noble Duke.

The Duke says, “ For here I must
observe that Archeologists are using
language on this subject which, if not
positively erroneous, requires, at least,
more rigorous definitions and limita-
tions of meaning than they are disposed
to attend to. They talk of an Old Stone
Age (Paleolithic), and of a Newer
Stone Age (Neolithic), and of a Bronze
Age, and of an Iron Age. Now, there
is no proof whatever that such Ages
ever existed in the world. It may
be true, and it probably is true, that
most nations in the progress of the
Arts have passed through the stages of
usiag stone for implements before they
were acquainted with the use of metals.
Even this, however, may not be true of
all nations. In Africa there appears to
be no traces of any time when the na-
tives were not acquainted with the use
of iron; and I am informed by Sir
Samuel Baker that iron ore is so common
in Africa, and of a kind so easily re-
ducible by heat, and its use might well
be discovered by the rudest tribes, who
were in the habit of lighting fires. Then
again it is to be remembered that there
are some countries in the world where
stone is as rare and difficult to get as
metals. The great alluvial plains of
Mesopotamia are a case in point. Ac-

My words, in proposing the ‘terms,
were as follows :—

“From the careful study of the re-
mains which have come down to us, it
would appear that the prehistoric Archze-
ology may be divided into four great
epochs.

“Firstly. That of Drift; when man
shared the possession of Europe with
the Mammoth, the Cave-bear, the wool-
ly-haired rhinoceros and other extinct
animals. This we may call the “ Palzo-
lithic” period.

“Secondly. The later or polished Stone
Age; a period characterized by beautiful
Weapons and instruments made of flint
and other kinds of stone, in which, how-
ever, we find no trace of the knowledge
of any metal, excepting gold, which
seems to have been sometimes used for
ornaments. This we may call the Neo-
lithic period.

“Thirdly. The Bronze Age, in which
bronze was used for arms and cutting
instruments of all kinds.

“Fourthly. TheIron Age, in which that
metal had superseded bronze for arms,
axes, knives, &c.; bronze, however, still
being in common use for ornaments, and
frequently also for the handles of swords
and other arms, but never for the blades.

“Stone weapons, however, of many

—[———

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS,

cordingly, we know from the remains of
the First Chaldean Monarchy that a very
high civilization in the arts of agricul-
ture and of commerce coexisted with
the use of stone implements of a very
rude character. This fact proves that
rude stone implements are not necessa-
rily any proof whatever of a really bar-
barous condition. And even if it were
true that the use of stone has in all
cases preceded the use of metals, it is
quite certain that the same Age, which
was an Age of Stone in one part of the
world was an Age of Metal in the other.
As regards the Eskimo and the South-

147

kinds were still in use during the age
of Bronze, and even during that of Iron.
So that the mere presence of a few stone
implements is not in itself sufficient evi-
dence that any given ‘find’ belongs to
the Stone Age.

“Tn order to prevent misapprehension,
it may be as well to state at once, that
I only apply this classification to Europe,
though in all probability it might also be
extended to the neighbouring parts of
Asia and Africa. As regards other civi-
lized countries, China and Japan for in-
stance, we, as yet, know nothing of their
Prehistoric Archeology. It is evident,

also, that some nations, such as the Fue-
gians, Andamaners, &c., are even now
only in an age of Stone.”

Sea Islanders we are now, or were very
recently, living in a Stone Age.”

I cannot, of course, on this occasion repeat the arguments adduced in my first
memoir; I will, however, now bring forward one or two additional ones in sup-
port of my view. There is aconsiderable body of evidence tending to show that the
offspring produced by crossing different varieties tends to revert to the type from
which these varieties are descended. Thus Tegetmeier states that “a cross be-
tween two non-sitting varieties (of the common fowl) almost ae a
mongrel that becomes broody, and sits with remarkable steadiness.” “Mr. Darwin
gives several cases in which such hybrids or mongrels are singularly wild and
untameable, the mule being a familiar instance. Messrs. Boitard and Corbié state
that, when they crossed certain breeds of pigeons, they invariably got some young
ones coloured like the wild C. livia. Mr. Darwin repeated these experiments, and
found the statement fully confirmed.

So again the same is the case with fowls. Tens of thousands of the Black
Spanish and the white silk fowls might be bred without a single red feather
appearing, yet Mr. Darwin found that on crossing them he immediately obtained
specimens with red feathers. Similar results have been obtained with ducks,
rabbits, and cattle. Mules also have not unfrequently barred legs. It is unnecessary
to give these cases in detail, because Mr. Darwin's work on ‘ Animals and Plants
under Domestication’ is in the hands of every naturalist.

Applying the same test to man, Mr. Darwin observes that crossed races of men
are singularly savage and degraded. “Many years ago,” he says, “I was struck
by the fact that in South America men of complicated descent between Negroes,
Indians, and Spaniards seldom had, whatever the cause might be, a good expres-
sion. Livingstone remarks that ‘it is unaccountable why half-castes are so much
more cruel than the Portuguese, but such is undoubtedly the case.’ An inhabitant
remarked to Livingstone, ‘God made white men, and God made black men, but
the devil made half-castes!’ When two races, both low in the scale, are crossed,
the progeny seems to be eminently bad. Thus the noble-hearted Humboldt, who
felt none of that prejudice against the inferior races now so current in England,
speaks in strong terms of the bad and savage disposition of Zambas, or half-castes
between Indians and Negroes, and this conclusion has been arrived at by various
observers. From these facts we may perhaps infer that the degraded state of so
many half-castes is in part due to reversion to a primitive and savage condition,
induced by the act of crossing, as to well as the unfavourable moral conditions
under which they generally exist.”

I confess, however, that I am not sure how far this may not be accounted for by
the unfortunate circumstances in which half-breeds are generally placed. The
half-breeds between the Hudson’s Bay Company’s servants and the native women,
being well treated and looked after, appear to be a creditable and well-be-
haved race*.

* Dunn’s ‘ Oregon Territory,’ p. 147.
10*

148 REPORT—1869.

1 would also call particular attention to the remarkable similarity between the
mental characteristics of savages and those of children.

“The Abipones,” says Dobritzhoffer*, ‘when they are unable to comprehend
anything at first sight, soon grow weary of examining it, and cry ‘ orqueenam’ ?
what is it after all? Sometimes the Guaranies, when completely puzzled, knit
their brows and cry ‘tupa oiquaa,’ God knows what it is. Since they possess
such small reasoning powers, and have so little inclination to exert them, it is no
wonder that they are neither able nor willing to argue one thing from another.”
Richardson says of the Dogrib Indians, “that however high the reward they
expected to receive on reaching their destination, they could not be depended on
to carry letters. A slight difficulty, the prospect of a banquet on venison, or a
sudden impulse to visit some friend, were sufficient to turn them aside for an
indefinite length of time’’t.

Le Vaillant { also observes of the Namaquas, that they closely resembled chil-
dren in their great curiosity.

M. Bourien§, speaking of the wild tribes in the Malayan Peninsula, says that
an “inconstant humour, fickle and erratic, together with a mixture of fear, timidity,
and diffidence, lies at the bottom of their character, they seem always to think
that they would be better in any other place than in the one they occupy at the
time. Like children, their actions seem to be rarely guided by reflection, and they
almost always act impulsively.”

The tears of the South-Sea Islanders, ‘like those of children, were always
ready to express any passion that was strongly excited, and, like those of children,
they also appeared to be forgotten as soon as shed””||.

At Tahiti Captain Cook mentions that Oberea, the Queen, and Tootathah, one
of the principal chiefs, amused themselves with two large dolls. D’Urville tells us
that a New Zealand chief, Tauvarya by name, ‘cried like a child because the
sailors spoilt his favourite cloak by powdering it with flour”.

Williams ** mentions that in Fiji not only the women, but even the men give
vent to their feelings by crying. Burton even says that among East Africans
the men cried more frequently than the womenff.

Not only do savages closely resemble children in their general character, but a
curious similarity exists between them in many small points. For instance, the
tendency to reduplication, which is so characteristic of children, prevails remark-
ably also amongst savages.

The first 1000 words in Richardson’s dictionary (down to allege), contain only
three, namely, adscititious, adventitious, agitator, and even in these it is
reduced to a minimum. There is not a single word like ahi ahi, evening ; ake ake,
eternal; aki aki, a bird; aniwaniwa, the rainbow; anga anga, agreement; ange
angi, aboard; aro aro, in front; aruaru, to woo; ati ati, to drive out; awa awa,
a valley; or awanga wanga, hope, words of a class which abound in savage lan-

uages,

The first 1000 words in a French dictionary I found to contain only two redu-
plications, namely, anana and assassin, both of which are derived from a lower
race, and cannot, strictly speaking, be regarded as French.

Again, 1000 German words, taking for variety the letters C and D, contain six
cases, namely, Cacadu (Cockatoo), cacao, cocon (cocoon), cocosbaum, a cocao tree,
cocos nuss, cocao nut, and dagegen, of which again all but the last are foreign.

Lastly, the first 1000 Greek words contained only two reduplications, one of
which is aBapBapos.

For comparison with the above I have examined the vocabularies of seventeen
savage races, and the results are given in the following Table :—

For African languages I have examined the Beetjuan and Bosjesman dialects, given
by Lichtenstein in his Travels in Southern Africa; the Namaqua Hottentot, as given
by Tindall in his ‘ Grammar and Vocabulary of the Namaqua Hottentot;’ the Ne-

m Violbaiip: 69: t Arctic Expedition, vol. ii. p. 23.

{ Travels in Africa, 1776, vol. iii. p. 12. § Trans. Ethn. Soe. N.S. vol. iii. p. 78.

|| Cook’s First Voyage, p. 103.

[ Vol. ii. p. 898. See also ‘ Yates’s New Zealand,’ p. 101.
** Fiji and the Fijians, vol. ii. p. 121. tt Lake Regions, p. 332.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 149

| ag ce of the Gaboon, from the Grammar of the Mpongwe language, published
y Snowden and Prall of New York; and lastly, the Fulup and Mbofon lan-
guages from Koelle’s ‘ Polyglotta Africana.’ For America, the Ojibwa Vocabulary,
given in Schooleraft’s ‘Indian Tribes ;’ the Darien Vocabulary, from the 6th vol.
N.S. of the Ethnological Society’s Transactions ; and the Tupy Vocabulary, given
in A. Goncaloes Dias’s ‘Diccionario da Lingua Tupy chamada lingui geral dos
indigenas do Brazil.’ To these I have added the languages spoken on Brumer
Island, at Redscar Bay, Kowrarega, and at the Louisiade, as collected by M‘Gil-
livray in the ‘ Voyage of the Rattlesnake ;’ and the dialects of Erroob and Lewis
Murray Island, from Jukes’s ‘ Voyage of the Fly.’ Lastly, for Polynesia, the
Tongan Dictionary, given by Mariner, and that of New Zealand by Diettenbach.

The result is, that while in the four European languages we get about two
reduplications in 1000 words, in the savage ones the number varies from 38 to 170,
being from 20 to 80 times as many in proportion.

In the Polynesian and Fiji Islands they are particularly numerous; thus, in
Fiji, such names as Somosomo, Raki raki, Raviravi, Lumaluma are numerous. Per-
haps the most familiar New Zealand words are meremere, patoo patoo, and kivi
kivt. So generally, however, is reduplication a characteristic of savage tongues,
that it even gave rise to the term “ barbarous.”

The love of pets is very strongly developed among savages. Many instances
have been given by Mr. Galton in his Memoir on the “Domestication of
Animals”*, Among minor indications may be mentioned the use of the rattle.
Originally a sacred and mysterious instrument, as it is still among some of the
Siberian Redskin and Braziliant tribes, it has with us degenerated into a child’s
toy.
Thus Dobritzhoffer tells us, the Abipones at a certain season of the year wor-
shipped the Pleiades. The ceremony consisted in a feast accompanied with dan-
cing and music, accompanied with praises of the stars, during which the principal
priestess, “who conducts the festive ceremonies, dances at intervals, rattling a
gourd full of hardish fruit-seeds to musical time, and whirling round to the right
with one foot, and to the left with another, without ever removing from one
spot, or in the least varying her motions”’}.

Spix and Martius§ thus describes a Coroado chief :—“In the middle of the as-
Sembiy, and nearest to the pot, stood the chief, who, by his strength, cunning, and
courage, had obtained some command over them, and had received from Marlier
the title of Captain. In his right hand he held the maracdé, the above-men-
tioned castanet, which they call gringerina, and rattled with it, beating time with
his right foot.”

ay Congo Negroes had a great wooden rattle, upon which they took their
oaths” ||.

The rattle also is very important among the Indians of North America]. When
any person is sick, the sorcerer or medicine man brings his sacred rattle and shakes
it over him. This, says Prescott, “(is the principal catholicon for all diseases.”
Catlin ** also describes the “rattle ” as being of great importance. Some tribes
have a sacred drum, closely resembling that of the Lappstt. When an Indian is
ill, the magician, says Carver {{, “sits by the patient day and night, rattling in his
ears a gourd-shell filled with dried beans, called a chichiconé.” Klemm$§§ also
remarks on the great importance attached to the rattle throughout America, and
Staad even thought that it was worshipped as a divinity |||. Schoolcraft] also
gives a figure of Oshkabaiwis, the Redskin medical chief, “ holding in his hand the

* Trans. Ethn. Soe. vol. iii. p. 122.

t+ Martius, Von dem Rectszustande und. Ur. Brasiliens, p. 34.

¢ Dobritzhoffer, vol. ii. p. 65. See also p. 72.

§ Travels in Brazil. London, 1824, vol. ii. p. 234.

||. Astley’s Coll. of Voyages, vol. iii. p. 253.

{] Prescott in Schooleraft’s ‘ Indian Tribes,’ vol. ii. pp. 179, 180.

** American Indians, vol. i. pp. 39, 40, 163, &e. tt Catlin, Zc. p. 40.
tt Travels, p. 385. §§ Culturgéchichte, vol. ii. p. 172.

|| || Mceurs des Sauvages Américains, vol. ii. p. 297.

§|§| Indian Tribes, pt. iii. pp. 490-493.

150 REPORT—1869.
magic rattle,” which is indeed the usual emblem of authority in the American
pictographs. I know no case of a savage infant using the rattle as a plaything.

Tossing halfpence, as dice, again, which used to be a sacred and solemn mode of
consulting the oracles, is now a mere game for children.

So again the doll is a hybrid between the baby and the fetish, and exhibiting
the contradictory characters of its parents, becomes singularly unintelligible to
grown-up people,

Mr. Tylor has pointed out other illustrations of this argument, and I would
refer those who feel interested in this part of the subject to his excellent works.

Dancing is another case in point. With us it isa mere amusement. Among
savages it is an important and, in some cases, religious ceremony. “If,” says
Robertson*, “‘any intercourse be necessary between two American tribes, the ambas-
sadors of the one approach in a solemn dance, and present the calumet or emblem of
peace; the sachems of the other receive it with the same ceremony. If war is
denounced against an enemy, it is by a dance, expressive of the resentment which
they feel, and of the vengeance which they meditate. If the wrath of their gods
is to be appeased, or their beneficence to be celebrated, if they rejoice at the birth
of a child, or mourn the death of a friend, they have dances appropriated to each of
these situations, and suited to the different sentiments with which they are then
animated. If a person is indisposed, a dance is prescribed as the most effectual
means of restoring him to health; and if he himself cannot endure the fatigue of
such an exercise, the physician or conjuror performs it in his name, as if the virtue
of his activity could be transferred to his patient.”

But it is unnecessary to multiply illustrations. very one who has read much
on the subject will admit the remarkable similarity which"exists between savages
and children. It explains the capricious treatment which so many white men have
received from savage potentates; how they have been alternately petted and
illtreated, at one time loaded with the best of everything, at another neglected
or put to death.

This close resemblance existing in ideas, language, habits, and character between
savages and children, though generally admitted, has usually been disposed of in
a passing sentence, and regarded rather as a curious accident than as an impor-
tant truth. Yet from several points of view it possesses a high interest. Better
understood, it might have saved us many national misfortunes, from the loss of
Captain Cook down to the Abyssinian war. It has also a direct bearing on the
present discussion.

The opinion is rapidly gaining ground among naturalists, that the development
of the individual is an epitome of that of the species, a conclusion which, if fully
borne out, will evidently prove most instructive. Already many facts are on record
which render it, to say the least, highly probable.

Birds of the same genus, or of closely allied genera, which, when mature, differ
much in colour, are often very similar when young. The young of the Lion and
the Puma are often striped, and foetal whales have teeth.

Leidy has shown that the milk-teeth of the genus Egwus resemble the perma-
nent teeth of Anchitherium, while the milk-teeth of Anchitherium again approxi-
mate to the dental system of Merychippust. Rutimeyer, while calling attention
to this interesting observation, adds that the milk-teeth of Equus caballus in the
same way, and still more those of ZL. fossils, resemble the permanent teeth of
Hipparion ft.

Agassiz, according to Darwin, regards it as a “law of nature,” that the youn
states of each species and group resembles older forms of the same group ; nae
Darwin himself says§, that ‘in two or more groups of animals, however much
they may at first differ from each other in structure and habits, if they pass
through closely similar embryonic stages, we may feel almost assured that the
have descended from the same parent form, and are therefore closely related.”

So also Mr. Herbert Spencer says||, “ Each organism exhibits, within a short

* Robertson’s America, bk. iv. p. 133.

t Proc. Acad. Nat. Soc. Philadelphia, 1858, p. 26.

+ Beitrage zur kenntniss der fossilen Pferde. Basle, 1863.

§ Origin of Species, 4th edition, p. 532. || Principles of Biology, vol. i. p. 349.

OOO ESE ———

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 151

space of time, a series of changes which, when supposed to occupy a period inde-
finitely great, and to go on in various ways instead of one way, give us a tolerably
clear conception of organic evolution in general.”

It may be said that this argument involves the acceptance of the Darwinian
hypothesis; this would, however, be a mistake; the objection might indeed be
tenable if men belonged to different species, but it cannot fairly be urged by those
who regard all mankind as descended from common ancestors; and, in fact, it is
strongly held by Agassiz, one of Darwin’s most uncompromising opponents.

Regarded from this point of view, the similarity existing between savages and
children assumes a singular importance, and becomes almost conclusive as regards
the question now at issue.

The Duke ends his work with the expression of a belief that man, “even in his
most civilized condition, is capable of degradation, that his knowledge may decay,
and that his religion may be lost.” Far more noble, as it seems to me, are the
concluding passages of Lord Dunraven’s opening address to the Cambrian Archeo-
logical Association,—“ that if we look back through the entire period of the past
history of man, as exhibited in the result of archzological investigation, we can
scarcely fail to perceive that the whole exhibits one grand scheme of progression,
which, notwithstanding partial periods of decline, has for its end the ever-increas-
ing civilization of man, and the gradual development of his higher faculties, and
for its object the continual manipulation of the design, the power, the wisdom,
and the goodness of Almighty God.”

I confess therefore that, after giving the arguments of the Duke of Argyll my
most attentive and candid consideration, I see no reason to adopt his melancholy
conclusion, but I remain persuaded that the past history of man has, on the whole,
been one of progress, and that, in looking forward to the future, we are justified
in doing so with confidence and with hope.

Philosophical Objection to Darwinism or Evolution.
By the Rev. J. M‘Cann, D.D.

The Difficulties of Darwinism. By the Rey. F. O. Morris.

On the occasional definition of the Convolutions of the Brain on the exterior of
the Skull. By T. 8. Pripravx.
[For Abstract of this Paper see Appendix. }

On the Races of Morocco. By J.StrR11Ne.

Notes on an Inscribed Rock. By Ratpu Tare, F.G.S.

Initial Life. By C. Srantuanp Wake, F.A.S.L.

The object of the paper was to show, by various experiments with the tissue,
seeds, and pollen of plants, that the germs of the Infusoria, supposed by hetero-
genists to be spontaneously generated in infusions of organic substances, are pre-
sent in these substances before infusion. These experiments show also that Infu-
soria are developed from the fungus which is produced from milk-globules placed
in water, as also from the contents of the pollen-cell, proving that decomposition
is not necessary to such development. The conclusion enunciated in the paper
is that infusorial germs are essential to the development of all plants, and that the
final product of these germs, whether it shall be animal or vegetable, depends on
the conditions under which they are brought to maturity.

Race affinities of the Madecasees. By Stanrtanp Wakes, F.A.S.L.
The object of the paper was to show, by a comparison of the physical characters,

152 REPORT—1869.

the customs, and the language of the Madecasees (including the Hovas) with
those of peoples living on the margin of the Indian Ocean, that the former are
more closely related to the peoples of South Africa than to the Malays or Poly-
nesians; but that the Madecasees are allied to all the aboriginal peoples of the
tropics, Madagascar having probably been the centre of primitive civilization.

GEOGRAPHY.

Address by Sir Bartiy Frere, President of the Section.

In opening the proceedings of this Section I have no intention to attempt any sys-
tematic summary of the progress, present state, or prospects of geographical science
generally. Such an effort would be impertinent in the presence of some of the
great geographers whom we see around us; and considering that the comprehen-
sive and exhaustive annual address of Sir Roderick Murchison for the past year is
in the hands of so many of our members and visitors, it would be superfluous were
I to essay even a sketch of the progress of geographical science since the British
Association last met at Norwich.

My object will be simply to state the proposed course of our proceedings in this
Section of the Association, and to inform you very briefly, and by way of intro-
duction only, on what particular points we may expect to hear from the Members
or from visitors who honour us with their presence, information which may be
either new in itself or may form the basis of useful discussion by those present,
whether they come in the character of masters or disciples of the science.

Polar discovery seems, by universal consent, to have a sort of precedence in all
classification of recent geographical inquiry, and in this branch we cannot expect
much that is new to be laid before our present Meeting.

We are now in the midst of the very brief season during which an Arctic
summer allows the navigator, for a few weeks only, any chance of making fresh
discoveries, and we cannot, for some time longer, hear what measure of success may
have attended attempts like that of Mr. Lamont, to extend our knowledge of the
regions adjacent to the North Pole, and especially to solve the present great Arctic
problem as to the existence of an open Polar basin. We must not expect too
much. The point has been passed at which skill and well-directed energy could
command important results in the way of discoveries in those seas. Each fresh
addition to our knowledge of the distribution of land and water in those ice-bound
regions has generally left the difficulties of further discovery greater than before ;
and while the precautions to be taken, and the energy to be applied must be quite
as great as in the days of Baffin or Parry, the results must depend more than ever
on a favourable season, a lucky lane in the ice, or on what a sportsman would call
a judicious cast in critical cases of doubt.

We may, however, hope to hear something of interest to geographers with
regard to the prospects of Antarctic discovery in connexion with the preparations
for observing the coming transit of Venus.

Geographers and astronomers will sympathize less than other taxpayers with
the Chancellor of the Exchequer when he finds even the heavenly bodies moving
for a parliamentary grant. We may wonder, with Mr. Lowe, that Venus cannot
arrange a transit without an application to the British Treasury; but we may
hope that Parliament, when the application does come before them, will not
be less liberal than they were exactly a century ago (in the days of Cook), and
that they will regard the investigation as one of really national importance. We
may further trust that there will not be wanting a Hooker or a Darwin to record
the discoveries of our philosophers in the Antarctic regions. They will be most
important in a scientific point of view, even though they may lack the novelty and
thrilling incidents which make the voyages of the ‘Erebus’ and ‘Terror’ almost
as exciting as the most sensational of modern works of fiction.

Directly we leave the immediate neighbourhood of the Polar seas we come to

ee» «

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 153

regions where the restless activity of geographical discoverers is at work filling up
the vast spaces of terra incognita which still exist on our best maps. We may
not this year hope to hear statements of such importance as at former Meetings,
when Livingstone, Speke, Baker, or Palgrave enchained the attention of the Asso-
ciation with their narratives of their then recent discoveries. Still I believe there
are gentlemen present who will satisfy you that the spirit of research is not less
active now than in former years, and that every season brings additions to our
stock of geographical knowledge which, in the aggregate, are of vast importance.

There are amongst us, I am glad to hear, more than one geographer who will
represent that vast Russian Empire, whose territories extend in so many directions
into regions comparatively unknown, and whose Government has long been so
honourably distinguished by the aid it has afforded to geographical science. It
may I believe be truly said that along the line of thousands of leagues which form
the southern boundary of the Russian Empire in Asia, there are scarcely a hundred
miles regarding which our knowledge is as complete as could be desired; and
almost every Government official employed on the frontier, and every trader who
crosses it, has the means of adding important information to our stock of ascer-
tained geographical facts.

An increasing share of public attention has of late been directed to those regions
where the southern frontier line of the Russian Empire approaches the northern
limits of our own Indian Empire.

The vast space which intervenes between our two empires, differing, as it does,
so widely, both in physical aspect and in political condition; from these ocean-
washed shores of Europe, is a region not unblessed by nature. History assures us
that it is little changed in anything, save in political condition, since it was a
nursery of great nations, and the cradle, not only of kings and founders of empires,
but of trains of thought and of vast systems of moral and political philosophy
which have overspread and largely influenced the richer regions of the south and
west. What has inflicted on countries once so famous such a curse that the soli-
tary traveller who passes through them, as Vambéry did, in disguise, is weleomed
among us as one just escaped from almost certain death, whe has during his
whole sojourn carried his life in his hand? Surely we must rejoice that the
thoughts of two great civilized neighbouring nations are at length earnestly
directed to this vast region; that we no longer regard our neighbours to the north
and west of our indian frontier with studied aversion and distrust, as nations of
born men-stealers and man-slayers, all intercourse with whom must be discouraged
and prohibited as the only condition on which we can hope to avoid being drawn
into desolating wars or embarrassing political alliances.

I believe that nothing but good can result from the attention of the great states-
men of Russia and of England being directed to the condition of the countries
which intervene between our empires in Asia. As far as we are ourselves con-
cerned, I feel sure that the cause of peace and good neighbourhood could not be in
better hands than those of the able and enlightened nobleman who now rules over
India as Viceroy ; and geographers may, I think, rest assured that it will not be
Lord Mayo’s fault if he fails to secure that condition of permanent good neigh-
bourhood which both empires most earnestly desire. It is the best guarantee for
progress in geographical science as in all those other branches of knowledge and
civilization which flourish best in peace, and languish, or maintain but a fevered
existence, in time of war or political disturbance.

We shall have among us Mr. Douglas Forsyth, honourably distinguished among
those who, like Capt. Montgomery and his fellow-labourers, have led the way in
geographical discovery to the north of India, and contributed to lift the veil which
has for so many generations separated the inhabitants of Tartary and Thibet from

- those of India. He will give you, I hope, much interesting information regard-

ing the trade-routes towards Thibet and Eastern Chinese Tartary, and will satisfy
you that he is actuated by no motive more dangerous to us or our neighbours
than a sincere desire to extend the peaceful domain of commerce, and, as a hand-
maid thereto, to aid the cause of geographical discovery.

He will tell you how much has been accomplished since Humboldt, but a few
years ago, pointed to a correct knowledge of those regions as among the great

154. REPORT—1869.

desiderata of geographical science. He will give you the latest intelligence of those
enterprising travellers, Messrs. Shaw and Hayward, the former of whom is at
Yarkand, well treated, and apparently a special favourite with both rulers and
people. Times are indeed changed since Adolphe Schlagintweit, only a few years
ago, became a martyr to his zeal for science, and was put to death at Kashgar,
almost all his valuable papers and observations being, it is to be feared, irre-
trievably lost.

Mr. Trelawney Saunders will read a paper in which he has combined some of the
latest information acquired by Capt. Montgomery, and his intelligent and enter-
prising assistants, the Pundits, and applied it to illustrate the general geography
of the Himalayan range. Much as has been written about that vast chain, it can
hardly be said that even professed geographers have any adequate conception of
the bulk and importance of that great mountain-mass. Its length may be said to
be still almost a matter of conjecture, for its eastern and western terminations
have both still to be defined. Its breadth, as Capt. Montgomery, who may be said
first to have spanned it, tells us is more than 400 miles at its narrowest, or about
eight times the average width of the Alps, with a summit-ridge the passes over
which average about 15,000 feet in height. Probably many scores of peaks may
be enumerated higher than Mont Blanc. Considering how long it has taken
geographers in Europe to trace out the yet unexhausted wonders of our own
Alpine ranges, it is clear that the Himalayan range and its offshoots may afford
ample ground for the most energetic of explorers for many generations to come.

I trust some of our visitors may be able to give us late and detailed accounts of
what Mr. Cooper has done and proposes to do towards exploring the almost un-
known region which he has already so vigorously attacked from various directions.
Though he has not hitherto succeeded in traversing the inhospitable countries
between Bengal and China, the energy and judgment with which he has repeated
and varied his efforts must, sooner or later, lead to important discoveries; and I
trust that his repeated eae pa may find compensation in the ultimate
solution of what may be regarded at present as the great geographical problem of
that part of Asia.

The Association will recollect that the latest intelligence regarding the course
of the Sanpoo, the great river which runs so far from W. to E. in a course nearly
parallel to the general direction of the main Himalayan range, has revived a former
discussion as to whether that river is the upper stream of the Barrumpootra or of
the Irrawaddy. The supposition that it was identical with the Irrawaddy has
long been considered as set at rest, and some of our best authorities, such as Drs,
Hooker, Thomson, and Campbell, would, I believe, scout the notion that there was
any present doubt on the subject. Still it is certain that some Chinese and
Thibetan informants have assured later traveliers that the Sanpoo is the upper
stream of the Irrawaddy, and we are almost destitute of any accurate data regard-
ing the course of the Barrumpootra much higher up than Sudiya. It is clear,
then, that there is need of further inquiry before the question can be said to be
finally set at rest, and the little we know of the rivers further down, between Burma
and China, tends to show that it would be unsafe to dogmatize too confidently as
to the impossibility of any theory, however improbable it may primd fucie appear
to be.

Thus, unless there be a misprint in the published accounts of Capt. Sladen’s
expedition, he ascertained Mourein, one of the furthest points reached near the
Burmese and Chinese frontier, to be 8000 feet above the sea, an elevation hitherto,
I believe, quite unsuspected. It is true that the somewhat doubtful course of the
four great rivers, the Irrawaddy, the Salween, Cambogia River, and the Yang-
tse-Kiang, which are represented on our latest maps as running for so many
hundred miles, in courses nearly parallel, and frequently less than sixty miles apart,
would indicate streams flowing in deep gorges, like the upper course of many
of the rivers which have their source in the Himalaya, separated probably by
very lofty mountain-ranges; but hitherto the data for mapping out the course of
these rivers have been little better than conjectural. We may hope that future
attempts to penetrate in this direction from Burma will meet with better success
than that of Capt. Sladen, who has, however, brought back information of con-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 155

siderable value, and may aid future explorers to renew their attempts, with better
prospect of a complete and successful result.

The glory of being the first in modern days actually to traverse the almost un-
known region between the Indo-Chinese races and China proper, has been re-
served for our neighbours the French. The Fellows of the Pe ricathionk Society
will recollect the admirable summary of the results of the great French expedition,
which was given by the President in his last Anniversary Address, wherein Sir
Roderick Murchison described the general course of a journey almost unparalleled
in modern days—a journey of 6200 miles from the tidal waters of the Cambogia

_ River to Shanghai, 2480 miles of the distance having been traversed on foot—the

whole distance, with very few exceptions, being almost entirely new to modern
European travellers.

I am not sure whether we are likely to hear from any of our visitors any details
of this expedition beyond what has been already published in the French geogra-
phical periodicals; but we cannot doubt that whenever the scientific results of
such a journey are published, they will prove of surpassing interest. A country
so rich and varied in soil, with a rainfall probably, in parts, exceeding that of
almost any known portion of the globe, and a great variety of temperature, which
has been hitherto almost cut off from civilized Europe, while it approximates geo-
graphically to some of the most interesting regions of India and the Eastern Archi-
pelago, must possess a fauna and flora of great novelty and interest.

Nor can it be doubted that all these attempts to traverse the regions which sepa-
rate India from China have a political and social aspect of the highest importance.

It is clear that the time has arrived in China when we may witness one of those
great social movements which in all ages have so powerfully affected the destinies
of nations, and the geographical distribution of races. A vast surplus population,
pressed at home by over-competition in the race for life, wells over, as it were,
and seeks in other lands the means of supporting existence which have become
difficult of attainment in their native country. The pressure from within, in the
case of China, has been increased by the existence of artificial barriers, in the
shape of legislative obstacles to the free movement of the population, and when
these are removed or disregarded, the human tide will pour outwards with a force
of which emigration from Europe to our own oclonies can give us but a faint idea.
The Chinese labourers, who meet but a doubtful welcome, or are repelled from
Australia and America, would be hailed as benefactors much nearer their own
homes, in almost any of the rich but thinly-inhabited countries between Assam
and Saigoon ; and the first Chinese who succeeds in passing overland from China
to India and back, may be the herald of an immigration calculated to change the
face and the destiny of that vast rich, but almost uninhabited region, which has
ae many ages proved an almost impassable barrier between India proper and

ina.

Before turning from this part of Asia, I would remind you of a fact new, I
believe, in the annals of geographical discovery, and not often observable in the
history of parliamentary interpellations, that two of the best réswmées of the pre-
sent state of our geographical knowledge of Central Asia and the Indo-Chinese
frontier, are to be found in the answers given, in his place in parliament, by Mr.
Grant Duff, a Member of the Council of the Royal Geographical Society, to ques-
tions addressed during the last session to him, in his capacity as Under Secretary
of State for India.

I may also mention, as a proof of the extent to which purely European ideas are
penetrating to those remote regions, that I have seen a translation of a letter, ad-
dressed by a friendly Indian potentate to the Grand Llama of Thibet, remon-
strating with him on the illtreatment of certain Roman Catholic missionaries and
their converts, on the ground that the sufferings of the converts had formed the
subject of comments in some of the Indian journals; and the writer of the letter
felt assured that evil would result to his friend the Grand Llama if he suffered

ublic attention in Europe, with the ways and inhabitants of which the writer had
intimate personal acquaintance, to be thus attracted to the inhospitable proceedings
of the Grand Llama’s subordinates.

Africa.—It is a great disappointment that another year should have passed with-

156 REPORT—1869.

out revealing, as far as I am aware, a single new fact which would throw light on
the fate of Livingstone. The additional information we have received since last
the Association met, is purely negative, and adds literally nothing to what was
then laid before you in the masterly sketch of Livingstone’s ascertained progress,
contained in Capt. Richards’s address. We still only know that up to December
14th, 1867, he was alive and well and in good spirits, at a place south-west of
Lake Tanganyika. Further than this all is conjecture. Whether we may hear of
him in the Nile Basin from Sir Samuel Baker's expedition, or on the west coast,
must for the present be pure subject of speculation. Most fervently do I join in
Sir Roderick Murchison’s hopes that we may yet welcome him back among us
during the course of the coming year. It was my privilege to see much of him in
Bombay after he had taken leave of his friends in England, and before he arrived
at Zanzibar, at the outset of his last expedition, and on this, as on former occasions,
I was at a loss which to admire most, his unconquerable courage and perseverance,
his patience and forbearance, or the grand simplicity of his character. I never met
a man of such lofty aims and of such genuine humility; but what is more to the
purpose, as a ground of our present hopes, I never met a man of such sagacity and
unfailing resources in overcoming difficulties of every kind; and if his health is
spared him, I feel every confidence that he will vanquish every obstacle, and ulti-
mately succeed in whatever he may have undertaken.

There can be little doubt that great results may be looked for from the Egyptian
expedition up the Nile, under Sir Samuel Baker, which is so totally unlike in its
conception and objects anything of modern days, and for any parallel to which in
its difficulties and in the important results it may produce, we must go back to the
days of our earliest English, Spanish, and Portuguese discoverers.

am assured that Sir Samuel’s hopes point to passing next Christmas on Lake
Albert Nyanza, and if he does that he will have achieved more than, with such a
great expedition, could be expected even from his skill, energy, and enterprise.

Mr. Blanford, who remained in Abyssinia after Lord Napier’s expedition left,
writes to me that he will be present, if his brief time in England permits, and he
will doubtless have much of interest to tell us regarding the geography as well as
the geology and natural history of those regions which he has made his special study.

Further south we may hear something of Mr. Erskine’s explorations on the
Lower Limpopo, and in other parts of the regions adjoining the Natal colony, to
which recent rumours of gold and diamond mines discovered have attracted so
much attention. Whatever the value of these gold-fields, it is certain that geo-
graphical discovery is likely to benefit by the search; and if, in the course of their
wanderings, the explorers should find coal-seams such as Dr. Livingstone found on
the Zambesi, the discovery may be more important to the future of that part of
Africa than if they rediscovered the Ophir of Solomon.

In West Africa Mr, Winwood Reade, under the auspices of the Royal Geographical
Society, and Mr. A. Swanzy, one of those liberal merchants to whom geographical
discovery on that coast owes so much, is on his way to the sources of the Niger.

Mr. Stirling will give you an account of his visit to the holy city of Faz, which
has been long kept so sacred from the foot of any but Mahomedans, that I believe
few European travellers in modern days, except Lord St. Maur, have visited it.

We cannot turn from Africa without a passing tribute to the great French engi-
neer who has reversed the geological revolutions of ages before the birth of history,
and restored Africa to that insular position which the vast continent probably
occupied in the geography of times preceding the early dawn of authentic history.
It is difficult to speak without exaggeration of a work which is destined to have
such important results on the commerce and intercourse of the East and West, and
M. Lesseps’s great work itself may seem to belong of right to another Section of
this Association. But geographers must recollect how much of our geographical
discovery is due to the closing of this ancient route to the East. Had the action of
the Moslem powers not interfered with the Genoese and Venetian trade with the
East, the discoveries of Columbus and Vasco de Gama and Magellan, and even
those of Hudson, Baffin, and Frobisher, might have been delayed for generations;
and now, such are the insatiable demands of commerce, no sooner has the genius
and energy of M. Lesseps removed one great barrier to this ancient trade-route,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 157

than mercantile men turn their attention to others still shorter, and investigate the
long-forgotten geography of those lines by which the commerce of the Persian
Gulf and India used to reach Tyre and Palestine vid Tadmor and the valleys of
the Tigris and Euphrates.

Colonel Pelly, well remembered by geographers as a daring traveller, writes, in a
letter only just received, of the sudden growth of commerce which has sprung up
in the Persian Gulf. Bahrein, once an important emporium of Arabian commerce,
has long been known to us, till within these few years, as little better than a nest
of pirates and slave-dealers; but the chief who, till quite lately, strenuously op-
posed everything in the shape of legitimate foreign commerce, is now in treaty
with two steamer companies to visit his port regularly, and there is talk even there
of agricultural companies to cultivate the lower plains of the Euphrates valley, and
of railways to connect the Persian Gulf with the Mediterranean.

In South America Mr. Chandless is carrying out, single-handed, and, I believe,
entirely at his own expense, his wonderful surveys of the tributaries of the Amazon.
I trust Mr. Bates will give us some account of labours, with the value of which, as
well as with the difficulty attending them, no man is better acquainted than our
indefatigable Secretary.

In North America the great Pacific Railway, which has just been opened, must
exercise a very important influence in making us better acquainted with the little-
known regions which for hundreds of miles lie on both sides of its course.

There may be among us this day men who, within the last month, have looked
on the waters of the Pacific from the shores of British Columbia or California,
have since traversed the whole width of the American continent, and have seen,
within the space of a few days’ travel, every variety of country, from the wilds of
the Rocky Mountains.and the abode of the grisly bear and the bison, to the most
civilized cities of the western world.

From Australia we have nothing very striking to relate, though we have among
us some of the most distinguished of Australian explorers. I know of no great
expedition on foot from which we are likely to derive any sudden and important
addition to our knowledge of the vast regions still unexplored on that continent.
But the ever-active population of Australia is always at work, pushing forward
exploring expeditions on a smaller scale, and the aggregate of their annual dis-
coveries is very considerable, often bringing to light districts of great future value
to the colonists.

The death of the last native Tasmanian, which has been lately reported, has a
melancholy interest in the history of the geographical distribution of the human

ace, and I may be permitted to mention it, though ethnology has been this year

wsferred to another Section. 7

‘»rning from the land to the sea, we find almost every month addirg to our

vledge of the depth and conditions under which animal life is sustained in the

at ocean-beds. The extraordinary results obtained by Dr. Carpenter and his

vompanions in their examination of the deep-sea soundings of our own Northern

Ocean will be fresh in the recollection of Members, and I trust we may at this
Meeting hear some of the details of their labours during the present season.

The laying of the French electric telegraph line also, cannot fail to have fur-
nished many new facts regarding the ocean-bed which that cable (at present, I
believe, the longest in the world) passes over; and there are other examinations of
ocean-beds in the eastern seas, connected with the contemplated laying of the
cable to India from Suez, which cannot fail to be new and interesting, and regard-
ing which our indefatigable Member, Capt. Sherard Osborn, if he is present, would
be able to enlighten us.

Information of this kind is likely, as ocean electric cables multiply, to increase
in yalue. When first such cables were laid, it was usual to select comparatively
shallow portions of the ocean-bed for the cable to traverse, and the deep ocean-
valleys and hollows were, as far as possible, avoided. But experience shows that
in the deepest water the cable is satest from injury, especially in latitudes where
there is risk of icebergs, which may ground and destroy the cable. Hence our
Electric Telegraph Cable companies are likely to become valuable allies to geogra-
phical exploration in all that relates to our deepest ocean cavities.

158 REPORT—1869,

Geographers are aware that from the earliest days of the Electric Telegraph Com-
any, the Indian records have contained a vast amount of important geographical
information. No one knows better than our Member, Sir Andrew Waugh, who
was for so many years at the head of the Grand Trigonometrical Survey of India,
how valuable and accurate, how varied and extensive were the stores of informa-
tion, bearing on every portion of Indian geography, which had been accumulated
during the last two centuries of our connexion with India and China. But most
of this information was very difficult of access to geographers, and they will be
glad to know that, since the last Meeting of the Association, a separate geogra-
phical department has been formed at the India Office, under the general direction
of Mr. Clements Markham, the able Hon. Secretary of the Royal Geographical
Society, and that an excellent map-room has been arranged and placed under the
special charge of Mr. Trelawney Saunders, so well and favourably known to all
practical geographers, while arrangements have been made for the more rapid
printing and publication in India, under the care of Cols. Thuillier and Walker, of
the Royal Engineers, of those series of maps for which, during so many years, we
have been indebted to the conscientious accuracy of Mr. Walker, who may, I
believe, now be called almost the Nestor of our English map compilers.

As connected with this subject may be mentioned arrangements for compiling a
complete and trustworthy Gazeteer for India, and for systematic ethnological in-
quiry, which has now such important bearing on political and historical geography
in India as well as in other parts of the world. I may be excused for here
dilating on a reform which is not only in itself important to geographers, but
which originated with your member, Sir Stafford Northcote, while Secretary of
State for India.

Colonel Strange will, I hope, be able to give you some account of another reform,
which I have the authority of Sir Edward Sabine for saying is likely to have very
important bearing on the accuracy of all instrumental observations connected with
our Eastern Empire.

Here in Devon, where so many of our great English discoverers are claimed as
among the numbers of our western worthies, I may be excused for alluding to the
prizes which (at the suggestion, I believe, of Mr. Francis Galton) were otfered by
the Royal Geographical Society for proficiency in geography among the scholars
still in statu pupillart. I believe the conditions of the prizes are as yet but im-
perfectly known, and we may hope that in future our great public schools will
send us more competitors in what surely ought to be considered a necessary branch
of a liberal education.

Every practical geographer knows how trying it is to come across some un-
educated seaman, who has voyaged in regions almost unknown to civilized man,
and who, for lack of educated powers of observation, has been able to make no use
of his rare advantages. But the disappointment is a thousand times greater when
he who has missed such opportunities is a man of fortune, and, in the ordinary
sense of the word, of high education aud accomplishments. I have known two
instances of such men who, in pursuit of game, traversed regions of Africa abso-
lutely unknown to modern geographers ; in one case the knowledge thus acquired
was not absolutely lost, for the sportsman fortunately communicated his observa-
tions toa scientific friend, who at once recognized their value. In the other case
the sportsman could only satisfy the man of science that an unparalleled oppor-
tunity had been irretrievably lost.

T hope, from time to time, as they come forward to address you, to have the
opportunity of introducing to you some of the eminent foreigners who have come
to England for the special purpose of being present at this Meeting of the Associa-
tion. M. Khanilkof has on previous occasions attended Meetings of the British
Association, and is already personally known to many Members, and he will, I
trust, favour his old friends with some notes on those remote regions, with the ex-
ploration of which his name is inseparably connected. But there are two names
on the list of our visitors which will have been recognized with special interest by
ees of every nation, and ensure to the gentlemen who bear them a special
welcome.

M. Pierre de Tchihatchef has been so lately eulogized by his friend and ad-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 159

mirer, the President of our own Royal Geographical Society, and in such felicitous
terms, that I cannot do better than refer our visitors and members to what Sir
Roderick Murchison says of the labours of our illustrious guest in his last Annual
Address. Iam happy to be able to inform you that M. Tchihatchef proposes to
favour us with an address on the geography of Central Asia, and I feel assured
that the interest of the subject will render us all anxious to hear him, apart from
the privilege of discussing the subject with one who, on all topics connected with
the geography of Central Asia, is allowed by the great geographers of France and
England to be one of the highest geographical authorities of our age.

Another equally distinguished guest is the Commandatore Negri Christoforo,
who, as members are aware, is the President, and I believe I may say the founder
of the Italian Geographical Society. I cannot better state to you his claims to a
warm welcome among us than by describing him as the “ Murchison of Italy.”
After slumbering for ages, the spirit of geographical discovery seems once more
revived in the native land of Marco Polo and Columbus, and we may look for the
most important results from the labours of the Society of which the Commandatore
is, at any rate, the foster parent.

I have been commissioned by Sir Roderick to state how deeply he regrets that
he has been prevented being present this day to offer to these distinguished
foreigners the expression of that hearty appreciation and welcome which would
come most fitly from the President of our Royal Geographical Society; and you
will all join with me in my regret, that our venerated friend and leader is not here
himself to give to that welcome the personal weight which it would derive alike
from his official position and from his scientific standing among the first of living
European geographers.
On a Canal to wnite the Upper Nile and Red Sea,

By Dr. C. Bexz, F.R.GS,

On the Distribution of Heat on the Sea-surface throughout the Globe.
By Vice-Admiral Sir Epwarp Brtcurr, K.O.B., F.R.G.S.

On the Geography of the Frankincense Plant. By Dr. Brrpwoop.

Notes on a Journey in Northern Abyssinia. By W.T. Buanrorp.

Subsequently to the departure of the British troops Mr. Blanford made a journey
in Northern Abyssinia to the Anseba Valley and the Bogos Country, in company
with Mr. Werner Munzinger and two other gentlemen. The great mass of the
Abyssinian highlands, 7000 to 8000 feet in elevation, terminates a little north of
the parallel of Zulla. From the northern side of the plateau two considerable
streams arise, the Anseba and the Barka, which afterwards unite and fall into the
Red Sea south of Suakin. Both are dry exceptin the rainy season, when they are
frequently impassable. The country drained by them is of a general level of 3000

to 5000 feet, and is inhabited by tribes of Bedawins, some of whom, the Bogos

being the principal, still remain Christian. The party first marched due west
about thirty miles to Ailat, a village lying in a plain at the foot of the hills,
abounding in lions and leopards. From this place they proceeded to Asus, and

thence to Kenzal and the Lebka Valley. The road, like all the passes leading to

the Abyssinian highlands, lay up the bed of a torrent—a gradual slope of 1000 feet in
twenty miles. At Kokai, some forty miles up the valley, the passage was sudden
from a perfectly desert region to hills covered with bushes and rich valleys clothed
with fine trees ; this abrupt transition was to be explained by the upper part lying
within the sharply-limited area of the Abyssinian rains. At Kokai they found a
large encampment of the Az Temeriam, with immense herds of camels. These

. People, and all others of the Habab and Shoho trikes, live a curious nomade lite.

uring the cold weather, from November to April or May, they inhabit the lowlands
near the Red Sea, which at that time, in consequence of the winter rain, afford
pasturage for theiranimals. When grass and water fail here, they move with their

160 REPORT—1869.

herds to the highlands, and remain there from June to November. The wild
elephants migrate like the people, and for the same reason. On the 13th of July
the party marched from Kokai to Bedjuk in the Anseba Valley, and remained till
the 8th of Augus, collecting specimens of animals which exist there in great numbers
and variety. Lions were numerous and very noisy, and two specimens were
obtained of a rhinoceros, allied to the &. bicornis of South Africa. In the valley
Christian tribes live on perfectly friendly terms with others who are Mohammedans
in religion. During their stay the weather was very pleasant, always fine in the
morning, with occasional showers in the afternoon. Owing to the continuance of
the rains they were unable to return down the valley, and made a detour to the
north from Kelamet through Rairo, and thence to Ain, and across the desert by
the direct route to Massowa.

On a Recent Visit to the Suez Canal. By Captain C. Dopp.

Notes on the Runn of Cutch. By Captain C. Donn.

On Extraordinary Agitations of the Sea. By R. Epmonps.

On the Supposed Influence of the Gulf-stream on the Olimate of North-West
Europe. By A. G. Finviay, PRG,

The author referred to a former communication to the British Association at
Liverpool in 1853, where it was shown more clearly than had been before done,
that a continuous series of current-streams could be traced all over the globe, and
that by analogy these circulations extended from the surface to the bed of the
ocean, a process by which the universally uniform character of sea-water was
maintained. Our knowledge of deep-sea temperatures, and of the depth of the
ocean, was then comparatively limited, and the opinion that at that time might be
entertained, that the Gulf-stream had sufficient depth and velocity to reach our
shores as a continuous stream of warm water, has been since proved to be falla-
cious.

First, the volume of the Gulf-stream is very much less than was formerly believed.
We have now a tolerably exact knowledge of its dimensions as derived from the sur—
veys made in the summer months between 1855 and 1866, by the officers of the U.S.
Coast Survey. The term “Gulf-stream ”’ is here confined to the current between the
Florida Strait and the Nantucket Banks, an excellent history of which was pub-
lished at Bremen in 1868 by M. Kohl.

In estimating the volume of the stream theoretically we meet with a difficulty
at the outset. It is derived from an area of not less than 5,400,000 square miles of
the equatorial portion of the Atlantic, drifting westward at a rate of from fifteen to
twenty-two miles per day. The whole of this tropically-heated water is apparently
represented by the outlet of the comparatively puny Gulf-stream, not more than
1200 teet deep and less than one sixteen-hundredth part of the breadth of its parent
source.

Its dimensions in the Strait of Florida have been ascertained in sections, from
its entrance between the Dry Tortugas and the Havana, and its outlet on the Narrows
off Cape Florida. In the first section (1858) it is ninety-eight miles wide, but the
stream occupies only the southern moiety of the channel. Between the Sand Key and
Havana (1866) the distance is 823 miles, of which the Gulf-stream occupies only
forty miles, and it was not more than 1200 feet deep, not reaching to the summit
of a submarine ridge discovered here, on the summit of which the temperature

was only 60° Fahr., while at the bottom it was only 45°. Passing over the other

sections, that of the Narrows between Cape Florida and the Bemini Isles was chosen —
as an index ofthe whole. It wasexamined in 1855 by Commander Craven, U.S.N.,

and proved to be the narrowest, and also the shallowest part of its course. The

maximum depth is only from 300 to 370 fathoms, and the temperature at the

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 161

bottom was only 49°, so that warm water did not extend much beyond one-third
of the entire depth. The Gulf-stream at its outset is then not more than 39} miles
wide, and 1200 feet deep.

The velocity has been much exaggerated. From all attainable data the author
computes the mean annual rate to be 65:4 miles per day, more in summer, less in
winter. As this rate decreases with the depth, the mean velocity of the whole
mass does not exceed 49:4 miles per day. As the sectional area of the stream is
not more than 6-64 square miles, there are not more than from 294 to 333 cubic
miles of water per day passing over a given line in the Gulf of Florida.

From the entrance of the Gulf to the Narrows, the distance is 330 miles. To the
northward of this, it appears as the innermost of a series of warm bands, alternating
with cold ones flowing in an opposite direction, and having the cold Arctic current
also flowing southwards, between the stream and the coast. In ten days it arrives
off Cape Hatteras, with a loss of only 3° of its initial temperature ; in twenty days itis
off Nantucket, being 14° or 15° cooler still; it is this rapid course and preservation
of its original warmth thus far which has made it so remarkable in all ages, but
beyond this it rapidly loses its characteristics. After fifty days it is off the banks of
Newfoundland, and its warmth is lowered to 51° in summer. In January it is down
to 30°. The distance thus travelled is about 3500 miles; its velocity is not more
than one-third of its commencement, and it has lost all the extra warmth it

ossessed at the outset ; for the volume of water above 70° in the Narrows will not
orm a film more than 60 feet thick off Newfoundland.

The second point insisted on was that it is here more than neutralized, as a warm
current, by the ice-bearing Arctic current flowing southwards into its northern
edge, bringing a volume of cold water equal fully to one-half the entire stream
flowing eastward, and penetrating, as a cold-water gulf, shown by the isotherms,
from 150 to 200 miles southward of its general limit. It was therefore urged that
the Gulf-stream is here so thinned out and cooled down, and further neutralized
by the Arctic current, that it could no longer be recognized as a heat-bearing stream,
and as such ceased to exist. The southern and warmer portion of the stream
ie onwards, also eastward, until it is finally lost on the general drifts about the

zores.

The third point proposed was, that the warm N.E. stream flowing past the
British Isles cannot be taken as the Gulf-stream; it has a distinct origin, and should
have a distinct designation. It is true that there is a continuous stream from
the West Indies, past the Banks of Newfoundfand, but not throughout a warm
stream; for the temperature rises considerably, from 20° to 27°, to the eastward
of the Banks. How can this be the Gulf-stream ? the warmth must be derived
from more southern sources. The evidences of this easterly drift (the cocoa-nuts,
tropical seeds, &c.) pass onwards to the coast of Norway, to Iceland, &e. It will
take a floating body fully 150 days to reach Cornwall from the banks of
Newfoundland, and perhaps double that period to reach the North Cape or Ice-
land. The area claimed to be influenced by the stream, or raised in its tem-

erature, is fully 1,500,000 square miles to the northward of the 50° parallel.
he known bulk of the Gulf-stream proper (and it receives no accessions) wili
only give six inches per diem over this area, and this too after an interval varying

_ from one to two years from the time it left the Gulf of Florida.

—— Oe

The origin of the warm ocean temperature in high latitudes was attributed by
the author to the prevalent S.W. winds, which, passing over a higher sea tempe-
rature, and also driving the water from that direction, brought to North-Western
Europe the climatorial attributes of much more southern regions on the eastern
side of the Atlanic, and that this N.E. current, which has only of late years been
called the Gulf-stream, should possess a specific term.

On Trade Routes between Northern India and Central Asia.
By T. D. Forsyru.

The author stated that he had devoted his time and energies as a public servant
in India in applying geographical knowledge to the purposes of material progress.
In his capacity of practical geographer he had had occasion to point out an error

69. 11

162 REPORT—1869.

into which most scientific geographers had fallen, namely, that of assuming that
the mighty Himalayas presented a grand impassable bulwark, and that the moun-
tains of the Kuen Luen rose like a wall 17,000 feet high, with scarcely a crest or
depression throughout their entire extent. There were two great outlets for trade
from Northern India: one, the route of a very large commerce, crosses the Indus at
different points between Kurrachee and Peshawur, and threading the various

asses of Bolan, Goleri, Kyber, &c., finds its way into Affghanistan, Balkh,
Giichunsl Kokan, and Western Turkistan ; the other crosses the Himalayan passes,
and enters Eastern Turkistan or Chinese Tartary, a region containing several
ancient and renowned cities, such as Yarkund, Yangihissar, Khoten, &c. It was
this latter outlet which had been most studied by the author. Between the years
1750 and 1862 the Chinese held military possession of all Eastern Turkistan; in
the last-mentioned year the Tungani insurrection against their rule commenced,
and the Chinese were finally expelledin 1864, One of the leaders in the revolt was
Yakoob Beg, who took the Chinese fort of Kashgar, and is known by the title of
Koosh Begi, or Commander-in-Chief. This man now holds the chief power in the
country, and is a brave, energetic, liberal-minded man, with whom and his subjects
the author contended it was for the advantage of India to establish commercial
relations. During the period of Chinese domination all trade over the passes
north of Cashmere to Eastern Turkistan was extremely hazardous. The physical
difficulties opposed to extensive communication had recently been found not so great
as was supposed. Formerly the route over the Karakorum pass was the one chiefly
used ; by this traders had to march five or six days consecutively without obtaining
one blade of grass or one atom of fuel ; but by anew route further to the east, which
the author had lately endeavoured to establish, namely, the Changchenmo, fuel
and grass could be found at nearly every stage. After this route had ‘been explored.
by Mr. Johnson and Dr. Cayley, and declared by them to be perfectly practicable, it
was still difficult to induce the native traders in Cashmere to try the road. The
author, however, whilst at Ladack, succeeded in prevailing upon the Vakeel of the
Koosh Begi to return by the new route last year, and was gratified to learn that he
had accomplished the journey with the utmost ease. Since then Mr. Shaw, an
English tea-planter, had succeeded in reaching Yarkund by this route. Four
passes have to be crossed between the plains of Hindostan and Leh; but only
the lowest, the Rotang, is spoken of by traders with anything like fear, owing
to the severity of its ascents and to the danger from sudden storms, caused by the
proximity to the monsoons of the plains. Atmospheric influences and deficiency
of fuel apart, there would be little physical difficulty in laying a railroad from Tso
Moreri Lake to Yarkund.

On the Ewistence of Sir Walter Raleigh’s El Dorado.
By Dr. C. Le Neve Foster.

The author advanced his own experience as acquired in a recent journey to the
Caratal gold-mines of the Orinoco, as confirming the veracity of Sir Walter Raleigh,
so coarsely impugned by the historian Hume, who says, “On his return Raleigh
published an account of the country full of the grossest and most pep lies
that were ever attempted to be imposed on the credulity of mankind.” Schom-
burgk, in defending Raleigh’s statements, had, in his time, no positive evidence of
the existence of gold in Venezuelan Guiana. The gold-mines which the author
visited last year were discovered in 1849 by Dr. Louis Plassard, in the bed of the
Yuruari, near the old Spanish Mission of Tupuquen. The Yuruari falls into the
Yuruan, a tributary of the Cuyuni, which enters British Guiana, and eventually
pours its waters into the Essequibo. In 1857 people began to flock to the place,
and washed for gold in the river-bed, establishing the settlement of Caratal. The
author had given the geological details of these mines in a paper recently read
before the Geological Society. He maintained that the present Caratal gold-field
was the one of which Raleigh heard such wonderful accounts. The “ white spar”
in Raleigh’s detailed description was undoubtedly quartz ; for spar is the name still
used for quartz in Devon and Cornwall, and the author had himself seen colonia
of lode in Caratal where gold was visible in blocks of quartz rising up from the

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 163

surface. There could be no mistake, also, in identifying the locality,—* the Caroli,”
mentioned by Raleigh as the Caroni; for he mentions the falls, which are close to
the point where the Caroni joins the Orinoco. The other details of locality and
distance in Raleigh’s account were shown by the author to agree closely witb the
facts that have now come to light.

- On the Runn of Cutch and the Countries between Rajpootana and Sind.
By Sir Barrie Frere.

The author stated that little had been recorded regarding this singular tract of
country, which he had visited in the exercise of his official duties. It formed a
great belt, presenting extraordinary physical features, lying between India Proper
and the Indus. It had neither mountain-ranges nor river-systems; nor could it be
called a plain, for it is ridged into sand-hills; nor desert, for it is everywhere
inhabited, in parts supporting a considerable fixed population and numerous herds
of cattle. The term ‘ Pampas,” or ‘‘Savannah,” would imperfectly describe it.
The length of the district, N.E. to S.W.—from the point where numerous streams,
descending from the lower ranges of the Himalayas, between the Sutlej and the
Jumna, flow towards it and lose themselves in its sands, to the hills of Cutch,—was
about 600 miles, its breadth was about 150 miles; the total area was somewhat larger
than that of Great Britain. The north-easterly part was termed the “Thurr,’—a
tee diversified by sand-hills or ridges and waves of sand, varying from 60 to 200

eet in height, not uniform in direction and not lying in the direction of the wind.
The appearance of this country was most singular, reminding the traveller of the
ocean, with billows formed of sand. Next to this was the “ Put,” alluvial plains
formed of hard soil and adapted to cultivation. Throughout the “Put” could be
seen traces of ancient canals and ruins of cities. Lastly, the portjon nearer the
Indian Ocean and separated from it by the crescent-shaped, elevated territory of
Cutch was the “Runn.” This was neither a morass nor a swamp, but a vast level

lain, with a surface so firm that the feet of camels traversing it scarcely left an
imprint on the soil. Its length was about 150 miles, but if outlying areas were
included, it would be 300 miles, to the shores of the Cambay Gulf. The Runn was
nearly a dead level, rising slightly in its centre; heavy rains covered it only transi-
ently with a thin film of water which found no drainage-outlet, but remained until
it evaporated, and became salt through the intensely saline nature of the surface.
Tt was totally destitute of landmarks, and travellers guided themselves only by the
stars; and, on approaching Cutch, by a fire, kindled on the top of a hill, the lighting
and care of which was the self-imposed duty of a faqueer living near the spot. Not-

_ withstanding all precautions, however, travellers were sometimes lost on the plain

and perished miserably. The whole country was subject to earthquakes, most of
which were only slight vibrations, and it was to the action of these vibrations
that the author ascribed the peculiar configuration of the country. Sometimes
small crateriform pits would be formed in the sandy soil, which subsequently became
obliterated, the sandy particles rearranging themselves and the perfectly level
surface again resumed. The more elevated district around showed evidences
of severer shocks, and the remains of ruined cities—some, as Brahminabad, being
of great extent—testified to their violence. To these shocks were due the
elevated ridges which constituted so singular a feature; these, in the opinion
of the author, being folds produced by earthquake-waves that had not again
subsided like other parts of the surface. The Runn is periodically inundated
by the waters of the Indian Ocean, at the height of the south-west monsoon and
at high tides; several rivers also discharge themselves into it on the eastern side,
but the water reaches the depth of only afew feet. During the dry season the effects
of mirage were most extraordinary, the skeletons of camels perished in the traversal
alee deceptive resemblance to a magnificent city with its palaces and
towers. This frequent phenomenon had given rise toa myth related by the inhabi-
tants, to the effect that a pious king once obtained, as the result of his prayers, the
favour of the translation of his city to heaven, but on the discovery, after the upward
journey was commenced, of a jackass concealed in the buildings, the favour was
revoked, and the proud city remained ever afterwards fixed in mid-heavens.

1f*

164 REPORT—1869.
On the best Route to the North Pole. By Captain R. V. Haminton, RN.

On the Latitude of Samarcand. By M. Nicnoias pe Kwanrxor.

Twenty-six years ago (September 1841) the author visited Samarcand, being,
after his companion, Lehmann, the first European who had seen the famous
capital of Tamerlane since 1404, when, in the same month of September, Gonzales
Clavijo, envoy of Henry the Kighth, of Castille, entered the city. Exhausted by the
heat and covered with dust, M. de Khanikof reached the summit of an elevation, on
the road from Bokhara, where he first beheld the place he had been permitted to
visit, as member of a mining commission, invited by the Khan of Bokhara. M. de
Khanikof was not able himself to fix the longitude or latitude of Samarcand ; but
M. Struve, who visited Samarcand on a scientific mission in 1868, has verified the
latitude of the city at 39° 38’ 45”, and the longitude 64° 38’ 12” east of Paris.

Erskine’s Discovery of the Mouth of the Limpopo. By R. J. Mann.

On the Straits of Magellan and the Passages leading Northward to the Gulf
of Penas. By Captain R. C. Maynz, RN.

The whole distance through the Straits of Magellan is about 300 miles, and the
width of the passage varies from 2 miles to 15 or 20. The eastern and western
portions are strongly contrasted in scenery and climate; on the east we have low
prairie land, perfectly bare of trees, with a clear bright sky, and hard, fresh wind ;
on the west rise, almost perpendicularly from the sea, lofty mountains clothed
with the evergreen beech, which produce torrents of rain, varied by hail and snow
in their seasons. From the western end of the Straits is a passage leading north-
ward among numberless islands for 360 miles, and ending in the Gulf of Peias.
In this part itis scarcely too much to say that the rain never ceases for twenty-four
hours together ; the channel is much narrower than the Straits, and lofty mountains
close it in on each side, so that the sun scarcely ever penetrates into its recesses,
During the recent naval survey, in which Capt. Mayne was engaged, the anes
crew passed three months without being once able to dry their clothes, except by
the engine fires. When, however, the mists do clear away from the mountain-
tops the scenery is grand beyond description. Dreary as is this passage it is of
great commercial importance, enabling the largest steam—vessels to get northward
to finer latitudes, without encountering the high seas of the open Pacific, and to
reach Valparaiso without the strain to the ship and machinery which the outer
passage so frequently involves. Between the date when the celebrated survey of
the ‘ Beagle,’ under Capt. FitzRoy terminated, in 1836, and the present day, a new
era has commenced in the navigation of the southern extremity of America. All
vessels of war, and a great proportion of merchant vessels, are now steamers, and

the Straits of Magellan offer immense advantages to them over the sey passage -

round Cape Horn. Many vessels which now pass into the Pacific are 300 to 400
feet long, drawing 25 or 26 feet of water: the surveys of thirty or forty years ago,
therefore, which provided only for vessels 100 feet in length, drawing 14 or 15 feet
of water, were no longer applicable. In those days, moreover, harbours were
sought for and surveyed, into and out of which vessels could work under sail;
with the monster steamers of the present day such harbours were not required,
and the recent survey had to provide for the new conditions of navigation. In
1867 Capt. Mayne went through the Straits in H.M.S. ‘Zealous,’ an iron-clad of
4000 tons, and in that year thirty-eight steamers, in all, passed. At the present time
a monthly line of large steamers runs from Liverpool to Valparaiso by this route,
accomplishing the distance in forty-two days, or quicker than the overland route wid
Panama. The work of the Survey, which Capt. Mayne commanded, in the ‘Nassau,’
commenced in December 1866, and ended May 1869. The surveying parties fre-

quently met with Patagonians in the eastern part of the Straits. They were clad —

in their usual long robes of guanaco skins, which make them look so much taller
than they really are. Their chief Casimiro spoke Spanish, and at the first meeting

:
.”
¢
.

OO EE nr

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 165

requested the Captain to give him two bottles of rum, not, as he explained, for
the tribe, but as a gift from chief to chief. Capt. Mayne took the trouble to
measure several of the men; he found one who was 6 ft. 103 ins. high, and several
reached 6 ft. 4 ins., but the average of those met with was 5 ft. 10 ins. or 5 ft. 11ins.,
which is some 4 or 5 inches taller than the middle height of Englishmen. The
women are nearly as tall in proportion. Tall as the Patagonians are, their costume
adds greatly to their apparent size; their robes of guanaco skin being as decep-
tive an addition to their stature as a woman’s dress would be to a man of our
own race. Their habit of standing on the cliffs, beside their diminutive houses, to
gaze on passing ships, further explains the exaggerated accounts of the early voy-
agers. The Patagonians are entirely confined to the eastern portion of the Straits,
never going further west than the Chilian settlement of Punta Arena; they have
no canoes, and much dislike going afloat. Wonderful is the difference between
them and the natives of the mountainous and wooded country further west, and
even those of the eastern part of the southern islands, from whom they are sepa-
rated only by a narrow strait. These are the Fuegians ; those of this race who live
on the east being finer physically than their western relatives, probably owing to
a more abundant diet of guanaco meat; but both sections, unlike the Patagonians,
are untrustworthy. The western Fuegians extend even up the western channels
and inhabit both sides of the Strait. They differ in almost every respect from the
Patagonians, being usually small, badly shaped, and ugly in features ; but they
have one advantage, in their dislike of wine and spirits, Capt. Mayne often tried
them, and could never get them to taste a second time, whereas any Patagonian
would drink as much as he could get. Among the ethnological points the expe-
dition was asked to notice was, whether these people ever smiled. Not only did
they frequently smile, but they laughed outright whenever anything amused them.
But mimicking was their peculiar forte; they would repeat whatever was said to
them, and hum tunes after the men, though whistling rather bothered them. They
were much amused at the officers walking up and down the deck two and two,
and frequently joined hands and walked after them, looking over their shoulders
to hit the right time of turning. Sometimes their mimickry was rather annoy-
ing, as when they repeated the remark, “Why have not these people left the
ship?” at times when they had stayed too long aboard. The new Chilian settle-
ment in the Straits, at Punta Arena, now numbers 800 souls, and signs of civi-
lization are rapidly rising around it. Coal having been found in the neighbour-
hood, it promisessoon to become a coaling-station for steamers, and will take
away all trade from the Falkland Islands, which lie too far to windward of the
Straits to be of importance in the new era of navigation of the Cape, which has
now set in. During the survey, the ‘ Nassau’ entered a small bay in an island
called Sta. Magdalena, 12 miles from Punta Arena, which had never before been
visited. The vessel was immediately surrounded by hundreds of seals, plunging
about the ship in the utmost astonishment at this invasion of their haunts, and
the clifis were covered with thousands of penguins, looking on in an absurdly sedate
manner. None of these and other animals which swarmed around the bay were
afraid of the approach of man, whom they had not yet learnt to consider as their
enemy, and the penguins in particular, when the cliffs were climbed, swarmed round
and attempted to peck the legs of their visitors.

Scheme for a Scientific Exploration of Australia. By Dr. G. Neumayer.

On the Kitai and Kara Kitai. By Dr. Gustav Opperr.

The author described the Kitai, a people who once ruled over Central Asia and
China, but whose descendants now live in an humble condition in the Russian
Government of Derbend, near the Caspian and in the Siberian district of Ili, or
Kuldja. They are a very industrious race, living in Derbend mostly as husband-
men, and in Kuidja as clever artisans. The author went into some details to
establish the identity of Yelintashe with Prester John of medieval writers.

166 REPORT—1869.

On the Encroachment of the Sea on Exmouth Warren. By G. Pracocx.

According to the author, the Warren, or natural barrier of the harbour at the
mouth of the Exe, is gradually wasting away by the action of the sea, combined
with causes which, he believed, might have been prevented. The “ Exe Bight”
runs the danger of being no longer a harbour, but of becoming converted into a
dangerous bay of shoals.

On the Influence of Atmospheric Pressure on the Displacement of the Ocean.
By T. Wyarr Rep.

Account of Mr. Cooper's Attempt to reach India from Western China,
By Tretawney W. Saunpers.

In February 1868 Mr. T. T. Cooper ascended the Yang-tsze-Kiang, with the
intention of passing, if possible, through the little-known country which separates
the western frontier of China Proper into British India. At Suchan, where the
river Min joins the Yang-tsze, he proceeded by the former river to Ching-tu, the
chief town of the province of Sze-chuen, and from thence proceeded, through
Ta-tsien and Litang, to Batang, a Chinese post on the frontiers of Sze-chuen, and
bordering on Thibet, a vast highland country, stretching along the whole of the
northern frontier of India, and subject to the imperial sway of the Chinese. From
Batang he expected to reach India either by way of Lassa, or by a direct route to
Sudiya, in the British province of Assam. Between Batang and Assam lies a
mountainous country, not more than 200 miles in width, with villages at intervals.
The Thibetan authorities refused Mr, Cooper permission to proceed by way of
Lassa, or even to enter their country. The resolute traveller thereupon directed
his utmost efforts to get across the short distance of 200 miles, which separated
him from Assam, but he found himself completely foiled by the vigilance of the
authorities. After waiting ten days, he was obliged to attempt the Yunan route
for Burmah. He crossed on his way the Kin-char-Kiang, six miles south-west of
Batang, on the 3rd of June; and travelling two days, came in sight of the range
of mountains forming the “boundary of the kingdom of Lassa.” He was here
again stopped by a party of armed Lamas, and was obliged to turn south. In this
direction he travelled for about twelve miles, and struck the east foot of the snowy
range, forming the east bank of the Lan-tsan-Kiang. Deserted by his guides,
he lost his way, and reached the Thibetan village of Tsung Tsar. He next crossed
a pass in the snowy range, and reached the village of Tong. On the 10th of June
he arrived at Artenze, the first Chinese military station, on the borders of Yunan.
On the 12th he struck the left bank of the Lan-tsan-Kiang, and reached the vil-
lage of Coneah, the head man of which took it for granted that the traveller had
come from Assam. At the Ludzu village of Wharfoopin he found the people
were chiefly Christians, connected with the Catholic mission of Succoo, Fistant
about eight miles, on the right bank of the Lan-tsan-Kiang. Leaving this place, in
two days he reached the residence of a Yertzu chief. His next stopping-place
was at the house of a Mooquor chief, who talked quite familiarly of Assam, and
showed the traveller his gold-mines and gold-washings on the banks of the Lan-
tsan-IGang. Two days thence he arrived at the Chinese imperial city of Wussee-
foo, the General at which place gave him a pass to Talifoo ; bait ultimately he was
obliged to return to Wesee, and thence to Permootan, in Thibet; and being again
foiled in an attempt to get to Lassa, he returned to Hankow vid Kia-ting-foo, on
the Min river. The author explained that Mr. Cooper in his report contributed
but little to our knowledge of the geography of the’new countries he traversed. His
track could only be made out in a general way; but it seems not improbable that
the place he calls Wusee might be the Chusi of Lieut. Wilcox; and if so, Mr.
Cooper must have reached the very threshold of British Assam without knowing
it, in a valley descending immediately into the Brahmaputra. His narrative,
chiefly relating to his personal adventures with the obstructive or hostile people,
seldom contains any graphic description of the country. Mr. Cooper’s fadlice in

Cee - =

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 167

his laudable purpose to initiate communication between two friendly empires of

such vast populations, was one of a series of such failures, dating from the first
quarter of the present century, when British officers, having penetrated the Hima-
layas, naturally attempted to extend their explorations further into Central Asia.
From these cases it may be concluded that, if British intercourse is to be extended
from India into the Chinese Empire, it can only be done by a fresh treaty between
the two supreme governments.

The Himalayas and Central Asia. By Tretawney W. Savunvers.

Peruvian Explorations and Settlements on the Upper Amazons.
By Francis F, Sear.e,

Yquitos, a small town on the upper part of the Amazons, or Maraton, has
recently sprung into importance as the site of a Peruvian Government station. It
is situated on the left bank of the Marafion, below its junction with the Ucayali,
and at the mouth of a small affluent, the Itaia. The place was fixed upon in 1862,
as affording the best station for a factory and floating dock, and the steamers ‘ Mo-
rona’ and ‘ Pastaza,’ of 500 tons burthen each, proceeded thither from England, in
September, to commence the works. A difficulty was encountered at the outset
by the Brazilian authorities disputing the right of foreign vessels laden with cargo
and flying the pennant of men-of-war to ascend the Amazons. The ‘Morona’ was
fired at from the fort at Obydos, and subsequently ran aground, when all the crew
were taken prisoners; but the right of free passage being afterwards conceded,
two more steamers were sent up in 1865, with a floating-dock, and the materials
for constructing two smaller steamers, for river exploration. The author was sent
in charge of this portion of the expedition, and stated that one of the vessels, of
750 tons burthen, safely ascended to Yquitos, a distance of 2400 miles from the
mouth of the river. Other vessels, and numerous mechanics with machinery,
soon after arrived from England, and the settlement was soon in full working
order. The larger steamers were then used as passenger and cargo vessels,
running monthly between Tabatinga, on the Brazilian frontier, and the little town
of Yurimaguas, on the river Huallaga; the smaller steamers, at the same time,
were despatched up the various tributary streams, most of which were hitherto
unknown, except by name, to examine their capabilities for navigation and com-
merce. One of the principal objects of the Peruvian Government was to ascer-
tain the practicability of navigating the Ucayali and its affluents to within a
moderate distance of Lima, and of establishing a port at some point to which a
road might be made from Lima, with a view to its becoming an outlet to the
Atlantic for the trade of the rich provinces of Central and Southern Peru. In

ursuance of this grand idea, the‘ Putomayo’ steamer was sent up the Ucayali in

une 1866. Passing with facility up this great stream and one of its western
tributaries, the Pachitea, the expedition encountered a ferocious tribe of Indians,
called Cachibos, and two of the officers, Tabara and West, were enticed ashore
and treacherously slain. Foiled for a time in the attempt to ascend the stream,
the vessel returned to Yquitos, and a larger expedition was despatched, in Decem-
ber of the same year (1866) in three steamers. On arriving at Chunta Isla, on
the Pachitea, the scene of the treacherous onslaught of the Cachibos, a severe
lesson was taught the savages. A party of soldiers was landed in the forest, toge-
ther with a number of friendly Conibo Indians to act as guides; and the secret

path to the hostile villages being tracked in the silence of night, the Cachibos

were surprised and shot down without mercy. In the centre of a village was
found a kind of altar, on which human sacrifices had been offered, and one of the
women who were captured wore a necklace of human teeth, which she stated had
belonged to one of the officers, who had been roasted and eaten. This done, the
three steamers proceeded further up the river; the two smaller succeeded in reach-
ing the port of Mayro, the nearest practicable point to Lima, from which the Pre-
fect of Loreto and his staff passed by land to the capital. One of the vessels
remained in the Pachitea for several months, and received on board the Hydro-

168 REPORT—1 869.

graphic Commission sent across the Andes from Lima, who afterwards descended
the river, to survey the boundaries between Brazil and Peru. The same Commis-
sion also ascended the Ucayali, with the view of exploring the River Tambo, but
were not able to reach far up that river, owing to the strength of the current
being too great for the capabilities of the steamer. The Commission lad arrived
at the conclusion that the Ucayali must be considered the upper stream of the
Amazons, and not the upper Maraiion or Tunguragua, as hitherto supposed. The
distance from the port of Mayro, to which the smaller steamers of the expedition
ascended, to the mouth of the Amazons, is about 3300 miles. The present popu-
lation of Yquitos is about, 1000, of whom 72 are English. The Peruvian Govern-
ment offered grants of land in this new and fertile country to immigrants ; and the
author concluded his paper by stating his conviction that no other tropical country
offered so healthy a climate and so many advantages to European emigrants.

+ AR fre)
A Visit to the Holy City of Fas, in Marocco. By J. Srreurne.

Fas, usually misspelt Fez, is one of the three or four capitals of Marocco, and has
rarely been visited by Europeans. - It is termed “ holy” probably because it was
once a substitute for Mecca as a place of pilgrimage for the Moors, during a period
when ajourney to Arabia wasréndered impracticable. The author visited the city in
the suite of Sir J. DrumiiondHay, the British Minister, on his official mission in
November 1867. It is’ a-fortified place, situated at the eastern extremity of a fine
plain, sloping towards"the ereat and fertile valleys watered by the Sebu river, into
whose stream flow’ the waters of a river which passes through the centre of the
city. This river forms an interesting feature of the place, supplying, as it does,
abundant water for domestic purposes, and numerous fountains, public and private,
besides irrigating the gardens outside the walls. There were no means of ascer-
taining with accuracy the population of the city; the author estimated it at some-
what less than 100,000. There are numerous hotels, picturesque mosques, and
Medresat, or colleges, the latter containing libraries and apartments for the stu-
dents; but the range of studies is limited to the Koran and its commentaries,
grammar, logic, and geometry. The official interview took place in the open court
of the palace, the Sultan mounted on a white horse, according to ancient Arabian
etiquette.

On a small Altazimuth Instrument for the Use of Explorers.
By Lieut.-Colonel A. Stranee, /.RS., FLRAS.

On Central Asia. By Pirrre pe TcHtHAtcuHer.

Ibeg leave to submit to your kind attention a few remarks in reference to a publi-
cation which is about to be issued, and which recommends itself by the name of the
author and the importance of its subject: I mean the intended publication of a new,
completed, and corrected edition of Baron Humboldt’s ‘Asie centrale,’ a celebrated
work published in the year 1843, which was entirely exhausted even before the death
of the great German philosopher. This fact alone would certainly be sufficient to jus-
tify the enterprise: but a peculiar circumstance conyeys to it an additional interest and
renders it still more desirable ; it is the discovery of an autograph letter in French,
written in the year 1854, addressed by Baron Humboldt to M. Gide, his publisher
and intimate friend,—a letter which has been found among the valuable papers of
this gentleman recently deceased, and after whose death all those papers, as well
as the exclusive property of the works of Baron von Humboldt, written in French
and published in Paris, have been acquired by M. Guérin, one of the chief and
ablest publishers in France. In this letter, which Baron yon Humboldt designates
as his last will, entrusted to a dear friend (‘‘c’est mon testament déposé entre les
mains d’un ami qui m’est cher’’), the illustrious philosopher entreats most warmly
M. Gide to undertake a new edition of the ‘ Asie centrale,’ which Baron von
Humboldt declares to be the most important of all his writings (‘le plus important
de tous mes ouvrages”), and which, therefore, he wishes to be raised to the level of

vy ‘

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 169

the numerous discoveries made in geography, natural history, and the physical
sciences during the twenty-six years elapsed since its publication. But, what is
still more interesting, he gives in this letter a sketch of the principal additions and
corrections his work is to receive, and among which the following destderata play
the chief part :—a new delineation of the mountainous ranges of Central Asia in
conformity with the numerous and important materials acquired since the year
1843, particularly in reference to the Thian-chan and to the orography of the vast
and complicated Himalayan regions; further, a summary of the results of the
recent explorations of the Lac Aral and the Caspian Sea, of the hydrographical
system of the Jaxartes and the Oxus, of the northern extremities of the Oural
Mountains, &c.; finally, a complete official account of the annual produce of the
auriferous deposits in Russia since the year 1854 until the present day, and a
survey of all the meteorological and magnetic observations collected during this
time in the Caucasian regions, in Siberia, and in the Turkestan. It is evident that
the additions and modifications by which Baron von Humboldt intended to com-
plete, enrich, and adorn his celebrated work could not have been carried out with-
out the assistance of many fellow-labourers, however great may have been the
universal knowledge of this extraordinary man. No doubt, we must reeret that
death prevented him from accomplishing a task which he seems to have considered
as the last and most brilliant crown of his long and laborious life ; but whatever may
have been the amount of additional glory it could have given him, all his disciples,
friends, and admirers are bound to consider the expression of his last and most
cherished wishes as a kind of sacred legacy imposed upon them; and this was
precisely the feeling which decided me to yield to the appeal M. Guérin addressed
to me, in order to work out a new edition of the ‘ Asie centrale ’ according to the
instructions left by its illustrious author. In spite of the various occupations which
absorb all my time, particularly at the present moment, when I am preparing
myself for a new expedition in the East, I have decided to perform this rather
difficult task to the best of my abilities, and I hope that in the course of the next
winter the three volumes of the ‘ Asie centrale’ will be published, accompanied by
a fourth supplementary one, which will contain all the important additions and
modifications desired by the author, and, moreover, a new map of Central Asia,
quite different from that which appeared in 1843, at the end of the third volume
of the work.

Now, before I conclude this little bibliographical information, which I hope will
be received with interest by many persons who compose this distinguished assembly,
let me add that, independently of the great name of Humboldt, a special work on
Central Asia has, now-a-days, a peculiar importance and a striking opportuneness,
for it will at last dispel for ever the threatening clouds which, during so many years,
were gathering on those regions, as gloomy forebodings of a dreadful tempest. The
truth is, that as long as our knowledge of Central Asia was scanty and vague, this
mysterious country must have appeared, not only to the ignorant crowd, but also
to many of the most enlightened and sagacious statesmen, as the natural battle-field
where, sooner or later, England and Russia had to meet in an exterminating,
dogged struggle. The danger seemed so unavoidable and so urgent that no expense
_ no sacrifice was spared in order to postpone this disastrous crisis. Now, thanks to
the indefatigable exertions of men like Montgomery, Walker, Johnson, Godwin-
Austen, Schlagintweit, Sewerzow, Semenow, Baron Osten-Saken, Poltarazki, Struve,
and many other recent explorers, whose important labours will be thoroughly
discussed in the supplementary volume of Humboldt’s ‘ Asie centrale,’ the ominous
crisis so positively prophecied, and so unanimously feared, turns out to be nothing
more than a fantastical dream ; for surely nothing could be more fantastic, nothing
fitter to remind us of the stories of the thousand-and-one nights, than to see a
large army with heavy artillery, not only hover like ghosts during two or three
months amidst dense clouds and eternal snows, but even, after such laborious gym-
nastics,descend in the country of the enemy and defeat the English troops, who would
be quietly and comfortably expecting the curious visitors. Well, that is precisely the
marvellous fact which must be admitted by the advocates of a Russian invasion of
India ; for we possess now numerous trustworthy documents which prove most po-
sitively that, even in the very probable case when whole Turkestan is to become a

170 REPORT—1869.

Russian province, whatever may be the starting-point of a Russian army intended
to reach the Punjab, no less than two, and perhaps even three months, spent
amidst snowy, desert mountains, are required before such an army is allowed to put
their frost-bitten feet on English territory. I am far from denying that among the
advocates of a Russian invasion there are men of deep science and of unques-
tionable good faith ; but they all start either from the one or from the other of these
two very arbitrary hypotheses, namely, that what has been done once may be
performed again, or what is now impossible may hereafter become possible. In
support of the first hypothesis, the numerous invasions of India ascertained by
history have been quoted; and a learned French orientalist, M. Quatremére, en-
deayoured even to prove that the lofty mountains which form the northern boun-
dary of Cashemir, and which hitherto have been considered as not having at any
time yielded a passage to a military expedition, have been traversed more than
once, as late as in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, by considerable armies,
which, starting from Kachgar and Jarkand, reached the Punjab across Tibet and
Cashemir. But what do such facts prove ? Only one thing; that those armies, con-
ducted by Eastern generals and directed against Eastern populations, were placed
more or less in the same conditions under which similar expeditions have been
successfully performed by Alexander the Great and the Mongol conquerors, con-
ditions widely different from those which would be now imposed upon a Russian
or any other invading army, not only because Asiatic adventurers, as well as Mace-
donian or Roman conquerors, were not encumbered by the troublesome encum-
brances of artillery, indispensable to European troops, but also because they pos-
sessed over their enemies an overwhelming superiority either of moral or of
material strength, whereas now-a-days no invading army would enjoy this last
advantage. Even now, if an European army may succeed in dragging their ponderous
artillery over large snowy mountainous tracts, as the admirable expedition into
Abyssinia has so brilliantly proved, success is possible only under the express con-
dition of having Abyssinians or some other Asiatic population to deal with ; for if
the country, or even Magdala alone, had been occupied by French, Russian, or
Prussian troops, instead of those of Theodorus, the issue of that glorious expe-
dition might have been a most disastrous one. As for those who invoke the con-
tingencies of future times, and put an unlimited confidence in the progress of
engineering science, believing that, after all the marvels witnessed by our age,
there is no reason why the highest and the most extensive mountains of our globe,
those of Central Asia, may not be crossed by railways and pierced by tunnels, the
answer to those sanguine expectations is rather easy. Now, even granting (what
certainly is an enormous exaggeration) that there is no limit whatever to the con-
quests of man over nature, we must not forget that the most splendid triumphs of
this kind hitherto accomplished (such, for instance, as the almost finished tunnel
and the mountain railway of Monte Cenisio, or the gigantic American railways
joining the Atlantic to the Pacific) are mere trifles in comparison with works required
for the accomplishment of similar performances in the mountainous systems which
separate Turkestan from India. Indeed to launch steam-waggons along immense
vertical surfaces, or across stupendous glaciers, or to scoop out tunnels running
many hundred miles, is now almost as impossible as to employ balloons for the per-
formance of such marvellous travels; and if really the time will come when
peculiar steam-engines, or rapid and manageable balloons shall be invented, no doubt
this time is so far from us that at the brilliant dawn of that glorious day the
civilizing task of England and Russia in Asia will have been fulfilled long before ;
then the now barbarous populations will be perfectly able to defend themselves
without wanting any tutelage, and the newly invented marvellous engines will be
used for the transport of travellers and merchandise, but not for military expe-
ditions. In one word, the more we contemplate the real state of things, such as
has been revealed to us by the recent explorations of Central Asia, the more we
must admit that the phantom of a Russian invasion in India is a worn-out bugbear;
and the day may not be distant when people will smile at such prophecies, and
when the inhabitants of Bombay will be as little afraid of the appearance of
Russian soldiers as the inhabitants of London are of the arrival of French troops;
at all events, in both places such visitors would pay very dear for their untoward

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 171

and uninvited visits. The same thing, but only in an opposite sense, may be said of
England and British India what a French poet said, speaking of honour as of a
rocky island from which one may get out but never get in again,—

“T’honneur est une ile escarpée et sans bords,
On n’y peut plus rentrer dés qu’on en est dehors.”

Here, on the contrary, those who may get in will never be able to get out safely, Let
us, therefore, drop those chimerical but most dangerous illusions, which the study
of Central Asia has so happily dissipated, and let us mention another valuable
advantage which such studies have bestowed upon us, showing that, if British India
is defended by an impregnable natural bulwark, this bulwark is inaccessible only to
bloody representatives of war, but not to gentle messengers of peace: for among
the results of recent explorations of Central Asia, one of the most remarkable and the
most satisfactory is the fact that those complicated mountainous ramifications, which
are spread, like a gigantic labyrinth, over the whole of Central Asia, are not devoid
of numerous passes and even of considerable local depressions, in the shape of plains,
which hereafter may be very useful for the establishment of commercial communi-
cations between the remotest points of the stupendous chains of Thian-chan,
Kuenlun, Mustagh Dagh, and Himalaya. So, for instance, thanks to the important
explorations of the Kuenlun range by Mr. W. H. Johnson during the year 1866, we
know that, contrary to what has been admitted hitherto, even by Humboldt,
this lofty range does not spread itself beyond 100 miles to the east of the meridian
of Ilchi, where it is limited by long plains, through which caravans transporting
merchandise may cross the whole country between Ilchi and Leh, and consequently
almost as far as the superior valley of the Indus, only six miles distant from Leh.
A similar topographical feature seems to characterize equally the vast country be-
tween Khatan and Aksu, the last city being situated on the southern slopes of the
Thian-chan range; so that nature herself has indicated the lines which, worked out
by human art, may, in the future, connect the valley of the Indus with the Thian-
chan range, crossing in this manner from north to south a large portion of Central
Asia, and possessing the immense advantage of avoiding entirely the rugged in-
hospitable range of Kuenlun. Even the mysterious Bolor, with its cold gigantic
tableland of Pamir, seems not to be quite deprived of natural thoroughfares liable
to acquire hereafter a practical importance ; at least such a conclusion is suggested
by the map of that country constructed by Mr. Hayward, according to the itinerary
of a merchant of Jarkand,—a map which will be replaced in a short time by a far
more accurate one, for the vast and unknown countries of the Bolor are about to
become the object of important explorations which science expects with ac i
from the accomplished geographer Colonel Walker, as well as from Mr. Hayward
himself. Again, the compact network of various natural roads or paths which unite
the valley of the Indus with the range of Thian-chan is more or less connected with
other branches of natural communications which penetrate across the mountains of
Turkestan and those of Southern Siberia into the hydrographical systems of the
Jaxartes, the Oxus, and Ili, as well as into the vast basin of the Balkasch Sea; so,
for instance, there is a pass leading from Guldja to Aksu, across the Thian-chan,
and another one from the river Ili to Samarkand.

Yet all those natural thoroughfares, although even now of some importance for com-
mercial communications, cannot be of any value to military purposes, because the
various passes and depressions are interrupted by rugged mountainous masses, which
would stop or delay almost at every step the movement of an army; so that the
necessity of performing frequent and tortuous circuits would render the march of a
Russian army, encumbered by artillery, perhaps still longer than in a straight line
across the mountains, a passage which, as we have seen, is quite out of question.
The consequence is that, at the present moment, both roads are almost equally shut
to an invading Russia. Nevertheless one may ask if those natural thoroughfares,
once developed, would not become as favourable to the transport of troops as to the
conveyance of merchandise: no doubt some facility would be offered to the servants of
Mars who could be tempted to creep through the open doors of the temple of Minerva;
but is not the creation of monuments of peace the best means to render war more odious
to the populations among which they have been erected, imparting to them altogether

172 REPORT—1869.

the wish and the strength to oppose and to baffle the criminal designs of reckless in-
truders? Therefore, instead of fearing the consequences of the development of the na-
tural thoroughfares spread out through Central Asia, it is the interest of England to
see them established—the sooner the better ; and as such a happy revolution can never
take place as long as the countries of Central Asia are not submitted to a regular
European government, nothing can be more satisfactory for the sake of humanity in
general (but particularly for the material interests of British India) than the recent
political events which tend to convert the whole Turkestan into a Russian province,
and in this way to throw a bridge over the abyss of Central Asia, in order to unite
the valley of the Indus with the valleys of the Jaxartes and the Oxus. I dare say
that, if we consider the settlement of Russians in those remote barbarious countries
from the point of view revealed recently by science, it must be hailed by the whole
of Europe (and by England more than by any other country) as one of the most im-
portant and beneficial facts of modern history, and, at the same time, as one of the
most astonishing accomplishments of long-postponed providential schemes ; for let
us not forget that the high political and commercial significance of the valley of
the Jaxartes did not escape the genius of Alexander the Great, who founded on
that river a city under the name of Alexandria, which was perfectly known in the
time of Plinius, who mentions, “Alexandria in ultimis Sogdianorum finibus.”
Now this city, like many other creations of the great Macedonian conqueror, not
sufficiently understood by posterity, did never play the important part to which,
undoubtedly, it was destined by its founder ; for the Alexandria of the Sogdiani is
nothing else than the miserable muddy Khodjend, now in the possession of Russia,
a name as little known to the European public as it is difficult to be properly pro-
nounced by European tongues; and still it is not improbable that (thanks to its posi-
tion in the midst of Turkestan on the border of an important river, the classic Jaxar-
tes) the humble Khodjend may be some day raised to the rank of one of the chief
thoroughfares between Europe, Central Asia, and India: in this way the successors
of Peter the Great may become the executors of a legacy bequeathed to them by
Alexander the Great, whose mysterious testament has remained sealed up during
more than 2000 years!

Such are the considerations naturally suggested by the wonderful recent ex-
plorations in Central Asia; and I hope they convey a sufficient idea of the high
-nterest which must inspire all enlightened persons (but particularly English and
Russian) when they hear of the publication of a new, completed, and corrected
edition of Baron von Humboldt’s ‘ Asie centrale.’ If the diffusion of geographical
information about countries little known may in itself be considered as a service
rendered to society, what must not be the importance of such information which
relieves two powerful nations of a long-expected and seemingly quite unavoidable
struggle, and which proves once more that for the promotion of the sacred cause
of Christianity and civilization there is on our globe sufficient place for all; and that,
moreover, England and Russia are charged by Providence to accomplish this great
task in the vast continent of Asia, where each of them has a peculiar mission,
which can only successfully be carried out if both combine in their exertions and
place their moral and material interest under the mighty safeguard of peace, mutual
sympathy, religious toleration, and justice.

Notice of a Bifurcate Stream at Glen Lednoch Head, in Perthshire.
By Capt. T. P. Wurre, R.A.

A small rivulet rises under a craggy hill which separates the drainage systems of
the Tay and Earn ; for a short distance it takes the course of a well-defined gully,
till it is met and divided into two by a slight but immediate rise in the ground,
which forms, as it were, the narrow end of a pear-shaped elevation. This is the
extremity of a new ridge which, starting from the Forth, carries on the main
watershed, hitherto coincident with the direction of the stream. One of the two
divergent waters becomes the Finglen Burn, descending into the valley of the Tay ;
the other, passing into Glen Lednoch, is a feeder of. the river Harn, reunion
being ultimately established in the Firth of Tay. A loop is thus formed which
insulates a large area of the county of Perth.

a. ne ee

hp ay

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 173

ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

Address by the Right Honourable Sir Starrorp Norrnoors, Bart., C.B.,
D.C.L., M.P., President of the Section.

Ir it had not been the custom for those who occupy the position which I have
been called on to fill to open the proceedings of the Section with some general re-
marks, I should have invited you to proceed to the consideration of the papers
which will be laid before you, without any preface. For the preface is not only
the dullest part of a work, and that which is the most frequently skipped ; but, as
a matter of authorship, it is the part which ought to be written last, because it
ought to be adapted to that which is to follow it; and what that may be, I do not
yet fully know.

Forecasting, however, as well as I can, the character of the work which now
lies before us, though not prepared as yet to present to you a summary of what you
may expect, I cannot doubt that the transactions of the present Meeting will con-
tinue to exhibit the tendency of statistical inquiry to take year by year a wider
range. That such is its tendency is, I think, not only evident to the observer, but
may be said to be a law of the science. For the statist is not animated by a mere
spirit of curiosity, nor does he content himself with the simple accumulation of

acts. His objects are at once nobler and more practical. He aims at discovering

the actual condition of his country, and the causes of that condition, with a view
to discover also the methods of improving it. Now, even the true condition of the
country is not immediately obvious to the superficial observer; while the causes
of the several phenomena which it exhibits lie very deep, and can only be discerned
by the aid of patient and extensive inquiries, conducted with skill and discernment,
as well as with the most rigid exactitude; and the investigation of the methods by
which improvements may be effected imposes a further and at least an equally
severe labour. The “ Condition of England” question is one which does not lie
in a nutshell.

I need not, I am sure, recall to the recollection of such an audience as the pre-
sent, the interesting Report presented by an eminent member of this Association*,
whom we have now the pleasure of seeing amongst us, to the International Statis-
tical Congress of 1860. You will remember how he drew attention to the two great
laws which the study of statistics reveals to us, and on which the science rests,—
the law of Stability, which teaches us to deduce from the observation of particular

henomena general conclusions, as to the regularity of their recurrence; and the

w of Variation, which teaches us in what manner, and within what limits, the
conditions of human life, and the current of human action, may be modified or
controlled by man. The main interest of our studies is, of course, concentrated on
the working of this second law, and on the discovery of the limits within which
our power is confined, and here it is that we find the necessity for that extension
of the range of our inquiries to which I have adverted.

As in the case of most other sciences and branches of learning, so most assuredly
in the case of Statistics, our progress is marked by a series of disappointments.
We begin in ignorance and we plunge into error; then we find out our mistakes
and, after having fancied that we had attained to great proficiency, learn, like the
wise man of old, that the sum of our knowledge is, that we know nothing. From
that point, if we are wise enough and honest enough to profit by our experience,
we may indeed begin to make some solid progress; but both wisdom and honesty
are needed for the purpose; aye, and courage too, and self-denial. For it is no
slight trial to a man, who with much labour and much ingenuity has collected a
mass of materials, and has constructed a theory out of them, to find that, through
some mistake or oversight, he has gone wrong from the first, and that the whole
work must be taken to pieces, the materials sifted and rearranged, and the
favourite theory abandoned. No one will go through such a trial who is not sup-
ported by a genuine love of truth, and by a hearty conviction that it is a prize
worth every sacrifice.

But this lesson, at all events, we learn from the history of these disappointments,

* Dr. Farr,

174 . REPORT—1869.

and from the still more melancholy spectacle which sometimes presents itself of
men fighting against facts in support of a theory, and trying to bend them to it,
and to suppress what makes against it:—we learn that it is important to spare no
pains in the first collection of our materials, to neglect no source of information,
and to despise no element of calculation. We learn to be slow to dogmatise, and
to be patient of correction and contradiction. And we learn, or ought to learn,
that we cannot successfully conduct a statistical inquiry into any particular sub-
ject, without keeping our attention alive to the inquiries which other persons are
conducting in connexion with other, and, perhaps, apparently remote subjects, and
to the bearing which their discoveries may possibly have upon our own.

Let me illustrate what I have been saying by a brief reference to our vital sta-
tistics.

Here, in the first place, we have an interesting illustration of the law of Stability
and of the law of Variation. We are able to deduce from the statistics of births
and of deaths averages of human life on which we can calculate with considerable
certainty ; and by so doing we are of course enabled to secure some important ad-
vantages. But we go further, we distinguish the various causes of death; we
separate those which appear preventible from those over which we seem to haye
little or no control ; and we conclude that if we can hit upon the proper remedies,
we may so far qualify the rigid law of Stability by invoking the aid of her elastic
sister the law of Variation, as to diminish in a sensible degree the rate of mortality,
and to lengthen the term of human life. We act on the conclusion, and we apply
our remedies. At first we flatter ourselves that we are in a fair way to attain our
object ; but, just as we are congratulating ourselves on having done so, some dis-
agreeable fact crops up in an unlooked for quarter, which seems to upset our entire
theory. We have just now had our attention drawn to a striking illustration of
this contingency. Among the most prominent causes of death some years ago,
smallpox held a foremost place. To children it was especially fatal. But small-
pox, we learnt, was a disease preventible by vaccination. Vaccination was called
to our aid, and with great success. The deaths by smallpox were reduced within
an exceedingly narrow compass. But it appears while this, the most formidable,
foe of childhood has been repelled, infant mortality has not been reduced in any-
thing like a corresponding proportion. Diptheria and scarlatina have taken the

lace of the vanquished malady; and the law of stability seems to be reasserting
its authority, and to be demanding that, whether it be by the one disease or by the
other, a like proportion of children shall every year fall victims among us. Our
statists, however, are not discouraged by this untoward discovery. They draw
from it the true inference,—that the causes of infant mortality, and indeed of
human mortality at large, lie deeper than in the prevalence of a particular form of
disease ; and, while perceiving that vaccination alone will not put a stop to the
premature deaths of children, they still believe those premature deaths to be in a
measure preventible, and they seek for further methods of prevention. Having
found that the repression of a particular disease is not sufficient, they inquire into
the predisposing causes which render our children obnoxious to disease generally,
eliminating as it were from their inquiry the element of which they have already
ascertained the value, and not troubling themselves to look for specifics against scar-
latina or diptheria, but for general prophylactics against diseases of whatever kind.
In short they broaden the investigation, and seek to ascertain the general conditions
of health.

This is in itself a great step in advance; but we must discard the proverb which
tells us that it is but the first step which costs trouble. The further the inquiry is
carried, the more its difficulties will show themselves. Remedies which, before
they have been tried, appear certain to be efficacious, may, when tried, only serve
to show that we have not yet reached the root of the matter; while the collateral
questions which the investigation will open up will prove, we may be well assured,
pretty intricate ones to settle. When we are told that the primary object to aim
at is, the “placing a healthy stock of men in conditions of air, water, warmth,
food, dwelling, and work, most favourable for their development,” we feel that we -
have a task of pretty fair dimensions before us, and when we learn, among other
things, that “a bad land tenure is a cause of death” (a proposition which does not

————E—

i tie te a_i)

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 175

appear to be limited to the case of titmerary landlords), we may be pardoned for
doubting whether any one can assign bounds to the range of the inquiry we have
undertaken.

It is therefore both natural, and satisfactory, that statistical inquiry should year
by year be extending to wider fields; since no one branch of it can be successfully
pursued without speedily bringing us to the necessity of inquiring into’ the pro-
gress which is being made in other branches. The statistics of education, of crime,
of pauperism, of labour, of health, of trade, of agriculture, of manufactures, and of
every one of the details which enter into the survey of our national condition and
prospects, are interdependent, and connect themselves with another, At the same
time, not only do they admit of being studied separately, but more true progress
will be made by such a method of study. The educational inquirer examines the
bearings of juvenile labour, for instance, from one point of view ; the sanitary in-
quirer examines them from another; the inquirer into the causes and conditions of
pauperism from a third; and so on. Where their inquiries tend to similar conclu-
sions, each confirms the other all the more for the independence of their {lines of
argument. Where the conclusions are inconsistent, they are all the more sugges-
tive; and suggestiveness, as it seems to me, is what constitutes the great value of
statistics.

The old sarcasm, that you may prove anything by figures, has no doubt much
truth in it. In the sense in which the words are usually taken, they convey a pro-
test against crude, and of course still more against unfair, statistics. But we may

erhaps affix another idea to them, and one less uncomplimentary to our science.
i am sometimes inclined to look at a great mass of statistics, undigested and shape-~
less as it seems, in the spirit in which the sculptor may be supposed to look at the
rude block of marble out of which he is to fetch the form of sean that lies hid
within. Innumerable are the lessons which may be drawn from those hopeless-
looking figures, if only the student knows how to search for them; just as the
forms which might be developed from the marble are innumerable, if the artist
knows how to bring them to light. Remote as the region of statistics appears to
be from the region of the imagination, there is no pursuit of which it may more
truly be said that its success depends upon a proper exercise of the imaginative
faculty. A wholly unimaginative statist is as intolerable as an unimaginative
verse writer. A man must know what he is going to look for, and how he will look
for it, before he begins his examination of a mass of figures; but he must keep his
mind open, throughout the process, to receive the suggestions which the study is
sure to produce. He must work upon an hypothesis, but he must be ready to aban-
don it as soon as he finds it untenable ; and he should be quick to form new hypo-
theses, and to subject his materials to new tests, as occasion arises. For all this
kind of work it is of great advantage that other minds should be brought into con-
tact with his own, and that he should profit by the suggestions which their inde-
pendent inquiries cannot fail to elicit.

It is of course obvious that meetings such as that in which we are now engaged,
are likely to advance the study in the direction which I have been indicating. But
that is not their sole advantage. It is, [ think, no slight one, that we are called on
to dispute in public, and to address ourselves to a general audience. If. our studies
are really valuable, if our methods of conducting them are sound, if we are doing
good service to our country, we certainly ought to be able to interest and to attract
our hearers. The subjects with which we deal are of general concern; they are
not mere matters for closet speculation, nor is it good that we should treat them ag
if they were. Neither does the discussion of them involve the necessity for the use
of strange or technical language; nor is it even necessary that we should weary our
hearers with long columns of figures. It is rather a sign of indolence than of pro-
fundity when speakers oppress.their hearers with technical phrases, and with pro-
cesses of arithmetic. These should be used in the closet, but should be as sparingly
as possible obtruded on the platform. Our methods of inquiry should indeed be
strictly scientific; and we should never cease to be on our guard against fallacies,
but we should adapt our arguments to the circumstances of human nature, and
endeavour to make them attractive by making them intelligible. In a word, if I
may borrow an illustration which promises to take root among us, we must make

176 REPORT—1869.

our hearers feel that we are all on the earth together, and that we are not mere
aéronauts addressing them from a balloon.

And here may I venture, as a Devonshire man, while bidding you heartily wel-
come to the county, to bespeak your indulgent consideration of the circumstances
of my compatriots? We Devonians do not hurry on in the race of life quite so
rapidly as some of our fellow-countrymen. Perhaps I may venture to say without
offence that, as compared with north-countrymen, we live slowly. Our birth-rate
is below the average of England, and so is our marriage-rate ; but then it must be
remembered that our death-rate is also low. _ If you compare us with Lancashire,
for instance, you will find that, for less than 32 births per 1000 in proportion to the
population here, there are more than 38 per 1000 there [the precise figures for
1867 are Devon 31:75, Lancashire 38°19]; that, for less than 16 marriages per 1000
here, there are more than 19 per 1000 there [Devon 15:72, Lancashire 19-04]. But
then, for less than 20 deaths per 1000 here, there are nearly 27 per 1000 there
[Devon 19°72, Lancashire 26:83]. So, again, you will find that our children die
less rapidly than theirs, and our old people attain to greater ages. The proportion
which the deaths of children under 5 years of age bear to the births in the year is,
in Devonshire 193 per cent., and in Lancashire 323 ; while the proportion of deaths
of people over 65 years of age is, in Devonshire 18} per cent., and in Lancashire
82 per cent. Our marriages, too, take place at a more advanced age than do theirs.
Of our men only 6:05 per cent. marry under 21 years of age; of theirs 8-46 per cent.
do so. For women the proportions are, in Devonshire 16:81 per cent., and in Lan-
cashire 21°10, In short, we are born, we marry, and we die more slowly than they
do. But we are not behind them in all things. If the state of education is to be
a of by the proportion of married people who can write their names, we may
hold up our heads even by the side of Lancashire. Of our bridegrooms (in 1867)
82:7 per cent. wrote their names like men; of theirs only 76:8 per cent. Our
brides did still better in proportion : 78:6 of them wrote their names, while in Lan-
cashire only 56:0 did so. In the matter of wealth no doubt we are behind them;
our assessment to the Schedules A, B, D of the income-tax comes to only £10 12s.
i head of our population, while theirs comes to £13 14s. On the other hand I

oubt whether we have a very much larger number of paupers in proportion to our
population than they have (on the average of the three years 1866-68 they seem
to have had 65 able-bodied paupers to every 10,000 of the population, while we
had 69). And as regards criminals we fall far short of their ratio; the proportion
of persons committed or bailed for trial in 1867 having been in Devonshire less than
4 to 10,000, and in Lancashire 12 to 10,000.

There are many other points on which it would be interesting to compare the
two counties; and the comparison would be rendered still more valuable by ex-
tending it to other counties, of which these might be taken as the types. But
time forbids my entering into the details which would be requisite. I have referred
to the point principally for the purpose of reminding you that observations which
might have been applicable in one part of England may be very much out of place
in another; that each county has lessons of its own to teach, as well as to receive;
and that Devonshire, though she does not aspire to the position of Lancashire as
the standard bearer of British manufacturing and commercial enterprise, is not
without her own claims to respect and admiration in regard of many of the essen-
tials of human happiness.

I return from these local remarks to the wider field which more properly claims
our attention; and I desire to invite you, who are so much more competent for
the task than I am, to endeavour to realize for yourselves as far as may be the
general character and tendencies of the age in which we live. To me it appears to
be emphatically, and in the highest sense of the term, a statistical age; an age, that
is to say, in which we are inquiring extensively and methodically into the facts by
which we are surrounded, comparing ourselves with our neighbours, measuring our
Progress, and estimating our prospects with unprecedented care. Nor do we stop

ere; but, giving a practical turn to our inquiries, we study not only to ascertain,
but to husband and to develope our resources. Pressed, it may be, by the increas-
ing competition of foreign nations,—pressed, too, by the consideration that our
wealth and our desires for enjoyment are increasing far more rapidly than our popu-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 177

lation, and consequently than our supply of labour,—and conscious, moreover, that

the non-reproductive sources of our material wealth, such as our minerals, are being
very heavily drawn upon, we are daily casting about to find how this competition
may best be sustained, how the balance between capital and labour is to be pre-

bee and how we can best economize those supplies which we fear may some day
ail us.

We are beginning to feel that the time for waste has gone by. It may, perhaps,
provoke a sneer from the cynic when he hears that England is becoming anxious
as to the possible exhaustion of her coal-measures, and is considering how and
where she can find water enough for her population. One cannot help being re-
minded of the sarcastic remark of the American traveller—that we had a tidy little
country enough, but that for his part he was always afraid of tumbling over the
edge of it. There is some truth at the bottom of the taunt; but it is not to such
considerations that I wish to direct your attention. Rather I desire to point to
the satisfactory indications, which such inquiries as I refer to present, of the deter-
mination of our people to make a stand against the bane of national prosperity,—
Waste. I speak not only of waste of raw materials, but of waste in all its mate-
rials, but of waste in all its forms,—waste of power, of labour, of time, of health,
and of life. Year by year we are learning to make skill do the work of strength, to
draw greater results from equal efforts, and to supply our labourers with every com-
fort, every advantage which science can devise for enabling them to fight the bat-
tle of life on better terms; and hence it comes that the question of education is not
only claiming a larger share of our attention, but is presenting itself in new phases;
and that we are looking to education in physical science, and even to technical
education, with such unwonted interest. We are grappling, I think, more boldly
than we ever did before with the difficult problems of our national life, and are ad-
vancing to their solution with greater breadth of view and greater confidence of step.

Let me offer an illustration of the economy of labour which is taking place
among us, by a reference to some remarkable statistics which have quite recently
been laid before us. Last week my friend, Mr. Shaw Lefevre, introduced the Mer-
chant Shipping Bill into the House of Commons; and after pointing out the enor-
mous increase which had taken place in our commercial navy in the last fourteen
years, and showing that we had now as much sea-going tonnage as all other na-
tions put together, proceeded to say that, while the amount of tonnage had in-
creased since 1854 by no less than 50 per cent., the number of seamen required to
navigate it had increased by only 21 per cent. ; that in 1868 we required one man
less to work every 100 tons of shipping than we required in 1854, or, in other words,
that we could work our present marine with 55,000 fewer men than would have been
necessary for the same amount of tonnage fourteen yearsago. And to show to how
great an extent this economy had been brought about by the introduction of
machinery and improved methods of working, Mr. Lefevre gave the particulars of
the manning of twenty-two large sailing-vessels in the years 1849, 1859, and
1869 respectively, showing that in the first of those years they required crews
amounting to 463 men, in the second to 417, and in the third to no more than
348—the ships being identical, and the voyages nearly the same.

I have dwelt at some length on these figures, because they suggest to me seve-~
ral reflections. The first is one in which I think we may justly indulge, and which
is the counterblast to that sarcasm which I quoted just now from an American
critic ;—that the power of England is not to be measured by the dimensions of this
little island, but rather by those of the great empire of the seas which it has so
long been our boast to rule. If we were to fall over our country’s edge we should
only fall into an element which we have made our own. England, it may truly be
said, that is, the mere island of Great Britain, is but the shadow of herself, and we
might address our rivals in the proud words of the Talbot of Shakespeare—

«You are deceived, my substance is not here;
For what you see is but the smallest part
And least proportion of humanity.
I tell you, madam, were the whole frame here,
It is of such a spacious lofty pitch,
Your roof were not sufficient to contain it.”

1869. 12

178 REPORT—1869.

Justly, then, in our statistical inquiries we take note, not only of the progress of
England proper, but of all parts of the great British empire; and this you will
observe in looking to the various collections of information which Parliament is
annually making for us,—thatyear by yearfullerstatistics are produced with relation
to our colonies and dependencies. ‘That valuable ‘ Fifteen Years’ Abstract,’ which
has now reached its sixteenth number for the United Kingdom, has been adapted
to the British colonies for four or five years past, and to India for two or three.
We haye, in addition to these compendious handbooks, several more voluminous
collections of tables relating both to our colonies and to foreign countries, enume-
rating not only their areas, populations, amounts of revenue, expenditure, and debt,
and the extent of their trade; but in the cases of many of our colonies giving most
useful information as to their moral and social condition, the state of education, of
crime, of immigration, of wages, of prices, of land sales, mortgages, savings’ banks,
and an immense variety of other matters. All these are a testimony to the extended
character of our transmarine connexions and interests, and may be taken at once in
explanation and in justification of our position as a colonizing power. In spite of
all that may be said as to the alteration of the relations between England and her
dependencies, she need hardly be called on to abdicate her proud title of the “ Mo-
ther of Nations,” while she can point to these effects of her influence in every
quarter of the globe.

Another reflection which occurred to me when I dwelt on those statistics of our
shipping just now was this,—our population continues to increase; but it increases
far less rapidly than our wealth. That is a fact which, if it stood alone, would in-
dicate that in the struggle between capital and labour the advantage was likely to
be on the side of labour, for that the demand would be in excess of the supply.
But this advantage is to a considerable extent corrected by the increasing economy
of labour indicated by the figures which Mr. Lefevre gives us for a single trade,
and which are no doubt equally applicable to other trades.

It is sufficiently obvious that such economy must in the main be advantageous;
at the same time we must not forget that the displacement of labour is often the
cause of suffering, and sometimes, when it occurs suddenly, of very severe suffer-
ing. It may produce, not only individual distress, but, under certain circumstances,
even political danger. If it were possible so to reconstruct society as to give every
individual member of it a direct share in every gain made by society as a whole,
this particular danger would of course vanish. But this is the theory of Socialism ;
and we have no evidence that, if socialism were in the ascendant, society would
make these gains at all. Reasoning leads us to the conclusion that it would not ;
and the time is probably far distant when England will accept a system which has
so obvious a tendency to discourage private and individual enterprise.

Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that Englishmen are beginning to look to
Government for assistance, and to distrust individual action, to a much greater ex-
tent than formerly.

Some years ago it used to be thought to be the duty of the Government to foster
rivate enterprise by protective laws, monopolies, bounties, and differential duties.
he great Free Trade movement overthrew this theory, and left upon us the im-

pression that the more private enterprise was left to itself and the less the Govern-
ment interfered with it the better, But of late the tide of public opinion has
seemed to be setting in a somewhat different direction. Not that we are going
back towards the protective system; but:that, on the one hand, we are beginning
to invite or to urge the Government to take upon itself work for which a few years
back we should have deemed it utterly incompetent, and which we should have
jealously reserved for private hands; while, on the other hand, our private enter-
prise is becoming more and more dependent on the assistance of the Government
for its own proper organization and development. Thus, in this matter of our
Merchant Shipping, while we have been repealing our navigation laws and sweep-
ing away every vestige of a differential duty, we have been creating a code of al-
most Brobdignagian dimensions for the regulation of every detail of our marine
affairs. The choice of proper masters and mates is no longer left to the discretion
of the shipowner ; he must employ men who have passed a Government examina-
tion, and who hold certificates which the Goyernment may cancel in case of any

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 179

misconduct. The contracts between owners and seamen are regulated by the Go-
vernment, and are made under the direct superintendence of public officers. The
proper construction and fitting of the ships, their sanitary arrangements, the quan-
tity and quality of the provisions and medicines, and the strength and texture of
the anchors and chain cables, are all matter for the consideration of the same pater-
nal mind. Nor is this kind of care confined to a single branch of industry. There
are many others with which the Government concerns itself, and still more with
which it is pressed to do so; while at the same time we are becoming accustomed
to its direct action in the management of various classes of business, and are not
unwilling to see that action further extended.

Can it then be that we are learning to sink the idea of the individual in the idea
of the State? Do the mass of the people, as our constitution becomes more demo-
cratic, begin to see in the Government an organ better fitted to do their work than
they find in the classes above them? Perhaps, as monopolies are put down, and
privileges abated, and education is more generally diffused, and a closer approach
to equality is effected, the tendency to deal with questions nationally, rather than
by the action of classes or of individuals, may increase. Perhaps, as the competi-
tion of foreigners presses upon us with greater severity, and as we become con-
scious that it is only to be encountered by the aid of all the resources, all the edu-
cation, all the organization that we can command, it is natural that the desire to
invoke the powerful aid of the State in gathering up all the elements of our strength
and giving it the best possible direction, should become more and more marked.
Perhaps there may be something in the nature of things which renders coopera-
tion more and more necessary a8 we make greater progress in the work of subduing
the universe. In the ruder states of society, when industry is in its infancy, the
isolated labour of the individual suffices to procure the simple necessaries of life
which he requires. As civilization advances, and greater results are sought, co-
operation begins, and the division of labour is resorted to. By degrees we intro-
duce, first the small capitalist, then the larger one, and then the joint-stock com-
pany. It may be that the tendency to invoke the aid of the Government is but
another step in the same career. Or possibly we may explain it by the fact that
the progress of civilization is, as of necessity, accompanied by the growth of new
dangers against which precautions have to be taken which the State alone is com-
petent to take. In a civilized society, as we have lately been reminded, deaths by
violence, that is to say by accident, haye a tendency to increase. In England they
are rapidly increasing, and special precautions are needed to render safe that free
application of the vast forces of nature to the intercourse and the arts of life which
is now so essential to our prosperity. Or, lastly, it may be that in the increasing
strugele for wealth the interests of the weaker classes, of the poor, the young, the
female, are likely to he set aside unless the State interfere for their protection : and
the acknowledged demand for such interference may be another cause for the ten-
dency to which I have referred. Such seems, at all events, to be the tendency of
the age, and it is one which it is impossible to notice without some uneasiness.
That we have hitherto been somewhat too jealous of the State, and that it would
be wise to call in its aid rather more freely, may probably be true. But the great-
ness of England has been achieved by the self-reliant energies of individual Eng-
lishmen, and by the energies of individual Englishmen it will be best maintained.

On the Condition of the Agricultural Labcurer.
By Wiuu1am Borer, £.S.A.

On. the Devonshire Association for the Advancement of Science and Art.
By Sir Joun Bownine, LL.D., FBS.

In this paper the author narrated the proceedings of the Devonshire Association,
whose purpose was to carry out the same investigations in the Devonshire loca-
lities which occupied the attention of the British Association in its far wider and
far more important field. Seven volumes had been published of the ‘ Transactions
of the Devonshire Association,’ which had held its Annual Meetings at Exeter

iZ*

180 REPORT—1869.

Plymouth, Torquay, Tiverton, Tavistock, Barnstaple, Honiton, Dartmouth, and
proposed to assemble at Devonport in 1870. Succeeding Sir John, there had been
as Presidents, Mr. Spence Bates, Mr. Edw. Vivian, Dr. Daubeny, Earl Russell,
Sir J. D. Coleridge, Mr. Pengelly, and Mr. George Bidder, and the next President
Elect is Mr. Froude. Scarcely any portion of the local area had been unexplored,
and special attention had been given to the attractions of the localities where the
Meetings had been held. The number of Members had constantly increased, and
pride was felt in the fact that Devonshire had, however imperfectly, and at how-
ever remote a distance, imitated the example and followed in the footsteps of
the greater Association.

On Penal Law as applied to Prison Discipline.
By Sir Joun Bowarne, LL.D., FR.S.

The object of this paper was to show the very unsatisfactory working of the
Prisons Act of 1865, and that while it allowed magistrates and governors to make
jail-labour remunerative, it permitted the greatest inattention to this important
object ; and that consequently the cost of prisoners and the produce of their work
was so incredibly various as to make it difficult to believe that the subjects of Great
Britain were under the rule of any common legislation. The county prison of
Devon was one of the most remarkable instances of the bad effects of routine, for
large amounts of money had been spent to provide machinery for wasting labour.
A treadmill, at the cost of £1760, imposing in interest alone an annual charge of
more than £80, had lately been erected in Exeter prison, though it was well
known that the treadmill had been rejected in every prison in Scotland, and was
repudiated in most of the prisons of the civilized world ; the invention was a cala-
mity, its employment an opprobrium. The labour of the hundreds of convicts
passing through that establishment left nothing but heavy cost to the community.
it was disgraceful that in an enlightened and inquiring country the cost of felons
should vary from nz up to more than £120 each per annum, Prison inspectors
are helpless when magistrates are obstinate; and to nothing but the application of
some sound general principles enforced by parliamentary requirements could we look
for any general improvement. The contrasts presented by the best conducted
prisons of the United States and the Continent, when compared with our own, is
disgraceful to British reputation, whether as regards the reformatory or the pecu-
niary results of their administration. The author referred with great and hopeful
satisfaction to the International Congress proposed to be held in some great Euro-
pean city—he trusted London would be selected—in the coming year, in which the
experience of the highest authorities would be brought to bear on this important
question. He thought that the number of our prisons was far too great, and ill
adapted to these purposes, and that nine-tenths of that number might be usefully
sold; and new prisons, on the best models, built not only with a view to economy,
but to the higher questions of discipline. Great advantage would be found if par-
ticular trades were carried on in particular prisons—shoemaking, for example, in
one, tailoring in another—selected with reference to the locality itself. In Beleium
the army was clothed by prison labour, in France the Government received £178,000
for work in 1868. In the United States the best prisons left a large balance of
profit to the State after the deduction of every outlay. He pressed the necessity of
making, as far as possible, retribution to the injured one of the requirements to be
laid upon the convict, and gave elaborate reasons for the abolition of the punish-
ment of death.

Some Statistics of Railways in their Relation to the Public.
By Rapwarr Branvoy.

The author showed that the returns made for railway investments had not been
such as might have been expected from capital laid out, and that the public had
every reason to complain of the present railway system. He suggested that it
could only be accomplished by uniting all the railways under one general manage-
ment, to form them into a separate branch of the public service. The author con-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 181

tended that a passenger should be enabled to travel one journey, of any distance,
in a given direction for a sum little more than nominal. In 1868, 310,150,915
passengers travelled on the railways, paying an average fare of 11}d. to 113d.
Six times the number of passengers could be carried for a very small (if any) ad-
ditional expense ; and if a universal fare of 3d. was charged for any distance for
each person, at a very moderate computation, six times the present number of persons
would travel, and would produce £23,261,318, being £8,536,516 in excess of the re-
ceipts of 1865 from passengers only. This calculation was made supposing that each
ee pays only a 3d. fare ; but he would divide them into three classes as now, and

x the fares for any distance at the following rates :—first class, ls. ; second, 6d. ;
third, 3d. For such first-class passengers who would pay £10 and £5 annually in
addition for such distinction should travel in carriages provided exclusively for
them. He proposed that separate lines should be constructed for the goods and pas-
senger services; and he would make passengers pay for all luggage that had to
be placed in the van, which would largely increase the revenue. There would be,
no doubt, many who would say that the idea of carrying a passenger from London
to Edinburgh for 3d. is preposterous, but they must remember that it was not
until Sir Rowland Hill hal shown its feasibility that any one thought it was reason-
able to take a letter from London to Edinburgh for the same charge as from London
to Richmond. Under the most adverse circumstances, for instance, that by his
plan not one more passenger was induced to travel, there would still be a gain to the
railways of £2,000,000.a year. In conclusion, he showed that the scheme would
have a beneficial effect on the labour markets in enabling a working man to re-
move at once tothe district where his skill is in demand, and would thus tend
to equalize the value of labour in the country.

On the Want of Statistics on the Question of Mixed Races.
By Hyoz Crarxe, F.S.8., For. Sec. Ethnological Society.

The author stated that the existing materials are fragmentary, and admit of no
comparison, and that the approaching Congress of the English and American
Empires should be taken advantage of to obtain figures as to mulattos, half-
breeds, Anglo-Maories, eurasians, &c., to determine the question of vitality of
mixed races.

On the Distinction between Rent and Land Tax in India.
By Hyver Crane, FSS. Se.

In various parts of India rent and land-tax have been fused into one sum, and
hence a serious confusion exists as to the functions and duties of Government in
its respective capacities of landowner and tax-receiver. This acts likewise in re-
tarding the establishment of private freeholders in India. The writer urges the
desirability of returning to the original distinctions of rent and land-tax. These
are observed in other parts of the Hast. In Turkey and Persia the land-tax com-
monly represents 10 per cent., but occasionally of late 15 per cent. The remainder
of the sum received by the Government may be treated as rent.

Note on Variations in the Rapidity and Rate of Human Thought.
By Hype Cranks, FSS. ge.

The purpose of this note is to extend the range of statistics or the numerical
method of investigation. The author states that after an attack of typhus fever,
finding his physical system much weakened, he put himself through an examina-
tion to test whether his mental system was affected. This he found not to be the
case as to quality, but as to speed of thought. By a rough process of test he
devised, he found the speed was reduced to one-fourth of the previous power.
The correctness of reasoning was not affected, but processes requiring rapidity of
thought, as poetical composition, were influenced. It was some years before the
former rate of rapidity was restored. The practical conclusions are, that the rate

182 REPORT—1869.

of thought is subject to great fluctuations within the same individual at various
periods, that these fluctuations are possibly daily and hourly, and that the differ-
ences between different individnals at the same time must be very considerable.

Some Statistics of the National Educational League. By Jusse Couuines.

On-the. Technical Education of the Agricultural Labourer.
By J. Battzy Denton, C.L., F.GS.

The object of this paper was to show that, in addition to, and associated with,
elementary school teaching, technical education in the duties of agricultural labour
should be encouraged as a means of making greater the value of manual work.
The result, the author contended, would be that the farmer would have better work
performed and be better able to pay higher wages, it being a mistake to believe that
pal health and strength were alone required to make a farm-labourer all that

e need be. The business of the farmer is gradually becoming more like that of
other industrial classes, in which technical knowledge and education are highly
esteemed. To regulate wages simply by the physical strength of a labourer,
without regard to skill or knowledge, cannot be maintained; while to pay higher
wages without increasing the quantity or improving the quality of labour could
only be maintained by impoverishing the farmer without increasing the produce of
the country. It was advanced on the author’s own experience, that the farm-
labourers of Dorsetshire, Somersetshire, and Cornwall, earning from 7s. to 12s. a
week, performed work of much less value than those of Lincolnshire, Yorkshire, and
Northumberland, where wages vary from 12s. to 18s. a week; and that a northern
farmer employing the latter secured a better return for his money than a southern
farmer employing the former. By the technical teaching of Dorsetshire labourers,
who had originally been employed by the author at from 7s. to 10s. a week, he had
been enabled to pay the same men from 18s. to 25s. a week with advantage.

The mode of conveying technical information to the children of agricultural
* labourers which the author recommended, was to teach them at school to read
books purposely written on the common objects of the farm, so as to secure an early
interest in the duties upon which they would be afterwards engaged. These chil-
dren’s books should deal with the animals, insects, crops, and weeds of the farm,
and should be written purposely in language and style as interesting as possible, in
order to interest the worst-taught branch of the community. Thus primary and
technical education would proceed together. The teachers at the school should be
specially qualitied to interest children in agricultural objects. As soon as the
youths leave school and take part in farming duties, the author proposed that they
should be placed under leading labourers in different departments of the farm, and
not be allowed to run from one duty to another, as is now the case; and to encourage
the best workmen to convey information to youths, it was proposed that examina-
tions should take place periodically, and rewards or prizes be given to the teachers
as well as to the taught.

Statistics of Invention illustrating the Policy of a Patent-Law,
By Henny Dreexs, C.L., LL.D.

The author stated that the time seemed to have arrived for a close inquiry into
the policy of a patent law, as the subject was not only likely to come before Par-
lament next Session, but had also excited the attention of the working classes,
as one affecting their interests, He considered it a first requisite in the treatment
of the subject to trace the inquiry both historically and statistically. He urged
the disadvantage of excessive patent-fees, and showed that under the existing
liberal system a great impulse had been given to invention; also that heavy patent-
fees, acting like a prohibitory duty on commerce, only served to limit the inventive
ingenuity of the country. He referred to the thirteenth century for its gun-
powder, and to the fifteenth century for its printing-press, both of which, although
unpatented, left a long waste period without any considerable progress. The

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 183

increase of patents since 1852 he looked upon as affording evidence of the impulse
given to the trade and commerce of the country. He objected to the opinion that
the inventive faculty was innate in mankind; and likewise to the supposition
that we had arrived at a state of improvement in arts and manufactures so emi-
nent that we might now safely cast away all expectancy of future benefits from
the protection sought through the medium of patent laws. He contended that
the inventor was encouraged in his researches and labours, despite all opprobrium
to which he might be subjected, by the expectancy of reaping fame and fortune ;
and that no process so easily secures these to him as patent law. He cited cases,
and gave a table of the progress of the invention of the steam-engine, in support of
his statements and arguments ; closing with the observation that the inventor was
as useful and important to society now as ever he was, and that advance in inven-
tions and improvements was required; and ¢hat purpose could only be promoted
by the protection of a patent law.

—— oo

On International Coinage. By W. Farr, M_D., D.C.L., FBS.

Starting from the principle that the current coins should be metric weights of
the precious metals, and that the expense of coinage should be taken as a seigniorage
from the fine gold in the coin—which would, within limits sufficiently near for all
practical purposes, retain its actual value, as its cost of production would remain
unchanged—the author proceeds to show that the decagram, or ten grams of
standard gold, to be called a Victoria, or by any name, would form the most conve-
nient coin of account. It would make a well-defined useful international coin.

A heavy half-sovereign weighs 4 grams; consequently a fourth part of it is one
gram by weight, and one half-crown in value. A heavy sovereign weighs 8 grams ;
a decagram is 10 grams, and in gold is worth 10 half-crowns, or 25 shillings.

1. The Ten-gram (decagram) of standard gold= the Victoria=the 25-shilling piece.

The gram is a weight in daily use among the people of France, Italy, Switzer-
land, and Belgium; its multiples are in all their shops and houses. A coin of
standard gold weighing ten grams could be appreciated and be tested by them at
anytime. But the Napoleon, weighing 6-4516 grams, or a 25-franc piece, weighing
8-0646 grams, is expressed in fractions, not easily comprehensible, while a ten-gram
coin of standard gold is perfectly intelligible, and its weight is easily determinable.
Under these circumstances no one can be surprised that Cobden’s friend, M. Che-
yalier, one of the highest French economical authorities, should propose a ¢er-gram
gold unit as the basis of the monetary system of the world. The metric system of
weights and measures will in the end be inevitably adopted, like the Arabic figures,
by every civilized nation. That system is the real glory of France, which none can
contest or deny, but the glory is incomplete so long as the measuring unit of value
is not the gram, or the ten-gram weight of standard gold. .

The ten-gram gold unit of money necessarily differs from any of the units now
in use; it will be a new international coin; but its scientific basis commends it to
the philosophic minds of Germany, Holland, Scandinavia, and Italy; while it has
accidentally strong claims on the three nations which coin the largest quantities of
gold. France has in it a kind of paternal interest; it is the natural develop-
ment of her scientific system of weights and measures. The English sovereign
weighs almost exactly eight grams; and the passage to a ten-gram Coin 1s easy, as
the new coin decimally divided embraces two of the principal subordinate silver
coins in use in England. A ten-gram gold coin is almost the exact equivalent of
asix-dollar American goldcoin. The new scientific coin is a natural development
of the English and the American coinage, corresponding in increase of weight with
the increase of the existing quantity of gold and the increase in the values of com-
modities to be measured. i

I will endeavour to show how the new unit is deduced directly from the basis of
the metric system, and how readily it can be adjusted by slight variations of fine-
ness to our own existing system of money.

All the units of the metric weights and measures are based on one fundamental

unit, the metre,

184, vpnEponr=41869.

The unit of weight is the gram, which is deduced from the weight of a cubic
centimetre of distilled water at its maximum density. It would therefore be in
strict analogy with this system to take a gram of standard gold as the unit of the
measure of value ; for then, as a cubic centimetre is the volume unit, the weight
of its volume of water the weight unit, that weight, or a multiple of it, would be
the unit measure of values. This would be simple, logical, and in strict accordance
with the basis of the metric system, which renders the passage from linear and
superficial to cubic units, from cubic units to weights, so easy. The idea of weight
is totally different from the idea of volume, but the two are connected by the in-
tervention of water; so the idea of value is totally different from the idea of weight,
but the two are connected by the intervention of standard gold. Then the unit of
work, a kilogram lifted a metre in a second, and the measure of the value of that
work, would be alike connected with the metric system. -

The principal commercial witnesses before the Royal Commission, and the Com-
missioners themselves, attach the first importance to the fact, that contracts to. pay
in money should imply contracts to pay fixed weights of fine gold. Now it hap-
pens that the English sovereign does weigh, as it comes from the Mint, very closely
on 8 grams; it may by the tolerance indeed exceed 8 grams. By simply adding
only a small fraction of a grain (1 grain) to the alloy, leaving the fine gold pre-
cisely in its present quantity, we get the sovereign theoretically, as it is practically,
8 grams in weight, the half-sovereign 4 grams, the half of this again 2 grams,
worth a crown, and consequently the gram worth half-a-crown, an old favourite.

New English MAb sce
Sovereign. 25-Franc Piece. Sovereign of _ | Victoria.
8 grams. + | Ameri-
a can
$ -Doll
Weight. Weight. Weight. 6 a ee
a lane | =e ee | | Ct
Grains. | Grams. | Grains. | Grams. | Grains. | Grams.
Fine gold ......... 113-001 | 7:3225 | 112-006 | 7:2581 | 113-001 | 7:3225 | 9:0000 | 9-0282
MiGye sets 10:273 | -6657 | 19-446 | -8065 | 10-458 | -6775 | 1:0000 | 1.0032

Standard Weight| 123-274 | 7-9882 | 194-452 | 8-0646 | 193-459 | 8-0000 | 10-0000 | 10-0314 |

Tolerance Weight 257 0166 249 0161 247 0160 -0200

ae ‘ y
i a of { erie 7807 | Tolerance ‘002; | Tolerance ‘002; | Fineness| Fineness}
neness 3

fsa Ole fineness ‘900 fineness ‘915. -900 “900
Value of Gold ——_.
‘ay thaiCain: 20s. 19s. 10d. 20s. 24s, 7d
Seigniorage ......| sostesseecereee eee PLE ATR SA ae 5d.

Value of Coin ...

The English Mint could any day coin 8-gram sovereigns, and all their subdivi-
sions down to 2 grams, without any difficulty ; and it could go a step further by
coining a 5-crown, that is, a five-and-twenty shilling piece of 10 grams (-9153 fine).
It will be a new guinea—a guinea amplified, beautified, and decimally divisibte
into convenient subordinate units. The prime gold unit will thus be enlarged as
the gold in use is augmented. We should have three subordinate units; the gram
(guilder) occupying the first decimal place, would be the equivalent of the half-
crown; the decigram equivalent in value to the threepenny piece, and the centi-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 185

gram equivalent in value to the tenth of a threepenny piece=a cent=1:2 farthing ;
so that five of the new cents would be of the same value as six of the present farthings
=three halfpence. The money of account of all denominations would be gold.
Accounts of money and weights of gold would be represented by the same figures.

100 of the grand gold coins would weigh a kilogram; and as 1000 kilograms are
a metric ton, 100,000 new coins would be a metric ton of standard gold.

Ifthe Mint assay and stamp kilograms of standard bar gold so as to guarantee the
fineness, these kilograms of gold will be convenient forms of bullion, available for
exportation, or for deposits in banks. A thousand kilogram bars weigh a metric ton,
worth 100,000 of the great gold coins. A million of these coins (= + 1,000,000)
would weigh ten tons of standard gold, and be worth a million and quarter pounds
of the present sterling.

The multiplication of pounds sterling by -8 converts them into the ten-gram
gold coin. The specific gravity of a new sovereign is 17-58, water being one, and
this enables us under the metric system to pass from value to weight, from weight
to volume.

Accounts are now kept in England in four units, (1) pounds, (2) shillings,
(3) pence, (4) farthings. Under the ten-gram gold coinage accounts may be exhi-
bited in two columns.

To illustrate the new ten-gram gold coinage, the author gave the revenues of
some of the principal States of the world in their present coins, and in the proposed
international coins.

The annual State expenditure of 432 million people was 456 million of these ten-
gram Victorias (5-crown pieces), that is a little more than a Victoria a head, or
more exactly 1 Victoria and 55 cents a head=1 Victoria, 5 threepennies, and
5 cents=1 Votre, 53 Anglo-Saxon pennies.

2. Changes in the English Coinage under the T en-gram gold unit.

The ten-gram unit of gold -915 fine, instead of -916 fine, would contain exactly
the same quantity of fine gold as 1} sovereign, worth five-and-twenty shillings in
the present currency ; and if the Mint and Bank cost of making and sustaining the

old coinage is fixed at 15, 10, or 5 centigrams of fine gold for every decagram, the
ineness will be ‘900, or ‘905, or ‘910; while the amount of fine gold taken as
seigniorage will be worth from 4d. to 3d. or to 13d. in the present currency, which
will be as much a part of the cost of production as the expenditure at the gold
diggings. The cost of producing 9 grams of fine gold is expressed in our currency
by 24s. 7d., so that if the Mint and Bank cost of converting ten grams of standard
gold (-900 fine) into a coin, replacing its wear, is expressed by 5d., the value of
the ten-gram coin current is 25s., of which it will be the equivalent so long as the
customer of the Mint has to send 916 grams of fine gold, or its equivalent in money,
for every 10 coins he gets, each containing 9 grams of fine gold.

At the International Conference suggested by the Royal Commission this ‘ques-
tion of a universal standard of fineness and of seigniorage could be settled; and

whatever the decision may be, the change will cause but slight and temporary in-
convenience in this country.

3. Gold Coin.

England can at once coin the sovereign of 8 grams of standard gold with the
slightest possible inconvenience, and without changing its contents of fine gold.
The aon will weigh 4 grams. A gold crown of 2 grams might also be
coined.

The only new coin necessarily required is a fine five-crown gold piece of 10 grams,
which would probably in time get into circulation as a sort of new guinea, even if
it were not at once stamped as the international coin. Large coins are generally
more popular than small coins.

_ Once accepted as the international unit, the 10-gram piece might with advantage
become the basis of a decimal money of account for ‘ngland ; the gram of gold,
the decigram, and the centigram being the subordinate units, to be represented
with some of their multiples in gold, silver, and copper coins. The English

186 REPORT-— 1869.

standard gold coins under this system are the coin to be called Victoria, or some
other name (10 grams), the sovereign (8 grams), the half-sovereign (4 grams), the
crown (2 grams) ; and lower than this it is useless to go, as the coins in gold,become
too small for use. The sovereign and the half-sovereign in England might ulti-
mately be replaced by the gold Victoria and its half. In France the Napoleon of
20 francs, still circulating, if brought into this system would weigh 6-400 grams ;
it would in due time be superseded.

4, Silver Coin.

Silver coins are said, under the single gold standard, to be counters; there is no
restraint on their weight or fineness, and they need not be at first international.

In England the silver coins will represent the same proportions of the gold unit
as those now in circulation; but a slight change in weight is required. The silver
crown weighs 28-2759 grams -925 fine, and contains 26155 grams of fine silver.
Now the Mint purchases standard silver at rates ranging from 5s. to 5s. 2d. (say
5s. 1d.) an ounce of 31°1035 grams; so that if it coined silver without charge, the
crown should weigh 30:594, the half-crown 15-297 grams. The half-crown now
coined actually weighs 14138 grams; the difference is the Mint charge (1:159
gram), The fine silver in the half-crown weighs 13:078 grams. By making the
half-crown exactly 15 grams and of the same fineness as the five-franc piece, namely,
-900, it will contain 13:500 grams of fine silver; that is, it will weigh more b
exactly 0-862 gram than the present half-crown, and it will be better, as half the
addition (-422 gram) will be in fine silver. The Mint will still retain under this
arrangement 4°59 per cent. of fine silver (one shilling in 21) as the cost of coinage,
Then the silver crown will weigh exactly 30 grams, the half-crown 15 grams,
the florin 12 grams, the, shilling 6 grams, the sixpence 3 grams, the threepenny 13
gram ; and there the silver coinage will stop. Five crowns will contain the same
amount of fine silver (150 x -°9=135 grams) as six five-frane pieces. A florin will
contain nearly the same weight of fine silver (10:80 grams) as the rupee (10°69

rams).

Rt This is only one of the ways in which the object may be obtained of making our
silver coins simple multiples of grams of standard silver by varying the fineness.
The French haye the standard of -900 fine for their five-franc piece, and the lower
standard (:835) for the franc itself and the other silver coins. By making the half-
crown of 15 grams ‘872 fine, it will contain the same amount of fine silver as it
contains at present (13-078 grams), and the Mint will get its present profit. If the
silver coin were of the same fineness as the gold, the one gram of gold would, at the
average market value, purchase 15:5 grams of silver ; but as the expense of coining
silver is necessarily greater than the expense of coining gold of the same value,
the weight of fine metals in the gold and silver coinage should be in a lower ratio
(say 1 to 15), to compensate for the difference in the cost of production,

5. Bronze Coin.

The silver threepenny piece represents a decigram of gold, and is the equivalent
of 12 farthings of the present currency. The centigram of gold is the lowest unit
of value recognized in the new system of account, and it may for the sake of
brevity be called a cent. The United States’ cent is their lowest unit; it is worth
nearly two English farthings, and is too large to express the graduated prices of
articles of small value. The French centime, on the other hand, is too small a unit
for general use in Europe ; it is the fifth part of the lowest American unit, and only
2=-4 of our present farthing. Now the value of the centigram of gold is the mean
between the value of the American cent (2 farthings) and the French centime

(0-4 farthing) =——l— = aa 1-2 farthing =1 centigram of gold. This cent isa

convenient low unit, and is admirably suited to use all over the civilized world.
The small centigrams of gold will be represented by bronze coin. The value of
the copper coin was formerly expressed in the weight of metal, but this is no longer
the case; the bronze in the English penny is worth about a farthing. The three
coins in use are convenient counters; and the farthing and halfpenny are usually —

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 187

in accounts written as 3 or } of a penny. The ten-cent piece, now in use as a
threepenny silver coin, will be conveniently supplemented by bronze coins of 1, 2,
3, 4, and 5 cents; the 5 cents being the half of the silver 10-cent piece would cor-
respond to three halfpence of the present currency. The cent will supply a better
graduated scale to express prices than the farthing, halfpenny, and penny, and

opular demand will soon determine how many of each coin should be struck.

ronze coins of three sizes are now unnecessary, as no attempt is made to express
value by weight. One type of coin, inscribed with one cent, two cents, three
cents, four cents, and five cents, may suffice. They will form part of the decima-
lized currency. I annex a scheme of the coins.

6. Coins and their Signs.

The money of account it will be borne in mind is, on the new system, in standard
gold, and runs thus :—

STANDARD GOLD Units oF ACCOUNT.

PSII a pln Wa g d c
WWACTORIAS °K \scj0,.0,58 1 decagram = 10 grams = 100 decigrams = 1000 centigrams.
Haur-Crown...... l gram = 10 decigrams = 100 centigrams.
(or Guilder)
THREEPENNY ...... ldecigram = 10 centigrams.
(or Denarius)
(Os Aer Sines = 1 centigram.

Every one of these four weights of gold may be employed as a measuring-unit.

Call, after the analogy of “‘ Guinea,” the prime unit or decagram a Victoria, as it
is the name of a principal gold-field ; then, where large units are required, 11°875
will be read=11 Victorias, 875 centigrams or cents; or¥11. 8, 75=11 Victorias,
8 grams, 75 centigrams; and where a smaller unit is preferred, 118 grams (half-
crowns), 75 centigrams or cents, For smaller sums cents alone suffice ; for instance,
we may say the price of a loaf of bread is 22 cents, of a pound of beef 80 cents.

Although the coined shilling only consists of eleyen-pennyworth of silver, it
exactly represents in an account twelve pence, or the 20th part of a gold sovereign ;
and a penny, consisting of a farthing’s worth of bronze, represents the value of the
240th part of a sovereign. So, under the gram system, half-a-crown in silver,
weighing 15 grams, represents one gram of standard gold; a threepenny piece (10
cents) represents the tenth of a gram, or a decigram of gold; a bronze cent repre-
sents a centigram of gold. Value is invariably expressed in weights of standard
gold, which are conveniently represented in tangible manageable silver and bronze
tokens,

The coins may be thus described: the four fundamental units are printed in
SMALL CAPITAL letters:

Standard Gold :—

Victoria ........ Weighing 10 grams (a new coin).

Sovereign ...... 2 8 sates) Existing coins to remain in circulation
Half-sovereign .. 4 4 grams for a time.

BETOW Ts, <2) s,5;500516 39 2 grams (a new coin),

Standard Silver existing coins to remain in circulation, and to be gradually replaced :

grams of gold,
GOWN « . ic. ces oe Weighing’ 30 prame' 35.1.) <j. aislscre « crahesieictels worth 2:00
HALF-CROWN ...... es Lougrams: q.)acisicte oictekoer a see sa 1700
MO aa slats, 28 eT = Wigrams eit1.adé ts sete eee po OSO
Roblin ts [Sea-rstae ola 3 Grprams (hy ws. sank oah meena 5 ‘40
Srepancoesse. ae:iaie - D- PTAINSY =1)5 ofa: sta aisle) ee ots 4s 20

THREEPENNY ...... as TS) BrAM 3.6.5 «:e:sievacetcio. sheet 3 10

188 REPORT—1869.

Bronze Coins :— gram of gold.
D ICONS iwc agreeien’ ore One type of coin / (V.) ) worth ‘05
4: cents. ...caemprncte with inscribed values. | (IV.) me
3S CONS» in c.cg Sheltie It is like paper mo- } (III.) | Weighing 3; 203
2 cents..........-- { ney, into which in-}] (II.) flO grams’ ,, ‘02
VGENT Zope tet cele | trinsic value of mate- (1.) | » OL
ANGONL seb meees to ) rial does not enter. (4) » 005

(For a time the penny, halfpenny, and farthing to be utilized.)

7. Economies of a great Gold Coin.

One kilogram of standard gold is now coined into 125 sovereigns*, and into 155
Napoleons. Under the ten-gram system it will be coined into 100 Victorias. (1)
The expense of coining 100 pieces is less than the expense of coining 125 or 155
pieces. (2) The new coin is easily weighed wherever metrical weights are in use,
as it is a round number of grams. (8) The surface of the large coins being
less for the equal weight the wear is less. (4) The size is convenient, and the
trouble of counting the coins is diminished. (5) The figures in accounts are fewer,
and the arithmetical labour is diminished. (6) Large sums are readily compre-
hended by the mind when expressed in large units. (7) The half-sovereign is
convenient in some cases ; but to make it the largest coin of account would, for some
of the reasons assigned above, be inexpedient. The inexpediency of a ten-franc
unit is still more striking. 'The ten-franc gold unit is on many grounds preferable
to the gold france unit, as Mr. Graham pointed out; but the coin in proportion to
value would cost three times as much as the decagram, it would last half as long,
and would weigh 3:2258 grams}. The unit of value would not be a unit of weight,
it would be 32258 grams of the French standard gold. This is a fatal objection
to the ten-franc unit as the scientific basis of a permanent system of money.

Silver coin contrasts in all these respects unfavourably with gold coin wherever
large sums are in question. (1) To represent the same value as 100 ten-gram
pieces of gold weighing a kilogram, about 153 kilograms of silver are required ;
more by Glbs. than a quarter of a hundredweight. To weigh it in scales is a
task. Silver is about 29 times as bulky as gold of the same value. Its coinage in
France is three or four times as costly. (2) It is less easily carried, kept, concealed
in dangerous places and times. (3) The silver worth 100 ten-gram gold pieces in
France is coined into 620 five-franc pieces, and in the same proportion the trouble
of coining, counting, and manipulating is multiplied. (4) The silver dollar is
subject to similar objections; and (5) inasmuch as many figures increase labour,
confuse thought, and increase chances of error, the 3100 francs corresponding to 100
ten-gram gold pieces are five times more objectionable than the dollar as the largest
coin of account. The franc at one time suited the small transactions of the French
peasantry, and the big five-franc piece satistied their eye, but large gold units are
required now to measure the accumulating revenues and fortunes of the French
people. Of all the primary monetary units in use in Europe the franc is the least,
and on that account the worst.

Silver coin should therefore among the civilized nations of Europe and America
be reduced to its place as a convenient representative unit, and in all the countries
which like England enjoy the single gold standard, the quantity of silver in silver
coin is to a certain extent arbitrary.

But silver is still the standard in several countries ; in India, in China, inGermany,
in Holland, and in other nations with which England has very large commercial
transactions, it constitutes nearly the whole of the coined currency. Silver has
frequently to be transmitted to those countries; the Bank of England has also
power to issue its notes against silver bullion; it is therefore of importance to main-
tain our silver currency as much as possible in harmony with the currency in which
silver is the standard wholly or partly. This condition is met by coining silver

* Exactly 125°1846.

+ According to the Master of the Mint the cost of making a sovereign is now 3 farthings,
and it falls by wear below the legal weight in 18 years ; two half-sovereigns cost 6 farthings,
and fall below their legal weight in 10 years.—Return to Order of House of Commons,
dated 28th June 1869.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 189

900 fine, and by coining the half-crown of 15 grams standard silver, as then
5 crowns will contain the same amount of fine silver as 6 five-franc pieces. The
shilling containing six grams of silver, the franc, if of the same fineness, will contain
five grams of silver. ‘The silver rupee of India and the silver dollar admit of easy
adjustments.

8. Economies of Decimal Coinage.

Several units of weight are required, and when the Roman notation was in use
the advantages of connecting these units by the factor ten were not clear. It was
accordingly never done in England. In troy weight four units are recognized, the

ain, the pennyweight, the ounce, and the pound; 24 grains make one pennyweight,
50 pennyweights one ounce, 12 ounces one pound. The money units are based on
these weights ; 240 pennyweights of silver were a pound,and were so called, /’bra, the
origin of our £1. The pound sterling and the penny fell in evil days to a third of
their primary weight, still 12 pence became a shilling, 20 shillings=240 pence= £1.
Then the penny was halved and quartered, so there are four money units in use.
connected by the factors 20, 12, and 4; thus £1=20 shillings=240 pence =960
farthings. The clumsy Roman notation was discarded and was displaced by the
beautiful Arabic notation, where each figure in a series is ten more, or a tenth
less than the same figure to its right or left ; hence all the transcendent achieve-
ments of modern arithmetic. Unfortunately our money as well as weight and
measure units remained unaltered, and all are now in a state so chaotic as to
reflect disgrace on the intelligence of England. To perform a simple sum in
compound multiplication or division is beyond the powers of ninety-nine in a
hundred educated men, who, on leaving school, forget the tables which have per-
plexed, wearied, and wasted so many of their hours.

It is difficult to estimate the economy of time and thought through the whole of
life to be realized by the substitution of units decimally related to each other in
the place of the units now in use.

France, Spain, Portugal, Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Italy, Austria, Russia,
Greece, Sweden, Turkey, China, Japan, and the United States of America, have
all decimal moneys of account, and England would probably have already enjoyed
this inestimable advantage had it not heen for the difficulties of dealing with the
penny. The penny is the rock on which the late project of decimalization split. The
phantom of a duodecimal notation in arithmetic deceived nobody. The price of a

eat number of articles is measured by the penny. Thus the price of 4 lbs. of bread
1s 63d.; mutton is 93d., beef 10d. a pound. In all such instances the price in gold
units can be expressed with great accuracy; and a slight variation of price could
five rise to no inconvenience, for the prices are perpetually fluctuating ; as they
are regulated by supply and demand, prices could be more accurately adjusted and
expressed in cents than in pence. The price of 4 lbs. of bread is 63d., but what is
the price of 1lb.? That is not easily expressed. Certain articles are so constantly
associated with the penny as their price that this coin is looked upon almost as an
English institution. There is, for instance, the penny toll of some bridges, the
penny postage, and the penny newspaper, to say nothing of many other penny
articles. The price is thus expressed because the penny coin exists, just as prices
in America are expressed in cents.

9. Economies of International Coinage.

The value of money is, like the value of all other commodities, local: 100 pieces
of gold in England may purchase a bill to entitle its owner to receive 101 or 100
pieces of the same coin in Australia. The rate of exchange where the same coins
are in use is thus expressed in the simplest manner possible. The recognition of
one gold coin as the international medium of exchange gives all the contracting
countries the same simple par. But it is different where the money units are not
the same; there the calculations grow so intricate as to be unintelligible to the
public, and to be troublesome even to adepts. Many examples may be cited from
the pages of Mr. Tait.

Traders, if trade prices of commodities are quoted in international money and
measures, will have no difficulty in perceiving at a glance the state of the markets,
and the currents of trade.

190 REPORT—1869.

Travellers with international money will sustain less loss, and less discomfort
than they now encounter abroad.

The relations between man and man will thus be enlarged and multiplied in
indefinite. proportions, when all things are measured, weighed, bought, and sold by
the same units.

10. The 25-franc and the 25-shilling gold unit*.

All the advantages of the decimal notation can be enjoyed under a gold unit of
either of these values; but to be scientific, symmetric, international, the 25-france
coin and the sovereign must consist of exactly 8 grams of gold of the same fineness,
coined under the same conditions of seigniorage. Then the after-passage from an
8-gram unit to the use of a 10-gram unit will be easy, and will end in a complete
identification of decimal money units with metric weights of gold, as everlasting
as the basis of the metric system. The inconvenience of the change will be real
and transitory, but the benefit to mankind will be perpetual. By a slight sacrifice
the present generation will earn the gratitude of posterity, while it will be more
than repaid for its pains in the course of two or three years of its own existence.

In the metric measures, weights, and money, the trade of the world will enjoy
perfect instruments, facilitating the exchange of commodities as much as the steam-
engine accelerates their carriage.

On our National Accounts. By Franx P. Fretiowns, F.S.A., FSS.

The paper, after detailing the steps that were being taken to carry out the re-
commendations of Mr. Seely’s Committee on Admiralty Moneys and Accounts,
advocated the adoption of similar methods for other departments of Government.
These may be briefly described as having for their object, amongst other reforms,
the unification of all accounts having any relation to the Admiralty expenditure.
This paper pointed out that with the Admiralty, as with several other depart-
ments, there were three great classes of accounts. First, the estimates of money
required for the service of each department in the ensuing year. These estimates
are voted by the House of Commons in Committee of Supply, and they are divided
as below :—Army Estimates, Navy Estimates, Civil Service Estimates (which are
divided into seven great classes or subdivisions, called Class I. to VII.), and the
revenue departments, being Inland Revenue, Customs, Post-office, and Post-oftice
Packet Service. The second series of accounts are the ‘“ Appropriation Accounts,”
which give the money each department has received from the fete as contra-
distinguished from the money voted by the House of Commons, or, in other words,
the money the Treasury has been authorized by Parliament to expend on the
special services for which it was voted. These second series follow the order and
form of the estimates, and give in one column the money voted, and in the other
the money expended, so called, but, strictly speaking, this is only the money each
department has received from the Treasury, and it may not follow that all this has
been expended. The third series of accounts are accounts published by the various
depart.uents, giving detailed accounts of the expenditure or of parts thereof, and
these the author gave the generic term of Departmental Expense Accounts. This
paper pointed out that one of the great objects of the scheme of accounts devised
by Mr. Seely and Mr. Fellowes, which scheme is now being introduced into the
Admiralty, was the unification of these three series of accounts, ana the paper ad-
vocated this for the accounts of other departments. By these means the Admiralty
estimates, though remaining in the same form as at present, so far as the order and
method in which the House of Commons voted the supplies, would be so retabu-
lated and rearranged, that in addition to showing, as now, the salaries it was in-
tended to vote, the wages, the stores proposed to be purchased, there would be
given the amount of wages required for shipbuilding and maintaining, salaries
required for superintendence and stores for this purpose, so that, in short, the
House would have before them the whole amount of the navy estimates, in divi-
sions, as follows :—Division 1, for naval yards, for shipbuilding, repairing, and main-

* “ Taking it altogether, the shilling is much more frequently and numerously repre-

sented in other coinages than the franc.”—Bullion and Foreign Exchanges. By Ernest
Seyd, page 690, where he cites several examples.

»_

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 191

taining, then the amounts of Division 1 required for each dockyard, as A, Deptford;
B, Sheerness; C, Portsmouth; D, Devonport; EK, Pembroke; I’, Chatham, and so on:
Division 2, Victualling the Navy; then follow the amounts for each Victualling-

ard: Division 3, Medical; and so on, till the whole amount of the estimates was
incorporated in these and other divisions. The appropriation accounts (series 2)
would give the same divisions, and would show the money expended, so called, as
distinguished from the money voted, so that the appropriation accounts would be
the debtor side to the final expense accounts of—1, the cost of building, repairing,
and maintaining the fleet; 2, the cost of victualling, and so on, so that all these ac-
counts would be parts of one great whole system. A similar retabulation was ad-
yocated for other departments, where practicable, so that we might have one
great account. The author also maintained that the nation ought to know the
whole value of the Governmental property of every description, land, buildings,
machinery, stock of every description, and that the increase or decrease should
be shown by each department at the end of the year. The author recognized the
labours of Sir John Bowring, Sir H. Parnell, Mr. Childers, and Mr. Stansfeld in
improving our accounts, and urged that it was of national importance that a
thoroughly good scheme should be introduted to give the House a greater check
on expenditure.

On the Maintenance of Schools in Rural Districts.
By the Rey. Canon GrrpLEstToN¥E.

The writer alluded to a general expectation that next session some measure
of direct or indirect compulsion, as regards the education of the children of agri-
cultural labourers, would be proposed, and meet with general approval. Out
of 14,877 parishes in England and Wales the Committee of Council report that
there are only 7406 which have aided schools; that of the remainder 2779 have
schools built with State aid, but not fulfilling the conditions of annual State aid,
and described, after inspection, as generally more or less inefficient ; while, with
regard to 4692 parishes, nothing whatever is officially known, though there is
reason for supposing that in some of them there are good schools, in many more
schools of various degrees of inefficiency, and, in not a few, no schools at all. Canon
Girdlestone proceeded to explain the cause of this deficiency of good schools. Most
men agreed that the difficulty consists, not in the one great but isolated effort in-
volved in the first building of a school, but in the continuous effort involved in the
annual maintenance of it. Canon Girdlestone stated that there can never be any
guarantee for there being an efficient school within easy access of every labourer
until the land is made to do its duty. He recommended that the children should
continue to pay a penny a week, as now, thus avoiding the risk and evil of educa-
tion becoming a pauperizing dole; that the State grant should be distributed as
now; that in every parish or district in which there are not at the present time
existing school-buildings in all respects satisfying the requirements of the State,
such buildings should be immediately erected with money borrowed wholly on

_ the parochial rates, and to be repaid, like loans from Queen Anne’s Bounty for

agra by equal instalments in thirty years, or partly in this way and partly
y a tax on the land. That Denison’s Act should be made compulsory, and so
throw upon occupiers of land the charge of educating in the parochial school the
children of all receiving outdoor relief—a process which would at one and the
same time bring hundreds of idle children under education and increase the
funds of the school. And, lastly, that all that portion of school expenses which
is now defrayed by voluntary contributions should be satisfied by a tax or rate
upon the land. As regarded Devonshire, Canon Girdlestone said that there are
aided schools in little more than one-third of the parishes in that county, and
there was much reason to fear that in many of the remaining two-thirds the
schools were chiefly inefficient, and that in some there were none at all—a state of
things which contrasted unfavourably with the condition of the country at large,
bad even as that was.

On the Decline of Shipbuilding on the Thames. By Joun Guover.

192

REPORT—1869.

On the Economic Progress of New Zealand. By Axrcurpatp Hamitton.

After alluding to the circumstances under which the colony was founded in 1840
(representative institutions granted in 1852, and the control of native affairs handed
over to the colonists in 1863), the progress of the cclony was exhibited in statis-
tical tables, from which the following are selections :—

From Commercial Returns.

Imports. Exports.
Year.
North. South. Total. North. South. Total.
& £ £ £ £ £
1853 451,400 146,400 597,800 264,900 38,400 303,300
1858 661,700 479,600 | 1,141,300 217,500 240,500 | 458,000
1861 937,400 | 1,556,400 | 2,493,800 212,500 | 1,157,700 | 1,370,200
1864 2,845,900 | 4,154,700 | 7,000,600 638,200 | 2,763,500 | 3,401,700
1866 ...| 2,003,300 | 3,891,600 | 5,894,900 515,600 | 4,004,500 | 4,520,100
1867 ...| 1,469,200 | 3,875,400 | 5,344,600 570,700 | 4,074,000 | 4,644,700
From Agricultural and Pastoral Returns.
Acres Fenced. Sheep.
Year.
North. | South. Total. North. | South. | Total.
1851 ..| 26800 | 13,800| 40,600 | 77,800 | 155,200 | 233,000.
1858 148,100 87,400 235,500 230,800 | 1,292,500 | 1,523,300
1861 230,600 179,200 409,800 638,800 | 2,122,800 | 2,761,600
1864 330,300 742,100 | 1,072,400 || 1,034,100 | 3,903,200 | 4,937,300
1867 ...| 740,200 | 2,715,400 | 3,455,600 || 1,787,700 | 6,630,900 | 8,418,600
Cattle. Horses.
Year.
North. South. Total. North. South Total.
1851 ...| 23,700 11,100 34,800 1,900 1,000 2,900 :
1858 ...| 71,600 65,600 137,200 7,500 7,400 14,900
1861 ...| 96,300 97,000 193,300 12,800 15,500 28,300
1864 ...| 110,800 139,500 249,800 18,300 31,100 49,400
1867 ...| 124,500 188,300 312,800 25,500 40,200 65,700 .

The total exports of gold from 1857 to December 1867 amounted to £14,500,000 ;
for the year 1867, £2,700,000.
The Revenue of the colony stood as follows :—

Year.

1853...
1858...
1861...
1864...
1866...
1867...

North Island only.

Ordinary. | Territorial.| Total.

£ £ £
64,000 53,000 | 117,000
116‘000 50,000 166,000
156,000 75,000 | 231,000
306,000 80,000 386,000
378,000 62,000 | 440,000
376,000 51,000 | 427,000

324,000 | 347,000 20,000 691,000
816,000 | 715,000 78,000 |1,609,000
1,086,000 | 776,000 116,000 |1,978,000
1,226,000 | 562,000 77,000 |1,865,000

And the expenditure for 1862, £1,100,000 ; 1863, 1,750,000 ; 1864, £1,860,000 ;
1865, £2,900,000 ; 1866, £3,300,000. Ordinary taxation amounted to £5 12s, per —

eee

ase +

a a ES ——=—

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 193

head of European population; the colonial debt to £3,500,000, with an annual
charge of 21s. 2d. per head.
The population by Census 1867 stood thus :—

a | 91,584 47,899 79,185 218,668
Natives. | Males. Females. | 1 pee Total.

1848, estimated........ beber | Sai shen al | Saha Ak tesla Ry REN. 100,000
1858, estimated.................. 31,667 2A ZO3y |e bates 56,049
1867, estimated.................. 15,432 12,780 10,323 38,535

Men. | Women.) Boys. Girls.

Proportion of natives per 1000 ............seeeeees 433 326 137 104,
Proportion of Europeans per 1000 ............... 420 215 184 181

The number of emigrants to New Zealand from the United Kingdom has been
111,306.

The remarkable progress attained during the thirty years of its existence is a
mere indication of the great natural resources of New Zealand.

After discussing the importance of preserving our Colonies chiefly on economic
grounds, the author went on to discuss the general principles which should regulate
the policy of the Imperial Government towards the colonies, and applied those
principles to the case of New Zealand ; contending that we are under engagements
to the natives as well as the colonists, and showed that in the North Island, where
alone the natives are formidable, the comparative strength of the two races may be
estimated thus :—

Males.

Deduct for aged men, regard being had to the services ee

Rendered | byqihelre WOMEN. acidosis. tockes cndedenbiedretnigds doses

FPTECHLVG) WW RERLOLBt as aienexaristewarncifeetsieoebe cats 14,000

European Apurts in North Island ....0.......:scesecssseesecosseas 28,856
Deduct, above40 years: Of Af0 © oc... scsescdsernsoassnsecass 7656
Deduct, unfit for service and likely to leaye............... 7000

—— 14,656

Capable of bearing’ arms \......-.0..cccescsscesnsconce 14,200

It would neither be consistent with sound policy, good faith, or humanity, to
abandon the inhabitants of the North Island to a war of races, ending in the exter-
mination of the Maories.

An Account of the System of Local Taxation in Ireland.
By W. Nettson Hancock, LL.D,

The salient difference between the English and Irish systems is found in
the Poor-rates. In England Poor-rates are of ancient origin; there was no

1869. 13

194 REPORT—1869.

Poor-law in Ireland till 1838. The parish vestry was found a convenient orga-
nization in England, and a number of other rates, for purposes unconnected with
the relief of the poor, are therefore assessed and collected with the Poor-rate. In
Ireland, the parish vestry did not exist as a financial committee, and Church-
rates were abolished in 1833. A distinct machinery is therefore found in Ireland
for the collection of each separate tax.

Grand-Jury Cess is the most important and most ancient local tax in Ireland.
Its purposes, generally speaking, correspond to those of the County-rate, Hun-
dred-rate, Police-rate, &c. in England. In the earliest attempts to raise a
County-rate in Ireland the machinery of the parish was resorted to (11 & 12
Jac. I. c. 7), but the later enactment (10 Car. I. c. 26. sec, 2) authorized the
Justices of the county to make the rate with the assent of the Grand Jury. This rate
was substantially a copy of the English Act of 22 Hen. VIII., with the exception
of the provision requiring the assent of the Grand Jury. This provision was the
point of departure trom which the systems subsequently diverged. In 1856, Pre-
sentment Sessions were created as a check on the grand jury. A Session is held for
each barony (a district about the size of a hundred in England), composed of the
magistrates of the county and a number of cess-payers chosen by ballot. Pre-
sentments must be passed by the Session before they are submitted to the Grand
Jury.

The late Committee of the House of Commons (1868) on the Grand Jury Pre-
sentments, considered the propriety of substituting elective Baronial and County
Boards for the Sessions and Grand Jury. But they haye recommended the con-
tinuance of the present system with modifications, which would make the Sessions
more representative of the general body of cess-payers.

Grand-Jury Cess is applied to the purposes for which County-rate, Hundred-
rate, and Police-rate are applied in Hngland. It also contributes to the sup-
port of fever hospitals, lunatic asylums, and reformatories, and pays the cost of
witnesses for the Crown. Some of these charities would appear more properly pay-
able out of the Poor-rate, but they were established when there was no Poor-rate in
Ireland. The Committee on Grand Jury Presentments have recommended that
compensation for malicious injury (corresponding to the Hundred-rate) should be
limited in amount to £100, and that the holding of the injured person should be ex-
empt from contribution. The charge of the Police or Grand-Jury Cess is now con-
fined to the cost of extra police in disturbed districts. The cost of the Irish consta-
bulary is paid out of the Consolidated Fund since 1847 ; a boon given to Ireland
as compensation for loss which it was expected would be sustained by the aboli-
tion of the Corn Laws. As to its incidence, Grand-Jury Cess is divisible into two

arts, one for general objects levied off the county, and one for objects of a more
ocal character levied off the barony. It is assessed, applotted, levied, and col-
lected by the Grand Jury and their officers, and is in every way distinct from all
other taxes. It is a first charge on the land and hereditaments, and not, like the Poor-
rate, assessed on the occupiers. The tax is, however, payable by the occupier, and
by him only, as the landlord pays no portion of it, unless he occupies the pre-
mises. The Committee of the House of Commons haye recommended that in
future the payment of Grand-Jury Cess should be divided between the owners
and occupiers of land.

Until 1858 there was no Poor-law in Ireland. The Irish Poor-law may be
generally described as fettering its administrators more as to general outdoor
relief, and less as to medical relief, than the English Poor-law. It is payable
by the landlord and the occupier in equal portions. The electoral divisions of the
Trish Union correspond in size to the average English parish, and forms an inde-
pendent district for the purposes of assessment of the rate. Union rating, now in-
troduced into England, was the principle of the original Irish Bill, but the House
of Lords substituted electoral rating.

The Acts for the government of towns are similar to the English Acts for the
same purpose, but, in respect of many provisions, are considerably behind them.
Two important steps towards consolidation have lately been made in Ireland, In
the counties of the cities of Dublin, Limerick, and Cork, the powers of Grand
Juries of the city taxation have been transferred to the Corporations, and the im-

ltt

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 195

= soe town of Belfast has been separated from the counties of Antrim and
own, and a like transfer has been effected. Also in Dublin there is now a Col-
lector-General, who collects by quarterly instalments, and in one bulk sum, the
entire of those rates for which the citizens are liable.

In Ireland there are four systems of audit of local taxation. The Grand Jury
expenditure is audited by the Judge of Assize as to points of law, and by the Re-
ceiver Master in Chancery as to matters of account. The Poor-law taxation of
£600,000 is audited as to points of law by the Poor-law Commissioners, and as to
matters of account by auditors appointed by them. Town Councils and other
municipal bodies are under no system of audit as to points of law, such points
being only determinable by a Chancery suit, as in the case of Belfast. The only
audit of municipal accounts is performed by auditors selected by the ratepayers
and Town Council or Commissioners. The audit best adapted for municipal ac-
counts would be a combination of the Poor-law and Grand Jury systems. As
to the question of the legality of the rate or expenditure, the best audit is that
enjoyed by the Grand Jury accounts, viz. by the Judge of Assize in the case of
Assize towns, or of the County Courts in other cases. As to the final audit, the
Committee recommend the Poor-law system.

The valuation for all local rates levied in Ireland is the same, and amounted,
in 1865, to £12,986,026, giving for Grand-Jury Cess an average of ls. 73d. in the
pound, and Poor-rate 1s. 13d., which malke a total average of 2s. 93d. The average
town rate is about 2s. 1d. in the pound.

On the Examination Subjects for Admission into the College for Women at
Hitchin. By J. Wexwoon, FR.

This institution is designed to hold in relation to girls’ schools and home teaching
a position analogous to that occupied by the universities towards the public schools
for boys. It is proposed to raise the sum required for building and preliminary
expenses by public subscription and by the sale of a limited number of presentations,
The building had been provided, the students’ fees will be fixed on such a scale as
to secure that the institution shall be self-supporting. At an examination held at
the University of London in July last, twelve ladies out of seventeen passed; and
the College will be opened, under the direction of Mrs. Manning, on October 16th
next. The whole course will occupy three years. There will be three terms a
year; the charge for board, lodging, and instruction will be £35 per term, paid ‘in
advance. fforts will be made to obtain for the students admission to the exa-
mination for degrees of the University of Cambridge, and generally to place the
College in connexion with that University. Religious instruction and services are
in accordance with the principles of the Church of England, but the attendance of
students to them is not enforced.

On Municipal Government for Canadian Indian Reserves.
By James Huywoop, /.RS., L.GS., LSA.

Remarks on the Need of Science for the Development of Agriculture.
By James Hunt Horry.

- On the Economic Condition of the Agricultural Labourer in England.
By Professor Leone Leyr, 7.S.A., FSS.

On Agricultural Economics and Wages.
By Professor Lroyz Lavi, F.S.A., FSS,

13*

196 REPORT—1869.

On Naval Finance. By R. Mary (of the Admiralty).

The object of this paper was to show how the cost of the Navy had increased in
the last twenty years. During the last twenty years the naval system of this
country had undergone no great change, though considerable changes had been
introduced both into the construction of men-of-war and the manning of the Navy.
These changes had greatly increased naval expenditure ; but, in addition, the Navy
was much larger now than it was twenty years ago. In that period a Naval
Reserve had been added, a Channel squadron maintained, the Coast-guard trans-
ferred from the Customs to the Navy, and the force of men kept in permanent
reserve at the different ports, to man ships immediately they were commissioned,
considerably increased. These additions to the material strength of the Navy
amounted alone to nearly two millions sterling ; and by cutting any of them off, a
great reduction could certainly be effected. But these additions had been made at
the express demand of the country, to meet needs which existed as much now as
twenty years ago. Then several alterations, of an expensive character, had been
made, which had increased the cost of the Navy, since 1849, by about £1,700,000.
These were the increase of pay to nearly every class of officers and seamen, which
had been carried to such an extent that every officer cost, on an average, about £60
a year more than in 1849, and every seaman more than £10. Food was dearer
now than then, and was better in quality, and more liberally bestowed; so that,
while the average cost of each man for provisions, &c. was £14 10s. in 1849, it was
now £18. In addition to these expensive alterations were the improvements in the
dockyards and in administration generally. It was difficult to see how any very
extensive reductions could be made in this branch of expenditure unless the Navy
was reduced to a much smaller size than it was twenty years ago. It is, however,
in this branch that the present reductions have been chiefly carried out ; but it has
required a public spirit and determination of no ordinary character in the present
Board of Admiralty to effect here a reduction of even £100,000. Lastly, the
increased use of steam in the Navy and the substitution of iron for wooden men-of-
war have increased the cost of the Navy now as compared with 1849 by £800,000.
Thus, altogether, the increased cost of the Navy in 1868 as compared with 1849,
which is about four millions and a half sterling, has been accounted for.

On Assisted Emigration. By Dr. R. J. Mann, F.RAS., FR.GS.

The object of this paper was to show that the most promising course in organizing
a system of assisted emigration is to provide suitable grants of land in the colonies
for selected and well-qualified emigrants, and to give them advances of such means
as may be found indispensable to secure them a start in getting a living by the
cultivation of their grants, requiring them to repay such sums within a fixed
period by easy annual instalments, and holding their land in security until the
repayments have been completed. An instance was adduced in illustration of the
practicability of such a system, in which thirty-five German families had been sent
out to a colony (the colony of Natal), and settled upon the land. These people were
embarked in the year 1847, and were entirely without means; and were nearly all of
them weavers, and destitute of the most important knowledge of agricultural opera-
tions. Yet when the author of this notice visited their settlement, which he did
eighteen years subsequently, he found each family in possession of a valuable little
estate of from 150 to 200 acres of land, which had been purchased at the rate of from
15s. to 30s. an acre, and paid for, and with accumulated property in almost every in-
stance amounting to, and in some instances exceeding, £800. There can be no possible
doubt that, under a well-conceived and well-managed system, it would be found
that thrifty and industrious English, Scotch, and Irish farm-labourers, initiated in
the mysteries of the spade and plough, would be able readily to accomplish, at least,
as much as was done in that instance by German weavers not having the same
special and technical qualifications. Details were then given to show how a
capital of £50,000 might be made available in perpetuity to transport and start 500
families, comprising 2500 individuals, to and in a colony like Natal, and then to
add to them fifty other families, comprising 250 individuals, every year. It was
shown that such a proceeding would alike benefit the community from which the

———

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 197

emigrants were taken, and the colonial community to which they were added; and
that it would confer an addition upon the public revenue of the colony, through
indirect contributions, of some £45,000 within a period of ten years. It was also
pointed out that the colony of Natal was eminently adapted for such a course of
action, by the abundance of available land in open pasture ready for the plough, by
the mildness of its climate, by the cheapness of the necessaries of life, by the
large range of natural productions, stretching through sugar, coffee, tobacco, cotton,
silk, horses, cattle, sheep, wool, root-crops, and grain-crops of nearly every variety,
and by the abundance and cheapness of native labour.

Statistical Notes on some Experiments in Agriculture. By FRepERIcK Purpy,
F.SS., Principal of the Statistical Department, Poor-Law Board.

The memoranda of the plan and results, which Mr. Lawes has circulated among his
friends, give the issue of upwards of 1400 separate experiments, not experiments
that can be quickly performed like the ordinary ones of the laboratory, but experi-
ments each requiring one revolution of the seasons for its answer*. It is beyond
my scope to attempt a description of these researches in any detail ; at the same
time I hope to convey some idea of the extreme importance of Mr. Lawes’s achieve-
ments, by selecting a few salient examples from each process of cultivation employed
by that gentleman.

Permanent-Meadow Land.—The area experimented on was about 6} acres,
divided into 20 plots—with few exceptions, duly noted, the same description of
manure has been applied year after year to the same plot. The meadow land
chosen “ has been probably laid down in grass for some centuries.”

The yield of the plots unnoticed here range at various distances between the
extreme results selected for comparison below.

Experiments on Permanent Meadow-Land.

Produce per Acre Weighed as Hay.
Average of
Thirteen Years, 1868 alone.
1856-68.
ewt. ewt.
Plot (11 a) dressed with artificial manure, Tosh 642 7
afforded the maximum yield ...........-cce0seeesees = 774
Average of two plots (5 and 12) wxmanured con- 24 er
tinuously during the thirteen years ............... a an
Difference in favour of the manured
Pie (pCa SiO SO aS } 405 51%

Note—The numbers in brackets after the plots, here and hereafter, refer to the enu-
meration of the original paper.

Chemistry has taught agriculturalists that their husbandry will not draw from
the soil or the atmosphere what is neither in the soil nor in the atmosphere. The
corollary of this lesson seem to have determined the operations on Plot No. 18.
The ground was annually dressed with a mixture, per acre, equal to the respective
quantities of potass, soda, lime, magnesia, phosphoric acid, silica, and nitrogen con-
tained in a ton of hay. The average yield of hay for the four years 1865-68, was
321 ewt., or 8 cwt. in excess of the two unmanured plots represented in the Table
above. In 1868 the yield was 273 ewt. or 6} cwt. above the produce of the un-
manured plots in the same year—just one-third of the chemicals was returned to the
cultivator by the surplus hay in this year’s trial.

Barley.—The area under experiment was about 4} acres, divided into 28 plots.
The grain sown on the same land year after year, and, for the most part, the same
manures used continuously on each plot.

* «Memoranda of the Plan and Results of the Field Experiments conducted on the
Farm of John Bennet Lawes, Esq., at Rothampstead, Herts,’ May 1869.

198 REPORT—1869.

Experiments on the Growth of Barley.

Produce per Acre.
Average of Seventeen Years, 1852-68.
Dressed Corn. Total Straw.
Bushels. Ibs. each. ewt.
Plot [(4)4AAS8] dressed with artificial
manure, and affording the maximum 503 522 334
ICO ete ewes wae cess cos cacueeeosentosandeee
Average of two plots (10 and 61) wn- |
manured continuously during the seven- 213 524 124
teen years ....... aeeteae bomen set sisviersr aut. J
Difference in favour of the manured 9 by 3
Plotvwcuatssiegsetes9.343 Ke Wane. Feeies } 284 4 208

Wheat.—Area under experiment about 13 acres, made into 26 plots. Wheat
sown on the same land, without intermission, for twenty-five years. Nearly the
same description of manure on the same plot each year, especially during the last
seventeen years, to which term the following experiments were limited :—

Experiments on the Growth of Wheat.

Produce per Acre.
Average of Seventeen Years, 1852-68.
Dressed Corn. Total Straw.
| Bushels. lbs. each. ewt.
Plot [16 (@ and 0)] dressed with artificial
manure, and affording the maximum 392 58 463
VIEL oan Rite cet cet encaseinec tosis ccen J
Average of two plots (8 and 20) wnma- |
nured continuously during the seven- 143 575 14
LECCE CHIN ie cabsaressnscosustentss 54:00 scedade
Difference in favour of the manured 9 1 ¢
if Oktans Boeescter 1c Serre eee | 24g 7 oa

I will conclude this sketch with an abbreviated account of a series of rotation
experiments extending over twenty years, 1848-67 inclusively. An area of 22 acres
was divided into three plots, each was sown alike year by year, and in this order of
succession :—Tirst year, turnips; second year, barley; third year, beans; fourth
year, wheat; the fifth, turnips; again and so on throughout the twenty years.
Plot 1 was unmanured continuously. Plot 2 manured with phosphate of lime for
the turnips only, consequently this was manured once in four years. Plot 3
treated with complex manure (artificial entirely) for the turnips only, and therefore
once in four years like No. 2.

The ayerage results for the corn and roots are given below; the straw and leaf
produce are omitted.

Corn or Roots Produced on

| a

7 hi Plot 2. Plot 3.
Crops in Rotation. Blobs Superphosphate |Complex Manures,

Unmanured df Lime fox
ey ie Turnipsalone.| Turnips only.”

Ist. Swedish turnips ... ewt. 263 1364 2421

PDGS MBBLICY i... ..cescssoe bshls.*} Alt 304 44

Snilkee [nthe > ae eae a del 123 12i 214

Atlin y WWiGdI toa ssucrsecess ot 33 30% 354

* All dressed corn.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 199

On the Pressure of Taxation on Real Property. By Frevericx Purpy,
FSS., Principal of the Statistical Department, Poor-Law Board.
[Printed tx extenso among the Reports, see p. 57.]

On Weights and Measures. By W. H. SANKEY.

Contributions to Vital Statistics. By James Starx, M.D,

On the Population and Mortality of Bombay, derived from the last Census,
and the Reports of the Health Officers of Bombay to the latest dates. By
P.M. Tarr, F.SUS., PRG.

To Sir Bartle Frere, late Governor of Bombay, and Dr. Leith we are mainly
indebted for the census taken in 1864. Bombay is the second city, in point of
population, in the British Empire, the numbers being 816,562, or very nearly a
million, of whom Brahmins, or professing Brahminical creed, are about 71 per
cent.; Mahomedans, 18 per cent.; Zoroastrians, 6 per cent.; Christians, only
3°54 per cent.; Bhuddists, 1 per cent.; and the remainder Jews and other races.
There are 185 males to every 100 females, the proportion of the sexes up to the age
of 13 being nearly equal. Nearly one-fourth of the whole population are unskilled
labourers. Of the Brahmins one-third are beggars, and only 2 per cent. teachers or
schoolmasters, while amongst the 50,000 Parsees there is not one beggar or
mendicant. Caste appears to have little influence in determining the occupation
of the Hindoo population. The proportion of the population born in Europe is only
six in every 1000. These figures are necessary to give any solution to the results
given in the health officers’ reports, which are made up to the end of June 1869. The
most remarkable fact in connexion with the mortality of Bombay is, that more than
one-half of the total casualties are caused by zymotic diseases of the miasmatic order;
that is to say, are consequent on defective drainage, impure water, absence of
ventilation, and the unclean habits of the community. In Calcutta the chief scourge
is, as a rule, cholera; in Bombay, fever. The sea-water invades certain portions of
the island of Bombay, turns some acres into a salt swamp, penetrates into the
drains, and thus distributes the effluyium far and wide. The mortality from fever
is at the minimum during the monsoon months, when the drains throughout the
native town are well scoured by the rains; while the sudden rise in the deaths
from smallpox is coincident with the time of the influx of Mahomedan pilgrims to
Bombay, for the purposes of the Haj. Upon the whole, Bombay is healthier than
Calcutta, so far as the figures in the paper carry us, the deaths in the latter during
1866 having been 47 per 1000, while at Bombay they were only 21 per 1000, and
in 1867 19 per 1000. The temperature was referred to: and as to rainfalls, there
are 803 inches in Bombay to 654 in Calcutta. During July 1867 the rainfall at
the former place was 37 inches. The paper, which will be published in the Journal
of the East Indian Association, concluded by fully recognizing the exertions, under
extraordinary difficulties, of My, Crawford, the municipal commissioner of Bombay,
Dr. A. H. Leith, and Dr. T. G, Hewlett, in the interest of sanitary reform, and by
declaring that, with an improved conservancy, Bombay could, it is believed, be
made as healthy a town for Englishmen to live in as cities of similar size on the
continent of Europe.

On the Method of Teaching chysical Science. By the Rey. W. Tuckwett.

The author set forth the leading subjects to be taught, viz.—experimental
mechanics, chemistry, systematic botany and physiology. But this last depended
on the period to which school education was protracted. The time to be given to
science should not be less than three hours a week; at this rate two years might be
given to mechanics, two years to chemistry, one year to botany, while the rest, if

200 REPORT—1869.

any remained, would be free for physiology. The author recommended that every
school professing to teach science systematically should have a museum; in the
playground there should be a botanic garden.

MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

Address by C. Witt1am Siemens, F.R.S., President of the Section.

In addressing you from this Chair, I feel that I have accepted a task which, how-
ever flattering, I should have hesitated to undertake, had I not every reason to
rely on your forbearance, and upon the friendly support of those senior members
of our profession who by their attendance at these annual gatherings give weight
and importance to our proceedings. I also greatly depend on the cooperation of
those Members of the British Association who, although devoted chiefly to the
cultivation of pure science, are nevertheless ever ready to assist us in our endea-
yours to apply that science to practical ends.

It is by submitting such subjects as will be brought before us to the double
touchstone of science and of practical experience that we shall be able to appre-
ciate real merit, and at the same time assist the authors of the several papers, by a
confirmation or rectification of their views; thus redeeming our proceedings from
the adherent disadvantage of lack of time to give that full and patient attention
which the authors might meet with in bringing their subjects before the purely
professional Institutions of Civil Engineers, M oahatiital Engineers, or Naval
Architects.

In prefacing our proceedings with a few remarks on the leading subjects of the
day of special interest to our section, I can scarcely pass over the popular question
of technical education.

The Great International Exhibitions proved that, although England still holds
her ground as the leading manufacturing country, the nations of the Continent have
made great strides to dispute her preeminence in several branches, a result which
is generally ascribed to their superior system of technical education. Those desi-
rous of obtaining a clear insight into that system, and the vast scale upon which it
is being carried out under Government supervision, cannot do better than read
Mr. John Scott Russell’s very able volume on this subject: they will no doubt
agree with the author in the necessity of energetic steps being taken in this country
to promote the work of universal education, although I for one think that objection
may fairly be made against the plan of merely imitating the example of our
neighbours.

The polytechnic schools of the Continent, not satisfied to impart to the technical
student a good knowledge of mathematics and of natural sciences, pretend also to
superadd the practical information necessary to constitute them engineers or manu-
facturers.

This practical information is conveyed to them by professors lacking themselves
practical experience, and tends to engender in the students a dogmatical conceit
which is likely to stand in the way of originality in the adaptation of new means
to new ends in their future career. On this account I should prefer to see a sound
“fundamental” education, comprising mathematics, dynamics, chemistry, geology,
and physical science, with a sketch only of the technical arts, followed up by
professional training such as can only be obtained in the workshop, the office, or
the field.

The universal interest evinced throughout the country in the work of education
by parliamentary inquiries, by the erection of colleges and professorships, and by
the muniticence of a leading member of our Section in endowing a hundred scholar-
ships, are proofs that Nngland intends to hold her place also in this question of
education amongst the civilized nations; and I am confident that she will accom-
plish this object in a manner in unison with her practical tendencies and indepen-
dence of character.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 201

Closely allied to the question of education is that of the system of Letters Pa-
tent. A patent is, according to modern views, a contract between the common-
wealth and an individual who has discovered a method peculiar to himself of accom-
plishing a result of general utility. The State, being interested to secure the in-
formation and to induce the inventor to put his discovery into execution, grants
him the exclusive right of practising it, or of authorizing others to do so, for a
limited number of years, in consideration of his making a full and sufficient de-
scription of thesame. Unfortunately this simple and equitable theory of the patent
system is very imperfectly carried out, and is beset with various objectionable prac-
tices, which render a patent sometimes an impediment to, rather than a furtherance
of, applied science, and sometimes involve the author of an invention in endless
legal contentions and disaster, instead of procuring for him the intended reward.
These evils are so great and palpable that many persons, including men of un-
doubted sincerity and sound judgment on most subjects, advocate the entire abo-
lition of the Patent Laws. ‘They argue that the desire to publish the results of
our mental labour suffices to ensure to the commonwealth the possession of all new
discoveries and inventions, and that justice might be done to meritorious inventors
by giving them national rewards.

This argument may hold good as regards a scientific discovery, where the labour
bestowed is purely mental, and carries with it the pleasurable excitement peculiar
to the exercise and advancement of science on the part of the devotee; but a prac-
tical invention has to be regarded as the result of a first conception elaborated
by experiments, and applied to existing processes in the face of practical dif-
ficulties, of prejudice, and of various discouragements, involving also great expen-
diture of time and money, which no man can well afford to give away; nor can
men of merit be expected to advocate their cause before the national tribunal of
rewards, where at best only very narrow and imperfect views of the ultimate im-
portance of a new invention would be taken, not to speak of the favouritism to
which the doors would be thrown open. Practical men would undoubtedly pre-
fer either to exercise their inventions in secret, where that is possible, or to desist
from following up their ideas to the point of their practical realization. If we
review the progress of the technical arts of our time, we may trace important prac-
tical inventions almost without exception to the Patent Office. In cases where the
inventor of a machine, or process, happened to belong to a nation without an effi-
cient patent law, we find that he readily transferred the scene of his activity to
the country offering him the greatest encouragement, there to swell the ranks of
intelligent workers. Whether we look upon the powerful appliances that fashion
shapeless masses of iron and steel into railway wheels or axles, or into the more
delicate parts of machiney, whether we look upon the complex machinery in our
cotton-factories, our print-works, and paper-mills, or into a Birmingham manu-
factory, where steel pens, buttons, pins, buckles, screws, pencil-cases, and other
objects of general utility are produced by carefully elaborated machinery at an
extremely low cost, or whether we look upon our agricultural machinery by which
England is enabled to compete without protection against the Russian or Danubian
agriculturist, with cheap labour and cheap land to back him, in nearly all cases
we find that the machine has been designed and elaborated in its details by a pa-
tentee who did not rest satistied till he had persuaded the manufacturers to adopt
the same, and had removed all their real or imaginary objections to the innovation.
We also find that the knowledge of its construction reaches the public directly or
indirectly through the Patent Office, thus enlarging the basis for further inventive
progress.

The greatest illustration of the beneficial working of the Patent Laws was sup-
plied, in my opinion, by James Watt when, just 100 hundred years ago, he pa-
tented his invention of a hot working-cylinder and separate steam-engine condenser.
After years of contest against those adverse circumstances that beset every im-
portant innovation, James Watt, with failing health and scanty means, was only
upheld in his struggle by the deep conviction of the ultimate triumph of his cause.
This conyiction gave him confidence to enlist the cooperation of a second capitalist
after the first had failed him, and of asking for an extension of his declining patent.

Without this opportune help Watt could not have succeeded in maturing his in-

202 REPORT—1869.

vention. He would in all probability have relapsed into the mere instrument-

maker, with broken health and broken heart, and the introduction of the steam-

engine would not only have been retarded for a generation or two, but its final
rogress would have been based probably upon the coarser conceptions of Papin,
avory, and Newcomen.

It can easily be shown that the perfect conception of the physical nature of steam,
which dwelt, like a Heaven-born inspiration, in Watt’s mind, was neither under-
stood by his contemporaries nor by his followers up to very recent times, nor can
it be gathered from Watt’s imperfect specification. James Watt was not satis-
fied in excluding the condensing-water from his;working-cylinder, and surrounding
the same by non-conducting substances, but he placed beween the cylinder and the
non-conducting envelope a source of heat in the form of a steam-jacket, filled with
steam at a pressure somewhat superior to that of the working steam. His imme-
diate successors not only discarded the steam-jacket, and even condemned it on the
superficial plea that the jacket presented a larger and hotter surface for loss by ra-
diation than the cylinder, but expansive working was actually rejected by some of
them on the ground that no practical advantage could be obtained by it.

The modern engine, notwithstanding our perfected means of construction, had
in fact degenerated in many instances into « virtual steam-meter, constructed ap-
parently with a view of emptying the boiler in the shortest possible space of time.

It is only during the last twenty or thirty years that the subtile action of satu-
rated steam, in condensing upon the sides of the cylinder when under pressure,
and of reevaporating when the pressure is relieved towards the end of each stroke,
has been again recognized and insisted upon by Le Chatelier and others, who have
shown the necessity of a slightly superheated cylinder, in order to realize the ex-
pansive force of steam.

The result has been a reduction in the consumption of fuel in our best marine
engines from 6 or 8 to below 3 lbs. per gross indicated horse-power.

It is a hopeful circumstance that, during the next Session of Parliament, the
whole question of the Patent Laws is likely to be inquired into by a Special Com-
mittee, who, it is to be hoped, will act decisively in the general interest, without
being influenced by special or professional claims, They will have it in their power
to render the Patent Office an educational institution of the highest order.

In viewing the latest achievements of engineering science, two works strike the
imagination chiefly by their exceeding magnitude, and by the influence they are
likely to exercise upon the traffic of the world. The first of these is the Great
Pacific Railway, which, in passing through vast regions hitherto inaccessible to
civilized man, and over formidable mountain-chains, joins California with the
Atlantic States of the great American Republic. The second is the Suez Ship-
ping Canal, which, notwithstanding adverse prognostications and serious diffi-
culties, will be opened very shortly to the commerce of the world. These works
must greatly extend the range of commercial enterprise in the North Pacific and
Indian Seas. The new waterway to India will, owing to the difficult navigation
of the Red Sea, be in effect only available for ships propelled by steam, and will
give a stimulus to that branch of engineering.

Telegraph communication with America has been rendered more secure against
interruption by the successful submersion of the French Transatlantic Cable. On
the other hand, telegraphic communication with India still remains in a very un-
satisfactory condition, owing to imperfect lines and divided administration. To
supply a remedy for this public evil, the Indo-European Telegraph Company will
shortly open its special lines for Indian correspondence. In Northern Russia the
construction of a land line is far advanced to connect St. Petersburgh with the
mouth of the Amour River, on completion of which only a submarine link between
the Amour and San Francisco will be wanting, to complete the telegraphic girdle
round the earth.

With these great highways of speech once established, a network of submarine
and aérial wires will soon follow to bind all inhabited portions of our globe toge-
ther into a closer community of interests, which, if followed up by steam commu-
nication by land and by sea, will open out a great and meritorious field for the
activity of the civil and the mechanical engineer.

4
5

y
4

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 203

But while great works have to be carried out in distant parts, still more remains
to be accomplished nearer home. The railway of to-day has not only taken the
place of high roads and canals, for the transmission of goods and passengers be-
tween our great centres of industry and population, but is already superseding by-
roads leading to places of inferior importance ; it competes with the mule in car-
rying minerals over mountain-passes, and with the omnibus in our ereat cities.
Ifa river cannot be spanned by a bridge without hindering navigation, a tunnel is
forthwith in contemplation; or, if that should not be practicable, the transit of
trains is yet accomplished by the establishment of a large steam-ferry.

It is one of the questions of the day to decide by which plan the British Channel
should be crossed, to relieve the unfortunate traveller to the Continent of the ex-
ceeding discomfort and delay inseparable from the existing most imperfect arrange-
ments. Considering that this question has now been taken up by some of our
leading engineers, and is also entertained by the two interested governments, we
may look forward to its speedy and satisfactory solution.

So long as the attention of railway engineers was confined to the construction of
main lines, it was necessary for them to provide for a heavy traffic and high speeds,
and these desiderata are best met by a level permanent way, by easy curves and
heavy rails of the strongest possible materials, namely, cast steel; but in extending
the system to the corners of the earth, cheapness of construction and mainte-
nance, for a moderate speed and a moderate amount of traffic, become a matter of
necessity.

Instead of plunging through hill and mountain, and of crossing and recrossing
rivers by a series of monumental works, the modern railway passes in zigzag up
the steep incline and conforms to the windings of the narrow gorge; it can only
be worked by light rolling-stock of flexible construction, furnished with increased
power of adhesion and great brake-power. Yet by the aid of the electric telegraph,
in regulating the progress of each train, the number of trains may be so increased
as to produce nevertheless a large aggregate of traffic, and it is held by some that
even our trunk lines would be worked more advantageously by light rolling-stock.

The brake-power on several of the French and Spanish railways has been greatly
increased by an ingenious arrangement conceived by Monsieur Le Chatelier, of
applying what has been termed “Contre vapeur” to the engine, converting it for
the time being into a pump forcing steam and water into its own boiler. It is
difficult to overestimate the beneticial effects likely to result from this invention.

While the extension of communication occupies the attention of perhaps the
greater number of our engineers, others are engaged upon weapons of offensive and
defensive warfare. We have scarcely recovered our wonder at the terrific destruc-
tion dealt by the Armstrong gun, the Whitworth bolt, or the steel barrel conso-
lidated under Krupp’s gigantic steam hammer, when we hear of a shield of such
solidity and toughness as to bid defiance to them all. A larger gun or a harder
bolt by Palliser or Griison is the successful answer to this challenge, when again
defensive plating, of greater tenacity to absorb the power residing in the shot, or
of such imposing weight and hardness combined as to resist the projectile absolutely
(causing it to be broken up by the force residing within itself’) is brought forward.

. The ram of war with heavy iron sides, which a few years since was thought the
most formidable, as it certainly was the most costly weapon ever devised, is already
being superseded by vessels of the “Captain type ” as designed by Captain Coles,
and carried out by Messrs. Laird Brothers, with turrets (armed with guns by
Armstrong of gigantic power) that resist the heaviest firmg, both on account of
their extraordinary thickness, and of the angular direction in which the shot is
likely to strike.

By an ingenious device Captain Moncreiff lowers his gun upon its rocking car-
riage after firing, and thereby does away with embrasures (the weak places in
protecting works), while at the same time he gains the advantage of reloading his
gun in comparative safety.

It is presumed that in thus raising formidable engines of offensive and defensive

_ warfare the civilized nations of the earth will pause before putting them into earnest

operation ; but, if they should do so, it is consolatory to think that they could not
work them for long without effecting the total exhaustion of their treasuries, already
drained to the utmost in their construction.

204. REPORT—1869.

While science and mechanical skill combine to produce these wondrous results,
the germs of further and still greater achievements are matured in our mechanical
workshops, in our forges, and in our metallurgical smelting works ; it is there that
the materials of construction are prepared, refined, and put into such forms as to
render greater and still greater ends attainable. Here a great revolution of our
constructive art has been prepared by the production, in large quantities and at
moderate cost, of a material of more than twice the strength of iron, which, instead
of being fibrous, has its full strength in every direction, and-which can be modu-
lated to every degree of ductility, approaching the hardness of the diamond on the
one hand, and the proverbial toughness of leather on the other, To call this ma-
terial cast steel seems to attribute to it brittleness and uncertainty of temper, which,
however, are by no means its necessary characteristics. This new material, as
prepared for constructive purposes, may indeed be both hard and tough, as is illus-
trated by the hard steel rope that has so materially contributed to the practical
success of steam ploughing.

Machinery-steel has gradually come into use since about 1850, when Krupp of
Essen commenced to supply large ingots that were shaped into railway tyres, axles,
cannon, &c., by melting steel in halls containing hundreds of melting-crucibles, _

The Bessemer process, in dispensing with the process of puddling, and in uti-
lizing the carbon contained in the pig-iron to effect the fusion of the final metal,
has given a vast extension to the application of cast steel for railway bars, &e.

This process is limited, however, in its application to superior brands of pig-iron,
containing much carbon and no sulphur or phosphorus, which latter impurities are
so destructive to the quality of steel. The puddling process will still have to be
resorted to, unless the process of decarburization proposed by Mr. Heaton should
be able to compete with it, to purify these inferior pig-irons which constitute the
bulk of our productions, and the puddled iron cannot be brought to the condition
of cast steel except through the process of fusion. This fusion is accomplished
successfully in masses of from three to five tons on the open bed of a regenerative
gas furnace at the Landore Siemens-Steel Works and at other places. At the same
works cast steel is also produced, to a limited extent as yet, from iron ore which,
being operated upon in large masses, is reduced to the metallic state and liquitied
by the aid of a certain proportion of pig metal. The regenerative gas furnace, the
application of which to glass-houses, to forges, &c., has made considerable progress,
is unquestionably well suited for their operations, because it combines an intensity
of heat limited only by the point of fusion of the most refractory material, with
extreme mildness of draught and chemical neutrality of flame.

These and other processes of recent origin tend towards the production at a com-
paratively cheap rate of a very high-class material that must shortly supersede iron
for almost all structural purposes. As yet engineers hesitate, and very properly so,
to construct their bridges, their vessels, and their rolling-stockjof the material pro-
duced by these processes, because no exhaustive experiments have been published
as yet fixing the limit to which they may safely be loaded in extension, in com-
pression, and in torsion, and because no sufficient information has been obtained
regarding the tests by which their quality can best be ascertained.

This great want is in a fair way of being supplied by the experimental researches
that have been carried on for some time at Her Majesty’s Dockyard at Woolwich
under a committee appointed for that purpose by the Institute of Civil Engineers.
In the mean time excellent service has been rendered by Mr. Kirkaldy in giving
us, in a perfectly reliable manner, the resisting-power and ductility of any sample
of material which we wish to submit to his tests.

The results of Mr. Whitworth’s experiments, tending to render the hammer and
the rolls partly unnecessary, by consolidating cast steel while in a semifluid state,
in strong iron moulds, by hydraulic pressure, are looked upon with general interest.

But, assuming that the new material has been reduced to the utmost degree of
uniformity and cheapness, and that its limits of strength are fully ascertained,
there remains still the task for the civil and mechanical engineer to-prepare designs
suitable for the development of its peculiar qualities. If, in constructing a girder,
for example, a design were to be adopted that had been worked out for iron, and
if all the scantlings were simply reduced in the inverse proportion of the absolute

’

{RANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 905

and relative strength of the new material as compared with iron, such a girder
would assuredly collapse when the test-weight was applied, for the simple reason
that the reduced sectional area of each part, in proportion to its length, would be
insufficient to give stiffness. You might as well almost take a design for a wooden
structure and carry it out in iron by simply reducing the section of each part. The
advantages of using the stronger material become most apparent if applied, for in-
stance, to large bridges, where the principal strain upon each part is produced by
the weight of the structure itself; for, supposing that the new material can be
safely weighted to double the bearing strain of iron, and that the weight of the
structure were reduced to one-half accordingly, there would still remain a large
excess of available strength, in consequence of the reduced total weight, and this
would justify a further reduction of the amount of the material employed. Incon-
structing works in foreign parts, the reduced cost of carriage furnishes also a pow-
erful argument in favour of the stronger material, although its first cost per ton
might largely exceed that of iron.

The inquiries of the Royal Coal Commission into the extent and management
of our coal-fields appear to be reassuring as regards the danger of their becoming
soon exhausted; nevertheless, the importance of economising these precious de-
posits in the production of steam-power in metallurgical operations and in domes-
tic use can hardly be over-estimated. The calorific power residing in a pound of
coal of a given analysis can now be accurately expressed in units of heat, which
again are represented by equivalent units of force or of chemical action ; therefore,
if we ascertain the consumption of coal of a steam-engine or of a furnace employed
in metallurgical operations, we are able to tell, by the light of physical science,
what proportion of the heat of combustion is utilized and what proportion is lost.
Haying arrived at this point we can also trace the channels through which loss
takes place, and in diminishing these, by judicious improvement, we shall more
and more approach those standards of ultimate perfection which we can never
reach, but which we should nevertheless keep stedfastly before our eyes. Thus
a ee of ordinary coal is con of producing 12,000 (I’ahrenheit) units of heat,
which equal 9,240,000 foot-lbs. or units of force, whereas the very best perform-
ances of our pumping engines do not exceed the limit of 1,000,000 foot-lbs. of
force per pound of coal consumed. Jn like manner 1 Jb. of coal should be capable
of heating 33 lbs. of iron to the welding-point (of, say, 3000° Fahrenheit), whereas,
in an ordinary furnace, not 2 lbs. of iron are so heated with 1 lb. of coal. These
figures serve to show the great field for further improvement that lies yet before us.

Although heat may be said to be the moving principle by which all things in
nature are accomplished, an excess of it is not only hurtful to some of our processes,
such as brewing, and destructive to our nutriments, but to those living in hot
climates, or sitting in crowded rooms, an excess of temperature is fully as great a
source of discomfort as excessive cold can be. Why then, may Lask, should we not
resort largely to refrigeration in summer as well as to caloritication in winter, if it
can be shown that the one can be done at nearly the same cost as the other? So long
as we rely for refrigeration upon our ice-cellars, or upon importation of ice from
distant parts, we shall have to look upon it as a costly luxury only; but by the
use of properly constructed machines, it will be possible, I believe, to produce re-
frigeration at an extremely moderate expenditure of fuel and labour. A machine
has already been constructed capable of producing 9 lbs. of ice (or its equivalent)
for 1 lb. of coal, whereas the equivalent values of positive heat developed in the
combustion of 1 lb. of coal and of negative heat residing in 1 lb. of ice is about as
12,000 to 170, or as 1 to 70. This result already justifies the employment of refri-
gerating machines upon a large scale; but it is hard to say what practical resulis
may yet be reached with an improved machine on strictly dynamical principles,
because such a machineseems not to be tied in its results to any definite theoretical
limits. In changing, for example, a pound of water from liquid into the gaseous
state, a given number of units of heat are required, that may be produced by the
combustion of coal or by the expenditure of force; but in changing the same
pound of water into ice, heat is not lost but gained in the operation, which heat
must be traceable to another part of the machine, either as sensible heat or as
developed force, It would lead me too far to enter here into particulars on this

206 REPORT—1869.

question, which is one not without interest for the physicist and the mechanical
engineer,

There are several other subjects I should have gladly mentioned were I not
afraid of encroaching unduly upon our time; some of these will, however, be brought
before the Section in the form of distinct papers, and will, I trust, lead to inter-
esting discussions,

Description of a proposed Cast-iron Tube for carrying a Railway across the
Channel between the Coasts of England and France. By Joun Freperic
Bateman, F.2.S., M.Inst.C.E., and Juursan Joun Rivy, M.Inst.0.£.,,
Vienna.

The advantages which would accrue from a continuous railway communication
between England and France are great beyond any possibility of estimate.

From time to time various proposals for effecting this object have been before
the public—by a tunnel to be driven beneath the bed of the sea, through the chalk,
which is supposed to be continuous—by submerged roadways and tubes—by large
ferry-boats carrying trains on board—and by bridges to be carried on piers formed
on islands to be sunk in the Straits. To the latter proposition there are so many
obvious objections, that it is hardly necessary to discuss its practicability.

A large ferry-boat, of great length and breadth, large enough to receive a whole
ordinary train on board, and driven at high speed by powerful engines, would
unquestionably be a material improvement upon the present miserable means of
conveyance. Such boats cannot, however, be employed, except by the construction
of special harbours on each coast, which would be works of difficulty and expense.
However successfully such a scheme might be worked out, the annoyance attending
a sea-passage in rough weather, although mitigated, would not be removed; and
it would frequently occur in the course of the year that the traffic would be inter-
rupted by fogs and bad weather. Under any circumstances ferry-boats across the
channel would be very far from a complete and perfect railway communication.

With reference to a tunnel, it has been proposed to drive one of ordinary size
for a double line of railway, which shall descend by a gradient of 1 in GO on each
side of the channel to a depth of about 270 feet below the bed of the sea. The
total length of the tunnel would be thirty miles, of which twenty-two would be
beneath the sea.

The uncertainty of the strata in the bed of the channel, and the dangers to which
any tunnelling operations for some twenty miles under the sea would be subject in
the event of meeting with open stratification or dislocated material, are such as

would in all probability deter capitalists from entering on so hazardous an enter-_

prise, and would baffle and overpower both engineering skill and all mechanical
appliances. Still the project of a tunnel is entertained and advocated by engineers
of great standing and reputation, and must only be discarded on a better system
being proved to be available.

The distance to be crossed, and the cost to be incurred, require that the mode to
be adopted shall be absolutely free from serious doubt and risk, and shall be as
evidently capable of accomplishment as the most ordinary mechanical operation.
Some degree of uncertainty must exist in every contrivance and speculation; but,
unless a scheme can be proposed which will be free from all doubt and objection
so far as human knowledge and foresight can extend, it will hardly deserve, and
will probably not receive, the support of the public.

Our object has been to devise a scheme by which all difficulties of operating in
water should be avoided. We propose to lay a tube of cast-iron on the bottom of
the sea, between coast and coast, to be commenced on one side of the channel, and
to be built up within the inside of a horizontal cylinder, or bell, or chamber, which
shall be constantly pushed forward as the building up of the tube proceeds. The
bell or chamber within which the tube is to be constructed will be about 80 feet
in length, 18 feet internal diameter, and composed of cast-iron rings 8 inches
thick, securely bolted together... The interior of the bell will be bored out to a true
cylindrical surface like the inside of a steam cylinder. The tube to be constructed

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 207

within it will consist of cast-iron plates in segments 4 inches in thickness, connected
by flanges, bolted together inside the tube, leaving a clear diameter of 13 feet when
finished. Surrounding this tube and forming part of it, will be constructed annular
disks or diaphragms, the outside circumference of which will accurately fit the
interior of the bell. These diaphragms will be furnished with arrangements for
making perfectly watertight joimts for the purpose of excluding sea-water and
securing a dry chamber, within which the various operations for building up the
tube, and for pressing forward the bell as each ring of the tube is added, will be

erformed, There will always be three and generally four of these watertight
joints contained within the bell. A clear space between the end of the tube and the
end or projecting part of the bell, of 36 feet, will be left as a chamber for the various
operations. Within this chamber, powerful hydraulic presses, using the built and
completed portion of the tube as a fulcrum, will, as each ring is completed, push
forward the bell to a sufficient distance to admit the addition of another ring to
the tube. The bell will slide over the watertight joints described, one of which
will be left behind as the bell is projected forward, leaving three always in operation
against the sea. The weight of the bell and of the machinery within it will be a
little in excess of the weight of water displaced, and therefore the only resistance
to be overcome by the hydraulic presses when pushing forward the bell, is the
friction due to the slight difference in weight and the head or column of water
pressing upon the sectional area of the bell against its forward motion. In like
manner, the specific gravity of the tube will be a little in excess of the weight of
waterwhich it displaces; and in order to obtain a firm footing upon the bottom of
the sea, the tube will be weighted by a lining of brick in cement, and for further
protection will be tied to the ground by screw piles, which will pass through
stuffing boxes in the bottom of the tube. These piles will, during the construction
of the tube within the bell-chamber, be introduced in the annular space between
the outside of the tube and the inside of the bell, and will be screwed into the
ground as they are left behind by the progression of the bell. The hydraulic
presses and the other hydraulic machinery, which will be employed for lifting and
fixing the various segments of the tube, will be pels with the power required
for working them from accumulators on shore, on Sir William Armstrong's system,
and the supply of fresh air required for the sustenance of the workmen employed
within the bell and within the tube will be insured also by steam power on shore.
As the tube is completed, the rails will be laid within it for the trains of waggons
to be employed in bringing up segments of the rings as they may be required for
the construction of the tube, and for taking back the waste water from the hydraulic
presses, or any water from leakage dwing the construction.

The tube will be formed of rings of 10 feet in length, each ring consisting of six
segments, all precisely alike, turned and faced at the flanges or joints, and fitted
together on shore previous to being taken into the bell, so that on their arrival the
segments may, with perfect certainty and precision, be attached to each other.
Every detail of construction has been designed, and so far as we can see, no contin-
gency has been left unprovided for. The possibility of injury by anchors or wrecks,
or submarine currents has also been investigated. The tube when laid will be
secure from all dangers arising from such causes.

The building of the tube will be commenced on dry land above the level of the
sea, and will be gradually submerged as the tube lengthens. The operations on
dry land will be attended with more difficulty than those under water; but all these
circumstances have been carefully considered and provided for. The rings forming
the tube will be made by special machinery, to be expressty constructed for facili-
tating the work and economising the cost. This machinery is all designed and
specified. The first half-mile will test the feasibility of construction; for that will
have to be built both above and under water. When once fairly under water, the
progress should be rapid, and it is estimated that the whole undertaking may be
easily completed in five years from the commencement.

The precise line to be taken betwixt the English and French coasts can hardly
be determined without a more minute survey of the bottom of the Channel than at
present exists. It will probably be between a point in close proximity to Dover on
the English coast, and a point in close proximity to Cape Grisnez on the French

908 REPORT—1869.

coast. From an examination of the Admiralty Charts, and of such information as
at present exists, the sea-bed on this line appears to be the most uniform in level,
and, while free from hard rocks and broken ground, to consist of coarse sand, gravel,
and clay. The average depth of water is about 110 feet, the maximum about
200 feet. On the line suggested the water increases in depth on both sides of the
Channel more rapidly than elsewhere, although in no instance will the gradient be
more than about 1 in 100. The tube, when completed, will occupy about 16 feet
in depth above the present bottom of the sea. Up to the point on each shore at
which the depth of water above the top of the tube would reach, say 30 feet at
low water, an open pier, or other protection, would have to be constructed for the
purpose of pointing out its position, and of preventing vessels striking against the
tube. These piers may be rendered subservient to harbour improvements. The
tube at each end would gradually emerge from the water, and on arriving above
the level of the sea would be connected with the existing railway systems, so that
the same carriage may travel all the way from London to Paris, or, if Captain
Tyler’s anticipations be realized, all the way from John O’Groat’s to Bombay.

The distance across the Channel on the line chosen is about twenty-two miles.
The tube as proposed is large enough for the passage of carriages of the present
ordinary construction, and to avoid the objections to the use of locomotives in a
tube of so great a length, and the nuisance which would be thereby created, and
taking advantage of the perfect circular form which the mechanical operation of
turning, facing, &c., will insure, it is proposed to work the traflic by pneumatic
pressure. The air will be exhausted on one side of the train and forced in on the
other, and so the required difference of pressure will be given for carrying the train
through at any determined speed. Powerful steam-engines, with the necessary
apparatus for exhausting and forcing the air into the tube, will be erected on shore
at each end; and supposing one tube only to exist, the traffic will be worked alter-
nately in each direction.

This system of working the traffic will secure a constant supply of the purest air,
which will accompany every train; and sitting in a train on its passage through
the tube, will be as pleasant and agreeable, in respect of ventilation, as sitting in
the open air on the sea-side or in the best ventilated drawing-room.

By this system of working and by adopting the best description of materials and
rolling-stock, there would scarcely exist the chance of accident—no collision could
take place. There would never be foul air within the tube to annoy the passengers
or to hinder the traffic by the necessity of removing the tainted air before another
train could pass through. The pneumatic system, though hitherto tried on a small
scale only, is undoubtedly one which, by the proper choice of means, can be cer-
tainly and easily, as well as cheaply worked, and in so long a tunnel, we believe it
to be in every way preferable to locomotive power, although that also could be
adopted.

It has been found by calculations, that, for moving a large amount of tonnage
and a great number of passengers, the most economical arrangement will be to send
combined goods and passenger trains through the tube at twenty miles an hour,
with occasional express trains at thirty miles an hour, Thus, an ordinary or slow
train would occupy about sixty-six minutes in the transit, and a quick or express
train about forty-five minutes. In this way the tube, if fully worked, would
permit the passage of sixteen ordinary slow trains (eight each way), and six express
trains (three each way), each conveying both goods and passengers—about 10,000
tons of goods per day, or upwards of 3,000,000 per annum, and 5,000 passengers,
or nearly 2,000,000 per annum—might be taken through, or a less amount of goods
and a larger number of passengers, or vice versd, 1f circumstances rendered other
proportions necessary or desirable.

The horse-power required for working the traffic with the above number of
ordinary and express trains, will be, on the average, 1750 indicated, or about
400 nominal horse-power at each end.

The journey from London to Paris may be easily performed in eight hours, or
less, without any break or change of carriage, and the annoyance, delay, and inter-
ruption attending a sea-passage would be altogether avoided.

he estimated cost of the whole undertaking, including the stations and approaches

ee a ey

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 209

at each end, the engine power and machinery, the interest of outlay during con-
struction and engineering superintendence, with a large margin for contingencies,
is £8,000,000.

The tube is capable of conveying, on the pneumatic plan of working the trains,
with ease, 10,000 tons of goods per day, and we may reasonably calculate that the
amount of traffic will be limited only by the power which may exist of passing it
through the tube.

The annual working expenses will consist of maintenance, which will be light,
of the cost and wear and tear of the pumping-engines, and of the ordinary expenses
of management, the whole of which would be most amply covered by £150,000.

Tt would be easy to enlarge on the advantages to the whole world which such a
bond of union would bring about, especially to the two great nations which would
be thereby most intimately connected; but in a dry and scientific description of
the means by which this important work of communication is proposed to be
accomplished, such language would be out of place. Let it be proved to be a
practicable undertaking, and the best or most promising which has been suggested,
and it may well claim the support and the material assistance of the Governments
of England and France, as well as of all the nations of Europe.

On the Utilization of Town Sewage. By T. D. Barry.

The author believed that, in the case of the irrigation system, it was the water,
and not the sewage, which promoted the growth of the crops, and that injurious
miasmata always arose from irrigated fields. He preferred a system of filtration.
The effluent water could be made clear and innocuous, whilst the suspended or
solid matter could be sold to the farmer at a price which would pay the cost of fil-
tration. At Leamington this course is successfully adopted.

On a Navigable Floating Dock.
By Vice-Admiral Sir Epwarp Brtcurr, K.C.B., F.RALS.

On an Air-engine. By J. T, Curtiinewortu.

On the Birmingham Wire-Gauge. By Lavmer Crarx.
This was a continuation of the subject which had been brought before the Asso-

_iation on two previous occasions, the object being to promote the establishment of

some universal wire-gauge. This the author considered would be satisfactorily
attained by reestablishing the Birmingham gauge on a rational basis, and recti-
fied from the irregularities which have crept into it, partly for want of some recog-
nized standard, and partly by reason of the impurities of the materials, from the
properties of which it was originally determined.

On the Hydraulic Buffer, and Experiments on the Flow of Liquids through
small Orifices at High Velocities. By Colonel H. Crrrx, 2.A., PRS.

The hydraulic buffer was first applied for the purpose of checking the recoil of
guns in 1867. It consists of a wrought-iron cylinder closed at one end, the other
end fitted with a cap and stuffing-box, through which a piston-rod passes. The
piston fits well in the cylinder, and is perforated with four small holes. The dia-
meter of these holes, and the length of cylinder and piston-rod are determined by
the amount of recoil required, or the space in which the moving body has to be
brought to rest.

The cylinder is not filled entirely with water, enough air-space being left to al-
low of the displacement of the piston-rod, and toact as an air-butter, to take off
the first violence of the blow. In actual practice, oil is used instead of water.

1869. 14

‘

210 REPORT—1869.

In order to ascertain the action of this description of buffer with high velocities,
some experiments were made, and described in this paper. They consisted in al-
lowing a truck loaded with various weights to run down an incline plane, so as to
attain a velocity from 10 feet to 44 feet per second, with which initial velocity the
piston was driven through the water. By means of a rotating-drum fixed above
the cylinder, and a pencil attached to the piston-rod, a curve was obtained from
which the velocity of the piston-rod during the whole of its motion can be deter-
mined, and a formula obtained for calculating the various dimensions of the buffer
required for any impinging weight, at any velocity.

he smoothness and ease with which a body moving at a velocity of 44 feet per
second (or thirty miles an hour) was brought to rest renders it probable that this
description of buffer may be found useful for many purposes, especially as a sta-
tionary buffer on railways.

On certain Economical Improvements in obtaining Motive Power.
By R. Eaton.
[For Abstract of this Paper, see Appendix. |

On Government Action with regard to Boiler Explosions.
By Lavineron EK. Frercuer.

On the Hydraulic Internal Scraping of the Torquay Water-main,
By R. EH. Frovpe.

Torquay is supplied with water from Dartmoor by a cast-iron main 13% miles in
length, and having an aggregate fall of 370 feet between the inlet and the outlet
at the standard reservoir. The diameter for the first eight miles is 10 inches, for
the remainder 9 inches, an intermediate town drawing a regulated supply at the
point of change. In 1845, six years after the opening of the work, the delivery,
which appears from the first to have been defective, was found to be barely half
what the recognized formulee promised.

The defect was attributed to internal oxidation; but as this, though forming a
rough carbuncular surface, did not much exceed } of an inch in average thick-
ness, the obstruction would have been insignificant according to the commonly re-
ceived view, that the water detained in the roughnesses would furnish a smooth —
surface for the internal column to glide through; and it followed that either the —
received view needed some correction, or that local obstructions must have been —
established by accumulations of sediment or otherwise in the many deep depressions
of eround-surface traversed by the main.

Under the directions of Mr. W. Froude a novel and effective test was devised and
employed for the determination of this question.

A yery delicate and accurate pressure-gauge was applied to the main, at short
and selected intervals throughout its length; a method of drilling the necessary
holes and fitting the connecting taps, without emptying the main, haying been eon-
trived, which prevented any escape of water during the operation under the heayiest

pressures,
; Columns of water equivalent to the pressures thus tested were calculated: and
the heights of these being laid down on the section of the line of main, at the
epee of the several gauge-stations, or, in other words, being added to the datum-
1eights of those stations, the resulting elevation of the column-summits were found
to form, for the 10-inch and 9-inch pipes respectively, perfectly uniform gradients,
showing that in each the consumption of pressure per mile was also uniform
throughout, and that there could be no local obstructions.

The incrusted oxide thus appeared to be the only known cause of obstruction ;
and the late Mr. Appold, with characteristic acuteness and boldness, suggested
that it would be possible to force a suitably constructed scraping implement, along
the main internally, by the existing hydraulic pressure, so as to remove the incrus-
tation.

¥
’

ee Oe

Ee ———— —— —

———- =

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 211

In accordance with his directions, a stout bar about 5 feet long was armed at the
tail-end with two expansive cup-shaped and cup-leathered pistons, placed with such
an interval between them, as to ensure the maintenance of pressure while passing
stop-valyes and branches. Its front end was armed with four pairs of scrapers,
each formed of flat iron bar, bent flatways like the letter U reversed, the cross
strokes forming cutting edges which the spring of the metal pressed against the
sides of the pipe, the whole circumference of which they together embraced, and
intended to act not unlike the patent road-scraper. The cutting edges were
“skewed” so as to prevent their dropping into, and laying hold of any pipe-joints
more than usually open; a regulated flow of water was permitted to pass the
piston, so as to drive the scrapings forward.

The Torquay Local Board, on whom the responsibility rested, were induced, on
Mr. Froude’s strong recommendation, to allow the implement to be tried on a mile
of main ; not without hesitation, for the shortness of the existing water-supply en-
hanced the anxiety attending so novel and bold an experiment, which, should the
seraper stick fast, might involve serious delay in the reinstatement of the delivery ;
the main had to be cut and closed again in two places, at all events. The
scraper, happily, travelled the mile without difficulty ; and the pressure-gauge test,

. tried before the operation, and again after the flow had been reinstated, showed,

by the consequent reduction of pressure at the upper end of the distance, and its
increase at the lower end, that the scraped pipe drew away the water from above,
and delivered it below:with greatly increased freedom: 21 feet of ‘‘ head” had pre-
viously been consumed on the distance, 7 feet only were consumed on it subse-
quently,—a difference promising an improvement of 75 per cent. in the delivery,
when the pipe should be scraped throughout*.

One material cause of anxiety was removed, by finding that the grating noise
made by the scraper zm transitu indicated its exact position to all observers who
accompanied it. Thus encouraged, the Local Board entrusted to My. Froude the
completion of the work throughout; but the experience gained in the trial showed
that an amended scraper and complete appliances would be required for it.

Lengths of pipe, fitted with moveable covers to admit of the insertion of the
scraper, were interpolated at suitable positions ; and a new scraper was made fitted
with hard steel cutters, pressed against the pipe by independent steel springs,—im-
provements which the preliminary trial had shown to be essential to a persistent
and vigorous scraping action. In the extended operation, serious difficulties which
fortunately had not appeared in the preliminary trial, were encountered in the
large number of stones (some several inches in diameter) which had been carelessly
enclosed in the pipe when laid; and it became necessary to clear the way for the
scraper by passing first a strong cast-iron cup, which comminuted the smaller
stones and picked up the large ones, and eventually the whole work was completed.
For reasons too long to state here, the improvement first attained was only 40,
not 70 per cent.,as had been hoped ; but subsequent repeated scrapings with a very
improved pattern of scraper, which does not, however, admit of brief description,
have increased the delivery by considerably over 100 per cent.; it was only 317
gallons per minute before operations were commenced, it was 655 after the most
recent scraping; and the operation is now so simplified and well understood, that
but for the change of diameter, which involves a change of scraper, the whole
length of main could be traversed without any pause.

It is found that very soon after the scraping a perceptible decline of delivery
takes place, probably owing to a gradual erosion of the smeared smoothness, which
is likely to be an immediate result of the operation; and besides, minute pustules
of oxide begin at once to form, and it is evident that mere infinitesimal roughness
sensibly obstructs the flow, but in its practical aspect the operation is perfectly
successful.

On some Difficulties in the received View of Fluid Friction.
By Wit11AmM Frovpr.
The very great variations in frictional resistance exhibited by the flow of water

* Mr. Appold died the day before this first successful trial of his suggestion.
14*

Pay REPORT—1869.

through the Torquay water-main, under small variations in smoothness of internal
surface, suggest the necessity of a revision of the theory of “ fluid friction,” which
in its commonly accepted form, ignores the effect of “ quality of surface” entirely,
and in which, even as amended by later able writers, less importance is attached
to it than the variations referred to prove it to possess.

The theory appears defective in two other important respects.

(1) In assigning to pipes of different diameters, under the same hydraulic gra-
dient, a flow proportioned to the power (£) of the diameter, it proceeds on the
assumption that the ratio of the mean velocity to the maximum velocity is the same
in pipes of all diameters. This is equivalent to assuming, either that the velocity
of the central particles of a flowing column does not exceed that of the circumfer-
ential particles more in a 12-inch than in a 6-inch pipe; or that particles of water
can glide more freely past the semi-rough surface of the pipe, than they can glide
past each other; whereas, since the latter alternative seems absurd, we ought to
expect that within the 12-inch pipe, the particles occupying the central 6 inches
niust possess, in addition to the velocity of those immediately surrounding them,
the whole mean velocity which they would have possessed if flowing indepen-
dently in a 6-inch pipe; an expectation irreconcileable with the law that the deli-
very with a given hydraulic gradient is as the power (3) of the diameter.

(2) The commonly received theory assigns to every square foot of an extended
plane, drawn edgeways through undisturbed fluid, one and the same intensity of
frictional resistance ; and this is expressed in terms of the velocity of the surface,
calculated with reference to the undisturbed part of the fluid, and is supposed to
create an equal resistance per square foot throughout the plane ; whereas it is cer-
tain that the anterior portions of the surface, in rubbing against the particles which
it passes, and experiencing resistance from them, mst impress on them equivalent
force in the direction of its motion, and must impart to them some velocity in that
direction. Thus, though it may be in some sense asserted that the anterior portions
of the plane rub against the contiguous particles with the entire velocity of the plane,
since these particles are undisturbed, this cannot be truly asserted of the posterior
portions of the plane, since the particles against which these rub have already re-
ceived a velocity conformable to that of the plane; and a “state of motion” will be
thus produced in the contiguous particles involving a widening body of fluid, and
with increasing velocity imparted to it, as we recede foot by foot sternward along
the plane ; forming, in fact, a “current,” created and left behind, by the transit of the
plane, such that if we could integrate the volume of current created in each unit of
time, and the exact velocity possessed by each of its particles, the aggregate mo-
mentum must be precisely that which is due to the frictional resistance of the en-
tire plane acting during that unit of time. Obviously the sternward portions of the
plane moving forward in such a favouring current, must experience a less intense
frictional resistance than the anterior portions.

A consideration of these objections to the received theory, the latter especially,
suggests the question, how the velocity of the surface relatively to the fluid is
properly to be estimated, as relevant to, or as governing the intensity of frictional
resistance. And in attempting to arrive at this, it is plainly necessary to take ac-
count of the manner in which, and the distance to which, the velocity which the
rubbing surface imparts to the particles, spreads into the fluid.

With a view to this, the following propositions seem relevant and admissible.

(1) A surface free from such roughnesses and prominences as to produce eddies,
if of such quality that the fluid thoroughly wets it, will experience the same resis-
tance in moving past the particles which resist it, as if it had itself consisted of
particles of the fluid.

(2) No particles of the contiguous fluid can be strictly regarded as sliding past
the surface, or, vice versd, in the sense in which a solid slides past a solid; but be-
tween the complete motion of the surface, and the complete quiescence of the fluid
where it is yet undisturbed, a graduated state of motion must exist, the manner
of [Sanaa governing the intensity of the force transmitted from particle to
particle.

(8) When a plane slides edgeways through undisturbed fluid, part of the force
which it transmits into the fluid around it is employed in giving motion to the par-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 213

ticles which it affects, and as these in turn, when put in motion, affect other parti-
cles outside them, the remainder of the force is transmitted to those particles.
Hence it becomes desirable to conceive an arrangement under which the force
would be transmitted entire, instead of being partly absorbed in momentum, and
to trace the law of transmitted motion which would correspond with this.

(4) Such a state must be conceived to exist if we imagine two parallel planes, of
infinite extension each way, having the intervening space filled with fluid, and
having possessed for an intinite period equal edgeways velocities (say v) in oppo-
site directions. The transmission of motion and of force in the intervening fluid
must have become established and permanent, and the following propositions would
seem true respecting it.

(a) Hach plane must be experiencing throughout its surface a definite frictional
force per square foot, acting in the direction of the plane, equal and opposite in the
two planes, and the force must be transmitted statically from plane to plane by the
state of motion in the intervening fluid.

(6) Along the imaginary plane which bisects the intervening space, the particles
of fluid must be stationary, since they are similarly situated with respect to the two
equal opposite forces and motions.

(ec) Between the imaginary central plane, and each of the two moving planes,
the particles must possess a graduated motion corresponding with that of the
nearer plane.

If we further imagine the whole intervening space to be subdivided into lamin
or layers of equal infinitesimal thickness, say 1, 2, 3,...m, it would seem that, to
transmit the definite force unchanged from layer to layer, No. 1 must be gliding
past No. 2 exactly as fast as No. 2 past No. 3, and so on throughout, from one
outer plane to the other, for these are to be judged as adherent to the fluid, as the
fluid to itself (see prop. 1); since that supposition, exclusively, secures throughout
an identity in the relative motions of similarly placed contiguous particles: if we
were to suppose different gradations of velocity in relation to lateral space, or
thickness of layer, in different parts of the series of layers, it would follow that dif-
ferent relative motions of similarly placed contiguous particles would develope the
same amount of force.

The character of this graduated transition of velocity may be best explained by
observing that if at any moment a straight filament were laid at right angles
across the interval between the planes, and were to accept the motion of the
particles which it traversed, it would remain straight, while it continued to
describe a growing rectilinear angle, the angle being as the time, and the centre of
motion being the centre of the space between the planes where the particles are
stationary.

The conception of this angle will be relied on as important in the course of the
investigation, and it will, for convenience, be termed the ‘ filamental” angle (@),
and will be taken account of as described in some definite infinitesimal interval
of time, A¢.

Bearing in mind the graduated transition of velocity, it follows that if we were
to substitute for any one of the interior layers a plane similar to the original planes,
assigning to it the velocity of the layer for which it is substituted, we might re-
move the fluid external to it on one side without in any degree altering the state
of relative motion (as expressed by the filamental angle) and of force, in the
layers of fluid which remained.

The absolute velocity of this plane might be less in any assignable ratio than that
of the original planes, yet it would experience the same resistance per square foot
as they; and it follows that the frictional force experienced by a surface moving

ast the particles of a fluid, is independent of the absolute velocity of the plane, so
ong as the filamental angle is unchanged. If, retaining the original planes and
the space between them unaltered, we assign to them an established velocity, say
m times as great as before, the filamental angle will also have become m times
as ereat, expressing the circumstance that the relative motion of similarly placed
contiguous particles is increased in that ratio, and that a condition appropriate to
a difference of frictional force has been established. The force of fluid friction
must be regarded as governed, not by the absolute velocity of the moving surface,
but by its velocity as related to that of contiguous particles, expressed in terms

214 REPORT—-1869.

which take account of their lateral distance from it ; these conditions constitute the
angle ¢, and are fully represented by it. he a be
The best experiments seem to show generally that the force of fluid friction is
as the square of the velocity ; and as it is probable that for any given plane moved
with various velocities the integral value of throughout the area will in each
case be as the velocity, it would seem that we may substitute for the ordinary ex-
pression F=/v*a (in which F is the force per square foot at every point in the area,
» the absolute velocity of the plane in relation to the wholly undisturbed fluid,

and a the area) F= Lf? ko da, where ¢ is the value of filamental angle which the
existing conditions have called into play at each particular point in the area. —

If to an infinitely extended plane, immersed in an infinitely extended fluid, we
suddenly assign a definite velocity and maintain it, motion will gradually spread
itself into the fluid from the plane, the layers nearest the plane having always the
ereater velocity, and each experiencing an acceleration depending on the differ-
ence of frictional force measured at its two faces. If the thickness of any layer

be represented by dh, then st will be the difference of filamental angle, and

Q2hp the difference of force.

On this basis a differential equation might be constructed showing the rate at
which the velocity would penetrate the fluid in the case supposed, and this might
be extended to the case of a finite plane penetrating an undisturbed mass of fluid
with a definite velocity.

On Roads and Railways in Northern India, as affected by the Abrading and
Transporting Power of Water.
By Tuomas Loan, C.H., F.RS.E., and Memb. C.E. Inst.

[A communication ordered to be printed 7 extenso in the Proceedings. |

At the last Meeting of this Association the author drew attention to the
“ Abrading and Transporting Power of Water,” when he ventured to bring forward
his views regarding this important subject. Since that time he has studied the
subject still more, and in the theory then brought forward he has been more and
more confirmed.

As many of those present may not have seen or heard what these views are,
he briefly recapitulated the most prominent points before entering on the question
of their practical application to engineering works, :

1. All silt-bearing streams when in train only transport a given proportion of
earthy matter.

2. That the proportion depends on the velocity, and the nature of the materials
transported.

3. Any increase of the velocity must cause a tendency to cutting, and any decrease
to deposit.

4. That a silt-bearing stream is retarded by having to exert a force sufficient to
transport certain proportions of certain descriptions of earthy matter, consequently
the slope required for a given velocity under such circumstances must be greater
somewhat than if the water was pure.

From these conclusions he arrived at certain deductions regarding the flow of
water down irrigation canals, which at present it is not necessary to dwell on, and
he went on to state that, so far as his personal observations extended, they went
to show that, though the transporting power of water increased with the velocity,
yet it diminished as the depth increased, and suggested that this was possibly owing
to the rotatory motion of fluids, which are supposed to follow some figure more of
the nature of the involutes of circles rather than straight lines.

Having got so far, he stated his belief that it signified little what may be the
cross section or velocity of a stream while passing over or through a work,
so long as it could again resume its natural section and velocity immediately on
leaving it.

The main object of his former paper was to show how the above-mentioned
conclusions affected the question as to the proper velocity to give to artificial

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 215

rivers, that is, irrigation canals in India and elsewhere, and on the present occasion he
proposed confining his attention to the rivers of Northern India, with suggestions
as to how they should be bridged.

To do so, however, probably it will be best to give a general description of the
plains of Northern India without attempting to infringe on the work of the geolo-
gist, but simply to state what is now to be found, and what changes in nature have
lately taken place and are at present being worked out.

The plains of Northern India may be considered under two great divisions,
namely, the Gangetic Valley and the Valley of the Indus. Approximately it may
be said that from the head of the Bay of Bengal to where the Ganges escapes
from the hills is a little short of 1200 miles. The general shape of the surface of

the country would in section be the quadrant of a very flat ellipse, with a small

portion of both ends cut off*; the total fall, rather less than 1000 feet, commen-
cing with rapid slopes near the hills, and ending with a fall of only one or two
inches in the mile at the sea. These plains consist of alluvial deposits to unknown
depths in alternate strata of clay and sand; but in addition to this are to be found
extensive beds of limestone, known in India by the name of “ kunkur.”

As a general rule, the uppermost stratum is a rich light clay from 5 to 10 feet
in depth, with sand below it, and it is chiefly owing to this that Upper India is so
very productive. Strata of clay, sand, and “kunkur” are met with at various
depths, and of various thicknesses, and all have a general parallelism to the sur-
face, but how or when deposited the author will not attempt to discuss.

These plains are cut up by deep troughs or valleys, usually from 5 to 10 miles
broad, of various depths, from that of 10 to even 100 feet. A section of one of
them was before the Section; it is through these valleys that the large rivers
which are fed by the melting of the snow now meander.

These valleys are known in India by the name of “ Khadirs,” and as there is
nothing similar to them that the author is aware of in England, it will be best to
adhere to this local name in contradistinction to what is called Bhangir, or the
high-level plain already referred to. The formation of these “‘ Khadirs” is, how-
ever, a matter of interest to the engineer, so the author will state his views as to
how they were scooped out and are now being filled up.

In the great valley of the Dehra Doon, lying between the Ganges and the Jumna,
and beyond the Sewalic range, where the ground chiefly consists of boulders and
sand, with a covering of vegetable soil, there are evident marks to show that these
two rivers stood at much higher levels than at the present day. It is also very
evident that the sea extended several hundred miles further inland than the present
head of the Bay of Bengal, so that at no very distant period, speaking of time in
a geological sense, the chief rivers of Northern India must have had, when escaping
from the hills, their beds higher than at present, and their channels shorter; so, with
slopes more rapid, the transporting power of these rivers must have been much
greater than now, and a violent cutting back on the bed has taken place from
the sea, scooping out these deep troughs to excessive depths through the alluvial

lains.
: This also would further add to the declivity of the beds of these rivers near the
foot of the hills, and thus boulders could be transported for many miles further
into the plains than they are at present.

It is thus the author would account for sand only being found to great depths in
the valleys of the large rivers some distance down their course, as, for example, on
the Beas, where the Delhi Railway crosses it; also near the foot of the hills, shingle
and boulders some twenty miles down the course of these rivers are to be found a
few feet below the sand, as in the case of the Dadoopoor dam at the head of the
Jumna Canal, where the foundations rest on shingle at a depth of about 10 feet
below the bed.

With sand overlying boulders and shingle it can only be supposed that the beds
of the rivers are here being raised, and as the Delta is extending year by year out
into the Bay of Bengal, the river here also is becoming higher, so it is natural to
suppose that all along the course of the river between these points a similar process
is going on. This is a very important point to know; for though this silting up may

* Possibly this curve may be parabolic.

216 REPORT—1869.

be imperceptible, yet it clearly shows that there is no danger to any permanent
work by a general depression of the beds of these rivers going on, as some
suppose, because any scooping out of the bed is only local, and can be met by local
remedies.

Borings in the beds of torrents which drain the southern slopes of the hills, and
not the interior, and which meander over the plains rather than intersect them,
give very different results to what are found in the valleys of the large rivers, as
alternate strata of clay, sand, and kunkur are found.

It is necessary to know the rainfall at various points to understand certain
natural features, and the changes now going on. In the Gangetic valley the rain-
fall is considerable, being, on an average, nearly

20 inches a year at Delhi,
OU ae ne Meerut,
40 ,, ¢ Roorkie.

The level of the Bhangir here being so very much above that of the Khadir, a
gradual wearing down of the Bhangir is going on; thus the high level plains between
the Ganges and the Jumna, commonly called “ the Doab,” is cut up by several large
streams. With such a rainfall as there is all over the Doab, it is natural to suppose
that there must be some line marking out the catchment basins of each stream, and
that this line, by its being least exposed to the action of running water, remains the
highest, and is neither more nor less than the “backbone of the country,” not
caused by any upheaval, but simply that it is worn down /ess than any other por-
tion of the plains. It is along this ridge or ridges that irrigation canals should he
led ; but as the plains are so level, the general direction of these ridges is difficult
to determine. This at once explains why so many cross sections of the country
have to be taken to discover the best line for an irrigation canal and its branches,
which are 1iot necessary with a road or a railway where distance becomes so im-
portant an element.

The author would now make a few remarks on the valley of the Indus, that is,
the plains which form the “ Doabs” of the Punjab, which are similar, geologically,
to those of the Gangetic valley, the only difference being that they have not any
deep rivers intersecting the plains, nor ridges similar to what are found in the North-
western Provinces.

Take, for example, the Richna Doab, the high level plains between the Ravee
and the Chanab rivers, which is 50 miles broad near Lahore, where the Bhangir is
only about 10 feet above the Khadir of the Ravee; and on the Chanab side at
Wuzeerabad the difference of level is only 17 feet, so that in a lateral direction
there can be very little fall.

Again, the rainfall is very little compared with what there is in the valley of
the Ganges, as approximately it is at Jnung 4 inches yearly, or 1 of the fall at
Delhi. : a

Oheentot, Bl eree at soe Sh ee + Meerut,
OcalkotenGUr swap nee seek okt # Roorkie,

and these points are respectively about equidistant from the hills. The factis that
the land absorbs all the rain which falls, so that at fifty miles below the hills every
vestige of drainage-lines disappears. Not that no drainage passes over this line,
for it is on this parallel that the Lahore and Peshawur road runs; and 13,470
running feet of gaps, in addition to 37 bridges and culverts of various sizes, are left
in this embankment to pass off the cross drainage which comes down from the
neighbouring country above, where the rain is more plentiful; yet with all this
waterway, in a distance altogether of 59 miles (including the valley of the Ravee),
in July 1866 “the flood topped the road for over 8 miles in length, and made very
extensive breaches, scouring out the embankment below the level of the country.”

It appears to the author that in such a case it would perhaps have been better
either to divert the drainage higher up, or to have had no road whatever raised, but
to have allowed the flood to pass quietly off over the road. The effect in this case, by
increasing the velocity at certain points, has been, for the comparatively pure water
which had harmlessly flowed through fields of cultivation, to sweep away several

——E————————Ee—————

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 217

miles more of the embankment, thus showing “that with increased velocity there
must be abrasion.” Where floods even at higher velocities are not obstructed, no
such action takes place. The author in October 1863 laid down a causeway of
“Jomkur ” metal across the Khadir of the Sutledge at Loodvanah level with the
surface of the country, and up to 1867 it was standing, and for anything he knows
to the contrary, it may be there still. Thus a number of floods have passed over
it at great velocities, yet as the water had its proper load of silt there has been no
cutting.

ars, continue, the Richna Doab being so little raised above the Khadirs, there
could be no great fall east or west ; consequently, with a plain fifty miles broad with
a considerable fall towards the sea, the tendency would be for the floods to spread
themselves over it, and as the rainfall is so little, this drainage is ultimately ab-
sorbed. There is therefore no wearing down of this plain by the action of water;
so instead of there being any natural ridges, the surface of the country is so uniform
that the author found by one of his trial cross-sections, with points taken at every
400 feet, in a distance of six miles in a straight line, that the highest point did not
exceed in height the most depressed more than 5 feet, though the fall of the
country at right angles to this line was some 2 feet in the mile. It is this uni-
formity of the plain and the richness of the soil that make the Richna Doab so pecu-
liarly well adapted for irrigation, and in this opinion the author is supported by the
late chief engineer of the Punjab, Lord Napier of Magdala.

The courses of rivers in India are very changeable, so much so that Government
have to collect the land-rents in the neighbourhood of these rivers on a different
system to other parts, so as to admit of change of proprietorship as the course of the
river shifts. These deep troughs or valleys, called “‘ khadirs,” are the limits through
which the rivers change their courses from time to time; and though the course
may be said to be always serpentine, the changes are not exactly so, but follow that
of the valley; thus there is a gradual movement of all the bends downwards, so
that after a given number of years, say half a century, the river may be exactly as
it was fifty years before, but at the end of twenty-five years every bend would be
found at the opposite side of the valley.

Sometimes the changes are more or less sudden, when instead of the channel
moying gradually down, these bends are diverted, and the two ends get silted up ;
thus these diverted channels often become a marsh, and are known by different
names in different countries, such as “ broads” in Norfolk, ‘‘lagoons’’ in America,
“jheels” in Upper India, “ dhars”’ in Bengal, and “choungs” in Burmah. One
remarkable feature of them is that they are on a lower level generally than the
main river, proving that the rivers are raising their beds; but it is this peculiarity
that makes it all the more necessary to guard against the tendency of the main
stream returning to its deserted channels, and it is to this the author would more

articularly call attention, for he believes that hereafter it may be a work of no
ittle difficulty to prevent this where the large rivers are crossed by railways.

During high floods a large body of inundation water passes down the valley,
which is all more or less under water, but its flow is retarded for various
reasons, chiefly owing to vegetation; consequently, comparatively speaking, the
water is pure, and does not hold in suspension anything hke the same proportion
of earthy matter that the main stream does.

To give sufficient waterway by flood-openings to pass off all the inundation at
its natural velocity would require exceedingly large bridges. To increase the
velocity through the bridges implies a heading-up of the water with a still greater
reduction in the velocity on the up-stream side of the embankment, which neces-
sitates a still further reduction of the silt held in suspension.

The water thus lightened of its load, rushes through the flood-openings and
reaches the down-stream side at an increased velocity, in nearly a pure state; and
as it must take up a proportion of earthy matter due to this velocity, a violent
action takes place below the bridge. Nay, sometimes owing to this increased
velocity on the up-stream side, a scooping out takes place above the bridge; and if
the bridge happens to have a raised flooring, it simply becomes a submerged weir,
doing harm instead of good by deranging the flow. If floorings are to be used,
they should be as inverts to rest the bridge on, and not raised to a higher level

218 REPORT—1869.

than the foundations, In nine cases out of ten it would be better to break up all
raised floorings, and throw the material round the pier foundations, rather than
give a plunging direction to the water down-stream.

If this view be correct, it at once proves that with loose sand to unknown depths,
the only safe mode for bridging the large rivers is to have deep foundations, which
necessitate great spans, and iron girder bridges, and as the sand pump makes the
sinking such a simple matter now, the difference of 10 feet more or less of depth
in cost is insignificant. (In Madras, where there is an unlimited supply of heavy
material, the case may be different, and there shallow foundations may be more
economical.) An extra depth of 10 feet or so, however, is nearly tantamount to
doubling the sectional area of the waterway, and as water does not move in straight
lines, it matters little what the shape of the section may be when passing through
a bridge; thus the waterway may be doubled without adding to the breadth, but
by deepening the bed. By this means, without adding much to the cost of a bridge,
not only the main stream, but also the inundation water could all be passed through
the one bridge, and thus a great saving effected by haying no flood-openings, and
consequently no danger of the main river taking to these side openings, while the
only inconvenience would be to cause the flood to last a few hours longer than it
otherwise would.

But, however, where the embankment crossing a valley is of a great length, all
the water could not drain back to the main stream, after the flood had passed off, par-
ticularly when, as has been already shown, the ground is much lower away back from
the river than at its banks. To get rid of this water, siphons with spoon-mouthed
openings at both ends should be provided, so that though the water could rush
through the greater length of the siphon at a velocity of even 10 feet a second, yet
it would approach and leave the siphon at the natural velocity of perhaps not more
than 2 feet a second. Thus no violent action could take place either above or
below, and at the points of admission and egress, the water would have the proper
load of silt due to its velocity.

From all the author has read, seen, and heard, he cannot help thinking that a
large proportion of the late accidents on works in India is to be attributed to the
causes assigned in this paper, namely, an excessive velocity given to a stream that
has already been partially deprived of its natural load of earthy matter, thereby
causing a violent action below, and sometimes even above bridge.

The importance of the questions now raised as to bridging rivers in India is
daily becoming greater ; for, while this paper was being prepared, the Government
of India has determined to construct the Lahore and Peshawur Railway, which
line must cross, not only the Ravee, the Chanab, and the Jhilum, but also the
Indus passing over the Richna Doab, which has heen described above. Should,
therefore, the suggestions now made be correct, it is evident that hundreds of
thousands of pounds may be saved by adopting them, and thus, a proper knowledge
of these laws arrived at, may enable the engineer to make this line of railway,
whichis supposed to be one of the most difficult lines to construct in India, with
perfect confidence of success, and at possibly less cost than many of those now
constructed.

The author would only now add, that the knowledge of the abrading and tran-
sporting power of water is not only desirable in designing roads, railways, or canals,
but affects every question connected with hydraulic works in all countries. It
would occupy too much time to allude to them further; but he may, however, venture
to ask what would be the financial state of Southern India (which now does not
pay) if harbours were constructed on sound principles, so as not to be silted up ?

Time will not admit of the author’s describing a modification of the siphons,
which he thinks, in some instances, may be introduced with economy for crossing
minor streams, instead of bridging them in the usual manner; but he believes not
only can this be done with advantage, but also, with spoon-mouthed siphons,
in Bengal inundation water may be carried through embankments in regulated
volumes, so as to be ayajlable for irrigation, thus adding both to the fertility of
the soil and the salubrity of the climate, while the embankments would protect
the country from those devastating floods which so often destroy both life and
property. © ~~

. a

el i al Ne i ee eee | a al

Oa.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 219

Description of a New System of House Ventilation. By J. D. Morrtson.

The main features of this novel system of warming and ventilating, consist in
so circulating pure fresh air (through a warming chamber) into the room, and of foul
air (through the fire) into the chimney, that all local currents are resolved into one,
which, describing an unbroken circuit, forms an upper warmer current from the
fire to the opposite wall, and an under colder current from the wall back again to
the fire, when, after supporting combustion, the products escape up the chimney.
The vacuum thus produced by the warmer current through the chimney creates
the now colder current from the atmosphere, which, passing through the heating-
chamber, supports the respiration of any number of men.

On an Improved Vertical Annular High-pressure Steam-boiler.
By Wiuiu1am Suita, CLL, F.CS., PGS.

This paper described an improved vertical high-pressure annular steam-boiler,
recently invented by Messrs. Allibon and Manbré, and manufactured by Messrs.
Allibon, Noyes and Co., of the Rosherviile Iron-works, Northfleet, as it fulfils to
a remarkable extent the conditions indispensable in a steam—generator, and that, too,
with an extreme simplicity of construction. Now the boiler stands by itself in this
latter respect. The body of the boiler and the fire-box are constructed separately
as distinct parts, the water and flue-spaces being disposed annularly. The outer
part consists of the external skin or shell of the boiler, and a concentric inner
cylinder is rivetted thereto near the bottom, a wrought-iron ring being interposed
to keep the proper distance apart. This inner cylinder is also firmly stayed to the
shell by screwed stays placed at suitable distances apart.

To the top of this inner cylinder a tube-plate is rivetted, which is also connected
to a central pendant annular water-space, descending to within a short distance of
the furnace bars

Thus the fire-box proper consists of two rings forming an annular water-space
round the furnace, the inner ring being made slightly conical to give a better heat-
ing-surface, and at the same time permit the steam to get away freely. The top of
this fire-box is connected to the tube-plate by a series of short lap-welded tapered
tubes, screwed at both ends.

In the boilers first constructed on the Allibon and Manbré system, the central
pendant portion was merely a receiver, pocket, or “pot,” but in the boilers now
constructed by them an important modification has been introduced to this portion
of the boiler. The central portion forms part of the fire-box, to which it 1s con-
nected by the short horizontal tubes or flue-passages shown at the top of the cen-
tral pendant portion. The products of combustion, on reaching the top of the fire-
box, are deflected by the upper tube-plate, and descend between the outer ring of
the fire-box and the inner cylinder or body of the boiler, until they arrive at the
bottom, where they pass into an annular flue surrounding the base of the boiler,
and from thence by an oblong flue or uptake to the chimney.

The flue-passages are made sufficiently large to allow of their being cleaned easily,
and any repairs effected.

The annular flue surrounding the base of tie boiler may also be converted into
a feed water-heater by jacketting or surrounding it with a water-space.

The feed is pumped in by a circulating pump; a check-valve and a relief-valve
being provided to prevent any excess of pressure.

This system possesses all the well-known advantages of vertical independent
boilers, rendering unnecessary the heavy item of expenditure for the setting of
Cornish and other enclosed boilers, whilst it allows of free inspection, and the con-
sequent ready detection of leakage or other defects, and thus tends materially to
diminish the risk of explosion.

Amongst some of the leading features of this boiler may be included the thorough
circulation of water which is insured, the large extent of effective heating-surface,
the rapid boiling off of large volumes of steam, the thorough utilization of the pro-
ducts of combustion, simplicity in construction of the several parts, and great;
strength of the whole as a steam-generator.

220 REPORT—1869:

When applied as a marine boiler, the advantages of this plan are very great, re-
quiring only a very small cubic space compared with the heating-surface. Finally,
the very good results obtained from boilers made according to this invention have
fully realized the most sanguine expectations formed of its merits.

On a Method of determining the true amount of Evaporation from a Water-
Surface. By G. J. Symons, F.M.S., and Rogers Fre,

[For Abstract of this Paper, see Section A, page 25. ]

Railway Passengers’ and Guards’ Communication.
By 8S. Atrrep Variey, Assoc. Inst. CLE.

The author remarked that the subject had occupied considerable attention, that
he had been engaged upon it during the last four years, and he thought there would
be some points of interest in a description of a system of communication which was
applied in 1866, and is at the present time in use on the Royal train in which Her
Majesty travels to and from the North ; the system referred to had also been applied
to an ordinary train, and daily used for more than eighteen months.

The author stated there was a belief on the part of some (but by no means all of
the railway authorities) that, owing to the subtle nature of electricity, it was not
suitable for the purpose of train intercommunication; but he thought this belief
arose chiefly from-a want of acquaintance with the progress made by those who
have made the practical application of electricity their special study, and he believed
the time would come when electricity would be universally acknowledged to be
the best medium for signalling upon the rolling-stock of this country.

The author remarked the application of electricity to signalling in trains, con-
sidered in the abstract as an electrical problem, was a simple one; the mechanical
difficulties in its application, however, had been somewhat complex, and the solution
of these difticulties had depended chiefly upon the mechanical construction of the
various parts.

The conditions laid down by the railway authorities as necessary, were that the
system should be simple and not liable to derangement, that passengers should be
able easily to signal in an emergency, and that the apparatus should be detective
to prevent the repudiation of a signal when once given ; besides this it was suggested,
for the sake of economy, that the apparatus should be portable, so that it could be
moved from one train to another if required.

Numerous electrical systems had been proposed, but only three had been practically
applied.

i he first on the list was Mr. Preece’s, in use on the London and South-Western
Railway ; the second was Mr. C. V. Walker’s, in use on the South-Hastern Railway ;
the third the joint invention of Mr. Martin and Mr, 8. A. Varley, and in use upon
the London and North-Western Railway.

The three systems referred to differed from one another in the mechanical con-
struction of the couplings, the alarums, the galvanic batteries, and the carriage
signalling apparatus; he did not, however, propose to discuss their respective merits,
butwould confine himself to a description of the system with which he was associated.

An insulated wire was run underneath the carriages, the coupling bars and iron-
work of the carriages were connected electrically together, and the circuit was com-
pleted, when the apparatus was in use, through the insulated wire, the apparatus,
the ironwork, and the railway metals.

Two insulated wires, the one connected to the ironwork, the other to the insulated
wire running under the vehicles, were led up into the compartments of each carriage,
and bringing these into contact with one another closed the circuit through the
galvanic batteries and the alarums in the vans, and on the engine.

The connexions between vehicle and vehicle composing the train were effected
by means of two coupling-ropes containing flexible conductors; this enabled the
carriages to be joined together at either end, and gave a double connexion between
vach vehicle.

The coupling-ropes were made by wrapping a wire spirally round a hempen core ;

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 221

seven of these were then laid longitudinally and bound together by a serving of
hemp protected by an insulating compound ; each rope therefore contained seven
separate conductors; and in practice the ropes were found to be very durable ; for
as the conducting-wires touched one another throughout, should one or all of them
be broken, continuity would be still maintained by the ends of some of the wires
touching, and unless the rope was actually severed the electrical continuity was
still complete.

Malleable cast-iron eyes were attached to the ends of the coupling-ropes where
the connexions were made, and these were grasped by strong iron hooks actuated
by powerful springs placed in cast-iron boxes attached to the carriages.

The eyes of the couplings were coated with copper at the points of contact, and
pressed against a plate of brass attached to the hooks, by this means very perfect
contact was secured.

The apparatus in the vans consisted of a battery and an electrical alarum ; these
were placed in boxes; and the connexions were made by simply hanging them on
brass studs. .

The vans were supplied also with ringing keys, to enable the guards to signal
to one another. ;

The apparatus on the engine was a portable alarum, and the power to work it
was obtained from the galvanic battery in the leading van. 3

The carriage-apparatus consisted of a lever handle in a metal box, which when
pulled closed the circuit and became locked; all the alarums were set ringing, and
continued to ring until the apparatus had been reset by a special key.

The cost of maintenance was almost nominal, and no electrical knowledge was
required in its management, all the operations of testing being mechanical; the
comnexions also being double, any faulty coupling was readily detected, and the
system rendered most reliable, as the appavatus would work even in the unlikely
event of a faulty coupling in every carriage.

To meet the wishes of the Board of Trade, some of the railway companies had
electrical systems applied to ordinary passenger-trains, and the system referred to
by the author was fitted up on an express train running 250 miles daily between
London and Wolverhampton. This train was started from all the stations at which
it stopped by means of the apparatus, and its working reported by the guards, and
in this way it was tested twenty-two times daily.

Many thousands of signals have been sent and recorded, the apparatus having
been at work on the train more than eighteen months, and its performance, as
shown by the guards’ reports, has been marked by the most unvarying regularity.

The distinguishing features claimed for this system are :—

I. The construction of the flexible conductors renders it almost impossible for
the electrical continuity to fail.

Il. Very perfect contact is obtained by the construction of the hook-and-eye
coupling, the surfaces of contact being made of brass and copper—metals not
liable to oxidation ; the act of coupling cleans the contact surfaces, and the hook-
and-eye couplings are firmly grasped by powerful springs.

Il. The couplings release themselves without damage, if the carriages be
forcibly separated, and the breaking away of a train can be indicated.

IV. The connexions being double between each vehicle, the efficiency of the
system is not impaired even in the unlikely event of there being several faulty
connexions in a train.

Y. The apparatus and connexions can be tested at any time, and any defect
localized without special electrical knowledge.

VI. The connexions in the vans and on the engine being made by hanging up
the apparatus, and the batteries and alarums beiug portable, they can be readily
shifted from one train to another, or replaced, if necessary.

VII. Greater striking-power is obtained in the construction of the alarums than
in the usual construction of continuous ringing bells; and all the parts being
mounted upon one piece of cast iron, they are very durable, and not liable to
derangement.

VIII. The carriage apparatus and all parts of the system are constructed to stand
very rough treatment without damage,

222 REPORT—1869.

IX. The apparatus is not expensive in its first cost, and the cost of its main-
tenance is almost nominal.

X. The system has had the advantage of being practically tested for more than
eighteen months upon an ordinary train running daily 250 miles and tested twenty-
two times each day; and the result of this trial, as shown by the guard’s daily
report, has proved the efficiency of its working as well as the ease and cheapness
of its maintenance.

On the Penetration of Armour Plates by Shells with Heavy Bursting Charges
Fired Obliquely. By Sir Josern Wurrworts, Bart., LL.D., RS.

Printed zn extenso among the Reports, see page 430.
to} p “ u to}

APPENDIX.
Abstracts received too late for insertion in order.

On the Physiological Action of Hydrate of Chloral.
By Brysamin W, Ricnarpson, M.D., RS,

The following paper was drawn up by the desire of the President of the Biological
Section and the Department of Physiology during the Meeting. In opening the
subject, the author first expressed his thanks to Mr. Daniel Hanbury, of Plough
Court, who had supplied him with a specimen of the hydrate of chloral, and had
also been so good as to abstract from Liebreich’s papers the principal facts and
opinions on which the introduction of the hydrate into medical practice was based.
In brief, hydrate of chloral is a white crystalline body, soluble in water, and yield-
ing a solution not disagreeable to the taste. It is made by the addition of water
to the substance chloral. Chloral, the composition of which is C, HCl, O, is the
final product of the action of dry chlorine on ethylic alcohol. It is an oily fluid,
thin, colourless, volatile, The specific gravity is 1°502 at 64° Fahr., and it boils
at 202° Fahr. It has a vapour-density of 73, taking hydrogen as unity, The odour
is pungent. When chloral is treated with a little water, heat is evolved, and small
stellate white crystals are formed as the fluid solidifies. The solid substance is the
hydrate of chloral, C, HCl,OH,O. The hydrate is slowly volatilized if it be ex-

osed to the air, and the odour of it, were it not pungent, is so like melon as to be
hardly distinguishable from melon. When heat is applied to the hydrate, it distils
over without undergoing decomposition.

When to a watery solution of hydrate of chloral caustic soda or potassa is
added, the hydrate is decomposed, chloroform (CHCI,) is set free, and a formate
of sodium or potassium, according to the alkali used, is formed. It was on a
knowledge of this decomposition by an allali that Liebreich was led to test the
action of the substance physiologically. He conceived the idea that in the livin
blood the same change could be effected, and that the chloroform would be libe-
rated so slowly that anesthesia of a prolonged kind would result. To try this, he
subjected animals to the action of chloral, and even man, and proved that sleep
could be rapidly induced without the second stage of excitement common to the
action of chloroform when it is given by inhalation. Liebreich produced in a
rabbit, by a dose of 0°5 grm. of the hydrate of chloral, a sleep which lasted nine
hours. This dose was equivalent to 0°35 of chloral, and to 0:29 of chloroform.
The symptoms, he found, were like those produced by chloroform, In some cases
he gaye the hydrate to the human subject. The first case was that of a lunatic, to
whom he administered 1°35 grm. No irritation was set up, and five hours of
sleep was obtained. In a second case, he gave internally a dose of 3:5 grms. to
a man suffering from melancholia, by which he produced a sleep of sixteen hours.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 2293

Such was an epitome of the facts placed before the author at the time when he
commenced to make his experiments. In setting out on his own account, he first
prepared a standard solution of the hydrate. He found that 30 grains dissolved in
40 grains of water, and formed a saturated solution, the whole making up exactly
the fluid drachm. The standard solution prepared in this way was very con-

_ yenient.

The author next proceeded to inquire whether, by the addition of the hydrate
to fresh blood, chloroform was liberated. This was proved to be the fact; the
odour of chloroform was very distinct from the blood, and chloroform itself was
distilled over from the blood, and condensed by cold into a receiver.

The narcotic power of the hydrate was then tried on pigeons, rabbits, and frogs.
The standard solution, named above, was employed, and was administered either
by the mouth or by hypodermic injection. ‘The action was equally effective by
both methods, The general results were confirmatory of Liebreich’s own expe-
rience to a very considerable extent. They are as follows :—In pigeons, weighing
from 83 to 11 onnces, narcotism was produced readily by the administration of
from 13 to 23 grains of the hydrate. A; these animals the dose of 24 grains was
the extreme that could be borne with safety, and a dose of 12 grain was sufficient
to produce sleep and insensibility. The full dose of 23 grains produced drowsiness
in a few minutes, and deep sleep with entire insensibility in twenty minutes.
Before going to sleep there was in every case, whether the dose was large or small,
vomiting. As the sleep and the insensibility came on, there was in every instance
a fall of animal temperature, and even in cases where recovery followed, this de-
crease was often to the extent of five degrees, The respirations also fell in pro-
portion, declining in one case from 34 to 19 in the minute during the stage of
insensibility. From the full dose that could be borne by the pigeon, the sleep
which followed lasted from three and a half to four hours. Six hours at least was
required for perfect recovery. During the first stages of narcotism in pigeons the
evolution of chloroform by the breath was most distinctly marked.

In rabbits weighing from 83 to 88 ounces, thirty grains of the hydrate were re-
“Dee in order to produce deep sleep and insensibility. A smaller dose caused

rowsiness and want of power in the hinder extremities, but no distinct insen-
sibility.

When the full effect is produced in rabbits from the administration of the large
dose, the drowsiness comes on in a few minutes; it is followed by want of power
in the hinder limbs, and in fifteen minutes by deep sleep and complete insensi-
bility. The pupil dilates, and becomes irregular; the respiration falls (in one case
from 60 to 39 in the minute), and the temperature declines 6° Fahr.; sensibility
returns with the rise in number of respiratory movements, but in some cases falls
again during the process of recovery. The drowsiness, or, if the animal is left alone,
what may be called sleep, lasts from five and a half to six hours. But it was ob-
served that the period of actual anesthesia was very short, lasting not longer than
half an hour, after which the skin seemed rather more than naturally sensitive to
touch. During recovery there are tremors of the muscles almost like rigors from
cold; they are due probably to great failure of animal temperature.

In frogs a grain of the hydrate causes almost instant insensibility, coma, and
death.

In further prosecution of his research, the author tested, on similar subjects, the
effect of chloroform, bichloride of methylene, tetrachloride of carbon, butylic
alcohol, and chloride of amyl. In all the observations with these substances, the
narcotizing agent was used by hypodermic injection. It was found, as a result of
these inquiries, that 7 grains of chloroform, 5 of tetrachloride of carbon, and 7 of
chloride of amyl, produced the same physiological effect as 2 grains of the hydrate.
Seven grains of bichloride of methylene induced a shorter insensibility. A rabbit

- subjected to 30 grains of chloroform slept four hours and twenty-five minutes ;

and a pigeon subjected to 7 grains slept three hours and twenty-five minutes. All
these agents caused vomiting in birds, before the insensibillty was pronounced,
the same as did the hydrate ; but in no animal was there any sign of the stage of
excitement which is seen when the same agents are administered by inhalation.
This fact is most important, as indicating the difference of action of the same

994, REPORT—1869.

remedy by difference in the mode of administration. The temperature of the body
ts reduced by the agents named above, but not so determinately as by the

ydrate.

cites animals, pigeons, made to go into profound sleep, the one by the hydrate,
the other by chloroform (each substance administered subcutaneously), were
placed together, and the symptoms were compared. The sleep from the chloro-
form was calmer; there was freedom trom conyulsive tremors, which were pre-
sent in the animal under the hydrate, and recovery was, it was thought, steadier.
It was observed, and the fact was well worthy of note, that no irritation was
caused in the skin or subjacent parts by the injection of the chloroform and other
chlorides.

The neutralizing action of the hydrate on strychnine was tried, and it was de-
termined that the substance arrests the development of the tetanic action of the
poison for a short period, and maintains life a little longer afterwards, but does not
avert death. This subject deserves further elucidation.

When the hydrate of chlorai is given in an excessive dose it kills: there are
continuance of sleep, convulsion, and a fall of temperature of full 8° before death.

The post-mortem appearances were noticed after a poisonous dose. The vessels
of the brain are found turgid with blood. The blood is fluid, and coagulation is
delayed (in a bird to a period of three minutes), but afterwards a loose coagulum
is formed. The colour of the brain-substance is darkish pink. The muscles ge-
nerally contain a large quantity of blood, which exudes from them, on incision,
freely. This blood coagulates with moderate firmness. Immediately after death
all motion of the heart is found to be arrested. ‘The organ is left with blood on
both sides, but with more in the right than the left side. The colour of the blood
on the two sides is natural, and the coagulation of this blood is moderately firm.
The other organs of the body are natural.

Other observations were made on the changes which the blood undergoes when
the hydrate of chloral is added to it. The corpuscles undergo shrinking, and are
crenate ; and when excess of hydrate is added the blood is decomposed in the
same way as when treated with formic acid. The summary of the author’s work
may be put as follows :—

Hydrate of chloral, administered by the mouth or by hypodermic injection,
produces, as Liebreich states, prolonged sleep.

The sleep it induces, as Liebreich also shows, is not preceded by the stage of ex-
citement so well known when chloroform is administered by inhalation.

The narcotic condition is due to the chloroform liberated from the hydrate in
the organism, and all the narcotic effects are identical with those caused by chlo-
roform.

In birds the hydrate produces vomiting in the same manner, and to as full a
degree, as does chloroform itself.

The sleep produced by hydrate of chloral is prolonged, and during the sleep
there is a period of perfect aniesthesia; but this stage is comparatively of short
duration.

The action of the hydrate is (as Liebreich assumes) first on the volitional
centres of the cerebrum ; next, on the chord; and lastly, on the heart.

PracticaL APPLICATIONS,

Whether hydrate of chloral will replace opium and the other narcotics is a
point on which the author was not prepared to speak. It is not probable it will
supersede the volatile anesthetics for the purpose of removing pain during the
performance of surgical operations, but it might be employed to obtain and keep
up the sleep in cases of painful disease. This research had, however, led to the
fact that chloroform, when injected subcutaneously in efficient doses, leads to as
perfect and as prolonged a narcotism as the hydrate, with an absence of other
symptoms caused by the hydrate, and which are unfavourable to its action. This
was a new truth in regard to chloroform, and might place it favourably by the
side of the hydrate for hypodermic use. Lastly, as the hydrate acts by causing
a decomposition of the blood, 7. e, by undergoing decomposition itself and seizing

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 225

the natural alkali of the blood, it adds to the blood the formate of sodium. How
far this is useful or injurious remains to be discovered. But while putting these
views as to practical application at once and fairly forward, the author said it was
due to Liebreich to add that his (Liebreich’s) theory and his experiments have
done fine service in a physiological point of view. They have shown in one de-
cisive instance that a given chemical substance is decomposed in the living body
by virtue of pure chemical change, and that the symptoms produced are caused by
one of the products of that decomposition. The knowledge thus definitively ob-
tained admits of being applied over and oyer again in the course of therapeutical
inquiry.

On the Natives of Vancouver's Island and British Columbia.
By Dr. Ricnarp Kine.

The natives are called Flat Heads, of which there are four varieties,—the elon-
gated head from before backwards, the conical head, the square head, and the
elongated head from side to side. hese artificial heads are produced by pressure
on the forehead and bandaging on the sides until the child is a year old. ‘The au-
thor called this series of deformities the deformity artificial, in which there is
mere displacement of brain, or a conformity of error; but he described a defor-
mity which is going on to a great extent in civilized life, which he named defor-
mity natural, or non-conformity of error, in which case it is not mere displacement
of brain, but an alteration of the oval shape of the brain, which he attributed to
the mode of nursing.

The alteration that takes place in the Flat Heads is mere displacement of the
cerebral mass and of the cerebro-spinal fluid, which has neither mentally nor physi-
cally any deteriorating effect. The frontal sinuses are, however, almost entirely
obliterated ; but whether the sense of smell is affected is a problem yet to be solved.

The Flat Heads are peculiar to America, if we except the Avaren, a Turco-Ural
race inhabiting the countries between the Don and the Volga, and they are now re-
stricted to certain tribes in the neighbourhood of the Columbia River. ‘he same
habit prevailed among the ancient Peruvians; and it only shows the infant state of
the ethnologist, when Tiedemann and Pentland maintained that these Flat Heads
owed their singular configuration, not to art, but to a natural peculiarity.

The native population of Vancouver’s Island is estimated at 18,000, but, as in all
cases of estimates of the uncivilized races, wandering as they do, this estimate
cannot be relied upon. By far the most numerous and powerful tribes live on the
west coast, or on the outward sea-board of the island, and the white man is re-
spected bythem. The natives generally are in a very degraded state; occasionally
industrious trustworthy individuals are to be met with, but, as a body, for con-
tinuous labours they cannot be depended on.

The fauna of the island is very rich, but the natives restrict themselves ‘entirely
to fish, and a small esculent plant, called Camass, which they collect and store up
for winter, and also cook them as we do potatoes by boiling and baking. The
Camass digging is a great season of reunion for the women of the various tribes, and
answers to our haymaicing or harvest-home.

On the Occasional Definition of the Convolutions of the Brain on the exterior of
the Head. Illustrated by a Cast. By T. 8, Prippavx,

Ths general outline of the skull, with the exception of its base, is convex, pre-
senting a flowing curve. Occasionally, however, and perhaps more frequently in
the forehead than elsewhere, the outline of a convolution is so prominently defined
on the skull as to be very apparent on the exterior of the head through all the
integuments. Now, could we discover the cause which underlies this exceptional

- configuration of the brain, we could scarcely fail of being much enlightened as to

the laws which preside over the development of this organ, Are we to regard
1869, 15

226 REPORT—1869.

this peculiarity as an indication of progress towards perfection, or the reverse ?
The result of the author’s observations leads him to think there can be little doubt
of the greater frequency of this occurrence in civilized than in savage races. Minute
examination reveals great differences in the proportion which the sizes of the con-
yolutions bear to each other in brains of the same general size. In two foreheads
of the same breadth, for example in A, the convolutions seated in the mesial line
shall be much wider than in B, whilst in B the lateral conyolutions shall be much
wider than in A.

As in different families or races the features of the face bear very different pro-
portions in size to each other, a certain average proportion being characteristic of
each, so with the conyolutions and groups of conyolutions of the brain, The theory
proposed by the author as an explanation of the protuberance of isolated cerebral con-
volutions is, that either exercise or the crossing of races by marriage has caused off-
springs to be born with a predisposition towards the more energetic manifestation of
a function than the extent of surface allotted to it by the brain type of its race will
furnish ; that this extent of surface not being susceptible of being widened without
subyerting the general packing and arrangement, and the proportion of the conyolu-
tions and the figure of the brain as a whole belonging to the type, Nature effects her
purpose of enlarging an isolated organ by thrusting the skull outwards. Tlis theory
requires that the cerebral convolutious most frequently protuberant shall be those ap-
propriated to functions which the progress of civilization has a tendency to cultivate
and render more active than they are found in a ruder state of society; and if the
author is right in believing that the convolutions which, in the frequency with
which they occur defined on the exterior of the head, surpass all others are those
of the organs of music and causality, he thinks it must be admitted that so far the
test does not fail. Gall especially described two different forms of development
presented by the organ of music.. In some of the most eminent composers, the
external corners of the forehead are enlarged and rounded towards the temples,
giving extent of superficies to the organ without defining its outline. In others
equally celebrated, the organ presents a well-defined prominence in the form of a
pyramid, the base of which rests above the eye, whilst the apex reaches halfway
up the forehead and terminates at its exterior edge. Gall gives the Mozarts, father
and son, Michael Haydn, Paer, Dussek, Crescentini, and several others, as examples
of the first conformation; Beethoven, Joseph Haydn, J. J. Rousseau, Gluck, &e.
as examples of the second; and the author adds to the list of great musicians pre-
senting the outline of the organ in a well-defined pyramidal form, the names of
Mendelssohn and Weber. He is acquainted with a lady who possessed from child-
hood an extraordinary genius for music, in whom the organ presents the first form,
The configuration of the corners of the forehead is such as to provide a wide extent
of surface for the organ of music, but no defined outline is perceptible. This lady
married into a family singularly wanting in musical capacity. She has two
daughters, who, without equalling their mother in genius, inherit from her a
capacity for music much above the average. Their heads, however, follow in
general outline the type of their father’s family ; they lack the spacious temporal
region of theirmother, and present the organ of music in the pyramidal form; and this
form is beyond doubt that which is most commenly met with in England. On an
average the author has his attention arrested at least once in six months by seeing
avery conspicuous development of the organ of music in the pyramidal form in a
complete stranger; when circumstances permit he always endeayours to ascertain
whether the endowment with the faculty is commensurate with the development
of the organ, and he has never yet received a negative answer.

On the Economical Condition and Wages of the Agricultural Labourer in
England. By Professor Luonn Lnuyt, F.S.A., FSS.

1, That the great causes of low wages in Agriculture, as compared with other

industries, appear to be the prevalence of physical labour and the permanent and
general excess of labourers.

2. That it being highly important for the welfare of the labourer to raise the

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 227

condition of agricultural labour from that of unskilled to skilled labour, it is neces-
sary to extend elementary education, to promote technical education among
farmers and stewards, and to offer liberal remuneration for superior skill and care-
ful working in any of the operations of farm-labour by the extension of payment
by piecework, and the greater adoption of machinery.

3. That, with a view to the greater efficiency of labourers, nothing is more im-
portant than that the labourer should receive wages sufficient to maintain him in
a condition of health and vigour.

4, That, in order to modify the excess of labourers in agriculture, it is requisite
to remove any obstacle, by the law of settlement or otherwise, to the free removal
of labourers from county to county, to promote emigration direct from the country
districts, to extend the cultivation of land, and to increase the commerce and
manufacture of the country.

5. That the difference existing in agricultural wages in different counties in the
kingdom, though greatly modified by the allowance in kind in some of them only,
mainly arises from a greater or less excess of labour, greater or less efficiency of
labour, different degrees of productiveness of the soil, difference in the capital
inyested in agriculture, and the presence of other industries.

6. That, for the purpose of encouraging the investment of capital in agriculture,
it is important to extend the custom of granting long leases, to secure compensa-
tions for agricultural improyements, and to remove any inequalities in the burden
of taxation wherever they exist, and to extend as far as possible railway accom-
modation in agricultural districts.

7. That, having regard to the advantages connected with the system of yearly
hiring, as the best mode of securing a continuity of labour in the same service, and
of promoting the welfare and contentment of the labourers, it is highly desirable
to extend the custom in all counties, provided it may be introduced without the
objectionable practice of hiring fairs and markets, substituting for them registry
offices in all the market towns.

8. That, whilst payment in kind is objectionable, as it is liable to great abuse,
produces much uncertainty, throwing the dangers of the market on the party less
able to bear them, it is still more objectionable where any part of the wages is
paid in the shape of cider or spirits.

That the bondage system prevailing in Northumberland operates most unjustly
to the labourer, and acts most disadyantageously on the moral condition of women
in that district.

10. That, uponfa comparison of the purely agricultural with the purely indus-
trial counties, the agricultural exhibit a smaller rate of births, deaths, and mar-
Yiages, a better state of education among the adults, especially among women,
nearly an equal proportional number of children at school, less drunkenness and
less crime, but more pauperism and more illegitimacy than the industrial counties.

11, That the house accommodation in the rural districts appears to demand
decided improvement, many of the old cottages being inconsistent with the moral
and physical well-being of their inhabitants.

12, That it were much to be desired that to every cottage a small garden
should be attached ; and that, where that is impossible, an allotment of land con-
yeniently situated should be granted with it.

13. That for the purpose of stimulating habits of self-reliance and independence
of character among the agricultural labourers, it is most important to restrict as
much as possible the operation of the Poor-Law, to promote the establishment of
savings’ banks, insurance companies, and friendly societies under proper control,
and to limit to the utmost extent the licensing of public-houses, and the inordi-
nate consumption of spirits.

14, That, taking into account the large excess of agricultural labourers, and the
probability of a still further displacement of labour in proportion with the intro-
duction of machinery and skill, the need of regulating the efflux of such labourers
to the towns and manufacturing districts in relation to the power of commerce
and manufactures to absorb them, the importance of procuring the contentment
of such agricultural population, and the universal desire of the most industrious
among them to own a plot of land or to farm it on his own account, as well as

La®

228 REPORT—1869.

the great advantage of offering means for the investment of sayings in the mode
most consonant with their habits, and in almost the only way within their reach,
it seems highly expedient, even regardless of other economic considerations of a
conflicting character, that facilities should be afforded for the purchase of lots of
land of reasonable size, capable of being cultivated by the proprietors themselves,
that any land now held by corporate or public bodies should be appropriated for
that purpose, and that in each estate, divided into large holdings, a timited num-
ber of small holdings, varying in extent from 30 to 100 acres, should he set aside,
to serve as stepping-stones for the labourer to rise to the position of a farmer.
15. That it is important that the agricultural statistics published by the Board
of Trade should be extended, so as to show the number and extent of land-pro-
rietors, the number and acreage of farm-holdings, the wages of agricultural la-
S onterek and, as far as can be ascertained, the produce of the soil.

On certain Economical Improvements in obtaining Motive Power.
By Ricwarp Eaton.

Referring to the fact that work and heat are now generally admitted to be con-
vertible terms, and showing that the steam-engine in its most improved state is
not able to develope into useful work much more than one-tenth of the mechanical
power due to the combustion of coal, the paper brought out the fact that whilst
2218 heat-units would be the cost of obtaining 150 cubic feet of air at 60 lbs. pres-
sure, to produce the same volume of steam at this pressure would require 29,350
heat-units. The improvements forming the subject of the paper were invented and
aati by Mr. George Warsop, of Nottingham, with the assistance of the author
of the paper.

Gold at is taken in by an air-pump which is worked by an ordinary steam-engine,
and the air is forced on, in its compressed state, through an air-pipe, past such
parts of the flues and funnel as contain waste heat or gases, such waste heat being
thus taken up by the air, which finally passes, at a temperature of about 600° Fahr.,
by a self-acting clack valve into the boiling water at the base of the boiler.
Within the boiler the air is distributed, and rises through the water. The cohesion
of the water is diminished by the presence of the air, and ebullition takes place
more easily.

Carefully conducted experiments on the plan adopted by the Royal Agricultural
Society of England, and made by one of the consulting [Hneineers of the Society,
proved that 47 per cent. more work was obtained out of a given quantity of fuel by
this system than by steam only. Other advantages also were referred to; and an
announcement was made that the fullest possible investigations would be instituted
and reported. It is to be hoped that the results will be brought before the notice
of the British Association at the Meeting next year,

a ©

—— oe

INDEX I.

REPORTS ON THE

OBJECTS and rules of the Association,
XVii.

Places and times of meeting, with names
of officers from commencement, xx.
List of former Presidents and Secretaries

of the Sections, xxv.

List of evening lectures, xxxiy.

Lectures to the Operative Classes, xxxvi.

Officers and Council for 1869-70, xxxyii.

Table showing the attendance and re-

* ceipts at the Annual Meetings, xxxviii.

Treasurer’s account, xl.

Officers of Sectional Committees, xli.

Report of Council to the General Com-
mittee at Exeter, xlii.

Report of the Kew Committee, 1868-69,
xliy.

Accounts of the Kew Committee, 1868-
69, xlix.

Recommendations adopted by the Ge-
neral Committee at Exeter :—invol-
ving grants of money, lxxy; applica-
tions for reports and researches, Ixxvii;
application to Government, lxxviii;
communications to be printed in exr-
tenso, lxxviii; resolutions referred to
the Council by the General Committee,
Ixxix.

Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientific purposes, Ixxxvil.

General statement of sums which have
been paid on account of grants for
scientific purposes, lxxxi.

Extracts from resolutions of the General
Committee, Ixxxvii.

Arrangement of General Meetings,
Ixxxvil.

Address by the President,George Gabriel
Stokes, D.C.L., Sec.R.S., Ixxxix.

Abel (F. A.) on the chemical nature of
cast iron, 82.

STATE OF SCIENCE,

Absorption and reflection of obscure heat
Prof. Magnus on, 214.

Adams (Prof.) on the rainfall of the
British Isles, 383.

Adderley (the Rt. Hon. C. B.) on a
uniformity of weights and measures,
308.

Aérolites, 276; catalogue of, by R. P.
Greg, 282.

Agricultural machinery, interim report
on, 404.

Amylic alcohol, physiological action of,
416.

Animals, report on the practicability of
establishing ‘a close time” for the
protection of indigenous, 91.

Annelids from the south coast of Devon
and Cornwall, 89.

Armour-plates, Mr. Joseph Whitworth,
on the penetration of, with long
shells of large capacity fired obliquely,
430.

Astreidee, British fossil, 156.

Baily (W. Hellier) on fossils obtained at
Kiltorkan Quarry, co. Kilkenny, 73.
Balfour (Dr. J. H.) on the connexion
between chemical constitution and

physiological action, 209.

Barn-ow]l, food of the, 94.

Barrow Hematite Iron and Steel Com-
pany’s Works, 97; analysis of iron
ores used at, 106; experiments on the
transverse strain of steel from, 107,
122, 144; experiments on the tensile
strain of steel from, 123, 151, 145;
experiments on the compression strain
of steel from, 152, 140, 145; experi-
ment on a steel girder from the, 146.

Bate (C. Spence) on the marine flora
and fauna of the south coast of Devon
and Cornwall, 84.

230

Bateman (J. F.) on the rainfall of the
British Isles, 383.

Bauerman (H.) on ice as an agent of
geologic change, 171.

Bazalgette (J. V. N.) on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 308.

Bell (Rey. Patrick) on agricultural ma-
chinery, 404,

Bidder (G. P.) on the stability, propul-
sion, and sea-going qualities of ships,
10.

Binney (E. W.) on the rate of increase
of underground temperature, 176.

Birds, on the protection of, 91; utility
of, 92; food of, 93; on the destruc-
tion of insects by, 95.

Birt (W. R.) on mapping the surface of
the moon, 76.

Boiler explosions,report of the committee
appointed to consider and report how
far coroners’ inquisitions are satisfac-
tory tribunals for the investigation of,
and how these tribunals may be im-
proved, 47.

Bowring (Sir John) on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 308.

Brady (G.8.), list of Ostracoda from the
south coast of Devon and Cornwall,

by, 89.

Brady (Henry B.) on the Foraminifera
of mineral veins and the adjacent
strata, 381.

Bramwell (Frederick J.) on boiler explo-
sions, 47; on agricultural machinery,
404; on the influence of form consi-
dered in relation to the strength of
yailway axles and other portions of
machinery subjected to rapid alterna-
tions of strain, 422.

Brayley (E. W.) on luminous meteors,
216.

Bright (Sir Charles) on standards of
electrical resistance, 454.

British fossil corals, Dr. P. Martin Dun-
can on, 150; list of tertiary and se-
condary, 168.

Brooke (C.) on mapping the surface of
the moon, 76; on the rainfall of the
British Isles, 383.

Brown (Dr. A. Crum) on the connexion
between chemical constitution and
physiological action, 209.

Brown (Samuel) on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 508.

Buccleuch (His Grace the Duke of) on
agricultural machinery, 404.

Buckland (F.) on the practicability of
establishing “a close time” for the
aba of indigenous animals,
91,

REPORT—-1869.

Busk (George) on the exploration of
Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, 189.

Butylic alcohol, physiological action of,
415.

Buzzard, common, food of, 93. °

Caithness (the Earl of) on agricultural
machinery, 404,

Carboniferous limestone, Charles Moore
on mineral veins in, and their organic
contents, 360.

Cast iron, report on the chemical nature
of, 82.

Chemical constitution and physiological
action, report of the committee on the
connexion between, 209.

Chemical nature of cast iron, report of
the committee on, 82. .

reactions of light discovered by
Prof. Tyndall, Prof. Morren on the, 66.

Clark (Latimer) on standards of eleetri-
cal resistance, 454.

“Close time ” for the protection of indi-
genous animals, on the practicability
of establishing a, 91.

Coal-seams on the coast of Greenland, 6.

Corals, British fossil, Dr. P. Martin
Duncan on, 150; list of tertiary and
secondary, 168.

, Mountain-limestone, report of the

committee appointed to get cut and

prepared sections of,for photographing,

(ile

Cornish (T.) on the marine fauna and
flora of the south coast of Devon and
Cornwall, 84.

Cornwall, report on the marine flora and
fauna of the south coast of, 84.

Coroners’ inquisitions, report of the
committee appointed to consider and
report how far, are satisfactory tribu-
nals for the investigation of boiler ex-
plosions, and how these tribunals may
be improved, 47.

Couch (Jonathan) on the marine fauna
and flora of the south coast of Deyon
and Cornwall, 84,

Crustacea from the south coast of Devon
and Cornwall, 85.

Dawkins (W. Boyd) on the exploration
of Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, 189.
De La Rue (Warren) on mapping the
surface of the moon, 76.

Denton (J. Bailey) on the treatment and
utilization of sewage, 313.

Devon, report on the marine flora and
fauna of the south coast of, 84.

Dircks (H.) on a uniformity of weights
and measures, 308,

—

— ee

INDEX I.

Dresser (H. E.) on the practicability of
establishing “a close time” for the
protection of indigenous animals, 91.

Duncan (Dr. P. Martin), report on the
British fossil corals, 150; on cutting
and preparing sections of mountain-
limestone corals for photographing,
lvl

Electrical resistance, report of the com-
mittee on standards of, 434.
Elliptic and hyperelliptic functions, W.
ie L. Russell on recent progress in,

334,

Emission, absorption, and reflection of
obscure heat, Prof. Magnus on, 214.
England and Wales, gross annual value
of property in, 358; local taxation in,
falling on real property, 59; imperial
taxation in, falling on real property,

59.

Ethylic alcohol, physiological action of,
414,

Evans (John) on the exploration of
Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, 189.

Everett (Professor) on the rate of in-
crease of underground temperature in
various localities ofdry land and under
water, 176.

Explosions, boiler, report of the com-
mittee appointed to consider and re-
port how far coroners’ inquisitions are
satisfactory tribunals for the investi-
gation of, 47.

Fairbairn (My. William) on a uniformity
of weights and measures, 308.

Farr (Dr.) on a uniformity of weights and
measures, 308. :

Fauna, marine, of the south coast of De-
yon and Cornwall, report on the, 84.
Fellows (Frank P.) on a uniformity of

weights and measures, 508.

Fish from the south coast of Devon and
Cornwall, 85.

Fletcher (H. Lavington) on boiler ex-
plosions, 47.

Flora, marine, of the south coast of De-
von and Cornwall, report on the, 84.

Foraminifera from the south coast of
Devon and Cornwall, 90.

— of mineral veins, Henry B, Brady
on the, 381.

Forbes (D.) on the chemical nature of
cast iron, 82 ; on standards of electri-
cal resistance, 434,

Fossils obtained at Kiltorkan Quarry,
co. Kilkenny, W. Hellier Baily on, 73.

Foster (Prof. G.C.) on standards of elec-
trical resistance, 434,

mm
231

Foster (P. Le Neve) on agricultural ma-
chinery, 404.

Frankland (Dr. E.) on the gases existing
in solution in well-waters, 55; on the
provision now existing in the United
KSingdom for the vigorous prosecution
of physical research, 215; on a uni-
formity of weights and measures, 308.

Fraser (Dr. T. R.) on the connexion be-
tween chemical constitution and phy-
siological action, 209.

Froude (W.) on the stability, propul-
sion, and sea-going qualities of ships,
10.

Fungidee, British fossil, 154, 157.

Galton (Capt. Douglas) on the stability,
propulsion, and sea-going qualities of
ships, 10.

Galton (F.) on the stability, propulsion,
and sea-going qualities of ships, 10.
Gases existing in solution in well-waters,

determination of the, 55,

Geikie (Archibald) on the rate of in-
crease of underground temperature,
176.

Gilbert (Dr. J. H.) on the treatment and
utilization of sewage, 315.

Glaisher (James) cn mapping the surface
of the moon, 76; on the rate of in-
crease of underground temperature,
176; on the provision existing in the
United Kingdom for the vigorous pro-
secution of physical research, 215;
on luminous meteors, 216; on the
rainfall of the British Isles, 383.

Glover (Dr. George) on a wniformity of
weights and measures, 308,

Graham (Rey, Dr.) on the rate of in-
crease of underground temperature,
176.

Grantham (Richard B.) on the treatment
and utilization of sewage, 315; on the
laws of the flow and action of water
containing solid matter in suspension,
402.

Greg (Robert P.) on luminous meteors,
216; catalogue of aérolites and meteors,
282.

Greenland (North), report of a com-
mittee for exploring the plant-beds
Oty L.

Greig (David) on agricultural
chinery, 404,

Grove (W. R.) on mapping the surface
of the moon, 76,

ma-

Harding (W. D.) on the treatment and
utilization of sewage, 313.
Harkness (Professor) on cutting and pre-

*
232

paring sections of mountain-limestone
corals for photographing, 171.

Harrison (J. Thornhill) on the treatment
and utilization of sewage, 315.

Hawksley (T.) on the rainfall of the
British Isles, 383; on the laws of the
flow and action of water containing
solid matter in suspension, 402.

Heat, Prof. Magnus on emission, ab-
sorption, and reflection of obscure,
214.

Heaton Steel and Iron Company’s Works,
experiments on the transverse strain
of steel from the, 116; experiments on
the tensile strain of steel from the,
127; experiments on the compression-
strain of steel from the, 135.

Heer (Prof. Oswald) on the fossil plants
collected by Mr. Whymper in North
Greenland, 8.

Hennessy (Prof.) on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 308.

Herschel (Alexander 8.) on luminous
meteors, 216.

Herschel (Sir J., Bart.) on mapping the
surface of the moon, 76.

Heywood (James) on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 508.

Hick (John) on boiler explosions, 47.

Hirst (Professor) on the provision ex-
isting in the United Kingdom for the
vigorous prosecution of physical re-
search, 215.

Tfockin (Charles) on standards of elec-
trical resistance, 454,

Tooker (Dr.) on the plant-beds of North
Greenland, 1.

Afugeins (W.) on mapping the surface
of the moon, 76; on the provision now
existing in the United Kingdom for
the vigorous prosecution of scientific
research, 215.

Tluxley (Prof.) on the provision existing
in the United Kingdom for the vi-
gorous prosecution of physical re-
search, 215.

Hyperelliptic functions, W. H. L. Rus-
sell on recent progress in elliptic and,
384,

Tce as an agent of geologic change, re-
port on, 171.

Tron, cast, on the chemical nature of, 82.
ores, analysis of, used at the Bar-
row Hematite Iron and Steel Com-
pany’s Works, 1.06.

, Principal J. D. Forbes’s experi-
ments on the conductivity of, 176.

, pure, on the preparation of, 82.

Jeffreys (J. Gwyn) on the marine fauna

REPORT—1869.

and flora of the south coast of Devon
and Cornwall, 84.

Jenkin (Prof. Fleeming) on the rate of
increase of underground temperature,
176; ou the provision existing in the
United Kingdom for the vigorous pro-
secution of physical research, 213 ;
on standards of electrical resistance,
434.

Joule (Dr.) on standards of electrical
-resistance, 434.

Kane (Sir Robert) on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 308.

Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, fifth report
of the committee for exploring, 189.

Kestrel, food of the, 95.

Kiltorkan Quarry, co. Kilkenny, W.

Hellier Baily on fossils obtained at

73.

King (W. F.), description of Sir W.
Thomson’s experiments made for the
determination of v, the number of elec-
trostatic units in the electromagnetic
unit, 454.

Levi (Prof. Leone) on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 308.

Light, Prof. Morren on the chemical re-
actions of, discovered by Prof. Tyn-
dall, 66.

Littledale (Harold) on agricultural ma-
chinery, 404.

Lubbock (Sir John, Bart.) on the ex-
ploration of Kent’s Cayern, Devon-
shire, 189.

Lyell (Sir Charles, Bart.) on the rate of
increase of underground temperature,
176; on the exploration of Kent’s
Cavern, Devonshire, 189,

Machinery subjected to rapid alterna-
tions of strain, F. J. Bramwell on the
influence of form considered in rela-
tion to the strength of railway axles
and other portions of, 422.

M‘Intosh (Dr.) on the Annelids from
the south coast of Deyon and Corn-
wall, 89.

M‘Leod (Herbert) on the determination
of the gases existing in solution in
well-waters, 55.

Magnus (Prof.) on emission, absorption,
and reflection of obscure heat, 214.
Manby (Charles) on agricultural ma-

~ chinery, 404.

Mann (Dr.) on the provision existing in

—

INDEX I.

the United Kingdom for the vigorous
prosecution of physical research, 213.

Manners (Admiral) on mapping the sur-
face of the moon, 76,

Marine fauna and flora of the south
coast of Devon and Cornwall, report
on the, 84.

Mason (Hugh) on boiler explosions, 47.

Matthiessen (A.) on the chemical na-
ture of cast iron, 82; on the prepa-
ration of pure iron, 82; on standards
of electrical resistance, 434.

Maw (George) on the rate of increase
of underground temperature, 176.

Maxwell (J. Clerk) on the rate of in-
crease of underground temperature,
176; on standards of electrical re-
sistance, 454 ; experiments on the va-
lue of v, the ratio of the electro-
magnetic to the electrostatic unit of
electricity, 436.

Merlin, food of the, 93.

Merrifield (C. W.) on the stability, pro-
pulsion, and sea-going qualities of
ships, 10.

Meteors, report on luminous, 216; cata-
logue of large, 278: catalogue of aéro-
lites and, by R. P. Greg, 282.
ethyl and allied series, Dr. B. W.
Richardson on the physiological ac-
tion of the, 405,

Methylic alcohol, physiological action
of, 413.

Miller (Prof. W. A.) on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 308 ; on stan-
dards of electrical resistance, 434.

Mineral veins, Charles Moore on, in
carboniferous limestone and their or-
genic contents, 560; physical con-

itions necessary to, 361; paleonto-
logy of, 366; foraminifera of, 381.

Moon, report of the committee for map-
ping the surface of the, 76.

Moore (Charles) on mineral veins in
earboniferous limestone and their or-
ganic contents, 360.

Morren (Prof.) on the chemical reac-
tions of light discovered by Prof.
Tyndall, 66.

Mountain-limestone corals for photo-
graphing, report of the committee
appointed to get cut and prepared
sections of, 171.

Mylne (R. W.) on the rainfall of the
British Isles, 383.

Napier (J. R.) ona uniformity of weights
and measures, 308.

Neilson (Robert) on agricultural ma-
chinery, 404.

233

Newton (Prof. A.) on the protection of
birds, 91.

Oldham (J.) on agricultural maehinery,
404,

Ostracoda from the south coast of De-
von and Cornwall, 89.

Paul (Benjamin H.) on the treatment
and utilization of sewage, 313.

Pengelly (William) on the rate of in-
crease of underground temperature,
176; on the exploration of Kent’s
Cavern, Devonshire, 189.

Penn (John) on boiler explosions, 47.

Phillips (Prof. J.) on mapping the sur-
face of the moon, 76; on the rate of
increase of underground temperature,
176; on the exploration of Kent’s
Cavern, Devonshire, 189; on the rain-
fall of the British Isles, 383.

Physical research, report of the com-
mittee for inquiring into the provision
existing in the United Kingdom for
the rigorous prosecution of, what
further provision is needed ? and what
measures should be taken to secure
it P, 213.

Physiological action, report of the com-
mittee on the connexion between
chemical constitution and, 209.

Plant-beds of North Greenland, report
of a committee for exploring the, 1.

Pritchard (Rev. C.) on mapping the
surface of the moon, 76.

Propulsion, and sea-going qualities of
ships, report on the existing know-
ledge on the stability, 10.

Purdy (Frederick) on the pressure of
taxation on real property, 57.

Railway axles and other portions of
machinery subjected to rapid alterna-
tions of strain, F. J. Bramwell on the
influence of form considered in rela-
tion to the strength of, 422.

Rainfall committee, report of the, 383.

Rain-gauges, examination of, 392.

Ramsay (Professor) on ice as an agent
of geologic change, 171.

Rankine (Prof.) on the stability, pro-
pulsion, and sea-going qualities of
ships, 10; on agricultural machinery,
404; on a uniformity of weights and
measures, 308; on the laws of the
flow and action of water containing
solid matter in suspension, 402.

Real property, Frederick Purdy on the
pressure of taxation on, 57; local
taxation in England and Wales fall-

234

ing on, 1867-68, 59; imperial taxa-
tion falling on, 1867-68, 59,

Reflection of obscure heat, Prof. Mag-

ae! on emission, absorption, and,
14,

Richardson (Dr. Benjamin W.), report
on the physiological action of methyl
and allied series, 405.

Richardson (William) on boiler ex-
plosions, 47.

Rigby (Samuel) on boiler explosions,
47

Robertson (David), list of Foraminifera
from the south coast of Devon and
Cornwall, 91,

Robinson (John), on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 308.

Rolling of ships, 26; measurement of,
40; recommendation of experiments
on, 41.

Rosse (Lord) on mapping the surface of
the moon, 7

Rowe (J. Brooking) on the marine
fauna and flora of the south coast of
Devon and Cornwall, 84.

Russell (W. H. L.) on recent progress
in elliptic and hyperelliptic functions,
Bip.

Russell’s (Scott) theory of the form of
least resistance, 15,

Schmidt (Herr) on mapping the surface
of the moon, 76.

Scott (Robert H.) on the plant-beds of
North Greenland, 1.

Sea-birds, on the protection of, 91;
utility of, 92.

Sea-going qualities of ships, report on
the existing knowledge on the, 10.
Sewage, report on the treatment and

utilization of, 313.

Siemens (C. W.) on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 508; on
standards of electrical resistance, 454,

Ship, oscillations of a, among waves,
33.

Ships, report on the state of existing
knowledge on the stability, propul-
sion, and sea-going qualities of, and
as to the application whichit may be
desirable to make to Her Majesty’s
Government on these subjects, 10.

Smith (J. P.) on agricultural machinery,
404.

Smith (Dr. R. Aneus) on the treat-
ment and utilization of sewage, 313.
Smith (W.) on a uniformity of weights
and measures, 308; on agricultural

machinery, 404, :

Sparrowhawk, food of the, 93,

| Strain, F. J. Bramwell on the influence

REPORT—1869.

Sparrows, on the food of, 95.

Stability, propulsion, and sea-going qua-
lities of ships, report on the existing
knowledge on the, 10.

Star-showers, 285.

Steamship performance, supplement to
the second report of the committee on
the condensation and analysis of table
of, 330.

Steel, Mr. W. Fairbairn, on the me-
chanical properties of, 96; the Bar-
row Works for the manufacture of, on
the Bessemer process, 98; Heaton’s
process for the manufacture of, 99;
remarks on the Bessemer process, 100 ;
experiments on the transverse strain
of, 107; experiments on the tensile
strain of, 123; experiments on the
compression strain of, 133; description
of the furnace and apparatus for the
manufacture of, on the Heetant system,
147. ed

Stenhouse (Dr.) on the provision exist-
ing in the United Kingdom for the
vigorous prosecution of physical re-
search, 213. |

Stewart (Dr. Balfour) on the thermal
conductivity of iron, 175; on the rate, —
of increase of underground tempera~~
ture, 176; on the provision existing
in the United Kingdom for the vigo-
rous prosecution of physical research,
213; on standards of electrical resis-
tance, 434.

Stokes (Professor) on the provision ex-
isting in the United Kingdom for the
vigorous prosecution of physical re-
search, 215.

of form considered in relation to the
strength of railway axles and other
portions of machinery subjected to
rapid alternations of, 422.

Strange (Lieut.-Colonel) on mapping the
surface of the moon, 76; on the pro-
vision existing in the United King-
dom for the vigorous prosecution of
physical research, 215.

Sykes (Colonel) on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 308.

Sylvester (Prof.) on the rainfall of the
British Isles, 383.

Symons (G. J.) on the rate of increase of
underground temperature, 176; on the
rainfall of the British Isles, 385.

Szcezepanowski (S. Prus) on the prepa~
ration of pure iron, 82.

Tait (Professor) on the thermal conduc-
tivity of iron, 175,

INDEX I.

Taxation on real property, F. Purdy. on
the pressure of, 57 ; imperial, in En-
land and Wales falling on real pro-
perty in 1867-68, 59; local, in England
and Wales falling on real property in

| 1867-68, 59.
_ Tegetmeier (Mr.) on the practicability

of establishing “a close time” for
the protection of indigenous animals,
91 -

Thermal conductivity of iron, Principal
J. D. Forbes’s experiments on the, 175.
Thomson (James) on cutting and pre-
paring sections of mountain-limestone
corals for photographing, 171.
Thomson (Prof. James) on the rate of
increase of underground temperature,
176.
Thomson (Sir William) on the rate of
increase of underground temperature,
176; on the provision existing in the
United Kingdom for the vigorous pro-
secution of physical research, 213 ; on
standards of electrical resistance, 434.
Tomlinson (C.) on the rainfall of the
British Isles, 383.
Torell (Professor Otto) on ice as an
___ agent of geologic change, 171.
Trevelyan (Sir W. C.) on the plant-beds
of North Greenland, 1.
_ Tristram (Rey. H. B.) on the practica-
: bility of establishing “a close time ”
for the protection of indigenous ani-
: mals, 91.
_ Turbinolidee, British fossil, 150, 155.
_ Tyndall (Professor), Prof. Morren on the
chemical reactions of light discovered
} by, 66.
:
|

on the thermal conductivity of
iron, 175; on the provision now ex-
isting in the United Kingdom for the
vigorous prosecution of physical re-
search, 213.

Underground temperature, on the rate of
increase of, downwards in various
localities of dry land and under water,
176.
Utilization of sewage, report on the
treatment and, 315.

Varley (C. F.) on standards of electrical
resistance, 454.

Vivian (E.) on the exploration of Kent’s
Cavern, Deyonshire, 189.

235

Wanklyn (Prof. J. A.) on the treatment
and utilization of sewage, 313.

‘Water, on the rate of increase of under-
ground temperature downwards in va-
rious localities of dry land and under,
176.

containing solid matter in suspen-
sion, interim report on the laws of the
flow and action of, 402.

Waugh (Sir A.) on the laws of the flow
and action of water containing solid
matter in suspension, 402.

Waves, 51; oscillations of a ship among,
35; measurement of, at sea, 39.

Webb (T. W.) on mapping the surface
of the moon, 76.

Webster (Thomas) on boiler explosions,
47

Weights and measures, report on the
best means of providing for a unifor-
mity of, with reference to the interests
of science, 308.

Well-waters, determination of the gases
existing in solution in, 55.

Wheatstone (Prof. Sir C.) on standards
of electrical resistance, 434,

Whitworth (Mz, J.) on boiler explosions,
47; on a uniformity of weights and
measures, 308 ; on the penetration of
armour-plates with long shells of large
capacity fired obliquely, 430.

Whymper (E. H.), report of proceedings
to obtain a collection of fossil plants
in North Greenland, 1.

Williamson (Prof.) on the provision ex-
isting in the United Kingdom for the
vigorous prosecution of physical re-
search, 213 ; on a uniformity of weights
and measures, 308; on standards of
electrical resistance, 454.

Willis (the Rev. Prof.) on agricultural
machinery, 404.

Wodzicki on the influence of small birds
in destroying injurious insects, 93.

Wood-owl, food of the, 94.

Woodward (Henry) on cutting and pre-
paring sections of mountain-limestone
corals for photographing, 171.

Wright (Dr. EK. P.) on the plant-beds of
North Greenland, 1.

Yates (James) on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 308.

Young (Prof.) on the rate of increase of
underground temperature, 176,

236

REPORT—1869.

INDEX IL.

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE
SECTIONS.

[An asterisk (*) signifies that no abstract of the communication ts given. ]

Aboriginal monuments in Canada, Sir
Duncan Gibb on the paucity of,

Abrading and transporting power of
water, Thomas Login on the roads
and railways of Northern India as af-
fected by the, 214.

Absorption, emission, and reflection of
heat, Prof. Gustay Magnus on the, 25.

Absorption-bands of bile, Dr. Thomas
Andrews on the, 59.

Abyssinia, Northern, W. T. Blandford
oa a journey in, 159.

Aceto-sulphuric acid, Dr. A. Oppen-
heim on, 72.

*Acid, chloro-sulphuric, J. Dewar and
G. Cranston on some reactions of, 67.

*——., hydrochloric, Dr. A. Matthiessen
and C. R. Wright on the action of,
on morphia codeia, 69.

, uric, in urine, the Rev. W. V.
Harcourt on the solvent treatment of
uric-acid calculus, and the quantita-
tive determination of, 122.

Aérolite, Dr. A. Neumayer on the recent
fall of an, at Krahenburg in the Pala-
tinate, 20.

Africa, South, Dr. Mann on the rain-
fall of Natal, 41. |

Agricultural economics and wages, Prof.
Leone Levi on, 195.

labourer in England, Prof. Leone

Levi on the economical condition and

wages of the, 226.

labourer, J. Bailey Denton on the

technical education of the, 182.

labourer, W. Botley on the con-
dition of the, 179.

Aegriculture, Frederick Purdy on some
experiments in, 197.

, J. H. Holley on the need of sci-

ence for the development of, 195.

Air, A. E. Fletcher on a new anemome-
ter for measuring the speed of, in
flues and chimneys, 48.

, C. J. Woodward on a self-setting

type machine for recording the hourly

horizontal motion of the, 54,

, James Glaisher on the changes of
temperature and humidity of the, up to
1000 ft., from observations made in the
car of M. Giffard’s captive balloon, 27.

*Air-engine, J. T. Chillingworth on an,
209.

*Altazimuth instrument for the use of
explorers, Lieut.-Col. Strange on a
small, 168.

Amazons, Upper, Francis F, Searle on
Peruvian explorations and settlement
on the, 167.

America, North-west, R. Brown on the
mammalian fauna of, 109.

Ammonia from gas-liquor, Frederick
Braby on the extraction of, 68.

Anesthesia, Dr. Kidd on the physiology
of sleep and of chloroform, 125.

*Anallagmatic surfaces, W. K. Clifford
on the umbilici of, 9.

| Andrews (Dr. Thomas) on the absorp-

tion-bands of bile, 59.

Anemometer for measuring the speed of
air in flues and chimneys, A. EF.
Fletcher on a new, 48.

*Aneroid barometer, F, Martin on a new
self-recording, 51. :

*Animals, the Rey. Dr. Tristram on the
effect of legislation on the extinction
of, 117.

Annealing, Charles Brooke on the influ-
ence of, on crystalline structure, 21.
Argo, nebula in, the Rey. Dr. Robinson
on the appearance of the, as seen in

the great Melbourne Telescope, 20.

lh alin

———— rt

INDEX II.

Armour-plates, Mr. J. Whitworth on the

foe of, by shells with heavy
ursting charges tired obliquely, 222.

Artificial fish-breeding, five years’ ex-
perience in, by W. F'. Webb, 118.

Asia, Central, M. Tchihatchef on, 168.

——,, Central, T. D. Forsyth on Trade-
routes between Northern India and,
161,

5 , Central, W. T. Saunders on the
Himalayas and, 167.

“ Asie Mineure, Paléontologie de I’,” by
M. Tchihatchef, 100.

Atmospheric ozone, Dr. H. Cook on the
registration of, in the Bombay Presi-
dency, and the chief causes which in-
fluence its appreciable amount in the
atmosphere, 64.

Atthey (Thomas) and A. Hancock on
some curious fossil fungi from the
black shale of the Northumberland
coal-field, 114.

*Australia, Dr. G. Neumayer’s scheme
for a scientific exploration of, 165.

Babbacombe, South Devon, W. Pen-
gelly on whale-remains washed ashore
at, 116.

Bagshot leaf-bed of Studland Bay, G.
Maw on the insect-remains and shells
from the Lower, 97.

Bamber (Henry K.) on the water-sup-
plies of Plymouth, Devonport, Exeter,
and St. Thomas, 60.

Barometer, Maury, a new instrument for
measuring altitudes, Frederick TT,
Mott on the, 51.

Barry (T. D.) on the utilization of town
sewage, 209.

Bate (C. Spence), Address to the depart-
ment of Zoology and Botany, 104.

Bateman (John F.) and J. J. Révy on
a proposed cast-iron tube for carrying
a railway across the Channel between
the coasts of England and France,

206.
Becker (Miss Lydia E.) on alteration in

the structure of Lychnis diurna, ob-
seryed in connexion with the deyelop-
ment of a parasitic fungus, 106.
*Beke (Dr. C.) on a canal to unite the
Upper Nile and Red Sea, 159.
*Belcher (Vice-Adimiral Sir E.) on stone
implements from Rangoon, 129; on
the distribution of heat on the sea-
surface throughout the globe, 159 ; on
a navigable floating-dock, 209.
Bell (1. Beretta on the decomposition
of carbonic oxide by spongy iron, 62.
Bifurcate stream at Glen Lednock Head,

237

in Perthshire, Capt. T. P. White on
a, 172.

Bile, Dr. Thomas Andrews on the ab-
sorption-bands of, 59.

| *Birdwood (Dr.) on the genus Boswellia,

with descriptions and drawings of
three new species, 108; on the geo-
graphy of the frankincense plants,
159

Birt (W. R.) on secular variations of
lunar tints and spots and shadows on
Plato, 15.

Black shale of the Northumberland
coal-field, A. Hancock and T. Atthey
on some curious fossil fungi from the,
114.

Blake (Dr. C. Carter) and Dr. Charnock
on Mosquito and Wulwa dialects, 129.

Blane (Dr. Henry), human vaccine
lymph and heifer lymph compared,
118

Blanford (William T.) on the fauna of
British India, and its relations to the
Ethiopian and so-called Indian fauna,
107; on a journey in Northern Abys-
sinia, 159.

Boiler explosions, Lavington E. Fletcher
on OAc er action with regard to,
210.

Bombay, P. M. Tait on the population
and mortality of, 199,

Presidency, Dr. Cook on the regis-
tration of atmospheric ozone in the,
and the chief causes which influence
its appreciable amount in the atmo-
sphere, 64.

Bonwick (James) on the origin of the
Tasmanians, geologically considered,
129.

*Botley (W.) on the condition of the
agricultural labourer, 179.

Bovey Tracey, W.Pengelly on the source
of the Miocene clays of, 99.

Bowring (Sir John) on the Devonshire
Association for the Advancement of
Science and Art, 179; on penal law,
as applied to ete discipline, 180.

Braby (Frederick) on extraction of am-
monia from gas-liquor, 63.

| Brachiopoda hitherto obtained from the

“ Pebble-bed ” of Budleigh-Salterton,
T. Davidson on the, 88.

Brain of the Negro, Robert Garner on
the, 132.

Brandon (Raphael), some statistics of
railways in their relation to the pub-
lic, 180.

Bridgman (W. Kencely) on voltaic
cease in relation to physiology,

238

British Association Catalogue of Stars,
the Rey. R. Main on the, 19.

Columbia, D. R. King on the na-
tives of Vancouyer’s Island and, 225.

Brittany, G. A. Lebour on the denuda-
tion of Western, 95; on some granites
of Lower, 96.

Bromo-iodide of mereury, Dr. A. Oppen-
heim on, 72.

Brooke (Charles) on the influence of
annealing on crystalline structure, 21.

Broome (C. E.) on a recently discovered
species of Myxogaster, 108.

Brown (Robert) on the elevation and
depression of the Greenland coast, 85 ;
on the mammalian fauna of North-
west America, 109,

*Buckland (Frank) on the salmon rivers
of Devon and Cornwall, and how to
improve them, 111.

Budleigh-Salterton, T. Davidson on the
Brachiopoda hitherto obtained from
the “ Pebble-bed” of, 88.

Calculus, uric-acid, the Rey. W. V. Har-
court on the solvent treatment of,
122,

Cambrian (Upper Longmynd) rocks near
St. David’s, Dr. Hicks on the disco-
very of some fossil plants in the, 89.

*Canadian Indian reserves, J. Heywood
on municipal government for, 195.

Cane-sugar and inverted sugar, the Rey.
Prof. Jellett on a method of determi-
ning with accuracy the ratio of the
rotating power of, 69.

Cannel-coal, Dr. Stevenson Macadam on
the economic distillation of gas from,

Carbonic oxide, I. Lowthian Bell on the
decomposition of, by spongy iron, 62.

Carboniferous Labyrinthodonts and other
Megalichthys, James Thomson on
some new forms of Pteroplax and
other, with notes on their structure
by Professor Young, 101.

*Carruthers (William) on reptilian
egeas from secondary strata, 86; on
“ Slickensides,” &6.

Cereals, F. F. Hallett on the law of the
development of, 113.

*Chalk flints and flakes in Deyon and
Cornwall, N. Whitley on the distri-
bution of, 103.

Charnock (Dr.) and Dr. C. Carter Blake
on the Mosquito and Wulwa dialects,
129.

Chemical action of light discovered by
Prof. Tyndall, Prof. Aug. Morren on
the, 24,

REPORT—1869.

Chemical compounds, the Rey. Prof. Jel-
lett on a method by which certain defi-
nite, may be optically established, 23.

method of treating the excreta of

towns, Edward C, C. Stanford on a, 76.

Section, Address by the President,
H. Debus, to the, 54.

Chest, Dr. Sanderson on an apparatus
for measuring and recording the re-
spiratory and cardiac moyements of
the, 128.

Chiaris alba, Dr. Robert O, Cunningham
on, alae

Cin ewne (J. T.) on an air-engine,
209.

Chimneys, A. E. Fletcher on a new
anemometer for measuring the speed
of air in flues and, 48,

China, Western, W. Trelawney Saunders
on My. Cooper’s attempt to reach India
from, 166.

Chloral, hydrate of, Dr. W. B. Richard-
sont on the physiological action of,

Chlorine, Walter Weldon on the manu-
facture of, by means of perpetually
napetened manganite of calcium,
1¢

Chloroform anzsthesia, Dr. Kidd on the
physiology of sleep and of, 125,

*Chloro-sulphuric acid, J. Dewar and G.
Cranston on some reactions of, 67.

Circassians, or White Khazars, H. H.
Howorth on the, 135.

Circle, Prof. Sylvester on the successive
involutes of a, 15.

*Circles, M. Collins on the common tan-
gents of, 9.

Civilization, origin of, Sir John Lubbock
on the, and the primitive condition
of man, 137.

Clark (Latimer) on the Birmingham
wire-gauge, 209,

Clarke (Hyde) on the want of statistics
on the question of mixed races, 181 ;
on the distinction between rent and
land-tax in India, 181; on variations
in the rapidity and rate of human
thought, 181.

Classification of plants, Dr. Maxwell T.
Masters on the value of the characters
employed in the, 114,

Clays, miocene, of Bovey Tracey, W.
Pengelly on the source of the, 99.

Cleland (Prof.) on the interpretation of
the limbs and lower jaw, 119; the
human mesocolon illustrated by that
of the wombat, 120.

Clerk (Colonel H.) on the hydraulic
buffer, and experiments on the flow of

INDEX II.

liquids through small orifices at high
velocities, 209.

Clifford (W. K.) on the theory of dis-
tance, 9.

— on the umbilici of anallagmatic
surfaces, 9.

Climate of North-west Europe, A. G.
Findlay on the supposed influence of
the Gulf-stream upon the, 160,

Coal, cannel-, Dr. Stevenson Macadam
on the economic distillation of gas
from, 69.

Coal-field, A. Hancock and T. Atthey on
some curious fossil fungi from the
black shale of the Northumberland,
114.

Coal-measures of Kilmaurs, H. Wood-
ward on the discovery of a large
Myriapod of the genus Euphoberia in
the, 103.

Coinage, International, Dr. Farr on, 183.

Collimators for adjusting Newtonian
telescopes, G. Johnstone Stoney on, 52.

*Collings (Jesse) on some statistics of
the National Educational League, 182.

*Collins (M.) on the common tangents
of circles, 9.

Combining proportions of metals, Dr. J.
H, Gladstone on the relation between
the specific refractive energies and
the, 21.

Combustion, Charles ‘Tomlinson on the
supposed action of light on, 78,

Comets, Prof. P. G. Tait on, 21.

Conglomerate, quartzose, of the New
Red Sandstone of the central portion

of England, Edward Hull on the
source of the, 91.

Conglomerates, trappean, of Middletown
Th, Montgomeryshire, G, Maw on

“the, 96.

Conic osculation, F. W. Newman on, 13.

Contortion of mountain-limestone, ex-
periments on, by L. C. Miall, 97.

Conyolutions of the brain, T, S, Prideaux
on the occasional definition of the, on
the exterior of the head, 225.

Conwell (Eugene A.) on a fossil mussel-
shell found in the Drift in Ireland, 87.

Cook (Dr. H.) on the registration of
atmospheric ozone in the Bombay
Presidency, and the chief causes which
influence its appreciable amount in the
atmosphere, 64,

Cooper’s (Mr,) attempt to reach India
from Western China, W. Trelawney
Sanderson on, 166.

Copper, Dr. T. L. Phipson on the solu-
bility of lead and, in pure and impure

water, 73.

239

Cornstone of Hereford, H. Woodward
on the occurrence of Stylonurus in the,
103.

Cornwall, C. W. Peach on the discovery
of organic remains in the rocks be-
tween the Nare Head and Porthalla
Cove, 99.

*——, N. Whitley on the distribution
of chalk flints and flakes in Deyon
and, 103.

, Frank Buckland on the salmon
rivers of Deyon and and, how to im-
prove them, 111.

Crace-Calvert (Prof. F.) on the amount
of soluble and insoluble phosphates in
wheat-seed, 66.

Crag formation, Charles Jecks on the,
91

Crannoge in Wales, the Rey, Edgar N.
Dumbleton on a, 130.

*Cranston (G.) and J. Dewar on some
reactions of chloro-sulphuric acid,
69.

*Criminals, habitual, Dr. Wilson on the
moral imbecility of, exemplified by
cranial measurements, 129,

Crystalline structure, Charles Brooke on .
the influence of annealing on, 21,

Ctenacanthus, James Thomson on teeth
and dermal structure associated with,
102.

Cubic Eikosi-heptagram, Prof. Sylvester
on Prof Wiener’s stereoscopic repre-
sentation of the, 15,

Cunningham (Dr. Robert O.) on Chiaris
alba, 111; on the flora of the Strait of
Magellan and west coast of Patagonia,
112.

Curves of the third degree, here called
tertians, F. W. Newman on, 10.

, W. H. L. Russell on the mechani-
cal tracing of, 15.

Cyclothurus didactylus, John C, Galton
on the myology of, 121.

Dartmoor, G. Wareing Ormerod on the
granite of the northerly and easterly
sides of, 98,

*Darwinism, the Rev. F. O. Morris on
the difficulties of, 151.

, or evolution, philosophical objec-
tion to, by the Rey. Dr. M‘Cann, 151.

Davidson (‘T’.), notes on the Brachiopoda
hitherto obtained from the ‘ Pebble-
bed” of Budleigh-Salterton, near Ex-
mouth, Devonshire, 88,

Debus (H.), Address as President of the
Chemical Section, 54.

*Decline of shipbuilding on the Thames,
John Glover on the, 191,

240

Decomposition of carbonic oxide by
spongy iron, I. Lowthian Bell on the,
62.

Dendroidal forms assumed by minerals,
Dr. Heaton on, 127.

*Dendy (W. C.) on the primitive status
of man, 150.

Denton (J. Bailey) on the technical
education of the agricultural labourer,
182.

Denudation of the Shropshire and South
Staffordshire coal-fields, John Randall
on the, 100.

of Western Brittany, by G. A. Le-
bour, 95.

*Deyon and Cornwall, Frank Buckland
on the salmon rivers of, 111.

* and Cornwall, N. Whitley on the
distribution of chalk flints and flakes
in, 103.

—— in prehistoric times, T. M. Hall on
the method of forming the flint flakes
used by the early inhabitants of, 154.

Devonian group, the, considered geolo-
gically and geographically, by R. A. C.
Godwin-Austen, 88.

Devonport (Henry K. Bamber) on the
water-supply of, 60.

Devonshire Association for the Adyance-
ment of Science and Art, Sir John
Bowring on the, 179.

Dew and its effects, Dr. Henry Hudson
on the formation of, 59.

*Dewar (J.) and G, Cranston on some
reactions of chloro-sulphuric acid, 67.

*Diamonds received from the Cape of
Good Hope during the last year, Prof.
J. Tennant on the, 101.

Dircks (Henry) on some statistics illus-
trating the policy of a Patent Law,182.

Distance, theory of, W. K. Clifford on
the, 9.

Distillation of gas from cannel-coal, Dr.
Stevenson Macadam on the economic,

*Dock, Sir E. Belcher on a navigable
floating, 209.

*Dodd (Captain C.) on a recent visit to
the Suez Canal, 163; on the Runn of
Cutch, 160.

*Drake (Francis) on human remains in
the gravel of Leicestershire, 180.

*Drift, D. Mitchell on flint implements
of the first stone age found in the,69.

in Ireland, Eugene A. Conwell on
a fossil mussel-shell found in the, 87.

*___- near Norwich, J. EK. Taylor on cer-
tain phenomena in the, 100,

Dumbleton (the Rey. Edgar N.) on a
crannoge in Wales, 150.

REPORT—1869.

*Duncan (Dr. P. M.) on the age of the
human remains in the cave of Cro-
Maenoninthe valley of the Vezére, 130.

Earthy minerals of water in the form of
heated steam, urged by wood fuel, J.
Jeffreys on the action upon, 92,

Eaton (Richard) on certain economical
improvements in obtaining motive
power, 226.

Eau, Dr. Janssen sur le spectre de la
vapeur d’, 67.

Economic Science and Statistics,Address
by the President, the Right Hon. SirS.
I. Northcote, to the Section of, 175.

Edmonds (R.) on extraordinary agita-
tions of the sea, 160.

El Dorado, Dr. C. Le Neve Foster on
the existence of Sir Walter Raleigh’s,
162.

*Electric balance, I’. H. Varley on the,
46

Electricity, Prof. G. C. Foster on some
lecture experiments in, 46,

Electrification, Thomas T. P. Bruce
Warren on, 47.

Electro-deposition of iron, H. M. Jacobi
on the, 67.

*Electromagnetic experiment, the Hon,
J. W. Strutt on an, 46.

Elevation and depression of the Green-
land coast, Robert Brown on the, 85.

Emigration, Dr. R. J. Mann on assisted,

96.

Emission, and reflection of heat, Prof.
Gustav Magnus on the absorption, 25.

Encroachment of the sea on Exmouth,
Warren G. Peacock on the, 166.

England, Edward Hull on the source of
the quartzose conglomerate of the New
re Sandstone of the central portion
of, 91.

England and France, J. F. Bateman and
ee Reévy on a proposed cast-iron tube
for carrying a railway across the
Channel between the coasts of, 206.

*Erslkine’s discovery of the mouth of the
Limpopo, Dr. R. J. Mann on, 164.

*Esquimaux considered in their rela-
tionship to man’s antiquity, W. S.
Hall on the, 135.

*Etheridge (Robert) on the occurrence of
a large deposit of Terra-Cotta clay at
Watcombe, Torquay, 87.

Ethiopian and so-called Indian fauna,
Wiliam T. Blanford on the fauna of
es India and its relations to the,

Ethnology and geolcgy, H. H. Howorth
on a frontier of, 130.

bheny--

INDEX II.

Euphoberia, H. Woodward on the dis-
covery of alarge Myriapodof the genus,
in the Coal-measures of Kilmaurs, 103.

Europe, North-west, A. G. Findlay on
the supposed influence of the Gulf-
stream upon the climate of, 160.

Eyaporation from the surface of water,
Rogers Field and G. J. Symons on
the determination of the real amount
of, 25.

Excreta of towns, Edw. C. C. Stanford
on a chemical method of treating the,

Exeter, Henry K. Bamber on the water-
supply of, 60.

Exmouth Warren, G. Peacock on the
encroachments of the sea on, 166,

“ yes, petrified human,” from the
graves of the dead, Arica, Peru, the
Rey. Dr. Hume on the so-called, 135,

Farr (Dr. William) on international
coinage, 185.

Fas, in Morocco, J. Stirling on a visit to
the holy city of, 168.

Fauna, mammalian, of North-west
America, R. Brown on the, 109.

Fauna of British India, and its relation
to the Ethiopian and so-called Indian
fauna, William T. Blanford on the, 107.

Fellows (Frank P.) on our national
accounts, 183,

Field (Rogers) and G, J. Symons on the
determination of the real amount of
evaporation from the surface of water,

*Figures, numerical, for scientific instru-
ments, and a proposed mode of engva-
ving them, Lieut.-Colonel A. Strange
on the best forms of, 55,

Findlay (A. G.) on the supposed in-
fluence of the Gulf-stream on the
climate of North-west Europe, 160.

Finite longitudinal disturbance, W. J.
Macquorn Rankine on the thermody-
namic theory of waves of, 14.

Fish-breeding, artificial, five years’ ex-
perience in, showing in what waters
trout will and will not thrive, by W. F.
Webb, 118.

Fletcher (A. E.) on a new anemometer
for measuring the speed of air in flues
and chimneys, 48.

Fletcher (Lavington E.) on Government
action with regard to boiler explosions,
210.

Flint flakes used by the early inabitants
of Devon in prehistoric times, Towns-
hend M. Hall on the method of form-
ing the, 134.

1869,

241

Flint implements of the Paleolithic
type in the gravel of the Thames
Valley at Acton and Ealing, Colonel
A. Lane Fox on the discovery of, 130,

Flora of the Strait of Magellan and west
coast of Patagonia, Dr. R, O, Cun-
ningham on the, 112.

Flow of liquids through small orifices at
high velocities, Colonel H. Clerk on
the hydraulic buffer and experiment
on the, 209,

Fluid friction, W. Froude on some diffi-
culties in the received view of, 211.
Formation of dew and its effects, Dr.

Henry Hudson on the, 39.

Forsyth (T. D.) on trade-routes between
Northern India and Central Asia, 161.

Fossil (British) Lamellibranchiata, J. L.
Lobley on the distribution of the, 96.

Fossil mussel-shell found in the Drift in
Ireland, Eugene A. Conwell on a, 87.

Fossil plants in the Cambrian (Upper
Longmynd) rocks, near St. David's,
Dr. Hicks on the discovery of some,
90.

Foster (Dr. C. Le Neve) on the occur-
rence of the mineral Scheelite (tung-
state of lime) at Val Toppa Gold-mine,
near Domodossola, Piedmont, 88.

on the existence of Sir Walter
Raleigh’s El Dorado, 162.

Foster (Professor G. C.) on some lecture
experiments in electricity, 46.

Fox (Colonel A. Lane) on the discovery
of flint implements of Paleolithic
type in the gravel of the Thames
Valley at Acton and Ealing, 180.

*Frankincense plants, Dr. Birdwood on
the geography of the, 159.

*Freeman (Archdeacon) on man and
the animals, being a counter theory
to Mr, Darwin’s as to the origin of
species, 152,

*Frere (Sir Bartle), Address as President
of the Geographical Section, 152 ;
on the Runn of Cutch and the coun-
tries between Rajpootana and Sind,
163.

Freshwater deposits of the valley of the
river Lea, in Essex, H. Woodward on
the, 103.

*Fritsche(D.),notes onstructural changes
in block tin, 67.

Froude (R. E.) on the hydraulic inter-
nal scraping of the Torquay water-
main, 210.

Froude (William) on some difficulties
in the received view of fluid friction,
211.

Fungi, fossil, from the black shale of

242

the Northumberland coal-field, <A.
Hancock and T, Atthey on some cu-
rious, 114.

Galton (John C.) on the myology of Cy-
clothurus didactylus, 121.

Garner (R.) on the homologies in the
extremities of the horse, 121; on the
brain of the Negro, 132.

Gas from cannel-coal, Dr. Stevenson
Macadam on the economic distillation
of, 69.

Gases, Dr. W. J. Russell on the mea-
surement of, as a branch of volumetric
analysis, 74.

Gas-liquor, Frederick Braby on extrac-
tion of ammonia from, 63.

Gassiot (J. P.) on the metallic deposit
obtained from the induction-discharge
in vacuum-tubes, 46.

Generalized coordinates, R. B. Hayward
on a proof of Lagrange’s equation of
motion referred to, 10.

Geographical Section, Address of the
President, Sir Bartle Frere, to the,
152.

Geological Section, Address by Professor
Harkness, President of the, 82.

Geology and ethnology, H. H. Howorth
on a frontier of, 135.

Gibb (Sir Duncan) on the paucity of
aboriginal monuments in Canada,
183; on an obstacle to European
longevity beyond 70 years, 133; ona
cause of diminished longevity among
the Jews, 134.

Girdlestone (the Rey. Canon) on the
maintenance of schools in rural dis-
tricts, 191.

Glacial strize lately exposed at Port-
madoc, John Edward Lee onremark-
able, 95.

Gladstone (George), microscopical ob-
servations at Minster am Stein, 112.
Gladstone (Dr. J. H.) on the relation
between the specific refractive energies
and the combining proportions of me-

tals, 22.

Glaisher (James) on the changes of
temperature and humidity of the air
up to 1000 feet, from observations
made in the car of M. Giffard’s cap-
tive balloon, 27.

*Glover (John) on the decline of ship-
building on the Thames, 191.

Godwin-Austen (R. A. C.), the Devo-
nian group considered geologically
and geographically, 88.

i of Natal, Dr. R. J. Mann on the,

REPORT—1869.

Granite of the northerly and easterly
sides of Dartmoor, G. Wareing Or-
merod on the, 98.

Graptolites, H. Alleyne Nicholson on
some new forms of, 98.

*Gravel of Leicestershire, F. Drake on
human remains in the, 130,

Gravel of the Thames Valley at Acton
and Ealing, Colonel A. Lane Fox on
the discovery of flint implements of
the Paleolithic type in the, 130.

Great Melbourne telescope, the Rey. Dr.
Robinson on the appearance of the
nebula in Argo as seen in the, 20.

Greenland coast, Robert Brown on the
elevation and depression of the, 85.

Gulf-stream, A. G. Findlay on the sup-
posed influence of the, on the climate
of North-west Europe, 160.

Hall (M. Townshend) on the method of
forming flint flakes used by the early
inhabitants of Devon in prehistoric
times, 134.

*Hall (W. 8.) on the Esquimaux, consi-
dered in their relationship to man’s
antiquity, 135.

Hallett (F’. I.) on the law of the deve-.
lopment of cereals, 115.

Hamilton (Archibald) on the economic

rogress of New Zealand, 192.

*Hamilton (Capt. R. V.) on the best
route to the North Pole, 164.

Hancock (Albany) and Thomas Atthey
on some curious fossil fungi from the
black shale of the Northumberland
coal-field, 114.

Hancock (Dr, W. Neilson), an account of
the system of local taxation in Ive-
land, 193.

Harcourt (Rev. W. V.) on the solvent
treatment of uric-acid calculus, and
the quantitative determination of
uric acid in urine, 122,

Harkness (Professor), Address as Pre-
sident of the Geological Section, 82.
Hayward (R. B.), sketch of a proof of
Lagrange’s equation of motion re-
ferred to generalized coordinates, 10.

*Heat, Vice-Admiral Sir Edward Belcher
onthe distribution of,on the sea-surface
throughout the globe, 159.

*Heat of stars, William Huggins on the, _
18

Heaton (Dr. J. D.) on dendroidal forms
assumed by minerals, 127.

Heliostat, G. Johnstone Stoney on a —

cheap form of, 53,

*Heywood (J.) on municipal govern- —

ment for Canadian Indian reserves, 195, —

INDEX Il.

*Heywood (J.) on the examination sub-
ject for admission into the College for
women at Hitchin, 195,

Hicks (Dr.) on the discovery of some
fossil plants in the Cambrian (Upper
egremyad) rocks near St. David’s,

Hiern (W. P.) on the occurrence of Ra-
pistrum rugosum, All., in Surrey,
Kent, and Somersetshire, 114.

*Himalayas and Central Asia, Trelawney
W. Saunders on the, 167.

Hippopotamus major, W. Pengelly on
the alleged discovery of, in Kent’s Ca-
vern, 99.

*Holley (James Hunt) on the need of
science for the development of agri-
culture, 195.

Horizontal motion of the air, C. J.
Woodward on a self-setting machine
for recording the hourly, 54.

Horse, R. Garner on the homologies in
the extremities of the, 121.

Howorth (H. H.) on the extinction of
the Mammoth, 89; on the Circassians
or White Khazars, 135; on a frontier
of ethnology and geology, 135.

Hudson (Dr. Henry) on the formation of
dew and its effects, 59.

pens (William) on the heat of stars,

Hull (Edward) on the source of the
quartzose conglomerate of the New
Red Sandstone of the central portion
of England, 91.

Human mesocolon illustrated by that
of the Wombat, Prof. Cleland on the,
120.

*Human remains in the gravel of Lei-
cestershire, Francis Drake on, 150.
Human thought, Hyde Clarke on va-
oO in the rapidity and date of,

181.

Human vaccine lymph and heifer lymph
compared, by Dr. Henry Blane, 118.
Hume (the Rev. Dr.) on the so-called
“petrified human eyes” from the
graves of the dead, Arica, Peru, 135.

Humidity of the air up to 1000 feet,
from observations made in the car
of M. Giffard’s captive balloon, James
Glaisher on the changes of tempera-
ture and, 27.

Hydrate of chloral, Dr. B. W. Richardson
on the physiological action of, 222.

Hydraulic buffer, Colonel H. Clerk on

the, 209.

Hydraulic internal scraping of the Tor-
quay water-main, R, EH. Froude on
the, 210.

243

Hydric sulphate, Stephen Williams on

= action of phosphoric chloride on,

*Hydrochloric acid, Dr. A. Matthiessen
and C. Rh. Wright on the action of,
on morphia codeia, 69.

*Hydrogen-rays, G. Johnstone Stoney
on the numerical relations between
the wave-lengths of the, 24.

Hygrometers, self-registering, EK, Vivian
on, 03.

Images monochromatiques des corps lu-
mineux, Dr. Janssen sur un méthode
pour obtenir les, 23,

India, British, William J. Blanford on the
fauna of, and its relations to the Hthi-
opian and so-called Indian fauna, 107.

, account of Cooper’s attempt to

reach, from Western China, by W.

Trelawney Saunders, 166.

, Hyde Clarke on the distinction be-
tween the rent and land-tax in, 181.
——, Northern, and Central Asia, T. D.

Forsyth on trade-routes between, 161.

Induction-discharge in vacuum-tubes, J.
P. Gassiot on the metallic deposit ok-
tained frem the, 46,

Initial life, C. S. Wake on, 151.

*Inscribed rock, R. Tate on an, 151.

Insect-remains and shells from the lower
Bagshot leaf-bed of Studland Bay, G.
Maw on, 97.

International coinage, Dr. W. Farr on,
183.

Interpretation of the limbs and lower
jaw, Prof. Cleland on the, 119.

Inyolutes of a circle, Prof. Sylvester on
the successive, 15.

Treland, Dr. W. Neilson Hancock on the
system of local taxation in, 193.

nish people, G. Henry Kinahan on the
race-elements of the, 156.

Tron, H. M. Jacobi on the electro-depo-
sition of, 67.

——,, spongy, I. Lowthian Bell on the de-
composition of carbonic oxide by, 62.

*Isopod from Flinder’s Island, H. Wood-
ward on a new, 118,

Jacobi (H. M.) on the electro-deposition
of iron, 67.

Janssen (Dr.) sur un méthode pour ob-
tenirles images monochromatiques des
corps lumineux, 23; faits divers de
physique terrestre, 41; sur le spectre
de la vapeur d’eau, 67 ; sur une nou-
velle méthode pour la recherche de la
soude et des composés du sodium par
l’analyse spectrale, 68. E

£6*

244

Jargonia, H. C. Sorby on, 75.

Java, W. Chandler Roberts on a speci-
men of obsidian from, 74.

Jecks (Charles) on the Crag formation,
91

Jetireys (Julius) on the action upon
earthy minerals of water in the form
of heated steam, urged by wood fuel,
an experiment reported to the Associ-
tion at its Glasgow Meeting in 1840,
92.

Jellett (Rev. Professor) on a method by
which the formation of certain definite
chemical compounds may be optically
established, 23.

Jews, Sir Duncan Gibb ona cause of
diminished longevity among the, 184.

Kent’s Cavern, W. Pengelly on the
alleged discovery of Hippopotamus
major and Machairodus latidens in, 99.

Khanikof (Nicholas de) on the latitude
of Samarcand, 164.

Kidd (Dr. Charles) on the physiology of
sleep and of chloroform anzesthesia,
125,

*Kidneys, Dr. Thomas Moffatt on the
oxidation of phosphorus and the quan-
tity of phosphoric acid excreted by
the, in connexion with atmospheric
conditions, 72.

Kinahan (G. Henry), notes on the race-
elements of the Irish people, 156.

King (Dr. Richard) on the natives of
Vancouver’s Island and British Co-
lumbia, 225.

Kitai and Kara Kitai, Dr. Gustav Oppert
on the, 165,

Lagrange’s equation of motion referred
to generalized coordinates, R. B, Hay-
ward on a proof of, 10.

Lamellibranchiata, British fossil, J. L.
Lobley on the distribution of the, 96.

*Land, J. W. Reid on the physical
causes which have produced the un-
equal distribution of, and water be-
tween the hemispheres, 100.

Land-tax in India, Hyde Clarke on the
distinction between rent and, 181.

La Touche (the Rey, J. D.), an estimate
of the quantity of sedimentary deposit
in the ‘Oany, 93 ; on spheroidal struc-
ture in Silurian rocks, 95.

Lea, valley of the river, H. Woodward

on the freshwater deposits of the, 103.

Lead, Dr. T. L. Phipson on the solubi-
lity of, and copper in pure and impure
water, 73.

Lebour (G, A.) on the denudation of

REPORT—1869.

Western Brittany, 95; on some gra-
nites of Lower Brittany, 96.

Lee (John Edward), notice of remark-
able glacial striz lately exposed at
Portmadoe, 95.

*Legislation on the extinction of animals,
Rey. H.B. Tristram onthe effect of, 118.

Levi (Professor Leone) on the economic
condition of the agricultural labourer
in England, 226; on agricultural eco-
nomics and wages, 195.

Lewis (A. L.)-on the builders and the
purposes of megalithic monuments,
137.

Lias, Upper, C. Moore on a specimen of
Teleosaurus from the, 97.

Life, initial, C. S. Wake on, 151.

Light (Professor Aug. Morren) on the
chemical action of, discovered by Pro-
fessor Tyndall, 24.

Light, Charles Tomlinson on the sup-
posed action of, on combustion, 78.
Limbs and lower jaw, Prof. Cleland on

the interpretation of the, 119.

*Limpopo, Dr. R. J. Mann on Erskine’s
discovery of the mouth of the, 164.

Liquids, flow of, through small orifices
at high velocities, Colonel H.- Clerk
on the hydraulic buffer, and experi-
ments on the, 209.

Lobley (James L.) on the distribution
of the British fossil Lamellibranchiata,
96.

Local taxation in Ireland, Dr. W. Neil-
son Hancock on the system of, 193.
Login (Thomas) on roads and railways
in Northern India, as affected by the
abrading and transporting power of —

water, 214.

Longevity beyond 70 years, Sir Duncan
Gibb on an obstacle to European, 153 ;
among the Jews, Sir Duncan Gibb on
a cause of diminished, 134,

Longitude of the Radcliffe Observatory,
Oxford, the Rev. R. Main on the, as
deduced from meridional observations
of the moon made at Greenwich and
Oxford, 18.

Lubbock (Sir John, Bart.) on the origin
of civilization and the primitive con-
dition of man, 137.

Lunar tints and spots and shadows on
Plato, W. R. Birt on secular varia-
tions of, 15, :

Lychnis diurna, Miss Becker on altera-
tion in the structure of, observed in
connexion with the development of a—
parasitic fungus, 106.

Macadam (Dr. Stevenson) on the econo-

—

INDEX II.

mic distillation of gas from cannel-
coal, 69,

*M‘Cann (the Rev. Dr. J.) philosophical
Beeetion to Darwinism or evolution,

Machairodus latidens, W. Pengelly on
the alleged discovery of, in Kent’s
Cayern, 99.

Madecasees, C. Staniland Wake on race-
affinities of the, 151.

Magellan, Strait of, Dr. R. O. Cunning-
ham on the flora of the, 112.

, Straits of, and the passages

leading northward to the Gulf of

me Capt. R. C. Mayne on the,
64

Magnus (Prof. Gustav) on the absorp-
tion, emission, and reflection of heat,
25.

Main (Rey. R.) on the longitude of the
Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, as de-
duced from meridional observations of
the moon made at Greenwich and Ox-
ford in the years 1864-68, 18 ; on the
discordance usually observed between
the results of direct and reflection-
observations of north polar distance,
18; remarks on the British Associa-
tion Catalogue of Stars, 19.

Main (R.) on Navy finance, 196,

Mammalian fauna of North-west Ame-

rica, R. Brown on the, 109.

Mammoth, H. H. Howorth on the ex-
tinction of the, 89.

*Man, W.C. Dendy on the primitive

_ status of, 130,

= and the animals, being a counter
theory to Mr. Darwin’s as to the ori-
gin of species, Archdeacon Freeman
on, 132.

——,, Sir John Lubbock on the origin of
civilization and the primitive condi-
tion of, 137,

Manganite of calcium, Walter Weldon
on the manufacture of chlorine by
means of perpetually regenerated, 79.

Mann (Dr.) on the rainfall of Natal, 41.

*. on the gold of Natal, 96; on
Erskine’s discovery of the mouth of
the Limpopo, 164.

on assisted emigration, 196.

Marocco, J. Stirling on a visit to the

holy city of Fas, in, 168.

*Martin (F.) on a new self-recording
aneroid barometer, 51.

Masters (Dr. Maxwell T.) on the relative
value of the characters employed in
the classification of plants, 114.

Mathematical and Physical Section, Ad-
dress by Professor Sylvester to the, 1.

245

*Matthiessen (Dr. A.) and C. R. Wright
on the action of hydrochloric acid on
morphia codeia, 69.

Maury barometer, Frederick T. Mott on
the, a new instrument for measuring
altitudes, 51.

Maw (G.) on the trappean conglome-
rates of MiddletownHill, Montgomery-
shire, 96; on insect-remains and shells
from the lower Bagshot leaf-bed of
Studland Bay, Dorsetshire, 97.

Mayne (Capt. R. C.) on the Straits of
Magellan and the passages leading
northward to the Gulf of Penas, 164.

Mechanical Section, Address of the Pre-
sident, C, W. Siemens, to the, 200.

Mechanical tracing of curves, W. H. L,
Russell on, 15.

Megalithic monuments, A. L. Lewis on
the builders and the purposes of, 137.

Mercury, bromo-iodide of, Dr, A. Oppen-
heim on, 72.

Metallic deposit obtained from the in-
duction-discharge in yvacuum-tubes,
J. P. Gassiot on the, 46.

Metals, Dr. J. H. Gladstone on the re-
lation between the specific refractive
energies and the combining propor-
tions of, 21.

Meteorological reductions, remarks on,
by Dr. Balfour Stewart, with especial
reference to the element of vapour, 43,

Miall (L. C.), experiments on contor-
tion of mountain limestone, 97.

Microscopical observations at Miinster
am Stein, by George Gladstone, 113.

Minerals, Dr. J. D. Heaton on den-
droidal forms assumed by, 127.

Miocene clays of Bovey Tracey, W.
Pengelly on the source of the, 99.

*Mitchell (D.), Are flint implements of
ae first stone age found in the drift ?,
69.

Moffatt (Dr. Thomas) on the phosphor-
escence of the sea and ozone, 72.

on the oxidation of phosphorus,
and the quantity of phosphoric acid
excreted by the kidneys in connexion
with atmospheric conditions, 72.

Mollusca of Nicaragua, R. Tate on the
land and freshwater, 117.

Montgomeryshire, G. Maw on the trap-

Le teas tie: of Middletown
1, .

Moon, the Rey. R. Main on the lon-
gitude of the Radcliffe Observatory,
Oxford, as deduced from meridional
observations of the, 18.

Moore (C.) on aspecimen of Teleosaurus
from the Upper Lias, 97.

246
*Morocco, J. Stirling on the races of,
151

*Morphia codeia, Dr. A. Matthiessen and
C. R. Wright on the action of hydro-
chloric acid on, 69.

Morren (Prof. Aug.) on the chemical

_ action of light discovered by Professor
Tyndall, 24.

*Morris (the Rey. F. O.) on the diffi-
culties of Darwinism, 151.

Morrison (J. D.) on a new system of
house ventilation, 219.

Mortality of Bombay, P. M. Tait on the
population and, 199.

Mosquito and Wulwa dialects, Dr. Char-
nock and Dr. C, Carter Blake on,
129.

Motion, sketch of a proof of Lagrange’s
equation of, referred to generalized

_ coordinates, 10.

Motive power, Richard Eaton on certain
economical improvements in obtain-

- ing, 226,

Mott (Frederick T.)ontheMaury barome-
ter, a new instrument for measuring

. altitudes, 51,

Mountain limestone, experiments on
contortion of, by L. C. Miall, 97.

Mussel-shell (fossil) found in the Drift
in Ireland, Eugene A. Conwell on a,

Myology of Cyclothurus didactylus, John
C. Galton on the, 121.

Myriapod of the genus Lwphoberia in
the coal-measures of Kilmaurs, H.
Broodmars on the discovery of a large,

03.
Myzxogaster, C. E.. Broome on a recently
_ discovered species of, 108.

Natal, Dr. R. Mann on the rainfall of, 41.
s , Dr. R. Mann on the gold of, 96.
National accounts, Frank P. Fellows on
our, 190.
*National Educational League, JesseCol-
lings on some statistics of the, 182.
Navy finance, R. Mann on, 196.
Nebula in Argo, the Rev. Dr. Robinson
on the appearance of the, as seen in
the great Melbourne telescope, 20.
ay R. Garner on the brain of the,

Neumayer (Dr. A.) on the recent fall of
an aérolite at Krahenburg in the Pala-

. tinate, 20; scheme for a scientific ex-
ploration of Australia, 165.

Newman (I, W.) on curves of the third
degree, here called tertians, 10; on
the curvature of surfaces of the second
degree, 13 ; on conic osculation, 13.

REPORT—1869.

New Red Sandstone of the central por-
tion of England, Edward Hull on the
source of the quartzose conglomerate
of the, 91.

Newtonian telescopes, G. Johnstone Sto-
ney on collimators for adjusting, 52.
New Zealand, on the economic progress

of, 192.

Nicholson (H. Alleyne) on some new
forms of Graptolites, 98.

Norman (the Rey. A. M.), letter to, from
Prof. Wyville Thomson, on the suc-
cessful dredging of H.M.S. ‘ Porcu-.
pine,’ 115.

Northcote(the Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H.),
Address as President of the Section of
Economic Science and Statistics, 173.

North polar distance, the Rey. R. Mann
on the discordance usually observed
between the results of direct and re-
flexion observations of, 18.

*North Pole, Capt. R. V. Hamilton on
the best route to the, 164.

*Norwich, J. E. Taylor on certain phe-
nomena in the Drift near, 100; onthe
water-bearing strata in the neighbour-
hood of, 100.

Obsidian, W. Chandler Roberts on a
specimen of, from Java, 74.

Onny, an estimate of the quantity of se-
dimentary deposit in the, by the Rey.
J. D. La Touche, 93,

Oppenheim (Dr, A.) on aceto-sulphuric
acid, 72 ; on bromo-iodide of mercury,
72.

Oppert (Dr. Gustav) on the Kitai and
Kara Kitai, 165.

Organic remains in the rocks between
the Nase Ilead and Porthalla Cove,
Cornwall, C. W. Peach on the disco-
very of, 99.

*Origin of species, Archdeacon Freeman
on man and the animals, being a
counter theory to Mr. Darwin’s as to
the, 132.

Ormerod (G. Wareing), sketch of the
granite of the northerly and easterly
sides of Dartmoor, 98.

Osculation, conic, F. W. Newman on, 13.

Ozone, atmospheric, Dr. H. Cook on the
registration of, in the Bombay Presi-
dency, and the chief causes which in-
fluence its appreciable amount in the
atmosphere, 64,

——, Dr. Thomas Moffatt on the phos-
phorescence of the sea and, 72.

“‘Paléontologie de 1’Asie Mineure,” by
_ M. Tchihatchef, 100,

INDEX lI.

Patagonia, Dr. R. O, Cunningham on
the flora of the Strait of Magellan and
west coast of, 112.

Patent law, Henry Dircks on some sta-
tistics illustrating the policy of a, 182.

Peach (C. W.) on the roe See of or-
ganic remains in the rocks between
the Nare Head and Porthalla Cove,
Cornwall, 99,

Peacock (G.) on the encroachment of
the sea on Exmouth Warren, 166.

“ Pebble-bed” of Budleigh-Salterton, T.
Davidson on the Brachiopoda hitherto
obtained from the, 88.

Penal law as applied to prison discipline,
Sir John Bowring on, 180.

Peiias, Gulf of, Captain R. C. Mayne on
the Straits of Magellan and the pas-
sages leading northward to the, 164.

Pengelly (W.) on the alleged occur-
rence of Hippopotamus major and Ma-
chairodus latidens in Kent’s Cavern,
99 ; on the source of the Miocene clays
of Bovey Tracey, 99; on whale re-
mains washed ashore at Babbacombe,
South Devon, 116.

Perdiz cinerea found in Devonshire, Dr.
W. R, Scott on a hybrid or other va-
riety of, 117.

Peruvian explorations and settlements
on the Upper Amazons, F. F. Searle
on, 167.

“ Petrified human eyes ” from the graves
of the dead, Arica, Peru, the Rey. Dr.
Hume on the so-called, 135.

- Phipson (Dr. T, L.) on the solubility of

lead and copper in pure and impure
water, 73; on some new substances
extracted from the walnut, 74. .
Phosphates in wheat-seed, Professor
Crace-Calvert on the amount of solu-
ble and insoluble, 66.
Phosphorescence of the sea and ozone,
Dr. T. Moffatt on the, 72.
Phosphoric chloride, Stephen Williams
on the action of, on hydric sulphate,

82.

*Phosphorus, Dr. T. Moffatt on the oxi-
dation of, and the quantity of phos-
phoric acid excreted by the kidneys
in connexion with atmospheric con-
ditions, 72.

a , Charles Tomlinson on a remark-

__ able structural appearance in, 78,

Physical science, the Rev. W. Tuckwell
on the method of teaching, 119.

Physiological action of hydrate of chlo-
ral, Dr. B. W. Richardson on the, 222,

Physiology, W. K. Bridgman on vyol-
taic electricity in relation to, 119.

247

*Physique terrestre, faits divers de, par.
Dr. Janssen, 41,

Plants, fossil, in the Cambrian (Upper
Longmynd) rocks, St. Dayid’s, Dr,
Hicks on the discovery of some, 89.

——, Dr. Maxwell T. Masters on the
value of the characters employed in
the classification of, 114.

Plato, W. R. Birt on secular variations
of lunar tints and spots and sha-
dows on, 15.

Plymouth, Henry K. Bamber on the
water-supply of, 60.

Population and mortality of Bombay,
P. M. Tait on the, 199.

Prideaux (T. 8.) on the occasional defi-
nition of the convolutions of the brain
on the exteior of the head, 225,

Primitive condition of man, Sir John
Lubbock on the origin of civilization
and the, 137.

Prison discipline, Sir John Bowring on
penal law as applied to, 180.

Pteroplax, James Thomson on new forms
of, with notes on their structure by
Prof. Young, 101.

Purdy (Frederick) on some experiments
in agriculture, 197; on the pressure of
taxation on real property, 199,

Quartzose conglomerate of the New
Red Sandstone of the central portion
of England, Edward Hull on the
source of the, 91.

Race-affinities of the Madecasees, C. 8.
Wake on the, 151.

Race-elements of the Irish people, G.
Henry Kinahan on the, 136. é

Races, mixed, Hyde Clarke on the want
of statistics on the question of, 181.

Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, the Rey.
R. Main on the longitude of the, as
deduced from meridional observations
of the moon, 18.

Railway across the Channel between the
coasts of England and France, John
F. Bateman and J. J. Révy on a pro-
posed cast-iron tube for carrying a,
206.

, Railway passengers’ and guards’ com-
munication, 8. Alfred Varley on, 220.

Railways in their relation to the public,
R. Brandon on, 180,

— in Northern India as affected by
the abrading and transporting power
of water, Thomas Login on the roads
and, 214,

Rainfall of Natal, Dr. Mann on the,
41,

248

Rain-gauge, self-recording, Dr. Balfour
Stewart on a, 52.

Rajpootana and Sind, Sir B. Frere on

- the Runn of Cutch and the countries
between, 163.

Raleigh’s (Sir Walter) El Dorado, Dr.
C. Le Neve Foster on the existence
of, 162.

Randall (John) on the denudation of the
Shropshire and South Staffordshire
coal-fields, 100.

Rankine (W. J. Macquorn) on the ther-
modynamic theory of waves of finite
longitudinal disturbance, 14.

Rapistrum rugosum, All., W. P. Hiern
on the occurrence of, in Surrey, Kent,
and Somersetshire, 114.

Real property, F’. Purdy on the pressure
of taxation on, 199.

*Red Sea, Dr. C. Beke on a canal to
unite the Upper Nile and, 159.

Reflection of heat, Professor Gustay
Magnus on the absorption, emission,
and, 25.

*Reid (J. W.) on the physical causes
which have produced the unequal dis-
tribution of land and water between
the hemispheres, 100.

Rent and land-tax in India, Hyde Clarke
on the distinction between, 181.

*Reptilian eges from secondary strata,
W. Carruthers on, 86.

Respiratory and cardiac moyements of
the chest, Dr. Sanderson on an appa—
ratus for measuring and recording the,
128.

Révy (J. J.) and J. F. Bateman on a
proposed cast-iron tube for carrying a
railway across the Channel between
the coasts of England and France, 206.

Richardson (Dr. Benjamin W.) on the
physiological action of hydrate of
chloral, 222.

Roberts (W. Chandler) on a specimen
of obsidian from Java, 74.

Robinson (the Rey. Dr.) on the appear-
ance of the nebula in Argo as seen in
the great Melbourne telescope, 20.

*Runn of Cutch, Captain C. Dodd on
the, 160.

Runn of Cutch, and the countries between
Rajpootana and Sind, Sir Bartle Frere
on the, 163.

Russell (W. H. L.) on the mechanical
tracing of curves, 15.

Russell (Dr. W. J.) on the measurement
of gases as a branch of volumetric
analysis, 74.

St. Thomas, Henry K, Bamber on the

REPORT—1869.

water supplies of Plymouth, Devon-
port, Exeter, and, 60.

*Salmon rivers of Devon and Cornwall,
and how to improve them, Frank
Buckland on, 111.

Samarcand, M. Nicholas Khanikof on
the latitude of, 164.

Sanderson (Dr. J. Burdon), description of
an apparatus for measuring and record-
ing the respiratory and cardiac moye-
ments of the chest, 128.

Sandstone, New Red, of the central por-
tion of England, Edward Hull on the
source of the quartzose conglomerate
of the, 91.

*Sankey (W. H.) on weights and mea-
sures, 199.

Saunders (Trelawney W.) on Mr. Coo-
per’s attempt to reach India from
‘Western China, 166.

on the Himalayas and Central
Asia, 167.

Scheelite (tungstate of lime), Dr. C. Le
Neve Foster on the occurrence of the
mineral at the Val Toppa gold-mines
near Domodossola, Piedmont, 88.

Schools in rural districts, the Rey. Canon
Girdlestone on the maintenance of,
191.

Scott (Dr. W. R.) on a hybrid or other
variety of Perdix cinerea found in
Devonshire, 117,

*Sea, R. Edmonds on extraordinary
agitations of the, 160.

, G. Peacock on the encroachment
of the, on Exmouth Warren, 166.

Searle (Francis F.) on Peruvian explo-
rations and settlements on the Upper
Amazons, 167.

Second degree, F, W. Newman on the
curvature of surfaces of the, 13.

*Secondary strata, W. Carruthers on
reptilian eges from, 86.

Sedimentary deposit of the Onny, an es-
timate of the quantity of, by the Rey.
J. D, La Touche, 93.

Self-recording rain-gauge, Dr. Balfour
Stewart on a, 52.

Self-registering hygrometers, EH. Vivian
on, 53.

Sewage, T. D. Barry on the utilization
of town, 209,

Shells with heavy bursting charges fired
obliquely, J. Whitworth on the pene-
tration of armour-plates by, 222.

*Shipbuilding on the Thames, John
Glover on the decline of, 191.

Shropshire and South Stattordshire coal-
fields, John Randall on the denuda-
tion of the, 100,

——— oo

LS ———— le, LC el lh

INDEX II.

Siemens (C. William), Address as Bea

dent of the Mechanical Section, 200.

Silurian rocks, the Rev. J. D, La Touche
on spheroidal structure in, 95.

Sind, Sir Bartle Frere on the Runn of
Cutch and the countries between Raj-
pootana and, 163.

Sleep, Dr. Kidd on the physiology of,
and of chloroform anzesthesia, 125.

*« Slickensides,” W. Carruthers on, 86.

Smith (William) on an improved ver-
tical annular high-pressure steam-
boiler, 219. '

Sodium, Dr. Janssen sur une nouvelle
méthode pour larecherche de la soude
et des composés du, par l’analyse spec-
trale, 68.

Sorby (H. C.) on Jargonia, 75.

Spectrale, l’analyse, Dr. Janssen sur une
nouvelle méthode pour la recherche de
la soude et des composés du sodium
par, 68. .

Spectre de la vapeur d’eau, Dr. Janssen
sur le, 67.

Speed of air in flues and chimneys, A.
E. Fletcher on a new anemometer for
measuring the, 48.

Spence (Peter) on raising a temperature

~ higher than 212° F. in certain solutions
by steam of 212° F., 75.

Spheroidal structure in Silurian rocks,
the Rey. J. D. La Touche on, 95,

*Spirit-levels, chambered, T. Warner on,
54

Spongy iron, I. Lowthian Bell on the
decomposition of carbonic oxide by,
62.

Staffordshire, South, coal-fields, John
Randall on the Shropshire and, 100.
Stanford (Edward C. C.) on a chemical
method of treating the excreta of

towns, 76.

Stars, British Association Catalogue of,
the Rey. R. Main’s remarks on the,
19.

*Stars, William Huggins on the heat of,
18.

Steam, Julius Jeffreys on the action upon
earthy minerals of water in the form
of heated, urged by wood fuel, 92.

Steam of 212° F., Peter Spence on raising
a temperature higher than 212° F. in
certain solutions by, 75.

Steam-boiler, William Smith on an im-

_ proved annular high-pressure, 219.

Stereoscopic representation of the cubic
Eikosi-heptagram, Prof. Sylvester on
Prof. Christian Wiener’s, 15.

Stewart (Dr. Balfour) on meteorological
reductions, with especial reference to

249

the element of vapour, 43 ; on a self-
recording rain-gauge, 52.

*Stirling (J.) on the races of Morocco,
151; on a visit to the holy city of
Fas, in Morocco, 168.

*Stone implements from Rangoon, Vice-
Admiral Sir E. Belcher on, 129.

Stoney (G. Johnstone) on collimators
for adjusting Newtonian telescopes,
52; on a cheap form of heliostat, 53.

on the numerical relations between

ite wave-lengths of the hydrogenrays,

*Strange (Lieut.-Colonel A.) on the
best forms of numerical figures for
scientific instruments, and a proposed
mode of engraving them, 53; on a
small altazimuth instrument for the
use of explorers, 168.

*Strutt (the Hon. J. W.) on an electro-
magnetic experiment, 46,

Stylonurus in the cornstone of Hereford,
a Woodward on the occurrence of,

03.

Successive involutes of a circle, Prof.
Sylvester on the, 15.

*Suez Canal, Captain C. Dodd on a re-
cent visit to the, 160.

Sugar, inverted, the Rev. Professor Jel-
lett on a method of determining with
accuracy theratio of the rotating power
of cane-sugar and, 69.

Surfaces of the second degree, F. W.
Newman on the curvature of, 13.

Sylvester (Prof. J. J.), Address as Pre-
sident of the Mathematical and Phy-
sical Section, 1.

on Professor Christian Woiener’s
stereoscopicrepresentation of the cubic
Hikosi-heptagram, 15 ; on the succes-
sive involutes to a circle, 15.

Symons (G. J.) and Rogers Field on the
determination of the real amount of
evaporation from the surface of water,
25, 220,

Tait (Prof. P. G.) on comets, 21.

Tait (P. M.) on the population and mor-
tality of Bombay, 199.

Tasmanians, James Bonwick on the origin
of the, geologically considered, 129.
Tate (Ralph) on the land and freshwater

mollusca of Nicaragua, 117.

, notes on an inseribed rock, 151.

Taxation on real property, F, Purdy on
the pressure of, 199.

*Taylor (J. E.) on certain phenomena in
the Drift near Norwich, 100; on the
water-bearing strata in the neighbour-
hood of Norwich, 100,

250

Tchihatchef (M.), “Paléontologie de
l’Asie Mineure,” by, 100; on Central
Asia, 1

Teaching physical science, the Rev. W.
Tuckwell on the method of, 199.

Technical education of the agricultural
labourer, J. Bailey Denton on the, 182.

Teeth and dermal structure associated
with Ctenacanthus, James Thomson
on, 102.

Teleosaurus from the Upper Lias, C.
Moore on a specimen of, 97.

Telescopes, Newtonian, G. Johnstone
Stoney on collimators for adjusting,
52.

Temperature and humidity of the air up
to 1000 feet, from observations made
in the car of M. Giffard’s captive
balloon, James Glaisher on the changes
of, 27

Temperature higher than 212° F. in
certain solutions by steam of 212° F.,
Peter Spence on raising a, 75.

*Tennant (Professor J.) on the diamonds
received from the Cape of Good Hope
during the last year, 101.

*Terra-Cotta clay at Watcombe, Tor-
quay, R. Etheridge on the occurrence
of a large deposit of, 87.

Tertians, F. W. Newman on curves of
the third degree, here called, 10; cur-
vature of surfaces of the second degree,
F. W. Newman on, 13.

Thames Valley at Acton and Ealing,
Colonel A. Lane Fox on the discovery
of flint implements of the Palzolithic
type in the gravel of the, 130.

Theory of distance, W. K. Clifford on
the, 9.

Thermodynamic theory of waves of finite
longitudinal disturbance, W. J. Mac-
quorn Rankine on the, 14.

Thomson (James) on new forms of Ptero-
plax and other carboniferous Laby-
rinthodonts, and other Megalichthys,
101; on teeth and dermal structure
associated with Ctenacanthus, 102.

Thomson (Prof. Wyville) on the suc-
cessful dredging of H.M.S. ‘ Porcu-
pine, 115.

*Tin, block, D. Fritsche’s notes on
structural changes in, 67,

Tomlinson (Charles) on the supposed
action of light on combustion, 78.

on a remarkable structural ap-
pearance in phosphorus, 78.

Trade-routes between Northern India and
Central Asia, T. D. Forsyth on, 161.

Transporting power of water, Thomas
Login on the roads and railways of

REPORT-—1 869.

Northern India as effected by the
abrading and, 214.

Trappean conglomerates of Middletown
Hill, Montgomeryshire, G. Maw on
the, 96.

*Tristram (Rey. Dr.) on the effect of
legislation on the extinction of ani-
mals, 118.

Trout, five years’ experience showing in
what waters, will and will not thrive,
by W. F. Webb, 118.

Tuckwell (the Rev. W.) on the method
of teaching physical science, 199.

Tyndall (Professor), Prof. Aug. Morren
on the chemical action of light dis-
covered by, 24.

Vaccine, human, lymph and heifer lymph
compared, by Dr. Henry Blane, 118.
Vacuum-tubes, J. P. Gassiot on the me-
tallic discharge obtained from the in-

duction-discharge in, 46.

Vancouver’s Island and British Colum-
bia, Dr. R. King on the natives of,
225.

Vapeur d’eau, Dr. Janssen sur le spectre
de le, 67.

Vapour, Dr. Balfour Stewart on meteoro-
logical reductions, with especial refer-
ence to the element of, 43.

*Varley (I*. H.) on the electric balance,
46

Varley (S. Alfred) on railway passen-
gers’ and guards’ communication, 220,

Ventilation, J. D. Morrison on a new
system of house-, 219.

Vivian (E.) on self-registering hygro-
meters, 53.

Voltaic electricity in relation to physio-
logy, W. Kencely Bridgeman on, 119.

Volumetric analysis, Dr. W. J. Russell
on the measurement of gases as a
branch of, 74,

*Umbilici of anallacmatic surfaces, W.K.
Clifford on the, 9.

Upper Lias, C. Moore on a specimen of
Teleosaurus from the, 97.

Urine, the Rey. W. V. Harcourt on the
solvent treatment of uric-acid calculus,
and the quantitative determination of
uric acid in, 122,

Wake (C, Staniland) on initial life, 151;
on the race-affinities of the Made-
casees, 151.

Walnut, Dr. T, L. Phipson on some new
substances extracted from the, 74.

*Warner (T.) on chambered spirit-levels,

——

ee ee Se my

INDEX IT.

Warren (Thomas T, P. Bruce) on elec-
trification, 47.

Water, earthy minerals of, in the form of
heated steam, urged by wood fuel,
Julins Jeffreys on the action upon, 92.

—, Rogers Field and G. J. Symons
on the determination of the real
amount of evaporation from the ‘sur-
face of, 25, 220.

, Thomas Login on the roads and

railways of Northern India as affected

by the abrading and transporting

power of, 214.

, Dr. T. L. Phipson on the solubi-
lity of lead and copper on pure and
impure, 73.

* , J. W. Reid on the physical causes
which have produced the unequal dis-
tribution of land and, between the
hemispheres, 100.

supplies of Plymouth, Devonport,
Exeter, and St. Thomas, Henry K.
Bamber on the, 60.

*Water-bearing strata in the neighbour-
hood of Norwich, J. EK. Taylor on the,
100.

Water-main, R. E. Froude on the hy-
draulic internal scraping of the Tor-
quay, 210.

*Wave-leneths of the hydrogen-rays, G.
Johnstone Stoney on the numerical
relations between the, 24.

Waves of finite longitudinal disturbance,
W. J. Macquorn Rankine on the ther-
modynamic theory of, 14.

Webb (F. W.), five years’ experience in
artificial fish-breeding, showing in
what waters trout will and will not
thrive, with some:remarks on fish and
British fisheries, 118.

*Weights and measures, W. H. Sankey
on, 199.

Weldon (Walter) on the manufacture of
chlorine by means of perpetually rege-
nerated manganite of calcium, 79.

Whale-remains washed ashore at Babba-
combe, W. Pengelly on, 116.

Wheat-seed, Prof. F. Crace-Calvert on
the amount of soluble and insoluble
phosphates in, 66.

251

White (Capt. T. P.) on a_bifurcate
stream at Glen Lednoch Head, in
Perthshire, 172.

*Whitley (N.) on the distribution of
shattered chalk flints and slates in
Deyon and Cornwall, 103.

Whitworth (Mr. Joseph) on the pene-
tration of armour-plates by shells with
Be any bursting charges fired obliquely,
222.

Wiener’s (Prof. Christian) stereoscopic
representation of the cubic Eikosi-hep-
tagram, Prof. Sylvester on, 15.

Williams (Stephen) on the action of
phosphoric chloride on hydric sul-
phate, 82.

*Wilson (Dr.) on the moral imbecility
of habitual criminals, exemplified by
cranial measurements, 129.

Wire-gauge, L, Clark on the Birming-
ham, 209.

Wombat, the human mesocolon illus-
trated by that of the, 120.

Women, College for, at Hitchin, J. Hey-
wood on the examination subjects for
admission into the, 195.

Woodward (C. J.) on a self-setting type
machine for recording the hourly ho-
rizontal motion of the air, 54.

Woodward (H.) on the occurrence of
Stylonurus in the cornstone of Here-
ford, 103; on the discovery of a large
Myriapod of the genus Euphoberta in
the coal-measures of Kilmaurs, 103;
on the freshwater deposits of the val-
ley of the river Lea in Essex, 103.

*—_ on a new Isopod from Flinder’s
Island, 118.

*Wright (C. R.) and Dr. A. Matthiessen
on the action of hydrochloric acid on
morphia codeia, 69.

Wulwa and Mosquito dialects, Dr. C.
Carter Blake and Dr. Charnock on the,
129.

Young (Prof.), notes on the structure of
new forms of Pteroplax and other
carboniferous Labyrinthodonts, and
other Megalichthys, 101.

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Prof. Johnston, on the Present State of our Knowledge in regard to Dimorphous Bodies ;—
Lt.-Col. Sykes, on the Statistics of the Four Collectorates of Dukhun, under the British Go-
vernment ;—E. Hodgkinson, on the relative Strength and other Mechanical Properties of Tron
obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Strength and other Properties
of Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast ;+Sir J. Robison, and J. 8. Russell, Report of
the Committee on Waves ;—Note by Major Sabine, being an Appendix to his Report on the
Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at different Points of the Earth’s Surface ;—
J. Yates, on the Growth of Plants under Glass, and without any free communication with the
outward Air, on the Plan of Mr. N. J. Ward, of London.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Traill’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tute EIGHTH MEETING, at Newcastle, 1838,
Published at 15s.

ConTENTS:—Rev. W. Whewell, Accouut of a Level Line, measured from the Bristol Chane

ediniineteees

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= Pe ae ee ire

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255

nel to the English Channel, by Mr. Bunt;—Report on the Discussions of Tides, prepared
under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell ;—W. S. Harris, Account of the Progress and
State of the Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Major E. Sabine, on the Magnetic
Isoclinal and Isodynamic Lines in the British Islands ;—D. Lardner, LL.D., on the Determi-
nation of the Mean Numerical Values of Railway Constants ;—R. Mallet, First Report upon
Experiments upon the Action of Sea and River Water upon Cast and Wrought Iron ;—R.
Mallet, on the Action of a Heat of 212° Fahr., when long continued, on Inorganic and Organic
Substances. :

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe NINTH MEETING, at Birmingham, 1839,
Published at 13s. 6d.

ConTEnTs :—Rev. B. Powell, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Refractive
Indices, for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in different media ;—Report on the Ap-
plication of the Sum assigned for Tide Calculations to Rev. W. Whewell, in a Letter from T. G,
Bunt, Esq. ;—H. L. Pattinson, on some Galvanic Experiments to determine the Existence or
Non-Existence of Electrical Currents among Stratified Rocks, particularly those of the Moun-
tain Limestone formation, constituting the Lead Measures of Alton Moor ;—Sir D. Brewster,
Reports respecting the two series of Hourly Meteorological Observations kept in Scotland ;—
Report on the subject of a series of Resolutions adopted by the British Association at their
Meeting in August 1838, at Newcastle ;—R. Owen, Report on British Fossil Reptiles ;—E.
Forbes, Report on the Distribution ot Pulmoniferous Mollusca in the British Isles;—W. S.
Harris, Third Report on the Progress of the Hourly Meteorological Register at Plymouth
Dockyard.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue TENTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 1840,
Published at 15s.

ConTEnts :—Rev. B. Powell, Report on the recent Progress of discovery relative to Radiant
Heat, supplementary to a former Report on the same subject inserted in the first volume of the
Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of Science ;—J. D. Forbes, Supple-
mentary Report on Meteorology ;—W. S. Harris, Report on Prof. Whewell’s Anemometer,
now in operation at Plymouth ;—Report on ‘‘ The Motion and Sounds of the Heart,” by the
London Committee of the British Association, for 1839-40 ;—Prof. Schénbein, an Account of
Researches in Electro-Chemistry ;—R. Mallet, Second Report upon the Action of Air and
Water, whether fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at various temperatures, upon Cast Iron,
Wrought Iron and Steel ;—R. W. Fox, Report on some Observations on Subterranean Tem-
perature ;—A. F. Osler, Report on the Observations recorded during the years 1837, 1838, 1839,
and 1840, by the Self-registering Anemometer erected at the Philosophical Institution, Bir-
mingham ;—Sir D. Brewster, Report respecting the two Series of Hourly Meteorological Ob-
servations kept at Inverness and Kingussie, from Nov. Ist, 1838 to Nov. 1st, 1839 ;—W.
Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Vertebruta ;—C. J. B. Williams, M.D.,
Report of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs and Air-Tubes ;—Kev. J. S. Henslow,
Report of the Committee on the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison and Major E. Sabine’s
Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe ELEVENTH MEETING, at Plymouth,
1841, Published at 13s. 6d.

ConTENTs :—Rev. P. Kelland, on the Present state of our Theoretical and Experimental
Knowledge of the Laws of Conduction of Heat ;—G. L. Roupell, M.D., Report on Poisons ;—
T. G. Bunt, Report on Discussions of Bristol Tides, under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell;
—D. Ross, Report on the Discussions of Leith Tide Observations, under the direction of the
Rev. W. Whewell ;—W. S. Harris, upon the working of Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymowh
during the past year ;—Report of a Committee appointed for the purpose of superintend-
ing the scientific cooperation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Obser-
vations in Terrestrial Magnetism and Meteorology ;—Reports of Committees appointed to pro-
vide Meteorological Instruments for the use of M. Agassiz and Mr. M‘Cord ;—Report of a Com-

256

mittee to superintend the reduction of Meteorological Observations;—Report of a Com-
mittee for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Report of a Committee for obtaining In-
struments and Registers to record Shocks and Earthquakes in Scotland and Ireland ;—Report of
a Committee on the Preservation of Vegetative Powers in Seeds ;—Dr. Hodgkin, on Inquiries
into the Races of Man ;—Report of the Committee appointed to report how far the Desiderata
in our knowledge of the Condition of the Upper Strata of the Atmosphere may be supplied by
means of Ascents in Balloons or otherwise, to ascertain the probable expense of such Experi-
ments, and to draw up Directions for Observers in such circumstances ;—R. Owen, Report
on British Fossil Reptiles ;—Reports on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway
Constants ;——D. Lardner, LL.D., Second and concluding Report on the Determination of the
Mean Value of Railway Constants ;—E. Woods, Report on Railway Constants ;—Report of a
Committee on the Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-Engines.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Whewell’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue TWELFTH MEETING, at Manchester,
1842, Published at 10s. 6d.

ConTENTs :—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the cooperation of the British
Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—
J. Richardson, M.D., Report on the present State of the Ichthyology of New Zealand ;—
W.S. Harris, Report on the Progress of Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Second
Report of a Committee appointed to make Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;
—C. Vignoles, Report of the Committee on Railway Sections ;—Report of the Committee
for the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances ;—Lyon Playfair, M.D., Abstract
of Prof. Liebig’s Report on Organic Chemistry applied to Physiology and Pathology ;—
R. Owen, Report on the British Fossil Mammalia, Part I.;—R. Hunt, Researches on the
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;—L. Agassiz, Report
on the Fossil Fishes of the Devonian System or Old Red Sandstone ;—W. Fairbairn, Ap-
pendix to a Report on the Strength and other Properties of Cast Iron obtained from the Hot
and Cold Blast ;—D. Milne, Report of the Committee for Registering Shocks of Earthquakes
in Great Britain ;—Report of a Committee on the construction of a Constant Indicator for
Steam-Engines, and for the determination of the Velocity of the Piston of the Self-acting En-
gine at different periods of the Stroke ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Committee on the Form of
Ships ;—Report of a Committee appointed “to consider of the Rules by which the Nomencla-
ture of Zoology may be established on a uniform and permanent basis ;’"—Report of a Com-
mittee on the Vital Statistics of large Towns in Scotland ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices
of Progress in special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals,

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Francis Egerton’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTEENTH MEETING, at Cork,
1843, Published at \2s.

CoNnTENTS:—Robert Mallet, Third Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether
fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at Various Temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and
Steel ;—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the cooperation of the British As-
sociation in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Sir
J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., Report of the Committee appointed for the Reduction of Meteoro-
logical Observations;—Report of the Committee appointed for Experiments on Steam-
Engines ;—Report of the Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality
of Seeds ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Series of Observations on the Tides of the Frith of
Forth and the East Coast of Scotland ;—J. S. Russell, Notice of a Report of the Committee
on the Form of Ships;—J. Blake, Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines; —Report
of the Committee on Zoological Nomenclature ;—Report of the Committee for Registering
the Shocks of Earthquakes, and making such Meteorological Observations as may appear to
them desirable ;—Report of the Committee for conducting Experiments with Captive Balloons;
—Prof. Wheatstone, Appendix to the Report ;—Report of the Committee for the Translation
and Publication of Foreign Scientific Memoirs ;—C. W. Peach, on the Habits of the Marine
Testacea ;—E, Forbes, Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Egean Sea, and on their
distribution, considered as bearing on Geology ;—L. Agassiz, Synoptical Table of British
Fossil Fishes, arranged in the order of the Geological Formations ;—R. Owen, Report on the
British Fossil Mammalia, Part II. ;—E. W. Binney, Report on the excavation made at the
junction of the Lower New Red Sandstone with the Coal Measures at Collyhurst ;—W.

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257

Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Jnvertebrata ;—Provisional Reports, and
Notices of Progress in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Earl of Rosse’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS oF tut FOURTEENTH MEETING, at York, 1844,
Published at £1.

ConTENTs :—W. B. Carpenter, on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—J. Alder and A.
Hancock, Report on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca;—R. Hunt, Researches on the
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;—Report of a
Committee appointed by the British Association in 1840, for revising the Nomenclature of the
Stars ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on the Meteorology of Toronto in Canada ;—J. Blackwall, Report
on some recent researches into the Structure, Functions, and Economy of the Araneidea
made in Great Britain ;—Earl of Rosse, on the Construction of large Reflecting Telescopes ;
—Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on a Gas-furnace for Experiments on Vitrifaction and other
Applications of High Heat in the Laboratory ;—Report of the Committee for Registering
Earthquake Shocks in Scotland ;—Report of a Committee for Experiments on Steam-Engines;
—Report of the Committee to investigate the Varieties of the Human Race ;—Fourth Report
of a Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds ;—W. Fair-
bairn, on the Consumption of Fuel and the Prevention of Smoke ;—F. Ronalds, Report con-
cerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew ;—Sixth Report of the Committee
appointed to conduct the Cooperation of the British Association in the System of Simulta-
neous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Prof. Forchhammer on the influence
of Fucoidal Plants upon the Formations of the Earth, on Metamorphism in general, and par-
ticularly the Metamorphosis of the Scandinavian Alum Slate ;—H. E. Strickland, Report on
the recent Progress and Present State of Ornithology ;—T. Oldham, Report of Committee
appointed to conduct Observations on Subterranean Temperature in Ireland ;—Prof. Owen,
Report on the Extinct Mammals of Australia, with descriptions of certain Fossils indicative
of the former existence in that continent of large Marsupial Representatives of the Order
Pachydermata ;—W. S. Harris, Report on the working of Whewell and Osler’s Anemometers
at Plymouth, for the years 1841, 1842, 1843 ;—W. R. Birt, Report on Atmospheric Waves;
—L. Agassiz, Rapport sur les Poissons Fossiles de l’Argile de Londres, with translation ;—J.
8. Russell, Report on Waves ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Re-
searches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dean of Ely’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe FIFTEENTH MEETING, at Cambridge,
1845, Published at 12s.

ContTENTS:—Seventh Report of a Committee appointed to conduct the Cooperation of the
British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observa-
tions ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on some points in the Meteorology of Bombay ;—J. Blake, Report
on the Physiological Actions of Medicines ;—Dr. Von Boguslawski, on the Comet of 1843;
—R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—Prof. Schénbein, on Ozone ;—Prof. Erman, on
the Influence of Friction upon Thermo-Electricity;—Baron Senftenberg, on the Seif-
Registering Meteorological Instruments employed in the Observatory at Senftenberg ;—
W. R. Birt, Second Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress and Pre-
sent Extent of Savings’ Banks in the United Kingdom ;—Prof. Bunsen and Dr, Playfair,
Report on the Gases evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the Theory of Smelting
of Iron ;—Dr. Richardson, Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan ;—
Report of the Committee on the Registration of Periodical Phenomena of Animals and Vege-
tables ;—Fifth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Appendix, &c.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir J. F. W. Herschel’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue SIXTEENTH MEETING, at Southampton,
1846, Published at 15s.

ConTEents:—G. G. Stokes, Report on Recent Researches in Hydrodynamics ;—Sixth
Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. Schunck, on the Colouring Matters of
Madder ;—J. Blake, on the Physiological Action of Medicines ;—R. Hunt, Report on the Ac-
tinograph ;—R. Hunt, Notices on the Influence of Light on the Growth of Plants ;—R. L.
Ellis, on the Recent Progress of Analysis ;—Prof. Forchhammer, on Comparative Analytical.

186y.

258

Researches on Sea Water ;—A. Erman, on the Calculation of the Gaussian Constants for
1829;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress, present Amount, and probable future Condition of the
Iron Manufacture in Great Britain ;—W. R. Birt, Third Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—
Prof. Owen, Report on the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton ;—
J. Phillips, on Anemometry ;—J. Percy, M.D., Report on the Crystalline Flags;—Addenda
to Mr. Birt’s Report on Atmospheric Waves.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir R. I. Murchison’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tute SEVENTEENTH MEETING, at Oxford,
1847, Published at 18s.

ConTENTS :—Prof. Langberg, on the Specific Gravity of Sulphuric Acid at different de-
grees of dilution, and on the relation which exists between the Development of Heat and the
coincident contraction of Volume in Sulphuric Acid when mixed with Water ;—R. Hunt,
Researches on the Influence of the Solar Rays on the Growth of Plants ;—R. Mallet, on
the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Prof. Nilsson, on the Primitive Inhabitants of Scan-
dinavia ;—W. Hopkins, Report on the Geological Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes;
—Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Report on the Microscopic Structure of Shells;—Rev. W. Whewell and
Sir James C. Ross, Report upon the Recommendation of an Expedition for the purpose of
completing our knowledge of the Tides ;—Dr. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—Seventh Re-
port of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. Glynn, on the Turbine or Horizontal
Water-Wheel of France and Germany ;—Dr. R. G. Latham, on the present state and recent
progress of Ethnographical Philology ;—Dr. J. C. Prichard, on the various methods of Research
which contribute to the Advancement of Ethnology, and of the relations of that Science to
other branches of Knowledge ;—Dr. C. C. J. Bunsen, on the results of the recent Egyptian
researches in reference to Asiatic and African Ethnology, and the Classification of Languages ;
—Dr. C. Meyer, on the Importance of the Study of the Celtic Language as exhibited by the
Modern Celtic Dialects still extant;—Dr. Max Miiller, on the Relation of the Bengali to the
Arian and Aboriginal Languages of India;—W. R. Birt, Fourth Report on Atmospheric
Waves ;—Prof. W. H. Dove, Temperature Tables, with Introductory Remarks by Lieut.-Col.
E. Sabine ;—A. Erman and H. Petersen, Third Report on the Calculation of the Gaussian Con-
stants for 1829.

- Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Robert Harry Inglis’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe EIGHTEENTH MEETING, at Swansea,
1848, Published at 9s.

ConTEnTs :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—
J. Glynn on Water-pressure Engines ;—R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns ;-—Eighth
Report of Committee on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—W. R. Birt, Fifth Report on At-
mospheric Waves ;—E. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—J. P. Budd, on the advantageous use
made of the gaseous escape from the Blast Furnaces at the Ystalyfera Iron Works;—R. Hunt,
Report of progress in the investigation of the Action of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of
Plants allied to those of the Coal Formations ;—Prof. H. W. Dove, Supplement to the Tem-
perature Tables printed in the Report of the British Association for 1847 ;—Remarks by Prof.
Dove on his recently constructed Maps of the Monthly Isothermal Lines of the Globe, and on
some of the principal Conclusions in regard to Climatology deducible from them; with an in-
troductory Notice by Lt.-Col. E. Sabine ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the progress of the investigation
on the Influence of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Ferns;—J. Phillips, Notice of further
progress in Anemometrical Researches ;—Mr. Mallet’s Letter to the Assistant-General Secre-
tary;—A. Erman, Second Report on the Gaussian Constants ;—Report of a Committee
relative to the expediency of recommending’ the continuance of the Toronto Magnetical and
Meteorological Observatory until December 1850.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Marquis of Northampton’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or tur NINETEENTH MEETING, at Birmingham,
1849, Published at 10s.

ConTENnTs :—Rev. Prof. Poweil, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Earl]
of Rosse, Notice of Nebule lately observed in the Six-feet Reflector ;—Prof. Daubeny, on the
Infiuence of Carbonic Acid Gas on the health of Plants, especially of those allied to the Fossil
Remains found in the Coal Formation ;—Dr. Andrews, Report on the Heat of Combination ;
—Report of the Committee on the Registration of the Periodic Phenomena of Plants and

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259

Animals ;—Ninth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;
—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from
Aug. 9, 1848 to Sept. 12, 1849 ;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experimental Inquiry on Railway
Bar Corrosion ;— W. R. Birt, Report on the Discussion of the Electrical Observations at Kew.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. T. R. Robinson’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or roe TWENTIETH MEETING, at Edinburgh,
1850, Published at 15s.

Contents :—R. Mallet, First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Reyv. Prof.
Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors;—Dr. 'T. Williams, on the Structure and
History of the British Annelida;—T. C. Hunt, Results of Meteorological Observations taken
at St. Michael’s from the Ist of January, 1840 to the 31st of December, 1849;—R. Hunt, on
the present State of our Knowledge of the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Tenth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Major-Gen.
Briggs, Report on the Aboriginal Tribes of India ;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Ob-
servatory of the British Association at Kew ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Investigation of British
Marine Zoology by means of the Dredge ;—R. MacAndrew, Notes on the Distribution and
Range in depth of Mollusca and other Marine Animals, observed on the coasts of Spain, Por-
tugal, Barbary, Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849 ;—Prof. Allman, on the Present State of
our Knowledge of the Freshwater Polyzoa ;—Registration of the Periodical Phenomena of
Plants and Animals ;—Suggestions to Astronomers for the Observation of the Total Eclipse
of the Sun on July 28, 185].

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir David Brewster’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or roe TWENTY-FIRST MEETING, at Ipswich,
1851, Published at 16s. 6d.

ConTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Eleventh Re-
port of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. J. Drew, on
the Climate of Southampton ;—Dr. R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns: Action of
Porous Strata, Water and Organic Matter ;—Report of the Committee appointed to consider
the probable Effects in an Economical and Physical Point of View of the Destruction of Tro-
pical Forests ;—A. Henfrey, on the Reproduction and supposed Existence of Sexual Organs
in the Higher Cryptogamous Plants ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the Nomenclature of Organic Com-
pounds ;—Rey. Dr. Donaldson, on two unsolved Problems in Indo-German Philology ;—
Dr. T. Williams, Report on the British Annelida;—R. Mallet, Second Report on the Facts of
Earthquake Phenomena ;—Letter from Prof. Henry to Col. Sabine, on the System of Meteoro-
logical Observations proposed to be established in the United States ;—Col. Sabine, Report
on the Kew Magnetographs ;—J. Welsh, Report on the Performance of his three Magneto-
graphs during the Experimental Trial at the Kew Observatory ;—F. Ronalds, Report concern-
ing the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from September 12, 1850 to July 31,
1851 ;—Ordnance Survey of Scotland.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Airy’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tuzE TWENTY-SECOND MEETING, at Belfast,
1852, Published at 15s.

ConTENTS :—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Twelfth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev. Prof,
Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1851-52 ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the In-
fluence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants;—A Manual of Ethnological
Inquiry ;—Col. Sykes, Mean Temperature of the Day, and Monthly Fall of Rain at 127 Sta-
tions under the Bengal Presidency ;—Prof. J. D. Forbes, on Experiments on the Laws of the
Conduction of Heat;—R. Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Dr. Hodges,
on the Composition and Economy of the Flax Plant;—-W. Thompson, on the Freshwater
Fishes of Ulster; —W. Thompson, Supplementary Report on the Fauna of Ireland;—W. Wills,
onthe Meteorology of Birmingham;—J. Thomson, on the Vortex-Water- Wheel ;—J. B. Lawes
and Dr. Gilbert, on the Composition of Foods in relation to Respiration and the Feeding of
Animals,

_ Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Colonel Sabine’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees,
Lyf

260

PROCEEDINGS or tute TWENTY-THIRD MEETING, at Hull,
1853, Published at 10s. 6d.

ConTENtTs :—Reyv. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1852-53 ;
—James Oldham, on the Physical Features of the Humber ;—James Oldham, on the Rise,
Progress, and Present Position of Steam Navigation in Hull;—William Fairbairn, Experi-
mental Researches to determine the Strength of Locomotive Boilers, and the causes which
lead to Explosion ;—J. J. Sylvester, Provisional Report on the Theory of Determinants ;—
Professor Hodges, M.D., Report on the Gases evolved in Steeping Flax, and on the Composition
and Economy of the Flax Plant ;—Thirteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the
Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Robert Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations;
—John P. Bell, M.D., Observations on the Character and Measurements of Degradation of the
Yorkshire Coast; First Report of Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Sur-
face, as compared with that of the Earth ;—R. Mallet, Provisional Report on Earthquake
Wave-Transits; and on Seismometrical Instruments ;—William Fairbairn, on the Mechanical
Properties of Metals as derived from repeated Meltings, exhibiting the maximum point of
strength and the causes of deterioration ;—Robert Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earth-
quake Phenomena (continued).

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Hopkins’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tut TWENTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Liver-
pool, 1854, Published at 18s.

ConTEents:—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena (continued) ;
—Major-General Chesney, on the Construction and General Use of Efficient Life-Boats;—Rev.
Prof. Powell, Third Report on the present State of our Knowledge of Radiant Heat ;—Colonel
Sabine, on some of the results obtained at the British Colonial Magnetic Observatories ;—
Colonel Portlock, Report of the Committee on Earthquakes, with their proceedings respecting
Seismometers ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers
of Plants, Part 2;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1853-54;
—Second Report of the Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Surface ;—W. G.
Armstrong, on the Application of Water-Pressure Machinery ;—J. B. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert,
on the Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food ;—Archibald Smith, on the Deviations of the
Compass in Wooden and Iron Ships ;—Fourteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on
the Growth and Vitality of Seeds.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Earl of Harrowby’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Glasgow,
1855, Published at 15s.

Contents :—T. Dobson, Report on the Relation between Explosions in Coal-Mines and
Revolving Storms;—Dr. Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers
of Plants growing under different Atmospheric Conditions, Part 3;—C. Spence Bate, on the
British Edriophthalma ;—J. F. Bateman, on the present state of our knowledge on the Supply
of Water to Towns ;—Fifteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and
Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report en Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1854—55 ;
—Report of Committee appointed to inquire into the best means of ascertaining those pro-
perties of Metals and effects of various modes of treating them which are of importance to the
durability and efficiency of Artillery ;—Rev. Prof. Henslow, Report on Typical Objects in
Natural History ;—A. Follett Osler, Account of the Self-Registering Anemometer and Rain-
Gauge at the Liverpool Observatory ;—Provisional Reports.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Duke of Argyll’s Address, and Recom=
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Chel-
tenham, 1856, Published at 18s.

ConTENTS :—Report from the Committee appointed to investigate and report upon the
effects produced upon the Channels of the Mersey by the alterations which within the last
fifty years have been made in its Banks;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on progress in Re-
searches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;—Dredging Report, Frith of Clyde,
1856 ;-—Rev. B. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1855-1856 ;—Prof.
Bunsen and Dr. H. E. Roscoe, Photochemical Researches ;—Rey. James Booth, on the Trigo-

261

nometry of the Parabola, and the Geometrical Origin of Logarithms ;—R. MacAndrew, Report
on the Marine Testaceous Mollusca of the North-east Atlantic and Neighbouring Seas, and
the physical conditions affecting their development ;—P. P. Carpenter, Report on the present
state of our knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North America ;—
T. C. Eyton, Abstract of First Report on the Oyster Beds and Oysters of the British Shores;
—Prof. Phillips, Report on Cleavage and Foliation in Rocks, and on the Theoretical Expla-
nations of these Phenomena: Part I.;—-Dr. T. Wright on the Stratigraphical Distribution of
the Oolitic Echinodermata ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Tensile Strength of Wrought Iron at various
Temperatures ;—C. Atherton, on Mercantile Steam Transport Economy ;—J. S. Bowerbank, on
the Vital Powers of the Spongiadz;—-Report of a Committee upon the Experiments conducted
at Stormontfield, near Perth, for the artificial propagation of Salmon ;—Provisional Report on
the Measurement of Ships for Tonnage ;—On Typical Forms of Minerals, Plants and Animals
for Museums ;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on Progress in Researches on the Measure-
ment of Water by Weir Boards;—-R. Mallet, on Observations with the Seismometer ;—A.
Cayley, on the Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Report of a Committee appointed to con-
sider the formation of a Catalogue of Philosophical Memoirs.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Daubeny’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at
Dublin, 1857, Published at 15s.

Contents :—A. Cayley, Report on the Recent Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Six-
teenth and final Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;
—James Oldham, C.E., continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull;—Report of a
Committee on the Defects of the present methods of Measuring and Registering the Tonnage
of Shipping, as also of Marine Engine-Power, and to frame more perfect rules, in order that
a correct and uniform principle may be adopted to estimate the Actual Carrying Capabilities
and Working-Power of Steam Ships;—Robert Were Fox, Report on the Temperature of
some Deep Mines in Cornwall;—Dr. G. Plarr, De quelques Transformations de la Somme

=e gilt1gt|+15e|+1

0 Lett ytd) ef\+1
est exprimable par une combinaison de factorielles, la notation ati+1 désignant le produit des
# facteurs a (a+1) (a+2) &c....(a+t¢—1);—G. Dickie, M.D., Report on the Marine Zoology
of Strangford Lough, County Down, and corresponding part of the Irish Channel ;—Charles
Atherton, Suggestions for Statistical Inquiry into the extent to which Mercantile Steam Trans-
port Economy is affected by the Constructive Type of Shipping, as respects the Proportions of
Length, Breadth, and Depth ;—J. S. Bowerbank, Further Report on the Vitality of the Spon-
giadz ;—John P. Hodges, M.D., on Flax ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of the Committee
on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of
Luminous Meteors, 1856-57 ;—C. Vignoles, C.E., on the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to
sustain the passage of Railway Trains ;—Professor W. A. Miller, M.D., on Electro-Chemistry ;
—John Simpson, R.N., Results of Thermometrical Observations made at the ‘ Plover’s’
Wintering-place, Point Barrow, latitude 71° 21’ N.; long. 156° 17’ W., in 1852-54 ;—Charles
James Hargreave, LL.D., on the Algebraic Couple ; and on the Equivalents of Indeterminate
Expressions;—Thomas Grubb, Report on the Improvement of Telescope and Equatorial
Mountings ;—Professor James Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots in the Botanical
Garden of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester ;— William Fairbairn on the Resistance
of Tubes to Collapse ;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Proceedings of the Belfast Dredging
Committee ;—Peter W. Barlow, on the Mechanical Effect of combining Girders and Suspen-
sion Chains, and a Comparison of the Weight of Metal in Ordinary and Suspension Girders,
to produce equal deflections with a given load ;—J. Park Harrison, M.A., Evidences of Lunar
Influence on Temperature ;—Report on the Animal and Vegetable Products imported into
Liverpool from the year 1851 to 1855 (inclusive) ;—Andrew Henderson, Report on the Sta-
tistics of Life-boats and Fishing-boats on the Coasts of the United Kingdom.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. H. Lloyd’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.

, a étant entier négatif, et de quelques cas dans lesquels cette somme

PROCEEDINGS or tut TWENTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Leeds,
September 1858, Published at 20s.
ConTENTS:—R. Mallet, Fourth Report upon the Facts and Theory of Earthquake Phe-~

nomena ;— Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1857-58 ;—R. H.
Meade, on some Points in the Anatomy of the Araneidea or true Spiders, especially on the

262

internal structure of their Spinning Organs ;—W. Fairbairn, Report of the Committee on the
Patent Laws ;—S. Eddy, on the lead Mining Districts of Yorkshire ;—W. Fairbairn, on the
Collapse of Glass Globes and Cylinders ;—Dr. E. Perceval Wright and Prof. J. Reay Greene,
Report on the Marine Fauna of the South and West Coasts of Ireland ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on
Experiments on the Measurement of Water by Triangular Notches in Weir Boards ;—Major-
General Sabine, Report of the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain ;—Michael
Connal and William Keddie, Report on Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Substances imported
from Foreign Countries into the Clyde (including the Ports of Glasgow, Greenock, and Port
Glasgow) in the years 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, and 1857 ;—Report of the Cominittee on Ship-
ping Statistics ;—Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., Notice of the Instruments employed in the Mag-
netic Survey of Ireland, with some of the Results ;—Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin
Dredging Committee, appointed 1857-58 ;—Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Report on Crustacea of Dub-
lin District ;—Andrew Henderson, on River Steamers, their Form, Construction, and Fittings,
with reference to the necessity for improving the present means of Shallow-Water Navigation
on the Rivers of British India;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Com-
mittee ;—Appendix to Mr. Vignoles’s paper ‘‘ On the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to sus-
tain the passage of Railway Trains ;’’—Report of the Joint Committee of the Royal Society and
the British Association, for procuring a continuance of the Magnetic and Meteorological Ob-
servatories ;—R,. Beckley, Description of a Self-recording Anemometer.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Owen’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or rut TWENTY-NINTH MEETING, at Aberdeen,
September 1859, Published at 15s.

ConTENTs :—George C. Foster, Preliminary Report on the Recent Progress and Present
State of Organic Chemistry ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Growth of Plants in the
Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Dr. A. Voelcker, Report on Field
Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to cultivated
Crops ;—A. Thomson, Esq. of Banchory, Report on the Aberdeen Industrial Feeding Schools ;
—On the Upper Silurians of Lesmahago, Lanarkshire ;—Alphonse Gages, Report on the Re-
sults obtained by the Mechanico-Chemical Examination of Rocks and Minerals ;—William
Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Efficiency of Continuous and Self-acting Breaks for
Railway Trains;—Professor J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee for
1858-59 ;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors for 1858-59;
—Professor Owen, Report on a Series of Skulls of various Tribes of Mankind inhabiting
Nepal, collected, and presented to the British Museum, by Bryan H. Hodgson, Esq., late Re-
sident in Nepal, &c. &c. ;—Messrs. Maskelyne, Hadow, Hardwich, and Llewelyn, Report on
the Present State of our Knowledge regarding the Photographic Image ;—G. C. Hyndman,
Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee for 1859 ;—James Oldham, Continuation of Report
of the Progress of Steam Navigation at Hull;—Charles Atherton, Mercantile Steam Trans-
port Economy as affected by the Consumption of Coals;—Warren de la Rue, Report on the
present state of Celestial Photography in England ;—Professor Owen, on the Orders of Fossil
and Recent Reptilia, and their Distribution in Time ;—Balfour Stewart, on some Results of the
Magnetic Survey of Scotland in the years 1857 and 1858, undertaken, at the request of the
British Association, by the late John Welsh, Esq., F.R.S.;—W. Fairbairn, The Patent Laws:
Report of Committee on the Patent Laws;—J. Park Harrison, Lunar Influence on the Tem-
perature of the Air;—Balfour Stewart, an Account of the Construction of the Self-recording
Magnetographs at present in operation at the Kew Observatory of the British Association ;—
Prof. H. J. Stephen Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part I. ;—Report of the
Committee on Steamship performance ;—Report of the Proceedings of the Balloon Committee
of the British Association appointed at the Meeting at Leeds ;—Prof. William K. Sullivan,
Preliminary Report on the Solubility of Salts at Temperatures above 100° Cent., and on the
Mutual Action of Salts in Solution.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prince Albert’s Address, and Recommenda«
tions of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or true THIRTIETH MEETING, at Oxford, June
and July 1860, Published at 15s.

CONTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1859-60 ;—
J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee ;—Rev. J. Anderson, Report on
the Excavations in Dura Den ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots in the
Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Rey. R. Walker, Report of

263

the Committee on Balloon Ascents ;—Prof. W. Thomson, Report of Committee appointed to
prepare a Self-recording Atmospheric Electrometer for Kew, and Portable Apparatus for ob-
serving Atmospheric Electricity ;—William Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Effect of
Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon Wrought-iron Girders ;—R. P.
Greg, Catalogue of Meteorites and Fireballs, from A.D. 2 to a.D. 1860 ;—Prof. H. J. S. Smith,
Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part II. ;—Vice-Admiral Moorsom, on the Performance of
Steam-vessels, the Functions of the Screw, and the Relations of its Diameter and Pitch to the
Form of the Vessel;—Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on the Effects of long-continued Heat,
illustrative of Geological Phenomena ;—Second Report of the Committee on Steamship Per-
formance ;—Interim Report on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches ;—List of the
British Marine Invertebrate Fauna.

Together with the ‘I'ransactions of the Sections, Lord Wrottesley’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe THIRTY-FIRST MEETING, at Manches-
ter, September 1861, Published at £1.

ConTENTS:—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Dr. E.
Smith, Report on the Action of Prison Diet and Discipline on the Bodily Functions of Pri-
soners, Part I.;—Charles Atherton, on Freight as affected by Differences in the Dynamic
Properties of Steamships ;—Warren De Ja Rue, Report on the Progress of Celestial Photo-
graphy since the Aberdeen Meeting ;—B. Stewart, on the Theory of Exchanges, and its re-
cent extension ;—Drs, E. Schunck, R. Angus Sinith, and H. E. Roscoe, on the Recent Pro-
gress and Present Condition of Manufacturing Chemistry in the South Lancashire District ;—
Dr. J. Hunt, on Ethno-Climatology ; or, the Acclimatization of Man ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on
Experiments on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches ;—Dr. A. Voelcker, Report on
Field Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to
cultivated Crops ;—Prof. H. Hennessy, Provisional Report on the Present State of our Know-
ledge respecting the Transmission of Sound-signals during Fogs at Sea;—Dr. P. L. Sclater
and F. von Hochstetter, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Birds of the
Genus Apteryx living in New Zealand ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Results of Deep-sea
Dredging in Zetland, with a Notice of several Species of Mollusca new to Science or to the
British Isles ;—Prof. J. Phillips, Contributions to a Report on the Physical Aspect of the
Moon ;—W. R. Birt, Contribution to a Report on the Physical Aspect of the Moon;—Dr.
Collingwood and Mr. Byerley, Preliminary Report of the Dredging Committee of the Mersey
and Dee ;—Third Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance ;—J. G. Jeffreys,
Preliminary Report on the Best Mode of preventing the Ravages of Teredo and other Animals
in our Ships and Harbours ;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experiments made at Holyhead to
ascertain the Transit-Velocity of Waves, analogous to Earthquake Waves, through the local
Rock Formations ;—T, Dobson, on the Explosions in British Coal-Mines during the year 1859;
—J. Oldham, Continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull ;—Professor G. Dickie,
Brief Summary of a Report on the Flora of the North of Ireland ;—Professor Owen, on the
Psychical and Physical Characters of thle Mincopies, or Natives of the Andaman Islands, and
on the Relations thereby indicated to other Races of Mankind ;—Colonel Sykes, Report of the
Balloon Committee ;—Major-General Sabine, Report on the Repetition of the Magnetic Sur-
vey of England ;—Interim Report of the Committee for Dredging on the North and East
Coasts of Scotland ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Resistance of Iron Plates to Statical Pressure and
the Force of Impact by Projectiles at High Velocities ;—W. Fairbairn, Continuation of Report
to determine the effect of Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon
Wrought-Iron Girders ;—Report of the Committee on the Law of Patents ;—Prof. H. J. S.
Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part III.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Fairbairn’s Address, and Recemrmmen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or true THIRTY-SECOND MEETING, at Cam-
bridge, October 1862, Published at £1.

Contents :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1861-62 ;-—
G. B. Airy, on the Strains in the Interior of Beams ;—Archibald Smith and F. J. Evans,
Report on the three Reports of the Liverpool Compass Committee ;—Report on Tidal Ob-
servations on the Humber ;—T. Aston, on Rifled Guns and Projectiles adapted for Attacking

264

Armour-plate Defences ;—Extracts, relating to the Observatory at Kew, from a Report
presented to the Portuguese Government, by Dr. J. A. de Souza;—H. T. Mennell, Report
on the Dredging of the Northumberland Coast and Dogger Bank ;—Dr. Cuthbert Colling-
wood, Report upon the best means of advancing Science through the agency of the Mercan-
tile Marine ;—Messrs. Williamson, Wheatstone, Thomson, Miller, Matthiessen, and Jenkin,
Provisional Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—Preliminary Report of the Com-
mittee for investigating the Chemical and Mineralogical Composition of the Granites of Do-
negal ;—Prof. H. Hennessy, on the Vertical Movements of the Atmosphere considered in
connexion with Storms and Changes of Weather ;—Report of Committee on the application
of Gauss’s General Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism to the Magnetic Variations ;—Fleeming
Jenkin, on Thermo-electric Currents in Circuits of one Metal ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Me-
chanical Properties of Iron Projectiles at High Velocities ;—A. Cayley, Report on the Pro-
gress of the Solution of certain Special Problems of Dynamics ;—Prof. G. G. Stokes, Report
on Double Refraction ;—Fourth Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance ;—
G. J. Symons, on the Fall of Rain in the British Isles in 1860 and 1861 ;—J, Ball, on Ther-
mometric Observations in the Alps ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Committee for Dredging
on the N.and E. Coasts of Scotland ;—Report of the Committee on Technical and Scientific
Evidence in Courts of Law ;—James Glaisher, Account of Eight Balloon Ascents in 1862 ;—
Prof. H. J. S. Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part LV.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. Prof. R. Willis’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe THIRTY-THIRD MEETING, at New-
castle-upon-Tyne, August and September 1563, Published at £1 5s.

Contents :—Report of the Committee on the Application of Gun-cotton to Warlike Pur-
poses ;—A. Matthiessen, Report on the Chemical Nature of Alloys ;—Report of the Com-
mittee on the Chemical and Mineralogical Constitution of the Granites of Donegal, and of
the Rocks associated with them ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Committee appointed for
Exploring the Coasts of Shetland by means of the Dredge ;—G. D. Gibb, Report on the
Physiological Effects of the Bromide of Ammonium ;—C. K. Aken, on the Transmutation of
Spectral Rays, Part I.:—Dr. Robinson, Report of the Committee on Fog Signals ;—Report
of the Committee on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—E. Smith, Abstract of Report by
the Indian Government on the Foods used by the Free and Jail Populations in India ;—A.
Gages, Synthetical Researches on the Formation of Minerals, &c.;—R. Mallet, Preliminary
Report on the Experimental Determination of the Temperatures of Volcanic Foci, and of the
Temperature, State of Saturation, and Velocity of the issuing Gases and Vapours ;—Report
of the Committee on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Fifth Report of the Committee
on Steamship Performance; G. J. Allman, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge
of the Reproductive System in the Hydroida ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Five Balloon Ascents
made in 1863;— P. P. Carpenter, Supplementary Report on the Present State of our Know-
ledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North America ;—Professor Airy,
Report on Steam-boiler Explosions;—C. W. Siemens, Observations on the Electrical Resist-
ance and Electrification of some Insulating Materials under Pressures up to 300 Atmo-
spheres ;—C. M. Palmer, on the Construction of Iron Ships and the Progress of Iron Ship-
building on the Tyne, Wear, and Tees ;—Messrs. Richardson, Stevenson, and Clapham, on
the Chemical Manufactures of the Northern Districts ;—Messrs. Sopwith and Richardson,
on the Local Manufacture of Lead, Copper, Zinc, Antimony, &c. ;—Messrs. Daglish and
Forster, on the Magnesian Limestone of Durham ;—I. L. Bell, on the Manufacture of Iron
in connexion with the Northumberland and Durham Coal-field ;—T. Spencer, on the Manu-
facture of Steel in the Northern District ;—H. J. 8. Smith, Report on the Theory of Num-
bers, Part V.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir William Armstrong’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe THIRTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Bath,
September 1864. Published at 18s.

ConTeEnTs :—Report of the Committee for Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Report
of the Committee on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Mea-
sures ;—T. S. Cobbold, Report of Experiments respecting the Development and Migration
of the Entozoa ;—B. W. Richardson, Report on the Physiological Action of Nitrite of Amyl;
—J. Oldham, Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations ;—G. S. Brady, Report on

265

deep-sea Dredging on the Coasts of Northumberland and Durham in 1864 ;—J. Glaisher,
Account of Nine Balloon Ascents made in 1863 and 1864 ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Further Report
on Shetland Dredgings ;—Report of the Committee on the Distribution of the Organic
Remains of the North Staffordshire Coal-field ;—Report of the Committee on Standards of
Electrical Resistance ;—G. J. Symons, on the Fall of Rain in the British Isles in 1862 and
1863 ;—W. Fairbairn, Preliminary Investigation of the Mechanical Properties of the pro-
posed Atlantic Cable..

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Charles Lyell’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Birming-
ham, September 1865, Published at £1 5s.

Contents :—J. G. Jeffreys, Report on Dredging among the Channel Isles ;—F. Buckland,
Report on the Cultivation of Oysters by Natural and Artificial Methods ;—Report of the
Committee for exploring Kent’s Cavern ;—Report of the Committee on Zoological Nomen-
clature ;—Report on the Distribution of the Organic Remains of the North Staffordshire
Coal-field ;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of the South Coast of Devon and Corn-
wali ;—Interim Report on the Resistance of Water to Floating and Immersed Bodies ;—Re-
port on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;— Report on Dredging on the Coast of Aberdeen-
shire ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Three Bailoon Ascents ;—Interim Report on the Transmis-
sion of Sound under Water ;—G. J. Symons, on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—W. Fair-
bairn, on the Strength of Materials considered in relation to the Construction of Iron Ships ;
—Report of the Gun-Cotton Committee ;—A. F. Osler, on the Horary and Diurnal Variations
in the Direction and Motion of the Air at Wrottesley, Liverpool, and Birmingham ;—B. W.
Richardson, Second Report on the Physiological Action of certain of the Amyl Compounds ;
— Report on further Researches in the Lingula-flags of South Wales ;—Report of the Lunar
Committee for Mapping the Surface of the Moon ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Re-
sistance ;—Report of the Committee appointed to communicate with the Russian Govern-
ment respecting Magnetical Observations at Tiflis; —Appendix to Report on the Distribution
of the Vertebrate Remains from the North Staffordshire Coal-field ;—H. Woodward, First
Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—H. J. S. Smith, Report
on the Theory of Numbers, Part VI.;—Report on the best means of providing for a Unifor-
mity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the interests of Science ;—A. G. Findlay,

“on the Bed of the Ocean;—Professor A. W. Williamson, on the Composition of Gases
evolved by the Bath Spring called King’s Bath,

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Professor Phillips’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tur THIRTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Notting-
ham, August 1866, Published at £1 4s.

Contents :—Second Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire ;—A. Matthiessen, Preliminary
Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;'
—W. S. Mitchell, Report on the Alum Bay Leaf-bed;—Report on the Resistance of Water
to Floating and Immersed Bodies;—Dr. Norris, Report on Muscular Irritability ;—Dr.
Richardson, Report on the Physiological Action of certain compounds of Amyl and Ethyl ;—
H. Woodward, Second Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—
Second Report on the “‘ Menevian Group,” and the other Formations at St. David’s, Pem-
brokeshire ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report on Dredging among the Hebrides ;—Rev. A. M. Norman,
Report on the Coasts of the Hebrides, Part I1.;—J. Alder, Notices of some Invertebrata, in
connexion with Mr. Jeffreys’s Report ;—G. S. Brady, Report on the Ostracoda dredged
amongst the Hebrides ;—Report on Dredging in the Moray Firth ;—Report on the Transmis-
sion of Sound-Signals under Water ;—Report of the Lunar Committee ;—Report of the
Rainfall Committee ;—Report on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights
and Measures, with reference to the Interests of Science ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Three Bal-
loon Ascents ;—Report on the Extinct Birds of the Mascarene Islands ;—Report on the pene-
tration of Iron-clad Ships by Steel Shot ;—J. A. Wanklyn, Report on Isomerism among the
Alcohols ;—Report on Scientific Evidence in Courts of Law ;—A. L. Adams, Second Report
on Maltese Fossiliferous Caves, &c.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Grove’s Address, and Recommendaitons
of the Association and its Committecs,

1869, 18

266

PROCEEDINGS or tor THIRTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at
Dundee, September 1867, Published at £1 6s.

Contents :—Report of the Committee for Mapping the Surface of the Moon ;—Third
Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire ;—On the present State of the Manufacture of lron
in Great Britain ;—Third Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;
—Report on the Physiological Action of the Methyl Compounds ;—Preliminary Report on
the Exploration of the Plant-Beds of North Greenland ;—Report of the Steamship Perform-
ance Committee ;—On the Meteorology of Port Louis in the Island of Mauritius ;—On the
Construction and Works of the Highland Railway ;—Experimental Researches on the Me-
chanical Properties of Steel ;—Report on the Marine Tauna and Flora of the South Coast of
Devon and Cornwall ;—Supplement to a Report on the Extinct Didine Birds of the Masca-
rene Islands ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Fourth Report on Dredging
among the Shetland Isles ;—Preliminary Report on the Crustacea, &c., procured by the
Shetland Dredging Committee in 1867 ;—Report on the Foraminifera obtained in the Shet-
land Seas;—Second Report of the Rainfall Committee ;--Report on the best means of

roviding for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the Interests of
cience ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the Association
and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Nor-
wich, August 1868, Published at £1 5s.

ConTENTs :—Report of the Lunar Committee;—Fourth Report on Kent’s Cavern, Deyon-
shire ;—On Puddling Iron ;—Fourth Report on the Structure and Classification of the
Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on British Fossil Corals ;—Report on Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances ;—Report of Steamship Performance Committee ;—Spectrum Analysis
of the Heavenly Bodies;—On Stellar Spectrometry ;—Report on the Physiological Action of
the Methyl and allied Compounds ;—Report on the Action of Mercury on the Biliary
Secretion ;—Last Report on Dredging among the Shetland Isles;—Reports on the Crustacea,
&c., and on the Annelida and Foraminifera from the Shetland Dredgings ;— Report on the
Chemical Nature of Cast Iron, Part I.;—Interim Report on the Safety of Merchant Ships
and their Passengers ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Preliminary Report
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AIDS TO FAITH:
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New Edition. 8vo.

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HALLAM’S HISTORY OF EUROPE DURING THE

MIDDLE AGES.

Including the Supplemental Notes.
Edited by WM. SMITH, LL.D.

Complete in One Volume. Post 8vo.

A new and revised Edition of

HALLAM’S CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF

ENGLAND.

Including the Author's latest revision and Corrections,
Edited with Notes.
Complete in One Volume. Post 8vo,

——_—__—_—_—

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

By MARY SOMERVILLE.

Fourth Edition, Revised by H. W. Barns, Assistant Secretary to the R.G.S., Author of

‘“ Travels and Adventures on the River Amazons,”’

With Portrait. Post Syo.

18 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF ANNOUNCEMENTS.

A COPIOUS ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

A METHODICAL, ANALYTICAL, AND HISTORICAL TREATISE ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY,
PROSODY, INFLECTIONS, AND SYNTAX OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE.

With numerous Authorities, cited in the order of Historical development.

From the German of
PROFESSOR MAETZNER of Berlin.
8 Vols. 8vo,

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DAMASCUS, PALMYRA, AND LEBANON,
WITH TRAVELS AMONG THE CITIES OF BASHAN AND THE HAURAN.
By REV. J. L. PORTER.

New and revised Edition. With Ilustrations. Post 8vo.

RESEARCHES INTO THE EARLY HISTORY OF
MANKIND,
AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF CIVILISATION.
By E. B. TYLOR.

Second Edition, With Illustrations. 8vo. 12s.

A CLASSICAL AND BIBLICAL ATLAS.

Edited by WM. SMITH, LL.D.

Part I.—GREECE, and THE ISLANDS OF THE AGEAN.
Part I].—THE HOLY LAND AND COUNTRIES OF THE BIBLE,

Folio.

ANCIENT SPANISH BALLADS.

HISTORICAL AND ROMANTIC. TRANSLATED, WITH NOTES,
By J. G. LOCKHART.

New Edition. With iiumerous T1lustrations. Crown 8yvo.

MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF ANNOUNCEMENTS. 19

ELUCIDATIONS OF
CURTIUS’ LARGER GREEK GRAMMAR.

From the German.
By E. ABBOT.
Post 8vo.

CATALOGUE OF
THE WORKS OF SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS.
WITH NOTICES OF THEIR PRESENT OWNERS AND LOCALITIES.

By TOM TAYLOR and CHAS. W. FRANKS.
With Illustrations. Feap. 4to.

THE NEW BIOGRAPHIA BRITANNICA.

“ LIVES OF THE WORTHIES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
By VARIOUS WRITERS.

Medium 8yo,

THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF ANCIENT
HISTORY.

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Uniform with the other volumes of Murray’s SrupEn?’s Histortss.

THE STUDENT’S HANDBOOKS OF SCIENCE.
Vol. I. ZOOLOGY:—Vol; II. GEOLOGY,
With Illustrations, Post 8vo,

Uniform in size with Murnray’s SrupEent’s MANUALS.

A SMALLER SCRIPTURE HISTORY.
1; THE OLD TESTAMENT: 2, THE NEW TESTAMENT;
Edited by WM. SMITH, LL.D.

With Illustrations; 2 Vols. 16mo;

20 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF ANNOUNCEMENTS.

THE ACADEMY.

A NEW LITERARY REVIEW,

AND

Monthly Hecord of Hiterature, Pearning, Stience, and Art,

Published on the SEcoND SATURDAY in every Month, price 6d.

CONTENTS OF No. 4 (published this day) :

OLLANTA, 2 Peruvian Drama. By G. Maspero (of Paris).

LIFE OF MISS MITFORD. By G. A. Simcox (Author of ‘‘ Poems and Romances,” &c.),
TENNYSON’S HOLY GRAIL. By H. Lawrenny.

WELSH LITERATURE, 1546-1800. By H. Garpoz (Editor of the ‘‘ Revue Celtique.”).
VIKRAM AND THE VAMPIRE. By H. Lawrenny.

THE POTTERY OF ROUEN. By Mrs. PAtuiser (Author of ‘A History of Lace,” &c.)

BLEEK’S AND KIEL’'S INTRODUCTIONS TO THE OLD TESTAMENT. By A. B, Davipson
(Author of ‘‘Commentary on Job,” &c.).

SCHULZ’S OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY. By T. K. Cueyne (Author of ‘f Notes on Isaiah.”’)

INDIAN BOTANY. By A. W. Bennett, F.L.S8.

PRE-HISTORIC ANTIQUITIES OF SWITZERLAND AND GREECE. By Wituetm Wacner.

ZELLER’S PHILOSOPHY OF THE GREEKS. By Incram Bywater.

BELL’S NEW TRACKS IN NORTH AMERICA. By H. W. Bares (Assistant-Secretary R.G.58.).

BURSIAN'S GEOGRAPHY OF GREECE. By H. F. Tozer, F.R.G.S8,

FROUDE’S HISTORY OF ENGLAND. By C. W. Boase.

JOSEPH II. AND CATHERINE OF RUSSIA. By GeorcE Warina.

KAZWiN(’S COSMOGRAPHY. By Proressor De Gorse (of Leyden).

DE VOGUE'S SEMITIC ARCHZOLOGY. By Proressor No.peEKz (of Kiel).

THE NEW CHINESE COLLECTION AT THE BRITISH MUSEUM. By R. K. Dovatas, Keeper of
the Collection.

OVID'S EPISTLES FROM PONTUS. By R. Ettis (Editor of ‘‘ Catullus.”’)

RITSCHL’8 NEW EXCURSUSES ON PLAUTUS. By H. Nerriesutre.

ELLENDT’S LEXICON TO SOPHOCLES. By Proressor CaMPsELL (of St. Andrews).

NOTES AND INTELLIGENCE.—The Gotha Almanack for 1870.—John
Huss.—Servian and Croatian Literature.—The Palermo Mosaics.—The £anta Croce Frescos.—Emen-
dation in Psalm L.—Lord Ashburnham’s ‘‘ Versio Itala.”—The Author of Stabat Mater.—A new Life of
Mohammed.—Dr. Whewell on Arist. Probl. xv.—New American Fossils.—The Quarternary Strata of
Paris.—Antiquity of Man in the United States,—Causes and Cure of Miasma.—Does with Horns.—
Anatomy of the Blow-fly.—The Sleep of Plants.— Fungi on Insects. —Hermaphroditism in unisexual
Plants.—New Theories and Transformations of Urea,—Varieties of Lactic Acid.—Poisoning by Phos-
phorus.— Preservation of Wine by Electricity.—Wave-length of the Spectrum.—Electrival Currents in
Fluids.—Movements of Floating Solids.—Approach caused by Vibration.—A new Pyrometer.—Exca-
vations of the Stadium at Athens.—Otto Jahn's Library.—Contents of Hilgenfeld’s Journal of Scientific
Theology, Journal of Roman Catholic Theology, Rhenish Museum, Journal of Comparative Philo-
logy, Revue Critique, and Cambridge Journal of Philology. — Selected Articles. — Selected Lists of
Recent and Forthcoming Books, and Miscellaneous Intelligence.

JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.

BRADBURY, EVANS, AND CO., PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS,

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