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REPORT

OF THE
FORTIETH MEETING

OF THE = } *%.
ht

BRITISH ASSOCTATION

FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE;

HELD AT

LIVERPOOL IN SEPTEMBER 1870.

LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
‘1871.

PRINTED BY

TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREFT.

CONTENTS.

PPO

Oxsects and Rules of the Association ... : fa fiat Mee aidate tap inp es
Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement ............ xx
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from
EME Tigo sag FEF eo sn a ase ip Kgri s, waephe oy Geis +8 apps XXVi
RCO YETED) 2815 5 Uiclhyis Sisal chic Pd PATAA ERED EWE coun’ XXXV
Lectures to the Operative Classes .............0cccccucscceees XXXvii

Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at previous Meetings... xxxviii

PRE ERO OO 5. cine cbs Gg 5,8 vos ea ec ale ee ee aie Gea xl
ponmerang Connell, 1870S71 2.00). oi aaa sd sales Ueda wate W xli
(iicers of Sectional Committees ......0.... 0 ccc ceeds swovoenss xlii
Report of the Council to the General Committee................ xliii
Report of the Kew Committee, 1869-70 ..................045. xly
Recommendations of the General Committee for Additional Reports
SemaLenoarCnes Im SGIUCE i a Si dele ek tle ot oa lviii
SIME EM ORCY OFAN 25.65 es dink gov tix jae oan agin hear Ixiil
General Statement of Sums paid on account of Grants for Scientific
Purposes......... rh weap Kea Se vere dl tebew dath bed. THe lxy
Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee ............ lxxi
Arrangement of the General Meetings ...............0200 00000. lxxii

Address by the President, Professor Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. ...... Lxxiii

REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE.

Report of the Committee appointed to consider and report on the various
Plans proposed for Legislating on the subject of Steam-Boiler Ex-
plosions, with a view to their Prevention,—the Committee consisting

a 2

il CONTENTS.

of Sir Witttim Farratey, Bart., C.E., LL.D., F.RS., &e., Sir Josep
Warrwortn, Bart., C.E., F.R.S., Joun Pern, C.E., F.R.S., Freperick

Page

J. Bramwe tt, C.E., Hue Mason, Samvet Rresy, THomas ScHorietp, -

Cartes F. Beyer, C.E., Tomas Wessrer, Q.C., and Lavrneron E.
Hage Pear Ete i waa tare we ahs Beal ieee’ 6, Mage, 6 Jeune isis leis ia diane ee

Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of calling the atten-
tion of Her Majesty’s Government to the importance of completing,
without delay, the valuable investigation into the composition and
geological distribution of the Hzmatite Iron-ores of Great Britain
and Ireland, which has been already in part published in the Memoirs
of the Geological Survey,—consisting of Prof. Sroxxs, F.R.S., Prof.
Harkness, F.R.S., and R. A. C. Gopwiy-Avsten, F.R.S. .........-

Report on the Sedimentary Deposits of the River Onny. By the Rev.
eM NG UCMK o.6 asin dk ae wo 2 0) soe sha 0+, 2 >, heise © oe

Report of the Committee on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron. The
Committee consists of F. A. Arn, F.R.S., D. Forbus, F.R.S., and
PACs IMPACT TrERTIESS TIN, cE Eta eo8 visi vi2).s¥ey'sl prsertlicdis 3ye, ontt saogisca ble oi oyoFes Me be Reale mens

Report on the practicability of establishing “ A Close Time ” for the pro-
tection of indigenous Animals. By a Committee, consisting of Prof.
Newton, M.A., F.LS., Rev. H. B. Trisrram, F.R.S., J. KE. Hanrine,
F.LS., F.Z.S., Rev. H. Baryes, and H. E. Dresser (Reporter)

Report of the Committce on Standards of Electrical Resistance. The
Committee consists of Prof. Wiittamson, F.R.S., Prof Sir Carvers
Wuearsronr, F.R.S., Prof. Sir W. Taomsoy, F.R.S., Prof. W. A.
Mittrr, F.R.S., Dr. A. Marruressen, F.R.S., Sir Coartes Briext,
C.E., F.R.G.S., J. Crerx Maxwett, F.R.S., C. W., Sremens, F.RBS.,
Barrour Srewart, F.R.S., Dr. Jovrz, F.R.S., C. F. Vartey, Prof. G.
C. Foster, F.R.S., C. Hocxry, M.D., and Prof. Freemine Jenxry,
BU CSCCKECALY) "ps2 5 bene ab sn.5: 0 > sje em meee nce +s sm

Sixth Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent’s Cavern, Devon-
shire,—the Committee consisting of Sir Cuanrtrs Lyrtt, Bart., F.R.S.,
Professor Purures, F.R.S., Sir Jonn Lvuszock, Bart., F.RS., Jonn
Evans, F.R.S., Epwarp Vryray, Guorer Busx, F.R.S., Witr1am Boyp
Dawns, F.R.S., Wirtiam Aysrorp Sayvorp, F.G.8., and Winn1AM
Peneetty, F.R.S. (Reporter) .....2. 6. sees cece edn coon ones

Third Report of the Committee for the purpose of investigating the rate
of Increase of Underground Temperature downwards in various Locali-
ties of Dry Land and under Water. Drawn up by Professor Everert,
at the request of the Committee, consisting of Sir Wirt1am THomson,
F.R.S., Sir Cuanres Lyett, F.R.S., J. Crerk Maxwett, F.R.S., Pro-
fessor Pmittrs, F.R.S., G. J. Syaons, F.M.S., Dr. Batrovr Stewart,
F.RB.S., Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S., A. Gernie, F.R.S., J. Guaisumr, F.R.S.,
Rev. Dr. Granam, E. W. Bryyey, F.R.S., Grorcze Maw, F.G.S., W.
Pencetty, F.RS., S.J. Mackr, F.G.S., and Professor Everrrt, D.C.L.
(BieGr etary): aisis is hyn 'alare \ is Sots Gus sty th cee» oon Co hs

Second Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared
Sections of Mountain-Limestone Corals for Photographing. The
Committee consists of Hryry Woopwarn, F.G.S.,. Prof. Duncan,
F.R.S., Prof. Harxnsss, F.R.8., and Jamus Tomson, F.G.S. ......

CONTENTS,

Second Report of the Committee, consisting of C. W. Merrrrrerp,
F.R.S., G. P. Brover, C.E., F.R.G.S., Capt. Doveras Garton, F.R.S.,
F. Garon, F.R.S., Prof. Ranxrye, F.R.S., and W. Frovpr, appointed
to report on the state of existing knowledge on the Stability, Pro-
pulsion, and Sea-going Qualities of Ships, and as to the application
which it may be desirable to make to Her Majesty’s Government on
these subjects, Prepared for the Committee by C. W. Merrirrexp,
MEM oar Sot cars at wala wah avin Bes lal 9:4 oo tg dense aa ere es ©

Report of the Committee on Earthquakes in Scotland. The Committee
consists of Sir W. Tomson, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., D. Miznz-Homn,
F.R.S.E., P. Macrartane, and J. Brycr, M.A., LL.D., F.G.S8. (Re-
REE a tE A ote ets 8 catalakala: parse 24a RRS Stas. Cin oe aleve ede a0

Report of the Committee on the “ Treatment and Utilization of Sewage,”
reappointed at Exeter, 1869, and consisting of Ricuarp B. GRantuan,
M. Inst. C.E., F.G.S., Chairman, M. C. Cooxr, M.A., Prof. Corrrexp,
M.A., M.B., J. Bartzry Denron, M. Inst. C.E., F.G.8., Jounw THorn-
nmi Harrison, M. Inst. C.E., Wirtram Horr, V.C., Prof. Marswatt,
F.R.C.S., F.R.S., Bensamin H. Pavt, Ph.D., F.C.S., Prof. Wanxiyn,
Prof. Wrtr1amson, Ph.D., F.R.S., and Sir Joun Luszock, Bart., M.P.,
line ee LPC OAUINET web e AoleldSasieie, sheri ey ashe) se ene¥Nel cs 61s) a0 she a leheyshaies

Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1869-70. By a Com-
mittee, consisting of Jamus Graisner, F.R.S., of the Royal Observa-
tory, Greenwich, Rozert P. Gree, F.G.8., F.R.A.S., ALExANpER 8.
Herscutt, F.R.A.S., and Cuantes Brooxn, F.R.S., Secretary to the
nee NIRA CL CLG 50 hg co aha <A, ae alain Bhim alg, digi agese! B.S, “eae e ite

Report on Recent Progress in [lliptic and Hyperclliptic Functions. By
NEC FCAT. Fess, cavers aie caiocv Wises bi swnte sara cay sat ¥ dicen saealeiainis

Committee for the purpose of promoting the extension, improvement,
and harmonic analysis of Tidal Observations. Consisting of Sir
Wiruiam Tuomson, LL.D., F.R.S., Prof, J. C. Apams, F.R.S., The
Asrronomer Royat, F.R.S., J. F. Baremay, F.R.S., Admiral Sir
Epwarp Betcuer, K.C.B., T. G. Bunt, Staff-Commander Burpwoop,
R.N., Warren Dr La Rvr, F.R.S., Prof. Frscrer, F.R.S., J. P. Gassioz,
F.R.S., Prof. Haveuron, F.R.S., J. R. Hinp, F.R.S., Prof. Kurianp,
F.R.S., Staff-Captain Morrarry, C.B., J. Orpnam, C.E., W. Parks,
M. Inst. C.E., Prof. B. Prion, F.R.S., Rev. C. Prircwarp, LL.D.,
F.R.S., Prof. Rankine, LL.D., F.R.S., Captain Rictarps, R.N., F.R.S.,
Dr. Rozrnson, F.R.S., General Sainz, President of the Royal Society,
W. Sissons, Prof. Sroxes, D.C.L., F.R.S., T. Wensrer, M.A., F.R.S.,
and Prof, Furzer, M.A., and J. F. Isrtin, M.A., Secretaries ......

On a New Steam-power Meter. By Messrs. Asmron and StoreY

Report on the Action of the Methyl and Allied Series. By Brnsamin
erecta eemanye WE LIS WEB rs wie via Ra gm vid) spa tea alae a Re! 9 ¥ eres

Report of the Rainfall Committee for the Year 1869-70, consisting of
C. Brooxs, F.R.S. (Chairman), J. Gratsuer, F.R.S., Prof. Purures,
F.R.S., J. F. Bareman, C.E., F.R.S., R. W. Mytnz, C.E., F.BS.,
T. Hawxstry, C.E., Prof. Apams, F.R.S., C. Tomrnson, F.R.S.,
Prof. Syrvesrer, F.R.S., Dr. Pots, F.R.S., Rogers Fierp, C.E., and
Ben ertions, Secretary 2iG vv. Ca be cele ly ye cates Seetete ae

ill
Page

iv CONTENTS.
P.
Report on the Heat generated in the Blood in the process of Arteria- Eg
lization. By Artuur Gamcezs, M.D., F.R.S.E., Lecturer on Physiology
in the Medical School, Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh {pao a pa , 228

Report on the best means of providing for a uniformity of Weights and
Measures, with reference to the Interests of Science. By a Committee,
consisting of Sir Joun Bowrtne, F.R.S., The Right Hon. Sir C. B.
Apprriey, M.P., Samvet Brown, F.S.S., Dr. Farr, F.R.S., Franx P.
Frttowes, Professor Franxiann, F.R.S., Professor Hennessy, F.R.S.,
James Heywoop, F.R.S., Sir Roperr Kann, F.R.S., Professor Leonz
Levi, F.S.A., F.S.S., Professor W. A. Mirier, F.R.S., Professor Ran-
xinz, LL.D., F.R.S., C. W. Sremens, F.R.S., Colonel Syxzs, F.R.S.,
M.P., Professor A. W. Witttamson, F.R.S., James Yates, F.R.S., Dr.
Georce Grover, Sir Josep Wurrworts, Bart., F.R.S., J. R. Napmr,
H. Driecxs, J. VY. N. Bazatcerre, W. Surra, Sir W. Farrzarren, Bart.,
F.R.S., and Joun Rosryson :—Professor Leonz Levi, Secretary .... 282

NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS
OF

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.

MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
Address nF. Professor J. Clerk Maxwe.u, LL.D., F.R.S., President of the
RB ELION Wawra ayele ala’ pxoikia ais) sini ais ale, dua nieTaraite cial eae Uns ele een ta phe atta ate eee
MATHEMATICS.

Professor A. CayLEy on the Problem of the in-and-circumscribed Triangle., 9
——_—___—__——— on a Correspondence of Points and Lines in Space ..., 10
Mr. Ropert StawELu Batt on the small Oscillations of a Particle and of a

RTT MOM 5 sais a 5:4 ae s\ sls Gilmore vig sens eers «=e ctarnie a gale ee 10
Mr. W. K. Ciirrorp on an Unexplained Contradiction in Geometry ...... 12
Mr, R. Lestre Exxis’s Observations on Boole’s ‘Laws of Thought’........ 12
Rey. Ropert Hariey on Boole’s ‘Laws of Thought’ ......ceeceeeeeees 14
Mr. Wixi1Am SPoTTiswoopE on Musical Intervals...........ceeeeeeeeees 15
Mr. W. H. L. Russerx on Linear Differential Equations.........+..++ee0e 16

Mr. W. H. WaEnn on a Numerical Theorem, with practical applications... 16

GENERAL Puysics,
Prof. J, CLERrK MAxwett on Hills and Dales ,...., sw leee eke MER eek eis ib

CONTENTS.

Pa
Dr. W. J. Macquorn Ran«rne’s Investigation of the Mathematical Theory

Bren AEP OTTO SOUT GHENISI 1, ch ast tvencio grave div cl nesvcca: 0: MEMEc 13) ale.e.ongree aiiaia ooisus a anslidlete

TEistaperl AY PPTIOL EPSRC el CURIE OCOGOHDGDeD: IytBneiracts ccigiston on Sarton
Mr. Joun T. Towson’s Report of the Liverpool Compass Committee ......
Mr. W. Parxess on Non-tidal Variations of the Sea-leyel on the Coast of

Peer oop eh avon i pf cigs gas sa. aio gaatacansesis sau asters Lae Aa sO pesis « aasutae weve
ASTRONOMY.
Mr. W. R. Bret on the Present State of the Question relative to Lunar Ac-
tivity or Quiescence ,....... IR ry fe Re cigar rc Hep aptyodester -

Mr. A. S. Davis on the Distribution of Cometic Perihelia .........eee eens

The Rey. Freperick Howtert on Solar Spots observed during the past
espa CRUA oy bc arals|«/ole) einen 6 sie\sie siaie she! mejole, se) 8iew ly) visi me, ofe sine sls ® ae

The Rev. R. Matn on Shooting-stars ... css ese ee eect teen ee en eee e ee ennes
Mr. R. A. Proctor on the Laws of Star-grouping .......... ARpaemac sone

ELEcTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.

Mr. C, BECKER on Faure’s Battery .......+++45- icin is alee ve us sien clersts
Mr. Joun Browntne on an Induction-coil, specially arranged for use in Spec~-
trp ANBIYSIS :. 60 eee cieipe sec geri spenede ng cemengecceeees ORE ta niet
Mr. H. Hieron on the Maximum amount of Magnetic Power which can be
developed by a given Galvanic Battery ..........+ Aine SUS Soir Se fp eegae
Dr. Jounn’s Letter on a New Dip-Circle ....... cece eee ee ee een ene neh

Mr. W. Lapp on an Improved Lantern for Lecture demonstrations with Elec-
BOMMOES SOo LL Pers ie ese Pee U cue Nuelne oUR cededeubewae daaewenghs

Professor Sir Wini1am THomson on a New Absolute Electrometer ........
Mr. Freperick H, VaRuLEy on a New Field of Magnetic Research ..... ri
—— ona Constant Battery ,....0..2sscereceeeene

Mr. S, AtrrED VARLEY on a Magnetic Paradox .....: see e eee e eee ee eeees
—_______—__——’s Description of the Electric Time-Signal at Port
Biiabeth, Cape of Good Hope .....cceeesescecrest per seeer ss ersece ne
—_—_—_—_—— on the Mode of Action of Lightning on Telegraphs,
and on a New Method of constructing Telegraph-coils Aneicitee hy tan AT IO

MerTEOROLOGY.,
Mr. Cuaries CHamMpBenrs on Rainfall—its Variation with Elevation of the
ET cle vie viglg sus <4 6 cdi ae Rip nis psig .a'o ¥ amie 0 0065 0.80 Kon ols ale Rm wiens
Professor J. D. EvERETT on a Scale for computing Humidity ............
Mr. Francis GAtron on Barometric Predictions of Weather............-.

Mr. James GuAIsHER on the Temperature of the Air at 4 feet, 22 feet, and
SUES ANOVERUHO GTOUTIG! sreissisic: s-s «nie siePouayacalsinls Ae sails cleus a ¥#.8¢,Raneiabie

Mr. Joun J. Hatt on a New Electro-Magnetic Anemometer, and the mode
of using it in Registering the Velocity and Pressure of the Wind ........

Professor J. Henry on the Rainfall of the United States............00e0e

Hat, Lieut.

Mr, CHARLEs Brooxe’s Queries respecting Alther .ississessenseereneeer

vi CONTENTS.

Pag
Mr. H. Wurresrpr Cook on certain Objections to the Dynamic Theory of

13 or) anos Behe cocetonai aeebs i eatatanete nce vers aelenoledsts vaVouelevavelote ohet ialetsCs Serato :

Dr. Henry Hupson on the Wave Theory of Light, Heat, &e. oo... cece eee
i Orrics.

Dr. Joun Barxer on the Immersion Method of Illumination of the Micro-

ESC OPI Po tage tatotn ele rae fatale} ctebekas chal axafafexerUctel stots afek= i Fike naivists foradeeese ie erste eee

Mr. S. Hotmes on the New Binocular Microscope .......+.eeeeeeeeeees :

Prof. J. CLerx MaxweE on Colour-vyision at different points of the Retina. .

Mr. G. Jounstons Stoney on the Cause of the Interrupted Spectra of
(GASES tore toretateyeis foe 'o's/n'00ora 0) 0/0)» Wig ainsi ere (>, 0)9\0\s.'n.n ¥.0)019) 0) 0.4 8 nlalotonelp\alal Bonscod :

The Hon. J. W. Srrutt’s Experiments on Colour ..........45. raw eulersiefe
Mr. W. M. Warts on two Spectra of Carbon existing at the same Temperature

CHEMISTRY.
Address by Professor Henry I. Roscor, B.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Presi-
Gentiot the mSCvlOW sss ein ein asin -1+\<\s ele <\eists!s 9) eis aisektocetet MPO ons ohape

Mr. J. Fenwick ALLEN on the Alloys of Copper, Tin, Zinc, Lead, and other
Metals with Manganese .......sccercceeercccccsecccecssesececsseces
Mr. J. Campsetit Brown on the Chemical Composition of the Bones of
GeneraleParalytics si. 6 <a mintulette cisisia sia\e ain slove min susie stetele @inioteter viata Tamaelane
Mr. Joun BrowninG on a Spectroscope in which the Prisms are automatically
adjusted for the Minimum Angle of Deviation for the particular Ray
WHAePeXAMINAMON 22.22.00 rcceeneeucrcscrns a die oe oi0.6) © 6: #.ekel he kauetss Oem
Mr. W. Lanr Carpenter on the Examination of Sea Water on board
H.M.S. ‘ Porcupine,’ in July 1870, for dissolving Gases and varying pro-

portions of Chlorine ........ see seeeereeeeeeene evens ecensvsccces ae
Mr, A. H. Cuvunrcn’s Contributions to Mineralogical Chemistry ......... :
—________——- Experiments on the Preservation of Stone.........++.
Mr. W. J. Cooper on the Purification of Public Thoroughfares by the ae

cation of Deliquescent Chlorides ......... ec cece cece rece eee e eee eenee :
Mr. Henry DEAcon on a new Chlorine Process without Manganese........
Mr. James Drwan’s Note on Thermal Equivalents—1. Fermentation.

EaOxadesion CHIOTING 2/5. 5 15.15 i 1 loleietele:alblelejsiele'el she etn ielsteyaleieeieiale siete ale
Mr. Tomas Farrbry on Cyanogen. ......cccsecececesccceercssnces Hat
—_________—-’s Note on the Distillation of Sulphuric Acid ........
Mr. Atrrep E. Frrrcxer on the Purification of Sankey Brook ...... aiate
—— on Air-pollution from Chemical Works........
Mr. Davip Fornes on the Utilization of Sewage, with special reference to the

Phosphate Process ...... se esseccnccecreercsssescesessessoees Jenene
Dr. B. W. Geruanp on the Action of Sulphurous Acid, in Aqueous Solution,

on Phosphates and other Compounds ........eeeeseeeeeeeeees se ceeees
— ’s Note on the Occurrence of Vanadium ............4.
Dr. Joun H. Guapstone on Reciprocal Decomposition viewed with reference

Ui) DY Serrano Uo OCInIgIA 9,c:9 0 Dio Sao aDOUninR cam ito. | - ie siateleferhs
Mr. W. Gossace on the Soda Manufacture .6.....sese essen er eens vene

Mr. A. Vernon Harcourt on a Method for the Determination of Sulphur
in Coal-gas Ts Eh WE } Ce 2

CONTENTS. Vil

Page
Mr. James Hancreaves on the Separation from Iron-Furnace Cinder of

Phosphoric Acid for Manurial Purposes .....+- s+ seee sence serene Apot:
The Rey. H. Hrcuron on Artificial Stone and various kinds of Silica ...... GO
Dr. Hurter on the Time needed for the completion of Chemical Changes .. 60
Mr. A. Gorpon on the Prevention of Lead-poisoning in Water............ GO
Mr. W. Marrtort on the Estimation of Sulphur in Coal-gas.........+++.. GO
Dr. MacVicar on the Typical Hydrocarbons, from Marsh-gas to Anthracene,
with the Oxidation of the latter into Anthroquinone and Alizarine ...... G1
Mr. T. Morratr on Atmospheric Ozone.......+. ee eeeeeeeees Janu nen pee Ol
—__—_—_——— on the Quantity of Phosphoric Acid excreted from the
| System in connexion with Atmospheric Conditions ........+eseeeeeenee 61
Mr. J. Brexseck Nevins on a New Theory respecting the Heating of
TAQUIGS cscs c cee ees cavcccecrsceececncenenecue Els aietehe eve shedheys re cree Ol
Mr. W. H. Perkins on Artificial Alizarine ...... eeeiee ers Soscontaanageds 61
Mr. J. Anruur Purmires’s Note on Claudet’s Process for the Extraction of
STUVED) Gs levels Bisel ett ous) pi shobpe lata to hd slooth sleloreretopeteL ars syetor es Vole; « seeere (ll
Mr. W. Cuanptrr Roserts on the Absorption of Hydrogen by Electro-
Ceposited Irom ...... cee ee cece ese e eee e eee nee e renee eneeeeaeaanenes ,. 62
Professor H. E. Roscox on Vanadium, illustrated by Preparations of its Com-
USI Geers tte c cen eek steer ere cetscecceunerstaceedessssieine aera} OD
Mr. E. Scuuncx on the Chemical Composition of Cotton ...... Hppecterdec 63
Mr. J. BerGER SpEeNcE on the Phenomena of the Crystallization of a Double
RUMI CMMM GE solcssle\ei to vera oie a's sora cleye Gy aelais's: a°0 vie Wislale,e! 6! o.s «sia e/a eVe lo aumie\ ala « 63

Mr. Perer Spence on an Attempt to determine the Boiling-point of the
Saturated Solutions of various Salts by boiling with Steam of 100°C. .... 64

Mr. J. Servier on the Discrimination of Fibres in Mixed Fabrics.......... G4
Mr. Epwarp C. C, Sranrorp on Marbles from the Island of Tyree ..... elatg? C4
: on the Retention of Organic Nitrogen by Char-
} nit) Age Oc DRGOCn CO CAN Crm RO OC CHO. dour Crmacicie Gare Reieip ace mpaluauratele . 65
Mr. Cuarues R, C. TrcuBorne on Dust as a Ferment .........6. SRGODE . 65
Mr. C. Tomiryson on the Action of Low Temperatures on Supersaturated
AHORSOLUGLONSS oft er tepeiay cre anpreis oieie'e) «chs. ¢ aiapeinieidiersts's wes aise g -Foonape re Ge
- —— on a Salt invisible in its Mother Liquor ........e++04- 67
Mr. W. H. Watenn on the Electro-deposition of Copper and Brass........ 67
Mr. Water WeELpon on the Weldon Process for the Manufacture of
PODIOTING: (if. c .cleseele salt lela eclelelsieinre SEO CTICC ECE A Gomur Ccunta ripe 68
Professor A. W. Writrramson’s Communication respecting a Resolution of
the Committee of Section B on the proposed establishment of a New School
of Applied Science by Government ...... Aap nce Ocr Aree rey ee
GEOLOGY.
Dr. Lerrn ApAms on Newly discovered Species of Elephants.............. 69

Mr. D. T. AnstTEp’s Notes of a recent Visit to the Great Tunnel through the
Alps, and of several points of Geclogical interest suggested by the condi-
tion of the Works in their present nearly complete state ............665 . 69

Mr. James Bryce on the Matrix of the Gold in the Scottish Gold-fields .... 70

Mr. Wiiu1am CarrutTsErs on the History and Affinities of the British
Conifers ee 71

vill CONTENTS.

Mr, Wintr1am Carrutuers on the Sporangia of Ferns from the Coal-mea-
BUTES oc cae ecnns arash ates si ecenias vias sie, vcs (8lo%s sla, alte adatalaleheteracals fel ektisatss Sethian
—---— ’gs Remarks on the Fossils from the Railway Sec-

tion at Huyton. :...ccerscerrrses cesses cnr endpeescenee nce aay gins ane

— Note on an Antholithes discovered by C. W.

—_— ——————_—_—.

IPSec ee meee tich nave conus teste aise Aigta song eyeile' e llaa: a ielgtevesele Teele sO kota
The Rev. H. W. Crosskry on the Glacial Phenomena in the Central District
Of Minehead 30. recs c sce e eee ce eset cert espetugttessepeye tegen a

The Rey. J. Gunn on the Formation of Boulder-clays and Alternations of
Level of Land and Water... ccc cece nec e cee rece reenter eee aeeans

Mr. Hues F. Hart on the Glacial and Postglacial Deposits in the Neigh-
bourhood of Llandudno ........ ccc cece eee pet eee eee eter eseees

Professor HarKNESS and Mr. H. A. NrcHotson on the Green Slates and Por-
phyries of the Lake-district ............. EA HANWHA AAP HIT OO 11

Mr. F. W. Harmer on some Thermal Springs in the Fens of Cambridgeshire

Professor Epwarp Hutt on the Extension of the Coal-fields beneath the
newer Formations of England, and the successive Stratigraphical Changes
to which the Carboniferous Rocks have been subjected ....... tthe

Mr, Cxaruns Jecks on the Red and Coralline Crags .........ee cece eee
Mr. J. Gwyn Jerrreys’s Remarks on New Tertiary Fossils in Sicily and Ca-

[Fue Stoo dcr caoecs aeRO CTE AO OCIOr CIGD GOIN incEneTOIRITIGe GO. od csc
Mr. Joun W. Jupp on the Age of the Wealden .........essesesevnucees

Professors Krve and Rowney on some points in the Geology of Strath, Isle
EE SECGO Tp sax a cs’ pe 'g's se'p 0s wigs a w paige ole Ble aly pie ve © tye isla silts eee
Mr. Cuartes Lapworrn on the Discovery of Upper Silurian Rocks in
Roxburgh and Dumfriesshire. .........0-e esse eect teen eee ee eee e eee
Mr. G. A. Lesour and W. Munbte on the Tertiary Coal-field of Southern
CSB O cys ava SelB 0s Sen. tale ola SE ee dive wie wielnleeteva. eterno elev g cibeals ie ahen Oreos avn

Mr. J. L. Loprry on the Stratigraphical Distribution of the British Fossil
Gasteropoda......cserevreeecccserrseescseeseestueeoveseeveceetens
Professor ConsTANTINE MaLAIsE (of Gembloux) on the Silurian Formations
of the Centre of Belgium ........ RPE ABE CLO TARO ROE GY fur nearer wares
Mr. L. C. Mratz on the Formation of Swallow-holes or Pits with Vertical
Sides in Mountain Limestone .......ccseeesececctanerrecesceeseens ‘
Mr. Grorce Maw on the Evidences of Recent Changes of Level on the
Mediterranean Coast .....,.:esecceenrreees eiipie issn: © Fe pig aie to pee
Mr. W. SrepHen Mrrcneti’s Remarks on the Denudation of the Oolites
ofthe Bath District, ...6.00. se sien ose ceviele pemepieen = feign ih. ge ee
Mr. Tomas Morrat on Geological Systems and Endemic Diseases ........

Mr. G. H. Morton on the Glaciated Condition of the Surface of the Triassic
Sandstone around Liverpool ........ cece e eet e nee n tere ne eeenvenees A

on the Mountain Limestone of Flintshire and part of
Wenbrehshive Veieye sie) gisssns oie seeishe Meietaieteetetralies items eee ets aa :

Mr. R. A. Peacock on some Future and Past Changes of the Karth’s Climate
Mr. W. PenGety on the Modern and Ancient Beaches of Portland........

Mr. T, A. Reapwin’s Notes on a Merionethshire Gold Quartz Crystal, and
some Stream Gold recently found in the River Mawddach ........--+..-+-

Mr. Caries Ricketts on Sections of Strata between Huyton and St. Helen’s
Mr. G. JounsTone Stoney on the recent Formation of Gravel-beds resembling

IIo Ele Dintinn aomrniotec Me ee eral state Brock CII R010 Hib PaO

Page

CONTENTS. ix

age

P
The Rey. W.S. Symonns on the Physical Geology of the Bone-cayes of the

ee i erates ke sigs wa TO GCCE OSCE Ie fainter. tceaente an 88
My. J. E. Taytor on the Occurrence of Seams of Hard Sandstone in Middle
PitetO RB RSb CAM ONG 320. ae ejeusiele s,s tniees ak, s4 oS aE Lameain tes oak pa ineh
Mr. Ratpx Tate on a Census of the Marine Invertebrate Fauna of the Lias 88
Mr. J. TENNANT on the Diamonds of South Africa ..........ccccceescuce 88
Mr. JAmes THomsoN on the Occurrence of Pebbles and Boulders of Granite in
menetese Rocks in Islay, Seotland 2020090 .0. cick eee ceencevetes 8&3

Mr, Aurrep R. Watace on a Diagram of the Earth’s Eccentricity and the
_ Precession of the Equinoxes, illustrating their Relation to Geological
Climate and the Rate of Organic Change .......s.cecceeecsscecacaees 89

Professor W, C. W1Lir1aMson on the Organization of the Stems of Calamites 89

Mr. Szantes V. Woop and F. W. Harmer on the Paleontological Aspects
of the Middle Glacial Formation of the East of England, and on their

bearing upon the Age of the Middle Sands of Lancashire...,. a Tisaa sau oinatts 90
Mr, Henry Woopwarp’s Notes on Fossil Crustacea ........seeaseeevess OL
BIOLOGY.

Address by Prof. Rotteston, M.D., F.R.S., President of the Section ...... 91

Botany anp Zooroey.
Colonel Sir James ALEXANDER on the Effects of the Pollution of Rivers on

PeepanphY OF BUSH 5 «sass ane shins ae daesonre we eneas er cnt 109
Prof. T. C. AncHER’s Notes on the Changes produced in Lotus corniculatus by
EE EER Sibi citvs vigssid oh Ses idl d dale Aly, nella tad Goce ta cen we | 109

Mr. Epwarp ATKINSON on the Osteology of Chlamydophorus truncatus .,.. 110
Mr. Joun Barxkenr’s Notes on Pleuronema doliarium, a new Infusorium .... 111
Prof. VAN BENEDEN sur les Parasites ............05 ap one Wr Vr Tixae eeu
Mr. Anrrep W. Bennett on Protandry and Protogyny in British Plants .. 111
Mr. Epwin Brrcwaxt on some Hybrid Sphingide and other Lepidoptera .. 111

Mr. Henry Brep on the Steypireyér Whale of the Icelanders ........... . 112
Mr. Henry B, Brapy’s Notes on Brackish-water Foraminifera ..........., 113
Mr. Rozert O. CunnineHam on the Terrestrial and Marine Fauna of the
Strait of Magellan and Western Patagonia .............ccecceeeeves nae CHA
Prof. ALEXANDER DicxKson’s Note on the Embryo of the Date-Palm .,.... 115
Dr. Anton Dourn on the Foundation of Zoological Stations ............., 115

Sir WatTeR ExxioT on the Habits of the Indian Rock-snake (Python molurus) 115
Mr. Tuomas Gipson on Abnormal Petals on Flowers of Ranunculus aquatilis 115

———____—_——— on Parasitic Habits of Pyrola rotundifolia ............ 116
Col. J. A. GRANT on the Vegetable Products of Central Africa ............ 117
Dr. J. E. Gray’s Notes on the Whalebone-Whales of the Southern Hemi-
EPHONG? «.' ferrocene erase atte hes ese ats MME ae tact Aine ke 117
Dr. J. E. Gray on the Portuguese Globular Anchor-Sponge (Pheronema Gray?) 117
Mr. TownsHEND M. Haux on the Abnormal Growth of Fes ............ Ze

Mr. Arpany Hancocx’s Note on the Larval State of Molgula, with Descrip-
tions of several new Species of simple Ascidians, eons LS

x CONTENTS.
r E 4 Page
Prof. T. H. Huxxry on the relations of Penicillium, Torula, and Bacterium.. 119

Mr. J. Gwyn Jrerrrrys on a Pentacrinus (P. Wyville-Thomsoni) from the

Coasts‘of Spam and Portugal: 1's) 0)....3 2. cnessececueeeliaweas Acorns
Mr. W. Savini Kent on an existing Favositoid Coral ...........000e00% 119
— ——’s Note on the Affinities of the Sponges to the Corals 120
Mr. E. Ray Lanxester on a Stock-form of the Parasitic Flatworm ...... 120
on Oligocheetous Worms......... aiaeloeMataye Rano Atl,
Mr. E. J. Lowr’on Abnormal Forms of Ferns ..........0:eshss0cuemende 120

Mr. Rosert M‘Anprew’s Report on the Testaceous Mollusca obtained during
a Dredging-Excursion in the Gulf of Suez during the months of February

BEE MD Soe ad cc akae sae easccylsae seg ae @ pune te seen 120
Mr. W. C. M‘Intosn’s Preliminary Report on certain Annelids dredged in the
Expedition of H.M.S. ‘ Porcupine’ (1869) ............08. Moone Nala ataltte 121
Mr. Toomas J. Moore on the ‘ Mortimer’ Ship-equarium ..... viata, avails whey 121
—_——_——_——— on Rhinodon typicus, a rare Shark lately added to the
Pree Museum, Taverpogl: occas da «ie »dniess's aie olen oan en eee 121
—————————— on work done by the Mercantile Marine of Liverpool
an dartherance of Zoology | ss). 0! b. 4s suds vo's.0 0s swe b aeiye Mente aoe 2
, Exhibition of a remarkable hinged Fish-jaw and of
BV OUD PANU, 61 \saleie.010 0 », 910 2: 9-0 =i5\0 0\0l6i 040: 9Jelsin'e a aio orelolehaat tee 121
Dr, C, Parry on the Desert Flora of North America ...... ale 'ele¥elateteteertanetace 122
Mr. C. W. Pracu on an £balia new to the British list ..............004. 122
Mr. Joun Pricr’s Notes on the Cuckoo-flower or Lady’s-Smock (Cardamine
MMSE oat es oes Ak WSS Te MR eee the ST as > vee Sete ok aCe 22
Mr; P. L. SciaTeEr on certain Principles to be observed in the Establishment
of a National Museum of Natural History ......... ccc cceeeeeeeeeeeees 123
Mr. Robert SwrvHor on the Natural History of Hainan ................ 128
Prof, Wyv1LtLe THomson on Hyalonema and some other Vitreous Sponges .. 123

—— on some of the Echinoderms of the Expedition of

AVES pe OLCUPING cas rraie,s.c -aiclonia, 416s %aiele a) sess's o)5)a)0ia/ oleae cay caer Rae be 128
Mr, TyErman’s Note on the Growth of Lodoicea Seychellarum .......+5. oo 2s

Mr. Henry Woopwanrp on the Structure of the Shell in the Pearly Nautilus 128
Mr. H. Cuariton Bastran’s Statement in reply to the two Objections of

Professor Huxley relative to certain Experiments ...........+.00eeeeeee 129
Mr. Atrrep W. BEnneEtTT on the Theory of Natural Selection looked at from

a Mathematical Point of View ...........ccccceccceereecs ets soccn (laid)
Mr. Gitbrert W. Curry on Protoplasm and the Germ Theories ............ 15
Dr. CoBBoLD on some of the more Important Facts of Succession in Relation

to any Theory of Continuity .......... ccc cee ee eee ees Srmiceporeto 4+ 151

Dr. F. CracE-Cavert on the Development of Germ-life ................ 182

Mr. JAMES SAMUELSON on the Controversy on Spontaneous Generation, with
mew Hxperimentss..:.'. «oss se ese as vleisls chore Himononidconpoclaaer nc « oisie atin Loe

Mr. Freprric T. Mort on the Scientific Value of Physical Beauty........ 134

Dr. Brown SEQUARD on various Alterations of Nutrition due to Nervous
PUTMCHES ss. 5's nis sini via ¢ +s isis Saleen Si Biren © + 6 sfejesaladel ouslal efole .. 13d

—_—__— on Apparent Transmission of Abnormal Conditions due
to Accidental Canses 0.5 0+0+ss000r ans’ veies 00 yee cece siey DEES

CONTENTS. xi

Page
Dr. Caton’s Contribution to the Migration Theory .........00065 Pisces Loe

Professor Joun CLELAND on the Physical Relations of Consciousness and the
Seat of Sensation: a Theory proposed ........cce eee ee ees mia Gra hvicvetsicia'» 135

Dr. Copspoxp on a rare and remarkable Parasite from the Collection of the
rowan We Dallinger’.... cc cece iota cee nev ele sie NES cri shu goatee eehteanytass 135

’s Remarks on the Heart of a Chinese Dog containing Hema-
tozoa, received from R. Swinhoe, Esq., H.B.M. Consul, Amoy, China .... 135

Notice respecting the Embryonal Development of the Hzema-

tozoon Bilharzia ......eeceeee Bichetalatel>) elvis wtelefate(or-herd <viabatslalatetera, ate minitis: 0. 135
Professor W. H. Frower on the Connexion of the Hyoid Arch with the
MUMEEIRTEXEOR CT avotole «ov oSoSaSa c?ofato: ofeleteveteroieieve e's 0Fb e760 nye siete v's, sini Sage aaa nok 136

—_______———— on the Ctrrespondence between the Anterior and
Posterior Extremity, and the Modifications of the Position of the Limbs in
EN TLCMIMEE UG tls aipiitacre's’ts x a\c'e's oasis sey oct Sapam ume srw ner 137

Mr. R. Garnen’s Comparison of the Thoracic and Pelvic Limbs in Mammalia. , 137

Mr. Joun Goopman on Albumen and its Transformation into Fibrin by the

BER CUROL VVIAUCT «cixio 0/01 017 «eve loleleve afelslo/ele le) afato(diatan elm wale) oyate, ain\a%eju sferal ¢ avs L8e
Mr. T. B. Grrerson’s Remarks on Variation of Colouring in Animals...... 140
Mr. Witu1Am Horr on the Antiseptic Treatment of Contagia as Illustrative

Brehe Germ Mheory of Disease 2... ..0...c cscs sees cc cep enecene Acco Bi 140
Professor G. M. Humpury on the Comparison of the Shoulder-bones and

Muscles with the Hip-bones and Muscles ............ SSni cheltyryt wea. 140

——__—_—_—_——— on the Homological Relations to one another of

EEMPEEHEU OTe TIRE 1575) aly. s 0ls/« ele 0ie) etal s alas cle aini=\«'s/e s\/lafs\e\e« a cisle/njoveisin sueiee 141
Mr. Ricuarp Kine on Blight in Man and in the Nail and Vegetable World 141
Mr. E. Ray Lanxesrer’s Note on Methemoglobin ............ ae eee ft ee A
Mr. B. W. Ricuarpson’s New Physiological Researches on the Effects of

BRMEHOMIC ACIG . 2 cee tence rene esenese ees enseedensesonssesenies 141

_ Mr. E. Ray Layxesrer on the Action of some Gases and Vapours on the

MeN ER CRITEL COLE DUS GLOR Ca ¢ 5) 6:01 srg acs) siayalor tie’ b1e/t\ 9) s10, nin si Richy ejs 4 ad8) 0x8 ole lalespcebiolene 142
Dr. 8. Stricker and Dr. Burdon SANDERSON on a new Method of Red

the Capillary Circulation in Mammals............... SOOO aleretetereyert :
ree. H. Smirn on Lefthandedness..........c.scccesesccccsneees efits sugl ten

Professor Ramsay H. Traquarr on the Cranial Osteology of Polypterus
Birchit 143

Mr. A. T. H. Waters on the Intimate Structure of the Human Lungs...... 145

Mr. Jonn Beppor on the Anthropology of Lancashire............+0000: .. 143
———_—_——— on the Ottoman Turks ........ SOOO OU ADIOS *eadcec ee!
Dr. BLEEx on the Position of Australian Languages............ Memes .. 144
Mr. F. BripGes on New Views of Craniology .......sse00e- nasi cteur as .. 144
Mr. G, CampBe tt on the Village System in India .............05 wsevee 144

Mr. Hypr Cxarxe’s Note on the Distribution of the Names of Weapons in
PETS PIMOS... cece eedce sees M suatscctanasa dntatense ate Brotarecevetera ;

Mr. Evcrenr ALFRED CoNWELL on Ancient Sculptures and Objects of re
from Trish Cairns ...........0...+ aWafole fei w/e leis SSoddcoeoeeoeoe weve 145

Mr. W. Boyp Dawxrns and Gror@r Busx on the Discovery of Platyenemic
Men in Denbighshire ........ CO nIDE OOO rn tes aoc o Sogou coolest eee on cic 148

Mr. W. Boyp Dawxrys on the Exploration of the Victoria Cave, Settle,
Ica. ERE TU Care cis swe te Cee ORES veel He TR ee eee 148

Mr, W. C. Denny on the Shadows of Genius sissseescsevetesetevevenes 149

X1l CONTENTS.

Pr
Professor P. Martin Duncan on the Geological Changes which have Occurred a
since the first Traces of Man in Europe ........1...0.sscscccesveseees 149

The Rey. C. D. GryspurG on the Relation of the Ancient Moabites to Neigh-
bouring Nations, as disclosed in the newly discovered Moabite Stone .... 149

Mr. T. B. Grimrson, Anthropological Note on Carved Stones recently dis-

covered in Nithdale, Scotland...) #i). » sts sins. asleer MR fetta {i fivgibeeiaila
Professor Harkness on the Discovery of a Kitchen-midden at Balycotton in
County Corley ie. ois5 05, 75.5 AS ORR eon nog oa be peste Nernagee LOO

Mr, Wri11am Hircuman’s Remark on the Anatomy of the Intellect ...... 151
Mr. T. Styctarr Hoxtpren on some forms of Ancient Interment in County

ATTUTTET Ey Ape ae join mien no onnOg A Gar nb sien wee cites vee Caeie ibe
Mr, H. H. Howorrts on the Massagetee and Sact.....scscseseveessevsess LOL
—— on Pre-Turkish Frontagers of Persia .......+s+ee0++. LOL
——_—_______—— on the Avares........ PERT TRPETURRT
Mr. J. Karnes on the Racial Aspects of Music ........ Merri i)
Mr. Ricuarp Kine on the Manx of the Isle of Man.,.......... SERA . 153

Dr, A. S. Lewis on the Builders of the Megalithic Monuments in Britain .. 163
Sir Jonn Lussock’s Remarks on Stone Implements from Western Africa., 154

My. J. 8S. Pen on a recent Examination of British Tumuli and Monuments
in the Hebrides and on the Western Coast of Scotland, with suggestive In-

ROME TECEreetereyaie reich suc stohereiecs sue aie eps ene, ove actus. # a 10's i6 4 sye,c1 ante coke nen eae tat 155
Mr. JoHn Prant on a Flint-flake Core found in the Upper Valley-gravel at
Pe RRCUCSEE 6p ccs cso csirpvestisaeies oo eae eo oe aes pa OO
Mr. Cuartzs Ricketts on a Wooden Implement found in Bidston Moss, near
nKCHNCAUW Ags dae ceta cots sss Cepiire ics 6 cle else 6 Sob 200 Peleloisierete LO
The Rey. C. SEWELL on certain remarkable Earthworks at Wainfleet, in Lin-
(EE UG oui Sa egg Roig aN Grn E e Perse ciicypos
Mr. G. Tun on the Use of Opium among the Chinese ......... ose 18 S00 eee
Mr. C. SranmuanpD WakE on the Mental Characteristics of the Australian
POTS ele a6 dias iho vs ltio wie ere ORL LT 65 dia wihge Saas evens woe
—_—__—___—___—_—_——— on the Physical Characters of the Australian
PNIOHIO INOS mace, cficie cinierhie tis sielein estore eeercineete ro ievelers Pema eeee rials ost ave ead

Mr. Henry Woopwarp onan Implement of Quartz from St. George’s Sound 158

GEOGRAPHY.
Brees by Sir Roperick Ivpry Murcuisoy, Bart., K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D,
R.S., F.G.S., President uf the Section ........seeeesseeseeenes ee
Sir barns: Hie s Letter from the White Nile ........sseseeee shee a, LOU

Mr. ALEXANDER Bucuan on the Great Movements of the Atmosphere,..... 167
Mr. Gzorcr CampBELL on the Physical Geography and Races of British ies

EROS. shone sins pha papneess ete eeeeer aps eee rare) res oo oe RRE &
Captain CarmicHaEr on the Ruined Cities of Central America.......++.++ 168
Mr. T. T. Cooper on Eastern Tibet. ......ceseeeeeeeeeneenes ‘a0 eeahiees:s RUD

Mr. W. Herwortu Drxon on Holy Islands in the White Sea .......+.... 169
Mr, A. FepcHenKo’s Topographical Sketch of the Zerafshan Valley......., 169

CONTENTS. xill

Mr. T. D. Forsyrn’s Letter on Eastern Turkestan ......... 00. e uc eee 169
Governor GiLPIn on the Physical Geography of Colorado and adjacent Regions 170
General W. Herne on Lines for a Ship-Canal across the American Isthmus, . 170

Mr, Joun K. Laveuron on the Great Currents of the Atmosphere ........ 170
My. R. H. Mason on the Landfall of Columbus............5. Ode See ee y. ATL
Lord Mitton on Railway Routes across North America and the Physical
Aspects of the Country ............: ip ae ChE uel Wwe Bana tle ae ie 172
’ Mr. Werner Munzincer’s Journey into the Interior of Hadramaut ...... 172
Major-Gen. Sir Henry Rawiison’s Notes on the Site of the Terrestria
05) SEG mjedes eri erat sieys joyeioscist=uausfusellebei a Scout settet +.
a on Early Traditions regarding the River
eee SBA Bieo.c MeMint bss narke sth ins (LTS
Mr. W. Winwoop Reapz’s Journey to the Upper Waters of the Niger .,.. 175
Mr, E. G. Squrmr on the Basin of Lake Titicaca ......c.ceeseeueeesveees 105
Captain Sir Joun Swrnpurne on the South-African Gold-fields ......,... 176
Mr. R. Swinwor on the Island of Hainan .......sccecesscsseccceveseses LUG
Captain Taytor (late) on the Harbours of Western India ......+.+.++++++ 176
Mr, Joun T. Towson on Windward Great Circle Sailing ...... hiss caeace AMAT,

_ Colonel H. Yuxx’s Notes on Analogies of Manners between the Indo-Chinese

.
.

and the Races of the Malay Archipelago........., Shiai 51s bok sede au Sb ee

ECONOMIC SCIENCE ann STATISTICS.

Address by Professor W. Sranuey JEvons, M.A., President of the Section.. 178
Mr, R. Duptey Baxter on National Debts ..........0sceeeevees mibrgedoa Met

aa . H. W. Briees on Middle-Class Schools as they are, and as they ought
MRE seer ofeis, 020 een) act nant satieeiiecce ot eee era ee cimM cal t ad ak

Mr. Wrr1m Bortry on the Economy of Large and Small Farms.......... 188

_ Mr. Grorer Campse tt on the Duties of the Government of India and of the
Merchants of England in promoting Production in India .....

Mr. J. 8. Campprt on the Tobacco Trade of Liverpool ........sse00s0+++ 189
Mr, Hype Craxe’s Proposition for a Census of Local Names..........+... 189
Mr, J. Watrrr Exxis on the Decline of Small Farmers in Yorkshire and
Lancashire, the Cause and Effect ...........0cccsessevecceces i pepity eye len
Sean P. Furrowns on our Navy ....¢.seccesesecscecsneonenveses 190

Mr. Witi1am B, Forwoop on the Influence of Price upon the Cultivation
and Consumption of Cotton during the past ten years, embracing the period
of the American War and Cotton Famine ............csccsacceecceaes 191

Mr. Aurrep Havinanp on a Proposed Rearrangement of the Registration
Districts of England and Wales, for the purpose of facilitating Scientific

MPMIEY. wav cee eesti Behrens Seema tines cet feed PRGA MRAREA Ee 193
Mr. James Hrywoop on the Aptitude of North-American Indians for
ES. ek OW RUURIAA EGS Ursus). 5 ove ss SWE Re eed Wlbaa dina 193

Mr. Berxetry Hixt on the Statistics of the Contagious Diseases Acts .... 194
The Rey. Joun Jonzs on Intemperance, purely with reference to Liverpool 195

Xiv CONTENTS.

Dr. Tuomas Dr Mescuin on the Impolicy, on economic grounds, of convert-
ing the National Debt into Terminable Annuities ...........eeseeeeeees 196

on the Compulsory Conversion of Substantial

Leaseholds in Towns into Freeholds.........+ssesee0e meteorite. ince)
Mr. R. M. Panxuvrst on the Policy and Provisions of a Patent-law ...... 196
Mr. J. Parry on Baths and Washhouses ........... os ieee eee nie |
Mr. Joun Patterson on Railway Accounts for 1868 just issued by the Board

of Trade, with suggestions for Railway Reform...............- Bono dan: 197
Mr. E. Renats on Mechanics’ Institutions and the Hlementary Education Bill 200
Mr. Tuomas Ross on the Utilization of Fibrous Cotton-seed...........+.. 200

Mr. Roprrr T. Saunpers on the Physical Geography of the United States
of America as affecting Agriculture, with suggestions for the Increase of
the Production of Cotton ...scccseeeeescseveeneees atetepelts dain hape ieee 201

Mr. G. JounsToNnE Sroney on the Effect which a Mint Charge has upon the
value of Coins, to which is added a Proposition for securing at once some of

the advantages of International Coinage ........ cece cece eee eee eens 201
Mr. THomas A. WELTON on Immigration and Emigration, as affecting the

increase of Population in England and Wales.........0..ceeee eee ene 203
Mr. Witt1amM WestTGartH on Decimal Money and a Common International

PUNIE Sapicieleic noes wins eG WANES GTS Tats eG Sv soho ase 's Bg ge ois Tere 205
My. R. Wiixr1nson on Statistics on Tobacco, its Use and Abuses .......... 206
MarO, Wettams'on Local Taxation i... 0.00.00 veecnecses reeeetuaas send

MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

Messrs. AsutTon and Sronry on a New Steam-power Meter ....sseeeeeees 208
Admiral Sir Epwarp BeLcuEr on the unprotected state of Liverpool..,,.. 208
Mr. A. W. BrckErTON on a New Heat-Engine........ A oson Gok Us
Mr. Gustav BiscHor, jun., on a New System of Testing the Quality of the
Malleahle Metals and Alloys, with Experimental Illustrations ..........++
Gauge Railways .........0.00. hoor Re eee Seu

Mr, Wiit1aM Hooper on the North-China and Japan Submarine Cables .. 219

CONTENTS. XV

Mr. W. Hove on the History of the Shell that won the Battle of Sedan .... O19
Mr. G. LAvupER on Frictional Screw Motions. ........++seeeeeeeeeeeeeens 219
Mr. J. H. Luoyp on Hammering and Stone-dressing Machinery............ 219
Mr. Samvuen J. Macxrs on the Defence of Liverpool by Floating Forts...... 219

Mr. Wituram P. Marsuaut on the Martini-Henry and Westley-Richards
NUMOM SS os ciate cv cra ects cicloieie tn des siclateieve sleisle wisiave avagistale eraipisre sete ae 221
Mr. E. B. Marrrn on Boiler-Explosions.........+++sseeeeeee eee renee 222

Messrs, RrapE and Gooprson on the Construction of Sewers in Running
ce cice selfs wale sine wale ony/s owns calalmpiem sealed emer ee 222
Professor OsBoRNE REYNOLDS on an Oblique Propeller ........++.++e++e: 222
Captain Rowerr on Ocean Telegraphy ......+1+seseeeeeeeeeeen errr eres 224
Alderman R. Rumney on the Ash-pit System of Manchester.............. 224

Mr. Ropert Sasinr, Pneumatic Dispatch.—On Pneumatic Transmission
through Tunnels and Pipes ........+es sere eee eee nee e eee e ee enes 227
Mr. Mrcwarn Scorr on a Submarine Ram and Gun.......-.se eee eeee ees 228
on Ships of War of moderate dimensions ..........-+ 228

— on the Machinery and Working of Submarine Guns .. 225
Mr. James N. SHootsrep on the Sewage of Liverpool and the Neighbour-

RM ays ein rs ifayo ahaha: Alas pagal Selo ie) oyareho biphnls miphefale Op ac eleiNetelel Ne leh- 228
Mr. James Surtu on Mechanical Stoking .......-..e see eee eer eee ee eens 229
Mr. W. E. Trae on a New Safety-lamp ....... eee cece te eet e tenes 229
Mr. Percy Westmacortt’s Description of the Hydraulic Bucketting-engine

for the Herculaneum Graving-dock, Liverpool ........++-+eeeee rere ees 229
Mr. F. Witson on Street Management ....... 0. csc cree e eee eee cence s 229

APPENDIX.
Lieut.-Colonel J. A Grant on the Vegetable Products of Central Africa.,.. 229

1370. ee

LIST OF PLATES.

PLATES ©. 40 oie
Illustrative of the Report of the Committee on the Treatment and Utili-
zation of Sewage.
PLATE IV.*
Illustrative of the Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations.

PLATES IV., V.
Illustrative of the Report of the Rainfall Committee.

OBJECTS AND RULES

OF
THE ASSOCIATION.

—<——

OBJECTS.

Tur Assocration contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by
other institutions. Its objects are,—To give a stronger impulse and a more
systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those
who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one an-
other and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general attention to
the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind
which impede its progress.
RULES.
ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES.

All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to be-
come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to con-
form to*its Rules.

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So-
cieties publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled, in
like manner, to become Members of the Association.

The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees, of
Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem-
bers of the Association.

All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Council
or Managing Committee shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem-
bers of the Association.

Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General
Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Association, Annual
Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the approval of a General
Meeting.

COMPOSITIONS, SUBSCRIPTIONS, AND PRIVILEGES.

Lire Memsers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be pub-
lished after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the offices
of the Association.

AnnvaL Susscrreers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive
gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
Annual Subscription. By omittiag to pay this Subscription in any particu-
lar year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and all
future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association gratis:
but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any sub-
sequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the sum of
One Pound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association.

_ Associates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.

The Association consists of the following classes :—

1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.

1870. b

xvill RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on ad-
mission Ten Pounds as a composition.

3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to the
payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership after in-
termission of Annual Payment. |

4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the pay-
ment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each following year.
[May resume their Membership after intermission of Annual Payment. |

5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound,

6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.

And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’) price,
according to the following specification, viz. :—

1. Gratis ——Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845, a
further sum of Five Pounds.

New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a composition.
Annual Members who haye not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.

2. At reduced or Members’ Prices, viz. two-thirds of the Publication
Price.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a
composition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a
Book Subscription.

Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subscription.
Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only. |

3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the first seventeen volumes of Transactions of the Associa-
tion, and of which more than 100 copies remain, at one-third of
the Publication Price. Application to be made (by letter) to
Messrs. Taylor & Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet St., London.

Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can only
be issued by direction of the Council.

Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.

MEETINGS, :

The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place
of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee at the pre-
vious Meeting ; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Officers
of the Association.

GENERAL COMMITTEE.

The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—

Crass A. Prrawanent Mrupers.

1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presidents
of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of Reports in
the Transactions of the Association.

2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers haye furthered
the advancement of those subjects which are taken into consideration at the
Sectional Meetings of the Association. With a view of submitting new claims
under this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must be sent to the Assistant
General Secretary at least one month before the Meeting of the Association.

Sear om

hig right of property therein.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. xix

The decision of the Council on the claims of any Member of the Association to
be placed on the list of the General Committee to be final.

Crass B. Temporary Mempers,

1. Presidents for the time being of any Scientific Societies publishing Trans-
actions or, in his absence a delegate representing him. Claims under this Rule
to be sent to the Assistant General Secretary before the opening of the Meeting.

2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not exceeding
three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of Meeting.
Claims under this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries before the
opening of the Meeting.

3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who
are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by the Pre-
sident and General Secretaries.

4, Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections.

SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.

The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, Committees, con-
sisting severally of the Members most conversant with the several branches
of Science, to advise together for the advancement thereof,

The Committees shall report what subjects of investigation they would
particularly recommend to be prosecuted during the ensuing year, and
brought under consideration at the next Meeting.

The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and progress of
particular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent persons,
for the information of the Annual Meetings.

COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS.

The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which
shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees,
and report to the Gencral Committee the measures which they would advise
to be adopted for the advancement of Science.

All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Researches,
and Reports on Scientific Subjects, shall be submitted to the Committee of
Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General Committee
unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recommendations.

LOCAL COMMITTEES.

Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to
assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.

Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those
Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.

OFFICERS.

A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a

Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.
COUNCIL.

In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be ma-
naged by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council may
also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the Meeting.

PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS.
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve

ACCOUNTS.
The Accounts of the Association shall he audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the Meeting.
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XXV1

REPORT—1870.

Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.

Date and Place. |

Presidents.

Secretaries.

MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS.

1832.
1833.
1834.

Oxford
Cambridge
Edinburgh

1835.
1836.
1837.
1838.
1839."
1840,

1841.
1842.

Liverpool ..
Newcastle...
Birmingham
Glasgow ..

Plymouth...
Manchester

1843.
1844.
1845,

Cambridge. .
1846. Southampton
1847. Oxford

1848,
1849.

. Edinburgh..

Swansea ..
Birmingham

. Liverpool...
5. Glasgow ...
. Cheltenham
- Dublin

The Dean of Ely, F.RS. ......

Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S...
Sir D. Brewster, F.R. S. See Penn hs ors
Rey. W. Whewell, TE Ob taco sbucc

SECTION A.——MATHEMATICS
Rev. Dr. Robinson..................
Rev. William Whewell, F.R.S....
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S.............
Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,

E.R.S.
Rey. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S. ...

Prof. Forbes, BUR.S. ¢.....09s0s06

Rey. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S. ....

Very Rev. G. Peacock, D. D.,
F.R.S.

Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R..1.A. .....

The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S..........

The Very Rey. the Dean of Ely .

Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
E.RBS.
Rev. Prof. Powell, M.A., F.R.S. .

.|Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S.
William Hopkins, F.R.S. .

Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.RB.8., Sec.
B.8.E.

Rev. W. Whewell, D.D., F.R.S.,
&e.

Prof. W. Thomson, M.A., F.R.S.
L. & E.

Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec.
RS.

Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A., F.R.S.
L. & E.

Rey. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S. ...

Rey.T. R. Robinson,D.D.,F.R.S.,
M.R.LA.

..{B. Blaydes Haworth, A

.|Rev. H. Coddington.
Prof. Forbes.
Prof. Forbes, Prof, Lloyd.

AND PHYSICS.

Wheatstone.

Prof. Forbes, W. S. Harris, F. W.
Jerrard.

W.S. Harris, Rey. Prof. Powell, Prof.
Stevelly.

Rey. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
Prof. Stevelly.

../J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof.

Stevelly.
Rey. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly, Arch.
Smith.

.....|Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev.
W. Scoresby.

.|J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly.

Rey. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly.

Rey. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly, G.
G. Stokes.

John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.

Rey. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.

-:|Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes.

..|Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W.
Ridout Wills.

W. J. Macquorn Rankine, Prof.
Smyth, Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G.
Stokes.

8. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Dixon, W. J. wr Ran-

kine, Prof. Stevelly, J Se

. Sollitt,
Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh.

J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof.
Stevelly. J. Tyndall, J. Welsh.

Rey. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof.
Tyndall.

C. Brooke, Rey. T. A. Southwood,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull.

Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A.
Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly,

Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof,

— a

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES

OF THE SECTIONS. XXVli

Date and Place. Presidents.

1858. Leeds ...... Rey. W.Whewell, D.D., V.P.RB.S.

1859. Aberdeen ...|The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P.,
FE.RBS.

1860. Oxford ...... Rey. B. Price, M.A., F.R.S.......

1861. Manchester .|G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L., F.RS.

1862. Cambridge ..|Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., F.R.S8.

1863. Neweastle...|Prof. W. J. Macquorn . Rankine,
C.E., F.B.S.

1864. Bath ........ Prof. Cayley, MA, FRS,
F.R.AS.

1865. Birmingham

Ww. ery ons M.A., F.RB.S.,
R.A.S.

Secretaries.

Rey. 8. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,
Prof. Stevelly, H. J. 8. Smith, Prof.
Tyndall.

J.P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.J.S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Rey. G. C. Bell, Rey. T. Rennison,
Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J.S.
Smith, Prof Stevelly.

Rey. N. Ferrers, Prof. Fuller, F. Jen-
kin, Prof. Steveliy, Rev. C. T.
Whitley.

Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G.
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.

Rey. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G.
S. Mathews, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith,
J. M. Wilson.

1866. Nottingham |Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L., F.R.S.|Fleeming Jenkin, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith,
Rey. 8. N. Swann.
1867. Dundee...... Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,/Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,
F.R.S. Prof. Fuller, Prof Swan.
1868. Norwich ...|Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.../Prof. G. C. Foster, Rey. R. Harley,
R. B. Hayward.
1869. Exeter ...... Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LUL.D.,|Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
F.R.S. W. K. Pe
1870. Liverpool ...|J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A., LL.D.,|Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,
E.R.S. Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth.
CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, II.—CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY.
1832. Oxford ...... John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S....... James F. W. Johnston.
1833. Cambridge..|John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.... ..| Prof. Miller.
r 1834. Hdinburgh...|Dr. Hope.................seceecseoeees Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison.
t SECTION B,—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.
; 1835. Dublin ...... Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. ........./Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston.
‘ 1836. Bristol ...... Rey. Prof. Cumming.............+. Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera-
path.
: 1837. Liverpool...|Michael Faraday, F.R.S. ........./Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr.
‘ Reynolds.
a 1838. Newcastle.../Rev. William Whewell, F.R.S....|Prof. Miller, R. L. Pattinson, Thomas
Richardson.
1839. Birmingham|Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ....... Tate Bird, M.D., Dr. J. B. Melson.
i 1840. Glasgow ...|Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S8..../Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark,
; Dr. L. Playfair.
; 1841. Plymouth...|Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S. ................J. Prideaux, Robert Hunt, W. M.
t. ; Tweedy.
1842. Manchester.|John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S....... Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham.
me 1843. Cork......... Prof. Apjohn, M.R.I.A. .........|R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.
d 1844. York......... Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. .........|/Dr. RB. Playfair, B. Solly, T. H. Barker.
1845. Cambridge..|Rev. Prof. Cumming..........66... R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof. Miller,

=) Te

1846.Southampton
1847. Oxford

Michael Faraday, D.C.
Rey.W.V.Harcourt, M.A.

E. Solly.

R.S.|Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall.
R.5.|B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly.

XXV1ll

Date and Place.

1848,
1849.
1850.
1851.
1852.

1853.

Belfast

1854. Liverpo

1855.
1856.

1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.

1861.
1862.

1863.
1864.
1865.
1866.
1867.
1868.
1869.

Chelten
Dublin
Leeds

Oxford

Dundee

Exeter

Swansea
Birmingham
Edinburgh .
Ipswich

Glasgow

seeeee

ol...

ham

Aberdeen ...

Manchester.
Cambridge .

Newcastle...

Birmingham

Nottingham

.../Richard Phillips, F.R.S. ......

REPORT—187

Presidents.

John Percy, M.D., aie e.
Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E. ......

../Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.S8....

Thomas Andrews, M.D., F.R.S. .

Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,
F.RB.S.

Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S.

.../Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S. .

Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.B.S.
MD. FRS,

Prof. Apjohn,
M.R.LA.
Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,

D.C.L.
Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S..

Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S.

Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S.
Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S.

Dr. Alex. W. Williamson, F-.R.S.
W. Odling, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S.
Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D.,V.P.R.S.
H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S. ...

...|Prof. T. Anderson, M.D., F.R.S.E.

Norwich ...

1870. Liverpool...

Prof.E .Frankland, F.R.S., F.C.S.
Dr. H. Debus, F.R.S., F.C.S. ...

Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A., F.B.S.,
FE.C.S.

../T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams.

Secretaries.

R. Hunt, G. Shaw.

Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson.

T. J. Pearsall, W. S. Ward.

Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.
Ronalds.

H. 8. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J.
Pearsall,

Dr. Edwards,
Price.

Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe.

J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof.
Voelcker.

Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-

Dr. Gladstone, Dr.

livan.

Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey-
nolds.

J. S. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D.
Liveing, Dr. Odling.

A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing,
A. B. Northcote.

A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing.

H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof.
Roscoe.

|Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.
Stevenson.

A. V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R.
Biggs.

A. Vv. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof.
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.

J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.
Russell, J. White.

A. Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing,

W. J. Russell.

Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus-

sell, F. Sutton.

Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D., Dr. W.
J. Russell, Dr. Atkinson.

Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D., A. EB.
Fletcher, Dr. W. J. Russell.

GEOLOGICAL (np, untiz 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE,

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

1832. Oxford

R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.

John Taylor.

1833. Cambridge .|G. B. Greenough, F-.R.S. ........./W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.

1834, Edinburgh .|/Prof. Jameson

1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol

seeees

eee ee ee eee ee eesees

Prof. Phillips, IT. Jameson Torrie,
Rey. J. Yates,

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

R. J. Griffith
Rey. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.— Geo-
graphy. R.1. Murchison, F.R.8.

1837. Liverpool.../Rev.Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.— Geo-

graphy. G.B.Greenough, E.R.S.

1838. Newcastle...|C. Lyell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.— Geo-

graphy. Lord Prudhope.

Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.

William Sanders, S. Stutchbury, T. J.
Torrie.

Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.—Geo-
Me te Captain H. M. Denham,

INVie C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.—
Geography. Capt. Washington.

1839. Birmingham/Rey. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.— Geo-

graphy. G.B.Greenough,F.R.S.

George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strickland,
Charles Darwin.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES

OF THE SECTIONS. XX1X

Date and Place. Presidents.

1840. Glasgow .../Charles Lyell, F.R.S.— Geogra-
phy. G. B. Greenough, F.R.S8.

Secretaries.

W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh
Murray, H. E. Strickland, John
Scoular, M.D.

1841. Plymouth ../H. T. De la Beche, F.R.8. W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore,M.D.,
R. Hutton.
1842. Manchester |R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......... EK. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R.
Lloyd, H. B. Strickland.
1843. Cork......... Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S.,|/Francis M. Jennings, H. E. Strick-
M.R.I.A. land.

1844. York...... *..{Henry Warburton, M.P., Pres./Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury.

Geol. Soe.

1845. Cambridgo |.|Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S./Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay,

Rev. W. Thorp.

1846. Southampton) Leonard Horner, F.R.S.— Geogra-|Robert A. Austen, J. H. Norten, M.D.,

phy. G. B. Greenough, F.R.S.

Prof. Oldham.— Geography. Dr. C.
T. Beke.

1847. Oxford...... Very Rey. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S8. |Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C.

Ramsay, J. Ruskin.

1848. Swansea ...\Sir H. T. De la Beche, C.B.,/Starling Benson, Prof. Oldham, Prof.

E.RS.

Ramsay.

1849. Birmingham Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S., F.G.S8.|J. Beete Jukes, Prof. Oldham, Prof.

A. C. Ramsay.

1850. Edinburgh *|Sir Roderick I. Murchison,F.R.S.|A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller, Pro-

fessor Nicol.

SECTION C (continued).—GEOLOGY.

1851. Ipswich .../William Hopkins, M.A., F.RB.S...

C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod,
Searles Wood.

1852. Belfast...... Lieut.-Col. Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.|/James Bryce, James MacAdam, Prof.

M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol.

1/2 5279018 byl a Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S. ............ Prof. Harkness, William Lawton.
1854. Liverpool ..|Prof. Edward Forbes, F.R.S. .../John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness,

G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.

1855. Glasgow ...|Sir R.I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......!James Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof.
Nicol.
1856. Cheltenham|Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S. ......[Rev. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hepworth,

Edward Hull, J. Scougall, T. Wright.

1857. Dublin...... The Lord Talbot de Malahide ...|Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders, Ro-

bert H. Scott.

1858. Leeds ...... William Hopkins, M.A., LL.D.,|Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W.

E.R.S.
1859. Aberdeen...|Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S

Shaw.
Prof. Harkness, Rey. J. Longmuir, H.
C. Sorby.

1860. Oxford......|Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D.,Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt.

E.R.S., F.G.S.

1861. Manchester|Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S., &e.

1862. Cambridge |J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S.......

1863. Newcastle...|Prof. Warington, W. Smyth,

ERS. F.G:S.

H664; Bath ..:... Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S.,
E.GS.

Woodall.

Prof, Harkness, Edward Hull, T. Ru-
pert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.

Lucas Barrett, Prof.T. Rupert Jones,
H. C. Sorby.

E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C. Sor-
by, Thomas Sopwith.

W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C.
Sorby, W. Pengelly.

* At the Meeting of the General Committee held in Edinburgh, it was agreed ‘That the
subject of Geography be separated from Geology and combined with Ethnology, to consti-
tute a separate Section, under the title of the “ Geographical and Ethnological Section,”

for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page xxxi

XXX

Date and Place.

1865. Birmingham

1866

1869.

1870

1832,

1833.
1834.

1835.
1836.

1837.
1838.

1839.
1840.

1841.
1842.

1845.
1844.

1845.
1846, Southampton)

1847

. Nottingham
1867.
1868.

. Liverpool...

. Oxford
Edinburgh

Dublin
Bristol

Liverpool ..
Newcastle...

Brimingham
Glasgow

Plymouth...
Manchester

Cambridge

aOxfordius..

REPORT—1870.

Presidents,

Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart.,K.C.B.

Prof.A.C, Ramsay, LU.D., F.R.8.
Archibald Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S.

...R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, F.R.S.,

E.G.S.
Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S., F.G.S.

...{Siz W. J. Hooker, LL.D

Sir Philip de M. Grey-Egerton,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S.

Seeretaries.

Rey. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. E.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.
R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-

son, G. H. Wright.
Edward Hull, W. Pengelly, Henry
Woodward.

Rey. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W.
Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins, Rey.

H. H. Winwood. .
W. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood,

W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton.

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IVY.—-ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY.

Rey. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. ......
Rey. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L.S....
IPronmGmanamn no scseceetaccenseo ces

Pee e eee eenaee

W.S. MacLeay
Sir W. Jardine, Bart.......... Sa
Prof. Owen, F.R.S.

John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S..

Hon. and Very Rey. W. Herbert,
LL.D., F.L.S.

William Thompson, F.L.8. ......

Very Rey. The Dean of Manches-
ter.

Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S. ......

Sir J. Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.

H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S....

Rey. Prof. J. 8. Henslow.
C. C. Babington, D. Don.
W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett.

SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.

J. Curtis, Dr. Litton.

J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, 8.
Rootsey.

C. C. Babington, Rey. L. Jenyns, W.
Swainson.

J. E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen, Dr.
Richardson.

E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson,

Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat-
terson.

J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.

Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.
Turner.

G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R. Pat-

terson.

Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King, -

Dr. Lankester.

Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston.

Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H.
Wooldridge.

Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V.

Wollaston.

SECTION D (continued).—zOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.

[For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Subsections
and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see pp. xxxi, xxxii.]

1848

1849
1850

1851.
1852. Belfast

. Swansea ...

. Birmingham
. Edinburgh. .

Ipswich......

L. W. Dillwyn, F.BS. osc:

William Spence, F.R.S...........++
Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & HB. ...

Rey. Prof. Henslow, M.A., F.R.S.

Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen-
frey, Dr. Lankester.

Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell.

Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.

Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E.
Lankester.

Dr. Dickie. George C. Hyndman, Dr.
Edwin Lankester.

* At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee, for
Presidente and Secretaries of which see p. xxxi.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

XXX1

Date and Place.

— —__ —___. —_—___

1853. Hull

1854. Liverpool .

1855. Glasgow

1856. Cheltenham.

1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds

sane

1859. Aberdeen ..

1860. Oxford

1861. Manchester..

_ 1862. Cambridge.

a eee

8 eS EE oe

1863. Newcastle .
1864. Bath

1865. Birmingham

1867. Dundee

wae

1868. Norwich

1869. Exeter

1870. Liverpool ...|Prof. G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,

..|Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E. ...

...|Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.—

Presidents.

C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S....
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S.......

Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres.L.8....
Prof. W.H. Harvey, M.D., F.R.S.
C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S....
.\Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E..
Rey. Prof. Henslow, ELS. feveeg
Prof. C. C, Babington, F.R.S. ...

Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.RB.S. ......

Dr. John E. Gray, F.R.S.
T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S.

Secretaries,

— —_— ——_—_

Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester.

Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.

William Keddie, Dr.. Lankester.

Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman,
Dr. Lankester.

Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester,
Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele.

Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E.
Lankester, Dr. B. Perceval Wright.

Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,
Dr. Ogilvy.

W.S. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P.
L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.

Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr.
P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright.

Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.

Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rey. H.
B. Tristram, Dr, E. P. Wright.

H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T.
Stainton, Dr. E, P, Wright.

Dr. J. Anthony, Rey. C. Clarke, Rev.
H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.

SECTION D (continued ).—BIOLOGY *,
1866. Nottingham.)Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.—|Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H:

Physiological Dep. Prof. Hum-
phry, M.D., F.R.S.—Anthropo-
logical Dep. Alfred R. Wallace,
F.R.G.S.

Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.—
Dep. of Zool. and Bot. George
Busk, M.D., F.R.S.

Dep. of Physiology. W. H.
Flower, F.R.S.

George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S.—
Dep. of Bot.and Zool.C. Spence
Bate, F.R.S.—Dep. of Ethno.
E. B. Tylor.

F.R.S., F.L.8.—Dep. Anat. and

B. Tristram, W. Turner, E. B-
Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright.

C. Spence Bate, Dr. 8. Cobbold, Dr.
M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rey. H.
B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.

Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.

M. Foster, Prof. Tawson, H. T,

Stainton, Rey. Dr. H. B. Tristram,

Dr. E. P. Wright.

‘Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster,
M.D., E. Ray Lankester, Professor
Lawson, H. T. Stainton, Rey: H. B.
Tristram.

Dr. T. 8, Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H.

Physio. Prof, M. Foster, M.D.,
F.L.S.—Dep. of Ethno. J.
Evans, F.R.S,

T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram,
C. Staniland Wake, E. Ray Lan-
kester.

ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEES OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

1833. Cambridge.
1834, Edinburgh.

..|Dr. Haviland
..|Dr. Abercrombie

eer eee eee e reer

|Dr. Bond, Mr. Paget.
|Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson.

SECTION E. (UNTIL 1847.)—AaNnaToMY AND MEDICINE.

1835. Dublin

aaa Dr. Pritchard .....................(Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.
1886. Bristol ...... Dr. Roget, F.R.S. ......... Baaweenss |Dr. Symonds.
1837. Liverpool ...|Prof. W. Clark, M.D. ............ Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long, Dr.

J. R. W. Vose.

»* At the Meeting of the General Committee at Birmingham, it was resolved :—‘‘ That the
title of Section D be changed to Biology ;” and “That for the word ‘Subsection,’ in the
rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word ‘ Department’ be substituted.”

XXXIi

Date and Place.

1838.

1839. Birmingham
...(James Watson, M.D............0+6-

1840.

1841.

1842,
1843,
1844.

1845.
1847.

1850.
1855.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
. Manchester.
1862.

1861

1863.
1864.

Newcastle ..

Glasgow

Plymouth...
Manchester.

Cork
York

see teeeee

Cambridge .|
1846. Southampton

Oxford* .

Edinburgh

Glasgow ...

Oxford ......
Cambridge .
Newcastle...
Bath

1865. Birminghmf.

1846. Southampton|Dr. Pritchard
1847.
1848.
1849.
1850.

1851.
1852.

1854.
1855.
1856.

seeeeeees

...|Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.8. ..

REPORT—1870.

Presidents.

.|T. E. Headlam, M.D.
John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S. ......

P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec.R.8.

Edward Holme, M.D., F.LS. ...
Sir James Pitcairn, M.D..........
J. C. Pritchard, M.D.

Prof. J. Haviland, M.D.
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S..........
..|Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S._.........

PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS

Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E.

Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. ...
Prof. R. Harrison, M.D.
Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart..F.R.8.

Prof. G. Rolleston, M.D., F.L.S.

[Dr. John Davy, F.R.S.L. & E..

C. H. Paget, M.D. ......:...ccee00+

Secretaries.

T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose.

Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland.

Dr. J. Brown, Prot. Couper, Prof.
Reid.

..|\Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. R. S.

Sargent.
Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
I. Erichsen, Dr. R. S. Sargent.

SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY.

Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster.

C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sargent.

Dr. Thomas, K. Chambers, W. P.
Ormerod.

oF sEcTIoNn D.

Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers.
Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern.
C. G. Wheelhouse.

.|Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern.

Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith.
..|Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith.
G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.

Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner.
J.S. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner.

Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S. ...|
Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof, Acland, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.

Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop, Oliver
Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner.

GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C, p. xxviii. ]

Oxford
Swansea
Birmingham

Glasgow ...

Ipswich
Belfast ......
Liverpool..

Glasgow
‘Cheltenham

ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS

Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A.

Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm ...

or sEcTIon D.

|Dr. King.

Prof. Buckley.
G. Grant Francis.
Dr. R. G. Latham,
Daniel Wilson.

SECTION E.— GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

Col. Chesney, R.A., D.C.L.,
E.RB.S.

R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S.

|Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,

.../Sir J. Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.

Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson, K.C.B.

...{Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S., Pres.!R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr.

Norton Shaw.
R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton
Shaw.

..|R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr. Nor-

ton Shaw.

Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr.
Ihne, Dr. Norton Shaw.

Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw.

R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H. Rum-
sey, Dr. Norton Shaw.

* By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were incorporated
under the name of ‘Section D—Zoology and Botany, including Physiology” (see p. xxx).
The Section being then vacant was assigned in 1851 to Geography.

t Vide note on preceding page.

a a ee ee

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Dato and Place.

1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds

1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
1865.
1866.

1867.
1868,

1869.
1870.

. Cambridge .
. Edinburgh .

6. Bristol ...... |
. Liverpool...

. Neweastle...
. Birmingham!

.|Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, F.R.S.,
. Plymouth...
. Manchester .

0)
—-18+45.

teens

Aberdeen ..
Gxford j....>
Manchester.
Cambridge .
Neweastle...

Birmingham

Nottingham

Dundee

Norwich ...

Exeter

tenes

Liverpool ..

seeeee

Glasgow ..

‘Siz C. Lemon, Bart., M.P.

Presidents.

Sir BR. I. Murchison, G.C.St.S.,
F.RB.S.

.Rear-Admiral Sir James Clerk
Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir RK. I. eee D.C.L.,

E.R.S.
John Crawfurd, F.R.S.............
Francis Galton, F.R.S............-

Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
F.BS.

Sir R. I. Murchison,

FE.BS.

Major-General Sir R. Rawlinson,

M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S.

Sir Charles Nicholson,
LL.D.

K.C.B

Bart.,

Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S. ......
Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N., F.R.S.

RKXXIi1

Secretaries.

Inc Cull, 8. Ferguson, Dr. R. R. Mad-
den, Dr. Norton Shaw.

R. Cull, Francis Galton, P. O'Cal-
laghan, Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas
Wright.

Richard Cull, Professor Geddes, Dr.
Norton Shaw.

Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C
Lempriere, Dr. Norton Shaw,

Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Norton
Shaw, W. Spottiswoode.

J. W. Clarke, Rey. J. Glover, Dr.
Tfunt, Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.

C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,
C. R. Markham, R. 8. Watson.

.,|H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt.

R. M. Murchison, T. Wright.

H. W. Bates, S. Evans, G. Jabet, C.
R. Markham, Thomas Wright.

‘ii. W. Bates, Rev. EH. T. Cusins, R.
H. Major, Clements R. Markham,
D. W. Nash, T. Wright.

H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, C. R.
Markham, 8. J. Mackie, R. Sturrock.

T. Baines, H. W. Bates, C. R. Mark-
ham, T. Wright.

SECTION E (continued ).—GEOGRAPHY.
Sir Bartle Frere, K.C.B., LL.D.,/H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham,

E.R.GS.
.|Sir R, I. Murchison, Bt., K.C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.BS., F.G.S.| J.

J. H. Thomas.
H. W. Bates, David Buxton, Albert
J. Mott, Clements R. Markham.

STATISTICAL SCIENCE.

COMMITTEES OF SCIENCES, VI.—-STATISTICS.

Prof. Babbage, F.R.S.

Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ...
\Sir Charles Lemon, Bart., F. R. S.

Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon

Colonel Sykes, F.R.S.
Henry Hallam, F.B.S. ...........-

M.P.
Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S. .........
G. W. Wood, M.P., F.LS. ......

Cambridge .

_ 1846. Southampton 'G
1870.

ILieut.-Col. Sykes, F-R.S., F.LS.

‘Rt. Hon. The FE yan Fitzwilliam..
S Bi Potter BeBe he cassescccscs0

..|J. E. Drinkwater.

Sir Charles Lemon, fe ree Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.

SECTION F.—STATISTICS.

.|W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.

Rey. a E.. Bromby, C. B. Fripp,
James Heyw ood.

W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.

W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W. R. Wood.

\F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C

Tayler.

iC. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
Rawson.

Rev. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R
W. Rawson.

Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr.
W. 6. Tayler.

../Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.

\J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Laycock.
J. Fletcher, W. Cooke Tayler, LL.D.

J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W.
C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott.
: c

XXXIV

REPORT—1870.

Date and Place.

1847.

1848.
1849,

1850.

1851.
1852.

1853.
1854.

1855.

Swansea
Birmingham

Edinburgh ..

Ipswich......
Belfast

18 yt eee
Liverpool ...

Glasgow .....

Presidents.

Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S....

...J. H. Vivian, M.P., PRS. «..:..

Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton

Very Rev. Dr. John Lee,
V.P.R.S.E.

Sir John P. Boileau, Bart.

His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin.

James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S....

Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. 2:.5:.:.....

‘R. Monckton Milnes, M.P. ......

Secretaries.

Rey. W. H. Cox, J, J: Danson, F. G.
P. Neison.

J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede

Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. G. P.
Neison. $

Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J.
Stark.

J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.

MacAdam, Jun.
Edward Cheshire, William Newmarch.

Duncan, W. Newmarch.
J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-
march, Prof. R. H. Walsh.

SECLION F (continued ),—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS,

1856. Cheltenham |Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P.
1857. Dublin ......
Dublin, M.R.1.A.
1858. Leeds......... Hidward Baines i.ss.:..ssseocseeses-
1859. Aberdeen ...|Col. Sykes, M.P., F-R.S. .........
1860. Oxford ...... Nassau W. Senior, M.A. .........
1861. Manchester | William Newmarch, F.R.S. ......
1862. Cambridge..|Edwin Chadwick, O.B.............
1863. Newcastle ...| William Tite, M.P., F.R.S. ......
NSb4S Bath cece 42 William Farr, M.D., D.C.L.,
E.R.
1865. Birmingham/Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,
M.P.
1866. Nottingham |Prof. J. EH. T. Rogers. ::..::..1.....
1867. Dundee......| M, H. Grant Dui MEPr a.uk. i
1868. Norwich .../Samuel Brown, Pres. Instit. Ac-
tuaries.
1869. Exeter ...... Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P.
1870. Liverpool...|Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A...

1836.
1837.

1838.

1839.

1840.

Bristol ris.
Liverpool ...
Neweastle ...
Birmingham

Glasgow ...

...|Rey. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr

W. N. Hancock Newmarch, W. M
Tartt.

His Grace the Archbishop of/Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.

Newmarch.
T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, 8. Brown,
Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang.
(Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M.
Smith, Dr. John Strang.

Edmund Macrory,
Rey. Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.

|David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie,
HB. Macrory, Rey. Prof, J. E. T.
Rogers.

H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory.

T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory,
Frederick Purdy, James Potts.

#. Macrory, E. IT. Payne, F. Purdy.

E. Macrory.

R. Birkin, Jun., Prof. Leone Levi, KE.
Macrory.

Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J.
Warden.

Rey. W. C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.

Edmund Macrory, Frederick Purdy,
Charles T. D. Acland.

Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, 8. Macrory,
J. Miles Moss.

MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

SECTION G,——-MECHANICAL SCIENCE,

Davies Gilbert, D.C.1., F.R.S....
Rey. Dr. Robinson .............0+00:
Charles Babbage, F'.R.8. ....

Prof, Willis, F.R.S., and Robert
Stephenson.
Sir John Robinson.,..... berienlsiiee

T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.

Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.

R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, T. Webster.

W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, Tho-
mas Webster.

J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J, Tod,

C, Vignoles,

\Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James

BE. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H.

W. Newmarch,

Gide Goodman, G. J. Johnston, |

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES O¥ THE SECTIONS.

XXXV

Date and Place.

1841. Plymouth...
1842. Manchester .

Seen eeeee

1845. Cambridge ..

1846, Southampton
1847. Oxford ......
1848. Swansea
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh ..
1851. Ipswich
1852. Belfast

1853. Hull ...... te
1854. Liverpool ...
1855. Glasgow
1856. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin

1858. Leeds.........
1859. Aberdeen ..

1860. Oxford
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge

(Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., FBS.

Presidents.

John Taylor, #.R.S. ...........004.
Rey. Prof. Willis, F.R.8. .......

Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.1.A.......
John Taylor, F.R.S. ....056.00.555-
George Rennie, F.R.S.

Rey. Prof. Willis, M. oe ‘ER. S..
Rey. Prof. Walker, M. es ERS.
Rey. Prof. Walker, M.A., E.R.S.
Robert Stephenson, M.P., F.R.S.
Rev. Dr. Robinson
William Cubitt, F.R.S.............
John Walker,C.E., LL.D., F.RB.S.

William Fairbairn, C.E., F.R.S..
John Scott Russell, F.R.S. ..

.../W. J. Macquorn Rankine, C.E.,

FERS.
George Rennie, E.R.S. ............

Rosse, F.R.S.
William Fairbairn, F.R.S.

Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S8.

.J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S.......
..|William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S.

1863. Newcastle...

1864. Bath
1865. Birmingham

1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich

1869. Exeter
_ 1870. Liverpool ..

Date and Place.

_ 1842. Manchester .

1843, Cork

een eweee

Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.

J. Hawkshaw, F-.R.S.
Sir W. G. Armstrong, LL.D.,
F.R.S

Thomas. V.P. Inst.
Prof, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S8.

GaP; Bidder, C.E., F.R.G8.

Hawksley,
8.

C. W. Siemens, F.R.S. ............

The Right Hon. The Earl M!

Seeretaries.

Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster.

J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J.
Thomson, Charles Vignoles.

James Thompson, Robert Mallet.

Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.

..|Rev. W. 'T. Kingsley.

William Betts, Jun., Charles Manby.

J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier.

R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé.

Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall.

Dr. Lees, David Stephenson.

John Head, Charles Manby.

John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock,
Charles Manby, James Thompson.

James Oldham, J. Thompson, W.Sykes
Ward.

..|John Grantham, J. Oldham, J. Thom-

son.

L. Hill, Jun., William Ramsay, J.
Thomson.

C. Atherton, B. Jones, Jun., H. M.
Jeffery.

Prof. Downing, W. T. Doyne, A. Tate,
James Thomson, Henry Wright.

../J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright.
JR. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H.

Wright.

P. Le Neve Foster, Rev. F. Harrison,
Henry Wright.

P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson, H.
Wright.

W. M. Faweett, P. Le Neve Foster.

8. .|P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott, J.

F. Spencer,

P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt.

P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea, W. P.
Marshall, Walter May.

P. Le Neve Foster, J. 7 Tselin, M,
A. Tarbottom.

P. Le Neve Foster, John P. Smith,
W. W. Urquhart.

..|P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, C.
Manby, W. Smith.

P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.

Chas. B. Vignoles, C.H., F.R.8.

.|H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T.

King, J. N. Shoolbred,

List of Evening Lectures.

Lecturer.

Charles Vignoles, F'.R.5...

Sir M. I. Brunel
Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart. ......
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. .
Prof. Forbes, F.R.S.

eee eereeere

Dr. Robinson Peed eneeeeeeeeeeenee

Subject of Discourse.

... The Principles and Construction of

Atmospheric Railways.
The Thames Tunnel.
The Geology of Russia.

.| The Dinornis of New Zealand.

The Distribution of Animal Life in
the Aigean Sea.

.| The Earl of Rosse’s Telescope.

XXXVI

1844. York

REPORT—1870.
Date and Place. Lecturer. Subject of Discourse.
peeeseiaae Charles Lyell, F.R.S. ............! Geology of North America.

1845. Cambridge ..
1846.Southampton

1847. Oxford

1848. Swansea

1849.

Birmingham

1850, Edinburgh.

1851. Ipswich......

1852. Belfast

1853,

ween eeee

. Liverpool ...
. Glasgow......

. Cheltenham

. Dublin ,.....

. Aberdeen ...

. Oxford ......

. Manchester .

. Cambridge .

Dr. Falconer, F.R.S. ........+0+
G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron. Royal
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ........

Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. ............
W. R. Grove, F.R.S. ...........-

Rey. Prof. B. Powell, F.RB.S. ...
Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S.

Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S.

-| John Perey, M.D., F.R.S. ......

W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S. ...
Dr. Haraday 9H R822. s00..t-5000
Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D..
F.R:S.E.

Dr. Mantell, F.R.S. ......s.0ceees.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.

G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron. Roy.
Prof. G.G. Stokes, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.

Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S.,
E.GS.

Robert Hunt, FURS. .....0...00.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...
Col. E. Sabine, V.P.R.S. .........

Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. ...
Lieut.-Col, H. Rawlinson

Col. Sir H. Rawlinson

W. R. Grove, F.R.S. wee tet eneeee
Prof. Thomson; FB:S:........<.>-
Rey. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L. ...
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...
Sir R.I. Murchison, D.C.L. ......
Rey. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ......

Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ......
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N. .
Prof. W. A. Miller, M.A., F.R.S.
G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron. Roy. .
Prof, Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. ...
Pros Online; (HR Sesskcssssesscoes

The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik
Hills in India.

Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.

Geology of Russia.

Fossil Mammalia of the British Isles.

Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.

Properties of the Explosive substance
discovered by Dr. Schénbein ; also
some Researches of his own on the
Decomposition of Water by Heat.

Shooting-stars.

Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno-
mena.

The Dodo (Didus ineptus).

Metallurgical operations of Swansea
and its neighbourhood.

Recent Microscopical Discoveries.

Mr. Gassiot’s Battery.

Transit of different Weights with
varying velocities on Railways.

Passage of the Blood through the
minute vessels of Animals in con-
nexion with Nutrition.

Extinct Birds of New Zealand.
Distinction between Plants and Ani-
mals, and their changes of Form.
Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851.
Recent discoveries in the properties

of Light.

Recent discovery of Rock-salt at
Carrickfergus, and geological and
practical considerations connected
with it.

Some peculiar phenomena in the Geo-
logy and Physical Geography of
Yorkshire.

The present state of Photography.

Anthropomorphous Apes.

Progress of researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism.

Characters of Species.

Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities
and Ethnology.

Recent discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of Cunei-
form research up to the present
time. .

Correlation of Physical Forces,

The Atlantic Telegraph.

Recent discoveries in Africa.

The Ironstones of Yorkshire.

The Fossil Mammalia of Australia.

Geology of the Northern Highlands.

Electrical Discharges in highly rare-
fied Media.

Physical Constitution of the Sun,

Arctic Discovery.

Spectrum Analysis.

The late Eclipse of the Sun.

The Forms and Action of Water.

Organic Chemistry.

y
4
‘

Date and Place. Lecturer.

Prof Williamson, F.R.S. ......

_ 1863. Newcastle-

on-Tyne.
James Glaisher, F.R.S. .........
J Prof. Roscoe, EUR.S.........00.000.
Dr. Livingstone, E.R.S.
* 1866, Birmingham] J. Beete Jukes, F.RB.S. ............
Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S........
Archibald Geikie, F.R.S..........
Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S....
_> |
1868. Norwich ....| J. Fergusson, F.R.S. ............

Dt We Odling, BRB. ci. 2.0.

1869. Exeter ......

J. Norman penees F. R. Se

1870. Liverpool ...| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.B.8.
ihe Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.B.S.

LIST OF EVENING LECTURES,

}

XNXVIL

Subject of Discourse.

The chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
tery considered in relation to Dy-
namics.

The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.

The Chemical Action of Light.

..| Recent Trayels in Africa.

Probabilities as to the position and
extent of the Coal-measures beneath
a red rocks of the Midland Coun-

whe ili of Spectrum Analysis
applied to Heavenly Bodies.

..| Insular Floras.

The Geological origin of the present
Scenery of Scotland.

The present state of knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Metcorites.
Archxology of the carly Buddhist

Monuments.
Reverse Chemical Actions.

Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S.| Vesuvius.

.| The Physical Constitution ef the
Stars and Nebule

The Scientific Use of the Imagination.

Stream-lines and Waves, in connexion
with Naval Architecture.

.| Prof. Huxley, LL.D., FR. Ss.

Lectures to the Operative Classes.

-| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.| Matter and Force.
.| A piece of Chalk.
Prof. Miller, M.D., F. RS. .

..| Experimental illustrations of thd
modes of detecting the Composi-
tion of the Sun and other Heavenly
Bodies by the Spectrum,

.| Sir John Lubbock, Bart , M.P..| Savages.
E.R.S.

XXXVI

Date of Meeting. Whero held.

18ge, Nept..27 ...,) Mork qs lc.viiweevses.
1832, June 1g ...| Oxford ..............-
1333, June 3s ...| Cambridge .........
1834, Sept.8 ...| Edinburgh .........
1835, Aug. xo’ .::| Dublin [eestiecintys-<
1836; AUS, 225, |SVISbOl Wi dsepsesesece
1837, Sept. 11 ...) Liverpool ............
1838, Aug. 10 ...| Newcastle-on-Tyne..
1839, Aug. 26 ...| Birmingham .........
1840, Sept. 17 ...| Glasgow ............
1841, July 20 ...| Plymouth ............
1842, June 23 ...{ Manchester .........
Rea a 7) |... | CORK” 5 sovsevesss.ses ne
TSAR ep 2O <4: YORK) <2. ..5.cseccenss
1845, June rg ...|Cambridge .........
1846, Sept. 10 ...| Southampton ......
1847, June 23 ...| Oxford ixiiacssiienet.
1848, Aug. 9 ...... WANKER! Jes urrreer 4.
1849, Sept. 12 ...| Birmingham .........
1850, July 21 ...| Edinburgh .........
Lets PUL 2 sieve. TPS WIGh Wei Gueeweki. es
Mahe, Pept: Tiger) Beas! sh -cebaseh..
TEDTSEI1S Ie 0) Pee, Ramiele Ud RP Re reer sr -
1854, Sept. 20 ...| Liverpool ............
1355, Sept. 12 ...| Glasgow ............
1856, Aug. 6...... Cheltenham .........
DOG 7 Aue. 26 1.5. DUbIN . secewcnacat
TS5S; WEpb. 22. ..-| MCCKSis....se0sccne0teee
1859, Sept. 14. ...| Aberdeen ............
1860, June 27 ...| Oxford ...............
1861, Sept.4 ...| Manchester .........
1862, Oetex jc.ss Cambridge .........

1863, Aug. 26 ..
1864, Sept. 13 ...
1365, Sept. 6
1866, Aug. 22
1867, Sept.4 ..
1868, Aug. 19 ...
1869, Aug. 18 ...
1870, Sept. 14 ...
1871. Aug. 2

REroRt—1870.

Table showing the Attendance and Receipts

..| Nottingham
7
.| Dundee

.| Neweastle-on-Tyne ..

Bath Se ore Peco

Norwich

| Liverpool
Edinburgh

Presidents.

|The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L. .
|The Rey. W. Buckland, ER, 8.

The Rey. W. Vernon Harcourt .
| The Marquis of Breadalbane ...
| The Rey. W. Whewell, F.R.S....
| The Lord Francis Egerton
The Earl of Rosse, F RESoi cecke
The Rey. G. Peacock, 1D) Die ee
Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. .
Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart.
Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart. ......
The Marquis of Northampton...
The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D..
| Sir David Brewster, K.H.
G. B. Airy, Esq., Astron. Royal .
Lieut.-General Sabine, Pres. B.S.
William Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S..
The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S. ..
The Duke of Argyll, F-.R.S. .

Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M. i.
The Rey. Humphrey Lloyd, D. D.
Richard Owen, M.D., D:C.L. .

| H.R.H. The Prince Consort sie
The Lord Wrottesley, M.A.......
William Fairbairn, Tin: ,E.R.S.
The Rev. Prof. Willis, M. Actes
Sir William G. Armstrong, C.B.
Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A....
Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., ee
William R. Grove, Q. C., E.R. s.
The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B.

Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L. ......
/ Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D.......
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D....

The Duke of Northumberland...!

Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S8. .|

Old Life

Members.

New Life
Members.

‘gi

at Annual Meetings of the Association.

nnual
mbers.

ATTENDANCE AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MECTINGS,

~ Attended by

New
Annual | Associates.
Members.
317 sae
376 33t
185 ane
Igo ot
22 407
39 270
40 495
2 376
33 447
42 510
47 244
60 510
57 367
121 765
Ior 1094
48 412
120 goo
gt 710
179 1206
59 636
125 1589
EM 433
209 1704
103 IIIg
149. 766
105 960
118 1163
117 720
107 678
195 1103

Ladies.

Foreigners.

Total.

353

900
1298
1350
1840
2400
1438
1553

891
HES

1079

$57
1260

929
1071
1241

710
1108

876
1802
2133
1115
2022
1698
2564
1689
3139
1161
3335
2802
1997
2303
2444
2.004.
1856
2878

XXXIX

Amount
received
during the
Meeting.

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Account of
Grants for
Scientific
Purposes.

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* Ladies were not admitted by purchased Tickets until 1843.
t Tickets for admission to Sections only.

t Including Ladies,

6 €l 66185 : “OLST ‘gf ysnsny | 6 €l 6OISF
ae WAOOMSITIOdS “AX =
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LIST OF OFFICERS. xli

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1870-71.

TRUSTEES’ (PERMANENT).

Sir RopEricx I. Murcuison, Bart., K.C.B., G.C.St.S., D.C.L., F.R.S.
General Sir EDWARD SABINE, K.C.B., R.A., D.C.L., Pres. B.S.
Sir Puinie DE M, GREY EGERTON, Bart., M.P., F.R.S.

PRESIDENT.
T. H. HUXLEY, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of Natural History in the Royal School of

Mines.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

The Right Hon. Lorp Derry, LL.D., F.R.S. S. R. Graves, Esq., M.-P.

The Right Hon. W. E. GLApsvonr, D.C.L., M.P. | JAMeEs P. JouLE, Esq., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir Puitir DE M. Grey EGrErroy, Bart., M.P._ | JoseEPH MAYER, Esq., F.S.A., F.R.G.S.

Sir JOSEPH WHITWORTH, Bart.,LL.D.,D.C.L.,F.R.S.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
SIR WILLIAM THOMSON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.L. & E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
. the University of Glasgow.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.

His Grace The DUKE oF Buccrewcn, K.G.,D.C.L.,{ Sir Roprerick I. Murcuison, Bart., K.C.B.,

F.R.S8. G.C.S87.8., D.C.L., F.R.S.
The Right Hon. The Lorp Provost of Edinburgh. | Sir CHARLES LYELL, Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.8.
The Right Hon. Joun Ineuis, D.C.L., Lt.D., Lord | Dr. Lyon PLAYFAIR, M.P., C.B., F.R.S.

Justice General of Scotland. Professor CHRISTISON, M.D., D.C.L, Pres. R.S.E.
Sir ALEXANDER GRAN’, Bart., M.A., Principal of :

the University of Edinburgh.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT EDINBURCH.

Professor A. CRuM Brown, M.D., F.R.S.E.
J. D. Marwick, Esq., F.R.S.E.

LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT EDINBURGH.
Dayib Smiru, Esq., Treas. R.S.E.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

BATEMAN, J. F., Esq., F.R.S. NEWMARCH, WILLIAM, Esq., F.R.S.
BrEDDOE, Joun, M.D. NorrTHcore,Rt.Hon.Sir StAFFORDH.,Bt.,M.P.
Busk, GEORGE, Esq., F.R.S. Ramsay, Professor, F.R.S.

Dezsus, Dr. H., F.R.S. RANKINE, Professor W. J. M., LL.D., F.R.S.
DE LA RvE, Warren, Esq., F.R.S. SHARPEY, WILLIAM, M.D., Sec. B.S.
EVANS, JOHN, Esq., F.R.S. Simon, Joun, D.C.L., F.R.S.

GALTon, Capt. Dove as, C.B., R.E., F.R.S. STRANGE, Lieut.-Colonel A., F.R.8.
GALTON, FRANCIS, Esq., F.R.S. Sykes, Colonel, M.P., F.R.S.

Gassior, J. P., Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S. TiTE, Sir W., M.P., F.R.S.
GoDWIN-AUSTEN, R. A. C., Esq., F.R.S. TYNDALL, Professor, LL.D., F.R.S.
Hoveurton, Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L., F.R.S. WALLACE, A. R., Esq, F.R.G.S.

HvGGINS, WILLIAM, Esq., F.R.S. WHEATSTONE, Professor Sir C., F.R.S.
Lupzrock, Sir Joun, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. WILLIAMEON, Professor A. W., F.R.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The President and President Elect, the Vice-Presidents and Vice-Presidents Elect, the Gencral and

Assistant General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presidents of former
years, viz.:—

Rey. Professor Sedgwick. The Earl of Harrowby. Sir Chas. Lyell, Bart., M.A., LL.D.
The Duke of Devonshire. The Duke of Argyll. Professor Phillips, M.A., D.C.L,
Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. | The Rey. H. Lloyd, D.D. William R. Groye, Esq., F.R.8.
Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart., K.C.B. | Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. The Duke of Buccleuch, K.B.

The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Sir W. Fairbairn, Bart., LL.D. Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, D.C.L,
G. B. Airy,Esq.,AstronomerRoyal. | The Rey. Professor Willis, F.R.8.| Professor Stokes, D.C.L.
General Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B, | Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D.,

GENERAL SECRETARIES.

Dr. T. ARCHER Hirst, F.R.S.,F.R.A.S., The Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.
Dr. THomas Tuomson, F.R.S., F.L.S., The Atheneum Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY,
GEORGE GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Harrow.

*~GENERAL TREASURER.
WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.8., 50 Grosvenor Place, London, §.W.

AUDITORS.
G. Lusk, Eeq., F.R.S. Professor M. Foster, M.D., F.L.S. J. Gwyn Jcflreys, Esq., F.R.S8.

xli REPoRT—1870.

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE
LIVERPOOL MEETING.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

President.—J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A., F.R.S. L. and E.

Vice-Presidents.—J. P. Gassiot, D.C.L., F..R.S.; W. R. Grove, M.A., F.R.S.;
Professor Stokes, D.C.L., F.R.S.; Professor Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.; Sir Charles
Wheatstone, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Secretaries.—Professor W. G. Adams, M.A.; W. K. Clifford, M.A.; Professor G.
C. Foster, M.A., F.R.S.; Rev. W. Allen Whitworth, M.A.

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, INCLUDING THEIR APPLICATIONS TO
AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTS.

President.—Professor Henry E. Roscoe, B.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.

Vice-Presidents.—J. Lowthian Bell, F.C.S.; J. H. Gilbert, F.R.S.; W. Gossage ;
K. Schunck, F.R.S.; Professor Williamson, F.R.S.; J. Young, F.R.S.E., F.C.8.;
R. Angus Smith, F.R.S.

Secretaries.—Professor A. Crum Brown, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.8.; A. E, Fletcher,
F.C.8.; Dr. W. J. Russell, F.C.S.

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.

President.—Sir Philip de Malpas Grey-Egerton, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S.

Vice-Presidents—J. Bryce, M.A., LL.D., F.G.8.; Professor Harkness, F.R.S. L.
and E., F.G.8.; Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8.; Professor
Phillips, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S. ; J. Prestwich, F.R.S., Pres. G.S.;
W. W. Smyth, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S.

Seeretaries—W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.G.S.; Rey. H. H. Winwood, M.A., F.G.S.;
W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8.; G. H. Morton, F.G.8.

SECTION D.—PBIOLOGY.

President.—Professor G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Professor Balfour, M.D., F.R.S.; John Beddoe, M.D.; G. Ben-
tham, F.R.S., Pres. L.S.; G. Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. ; John Evans, F.B.S.,
F.G.S., F.S.A.; Professor M. Foster, M.D., F.L.S.; Dr. Hooker, F.R.S., F.L.S. ;
Professor Humphry, M.D., F.R.S. ; Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S.

Secretaries.—Dy, 'T. 8. Cobbold, F.R.S., F.L.S.; Sebastian Eyans, M.A., LL.D. ;
Professor Lawson, F.L.8.; Thomas J. Moore, Corr.M.Z.8.; H. T. Stainton,
FE.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S.; Rev. H. B. Tristram, M.A., LL.D., F.R.8.; C. Stani-
land Wake, F.A.S.L.; E. Ray Lankester.

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

President.—Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart., K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.RB.S.,
E.G.

Vice-Presidents—Sir Henry Barkly, K.C.B.; Admiral Sir EH. Belcher, K.C.B.,
F.R.G.S.; Francis Galton, F.R.S.; Rear-Admiral Sir John D. Hay, Bart., M.P. ;
Lord Milton, M.P.; Sir Menry Rawlinson, Bart., K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.

Secretaries.—H. W. Bates, Assist. Sec. R.G.S; David Buxton, Ph.D., F.R.S.L, ;
Albert J. Mott ; Clements R. Markham, F.R.G.S.

SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS,

President.—Professor W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.

Vice-Presidents—The Earl of Derby, F.R.S.; William Farr, M.D., D.C.L. F.RB.S. ;
Principal Greenwood ; James Heywood, M.A., F.R.S; Lord Houghton, D.C.L.,
F.R.8.; Sir Stafford H. Northcote, Bart., C.B., M.P.; Professor Bonamy Price,
M.A.; Sir J. Kay Shuttleworth, Bart.; Professor Waley.

Seeretaries.—R, Dudley Baxter, M.A.; Edmund Macrory, M.A.; John Miles Moss,

Lo’ @-——_ 2h See

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xh

SECTION G,—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

President.—Chavles B. Vignoles, President LC.E., F.R.S., MR.LA., FRAS.

Vice-Presidents—Sir W. G. Armstrong, O.B. ; Admiral Sir I. Belcher, K.C.B.,
F.R.GS.; Sir William Fairbairn, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S.; Thomas Hawksley,

_Y.P.LO.E. ; Professor W. J. Macquorn Rankine, C.E., LL.D., F.R.S.; C. W.
Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Secretaries —H. Bauerman, F.G.S.; P. Le Neve Foster, M.A.; J. T. King, C.. ;

* Jas. N. Shoolbred, C.E.

Report of the Council for the Year 1869-70, presented to the General
Committee at Liverpool, on Wednesday, September 14th, 1870.

The Council have received the usual reports from the General Treasurer
and’from the Kew Committee. Their reports for the past year will be laid
before the General Committee this day.

The Council have to report upon the action they haye taken relative to
each of the four resolutions referred to them by the General Committee at
Exeter.

The first of these resolutions was—

«That the Council be requested to take into their consideration the ex-
isting relations between the Kew Committee and the British Association.”

The Council accordingly appointed a Committee of their own body to ex-
amine into these relations. This Committee had before them a special report
drawn up by the Kew Committee, and, after due deliberation, they recom-
mended—

« That the existing relations between the Kew Observatory and the British
Association be continued unaltered until the completion, in 1872, of the mag-
netic and solar decennial period; but that after that date ail connexion be-
tween them shall cease.”

The Council adopted this recommendation, and now offer it, as their own,
to the General Committee.

The second resolution referred to the Council was as follows :—

“hat the full influence of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science should at once be exerted to obtain the appointment of a Royal Com-
mission to consider—

First. The character and value of existing institutions and facilities for
scientific investigation, and the amount of time and money devoted
to such purposes ;

Secondly. What modifications or augmentations of the means and faci-
lities that are at present available for the maintenance and exten-
sion of science are requisite ; and,

_ Thirdly. In what manner these can be best supplied.”

By a third resolution the Council was “requested to ascertain whether the
action of Government in relation to the higher scientific education has been in
accordance with the principles of impartiality which were understood to guide
them in this matter; and to consider whether that action has been well cal-
culated to utilize and develope the resources of the country for this end, and
to favour the free development of the higher scientific education. That the
Council be requested to take such measures as may appear to them best cal-
culated to carry out the conclusions to which they may be led by these
inquiries and deliberations.”

The Committee of the Council appointed to consider these two resolutions

xliv REPORT—1870.

reported their opinion to be favourable to the appointment of a Royal Com-
mission to inquire into the relations of the State to scientific instruction and
investigation ; and they added that no such inquiry would, in their opinion,
be complete which did not extend itself to the action of the State in relation
to scientific education, and the effect of that action upon independent edu-
cational institutions.

Your President and Council, acting on the advice of this Committee, con-
stituted themselves a Deputation and waited upon the Lord President of the
Council. They are glad to be able to report that their efforts to bring this
important subject before Her Majesty’s Government have been attended with
success. On the 18th of May, Her Majesty issued a Commission “ to make
inquiry with regard to Scientific Instruction and the Advancement of Science,
and to inquire what aid thereto is derived from grants yoted by Parliament
or from endowments belonging to the several universities in Great Britain
and Ireland and the colleges thereof, and whether such aid could be rendered
in a manner more effectual for the purpose.”” The Commissioners appointed
by Her Majesty are the Duke of Devonshire, the Marquis of Lansdowne, Sir
John Lubbock, Bart., Sir James Phillips Kay Shuttleworth, Bart., Bernard
Samuelson, Esq., M.P., Dr. Sharpey, Professor Huxley, Dr. W. A. Miller,
and Professor Stokes. J. Norman Lockyer, Esq., F.R.S., has been appointed
Secretary to the Commissioners, who, up to last July, were engaged taking
evidence with great assiduity, and have now adjourned their meetings until
November. ‘There is every reason to hope that valuable results will follow
from their deliberations.

The fourth resolution which the General Committee referred to the Council
was—

“That the rules under which Members are admitted to the General Com-
mittee be reconsidered.”

A Committee of the Council devoted considerable care to a revision of the
existing rules. The modified rules approved by the Council are now submitted
for adoption to the present General Committee, whose constitution is, of
course, not affected thereby. The most important of the proposed changes
are that henceforth new claims to membership of the General Committee shall
be forwarded to the Assistant General Secretary at least one month before
the next ensuing Annual Meeting of the Association; that these claims shall
be submitted to the Council, whose decision upon them is to be final; and
that henceforth it is not the authorship of a paper in the Transactions of a
scientific society which is alone to constitute a claim to membership of the
General Committee, but the publication of any works or papers which have
furthered the advancement of any of the subjects taken into consideration at
the Sectional mectings of the Society.

Your Council has, also, had under its consideration the desirability of re-
moving certain administrative inconveniences which arise from the circum-
stance that the next place of meeting is never decided upon by the General
Committee until near the close of the actual mecting. They are of opinion
that the arrangements of the General Officers would be greatly facilitated,
and at the same time the convenience of those who invite the Association con-
sulted, if the General Committee were to decide upon each place of meeting
a year earlier than they do at present. In order to make the transition
from the existing practice to the proposed one, your Council recommend that
two of the invitations which will be received at the present Meeting be ac-
cepted, one for 1871, and another for 1872.

It has often been urged that the Association labours under disadvantages

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. xlv

in consequence of its not possessing central offices in London, where its
Council and numerous committees could hold their meetings, where the books
and memoirs which have been accumulating for years could be rendered
accessible to Members, and where information concerning the Association’s
proceedings could be promptly obtained during the interval between annual
meetings. The Council have had the subject under consideration, and in the
event of the establishment at Kew being discontinued, they are prepared to
recommend that suitable rooms, in a central situation, should be procured.
The additional annual expenditure which this would involye would probably
not exceed £150.

The Council having been informed by the Local Officers of their desire to
have Mr. Reginald Harrison appointed as an additional Local Secretary, to
assist in making arrangements for the present Meeting, have nominated that
gentleman to the office.

Mr. Arnold Baruchson and Mr. Wm. Crosfield, Jun., have also been nomi-
nated Local Treasurers, vice Mr. Duckworth resigned.

The Council have added the names of Professor H. A. Newton and Pro-
fessor C. S. Lyman, who were present at the Exeter Meeting, to the list of
Corresponding Members.

Report of the Kew Committee of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science for 1869-70.

The Committee of the Kew Observatory submit to the Council of the British
Association the following statement of their proceedings during the past

ear :—

At the Meeting of the General Committee at Exeter it was resolved that
the existing relations between the Kew Committee and the British Associa-
tion be referred to the Council to report thereon.

In consequence of this resolution, the Kew Committee on the 23rd No-
vember, 1869, prepared for the information of the Council a statement on
the past and present condition of the Observatory, which was presented to
the Council on the 11th December.

In this statement it was shown that while the establishment at Kew Ob-
servatory received its main support from the British Association, and was
under the control of that body, yet much of the apparatus in use at Kew was
furnished from other sources. Thus the Royal Society had from the Go-
vernment-Grant Fund supplied the establishment with the apparatus for
testing Barometers, with that for testing Sextants, with the dividing-machine
for constructing Standard Thermometers, and also with the set of Self-
recording Magnetographs at present in use, while from the Donation Fund
they had furnished the Photoheliograph and the Whitworth lathe and plan-
jng-machine. -

The Royal Society had likewise defrayed from the Donation Fund the
expense of introducing gas into the Observatory, and of building a house for
the verification of magnetic instruments, besides which they had borne from
the Government-Grant Fund since 1&63 the whole expense of working the
Photoheliograph (including the purchase of a Chronometer) and of reducing
its results.

The instruments used at Kew for determining the absolute magnetic
elements are the property of Her Majesty’s Government, and have been lent

xlvi REPORT—1870.

to the Kew Observatory by the Magnetic Office at Woolwich, under the di-
rection of Sir E. Sabine, and many of those magnetic instruments with which
Kew has been the means of furnishing scientific travellers have been derived
from the same source.

Of late Kew has become the Central Observatory of the Meteorological Com-
mittee, and a commodious workshop has been erected near the Observatory
by that Committee, since otherwise the main building would have been too
small for the access of work consequent upon the arrangement entered into.

The statement prepared by the Kew Committee contained likewise a sum-
mary of the scientific work done at the Observatory, as well as some
interesting historical remarks connected with the origin of the establish-
ment, drawn up by Sir C. Wheatstone, and in this shape it was submitted.
to the Council of the British Association.

The Council decided to recommend “that the present relations between
the Kew Obser vatory and the British Association be continued unaltered until
the completion, in 1872, of the magnetical and solar decennial period ; oa
after that date all connexion between them should cease.”

In consequence of this recommendation, the Kew Committee were led te
contemplate the dissolution of the Kew establishment in 1872, and they
became anxious to make such arrangements as might enable them to complete
their scientific labours in a creditable manner before the time of the antici-
pated dissolution. The magnetic work in particular caused them anxiety ;
for the annual income of the establishment is insufficient to permit of that
work being fully completed by the time of the Annual Meeting of the Asso-
ciation in 1872. Under these circumstances the Chairman offered to sup-
plement the deficiency (see Appendix, p. lvi). It will be seen by this Report
that the magnetical tabulations and reductions are now proceeding very fast.

The recommendation of the Council was also a matter of anxiety to the
Superintendent, Mr. Stewart ; and as the Professorship of Natural Philosophy
at Owens College, Manchester, became vacant about this time, he applied
for the appointment and was successful in obtaining it.

This will render it necessary for Mr. Stewart to reside in Manchester, but
the staff at the Observatory are such that Mr. Stewart will undertake by
their aid to assist the Committee in the superintendence of the work of the
Observatory until 1872.

(A) Work voxn By Kew Onsurvator¥Y UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE
Britis Associa rion.

1. Magnetic Work.—In the present state of magnetical science it would
appear to be desirable to preserve as completely as possible the details of
observations ,so that future theorists may have a large and valuable source of
information by which to test their speculations.

The Committee are therefore desirous that by the autumn of 1872 a
manuscript record should be completed, containing all the hourly tabulated
values from the Kew Magnetographs arranged in monthly tables.

This record should be carefully preserved, along with the original photo-
graphic traces, in the Archives of the Association.

Pursuing the method indicated by Sir E. Sabine, and adopting the sepa-
rating values finally determined by him, the Committee further propose to
obtain monthly results indicating the following points for each of the three
magnetic elements, distributed according to the hour of the day :—

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. xlvii

1. Aggregate of disturbance tending to increase the numcrical values.
_ 2. Aggregate of disturbance tending to decrease the same.
3. Solar-diurnal range of the undisturbed observations.

They suggest that the monthly results embodying these facts should be
published in detail.

_ Finally, they propose to continue the discussion of the Lunar-Diurnal
variations commenced by Sir E. Sabine, and carried on by him up to the end of
the year 1864. In order to work this scheme with sufficient rapidity to com-
plete it before the autumn of 1872, additional assistance has been procured, the
expense of which has been defrayed by the Chairman. Mr. Whipple, Mag-
netical Assistant, has displayed much zeal and ability in organizing the work
and in superintending its immediate execution.

Already the hourly numerical values of the three magnetic elements have
been obtained and tabulated in monthly forms from the commencement of
the series in 1858 to the present date ; and considerable progress has also been
made in the next step of the reduction.

A Unifilar, formerly employed by Captain Haig, and of which the constants
have been determined at the Observatory, has been lent to Lieut. Elagin, of
the Russian Navy, for use in the Japanese seas and elsewhere.

A Dip-cirele by Dover has been verified and sent to Prof. Jelinek, of
Vienna, and another, by the same maker, has been verified for Dr. A. B.
Meyer, for use in the East Indies. This gentleman has likewise received
magnetic instruction at the Observatory.

A Dip-circle by Adie, furnished with a deflecting cylinder apparatus, has
been verified and dispatched to Prof. Bolzani, of the University of Kasan.

Three Dipping-needles have likewise been constructed for Dr. Bergsma, of
Batavia, and one for Mr. Chambers, of the Colaba Observatory, Bombay.

A Deflection-bar has been procured and verified for the Russian Central
Observatory. A Declinometer has been sent to the Lisbon Observatory, and
a Fox’s Circle has been lent to Dr. Neumayer, after having been repaired by
Adie.

The instrument devised by Mr. Broun for the purpose of estimating the
magnetic dip by means of soft iron, and constructed at the expense of the
British Association in pursuance of a resolution of that Body passed at the
Oxford Meeting, bas been forwarded to that gentleman at his request.

The usual monthly absolute determinations of the magnetic elements con-
tinue to be made by Mr. Whipple, Magnetic Assistant.

A paper embodying the results of the absolute observations of Dip and
Horizontal Force, made at Kew from April 1863 to April 1869, has been
communicated by the Superintendent to the Royal Society, and published in
the ‘ Proceedings’ of that body. The results obtained evidence the accuracy
with which the monthly observations have been made by Mr. Whipple.

The Self-recording Magnetographs are in constant operation as heretofore,
also under his charge ; and the photographic department connected with these
instruments remains under the charge of Mr. Page.

2. Meteorological work.—The meteorological work of the Observatory
continues in the charge of Mr. Baker.

Since the Exeter Meeting, 150 Barometers have been verified, and 30 have
been rejected; 1160 Thermometers and 103 Hydrometers have likewise been
verified. Nineteen Standard Thermometers haye been constructed for Prof.
Tait, and two for the Meteorological Office.

The self-recording meteorological instruments now in work at Kew will

xlvili REPORT—1870.

be again mentioned in the second division of this Report. These are in the
charge of Mr. Baker, the photography being superintended by Mr. Page.

3. Photoheliograph.—The Kew Heliograph, in charge of Mr. Warren De La
Rue, continues to be worked in a satisfactory manner. During the past year
351 pictures have been taken on 237 days. '

It was considered desirable that six prints should be obtained from each
of the negatives of the sun-pictures taken at the Observatory during the
whole time that the Photoheliograph should remain at work, which will pro-
bably be from February 1862 to February 1872.

In order to accomplish this, an outlay of £120 spread over two years was
found to be necessary, and this sum has been voted from the Donation Fund
of the Royal Society.

A large number of these prints has already been obtained, and it is pro-
posed to present complete sets to the following institutions :—

The Royal Astronomical Society,

The Imperial Academy of Paris,

The Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg,
The Royal Society of Berlin,

The Smithsonian Institution, United States,

leaving one set for the Royal Society.

A paper embodying the positions and areas of the sun-groups observed at
Kew during the years 1864, 1865, and 1866, as well as fortnightly values
of the spotted solar area from 1832 to 1868, has been communicated to the
Royal Society by Messrs. Warren De La Rue, Stewart, and Loewy.

This paper is in the course of publication in the Philosophical Trans-
actions, and will shortly be distributed.

A Table exhibiting the number of sun-spots recorded at Kew during the
year 1869, after the manner of Hofrath Schwabe, has been communicated. to
the Astronomical Society, and published in their Monthly Notices.

M. Otto Struve, Director of the Imperial Observatory at Pulkowa, visited
England in the month of August last. He brought with him, for the Kew
Observatory, some sun-pictures made at Wilna with the photoheliograph,
which, it will be recollected, was made some years ago, under the direction
of Mr. De La Rue, by Mr. Dallmeyer. This instrument combines several
important improvements on the original Kew model, the value of which is
forcibly brought out in the superior definition of the Wilna sun-pictures. As,
however, the series of the ten-yearly record at Kew was commenced with
the instrument as originally constructed, it was not deemed desirable to alter
it in any way until the series had been completed and reduced, and the
corrections for optical distortion ascertained and applied. In the event of
the sun-work being continued after 1872, it will be desirable to do so with
a new and improved heliograph.

M. O. Struve proposed to exchange the complete series of pictures obtained
at Wilna for that made at Kew. He also stated that it is contemplated to
erect a second heliograph at the Central Observatory at Pulkowa.

4. Miscellaneous Work.—A few experiments have been made on the ro-
tation of a disk in vacuo. By an arrangement devised by Mr. Beckley, a
very perfect carbonic-acid vacuum has been obtained, the residual pressure
being 0-02 inch as indicated by a mercurial gauge with a contracted tube, but
it was believed that the vacuum was even more perfect.

A disk of paper and one of ebonite gave very sensible heat effects in such
a vacuum, and it was hoped that the experiments might have been satisfac-

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. xlix

torily completed ; but while they were in progress the pressure of the outer
atmosphere shattered the receiver into a number of pieces, fortunately without
any injury to the experimenters.

Another receiver has now been made, and it is purposed in future to use
it with a cover.

A Transit instrument has been lent to Mr. G. J. Symons, and one Sextant
has been verified.

(B) Work ponr av Kew as Tar Centra OBSERVATORY OF THE
MerroroLogicaL CoMMITTEE.

Tt is stated in the Report for 1867 that the Meteorological Committee had
appointed Mr. Balfour Stewart as their Secretary, on the understanding that
he should, with the concurrence of the Kew Committee, retain his office of
Superintendent of the Kew Observatory.

On the 8th October, 1869, Mr. Stewart resigned his appointment as Secre-
tary to the Meteorological Committee and Director of their Central Obser-
yatory—a step which took effect on 31st of March, 1870, and which was
followed by a modification of the relation between the two Committees.

The Meteorological Committee, at their Mecting on 12th November, 1869,
resolved that they were prepared to make the following proposals to the
Council of the British Association :—

- I. That Kew be continued as one of the ordinary self-recording observa-
tories, in which case the Committee would be prepared to allot to it annu-
ally £250 ; or,

II. In addition to the foregoing work, that Kew be maintained as the
central observatory for examination of records and tabulations from all the
other observatories, in which case the Committee will be prepared to allot a
further annual sum of £400.

The Kew Committee having been furnished with this resolution of the
Meteorological Committee, resolved that it be recommended to the Council
of the British Association that Kew be continued for the next two years as
one of the ordinary self-recording observatories of the Meteorological Com-
mittee, that body allowing it annually £250; and that, in addition, it be
maintained as the central observatory for the examination of the records and
tabulations from all the other observatories, for the further sum of £400 per
annum. This arrangement was approved by the Council; and it was there-
upon resolved by the Kew Committee, that out of the £650 received from the
Meteorological Committee, £200 be given to Mr. Stewart for superintending
the meteorological work of the Observatory, this resolution to take effect after
31st March, 1870.

1. Work done at Kew as one of the Observatories of the Meteorological Com-
mittee.—The Barograph, Thermograph, and Anemograph furnished by the
Meteorological Committee are kept in constant operation. Mr. Baker is in
charge of these instruments. From the first two instruments traces in du-
plicate are obtained, one set being sent to the Meteorological Office and one
retained at Kew; as regards the Anemograph, the original records are sent,
while a copy by hand of these on tracing-paper is retained. The tabulations
from the curves of the Kew instrument are made by Messrs. Baker, Page,
and Foster. i

2. Verification of Records—The system of Checks devised by the Kew
Committee for testing the accuracy of the observations made at the different
Observatories continues to be followed, the only alteration being that - Kew

1870. 6

ie REPORT—1870.

Staff, at the suggestion of the Meteorological Office, have undertaken to rule
on the Barograms and Thermograms a set of zero lines, which are of great
use in Pantagraphic operations.

Mr. Rigby continues to perform the main part of this work ; Mr. Baker,
Meteorological Assistant, having the gencral superintendence of the de-
partment.

3. Occasional Assistance—The Meteorological Committee have availed
themselves of the permission to have the occasional services of Mr. Beckley,
Mechanical Assistant at Kew; and he has lately been visiting the various
observatories of the Meteorological Committee.

- The Self-recording Rain-gauge mentioned in last Report as having been
devised by Mr. Beckley has been adopted by the Meteorological Committee,
and instruments of this kind are at present being constructed for their various
Observatories.

The Staff at Kew continue to make occasional absolute hygrometrical ob-
servations by means of Regnault’s instrument, with the view of testing the
accuracy of the method of deducing the dew-point from the observations with
the dry- and wet-bulb thermometers.

Two erections haye been made in the grounds adjoining the Observatory ;
and on one of these a large Robinson’s Anemometer is placed, while a small
instrument of the same kind is placed on the other.

By this means the indications of the large and those of the small-sized
instrument may be compared with each other. The cost of this experi-
ment has been defrayed by the Meteorological Committee.

J, P. GASSIOT,

Kew Observatory, Chairman.
9th September, 1870,

Appendix to Kew Report of 9th September ,1870.

At the Meeting of the Kew Committee held at Burlington House on 2nd March
1870, it was Resolved that the remarks by Sir E. Sabine and Mr. Stewart
be printed, along with extracts from the Report for 1866-67, and from
the Minutes of June 18, 1869; and that copies be forwarded to the
several Members of the Committee, with a statement by Mr. Stewart
as to the manner in which he proposes to complete the reductions, so as
to carry out the Resolutions of the Committee.

No. i.

Memorandum by General Sir E. Sabine regarding the Investigations for
Which the loan of the Kew Photograms from 1857 to 1862 was re-
quested.

March 1, 1870.

Tue photograms here referred to were duly received at Woolwich, and duly

returned to Kew; Mr. Gassiot has a paper stating the dates at which the

several photograms were returned to Kew.
The investigations for which these documents were temporarily borrowed

formed the substance of a paper presented to the Royal Socicty in June 1863,

and printed in the Philosophical Transactions of that year(Art. XII). The

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. li

Ist Section contained a Tabular Synopsis of ninety-five of the principal dis-
turbances of the Declination recorded by the Kew photograms from January
1858 to December 1862, with a comparison of the Laws of the Disturbances
derived therefrom with the Laws derived by the more usual method then
practised. The tabular summary at the close of Section 1 shows the result-
ing aggregate values both of Easterly and of Westerly disturbance at each
of the 24 hours (or at 24 equidistant epochs) in each of the five years, as
well as in the whole period. It is strictly a tabular detail for the period in
question, showing the Disturbance-diurnal Variation as it would result if the
inyestigation were limited to the 95 most disturbed days, and may be con-
sidered to represent the mode of investigation then practised by some mag-
neticians,

The 2nd Section of the paper compared the Laws of the Disturbances thus
obtained with the Laws derived from a wider selection of disturbed obser-
vations ; 7.¢. a selection including every anomalous record of which the ano-
malous character cannot with probability be ascribed to any other source than
that of the disturbing action whose laws are sought. This Section is also
accompanied by a tabular statement in full detail; and from an examination
of the contents of the Ist and 2nd Sections the following conclusions are
drawn :—

1. That the disturbances have systematic laws:

2. That both easterly and westerly deflections have each their own
systematic laws, distinct and different each from the other:

3. That the laws are approximately the same, whether derived from the
more limited or the more extended selection, though the latter com-
prises three times as many cases of disturbance as the former.

Hence it is inferred that, by taking into account only the most notable
days of disturbance (as was then the practice of some magneticians), an
approximately correct view of the disturbance-diurnal variation may be ob-
tained ;. but, if we desire to eliminate the influence of the disturbances on
the diurnal variation due to other causes, the more comprehensive method
must be adopted.

A selection of this latter character was then made for the five years 1858

to 1862, and the results exhibited, both in tabular and graphical represen-
tations ; and the laws derived therefrom were compared with corresponding
investigations in other parts of the globe.
In the 4th Section of the paper is discussed the “ Diurnal Inequality,”
comprehending 1°, the disturbance-diurnal variation, and 2°, the undisturbed
solar-diurnal variation. This discussion may be regarded as exhibiting what
should be the primary step in the analysis of the periodical variations.

The solar-diurnal variation derived from the record of the five years at
Kew, 1858 to 1862, is then compared with solar-diurnal variations similarly
obtained at Toronto, Nertschinsk, Pekin, St. Helena, the Cape of Good
Hope, and Hobarton; and the several points of agreement or difference are
discussed.

In the same 4th Section, the semiannual inequality which is seen to exist
at all the stations enumerated above is discussed, and is shown to manifest
a solar influence, evidenced by the differences exhibited in different parts of
the globe.

In Section 6 the Lunar-diurnal Variation derived in each of the five years
at Kew is deduced and discussed.

Tn Section 7 the Secular Change and Annual Variation of the Peaasion

d 2

li rnerport—1870.

are discussed, and a semiannual variation is shown to exist haying epochs
coincident (or nearly so) with the equinoxes—a conclusion which is shown
to be in accordance with similar investigations at Hobarton, St. Helena, and
the Cape of Good Hope.

The 8th Section establishes the existence of an “ annual variation” or “ se-
miannual inequality” of the Jnclination and of the horizontal and total Forces,
derived from the observations made at Kew in 1858 to 1862, with instru-
ments which had been supplied by the Magnetic Office at Woolwich, and
employed by Mr. Chambers at Kew. The calculation of the Kew results
made at the Woolwich Office was shown to be in accordance with the pheno-
mena at Hobarton, St. Helena, and the Cape of Good Hope.

A subsequent paper, communicated by me to the Royal Society in 1866, ©
contained the Lunar-diurnal Variation of the three magnetic elements derived
from the Kew photograms from January 1858 to December 1864, being an
extension of two years upon the records discussed in the former paper, and
limited only by the epoch to which the photograms had then been carried,
2. €. to the close of 1864. The general agreement of the Kew results with
those derived at Hobarton and Philadelphia was satisfactorily established by
the discussion of the Kew records up to the date of December 1864, and
several points of difference in minor respects, requiring further investigation,
were indicated: for these the continuation of the Kew photograms, subse-
quently to December 1864, may be expected to supply the materials.

(a)

What appears now to be required is the continuation of the same process
of examination, and comparison with the results obtained at other stations,
of the results derivable from the Kew photograms in the years which haye
elapsed since the investigations were completed of which an account had thus
been given.

These additional years are from December 31, 1864, to December 31, 1869,
i.e. five years. And this is the work which, if I correctly understood the
resolution of the Kew Committee, passed (I think) at the Meeting before the
last (viz. in June 1869), the Superintendent was requested to proceed with.

: Epwarp Sabine.
J. P. Gassiot, Esq., aig
Chairman of the Kew Committee.

Ore

Suggestions by Mr. Stewart as to the best form of Publication of the Results
derived from the Traces of the Kew Magnetographs.

Tw the present state of magnetical science, it would appear to be desirable to
preserve as completely as possible the details of the original observations,—a
course similar to that which has been pursued by Dr. Neumayer in his de-
scription of the results of the Flagstaff Observatory, Melbourne.

Photographic Traces.

The original documents of the Kew Observatory are the photographic
traces. As these are supposed to be liable to fade in the course of time, I
would suggest that a careful copy of them on tracing-paper would be the
simplest and least expensive mode of retaining them. Such a copy would
not be sufficiently accurate for investigations regarding peaks and hollows,

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTED. liv

but these phenomena will, it is hoped, be investigated before the time when
the Observatory ceases to be connected with the British Association.

The curves are as yet all in good order. The whole expense of preserving
traces would probably not much exceed £100. And I would suggest that I
might with propriety direct to this object a grant of £100 which I have at
present in hand from the Royal Society for procuring impressions of mag-
netic curves.

(b) Hourly Tabulations from Traces.

The documents next in order are the hourly tabulated numerical values,
as exhibited in monthly tables for each of the elements. Although indi- .
vidual results of this nature have been published by Dr. Neumayer, the cost
of the publication of the Kew series in this country would be very great;
and bearing in mind the limited reference to such individual results, I would
suggest that a carefully preserved manuscript record would probably be suf-
ficient.

Pursuing the method indicated by Sir E. Sabine, and adopting the sepa-
rating value finally determined by him, we should obtain monthly results
indicating the following points for each of the three elements, distributed
according to the hour of the day :—

1. Aggregate of disturbances tending to increase the numerical values,
2. Aggregate of disturbances tending to diminish the same.
3. Solar-diurnal range of the undisturbed observations.

I would suggest that the monthly results embodying these facts should
be published in detail. The publication would not probably occupy more
than thirty-six quarto pages well filled with figures.

LIunar-Diurnal Variations.

Adopting Sir E. Sabine’s method of treating these, I would suggest, in
addition, a classification according to the relative position of the sun and
moon. We might perhaps have quarterly means of lunar days, each quarter
being divided into four groups representing the four well-known relative
positions of the sun and moon.

This might occupy about fifteen quarto pages well filled with figures.

(d) Secular Change and Semiannual Inequality.

Presuming that these elements are best determined for the two compo-
nents of magnetic force from the absolute observations, I would suggest that,
as regards the declination, Sir E. Sabine’s plan be pursued. As he has al-
ready given the details of his results up to the end of 1863, it would only be
necessary to continue these up to the time when the series is complete.

Remarks on the above.

If a condensed series of results be published as above, and if, in addition,
the traces and hourly observations be preserved, as is suggested, future theo-
rists would have a large and valuable source of information by which to test
their speculations. I should be happy, had I the opportunity of using such
a series, to discuss it after the manner that Sir E. Sabine has indicated in
the very valuable papers which he has presented to the Royal Society.

liv REPORT—1870.

No. 3.

Memorandum containing extracts from the Minutes of the Kew Committee
relating to Magnetic Reductions, and containing also an estimate of
the probable Expense of carrying out the list of suggestions (paper
No. 2). ;

) Kew Observatory,

4th March, 1870.
My pxar Sr,

In accordance with the wish expressed at the last Meeting of the Kew
Committee for full information regarding the present state of the magnetic
reductions, I beg to send you the following statement :—

The first extract bearing on this subject is one from the Report of the Kew
Committee to the Aberdeen Meeting of the British Association, It is as
follows :—

“ As the staff of assistants at the Observatory is not sufficiently large to
“‘ undertake these tabulations, General Sabine has undertaken to have the
results tabulated at Woolwich for every hour.”

. In ascheme for the working of the Observatory after it became the cen-
tral Observatory of the Meteorological Committee, I suggested that it would
be very desirable to undertake the tabulation and reduction of the magnetic
curves.

Simultaneously with this scheme, their Report to be presented to the
Meeting of the Association in 1867 was discussed by the Kew Committee,
and in the Report the following statement occurs ;—

«The magnetic curves produced at Kew previously to the month of
« January 1865 have all been measured and reduced, under the direction of
«« General Sabine, by the staff of his office at Woolwich; and the results of
“this reduction have been communicated by General Sabine to the Royal
“Society in a series of interesting and valuable memoirs. It is now pro-
“ posed that the task of tabulating and reducing these curves since the above

*«‘ date be performed by the staff at Kew working under the direction of Mr.
“< Stewart.”

In accordance with this resolution, the magnetic tabulations were proceeded
with as fast as the funds at the disposal of the Observatory would allow, and
the exact progress made was from time to time reported to the Committee.

In my Report to the Meeting of the Kew Committee held on June 18,
1869, the following passage occurs :—

“Tn the present organization of the Observatory, it is the surplus funds
“ that are devoted to magnetic reductions; but it will hardly be possible be-
«fore the yearly accounts are closed to state the probable amount of the
“ surplus.

«Tt is, however, imagined that if the probable surplus for the year
“« 1869-70 be anticipated and devoted to tabulation while the summer wea-
«< ther lasts, then before the end of next winter session the reductions will
“‘ be very far advanced for all of the three magnetic elements.”

At the same Meeting the following resolution was passed :—

Resolved, That Mr. Balfour Stewart be authorized to apply the sur-
‘plus funds in his hands te the tabulation and reduction of the magnetic

+ owe

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE, ly

*‘ photographic records; and that he be requested to have the work done
«with as much rapidity as is consistent with accuracy—the final reduction
*‘ to include both monthly and annual means, but in the first instance the
*« phenomena of the disturbances from 1863 to 1870 to be proceeded with.
In reference to Mr. Balfour Stewart’s: proposal that a more intimate
* comparison between solar and magnetic records be made, it was resolved
“ that he be requested to prepare such a comparison for one magnetic ele-
* ment, for a whole period of solar disturbance, for the consideration of the

“ Committee.”

From all these extracts it will, I think, appear that the Committee con-

sidered that they would have funds sufficient to tabulate and reduce the

magnetic curves since the beginning of 1865, the date at which Sir E. Sabine

left off tabulating, and that any resolution haying reference to curves of a

previous date did not contemplate any retabulation of such curves. I con-
ceive, therefore, that at present I am under obligation to tabulate and reduce
the curves obtained since the beginning of 1865, the Committee acting on
the supposition that the funds which, accrue to the Observatory from various
sources are sufficient for this purpose. If, however, the Committee should
consider that, in addition to this, it would be desirable to systematize the
whole Kew results‘after the method indicated in the suggestions by me which
accompany this letter, it would be quite possible to accomplish this work
before 1872, and to do so without materially interfering with the work of the
Observatory ; but it would require additional funds for the purpose ; in fact,
the question resolves itself into one of expense. The following estimate, pre-
pared by Mr. Whipple, and revised by me, will give a tolerably good idea of
the probable expense of doing this :—

(¢)

£ d.
Purchase of two new Tabulating instruments and fit-

SET MPREE POISON Pe crete oc si +. ¢ fda tvs, csh ecavegereiers.< cae 30 0 0
Measurement of curves to +55 of an inch from Jan.

Metess. to Woe, 31, 1864.0... ccc canbe e wane -143 14 0
Gipeldisry Measurements ........ 0. ye ne sereiess 63 0 0
Copying out and systematizing results............ 126 0 0
Extraction of disturbances ....,..-008eceeeens 100 0 0
Peeer Amd TORS 4 iis ph Re Re aieida KeteSO OY old & BO 9D. 0

472 14 0

This sum would probably enable all these suggestions to be complied with,
except those relating to the means connected with the lunar-diurnal varia-
tions. The production of such means since 1865 will, of course, form part
of the reductions at present in hand, and it would be very easy to give the
tables such a shape as to exhibit a classification according to the relative
position of the sun and moon. [If the results of this proved sufficiently
valuable, the same classification might be afterwards extended to the results
previous to 1865, provided the details of such results have been obtained and
preserved by means of the outlay of £472 14s., as mentioned above. This
particular form of reduction does not appear so pressing; and as it would
cost £130 to recast the individual results previous to 1865 into the precise
a of lunar tables mentioned in the suggestions, this matter may be allowed

Q wait,

lyi REPORT—1870.

But the other matters mentioned in these suggestions are, I think, of
greater importance, more especially as, in the very valuable paper of results
produced by Sir E. Sabine, there would appear to have been contemplated
an exhibition to the world of the most valuable and important facts derived
from the Kew results, rather than an exhaustive reduction of the same (see
paper No.1). The Committee might, therefore, if the above outlay were
incurred, exhibit the distribution over the various months of every year of
the disturbed observations for the whole Kew series, and also exhibit the
solar-diurnal variations of the horizontal and the vertical force.

If it be allowable to devote to this purpose £100 which I have in hand
from the Royal Society, it would so far lessen the expense, and in this case
£400 might be regarded as the extreme limit of what would be incurred.

I remain,
Yours very truly,
B. Srewart.
J. P. Gassiot, Esq.,
Chairman of the Kew Committee.

Extracts from Minutes of Kew Committce held at Burlington House on 9th
March, 1870, Present Mr. Gassiot (in the Chair), Sir IE. Sabine, Sir C.
Wheatstone, Col. Strange, Dr. Miller, Mr. Galton, Mr. De La Rue, Mr.
Spottiswoode.

“ Resolved,—That the following work be executed at Kew, under the
‘* superintendence of Mr. Stewart.

“ OQurrent Work.

“The work as defined in paragraph marked (a), page lii (General Sabine’s
** Memorandum),

“ Arrears of Work.

“ 1st. Hourly tabulations from traces as defined in paragraph marked (0),
“page liii (Mr. Stewart’s statement).
«2nd. Separation of disturbances and solar-diurnal variations, para-
“ graph (c), page lh.
“3rd. Secular change and semiannual inequality, paragraph (d), page
* Jai. :
‘¢ These arrears to be executed in accordance with the estimate (e), page lv.”

It appearing that the only sum at the disposal of Mr. Stewart for back
magnetic work was £100, Mr. Gassiot offered to supplement the difference
required, provided the sum required from him did not exceed £400.

Resolved unanimously,—* That the Committee accept with thanks the
“munificent offer of their Chairman, and that Mr. Stewart be empowered
“to proceed with the work on the understanding that the total cost shall
* not exceed £500,”

lvii

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE,

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lyiii REPORT—1870.

RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL Commirrer at THE LrIvERPoon
Meetrye in Sepremser 1870.

[When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the Secretary,
except there is a specific nomination. ]

Applications involving Grants of Money.

That the sum of £600 be placed at the disposal of the Council for main-
taining the establishment of the Kew Observatory.

That the Committee for reporting on the Rainfall of the British Isles be
reappointed, and that this Committee consist of Mr. Charles Brooke, Mr,
Glaisher, Professor Phillips, Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. J. F. Bateman, Mr. R.
W. Mylne, Mr. T. Hawksley, Professor Adams, Mr. C. Tomlinson, Professor
Sylvester, Dr. Pole, and Mr. Rogers Field; that Mr. G. J. Symons be the
Secretary, and that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.

That the Committee on Underground Temperature, consisting of Sir William
Thomson, Dr. Everett, Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., Mr. J. Clerk Maxwell, Pro-
fessor Phillips, Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. Balfour Stewart, Professor Ramsay,
Mr. Geikie, Mr. Glaisher, Rev. Dr. Graham, Mr. E. W. Binney, Mr. George
Maw, Mr. Pengelly, and Mr. 8. J. Mackie, be reappointed with the addition
of the name of Mr. Edward Hull; that Dr. J. D. Everett be the Secretary,
and that the sum of £150 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That the Committee on the Thermal Conductivity of Metals, consisting of
Professor Tait, Professor Tyndall, and Dr. Balfour Stewart be reappointed ;
that Professor Tait be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be placed at
their disposal for the purpose.

That the Committee on Tides, consisting of Sir W. Thomson, Professor
Adams, Professor W. J. M. Rankine, Mr. J. Oldham, Rear-Admiral Richards,
and Mr. W. Parkes be reappointed, and that the sum of £100 be placed at
their disposal for the purpose.

That the Committee on Luminous Meteors, consisting of Mr. Glaisher,
Mr. R. P. Greg, Mr. Alexander Herschel, and Mr. C. Brooke be reappointed,
and that the sum of £30 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. Edward Crossley and Rey. T. W. Webb be a Committee for dis-
cussing Observations of Lunar Objects suspected of change ; that Mr. Cross-
ley be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for
the purpose. ’

That Sir J. Herschel, Bart.,and Professor Erman be a Committee for the pur-
pose of procuring the Recomputation by Professor Petersen of the Gaussian
Constants for 1839, so as to make the additional available observations, and
that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Professor Balfour Stewart, Mr. Latimer Clark, and Mr. C. T. Varley
be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the best method of Measu-
ring Electrical Capacity, and of constructing Standard Measures of Capacity ;
that Prof. Balfour Stewart be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be
placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Professor Sir William Thomson, Mr. J, Clerk Maxwell, and Professor
Fleeming Jenkin be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the bes
method of measuring differences of Electrical Potential, and issuing a Stan,

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. lix

dard Potential Gauge ; that Professor Fleeming Jenkin be the Secretary, and
that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. Hockin, Dr. Matthiessen, and Prof. A. W. Williamson be a Com-
mittee for the purpose of investigating the best method of measuring Elec-
trical Currents and constructing a Standard Electrodynamometer ; that Mr.
Hockin be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal
for the purpose.

That it be an instruction to each of the three last-named Committees, that

it shall carry out the system adopted by the Electrical Standards Committee,
and that these Committees have the use of all instruments hitherto con-
structed with the Funds of the Association.
- That Professor A. W. Williamson, Professor Frankland, Professor Roscoe,
and Professor Odling be a Committee for the purpose of superintending the
publication of the Monthly Reports of the Progress of Chemistry by the
Chemical Society, and that the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for
the purpose.

That Professor A. Crum Brown, Professor Tait, and Mr. Dewar be a Com-
mittee for the purpose of carrying on the researches of Mr. Dewar on the
_ Thermal Equivalents of the Oxides of Chlorine, and that the sum of £25 be

placed at their disposal for the purpose.

_ hat Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., Professor Phillips, Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,
Mr. John Evans, Mr. Edward Vivian, Mr. William Pengelly, Mr. George Busk,
Mr. W. Boyd Dawkins, and Mr. W. Ayshford Sandford be a Committee for
the purpose of continuing the exploration of Kent’s Cavern, Torquay; that
Mr. Pengelly be the Secretary, and that the sum of £150 be placed at their
disposal for the purpose.

’ That Dr. P. M. Duncan and Professor Ansted be a Committee for the
purpose of continuing Researches on British Fossil Corals; that Dr. P. M.
Duncan be the Secretary, and that the sum of £25 be placed at their dis-
posal for the purpose.

That the Rev. W. 8. Symonds, Mr. Lightbody, and the Rey. J. B. La
Touche be a Committee for the purpose of continuing to estimate the quantity
of Sedimentary deposits in the river Onny ; that the Rev. J. B. La Touche be
the Secretary, and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the

urpose.

aa That Mr. W. 8. Mitchell, Mr. Henry Woodward, Mr. Robert Etheridge,
Mr. G. Maw, and Mr. W. Carruthers be a Committee for the purpose of con-
tinuing to investigate the Leaf-beds of the Lower Bagshot Series of the
Hampshire Basin ; that Mr. Mitchell be the Secretary, and that the sum of
£20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

- That Mr. James Thomson and Professor Harkness be a Committee for the
purpose of slicing Fossil Corals, in order to show their structure by means of
Photography ; that Mr. Thomson be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20
be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. Robert H. Scott, Dr. J. Hooker, Dr. E. P. Wright, and Sir W.
Trevelyan, Bart. be a Committee for the purpose of exploring the Mesozoic
Deposits of Omenak and other Localities in North Greenland; that Mr. Scott
be the Secretary, and that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.

That Mr. Henry Woodward, Dr. Duncan, and Mr. Robert Etheridge be a
Committee for the purpose of carrying on researches in the British Fossil
Crustacea; that Mr. Woodward be the Secretary, and that the sum of £25
be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

lx REPORT—~1870.

That Mr. G. Busk and Mr. Boyd Dawkins be a Committee for the purpose
of assisting Dr. Leith Adams in the preparation of plates illustrating an
account of the Fossil Elephants of Malta; that Mr. Busk be the Secretary,
and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Dr. J. D. Hooker, Mr. W. Carruthers, and Professor Balfour be a
Committee for the purpose of continuing investigations into the Fossil Flora
of Britain ; that Mr. Carruthers be the Secretary, and that the sum of £25
be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Dr. Sharpey, Dr. B. W. Richardson, and Professor Humphry be a
Committee for the purpose of continuing researches on the physiological
action of the Methyl and other allied compounds; that Dr. Richardson be the
Secretary, and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. Sclater, Dr. Giinther, Professor Newton, Mr. Newton, and the
Rey. H. B. Tristram be a Committee for the purpose of continuing a record of
Zoological Literature ; that Mr. Sclater be the Secretary, and that the sum of
£100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Prof. M. Foster, Dr. Arthur Gamgee, and Mr. E. Ray Lankester be a
Committee for the purpose of investigating the amount of Heat generated in
the Blood, in the process of arterialization; that Dr. Gamgee be the Se-
cretary, and that the sum of £15 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Prof. Balfour, Dr. Cleghorn, and Mr. Robert Hutchison be a Com-
mittee for the purpose of taking observations on the effect of the denudation of
timber on the Rainfall in North Britain; that Prof. Balfour be the Secretary,
and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That it is desirable to undertake a Geographical Exploration of the country
of Moab, and that the following Members of the Association be a Committee
for this purpose,—Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart., Rey. Dr. Ginsburg, Mr. Hep-
worth Dixon, Rev. Dr. Tristram, General Chesney, Rev. Professor Rawlinson,
Mr. John A. Tinné ; that the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.

That the Metric Committee be reappointed, such Committee to consist of
Sir John Bowring, The Right Hon. Sir Stafford H. Northcote, Bart., C.B.,
M.P., The Right Hon. C. B. Adderley, M.P., Mr. Samuel Brown, Dr. Farr,
Mr. Frank P. Fellowes, Professor Frankland, Mr. James Heywood, Profes-
sor Leone Levi, Professor W. A. Miller, Mr. C. W. Siemens, Professor
A. W. Williamson, Dr. George Glover, Sir Joseph Whitworth, Bart., Mr.
J. R. Napier, Mr. J. V. N. Bazalgette, and Sir W. Fairbairn, Bart. ; that
Professor Leone Levi be the Secretary, and that the sum of £25 be placed
at their disposal for the purpose of being applied solely to scientific pur-
poses, printing, and correspondence.

That Sir J. Lubbock, Bart., Mr. D. T. Ansted, Professor Corfield, Mr.
J. Bailey Denton, Dr. J. H. Gilbert, Mr. R. B. Grantham, Mr. J. Thornhill
Harrison, Mr. T. Hawksley, Mr. W. Hope, Lieut.-Colonel Leach, Professor
Odling, Dr. A. Voelcker, and Professor A. W. Williamson, be a Committee
for the purpose of carrying on the investigations of the Committee appointed
last year on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage; the expenses incurred
being defrayed from the contributions, already received by the former Com-
mittee, from the towns.

That the Committee on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage, appointed
last year, having collected sums of money from several towns, it is resolved
that the money collected by the said Committee, or the balance thereof, be
paid over to the General Treasurer.

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Ixi

That no Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices of
the British Association without special permission from the General Com-
mittee to do so; and that no money so raised shall be expended except in
accordance with the rules of the Association.

Applications for Reports and Researches not involving Grants
of Money.

That the Committee, consisting of Dr. Joule, Sir W. Thomson, Professor
Tait, Professor Balfour Stewart, and Mr. J. Clerk Maxwell, be reappointed to
effect a determination of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat.

That Professor R. B. Clifton, Mr. Glaisher, Mr. Huggins, Dr. Matthiessen,
Professor W. Hallows Miller, Dr. Balfour Stewart, Mr. G. Johnstone Stoney,
Lieut.-Col. Strange, and Sir J. Whitworth, Bart., be a Committee for the
purpose of reporting on Metric Standards, in reference to the communication
from Professor Jacobi, appended hereto.

The Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburgh observing that the Standard
Metric Weights and Measures of the various countries of Europe und of the
United States, differ by sensible, though small, quantities from one another,
express the opinion that the continuance of these errors would be highly
prejudicial to science. They believe that the injurious effects could not be
guarded against by private labours, however meritorious, and they have
therefore recommended that an international commission be appointed by
the countries interested to deal with this matter. They have decided to
bring the subject before the Russian Government, and have appointed a Come
mittee of their own Body, who have drawn up a careful Report containing
valuable suggestions; and they have deputed Professor Jacobi to lay this
Report before the British Association, and to request the Association to take
action in reference to it.

_ That Mr. W. H. L. Russell be requested to continue his Report on recent
progress in the theory of Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions.

That Dr. Matthiessen, Professor Abel, and Mr. David Forbes be a Com-
mittee for the purpose of continuing their researches on the Chemical Nature
of Cast Iron.

That Dr. Bryce, Sir W. Thomson, Mr. D. Milne-Home, Mr. Macfarlane, and
Mr. J. Brough be a Committee for the purpose of continuing investigations
on Earthquakes in Scotland.

That Dr. Anton Dohrn, Professor Rolleston, and Mr. P. L. Sclater be a
Committee for the purpose of promoting the foundation of Zoological Stations
in different parts of the world, recognizing the foundation of a Zoological
Station at Naples as a decided step in this direction; that Dr. Anton Dohrn
be the Secretary.

That Mr. H. E. Dresser, Mr. J. E. Harting, Rev. H. Barnes, Rev.
H. B. Tristram, and Professor Newton be reappointed for the purpose of
continuing their investigations on the desirability of establishing “a close
time” for the preservation of our indigenous animals; and that Mr. Dresser
be the Secretary.

That the Committee appointed last year “ to consider and report on the
various plans proposed for legislating on the subject of Steam-Boiler Ex-
plosions with a view to their prevention,” be requested to continue their

labours ; such Committee consisting of Sir Wm. Fairbairn, Bart., Sir Joseph

xii REPORT—1870.

Whitworth, Bart., Mr. John Penn, Mr. F. J. Bramwell, Mr. Hugh Mason,
Mr. Samuel Rigby, Mr. Thomas Schofield, Mr. Charles F. Beyer, Mr. T.
Webster, Q.C., Mr. Lavington E. Fletcher.

That the Committee of Section D (Biology) be requested to draw up a state-
ment of their views upon Physiological Experiments in their various bearings,
and that this document be circulated among the Members of the Association.

That the said Committee be further requested to consider from time to time
whether any steps can be taken by them, or by the Association, which will
tend to reduce to its minimum, the suffering entailed by legitimate physiolo-
gical inquiries ; or any which will have the effect of employing the influence of
this Association in the discouragement of experiments which are not clearly
legitimate on live animals.

The following resolution subsequently passed by the Committee of Section
D (Biology) was adopted:

That the following gentlemen be appointed a Committee for the purpose of
carrying out the suggestion on the question of Physiological Experiments
made by the General Committee,—Professor Rolleston, Professor Lawson,
Professor Balfour, Dr. Gamgee, Professor M. Foster, Professor Humphry,
Professor W. H. Flower, Professor Sanderson, Professor Macalister, and Pro-
fessor Redfern ; that Professor Rolleston be the Secretary, and that they be
requested to report to the General Committee.

Involving Applications to Government.

That Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart., Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., Mr. Findlay,
and Adm. Sir John D. Hay, be a Committee for the purpose of bringing to
the notice of the Commissioners of the Admiralty the importance of revising
the Survey of the West Coast of South America, with a view to ascertaining
what changes have taken place in the levels since the recent great earth-
quakes on that coast; that Mr. Clements Markham be the Secretary.

That Prof. Jevons, Mr. R. Dudley Baxter, Sir John Bowring, Mr. J. T.
Danson, Mr. James Heywood, Dr. W. B. Hodgson, and Professor Waley, be
a Committee for the purpose of urging upon Her Majesty’s Government the
expediency of arranging and tabulating the results of the approaching Census
in the three several parts of the United Kingdom in such a manner as to
admit of ready and effective comparison ; that Mr. Edmund Macrory be the
Secretary.

Communications to be printed in extenso in the Annual Report of
the Association.

That Professor Cayley’s papers (1) “ On In- and Cireumscribed Triangles,”
and (2) “‘ On the Correspondence of Lines and Points in Space,” be printed
in extenso in the Proceedings.

That the paper by Dr. Leith Adams on “ Newly discovered Species of Ele-
phants,” be printed in extenso in the Report.

That the paper on “ Ashton and Storey’s Steampower Meter,” be printed
in extenso in the Transactions.

That owing to the great length and consequent cost of printing the tabular
catalogue of Meteors presented by the Committee on Luminous Meteors, that
part of their Report be not printed.

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. xii

Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration and action if it
seem desirable.

That the discontinuance of the maintenance of Kew Observatory by the
British Association having been determined on, the President and Council be
authorized to communicate with the President and Council of the Royal
Society, and with the Government, so that the future use of the Buildings
may in 1872 be placed at the disposal of the Royal Society, in case the Royal
Society should desire it, under the same conditions as those Buildings are
at present held by the British Association.

That the Council be empowered to cooperate with the Royal and Astrono-
mical Societies, in the event of a new application being made to Government,
to aid in the observation of the Solar Eclipse of December 1870.

That the Council be requested to take such steps as they deem wisest, in
order to urge upon Government the importance of introducing Scientific In-
struction into the Elementary Schools throughout the Country.

That the Council of the British Association be authorized, if it should
appear to be desirable, to urge upon Her Majesty’s Government the expedi-
_ ency of proposing to the Legislature a measure to insure the introduction of
the metric system of weights and measures for international purposes.

That it is inexpedient that new Institutions for the teaching of Science,
pure or applied, such as the proposed Engineering College for India, should
be established by Government, until the Royal Commission now holding an
inquiry into the Relation of the State to Scientific Instruction shall have
issued their Report. That the Council of the British Association be requested
to consider this opinion, and should they see fit, to urge it upon the atten-
tion of Her Majesty’s Government.

Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes by
the General Committee at the Liverpool Meeting in September 1870.
The names of the Members who would be entitled to call on the
General Treasurer for the respective Grants are prefixed.

Kew Observatory. £ 8. a.
Tho Council.—Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Obser-

Mathematics and Physics.

Seeipice, Mr.— British Rainfall... . 4.6... e tase eda Oe 50 0 0
*Thomson, Professor Sir W.—Underground Temperature .... 150 0 0
PeaemIC TOP WAT e em EM aa scie a a+ +s caste eaiatw ies « £800 0 0

* Reappointed.

Ixiv REPORT—1870.

* Reappointed.

Fee Big se
MTOM COW ATO. etc ek Suis Nar oo us Wen ee oe 809 0 0
*Tait, Professor—Thermal Conductivity of Iron and other
Met A Cnn tye cnc Pee ec Spee, emir a anes 20.0.0
*Thomson, Professor Sir W.—Tidal Observations .......... 100 0 O
*Glaishers Mr'——Luminous Meteors... «<> .s,.6 6 «oeesewe «ce BU ae)
Crossley, Mr.—Observation of Lunar Objects.............. 20.0 0
Herschel, Sir J—Recomputation: of the Gaussian Constants

BE Ae ts Pi dsc Poe MEER IT SL < + dino, STe> nel no A 50 0 0
Stewart, Prof. B.—Standard Measures of Electrical Capacity. 20 0 0
Thomson, Prof. Sir W.—Standard Electrical Potential Gauge 20 0 O
Hockin, Mr.—Standard Electrodynamometer ..........+: 20... 0. 0

Chemistry.
Williamson, Professor.—Reports of the Progress of Chemistry 100 0 0
Brown, Professor Cruam.—Thermal Equivalents of the Oxides
SAE EOIN Bio ice Ghat aarp boy ass ANT'<se 2% miedo ye ans ai eS on 2h OaiD
Geology.
*Lyell, Sir C., Bart.—Kent’s-Cavern Exploration .......... 150 0 0
*Duncan, Dr. P. M.—British Fossil Corals ................ 25 0 O
*Symonds, Rey. W. 8.—Sedimentary Deposits inthe RiverOnny 10 0 0
*Mitchell, Mr. W. S.—Leaf-beds of the Lower Bagshot series.. 20 0 0O
Thomson, Mr. James.—Sections of Fossil Corals ......-... 20.0% 10
Scott, Mr. R. H.—Mesozoie Deposits of Omenak, North Green-

BEING veto, fe a eth cia bP os wlio ie 5 a Re shan bw hens ma a 50 0 0
Woodward, Mr. H.—British Fossil Crustacea ............ 255. Oma
Busk, Mr.—Fossil Elephants of Malta .........0..-0000. 25 0 0

Biology.

**Dr, Hooker.—Fossil Flora of Britain .........00eseeeeees 25: Ont
*Sharpey, Dr.—Physiological Action of Methyl Compounds . 25 0 0
*Sclater, Mr.—Record of the Progress of Zoology .......... 100 0 0
*Foster, Professor M.—Heat Generated in the Arterialization

GLIBIOOG ce nya, ope sie ieie Cem ata ota s Re aie eet Ip D0
Balfour, Professor.—Effect of the Denudation of Timber on

the Rainfall in North Britam.... 0.00. .cccoec ese cees ss 200" @

Geography.
Murchison, Sir R., Bart—Exploration of the Country of Moab 100 0 0
Statistics and Economic Science.
*Bowring, Sir J.—Metrical Committee... ........ eee ences 25 00
Lotal’, Saas £1840 0 0

——

GENERAL STATEMENT.

Ixy

General esutement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants
for Scientific Purposes.

Ges da.
1834,
Tide Discussions .........0e.0000 20 0 0
1835.
Tide Discussions .......00..c.se008 62 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology eaeese 105" "OF 0
£167 0 0
1836.
Tide Discussions ..........0..e008 163 0 0
British Fossil Fel alogy" aes LOsei0" 0
Thermometric Observations, &. 50 0 0
Experiments on long-continued
RACAL: .s. 5.03 oro Meebecorenp Godan ero
Bain-Gauges..............scsecesees OM 15) 0
Refraction Experiments ......... 15 0 0
Binan Nutation:......:.....scees.0. 60 0 0
Thermometers .......... sagseeimee Koper.
£434 14 0
1837.
Tide Discussions ..........0s...08 284 1 0
Chemical Constants ........... cose et 13°°'6
PATIL NUCACION:. .25c0ccececececcsese 70 0 0
Observations on Waves..........++ 100 12 0
pMeeAG ESTIStOl S220. 2.0ces.s-ce.0e 150 0 0
Meteorology and Subterranean
Temperature ....... @oeccccccenees Sone one
Vitrification Experiments......... 150 0 0
Heart Experiments ............. Sos 4G
Barometric Observations ......... 30 0 0
RSASGMNCCELS. scsveceveccccecseoscccee 11 18 6
£918 14 6
1838,
Tide Discussions .......... ssccosse | 29" (0-40
British Fossil Fishes ........ -.. 100 0 0
Meteorological Observations and
Anemometer (construction)... 100 0 0
Cast Iron (Strength of) ......... 60 0 0
Animal and Vegetable Substances
(Preservation of) ............... 19° 1 10
Railway Constants ............... 41 12 10
Bristol Tides ..........00..0.00 seers JOmee nO
Growth of Plants ............. Sxeve (oro! 40)
MUPEIMISERAVETS ccccceseciccscccces a oaeo. 16
Education Committee ........... 50 0 0
Heart Experiments ............... denon 0
Land and Sea Level............... 267 8 7
Subterranean Temperature ...... 8 6 0
Steam-vessels..........csscsesseeees - 100 0 0
Meteorological Committee ...... 31,9. 5
PEMEKIMOMECtElS. 5. .csceccsessecsp-os. 16 4 0
£956 12 2
1839.
Fossil Ichthyology......... ssseeeeee 110 0 0
Meteorological Observations at
PEAVINIOULN: <,cesese-ocessssesee +... 63:10 0
Mechanism of Waves ........... what 0
BATIStOUW TIES .,.ccesccneceveneccersse 3D LS. 6

1870.

£3 d,

Meteorology and Subterranean
Temperature ......-ses0«s. rer o. 21.10) 0
Vitrification Experiments....... oon iD che Kt
Cast-Iron Experiments............ 100 0 0
Railway Constants ....c.ccc..0.0 28 7 2
Land and Sea Level.........+ ong ar 2S 4y) Mi A
Steam-vessels’ Engines..,..... +. 100 0 0
Stars in Histoire Céleste ....,.... 331 18 6
Stars.in Lacaille: .ftscensesucsisss LD Os 0
Stars in R.A.S, Catalogue........ <n) OlGe 6
Animal Secretions....... ave aivae « 10:10 0
Steam-engines in Cornwall ...... 50 0 0
Atmospheric Air .......... sence ej pullGxy un OF
Cast and Wrought Iron............ 40 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ....... ath pot O10
Gases on Solar Spectrum ......... 22 0 0

Hourly Meteorological Observa-
tions, Inverness and Kingussie 49 7 8
Fossil Reptiles ........ decereeceers - 118 2 9
Mining Statistics ........seesseeees 50 0 0
£1595 11 0

1840.

Bristol Tides.......... secancnceqosne 100,, 0. .0
Subterranean Temperature ...... 13 13 6
Heart Experiments ...........e00e 18 19 0
Lungs Experiments ..,....06...06. 8 13 0
Tide Discussions ..,.. eeceee eooceee 00 0 O
Land and Sea Level............. wie G Aled
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ........ . 242 10 0
Stars (Lacaille) .......... socsssvese 415 O
Stars festa: spetoapedee sseeeee 264 0 0
Atmospheric Air .......... sooseeee 1515 O
Water on Iron ....... washeecneccs aig lf 10,0
Heat on Organic Bodies ......... 7 0 0
Meteorological Observations...... 52 17 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs ...... 112 1 6
Working Population............... 100 0 9
School Statistics....... oepeeseccenny »- 50 0 0
Forms of Vessels ...... pompsamadast 184 7 0

Chemical and Electrical Pheno-
Mena .....046 wesanes cecegecevececes 40 0 0

Meteorological Observations at
Plymouth ,........- sase=see coors 80 0 0
Magnetical Observations ...,,.... 185 13 9

£1546 16 4

ee Se

1841.

Observations on Waves...... eeesee
Meteorology and Subterranean

Temperature
Actinometers......ss+ceeee cecececsce
Earthquake Shocks ..........0.0--
Acrid Poisons...........0.008 omsesbee
Veins and Absorbents ..........05
Mud in) Rivers: 2icte.t..s0veiseeese
Marine Zoology......s.+s0.e.
Skeleton Maps ........ Setesussdeuee
Mountain Barometers ....0+...00-
Stars (Histoire Céleste)........00++

30 0
8 8
10 0
17 7
6 0
3.0
5 0
15 12
20 0
6 18
185 a

SCacwmoooceso i)

Ixvi REPORT—1870.
£ os. d. £ s. d.
Stars (Lacaille) ......seseeeees veease 79 5 O | Meteorological Observations, Os-
Stars (Nomenzlature Of) ....e.+ 17 19 6 ler’s Anemometer at Plymouth 20 0 0
Stars (Catalogue Of) ......+eseee8 .. 40 0 0 | Reduction of Meteorological Ob-
Water on Iron ...seeeseeeesereeeees 50 0 0 SCHVALIONS. cossesee-eeeecsssene cca war) 10) 10
Meteorological Observations at Meteorological Instruments and
INVerneSs ..sceeseceeescececeerers 20 0 0 Gfatuities sssescsccsowedatentenes 39 6 O
Meteorological Observations (re- Construction of Anemometer at
Auction Of) scecesseeseerereceee 257710) “0 Inverness ...ccccccsecsessceseeens 56 12 2
Fossil Reptiles .es.seseeseeseeeeeeee 50 0 0 | Magnetic Cooperation 10 8 10
Foreign Memoirs ......+++ssseereee 62 0 0} Meteorological Recorder for Kew
Railway Sections .......++ eeeceene SRST ile 6 Observatory ceccssecevecescceees 0 wd 2 0
Forms of Vessels ...ccseessseseeees 193 12 0| Action of Gases on Light ........ 18 16 1
Meteorological Observations at Establishment at Kew Observa-
Plymouth ...ccseeecscesceeeeneees 55 0 0 tory, Wages, Repairs, Furni-
Magnetical Observations ......... 6118 8 ture and Sundries .........+0+0+. 338 4 7
Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone 100 0 0] Experiments by Captive Balloons 81 8 0
Tides at Leith .......sesseseeseeeee 50 0 0 | Oxidation ofthe Rails of Railways 20 0 0
Anemometer at Edinburgh ...... 69 1 10] Publication of Report on Fossil
Tabulating Observations ......... SG Hieptiles <.¢.svees<ssssaechesepmae 40 0 0
Races of Men csecsececessvereeeeee 5 0 0] Coloured Drawings of Railway
Radiate Animals ..+.....+..-eee+e) 2 TONe0 Sections cosecscsncvenssuecevecs eee 147 18 3
“£1235 10 11| Registration of Earthquake
ee Shocks Sanonc suse: scieanecenee sees 30 0 0
1842, Report on Zoological Nomeuslas
Dynamometric Instruments ....-- Lie 11 2 CUTE seeeeeseeeeenaneanneeere ene secu lOLet OsanO
Anoplura Britannia ......+++0e00++ 52 12 0| Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
Tides at Bristol............ceeeeeeee 59 8 | Stone near Manchester ....+++- Ao ne
Gases on Light .........00000++ 11. 30 14 7 | Vegetative Power of Seeds ..... Epes Set
@iranouieters!. 6.0 prea Y < 26 17. 6 | Marine Testacea (Habits of ) 10 0 0
Marine Zoology......sscecssees weeee 1 5 0 | Marine Zoology.......esseeeeeeeeee oy lO) 50,40
British Fossil Mammalia ......... 100 0 0 | Marine Zoology........-sesssreseees 214 11
Statistics of Education .......... .. 20 0 0 | Preparation of Report on British
Marine Steam-vessels’ Engines... 28 0 0 Fossil Mammalia ....e.sseeeseee 100 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste)............ 59 0 0 | Physiological Operations of Me-
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of) ...++ 110 0 0 dicinal Agents ....cscccoccsnsass 20 0 0
Railway Sections TGs 10le0)| Vital’Statistics <.-...scscsss-soemees 36 5 8
British Belemnites 50 © 0 | Additional Experiments on the
Fossil Reptiles (publication of Forms Of: Vessels: siveesscccuonae 70 0 0
Ve pONl) eerscceasesseeseersea seer 210 0 0 | Additional Experiments on the
Forms of Vessels .s...seseeeeeeees 180 0 0 Forms of Vessels ..+.e+.ssee00+8 100 0 0
Galvanic Experiments on Rocks 5 8 6 Reduction of Experiments on the
Meteorological Experiments at Forms of Vessels .ss..sseeeeeeee 100 0 0
Ply mOuth sstse.seectccevesasseeres 68 0 0| Morin’s Instrument and Constant
Constant Indicator and Dynamo- Indicator’ jovecnessmere cence sn aeagee 69 14 10
metric Instruments .........0« . 90 0 ©| Experiments on the Strength of
Force of Witid ....ce...sseeeeeeee woe ak OF eCOi (0 Materials ....ecsseseeees evaneeeed 60 0 0
Light on Growth of Seeds ...... 8 0 0 £1565 10 2
Vital Statistics ........csccceseesees 50 0 0
Vegetative Power of Seeds ...... Sill 1844.
Questions on Human Race ......__7 9 0] Meteorological Observations at
£1449 17° 8 Kingussie and Inverness ...... 12 0 0
= | Completing Observations at Ply-
1843. MOUGH | eccneesnecssocescsesannee - 385 0 °0
Revision of the Nomenclature of Magnetic and Meteorological Co-
DLATStsv-bsmeceunscsaseecrsnenaaaee 20 0 Operation - eeu sseeeescsoecesenes - 25 4
Reduction of Sire British Asso- Publication of the British Asso-
ciation Catalogue ....0+..ssecees 25 0 0 ciation Catalogue of Stars...... 35 0 0
Anomalous Tides, Frith of Forth 120 0 0 | Observations on Tides on the
Hourly Meteorological Observa- East coast of Scotland ......... 100 0 0
tionsat KingussieandInverness 77 12 8 | Revision of the Nomenclature of
Meteorological Observations at Stars: :..ls..sneeeeee ees 1842 2 9 6
Plymouth Cocecececeee errr rrrrr Past) VU Maintaining the Establishmentin
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane- Kew Observatory... ... sbetwenn UW dic faumaet
mometer at Plymouth .,....... 10 0 0 | Instruments for Kew Observatory 56 7 3

GENERAL STATEMENT.

sd.

Influence of Light on Plants...... 10 0 0
Subterraneous Temperature in

MESIAMG. cccacecseactsasecace Actos win pol pOie0
Coloured Drawings of Railway

PROS dete acsaadasncssideds vse . 1517 6

Investigation of Fossil Fishes of
the Lower Tertiary Strata ... 100 0 0

Registering the Shocks of Earth-
PIES TEE ncislns aces ocacesess 1842 23 11 10
Structure of Fossil Shells ......... 20 0 0

Radiata and Mollusca of the
igean and Red Seas.....1842 100 0 0

Geographical Distributions of

Marine Zoology............ 1842 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Devon and

DREMINGIN osc ccscesseseses sevens 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Corfu ...... saee tor OF 10)
Experiments on the Vitality of

RIES icnetrsecerescats to sssssraseene See. 0h 3)
Experiments on the Vitality of

MEEGS ceccesccses J iccponottas 1842 8 7 3
Exotic Anoplura ............068 soeperlioem Oar OU
Strength of Materials ............ 100 0 0

Completing Experiments on the
Forms of Ships .......... Vee 100 0 0
Inquiries into Asphyxia ......... 10 0 0

Investigations on the Internal
Constitution of Metals ......... 50 0 0

Constant Indicator and Morin’s
Instrument ...secssseesees 1842 10 3 6
£981 12 8

1845.

Publication of the British Associa-
tion Catalogue of Stars......... 351 14 6

Meteorological Observations at

LOS LERITESON Ala eee aes ees 30 18 11
Magnetic and Meteorological Co-

STOEL THTGTIE aA eR as BA Se a 1616 8
Meteorological Instruments at

LTT ee is ties
Reduction of Anemometrical Ob-

servations at Plymouth ......... 25 0 0
Electrical Experiments at Kew

MUDSERVALOLY .....0c0scceeeecoess . 43:17 8
Maintaining the Establishment in

Kew Observatory ...........206 - 149 15 0
For Kreil’s Barometrograph ...... 25 0 0
Gases from Iron Furnaces ...... 50 0 0
MmiferActinopraph .........sscecass 15 0 0
Microscopic Structure of Shells... 20 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ............1843 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds...... OO 1843 2 0 7
Vitality of Seeds............ re S44e5 dar O95 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0
Physiological Actionof Medicines 20 0 0

Statistics of Sickness and Mor-

Reitvein York — 2.:iccs<cnaesen sco 20 0 0
Earthquake Shocks ..........1843 15 14 8
£830 9 9
1846.
British Association Catalogue of
Stars ...... eaveceyess Seeeend 1844 211 15 0

Frossil Fishes of the London Clay 100 0 0

& s. d.
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1839...... sorseesee OO 0 O
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory .....+.e000. .. 146 16 7
Strength of Materials...... mans tne - 60 0 0
Researches in Asphyxia........... =) (6) 16,2
Examination of Fossil Shells...... 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds .........4.. 1844 2 15 10
Vitality of Seeds .......00.4. 1845 712 3
Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Britain ...... 10 0 0
Exotic Anoplura .........00. 1844 25 0 0
Expensesattending Anemometers 11 7 6
Anemometers’ Repairs ........2+0+ 2 3 6
Atmospheric Waves ....... Baedert 3.3 3
Captive Balloons ............ 1844 8 19 8
Varieties of the Human Race
1844 7 6 3
Statistics of Sickness and Mor-
tality In°VOxrKs “eesasredunercessas) (to mO WO
£685 16 0
1847.
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1839 ......... -- 50 0 0
Habits of Marine Animals ...... 10 0 O
Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall ... 10 0 0
Atmospheric Waves ...s...0000. 6 9 38
Vitality of Seeds .....0......eeeeee Mad oti
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Obseryatory ..+...ssseee0e: 107 8 6
£208 5 4
1848.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory ......scecseees 171 15 11
Atmospheric Waves ...cessesseee hei LONG
Vitality of Seeds ...cce..scsseceeee 915 0
Completion of Catalogues of Stars 70 0 0
On Colouring Matters .........++ - 5° 0 0
On Growth of Plants............... 15 0 0
£275 1 8
1849. .
Electrical Observations at Kew
Observatory .......0000+ coscereee 50 0 O
Maintaining Establishment at
GitlO cessecne SGacatacon: Sedacsats ees 76 2 5
Vitality of Seeds .....:....ccsceee SP panei ae |
On Growth of Plants..........s.006 5 0 0
Registration of Periodical Phe-
TIOMIEND seccecdnespaciese she se setts xa 10 0 0
Bill on account of Anemometrical
Observations ceccecsssseesees Mitel De 0
£159 19 6
1850. +
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory ....... ecseceee 200 18 0
Transit of Earthquake Waves... 50 0 O
Periodical Phenomena ......... cna) ite ODO
Meteorological Instrument,
AZOTES seccscecserreccvecsserseeee 20 0 O
£354 18 0

lxvili

£ os. d.
1851. :
Maintaining the Establishment at

Kew Observatory (includes part

of grantin 1849) ......cceeeeee . 309 2 2
Theory of Heat ..........eceeeceeee f U2OR yaa ed
Periodical Phenomena of Animals

and Plants ...... qovsanusasececaee 5 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ...ecesseceeeeees as OMRON CS
Influence of Solar Radiation...... 30 0 0
Ethnological Inquiries ........++4« 12 0 0
Researches on Annelida ........ « HOS 0y 50

= BU) ais
1852.
Maintaining the Establishment at

Kew Observatory (including

balance of grant for 1850) 233 17 8
Experiments on the Conduction

OL FICAL cacassisshasen=pencobosver 5 2. 9
Influence of Solar Radiations ... 20 0 0
Geological Map of Ireland ...... 15 0 0
Researches on the British Anne-

Wi Sapsenerectionas Teeneles peeseesna 107) 108.10
Vitality of Seeds. safer Ge acne ese 10 6 2
Strength of Boiler Plates ......... 10 0 0

£304 6 7
1853.
Maintaining the Establishment at

Kew Observatory ..........s008- 165 0 0
Experiments on the Influence of

Solar Radiation..........sssesee 2) oT 0-0
Researches on the British Anne-

INA DUMREME Scop -uaceosasesesweteces's 10 0 0
Dredging on the East Coast of

MCOUANH pacieewensaaeseecesis ekielceme 10 0 0
Ethnological Queries ............ 5 0 0

£205 0 0
1854.
Maintaining the Establishment at

Kew Observatory (including

balance of former grant) ...... 330 15 4
Investigations on Flax ..........06 DUE ORO
Effects of Temperature on

Wirouphpironh cece c,scewssce ee JOP 0:40
Registration of Periodical Phe-

nomena ...... ReisieNerestsipait-to's sites - 10 0 0
British Annelida .........cscsceees 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ......scscecsssees Dy ee io
Conduction of Heat ...... seseanacs yy Ground

£380 19 7
1855.
Maintaining the Establishment at

Kew Observatory ....... seteeke - 425 0 0
Earthquake Movements ......... 10 6 0
Physical Aspect of the Moon...... LEU Sects
Vitality of Seeds ...........cccceee LOS all
Map of the World.............e000. 15 0 0
Ethnological Queries............. 5 0 0
Dredging near Belfast ............ 4 0 0

6 4

1856.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory :-—
1854.....4 75 0 0

£480 1
——_....

1855......£500 0 a 575 0 0

REPORT—1870.,

£ os. a.
Strickland’s Ornithological Syno-

NYS .cacscrsecdvcstecssesvesses «. 100 0 0
Dredging and Dredging Forms... 913 9
Chemical Action of Light......... 20 0 0
Strength of Iron Plates .......-+... 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical Pheno-

MENA seccecseescssesccecsattscneees 10 0 0
Propagation of Salmon ............ 10 0 0

£734 13 9
1857.
Maintaining the Establishment at

Kew Observatory cos.es.sseeeeee 350 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experiments.. 40 0 0
Dredging near Belfast ......+. -.. 10 0.0
Dredging on the West Coast of

Scotland,........ <anshan'Seeecaeaie 10 0 0
Investigations into the Mollusca

Of California ......ssseseceerees - 10 0 0
Experiments on Flax ......seeee Se amide geld
Natural History of Madagascar... 20 0 0
Researches on British Annelida 25 0 0
Report on Natural Products im-

ported into Liverpool ......... 10 0 0
Artificial Propagation of Salmon 10 0 0O
Temperature of Mines ..........+. it Sina
Thermometers for Subterranean

Observations ....cssesseeeeeeeees 5 7 4
Life-Boats ...ss0.s- Bee 1 eee)

£507 15 4
1858.
Maintaining the Establishment at

Kew Observatory cecsscseesees - 500 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experiments.. 25 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast of

Scotland \cs.ccnsc-secscntt pee er ali a1)
Dredging near Dublin ............ Ay NE
Vitality Of Sede) teesosn.cceskeewen 5 5 0
Dredging near Belfast ..........0. 18 13 2
Report on the British Annelida... 25 0 0
Experiments on the production

of Heat by Motion in Fluids... 20 0 0
Report on the Natural Products

imported into Scotland ......... 10 0 0

£618 18 2
1859.
Maintaining the Establishment at

Kew Observatory ......... eseree 000 0 0
Dredging near Dublin ............ 15710) a
Osteology of Birds...........c00000. 50 0 0
Trish Tinicata: v..2.....0c0-.sessere 5 0 (0
Manure Experiments ......... «we 20 0 0
British Medusidze .......... Saneee Pye aaa indies
Dredging Committee............006 5 0 0
Steam-vessels’ Performance ...... 5 0 0
Marine Fauna of South and West

ofplteland) .v2s.sececsnesereeee ‘wae, 0 30
Photographic Chemistry . eress 2s, OO
Lanarkshire Fossils ...........+- «~ 20 0 1
Balloon Ascents,,.........+. eeeeeees SUN)

£684 11 I
——

1860.
Maintaining the Establishment

of Kew Observatory............. 500 0 0
16 6 0
15 0 0

Dredging near Belfast.....+...se0
Dredging in Dublin Bay.......0066

GENERAL STATEMENT.

& s a.
Inquiry into the Performance of

Steam-vessels......-..-secsesseees 124 0 0
Explorations in the Yellow Sand

stone of Dura Den..... moaet bast 20 0 0
Chemico-mechanical Analysis of

Rocks and Minerals..........+0. 25 0 0
Researches on the Growth ‘of

PRUE Hewes sss cece sss qecesc8 Se coceee 10 0 0
Researches on the Solubility of

RU ee iciaasnacscsensekwisicess - 380 0 0
Researches on the Constituents

of Manures............0+. sooceeeee 25 0 0
Balance of Captive Balloon Ac-

COUNES,.. cosevsceessesessccreesccess 113 6

£1241 7 0
1861,
Maintaining the Establishment

of Kew Observatory ............ 500 0 0
Earthquake Experiments....... 25 0 0
Dredging North and East Coasts

OMBCDHATT. ....eccaceccscecsssces 25 0 0
Dredging Committee :—

1560...... £50 0 0 72 0 0

US61 ...... £22 0 0
Excavations at Dura Den......... 20 0 0
Solubility of Salts ............ meee s5 20 0 0
Steam-vessel Performance ...... 150 0 0
Fossils of Lesmahago ........., 15 0 0
Explorations at Uriconium ,..... 20 0 0
Sliempal Alloys ........:.ccseeses 20 0 0
Classified Index to the Trauaac-

DERM ert onc ses casaeacccentarg 100 0 0
Dredging in the Mersey and Des 5 0 0
Dip Circle ......... Seilesseace ct sme 30 0 0
Photoheliographic Observations 50 0 0
MBO) LACE <0 s000.., ausdaagucpactes 20 0 0
Gauging of Water......... ewesveene 10.9) 0
Alpine Ascents ...... tee ceseeseeeees CoD ie
Constituents of Manures .,..,. 25 0 0

‘fi Lids Suct0
1862.
Maintaining the Establishnient

of Kew Observatory ............ 500 0 0
PAREN LAWS. .........00ecccecceceecs 2265.0
Mollusca of N.-W. America...... 10 0 0
Natural History by Mercantile

BIRO a5 5655385050055 00e cenesesceh ene 10". 0
Tidal Observations ............. Wee 25 60
Photoheliometer at Kew ......... 40 0 0
Photographic Pictures of the Sun 150 0 0
Rocks of Donegal .............00000 25.0. 0
Dredging Durham and North-

0 EG Se o. 25 0 0
Connexion of Storms......... we 20 0 0
Dredging North-East Coast of

Scotland...... sreteecesessscercseee 6 GS 6
Ravages of Teredo ..... Bikueesee, 311 0
Standards of Electrical Resistance 50 9 0
Railway Accidents ...... mee cekh 16 0 0
Balloon Committee ............... 200 0 0
Dredging Dublin Bay ..........:. 10 0 0
Dredging the Mersey ............ 5 0 0
EISOMN CE Teds ceekccibeseectes 20 0 0
Gauging of Water............... +. 1210 0

& «s d.
Steamships’ Performance ......... 150 0 0
Thermo-Llectric Currents ...... 5 0 0
£1293 16 6
1863.
Maintaining the Establishment

of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0
Balloon Committee deficiency... 70 0 0
Balloon Ascents (other expenses) 25 0 0
Entozoa......... Spas papacsereee hess 25 0 0
Coal Fossils ...........cecece0e «.. 20 0 O
EA brine os, seen ees ae eee 20 0 0
Granites of Donegal Seemaep es accecs 5 0 0
Prison Diet.. seseseesersserene 20 0 O
Vertical Atmospheric Movements 13 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............... 50 0 0
Dredging North-east coast of

Scotland) <..c--hegebst descpaast 25 0 0
Dredging Northumberland and

Durham ips.pe:agte. aeacceeel st Jes 17 310
Dredging Committee superin-

bendence,..j7e5<2,-<.wsenest Bek io aes 10 0 0
Steamship Performance spudeta te 100 0 0
Balloon Committee ............... 200 0 0
Carbon under pressnre..... ...... 10 0 O
Volcanic Temperature ............ 100 0 0
Bromide of Ammonium ......... 8 0 0
Electrical Standards............... 100 0 0

Construction and distribu-

PIOUS Fe isso geese aac Het eee 40 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............... 17 00
Kew Additional Buildings for

Photoheliograph ............... 100 0 0
Thermo-Electricity ............... 1 0 0
Analysis of Rocks ............... 8 0 0
Hydroida | j90c: «svanddenpise Aerts 10 0 0

£1608 3 10
1864.
Maintaining the Establishment

of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0
Goal, Fossils ssi 20 0 0
Vertical Atmospheric Move-

INENUSsicsesss odes ties Set ces soeere 20 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............. - 49 0 0
Dredging Northumberland ...... 25 0 0
Balloon Committee ............... 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure............ 10 0 0
Standards of Electric Resistance 100 0 0
Analysis of Rocks............. “ear LO (O90

Pri sdtoidaieee ct cc ie ec ee 10 0 0
ASK HAMS GItssssscevesne te seeeee 50 0 0
Nitrite of Amyle ..............2-0. 10 0 0
Nomenclature Committee ...... 5 0 0
Rain-Gauges .,........c0.s.02- ersese wD LON 8
Cast-Iron Investigation Mapetor 200 Ou.
Tidal Observationsinthe Humber 50 0 6
Spectral! Rays) sae. cscete sree 45 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............... 20 0 0

£1289 15 8
1855.
Maintaining the Establishment

of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0
Balloon Committee ............... 100 0 0
Hydroida ......... tocsectsressescees 13 0 0

lxx

25) Ub
Rain-Gauges.....5 s.csccscsssseeceee 30 0 0
Tidal Observationsinthe Humber 6 8 0
Hexylic Compounds............... 20 0 0
Amyl Compounds...........-..00+8 20 0 0
AvISH HOTA se scacserertu.ceccesaes 25 0 0
American Mollusca ....... Seance: 3.9 0
Orpanie Acids + .2025558.. 5. 4.eseccee 20° 0 0
Lingula Flags Excavation ...... OS0Rs0
HUEY PUCLUS ees tecies sc leveceesrctes 50 0 0
Electrical Standards............... 100 0 0
Malta Caves Researches ......... 30 0 0
Oyster Breeding .............0++ 25 0 0
Gibraltar Caves Researches 150 0 0
Kent's Hole Excavations......... 100 0 0
Moon’s Surface Observations... 35 0 0
Marine Wauma) +s: 22.:is2seaes cress 250° 0
Dredging Aberdeenshire ......... 25 0 0
Dredging Channel Islands ...... 50°00
Zoological Nomenclature......... aa0P40
Resistance of Floating Bodies in

WYREGD cos acteanencuetccs eterno 00 0 0
Bath Waters Analysis ............ 810 0
Luminous Meteors .............+. 40 0 0

£1591 7 10
1866.
Maintaining the Establishment

of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0
Lunar Committee...............0 64 13 4
Balloon Committee ............065 50 0 0
Metrical Committee.........- seen 00280)9.0
Brrbish Ramfalle; Says. esccess 50 0 0
Kilkenny Coal Fields ............ 1460 0
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ...... 15 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............... 50 0 0
Lingula Flags Excavation ...... 20 0 0
Chemical Constitution of Cast

MEOW get spi ee wiacen adem cess eee 50 0 0
Amyl Compounds.................. 2aL .Oes0

_ Electrical Standards............... 100 0 0
Malta Caves Exploration......... 30 0 0
Kent’s Hole Exploration ......... 200 0 0
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon and

Gortiwall 5: .0...c-se.ssSaametenie LUPE
Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast... 25 0 0
Dredging Hebrides Coast......... 50 0 0
Dredging the Mersey ............ 5 0 0
Resistance of Floating Bodies in

WAPET ie skewndsiaca chan e saeco 50 0 0
Polycyanides of Organic Radi-

GAIUS paca tee slomewe dea at onesccon setae 20 0 0
Ra OTN OTIS aoc eengeec ees cama seis 10 0 0
TrishvAmnelidaysc..cncbereresstescs 15 0 0
Catalogue of Crania............... 50 0 0
Didine Birds of Mascarene Islands 50 0 0
Typical Crania Researches ...... 30 0 0
Palestine Exploration Fund...... 100 0 0

£1750 13 4
1867.
Maintaining the Establishment

of Kew Gbservatory............ 600 0 0
Meteorological Instruments, Pa-

TEStING yc coccornviseseinsedesstrcene 50 0 0
Lunar Committee......... csepedses 2201 90) 1°0

REPORT—1870.

£. sis
Metrical Committee.............4. 30 0 0
Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 100 0 0
Palestine Explorations...... scovees OUI 0410
Insect Fauna, Palestine ......... 30 0 0
British Rainfallicit.c.c..-seceseer 50 0 0
Kilkenny Coal Fields ....... ae ZoRO> (O
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ...... 25 0 0
Luminous Meteors ..............- 50 0 0
Bournemouth, &c. Leaf-Beds... 30 0 0O
Dredging, Shetland ............... 75 0 0
Steamship Reports Condensation 100 0 O
Electrical Standards............... 100 0 0
Ethyle and Methyle series ...... 25 0 0
Fossil Crustacea ........-.ssse005+ 25 0 0
Sound under Water ............... 24° 470
North Greenland Fauna ......... 75 0 «0
Do. Plant Beds... 100 0 0
Iron and Steel Manufacture 25 0 0
Patent Laws ~.....-..0.s-. aaNet sie 30 0 0
£1739 “4.0
———s
1868.

Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0
Lunar Committee............. scene 20st Os 10
Metrical Committee......... sesacs 0) (OL)
Zoological Record ....... eceesees 100 0 0
Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 150 0 0
Steamship Performances ......... 100 0 UO
British Rainfall 2...0....csses-a- 50 0 0
Luminous Meteors .............06 50 0 0
Organic ACidS vre.o...cccccnscenene 60 0 0
Fossil Crustacea 25 0 0
Methyliseries )\c-.-.cveccesssoseceee 25 0 0
Mercury and Bile 25 0 0

Organic remains in Limestone
ROCKS a0 cicsence-cveswetsnacee 25 0 0
Scottish Earthquakes ............ 20 0 0
Fauna, Devon and Cornwall ... 30 0 0
British Fossil Corals............... 50 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-beds ............006 50 0 0
Greenland Explorations ......... 100 0 0
Fossil Flora :S.0-<>0cassscceetnese 25 0 0
Tidal Observations ............... 100 0 0
Underground Temperature...... 50 0 6

Spectroscopic investigations of
Animal Substances ............ 5 0 0
Secondary Reptiles, &c. ......... 30 0 0

British Marine Invertebrate
HAUNA “cancencaccovscscesdreereee 100 0 0
£1940 0 0

1869.

Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0
Lunar Committee ...... se nese sebens 50 0 0
Metrical Committee............... 25° 0 0
Zoological Record.................. 100 0 0

Committee on Gases in Deep-
well Water. ....:2ssp.2s4seaereee 25 0 0
British Rainfall............ 5 sacvems 50 0 0

Thermal Conductivity of Iron,
(OCA; dessa spe olee eeeeeeeee ee eeee reed. ORO
Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 150 0 0
Steamship Performances......... 30 0 0

i ewes bone

GENERAL MEETINGS. Ixxi

oo Sane: 1870.
Chemical Constitution of Cast & 81d.
“71 ccokee Sapecee Bee eeeE eee EREe 80 0 0| Maintaining the Establishment of
Iron and Steel Manufacture ... 100 0 0 Kew Observatory ......+0sss000+ 600 0 0
Methyl Series .....2...... 0.0.02 30 0 0} Metrical Committee ............... 25 0 0
Organic remains in Limestone Zoological Record ....ee.seeee eee 100 0 0
BUIRBRE EA ccciciascsccheccsescceavs 10 © 0} Committee on Marine Fauna... 20 0 0.
Earthquakes in Scotland......... LOOP OF Bars: irl Fishes iaccr--consodecs= ace 10 0 0
British Fossil Corals ............. 50 0 Oj} Chemical nature of Cast iron... 80 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ............... 30 0 0} Luminous Meteors .........+00+00 30 0 0
RPBEIOE A cen cacccccceccsscscensce 20-0) 40") Heat in the Blood) gycstes-nes< ce is O00
Tidal Observations ............... TOO OF 70) (British Rainfallc..ccesseeyacs--5ese 100 0 O
Underground Temperature ...... 30 0 0) ThermalConductivttyofIron&c. 20 0 0
Spectroscopic Investigations of British Fossil Corals..........++++- 50 0 0
Animal Substances ............ 5 0 0} Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 150 0 0
BEUPAAMCPACIAS, ......0cc000..-5--00» 12 0 0} Scottish Earthquakes ........+.+ 4 0 0
Kiltorcan Fossils .................. 20 0 0} Bagshot Leaf-Beds ..... Bide genans 15 0 O
‘Chemical Constitution and Phy- Rossiliitloray te. cc.eeatnasseneessse> 25 0 0
siological Action Relations ... 15 0 0 Tidal Observations ..... Setaseaveenl OO 10} (0
Mountain Limestone Fossils ...... 25 0 O/} Underground Temperature...... 50 0 0
Utilization of Sewage ............ 10 0 0) Kiltorean Qiarries Fossils...... 20 0 0
Products of Digestion ............ 10 0 0] Mountain Limestone Fossils ... 25 0 0
£1622 0 0 | Utilization of Sewage .........++- 50 0 0
——————— | Organic Chemical Compounds... 30 0 0
Onny River Sediment ............ 3.0 0
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat 50 0 0
£1572 0 0

Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee.

Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money haye been entrusted
by the Association for the prosecution of particular researches in Science,
are required to present to each following Meeting of the Association a Report
of the progress which has been made ; and the Individual or the Member first
named of a Committee to whom a money grant has been made, must (pre-
viously to the next meeting of the Association) forward to the General
Secretaries or Treasurer a statement of the sums which have been expended,
and the balance which remains disposable on each grant.

Grants of money sanctioned at any one meeting of the Association expire
a week before the opening of the ensuing Meeting; nor is the Treasurer
authorized, after that date, to allow any claims on account of such grants,
unless they be renewed in the original or a modified form by the General
Committee.

No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices of the
British Association without special permission from the General Committee
to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended except in accordance
with the rules of the Association.

In each Committee, the Member first named is the only person entitled to
call on the Treasurer, W. Spottiswoode, Esq., 50 Grosvenor Place, London,
8.W., for such portion of the sums granted as may from time to time be
required.

In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate
the payment of personal expenses to the members.

In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua-
tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named is deemed

lxxil REPORT—1870.

to include, as a part of the amount, whatever balance may remain unpaid on
the former grant for the same object.

All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Association
are to be deposited at the Office of the Association, 22 Albemarle Street,
Piccadilly, London, W., when not employed in carrying on scientific inquiries
for the Association.

General Meetings.

On Wednesday Evening, September 14, at 8 p.m., in the Philharmonic
Hall, Professor G. G. Stokes, D.C.L., F.R.S., President, resigned the office of
President to Professor T. H. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S8., &c., who took
the Chair, and delivered an Address, for which see page Ixxiii.

On Thursday Evening, September 15, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place in
the Free Public Library and Museum.

On Friday Evening, September 16, at 8.30 p.m., in the Philharmonic Hall,
Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on “ The Scientific Use
of the Imagination.”

On Saturday Evening, September 17, in the Music Hall, Lord Nelson
Street, Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on
“ Savages” to the Operative Classes of Liverpool.

On Monday Evening, September 19, at 8.30 p.m., in the Philharmonic
Hall, Professor W. J. Macquorn Rankine, LL.D., F.R.S., delivered a Dis-
course on ‘‘Stream-lines and Waves in connexion with Naval Architecture.”

On Tuesday evening, September 20, at 8p.m., a Soirée took place in the
St. George’s Hall.

On Wednesday, September 21, at 2.30 p,m., the concluding General Meet-
ing took place, when the Proceedings of the General Committee, and the
Grants of Money for Scientific purposes, were explained to the Members.

The Meeting was then adjourned to Edinburgh*.

* The Meeting is appointed to take place on Wednesday, August 2, 1871.

eeere rah

yr ineee-4

ADDRESS

THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY, LL.D., F.RS.,

PRESIDENT.

My Lonps, Lapries, AnD GENTLEMEN,

Ir has long been the custom for the newly installed President of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science to take advantage of the elevation
of the position in which the suffrages of his colleagues had, for the time,
placed him, and, casting his eyes around the horizon of the scientific world,
to report to them what could be seen from his watch-tower ; in what direc-
tions the multitudinous divisions of the noble army of the improvers of
natural knowledge were marching ; what important strongholds of the great
enemy of us all, Ignorance, had been recently captured; and, also, with duc
impartiality, to mark where the advanced posts of science had been driven
in, or a long-continued siege had made no progress.

I propose to endeavour to follow this ancient precedent, in a manner suited
to the limitations of my knowledge and of my capacity. I shall not presume to
attempt a panoramic survey of the world of Science, nor even to give a sketch
of what is doing in the one great province of Biology, with some portions of
which my ordinary occupations render me familiar. But I shall endeavour
to put before you the history of the rise and progress of a single biological
doctrine ; and I shall try to give some notion of the fruits, both intellectual
and practical, which we owe, directly or indirectly, to the working out, by
seven generations of patient and laborious investigators, of the thought
which arose, more than two centuries ago, in the mind of a sagacious and
observant Italian naturalist.

It is a matter of every day experience that it is difficult to prevent
many articles of food from becoming covered with mould; that fruit, sound
enough to all appearance, often contains grubs at the core; that meat, left to
itself in the air, is apt to putrefy and swarm with maggots. Even ordinary
water, if allowed to stand in an open vessel, sooner or later ,becomes turbid
and full of living matter.

The philosophers of antiquity, interrogated as to the cause of these pheno-
mena, were provided with a ready and a plausible answer. It did not enter
their minds even to doubt that these low forms of life were generated in the
matters in which they made their appearance. Lucretius, who had drunk
ae the scientific spirit than any poet of ancient or modern times ex-

1870.

Ixxiv REFORT—1870.

cept Goethe, intends to speak as a philosopher, rather than as a poet, when
he writes that “ with good reason the earth has gotten the name of mother,
since all things are produced out of the earth. And many living creatures,
eyen now, spring out of the earth, taking form by the rains and the heat of
the sun”*, The axiom of ancient science, “ that the corruption of one thing
is the birth of another,” had its popular embodiment in the notion that a seed
dies before the young plant springs from it; a belief so widespread and so
fixed, that Saint Paul appeals to it in one of the most splendid outbursts of
his fervid eloquence :—

‘“‘ Thou fool, that which thou sowest is not quickened, except it die” f.

The proposition that life may, and does, proceed from that which has no
life, then, was held alike by the philosophers, the poets, and the people, of the
most enlightened nations, eighteen hundred years ago; and it remained the
accepted doctrine of learned and unlearned Europe, through the Middle Ages,
down eyen to the seventeenth century.

It is commonly counted among the many merits of our great country-
man, Harvey, that he was the first to declare the opposition of fact to vene-
rable authority in this, as in other matters; but I can discover no justification
for this widespread notion. After careful search through the ‘ Exercita-
tiones de Generatione,’ the most that appears clear to me is, that Harvey
believed all animals and plants to spring from what he terms a “ primor-
dium vegetale,” a phrase which may nowadays be rendered “a vegetative
germ;” and this, he says, is “oviforme,” or “egg-like;” not, he is
careful to add, that it necessarily has the shape of an egg, but because
it has the constitution and nature of one. That this “ primordium oviforme”
must needs, in all cases, proceed from a living parent is nowhere expressly
maintained by Harvey, though such an opinion may be thought to be implied
in one or two passages; while, on the other hand, he does, more than once,
use language which is consistent only with a full belief in spontaneous or
equivocal generation t. In fact, the main concern of Harvey’s wonderful
little treatise is not with generation, in the physiological sense, at all,
but with development; and his great object is the establishment of the
doctrine of epigenesis.

The first distinct enunciation of the hypothesis that all living matter has
sprung from preexisting living matter, came from a contemporary, though a
junior, of Harvey, a native of that country, fertile in men great in all de-
partments of human activity, which was to intellectual Europe in the six-

* Tt is thus that My. Munro renders :-—

Linquitur, ut merito maternum nomen adepta
Terra sit, e terra quoniam sunt cuncta creata.
Multaque nunc etiam exsistunt animalia terris
Imbribus et calido solis concreta vapore.”
De Rerum Natur, lib. v. 793-796.

But would not the meaning of the last line be better rendered ‘‘ Developed in rain-water
and in the warm vapours raised by the sun?” + 1 Corinthians, xy. 36.

} See the following passage in Exercitatio I.:—*‘*Item sponte nascentia dicuntur; non
quod ex putredine oriunda sint: sed quéd casu, nature sponte, et aquivocd (ut aiunt)
generatione, 4 parentibus sui dissimilibus proveniant.” Again, in ‘De Uteri Membranis’:—
“In cunctorum viventium generatione (sicut diximus) hoc solenne est, ut ortum ducunt a
primordio aliquo, quod tum materiam tum efficiendi potestatem in se habet; sitque adeo
id, ex quo et a quo quicquid nascitur, ortum suum ducat. Tale primordium in anima-
libus (sive ab aliis generantibus proveniant, sive sponte, aut ex putredine nascentur) est
humor in tunica aliqué aut putamine conclusus.” Compare also what Redi has to say
respecting Haryey’s opinions, ‘Esperienze,’ p. 11,

ADDRESS. Ixxv

teenth and seventeenth centuries what Germany is in the nineteenth.
It was in Italy, and from Italian teachers, that Harvey received the most
important part of his scientific education. And it was a student trained in the
same schools, Francesco Redi—a man of the widest knowledge and most versa-
tile abilities, distinguished alike as scholar, poet, physician, and naturalist,—
who, just two hundred and two years ago, published his ‘ Esperienze intorno
alla Generazione deg!’ Insetti,’ and gave to the world the idea, the growth of
which it is my purpose to trace. Redi’s book went through five editions in
twenty years; and the extreme simplicity of his experiments, and the clear- ©
ness of his arguments, gained for his views, and for their consequences,
almost universal acceptance.

_ Redi did not trouble himself much with speculative considerations, but
attacked particular cases of what was supposed to be “spontaneous genera-
tion” experimentally. Here are dead animals, or pieces of meat, says he;
I expose them to the air in hot weather, and in a few days they swarm with
maggots. You tell me that these are generated in the dead flesh; but if I
put similar bodies, while quite fresh, into a jar, and tie some fine gauze
over the top of the jar, not a maggot makes its appearance, while the
dead substances, nevertheless, putrefy just in the same way as before.
It is obvious, therefore, that the maggots are not generated by the cor-
ruption of the meat; and that the cause of their formation must be a some-
thing which is kept away by gauze, But gauze will not keep away aériform
bodies, or fluids. This something must, therefore, exist in the form of solid
particles too big to get through the gauze. Nor is one long left in doubt
what these solid particles are; for the blowflies, attracted by the odour of the
meat, swarm round the vessel and, urged by a powerful but, in this case,
misleading instinct, lay eggs, out of which maggots are immediately hatched,
upon the gauze. The conclusion, therefore, is unavoidable; the maggots are
not generated by the meat, but the eggs which give rise to them are brought
through the air by the flies.

These experiments seem almost childishly simple, and one wonders how it
was that no one ever thought of them before. Simple as they are, however,
they are worthy of the most careful study, for every piece of experimental
work since done, in regard to this subject, has been shaped upon the model
furnished by the Italian philosopher. As the results of his experiments
were the same, however varied the nature of the materials he used, it is
not wonderful that there arose in Redi’s mind a presumption, that in all
such cases of the seeming production of life from dead matter, the real ex-
planation was the introduction of living germs from without into that dead
matter*, And thus the hypothesis that living matter always arises by the

* “Pure contentandomi sempre in questa ed in ciascuna altra cosa, da ciascuno pit
sayio, 1a dove io difettuosamente parlassi, esser corretto ; non tacero, che per molte osser-
yazioni molti volti da me fatte, mi sento inclinato a credere che la terra, da quelle prime
piante, e da quei primi animali in poi, che ella nei primi giorni del mondo produsse per
comandemento del soyrano ed omnipotente Fattore, non abbia mai pitt prodotto da se
medesima né erba né albero, né animale alcuno perfetto o imperfetto che ei se fosse; e
che tutto quello, che ne’ tempi trapassati é nato e che ora nascere in lei, o da lei veggiamo,
yenga tutto dalla semenza reale e vera delle piante, e degli animali stessi, i quali col
mezzo del proprio seme la loro spezie conservano. E se bene tutto giorno scorghiamo

_ da’ cadayeri degli animali, e da tutte quante le maniere dell’ erbe, e de’ fiori, e dei frutti im-
_ puiriditi, e corrotti nascere vermi infiniti—

Nonne vides queecunque mora, fluidoque calore
j Corpora tabescunt in parva avimalia verti—

To mi sento, dico, inclinato a ecredere che tutti quei vermi si generino dal seme
2

Ixxvi rEPport—1870.

agency of preexisting living matter, took definite shape; and had, hence-
forward, aright to be considered and a claim to be refuted, in each particular
case, before the production of living matter in any other way could be
admitted by careful reasoners. It will be necessary for me to refer to this
hypothesis so frequently, that, to save circumlocution, I shall call it the
hypothesis of Biogenesis ; and I shall term the contrary doctrine—that living
matter may be produced by not living matter—the hypothesis of Abiogenesis.

In the seventeenth century, as I have said, the latter was the dominant
view, sanctioned alike by antiquity and by authority; and it is interesting to
observe that Redi did not escape the customary tax upon a discoverer of
having to defend himself against the charge of impugning the authority of
the Scriptures*; for his adversaries declared that the generation of bees
from the carcass of a dead lion is affirmed, in the book of Judges, to have
been the origin of the famous riddle with which Samson perplexed the
Philistines :

“Out of the eater came forth meat,
And out of the strong came forth sweetness.”

Against all odds, however, Redi, strong with the strength of demonstrable
fact, did splendid battle for Biogenesis ; but it is remarkable that he held the
doctrine in asense which, if he had lived in these times, would have infallibly
caused him to be classed among the defenders of “spontaneous generation.”
“Omne vivum ex vivo,” “no life without antecedent life,” aphoristically
sums up Redi’s doctrine; but he went no further. It is most remark-
able evidence of the philosophic caution and impartiality of his mind, that,
although he had speculatively anticipated the manner in which grubs really
are deposited in fruits and in the galls of plants, he deliberately admits that
the evidence is insufficient to bear him out; and he therefore prefers the
supposition that they are generated by a modification of the living substance
of the plants themselves. Indeed, he regards these vegetable growths as
organs, by means of which the plant gives rise to an animal, and looks upon
this production of specific animals as the final cause of the galls and of, at
any rate some, fruits. And he proposes to explain the occurrence of para-
sites within the animal body in the same wayT.

paterno; e che le carni, e l’erbe, e l’altre cose tutte putrefatte, o putrefattibili non facciano
altra parte, né abbiano altro ufizio nella generazione deg!’ insetti, se non d’apprestare un
luogo o un nido proporzionato, in cui dagli animali nel tempo della figliatura sieno por-
tati, e partoriti i vermi, o l’uova o Jaltre semenze dei vermi, i quali tosto che nati sono,
troyano in esso nido un sufliciente alimento abilissimo per nutricarsi: e se in quello non
son portate dalle madri queste suddette semenze, niente mai, e replicatamente niente, vi
s'ingegneri e nasca.”—Rep1, Esperienze, pp. 14-16.

* “ Molti, e molti altri ancora vi potrei annoverare, se non fossi chiamato a rispondere
alle rampogne di alcuni, che bruscamente mi rammentano cid, che si legge nel capitolo
quattordicesimo del sacrosanto Libro de’ giudici. . . . .”—Rept, /.c. p. 45.

t+ The passage (Esperienze, p. 129) is worth quoting in full:—
= «Se dovessi palesaryi il mio sentimento crederei che i frutti, i legumi, gli alberi e le
foglie, in due maniere inverminassero. Una, perché venendoi bachi per di fuora, e Cer-
cando l’alimento, col rodere ci aprono la strada, ed arrivano alla pit interna midolla de’
fruttie de’ legni. L/altra maniera si é, che io per me stimerei, che non fosse gran fatto
disdicevole il credere, che quel]’ anima o quella yirti, la quale genera i fioried i frutti nelle
piante viventi, sia quella stessa che generi ancora i bachi di esse piante. E chi sa forse,
che molti frutti degli alberi non sieno prodotti, non per un fine primario e principale, ma
bensi per un uffizio secondario e servile, destinato alla generazione di que’ vermi, servendo
® loro in vece di matrice, in cui dimorino un prefisso e determinato tempo; il quale arri-
yato escan fuora a godere il sole.

¢ ‘‘Iom’ immagino, che questo mio pensiero non yi parra totalmente un paradosso; mentre

ADDRESS. lxxvli

It is of great importance to apprehend Redi’s position rightly; for
the lines of thought he laid down for us are those upon which naturalists
have been working ever since. Clearly, he held Biogenesis as against Abio-
genesis; and I shall immediately proceed, in the first place, to inquire how
far subsequent investigation has borne him out in so doing.

But Redi also thought that there were two modes of Biogenesis. By the
one method, which is that of common and ordinary occurrence, the living
parent gives rise to offspring which passes through the same cycle of changes
as itself—like gives rise to like; and this has been termed Homogenesis.
By the other mode, the living parent was supposed to give rise to offspring
which passed through a totally different series of states from those exhibited
by the parent, and did not return into the cycle of the parent: this is what
ought to be called Heterogenesis, the offspring being altogether, and perma-
nently, unlike the parent. The term Heterogenesis, however, has unfor-
tunately been used in a different sense, and M. Milne-Edwards has there-
fore substituted for it Xenogenesis, which means the generation of something
foreign. After discussing Redi’s hypothesis of universal Biogenesis, then,
I shall go on to ask how far the growth of science justifies his other hypo-
thesis of Xenogenesis.

The progress of the hypothesis of Biogenesis was triumphant and un-
checked for nearly a century. The application of the microscope to anatomy
in the hands of Grew, Leeuwenhoek, Swammerdam, Lyonet, Vallisnieri,
Reaumur, and other illustrious investigators of nature of that day, displayed
such a complexity of organization in the lowest and minutest forms, and
everywhere revealed such a prodigality of provision for their multiplication
by germs of one sort or another, that the hypothesis of Abiogenesis began
to appear not only untrue, but absurd; and in the middle of the eighteenth
century, when Needham and Buffon took up the question, it was almost
universally discredited*.

farete riflessione a quelle tante sorte di galle, di gallozzole, di coccole, di ricci, di calici, di
cornetti e di lappole, che son produtte dalle querce, dalle farnie, da’ cerri, da’ sugheri, da’
lecci e da altri simili alberi da ghianda; imperciocché in quelle gallozzole, e particolar-
mente nelle pit grosse, che si chiamano coronati, ne’ ricci capelluti, che ciuffoli da’ nostri
contadini son detti; nei ricci legnosi del cerro, ne’ ricci stellati della quercia, nelle galluzze
della foglia del leccio si yede evidentissimamente, che la prima e principale intenzione
della natura é formare dentro di quelle un animale yolante; vedendosi nel centro della
gallozzola un uovo, che col crescere e col maturarsi di essa gallozzola va crescendo e matu-
rando anch’ egli, e cresce altresi a suo tempo quel verme, che nell’ uoyo si racchiude ; il qual
yerme, quando la gallozzola é finita di maturare e che é yenuto il termine destinato al
suo nascimento, diventa, di verme che era, unamosca. . . . . Io viconfesso ingenua-
mente, che prima d’aver fatte queste mie esperienze intorno alla generazione degl’ insetti
mi daya a credere, o per dir meglio sospettava, che forse la gallozzola nascesse, perché
arrivando la mosca nel tempo della primavera, e facendo una piccolissima fessura ne’ rami
pit teneri della quercia, in quella fessura nascondesse uno de suoi semi, il quale fosse
cagione che sbocciasse fuora la gallozzola; e che mai non si vedessero galle o gallozzole
ricci 0 cornetti 0 calici o coccole, se non in que’ rami, ne’ quali le mosche ayessero depositate
le loro semenze; e mi daya ad intendere, che le gallozzole fossero una malattia cagionata
nelle querce dalle punture delle mosche, in quella guisa stessa che dalle punture d’altri
animaletti simiglievoli veggiamo crescere de’ tumori ne’ corpi degli animali.”

* Needham, writing in 1750, says :—

“Tes naturalistes modernes s’accordent unanimement 4 établir, comme une vérité cer-
taine, que toute plante vient de sa sémence spécifique, tout animal d’un ceuf ou de quel-
que chose d’analogue préexistant dans la plante, ou dans l’animal de méme espéce qui la
produit.”—Nouvelles Observations, p. 169.

“Les naturalistes ont généralement cru que les animaux microscopiques étaient engen-
drés par des ceufs transportés dans lair, ou déposés dans des eaux dormantes par des

insectes volans.”—Jbid. p. 176.

Ixxvili REPORT—1870.

But the skill of the microscope-makers of the eighteenth century soon
reached its limit. A microscope magnifying 400 diameters was a chef-
Cewvre of the opticians of that day, and, at the same time, by no means
trustworthy. But a magnifying-power of 400 diameters, even when de-
finition reaches the exquisite perfection of our modern achromatic lenses,
hardly suffices for the mere discernment of the smallest forms of life. A
speck, only ,'- of an inch in diameter, has, at 10 inches from the eye, the
same apparent size as an object +>}55 Of an inch in diameter, when mag-
nified 400 times ; but forms of living matter abound the diameter of which is
not more than ;,;4,, of an inch. AA filtered infusion of hay, allowed to
stand for two days, will swarm with living things, among which any which
reaches the diameter of a human red blood-corpuscle, or about =4,, of an
inch, is a giant. Itis only by bearing these facts in mind that we can deal
fairly with the remarkable statements and speculations put forward by Buffon
and Needham in the middle of the eighteenth century.

When a portion of any animal or vegetable body is infused in water, it
gradually softens and disintegrates ; and, as it does so, the water is found to
swarm with minute active creatures, the so-called Infusorial Animalcules, none
of which can be seen, except by the aid of the microscope; while a large pro-
portion belong to the category of smallest things of which I have spoken,
and which must have all looked like mere dots and lines under the ordinary
microscopes of the eighteenth century.

Led by various theoretical considerations which I cannot now discuss, but
which looked promising enough in the lights of that day, Buffon and Need-
ham doubted the applicability of Redi’s hypothesis to the infusorial animal-
cules, and Needham very properly endeavoured to put the question to an ex-
perimental test. He said to himself, if these infusorial animaleules come
from germs, their germs must exist either in the substance infused, or in the
water with which the infusion is made, or in the superjacent air. Now the
vitality of all germs is destroyed by heat. Therefore, if I boil the infusion,
cork it up carefully, cementing the cork over with mastic, and then heat the
whole vessel by heaping hot ashes over it, I must needs kill whatever germs
are present. Consequently, if Redi’s hypothesis hold good, when the infu-
sion is taken away and allowed to cool, no animalcules ought to be developed
in it; whereas, if the animalcules are not dependent on preexisting germs,
but are generated from the infused substance, they ought, by-and-by, to make
their appearance. Needham found that, under the circumstances in which
he made his experiments, animalcules always did arise in the infusions, when
a sufficient time had elapsed to allow for their development.

In much of his work Needham was associated with Buffon, and the results
of their experiments fitted in admirably with the great French naturalist’s
hypothesis of ‘ organic molecules,” according to which, life is the indefeasi-
ble property of certain indestructible molecules of matter, which exist in all
living things, and have inherent activities by which they are distinguished
from not liying matter. Each individual living organism is formed by their
temporary combination. They stand to it in the relation of the particles of
water to a cascade, or a whirlpool; or to a mould, into which the water is
poured. The form of the organism is thus determined by the reaction be-
tween external conditions and the inherent activities of the organic mole-
cules of which it is composed; and, as the stoppage of a whirlpool destroys
nothing but a form, and leaves the molecules of the water with all their
inherent activities intact, so, what we call the death and putrefaction of an
animal, or of a plant, is merely the breaking up of the form, or manner of

ADDRESS. Ixxix

association, of its constituent organic molecules, which are then set free as
infusorial animalcules.

It will be perceived that this doctrine is by no means identical with
Abjiogenesis, with which it is often confounded. On this hypothesis, a piece
of beef, or a handful of hay, is dead only in a limited sense. The beef is
dead ox, and the hay is dead grass; but the “ organic molecules” of the beef
or the hay are not dead, but are ready to manifest their vitality as soon as
the bovine or herbaceous shrouds in which they are imprisoned are rent by
the macerating action of water. The hypothesis therefore must be classified
under Xenogenesis, rather than under Abiogenesis. Such as it was, I think
it will appear, to those who will be just enough to remember that it was pro-
pounded before the birth of modern chemistry and of the modern optical arts,
to be a most ingenious and suggestive speculation.

But the great tragedy of Science—the slaying of a beautiful hypothesis
by an ugly fact—which is so constantly being enacted under the eyes of phi-
losophers, was played, almost immediately, for the benefit of Buffon and
Needham.

Once more, an Italian, the Abbé Spallanzani, a worthy successor and repre-
sentative of Redi in his acuteness, his ingenuity, and his learning, subjected
the experiments and the conclusions of Needham to a searching criticism.
It might be true that Needham’s experiments yielded results such as he had
described, but did they bear out his arguments? Was it not possible, in the
first place, that he had not completely excluded the air by his corks and
mastic? And was it not possible, in the second place, that he had not suf-
ficiently heated his infusions and the superjacent. air? Spallanzani joined
issue with the English naturalist on both these pleas ; and he showed that
if, in the first place, the glass vessels in which the infusions were contained
were hermetically sealed by fusing their necks; and if, in the second place,
_ they were exposed to the temperature of boiling water for three-quarters of
an hour *, no animalcules ever made their appearance within them. It must
be admitted that the experiments and arguments of Spallanzani furnish a
complete and a crushing reply to those of Needham. But we all too often
forget that it is one thing to refute a proposition, and another to prove the
truth of a doctrine which implicitly, or explicitly, contradicts that proposition ;
and the advance of science soon showed that though Needham might be quite
wrong, it did not follow that Spallanzani was quite right.

Modern Chemistry, the birth of the latter half of the eighteenth century,
grew apace, and soon found herself face to face with the great problems
which Biology had vainly tried to attack without her help. The discovery
of oxygen led to the laying of the foundations of a scientific theory of re-
spiration, and to an examination of the marvellous interactions of organic
substances with oxygen. The presence of free oxygen appeared to be one
of the conditions of the existence of life, and of those singular changes in
organic matters which are known as fermentation and putrefaction. The
question of the generation of the infusory animalcules thus passed into a
new phase. For what might not have happened to the organic matter of the
infusions, or to the oxygen of the air, in Spallanzani’s experiments? What
security was there that the development of life which ought to have taken
place had not been checked, or prevented, by these changes ?

The battle had to be fought again. It was needful to repeat the expe-
riments under conditions which would make sure that neither the oxygen

* See Spallanzani, ‘ Opere,’ vi. pp. 42 & 41.

Ixxx rEPorT—1870.

of the air, nor the composition of the organic matter, was altered, in such a
manner as to interfere with the existence of life.

Schulze and Schwann took up the question from this point of view in
1836 and 1837. The passage of air through red-hot glass tubes, or through
strong sulphuric acid, does not alter the proportion of its oxygen, while it
must needs arrest, or destroy, any organic matter which may be contained in
the air. These experimenters, therefore, contrived arrangements by which
the only air which should come into contact with a boiled infusion should be
such as had either passed through red-hot tubes, or through strong sulphuric
acid. The result which they obtained was that an infusion so treated deve-
loped no living things, while if the same infusion was afterwards exposed to
the air such things appeared rapidly and abundantly. The accuracy of these
experiments has been alternately denied and affirmed. Supposing them to
be accepted, however, all that they really proved was, that the treatment to
which the air was subjected destroyed something that was essential to the
development of life in the infusion. This “something” might be gaseous,
fluid, or solid; that it consisted of germs remained only an hypothesis of
greater or less probability.

Contemporaneously with these investigations a remarkable discovery was”
made by Cagniard de la Tour. He found that common yeast is composed of
avast accumulation of minute plants. The fermentation of must, or of wort,
in the fabrication of wine and of beer, is always accompanied by the rapid
growth and multiplication of these Torule. Thus fermentation, in so far as
it was accompanied by the development of microscopical organisms in enormous
numbers, became assimilated to the decomposition of an infusion of ordinary
animal or vegetable matter; and it was an obvious suggestion that the
organisms were, in some way or other, the causes both of fermentation and of
putrefaction. The chemists, with Berzelius and Liebig at their head, at first
laughed this idea to scorn; but in 1843, a man then very young, who has
since performed the unexampled feat of attaining to high eminence alike in ©
Mathematics, Physics, and Physiology,—I speak of the illustrious Helmholtz
—reduced the matter to the test of experiment by a method alike elegant
and conclusive. Helmholtz separated a putrefying, or a fermenting liquid,
from one which was simply putrescible, or fermentable, by a membrane, which
allowed the fluids to pass through and become intermixed, but stopped the
passage of solids. The result was, that while the putrescible, or the
fermentable, liquids became impregnated with the results of the putrescence,
or fermentation, which was going on on the other side of the membrane, they
neither putrefied (in the ordinary way) nor fermented; nor were any of the
organisms which abounded in the fermenting, or putrefying, liquid generated
in them. Therefore, the cause of the development of these organisms must
lie in something which cannot pass through membrane; and as Helmholtz’s
investigations were long antecedent to Graham’s researches upon colloids, his
natural conclusion was, that the agent thus intercepted must be a solid ma-
terial. In point of fact, Helmholtz’s experiments narrowed the issue to this:
that which excites fermentation and putrefaction, and at the same time gives
rise to living forms in a fermentable, or putrescible, fluid, is not a gas and is
not a diffusible fluid; therefore it is either a colloid, or it is matter divided
into very minute solid particles.

The researches of Schroeder and Dusch in 1854, and of Schroeder alone in
1859, cleared up this point by experiments which are simply refinements
upon those of Redi. A lump of cotton-wool is, physically speaking, a pile of
many thicknesses of a very fine gauze, the fineness of the meshes of which

ADDRESS. Ixxxi

depends upon the closeness of the compression of the wool. Now, Schroeder
and Dusch found, that, in the case of all the putrefiable materials which they
used (except milk and yolk of egg), an infusion boiled, and then allowed to
come into contact with no air but such as had been filtered through cotton-
wool, neither putrefied nor fermented, nor developed living forms. It
is hard to imagine what the fine sieve formed by the cotton-wool could
have stopped except minute solid particles. Still the evidence was incom-
plete until it had been positively shown, first, that ordinary air does contain
such particles; and, secondly, that filtration through cotton-wool arrests
these particles and allows only physically pure air to pass. This demon-
stration has been furnished within the last year by the remarkable experi-
ments of Professor Tyndall. It has been a common objection of Abiogenists
that, if the doctrine of Biogeny is true, the air must be thick with germs; and
they regard this as the height of absurdity. But Nature occasionally is ex-
eeedingly unreasonable, and Professor Tyndall has proved that this particular
absurdity may nevertheless be a reality. He has demonstrated that ordinary
air is no better than a sort of stirabout of excessively minute solid particles ;
that these particles are almost wholly destructible by heat; and that they are
strained off, and the air rendered optically pure, by being passed through
cotton-wool.
But it remains yet in the order of logic, though not of history, to show
that, among these solid destructible particles, there really do exist germs
capable of giving rise to the development of living forms in suitable menstrua.
This piece of work was done by M. Pasteur in those beautiful researches
which will ever render his name famous; and which, in spite of all attacks
upon them, appear to me now, as they did seven years ago*, to be
models of accurate experimentation and logical reasoning. He strained air
through cotton-wool, and found, as Schroeder and Dusch had done, that it
contained nothing competent to give rise to the development of life in fluids
highly fitted for that purpose. But the important further links in the chain
of evidence added by Pasteur are three. In the first place, he subjected to
microscopic examination the cotton-wool which had served as strainer,
and found that sundry bodies, clearly recognizable as germs, were among
the solid particles strained off. Secondly, he proved that these germs
were competent to give rise to living forms by simply sowing them in a solution
fitted for their development. And, thirdly, he showed, that the incapacity of
air strained through cotton-wool to give rise to life, was not due to any occult
change effected in constituents of the air by the wool, by proving that the
cotton-wool might be dispensed with altogether, and perfectly free access left
between the exterior air and that in the experimental flask. If the neck of
the flask is drawn out into a tube and bent downwards ; and if, after the con-
_tained fluid has been carefully boiled, the tube is heated sufficiently to destroy
any germs which may be present in the air which enters as the fluid cools,
the apparatus may be left to itself for any time, and no life will appear in
the fluid. The reason is plain. Although there is free communication
between the atmosphere laden with germs and the germless air in the flask,
contact between the two takes place only in the tube; and as the germs
cannot fall upwards, and there are no currents, they never reach the interior
of the flask. But if the tube be broken short off where it proceeds from the
flask, and free access be thus given to germs falling vertically out of the air,

eK “Lectures to Working Men on the Causes of the Phenomena of Organic Nature,”
63,

Ixxxii REPORT—1870.

the fluid which has remained clear and desert for months, becomes, in a few
days, turbid and full of life.

These experiments have been repeated over and over again by independent
observers with entire success ; and there is one very simple mode’of seeing
the facts for one’s self, which I may as well describe.

Prepare a solution (much used by M. Pasteur, and often called ‘ Pasteur’s
solution”) composed of water with tartrate of ammonia, sugar, and yeast-ash
dissolyed therein*, Divide it into three portions in as many flasks ; boil all
three for a quarter of an hour ;- and, while the steam is passing out, stop the
neck of one with a large plug of cotton-wool, so that this also may be
thoroughly steamed. Now set the flasks aside to cool, and when their
contents are cold, add to one of the open ones a drop of filtered infusion of
hay which has stood for twenty-four hours, and is consequently full of the
active and excessively minute organisms known as Bacteria. In a couple of
days of ordinary warm weather, the contents of this flask will be milky,
from the enormous multiplication of Bacteria. The other flask, open and
exposed to the air, will, sooner or later, become milky with Bacteria, and
patches of mould may appear in it; while the liquid in the flask, the
neck of which is plugged with cotton-wool, will remain clear for an inde-
finite time. I have sought in vain for any explanation of these facts,
except the obvious one, that the air contains germs, competent to give rise to
Bacteria, such as those with which the first solution has been knowingly and
purposely inoculated, and to the mould Yungi. And I have not yet been
able to meet with any advocate of Abiogenesis who seriously maintains that
the atoms of sugar, tartrate of ammonia, yeast-ash, and water, under no
influence but that of free access of air and the ordinary temperature, rear-
range themselves and give rise to the protoplasm of Bacterium. But the
alternative is to admit that these Bacteria arise from germs in the air ; and if
they are thus propagated, the burden of proof, that other like forms are gene-
rated in a different manner, must rest with the assertor of that proposition.

To sum up the effect of this long chain of evidence :—

It is demonstrable, that a fluid eminently fit for the development of the
lowest forms of life, but which contains neither germs nor any protein com-
pound, gives rise to living things in great abundance if it is exposed to
ordinary air; while no such development takes place if the air with which
it is in contact is mechanically freed from the solid particles, which ordinarily
float in it and which may be made visible by appropriate means.

It is demonstrable, that the great majority of these particles are de-
structible by heat, and that some of them are germs, or living particles,
capable of giving rise to the same forms of life as those which appear when
the fluid is exposed to unpurified air.

It is demonstrable, that inoculation of the experimental fluid with a drop
of liquid known to contain living particles gives rise to the same phenomena
as exposure to unpurified air.

And it is further certain that these living particles are so minute that the
assumption of their suspension in ordinary air presents not the slightest
difficulty. On the contrary, considering their lightness and the wide
diffusion of the organisms which produce them, it is impossible to conceive
that they should not be suspended in the atmosphere in myriads.

Thus the evidence, direct and indirect, in favour of Brogenesis for all
known forms of life must, I think, be admitted to be of great weight.

* Infusion of hay, treated in the same way, yields similar results; but as it contains
organic matter, the argument which follows cannot be based upon it.

EE aE

—s

ADDRESS. lxxxiil

On the other side, the sole assertions worthy of attention are, that
hermetically sealed fluids, which have been exposed to great and long-
continued heat, have sometimes exhibited living forms of low organiza-
tion when they have been opened.

The first reply that suggests itself is the probability that there must
be some error about these experiments, because they are performed on an
enormous scale every day, with quite contrary results. Meat, fruits, vege-
tables, the very materials of the most fermentable and putrescible infusions,
are preserved to the extent, I suppose I may say, of thousands of tons every
year, by a method which is a mere application of Spallanzani’s experiment.
The matters to be preserved are well boiled in a tin case provided with a
small hole, and this hole is soldered up when all the air in the case has
been replaced by steam. By this method they may be kept for years, with-
out putrefying, fermenting, or getting mouldy. Now this is not because
oxygen is excluded, inasmuch as it is now proved that free oxygen is not
necessary for either fermentation or putrefaction. It is not because the
tins are exhausted of air, for Vibriones and Bacteria live, as Pasteur has
shown, without air or free oxygen. It is not because the boiled meats or
vegetables are not putrescible or fermentable, as those who have had the
misfortune to be in a ship supplied with unskilfully closed tins well know.
What is it, therefore, but the exclusion of germs? JI think that Abio-
genists are bound to answer this question before they ask us to consider
new experiments of precisely the same order.

And in the next place, if the results of the experiments I refer to are really
trustworthy, it by no means follows that abiogenesis has taken place. The
resistance of living matter to heat is known to vary within considerable
limits, and to depend, to some extent, upon the chemical and physical qualities
of the surrounding medium. But if, in the present state of science, the al-
ternative is offered us, either germs can stand a greater heat than has been
supposed, or the molecules of dead matter, for no valid or intelligible reason
that is assigned, are able to rearrange themselves into living bodies, exactly
such as can be demonstrated to be frequently produced in another way, I
cannot understand how choice can be, even for a moment, doubtful.

But though I cannot express this conviction of mine too strongly, I must
carefully guard myself against the supposition that I intend to suggest that no
such thing as abiogenesis ever has taken place in the past, or ever will take
place in the future. With organic chemistry, molecular physics, and phy-
siology yet in their infancy, and every day making prodigious strides, I
think it would be the height of presumption for any man to say that the
conditions under which matter assumes the properties we call “vital” may
not, some day, be artificially brought together. All I feel justified in affirm-
ing is, that I see no reason for believing that the feat has been performed
yet.

And, looking back through the prodigious vista of the past, I find no record
of the commencement of life, and therefore I am devoid of any means of
forming a definite conclusion as to the conditions of its appearance. Belief,
in the scientific sense of the word, is a serious matter, and needs strong
foundations. To say, therefore, in the admitted absence of evidence, that
I have any belief as to the mode in which the existing forms of life have
originated, would be using words in a wrong sense. But expectation is per-
missible where belief is not; and if it were given me to look beyond the °
abyss of geologically recorded time to the still more remote period when the
earth was passing through physical and chemical conditions, which it can no

)xxxiv REPORT—1870.

more sce again than a man can recall his infancy, I should expect to be a
witness of the evolution of living protoplasm from not living matter. I
should expect to see it appear under forms of great simplicity, endowed, like
existing Fungi, with the power of determining the formation of new pro-
toplasm from such matters as ammonium carbonates, oxalates and tartrates,
alkaline and earthy phosphates, and water, without the aid of light. That
is the expectation to which analogical reasoning leads me; but I beg you
once more to recollect that I have no right to call my opinion any thing but
an act of philosophical faith.

So much for the history of the progress of Redi’s great doctrine of Biogenesis,
which appears to me, with the limitations I have expressed, to be victorious
along the whole line at the present day.

As regards the second problem offered to us by Redi, whether Xenogenesis
obtains, side by side with Homogenesis ; whether, that is, there exist not
only the ordinary living things, giving rise to offspring which run through
the same cycle as themselves, but also others, producing offspring which are of
a totally different character from themselves, the researches of two centuries
have led to a different result. That the grubs found in galls are no product
of the plants on which the galls grow, but are the result of the introduction of
the eggs of insects into the substance of these plants, was made out by Val-
lisnieri, Reaumur, and others, before the end of the first half of the eighteenth
century. The tapeworms, bladderworms, and flukes continued to be a strong-
hold of the advocates of Xenogenesis for a much longer period. Jndeed
it is only within the last thirty years that the splendid patience of Von Sie-
bold, Van Beneden, Leuckart, Kiichenmeister, and other helminthologists has
succeeded in tracing every such parasite, often through the strangest wander-
ings and metamorphoses, to an egg derived from a parent, actually or poten-
tially like itself; and the tendency of inquiries elsewhere has all been in the
same direction. A plant may throw off bulbs, but these, sooner or later, give
rise to seeds or spores, which develope into the original form. A polype may
give rise to Medusz, or a pluteus to an Echinoderm, but the Medusa and the
Echinoderm give rise to eggs which produce polypes or plutei, and they are
therefore only stages in the cycle of life of the species.

But if we turn to pathology it offers us some remarkable approximations
to true Xenogenesis.

As I have already mentioned, it has been known since the time of Vallisnieri
and of Reaumur, that galls in plants, and tumours in cattle, are caused by
insects, which lay their eggs in those parts of the animal or vegetable frame
of which these morbid structures are outgrowths. Again, it is a matter of
familiar experience to everybody that mere pressure on the skin will give rise
to a corn. Now the gall, the tumour, and the corn are parts of the living
body, which have become, to a certain degree, independent and distinct
organisms. Under the influence of certain external conditions, elements of
the body, which should have developed in due subordination to its general
plan, set up for themselves and apply the nourishment which they receive to
their own purposes.

From such innocent productions as corns and warts, there are all grada-
tions to the serious tumours which, by their mere size and the mechanical ob-
struction they cause, destroy the organism out of which they are developed ;
while, finally, in those terrible structures known as cancers, the abnormal
growth has acquired powers of reproduction and multiplication, and is only
morphologically distinguishable from the parasitic worm, the life of which
is neither more, nor less, closely bound up with that of the infested organism.

ADDRESS. Ixxxv

If there were a kind of diseased structure, the histological elements of which
were capable of maintaining a separate and independent existence out of the
body, it seems to me that the shadowy boundary between morbid growth and
Xenogenesis would be effaced. And I am inclined to think that the pro-
gress of discovery has almost brought us to this point already. Ihave been
fayoured by Mr. Simon with an early copy of the last published of the valu-
able ‘‘ Reports on the Public Health,” which, in his capacity of their Medical
Officer, he annually presents to the Lords of the Privy Council. The Ap-
pendix to this Report contains an introductory essay “ On the Intimate Pa-
thology of Contagion,” by Dr. Burdon Sanderson, which is one of the clearest,
most comprehensive, and well-reasoned discussions of a great question which
has come under my notice for a long time. I refer you to it for details and
for the authorities for the statements I am about to make.

You are familiar with what happens in vaccination, A minute cut is made in
the skin, and an infinitesimal quantity of vaccine matter is inserted into the
wound. Within a certain time, a vesicle appears in the place of the wound,
and the fluid which distends this vesicle is vaccine matter, in quantity a
hundred- or a thousandfold that which was originally inserted. Now what
has taken place in the course of this operation? Has the vaccine matter by its
irritative property produced a mere blister, the fluid of which has the same
irritative property? Or does the vaccine matter contain living particles,
which have grown and multiplied where they have been planted? The
observations of M. Chauveau, extended and confirmed by Dr. Sanderson
himself, appear to leave no doubt upon this head. Experiments, similar in
principle to those of Helmholtz on fermentation and putrefaction, have proved
that the active element in the vaccine lymph is non-diffusible, and consists of
minute particles not exceeding 5;},, of an inch in diameter, which are
made visible in the lymph by the microscope. Similar experiments have
proved that two of the most destructive of epizootic diseases, sheep-pox and
glanders, are also dependent for their existence and their propagation upon
extremely small living solid particles, to which the title of microzymes is
applied. An animal suffering under either of these terrible diseases is a source
of infection and contagion to others, for precisely the same reason as a tub
of fermenting beer is capable of propagating its fermentation by “infection,”
or “contagion,” to fresh wort. In both cases it is the solid living particles
which are efficient; the liquid in which they float, and at the expense of
which they live, being altogether passive.

Now arises the question, are these microzymes the results of Homogenesis,
or of Xenogenesis; are they capable, like the Torule of yeast, of arising
only by the development of preexisting germs; or may they be, like the
constituents of a nut-gall, the results of a modification and individualization
of the tissues of the body in which they are found, resulting from the opera~
tion of certain conditions? Are they parasites in the zoological sense, or are
théy merely what Virchow has called “ heterologous growths”? It is ob-
vious that this question has the most profound importance, whether we look
at it from a practical or from a theoretical point of view. A parasite may be
stamped out by destroying its germs, but a pathological product can only
be annihilated by removing the conditions which give rise to it.

It appears to me that this great problem will have to be solved for each
zymotic disease separately, for analogy cuts two ways. I have dwelt upon
the analogy of pathological modification, which is in favour of the xenogenetic
origin of microzymes ; but I must now speak of the equally strong analogies
in favour of the origin of such pestiferous particles by the ordinary process
of the generation of like from like,

Ixxxvi REPORT—1870.

It is, at present, a well-established fact that certain diseases, both of plants
and of animals, which have all the characters of contagious and infectious
epidemics, are caused by minute organisms. The smut of wheat is a well-
known instance of such a disease, and it cannot be doubted that the
grape-disease and the potato-disease fall under the same category. Among
animals, insects are wonderfully liable to the ravages of contagious and in-
fectious diseases caused by microscopic Fungi.

Tn autumn it is not uncommon to see flies, motionless upon a window-pane,
with a sort of magic circle, in white, drawn round them. On microscopic
examination, the magic circle is found to consist of innumerable: spores,
which have been thrown off in all directions by a minute fungus called
Empusa musce, the spore-forming filaments of which stand out like a pile of
velvet from the body of the fly. These spore-forming filaments are connected
with others, which fill the interior of the fly’s body like so much fine wool,
having eaten away and destroyed the creature’s viscera. This is the full-
grown condition of the Empusa. If traced back to its earlier stages, in flies
which are still active, and to all appearance healthy, it is found to exist in
the form of minute corpuscles which float in the blood of the fly. These
multiply and lengthen into filaments, at the expense of the fly’s substance ;
and when they have at last killed the patient, they grow out of its body
and give off spores. Healthy flies shut up with diseased ones catch this
mortal disease and perish like the others. A most competent observer, M.
Cohn, who studied the development of the Hmpusa in the fly very carefully,
was utterly unable to discover in what manner the smallest germs of the
Empusa got into the fly. The spores could not be made to give rise to
such germs by cultivation; nor were such germs discoverable in the air, or in
the food of the fly. It looked exceedingly like a case of Abiogenesis, or, at
any rate, of Xenogenesis ; and it is only quite recently that the real course
of events has been made out. It has been ascertained, that when one of the
spores falls upon the body of a fly, it begins to germinate and sends out a
process which bores its way through the fly’s skin; this, having reached the
interior cavities of its body, gives off the minute floating corpuscles which
are the earliest stage of the Empusa. The disease is “‘ contagious,” because a
healthy fly coming in contact with a diseased one, from which the spore-
bearing filaments protrude, is pretty sure to carry off a spore or two. It is
«infectious ” because the spores become scattered about all sorts of matter in
the neighbourhood of the slain flies.

The silkworm has long been known to be subject to a very fatal conta-
gious and infectious disease called the Muscardine. Audouin transmitted it
by inoculation. This disease is entirely due to the development of a fungus,
Botrytis Bassiana, in the body of the caterpillar ; and its contagiousness
and infectiousness are accounted for in the same way as those of the fly-
disease. But of late years a still more serious epizootic has appeared among
the silkworms; and I may mention a few facts which will give you some
conception of the gravity of the injury which it has inflicted on France alone.

The production of silk has been, for centuries, an impertant branch of
industry in Southern France; and in the year 1853 it had attained such a
magnitude, that the annual produce of the French sericulture was estimated
to amount to a tenth of that of the whole world, and represented a money
value of 117,000,000 of francs, or nearly five millions sterling. "What may
be the sum which would represent the money-value of all the industries con-
nected with the working up of the raw silk thus produced is more than I can
pretend to estimate. Suffice it to say, that the city of Lyons is built upon

——

ADDRESS. Ixxxvii

French silk, as much as Manchester was upon American cotton before the
civil war.

Silkworms are liable to many diseases; and, even before 1853, a peculiar
epizootic, frequently accompanied by the appearance of dark spots upon the
skin (whence the name of “ Pébrine ” which it has received), had been noted for
its mortality. But in the years following 1853 this malady broke out with
such extreme violence, that, in 1856, the silk-crop was reduced to a third of
the amount which it had reached in 1853; and, up till within the last year
or two, it has never attained half the yield of 1853. This means not only
that the great number of people engaged in silk-growing are some thirty
millions sterling poorer than they might have been; it means not only that
high prices have had to be paid for imported silkworm-eggs, and that, after
investing his money in them, in paying for mulberry-leaves and for atten-
dance, the cultivator has constantly seen his silkworms perish and himself
plunged in ruin,—but it means that the looms of Lyons have lacked employ-
ment, and that for years enforced idleness and misery have been the por-
tion of a vast population which, in former days, was industrious and well
to do.

In 1858 the gravity of the situation caused the French Academy of
Sciences to appoint Commissioners, of whom a distinguished naturalist, M.
de Quatrefages, was one, to inquire into the nature of this disease, and, if
possible, to devise some means of staying the plague. In reading the Report*
made by M. de Quatrefages, in 1859, it is exceedingly interesting to observe
that his elaborate study of the Pébrine, forced the conviction upon his mind
that, in its mode of occurrence and propagation, the disease of the silkworm
is, in every respect, comparable to the cholera among mankind. But it
differs from the cholera, and, so far, is a more formidable disease, in being
hereditary, and in being, under some circumstances, contagious, as well as
infectious.

The Italian naturalist, Filippi, discovered in the blood of the silkworms
affected by this strange disease a multitude of cylindrical corpuscles, each
about <j, of an inch long. These have been carefully studied by Lebert,
and named by him Panhistophyton ; for the reason that, in subjects in which
the disease is strongly developed, the corpuscles swarm in every tissue
and organ of the body, and even pass into the undeveloped eggs of the
female moth. But are these corpuscles causes, or mere concomitants, of the
disease? Some naturalists took one view and some another; and it was not
until the French Government, alarmed by the continued ravages of the ma-
lady and the inefficiency of the remedies which had been suggested, dis-
patched M. Pasteur to study it, that the question received its final settlement ;
at a great sacrifice, not only of the time and peace of mind of that eminent
philosopher, but, I regret to have to add, of his health.

But the sacrifice has not been in vain. It is now certain that this devas-
tating, cholera-like, Pébrine is the effect of the growth and multiplication
of the Panhistophyton in the silkworm. It is contagious and infectious
because the corpuscles of the Panhistophyton pass away from the bodies of
the diseased caterpillars, directly or indirectly, to the alimentary canal of
healthy silkworms in their neighbourhood; it is hereditary, because the
corpuscles enter into the eggs while they are being formed, and consequently
are carried within them when they are laid; and for this reason, also, it
presents the very singular peculiarity of being inherited only on the mother’s

* Etudes sur les Maladies Actuelles des Vers 4 Soie, p. 53,

Ixxxvili REPORT—1870.

side. There is not a single one of all the apparently capricious and un-
accountable phenomena presented by the Pébrine, but has received its expla-
nation from the fact that the disease is the result of the presence of the mi-
croscopic organism Panhistophyton.

Such being the facts with respect to the Pébrine, what are the indications
as to the method of preventing it? It is obvious that this depends upon the
way in which the Panhistophyton is generated. If it may be generated by
Abiogenesis, or by Xenogenesis, within the silkworm or its moth, the extirpa-
tion of the disease must depend upon the prevention of the occurrence of the
conditions under which this generation takes place. But if, on the other
hand, the Panhistophyton is an independent organism, which is no more
generated by the silkworm than the mistletoe is generated by the oak, or the
apple-tree, on which it grows, though it may need the silkworm for its de-
velopment in the same way as the mistletoe needs the tree, then the indica-
tions are totally different. The sole thing to be done is to get rid of and
keep away the germs of the Panhistophyton. As might be imagined, from
the course of his previous investigations, M. Pasteur was led to believe that
the latter was the right theory; and guided by that theory, he has devised
a method of extirpating the disease, which has proved to be completely
successful wherever it has been properly carried out.

There can be no reason, then, for doubting that, among insects, conta-
gious and infectious diseases, of great malignity, are caused by minute orga-
nisms which are produced from preexisting germs, or by Homogenesis; and
there is no reason, that I know of, for believing that what happens in insects
may not take place in the highest animals. Indeed, there is already strong
evidence that some diseases of an extremely malignant and fatal character
to which man is subject are as much the work of minute organisms as is
the Pébrine. I refer for this evidence to the very striking facts adduced
by Professor Lister in his various well-known publications on the antiseptic
method of treatment. It seems to me impossible to rise from the perusal of
those publications without a strong conviction that the lamentable mortality
which so frequently dogs the footsteps of the most skilful operator, and
those deadly consequences of wounds and injuries which seem to haunt the
very walls of great hospitals, and are, even now, destroying more men than
die of bullet or bayonet, are due to the importation of minute organisms into
wounds, and their increase and multiplication; and that the surgeon who
saves most lives will be he who best works out the practical consequences
of the hypothesis of Redi.

I commenced this Address by asking you to follow me in an attempt to
trace the path which has been followed by a scientific idea, in its long and
slow progress from the position of a probable hypothesis to that of an esta-
blished Law of Nature. Our survey has not taken us into very attractive
regions; it has lain, chiefly, in a land flowing with the abominable, and
peopled with mere grubs and mouldiness. And it may be imagined with
what smiles and shrugs practical and serious contemporaries of Redi and
of Spallanzani may have commented on the waste of their high abilities in
toiling at the solution of problems which, though curious enough S them-
selves, could be of no conceivable utility to mankind.

Nevertheless you will have observed, that before we had travelled very far.

upon our road, there appeared, on the right hand and on the left, fields laden
with a harvest of golden grain, immediately convertible into those things

ADDRESS. Ixxxix

which the most sordidly practical of men will admit to have value—namely,
money and life.

The direct loss to France caused by the Pébrine in seventeen years, cannot
be estimated at less than fifty millions sterling; and if we add to this what
Redi’s idea, in Pasteur’s hands, has done for the wine-grower and for the
yinegar-maker, and try to capitalize its value, we shall find that it will go a
long way towards repairing the money losses caused by the frightful and
calamitous war of this autumn.

And as to the equivalent of Redi’s thought in life, how can we overesti-
mate the value of that knowledge of the nature of epidemic and epizootic
diseases, and consequently of the means of checking, or eradicating, them, the
dawn of which has assuredly commenced?

Looking back no further than ten years, it is possible to select three (1863,
1864, and 1869) in which the total number of deaths from scarlet-fever alone,
amounted to ninety thousand. That is the return of killed, the maimed and
disabled being left out of sight. Why, it is to be hoped that the list of killed
in the present bloodiest of all wars will not amount to more than this! But
the facts, which I have placed before you, must leave the least sanguine
without a doubt that the nature and the causes of this scourge will, one day,
be as well understood as those of the Pébrine are now; and that the long-
suffered massacre of our innocents will come to an end.

And thus mankind will have one more admonition that “the people perish
for lack of knowledge ;” and that the alleviation of the miseries, and the
promotion of the welfare, of men must be sought, by those who will not
lose their pains, in that diligent, patient, loving study of all the multitudi-
nous aspects of Nature, the results of which constitute exact knowledge, or
Science.

It is the justification and the glory of this great Meeting that it is gathered
together for no other object than the advancement of the moiety of Science
which deals with those phenomena of Nature which we call physical. May
its endeavours be crowned with a full measure of success !

1870. g

REPORTS

THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

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Report of the Committee appointed to consider and report on the
various Plans proposed for Legislating on the subject of Steam-
Boiler Explosions, with a view to their Prevention,—the Committee
consisting of Sir Wiuu1am Farreairn, Bart., C.E., LLD., F.RS.,
&c., Sir Joserpu Wurrworru, Bart., C.L., F.R.S., Joun PrEnn, C.E.,
F.R.S., Freprericx J. Bramwe.t, C.E., Hue Mason, SamMvuen
Riesy, Tuomas Scnormip, Cuarius F. Bryer, C.E., Toomas
Wesster, Q.C., and Lavineton E. Fiercuer, C.E.

To the frequent occurrence of steam-boiler explosions, with the loss of life
and property caused thereby, attention was called in a Report read before the
Mechanical Section of the British Association last year at Exeter, and in a
Paper read the year before that, at Norwich. These sad catastrophes still
continue with unabated frequency. In the interval between the Norwich
and Exeter Meetings, 46 explosions occurred, killing 78 persons and injuring
114 others. Since then 57 more explosions have occurred, killing 99 more
persons and injuring 96 others. So great is the regularity with which these
catastrophes occur, that it was stated at Exeter that it was to be feared that as
many lives would be lost by explosions before the next Meeting as had been
lost since the last. This, it will be seen from the figures just given, has been
more than fulfilled. Taking the average of a number of years, it appears that
about 50 explosions occur every year, killing about 75 persons and injuring
as many others.

It is not intended in this Report to enter on a consideration of the causes
of steam-boiler explosions. That has already been done on other occasions.
It need, therefore, merely be stated in passing that the experience of another
year only confirms the Committee in their opinion, previously expressed, that
explosions are not accidental, that they are not mysterious, but that they
arise from the simplest causes, and may be prevented by the exercise of
common knowledge and common care. Boilers burst simply from weakness,
that weakness arising in some cases from original malconstruction, in others
from defective condition consequent on wear and tear, and in others again
from neglect of attendants (through allowing the plates over the furnace
to become overheated from shortness of water &c.). Competent inspection

1870, ; B

2 REPORT—1870.

is adequate to detect the weakness of the boiler in time to prevent explosion,
whether that weakness arise from malconstruction or from defective condition,
while it tends to stimulate attendants to carefulness, and thus to diminish
the number of those explosions arising from oversight. It is very generally
thought that most explosions result from the neglect of the attendant. Such,
however, is not the case. On analyzing the causes of the explosions that
occurred from the 1st of January 1861 to the 18th of June 1870, it appears
that 120 explosio’ equal to 40 per cent. of the whole number, were due to
the malconstruction of the boilers, either in the shells or fittings; 88 explo-
sions, equal to 29 per cent., were due to the defective condition of the boilers,
either in the shells or fittings; 44 explosions, equal to 15 per cent., were
due to the failure of the seams of rivets at the bottom of externally fired
boilers ; 38, equal to 13 per cent., were due to overheating of the plates;
5, equal to 2 per cent., were due to excessive pressure of steam through the
attendants tampering with safety-valves ; while 1, equal to, say, 3 per cent.,
occurred to an economizer, but whether from gas or overpressure of steam is
uncertain; and 1 other, equal to, say, + per cent., arose from causes entirely
independent of the construction or condition of the boiler, and may thus be
termed “accidental.” Of those due to overheating of the plates, 30 explo-
sions, equal to 10 per cent. of the whole number, arose from shortness of
water; 6, equal to 2 per cent., from incrustation; 1, equal to 3 per cent.,
from the use of boiler-compositions; and 1, equal to 3 per cent., from causes
requiring further consideration. The total number of these explosions the
causes of which were ascertained, was 297. From this list it will at once
be seen that the two leading causes of the explosions enumerated therein
were malconstruction and defective condition, a small proportion only being
due to the neglect of the attendants. It may be put shortly, that for every
explosion due to the boiler-minder through neglecting the water-supply &c.,
six are due to the boiler-maker or boiler-owner through making or using
bad boilers. It is clear, therefore, that the adoption of competent inspection
by every boiler-owner in the kingdom would do much to prevent the constant
recurrence of boiler explosions, and to save the greater part of the 75 lives
annually sacrificed. This fact is now generally admitted; and hence the
question is not unfrequently asked, Since competent inspection would pre-
vent explosions, and steam-users neglect so simple a precaution, why is not
inspection enforced by law? Juries, in bringing in verdicts consequent on
steam-boiler explosions, frequently recommend that the Government should
render inspection compulsory ; and this view appears to be very widely enter-
tained, in consequence of which various plans for legislative enactment have
been proposed. The object of this Report is to deal with these plans, and
give the result of the Committee’s deliberations thereon.

This is a particularly opportune moment for the presentation of such a
Report. Last Session of Parliament a Select Committee of the House of
Commons was appointed to inquire into the cause of steam-boiler explosions,
and the best means of preventing them; and this Committee, whose labours
are not yet completed, have been investigating whether it is expedient that
boiler-inspection should be enforced by law, and, if so, what is the best way
of enforcing it. It is therefore important at this time that discussion on this
subject should be encouraged, and suggestions from all parties obtained. It
is trusted that this Report will aid in promoting this object and in arriving
at the best means of rendering the inspection of boilers universal throughout
the entire country.

With these introductory remarks the Committee will proceed to the con

ON STEAM-BOILER-EXPLOSION LEGISLATION. 3

sideration of such of the plans “ proposed for legislating on the subject of
steam-boiler explosions, with a view to their prevention,” as have come
under their notice.

Five systems of compulsory inspection appear to be now before the public.
These may each be stated and considered in turn.

Prawn No. 1.—It has been proposed that the inspection of all the boilers
in the kingdom should be carried out by the Board of Trade. To this plan
there are many objections. On the one hand, it would impose on the
Government additional burdens, which they have expressed themselves
unwilling to incur; while on the other it would prove harassing to the
steam-user. It would, it is feared, be found to work arbitrarily. Such a
system would lack that elasticity which is necessary to conform to the con-
venience of the individual steam-user. There would be a great danger of its
hampering progress. It would certainly not find favour with the generality
of steam-users, nor ever be voluntarily accepted by them except as the
last resort.

Pran No. 2.—A second proposition is, that, instead of the inspection being
carried out by the Board of Trade, it should be carried out by town councils
or other local authorities, such authorities appointing their own inspectors.
This plan would admit of more elasticity than the previous one, inasmuch as
the inspection would emanate from several centres instead of from one.
From the fact, however, of the inspections emanating from several centres
instead of from one, an element of discord would be introduced, from which
many contradictions and many absurdities would ensue. If it were a question
of establishing Greenwich time in every market town and country village
throughout the kingdom, there might be little difficulty in effecting such an
object by such an organization, since Greenwich time, by the help of the
Astronomer Royal, could be put beyond all question, and the work of
establishing it throughout the kingdom would be one of diffusion and not of
origination. To regulate the construction of steam-boilers, however, is a
totally different matter. The science of boiler-making is a growing one. It
is in a transition state; and, in spite of the amount of information constantly
disseminated, great ignorance prevails with regard to it. In consequence of this,
one corporation would declare a boiler safe which another corporation would
declare unsafe, so that a boiler carried by rail from one part of the country
to another might be counted safe at the beginning of its journey and unsafe
atthe end. For instance: in Lancashire the practice of strengthening flue-
tubes at the ring-seams with flanged joints or hoops of T-iron, or other
suitable section, is highly approved. In fact it is thought that no high-
pressure boiler should be constructed nowadays without these appliances.
In Cornwall, however, nothing can convince steam-users of their necessity,
and Cornishmen persistently adhere to the ignorant superstition which the
Franklin Institute of Pennsylvania endeavoured to dispel thirty-four years
ago, viz. that a boiler cannot explode as long as it is properly supplied with
water. They appear to believe that furnace-tubes, though of great length
and diameter, and though worked at high pressures of steam, can only
collapse from the neglect of the water-supply, or, in other words, from the
neglect of the attendant and not of the owner or the maker. In Cornwall,
boiler-flue after boiler-flue collapses, simply from weakness, till the Cornish
boiler stands in the return of explosions as one of the most dangerous. These
explosions are the result of gross malconstruction, coupled with neglected
condition. Yet Cornishmen will not see it, and they only attribute every
explosion to shortness of water. Local administration under such circum-

4. REPORT—1870.

stances would be powerless; while, even apart from undue influence, and
simply from the want of due experience in so important a matter as the
construction of steam-boilers, the decisions of local authorities would be
frequently contradictory. Such a system would reintroduce the evils we are
trying to eradicate from our courts of law, viz. that a verdict given in one
court is frequently contradicted in another. Though the plan of intrusting
the inspection of all the boilers in the kingdom to local authorities might
answer in the neighbourhood of some of the large manufacturing centres, it
would not do so throughout the entire country.

Prawn No. 3.—Another proposition is, to hand over the duty of inspecting
and certifying all the boilers in the kingdom to divers authorized parties,
such as accredited boiler-makers, private-inspection associations, insurance
companies, &e. This plan would, like the one just referred to, be liable
to produce contradictory verdicts, while it has the additional objection that
it fails to secure the responsibility of the inspections. To allow certificates
to be granted by boiler-makers would be a most invidious course. It could
not be a wholesome practice, especially under the influence of keen com-
petition, for one maker to be called in to approve or condemn a boiler made
by another; while the fact that 40 per cent. of the explosions that happen
are due to malconstruction, shows that boiler-makers are not, after all, good
judges in this matter,—a view which is corroborated by the unsatisfactory and
contradictory evidence frequently given by them at coroners’ inquests conse-
quent on boiler explosions. Further, it is presumed that every boiler-owner
would have to pay for his own certificate ; so that on this system the most in-
dulgent offices would clearly get the greatest amount of custom, and those which
only granted faithful certificates would be driven out of the market by the
less scrupulous. Under these circumstances it is feared that the sale of
certificates would soon degenerate into a sale of indulgences. Besides this,
how is this system to be practically worked? Who is to see that the steam-
user has the certificates on his boilers regularly renewed as they fall out?
These certificates would extend for a year only from each “ entire” examina-
tion, and would lapse at different parts of the year. A steam-user with
twelve boilers would want twelve certificates every year; and one of these
might fall out each month. Is the Government to undertake the responsi-
bility of seeing that these certificates are regularly renewed? Is it to inspect
the inspectors? Such a plan, it is thought, would be impracticable, while it
would be after all but another form of Governmental inspection, and one of a
very complicated description.

Puan No. 4.—The fourth plan starts on the same basis as the preceding
ones, viz. that of rendering inspection compulsory, and recommends that
Parliament should enact that no boiler should be worked unless periodically
inspected and certified, at least once a year, as safe and trustworthy. Instead,
however, of intrusting the duty of carrying out these inspections and
granting the certificates to the Board of Trade, or to the town councils, or
other local authorities, or to certified boiler-makers, private-inspection asso-
ciations, or insurance companies, it proposes that there should be formed a
National Steam-Users’ Board, and that this Board should be empowered to
carry out the system of inspection required, including the granting of certi-
ficates, fixing the rate of charge for each boiler, &c. This Board to be an
honorary and representative body, about one-half of its members being men
of commerce (that is to say, mill-owners or others using boilers for mercantile
purposes), and the remainder to be men of science (that is to say, engineers
and others competent to advise on matters relating to the inspection of

ON STEAM-BOILER-EXPLOSION LEGISLATION. ; 5

boilers, and to add weight to the counsels of the Board)*. None of the
members of the Board to retain office longer than four years without re-
election, one-fourth retiring every year, so that every four years the Board
would be entirely recruited, either with new members or re-elected ones.
The Board to be appointed in such a way as to secure the fair representation
of the general body of steam-users, and to merit their confidence, the
appointment being effected either by popular election, every steam-user
haying a vote for each of his boilers, or by any other appropriate method. If
preferred, there might be a number of district steam-boards with geographical
limits assigned to each, instead of a single national one; and it is well worthy
of consideration which would be the better plan of the two. If the plan of
district boards were adopted, it would then be well for an annual conference
to be held, composed of deputies from each of the district boards, in order
that the results of the working of each district might be compared ; and this,
it is thought, would promote a wholesome rivalry.

The following are set forth as some of the distinctive features and advan-
tages of this system of administration, and as equally applicable whether the
central Steam Board or the district ones are adopted.

No. 1. This system would throw no administrative responsibility on the
Government, whether of a financial or engineering character.

No. 2. It would secure the integrity and efficiency of the inspections,
inasmuch as the work would not be undertaken for profit, and the Board or
Boards would be established on too wide a basis to be influenced by local or
private interests. At the same time the boiler-owners would be protected
from arbitrary interference, inasmuch as the inspections in each case would
be controlled by a Board or Boards composed principally of steam-users, and
appointed by themselves.

No. 3. This plan would secure to the country a large amount of valuable
engineering information. It would afford the opportunity of ascertaining
how many boilers there are in the kingdom, how many varieties of con-
struction, and how many boilers to each class, as well as the various pressures
at which they are worked. Also it would afford the opportunity of ascer-
taining the approximate horse-power throughout the whole kingdom, as well
as the consumption of fuel for boiler-purposes. Added to this it would afford
the means, at a perfectly nominal outlay per boiler, of establishing a fund for
scientific research on any doubtful questions with regard to the safety and
economical working of steam-boilers and engines.

The above is but a very brief outline of the fourth plan proposed for
carrying out compulsory inspection ; and it is found impossible in the compass
of this Report to enter upon it in detail. The sketch given, however, may
be sufficient to afford a general idea. It will be seen that this plan is inde-
pendent of Governmental interference further than the passing of an act, in
the first instance, to enforce the inspection of every boiler in the kingdom,
and to empower the Steam Board or Boards to carry out these inspections
and adjust the rates, &c. Thus the steam-users would be left to govern
themselves, a responsibility with which it is thought they might be intrusted,
since they have a strong desire to avoid Governmental interference, and they

would know that, unless they succeeded, the Government would take the
matter into its own hands. The Committee consider this plan calculated to
guard the inspections against being lax and contradictory on the one hand,

* It might be desirable that clauses should be introduced to prevent parties with special
and private interests having a seat at the Board ; but details of this character are purposely
ayoided in this sketch.

6 REPORT—1870.

or arbitrary and oppressive on the other—dangers against which the three
previous plans would not, they think, afford sufficient protection; and thus
they regard the proposed national Steam Board or national system of district
Boards as adequate to the prevention of explosions without harassing steam-
users.

Pran No. 5.—This plan differs from the preceding inasmuch as it does
not propose to enforce inspection directly by law, but to impose a heavy
penalty on the occurrence of every explosion, with the view of inducing
steam-users to take precautionary measures, and have their boilers in-
spected*. With this penalty system it is proposed to ally the principle of
steam-boiler insurance by joint-stock companies, thinking that while boiler-
owners would be driven by the penalty to insure, insurance companies would
be driven to inspect, as the penalty, though falling in the first instance oi
the owner, would be ultimately paid by the insurance company.

On considering this proposition, it appears by no means clear that a penalty
would have the effect of inducing all steam-users to enrol their boilers. The
incredulity of many as to the possibility of their boilers exploding is so great
that nothing would convince them but the occurrence of the calamity itself.
It would therefore, it is thought, be some time before the penalty system
took effect, and, this being the case, several lives would be lost in the mean-
time. Indeed, unless the simple announcement that the Government had
established a penalty were sufficient to promote general enrolment, the system
could not come into force until the penalty was exacted; and before this
could be done, explosions must happen, and thus lives be lost. Still the
Committee cannot doubt, though the effect of the penalty might be tardy in
its operation, that in process of time it would induce many steam-users, if
not all, to avail themselves of inspection.

Passing over the question as to the success of the penalty in promoting
inspection, the next question is as to the value of the inspections by com-
peting joint-stock insurance companies. This is by no means a simple
subject, and one on which a great deal of misapprehension occurs. A few
brief remarks upon it are all that can be offered in the limits of this paper.

Commercial insurance is founded on the principle of a commutation of
risks. Given the number of fires that occur per annum on an average, and
we have the risk of fire-insurance. Given the number of deaths that occur
throughout the country per annum, and we haye the risk of life-insurance.
Given the number of persons injured every year by railway-travelling, and
we have the risk of railway-passenger insurance. Now, it will be seen in
these cases that the companies adopt little or no preventive measures. It is
true that before a house or a life is insured, a general examination is made
in each case ; but these are not followed up by a series of preventive measures.
In the case of accidental-death insurance, no precautionary measures are
adopted whatever. A passenger, on taking his railway ticket, takes also an
insurance ticket, and thereby enters what may be termed a legalized lottery.
If he is injured in his journey he receives some return for his outlay ; if not,

he loses it, and the company gains it. This is a perfectly above-board trans—

action. It is quite understood that the company adopt no precautionary
measures. They do not inspect the railway-line, they do not inspect the

axles or tires of the carriages, the points and crossings, the signals or the ©

signalmen. The whole matter is understood on both sides to be simply a
commutation of risk; and the company merely profess to insure against

* These penalties to be applied to forming a general fund for compensating those
injured by the explosions.

ON STEAM-BOILER-EXPLOSION LEGISLATION. : ve

accident. Now it will be seen that before this principle can be applied to
the prevention of boiler explosions, some serious qualifications must be made.
It has already been seen that boiler explosions are not accidental. To term
a boiler explosion an accident is to mislead, and thus do much mischief.
Boiler explosions may be prevented by common knowledge and common care ;
and these every boiler-owner is bound in justice to his workmen to exercise.
A boiler-owner has no right to insure himself against the pecuniary results
of his own neglect which may cost the lives of his workpeople. To this it
may be replied that when the principle of insurance has been applied to
boilers, inspection has been coupled with it, and further, that it is the interest
of insurance offices that such should be the case, since, inasmuch as they have
dividends to pay, they are bound to inspect in self-protection. This view
obtains very general currency. It is, however, a total fallacy that the joint-
stock insurance principle, as at present applied, affords any inducement to the
adoption of inspection. This can be plainly shown in a few words. The
object of a joint-stock company is clearly pecuniary profit—not philanthropy ;
and this being the case, such a company would not expend a pound to save a
shilling. Now it appears, from data which have been accumulated for years,
that the risk of explosion with steam-boilers is about one in two thousand ; so
that the cost of insurance is 1s. per £100. The cost of an annual “ entire”
examination, which is essential to sound inspection, may be taken in round
numbers as about 20s. per boiler. Thus, inspection costs about 20s., while
insurance costs ls.; or, at all events, inspection costs much more than in-
surance. Consequently it will pay an insurance office better to allow boilers
to blow up, and pay compensation, than to prevent explosions and pay for
inspection. Inspection is dear, insurance is cheap. Inspection eats away
the dividends. ‘he interest of a joint-stock company, therefore, is to lavish
insurance and stint inspection.

There are further points in the mode in which joint-stock insurance is at
present applied to steam-boilers which may be called attention to. Insurance
companies adopt scales of charges according to the risk run; and thus they
class the boilers A, B, and C, as they may be first-, second-, or third-rate.
This is insuring boilers simply on the principle of risks, and ignores altogether
the danger to life. If boilers can only be worked at a risk, they should not
be worked at all. Again, the charge for insurance rises according to the
pressure of the steam. This is to tax progress, and make a market of
engineering enterprise. Again, insurance companies charge so much for the
first £100 insured on a boiler, the same amount for the second £100, the
same for the third £100, and so on, though the payment for the insurance of
the first £100 included the charge for inspection. In this arrangement the
value of inspection appears to be ignored. The danger of explosion is
assumed to be as great after the charge has been paid for inspection as before.
An accidental-death company, insuring railway-passengers’ lives, could not
adopt a scale of charges that would more consistently ignore the principle of
prevention, and adopt that of hazards. Again, insurance companies pay
compensation in case of minor damage, which emboldens a boiler-owner to
neglect any precautionary advice given in consequence of the inspections. If
he employ an inferior attendant in order to save 5s. a week in his wages, and
the boiler becomes injured thereby, the cost of repair is paid by the company,
and not by himself. This system entirely absolves a boiler-owner from the
results of his own neglect.

These remarks will suffice to show that the principle of insurance, as at
present applied to steam-boilers by joint-stock companies, is not all that is

8 REPORT—1870.

to be desired for the prevention of steam-boiler explosions, and that before
the Government will be justified in handing over the inspection of all the
boilers in the kingdom to a number of competing joint-stock companies,
considerable modificatious will have to be enforced; and it will be well now
to consider whether the imposition of the proposed penalty would have the
desired effect, or whether any other steps would be necessary.

The penalty upon the boiler-user in the event of explosion would, as already
stated, ultimately fall upon insurance companies—that is to say, in those cases
where the boilers were enrolled. Now if that penalty were made sufficiently
heavy, it might make it more expensive for companies to permit explosions
and pay compensation, than to prevent them and pay for inspection, and thus
just reverse the position that obtains at present. For this it would be neces-
sary that the penalty should not be less than £1000 or £2000. Added to the
penalty imposed on the boiler-owner, in the event of explosion, to induce
him to enrol, it might be well to impose another penalty of equal amount on
the company, more fully to induce them to inspect. The first of these
penalties, the one imposed on the boiler-owner, should be exacted uncon-
ditionally ; the other, imposed on the insurance company, only after it had
been shown on an examination by a Government officer that the company had
failed in their duty. Added to the imposition of these penalties, it would be
necessary for it to be enacted that no company should have more than one rate
of charge; otherwise they would meet the risk on dangerous boilers simply by
raising the rate. A fixed rate would also put an end to the taxing of high-
pressure steam, as the rate would be the same for 10 lbs. as for 100 lbs. Added
to this, the present system of insuring against minor damages should be pro-
hibited, as this completely destroys the owner’s responsibility. Such are some
of the restrictions which it appears necessary to impose upon the principle of
joint-stock insurance before it would be applicable, by a number of competing
companies, to steam-boilers, with a view to the prevention of explosions.

The Committee are not without apprehensions, however, that though the
principle of joimt-stock insurance might be surrounded with a series of checks
and counterchecks, it yet would lead to inspection being cut down to the
lowest possible point. On the other hand, were the inspection enforced by
law, and nationally administered, either by a central Steam Board or by a
series of district ones, they consider that a far more generous system would
be secured. The Steam Boards, uninfluenced either by private or local
interests, or by the desire to accumulate profits, would take altogether higher
ground, and inspect, not simply in their own interests, and just sufficiently
to narrowly escape explosion, but with a view to assist steam-users, dissemi-
nate practical information on the making and management of boilers, and
promote progress. These objects would be altogether foreign to competing
joint-stock insurance companies.

The Committee have now stated, they trust impartially, the various plans
which have come under their notice, remarking, as they proceeded, on such
of the points in each as appeared to them to be defective, and they would
now beg to solicit the most ample discussion of this important subject.

In drawing this Report to a close, the Committee wish to make a brief
reference to the one they presented to the Mechanical Section of the British
Association last year, on the subject of “ Coroners’ Inquiries in connexion
with Boiler Explosions.” In that Report they pointed out the defects in
these investigations, and how necessary it was that improvements should be
effected, expressing their belief that full investigation and plain-speaking
would, of themselves, do much to prevent the recurrence of these catastrophes.

COMPOSITION AND DISTRIBUTION OF HAMATITE IRON-ORES. 9

The Committee still hold this view, and think that, had coroners’ verdicts
been as satisfactory as they might have been, boiler explosions would not
haye been as numerous as they now are. With the additional experience
of another year they feel compelled to take one other step in advance, and
they have come to the conclusion that the time has arrived when the Govern-
ment should enforce the periodical inspection of all steam-boilers, though, as
already stated, they do not think that the Government should turn boiler-
inspector*. They are convinced that explosions might be, and ought to
be, prevented ; that competent inspection is adequate for this purpose, and
that any well-organized system of inspection, extended throughout the entire
country, would practically extinguish boiler explosions, and save the greater
part of the 75 lives now annually sacrificed thereby.
(Signed on behalf of the Committee)

Witrram Farrparran, Chairman.
Manchester, September 12th, 1870.

Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of calling the atten-
tion of Her Majesty’s Government to the importance of completing,
without delay, the valuable investigation into the composition and
geological distribution of the Hematite Iron-ores of Great Britain
and Ireland, which has been already in part published in the Memoirs
of the Geological Survey,—consisting of Prof. Sroxss, F.R.S., Prof.
Hargnsess, F.R.S., and R. A.C. Gopwin-Avsten, F.R.S.

Tne Committee appointed at the Exeter Meeting of the Association “for the
purpose of calling the attention of Her Majesty’s Government to the import-
ance of completing, without delay, the valuable investigation into the com-
position and geological distribution of the hematite iron-ores of Great Britain
and Ireland, which has been already in part published in the Memoirs of the
Geological Survey,” present to the General Committee the following Report :—

In execution of their duty, the Committee had in the first instance to
consider to what department of Government the application should be
addressed. For the reasons stated in the application itself, they decided that
it belonged to the Education department. They accordingly addressed the
following letter to the Lord President of the Council :—

“ Lensfield Cottage, Cambridge,
17th December, 1869.
‘*My Lorp,—I have the honour to inform your Lordship that, at the last
Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, a resolu-
tion was passed appointing a Committee ‘ for the purpose of calling the atten-
tion of Her Majesty’s Government to the importance of completing, without

* From the conclusion that ‘the time has arrived when the Government should enforce
the periodical inspection of all steam-boilers,”’ one of the members of the Committee,
F. J. Bramwell, Esq., C.E., wishes to express his dissent, ““as in his judgment not even
the best of the modes yet suggested for an inspection would be free from hindering
improvements in the construction and use of steam-boilers, and, in his opinion, the saving

of some out of the few lives annually now lost would be dearly purchased by fettering the
progress of mechanical engineering.”

10 REPORT—1870.

delay, the valuable investigation into the composition and geological distri-
bution of the hematite iron-ores of Great Britain and Ireland, which has
been already in part published in the Memoirs of the Geological Survey.’

“Your Lordship is doubtless aware of the remarkable process invented
some years ago by Mr, Bessemer, for the conversion of crude cast iron into
steel or wrought iron,—a process by the application of which those important
materials can be manufactured at a much cheaper rate than formerly. The
royalty which at present exists on iron to which the Bessemer process has
been applied will shortly expire, and its expiration will probably give a great
impetus to the iron trade of the country.

“Tt is not, however, every iron-ore that iron-masters have been in the habit
of employing which can be used for the production of cast iron destined for
conversion by the Bessemer process ; for there are certain impurities which
that process fails to remove, and which are extremely injurious to steel or
wrought iron. This difficulty is got over by preparing the iron from hema-
tite, an iron-ore which is free from those impurities.

‘© Accordingly, on the expiration of the Bessemer royalty, a great demand
for hematite is likely to arise ; and it will be important for the iron trade of
the country that it should be known where hematite is to be found. For
many of the counties of England the requisite information is contained in
the Memoirs referred to in the resolution quoted above; and the object of
the British Association is merely to urge on Her Majesty’s Government the
importance of continuing and completing, without delay, the investigation
thus so ably begun.

«‘ Although the application of the British Association relates to trade, I
have addressed myself to your Lordship rather than to the President of the
Board of Trade, because it is to be presumed that the investigation would be
best completed by the same body by which it was begun, namely the Staff
of the Geological Survey; and that belongs to the department over which
your Lordship presides.

“‘The Committee will be ready to wait on your Lordship, should you think
a personal interview expedient. The Committee consists of Professor Harkness,
President of the Geological Section at the Exeter Meeting of the British
Association, R. Godwin-Austen, Esq., F.R.S., Vice-President, and myself.

«‘T haye the honour to be, &c.,
“To the Right Honourable “G. G. Sroxss.”
The Earl de Grey and Ripon,
Lord President of the Council.”

To this application the following reply was received :—

“Science and Art Department, London, W.,
8th day of February, 1870.

“« Sir,—Your letter to the Lord President, of the 17th of December, 1869,
stating that, at the last Meeting of the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, a resolution was passed appointing a Committee ‘for the
purpose of calling the attention of Her Majesty’s Government to the import-
ance of completing, without delay, the valuable investigation into the com-
position and geological distribution of the hematite iron-ores of Great
Britain and Ireland, which has been already in part published in the Memoirs
of the Geological Survey,’ has been under the consideration of the Lords of
the Committee of Council on Education.

“‘T am directed by their Lordships to inform you that, after consulting with
Sir Roderick Murchison on the subject, they have come to the conclusion that

ON THE SEDIMENTARY DEPOSITS OF THE RIVER ONNY. 11

they are not in a position to direct that the former investigation shall be
continued by the officers of the Geological Survey.

«The investigation referred to was not made at the public cost; and it
does not appear to My Lords that a special inquiry of this nature, involving
considerable additional expense, falls within the object for which the sum
voted by Parliament for the Geological Survey has been granted.

“Tam, Si,
“Your obedient Servant,
<¢ Norman Mactrezop,
“ Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., F.RS., Assist. Secretary.”
Lensfield Cottage, Cambridge.”

After this reply, the Committee did not think that they could take any
further steps in the matter.
G. G. Sroxzs.
Rosert HarKyEss.
R. Gopwiry- Austen.

Report on the Sedimentary Deposits of the River Onny.
By the Rev. J. D. La Toucue.

Tue principal rainfalls in the valley which supplies the waters of the Onny
during the past year, occurred from December 17th to 20th, January 6th
to 9th, 13th and 14th, February lst to 10th, and March Ist to 4th. At
none of these dates did the river attain the height it has done on former
occasions. For this reason, and the long-continued droughts, the results of
these experiments have been rather barren.

The accompanying Table shows that the relation of deposit to rainfall is
modified by many circumstances. As might be expected, the greatest quan-
tity is attained when a flood takes place after continued wet weather. Thus,
after the rains of last February, the floods of the 1st and 2nd of March were
followed by the largest amount of deposit observed in the year; on this
occasion from 1318 lbs. per minute on the 2nd, to 2128 lbs. per minute on
the 3rd (that is, about 57 tons per hour), passed down.

In considering these quantities, it must be remembered that the Onny is
asmall stream: its width is 60 feet; the area of the section where these
experiments are made is, at summer level, 92 square feet ; and the discharge
at a high flood amounts to about 80,000 cubic feet per minute. The area
of the Severn at summer level is 512 square feet; and its discharge, under
similar circumstances, would probably be about 900,000 cubic feet per
minute. Assuming that the ratio of deposit in the water of the Severn were
the same as that observed in the Onny, no less than 1239 tons per hour of
solid matter would be carried by it in suspension past each spot. This, of
course, leaves out of account the pebbles and sand, which are occasionally
rolled along the bottom in great quantities.

Within the last year a gauge has been erected on the Severn, at Shrews-
bury, at the cost of the grant made by the Association. A register of the
floods has moreover been kept; but as yet there has been some difficulty in
obtaining water for examination. This, it is hoped, may be done during the
ensuing year, as well as at Hereford, where a record is regularly kept of a
gauge on the Wye.

12 REPORT—1870.

An attempt has been made, from the accompanying register, to estimate
the total quantity of sediment carried down in suspension during the year.
Each pair of succeeding entries in the fifth column, viz. “discharge per
minute,” have been added together, the sum divided by 2, and the quotient
multiplied by the number of minutes between the observations. The result
is a total of 3564 tons for the year.

The surface of the valley of the Onny is 84 square miles ; and the effect of
the above result would be (taking the average specific gravity of the Silurian
rocks as 2°5) to reduce the level of the whole by -0025, or =}, of an inch.
Probably, however, the rate of denudation during the year has been exception-
ally low; and, besides, no account is here taken of any but suspended matter.

No. of grains| Discharge Average

Date Hour of Height | of sediment | of sediment | rainfall over
; day. on gauge. | in 100 oz. of | perminute, | 84 square
water. in lbs. miles.
1869.
December 17...... 3 P.M. TEGO) a Messacs 8 |e GesencBec 45
OP srtone 9PM. 0:90
e Sheree 11 aM. 1:25 4:35 373 19
aA eee 6 PM. PAO WIRE ec 407
53 Ue ase 9 a.m. 1-00 3°34 199 24
5 7 ners 5 P.M. TOO || a eeesdscees 100 50
1870.
Pips e sO) scccer|| leozes-se>. || secesatem | Gleeseereny | | Geseeseeer 19
=p lt Tel hep 10 a.m 50 462 121 24
33 8 .d5.2- 10 a.m Ole Te foaceeeees 136 23
are 1 “70 5:38 185
Deh ea cesce 3 P.M “80 9:50 347
Ae chee 5 P.M “QO [lasts cotess 464
Sed ar see 5 10 p.m sO) 4 UNS teeeeeers 464
¥ 9 wake 8 AM iO a ih seeereten 316 aE
3 TIE ied lice day | || MNP an Aes lier corer seme’ be aan 09 27
53 ik eee 10 a.m 1:00 13-46 792 10
ee sacs cas leo 90 4:35 211
ebruary, | Lge tae-| scvsscoae A) secezecem” [0 wanesesees ]/ (> aensenaee “29
= DM ce 10 A.M. “60 9°62 282 18
= Sineosse OAS. | Peeshoeces 2°50 74
5 Gituis: 6 P.M Selle Mteazse ste 56
. (pores 10 a.m “70 6°54 189 43
ADs ane 6 pM 1:00 15°77 924
reer yr [ee 10 eM 1310 aba) |) See ere 1270
8). tea 9 aM “90 6:15 299 54
As Me 5 P.M 1:00 6:68 394
Ge. fy gaeeee 10 p.m A130) el eh etic cars vn 508
< Oi eree 8 Am 1-20 765 747
% 105508 llam 60 See 206
March bee See pal eens ence |) Pee sate as OP Pe apeases cane 54
” Bibei wes 10 Am ‘60 12°31 362 64
Bates © Wipoeaees 2 ‘60 23-73 847
Ae See ae rene 6 P.M ‘80 36:00 1318
Joideeae | Sosasc 10 p.m ea) | Sept 1531
x Disease 9 AM ‘70 14-45 711 16
piled dd” encase 12: > Rees 29°85 2128
aT pe ates lpm. 132 Oy ese
Bie OPA Nae 4pm. 1-40 22-54 2104
55 AN avers 10 a.m “75 319 116

ON THE PRACTICABILITY OF ESTABLISHING “A CLOSE TIME.” 13

Report of the Committee on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron. The
Committee consists of F. A. Aprt, F.R.S., D. Forsss, F.R.S., and
A. Marrursssen, F.R.S.

We regret to have to report that it has not been in our power during the
past year to make any important progress in the investigation of the chemical
nature of cast iron, which was intrusted to us.

In the Appendix to the Report which we submitted last year, a process
was described by which pure iron could be prepared in considerable quan-
tities ; and it was intended to apply this process at once to the preparation of
the material necessary for our investigations. The apparatus and arrange-
ments required for this purpose, however, have been unavoidably in a dis-
mantled condition during the greater part of the year, in consequence of the
reconstruction of the Laboratories of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. They are
now again in working order, and it is hoped that the experiments will be
resumed without much further delay.

Numerous experiments have been made with a view to ascertain whether
the pure-iron sponge, prepared by the process above referred to, can be con-
verted, by welding, into thoroughly solid masses without detriment to the
purity of the metal. Hitherto the results obtained (though instructive in
connexion with the physical properties of the pure metal) have not been of
a promising nature in the particular direction desired. It is contemplated,
however, to continue these experiments with the aid of facilities which, we
believe, will be available for this purpose at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich.

For the foregoing reasons we beg leave to suggest that the reappointment
of this Committee be recommended ; but we do not consider it necessary to
apply for a grant of money on this occasion.

Report on the practicability of establishing “A Close Time” for the
protection of indigenous Animals. By a Committee, consisting of
Prof. Newton, M.A., F.L.S., Rev. H. B. Tristram, F.R.S., J. E.
Hartine, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Rev. H. Barnes, and H. E. Dresser
(Reporter).

Tur Committee appointed for the purpose of continuing investigations as to
the advisability of establishing a close time for the preservation of our indi-
genous animals beg leave to report as follows :—Having regard to the state
of business during the late session of Parliament, your Committee have not
thought it expedient to press the object your Committee are directed to
obtain on the attention of Members of the Legislature, or the general public.
Your Committee have learnt with satisfaction that, in several cases where
the provisions of the Sea-birds’ Preservation Act have been enforced, very
beneficial results have followed, instances of which are added in the appendix.
In consequence hereof, your Committee see good reason to hope that an
extension of similar protection to other groups of indigenous animals will
be attended by similar happy results; and your Committee consider that
such extension could not be better commenced than with the group of
birds commonly known as “wild fow/,” comprising as that does, very many

14 REPORT—1870.

kinds of birds which, being largely used as food, are of great value to the
community, and are generally admitted to be entirely innocuous. At pre-
sent, very great numbers of Wild Ducks, of many species, Snipes, Wood-
cocks, Plovers, and other kindred birds are killed during the spring months,
even when in the act of breeding. The destruction thus effected cannot
fail to continue the ever-increasing diminution of these birds, if indeed it
does not promise, at no distant date, to result in their utter extermination.
Accordingly, your Committee are unanimously of opinion that protection
should be afforded by law, during the breeding-season, to such ‘wild fowl’’ as
these, in order to prevent that result; while your Committee think that,
with protection, these birds may long continue to furnish, at other times of
the year, valuable food to the public, notwithstanding the changes which
some parts of the country are undergoing through agricultural improve-
ments and increase of the population.

Your Committee respectfully suggest the reappointment of this Committee.

Extract of a letter from H. L. Stevenson of Norwich The beachmen at
Salthouse (Norfolk) are delighted with the new Act, as, through summer
shooters, their means of earning a few shillings were going fast. Only three
or four pairs of Lesser Terns nested there this year; and, as the men reminded
me, ten years ago they had forty or fifty pairs at least. I am sure the
marshmen on the Broads would be equally glad of a close time there, as they
complain to me of gentlemen shooting Snipe into May.”

Letract of a letter from the Rev. H. F. Barnes of Bridlington —* With
regard to our Sea-bird Act, I am happy to tell you that here it has been very
effective. * * * It renders the birds, however, remarkably tame. They sit
on the cliffs only a few feet below the observer, and nod and bow in the
most amiable manner, as if all that breathed must needs be kin. Then,
again, they swim about the shore, on a calm day, like ducks in a pond. All
this may safely be set down to the degree of immunity they have enjoyed.
One noticeable and very valuable fact is, that they have bred (in small
numbers) this year at Flamborough, which they have not done for the last
twenty years.”

Captain Hadfield, of Ventnor, in a communication to the ‘Zoologist’
(June 1870, p. 2184), has remarked on the “increase of the sea-fowl breed-
ing on the freshwater cliffs” since the passing of the Act.

Report of the Committee on Standards of Electrical Resistance. The
Committee consists of Prof. W1tu1aMson, F.R.S., Prof. Sir CHartzs
Wuearstone, F.R.S., Prof. Sir W. Tuomson, F.R.S., Prof. W. A.
Miter, F.R.S., Dr. A. Marrutiessen, F.R.S., Sir Coartes Brien,
C.E., F.R.G.S., J. CLERK Maxwes tt, F.R.S., C. W. Sremens, F.R.S.,
Baxrour Stewart, F.R.S., Dr. Joutz, F.R.S., C. F. Varney, Prof.
G. C. Foster, F.R.S., C. Hocxin, M.D., and Prof. Firemine
Jenkin, F.R.S. (Secretary).

Tur Committee are unable to report any material progress during the last
year in the work which remains to be done, and beg leave to suggest that
this work may probably be more effectually expedited by the appointment
of several small Committees than by retaining the large but somewhat cum-

ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 15

brous organization by which their work was commenced. When the Com-
mittee was first appointed, no coherent system of units for the measurement
of electrical resistance, currents, quantity, capacity, or electromotive force
had met with general acceptance. The so-called absolute system existed
indeed on paper, but in far too intangible a form to be either understood or
used by practical men. At the same time, proposals for the adoption of
isolated units, variously determined, had been carried out, with more or less
success, so as to meet in some degree the immediate requirements of tele-
graphy. Many competing units of this nature were in the field. The Com-
mittee chose a system based on the absolute measure, and so, at least as far
as electrical resistance was concerned, made this measurement a tangible and
practical operation ; and their choice has been ratified by men of science over
a great portion of the globe. Copies of the unit of resistance adopted by
the Committee in 1864 were deposited at the Kew Observatory; and others
exist in the hands of electricians in various parts of the world. Comparisons
of several of the copies, which were published in the Report of the Committee
for 1867, showed that, with one or two exceptions, the ratio of their resist-
ances remained unchanged. It is, however, desirable that additional com-
parisons should be made from time to time. Incidentally many researches of
considerable yalue were carried out by thé Members of the Committee; and
the yearly reports have been so generally in request that it may be advisable
to reprint the entire series.

No second unit, however, has been issued by the Committee, although
apparatus for the determination of the units of capacity, quantity, potential,
and intensity of current have been constructed, both with the funds of the
Association and from the private means of its members. The great numbers
of the Committee render meetings of rare occurrence; and the Subcom-
mittees appointed to undertake the work have been lately remiss in its exe-
cution; the Committee, believing that direct responsibility to the Association
and greater freedom of action will act as a stimulus to individual members,
beg to suggest that the Electrical-Standards Committee be not reappointed,
but that three new Committees of smaller numbers be chosen, to determine
and issue :—Ist, a condenser representing the unit of capacity; 2nd, a
gauge for showing the unit difference of potential; 3rd, an electrodynamo-
meter adapted to measure the intensity of currents in a decimal multiple of
the absolute measure.

They would also suggest that it be an instruction to each Committee that
it shall carry out the system adopted by the Electrical-Standards Committee,
and that these new Committees shall have the use of all instruments hitherto
constructed with the funds of the Association, a list of which is appended (in
account book).

_ Considering that the principal instruments have already been constructed,
the Committee believe that a small grant of, say, £20 to each Committee,
will be sufficient to meet the expenses of the next year.

__ In conclusion, should this suggestion be adopted, they beg to recommend
that a volume, containing the complete series of reports, be issued by the Asso-
ciation, and sold to the public, feeling assured, from the demand for isolated
copies, that such an issue would involve no expense to the Association.

16 REPORT—1870.

Sixth Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent’s Cavern, Devon-
shire,—the Committee consisting of Sir Cuartres Lyrty, Bart.,
F.R.S., Professor Puituirs, F.R.S., Sir Joun Luszocn, Bart.,
F.R.S., Joun Evans, F.R.S., Epwarp Vivian, Grorce Busk,
F.R.S., Wituttam Boyp Dawkins, F.R.S., Wittiam AysHFORD
Sanrorp, F.G.S., and Witu1am Pence ty, F.R.S. (Reporter).

Durie the year which has elapsed since the Association met at Exeter, the
Committee have continued their researches without intermission, and have
in all respects adhered to the method of exploration adopted at the com-
mencement and described in detail in their First Report (Birmingham,
1865). The Superintendents have continued to visit the Cavern daily, and to
send Monthly Reports of progress to Sir Charles Lyell, the Chairman of the
Committee ; the daily results have been regularly journalized ; the workmen,
George Smerdon and John Farr, have continued to give the most entire satis-
faction ; and the great interest felt in the investigations by visitors and resi-
dents in Torquay has undergone no abatement.

At the close of the last Meeting of the Association, a large number of the
Members and Associates visited the Cavern, where they were received by one
of the Superintendents, who conducted them through it and explained the
most striking phenomena connected with it. In addition to this large party,
the Cavern has, from time to time during the year, been inspected, under the
guidance of the Superintendents, by Professor Stokes (President, British
Association), the Duke of Somerset, Lord Talbot de Malahide, Lord H.
Thynne, Sir H. Verney, Sir J. Kay Shuttleworth, Sir A. Malet, General
Cotton, General Lefroy, General Tremenhere, Rev. Dr. Robinson, Rey. Prof.
Maurice, Rev. O. Fisher, Rev. H. H. Winwood, and Messrs. W. R. A. Boyle,
J. Dundas, A. Macmillan, E. B. Tawney, R. Valpy, W. Vicary, and A.
R. Wallace, and many others.

The Committee have again the pleasure of reporting that they have been
enabled to render assistance to those engaged in similar researches elsewhere.
Sir J. Kay Shuttleworth, Chairman of the Committee who have recently
undertaken to explore the caves in the Mountain-Limestone near Settle, in
Yorkshire, opened a correspondence with the Superintendents of the work in
Kent’s Cavern, which eventuated in an arrangement that Mr. Jackson, Super-
intendent of the Yorkshire investigations, should visit Devonshire for the
purpose of making himself fully acquainted with the mode of operation
carried out there. Accordingly, on March 1, 1870, he reached Torquay,
where every facility was given him by the Superintendents and the workmen
for familiarizing himself with the work in all its details.

It has been stated in previous Reports :—that Kent’s Cavern consists of an
Eastern and a Western Division, each composed of a series of chambers and
galleries ; that it has two Entrances, which are about 50 feet apart, 200 feet
above the mean sea-level, from 60 to 70 feet above the bottom of the valley
in the same vertical plane, situated in one and the same low vertical cliff in
the eastern side of the hill, and which open at once into different branches
of the Eastern Division ; and that the labours of the Committee have been
restricted to the Eastern Division, the different branches of which were known
as the North-east Gallery, the Vestibule or Sloping Chamber, the Gallery,
the Lecture Hall, the South-west Chamber, the Water Gallery, and the North
and South Sally-ports. In their Fifth Report (Exeter, 1869) the Committee
stated that, with the exception of the last two, the exploration of the entire
series had been completed to the depth of 4 feet below the stalagmitic floor,

ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 17

without, however, reaching the bottom of the cavern; and that some pro-
gress had been made in the South Sally-port.

The Sally-ports were so named by the late Rey. J. M‘Enery, who firmly
believed that if excavated they would be found to lead to new external
openings in the eastern slope of the hill, through which, indeed, burrowing
animals, especially foxes, had found ready access to the body of the cavern.
The year which has elapsed since the Fifth Report was presented has been
spent in the exploration of these branches and their ramifications, the cha-
racters and contents of which are to be the subjects of the present Report.

The South Sally-port—The entrance of the South Sally-port is in the
eastern wall of the Lecture Hall. It is about 10 feet wide, 80 feet west
and 52 feet south of the Arched or Southern Entrance of the cavern. Its
direction is, on the whole, towards the south-east ; and with its ramifications
it occupies a space of about 80 feet from east to west, and 40 feet from north
to south. Its width, however, varies from 21 to 2 feet, and averages about
10 feet. There is not the least indication that it leads to an external opening,
or that any animals ever found or formed a passage into it from the exterior.
Indeed, its direction is not such as to take it to the hill-side.

Before the Committee commenced their operations in it, the height of its
roof above the deposits at the entrance was about 4 feet. At 45 feet in the
interior this had so diminished as to render it necessary to excavate to the
depth of 5 feet, instead of the customary 4 feet, in order to secure sufficient
height for the workmen; and through nearly 30 feet before reaching the
inner end the deposits and roof were in contact.

At the entrance, and for some distance within it, the roof and walls bore
no indications of either the corrosive or erosive action of water, the edges of
the beds of limestone being everywhere sharp and angular. Beyond this
they assumed a corroded or fretted aspect; and still further in, the roof had
the appearance of a fissure, in which the walls gradually approach at higher
and higher levels, and a large mass of limestone threatens to fall at no very
distant future ; indeed a block of great size, which had fallen over the en-
trance in what may be called comparatively very recent times, gave the work-
men a great amount of labour in blasting and removing it. It is probable
that the sharp, angular character of the roof and walls at this part, already
mentioned, is due to the recent severance of this mass. It may be doubted
whether the fissure-like character of the roof just spoken of is any thing more
than one of the “joints ” so common in all the paleozoic rocks of Devonshire
and Cornwall, which has been slowly widened by the action of acidulated
water percolating through it. At and near this part the walls are much cor-
roded, and not unfrequently fretted into holes rudely resembling the so-called
lithodomous perforations met with in limestone rocks in various localities,
and which have been recently much discussed. Beyond the “ fissure” there
are several conical holes in the roof, which, as they ascend, rapidly diminish
in size. Most of them are more or less tortuous, thereby rendering it impos-
sible to say whether they pass upwards to the surface of the hill in the form
of “swallets” or Swallow-holes. Some of them are lined with stalagmitic
matter, whilst others, showing the naked limestone, have a very decided
water-worn aspect. A few of both kinds have faint traces of reddish soil or
loam, whilst others are perfectly clean. Near the inner end of this branch
of the cavern the walls in several places indicate the long-continued erosive
action of water.

A floor of granular stalagmite, varying from 21 inches to 1 inch in thick-
ness, extended from the entrance to about 15 feet within it. Beyond this

1870. c

18 REPORT—1870.

there was no trace of any thing of the kind until reaching 27 feet, where small
patches presented themselves at considerable intervals. At length they be-
came more numerous and decided; and at 50 feet there was a continuous
floor from wall to wall, varying from 1 inch to upwards of 2 feet in
thickness, and extending, without interruption, to the end. It is perhaps
worthy of remark that, from its entrance to upwards of 40 feet within it, the
South Sally-port is remarkably dry at all seasons, but that beyond this area
it is greatly exposed to drip. There is no doubt that the stalagmitic floor
at its entrance was formed of calcareous matter which had not been fur-
nished by or through the surrounding roof or walls, but had flowed in from
the adjacent Lecture Hall. In short, here, as everywhere else in the cavern,
the presence or absence of a deposit of stalagmite is a trustworthy indication
that the locality is at present wet or dry respectively.

On the stalagmite at the entrance there was a layer of black mould, differ-
ing from that found in the same position in other branches of the cavern in
containing an admixture of the typical red caye-earth, which became more
and more abundant further and further in, until, at about 30 feet from the en-
trance, the deposit was exclusively cave-earth from top to bottom of each
section. At 50 feet from the entrance, where the inner stalagmitic floor
began, the following was the succession of deposits in descending order :—

First. Red caye-earth, from 12 to 21 inches thick.

Second. Granular stalagmitic floor, from 1 to 24 inches.

Third, or lowest known. Cave-earth of unknown depth, but exceeding
5 feet.

The cave-earth was commonly of the ordinary character—a mixture of
red loam and angular pieces of limestone in about equal quantities. Occa-
sionally subangular and well-rounded pieces of red grit were found in it; and
it everywhere contained blocks of stalagmite, sometimes of considerable
size, which cannot but be regarded as remnants of a floor older than that
overlying the deposit in which they were incorporated, and which had been
destroyed by some natural agency. From the entrance to 45 feet from it,
there were also in the cave-earth numerous large masses of limestone,
several of which required to be blasted in order to their removal. In some
instances they projected upwards through the deposit and the overlying sta-
lagmite ; and in one case a block so interrupted the continuity of the latter
as to leave a passage, under the block itself, into the deposit beneath, of
which it was obvious that some burrowing animal had availed itself. No
such masses were found beyond the 45 feet just mentioned.

From the entrance to 60 feet within it, the cave-earth was traversed by a
tunnel or tunnels, running, on the whole, longitudinally and horizontally,
with an occasional bifurcation. In most cases they were adjacent to one of
the walls of the cavern or to one of the large fallen masses of limestone just
mentioned ; but occasionally they passed entirely through the earthy deposit,
when their vertical transverse sections were either circular or elliptical, and
varied from 6 inches to 2 feet in diameter. Their sides and roof were tole-
rably smooth, but less so than their floors, which were firmly compacted and
somewhat blackened, as if by frequent passing. Careful attention was given
to the subject ; but very few objects were found in them, the most important,
besides those mentioned in the Fifth Report, being a canine of Felis spelea,
and an accumulation of dry moss, probably the nest of some animal. There
were no tunnels in the innermost 20 feet of this Sally-port.

At 34 feet from the entrance and for some distance beyond, the deposit,
below the third foot-level, adjacent to the south wall of the cavern consisted

ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 19

of materials closely resembling those which composed the rock-like breccia
below the old crystalline stalagmitic floor in the South-west Chamber and
the Water Gallery, described in the Fourth and Fifth Reports (Norwich and
Exeter, 1868 and 1869), but differing from it in being quite incoherent and
destitute of fossils, whilst the typical cave-earth, at the same level and adja-
cent to the opposite wall (a distance of a very few feet at most), yielded the
usual complement and variety of specimens.

From 57 to 60 feet from the entrance, the deposit below the second foot-
level contained no stones of any kind, and consisted of very fine firmly com-
pacted earth, having very few fossils.

At 38 feet from the entrance, where there was no stalagmitic floor, there
was a thin band of charcoal about 3 feet long and 2 feet broad, 10 inches
below the surface, and midway in the section, so as to leave interspaces
of upwards of 3 feet between its ends and the walls of the cavern.

The upper surface of the deposits was an inclined plane dipping towards
the inner end, where it was 10-5 feet lower than at the entrance, whilst the
latter was 13 feet lower than the surface of the cave-earth at the Arched or
Southern Entrance of the cavern, at which the Committee commenced their
investigations. Indeed the extremity of the South Sally-port is at once the
most southerly and the lowest point of the cavern which has at present been
reached.

Besides a large number of bones (including several of birds and a few of
fish) and portions of antlers, the South Sally-port yielded about 1400 teeth
and identifiable fragments of teeth, some of which were in jaws or portions
of jaws. The entire series may be thus distributed :—

per cent. per cent.
JO eee ee 29 Deer, including Reindeer
ELLE 27 and “ Irish Elk”.. 2
HuMiNOCeTOS ...2......: 11 ENG, Lay ras we ete ey 2
(Di OG Ee 8 OS WERE MAES Bie See ARO SESS Be 1
REO. eaves occ s 7 Wolf
HOMO es wis es 0 os 3 Hare
mee ree ee
Wa tine oe dives. ems 3 Pig
MepuaH oN. a 2

In the Table the arrangement is throughout that of descending order. Thus
the teeth of Badger, Fox, and Rabbit formed about 3 per cent. each of the
entire series ; but the first were rather more, and the third rather less, abun-
dant than the second, and so on in other cases. The same arrangement will
be observed when describing the other Sally-port and the passages con-
nected with it.

From the disturbed state of the deposits in this branch of the cavern, the
Committee were prepared for the commingling of bones and teeth having a
modern aspect with those bearing all the indications of antiquity. Accord-
ingly some remains of the principal extinct Cave-mammals were found in
the deposit above the stalagmitic floor where this existed, and on the sur-
face where it did not; and, in like manner, though very few remains were
found in the tunnels, a tooth of Hog was found 2 feet deep in the cave-
earth, and skulls, jaws, and teeth of Sheep were met with somewhat fre-
quently at all depths. As has been already stated, the tunnels ceased at
about 60 feet from the entrance; and there also ceased the inosculation of
ancient and modern relics; the latest recorded case of Sheep below the sta-

20 REPORT—1870.

lagmite was one tooth, in the first foot-level, at 62 feet from the entrance ;
and beyond this point there was no instance of any part of an extinct mam-
mal above the floor. Agglutinated lumps of Beetles’ wings and wing-cases
were met with at all levels within the disturbed area.

The specimens found in the stalagmitic floor, though but few, were of
considerable interest. Amongst them were teeth of Bear, Elephant, Hyzna,
and Rhinoceros, and a portion of the internal shell of a Cuttlefish (Sepia
officinalis), thus confirming the statements made by the Committee in pre-
vious Reports, that at least some of the extinct Cave-mammals outlived the
period represented by the caye-carth *.

As elsewhere in the cavern, some of the bones of the extinct mammals
were gnawed, some were greatly discoloured, and some, irrespective of the
level they occupied, were invested with films of stalagmite.

Some localities were rich, whilst others were poor in specimens. Occa-
sionally they were found almost exclusively against one wall of the cavern,
whilst in other instances their distribution was tolerably uniform. They
continued to present themselves in the higher levels after they had ceased to
do so in the lower ones; thus in the fifth or lowest foot-level there were
none beyond 51 feet from the entrance; in the fourth they continued up to
59 feet, and a solitary Hyzena’s tooth was found 17 fect beyond this ; in the
third level they were met with in tolerable abundance as far as 60 feet, and
a tooth of Rhinoceros with a fragment of bone appeared at 65 feet ; the last
specimen in the second level occurred at 73 feet, and in the first at 76 feet.
Nothing was found in the last 4 feet.

In this branch of the cavern twenty-one flint implements and flakes were
found, of which ten were mentioned and four briefly described in the Fifth
Report (Exeter, 1869). Of those which have recently been discovered, four
only require special notice. No. 4561 was found on September 11, 1869, at
55 feet from the entrance, with a tooth of Horse, a tooth of Rhinoceros, and
a coprolite, in the fourth foot-level of cave-earth, over which was a sta-
lagmitic floor 14 inches thick. It is of white flint, lanceolate in form,
strongly carinated on one side, and slightly concave longitudinally on the
other, which is crowded with facets, indicating the dislodgment of small
flakes in great numbers. It measures 4:4 inches long, 1*1 inch wide, and
‘3 inch thick at its broader end, and tapers gradually towards its point,
which it has unfortunately lost. It is the best implement of its type which
the cavern has yielded. No. 4521 is of the same kind, and also of white
flint, but less delicate in its proportions, being 3:1 inches long, 1-1 inch
broad, and -4 inch thick at the butt end. It was found with a jaw of
Rabbit, a tooth of Horse, a tooth of Rhinoceros, and fragments of bone, on
September 6th, 1869, at 53 feet from the entrance, in the third foot-level of
undisturbed cave-earth, over which was a stalagmitic floor 2 feet thick.
No. 725, 18 probably a rude core, and is noteworthy only on account of its
colour. It is a portion ofa nodule, the outer surface being of a very dull
pink which extends to the depth of stout wrapping-paper ; beneath this is a
bluish inky band about twice this thickness, within which the colour is a
ereamy white with drab patches. It was found on the same day and in the
same “ parallel” as the specimen last described, and in the foot-level next
below. There were lying with it a tooth of Elephant, three teeth of Horse,
four of Hyena, and a wedge-shaped flake of white flint (No. apsz). No. 4626
is a well-formed flake of apparently the same kind of flint as 7253 but its

* See especially Report of the Thirty-ninth Meeting of the British Association, Exeter,
1869, p. 204.

ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 21

inky band is from ‘2 to °3 inch broad. It was found, with a tooth of
Horse, bones, and a coprolite, on October 2nd, 1869, at 63 feet from the en-
trance, above the stalagmitic floor.

The two specimens last described are in their colours unlike any other
flint implements, or flakes, or cores found in the cavern, Specimens white
on the surface and dark in the interior are very common ; but in those under
notice the succession is reversed.

Amongst the remains of animals there is part of an antler of the Reindeer
(No. z;5x), which has been gnawed. One of the grooves or scores on it,
however, is unusually deep and extends almost completely round it, being
interrupted at two opposite points only. Itis so utterly without a parallel
amongst the multitude of gnawed bones which have been found in the
cavern, that it seems less unreasonable to ascribe it to human agency than to
the teeth of any animal. It was found, with a tooth of Horse, bones and bone-
fragments, and a coprolite, on September 23rd, 1869, at 59 feet from the
entrance, in the third foot-level of cave-earth, and beneath a floor of sta-
lagmite 16 inches thick.

The exploration of the South Sally-port absorbed nearly six months, and
was completed on November 12, 1869.

The North Sally-port—The entrance of the North Sally-port is in the
east wall of the Great Chamber, 28 feet south and 42 feet west of the
Arched Entrance of the cavern. All that was known about it when the
Committee commenced its exploration was, that it was a rude tunnel about
27 feet long, and at its entrance 8 feet high and 6 feet wide, having a rugged
floor of stalagmite more or less interrupted by large and small masses of
limestone, and rapidly descending from the mouth to the inner end, where
it was about 3 feet wide, having the floor and roof in contact, with the ex-
ception of a small aperture on the right, and a slightly larger one on the
left, which suggested that on being excavated it might prove to be of greater
length and to bifureate. It is now known to be a low labyrinthine passage,
varying from 1-5 to 9 feet in breadth, but rarely exceeding 3 or, at most,
4 feet, ramifying very tortuously, and with sundry bifurcations and transverse
passages, through an area measuring about 86 feet from north to south, and
84 feet from east to west, and terminating in an external opening in the eastern
slope of the hill, in the same vertical plane as the well and long-known
Arched or Southern Entrance of the cavern, but about 18 feet below it,
and 10 feet further eastward.

The North Sally-port, then, has an ewternal as well as an internal mouth
or entrance. The former, that just discovered, is nearly due east from the
latter, and by the léast circuitous route is upwards of 140 feet from it. Ex-
eursions, however, may be made in various other directions ; and, indeed, one
or two of what are supposed to be minor branches remain to be excavated.
In one part, nearer to its internal than to its external mouth, the labyrinthine
passages have cut the limestone rock into three insular masses, known as the
* Tslands.”

Up to 20 feet from the internal entrance the excavation was limited to a
depth of 4 feet below the base of the stalagmitic floor, as in the other
branches of the cavern generally ; but beyond this point it was found neces-
sary to sink to 5, and in some places 6 feet, on account of the lowness of the
roof ; and even now those who traverse the various passages have to be
careful in their movements, so as to avoid collision with the various projec-
tions and pendants.

In what may be termed the first “‘reach” of the Sally-port, that which

22 REPORT—1870.

has always been accessible, the roof and walls are much fretted, except certain
portions of the southern side, which are clothed with heavy masses of stalag-
mitic matter. The passage on the north-west of the “Islands” has the
aspect of a water-course whose roof and walls have subsequently been much
fretted, and in some places corroded into holes, perhaps less rudely resembling
“ lithodomous perforations” than those in the South Sally-port, which have
been already mentioned. Between the “Islands” and the external entrance,
indications that the passages are deserted water-courses frequently present
themselves, and “swallets ” occur in the roof at various places—some lined
with stalagmite, some naked, some slightly stained with soil, and some per-
fectly clean.

A floor of stalagmite of granular structure, which in many cases was so
charged with fragments of limestone as to be a concrete extremely difficult to
break up, extended continuously from the internal entrance to 14 feet within
it, and in some instances attained the thickness of 33 inches. Thence to
16 feet it thinned out before quite reaching the north-eastern or left wall,
after which it was again continuous to the end of the first “reach,” where it
was in contact with the roof and was 12 inches thick. Beyond this the sta-
lagmite was very partial, rarely extended quite across the passages, and more
frequently than otherwise there was no trace of it. In the passage on the
south-western side of the two principal ‘islands,’ as well as in the narrow
“ strait’ which divides them, there were two more or less continuous floors,
one over the other, with an interspace of from 5 to 20 inches. In various
places there were, adhering sometimes to one wall only and sometimes to
both, rude moulding-like fragments of a floor which had been destroyed.

From the Internal Entrance, through the entire length of the first “ reach ”
and 8 feet inwards in the second, but in no instance beyond, a black deposit
(the true “ black-mould ” of previous Reports), varying from 10 to 20 inches in
depth, lay everywhere on the stalagmitic floor, where the latter existed, and
on the cave-earth (next to be described) where it did not, its junction with
the latter being sharply defined. Beyond the end of the first “reach” the
upper surface of the “black mould” approached the roof to within at most
10 or 14 inches.

The deposit next below the stalagmitic floor was the red caye-earth,
being of the typical character to the depth of at least 2 feet, below which it
frequently consisted of loam of darker red and subangular pieces of grit of
the same colour—the materials of the breccia rather than of the cave-earth.
In every passage and at all levels there were incorporated in the cave-earth
fragments of stalagmite, varying in volume from a cubic inch to 10 cubic feet.
There were also, but in less abundance, well-rolled fragments of rock not de-
rivable from the cavern-hill. Amongst the latter was a portion of a yellowish
drab pebble of fine-grained grit or quartzite, which had obviously been broken
and subsequently rolled. This specimen was met with about 5 feet within
the new or External Entrance.

At 19 feet from the Internal Entrance, a tunnel was found in the fourth
foot-level of the caye-earth, adjacent to the north-east wall; and at 22 feet
another was broken into on the opposite side. A transverse vertical section
of the latter was a semiellipse, measuring 18 inches in breadth at the floor,
and the same in height, whilst another section of it, a few feet further in,
measured 33 and 24 inches respectively. That on the opposite side was not
quite so large. They were both continued through the remainder of the first
“reach ” and to about 6 feet in the second, where they ended. Their depth
below the surface was tolerably uniform throughout; but they were not

ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 23

always adjacent to the walls of the cavern. Nothing of the kind was found
again, except at about 30 feet beyond the point just specified, where a small
one, about 2 feet long, was laid open. In this branch of the cavern the
tunnels had the aspect of water-courses rather than of burrows. Occasionally
bones and pieces of limestone projected from their sides; and it was observed
that the exposed portions of the latter had always the blanched appearance
of such stones when found in shallow soil on limestone and beneath a thin
covering of turf, whilst their remaining portions were of the same colour as
the deposit in which they were lodged. No modern bones or other objects
were found in the tunnels.

The upper surface of the cave-earth at the internal mouth of the North
Sally-port was 5°5 feet below that at the Arched Entrance of the cavern ;
thence to the external entrance, by the most direct route, it formed three
inclined planes,—of which the first fell 16 feet, towards the exterior of the hill
(i. e. eastward), in a length of 67 feet—the fall, however, being by no means
uniform in amount. In the second plane the dip was reversed, and the
workmen in their excavations ascended 8:5 feet in a length of about 45 feet;
after which the dip towards the exterior was resumed, and continued to the
new mouth, giving a fall of 5 feet on reaching it. Hence the surface of the
deposit at the external entrance was 12-5 feet lower than at the internal,
and 18 feet lower than at the Arched Entrance of the cavern.

The branch of the cavern now under notice contained very large quantities
of bones and other remains of animals.

So long as it presented itself, the overlying black mould yielded potsherds,
marine shells (including Cardiwm, Pecten, and the-internal shell of Cuttle-
fish), and bones (chiefly modern, but a few of extinct animals—the astragalus
of Rhinoceros being the most important of the latter).

In one instance only, about 26 feet before reaching the external entrance,
did any bones occur in the stalagmitic floor; and these were few and, in
themselves, unimportant.

The distribution of the fossils in the cave-earth was very irregular. The
first four “‘ foot-parallels ” contained no specimens of any kind. Nothing was
found in the second foot-level until reaching 7 feet from the entrance, and
nothing in the first until the excavation had reached 11 feet; after which
fossils were met with in tolerable abundance in every parallel, and almost in
every level, as far as 33 feet, even where local peculiarities made it necessary
to excavate to the depth of 6 feet.

Perhaps their irregular distribution was nowhere more strongly marked than
in the various passages connected with the “islands,” commencing at the
point just specified —33 feet from the entrance. Along the entire north-
western passage fossils were very abundant, culminating probably on January
19th, 1870, when two “ yards” of cave-earth lying one on another (in other
words, a parallelopiped of the deposit measuring 3 feet long, 2 feet deep, and
1 broad, and therefore containing 6 cubic feet of matter) yielded 51 teeth of
Hyena, 45 of Horse, 27 of Rhinoceros, 8 of Deer, 3 of Elephant, and 1 of
Wolf, 4 astragali of Rhinoceros, 3 portions of antlers, and a huge assemblage
of bones and fragments of bones, Along the northern and north-eastern
sides of the “islands” they became less numerous, especially in the third
foot-level. On the east there were none in the lowest two foot-levels. On
the south 320 cubic feet of deposit was found to contain no more than four
specimens. The low passage terminating at the south-west angle of the
“jslands,” and in which the deposits very nearly reached the roof, opened
into one of much greater height, in which the cave-earth was covered with

24 REPORT—1870.

a stalagmitic floor 4 inches thick. In this floor, almost at the commence-
ment of the passage, there was a rudely circular hole, about 18 inches in
diameter. One of the Superintendents, who was present when this was dis-
closed, drew himself up through the opening so as to command a view of the
space above, when he found, mixed with a small amount of caye-earth, a vast
accumulation of bones and teeth, some of which were partially imbedded in
the stalagmite. Above this mass of remains was, as has been already stated,
another floor of stalagmite, the space between the two being at that point
about 20 inches in height. The workmen proceeded to break up both floors ;
and the labour was rewarded by the immediate exhumation of 29 teeth of
Hyena, 21 of Elephant, 21 of Horse, 18 of Rhinoceros, 7 of Deer, including
the “ Irish Elk,” 2 of Dog (?), 1 of Bear, and such a heap of bones and bone-
fragments as to render it necessary to send for a cart for the removal of the
“find.” The upper floor was about 6 inches thick, and had a considerable
space above it, in which there were neither fossils nor deposit. The two
floors (the upper one being partially destroyed), with their rich intermediate
layer of bones and cave-earth, extended .along the entire passage on the
south-western side of the “islands,” and through the “ strait’ separating
the two largest of them. In short, the fossil treasures there were a con-
tinuation of those which had previously been met with on the north-west.
Nothing was found in the deposit beneath the lower floor.

In a considerable recess on the south-east of the “islands,” out of which
not less than 280 cubic feet of matter was dug, the only things found were
a very few bones of birds. In the passages leading from the north-eastern
angle of the “ islands,” fossils were, with a few exceptions, tolerably abundant,
but were most prevalent in the upper levels.

Of teeth alone, the North Sally-port yielded at least 2600, belonging to the
animals and in the proportions stated below :—

per cent. per cent.
Bivins ~ .!. ree. 1 Thion” stints ee ee
HU OMSO nee: | Deets os 31 Bear’). 086, 52 eee il}
Rhmocerost .«.5 0. «<< 16 Bom 0)
Deer, including “ Irish Beaver |
pattem andor Wat te thn
1:31) ae ara ar 2 Cat |
Hlephant’ .)..2585.5 2 2 Sheep )
(Oe Bee Creche rem share 2

Amongst the peculiarities of this branch of the cavern are the compara-
tively large numbers of remains of Badger, Elephant, and Beaver—and, when
compared with those in the other Sally-port, the small number of Sheep, of
which the only remnant was one tooth.

The teeth of Elephant are not only relatively more numerous, but some of
them exceed in size any that have been found elsewhere in the cavern; and
the plates of a few of them are remarkably thick.

The number of Beavers’ teeth is eight:—three molars in part of a jaw
(No. 4789) found December 20, 1869, with two teeth of Horse, in the first
foot-level of cave-earth ; a loose molar (No. ;J,,), found the next day, in
the same level and the adjoining foot-paralle]l ; and an almost perfect left
lower jaw (No. .,8,) with three molars and the fang of the incisor in
situ, found on May 3, 1870, in the fourth foot-level, upwards of 50 feet from
the former specimens.

ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 25

Many of the bones are gnawed, some are more or less covered with films
of stalagmite, some are greatly discoloured, and a few have the aspect
of the remains found in the breccia beneath the old crystalline floor of sta-
lagmite described in previous Reports.

Taken as a whole, the osseous remains found since the Fifth Report (1869)
was presented are probably superior to those found in any former year.

Instances of the commingling of ancient and recent remains occurred in the
North as well as in the South Sally-port, but they were by no means so abun-
dant in the former as in the latter.

In the branch of the cavern now under notice there were found seven flint
implements and flakes, of which one was in the black mould overlying the
stalagmite, one was in the first foot-level of cave-earth, two were in the se-
cond, two in the third, and one in the fourth foot-leyel. Three appear to
have been struck from common flint nodules, and are comparatively unim-
portant. The remaining four are good specimens, but one of them only
(No. 5124) needs description. It is ovate, worked to an edge all round its
perimeter, 27 inches long, 1:6 inch in greatest breadth, and °3 inch in greatest
thickness. The bulb of percussion is well displayed on the inner surface,
which is concave in every direction, but especially in that of its greatest axis.
The outer surface is convex, or, rather, is formed of a series of distinct ap-
proximately plane surfaces, which concur to give it a considerable convexity.
There are indications of a great amount of work along the entire margin on
its outer face. Its colour is a very light grey, inclining to white; but there are
indications of a dark interior. It was found with a tooth of Hyena, a tooth
of Rhinoceros, bones, and balls of fecal matter, May 24, 1870, in the
first foot-level of cave-earth, about 40 feet from the external entrance.

Of the seven specimens, five were found nearer to the external than to the
internal entrance, and one (No. 5165), a small but good specimen, was no
more than 15 feet from it.

__ Two of the bones found in this branch of the cavern appear to have been

eut artificially. The first (No. ;J,,) was found December 22nd, 1869, with
remains of Badger, Fox, Horse, Hyena, Ox, and Rhinoceros, 24 fet ee the
internal entrance, in the fourth foot-level of cave-earth, over which was a
continuous floor of SUE ere 12 inches thick.

The second (No. ,.4;;) was found about 47 feet from the same entrance,
on January 24th, 1870, with remains of Elephant, Horse, Hyena, and
Rhinoceros, in the secual foot-level of cave-earth, over which there was no
stalagmite.

Of the fish-bones which have been found, one (No. 5036) appears to have
been pointed and used as a pinor awl. It was met with on April 21st, 1870,
in the second foot-level of cave-earth, which was not covered with stalag-
mite, rather nearer to the internal than the external entrance.

The exploration of the North Sally-port was begun on November 12th,
1869 ; and in something more than eight months the workmen had dug their
way through it. The new entrance was reached on July 19th, 1870. There
are, however, one or two of its ramifications which are not yet excavated,
haying been passed intentionally in the progress of the work. How far they
extend i is at present unknown.

The External Mouth of the North Sally-port.—Though the Superintendents
have no doubt that the North Sally-port really has an external entrance,
the workmen have not dug their way to the day at the so-called new mouth.
The following is the evidence on the question:—During eight months the
direction of sais had on the whole been outwards, 7. ¢. towards the

26 REPORT—1870.

hill-side, which, from the ground-plan of the work and the contour of the
hill itself, was obviously nearly reached. This was confirmed by the appear-
ance of very fine rootlets, not through the roof, but horizontally in the de-
posit, which, as the work advanced, grew larger and larger until they became
roots two inches in diameter. The deposit had always been bounded by
limestone walls on each side, and by a roof of the same material, between
which and the cave-earth the interspace, where any existed, never exceeded
a few inchesin height. On July the 19th, 1870, the workmen suddenly ceased
to be able to find a wall on the right or outside, or a limestone roof above
them ; and at the same time, and as suddenly, they were unable to reach the
upper surface of the deposit, which had also undergone a change of characters.
The materials through which they had now to drive were, first, or lowest, a
variety of the cave-earth, with remains of the ordinary Cave-mammals, above
which was an accumulation of small angular pieces of limestone, with but
little earth and no fossils, and more or less cemented into a very loose con-
crete with stalagmitic matter ; and the roof, or that which supplied its place,
was of the same character—materials, in short, which are found everywhere
in the upper portions of the numerous limestone fissures of the district. At
that moment they were, according to their measurements, in the same vertical
plane as the Arched Entrance of the cavern, at a level of about 18 feet below
it, and 10 feet outside. In other words, they had dug their way through the
cavern into a talus of earth and stones lining the hill-side, and which, from
its upper surface to that on which they stood, was 18 feet deep.

Two reasons prevented their attempting to break through this mass to the
open day :—first, it would probably destroy the only road to the cavern; and
second, the attempt seemed somewhat hazardous, as the material showed a
great tendency to “cave in.” It being necessary, however, to confirm or
disprove the conclusion that they had found a new entrance, a tunnel was dug
through the talus 12 feet long, varying from 4 to 8 feet wide, and having the
limestone rock for its inner or left boundary. The result was the same
throughout: the floor and lower portion of the right or outer wall was a
variety of the cave-earth with the common Cavern specimens; and the upper
portions of this wall, as well as the ceiling, consisted of the loose concrete
already described, and which contained no fossils.

As there was nothing further to be gained, and the work seemed unsafe,
the tunnel was discontinued, and no doubt remained that the workmen had
emerged from the cavern, and, in cutting the tunnel, had been laying bare a
portion of the limestone hill on the left. It may be of interest to remark that
this limestone overhung about 2 feet, so as to afford a “ shelter” to that extent.

The lower portion of the external talus has been spoken of above as a va-
riety of the cave-earth. It was in fact a fine silt with scarcely a trace of the
common red colour, and closely resembled material which, from time to time,
had been found within the cavern. Amongst the remains found in it were
11 teeth of Bear, 7 of Horse, 5 of Hyzna, and 4 of Rhinoceros. The bones,
of which there was a considerable number, were frequently broken, decayed,
and discoloured.

With the animal-remains two implements and one flake of flint were found,
Both of the former are of the usual white colour. One of them (No. 5236) is
little more than the point of what was probably once a good implement; the
other (No. 5222) is a good lanceolate implement, 2-5 inches long, 1 inch broad
at the butt end, and ‘2 inch in greatest thickness. It is strongly carinated
on the outside, and has three longitudinal facets. It was found J uly 28, 1870.
The flake (No. 5226) is yellowish, and apparently discoloured.

hie tao

ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 27

Smerdon’s Passage.—The new mouth is the external entrance, not only
of the North Sally-port, but also of a previously unsuspected passage or under-
vaulting, which, so far as is at present known, varies from 4 to 10 feet in
width, and extends in a north-westerly direction. It has received the name
of “Smerdon’s Passage.” On abandoning the tunnel just spoken of, the
workmen were directed to commence the exploration of this Passage; and at
the end of last month (August 1870) they had advanced about 20 feet into
it. The deposit it contains is the common typical cave-earth, having, here
and there, a thin patch of stalagmite, but nothing like a continuous floor, and
everywhere reaching the roof, or within a few inches of it. It contains a
considerable number of pieces of limestone, none of which exceed 10 lbs. in
weight, a few subangular and rounded pieces of red grit, and blocks of Old
Stalagmite in abundance, some of which measure from 5 to 6 cubic feet.

Numerous bones and upwards of 700 teeth were found, the latter of which
may be thus apportioned :—

per cent. per cent.
ERM ci Js crafet so Ua a3 57 Deer, including “ Irish
REGIE fa yn siind dors 19 Elk” and Reindeer.. 2
Rhinoceros .......... 12 Moephant ig Gv ied acs 4 1
POPOL oo d3 ees ws awe e 3 Wolf
EME 4 ss} dds a's 2 Lion each less than 1
RRA Ty Parh55 hola sid 2 Dog (?)
Le nee eee 2

As in other parts of the cavern, some of the bones were gnawed, some
discoloured, and some more or less covered with films of stalagmite. With
them were found several agglutinated lumps of bones of very small animals*,
coprolites, three limpet-shells, a bit of charcoal, and four good flint flakes.

Amongst the foregoing facts there are some on which it is difficult to abs-
tain from speculation.

As has been already stated, the late Mr. M‘Enery named the Sally-ports
from a settled conviction that they led to external entrances in the hill-side.
The facts on which he relied were, first, the direction in which they extended,
and, second and chiefly, the tunnels, which he ascribed to burrowing animals.
The first was obviously not very conclusive ; for he could not but be aware
that unless the so-called Sally-ports extended considerably beyond the
point to which he could penetrate, and without much tortuosity—points on
which no opinion could be formed—they must fall far short of the exterior.

With reference to the tunnels, even if ascribable to burrowing animals, it
by no means followed that they were commenced at, or connected with, the
exterior of the cavern ; for as there were well-known spots in each of the
branches in question where there was no stalagmitic floor, there was no dif-
ficulty in supposing the animals to have commenced their burrows in these
unprotected localities, to have sunk more or less vertically in the deposit, and
at a suitable depth to have proceeded horizontally. In the Fifth Report,
mention was made of vertical shafts of this kind}+; and that this was the
actual mode of operation is now rendered still more probable by the fact that
no tunnels occur at or near the inner end of either of the two branches ais

* One of these lumps was found to contain upwards of 1200 bones.

t See Report Brit. Assoc. 1869, p. 203.

{ The Committee are well aware that the cavern is still occasionally frequented by ani-
mals. In the Fifth Report they mentioned the annoyance which the visits of a rat had
occasioned ; bats are often seen flitting to and fro or suspended from the walls, and they
sometimes make a meal on the candles; and in the summer considerable numbers of the

28 REPORT—1870.

As has been stated in previous Reports, the Committee have long been fa-
miliar with the presence of blocks of stalagmite in the cave-earth, and
have inferred from them that an ancient floor of the cavern had been broken
up by natural agency before or during the introduction of the cave-earth.
There seemed no difficulty in conceiving of a machinery by which such a floor
might have been destroyed in the comparatively lofty chambers. For example,
it was known that the deposit which the old floor had covered, and on which
it had been formed, had been, in some parts of the cavern, partially dis-
lodged, or had subsided so as to leave the floor unsupported; it was also
known that blocks of limestone, some of them scores of tons in weight, had
from time to time fallen from the roof; and it was not difficult to see that
such blocks would break into fragments any such unsupported floor on which
they might fall.

This, however, utterly fails to account for the destruction of the floor
which once existed in at least some of the narrow passages of the North Sally-
port. That such floors have been destroyed admits of no question, since, as
has been already stated, remnants of them still adhere to the walls, to say
nothing of their abundant fragments in the deposit below. That they were not
destroyed by the fall of blocks of limestone is obvious from the facts that their
remnants on the walls show that they were almost in contact with the roof
even as it now exists, and that the roof itself presents no indications that sach
masses have been detached from them. This problem still awaits solution.

Many of the potsherds in the North Sally-port were found in the overlying
black mould considerably beyond the point where man could have actually
placed or lost them, though not perhaps beyond the point where he might
have thrown them, if he could be supposed to have had a motive for doing
so. It seems not improbable, however, that, being, as they were, on a highly
inclined plane of very contracted width, their presence in the spots where
they were found was due to a participation in a slow and gradual movement
of the black mould downwards and inwards, in consequence of the frequent
passage of small recent animals.

There is greater difficulty in accounting for the occurrence of keen-edged
flint implements and flakes at and near the external mouth of the North
Sally-port. There is every reason to believe that the cave-earth found in the
successive chambers at the highest level of the cavern was introduced
through the long-known North and South (or Triangular and Arched) En-
trances ; whence it seems to follow inevitably that at that time the bottom
of the valley was but little below these entrances, and was therefore nearly
20 feet above the level of the opening just discovered. That the “implements”
are of human origin there is every reason to believe; but it cannot be sup-

Common Shrew are occasionally observed near the door and in the adjacent thicket. On
December 8th, 1869, one of the Superintendents found the workmen in a state of excite-
ment, caused, no doubt, by an unwelcome visit of some infra-human marauder. They had
that morning taken to the cavern a pound of candles, of sixteen to the pound, and hung
them in the accustomed place. On going to cut one of them, at 3 o’clock, it was found
that twelve of the pound were missing, and the condition of the remnants of the wicks was
such as to indicate cutting rather than gnawing. Hence it would have been concluded
that the loss was due to a human thief, had it been possible for one to have entered the
cavern without the knowledge of the workmen. On examination, one of the missing can-
dles was found between some large loose stones beneath the nail on which they were hung,
but no trace of teeth-marks could be found on it. Before the men left work the remnant
of the pound had been taken, so that not a candle was left; but by what agency, remains
unknown; for though a gin temptingly baited was set at the spot, it failed to aid in the
solution of the problem.

ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 29

posed that man placed them where they were found wnder the foregoing con-
ditions ; for the bottom of the valley being then far above the low-level
entrance, the passages into which it immediately opens were probably inac-
cessible, and certainly not available for human resort. On the other hand,
the hypothesis that the flints were washed there from the upper ehambers
appears to be entirely negatived by the fact that, though lodged in a deposit
largely charged with stones, they are entirely unrolled and retain their keen
edges. It may be added that very few, if any, of the bones found with them
show any marks of abrasion, that the implements are more numerous at and
near its external entrance than elsewhere in the Sally-port, and that no such
phenomenon presented itselt at or near the end of the other Sally-port, which
has no external mouth.

May not the following be the solution of the problem? The implements
and animal-remains found at the new entrance and in the passages connected
with it were deposited after it had been laid bare, and are chronologically
separated from those in the high-level chambers by an amount of time suffi-
cient to deepen the valley to the extent of 20 feet, but not sufficient to make
any change in the fauna of the district, or in the character of the implements
which its human dwellers employed.

Mr. Ayshford Sanford has continued his identification of the fossils during
the past twelve months, and has examined a large number of them. The
present state of his health has unfortunately prevented his sending in a
Report.

Third Report of the Committee for the purpose of investigating the rate
of Increase of Underground Temperature downwards in various
Localities of Dry Land and under Water. Drawn up by Professor
Everert, at the request of the Committee, consisting of Sir Wi1tL1AM
Tuomson, F.R.S., Sir Cuarues Lyset, F.R.S., J. Clerk Maxwe.1,
F.R.S., Prof. Poitures, F.R.S., G. J. Symons, F.M.S., Dr. Batrour
Srewart, /.R.S., Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S., A. Geixin, F.R.S, James
Guaisuer, F.R.S., Rev. Dr. Granam, E. W. Binney, F.R.S.,
Gerorce Maw, F.G.S., W. Pencutty, F.R.S., S.J. Mackin, F.G.S.,
and Professor Evererr, D.C.L. (Secretary).

Mr. G. J. Symons, whose observations, extending to a depth of 1100 feet
in a well at Kentish Town, were reported at last Meeting, has since repeated
his observations at several depths.

The first 210 feet of the well (which is 8 feet in diameter to the depth of
540 feet) are occupied by air; and in this portion of the well the second series
of observations give temperatures exceeding those observed in the first series
by from 2° to 5° F., the excess diminishing as the depth increases. The second
series were taken in July and August, whereas the first series were taken in
January. It is evident that in this portion of the well, in spite of the pre-
cautions taken to exclude atmospheric influences, by boarding over the well
and erecting a hut over it, the temperature varies with the seasons, the
variations being in the same direction as in the external air, but smaller, and
diminishing as the depth increases, but still amounting to 2°-2 at the depth
of 200 feet.

30 REPORT—1870.

We can feel no certainty that even the mean annual temperature in this
portion of the well represents the temperature in the solid ground. On the
contrary, the mean temperature in the well at any depth is probably inter-
mediate between the temperature of the solid ground at that depth and the
mean temperature of the external air.

It is well that such observations should have been carefully made and re-
corded in this one instance, if only for the sake of warning; and they show
that we cannot expect to attain the object for which the Committee has been
appointed by observations in large shafts filled with air.

Mr. Symons has also repeated the observations at 250 feet (which is 40 feet
under water), and at the depths of 600 feet, 750 feet, and every 50th foot
from this to 1100 feet, the lowest point attainable, on account of the mud,
which extends 200 feet lower. The differences from the results obtained last
year are +2, —-3, —-4, —-2, —-2,0, —-1, —:1, 0; which upon the whole
strongly confirm the correctness of the observations.

The temperature at 1100 feet is 69°-8, which, if we assume the mean tem-

ie)

perature of the surface of the ground to be { 9 gives a mean increase

downwards of { eas of a degree Fahrenheit per foot, or 1° for | aa feet.

The curve in which temperature is the ordinate and depth the abscissa, ex-
hibits considerable irregularities till we reach the depth of 650 feet, beyond
which it is nearly a straight line, and represents an increase of -0187 of a de-
gree per foot.

The strata penetrated by the well to the depth to which our observations
extend consist of clay, sand, chalk, and marl, besides flints. (See tabular
list appended.)

Mr. Symons in his Report calls attention to the anomalous position of a
column of water increasing in temperature and consequently diminishing in
specific gravity downwards, and suggests the inquiry why the warmer and
lighter portions do not ascend to the top. The proper reply seems to be that
the diminution of specific gravity, amounting to less than 1 part in 50,000
per vertical foot, does not furnish sufficient force to overcome liquid adhesion,
and the water is thus able to remain in unstable equilibrium.

Mr. Symons intends, during the remainder of the present year, verifying
those of his observations which have not yet been repeated, and concludes
his Report by remarking that it appears desirable to ascertain, by observa-
tions from year to year, whether the temperature at a given depth (say,
1000 feet) remains constant or is subject to minute changes periodical or
otherwise—a suggestion which appears fully worthy of being carried out.

Mr. Wm. Bryham, Manager of Rose Bridge Colliery, Ince, near Wigan,
has taken very valuable observations during the sinking of that Colliery,
which is now the deepest excavation in Great Britain. The pricipal results
have already been given, in a paper to the Royal Society, by Mr. Edward Hull,
Director of the Geological Survey of Ireland, who had previously published
some important contributions to our knowledge of underground temperature,
and has now consented to become a member of this Committee. Some of
the depths, however, have been remeasured since Mr. Hull’s paper was read,
and I am now enabled, through the kindness of Mr. Bryham, to furnish a
rather more accurate report.

The temperatures observed and the depths at which they were taken are
as follows :—

Sonny

ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 31

Depth in yards. Temperature Fahrenheit. | Depth in yards. Temperature Fahrenheit.

161 (642) 734 881
200 (66) 745 89
558 78 761 902
605 80 775 914
630 83 783 92
663 85 800 93
671 86 806 932
679 87 815 94

All these temperatures, except the first two, were observed during the sink-
ing of the shaft, by drilling a hole with water to the depth of a yard in the
solid strata at the bottom. A thermometer was then inserted, the hole was
tightly plugged with clay so as to be air-tight, and was left undisturbed for
half an hour, at the end of which time the thermometer was withdrawn and
read—a mode of observation which appears well adapted to give reliable
results. With respect to the temperatures at 161 and 200 yards* (which I
have enclosed in brackets to indicate uncertainty), Mr. Bryham informs me that
he has some doubt as to the correctness of the thermometer with which they
were taken, and that they were not taken in the shaft at the time it was
sunk, but in the seams at the depths named.

Assuming the surface-temperature to be 49°, we have, on the whole depth
of 815 yards or 2445 feet, an increase of 45°, which is at the rate of -0184
of a degree per foot, or a degree for every 54:3 feet.

On plotting the temperature curve, including the two observations marked
as doubtful, we find that it naturally divides itself into four portions, which
are approximately straight lines.

The most remarkable of these portions is the second from the top, extend-
ing from the depth of 161 yards to that of 605 yards. It embraces 1332 feet,
and shows an increase of only 1° for every 86 feet.

The third portion, extending from the depth of 605 yards to that of 671
yards, covers only 198 feet, and shows an increase of 1° for every 33 feet.

The lowest portion extends from the depth of 671 yards to 815 yards. It
covers 432 feet, and shows an increase of 1° in 54 feet.

The topmost portion will be affected by the assumption we make as to
surface-temperature. Assuming this as 49°, it shows an increase of 1° in
31 feet.

It is interesting to compare the Rose Bridge observations with those pre-
viously made by Mr. Fairbairn at Astley Pit, Dukenfield, Cheshire, which
have been described by Mr. Hull in ‘The Coalfields of Great Britain,’
and by Mr. Fairbairn himself in the British Association Report for 1861.
The results have been thus summed up by Mr. Hull :—

“1. The first observation gives 51° as the invariable temperature through-
out the year at the depth of 17 feet. Between 231 yards and 270 yards, the
temperature was nearly uniform at 58-0. And the increase from the surface
would be at the rate of 1° F. for 88 feet.

« 2. Between 270 and 309 yards, the increase was at the rate of 1° for
62-4 feet.

* Further inquiry has shown that these two temperatures must be rejected, as the
thermometer with which they were taken was afterwards found (by comparison with other
thermometers) to be in error by some degrees. No note was taken of the amount of the
error, and the thermometer itself is destroyed.

Assuming the surface-temperature as 49°, we have an average increase downwards of
1° in 577 feet for the first 558 yards, and of 1° in 48-2 feet for the remaining 257 yards,

32 REPORT—1870.

«3. Between 309 and 419 yards, the increase was at the rate of 1° for
60 feet.

«4, Between 419 and 613 yards, the increase was at the rate of 1° for
86°91 feet.

‘5, Between 613 and 685 yards, the increase was at the rate of 1° for
Go'6ieeine 2 ss -

« . . .. The result of the whole series of observations gives an increase
of 1° for every 83-2 feet... .. ‘4

Mr. Fairbairn’s own summary is as follows :—‘‘ The amount of increase
indicated in these experiments is from 51° to 572° as the depth increases
from 52 yards to 231 yards, or an increase of 1° in 99 feet. But if we take
the results which are more reliable, namely those between the depths of 231
and 685 yards, we have an increase of temperature from 572° to 753°, or 172°
Fahrenheit—that is, a mean increase of 1° in 76:8 feet.”

Mr. Fairbairn here by implication throws doubt on the alleged invariable
temperature of 51° at the depth of 17 feet, a determination which in itself
appears highly improbable, seeing that, at Greenwich, the thermometer whose
bulb is buried at a depth of 25-6 feet, exhibits an annual range of 3°-2,
while that at the depth of 12-8 feet exhibits a range of 9°. But even if we
assume the mean surface-temperature to be 49°, we have still upon the whole
depth an increase at the rate of 1° in 80 feet, as against 1° in 54:3 feet at
Rose Bridge.

Mr. Fairbairn’s paper gives also the results obtained at a second pit at
Dukenfield, which agree with those in the first in showing an exceptionally
slow rate of increase downwards. The temperatures at the depths of 167}
yards and 467 yards were respectively 58° and 663°, showing a difference of
81° in 2991 yards, which is at the rate of 1° in 106 feet. The increase from
the surface down to 1674 yards, assuming the surface-temperature as 49°,
would be 9°, or 1° in 56 feet; and the mean rate of increase from the surface
to the bottom would be 1° in 80 feet, the same as in the first pit.

A tabular list of the strata at Rose Bridge is appended to this Report. <A
full account of the strata at Dukenfield is given in Mr. Fairbairn’s paper
(British Association Report, 1861).

With strata so nearly similar, and in two neighbouring counties, we should
scarcely have expected so much difference in the mean rates of increase
downwards. In this respect Rose Bridge agrees well with the average of
results obtained elsewhere. Dukenfield far surpasses all other deep mines or —
wells, so far as our present records extend, in slowness of increase.

This implies one of two things—either that the strata at Dukenfield afford
unusual facilities for the transmission of heat, or that the isothermal surfaces
at still greater depths dip down in the vicinity of Dukenfield.

Mr. Hull has called attention to a circumstance which favours the first of —
these explanations—the steepness of inclination of the Dukenfield strata. He ©
argues, with much appearance of probability, that beds of very various cha- —
racter (sandstones, shales, clays, and coal), alternating with each other, must 4
offer more resistance to the transmission of heat across than parallel to their
planes of bedding, as Mr. Hopkins has shown that every sudden change of
material is equivalent to an increase of resistance; and it is obvious that
highly inclined strata furnish a path by which heat can travel obliquely up-
wards without being interrupted by these breaches of continuity.

To this suggestion of Mr. Hull’s it may be added that inclined strata
furnish great facilities for the convection of heat by the flow of water alon,
the planes of junction. It appears likely that surface-water, by soakin

ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 33

downwards in this direction, may exercise an important influence in assimi-
lating the temperature at great depths to that which prevails near the surface.
Mr. Hull’s own statement of his views is given in the footnote below*.

Mr. M‘Farlane has been prevented from continuing his observations near
Glasgow during the past year by the press of business incident to the removal
from the old to the new College.

Mr. F. Amery, Druid House, Ashburton, Devon, has taken some observa-
tions with one of the Committee’s thermometers in the shaft of a mine which
had been unused for a year and was nearly fullof water. The shaft is 12 feet
x7 feet, and descends vertically for 350 feet, after which it slopes to the
south at an angle of 50°, continuing to the depth of 620 feet. The water stood
at 50 feet from the surface. Mr. Amery observed the temperature at every
50th foot of depth in the vertical portion, and found it to be 53° at all depths,
except at 250 feet and 200 feet, where it was 53:4 and 53:2 respectively. A
copper lode crosses the shaft at the depth of 250 feet ; and it appears to be
generally the case, in the Cornwall and Devonshire mines, that copper lodes
exhibit high temperature—a circumstance which Prof. Phillips explains by
vhe conformation of the strata, which is such as to cause water from greater
depths to make its way obliquely upwards by following the course of the
copper lodes.

The nearly constant temperature observed from the surface to the bottom
of the shaft seems to indicate a large amount of convective circulation. In
this respect small bores have a decided advantage.

Mr.G. A. Lebour has taken observations with our thermometers in seye-
ral shafts and bores near Ridsdale, Northumberland, made for working coal
and ironstone. Mr. Lebour does not report the temperatures observed, which
he characterizes as discrepant and utterly valueless, owing, he believes, to the
numerous water-bearing beds which they cut through, and the very varying
temperature of these waters. Having now, however, found a dry bore, he
hopes to make a useful series of observations next winter.

One of the Committee’s thermometers has recently been sent to Mr. John
Donaldson, C.E., Calcutta, who has expressed his desire to aid in scientific
observation, and, being now engaged in examining for coal and iron under
Government, is likely to render us effective service.

Shortly after the last Meeting of the Association, the Secretary of this Com-

* “ Rose-Bridge Colliery occupies a position in the centre of a gently sloping trough,
where the beds are nearly horizontal; they are terminated both on the west and east by
large parallel faults which throw up the strata on either side. The Colliery is placed in
what is known as ‘ the deep belt.’

“ Dukenfield Colliery, on the other hand, is planted upon strata which are highly in-
clined. The beds of sandstone, shale, and coal rise and crop out to the eastward at
angles varying from 30° to 35°. Now I think we may assume that strata consisting of
sandstones, shales, clays, and coal alternating with each other are capable of conducting
heat more rapidly along the planes of bedding than across them, different kinds of rock
haying, as Mr. Hopkins’s experiments show, different conducting-powers. If this be so,
we haye an evident reason for the dissimilar results in the two cases before us. Assuming
a constant supply of heat from the interior of the earth, it could only escape, in the case of
Rose Bridge, across the planes of bedding, meeting in its progress upwards the resistance
offered by strata of, in each case, varying conducting-powers. On the other hand, in the
cease of Dukenfield, the internal heat could travel along the steeply inclined strata them-
selves, and ultimately escape along the outcrop of the beds.

_“T merely offer this as a suggestion explanatory of the results before us, and may be
allowed to add that the strata at Monkwearmouth Colliery, the thermometrical observa-
tions at which correspond so closely with those obtained at Rose Bridge, are also in a
position not much removed from the horizontal, which is some evidence in corroboration
of ne ani here offered.” —Proc. Roy. Soc. 1870, vol. xviii. p. 175.

. D

84 REPORT—1870.

mittee addressed a letter to Professor Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution, United States, requesting his cooperation in furthering the ob-
ject which the Committee haye in yiew, at the same time forwarding one of
eur protected thermometers.

In June of the present year, an answer was received from Professor Baird,
Assistant Secretary in charge, to the effect that Professor Henry’s ill health
during the present season had preyented his communicating to us the result
of his labours in response to this request.

The letter addressed to Prof. Henry made special reference to an artesian
well of extraordinary depth, which was understood to be in course of sinking
at St. Louis; and at the same time a letter was addressed and a special ther-
mometer sent to Mr. C, W. Atkeson, the Superintendent of the work of boring
at St. Louis. No reply has been received from Mr. Atkeson, who appears to
have left St. Louis before the letter arrived; but letters have been received,
through the Smithsonian Institution, from Dr, Chas. W. Stevens, Superin-
tendent of the County Insane Asylum at St. Louis, this being the institution
for whose uses the well was sunk, together with a very interesting news-
paper cutting, consisting of Mr. Atkeson’s report on the works. The boring
of the well was commenced (at the bottom of a dug well 713 feet deep) on
the 31st of March, 1866, and was continued till the 9th of August, 1869,
when the work was stopped at the enormous depth of 38433 feet, exceeding
by more than one half the depth of Dukenfield Colliery, The strata pene-
trated consisted in the aggregate of 63 feet of clay, 6 feet of coal, 360 feet of
shales, 2725 feet of limestone, and 680 feet of sandstone.

A cast-iron tube of 113 inches bore was first put down, reaching from the

top and secured on the limestone at the bottom, This tube was then lined
inside with a wooden tube, reducing the bore to 43 inches. A 43-inch drill
was put down through this tube on the above-mentioned date. The bore was
afterwards enlarged to 6 inches, and subsequently to 113 inches to a depth
of 1313 feet. A sheet-iron tube was then put down, extending from the top
to this depth, and the bore below was enlarged, first to 6 and afterwards to 10
inches diameter, to the depth of 953 feet. A sheet-iron tube 79 feet long
was then put down, which rests on the offset at the bottom of the 10-inch
bore. The 43-inch bore was then enlarged to 6 inches to the depth of 1022
feet, and a wrought-iron tube of 5 inches bore, weighing more than 6 tons,
was put down, reaching from the top to and resting on the offset at the
bottom of the 6-inch bore, thus securing the work to this depth, and reducing
the bore to a conyenient size to work in. The 43-inch bore has been con-
tinued to the depth of 3843 feet 6 inches without further tubing,

At the depth of 3029 feet the first observation of temperature was taken,
and the reading of the thermometer was 107° Fahr. This first observation
is stated by Dr. Stevens to be specially worthy of confidence, as having been
confirmed by several repetitions, or, rather, to use Dr. Stevens’s own words,
“this was the maximum of several trials.” It was taken, as well as those
that followed it, by means of a registering thermometer (kind not mentioned) ;
but in answer to our inquiries Dr. Stevens states, upon the authority of the
carpenter who attached the thermometer to the pole by which it was lowered,

“ that no means were taken to defend the bulb from pressure.” In the ab- |

sence of further information (and Mr. Atkeson himself has not yet spoken),
we can place no reliance upon the temperature recorded, as the thermometer
had to bear a pressure of three-fifths of a mile of water,

The temperatures registered at lower depths, the deepest being 800 feet
lower, were all (strange to say) somewhat lower than this, a circumstance

fie ae

Peg: SPOR RRM once, «

ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 35

which is all the more remarkable because the pressure (which tends to make
the reading higher) must have increased with the depth. At the bottom, or
rather at 3837 feet, being 61 feet from the bottom, the temperature indicated
was 105°, Either of these results, taken apart from the other and compared
with the surface-temperature, would give a result not improbable in itself.
The mean temperature of the air at St, Louis appears to be about 53°. But
it seems desirable to ayoid publishing calculations till the data are better
established.

‘ Unfortunately the apparatus which was employed in boring has all been
remoyed, after the insertion of two wooden plugs, with an iron screw at the
upper end of each, one at the offset at a depth of 1022 feet, and the other at
the offset at the depth of 953 feet, for the purpose of separating the fresh
from the salt waters. These plugs were driven in with great force, and can
only be withdrawn with the aid of a series of poles and other appliances,
such as were used in the boring, which will be rather costly. The poles alone
are estimated to cost $1152, or about £200. If the plugs were withdrawn
(and according to Dr. Stevens there is nothing but the expense to prevent
it), the whole well would be available for observation. The Committee will
make every effort to prevent so rare an opportunity from being lost.

The Secretary has also been in correspondence with Messrs. Mather and
Platt of Salford Iron-works, respecting a boring at Moscow, for which they
have furnished machinery, and which is to be carried to the depth of 3000
feet, They refer to General Helmersen, of the Mining College, St. Peters-
burg, as the best authority to whom application can be made for particulars of
the Moscow boring as to temperature &c. The Secretary has accordingly
written to General Helmersen, endeavouring to interest him in the objects
of the Committee, and offering to forward thermometers. WNo reply has yet
been received.

An element which it is necessary to know with a view to the correct re-
duction of our obseryations, but which in many instances it is difficult to

_ obtain by direct observation, is the mean annual temperature of the ground

at or near the surface. Instances frequently occur in which the temperature
at the depth of 200, 300, or it may be 500 feet is accurately known, while
the temperature in the superincumbent strata can only be guessed at. This
is the case at the Kentish-Town Well, and partially at Rose Bridge and
Dukenfield Collieries.

It is very desirable that, in connexion with temperatures at great depths,
there should in each locality be an accurate observation at a depth of from
50 to 100 feet. At such depths in the solid ground, before it has been dis-
turbed by mining-operations, one observation suffices to give a good approxi-
mation to the mean temperature of many years. At depths of 2 or 3 feet it is
necessary to observe once a week or so throughout a year in order to get the
mean temperature at that depth for that year ; and this may differ by acon-
siderable amount from the mean of a series of years.

In the Report of the Scottish Meteorological Society for the quarter end-
ing December 1862, there is a comparison of the mean temperature of the
air with that of the soil at the depths of 3, 12, and 22 inches at four stations,
from observations extending over five years; and in the Journal of the same
Society for the quarter ending December 1865, there is a comparison of the
temperature of drained and undrained land from one year’s observations un-
dertaken for this purpose at two stations, and including also a comparison
with the temperature of the air, The mean temperature of the air for each
day is in these comparisons assumed to be the simple arithmetical mean of

36 REPORT—1870.

the maximum and minimum, as indicated by self-registering thermometers
4 feet from the ground. From these observations it appears that the mean
annual temperature of the soil was in every case rather above that of the air,
and that the excess was greater for sand than for undrained clay, and was
greater for drained land than for the same land undrained.

The greatest excess occurred in the case of the 22-inch thermometer at
Nookton (Vale of Leven), where both surface and subsoil are sandy and dry.
The five-yearly means at this station were :—

Air 46:1; soil at 3 inches 46-3, at 12 inches 47-3, at 22 inches 48-0,
giving an excess of 1-9 for the temperature at the depth of 22 inches as
compared with air.

The smallest excess, in the case of the 22-inch thermometers observed for
five years, was at Linton (East Lothian), where it amounted to 0-7; but the
observations on the effect of drainage gave for the year of observation an
excess of only 0:2 at the depth of 30 inches in light sandy but undrained
soil, under a rye-grass crop, at Otter House, near Loch Fyne the corre-
sponding excess for drained land of the same kind and in the immediate
vicinity being 0:9.

The mean temperature, at the depth of 3 feet, at Professor Forbes’s three
stations at Edinburgh, from five years’ observations, gave an excess of 0-55
above the mean temperature of the air at Edinburgh as determined by
Mr. Adie’s observations.

Observations on soil temperature in England are much needed; but the
Greenwich observations give an excess of soil above air temperature falling
within the limits above quoted, the excess at 3 French feet being 1°7, while
at 24 French feet it is reduced to 1°. The soil of which the Observatory
Hill is composed, and in which the thermometers are sunk, is dry gravel,
and the unusual circumstance of decrease of temperature downward observed
in the comparison of the 3-feet and 24-feet thermometers, seems to indicate
that the surface of the hill is warmer than the surrounding land.

In the present state of our knowledge, then, it appears that when the |

temperature of the earth has been observed at a depth of some hundreds of
feet in any locality in Great Britain, and has not been accurately determined
at a less depth, some knowledge of the rate of increase downwards may be
obtained by assuming provisionally that the mean temperature of the surface
is about a degree higher than the mean temperature of the air, supposing the
latter to be known.

It is to be wished that the Meteorological Society would, from the ample
materials in their possession, publish a map of annual isothermals for Great
Britain; and the objects of this Committee would be greatly furthered by
an extensive series of soil-temperature observations at the depth of about
3 feet.

The Committee are anxious to carry into effect Mr. Hull’s proposal (quoted
in their last Report) to bore down from the bottom of a deep mine; and as

Rose-Bridge Colliery appears to be an eminently suitable locality for such an

operation, the Secretary has consulted Mr. Bryham respecting its practicability
and probable cost. Mr. Bryham’s reply is that there would be no difficulty
in carrying out the proposal at Rose Bridge, that to make preparations and
bore 300 feet would, on a rough estimate, cost £150, and that the second
300 feet would probably cost about the same sum.

The Committee would earnestly appeal to the liberality of the Association —
to enable them to put this design in execution ; and they would remark that —

the sooner it is carried out, the more valuable the results obtained will be, as

ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE.

the mine has been but recently opened to its present depth, and the in-
fluence of atmospheric temperature will every year become more sensible

in the strata below.

The annexed figure represents the protected
maximum thermometer, designed by Sir W.
Thomson for the purposes of the Committee.

A is the protecting case of glass hermetically sealed,
B the Phillips’s thermometer enclosed in it and
supported by three pieces of cork, ¢, ¢, ¢.
quantity of spirit, s, occupies the lower part of the
case, the remainder of the space being filled with
air, and d is the air-bubble characteristic of Phil-
lips’s thermometer. The detached column of mer-
cury above d@ remains suspended by adhesion in
spite of moderate shaking. The instrument has
been found to register correctly even under a
pressure of 24 tons to the square inch.

A small

Section of Strata sunk through (with shaft 16 feet diamcter) at Rose-Bridge
Collieries, Ince, near Wigan.

No. on sho Thick-
_ | Description of Strata. Sts
‘ in
ah
2. { . ee
3, |Strong marl and boulders...) 10 2
4, |Dark-blue shale............... 120
5. |Grey rock and ironstone ...| 0 2
6. {Strong dark-blue shale ...... 40
MeaiGrey rock |,....-.5..........00- 02
8. |Very strong light-blue shale
(with fossil ferns) ......... 41
9. |Grey freestone rock, very
; open, with water ......... 3 0
10. |Light-blue shale ......... crepe cell
MW Coal, inferior ............... 02
*| {Coal and soft shale ......... 011
12. | Warrant earth, very soft...) 1 1
Carry forward ......... 53 0 11

WOrwor SC CAanooooe:

No. on
Sect.

«4s Thick-
Description of Strata. oe)
yds. ft. in.
Brought forward 53 0 Il
Strong linn and wool
Dark blue shale

seeeee

eee e eee eee enn eeeseeeeeeee

Dogtooth shale and bands
of rock
Dark-brown shale............
Strong grey rock
Strong grey shale and bands
of rock
Burr-stone
Strong blue shale

Owb

eeb bbw
ry

cCKHmo OOS

weet ee eeeeee

Penner eee ee eer earnee

Oo Se

|
|

[o)
ou
Oo
—
am

Carry forward

88 REPORT—1870.
*P. at Description of Strata. og / ig Description of Strata. or
yds. ft. in. yds. ft. in.
Brought forward ......... 85 0 11] Brought forward ...... 199 010 —
25. |Soft blue shale ...........000 02 8] Gl. |Blackbassand warrantearth} 31 0 —
DGG Coalaaad wes «2... seagies «2004s 02 6|| 62. |Light-blue shale ............ 20 69
27. |Strong warrant earth ...... 11 0] 63. | Bass and warrant............ 42 0
28. | Rock burr-stone.. 40 4]| 64. |Strong grey shale ............ 22 6%
29. | Blue shale, strong... chant peoeee 380 O|| 65. |Flaggy rock .........-0.:....- 80 0
30. | Blue shale, soft........ss0.05. 10 8|| 66. |Strong grey rock ...:........ 60 6
ol. | Coal; 1fiferior:........2saree.ea 02 6] 67. Flaggy rock /:i<esbees 20 6
32. | Warrant earth, strong ...... 10 0] 68. -|Strong grey rock, ‘no ‘joints 130 6
33. | Grey shale, very strong...... 60 6] 69. |Strong grey shale ............ 41 0
34. | Brown shale, soft ............ 30 0O|| 70. |Strong linn and wool ...... 21 0
SOs) | WoalyMreertOre. vies ses .ses 02 38 TI: Strong blue shale ....... | 1 1 ae
36. | Strong grey shale and bands 72, |Soft blue shale .ss.sessssseed 10 0g
Obj ROMA deesccsodeaxSaaczathe 71 8] 73. |Bassand coal ....:..4s...... 12 7
37 Soft blue shale ............... 10 3]| 74. | Warrant earth, soft ......... 20 9
A MBYRGHARES cc s..-cacassosetecss: Ou 2 Coal and bass, 9 in., war- -
88. |Soft brown shale ............ 21 6) 75. rant earth, 9 in...iiss...... 0169
39 Coal, inferior.........ssce8s.8: 01 6]| 76; |Coal, inferior. s.34:.;.02.5..-- 019
* | | Warrant earth .......i0.0c06 | 1 0.0 77 Warrant earth, salh a aise 02 6
40. |Strong grey shale ............ LO) OU ee { Dark dunn shale ............ O11 Og
41. |Soft dark shale (with vege- 78. |Coal, fair quality .....:...... 12 0q@
table fossils) 02 7|| 79. | Warrant earth ..:.ss01....... 10 0
AD \Goal, FOOG)..2.:......0a8edssba7 10 9/]| 80. |Grey shale 12.0@
43. |Soft warrant earth, mixed 81. | Black bass . 11 o@
with black shaley beds...) 10 2 0) 8%. |Grey shale .. 50 07
44, | Black shalo..................... 10 O} 83. | Coal, fair quality ............ O02 5
45. |Strong blue shale and rock 84, | Warrant earth ............00. 10 7
STIR to: sects 2rde=. se 52 8] 85. |Strong grey shale.. 0D
46. | Strong linn and wool ...... 41 0O|| 86. |Strong grey rock ............ 30 0
47, |Soft blue shale ............... 3210] 87. |Flaggy rock, very strong... 40 0
Bee | SL ACIAABE <1. s<vsesessesens sc LoL 0; 88 Linn and wool. .....--sssess 02 93
( | Coal, inferior ORD : { Dark bass ..i:ccc0.eseseteneure 00 3
49.4 | Warrant earth ............... 00 6 89. | Coal, good)... ). caine 114
Coal, fair quality <........... 11 8| 90. | Warrant earth, strong ..... 12 6
50. | Warrant earth ......s....3... 12 0} 91. | White rock, ei er 22 0
51. | Dark-brown shale ............ 1w9 99 Grey shale . «| OTe
Goal scsrectvebesrevtecetetsitts 00 2 “ | | Coal, inferior......ssessesesees 01 0@
52,2 | Warrant earth ............... 00 G|| 93. Warrant earth, soft ...... 12 6
Strong grey shale ............ 22 6] 94. | Linn and wool .......06) 30 6
53 (ERIE -SHONG sans soenncsatassdcns Qu 95 Coal and bass .........« «:.| 00. dam
*) | Strong dark shale ............ 40 8 2) | Warrant earth .........s0006 01 6
pg, { | Hoo canmel ...ssesssseseesen. 01 Oj 96. {Linn and wool .........+0004 31 6
= { Strong linn and wool......... 20 0] 97. |Strong grey shale............ 120 0
55. | Strong blue shale ............ 60 0 98 Coal and bass.......0seccssesus 00 38
56 Dark shalosdsvsezs.deoass saves 02 9 *) | Warrant earth ..........0000. 110
* );| Black bass. .:.....c-sesescaasess 01 8|| 99. | Blue shale (with fossil aes 41 0
Coal, inferior........:s0c0.608 02 9|| 100. |Coaland bass .......sss00ee. 02 0
57.2 | Warrant earth ............... 00 6) 101. |Soft warrant earth ......... 12 0
Coal, inferior ssa. becrteroe- 01 8) 102. |Dark-brown shale (with fos- :
58. | Warrant earth .........000... 5 1.10} sil fernis)s1.s.desds0seneteaane 82 0
50, ©| Blue shale 5s sesessrncqesseenese 40 5] 103. |Grey rock .....:..ss-se3-ssee0- 10 0
Dark shale, Jan. 16th, stop- 104, | Blue shale ..........see02sse040 41 0
( ped raising headgear, &c.| 02 4) Brown Shale <.....se«sessesse- 10 6
60 Warrant earth, with seams 105.4 |\Col ...20:..:.senaee eae sce| 0010
; of coal, Feb. 8th, com- Warrant earth ........c..:.6- 00 4
menced with large en- 106. | White rock . ..i5.issveces ee 11-9
\t) Se Bies ie erre te agshactssbh aaa: 20 4] 107. | Linn and wool ..:.06..:-..00- 22.0
Carry forward ......... 199 0 10, Carry forward ........./349 0 9
| | 5 {

ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 89
oy Description of Strata. pe gcklg Description of Strata. a
yds. ft. in. yds. ft. in.
: Brought forward ...... 349 0 9 Brought forward ..:... 468 0 3
108. PBGEEBUODE . 58. 55.5.0225.805586 00 10) 445 { Warrant earth :..::..s:s..005 3110
Flaggy rock .....5.......s0008 L 26 * || Coal and bass...:5....:s0852.33 01 0
109 Linn and wool ............... 02 4 ' | Strong blue shale, with fos-

* || Dark dunn shale ............ 02 4] 146. sil ferns: vstceastsdaar.ctictes 70 0
110. | Strong grey rock ............ O02 4 Dark shale .:.2t660088833.003 02 0
111. {Linn and wool ............4.. 22 0|| 147. |Strong grey shale ............ 102 8
112. |Light-blue shale and iron- 148 { Blue shale :.:itssssiscisss..c.. 116
: stone bands .........s.::.. 30 0 ~ (Lf Bades cssseuescs.Sepsstecsbhs chee 01 0
113. | Dark shale (with freshwater (\ Coal «.ssscssssecetssets sstee see 00 6

ROEM) RysssiSesvesselsscessees 40 0 Bass -<szetareabergatesite seeds 00 5
114, |Blue shale ..................... 20 0 Coal «sscssestersdeaebectesteaad 00 38
115. | Dark shale................008.. 14) 6 Warrant earth iisc.ssssieeees 00 1
116. | Warrant earth ............... 22 5) 4 49,2 |Coal and warrant earth
117. | Blue shale (with ironstone : Mixed :...sssstseeseees siachte 00 6
pa oress feeeeeateveteisk 7 O00 Coal and bass iss..s....505.. Oe ae |
118. Woah ssizscssessesesssssesse sees 00 4 Coal, inferior ..:3..5..85...00 O01 6
Warrant earth ............... bb .0 Coal and bass.........3.. iehet: Ol 2
119. White rock .............8.08. 0 2. 0 \ | Coal, inferior ...:..: 02 9
Blue shale ............0...0.005 20 5] 150 { Warrant earth 00 8
120. Bass, with seams of coal .... O1 4 * || Blue shale ....csssisaisiss.cees 72 0
Bildoishale i:.:cecccsseestbsiet: fe a Coal and bass ...........:0:. 00 6
121 Grey rock sxsc:s1tty.ctth.ctis 00 9 11.4 Warrant earth, mixed with
| Dark shalessss.ct8s.t325 seats: L D7 GOAL siesvatsis ses avesteast seas 4:0 0
129, Coal and bass...............0.. 02 0O|| 152. |Strong grey shale ......:..... 42 0
= Warrant earth .....0......... 21 O}| 153. |Warrant earth «....:...:..... 10 0
123, Coal and bass................5. 00 8 Strong grey shale, with beds
Warrant earth ............... 21 8) 454 of linn and wool ......... iol 7
124. | Blue shale ................5.... 31 6 “| {Strong blue shale, with
125. | Dark shale ..................0.. 40 5 layers of rock............64. 30 0
126. | Blue shale ......0......0...000. 12 0 0O/|| 155. | Strong freestone rock ...... 162 0
127. | Rock, with layers of shale... 7.0 0|| 156. | Black bass ..........s0000..00.- 10 0
tee enn slrale:::.....c.2.c823 5.25 i £0 157 Blue shale ...:.....0ssts0i..0e. 02 8
129. | Rock, with thin layers of Ab Goubis accladb aredtce.osbaceease o1 0
aN eeet tines cesciessttges' 5 1 O} 158. | Warrant earth ............... 12 6
130. ° Strong rock, with vegetable 159. |Strong blue shale ............ 62 4
; matter mixed ............... 62 0 Dark shale <.s.es..s.5050000s2.: O1 0
131. |Strong white rock.............) 90 6 10. Strong grey shale, with
Some} blue shale .:.....0..22.03...2. 31 0 layers of linn.........:..... 130 0
133. | Black bass . 11 0} 161. |Dark-brown «shale, with
Bt |Coal 5 in., shale 2 in., coal layers of bass ...........6..- 20 °0
: 1 yard Om Gin shade ie ae | Dark warrant earth and
: 135. '| Warrant earth .......... cel O FO 162 shale wsescetexseesta, AE: 0 4
: eens and coals ..22..22....80088 Ol 6 Coak » occ vec A ee Oe
136. | Warrant earth and bass and 163. | Dark warrant earth 0 0
egal mixed. 2500322 50258055. 42 0] 164. | Dark shale..................... 2 2
137. | Linn and wool 11 0} 165. | Dark layers of shale 2 10
138. | Brown shale ..... 41 0 166 Coal, fair quality ...... TD
fee. | Blue shale .....2.............. 10 0 ; { Warrant earth ......... ise)
140. +| Strong dunn and wool...... 41 3 167 Coal shale ........cce02... 0.008 0 2
141. | Blue shale, with layers o : { Warrant earth ..............: 0 O
r dark shale ....csc.cssctsseee 21 3] 168. | White rock............ pieeaatee 0 6
142, | Black bass and ironstone 169. |Flaggy rock «0.2.0. 1 4
& ATIC «cot coves vanaespenceeres 02 6) 170. | Light-brown rock ............ 0 4
143: | Coal, good .......0scecc eee. 10 7|| 171. |Strong grey shale ............ 04
q 44 Warrant earth ..........0.08. Ol3) 4) 172. ~ |Blueishalenie..cocc-ccwesanescs- 0 6
Me es csicicsecisccenuv-etnsee OPM 9 || 173; | Darkebagse ss: .c-sssseseas 02> 9
Carry forward ......... 468 0 3 588 2 3

Carry forward ......... esc

40 REPORT—1870,

Npsan Description of Strata. oe a oe Description of Strata. pita
yds. ft.in yds. ft. in.

Brought forward ...... 588 2 3 Brought forward ...... 663 2 1

Hoo cannel .......+.0s-vsseu: 02 7|/ 262. | Dark dunn metal and iron
174. 5 | Tronstone bass ......+eseseee 00 8 bands) ..-:3.0s<s-9§;epaeweenas 61 9
po scarinel) se0.t.-sasteseasmce 00 5} oo { Coal and bass....... i eee eae 00 6
Upon anne) ic ss ,.eres -sescees tee TON LO) a + "|| Sott metals sates eee asabas); OLOMAG
Dark stony bass............++. Ort 2) 204, (| Coal mir s2.- danse eoreeetee o3| 20: 2ae8
176.4 |Shale, with seams of coal.... 02 2 205 Warrant earth ......sssss0.+. 00 8
IB ABS Sn seve veclsn ses #e si eeere aes OO. di” ‘sk Strong grey rock ....... povoall (2 Orla
177. | King coal tops ............66 02 O}] 206, | Flagey rock ....:.sss0spasene 32 3
178, |Coal and shale ..............., 1 0 11]/ 207. | Linn and wool ............... ‘10 0
179: | King coal bottoms............ 01 6) oo Blue metal ,...,.008-c.00r-0000 20 0
180, | Warrant earth ............... TO) Oil ye tglg@oal his. .cccmaneeseaeeme <soee()t Oem
181 { COA ee reet cures sd tence Sepsr.ves 00 6G] 209. | Linn and wool ...........:... 50 0
* | |Soft warrant earth ......... 10 0) 210. | Strong blue metal and iron

182. | Light shales .................. LIB saa: § band Sic. kecostes smear ese 120 0
183. | Strong blue shale ............ 5 2 O|] 211. | Dark dunn shale ............ 40 0
USACe a WN Wl be OPK. «ncig-c ocereseces~ ora 11 0} a9 Coal. cersissseecucspeceeseenee 00 4
185. | Strong blue metal............ 42 4) © (| Warrant earth <....:sspeoss 20 0
AS Gre qSothamnetal oo ccssencseedees sate 11 2/]| 218. |Strong linn and wool ...... 110 0
187. | Linn and wool ............... 10 41 534 {| Dunn bass .........sseeseeeee 02 0
198, { | ROCK w--seesseseeereeeteeeeees 102-4 ||| -—) |p), Coall, Gisc,, Svossacpese ever O01 6
* | | Metalwith brown iron bands} 5 2 11/|| 215. | Warrant earth ............... 20 0
(COA ite -cemmtecssspeleuge d:sorpe OOM || 216, «Dark rock izccs.c eek gece 20 0
IDI, aotiy ai senbeoebaAneaee asa: 00 3] 217, | Linn and wool .........»..... 62 6

(Clagl ~psnsenign coachecsocgoe- Be 0011 { Coal and bass......00e..seese0s 00 9
sar lange aise ssc cdrom ole ronda 0 0 10]| 218.4 | Warrant earth ... _.......... 20 0
| C1 aaa eal Ries | |Bass and coal.....s.s4..0000| 00 6
189.4 | Coal and bass ............45- 00 8] 219. | Dogtooth shale ............... 20-0
ENV ese notre eee anes cranes 00 7|| 220. |Strong blue metal............ 31 3
Coal and bass............00+++. 00 6/| 221. | Strong grey rock with burrs) 31 9
WU On Dep ethecics Sines teiases apna 0 1 10)| 222. | Strong metal .........ccosceeee 31 9
VISTA eeees couse we sin ane rics 0 O <6} 228,.. «| Coal, inferion:....-5.escap eee O01 2

(Clovis hese enim ae oe Eee OT 9) 224. || Warrant.,....s11-.-<<ipsteneeee 10 0
190. | Dogtooth shale or warrant] 0 4 6|| 225. | Rock ............ season oom 10 0
191. | Strong linn and wool ...... 04 3/] 226, | Blue metal........-0..0.. ee: 90 7
192. |Strong metal, with iron 227. |Cockle-shell bed..........+ ses] O20
ATIC tetas sees jaceesa sen ie 302 6) 228) Black bass ...-ceeee-asee 10 0
TEESE! "Gach ones ere oe dagen ce 01. 46)| 229, | Blue metal ..c..26-.¢)she> canes 20 0

Be MOOS aa suinssessccepadeeesseenen. OO. 2 280. Rock. cvsssssies+000s sateen 20 0
Warrant earth 0 1/50)| 231, }\Blue metal... .-..--sendems | -2 0 30
194, | Linn and wool 62 O|] 232. | Linn and wool ............... 12 5
195. |Strong metal, with iron| 233; 4\Grey TOCK,....vietc8<tregneed 20 0
ATIOS eetens caps tease. cmesces 61 6]| 234, |Linn and wool .........,..06 100 0

197. | Dark-grey rock ...,........4.. 10 6|| 238. | Grey rock, mixed ............ 151 0
198, | Linn and wool ............... 22 5 999, { Blue metal............ vacs|o) & Zee
199, | Strong grey metal and iron av<* | | Black bass ........ see-/1.0 ObeG
ATIC sects sot a csrnaitanmse tae LZ —0)|| 240; 9) Coad jvccesuescssenssnccstteem en) PLP One

200. | Linn and wool ............08. 31 3] 241. | Warrant earth ...........:... 1.1,,0
201 { Goal: Vo se.cctpess tes ositenstaneins OO 9]) 242. | Rock ........-00---sasseesese 50 0
beer d| Blacksbassi....t.....teaese aeaace 0 0 10]| 243. |Strong shale ...............00 21 0
Carry forward... 663 20 1) Total. .-iesr gee 8150 6

Oe eee

ON SECTIONS OF MOUNTAIN-LIMESTONE CORALS. 41

Section of the Boring at Kentish Town.

Depth
“wn _s ff In. |) 6 in
Be woudon clay [ 1. Yellopy clay ....00ccscctcs.cosescoasscccccesesal 30 6
# 236 ft.) 2. Blue clay, with Septaria ......0....c0ece0 205 6
y: 1
© 3. Mottled (red, yellow, and blue) clay...... 37 6 | 273 6
as 4, White sand, with flint-pebbles 0 6
~ Woolwich 5. Black sands; passing into .....s0..cccs.000 2 0
& | and Reading ! 6, Mottled green and red clay ............... a)
d 4 series 17. MIEYOY. BANGS sicsseeesetses ct cers ove Hane 3 0
® } (61 ft. Gin.) | 8. Dark grey sands with seams of clay...... 9 6
a | { ia Quicksands, ash-coloured ............008... 6 4
b Obelin ts pebblestes.nssccecsssacassoasseeceoseee 1
3 die Ash-coloured sands:...........cc.cscscetn cee 10 0} 807 6
% | Thanet sands | 12. Argillaceous sands... ......ccsccceeeceeeesese 4 0
H| (27 ft.) 13. Dark-grey clayey sands .........000...c0c008 LO
\ 14, Bed of angular green-coated flints ...... 2 0} 324 6
Mas, \Ohiallic wath, Hits 52... ecc2aesaceeetcecesee 119 6
16, Hard chalk without flints ......0.....ee.008 8 0
17. Chalk, less hard, with few flints ......... 31 6 | 4838 6
Middle chalk | 18: Nodular chalk, with three beds of ta- :
. aA ulanrlints!. omens: s.ckses eer 13 6
j (Ou fee in | 19. Chalk, with seams of tabular flint and
C= A : sah a few nodular flints .:............00006.. 32 6 | 629 6
2 20. Chalk, with a few flints and some
2 Patches\of sand \.-.244..csnosss iotsaetece 9 6
= \ 21. Very light-grey chalk, with a fewflints 30 0| 569 0
3 Lower chalk { 22: Light-grey chalk, with a few thin beds h
is) : d of chalk-marl subordinate............... 133 0 | 702 0
without flints 4 9. :
23. Grey chalk-marl, with compact and
(294 ft.) y i
az : ene marly beds and occasional pyrites 161 0 | 863 0
pean GME YAU Haves. eh Ache oe pee 20 0
| Chalk-marl | 25, Harder grey marl, rather sandy, and
(47 ft. 6 in.) ae with occasional iron-pyrites ............ 27 0
20ssHard rocky marls..2.00.5.....2:si0bebeccecess 0 6/910 6
Upper 27. Bluish-grey marl, rather sandy; the
Greensand lower part more argillaceous .......... 58 9
(72 ft. 6 in.) | 28, Dark-green sand, mixed with grey clay.. 13 9| 983 0
29. Bluish-grey micaceous clay, slightly
Gault a Ora niieth. cttase ect « Steal nla as dacalos 39 «(0
. itto, with two seams of argillaccous
(180 ft. 6 in.) greengand 6 7
31. Micaceous blue clay ...........ccscceceesees 84 11 1118 6

Second Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared

__ Sections of Mountain-Limestone Corals for Photographing. The
_ Commitice consists of Hunry Woovwarp, F.G.S., Prof. Duncan,
_*F.R.S., Prof. Harxnuss, F.R.S., and James Tuomson, F.G.S,

Tx presenting to the Association the second Report on the slicing of corals
from the Mountain Limestone, for the purpose of showing their structural
characteristics by means of photography, we have to state that considerable
progress has been made during the year, but much still remains to be done

42 _ REPORT—1870.

before we can prepare a final Report. The Plates exhibited to the Section
and described below show some valuable results.

Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime, in their paper on the Corals from the
Mountain Limestone, published in the Transactions of the Palsontographi-
cal Society for 1852, state that this period is one of the richest in true Polyps,
and that 76 species up to that date have been found; of these, they record
43 as found in British strata. In the progress of our investigations we so
greatly add to this number that, from Scottish strata alone, we have obtained
64 species belonging to the following families :—

Known. Doubtful:

Milleporid® s.%ssarisiriseassvas 8
Favositide .ciissivestvitesvars L
Chatidube se siiresrrians C2 5845 5) 3
UA RAGUL Goede Sse ss payee ack yal 3 1
Seriatoperide .....:asccassases. 1 0
Atiloporide 23i.tissssebateaeses 1 a:
Dysthaxenide .rsrx cers ky is ts he i 5
Cyathophyllid® (0 .1....:..05%5 41 82
*64 92

Although some of these forms have been determined from somewhat im-
perfect data, we have no doubt that the continued investigation of these
remains will yet greatly increase their number, and cause considerable alter-
ations in their classification; we consequently feel the necessity of being
more severe in our labours, not only with the view of adding to the knowledge
of species, but of getting rid of the numerous synonyms which encumber
the study of this interesting group of animal remains.

Plate I. contains the genera Amplewus, Zephrentis, Cyathophyllum, and
Campophyllum. Fig. 1 represents Amplewus coralloides (Sow.); fig. 7, A.
Henslowti (Edwards & Haime). This genus is characterized by broad tabula
and sparsely developed endotheca. These species are much restricted in
their vertical range: we are not aware of their being found in any other
position than in the lower members of the series. A. coralloides has been
found at Beith, Ayrshire, and at Brockley, near Lesmahagow, Lanarkshire ; A.
Henslowii at Brockley, Lesmahagow. Figs. 3, 6, & 9 represent the genus
Zephrentis ; fig. 3, Z. cylindrica (Scoular), This form is restricted to the
lower beds. Fig. 6, 7. Griffithi. This species is found in all the members
of the Mountain Limestone. It has a vertical range of 3000 feet. Fig. 11,
4. Guerangeri ; it is restricted to the lower beds, and is found at Auchenskeigh,
Ayrshire. Fig. 2 is closely allied to fig. 3, and is probably a young form.
Figs. 5 & 9 differ in the arrangement of the tabule. Figs. 8 & 10 repre-
sent the genus Cyathophyllum; fig. 8, C. Murchisonii. This species is
very rare in Scotland, and found only in the lower beds at Bathgate, Lin-
lithgowshire. Figs. 10 & 10 4, C. paricida. This species is also restricted
to the lower beds. It is found at Beith, Ayrshire, and is not rare. Fig. 4,
Campophyllum Murchisonti. This and the preceding forms are developed
by calicular gemmation. In the longitudinal section of fig. 4, we have a
young coral attached to the calice of the parent. In comparing the genus

* The 64 species referred to have been named from the works of Milne-Edwards and
Haime and M‘Coy. Those referred to as doubtful seem to us to have structural charac-
toristics sufficient to warrant specific distinction; but as our investigations are not suffi-

ciently advanced to warrant their determination, we reserve their classification for a future
contribution,

ON SECTIONS OF MOUNTAIN-LIMESTONE CORALS. 43

Campophyllum with Ciyathophyllum and Zephrentis cylindrica, we cannot
see any good grounds for these forms being placed in separate genera. The
tabula and endotheca are very similar in all the three forms.

Plate II. presents important structural confirmations, Fig. 1, Cyatho=
phylum Wrighti. Figs. 3, 10, & 13 are closely allied to Cyathophyllum,
and probably may form a subgenus. They are all restricted to the lower
beds, and are found at Brockley, Lesmahagow, and at Howret, Ayrshire,
Figs. 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14,15, & 16 have close Affinities to the
genus Clisiophyllum (Dana), but there is a distinctly marked difference in
the structural characteristics from those of any known species. All are
restricted to the lower members of the period, and are found at Brockley,
Lesmahagow.

Plate ILI. contains seven varieties of the genus Clisiophyllum (Dana). This
genus is characterized by the conical boss in the centre of the calice, and by
the central line which passes down from the apex of the cone to the inferior
extremity. Figs. 1, 3, & 4 have close affinities to fig. 6, which represents
C. bipartitum (M‘Coy), while there is a distinctly marked difference in
structural characteristics. Figs. 2, 5, & 7 differ very materially from the
others, and cannot be referred to any named species, They are all found in
the lower members of the period at Beith, Ayrshire.

Plate IV. contains five varieties. Fig. 5, Clisiophyllum coniseptum (Key=
serling). This-is the only named species represented on this Plate. Figs.
1, 2, 3, & 4 differ very materially from any existing genus; they are not
only restricted to the lower members of the period, but also to a very
limited area of the period, They have only been found at Treahorn, near
Beith, Ayrshire.

Plate V. fig. 4 has close affinities to Clisiophyllum coniseptum. Fig. 1
has a clear generic distinction from all the others found that have passed
through our hands. This coral we have found 10 inches in height, and fre-
quently 2 inches in diameter. It is the largest form of this class we have
yetseen. Figs, 4 & 5 are closely allied to figs. 1 & 4 of Plate LV. These,
like the former, are all restricted both in vertical range and in area. They
have only been found at Treahorn, near Beith, Ayrshire. :

Plate VI. figs. 1, 2, & 5 are three varieties of the genus Clisiophyllum
(Dana), but they cannot be referred to any existing species with which we
met. ‘They are restricted both in vertical range and area. They are only
found at the base of the rocks of this period, and are met with at Thirdpart,.
near Beith, Ayrshire. Figs. 3 & 4 show a distinctly marked difference in
the essential characteristics from any known genus. They are found in the
lower beds at Brockley, near Lesmahagow, and at Treahorn, Beith, Ayr-
shire.

- Plate VII. contains varieties of Cryclophyllum (Duncan & Thomson).
Fig. 6 represents a section of the original Sungitus of the Rev. David Ure ;
it is figured in his ‘ History of Rutherglen and East Kilbride,’ in 1793.
The original specimen is in the collection of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
By permission of the Council, we sliced that specimen with a view to ascer-
tain to what genus it could be referred. The history of this specimen is
perhaps one of the best illustrations on record showing the necessity of
carefully working out the details of fossil corals before they receive either
generic or specific names. It was named fungitus by Ure in 1793, Turbi-
nolia fungitus by Fleming in 1828, Cyathophyllum fungitus by Geinitz in
1845, Chsiophyllum prolapsum by M‘Coy in 1849, Aulophyllum fungitus
by the same authors in 1851 who named it Aulophyllum prolapsum in 1845;

44, REPORT—1870.

viz. Milne-Edwards and Haime. This great diversity of nomenclature we can
only attribute to the fact that non-essential and external characteristics
have been too implicitly trusted in drawing generic distinctions ; when we
examine their internal structures, genera named exhibit essential dif-
ferences of conformation. This genus is found all over Scotland, but is
restricted to the base of the Mountain Limestone.

Plate VIII. figs. 4, 5, & 14 represent varieties of Cyclophyllum fungitus ;
fig. 13, C. Bowerbankii. Figs. 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 11, & 12 represent species
which have a distinctly marked difference from the two speciesnamed, Fig. 9
is Aulophyllum Edwardsi (Duncan & Thomson). This is a section of the
typical specimen, the only one, so far as we are aware, that has been dis-
covered in British strata. These forms are all restricted to the lower members
of the period; they are found at Bathgate, Brockley, and Beith, Ayrshire.

Plate IX, contains three varieties of the genus Lonsdalia. Fig. 4 repre-
sents L. floriformis. This species is restricted to the lower members of the
period, as found at Bathgate, Linlithgowshire. Figs. 1 & 2 are L. flori-
formis, var. major. This species is restricted to the position of the Main
Limestone, about 33 feet from the base of the Mountain-Limestone series,
and found at Braghead, Lesmahagow, and Braidwood, Carluke, Lanarkshire.
Fig. 4 represents ZL. duplicata (Fleming). This is a section of the only speci-
men we have seen in Scotland. It is restricted to the lower member of the
period, and found at Glenmuirshaw, near Muirkirk, Ayrshire.

Second Report of the Committee, consisting of C. W. Merririetp,
F.R.S., G. P. Brwper, C.H., F.R.G.S., Capt. Dovuctas Gatton,
F.R.S., F. Gatton, F.R.S., Prof. Ranxinn, F.R.S., and W. Frovupr,
appointed to report on the state of existing knowledge on the Sta-
bility, Propulsion, and Sea-going Qualities of Ships, and as to the
application which it may be desirable to make to Her Majesty’s
Government on these subjects. Prepared for the Committee by
C. W. Merririexp, F.R.S.

We have to report that we have availed ourselves of your permission to
apply to the Admiralty to carry out the experiments recommended in our
first Report, presented to the British Association at Exeter last year, and
that the Admiralty have declined to carry out these experiments, but they
have sanctioned certain experiments upon models to be conducted by Mr.
Froude, one of our number.

The following is a copy of the correspondence on the subject.

Institution of Naval Architects,
9 Adelphi Terrace, London, W.C.
28th September, 1869,

To the Secretary of the Admiralty.

Srr,—At a Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science, held at Norwich in 1868, the attention of the Association was
drawn to the deficiency of existing knowledge on the stability, propulsion,

Ree AIS

STABILITY, PROPULSION, AND SEA-GOING QUALITIES OF SHIPS, 45

and sea-going qualities of ships, and to the need of further experiments on
those subjects as a basis for the extension of theoretical investigation.

A Committee, consisting of Mr. BropEr, Capt. Gatron, Mr. F. Garton,
Prof. Ranxine, Mr. Frovupz, and myself, was appointed for the purpose of
reporting on the state of existing knowledge on these subjects. At the re-
cent Meeting at Exeter this Committee presented a first Report, in which
they recommended certain experiments involving trials on too large a scale
to be undertaken by private individuals ; and the Association thereupon re-
appointed the Committee, and instructed them to apply to the Admiralty to
carry out the experiments suggested.

I enclose six copies of the Report, and also an extract showing the expe-
riments actually recommended.

With regard to the general question, it is submitted that there is a great
want of exact experiments on vessels of which every particular is duly
known and recorded. The experiments will undoubtedly require that a
certain outlay should be incurred, and provided for in the estimates ; but it
is believed that even a considerable sum invested in this way would probably
economize much larger amounts, which would otherwise have to be spent in
the tentative design of ships and propellers.

The Committee have indicated in their Report the class of experiments
which they consider to be immediately required. They have purposely ab-
stained from giving detailed proposals, both because they desire to avail
themselves of the immense experience of the naval advisers of the Admiralty
and of the unrivalled technical knowledge of the constructor’s department,
and because the details must after all be settled with reference to the vessels
selected for, and the staff entrusted with, the experiments decided upon.

If My Lords should be pleased to give a general assent to the proposal, it
appears to the Committee that the simplest ‘plan would be for their Lordships
to appoint some of their officers to confer with the Committee of the Asso-
ciation, both as to the detail of the experiments and the best means of
carrying them out, and with regard to the provision which will be needed
for them in the estimates.

The Committee wish it to be understood that they do not by any means
discourage experiments made by means of models, which can evidently be
had in greater number and in larger variety at much less expense than on full
scale; but they have (with the exception of Mr. Froude, whose reasons for
dissent are appended to the Report), on the whole, come to the conclusion
that the experiments which they have recommended upon full-sized vessels
are those which at the present moment are most urgently needed for the
advancement of the theory of the design of ships and the possibility of pre-
dicating their sea-going qualities.

I have, &c.,
C. W. Merrrrrexp.

Admiralty, 8.W.
9th February, 1870.
Sm,—With reference to your letter of the 28th September, 1869, I am
commanded by My Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to inform you
that, after full consideration, they are unable to give a general assent to the
proposals of your Committee to conduct experiments upon Her Majesty’s
ships in the fiords of Norway, or on the inland waters of the west coast of
Scotland ; but My Lords have been pleased to sanction certain experiments
upon models, to be conducted by Mr. Froude, a member of the Committee,

a x wre REPORT—1870,

and will cause the results of those experiments to be communicated, when
complete, to the Institution of Naval Architects, the British Association, and
such other Professional bodies as to My Lords may seem desirable,
I am, Sir, your obedient Servant,
(Signed) Vernon LusHineton,
0. W, Merrifield, Esq., F.R.S.,
Secretary to the Committee on Stability Sc. of British Association,

We are of opinion that it is advisable to await the result of Mr, Froude’s
experiments before taking any further action in the matter,
ca : Francis Garton.
G. P. Broprr,
Dovetas Garton.
W. J. Macquorn Ranxine.
Wm. Frovpz.
Cartes W, MERRInieLp.
~ London, May 1870.
APPENDIX.

Communication received from the Institution of Engineers in Scotland, with
which is incorporated the Scottish Shipbuilders’ Association.

Report of the Committee on a Communication received from the British
Association respecting the Qualities of Ships.

Your Committee having considered the printed Report of a Committee of
the British Association which has been submitted to them by the Council
and other information on the same subject, beg leave to report as follows ;—

1, Your Committee approve of the said Report generally, and especially of
the parts headed “ Proposed Experiments,” pages 29 to 31, and “ Recom-
mendation of Experiments on Rolling,” pages 59 to 63; for they consider
that such experiments as those therein proposed are required for the practical
advancement of the arts of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, as
well as for scientific purposes.

2. Your Committee agree with the Committee of the British Association
that the experiments required are beyond the means either of individuals or
of firms, or of Scientific Societies ; and that it is therefore desirable that they
should be undertaken by the Government.

3. Your Committee therefore recommend that the Council of the Institu-
tion of Engineers in Scotland should appoint a deputation, for the purpose of
cooperating with the deputation of the Council of the British Association in
the application to the Admiralty proposed in the last paragraph of page 31,
and in the last paragraph but one of page 62, of the printed Report before
mentioned, which paragraphs are as follows :—

Page 31.—‘ We therefore recommend that the Council of the British As-
sociation should authorize a deputation to apply to the Admiralty to provide
for such a set of experiments in the course of the Summer of 1870; also,
that the Council should appoint a Committee, consisting of three members of
the Association, to confer with officers of the Admiralty respecting the detail
of the experiments, and that the Admiralty should be requested to give an
opportunity to the members of that Committee of taking a share in the ob-
servations, in order that they may be enabled to make an independent Re-
port upon results,”

Page 62.—“‘ We therefore recommend that the deputation previously
mentioned with reference to the experiments on Resistance, be also instructed

ee Bee Pe

STABILITY, PROPULSION, AND SEA-GOING QUALITIES OF SHIPS. 47

to urge upon the Admiralty the importance, both practical and theoretical,
of instituting such a set of experiments, of providing suitable instruments
for recording exact observations, and of publishing the results. We also
recommend the appointment by the Council of the Association of a Com-
mittee of three members to confer with the officers of the Admiralty as to
the drawing up of detailed instructions for conducting these éxperiments ;
and that the Lords of the Admiralty, in the event of their assenting to the
proposals, be requested to nominate a committee to confer with the Committee
named by the Association.”

4, As regards the proposal in the printed Report, that the Council of the

British Association should appoint a committee of three members of the
Association to confer with the officers of the Admiralty, your Committee re-
commend that the Council of the Institution of Engineers in Scotland should
also appoint a Committee of three members of this Institution for the same
purpose ; and that, in appointing that Committee, in order to ayoid making
the combined committees inconyeniently numerous, they should endeayour,
by communication with the Councils of the British Association and of the
other Scientific Societies concurring in the application to Government, to fix
upon members of committee who may represent two or more societies
jointly.
‘ 5. Your Committee recommend to the consideration of those who may
arrange the experiments a method of experimenting on the resistance of the
water to the motion of ships lately practised by the French Government,
viz. to set a ship in motion at a considerable speed, and then allow her to
be gradually retarded and brought to rest by the resistance of the water,
making observations of the rates at which the retardation goes on, and de-
ducing the resistance from the results of those observations,

Your Committee recommend this method not as a substitute for, but as an
addition to, the methods mentioned in the printed Report ; for they consider
that important conclusions may be deduced from a comparison of the values
of the resistance of a ship as ascertained by towing and by retardation
respectively,

Extract of Minutes relating to-Communication from British Association

respecting the Qualities of Ships.
Council Meeting of 15th October, 1869,

** A letter from C. W. Merrifield, in reference to a Report of the British
Association on the Stability, Propulsion, and Sea-going qualities of Ships,
was read, and Report laid before the Meeting.

“The following Committee was appointed to consider this Report, and
report to a future Meeting :—Professor Rankine, Messrs, M. R. Costelloe,
_R. Dunean, John Ferguson, J, G. Lawrie, and David Rowan.”

Council Meeting of 18th January, 1870.

«The Report of the Committee appointed to consider communication from
the British Association respecting the Qualities of Ships was read and

agreed to.”
General Meeting of 18th January, 1870. See Special General Meeting.
Special General Meeting of 25th January, 1870.
* The Secretary read the Report of the Council on communication from

British Association in reference to experiments on the Stability, Propulsion,
and Sea-going Qualities of Ships. The Report was unanimously adopted,”

48 REPORT—1870.

Council Meeting of 4th February, 1870.

“Communication from British Association.—It was agreed that the fol-
lowing gentlemen be appointed a Committee to act with the Committee of
the British Association with a view tothe carrying out the recommendations
contained in the Report of the Committee on a communication from the
British Association respecting the qualities of Ships:—Professor Rankine,
Jas. R. Napier, and J. G. Lawrie.”

(Extracted.) J. R. Surra, Seeretary.
W. H. Mirrar.

Report of the Committee on Earthquakes in Scotland. The Committee
consists of Sir W. Tuomson, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., D. Mine-
Home, F.R.S.E., P. Macrartanr, and J. Brycr, M.A., LL.D.,
F.G.S. (Reporter).

Tue instruments belonging to the Association, set up at Comrie, are in a
satisfactory condition, and the records are duly kept. It has, however, been
of late forced upon the attention of the Committee that most probably the
Seismometer is not sufficiently delicate to indicate the very slight shocks
which are now of frequent occurrence, while the concave disk, on which the
pencil-point traces the direction of the shock, is inconveniently high for fre-
quent observation. Under these circumstances some simpler contrivance, and
one which shall give less trouble to the observer, is much to be desired.
The Committee is now considering how this can be best accomplished, with
special reference to the registration of slight shocks by some method of
magnifying the effect. Care will be taken that the instrument be thoroughly
tested before being set up at Comrie, and that the cost be as small as pos-
sible. In the autumn of last year there were several slight shocks, and,
apparently in connexion with them (though it would be rash to speak posi-
tively on this point), a remarkable moyement of the waters of Loch Karn,
though the shocks were not felt at that distance from Comrie. The matter
being reported to me, I went into the district soon after, and collected the
most satisfactory evidence of the movement in question. It occurred on
several occasions in the months of August and September last; but the most
remarkable and most completely attested case was that of the 15th day of
September, between the hours of 10 a.m. and noon. The day was calm and
misty, with a slight air up the lake from the east, and the water conse-
quently quite unruffled. At the east end chiefly the movement was observed.
The water rose slowly, in successive low, broad undulations, to the height of
from 2 to 6 feet, along the shelving beach, and as slowly subsided, the undu-
lations continuing through the two hours of the forenoon above mentioned.
There was nothing sudden or disturbed in the movement ; in so far it was
unlike the effect of earth-waves passing into water; it resembled more the
movements which are at rare intervals noted in the lakes of Switzerland, and
may be the effect of subterranean movements at great distances. Instruction
had been given for the careful observation of any such occurrences in future.—
On the 29th of April last, about 11 p.m, a pretty smart shock of earthquake
was felt over the district, to the extent of 10 miles along the valley of the
Earn, and about half that distance in a transverse direction. There were

ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 49

two shocks, with an interval of about half a minute. The direction whence
the undulation seemed to all the observers to proceed in different parts
agreed pretty closely with that indicated by the Seismometer. There was
nothing unusual, or in any way remarkable, in the indications of the instru-
ments by which the atmospheric phenomena are recorded. The movements,

‘indeed, are more probably connected with the geological relations of the

district, and may have no dependence on its meteorology. It is, however,
premature to enter on this question in the present state of the inquiry.
The Committee is most desirous to be enabled to put up two or three Seis-
mometers in other adjacent localities, if any instrument of manageable size
ean be constructed, and thoroughly capable and trustworthy observers secured.

Report of the Cominittee on the “ Treatment and Utilization of Sewage,”
reappointed at Exeter, 1869, and consisting of Ricuarp B. Gran-
rHAM, M. Inst. C.E., F.G.S., Chairman, M. C. Cooxs, M.A., Prof.
Corrietp, M.A., M.B., J. Battey Denton, M. Inst. C.H., F.G.S.,
Joun THornuILL Harrison, M. Inst. C.E., Witu1am Hops, V.C.,
Prof. Marsnatt, F.R.C.S., F.R.S., Bensamin H. Paut, PA.D.,
F.C.S., Prof. Wanxiyn, Prof. Wituiamson, Ph.D., F.R.S., and Sir
Joun Lussock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., Treasurer.

[Plates I., II., III.]

Berore describing its operations during the past year, your Committee desires
to recall the attention of the Association to the circumstances which led to
its reappointment at Exeter last year.

Your Committee was first constituted at Norwich in 1868, with a grant of
£10 “ to report on the treatment and utilization of Sewage.” The results of
its inquiries were detailed in the Report made to the Exeter Meeting in
1869, and the Committee was reappointed with a grant of £50, being then
constituted as follows :—

Mr. Grantham, Mr. Denton, Mr. Harrison, Mr. Hope, Dr. Paul, and Pro-
fessor Wanklyn.

The Committee as soon as possible made arrangements to proceed with the
inquiry entrusted to it; and one of the first steps taken upon resuming its
operations was, in virtue of the power vested in all Committees, to add to
its number several gentlemen whose assistance was considered desirable,
namely, Mr. Cooke, Professors Corfield, Marshall, and Williamson, and Sir
John Lubbock as Treasurer with respect to the Fund raised by the Committee
as hereafter described.

The Committee proceeded to collect existing information upon the subject
of sewage &c. with a view to summarizing it.

It soon became evident to the Committee that the grant of £50 from the
British Association would be wholly insufficient for carrying on the investi-
gations in a broad and comprehensive manner. A circular was thereupon
prepared and addressed to the authorities of the towns principally inter-
ested in the solution of the difficulties in connexion with the disposal of
sewage, who it was thought would, if requested, subscribe towards a fund
for carrying on the investigations. The draft of this circular was submitted

1870. E

50 REPORT—1870.

to the Council of the Association. The circular was then issued, at various
times, to upwards of 700 towns in the United Kingdom. The result of these
applications has been that the authorities of about 150 towns and districts,
in addition to other public bodies and some private individuals, have sub-
scribed the sum of £1530. There was a general expression of satisfaction

from the towns at the appointment of the Committee, who received nu-°

merous offers of assistance in the prosecution of its inquiries.

The various applications to the towns occupied some time, during which
the Committee was unable to take active steps in the prosecution of the in-
quiry, the scope and character of which would necessarily be governed by
the amount of support rendered by the towns; and it was not until the end
of February that the Committee found itself in a position to proceed with
the full inquiry proposed by its circular. The Committee then considered
that the funds received justified the commencement of systematic work,
and a circular was at once addressed to the authorities of all the towns re-
questing them to state the nature of their difficulties with respect to the
sewage question, and the points upon which they would specially desire in-
formation. In reply to this many communications were received detailing
the particular circumstances of the various towns, and the difficulties com-
plained of. The information required may be briefly summarized as follows:—

The towns complaining of difficulties may be classed under two heads—
those having efficient arrangements for the removal of their sewage, and
those where, for want of systematic sewerage, the refuse is a source of
nuisance and injury to health. The latter class of towns seems to require
information upon all points, and some of the municipal authorities, against
whom injunctions had been obtained or threatened, even wished for advice
in their particular cases. Where irrigation was considered from local cir-
cumstances impracticable, inquiry was particularly made as to whether the
Committee could safely recommend any simple and efficient method of deo-
dorization. Several towns which had adopted methods of filtration com-
plained of their failure. Some towns had no present trouble to complain of,
but wished to know how far the systems adopted by them would meet the
requirements of a more stringent legislation on the question. Only one town
(Carlisle) where irrigation is being practised had no difficulty, present or
prospective, and required no information.

The Committee being desirous of restricting its labours to the proper sub-
ject of the inquiry entrusted to it, viz. the “ treatment and utilization of
sewage,” and assuming as proved the deleterious effects upon the health of
towns of substances which escape from stagnant sewage into the surround-
ing soil, water, and atmosphere, resolved “ that it was unnecessary to enter
upon any special medical or other hygienic investigation for the purpose of
establishing that general conclusion, but that it would direct its special at-
tention to the extent to which the soil, water, and atmosphere are polluted by
the several systems adopted for removing sewage from towns.” It decided
also to take into consideration the probable sanitary advantages or disadvan-
tages of different methods of treating sewage after removal, and the effects
upon the public health of the various methods proposed for its utilization.

The Committee considered it desirable that all persons having processes for
the purification or utilization of sewage should be applied to, to submit them
for examination, and to furnish details of the principle and working of their
respective plans; advertisements were accordingly issued. Descriptions of

several methods and some suggestions have been received ; these, however,

have not yet been examined,

ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE, 51

The Committee continued its investigation of last year into the modes of
treatment and utilization now practised, and a form was prepared and sent
to the principal towns for the purpose of obtaining further information on
the subject. The replies received from 200 of these towns have been tabu-
lated. The Table and a statement describing the results of this part of the
inquiry will be found further on in this Report.

The Committee decided upon making local investigations in towns typi-
cally representing various methods for the disposal of refuse matters, and for
this purpose appointed two engineers to make the inquiries. Cambridge and
Bury were first selected for examination, as being good examples of water-
closet and privy and ashpit towns respectively.

The Committee considered it desirable that the existing information bear-
ing upon the subject of the present inquiry should be collected in the form
of a “ Digest,’ which Professor Corfield undertook to prepare; he has
done so, and it will be distributed with this Report to the towns which have
subscribed to the Committee’s fund.

The Committee availing itself of the proximity to London of the town of
Romford, a lease of the sewage of which for irrigation upon “ Breton’s Farm”
happened to have been taken by one of its members, appointed a person to
reside on the farm to make observations as the cropping progressed, to take
gaugings, and to collect samples for analysis, both of the sewage and of the
effluent water. He has proceeded with the work, and the observations &c.
have been tabulated and a plan has been made of the farm as laid out for
sewage irrigation, with the engines, tank, distributing-troughs, carriers, beds,
and underdrains, all of which are explained in the special description of this
farm, which will be found in an appendix to this Report.

The Committee appointed Dr. Russell, of St. Mary’s Hospital, London, to
make such analyses as they might require, and those referred to and given
in the description of Breton’s Farm and other portions of this Report have
been furnished by him.

As some apprehensions have arisen to the effect that the distribution of
sewage over the land might possibly favour the spread of entozoic diseases in
various ways, and might even propagate some that have not yet been known
to spread in our country, the Committee has thought it desirable to insti-
tute a series of experiments with a view to deciding this point, or at any rate
throwing some light uponit. To this end three families of guinea-pigs have
been purchased, each family consisting of four members: one member of each
family has been examined by Professor Corfield, who reports that no sign of
entozoic disease of any description was to be found with the help of a powerful
pocket-lens, either in the viscera or muscles of either specimen examined.

The three surviving members of one family are now being fed on sewaged
produce only, and those of the other two families on unsewaged produce
only: it is proposed to feed the members of one of these last-mentioned
families with an occasional meal containing entozoic larvee or ova, found
either upon the sewaged vegetables (it having been stated that some have
A so found on the Craigentinny meadows), or, failing that, in the sewage
itself.

Thus there will be three families of three members each; of which one
family will have been fed upon sewaged produce alone, one on unsewaged
produce alone, and one on unsewaged produce known to contain entozoic
larvee or ova.

The animals will then be killed and carefully examined; and it is hoped
that some result may be obtained even from this preliminary experiment,

52 REPORT—1870.

although conducted on so small a scale. The Committee, however, fully in-
tends to prosecute the inquiry further, and to institute experiments of this
nature on a larger scale.

It may be added here that some specimens of sewage-grown rye-grass,
carrots, turnips, onions, beet, and lettuce, from Breton’s farm, were sent to
Mr. M. ©. Cooke, M.A., for examination, with a view to the possible disco-
very of entozoic eggs or larvee. He states that “ the rye-grass was mouldy,
but only from such moulds as are the result of decay from the damp grass
haying been kept several days enclosed ;” and he summarizes the results of
his examination of the vegetables as follows :—‘I find nothing whatever to
report against any of them. ‘They all seem to me in excellent order and
free from parasitic insects, or from fungi of any kind.”

The foregoing Report is a brief account of the work done by the Committee
since the last Meeting of the Association at Exeter. Further details will be
found in the appendices ; but in the present immature stage of so important
and difficult an inquiry the Committee can only report progress, reserving
for a future, and it is hoped early Report, the practical conclusions and sug-
gestions resulting from its labours.

APPENDIX.
A.—Abstract of Returns from 200 Towns.

Returns have been received from a large number of towns, recording
the existing arrangements of water-supply, sewerage, scavenging, and dis-
posal of refuse; and the returns from 200 of these have been tabulated by
the Committee with a view to the selection therefrom of typical towns
for examination, They are arranged consecutively, from 1 to 200, under
the headings “ Registration Divisions,” ‘ Counties,” and “ Watersheds.”
Under the first heading all the Registration Divisions recognized by the
Registrar-General in England and Wales are included, with the exception
of that of London. Under the second heading all the counties of England
appear, except Rutland, Huntingdon, and Westmoreland, while Wales is repre-
sented by seven towns. Scotland and Ireland contribute eight and four towns
respectively. Out of the 220 watersheds into which England and Wales are
divided, 39 appear in the schedule, and these comprise the principal rivers.

The 200 towns and districts enumerated contain a population of 7,159,240.

The whole of the towns in Great Britain and Ireland may be divided into
the three classes stated below, and the number of the tabulated towns in
each class is duly stated.

No. Population.

I. Towns haying a complete system of underground

sewerage, a general water-supply, and a general

adoption of water-closets discharging into the

BEWCIS ml? -Gallae aekee eeu tos RAVE Sue 44 1,154,600
II.* Towns having a system of underground sewerage

with water-supply, and only a partial adoption

of yyater-closets aba: mean fo eos ace’. oes 145 5,785,840

III. Towns without any system of underground sewer-
BSE taiicig 2s bekiee eee s euig i osu Sean 11 218,800
7,159,240

* Jn this class there are some towns with as few as six water-closets only.

Me tip)

ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 53

Considerable difficulty has been experienced in classifying the tabulated
towns, owing to the fact that sanitary arrangements have not, except in
a few instances, reached the point where complete systems may be said
to exist. This will be apparent on an analysis of the following details of
_returns.

Water.—In the supply of water, the greatest irregularity prevails. There
are few towns in which the whole of the inhabitants derive their supply
from public sources, these being largely supplemented by water from wells
and roofs. The quantity of water, too, supplied for public or general uses
and for special trades and purposes, varies very considerably, while the waste
is much greater in some towns than in others. In the 200 scheduled towns
there are 90 wholly dependent on a public or general supply, 22 on private
sources only, and 88 partly on private sources, in addition to a public
supply. The returns show that there are in the 200 scheduled towns and
districts 7 towns with a public daily supply of water amounting to or ex-
ceeding 50 gallons per head, 6 between 40 and 50, 18 between 30 and 40,
46 between 20 and 30, 38 between 10 and 20, and 4 under 10 gallons.
The remainder, consisting of 81 towns, have made no return as to the
quantities supplied.

Receptacles of Eaucretal Matter.—With respect to this subject, there is
quite as much diversity of treatment and want of precise knowledge as with
respect to water-supply. In the 200 scheduled towns there are 44 in which
water-closets are general, 75 in which water-closets exist in considerable’
number, though privies are still much used, and 70 where privies very
greatly exceed water-closets in number. Only 446 earth-closets are re-
turned as existing in the whole of the 200 scheduled towns.

Removal of Refuse.—It appears that only in 11 cases is there a total ab-
sence of sewers to discharge liquid refuse. In those 11 cases the slops
of the houses, the refuse of slaughter-houses &c., and the overflow from
cesspools find their way into surface-streams, or are absorbed by the subsoil.
At Paisley slops are thrown on the ashes to be removed by the public
scavenger, and at Frome they appear, by the returns, to be purchased largely
by cloth manufacturers. In these two instances only does there appear
to be any profitable use made of the slops before they are finally discharged.
All the remainder appear to have sewers for the removal of liquid refuse into
which the excretal matter of 44 water-closeted towns is wholly discharged,
while from 119 towns in which privies exist the excretal matter is partly
discharged by the same means and partly by scavenging. In 3 cases the
-excretal matter is wholly removed by public scavenging, in 8 by private
‘scavenging, and in 1 by both; and in 2 cases it is partly thrown into the
surface-drains or ditches. In 25 towns the returns do not give any in-
formation as to the removal of excretal matter. The ashes are nearly
universally removed by the public scavenger, though in a few towns the
work is left to private action.

Storm and Surface-waters.—In the case of 149 towns out of the 200
_ these waters are admitted into the sewers; in nine instances, where new sys-
tems of sewerage have been adopted, the old sewers are entirely devoted to
the discharge of surface-waters ; in one instance special sewers are appro-
-priated to the same purpose, while in 11 other instances the old surface-
channels are used. In 25 cases more than one of the above systems are
practised, and in the remaining 5 instances no return has been made. It
will be seen, by a close examination of the tabular statement, that in
Many instances the sewers have to receive an immense body of water in

5A REPORT—1870.

times of heavy rainfall. It occasionally happens that an inch of rain falls
in twenty-four hours, and in certain seasons and under certain conditions half
that quantity makes its way to the sewers in the same period. Two in-
stances recorded in the schedule will serve to show the extent to which a
sewerage system may be tried by such influx. In the Nottingham district,
where it appears from the return there is a surface of 1870 acres tributary
to the sewers, and where the annual rainfall is 25 inches, there fell on the
18th of September last (since the Committee has been sitting) 2°14 inches of
rain. If at this time half the quantity reached the sewers, about 45 millions
of gallons of surface-water would have had to be discharged by the sewers or
storm overflows; and this would be more than eleven times the ordinary flow of
the sewage, and thirteen times the water-supply. At Dundee, where the surface
contributing to the sewered area appears to be 2120 acres, and the average
annual rainfall the same as at Nottingham, viz. 25 inches, there fell in the
same month (on the 12th of September, 1869) 1:70 inch of rain. If half
of this quantity reached the sewers they had to discharge upwards of
40 millions of gallons from this source alone, equal to more than thirteen
times the water-supply of the town. It is more than probable, however,
that, although the returns show the contributing surfaces to be as much as
stated, the actual quantity is less; but the figures serve to illustrate the dif-
ficulty to be contended with by the sudden admission into the sewers of such
large bodies of water, and which only serve a good purpose when the sewers
require flushing.

Subsoil Waters.—The removal of subsoil water from beneath and about
dwellings having been shown by Dr. Buchanan in the 9th Report of the
Medical Officer of the Privy Council to be of the highest sanitary importance,
it has been deemed desirable to trace as far as possible the means by which
local authorities have effected this object. The returns, which are very im-
perfect upon this point, show, as far as they go, that about 100 out of the
200 towns drain the subsoil by the sewers, which carry away the liquid
refuse of their districts. The importance of this branch of the inquiry will
appear when it is remembered that, having become mixed with the sewage,
the subsoil water must be treated in the same way as the sewage itself.
This consideration becomes greater in those cases where the discharged
quantity has to be lifted by mechanical power at a never-ceasing cost.
One or two instances given in the schedule will illustrate this. Torquay,

a seaboard town with (according to the returns) about 20,000 inhabitants
and a water-supply of 30 gallons per head, amountiug on the whole to
610,000 gallons per diem, discharges 1,600,000 gallons of sewage a day,
the addition of subsoil water being apparently in the proportion of 1-62 tol, —
and the sewage discharged being equal to 80 gallons per head of the con-
tributing population. In this instance, therefore, if the Local Board of Tor- _
quay should determine to raise and utilize their sewage instead of dis-
charging it into the sea, they will have to pay £1 12s. 5d. for the raising of
subsoil water for every £1 expended in raising the sewage. The river-side
town of Leamington affords another example. This town has, according to
the returns, a population the same as Torquay (20,000), and a water-supply —
of 400,000 gallons a day. The quantity of sewage discharged into the river
is 1,000,000 gallons, the difference between the water supplied and the
sewage discharged being 600,000 gallons, or 150 per cent. In the casé of
Hertford, where the water-supply is returned at 614 gallons per head daily,
amounting to 184,500 gallons per diem, the discharge from the sewers is
returned at 1,750,000 gallons. This quantity is conducted, after lime

ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 55

treatment, into the river Lee, above the intake of the East-London Water-
works Company. - In this case the discharge from the sewers is, according
to these figures, 93 times the quantity of water delivered to the houses of
the town.

Ventilation —The information afforded by the returns upon this point is
very deficient, owing to the fact that very few instances exist in which any
thing has been systematically done.

Disposal of Sewage.—The largest quantity of water discharged per head
is that of Hertford, just mentioned, which amounts to 257 gallons. In
many other cases a very much larger quantity is discharged from the sewers
than can be accounted for by the water-supply, as will be seen from the fol-
lowing collected instances :—

Name of town. Water-supply per person.) Discharge per person.
gallons, gallons.
Hertford... 2... 613 257
Burton-on-Trent. ar 175
7
Blackpool .... 4 jwith private cant} 154
in addition.
okt ee TE aD 50 143
0) 6 roe 33 89
moequay..,.... 30 80
PaUOy 2. cs 38 20 70

Of the 189 towns and districts having systems of sewerage, 143 dischargo
their sewage without any treatment whatever; in 17 instances the sewage
is simply filtered before discharge, in 7 instances it is chemically treated,
and in-17 cases recourse is had to irrigation, whilst in 5 instances the
system of disposal includes more than one of these methods.

Scavenging.—Much interesting information has been given in the returns
with regard to the cost of scavenging and the returns obtained from tho
sale of ashes and excretal and other solid refuse. In only two cases among
the returns from English towns is any profit realized, and these are Fare-
ham and Stockton-on-Tees. At Stockton-on-Tees, with a population of
23,000, the return gives a profit of £100 a year. At Fareham, where
there is a population of 6200, the refuse is sold to a contractor, who agrees
to collect both house and street refuse, and to remove the sewage from the
privy and closet cesspools when necessary, paying the Board £7 a year
only. In Scotland, one instance only is recorded in which a profit is ob-
tained, viz. Dundee, where £630 a year is made. In all other recorded
cases the scavenger receives a payment in money as well as the refuse for
doing the required duties. The greatest losses are experienced at Liverpool,
where the scavenging costs £41,866 a year, or 19-7d. per head, and at
Scarborough, where it costs £2050, or 22:4d. per head. At Malvern the
cost amounts to 18-0d. per head; at Oldham, 13-1d.; at Bradford, 19-3d. ;
at Rochdale, 11-2d.; at Bridgenorth, 10-2d.; at Torquay, 10:2d.; at New-
castle 17-5d.; at Cardiff, 11-3d.; at Llanelly, 15-3d.; at Aberdeen, 11-2d.;
and at Edinburgh, 11-7d. per head per annum.

The schedule is still very incomplete. If perfected in all its details, much
valuable information would be collected, which would be found useful to the
sewer authorities of towns throughout the kingdom.

56 REPORT—1870.

The district of Bury, with the township of Elton, in the county of Lan-
caster, is governed by a local Act, dated 27 July, 1846, 9 and 10 Victoria,
Cap. CCXCIII., and embraces an area of 2692 acres, the number of inhabi-
tants being about 40,000, and the annual rateable value of the district
£123,467.

The town has a general system of scavenging for the removal of solid
excreta, solid house-refuse, and street-sweepings, and a system of under-
ground sewerage for the remoyal of liquid house-refuse and surface-water.
There are 6500 houses in the district, 3859 privies, 1922 ash-pits, and only
153 water-closets.

The provisions for the collection and disposal of the solid excreta and
house-refuse are evidently deficient. In the better class of houses each
house has at least one privy ; but the lower classes are very badly provided
with them, and in one instance no more than 2 privies had been provided
for the use of 20 cottages, a state of things worthy of the attention of the
local Inspector of Nuisances.

No special treatment is practised previous to the removal of the contents
of the privies, beyond the addition of ashes. This accession of ashes,
together with the necessity of conducting its removal at night, materially
reduces the value of such mixture as a manure, and the whole quantity only
yields an annual return to the Commissioners of £100.

From the inconvenient positions of many of the ash-pits, together with
their defective construction, the removal of the night-soil is rendered some-
what difficult and expensive. The ashes when not used for privies are
generally sifted and employed in filling and levelling in the formation of new
streets and footpaths ; and it is even alleged that they are also so used in
many cases after mixture with night-soil, which, no doubt, from a contrac-
tor’s point of view, is good binding stuff.

The street-sweepings are also removed by scavenging, and cost the Com-
missioners not less than £629 11s. 8d., while, from the want of some yard
or other storage ground, they have to be disposed of to farmers at their own
price, and only yield the insignificant return of £25 to £30 per annum.

The sewers are all of ample capacity to provide both for the usual daily
flow of sewage and for surface-water due to the average rate of rainfall,
which is 40 inches ; and further, for the exceptional contingencies of storms,
which produce as much as 1 inch per hour.

The sewers are built in hydraulic ime, and the pipe-drains laid with
puddled joints, so as to prevent percolation of subsoil-water into the sewage,
or leakage of sewage into the soil. No instance of deposit has taken place
in any of the sewers, and flushing for the removal of deposit is consequently
unnecessary,

The water-supply is constant, and is derived from catch-water reservoirs
of the Bury and Radcliffe Waterworks Company, situated at Holden Wood,
about eight miles above Bury. The Water Company supplies by meter to the
Railway Company and to general.trade consumers about a quarter of a million
gallons per diem, and the same quantity to the town for domestic consump-
tion. It is in both cases supplied unfiltered, and is at times perceptibly dis-
coloured and disagreeable to the palate.

ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 57

Analysis of Water supplied to the Town of Bury for domestic use.

In 100,000 parts.

Total hardness

Water supplied
for domestic use...

‘40 ‘| Trace. | 1-10/0-0005 | 0-014

The principal outfalls from which the bulk of the sewage is discharged are
three in number ; there is also a minor outfall near Bury Bridge. The re-
spective discharges from these outfalls are shown in the following Table :—

°
is

6°66 1:32

Little Bridge discharging into the River Roch :—

galls. per
gallons. 24 hours,
per day of 15 hours.......... 249,480
per night of 9 hours ........ 88,452
337,932
Bury Bridge, discharging into the River Irwell :—
per day of 15 hours........'.. 48,575
per night of 9 hours ........ 29,185
77,760
Hinds Outfall, discharging into the River Irwell :—
per day of 15-hours. .......+ 40,500
per night of 9 hours ...... -. 18,144
58,644
Bury Bridge Abutment, discharging into the River Irwell:— .
Discharge for the 24 hours...... vieogionte's 120,160

Total gallons per 24 hours .... 494,496

Remarks by a Sub-Committee, consisting of Messrs. GranrHam (Chairman),
Corrretp, Horr, and Wintramson.

Bury was selected as one of the towns to be investigated, because it is a
town where it may be said there are no water-closets ; and the Committee
having heard a good deal of the efficiency and even economy of the Lanca-
shire ash-pit system for the removal of fecal matter and other solid refuse,
desired to possess themselves as soon as possible of the facts in connexion
with this system as regards some one typical town. Another reason for the
selection of Bury was that the almost total absence of water-closets would
enable the Committee, by examining the liquid escaping into and discharged

‘from the sewers, to judge whether any of the proposed methods of intercept-
ing fecal matter from the sewers (such, for instance, as the earth-closet)
would in themselves be either a solution of the great ‘ sewage question,” or
even one considerable step towards it.

The figures obtained in Bury of the ash-pit system, as carried out there,
prove that, financially, it is, so far as Bury is concerned, a total and complete
failure, as the gross return is only a little over one halfpenny per head of the

58 . REPORT—1870.

population annually. Of course it is not fair to judge of a general system
from a particular instance, and the subject should be further investigated.

The fact that the ashes of Cambridge, with a population of 27,000 as
against 40,000 at Bury, sell, together with the street-sweepings, but without
any fecal matter, for £200 annually, while the ashes of Bury mixed with
almost the entire feecal matter of the town produce annually only £100, and
the street-sweepings only another £25, is worthy of remark.

The subjoined analyses of Bury sewage show that although the sewage
from a town managed on the Bury system is weaker and therefore less valu-
able and proportionately more difficult to deal with than the sewage from a
water-closeted town, yet that its purification is just as imperatively necessary.

Bury Sewage.—Collected August 11.
In 100,000 parts.

Ard rs! at
eee oS * car s
S25 EE 2 | 8 | 28 |g2s
Bae rE a | 8 | 88 | eee
ee a ee Mice sb |
mM na

Bury Bridge outfall) 56-00 i aces 10°79 | 2-554] 0-100} None

Little Bridge outfall} 72:20 64:84 13°63 | 3°834| 0-198} None

Hinds outfall ....| 42°50 ole 4:83 | 0-884] 0-052} None
Collected August 15 and 16.—Night.

Bury Bridge...... 44-80 | Very small amount} 5°18 | 0°459| 0-034] None

Little Bridge ....|38°60 | Very small amount| 4°69 | 0-760} 0-040] None
Hinds outfall .. . .|38-00 | Very small amount| 3°76 | 0-099} 0-030} None

With respect to the character of the sewage, it was found to run very clear
and almost colourless from 3 a.m. to 6 a.m., after which hour it began to
alter its character perceptibly; and at 8 a.m. it assumed a thick and soapy
consistency, and from that hour to 12 noon it was invariably “ very thick,
black, and greasy,” and ‘smelt very bad ;” and on the Friday morning it was
“red, as if with blood.” On the 11th of August the samples were taken
between the hours of 9 and 11 A.m., and on the 16th at 5 a.m.

CAMBRIDGE.

This is a town having a complete system of underground sewerage for the
removal of sewage with a general water-supply, and, with the exception of
the colleges, a general adoption of water-closets.

The Borough of Cambridge is governed by Improvement Commissioners
under the Acts 28 Geo. III. C. 64 and 34 Geo. ITI. C. 104.

The area of the district under the jurisdiction of the Commissioners is about
3470 acres; the number of inhabitants at the present time is about 27,000,
occupying about 6000 houses. The annual rateable value of the district is
£125,226, and the colleges contribute one-fourth of the expenditure of the
Commissioners.

There is a constant supply of water to the town pumped up by a water —

ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 59

company from springs at Cherry Hinton into a covered reservoir of a storage
capacity of 1,000,000 gallons, situated about three miles from Cambridge.

The average daily supply to Cambridge by the company is 427,000 gallons,—
that is to say, 280,000 gallons for the domestic consumption of 21,500 persons,
or 13 gallons per head, and 147,000 gallons for trade consumption, of which
the railway company takes 68,500, general trade 60,500, and watering streets
18,000 gallons.

There is also a supply from private sources, including Artesian wells sunk
to the Gault, estimated at 50,000 gallons per day; and “ Hobson’s Brook ”
supplies during the dry weather season about 789,000 gallons per day to the
town. It rises at aspot called Nine Wells, about three miles from Cambridge,
and terminates in a head near the Botanic Gardens, from which point it is
distributed;to different parts of the town, namely,—first to the public conduit
or drinking-fountain in the market-place ; secondly, by two open channels or
*‘ runs,” one on each side of Trumpington Street; thirdly, by pipes and open
course to the Hospital andjPembroke College ; and, fourthly, along Lensfield
Road to Hyde Park Corner, thence in two open street-channels along St.
Andrew’s Street, and also to Emanuel and Christ Colleges. The water from
the two channels is discharged constantly into the sewers at Trumpington
Street and St. Andrew’s Street, and can, when desired, be diverted into the
sewers at a higher level for the purposes of flushing. These open channels
are each provided with a silt-pit just previously to their entering the sewers. *
There is also an ingenious arrangement for flushing by means of the water
supplied to the public drinking-fountain in the market-place. It consists of
a large octagonal chamber surmounted by a central fountain, from which the
water overflows by eight drinking-spouts into a basin that discharges itself
into the chamber beneath; and the arrangement permits of the periodical dis-
charge of the contents of this chamber to flush the sewers leading from the
market-place. The sewers of ninety streets and lanes are flushed quarterly
from the water company’s works. The street-gulleys are also periodically
flushed or washed by means of water-carts in dry weather; and provisions of
minor importance are also made to carry on the flushing. A tank in Trinity
Place filled from an Artesian well, another tank in St. Andrew’s Court,
opposite Emanuel College, and a smaller cast-iron tank in King’s Arms Court,
King Street, are all used for flushing once a week. The contents of these
sinks are discharged into the sewers by penstocks.

All houses are provided with water-closets without any system of venti-
lation, the pipes being trapped by earthenware or lead D-traps. It was
stated that some closets were ventilated by means of the water-pipes, and
these, which were supposed to act, were found to be totally inefficient ; but an
attempt is being made to improve the system in new buildings. The only
instance in which earth-closets have been adopted is at Queen’s College, where
there are two.

Most, if not all, of the. colleges on the banks of the river preserve arrange-
_ ments of the most primitive possible description overhanging the classic
waters of the Cam, identical in construction with those that were in existence
when the great author of the ‘ Principia’ discovered the laws of gravity. Those
of the privies which do not overhang the river are provided with cesspools
which overflow directly into the river ; and many of these are in a most offen-
sive condition. Finally, the accommodation of this nature, such as it is,
which is provided in this great University exists only in the proportion of
7-4 per cent. of the residents, or less than one for every thirteen persons.

Nearly the whole area is provided with a general system of underground

60 REPORT—1870.

sewerage for the removal of water-closet and liquid house-slops, of rain-water
from roofs of houses, yards, and streets, there being about twenty-one miles
of sewers, which are calculated to meet the demands of the average annual
rainfall, but not of storms nor of periods of exceptionally heavy rains.

The greater portion of the ashes is collected by the Commissioners daily,
and, together with the street-sweepings, is sold for the sum of £200 annually.
A small portion only is collected by private individuals. The cost of collec-
tion could not be ascertained.

The area contributing surface-water is approximately the area of the district,
3470 acres, and the average annual rainfall is 22 inches. The roadways of
the streets are macadamized; they incline from the centre to the curbs at a
rate of about 1 in 100, and are provided with gulleys connected with the
sewers.

The subsoil is mostly gravel from 3 to 10 feet deep, overlying a bed
of gault from 120 to 135 feet thick. It was formerly saturated, but the
sewerage has drained the upper subsoil and dried many of the wells that pre-
viously existed. Inquiries were made into the state of some of the wells be-
longing to private houses, and it was found that they were all contaminated
by sewage, owing to their proximity to the sewers in the streets and to the
drains on the premises, so much so, that the water cannot be used for drink-
ing but only for washing.

The old sewers are of irregular forms, but the recent sewers are egg-shaped
or circular. They discharge at twelve separate outlets into the river Cam.
The inclination of these sewers varies from 1 in 120 to 1 in 2000. Deposit
has taken place to a considerable extent in the Hills Road sewer, with an in-
clination of 1 in 2000, the deposit being, at the date of the examination, 74
inches thick, and the sewage running over it 6 inches deep. The outlets of
the public and private sewers are all under the level of the surface of the
water in the Cam, consequently the sewage is backed up in the sewers for a
considerable distance, and the subsoil is constantly saturated with both water
and sewage in the lowest parts of the town. The authorities obligingly
offered to draw off the water of the Cam to enable the engineers to gauge and
collect samples of the sewage flowing from the sewers; but as the bed of the
river could only be kept dry for a short time, the results would have been
unsatisfactory. Moreover, as the water which is backed up in the soil
would be discharged by degrees through the sewers, no correct result could
have been attained.

There are two gaols (county and borough), a workhouse, a hospital, and
an asylum, all of which are connected with the sewers. There are no fac-
tories nor special trades, but the slaughter-houses send their liquid refuse
into the sewers, and this on killing days is highly charged with blood; the
solids from this source are mixed with ashes and carted away.

Remarks by a Sub-Committee, consisting of Messrs, Grantuam (Chairman),
Corrretp, Horr, and Wini1aMson,

It is not the province of the Committee to prepare schemes for the sewerage,
or for the drainage of particular towns, and as the inquiries of the Committee
are still far from complete, it would be premature to make any suggestions
either in this or any other case as to the best means of utilizing the sewage
when collected; but it is manifest from the foregoing Report that the sanitary
conditions of Cambridge, as regards its sewerage and drainage, are exceed-
ingly bad, and the low level of the greater portion of the town must make

;
f
h.

ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 61

improvement both difficult and expensive. The chief general importance of
the inquiry into the conditions of Cambridge is the proof thus obtained of
the pollution of wells, and therefore of subsoil, by the agency of pervious
street- or house-sewers constructed in their vicinity ; and the Sub-Committee
desires to give expression to the conviction forced upon it in the course of
its inquiries, that all sewers properly so called (that is to say, drains into
which refuse from human habitations is admitted) ought to be constructed of
materials which are altogether impervious, and that a separate system of
pervious drains, similar to agricultural drains, should be constructed where
necessary to dry the subsoil. The Sub-Committee is of opinion that the
further construction of pervious sewers should be prohibited by Parliamen-
tary enactment.

C.—Breton’s Farm near Romford.

The town of Romford, in the county of Essex, is about twelve miles
east of London, and is situated on the so-called “ River” Rom, which is
now, however, only a brook. The Rom rises in the high grounds of
Hainault Forest and Havering-atte-Bower, and, after passing through the
town, flows into the River Thames to the east of Dagenham.

The soil upon which the town rests is chiefly light loam, in places ap-
proaching brick-earth in character, and underlain by flint-gravel, which
yields water freely.

The population is about 8000, but the refuse of only about 7000 is dis-
charged entirely into the sewers, although the whole population is within the
area provided with underground sewers. The refuse of the remainder is dis-
charged partly into cesspools, the contents of which are removed by farmers.

The ordinary dry weather sewage discharge from all sources is 247,000
gallons daily.

The number of houses within the district is about 1200, and the rateable
yalue is assessed at £23,341, the present annual rate being £840.

The workhouse, which is separated from the town by the railway, and
lies to the south; has from 300 to 400 inmates, the solid refuse from whom
is treated in privies with lime and ashes, the liquid passing to the sewers.

The town is supplied with water by the South-Essex Water Company ;
but there are many wells in it, and the great “ Romford Brewery” is supplied
by its own wells.

The surface-water is, for the most part, conveyed into the town sewers,
but a part of it is discharged into the River Rom by the old drains.
Through defective work, it is probable that a large amount of subsoil water
finds its way, at times, into the sewers, and in dry weather a converse leak-
age of sewage into the subsoil is also probable. The sewers having little
fall, are flushed by the Rom occasionally, but they are blocked at times by
_ the sewage-deposit in some particularly flat places, which are flushed and
cleansed by hand twice a year at a cost of £12 annually. There is a storm
overflow which discharges into the Rom. The sewers are ordinary egg-
shaped brick and glazed stoneware pipes. There are ventilators in the
streets and roads.

The “sewer authority” is the Romford Local Board of Health, consti-
tuted under the Public-Health Act of 1848.

The discharge of the sewage into the Rom immediately below the town
polluted it to such an extent, and it became so great a nuisance, that the
Court of Chancery granted an injunction restraining the further discharge of
the sewage in that manner,

62 ; REPORT—1870,

The following is an analysis of an average sample of the sewage as flow-
ing from the town :—

In 100,000 parts,

Solid
matter in ;
solution | Suspended Chlorine. | Ammonia. Albumenoid.
aviadiae matter. ammonia,
100° C.
Average of eight samples of
sewage taken at Romford,| } 98°5 19-75 145 1:2 10
September 5 and 4 ,.....

The Board of Health at first resorted to temporary means of disposing of
the sewage by pumping it on to lands adjacent to the outfall, but eventually
prolonged their outfall sewer to a farm in the parish of Hornchurch, named
“ Breton’s,” containing 121 acres, which they purchased for the purification
and utilization of the sewage by irrigation.

This farm is situated at a distance of two miles from the town, and
the sewage flows to the lower portion of the farm by gravitation. At
the farm the Board have constructed a tank, into which the sewage is dis-
charged by the main sewer. They have also erected two steam-engines of
eight horse-power, by which the sewage is pumped up to a height of about
25 feet into iron troughs supported on wooden tressels, which convey the
sewage to all parts of the farm, by discharging it either directly into
gutters or grips formed on the ridges of the “lands,” and out of which the
sewage is distributed right and left down the slightly inclined slopes of
the “lands,” or, in the first instance, into concrete “carriers,” raised by
earth banks to a height intermediate between the height of the iron troughs
and the level of the ground.

The whole farm has been systematically laid out by the tenant in 30-feet
‘lands ” or “ beds,” the carriers being placed so as to take advantage of the
natural fall in the ground.

The soil of the farm is very light and sandy, containing many stones; and
gravel, which forms the subsoil, is found at a depth of from 8 to 20 inches.
The gravel is ordinary yellow flint-gravel, but it is interspersed with
patches of yellow and white sand, and even contains in places a slight ad-
mixture of clay. An analysis of the soil is subjoined (see p. 70).

About 85 acres of the farm, which are above the level of the tank, have
been underdrained by pipe-drains 50 yards apart, and from 5 to 6 feet in
depth, in such a manner that the water from the drains can be discharged
into the sewage tank if required in dry weather, or at pleasure into the river
Rom. There are roads communicating with different parts of the farm laid
out so as not to interfere with the complete distribution of the sewage by
the iron troughs and carriers.

The construction of the sewer and tank, and erection of the engines,
pumps, and iron troughs, have coast the Local Board the sum of £4300.

The Board has let the sewage upon lease for £600 a year, the arrange-
ment being that the tenant pays this sum in addition to the rent of the
farm for the sewage pumped up and delivered into the troughs, from which
point the tenant is responsible for its proper disposal, and is bound to hold
the Board harmless from any actions for nuisance,

ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 63

The accompanying plan and sections show the manner in which the
farm is laid out and the sewage distributed.

The entire farm was fallow all the winter, and was only gradually brought
under cultivation in spring and summer.

Of Plot A (Plate I.), the beds from 1 to 10, both inclusive, were sown with
Ttalian rye-grass on March 19th, and beds 11 to 20, both inclusive, were sown
a week later. From these together, equal to 6°68 acres, five crops have already
been cut, and the sixth is now growing. The average weight of the crops has
been, however, small, not exceeding 63 tons each per acre, owing to the dense
growth of weeds (especially “‘ chickweed”), which almost smothered the grass,
the farm having been long neglected, and the ground being full of the seeds
of weeds. Bed 21, containing 39 of an acre, was sown on April 27th with
“Savoy” cabbages for planting out. Beds 22 to 28, with the lower half of
29, which were chiefly old meadow-land broken up, and included two lines
of old hedge-row, could only be imperfectly cultivated; they were, how-
ever, sown on the 27th of April with seeds of a small kind of cabbage,
known as bunching-greens, or rosette cabbage, more properly coleworts.
These beds comprised 3°5 acres, and besides furnishing plants enough for -
7°25 acres in plots C, E, N, and P, produced 470,000 plants for sale, which
realized £35 5s., and further supplied 3240 full-grown plants for market,
which realized an additional sum of £4 10s.

The whole of Plot A will shortly be filled with winter crops,

In Plot B, beds 1 and 2, equal to 0-972 of an acre, were sown with early
“horn” carrots, which were sold for £19 10s. in the ground. The carrots
were sown on March 25th, and were taken out of the ground in the first
week in August ; these beds are now sown with Italian rye-grass for cutting
next year. Bed No. 3, 0:486 of an acre, was planted with potatoes on
April 2nd; the potatoes were of three kinds—the Bovinia, a large cattle po-
tato, the early Rose, a new American variety, and the ordinary Dalmahoy,
The potatoes are not yet all off the ground, but they appear particularly
fine. Bed No. 4, equal to 0°486 of an acre, was sown on the 2nd of April
with “broad Windsor” beans, which were sold for £4 10s., the buyer pick-
ing them and leaving the straw.

Beds No. 5 to 8 inclusive, equal to 1:96 acre, were sown in the first week in
April with “Champion” peas for eating green, which were sold in July for
£30, the buyer picking them and leaving the straw.

Beds 4 to 8 inclusive are now sown with Italian rye-grass. Beds 9 to
17 inclusive were sown on April 19th with Italian rye-grass, and the fifth
crop is now being cut. It should here be mentioned that the rye-grass not
required for the horses on the farm has obtained a ready sale at £1 per ton
on the ground, partly to the neighbouring farmers for their horses, and
partly to London cowkeepers.

In Plot C, beds 1 to 8 inclusive, 2°75 acres were planted on July 2nd
with greens transplanted from Plot A, which are now being sold at about
£25 per acre. Beds 9 to 23 inclusive, about 4 acres, were sown with
white turnips on May 6th; but Plot C, being exceedingly stony, little better
than a bed of shingle, the slope below the contour line exceedingly rapid
and steep, and comparatively few of the seeds surviving the excessive
drought and frosty nights, the result was that only £25 could be obtained
for this crop in the ground.

The major part of Plot D, equal to 10-7 acres, was drilled with mangold
wurzel as late as May the 14th, and the crop nevertheless promises to yield
from 40 to 45 tons per acre. The lower part of plot D (2 acres) was

64 REPORT—1870.

planted with drumhead cabbages, interspersed with bunching-greens, in the
first week in August.

Plot E was a difficult piece of ground to lay out, involving much labour,
and was worked at only from time to time, as the labour and horses were
available. Beds 1 to 10 inclusive (2:961 acres) have just been sown with
winter onions. Beds 11 to 14 inclusive (1-026 acre) were sown on August
19th with early York cabbage-seed for planting out. Beds 15 to 21 in-
clusive (1:712 acre), on July 16th were planted with greens from Plot A,
and bed 22 (0-165 acre) is still vacant.

Plot F is not yet properly laid out, and a great part of it is not yet under
cultivation ; the remainder, about 23 acres, was sown with onions on March
19th, and some have been sold at the rate of £36 per measured acre in the
ground.

In Plot G, bed No. 1 (0:2385 of an acre) was sown with parsley on June
24th ; beds 2 and 3 (0-477 of an acre) with sugar beet-root on June 4th;
beds 4 and 5 (0-477 of an acre) with crimson beet-root for table in June ;
bed 6 (0:2385 of an acre) with white brocoli-seed for planting out; bed 7
(02385 of an acre) was sown with “Savoy” cabbage-seed on July 16th ;
bed 8 (0°2385 of an acre), on April 23rd, with four kinds of carrot-seed ;
beds 9 and 10 (0-477 of an acre) were sown on April 25th with four kinds
of mangold-wurzel seed. These last three beds promise to yield some mag-
nificent specimen roots for exhibition. Beds 11 to 15 inclusive (1:1925
acre) were sown with parsnips on April 28th, and, the seed being bad,
failed in many places; there are, nevertheless, many fine roots. Bed 16
(0-2385 of an acre) was sown on May 7th with spinach. It was cut on the
5th of June, and realized at the rate of £22 per acre. It was broken up
and again sown with spinach on the 16th of June; the price having fallen,
this crop was given to cattle. The bed was then ploughed and sown on
the 23rd of August with Tripoli onions for planting out in spring. Bed 17
(0°2385 of an acre) was sown on the 17th of June with spinach, some of
which was sold, and the rest given to cattle. The bed was then ploughed and
sown on the 9th of July with maize for cutting green as fodder. Bed 18
(0:2385 of an acre) was planted on the 26th of May with East Ham cabbage
and cauliflowers. They have been sold at the rate of £27 and £25 per acre
respectively. Bed 19 (0-2385 of an acre) was planted on the 21st of May with
white cos lettuces,"which were, for a particular purpose, kept in the ground
rather too long, but still produced at the rate of £24 per acre, after which
the bulk of them were given to cattle. This bed was ploughed and sown
on 23rd of August with Tripoli onions. Bed 20 (0°2385 of an acre) was
planted with brown cos lettuces on the 21st of May, which, being too late,
were given to cattle. It was then ploughed and sown on the 23rd of July,
when the rye harvest of the district was entirely over, one half with oats
and the other half with barley, with a view to ascertain whether it would
be possible to ripen two crops of cereals on the same ground in one season.
They were expected not to ripen before October, therefore the result is as
yet unascertained. Bed 21 (0:2385 of an acre), also brown lettuces given to
cattle, followed by white cos lettuces, which realized at the rate of upwards
of £30 per acre, followed again by winter spinach. Bed 22 (0°2385 of an
acre) contains some patches of red clover, Jersey cabbages, yams (Dioscorea
batata), and turnips, all of which are vigorous and healthy.

In Plot H, beds 1 to 5 inclusive (1°3162 acre) were planted on July
20th with sprouting winter brocoli. Beds 6 to 9 inclusive (1°458 acre)
were planted on July 20th with Brussels sprouts. Beds 10 to 17 inclusive

ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 65

(3°6 acres) were sown on August 24th with East Ham cabbage-seed for
planting out. Bed 18 (0-55 of an acre) was planted with celery in the first
fortnight in August, and beds 19—25 inclusive (3-332 acres) were filled gra-
dually with mangold wurzel transplanted from D and C, commencing on June
13th, and continuing for more than a month.

Only the upper part of Plot I (1-166 acre) has been as yet laid out ; this
was sown on May 6th with broccoli and Savoy cabbage-seed for planting out.
Upwards of £30 worth have been sold from these beds, and they are now
thick on the ground. The rest of Plot I (5-184 acres) was sown with onions
on the same day as Plot F, namely, March 19th. These two plots of onions
comprise the greater part of one of the old fields which was surrounded
with a huge ditch and hedge, full of great trees; it had been roughly but
heavily sewaged in winter, and it was the intention not to apply any more
sewage to it until the onions were off the ground; but the drought was so
severe and the ground became so dry, that it was necessary to give them
moisture to save them, and they received one dressing of sewage in May and
another in July. Part of Plot I has also been sold at the same rate of £36
per acre in the ground as obtained for F.

In Plot K, beds 1 to 5 inclusive (2°397 acres) were sown on May 28th
with white runner beans, which have borne well, and are not yet over.
Beds 6 to 10 (2-047 acres) were planted on July 14th with Walcheren
cauliflower.

Plot L was an old meadow, which was heavily sewaged last summer, and
was broken up in winter and sown with white Poland oats on April 9th.
In many places the seed never came up, owing to the severe drought, but
the erop nevertheless gave a return over all of five quarters one bushel
to the acre.

Tn Plot M, bed 1 (0°387 of an acre) was partially planted with drumhead
cabbages on June 2nd, and filled up with kohl rabi; bed 2 (0-387 of an
acre) was planted with Walcheren broccoli; the rest of Plot M (2-935 acres)
was planted on June 25th with Savoy cabbages from bed 21, Plot A.

Tn Plot N, bed 1 (0:252 of an acre) was sown on April 27th with a new
kind of American oats, which were cut on August 22nd, and yielded twenty-
eight bushels, equal to fourteen quarters, per aere. At the beginning of
June this crop was seriously damaged and in danger of being destroyed by
the ravages of the Oscinis vastator, one of the smallest but most destructive
of those “ grubs” and “ wireworms” which at times cause such injury to
cereal crops in this country. The remedial effects of sewage irrigation
under similar circumstances having been previously observed elsewhere, two
heavy dressings of sewage were applied to this bed during two successive
days, the result being that the grubs were entirely destroyed and the greater
part of the crop was saved. It is proposed to conduct some experiments to
ascertain whether this result could be accomplished by the use of pure
water, or whether with the physical effects of immersion sewage applied in
this way, combines the action of some agent or agents which act as a
specific poison to organisms of that type. Beds 2 to 4 inclusive (0-756 of
an acre) were sown on June Ist and 2nd with six kinds of maize specially
imported from the United States, as likely to suit the climate of England ;
the maize is now from 5 to 9 feet high, appears to be ripening, and pro-
mises a very heavy yield. Bed 5 (0-252 of an acre) was sown on June 4th
with a new kind of Brome-grass, introduced from Australia by Messrs.
Sutton and Sons, and named by them Bromus odoratus. It has already been

cut three times, and has yielded at the rate of seven to eight tons per acre.
1870, F

66 ; REPORT—1870.

This grass being a perennial, it will be interesting to observe for how long
it will retain its present extraordinary rapidity of growth, and whether,
under such forcing treatment as sewage irrigation, it will not cease to be
perennial. Bed 6 (0-252 of an acre) was first sown with tobacco; but for
some unascertained reason the seed failed, and it was broken up and resown
on July 9th with maize for cutting green. Beds 7 and 8 (0:504 of an
acre) were sown with sea-kale on June 10th, and broccoli plants were put in
between the rows of sea-kalein August. Beds 9 and 10 (0°522 of an acre)
were planted with East Ham cabbages on June 16th from seed raised in
the garden; these two beds have been sold at the rate of £25 per acre in
the ground. Beds 11 to 16 inclusive (1°566 acre) were planted on June
20th with bunching-greens from Plot A; these have been sold at £21 per
acre in the ground,

In Plot O, beds 1 to 11 inclusive (4:12 acres) were sown on April 4th
with “ intermediate ” carrots, part of which have been sold for £20 and £21
per acre in the ground, and part (washed and bunched and sent to market)
realized £41 per acre. Beds 12 to 17 inclusive (2-223 acres) were sown
on April the 5th with onions, which were bunched and sent to market,
where they realized £46 per acre.

Plot P, which is a gravel-pit, not yet wholly obliterated, has been par-
tially planted with greens from Plot A.

Plot Q has as yet had nothing in it.

Plot R, an old meadow heavily sewaged last summer, and broken up last
winter, was planted with Dalmahoy potatoes on March 25th; the crop was
very fine for the season, and realized £25 per acre.

Plots S and T are still waste and uncultivated.

Plot U is an old meadow, which has been irrigated by means of moveable
troughs; it contains 6-14 acres, and has already yielded two crops of hay,
and a third is now ready to cut.

Plot V is also an old meadow of 3°5 acres, and is used as a playground
for the horses. :

Agricultural experiments necessarily require a very long time to be carried
out, and a period of twelve consecutive months is the shortest possible space
of time in which any thing like a fair result can be looked for. It is not
possible, therefore, to compile from the past observations of the Committee,
during so short a period, any thing that would not be very misleading in
the shape of a debtor and creditor account, whether as to the pecuniary ex-
penditure and returns of the farm, or as to the expenditure of manure dis-
tributed by means of the sewage and the returns in the crops estimated
chemically. Nevertheless, from the foregoing figures, it will be seen that
sewage in its liquid state can be practically applied to apparently every kind
of crop. This was no doubt pretty well ascertained by previous experiments
elsewhere ; but in no case have these experiments been so systematically and
carefully observed, and so little liable to be affected by disturbing causes.
It is therefore already one step gained towards the solution of the sewage
question that these experiments have been conducted under the eyes of the
agent of the Committee, as well as under the occasional observation of some
of the members of the Committee.

The Committee hope to obtain data of greater value and importance from
the accurate record of the experiments and practice on the farm during a
future complete year, and some appliances have recently been, or will
shortly be, brought into use on the farm which will very greatly facilitate
such observations. The soil of by far the major part of the farm (Plots A,

ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 67

B, C, D, E, G, H, K, M, N, 0, P, and Q) is composed of a very loose open
sand and gravel overlying coarser sand and gravel in every case; and in
many places it has been impossible, in the laying out of the land, to prevent
the yellow subsoil from being exposed. The accompanying analyses of the
soil taken from a part which had not been sewaged will show its extra-
ordinary poverty in organic matter; and if this is taken into account, and if
it is also recollected that all the crops were got into the ground during
the late almost unprecedented drought, and that from repeated workings and
shiftings the soil was in an abnormally dry condition, it will be seen at
once that it was necessary in every case to apply a much larger quantity per
acre of moisture and manure in the form of sewage for starting the first crops
than would ever be necessary under ordinary conditions of farming. More-
over, the tenant, while bound so to utilize the whole of the sewage of the
town of Romford as to prevent the pollution of the river, has only a limited
area of land on which to apply it, and therefore he cannot avoid putting on
in many cases more sewage (that is, manure) than would otherwise be ne-
cessary ; but as such unusual conveniences exist on the farm for measuring,
not merely the sewage going on to the farm, but also the effluent water es-
caping, it will be quite possible to ascertain during the ensuing twelve months
exactly how much manure is placed upon the land, and very nearly with the
same exactness, how much is utilized, and how much wasted. However, as
absolute accuracy cannot be attained on so large a scale, and as the tenant
is bound, as before explained, to apply a certain quantity of sewage over the
whole area of the farm, whether his crops actually require it or not, he has
constructed some large wooden boxes of 23-inch deal carefully tongued and
grooved at the joints and strongly bolted together with iron bolts. These
boxes are 6 feet deep; they are filled with earth carefully taken so as to
represent an average section of the farm, and the superficies of the earth in
each box (in other words, the inside measurement of each box) is equal to
‘001 of an acre. The boxes are sunk in a huge ditch on the farm, which has
not yet been obliterated; and they are so packed round as to reduce to a
minimum, quite inappreciable, the difference between their evaporation and
internal temperature and those on or below the natural surface of the ground.
The bottoms of the boxes have also been so constructed as to give a slight
drainage towards the centre, and also towards one end. In the centre of
each a small drain-pipe has been laid, and at the end of it a hole has been
bored in the end of the boxes so as to admit of the free exit of the effluent
water. These boxes, then, afford the means of carrying out experiments with
accuracy, while they are yet upon a scale and under conditions which
make them accord strictly with actual practice. Such experiments have
never yet been conducted, and their value cannot be overrated, more espe-
cially as explanatory of the observations conducted as to the actual practice
on the farm itself; for instance, it will be found that of the total amount of
the manurial constituents of the sewage applied to the farm a certain quan-
tity is wasted and escapes in the effluent water. The experiments in these
boxes will at once prove whether such escape is due to the application of a
quantity of manure in excess of the requirements of the plants and their
power of assimilating it, or whether the waste of a certain percentage of
manure applied when in a state of solution by irrigation is a necessary defect
of the system ; that is to say, whether, when quantities of manure are applied
only sufficient for the chemical wants of the plants, it is nevertheless not in
the power of the plants and the soil and the other agents at work to isolate
that manure from the water in which it is dissolved, and to retain the whole
pe

68 REPORT—1870.

of it for profitable consumption. These box-experiments will, it is hoped,
also afford data for ascertaining the amount of water evaporated from the
surface of the ground under different conditions. They will, it is hoped,
show whether or not sewage can be applied to fallow land, and so stored up
in the winter for use in the growing season as to enable the farmer to pur-
chase at all seasons.

It is hoped that they will further test the efficiency of intermittent down-
ward filtration in purifying sewage.

The tenant entered into the occupation of Breton’s Farm on the 29th of
September of last year, but there were no appliances for distributing the
sewage. There existed merely the main sewer from the town to the farm,
the pumping-engines, and a small but quite insufficient underground iron pipe
from the engine to a point in plot G, from which point there was further,
running along the top of plot G, an earthenware pipe raised up on the top
of an earthen bank some 3 or 4 feet in height. These appliances were,
however, ludicrously insufficient, whether as to level or capacity, for distri-
buting the sewage ; and during the greater part of the time, from September
29 to May 18, the sewage was either not put upon the farm at all, being
applied to other ground elsewhere, or it was simply allowed to stand in pools
anyhow on plot F, I, and U, with the occasional formation of similar pud-
dles in G and E.

Since the 18th day of May, however, the whole of the sewage has been
applied to the farm; and during a great part of that time the whole of the
effluent water escaping from the land above the contour-line of drainage has
also been pumped back over the farm, while during the preceding thirty
days, namely, from the 18th April to the 17th May, both inclusive, the
night-sewage only was pumped on to the farm during the day, and, though
very much weaker, was yet valuable as moisture.

But it is not possible to apportion this quantity with absolute exactness to
the different crops grown. There are always four men superintending the
distribution of the sewage, and it would not be possible to check the quanti-
ties distributed by them with absolute exactness unless by the employment
of an assistant engineer to supervise each man; and this was an expense
which the Committee did not feel warranted in incurring. However, several
very accurate experiments were conducted to ascertain the capacity of earth
laid out in beds of 30 feet wide for the absorption of liquid ; and on the 19th
March, a period when the land was in what may be considered an average
state of moisture, the quantities of sewage which land broken up and stirred
on the previous day to a depth of 9 inches, and also land consolidated by
rolling, could respectively absorb.

The experiments were conducted in three different ways, so that the cal-
culations may be relied on as being correct. The methods adopted were:
first, the ordinary weir or notched board; secondly, a box with a sluice at
each end which held an ascertained quantity, by which means the sewage
flowing upon the land was subjected to actual measurement; thirdly, a weir
was placed in one of the main carriers resembling in form an ordinary notch-
board, but the square notch or opening in the centre was grooved, and a
series of little sluices was fitted in, so that the opening could be filled up
from the bottom and the water behind maintained at any required depth so
as to give any desired head a pressure behind it. Then in one of the lateral
openings in the carrier behind the weir was placed a smaller, but similar
weir, also with a rectangular opening in the centre, the edges of which open-
ing were likewise grooved; and into this groove fitted iron slides having

ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 69

square holes cut out in their centre of different sizes. It will thus be seen
that the methods in which the experiments were conducted gave three di-
stinct and separate sets of data on which to base calculations ; and it resulted
that land in the state of moisture which existed on the 19th March and laid
out in beds of 30 feet wide would only absorb, when consolidated, on the
surface about 40 tons of liquid per acre, and when stirred to a depth of 9
inches on the previous day, about 90 to 110 tons per acre. By the word
absorb is meant that no more than the above quantities could be applied
without the formation of puddles at the sides of the beds. Of course, to lay
down dogmatically that land under any given condition will absorb any exact
number of gallons, or even tons, to the acre would be mere pedantry, and
therefore it was sought in these experiments to ascertain what might be con-
sidered, after several different trials, to be the average figures. The ques-
tions what are the minimum and maximum quantities that can be absorbed
by land abnormally saturated by heavy rains in winter when there is little
evaporation, or abnormally dried by repeated agricultural operations per-
formed in a period of drought, when there is a maximum of evaporation, have
not been yet ascertained ; but the state of the land on the 19th March may
fairly be taken as an average condition: and this, after all, is more important
than the observation of occasional extremes; and the box-experiments about
to be conducted will afford an opportunity of making these further observa-
tions with far greater accuracy than could be attaired on a larger scale.

If we divide the average daily quantity of sewage and effluent water (namely,
about 1400 tons) pumped on to the farm during the period observed, and
during which period the land was, as a rule, well stirred, by the figure of
100 tons, arrived at by the experiments conducted on the 19th March, we
get 14 acres as the quantity irrigated every day; but this would not be cor-
rect, because there were at work the disturbing causes of the excessive
drought and the artificial amount of evaporation induced by the great number
of manipulations which the larger part of the farm had received in the process
of laying out the ground; and, as a matter of fact, the average area irrigated
daily from the 18th May to the 1st September has been a little over 5}
acres. Then 0°34 being the point of saturation of those samples of the soil
chemically examined and analyzed, it would follow that if we assume that
the liquid would not penetrate during the few minutes employed in dressing
the surface at any one part of the bed to a depth of more than 10 inches
(although the land was cultivated to a depth of 20 inches), the maximum
quantity of sewage that could be applied, supposing the soil to be not only
abnormally, but even chemically dry, would be 384 tons per acre. In all
probability, therefore, 400 tons per acre is the largest quantity that has ever
been applied in any one dressing ; and if we assume that the first dressing
all over was at the rate of 400 tons per acre, that the second dressing was at
the rate of 200, and that the subsequent dressings were at the rate of 100,
we shall not be far from the truth.

Although, as has been explained, nothing in the way of a complete result,
whether financial or chemical, can be obtained from the incomplete observa-
tions on the farm, it is not without interest to compare the results of some
of the crops with others of the same kind grown in precisely the same soil,
on the same tableland, and within a few hundred yards.

A small field of between 3 and 4 acres in the adjoining farm was sown with
peas for picking green. These the farmer tried to sell on the ground for £8
anacre; but he was unable to sell them at all, and at last left them to ripen.
They still remain unsold, and are estimated to be worthfrom £5 to £6 an

70 REPORT—1870.

acre, while the straw was so stunted that there were not two loads from the
whole area.

In the next field beyond the peas (farmed by one of the best agricultu-
rists in the county, a man of superior education and agricultural knowledge,
who has farmed the same land for years past with immense care, having
planted small hedges here and there to give shelter and break the wind, and
haying grubbed up the old hedges, and having further collected the stones off
the surface of the land, and who applies farmyard manure, guano, bones, &e.
with both liberality and judgment) were sown onions, and these onions the
farmer said that he would gladly sell for one-fifth of their cost.

Again, upon the small meadow at Breton’s marked U, comprising altoge-
ther, after deducting ponds &c., only 5} acres that can actually be mowed,
the two crops of hay already got in amount to 9 loads (33 and 53 respectively) ;
and a third is growing, which, with care and energy and the assistance of
a large barn may easily be got in in the present month, is estimated as equal
to the first, making a total of 123 loads in one season from 57 acres. The
tenant of Breton’s has a large meadow, about three miles nearer London,
sloping down to a brook shaded by trees, and which ought to suffer less than
most from drought; yet off an available area for mowing of 27 acres, he was
only able to get 4 loads of hay, and there is scarcely any aftermath at all.
In potatoes and carrots the figures run in about the same proportion between
the sewaged and the unséwaged ground, while of green crops without sewage
there were simply none. The following preliminary analyses of the sewage
of Romford as it enters on the farm, and of the same when diluted with a
certain portion of effluent water as it goes over the land, and of the effluent
water as it runs out of the drains, have been made for the Committee by
Dr. Russell. From these it will be seen that the percentage of ammonia in
the sewage is low, and that it is poor as compared with that of most other
towns; that is to say, the sewage is highly diluted, a condition which many
people believe to be the most difficult to deal with by irrigation. Neverthe-
less the analyses of the effluent water show in every case that the ammonia
almost entirely disappears; and if we take into account the difference in vo-
lume between the effluent water and the sewage, we may regard the ammonia
as practically non-existent in the former. On the other hand, it will be
seen that there is a rather high percentage of nitrogen in the form of nitrates
and nitrites. The origin of the bulk of this, it is only reasonable to presume,
is ammonia in the sewage; but it is so far very satisfactory to find that the
effect of irrigation, or, in other words, of “intermittent downward filtration,”
should be such a complete transformation of the ammonia. But still, even
taking into account the greatly diminished volume of the effluent water as
compared with the original sewage (see Table, p. 72), there is no doubt a con-
siderable waste of fertilizing matter eseaping in the effluent water. How far
this isto be attributed to the newly formed drains not being yet consolidated,
time alone can show.

Soil from Plot Q, Breton’s Farm, not been sewaged. Specimen taken 15th
July, 1870.

Soil exposed to air of a warm summer :— per cent,
Stones too large to pass through holes of a 31:65
sieve 3°88 millims. diameter ,.........

Soil passing through sieve ............65 66°43
Roots, seeds, straw, &c. picked out of soil .. “03
Moisture lost at 100°C. wo... ec ee ee ees 1-89

orn

ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 71

Many of the stones of large size, weighing about 10 grammes.
Composition of the 66°43 per cent. of soil :—

per cent. per cent.
Amount insoluble in strong 60-70 PULICR MES chun ftoroperes eke ‘ade eis trace
hydrochloric acid...... Sulphuric acid (SO,)...... 0-03
erie onde -........4.-.- 1:56 Phosphoric acid (P,O,).... 0°01
; PPPOE, 30's 5 ie sls 5 sual 1-04 Carbonic acid (CO,) ...... 0-19
5 5S 2 ese ee ere 0-42 Chlorme .......... about 0-003
. __ 0 ree CPOE > NTC AIO ote te de sens a trace
‘ Potash and soda .......... 0-10 Loss on ignition.......... 1:69
Potash 0-07, soda 0:03
7 The carbonate of lime is not uniformly distributed throughout the soil, but
: apparently almost the whole of it exists as small white pieces, and can
easily be picked out. Three determinations of the carbonic acid in the
soil gaye 0°155, 0-258, and 0-433 per cent. of CO,.
f A small portion of the iron exists as the ferrous salt.

The air-dried soil (without the stones) is capable of holding when satu-
rated 34-6 per cent. of water.

Analyses of Sewage and Effluent Water—in 100,000 parts.

Solid

matter Nitrogen
Date, in Suspended| Chlo- | Ammo- /Albumenoid|as nitrates
1870. solution matter. rine, nia. ammonia, and
dried at nitrites,
100° C,
; July
| Sewage from town, daytime ......... 20 | 109'20 54°70 | 11°18 | 5°266| 0°376 o'000 a
m iy ‘4 nighttime......... 20, 21| 60°20 15°80 | 8°80 | 1°164] o'o60 o'00c a
- pumped on to land............ a 95°80 30°60 | 9°85 | 4°629] o'204 o’000a
| July
| Effluent water, pipe A ............0...| 20 | 70°60 Small | 6°85 | 0°003| 0'037 1'718b
- DABS carrsrenececevvoes 20 | 69:90 || amount | 7°77 | 0°041| 0°035 1°663
I Bape ssanarndvapaecincs 20 | 92°80 1°30 | 9°66 | 0°046| 0'036 2°301 »
Aug.

ee ae 15 84°30 54°70 | 14°63 | 4270] 0260 0000 ¢
nA Sec 17 49°10 13°60 809 | 0°744]| o*040 0000 4

15 65°30 22°50 | 11°36 | 3°054| o'r40 0*000 ©
Aug.

‘Effluent water, pipe A, temp. 58° ...). 15 | 69°00 | ..... 7°46 | trace | 0°03 1°633 f
i i pipe B, temp. 62°...) 15 7 Oa er ee 8°80 | 01031 | 0°056 1490 8
re » pipe C, temp. 62°...) 15 | 87°50 eee 9°87 | o'000| 0'043 2°081 h

Total hardness of effluent water ......sesescseeeeeeeeees
Temporary GiGtOe' Tasnecee ston 33610
Permanent C6600) PO Wecesaeeseene 17°740

@ Samples taken every two hours from 10 A.M.to6 p.m. Average flow 256 gallons per minute,
b Samples taken every two hours, from 10 A.M. to 6 p.m. Average flow 20 gallons per
minute from each of the pipes A, B, C. e Average flow 250 gallons per minute. One-
eighth of this sample was taken at eight times in the day.— d Average flow 200 gallons
per minute. One-third of this sample was taken at three times in the day. e Average
flow 680 gallons per minute. One-cighth of this sample was taken at eight times in the day.
—f Average flow 20 gallons per minute. One-sixth of this sample was taken at six times
in the day. gs Average flow 25 gallons per minute. One-sixth of this sample was taken
at six times in the day——h Average flow 26 gallons per minute. One-sixth of this sample
was taken at six times in the day.

72 REPORT—1870.

Breton’s Sewage Farm.—Statement of Average daily quantity of Sewage
pumped on to Land, and of Effluent Water received therefrom.

Average Averag: Average : |
Date Keevape | nase ee Averaze |daily quan- Average |daily foo Average deg feo |
Weekly | (inclusive) | tempe-| during | sewage Pees an of | tempe-| tity et ae water to |
return. 1870. rature, | week. |delivered to eda STUB matures ewe oeatas ba pa sewage
the tank |‘Hereof.| water | thereof.|, tributed | thereof, aici ited
fronton returned. over land, si
in. galls, CAT galls. OF,| galls. oF.
June 12 to ; 5
ie wane 18 \.. 231,400| 63 109,871] 55 343,886] 55 319
June 1g to
ey hes see sae ts 225,343| 62 | 93,543] 56 | 324,143] 63 | ‘289
June 26 ti
3: aly > ag ae 228,714| 63 87,157| 57 317,600} 60 274
4. Sa a wept 50;900)| a. 106;800} <ae | 320;357/1b aes aoe
July tot b
5 aa, +a } 73 | 0°29 | 239,386] 65 | 108,643] 59 | 334,457| 66 "325
6. rey ars } 76 0°00 | 235,800] 65 101,914.| 60 | 313,114| 67 326°
Fa ie | 7o O81 | 279,270) 66 | 104,343] 61 352,929] 66 ‘296d |
ly 31 t | f
8. eee x |}n o'71 | 365,000] 67 | 133,714] 64 | 379,471] 67 "Zingie .
9- Ae. alt } 70 0°29 | 265,214| 66 128,857] 61 303,371 | 67 “423!
10. Aug oy } 68 0°02 | 280,000} 66 109,371 | 61 314,857] 65 "3478
II aa os | 64 0°50 | 287,750} 64 | 109,671] 58 | 342,086] 64 “321 h l®
12. te ei |} 62 o°51 | 321,328| 63 | 104,506] 58 | 360,800] 63 *289 :
13. per 4) \ 63 1'15 | 334,357| 62 | 118,800] 58 | 360,500] 62 1329) \

Effluent water turned into river July 16, 17,200 gallons.

d July 26, storm tank overflowed, 170,000 gallons; on 27th, 13,500 gallons: portion
of effluent water run into river during week 84,100 gallons.

e August 1, storm tank overflowed, 300,000 gallons; portion of effluent water run into
river, 512,700 gallons.

f Portion of effluent water turned into river during week, 622,500 gallons.

® Portion of effluent water turned into river during week, 501,300 gallons.

h Portion of effluent water turned into river August 21 and 23 to 27, 504,300 gallons.

i Portion of effluent water turned into river every day, 418,340 gallons.

i Portion of effluent water run into river every day, 624,100 gallons.

* ‘Tank overflowed July 9, 2250 gallons. |
‘

D.— Experiments on the Air in Sewers and Drains. By Dr. W. J. RvssELL,
Sept. 5, 1870.

On the 16th of August I visited the sewer in Cambridge Place, Paddington,
and I passed from it into the large sewer in Praed Street. The atmosphere
in both was warm and damp, but there was very little smell. As the only
direct entrance into the sewers is by the ventilating-holes in the streets, to
obtain the air of the sewer for examination some lengths of glass tubing were
fastened together and lowered into the sewer in Cambridge Place at the opening
nearest to St. Mary’s Hospital, so that the end was about 2 feet above the water
inthesewer. A pair of bellows was used for pumping up the air, each open-

ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 73

ing of the bellows drawing in about 50 cubic inches of air. A quantity of
this air was passed through plugs of clean cotton-wool which had been heated
from 110° to 120° C., and these were sent to Mr. Cooke for examination. One
specimen of the wool, through which about 5000 cubic inches of the sewer air
had been transmitted, was put into distilled water with a little white sugar
to see if any germs similar to those lately described by Professor Heisch
would become visible. The liquid was examined in a week’s time, but none
of the germs found. The experiments were made about 11 o’clock a.m.

The next experiment was made on the same day, about 2 hours later, on
the air in the Ranelagh sewer, the largest in the Paddington district. The air
was taken from an opening in Gloucester Terrace, and was drawn out by
means of an air-pump. Some of the air was passed through cotton-wool, and
some collected for analysis gave the following results :—

cub. centims.

Nolnmeief sastaken’ i). 02.022) 14:86
Volume after absorption of carbonic acid .. 14:80
Volume after absorption of oxygen ...... 11-71
per cent.
Sampamineids ci ened .ok. oe. ce out oe 0-40
Oaymetts sctilins <iso ts. od §....cil deh 20°79
Pbierorbe ists, SUH .c dla doll Meth bau: 78°81
100-00

The air was also allowed to pass over acetate-of-lead paper for 5 minutes,
but no blackening took place.

Another experiment was made at the drain in the back kitchen of 34
Upper Hamilton Terrace, St. John’s Wood. The bell-trap was taken up and
a glass tube was put down the drain. The air was blowing up the drain at
the time, and had a disagreeable smell. A specimen of this air gave the fol-
lowing results; it will be seen that it was quite free from any combustible

gases :—

vols.

Welume- at air taken iio i. ceed 3 -s0icS eben 229-65
After addition of explosive gas .......... 346-43
Pea uET CR PMOSIOIE 27. 0 5, 5. 9 2 5 Sls, estate: aig hte 229°65
After absorption of carbonic acid ........ 229-37
After addition of hydrogen.............. 348-44
AMS, exp GSHONE p52 8 pac su wists ie eae sie avs 204-40

per cent.
Combustible gases... 0606 00.5 <o0.03 a0 0-00
RIN BENE an Sh 0% dieing n,m nie Ba. ¢ 0-12
ai a Rh WS tales as ane Ae 20:91
I ah cccha aca wie nid c' ctaidiat ny feminio, «19 9 cee 78°97

100-00

The following experiments were made on the air in a drain from a sink
in a room in St. Mary’s Hospital. This drain was selected as being the
nearest to the main drain passing from the hospital into the Cambridge
Place sewer. The bell-trap of this drain was taken up; a glass tube passing
about a foot down it was firmly corked into it, and by means of the air-pump
the air drawn out of it. First, a specimen of the air was passed through
cotton-wool, one specimen sent to Mr. Cooke, another treated with distilled
water and sugar; the result of this experiment, as in the former case, was

74 REPORT—1870.

negative. A specimen of the air from this drain was also analyzed, and gave
the following results :—

cub. centims,

Volume of air takemic ..... isi wee ead 4 11:69
After absorption of carbonic acid.......... 11-63
After absorption of oxygen ........-.004- 9-21
. per cent.

CArDONIC GCId p peer nepe-r9s wloterasivruseeernat tte 0-51
Oxy OOD: ty sms fhertepsiee aids 0185 coleyonspe Mae ages 20-70
Nadir OO Cleat enE eas 4) b disor et wht. eye ie 78°79

100-00

A large quantity of this air was now drawn through water, and the water
tested for ammonia and albumenoid ammonia. The experiment was made as
follows :—a measured quantity of water (in this case four gallons) was allowed
to run out of a gas-holder; the air thus drawn out of the drain first passed over
acetate-of-lead paper, then through three small flasks, each containing 80 cub.
centims. of pure distilled water ; the tubes passing into the water were sur-
rounded with platinum gauze, so as. to break up. the bubbles in the water.
The experiment lasted 3} hours. The 240.cub. centims. of water in the flasks
was put into a retort and distilled with.a little carbonate of soda; it gave a
trace of ammonia, about ;1, of a milligramme.

These experiments must be looked upon as simply tentative, but certainly
indicate a purer air in these sewers than might have been anticipated.

Report by Mr. M. C. Cooxz, M.A., Aug. 27, 1870.

I have examined microscopically the contents of the tubes sent to me,
viz.—

No.1. Air from Cambridge Place sewer, about 5000 cubic inches of which
passed through the cotton-wool.

No. 2. Air from the same sewer, of which about 7000 cubic inches passed —
through the cotton-wool..

No. 4. Air from large sewer in Gloucester Place, about 2950 cubic inches —
of which passed through the wool.

No. 5. Air from sink-drain in Hospital, about 2950 cubic inches of which _
passed through the wool.

These were all examined separately and without any contact. All utensils,
slips of glass, &e. were quite clean.

The method adopted in all instances was uniform.

The plug of cotton-wool was immersed in distilled water (freshly distilled)
and well shaken in the water in a clean tube. The water with the organisms
in suspension was then examined, drop by drop, till nearly exhausted.
Whether this was the best method to adopt I am not certain, but the process
was the same for the four samples.

The results generally indicate comparative freedom from organic bodies; in
Nos. 4 and 5 perhaps an insufficient quantity of air was passed through the
wool, as compared with Nos. 1 and 2.

No. 5 contained a very few starch-granules (P1. ITI. fig. 17), alittle granular
matter, and two or three brownish spores, almost identical with fungi-spores
of the genus Macrosporium. They are club-shaped, -0015 x :0005 inch i
size, with three or four septa; the upper portion coloured, the lower or nar-
rower portion (the base) colourless. Species of this genus are common 0:

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

COMMITTEE ON THE TRE

TABULATION COMPILED FROM RETURNS FURNISHED BY 200 TOWNS

| CHARACTER OF

POPULATION

WATER SUPPLY.

NUMBER OF

JEPTACL

HOW REFUSE IS REMOVED ;
WHETHER BY A SYSTEM OF UNDERGROUND SEWERS, PUBLIC

| AUTHORITY OF EXCRETAL MATTER. SCAVENGING, OR BOTII, OR OTHERWISE
WATERSHED.) EXISTING FOR x = i — —— _
DISTRICT. | SANITARY CHT Rusoen ov or A | |
Mi Sia E | rmvareson agers | ANTE epares || Feceerac warren. R000 rts ae crmee | eae cara
5 ori SOLID NEFUSE,
4 5. 6 7. 8 9. 12, 13, | 14 15 16 17,
nto = aaa a ie Date | i = =
EPSOM ....... TWAMES scssees jal Board 5,000 | 4,000 [Both 27 | 135,000] 750 | None | Few or Jiy sewers By sewers By seaveniak
GUILDFORD z " Local Board...» 9,500 Both so Very few | 2 or 3 By scavenging hy occupiers.|To cesspits By scavenging (pubilic)
KINGSTON co 1) sssennsesess Corporation... 12,000 | 12,000 |Both 27 | 222,000 None By sewers By: scavenging by pccuplen
REIGATE «2. =) v«-/Local Board 14,000 | 6,000 |rtoth Bytbewers abi cempcols\fe+| by. aewars'aud cesppoalalet Dir asic reeseecee
RICHMOND \-essvesesscssrsern] Vestry sessense 12,000 | 12,000 |itoth 2,000 | None Bo veres lsvaenereen yearn
SURBITON (St. Mane) * Local Board 7,200 | 7,100 |rublic 30 | 215,000] General | By sewers .. wees |By sewers
ASHFORD... Srovr Local Board 8,000 | 7,000 |Both 20 | 200,000 | By sewers <.ss- lay sowers
BROMLEY THAMES .... Local Board 10,000 | 800 [Roth vasa. | 10 By scavenging by occupiers, \by farmers from cesspools...|By scavenging...
CANTERBURY... Sova Corporation as L: B. «.....] 22,000 | 20,000 {uoth 16 77800) || Nona’ |/03,000||layisewers) cesnerescccoeeen [Bly sewers By era
DOVER .. [Corporation as 1. B. 24,000 | 24,000 [Both 50 740] 4,197 | None 100. [By sewers ae thy sewers. By scavenging,
< 11, |HYTHE Town Council 3,000. |osrseesseen Both General | None Dy sewers By sewers By scavenging,
a 12, [MAIDSTONE +. Mepwar Local Board 23,000 | 15,000 Jooth Hapetheses| Reastergasaecreteescscwesrtivereo By sewers . By scavengiog by Doari and
g 13, RAMSGATE Local Board 13,000 | 4,000 |Both M 56,000 None | By sewers and scavenging ...|By sewers and cesspools ae
a) 14. TONBRIDGE... MEDWAY. ccssecseee ‘The Sewer Authority 8,890 | 8,890 [Both By sewers and private sca-\By sewers «sy scavenging by occupiers.
E 15. TUNBRIDGE WELLS......) 24 Commistioners .. 16,000 | 13,000 |Public 14} 800 | General |...ssuves Syicuaeieaene |by sewers |
2 16. |BRIGHTON | Corporation as L. B. 90,000 | 56,000 [Pubic 28 | 1,568,000] 4,000 15 | 10,000 Jay sewers and private sca-By sewers and cexpits in/By scavenging...
17. HASTINGS .. ..|Local Board 25,000 | 25,000 [Both s»| 20 | 500,000} 4,000 1 Nous [By senera’ «s reece ..|By scavenging,
18. WEST HOVE [Improvement Commis-| 5,000 | 4,900 [Public al as 72,000} 1,200 10 [By sewers . ..|By sewers By scavenging...
19. ALTON \Taaues Local Board 4,000 | 3,400 [Private wells ... 420 | 7 20 [By sewers ...... srcens| BY/MEWEFE. cursesssonsccusesesss By scavenging.
20, |ANDOVER ‘Test axo Trowen|Town Council. 5,000 | 4,000 [Private 7 By sewers and scavenging ,..|By sewers ..|By scavenging...»
21. PAREHAM... en {Local Board 6,200 | 4,600 }Public 15 65,000 500 \, None [Uy sewers... \By sewers... \Dy scavenging...
29, \NEWPORT....... Mroiwa A | soca) Board 8,000 | 7,000 |foth oy .|By sewers on By SCAVENGING eercssscsenssunn
23, SOUTHAMPTON... ‘Corporation as T.. B. .....] 50,000 | 50,000 ('ublic 30 | 1,500,000 | General 2 | 70 |by sewers |By SEWErS By scavenging.
24, WINCHESTER... lremes |Corporatiog as B, see] 17,000 None [Public sere a on . | By private scavenging « aA nae By scavenging...
25, ABINGDON in MES [Paving Commissioners...) 7,000 | 3,000 |Private wells sou) 353 None By sewers and scavenging... ie sewers .. . ie scaven|
| “
re ry 4. 5. 6. 7 LivenLas 13, 14, 15. = Ca z 17.

STORM-
AND
SURPACE-WATERS.

SURSOIL-

Serremser 1870.

DISCHAR
INDEPENDENT OF SCAVENGIN

TMENT AND UTILIZATION OF

SELECTED FOR CLASSIFICATION.

VERS,

SEWAGE.

SCAVENGING
(PUBLIC).

— WATER MODE OF MEATIER mn HOW DISPOSED or. RETORN
: ij Ja: DERIVED
low VENTILATION {storm water = Fe ———
SPOSED | by cnrestica | Pe
HOW DISPOSED oF. aEoSaL By sipye | BY VILA | ome RSSDeN) ey HOW EFFECTED. |
ae DISCHARGE CURFORE | erone zy se |
Ate NMITIOATED) gyytyunne, | vuriMare | TRMOATION. | & TOTAL) reat
DISCHANGE, -
2
pe a 2 23. 25. 26. 27. 28, ja 31, 35,
..|8¥ manholes Wholly, before Ke ed | rea | ee pence,
holly, before holly eee [By contractor «:.... Nil | Nil | None | None
irrigation |
By contractor
By sewers By sewers fy, special pipes ani] 400,000 33 Wholly ty contractor; street:| 110 | Nil
By sewers By sewers 35 Wholly sweepiugs only, | |
By sewers By sewers By special pipes Wholly |
|
By sewers By gratings Wholly.....
By sewers .|None 159,000 | 21 |Wholly voli
By surface-drains Wholly... | By contractor; ashes,
| &e. 01
By old sewers By sewers partly 1,152,000 | 58 Wholly By contractor and local, 450 | 125
board,
31 By old sewers, roof-water toy sewers ly factory chimneys 3,438,740 | 143 |Wholly <|By contractor ... m0 | Nil
Wholly... By contractor... Nil | Nit | None | None
FT BEWEEE. ceconee: By old sewers... Wholly By contractor; street- 250 | 45. |.jccsc.{osssneen
¥ sweepings only. |
2 Wholly. i |
Gy chimneys and grat Wholly... |
ings
ave Wholly
ny sewers ty gratings, speciall 1,909,900 | 32 |Wholly......
foes, & | |
28 By sewers By sewers 600,000 | 24 By local board 600
| |
24 By sewers .... 72,000 15 Wholly....... By commissioners 220 130
|
36 By old rewers chiefly By special drain ...JBy shafts sssorrersssese 126,000 | 37 Wholly By local board 4 7
7 i} | i}
By sewers By sewers Wholly, after
precipitation
33 Br special drains chiefyJ...... By shafts and gratings... 180,009 | 39 Wholly By contractor se | | 3
Pp (Ph ecdaac Aepabes By sewers Wholly By contractor -| per
I 4 lly +. TheATCprocess, By contractor and | 390 Cr} aero Pet
770 2 By sewers By sewers Y800,000;) 30 | Wholly Just adopted. pnt mamanes eee | |
|B 01 5 | Nil |
.. By surfsce-drains i | 'y contractor 45 | Nil | |
400 24 By sewers and surface]By sewers « Whollysecsssovs-« ..[By commissioners ......{ 187 | 16 on
drains. {aeons St eee
20. er EE 23. 24. 25. 26. 28. 29, 30. 31 32, 33, 34.

FFERENCE neTWEEs
COST AND ELS

No,

£ | pence.
None | None | 1.

None | None

2 3. * —
; — 6. i -_
Berkshire(confinued) 26. [READING .. ae 2 Meh hy 12. 13.14. 15 AG
? i" 0 ..] 30,000 Public 7 : Fe = 1 17.
27. |WINDSOR.. beat eal OOu 30 1,000 None | 4,000 [By surface-drains and sea-|By surface-drains and sca|B 2 oh at = ae ae
% " yon 10,000 Publ . “4 venging. ce-drains and sca-|By scavenging. i nl et
area ma eee ipa Public .sssevessensee 25 | 237,500 | General Rywenere Beene ae oe Bag aiauaratna aed aurioes,
| ocal Board 8,000 abli Fy | csanpaaie 2 : i
| | 29, jeXeueu aap Public 25 | 200,000] 1,500 | None 12) |By sewers Inepetes 25. |By sewers By special shafts
| n 4 0 cnn| hs By ss fi : 3
| eliaeeste Tujoog'||/ 4/7001 lPabite fall ceoaslleche Fe | see ee yseavengiog, ashes only..| 1,200 | 25 [Both by sewers and old|By sewers [8x manholes and venti] 35
engi | By sewers and surface- bs Hf a
: yy svseeseeesn|Loeal Board ,.. 11,000 Both... ; 6 ~~ [By sewers and surface-drains| By scavengings........ 12,653 | 30. |By surface-streams ae iy
| 31, {tWickENHast . None [Oy sewers and. privat ;
4 iliearyees ’ Private sca:/By sewers and surface-drains|By scavenging by occ Aa
Le : 10,000 bite: peal iinet || cen Rees 3 | iy scavenging by occupiers.) 2700 | 26 |By sewers ond surface,
jus GE ., . eae ; , ‘ Non By sewers and from cess-|By sewers and. from cess:|By sea streunt.
|. ‘ de 7,500 | 7,800 [Public ... e ‘i _ | pools. fetin y scavenging... 150 | 24 [By sewers and surface[By sewers ........ 20
CHESHUNT ... 600 | None 50, [By sewors Joy se eams
| cenecaroresl|| ig Local By sewers By ney ischial
| Nee sesseeeenes |L0eal Board, 7,300 Psivate | fy SCAVENGING sens eseercueees ...|By old sewers By shafts
| 34, [HERTFORD .. E 25,000 | Noue By sewers aud private sca-|By sewers and surface-drains uy
jee | Sorporation 6,800 Both, ce alae i tBEne: i ins| By private scavenging 7,500 | 25 |By sewers and surface. 3
; : 5 3 5 sewel aera ms.
J | = AM ABBBY...21.4.) 5) Local Board 5000 lyst li pa oS Raleemrea |By scavenging... 50 | 25 |bysewors By sewers
| Gi] Buckinghamshire.| 36. |AYLESBURY rout 90 | None | 650 |By sewors and private sca.\By sewers and on land ......\By priv
z | . |Local Board 6,250 | 6,250 [Both | | venging | u : By private scavenging 150 By sewers...
| i 37. BANBURY... ‘ | i intatrats ..|By sewers
|3 | spa Board . 10,200 | ...anf Both.» es al 25 |By sewers ..
18) 3s. |BICESTER c | 2 General | By sewers By sewers Ip i
5} bel (Nes ..{Local Board... 2,700, |eosesesn [Private ls Y SCAFENGIO Be... eecsesecnee By sewers .. by, dawn spouts, and} 30
z o “ ly sewers shafts.
Ey esses .-|Local Board | By sewe
& Pa | 33,000 |...04......,fBoth 0 f na | «.|By sewers «By shafts
| 5| Northamptonshire) 40. [DAVENTRY .. I, ¥ 3 4000 | 3 3,500 {By sewers and private sca-\By sewers and to cesspools...|By scavenging 1
C) | --|Corporation 4,100 | 3,800 Goth || venging, BS DU stay (Bases Nonsi:
$ Pn NOTA ON | BON $00 |By scwers and private sca-By sewers ........... \Bsveenventt
| sesssee By seavenging, B
| | +|Improvement Commis -} 40,000 -|Publie «. € NODAID Saunt hat 4|| (ab Pa MC SRR (fade gat ian ae Ee Cac AINE Se SH orcemicreock craer
| 42 |PETERBOROUGH | sioners. 5 None By sewers By sewers) acces strcaste|By scavenging, [nated
| scoeeel yp eA peartonene i Gaemearale | (721000 len By seavengings.sssse.cssen By sewers By sewers By manholes . 60
4x: |\RELLING : | acces E By sewors and private sca-By sewers
Z | BOROUGH .. | | By sewe
Hontingdonshire, | | oj sreneres|Local Board. .,.. 8,000 | 8,000 |Both....... 7 900 On foo) A if Mi Ail By manholes ......sse:..)icseeee
Bedfordshire... | 44, [BEDFORD ...... | 2 and private sca-\By sewers . {B, engi 5 a2 |By
| Local Board ..., 16,500 both 15 General By sewers! Is | oars = (oa eae gee eet eae
“8 lEraan jen y sewers y sewers. oe Ihe
} ilfoeal| Board, 18,000 Pane | | sessevevetrereens 24 [By old sewers .o..seseseee By sewers By special pipes ...... 79
Cambeii ¥ | 46, \casBRIDGE | | General [By sewers and public sca-|By sewers B:
| igeshire 2:3) } Werner Commis - | 27,000 Both. | 19 iGeneraltl |lAN Bees: By ve
47. ley sioners, | None y sewers iy Sewers By privat ; wa
| Local Board... 8,000 Public | so | 190,000} 1,000 2 5 [By B cL a Boe ae OU Ee as py peAGet ogee
Ie 41, i jy sewers sew sae
a aceasta ; (Corporation a3 L. B. 9,300 Both | N fees earepas: 33 Peapeacetcenl Coxeter (Byioldsexere
seein “CREA “ he roof-water,
49, |BRAINTREB . Bond han by | lone | 2,300) |By scavenging......... Carried to streams, canal By scavenging 1,000 | 23 [By surfaci ee a
| +-|Loca . / 4,000 Public 20 50,000 | General ef = cesspools, We, ‘retained foruse. = = 8 | |.
| 50, CHELMSFORD... canes settee ! Lia 20, [By sewers By sewers Chiefly by old sewers ..
| cai b , Both, 15 130,000 | General I .
30, H By sewers By sewers 2 22 y
Si. [COLCHESTER .....<:........{Coz0vn ca eee ee coallecaan lane By scavenging 22, |Chiefly by old sewers ..... By sewers ......./By shafts and dows] 36
U ” | |By sewers .. : =o spouts.
| 52 eb THamus .. |A special drainage distric!] 2,000 | None |Private | | rw | ae eee cea’
x vice 2 |General [By surface-drains and sca-|By surface-drains and thirav avenging by
Zz 83, HALSTEAD sors v|Local Board. 6,000 | 6,000 [Both 15 | «son0] 200 | Ni ae set Meee Beyer cael | Ne
z | Weiss eo i : 68, 2 None 50. |Bysewers (asmall portion by|By sewers |By private scaven é
Z| Suffolk .. 5h. poe ST. EDMUNDS. Mcareantt(en erccontieaoos balk | | private scavenging), Seer aes SOD) Bylaldixewera - [By sewers 1
H p O00 POU visssessserics |escssecesfeereee Coreen a Sewers and private scaven-\By sewers . vi vengi | sews
é =s, HGR 2 | eae Fase (Tecan | eal y By private scavenging ..... | ov. | By sewers «2 JOspinesandstorm over).
4 Norte ale eee nea aay 0 | : 4 | cossso.e: [By private scavenging ealestedh cory dead wolls|By private scavenging ..... | By surface-drains .... ae
es eter aa bd Private wells, &c | General [By sewers and scavenging...|..-......0. f . peel| Poop le
. |KINGS LYNN . ..|Paving Commissioners .,] 16,000 | 16,000 JPublic 56 . t |
i 800,000 None | General [By sowers and private sca-[By sewers ... By scayencing... By
#8. |NORWICH..... --|Local Board 0,000 | 70,000 {Both 1 | Met 5 alee one [eer
bbe po j , jorh, 5 ,050, 1 N aficavenrt yacw a
cnllepesieaue de beer pss 5 | 1,050,000 None By sewers and scavenging i sewers aud to cesspools...|By scavenging. .......:.e00- 800 | 22 [By sewers ... [evitcrenrentn coe
: i r Both. 350 [By public and private sca-|By sewers and surface-drains|By scavengin, By « Barnet
pealtaaton ging ly sewers and surface,
; OUTIL. Corporation as L, B, ......] 33,000 | 33,000 [Both 00 ‘ Aa i Li
| k 3,000 | None | 5,000 |By sewers and scavenging...By sewers «By seavengingscoce.-ece-e-1] 14000 | 31 |By SeWErS sssesceserseeceesens | scons t
2. 3 4 5.
F 5 . 6. 7 a.
OT LG 12. 3 «64 15. 16. 17. 18. (19, 20. 21. 22,

* Including ashes.

1 Tneluding tho sewage deport

— PORE UES al
S Pay fe ifs ]
| |
weooe| Wholly after/ Wholly before... G0") 18 [Bycontractor(thehouse|ien.,| 60t | 2
We Aeodorization filtration, renuaarOETs} | | ‘
| 2p
Wholly. # | aril
c oy By contractor (ashes) 250 | Nil 250| 6 | 31
only) and boar
‘ By board ..,.+0...+- 150) 30 | 120) 318 | 32
. thera , 33.
fter Wholly befor - 3.
ation, filtration. feeceee
coat (853
sor ; 36
Wholly after . - : alfeoncnl five
filtration
Wholly 38.
|
Wholls . By board... 1,100 | 120 980 | 7-1 | 39,
|
Poe bs .. [By contractor 30 | Nil wee] 30] 18 | 40.
fees Wholly a By commissioners 1,000 | scot | a0] 26 | 0
|
Fonsee 12
Wholly even] 43,1
esastente Wholly... a cet bevcerect [UH
Wholly after Wholly before : By board rece 3 Jeersssen 48
deodorization. filtration. |
es -..,|Bycommissioners(stree!| 1,200 | 200 1,000 | 89 | 46.
sweepings only). | |
eeoesees| WBOMY. 100 Bent By board 84 | 42t } 42] 93 | 47
: By board. eee} 189 | Nil 1s9 | 49 | 48.
Partially : essonseeecerey|PQrtially. ss0xfse, F sere | 49.
artially .. fi Partially By board |roeren] 50,
Wholly......... 5 By commissioners, but | eesne (OL
‘ occupiers pay cost | | -
: : |
4 : ‘ | 53,
; Wholly erection Jrosesene UH
a | 46.
Whe : att “5
WBolly..-..<: -seee [By commissioners... | Dan 5
By contractor 400 | Nil sesecans| 400 | 12 | 58,
| N 5!
sone : : By contractor ...se1.| 13) Nil 8) oe |i
2 60
7 2 , sessrseseeycrace lenses [By COmtractor ...as 200 200)) 1b
4 =
= 36. 37, 38,
“= 32,
2. 26. 27. 28, 29, 30. 31,

SOUTH-WESTERN.

DLAND.

WEST MI

fees

Nee oe... atractors .......-- 303
x = =n SYACtOMsectecasces> 45
Newer ts aed eee
: pamissioners Masitee eon ccae
PPACKON a cenekaccss. 422
ccccececcescgltteeeeeeeeeeseeseneens 143
d (street-sweep-|.........
only).
Searea seagrass 280
Pate cy co rCu es eeseasanee>a| 1700
a ae ard, streets; by) 1,150
tract, ashes &c.
pene WALCHGe sent ococe=6.<| 182
ah Seo Toe ard (street-sweep- .........
Mapeaetadesse. 612
opt ee RS cceckstctoccencciaeeee 274

31.

11°3

L 2 3. a 5. 6. 7. XK :
Wiltshire G1. SALISBURY wos......see...-. JAVON -.2---s00see=-|Corporation as L. B. 13,000 | uae Public = | = 585,000 Tam | i= == : = 8. ] 1. SS —— oy a = = a 2. SS
" a | [here TEES SLOG | EA CeO | By sewers By sewers 4 ..».|By seavenging ..|By sewers By sewers i E scessenere] areves | Wholly Proper 630%} 20 |..... | 610) 11-3 | 61 i
Dezsetshire — € (BRIDPORT q.......00......../BRIT .. (Corporation as L. 8. 8,000 Private... hacer vorsseoe| By sewers and scavenging ...|By sewers ls engin | lay old sewers Ere yoo TE Whol | By contract 40 | Nil 40) 12
Devenshire ....... FONPORT .....0.n00e0: +«,-»Corporation as L. B. ......J 50,000 | 49,000 [Both... - 30 General eae ee 5 ell (ia a lla [iene a Ea | | le
e encral 35 [By sewers By sewers By scavenging 35 [By sewers Wholly By contractor ....++, 530 | Nil 530| 25
: EXETER St Corporation as L, B. 35,000 | 35,000 |Both.....ccc-es| 24 | 857,000] 6,000 None iy sewers By sowers seo]By Seavengingissssisssceore 720 | 34 |By sewers None... «.. {Wholly He eee : By Board ...re0c.ceeeecesn 1,000 | 600 100 | 28
6. THAM ae TORREDGE -+.......|Local Board 4,000 | 3,000 |Both 100 | None By sowers and scavenging... By sewers 4,190 By sewers -sscssesses By sewers Wholly {f. asta | “
z PLYMOUTH --cwvvsoeseeovssesh me s-seseeeese|Loeal Board 70,000 | 69,000 50 | 3,250,000} 14,000 | None | None [By sewers By sewers Dy scavenging, 1,460 | 56 {By sewers By sewers By high shafts 3,000,000 | 43 |Wholly ; boy «By board and contractor, 1,860 | Nil |ecsssss..[esesseen| 860 | 6-4
Fe Local Board ..... 3,400 | 2,500 22 1,000 None 20. [By sewers By sewers ly scavenging. fi 650 | 29 |By sewers sere reece ecurets : Wholly.. er a | By board ity 99) | 22M cercamees| | 72| 51
g a +--Local Board 20,000 | 20,000 [Both 30 610,000 | General 2 12 [By sewers By sewers By scavenging . 1,818 | 35 [By sewers ..... By sewers By shafts «| 1,600,000 | 80 |Wholly.. spy recten By board 1,000 | 150 jo... | 850 | 102
= 3 Sa Bee ae ET | UE 3004 40, 400 |By sewers By sewers soou:|DBy scavenging. ......0+. 500 | 18 |By sewers 4 on cc Wholly "al hea | By contractor cscs 195 | Nil 195 | 3:9
5 Comwall ie Camet Town Council ...... 4,500 | 4,000 ]Botb........ 20 x 100 None 600 |By sewers and scavenging... |By sewers By scavenging. 1,000 | 46. lease andcal x Wholly | | xpcopiractar cy) tll ae | aa | Be
S 7. = ssscrsevnoeesns|Corporation as LB, ......) 9,500 | 9,500 [Public .... 25 | 250,000] General | None | None |By sewers By sewers... colt Parsee 400 | 40 |By sewers wa a 7 Wholly " fe Hee .,[By board 595 | 390 ‘ 206 | 52
a-o----AVOX Local Board -»] 55,000 | 52,000 [Public 14 641,640 50 By sewers By sewers Byesvcnkiin 299,000 | 26 |By sewers ‘ By shafts 800,000 | 15 |Wholly ccnkectutcoeety tretenteac Werte By contractor Nil sesnfrevessass] 15500 | 65
ao Local Board os... 10,000 | 10,000 [Private 10 By sewers and public sca-|Sold to cloth manufacturers |By scavenging ..|By sewers ss. < Wholly | By board .... Nil | Nil_ | None | Noue | None | None
essos| PARRET The Vestry .-sscosevseee-e 2,000 | 2,000 [Both = None gaeererat gdprivaea) ec By sewers eee “ Byoldiseers By gratings seer] sans |Wholly | * ase ae | }
Ae Local Board... 15,000 | 15,000 [both 33 300,000 None Beiter oes Reperesting 3,000 | 26. [By sewers Wholly «.|.ssen By contractors 303] NU [ecamenfeoeea| 308] 48
BavE Corporation as L. B. 4,700 | 4,700 [Private os... None care soseeseceeeq]BY|L0WCCTS Bere . By sewers F leccsceomenpee rear 7 z WPLOU ses sasens|esscessecteoien ee |,...2[By contractor... 45 | Nil |ocrsese
Avox Corporation as L. B. .....}17},000 |171,000 [Public ... Gencral | None | None |My sewers By sewers las scavenging. By sewers... sees] By Sewers ‘ a Wholly vans fatrnsseatas| evaiesecereveeed|terusecs | By contractor... |
{mprovement Commis -} 43,000 | 40,000 |Botb...... x ssosscneesacee| BY SEWETS, sesceesesereneeeeser By geavenging 28 |By sewers and surface-|By sewers +] 1,046,000 | 26 Wholly cart r By commissioners ....»),.. sat |ashasen
sess PHASES ..........., Board of Guardians 21,000 | None [Private General |By scavenging. v | Syixcayeuring Byrntrracearates ened te a ernecnntrnceredh cesrtceLo 8 i shapes | Renate Jesveene
Sevess {Corporation as L. B. 17,000 | 25,000 |Both. 26 | 420,000} 2,600 | None 30 |By sewers By sewers «| By seavenging 1,500 | 27 [By sewers 5 By sewers 4 890,000 | 36 |Wholly . See Renee By contractor 422 | 100 | i 322 45
awteen ty seeeseeseesefLoeal Board “0 6,500 [Both 7 45,000 216 None crosraterrenensorsneesesss| BY SOWETB. |By scavenging 110 By sewers eusrnttcc iste ote 100,000 | 15 |. renee Wholly eooeontr & 143 ed 3) 46
Berefvcshire eee s--,|Corporation .. -| 18,000 | 16,000 [Public 30 500,000 | 2,000 2 By sewers lay Scavenging... 2,000 | 22 |By sewers .. serseven [By Sowers ....2..[By shafts se... 900,000 | 56 |Wholly | eae ey seb leventan | -l ei | 100 | | a
SS. LEOMINSTER w-...scescse.) py seeosnnseeeeens| Corporation as L. B. .., 5,100 | 4,500 [Both 10 60,000 By sewers and private sca-|By sewers 3 \by scavenging (private for] 200 | 27 |By sewers By sewers ..... Wholly. soxeccroes By ped (ees aweep- - “
S Saccpshse Si |BRIDGNORTH o ,|Corporation as L. B......) 5,700 | 5,700 |Public 36 216,000] 1,400 None | ee oro: By sewers é ree tae a eee 1,160 | 30 [By sewers so [By sewers rant soseesasseteea| sraeee [Wholly Wecrsetees secre bis raveel pes erier|pce By board. . 260} 38 fron | 242 | 10:2
< HIFNAL .... cf ~~ Board of Guardians 6,000 | 2,000 [Private fen By sewers and private sca-/By sewers 4 By private scavenging 116 | 26 |By sewers ... 4 s+. {By gratings to fs Whollysssceseu} fi Dreseteuan a | + -| sane | i
: REWSBURY + |Corporation as L. B. ......| 23,000 | None |Both 20 | 1 4,000 By prea scavenging By drainsand surface Annan, scavenging. [By drains and surface-streams)....y....+« si ‘ mr BY 0 | Joosees)seen [By Board roe 1,700 | 250 1,450) 151
es BURSLEM TRF oon eeconne.- {Local Board .....+2+-s+-+1 28,000 | 28,000 [Public 20 | 560,000] 2,000 | None | 3,000 |By sewers and private sca-By sewers ..... ssssees.|By private scavenging 1,000 By sewers (partly nroNEcn vues [Partially | sesns[Partilly ssees|eoes | % tH | mat Jee
a #8. BURTON-ON-TRENT . secsesnrsssnree|L0€A) Board sesseeseeere+ef 20,000 | 20,000 [Both 60 20 | 2,000 [By sewers and public sca-|By sewers By scavengingesseersessees 24 [By sewers . casecee Nametags career 3,500,000 Wholly aftery......sc+s0 seeesfuccenfBy board, streets; by) 1,150 |rcsseesosteooss |
2 ‘venging, 7 precipitation. contract, ashes &c a
9. FENTON ad eg eevee Local Board ercessss--s.f 10,000 | 3,000 [Public moaes| wD 30,000 60 | None 2,000 |By sewers and public sca-Byscwersandaurface-streams|Dy scavenging 500 By surface-stre oe én Wholly. sire : «| By beard 188))h0, Ei ye
$. HANLEY ........- sesssene- Corporation as L, B. ....-| 45,000... Public 20 300 8,500 rence oy hss et By private scavenging 2,000 By surface-streams wes : Set sbuat ypc tees 7 be aes|oenanee
91. LICHFIELD eevvenenner py etereearsnanrs(COTpOTation 6,900 5,000 240 oo paaravsestse «By sewers By sewers 0 $2,000 | 6 Wholly cheaper Mae Re caisaeeee | RU tert daa et
92. |LOXGTON ...------00--0- aos ---|Corporation as L. B. 19,000 | 3,000 15 45,000 2 2 | 4,000 |By sewers and public sca-/Bysewersandsurface-streams|Dy scavengingerese. css] 900 By sewers vescssesse By sewers ses cont |SWILOUY. ss sess0|ssnee svyltecsenencenrtann By board... 612))208> pesrcr aC td at
$3. STAFFORD soctoee | -+|Improvement Commis -| 16,000 | None | borer sesscasee By private ucavengiog By surface-streams ron math ons of f Secs = eit br n +}
94. TUNSTALL ...... es oe ree 3,000 | 10,000 20 | 200,000 200 | None | 2400 |By sewers and private sca-[Bysewervandsurface-streams|Dy scavenging.....-.. 250. |reveeeees|By Sewers. By sewers (partly)}......++. Heine |Wholly... Jesssseecenrteeeansne ebori thenerent } ray ss] aa
6. WALSALL... : ee .- Local Board 50,000 | 40,000 Taaapeseis Byiaaneed and private sca-|By sewers... a By private scavenging By sewers .. 25 None ss meats meeechfclives ec Hore bcterra ses DTA | eccssnnn|iaconoes ~| 274) 13
| venging, | | | | a ee u
L 2 Sr a = ier Ta 2 10s es i, 13. 14. 6. To a elo: 20. wale x 22. 23. 24, 25, 26, 27. 28. 29, 30. Ta 32, 33. 34. 35, 36 37.

* Including cost of watering, x

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te 500,000

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= = = = = - 12. 1S \e eB. = 16. 18,19. 20. ik et ee es 31. 32,33. 37.
Worcestershe - 96 MALVERN 8,000 | 5,000 [Both ....cesessssen 50,000 | 1,000 None By Sewers .ssecsccseesessers| BY SeWErS me -) 1,500 iy 30 [By sewers .......-- By sewers ...... E 80,000} 10 Juss By contractor sessse-s---}) 450 ].,..., 18:0
97. [WORCESTER eee] om 35,000 00 [Public 25 | 850,000 ) General |...nsfoonnsne.nfBy sewers sessceete BY $OWEEB Gseee By sewers... hon |... whos. eee Be eer aernceerteregh cts oe : aialinae
Warwickshire SS BIRMINGHAM ..... 360,000 {Both eed hers sesvenserseafeasereaeesfo] General perry and public sca-\By sowers ssscvese| BY scavenging, th vous By sewers -[By sewers By shafts and gratings..|....., Partially, after tail tos Partially, after} lt By board socererans{ 11,500 5,500 |.oescces 6,000} 40
F 29. a 41,000 | 41,000 JBoth ial Bese 3,810 20 || 1,500 [By sewers and scavenging ...|By sewers ssse.[By scavenging (private for] 2,000 | 28 [By sewers ss... : By down spouts saeleeea).s Ee cece ctw ee || eee Ml lneinenrd @treseawrenrt|| (S78 o-ac.\ |nonesl eres |
= . ” 20,000 000 }Public 20 400,000 | General |...,:.0+++0 +a{ By sewers F |By sewers .. - tae ee oe peels | 25. |By soparate sewers. ssoeeesererresensress[ By gratings. 1,000,000] 50 |.e-sessseesseeesnlersscasseseseeess| Wholly by ey oe . he
n tA é 9,000 | 8,700 [Both . seco] 23 | 190,000] 1,400 | None |revseese.,.[By sewers iNuasererren BY AeWers peter sss By seavenging (private for]’ 110 | 28. [By sewers ssscc.scscsseseessedecsemeessersersesseeeBy Chambers oreerenssed $00,000 | 34 : | SBcercee th | Jessu{By board (street-swweep-)...... ae erro lb
Leicestershire 103 2 Tarxt ... Local Board 90,000 | 89,000 [Both 1,780,000 receesectl| eeeetapeer| BY BOMETN) «5,035 By sewers paler cae) By old sewers sewers By special pipes sac...) 8,000,000 | 34 |...cee : Wholly I oi |
imccinshire — 104. BOSTON - Wrrean ... -|Local Board -...-....--..- 14,500 [Public ....» 25 | 300,000 6 peeece and priyate sca-/By sewers .. By scavenging. corr, 22 |By sewers... zc sencserseresneees BY shafts Barsertice | Mes cest UHOUP sentence |scrostiere By board .....ssssseeeeen| 474) 167 |,.00, 307 | ot
GAINSB Taest Local Board... 7,500 | 7,500 [Both .... 0,000] 800 | None | 800. ficrseenme A By sewers... By scavenging. 200 | 32 [By old sewers seesonsos[ BY Sewers sestvvsef 160,000 | 21 |WhOUy.....sse-osseercesensee Pt |.,o104[By contractor ...-.s02+s» rol
2 veces WTBAM soreeeeeees-/ LOCA Board sescsssseeesss] 25,000 Both seo 13 ; 4 By public scavenging Dy surface-streams By public scavenging Bydrainsand surface-streams}..... tic Wholly (from)... By contractors.....- 853 ie 853) 82
Ss Leo .. Town Counc ....+.-..--| 11,000 oth 254 8 By sewers and private sea-\By sewers -»|By scavenging (private for] 178 | 31 |By sewers (partly)... .| eve an 2 5 “cco [Whol : . =| IBy contractor (streets
= __. Wirnau Local Board ... 3,800 | 3,800 [Private 60 2 250 [By sewers and private sca--By sewers . sean By ea seesoseseesscesseesee] BY SEWERS onan esses] neces {Wholly ena) 0
= Wattaxp .. ea Commis-} 7,000 5,500 [Both 27 125 3 ane By sewers and in dry wells... By scavenging. ....cse:sssse» 200 |....s+0.-/By old sewers (roof-water) ......-csrercessee maeiberersert . Wholly. recs é 100| 20 ease 80 | 27
= Texxt Corporation as LB. ......1133,000 |135,000 |Both “4 30 | 3,500,000 100 8,000 JBy sewers and public sca-/By sewers By scavenging... wf 1,870 | 25° [By sewers ....... w-.[By sewers .....-.../By manholes 4,000,000 | 30 |Wholly om Setter es By board ... 7 6,100 | 4,050 |...... 2,050 | 36
Ovse Local Board ... ass--f 12,000 | 12,000 [Public 20 240,000 170 None | 1,636 be ee By sewers . ssn By scavenging. va] 1,400 By sewers ......0- By sewers... aaa u 637,800 | 53 |Wholly erence ecco este
eoeees TRENT . Corporation as LB. 50,000 ssvee{Both 25 ° | $000 |By sewers and public sca-iBy sewers sssscosereee| BY seavenging, y 2,000 By sewers retort 1,250,000 . | Wholly Serercarcalecn By board... 2,728) 633 2,095 | 101
Local Board ...... 9,000 9,000 |fublic aby 117,000 300 None 1,200 Beers and private sca- By sewers . »«.|By private scavenging ..... 657 i By sewers .... i venee wares |Wholly...... fi “ renserlevenssl eee, settee: " Jonson
CHESTER ...._....-..-- DEB oo sscce-sess0esa+ COPpOTAtion......-. 31,100 | 26,000 [Public :... «| 36 936,000 |...... 6 | Lone and private sca-|By sewers... ssessees|BY Private SCAVENGING ...s0.f.ccseseseesfeseeseeee|BY SCWEFS sesseescesne 7 te vous |Wholly ” oe soseeenseaelete uy
116. CONGLETON + MERSEY ............\Corporation...... 12,000 | 10,000 [Both ess....es... ‘ 60 | 1 | 205 fare By aewers and watercourses,/By private scavenging | By sewers and surface-(By sewers 00.1... Joe. 300,000 | 30 |Wholly...... areal eh sesftsesees “ “
117, CREWE -csecscos | ., Local Board 16,000 | 16,000 [Public .....s rote ae 50 | None | 2,000 |By sewers and public sca-(By sewers : By scavenging.....csssss 700 | 24 [ny sewers ib [By sewers srscssrefeee 800,000 | 50 |Wholly, after)...cscesscssseen|essersusseseeee | scafeeren)By contract (privies and) 300) Nil. [scssessorecneee] 300] 4°5
118, DUKENFIELD reese) gy seceeenenee Local Board... 16,000 | 14,000 [Public etsesnnee| 12 | 168000] 40 | None | 2,000 [ueterserscreseen Bynenent [By scavenging (private for esssesa| 28 [By sewers. « Mea layreenee ney auction ee Preeti covcata lS ssanatee| em (PO ee ioe | eee |
119, MACCLESFIELD 4 —-_avseensneees COFporation 2s I. B. ......) 37,000 | 25,000 [Public ... 164) 412,500 220 None sanenenevee . By sewers. . By putts end ae 1,000 | 36 |py sewers and surface-drains|By sewers... fot Ci nea Wholly a | By board . a rt
3 129. TRANMERE ........ =) Local Board ..... 15,000 | 15,000 [Public 24 | 360,000} 2,000 By sewers and public sca-/By sewers sess By neavanglag creraerentt|fds080)4 | aed lay sewers (corset: (By newern 2-2 see |Wholly se | By contractor ...... 400] Nit | |
z WALLASEY _.. + Local Board 2.0.0.0... 13,500 | 11,500 [Public 30 000 586 None 1,763 has and public sca. By eewers and to cesspools...|By scavenging........ 830 | 26 |By sewers .... ss. [By sewers i Leimenotottot here . Wholly. co By contractor ....... 400) Nil |... |
z Lancashire ___ 122. -ACCRINGTON ... = Local Board | 25,000 | 20,000 [Public rece praise Pe raters (Bs eames col ecavengiog 8 aero .-+=/|By public seavenging By 80ers sessseseenee By down spouts ... laze «Wholly . . pesnnasranseergoresnenerarag EL Piet
A 1z%3. ASHTON cxoez LYNE... Mraszr -««. Corporation. wef 39,000 | 39,000 [Public | 12 463,000 200 9 6,250 |By sewers and public sca-|By sewers ......-+. By scavenginges. creer} 600 |oss......|By sewers By sewers ..... A ; Wholly-..s2+-..Jesesee or . By corporation ........) 1,646) 95 |...» nee 8
: 124. ATHERTON ......... a - 7,000 | 6,000 [Both 7 43,000 20 None | 1,200 [By seers and private sca-/By sewers ....-..ss0-.2s00/By scavenging (private fo 30 | By sewers sesso | BY sewers 5 . Wholly... n re by By board (een ee 70) Nil | 70| 24
z 15. BACUP 3 > sessseeneed] 17,600 | 13,000 [Both ? i Eo eee Rim cdot fae tee aud able ace -y vewers anil ta cesspoolsjo\n-raex oom eeseel| Meee ace leytomeend (onal actace | oe x veel 108,000) 8 |. Wholly... peste vofvoBY COOAEWE are] 400) NIL |onmlanene} 400 |
B25. BLACKBURN ---csevveere RIBBLE sossccssevee}COPOTAHIOD...cse-.-o---.--e4] 81,000 | 68,000 |Pablic ........ are ar 900 | None | 13,600 [By sewers and public sca-|By sewers...» JY SCAVEUEIDBsseevcrsensensee 43 |Byacwers «. .-,By sewers... ssearscesscseyred{ 2000,000 | 29 |aceennsen Sarsazeef Wholly soosces ws <a lessee {By corporation .+-..-+s| 3,100) 480 vn 23600 | 78
127. BLACKPOOL. nes eeseceascoecsaneaesesssf OCS] BORTE even 7,000 | 6,500 |Both 2 240,000} 900 | None 50 [by sewers and private sca-[By sewers... .+o|By scavenging for ashes only 31 By sewers * By sewers... 1,000,000 | 154 |Wholly... sstoonme a By board (ashes only)... 100) Nil salt 100| 34
128. BOLTON ....... soos MEBSEY ......-..00s/Corporation as L. B. ......| 80,000 | 50,000 |Pablic 20 | 1,000,000] 300 | None | 6,890 [By sewers and scavenging . |By sewers. vaeeeBy scavenging... vf 1,000 | 47. [By sewers = By sewers peaearace and down} 1,725,780 | | Bereiccy asi eset SES Hak | 48
129. BURNLEY .seeeeccecceeeeee RIBBLE o0sens-..-n./ Corporation. 85,000 | 35,000 Public wenn) 18 | $25,000] 500 | None | 3,000 pasar and private sca-/By sewers ..|By scavenging... 40 [By sewers 7 paar and dows] zis ; sin By corporation ........ Saale seefossnnaeae|ocesnnen
130 [BURY ........... -MEBSET o-.----e---/{mprovement Commis -| 30,(00 | 29,000 |Pablic ..c.--sreer| 20 580,000 147 None | 3,765 fe sewers and public ea-[By BOWERS ose +....|By scavenging, roe 2,000 30 [By sewers By Sewers ser.ecsefNOWC sesecrsnren Wholly... roumnures eal By commissioners ....., 700) Ail c
sioners. | enging. | | | |
<= ce as a a. 7: Ce 10. 11, 13, 14. yu) =o. 17. 18, 19, 20. al. 22, 23. 25. 26. «of | (28) 29, 90. 31. 32. 33, 34,
{

360,000

250,000

57,000
864,000

nats, &125 000,000

venti-

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awa 420,000

seeeee 1,500,000

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es! 237,000
500,000

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WHOM ists ces xc leacasece]esnve ones
NWWitONyeecrccsst | 80)|-~sccs.c2
Wholly........ rottteesleseeeees
Wholly,....... )2,385 |10,519
Wholly........ 10,000 | 8,300
Wholly A ey) Bane re
Whollynic.. 3. 4900) 22. omen
Partially ..... {RADA | aevecess
Wholly........ baeeasea
Mesessteesteieess { 50} Nil
SGuocnospotuee ake 550 95
Wholly........4 70} Nil
Wholly........ $3,450 |.........].06
Wholly........4 25200 |......006
Wholly... { 300] Nil
Wholly........16,871 | 3,873
Wholly........ 1,000; 600
Wholly........ Hagieten's|weikmsind’s
Wholly........ ¢ 126] Nil
Partially ..... | onrencd| Peceeosce
Wholly........ 045 seaccrere
Wiholives...:.. Vevadosslenscaauen

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—— ~- = : : — — ——

2
s + 5B 7 js 8. do. 12. 13,5 ae. 15. 16. 17. 18,19. 20. 21, 22. 23. 25. 2s. 27. 2a, 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38.
Lancashire — 1s. i 2 00 fir 5: —_ - -
(coat) 131. [CHORLEY Rimmer... movement 2) oto; 5.004 Public -.sssesseees | 20 | 260,000] 200 Noue | 1000 [By sewers and public sca-|By sewers .. -.- By scavenging .. coef 8000 | 45 By sewers ...ccssssseseeseen a [By sewers iy down spouts -. 360,000 F Wholly ~alensABy commissioners se.s+-|) 290) 100).....ccJlecceee| 190] 23 fist.
=3 : ‘ one! (ie : venging | sens
132 DENTON - oa: Messer .........--. Local Board .... 5,000 | 5,000 [Both o.oo 80,000 30 None 400 [By sowers and private alts BOWELS —-..eesee-neccereoseo|By private scavenging wi... 1,900) fener By SEWERS ..yerere «[By sewers Arar seeeserse| 250,000 | 50 |Wholly.....-,..1 | i | nee +t ale tuseavansf LSQe
i — 8 75 >, 7 | | |
133. DROYLESDEN ° Local Board 8,000 | 7,500 |Pablic ...... 6 42,000 12 None 700 and private ale NOWEFS es-cseceeetsesesses-(By Scavenging (private for] 1,144 | 33. |By sewers ..[By sewers . 57,000 | 8 |Wholly..... | | fi | nine .|.....{By board (streets only) 50/.,.... alee 50] 15 |133.
= as is E venging, ashes, public for streets) |
ESS [HEFWOOD) -..ecceceeccf see [Local Board. 23,000 | 19,000 [Public ....c.scssesseeforeenss) 382,000 140 None 900 |By sewers and private seaBy sewers - By private scavenging ......] 1,250 40 | Dy sewers. ETO! By sewers ....c.0efue Ad 861,000 | 45 |Wholly..... |, wuiteced =| ee, nee . Bape haa.
<< 3 I ) - ; 4 venging. | | |
135. [LIVERPOOL ....... my seseesesess+ Corporation, 10,000 (510,000 [Public ......... 750,000 | 41,000 None | 15,000 [By sewers and public sc Jy SWOPE sees ssesoees| Dy seavenging, 7 46 |Dy sewers . [By sewers... 125,000,000 | 49 es oe | . ml aorserer ah sevetfeeeeasloere=-|By Corporation scx +-++-1/52,385 |10,519 | 41,566) 19°7 |135.
c: | | oe | See venging. |
MANCHESTER mr seeseseeeeee|CORPOFALOM sos esse 400,000 }400,000 JPubtic c 163 | 6,666,000 | 10,000 | None | 49,000 [By sewers and public sea-\By sewers F [By scavenging. ssereeene] 20,000 | 33. [By sowors seceseees| BY SEWERS mere Wholly... ore sass este csv. [e-osnsfBy corporation vs-....-+/20,000 | 8,300|....... 11,700} 7-0 |136.
- Ss | \ | |
137. MOSS SIDE... a. a= e=fEoeal Board... 4,000 | 4,000 [Public iss.ssseeee) 169] 66,600 400 None | 1,000 [By and public sea-\By sewers ...... -|By scavenging yvewsrtiee [By sewers |Wholly........ | eh veew eccsfeoeees|By contractor «. 237 237) 142 |137.
33. NEWTC > | 5 | | | |
iss, NEWTON HEATH » Local Board. 14,000 {Public 4 10g sjccoreersernfB¥ sewers and public sca-By sewers ........ soees.| BY scavenging. veveesee 1,335 | 36 [By sewers. os [By sewers Wholly Rareov resect om eH ...[By contractor ... 300 |. -sserrsfcosanns 300) 51 |138.
- : |
3a. IN > |
139. NEWTON IN MACKER) see/Local Board ....sc-.0.00.f 7,000 | 5,000 [Private wells only " 40 1 600 [By and public Y BOWELS soeceecsesceseesoseae| DY SCAVENGING: cosesscsesesosses! 1400 | 28° [By Sewers soescesssressrsesese|BY SEWErS soe Sontin oe Partially ......|Partially Se ..,By contractor for ashes, - 139.
140. OLDHAM yenging. | | by board for streets.
a OL = Town Council ..........-f 86,000 | 86,000 [Public ....cs00 23 | 1,978,000 700 | None |esvsssssvsefBy sewers and public sca.|By sewers sss... By scay rc . 5 | 36. |By sewers secsoseesees. | By sewers janholes and down} 31 |Wholly | nee vessalccsessleeeens{By corporation ....2-5 sess] 4,678) 11 140.
ae SSR 4 é 2 venging. | | | spouts. ie ;
SEER : RISELE ... Local Board vevsesue..| 6,500 | 6,000 |?ablie 20 170,000 120 None |sesers....JBy sewers and private sea:/By sewers... +»|By scavenging (private forj.-r-s-+-++01|-c.+e0/BY SeWOrk essen sve[By Sewers... se trees sereecoseea| casans [tptaseees +o Wholly, after],.....|----] by board (streets only)} 50) Nil }....... 50} 18 iat
Ss . | i venging. | “ashes, public for streets). | | preeipitation.|
luz. OVER DARWEN ... an Local Board .......0» 24,000 | 14,00 [Pablic .., ssfeeeserses| 240,000 bo |, wea| 4,000 [By sewers and public sea. /By sewers cescerserseereres| BY SCAVEDBING..ccsee wes] 12,000, «By sewers. A [By sewers eacseWaeeesees 420,000 20 7 esr al Rese ane «=| By contractor .. BRIE 550] <O5)|.c.csssaltcenon 155) 45 |142.
Sy ee q | | venging. | se
Z 143. PENNINGTON ...............|Memser .. ~-Local Board... 6,000 | 5,000 |Private | | 10,000 6 | None | 1,000 |By sewers and public sca-|By sewers sovsceeeso BY Seayengingesrscscersssien] 160 | 30° |By sewers seseserscreescnoenfBy sewers srouse seeereny ea esl El 4 eases By board : Nil |... 70))) 2°85) 1as
5 + ee \_ venging. | | |
= lia. PRESTON ... >. Risse Corporation as L. B. 93,000 | 93,000 |Public v»| 24 | 2,250,000 | 2,500 None | 8,500 |By sewers and public sca-|By sewers . “ ser] By SeaVEOgINE..o.csv0ss4400ren4] 2800 | 45 |By sewers - By sewers ......-..]By down sp 16 |\Wholly.. Moms eed sots|ccses|ersees| BY contractor for ashes] ea 89 pd.
= ag bone | : venging. | ‘&c,, by board streets.
> 143. ROCHDALE _/Measxy Corporation... $7,000 | onesref Public oes 13 | 658,000] 360 |-None | 3,400 [By sewers ond public sca-|Dy sewers sesseseeee| By seavenging. = 750 | 47 |By sewers sesfiecttereenne .-|Wholly | i ee By corporation .,.... sevvnsfeereesen] 2,200) 1-2 (LAS.
e = a | venging. | |
= 146. ST. HELENS .. ye seesneensees/ Corporation... 40,000 | 40,000 |Public ...... 15 ,000 250 None | 6,000 |By sewers aud public sca-/By sewers . sa{By scavenging... G580 | 30 [By sewers .ccscsecesseesceees, [BY SEWERS ee Wholly ie By contractor ..+..0:-0+.] 300] 00) 18 LAG.
= >. SALFORD | venging. | | | | | |
2 2h pe ~ ~- Corporation....... 121,500 [121,500 [Public 174 | 2,126,250] 1,554 None | 16448 [By sewers and public sca-\By sewers ..... +rcssess| By scavenging, as 3,500 | 33. |By sewers By sewers... None... ere Wholly... oi score tersosreeaeen| cseesfoerees{ BY corporation 4) 871) 3,873 |........Jerecesee) 2,998) 59 LIT.
5 iy ; | venging. | | z |
z ies. SOUTHPORT...... tee ~. Corporation... = 18,000 | 17,500 |Both. 25 x 1,100. None | 3,100 |By sewers and public sca-|By sewers . By scavenging, 24 [By sewers : oes scistiseseessneserseseeseee 650,000 | 37 [Wholly sansense e | | By corporation , 1,000 pe een 400) 5:3 [L48.
z = | | venging.
149. STALEYBRIDGE ........... Munser - Corporation as L. B.......] 25,000 | 24,000 [Both | 20 | 400,000 150 | None | 1,701 |By sewers and private sca-By sewers .... By scavenging (private for] 1,000 | 40. |[y sewers -.ecsesseeseseecseee|BY SEWERS +e arts 1 |Whollysseseeseslssescneesecses swonoee-| By corporation, strectal. Jevsesee
mg See z | | renging. nahes, public for strecta): | } |
1s@, TOXTETH PARK = ae 6,500 | 6,000 |Pablic 30 | 180,000 700 | None 150 ]By sewers and public sca-|By sewers... sve BY SCAVENGING. s0sses0e8 1,000 | 30 |[y sewers a By sewers 318,000 | 53 |Wholly......sesfecsscerne | ecebeestretan lores bes raCOT +. 126] Nil |rcessedssecseess] 126] 4:7 ]150.
3 ee. | | venging.
151. aa wire SHA. 7,000 | 5,000 [Both ... ey | 57,000 6 secsse| 500 [By sewers and private sca- By sewers r \By private scavenging (ashes] 240 BY SOWCTS .cscecsesseseescecsef BY SCWEPS vevseee Peatied dea Partially Partially tree
a ane | | | yenging, | only),
152, WARRINGTON . Sjak = oxen B. seco 30,600 | 26,000 [Both sessscssesecssseeoren] 380,000] 300 | None | 4,500 [By sewers and public aca./By sewers .... ss [By public scavenging .....) 900 ~|By, Severs (roof-water col... drarnhe 1,000,000'} 38 |\Wholly...... rf sevofAshes &e. by contract,) 1,045 | ossssesJeesseses
= a | | venging. lecteil for use), streets by corporation
153. WATERLOO, wrru SEA- {Local Board 4.0.0.0 6,500 | 6,500 [Public f 25 162,500 | 1,108 None 776 |By sewers and public sca-\By sewers By scavenging... 688 | 35 |Dy sewers fs es eat aay 237,000 | 36 |Wholly po erenunio hit en rit sveeifeesefAshes &e. by contract, racnse]eoneenees
FR URTH. } venging. streets by board |
154. WAVERTREE Menser ............Local Board ....... 7,000 | 4,660 [Public : 25 116,500 250 None 500 [By sewers and public sca-\By sewers ... seares| DY SCAVENGING. cess cevesneee B49 Dy sewers .=|By sewers nase ne > rer b |Wholly beatae ean ie trrenreepin Ashes &c. by contract,). a eovnesenafesosasenife
a Ne venging. | | streets by board. | |
155. WEST DERBY........ .---| Local Board ...... 27,500 | 25,000 [Both ° aoe 1,500 None | 2,168 [By sewers and public sca-By sewers .,...- ++] By scavenging. bom } eeseenne mer 500,000 | 20 |Wholly........ att \.ssusssvesseeeeeesfesesce/cssenBy contract (ashes &e,)| 6008) Nil |. woes] 5004) dt 155.
~ venging. | | | |
1x6. WESTLEIGH ... _|Local Board ....,.. 6,000 | 5,000 [Private 10,000 10 | None 900 [By sewers and private sca-\llysewersandsurface-streams By scavenging (private for] 4,341 | 30 |By sewers and surface-/iy sewers caine) Wholly ea | rashoarsa sasfeeees{ By board (streets only) | 30 |..servsss|asecrsnes}ersen 30) 12 [156,
a ‘ ] Yenging. ashes, public for streets), | streams.
157. WIGAN Risse Corporation as J. B.......] 41,000 | 35,000 |Public ..... met IE. 700,000 500 None | 1,500 [By sewers and public sca-|By sewers ., += | By SeaVENgIOg oy.yeenesy | 40 |By sewers : eh sesser |Wholly.ccccee | aereveuuuscumarst] Sear By contractor .......+++0-| 800 800) 4:7 |157.
bi venging. | |
BARNSLEY ... aS ee Local Board . see] 20,000 | 18,000 [Public -.-....0. mahtesscsereaet ead Lee eer aay .. Bsceencnss; By sewers ...... eet oo | 27 \By sewers 3 ane DOWerrs cation | meter Seren ator at esoeasannptens . anrers senenerslageterses|ennanea
|
159. (BATLEY —.......- ve eeseteseeseeens/Comporation as L. B. ......) 20,000 | 10,000 [Both ... nieespann 100 | None | 1,800 |By sewers and private sca-By sewers s-sosoe|Dy private scavenging ....., 2,038. |........./By sewers (roof-water col-/By sewers .. parceespastersftrcrece| ( 700,000 || CPO\ NV HOUyoxesserat}esasosoos sia) prema oo [L59.
| | venging. lected for use)
16. BEADFORD ............. ” aoe. Comporatiion a8 L, By v+-..f143,000 |...eecsenves[PUbLC seessseenevvees}os | 5,000,000 | 1,500 None | 16,000 [By sewers and public sca-|/By sewers. .....-+.-+.-+00| Dy scavenging. seven 11,000 | 36 [By sewers. [By sewers. By shafts and down} 6,000,000 S| SOU Fesnre-}| ec vovovastonbcposl‘etsavensnsaipecns coavannhrstran 193 ]160.
= | venging. spouts.
Z Isl. DEWSBURY...) ... nn (Oarporai as LB «ssf 23,000 | 23,000 JPublic . 20 | 460,000} 300 20 | 1,200 [By sewers and private sca-\[y sewers cose] By private scavenging ......, 1468 | 51 |By sewern secsersecens[ By SOWERS sereseees|NOME se a nant Whol. assess sees Hleacecd keel breecasct 161.
= venging.
5 162 DONCASTER... o nos-e1-+|Corporation as L. B. . 20,000 | 20,000 40 800,000 senvilecrcseess[By Sewers and private aout sewers sococosern|By scavenging (private for 26 \By sewers . seen [By sewers rachrersn 1,000,000 | 50 |Wholly.... oe eeseeenalccnseenasl
. ‘venging. ashes, public for streets).
P 16x HALIFAX ____..... ee __Corporation as L B......4 60,000 | 45,000 50 | 2,000,000] 1,925 | None | 7,500 JBy sewers and scavenging ~By BOWENS sscscessscecseeons By scavenging 17 |By sewers ~~ By sewers by shafts 2,500,000 | 56 |Wholly. in eee oJ Bena ot al fo by sss ene
| pierwatacale ofcharge
164. HUDDERSFIELD....... “, --se.-|Town Council 25,000 | 25,000 vse} 400,000] 950 | None | 2,000 [By sewers and public sca-\By sewers sos...» By scavenging. 660 | 33 [By sewers »- [By sewers «» 4 ... |Wholly. eect os
| venging- | é
165. SHEFFIELD ‘Corporation as L. B. .,....,225,000 [180,000 [Public ....1.-ccsrre0+|-ocneened 1,500 7 15,000 [By sewers and private sca-/By seWer8 .......00000re<c0-0e I a gine Cao 5,700 39 Iby sewers ..... e sneensesifevesaseen Wholly...
| venging. publiog private for aa!
L Zs 4. & 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12, 13, 14. 15. 16. 17. 13. 19. 20. al, 22. 23. 2%
# Ashes &e, only Avhes and privy refuse only.

and down} 1,300,000 | 50

17,000 7

432,000

- oo - = - - —_—-—— —— = = = ——*
2 = = = & cD 8. 9 jo. 12. 12. 13.__14. 15. 16. 17. 18.19. 20. 21. 22, 23.24. 25. Coe eye
| West Riding (mt). 166 SSIPTON - .-|Local Board 6,000 | 6,000 [Public . = F 150 | None | 250 [By sewers and private sea-|[ly sowers 2.00... By scavenging (private for -..-.-.-.-|/..-0|By sewers --| 200,000 | 33 eee
3 167. TODMORDEN esse: |LOCAL Board --soeeeesense] 14,000. |.....s0e [Private ‘ so | None | 600 |By sewers and private sca-|By sewers By Puente Ioy sewers anise .. | Wholly. Rt =| a crressrocod foto Meena Haare eA ree tree
5) 163. WAKEFIELD... ee {Oxentin = B. 26,000 | 25,840 [Public .. | 27 | 700,000} G6 2122 |uy sewers and public andy sewers By scaven 1,164 | 27. |By sewers ..... By sewers [as ea | eve [By Doard —seessersceon 200 sat) 48
2 SCARBOROUGH . a (Ge B. sf 22,000 | 22,000, [PubI:E neon} by sewers and public. sca|y sewers . olin escnn By sewers Been ean Me... seve Wholly nae | a... -n [By corporation .....-.| 2,200] 150 2,050| 22-4

DARLINGTON o oeee sCseepabon aa B. ...--] 25,000 | 25,000 |toth.. 1,500,000 By sewers and public sca./lby sewers By scavenging. .+.s:.sss:s+es 25 [Dy Sowers ....scseeeee By sewers preteens Wholly aosssessfcscesesne | ri fea By corporation, sss...) 420) 140}....,... Lutes

173, [DURHAM ...._......... Wan [Corporation as L. 15,000 | 15,000 [Born w-| 14 | 210000] 600 | None | 50 by sewers audiprivale’s [Dpeaeuventioe neiratenta psu mers ne =. by sewers, partially ee erence ern WHOTIy nce | oe | By corporation (streets) 30] 60 210| 38

174 Local Board see 5,500} 4,800 [Both. } 66,000 6 | None yneexera( end poblis eablOyrenae : By atin and eae 42 |By surface-streams, roof-|By sewers ene | cs. Wholly... | : by wee saciesenseees | ae

= | ma {by Y SCAVENEIN Geos eeseseeseeve a holly Peceeeeised Sea Neies tors, ashe be

Ey 176 jUccal Board .... 2, | 24,000 [Both | 140 one | 2,800 By seers and pablic sca.|By sewers » [By SCAVEDgINg..-scsrreereesee 1,500 | 24 |uy Sewers, roof-water col-[By sewers vanes meee 432,000 | 18 |Wholly ol vers oaanes |. evan | |_| rs Ryser etter ae! lo} 1
2 x NEWCASTLE --—\Trxe (Corporation 155,000 |135,000 [Public .... 2 30 | 4,050,000 4 by sewers and public males SOWETS ceeecss By scavenging. seven] 5,325 | 24 by seers out vater partly|By sewers Wholly... nat becrronccortty | ee ethene : 11,017) 1,182 stores] 9,835 | 17°5
= TYNEMOUTH ... a Local Board ...... 36,000 | 32,000 |Gotb....... 19 496 None eenes and private sca-\[y sewers By scavenging (private for 26 Reqwarecaii rate OLB y; NA WENE e ses¥ i Vag | race veceisemiisescacse-wansfvesatvnensc ve. {Partial | ori \Partially® .c.Jicsses/eeoe- [Uy contractor ........| 1,000] 263]...... 737| 49

179. |WALKER ... | SE |Local Board ......... 9,000 | 9,000 |Pablic Ros SeAne =| By sewers Sr ae ene bygones” Ee By sewers sererecnennavessecne Eaercas Wholly. oy reseetacnasces eee srvstsfesceonfeesses|y DOWEL aye pon eee
_ 180. CARLISLE z |t2cal Bosra ~~ 31,000 | 31,000 Both 28 | 850,000] General | arid By sewers |By sewers By scaven, sit 1,930 | 26. |By sewers by sewers -}By chirnies and dows] a Partially i [Partially ....e ity board series] 902 56
ISL WHITEHAVEN weLoeal Board -.--e0...s00.-.) 19,000 | 19,000 |Public 53 | 1,000,000 | bein Sania, -»|By sewers By scavenging |By sewers ...... ri x By gratiogs tein 0 Wholly... “ vo [By board 567 33
ABERGAVENNY |... Use Improvement Commis-]| 5,000 | 5,000 [Both 18 90,000 300 | 6 By sewers and public s¢a-|By sewers teas scavenging ts 26 |By sewers [By sewers ....0.. nae ee] 130,000 | 2G J..--rerseensee {hon | aseskei [onwe By commissioners ......) 85 20 65] 31
"ANTEG._....... op co eT Bpaed 3,000 | 700 Private | 60 | None Dyseners By sewers ....sessosseeseeeen| By scaveng <i | Ryeawaratiaretetee ree By sere 3 é Syn pee ee | eee ty board... | 15] Ni fo 15} 12
= Noth Wales —_ 151 SNIGHT Local Board 1,700 | 1,600 JPubtic Feeeeall sssseen)|BY Sewers and scavenging..|By sewers .scseescssenresees By sewers sssssesse 4 Wholly..... scouts aeoneseebes | dh. ports

3 | South Wales 155. CARDIFF =< local Board’. 35,000 | 34,000 [Both | 1,000,000] 4,000 | None | 300 {By sewers and scavenging...|By sewers By scavenging. ..scs- 768 | 42. [By sewers wos... By sewers eticcirny 2,500,000 | 74 |Wholly. a |. conn bax : | 1,650 Nil tie

5 186. LLANELLY Local Beard .. 13,000 6,000 [Public .........00.{ 20 120,000 120 4 s-+s«y sewers and public sca-|By sewers scavenging. 900 | 39 |By old and new sewers By sewers aes Wholly. sires = oo = 900 70 rein)
137. MOUNTAIN Local Board’ ....... 8,000 v.-- Both... 220 || None | 800 [Oy sewers and private sca-(By sewers y public scavenging. By old and new sewers ee fs aoe a ... |Wholly.. Pee Rerccion sorrel eon ees i noo Prrtted frosts
SWANSEA Local Board 4 50,000 | 20,000 [Public ares | 800,000 a Saar it eongeeesSrelyersasvauadgee rr 30 |By sewers Herter aa se [By shafts and down) esr) see | Wholly. seecauannsenee:|luneescentnenesn e * erecaalee wanes
sg. ABERDEEN a ---|Police Commissioners. 62,500 | 62,500 |Pablic .. a | 33 | 2,500,000 None 500 |By sewers and public sca-|By sewers [By scavenging. BA [By sewers sesesaeeeeee By sewers By special boxes and] 3,000,000 | 48 {Partially ” oes Partially. seeniles seve] 6119) 3,208 seoveens] 2911) 12
190. |DUNDEE -_..._.. aoe lio of Police .. 115,000 105,000 |Both. | 26 | 3,000,000 None | 1,380 Riper and public sca-|By sewers. By scaven, tusesceeeef 2,120 | 25 |By sewers By sewers ee feta seen [Wholly - | 9,001) 9,631) 630 | 13
191. [DUNFERMLINE .. s-veneen|Bourdl OF Police -.-.-c--<--] 15,000 | 15,000 [Both.......-c..-c-e0-| 15 225,000 250 None 280 paces and public sca By sewers... ton scavenging. bass 700 | 32 Iby sewers (partly). [None scesceees fi Wty. . - | 983) 658)... 825). 52
= ise, EDINBURGH ... Town Couzcil ... 190,000 |190,000 |Public 40 | 7,600,000 | General | None | Seneeee and public ale sewers By scavenging. 4,191 | 25 [By sewers None re seeeenseseee|Portiolly “ 18,205 | 8,935 }ossre-0e 9270) 17
1st. GLASGOW... Cave Board of Police 450,000 }150,000 Public } 48 /21,600,000 | 29,334 Renee and public sca-\By sewers . lay scavenging: 10,713 | 35 |By sewers .. 4 By sewers raceceasareaxenes<csecerenvo-] $9,000,000) || 78 rs |osteneseeneen Sirrn erty oe 33,805 |22,902 seers 10,843) 5'8
19, GREENOCE .... | sesssectee, Board of Police 52,000 | 51,000 |Pablic 60 /14,917,000 None seerern [BY newert and public sca-|By sewers ......c.cessee+--+0.|By scavenging 1,125 | 61 |By sewers By sewers .... fatto maveacser +» | Wholly... muons cootea| canvas} cone BY contractor 1,000) Nil seve} 1000] 4:6
195. PAISLEY . =f [Board of Police ... ..} 48,000 . [Public r 21 None | 2,000 Ayiabele teareRine «..{Thrown on ashes... .|By scavenging cue AD [By sewers ...ccsseesseseese [By sewers Sretevansesenacsesssausen seeneeae Wholly vo ” By board «| 1,050) 400 oe 650) 32
1%. [PERTH .... ee ete ee. ‘tes Of Police -ers.cesee«.] 27,000 | 27,000 [Both..........-.. 13 326,000 | 170 |By sewers and public sca-|y sewers sosceesenes) By scavenging. 900 | 35 |By sewers .. sou [By sewers: By special pipes 1,100,000 | 41. |Wholly..... Oreun sereefoeesesfernres{BY DOMED seererseeeeres-| 24000] 1,700) scrererdierrerees| 300) 2:7
197. BELFAST —............__... Town Council ........+..f170,000 sve Bot. =| (General [Oy sewers and) public and), sesensssssuseeseseeeeessens{By public and private sca-).....-.. By s0wors ssessecececseee sesccrsonvecseeee ly gully gratings secvesses| essere | Wholly.«. , coe hen sai il teats tenons nescere | ever
4 1s¢. (CLONMEL... Improvement Commis-] 11,000 | 11,000 [Both | ragertl| ees creer ere at Dy bowers ae By sewers - By gratings seenensee iiolty tase 3 page car Y | pater Faas
5 199. [OUBLIN tenn ssscsnsnceneeef255,000 [255,000 [Public -++..-vee-00 45 [12,475,000 J... oeee piraiveess [ee and private scab AETE reenncrimenDY private scavenging, fo) sevseees[BY SEWER seseseses Sn secant [WHOM aera anesnnrneu nner arrest oe i ence
200. |RATHMINES....... cecssoeerees|Emuproverment Commis -| 18,000 |....1..-...fPublic 20 al By sewers and private sca-|By sewers sco{Dy private scavenging for By sewers Bs 3 Sener aes rte |... [Wholly..... mn eye cer the 3 ‘
| | sioner ‘venging. ¢ | ashes. =| | a
- 2 3. 4 5. 6. are 8. 9. Osman LIS 12, Bw «14 1. 46, 7 1855 19) 20 22. 23. 24 25, 26. 27. 28. 29, 30, 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36 37.

POS Report Brit tss00 7870,

g& OF THE BRITISH Assy,

ose — SS —~4 Oj
ON THE TREATMENT AND THTMZATION OF SEWAGE
Yi — Z (rz; a s
ae tie if Vivtonas. Aiitgp Fitttie
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REPERENCE

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the BLACK PARALLEL LISES erpeercnt the
ore ot ach of than to minor earth ~. /
= HW\\{} 4 MLL Mf 7]

carvien thie
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the FIGURES

tu the bests men
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SCALES

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x. 1870.

Wro't Tron Carter

38.70 Carrier

Wro't Iron Carrier

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-----Public Road,

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SECTION N°2_

ao Report Brit Ave.

NE MOUSE

SECTION NO2

SECTION N°& 4.

SECTION N°3

ECTION N@ 5

—

ort Brit:Assoc: 1870. Plate 3.

ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 75

decaying leaves of cabbages and other plants (fig. 16), often accompanied by
other moulds, especially Cladosporiwm.

No. 4. I could detect nothing but one or two starch-granules, a few
minute inorganic particles like very fine sand, and a little granular matter.

No. 2. This was richest in organisms of all the samples, containing quite
a variety of subjects. The starch-granules were variable in form and size
(fig. 5); in most the hilum was quite distinct, in some the parallel lines: for
better security against error in observation they were tested with iodine.
Fragments of cellular tissue were also present (fig. 6), and granular matter
slightly discoloured, which resembled vegetable tissue in a state of decay and
disintegration (fig. 4). Several fragments of delicate branched filaments were
also present (fig. 7), greatly like the mycelium of some minute fungus; also
the branched upper portion of a thread very similar to those of Penicilliwm
(fig. 8). Minute ovate spores were also present (fig. 9), reminding one very
much of the spores of one of the white moulds, such as Aspergillus or Peni-
cillium. Larger spores were also present, of an elliptical form, variable in
size and proportions from -00035 in. to 0005 in. in length by ‘00025 in.
in width, of a yellowish tint, and rather granular within (fig. 12). In size
and character these resembled the spores of Cladosporium in the early
stage, before the septa are formed. Still larger spores were found, but
rarely, that were coloured brownish, ‘00075 in. in length, and :0005 in.
in breadth, divided transversely by three or four septa slightly constricted at
each septum; and again with each cell divided in the opposite direction, so
that the spores were multilocular, or fenestrate (fig. 13). Fragments of
woody fibre (fig. 11) were also present, and a vegetable hair, rather bulbous
at the base, consisting of but a single cell (fig. 10).

The animal kingdom was represented by portions of the fibrils of feathers
(fig. 15) and the scale of a Lepidopterous insect (fig. 14). Fragments of
inorganic matter were also present in very minute rather angular pieces of
what might have been glass or sand; but this is only a guess.

No. 1 was largely charged with minute cubic and rhombic crystals, which
polarized well (fig. 2), some starch-granules (fig. 1), and the scale of a Lepi-
dopterous insect (fig. 3). Besides these was a quantity of vegetable granular
matter, broken up cells, and a small quantity of minute quartz-like frag-
ments.

As No. 1 and No. 2 were derived from the same locality, differing only in
the quantity of air passed through the wool, and, it is presumed, in the pre-
cise time at which it was passed, one cannot help thinking that the same
sewer would at different periods of the same day give a different result in the
organisms with which the air is charged. No fungi-spores were detected in
No. 1, and none of the curious little crystals so plentiful in No, 1 were visi-
ble in No. 2.

A more extended series of examinations, which would of course occupy
considerable time and attention, would be of value in furnishing data for
determining problems which are sure to suggest themselves during inefficient
or incomplete examinations.

76 REPORT—1870.

Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1869-70. By a Com-
mittee, consisting of JAMES GLAIsHER, F.R.S., of the Royal Observa-
tory, Greenwich, Rosert P. Gree, F.G.S., F.R.A.S., ALEXANDER
S. Herscuet, F.R.A.S., and Cuartes Brooks, F.R.S., Secretary
to the Meteorological Society.

In resuming the subject of their Report to the British Association for the
past year, the Committee have to regret the loss which they have sustained, .
since the preparation of the last Report, by the death, on the 1st of February
last, of a late member of this Committee, Prof. E. W. Brayley, to whose ap-
pointment by the British Association, in the year 1862, to assist in their
especial objects, the Committee have been indebted for constant and invalu-
able aid.

In reviewing for the past year the progress of inquiry, and the results of
observations relating to meteors, continued attention towards the establish-
ment of star-shower dates, and their radiant-points, has rewarded Prof.
Schiaparelli with the determination of a considerable number of radiant-
points, indicating, on certain nights of the year, the earth’s passage through
well-defined streams of meteoric matter, of which the visual directions of
motion, and the concluded parabolic orbits round the sun, are described by
Prof. Schiaparelli in a recent memoir, as derived from the observations of
Mr. Zezioli at Bergamo, the Table of which is reproduced in the third Ap-
pendix of this Report. The meteor-currents thus already indicated will
shortly be supplemented or confirmed by the observations recorded at six-
teen of the principal Italian observatories*, of which Mr. F. Denza has
obtained the cooperation since April last. More than 2000 shooting-stars
having been observed during the months of April, May, and June 1870; and
the observations, as they continue to accumulate, being communicated for
this purpose to Prof. Schiaparelli, the number and distinctive characters of
other meteoric showers, besides those of the principal meteor dates in August
and November, will thus be ascertained, to which the attention of observers
has hitherto been only partially directed.

The Committee are indebted to observers during the past year for the
contribution of a large number of observations of bright meteors, and of
shooting-stars, recorded during the two chief displays of November 1869
and August 1870, statements regarding the principal results of which are
contained in the following Appendices of this Report.

In the eataloguet of the past year the observations of luminous meteors
include, as in previous years, all those descriptious of large meteors which
have come to the knowledge of the Committee, with the exception of a large
number of foreign observations of the great fireball seen in the south-west
parts of Europe, on the 8th of September, 1869, of which it is expected that
a condensed account will be published before the preparation of another
Report, embodying all the principal features of its course. An extraordinary
length of path and area of visibility has been assigned to this large meteor,
as will hereafter be described.

* Alessandria, Aosta, Bergamo, Florence, Genoa, Girgenti (Sicily), Milan, Moncalieri
(Turin), Naples, Padua, Palermo (Sicily), Perugia, Piacenza, Thiene (Vicenza), Urbino,
Volpeglino (Tortona).

+ The Catalogue, in accordance with a resolution of the General Committee, will not
be printed in future Reports; it will be preserved for reference, and the Committee hope
to exhibit its principal results in a connected form.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 77

A large number of observations of shooting-stars during the August
period (in 1870) are also collected in the Catalogue, while the general
appearances of the meteors, and observations of their heights, are described
in this Report. It will be seen that while only six fireballs were so well
observed in England and Scotland during the past year as to enable their
heights to be determined (on the Ist and 11th of October, 6th and 14th of
November, and 12th of December, 1869, and on the 20th of August, 1870),
the heights of sixteen shooting-stars were obtained during the meteoric
shower of the 5th to 11th of August, 1870; and twenty shooting-stars
recorded at Greenwich, during the same meteoric shower, were so well
recorded at other places that their real heights are at present undergoing
calculation.

During the meteoric shower of the 14th of November, 1869, the sky, at
places in the south of England, was generally overcast; but at the Royal
Observatory, Greenwich, at Stonyhurst in Yorkshire, and at Edinburgh,
Glasgow, and Culloden (Inverness-shire) in Scotland, a clear view of the sky
was obtained during a portion of the time in which the shower appeared
to be at its height; and a large fireball was doubly recorded by the ob-
servers at the last two stations, of which the height, obtained by calcu-
lation, is recorded with other double meteor-observations in the Appendix.
The advantage of maintaining a watch for the phenomenon at such widely
distant stations was the more apparent at the last return of the November star-
shower, since in America, on the morning of the 14th of November, 1869,
the sky was, throughout the United States, so overcast by a fall of snow
that no other announcement of the meteoric shower having been seen west
of the European continent, with the exception of the brilliant phenomena
observed in Florida and California, has hitherto been received by the Com-
mittee. The observations of the same shower in Italy, at Port Said in
Egypt, and at the Mauritius are described in the last Appéndix of the
Report. Although the state of the sky was both favourable for its observa-
tion in Italy, and partially so at the other stations, it does not appear that a
distinct maximum of the shower was observed at any of those points of view ;
but the number of the shooting-stars observed during the progress of the shower
rose and fell, sometimes very rapidly, through a great range of frequency and
of the average apparent brightness of the meteors. It may be inferred from
these results that the phenomenon of the November star-showers is now
rapidly declining in its intensity, and that the stream of the Leonids, if it
should be crossed by the earth on the morning of the 14th of November in
the present year, will be found to have grown diffuse, and to have scattered
itself into groups of less frequent falling stars, with intervening “ lulls” or
barren intervals, in which observers will be rewarded by the sight of very
few meteors, or in which it may happen that, for the space of many minutes,
no shooting-stars will be observed.

Following the example set by Prof. Schiaparelli at Milan, and by the
Italian astronomers at Turin, Urbino, Rome, Palermo, and at other observa-
tories in Italy, whose collective catalogue of shooting-stars recorded since the
beginning of this year now numbers many thousands of observations, to con-
duct observations of shooting-stars as far as possible on stated nights, at such
widely separated stations as to increase the visibility of any meteoric shower
which might be traced, the Committee have decided, with a view to contri-
bute to the objects of the same well-devised scheme of observations, to confine
their immediate attention for the present to those nights of the year on
which long-known and well-established meteoric showers are annually

78 REPORT—1870.

expected to occur; and for this purpose they have provided star-charts,
suitable forms of registry, and directions to observers of the meteors
which annually make their appearance, with more or less regularity, on
the Ist and 2nd of January, the 19th to the 21st of April, the 5th to the 12th
(especially the 10th) of August, the 18th to the 21st of October, the 12th
to the 15th of November, and the 11th to the 13th of December, On each
of these meteoric dates in the coming year (as their endeavours during the
August shower of this year were rewarded with very valuable results) the
Committee appeal to observers in distant parts of England to use their ability
in mapping and counting the numbers of the meteors seen on the predicted
nights, and thus aid in making our hitherto imperfect knowledge of their
appearances wider and more certain.

APPENDIX,

I. Mereors Dovsiy OxBsERYED.

1869, October Ist, 8°12™30° p.m., G. M.T., Kent and Brussels. The
meteor was well observed by Mr. J. B. Reade at Bishopsbourne, near Canter-
bury, in England, and at Brussels. The prolongation of the lines of sight at
the moment of the meteor’s disappearance intersected each other at about
ten miles over the neighbourhood of Mons, near the confines of Belgium and
France ; and the meteor passed almost vertically, at a height of thirty-five
miles, over Brussels. If the observed point of disappearance at Bishopsbourne
(60° east from south, altitude about 5°) is moved 10° southwards, without
any other alterations being substituted for the original observations, the
place of the meteor’s disappearance is about fifteen miles above the earth,
between Valenciennes and Douay, near Lille in the north of France, where
M. Le Verrier reports that the meteor was very generally observed). The
meteor’s height over Brussels was in this case fifty miles; and a more southerly
point of disappearance at Bishopsbourne would make the meteor’s height
greater, and its point of disappearance further south over the provinces of
France. The meteor, however, approached very near to the earth, without,
as it would appear from the descriptions, producing any audible report. The
point of first appearance, “‘ near & Persei,” at Bishopsbourne, appears to be
situated too far back upon its apparent course to be reconciled with the de-
scription of the meteor’s course by the stars, as it was observed at Brussels,
As the two apparent paths among the constellations intersect each other,
when prolonged backwards between Perseus and Aries, on the actual line of
flight described at Bishopsbourne, about the constellation Musca (R. A. 40°,
N. Decl. 30°), this large meteor’s path was probably directed from the
radiant-point R, (R. A. 41°, N. Decl. 24°) in the latter constellation, which
is a conspicuous region of divergence of shooting-stars about the middle of
October.

1869, October 11th, 5" 4™ 40° pa., G. M.T., York and Lancashire.
The appearance of this fireball in twilight prevented its course from being
noted by the stars; and the uncertainties of estimated altitudes must be ex-
pected to introduce corresponding uncertainties in the real path derived from
such general observations. The best average height and course which can
be elicited from the combined observations at York, Heighington, near
Darlington, and Llandudno, nearest to the meteor’s flight, is from eighty-four
miles over a point between Ashton and Peniston(N. lat. 53° 30', W.long. 1°50’)
to twenty-eight miles over the neighbourhood of Skipton in Lancashire (N,

ee, EO

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 79

lat. 58° 57', W. long. 2°6'). The point of disappearance agrees within two
or three degrees with the place of disappearance observed by Miss Reade,
and measured by Mr. J. B. Reade, at Bishopsbourne in Kent; and the entire
course equally exactly represents the apparent elevation (at altitude 30°, due
north) as seen at Calne, in Wilts. At these latter places its motion would
appear almost vertically downwards, as it was observed at Llandudno and in
London, The radiant-point of its approximate course is at R. A. 300°, N.
Decl. 14°, near « Aquila, where no well-established radiant-point of ordinary
shooting-stars has hitherto been detected at that season of the year.

The writer of an extremely interesting article in the ‘ Daily News,’ on the
probable real path of the fireball, cites the description of its course by an
observer at Sheffield as “apparently from north to south, radiating from the
zenith.” The place of first appearance was found to be (very nearly as above
described) at a height of seventy-six miles over the neighbourhood of
Sheffield. At the latter place, very near to the meteor’s real course, the
observer describes the meteor as having an irregular contour, and compares
the apparent size of its surface to one-sixth of that of the moon. As both of

‘the observations at York and Heighington differ from the Sheffield description

in showing that the meteor moved towards the west and north, while the
real course, concluded from the above observations, would appear at Sheffield
radiating from the zenith towards the north-north-west, it is not impossible
that the Sheffield observer, by a not uncommon inversion of the points of the
compass, misrepresented the actual direction of the meteor’s flight, which
should have been described as apparently from south to north.

The meteor seen at Leeds, in twilight on some evening about the 25th of
October last, was probably identical with this one, as it was so extremely
brilliant as to attract the observer’s attention while it was still overhead ;
and it “‘shot across the zenith towards the sun’s place at the time,” dis-
appearing, “ when a little past the zenith, in sparks and tails.” This note of
its appearance agrees perfectly well with the description of its apparent
shape and magnitude at Sheffield, and it corroborates the observations at
York and Heighington, that the meteor moved towards the west. The
altitude of 52° in the west-north-west from Leeds, at which the point of
extinction, as above determined, probably occurred, might very aptly be de-
seribed by an observer, who first caught sight of the meteor when it was
nearly overhead, as “ going out when a little past the zenith.”

1869, November 6th, about 6" 50™ p.u., G. M. T., Cornwall, England,
Wales, and Scotland. The great brightness of the fireball and of its
persistent streak, which is described by Mr. Pengelly, of Torquay, as having
remained in sight fully fifty minutes, rendered it a conspicuous object even
beyond the vicinity of places where its luminous course was nearly through
the zenith. A comparison of several published descriptions of the meteor,
communicated to the British Meteorological Society by Mr. A. 8. Herschel,
places the point of first appearance of the nucleus ninety miles over Frome,
in Somersetshire, the first point of the luminous streak at a height of forty-
seven miles over Launceston, and its termination, at the extinction of the
meteor, twenty-seven miles over the sea very near St. Ives in Cornwall. The
whole length of its luminous course was 170 miles, performed in about five
seconds, with a velocity of about thirty-four miles per second. The length
of the bright streak, which gradually diffused itself in width and assumed a
serpentine form, was fifty-four miles, and its greatest width, when it was
first seen by Mr. Pengelly at Torquay, was about four miles (Proceedings
of the Brit, Meteor. Soc. for June 1870, p. 144). In that paper the meteor’s

80 REPORT—1870.

course is stated to have descended at Broadstairs from 2° north of the
zenith ; the real direction of its line of flight was from about 2° south of

ENGLAND

7 Nloke ay
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y,

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AB istol ==
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BON Melts ie}
hersey

Path of the large fireball of November 6th, 1869. Height and position
of the bright streak, and of the meteor’s track.

the zenith, as it was there observed by Mr. James Chapman. The track
prolonged backwards across the south of England must therefore have passed
somewhat more perpendicularly over Kent, or about 10° more nearly from
east to west than its real course is shown in the accompanying Map. The
radiant-point, which Mr. Herschel states was at R. A. 62°, N. Decl. 37°,
would on this account be at a point in smaller right ascension and in lower
north declination than that given in the paper. It would thus be nearer to a
point in R. A. 54°, N. Deel. 16° (near Aldebaran), from which twelve meteors
out of twenty-one shooting-stars observed by Mr. Backhouse, at Sunderland,
on the same evening diverged with remarkable uniformity ; and four meteors

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 81

gut of ten, observed on the night of the 4th of November, also appeared to
radiate from the same point. The large fireball was accordingly an individual

lrsa.,
Vayor
36

duriga

| ae!
2 K

Cotona

Boreatts

|
Iprox. Place onsa p
of Radtent* eee Vinlor &-
Point J

Pleads

Kx
Pe a re :
dndromeda*" . Cygnus

x° € 3 < : : :
2° as |* P ’ ; oS
: Lo —=—=

“YASUS Delphinus
P 7% ° | f . Ophiachas

.
dries *

xe | 8 Tauris,
Iqutla- “ Pontalowski.
a low Coys Serpeics

Iqua\rta Ss

Celus y Capricornus
Ss me

\
7
4:

Apparent places of the streak of light left by the large meteor of November 6th, 1869,
referred to the stars at;—

1. Penzance, 5. Scilly Isles, 9. Broadstairs,
2. Redruth, Cornwall. 6, Bristol. 10. Ramsgate.
3. St. Helier’s, Jersey. 7. Stokesay, Shropshire. 11. Torquay.

4. Rothbury, Northumberland. 8. Hawkhurst, Kent.

of the conspicuous meteor-shower from Taurus, which attracted the attention
of observers during the recent returns of the November star-shower, as ap-
yearing, although with greatly inferior brilliancy, simultaneously with the
neteors of that great display. (See Appendix III., Meteor-showers in
November, 1869.)

1869, November 14th, 4" 47™ a.m., G. M. T., Glasgow and Culloden (In-
rerness-shire), A considerable fireball during the progress of the November
thower attracted the attention of both of the observers, as being opposite in
ts motion to the general direction of the “ Leonids.” The meteor was seen
lue north from Glasgow, in the direction of Culloden (110 miles north from
tlasgow), where the meteor passed across the zenith. The apparent parallax
8 60°, and the meteor moved horizontally from the north-north-west at a

eight of sixty miles over the north coast of Inverness-shire, approaching
1870. @

82 REPORT—1870.,

from the sea at Lossiemouth, and crossing over Inverness towards Kintail.
The length of the part of the path observed at Glasgow was seventy-four
miles, performed in four seconds of time, with a velocity of eighteen and a
half miles per second. The direction of the meteor was from R. A. 12°, N.
Decl. 14° in Pisces, very near the position (R. A. 12°, 8. Decl. 2°) of a
radiant-point T * of shooting-stars observed on the 27th of September, 18647.
Another meteor of the same group was doubly observed on the 24th -of
September, 1866; and its velocity was found to be, like that of the present
fireball, less than the average velocity of shooting-stars, or about twenty-three
miles per second. (Report for 1866, p. 124.)

1869, December 12th, 6" 13" 30° p.m., G. M.'T., Glasgow, Hawick, and
Oundle (Northamptonshire). Although the description of the meteor’s course
at the northern stations of Glasgow and Hawick are incomplete, yet on
account of their great distance, about 270 miles from Oundle, near Peter-
borough, where the meteor’s path was well recorded by the stars, a good
approximation of the meteor’s real path is obtained by assuming the well-
known position (about R. A. 100°, N. Decl. 35°) of the radiant-point in
Gemini of the December meteors to be represented very nearly by the ob-
servations of the present meteor intersecting each other, when prolonged
backwards at a point about R. A. 125°, N. Decl. 35°. The lowest stars of
Ursa Major being less than 20° above the horizon at Oundle, the height of
18° or 20° at which the meteor there was estimated to have passed “ below
Ursa Major,” is evidently overrated; and an altitude of 12° will, with the
usual interpretation of estimated altitudes near the horizon, fairly represent
the apparent altitude of the meteor’s course. After making these preliminary
assumptions with respect to the apparent directions of the meteor’s flight, it
appears, from their comparison together, that the fireball commenced its visible
path at a height of 100 miles above Bergen in Norway, and shot with a
straight course of about 400 miles, to about fifty miles over Edinburgh, where
it disappeared. An observer of its luminous progress at Dundee states that
it proceeded with a slow shooting motion, apparently as if forcing its way
through the air for about thirty seconds; and the statement indicates the un-
usually long time occupied by the meteor in its transit across the North Sea.
The description of its time of flight at Oundle, by Mr. William Rickett, was
that the meteor continued its motion, with an apparent speed by no means
rapid, for 15 or 20 seconds. Adopting Mr. Rickett’s account as probably the
most accurate, and employing his approximate value, or seventeen and a half
seconds, for the meteor’s time of flight, it follows that the course of about
400 miles was described with a velocity of twenty-three miles per second.

1869, December 29th, 10" 58™ p.m., G. M.T., London and Sandhurst (Kent).
The vertical descent of the meteor in the west at Sandhurst, near Hawkhurst
in Kent, and its motion from north-north-west to south-south-east, a few
degrees below Jupiter, at Notting Hill, London, indicate the direction of its
motion as apparently from the radiant A,,, near 6 Cassiopeis, for the end of
December and beginning of January. Adopting this radiant-point for the
real direction of its path, the place where the meteor passed near Jupiter, at
London, was about forty-five miles high over Winchester; and the meteor
passed in the direction of a line from Bath to Chichester, from seventy miles
above Amesbury (Wilts) to thirty-five miles above the neighbourhood of
Bishops ‘Waltham (Hants). Supposing the meteor’s apparent path to have

* U in the list of the Report for 1868, p. 403, at R. A. 17°, 8. Decl. 10°, enduring from

September 6th to November 23rd.
t Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society for December 9th, 1864.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 83

ended near Jupiter at Notting Hill, this is probably not far from a correct
estimate of its real course. The length of the path is forty-seven miles,
descending at an inclination of 45°, from the north-west by west towards
south-east by east.

1870, August 5th-11th, shooting-stars doubly observed in England. Ob-
servations of the August meteors were begun on the 5th, and continued
until the 12th of August, 1870, at the request of the Committee, at several
stations in England and Scotland, with a view to determine, if possible, the

Fig. 3.

Heights and positions of sixteen shooting-stars doubly observed in England, August
5th-lith, 1870, at (B.) Birmingham, (H.) Hawkhurst, (Ha.) Hay, South Wales, (L.)
London, (M.) Manchester, (T.) East Tisted, Hants, (Y.) York *.

real heights and velocities of the August meteors. Independently of the ob-
servations made at Greenwich for this purpose, the heights of sixteen shooting-
stars were ascertained, the description of whose appearance, and apparent
paths, by the several observers are contained at length in the Catalogue.

* Corrections of the Figure.—The heights of the Meteors Nos. 15 and 16 are transposed
For the beginning and end heights of the Meteor No. 2, read fifty miles and thirty-three
miles.

84 REPORT—1870.

In the Table of the results, the times of the observations are those
stated by the observers from the best approximations to Greenwich time
within their reach, differing from each other occasionally by one or two
minutes. The number of the meteors visible, chiefly of the brighter class, in
the full-moonlight of the 10th of August last having been small, and regard
being paid to the condition that the parallax (fig. 4) of the observed meteor-
tracks should be as nearly as possible in the same direction as the base-line
joining two corresponding stations upon the map (fig. 3 represents the relative
situations of the observers), the errors of time from true Greenwich time at
the different stations were very easily detected, and were found to be nearly

Fig. 4,

Adopted apparent paths of sixteen shooting-stars doubly observed in England, August
5th-1lth, 1870, at (B.) Birmingham, (H.) Hawkhurst, (Hy.) Hay, South Wales, (L.)
London, (M.) Manchester, ('T.) East Tisted, Hants, (Y.) York.

constant throughout the observations. The names of the stations are given,
for shortness, in figs. 3 and 4, by their initials; and in the latter figure the
observations haye been so far adjusted to each other as to satisfy, by very
slight changes in the majority of the observations, the condition of a parallel
displacement of the meteor-tracks in the direction of a base-line joining the
observers’ stations.

The observed length of the path being, in general, most affected by this
preliminary adjustment, a corresponding alteration of the observed duration
of the meteor’s flight was calculated, and entered in a Table as the « adopted
duration,” from the average of which, at the two stations, the velocities of
twelve of the shooting-stars have been obtained. The time of visibility of

[To face page 84.]

t; (Ha.) Hay, Brecknockshnd (Y.) York.

—————
Length
; rent
Disappearance. jet
Adopted. Observed
Azth.

hw. fe. 8:| Alt
| S a
200 22
288 34
166 20
126 73
25 14
67 13
133 49
180 42
126 56
195 43
316 73
145 55
270 25
241 31
81 44
325 73
204 43
169 26
176 | 63
122 44
152 28
67 29
GING} 26
299 | 49
292 49
211 65
225 30
295 52

Approximate place
of radiant-point.
Remarks.

y Persei
(radiant A,,).
¢ Camelopardi
(radiant A,,).
o Cephei
aie Nios 13)
Persei
(rida iF)
0 Persei
(radiant A,,).

x Persei

{ ae Ajo).
v Persei

{ (radiant A,,).

6 Cassiopeize

{ (radiant A,,).
w Persei

{ Sere Ajo).
Persei

{ aan ae
{ @ Persei

(radiant A,,).
g Pegasi

{ (radiant T,).

d Camelopardi
(radiant A,,).
n Persei

(radiant A,,).

Observer.

W. H. Wood.

T. Crumplen.
F. Howlett.

T. Crumplen.
A. 8. Herschel.
T. Crumplen.
A. 8. Herschel.
T. Crumplen.
A. S. Herschel.
A. 8. Herschel.
F. Howlett.

T. Crumplen.
A. S. Herschel.
A. 8. Herschel.
F. Howlett.

A. 8. Herschel.
T. W. Webb.
T. Crumplen.
A. 8. Herschel.
W. H. Wood.
J. E. Clark.

Average velocity, and R. A. and N.
decl. of the radiant-point of the
‘‘Perseids” (omitting Nos. 3, 13).

Table of Height 1 Velociti § ing-stars i 7 rved in E :
cights and Velocities of Shooting-stars in August 1870; observed in England, at (.) Birmingham; (H.) Hawkhurst; (Hn.) Hay, Brecknockshire ; (L.) Regent’s Park, Lond Tv. aie ass =
‘Ys 8 ; gent’s Park, London; (M.) Manchester; (T.) East Tisted, Alton ts r.) Ye
: sted, A (Hants); and (Y.) York.

=
Wel ale =
|Ele/4| Apparent placo of | Apparont placo of = - i
S/2\E | Magnituds, —aiisaaas: | | ——_ Tongth of path and |
< ance, | = | ri f
S| ae] S| Rete [aren Piars,| Colour. Streak and oe | ee | First appearance. ‘Disappearance. pration, Hight in B. 8. miles at Faleotte
ilies ilteanell omsre its duration. Ohara ream ie ] $$ }———_—_____|____ Adopted Length | Velocity) Apparent |
i eae a | 0. ee | Adopte al Obserred. Adopted. Observed. Adopted. Observed. | Adopted. = ~| average = | of path | 22 iB S. | rdiant-point. [Approximate place}
E g — Bs duration. Appearance, | Dimppeara in B. §.| Miles of mdinnt-point. | Obsorver.
z |e 8 Art | = ee por Remarks
SI | « = 8. 2. F c Aath. | ang, | Asth. | aye, |, Anth. ] | 7 miles. ul marl
, — W. fr. 8. | Alte IW. fe, It. We fe | Alt: | Deg. | Seo. | rar| | second. | 7
i hm s | = Goal | | Miles.| Long. lat. Miles. | Long. Tat, fa 3
|B. | 1 2 2 Blue, 5 a |l 8 J |
pila el uae a8 fact | 93 [457 = eee ee
| M.| 11raz o 34 Dull. 57 | g° |+56 | 202 | 29 FY 5
a[ef[B[un 2] Blue. Pecpllitiers|(ses® | a2. | © | 17 | 267 eS ecrnalitalesn less || tee lens a tell eat : : |
M.jira o| 2 Dull. rey HES in $82 149 | 55 | 174 | a5 afl luyenil eavalitees lieu ct |eaeectd a5, | 37 |e 1 Wil 53 27] 25 |r a5 W.|53 20] 22 26 | 43 | +53 I{ nor W. IL. Wood.
+ of B.]1146 0] 4 Ruddy. ag? |g \ ao hee 278 | +58 | 192 6a)|| xa5\| 75 |\ x3 | US| Le | ets {os i eecll | (radiant Aj). | R. PB. Grog.
[HL ngs | sty White ee (eae laste lees Bh lace | 36 | 33 raul lice eae line ||| 6, ||) 2: | 1 s8W.|54 0] 33 |2 24W./53 35] 39 6 | 73 | 65 I 6 Cee ona a
| 9 59 45 14 Gastssue | | as 68 | 20 1 9 \hor | 3 radiant A,,). | R. P. Grog.
eeaito rr ee ets ee ae ae aro | 75 | 73 | 88 arg) [seo]! 158 C)]) Ae et) Aer oy |fo% | 74 |2 soWilgo 56] 45 [a 2W.ls0 0] 28 az | or ||... Cophcl W. It, Wood.
| chof|%| 12 © 2] Satara oii | Perce 5 FT Sa ro | 81 | arg | 39 Sel Be ea eel 2 | ies aay 11 (radiant Ny. ,)| A-'8: Horachsle
sito{]m| io 0 o| Venus Yellow. PATI) |) |) Ce ea 230 | 59 | 188 | 49 va ll see |) eal] 24 : |s2 ag] s8 |x 3W.|s2 2) 50 3 | a6]] , 2 Penn | 2 Crumplen:
| ghof|H| 1027 0] «Lyre. | Omnge ‘With fspackatell a ealfiese lies By 56 | 77 | 219 il) ee 1334) 8 1) Sone \ | ear | (radinnt A,,). | F: Howlott.
|) H 1026 o Sie] ee Wallow: id | 46 | 275) 35§ 236 rill <9 ei 16 J 5214] 47 Jo soW.|51 52| 50 30 go | 46 \{ , QPersct | 7. Crumplon,
a tof |: | 1934 © ae lt Blue. eee 3° 50 | 295 | 47 a | x Si BO \ | | (radinnt A,,). | F. Howlett.
|| H.] 10 32 0 2 White. Saeed Har) 55 | 353 57 314 | 38 | 238 | J 2 33 [centre | of path.)| .....6 . Crumplen.
s.{rof TL 103530| 1h? ee “ ast | HA Hees [itt 234 | 68 | 220 | 46 3 | | 5 | | ee A. 8, Herschel.
H. ° 1 | ‘Orange 4 3° | 13, | 20 | 254 31 sts7| 45 lo sE.|sr2y| 76 | 88 | 26 3 Persoi | T. Crumplen.
5 rof H 5 nl awnes Aue Bat ia | 4 | x | 42 | 24a c ke - | | 5 \{ (ealinat Ara) | At 8. Harsch
|. = ier White. L | 248 | 28 | 105 | 5153) 45 |2 7E. |st a1] 62 Ils w Porsoi | T. Crumplon.
vehel| 2 eset | pitas Warr batt ol) cha re 315 | 39 | 234 | : Et \{ (railiant A,,). | A. 8. Herschel.
i. ‘o| Copel, | Orange, fp sa | 4 53 48 | 50 | 72 | aaq st 16| 54 |o 46W.\50 53| 57 | 63 =H 38 { @ Cassiopeim | A. 8. Horschel,
oi ref H ° | fees Peeie [resi eal 3 14a | 04 | 183 = | ee Ay). FE. Howat
24| 7 | id. 58 | 221 224 | 50 | a4t 53 1) 33 Jo 2Welsr 58) 9: 6 2 & ersct | ‘D, Crumpton.
aod 2 o| >t White With ashi stll533))| ag: | 78 |g | | Se Wee ee { Gatiant Ay), | A: 8 Horst
rte) y 2 = ae _ With 188 | 65 | 184 | x90 | 58 | 157 sama] 74 |x Wels 38] 73 | 49 | 44 | 4s |{ « Persct | A. 8. Herschel.
{2 See White pees | i) ale coer hese \; W,|53 31| } Oeipomel™ | WaT Wood
¥. Fello | ‘ 53 | 73 | 48 | 23 339) 42 |2 45W.l53 31] 30 3 Pr | Persei ( L
{ 3) Soares (nv thas red ET EEE | Ae) ER 5. | | 4] a7 | aa | | zi | [cd ae | (radiant A,,). | J.B, Clark
14-101 |fte1 12 2 0 | ¢xMoon, J Sseconds®. | agr | 18 | 2635 | rey s328| 54 |o 6W.ls3 40] 28 | 17 |a30 | a7 \{ g Pega | W. HL. Wood.
Hoel dosersliein |e 7 § — 63) cat | || | | (radiant T,), | J, 1, Clark,
5.l01{| Fr | to 36 °| | $35 | 345 a8 | 303 | “ag | 355 Salton |? 15 |49 25] ero] of pull.) =| | rs | A 8. Horsch.
72 | 317 1 68 | hy | | al
nes of 8 ees Os Yellow. CA ee te ee aillhos Jo s6B. |s1 27] 47 lo 448 Jen az] a7 ws | | salf d Camolopardi | . Crumplon.
123 0 1 White. Freaaall esse lEsere | esseal| partir 6 | os | (mdiant A,,). | A. 8. Herschel.
: = | um | 10 \° 27E. |53 s4| 64 |o 2W.|53 36| 47 59 4 | 458 { poe We. Wood.
2 | fant A,,). | J. B, Clark
+ Oblique view of the end of the meteor's course ? Path slight]; ed. | ie
The met reased in si: 3 lightly curved. Average height at appearance : 7
. Aneel aioe in size, and pee asia Bai ataroatae brightness. and disappearance, ma length + |/yac1 man 7ibmailex: 480 | hots onc! .o., | Average velocity, and R. A. nnd N.
| Centre observed at Hay. of path in British Statute Miles miles. Miles per; 40%5| s0%7| deel. of tho rndiant-point of the
— - — fee. ““Perseids" (omitting Nos. 3,133).

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 85

the August meteors in the present year was rendered almost momentary,
apparently by the great brightness of the moonlight ; while the absence of

Fig. 5.

Reference Numbers.
BS Saya 556.7... 82-9. 10) 11.12, 13 TA 15s 1b.

60.

40.

Heights above the earth’s surface in B.S. miles.
3
Heights above the earth’s surface in B. S. miles.

i 20.

Heights at first appearance and disappearance of sixteen shooting-stars observed in
England, August 5th-11th, 1870. (Nos. 6 and 14 are heights at centres of the real paths.)

small stars of reference near the meteor’s course, necessitating distant align-
ments of the apparent paths with the larger stars, prevented the average
length of path of the observed meteor-tracks from being at the same time
much diminished. Both the length of path and the velocity * are on this
account rather larger than those of twenty shooting-stars which were
similarly observed in August 1863 (forty-seven miles, and thirty-four miles
per second. See Report for 1863, pp. 327-330). Among the meteors in-
cluded in the list, Nos. 3 and 13 belong to different meteoric showers (N,,, ,,,
and T,) from that of the regular Perseids ; and the latter meteor presents a
velocity considerably below the average of all the remaining velocities of the
list. Although the disturbing influence of the moon’s light appears to have
exaggerated and to have rendered somewhat uncertain the velocities obtained
on this occasion, the velocities of these two meteors are omitted from the
average velocity of the Perseids or meteors of the August shower, of which

* Forty-eight miles, and forty-six miles per second (average of the Perseids). Velo-
Cities of the meteors Nos. 3 13, thirty-nine, and seventeen miles per second.

86 REPORT—1870.

the average position of the radiant-point was found to be very near the star 0
Persei. The heights of the first and last points of the meteors’ tracks
and the average of those heights are shown in fig. 5, by a graphic projection
readily exhibiting to the eye the height in the atmosphere at which the
shooting-stars of the August meteoric shower became ignited, and were
extinguished, during the appearance of the phenomenon in the present year.

The additional correspondences of the Greenwich observations with those
meteor-tracks whose heights have already been determined, and with other
shooting-stars recorded at the different stations (of which a summary will be
given in the next Report), are at present undergoing calculation; and they
may be expected, on concluding the results of their investigation, to afford
interesting materials for comparison with the observed paths of the shooting-
stars recorded in the present list.

1870, August 15th, 9" p.m., G. M.T., Scotland and Ireland. The position
of the very luminous streak which this meteor left was over the southern
part of the Hebrides, and the Atlantic Ocean north of Ireland; but at what
distance from the land, and at what height in the atmosphere, it would
require a comparison of other descriptions of its course to ascertain. As the
sun was fully 12° or 13° below the north-west horizon of the region indicated,
it would still be half that depth, or about 6°, below the horizon of the meteor-
streak, if its elevation was only as great as the height at which the largest
August meteors commonly develope a very long enduring, phosphorescent
streak, about fifty-five miles above the level of the sea.

1870, August 20th, 92 24™ v.m., G. M. T., London, Cambridge, and Oxford.
The apparent courses of the meteor, as described at Clapham Park, London,
and at Linton, Cambridge, are almost identical, so as to afford no definite
conclusion of the meteor’s height. At Wandsworth, near Clapham, Mr. H.
W. Jackson saw the meteor commence about the trapezium ((, y) of the
Little Bear, and disappear halfway between Capella and Algol, while at
Linton it disappeared almost over « Cassiopeiz. With the distance of forty-
five miles between the latter places, and a parallax of 32° for the last point
of its visible course, these observations give the place of disappearance at a
point about twenty-one miles over Bury St. Edmunds. As this place is within a
few degrees of the altitude and direction at which its disappearance was
observed at Combe, near Woodstock, in Oxfordshire, it may be accepted,
probably, as very near to the true position of the point at which the meteor
disappeared.

The exact place of the meteor’s first appearance cannot be absolutely
ascertained. But supposing its apparent course at Linton to have passed
about 20° north of the zenith, and to have descended “almost perpen-
dicularly ” (with an inclination of about 20° from the north of vertical), as
it was perceived to fall towards the eastern horizon at Woodstock by Mr. J.
Abrahall, its real course, preserving the apparent path which it appeared to
have at Wandsworth, began from the direction of a radiant-point between the
head of Bootes and Corona Borealis, at about R. A. 230°, N. Decl. 35°. At
its passage due north of London the height of the meteor, on this assumption
of its initial direction, was about fifty-three miles above a point between
Huntingdon and Cambridge, descending towards its point of extinction from
an inclination of 45° above the due west horizon. A more complete knowledge
of this extremely brilliant meteor’s real course can only be obtained, to
corroborate, or correct, the present provisional determation, if notices of its
appearance were obtained by observers at other places, who would com-
municate to the Committee a description of their observations for this purpose.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 87

II. Lance Meteors.

1822, October 16th, evening, London. The following extract of a note in
Sir John Herschel’s MS. Journal refers apparently to a large fireball of which
no mention is found in Mr. Greg’s and other Catalogues of the appearances
of unusually brilliant meteors.—< 1822, October 16th, Wednesday. This
evening, walking home from the Haymarket to Downing-street, being at the
Horse Guards at 8" 37™ p.m., saw a great light, like the moon breaking out
among the clouds, and a fiery appearance like the bursting of a rocket, not
globular, but in ill-defined masses. Direction exactly before me, as I walked
towards Westminster from Charing Cross. Altitude about 15° or 16°; sky
overcast; a mizzling rain and fog. No explosion heard; ?its nature, if
meteoric ?—(J. F. W. H.)”

1860, July 20th, 9° 34™ 33° to 9" 36™ 24° p.m. (Washington mean time),
United States, America. An exhaustive investigation of the path of this
large meteor, from a comparison of observations at more than 200 places in
the United States and the adjacent parts of Canada, by Dr. J. H. Coflin, is
contained in the ‘Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge,’ vol. xvi. for 1870.
The meteor was first reported to have been seen moving eastward from a
point nearly over the western shore of Lake Michigan, westward from which
it might perhaps have been observed had not a cloudy state of the sky
prevailed at the time throughout that region. Along the entire remaining
portion of its visible track of nearly, or quite, 1300 miles, it was watched by
numerous observers until it disappeared quite out at sea in a south-easterly
direction from the island of Nantucket. It was first well observed at Flint,
Michigan, between the great Lake of that State and Lake Huron, pursuing
from that place and from the remaining points of view along its line of flight
an apparently undulating or ricochet motion until it faded from sight, with-
out breaking into fragments, towards the eastern horizon. It was accompanied
throughout the greater portion of its path by a brilliant train, and followed
at a distance of about 1° or 2° by a smaller fireball of the same dazzling
white colour as the head; while near the end of its course sparks or flakes
of red and pink colour were cast off by the nucleus in considerable numbers.
The length of time that it was visible at one station, depending upon the
length of the arc which was observed, varied from half (or rather less than
half) a minute to about two minutes; and the whole time occupied by the

> A - ary a pak r- . . |
A)Fotnt of 1** Appearance (B) Point of 2% Rupture; (C) Point of 2" Rupture; D)Point of Disappenrunce. |

meteor in its visible track was about three minutes. At the points B, C
(see fig. 6), in long. west from Greenwich about 77° and 74°, and espe-
cially at the latter point, distinct ruptures of the meteor were observed,
corresponding to which the real height and direction of its course underwent
a sensible alteration. The actual height of the meteor when it was first
well observed in long. 853° west from Greenwich (at a, fig. 6), at Flint,

88 REPORT—1870.

Michigan, was ninety-cight miles above the earth, and the first inflection of its
course, nearly over Dansville, New York, took place at a height of fifty-six
miles, and the second, nearly over New York, at thirty-nine miles above the
sea. The last place where the meteor was well observed was at Germanstown,
Pennsylvania, and the meteor was then fifty-three miles above the level of the
sea, in long. about 683° west from Greenwich (at }, fig. 6). Finally, at
Harrisburgh, Pennsylvania, it was still visible in the east, in longitude about
60° west from Greenwich; and its height was then rapidly increasing, and
was again upwards of sixty miles above the sea-level.

The meteor pursued its course with a velocity, relative to the earth, of about
nine and three-quarter miles per second, experiencing throughout its aérial
track a small but scarcely appreciable resistance from the atmosphere. With
a relative velocity somewhat less than this it entered the sphere of the
earth’s dominant attraction from the direction of a point in R. A. 147° 41’,
N. Decl. 3°8', and it was deflected before escaping from the disturbing
influence of gravity towards the earth fully 35° from its original direction.
The circumstance of its slow velocity relatively to the earth introduces com-
plexities in determining the real orbit of the meteor round the sun, which it
would yet be interesting, from the elaborate calculations to which the ob-
servations were submitted, and from the unusual accuracy with which the
elements of this great meteor’s path have accordingly become known, to ascer-
tain with every possible degree of approximation to the most probable result.

The long course and duration of the flight of the large meteor doubly
observed on the 12th of December, 1869 (see the First Appendix), furnishes
a good example during the past year of a shooting-star belonging to a
periodical meteor-stream grazing for a long distance, without being consumed,
the summit of the earth’s atmosphere, and suggests as a favourable means of
ascertaining their velocity, the propriety of observing their parallax when the
radiant-point of a meteoric shower is scarcely risen, or presents itself, as in
the case of the great meteor of July 1860, at only a few degrees of altitude
above the observer’s visible horizon.

1869, May 20th, a few minutes after 11" p.a. (local time), United States.
The meteor, which appeared brighter than the full moon, was seen at many
places in the United States (vide Amer. Journal of Science, July 1869) re-
maining visible for about five seconds, drawing behind it a very brilliant tail
of sparks, and finally exploding and bursting into fragments, apparently with
a loud report. From observations at New York, Poughkeepsie, Newhaven,
and Hartford, U.S., of its apparent path, Prof. E. Loomis has determined with
considerable precision the length of the meteor’s real path and its real eleva-
tion. The meteor moved nearly horizontally at a height of fifty miles above
the earth’s surface, disappearing, after a visible course of about 200 miles,
vertically over a point on the Atlantic Ocean somewhat north and east of
Boston. The real velocity of its motion, assuming its time of flight to have
been five seconds, was about forty miles per second. About three minutes
after the passage of the meteor a terrific noise was heard in the neighbour-
hood of New York, which shook windows and the doors of houses like an
earthquake. As Prof. Loomis shows that the meteor was at the time of its
explosion 170 miles distant from places where the unusual sounds were heard
so soon after its disappearance, it is supposed that they must accordingly be
ascribed to some other cause than this large meteor, the sound of whose re-
port would occupy ten minutes in reaching them, with the ordinary velocity
of sound in common air.

1869, August 7th and 24th, evening, United States. The following de-

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 89

scription of bright meteors seen in the United States on the 7th and 24th of
August, 1869, was communicated by Mr. B. V. Marsh to the Secretary of the
Committee, Mr. Herschel, soon after the time of their appearance. The
occurrence in the present year of a very brilliant meteor-streak observed in
Scotland at sunset on the 6th of August, 1870, appears to corroborate the
opinion of Mr. Marsh, that a meteor-shower from some western radiant-point
has prevailed on the 6th and 7th of August of the two last years, of which the
meteors were chiefly visible soon after sunset. A second brilliant meteor-
streak was observed in Scotland soon after sunset of the evening of the 15th
of August last (see Appendix I.; 1869, August 15th), which appeared to one
observer to be self-luminous, and to others to be illuminated by the sun’s rays
in the manner in which Mr. Marsh observes that the streak seen in America
on the 24th of August, 1869, was evidently rendered more than ordinarily
brilliant.

“On the 7th of August, a little while after sunset, several were seen descend-
ing almost vertically in the west and north-west, being very conspicuous even
in the strong light of the western twilight.

“One which I saw at 7° 49™ started about 18° high and disappeared at
about 6°; fell almost vertically, but inclined a little to the right.

«<The Press’ noticed one at 7° 55", the cloud from which remained visible
ten minutes.

«“ August 24th, Mr. J. 8. Hilles, of the Reading Railroad, saw one in the
north-west, just as the upper limb of the sun disappeared: a very brilliant
fireball inclining considerably to the right [see the figure] as it descended, and
leaving behind it a perfectly straight streak of brilliant white light slightly
enlarged at its lower end, and having at that part a nebulous undefined
appearance ; whole length say 15° or 20°. This assumed successively the
following forms :—

During this time it had floated westward until it was nearly over the setting
sun, and was beautifully lighted ‘ with the rose hues of sunset, while its upper
part assumed a strikingly silvery appearance.’

“Mr. Hilles did not look at his watch, but his impression at the time was
that it remained visible half an hour; but he thinks that this may be an over-
estimate.

“ At 7° 25™ the same evening (August 24th) another appeared which
attracted very general attention.

« One of my neighbours, after watching it about five minutes, called me out.
The luminous cloud was then very conspicuous, its base about 15° north of
west, altitude about 13°. The meteor had fallen almost vertically, and at
that point had appeared to explode. It vanished so quickly that most persons
saw only the flash, but several say they saw the meteor itself before the
explosion. I

«Its path was marked by a brilliant line of light, which soon widened so as
to appear as a narrow strip of cloud, say 3° or 4° long and 3° wide, having
at its lower extremity a much brighter part resembling the nucleus of a

90 REPORT—1870.

comet. This luminous cloud was visible fully ten minutes; the changes it
underwent are roughly sketched below. Both the top and bottom of the

column seemed to remain almost stationary, whilst a considerable portion of
the upper half drifted westward, as if carried by an east wind.

“From the ‘nucleus’ there was also a bright line extending horizontally
to the right, 2° or 3° long, as indicated by the red line. This seems to have
been almost as bright as the principal column, but much narrower, and there-
fore not so generally noticed.

“My friend Jos. Walton watched it some minutes with an opera-glass,
and says it was as distinct as the other.

“This must have been thrown off instantaneously by the explosion.

“The luminous cloud, and especially the ‘ nucleus,’ was so bright that at
Atlantic City, sixty miles east of this place, it was by some mistaken at first
for a ‘fire balloon.’

“The explosion was more than 200 miles west of Philadelphia, at a height
of forty-five or fifty miles.

“The meteor and cloud (or more generally a flash of light and the cloud
only) were observed at Yonkers and Harlem, near New York; at Atlantic
City, and Trenton, in New Jersey; Wilmington, Delaware; and at Phila-
delphia, Lancaster, Columbia, in Pennsylvania.

“At Clarion, 250 miles west of Philadelphia (or north of west, rather), it
appeared in the south-east, and disappeared in the north-west; and it was
followed by a sound resembling thunder, or the rolling of a heavy body
over a floor. I do not find that it was seen at all at any point further west.
Here it appeared at forty minutes after sunset. At Clarion the sun had set
only about twenty-five minutes before; the general twilight was therefore
much stronger. This circumstance, coupled with the fact that the meteor
itself lasted only a second or two, not long enough for persons to look over-
head and see it, probably explains the fact that it does not seem to have been
seen generally in the region where it was vertical.

“At places in Ohio so far west that the meteor would appear in the east
so low as to be within the view of persons walking with the head in its
ordinary position it might be expected to be seen, but in this case the interval
from sunset is further reduced to about ten minutes, which is probably
more than sufficient to counterbalance the effect of the darker background
in looking towards the east.

“ But a still stronger reason probably is that the light from this cloud was
principally sunlight, and that therefore the cloud would, like any other cloud,
be more brilliant when in the west than in the east, the effects of refraction
exceeding those of reflection.

“This circumstance probably has something to do with the fact that all of
the above-mentioned meteors were seen in the western sky, and no corre-
sponding ones in the east.

“As none have been observed later in the evening, when twilight was
gone, it would seem as if these meteors belonged to a group that were
essentially daylight meteors.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 91

“ When this meteor appeared, the sun was just setting 10° west of our
longitude, and an object only fifteen miles high over Clarion County would
be in the sunshine. This meteoric cloud was not less than forty miles high,
and must therefore have been illuminated in this way; as no other instance
has come to my notice I was much interested in it, but when I commenced
this letter I had no idea of troubling you with so long a story.

“‘ Yours respectfully,
“To A. S. Herschel, Esq.” “ Bens. V. Marsn.”

1869, September 8th, 7" p.m. (local time), Germany, France, Switzerland,
and Italy. A magnificent fireball was seen in the south-west of Europe,
over an extent of fully 20° in latitude and longitude, on the evening of the
8th of September. The descriptions of its appearance at Strasbourg, Pisa,
Arezzo, and Genoa are contained in the ‘ Meteorological Bulletin’ of the
Urbino Observatory for August 1869; and at the Piedmontese stations, and
at Milan, where it was seen by Prof. Schiaparelli, at Ancona, Bologna,
Civita Vecchia, and numerous other places in Italy, in the ‘ Meteorological
Bulletins’ of the Moncalieri, and Royal College of Rome Observatories for
September, 1869. According to Mr. C. A. Kesselmeyer the meteor approached
the southern part of Europe from Prussia, and after crossing the Rhenish
provinces between Bohemia, Bavaria, and France, it crossed the Alps of
Switzerland and Savoy, being seen near the Lake of Constance, at Lucerne
and Geneva, and thence pursued its course to Italy, where it was seen at
Marseilles, Civita Vecchia, and Naples, proceeding from north-east towards
south-west across the Mediterranean sea. The numerous observations of its
course obtained in different countries of Europe will afford ample materials for
a very rigorous calculation of its path, not less instructive than the passage
of the great meteor over America on the 20th of July, 1860, and may at some
future time be expected, like the path of that meteor, to furnish tolerably
exact elements of a meteoric orbit round the sun. In the length of its path,
the date and hour, and the brilliancy of its appearance it closely resembles
the large fireball seen in Italy, Switzerland, and France on the evening of the
5th of September 1868 (Report for 1869, p. 272).

1870, August 6th and 15th, about 10" 6™ and 9" p.m., Scotland and
Ireland. A description and drawing of the streaks of these large meteors
were received from Mr. T. W. Backhouse; and others are contained in the
‘Astronomical Register,’ and in ‘Nature’ of September Ist, 1869. The
relative abundance of shooting-stars on the night of the 6th of August, 1870,
described in the next Appendix, and the occurrence of similar meteors in
America last year on the evenings of the 7th and 24th of August, appear to
indicate that each of these large meteors was connected with a periodical
shower of shooting-stars in August, differing to some extent in the time of
maximum from the annual epoch of the 10th, and of which the position of
the radiant-point, perhaps more westerly, has not yet been exactly ascer-
tained.

III. AgRoxires.

Motta dei Conti, Casale, Piedmont, 1868, February 29th, 11" a.m.
(Report 1868, p. 390.)

The stone is exceedingly crystalline, light-coloured, fine-grained, and

rough in fracture, having a density 3°43. Possessing these characters
in common with the meteorites of Lucé, Manerkirchen, Politz, Sanguis,
St. Etienne, and several others, M. Meunier designates this species of

92 REPORT—1870.

meteoric rock by the name of Lucéite. Like a similar distinct minera
Montréjite, of which the meteorite of Montréjeau is entirely composed, it i
sometimes found imbedded in small portions in the darker mass of othe
aérolites. It it so found in the meteorites of St. Mesmin, of the Asturias
and of Assam; while its analogue, Montréjite, is found similarly distribute
in the meteorites of Canellas, Guttersloh, and Baffe. The recognition of suc
a structure materially assists the classification of meteorites under commo
types, and suggests considerations regarding the process and sources fror
which they are derived. (“On the Meteorite of Motta dei Comti,” b
Stanislas Meunier, ‘ Bulletin of the Moncalieri Observatory ’ for March 1870.’

From a collection of thirteen examples of the oolitic class of aérolites i
the. Mineralogical Museum at Paris, M. Meunier obtains the followin
numbers of aérolitic falls of this peculiar class in the several months of th
year, showing that meteorites of the same type are not confined to singl
orbits or to single rings of meteoric materials encompassing the sun, but ar
found in the same regions of space with meteorites of other types. (Lette
from M. Meunier to Mr. R. P. Greg.)

Total
Jan. | Feb. | Mar. |April.| May. | June.| July.| Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | number of
aérolites.
2 I ce) I 2 I ° I I 1 I 2 13

Lodran, Moultan, India, 1868, October Ist.

Specimens of this aérolite in the Mineralogical Museum of Vienna wer
analyzed by Dr. G. Tschermak, the results of whose chemical investigations
together with a notice of a specimen of meteoric iron from the desert o
Atacama, presented to the Museum, is contained in the ‘ Proceedings of th:
Vienna Imperial Academy of Sciences’ for 1870, April 7th.

Krihenberg, near Zweibriicken, Bavaria, 1869, May 5th, 6" 30™ p.m.
(Report 1869, p. 278.)

In the ‘ Proceedings of the Vienna Imperial Academy’ for 1870, April 28th
M. von Haidinger produces fresh proofs of the rotation of meteorites on thei
axes, and of their orientation, or presenting front and rear faces to th
atmosphere during the luminous portions of their descent to the earth, am
some remarks on the original formation of siderites in veins of meteori
rocks, as illustrated by the meteorite of Krihenberg, and by the large ring.
shaped siderite of Ainsa-Tucson preserved in the collection of the Smithsonia1
Institute in America. M. von Haidinger in the same paper explains th
appearance of meteoric iron-masses in pairs, first pointed out by Professo:
W. H. Miller of Cambridge, in the siderites of Agram, Braunau, and Cran-
bourne, Australia, and in the description of the historical iron-masses whicl
fell at Troy, by supposing that the fusion of their surface by the fireball
which might first perforate and produce a ring-shaped meteorite, might i
continued further divide the ring at one point and cause it to break a‘
another by the resistance of the air. Attention is also drawn to the
occurrence and apparent frequency of veins in the geology of meteoric rocks
first pointed out in his note of 1868, October 8th (see these Reports for 1869.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. $3

p- 300), and again more prominently regarded by M. Meunier, in a series of
able articles, as explaining the condition of their primitive existence in and
original separation from a parent planet*.

Parvatypore, Vizagapatam, Madras, India, 1869 (?), December 23rd.

The following account of the fall of a meteoric iron in India is copied from
the ‘Homeward Mail’ of 1870, March 14th.—“A phenomenon of the
meteoric kind is reported by the ‘Madras Atheneum’ as follows :—‘ An
aérolite weighing about ten pounds fell in the neighbourhood of Parvatypore
in the Vizagapatam district, on Sunday, December 23 [so in the ‘ Homeward
Mail;’ ?if Sunday, Dec. 26th, 1869]. We have been favoured with some
particulars regarding this occurrence. The substance of which this aérolite
consists is apparently iron in a very pure state, without any mixture of
other mineral substances or impurities. The mass is shaped and marked,
and eyen on one side (that evidently which came in contact with the earth)
polished in a manner naturally to be expected under the circumstances,
namely a mass of iron in the malleable condition which that metal takes
when in a state of fusion coming into contact with earth softened by moisture,
and with a force sufficient to penetrate to a depth of 2 feet. We are told
that the noise caused by the aérolite in passing through the air in its fall was
very startling, and to the people in the immediate neighbourhood alarming.
Its luminous splendour is described as equal to that of the moon, and it is
said to have culminated with an explosion of great brilliancy. It was seen
and heard for many miles, as it fell in a direction from north to south.’ ”

Mourzouk, Fezzan, 1869, December 25th, evening.

A large globe of fire fell to the earth with an explosive sound, in sight of
a group of Arabs, near the capital of Fezzan, and imbedded itself in the
ground. The meteorite, which weighs 6000 lbs., is destined to be preserved
in the public Museum of Constantinople. M. von Haidinger, of Vienna, and
Mr. R. H. Scott, in London, have presented to the geological societies of their
respective countries a description of the circumstances which attended its fall.

Periodicity of Detonating and Non-detonating Fireballs, and of Aérolites.—
From a coliection of the most recent Catalogues of large meteors and aérolites,
Mr. Greg has revised the Tables appended to his first Catalogue of such ap-
pearances printed in the volume of these Reports for 1860. The following
more complete and carefully reconstructed Tables exhibit at a glance the
particular days of the year on which large meteors have thus appeared in
greatest numbers, the months or seasons of the year in which aérolites are
most common, and in which they have been especially observed in each year
for the last period of more than half a century. The question of the
periodicity or non-periodicity of those rare occurrences cannot fail to arrive
at an ultimate solution by systematic arrangement and classification, of
which the Tables now reproduced, and brought up to the latest dates of his
extended Catalogue by Mr. Greg, are a valuable and well-timed contribution.

* ‘Cosmos’ for 1869, November 20th, 27th, and December 4th; and 1870, January Ist,
On the Siderite of Deesa [or of Copiapo (M. von Haidinger, ibid.)], the existence of
eruptive meteoric rocks, and the relative ages of meteorites,’ by Stanislas Meunier.—On
Mr. Meunier’s views regarding the relative ages of a supposed iron-period and stone-
period in the history of meteoric falls, see a lucid article by Professor N. S. Maskelyne,
in ‘Nature’ for 1870, June 2nd,

REPORT—1870.

Table showing Number of Large Bodies, or Meteors (non-detonating),
recorded a.p. 1500-1870 for each day of the month.

Feb. | Mar. |April.| May. |June.] July.| Aug. | Sept.} Oct. | Nov. | Dec.

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cee i ee eae. 2 ee ee ee ee, ee |
be SH AMAMO HO HO kh AMPMO RO HOH AMPMO BO HO
36 Re RRR eee Be AA AAA AA AAA MN o
=e! a

Table showing number of Stonefalls and Detonating Meteors for each month,
from a.p. 1800 to 1870. ,

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 95

Table (continued).

tol

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OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 97

III, Merzoric Saowers.

1. The August Meteors in 1869.—The following Tables of observations
in Piedmont are contained in the ‘ Meteorological Bulletin’ of the Moncalieri
Observatory, near Turin. The numbers of shooting-stars observed at different
stations were, in the hours ending on the nights of—

Number of August roth, P.M. Total
Mercors see ———————————

It will be seen by an inspection of this Table that the maximum was not
yet attained at the time when observations were suspended on the morning
of the 11th, and that the horary numbers on the night of the 11th were not
so great as on the preceding night. The numbers of shooting-stars observed
on the night of the 9th was inconsiderable at all the stations.

2. Meteor-shower in August 1869.—Notes on shooting-stars and bolides
in Professor Tachini’s ‘ Meteorological Bulletin of the Royal Observatory of
Palermo.’ —“1869, August Ist, evening. On this night a considerable
number of very fine shooting-stars was observed, leaving streaks, some of which
remained visible for ten seconds. The radiant-point was between a Scorpii
and n Serpentis, at R. A. 252°, 8. Decl. 22°.”

3. Metcor-shower in November 1869.—On the night of November 6th,
1869, Mr. T. W. Backhouse observed twenty-one shooting-stars at West
Hendon, Sunderland, twelve of which had a well-defined radiant-point at
R. A. 3" 37™, N. Decl. 16°. Of ten meteors seen by Mr. Backhouse on the
night of the 4th of November, four agreed with this radiant-point. None
of the meteors seen at Sunderland on the nights of the 4th and 6th of
November, 1869, belonged to the great November shower. (Report of the
Observing Astronomical Society on observations in November and December,
1869, ‘ Astronomical Register’ for March 1870).

The position of this radiant-point is scarcely one degree from that assigned
by Heis to the radiant-point R,, appearing, at about the same time of the
year, at R. A. 55°, N. Decl. 16°; while it is ten degrees from the position of
Greg’s radiant-point R G, for the end of October and beginning of November,
at R. A. 64°, N. Decl. 18°, not far from @ Tauri. Professor Schiaparelli has
recently constructed from M. Zezioli’s observations, at Bergamo, of about
9000 shooting-stars during the years 1867-69, a table of the positions of
radiant-points of forty-four meteoric showers, concluded principally from ob-
servations recorded on single nights of the year. Amongst the radiant-points
of the Table, M. Zezioli’s observations on the 10th of November indicate

1870 * Meteorological Bulletin of the Urbino Observatory for August 1869. _

. HE

98 REPORT—1870.

the position of a radiant-point (No. 39 of the following list) at R. A. 70°,
N. Decl. 20°, sufficiently near the place of the radiant-point R G to lead
Professor Schiaparelli to regard its identity with the latter radiant-point as
fully established, while its considerable distance from Heis’s radiant-point R,
appears to separate it from that meteoric shower as a distinct region of
radiation.

Table of Radiant-points of Meteor-showers obtained by Professor Schiaparelli
from observations of Shooting-stars at Bergamo by G. Zezioli, 1867-69.

Positions 3 ; tanh
Dates OF of the Elongation} Longi- Inclination Pacha.

Longi-

; : : from apex | tude of (D, direct ; :
meteoric _| radiant-point. of the tude of lion

showers.

perihe-

R, retro- | 5-
earth’s way.| lion, the node. distance.

grade).

Reterence
number.

°
I. 38 33 292 56R 0°595
2 54 146 298 89 RK o'941
3. 150 147 309 1D 0°976
4. 44 145 309 74.8 org8r
me 97 202 312 18 D 0671
6. 81 200 318 49 D 0735
7: 104 152 328 33D 2°999
8. 131 202 ° 13D 0°964
9. 64 223 13 77D 0°933
10. 133 219 21 13D 0°976
104. 131 222 25 14D 0°978
Ik: 105 258 22 16 D 0780
12. 79 276 24 48 D 0°655
13: 143 216 35 12 D 1°000
14. 61 285 35 79 D o'671
15. 88 272 40 40 D 0°808
16; 103 286 61 25D 0°8 54.
17. 79 313 83 54D o8ar
18. 123 306 99 17D 07946
19: 39 206 116 53 8 0*500
20. 69 292 116 70 D 0°999
21: 72 355 11g 62 D 0°780
22, 104 262 125 27 D 0°866
23. 104 334 127 30 D 0°946
24. 55 48 132 90 D,R} 0448
25. 40 343 138 66R 0°953
26. 2 318 318 3D 0'997
27. 73 289 139 63 D 0°933
28, 81 15 163 54 D 0°924
29. 15 309 164 19 R 0°910 |
30. 33 273 176 41 R o'561
31. 33 337 185 55R o'g4t
32. 52 217 199 60 R 07024
33. 30 280 20 10oR O'413
34. 42 248 208 7 Rf O'117
35. 29 30 208 498 1'000
36. 24 313 28 i9R 0629
37: 3 350 210 gR 0883
38. 46 277 211 65R 0'297
39. 67 192 48 5 0095
40. 54 286 228 87 R 0235
41. 52 259 241 60R 07024
42 51 273 244. 62 R- 0°063
43: 115 103 248 15 D o'g18
44. | Dee. 44 222 257 578 0289
ae RS Se ee aE ee ee eee ee

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 99

4, The November Meteorite Shower in 1869.—In addition to the observations
of the November meteors in 1869, which were received by the Committee, the
following are some of the results obtained at the Italian Observatories, where
the sky was in general in a more favourable state for ,observation than the
condition of the atmosphere which prevailed in England on the morning of
the 14th of November.

The number of meteors seen at the Moncalieri and Perugia Observatories,
on the morning of the 14th of November, 1869, were in the half hours (in
Perugia in the hours) ending at November 14, 1869, a.m. :—

h him h hm h-hm.sh- bm h bom 6 - Total

12 12 30 13 13 30 14 14 30 15 i5 30 16 16 30 17 ntimbers.
Moncalieri...... Bieee 40 et S7.4G4.57 79) 1270 62 80 80... 92 =. 7#ita gyno
Perugia .....:.0. 2 Pee css ures. 39, “Syass RO, ‘Sse 2kG Sack g ga 548

Four maxima of frequency were observed at Moncalieri during the quarters
of an hour ending at 1" 45™, 3° 15", 4" 15", and 4" 45™ am. At Perugia
the sky was overcast until 1" a.m., and frequent cumuli crossed the sky during
the remainder of the night. The principal maximum frequency of the meteors
appeared to occur between 3" and 4" a.m.; and the agreement of these ob-
servations with the time of maximum at Port Said, Alexandria, where the
November shower was observed by Captain Tupman, R.M.A., will be gathered
from the following Table, which is extracted from the ‘Monthly Notices of
the Royal Astronomical Society ’ for December 1869.

1869, November 13th, Alexandria Mean Time.

Number of Elevation of

ie a meteors seen. radiant-point.
hm h m 5
10 40 babiss 13 15 St ewolrges is
RCN aes 14 40 SOL A Pika des 35
es eee 5 2°53 16 49
o> SV eaeeaeaie 19°7 CR ee 43
2 Saas 33°6 hel ene ST 46
SOR ek es SRR OO HER. fev ieee, 50
22 Tei LOST Sine TOG. Befseecns 54
16 12 Bt a Sede 16 57
ol oA Bee catenins KG) ako 5 ay 60
0! Oe ten agra tie (ite 9 eens 63
__ eee iy jb tie (4) 67

During the observations included in brackets the sky was cloudy ; but in the
last two clearer than in the earlier part of the watch. The maximum took
place either before or about 14" 30", when the sky was first clear enough to
permit a systematic watch, and the number of meteors seen after this began
very rapidly to decline until the watch was finally abandoned.

At the Mauritius a letter from the Secretary of the Meteorological Society,
Mr. Meldrum, to Mr. Glaisher announced that the November meteors were
seen on the morning of the 14th: from midnight until 4" 40” a.m. 439 meteors
were counted; and of these, 427 were seen between 3° 20™ a.m. and 4"40™4.m.,
showing the occurrence of a maximum towards the latter time.

At Pensacola, in Florida, the meteors were very numerous throughout the
morning of the 14th, appearing occasionally as frequently as from two or three
to twenty in a single minute, but no distinct time of the maximum could be
definitely fixed.

At Santa Barbara, California, the number of meteors seen by Mr. George

H 2

100 nePoRT—1870.

Davidson and Mrs. E. Davidson in 2" 25", between 12 15™ and 3" 40™ a.m.,
was 556 meteors, the rate of frequency gradually increasing until 2" 20™ a.m.,
when it was five or six meteors in a minute, and again decreasing with
frequent minor maxima of abundance until the close of the observations,
when the rate of their appearance returned to nearly the same average, of
about three per minute, as at the beginning of the observations.

Although the star-shower returned in diminished brilliancy on the morning
of the 14th of November, 1869, it is evident, from the examples of these ob-
servations, that no well-marked moment of greatest abundance (like those
which were observed in 1866 and 1867) was again perceived in the last
November star-shower. The meteors seen on the mornings of the 13th and
15th of November were comparatively insignificant in their numbers at all
the points of observation.

5. The August Meteors in 1870.—The cooperation of observers in England
and Scotland having been solicited by the Committee, between the 5th and
the 12th of August, 1870, a considerable number of observations were made
at the stations, of which the following list furnishes the duration of the
watch and the number of the meteors seen by each observer.

A considerable abundance of meteors was observed at Hawkhurst on the
night of the 6th, and the second maximum of frequency took place on the
night of the 10th of August. On account of full moonlight and occasional
clouds on the 10th, with a hazy sky, the hour of maximum was not definitely
fixed ; but six meteors were mapped in six minutes at Hawkhurst between
12" 12™ and 12" 18™ a.m. on the night of the 10th-11th. An almost total
absence of meteors was observed at Birmingham, the Royal Observatory,
Greenwich, East Tisted (Hants), and at Hawkhurst during the half-hour
between 11° 15™ and 11" 45™ p.w. on the night of the 10th; a similar lull
in the meteoric shower was observed at Hawkhurst between 11" 10™ and
11" 40™ p.m. on the following night. The hourly number of meteors seen
by two observers at Hawkhurst, between 10" 30™ p.m. and 122 30™ a.m., was
eleven on the night of the 10th, and nine on the night of the 11th, the sky
being equally favourable on both nights.

The following is Mr. Wood’s report on the meteoric shower observed at
Birmingham :—

‘Number of meteors seen per hour by one observer from 11" till midnight
on the nights of August

Ratios of brightness of the meteors
from August 5th to 12th.

> Ist mag.x...... 41 cid cent.
Sth. Oth. 7th. Sth. Oth. Oth, 11th, 12th, | i ea as

<3drdmag.x ... 31 ,,

«On the night of the 9th, from 10" to 11" p.m, one meteor only.

“On the night of the 10th, from 11" 14™ to 11" 48™ p.m., none.

« Weather favourable for observation throughout, except hazy on the 10th,
and full moonlight. %

Centres of emanation and rates per cent. from each
radiant-point.
Numbers of
meteors per cent.

n Persei’ 2243 ASM A ee 30
y-P rset, ASR OR. eee nts 24. 36 per cent. were -red or
e Cassiopeite ..... 12 orange-coloured meteors,
Ah ute MUS Gira Pegasus) . 12 and the rest were blue,
Nise {ipar Polaris) Spe aisrats 10 white, or green.

4 X, O, (Neumayer) ...... 12

¥!

—_— Jot

101

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS,

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102 REPORT-—1870.

«There was a marked paucity of meteors on and about the 10th; and the
August meteoric shower appears to be approaching its minimum, which, as
observed in these Reports for 1867 and 1869, might be expected [dating an
eight-year period, observed in previous minima, from the minimum of 1862]
to take place about the present year. On the present occasion the greatest
number occurred on and after midnight of the 6th, preceded by a fireball at
95 57™ p.m. observed at the Isle of Skye, and a more than ordinarily bright
meteor at 11" 16™ p.u., at Birmingham. There was no change of position of
the radiant-points on successive nights, but a continuation of the Perseids,
and other centres, with a simple variation in activity.”

The radiant-point on the night of the 10th appeared at London (Mr. T.
Crumplen) to be near 7 Persei, at East Tisted (Mr. F. Howlett) near
o Persei, and at Hawkhurst (Mr. A. 8. Herschel) near a, y Persei; on the
night of the 11th it appeared to be, at London nearer to y Persei, and at
Hawkhurst between y Persei and e ‘Cassiopeiz. At Manchester the radiant
region on the nights of the 6th-9th of August appeared to Mr. Greg to
occupy an elongated space between i Persei and ¢ Cassiopeiee,

' Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions.
By W. H. L. Russexz, F.R.S.

Part ITI.

Section 1.—In this division I propose to consider modular equations, and
some subjects connected with elliptic functions, omitted in the Second Part.
The higher portions of the theory of modular equations, which are inti-
mately connected with the theory of numbers, have been already treated by
Professor Smith in his valuable report on that branch of mathematics. On
the other hand, Professor Sohnke’s important paper on modular equations
was very slightly noticed by Mr. R. L. Ellis, and therefore, although much
earlier in date than the other papers which form the subject of this Report,
may well be considered here as an assistance to the reader who is disposed
to enter on the researches of Messrs. Kronecker, Hermite, and Joubert, which
are closely connected with these investigations of Sohnke.

I shall employ in the following pages p» and y instead of u and v, as used
in the ‘ Fundamenta Nova,’ to prevent (w) occurring in two different senses
in the same investigation.

Jacobi has given the following theorem for the transformation of the 5th
order :—

dy he san dx
_ V1—oPV 1—y?y? (1 —pr*)* V1 —a V1 — pa?
pate ett (nit y*) van’ )e? +p =p *)at
y v*(1—pr*)+ pr*(p +r”) (v— pe )ae* + py? — pe) ?
where

pov +5 p(w — 2?) +4 py —p'r*)=0.

This last equation is called the modular equation of the 5th order.

ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS, 103

Putting »>=*¥ X, u»=' Vk, the general problem of modular equations, which
we haye to solve, is the following :—
To determine the relation between \ and &, or p and vy, so that

dy uJ dx
V1—y V1lI-My? MV 1a? V1’

M being a constant multiplier, and y and a connected by the relation

at+ Be *+yar+...es + warm)
SS SS oe
y atBety@t.. ee: tou?

We easily derive the following theorem from the ‘ Fundamenta Nova :’—
1—k sin am nu=

u . 4tA' 5
V =o). .--1—Asinam
no BAT a
A am > : am Mo
and substituting in this the values of the factors in the numerator derived
from the equation,

wu 4(n—1)iA'
MATT woe
2(n—1)2A'

1—Asinams, - 1_—Asinam

.- -A?am

Ls { 1—ksin am(u+
o

4K sk
| Sam dam cis. AGM
vi n

4mK+ — \

. u .4miiA'
1A sin am( 5+ = =

transforming by the formule of page 37 of the ‘Fundamenta Nova,’ and
determining the constant multiplier by putting n=o in both sides of the
equation, we have

1—k sin am (nu)=
n—1 n—-1 ere it : 4mK + 4iK’' ) 2
= ge 1 i1—ksinamusinamu———
L— Je sin cea) Th gpg gy ern
( ) a Peciat -, 4AmK+ am'iKe?
-=> 1—k’ sin? am usin® am ng Ses

n—-1 tte |

2 2
where, however, when m=0, IT, must be substituted for Im’.
° 1 : : n—-1

From this Sohnke deduces that symmetrical functions of the quantities
4mK + 4m'iK’
n

sin coam » When m and m’ have the values just assigned, are

rational and entire functions of k.
Section 2.— We know that

=p"{sin coam 4w sincoam8w.....- sin coam 2(n—1)w}; ~

and it appears, from the ‘ Fundamenta Nova,’ that if we put in this equation
successively the (n+ 1) values,
K ik’ K+:K! K+(n—1)iK’

nn n n

104, REPORT—1870.

we shall have all the possible values of this expression. The values of y may
therefore be represented by the following expression :—
AmK +4miK' 8mK + 8m/iK'
SS RC | TRIED eat 8
2(n—1)mK + 2(n—1)m'iK’ }

n a

yp | sin cowm
sin coam

where m’ signifies one of the quantities 0,1,2,3.... (n—1), and m is
unity, except when m'=1, when it is both unity and zero.
We immediately deduce from the ‘ Fundamenta Nova’ the equation

1+ 29?" cos 24+ q*"
+297"! cos 2a+ qi"-?

From this Sohnke proves that the (n+1) values of (v) may be derived from
_ yp 7 f{G4+PG4+“ 049) ..--- }
n= V2/i| CeO UD
by substituting for g successively in this equation the (n+1) quantities

. 2Kx 2,7
snes / q 008 ally

1 1 1 1
q”, G, agn, a’qn..... alga,

a being any of the n roots of unity.

The proof, although long, presents no particular difficulty, and depends on
transforming the factors in the continued products by means of the theorem
that 2nr+4m'p (when v is a prime number, m’ one of the numbers 1, 2, 3
..... n—l1,r all numbers from zero to infinity, p all numbers from 0 to
n—1
we,
lected.

Section 3.—It appears from this investigation :

A. That the modular equation is of the (n-+1)th degree.

B. That the coefficients of the equation, when arranged in powers of »,
are rational and entire functions of p.

C. That the last term of the modular equation is of the form + p+! if
(n) is of the form 8r-+1, —p”+1 if v is of the form 8r+3.

This is deduced by Sohnke from the observation that it is a consequence
of the multiplication of elliptic functions that all the roots should have the
same sign as the quantity

4s { 4K 8K 2(n—1)K }
. n "

sin coam——sin codm —- «oe sin coam

) is an expression representing all even numbers, the sign being neg-

D. The modular equation is unchanged when & and X are interchanged,
therefore the highest power of (1) cannot exceed (n+1).

E. We have already seen that p is of the form «/ BY qf(q). One value
of (v) must therefore be of the form ,/2¢/q"f(q"). If we substitute this in
the modular equation, the irrationality must disappear. Hence in any term
of the modular equation aw», we must have ,/q”../7"=Y' ,/q', where
tis constant for every term. Hence m+rn=8s-+4, and therefore the mo-
dular equation must be made up of terms of the form

¥(apP + BpPt8 + yyPtlo4 Sou ot

ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 105

F. Since p+! is of the form 4/q"*R,(q), and py of the form ./¢"*1R,(q),
we see the irrationality to be the same in each case. Hence, as the equation
necessarily admits of a term cy"*+1, it must also admit of a term of the form
c'py.

iG. Since the modular equation remains unaltered when & and / are inter-
changed, it follows that it must also remain unaltered when p« and +y are
interchanged. The modular equation is of the form

petit . fapy+p"t1=0

if n is of the form 8r+1. Here we must manifestly interchange p and yr,
as the equation cannot be reproduced if 4 is placed instead of 7, and —»y in-
stead of ». On the other hand, the modular equation is of the form

wtp... tapy—ptl=0

if (n) is of the form 8r+3. Here we must place p instead of v, —y instead
of p, as the equation cannot be reproduced if we interchange p and y.

H. Hence Sohnke shows that the coefficients of p™»y? and uP are equal
always in magnitude, although differing in sign when n=8r+3, and p is
even. Also that the coefficients of wy? and uwxt1—™,n+1-p are always equal
in magnitude, although differing in sign, when n=8r+3.

J. Lastly, Sohnke proves that when p=1, the equation necessarily takes
the form (v+1)"(v—1)=0 when n is of the form 8r+38, and (v—1)"+1
when (7) is of the form 8r+1.

Section 4.—The method of ascertaining the form of the modular equation
now becomes manifest.

We determine the indices of » andy by E. Then H, J give us relations
between the coefficients, which greatly diminish their number considered as
independent quantities. Finally, we determine the remaining coefficients by
substituting the values of » and » expanded in terms of q in the equation,
and then equating the coefficients of the powers of qg thus obtained to zero.

This method is fully illustrated by Sohnke by an example. He has also
added a modification of the process, which will be found useful in practice.

Section 5.—The discriminant of the modular equation is of the form

w(l—u®)"(A,+Aw+Aur+..... +A,w*?),

For a proof of this the reader is referred to the concluding section of Pro-
fessor Betti’s Monografia on Elliptic Functions, contained in the third and
fourth volumes of the ‘Annali di Matematica,’ which I am now going to
bring under the notice of the reader. Professor Betti has founded his
theory on the geometrical basis adopted by Riemann and his followers, and
which it is not my object to consider in the present Report. I shall there-
fore explain at once the connexion between the notation in the Monografia
with that we have already employed, and so lead the way to some new
aspects of elliptic functions.
Putting w=2K, w’=2iK’, and therefore g=e ® , we have, according to
Professor Betti’s notation,
9,(0 THe a ts
0, = gray sity 0, (o)=i0,(=) ah Ries Sistas (1)

01, (x)= a Mr, 0;,0(0)=0 (=) olivate taehGd)

106 REPORT—1870.,

1 THe x“
ato) * Os 0.,:(2)=0,(™ Ae hs ei Bk)

Bo, 1(@) =

1 TH TL
BA aan - 6, Fay. 0, (2) =0,(=) gs eomen Ge (4)

This notation allows us to make use of the following definition, which is
of fundamental importance throughout Professor Betti’s memoir :—

0, (+8 ot Se’)

wiv 2

0 2 =eY—l-
one 8
x career

, ed eens

when

mi
mai (224 jrm+0)

6,,.(e+w)=e'"'0, (v), O4,(v+u')=e 6,, (4); . (6)

mi ve )
s=( pete
(v + m1

Ou,r(Z) =e”

also

6, (24+) roftiec) ad? Rae an
Section 6.—Having thus explained the notation, we come to the following
theorem given by Professor Betti (A. D. M. 3. 123) :—
20, (2+ 0) Ow, »(2—W) Opp, o(O) Oo, »a(0) =
Po, o(2)+(—1)' Po @)+ Pio) +(—1)"Pi@), +. .
where
Py, (2) =Outn,vte (2) Out v'pe(Z) Ou—p!+n,¢(€) On v—v'+e(w).

The roots of the entire functions ©, ,,(¢+w) O,',.(z—w) are respectively
of the form

—w+(2rt+p—15+(2s+r—1)5,

w+(2r+p'—1)5+(28+9—1)5 :

and the theorem is shown to depend on the proposition that these are also
roots of the expression
F@)=Py, o(z)+(—1)* Pa @+P,,.@)+(—-D*P,,@ : + (2)
which it appears will be true if
Ou—pit+1r—v't1() O1,1(Y) On-w,o (WW) Oow-v (w),
+ On —p', v—v'ti (Ww) Oo. v Og gies shea) Oy y—v f (w),
— On — pt, vv) O40 Onmwa (0) On y-v'4a(w)
—On—wv—v' (W) 80,00) Op-p'ti, 1) Oyr-v41 W=0.

The reader will find no difficulty in proving this by means of the formule
of last section, and the expressions for the periods given by Schellbach, p. 34.

Se ee

ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 107
From this theorem Betti deduces the equations ;
01, 1(Z+w) A, 1(2—w) =6, 2 67), (w)—O%, (2) 6%, (w),
61,2 +) 1, (2—w)=6",, o& 6, o(w) —k*9?, 2 0°, ww,
0o,(2+w) O0,1(2—wW) = 8%, oz 60, 1(w)—O, 12 6%, ow,
Bo, (2+) Bo, (2 —W) = 0%, (2) 8°, o(v)—K7O%, 1(z) 0%, 1(w),

and a multitude of other formule which it will be unnecessary to consider
further here, as they occur in Part IT. of this Report in a slightly different
form.

Section '7.—Two of these equations are as follows :—

0, (z+) 6, o(2—w)=6;, 12 94,02 00,10 Oo, cw+ 00,12 Oo, o% 1, yw 01, 0%,
0;,(2+w) 6, 1(2—-w)=4, 1% A, o% Qo, 1w Oo, oW — Bo, 12 Oo, o% 0), 4 9;, ow ;

putting z+w for 2 in these equations, adding them together, then dividing
by 2w and putting w=o, we have

Betti deduces a large number of equations in a similar way, and especially
these (A. D. M. 3. 128) :—

@ log* 0, (2) 6, «2 @? log 04, o% , 7971, 12
ah AR a aE
d? log. 0o,:2 , 875. 2 .d7 log..0o oz 67,42
a aa at Oi eal tele +a =O, OP).

where C is an arbitrary constant. To determine its value put

_ 02
Xu, (2) = 2 6,, »(%)-

w@
The value of C is found without much difficulty to be =—————-, and the
Ne
preceding equations become :—
d’ log. Mee a es 2 Clog X, of Se ne 2
dz* 67, 32" 27 071,02"
d log. ee ie cca d* log. nt = ae Zz
dz? i 6", ae dz? 6°, o®

It is then shown (A. D. M. 3. 130) that these equations lead to the fol-
lowing —— . 3 32 :

108 REPORT—1870.

™, on si 1 oO pee:

a + 2k's Fh + 21 — — wy +hztx, (2) =0.
ay 2 dy ;

= 42h a i 4 h(L— pe) Bue" oe 0 ey gS —h?+k*z*) x, 2=9,
ou

dx dx
a a ge * 4 2k iy xt E+ he x », 7=9,

a ? d a2 22
Ne Bhs ete + 2k(1— — ny ae aa 4k +h*2")x, z=.

From these equations we may expand y, ,(z) &c. in powers of (z), from
which 6, , &c. may of course be deduced.

This beautifal process was first given by Dr. Weierstrass, in the fifty-
second volume of Crelle’s Journal, with a different notation, which I hope to
explain to the reader when I treat of the hyperelliptic functions. The pro-
cess of Betti, however, does not essentially differ from that of Wcierstrass.
The actual calculation of the coefficients in the expansion of X;, «* has been

given by Weierstrass at considerable length in the memoir here mentioned.

10)
2y' ¥F
Section 8.—Let n= x -

1, °5

, then one of the equations (a) of section 7

, d? log. 0; oz Otene 4
will give us —— i be =—1_]?—“" ; whence, remembering the yalues of
wo 1, o*

0,, 25 01, o(2), also that oe (Schellbach, p. 73), and integrating, we have

z & log On Ge : 4
Ie (ue sin? am z= tee neo"+C*; and taking the integral from z=0
WwW

a a el ee
to z= 5, we have 7»= on V1—y" V1 —hty®

Again, from cquations (a) we may deduce

d* log Oo, oz RS cae
pee. ee .
dz @ Oo, om
we also have
Oo, 0% _ m dOo,o%
dy, wis ta dq ’

whence Betti deduces (A. D, M. 3. 186) ©

dw _(n +h?w)w
dq 2gn**

* It will be easily seen that log. 0, (2) vanishes if 2 0 (=) vanishes, which takes

@
place when z=o, or =

ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 109

Section 9.—The roots of 0,,,(nz) are all included in the expression

(tpt Cita cyt, ie 3. 130):

Qn
Hence we find
n—1l n—-1l 1
6,.,1(nz)=9(z) Ma Hg O,,>( 2+ at );
Oo oO

(2) being an entire function, which has no finite roots.
Putting z+w, 2+w’ successively for z, we find

n(n—1) Tz

(=O. Me,
Substituting this expression it is easy to determine the constant, and we

obtain
a—-1 n—1 '
ym Tl I (422th)
® Qev 0 o Dy. nr .

a-l n-1 G
1 a)
0

-1
6, (2) hs a

This expression may be transformed, and we obtain the four following ex-

pressions :—
| 6, «(2b
0, (nz) =n6,, o(2)Ia Il, . 07, a ‘ n 6, :

n+1
2

of 3 less than n, which are positive, except when a=o, and then / is to

When « extends to all positive values of a less than , and to all values

ase exclusive of zero. Similarly :—

2
J 9 (“24 6e') |
0s, o(nz) =0;, o2Mla Ug J 6%, 2k?” __/ 6
g2 ( tee)
1,0

f 62 (“ +Pe) |
0, 0
Oo, ;(nz) =o, 1211, Hg 2 8%, % — ne nh ae SY 2 a

| 0° =e i
0,1 aang aaa ey

Nv
[aaa
6: 2a
Qo, (Nz) =O, oz, eg ) 0%, 02—K? EE re

This transformation (A.D. M. 3. 138) presents no difficulty if we remember
that it is easily deduced from Section 5, 6:—

have all positive values less than

t
It 1 ge

mis
' id + «!)
Oe Gepra tsa) (—1) 9 |= Ra

110 REPORT—1870.

whence {
ae sm ‘i ni 2am 2Bw' , ,- .
0, iC pelea tte Ln PME ade tte B)w ae ow )8, Oe. (-—-2- Be )

' tif 2aw , 2po', | i
01,1 (Croat One) 5 Mos w') 0s, (aoe ).

Section 10.—The expression for @;,;(2) may be written as follows :—

W . Te
ae aT T=

_
|
bo
So
to

2Qrz
m+] 06s +qi” +2
@

Pe Eat oe ee
A, o(Z)= é (1—q?tl)

TZ
= if $292") cos — + get

: w
80, o(2) = (1+ q2a+1)?

As we are going to enter on investigations in which the values of w and
w’ are transformed, we shall write 0, , (z, w’, w) instead of 0,1 (2).

«pW WwW
Then if —'=—, we shall find :—
0, w :

U zw !

Op, v (2, 0',0,)=O,, > 709 Js where pu =0

b _o, ZW;

14 (2, w 10, )=— 4, 1 0, w', w)

Professor Betti then shows (A. D. M. 3. 148) that if
w=4Q4 BO’, wo =yQX+0Q', a0—By=p,

“A.

where p is a prime,
ra+sy=0, r8+sd=0 mod. p,

where 7 and s are less than p, we shall have

: pail rw +sw’ 5
Ou, v(Z,Q = 9 (2), {z+(“*") } ’
when
p==out vyt yo #
y'=a4 B-+aB mod, 2*,

when ¢(z) is a function which has no finite roots.
* To understand these congruences, see A. D, M. 3. 140. The congruences mb —ny=?r,

na—mB=t's (A. D. M. 149) are easily obtained from the preceding by multiplying them
by 2 and m, and subtracting.

a ee

ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS, . 2

By putting z+, z+’ for (z), and making use of equations (6), section 5,
wehave .

g(e)=Oe wa),

C is easily determined from this, and we have

p—1 , Su’
rT es {ere(@te |

(32
Oy,» (Z5 Q’, Q)=e @ (F-e Dez)

thew, ee 2

=M, we have from A,

po! To + Sw’
~ G tif Bz >) 8 z+¢( )}

pl Tw+sw'
t
le 01, 1 1 ( Pp ) \

(be ygtalay
' Ti jz ‘ —] ry! Zz
MW’ A 0 Twtsw’
Ona 4 P }

pv=p'r'=o0, mod. 2.

Betti then shows that a, = ~ —o
are used in the ‘ Fundamenta Nova,’ will give us all the generality we re-
quire ; and consequently if we transform our expressions in a manner similar
to that we employed last section, and remember that

with the same p+1 values which

2Qriz
Ou, Ae+(p—t)tae) = (-— 1 ) wv 6 Yn,v(E—tWa)
6,,v( p—tta, Ou,7(t@o)

and multiply the conjugate factors by means of the last four equations of
section 6, we shall have the following four equations :

p—1

' mipz? a 2
z Neg ~ MjoA, = 2 01, o( tare ) 2 =)
cf) = Oni) AL (-62.2— 2 4 Os
= 01,3( 5 x) é 41) 1 ( sale Rel Salle 5

miBz2 po-1

aap es “MwA, 2 peo (tas) 9 )
——,—")= se 2=k- 67; 12
0; 0 2 ) € 63,0 “ (6 I,o 0), a(t <) Ts ’

—1

’ ipz? 2 2
2 Ng =a A 0° o( tao) 2 )
1{ 555 ) =e Mom 2) Oi, (04, = peo 8 ae
0,( * ) 0 7 Bo, 1@) 1° one @o1(twe)? ;

Zz ‘a - ge “2 : Aa ite.) hull
Oo (af ae) =e MAO o(@) Ue (oh, Bee ey te)
oc om "

112 REPORT—1870.

From these expressions it is easily seen that the ordinary formule rela-
tive to the transformation of elliptic functions may be deduced. This has
been done by Betti (A. D. M. 4. 26 & 57). Many of the results are, of
course, as must be the case in a systematic treatise, among those exceedingly
well known.

Section 11.—We have already given in section 11, Part II. of the present

; Ke
report, the expressions deduced by Meyer for ‘ and m also in section 8
of our present division, fe To these may be added the following (A. D. M.
4, p. 64), in which Y, is what » becomes when & is transformed into \,:—

Tv
d eee Yolo

dq ~ Apgn®?

Tv
d toe A/ ~ Ne Seis

dq 4pqr®

Tv
d are Ae oi (Yo+ Noha)Ac
dy [j- pe ySige d

Section 12.—In the papers contributed by Jacobi to the earlier numbers
of Crelle’s Journal, several propositions may be found which are not con-
tained in the ‘ Fundamenta Nova.’ One of the most celebrated of these
has been the subject of a special memoir by Professor Cayley*. It is this.
If w= Vksin am z, and :

n2—1

eh. m1 yn?—-1t A ym—34 Aym—54 .,,(—1) 2 u
Vicsinamuz=(—1) 2 oe oe ee
1+Au+Aui+ ...(—l) a G3

1
also a=k+r, then the denominator of this expression will satisfy the dif-
ferential equation ;

CU dU Z P Pe dU
(A—aw +u4 ae (v?—1) (au—2u!) +27(n?—1)w?U = 2n(al— 4) 7

A demonstration of this proposition has also been given by Betti(A. D. M.
4, 32), and another proposition given by Jacobi will be found at p. 13 of the
same volume.

Section 13.—Since the publication of the ‘Fundamenta Nova’ the third
elliptic integral has been discussed by Jacobi in his memoir “ Sur la Rotation
d’un Corps,” in the 39th volume of Crelle’s Journal, by Betti, ‘Annali di
Matematica, iii. 309, and by Schellbach, ‘ Lehre yon den Elliptischen Inte-
gralen,’ p. 217.

* See also another popes by Professor Cayley, in which this subject is introduced, “Sur
la multiplication des fonctions elliptiques,” Crello, xxxix. p. 16.

———— ee

ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS, 113

The following formulz may be regarded as fundamental; they may be seen
proved in Schellbach, Section 130 :— ;

a ey il al a 9 (4-2)
faf'a jefe =a O(2) are ety

spa ee =al'0(a) +41.)

O(a+a)

, (Ce hatde si 0,(a—2)
—hah of’ hehe—1 =wl'0(a) +31 . 0,(a+x)’
Ge aiata) 1a
gag cf ogg A428 Bat ay

There is also a paper on the third elliptic integral by Professor Somoff in
the 47th volume of Crelle’s Journal, written to facilitate the numerical cal-
culation of its value. ‘There are a few papers on elliptic functions, connected
with Abel’s theorem, and the multiplication of functions ©, which I hope
to consider hereafter, when treating on hyperelliptic functions, with which
they are closely related.

Section 14.—I have long wished to sce a treatise on elliptic functions
written on the following plan. First, I have wished the subject to be con-
sidered as if consisting of three parts—evolution, division, and transforma-
tion. This, indeed, has been in great part effected in Abel’s great memoir
on the subject; but this memoir, it will be observed, contains no indication
of the existence of the functions 9*, The evolution of elliptic functions
should be effected in the following way:—They should be expressed by
doubly infinite products, and this should be done by a method closely re-
sembling that employed by Abel. These doubly infinite products should
then be transformed into the singly infinite products used by Jacobi; and
lastly, these singly infinite products should be multiplied together, so as to
form the functions @. The division and transformation should be effected
separately, and the evolution deduced as effected by Abel, and not in an
elementary treatise, derived from transformation, as we see in the ‘ Funda-
menta Nova.’

An excellent treatise on elliptic functions, which forms a part of Ber-
trand’s ‘ Traité de Calcul Differentiel et de Calcul Integral, now publishing
in France, keeps these objects steadily in view, and I have great pleasure in
recommending it to the reader. If I do not dwell longer on this work, it
is not assuredly because I am insensible to its merit, but because it is not
only written in the highest style of mathematical elegance, but is also so
perspicuous that any commentary from me would be superfluous,

Part LY,

Section 1.—It will be well to commence this part of our work with show-
ing how elliptic functions may be applied to finding the area of the surface
of an ellipsoid.

Let az’ +by’+cz’=1 be the equation to the surface of an ellipsoid, y the
angle which the normal makes with the axis of (z), ¢ the angle which the

* He alludes, however, to these functions in his subsequent writings, after the discoveries
of Jacobi.

1870. . ,

114 P REPORT—1870.

line joining the projection of any point on the plane ay to the intersection
of the normal with the same plane makes with the axis of (#), then Schell-
bach shows (p. 300) that if S be the surface of the ellipsoid,

i (z sin y dy do
Stabe ( o i) o (be cos*g sin*y +-ca sin*@ sin*y + ab cos*y)*

b
If we put \/ “=c0s T, a 5008 ps the expression for the surface becomes
ie 3 GY aan
¢ a.) , (1—sin*r cos*y)3 (1—sin*p cos*y)3

4 2 Me a Hi sin ydy
c 6) o (A—sin*r cos*y)2 (1—sin’p cos*y)#"

If we put sinr cosy sinp cosy= Vief(«x), k= eet and therefore

shen Ve—a
' Vb—a . .
= vee the expression for the surface may be written thus ;—
c—a
aa " J = 2 ur
Saiy Las { Me) NV ac +0(2 0 60 )}.
Vabe | 0,%0 Nb(c—a) c—a 600,*0

Section 2.—A most interesting application of the theory of elliptic fune-
tions to mechanics will be found in the 39th volume of Crelle’s Journal. In
that volume is published Jacobi’s memoir on the motion of a rigid body,
which has been already mentioned in Part II. of this Report in relation to
the many important discoveries it contains in pure mathematical science.
I now enter upon the consideration of this paper regarded as a physical
memoir. Jacobi makes use of the following notation. Instead of

oH, o= (+2), uo (#42),
Tv Tv Tv & T z

2Kea _2Kxv _ 2Ka 2Ka

iS] ’ » 9, 3 1 :
Tv Tv T Tv

he writes

The object of the paper is to calculate the motion of a rigid body, acted on
by no forces, round a fixed point.

Let x, y, z be the fixed axes passing through the fixed point to which the
motion of the body is referred, the plane of w y being the invariable plane.

gar Y,», the principal axes, p, qg, 7 the velocities of rotation round the axes

OL 2, Y,, 2%. j

¥ the inclination of the plane «,, y, to the plane of w y.

y the angular distance of the line of intersection of these planes from the
axis of (2),

¢ the angular distance of the axis of «, from the same line of intersection.

@Sa +B Y+Y 2,
y=a' x,+f' YY! zs
z =a"a, +B"y,+y'Z,.

ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 115

To calculate these nine direction cosines in terms of function @ may be
regarded as the leading physical object of this memoir. They are connected
with the angles 6, ¢, ih by the well-known equations:

% =Ccos@sin ¢ sin + cos ¢ cos W,
a’ =Ccos 0 sin ¢ cos p—cos g sin y,
a= —sin @ sin ¢,

8 =cos 0 cos ¢ sin —sin ¢ cos pf,
f' =cos 6 cos ¢ cos + sin g sin yp,

_ B"=—sin 6 cos g,
1 y =sin @sin yp,
y’ =sin 6 cos y,
yy" =cos 0.

ae if A, B,C be the moments of inertia round the principal axes, we
ave

“tag G+tC r=h a)
A’p °+ Bq? +07? =/", \ ° . . . . . . . . . .

dy_ Ap +Be
dt A?p*-4 Bg? . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)

A
=P —sin O sin 4, 44=—sin 8 cos 9," =008 0 Lal Bal ogee)

It follows from this ‘that we are able to write:

colin ae
ii A=
= rh ies Ch int
i= B(B—t)

Are ibe fgg
= AE ee / TF? gin? 5
Z C6) = Veo) Peas

V (A—B) (Bh—/’),
{ish (Ah—7?)

where £ is a subsidiary angle, and k=

Substituting these values of p,q,7 in pal Zt +(A= C) rp=o, and |putting
v (B—C) (Ah—?’)

u=nt, where n= _ane » we have
du= it 3 where k= wi AW BEE), so that
V1—K*sin2é V (B—C) (Ah—1*)
EE cos am w
Be TRA) ;

116 p REPORT—1870.

V 1?—Ch
V B(B—C)

Vv Ah—T?
pS ee — A a's}

¥ C(A—C)

which express the velocities about the principal axes in elliptic functions.
Now, substituting these values of p and q in equation (2) and integrating,
we have

ae sin am w,

ae Vv BC go A= DESO) sin? am udu
¥ A(B—C)(Ah—I/?) A(B—C) 1—* sin? am ia sin? am it}
where
C(A—B)

—k? sin? am ia*=

A(B—C)’
which gives
O(u+ia)

| pant 5 log, SEE,
where aad -*
" Vv BC _ dlog. Ora
VAG_-O GEL). Vl eack

O(u+2a)

Now let p'=y+nv't, then p'= E log. Sey

Hence if we cause the axis of (x), instead of remaining fixed, to revolve
with a velocity nn’ round the axis of (z), we may substitute for a, a’, a” the
following values in place of those before obtained :—

a =c0s 0 sin ¢ sin W'+ cos ¢ cos x’,
a’ =cos 0 sin ¢ cos i’—cos ¢ sin y’,
a” =—sin 0 sin ¢,
f =cos 0 cos ¢ sin yp'—sin ¢ cos fl’,
f2' =cos 0 cos ¢ cos f+ sin ¢ sin y’,
» p"=—sin 0 cos ¢,
y =sinésin y’,
y' =sin 0 cos y’,
where aed
O(u+ia)+ O(u—ia)
{O(u+ia) O(u—ia)\?’
O(u+ia)—O(u—ita)
{O(u+ia) O(u—ia) +?

2 cos y=

2¢ sin U'/=

* Tt must be remembered that since A, B, C are in order of magnitude, —4* sin? am za
must be positive.

ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 117
H(ia) Ou
tH va Hu’
0,ia Hu
H,(0)03(w-+ ta) 02(u—2a)

cos @* =

cos vi)

and so substituting and reducing, we obtain the following expressions for
the nine cosines :—
0,(0) {H(u+7a) + H(u—ia)}
- 2H, (ia) O(u) :
va 6,(0){H(w+ ia) —H(u—ia)}
21 H,(ia) O(%)
vw _O(ta) Hu
Ha) Ou)
eS 0(0){H,(w+ia)+ H And
sme 2H, (2a) Ou
; 0(0){H,(u+ia)—H, Canoy
21H, (ia) Ow
0, (ta) Hu
H,(ia) Ow
_— H,(0){O(u+ia)— el Eee td
Nay 21H ta Ou
' H,(0){O(w+ia)+ Oar a)S
Bye 2H, (ta) Ou
H(ia) O,u
‘illia Ou .

’

These functions can, of course, be expanded in series by the formule given
in section 10, Part II. of this Report. Jacobi in his memoir enters into a
discussion of the ambiguities occasioned by the use of the symbol 7= ¥ —1,
which I omit here, my object being to give a clear insight into the principle
of the method by which the problem of the motion of a rigid body round
a fixed point is solved.

Section 3.—In the 50th volume of Crelle’s Journal there is a memoir by
Lottner on the motion of a rigid solid of revolution round a fixed point
which is not its centre of gravity, but which is situated in the axis of reyo-
lution. This memoir is very similar in its character to Jacobi’s. I shall
content myself therefore with giving results.

The equations of motion are given by Poisson in the following form :—

Cn cos 92— A sin? ov 1,
A (sin totes ) =2Py cosA+h,
: —n-+-c08 oy,

dt’
* These values of ccs 8 and cos ¢ are of course derived from equations (3), if

118 REPORT—1870.

where A and C are the moments round the «, and z, axes, z, bemg the axis
of revolution,

y the distance of the centre of gravity from the plane of w, 7,,

(n) the constant angular velocity round the axis of revolution,

(2) the moment of the quantity of motion of all the points of the body elas
tive to the vertical axis of z,

(h) a quantity introduced by the integration.

Then if «,, a,, @, are the three roots of the cubic equation,
(2APyé+ Ah) (1—é) —(Cné—1)?=0 ;

when —a, is greater than unity, and a,, a, lie between —1 and +1, & the

modulus of the elliptic functions employed in the solution = = 2,80 that
a,—a,
Vv a, : : Pee.
, _ sini | “a, \
i = aa =sin’ coam ia, = Ok
where

; e 1 —3 gin? rs
dx

= r=
is ¥ 1a V 1— Fa?

V1 —2 V1—-Ra®

Sea (a,—a,), m(t—t,)=u,

H(i(q+a,) +K) H(i(a,—a,)—K)=D,
O(u—ia,)=A,, O(u+2a,)=B,
O(u—ia,—K)=A", O(u+ia, +K)=B".

Then a, a', a’, 3, &e. being the same nine direction cosines as before,

1 Wia(B"?+A"2)—H*(ia,+K) (B?+A!2)

4= —

2D° e7u
geuihsl 1 Ha (B"?—A"*)—H*(ia, + K) (B"°—A’*)
aD Cru 2
om Hia, H(ia, +K) B'A”—A'B"
a
D e7u ‘
i uF. H’ia, (B"?— A"*) + H?(ia, + K) (B’?—A’*)
“*, QD eC7u s
A'= a _Hia (B"?—A"?) 4+ H?(ta, + K) (B'?+ A’ i:
e7u ,

ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 119
pp ade +K) BA” +A'B"
iD e*u

_ Hia,H(ia,+K) B'B’—A‘A!

i Ge D ; Cu ”

,_. Hia,H(ia,+K) B'B"+A'A"

arant iD . eu 4

yl Hia,B'A"+H°(ia,+K)B'A'

| Sepa e7u :
where the axis of (w) revolves about the azis of z with an angular velocity
ld { dlog. Hia, , dlog. H(ia,+K)

da, da,

and the axis of w, round the axis of z, with an angular velocity

mA—C) { d log. Hia, d log, H(ia,+ K) | ;
A da, da

There is also, in the 50th volume of Crelle’s Journal, an elaborate memoir
on the application of the functions @ to the solution of the problem of ascer-
taining the motion of the spherical pendulum, by Dumas.

Section 4.—It will be interesting, in writing on elliptic functions in a
country so dependent for its greatness, under Providence, upon its manu-
facturing skill as this, to show that these integrals are capable of a direct
application to machinery. A remarkable example of this is given by Canon
- Moseley in his ‘ Mechanics.’

The quantity of work done by a pressure P acting through a space 8,
where P and § are constant, is taken to be equal to PS. Hence if P is

variable, the work done is equal to | PdS, or half the ws viva accumulated

while the work is being done. Canon Moseley then shows that in any
machine, if U, is the work done at its moving point through the space $8,
U, the work yielded at the working points, U, and U, are connected together
by an equation of the form U,=AU,+B8, where A and B are constants
dependent for their value upon the construction of the machine,—that is to
say, upon the dimensions and combination of its parts, their weights, and
the coefficients of friction at the various rubbing-surfaces. Upon this prin-
ciple Canon Moseley works out his theory, and the above equation is applied
to the wheel and axle, to pulleys combined in different ways, to toothed
wheels, and to all the component parts of machinery, affording in many cases,
and especially with regard to toothed wheels, results of great interest and
beauty.

In the case of the capstan, the above equation leads to an elliptic function.

Let a, be the length of the lever turning the capstan'measured from the
axis ;
a, the length of the perpendicular upon the rope supposed to act in a con-
stant direction ;

T the tension of the rope ;

U, the work done by the pressure applied to the extremity of the lever
always perpendicular to its direction ; flood

120 REPORT—1870.

U, the work actually performed by the capstan ;

p the radius of the axle, and ¢ the limiting angle of resistance. For a
full explanation of this latter quantity I must refer the reader to the original
treatise.

Then if T be supposed constant,

Tp sin i)
a

U,=U,+ {a V a,?+2a,a, 008 04,"

1
This integral is, of course, the elliptic function E; and the result is strongly
suggestive of the importance of the higher integrals in a calculation of work
done in machines, when the point of application of the motive power is vari-
able. It is hardly necessary to observe that the radical in the above integral
gives the distance between the points of application of the forces.

Committee for the purpose of promoting the extension, improvement,
and harmonic analysis of Tidal Observations. Consisting of Sir
Wittiam Tuomson, LL.D., F.R.S., Prof. J. C. Apams, F.R.S.,
The Astronomer Royat, F.R.S., J. F. Bateman, F.R.S., Admiral
Sir Epwarp Betcuer, K.C.B., T. G. Bunt, Staff-Commander
Burpwoop, R.N., Warren De La Ruz, F.R.S., Prof. Fiscurr,
F.R.S., J. P. Gasstot, F.R.S., Prof. Haventon, F.R.S., J. BR.
Hinp, /.R.S., Prof. Kernann, F.R.S., Staff-Captain Mortarry,
C.B., J. Otpuam, C.EL., W. Parxss, VM. Inst. C.E., Prof. B. Pricr,
F.R.S., Rev. C. Prircuarp, LL.D., F.R.S., Prof. Ranxtnn, LL.D.,
F.R.S., Captain Ricnarps, R.N., F.R.S., Dr. Roztnson, F.R.S.,
Gencral Saninn, President of the Royal Society, W. Sissons, Prof.
Stoxgs, D.C.L., F.R.S.,T. Wesster, M.A., F.R.S., and Prof. Fut-
ter, M.A., and J. ¥. Isexin, M.A., Secretaries.

41. Tur Committee have to report that the superintendence of the work
for the past year has been wholly undertaken by Sir William Thomson.
That work has consisted in the reduction of observations and determination
of constants by Mr. Roberts and assistants, according to the method which
has been fully described in the Report of 1868, For the details of the results
obtained, the Committce beg leave to refer to the statements by Sir William
Thomson which are appended hereto.
W. Parkes.
Grorce Henry Ricnanps.
W. J. Macavorn Ranxine,
J. C. Apams.
Exeter, August 1869,

Report for 1869 by Sir W. Tomson.

42, From the Mecting of the British Association at Norwich (Aug. 1868)
up to the present time the harmonic reduction of observations recorded by
self-registering tide-gauges in several different localities, namely Ramsgate,
Bombay, Liverpool, and Fort Point, California, has been continued. The

TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 121

work has been performed by Mr. E. Roberts and assistant calculators in the
Nautical Almanac Office, working under his immediate direction, according
to the plans described in the Report presented by the Committee of 1867-68
to the Association at Norwich a year ago, with modifications suggested by
experience, and extensions to include parts of the investigation not reached
in the first year’s work. The results obtained up to January 1869 are de-
scribed in a supplement to that‘report, which has been printed, and is pub-
lished in the yearly volume of the Association.

43. The long-period tides, shown in §§ 28, 29 of this supplement, that
is to say, the lunar monthly (elliptic), the lunar fortnightly (declinational),
the solar annual, and the solar semiannual, were calculated in consequence
of the astronomical anticipation of the existence of such tides indicated in
the general schedule of § 2 of the first Report. There is a mistake in the
argument printed for the lunar monthly, which has been pointed out to me
by Mr. Roberts. It ought to be (e—wa) ¢, instead of ¢¢. The error produces
scarcely a sensible influence on the calculations which have been made, and
it is easily allowed for.

44, The “luni-solar fortnightly shallow-water (synodic) tide” is a tide
the existence of which was suggested by Helmholtz’s theory ‘of compound
sounds (§$ 24, 25 of first Report). The harmonic analysis consequently
applied to discover it has proved it to be very sensible both at Ramsgate
and Liverpool ; and has shown that in each station it gives highest average
level at the times of neap-tides, and lowest average at the times of spring-
tides. Its amount for Ramsgate (§ 28) is a tenth of a foot above and below
the mean level. Its amount at Liverpool is rather less, being only seven-
hundredths of a foot above and below mean level, as will be seen later.

45. It will be seen that the lunar declinational fortnightly and the solar
(declinational or meteorological) semiannual present no agreement with
astronomical theory. ‘The solar is of more than twice the amount of the
lunar. The lunar is so small that it may be merely a result of errors of the
tide-gauge. The solar semiannual (seven-hundredths of a foot above and
below mean level) giving highest average level Feb. 14 and Aug. 15, seems
too large to be not genuine; but it cannot be astronomical, or there would
be a corresponding lunar tide.

46. The solar annual (referred to in § 10), as shown by the calculations,
(Ramsgate, year 1864, being :13 of a foot above and below mean), is cer-
tainly much too large to be attributable to the eccentricity of the earth’s
orbit, and the time of its maximum (Sept. 21) does not at all suit the astro-
nomical theory. Its origin (as well as that of the semiannual?) is in all
probability meteorological. The Liverpool observations for 1857-58 show a
greater difference (-36 of a foot above and below mean level); and time of
maximum average height, Oct. 20.

Progress after date of Mr. Roberts’s Supplementary Report.

47. The deduction of the lunar and solar semidiurnal and diurnal tides
from the Fiji observations ($§ 26, 38), which is no doubt practicable, is a
mathematical problem of considerable interest. A good deal of work towards
it has been performed by Mr. Roberts since the date of the conclusion of his
Supplementary Report. The plan followed has been simply a direct applica-
tion of the method of least squares, as in § 28, and it has been carried out
so far as the formation of eleven simple equations for the determination of
eleven unknown quantities, viz. :—

122 REPORT—1870.

1 height of mean level.

4 coefficients for lunar diurnal tides.

F » solar diurnal tides, corresponding to the time of year
when the observations were made.

2 coefficients for lunar semidiurnal tides.

i$ », solar semidiurnal tides.
11

48. The labour of solving these equations by directly calculating the de-
terminants would be very great; and the obvious method of successive ap-
proximations which renders the solution of the equations of § 28 very easy
is not obviously applicable in this case, because in this case the equations
have not the characteristic property* exhibited in the equations of § 28, that
the coefficient of one of the unknown quantities is comparatively large, and
the coefficients of all the others small in each equation, so that each. of the
unknown quantities is approximately determined by one alone of the equa-
tions. It is probable that some algebraic artifice will be found to reduce
within moderate compass the labour of solving the Fiji and other similar
sets of equations, and so give a useful practical character to the harmonic
analysis for short series of tidal observations, continued through broken
periods. But the most for the Natural History of the Pacific tides that could
be expected from the results of so limited a series of observations as that
which we have from the Fiji islands is much less than can be had with ease
by the method already worked out for Ramsgate, Liverpool, and Bombay,
when observations made continuously through long periods are available.
Accordingly, on learning from volumes of the United States’ Coast Survey,
which I received last November, that self-registering tide-gauges had been
established by the Government of the United States at various stations both
on their East and on their West coasts, I immediately applied, on the part
of the Committee, by letter, of date Nov. 19, 1868, to Professor Pierce,
Superintendent of the Survey, for a series of trustworthy observations of Pa-
cific Tides. Through his kind compliance with my request a year’s tide-
heights, taken from the diagrams, executed by a tide-gauge at Fort Point,
California, reached me last April, and were immediately put into Mr. Roberts’s
hands to be reduced on the same plan as that which we have followed for the
other stations.

49. Besides the work on these observations, we have had on hand the
calculation of additional terms from the Ramsgate 1864, the Bombay, and
the Liverpool 1857-58 observations, and the complete harmonic reduction
ab initio of Liverpool observations for the two following years—all of which
is now nearly finished. The ability, industry, and intelligence with which
Mr. Roberts has performed the work, and directed assistants, when practi-
cable, have been highly satisfactory; and I trust that the large amount of
results obtained in consequence will justify amply the expenditure of labour
which it has cost. As some of the most important results have only reached
me from Mr. Roberts within the last few days, I have not found it -prac-
ticable to attempt to put them into a form in which the details could be fully
explained to this Meeting. The resultst+ themselves are given complete in
the file of letters and tables which accompanies this Report.

* Depending on the condition that the time through which the observations are con-
tinued either is approximately one complete period or an integral number of complete
periods, or is very great in comparison with the period of each constituent tide.

t They are comprehended in tho “statement” by Mr. Roberts which forms part (§§ 54—

tt i

TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 123

The Exeter Report concludes with remarks on :—
I. Retardation of times of spring-tides after new or full moon, and
deductions as to retardation of earth’s rotation.
II. Diurnal tides (or constituents having approximately 24” for period).

I. Times of Spring-tides after Full Moon and New Moon.

50. Dr. Thomas Young gave earlier than Airy, and probably first of all,
the dynamical theory that retardation of times of spring-tides after the times
of full and change implies friction. The results now presented by the Com-
mittee verify the anticipation that there is much retardation in every sea.
A few more years of patient work at harmonic reduction, and some sets of
good observations from places in the China seas, Antarctic sea, and Pacific,
will afford means of directly estimating the loss of energy from the earth’s
rotation, and will confirm the evidence which Professor Huxley and the
geologists, for whom he speaks, find so hard to accept, that energy is being
dissipated too rapidly to leave credible any thing approaching to so great
drafts on time as they have been accustomed to make.

Il. Diurnal Tides.

51. A not hitherto explained characteristic of North-Atlantic stations is
absence of diurnal tides large enough to be discovered except by scientific
analysis. The diurnal components are very conspicuous in the Bombay and
Fort-Point tides, especially the Fort Point. That one of the components of
lunar and solar diurnal tides whose argument is yt, is very large for Fort
Point. Hence, considering that that component, being partly due to moon
and partly to sun, gives a thoroughly true theoretical method for comparing the
sun’s and moon’s masses, by using a series of nine years’ observations, it will
in all probability give a somewhat accurate practical result. As to the mag-
nitudes of the diurnal tides in different localities, it is to be remarked that
their smallness on the North-Atlantic coasts is irregular, and has not yet been
explained dynamically. Their largeness in the Indian Ocean, the China
seas, and the Pacific is regular, but makes the tidal phenomena much more
complicated than those we know best. The tides in those seas are commonly
designated as “irregular.” That designation results from a confusion of
terms, “ irregular” being used as if synonymous with complicated. The
truth is that the tides on the European coasts of the Atlantic are irregularly
simple; those in all other seas are comparatively complicated, but regular
and explicable.

[Conclusion of Exeter Report, dated from Largs, Ayrshire, Aug. 21, 1869. ]

Report by Sir Witr1am Tuomson, with detailed Statement by Mr. E. Rozerts,
of the work performed by him for the Committee since the Meeting at
Exeter.

The College, Glasgow, Sept. 10, 1870.
52. The work performed since the Meeting at Exeter has been mainly
directed towards a full scientific analysis of the tides of Liverpool; but it has
included also as much as could be reached in the way of analyzing observa-
tions on the tides of Kurrachee supplied by Mr. Parkes, and on the tides of

Fort Point, California, supplied by the United States’ Survey. With reference

to the latter, I have just received the following interesting letter from Mr.

70) of the Report oe to the Liverpool Meeting and now printed in continuation of
the Exeter Report.

124, . REPORT—1870.

Roberts, with prefixed letter to him from Mr. J. E. Hilgard, of the United
States’ Survey :—

Mr. J. E. Hizesrp to Mr. E. Rozerts.

“United States’ Coast-Survey Office,
Washington, Aug. 12, 1870.

“T take occasion to inform you that the reading off of another year’s tidal
‘‘ observations at Fort Point, by hourly ordinates, is in progress, in pursuance
* of your request under date of May 27, and will be sent in a few weeks.

‘For our own purposes we have as yet only read off from the traces the
“high and low waters, and prefer to use for the general discussion the results
“ of nineteen years.

«‘ Prof. Thomson at first asked for only one year; the first year proving
‘‘ fragmentary, we read and sent an additional year. The observations now
“in preparation will be pretty complete.

“JT shall be much surprised if you can get reliable constants out of even
“two complete years. We will endeavour to provide for the reading of the
‘hourly ordinates for the whole series, and will furnish you copies, if you
“find it necessary to have more than the additional year, which we shall
“‘ send you soon.

“J. EK. Hitearp,
Assistant U. S, Coast Survey.”

Mr. E. Roserts to Sir Wit11am Tomson.

“3 Verulam Buildings, Gray’s Inn, W.C.,
September 9, 1870,

“‘T have received the enclosed [preceding] letter from the U. 8. Coast
“Survey. I have completed the computation of the hourly heights for
“fourteen days for Fort Point, and have compared them with the actual
“observations. The agreement is remarkably good, the maximum disere-
*‘pancy not being more than three inches, if the actual mean level for each
** day is used, instead of the mean level of the year. The larger differences
*“‘ shown sometimes, when the annual mean level is reckoned from, are clearly
“ owing to the abnormal state of the atmosphere at those times. Some of the
“elliptic diurnal tides are probably sensible for Fort Point and Kurrachee.
‘In the computation of the heights for Fort Point the following tides were
*‘ omitted,—the whole of the long-period tides, and also the semidiurnal )
“Tevection] and yx [variation] and quarter-diurnal M § [Helmholtz luni-solar
** quarter-diurnal]. The maximum effect of the latter three does not exceed
«(0-06 ft. I consider the agreement very satisfactory. I expect to have the
“heights for Kurrachee for 29 days completed by Monday, and which I
“ think will be satisfactory to Mr. Parkes, I have completed those series of
“‘ Ramsgate not included in our first Report; the MS (Helmholtz quarter-
“diurnal luni-solar) tide is 0°33 ft., which is a little larger than what I
“should have expected from the corresponding Liverpool component. At
“Fort Point and Kurrachee it is scarcely, if at all, sensible, the analyzed
‘‘ values for each place not exceeding 0-02 ft. I have made no comparison
“‘for Ramsgate, as the differences will in all probability resemble those of
“ Liverpool already compared, although not differing to quite so great an
“extent.

“« Epwarp Ronrrts.”

The value of the harmonic analysis is illustrated by the doubt which Mr.
Hilgard expresses as to the possibility of obtaining trustworthy constants

——

TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 125

for Fort Point out of “even two complete years” observations, and the un-
doubtedly approximate attainment of that result by Mr. Roberts, from one
year only, which his letter indicates.

53. The funds at the disposal of the Committee have not sufficed to
employ calculators to push forward the work as energetically as the Report
to the Exeter Meeting recommended. What has been actually done has been
done entirely by Mr. Roberts, with only some slight assistance of a compa-
ratively mechanical kind in the way of preparing tables and forms for
calculation.

The following is his own statement of the work done for the Committee :—

§§ 54-70. Statement by Mr. E. Roberts of work performed by him for the
Tides Committee, from the Exeter Meeting till August 6, 1870 (imeluding
also the results of the analysis of the second year’s observations at Kur-
rachee, obtained since the Liverpool Meeting).

54. The diagram sheets of the Liverpool tide-gauge promising to give as
good results as can most probably be obtained from any system of self-
registration at present in use, were selected for further reduction and ana-
lysis. Two years’ observations following the year whose results are con-
tained in the Report for 1868, $§ 31-34, have been reduced and analyzed in
a similar manner. The results agree very satisfactorily with those of the
preceding year. The mean height of the water for the last two years is
slightly in excess of that found for the first year. In addition to the six
series, S, M, L, N, K & O, already defined, three others, representing the
solar diurnal (declinational) tide, whose argument is (y—2n), called hereafter
for brevity P, and the two components of the solar elliptic semidiurnal
tides (R and T), whose arguments are 2 (y—4m) and 2 (y—3n), were also
included. The solar elliptic semidiurnal tides require a period of two years
for their evaluation, by the method we have hitherto followed. The hour-
angle for the commencement of the second year was taken as twelve hours
in advance of the hour-angle assumed for the first year. As the two years
commenced on the same day of the year, the error involved in this assump-
tion is only 0°25, a quantity which may be reasonably neglected in the
analysis of these tides. A Table extending through one year has therefore
been used in the composition of the series, and the years 1857-58 and
1858-59 combined for the determination of one value, and 1858-59 and
1859-60 for another determination.

55. Referring the fictitious stars to their true positions at the commence-
ment of each year, by correcting the assumed hour-angles (the samo table of
hour-angles having been used for the three years) by the difference between
the true and assumed places, and neglecting all terms which are very small
and not theoretical tides, we have the following sets of values :—

1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60.
Aj screcseenes savescdeces . 16°7192 168208 16°8289
Average inclination of
Moon’s orbit a 28° 28’ 2a 5Ge 26° 58’
Earth’s equator.

126 . REPoRT—1870.
Series 8S. Series M.

Ge SaFTSRIE Car GRE RRET Re RRR SES —
1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60.
Ri 0°0453.. 010696 070844 O°0192 0'0626 0'0092
G1 ce 09,03 59°°78 56°°55 332°'19 2.6669 77°27
R, 32149 3°3124 3°1938 9°6745 9°8124 9°8930
€, 11°°78 11°12 10°08 326°10 325°°45 323°'99
Bsn te > Se oat cps aerses Dy o 0°1053 0'0984. O'1525
OP oie sevens saceee 330°°60 315°°04 4217s
R, o°0612 0'0600 0°04.76 0°6847 0°6573 0°6371
“ey B229'23 330°°18 294°°73 220°°34. 217°°68 221°°30
R, Revaseey © tesco, SRMon ee o°18i12 0°1887 0'2093
Eee iia. Wom enero) |e Seteaes 342.°°76 348°21 343°°17
R, wenabé eeeees aetay 00582 0°0808 0'0658
Ox co gets A Raccne acotee 262°°38 278°°17 259°°39
Series L. Series N.
——— ee Be
1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60.
R, 0°5069 07849 0°3459 1°8608 1°7607 1°9716
@, 57°93 168°91 144°51 303°°52 308°°72 303°°98
Series K.
-
1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60.
R, —_0°3930 0°3978 0°3853
6 283°95 283°°08 273°°18
R, 11850 1'2742 10995
6 5°98 0°40 349°°61
Series O. Series P.
a a a —— —————————
1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60.
R, 0'4410 0'4136 04519 o'1250 0°1339 01306
€&, 316°°69 316°°28 318°°81 101°"96 105°°75 98°61
: Series R. Series T.
(1857-58 & 1858-59. 1858-59 & 1859-60. 1857-58 & 1858-59, 1858-59 & 1859-60,
R, *o"1006 00818 0°3490 0°1208
6 146°"45 146°"60 67°°97 36°°78

There were very sensible yalues of A,, B, of series L for all years, and also
of A,, B, of series O ; but the resulting amplitudes and corrected epochs did
not agree, showing (as theory gives) no tides of these periods. The cause of
the apparent irregularities of series L is probably satisfactorily explained
hereafter.

56. Shortly before the Meeting of the British Association at Exeter in
1869, application was made to Graham H. Hills, Esq., for a Liverpool Tide
Diagram-sheet containing curves influenced by a minimum amount of ir-
regularity due to wind, atmospheric pressure, temperature, d&c., and which
might be taken as practically representing the astronomical tide-curve.
Through his kindness a sheet containing a period of thirteen days (1869,
April 24th to May 6th) was received, and has proved of great value as a
practical test of results and ($$ 61-63) demonstration of new tide-compo-

TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 127

nents. Meteorological indications were also forwarded by J. Hartnup, Esq.,
F.R.A.S., of the Observatory, Birkenhead, for the same period.

57. Tables of the foregoing nine series of analyzed tide-components were

made, giving the heights due to each, and were computed for every few
degrees of hour-angle. On account of the magnitude and quick variation of
its tide-components, the M series was computed for every degree of hour=
angle, which allowed the interpolation for the fraction of the degree of hour-
angle to be done with very little labour. All terms involving multiples of
the same hour-angle were included in each Table; thus the M Table con-
tained the heights due to R,, R,, R,, R,, R,, and R,, and the 8 Table those
due to R,, R,, and R, The K Table contained the heights due to R, and R,.
The tide-components affected by the variation of the inclination of the moon’s
orbit were corrected according to the equilibrium theory. The tide-com-
ponents so affected are the lunar semidiurnal (R, of M series), the lunar
diurnal declinational (R, of O series), and the lunar and solar diurnal and
semidiurnal (R, and R, of K series). The first was thus presumed to vary
as the square of the cosine of the inclination of the moon’s orbit to the earth’s
equator, and the other three as the square of the sine, assuming in the case
of the combined lunar and solar tides (K) that the ratio of the tide-generating
forces of the moon and sun were as 2to 1. It was supposed that these as-
sumptions would represent these tides very fairly. The zero of reckoning of
the lunar diurnal (declinational) tide was also corrected for, on account of
the retrogression of the moon’s node causing an oscillation on the earth’s
equator, of the intersection of this plane with the plane of the moon’s orbit.
The zero of the K tides is similarly affected; but as these are combined tides,
the zero was assumed to be nearer the intersection of the lunar orbit than
that of the solar in the ratio of the analyzed semidiurnal lunar and solar tides
(3 to 1). This inequality can be included in the regular analysis by intro-
ducing terms involving the period of the revolution of the moon’s nodes, and
requiring a series of observations extending through a period (about eighteen
years) of their revolution for the evaluation of the tide-components.
_ 58. In order to eliminate signs in the Tables (which greatly facilitates the
summation of the different tide-values in the computation of the tide-height
at any moment), the amplitude of each tide has been added, throughout each
Table, to the calculated heights for the stated hour-angles. An example of
each kind of Table is here given, from which will be more readily understood
what has been done. The following represent the values of the height (h)
of the tide, being the smaller component (L) of the elliptic semidiurnal tide,
due to the revolution of the moon’s perigee. The heights are computed for
every ten degrees of hour-angle (H.A.), The first Table gives the height as
computed from the formula h= R, cos (2nt—e,)=0-56 ft. x cos (2nt—148°°85),
In the second the value of R, has been added to each value of h. The limits
of the first Table are +R, and —R,, and in the second 2R, and 0.

nt or HA. h nt or HA, nt or H.A. h nt or H.A. h
_ SS a ie oe
° 180 —0'48+ go 270 ° 180 0°08 9° 270 1°04
10° ~~ 190 0°35 160 286 | I0 190 O'21 100 © «280s oro
20 °° 200 =0°18+ IIo 290°} 20 200 0°38 110 290 O'74
30,,... 210 +o'or— 120 300 30 -..2O 0°57 120 300 0°55
40 . 220 0°20 130 310 40 220 0°76 130 310 ©6036
50 230 0°37 140 320 50 230 0°93 140 320 O'lg
60 240 0"49 150 330 60 240 1°05 150 339 0°07
7O 250 0°55 160 340 70 250 Terr 160 340 oor
80 260 O55 170 350 80 260 Ilr 170 350 oor

99 270 + +048— ~— 180 360 99 “270 I'04 180 - 369 0°08

128 REPORT—1870,

In the first Table the values of A represent the height of the tide due to
this component, referred to mean sea-level (A, of analyzed series); in the
second Table they are referred to a fictitious level, R, feet (0-56), below the
mean level. Supposing the value of all the amplitudes of the tide-factors to
be so added throughout the whole of the Tables, the resulting correction to
the summation of tide-heights found for any time will be A,X—ZR. This
method gets rid of all signs and renders the work of the calculator much
lighter.

59. The true hour-angle of each of the fictitious stars was then found for the
commencement of the series of tide-heights proposed to be computed (1869,
April 24" 0" Greenwich mean time). Leverrier’s places of the sun and
Hansen’s places of the moon have been used throughout these reductions.
Each hour-angle was then found in its proper column in the Table of hour-
angles formed at the commencement of these reductions, and which can be
found within a small fraction of a degree in a Table extending through 369
days. The consecutive hour-angles in the Table will be the correct argu-
ments for the heights for 1869, April 244 15, 2h, &. The height (h) was
then taken from each Table in succession, using the true hour-angle as found
above for argument. The sum of the nine values of / thus found, together
with the correction A,— ZR, will represent the height of the water above the
datum-line at first chosen, neglecting the long-period tides, which for Liver-
pool (§ 63) were found to be very small. A series of heights for every hour
of the day for 13 days was thus formed and compared with the heights taken
from the diagram-sheet ($ 56), and the differences taken. The average dis-
crepancy was about ;4; foot and the maximum 2 feet. The differences
showed considerable regularity of disagreement; and it appeared probable
that the tide-components, varying with the inclination of the moon’s orbit,
did not vary strictly according to the law of the equilibrium theory. It was
thought advisable to reduce another year for the determination of the law of
change, and a period of 3694 3", commencing 1866, January 234 0", was
chosen for this purpose. This period gave very nearly a minimum inclination
of moon’s orbit to earth’s equator, whilst the first year (1857-58) gave nearly
a@ maximum yalue. The results of the declinational tide-factors obtained from
the analysis of this year were not very different from what would have been
obtained from the values for the previous years according to the equilibrium
theory, but nevertheless indicated that these tides varied to a less extent than
what that theory gave.

60. The results for Liverpool for 1866-67 are as follows :—

A,=16°8998. Average inclination of Moon’s orbit to Earth’s equator =18° 21’,

8 M L N K O 1
R, 0'0470 SHEE) TU MS Shade Maes 0°3278 0°3058 O'1409
€; 39°'04 BEC On eR en Recess 281°°60 312°°74 88°43
R, 3°1304. 10'2713 06015 2°1608 C6340" 0 Rereees sevens
€, 11°63 325°°55 124.°°08 301°°S9 9°°03, accent rarer
R, eevece C'OB02e = “haste... eR taseeah reece = =—§ teens focece
Cae | ee iedeeas 335°°27 “35 Eeh MPSS r : A sssch, Sem uenatts *
R, 0°0475 O7628) Gases S Of Merwe eh ||” ORS. oe CONS tos, Tapes taee
ro 314.°°32 B24 °1O) hes Gh eee | Oe eae’ ati ee
Bee: SRERe. 0°2057 bce) OR Retecen SR eee Deana
len ep YRRae Ban SOmee we gsteas ok Me i. cce ME OT. Shui! 8 atone
ace. Weabeeete 0°0667 Sessa. jek! Raccee eat) A kseeine abgane Seeite

le eo 282°'09 Sonvey) eee owen oats

oresre teeeee

TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 129

This year’s results were incorporated with the previous three years and
new tables, using average values, formed, and the heights recomputed and
again compared with a similar although somewhat improved result to what
had before been obtained.

61. It appearing probable that a closer approximation to the movement of
the moon than what is given by a mean motion, including the motion of her
perigee, would give a closer agreement between the actual and the calculated
heights, it was thought advisable to extend the schedule of arguments (§ 2).
Accordingly the terms depending on the two next largest perturbations of the
moon (the evection and variation corrections) have been included. The argu-
ments of the components for the evection semidiurnal tide are 2(y—4¢+4a—~n)
and 2(y—3o—3a@+n), and for the variation semidiurnal tides 2(y—n) and
2(y—2c+n). One of the components of the variation tide, having the
same period as the solar semidiurnal, is necessarily included in the results of
the analysis which we have performed for the latter. Our new terms are
therefore reduced to three. Series of hour-angles of these arguments (named
for brevity \, v, and ») have been formed and added to our Table. The
period chosen for the ) and y series was 3491 22", and for the p series
369" 3", each period eliminating in the summation of each the effect of the
lunar semidiurnal tide. The results of the four years’ analyses of these tides
are :—

X (evection).

-_ sh
1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1866-67.
7 O"'4091 0'2262 o'1165 0'2369
€5 141°°68 134.°°46 191°'08 175°°95
y (evection).
CT Oro nw re YY
R, 0°7423 0°6303 o'2841 0°7182
Gyn 33307791 284° or 261°°09 278° 43
pt (variation).
=- — SS
R, 02860 02259 0°3076 o'2561
€ 31°72 42.°°04 32°55 32°°42

62. Tables of these components have been formed, and the heights due to
each added to the height of the sum of the original nine tide-factors, A,—£R
having been corrected, and the differences again taken. These differences
: showed clearly four distinct maxima and minima for each day; and it ap-
peared highly probable that the (Helmholtz) compound luni-solar tide of

period 2(2y—a—n) mentioned in § 24 was of considerable value for Liver-
_ pool. The differences having been grouped according to hours of this length
_ (hereafter termed MS), its existence was placed beyond doubt. The four

years’ observations have been analyzed for its estimation with the following
results :—

; MS.

a SSS Se ee Se ee ew
1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1866-67.

é R, 04379 0°3488 0°3879 0°4635

7, €, 270°68 265°°86 270°'49 269°°45

There was a sensible value for A,, B, in each of the above series. The
_ comparative largeness of A,, B, of Series L for Ramsgate, § 23, and for Liver-
- § 37, is probably due to this luni-solar quarter-diurnal tide, the period
570. K

130 REPORT—1870.

of cach being nearly of the same value. This eomponent has been ineluded
in the calculations of the actual heights.

63. The above four years’ observations have been analyzed for the long-
period tides, but the resulting amplitudes were very small; and there was so
little agreement between the epochs as deduced from the several years, that
they were deemed not satisfactorily evaluated. The solar annual tide, how-
ever, gave a moderate agreement, the mean value for the four years being
0:36 foot, and the epoch 238°5, which places its maximum about Novem-
ber 19; but this is probably due in the main to meteorolegical causes, Tho
differences between the calculated and actual heights, after being corrected
for the quarter-diurnal luni-solar tide, also showed that the synodic fort-
nightly tide of period 2(¢—»n) is of sensible value; and the present non-
agreement between the analyzed values of the four years may be owing to
the influence of wind, barometric disturbance, and also of instrumental errors
extending over considerable periods, and seriously affecting the daily means
which are the basis of reduction for the long-period tides. If the purified
daily means had been corrected for barometer &c., as in the discussion of the
Port-Leopold tide observations by Capt. Sir J. C. Ross (Phil. Trans. 1854), it
is very probable that more satisfactory results would have been obtained,
The following are the results for the Long-period Tides :—

(o-— @) 20 2(o—n) n 27

Pe ro fie 01046 0093 0'068 0°359 0'090

1857-58. { e€ 28974 170°7 11178 2096 144°1

B R orr98 0'037 0'020 0'284 O'104
5R_A

1858 59. { fe 31°6 148°°8 325°°5 258°7 269°°6

1859-60. pe or152 oro24 0°079 0°353 o"190

Ge 172-0 72°°9 30374. 213°°4 112°3

2 R 0072 0'036 0'053 0'452 o'185

1866-67. { € 25978 340°°6 67°°9 272°°3 228°°7

64. The retardation of the phase of spring-tides is determined by dividing
the difference between the epochs of the mean solar and mean lunar semi-
diurnal tides (e, of series 8 and M respectively) by twice the daily difference
between the mean motions of the moon and sun. Taking the average of
epochs for the four years, we have

11%15~--325°-27 4588

S119. = 24-389 1-882 =1* 21" 10™ (after moon’s syzygies) ;

similarly the coincidence of phase of the declinational diurnal tides (P and O)
is (applying the proper correction to e, of series O)

98°°69—311°-97 14672
2x12°191 «24-382

=61-:018 = 64 0 26™ (after moon’s syzygies).

Taking the mean of the epochs of each of the tide-components as deter-
mined by the analysis of the four years’ observations, and expressing cach
mean value thus obtained in mean solar time, we have the following Table ~
of values for Liverpool :—

TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 131

8 R T M L N MS
hm hm hm hm hm hm hm
f GSA avciess| . | gaaiee em Bere th Sera tere
65 © 22°3 Ay 5207 I 44°9 Il 13°3 Gack IO, 4209) + vestes
ccs 8 acetic. | | aeae sc 7 29°4 secur OT ee acc
6 BRAT F Ma eccera’ . UW Noakes 3) ASIG on MGT 1 a a 4 33°38
RS 9:°807 RR een > Gap
[, . « @hasGe ai ete ee Zotar ee yh OC ere
K O P r v pe
hm hm hm hm hm hm
€) 18 38°7 22 40°4 GigE Re, ae 0 Oe eee
€, Cs CARY Oe hime 5 27°5 9 552 I 14'4

A comparison between the calculated and recorded heights for Liverpool
is appended (§ 68).

65. The Ramsgate observations for 1864 have again been taken up, and
the yalue of the tide-components for the series not included in the Report
for 1868 have been calculated. The whole is here given, and the epochs
have been corrected and are reckoned from the true hour-angles of each.

Yr. 1864. A=r1o0'r988 ft. Average inclination of moon’s orbit to earth’s equator-=20°'30.

8 M L N MS
R, DiOGigte ea rcccssy ! TA Gite EAS | wee nae
6 QUI. Va Arece eame cri ens errtar petiee
R, 18772 6°3078 0°3856 11126 “pack
€, 32°°70 339°°43 186°28 310°°31 rants
155 Seer EN. Mirna Na heraati a yr neler 5
Cree fenberes is ate Neteallaaat AP Pada: dual ey te allen ap
R, 00315 BR b wcatas aes 0°3332
& 4°"19 Sar ig ae FW ORL POL 125°°35
R, 00268 Se eto ee ee le Ce crane
€5 27°°04 FAQPIGO) Sete, adsgg
ee Mies see OPOGGD | o cshstre! 09 9 secreewig Oe aeeaee
AME asiiag “ PREC CS A eet wg meee OM PoE st tees
Kk O ne r v he
R, 0°2070 0°3008 0'0740 peeve “Tr RODE 4 Senonne
€ 100°°75 99°°34. BESO N eet & ee ene tees grmaneee
R, SADIQ FEM LO eeveves 01785 0°3526 0'2639
&, 10°55 ices Upesfaenee. 169°°97 328°°05 83°°79
Long-period Tides.
(o—w) 20 2(o—n) n 2n
R 010316 0'0331 o'0960 0°1270 0'0748
6 45°'09 2.68°°29 207°°85 180°'97 288° 02
Retardation of phase of Spring-tides of gho,m

Coincidence of phase of Declinational tides 64 16% ph eihce mioan Hieysyiaes

66. Through the kindness of Prof. Peirce of the U. 8. Coast Survey a series
of tide observations, taken at Fort Point, San Francisco Bay, California, from
1858, October 1, to 1859, September 30, has been received and thoroughly
analyzed, The epochs are referred to true hour-angles.

REPORT-—1870.

¥r.1858-s9. A,=$8-7103{ft. Average inclination of mcon’s orbit to earth’s equator =28°'o

132
8
R, 0°0146
€) 211°°96
R, 04067
fy -334°°24
R, peenee
€, eeenee
R, very
ror small,
L
R, o'05g1
6, 102,°°63
(o—@)
R 0°0093
€ 169°'9

M K O ie MS
0°0539 1°3370 o'8917 O'9672.0 |i aueeee
46°°30 192°°17 BES T6%52" Were.
176694. OA75Q ests. | eee

330°°81 ATO Apa SE csc
VERY Piece me a iaccss: 8 hae
Broall Seem Picccccs. US eccec ann eee
ClOGTG) Fereseee cess || ee 00248
220832 a ME ce agienesiles y YP ) Saaree g20-38
N r y ru
0°3931 0'0372 o' 1044 0°0257
303°°46 188°"30 287°°23 254.°°34
Long-period Tides.
20 2(6—n) n 2n
00586 00183 o'2119 0°2244.
145°°3 211°'0 EG Ae) 201°°4

Retardation of phase of Spring-tides

3
Coincidence of phase of Declinational tides of 12" 55™

of h gam

after moon’s syzygies.

A comparison between the calculated and recorded heights for Fort Point
is appended (§ 69).

67. A series of tide observations extending through two years, commencing
1868, May 1, taken by the Manora self-registering tide-gauge at Kurrachee,
has been received from W. Parkes, Esq., M. Inst. C.E.; and the following
series have been analyzed for each year separately, with the exception of the
solar elliptic semidiurnal tides (Series R and T), for which the tide-com-
ponents have been evaluated from the two years combined. The epochs are
The datum-line is 2 feet below the datum-line

referred to true hour-angles,
of the diagram-sheets.

Yr. 1868-69. A,=7'1488ft. Average inclination of moon’s orbit to earth’s equator=19°°63.

8 M L N MS
R, C0709. Uadiecsse)) | GEESE. cs... _ ea
€, TViOe 57 > “coker secs Bo mete ote. Pee
R, 0°9323 2°5859 00804 16227 Qieeerscs
6, 322° 972, 295°°78 108°°67 28Oe 30 | Sierra
ye Yeoeene CICABGiace? lscrss | ance) eee nee
(ag (9° -sauoso AAicceloe OMpite en! ” eeNecss. | Munuaenpee
R, very Gorey, YF sess 0'0173
4 small AGS CAGE aso. RPLO Novos 216°°79
R, maces SHOE UYT A > a sace. SS amwaBsoas Bence
Ce) obacn COGS SLM Seren cor aamoronoG, Ge) ogecindace
K co) ie r v a
111669 = o'5688 03755 oH ee shades 8 eee
142787 308°°37 316° 35 ddotea © TOR aie en) Me
OAS ors Mens Meads 00613 O'1955 0'0703
BA0°°2 5 | Bnei fir ONT att ‘ 156°°46 255°'63 269°'99

Oe ee

TIDAL OBSERVATIONS, 133
Long-period Tides.
(o—w) 20 2(o—n) n 2n
R 0°076 0'038 0"009 O11 0°198

€ 247°°73,-335°'40 326°"1g 43°°96 81°98

Yr. 1869-70. A,=7°2908ft. Average inclination of moon’s orbit to earth’s equator = 21°18,

S) M L N MS
R, COCA Saat Oa leckasiae Db. | ae Mem ts. 8
€ Dae SOMME ders | estet au eee eee

R, 0°9425 2°4974. 0°0365 OhG87) ae 2...
5 323°°68 297°°24 140°°69 282284" Rs

1h eee ORBIT cary: ge Pec eee, on eee
Gare koree tas BBG OU Vote | ace eke One
very COWRA RN iccdes Atte eect 0°02 36
&y small. Loo See Mee mn ee 181°°30
type) h wecsa' SO4G4 6 sheet ee
GR detiree BUS eTO} FU. i ee PR SR 2
K O Ie X v le
R, 1°1907 0°5905 Oi385C pokes oes Nee, beceeee
& 144°'73 309°°94 B20 27; “Sanaa eee ee 5 eee
R, SCReae @ Ade | events. 0°0381 0°08 32 0°0333
€, GROmaa TC OC sSasiee NS: s2c02. g1°"56 224.°°40 227°°72,
Years 1868-69 and 1869-70 combined.
R T
R, 0°0353 o'1108
é, 12°°04. 38°°96

| The following are the results of two of the elliptic diurnal tide-components,

whose arguments (§ 2) are (y+-o—a) and (y—30+qa), termed hereafter J
and Q. The period chosen for their evaluation was 3704 5",. These results
have been obtained since the Liverpool Meeting.

Series J. Series Q.
ae — TS he
1868-69. 1869-70. 1868-69. 1869-70.
7 070800 0°0434. O'IIIO O1100
6 178°'58 165°°88 308°°23 320°°34
Retardation of phase of Spring-tides =14%o095=14 2h 17™) after moon’s
Coincidence of phase of Declinational tides =0%365=04 8" 46™f syzygies.

A comparison between the calculated and recorded heights for Kurrachee
is appended (§ 70). A graphic representation of the heights of high and low
water, as calculated by the system of harmonic analysis and the method pur-
sucd by Mr. Parkes, together with the actual recorded heights for Nov. 1869,
also accompanies this Report.

68. The series of hourly tide-heights (1869, April 24 to May 6), caleu-
lated for St. George’s Pier, Liverpool, referred to above, are here given, and
will give a moderately accurate idea of the amount of precision at present
arrived at. It must not, however, be forgotten that the recorded heights are
not corrected in any respect, and include all instrumental errors &c. The value
of the Helmholtz shallow-water quarter-diurnal tide (MS) is given in a
separate column, and its effect shown in improving generally the preceding
differences.

134

Hour.

CON] An fw bw O

ve)

ON QAnhW NH O

Ke)

4 Calculated
height, C.

30°74
25°84
19°52
12°94
7°04.
2°93
1°38
5°15
12°03
20°13
26°68
3119
31°54
27°85
21°73
15°09
8°83
414
2°13
401
9°97
18°03
25°39
30°52

Recorded
height, R.

April 24.
é «4
al od
5 2s
HO Sm
A ae
ft. ft.
+046 —o'29
+0°63 —o'40
0700 | —O'll
—o'23 +0°28
+o°ol -+0'40
+0°93 + OIL
+1'°24. —0°27
=—o18 —o'40
—22097. “= Oa3
—O7I 40°25
—o80 +0"40
—o'78 +0'16
+0°1I3 —0'25
+083 —o'4I
+o1r —o'18
—o'48 +0'23
—037 +0'41
+062 +0'18
i732) 0:20
+1°64 —o'4I
+028 —o'21
+022 +0°17
—oO'Ig9 +0°41
—0'40 +0'23
April 26.
+014 +0'02
+0'94 —0°34
+1°32, —0'36
+064 —o'C2
—0o'56 +034
—0'87 +0°37
+028 +005
+225 —0°33
+153, —0'38
+0°03 —0'08
+0708 -+0°31
+TSsS 1039
+014 +O'I!
+085 —0'29
+-%°33 5 —GA0
+089 —o'IO
—0'47 +0°27
—o'86 +o40o
0°37 O14
+1°71 —0'27
+2°37. —0'40
+083 —016
4049 0°25
+092 -+0°'40

REPORT—1870.
ou Ge
a ae
5a 5 Ba
B+ HSS
AS Os
ft. ft.

Oy Oo 26°52

+0723 t) 2007

—o'll 2 14°85

+05 | 3 874

+O'F4l 4 A338

+ 1°04 5 243

+097 6 441

—o'58 7 10°30

—I1'Io 8 17°86

—o46 9 24°90

—o"40 10 29°61

—o62 IL) Sr12

—o'l2 Eo 29°57

+0'42 T3\ 23°36

—0'07 tA. 1707

—0'25 15 10°86

+0°04 16 5°71

+o°80 i770 2°76
+1°53 18 3°58

+123 Ig 841

+0°07 20 15°90

+0°39 255 23:30

0°22 22 29°03

O17 23 31°76

+0'16 O 32°00

+o'60 I 29°50
+0°96 2 24°I2
+0°62 3. 17°54

—o'22 4 10°99

—0'50 5 5°56

+0°33 6 2°26

+1°92 7 EES

+115 8 6:36

— 0°05 9 1448

+0°39 TO -22°5%

+0'98 11 28°68
0°25 12 31°86
+0°56 13 30°90
+0°93 14 26°05

+079 By TOS 7

—0'20 16 12°92

—0'46 7-718

—0'23 18. 3°29

+144 19 2143

+197 29 Diag

+0°67 BL § 32°28
+0°74 22 20°32
+1°32 23 27°06

April 25
os ae}
aS Ss
als! (2)
ft ft.
267% +0'42
198 -- 1°27
14°2 +0°65
gz —o'46
48 —0'47
2-4, =-ong
Ze 2. OL
8-7 +1°'60
181 —0'24.
2570 —O'1O
296 -+0'o1
314 —o'28
23°6 —0'03
22°r +1°26
161 +0'97
10'7. +0'16
62 —o'49
31 —032
2°r +1°48
57 +2°71
14°5 +1'40
2371 +0'26
28°6 +0743
31°7. +0°06

April 27.
319 +0°10
291 +040
22°3 +1°82
165 + 1°04
Irl —oO'1r
62 —o0'64
2°9 —0'64
ape A pacts
4:0 «+2786
13'I) +1'38
22°2 +-0°31
27°99 +0°78
312 + +0°66
304 +0750
25'0° + 1's
126 +0°97
12°99 +0°02
8:0 = —o'82
42 —o'gI
22. 4-023
30 12°49
98 +243
gO +1°32
260 +1°06

Value of
MS tide, H.

ft.
—o'l4
—o'40
—o26
+o14
+041
+026
—ol2
—o'4o
—o'28
+0°09
+0°39
+0'30
—o'06
—o'38
—o'31
+0°06
+0°38
+0°32
—0'O3
=o
= 0333
+o'o!
+0°36
+036

+o'18
—o'22
—o'7“41
—o'21
-+o'20
+o°41
+o'21
—o'20
—o'7>o1
—0°24
+017
+o°41
+0°26
—O'15
—o'4o
—o'28
+or1r
+0°40
+0'28
—o'12
—o'4o
—o'29
+o0°09
+0°39

Difference,
C+H—-R.

+0'28
+087
+0'39
— 0°32
—o'06
+0'39
+1°89
+1°20
—0'52
—oO'o!
+o'40
+0o0'02
—o'09
+0°88
+0°66
+0°22
—o'll

o'00
+145
+2°34
+107
+0'27
+0'79
+042

+0'28
+018
+1°41
+033
+0°09
—0'23
— 0°43
+115
42°45
+114
+048
+119
+0'92
+0°35
+0°65
+0°69
+013
—0'42
—0'63
+o'11
+2°09
+2714
+141
+145

‘

Hour,

WO CON ANRAW YP HO

Ns: Gee UKE OF a O

re f Calculated
= height, C.

w
~
uy
i}

27°89
21°92
15°37
“41
ae
2°65
404
9°38
17°18
24°56
29°63
31°41
29°17
23°71
17°21
I'l]
6°22
3°46
3°91
771
14°76
22°29

23°42
27°77
29°26
27°57
23°01
17°46
12°44,
8:61
6°03
5197,
8°88
14°66
2122
26°18
28°24
23°08
24°50
19K
13°89
9°69
6°89
6°05
7°75
12°29

Recorded
height, R

22°38
26'9
28°83
27°2
22°1
17'I
124
86
57
50
32
14°0
20°6
25°5
28°2
27°8
24°0
18°6
14°4.
10°3
Vi
SHS)
6°6
112

», Difference,
c-R.

+ 1°00
+0°62
+1'c9
+142
+077
—o'og
—0°30
+0°25
+2°14.
+2°38
+ 1°08
+0'96
+1°53
+121
+-1'07
+1°'21
+071
—0'23
—o'63
— 0°34.
+-rqi
42°71
+2°16
+ 1°29

April 30.
+062
+0°87
+0746
+037
+o'91
0°36
0°04
+oror
0°33
+0'97
+068
+0°66
+0'62
0°68
+o'04
+028
+o'50
0°51
—o'51
—o'ér
—or'2I
+0'75
+115
+1'09

TIDAL OBSERVATIONS.

o'r
+026
—o14
—0'40
—o'28
--oll
+0°39
0°30
—o'09
ae)
—0'29
0°09
+038
+0°32
—o'06
—0'38
O35
+003
+0736
+0°36
—o'or
—0'36
—0°36
—o'02

Difference,
C+H-R.

+1'03
+113
+0'32
— 0°03
+0°63
+047
+0°43
+O'31
+0'24
0°58
+0°39
+0°75
-+1'0o
+1'00
—0°o2
—O'1I0
+017
0°54
—o'rs
—O'25
—0O°22
+0°39
+°'79
+107

Hour.

CI AnHwW NH O

33 Calculated
sO height, C.

(es)
[o}
[o>)
oo

29°80

Nv
nan
in
w

19°50

-
cous
SU
a oo

5°00
4°01

oy
Ww
oN

12°17
19°58
25°84
2959
25199
26°78
21°25
15°26

9°98

6°12

445

5°62
10°09
16°94

18°41
23°70
26°75
Birces
25°20
20°34
16:09
12°11

9°20

Ter?

8°16
II‘i7
16°43
21°37
25°56
27°14
26°05
22°39
17°85
13°42
10°20

3°13

784

9°61

April 29.
as 3
Ba Gel
Sm 2
a2 &
ft. ft.
26°7 +1'21
29°7 +0'98
29° -+0°70
24°4 113
186 -+0'90
134 +018
86 —o'm4
51i = —o'ro
ack ea-o'gt
47 +166
Ilo) + I'I7
189 +0°68
24'°9 +0°94
28'°6 +0'99
291 +089
261 +0°68
20°3. +0°95
15 -+or16
10°"5) —o'52
67 —o'58
473 Ors
4:0 +1°62
84 1°69
156 1°34

May 1
ZI + 1°31
23°0 0°70
262 0°55
27°72 -+0'23
25°2 0°00
20°4 --0°44
16°3 —o'21
12°3. —oO'19
92 0°00
71 +0'60
74 +0°76
1o"4 0°77
05°7 PP STS
23°30 O57
2571 +046
27°1 =FO°04
26°74 0°35
22°6 —o'21
182 —0°35
14°93 —o0'88
108 —o'60
82 —0'07
38 east
89 +oO°71

Value of
MS tide, H.

+0°34
+0°37
+o0'o2
ORE
—0'38
—0'0S
0°32
0°39
+o0'08
—o'31
—o'40
—o'1o
+or29
+0°39
+o'1r
—0'27
—o'40
—0'%3
025
++0'40
+o0'16
—0'25
—o'4!
—o'18

Difference,
C+H—-R.

+1'65
+107
+057
—o'lo
—o'38
+0°39
+o1r
+0'20
+008
TO'29
0°36
+0°67
+102
-+0°96
+0'57
—0'23
= 075
BRS
—o'lo
—o48
—d O44.
—0'32
-+o'10
+053

136

Hour.

CON AnfwWN HO

Con AnPwWN HO

> Calculated
height, C.

9°95
11°03
14°10
17°99
21°02
22°84
23°07
2035
18°93
16°72
14°72
12°87
11°43
7
13°CQ
16°73
20°27
22°73
23°81
23°00
Boe,
17°90
15°46
13°16

Recorded
height, 2.

91
10°74
13°2
17°70
20'1
21°9
22°6
21°5
19°2
16°5
14'0
11'7
10°4
10'S
122
15°7
19°3
21°9
23°4.
2D
21°]
17°9
15°0
12°6

May 2.

Difference,
C—Rk.

Value of
MS tide, 1.

ft.
+o'22
041
+018
—0o'20
—o'7“r
—o'21
+017
+o-41
+023
—oO14
—o'4o
—o'26
+o14
+or40
+0o'28
—o'l2
—o'40
—o'28
+0'09
+0'39
0°30
—o'0g
—o'38
—0o731

—o'll
+027
+040
+o14
—0'24
—o'7“1
—O'14
0°25
o'40
+018
—0'22
—o'7“!
—O'21
+020
+or4r
+o'21
—o'1rg
—o'7“41
—0'24
+017
+c41
+0'26
—cC'l4
—0o'40

Difference,
C+H—-R.

+074
+0'90
+1°30
+113
+0°68
+ 0°53
+0°33
+0710
+013
0°40
+050
+0°76
+082
+087
+1°30
124
+078
0°42
4or7
—O1C3
— C16
-+0°26
0'32
+016

Hour.

Se
OO CON ANLWN FH OW CONI DANHPW NH O

CON AnfPwW bw O

REPORT—1870.

% = = Calculated
Ww
Nn

~ Lal

cof 0
Nw height, C.
Sess

22°07
23°89
2397,
21°91

18°76
15°90
13°63
11°86
10°83
1I‘07
13°30
17°18
20°96
23°44
24°37
23°28
20°38
17°17
ays)
12°34
10°71

1121
9°94
Ol 5#
13°56
17°29
20°41
22°47
23°14
23°74
19°70
17°63
15°42
Ae)
11°06
1O"S1
12°53
16°20
19°88
22°60
24°07
23°47
21°29
18°70
16°03

May 3.
a2 A
ft. ft.
104 +0°34
13:9 +0742
18°3 0°42
21°4. +067
232 +069
23°3 40°67
20°5 -+o4I
18:4 +036
15°5 +0"40
12°99 0°73
110) 6—+0°86
oI +073
106 +047
12°§ +0750
1675 +068
201 +086
22°6 +084
23°38 40°57
2371 +018
20°3 +0°08
170 +0O'17
1470 0°55
114 0°94
96 +111

May 5
106 =-+0°61
g6 +0°34
10°2- +0°34
12°75 +1°06
161 +1°19
20°0 +041
22°4. --0°07
236 —o046
2371 —1°36
20°8 —1'10
178 —o'17
I5I 0°32
12°6 +0°39
1o'9 =+0716
1c'6 —c'cg
1rg9) =+0°63
igi +1710
19°3 0758
22°6 c'co
246 —c'53
246 —1'13
22°6 —1-31
I1g'0 —0'30
159 033

Value of
MS tide, H.

+0'06
+0°38
+0°32
—o'04
Be ei
Tes
+or'or
+0°36
10°35
+o'02
0°34
—o'36
—0'02
0°32
+0'38
+0705
038
—0'38
—o'08
+0731
+0°39
+o'1l
—0'29
—o'40

—0'27
+o'12
+o'40
+o'29
—0'09
TS
—0'29
+0'09
+0°39
+0°32
—o'c6
—0'38
=a
+0'03
+0°37
+034
—o'o!
—0'36
BeBe
+or'or
+0736
t-0°37,
+o0'o2
ei}

Difference,
C+H-R.

+4+t+++
° (oom)
oey op”
bd oo

+4444
90000
BRVAP

+0°72
+°°75
+075
+052
+0°37
+0'45
+0°82
+1'06
torr
+or51
+o'19
+o°'lo
+0°39
+0'56
+0°66
+0°65
+o71

+0'34
+0746
+074
+1°35
+1°I0
+0'02
—0'22
= Os
pred)!
—o'78
—0'23
—o'c6
+o'c6
+019
+028
+0'97
+ 1'c9
+0'22
= 235
—0'52
Seis
a or
—o'28
—o21

TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 137

May 6.

3 . os o oak g Z a rine Py cored ons
Pees Se et 2g £ eee ee egies’ comme

aes ia. - 4g - Be a5 jag ee 4, Poe

ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft.
© 1311 1277 +041 —0'38 +003 I2 15°31 154 —o'09 —oO'4O0 —O0'49
I 1046 107% +006 —o'05 +0'0I 13 12°28 «12°95 —0'22 —O'913 —0°35
fs -03° °° O'2 “—0'27- -+-0°32 =F 0°05 14 986 10% —o0'74 +4+0°27 —0°47
3. 979 +97 +009 +0738 +047 15 952 102 —o'68 -++o'40 —0'28
4 13°05 12°33 +0°75 +0'c3 +0°83 16 11°93 12° —o'17 +0716 —o'OI
5 17°07 164 +067 —o31 +0'36 17 16°08 3159 +018 —0'22 —o'04
6 2045 20°6 —o'1§ —0739 —0'54 18 20°09 2072 —O'1l —O'F4I —O'52
7 22°98 238 —o'82 —o'08 —o'g0 Ig 23°11 24:0 —o'89 —O'II —1'00
8 23°72 254 —1'68 +031 —1°37 20 24°98 261 —1'I2 +025 —0°87
9 22°60 24:8 —2°20 +039 —r81 21 24°35 26% —1'75 +0741 —1°34
3O 2147 2271 —0'63 +oO1L —0'52 22 22°04 2376 —1°56 +018 —1°38
ir 1815 #186 —045 —0'29 —0'74 23 «1914 19% —046 —0'22 —0'68

69. The following is a comparison for fourteen days, commencing 1859,
March 16, of the recorded heights at Fort Point, San Francisco Bay, Cali-
fornia, with the heights calculated from the analyzed tide-components (§ 66).
In the calculation of the heights, the mean level of the water as determined
by the observations for the whole year was used. The difference between
this mean level and the mean of the twenty-four hourly heights (corrected
for all sensible lunar influence) for each day is also given. The effect of this
is to greatly improve the differences(C—R). The following tide-components
were omitted in the calculations :—the whole of the long-period tides, the
luni-solar semidiurnal tides \ and p, and the Helmholtz shallow-water quarter-
diurnal tide MS. The computations are for Jocal time.

1859, March 16. 1859, March 17.

ey ae del gh 2 ee ee
PRE ei BE «RE RG #
me 2 8 gb fed ge wg ES §2 gb gaa ge

os Fa A Ag 2B os Fe A AS Ad

ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft.
© 903 88 +023 —0'24 —oro!I O45 10:20) 10% 0700 )6~—O'II —O'll
I 7°56 70 +0'56 +0°32 I 882 86 +022 +o11
2 626 57 +0°56 +0°32 Fe, 7EAy © Flee Ogee +013
3 544 SO +044 ++0'20 Fi O15! Snares +014
Meee 520 650) +026 +0'02 An 552) 5h Oz, +oro1
Rees 72 855 022 ee Sie 557 57S) Sats O07 oie
fee067 «| 6°5 -+-017 —0'O7 6 624 63 —o'06 —O'17
793) «76 +033 +F0°09 Po-T34 Tho O06 ong
feeegi27 «= 90. | +027 +0:03 8 868 85 +018 +0'07
9 1036 99 +046 +022 9 995 98 +015 +004
IO 10°95: 10° -0'°S5 +0°31 10 10°38 10% +028 +017
II 10°92 Icq 0°52 +0'28 ify EE2E, 1570. --awz +o'10
12 10°28 10°0 +028 +0°04. IZ 10°37 10°38 +0'C7 —o'c4h
13. 928 92 +008 —o'16 13-9196) 1010) | —arcr —O'1s
4 825 «79 +0°35 torr 14 877 87 +0°07 —0'04
m7 AT 8=7'°2.) +0127 +0703 Tie 70a. ihe Oln +orol
ees 23 «7% +013 —o'll 16 689 68 -0'09 —o'oz
TAQ 775 .—O:01 —0'25 17. 673 68 —o'07 —o'18
18 822 83 —o'c8 —o'32 IS. 7548-752, » —o102 —O'1l3
ie 92r 8 869°3 ~—0C'C9 —Osag Ig 805 82 —O'I5 —o'26
20 1023 1072 +0°C3 —o'21 20 QI9 9g —O'OI —o'12
21 i108 I1'r —o'c2 —o'26 21 10°26 to +016 +0°05
See INAr «i°3° = C°rL —Ong 22 %105 10 -+0°05 —o'06

ge 0I%3 r1'2 —co7 —o'31 23 «11°34 1173 40°04 —0'07

188

H
> = Calculated
height, C.

© 10°94
I 9°96
2 859
Be — 722
4 620
5 «582
6 611
7 6°93
8 815
9 9°46
IO 10°57
Il 11'24
Tort 27,
13 10°61
14 9°48
15 S14
16 6°99
17 6°39
18 640
19 6°99
20 «798
amit) O33
22 10°21
23. «10°95
© 10°67
I 10°76
2 10°26
oe ey She
4 823
Se RE
6 6°88
7 corded
89953
9 ©6862
IO =9'70
Ir 10°64
i 11-24
EBS fe teh Fo)
14 10°78
ay ot
LO © 93:37
"i iatag'y pat)
gees (ants
19 5°89
20 «49614
21 6°86
22 7°87
23 8192.

1859, March 18.

Recorded
height, R.

~~
00 Om
wm Ow

ORS Ree Se eee
# ONIN] CON N COS

Difference,
C—R.,

Excess of
daily mean,
AAo.

OF
O°
O°

+0°05

REPORT—1870.
ea . go
54 eh cS
Bot GS) pre
a iss} 23
Ad oa
ft. ft.

+0°04. OTe i as

—o'o4, I 10°63

0°09 2 19°63

+o'12 Be48°35
0°00 aS 7°18

—0'08 5-643

—o'lg 6 6°34

—O'17 7. 6°82

O15 Bs 9°79

+0°06 9 ©6898

0°07 IO 10°13
0°24 Il IX'OL
+017 12 11°38
+o'1r 13 Il'0g
+0°08 14 10°21

fo24 15 892

+019 £6) 47°55

+019 ry» 6°52

+020 18 6:04

org To "672%

+0'28 20 ~©6"g0

Sieck Noa Niece AL

+041 22 9°07

0°55 23 10°07
+0732 Oo 69°78
+021 I 10°32

-+o'ol 2 10°35

eS 3) os

—o'12 A oO

—o'll S887

—o17 697765

SORT 127 CAS

— 0°52 pee kt

—0'43 9 848

O35 SS eS

—o'7“I II 10°23

—o'5i 12 10°95

—o'65 1g 1125

—o'67 14 11°06

—o'54. 15 10°38

—o'28 16 g'21

—O'ls 17 7°91

—0'27 18 6°75

—o'26 19 6603

—O'21 20 5°81

—0'09 Bi 96°14:

-+0'02 22 6°83

4017 Bg h~7776

1859, March 19.
Be gt BBS
ge do ged
Rs a Rs
ft. ft. ft.
107 -o4z2 0716
10°3 0°33

95. ress

8:2 +0°15

770 “+018

64 +0'02

64 —o'06

7o —o18

79 —O'll

go —0'02
10'2 —0'07
10°8 +021
112 +018
Il'l —o‘or
10’2 +0°OI

8:9 ~=++0'02

74 +0715

64 +012

5:9 +014

61 +-o12

67. +0'20

77 +9°23

87 +0°37

98 +0°27
1859, March 21.
9:7 G08: ee ay
10°31 +0°02
105) O15
10'2 —0'29

9S eae

8°38 —0°53

81 —045

So —O0'55

3'3 Bots

gi —o'62

98 —0'47
10°8 ~ —o7157
215 aoe
Il'g —o0'65
II'7 —0'64
10°8 —o'42

96 —0°39

81 —o'1g

69 —O'15

6°1 —0'07

MW eR eee)

61 4-004

67 +013

75 -+0'26

Difference,
C—R+AAp.

+0°45
+0°39
+0'22
+0'08
—0'03
—o'16
—9'08
—o'18
—o'18
—0'25
—or'ro
—0o'20
—o18
—0'28
—0'27
—0'05
—0o'02
+o'18
+o0'22
-+-0°30

+028

+0°41
++0'50
+0°63

Hour.

OW ON AnfwWDHD HO

CO ON HABA bm O

Calcuiated
height, C.

8:66

6°65
7°34
8:08
8°76
9°28
9°55
9°54
9°33
g 12
9°°7
917
9°47
9°89
10°26
10°56
10°68
10°57
10°17
9°43
8°48
747
6°63
6:09
5°93

TIDAL OBSERVATIONS.

1859, March 22.
a 8 eee
Ee ee |
S35 gO Red
al! A As
ft. ft. ft.
84 +026 +013
g2 -+0'24
97 +020
9°99 +0'06
g6 +0°04
gz —O'15
87 —0'25
32 —o'08
8-3. —o'19
87 —o'21
93 —o'16
1070 ~—O'l2
10% —o'05
II'2 —0°'20
II'3 —0'23
Io"9 O15
1070 §=—o'04
8-7 +013
74, ~ *-0:21
6°4 --o-20
5°99 +0°IO
5°77 +012
60 +0°15
66 +017
1859, March 24.
66 -+0°05 =—oO'll
773 +0704
8:0 )=6++-0°08
$6 +016
git +o18
93 +025
94 +O'l4
93 +0703
gi --+o°o2
go +0°07
gi +0°07
93 1O17
96 -+0°'29
Io7o)=6++-0°26
10°3 +0°26
tog +018
10°5 -+0°07
1o°L -+0°07
93 +013
82 +028
71 +0°37
64 +0'23
6.0 =+0°'09
6.0 —o'07

Difference,
C—R+AAp.

—o0'06
—0'07
—0'03
+0°05
+007
+014
+0°03
—o'08
—o'09
—o'o4,
—o'o4
+0°06
+o18
40°15
+0°15
0°07
—o'04.
—o'04.
+0'02
+017
+0°26
+o'12
—o'02
—o'18

Hour.

Leal
OO CON AnfwW Ne O

Calculated
height, C.

Recorded
height, R.

C-R.

Excess of

daily mean,
AAo.

|
°
(o}
mn

1859, March 25.

62
6-6

—o'1o
—0'07

—0'06

1389

Difference,
C—R+AAp.

f
+o'1r
+o'12

0°00
+0°'07
+o'12
+0°06
—o'or
—0o'07
—o'16
—o'ol
—0'05
+o0'09
+o0'14
+0°09
-—0'08
—o1l
—o'16
+007
+0'22
+025
+0'19
+0'22
+0°05
—o'02

—o'16
—0O'13
—o'2I
—o18
—o'16
—0'05
+0°02
—o'09
—o'o8
—o'l2

0°00
+oror
+008
+0703
+o0°09
—o'02
—o1l
—0o'07
—O'15
—o'20
—o'08
—o16
—o18
—0°32

140 REPORT—1870.

1859, March 26. 1859, March 27*.

=i 2 eS 32 Zs 6te 2 se oa

gee Ga au jgies sa tg SEG. ey Se Gee

ceca twee Gel S84 hse Sy Bm Se gad 6 See

ies] 35 os So ele c= las) q a5 o's 8o aie} ET)

65 FE A Ae Ad of Fe A Ag Ad

fi. ft. ft. ft. ft ft. ft. ft. ft. ft.
© 5:95 64 —045 +016 —0'29 Oo” 614 6°5 0796 f-F0:13" —or2,
I 6:04 65 —0'46 —0°30 1’ 5:97 64 *—o4Z —0°30
z2 645 69 —045 —o'29 2 6:02 66 —o'58 —0'>45
a 7 00 75 One —0'28 3 647 69 —0°43 O40
a 983 82 087 —o'2I 4 735 76 —0'45 —0°32
5 864 89 —0'26 —o'lo 5 28702). “3°2 §—or18 —0'05
6 939 94 —o'IO +0°06 6 890 849 0°00 +0713
7 976 98 —o04 +or12 7 958 94 +018 +0°31
8 987 10° —o'13 +0'03 8 10°00 97 +0°30 +0°43
9 978 10° —o-22 —o'06 9 10°02 98 -+0'22 +0°35
10 6956 «86g 8) — 0°24 —o'08 10) 69°82 g'6—_ 0°22 +0°35
II 944 4 9°5 —o0'06 +o°10 II 950 93 +020 +0°33
12 942 94 -+0°02 +o'18 12 926 89 +0°36 +0749
13. 954 94 +014 +0730 13. 916 86 +0756 +0°69
Ha O7l, 1977 {0:01 +017 14 923 86 -+0°63 +0°76
I§ 992 10° —o'08 +0'08 15 939 88 +0°59 +0'72
16 10713 10°2 —0'07 +o0'09 16 968 gi +058 +0'71
17 1031 10% —o'0g +0°07 17 10°00 94 -+0°60 +0°73
18 10°32 1074 —o'08 +0'08 18 1027 96 -+0°67 +080
19 10°03 10°2 —O'I7 —o'ol 19 10°34 917 +0764 +077
20) = 19140 9:5 "0-70 +0°06 20 10°07 95 +0°57 +0°70
21 848 88 —o'32 —o'16 21 942 89 +0752 +0°65
Rees 5) 7 O85 —o'lg 22 852 81 +0742 +0°55
23. 670 770 —o'30 —O'14 23599752 7° -o4Z +0'55

1859, March 28. 1859, March 29.

o 667 61 +0757 —0'54 +0'03 © 743 69 +053 —0'60 —o'07
I 614 57 +044 —o'1o I 6°62 59 6+0°72 +o'12
ze 5 goi. "5" +0°26 —o'28 2 615 56 +0°55 —0'05
3 614 58 +0°34 oe 3 G08| 57 038 eee
4 668 63 +0°38 —o'16 4 643 61 +0733 —0'27
5 749 7° +0749 eS 5 711 68 +031 7°29
6 843 79 +0°53 —o'ol 6 8:02 76 +042 —o18
7 930° 86 -+0°70 +016 7 $898 84 +0758 —o'o2
8 993 git +0°83 +0°29 8 978 gt +0°68 +0°08
9 1018 93 +0788 +0°34 9 1023 95 +073 +013
IO 10°04 93 +0°74 +0'20 IO 10°25 97 +0°55 —0'05
Ir 966 gio +0°66 +o'12 Ir 988 94 +0748 —o'l2
12 g21 86 +061 +0°07 12 928 89 +0°38 —o'22
rz 8:87) “Sr 0177 +0°23 13 868 82 +0748 —o12z
14% 872 79 «+082 +0°28 14 830 76 +070 -+o'1o
15 885 80 +0°85 +0°31 15 822 775 +072 +o'12
16S g'o7 Fs COT +023 | 16 839 79 +049 — Om
17 950 «88 +0°70 +016 17 885 83 +0755 —0'05
18 996 g2 +076 +0'22 18 943 gO +0743 —O17
19 10°33 96 +0°73 +o°19 Ig 10°02 94 +0°62 0°02
20 10744 97 +0°74 +0°20 20 10°42 9 -+0°62 +0°02
2X Yo.uz 95 +062 +0'08 21 r0°SOo I0'0 +0°50 —O'1lo
22 942 88 -+0°62 | +0'08 22" 10°13 97 Vows —O'17
2g” 843° 79 Ts —O'or 23. 9°34 «689 «60°44 —o'16

* There was a yery violent change from mean level on this day, which accounts for the
largeness of the differences,

TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 141

70. The following is a comparison for twenty-nine days, commencing 1868,
November 1, of the recorded heights as registered by the Manora self-regis-
tering tide-gauge, with the heights calculated from the tide-components de-
termined from the analysis of the first year’s observations (§ 67). In the
calculation of the heights the mean level of the water as determined by the
observations of the whole year was used. The difference between this mean
level and the mean of the twenty-four hourly heights (corrected for all sen-
sible lunar influence) for each day is also given. The effect of this is to
greatly improve the differences (C—R). The following tide-components were
omitted in the calculations:—the whole of the long-period tides, and the
Helmholtz shallow-water quarter-diurnal tide MS; likewise the solar semi-
diurnal elliptic (R and T) and the lunar diurnal elliptic tides (J and Q), the
yalues of which have been obtained since the heights were computed. The
computations are for local time.

1868, November 1. 1868, November 2.

i rons o a Pa os ; o we A os

fs @ gd p24 ge 9 EP fe gd gs4 ga

oH Fa 4 one Ad Od a i ey Ag Ad

ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft.
Se sso 8:8 0700 «60°09: = +0°09 © g61 97 —o0g +015 +0°06
I 686 68 -+0'06 +015 Yo” 7:97) 739" -1,0:07 +022
2 485 48 +0705 +o'14 2 590 58 -+0'10 +0°25
3. 322 «373° —0°08 +o'or 3. 396 40 —o'04 for
feiss «2A OTS —o'06 4. (2860)| 2°7%% (—o-To +0°05
Re 22r|624. ~—O1g —o'lo 5 2:05) 273. J —or2'5 —o'lo
6 321 36 —0'39 —0'30 6 240 2°77 —0'30 —O'rs
ee Oo SIAN == 0140 ease dm “Brihe Mere ae 3) —o'28
8 710 772 —o'IO —o'ol 8 574 6:0 —o0'26 —o'ul
9 9700 go 0°00 +0'09 9 7384 80 —o16 —oror
Io 1042 104 -+0'02 +o'1L Io) 9 'G1 98 —or'lg —0'04,
Bmeeito5 10°99 +015 +0'°24 Ir 10°71 10°8 —o‘0g +0°'06
12 10°75 10°7 +0°05 +o14 I2 11°06 3r1°0 +0°06 +021
13. 9°58) = 95 +008 +0°17 13 1045 10°4 -+0°05 +0'20
14 8 or 80 -+or0r +o'1o 34. 910°17, | 9 Dea c07 +0'22
15 654 67 —o'16 —0'07 DSi. 7'OOue 75 Figg O10 +0°05
16 549 56 —o'll —0'02 16 .628 64 —o'12 +0°'03
e590 CSI «= — 001 +0°08 17. 5°50 56 —or'lo +0°05
Te- 5°55 5°77 —O'1S —o'06 18 538 55 —o12 +0'03
mom 6°79 7710 — 031 —0'22 19 6:06 64 —0°34 —o'lg
20 837 84 —0'03 +0°06 20 741 76 —o'lg —0'04,
2I g7I 997 +00! +o'1o 21 888 gr —o0'22 —0'07
22 1045 %10°5 —0'05 +0°04 22 O03) 101k O17 —0'02
23. «1045 106 —o'15 —0°06 23 10°34 I0°5 —O0O'16 —o'ol

Hour.

OW OY ANUPwWNHO

Calculated
height, C.

9°42
9°42
8°77
7°56
6:02
4°57
3555
3°10
3°30
425
5°72
7°39
8°33
9°79
10°28
I0°I4
9°37
8:29
727
6°49
611
6°21
6°88
779

1868, November 3.

Recorded
height, R.

2 Chea AS) Si CaN TSO Ol Ee
WUwW FHA OUOW

ON DR U9 9 8 BUI 09
WONnNP YP AN OF WH

C—R.

Difference,

Excess of

2 = daily mean,

+
[e)
Nn
nn

, November 5.

—0'48
—o'38
—0'03
+016
+0'22
+0'07
—0°05
—o'lo
—o'ro
—0°45
—o'48
—o'5I
—0°47
—o'4!
—0'42
—o'26
—0'23
—O'31
mare I)
—O'21
Sesh)
—o'6g
—o'82
—o'sr

+0°33

REFORT—-1870,
o° mc.
24 g 85
at 3° sa
clin Hoge
AS od
ft. ft.

eisai ihe tea 5

+0'22 I g'40

10°35 2 $17

0°34 3 641

+018 4 464

+0°25 gag ge

+0°'07 6 2°62

—oO'13 7 2°68

—0'20 3; agers

—o 18g 0) Sas

—o'l2 IO | 7°07

— 0°03 II 8°94

-+-o°10 IZ 9°95

+0°17 13 10°57

+0°30 I4 10°47

a sdk a ke We

+013 16 68-41

-+0'07 EJ ORE

+014 18 6°34

ONY 19 — 5°93

—0'29 20. 6710

—0'44 21. (6°87

—0'20 22. 7°97

—o'l2 23 8:96

—O'1S ©. 852

—0'05 1 8:87

-+0'30 2 8:81

+0'49 3 825

Togs 4 7°26

+0740 ig 86r02

+0'28 6 4°85
+0'23 pao

+0'23 aR 6

—o'l2 9 3°98

—O'1s IO 04°75

—o'18 Ir 6°06

—O'r4 £2 7:40

—o0'08 1g 43°71

—o'09 14 9°58

+0'07 I§ 10°04

+o'10 16 9'93

+002 Rie O80
000 18 = 8°33

+o'12z 19 7°42

—o'06 20 66°63

—0°36 OTe A628

—0'49 22, a OTA.

—0748 | 23 657

1868, November 4.

Excess of

Recorded
Difference,
C—R.
= daily mean,
Ado.

height, R.

>
=]

ANAM ARP RAINY OH NU AMWNIWUHO AP”

it.
—o'46
—0'20
+027
+0°31
+014
0°00
—o'08
—o'l2
—0'25
—o45
— 0°43
—o'26
ene'5
—0'23
—0'23
—O'or
—o'0g
—o'lg
—o'06
—O'17
—o'50
—0°63
=2i53
— 0°54

+
o
vn
wm

Oe
© ON DAAAN &GO 0 0 OONMW DP NwWAR ANY O

1868, November 6.
9°3 0°78 40°37
—0'63
=059
—0'25
—O'l4g
—o'o8
—0'25
—o'20
—o'l4
—o'22
O35
—0'44
—o'4!
ne)
—0'42
—0'36
S387
—o'lo
—O'17
—o'18
—0'27
—0°32
—o'56
9193

inl
SEDAN GO 0 0 OON ANAWEY DN LO

ANUS ANPUBROHONH NOW HH PU

Difference,
C—R+AAo.

—O'2!I

++
2 0
in O
Nn

+0°56
+0°39
+0°25
+017
+0'13

0°00
—0'20
—o'18
—o’ol
—o'1o
+o'o2
+0'02
+0'24
+016
+0°06
+0'19
+008
—0'25
—0o°38
—o'28
—o'29

O41
—0'26
—0'22
+o'12
+0°23
+0°29
+o'12
+0'!7
+0°23
+0715
+o0'02
—0'07
—0'04
—0'02
—0'05
+o'or

0°00
+0'27
+0'20
+0'19
+o'10
+0°05
—o'1g
—o'56

—

Hour.

oN Anfpuw PHO

WO COI AnHPWN HO

Calculated
height, C.

ee eel

5°04
a133
5°98
6°33
7°64
$27
8°56
8°32
7°66
6°81
5195
5°24
490
5722
6°08
7°20
8°40
9°49
10°20
10°23
9°56
8°32
FO]
5°67

TIDAL OBSERVATIONS.

1868, November 7.

ae Vie Le
33 oO Re
as 8 AS
ft. ft. ft.
82 —o8g +0°'27
8-7 —0'77

8:9 —o'62

89 —0'57

83. —0'27

74 —o'08

64. —0'07

56 —o'19

AO) ears

44 0700

46 —0'%3

573 ° =0'20

63° 015

738 —0'742

89 0°35

g'8 —o'4I
Io'2 —0'29
Iol —0'22

94 —o'08

$4 +0°04

775 —0'06

6:7. —o0'09

62 —0'27

61 —o'4I
1868, November 9,
52 —o16 +0'23
Sehr AQS7

64 —0'42

LA VESO87

8:1 —o0'46

8:38 —0'53

89 0°34

8-5 —0'18
(re

62 -+oro1

58 +015

51 +014

4°78 -+o'ro

51. 4-032

61 —o'02

TES 1 S=2580

8-7 —0°30

98 —o31
10°5 —0'30
105 —0'27
I0';O —O'744

83 —048

La > 32533

6:0 —0'33

Difference,
C—R+AAy.

+0'07
—o'14
—o'1g
—O'14
—0'23
—0°30
—o'1l
+0°05
—o'ol
+0°24
+0°38
-0'97
+0°33
“0135
+o'21
—0'07
—o'o7
—o'08
—0'O7
—o'04
—o'2I
—0'25
—o'lo
—oO'10

Hour.

CN DnihHPwWwW NH O

Calculated
height, C.

Qe
fe}
B=

PU ADDN oon AD
COD OD AHH OW HD
WMHRHSOHWDHOWNAHD

479
5°23
6°20
7°32
844
9°39
10°00
10°06
9°49
8°50
7°35
6°25
5°40

4°59
425
4°61
5°49
6°62
7°78
8°75
9°22
9°00
8°27
7°26
6°17
5°29
4°85
5:17
6:09
735
8°68
9°85
10°52
10°40
9°46
8-01
6°37

1868, November 8.

Recorded
height, R.

ON AnH HBUN DAN WWOONN AP
ANG VY OW HOO EUW ONU

Difference,
C—R

bec)

—o'46
=0'54
0'49
—o'48
—0'37
—0'27
—o'2I
+0°03
—o’ol
+0'08
+0'08
+0'09
+0°03
—o'10
—o'18
—o'16
—o'll
—0'20
—O'14
+0'09
+o0'10
—0'05
—0'O5

9°00

Excess of
> & daily mean,
AAo.

+
fe)
n

1868, November 10.

49
44
49
60
71
84
94
99

DON AnuUN QI WO
MeN WOMB ADO

0°31
—O'15
—0'29
—O'st
—0748
—o'62
—0'65
—o'68
—o'8o
—0'63
— 0°34.
—0'23
—o'2I
—Oo'ls
—0'!3
—o'2I
—0'35
—0'42
—0'25
—o'28
—o'50
0°54,

+0°40

143

Difference,
C—R+AAp.

—o'24

el
20
Rw wW
Scare)

—o'26
—o'rs
—0'05
+o'ol
+025
+o'2I
+0°30
+0°30
+031
+025
+o12
+0°04
+0'06
+o'r1
+o'o2
+o0'08
+0°31
+0°32
+017
+4+o17
+0'22

+0°09
+025
+ou1r
—o'll
—o'08
—0'22
—0'25
—o'28
—o'40
—0'23
+0:06
+017
+0'19
O25
+027
+o'19
+0°05
—o'02
+0°I5
+o'12
—o'1o
—O'r4
—o0'09

+0'07

14d
es
ga
ft.
oF 4°78
Le 3°72
2 3°46
3 495
4 526
5 6°76
6 824
Ver O93
8 9°95
9 9°62
10)|— 8°74
Ws fe)
12° '6°26
13) 15718
14 4°76
15) 516
16 623
17 7°64
18 9°07
Ig 10°23
20 10°77
21 10°34
22 9108
230 7°34
oO 645
r 4°46
Ze 2°87
She mae
4 2°50
5 3°87
6 5°79
Ange ee!
8 9°63
g 10°80
Io 61100
II 10°26
12 8°90
ro 7135,
14 5°94
15 4°98
16 4°77
17 5°69
18 = 7°08
19 = 860
20 9°96
21 10°74
22 10°61

23 9°46

1868, November 11.

Recorded
height, lk.

Lied

ot
>) me OWN Ann BNO 00” MPAUWNBHWWH

CYC OWW CW NO ANSCUEERO QAHU OWN’

Difference,
C—R.

—0°32
+o0'02
-+-o'16
+0°05
—0'24
— 0°34
0°36
—0°47
045
—0'78
—0o'56
a O37.
—0'44
—0'42
—0°24
—0'04
—0'07
—o'16
—0'°23
—0'07
—0'23
—0o'66
—o'62
—o'46

Excess of
= daily mean,
Ao.

1868, November 13.

—
S601
Spe

—O'T5
+0°'16
+007
+0°31
+0°60
+0947
+o0'19
+0'°13
+0°43
-+0°20
—o'lo
— 0°34
—0°30
—0'27
—o'26
—o'12z
—0'93
+o0°19
+0'08

0°00
+0°36
10°34
+0o'21
+0'26

—o'09

REPORT—1870.

Difference,
C—R+AAg.

—0'24
+0'07
—o'o2
+0'22
+o's51
+0738
+orro
+0°04,
10°34
+or'1r
—O'lg
—9°43
—0°39
—0'36
=SB5
—o'2I
—Oo'12
+o'10
—o'ol
—o'og
+0'27
+0°25
+o'12
+017

Hour.

CON DAnhwWPYP HO

height, C.

Inw VP NwuUs Calculated

1863, November 12.

Recorded
height, R.

0 WIM RRA
RMON NPUNON

Difference,
ON.

Excess of
) = daily mean,
DApo.

+
1)
il

November 14.

+0°39
0°56
+0'49
+0746
+0'58
+0°79
1°45
+0°36
+0769
+0759
0°44
+0'03
—0'07
—0'04
—O'14
—0'25
—o'09
+0'20
+0'22
+0'04
+0°19
+0°31

—0'26

Difference,
C-R-+AA O-

Hour.

Se
OC BI DAHRFWRKR HK OW CONI DAnrihwW NM O

nD
nme

bn
w

9°57
8-50

3°33
2°35
2°24
3°01

10°00
10°84
10°84
10°05

6°66
611
6°16

TIDAL OBSERVATIONS.

1868, November 15.

Recorded
height, R.

Cay Wear ube a i Me Pas
N ON APNMWBYN

Difference,
C—R.

Excess of
daily mean,

1868, November 17.

SO" COTM ON ON
NY AAA oo Hoo

—0'O3
+o'1o
+0°07
-+0°09
—0'07
—=—O'L5
+0°04,
+or’or
+0°27
+0'29
+0°36
+0°30
+0714
—o'06
—0°05
-+0°09
—O'14
+0'06
+0°31
+0°36
+022
+o'20
+or'1r
+006

—o'1o0

Difference,
C—R+AAp.

)

—Oons

foere)
—0'03
—o'ol
—o'l7
—O'25
—o'06
—o'09
+0'17
+o0'l9
+0°26
+0'20
+0°04
—o'16
—O'15
—o'or
—0'24
—o'04
+o'21
+0'26
+o'r2
+o'Io
+oror
—0'04,

Hour.

=)
OO OMNI DuifwWhP eke O

SS oe oo oe
ODO CN DnHWN RF OW ON AnHwW PHO

Calculated
height, C.

NO =
Sle
On

5°65
3°75
1°80
2°30

vp
w

nw
oo CO
Ns

7°97
10°95
1124
10°58

oO
“s
cop)

AY DAO
DODO W
NNO HR SD

6°24.
m9

Someres
oof Nn
NON

9°34
8°81
7°62
5°99
4°42
3°26
2°67
2°88
3°92
5°57
fee
8-91
9°99
10°50
TO"34
9°55
8°46
7°47
6°74
6°38
6°54
718
799
8°60

1868, November 16.

Recorded
height, R.

DONUMNWD HF NWUNNAILO HP
Bond HIS UUH N

be I ee
AM Qo 04 0
PwmOworNnaAa

ae Sees te
CW WN

Difference,
C—R.

Excess of
daily mean,
AAo.

l
oF
ne
oo

1868, November 18.

BAGO SY Cr cfs U3 iG3h-Ps Cala) 60
OWA HK FH OWN OPN

COIN DANI 0
UM On wW HUSH

+004
+o'1r
+0°22
+o'19
—o'08
—0'24.
seers s
—o'22
—o'18
—O'13
+0°07
+o°oI
—or'ol

0°00
+0°04
+015
+006
+0°07
+0'24
+0°28
+0°24
+0°08
+0°19
+o°1Io

—o'04

145.

Difference,

ots
Sian” OTE e An
Wrhw

+0°07
—o12
—o'o8
+o0'02
+0'23
+0'49
+0749
+0°28
+017
—0'04
—o'30
—o'22
—0'27
—o'29
—o'16
+o0'09
—o'o4
+o'ol
+0'09
—o'oz
—o'll

0700
+0'07
+018
+015
—O 12
—o'28
=o8Z
—o'26
—o'22
—O17
+0°03
—0'03
—0°05
—o'04

0700
+o'1r
+0o'o2
+0'03
+0'20
0°24
+0°'20
+0°04
+0°1§
+0°06

146 REPORT—1870.

1868, November 19, 1868, November 20.
So ea . 2 38 sa Bs fe 4 B sa
j) Bs Be Sh gas 84 His sos. dar ee
64 wa A AS Ais oo Fa Ia A ae
ft. ft. ft, ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft.
o 885 89 —o'05 +0°09 +0'04 o 824 83 —o06 +019 +013
1 867 88 —o'13 — 0°04. 1 831 85 —o'1g 0°00
2 8:06 81 —o'04 4-0°05 2 807 83 —0'23 —0704.
3. 687 69 —o'03 +0°06 3 742 76 —o18 +o'o1
4 5551 56 —o'09 0°00 4 645 66 —o'15 +0'04.
Br r4s32 94:6 epee —o'lg 5 539 +57 O31 —o12
6 354 41 —0'56 —0'47 Go4'53 St S257 0°38
MeOdi3t 13:8 joo —o'40 7 408 4177 —0'62 eo —0'43
8 3°72 41 038 —0'29 8 405 45 —0'45 —0'26
9 435 «5:0 —orlg —o10 9 459 49 O91 —o'12
10. 66°36 «= 66S — 0°24 —O'15 IO) 6563. 59° —0'27 —o'08
ir 7°84. 8:0 —o'16 —0'07 Im 689) «671 ~—or21 —o'02
I2 9107. gio +0°'07 +016 12 813 82 —o'07 +o'12
13. 9°83 9°99 —0'07 +o0'02 13 g'o2) gtk = 0°08 +o'1L
14 1012 103 —o18 —o0'09 T4H-o 958 9:7 1 OuZ +0°07
15 981 9°99 —o'0g 0°00 15 971 99 —O'I9 0°00
16 g05 go +0705 0°14 16 9°35) 9°75 O15 “+0'04.
17 818 868) =—+:0°08 +017 7 4s7O. 87 0°00 +o'19
18 7°42 . 773° +o'12 +021 18 8:00 79 +010 +0°29
19 690 67 -+0'20 +0'29 Ig 740 72 +020 +0°39
20 666 65 +0716 +0°25 20. 693 68 +0713 +0°32
21 684 68 +0°04 +013 26°73» (6:6) q-0°83 +0°32
22) 7°31 «327°3. « -E0'01 -+o'lo 22 683 69 —0'07 +o12
23 «789 79 —O'OI +0°08 2370-723. 773-187 +o12
1868, November 21. 1868, November 22.
© 757 77 —O13 +013 0°00 o 685 68 +005 +016 +o'21
Tny:7'5 | 7°78 47-OlOS: © +0'08 Ins 714. 7'O =-Fowms -+0°30
Bgi7378 79) = O22 +o'o1 2 736 7°3 »-0706 +022
3. 760 77 —o'1L0 +0°03 30-745 ~ 775 pos 8 +o11
4 708 72 —o'12 +o'o1 Ano 7°38. °° 7 Soon 0°04.
Be 16°35 ~6°6 ,—o-26 —o'12 Su 709 9 -7°3 SOT —0°05
6 561 5:9 —0'29 —o'16 6 656 69 —0°34 —o'18
RG -5O. 5°5 i—-0'50 0147 7 598 64 —0'42 eope
St A972 5 F038 —0'25 8 557 60 —0'43 —0°27
9 480 51 —030 —O'17 9 536 5°75 —oO14 +o'02
iO 5290656 «6~—0'31 —o'18 Io 540 56 —o'20 Z —0'04
Bi 16°23°" (673° y=—0:07 +0°06 hi) 45782 Go -—on8 —0702
12/4 69°32 | 7°3 ¥-4-Olo2 +015 12 662 67 —o08 +008
Ej owe 23°. 833, G-A107, +0°06 27755 7°6 “Aeros +o'1l
14 892 go —0'08 +0°05 14 829 84 —o1!I +0°05
1555 49°35 = 9 150s—-o:n5 —o'02 15 888 g1 —o'22 —o06 @
16 944 946 —o16 —0'03 16 925 g6 —0'35 —o'lg :
17 9°07 92 —0'13 0°00 17 926 96 —034 —o18
18 848 84 +0°08 +0'21 18 8:92 g'2 —0'28 —o12 @
BR 17'87 7°7 Fan +0°30 19 828 684 —o'12 +0704
20 7730 72 -+0'L0 +0°23 20° 7°62 7:7 .—0'08 +0°08
21 685 68 -+0°05 +0'18 BES 47-005 4756 0°00 +0'16
22 655) 65 0°05 +018 22 645 65 —Oo'05 +or11
23. 657 66 =~—0'03 +o'lo 2206 S610 6:1 0°00 +0°16

Hour.

———————

OW ONIAnNHPwWNHO

TIDAL OBSERVATIONS, 147

1868, November 23. 1868, November 24,
Bo 6 g ‘3 ga Bo wa 3¢ g
Eee i ERR UL #
ep 8? go ge¢ = of ES EF go ged ge
oft Fa A As Ao Od ea a AS Ao
ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft.
6:06 6:0 +006 +019 +0°25 © 543 56 —o17 +015 —o'02
637) 6'2, +0717 +0736 I /5°49- 5° g-oror +0714
672 66 +012 +0°31 2 5°95 58 +015 -++0°30
706 = =6©7'0 «=+0°06 +025 3 644 63 +0714 +0'29
tse 7 4, 0105 +0714 Aen 7° OF. 417 OE Orag +0718
wa 27 5 O19 ensle; Sp rial -59'p, ut iden See +0°04
738 #78 —0-42 —0'23 6 7°94 82 —0'26 —o'r
for / 74 —0'99 —o'20 Jen 792 84 oe oA8 —0°33
B53. 69%) —0'37 —o'18 8 756 Sr —0'54 —0'39
611 64 —o029 —o'lo DP ATOR) a7 A eSOr30 —0'24
Rez 61 —0'28 —o'0g 10 6650 ©6968 ~=—o'30 —O1s
579 59 —O';1I +0°08 Eon Ol2e 6:4) ons —0'03
S13) 62 —0'07 +o'12 2 599 61 —O';! 0°04
685 68 -+0°05 +0°24 ¥3 6°29 © Go s-Forr9 +0°34
767 777 —0'03 +0'16 14 700 68 -+0'20 +0°35
841 85 —o'09 +o'1o 15 786 77 +0°16 +0°31
8°98 gr —o'12 +0'07 16 862 85 +012 +0'27
29) 935 —O'25 —o'02 17 g16 gi -+0°06 +o°21
926 96 —0°34 —o'ls 18 946 95 —o-04 +o1r
Beso) 9:r —0730 —O'lr 19) ....9°30"" G975) “—0'20 —0o'05
8:05 83° —0'25 —o'06 20 864 89 —0'26 —o'1l
w23 #77 047 —o'28 2X. 7°67 80 .—0%33 —o'18
648 69 —o042 —0'23 22 664 70 —0'36 —o72!
589 61 —o721 —0'02 23 566 6:0 —0-34 —o'lg
1868, November 25. 1868, November 26.

4°91 51 —oOIg +0°02 —O'I7 D6. ATE 51 —0O'39 +013 —0'26
462 4°7° —0'08 —o'06 I 399 42 —or’21 —o'08
488 46 +0°'28 +030 = ploieh me A 0700 +0'13
Boe 52 er o'39 +0°41 3 446 43° +016 +0'29

646 61 +036 +0°38 Bion (55D le 5° 2 gOS E +0744.
732 71 +0722 +024 Syn P72. 16'S) oo +0°35
$13 80 +013 +0715 6 792 78 +0712 +025
$60 86 0°00 +o'02 7 $89 89 —oror +o'12
8°53. 88 —o0'27 — O25 34, 0136), OFS: Ors —o'ol
B05 86830 025 —0°23 9 914 95 —0°36 2°23
740 76 —o'20 —o'18 10) 6841) =—8'g:_ —0'"49 —0'36
671 68 —o'09 —0o'07 II 7°52 80 —o'48 —0°35
616 62 —o'o4 —o'02 12m 86905) 9.750, [==0745 —0'22
5. 99 59 +0°09 +o11 13. 6:00 62 —o'20 —0°'07

633 62 +0713 +o'15 14 591 6% —o'1g —o-06
717 69 +027 +0729 15 643 64 +40'03 +0'16
813-78) 40°33 +0°35 CeCe Wyse Ot 7 +0°30
8:92 87 +0'22 +0°24 17 848 82 +028 +o'41
9°52 94 +0'12 +o'14 18 9°34 g2 +014 +027
971 97 +001 +0'03 19 6989 «= g'8-)— + 0°09 +0'22
9°39 91 —0'20 —o'18 20 989 gg —ool - +o'1z
835 88 —o045 —0'43 2I gI9 96 —o-4I —o'28
eee” * 775,55 —-9°39 mene 22 7387 84 —0'53 ro 48
583 62 —0'37 —0°35 23. 630 69 —o'60 —0'>47

rye

148

i 3
S43
os

ft.
o 4°37
ah 9 °9-70
ze 3109
ot eile
4 428
Se 5:73
6 7°31
7 869
8 9°70
9 0°01
ROR OSS
ir 858
iz 7°46
13 6°43
4 65°81
Dee 582,
16 6°58
NY als)
18 8-94
19 9°85
20 10°27
21 9°98
22s S92
an 25
o 647
eesay. es
2 2°94
Bene -00
Abe ZO
6 as Od,
6 487
7 6-94
8 885
Oto 43
Io 1103
II 10°77

1868, November 27.

Recorded
height, R.

ONnAhwWvAPhA A
Unban d PP Np”

Se
si

10°2
10°0

alone chs
Ornoownm

Naser Sy
Aart

10°]
10°!

SENS
Nis

i I al Se
COOH HUW OAH HM

_
i)
w

112
112

Difference,
C-R.

—0'°63
—o'58
—0o'66
—o'8o
—o'49
—0'23
—0'°23
—o'16
+0°05
+0°03
—O'17
— 0°43

Excess of
A

a
a

+0°38

REPORT— 1870.

C—R+AAp.

Difference,

—o38
aes)
—o'16
+0°05
+0°23
+0°38
+0°36
10°34
+015
—0'04
—0°30
See
eh,
—O'"42
—0°24
—0'03
+0733
-++0°50
+0749
+0°50
+-0°32
+0'93
—0°23
—0°30

Hour.

Caleulated
height, C.

wus
of
On

1868, November 29.

a
—o'20
—o'28
—0°42
—oO'll
+015
+015
+o0'22
+043
+041
+o0'21
—0'05

12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22

9°71
8-26
6°88
5°84
5°48
5°93
714
8°58
9°79
10°49
10°43
9°48

1868, November 28.
> o
a ae
eee E | ala
33 oO Re?
a fay aa
ft. ft. ft.
59 —045 +0
44 —0°52
32 —045
27 —0°30
31 —0'09
46 —o18
62 +0°04
79 +14
93 +024
10°3) +018
10°83 —o'3Zo
10°'2 —0'45
OL Sas
8:0 6=—o'81
68 —0°67
61 —o'50
61 —0'27
69 —o0'08
8-1 +0°05
9°73. +0709
10°'2 +0'03
10°6 —o'Ks
103) —0"45
8:9 —0'52
10°39
git —o'84
738 —o'92
66 —o'76
6:0 —o'52
62 —0'27
74 —0'26
$7 —o'12
98 —or'or
104 +0°09
10°77 —0'27
98 —032

Conclusion of Mr. Roberts’s Statement.

| Difference,
oF O-R+AAy
Oo

—o'26

|
fo)
~
Na)

—0°'04
+017
+0°08
+0°30
+0°40
+0°50
+0°44
—o'04
—o'1g
—O'31
—0'55
—o'7“I
—0°24.
—o'ol
+018
+0°31
+0°35
+0°29
+o11
—o'1g
—o'26

—o'21
—o'46
— 0°54.
—0o'38
—o'l4
+o'1l
+o'12
+0°26
+0°37
+0°47
+o'1r
+0°06

71. What may be regarded as the most interesting features of the work
described in the preceding statement are the introduction of four new purely
astronomical tides (the two evection-tides and the two variation-tides) and
the new luni-solar Helmholtz compound shallow-water tide.
investigation of the evection-tides is necessary and must lead to interesting
results, on account of the great discrepancies between the results shown in
§ 61 above for the four years for which they have been calculated.

Further

raenmiels

TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 149

_ 72. The fact noticed, that one of the variation-tides has the same period
as the solar semidiurnal tide, would be of great importance for tidal theory
were it not that its magnitude must be so small as to be scarcely sensible.
According to the values of the perturbations in longitude and radius vector,
due to variation shown in Hansen’s Tables, the equilibrium value of the solar
semidiurnal variation-tide would be only about =), of the equilibrium value
of the 2(y—2e+7) variation-tide. The dynamical value of the latter tide,
shown in § 61 above, is only about a quarter of a foot above and below the
mean level. Hence it cannot be expected that the smaller component should
sensibly influence the observed results obtained by the analysis which had
been undertaken for the solar semidiurnal tide. The close agreement between
the results, both for amplitude and for epoch, of the chief component varia-
tion-tide, 2(y—2c+7), for the four years, is so satisfactory that the evalua-
tion is undoubtedly genuine in this case.

73. The same may be said also of the Helmholtz luni-solar tide. The
effect of this tide is of great practical importance, especially in respect to
navigation. It is well known that, generally in harbours, estuaries, and
channels, the tide rises faster than it falls. The harmonic analysis of this

phenomenon was given first, I believe, by Airy: see for example, his formula
for Deptford in his article “ Tides and Waves,” Encyclopedia Metropolitana.
Helmholtz’s admirable explanation of the grave and acute notes heard ac-
companying two loud musical notes sounding simultaneously, referred to in
§ 24 of the Committee’s First Report, contains a perfectly general statement
of an extremely simple character, which, mutatis mutandis, is applicable to
the tides in every case in which the range of rise and fall is sensible in com-
parison with the mean depth through any considerable area of sea or channel
influencing them. The application of this theory, for example, to a tide of
10 feet whole range from mean level, considered as the resultant of two
simultaneous tides of 5-feet range, suggests immediately the harmonic terms
(such as those calculated by Airy for Deptford) which express the phenomenon
of the rise being more rapid than the fall. The same theory applied to the
spring-tides (which are the resultant of the lunar and solar semidiurnal tides
when they agree in phase) and to the neap-tides (which are the resultant of
the same components when they are opposite in phase), shows that the terms
expressing deviation from the simple sum of the two chief harmonic terms must
be greater than the sum of the deviations about the time of spring-tides, and
less than the algebraic sum of the contrary deviations about the time of the
neap-tides. Helmholtz’s general statement again suggests instantly the
harmonic terms proper to express the anticipated result. In this case it is
the second of the two “ shallow-water tides ” indicated in § 24. The deter-
mination of this term from observation, promised at Norwich, 1868, as an
early undertaking of the Committee, has now been accomplished, both for
Liverpool and Ramsgate, by Mr. Roberts, in consequence of his having for
some time been baffled by discrepancies in his investigation of the Liverpool
tides showing an approximately quarter-diurnal period when all the com-
ponents previously evaluated were properly put together to express the tides
on the days selected for the comparison between theory and observation
described above. The period of this new component is a quarter of the har-
monic mean of the mean solar and mean lunar days. Its amplitude (that is,
Balf the range from lowest to highest) is about 2 of a foot at Liverpool and
3 of a foot at Ramsgate. Both it and the previously found shallow-water
components are greater in proportion to the chief tides at Ramsgate than at
Liverpool; this no doubt is due to the great extent and shallowness of the

150 REPORT—1870.

British Channel and German Sea, as compared with channels through which
the ocean affects Liverpool.

74. The search for astronomical long-period tides has up to this time given
only negative results. In each case a genuine annual tide seems to be indi-
cated, but the negative results as to the lunar fortnightly (declinational) tide
and monthly (elliptic) tide forbid us to regard either the semiannual or the
annual as a truly astronomical tide. Both are probably due to meteorological
causes. The cause which I have previously suggested ($ 10), that is, “ water
received into the sea by drainage and the melting of ice, and from the di-
rect fall of rain into it,” would tend to raise or lower the mean level almost
simultaneously over the whole sea. There are two other meteorological
causes which probably have very sensible effects,—difference in distribution
of atmospheric pressure over the earth, and difference of temperature in dif-
ferent oceans. These three causes may be sufficient to explain the results of
observation collected in the following Table :—

Maximum Range above Maxima Range above
Year. of and below 0 and below
Annual Tide. | mean level. | Semiannual Tide. mean level.
ft. ft.
Ramsgate ...... 1864 Sept. 21 O°127 Feb. 14, Aug. 15 0°075
[ 1857-58 No agreement
: 1858-5 ‘ between the re-
Liverpool ...... : Be ee Noy. 19 0°362 gulta fontiie Gif.
1866-67 ferent years.
Fort Point...... 1858-59 April 29 O°212 Jan. 1, July 2 0224
Kurrachee ...... 1868-69 May 6 O'IIS May 3, Noy. 2 0198

75. In conclusion, it may be remarked that sailors find nearly all they
want about the tides in British and Inish ports in the Admiralty Tide-tables,
and the plan upon which they are constructed is available to give practical
results of similar value for most of the Atlantic éoasts. But this plan being
adopted solely for lunar and solar semidiurnal tides, is absolutely unavailable
to give any approach to good practical results for any ocean other than
the Atlantic, as in all other oceans the diurnal tides are very considerable,
and in many localities are greater than the semidiurnal tides.

76. There exist but few records of tidal observations on coasts where the
diurnal tide is of this importance. Among those which do exist, however,
are some made at Bombay and Kurrachee, which have been treated by Mr.
Roberts and referred to in the foregoing Report.

77. Former observations at these two ports had previously been analyzed
by Mr. Parkes, a member of this Committee, by a process described by him in a
paper presented to the Royal Society, and published in the Philosophical Trans-
actions for 1868, and which he has since amended in some of its details. Mr.
Parkes has established formule based on astronomical data, which represent
with considerable accuracy the movements of the diurnal tide; and Tables
of the time and height of high and low water for the ports of Bombay and
Kurrachee have been computed under his direction, and issued under the
authority of the Secretary of State for India, for 1867 and each succeeding
year. This constitutes undoubtedly the first successful comparison of theory
and observation leading to sufficient tide-tables for any other than North-
Atlantic ports. If observations were made at other points on the coast of
Tndia, and treated in a similar manner, further tables might be computed,

Report Brit

LEVEL

HA|LF mUpe

| ia
e
. a .

KURRACHEE 14
DIAGRAM PREPARED BY ME PARKES (§ 6;

as observed e as computed by Sir\

IDES. NOVEMBER 1868.

) TO SHOW THE COMPARATIVE HEIGHTS OF HIGH AND LOW WATER.

y= Thomson's tem — as computed by M* Parkes’ system —-

pre them.

20 21 22
=
% oe =
Ree,
"day,
f= See mletiiod.. =
fe =o z

-. aa 7

the Admiralty method.
pe Ae

Plate 4°

*
Hs:

ON A NEW STEAM-POWER METER. 151

d those coasts placed generally in the same position with regard to know-

ledge of the tides as those of England. The same may be said of the ports of

_ Australia, China, &c., as well as ‘of western America.
78. But while admitting the practical sufficiency of Mr. Parkes’s analysis

_ for the purpose of establishing processes for the computation of tide-tables, the

Committee believe the further application of the harmonic system to be very
desirable, from its more searching character and the facility with which it

_ exhibits the smaller variations of level independently of theory.

79. Whether it will, for practical purposes, supersede existing methods of

prediction, will probably depend upon the relative amount of labour re-

quired for the calculations ; but there is little doubt that it will at any rate

facilitate the correction of existing formule.

80. For more strictly scientific purposes its superiority to any existing
method of analysis is indisputable, and, considering the relation of tidal
variations to many physical questions at present unsolved, its importance
from this point of view is great.

81. It may fairly be expected that the Admiralty will cooperate in carry-
ing on a work which, whether in its scientific or practical bearings, is of
such fundamental importance for navigation.

On a new Steam-power Meter. By Messrs. Asuton and Storey.
[A communication ordered to be printed in extenso in the Transactions. |

Tae extent to which the employment of steam-power in our varied in-
dustries, and as furnishing means of locomotion, has become a necessity,

and the desirability of attaining the utmost economy in the consumption
_ of fuel, render it a matter of the first importance to be able readily to ascer-

tain the exact amount of power developed by steam machinery in a given

time. Hitherto approximate estimates, founded upon the results of iso-
_ lated tests and experiments, or calculations based upon the diagrams pro-

duced by ordinary indicators, have furnished the sole means for the ascer-
tainment of the duty of (or, in other words, the power developed by) steam-
engines in all cases where the said power has been subject to variations.
These indications have been taken at intervals of at least one day, and
in most cases of a much longer period, and have simply been registrations
of the amount of power developed during the one stroke or the two or
three strokes performed by the engine during the time of indication, the
great variations in the load upon or the speed of the engine, and in the
pressure of the steam, occurring in the intervals between the indications
being practically disregarded; and even when a correct diagram has been
obtained, the power developed during the indication has and can only be
ascertained with any degree of exactness by a tedious process of mea-
surement and calculation. The patent power-meter and continuous indi-
cator, on the contrary, not only measures the power developed during a
single stroke of the engine with as great a degree of exactness as the best
indicator hitherto in use, but also registers the result of the said measure-
ment with as great a degree of exactness as it is measured, thus avoiding
the errors arising in the operation of measuring and calculating the area
of the ordinary diagram; and, what is of more consequence, this measure-

152 ; REPORT—1870.

ment and registration are effected with reference to each and every stroke
of the engine, and furnish a means whereby a correct judgment may be
formed as to whether there has at any time*been a want of due observance
of economy in the use of fuel, or whereby the comparative merits of dif-
ferent kinds of fuel or of lubricants may be tested. In cases where power is
supplied to tenants, this instrument furnishes the only means whereby the
power so supplied may be accurately measured. And in the ease of marine
engines, in a rough sea it is the only instrument that can give any reliable
information as to the power exerted by the steam-engines, inasmuch as it is
frequently impossible to obtain consistent diagrams by the ordinary indicator
during a whole voyage across the Atlantic. The steam-power meter and
continuous indicator, as its name implies, shows at all times the measure
of the power developed by the steam-engine to which it is applied, and
registers the aggregate of that power during any required period of time.
The instrument consists of a small double-acting indicator-cylinder 1Jin.
in diameter, each end of which is connected by means of a pipe with the
corresponding end of the steam-engine cylinder. These connexions are
made .as short and direct as possible. The piston-rod of the indicator
carries a long toothed pinion, c, which revolves loosely on the rod, but is
held endwise between two screw-collars. This gears into a toothed wheel,
d, which is connected with and drives the indices. At the lower end of
the long pinion, and fixed to it, is a light wheel, 6, called the integrating
wheel, having a smooth rim with a rounded face. To the upper end of
the piston-rod is attached a spiral spring, which offers a resistance to
the free movement of the piston in its course from the middle to either
end of the indicator-cylinder; on a short horizontal shaft is mounted a
circular disk, e, whose face is constantly, but not forcibly, pressed against
the rim of the integrating wheel. This is effected by means of a light flat
spring bearing against the end of the shaft on which the disk-wheel is
mounted. A small cog-wheel, f, is keyed on the disk-shaft, and is con-
nected by a rack, or any other suitable means, to the cross-head or other
convenient reciprocating part of the steam-engine, or a small pulley, f, may
be keyed on the disk-shaft, round which is wound a cord, whose two ends
are attached to the cross-head or other convenient reciprocating part of the
steam-engine, being carried thence round loose pulleys above and below.
By either of these means the reciprocating motion of the steam-engine is
converted into a rotary motion of the disk acting in alternately opposite
directions. When there is no pressure on the piston of the steam-engine,
and accordingly none on the piston of the indicator, the integrating wheel
is so adjusted that the point of contact of its rim with the disk shall be at
the centre of the disk, that being the zero-point of the instrument. When
the pressure of the steam is admitted, so as to act on the piston of the in-
dicator, the integrating wheel traverses in consequence from the centre
towards the circumference of the disk, the distance traversed being pro-
portionate to the pressure of the steam on the piston. Suppose, now, the
cross-head of the steam-engine, and with it the disk of the instrument, is
moying, such motion will be communicated by the disk to the integrating
wheel, and through it to the indices. The motion so given to the indices
during this stroke of the steam-engine is proportionate to the pressure of
the steam on the indicator-piston during that stroke. Let it now be sup-
posed that the stroke is finished and a return movement is commenced,
the disk will now rotate in the opposite direction ; and if the steam acting
upon the piston were pressing in the same direction as before, the inte-

i! |
i bhatt | te If i =
2} al

- We
A

Bin

153

154 REPORT—1870.

grating wheel and indices would necessarily go backward. If, however,
the steam, as is usual, acts on the opposite side of the piston when the
piston’s motion is reversed, the integrating wheel will be moved to the
opposite side of the centre of the disk, so that the integrating wheel and
indices will be moved in the same direction as before, and the quantity
of motion through the receding stroke of the engine will again be propor-
tionate to the pressure of the steam on the piston during that return
stroke. Here, therefore, is provided a means of moving the indices during
each stroke of the engine through a space proportionate to the sum of the
moments of pressure exerted during that stroke, or, in other words, a
means of indicating the amount of power developed during that stroke.
The relative proportions adopted for the several working parts in the pre-
sent instrument are such that each division on the dial represents one
thousand foot-pounds of duty for each circular inch of the piston of the
steam-engine. These proportions may be varied. Thus the parts of the
indicator may be so arranged that the readings on the dial shall represent
the number of horse-powers given out during any required period of time.
By closing the tap connecting one end of the indicator-cylinder with the
corresponding end of the steam-engine cylinder and opening the small
drip-tap to admit air freely to the disconnected end of the indicator-cylin-
der, the indicator is rendered single-acting, and will show the manner
of working and the amount of work done by one end of the steam-engine
cylinder alone. By opening the closed taps and closing the open ones the
indicator is reversed, and the manner of working and the amount of work
done by the other end of the steam-engine cylinder ascertained. In the
case of a non-condensing engine, the integrating wheel would not return to
the centre of the rotating disk during the back or return stroke of the en-
gine, by a distance proportionate to the back pressure opposing the motion
of the steam-engine piston, the effect being that, during the return stroke,
the integrating wheel and indices would be wound back by an amount of
motion proportionate to the loss of power by back pressure. Also, if the
valves of the engine are opened or closed too early or too late, the integrating
wheel will be seen to move backward at the beginning or end of each stroke,
thereby showing work undone by an amount of motion proportionate to the
loss of power by such “ cushioning” or too late admission of the steam or
too late exhausting of it. The instrument can be so constructed that paper
diagrams may be taken indicating the action of the steam in each end of the
steam-engine cylinder, or in both ends conjointly.

ForMvULA FoR sHowING THE Retative Connexion oF THE DDIENSIONS OF THE
VARIOUS PARTS OF THE PowER-METER.

Let w = the weight in lbs. required to distend or compress the spring one inch, d = dia-
meter of indicator-cylinder in inches, D = diameter of integrating wheel in inches,
¢ = number of teeth in the long pinion, 7 = number of teeth in wheel geared in long
pinion, 2 = number of teeth in worm-wheel or first index-wheel, 2 = diameter of driving-

pulley on disk-shaft ; then d? = the area of the cylinder in circular inches, and a = the

pressure in pounds of steam per circular inch on the piston, to distend or compress the
spring one inch. t

One revolution of the disk with the integrating wheel one inch from the centre will
drive the integrating wheel cs revolutions. Then

Z 1
Doe a

— ee eee eae eee eee

ON THE ACTION OF THE METHYL AND ALLIED SERIES. 155

= the parts of one revolution of the index for one revolution of the disk—that is,

21
~ Dmn’
And because a: x a = foot-pounds represented by one revolution of the disk
per one circular inch of the piston, = pos , therefore

3:1416wr Dmn 3:1416Dmnwx
ae Ot grok Tee
= foot-pounds per one revolution of index. Or, assume one revolution of index
= 10,000, then
3:1416Dmnwe 240,0007d? 76394:1941d?
gag? ~= *10,000and = = sTaenmnw = ~ Dmnw *

Therefore each unit on the dial of the power-meter represents 1000 foot-pounds per
circular inch.

To find the Work done by an Engine in any given time.

When d = the diameter of the engine-cylinder in inches, x = the number of the meter-
index at commencement of time, 7 = the number of the meter-index at the end of that
time, therefore

1000 (xn, —7)d = foot-pounds.,

To find the work done in Horse effect.
Where m = number of minutes elapsed between the time of reading the meter, and
33,000 foot-pounds represents the duty of one horse per minute, then
1000(2,—n)d? d?(n,—n)
33,000m ° 383m

= load in horse-powers-

To find the quantity of Coal consumed per Horse per hour.

Let H = horse effect of the engine, # = hours during consumption of the coal,

w = the weight of coal in lbs, and ¢ = the number of Ibs, of coal consumed per
hour; also

1000(x, =1)@ we (n,—n)d?

33,000 X60h ~~ «1980 *

w
And ;- = lbs. of coal consumed per horse per hour, therefore

iH
wx l_w_ 1980h 1980w
hk HH k(wj—nd ™ (n,—n)d
= consumption of coal per horse per hour.

Report on the Action of the Methyl and Allied Series.
By Brensamin W. Ricwarpson, M.D., F.R.S.

In my last Report to the Association I classified under five heads the vari-
ous substances the action of which I had studied in a physiological point of
view, viz. the Hydrides, Nitrites, Alcohols, Chlorides, and Iodides of Methyl,
Ethyl, Butyl, and Amyl. In my present report I have retained the same
order of classification of organic substances, so as to ensure a systematic and

156 REPORT—1870,

steady progression, adding in due place what has been attempted in research
with other organic bodies.

The matter I have to communicate in the present Report I shall place
under three heads, which shall indicate the lines of inquiry I have aimed to
carry out. I propose, first, to brmg under review some of the work of the
past, with such improvements upon it as have been since elicited by experience
and experiment; secondly, to narrate the results of new researches with
certain substances which have not before been tried by the physiologist, in
respect to their action on the body ; and, thirdly, to submit some conclusions
deduced from experiments relative to the general physiological action of
certain of the more active agents that have come before me for study.

PART I.—REVIEW.

Out of the list of compounds reported upon in previous years, I select for
review nitrite of amyl, bichloride of methylene, methylic ether, and
hydrate of chloral.

This selection is made because all the substances named have been found
to have, in their application, a practical not less than a scientific value.

Nitrate of Amyl.—In 1863 I first reported to the Association on this che-
mical substance, the nitrite of amyl, treating then purely on its physiolo-
gical properties, and venturing nothing in respect to its employment for the
relief or cure of disease. In the following year, however, I made a further
advance, and at the Meeting in Bath in 1864 I was able to state to the As-
sociation the true place of this nitrite as a physiological agent and as a remedy
for disease. Ishowed then that its great virtue lay in its power of removing
muscular spasm ; for I had detected that beneath the action which it promi-
nently calls forth, the excessive action of the heart and apparent excitement,
there is another and more permanent condition produced, viz. a temporary
paralysis of muscle and a suspension of all the outward manifestations of life
which, in Batrachians, could be sustained without actually destroying life.
These observations led me to point out the importance of employing the
nitrite in order to control spasms, and especially to meet the spasmodic disease
tetanus, commonly called locked jaw, over which IJ inferred it would have
a direct controlling power.

In course of time this suggestion for the application of the nitrite for
the relief of acute spasm came into practice, Dr. Brunton, of Edinburgh,
leading the way by administering the remedy, with marked success, for the
relief of what is called atigina pectoris. Further experience has fully
supported the introduction of the remedy, and in the past year there has
been signal advance. In December last Dr. Anstie had recourse to the
nitrite for the relief of angina, with the result that the sufferer passed (I use
the author’s own words) “from agony into a state of perfect repose.” Dr.
Farquhar has also reported that in an instance of terrible pain from spasm
of the bowels, where the nitrite was administered, the patient expressed that
he “was transformed from agony to heaven in a moment.” Dr. Leischman,
Dr. Hadden, and Dr. H. Thompson have borne similar testimony to the value
of the agent. But the’ most striking example of the action of this potent
remedy has been recorded in the ‘ Lancet,’ in April of the present year, by
a most experienced and learned practitioner, Mr. Foster, of Huntington.
Mr. Foster had the opportunity of applying the nitrite in the disease
tetanus, for which I recommended it in 1864, to a man who suffered from

ON THE ACTION OF THE METHYL AND ALLIED SERIES. 157

. this extreme malady, following upon the infliction of a wound. The spasms
were so severe that the man is described as having “been rolled up like a
rigid ball.” Five drops of the nitrite were put on a pocket handkerchief
and inhaled, with the immediate effect of lessening the spasms. On each
return of the spasms the agent was assiduously administered, and by this
means the spasms were held in check until the ninth day, when the patient
had inhaled an ounce of the fluid. In this example there was complete
recovery ; and Mr. Foster reports that of seven similar cases of tetanus which
he had previously treated in thirty-four years’ practice all had died. He
had met with no success until he had recourse to the nitrite of amyl.

You will excuse me of any charge of pride when I express the gratification
I feel at these singular results, and you will allow me, I hope, to explain
how obliged I am to this Association for the support it afforded me when I
was first engaged on this subject of research. The satisfaction rests, first,
on the practical facts I have named ; but a second satisfaction is that the facts
have shown the worth of scientific experimental inquiry, as preliminary to
practical application, for the certain and systematic relief and cure of human
suffering.

Nitrite of amyl was not introduced into use as a remedy against spasmodic
diseases, including tetanus, by any mere accident. It was introduced on
method of pure scientific investigation; its properties as a remedy were
discerned and estimated, stated before it was applied for the cure of disease,
and the results obtained were the simple expositions of the predictions made
concerning its value.

In the course of the year I have studied the best means of keeping and
administering this active nitrite. At the Meeting at Norwich I proposed
that it should be kept in absolute alcohol, but I find that when it is exposed
long in this way it undergoes change, by which its efficiency is to some
extent impaired. I find also that diluted with alcohol the vapour of the
nitrite does not pass off with sufficient rapidity to secure good action. At
the same it is not well to use it undiluted, as that implies the measurement
of it by drops or minims, a plan which is neither safe nor convenient.
To meet these difficulties I have made for inhalation an etherial solution, or
tincture, in which five grains of the nitrite of amyl are contained in one
drachm of absolute ether.

T have seen no occasion to modify the view expressed at the Meeting at
Bath, and again at the Meeting at Exeter last year, that the nitrite of amyl
produces its effect by its paralyzing-action upon the nerves which govern
the contraction of the blood-vessels ; and I take it that this explanation of
its action explains, by the reverse, the mode of action of those agents which
it neutralizes, such as strychnia, and of the influence which excites the disease
known as tetanus. It seems to me that these agencies either excite extreme
action of the nerves which keep up the contraction, or paralyze the counter
nervous supply which causes dilatation of vessels, and that the convulsive
movements induced by such agents as strychnine are due to removal of
blood by contraction of vessels in a manner analogous to that convulsion
which follows free abstraction of blood.

Bichloride of Methylene.—Bichloride of methylene during the past year
has grown much in favour, and in some of our large medical institutions has
replaced chloroform altogether. I regret, nevertheless, to have to report
that two deaths have been recorded as following upon its use. Both cases
were peculiar. In one the subject was, in truth, so near to death at the
time of administration that he was apprised by the surgeons and the able

158 REPORT—1870.

administrator of the bichloride, Mr. Marshall, of the risk he incurred. In
the other case the fatal event did not happen at the time of administration,
but five minutes afterwards, and even after return of consciousness, a
result entirely new, as far as I know, in the history of anesthetic practice.
I am unable altogether to account for this result; and the less able because
tke patient was never brought fairly under the influence of the narcotic, and
received less of it than I have often inhaled in experiment.

On the whole, the rate of death, taking these two cases as bond fide examples
of death, has been, relatively, very small, certainly not more than one in
ten thousand administrations; and I am assured by those who administer
the bichloride most frequently that continued practice only increases their
confidence in it.

Dr. Junker, who has now administered bichloride of methylene over two
hundred times for the most formidable operation in surgery (ovariotomy),
expresses to me his belief that the agent is practically free of danger when it
is obtained pure, and when ordinary care is taken in administering it ; and
other administrators have sent me reports equally favourable. For my own
part I have simply allowed it to be adjudged upon by independent observers,
retaining the opinion I first advanced in respect to it, that it is safer than
chloroform, but not absolutely safe; that, like chloroform, it belongs to a
dangerous family of chemical bodies, and that it is still the business of the
experimentalist to search for an anesthetic which shall be equally practical
in application and, at the same, better in action.

Methylic ether.—In two previous Reports I have noticed methylic ether,
and have explained that as a safe anesthetic agent it has no superior. Ihave
endeavoured consequently to utilize it during the past months, and have ad-
ministered it twenty-seven times with success, in cases of surgical operation,
in the human subject. Mr. Coles, Mr. Spencer Watson, Mr. Gregson, and
others have also administered the anesthetic with successful results. The
object of these applications of methylic ether has been to supply a perfectly
safe anesthetic that would narcotize very rapidly, but with sufficient effect to
allow the surgeon to perform short and painful operations. For this purpose
the ether acted remarkably well; in seventeen instances sufficient insensibility
was induced to enable the operation of tooth extraction to be performed with-
out pain, and in all these instances recovery to perfect consciousness occurred
within a minnte. There was also observed another fact, of which more
anon, that while the persons who were subjected to the narcotic expressed
and felt no suffering from the operation they underwent, they retained so
much consciousness as to respond to requests made of them, and to converse
during the whole period they were under the anzsthetic influence.

I have not pressed forward this method of annulling pain, because methylic
ether cannot be rendered sufficiently stable for practical daily use. Being a
gas, it is necessary either to condense it by pressure, or to saturate ethylic
ether with it under the influence of cold. The first of these methods is
distrusted as unpleasant to the operator, and the second is uncertain, because
with elevation of temperature the light methylic vapour is diffused and lost,
so that common ether alone remains.

The physiological action of methylic ether deserves nevertheless to be kept
in mind: first, because of the power it possesses of destroying sensibility
before it destroys the consciousness ; and, secondly, because of its safety. So
safe is it that an animal made to sleep with it into unconsciousness may
remain breathing it for twelve minutes without dying; and if allowed,
apparently, to die, may be recovered by artificial respiration so long as seven

ON THE ACTION OF THE METHYL AND ALLIED SERIES. 159

minutes after the cessation of the respiration, 7. ¢. after what appears to be
actual death.

Chloral Hydrate—It will be remembered by many that at Exeter
last year the substance called hydrate of chloral was first discussed in
this country. The news had recently arrived that the distinguished Lieb-
reich, of Berlin, had discovered in this hydrate a powerful narcotic; and
our associate, Mr. Daniel Hanbury, F.R.S., having fortunately brought
a specimen of it to Exeter, the Physiological Department of the Biological
Section deputed me to test the substance (with which Mr. Hanbury kindly
supplied me) by direct experiment, and to report upon it during the
sittings of the Section. Responding to the wishes of the Section, and ably
aided by Dr. Kilburne King, of Hull, Dr. and Mr. Shapter, of Exeter, and
other friends, I was enabled to draw up a report that has been published in
the ‘ Transactions,’ and which gave a fair and impartial estimate of the values
of the new remedy. The notice of this Report, and of the discussion upon
it in the general and scientific papers, created the intensest interest in the
medical world. After my return to town, I had frequently from fifteen to
twenty communications a day respecting chloral hydrate. At the request of
members of the medical profession, I visited Birmingham, Bradford, York,
Norwich, and other large towns in the kingdom, to demonstrate the action
and application of the remedy, while in London I gave series of similar
demonstrations. These efforts made the hydrate widely known in this
country; but the inherent good qualities of the compound itself were its
best and surest recommendation. Hence it settled in favour as it increased
in popularity, and it has now become an instrument for the cure of disease
scarcely second to any in the hands of the physician. If I were to say that
a million of persons’ in sleepless pain had been made to rest quietly and
painlessly under its benign influence, I should certainly not overrate the
extent of its usefulness.

It is satisfactory to feel that the conclusions we arrived at last year have
been, on the -whole, thoroughly sustained by the practice that has ensued.
I deduced, from the experiments which we performed, that the hydrate was
not an anesthetic in the common sense of the term, but that it sometimes
induced a stage of hyperesthesia; this has been confirmed by many who
have followed in the same method of inquiry. I inferred that the hydrate
could not be expected (as had been expected of it) to supersede the volatile
anesthetics as a means of relieving the pain of surgical operations; and this
view has been fully confirmed by the results of several attempts to make it
replace the ordinary anesthetics. I inferred that the compound reduced the
animal temperature in a signal degree ; and this view, fully confirmed by the
after experiments of Demarquay, has met with the general acceptance of
observers. I was led to conjecture, from what I had seen of the influence of
the hydrate in controlling strychnine tetanus, that it would probably not be
a cure for acute tetanic spasm; and this view has been supported by the
results of practice in many cases of tetanic disease. Lastly, I was led to
maintain that the hydrate, if it took position, would do so as the rival only
of the old and time-honoured organic compound, opium; and this view has
been once more fully confirmed.

It may be accepted, I think, on the whole, that chloral hydrate, which to
us thirteen months ago was an absolute novelty, is now a fixed and proved
instrument for the cure of disease. It is readily and cheaply manufac-
tured, and its administration is easy. That it will not be found to possess
all the virtues which have been attributed to it in its early days is certain ;

160 REPORT—1870.

that, when calmly and impartially compared with opium and the deri-
vatives of opium, it will rank as subordinate to its ancient and trusted
rival is probable; and that it will be found less potent in relieving acute
physical pain than in calming the senses and in producing deep, but not
insensible sleep, is also probable. -But whatever modification of thought may
occur in regard to it, it is an established messenger between science and
disease, and must henceforth find a place in the pharmacopceias of all civilized
peoples.

PART II.—RESEARCH WITH NEW AGENTS.

Passing from the review of the past I come to the work of the present,
adding it to the classified list of my last Report in the order in which its
parts naturally come.

HypRIvEs.

Two additional hydrides have been studied, viz. the hydride of caproyl or
hexyl, and the hydride of cenanthyl or heptyl.

Hydride of Caproyl or Hewyl.—Of this hydride, known commonly as light
petroleum spirit, C,H,,H, a pure specimen is before us; it has a fluid
density of -669, a vapour-density of 43, taking hydrogen as unity, and a
boiling-point of 154° F. It is insoluble in water. It is not an unpleasant
vapour to inhale, and it produces sleep when it is inhaled very much as
chloroform does. The second degree or stage of narcotism, stage of excite-
ment, is prolonged, and vomiting is not uncommon during this stage; when
the third degree of narcotism is reached there is perfect insensibility. The
fourth degree is attended with great muscular prostration, but recovery
from the narcotism begins in from three to four minutes, and is usually
rapid, no injurious effects being left behind. The temperature of animals
(pigeons and rabbits) during the full influence of this anesthetic falls from
two and a half to three degrees Fahrenheit. When a warm-blooded animal,
narcotized with the hydride of hexyl, is allowed to sleep to death in the
vapour, the death, as from chloroform, is almost imperceptible, it is so
gentle; the respiration ceases first, but the heart soon follows in cessation
of action. After death the lungs are found to be slightly blanched, but the
heart contains blood on both sides. The vapour in no way modifies the
coagulation of blood, but the colour of the venous blood is rendered darker
than is natural, and the arterial blood is also darkened. The corpuscles are
not visibly changed.

I should consider the hydride of caproyl in the light of a narcotic which
acts by reducing the respiratory process of change of blood rather than by
direct influence of its own on the nervous centres. In the absence of chloro-
form it might be used as a substitute for it ; and had it been tried pure in the
early days of anesthetic research, it would possibly have obtained position
over ether. We need not, however, consider it at the present time any
further, as we have better agents at our command.

Hydride of Gnanthyl or Heptyl—tThis hydride, which may be obtained
in a pure form by careful fractional distillation from some petroleum oils, is
composed of C, H,, H. It has a specific gravity of *709 at 60° F., a vapour-
density of 50°, and a boiling-point of 201° F. It has a rather agreeable
odour, and is easily inhaled. Administered by inhalation, it produces a stupor
with some insensibility, much muscular tremor, and a reduction of tempera-
ture, which in birds may be brought down to not less than five degrees. It also
reduces the action of the heart, while it quickens the respiration. It darkens
arterial blood, but does not interfere with the process of coagulation of blood.

ON THE ACTION OF THE METHYL AND ALLIED SERIES. 161

It is distinctly negative in its narcotic effects, and, from what we now know
of it, is not a practical narcotic.

In order to render more complete the research with the hydrides, they
were administered by subcutaneous injection in several experiments. Intro-
duced into the body in this manner, they were found to be practically negative
in their action, a dose, amply sufficient to produce stupor and death by
inhalation, being inactive when the agent was carried into the organism
by the hypodermic method. Moreover the local effects were so exceedingly
slight, that they are unworthy of mention. The insolubility of the fluids in
the blood and their negative chemical action can only account for these results.

ALcoHoL SERIES.

In previous Reports I have dealt with the physiological action of the
alcohol series from methylic alcohol up to amylic alcohol. In the present
Report I have dealt with certain alcohols in which a new element is in-
troduced, viz. sodium alcohol, or sodium ethylate, potassium alcohol, or po-
tassium ethylate, and sulphur alcohol, mercaptan. Regarding these sub-
stances, the sodium and potassium alcohols, are instances in which the
metals sodium or potassium replace one atom of the hydrogen of the
radical of the alcohol, while, in respect to the sulphur alcohol, the sulphur
replaces the oxygen of the alcohol.

Alcohol. Sodium alcohol. Potassium alcohol. Sulphur alcohol,
C, H, C_H. C. H. C, H,
‘i } 0 a } 0 z } 0 = } S.

The object of this research was to ascertain what would be the effect of
introducing a new element, by substitution, into a substance, alcohol, the phy-
siological action of which was understood.

Sodium Alcohol, or Ethylate Sodium.—This ethylate is prepared by
treating absolute alcohol with pure metallic sodium. So soon as the
sodium comes in contact with the alcohol there is free escape of hydrogen,
and the addition of sodium has to be continued until action ceases. I find
it good to increase the temperature gradually as the action declines. At
last there is obtained a thick, nearly white product, which is a saturated
solution of sodium alcohol. From the solution ethylate of sodium crystallizes
out in beautiful crystals.

The composition of sodium ethylate is re ‘| O. When it is brought
into contact with water it is decomposed, the sodium becoming oxidized by
the oxygen of the water to form sodium hydrate, and the hydrogen of the
water going to reconstitute the common or ethylic alcohol.

The change of ethylic alcohol into sodium alcohol transforms it from an
irritant to a caustic. Laid on dry parts of the body the sodium ethylate
is comparatively inert, creating no more change than the redness and tingling
caused by common alcohol; but so soon as the part to which the substance
is applied gives up a little water, the transformation I have described above
occurs; caustic soda is produced in contact with the skin in proportion as
water is eliminated by the skin, and there proceeds a gradual destruction
of tissue, which may be so moderated as hardly to be perceptible, or may be
80 intensified as to act almost like a cutting instrument.

Potassium Alcohol, or Potassium Ethylate-—Potassium ethylate is made
ina similar manner as sodium ethylate, viz. by bringing pure potassium
into contact with absolute alcohol. The action of the potassium is much

1870. M

162 REPORT—1870.

more energetic than sodium. I prefer to immerse the potassium under the
alcohol in a small glass bell, from which there is a tube to allow of the escape
of the liberated hydrogen. When saturation is complete, a thick and almost
colourless fluid is formed, from which the ethylate may be obtained in solid
crystalline state. Exposed to water the potassium ethylate is transformed,
as is the sodium ethylate, into ethylic alcohol and hydrate of potassium.
1, H
0.

The composition of the potassium alcohol is C, K

The action of this compound on animal tissues, living and dead, is the
same as that of the sodium compound, but is more energetic.

Practical Uses of Sodium and Potassium Alcohols.—I do not as yet see the
means of applying readily these two active alcohols for internal administra-
tion, but I cam predict for them a very extensive application for external
purposes. They are most potent caustics. In some cases they may be
employed to destroy, rapidly, such morbid growths as are not favourable for
excision by the knife. In many cases of cancer they will prove invaluable,
and will, I believe, exert a direct local curative influence. Injected subcuta-
neously into morbid growths, they would so quickly destroy them that the
action might have to be conducted while the body was under the influence of
an anesthetic.

In being applied direct to the sensitive unbroken skin, I find that their
destructive action is less painful than would be expected. I have made with
both compounds a superficial eschar on my arm, with no more pain than a
slight tingling warmth. What is more, when pain is felt, it may be checked
quickly by dropping upon the part a little chloroform, which decomposes the
alcohol, converting it into a chloride salt, and an ether of which I have yet
to speak.

Again, I find that these alcohols dissolve some of the vegetable alkaloids.
Thus opium may be dissolved in them, and a solution of opium in caustic
alcohol is made directly by mere addition of the narcotic to the caustic spirit.
Practical men will see the advantages of combinations of these alcohols with
narcotics. The practice opens the way to one of the greatest needs in medi-
cine, a sure, rapid, and painless caustic.

The caustic alcohols may be used in combination with local anzesthesia
from cold. A part rendered quite dead to pain, by freezing with ether
spray, could be directly destroyed by the subcutaneous injection of caustic
alcohol, a practice very important in the treatment of poisoned wounds,
such as the wound from the bite of a snake or a rabid dog. It is by no
means improbable that some cystic tumours may be cured by the simple
subcutaneous injection of a little of these fluids, after destruction of sensi-
bility by cold.

Potassium and sodium alcohol, added to the volatile hydride of amyl,
dissolve in the hydride and produce a caustic solution. When this solu-
tion is applied to the skin, the evaporation of the hydride takes place,
and a layer of the caustic substance is left behind. This application would
prove very useful to the surgeon in many cases of disease.

The action of the ethylates on the blood is extremely rapid and marked.
The red corpuscles are brought into solution, and there forms (quickly in
some cases) an almost instant crystallization of blood ; the erystals are
acicular, and spread out in arborescent filaments. The arborescent appearance
is identical with the crystallization of the ethylates themselves in a thick fluid,
but the smaller radiant crystals are due, I believe, to the erystallization of
the crystalloidal matter of the blood-cells. They are singularly like the

ON THE ACTION OF THE METHYL AND ALLIED SERIES. 163

erystalline forms which have been described, since the time of Dr. Richard
Mead, as occurring in the blood after infection by the poison of the viper.
One other peculiarity in the action of the ethylates on blood is worthy of
notice: while they seem to attack and dissolve the red corpuscles vigorously,
they act with comparative slowness on the white corpuscles, so that we may
often see a white corpuscle floating uninjured in a sea of red colouring
fluid previous to crystallization, and even adhering to the crystalline points
after crystallization.

The ethylates possess also powerful antiseptic properties, so that even
nervous matter, which of all animal substance is most prone to decomposition,
can be long kept in good preservation in the presence of them. I have by
me, in bottles, specimens of the brain of sheep which illustrate this point.
Specimen 1 is inclosed in common air, and is a decomposed fluid mass.
Specimen 2 is inclosed in the same volume of air, with twenty grains of
absolute alcohol: this specimen is decomposed. Specimen 3 is inclosed in
the same volume of air, with twenty grains of the ethylate of sodium; it
remains firm, of perfectly natural colour, and free of decomposition. The
specimens have been now under observation for fifteen weeks.

Sulphur Alcohol, Mercaptan.—The sulph-hydrate of ethyl, sulphur alcohol,
or, as it was originally called by its discoverer, Zeise, “‘ mercaptan,” is made
by saturating an alcoholic solution of potassa with sulphuretted hydrogen,
and then treating the solution with iodide of ethyl. In its pure state it is a
whitish fluid, and of so offensive and penetrating an odour that it cannot,
until it is diluted with common alcohol or ether, in both of which it is freely
soluble, be comfortably employed in experiment. It is insoluble in water.
Its specific gravity is *832 at 70° F.; its boiling-poimt is 135° F., and its
vapour-density, by side of hydrogen, is 31. It is nearly insoluble in water,
but imparts to water its peculiar odour, and can be distributed freely through
it if combined with alcohol.

In order to experiment with mercaptan, it is necessary to dilute it either
with absolute ether or alcohol; a solution containing one per cent. is suffi-
ciently active.

When blood is acted upon by mercaptan no change of colour is produced,
neither is the action of peroxide hydrogen on blood influenced by its pre-
sence. ‘The corpuscles are made shrunken by it, but are not destroyed, their
form changing into ovoid, with the same production of truncated cor-
puscles which I described in my last Report as belonging to the action of
ordinary alcohol.

When mercaptan is cautiously inhaled the physiological effects are most
peculiar. I found, by a direct experiment made on myself, that the vapour is
nowise irritating, but that systemic effects are very speedily pronounced. There
is desire for sleep, and a strange unhappy dreamy sensation, as if from some
actual or impending trouble. This is succeeded by an easy but extreme
sensation of muscular fatigue; the limbs feel too heavy to be lifted, and rest
is absolutely demanded. There is at the same time no anesthesia and no
sign of intoxication. The pulse is rendered feeble and slow, and remains in —
that condition for one or two hours. In time all the effects pass off, and no
unpleasant symptom remains. Active motion in the air very quickly gives
entire liberation from the effects of the agent.

_ The same effects are produced on the inferior animals. Frogs exposed to

the vapour pass slowly into sleep, and if the inhalation be sustained, there

is complete arrest of the acts of respiration and circulation, followed by

arrest of movements of the limbs. In this condition the animals lie to all.
M2

164 REPORT—1870.

intents dead, except that there is no contraction of the pupil; indeed the
pupil is dilated, and the lens stands out perfectly clear and bright. They
may be left in this apparently lifeless state for half an hour in the vapour
without danger. Taken out, gently washed with water, and left in the open
air at 60° to 65° F., they invariably show signs of muscular movement in an
hour and a half or two hours; then they recommence to breathe, next the
heart begins to beat, and in a short time they recover perfectly, precisely as
if they were awakening from the torpor of cold.

Respecting this recovery there is observed a phenomenon which to me is
entirely new. It is the case with all narcotic and paralyzing agents which
I have tested, that they produce paralysis of the voluntary muscles before
they cause paralysis of the muscles of respiration and the heart. Also in
recovery from the narcotic state, the heart first lights up, then the respira-
tion, and finally the muscles of voluntary power. But under mercaptan
the reverse obtains, the voluntary muscles lose their irritability last and
regain it first during recovery.

The paralyzing action of mercaptan on muscle suggested to me that it
might be useful for the arrest of tetanic convulsion, but experiment gave a
negative to this hypothesis. It is true that the action of strychnine can be
modified by this agent, but nothing more can be done with it. The passive
muscles, so soon as the respiration is paralyzed, pass into slow but firm
cadaveric rigidity.

A point of great physiological interest attaches to the mode of elimination
of sulphur alcohol from the living body. Insoluble in the blood, and at the
same time volatile, it makes its way out of the economy mainly by respira-
tion, conveying an odour which is identical with the odour of the breath in
some forms of disease. It would be out of place for me to enter on the ques-
tion of disease here at any length; but I must not refrain from suggesting to
physicians that a new field of inquiry is open to them in investigating the
question of the presence of sulphur compounds in the air expired by their pa-
tients. In disease the breaking up of the albuminoid textures is attended
within the body by the formation of volatile sulphuretted organic compounds,
and the circumstance of the detection of such compounds in expired air
would, I think, prove a most useful study in the art of diagnosis. When we
know how minute a proportion of sulphur alcohol will produce muscular de-
pression and feebleness of the heart, we may fairly infer that the forma-
tion of sulphur compounds spontaneously within the body would account for
many examples of excessive temporary prostration, for the cause of which
we have as yet no satisfactory explanation.

The mode of action of sulphur alcohol appeared to me at first to be
through direct interference with the oxidation of the blood. I believed it to
be an agent which arrested the natural oxidation of the blood by contact,
but I am now not decided on this point. The substance inflicts no im-
portant structural lesion on the blood or tissues so long as it can find exit
from the body; but while it is present it sustains a peculiar action on the
nervous organism, not leading, I think, to any modification of structure,
but causing exhaustion or arrest of motor power and disordered cerebral
manifestation.

I have spoken thus far only of the action of sulphur alcohol, but it has
some practical value to which, in a line or two, I may refer. It is an anti-
septic, but gives to the matter it preserves an objectionable odour, which is
not altogether removed even by boiling water. It is an excellent preparation
for making a sulphur-bath, and would prove, in cases where sulphur has to

ON THE ACTION OF THE METHYL AND ALLIED SERIES. 165

be applied externally, a useful agent. If it be true that sulphur compounds
are of service in the treatment of so-called zymotic diseases, this alcohol
would be a ready remedy of the sulphur class.

New Resrarcu on ture Eruyts.
From studying the action of sulphur alcohol, I thought it well to pass to
the ether of the sulphur series, c i S, sulphide of ethyl. This ether,

which is the analogue of the common rectified ether of the oxygen series, is
made by bringing sulphide of potassium into contact with chloride of ethyl.
It is a whitish fluid of offensive odour. It boils at 194° F., and its vapour-
density is 45. It is slightly soluble in water and in blood. Although
disagreeable to breathe, it can be administered by inhalation like common
ether, and it produces, in like manner, sleep ; the action of it is slow in com-
parison with that of common ether, but the recovery from its effects is
quick, much quicker than from mercaptan. A very minute dose is sufficient
to narcotize; a quarter of a grain, diffused in fifty cubic inches of air at 60°,
will narcotize frogs; and when these animals are thus rendered insensible
they may be left in the narcotic vapour, with all evidences of life lost, for
periods of twenty-five minutes to half an hour without risk. Placed in the
open air, the animals begin to move again in one or two minutes, the muscles
of the limbs regaining their irritability sooner than the heart and the muscles
of respiration.

On rabbits, guineapigs, and pigeons sulphide of ethyl acts directly as a
narcotic and anesthetic. In pigeons it reduces the animal temperature four
degrees at the fourth stage of narcotism, and the muscular prostration is
intense; at the same time the danger of death, if due care be taken, is
slight.

If four-fifths of a grain of the sulphide of ethyl be ejected subcutaneously
into the rabbit, the odour of the substance is detectable within a few seconds
in the expired breath, but no general effect is produced. Narcotism can
nevertheless be caused by the subcutaneous method.

A number of experiments were carried out in order to determine whether
the sulphide of ethyl could be successfully employed to counteract the action
of strychnia, but the results were not of a character to lead to the idea that
the sulphide is an antidote for strychnia.

The vapour of sulphide of ethyl inhaled from a solution of one part in
twenty of alcohol is less diagreeable than might be assumed. It causes, if
the inhalation be cautiously carried out, but little irritation, and the influence
of it as a narcotic is very much like that of sulphuric ether. It induces
much less muscular exhaustion than mercaptan, and it gives to the breath an
odour which lasts some hours after the inhalation has ceased.

Brome oF Eruyt.

Bromide of ethyl, or hydrobromic ether, C,H, B,, was introduced as an
anesthetic by the late Mr. Nunneley of Leedsin 1849. The etheris made by
distillimg four parts of powdered potassium bromide with five parts of a
mixture containing an alcoholic solution of strong sulphuric acid, one part of
the acid in 96 of alcohol. The ether is a rather pleasant fluid to inhale. It
boils at 104° F.; it has a specific gravity of 1-400 ; its vapour-density is 54.

Mr. Nunneley up to the time of his death held this fluid to be the best
and safest of anesthetics; and in an interview I had with him shortly before

166 REPORT—1870.

his death, he begged me to study it and notice it in this Report.

I therefore undertook the task, and with a very excellent specimen of the
ether prepared by Messrs. Robbins, chemists, I subjected it to a fair test by
the side of other anasthetic vapours, and found it to be a rapidly acting
and safe agent. In doses of fifteen minims, diffused in 300 cubic inches of
atmospheric air, at a temperature of 60° to 66° F., it induced profound
narcotism in one minute and thirty seconds, both in pigeons and rabbits; and
in the human subject one fluid drachm administered by Junker’s inhaler was
effective in entirely removing consciousness of pain after two minutes’ in-
halation. The effect of the ether is singular in that, under its use, very little
muscular or nervous excitement precedes the narcotism ; indeed there may
be said to be no second degree of anesthesia from the bromide, but a direct
transition from the first to the third degree. The third degree is, moreover,
free of spasmodic effort, and quickly passes, if the inhalation be continued,
into the fourth degree of general muscular prostration. The temperature
of the body is reduced in the fourth stage full 3° F. Recovery from the
deepest narcotism produced by it is perfect in from four to five minutes,
and in no experiment did I observe any symptom of danger.

I am thus able to state that Mr. Nunneley’s opinion respecting hydrobromic
ether was sound; and could the ether be obtained as readily as chloroform,
and were it as stable a body, I should say that it would be a real improve-
ment on chloroform. Its physical qualities, its low boiling-point especially, are
good recommendations; and the facts that it causes no convulsion, and that
recovery from its influence is very rapid, are equally in its favour. The
objections to it, irrespective of cost of its production, which is great, are that
its vapour provokes during its inhalation a local dryness and irritation of
throat, easily bearable but not pleasant, and that on being kept for a
time and exposed to air it undergoes change, so that its vapour becomes
actually irritating to the mucous membrane, These faults, minor though
they be, would, I think, prevent hydrobromic ether from coming into
general use as an anesthetic ; its good qualities deserve nevertheless to be
remembered, and the scientific world is much indebted to our late Associate
for the labour he introduced into his research and the results he obtained.

TRIETHYLIC AND TRIMETHYLIC ErHers.

When chloroform is made to act on sodium or potassium ethylate, or on
sodium or potassium methylate, a chloride of the metals, whichever be
used, is formed and an ether. If an ethylate be acted upon an ethy] ether is
obtained ; if a methylate be acted upon a methyl ether. The first of these
ethers is supposed to be homologous with an ether of a triatomie alcohol
called triethylic, C, H,, O,, and I have therefore called it triethylic ether; the
second is homologous with trimethylic ether, C,H,,0,: specimens of both
these ethers are on the table.

Triethylic ether is a heavy aromatic fluid, boiling at 174° F., and having a
vapour-density of 71. It passes into vapour very slowly, unless the tempera-
ture of the air be considerably raised, and hence at ordinary temperatures
the action of the ether is very faint when it is administered by inhalation.
But in making the ether I observed that the first distillation yielded as a pro-
duct a volatile chloride, of very delicate aromatic odour, and without excep-
tion the most perfect general anzsthetic I have ever employed or seen. This
compound, of which there is a specimen on the table, is so quick in action that
it may be diluted with half its volume of absolute ether, and still yield a vapour
of sufficient narcotic power to be available for long or short operations. Exposed

ON THE ACTION OF THE METHYL AND ALLIED SERIES. 167

to the vapour, pigeons and rabbits glide into the deepest sleep of unconscious-
ness without a movement, and in a state more strikingly resembling natural
sleep than any other condition; the insensibility may be sustained for two
hours without the least apparent danger. Within the last ten days, after
first inhaling the vapour myself, I administered it to the human subject,
while Mr. Brudenell Carter performed an operation on the eyeball for the cure
of strabismus. The action in this instance was simply perfect ; the patient
subsided into what seemed a natural sleep, without a convulsive or disturbed
movement; the operation was performed without the faintest manifestation
of sensation, and recovery was perfect in one minute after the vapour was
withdrawn*. The experience of the action of the narcotic I have here
described is so good that I could not let it pass silently; but I am not yet sure
whether the application can be brought into general use. The production of
the fluid is troublesome and costly, and after a time, if exposed to the air,
it loses its efficacy. In brief, it is not a homogeneous substance, and is
therefore open to the objections against compound fluids mentioned in my
Report at the Norwich Meeting. The part played by the heavy ether is
excellent, in that it equalizes diffusion and prevents pungency of vapour ;
and I may be able, by further research, to improve the method, or to be guided
by what I know of it to some new and better advance ; but this I must leave
for future research.

The trimethylic ether of which I have spoken is a much lighter fluid than
the triethylic; it boils at 140° F., and has a vapour-density of 53; but the
odour of its vapour is not agreeable, and although it produces safe anesthesia,
it is not perfect in its action.

PART III.—PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

In conducting a lengthened series of experiments such as I have been
engaged in carrying out during the past year, many observations, incidental
to the work in hand, naturally come before the mind, and to one or two
observations of this character I would, for a moment, direct attention in
closing the Report.

Consciousness and common sensation—The metaphysicians, in treating of
conscious and unconscious states of mind, have long taught that there may
be periods of consciousness with an absence of common sensibility. The
truth of this inference is sustained by physical inquiries. In a previous
Report on Amylene I pointed out that the vapour of amylene, while it
destroys sensation, does not destroy all conscious acts; and in my later obser-
vations on the action of methylic ether the same fact has been more perfectly
elicited. In several cases where I administered the ether for removing pain
in surgical operations, the patients, when quite insensible to pain, were so
conscious that they were able to obey every request asked of them ; and in some
instances were even anxious to reason, stating that they knew what was going
on, and arguing that they were not ready for the operation because they were
sure they should feel pain. Nevertheless in this state of mental activity they
were operated on, and afterwards, while remembering every incident, were
firm in their assertion that they felt no pain whatever during the operation.
One patient who sat for the extraction of two teeth selected the tooth to be

' * During the Meeting of the Association at Liverpool I administered the same vapour
to a woman oyer seventy years of age, while my friend Mr. Walker operated for cataract.
The results were as perfect as in Mr, Carter’s case. ,

168 REPORtT—1870.

first extracted, putting her finger to it, and afterwards rearranging her
position for the second removal. To the looker on it seemed in fact as
though no change in her life had occurred, yet she affirmed that she was
sensible of no pain whatever ; and several other less striking but hardly less
singular examples came before me. We may then, I think, fairly assume
that in course of time we shall discover manageable and certain anesthetic
substances which will paralyze sensation only, leaving the muscular power
unaltered and the mental little disturbed; and we gather from this either that
in the cerebral hemisphere there is some distinct and simple centre of
common sensation which may be acted upon by certain agents without
involving all the cerebral mass, or that the peripheral nervous matter may be
influenced without involving the other portions of the nervous system.
On the whole, I incline to the view that the action of those agents which
destroy pain before they remove consciousness is primarily on the peripheral
system; for we know, from the process of local anesthesia, that it is easy
to destroy sensation at the extremities without destroying or even interfering
with consciousness, while those who have inhaled the vapours which destroy
common sensation before interfering with the mental condition, invariably
describe the experience of a numbness and insensibility in the extreme parts,
of the body.

That which we medical men most require is an agent that shall be easily
applied, and shall admit of being so applied generally as to induce
insensibility to pain with or without destruction of consciousness, as the case
before us may demand. There are many minor surgical operations for which
consciousness need not be destroyed, although pain ought to be; there are
other operations in which the consciousness of the person operated upon is of
great service to the operator ; and there is a third class of cases in which it is
essential to suspend both sensation and consciousness.

Now those agents which first destroy common sensation can always be
pushed to the extent of destroying consciousness, so that if we could get a
perfect agent of the kind we should have the full requirements in our hand.
Up to the present moment we have been content with two classes of agents,
one which destroys consciousness and sensation at the same time, the other
which locally destroys sensation, and has no influence on the consciousness.
T look hopefully for a method in which, by means of a single agent, we
shall be able at will to suspend common sensation alone, or to exalt the
process into suspension of consciousness. When this object is attained,
with safety and facility, the science of anssthesia may be considered as
perfected.

Modification of action from physical constitution and construction.—The
present series of researches have been specially interesting as showing more
clearly in detail the influence of physical constitution and construction of
different substances in relation to physiological action. We take, for example,
the base ethyl, C, H,, and trace out physiological action through its many modi-
fications of compounds. We begin with the hydride of etlyl, C,H, H, and
find it an insoluble gas which will produce insensibility if it be made to
exclude air from the lungs, but which is, in other respects, negative in action.
We pass to the hydrated oxide of ethyl, C,H, O (alcohol), and find a fluid
very soluble in blood, readily diffusible through the body, and producing, when
given in sufficient quantity, a prolonged narcotism,. with suspension first of
common sensation and afterwards of consciousness. , We turn to ethyl-ether,
C,H,, 0, and discover a volatile fluid, soluble to a certain extent in the blood,
capable of being absorbed by the lungs, and having the power of producing

ON THE ACTION OF THE METHYL AND ALLIED SERIES. 169

quick suspension both of sensation and consciousness. We move to the
chloride of ethyl, C,H, Cl, and learn that we have in it still a narcotic
capable of producing suspension of sensation and consciousness, like ether,
but with this difference, owing to the introduction of the new element
chlorine, that active convulsive movements are superinduced. We turn
to the iodide of ethyl, C,H, I, to observe again a narcotic action, as with
ether, together with irritation and oyeraction of secreting glands, owing in
this instance to the introduction of the element iodine. We take up the
bromide of ethyl, C,H, Br, to discover an excellent narcotic, but one which,
owing to the introduction of bromine, causes dryness of mucous membrane.
Lastly, we turn to nitrite of ethyl, C,H, NO,, and experimenting with it
learn that with the introduction of the element nitrogen we lose much of
narcotic action and gain an agent which, being introduced into the body, re-
duces the sympathetic nervous power, lets loose the heart so that it can deliver
its blood into enfeebled vessels, allows excreting organs, such as the kidneys,
to pour forth an abundant secretion, and which, carried far enough, paralyzes
muscular action so effectually as to overcome even tetanic spasm.

I point out these simple truths in order to indicate once again the correct
line of research in reference to all substances used as medicines. T’o commence
with a base and to follow the modifications of its action through the varied
compounds formed upon it, that, as it seems to me, is the only method by
which the physiologist can arrive at positive truth in his classification and
selection of remedies for the diseases that afflict mankind. oa

Direct action of agents on nervous centres—The teachings of the last hal
century have led us to the theory, now generally accepted, that all chemical
agents, in order to produce an effect on the body, must enter the blood and
be carried by it through the organism. It is true that Dr. Wilson Philip
demurred to this, and showed that alcohol would influence the heart imme-
diately when brought into contact with the cerebrum; andit is also true that
Dr. John Jones observed, in his experiments on young alligators, that the act
of respiration could be instantly suspended by applying hydrocyanic acid
directly to the medulla oblongata. Still the theory remained in force, the
argument being that the substances applied to the nervous matter were
rapidly absorbed into the circulation. My own observations on nitrite of
amyl have, however, assured me that one agent, at all events, may act directly
on neryous matter. To prove this, an animal was allowed to sleep into death
in the vapour of bichloride of methylene, and all the blood-vessels leading to
and from the heart were firmly tied, so as to cut off every possibility of
circulation of blood into or out of the heart; then with a subcutaneous
injecting syringe, through the optic foramen, five grains of nitrite of amyl were
introduced into the cavity of the skull, so as to bring the agent in contact with
the cerebral mass. Instantly the heart, which had continued pulsating,
ceased for a moment, and then recommenced action with the same ex-
treme rapidity as is observed in the living animal subjected to the influence
of the vapour of the nitrite. I repeated the experiment twice with the same
result, the rapid cardiac action continuing from two to three minutes in
each case. ‘These experiments lead mé to suggest that we have accepted
too readily the idea of the necessity of absorption of all chemical substances
for the production of physiological effects, and that we ought to go back to an old
subject of inquiry, the direct action of chemical and physical agents upon
nervous matter. When we irritate the extremities of a nerve, as, for instance,
when we inhale strong ammonia or particles of snuff, and excite muscular
action, or when we call forth sensation, as when we take in the odour of

170 REPORT—1870.

flowers or musk, we never consider the question of absorption by the blood,
but attribute the phenomena that follow to a superficial influence exerted upon
the periphery of nerve. The question is, whether with certain other agents
a more extended influence may not be exerted through the nervous struc-
tures so that the nervous centres themselves may be impressed and systematic
derangements be excited by the disturbance. If this be ptoved to be
the fact in respect to known organic bodies, such as nitrite of amyl, it may
be worth while to carry out the same line of inquiry in the investigation of
those obscure diseases which we attribute to minute particles of organic
poisons, and which are invariably heralded by symptoms indicating changes,
of function, at least, in the nervous centres that govern those organs by the
action of which the natural life of the body is sustained.

In concluding this Report, I have once more to claim your indulgence for
all its shortcomings. I claim to be, as it were, a mere gardener in the field
of physiological medicine. The physicist and the chemist give seeds which
I and a few others plant in our domain. We take the offering, try its value,
and then there follow accomplished scholars and practitioners who join with
us in proving and establishing the practical results and benefits that are to
succeed upon the primary research. The labourers in the primary research
are not unfrequently forgotten for a time, as their followers gather their
produce and weave it into forms that attract and please the world. But our
satisfaction is none the less complete as we witness the development of our
efforts, since the solid satisfaction lies, not in the promise of the sowing, but
in the proof of the reaping. I have thanked this Association many times for
having recognized the importance of the primary exertion to which I refer, and
in thanking it once more I hold myself at its disposition to continue at my
tasks under its sympathetic and powerful influence. It is true that by what
is called private industry one may do much to advance any profession, if to
the advancement the mind be simply and sincerely devoted; but when one
expends industry, as I have been allowed to expend it, by the direction of
this convocation of men of all sciences, the effect is tenfold in weight and
measure. The effort is accepted away from these meetings because it has
been accepted in them, and the science of medicine is strengthened because
she marches with the other sciences in mutual understanding and for mutual
progress.

Report of the Rainfall Committee for the Year 1869-70, consisting of
C. Brooks, F.R.S. (Chairman), J. Guatsumr, F.R.S., Prof. Parures,
F.R.S., J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S., R. W. Myine, C.E., F.R.S.,
T. Hawxstey, C.E., Prof. Apams, F.R.S., C. Tomirnson, F.R.S.,
Prof. Syivester, F.R.S., Dr. Potz, F.R.S., Rocers Fiexp, C.E.,
and G. J. Symons, Secretary.

In our last Report we reprinted the rules which had been issued for the
guidance of observers, and we also expressed the opinion that a considerable
addition to the staff in several districts was desirable. This proposal was
approved by the General Committee at Exeter, and a small sum granted
towards the expenses which would be incurred.

One of the districts very destitute of observers was Dartmoor, and thither

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 171

accordingly our Secretary proceeded, in order to obtain such further observers
as seemed requisite. In this he was on the whole very successful, as the
accompanying diagram shows more clearly than any explanation.

Rain-gauge Stations in Devonshire (part of ).

1869. 1870,
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8 33 = a) ®
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Old Stations. Old and new Stations.

Great, however, as was the improvement then effected, it cannot be said
that the rainfall of Dartmoor is properly observed until gauges have been
started, one near Cranmere Pool and one between Meavy and Holne, two
districts extremely difficult of access and quite uninhabited.

Subsequently circulars were sent to (and courteously inserted in) ‘The
Times,’ ‘ Nature,’ ‘Scientific Opinion,’ and various local journals in districts
where observers were most required. About 100 volunteers were thus
obtained, many of whom also undertook to pay for their own instruments,
thus materially increasing the number of stations obtained by our special
grant. Gauges, the property of this Association, have been supplied to the
following stations during the past year, and, with hardly an exception, the
returns sent in have been most satisfactory :—

Country.

County Station. Observer.

England ......... Devon. .......... Tavistock Reservoir ............++- Mr. Merrifield.

See Seige lrcaceasans Clawton, Holsworthy | ,...,....... W. W. Melbuish, Esq.

>, SSS Pete nici et See Prison Garden, Dartmoor ...... Mr. Watts.

5) SR BEBEEEE rh ee esnorce Rundles Cross, ae ese P

PS sstexccus AP ate ert cee Powder-Mills, i ie ae Mr. Henwood.

“5 ee sale Re aR Holne Vicarage, 4, > a... Rey. J. Gall.

WO ses oie solemed ase wees Oaklands, Oakhampton ......... W. H. Holley, Esq.

eee e

“pogscae N. Lew, Hatherleigh

Rey. T. England.

172 REPOoRT—1870.

Country. County. Station. Observer.
England ......... Nottingham ... Grove Ho., Mansfield ............ R. Tyrer, Esq.

ar ms seteees Yorkshire ...... Malham Tarn, Bell Busk......... W. Bissett, Esq.

app be -SbbbceDO9 oe Si St AISEST EA yweronececcsccosscsssecesoees Mr. A. Knaggs.

Te ee cease seo Ntecaee Pateley Bridge 5 in........cserac0-- E. Warburton, Esq.
Woallesierecsse--<<- Carmarthen ... Tlangadoek \.5.5.2.....0..000sce0s F. Layard, Esq.
Isle of Man...... Islevof Man’ <.., Karkmnichaelitsweccc....-.s0crseeeen Rev. W. C. Ingram.
Scotland ......... Aberdeen ...... Cairnbanno, New Deer.......+...- Mr. W. Adie.

feet MEERA | Seeesee Morgue; Huntley © ........0.--s0ser Rev. J. Abel.

Pare erase eons PATO VU Scnnsceee IBallACHUMISH .tecses+-sss00so-snsoae Rev. D. Mackenzie,

oe cour JAAD ccacep-corer Holehouse, Patna .........s00.0000+ Mr. P. Murdoch.

a ROPES obs nu eee Sess Inchrory, Tomintoul ............ Mr. A. MacRae.

sof WP acshessd Wife. scasestae-s PANIC HCO TEA ULG LG Viaa\nolsi te'9)6 se since lo F. Troup, Esq., M.D.

Ti attenctene Inverness ...... Sligachan, Portree.................. Mr. McDonald.

yell WES tae Rs Wieeetamestiece Budgate, Cawdor .......0.......00« J. Joss, Esq.

sv lence scree Lanark ......... Tron-works’ School, Muirkirk... Mr. J. Wilson.

5 abate: IN SIs eanewerer ee tATIIAEGAIN, He psectiedess.cta tween taoees Mr. Laidlaw.

ete 5 ee ROSS Wi sc3daces ses SiraAthconant oJ.2024 aes Sieces weep C. J. Smith, Esq.

As ese ee hy Ree ee ree Gairloch..i5 swine asacepsensbnenneet Mr. A. Dayidson.
Irelands "ee.....- PATIUTITN Geeseo es MCarTICKIORS US s.cc.0e sc anceea seo sere A. Sutherland, Esq.

aa en eee TALWELY “eceea as. BAMlinUslOG -....0-+-soeesssss eer enec es J. Kempster, Esq.

Fea | opecnnae Kerry ......... Cara Lake, Killarney ............ J. B. Kennedy, Esq.

Siuasl llssosenwes 5 sadesntasebins eae Darrynane, Cahirciyeen ......... D. O'Connell, Esq.

While upon this subject, your Committee may point out that if a corps of
amateur observers, sufficient for rainfall purposes, say, 1500 to 2000 in
nunter, is to be kept together, a regular and considerable number of new
ones must annually be obtained, to supply vacancies produced by death and
removals. Your Committee, being fully convinced of the great and increas-
ing importance of accurate registration of the fall of rain, will at all times
be glad to receive, through their Secretary (G. J. Symons, Esq., 62 Camden
Square, London), offers of assistance from residents in the less densely
peopled parts of the British Isles, The instrument now used is extremely
simple and inexpensive.

Your Committee have always regarded the examination of the gauges in
use, of their positions, and the personal communication between their
Secretary and the various observers as a matter of the highest importance.
They have, therefore, much pleasure in announcing that upwards of one
hundred stations have been visited during the past year. The various sug-
gestions offered by the Secretary have been most cheerfully adopted by the
observers, who often warmly express their approyal of this inspection, both
for its own sake and as tending to secure uniformity of practice, and to in-
creased esprit de corps among the observers.

Full details of the results of the examinations in 1869-70 are given in
the Appendix. The number of stations examined in the respective counties
was as follows :—

SIUM PONE ater con nee fe Rtg: je ais ate, 50 2
Cornwall (including Scilly) ............ 43
Deva re eee te tere taae ot ec co Speyer 32
Harmpsbire vi scars eee Beets ef. ie eRe 1
Cr he Graig a ea en 7
Norte... 5 als miramwtan th MxM sic fo «ors, « ceceyet 2
BEBO. 5a ssein PEO IN EM SORE 2 ootrcensn eis 6
MERCH SP kites me ee Bi iat hes me spe picteiaale 2
Montsothieryes 2. si <\.setess aman tans ope di
Rage: os 26 on n+ apreinarh onlodsctous cae 2

We regret having been unable to take any steps during the past year to-

"-— ~” Orwrvre,

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 173

wards the collection of old observations. It is a most desirable object, and
without it our other work will not be complete; but our Secretary has not
time for it, and we have not funds to provide a regular copyist.

In our last Report we gave an analysis of the results of the experimental
gauges employed at Calne to determine the relative indications of gauges of
various sizes.

We now give a similar discussion of the series erected to test the influence
of elevation above the ground on the amount collected. It had long been known
that gauges on buildings collected considerably less than those on the ground,
this branch of the inquiry having many years ago been examined with great
care by Prof. Phillips. As his experiments and results are printed in the
3rd, 4th, and 5th Reports of this Association, it is unnecessary here to give
more than a brief résumé of the whole. Prof. Phillips had three similar
gauges, one placed in the gardens of the York Museum, one on its roof, and
one on apole 9 feet above the battlements of the great tower of York
Minster. The heights of these gauges, the total amounts collected, and their
ratios are given in the following Table :—

Ground. | Museum. | Minster.
ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
Height ...... IADOVE PYOUNG sccccconcscocteansenscanse Oo. 2 43. «8 212 IO
oo» Pietee Rr HIG TA Waler Seca nc sccen--ccnunees 29 0 7z 8 241 10
in. in. in.
Total of 12 months, 1832-33 ......... 23°79 20°18 LS 72,
Amount of , Fs T833—9Ateccsdcene 25°71 19°85 14°96
rain. " ns DEGAS Ase coctngaens 15°94 12714 8:29
Ape LOBPACV CALS. . oreave ns «Wesgcstees-s 65°44 at 33°97
D3 2G Qin a eiaulcisis vwamnsieciaeieslelltde ait alanis « 100°0 853 66°1
Pais PAA Aree erieeies cece fotenmce cdr ariat aeons + 100° 172 Ae
z HB QA Gihleaees tatieovss ssacaicreotiavencie’st aes 100°0 761 15 5250
{NS ACEO Poe 3 bP teaddncsdec nese -Jeypenancnr 100°0 797 Fe 5976

We need hardly remark that, owing to the labour of ascending to the
top of the Minster, the observations were not taken daily, but about once a
month. The result of a series of calculations was to indicate that the nor-
mal rate of decrease was not very far from 3/h, but that both the actual
amount and the ratios were dependent on temperature.

The Calne experiments, of which we are now going to give a brief account,
differed from those of Prof. Phillips, both in their object and their details.
At York the object seems to have been to determine the causes of the dif-
ferent amounts collected; at Calne it has been to ascertain the precise dif-
ferences, and the possibility, or otherwise, of deducing corrections whereby
observations made at various small heights above the ground may be reduced
to one common standard. Hence the gauges were mounted on posts, not on
roofs ; the greatest height was 20 feet instead of 210 feet, and the readings
were taken daily instead of monthly. It may be expedient, before proceed-
ing further, to illustrate by an example the necessity for this correction—
(1) on account of its extent, (2) on-account of the very various heights at
which gauges are placed. Taking haphazard a single page of British Rain-
fall, which contains returns from 44 stations, we find just 22 different
heights, viz. :—

174 . REPORT—1870.

Stations. Height. Stations. Height. Stations. Height.
ft. in. ih. aT tesa
2 0. A 1 Eo fecd i. 4 4
3 0+. 6 1 Py 3 4 6
1 Diu 1 RU 1 Plan, aft
1 a it ae sO 3 W)
3 0 10 3 on nO 1 olay @
1 Of pli. iH ede 2 fuyhnsphes oper eb
9 0 1 By 1.8 |
3 art 1 eae ik 5

We could hardly have stronger evidence of the necessity for uniformity in
placing new gauges. Old gauges, however, must not be moved; therefore it
is necessary to ascertain the correction for these various heights, and hence
the following Tables. But we have not yet hinted at the amount of the cor-
rection ; it will be presently shown that, within the above-quoted limits, viz.
from 4 inches above the ground to 16 feet 6 inches, the amount collected
will differ by 10 per cent.

The gauges employed in the Calne elevation experiments were in num-
ber ten, in shape that known as “ Glaisher’s,” 8 inches in diameter, and in
general features identical; they were all constructed by Messrs. Negretti
and Zambra, and remarkably accurate. They were placed at the following
heights :—Level with turf, 2 inches, 6 inches, 1 foot, 2 feet, 3 feet above
it: these were all exactly like fig. 1, the last two standing on dwarf

Fig. 1.

posts. Then there were gauges, like fig. 2, at 5 feet, 10 feet, and 20 feet
above the ground, supported on posts, into which a piece of gas tubing was
inserted (as lead in a cedar pencil), down which the water passed into
bottles at a conveniently accessible height. As objection may possibly be
taken to this arrangement, on the ground of loss by evaporation, we may state
that it was not adopted until repeated experiments had proved that the loss
was almost inappreciable, even with delicate instruments. At 20 feet two
gauges were placed, one 8 inches and one 5 inches in diameter ; as it appears
that the diminution is not the same for 5-inch as for 8-inch gauges, we shall
not for the present discuss specially the observations with this gauge. During
the first four years the whole of the gauges were read daily ; during 1867

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 175

they were purposely read only once a month, in order to ascertain if any
material difference would be detected.

_ Gauges whose mouths are level with, or near to, the surface of the ground
are always found to collect more or less of the soil surrounding them, “which
is splashed up by heavy rain and collected in the gauge. Rain-gauges
are usually so constructed that very little, if any, rain which falls within
their receiving area shall splash out and escape. Hence it seems probable
that gauges nearly level with the surrounding soil will always collect the
true rainfall, plus insplashing. As a means of eliminating this source
of error, another gauge, of the same pat- Fic. 3

tern as the others, was added to the series Ah
in April 1865; it was sunk in a pit, the
depth of which was equal to the height of
the gauge, and with sloping sides, as in fig. 3.
By this means the receiving surface was G

exactly level with the ground, and insplashing was Sirpdisale This gauge
will be called the pit-gauge.

These, then, are the instruments wherewith, and the conditions under
which, the observations at Calne were taken. We may now introduce some
of the results, some only, for the observations are so voluminous and com-
plete as to be almost inexhaustible.

Table I. contains the total amount collected in each gauge in each month,
from August 1863 to December 1867, both inclusive.

Table II. contains these monthly totals converted into ratios, the amount
measured in the gauge whose receiving surface is one foot above the surface
being taken as unity.

Table ILI. is exactly similar, except that the “ pit-gauge” (fig. 3) is taken
as unity.

Table IV. contains the total fall in each year and in the whole period ;
also these values reduced to the ratios of the 1-foot gauge.

Table V. contains the 1-foot ratios, grouped according to months.

Table VI. contains the mean monthly values deduced from Table V.

Table VII. contains the mean monthly values deduced from Table ITT.

Table VIII. contains the monthly (1-foot) ratios for 1864 and 1865,
grouped according to the mean temperature of the days in each month on
which rain fell.

Table IX. is similar, but grouped according to the hygrometric condition
of the atmosphere on those days.

Table X. is similar, but grouped according to the mean velocity of the
wind*,

It is hoped that this series of Tables is so complete as to render lengthened
remarks unnecessary.

We have already referred to the pit-gauge, we may now point out its
result, viz. that in the winter it catches very much less than the one sur-
rounded by grass; and that though in summer both catch alike, on the
average of the year the pit-gauge is 3 per cent. less than the “ level,” and
agrees almost exactly with the one whose orifice is 2 inches above the
ground. This agreement of the “ pit-gauge” and the ‘“2-inch” seems
to show that the amount collected by gauges thus placed is correct. The
accompanying diagrams (Plate V.) show the mean monthly and annual
deficiencies therefrom of gauges at various heights above the ground.

* Tn the formation of the last three Tables some calculations by Dr. Barter of Bath
have been very useful.

176 REPORT—1870.

In order that the proportion which the altitudinal deficiency bears to the
total rainfall may be readily seen, the annual diagram represents, by light
shading, the actual fall at various heights above the ground; the amount col-
lected by the “ pit-gauge” is shown by the horizontal line of 1-000, and the
deficiency in the upper gauges by the breadth of darker shading.

In the monthly diagrams, the variable breadth of this darker shading shows
the variation of this altitude correction with the seasons.

Probably the most remarkable features in the annual curve are :—(1) its
rapid curvature, 7. e. rapid increase in the amount of rain collected within
1 foot of the surface of the ground ; (2) the very slight alteration from about
7 feet to 20 feet.

This would seem to show that the rainfall actually reaching the ground is
greater than what has hitherto been supposed, inasmuch as the majority of
gauges hitherto erected have their orifice about 1 foot above the ground, and
therefore collect, according to the results now before us, about 5 per cent.
less than the real rainfall reaching the ground. This result appears so start-
ling that further experiments will be conducted on the subject.

The difference between the curves of decrease in the various months is
very considerable, and sufficiently proves that the annual mean values are
not at all applicable to single months.

Tables VIIT., IX., and X. seem to show that the variation is in no way
dependent on the humidity of the air, but either on temperature or wind-
force, or possibly on radiation; the present investigation does not reveal
which, inasmuch as the cold days, with rain, are usually windy ones.

Our duty in connexion with this subject is discharged by Tables VI. and
VII., which give (for 8-inch gauges) the means of deducing the fall, either
at the surface of the ground or at 1 foot above it, from observations of
gauges on pedestals or pillars at any height less than 20 feet.

Perhaps it may be well to give anexample. At Cockermouth there are
two gauges, one 6 inches and the other 6 feet 6 inches above the ground ; in
the year 1869 they collected 46°31 and 44-48 respectively: the corrections
from Table VII. are -969 and -920; then we have :—

Gauge 6 inches above ground=46-31 +-969=47-79=ground fall.
» §6feet Ginches ,, =44:48—:920=—48:34= =

Or if we require the 1-foot fall, then the corrections from Table VI. are
1:014 and -960; then we have :—

Gauge 6 inches above ground=46°31 +1:014=45-67 =fall at 1 foot.
> OfeetGinches ,, =4448—+ -960=46°33= 5

This example was taken quite by chance, and the agreement being in both
cases within 13 per cent., seems to show that the corrections are generally
applicable. But on this point we have at present no evidence.

The inquiry we have just been pursuing naturally leads to the considera-
tion of the best height for rain-gauges; and, although a novel plan, we are
inclined to consider that, theoretically, the “ pit-gauge” is the best. But
there are several strong grounds of objection to it and to all gauges whose
orifices are nearly level with the soil. We may mention a few :—

1. They become more or less filled with leaves during the autumn months,
and their accuracy is thereby vitiated.

2. They become buried under snow, and the melting snow runs unfairly
into them.

nort Brit tssoc: 1870. . seh * ae ‘ Plate IV.
Raw gauges i Use W L860.
TE

T.WLowry fc.

; eo | Lo ] TL

“500

Yearly mM
g

~~.

LLM LAMM MMe MMMM We

Ld Ld

YW
- Ye Le Li

iddMMMMM@_ MMMM

ON TIE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 1%?

3. In cases of extremely heavy rain they collect water running along
the surface of the ground, and sometimes become filled, at others float away
on the water.

4, They are more liable to accidental injury, and to collect all kinds of
rubbish than if slightly elevated.

5. It is evident, from the Tables, that an error of 1 inch in the height of
a gauge near the surface is of as much importance as an error of 1 foot at a
slight distance above it.

Moreover, it must be remembered that up to the present time not half
a dozen pit-gauges have been used, and that therefore their adoption would
involve the correction of all observations hitherto made.

And that though it appears probable that the rainfall actually reaching the
ground is nearly 5 per cent. greater than what has hitherto been supposed, it
would be precipitate to accept it without further examination.

As nearly half the gauges in the country are now fixed, with their receiy-
ing surfaces, 1 foot above the ground, it would appear desirable that this
height should be generally adopted.

In several previous Reports we have given the results of elaborate inves-
tigations of the percentage of rain falling in the various months in different
parts of the British Isles; these Tables uniformly referred to decennial periods,
such as 1810-19, 1820-29, 1830-39, 1840-49, 1850-59. We have there-
fore recently completed another decade, and one of which the returns are
much more complete than for any of its precursors. The computations of the
mean monthly and annual rainfall during this period are in progress, but
they are so heavy that they cannot be ready for this Report, and may per-
haps not be completed for the next.

We give in the Appendix the usual detailed Tables of monthly fall at
about 300 stations during the two years 1868-69, but we defer any remarks
upon them until the averages are ready next year.

Your Committee cannot close their Report without drawing attention to
the remarkable illustration of widespread interest in scientific pursuits
afforded by the fact that there are now nearly 2000 persons in the British
Isles regularly recording the fall of rain, and carefully watching any depar-
ture from its normal distribution. Of the utility of this work, in a populous
and manufacturing country like ours, it is needless to speak; but we may
mention that other nations and our own colonies are copying our system,
and that for water-works, canal, mill, and agricultural purposes rainfall
information is yearly more and more required.

The services rendered by the observers are (with but a very few excep-
tions) entirely gratuitous, nay more, the observers themselves have to defray
the cost of printing the results of their labours.

Considering that it is demonstrably a matter of national interest that this
organization should be made as permanent as possible, we cannot help thinking
that it would be a graceful and economical act were Government to offer to
relieve the observers from the cost of reducing and printing their returns.
A few hundreds annually would probably suffice to hold together a body of
practised observers which das no equal in the world, and which, once broken
up, could not be replaced ; since, irrespective of the difficulty of training
new observers, the continuity of the old observations would be destroyed.

1738 REPoRT—1870.
TABLES OF MONTHLY RAIN-
ENGLAND. ; ;
_ Division I.—Mipprzsex. Diy. IL.-8.E. Covntrzs.
MippLEsEX, Surrey.
Bittacy :
. y J a, Dunsfold Weybridge
Height of Camden Upper Hampstead. | House, Mill | Giqoimin: £
Rain-gauge |. - Tova. Olagies: Hill, Hendon. aes aes
above eee Leen att i ee
Ground ...... O ft. 4 in. 2 ft. Gin. 1 ft. Oin 1 ft. Oin. 2 ft. 6 in. O ft. 6 in.
Sea-level...... Wet SF, 90 ft. 385 ft 420 ft. 166 ft. 150 ft.
1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
January ...... 3°89] 2°76] 3°61] 2°48] 384) 2°72] 3°17) 2°95] 3°93] 3°43) 4°04) 3°34
February . 121] 2748 80]: 2°36] 1-40], 2°64] 50) 2°52) 3124] 2°84) POs) 2°54
March ...... | 4:28] 4°97) 1°66) 42°59] 1:45) 1°95) 2°62] 194} 125) 140) 4149) 1:05
PBT ie ecean sce 1750) <028 |. .0°G8i, x22) -3'67)| oan | 162 | “rere 2:23) 9 ees eno meme
Way nicawes ss] 58] 3°27), 1°20) ~3'0o °93| 2°99 89] 3°62 *92,|~ Seay *90} 3°83]
June ........- “78 | 1°03 *60| 1°02 G7 Try: *48| 1°00 *50| ¥'19 "65 | - 1°28 |
daly I69..00 °45 “62 "41 64. "44 "90 "60 | a0°gO 3 l2r42 87) 2°59 *90
August ...... 228| 1:26) 2°64] 1°43] 2°93] 13°50| 93°56) 1354 412) 1°43 B58) 1°37
September ...| 1°74] 3°56] 1°46] 3:27] 2:27] 3°38] 2°56] g:ozf 2°32] 4°55] 1°92] 4°38
October ...... 2°54| 1°87| 2°87| 1°89] 2°76] 389| 2°66! x77] 2°56) 3°77| 2°35) 1°76
November ...| 1703] 2°38 91] 2°37 *97,| aa28'|" rar | agg Paar | Midge eage nee 37
December ...) 5°12) 2°94) 4°79) 2°77| 5°63] 3°08] 5°77) 3°72} 7°02] 3°42] 5°39) 2°74
Motels: et s<.s 23°40 | 25°42] 22°59| 24°04] 24°96| 25°88 25°84.) 27°74 29°62 | 28°98] 25°96] 27°05
Division IT.—Sourn-Easrmrn Counrins (continued).
Kant (continued). SUSSEX.
Height of River Head, Acol, Sideup, Brighton West Chichester
Rain-gauge Sevenoaks. Margate. Foots Cray. | Water Works.| Thorney. Museum.
above aa.
Ground ...... 1 ft. O in. 1 ft. Oin. O ft. 7 in. 1 ft. Oin 1 ft. Oin. O ft. Gin.
Sea-level...... 520 ft. GOL. etticelat baste 90 ft. 10 ft. 50 ft.
1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869.
in. in, in. in. in. in. || im in. in, in. in. in ii
January ...... 637) 405) 2°85) 1°79} 3°68) 2°92) 3°53) 2°74) 340) 3°18) 3°05) 291
February ...) 185] 3°65] 3°17| 2°97| 1°37] 2°40]] 242| 2°83) 225] 248) 103] 184
March ae 1791 «2°80} | Fo)» 2°12'| 760} .1°66]| 1°32), 2:25) 1°60] . 22o)een Alger 7a
Jk ont cadre 283) 1°89), ier) x74 | x°s§4.|' Fear! 2°40) 1°31] 2'22 | Teo eee eo
Misiy Tee teetie "80 | '4r26'|"" ret) 2-22! °57) 3°90|| 1°67) 4°34] Yo2z| 3°63 "9 | 4°31
SUG c..s00 4888 50] 1°53 89 Os 3340 arg6 i) vi76iy tangs 48.) 9215 69) 1°64
LY. veces. 1°44 “58 “72 "2g “58 “FO illaets 7a *16) © °82)) Sage 81] 109g
August ...... 3°42} 142) 2°34] 07} 2°47) 96) 3°74] 170) 464) °54/ 3°57) "59
September...) 2°52} 5°79] 381] 41°75| 2°50| 3°47 851 3°79| 2°95| 2°53] 2°80] 4°83
October®...... 2°97) 2°92 69) 2221 “2:03 1°43] 4753] ~2:90\= 3710) a76) a4 2°29
November ...| 2°06] 3:45] 2:05] 1°64) iro] 2°73|| x24] 2°60 [> K-4x) 31°53) 1-38) oa
December ...) 8:27) 5°00] 4:26] 2°02] 442] 2°77]] 7°55| 3°82] 7°93] 2°28]. 7°30| 3/22
Totals ...... 34°82 | 37°34] 21°51] 20°60 22°19 | 25°40 | 31°78| 29°74] 30°88| 24°78| 28°61] 2773

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 179
FALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES.
r ENGLAND.
Division I1.—Sovuru-Eastern Covntiss (continued).
; Surrey (continued). Kenr.
.:
| Bagshot Kew 8S. Fields, ‘ Horton Park, | Linton Park, F
eS Park. Observatory. | Wandsworth. Bae Hythe, Staplehurst. peti es
Pifeiin | 1f.3in. | 1%.0in. || 22in. | 1ft4in. | Of Gin. | 1f.0in.
© 130ft. ENEMIES weaver sees 16 ft 350 ft. 296 ft. 71 ft.
| 1868 | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. |] 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869.
| in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
430] 1794] 3°35| 2°30] 4°00) 2°75|| 4°58] 2°80) 384) 2°79] 3°65) 3°04) 3°70] 3°27
fgieeros |) x08 | To4| x1'20| 2°40]|- 1°37| 2°95) 1°37) 2°38) 41°35) 3°55) (I-00) 335
2°19 66 ec) eeab)|| S15 “ras | 145,| §3%2) ao 63°50) S-29)) Vaton\ ron |) ame
Peeper ga) 148 | 1°26) (1°55) 5°25]) 1°97) 2°58) mp2, Zor | “I-21 | 1°33) B04) area
68] 2°86} -77| 3°06} 3140} 2°93|/ 1°77] 3°95| 4129] 3°86] 1°92] 3°78| *76] 4:04
7 eee 43) ro4 45) 1°30 73) >= "90 7t| 125 “51 87| "43 “98
fe 2°02 BB) |) 2°62, “Ba. || vic55 "77 "85 Ba) eer 202, 63 ci lena fi *I5
Meee 50) 143) 2°52) x7} 2°65 18a) 4°32) 1°78] 4°48| 2°79] 2°30] 1°16) 3°50] T2r
P 396) 3°78) 2°24) 3°75] 1°55] 3°70]) 1°67) 3:24] 2°52) 3°32) 2°70/ 3°81) Ig] 3°73
megs) 126) 2°27| 1°44] 2°50| 1°83 3°55) © 4:03 | 7 2784)]) 2 2104. || “2-07 279\| B°O2,| 2°78
507 |) 2°19 *92| 2°27| E18] 2:00|/ 241) 2°09] 2°81} 2°62] 41°78) 2°14) 1°89] 2°79
485) 2°77) 5:20) 246] 5:25) 2°15/} 631) 4:45) 674) 411] 5°78) 3°79} G10) 3°61
21°53 | 22°83) 22°63] 24°43] 24°33 || 30°98} 30°50] 31°18] 30°89] 25°19] 29°09] 26°97] 30°09
Division I1.—Sovru-Hasiern Counrins (continued).
q SussEx (continued). Hamrsuire.
‘Bleak House, | Dale Park, Battl Chilgrove, |BalcombPlace,| Petworth || St. Lawrence,
| Hastings. Arundel. rig Chichester. Cuckfield. Rectory. Isle of Wight.
[1% 3in. | 4f.0in. | 1ft.38in. | Oft.Gin. | 1f.3in. | 1ft.10in. || 1 ft. Oin.
= SO ft. SY a (eee Ree 284 ft. 340 ft. 190 ft. 75 ft.
| 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868, | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. || 1868. | 1869.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in, in. in. in. in.
2°42) 4°23) 3°22| 456] 3°23] 4°34] 3°51) 5:09] 3°94] 4°92] 4173]| goo) 3°46
227 | 128) 3°27) a1717| 2°24) 1°53] 2°91] 1°39] 3°80] - 1°74] °3°50]| ztoo}) orgs
P90) 188) 1°35] 156] 2°25] 2°c6| 280} 1°39] 1°72] 191} 143|| 4271 2°60
1°30} 2°11 1°13] 2:14| 1-49] 2°61] @x10| 2°39| a'7r} (3°08) 124. 3°34) WII
4°59| 121] 4°75} 1'07| 4°61} 120] 4°42] 108} 3°56 *98| 4°91 1°30) 4°72
“69 $6] 1°52 57 °79 “61| 1°95 *54| 1°67 "AX)|) S278 "541 2°15
26] 104 “80! 2°01 °31 *93| 115] 2°46 46) 1°64 CT 68) 117
170} 3°87) 105} 3°83] 2°03} 4°81) 3°55| 2°78] 338] 4°22/ "99]| 4°36] 98
320] 3°94] 5°35| 2°33] 4°51] 3743] Go| 2°72) 5°45) 444) 5°61|| 2°56) 419.
1°79| 4°06] qg11| 3°61] 2°07| gor] 2°31| 2°74| 2°98| 3°31] 2°06]| 3°72) 2:27
217| 1°43 "84 I8o0] 2°55] 1°64) 2°47] 11°50] 2°85] 1°72] 2°14 1°37| 2°00
3°31) 886) 3:25) 679) 4:37| 8:96) 4°21} 838] 4°46) goo} 4°55|) 7°3r| 3°77
31°44| 30°25| 36°13 | 33°38| 32°46| 33°88 | 37°37| 33°11 | 31°33 | 30°94

—

13)

REPORT—1870.

ENGLAND.
ia
Division I1.—Sourn-Easrery Covnrins (continued).
Hamrsuire (continued).
Shirley .
Height of Ryde, pee Fareham. Warren, Selborne. ee
Rain-gauge Isle of Wight. | Isle of Wight. Southampton. Petersfield.
above &

Ground ...... 7 ft. O in 0 ft. 6 in Oft.2in, | 4ft.0in, | 4ft.0in, | Oft. Sin

Sea-level...... 15 ft. 172 ft 20 ft, 106 ft. 400 ff. = Vie gfe
1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. 1868. 1869.

in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
January ...... 452] 4°00} 3°68] 3°82) 3°77| 3°67] 4°14] 3°90] 5°73] 453] 7:45) 6:25
February . Igo} 2°52] 1°50] 2°79] 2°09} 2°73] 1°62] 2°06] 2°19] 3°33] 2°48] 3:60
1°48) 2°70) 1°68] 2:18] 1°97] 2°00] 3°59] 1°72] 2:21] 1°93] 3°04] 1°89
3°02 599)|| 2275 *98| 3:02) 41] 3:24] 1a] 2°85) 1:26] 3:89] (1:36
r16) 4°84) 125] 4°38) 3°54] 5°48] 171! 4°33| 1°59] 4°68| 2:09] 4°88
SAN mares *54| 2°78 *59| 2°08 272)\ 1 ano “4.6\|5 stom “27! 2576
“agp Dail Ore |h eae es: *57|- 1°18 *65 ‘OTH GurerA: *97)|< Tao oas26
5°21 61) 4°68 60! 5°43 83] 4°61 86! 3°89] 149] 4°88] 1°63
2°98) 6:26) 3°82) 5°82) 119) 4°68) 54°50 5°54) 448) 659| 3°23] 7712
3°26] 2'40/ 3°00] 2°25] 5°54] 3°42)" 2°73| 214! 3:41| 221] 3°72] 2°50
November...) 1°46) 3158) 1°50] 1°64] 3°59] 1°39] 1°75] 1°46] 2:44] 2°55 2°94} 2°61
December ...| 7°45] 4°33| 7°82] 4:03] 8:70] 3°65] 8:22] 4:36] 8-54] 4:72 10°69} 5°82
Totals ...... 33°T1| 34°65) 32°74 | 32°41] 36°00] 32°52 | 35°49 | 30°04| 39°53] 35°87| 45°78| 40°62

Height of
Rain-gauge
above
Ground ......
Sea-level...,..

January ......
February ...
March ,

September ...
October ......
November ...
December ...

Buckincuamstirn,

Division IJI.—Sourm Mrptanp Counrtns (continued).

Norriampron. | Brprorp. Camprinar,
|
. : Mid-level
HighWycomb. Althorpe Welling- Cardington. || Wisbech. Sluice,
2 House. borough, S
| Outwell.
0 ft. 9 in. 3ft.4in. | Oft. 8in Oft.Oin. | Sft.Oin. | 4ft. Oin.
225 fb. SLES: fll. cath teaet.€ 100 ft 18 ft. 16 ft.
| 1868. | 1869. || 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. || 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869.
in. MBleseef in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in,
3°66] 3:24)|/ 2°30] 3°22) 2°63] 2°64]| 2:80] 2-so|| x62] 1:85} Tor! 1°35 :
I°58| 2:00/] 1°62] 2:16] 1:05] 2:07 P50} 1°80 1°39| 2°20 "92| 2°23]
1°82] 2°39!) .1°78|) 1:20) »3°67| .1756|| 1:64.) 2°30)]). 1°54)) s1rgolleat ar ileneros
1:72 | <3°86|| <1765) 3:46) 2:24] 2:95 7°13] 1°75 ||) 3°45) ©3363) ees) | eee
269) 4,16) °92|\ 4°29 44.) 4°05 60} 33501]. $31] sgagn ‘1r}] 2°63]
RG | etna 45| 1°85 S71) 0:29 | «2:00 | 35x50 eel paren $53 )|0+ 1°22 b
1°50] r°g2 || °26/ 29] "I4} °30]] 35] *30]/ «56| --44] 9°33) 6am
3°55| 1763 ||. 3:23 796] 2°64 *96|| 3°20 82 || 2°89] 2°08] 1°98] 1°76))
3°20] 3°94) 43°37 || 93°78 |, 2°30] . stot ||. -g:20 | 2-251, gearll egenbll 2A 0)|. eae
2587) JX°34)\|| s2502)|| -ata5 | (2:ar "94/| 2:40| roo]] 2°86]. 1°27] 2°45] r'rgf
E06) 2°62 |). 1:90" .2-ar | .1°34|| 2:62]! 2°20] 2:90 SerT9\e41.94 | 907 | ime
5°00} 3°77] 4°46) 3°52) 4:28) 3°48|| 312] 2°83) 4:94) 391) 3°40] 2°97]
27°31 | 27°94 || 23°70| 26°19] 20°75| 24:27 || 21°94] 21°25 ] 21°68 | 25°49} 16°64] 23°16)

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISII ISLES, 18l

< . ENGLAND.
| Division I1.—Sovrn- Nias - ee
| Fasrern Counties Division 11].—Sovrm Mrpranp Counttes.
| (continued).
| Hanrsiire Berxsuire. HeEnrtrorpsuire, Oxronp.
(continued). |
3 3 Radcliffe
Aldershot. | 2 eos ae aan Royston. Hitchin. Observatory, Banbury.
A Oxford.
fiom | if.oim. | 1f.6m | of. 6in. | 2%.0in. | Of. 8in. | 742 0m,
» Sal ft. 170 ft. 370 ft. 266 ft. 240 ft. 210 ft. 345 ft.
. | 1869. || 1868. | 1869.] 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. || 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869.
te. Sirs | Fast) in. in. in. in. | in. in. in. in. in. in. mn

3°23 || 3°74) 3°61] 4°05] 3°95] 2°60] 2°63] 2°98| 2°58|| 3:12] 3°77] 2°75] 4°32
2°96. *95| 269] 183) 2°59) 3°30] 21] 149] 2°02]] 1°65] 2:17] 2°13] 2:20
E15] 2°05] 322] 198} 3°76) 1:77) 1°79] 1°52] 1'46|| 1:50] 1°30] 1°90 1°54
130] 1°65} 1°66] 2°36) 394] 3:42) 2°20] 3165] 4°74]] 1754] 1716] 1758 Tan)
4°35)| 68) 3°32) “82| 2°86) 54) 3°60) 57) *3°31|| 59] 2°95} 88) 4-47
128 | oy Kol ae tay 3 TPE" £133 G2) Farka, AZ| 119 "93| 1°40 46) 1°64.

"99 | 1°75 "68 "56 te "20 “59 "24. *60]| 1°87} 106 "49 “45
Wio|| 3°61) 165] 5:02] 1°68). 4°89 *95| 4°81 "87 ||) 327341 2 1ga 4564 *gI
3°36] 4°44) 3°30] 45°} 4°56) 2°47) 2°76) 2°77) 3°12] 3°99] 441] 3°05] 3°87
Bolen 2 74) (2°57) '3°02| 31°33) 2:23 *95| 2:89] 1°07]|| 2:24] 4x10] 2°36| r2g
2:06|} 127) 2°89] 1°52] 2°74) II7] 237] 10] 2°32]|| 118} 241] 2°07] 2°34
3°24)| 412) 3°47] 5°72) 3°84) 3°51] 3°69] 3°97] 3°27]| 4°12] 3°43] 5°34] 4:29

27°22 | 27°79 | 28°84] 32°09 | 29'11 | 22°62 | 24°56] 24°41 | 23°55 || 26°07] 26°47] 26°65 28-49

Division [Y.—Easrern Counties.

Essex, Surroux.
: Ashdon Culford
. . Dorward’s Bocking, é la. 2 ee Sat
. pping. Hall) Witham. Dunmow. Bosintese. pci Grundisburgh. mate *

6 ft. Gene | lft. 6in. 0 ft. 3 in. 3 ft. Oin. 1 ft. O in. 4 ft. 1 in. 1 ft. 6 in.
370 ft. ? ? 20 ft. 234 ft. 200 ft. SOOT. ||) | .cekeasest 0 ineiee eee 3

1863. | 1869.| 1868. | 1869.| 1868.| 1869.| 1868.} 1869.} 1868.] 1869. |) 1868. | 1869. | 1868.) 1869.
; c ; : : ; Pe Mice : | yall ok en |
in. in. in. in. in. in, in. in. Ins” ||}, ak Lee ay (ota in.
e234! To5| T:09| 29x] 2°cO| at4o|-2'tg| 2:42 2°31| 1°66) 2°69] 2°08}
1°93 S71 245 1533) 2°86] F27] 3103) 1°36) (208i), war) | 285 |) PacGmieeool
O7) 138! x44) 1°34.) 1:80) “x°34| 2°05] 1°69] 41°37 1°48] 2°40] 2°05] 1°87}
1°30 *96| x28) r':25] Bag} 1°36] wr8) 1°35) 1°77/| 1°48 66) 1°68) 1:23
Peete |e 2°78) 385) 3°20) TG) 37x71] We25| (scar ror] 2°58 *56| 3°23)
rms 49 *gI "74.| 1°07 64) | OG 28 *g0 ON 2 Me a ae le |
Beier 2 (616) §"26) 79) "73 "444 £°33)).)) “69 Hawk 9 ue | ee 1)
ie2g || 1°07 "G7 ||) 3°30 ||) Fx83;|| 2740.|| . Us58:| @ Brom ined 1°60} 1°20] 1°98] 2:25
3180| 122] 2°90] 90} 2°34| 1°64] 4°68) 1°83] 3°85 PAD 29934 7A. 3°58
Ho5|} 170} 1°90) 2°74]| 1°88] aor} 2:18] 2°28} 162]! x90] 2°08] 2°62] 2°78
2°20 54) 240] I'c8} 249) 4114) 2°36) 408] 2°70/] 131] 2°50] 1°37] 2°48
2°45) 3°80) 2°76) 4°50] 3°26) 3°54) 3°49] 3°74) 3°62) 349] 3°74] 404] 4°84

(21°37 | 15°37] 21°90] 20°79] 25°86) 19°67 par) 19°40] 26°01 |, 1815 24°11 21°72 | 29°00 |

. REPORT—1870.

ENGLAND.

Division IV.—Eastern Counties (continued).

Diyision Y,—
SoutH- WESTERN

Counrins.
Norrorx. Wintsnire.
. Geldeston, Cossey, Eemere, Z
gutiels et Buceles. Norwich. | Fakenharn, | Holkham. | Baverstock. (Marlborough.
gauge
above ea a SSS
Ground ...... 1 ft. 4in 1 ft. O in. 4 ft. Oin. 0 ft. 0 in, 3 ft. 0 in, 4 ft. 0 in,
Sea-level...... Mite . | sah 150 ft. 39 ft. 229 ft. 500 ft.
1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868.} 1869.| 1868.| 1869.} 1868.| 1869.| 1868.| 1869.
ogg) |} is in. in. in. | in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
January ...... 1°83) x°51] ‘2°12] 1°68] x92] 1°57] 2°00] 98} 3°45] 4°40] 4543] 3°50
February. ...|. 1°28] 2°47| 1°49] 2°38] 1°86} 2°03] 4°60] x92] 113] 2°70] 2:15] 2759
Manrchierera.- r62 | .g°g8) 92'06| | 9°40] 2°53] x°§4| <x°92| (2°95), 185] ang |e aero eas
(ADFil hieyix... 1-7O | .762,|| s¥tgo] 7°26] (3°12 | 1°03) -2°45| %r°08 |) 2°75 "95 |. 2°50] | war
May jae. °86| 2°16 "79| 2°81 53g |) i249 251 goo] I°30| 9:80] 1°98 | teeny
DMNO Feepres--| na ?55 | ca°19 *70| 1°69 *AE | aeg2 2215 | | *E°27 “40 | 1°15] cA) eae
duly <iap2-5.- el) pene <E5 58 EAN) oad. 17| “x18 65 "45| or 56
August ...... 169] 1:68) 2°82] 1°66) 3°37| 4°92] 3°36] 1°55] 5°60 75| 4°88) T'79))
September...) 1°65] 2°42] 2°27] 3°07] 3126] 3°50) 2°38] 3°17] 5°25] 4:85) S27) 527
October ...... 1°88| 3°36] 2°61] 2:90] 2°29] 2°58) 2°67) 2°33] 2°63] 2°05) 2°66 | 3:93
November...) 1°98] 2°37] 2:24] 262] 2:10] 2:01} 1°65 | rgo} 2°05] 2°00] 31°58) 2°55
December ...| 3°91} 436) 4°48] 4°48| 540) 4°59| 4°72| goo} 635) 323] 5°51] 3°67
eS BE otis att = =a |
Totals ...... 19'20| 27°63] 24°03| 28°23] 27°63 | 25°12] 23°42] 25°63] 33°31 | 27°28] 33°58] 30°43 ])
Division V'-—-Sourm Wustern Counties (continued).
Devon (continued).
Height of Landscore, Bropdhea Cove, Castle Hill, Great B tal
Rain-gauge Teignmouth, eee Tiverton. 8. Molton. | Torrington. are
above ae
Ground ...... O ft. 6 in. 1 ft. 6 in. O ft. 10 in, 3 ft. Oin. 1 ft. Lin. 0 ft. 6 in.
Sea-level...... 120 ft. 400 ft. 450 ft. 200 ft. 321 ft. 31 ft.
1368. | 1869.| 1868.| 1869. | 1868.| 1869.| 1868.| 1869.| 1868.| 1869.| 1868. | 1869.
= in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. | in. in. in.
January ...... 416) 2:78] 3:19] 3°76] 5°51] 5°07] 6:50] 548] 680] 5760) G6:10| 4°69)
February "89| 2°19) 1°85) 2°72] 3°50) 3°96] 2°31] 5°57} 2°89) 512) 2°23] 4°35
March ...... 167| 2°45| sox) 2°22) 3°35] 2754] 3°91|' 2:99| 4°00] Fg5il 1 9123)) Tog
PRIDE tas sae 2°32 "74.| 2°08! art] 3°54] 2°86] 2°98| 2°71| 3°09] £7681] 2950) ~2°8g
MEY se Ha-eis- 156] 6°57| xr5} 5°36) x3] 5°48) 1°86] 6:17] 3198) 4°56] 1°91} 4°90)
SUNG ose asesy: "42 =e) Tze "53 85 "41 sat *50 "34 32, “52 54
Spr @aeeeeeeee 43 "3r| Xtc0 84 59 77 “78 "93 42\ 86 "38 *g0 |
August ...... Son, "23 5°50 66] 5°42) 1:03] 5°51] 2°28] 5:24 "75| 4°68!) 1°43
September...) 4:04} 2°37| 5:23 425| 338] 5°94] 3°80] 7:09] 3'27| 727] 3°73| 6eq
October ......} 1°55] 392| 3°24| 1°73) 3°95| 2°60] 6:43| 485| 5'49| 3°31| 5°59| 4°76
November ...| 3°46] 1°18| 3°14] 2°39] 2°37| 4:91] 2°77| 4°62] 3°18) 4°54] 2°29] gon
December ...| 7°38] 4°:04| 6°27] 4741| 9°72| 5°72| 8°85] 5:24] 8:05| 643] 678] 51g
Totals ...... 31°45 | 25°56| 35°88 | 29°98) 43°49| 40°29 | 4601) 48°43) 44°66 | 42°39) 39°94 | 39°72

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 183

ENGLAND.

Division Y.—Sovurn-Wesrern Counties (continued).

oe Donser. | fr Devon.
ued). ;
nham, | Saltram Dartmoor
est || Blandford. | Dorchester. Bridport. Gardens, Ivybridge. Prison
Tytherton. — Plymouth. Reservoir.
1 Se
ion || if. 0in. | Of. Gin. | Of. 11in. | Of: 6in. | 3%. Oin 0 ft. 2 in.
i 250 ft. 85 ft. | 96 £6 175 it 1400 ft.
8.| 1869. | 1868.| 1869.| 1868.| 1869. | 1868.] 1869. || 1868. | 1869.| 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
3°46|) §°57| Sor] 4°15) 4°71| 3°76] 4°59|| 5°28) 5°97] 5°57) 694) gor] 9°74
258 || 2°16) 3°33] 2°15| 3°48] 191] 3°07|| 2°50) 3:21| 2°34] 5°67) 5°08) 9°79
122 || 2°56 2 HGi| FOG) || 825 | ¥°9G | 72225 || o 2e4 2°29| 3°78] 3:41] 668] 4°51
Fos || 2°58|-4:27) 3°41) 4r2r| 2'oo| xxrl! 4:24) 145] 4754| 3°06] 704)- 3°25
4:15|| 167] 5°61] 2°06] 519] 1°61} a74|| 2x5] 7:20| 3°43| 686] 3°71] 9°62
1°34 | Go} 125 $93,|) | B22 *4o| 14 76 "40 +76 °37) 202 82
eee aT | 39) F286) ~ 68) 48 |g #72.| 1 Er3 |, Sar 88) 124] 3°48
T12)|| 4°80 92]. 615 86) 4°61 "25 || 5°00 eck | 5°60 *76| 6:86) 2795
335] 5°39} 5°30] 5°69] 5°45] 3°40] 3°92|| 5°63) 3°23] 4°69/ 676] 7°52) 10°53
1°69 3°78| 3177| 3°60] 2°45] 3°32] 2°03]| 5°38] 2°99| 5°70] 2°61| 833) “5°30
237\| 29r| 1°98) 347| 2°53| 2°83] 2°09|| 4*7o| 3:21] 522] goo| 619) 813
3°32|| 711) 4°67) 815) 440} 688) 4°37]! 9°90) 4-71] g'22| 5°26) 13°47) 7°49
26°97 || 39°64| 34°06) 42°31] 34°38] 32°59] 29°97 | 48°50} 36°30| 51°26| 46°58 77°65 | 75°00
Division V.—Sourm-Western Counriss (continued.)
Cornwatt.
: é Treharrock
on. Penzance. get roa Truro. Bodmin. House, Altarnum.
4 Wadebridge.
0 in, 2 ft. 6 in. O ft. 6 in. 40 ft. O in. 2 ft. 6 in. 5 ft. 6 in. O ft. 10 in.

[5 ft. 94 ft. 100 ft. 56 ft. 338 ft. 300 ft. 570 ft.
1869. | 1868.) 1869.) 1868.| 1869.| 1868.| 1869.| 1868.| 1869.] 186S.| 1869.]| 1868. | 1869.
mo | in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.

3°56| 6:92) 6°93] 7°25] 685) 7:15] 684) 6-48] 7°02] 4:01] 4°67| 918) 9°23
3°33] 2°62) 3°98) 2:70] 440] 2-42] 3°88) 2°37| 4°56) i796] 4:26] 4°48) 6°93
12°33) 225) 282) 2:55] 2°30]. 2°48] 2°46| 3°38| 2°76] -2°34'|. 2°13] 4°80] 2°65
Y22) 2°97) 142| 2°50] 3'50| 3°61 *97| -3°85| E49.) 227) obs e5- Esti cae
409] 1°68) 415] 370} 2-40] 369] 542] 2°75| 628] 10] 512] 3729} 7745
“55 66 "50 “90 "70 “54. "26 82 “54. “48 *96| 145) - 1°06
2g |e eS) G5 ero 80 ro4| 35| “8x 95). 4g8'|) (71 | aren |ened
"77|. 3°83 80) 3°50 *60| 2°99 48| 4°00 °76| 4:02 “78. 5°75) | 228
| 472) 2°55] 483) 4:10| 4:40] 4:03| 446] 619] 5:76) 2°59] 5:12] 6°57] 8-89
Bags SAG 2a Ve Aere he 275 | | eoo| 2:27) Goo) — 3*br’|, s-sb ieaeas | C867 | eac7g
464! 3°99) 49°) 530) 4:11| 5°81} 4°81] 7°80} 419) 4°16] 4:04] 7°37| 6°61
431) 648) 5°69! 7705} 6:05} 8:26] 5°62] 940] §5°52| 6°86) 4°29) 13°23] 7°97
32°60| 40°21} 39°02! 43°25| 36°86! 45°02 37°82 | 53°85] 43°44| 36°13] 36°29] 71°13 | 60°52)

‘

184 REPORT—1870.
ENGLAND.

Division VI.—Westr

Division V.—Sovrn-Wesrern Counties (continucd). Sees ane 7 mm
a J, .

Somenrser. GLOUCESTER.

Fulland’s

Sherborne
Height of School, pons Saar Reservoir, ee He Clifton. | Cirencester.
Rain-gauge Taunton. angport. |East Harptree. at
above ae ae SUES. =
Ground ...... 1ft.4in. | Oft. 7in. 1 ft. Qin. 2 ft. Oin. O ft. 6 in. 1 ft. Qin.
Sea-level....) i. 50 ft. 336 ft. 226 ft. 192 ft. 446 ft.
1868. | 1869.| 1868.) 1869.| 1868.| 1869.} 1868. | 18G69.} 1868. 1869. | 1868. | 1869.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
| January ...... } 3°78] 3°20) 3°30] 3°98] 7°53] 7°44] 4°46] 4:38% 5:90] 5:37| 4-68] 5°60
| February .. "82 | 2°94) 1°34] 2°38] 1°78) 5°73] 3158] 2°86) 3-97] 3°88] 2°03) 2°37
March ...... 277] 28) 1°72) 362] 4:04) 1°85] 1°50] 346] 3°79] 3:20] 2°56] 1:60
Aprils .ssves- 1°77 Ca tri Bo dae P- *83) 3°59) 3:78), 2°12] “roof! 2:3n/; x-rgi|eztzolmemeae
May... savas. 95) 4°63 193.| Siar) 5°47) 774) ri])| 4°55) 1:77) (6-30)) Sear aug
JUNC! Lewes: “61 "g1| Io 795| 1°73] 1:28 *92| 1°35 64] 1°03 °3r-) 3°52)
Duly ...ceee. 1°26 44] I-21 46| 1762) 1-74 *86| roo 88 "96 yal 79) .
August ...... 5°65 24] 4°96 *78| 651}| 1:98] 3:90 "74 5°76] x40] go2z}| x5t| ©
September...) 3°58) 3°27/ 3°48] 3°94] 3°81| 6:72! 3°64] 445} 2°99| 5:77] 2°89| 655] |
October ...... 2°72) 2°90] 2°38] 214] 6:25] 3:00] 2°72] x50} 2:76] 2:44] 2°64] 2:00] @
November .... 1°34] 1°56] 1°57] 3°58] 2°74] 4:20] 1°75] 2:04] 1°67 2:40)|> BO5DSe| aa85
December ...}_ 5°23] 313] 5:o1| 3°34] 10°06| 6°55] 5-62 3°93} 5°67] 4:29] 6°70] 5:30
Totals ...... 30°48 | 25°01 | 28°23 | 27°46] 51°13] 49°41] 30°17] 29°26] 34°11 | 36°17 32°68 | 36°53

ae Division VIT.—Noxtn Mipianp
Division VI.—Wust Miprayp Counties (cond.). .

CovntiEs.
Worcester (continued). | Warwick. LEIcEsTER. |
‘Arden House, Vi :
Height of | Hetley-in- | Birmingham. Wiesioes Thornton. |Belyoir Castle.:
Rain gauge Tenbury. Re a 8 Leicester.
BOVE sea oe ==) 4 =
Ground ......! 0 ft. 9 in, 2ft.Oin, | Oft.10in. | Oft.Gin. | 2ft. Sin, 1 ft. Oin,
Searlevel......) 200ft. || 400 ft. 340 ft. 290 ft. ? 420 1t. 287 ft.
1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869.| 1868.| 1869. 1868.| 1869.| 1868.| 1869.| 1868.| 18¢9. |
in. in, || in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
January ...... 3°07| 4°53]! 2°28) 3:49] 2°29] 3:46} acz1| 2°82] 1°78] 2:44] 1°88] 2°93 }]
February ...! 2:21] 2:90], 1°83} 1°87] 1°89] 3:c8} 1°64] 1:91] 1°96] 2°18] 1°54 2°55)
March ...... 1°76] a79|f 1°98| 2-14 2'92,| “2501 2°56) 1°96] 2°69) 1:87) Mr-poieeoeee
za\oh i aeone eee 80) 1747 || 1:67) acby. a:-94) (1:82) 3-27] 2°65) 91:36) |r: c i extoolemees
May .......:. 2°38) 5°51 Teo -4:0g)|| 67a reas ose) 731 (68) (6sn5 “Stl 64°74
MTC «ie ope *45) 1:02 "3c 73 “1g} 21 33 1.71 ‘27 | I'17 49] 1°59
MUA iss vanes *g0| I'co "20 87 *39 58 160%] 17113 OS 59 ‘Ic “78
USGS sic. 4°60] 1:20]| 4°87 89) 5°52 °2:26F 4:co| (2:21 | 93°73) EOC Meeea ee ee
September... 2°99] 5°51 |} 2°51] 3°18] 2-47] g3z0] 2°61] 2:43] 2778| 3°52] 2°82] 2-95
October aman 2°24| 2°:06/| 1°95] 1:24] 4:92] 1°66] 2°28 "75.| (2552 *98} 2°99¢] 10
November ...} 1:90] 2°37 |) 0972) vecx2') 1°82) 2:c4 Ff 3°36)|) 1°83), Seg e204] naga) Page
December ...| 6-65] 4:45 | 56) 3°45] G66c} gccof 455] 3°58] S19) 3°81] 67) 3°77
Totals ...... 30°95 | 33°81 |, 26 €3| 25°67 | 29°62 | 31°46} 23°22] 26°70] 23°50| 28°07] 24°17! 29-01 i
|

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 185

4 ENGLAND.

Division VI.—Wesr Miptanp Counties (continucd).

We Bored). Herrrorp. SuRoPsHire, Woncester.
i. a

Me nedccle eee Tietenion Hengoed, Northwick TWast Malves Lark Hill,
eoneey- iat sp Oswestry. Park. esha aivern.| Worcester.
Hereford. | Shifnall. :

a | i : | : =:
60 ft. 10 in. 1 ft. O in. 4 ft. 6 in. 6ft.0in. || 1ft. Gin. 1 ft. Sin. 1 ft. Oin.

«50 ft. 190 ft. 320 ft. gS a mee 2 900 ft. 157 ft.

1868, 1869. || 1868. 1869. || 1868.) 1869.} 1868. } 1869. |) 1868. | 1869.| 1868.| 1869.] 1868.| 1869.
- = - | a

in. in. in. in. in. in. rhavy eee], abel in. in. in. in. in.
5°5°}] 2°85) 4°99]| 184) 2°91} 4°56] 4:86/| 2°88] 5:24] 2°60 5°39] 2°54] 4°65
3°67 || I5r} 3°04]] 2°17| 2:00] 2:13] 3:00]] 2:18] 2:22 1°56) 3:28] 1°52] 2:70
158}) 165) 1°53 130] 1°59! 1°37
ros; 1°88 91] 51] 1:78] 230] x-44/| 1°68] 1°93] 2:21] 1°82] 2:28] 1-26
32/1 170) 446) 1°52] 4°73] 2°27] 6:45|| 41716] 3°64 205) 25750 le a7 Oi Soe
142 34 59 14 96 38 "94 | "6O.| “1°42 “21h ~1h6 "AT" Wag
*94|| 1°30 46!| "45 no) 66) 4128)! r-c4 *c8| 1:07 “53'|) 109 *30
109 || 4°85 <O5 [8 Geko) e Aw § 2°72") s40 ll! buss *30| 5:47) E14) 4°26)" x94
G20]) 3°65) 4:28) 2°62) 4:76) 2:78) 5-92|/ 1-96] 3:17] 2°50| 3:21 2G7iln Boag
B92) 1°63/ 3°19} 3°50] 1°59} 3°22/ 2°63]/ 3°39! 3:37] 2°68] 3°96] 3°93] 3-31
2°05 || 1°28 2°47 |) V4) 2°21] 2°52) 3:22]| 2-30] 2:47] 2:07] 1°83] 1°94] 2:21
515|| 634) 3:71 | 5°52] 3°32] to6g) sc18|) 4:24) 4:99] Grr] 4°55) 5-78) 3°74

713 | 33°69 || 28-98 PAS PP95)| 27-97,1 39°13 38°01 || 23°96 | 30°72) 30°05| 33°68 | 27°80| 30°55

ie Division VII.—Norin Miptayp Covntins (continued).

Lixcoun. | Norrincnanm.

_|Market Ragen. Gainsborough.| _—_ Brigg. Grimsby. |New Holland.|| Welbeck.
|
3 ft. 6 in. 3 ft. 6 in. 3 ft. Gin. 15 ft. 0 in, 3ft.Gin. || 3 ft. Oin.
100 ft. 76 it. 16 ft. 42 ft. 18 ft. £0 ft.

1s68.| 1869.| 18¢8.| 1869. |) 1868. | 1869.

1868. | 1869.) 1868.} 1869.| 1868. } 1869.

in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
2°37| 2°89} ror] 1°94] 1°34] 2°20] 1°34] 2°49] 3°60] 2:42]| 1°54 2eao,
i374) 2°cr| 1-12 91} 1°45 94] 1°53] 1°52] 1°66) r4ol} r-92| a57

*94| 2°91 65) mz] x02) 1°33] 41:97] 230] 43°75] x64)) rx1 2°23 |
1°68} 1°57 "94; 2°02) 1°76) 1°44]! 2°29) 1°66] 2:27/ 4-70]/ 131] 425 |
eoyse) 2194) 438) 760) | 3°55) ae aga) ° ears r20 | Oe
*36)| | 2°76 *55| 1°86 46) 1°45 “79, PIAS "89 "95 2g 38
"24 63 "21 ae "44 “60 bly fr 34 “84 SUT TG 03
2°52) 2°15] 5:23] 2°68) 3°44] 221] 3°56] 1-91] 3:08 1°83] 3°40] Igo
2°22) 2°35] 2°83] 3:12] 2°27| 3°57] 1°86] 3:15] 1°7 2°55], 2°22} 4°36
ESO |e 1742) | 2 0-78)| ) Tan | 2-32 |P) x65 2°59) 1°92] 2°55] 1°39/) 2°49] 1°26
2-09] 1°65 975° 9:30 | 12°85 |) Zoxg ! wae) Vege.) wes | eee 1 “go 1610
526) 2°78) 510] 4:49] 5°03] 4°70] 5°56] 3°30! 5:99] 3:27] 613) 3:37.

21°35) 25°88) 2111] 25°25] 22°07] 24°77] 23°53| 26'co 24°62] 23°31 || 22°66) 26-5c

186

REPORT—1870,

ENGLAND,

Division VII.—Norra Mipranp Counties (continued).

Div. VIII.—Norrm-
WerstERN CouNnTIES.

Height of
Rain-gauge
above
Ground
Sea-level......

sees

January
February ...
March

August
September ...
October
November ...
.| December .

Totals

seeeee

Height of
Rain-gauge
above
Ground
Sea-level......

January
February ...
March

July
August
September ...
October
November ...
December ...

eee teenee

Dersy. CHESHIRE, |
Ghasdiaeis. Cholmondelly
Derby. Chesterfield. |Comb’s Moss. | ~" b a Macclesfield. Castle, |
sien Nantwich.
5 ft. 0 in. 3 ft. 6 in. 3 ft. 6 in. 3 ft. 6 in. 3 ft. 6 in. 1 ft. 6 in.
180 ft. 248 ft. 1669 ft- 963 ft. 539 ft. 42 ft.
1868. | 1869.| 1868.| 1869.| 1868.| 1869. | 1868.| 1869.7 1868.| 1869.| 1868.) 1869. :
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
181} 2°96) 1°69| 3:36) 4790] 7°68] 2°36] 419) 1:94) 2470) 2°37 2°89 |
2°58| 1°89] 1°72| 2:01] 3°30] 3°61] 3°66] 4°45) 2°02) 412) 2°03 1°89
2°32| 1°64] 2°48) 2°24] 6°35 "71 | | Es65 "92 | ~ 3°83!) Seay eeomon area
155| 248| 1:93) 1°83] 5°93) 3:24] 37] 2:37] 2°74) 92134) Sesn ie
135| 3°97| ¥os| 5°36] 146] S10] 1°54] 3°47] 1°93] 479] 149) 5°34
27) |e rAd “55 ols 768 | | 2712 "50]} 8r 17 97 *55| Saion
°a3|. *65| oo] *o5| *22] 8x! °*34) (9741 "391 0 enya ee
314] ‘99| 2°28) 88) 3°49) 3°18) 3°95) 3:06] 942) gaz) 353) 238
1'72| 5°31) 2°46] 4:02] 3°45] 7°55} 2°63) 715] 194 8:20] 2°66} 6°36
3°01 10] 2°80] rar} 5°53] 3°79] 5°61] 3°53{ 460] 2°54] 2°68) 2°70
106] 2°04] ro4| 1°72) 2°92] 63%] 2°53) 4°94] 164) 3°63) 261) 3°30)
688] 3°91] 7°47| 399°] 890] 550] 9°20] 619] 7°89) 4°74) 693) 3°539
= ra al eee tri a =|
26:02 | 27°35 | 25°47| 27°53| 47°13| 49°50] 41°14] 42°82] 32°51 | 39°6g| 29°50) 34°23
Division VILI.—Norr-WEstExn Divikion EX Rommenee:
Counties (continued).
LANCASHIRE (continued), Yorx.—Wesr Rinine.
Broomhall ;
Caton Holker. Redmires eng P
; 7 Park, : Tickhill. Penistone.
Lancaster. Cartmel. Sheffield. Sheffield,
1 ft. 9 in. 4 ft. 8 in, 2 ft. 0 in. 4 ft. 0in 2 ft. 0 in. 3 ft. Gin.
120 ft. 155 ft. 337 ft. 1100 ft G1 ft. 717 ft.
1868. | 1869.} 1868. | 18 1868. | 1869.} 1868.| 1869.| 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in|
3°38| 449] 2°91) 5 247) 3°t5| 178) 3°62) 2°24) 2°49) gr) 2
2°52) (69g |.23°05 1°88| 2°67] 3°98] 4:26] 145] 13°78) 1°97
Roz) VEoa ih eer d 2°64 %°98| 4°74] 2°53) i341 J2orl oa-3e
2°61) 92°94) a2 74 2917 | 182) 2°70) 2°64)) | x40) Sez eee 94
2°3T| | 109)| arr °94.| 5°76] 1°48] 6°68] 1°03] 5:07
"45| 2°65] *67 “47 |.-°87) . °59| 229) 4-96) See
"64| "96| °53 *og| 24) °T7.| "67 | | "4h eee
4°98| 2°53| 6:03 2°67) r:08| 3°15] 2°07| 1°88] 1°39) 2°16
219) 821) 2°94 3°32| 4°95) 3°90] 6°14] 2°46) 3:12) 3°63
5°46] 3°51) 5°04 3°37| 845) 3°87) 2776) Joxbe ergs a ao
2°60} 4°63) 3°51 1°99} 217| 3°18) 4°93] 105] 159] 2°32
9°54.| 469) 10°28 9°03| 4°65| 949| 631] 660} 3°23] 8-22
42°30} 44°90] 45°58 | 48°23] 31°04) 30°79] 39°07] 43°99) 22°64) 25°38) 31°35

ON THE RAINTALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES,

ENGLAND,

Division VITI.—Noxrra-Western Countries (continued).

187

LANCASHIRE,
Howick
Bolton-le- Rufford, South Shore,
Waterhouses. Maat Ormakinie a Blackpool. Stonyhurst*,
reston.
3 ft. 6 in. 3 ft. 6 in. 0 ft. 8 in. 0 ft. 6 in. 1 ft. 8 in. 1 ft. 3 in.
345 ft. 286 ft. 38 ft. 72 ft. 29 ft. 3581 ft.
8. | 1869. | 1868.) 1869.} 1868. | 1869. | 1868.} 1869.| 1868.| 1869.| 1868.| 1869.} 1868.] 1869.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
2°82] 2°57) 3°38) 3°26] 2743] 3°55] 2°80] 400] 2°60] 3°40] 4:45] 3°80
2°56| 4°36) 2°89/ 5°51} 2°06} 3°93] 2°25) 4°75] 2°05] 440] 4°35| 4°40
5°30| 424] 6:34) 1°68) 3°50} 1°13] 3°70] 4120] 3°57] .r12| 145] 6:40
JO) 191} 2°33] 3°12] 1°66] 2°84] 4r'90] 2'80] 1°85] 1'90| 5°93] 2°30
II4} 2°99] 15] 2°98] 168! 3°40] 1°65] 3°90] 2°05] 2°78] 2°10] 1°60
47) 125 33] 174 41) 1°43 Ny I ae AS "g0} “Too | -2u4¢ wie!
29] T02 60] 124 *31 *98 335) Zt20 22 *50| 5°43 *70
2°63] 2°74) 2°79] 5°29| 421| 3°24) 1°97] 3°40] 3°95] 3°45] 4142] 3°51] 4°50
6°32] 1754] 6°66) 2°34) g:21| 41°58 6:71} x20] 7:20] 1°35 57990] 4°94] 2°50
312} 5:00; 243] 8:00] 5:07/ 5°56] 3:30] 6:30] 3°10] 4°50] 3°20] 5°36] 6:80
428) 2°81!) 4°63] 3°87] 6:70| 2°88} 3°87] 2°70] 4:10] 3:00] 3:80] 2°16] 4:00
3°62] 7°94) Sox} 9°82] 4:28) 688} 2:82} 842] 5s'10| 816| 2:87] 5:22] 950
2°23 | 35°45] 34°32 | 36°86| 46°34/ 49°00] 32'19| 35°93| 35°22] 41°00| 33°10] 32°29| 47°04 | 47°20
Division IX.—Yorxsuree (continued).
Yorx.—Wesr Rinine (continued),
=
Longwood, | Ackworth, | Well Head, Ovenden Eccup
Beret \ruddersfield.| Pontefract. | | Halifax, Gas; Leeds. or
Halifax.
. Oin. 4 ft. Gin. O ft. 3 in. O ft. 11 in. 0 ft. 10 in. 0 ft. O in, 0 ft. 6 in.
0 ft. 600 ft. 135 ft. 487 ft. 1575 ft. 340 ft. 50 ft.
1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869.| 1868. | 1869. | 1868.| 1869.| 1868. 1869.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. pe in. in.
2°59| 414) 2°90| 245)| 240) 2°57| 2°81] 4°40] goo} 2°94] 2°94] 345] 2°81
636) 2°99) 6:00} °77| 1°15] 4°34) 5°72] 3°30] 6-10] 370] 269] 1°33] 1°78
Tog} 3°98) 1°23) 1°27) 13°40] 4°30] 2°50] 4:20] 2:10] 2°78] x56 152| 1°89
e293) 1:61) 3°89] 1°77) 390] 41:20] .1°65| 2:00] 2:20] x70 Igo} 482) 2°18
S7t| °84| 5°64) °77| 5°47| °77| 5°64] 41°30] §°50| ar] 5:69] 128) grag
"28 *66| 140 "99 "07 76 ‘1O0} IIo "22 °73)| D267) ves
"36 “80 "24 +26 "40 *55 "20 "30 "30 “57 "40 1°31
229) 1790] 2°13) 1:20] 2°70] 200} 4:10| 41°70] 212] 4x57] 2°56] 1-70
3°63| 5°40] 3°98) 3°45| 3°32] 5°60| 5:00| 7-50] 3°65] 4:70] 3:24] 3°83
3°67| 2:19] 2:13] 407] 3°61] 31°88] 5:00] 2-70] 2:85 1°32] 2°89] 1°58
2°91} 3°81] ror] 1°94] 2°62] 3°92] 2°80] 4°50] 2°34] 2:06] 2:00 165
820) 4°46) 5:78| 2°85) 8°67| 4°83] 9:90} 700] 699] 4°39] 5°95] 3°65
34°90| 36°83 | 23°70] 24°68| 34°57] 37°86| 42°30] 44°70| 28°80] zor12 25°70] 27°92

* Corrected for instrumental error,

188

REPORT—1870.

ENGLAND.

Division [X.—Yorxsuire (continued).

Yorx.-—West Rinrye (continued), Yorx—Easr Rivne. York—Noxrut
Ruipinc.
Arncliffe, | Beverley Road aoe
Height of | Harrogate. Settle. Skipton, Hull | Spalding Malton. |
Rain-gauge 5 aaa : Moor.
above =|
Ground ...... O ft. 6 in. 40 ft. O in. 3 ft. 0 in. 3 ft. 10 in. 3 ft. Oin. 1 ft. O in.
Sea-level...... 420 ft. 498 ft. 750 ft. 11 ft. 30 ft. 73 ft.
1868.| 1869. | 1868. | 1869.| 1868. | 1869. |} 1868. | 1869.| 1868. | 1869. 1868. 1869.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. 4
January ...... 3°28| 2°50) 4°37] 5°03] 8:03] 7°89]| 2°2 2°66| 1°57] 399]; 2:21] 3°03
February ...| 1/49) 3721] 4°45| 7°72| 4°82] go8|} 31°53] 40] 114] 3123]! a12] I-99
evianch. 155.2... 2°79| 194) 421] 1°85] 8:19] 2°17]) 197] 2:29] 1°28] 4°66); 1°84) 2:25 |
Apr caue 500 218] 162) 3°10/ 2°62] 3°33] 3°95|| 2:10] 194] 1°73] 41°78]) 1°66] 1°77
May. “cocs.see. 1°93] 5°13) £56] 3°44| 2°63) 4711] *70| 4°69] 117] 4°29 1°59| 3°97
June =36)|| | acon 20} of00| 140) 1°96) 1:07] 1°25 63] 1°38 *88.| apr
SUIELY a edtore 62 28 235 307 81] msg) 85 °25 63 59 *92| 1'07
August ...... 311} 1:24) 4°74) 2°05] 6°52) 248) 3:47] 2°24] 3°78) 2°17]| 2°16] 1°23
September ...| 3°39} 3°64] 2°82] 6:92) 4:28] 11°64]} 1°72] 2°90] 2:41] 2°48|/ 2:81] 3:26
October ...... 230)| i087 4°37 aba) ate gh. gear | 2°69] I'99| 2°62] 1°96]! 2°94) 2°35
November ...| 2°59] 2°28] 3°05] 4°65] G42) 8-71]} 1°66] 2:24] 1°36] 1°78 58") 2291
December ..| 7°78) 467) 8:70] 5°77| 12:24) 812 | 6°54) 444) 5°02) 9ga |) 624) ee
Totals ...... 32°83 | 29°45| 41°92| 41°54.| 66°70) 65-or | 26°54.| 28°29 | 21°34] 24°73 || 25°95 28°69
=
Division X.—Norruern Covunttrss (continued). :
|
NorTHUMBERLAND (continued). CuMBERLAND. :
= :
Heiohtot | Park End, |,,Zilburn | sinethwaite,| Seathwaite, [Whinfell Hall,| Post Office, i
Baia cane Hexham, wa aa | Borrowdale. | Borrowdale. Cockermouth.| Keswick. 4
above 1
Ground ......| Qf.4in. | 6ft.9in. |) Oft.Gin. | 1f.0in. | 2f.0im. | 6f.4in
Sea-level...... 277 ft. 200ft. || 330 ft. 429 ft. 266 ft. 270 ft. |
|
1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869
in. in. in. Thor ih ahah in. in. | in. in. in. | in. in.
January ......) 4°08] 280] 3:02] 2°13 9°42 | 14°57] 33°54 | 17°43| 5°92) 7°15) 9°95 | 8°95)
February 602) 5°60) 120) 1°23) 17°52] 19°81 | 19°90) 23°13] 642} 846) 7°46) 12°79
March ...... 3°40) 115) 1713] x8r]| 18:29] 1756) 27°24| 3°21] 8°79 61) 7°59 58
POT ocactads 2:78 2eTe| ) ones 89 || 619] 5°49) 8°95) 1026] 3°44] 310] 3°38) 2°37
May ...... 129] 2°36] 41°35] 2:61|| -5°03| 2°96] 6798] 3°16| 2°92) 2:45] 2°82)) aoa
BO Wes ics ovo *79)| . Seay t5T| 2725 || ‘2'06| “4°04| 3°47] 5°13] 1°89) 2°76)) g-col apa
UM) vaeeaece “47 "93 58 77|| x10] 6:04] 2°32| 8:30] 3°03] 214 *35| 2aAe
August ...... 2°52| m27) 3°61] 3°43]! 11°721- 3°29 1°13°70| 4°51) (Groz| 2 °2e) S752 eee
September 3°60) 4°85] 3°76). 3:72 | 4°47| 20°03] 5°77] 24°c9| 2°39] 10°60) 3:21) 13°23
October ...... 2°43) Mgr) 1°56] 2°03 || 14°37) 604} 18°30) 9°95} 7°76) 4°75) 5°43| 3°94
| November ...} 2:29] 4°34] 3°33] 2:11 7°64] 18°03] 9°43] 23°19) 3°24] 7°71] 2°72| 11:28
| December . 469) 4°33] 4°54] 2°99/| 21°68] 12°86] 27°51| 17°75] 9°83] 7°40] 14°08] 9°
Totals ...... 34°33 | 33°43| 27°44] 23°97 ) 119°49 |114°72 [157° |150°31 | 59°63) 58°81} 65°72 7270

Jivision [X.—YorxsHIRE
(continued).

ENGLAND.

ON THE RAINFALL IN TIE BRITISH ISLES,

189

Division X.—NortuErn Counties,

55°63

55°50 | 82°77| 82-07| 39:04

York—Norra Riowxa Duran. NorTiHUMBERLAND.
(continued).
Beeeediam Scarborough. | Darlington. | Sunderland. || Allenheads Bywell North Shields
Grange. gi. a gs . na. Ads. Ni . .
pOHGin | iftoin. | 4tioin. | 1f.6im. || Of 5m. | Of.6in. | 1ft Oin,
» 192 ft. 100 ft. 140 ft. 85 ft. || 1360 ft. 87 ft. 124 ft.
} =
1869. | 1868. | 1869.] 1868. | 1869.) 1868} 1869 i 1868. | 1869.| 1868.| 1869. | 1868.| 1869.
in. in. in. in. in. in, in. || in. in. in. in. in. in.
324) 175) 2°34) 4°58) 2°46] 1°77} 1°98j| 8°63] 6:06] 4:18] 2°38] 2:04] 2°28
228) 130] 1744) 1°33 78 "7O| xrrri| 4°68] 926] 1°59] 480} x82] 1°32
2°42} 116) 2°33f t44] x71} riz] 1g97|| 5°g5| 2°09] 2°08] 365} x14] 1°30
166} 2:01| 1°84) 2:19] 316] 2:23] 1°47) 3°93| 2°43| 3°24] 1°74] 3°04] 1°76
325} x30) 3:21] 162] 3°28] 1°23] 2:86)| 1°66 4°66 "94 3°61] r'04| 2°57
1°37 Aoi". 509} 46'| 1°32 *46| r27/| 42) 1°67 “I9| 41°42 43} 1°27
106 73 SOLE 62:00) G21) Prox 109 | 61 87 “91 "25 "49 7 bf
116) 2°50} x57] 3°13] 1°43] 2°02| 42°58/| 572] 41°77] 2°07| 1°23] 1°38 1'29
326) 2°72! 3°76) 5:47) 3°76) 4:20] 3°68) 5°59| 897] 3:90] 3:49| 3°58) 2:81
3°27] 3°10] 3°81) 2°61) 2°45) ar1] 3:01|| grog] 3°08} 1°56| 481] 2:07] 2°87
2°07/ 214| 2:34) arr] 2°26] 2°52] 2°18] 5°03) 7°64| 2:72 2°53 | 2°23] 2°95
377) 4°94) 4°59) 10°37 | 2°41) 4°13] 3°16]! 10°25] 5:94] 4°33) 3°06] 3°59] 2°81
BS 71) 29°21 | 23°90] 29°73] 37°25] 24°03} 23°50] 25 a6 56°42 | 54°44.) 27°71) 24°97] 23°35] 23°94
Division X.—Norruern Counties (continued).
Cumpernann (continued.) WestMorenaxp.
a Mire House, | Edenhall, Sealeby, The How, 1
Rermouth. Bassenthwaite.) Penrith. Carlisle. || endal: Troutbeck. Appleby.
ft. 6 in. 0 ft. 7 in. 1 ft. 0 ia. O ft. 8 in. 4 ft. 6 in. 1 ft. 2 in. 1 ft. Oin.
ft. 310 ft. 32 ft.? 120 ft. 149 ft. 470 ft. 442 ft.
1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869.
in. in. in. in. in. in. Is gr |) Ay |i) ans in. in. in. in.
535] 5°32) 653) 420) 480] 1°56) 3°28) 4:09) 5°34] G91] 9°83] Gor] 5°51
G63/ 685| 8:12) 3:0] 410] 3°35| 5:04] 6°67| 8:40] 11°79| 14714] 3°57] 5°34
85] 8:19 "74) 4°C0 *50| 3°04 79|| 7°06| 142] 12°20] 2°16] 4:23 66
2369) 3°10] 2°53] 2:90] 1:20] 2°57] 2°34|| 3:08 3°98 | -4517'| 4563)|). 2:36)|, Saae8
2O5/ 315) 3:26) 150] 2:00] 2°30] 2°08|| 2:06] 2:73] 2:41 3°08} rar} 154
166) 115} 2°09] 1:00} 1°50 84) 1°40 $3.1)]| $8=75)|| eageg) |) sense 68), 1:28
rér :61| 1°38 *85| 150 "71) 2°16 *56| 161 oir |) eno 58 *96
W80} 5°31] 2:20| 3°60] roo] 4:17| 41°13]| 6:16] 1°88 749| 279| 2°47] 1°93
755) 3733} 9°55) 2°95] 620) 2°60] §95]| 2°69] 10°97! 3°51/ 14°45| 2°74] 7°54
397| 650) 3°94| 3°00) 3°90} 2°87] 4185]| G00! 3°59] 10°64 441| 3°02| 2°48
637} 410] 7:94) 215] 1°50 qt! 4°86]! 3:14| 6:99] 615] 1045 3°07| 3°41
578] 10°97| 7°33| 6°03} 2:30] 4°35] 4°32|] 10°43] 6°84] 15°66] 10°95] 8:90] 5°66
"31 | 58°38 35°18 | 30°50] 29°77] 35:20]| 37°49

190 REPORT—1870.
WALES.

Division XI.—Monmoure, Wates, AND THE IsLANDs.

Monmovuru. GLAMORGAN, | CarMarrnen. PEMBROKE.
: Llanfrechfa, : Haverford- ‘
i. 2g N Sabor Abergavenny.|| Swansea. | Carmarthen. ie Kilgerran.
above | een | eens
Ground ...... 1ft.Oin, | 1ft 3in. |] 16ft.0in. |) 0 ft. 5 in. 2 ft. 5 in. 1 ft. 2 in.
Sea-level...... 360 ft, 220 ft. 30 ft. | 78 fc. GO ft. 80 ft.
1868.| 1869.| 1868.| 1869. || 1868.| 1869. || 1868.| 1869. || 1868.| 1869. 1868. |.1869.

in, in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
January ...| 7°45| 7°89] 3°55] 872|| 2°66] 4°62|| 3°53) 683]! 5°72) 9705] 4:22) 7°78
Hebruary ...) 2°61| 5°47| 2°70] 3°89]/ 1°56] 5:21|| 2°36] 4°72]] 2°22) Grr) 2°54] 95°34

|
March «3... g17| 194| 2°60] 2°18]] 229] 1°53|| 3°05] 2°88|] 3°03] 3°24] 3°86] 1°33
April cesses. 47 | ereyo|| pacha | paegd. || eracg7 | e2"ag | 189] 3°03 || 2°02] 2°99] 2°09) 2°72
May ..000..| 2°16] 5°70| 2°09] 5°23]] 2°58) 3:20|| 2°22] 3°99|| 27°35] 5165] 18219 13°68
VUHO | ease... “62 84 "35 "75 -08 49 || "Bo *94. || 1°16 +58 *96 "42
OULY - Srcaeees- Rg) 433 "41 "43 *35| x:06|| x10] 2:00] Tog) 2°38) 1°31 38
August ...... 5°22] 164) 4°91 "70|| 4°11| 124|! 2°08] gr] 3°48] 2°20] 3°50 97
September...| 5:00] 7°38] 5°64] 5°80j] 2°42] 5°35|| 4°07} 7°80]] 4°04] 8°52] gor] 7°44
Qsioberiss.;.. 315| I-71) 2°24] 2°25|) 3°64] °2°73)]| 5:19] 3°52 |) 5°50] 93°73) 3147) 335m
November .... 4°78| 2°57] 3°07] 4agol| 150] 2°24/| 3:40] 4:28]| 4°74] 440} r'04) 4-ob
December ...! 9°73| 8°52] 9°58! 5°35|| 6°86] 3°99 || 10°60] 6°96|| 10°48] 5°94] 14°89] 5°49)

a i

:
Totals: «..;:. 47°53 | 46°49| 39°01 | 38°51 |] 29°52] 34°19 | 40°09 48°86 || 45°83] 54°69] 43°21] 44°r

Division XI.—Mowmovru, Warzs, anp THE IsLanDs (continued).

Menioneri. TARY: CrANNEL
CARNARVON. Tstz or Man. Tan

Height of Brithdin, |/Plas Brereton,| Llanfairfe-

gh ikea | Cernarvan. dius Douglas. | Point of Ayr. || Guernsey.
above a en Sen ft en ee pe

Ground setae 2ft.Oin. || 1 ft. Oin. Oft.Sin. || Oft. Gin. 3 ft. 4in. 12 ft. O in
Sea-level...... 500 ft. =| 25 ft. 150 ft. 27 ft. ? 204 ft.

1868.| 1869. || 1868. | 1869.| 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 186

| went
in. in. in. in. in. ¢ A 2

January ...| 9° 9°37|| 415 : . 501 . - ; : 4°09
February a. . 10°77 3°60 . . 419 . . . : 1°33
March ...... , 3°09 || 3°79] “1 : 1°78 : ° : : 1°81
Jeet aes aea : 6°45 || 2°10 : : 2°34 : : 6 : 2°92
(Masy desc : : 3°12|| 1°47 ° 3 3°07 . ; ; : 2°48
SME (pteeste. 6 1°47 | 28 ; ‘ 1°09 ; 4 . - "43
muly Res... F 1°92 || 1°33 . « “40 : E . * "39
August ...... € 4:05 || 2°51 : : 1°98 : - 4°30 3°84
September ... : 13°62 1°93 ¢ " 774. - . 1°38 . 2°04
October ...... ° 527 . 4°19 : , 3°87 || 2 2 1°65 . 4:28
November ...} 5° 8°68 || 3°75 ; 3 Zooks ; ; 2-15 . 2°49
December ...| 15°71} 9°43 || 8-76 : ‘i 3°48 : ; 7°29 x 8-66

vases 72°26| 77°24|| 37°66| 43°55| 35°07] 38°50] 34°50] 31°65] 31°05] 27°65 || 34°76 e

WALES.

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES.

- Division XI.—Mowmovrn, Waxes, anp Tue Istanps (continued).

191

~~ Carniean, Brecknocx. Rapnor. Furr. Denzicu.
‘a Pen-y-M Cefnf Maes-y-d |
Minster, . en-y-Maes efnfaes, ’ Taes-y-dre,
| ampeter. | Aberystwith. Hay, ? Rhayader. Hawarden. Holywell: Llandudno.
| ft Oin. 1-ft. 0 in. 1 ft. Oin. 2 ft. Oin. 1 ft. Oin, 5-ft. O in. 0 ft. 6 in.
420 ft. 42 ft. 317 ft. 880 ft. 268 ft. 400 ft. 99 ft.
8. 1869. | 1868. | 1869. || 1868. | 1869.|| 1868. | 1869. |] 1868.| 1869.| 1868.| 1869. || 1868.| 1869.
2 | in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in, in. in. in. in. in.
W636) 7°23/ 5°57] 5°45|] 3°55] 5°28|| 5°55] 5°56]] 2°09] 3:26) x69] 2°85]] 38] g-z2|
ge?) 477) 2°95) 425]| 3°50) 3°46] 3:10) 5:49]] 2°05) 2°75} x20] 3°58|| gor! 3°43)
ee?) 2°47! 429) 1°93|| 2°44). 1°67|| gaz] 41°78|/ 2:32] 2:04] x85] x16 |] 3°26 1°37
72| 210] 2°84] 3°32 ©°Go) | x 9r 9) a7 1°66} r80 55a! | Eg 1°46) 2°17
08) 3°90} 1°56] 2°64] 2:12] 5°30]] 2°58] 4:59|] 1°78 5°56 67} 4°88 "71+ 3°90
| °38 5 52 “gt “oo "89 72h. oe) 15 93 Big Rees 15} 82
‘S14 °97| 2°47| 1°16 rig 78 rig *82 43 73 22 42 29} «*§0
es) 223) 3°33| 3°47|/ 543} “95|| 438] m4g|| 2°80] xgx} xx8} 1781] 1°73] 1°66
86) S821) 2°26) 7°56|! 3°99| 647|| 3°86] 7°52] 2:20] 5:15] 2:03] 4°47|| 3°77] 6:50
39r] 471] 4:06)| 2°61] 2°31 3°95| 2°70)! 2°22) 3°16] 2°82) 3°07|| 2°56] 277
444) 2°77) 5°30)| 1°38) 2°6r|| 2°91) 5°17|| 3:24) 3°56) 2:17] 3°31] 2°78] 3°92
645) 9°33] gor|| 7°18! 4:44] 7°77| 7°39] 667| 266] 632] 2:30|| 8-22] 3:07
) 47°23 | 42°40) 43°06 || 33°37] 35°47|| 42°53] 45°98 || 27°61] 32°91] 20°73] 30°38] 29°75] 34°23
y. XI.—Monmovrn, SCOTLAND.

Division XI1.—Sovrnern Countries.

&c. (continued).

taynex Isnanps (continued).) Wuiatowy. Kirxcuppricut. Dumrrizs.
% bpook, Alderney. Lid, Little Ross. | Carsphairn. Cargen. Drumlanrig
10 ft. O in. Oft.4in. || 3. 3in. 3 ft. 10 in. Oft. Zins s | wasp
. 48 ft. 209 ft. 125 ft. ? 574 ft. 80 ft. 191 ft.
.| 1869.| 1868. 1869. | 1868. | 1869. || 1868. | 1869.| 1868. | 1869.| 1868.| 1869. |) 1868.) 1869.
| ‘in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
I 3°12} 3°06] 4°35] g:00]| 2:29] 4°36] 9°31} 10°07] atso| 7°c8/| 6:20 690
113] 2°48) 4°40/ 5:25/| 2°97| 3°09] 6:93] 695] 7°38| 8:0o1]] 8:00] 6-30
122| 2°92] 6:25] 2:20/| 3°39 741 9°38 °78| 814 86 || 7°70 “80
2°C2) 175) 4°15] 5°70|| 196) 1°56} gor] 2°38] 3:44] 1'95]| 4:00] 2°30
2°52) 4°35] 3°85] 2°50]/ 242] 2:72} 4x5} 1°52] 3:00] 1°97|] 3:40 ‘60
ieee TS0n) Be20'| 9 2700 || |. *3'g er | eWO7 |) Eras 46) 415|| 100] 120
"32 | PG ills 3620 *38 "64 49| 2°15 *56| 1796 *70| 1°10
4°47 *32| 40] 2°60]/ 4:26} 103] 7°58] 150] 5:49 *94'| 4°10} 1°60
2°34) 3°39) 2°50/ 8:20]/ 1°93] 4°03} 3°62] 9°18} 2°76| 8-20]] 2°50] 7-70
438] 2°90] G20] 460]] 2:27] 145] 7°93] 3:04 5°24] 2°46|| 5°30] 1°90
W52} 304} 4°05) 9°05]/ 3°55) 2°90] 7°93) 8:72] 2°90] G04/} 10] 5-30
5°85) 5°93] 850] 5S*90|! 668] 2:49] 14:10 10'27| 10°48} 9°78|| 6:00} 7-80
+) 29°64 | 31°59} 50°30| 6o'20|) 30°45) 24°92

76°50| 58:01] 54°35 oa all

5orco| 43°50

192 REPORT—1870.
* SCOTLAND.

Diy. XI1.—Sourmern

: Division XIII.—Ss -Hastern C BS.
Couns (continued). I Sourn-E astern Counti£s

|
{|

Dumertzs (continued). Roxzuren. SELKIRE. PEEBLES. Berwick. || Happrneron.
: Silverbut Hall,| Bowhill pe |
Height of | Wanlockhead|”’ yyawick. | Gard Esk Reservoir,| Thirlestane. || East Linton
Rain-gauge iat a ‘eee sie Penicuick.
above ese Coe Se |) 2 eee l|
Ground ......) OQ ft. 4in. 4ft. Oin. 11 ft. Oin. ||- Oft. Gin. Oft.3in. || Oft. Sin.
Sea-level...... 1330 ft. 512 ft. 537 ft. 1150f. || 558%. || OO.

1868.| 1869.] 1868.| 1869. || 1868.} 1869. || 1868.| 1869. 1868.| 1869.) 1868. | 1869

in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. inl... 5|| Alt in,
January ...| \8:45| 10°54] 4°00] 3°79|| 410] 4°30]/ 5°95] 2°45]) 430] 3:10)| 210) 7)
February ...| ro'29| 815} 3°48] 3°54/| 4°97) 2°99|) 490) 5°00)| 2°00) 2°20 Vio] I'L

March ...... 1300| 3°39] 3°67) 15]| 4°04| roo|| 340] 0§]| 2:20] I'20]/ Wor} 1@
Joye rahe 5°37| 2°57] 3°39| 1321] 2°30] 1°43|| 4°30] 1°65]} 2°90) 2°00 2°86| 10
May ‘cccds...| 5°84 *92] 1°74) 2°51|/ 2°22] 2°93/| 2°00) 2°15 } xso] ac60|/ 168) 179
PUNE ese ceses. ro2z} 2°40] 125] 417\|| 4 W10O| 1°40 *80| 3°30! *60| 1°80 ‘29| 18
Jhellye soo sencene 2°83) 4°17 68 58 533 24 || -e65)| emiz5|\ meg *40 "42 2
August ...... 674| 150} 4°19] Yor] 3°75| 1'04/| 6°70 "B80 |] 3°40 "95 || 2°11 "9
September ...| 2°56| 888] 4°06| 5°28/| 3°60/ 5:12 | 3°85 5°55 | 3°20| 4°30|| 2°72| 2°6
October ...... 819} 3:09] 2°73) 1°94|) 2°98| 4107]| 2°95] 2°25) T95| 1:90) *58| 1'9)
November ...| 4°63| 878] 2°08| 2°39]| 3°00] 2°43]| 3°30] 3°20]| 2°30 1°60 80 "8

December ...| 16°77| 10°08} 5°68) 3°62/| 4°52) 3°75|| 4°55 2°85 | 4°60] 3°20]| 2745

| | |

Totals ..... 85°69) 62°47] 36°35 | 28°30]| 36°91] 28°00) 43°35] 31°50|) 29°25 | 24°25) 1812 | 15°

Lanark (continued). | Ayr. | RENFREW.
ache Hill End ste Auchendrane,| Mansfield, | Nither Place,
ae caiee House, Shotts. Girvan, Ayr. Largs. | Mearns. Greenock,
above i
Ground ...... 7 ft. Oin. Oft. Gin. | 2ft.3in. | Oft.6in. || Oft. Gin. | Oft. Ging
Sea-level...... 20ft. || 15 ft. 93 ft. 30 ft. | a0/ft. 50 ft.
eal | HITS =
1868.| 1869. || 1868.| 1869.| 1868.| 1869.| 1868.| 1869. | 1868.] 1869.| 1868, | 1869
a | pees zs! oe | | = = :
in. epee iio wae in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in,
January...... 3°98| 3:71|| 640] 8:25] 5°63) 4°60] 6:10) 5:60| 8°38] 6:00] 12°02] 9%
February ...J 4°66] 4°75) Giro] 460] 5°99) 548] 5°9° 5:40]| 7°75| 5°75| 11°74) tim
March ......| 4°00 -75|| 845] 110] 649 67| 6'40| 140} 812) Too} g21) 1G
PATHE Seorexias - S17 721 350] 2°50| 3°52| 2°00] 3°50| 2°60 || 3:25] 2:00| 4°52| aim
MMiaiy *. Sssceicn. 2°45] zog|| 3°00 *g0| 2°19) Foz} 2°30 "zo |i 3°50] 1°50] 3°78 3:
JUNC ssdeevace| | TH3\| P2avd| *90| 1°95 *95| 1°87| 41°70] I'g0|| 3°75] 2:co| 2°11) We
uly -taverss-| )-258 | Deagaill 9585 || euz0 *Bo| 2°39| 1°30| 3°00) *50| 2°50] 105) 299)

August ...... 445| 1°54|| 470] x20] 6:16) 1°47 6:00} 1'20]| 5°88 "75| 842) 12
September.. | 2°47] 5°58]/ 1°75| 650] 370] 638] 2°30 8:40 || 3:00] 8:00} 2°32) 1079
October ......| 3°55] 2°01|| 5'70| 3°66) 5°86] 2°95] 5°60] 2°00)) 712) 2°13 6:52| 24
November ...| 2°86) 3°83 550| 7r0| 2°54] 7°22| 4:20] 680]; 5:00) 575) 5:00 8°5
December ...) 4°79] 3°20|| 10°65] 695] 7:09| 680] 7:20} 720 8°75| 9°37| 10°62) 1Kq

Totals ...... 33:45 | 30°85 || 57°50| 46°81| 48-92 | 42°85| 52°50| 46:20|| 63°00 46°75| 77°31| 6

Division XIJI.—Sovurn-Easrern
Covntiss (continued),

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISIL ISLES,

SCOTLAND,

193

Division XITV.—Sovurn-Westrern Counties.

Y Epinbureu. Lanark.
% sack. | Charlotte-sq.,] Newmains, | Auchinraith, Glasgow xe
| Glencorse. Inveresk. Edinburgh. |CastleDouglas.| Hamilton. | Observatory. feo gs
eo f..Gin. 2 ft. Oin. 0 ft. Gin. 0 ft. 4 in. 4 ft. 9 in. Oft. Lin. O ft. 3in.
787 ft. 60 ft. 230 ft. 783 ft. 150 ft. 180 ft. 230 ft.
| 1863. | 1869.| 1868.| 1869.| 1868. | 1869.] 1868. | 1869.| 1868.| 1869.| 1868. 1869. | 1868.} 1869.
1 _—————————e ——— a | —
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
} 599} 3°50] 3°20] 2°42| 3°61) 284] 7°89) 4°25) 448] 2°93) 655) 4°52| 7°85] 4°35
} G00] 480} 2:47| 2°32| 2°08] 2°67] 6:13] 6°65) 4:05] gros 5°79| 632] 6:88) 6:20
me 390} 150) 2:04| 86) 1°95) 79] 5°92) *51) 3°55] °48] 419] 94] 57°73] °98
465) 2:00] 2:90) 1:08} 3:28) orf 4°89} 1°76] 2°65 85) 3°90] 148] 4°73] 1°48
2°60} 2°95] 1°96) 1°64) 1°81} 2°64] 3°26] 145] 4198] 74] 2°93 "99 3°26) 1°54
EZOi 115 ‘GOle E7216 48| 1°74] 1:06} 140 “B4) 2°28) \r-5r |p 2:14) x-qgtliargs
pS 95 ioe ‘49 “34 WS. "46 99 20, 128 *59| 2°66 AS PR eead
§80; 125] 5°06 "a7 | 4°30 *76] 5°26) 1°27| 3°68 *90} 4°60] 1°03] 6:39] 142
460) 570) 3°92) 4°54| 3:27] 433] 2°82] 5°39! 247) 4°93) 3:10] 625) 3°63] 7°08
} 2°90; 2°35) 1°73; 182! 2°73) 48] 5°75} 1:06) 3°69| rar] 4-64] 1°73] 4:79] 2°24
i} Bes) 270) 2:16) 3134) 345] 1:42] 3°73| 7°67) ~3'02| 3°64] gro] 5:22). aint B32)
53°) 355} 3°81) 94) 3°87) 82] 7°81] 6°65) 4°53] 4°52] 610) 579] 654] 7°02
46°45) 32°40| 30712 19°68) 28°57 | 22°23] 54°98 | 39°05| 35°14 | 27°81 | 48:00) 39°07 | 55-11 | 42%10
1 Division XVY.—West Mrptanp Covnrttss,
\ |
Duparton. | Sreuve, | Bore. ARGYLL,
- I
j I]
| Devaar. :
- Balloch Arddarock, || a ; Rhinns of | M‘Arthur's
Castle. Loch Long. Polmiaise: Elodde, | ae oell: Islay. Head,
‘ . ||
-Oft. tin. Off. 10m. ||. Oft. 2in. 3 ft. din. 3 ft. 4in. 3 ft. O in. 0 ft. 4in.
91 ft. BOft. | 12K. 55 ft. ? 75 Mt. 7A ft.? 106 ft.
1269. | 1863. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. } 1868. | 1869. 1868.} 1869.| 1868.| 1869.
— | ——_$ —__. —_ | -—__—_—___ | — | | — ——}--
in. in. in. in. | in.) fiyan. | || ans in. in. in. in. in.
12°68 | 10°89|/ 8:00} 5°30), 4°70) 4°19|| 5°08] 5°73| 3°61] 2:49| 8:20] 6:40
13°92} 10°34 || 5:10) 5°20)) 5°87) 4:27]| 5°03] 5°89] 3°67] 3°33] r1°0c] 6'90
1109) 2°74|| 4°20] Ir0|| 7:25) 162]/ 7:21] 2°38| 4:26] 12a] ro°00] 2r0
603) 2°14|| 4710] 1°25]] 3°07] 2:t0]) 2:28) 3°33] 1756] 2°20] 4:20] 3°30
5°79| °57|| 3°30] “Bol] 3:10] .*78|} 3-80] 47] 2°59] -71| 560] 1-00
3°53| 240]| I50} 2°30)]| 90} 3-46|| °76| 1°26) x22) 1°58] 2°50] 1°60
GH le PALAIS) *G0)|5:2-00))| 1°28) x-2z9\|| / °93)|" 2°50 "5D 62°27 |. TRO aS
8°27| °97\| 5:00] roo|} 715] 1'20/] 5°50] 1:42] 462] 1:16] 8:10! 1:80
4°55} 11°79] 250} 5°70)! 152, 7°36) 2°13] 647] 240] 4°74) 2:50] 11°60
9°87} 3°49]; 40] 2°1c 592) 3°30) 831] 3:26) 3°98] 219] g:20] 4:20
S200 he 9770)})003-Ge}} 3550 if .2°79,|) 6°37 j) 4702) 810] 4°05} 5:20] 6:20] 980
13:91 | 1L-72 ||. 7°00). 6:00 | 5°65 4°30, 5°26) 6°36| 419] 4:27} 8:00] 9'70
Seer heey | Pecan Psa Pz irae
99°03 | 69°35 | 4830] 35°85 | 49°20 38°74 ! 50°31 | 47°17) 3666) 31°24 77°00] 61°60

19)

194

REPORT—1870.

SCOTLAND.

Division XV.—West Mipranp Cotntrzs (continued).

ARGYLL (continued).

31°96| 24°72] 41°11] 294

Height of |Castle Toward. Airda, Callton Mor,| verry Lismore. Hynish
Rain-gauge Appin. Castle. y
above
Ground ...... 4 ft. 0 in. 0 ft. 2in, 4 ft. 6 in. O ft. 1 in. 3 ft. 4in. 0 ft. O in
Sea-level...... 65 ft. 12 ft. 65 ft. 35 ft. STR. “| ae
1868. | 1869. } 1868. | 1869.} 1868.| 1869.| 1868.| 1869.| 1868.| 1869.| 1868.| 1869.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
January...... 9°31| 6:24] 8:50] 6:20] 8:01} 7°06] 10°00] 7:00} 4°82| 2:78] 7°49) 9°52
February ...} 6:03] 5°66] 10°20] 6°70] 7°87] 6°73] 14:00] goo! 7°63] 4°51} 13°29] TO°09
March) *...;4 6:57| 128] 6:50} 90] 7°50) I'g1| 8:00] 3°00] 3°39] 19] 12°6r| 4°46
PAT Ueno. = 25 3°52] 2°03] 3°60] 3°40] 3°28] 2°89] 4:00] 2:00] 2°72] 1°94] 3°69) 3°69
May teres---5- 3°99 49} 6°80 *40| 4°16 *69| Goo} 100] 516 *20| 6°54 25
nha) ae sneane 1°55| 2°71] 4:00] 2°50] 2°40] 2°56] 4:00] 4:00] 2°c9| 1°61} 3°94] 1°83
CURL Vatichins =e cs 1°35] 4:01] 1°70] 3°30] 1°58] 3°45] 1°00] 4:00 °99| 2°53] 108) 3'r0
August ...... 6°69] 4118} 7:40] 90] 7°16] 1°90) 8:00} 1°50] 5°60} 2°03] 5°70] 41°62
September...} 2°34] 7°73] 1°30] g'00] 1°86] 8:74] 2°00] 32°co] 1°88} 3°34] 2:26] 8-58
October ...... 5°37| 2°03] 5°90] 440] 7°29] 3°93] g'00| Grco| 4x] 2°89} 8°56) 180
November...| 4°08} 6°08| 3:20] 8'00| 4°80] 848] 6:00] 6°50] 2°33] 5:03] 7°84} I1°94}
December ...| 7°47| 6:16] 8:20] 910} 7°85] 7°59| gtoo| 8:00} 5°26) 7:22] 10°45) 9°75
Totals ...... 58'27| 45°60] 67°30] 56°80] 63°76] 55°93] 81°00] 64:00] 45°98] 34°27] 83°42] 66°63
Division XVI.—Easr Mrptanp Counts (continued).
Perrm (continued).
MTGChEDE “s Auchterarder |Stronvar, Loch) ,,.. - ar Strath-tay
Bettie. bl Loch Katrine. ite. Hot Head. | Trinity Gask.| Scone Palace. Logierait.
above | fee | ee
Ground ...... 0 ft. 6 in. 2 ft. 3in. Oft.4in. | Oft.lin. | 2ft.Gin, | 1ft. Oin.
Sea-level...... 830 ft. 162 ft. 460 ft. 133ft. | 80ft. 318 ft.
1868. | 1869.| 1868.) 1869.| 1868.} 1869.| 1868.| 1869.} 1868.| 1869.| 1868. | 1869.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
January 1180] 12°90] 7°70] 5°55] 15°40] 10°37] 6:15] 5°78) 4°63] 4:37] 5°35}> 5°43
February 13°80] 9°70] 4°71| 4°15] 13°55] 10°27| 3°08} 3:20] 2°68) 1-95] 4°03] 3°33)
March esate To'lo| 2:20] 3°85 60)] x47)" 7205] 1° 3°30'| © zroa |. 2°80 *94| 3°67 “79
Aprile. «23 §°1G'|) 1°90} eg°85)|, 21°10) 16-30] 63-30] © 3°16] 1:20). 9°54.) Sargo ie arom :
Wayess...152 5°90| 20] 2°50] x0] 5°80] 1:25] 2°88] x02] 1°99 60] 2°44 p
eIMNO Desa. .< 5% 2°90] 3700 “TEN -2°GON) Brcko gi4e Nt X12 e268 "45| 1°92] 100
Diy wt...5 1°50} 4°00 "40| 1:20) I'05| 4°20 55) 1°58 “6n) ¢ dam “58
August ...... 8-60] 1°20] 5'10 *80} 8:50] 1:05] 5:40 *68| 4°85] 105} 4°81
September ...| 3:00] 11°80} 2:90] 4°30] 3:90| 11°85] 2°82) 4°92] 3°33] 460] 37°03
October......| 10°20] 4°20] 2°65| 2:15) 9g:2c] 4:67| 2:12] 2:60} 1:35] 3°00) 2°77
November ...|. 6:10] 9°50] 2:20] 1°50] 6:60] 4°67] 1°56| 4°55] 1°92 95) 3°14
December ...| 15:90} 11°80] 7°35] 5°05] 17°30] 13°95] 6:26| 5:10] 4°81] 2°80] 6°27
Totals ...... 94°90 | 73°40| 43°96] 30°10 j101°59| 76°18 | 38°40} 31°31

v XV.—(continued),

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES.

195
SCOTLAND.

Division XVI.—Easr Miptanp Cotnrizs.

Division XVI.—Easr Mrpianp
Countiss (continued).

_ Arayty (continued). CLACKMANNAN.|| Kinross. Fire. Perr.
. ae oe Dollar. || Tore Nookton. | Kippenross. | Deanston.
——— : |
__4in. 3 ft. 6 in. 0 ft. 6 in. 0 ft. 10 in. 0 ft. 6 in O ft. 4 in. O ft. 4 in.
| 14 ft.? 82 ft. RIOT tl sad Rees... | 80 ft 100 ft. 130 ft.
1869. | 1868. | 1869.} 1868.| 1869. || 1868. | 1869. || 1868. } 1869. || 1868. | 1869.| 1868.| 1869.
in. in. in. ing: |} ine || ime in. || in. in. | in. in. in. in.
890) 4°60) 4°76] 6'57/ G05) 5:40] 4'90]) 3°68] 3°61|| 6:40 5°85| 837) 651
9°98} 7738] 3°78] 5:00} 402]] 3°30] 4:20] 2:28 2°46 || 3°10] 3°80] 537} a8
220) 5°57| 56) 4'14| 43] 3°00] “Bol! 190] 94} 3°50] °55| 4°88] roo
3°80} 2°16) 2°42] 446] 2°04] 3:20] r°60]| 2:89] 1°64]! 3:00 *70)|" 3*On |) hae
20] 3°92 : 2°94] 2°12|| 2°60} 420]/ 3rg8| 3°56]! 2°30 *60| 2°90] 1704
4945 |) c 2°50 “60 84) 2°96 *50} 2°80 fo ie aye: *2.5)|" 2°30 |" “1629, | are
eaoy sr 15] 2°35) 11°64) 2°43 *30 ofS se eS T-3 1] *25| 140 84] 219
170) 417) ro8] 4:93) 107|| 540] rr0l} 3°92 *86 || 4°40 S5ki)- "6246 °76
T215/ Wer) 4°95] 2°89] 4°65|| 3°60} G10] 3:04] §:09|| 2°30] 5°65]. 2°64] 6:90
4°60} 4°43] 560} 2°81} 3°42|| 2°50] 2°60]] 389} 2:26]| 4:20 2°50} 4°82] 2°72
14°55| 2°66] 519] 3:28] 2:62]! 1:60] 2°00 25.) 1°14) \|""gr00)}¢ 42070} * + acne aera
T215| 4°66] 446] 6:22/ 4:05|| 6:50] 3:20] 4:71] 1°58]| 6-60 F20i| GrSreh eg
4°26 | 78°38 44°01 | 35°86] 45°72 | 35°86| 37°90 31°10 || 28°29] 24°98 || 39°30] 31°80] 51°40] 40°54

Division X VII.—Norra-Eastarn Cotnrizs.

Forrar. KINCARDINE. : ABERDEEN.
4

N, atts Arbroath. Montrose. ane ni Braemar. Aberdeen. | Castle Newe.

ft. 61 ft. 200 ft. 237 ft 1114 ft. 95 ft. 915 ft.
1869. | 1868. | 1869.| 1868.| 1869. 1869. | 1868.| 1869.| 1868.| 1869.} 1868. 1869.

in. in. in. in, in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
4°00} 3°63) 405} 2°66 510 || 4°65) 4°71] 2°75) 3°55] 3°27] 3710
025) 1°85] 106| 1°97 2°30|| 319] 2°28] 1°63) a17)] 198} 1°35
*80| 1:92] 104] 2°27 r°50|| 2°64] 413] 1°72| 1°89| 1°36] 2:23
mas) 2:69) 31757) ©3°78 1°50 || 2°80} 241] 240] 2:23] 4°16] 2798
85] 197] 176] 2°24 *70 | 1°31 *70| 149] 1°47 77), Wao
2°60 44| 2°53 “58 2°90 OR) VE 2ck7. *60| 1°79 Gn) a say
"95 "30 “Br 21 120 | "29 "94 “72 85 "44 *50
mas | 5:26 95| 5°89 1'20|| 5°58] 1°31] 6:43] 1°32] 6:02] 1°60
6'05| 4°68! 5°13] 6:50 5700), 474) 4°77} 3°56] 460} 4°94] 3790
2°95) 233] 2°87! 3°35 4°60 || 2°52 4°59| 186] 5:74] 2°12] 5:00
Bo] 1°34 *55 “49 ‘fo || 2°24) 2°90 40) 1°54) 1°84) 2°75
go) 7722| r4r| 7°85 3°30 |) 6°44] 3°75| 4°96| 2°92] 3°06] 2°69
24°65) 33°63 | 23°73| 37°79| 34°87] 35°50] 30°10|| 37°23| 31°66| 28'52| 29°07 3047 ae

o 2

196 rePoRtT—1870.

: SCOTLAND.

| Division X VII.—Norru-HAstErn

Countres (continued). Div. XVIII.— Norru-Westrern Counties.

ABERDEEN (continued). | Banre. Ross anp Cromarry.
||
sineepee ot r x TInverinate Ardross
Height of ee hae core House, Lochbrcom. | Cromarty. Castle,
Rain-gauge J aae || at Loch Alsh. Alness.
above : =e | re
Ground ...... Oft.4in. || 1ft. Gin. 3 ft. Oin. O ft. 8 in. 3 ft. tin. 1 ft. O in.
Sea-level...... B49 ft. || 70 ft. . 150 ft. 47 ft. 28 ft. 450 ft.
1868. | 1869. 1868. 1869. | 1868. | 1869.) 1868.) 1869.| 1868.| 1869.| 1868. _ 1869.
in. THe) aa |e beeen | (bo in. in. vhaWee alfoeat et in. in. in. in.
January ...... g12|. 3°36] 3:47] 187] 1112] 7:80] 10102] 5:25] 3°68 *90| 7°25) 2°83
February ...) 2°08] 2°22]/ 3°85] 2°76) 19°72] 9:05] 12°72| 6°89] 3°81] 246) 4-79] 5°61
March ...... D5 71|ee2a77 || -et One 77 Neko 8S | B°10'| BeehG | gab || Os "59| 3°35| 2°40]
PATA Weseenn = 2°63) 2:r1|}. 2°85) 2:09] 2:25] .3:20| 2°48) (2:47 | 9°76) “at27 | ool eee
WER SB) pede O24 eoTcO1 |p cee 2\ © 2S Oil's uo sg'c *65) e2%26))| emer: "94| x02] 4°79] 2°12
MING Pace cei 1‘il 1°84 || E06) @3°65'I\ Asgs'| or-8ol] 4g:B8il sar67 “75 °87| 2°09] 1°49 /%
dul) Bsckerene “59 66) °74 95} 3°00| 4°75 “58 | g27a6 78 “Rig 25) qr
August ...... 4°30| 1750 | 4-70] 2°34] 9°80] 2:43| 8:26] 2:74] 4°38) a8) 97-64) | eee
September...| 5706/ 6°34'! 5°05] 4°10 83] 10°44| 2°07] 6:17| 3°16] 3°37] S40] 5°24
| October ...... 2°56) 6:62|| 2714) 490] r0752| 5:65] 8-52) 5°65] 142] 3°60] 3°68) 5°36m%

November ...| 2°43] 3°60)| 2°08) 3°32} §°55| ro‘50| 4°52/ 10°59| 3'09| 2°12] 2°60 4°94 |)
December ...| 4:16] 2°43|/ 146] 2°53] 9°47] 9°75] 4°63] 5°63| 1°96] 2°32] 3745. 3°94

| i
Totals ...... 31°23 | 35°42 || 29°23 30°84] 91°74] 69:12] 65°49) 52°83) 25°38] 20°05 | 44°99] 38°81

Div, XVIII. (continued). Division XIX.—Nonrrnern Countries.
Inverness (continucd). SurHERLAND. | GaltTINEss,
Height of Grantown. Laggan. Dunrobin. nome us Cape Wrath. | Nosshead.
Rain-gauge uy
above See ieee | See é =
Ground ...... 1 ft. 2 in, 0 ft. 9 in. 0 ft. 3 in. Oft. Lin. 3ft. Gin. |
Sea-level...... 712 ft. 821 ft. 6 ft. 33 ft. 355 ft) i
1268. | 1869.| 1868.) 1869.} 1868. | 1869.| 1868.) 1869. 1868.) 1869,
Ley || An in. in. in. in. iba: Pal pe aeay in. in.
January ...... 4°82| 1°88) 10:63) 7°31] 484} 160] 240} 3:00] 4°72] 311
February ...| 3'06| 2°62] 10°62] gio7} 480] 4°35] 6:50] G50) 814] 4:89
March ...... 150} I'94| For} SoS} 210} 2:00} 2°80} 2°30) 430] 1°48
April! fetes sel) 224.0) 93530\ll a Segiqi|, senGSil) elt2z2 | a-90i|) 2°70\| | 44:00)| | oe All toes
INT ety econ «5 $93)|) 1:99) az:27 *gof 1°40 "201 2°80] x50] 2:32) wom
PUNO Seer voice °75| 2744] -2°75| 192] 1758 *60|. 2:20} <*70| 2°93] x60
US | oes wees “80 "70 =7 Tl) yAt3 25 ‘70 *30| 2°09) 1°33 |" gie4ad
PATIGUST case: 416| 2°86] 6:69] 1°34] 5°20] 1°30] 8:00] 1°30] 8758) 3°66)
September...) 3°34] 4:10] 1°65] 6°56 2°85] 4:20] 1'50| G00] 2:25| 617)
October ...... £97 |" 5:13] 46:29] 5:29] 3:10] 4:1c|) 4°50.) 4290) Sram) gemma
November ...) 2°61] 3°61] 4°25] g489 1°70| 460] 3°50] 8:40} 1°93] G11)
December ..... 2:19} 2°97] 6°48] 7:80] 2:10] 3°00] 3°50] 3'20] 4°55] 3°57|
Totals ......| 28°62 | 33°54| 63°12] 59°26) 3111] 28°55] 38°70] 43°80] 48:70) 40°58)

ia ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES, 197
SCOTLAND.
aq ‘ ane wl
a Division X VITI.—Nonrra-Wesrern Counriss (continued).
INVERNESS.
Ushenish, : 4... | Corrimony,
Raasay. Barrahead. South Uist, Culloden. | Island Glass. Urquhart.
1 ft. 4 in. 3 ft. Oin. O ft. 4in. 3 ft. Oin. 3ft. 4in. O ft. 6 in.
80 ft. 640 ft. ? 157 ft. 104 ft. 50 ft. 550 ft.
1868. | 1869. | 1868.| 1869. | 1868.| 1869.| 1868.| 1869.| 1868.| 1869.| 1868. | 1869.
in, | in, | in. in. in. in. in. int in. in. in. in.
12°30} 9°20) 4°14] 5°39] 5°29] 1°60| 5°58) 221] 5°85] 4°79] 9°30] 4°70
16°60] 11°65) 4°15) 4°o1| 9°97| 4°40| 3°88] 2°76] 9°36) 8-35] 8-20 4°60
11-70} 3°60] 3°83] 1°29] 5°47] 1°47| 2°05) 94] 5°95| 2°02] 4°c0| “60
3°70| 3°10 85 “gr | 2°30)" 4:86] 226) 4748! “280 m721\) I7o!lhe mezo
Galo) Anes s)|8 173 *39| 3°35 "26 ¥ivA| = Zor || 3°6% *4g| 1°20] I*00
Gowen ss in erg |) Goll Ayg) | 189] | were abo | pared || creer *50)| ad
6755) 520] © °79| 225] 107) 3°24 "40 44) 1°90] 3°68} o-oo} I'FO
705) 1°95} 4°10 "r4| 4°89 3°8'5| G62) 48 5°36) 262) 5780 *30
2°80) 11°95 go} 4°97 | 50] | 5:81) | 3°55) \ 3°76) bartg.| Gop |) zero) msge
11°00| 8°30] 4°02] 2°44] 4°14] 5°39] 90] 3°31| 5°26] 3°24| 4°90| 6°60
7°85| 10°45] 2°55] 2°45] 2°64] 10°39] 1°31] 2°91] 3°71] 6°55] 2740] 8r00
12°50| 14°05] 3°76) 1°99) 4°56| 3°98} 215) 2°67| 5°31] 5°05) 4°99] 9°30
103°25| 82°55] 31°96| 27°19 | 46°97] 42°08) 31°62] 25°66! 55°51] 46°37| 45°00) 46°50
Division XTX.—Norrtuprn Countries (continued).
Carriness (continued). Orxxry. | Snernann.
4 4 ! ear sr: =i at?
ae ., |
Holburnhead. ot Balfour Castle | Sandwick. | Sumburghead.| Bressay. East Yell.
| Skerries. | = u
; I
| Oft, 4in. oft. oi. * ||). OLt. 3 in: 246. Oin. -|| 34t. 4in, 0 ft. 4 in. 1 ft. Oin.
«60 ft. 72 ft 50 ft. 78 ft 265 ft. 60 ft. 176 ft.
1868. | 1869.| 1868. 1869. || 1868.| 1869. | 1868. | 1869. | 1868.| 1869.| 1868.| 1869.| 1868.} 1869.
: in. in. in, in. in. in, in. || in, in. in. in. in. in.
Yo8| 2°67) 2°22 | 4:20/ 3°40] 4°50/ 3°83] 4°20) 431] 4°28) 3°73] 446) 4°93
414) 3°78! 3°95) 440] 430/ 5°81) 4go4g| 3°70] 1°82) 6:07| 2°58) 7°74} 4°88
3°45) 2°56) 2°47 | 3°80} 230] 4°27| 2°85|) 2°36] 114] 3°60) 3199) 4°39] 5°17
2ZA7| 217) x6xr|) 2°50] 3°30] 3°3r| 3°75|| 2°23] 31°35| 235) 2:30] gg] 2°64
*90| 1°18] 1°39]| 1700 “Go| 1st | Foz || 2:25) | x:4ni 227 \eemean! ogous,
15| 160] rog|| 180] 10} 2:80] 1°97/} 1°86] 31°43] 2°12| 322] 3°82] x25
si fO7)) L2gile Tac iso) 61-35] 3°20 || “67'| | 1967 °85| 223! x80] 3°66
Ze7Oi) 5°34.) 1757 |) G0] ir-Be) 5°32'| 2°37 | 7719 146| 8°74] 240] 5796| 3°31
5°70 99) Sco) mae) 77 50) “1-4r}| 6:60 |] 1°43) 4°37 ree) fae7s *86| 3°90
Bago S07} 2-241 Fico) 60) 15°34) 3°33'|| 2°32.) 225g A-o2||, bree) VGrs7' |) arog
G20} 142] 4°64|| 2:20] Go] 2°66) 6:70} 1°42] gor] 1767] 3°81] 2°89] 7°57
Bee 248) 2341) 4°90] (350) 515) 3°76) 4°90) 2°94) 677) 3:12) 5°32) Some
34°34 | 28°43 38°20 | 43°43 43°43 | 34°49] 27°64) 44°52 | 30°86! 51°35 | 49°77

198 REPORT—1870,
IRELAND.

Division XX.—Mounsren. gee

EINSTER,

)
Cork. Kurry. Warerrorp, || Trrrrrary. || Cuare. Carow.
Cork, |

Height of | Quoen's || Valentia. || Waterford. | Ballykisteon. | Killaloe. |, Fenash»

Rain-gauge College. || agnalstown.
above eas =
Ground ...... 6 ftOme s) || | tte: At Oim.)) ||) Wat. 2 an. 5 ft. O in. 1 ft. O in.
Sea-level...... 65 fii ||, 10%t. 60ft-? || 350 f. 123 ft. 340 ft.

1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869. || 1868. | 1869. |; 1868. | 1869. |] 1868. | 1869.} 1868.) 1869.

in. in. in. haley | i) era in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
January ...... 6°82] 8°59)/ 6°59] 9°56]| 5°52] 8'42]| 3°79] 5°04]! 3°93) STorg 2°92] 6°52)
February ...| 2°16] 2°96|/ 4°78] 4°53|/ 2°82) 2°34|| 2°29] 3°12 |] 441 | 5°96] 1°36] 2:29"
March ...... Z:28:| larBsil| sor) | 3°54|| 9763] 2755)||- 9°83 | wt7s ll o5°r2 | sgreiowl Rese eeziom
#\oraill) Barnnogo 2:07: K8i|| 13°34) \4raa|| | gto4!| “21001! 2:77'| ator 3°22| 3°89} 2°35] 2:40
(Miaiy © cease 2°35| 5°48] 3°53) 2°79|| 2°6r| 4°87|| 1:29] 3°96]) 3°08) 420] 219) 2°76
UCL «selene: 95 18] 1:66) 106 "93 "32 81] 1'49/| 1°97) 145] 3°32] 109
Oy s assess se T20) 12507)|| "3985)| 3780 x64) x-22|) 0°36) 1°55 141} -2°80f «1264. 1°55
August ...... 5°92 87 || 3°46] 1°89]| 6°39) 1:22]) 710] 1°87]| 5°80] oz] 4°49) 1°03
September... 5°98} 5°15 |] 2°83] 8:05|| 6°90] 5°98|) 3°36] 5°25|| 2°98] 887) 487] 5°79
October ...... 2°87 *67|| 5°89) 2°64)| 3°72 84.|| 3°12 | | 2°99)||, 16°20); ar-5oce36 °”72
Noyember ...} 5°83] 2°44]| 6°72] 4'19|| 4°58] 2°23] 2°63] 3°85]! 235] 5:49) 2°90) 2°56
December ...| 9°99] 7°12|| 1o'11| 837)| 9°81] 5:41 || 6:26) 6°87] 6°67] 6°50} 6°36) 3°60
Totals”... 50°32 | 40°96 || 58°17| 54°55 || 51°59] 37°40) 39°61) 39°76 || 47°14) 50°57] 37°13] 32°40

Division XXII.—Connavenr (continued).

Division X XIIT,.—Utsrnr.

Roscommon, Suico. Cavan. ENNISKILLEN. ANTRIM.
: Hazlewood, } Red Hills, Florence :

Height of Holywell. Doo Castle. Sligo. Belturbet. Court. Avtar

Rain-gauge
above SS
Ground ......| 5 ft. 6 in. 1 ft. O in. 2 ft. 4 in. 0 ft. 9 in, 11 ft. 4 in. 1 ft. O in.
Sea-level......] ...seseeee | eee aie 47 ft. FOCI! 300 ft. 150 ft.
1868. | 1869. || 1868. | 1869. | 1868. | 1869.} 1868. | 1869. || 1868. | 1869. || 1868. | 1869. |
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in, in. in, in.

January ...... 3°06] 3:30]| srr] 468] 480] 3°85] 4x1] 3°01|| 7°30] 5°66]! 2°56) 2°50
February «..| 2°99] 3°23|| 3°69/ 5:21] 345] 499] 319) 423]| 347| 626|| 2:25] 3°36
March ......) 3:28] 2°35|| 4:24] 3:43] 469] 318] 3°58] 2°88]| 5:27] 2:75|| 3750] 1°33 |
2:N) 7p ee 1°90 | 2°56/| 149] 3:94) 14] 2°69] 2°38) 2°67]) x:78] !2:80)l|| \aG2)| ores
MT Ss. cepspe 228) 2°48 || 9°23] 2172) 2-14) (ara 2:52) 2:88 2:69) 2cog i) Maem oes
JUNE ....050 || (2:32)| Toon erssril erswr | Arey, 98) (3701) 1°06] 2:97 68 "59 "36
Fill ae Toms) (eRe eee Pocoe rool) ba G7, 96} 1°65 49] 2°58 57 won
August ......] 4°23] 1°50|] 3°80] 1°34] 4:05] 241] 4:26] 1°46]| 3°62] 1:29/] 4:10] 162
September...| 3°32 6-91 3105| 4°07] 152] 3°03] (1°88:| 3°32)! 1:78)| Marge) wae) geome
October ......| 3°52] 1°03|/ 4x1} 2°34] 4°79] 2°36] 2°79| 31°38/] 5°82] 1:95/| x92] 1°33
November ...} 2°50} 2°78|| 4°58] 618) 4:16] 648] 2°94] 3°78) 5°77| 6'11|| 2°66] 44g
December ...) 5°30) 4°96|| 7°81] 619] 5°64] 6:56] 510] 3°60) 881] 7°08|/ 3°89] 2%

Totals ...... 35°77) 33°73) 44°47 42°84| 40°15 | 40°31] 36°72] 31°92 || 49°17| 44°48 || 26°51 | 26:6

5 ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 199 5

IRELAND.
Division XXI.—Lemsrer (continued). saree ee
ONNAUGHT.
Queen’s Co. Kiye’s Co. WIcKLow. Dvusuin. GALWAY.
4a ; Galwa:
; 3 Birr Castle, Fassaroe, _ | Cregg Park, y
rtarlington.| 5. sonstown, | _wllamore. Bray. Black Rock. Gus. Outee.

1 ft. 2 in. 0 ft. 3in. 3 ft. O in. 5 ft.O0in. || 29 ft. 0 in. 3 ft. O in. 6 ft. O in.
736 ft. 200 ft. 235 ft. 250 ft. 90 ft. 120 ft. 25 ft.

| 1868. | 1869. || 1868. | 1869. | 1868.) 1869. || 1868. | 1869. || 1868. | 1869.] 1868.| 1869. | 1868. | 1869.

fie?) | in. in. | in. in. ine, {eines es) eine in. in. in. in. | in, in.
J 225) 4°53)) 317) 4°06) 229) 3°53] 4:09/ 6'53|| 3°99| 524] 3°27] 4°09| 5°29] 427
227) 224)| 2°45] 2°57) 1°96) 2°00]] 1r'90| 2°'19]/ 1°82} og] 3°46) 3°99] 5°25] 612
2°71) 2°09 Bele ees 8y | ee BOs TO, 3713) |, = 3°69 219] 183} 408] 2°84] 5°38} 3°44
214) 1°82|/ 2°20] 2°88] 1°06| 2°24]] 2°62] 1°75]| 2:08] 10] 2°45) 2°87] 2:28] 3°42
1°78 3°14. 217 3°72 2°34) 2°21 1°42 8:22 || 119 7°03 2°25 3°97 3°74] 480]
2°32 *83}| 155| 5x] 1°96 *68)||', 1°43). 1:25) 6 drozile zs08 S0/ 1°43) 17q4| 1:60]
Hrd) 157|| 2°44) 2°15] 1°13] 1°50]] 100 "72, wi mg £:27,|, 1:80i)) 226

| #09} 122) 4:90) 207| 4°34 1°26}] 6°55 76 5°17 64) $37). 129 SOR) waz
W289) 3°88) 2°32) 6315) 248| 3°75] 4°98] 4:76/| 3:52| 4:08] 2°82] 8:24] 2-41] 8°46
| 2°08] 2°68 | 2°29 62) 1°96] 2:49]) 1°85] 2:44]| Zoo] ur8] 5:10] x18] 6:16} 1°67
W67| 2°66)) 2°31) 2°92] 2°33]. 2°84]] 3°65| 2°49 3:19)| 2°21] 3°16). 3790) 2:63) 5 or
3°39|| 4°21) 5°13] 3°88/ 4°04]) 9:09| 446) 6°73] 3°56] 645] 645) 649] 8:07

—— —__.._—_ | _ ____ =

eae 30°05 33°63) 35°56 | 28°56 | 28°46 || 41-71| 38°96 || 32°67| 29°69] 40°48] 42°05 | 47°81) 52°19!)

. ~

Division X XIIT.—Utsrer (continued).

Anrrm (continued). | Donzcan.

P Belfast,

Queen's Ballymoney. || Letterkenny.
College.
== —-- ee e) e =< i =
t. 4 in. 7 ft. Oin. 1 ft. 8 in,
ft. 170 ft. 108 ft.
1869. | 1868.| 1869. || 1868.| 1869. | |

in. :
386) 425] 3°24] 814] 5°56
4°45| 2°58) 439]] 4°58) 6°13
ferzoe | 4°35 2:10|] 6:6r| 3°61
bt93| 2°03) 2°09]] 2°66) 2°50
E85} 280) 1754|| 3°44] 3°46
1'29 69] 2:0or|] 3°31] 2°50 /
2°02 *67| 185 FT ee Qens | }
erst) 4°79) 2°36|| 631] 1°30

496) 125) 420) 2°79) 5°73
1°35| 2°65} 197|| 4°63] 4°30
“430| 4:45) 6°86] 7:02] 8°61
2°67| 4°73| 4°03|| 6°36} 600

32°57 | 35°24] 36°64) 56°56 | 52°85 j | |

200

~ REPORT—1870,

ABSTRACT, AND RESULTS, OF EXPERIMENTS ON THE DECREASE OF RAINFALL CORRE-
SPONDING TO SMALL ELEVATIONS OF THE RAIN-GAUGE ABOVE THE GROUND,

Taste I.—Total depth of Rain collected in each month. Castle House, Calne,
, long. 19 59' W.

Wilts ;

lat. 51° 27! N.

Elevation Series.

8 inches diameter.

ft. in?
pee are: ft. in.) ft. in, ft. in. ft in| ft. in./ ft. in.) ft. in| ft. in} 20 0
P ical Level.} 0 2) 0 6} 1 O}] 2 0] 3 O! 5 O10 0/20 0/5inch
: gauge.

| 1863. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
| August ...... ve 2°989| 2'989) 2°940| 2°940] 2°941| 2°919} 2°883) 2°860) 2°333| 2°731
September ... 3°018] 37038) 3°024) 3°024| 3011] 2°968| 2°956{ 2°919] 2°848] 2°791
October ...... | 3°698) 3°653) 3°624) 3°585/ 3°554| 3°528| 3°492) 3°457) 3°460| 3°341
Noyember (a), 2°379| 2°362| 2°252| 2°186| 2°154| 2°122| 2°096) 2°050) 27108] 1°96c
December ... 1°250| I'249| 1°225| 1°156} 1°124] 1°098| 1°c82| 1°057| 1°048! "975
pi 13°334| 13°291| 137065] 12°891| 12°784| 12°635| 12°509 12°343 12°297 11°798
January ...... 1808) 1-814) 1°729| 1°676) 1°629| 1°603) 1°574| 17543] 17531] 1°50c
February 1°216| 1187) 1°179| 1°097| 1081] I'060] I'044) 1010] 17003] 957
Marehi 5% | 2°711) 2°687| 2610] 27546] 2°506| 2°474) 27406] 2414) 27425) 2°348
Aspro Bas 2 1°92c] 1°891| 1°859) 1°860) 1°834) 1°818) 1°797| 1°782) 1°759| 1°732
May (8) ...... 1°152| x°r49| 1°162| 1116} 1°107| I°0g5| 17083] 1°076] 1°061) 1°025
DUNO) T..:\. Sees | 11726) 1°695| 1°692) 1°666) 1°630) 1°620| 1°606 1582 1°543| 1°472
Dilly ene 4.25% 686) -691| °679| 690] °676| °675| °656| 653) 623) “sox
August ...... *678| °670| °651| °658) °647| °638| 626] 622) -Go7) -568
September ... 2°797| 2°692) 2°741| 2°687| 2°647| 2°617| 2°576| 2°525| 2°452| 2°328
October (c) ... 2'226| 2°193| 2°182| 2°78) 27140) 2°13c] 2°117| 2°082! 37993) 317986
November ... 1'990| 1°968| 1°899| 1°882| 1°836| 1°818| xr°8oc) 17747) 1°711| 1°668
December (7) 2°735|_ 27701) 2°657| 2°631| 27583] 27538) 2°553) 27508] 27458) 2°373
21°645 21°38) 21°040) 20°687/ 20°316| 20°C86) 19°838| 197544) 197166) 187548
1865. ed —— _ —_ Sa
January ...... 3°893 4863 3°581| 37517] 37163] 3°225] 3°203) 3°c62] 3°159] 3°134
| February (¢) . 3°482] 3°528) 3°019| 27933] 2°849| 2°826) 2°806) 2°634! 2°679| 2°546
March ...... we 1:0c7| °973} °912| “897| °868) °873) 851] °830] °842| “808
PAE cecieeet 745) 7821. °763| °736| 729] s720|- °723]. “7o6|\ ~-7o6)) eboq|mecage
WWE Scene ene 2°338| 2°387| 2°325| 2°272| 2:277| 2°275) ‘2°293| »o'220) 287) Me eleeogs
Diveaey "as socece 17583] 1°577| 17569] 1°563) 17563] 17565) 37560] 4x°54c] 17538] 1°519) 17458
July(f) ...... 3°002| 2°993] 2°977) 2°921| 2°897| 2°901| 2°904| 2°879|] 2°827| 2°722| 2°78c
August ...... 4°295| 4280] 4°240] 4°211|} 4°203] 4°203] 4°223| 4°176) 4°147| 4°082) 3°974
September <.||/ <126| “r28)- 128) 120) 92128) -138) 252] °143) cx54| aaa sone
October(7)...; §°603) 5°601) 5°57) 5°536| 5°525] 5°503] 5°495| 5°420] 5°425| 5°416) 5°249
| November ...| 37389] 3°454| 3°402| 3°327| 3°279| 3°207| 3'223| 3°139| 3°097| 37094] 37026
| December ...!_ 27517] 2°705| 2°626) 2°557| 27478] 2°413] 2°404| 2°364| 2°301| 2°351| 2°257
1 | 32°289) 31°97 1) 30°755| 30°426) 29°805| 29°877) 29°449| 28°9U5| 28-379] 28-091
16, — — ———- |—-—— -—|—— — —— =
January ......) 4°240| 4°582) 4°297| 3°914) 37625) 3°60q) 3°646) 3°429) 3°341| 37413) 3°342,
| February .... 4340) 4°509) 4°395| 4257) 4°138| 4°078| qg:o1g) 3°863) 3°831) 37822) 3°707,
March ...... 2°167| 2°183| 2°151| 2°100| 2°0§<| 2°028] 1°959| 1°884| 1°931| 3°995| 1°86
| April .....-...] 2°282] 2°318] 2°249| 27182) 2°148] 2°145| 2°125) 2°070| 27090] 2°0g0] 1°991
INeiy: ceaicihees r185| x-21c} 1°74) 1°¥30) 4°131| 17132] 1°129] '1e8| 1081] 17085) xX°coo|
DUNC’ sceceees 3°056| 37084] 3°026| 2°969] 2°997| 27984] 2°992| 2°948| 27903] 27912] 2°853)
aulyagss sce ste 1488] 1°504) 1°477| 1'434] 1°453| 3I°454| 1°448| 1°444] 1°394| 17436] 1°397,
August ...... 2°476) 2°495] 2°459) 2°379| 2°408| 2°380| 2°383] 2°384| 2°350| 2°368| 2°286)
September(/)| 6°866) 6:91c} 6790) 6°716) 6°633) 6684) 67663) 67575) 6515) 6°560) 6-509,
October ...... 2°198) 2'202] 2°159] 2°130] 2°137| 2°132| 2°122| 2°r07| 2°098| 2°c86| 1°992)
November ...! 2°482| 2°537] 2°435| 2°345| 2°351| 2°289] 2°250| 2°173] 2°070| 27003] 2°035
December .. | 37144! 3°270| 3°133] 2°945| 2°921| 2°880| 2°820| 2°750) 2°662)| 2° _2°587| 2°610)
(35°924 36804 35°745 34°501| 34°43) 33°790) 33°556 32°735) 32° Lack 32°357| 31 ii

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 201

Taste I. (continued).

Elevation Series. 8 inches diameter.

ft. in.|

| Tso- & | | is : ; F
ft. in.| ft. in.) ft. in.) ft. in.) ft. in. ff. in.) ft. in.) ft. in.) 20 0)
Date, | lated |revel.| 0 2) 0 6| 1 0/ 2 0] 3 0| 5 0/10 0[20 0/5-inch
{ gauge.
1867. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.

| January ()...| 3°671] 3-880} 3°626| 3-514] 3°359| 3°292| 3°207] 3°166! 37063] 3°003| 2°868
February ...| 2°210) 2°278) 2°182] 2°052) 17952] 17966] 1°918) 1°837| 1°757| 17696) 1-710

‘March ...... 3°526| 4°315] 3°930| 3°502| 3°268) 3:208] 37191] 3°191| 3°104| 2°785] 3°300
SApri! <........ 3°343| 3°354| 3°328] 3°228) 3:225} 3°194] 3°145] 3°059] 27968] 2°935| 2°866
Silay ......... 1°832| 1812) 3°817) 1°793| 1°789) 1°777| 1°771| 1°764| 1°750| 1°742] 1°640
dune ....... .-| 2°245| 2°243] 2°235] 2°197| 2°187| 2°186| 2°169| 2°183) 2°125| 2°115] 2°c00
ens... 3°783| 3°691| 3°736| 3°686] 3°684) 3°680) 3°678) 3°654) 3°615| 3°601) 3°404
August ...... 3°078| 3°056| 3°054) 2°994) 37019) 2°993) 3°003] 2°995| 2°967| 2°955| 2°883
ae --| 1°843] 1°813] 1°840] 1°799|] 1°793} 1°782| 1°781) 1°774| 1°748] 1°775| 17631
| October .. 2°899) 2°913| 2°898| 2°871| 2°862| 2-832) 2°815) 2°786| 2°755) 2°717) 2°657
| November . 1°324| 1°317| 1°275| 1°264| 1°266| 1°261| 1°247| 1°218] 1°209] 1°192| 1°130)
| December ...! 1-810! 1840] _1°843|_1°730| 17670] 31°G2c}_ 17578) 1°56c|_ 17535) 17530] I°51C
eo 31-764) 30°630| 30°074| 29°791| 29°503] 29°187| 28°596| 27° 986) 27°599

REMARKS.

(a) 1863, November. 20 ft. 8 in.-gauge, 4 in. out of level till 14th.

(6) 1864, May. Level, 2in.and6in. Collected alarge quantity of dew between 12th and 2st,
_ (e) 1864, October. Level, 2in.and Gin. Very troublesome with leaves.

_ (d) 1865, January. Intense frost on 29th, min. 6°. Burst all the elevation-gauges from “2 ft.”
upwards ; they were all frozen up from 24th to 29th, and melted on the latter day. The “level”
and “ 2in.” were buried in the snow.

_ (e) 1865, February 17th. Impossible to measure the three lowest gauges accurately, they being
juried in the snow.

_ (f) 1865, July 7th and 8th. Conducting-pipe of 10-ft. gauge leaked: the total measured was
577 in.; and it is calculated that the loss was *140 and ‘110, which has been added to prevent a
break in the serics.

') 1865, October. “ Level” and ‘2in.” Very troublesome with leaves.

- (A) 1866, October. Pipe of 20 ft. 5-in. gauge found to leak slightly and repaired; 0-45 added
to September fall, being the computed loss.

_ (i) 1867. Level and 2-in. gauges buried under snow; the amounts measured were 7-880 and
7626, from each of which 4 inches has been deducted.

Taste II].—Ratio of Rain collected at various heights to that at 1 foot.

Elevation Series. 8 inches diameter.

/ isa: | | ft. in,

| | gauge.

/ | | |

seodoaee we | 1102 | 1°c2 | 1°00 | 1°00 | 3co | -99 | *98 | -97 | °96 "93
coaene s++ | CO | 1°00 | 1700 | I'00 | 1°co | *98 98 | OT Ww s94n | gz
ees: se) | 103) | VOzZ | ror | 1700} "99: || “98 || 97 | "06 | sg6)) | 0g
pci «-- | 17eg | 1°08 | 1°03 | 1'00 | "98 | -97 | 96 | *94| *96| ‘go
cance --+ | 1108 | 108 | 1:06 | 1°co | '97 | ‘95 | “94 | °92 | ‘on | gasea.
Beteiel isis «+ | 1°044)-1°040) 1°020 1000) 988 "974 ona "952 946] *904
|

202 REPORT—1870,

Taste IL, (continued).

Elevation Series. 8 inches diameter.

ft. in
eee ae ft. in.|ft. in. ft. in,|ft. in.{ft. in.|ft, in./tt. in,|tt. in.| 20 0
we level, Uevel.| 0 2}06]/10/20/30] 50 {10 0 [20 O {65-inch
; gauge.
1864.
January ......... wee | TOSM(MAOSsta"ag VT:00 | 971] “96 | “oA | 792 1 etox “90
February ...... 6 | Reuse G7 WTGo | 499°) “97 | “Obi Moz He on 87
March %..:5:.4. é'| To6ahito6 |ae2 T2660 | “98)} “97! | 94) | soe Y cO5 "92
cjg) OM sa ara Hae ee arog Mi IfozMimrao | T'Go | “GOR! “98 1 977) OGM O5 93
Mays. Asset... he | HO3 |. 1°03 \/it-o4. |/T"°0o | “99 "| “98 || 97 | “OG4 POR "92
WuNE TA. geese Been || 2°OAL | °O2 Tor || r°Go. | "98 4! “97 1h 96") “on imcog 38
CAD es esone ance *99 | I°00 | "99 | 1°00 | “98 | ‘98 | "95 | “95 |] “90 86
August %........ +. | 103 | I7oz | *99 | Ico | *98 | “97 | °95 | “94 | “92 86
September ...... ss. | £°O4 | T°00 | 1°02 ||\T-00 | “99 } “97 |' *96°} “o4r | Ox 87
October ......... =» | 102 ror iit*oo0 |T-co-| “98 || 98° |" «97 | *968| igs 91
November ...... sre | POOR |IOS I Tror | Tr00 7O8 || "97" |" -g6') “oseheced 89
December ...... pen EiOA O39 (trot |r 'co. | -"O8 || sob It Ooze soca esos go
Mean “.:...:... 1°044) 1°033] 1-017, 1000) *983) “972|/ “958) *944/ “924) "893
1865. —- -) - - = = =
January ......... sant CoM ap IO FO2 A 2:90.) 90 2 (cor. | S874 =ago 89
February ...... sie) | EG. |, T°20.4|T-O341 00 || “o7 ||| 296: | 90) soo g mom 87
IMEC Iepeesaeee vee |) eT2e 2708 4 1:02. | E00.) 97.) cO7 | aco5al\e toga mcom go
April sop «. 5/00 I'o2 | 1°07 | 1°05 | ror | 100 | *99 | “99 | “97 | "97 | “95 ye)
INEAY) feesceescntar 1°03 | 7°05 | 102 | Ico | 1°00 | 1°00 | I'00 | °98 | 96 96 92
DITO oev ic scpnnns Kan | tox 4) 1760. | oo | T:o9n) T09),| T-60 |) 99) 398. ia com 93
OULY, assis <2 .n40 104. | 1°03 | 1°03 | 1°01 | 1°00 | I'00 | I'00 | “gg | “98 | “94 96
August ......... I-02 | 102 | 1’0r | 1°00 | 1°00 | 100 | F700 | ‘99 | “99 | ‘97 95
September ...... 98 | roo | 1°00 | *94 | T°00 | x07 | 1°18 | Tar | 118 | 12 33
October ......... Tor | ror | Tor | r°00 | 1°00 | 1700 | “99 | -*98 | “98 | °98 95
November ...... 1°03 | 1°05 | 1°04 | ror | 1°00 | “98 | “98 | *96} “94 } *94 "92
December ...... I'o2z | 1'e9 | 1°06 | 1:03 | T:00 | 97 | “97 |..°95 | .°93.]. “95 gi
MVEA scare 1°063] 1°050} 1°006| 1°000| *988|) “997| “978| °968| -g6z| ‘gti
1866. —— =; — —-|——_-|——-
January ......... 117 | 1°26 | 119 | 1°08 | 1°00 | *g9 | or | “95 | “92 | °94 "92
February ...... 1:05 | 10g | 1°06 | 1°03 | 1°00 | “99 | ‘97 | “93 | °93 | “92 | ‘90
March. .s55tva0s 1:06 | 106 | 1°05 | 1:02 | 1°00 | "99 | *95 | *92 | "94 | °97 *gI
ADIL conaeyeace += 1:06 | 1°08 | 1°05 | 1:02 | 1'00 | 1700 | -99 | °96 | °97 | -97 93
WWetyooimiesitoaeecckas 1°05 | 1:07 | 1°04 | 1°00 | 1°00 | I-00 | 100 | “98 | *96 | “96 “88
SMO ene tcaeese. « 102 | 1°03 | TOI | ‘99 | I-00 | 1°00 | 1:00 | “98 | 97 | °97 "95
SULLY, ahs si cbas st 1°03 | 1°04 | 2°02 | -g9 | 100 | 1°00 | 1°00 | 1°00 | *96 | 99 796
AMIBUBL, ese5.02 « 1°03 | 1°04. | 1°02 | “99 | 1°00 | “99 | ‘99 | “99 | “98 | °98 95
September ...... 1°03 | 1°03 | 1°02 | 1°00 | 1°00 | t700 | Ico | *g8 | “98 | “98 97
October ......... 1°03 | 1°03 | 1.0L | I-00 | 1:00 | 1°00 | ‘99 | *99 | “98 | °98 93
November ...... T°o6 | 1°08 | 1°04 | 1-00 | 1°00 | “97 | *96 | *g2 | “88 | “85 87
December ...... ro8 |1°12 | 1°07 | ror | 1°00 | “99 | °97 | *94 |] ‘gt | °88 "go
Mean “abe 1'056| 1°078| 1°048| 1'011/ 1000] °993| -986| *962| *948| 949] 923
1867. - = ~ -— —- -—- ——-
January ......... tog | 1:16 | 1-08 | 1-05 [100 | -98 | -95 | *94.|] “ot | “89 | 2°85
February ...... rng | 127 | 112 | 105 | reo] aor | 98 | -94.| +901) -87 “88
Mare Serncet.' ros | 1°32 | 1°20 | 1°07 |'I700.| -98 | -98 | -98 | “95. | “Sgn emton
aoe Maman anaes 1°04. | I'04. | 1°03 | T00 | 1°00 | “99 | ‘98 | *95 | “92 | ‘Or 39
IMIG, Rewciecteces 1°02 | 1or | 1°02 | 1:00 | 1°00 | 99 | *99 | *99 | *98 | -97 "92
eMC! - oscc essen: 1°03 | 103 | 1°02 | ror | r'00 | 1°00 | *99 | I°00 | “97 | *97 “gI
DULY Ret sewe vets 1'03 | 100 | 1°OI | 00 | 1°00 | 1-00 | T'o0 | *99 | °98 | “98 “92
August ......... 1'oz | I'or | 1°01 | *99 | 100 | "99 | *99 | ‘99 | *98 | “98 "95
September ...... !1°03 | Tor | 1°03 | 1°00 | 1°00 | T°00 | *99 | “99 | “98 | “96 “gl
October ........: TOF HilsO2 | OT | 1°GO | FOG") **99°| “o8"| “o74) “oom =g5 93
November ...... 1°05 | 1°04 | 1'0r | X00 | 00 | Ico | *gg | “96 | *96] “94 "89
December ...... 1°08 ||(17EO.|T21O.| Tro4. || Too. |! F971 -O5)|" 984 Ozu eros “go
Mean ......... 1°051| 1°076| 1053] 1°018| 1:000| 992] *981| “969) “951| 933) 913

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES, 203

Taste IIT.—Ratio of Rain collected at various heights to that in “ pit gauge,”

Elevation Series. 8 inches diameter.

ft. in.

Dike ee ft. in./ft. in./ft. in./ft. in./ft. in.ift. in./ft. in./ft. in.} 20 0

i level Level!0 2/0 6/1 O}2 O/3 O}]5 O10 O20 O}5-inch

> gauge.

1865

ojo! ( egsegeasee Moots |t:02 | 99) | -98: || “97. |, "97.18 795, | 795 |) #935 sos
WVBR Ye sak hitne 250. |*1-Q2),|) 99.) “97. || °97 | *917,| “OF 95) “O4N I" F93).|\ “9D
BRS Rede eS.. 4s Go| T:00%)/) *99)/'5799. |e "99, | "99 | *2991) 207") *97--|\-796 |" tHe
Tol aa HiGo \|\T°O0.) 99.1 "97 | "96, | “oF | com) g90.)) 94.) coral 98
August ......... EOO. | 200) “9g | “gee| “98 | 98.) “98Nli"O7)| “96. l> toss! 1498
September ...... 1°00 | T'02 | 1°02 | *95 | 102 | 1r0 | rar | 114. | 1°20 | 114 | 84
Wictober ........- 1°00 | I°00 | 1°00 | *99 | *99 | *98 | “98 | ‘97 | °97.] °97 | °94
November ...... Too | Loz 41°60 || "98 |"*97 || “951 °"95 |) 793 | “Or | =or || 39
: December ...... 100 | 1:07 | 1104 | 1:02 | ‘98 | °96 | °95 | "94 | "91 | *93 | “9°
1'000| 17020] 1°004| 982] *982| *986) *997| °976| -972| 95 *90

1866. pa a : ep ees Wee Bei : Z aes =
January .........) 1°00 | 1°08 | r-or | ‘92 | ‘86 | “85 | *86| °81 | *79 | *80] “79
February ...... 1°00 | 104. | t'or | *98 | "95 | ‘94 | °93.| *89 | °88 | °88 |] °85
Wiarehi <<7...... HOO) Grows os | “o7 | Fos) |) od gos) 370). “S9.|"coe) |ceo
BEPEUL genicoeses-s: LOO" 1:02 (eeog?| "964 *o4.4) “gail! 29g I) <gth |} *g2 "| 92 |, -*387
VERY) caccasenssse Tool To20) “99.295 1 “95 | “o5.) Pone| soge| “ora Sonal eran
MTEC seccsss'resse T60) | tar |) “gg |) “97 |= "981-98 | gS), “gh! “95.4] =95%| 9293
BULLY ie socvscons= ys Leow OE || <99,| 396.) 297.) 398)| 597 | °972\*94 | <96'||_ “88
AUBUSE ..4...... L'00, | Tot] *99,| «96,| %97,| *96-|) 96). “9G! *95, | “964-92
September ...... roo | ror | “99 | °98 | °97 | “97 | *97 | °96| *95 | *96| 95
October ........- Moo | -oo4| "68. so7=|| 97") oma om) “OG | “os. Ccoc ll sem
November ...... Edo) |te2 | 938") “95 |) “os | “oa. Som tT. “Se | Sah -"em 82
December ...... I-00_| 3°04..| 1'co | .“94..|_°93,,|_ 292 .|.790 | 87" | °8'5 |p 8ar I sag
1'000) 1'023| “989| 959) “949| °943| °936| “914| ‘go1| ‘go4| “871

1867. = ~——-|- —— —-— —_—
January ......... 1°00 | 1°06 | "99 | *96 | ‘91 | ‘90 | *87 | *86 | °83 | "82 | °78
February ...... TOG /e0703 4),-°99, |.- "OS Wp FOS. eo SH aS A les 3. Ai iSO. | Gene. | S77
BRED fresne +0 ECOn| 0-29.) 0°10. co9m|. 193) 9k.) OE |. O8|, 88h heroes
April ............ roo | 100 | r°00 | *97 | “96 |] °95 | "94 | ‘92 | “89 | °88 86
BVIAY) ccoscesesss. too | 99 | “99 | “98 | *98 | 97] °97 | °96 | 96] -95 go
PIG! coe csecies E'OOn | TG04|)100"|) “98 |) "97> “G77 1) <97"|) °97) |. “95 sow 89
BY oes... 0200. too | "98 | ‘99 | .°97 | °97 | °97 | *97 | *96 | *95 | °95 90
August ......... 100 | ‘99 | -99 | °97 | °98| °97 | ‘97 | ‘97 | °96| °96 94.
September ...... Gon) 98) | F00 | “98 | “97 4| “97 | “97 | “o6:! “oR: -9a 89
October ......... 1°00 | I'00 | I°00 | "99 | ‘99 | ‘98 | *97 | °96 | *95 | “94 92
_ | November ...... roo | -99 | 96] *95 | *96] "95 | 94] °92 | ‘91 | *90} °85
| December ...... TFOO) | Tozs|px'o2 ||| "90 || *92, | “90 | “87, “86 || “Sil “Ssulcas
1'000| 17022] 1004} *969) °952| °944| °935] °923! *907| “890] °873

204 REPORT—1870.,

Tantz 1Y.—Amount collected in each gauge yearly, 1863-67, Castle House,
Calne, Wilts.

Elevation Series. 8 inches diameter.

| ft. in
a ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in| ft. in. | ft. in. | fe. in. | 20 0
Tevel Level.| 0 2 |0 6/1 0/2 0/3 0/5 © {10 0/20 0 | 5-inch
. | gauge.
>i
in. in. in. in. in, in. in, in. in. in. | in,
Part of 1863../...... 13'334 "13'291| 13°065| 12°891| 12°784| 12°635 | 12°509| 12°343 | 12°297 11-798.
1864..]...... 21'645| 21°338| 21°040! 20°687| 20°316| 20°086 19°838| 19°544| 19°166| 18-548
TSG, 8 Eotoaste 32°289| 31°971| 30°755| 30°426| 29°S05 | 29°77 29°449| 28°905| 28°879) 28:091
|
1866..| 35°924| 36°804| 35°745| 34°501| 34°043| 33°790 33°556 32735 | 32°266 32397 | BL097
1867.. 31°569 | 32°512| 31°764) 30°630| 30°074| 29°791| 29°503 | 297187 28°596 | 277986 | 27°599
| |
Total 1863-67 |...... 136°584 |134° 109 |12g9'g91 |128°121 6486 vas657 378 rars4 {ais 117°633

Ratio of the values in Table IV. to that at 1 foot.

| te | | ft. in.
Dat. 7 em ft. in.ft. in.ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.|ft. in./ft. in.) 20 0
oe level, Level.|0 2/0 6/1 0/2 0/3 0/5 O|10 O20 O15-inch
ie | | gauge.
a ea ee See Ronee Se Ee See
| Part of 1863...) ...... 1°03§) 1°031| 1°014| 1°coo| “992! “980. "971| °958| 955) “916
1864 ...)...... 1'046| 1'032] 1°017] 1°000] *983/ 971) *g6c| *946| °926| °897
1865...) ...... | 1061] 1051) 1°0r2) 1°coo} *g80| -g82| -968} °951| *949| °923
1866 ...| 1°055) 1'082) 1°050] 17013! T°0co| *993 "986 *962) °947) “950, ‘928 |
1867 ...| 1°050/ 1'081| 1°056| 1-018) r-000! *990) 981) '970) *951| *930, ‘918

Motal Be. to Meco: 1°067) 1047 rors, 17000] *988 *982| 966! “950, 943) “919

Ratio of the values in Table IV. to the pit gauge.

W866 ioe .3-. 1'000| 17025] °*995 -961| 948 ‘941 935) “912 “898 ‘gor, “880
1867......444) 1-009] 17033| 1007} °970] ."952) “944) °935| “924 "9c *887| °875
Mean aod 1-000] 1028 1'0O1 966, “950 943 “935| 918 “902 894 “978 |
: = u | #

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 205

TaBLe V.—One-foot Ratios, grouped according to months.

Elevation Series. 8 inches diameter.

is / | ft. in
= ft. in.'ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.|ft. in./ft. in./ft. in.|ft. in.| 20 0
piste. lated Levelg 9/9 Gi1 0/2 0/8 0/5 O|l0 0/20 0|5-in.
evel. | | | | gauge
Bis a En ee 5 eee) ee | al a Mie t Gls 2B ole
| ie alte]
1864, January ...) ... ‘108 jr08 i103 too | ‘97 | *96 | ‘94 | "92 | ‘gt | ‘90
1865, - scefaeers, TRUE) jteMopelao2si | TGOF |»sgoy ||) :924 )/#<gR 4/87 ierooN Esa
HEG6, > ,, »..| 197 |126 |re1g |1708 j1700 | *99 [xox | “95 | ‘92 | -*94 | "92
PSB T ys ss] 109 |116 |r°o8 [105 |1:co | -98 | :95 | -94 | 791 | “89 | “85
1G jE°152 jer43 1045 I000 | *960) *960| *935| "905 | “g10 390
1864, er a. [Err [1°08 {1°07 t700 | “99 | °97 | 95 | “92 | (9 87
1865, 7 w+ EIQ [1°20 |T'03 BE co | ‘97 | 96 | °96 | ‘90 | ox | 87
1866, 3 «| 1705 | 1°09 [1°06 103 [1'00 | "99 | *97 | °93 | °93 | “92 | *g0
US er w+] 1°93 |t'17_|1r12z_ [105 |x00 |rror | 98. | -94 | *90 |.°87 1°88
Mean ......... we |E'I4O [W115 |1°045 |t-oco| "990! 970| *945| "912, “903 “880
1864, March ...... | ++. jf'06 j1°06 |1'02 |100 | *98 | -97 | °94 | *95 | ‘95° | “92
Le) ee |... |x°r2 jxo8 |1°o2 |r'co | *97 | °97 | °95 | °93 |,"94 | :90
USUCS" ore 1°06 |1°06 [1°05 [1702 |1'co | “99 | 95 | “92 | °94 | °97 | “92
Se Riise xs clos os 108 [1°32 [1-20 |1'07 |1'00 | ‘98 | *98 | 98 | -95 | °85 [1-04
Mean! 5.2222... w+. [E140 |r'eg8 |1°033 17000 | “980 “968 | *948| 943) 928} “935
1864, April ...... wave |1FO304|E-O2 00. |1'00 99 | ‘98 | -97 | ‘96 | “Oe eos
1865, ease I'02 |1°07 |1'0§ |Lcr |1‘00 | “99 | ‘99 | 97 | °97 | “95 | *g0
1866, “ele COE 1°06 |1°08 [1°05 |1'02 [1°00 |1°00 | “99 | -96 | 97 | 97 | °93
EOiae? Gi Saves T'oq |I'04 [1°03 |1700 |1'00 | “99 | “98 | “95 | *92 |."91 | ‘89
Mean’ :..2.....: s+ O55 1038 1008 1-00 | “993| 985) “963 | “955 “945 | “913
1864, May......... w |103 |103 {1°04 |1°00 | “99 | “98 | ‘97 | -96 | 95 | “92
a 1°03 |1°05 {1°02 |1°00 |I*00 |1°00 |1'00 | ‘98 | *96 | *96 | ‘92
ESOP a odccecscs | I°O5 |1°07 |1°cq |1°00 |1"00 |I"00 |1°00 | “98 | -96 | °96 | -88
MAGE, .phlvosd. 4.52 1°02 |I‘or_ |1'02 |1°00|1'00 | “99 |.°99 | "99 | *98 | *97 | ‘92
Mean ........./ ... |1040 |1-028 FO10 |1°000 ) “995 | *993| *980| *965| “g60} -g10
1864, June......... .. ltrog [rez [102 |1"00 "98 | 97 | 96 | ‘95 | -93 | °88
- "(5 | ror|ror |1'co {z'00 |1°00 |r‘00 i100 | "99 | "98 | “97 | °93
05 ..{ 1702 |1°03 |I"01 | “99 |I°00 {1°00 |1°00 | “98 | ‘97 | *97 | °95
eis fo es... see|_1703 |1'03 [02 [ror [100 [100 | ‘99 |I°co | ‘97 | "97 | ‘9x
MVRCHTIN S25... | «-- |1°028 {1-013 1005 |T"000 | "995| *990} “983 | *968| *960| 918
1864, July... oe ee | 99 ‘1-00 | "99 |I'co | "98 | 98 | “95 | *95 "90 | *86
5, Gee | Kog 1°03 [1°03 [ror [1°00 |t"00 |1'00 | ‘99 | “98 | ‘94 | *96
eee I'03 |1°04 |t02 | "99 |1°co |t'00 |1'00 |100 | +96 | “97 | -96
Mery. 5202. ..5. | 1°03 |I'co |1°or [100 {1°00 {1°00 |r'00 | ‘99 | 98 | *98 | ‘92
EAN .-2,.0.:| Vrs |t"015 | “998 1000) “995 | “995| “983| °968| *948)| ‘g25
1863, August...... --- |I'02 |r'02 |1°00 |1'00 [1°00 | *99 | “98 | 97 | “96 | -93
Hee *j, .s....| pea tOge|t-oz8 1 "99% |I°00 || *g8—|""97 || -95 | on) oomleG
Mepa, ~,, ...... I'02 |1"02 |1ox |1'00 |1"00 |r°00 |1°00 | "99 | ‘99 | ‘97 | ‘95
a 1°03 1°04 |toz | ‘9g |1'00 | “99 | ‘99 | “99 | *98 | *98 | *95
OO Ge | 702 |r-ot |ror | "99 |t°00 | “99 | "99 | "99 | 98 | 798 | -95
MGA Ness 33. -... jr'024 |1ro16 "994 |1'0c0 | “992| “988| *g80) -972} *962]| 928

206

REPORT—1870.

Tape V. (continued).

Hlevation Series. 8 inches diameter.

ft. in.
aie Fn ft. in.lft. in. |ft, in./ft, in.|ft. in.|ft. in. ft. in,|ft. in.| 20 0
: Teva Level.|0 2/0 6/1 O/2 O/3 O}5 O10 0/20 O| 5-in.
$ gauge
1863, September | ... |1°00 |1°00 |1°00 |1‘00 |1‘00 | ‘98 | ‘98 | ‘97 | "94 | *92
1864, 3 was tos, Neco! Ht-o2 Ir:eo | "99 || "97 | <96 9) <o4) | Momeimear
1865, 2 *98|1'°00 |1°00 | °94 |r'0o [1°07 [118 |rrr |118 |xe12 | °83
1866, 4 1103 |1703 |1°02 |1°00 |1°00 |1'00 |1°0o | "98 | *98 | -98 | *97
1867, Fe 103 |1or |1'03 |1'00 |1‘00 |1'00 | ‘99 | ‘99 | ‘98 | °96 | ‘or
Mears atc: w.. {17016 | 1-010 | *992 |1°000 |1°012 |1°024 |1'004 |I'010| 982} “goo
1863, October ...) ... [1°03 |roz |r‘o1 jroo | “99 | 98 | ‘97 | 96 | *96 | °93
1864, ss; ce] ae [PAZ |For |x:00!|r00! | "98° | 798) | 297 || toGmINEOe Max
1865, fF VOI |1or |I*0or |r0o |r‘oo |1'00 | ‘99 | “98 | *98 | *98 | *95
1866, 5 1103 |1’03 |ror {1°00 |r‘0o |1°00 | 99 | “99 | “98 | *98 | *93
1867, fa ror|roz |ror |1‘co |1'00 | ‘99 | 98 | -97 | °96 | °95 | *93
Mean ...s..9... 1'022 | 1012 |1°002 |1"000 | *992| *984| 976| -968}| *958]| *930
1863, November | ... |1'09 |1'08 [1°03 |1°00 | ‘98 | '97 | 96 | *94 | *96 | "90
1864, - 2 [x06 ros |rer! |r%o0! | *98! | s97' | °96: |.593" | sgreslan
1865, a 1°03 |1'05 |I°04 |I°0r |1'00 | ‘98 | *98 | ‘96 | ‘94 | 94 | "92
1866, - 1106 |1'08 |t'04 |1°00 |r°00 | ‘97 | "96 | 92 | "88 | “85 | °87
1867, se 1105 |1'04. [1°01 |1'00 |1°00 | 1°00] ‘99 | *96 | *96 | ‘94 | “89
Mean .ccccvin. 1°064 |1°044.|E"010 |1"coo| *982| 974] *952 30| *920] "894
1863, December...) .... {1°08 |1°08 |1°06 |1'0o | "97 | ‘95 | ‘94 | “92 | ot | *84
1864, 5 teal Sue [E04 |E:0g | |T'OT * 11700! | "98" | %96! [897 1:95 | Goa seo
1865, a $102 |1°6g |T°06 |1'G3) |r°00' | :97° | *97° | 795 | ‘93 | Os |) om
1866, 55 108 |112 |1'07 |1°01 |1'00 | *99 | °97 | 94 | 91 | 88 | ‘90
1867, A HOS |IeLOm| 1200. |I°04. 1700) ||| 97 |) 2o5. || 293%" 19254 aoe iInEES
Mean. ......... 1°086 |1°068 |1°030 |1'000| *975| *960| *946| *926| *918} "890
Taste VI.—Mean Monthly Values deduced from Table V.
(Abstract.)
ft. in.
Date ft. in.|ft. in./ft. in./ft. in./ft. in./ft. in./ft. in.|ft. in.! 20 0
y Level..0 2}0 6/1 0/2 O/3 O}5 O/10 0/20 0/5-in.
gauge.
January ...... 1°152| 1°L13| 17045] 1°000} *g60} *g60} *935| “go5| *gI0) *8ga
February 1°14] I°E15| 17045] 1000] *gg90] *970| *945| *g12| *g03] “880
March......... I°140| 1°098| 1°033] 17000] *g8o| *968} *948) 943] *928] 935
April! jescecans 1°055| 1°038] 1008] 1000] *993} °985} *963| “955| *945) *913
Witty scaascr 1*040] 1°028] 010} 1'0Cc0} “995) *993| *980) °965] *g60) “g10
GhiveS hecbacs- 1°028] 1013] 1°005] 1°000] *995| *990| ‘983| “968| *g60) “918
dtuly. (iecessce T°O15} F015} *gg8) 17000] “g95| “995| °983| *968] °948| *925
August ...... 1'024] 1°06] *gQ4] 1000} *992| “988) *g80| “972! *962] *928
September ...| 17016) 1°010] *g92| 1°000} 1'012| 1°024] 1'004| r'oro| *982| *g00
October ...... 1'022| I°O12] 1002] I'coo} *992| *984) °976| °968] *958) *930
November ...| 1°064| 1044] 1°o10} F'oco} *982] *974) *952| 930] *920) “894
December ...| 1086) 1°068} 1°030| r-000| *976} *960| 935] *905| ‘910, ‘890
1°065} 1048] 17014} T7000] “g89| *983) *965| “950| ‘941) “909

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 207

Tasre VIT.—Mean Monthly Ratios (from Table III.), pit gange=1-000,

Elevation Series. 8 inches diameter.

, ft. in.
OS Breet ft. in.|ft. in,|ft, in,jft. in ft, in.ft, in.ift. in./ft. in| 20 0
: level, |Level.|9 2/0 6/1 0}2 O/3 O 5 Oj)10 0|20 0} 5-in.

peers gauge.

January ...... 1*000} 1°070} I'000] *940| *885] *875| *865| *835| Sro} “8ro} *785
February ...| 1000} 1°035| 1°000] *955) ‘*915| “915; “g00| *860) *840] °825) “810
Mareh...;..<5:. 1°00] I°115| 17030] *980] *g40| *925| “905| ‘890) *885| °855] ‘g00
Paws <..2<.-- 1000] I°023] 1°003] *973] °960] *953| °947| °927] °920] ‘g10] ‘870
LSS | ae 1000] 1°010] *990] *967} *967| *963) *963] °947| °937| °930) “880
BBC csc c.cs.. 1000} 1003] 993} *g80} “9g80} “g8c] *980} *967) “957| “950) “913
July ......... 1000] *997| *99°| 967} *967| *973) “970| *963| °943] °940| *903
August ...... 1000] 1°000] *g90] *970] *977| “97°] °970] *967| °957| °957] “930
September ...| t°000] *995| *995] “980| °979| °970| °970} °960) "950| 945] *g20
October ......] 17000] 1°000} *993| 983] “983) °977| °973| °963| °957| °953| °923
November ...| 1°000} 1-010} *980} *960| “960! “g40} *933) *g10] °883] °873| °853
December ...| 1:000] 1°043] 1°020] -973| *943] °927] °907| ‘890| °870] *867| °853
BGO) A522 5) 6999 "969| "954! “947| 940] “923 9°09) “go1| °878

Tasre VIII.—Monthly Ratios, 1 864—65, grouped according tomean temperature.

Elevation Series. 8 inches diameter.

ft. in.
in. /ft. in.'ft. in.'ft. in.ft. im./ft. in.'ft, in.{ft. m./20 0
0 6/1 0/2 O}38 O}5 O10 O20 O5-inch

on days
with rain.

Jan. 1865...) 111 | 1° I'0o | ‘go
1 NS ed ze I'00 | -'97
eb: 2 Thr ron ir 1'co | °97
Mar. 1864 ...| 1°06 | 1° 1'co | *98
ebraeat bce TF Eon" 1'co | ‘99
ar ore nosh SOS. | ne 100 | "97
T° rE2|er* T'000

Nov. 1865 ...| ros j 1 1'co
Dec. 1864 ...) 1:04 | 1° 1°00
pre Oy, 1) actt"O3 NT 1'00
NOVEL sus seit OG. |x" r'0o
Oct. 1865 ...| ror | 1° ‘00 | 1'00

ss LG64....| 102) | 1° I'co | ‘98

1°033} 1° 1000] *985| 977

Apr. 1865 ...} 1:07 | 1° Ico | “99
Fi cto kta leit I’co | 1°00
.| 1°03 | 1° too | *99
June 1865 ...} r-or | 1° I'00 | 1°00
POO Ac. | 1:04. |r t'oo | “98
Sept. ,, ©...} 1°04 | 1° 1'co | "99
1040] © I'coc| "992| “985) ° : 945] °

Aug. 1864 ...| 1:03 | 1° 2 Tco | +98

a5 MeStotaeaeel lore ae 1’00 | I‘oo

July 1864...] -99 | 1 ; 1'00 | ‘98

me S865). 1-0g) | 1:03 r'co | 1°00

Sapte j3) <2-\.HOO | roo | ° 100 | 1°07 I'il
1014) 17012 1'000 — 1'026| 998

208 REPORT—1870.
Tabty IX.-—-Monthly Ratios, 1864-65, grouped according to
Mean Humidity.
Elevation Series. 8 inches diameter.
| |
Mean | | ft. in.
Humidity Date. ift. in. ft. in.'ft. in. ft. in./ft. in.{t. in. ft. in.'ft. in.|20 0
on days Level..0 20 6/1 02 0/3 0/5 0/10 020 O| 5-in.
with rain. | | igauge
(Sat.=100) |
63°6 = | Aug. 1864. ......... 1703 |r0z | “99 |K‘oo | *98 | *97 | “95. | sg4. I-92 =| 86
LC res | 99 |1'00 | -99 |100 Ree "98 | 95 | 95 | "90 | 86
69°73 jJune ,, ........./1"04 [1°02 |1'02 |1°0O *98 | ‘97 | "961 | tgs SistOg al) a8
715 [Aug 1865 “s,.0..0:: 102 |I'oI [1°00 |1°00 |r‘00 \t700 | *99 | "99 | °97 | *95
718 =‘ |Sept. 1864 .........| I'cq 1°00 1°02 |1'00 | “99 | “97 | “96 | “94 | “91 | °87
72°5 Ways pts,” . omer iae 1°03 |1°03 |1'04 |I'co | *99 | °98 | °97 | °96-| °95 | ‘92
69°4. | 1°025 [7x3 |Tero 1200} "987 978 | 963] 955] 930! “890
| | / /
73°2 Duly LOGI. tenes |1°03_|1°03 |1°cI |I°00 |I"co j1"00 99 98 | 94 | *96
739 MEY ey) eee eee |f'05 [1702 |1°00 | 1°00 [Foo | 1700 *98 | *96 | *96 | "92
74/2 Sept. ,, ae Soe I'oo |1°00 | +94 jlo |x°07 [1°18 jra1 mrs |rrz | °83
pais -~|Man~-* Gasca: 112 |108 [1-02 j1°co | 97 | °97 | 95 | °93 | "94 | “9°
799 1 cngedl Oss, nes eeees| 1106 |1°06 |1-0z |1'00 | *98 | -97 | °94 | °95 | “95 } *92
8c"5,—s|Apr. 1865 ......... 107 |r05 |ror |r00 | °99 | "99 | "97 | "97 | "95 | “9°
76°5 |1°055 1040 T'000 |17000 j1°co2 |t018 | “990/ *995| “977| “995
80°77 1Oct. “1865 ......... |I°OI |I°or |1'00 |I*00 |1*00 | "99 | *98 | 98 | “98 | “95
Sr7 | \Feb. 1864 ....3..;- VIx [108 |1'07 [100 | "99 | “97 | °95 | “92 | "91 | °87
Sie) pi Aprile, w bese 1°03 >|I°c2. [1-00 «|1°co) |} 99 ©} -*98..| “97, 2g eo Saleos
83°7 |Nov. 1865 ......... fies <pttog aitek [1700 4) "98 «)"98..| 20 te
84'1 Oct. 1864 ......... 1'0z |ror |r‘00 |r‘oo | *98 | °98 | °97 | -96 | 92 | ‘ox
85°5 _|Feb. 1865 ..... sen (EIQ |I'20 1°03 1700 | *97_ | "96 | °96 | "go | “91 | “87 | 9
82°9 | 1075 17060 1°018 1-000 9851 °977| *965| 943] 935] *g08] ©
85°56 Noy. 1864. e.....:0. 106 |rros ror |r-00 | °98 | -97 | -96 | -93 | -gt | “89 | J
89° WAN. LSGO sete ene I°1I_ |I°1O |1702 |1°00 | “gO | 92 | “91 | °87 | *g0 | <89
89°6 “h MOGE Cel 8 ro8 |1o8 |1'03 |1'00 | 97 | “96 | “94 | “92 | “91 | “go
906 jJune 1865 ......... I'or |1°00 1°00 |1°00 [1700 |1°co | "99 | -98 | -97 | °93
93°6 Dec. 1864 ......... 104 |t'03 |1"0r |I-co | “98 | "96 | "97 | °95 | 793 | "96
89°7 | propel ras2) ame Pace "966 *962) *954| "930]| *924| -go2

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 209

Taste X.—Monthly Ratios, 1864-65, grouped according to
Velocity of Wind.

Elevation Series. 8 inches diameter.

ft. in./ft. in./ft. in./ft. in./ft. in./ft. in.|ft. in./ft. in. ft. in

Level.|O0 2/0 6/1 0/2 0,3 0/5 0/10 0/200/200

| 5-in.

gauge

January 1865%...... IIT |{'10 |r°0z |1°cO | ‘90 | *92 | -g1 | “87 | *90 | “89
November 1864 ...J1°06 |1'05 [ror |1'co | ‘98 | °97 | -96 | *93 | “91 | ‘89

December 1865 ...|1°0g [1°06 |1°03 j1'00 | ‘97. | 97 | °95 | -93 | °95 | ‘91
March 1865 ...... I'I2 |1'08 |1°02 |1-00 | *97 | 97 | °95 | -93 | °94 | ‘90
February 1864 .../1-r1 [1°08 [1-07 |1.00 | ‘99 | ‘97 | ‘95 | "92 | ‘91 | 87
March 1864 ...... 1°06 [1°06 |1'02 |1'00 | °98 | *97 | °94 | "95 | ‘95 | ‘92

November 1865 ...!1-05 [1°04 |r'or |t"co | “98 | *98 | -96 | -94 | 94 | -92
February 1865 ...)t'19 |1'20 |1°03 [1°00 | 97 | *96 | °96 | ‘go | ‘ox | °87
January 1864...... 108 {108 {1°03 [1°00 | *97 | °96 | ‘94 | *92. | ‘gr | ‘90
December 1864 ...)104 [1°03 |r'or |1°00 | *98 | °96 | ‘97 | ‘95 | *93 | *90

August 1865 ...... 102 |r'or_ {1°00 |1'co |1"00 |1°00 | *99 | "99 | *97 | °95
July 1865 ......... 1°03 |I'03 |1"01 |1°00 |1°00 |I"co | *99 | ‘98 | “94 | °96
June 1864 ......... 10g, |Ioz |1'0z |1°00 | “98 | ‘97 | “96 | "95 | *93 | °88

a ee 1703 |1"c3_ |1"04 |1°00 | ‘99 | *98 | *97 | °96 | “95 | ‘92
aebsenee 1:07, |FO§ |I°OT. |LiCOF) “99 N-oos)| 97) 197. |c95 | "90
teeeeeees I‘or |1¥"00 |I°co {1°00 |I"00 |I"00 | ‘99 | ‘98 | °97 | °93

September 1864 .../1'04 |1°co |1°02 |1°co | *99 | °97 | 96 | *94 | ‘gt | °87
July 1864 ......... *99 |1"00 | ‘9g |I°co | *98 | “98 | *95 | °95 | *g0 | °86
August 1864 ...... 1:03, |¥oz. |/%99),\D700' | 798) )|so7% [1:95 |, 194) Weezuiese
September 1865 ... i : 5

910 REPORT—1870.

EXAMINATION OF

. | 3 =
Height of
ee: COUNTY. Bg pacar
as mas Station. 35 es ab
ae a5 OWNER. ££ Maker’s name. 4 |
S a S Observer. ge E =
o al
1869. feet.
321.| duly 8 BERKSHIRE. XI. | Negretti & Zambra} 9 a.m. | - 190
Englefield House, Reading
R. BENYON, ESQ., MP.
Mr. E. Robinson.
322.| July 8. BERKSHIRE. PPE EX | ATION aes s sbebenvetens g a.m.
Englefield House, Reading.
R. BENY ON, ESQ., M.P.
Mr. E. Robinson.
323.| Aug. 26. DEVON. TE, | Anow. F-s5- sacar eas g a.m.
Manston Terrace, Exeter. /
MISS DYMOND.
Miss Dymond.
324.| Aug. 26. DEVON. X. | Negretti & Zambra) 9 a.m.
The Field, Parker’s Well, Exeter.
THE. REV. H. A. BOX,
_ The Rev. H. A. Box.
325.| Aug. 26. DEVON. X. | Negretti & Zambra| 9 a.m.
Parker’s Well. The Garden.
THE REV. H. A. BOX,
The Rev. H. A. Box.
326.) Aug. 27. DEVON. TIT. | Casella «.... oe 9 a.m.
Clyst St. George, Topsham.
THE REV. H. T. ELLACOMBE.
The Rev. H, T. Ellacombe.
327.| Aug. 27. DEVON. KL || Capella, cnicccsenecet® 9 a.m.
Ash Villa, Budleigh Salterton.
R. WALKER, ESQ., M.D.
R. Walker, Esq., M.D.
328.| Aug. 28. * DEVON. EXIT. | Appa tives. ftenate eee 9 a.m.
Brampford Speke, Exeter,
W. H. GAMLEN, ESQ.
W. H. Gamlen, Esq.
329.| Aug. 28. DEVON. Xe | Toca) ...sscasenresee month-
Brampford Speke, Exeter. ly.
W. H. GAMLEN, ESQ.
W. H. Gamlen, Esq.
330.| Aug. 28. DEVON. TIT. | Negretti & Zambra| 9 a.m. |47
High Street, Exeter. But the
W. H. ELLIS, ESQ. funnel
alone is
outside.
331.| Aug. 28. DEVON. A-BBO lovecssn scams case sss anceh)ceeeneeee
High Street, Exeter. but not
W. H, ELLIS, ESQ. Cae

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES.

IN-GAUGES (continued from

Equivalents of | Error at

last Report).

Azimuth and an-

water. scale-point | gular elevation of
specified in} objects above
Scale- A previous | mouth of rain-
point | Grains. | column. gauge.
in. in.
I 500 —‘oor | 8, Apple 42°.
Bas 990 + oo! N. Vinery 20°.
rg 1500 —‘ool
PA. 2000 — ‘002
a 2490 —‘ool
2 2650 —FOCD ON Wega tae seas ataradas vs
& 3700 —'013
= 3099 F005
“1 500 —'oor | W. House 48°.
2 990 + ‘oor | E. Shrubs 18°.
"3 1460 +'005
T 2460 +'005
‘I I2Io = pOOARN Wsisivacvsuts stress seeenees
‘z 2500 +'003
3 3800 correct.
"4 4980 +'007
5 6300 +003
“I 1250 +:oor |W.S.W. Elms 38°
2 2540 correct. |N.W. House 31°,
i3 8752 004,
4 5000 +'006
a 6250 +:007
1 495 correct, |S.W. Trees 32°,
2 990 correct,
7 |. 2479 +003
4. 1960 +:005
+5 2480 correct.
“I 500 —‘oor |N. House 60°.
2 990 correct. |S. Trees 30°.
3 1480 +roor |S.W. ,, 380°.
“4, 2000 —'003
a 2480 correct.
A 500 +roor |W. House 25°.
He) 1000 +002
3 1499 1005
4 2000 +'004
5 2510 +002
I 1280 =—HOOUMS ile aeles setaens sve algae
a2: 2545 -+'002
32 3980 + oll
71 500 CORTE tan ii teapnsieoplsisicresiaciecsei
2 980 +'004
3 1500 cor ect.
4 1985 +003
as 2525 —'005
oar Ig0o EVOOAM Fileaesccitceys «ces acs art
2 3850 +:006
s) 5949 ‘| -f*oor
"4 7940 correct.
ES 9780 +007

Remarks on position &e.

| Reference
number.

On part of lawn; yery fair position.

Close to No.321. Rather a rough |322.
gauge, mounted on a post.

This gauge was formerly at Albert Ter-
race, Exeter (see No. 86 for parti-
culars). It is now on a lawn, and
nearly level therewith. Isto bemoved
a few feet so as to lessen the angular
elevation of the house. Rather round
rim.

Quite clear in an open field, slo-

ping slightly to S.E.

323.

324.

In garden near edge of lawn, and much
nearer the house than No. 324. This
gauge was formerly at Albert Ter-
race (see No, 84), but the funnel has
been knocked about, and a new glass
provided,

Gauge enclosed in a square box,
placed in a level garden N. of
the church,

Very bad position, but no better |327,
obtainable. Gauge mounted in
an ornamental yase in small
front garden.

On lawn in front of house; very /328.
good position.
Close to No, 328, 329.

On post on roof of observatory |330,
above all surrounding objects.
About 6 ft. of piping leads the
water into a receptacle inside
the observatory.

Near No. 380, but not affected 331.
thereby ; about 1 ft. of tubing is
used with this gauge. (See pre-
vious examination, No. 87.)

912 REPORT—1870.
EXAMINATION OF

Height of
gauge.

Above
sea- |
level.

COUNTY
STATION.
OWNER.
Observer.

Maker’s name.

Date of
examination.
Construction

of gauge.

Keterence
number

Time of
reading.
>
low
fo}
4
o

feet.
155

col
oo
a

Ke}
a
or
3

332.| Aug. 28. DEVON. WL. Aoercie. cateontaes ga.
Exeter Institution.
THE INSTITUTION.
Mr. Parfitt.

B
~
w
s

333-| Aug. 30. DEVON. EMG e| Local’ Sr: ...sceees: gam.|o 3] 125]
Landscore, Teignmouth.
MRS. CLARKE.
Mrs. Clarke.

334.| Aug. 31. DEVON. LTE, | PriyatGoy..ceceeeeee month-| 0 7 | 57
Chagford, Moreton Hampstead. ly.
R. L. BERRY, ESQ.

R. L. Berry, Esq.

335-\Aug. 31. DEVON. TU) TG tetas pacers gam.|6 0} 120

Bishopsteignton. ¥

THE REV. 8S. M. SCROGGS.
The Rev. S, M. Scroggs.

336.| Sept. 1. DEVON. Jeeeneeees Priyater...scasstors ga.m.|Level.| 570)
Druid House, Ashburton.
F. AMERY, ESQ.

FE, Amery, Esq.

337-| Sept. 1. DEVON. VIL \Casartelli 7..c3seeeeeteeee 3 6| Gam
Middleecote House, Isington.
A, LYON, ESQ.
A, Lyon, Esq.

338.| Sept. 2. DEVON. III. | Funnel, Anon. ga.m.| 1 ©
Rose Hill Cottage, Newton Bushell. Glass, Pastorelli.
MRS. HARRIS.

Mrs. Harris.

339-| Sept. 2. DEVON. TIT | Casella
Lamorna, Torquay.
BRITISH ASSOCIATION.
W. Pengelly, Esq., F.RS.

tee eeeaeeeee gam.|o 9 | 205)

340.) Sept. 2. DEVON. DV Erato: beetecki vwoneccn setae cee 30 200
Lupton, Brixham.
Mr. G. Erskine.

341.| Sept. 3. DEVON. III | Glass, Casella.

Fore Street, Kingsbridge. Funnel, Private.
G. FOX.
G. Fox.

water.
Scale- :
me Grains.
in.
oy 500
2 g8o
°3 1500
"4 2000
5) 2500
ai 400
2 780
SE
“4. 1500
5 1960
6 2380
ey, 2750
“- 500
2 1020
Ss 15co
“4 2000
is) 2500
2 234
5 580
ro 1200
I'5 1800
Be 1445
18 2600
°39 5600
oe! 500
~ 97°
3 1480
A 2000
aS 2480
sa 500
2 9g°
3 1499
A 1980
5 2480
a 2870
st 8580
"5 | 14780
£00
979°
1480
1970

ON THE RAINFALL IN TIE BRITISH ISLES.

RAIN-GAUGES (continued).

213

Error at

Azimuth and an-

scale-point | gular elevation of

specified in

previous
column.
in.

correct.
+004
correct.
+'oo1
+:oo1r
+ "019
+7042
+070
+096
+°103
+118
+143
+’oor
— ‘002
+'002
+°003
+004
+:o18
+:048
+066
+:098

—00%
— ‘002
—"002

+ oor
+ 009
+008
+006
+ corr
—‘col
correct.
correct.
+ oor
correct.
correct.
correct.

—'017

—‘oo!
+'004
+ oor
+'c03
+004

objects above
mouth of rain-
gauge.

N.W. Tree 52°.

FOP eee ewe eee enenens

°o

°
<j
172)
fe}
Lo
co

SRR e eee teen ee eet arene

S. Trees 48°,
S.E, Trees 45°.

$.H. Pear 32°,

S.W. Laburn. 70°.
N. House 52°,

Remarks on position &e.

Previously examined in 1863 (sce
No. 88). This gauge is getting
past work, and if the record is
to be continued, a new one is
required.

On lawn, in the best position the
grounds afford.

Observer said he knew his gauge was
wrong, and divided by 1°16, which
brought it right, but it does not; e. q.
*S8+116 = °431 = 2128 ers.; but the

lass holds only 1960, therefore there
is still an error of ‘054. A new and
correct glass has been substituted,

On a post in kitchen garden ; if
nearer ground it would be shel-
tered by trees and shrubs; a few
hundred yards W. of thechurch.

A privately constructed gauge
placed close to a shelving bank.
A new gauge has since been
placed on level ground.

Near a hedge which was about 10°
above the gauge; observer said
he had intended to have it
clipped, and it should be done
at once.

In garden but not at work ; obser-
yations to be resumed forthwith.

On lawn, in best position possible.

eterence
number.

| Ri

332.

333-

334-

338.

In gardens very well placed,

Very flat rim; position obviously
very bad. Recommended that
this gauge should remain in its
position till the end of the year.

349.

341.

Reference
number

342.

343:

344-

345-

346.

347:

348.

379:

350.

351-

.| Sept. ro.

214

Date of
examination.

Sept.

Sept. 3.

Sept. 6.

Sept. 7.

Sept. 8.

Sept. 9.

REPORT—1870.

COUNTY.
Station.
OWNER.
Observer.

|
|

DEVON.
Fore Street, Kingsbridge.
G. FOX.
G. Fox.
DEVON.
Burton, Kingsbridge.

W. BALEWILLE, ESQ.
W. Balkwill, Esq.
DEVON.

Bolt Tail, Kingsbridge.
W. BALKWILL, ESQ.
W. Balkwill, Esq.

DEVON.

Prison Reservoir, Dartmoor.
MR. WATTS.
Mr. Watts.
DEVON.

North Hessary Tor, Dartmoor.
MR. WATTS.
Mr, Watts.

DEVON.
Powder Mills, Dartmoor.
BRITISH ASSOCIATION.
Mr, Henwood.

DEVON.
Mount Tavy, Tavistock.
MISS CARPENTER.

DEVON.

West Street, Tavistock.
T. WINDEATT, ESQ.
T. Windeatt, Esq.
DEVON.

Old Town Street, Plymouth.
A, P. BALKWILL, ESQ.
A. P. Balkwiill, Esq.

CORNWALL.
Port Eliot, St. Germans.
RT. HON. EARL ST. GERMANS.
Mr. Lynch.

CORNWALL.
Regent’s Parade, Penzance.
W. H. RICHARDS, ESQ.

W. H, Richards, Esq.

Construction
of gauge

EEL. | ssscssvasearid sceerevees|paenemins

Maker’s name.

EXAMINATION OF

AIL | Buerow’......20b.
&Isto
month.
11 a Dae dbiast'sa a cane tanthclaaeente I
IVE. | Casellat ...:.sseeees 9 am.| o
1 OS ae eco eee weet) scecseee °
MLL || Casella... meee 9 a.m.) 1
TEL 3} Casella cc.csdeees|heeaeeee I
sehhesaee Anon «.....+00.see.jmonth-| 4
ly.
LUD, || Antonia... -.eeset weekly.!35
Funnel
outside’
roof,
bottle
inside
IV Dimey:ss. <ttieccrees g aim.) 4

IV | Negretti& Zambrajirregu-| 3
lar &

Ist of
month.

of gauge.

Height

+ | Equivalents of
water.
Scale- .
point. Grains
in.
‘7 500
"2 1000

i 4 3 1480
, : *4 2000
M 5:000| °5 2490
Pee 5°03 1 490
5°02 2 980
5°05 g 1460
5:97 es EOFS
M 5042] °5 2440
5°00 oi 500
5°01 2 1000
501 eS 1480
499 “47 2300

M ‘5'002
Be 4°07 nk 500
501 ‘2 1000
4°98 “g 1480
i ‘02 “47 2300

M 4995
500
pg¢
1490
1980
2470
25
250
1250
2510
i 500
2 999
=a 1495
a 1975
23 2455
By 3000
2 5630
cs! 8610
‘4 11370
5 14280
TS ele nfo
*2, 5810

Error at
scale-point
specified in

column.

—‘oor
correct.
correct.
+:oo1
+'co2
+002

+'I20
+"200

correct.
+'003
+'oo2
+'006
+'o1o
—"005
+ ‘002
—*003
correct.
—*002
—‘ol4
—*004,

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES.

AIN-GAUGES (continued).

Azimuth and an-
gular elevation of
objects above
mouth of rain-
gauge.

eee ee eee eee

N. Trees 20°.
E.N.E. Trees 70°.
S. Trees 72°.

Remarks on position &e.

Close to 342, but notin use. Re-
commended that it be moved to
another and more open part of
the garden and compared with
No. 341.

Gauge stands about 1 foot above a
bank running 8. to N., and is
fully exposed.

Gauge in open moorland quite ex-
posed, but concealed from view
by loose stones, among which it
is placed.

Trees have grown considerably
round this gauge since my for-
mer visit in 1863 (see No. 70).
Mr. Watts promised to speak to
the Goyernor on the subject.

Meee seannieraensacrt ; New gauge in the same position

Sennen e eee e eee e eens

N.N.E. Beech58°.
HB. Trees 50°.

N. Trees 55°.

§.E.Workshop20°.
S. Flagstaff 80°.

as No. 71. Quite open.

Gauge not erected at time of visit,
but site was selected, where it
will be very well situated and
daily observations are promised.

In small garden §. of a small cot-
tage by the side of the road to
Dartmoor, about 3 of a mile
from Mount Tavy.

A unique gauge 1 square inch in
area, mounted on a post in a
rather sheltered. garden.

Gauge passes through, and its orifice is
about 6 inches above the flat lead roof
of a large warehouse; the bottle is
supported by a small shelf beneath.
Position very exposed.

Good position in the gardens,

Tn small grass enclosure, rather
shut in by walls; however, no-
thing but the flagstaff rises 30°.

Reference
number.

we
as
is)

343-

3444

345+

346.

347+

348.

349.

350°.

351.

352.

216 nEPportT—1870.
EXAMINATION OF

COUNTY.
Station.
OWNER.

ae
°
<>)
~~
x]
A Observer.

3 ’

& | Maker’s name.
ow

iS)

number.
examination.

Reference
Construction

|
|
|

1869. =| ft. in.] feet.
.| Sept. ro. CORNWALL. Casella, .ccirsecancleaeeeeee o 6 | 150

Penalverne, Penzance.
T. 8. BOLITHO, ESQ.

w
wn
we
<
=
HH

354.| Sept. 11. CORNWALL. XK, | Whitley....2..-acmelsevacnnee 4 02 320?
Sawah, Penzance.
MR. J. SAUNDRY,

Mr. J. Saundry.

355-| Sept. 11. CORNWALL. TT | Casellat. ...tcecuane weekly} 4 0 | 290?
St. Sennen, Land’s End. & Ist of

REV. G. L. WOOLLCOMBE. month.
Rev. G. L. Woollcombe.

356.| Sept. 13. CORNWALL. TIM | Widdell....k..cee g9a.in.| 2 8 | 110

| St. Ruan Rectory, Helstone.

THE REV. F. C. JACKSON.
The Rev. I. C. Jackson.

357.| Sept. 13. CORNWALL. IT | Knight
Helstone.
M. P. MOYLE, ESQ.
M. P. Moyle, Esq.

358.| Sept. 13. CORNWALL. fic Uy) Ani onipa cao tesonenues ga.m.| 6 0 | 235
Antron Lodge, Helstone.
THE REV. H. J. A. FOTHERGILL.
The Rev, H, J. A. Fothergill.

| 359.) Sept. 13. CORNWALL. THE: ) ANON Y jee seds'cs sane. eR sect I 1 | 234
Antron Lodge (Orchard).
THE REV, H.J. A. FOTHER GILL.

The Rev. H. J. A. Fothergill.

Penzance.
THE REV. PREBENDARY ceding.
HEDGELAND,

360.| Sept. 14. CORNWALL. IV | Negrettik Zambraj9a.m.| 3 6 | 185

| |
| 361.| Sept. 14. CORNWALL. ELT 4) Wihitley,..:--apcmee notin} 1 0 | 180
| Penzance. use.
THE REV. PREBENDARY
HEDGELAND,

| 362.) Sept. 17. CORNWALL. (eipesee |)! Wihitley so tonucruee g9a.m.;}2 8] 50

Tresco Abbey, Scilly Islands.

AUGUSTUS SMITH, ESQ.
Mr. Hawkins.

364.| Sept. 13, CORNWALL. Ke.) Wihitley,s. \ sssunss| semen |r 0? 26
Parade, St. Mary's, Scilly Islands.
J. G. MOYLE, ESQ.
J. G. Moyle, Esq.

ON TIE RAINFALL IN TIE BRITISH ISLES. D7
AIN-GAUGES (continued).

Equivalents of | Error at | Azimuth and an-
water. scale-point | gular elevation of
specified in| objects above Remarks on position &c.
previous mouth of rain-

Grains.
column. gauge.

Reference
number

On lawn, very good position, glass
not accessible.

Altitude uncertain, barometer fall-
ing rapidly, and great gale blow-
ing. Funnel lost and gauge dis-
mantled.

Altitude uncertain; see above.
Gauge partly sunk in a bank E.
of the house, within a short
distance of the Land’s End.

correct. |S. Trees 43°. In garden, rather sheltered and be-
+:o03 | W. House 30°. low the level of the surrounding
—‘ool country.

+:co6
+'003 Tare : :

a garden sloping to 8.E. so rapidly
+005 that though the ees is on the ridge
+:008 of an outhouse, it is only 5 ft. above
+:oc9 the garden close to it. The funnel

4 was loose, and much knocked about
+'017 by (I suppose) having been often
+°c14 blown away.
+co11 Gauge in orchard, attached to a
+:025 dwarf post.
+°038
4°53

‘ In field, near 358, clear of all objects.
+'oll
4028 [Wore.—I believe Mr. Fothergill makes
es some mental correction to the read-
+:036 : ings of his gauges, the nature of which
+054 I could not understand. Recom-
; mended to procure gauges of the ordi-
= 1668 E. House 28° nary construction. ]
+:c22 S. Trees 30°.
W. ,, 32°. This and No. 361 had not been
regularly observed for some
\ time; fresh positions were se-
lected for them, and observa-
| tions will be recommenced
ro-1'5 forthwith.
I'5-2°C)
)

N.E. Bank 15°. | In gardens, very good position,
but very flimsy and indifferent
gauge.

8. Gable end 3C°.) Observations discontinued. Funnel lost.
A new gauge hassince been purchased
by Mr. Moyle, and erected on the site
of the old one in small garden in rear
of sa No obstruction except as
noted,

218

number.
examination.

Reference

|
|
|

364.
366.) Sept.
367.| Sept.
368.

Sept.

.| Sept.

.| Sept.
Sept.

371.

372.| Sept.

373-| Sept.

374.| Sept.

23.

24.

REPORT—1870.

COUNTY.
Station.
OWNER.
Observer.

CORNWALL.
The Battery, Penzance.
METEOROLOG. COMMITTEE.
Mr, Senior,

CORNWALL.
Tehidy Gardens, Redruth.
« CAPT. BASSET,
Mr. Mills.

CORNWALL.
Kimberley Place, Falmouth.
LOVEL SQUIRE, ESQ.
Lovel Squire, Esq.

CORNWALL.
Coast-Guard House, New Quay.
MR. TREGIDGO.

Mr. Tregidgo.

CORNWALL.
Penarth, Truro.
N. WHITLEY, ESQ.
N. Whitley, Esq.

CORNWALL.
Royal Institution, Truro.
THE INSTITUTION.
Mr. W. Newcombe.

CORNWALL.
St. Agnes.
MR. J. OPIE.
Mr. J. Opie.

CORNWALL.
Strangeway’s Terrace, Truro,
C. BARHAM, ESQ., M.D.
C. Barham, Esq., M.D.

CORNWALL.
Trevarna, St. Austell.
W. COODE, ESQ.
W. Coode, Esq.

CORNWALL.
Castle Stret, Bodmin.
CAPT, LIDDELL, R.N.
Capt. Liddell, RN.

CORNWALL.
Castle Street, Bodmin.
CAPT, LIDDELL, R.N.
Capt. Liddell, R.N.

iil

Vil

III

XII

EXAMINATION OF

Maker's name.

Time of
reading.

Negretti& Zambra| 8 a.m.

seen een ennes

Whitley

‘Liddell

Casella

Liddell

eee eeseewees

See eee eee ee eee

month.

10a.m.

g a.m.

9 a.m.

g a.m.

Above
ground.

ft.
I

g a.m.

seen neeee

g a.m.

Height of
gauge.

Above ©
sea-
level.

in.| feet.
2 60

RAIN-GAUGES (continued).

Equivalents of | Error at
water. scale-point
we specified in
Pea naira. revious
point. | “™* pa ie is
in.
—"003
—'008
5°04 ‘I 520 —*'002
5°03 “42 2040 -+'020
510 | 113 | 5630 +024
5°09 1'60 8080 +'o12
M 57065
Toz0 sq.) 05 1210 +'003
1006 | ‘09 | 2160 +006
I0'00 "I 2510 +°003
10°20
| Miorrs
6:00 ‘Io 690 —'003
6:00 "2-1 680 —"005
602 *3-—2| 700 —"002
| _—- 600 4 3 | 73° +"002
M 67005} °5~"4) 700 —‘oo2
i1-30 a: 2550 correct.
11'27 2 5150 = 5083
11°30 3 7539 +'004.
I1‘41
M11°320
Io‘losqr.| *! 2500 +'004.
1o1z | “2 5050 +006
10°34. | °3 7480 | +013
ES tO"r's
M10'178
11°16 bp fo) 2450 +'oor
Wms | °15 | 3655 +"002
11°30
_ 11°06
M11°168
805 ‘O-"I) 1300 —*002
B00 | *1-3/ 2530 +oor
fs) 255° ||. —-003
*5—6| 1300 —"002
*6—"7| 1320 —"004.
oa 495 correct,
2 990 —‘oo1
a 1490 —"oc2
"4 1970 correct.
5 2460 +'oor
‘I 1230 +004.
"2, 2550 +'oo1
ag 3710 +010
5 6540 —‘oll
t 500 correct.
oF 1000 correct.
a] 1500 correct.
"4 2000 correct.
ar 2500 correct.

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES.

Azimuth and an-

gular elevation of |

objects above
mouth of rain-

gauge.

Pee eee ener e ee eteeeeeeee

S.E. Beans 58°.
8.W. 54°,

”

teen eee ene ten eeee

W. House 20°.

S.W. Tree 52°.
N. House 48°.

Peete eee ne re ee eeenes

Annem tem eee teneeenas

N.W. Trees 38°.
S.W. Alen

”

W.N.W. Walnut
49°,
T.S.E. House 48°.

219

Remarks on position &e.

|
|
|
|

Standing on gravel in the bat-
tery of the Penzance Artillery
Corps; an open position, but the
gauge has to be moyed when-
ever drill is going on.

Gauge standing loosely on funnel, not
level, and shutin on the south by rows
of beans; the old observer had left,
and the new gardener was not aware
of the importance of accuracy.

This gauge is a very old one inserted in
the masonry of the new observatory
tower built by the Meteorological
Committee. It will not give even the
rainfall on the tower correctly, as its
rim is only an inch or two above the
masonry, and therefore insplashing is
inevitable.

Very good position in the large
garden of the station.

Funnel fits loosely on can, and is
prevented from being blown
away by a large stone placed
in it. Position not good, but
no better available.

Funnel yery old, had been previously
repaired many times, but was bet
to pieces ; recommended thatit shoul
be repaired once more, and recorded
simultaneously with a new gauge to be
placed by its side on the roof.

In garden, E.S.E. of St. Agnes’
church ; fair position, but very
rough gauge. The measuring-
glass had been broken, and mend-
ed with sealing-wax anda cork.

Good gauge, in good position.

Gauge not a true circle, but other-
wise correct. Mr. Coode, how-
ever, decided on haying a new
one as a check,

In garden, in rear of house, fair
position, and the best obtain-
able,

Close to No. 373, upright rim,
and zine receiver.

Reference
number.

w
oO
5

366.

367.

368.

369.

371.

373:

374-

220

Reference
number.
é

|
|

w
“
wn

376.| Sept.

377-| Sept.

378.| Sept.

379.| Sept.

380.| Sept.

381.| Sept.

382.| Sept.

383.| Sept.

Sept.

334.

385.

examination.

Sept.

25.

27,

28.

nerport—1870,

EXAMINATION OF

COUNTY.
Station.
OWNER.
Observer.

CORNWALL.
Castle Street, Bodmin.
CAPT. LIDDELL, RN,
Capt. Liddell, RN.

CORNWALL.
Fore Street, Bodmin.
A, HAMBLY, ESQ.

A. Hambly, Esq.

CORNWALL.
Treharrock House.
I. B, HAMBLY, ESQ.
Ff. B. Hambly, Esq.

CORNWALL.
Treharrock House.
F. B. HAMBLY, ESQ.
I’, B. Hambly, Esq.

CORNWALL.
Park Villa, Endellion.
MISS GUY.
Miss Guy.

CORNWALL.
Treglines, St. Minver.
MR. T. LIDDELL.
Mr. T. Liddell.

CORNWALL.
Guinea Port, Wadebridge.
MR. JORDAN,

Mr. Jordan.

CORNWALL.
Warleggan, Bodmin.
THE REV. D. CLEMENTS.
The Itev. D. Clements.

CORNWALL.
Trevalga Rectory, Boscastle.
THE REV. W. H. JAMES,
The Rev. W. H. James,

CORNWALL.
Lanteglos Rectory, Camelford.
THE REV. J. T. WILKINSON,

CORNWALL.
Altarnum, Launceston.
C. U. TRIPP, ESQ.

Construction.

Maker’s name.

Casella

Liddell

Negretti & Zamhra

Liddell

Sei

Negretti&Zambra} i

Skinner

9 a.m.

8 a.m.

sent eeeee

Height of

gauge.
Abaye!| eae
ground.) Jeyel,
ft. in.| feet.
Io | 338

2 16a) gg6

4 © | 303

2 9 3°93

3, Oa
3.0] 140

2 16.) 24

2 6) 550
o 6] 540

2 6} 493

a
q
:

10°08

To’05 sqr.

Equivalents of

water.
sae Grains.
n.
oB 500
‘2 1oco
3 15co
4 2000
+e 2500
di 1330
22, 2680
‘3 4130
“4 5330
6 7880
tT 1320
2 2590
z 377°
5 6330
or 2550
22) 5210
3 7630
‘4 10210
‘5 12810
oe 2625
az 5085
“3 7620
a5 az 55°
‘I 13co
2 2600
£3 395°
5 6890
*3-"2| 1250
“4-°3) 1250
“5-4, 1255
*6-"5| 1250
*7-"6| 1250
at 1270
“2, 2530
3 3760
“4 5970
25 6280
*I"2| 1370
*2-°3] 1300
3-4) 1290
res) 320
*5-"6] 1300
oh 499
2 975
ss} 149°
4 LNs)
5 2470

Error at
scale-point
specified in

column.
in.
correct.
correct.
—‘oor
—'oor
—‘oor
—"co4
—"009
—'022
—"C15
—"oI4
—~'003
—"ool
+°007
+'co8

Pee weet ee eeeese

+'oor
+'003
+'co2
+*co2
correct.
—"oo2
+°0C3
+005

+°CI§

-++'oo1
+'ocr
—'002
Sey,

+'003
+7003
+'003
+'003
+'c03
correct.
correct.
+'co2z
correct.
+004
—'oo!
correct.
+'oor
—'oor
correct.
+'oo1
+003
—'col
—"oc2

+'cor

Azimuth and an-
gular elevation of
objects above
mouth of rain-

gauge.

S.W,

Tree 22°,

N. House 40°.
W. Trees 32°.

N. House 33°.

N. House 35°.

E.N.E. House32°.
SSE. , 21°
WS.W. 2 39°.

S.W. House 40°.

N. House 25°.

N. House 42°.

N.W. House 30°.
S.E. Tree 25°.

Remarks on position &e.

w
“I
rs

Close to No. 373.

In garden, sloping to N. Rim
of funnel very round, and diffi-
cult to measure.

On lawn, ground undulating.

Near No. 377, but further from
the house; glass inaccessible.

This gauge was used at Roscar-
rock (about 2 miles hence) for
several years. It is now well
placed at corner of carriage
drive.

On grass plot in centre of small
quadrangle.

In small front garden, close to
terminus of the Wadebridge
railway.

On lawn, capital position ; round-
edged funnel.

In small enclosure, in slightly
raised part of large field ; capi-
tal situation.

Observer absent, gauge had been upset,
and no observations taken; the float
(a bung) was saturated and would not
act; corrected it, and it read as per
previous column.

In garden, near the church; good
position.

Reference
number.

377:

378.

379:

380.

381.

383.

384.

385.

222: REPORT—1870.

EXAMINATION OF ©

Height of
auge.

a &p gaug'
Dae Above
Hg | Above | ‘sea.
& © |ground.) jevel,

COUNTY.
Station.
OWNER.
Observer.

Maker’s name.

Date of
examination.
Construction

of guage

Reference
number

1869. ft. in. | feet.
CORNWALL. Negretti&Zambra|...,..... I oO | 410
Hexworthy, Launceston.
H. M. HARVEY, ESQ.
H. M. Harvey, Esq.

w
co
oO
mM
io)
uo]
cr
n
oo
‘a
sal

387.| Sept. 29.} - - CORNWALL. | IV | Carter, Exeter ...)8a.m.| 6 © | 445

Coryton, Lew Down.
MR. T, SYMONS.
Mr. T. Symons.

388.| Sept. 29. = DEVON. TIT | Anon
Sheepstor, Dartmoor.
PLYMOUTH WATER WORKS.
Mr. Shillabeer.

aes ee ga.m.} © 10 | 693

389.| Sept. 30. CORNWALL. X~ | Whitley ............ gam.| 1 0] 760
White Rock, Hingston Down.
CAPT. RICHARDS.
Capt. Richards.

390.| Sept. 30. CORNWALL. TIE | Casella. .......005¢ ga.m.} 3 © | 490
Church Street, Callington, : pre-

DR, KEMPTHORNE, ceding.

Mr. Brown.

391.| Sept. 30. CORNWALL. TEL * || Cagellan....inncaves gam.| I 3] 162

Pentillie Gardens, Saltash. pre-
COL. CORYTON. ceding.
Mr, Edwards.

392.| Sept. 30. CORNWALL. TOU || Amon igi c on sigsege ecient T(Gols ec
Pentillie Castle, Saltash.
MISS CORYTON.
Miss Coryton.

393-1 Oct. 1. CORNWALL. XI | Negretti &Zambra| 9 a.m.' + 1] 375)
Liskeard,
S. JENKIN, ESQ., C.E,
S. Jenkin, Esq., C.E.

394.| Oct, 1, CORNWALL. EL i Daddelli.2. feedtesaelvee sere] 2 6] “977mm

Liskeard. |

S. JENKIN, ESQ., CE.
S. Jenkin, Esq., CLE.

395.| Oct. 1. CORNWALL. X = | Negretti& Zambrajroa.m.| 0 7]| 2707

Catehfrench, St. Germans.

MISS GLANVILLE.
Miss Glanville.

396.| Oct. 1. DEVON. X = | Negretti &Zambra] 8 a.m./26 6 100 |
Gascoyne Place, Plymouth. ph
J. MERRIFIELD, ESQ., F.R.A.S. a)

J. Merrifield, Esq., F.R:AS. ;

BR IN-GAUGES (continued).

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES.

Equivalents of |

Error at
' - water.
eS ie specified in
cae Grains, revious
pone Dee
in. in.
‘I | 498 correct,
2 999° +oo1
I~2 | 2850. | correct:
‘2-3, | 2845 correct.
"3-4.| 2845 correct,
4-5 | 2840 +'oo1
~Mrz2'000| “5-6 | 2890 —‘ool
495 | "t | 49°. | +-00r
e505 "2 980 +002
4°98 3 1460 +006
F 5°93 4 199° — ‘ool
~~ M 57003] °5 24.50 +006
I1'23 "I 2530 correct.
Ersa0 2 5100 —‘oor
11°38 25 6280 +002
11°38
M11'297
page | *2 |. 480 | .-+'003
5°00 2 970 -+-'004.
5:00 | °3 1480 +'co1
499 | “4 1970 +002
M 4995] °5 2480 —"oor
5°00 I 495 correct.
S'or 2 980 +002
5°00 3 1480 +‘oo1
499 | “4 LID) +'007
M 5'000) °5 2490 —‘002
5700 055 295 —"004.
5°00 i
5700
499
Ht 4°998
5°00 ! 480 +'003
Sor 2 950 +008
499 | °3 1460 +005
5700 “4, 1970 +'003
M 5*000] °5 2460 +004.
800 | ‘c—1 1310 —'002
exo) | “I—2 | 1250 +'003
m9o7) | 2-3 1290 correct
$15 | 3-4 | 1300 —"oo1
8055
oz 1290 —"002
“3 2560 —"002
EI 3840 —'003
*4 51co —'003
5 6330 correct
Per 1280 —'oor
2 2580 —'003
Eg 3860 —"004
4 5100 —"002
5 6300 +004

| Azimuth and an-
scale-point.| gular elevation of

objects above
mouth of rain-

gauge.

W.S.W. Green-
house 18°,

Ree reer ert aeeeenne

S.W. Tree 40°.

223

Remarks on position &e,

On lawn, yery good position;
glass broken, only 0-20 of it
left.

Very good gauge, very firmly fixed
in an open garden. ‘

In. garden, in a valley about 3
mile N.W. of Sheepstor church.

..-| In a garden, near the crest of the

BARRO eee Feet eee ee etes

Seen ewer ence ester eeeees

N. Tree 31°.
S. Tree 42°,

N.E. Trees 70°.
S.W. Trees 52°,

N.E. House 30°.
S. Trees 22°.

S.W. House 50°.
W. House 50°. .
N.W. House 50°.

hill; exposed position.

Ina small rockery, in garden, near
the church ; position good.

In kitchen gardens, which slope
towards 8.W.; gauge is in the
flattest part of them, and un-
sheltered.

Old gauge, no longer used. The
funnel has a very round rim ;
only the bottom of the measur-
ing-glass remains,

In garden, clear except as noted.

In kitchen garden, no better posi-
tion available.

On large lawn in front of house};
good position.

Very bad position, on a roof quite
commanded by others, No bet-
ter position on the premises.

Reference
number.

w
co
a

387.

388.

389.

39°.

391.

392.)

393-

394-

395.

396.

224, REPORT —1870.

EXAMINATION OF

a ie P
2..| SS COUNTY. 26, Hei
8 si = 2 28 of gauge.
5.o| 8.8 Btation. = €,| Maker's name
52) 4 E ie z a ;

3 = # server. S °
1869.
397.| Oct. 1. DEVON. MY | Teiddell9... Weccaete
Ivy Bridgo.
DR. LIDDELL,
Dr. Liddell,
1870.
398.) May 5. KENT. XI_ | Negretti& Zambra
Heathfield Lodge, Chislehurst.
F. NUNES, ESQ.
FF, Nunes, Esq.
399, May +. KENT. X | Pastorelli ...

Heathfield Lodge, Chislehurst.
F. NUNES, ESQ.
I, Nunes, Esq.

400.) May 5. KENT. TUL.) Keniehty. 203.4006
Sideup, Foot’s Cray.
MISS BERENS.
Miss Berens.

4o1.| May 5. KENT. TIT | Casella. .tscdseate
Bickley.
G. F. CHAMBERS, ESQ.,, F_R.AS.
G. F. Chambers, Esq., F.R.AS.

402.) May 5. KENT. .. ANON epee ieeos
West Wickham.
REV. J. T. AUSTEN,
Rev. J. T. Austen.

403.) May +5. KENT. X_ | Negretti& Zambra

* Bromley Common.

REV. A. RAWSON.
Rev. A. Rawson.

404.) May 19. SURREY. X | Negretti& Zambra

Pyports, Cobham.

G. DINES, ESQ.
G. Dines, Esq.

405.| May 19. SURREY. XII | Casella ....0...+00
Pyports, Cobham.
G. DINES, ESQ.
G. Dines, Esq.
406.| Juno ro. HAMPSHIRE. X | Negretti& Zambra

Niton, Isle of Wight.
REV, R. C. KEMPE,
Rev, Rt. C. Kempe.

407.| July 25. RADNORSHIRE. XII | Casella ......... ove
Heyhope Rectory.

REV, W. W. GRIFFITH.
Rev. W. W. Griffith.

q ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 225
_ RAIN-GAUGES (continued).

Equivalents of | Error at | Azimuth and an-

water. scale-point | gular elevation of

specified in} objects above Remarks on position &e,
previous | mouth of rain-

gauge.
in.
—‘oor |W.N.W.Apple50°| Good position except as noted.
—‘oo1 Have been informed the tree has
correct. been removed.

HARON

—‘oor .| On side of field, slightly sheltered

—"003 from N., open in all other quar-

+008 ters.

+'007

+007

FOOT | eseveceeessseceeserseeee| Close to No. 398.

correct.

+°005

+*002

—‘oo1

—"002 S.W. Cedar 48°, | Good position except as noted; to

correct. be moved about 100 ft. to N.;
will then be slightly sheltered
from N.E., but quite open to
S.W.

E. House 58°, | Gauge in garden border, funnel

not level, glass inaccessible, as
observer was absent,

geet atta
Huw hd

AEG S

In_ kitchen garden on western
slope, and near the top of a
small hill. - Observer absent,
and measuring-apparatus inac-
cessible.

Well placed in large kitchen
garden.

Clear except as noted ; very open
N.W. Yew 40°. to 8.W.

correct.
correct.
correct. Close to No. 404.
—<G02
—"003
correct,
+003
COLERGE, A... Keceendvasceess Seseas Fair position in small grass en-
—‘oo1 closure.

—‘oor

—"oo2z

+'003

WOTRECEIEs | .ocdusectscceocecwese --| In excellent position in the Rec- |407.
correct. tory grounds.

—OOE

+'oo1

correct.

UPUSHUFUS HUES SHU Stee

Reference
number

408.

409.

410.

411.

412.

413.

414.

415.

416.

417.

418.

226

Date of
examination.

1870.

July 26.

July 26

July 27.

July 28.

Aug. 2.

REPORT—1870.
EXAMINATION OF
8 Height
COUNTY. SS, cm | ice
Station. 22 | Moker’ S sp cee
OWNER. £& aker’s name ee a ae
Soe As ove _
Observer. é 3 & & |ground.| 2°
ft. in.| feet.
RADNORSHIRE. BED) Anons esasssiecdeene gam.) 1 o| 885
Cefnfaes, Rhayader.
MRS. JONES,
Mrs. Jones.
MONTGOMERYSHIRE. Tc CATION we aerate nantes gam.| 1 ©} 950
Ystrad-olwyn-fawr, Llanidloes. Ist
BRITISH ASSOCIATION.
Mr. J. Jones.
MONTGOMERYSHIRE. TILT | Casella: .......sces 2M.) x 0% 522
Dolenog, Llanidloes.
T. F. ROBERTS, ESQ.
T. F. Roberts, Esq.
MONTGOMERYSHIRE. BP 8) Anon. .c...5.. eee: gia... ¢cosee 1400
Dylive, Head of River Clwyedog. Ist of
BRITISH ASSOCIATION. month
Mr. Isaac Jones.
MONTGOMERYSHIRE. NSE PANO. sae ieeocneee gam. 1 0] 550
apel Carno. Ist of
BRITISH ASSOCIATION. month.
Mr. T. Bound.
MONTGOMERYSHIRE. Ty WAMONS cusecesennsaee ga.m.| 1 0] 990
Llwest fawr, Garthbibio. Ist of
BRITISH ASSOCIATION. month.
Mr. Joseph Jones.
MONTGOMERYSHIRE. L,\ Anonfidvetsc..saeae- ga.m.| o 8 | 1740
Head of River Vyrnwy, Llanwddyn. Ist o
BRITISH ASSOCIATION, month.
Mr. John Gittens,
MONTGOMERYSHIRE. Te i Atnony. Seaeaeens eee] Qam.) O 7 1 7g
Llanwddyn. Ist of
BRITISH ASSOCIATION. month.
Mr. David Pugh.
SUFFOLK, ENT, hi Coacllairs.+ pace gam|1-o| 2m
Barton Hall, Bury St. Edmunds.
SIR CHARLES BUNBURY,
Mr, Allan,
SUFFOLK. XII | Casella ..........6. gam.) 1 6} 12
Ixworth, Bury St. Edmunds.
REV. W. STEGGALL.
Rev. W. Steggall.
SUFFOLK. X | Negretti& Zambra| Irre-| 0 8] 1
Barningham, Bury St. Edmunds. gular.
J. FISON, ESQ.
J. Fison, Esq.

rr! or rnd Ce eee r es

eee ees Cece errr

UFBS HUY S HOP

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 220

_ RAIN-GAUGES (continued).

Equivalents of
water.

Grains.

520
1020
1500
2050
2480

495
1000

1500
1990
2490

500

980
1460
1950
2450
1350
2570
375°
5040
6300

Error at | Azimuth and an-
scale-point | gular elevation of
specified in| objects above
previous | mouth of rain-
column. gauge.

Remarks on position &e,

Reference
number

in.
—‘oo5 |E. Tree 35°. In garden sloping from the house |408
—'007 |W. Tree 38°. towards the S., perfectly open
—"004 from E.8.E. to W.S.W., and
—‘ors fairly so from other points.
—"003
cylinder In field about one mile E. of Llan- |409.
true and gurig Church; very good po-

rod correct. sition.

—"oo1 Gauge recently removed here from |410.
+:004 Broomceliff. Its future position
+:004 will be on flat ground at the
—*002 bottom of a rather narrow yal-
+002 ley.
Rod) Cora}! 25 -deccecsace +...| Gauge could not be found in the ab- |g yy,
rect sence of the observer, who failed to
7 meet me. The ground is, however,
level table land well suited for a gauge,

and asit and the four following gauges
were all made together, I have no
doubt it is correct.

gaugea true

gauge a true

ney oa Tn ease ee eee tee nee eeeees In field near Carno railway sta- |412-
isi ripe tion ; good position.
cylinder.

IRON COR] Hi ac.secectadasenecene On summit of hill above Garth- 413.
rect and bibio. It is stuck in a bank,
giving it rather an extreme ex-

cylinder. posure for so elevated a station.

Gd CONSE aces cosstesceneececets On the flat top of a moor above |4r4,
rect and Ennant, 4 miles W.N.W. of
Llanwddyn, and } mile N. of Y.

cylinder. Gadfa.

ROMS COR= |. ces seen etensccaasees In field a few hundred yards E. |4y¢,
rect and from Llanwddyn church, quite
open. Doubt if ohserver is al-
ways reliable.

cylinder.

9° | Previously examined in 1862 (see No.27).
eorrece N. 8y camore 38°. Gauge a same position and carefully 416.
mrcot attended to. Owing to the absence of
—*002 Ordnance bench-marks, the altitudes
— oor in this neighbourhood are still uncer-
—*o02 tain,
—oor = |W.N.W.Laurel35°| Good position at junction of roads |417.
+002 north end of village.
+°005
+:006
-+°005
—'007 |W.S.W. House 55°/ Very sheltered position, observer |418.
—'003_|S.H. Poplars 60°.| agreed to move it to a more
+'004 suitable one.
+:002
+°003

228: REPORT—1870. r)

E a
rl oes COUNTY. 5 &
Pica, OS Station. Be ’ 6 bo
Sa| 2.8 OWNER & So | Maker’sname. | ° 2
H . De,
& a| A A Observer. 5° Be
ee 8 o Ae
1870.
419.| Aug. 3. SUFFOLK. TT ot | Anon.02. dese ees
Dickleburgh, Diss.
F, DIX,
F, Dix.
420.| Aug. 3. SUFFOLK. X | Negretti& Zambra| 9 a.m.
Yaxley, Eye.
REV. W. H. SEWELL,
Rev. W. H. Sewell.
421. Aug. 3. SUE OK, Fe... ce doroorecer ATIGI: wynids ee octane Trre-
Thwaite, Mendlesham. gular.
MR. O. WHISTLECRAFT.
Mr, O. Whistlecraft.
422.| Aug. 3. SUFFOLK. THE |(Casella «00:5... .202 9 a.m.
Walsham-Le- Willows.
MISS MARTINEAU,
Miss Martineau,
423.| Aug. 8. NORFOLK. XIE | Casella: ...,.....008 9 a.m,
West Tofts, Brandon.
BRITISH ASSOCIATION,
Mr. R. Martin.
424.| Aug. 31. KENT. KIT. | \Gasella scegs,..0- 4 eecemees

Heathfield Lodge, Chislehurst.
F, NUNES, Esq.
EF. Nunes, Esq.

Report on the Heat generated in the Blood in the process of Arteria-
lization. By Artuur Gamcrr, M.D., F.R.S.E., Lecturer on
Physiology in the Medical School, Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh.

So much has lately been done to extend our knowledge of the gases contained
in the blood, of the blood-colouring-matter, and of its combinations with
. oxygen, that it seems strange that we should not yet possess reliable in-
formation on a matter which has long been the subject of speculation, and
which assuredly admits of a positive solution, viz. on the changes in the
temperature of blood during arterialization.
In this first and strictly preliminary Report it may be useful to ascertain
the methods of investigation which have been employed by those observers
who have hitherto attempted to throw light upon this matter,

ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 229

RAIN-GAUGES (continued).

These methods have been two, of which the one may be said to be indirect
and the other direct; each, if properly carried out, should lead to most
valuable results.

The first method which suggests itself is to determine the temperature of
the blood in the right and left ventricles of the heart of a living animal. If
our mode of experimenting were free from fallacy, and it resulted that the
left side of the heart contained blood warmer than that of the right side,
there would be no doubt as to the evolution of heat during the absorption of
oxygen in the lungs; if, on the other hand, the temperature of the left side
were the same as that of the right side, or lower, the question would still
remain an open one, for heat might be evolved by the condensation and
combination of oxygen in the lungs, yet the quantity might not be sufficient
to counterbalance the loss of heat due to the evolution of large quantities of

3
ie Equivalents of | Error at | Azimuth and an-
i | §.. 34 water. scale-point | gular elevation of g B
f Z = |_| specified in objects above Remarks on position &e. 2 2
| 6 ll | Scale. | Grains. | previous mouth of rain- 25
; ‘St | point column. gauge. parry
Ce ne nee a a
in. in
pide aea| =e “alse «0 tet|.cecereeeeeese-/5eWW. Trees 58°, | Very oldand dilapidated gauge in avery 419
N.E. Trees 55° indifferent position; fad been burst
4 & and mended many times, and is so out
of repair that observer adds a vari-
able correction to make it what he
thinks it should be.
I 1290 SC ae dP Cee ee eee On Lawn near the church; good |42°
2 2580 —*004 position,
3 3 8 60 —"oo 5
; 4 5060 +*oo1
° 5 6300 +003
: 5 1000 +’o1g (N. Trees 43°. An preeaiiinty gauge, consisting sim- |421.
2 I'o 2020 +:028 ply of a cubical leaden box, into which
i Bes 4: the rain falls; the depth is ascertained
1°49 3 047 by dipping in a slate scale; the
2°37 bottom thereof is now worn away ;
M 2°868 hence the large error, which, however,
is partly corrected by the great loss
which must arise from the absence of
, any provision against evaporation.
5°00 oF 490 +'oor |N.W. Fir 54°, On lawn, rather sheltered as noted; |422.
4°98 op 990 correct. was moved to centre of lawn
4°99 "3 1470 +'003 quite free,
5700 "4. 1960 +004
M 4°993 5 2470 correct.
5°03 oF 510 —'003_ |N.W. Tree 52°, | In small garden E. of West Tofts 423.
4°98 2 995 —‘oor |W. Tree 52°, church; no better position avail-
4°94 "3 1490 —‘oor |S.W. Tree 58°, able.
5°05 4 2000 —"003
M5000 | °5 2500 —"004
| 4°95 ar 500 Se TT | ree ner e te coe Close to No, 398. 424.
4°99 *2, 980 +‘oo1
5°00 %3 1450 +006
i “4 195° +"004,
5 2459 +003

230 REPORT—1870.

watery vapour and carbonic acid in the lungs. The second, or direct method,
which consists in agitating venous blood removed from the body with oxygen
or atmospheric air, and ascertaining the changes in temperature which would
then come into requisition.

Claude Bernard (Comptes Rendus, 1856) ascertained the temperature of
the two sides of the heart by opening the internal jugular vein and the
carotid artery in dogs, and thrusting very delicate self-registering thermo-
meters into the right and left cavities. He arrived at the conclusion that the
arterialized blood of the left side is invariably cooler than the venous blood
of the right side. Mr. Savory, in a paper entitled “On the relative Tempe-
rature of Arterial and Venous Blood,” pointed out that Claude Bernard’s
method of experimenting was not free from fallacy, as by interfering with
the due action of the cardiac valves the thermometers would necessarily
induce some disturbance in the pulmonary circulation. In his own experi-
ments Mr. Savory, having exposed the heat of dogs under the influence of
chloroform, punctured the right and left ventricles by means of a trocar, and
then introduced into the cavities delicate thermometers. By this method of
experimenting, he arrived at the conclusion that the blood of the left side of
the heart is invariably warmer than that of the right side.

Very lately, in his work entitled ‘‘ Lecons sur la Physiologie Comparée de
la Respiration,” M. Paul Bert has published the results of his own experi-
ments, in which he introduced thermo-electric needles into the right and left
sides of the heart in the same manner as M. Claude Bernard had done. He
has confirmed the observations of Bernard; his experiments are, however,
open to the same objections which were adduced by Savory against those of
the earlier observer.

The second or direct method of research, to which I previously alluded,
consists in experimenting with venous blood removed from the body, and
ascertaining whether heat is evolved when it is agitated with air or pure
oxygen. Although many authorities have been quoted as maintaining the
opinion that when agitated with air venous blood is raised in temperature,
the only authors whose experiments are recorded are Dr. John Davy and
Mr. Savory. In his ‘ Researches, Physiological and Anatomical’ (vol. i.
p- 168), Davy attempted to answer the question, ““ When oxygen is absorbed
by the blood, is there any production of heat?” He agitated a mixture of
venous blood and metallic mercury in a glass phial with oxygen, and ob-
served that a rise in temperature always occurred. Curiously, Dr. Davy
does not appear to have considered that the rise in temperature must to a cer-
tain degree have been due to the agitation of the blood and mercury. Mr.
Savory, in the Monograph previously quoted, indeed found that by Dr. Davy’s
method of experimenting no useful results could be obtained, as “in all
cases the increase of temperature seemed to be the result of the agitation.”

By shaking water in a similar manner with air, a small quantity of mer-
cury being present, I have often raised its temperature, though to a less
extent.

Before commencing independent experimental researches, with a view to
determine, either by the direct or indirect method, the heat of arterialization,
it appeared to me to be essential to undertake a set of experiments, with the
object of determining with accuracy the specific heat of blood; and it is to a
notice of these experiments that I confine my present Report, reserving the
account of the experiments now in progress on the further question of the
heat of arterialization to a future Report.

I believe I am quite accurate in stating that the specific heat of blood has

ON HEAT GENERATED IN THE BLOOD. 251

been determined by Dr. John Davy alone, his experiments being recorded in
: his previously quoted work (vol. p. 141), in a chapter entitled “On the Capa-
cities of Venous and Arterial Blood for Heat.” In his experiments he made
use of defibrinated blood, and employed for the determination of specific heat
. the methods of mixture and rate of cooling. According to Davy, the specific
heat of lambs’ and sheeps’ blood varied from 0-812 to 0-934 (water being
1:0).
tthe great discrepancy of these results made it most desirable that the
_ determination should now be made in an accurate manner.
2 I employed invariably the method of mixture.
; A flask furnished with a tubulature near its base was fixed in the centre
_ of a water-bath, and from the flask a tube, also surrounded by hot water,
_ proceeded, which communicated with the exterior by means of a stopcock.
_ This flask was filled with mercury. The blood to be experimented upon was
placed in a light and highly polished iron yessel, which was surrounded by
cotton-wool, and placed in a glass beaker. The temperature of the blood
and mercury was ascertained before and after mixture by means of a very
; delicate standard thermometer, made by Fastré of Paris, belonging to the
_ Museum of Natural Philosophy of the University of Edinburgh. This ther-
mometer admitted of being read very accurately to fiftieths of a degree
_ Centigrade.
_ Inmy experiment, heated mercury was added to blood at a lower tem-
_ perature. 3
The specific heat was determined by the usual formula.

C specific heat of blood.

M weight of blood.

T its temperature.

m weight of mercury.

¢ its temperature.

c’ its specific heat, 7. e. 0-033.

6 temperature of mixture of blood and mercury.
fe specific heat of vessel.

ee m(t—6)c :
QL+ 1) @—T)

The results of my experiments, which were all performed with perfectly
fresh ox’s blood, are exhibited below in a tabular form :—

Pw ok) ie ee

No. of

C (specific
experiments. M. T. m. t. p. 0. (sp

heat).

2 grammes.) ,

76:15 12-06 1756-7 | 36-4 | 10-48] 21:8 1:00
249-95 18-45 17789 | 39°8 | 10-48} 1:07 1:07
224°35 16°30 1671-05} 41-2 | 10-48} 0-99 0-998
224-05 22:00 1980-5 | 46:8 | 10-48] 1-06 1-060
283-60 23°00 2303°2 | 47-0 | 1048} 1-03 1:03
217-55 15°50 1439-2 | 49:1 | 10-48} 0-97 0-97

Se a

The above determinations were all made with the perfectly fresh blood of

the ox; and they may, I think, be considered as representing very accurately
the specific heat of blood.

_ They show that the specific heat of blood is not, as Davy supposed, con-

232 REPORT—1870.

siderably below that of water, but almost exactly the same, the mean of all
my results giving the coefficient of the specific heat of blood as 1-02. A
knowledge of this was essential to the further progress of the research of
which I hope on a future occasion to publish the definite results.

Edinburgh, September 19, 1870.

Report on the best means of providing for a uniformity of Weights and
Measures, with reference to the Interests of Science. By a Com-
mittee, consisting of Sir Joun Bowrine, F.R.S., The Right Hon.
C. B. Appertry, M.P., Samuret Brovin, FS.S., Dr. Farr, F.R.S.,
Frank P. Frttowes, Professor FRanKLAND, F.R.S., Professor Hrn-
nessy, F.R.S., James Heywoop, F.R.S., Sir Ropurt Kane, F.R.S.,
Professor Leone Levi, F.S.A., F.S.S., Professor W. A. Minter,
F.R.S., Professor Ranxine, LL.D., F.R.S.,C. W. Siemens, F.R.S.,
Colonel Syxzs, F.R.S., M.P., Professor A. W. Witu1amson, F.R.S.,
James Yates, F.R.S., Dr.Grorce Grover, Sir JoserpH WuitwortH,
Bart., F.R.S., J. R. Napier, H. Dircxs, J. V. N. Bazauerrre,
W.Smira, Sir W. Farrpairn, Bart., F.R.S., and Joun Ropinson:—
Professor Leone Levi, Secretary.

AxrnoveH war has for a time unfortunately interrupted the progress of
economic reforms on the Continent of Europe and may yet retard the realiza-
tion of the desired uniformity in the weights, measures, and coins of all
countries, your Committee have much pleasure in reporting that the prospects
of the early attainment of such an object were never more satisfactory.
Believing that in the interest of Science, and with a view to the progress of
education, the universal adoption of the Metric System is by far the most
preferable method for arriving at such uniformity, your Committee are glad
to find that the Royal Standard Commissioners have reported that the time
has now arrived when the law should provide, and facilities be afforded by
the Government for the introduction and use of Metric Weights and Measures
in the United Kingdom. For that purpose the Warden of the Standard has
obtained a complete set of official standards of such weights and measures pro-
perly verified, and arrangements are in progress for laying down public stan-
dards of the imperial and Metric measure of length. The Metric Act of 1864
has not yet been amended, but the Board of Trade is only waiting the final
report of the Commissioners, in order to introduce a complete measure on
the subject of Weights and Measures early next Session. In accordance
with the desire expressed by your Committee, the Board of Trade has pub-
lished the first statistical paper showing the British Customs Tariff, and the
Statisties of the Customs revenue and foreign Commerce of the United King-
dom, from 1840 to 1869, in the terms of the Imperial and Metric System,
and also in pounds sterling and in francs. Your Committee have communi-
cated with Her Majesty’s Postmaster General with reference to the Postal
Treaty concluded with France, and urged that the opportunity should be seized
for introducing into this country a ten-gram weight. It is, however, with
much regret and disappointment that they have learnt that, disregarding eyen

UNIFORMITY OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, 233

the recommendation of the Standard Commissioners, the Postal Authorities
have decided to adopt the + of an ounce as an equivalent for the 10 grams; for
not only are the two weights not identical, but we miss a rare opportunity
for introducing into practical use, part at least of a system, which there is
every reason to believe will, sooner or later, become national. Apart from
the action of the Government, there is ample evidence that the early intro-
duction of the Metric System is desired by the people. In May last, an im-
portant conference was held in the rooms of the Society of Arts, when the
following resolutions were unanimously carried :—

1. That the great inconvenience to Agriculture, Manufactures, and Com-
merce, as well as to Science, resulting from the numerous complicated and
anomalous Weights and Measures now in use, whether by law or custom, in
the British Empire, demands the attention of the Legislature at the earliest
practicable time, with a view to the establishment of some convenient uniform
Decimal system throughout the United Kingdom.

2. That the Standard Commissioners having recommended the abolition of
Troy Weights, this Conference is of opinion that all those who now use
the same should substitute for them, not the lb. Avoirdupois, but the Kilo-
gram, with its divisions and multiples, by which another practical step will
be made towards the complete adoption of the Metric System throughout
the British Empire, which, in the opinion of this Meeting, is an object of
the highest importance.

3. That in order to facilitate the speedy introduction of Metric Weights
and Measures and an International Coinage, this Conference deems it highly
desirable that Decimal Arithmetic, with the specialities of the Metric System,
should be taught in all the Schools in the United Kingdom.

Your Committee have also much pleasure in reporting, that during the
year, in consequence of general complaints of the numerous descriptions of
weights and measures by which grain is sold in different markets of the
kingdom, a Joint Committee of the Central Chamber of Agriculture and the
International Decimal Association have produced a report to the following
effect. From the report of that joint Committee, it appears that the ex-
treme difference of practice in the weights and measures used in different
markets of the United Kingdom, for the sale of grain and other agricultural
products and manures, is the cause of considerable inconvenience and loss.
The Banbury, Devonshire, Essex, Howdenshire, Kincardineshire, Leicester-
shire, Malton, Monmouthshire, Norfolk, North of England, North Riding of
Yorkshire, Scottish, Warwickshire, and Worcestershire Chambers of Agri-
culture were unanimous in their opinion that steps should be taken for ob-
taining a uniform system as speedily as possible; and from long experience
that Committee was convinced that no voluntary or permissive legislation,
and that no local arrangement or understanding will enable us to realize the
object in view. In the language used by more than one of such Chambers,
«* Whatever standard be decided upon, the same should be made compulsory
throughout the country.” Besides, however, a general testimony in favour
of uniformity of Weights and Measures in the United Kingdom, the Com-
mittee found that a movement has been gaining ground for extending such
uniformity among all countries. And the Committee were strongly impressed
with the conviction that, dependent as we are upon foreign countries for
the supply of grain, other agricultural products and manures, great advan-
tage would be derived if, in making the necessary change, we could contri-
bute to the realization of this larger object. It would save time, it would
prevent errors, it would greatly facilitate commercial transactions, if grain

1870. R

234 REPORT—1870.

were quoted in the same manner in every market of the world, and if our
merchants and corn-growers could understand the ordinary quotations
from Stettin and Odessa as readily as those from their own home markets.
Nor is the object far from practical attamment. The Committee learn that
considerable progress has already been made in the great work; that a
large number of countries, having an aggregate population of more than
200,000,000 (two hundred millions), both on the Baltic and the Mediterranean
seas, and on the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, have agreed in adopting and
are already using the Metric system; that this system has just been estab-
lished throughout our Indian empire; and that in this kingdom, and in the
United States of America, the use of the same weights and measures has been
made legal and permissive. Under such circumstances, and believing that,
if a change is to be made, it is best to endeavour to secure a system as per-
fect as possible, one not likely to be again altered, and one equally suitable
to the general wants of all classes of the community, that Committee came
to the conclusion that the best mode of obtaining a real and permanent uni-
formity in weights and measures applicable to the sale of grain and other
agricultural products and manures, is by adapting our present practice to the
metric system. With a view to this object, the Committee made the following
recommendations :—

“(1.) That, in the opinion of this Committee, it is desirable that the Go-
vernment should be requested to act upon the recommendations of the
Standards Commissioners in their Second and Third Reports, by legislating,
with the least practicable delay, in reference to the introduction of the Metric
Weights and Measures in this country, and facilitating their use by making
proper arrangements for the legal verification and stamping of such weights
and measures.

««(2.) That the Chambers of Agriculture and the Cambers of Commerce be
recommended to petition the Legislature to pass, with the least practicable
delay, such enactments as will establish the kilogram with its decimal mul-
tiples and divisions as the standard unit of weight in lieu of the present
pound ayoirdupois and other imperial and customary weights.

«(3.) That, in the opinion of your Committee, the use of such standard
weights should be made compulsory within a definite time; and, thenceforth,
contracts made by any other weights should be invalid.

*«(4.) That although the Central Chamber of Agriculture has recom-
mended that grain should be sold by the ‘cental’ of 100 1b. (one hundred
pounds), which is in use at Liverpool, yet, as your Committee find the general
average weight of a sack of the different kinds of grain to be about 224 1b.
(two hundred and twenty-four pounds), or the tenth part of a ton, they
are of opinion that it would be desirable to substitute for the ‘cental,’ a
weight of 100 (one hundred) kilogrammes (or, in other words, a ‘ quintal’),
which only differs by a fraction from 2201b. (two hundred and twenty

ounds).
f “©(5.) That this report be printed and copies transmitted to all the Cham-
bers of Agriculture and Chambers of Commerce, to Agricultural Societies,
Farmers’ Clubs, and Municipal Councils, with the request that they will
circulate the same and consider the recommendations of this Committee at
their earliest convenience.”

From these and other circumstances of a like character, your Committee
have reason to conclude that the Metric System is gaining in public favour, and
they earnestly hope that Her Majesty’s Government may not delay in adopt-
ing a bold course on the subject. No time certainly should be lost mean-

—— Se ee

a, A ee

UNIFORMITY OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 235

while in teaching the Metric System in all the schools ; and it would be well
if a knowledge of the same should be required at least in all the normal schools
in the United Kingdom. Your Committee have deemed it advantageous to
present a copy of the Mural Standard of the Metre and Yard procured from
Mr. Casella, to the Mayor of Newcastle for public exhibition, Newcastle being
the seat of extensive mechanical and chemical works, where the decimal
measures of the metre and the gram are preferred to the corresponding mea-
sures and weight in the imperial system. Another copy of the same Mural
Standard your Committee have presented to the Museum of Science and Art
in Edinburgh, an institution very largely frequented by the people. And
they have also purchased a complete set of all the weights and measures of
the Metric System, with accompanying tables and diagrams, for the purpose
of illustrating Lectures and offering information on the subject.

Your Committee have seen with much satisfaction the successful introduc-
tion of the Metric System into the Indian Empire, From a parliamentary
paper recently published, it appears that the representations made by your
Committee to Sir Stafford Northcote, the Secretary of State for India, has
had much influence in inducing the Government of India to adopt the Metric
in preference to any other system. Your Committee have taken much in-
terest in the enlightened steps taken by Colonel Strachey in furtherance of
this important reform. In Canada a Select Committee of the Senate reported
in favour of a uniform International Decimal System of Weights, Measures,
and Coins. And an International Standard Commission has been appointed
to meet in Paris for the construction of new Primary Metric Standards.
But how soon will that Commission meet, it is extremely difficult to say,
since the breaking up of this unhappy war.

With regard to coinage, your Committee are informed that a Commission on
the Monetary Standards held in Paris, after careful consideration, reported in
fayour of a single gold standard. But no practical step has hitherto been
taken with regard to it, either here or elsewhere. Your Committee have
done much to diffuse information on the general subject, but they feel that
they have yet much to accomplish, especially in inducing the various learned
bodies in different countries to adopt the same standard of money, weights,
and measures as a common language. They therefore suggest the reappoint-
ment of the Metric Committee, and that another grant, of at least £25, be
asked from the Committee of Recommendations, whereby further copies of
the Mural Standard may be sent to towns and places where they may be seen
and studied by large masses of the people, and for the general object of
extending the knowledge of a question eminently calculated to further the
progress of science and civilization.

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NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.

MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Address by J, Crurx Maxwett, LL.D., F.RS., President of the Section.

Art several of the recent Meetings of the British Association the varied and im-

portant business of the Mathematical and Physical Section has been introduced by

an Address, the subject of which has been left to the selection of the President for

the time being. The perplexing duty of choosing a subject has not, however, fallen
me.

Professor Sylvester, the President of Section A at the Exeter Meeting, gave us a
noble vindication of pure mathematics by laying bare, as it were, the very working
of the mathematical mind, and setting before us, not the array of symbols and
brackets which form the armoury of the mathematician, or the dry results which
are only the monuments of his conquests, but the mathematician himself, with all
his human faculties directed by his professional sagacity to the pursuit, apprehen-
sion, and exhibition of that ideal harmony which he feels to be the root of all
knowledge, the fountain of all pleasure, and the condition of all action. The
mathematician has, above all things, an eye for symmetry ; and Professor Sylvester
has not only recognized the symmetry formed by the combination of his own sub-
ject with ae of the former Presidents, but has pointed out the duties of his
successor in the following characteristic note :—

“Mr. Spottiswoode favoured the Section, in his opening Address, with a com-
bined history of the progress of Mathematics and Physics; Dr. Tyndall’s address
was virtually on the Vimits of Physical Philosophy; the one here in print,” says
Prof. Sylvester, “is an attempted faint adumbration of the nature of Mathematical
Science in the abstract. What is wanting (like a fourth sphere resting on three
others in contact) to build up the Ideal Pyramid is a discourse on the Relation of
the two branches (Mathematics and Physics) to, their action and reaction upon,
one another, a magnificent theme, with which it is to be hoped that some future
President of Section A will crown the edifice and make the Tetralogy (symbolizable
by A+-A', A, A', AA’) complete.”

The theme thus distinctly laid down for his successor by our late President is
indeed a magnificent one, far too magnificent for any efforts of mine to realize. I
have endeavoured to follow Mr. Spottiswoode, as with far-reaching vision he dis-
tinguishes the systems of science into which phenomena, our knowledge of which
is still in the nebulous stage, are growing. I have been carried by the penetratin
insight and forcible expression of Dr. Tyndall into that sanctuary of minuteness anid
of a where molecules obey the laws of their existence, clash together in fierce

870.
/

2 REPORT—1870.

collision, or pee in yet more fierce embrace, building up in secret the forms of
visible things, Ihave been guided by Prof. Sylvester towards those serene heights

‘‘ Where never creeps a cloud, or moves a wind,

Nor ever falls the least white star of snow,

Nor ever lowest roll of thunder moans,

Nor sound of human sorrow mounts, to mar

Their sacred everlasting calm.”
But who will lead me into that still more hidden and dimmer region where
Thought weds Fact, where the mental operation of the mathematician and the
physical action of the molecules are seen in their true relation? Does not the way
to it pass through the very den of the metaphysician, strewed with the remains of
former explorers, and abhorred by every man of science? It would indeed be a
foolhardy adventure for me to take up the valuable time of the Section by leading
you into those speculations which require, as we know, thousands of years even to
shape themselves intelligibly.

But we are met as cultivators of mathematics and physics. In our daily work
we are led up to questions the same in kind with those of metaphysics; and we
approach them, not trusting to the native penetrating power of our own minds, but
trained by a long-continued adjustment of our modes of thought to the facts of
external nature.

As mathematicians, we perform certain mental operations on the symbols of
number or of quantity, and, by proceeding step by step from more simple to more
complex operations, we are enabled to express the same thing in many different
forms. The equivalence of these different forms, though a necessary consequence
of self-evident axioms, is not always, to our minds, self-evident ; but the mathema-
tician, who by long practice has acquired a familiarity with many of these forms,
and has become expert in the processes which lead from one to another, can often
transform a perplexing expression into another which explains its meaning in more
intelligible language.

As students of Physics we observe phenomena under varied circumstances, and.
endeavour to deduce the laws of their relations. Eyery natural phenomenon is, to
our minds, the result of an infinitely complex system of conditions. What we set
ourselves to do is to unrayel these conditions, and by viewing the phenomenon in
a way which is in itself partial and imperfect, to piece out its features one by one,
beginning with that which strikes us first, and thus gradually learning how to look
at the whole phenomenon so as to obtain a continually greater degree of clearness
and distinctness. In this process, the feature which presents itself most forcibly to
the untrained inquirer may not be that which is considered most fundamental by
the experienced man of science; for the success of any physical investigation
depends on the judicious selection of what is to be observed as of primary im-
portance, combined with a voluntary abstraction of the mind from those features
which, however attractive they appear, we are not yet sufficiently advanced in
science to investigate with profit.

Intellectual processes of this kind have been going on since the first formation of
language, and are going on still. No doubt the feature which strikes us first and
most forcibly in any phenomenon, is the pleasure or the pain which accompanies
it, and the agreeable or disagreeable results which follow after it. A theory of
nature from this point of view is embodied in many of our words and phrases, and
is by no means extinct even in our deliberate opinions.

It was a great step in science when men became conyinced that, in order to un-
derstand the nature of things, they must begin by asking, not whether a thing is
good or bad, noxious or beneficial, but of what kind is it? and how much is there
of it? Quality and Quantity were then first recognized as the primary features to
be observed in scientific inquiry.

As science has been developed, the domain of quantity has everywhere encroached
on that of quality, till the process of scientific inquiry seems to have become simply
the measurement and registration of quantities, combined with a mathematical
discussion of the numbers thus obtained. It is this scientific method of directing
our attention to those features of phenomena which may be regarded as quantities
which brings physical research mae the influence of mathematical reasoning, In

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3

the work of the Section we shall have abundant examples of the successful appli-
cation of this method to the most recent conquests of science ; but I wish at present
to direct your attention to some of the reciprocal effects of the progress of science
on those elementary conceptions which are sometimes thought to be beyond the
reach of change. ,

If the skill of the mathematician has enabled the experimentalist to see that the
quantities which he has measured are connected by necessary relations, the disco-
yeries of physics haye revealed to the mathematician new forms of quantities
which he could never have imagined for himself.

Of the methods by which the mathematician may make his labours most useful
to the student of nature, that which I think is at present most important is the
systematic classification of quantities.

- The quantities which we study in mathematics and physics may be classified in
two different ways.

- The student who wishes to master any particular science must make himself
familiar with the various kinds of quantities which belong to that science. When
he understands all the relations between these quantities, he regards them as form-
ing a connected system, and he classes the whole system of quantities together as
belonging to that particular science. This classification is the most natural from
a physical point oft view, and it is generally the first in order of time.

ut when the student has become acquainted with several different sciences, he
finds that the mathematical processes and trains of reasoning in one science resemble

those in another so much that his knowledge of the one science may be made a
most useful help in the study of the other.

When he examines into the reason of this, he finds that in the two sciences he
has been dealing with systems of quantities, in which the mathematical forms of
the relations of the quantities are the same in both systems, though the physical
nature of the quantities may be utterly different.

He is thus led to recognize a classification of quantities on a new principle,
according to which the physical nature of the quantity is subordinated to its
mathematical form. This is the point of view which is characteristic of the
mathematician; but it stands second to the physical aspect in order of time,
because the human mind, in order to conceive of different kinds of quantities, must
have them presented to it by nature.

I do not here refer to the fact that all quantities, as such, are subject to the rules
of arithmetic and algebra, and are therefore capable of being submitted to those
egal which represent, to so many minds, their only idea of mathematics.

he human mind is seldom satisfied, and is certainly never exercising its highest
functions, when it is doing the work of a calculating machine. What the man of
science, whether he is a mathematician or a physical inquirer, aims at is, to acquire
and develope clear ideas of the things he deals with. For this purpose he is
willing to enter on long calculations, and to be for a season a calculating machine,
if he can only at last make his ideas clearer.

But if he finds that clear ideas are not to be obtained by means of processes the
steps of which he is sure to forget before he has reached the conclusion, it is much
better that he should turn to another method, and try to understand the subject by
oe of well-chosen illustrations derived from subjects with which he is more

umiliar, $

We all know how much more popular the illustrative method of exposition is
found, than that in which bare processes of reasoning and calculation form the
principal subject of discourse.

Now a truly scientific illustration is a method to enable the mind to grasp some
conception or law in one branch of science, by placing before it a conception or a
law in a different branch of science, and directing the mind to lay hold of that
mathematical form which is common to the corresponding ideas in the two
sciences, leaving out of account for the present the difference between the physical
nature of the real phenomena.

The correctness of such an illustration depends on whether the two systems of
ideas which are compared together are really analogous in form, or whether, in
other words, the corresponding physical quantities really belong to the same

4 REPORT—1870.

mathematical class. When this condition is fulfilled, the illustration is not only
convenient for teaching science in a pleasant and easy manner, but the recognition
of the formal analogy between the two systems of ideas leads to a Inowledge of
both, more profound than could be obtained by studying each system separately.

There are men who, when any relation or law, however complex, is put before
them in a symbolical form, can grasp its full meaning as a relation among abstract
quantities. Such men sometimes treat with indifference the further statement
that quantities actually exist in nature which fulfil this relation. The mental
image of the concrete reality seems rather to disturb than to assist their contem-

lations.
But the great majority of mankind are utterly unable, without long training, to
retain in their minds the unembodied symbols of the pure mathematician, so that,
if science is ever to become popular, and yet remain scientific, it must be by a pro-
found study and a copious application of those principles of the mathematical clas-
sification of quantities which, as we have seen, lie at the root of every truly scien-
tific illustration.

There are, as I have said, some minds which can go on contemplating with
satisfaction pure quantities presented to the eye by symbols, and to the mind ina
form which none but mathematicians can conceive.

There are others who feel more enjoyment in following geometrical forms, which
they draw on paper, or build up in the empty space before them.

Others, again, are not content unless they can project their whole physical ener-
gies into the scene which they conjure up. They learn at what a rate the planets
tush through space, and they experience a delightful feeling of exhilaration. They
calculate the forces with which the heavenly bodies pull at one another, and they
feel their own muscles straining with the ators,

To such men momentum, energy, mass are not mere abstract expressions of the
results of scientific inquiry. They are words of power, which stir their souls like
the memories of childhood.

For the sake of persons of these different types, scientific truth should be pre-
sented in different forms, and should be regarded as equally scientific, whether it
aprents in the robust form and the vivid colouring of a physical illustration, or in
the tenuity and paleness of a symbolical expression.

Time would fail me if I were to attempt to illustrate by examples the scientific
value of the classification of quantities. 1 shall only mention the name of that im-

ortant class of magnitudes haying direction in space which Hamilton has called

ectors, and which form the subject-matter of the Calculus of Quaternions, a
branch of mathematics which, when it shall have been thoroughly understood by
men of the illustrative type, and clothed bythem with physical imagery, will become,
perhaps under some new name, a most powerful method of communicating truly
scientific knowledge to persons apparently devoid of the calculating spirit.

The mutual action and reaction between the different departments of human
thought is so interesting to the student of scientific progress, that, at the risk of
still further encroaching on the valuable time of the Section, I shall say a few words
on a branch of physics which not very long ago would have been considered rather
a branch of metaphysics. I mean the atomic theory, or, as it is now called, the
molecular theory of the constitution of bodies. ,

Not many years ago if we had been asked in what regions of physical science the
advance of discovery was least apparent, we should have pointed to the hope-
lessly distant fixed stars on the one hand, and to the inscrutable delicacy of the
texture of material bodies on the other.

Indeed, if we are to regard Comte as in any degree representing the scientific
opinion of his time, the research into what takes place beyond our own solar system
seemed then to be exceedingly unpromising, if not altogether illusory,

The opinion that the bodies which we see and handle, which we can set in
motion or leave at rest, which we can break in pieces and destroy, are composed of
smaller bodies which we cannot see or handle, which are always in motion, and
which can neither be stopped nor broken in pieces, nor in any way destroyed or
deprived of the least of their properties, was known by the name of the Atomic
Theory. It was associated with the names of Democritus, Epicurus, and Lucretius,

hens

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 5

sand was commonly supposed to admit the existence only of atoms and void, to the
exclusion of any other basis of things from the universe.

In many physical reasonings and mathematical calculations we are accustomed
‘to argue as if such substances as air, water, or metal, which appear to our senses
uniform and continuous, were strictly and mathematically uniform and continuous.

We know that we can divide a pint of water into many millions of portions,
-each of which is as fully endowed with all the properties of water as the whole
pint was ; and it seems only natural to conclude that we might go on subdividing
the water for ever, just as we can never come to a limit in subdividing the space
in which it is contained, We have heard how Faraday divided a grain of gold into
an inconceivable number of separate particles, and we may see Dr. Tyndall produce
from a mere suspicion of nitrite of butyle an immense cloud, the minute visible
ree which is still cloud, and therefore must contain many molecules of nitrite
of butyle.

Rit ayidence from different and independent sources is now crowding in upon us
which compels us to admit that if we could push the process of subdivision still
further we should come to a limit, because each portion would then contain only
one molecule, an individual body, one and indivisible, unalterable by any power in
nature.

Even in our ordinary experiments on very finely divided matter we find that the
substance is beginning to lose the properties which it exhibits when in a large mass,
and that effects depending on the individual action of molecules are beginning to
become prominent.

The study of these phenomena is at present the path which leads to the develop-
ment of molecular science.

That superficial tension of liquids which is called capillary attraction is one of
these phenomena. Another important class of phenomena are those which are due
to that motion of agitation by which the molecules of a liquid or gas are continu-
ally working their way from one place to another, and continually changing their
course, like people hustled in a crowd.

On this depends the rate of diffusion of oa and liquids through each other,
to the study of which, as one of the keys of molecular science, that unwearied in-
quirer into nature’s secrets, the late Prof. Graham, devoted such arduous labour.

The rate of electrolytic conduction is, according to Wiedemann’s theory,
influenced by the same cause; and the conduction of heat in fluids depends pro-
bably on the same kind of action. In the case of gases, a molecular theory has
been developed by Clausius and others, capable of mathematical treatment, and
subjected to experimental investigation; and by this theory nearly every known
mechanical property of gases has been explained on dynamical principles; so that
the properties of individual gaseous molecules are in a fair way to become objects
of scientific research.

Now Mr. Stoney has pointed out* that the numerical results of experiments on
gases render it probable that the mean distance of their particles at the ordinary
temperature and pressure is a quantity of the same order of magnitude as a mil-
lionth of a millimetre, and Sir William Thomson has since} shown, by several
independent lines of argument, drawn from phenomena so different in themselves
as the electrification of metals by contact, the tension of soap-bubbles, and the
friction of air, that in ordinary solids and liquids the average distance between
contiguous molecules is less than the hundred-millionth, and greater than the two-
thousand-millionth of a centimetre. 5

These, of course, are exceedingly rough estimates, for they are derived from
measurements some of which are still confessedly very rough ; butif, at the present
time, we can form even a rough plan for arriving at results of this kind, we may hope
that, as our means of experimental inquiry become more accurate and more varied,
our conception of a molecule will become more definite, so that we may be able
at no distant period to estimate its weight with a greater degree of precision.

A theory, which Sir W. Thomson has founded on Helmholtz’s splendid hydro-
dynamical theorems, seeks for the properties of molecules in the ring-vortices of a
uniform, frictionless, incompressible fluid. Such whirling rings may be seen when

* Phil. Mag. Aug. 1868. + Nature, March 31, 1870.

6 REPORT—1870.

an experienced smoker sends out a dexterous puff of smoke into the still air, but a
more evanescent phenomenon it is difficult toconceive. This evanescence is owing
to the viscosity of the air; but Helmholtz has shown that in a perfect fluid such
a whirling ring, if once generated, would go on whirling for ever, would always con-
sist of the very same portion of the fluid which was first set whirling, and could never
be cut in two by any natural cause. The generation of a ring-vortex is of course
equally beyond the power of natural causes, but once generated, it has the pro-
perties of individuality, permanence in quantity, and indestructibility. It is also
the recipient of impulse and of energy, which is all we can affirm of matter; and
these ring-vortices are capable of such varied connexions and knotted self-involu-
tions, that the properties of differently knotted vortices must be as different as those
of different kinds of molecules can be.

If a theory of this kind should be found, after conquering the enormous mathe-
matical difficulties of the subject, to represent in any degree the actual properties
of molecules, it will stand in a very different scientific position from those theories
of molecular action which are formed by investing the molecule with an arbitrary
system of central forces invented expressly to account for the observed phenomena.

In the vortex theory we have nothing arbitrary, no central forces or occult pro-
perties of any other kind. We have nothing but matter and motion, and when the
vortex is once started its properties are all determined from the original impetus,
and no further assumptions are possible.

Even in the present undeveloped state of the theory, the contemplation of the
individuality and indestructibility of a ring-vortex in a perfect fluid cannot fail
to disturb the commonly received opinion that a molecule, in order to be permanent,
must be a very hard body.

In fact one of the first conditions which a molecule must fulfil is, apparently,
inconsistent with its being a single hard body. We know from those spectroscopic
researches which have thrown so much light on different branches of science, that
a molecule can be set into a state of internal vibration, in which it gives off to the
surrounding medium light of definite refrangibility—light, that is, of definite wave-
length and definite period of vibration. The fact that all the molecules (say, of
hydrogen) which we can procure for our experiments, when agitated by heat or by
the passage of an electric spark, vibrate precisely in the same periodic time, or, to
speak more accurately, that their vibrations are composed of a system of simple
vibrations haying always the same periods, is a very remarkable fact.

I must leave it to others to describe the progress of that splendid series of
spectroscopic discoveries by which the chemistry of the heavenly bodies has been
brought within the range of human inquiry. I wish rather to direct your attention
to the fact that, not only has every molecule of terrestrial hydrogen the same
system of periods of free vibration, but that the spectroscopic examination of the
light of the sun and stars shows that, in regions the distance of which we can only
feebly imagine, there are molecules vibrating in as exact unison with the molecules
of terrestrial hydrogen as two tuning-forks tuned to concert pitch, or two watches
regulated to solar time.

Now this absolute equality in the magnitude of quantities, occurring in all parts
of the universe, is worth our consideration.

The dimensions of individual natural bodies are either quite indeterminate, as in
the case of planets, sténes, trees, &c., or they vary within moderate limits, as
in the case of seeds, eggs, &c.; but even in these cases small quantitative differ-
ences are met with which do not interfere with the essential properties of the body.

Even crystals, which are so definite in geometrical form, are variable with respect
to their absolute dimensions.

Among the works of man we sometimes find a certain degree of uniformity.

There is a uniformity among the different bullets which are cast in the same
mould, and the different copies of a book printed from the same type.

If we examine the coins, or the weights and measures, of a civilized country, we
find a uniformity, which is produced by careful adjustment to standards made and
provided by the state. The degree of uniformity of these national standards is a
measure of that spirit of justice in the nation which has enacted laws to regulate
them and appointed officers to test them.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 7

This subject is one in which we, as a scientific body, take a warm interest; and
you are all aware of the vast amount of scientific work which has been expended,
and profitably expended, in providing weights and measures for commercial and
scientific purposes. _

The earth has been measured as a basis for a permanent standard of length, and
every property of metals has been investigated to guard against any alteration of
the material standards when made. To weigh or measure any thing with modern
accuracy, requires a course of experiment and calculation in which almost every
branch of physics and mathematics is brought into requisition.

Yet, after all, the dimensions of our earth and its time of rotation, though, rela-
tively to our present means of comparison, very permanent, are not so by any phy~
sical necessity. ‘The earth might contract by cooling, or it might be enlarged by
a layer of meteorites falling on it, or its rate of revolution might slowly slacken,
and yet it would continue to be as much a planet as before.

But a molecule, say of hydrogen, if either its mass or its time of vibration were
to be altered in the least, would no longer be a molecule of hydrogen.

If, then, we wish to obtain standards of length, time, and mass which shall be
absolutely permanent, we must seek them not in the dimensions, or the motion, or
the mass of our planet, but in the wave-length, the period of vibration, and the
absolute mass of these imperishable and unalterable and perfectly similar molecules.

When we find that here, and in the starry heavens, there are innumerable mul-
titudes of little bodies of exactly the same mass, so many, and no more, to the
grain, and vibrating in exactly the same time, so many times, and no more, in a
second, and when we reflect that no power in nature can now alter in the least
either the mass or the period of any one of them, we seem to have advanced along
the path of natural Inowledge to one of those points at which we must accept the
guidance of that faith by which we understand that “that which is seen was not
made of things which do appear.”

One of the most remarkable results of the progress of molecular science is the
licht it has thrown on the nature of irreversible processes—processes, that is, which
always tend towards and never away from a certain limiting state. Thus, if two
gases be put into the same vessel, they become mixed, and the mixture tends con-
tinually to become more uniform. If two unequally heated portions of the same
gas are put into the vessel, something of the kind takes place, and the whole
tends to become of the same temperature. If two unequally heated solid bodies be
pect in contact, a continual approximation of both to an intermediate temperature
takes place.

In the case of the two gases, a separation may be effected by chemical means ;
but in the other two cases the former state of things cannot be restored by any
natural process.

In the case of the conduction or diffusion of heat the process is not only irrever-
sible, but it inyolves the irreversible diminution of that part of the whole stock of
thermal energy which is capable of being conyerted into mechanical work.

This is Thomson’s theory of the irreversible dissipation of energy, and it is equi-
yalent to the doctrine of Clausius concerning the growth of what he calls Entropy.

The irreversible character of this process is strikingly embodied in Fourier’s
theory of the conduction of heat, where the formule themselves indicate, for all
positive values of the time, a possible solution which continually tends to the form
of a uniform diffusion of heat.

But if we attempt to ascend the stream of time by giving to its symbol conti-
nually diminishing values, we are led up to a state of things in which the formula
has what is called a critical value; and if we inquire into the state of things the
instant before, we find that the formula becomes absurd.

‘We thus arrive at the conception of a state of things which cannot be conceived
as the physical result of a previous state of things, and we find that this critical
condition actually existed at an epoch not in the utmost depths of a past eternity,
but separated from the present time by a finite interval.

_ This idea of a beginning is one which the physical researches of recent times
have brought home to us, more than any observer of the course of scientific thought
in former times would have had reason to expect.

8 ; REPORT—1870.

But the mind of man is not, like Fourier’s heated body, continually settling
down into an ultimate state of quiet uniformity, the character of which we can
already predict; it is rather like a tree, shooting out branches which adapt them-
selves to the new aspects of the sky towards which they climb, and roots which
contort themselves among the strange strata of the earth into which they delve.
To us who breathe only the spirit of our own age, and know only the characteristics
of contemporary thought, it is as impossible to predict the general tone of the science
of the future as it is to anticipate the particular discoveries which it will make.

Physical research is continually revealing to us new features of natural processes,
and we are thus compelled to search for new forms of thought appropriate to these
features. Hence the importance of a careful study of those relations between
Mathematics and Physics which determine the conditions under which the ideas
derived from one department of physics may be safely used in forming ideas to be
employed in a new department.

The figure of speech or of thought by which we transfer the language and ideas
of a familiar science to one with which we are less acquainted may be called Scien-
tific Metaphor.

Thus the words Velocity, Momentum, Force, &c. have acquired certain precise
meanings in Elementary Dynamics. They are also employed in the Dynamics of
a Connected System in a sense which, though perfectly analogous to the elementary
sense, is wider and more general.

These generalized forms of elementary ideas may be called metaphorical terms in
the sense in which every abstract term is metaphorical. The characteristic of a
truly scientific system of metaphors is that each term in its metaphorical use retains
all the formal relations to the other terms of the system which it had inits original
use, The method is then truly scientific—that is, not only a legitimate product of
science, but capable of generating science in its turn.

There are certain electrical phenomena, again, which are connected together by
relations of the same form as those which connect dynamical phenomena. To apply
to these the phrases of dynamics with proper distinctions and provisional reserva-
tions is an example of a metaphor of a bolder kind; but it is a legitimate metaphor
if it conveys a true idea of the electrical relations to those who have been already
trained in dynamics.

Suppose, then, that we have successfully introduced certain ideas belonging to an
elementary science by applying them metaphorically to some new class of pheno-
mena. It becomes an important philosophical question to determine in what degree
the applicability of the old ideas to the new subject may be taken as evidence that
the new phenomena are physically similar to the old.

The best instances for the determination of this question are those in which two
different explanations have been given of the same thing.

The most celebrated case of this kind is that of the corpuscular and the undulatory
theories of light. Up to a certain point the phenomena of light are equally well
explained by both; beyond this point, one of them fails.

'o understand the true relation of these theories in that part of the field where
they seem equally applicable we must look at them in the light which Hamilton
has thrown upon them by his discovery that to every brachistochrone problem there
corresponds a problem of free motion, involving different velocities and times, but
resulting in the same geometrical path. Professor Tait has written a very interest-
ing paper on this subject.

According to a theory of electricity which is making great progress in Germany,
two electrical particles act on one another directly at a distance, but with a force
which, according to Weber, depends on their relative velocity, and according to a
theory hinted at by Gauss, and developed by Riemann, Lorenz, and Neumann, acts
not instantaneously, but after a time depending on the distance. The power with
which this theory, in the hands of these eminent men, explains every kind of elec-
trical phenomena must be studied in order to be appreciated.

Another theory of electricity, which I prefer, denies action at a distance and attri-
butes electric action to tensions and pressures in an all-pervyading medium, these
stresses being the same in kind with those familiar to engineers, and the medium
being identical with that in which light is supposed to be propagated.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 9

Both these theories are found to explain not only the phenomena by the aid of
which they were originally constructed, but other phenomena, which were not
thought of or perhaps not known at the time; and both have independently arrived
at the same numerical result, which gives the absolute velocity of light in terms of
electrical quantities.

That theories apparently so fundamentally opposed should have so large a field of
truth common to both is a fact the philosophical importance of which we cannot
fully appreciate till we have reached a scientific altitude from which the true rela-
tion between hypotheses so different can be seen.

I shall only make one more remark on the relation between Mathematics and
Physics. In themselves, one is an operation of the mind, the other is a dance of
molecules. The molecules have laws of their own, some of which we select as most
intelligible to us and most amenable to our calculation. We form a theory from
these partial data, and we ascribe any deviation of the actual phenomena from this
theory to disturbing causes. At the same time we confess that what we call dis-
turbing causes are simply those parts of the true circumstances which we do not
know or have neglected, and we endeavour in future to take account of them. We
thus acknowledge that the so-called disturbance is a mere figment of the mind, not
a fact of nature, and that in natural action there is no disturbance.

But this is not the only way in which the harmony of the material with the
mental operation may be disturbed. The mind of the mathematician is subject to
many disturbing causes, such as fatigue, loss of memory, and hasty conclusions; and
it is found that, from these and other causes, mathematicians make mistakes,

I am not prepared to deny that, to some mind of a higher order than ours, each
of these errors might be traced to the regular operation of the laws of actual think-
ing; in fact we ourselves often do detect, not only errors of calculation, but the
causes of these errors. This, however, by no means alters our conviction that they
are errors, and that one process of thought is right and another process wrong.

One of the most profound mathematicians and thinkers of our time, the late
George Boole, when reflecting on the precise and almost mathematical character of
the laws of right thinking as compared with the exceedingly perplexing though
perhaps equally determinate laws of actual and fallible thinking, was led to another
of those points of view from which Science seems to look out into a region beyond
her own domain.

“We must admit,” he says, “ that there exist laws” (of thought) “which even
the rigour of their mathematical forms does not preserve from violation. We must
ascribe to them an authority, the essence of which does not consist in power, a
supremacy which the analogy of the inviolable order of the natural world in no
way assists us to comprehend.”

MaTHEMATICS.

On the Problem of the in-and-cireumscribed Triangle.
By Professor A. Carrey, LL.D., FERS,

I have recently accomplished the solution of this problem, which I spoke of at
the Meeting in 1864, e problem is as follows: required the number of the tri-
angles the angles of which are situate in a given curve or curves, and the sides of
which touch a given curve or curves. There are in all 52 cases of the problem,
according as the curves which contain the angles and are touched by the sides are
distinct curves, or are any or all of them the same curve. The first and easiest
case is when the curves are all of them distinct ; the number of triangles is here
= 2aceBDF, where a, ¢, e are the orders of the curves containing the angles (or, say, of

_the angle-curves) respectively ; and B, D, Fare the classes of the curves touched by

the sides (or, say, of the side-curves) respectively. An interesting case is when the

angle-curves are one and the same curve; or, say, a=c=e (where the sign = is

used to denote the identity of the curves); the number of triangles is here

10 ; REPORT—1870.

= {2a(a—1) (a—2)+A} BDF, where a, A are the order and class of the curve
a=c=e. In the reciprocal case, where the side-curves are one and the same curve,
say B=D=F, we have of course a like formula, viz. the number of triangles is
here = {2 B (B—1) (B—2)+5} ace, where B, 5 are the class and order of the
curve B=D=F. The last and most difficult case is when the six curves are all of
them one and the same curve, say a=c=e=B=D=F; the number of triangles
is here = one-sixth of
1),

: ‘ : +
+A (. 2a°— 18a?4+ 52a— 46)
+A2(. —18a°+162a2—420a+221)
+A (. 652a'—420a?+704a+172)
+ Ja‘t—46a'+221a?+172a

+a se Nieal Oe : 3 —9
+A (. . —12a4135
—9a? +135a—-600| ”

where a is the order, A the class of the curve; ais the number, three times the
class + the number of cusps, or (what is the same thing) three times the order
+ the number of inflexions.

On a Correspondence of Points and Lines in Space.
By Professor A. Caytzy, LL.D., PBS.

Nine points in a plane may be the intersection of two (and therefore of an infi-
nite series ot) cubic curves; say, that the nine points are an “ennead:” and simi-
larly nine lines through a point may be the intersection of two (and therefore of an
infinite series of) cubic cones; say, the nine lines are an ennead, Now, imagine
(in space) any 8 given points; taking a variable point P, and joining this with the 8
points, we have through P 8 lines, and there is through P a ninth line completing
the ennead ; this is said to be the corresponding line of P. We have thus to any
point P a single corresponding line through the point P; this is the correspond-
ence referred to in the heading, and which I would suggest as an interesting sub-
ject of investigation to geometers. Observe, that considering the whole system of
points in space, the carenponging lines are a triple system of lines, notthe whole
system of lines in space. It is thus, not any line whatever, but only a line of the
triple system, which has on it a corresponding point. But as to this some explana-
tion is necessary; for starting with an arbitrary line, and taking upon it a point
P, it would seem that P might be so determined that the given line and the lines
from P to the eight points should form an ennead,—that is, that the arbitrary line
would have upon it a corresponding point or points.

The question of the foregoing species of correspondence was suggested to me by
the consideration of a system of 10 points, such that joining any one whatever
of them with the remaining nine points, the nine lines thus obtained form an
ennead; or, say, that each of the 10 points is the “ enneadic centre ” of the remain-
ing nine. I have been led to such a system of 10 points by my researches upon
Quartic surfaces ; but I do not as yet understand the theory.

The small oscillations of a Particle and of a Rigid Body. By Ronerr
Srawett Bari, A.M., Professor of Applied Mathematics and Mechanism,
Royal College of Science for Ireland.

I. Introductory.

Laplace investigated the small oscillations of a particle on a sphere, Poisson
solved a special case of the same problem on the ellipsoid, Lagrange discovered
the general laws of small oscillations, and his methads have been improyed by
Messrs. Thomson and Tait; the results of which the following is an abstract, have
been obtained by a union of the method of Lagrange in its improved form with

————— ee

Se Aol

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. HBL

some elegant theorems of kinematics discovered by M. Chasles. Demonstrations
of some of the theorems here enunciated will be found in two papers written by
the author.

“On the small oscillations of a Particle on a Surface under the action of any
Forces,” Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, No. 39, 1869.
_ “On the small oscillations of a Rigid Body about a Fixed Point under the action
of any Forces, and more particularly when gravity is the only force acting,” Trans-
actions of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxiv. Science, part xvi.

Il. A Particle.

1, There are in general three lines called normal lines, such that whatever be the
small oscillations of a particle, free in space, the movement is compounded of simple
harmonic vibrations along the normal lines.

2. When the forces have a potential, a constant small quantity of energy would
draw the particle along any radius vector from its position of rest to the surface of
a certain ellipsoid ; the normal lines are in the principal directions of this ellipsoid,
and the lengths of the isochronous simple pendulums are proportional to the squares
of its principal axes.

3. When the particle is constrained to a surface, the motion is compounded of

‘vibrations in two directions on the surface, and when the forces have a potential,

the tangent lines to these directions are at right angles.

Ill. A Free Rigid Body.

4. A free rigid body may receive any displacement by being screwed along an
axis in space, the distance it travels along the axis when turned through the unit
of angle being termed the pitch of the screw.

5. The movement of a free rigid body, when making small oscillations, is com-
pounded of six normal movements, each consisting of a to-and-fro vibration about
anormal screw, the position, pitch, and period of which depend upon the forces. °

6. Whatever be the initial motion of the body, supposed small, it may be dis-
tributed uniquely among the six normal screws, and thus the entire motion is de-
termined,

IV. A Constrained Rigid Body.

7. Ifarigid body have & degrees of freedom, its small oscillations are compounded
of vibrations about / normal screws.

8. A body capable of turning around a fixed axis and sliding along it, has two
degrees of freedom; its motion is compounded of that about two normal screws
whose pitch is different, but both of which lie in the fixed axis.

9. A body three points of which are limited to a plane, has three degrees of

freedom; its motion is compounded of vibrations about three normal screws

whose pitch is zero, and whose directions are perpendicular to the plane.
10. A body rotating about a fixed point has three degrees of freedom; its
motion is compounded of vibrations about three normal screws whose pitch is zero,
and whose directions pass through the point.

N.B.—The screws in this case may be conveniently called the normal axes.

V. A Rigid Body rotating about a Point, the Forces having a Potential.

11. The body may be moved from one position to any other position by rotation
about a certain axis, passing through the point through a certain angle; this
axis and angle are called the axis of displacement and the angle of displacement
respectively.

12. On an axis through the point, take a radius vector proportional to the small
angular velocity, which a small quantity of energy would be able to communicate to
the body about the axis. The quantity of energy being constant, the locus of this
point on different axes is the momental ellipsoid.

15, On an axis through the point, take a radius vector proportional to the small
angle through which a small quantity of energy would be able to rotate the body
about the axis from its position of equilibrium against the forces. The quantity of

energy being constant, the locus of this point on different axes may be called the

ellipsoid of equal energy.
14, The three common conjugate diameters of the momental ellipsoid and the

12 REPORT—-1870.

ellipsoid of equal energy are the normal axes; the body would vibrate about each
of these axes, as about a fixed axis, and its motion is always compounded of vibra-
tions about these axes.

15, The length of the simple pendulum isochronous with the vibration about
each normal axis is proportional to the square of the ratio of the corresponding
diameter in the ellipsoid of equal energy to that of the momental ellipsoid.

16. The body is slightly disturbed from its position of rest by rotation about an
axis of displacement through an angle of displacement, and also by receiving a
small angular velocity about an initial instantaneous axis; this displacement and
velocity may be uniquely resolved into corresponding displacements and angular
velocities about the normal axes, and thus the motion of the body is completely
determined.

VI. A Rigid Body rotating about a fixed Point, Gravity being the only Force acting.

17. A plane drawn in the momental ellipsoid conjugate to the vertical through
the point of supension is called the conjugate plane.

18. For small oscillations to be possible, the instantaneous axis must initially lie
in the conjugate plane, and it will continue there throughout the motion.

19. There are two normal axes which are thus constructed. Draw an ellipsoid
whose axes are in the same directions as, and proportional to, the squares of those of
the momental ellipsoid, the common conjugate diameters of the sections of these
ellipsoids made by the conjugate plane are the normal axes.

20. The normal axes are not at right angles, except when the centre of gravity
lies in one of the principal planes, about the point of suspension; but a vertical
plane drawn through one normal axis is always perpendicular to a vertical plane
drawn through the other normal axis.

21. The body would vibrate about either of these normal axes as about a fixed
axis, and any small oscillation is compounded of simple vibrations about the normal
OXes.

Special attention is directed to the theorem of paragraph 19, which contains the
solution of the conical pendulum under its most general form,

On an Unexplained Contradiction in Geometry. By W. K. Crrrrorp, M.A.

Observations on Boole’s ‘ Laws of Thought.’ By the late R. Lustim Extis.
Communicated by the Rev. Ropert Harzey, F.2R.S.

It appears to be assumed in Chapter III. Section 8, that in deriving one concep-
tion from another the mind always moyes, so to speak, along the line of predica-
mentation, always passes from the genus to the species. No doubt everything stands
in relation to something else, as the species to its genus, and consequently the sym-
bolical language proposed is in extent perfectly general, that is, it may be applied
to all the objects in the universe. But I venture to doubt whether it can express
explicitly all the relations between ideas which really exist, all the threads of con-
nexion which lead the mind from one to the other. It seems to me that the mind
passes from idea to idea in accordance with various principles of suggestion, and
that, in correspondence with the different classes of such principles of suggestion, we
ought to recognize different branches of the general theory of inference. This
leads me to a further doubt whether logic and the science of quantity can in any
way be put in antithesis to one another. From the notion of an apple we may

roceed to that of two apples, and so on in a process of aggregation which is the
jowiiniion of the science of discrete quantity. Or again, from the notion of an
apple we may proceed to that of a red apple; and this movement of the mind in
lined predicamentali is the foundation of ordinary logic. But it is plain @ priori
that there are other principles of suggestion besides these two, and the following
considerations lead me to think that there are other exercises of the reasoning
faculty than those included in the two sciences here referred to. In the first place,
certain inferences not included in the ordinary processes of conversion and syllo-
gism were recognized as exceptional cases by the old logicians, Leibnitz has

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 13

mentioned some with the remark that they do not depend upon the dictum de
omni et nullo, but on something of equivalent evidence. The only question is
whether we should be right in considering these cases as exceptions, and if they
are so, to what they owe their existence. One instance is the znversio relationis,
e. y., Noah is Shem’s father, therefore Shem is Noah’s son. Here we pass from the
idea of Shem to that of his father, and vice versd. The movement of the mind is
along a track distinct from that which it follows, either in algebra or what we com-
monly call logic. The perception of the truth of the inference depends on a recog-
nition of the correlation of the two ideas, father and son. Again, take a similar
instance. Prince Albert sat at the Emperor’s right hand, therefore the Emperor
sat at Prince Albert’s left hand. How shall we express such inferences symboli-
cally? Let S be Shem, N Noah, f father, s son:

Eliminating f between these two equations, we get
S=sN.

Nothing can be simpler than this; but the symbolss, fare of a distinct nature
from those employed in the ‘Laws of Thought;’ for fA does not denote a
species of A, but an idea standing in a different relation to it. The distinction
between these two kinds of symbols becomes more manifest when we reflect that
Ff? is not identical with f, but denotes “father of father,” or grandfather. Now I
do not see how these cases of inversion of relation are to be dealt with symbolically
without the introduction of such symbols. In the following examples I confine
myself to the cases afforded by relationship, and the succession of generations.

Let A,B, C denote three persons, s son, g grandson; then if Bis A’s son and
C is B’s, C is A’s grandson, which we may express symbolically by the following

equations :—
B=sA, C=sB, s*=g.
Eliminating Band s, we get C=gA. It would be more accurate in these examples
to introduce a symbol z or y to indicate that Bis only one of the possible sons of
A, an individual ranged under the species sA. I shall do that in the next example,
in which the word son is replaced by the more general term descendant, denoted
by d. The equations will now be
B=2dA, C=ydB, d?=<d,
viz. a descendant not of the first generation. The result of eliminating B now is,
C=ydadA ;
but by a principle about to be noticed dr=.'d, therefore C=yz'zdA, or C is in-
cluded in the class of descendants of A.

The principle just used forms one of the recognized examples of an inference not
lying within the domain of Aristotelian logic. It was called “ transitio ex recto in
obliquum.” Whately, though he says nothing of its nature, gives in his praxis of
examples one which depends upon it. A negro is aman, therefore he who kills a
negro killsa man. Let this derived notion killing be denoted by f, which may
serve to indicate a general functional dependence, then M and N denoting man and
hegro respectively, we have the following equations :—

N=aM, fe=z'f;

sfNSofM, ’
or the killing of a negro isa kind of homicide. The evidence of the truth of the
equation fr=a'f is the same as that in favour of the equation zy=yz, when x andy
both belong to the kind of symbols used in the ‘Laws of Thought.’ I shall not stop
to inquire into the limitations which it may perhaps require.

The general truth of the equations

=x and zy=yxr
appears to suffer another exception in the case relative terms, that is, of adjectives
of which the interpretation is functional of the object to which they are applied.
A small St. Bernard dog is not simpliciter a small dog; the word meaning that
which is less than the medium size of the class of objects to which it is applied.

14 REPORT—1870.

Here neither s*=s nor svr=zs. IPfwe say that in order to save whole these equa-
tions we may employ a different symbol for every application of the adjective small,
how can we express the meaning which is common to them all, and in virtue of
which the word small exists as an element of language ?

Diffident as I am with respect to all these remarks on a method in which I find
so much to admire, I am yet more so with respect to the following. But it seems
to me that we cannot say that

x(1—«)=0

expresses proprio vigore, that is, in virtue of antecedent conventions, what is called
the principle of contradiction.

In ordinary language we have words which, independently of this pe le,
express negation; we say red, not red, and the like; but in the ‘ Laws of Thought’
there is no other means of expressing not red than by 1—z, x denoting red.

Now the interpretation of this symbol 1—. seems to me to be given by the
principle of contradiction, and therefore I should rather say that the equation
«(1—«)=0 is interpreted by that principle than that it expresses it. In accord-
ance with this view, the equation z*=x would appear to be independent of the
principle of contradiction.

On Boole’s ‘ Laws of Thought.’ By the Rey. Rosrrt Harter, F.R.S.

This paper was intended as asupplement to some ‘ Remarks on Boole’s Mathe-
matical Analysis of Logic,” which the author submitted to the Section at the
Nottingham Meeting, an abstract of which was printed in the Report for 1866,
(See Transactions of the Sections, pp. 3-6.)

From the logical equation 2?=2, the equation ¢+«?=0 is derived by subtracting
x? from both members, and the result is put under the form a(1—2)=0 by the law
of distribution. It is to be observed, however, that at every stép of the process
the principle of identity c=z is assumed, and in Boole’s interpretation of the final
resulé the same principle is used, for it is implied that the x without the brackets is
identical with the « within. Further, in the final interpretation not only is the
principle of contradiction (or non-contradiction) employed, as Leslie Ellis points
out in the latter part of his ‘Observations,’ but the principle of excluded middle is
also employed. For in interpreting 1—z to mean not -z, it is tacitly assumed
that every one of the things of which the universe, represented by unity, is made
up, is either z or not z.. It would thus appear that these three principles, identity,
contradiction, and excluded middle, are incapable of being reduced to more elemen-
tary truths. They are axiomatic, and Boole made use of them unconscious]
in framing his laws of logical interpretation. (‘Laws of Thought,’ chap. ii.

rop. iv.
0 is ahh iii. § 5, Boole, by three different methods, one of which is partly logical,
and the other two are wholly algebraical, deduces the equation

SA)FO)=0

from the equation for the expansion or development of any logical function f(z), viz.

S@)=fYe+fO)d-2),
where f(x) may or may not involve other class symbols than 2, The latter equa-
tion is established in chap. v. § 10, by means of the principle that it is lawful to
treat x as a quantative symbol susceptible only of the values O and 1. But it is
worthy of notice that the former equation may be directly established by means
of the same principle. For, treating f(«)=0 as an algebraic equation, of which
the root x has only the values 1 and 0, we have at once, by the theory of equations,

FU F0O)=9.

The influence of Boole’s ideas may be traced in works apparently so diverse as
Professor W. Stanley Jevons’s ‘Substitution of Similars,’ Professor P. G,. Tait’s
‘ Quaternions,’ and Sir Benjamin Brodie’s ‘Calculus of Chemical Operations.’ The
system of logic proposed by Mr. Jevons is closely analogous to, and in some respects
identical with, that given by Boole; but it is distinguished from the latter by the
rejection of the calculus of l and 0. In alittle work entitled “‘ Pure Logic, or the

ee a So

i . at i i te i

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 15

Logic of Quality apart from Quantity,” Mz, Jevons has urged various objections to

certain parts of Boole’s system, more particularly to the numerical calculus. The
author of this paper has briefly considered those objections in the concluding por-
tion of an article on “ Boole’s Life and Writings,” which he contributed to the i uly
Number of the BritishQuarterly Review for 1866 (pp. 141-181).

Hamilton’s theory of quaternions, as expounded by Prof. Tait, has its logical basis
in principles which were first brought clearly to light in the course of Boole’s remark-
able inquiries. No one can read the earlier chapters of. Prof. Tait’s ‘Quaternions,’
and compare them with the earlier chapters of Boole’s ‘ Laws of Thought,’ without
being struck with the similarity, not to say the identity, of many of the processes
employed in both works. Treating of the properties of the quaternion symbols
8, iid Y, the expounder of Hamilton’s system remarks, “It is curious to compare
the properties of these quaternion symbols with the Elective Symbols of Logic,
as given in Boole’s wonderful treatise on the ‘Laws of Thought,’ and to think
that the same grand science of mathematical analysis, by processes remarkably
similar to each other, reveals to us truths in the science of position far beyond the
powers of the geometer, and truths of deductive reasoning to which unaided thought
could never have led the logician.”’ (Tait’s Quaternions, p. 50, footnote.)

Sir Benjamin Brodie has endeavoured to do for chemistry what Boole has done
for logic,—to reduce it under the domain of mathematics, using the term ‘ mathe-
matics” in the enlarged sense, explained in the author’s former communication.
Of the validity of Sir Benjamin’s proposed “ method for the investigation, by means
of symbols, of the laws of the distribution of weight in chemical change,” it is not
necessary to speak here. But that method is interesting, as being undoubtedly the
first attempt to “free the science of chemistry from the trammels imposed upon it
by accumulated hypotheses, and to endow it with the most necessary of all the in-
struments of progressive thought, an exact and rational language.” Sir Benjamin’s
system was evidently suggested by Boole’s ‘ Laws of Thought.’ Whether the soil
into which he has transplanted Boole’s ideas be congenial or not, remains to be
seen,

But the most remarkable amplification of Boole’s conceptions which the author
has hitherto met with is contained in a recent paper by Mr. C.S. Peirce, on the
“ Logic of Relatives”’ (Memoirs of the American Academy, vol. ix.). Mr. Peirce
divides logical terms into three grand classes. “The first embraces those whose
logical form involves only the conception of quality, and which therefore re-=
present a thing simply, as fa These discriminate objects in the most rudi-
mentary way, which does not involve any consciousness of discrimination, They
regard an object as it is in itself as such (quale); for example, as horse, tree, or
man. These are absolute terms. The second class embraces terms whose logical
form involves the conception of relation, and which require the addition of another
term to complete the denotation. These discriminate objects with a distinct con-
sciousness of discrimination. They regard an object as over against another, that
is, as relative; as father of, lover of, or servant of. These are simple relative terms.
The third class embraces terms whose logical form involves the conception of
bringing things into relation, and which require the addition of more than one

term to complete the denotation. They discriminate, not only with consciousness

_ of discrimination, but with consciousness of its origin. They regard an object as

medium or third between two others; that is, as conjugative, as given of to
, or buyer of for from These may be termed conjugative
terms.” “ Boole’s logical algebra,” says Mr. Peirce, “has such singular beauty, so
far as it goes, that it is interesting to inquire whether it cannot be extended over
the whole realm of formal logic, instead of being restricted to that simplest and
least useful part of the subject, the logic of absolute terms, which, when he wrote,
was the only formal logic known.” The object of Mr. Peirce’s paper is to show that
this extension is possible. Some account was given of the notation and processes
employed.

On Musical Intervals. By Witi1am Srorriswoopr, IA., F.B.S.

16 REPORT—1870.

On Linear Differential Equations. By W.H. L. Russet, F.R.S.

The object of this paper was to explain certain discoveries made by the author
in linear differential equations, and chiefly to solve the general equation of the mth
order, whenever that solution isof the form y= Pe», P and o being rational and
entire functions of (x).

——— —___—

On a Numerical Theorem, with practical applications.
By W. H. Wa Lenn.

This novel and practical theorem is, “That if ¢ be the tens’, and w the units’

digit of a two-figure number, and 8 be any integer less than 10, then
(10—8)¢+ u
has the same remainder to 6 as 10¢+-x.”

For (10—6)t+«u, when expanded by multiplication, becomes 10¢—d¢+u, or
(10¢+ «)—68¢; this latter expression only differs from 10¢+u by an exact number
of times 8, and therefore has the same remainder to 6 as 10¢+u.

When this theorem is adapted to other than two-figure numbers, the expression
(10 —8)t-+-u, by expansion, becomes

(10—8)""1a+ (10—8)"-*b+ (10—8)"-8e+ ... . + (10—8)’s + (10—8)é+u,
if n= the number of digits or figures in the given number; for each time 10
occurs as a factor in any term, it must be treated in the way above indicated.

The remainder to any digit may be determined by means of the expression
(10 —8)t+u without the knowledge of any multiple of that digit. When the
arithmetical operation indicated by the formula (10—6)t+- is resorted to, however
large the number may be that is operated upon, the said operation is repeated until
only one digit remains, thus yielding the remainder to 6 without the performance
of any division. When 5=9 the operation consists merely of the addition of the
digits of the given number, reducing the result from time to time to a single figure
as may be requisite, also by addition; for other values of 6 less than 9, multiplica-
tion as well as addition is necessary. The name wnitation has been given to this
class of operations, the remainders being witates, and the divisor (6) the base.

Operations upon remainders being analogous to operations (of the same kind)
upon dividends, an operation (unitation) in which the base has any value less than
10 (and certain values above 10) becomes available to verify arithmetical operations.
Also the unitate of an unknown number may be calculated from a known number
with which it is connected by certain known operations.

The following remarks will facilitate the practical use of the operations com-
prised under the above-mentioned formule, and will illustrate and suggest applica-
tions of the theorem that might otherwise remain dormant :—

The general form of the notation to indicate the unitate of a number (2) to the
base 5, is U,c=y, in which y is necessarily equal to or less than 6. As U,7 is the

simplest series of unitates that are useful, the suffix is left out, thus Uz,
Example :
2=28(25*—2°)=16604, Ur=U1(4—5)=U(13—5)=8; also U16604=8,
U,z=U 7(U,2-U,2')=U,7(9—4)=7 ; also U,16604=7.

Formule involving direct operations in decimals may be checked in the same
way as other formule.

Example :

w= (2°8 —*54) (515+ °5? — 7°) =116:17982.
Uz=U (10—9) (24+ U5?—U7*) =U1(247-—1)=8.

Formule involving indirect operations, whether of decimals or otherwise, must
have the remainders of division or other terminations of the process taken fully into
account.

Example :

ra? = 2-005884

8
17 i eres oe

CO OO Ee.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 17

also
U(2-00588+ =) ayy (5+2) z ieee

Series of unitates have remarkable properties which fit them for practical use in
the verification of tables &c. Recurrence is a general and most valuable rule with
all series of unitates, and singular sequences are common. The series (to the base
9) for the squares is 1, 4, 9, 7,7, 9,4, 1,9; 1, 4,9, &c. By means of the series
for negative powers the unitates that correspond to certain circulating decimals

may be assigned ; for instance, 7a 142857, 14, &e. has its unitate (to the base 9)

equal to 4, = has its unitate equal to 1, and so on.

The expression (10—6)t+w also furnishes the means of obtaining unitates to
bases greater than 10, such as 11, 12, 99, 999, &c. For instance, by operating with
alternate digits, U,,6053=U,,113= 14.

If the unitates (to various bases) of a number be given, it is possible to find the
number ; if 5 be less than 10, the number of unitates required for the purpose will
(at least) be equal to the number of digits in the desired number. Tor instance,
required the two-figure number whose unitate to the base 9 is 5 and to the base
10, 4; this is found, by comparing the unitates of two-figure numbers to the said
bases, to be 14.

Checking calculations, verifying tables, and ascertaining remainders to divisors
are therefore accomplished with ease by means of unitation.

GENERAL PHysIcs.
On Hills and Dales. By J. Crerk Maxwett, LL.D., F.R.SS. L. & E.

After defining level surfaces and contour-lines on the earth’s surface, the author
showed that the only measure of the height of a mountain which is mathematically
consistent with itself is found by considering the work done in ascending the
mountain from a standard station.

By considering a level surface, such as that of the sea, which is supposed
gradually to rise by the addition of water from the level of the deepest sea-
bottom to the tops of the highest mountains, he showed that at first there is but
one wet region round the deepest bottom. Afterwards other wet regions appear at
other bottom points of the surface and continually enlarge. For every new wet

ion there isa bottom; and when two wet regions coalesce into one there is a
point where the surface is level, but neither a top nor a bottom, and this may be
called a Bar. When a wet region, as the water rises, throws out arms and em-
braces within it a dry region, there is another level point which may be called a
Pass. The wet region then becomes cyclic. When the water covers the top of the
island thus formed the wet region loses its cyclosis again, and at last, when all the
tops are covered, the wet region extends over the whole globe, Hence the number
of mountain-tops is equal to the number of passes plus one, and the number of
bottoms is equal to the number of bars plus one.

The author then considered lines of slope which are normal to the contour-lines.
In general a line of slope is terminated by a top on the one side and by a bottom on
the other. At a pass ora bar, however, there is a singularity. Two lines of slope can
be drawn through this stationary point ; one of these is terminated by two tops and
is a line of watershed, the other is terminated by two bottoms and is a line of
watercourse. The watershed intersects the watercourse at right angles.

If we consider all the watersheds which meet at the same mountain-top, each of
these will reach a pass or a bar. The watercourses, which also pass through these
points, form a closed boundary, which is that of the region occupied by all the lines
of a e which meet at the mountain-top. This region round the mountain is called
a Hill.

1870. 2

18 REPORT—1870.

In the same way there is a system of watersheds forming the boundary of a region
called a Dale, within which all the lines of slope run to the same bottom.

The whole surface of the earth may be divided into Hills, the number of these
being the same as that of their Tops.

By an independent division, the whole surface may be divided into Dales, each
Dale having a different Bottom.

Besides this, we may, by superposing these divisions, consider the earth as
divided into Slopes, each slope Foie bounded by two watersheds and two water-
courses, and being named from the top and the bottom between which all its lines
of slope run,

The number of Slopes is shown to be equal to the total number of Tops, Bottoms,
Passes, and Bars minus two.

An Investigation of the Mathematical Theory of Combined Streams.
By W. J. Macavorn Ranxine, C.E., LL.D., F.RSS. L. & E*

The object of the investigation, of which this is an abstract, is to extend to com-
binations of any number of streams of fluid, whether liquid, vaporous, or gaseous,
the principles which have been applied to combinations of two streams by Pravigue
authors, and especially by Professor Zeuner, in his treatise entitled “Das Locomo-
tivenblasrohr ” (Ziirich, 1863), Several component streams of fluid, each coming
through its own supply-tube and nozzle, are led in directions parallel to each other
into one end of a cylindrical space called the junction-chamber, in which they
mingle so as to form a resultant stream ; and that resultant stream escapes from
the other end of the junction-chamber through an orifice called the throat. The
dynamical principle upon which the motion depends is that of the equality of
impulse and momentum. The aggregate momentum per second of the component
streams is found by multiplying the mass of fluid which comes from each nozzle in
a second by its velocity, and adding together the products. The momentum of the
resultant stream is the product of the mass of fluid discharged from the throat in a
second, into the velocity at the throat. The difference of these two momenta is
equal to the impulse per second exerted in the junction-chamber, which impulse is
found by multiplying the area of the throat by the difference between the inten-
sities of the pressure at the nozzle-end and at the throat-end of the chamber respec-
tively. If there is a gain of momentum, the pressure at the throat is less than at
the nozzles; if there is a loss of momentum, the pressure at the throat is greater
than at the nozzles.

There is always a loss of energy, which is expended in producing eddies, unless
the velocities of the component and resultant streams are equal to each other.
The amount of that loss can be calculated in any given case by the help of the
principle already stated; and that principle being expressed in the form of an
equation, and taken together with another equation expressing the equality of the
mass discharged at the throat to the sum of the masses which come through the
nozzles, affords the means of solving various problems as to combined streams.

On the Thermodynamic Acceleration and Retardation of Streams.
By W. J. Macavorn Ranxint, C.E., LL.D., F.RSS. L. & Et

The object of this paper is to state in a more general and comprehensive form
than has hitherto been done to my Imowledge, a thermodynamic and hydrodyna~
mic principle of which many eee cases are well known and understood,
That principle may be stated as follows :— j

In a steady stream of any fluid, the abstraction of heat at and near places of mini-
mum pressure, and the addition of heat at and near places of maximum pressure,
to produce acceleration ; the addition of heat at and near places of minimum pressure,
and the abstraction of heat at and near places of maximum pressure, tend to produce

* Printed in full in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1870, No. 123.
+ Printed in full in the Philosophical Magazine for October 1870.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 19

_ retardation; and ina circulating stream the quantity of energy of flow gained or lost in
each complete circuit is equal to the quantity of energy lost or gained in the form of
heat ; and in the absence of friction, the ratios borne by that quantity to the heat added
and the heat abstracted (of which tt is the difference) are regulated by the absolute
temperatures at which heat is added and abstracted, agreeably to the second law of
_ thermodynamics.

Amongst particular cases of the thermodynamic acceleration and retardation of
streams, the following may be specified.

Acceleration by the addition of heat at and near a place of maximum pressure :—
the draught of a furnace; and the production of disturbances in the atmosphere in
regions where the ground is hotter than the air.

__ Retardation by the abstraction of heat at and near a place of maximum pressure :—
the dying away of atmospheric disturbances in regions where the ground is colder
than the air.

Acceleration by the abstraction of heat at and near a place of minimum pressure :—
the injector for feeding boilers, in which a jet of steam, being liquefied by the
abstraction of heat, is enabled not only to force its way back into the boiler, but to
sweep a current of additional water along with it; also, to a certain extent, the
ejector-condenser.

The conduction of heat from the parts of a stream where the pressure and tem-
perature are highest to the parts of the same stream where the pressure and tempera-
ture are lowest, produces, according to the foregoing principles, a gradual and per-
manent retardation of the stream, independently of the agency of friction ; and this
is accompanied by the production of heat to an amount equivalent to the lost
energy of flow.

Report of the Liverpool Compass Committee. By Joun T. Towson.

The last Report read to the British Association was in 1859, at Aberdeen. The
most important result that had occurred since that time was the cessation of the
difference of opinion that had previously existed between those connected with the
royal navy and with the mercantile marme, the former advocating the use of a
table of errors, the latter mechanical compensation on the principle introduced by
the Astronomer Royal. In 1854, Mr. Towson said his advocacy of compensation
was scarcely tolerated by some Members of the Association; but in 1869, Mr.
Archibald Smith, one of the ‘uthors of the ‘Admiralty Manual on Compass
Matters,’ stated before the Royal Society that the question of mechanical compen<
sation of the compass had materially changed in its aspect of late years, and he
advocates its use in most cases. The next matter was of minor importance, but
proves that neither a table of errors nor mechanical compensation can be relied on
within the limit of three degrees. If the ship be swung to the north or south,
from left to right. the needle will be drawn three degrees more to the right than it
would be if the ship were swung in the contrary direction. The most valuable
result which has been brought about within the last year is the establishment of a
yoluntary examination of masters of iron ships in the theory and practice of com=
pass-deviation.

On Non-tidal Variations of the Sea-level on the Coast of India.
By W. Parkes.

This paper gave some results based on tidal observations taken at Kurrachee,
near the mouth of the Indus. It described a graphical process for eliminating the
changes of sea-level due to semidiurnal and diurnal undulations, thus exhibiting
only those which are due to tides of long period or other causes. Referring to the
diagram for the month of November 1868, which is appended to the Report of the
Tidal Committee in this volume, it will be seen that the black dots representing the
successive heights of high and low water range themselves in four waving lines
along the paper. The line which represents “ half-tide level” was so drawn as to
be the locus of a series of ordinates, each of which is a mean of the corresponding
ordinates of these four lines.

By measuring off the ordinate (or height above a fixed level) for noon of each

20 REPORT—1870.

day, 365 values of half-tide level were obtained for the year, varying from 25 inches
above the mean to 10 inches below, or to a total extent of 35 inches. These 365
values were tabulated and grouped successively as follows :—

Ist. The averages for the calendar months respectively were obtained. These
do not indicate any sensible annual or semiannual tide.

2nd. The same figures were next grouped according to the lunations, so as to
obtain the mean height for every day of the moon’sage. The figures showed that
there was no sensible tide following these periods.

3rd. Next they were grouped according to the declination, so as to obtain the
mean height on the days when the moon was crossing the equator from north to
south, and on each successive day till she returned to the same position. From
this it appeared that the water was slightly higher when the moon was in north
than when she was in south declination; and a similar result was obtained by
treating the values for the year 1867 in the same manner, but the difference (13 to
2 inches) was too small to justify any conclusion.

4th. They were then grouped according to the moon’s distance from the earth.
The means for 1868-69 showed a slight elevation when the moon was near apogee,
and a depression when near perigee; but this result was not confirmed for 1867.

From these trials it was concluded that there were no sensible tides of long period
due to solar or lunar influence, and that the causes of the variations must be sought
for elsewhere. So far, however, the result has been only negative. The range was
too great to be attributed to atmospheric pressure, and the want of any persistent
elevation during the south-west monsoon showed that they could not be attributed
(directly, at least) to local winds.

An extraordinary rise took place in June 1869 to the extent, when at the maxi-
mum, of 25 inches. The sea-level was unusually high for about seven days, during
which there was great heat and an unsettled appearance in the weather, but no de-
finite atmospheric disturbance. A similar effect was observed at about the same
period in 1868, but not in 1870,

ASTRONOMY.

On the Present State of the Question relative to ‘Lunar Activity or Quiescence.
By W. RB. Bret, F.R.AS.

From the time of Schréter the question of change on the moon’s surface has
been more or less agitated; the ‘Selenotopographische Fragmente’ contain nume-
rous instances of what he considered to be changes of a temporary character, and a
few of a more permanent nature, as the formation of new craters. It is, however,
notorious that he failed to establish the fact of a decided change in any one
instance; nor is this to be wondered at when we consider the paucity of the mate-
rials he had at hiscommand. Notwithstanding the comparative neglect into which
the observations recorded in the ‘ Fragments’ have fallen and the judgment passed
upon them by some of the best known selenographers, there can be no question
that they embody the results of zealous and persevering attention to the moon’s
surface, and ought not to be passed over in the examination of any given spot the
history of which we are desirous of becoming aquainted with during the earliest
period of descriptive observational selenography.

The labours of Schroéter’s successors, Lohrmann and Beer and Madler, have
added greatly to the number of objects, either as delineated on their maps or
referred to in their letterpress. Lohrmann appears to have carefully studied
Schroter’s results, as we find him quoting the measures obtained by Schroter in
several instances. On examining the results of the two greatest ccleqeaa ae
works of the present century and comparing the one with the other, we pre-
cisely the same kind of phenomena presenting themselves, which in a great measure
perplexed Schréter ; but as Lohrmann and Midler worked independently of each
other, and Midler evidently had a very low idea of the value of the preceding
labours of Schroter, these phenomena passed unnoticed at the time. Upon consult-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21

ing the three works for elucidating the history of any given object, such results as
these are frequently obtained. An object is found in Schréter designated by a
Greek or other character, and its appearance described in his text. This object
may be altogether omitted by Lohrmann, but given on Beer and Madler’s map; and
objects are by no means rare which may be found on Lohrmann, but omitted by
Beer and Midler, and vice versd.

Were the results of the labours of Julius Schmidt during a period of nearly
thirty years given to the public, there can be no doubt that our knowledge of seleno-
graphy would be greatly advanced. His chart must contain a large proportion of
the objects previously recorded by Schréter, Lohrmann, and Beer and Madler; and,
judging from the instances already alluded to, of apparent omissions by one or other
of the above-named observers, it is highly probable that the number of such
instances would be much increased. The value of his measures (4000) of the alti-
tudes of lunar mountains for comparison with or addition to those of Schroter and
Midler cannot admit of a doubt. His published catalogue of rills is very valuable
in this respect. It is to Schmidt that we are indebted for one of the most import-
ant announcements bearing on the subject of lunar activity, that of a change in the
crater Linné, “which,” says Madler (Report Brit. Assoc. 1868, p. 517), “has
hitherto offered the only authentic example of an admitted change.” He had pre-
viously said (same Report), “what has lately been obseryed in the crater Linné
proves at all events that there real changes have taken place, and that too under
circumstances even visible to us.” Further on, however, the great selenographer
remarks that on the 10th of May, 1867, his eye having undergone an operation for
cataract, he attempted an observation of Linné in the heliometer of the observatory
at Bonn, and found it shaped exactly, and with the same throw of shadow, as he
remembered to have seen it in 1831. “The event,” he says, “of whatever nature
it might have been, must have passed away without leaving any trace observable
by me.” The doubt still hanging over this object is well known, and it may be
regarded as furnishing at least one of the instances of the present state of the ques-
tion of activity. The uncertainty attaching to the question of change in this parti-
cular instance mainly arises from the difficulty of deciding upon the accuracy or
otherwise of the delineations of Lohrmann and Beer and Madler, although both
describe it as showing a diameter of five or six English miles. Generally speak-
ing, the observations between October 1866 and July 1870 all agree in its bi
pe enmnce, differing greatly from that which it must have presented according to
the delineations and descriptions of the two selenographers just named ; also that
no change of a physical character has taken place in it during the 33 years it has
been under constant observation.

It has been supposed that photography would solve all such difficulties, and that
photograms of the lunar surface taken under similar angles of illumination and
visual ray would agree with each other; but here, again, precisely the same diffi-
culties present themselves which perplexed Schroter, and which have been met
with in comparing Lohrmann’s and Beer and Midler’s works. Objects figured by
the earlier selenographers occur on some photograms, but not on others of about
the same phase of illumination. There appears to be an agency capable of affecting
the visibility of objects, rendering them indistinct or invisible on some occasions,
while on others they are distinctly seen on the photograms. Whatever opera-
tions may have taken place in the crater Linné, producing phenomena the recur-
rence of which is rare, in all the examples above mentioned, from Schroter’s time
to the present we have phenomena of a different character, exceedingly difficult of
explanation, and constituting an important element in the solution of the question
of present activity or quiescence ; for unless it be fully proved that all these instances
depend upon changes of visual and illuminating angles, a strong suspicion will
exist of their being more immediately connected with the moon itself. To effect
such a proof, however, is a matter of no small difficulty. Madler alludes to the per-
formance of calculations of the most varied kind as necessary for the delineation
of lunar features; and in the case before us the calculation of several elements for
each separate observation (and they are very numerous) is absolutely essential for
the purpose of referring the phenomena observed to changes of illumination and
visual ray. Calculations of this kind have not yet been made to any great extent,

22 REPORT—1870.

and the consequence is that the entire question remains involved in doubt. During
the last seventeen months as many as 1227 observations of the spots on Plato alone
have been made; and although the varying state of the earth’s atmosphere affects
in no slight degree the visibility of such delicate objects, phenomena are presenting
themselves which call for a much more rigorous treatment than has yet been
accorded to them. The affirmation of change on, or quiescence of, the moon’s sur-
face must depend, not upon the accumulation of desultory and undiscussed obser-
vations, but upon such as are undertaken on a well-arranged system and discussed
with reference to every known agency capable of affecting them. The present
state of the question is therefore one of doubt, one that calls for observation of the
most vigorous character and discussion of the most rigorous nature to settle it.
Observation of late has been tending towards a registration of minute detail detected
on the moon’s surface, but discussion in various ways is behind the requirements

of selenography, and until it can keep pace with observation the doubt alluded to
above must remain,

On the Distribution of Cometic Perihelia. By A. 8, Davis, B.A.

The hypothesis that those comets whose orbits are undistinguishable from para-
bolas are moving in hyperbolic, non-periodic orbits, leads to the following theore-
tical law for the distribution of their perihelia. The number of comets within any
distance from the sun is proportional to that distance. This follows from an inves-
tigation contained in a paper on cometary orbits published in the Philosophical
Magazine for September 1870. The first object of the present paper was to show
that the actual Aisieilaifi of the perihelia of parabolic and hyperbolic comets is

robably in accordance with this law. For this purpose the numbers of comets
aving perihelion distances lying respectively between 0:0 and 0:1, between 0-1
and 0:2, and so on, were ascertained. It was found that, instead of these numbers
being nearly equal, they were respectively 11, 10, 14, 17, 11, 33, 18, 23, 21, 24, 15,
10, 8, 4,5, 1, 1. It was then shown that this want of agreement with the theore-
tical law of distribution might arise from the fact that the probability that a comet
will be observed depends upon the magnitude of its perihelion distance, those
comets being most likely to be observed which have pesiheliat distances rather less
than the radius of the earth’s orbit. That this cause does produce a considerable
effect upon the apparent manner of distribution of perihelia was shown thus :—The
known comets were arranged in three groups containing respectively those which
appeared before 1750, between 1750 and 1800, and between 1800 and 1865. The
numbers representing the distribution of perihelia for these three groups were re-
spectively
1, 3, 2, 8, 8, 16, 4, 7, 3, 6, 2, &e.,
4, 2, 6,3, 7, 7, 7, 10,. 6, 7, 5, 2; 1, &e.,
6, 5, 6, 6, 1, 10, 7, 6, 12, 11, 8, 8, 7, 4, &e.,

showing that the distribution of the perihelia of a later group are much more nearly
in accordance with the theoretical law than that of an earlier group, owing doubt-
less to the fact that the probability that a comet would be detected was formerly
more dependent upon the magnitude of its perihelion distance than it now is. It
seems probable that if all the comets which visit the sun were observed, the distri-
bution of their perihelia would be nearly in accordance with the above-stated theo-
retical law. Such an accordance the author thought would be an argument in
favour of the theory that the parabolic comets are non-periodic.

In the second part of the paper the author showed that a statement made by
Prof. Kirkwood regarding the distribution of cometic perihelia was incorrect. Prof.
Kirkwood, on finding that the longitudes of the perihelia of a large proportion of
those comets with very small perihelion distances do not differ greatly from the
longitude of the solar apex, concluded that this fact was due to a crowding of the
pee about the solar apex, produced, he thought, by the sun’s motion in space.

rof. Kirkwood had not shown that the latitudes of the peribelia were nearly the
same as the latitude of the solar apex. The author found, Ce marking upon a celes-
tial globe the positions of the perihelia of all-parabolic and hyperbolic comets with

IM. wet & ap cee gs

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 23

erihelion distances less than °5, that the perihelia of comets with very small peri-
flan distances exhibit no greater tendency to crowd about the solar apex than
comets with larger perihelion distances.

On Solar Spots observed during the past Eleven Years.
By the Rey. Freprricx Howrerr, F.2.A.S.

The paper was illustrated by numerous very carefully executed drawings, enlarged
from others which had been micrometrically observed and drawn at the telescope,
chiefly by means of projecting the sun’s image on a screen. It was well known
how rich the years 1859 and 1860 were in solar spots; and the eleven-year period
was again being strikingly corroborated by the number and size of the groups and
individual spots of the present year, and which may be expected to prevail until
1871. Magnificent groups which appeared in the sun’s northern hemisphere in
March, April, and August, in almost precisely the same heliographic latitude and
longitude, would apparently seem to evince that the disturbing causes, whatever
they were, had localized themselves on the disk—not, however, without long
intervals of comparative repose. The forms assumed by the facule were described
by the author, who felt convinced that they were attached, for the time being, to
the pereioephere, and that they were not clouds floating above it; otherwise they
would frequently impinge on the penumbre in ways very different from those in
which, in point of fact, they are seen to occur. If they consist of simply photo-
spheric matter, however, it would seem to be in some compressed or otherwise
peculiar manner ; inasmuch as the coarser mottling, so plainly to be distinguished
on all other parts of the sun’s surface, can never be detected on the facule, and
especially on those masses enclosed more or less at times within the receding mar-
gins of the penumbre. Dr. Huggins, however, has detected the finer or rice-grain
specks of light in some of the more diffused forms of the faculz. There is appa-
rently no direct relationship between the amount of solar-spot disturbance and the
terrestrial magnetic storms. The author, however, has suggested the possibility of
there being some degree of correlation between groups of a peculiarly cyclonic
arrangement and unusual magnetic disturbances; none, or next to none, of the spots
had been found to possess any tendency to rotate as it were on an axis—as has,
however, been occasionally witnessed by other observers. An instance was given
(illustrated by a drawing) how a diffused penumbral speck was observed to draw
tz towards the neighbouring umbra of a solar spot at the rate of 12 seconds of are
in four hours, which is equivalent to about B60 yards per second (and closely
similar to observations of the same kind by Chacornac). As the speck drew in
towards the umbra it assumed a continually more narrow and wedge-shaped form
(the apex towards the direction of advance), and which, therefore, might well be
taken to indicate that down-rush into the umbra aforesaid insisted upon by Mr.
Norman Lockyer. Assuming, as the author does, that the spots are depressions in
the solar photosphere, filled up by the solar gaseous atmosphere, this is evinced, Ist,
by the sings testimony of the eye; 2ndly, by the stereoscopic effect obtained by

. De La Rue’s photographs of spots taken at intervals of about two days; 3rdly,
by the foreshortening of the penumbra of a neat circular spot, alternately on the right
and left side, as it first comes on, and then passes off the disk—a phenomenon first
noticed by Dr. Wilson in the last century; and 4thly, by the elegant spectro-baro-
metric evidence (as the author termed it), whereby the progressive thickening of
the dark solar absorption-lines, as they pass successively over the spectrum of the

jhotosphere, penumbra, and umbra, seemed to prove an increasing density and

ah of an absorbing solar atmosphere. It is, however, urged by Kirchhoff, Donati,
and some others (and in a measure admitted by Browning) that like effects simi-
lar to those four above enumerated might be produced were the spots cloudy
condensations, and not depressions. The author called attention to a delicate way
(not readily to be noticed without projecting the sun’s image on a screen) in which
a fine trailing serpentine arrangement of minute specks of penumbral matter may
be sometimes seen either following in the wake of a large spot, or meandering
amidst a group of spots, indicating the resolution of two or more forces, partly,
perhaps, cyclonic, and partly centrifugal, as connected with the sun’s axial rotation,

24 REPORT—1870.
On Shooting-stars. By the Rev. R. Matn, 1.4., LBS, FRAS.

The author presented to the Association the observations of meteors and shooting-
stars made almost exclusively by Mr. Lucas, at the Observatory, during the past
ear. The whole number of meteors seen and observed during the year is about
300, of which, of course, a considerable number belong to the November and August
groups. Next to these, the month of October seems to be the most fruitful, while,
on the contrary, in January, February, and March scarcely any were seen. This,
however, may be due to the cloudy state of the sky which generally prevails at
Oxford in the early part of the year. Of those observed, more than fifty were as
bright or brighter than stars of the first magnitude; six were as bright as Jupiter;
one, observed on November 4, 1869, was estimated as equal to one-sixth of the full
moon; and one, on December 29, as equal to one quarter, the sky being overspread
in the latter case by light clouds. Two remarkable meteors were seen on Novem-
ber 6, one of which was observed (by a person not connected with the Observatory)
to burst with noise near the north-west horizon. On July 8 one was seen to burst,
though the sky was so overcast with nimbus cloud that no star could be seen.

On the Laws of Star-grouping. By R. A. Procror.

The aim of this paper was to show that the stars are grouped together in varied
forms, separated by comparatively barren distances, and that the observed pecu-
liarities of stellar distribution are due to real laws of aggregation and segregation.

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.

On Faure’s Battery. By C. Bucxmr.

Faure’s element is a modification of that known as Bunsen’s, the poles consisting
of carbon in strong nitric acid and amalgamated zinc in dilute sulphuric acid. In
Bunsen’s ordinary form of carbon element the carbon pole is immersed in a vessel
holding a considerable quantity of nitric acid, which, as it becomes deoxidized by
the electrolytic action of the current, liberates nitrous-acid gas, which rises into the
air, rendering it unwholesome to breathe and destructive to most metallic apparatus
in its neighbourhood. The purpose of Faure’s battery is to obviate those draw-
backs. This is effected by confining the nitric acid inside the carbon pole, and al-
lowing only sufficient acid to percolate through it in order to keep up the necessary
electrolytic action of the element. The carbon pole is made in the form of an ordi-
nary bottle, and is provided with a carbon or platinum stopper to which the binding-
screw of the pole is attached. This bottle, which at once fulfils the functions of
pole and porous diaphragm, is placed concentrically in the interior of a cylinder of
amalgamated zinc; and the whole is contained in an earthenware jar. When set
up for action the bottle is nearly filled with nitric acid, and the space containing the
zinc between the bottle and the outer jar to the required height with sulphuric
acid. The slight liberation of gas within the bottle causes a sufficient pressure to
be exerted upon the nitric acid to force it gradually through the carbon.

In this way the exterior of the carbon pole remains immersed in a very thin layer
of nitric acid immediately opposite the zinc, which is in course of dissolution of the
dilute sulphuric acid. In point of constancy the element is superior either to
Bunsen’s or Grove’s, because the body of nitric acid remaining protected within
the bottle does not become weakened as in the case with those forms of element in
which the fluids are exposed in larger quantities and separated by porous
diaphragms. It acts also entirely without any disengagement of gas into the air, so
that it may be used in any room without disagreeable consequences. A variety
of forms might no doubt be given to these elements, which would enable them to
fulfil the desired object. Those exhibited were designed and manufactured by
Messrs. Elliot Brothers, and are found to be convenient for experimental purposes
as well as for use in telegraph offices.

Sere ee ee

0 (Qe £6e tee alee >

rid

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 25

On an Induction-coil, specially arranged for use in Spectrum Analysis.
By Joun Brownine, F.R.AS.

When an induction-coil is used for the purpose of burning metals, it is necessa
to interpose one or more Leyden jars in the current. Such an arrangement though
efficient is inconvenient. The glass jars are liable to fracture, are bulky, and re-

uire to be dry to perform well; and the wires connecting them with the coil are
in the way and liable to derangement.

To obviate these difficulties I constructed a form of apparatus which consists es-
sentially of a flat mahogany box filled with plates of ebonite, which are coated on
each side with tinfoil to within an inch of the edges. The contrivance generally
used for holding the metal or containing the gas under examination is packed inside
the lid of the box. When in use, this fits into a hollow screw on the top of the box.
To set this apparatus in motion, it is only necessary to carry a fine wire from each
of the terminals of the induction-coil and insert it in the connexions provided at
each end of the box, as these are connected with the tinfoil with which the ebonite
plates are coated.

Mr. Spottiswoode suggested that there should be a contrivance added, by which
a greater or less number of the coated plates may be brought into action at will.
a a is very useful, as it enables the temperature of the spark to be
regulated.

he simplest and best method of employing the coated ebonite plates, however,
is to place them in the base of the induction-coil, underneath the ordinary con-
denser, and connect them with the terminals. When thus arranged, the dense thick
spark may be obtained from any substance placed between the terminals of the coil,
or a es yecratos which may be attached to them, and a great economy of time
is effected.

On the Maximum amount of Magnetic Power which can be developed by a
gwen Galvanic Battery. By H. Hienroy.

The author’s object was to show that by means of any galvanic battery whatever
electro-magnets might be made capable of sustaining any amount of weight without
limit. It was shown, both by mathematical formule and experiment, that this was
the case, as also that a constant weight could be sustained, while the expenditure
of zinc in the battery could be at the same time continually diminished without
limit. In the discussion which followed, it was pointed out that this was a mere
power of sustaining weights, and not an energy such as could be applied to working
an electro-magnetic engine ; for that if the magnets were used to work an engine,
the currents produced by the reaction would cause an increased consumption of zine,

Letter from Dr. Journ, F.R.S., on a New Dip-Cirele.

My bear Sir,—I communicated to the Exeter Meeting of the Association’a short
account of a new dip-circle, the peculiarity of which consisted in the suspension of
the axis of the needle by filaments of silk, of which the extremities were hung from
the arms of a delicate balance beam. I had hoped to exhibit the instrument to the
Section, but have found myself unable to attend the Meeting. It may, however,
be interesting to magnetic observers if I state that my experience during the year
has fully borne out the superiority of the new inclinometer over the ordinary form
of instrument. The facility of observation with it is such that six complete obser-
vations of the dip can be obtained in one hour, the average error of a single observa-
tion being a small fraction of a minute of arc. I am now giving still further deli-
cacy to the instrument by substituting spider-threads for silk, and am obviating the
danger ofrust by using platina for the axis of the needle instead of steel, the softness
of the former metal being unobjectionable since the agate-plates are dispensed with.

Believe me, yours most truly,

Professor J. C. Maxwell. James P, JouLe.

ws REPORT—1870.

On an Improved Lantern for Lecture demonstrations with Electric Light.
By W. Lapp, A RAS.

The body of the lantern is formed of a brass tube 9 in. diameter, in the centre of
which is fixed the electric light ; at two points in the tube, situated about 100° apart,
are openings, to one of which is attached a flange into which the yarious optical
arrangements slide ; the other opening has a sliding piece carrying a second and
similar flange, so that the various pieces of apparatus are mutually interchangeable :
by pointing one of these openings direct on to a screen, the other will be in the
proper position for a ray of light passing through two bisulphide-of-carbon prisms
to give the spectrum on the same screen; by this arrangement the demonstration
of the arc and then of the spectrum of any metal becomes one of great simplicity ;
for without altering the position of any part of the apparatus, and the metal still
continuing to burn, you simply have to uncover the opening, which gives you the
arc ; then closing this and uncovering the second opening, immediately will appear
the spectrum of the same substance. Attached to the body of the lantern is a very
useful adjunct to the instrument, consisting of a small sliding-tube, to one end of
which is fixed a piece of dark ground glass and to the other a lens; these are so
adjusted that a perfect image of the carbon-points can be seen by the operator on
the dark glass without opening the lantern or admitting stray light into the room ;
and by having a line ruled in the ground glass central with the various optical
arrangements and simply watching the image there produced, the lamp can be so
adjusted as to keep the light absolutely central—a desideratum every one will admit
who has had to use a microscope or polariscope with the electric light. Within
the lantern is fixed a small gas jet to enable the operator readily to change the
carbon-points, &e. :

The shifting-motion of the flange is, for the purpose of adjusting the angle of the
openings, to suit the different distances of the lantern from the screen; and as one
lantern is all that is required, there is very little obstruction to the view.

On a New Absolute Electrometer.
By Professor Sir Wrxt1am Tuomson, W.A., LL.D., F.RS.

Ona new Field of Magnetic Research. By Frevenicx H. Vartey, F.R.A.S.

A permanent magnet was exhibited, which displayed the action of magnetism
upon the crystallization of iron. The author referred to this fact as affording a
means for the future investigation of magnetic phenomena, and also showed that
diamagnetic substances could be crystallized in magnetic fields, and thus would
define permanently the action of magnetism on the crystallization of magnetic and
diamagnetic metals. He expressed his belief that, from experiments commenced
in the year 1858 and others conducted in 1870, electricity and magnetism con-
joined would produce permanent magnetic structures, showing in a solid form the
lines and nature of magnetic force.

On a Constant Battery. By Freprrtcx H. Varury, F.R.A.S.

The author exhibited a new form of battery, designed by Mr. Octavius Varley,
for the purpose of removing the defects of the otherwise constant battery of the
late Professor Daniell. In this form of battery the porous chamber, which has been
the source of all the trouble, is removed. The battery comprises a water-tight
compartment for the copper-salt, a connecting column of fluid, and a compartment
for the zinc-salt. These are so arranged that, whilst the electro-chemical con-
tinuity is completed at the top of the copper-chamber, no intermixture of the salts
can take place ; convection-currents, which are the great source of intermixture,
are divided into three separate systems, which cannot possibly interfere one with
another. Whilst economy of the copper-salt is effected, greater uniformity and
higher potential is maintamed. The zine plate is found to work out to the very
last, being kept free from the coating of copper to which all batteries hitherto
constructed are liable.

a: ——

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 27

A Magnetic Paradox, By 8S. Aurrup Vanier, Assoc. Inst. CLE.

The author stated that the instrument which had been called a magnetic paradox
(because the phenomenon it presented was the apparent repulsion of iron by a mag-
net) consisted of a compound magnet in a box, and when pieces of iron were placed
over the poles on the box they became magnetic by induction, and were attracted
by the magnet; but if a bar of soft iron, not in itself magnetic, were approached
near to the pieces of iron, the pieces of iron leap away from the box and become
attached to the soft iron bar. ‘The effect produced was stated to be due to the fact
that magnetic force was transmitted by induction; when the soft iron bar was ap-
proached to the pieces of iron, the magnetic forces resident in them, which had been
separated and rendered active by the magnet on the box, developed the magnetic
forces resident in the soft iron bar, and consequently it followed (the resistance
which soft iron opposes to magnetic polarization being so small that it may be here
disrezarded) that as the dual forces resident in iron are equal (and the one force
cannot be called into being without equally developing the other) when the bar is
approached nearer to the pieces of iron than the poles of the magnet, they are at-
tracted away from the box by the superior attraction exerted by the soft iron bar.
It was shown that when pieces of iron were placed direct upon the poles of the
magnet, they could be removed by the superior attraction of the soft iron bar over
that of the magnet; the explanation of this effect was stated to be the iron bar
collected the lines of magnetic force issuing from the magnets, and the magnetisin
developed in the iron bar was more localized than in the magnetized bars compo-
sing the magnet in the box.

A Description of the Electrie Time-Signal at Port Elizabeth, Cape of Good
Hope. By S. Aurrep Vartey, Assoc. Inst. C.E.

The author having described the general arrangements connected with the Liver-
ool time-ball, of which he had the charge at the time of its erection, the methods
e adopted for measuring the time which elapsed between the current leaving

Greenwich and the falling of the ball at Liverpool, and the means employed for
checking the working the apparatus in the telegraph offices, he stated the time which
elapsed between the arrival of the time-current in London and the falling of the
ball at Liverpool was 1} of asecond; ,%; of this interval of time was occupied
by the electric current travelling through an underground circuit from London
to Liverpool, and ,°; in discharging the apparatus at London and Liverpool. In 1859,
Sir Thomas Maclear, the Astronomer Royal at the Cape of Good Hope, inspected
the electrical time-signals in this country, with a view of erecting time-balls in
connexion with the Royal Observatory at Cape Town, and this led the author
afterwards to design at different times two time-triggers for use in the Cape. In
September 1864 the author was requested to construct a trigger for discharging a
time-ball to be erected at Port Elizabeth; and as he considered the intervention of
any relay or secondary apparatus to be objectionable, he determined, if possible, to
construct the trigger sensitive enough to be discharged by the batteries in the Cape
Town Observatory ; and in its construction he adopted a modification of a alee
first introduced by Professor Hughes in his printing telegraph (described at the
Newcastle Meeting). The trigger was constructed with a soft iron armature ren-
dered magnetic by induction from a compound bar magnet, and the armature
cipongly attracted the soft iron cores of an electromagnet, but was prevented from
actually touching the poles of the electromagnet. A spiral spring attached to this
armature was so adjusted that it nearly overcame the magnetic attraction induced
by the bar magnet. The time-current polarized the electromagnet in the opposite
direction to that induced by the bar magnets; and as the attraction between the
armature and the soft iron cores was already almost overcome by the spiral spring,
a very small amount of polarization in the opposite direction was necessary to re-
lease the armature which was rapidly pulled away by the spring, and the trigger
discharged. The rapidity of discharge with this trigger was very great; 7, part of
a second only elapsed between the arrival of the time-current and the falling of the
ball. From a report in the Port Elizabeth paper of August 29, 1865, giving an
account of the inauguration of this time-signal, and forwarded to the author by

28 REPORT—1870.

Sir Thomas Maclear, it appears that the time elapsing between the time-current
leaving the Observatory at Cape Town and the receipt at Cape Town of the sey
announcing the falling of the ball is only -?; of a second. What is being daily done
in the Cape can, however, be best summed up by a short quotation from a letter
received from Sir Thomas Maclear, giving an account of the succéssful inaugura-
tion of this signal. After detailing the general arrangements, Sir Thomas goes on
to state :—

“ A few tentative signals having proved satisfactory, the ‘preface’ was issued
from the Observatory at ten minutes before one o’clock, and at the instant of one
o’clock the Observatory time-ball clock closed the circuit, discharging the Obser-
vatory ball, the Simon Town ball, twenty-four miles distant, the Cape Town time
gun, three miles distant, and the Port Elizabeth ball, distant 500 miles.”

On the Mode of Action of Lightning on Telegraphs, and on a New Method of
constructing Telegraph-coils. By 8. Atrrep VaruEy, Assoc. Inst. O.E.
The author stated that in the early days of electric telegraphy lightning-protec-

tors were used to protect the coil-wires in telegraph offices; the genta type of the
protector adopted was an insulated pointed conductor connected to the line-wire,
and in close proximity to a metallic conductor leading to the earth. At a subse-
quent date the use of lightning-protectors in telegraph offices was practically aban-
doned, as they were found not to prevent the fusion of the coil-wires, or only
exceptionally ; for although the lightning would leap across the space of air sepa-
rating the insulated conductor from the earth-conductor, an electrical discharge
also passed through the coils and frequently fused them.

When lightning-storms occur in the neighbourhood of telegraph-wires, although
the wires may not be actually struck, powerful currents are induced in the wires;
these currents may in some cases be sufficiently strong to fuse the instrument coils,
but they more frequently simply demagnetize, and as often reverse the magnetism
of the magnetic needles which are situated in the coils of needle-telegraph instru-
ments.

Needle telegraphs are largely used on railways for train signalling, and the de-
magnetization or the reversal of the magnetism in these instruments is very serious,
as the safety of the train depends in a great degree upon the correct working of the
signalling instruments. In 1866 the author introduced instruments which he con-
siders to fulfil in a great degree the conditions to be desired in needle telegraphs.
In these instruments the case, the bearings, and the blocks which limit the motion
of the handle are made of cast iron in one solid piece, so there are no parts to be
shaken loose by rough usage. The magnetic needles inside the coils, instead of
being made of tempered steel magnetized, are made of soft iron, and are rendered
magnetic by induction from prea magnets in the neighbourhood of the coils ;
and as they are magnetic only by virtue of the permanent magnets in their proxi-
mity, the influence of powerful currents induced by lightning can only be momen-
tary.

The coils are protected from fusion by means of a novel protector termed a
“liehtning-bridge,” as it forms a bridge for high tension electricity to pass over.
It was well known that high tension electricity would leap across a small space of
air in preference to passing throughout the length of a coil of wire; and it was
stated this arose from the momentary resistance the wire opposes to polarization
or magnetization,—a resistance probably approaching to infinite resistance during
an infinitely small interval of time; and from this cause, even in a vacuum protec-
tor, where the pointed conductors are enclosed in an exhausted chamber, the
main discharge will leap across a space of air separating the insulated conductor
and the earth conductor outside the exhausted chamber. The author, when expe-
rimenting with electric currents of varying degrees of tension, observed the very
great resistance which a loose mass of powder of conducting matter opposed to
the passage of electricity of moderate tension; he found with a tension of 50
Daniell cells electricity did not pass through a loose mass of finely divided black-
lead or wood charcoal. When the tension was increased to two or three hundred
cells, the particles arranged themselves by electrical attraction, making good elec-

Gf fey ed ko

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 29

trical contact, and formed a bridge by which the electricity freely passed. With
a tension of six or seven hundred cells the electricity was found to pass through a
considerable interval of the dust met with in rooms, which consists chiefly of silica
and alumina, with more or less organic and earthy matters.

Incandescent matter offers a very free passage to electricity; masses of highly
heated blacklead-powder were found with six cells to give an average resistance of
four units, and wood-charcoal powder an average resistance of five units, or about
zo of that opposed by an ordinary needle-telegraph coil, which may he taken at
300 units. These experiments went to show that an interval of dust separating
two conductors oppose practically a decreasing resistance to an increasing tension,
and led to the construction of the “ lightning-bridge,”’ which consists of two

ointed conductors enclosed in a chamber, and approached to within y; of an
inch from one another, and surrounded with finely divided matter consisting of
carbon and a non-conducting substance intimately mixed. The reason why a
powder consisting entirely of conducting matter cannot be safely employed is, that
although it opposes a practically infinite resistance to the passage of electricity of
the tension of ordinary working currents, when a high tension discharge occurs the
particles under the influence of the discharge generally arrange themselves so closely
as to make a conducting connexion between the two points of the lightning-bridge.
If the effect of lightning striking the wires be considered, it will be seen that the
electric discharge passing through the telegraph-coils is not momentary, but occu-

ies time.
' When an insulated telegraph-wire is struck, the effect of the electric discharge
is to polarize the wire throughout ; after the discharge the wire returns to its nor-
mal unpolarized condition; but the cessation of magnetization, although rapid is
not instantaneous, and the effect of the wire assuming its normal unmagnetic con-
dition will be to develope an electric current flowing in the same direction as the
electric discharge which magnetized the wire. The tension of the current developed
by the demagnetization will be very high at its first development, and will rapidly
afterwards fall to zero; there is therefore, first, the main discharge of electricity
which passes by the shortest route, aud does not wait to polarize the coil-wires,
but leaps across a space of air to the earth conductor as the easier course, followed
by a secondary current in the same direction but occupying time. The tension of
this secondary current, although at first very high, is not nearly so great as the
lightning discharge, and the greater portion, if not the whole, will pass through
the coils, which oppose, when time is given, a much lesser resistance than the
smallest possible space of air; it would therefore seem, when telegraph circuits
protected by the ordinary protector are struck by lightning, it is to the secondary
current, and not to the main discharge the fusion must be attributed. The fact
that the coils of needle telegraphs are more often fused than other telegraphic ap-
paratus was considered to be a strong confirmation that the fusion was due to the
secondary current developed by the demagnetization.

The relay coils used in other telegraph systems have soft iron cores which are
rendered magnetic when a current is passing through the coils. A greater amount
of magnetism is developed in the cores than in needle-telegraph coils; but a very
sensible time is occupied by the iron passing from the normal to a magnetized con-
dition. The momentary resistance these cores oppose to magnetization is very
great ; the demagnetization of the line-wire proceeds more slowly; the electricity
generated by the demagnetization being of a definite amount, the tension of the
secondary current is reduced proportionately. The line-wire of a telegraph circuit
is only a continuation of the coil-wires, and is rendered magnetic by electric polar-
ization in the same way as the coils, the chief difference being that the magnetism
deyeloped in the coils is concentrated in a smaller space. When lightning strikes
the line-wire of a circuit in which electromagnets are used, and having an ordi-
nary protector, it magnetizes the line-wire, leaps the space separating the points of
the protector, and does not magnetize the electromagnets ; demagnetization of the
line-wire which always takes time, and which can be retarded, follows, and the re-
sistance which the soft iron cores oppose to the assumption of magnetization retards
the demagnetization of the line-wire, reducing the tension of the secondary cur-
rent, In needle-telegraph coils, there being no large mass of iron to be magnetized,

380 REPORT—1870.

demagnetization of the line-wire follows much more rapidly, the secondary cur-
rent is more intense, and consequently these coils more often suffer.

When a circuit protected by the “lightning-bridge” is struck, the lightning
finds in its direct path not a space of air, but a bridge of conducting particles in
very close proximity to one another; it connects these under the influence of the
discharge, and renders the particles highly incandescent. Incandescent matter, as
already demonstrated, offers a very free passage to electricity, and the secondary
current finds an easier passage across the heated matter than through the coils.
These lightning-bridges have been in use more than four years ; there are upwards
of 1000 doing duty in this country alone, and not a single case has occurred of a
coil being fused when protected by them.

Four years have elapsed since the introduction by the author of induced mag-
netic needles for needle telegraphs; there are some thousands of them now doing
daily work. The coils of the old pattern are being converted into induced magnet
coils, and it is probable that induced magnet coils will entirely supersede the so-
called permanent magnets used in needle-telegraph instruments.

METEOROLOGY.

Rainfall—its Variation with Elevation of the Gauge.
By Cuartes Cuampers, RS.

The fact is well known to meteorologists that the quantities of rain received in
gauges placed at different heights above the ground diminish as the elevation of
the gauge increases. Several attempts have been made to Mice this phenome-
non, but none of them are so satisfactory as to discourage the search for other
causes that may contribute substantially or mainly to its production. Hence the
submission for the consideration of the ‘British Association of this further attempt.

One of the principal causes of rain is undoubtedly the transfer, effected by winds,
of air charged with moisture in a warm damp district to a colder region, where the
vapour it contains is partially condensed. The temperature of the lower as well
as of the higher horizontal strata of the atmosphere being reduced by this transfer,
it may fairly be inferred that condensation of vapour may also occur in the lower
as well as the higher strata. The rain caught by a gauge at any given elevation
will therefore be the sum of the condensations in all the strata above it, and thus
the lower a gauge be placed, the greater will be the quantity of rain received by it.

Again, it is known by observation that there is at all times a greater or less dif-
ference of electrical tension between the atmosphere and the surface of the ground.
If, then (in accordance with the views of Prof. Andrews as to the continuity of the.
liquid and gaseous states of matter, from which it follows that the changes of
other physical properties must also be continuous), we regard the particles of vapour
suspended in the air as electric bodies in relation to the dielectric principal con-
stituents of the atmosphere, they will be polarized by induction from the electricity
of the ground. This polarization will give rise to an attraction between every
particle and the neighbouring particles above and below it ; and being stronger in the
particles nearer the ground than in those more remote, the tendency of the particles
to coalesce (which will increase, by their mutual induction, as two neighbours
approach each other) will be greatest near the ground. Thus it may be (each
particie gathering to itself its neighbours successively till their united density
exceeds that of the atmosphere generally) that some rain-drops are formed, and
that in greatest abundance, near the ground. If this be the true cause of any sub-
stantial ke of the phenomenon in question, then as the variation of intensity of
electrical polarization of the particles will vary with height most rapidly near the
ground, so the variation in the rainfall near the ground should be more rapid than
at a greater elevation; and such is, indeed, the fact. Also, if the idea be correct, it
will probably serve to explain other phenomena which it was not specially conceived
to meet; and so it does. For, first, it requires that the rainfall over even ground,
where the electrical tension is relatively weak, should be less than over similarly

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 31

situated forest-land, where, at the tops of the trees, ends of branches, and edges of
leayes, the tension is high; and this is in accordance with observation. And
secondly, the tension being relatively high at the tops of the elevations of a moun-

_tainous district, the rainfall should be greater there than in the neighbouring

g
.

plains; this, again, is borne out by observation. Further, at the commencement of
@ passing thunder-storm, a sudden heavy shower of rain will often fall for a few
moments, and then suddenly cease. May not this arise from the approach, by the
agency of opposite wind-currents, of detached masses of oppositely charged clouds,
the process, just described, of formation of rain-drops going on rapidly in each mass
as the two come near each other, and stopping when, by a flash of lightning between
them, the two masses are brought into the same electrical condition ?

An experimental test of this idea would be to repeat Dalton’s measures of the
pressure of vapour in the vacuum space of a mercurial barometer-tube (filling that
space with air and a little water), and compare the values found when the mercury
was charged with electricity and when not so charged.} If in the former case a
less pressure was found, we might conclude that the particles of vapour are really
susceptible of electric induction, and the amount of difference existing would enable
us to estimate whether the attractions of the particles upon each other were strong
uel to cause the formation of rain-drops hypothetically attributed to them
above.

On a Scale for computing Humidity. By Professor J. D. Everzrt, D.C.L.

The scale in question is the invention of Mr. H. C. Russell, of Sydney Obser-
vatory. It consists of a sheet of paper ruled with vertical lines, each corresponding
to a degree of the dry-bulb. These are traversed by a set of curved lines, each
corresponding to a degree of humidity. A detached strip of paper divided into
parts which correspond to eyery even tenth of a degree of difference between dry-
and wet-bulb is applied (with its zero on the saturation-line) to the line repre-
senting the given dry-bulb temperature, and the curyed line which cuts it at the
division corresponding to the given difference indicates the resulting humidity.

The scale is based on Glaisher’s Tables; and any other table of double entry
might be represented by a scale constructed on the same plan. Interpolation is
much easier with such a scale than with a table.

Barometrie Predictions of Weather. By Francis Gatton, .R.S.

Tt is notorious that the movements of the barometric column corrrespond in some
sense to the changes of the weather, and especially to those of the wind’s velocity ;
but they certainly take no notice of the rapid and tumultuous changes of its velo-
city which are recorded by the jagged lines of a pressure-anemometer. They there-
fore correspond to mean values of the weather; but the way in which, and the
aa of time for which those means should be taken, has yet to be determined.

omparison was made between a curve formed on the principle that the ordinate of
each point represented the mean velocity of the wind for half an hour previous to,
and half an hour subsequent to the moment indicated by the abscissa of that point,
and it was drawn on the same time-scale as the corresponding barogram; the
velocity-scale was so adjusted as to allow about the same range in the diagram for
the two curves, and the ordinates were measured from above downwards (were, in
fact, negative ordinates), in order that the increase of wind should be indicated by a
descending curve, to correspond with the descending barogram, and we versd. The

_ curve so made was called a curve of 1-hour period ay. wind vel., and similar
_ curves were drawn for 3-hour, 6-hour, 12-hour, 16-hour periods, and some others.
_ It was manifest, on comparing these with the barogram, that a period of 1 hour

was far too short, for its curve showed many large irregularities, of which the
barogram took no cognisance; a period of 3 hours was much better; of 6 hours
better still; and the maximum of correspondence began at 12 hours, and ended at
16, beyond which time the wind-velocity curve was less irregular than the baro-

32 REPORT—1870.

gram. The correspondence was equally good at all periods, for which trial was
made, between 12 and 16 hours, some parts agreeing better at the shorter, and
others at the longer period. The former period is selected for discussion in this
memoir. The data are derived from those of the continuous weather-records lately
published by the Meteorological Committee for the first quarter of 1869, so far as
they refer to Falmouth. The correspondence of the 12-hour period ay. wind vel.
curves for Falmouth, with the barogram, is fairly satisfactory. The flexures of the
two curves are, on the whole, simultaneous, since neither curve habitually antici-
pates the other; but they are seldom absolutely simultaneous. They correspond
in extreme positions as closely as in near ones, proving that it is not the absolute
height of the barometer, but the variations in its height, which indicate changes of
weather. ‘The dominant influence of the wind-velocity upon the barometer was
made manifest by underlining with different colours the epochs of polar and equa-
torial winds, and showing that the correspondence of the two curves was, on the
whole, much the same, whatever might be the quality of the wind.

The reason of this correspondence of the barogram with a 12-hour ay. vel. curve
was then discussed, and was described as similar to that which causes a suitably
constructed barometer, when plunged into:troubled water, to sympathize, not solely
with the height of wave exactly above its cistern, but also with that of every point
in a surface area whose diameter is a function of the depth of immersion. So the
barometer sympathizes with the condition of the air for some distance on all sides
of it; and as there is a general easterly movement of the air over England, it
appears that the diameter of the circle of air which affects the” barometer is such
as to require, on the average, 12 hours to pass over an observatory. A barometer
would therefore be affected by an atmospheric wave of exceptional magnitude
before it reached the observatory. According to this argument, the effects of the
independent variables, temperature, and damp must be treated on the same system
of 12-hour period of average as the wind’s velocity. Consequently the following
formula is easily deduced. Leth, k be two successive barometric heights, at an
interval of 6 hours, a the 6-hour interval that precedes i, 6 the 6-hour interval
between h# and f/, and ¢ the 6-hour interval which succeeds &. Call va, ta, da the
6-hourly average during the period a of wind-velocity, temperature, and vapour-
tension, and use a similar notation ford and c. The units adopted were hundredths
of an inch for barometer and vapour-tension miles per hour for wind-vyelocity, and

degrees Fahr. for temperature. The general formula was

a b c

A-Kk=M(q 45% 40) $M taro tor) +7 (ars— U4)

The coefficient m was found =—2 by taking a number of selected equations in
which neither ¢ nor d had materially varied during the period discussed ; » was
found = —1 by taking the extreme range of the barometer under the influence of
changed temperature alone, the other variables being constant; and d was assumed
=—1 also, that is, it was taken at its real value, but with a negative ordinate; all
the ordinates are negative, because », t, and d all decrease as h increases. Now

Vato 7 io 2{@+ v5) ry (%+2,)} = 3(% Te V)s
and similarly for ¢ and d, whence
h—kh=(ve—va)+3(te—ta) +3(de—da), OF
Ve= (h — k) +va+i(ta —te) +i(da— de).
It will be observed that v, is necessarily eliminated. Comparison was made
between the value of ve as predicted by this equation with its value as ascertained
by fact. About 100 cas2s of marked changes of weather were taken, and it appeared

that the average error was one-third greater than if ve had been predicted as simply
equal to v. The reason why the average error is so large, notwithstanding the

— ee

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 33

general truth of the principle of prediction is, first, that correctness in the result
depends on the correctness of all the elements of the formula, but their values are
only mean values and cannot be relied on in individual cases ; Secondly, any error
in the theoretical expectation of the value of %4, 18, on the whole, doubled in the
prediction of v,, because the difference between what was expected of v,,,, and
what was fulfilled in v,, is heaped on to v,, which has, therefore, to bear the entire
error of expectation of v,,.. It was concluded from this, and from other previous
deductions from some years of Dublin observations, to which reference was made,
that the fame of the barometer is due to its success in predicting a type of storm
very rarely met with in the British Isles, but frequently in hurricane-latitudes,
when the fall of the mercury far outstrips the increasing severity of the weather.
Tn ordinary gales, and much more in ordinary weather, the author considered the
barometer ahs useless as a guide when consulted without a knowledge of what is
occurring at adjacent stations—in short, without such information as is supplied by
the ‘Daily Weather Report.’

On the Temperature of the Air at 4 feet, 22 feet, and 50 feet above the
Ground. By Jamus Guatsurr, F.R.S,, F.R_A.S.

In the report to the British Association, for 1866, on the experiments made by means
of balloon, I stated that the law of decrease of temperature with increase of eleva-
tion was variable throughout the day, and variable in different seasons of the year,
that at about sunset the temperature was nearly the same up to 2000 feet, and that at
night (from the only two night-ascents) the temperature of the air increased from
the earth upwards. From this it was evident that, instead of only a few ascents
being necessary, a much larger number were required than it was possible for me to
make, Fortunately, in the second year of the balloon ex eriments, I planted at the
Royal Observatory, Greenwich, a dry- and a wet-bulb thermometer at the height
of 22 feet above the soil, readings of which have been taken daily since that time,
at the hours of 9 a.m., Noon, 3 P.M. and 9 p.m. Sometimes readings at the higher
point were above those at 4 feet from the ground; but no particular value was
attached to this fact, until, on the observations made in M, Giffard’s captive balloon
being reduced, the results proved that the decrease of temperature with increase of
elevation had a diurnal range, and was different at different hours of the day, the
changes being greatest at about midday, and least at or about sunset (see Report
for 1869), whilst sensible changes occurred within 30 feet of the earth. In conse-

uence, the observations made at the height of 22 feet were reduced by taking the

ifferences between the readings of the two thermometers, and affixing the sign
plus (+) to that difference when the temperature was higher at the higher eleva-
tion, and the sign minus (—) when vice versd, All the observations made in the
years 1867-70 were treated in this way,

By selecting the greatest number with a + sign, and the greatest with a — sign
in each month, it was found that in the winter months the temperature at 22 feet
height ranged from 2 to 4 degrees above, and from 1 to 2 degrees below, that at 4
feet, and in the swmmer months from 4 to 5 degrees above to 5 or 6 degrees below
that at 4 feet height, as will be seen by the following Table :—

(+). (—).

1867-70, January ....ee eee ees AS Shiycussenstavste sek
EROEY NER sw inscene sd DEO Sexouatexe Hat 15

Mianchiv, Sateen ities vant 2. Silky. eee

[014 ae 5 eae ED fen ttiee 5:5

1 a art rs a Ze Mere rere 61

Tune ae sewed Als Bea ee . 66

July.. 0 REPORTER ANS bh avntsives 5:5

! BEMEGRI Ath sleoualiniere se ake ee 61
1867-69, September ........... ILO! sees wo 48
October, Aetatreccuien: PASO! Us sducis eae
Noayambert ta So be CES a ccs ae 26
December ore Meer esvee 2°3 eee ererenes 1:2

1870, 3

84 . REPORT—1870.

The ratio of minus readings to plus readings was, in January and February, 1 to 5
at all hours during the day hours; in March, April, August, and September during
the day, one of equality. In May, June, and July the ratio was 3 to 2, in October 1
to 4, in November 1 to 7, and in December 1 to 10, At the hour of 9 p.m,
throughout the year, it was 1 to 7; the monthly means of these differences in each
year are shown in the following Table :—

Monthly means of excess and defect of Temperature at 22 feet, above and below
that at 4 feet.

Differences, Differences.
Date. ae ERNE Gis a Date. nad RMT Bil aa
9 a.m. | Noon. | 3 p.at.| 9 p.m. 9 a.m. | Noon. | 3 p.m. | 9 P.M.
Jan. 1867...|/+0'48 4o'24.|-+0'31 +o0'70 | July 1867.,.:—0°48 |—0°34 | +0°40 |+-0°60
IBOS,..| O24) O11] O23) 0°38) 1868.,.| 31°76] 17S\—-277 |. OSE
1869...| 0°43] 0°28] o'50] o*60| 1869...| 0°36] o8r| ro] (0°78
1870.../+0°66 |+0°23 |+0'55 |+0°54 1870...| —0°74. |—0°41 |—0°65 | 1'04
| Febr. 1867...|+-0°16 |—0'04 |-+0°37 |+0°46 || Aug. 1867...|—0'78 |+-0°29 |+0°63 |-+ 0°78
1868...| 0°33 |+0°07| O41] 0°45! 1868...| 0797|—0'97 |—0°38| o'50
1869...| oro] 0°05] 0°34] 0°61 1869...| 1°14| 0°31|+0°20| 0°83
1870...|-0°12 | 0°05 |-+0°39 | +0745 1870...!—1'07 |—0°96 |—0°78 | 1°30
Mar. 1867.../—0'26 |—0°65 |—0'07 |+-0'31 || Sept. 1867...|—0°65 | —o'12 |+-0'21 |4-0'63
1868...) 0°31 |-+0°32|+0'20] 0°39 1868...| 1°70] 1'10|—0'24| 0°68
1869...) 0°39|—0'27| o700} O50 1869,..)—0°65 |—0'46| o'co}+0°80
1870.,.| —0°22 |—0'26 |—o'or |++0'54 187i sh nase sie bss ats
April 1867...) —0°59 |—o'18 |—o'r7 |+0°34 || Oct. 1867...);—0°45 |—0'24 |+0'51 |-++-0°70
1868... 0°27] 0°93|+0°25| 0°53 1868...|—0°28 |—0'27; 048) 1°12
1869,..| 1°05] 0°30] o'08| 0°36 1869,..|-+0'r0 |+0'18 |+-0°89 | + 1°06
1870,../—0°54 |—0°37_ +0'44 |+0°88 LBZ vec ts 3 st
May 1867...)—0'93 +or10|—0'08 +0'47 || Nov. 1867...|0'14 |—o°Io |+0°75 |+0'91
1868...) 0°37|—o'Ilg| o'21] 0-30 1868...| 0'22}/+0°04| 0°44! 0°42
1869...| 0°43] 0°§2| o'60| 0°37 1869...|+0°36 |--0'26 |+-0'53 |+0'93
1870...|— *79|—1713 | 0°87 |4+0°81 TBVOuss|) eee on 3) aes
June 1867.../—0'44|—0'51|+0'22 |+0'76 || Dec. 1867...|+0°50|+4+0'31 |+0°50 |+-0'24
1868...) o99] 1°23|/—0'61| 0°72 1868...| 0°38] 042] or] o'52
1869...) 095] 0°56) o'82) 1°07 1869...|/+0'49 40°22 +0731 |+0°39
#F 79.) Ores —I'17|—1'02 |+0°80 TO9Ose.| ters ie “153 sth

From the above Table it will be seen that the mean temperature of the air at
22 feet height was higher than at 4 feet, at all hours of the day and night, during the
months of January, February, November, and December; in the early afternoon,
and during the night, in the months of March, April, August, September, and
October; and in the evening hours, and during the night, in May, June, and July.

The mean monthly temperatures of the air at 22 feet height, for all the years, were
then taken, and found to differ from those at 4 feet, as follows :—

At 9) a.m. At Noon. At 3° p.m. At 9° p.m.
oO 1e) 2} °
1867-70, January.......000 FOS... +02. 1.6, +04 4... +06
February... +02 0. csagvio'f-04 Soe 05
PATOL ica ccteerer | Wacky iounns —0-2 00: * are 0-4
ADIL, secs chiccattae OG hae ke 0-5 +0:2 0-5
IMUY canvoskeGn OG), ste 0-4 —0-4 0-5
Hine Ske Wee eee 0:8 0:9 0-6 0:8
July . ; 0:8 os. . 0:8 0-7
Adirustis cans eon Oy eG 0:5 —0O1 0-9
1867-69, September tO) a .. 0:6 0-0 5 0-7
October........ —0:2 —0-1 +0°6 10
November...... +02. +01. 0:6 0-8
December...... +0°5 +0:3 +04 +0°4

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 35

Thus the plus sign preponderates, indicating greater warmth above, during
the day and night, in January, February, October, November, and December, and
during the night throughout the year.

A second thermometer, properly protected from radiation, was placed in the
middle of the year 1869 at the height of 50 feet; and since then its readings have
been regularly taken. The mean monthly temperatures of the air, at 50 feet height,
were found to differ from those at 4 feet, as follows :—

At 95 a.m. At Noon. At 3" p.m. At 9 P.M,

1869, October ....., FU) adit, >. : copes’! ire
: November CH Se ae 0 eae Oe aes 1:4.
December 0-9 ; Oe fee 0-5 ; 0-5

1870, January ....., ia . +03 , 0-7 ; 0-9
February....., +01 . —0°3 +03 ; 05
Miarelt s/c. ec —0:3 : 13 07 : 0:7
BADEN | ots sslistous 3 0:9. : 2:2 17 1-4

INT AN ses rake Bore" 2-4. . 36 2:8 11

tC Mae eee 24 ; 3:8 31 tall

jh a ee Saray 29 2:8 1:2
August 25.0. —17 —2:7 —20 .. +17

Thus we have the unexpected result that the mean monthly temperature of the
air at 22 feet and at 50 feet height is higher during the evening and night-hours
throughout the year than at the height of 4 feet, and also higher, night and day,
during the winter months. By selecting those days with a sky covered by dense
clouds, it was found that there was on such days no difference between the tem-
perature at 4 feet, 22 feet, and 50 feet height. At the height of 50 feet, in the
summer months, the temperature during the day was frequently 6 and 7 degrees
lower than that at 4 feet, and at night 5 or 6 degrees higher.

On a New Electro-Magnetic Anemometer, and the mode of using it in Regis-
tering the Velocity and Pressure of the Wind. By Joun J. Hatt.

;
After describing at some length the difficulties attending the use of the present
forms of anemometrical apparatus, arising from the fact that few houses are built
with any means of access to the roof, also from the interference of trees and undu-
, latory surfaces of land, &c., and having showed the practical results that would be
derived from the use of electricity, the author proceeded to describe the apparatus
_ devised (and exhibited) by him. One of the main objects for which it is intended
is the determination of interval or hourly velocities. The following is a brief
résumé of its principles and construction :—

_ The anemometer consists of two parts, viz. Velocity apparatus and Registering

apparatus.

he first consists of a set of Robinson’s hemispherical cups, which communicate
__ their motion downwards into a brass box, where it is reduced in angular velocity
: and causes a contact-disk or commutator (in which two platinum contact-pins are
_ fixed equidistant from one another) to revolve in tenths of a mile. An insulated
_ metallic lever, having a platinum working face, stands on each side of the disk so
_ that, upon the completion of every ;1; mile, one or other of the contact-pins comes
into contact with the tao levers, thus uniting them and completing the circuit. The
i levers, which are jointed at their opposite ends, are raised a few degrees (of circles,
_ whose radii they represent), and then fall back to their normal position, ready to
be taken up by the next pin, and so on.
___ The Recording apparatus consists of a train of wheels and pinions working in a
frame or between two brass plates, the arbors of which project through a
dial-plate (whereon the circles and figures are engraved), and carry the hands.
_ These wheels are driven by a weight attached to a line which is wound round a
barrel ; and a locking pin-disk (the pinion of which works in the first wheel) is re-
_ leased at every contact of the cup apparatus by an electro-magnet, which unlocks
‘the pin-disk and allows the first hand to advance +1, mile on the graduated dial
_ by a jump similar to the minute-hand in remontoire clocks,
3

36 REPORT—1870.

By turning “on” a “strike-silent” stop, a hammer lever is brought into
connexion with the escapement, and strikes a ball at every contact; the observer
has therefore nothing to do in noting interval or hourly velocities but to notice the
seconds’ hand of his watch or chronometer (a split-seconds or chronograph would
be preferred), while he counts the number of times the bell is struck, each
of which corresponds to the 3; mile, and, by formule arranged and explained by
Mr. Hall (who has also arranged a comprehensive series of tables for use with the
instrument) the hourly velocity may be readily deduced.

The following formula has been arranged for deducing the hourly velocity of the
wind from observations during intervals of minutes and seconds.

Let T be the interval of observation in minutes and seconds, expressed decimally,
60 constant (min.=1 hour), and x the quantity required, which will represent the
number of times T is contained in one hour, 05 unit of distance, 6 number of beats
on bell, v as before, and V velocity required; then

‘ 60

an OD XID Xr = Nie
Supposing, therefore, the bell is struck 15 times in 1 min. 30 sec., expressed deci-
mally 1:50 min.; then

oe p10; .*. 05X15 x 40=30-00 miles.

By noticing the exact seconds upon which the first and last beat are struck, the
results will be as accurate as if the instrument were capable of recording the one-
thousandth part of a mile, while the battery is less called into action.

In noting velocities extending over long periods of time, the instrument is read
in the same manner as the ordinary cup-and-dial anemometer.

This paper, which was of considerable length, was illustrated by the Electrical
Anemometer (by Messrs Negretti and Zambra, under Mr. Hall’s directions) and
mechanical diagrams.

On the Rainfall of the United States. By Professor J. Henry.

Heat, Lian.

Queries respecting Aither. By Cuartrs Brooke, M.A., F.R.S.

When light and calorie were supposed to consist of material molecules, the
hypothesis of the universal existence of a transmitting medium was unnecessary,
since particles of matter might with the utmost freedom be projected through vacu-
ous space ; bnt as light and heat are now generally admitted to consist not of trans-
mitted matter, but of transmitted vibratory motion (and why may not electricity, so
freely interchangeable with the former, be admitted into the same category ?), the
necessity of the existence of a highly elastic and attenuated transmitting medium,
pervading infinite space, becomes at once apparent; and this medium, hitherto not
cognizable to our senses, has been termed “ ether.”’ Butit has been further assumed
that_ether is alone capable of transmitting the extremely rapid vibrations of light
and heat, and that it must therefore necessarily pervade or permeate all kinds of
sensible matter. The questions proposed to be raised in this communication are
the necessity of this ¢nterstitial hypothesis, and the probable capability of ordinary
matter to transmit the vibrations of light and heat.

It is now generally admitted that when a body becomes heated, its own particles,
and not merely those of the supposed interstitial zether, are thrown into a state of
vibratory motion, the amount of heat corresponding probably to the amplitude of
the vibrations ; hence a certain amount of energy has been communicated to those.
particles, and (at all events, in the case of celestial radiations) the molecules of %
sether must previously haye possessed the energy or vis viva which they have com-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 37

municated. Hence zther, being susceptible of vis viva, has recently been admitted
to be ponderable; but this admission is not a necessary consequence ; for although
the idea of existing energy is associated with that of weight, in consequence of the
constant energy acquired by gravitation having been taken as the measure or unit
of energy however acquired, there is no necessary connexion between them, Sup-
pose, for example, that a flea were placed on an orbitating planet of the size of a

umpkin ; while its muscular energy would remain undiminished, its weight would

e infinitesimal, and the first leap would obviously plunge it into infinite space, to
perform subsequently perhaps an independent orbit.

The only basis on which the interstitial-cther hypothesis rests is the assumed
incapacity of ordinary matter, whether in the solid, liquid, or gaseous state, to
transmit the vibrations of light and heat, because the only vibrations hitherto
recognized, namely those of sound, are almost immeasurably slower than those
of light and heat; the one being numbered by at most a few thousands, the other
by hundreds of millions of millions in one second of time. But it must be borne in
mind that sonorous vibrations are always longitudinal, in the production of which
repulsive forces are alone concerned; whilst, on the contrary, light- and heat-vibra-
tions are necessarily transverse, and the production of these is solely due to attrac-
tive forces. Now these respective forces obey very different laws; for whilst
attractive forces obey generally, and probably universally, the law of the inverse
square of the distance, molecular repulsion must obviously, at all events in gaseous
matter, obey the law of the inverse cube of the distance; therefore from the rate
of transmission of longitudinal vibrations nothing can be predicated respecting the
rate of transmission of transverse waves. It has been asserted that molecular re-
pulsion is a dynamical resultant effect, and therefore incapable of expression by a
statical law; but it is very doubtful whether molecular attraction is not equally
a dynamical sequence, and therefore not a whit more entitled to claim a statical
law than the former.

It has been shown from the investigations of Mr. Norman Lockyer that incan-
descent gases existing in the vicinity of the sun are capable of initiating vibrations
of definite periods, which are moreover occasionally accelerated or retarded by the
proper motion of the emitting gas, just as sound-waves have been shown by Savart
to be accelerated or retarded, and the sound consequently raised or lowered in
pitch, by the proper motion of the body producing the vibrations. What reason
can there then be for doubting that gaseous matter is capable of transmitting heat-
waves, and, if so, of likewise transmitting the waves of light, since the two are so
intimately connected by the identical phenomena of reflexion, refraction, and

olarization ? may not, in fact, in some instances the perceptions of light and heat
iE but different sensuous impressions produced by the same vibrations ?

Now in the denser forms of matter, namely the solid and liquid, it appears that
the wave-lengths of excited transverse vibrations are indefinitely modified, pro-
bably by the more energetic action of repulsive forces; for whilst any given kind
of matter in the solid or fluid state is found, when incandescent, to emit light- and
heat-waves of all lengths, and so to form a continuous spectrum, the same matter
in the form of incandescent gas will emit only a few sets of waves of definite and
invariable lengths, forming an interrupted spectrum of bright lines ; and moreover
some of these wave-lengths are frequently found to bear very simple numerical ratios
to each other. And even in gaseous matter it has been observed that the bright
lines in the spectrum become narrower and more sharply defined by rarefaction,
and, on the contrary, broader and less defined by condensation. Moreover, as
regards the density of the absorbing medium, the absorption-bands in the spectrum
appear to obey the same law as the bright lines. In other words, every kind of
matter appears to be capable of emitting or absorbing its own peculiar waves,
according to its tenuity, that is, as the results of molecular attraction are less and
less interfered with by those ofrepulsion. The well-known peculiar incapacity of any
given transcalent substance to transmit the heat-rays emitted by a heated portion
of the same substance, or, in other words, the ability of the molecules to freely ap-
propriate the wave-motion that has been induced in some intervening medium by
similar molecules, seems further to argue that ordinary matter is capable of assu-
ming vibrations haying the extreme rapidity of those of light and heat; and that

38 : nePort—-1870.

there exists no valid ground for a distinction between light and heat in this respect
is further confirmed by the experiments of Mr. B. Stewart, who has shown that
the emission of light by incandescent bodies closely corresponds with their absorp-
tive power (whether selective or otherwise) when not incandescent, and, further,
that even in the decomposition of light into two polarized beams by the tourmaline,
that substance emits when incandescent the ray that is otherwise absorbed. Can
there, then, be any valid reason for doubting the ability of ordinary matter to trans-
mit those transverse vibrations which it is obviously capable of either absorbing or
emitting P and if so, what ground is there for the hypothesis that the transmission
of light- and heat-waves necessitates the presence of imperceptible ether in the
interstices of perceptible matter ?

If the existence of «ther in infinite space, essential to the undulatory theory, be
admitted, it may be asked how is it possible to conceive its exclusion from any por-
tion of space? A very simple hypothesis, propounded by the writer in the Intro-
duction to the last edition of his ‘ Elements of Physics,’ will meet this difficulty—
namely, that ether (like its fluid namesake with water) is immiscible with known
gaseous matter. This, it must be admitted, is sheer hypothesis; but if true, it must
ever remain so, ether being in that case beyond the reach of human ken: of this
we may, however, rest assured, that if it be not wanted in and around even our
corporeal frames, %# is not there; the contrary supposition would be inconsistent
with the infinite wisdom of the Creator of the universe.

On certain Objections to the Dynamic Theory of Heat.
By H, Wuiresipz Coox.

In this paper the author first endeavoured to show that heat must necessarily be
a force of a permanent nature, could not possibly be a mere affection of matter, and,
as is asserted by the believers in the “ Dynamic” hypothesis, that it must be in
the nature of an “ energy,” and not an “ impulse.”

He then proceeded to analyze the nature of heat as described in the thermo-
dynamic theory, and brought forward arguments to show that the causes which
produce heat would not produce the molecular motion presumed, and that, on the
other hand, allowing this molecular motion to exist, it would not produce the effects
which are produced by heat. He proceeded, in conclusion, to consider one or two
of the experiments on which the dynamic hypothesis was based, and showed that
they were in no way incompatible with the old theory of a caloric or substantive
heat. In short, the argument of the paper was:—that though such forces as
electricity, magnetism, &c. were probably justly considered to be only affections
of matter, it was a mistake to conclude the same thing of heat; that if the attracti-
vity of matter be a permanent energetic force, then heat,the force which counteracts
that attractivity among molecules, must also be a permanent energetic force ; for a
force of impulse cannot cope with a perpetual energetic force ; however great the
impulse, it must soon be beaten; and were heat a condition and not an entity,
then it would be but a passing phenomenon.

In dealing with the experiments which are supposed to substantiate the dynamic
hypothesis, the author dwelt especially on Davy’s celebrated experiment of liquefying
ice by friction, when he showed that the increment of heat added to the ice was
very small in comparison with the amount of heat contained by the ice when at the
temperature of 32° Fahr., and that the molecular agitation to which it was subjected
would cause it to absorb this heat from the atmosphere of caloric, which, on the
substantive theory, would ex hypothest surround it. He next spoke of the fall of
temperature which takes place when compressed air is allowed to escape from
the confining vessel (an experiment which is put forward by the exponents of the
dynamic theory as instancing the conversion of heat into mechanical energy), and
es out that in the preparation of the experiment the compression of the air

ad forced out of it some of the heat that it contained. When, then, it was allowed
to escape, the air brought out less heat than it took in, the difference being the
amount which had been given out in cooling after the original compression. The
author added that these experiments could not be said to substantiate the dynamic
theory—and that if he did not mention more of them, it was because those present

= ES rr

Se) |

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 39

would be able to call them to mind themselves and apply to them reasoning precisely
similar.

The author attached great importance to the question, because he thought that
in erroneously considering heat to be molecular vibration, we lost sight of the true
explanation of electricity, which he believed to be neither more nor less than that
very vibration or molecular motion which the dynamic theory called heat.

On the Wave Theory of Light, Heat, Sc. By Dr. Henry Hupson.

Huyghens (to explain double refraction) assumed a second vibrating medium as
consisting of “the molecules and ether conjointly;” and Fresnel’s grand theory
rests on the same foundation. As molecular vibrations in air (sound-wayes) are
10,000 times longer and 869,000 times slower than etherial waves, the author
rejects this combination as inadequate to account for the very minute difference in
the retardation of the doubly refracted rays in crystals. He then adduces several
cases, especially in polarized light, wneaplained on Fresnel's theory, and proceeds to
show that all the difliculties in Fresnel’s theory can be removed by considering the
“ether”? to consist of two media, each possessed of equal and enormous self-repulsion,
and both existing in equal quantities throughout space, being also mutually
indifferent (neither attracting nor repelling), and that their vibrations conse-
quently always'take place in perpendicular planes. He then suggests as an experi-
mental test of this view, “that the ordinary refracted ray, through Iceland spar,
cannot be made to show any phenomena of Interference with the APPARENTLY
similarly polarized ray obtained by total reflexion from glass,” because, on this
view, their vibrations are in different media. After discussing many curious and
interesting questions, he pointed out that the two Electricities fulfil the requirements
of the theory, being, as he asserts, mutually indifferent, and constitute the ether.
Electrical phenomena the author would explain by the existence of ‘ waves of
translation ’’ as well as “ waves of vibration ” affecting the molecules of bodies—the
former being most prominent in “ statical phenomena” (induction especially), and
the latter more generally observed in what is denominated “ the electric current.”

Optics.

On the Immersion Method of Illumination of the Microscope.
By Dr, Joun Barker.

After showing the defects of the present methods as exhibiting merely shadows
and caustics of reflection and refraction, and markings resulting very often from the
relative opacity and transparency of the parts of an object, the author was led to
believe, from the study of the way in which objects are best illuminated for unas-
sisted vision, that this was the method to which we should endeavour to ap-
proximate in the illumination of microscopic objects. The adaptation of the immer-
sion plan in condensers of various forms seemed to him to best fulfil these require-
ments. The object would be illuminated by very oblique light, the oblique rays
being most economized, undergoing less loss and less dispersion. The author brought
forward several forms of this mode of illumination, in which a flat-topped paraboloid
was used, which, he stated, gave very good results with a two-thirds used with
binocular microscopes; another was a flat-topped paraboloid to be used above the
object, and in the centre of which (the glass paraboloid) the power was placed so as
to light up the object under the highest powers with reflected light. The ordinary
achromatic condenser, too, he thought, might be greatly increased in value by
adapting it to the immersion plan.

ts On the New Binocular Microscope. By 8. Hotmus.
The author showed that the views of objects seen through a microscope, being:

40 REPORT—1870.

seudoscopic and superficial, gave no trustworthy information of structure—and
the disagreements of observers.

Describing the binocular microscopes preceding his own, he contended that they
failed to give true appearances, because the second image was but a distorted reflex
of the first, and could not thus give true stereoscopic relief.

Such relief being due to the direct convergence of the axes of two eyes to one
object, he had after some years succeeded in making a binocular microscope capable
of showing perspective distance, by employing two equally inclined microscopes of
equal power.

Eight drawings of mechanical arrangements accompanied the paper; and the in-
struments on this plan were shown to secure to the microscopist and amateur the
following advantages :—

1. The ease of observation by the egual use of both eyes, and a natural erect view
for dissecting-purposes,

2. Perfectly stereoscopic views of opaque objects, and distinct definition of
thick transparent ones.

3. Pseudoscopic vision for the illustration and verification of all objects, and
convertibility into a monocular microscope by the turn of a milled head.

On Colour-vision at different points of the Retina.
By J, Crerx Maxwett, LL.D., FL. RSS. L. & E.

It has long been known that near that point of the retina where it is intersected
by the axis of the eye there is a yellowish spot, the existence of which can be
shown not only by the ophthalmoscope, but by its effect on vision. At the Chel-
tenham Meeting in 1856 the author pointed out a method of seeing this spot by
looking at that part of a very narrow spectrum which lies near the line F. Since
that time the spot has been described by Helmholtz and others ; and the author has
made a number of experiments, not yet published, in order to determine its effects
on colour-vision.

One of the simplest methods of seeing the spot was suggested to the author by
Prof. Stokes. It consists in looking at a white surface, such as that of a white cloud,
through a solution of chloride of chromium made so weak that it appears of a
bluish-green colour. If the observer directs his attention to what he sees before
him before his eyes have got accustomed to the new tone of colour, he sees a
pinkish spot like a wafer on a bluish-green ground; and this spot is always at the
place he is looking at. The solution transmits the red end of the spectrum, and
also a portion of bluish-green light near the line F, The latter portion is partially
absorbed by the spot, so that the red light has the preponderance.

Experiments of a more accurate kind were made with an instrument the original
conception of which is due to Sir Isaac Newton, and is described in his ‘ Lectiones
Optice,’ though it does not appear to have been actually constructed till the author
set it up in 1862, with asolid frame and careful adjustments. It consists of two parts,
side by side. In the first part, white light is dispersed by a prism so as to form a
spectrum. Certain portions of this spectrum are selected by being allowed to pass
through slits in a screen. These selected portions are made to converge on a second
prism, which unites them into a single oak of light, in which state they enter
the eye. The second part of the instrument consists of an arrangement by which a
beam of light from the very same source is weakened by two rolleotibi from glass
surfaces, and enters the eye alongside of the beam of compound colours.

The instrument is formed of three rectangular wooden tubes, the whole length
being about nine feet. It contains two prisms, two mirrors, and six lenses, which
are so adjusted that, in spite of the very different treatment to which the two por-
tions of a beam of light are subjected, they shall enter the eye so as to form exactly
equal and coincident images of the source of light. In fact, by looking through
the instrument a man’s face may be distinctly seen by means of the red, the green,
or the blue light which it emits, or by any combination of these at pleasure.

The arrangement of the three slits is made by means of six brass slides, which
can be worked with screws outside the instrument; and the breadth of the slits can
be read off with a gauge very accurately.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 4]

In each observation three colours of the spectrum are mixed and so adjusted that
their mixture is so exactly equivalent to the white light beside it, that the line
which divides the two can no longer be seen.

It is found that in certain cases, when this adjustment is made so as to satisfy
one person, a second will find the mixed colour of a green hue, while to a third it
will appear of a reddish colour, compared with the white beam.

But, besides this, it is found that the mixed colour may be so adjusted that, if
we look directly at it, it appears red, while if we direct the eye away from it, and
cast a sidelong glance at it, we see it green. The cause of this is the yellow spot,
which acts somewhat as a piece of yellow glass would do, absorbing certain kinds
of light more than others; and the difference between different persons arises from
different intensities of the absorbing spot. It is found in persons of every nation,
but generally stronger in those of dark complexion. The degree of intensity does
not seem to depend so much on the colour of the hair or the iris of the individual,
as to run through families independent of outward complexion.

The same difference is found between different colour-blind persons; so that in
the comparison of their vision with that of the normal eye, persons should be
selected for comparison who have the yellow spot of nearly the same intensity.

In my own eye the part of the spectrum from A to E is seen decidedly
better by the central part of the retina than by the surrounding parts. Near F
this is reversed, and the central part gives a sensation of about half the intensity
of the rest. Beyond G the pa ae is again the most sensitive, and it is decidedly
so near H.

Before I conclude I wish to direct the attention of those who wish to study
colour to the exceedingly simple and beautiful series of experiments described by
Mr. W. Benson in his works on colour. By looking through a prism at the
black and white diagrams in his book, any one can see more of the true relations of
colour than can be got from the most elaborately coloured theoretical arrangements
of tints.

On the Cause of the Interrupted Spectra of Gases.
By G. Jounstone Sronry, M.A., F.R.S.

In 1867 Mr. Stoney had instituted a comparison between the internal motions
of gases and the phenomena of light*, from which it appeared that the lines in
the spectra of gases must be attributed to periodic motions within the mole-
cules, and not to the little irregular journeys which the molecules make amongst
one another.

In the present communication he endeavoured to advance another step. Each
such periodic motion in the gas will throw off waves in the ether. These
wayes will in general not be pendulous; in fact the circumstances would need
to be altogether exceptional which would restrict them to so simple a form.
But whatever the character of each wave, provided only that all the waves of
the undulation are alike, it follows from Fourier’s well-known theorem that the
undulation may be adequately represented by the simultaneous advance of a
number of superposed pendulous undulations—one consisting of waves of the

* See a paper in the Philosophical Magazine for August 1868, p.132. Readers of that
paper are requested to correct “16? or upwards of 250” (on p. 184), into “16”.

42 . REPORT—1870.

periodic time of the original disturbance, and the rest having periodic times which
are submultiples of this. Thus, if T be the periodic time of the original motion
in the gas, we are at liberty to regard the sidesticiy whilst traversing the open
ether, as consisting of a multitude of coexisting pendulous undulations with pe-
riods T, 3T, 3T, &c. So long as the motion is propagated through undispersing
zether, the waves of all lengths travel at the same speed. The component undula-
tions therefore strictly accompany one another; and accordingly the resultant
general undulation maintains whatever complicated form it may have had at first.

But if the light enter a dispersing medium, such as glass, an entirely new
state of things arises. In glass, waves of different lengths travel at unequal velo-
cities. Each pendulous undulation will accordingly proceed across the glass at
a rate determined by its own special periodic time. In this way the component
undulations part company, and if the glass be in the shape of a prism they will
emerge in different directions ; each giving rise to a distinct line in the spectrum
of the gas. It thus appears that one of the periodic motions in the molecules of a
gas will in general be the source of several lines in its spectrum, and that all the
lines thus arising from one original motion will have periodic times which are
terms of the harmonic series T, }T, T, &c.; T being the periodic time of that mo-
tion in the gas to which they are all due.

Moreover it further appears from the structure of Fourier’s theorem, that the
form of the original disturbance will determine whether all the harmonics exist, or
only some of them. Where only some at irregular intervals exist, we have lines of
a spectrum of the Second Order; where all or a long series of consecutive harmonics
exist, we have the beautiful spectacle of one of the fluted series in spectra of the
First Order. The fluted appearance is due to the varying brightness of the suc-
cessive lines, or, in other words, to the values of the coefficients of the successive
terms of Fourier’s series, which again depend on the character of the original dis-
turbance. Drawings were exhibited of the patterns of the flutings which would
result from various simple hypotheses as to thes original disturbance ; and some of
these drawings bore a striking general resemblance to patterns which occur in
nature. ;

Sufficiently detailed observations on spectra of the First Order have not yet been
made fully to test this theory or afford materials for its application to the various
inquiries of interest which it suggests; and Mr. Stoney was engaged in endeavouring
to supply this want. Meanwhile it may be observed in general that the closeness
of the ruling in spectra of the First Order indicates that the lines are very high
harmonics of relatively slow original vibrations—vibrations which in many in-
stances correspond to wave-lengths of more than a millimetre in length, and conse-
quently have a periodic time of several twelfth-seconds (the XIIth-second meaning

of a second of time).

1012

In the case of nitrogen, two systems of lines giving fluted columns have been
observed—one at the red end of the spectrum, formed by lines very closely packed
together, the other at the blue end of the spectrum, consisting of lines more widely
spaced. Pliicker counted 34 dark lines (2. e. 85 bright lines) in one of the blue
flutings, viz. that one which lies to the left of the letter C in his diagram (Phil.
Trans. for 1865, plate 1). Judging from the diagram, this fluting would seem to
extend about from wave-length 44:8 to 45°6 eighth-metres. If so, we may con-
clude that the 35 bright lines of graduated intensity of which it consists are from
about the 1960th up to the 1995th harmonics of a wave-length of about 0:89376 of
a millimetre. This wave-length corresponds to about 3 XIIth-seconds of time,
which may accordingly be regarded as a rough approximation to the periodic time
of the motion in the molecules of nitrogen by which the blue flutings are occa-
sioned.

When lines of spectra of the Second Order are the result of motions in a gas so
slow as this, it would not be practicable to determine the periodic times of the ori-
ginal motions from observations upon spectra of this kind; for in this case the
harmonics, if the positions of all of them were laid down on a map of the spectrum,
would be so crowded together that it would be difficult to determine with certainty
to which of them a line of aspectrum of the Second Order should be referred. Per-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43

- haps we may obtain assistance in such cases from disposing the apparatus so as to
present to the eye spectra of the First Order and of the Second Order in rapid suc- |
cession (see Pliicker, Phil. Trans. for 1865, p. 10. § 24).

_ But there seems to be at least one case of a more rapid periodic time, viz. that of
certain lines of hydrogen. The ordinary spectrum of the Second Order of this gas
consists of the four well-known lines C, F, one near G, and A. Three of these
lines, viz. C, F, and h, are to be referred to a single motion in the molecules of
the gas. In fact they are the 20th, 27th, and 32nd harmonics of a wave-length

(im vacuo) of 131217714 fifth-metre (the Vth-metre being ae of a metre, which

is a little more than the diameter of a disk of human blood), This, taking the ve-
locity of light to be 298 millions of metres, gives 4:4 XIVth-seconds as the periodic
time of that motion in the molecules of hydrogen in which these three lines have
their origin.

This determination may be accepted as very close to the truth. The most un-
certain part of it is the velocity which has been assigned to light. The rest of the

computation depends on Angstrém’s marvellously accurate measures of the wave-
lengths in air of standard pressure and 14° C. temperature, reduced to wave-lengths
in vacuo by Ketteler’s observations on the dispersion of air; and the following Table
will show how very close the calculated values are to those which were observed.

Observed wave-
lengths, reduced to :
wave-lenghths Calculated values. Differences.
in vacuo.

Xth-metres. Xth-metres. Xth-metres. Xth-metres.
h=4102'3 45X18127714 = 4102-41 —0:04
F=4862:11 3X 18127714 = 4862-12" —0:01
C=6563'93 gg X 18127714 = 6563°86 +0-07

. The difference in no case amounts to an eleventh-metre, which is the limit within

which Angstrém thinks that his measures may be depended on.

Possibly some of the other harmonics, such as the 19th, 21st, 22nd, &c., which
are not visible in the ordinary spectrum of hydrogen, may be found among the lines
of that other spectrum of many lines which Pliicker has recorded (Phil. Trans. for
1865, p. 22. § 60). ; .

A more detailed examination of the foregoing theory raises the hope that it will
throw light from various directions upon molecular motions.

Experiments on Colour.
By the Hon. J. W. Srrurr, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.

The author gave an account of some observations with the colour-disks, and on
the disturbance produced by looking through coloured solutions at the match first
adjusted by the naked eye. A difference in the colour-equations was also noticed ac-
cording to whether the light came from the blue sky or from clouds, Some remarks
followed on the nature of the compound yellow ; and a method of obtaining it was
described more convenient in many cases than the use of the spectral rays isolated
by the prism. Mixtures of either an alkaline infusion of litmus or a solution of
_ sesquichloride of chromium with the chromate of potash isolate the green and red
portions of the perry cutting out the yellow and orange which lie between
them. In suitable proportions, either of them givo a very full compound yellow,
_ which is yet almost entirely free from any yellow-looking elementary light:

4A REPORT—1870.

On two Spectra of Carbon existing at the same Temperature. By W.M. Watts.

In this paper the author gave an account of his attempt to ascertain whether the
two totally different spectra of carbon depend on a difference of temperature. The
No. 1 spectrum is that given by olefiant gas or carbonic oxide and various other
compounds of carbon, either when burnt in air or oxygen or by means of the electric
spark at ordinary pressures.

The No. 2 spectrum is produced only by the electric spark in a vacuum, and is
given under such circumstances either by olefiant gas or carbonic oxide. The
temperature of the flames producing the No. 1 spectrum varies from below 2000° C,
to 10,000° C., whilst by enclosing vapour of sodium in the Geissler tube giving the
No. 2 spectrum, the author found that at first the line D showed, which comes out
below 2000° C., and afterwards, as the tube was heated, Na, which indicates a
temperature of about 2000° (as it is produced in flames which just melt platinum),
and finally Na y (which does not appear till 3000° C).

During these changes the carbon No. 2 spectrum remained unaltered ; the author
concludes therefore that both spectra are equally producible by temperatures of
between 2000° and 3000° C., and that the difference between them, whatever its
cause, does not depend upon temperature.

CHEMISTRY.

Address by Professor Henry E. Roscon, B.A., Ph.D., VRS. FOS.,
President of the Section.

GENTLEMEN,—

In the midst of the excitement of the horrible war in which the two most scientific
nations of the Continent are now plunged, and in which even the professors of
chemistry and their students take a humane part, let us endeavour to turn our
thoughts into channels more congenial to the scientific inquirer, and allow me to
recount to you, as far as I am able, the peaceful victories which, since our last
Meeting, in Exeter, have been achieved in our special department of Chemistry.
And here may I be allowed to remind you of the cosmopolitan character of science,
of the fact that it is mainly to the brotherly intercourse of those interested in
science, and in its applications to the arts and manufactures in different countries,
that we ought to look for the small but living fire which in the end will surely
serve to melt down national animosities, and to render impossible the breaking out
of disasters so fatal to the progress of science and to the welfare of humanity as
that of which we are now unfortunately the spectators.

With regard to the position of chemical science at the present moment, it will
not take a careful observer long to see that, in spite of the numerous important and
brilliant discoveries which every year has to boast, we are really but very im-
perfectly acquainted with the fundamental laws which regulate chemical actions,
and that our knowledge of the ultimate constitution of matter upon which these

_laws are based is but of the most elementary nature. In proof of this I need only
refer to the different opinions expressed by our leading chemists in a discussion
which lately took place at the Chemical Society on the subject of the Atomic
Theory. The President (Dr. Williamson) delivered an interesting lecture, in
which the existence of atoms was treated as “the very life of chemistry.” Dr.
Frankland, on the other hand, states that he cannot understand action at a distance,
and therefore he cannot comprehend the discontinuity of matter, an idea lying at
the base of the notion of atoms. Sir B. C. Brodie and Dr, Odling both agree
that the science of chemistry neither requires nor proves the atomic theory; whilst
the former points out that the true basis of the science is to be sought in the

investigation of the laws of gaseous combination, or the study of the capacity of

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45

bodies for heat rather than in committing ourselves to assettions incapable of proof
by chemical means,

Agreeing in the main with the opinion of the last two chemists, and believing
that we must carefully distinguish flivocn fact and theory, I would remind you
that Dalton’s discovery of multiple and reciprocal proportions (I use Dr. Odling’s
word), as well as the differences which we now acknowledge in the power of
hydrogen-replacement in hydrochloric acid, water, ammonia, and marsh-gas, are
facts, whilst the explanation upon the assumption of atoms is, as far as chemistry

as yet advanced, a theory. If, however, the existence of atoms cannot be proved
by chemical phenomena, we must remember that the assumption of the atomic
theory explains chemical facts as the undulatory theory gives a clear view of the
phenomena of light; thus, for instance, one of the most important facts and
relations of modern chemistry which it appears difficult, if not impossible, to
explain without the assumption of atoms is that of. Isomerism. How otherwise
than by a different arrangement of the single constituent particles are we to account
for several distinct substances in which the proportions of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen are the same ?} Why, for instance, should 48 parts, by weight, of carbon, 10
of hydrogen, and 16 of oxygen, united together, be capable of existing as three
different chemical substances, unless we presuppose a different statical arrangement
of oe by which these differencesin the deportment of the whole are rendered

ossible ?
7 Although chemistry appears not to be able to give us positive information as to
whether matter is infinitely divisible, and therefore continuous, or whether it con-
sists of atoms and is discontinuous, we are in some degree assisted in this inquiry
by deductions from physical phenomena recently pointed out by the genius of
Sir Wm. Thomson. This philosopher, arguing from four distinct classes of
physical phenomena, not only comes to the conclusion that matter is discontinuous,
and therefore that atoms and molecules do exist, but he even attempts to form an
idea of the size of these molecules; and he states that in any ordinary liquid or
transparent or seemingly opaque solid, the mean distance between the centres of
contiguous molecules is less than the hundred-millionth, and greater than the two-
thousand-millionth of a centimetre. Or, to form a conception of this coarse-grained-
ness, imagine a raindrop, or globe of glass as large as a pea, to be magnified up to
the size of the earth, each constituent molecule being magnified in the same propor-
tion, the magnified structure would be coarser-grained than a heap of small shot,
but probably less coarse-grained than a heap of cricket-balls.

There is, however, another class of physical considerations which render the
existence of indivisible particles more than likely. I refer to the mechanical
theory of gases, by means of which, thanks to the labours of eminent English and
German philosophers, all the physical properties of gases (their equal expansion
by heat—the laws of diffusion—the laws of alteration of volume under pressure)
ean be shown to follow from the simple laws of mechanical motion. This theory,
however, presupposes the existence of molecules; and in this direction again we
find confirmation of the real existence of Dalton’s atoms. Indeed it has been
proved that the average velocity with which the particles of oxygen, nitrogen, or
common air are continually projected forwards amounts, at the ordinary atmospheric
pressure, to 50,000 centimetres per second, whilst the average number of impacts
of each of these molecules is 5000 millions per second.

The mention of the molecular motions of gases will recall to the minds of all
present the great loss which English science has this year sustained in the death
of the discoverer of the laws of gaseous diffusion. Throughout his life Graham’s
aim was the advancement of our knowledge in the special subject of the molecular

roperties of gases. With this intent he unceasingly laboured up to the moment of
his death, in spite of failing health and pressure of official business, unfolding for
posterity some of the most difficult, as well as the most interesting, secrets of
nature in this branch of our science. “ What do you think,” he writes to Hofmann,
“ of metallic hydrogen, a white magnetic metal ?” and yet now through his labours
the fact of the condensation of hydrogen in the solid state by metallic palladium,
and to a less extent by other metals, has become familiar to all of us, Then, again,
I would remind you of Graham’s recent discovery of the occlusion of hydrogen

46 REPORT—1870.

gas in certain specimens of meteoric iron, whilst earth-manufactured iron contains
not hydrogen but absorbed carbonic oxide gas—proving that the meteorite had
probably been thrown out from an atmosphere of incandescent hydrogen existing
under very considerable pressure, and therefore confirming in a remarkable degree
the conclusions to which spectrum analysis had previously led us. The position
in the ranks of British science left by Graham’s death will not be easily filled
up: he accomplished, to a certain extent, for dynamical chemistry what Dalton
did for statical chemistry ; and it is upon his experimental researches in molecular
chemistry that Graham’s permanent fame as one of England’s greatest chemists
will rest.

As closely connected with the above subjects, I have next to mention a most
important research by Dr. Andrews, of Belfast, which, marking an era in the
history of gases, shows us how our oldest and most cherished notions must give
way before the touchstone of experiment. No opinion would appear to have been
more firmly established than that of the existence of three separate states or condi-
tion of matter, viz. the solid, the liquid, and the gaseous. A body capable of
existing in two or more of these states was thought to pass suddenly from one to
the other by absorption or emission of heat, or by alterations of the superincum-
bent pressure. Dr. Andrews has shown us how false are our views on this
fundamental property of matter; for he has proved that a large number of, and
probably all, easily condensible gases or vapours possess a critical point of tempera
ture at and above which no increase of pressure can be made to effect a change
into what we call the liquid state, the body remaining as a homogeneous fluid,
whilst below this critical temperature certain increase of pressure always effects a
separation into two layers of liquid and gaseous matter. Thus with carbonic acid
the point of critical temperature is 30°92 C.; and with each given substance this
point is a specific one, each vapour exhibiting rapid changes of yolume and flicker-
ing movements when the temperature or pressure was changed, but showing no
separation into two layers. Under these circumstances it is impossible to say that
the body exists either in the state of a gas or of a liquid; it appears to be in
a condition intermediate between the two. Thus carbonic acid under the pressure
of 108 atmospheres, and at 35°°5 C., is reduced 345 of the volume which it
occupies at one atmosphere; it has undergone a regular and unbroken contraction,
and it is a uniform fluid; if we now reduce the temperature below 31° C., the
liquid condition is assumed without any sudden change of volume or any abrupt
evolution of heat, We can scarcely too highly estimate the value of these researches
of Dr. Andrews.

As examples of the power which modern methods of research give of grappling
with questions which only a few years ago were thought to be insoluble, I may
quote the beautiful observations, now well-lnown, by which Lockyer determined
the rate of motion on the sun’s surface—together with those of Frankland and
Lockyer respecting the probable pressure ie pie the different layers of the solar
atmosphere, and, lastly, the results obtained by Zéllner respecting the probable
absolute temperature of the sun’s atmosphere, as well as that of the internal
molten mass. These last results are so interesting and remarkable, as being arrived
at by the combination of recent observation with high mathematical analysis, that
I may perhaps be permitted shortly to state them.

Starting from the fact of the eruptive nature of a certain class of solar pro-
tuberances, Zollner thinks that the extraordinary rapidity with which these red
flames shoot forth proves that the hydrogen of which they are mainly composed
must have burst out from under great pressure; and if so, the hydrogen must have
been confined by a zone or layer of liquid from which it breaks loose. Assuming
the existence of such a layer of incandescent liquid, then applying to the problem
the principles and methods of the mechanical theory of gases, and placing in
his formule the data of pressure and rate of motion as observed by Lockyer on
the sun’s surface, Zéllner arrives at the conclusion that the difference of pressure
needed to produce an explosion capable of projecting a prominence to the height
of 3:0 minutes (=80,000 English miles) above the sun’s surface (a height not
unfrequently noticed) is 4,070,000 atmospheres. This enormous pressure is at-
tained at a depth of 139 geographical miles under the sun’s surface, or at that of

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 47

one 658th part of the sun’s semidiameter. In order to produce a tension capable of
overcoming this gigantic pressure, the difference in temperature between the enclosed
hydrogen and that existing in the solar atmosphere must be 74,910° C.! Ina
similar way Zoéllner calculates the approximate absolute temperature of the sun’s
atmosphere, which he finds to be 27,700° C., a temperature about eight times as
high as that given by Bunsen for the oxyhydrogen flame, and one at which iron
must exist in a permanently gaseous form.

Passing on to more Biake chemical subjects, we find this year signalized by the
redetermination of a most important series of chemical constants (that of the
heat of chemical combination) by Julius Thomsen, of Copenhagen. This con-
scientious experimentalist asserts that the measurements of the heat evolved by
neutralizing acids and bases hitherto considered most correct, viz. those made with
a mercury calorimeter by Favre and Silbermann, differ from the truth by 12 per
cent., whilst the determination by these experimenters of the heat of solution of
salts is frequently 50 per cent. wrong.

As the result of his numerous experiments, Thomsen concludes that, when a
molecule of acid is neutralized by caustic alkali, the heat evolved increases nearly
proportionally to the quantity of alkali added, until this reaches 1, 4, 4, or dof a
molecule of alkali, accordingly as the acid is mono-, bi-, tri-, or tetrabasic. Excep-
tions to the law are exhibited by silicic, and also partly by boracic, orthophosphoric,
and arsenic acids. In the two latter the heat of combination is proportional for
the first two atoms of replaceable hydrogen, but much less for the third atom, A
second unexpected conclusion which Thomsen draws from his calorific determina-
tions is that sulphuretted hydrogen is a monobasic acid, and that its rational
formula is therefore H (S H),

Another important addition made to chemistry since our iast Meeting is a new,
very powerful, and very simple form of galvanic battery discovered, though not
yet described, by Bunsen. In this second Bunsen’s battery only one liquid, a
mixture of sulphuric and chromic acids, is employed. The plates of zine and
carbon can all be lowered at once into the liquid and raised again at will. The
electromotive force of this battery is to that of Grove’s (the most powerful of known
forms) as 25 to 18; it evolves no fumes in working, and can be used for a very
considerable length of time without serious diminution of the strength of the
current ; so that Bunsen writes me that no one who has once used the new battery
will ever think of again employing the old forms. I had hoped to be able to
exhibit to the Section this important improvement in our means of producing a
strong current; but war has demanded the use of other batteries, and Bunsen has
been unable to send me a set of his new cells.

Amongst the marked points of interest and progress in Inorganic chemistry
during the past year we have to notice the preparation of a missing link amongst
the oxysulphur acids by Schutzenberger. It is the lowest known, and may be
called hydrosulphurous acid, H, SO,, The sodium salt, Na H SO,, is obtained by
the action of zinc on the bisulphite ; as might be expected, it possesses very powerful
yeducing properties, and bleaches indigo rapidly.

The metallic vanadates haye also been carefully examined, and the existence
of three distinct series of salts proved, corresponding to the phosphates, viz. the
ortho- or tribasic vanadates, the pyro- or fanbase vanadates, and the meta- or
monobasic vanadates. Of these the ortho-salts are most stable at a high tempera-
ture, and at the ordinary atmospheric temperature the meta-salts are most stable,
whilst, as is well known, in the phosphorus series the order of stability is the
reyerse. Thus the points of analogy and of difference between phosphorus and
vanadium become gradually apparent.

As an illustration of the results of modern Organic research (for in viewing
the year’s progress in this ever widening branch of chemistry it is impossible to
do more than give a few illustrations), I may quote Baeyer’s remarkable investiga-
tions on mellitic acid. Originally discovered by Klaproth in Honeystone or Mellite
(a substance which yet remains the only source of ths acid), mellitic was supposed.
to be a 4-carbon acid. Baeyer has quite recently shown that the acid contains
twelve atoms of carbon, or has’a molecular weight three times as great as was
originally supposed, He has shown that mellitic acid is benzol hexacarbonic

48 REPORT—1870.

acid, C,, H, 0,,, or benzol in which the 6 atoms of hydrogen are replaced by the
monad radical carboxyl (CO OH), as benzoic is monocarbonic acid, or benzol
in which one of hydrogen is replaced by carboxyl. The most interesting portion of
Baeyer’s research, however, lies in the intermediate acids, partly new and partly
acids already prepared, which he has shown lie between mellitic and benzoic, and in
which from one to six atoms of hydrogen in benzol are respectively replaced by
carboxyl. Nor is this all; for he has proved that, with two exceptions, each of
these six acids is capable of existing in three isomeric modifications, thus affording
us an insight into the arrangement of the molecule of these aromatic compounds ;
for the simplest mode of explaining these numerous isomers is that given by
Baeyer, in the different order in which the several atoms of hydrogen in the benzol
molecule are replaced. Thus in the first or ortho-series, the hydrogen atoms in
benzol being numbered in regular succession, they are replaced in the same regular
succession. In the second or meta series the order is 1, 2, 3, 5, &c., whilst the third
or para-series take open order, as 1, 2, 4, 5, &e.

Thus we have :—

Ortho-series, Para-series. Meta-series,
C,, H, 0,. Hexabasic. Mellitic or benzol
hexacarbonic.
C,, H, 0, Pentabasic. Unknown.
C,, H, O; Tetrabasic. Pyromellitic or ben- Isopyromellitic, Unknown.
zol tetracarbonic.
C, H, O, Tribasic. Trimesinic or benzol Hemimellitic. Trimellitic.

tricarbonic.
C,; H, 0, Dibasic. Phthalic or benzol Isophthaliec. Tetraphthalic.
. dicarbonic.
C,H, 0, Monobasic. Benzoic or benzol
monocarbonic.

Amongst the most interesting series of new organic bodies are those in which
tetrad silicon partly replaces carbon. Our knowledge of these substances is
gradually becoming more complete; the last new member prepared by Friedel and

Ladenburg, is silico-propionic acid, ae He , the first of a series of carbo-silicic acids
2

containing the radical Si0,H.

The interesting researches of Matthiessen and Wright on morphine and codeine
have thrown a new light on the constitution of these opium alkaloids. Treated
with hydrochloric acid, morphine loses one molecwe of water, and gives rise to a
new base, apomorphine,

C,,H, NO, = H,0O+.C,,H,,N6O,,
Morphine. Apomorphine.

which differs in a remarkable manner from morphine, both in its chemical and
physiological actions, being soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform, whereas
morphine is nearly insoluble, and acting as the most powerful emetic known, 7
of a grain producing vomiting in less than ten minutes. Codeine, which only
differs from morphine by CH,, also yields apomorphine on treatment with hydro-
chloric acid, methylchloride being at the same time eliminated.

An important application of the dehydrating and carbon-condensing power of
zinc chloride, long known in its action on alcohol to produce ether, has been made
by Kekulé in the reduplication of aldehyde to form croton aldehyde with loss
of water, 2 (C,H,O) — H,O = C,H,0. This croton aldehyde is also probably
formed as an intermediate product in the manufacture of chars from aldehyde,
and gives rise to the formation of croton chloral, C, H, Cl, O.

The discovery of the sedative properties of chloral-hydrate by Leibreich marks
an era in medical chemistry second only to the discovery of the anzesthetic properties
of chloroform. Chloral not only combines with water to form a solid hydrate, but
also forms solid alcoholates; but these bodies appear to possess quite different
medicinal properties from the hydrate, and it is important that no alcoholate
should be present.

‘The chemistry of colouring-matter has lately received an enormous impetus in

—

lime; and by the action o

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 49

the practical working of the memorable discovery of the production of artificial
alizarine, the colouring-matter of madder, by MM. Graebe and Liebermann. This
discovery, announced at our last Meeting, is of the highest importance, whether we
regard its scientific interest or its practical and commercial value; and it differs
from all the former results which have been brought about by the application of
science to the production of colouring-matters, inasmuch as this has reference to
the artificial production of a natural vegetable colouring substance which has been
used as a dye from time immemorial, and which is still employed in enormous
quantities for the production of the pink, purple, and black colowrs which are seen
everywhere on printed calicoes.

During the past year much progress has been made in the practical working of
the processes by which this colouring-matter is obtained from the hydrocarbon
anthracene contained in coal-tar; and new and more economical plans for effectin,
the transformation have been independently proposed by Perkin and Caro, an
Schorlemmer and Dale. The theoretical investigation of the reaction, and especially
of the nature of some other peculiar products in addition to alizarine which render
the artificial colouring-matter different from the natural colour, has been carried
out by Mr. Perkin and by Dr. Schunck. As we are promised papers on this subject
from both these gentlemen, | need not at present enter further into these interesting

uestions.

: The surest proof of perfection in a manufacture is the degree in which the waste
products are utilized, and in which the processes are made continuous. One by
one the imperfections of the original discovery are made to disappear, the products
which were wasted become sources of profit; and in many cases their utilization
alone renders possible the continuance of the manufacture in the middle of a
rapidly ee district. The Section will have the opportunity of inspecting
the practical working of at least two of the most valuable of these new processes.
The first of these has been at work for some time; it is that of the recovery of the
sulphur from the vat-waste, that béte noire of the alkali-makers and of their neigh-
bours. Dr. Mond has now satisfactorily solved the difficult problem of economically
A eee the sulphur by oxidizing the insoluble monosulphide of calcium to the
soluble hyposulphite, and decomposing this by hydrochloric acid, when all the
4 is deposited as a white powder.

The Seconit of these discoveries relates to the recovery or regeneration of the
black oxide of manganese used for the evolution of chlorine in the manufacture of
bleaching-powder. This subject has long attracted the attention of chemists; and
a feasible though somewhat costly process, that of Dunlop, has been at work for
some time at Messrs. Tennant’s works at St. Rollox. During the last year a very
beautifully simple and economical process, proposed by Mr. Weldon, and first
successfully carried out on a practical scale in Messrs. Gamble’s works at St.
Helens, has quickly obtained recognition, and is now worked by more than thirty-
seven firms throughout the kingdom.

: The principle upon which this process depends was explained by Mr. Weldon at
the Exeter Meeting. It depends on the fact that although when alone the lower
oxides of manganese cannot be oxidized by air at the ordinary temperature and
under the ordinary pressure to the state of dioxide, yet this is possible when one
molecule of lime is present to each molecule of the oxide of manganese. The
manganous oxide is a a from the still-liquors with the above excess of

air on this a black powder, consisting of a compound of
manganese dioxide and lime, MnO, CaO, or calcium manganite, is formed. This
of course is capable of again generating chlorine on addition of hydrochloric acid ;
and thus the chlorine process is made continuous, with a working loss of only 23 per
cent. of manganese, The Section will have the advantage of seeing Mond’s process
at work at Messrs. Hutchinson’s, and Weldon’s process at Messrs. Gaskell, Deacon

and Co.’s at Widnes.

__ A third process, which may possibly still further revolutionize the manufacture of
bleaching-powder, is the direct production of chlorine from hydrochloric acid with-

_ out the use of manganese at all. In the presence of oxygen and of certain metallic
oxides, such as oxide of copper, hydrochloric acid gas parts at a red heat with all

its hydrogen, water and chlorine being formed. This interesting reaction is employed
4

50 : REPORT—1870,

by its discoverer, Mr. Deacon, for the direct manufacture of bleaching-powder
from the gases issuing directly from the salt-cake fwmace, Air is admitted,
together with hydrochloric acid gas, and the mixture is passed over red-hot bricks
impregnated with copper salt, The oxide of copper acts as by contact and remains
unaltered, whilst the chlorine, watery vapour, and excess of air pass at once into
the lime-chamber, There are many practical difficulties in working this process
on the large scale, some of which have still to be overcome; but I believe we shall
hear from Mr. Deacon that, notwithstanding these drawbacks, he has accomplished
his end of making good bleaching-powder by this process.

On the Alloys of Copper, Tin, Zine, Lead, and other Metals with Manganese.
By J. Fenwick Auten, 1.0.8,

In the year 1826 a spoon, made by Messrs, Zernecke, of Berlin, was analz ed,
and the alloy was found to be composed of copper 57:1 per cent., manganese 19°7
per cent., zinc 23-2 per cent, This analysis is included in a chapter on Kupfer-
mangan, by Mr, Johann Tenner, in his ‘Handbuch der Metall-Legirungen,’ pub-
lished at Quedlinburg, Berthier produced a large number of alloys of manganese
with various metals, and has recorded their principal properties.

Whilst, therefore, the alloys of copper, zinc, and other metals with manganese
have been more or less known to the metallurgist for more than forty years, whilat
their valuable physical properties have been fully described, whilst, moreover,
manganese in its ores almost approaches iron in its abundance and in its value, and
yet for years has heen suffered to escape as a waste product from almost every large
allcali-works, we find the metallurgist has not succeeded in reducing it to serve
widely except when yoked with iron.

To produce metallic manganese was not from the first seni ; and it is with
extreme difficulty that even small quantities of this metal can be prepared.

From the first it was discovered that in using any of the ores of manganese, the
iron and the silicon completely destroyed the value of the product. Having obs
tained a comparatively pure oxide of manganese, recovered from the “ still liquors,”
and having mixed this with oxide of copper (not metallic copper), together with
wood charcoal, all finely ground and intimately mixed, the charge was put into a
plumbago crucible, then heated in an air-furnace at an intense heat from three to
four hours. When the pot was taken out, it was found that, still suspended in the
charcoal, and not run down to the bottom, there were innumerable fine shots of a
bright white metal; these, being separated by washing and placed again in the
crucible and heated, fused into a pill or button covered with a layer of green vitreous
slag. The process was continued until some small ingots were produced; and on
these experiments were made as to their malleability and ductility.

The alloy was found to be very hard and very brittle when hot; but when cold,
although still hard, it rolled with ease, and was highly elastic. The proportions
of the alloy were about :—copper 75 per cent., manganese 25 per cent. hen the
simple alloy had been produced in sufficient quantities, compound alloys with zine
were tried in various proportions; and these, again, rolled with complete success,

Certain mixtures. of copper, zinc, and manganese possess the advantage over both
German silver and yellow metal, that, whereas the one will only roil cold and the
other hot, the manganese alloy rolls from hot to cold,

As a simple alloy, in which the proportions of manganese range from 5 to 30 per
cent., it is both malleable and ductile, with a tenacity considerably greater than
that of copper.

With zinc a compound alloy, resembling in some of its qualities German silver,
is obtained.

The alloy of copper and manganese combines with tin, lead, and other metals;
and from these castings are made, and applied as bearings for machinery, and other
similar purposes.

It was not the nature of the metal itself that prevented it being widely used; it
was its cost. The waste of manganese is very considerable, over 10 per cent. re-
maining unreduced, and forming a silicate; the wear and tear of the plumbago

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 51

pots and the furnace incurred a large expense; and in proportion to the quantity
of metal produced, the fuel consumed and the labour expended were great,

The waste of manganese in alloys rich in that metal will, it is feared, always be
considerable ; but the value of the raw material would permit some such loss, could
the other points be obtained ; and these, it is belieyed, have now been achieved.

The metal has been produced by heating a mixture of carbonate of manganese
with oxide of copper and charcoal in a tolerably large reverberatory furnace, and
not ina small and costly pot. The fuel used has been principally the common
slack or small coal of the district, and not coke. The labour has been proportion-
ately reduced ; and a series of alloys are produced that ere long promise to play no
unimportant part in the arts and manufactures.

It is the excellent furnace-arrangements of Mr. Siemens that have assisted in
overcoming the difficulties at first encountered, by affording the intense heat
needed, with a non-oxidizing flame, in a quiet atmosphere.

The following specimens were exhibited :—

1st. Manganese and copper, in various proportions from 35 to 5 per cent. of man-
ganese, as ingot, sheet, and wire.

2nd. Copper, zine, and manganese ; also in different proportions, and in a yariety
of applications,

8rd. Copper, zinc, manganese, and tin; as ingots and as bearings.

4th. Copper, manganese, and tin, in several different proportions; as bars,

5th, Copper, manganese, and lead.

On the Chemical Composition of the Bones of General Paralytics.
By J. Campsett Brown, D.Se.

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Constituents, Ribs of General Paralyties, | & E al aye
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71 Fl) icv 71 PLl! od Fe 71

Ratio of lime to phos-
phoric acid........

I. shows the average proportions of organic and earthy matter in several sam-
ples, which were remarkable only for being less perfectly developed than the ribs
of healthy adults; some of these had been fractured and perfectly united; others
were entire.

Il. These ribs were not fractured, nor did they contain much fat; but they were
thinner than usual.

If. consisted of one rib only; it was slender, and rough and jagged on the
edges, but had not been fractured.

V. consisted of six ribs, which had all been fractured, and had completely
united, and showed a slight callosity; some of them had been again fractured more

* This specimen also contained fat which had not been removed before analysis
4

52 REPORT—1870.

recently, and had only imperfectly united; they contained an unusual amount of
fat. Portions of the ribs were removed and freed from fat before they were sub-
mitted to analysis, and the remaining portions were handed to the Curator of the
Museum of the School of Medicine.

V. For comparison with these, I give’ the composition of the femur and tibia of
a nine months’ foetus in column V., and of the bones from a case of osteomalacia
in column VI.

VIL. is calculated from the analysis of a healthy adult tibia by Valentin.

VIII. is calculated from analyses of ribs of a healthy man, aged 25, by Von Bibra.

It will be observed that the ratio of organic constituents to earthy matter is
much greater, while the ratio of lime to phosphoric acid is distinctly less, in the
ribs of paralytics than in those of healthy adults. There are the same differences
between the composition of healthy ribs and those of paralytics as between the
composition of the adult large bones and those of the foetus; and, generally, the
composition in cases of paralysis approaches that observed in cases of osteomalacia.
Whether the defects in the ribs of paralytics are due to arrested development or to
degeneration of the fully developed bone, it will require further experiments upon
carefully selected cases to prove; but from the evidence already obtained the
author was led to conjecture that both causes will be found to operate.

The result of the analysis is suggestive rather than conclusive as to the condition
of the bones in patients the subjects of general paralysis ; and it would be unsafe to
generalize from a few examples. ‘The analysis, however, is a first instalment
towards determining, by scientific inquiry, whether the statements that have been
made, as to the peculiar liability to fracture of the bones in certain forms of
insanity, holds good as a general rule.

On a Spectroscope in which the Prisms are automutically adjusted for the Mi-
mimum Angle of Deviation for the particular Ray under examination, By
Joun Brownine, F.2.A.S.

In spectroscopes of ordinary construction, when several prisms are employed, a
great deficiency of light will be noticed towards the more refrangible end of the
spectrum.

P This arises from the fact that the prisms are adjusted to the minimum angle of
deviation for the most luminous rays, which are near the other end of the spectrum.

The Diagram shows the method in which the change in the adjustment of the
prisms to the minimum angle of deviation for each particular ray is made automa-
tically. In this diagram P, P, &c. represent prisms. All these prisms, with
the exception of the first, are unattached to the plate on which they stand—
the triangular stand, on which the prisms are hinged together at the angles cor-
responding to those at the bases of the prisms; to each of these bases is attached
a bar B, perpendicular to the base of the prism. As all these bars are slotted,
and run on a common centre, the prisms are brought into a circle. This central
pivot is attached to a dovetail piece, two or three inches in length, placed on
the underside of the main plate of the spectroscope, which is slotted to allow it
to pass through. On moving the central pivot the whole of the prisms are moved,
each to a different amount, in proportion to its distance in the train from the first
or fixed prism, on which the light from the slit falls after passing through the col-
limator C. Thus, supposing* the first prism of the train from C, represented in the
diagram, to be stationary, and the second prism to have been moved through 1° b
this arrangement, then the third prism will have moved through 2°, the fourt
through 3°, the fifth through 4°, and the sixth through 5°. As these bars are at
right angles to the bases of the prisms, and all of them pass through a common
centre, it is evident that the bases of the prisms are at all times tangents to a
common circle.

Now for the contrivance by which this arrangement is made automatic. A lever
Lis attached to the corner of the triangular plate of the last prism; this lever, by
its further end, is attached to the support which carries the telescope through
which the spectrum is observed. Both the telescope and lever are driven by the

* It really has a slight movement round one angle.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 53

micrometer-screw M. The action of the lever is so adjusted that, when the tele-
scope is moved through any angle, it causes the last prism to turn through double
that angle. The rays which issue from the centre of the last prism are thus made

to fall perpendicularly upon the centre of the object-glass of the telescope T; and
thus the ray of light travels parallel to the bases of the several prisms, and ulti-
mately along the optical axis of the telescope itself, and thereby the whole field of
the object-glass is filled with light.

Thus the apparatus is so arranged that, on turning the micrometer-screw so as
to make a line in the spectrum coincide with the cross wires in the eyepiece of the
telescope, the lever L, attached to the telescope and prisms, sets the whole of the
prisms in motion, and adjusts them to the minimum angle of deviation for that
portion of the spectrum.

On the Examination of Sea Water on board H.M.S. ‘Porcupine? in July
1870, for dissolving Gases and varying proportions of Chlorine. By W.
Lant CarpPENTER.

Contributions to Mineralogical Chemistry. By A. H. Cuurcu, I.A., F.CS.

Experiments on the Preservation of Stone. By A. H. Cuurcu, M.A., FCS.

On the Purification of Public Thoroughfares by the application of Deliquescent
Chlorides. By W. J. Cooper.

The author had first called attentton to the subject in 1868; at that time a very
successful experiment had been tried in Baker Street, Portman Square. In Liver-
1, in 1869, Bold Street, Church Street, and Lord Street were watered with salts
ttin the month of July. The report of the result was very favourable, and the
experiments have been continued this year. In many towns experiments have

been tried during the past season, with various results, according to tl e composi-

54 REPORT—1870.

tion of the roadways. It is difficult to prove the economy resulting from the use
of the chlorides over a limited area; but over large areas it is very evident. The
importance, in a sanitary point of view, of the use of chlorides has been clearly
established. The chloride of calcium decomposes the carbonate of ammonia con-
tained in the horse-droppings, the results being carbonate of lime and chloride of
ammonium, which two results, combining with the chloride of sodium and the car-
bonate of lime contained in the roadway, cause the concreting effect so important
in the prevention of dust and the preservation of the roads.

A new Chlorine Process without Manganese (with illustrations).
By Henry Dzacon.

A heated mixture of hydrochloric ‘acid gas and oxygen or air are passed over
heated salts of copper, lead, or manganese, or pieces of burnt clay, or similar porous
bodies previously soaked in solutions of the salts. Under these circumstances the
chlorine of the hydrochloric acid is set free ; and the action is so complete that, by
proportioning the surfaces of the salts and current of gases, the whole of the chlo-
rine can be liberated or all the oxygen or air absorbed. At 750° F. the reaction is
most active with copper salts; lead salts require a higher temperature, and man-
ganese salts still higher; and as the temperatures increase, it is believed chlorine
reacts on the vapour of water produced to re-form hydrochloric acid. With copper
salts no such re-formation occurs. If the temperature be too high, chloride of
copper always sublimes, whatever salt of copper be first employed.

The author predicted this reaction, so far as the chloride of copper and of man-
ganese are concerned, from the belief that chemical forces may be united and
resolyed as mechanical forces are, and as, he believes, is evidenced in the ordinary
manufactures of sulphuric acid and of sulphuric ether by the continuous processes.

The positive proof or disproof of this theory appears only to be possible by con-
sidering the time occupied. If a result follows from the formation and subsequent
decomposition of a compound, the total time will be the time of the two processes
added together; but if it be a direct result of the union of the forces, it will be the
time only of either process alone. This proof being at present unavailable, the
author relies on the test of the other proof of a correct theory, viz. its power of
foretelling unknown events, and claims in this instance to have shown the great
probability of the truth of his theory, admitting that it is not yet strictly proved.

Note on Thermal Equivalents—1. Fermentation. 2. Owides of Chlorine.
By James Duwar, /.R.S.L,

On Cyanogen. By Tuomas Farrtey, F.C.S8., Science Master at the Leeds
Grammar School.

I. Preparation of Cyanogen.—The author has found the most convenient method
for the preparation of cyanogen to be the action of one part of pure potassium cy-
anide, dissolved in as little water as possible, on two parts of powdered copper
sulphate, mixed with scarcely more water than sufficient to moisten and cover it.

The operation may he performed in an ordinary bottle or flask; and the cyanide
solution should be added a little ata time, as the action is very rapid... Much
water prevents the action. Besides its convenience, this method gives at least
two 15ths of the weight of the cyanide as cyanogen, Careful experiments, made with
mercuric cyanide, show that it is very difficult to obtain more than one 15th of its
bet as cyanogen, z, e. only one third of the cyanogen it contains.

. Hydrogenation of Cyanogen.—In a former paper the author showed that when
cyanogen and hydrogen are passed over platinum black at 140° C., they combine.
He has repeated and extended these experiments, and finds that the substance ob-
tained by passing the gases into dilute hydrochloric acid is the chloride of an organic
base containing C, H, N, Clin the exact proportions of the chloride of ethylene
diammonium. The chloride is soluble in absolute alcohol, and, heated with alkalies,
gives off a liquid base. The chlorplatinate is very soluble in water, and soluble to

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 55

some-extent even in strong alcohol. In forming this salt, if platinum solution con-
taining acids of nitrogen be used, chlorplatinate of ammonium is obtained. In
using platinum black, dark-coloured products are formed, which partly remain
with the platinum, and interfere with the process. The author has tried all the
other forms of platinum, and they all act more or less; but finds that platinized
charcoal is the best. He prefers cocoanut-shell charcoal, because of its greater
absorptive power; but ordinary charcoal, containing the same proportion of pla-
tinum, 5 per cent., answers very well.

Hydrogen from dilute sulphuric acid and zine is passed through a wash-bottle,
then through a cyanogen-bottle (giving off cyanogen from the mixture mentioned
above). The mixed gases pass then through a wash-bottle containing water, then
through an empty bottle, then through a long calcium-chloride tube to dry them

horoughly. They then pass over the heated charcoal placed in a flask or in a tube
bent into a convenient form, and heated in an air-bath to 190° to 200° C., accord-
ing to the rapidity of the current of the gases. :

When this apparatus is working, dense white fumes are seen in the Liebig’s
bulb containing dilute hydrochloric acid, through which the gases finally pass.
With a sufficient excess of hydrogen, little cyanogen escapes unacted on; and
the charcoal remains as efficient after some days’ use as at first.

This platinized charcoal also serves well for the hydrogenation of hydrocyanic acid.

Ordinary charcoal possesses in some degree the property of causing the gases to
combine at a temperature of 210° C.

ILL. Cyanogen Hydriodate—This substance is obtained by bringing the two dry
gases into contact—more conveniently by passing cyanogen into dry ether, and then
saturating it with dry hydriodic acid gas. It crystallizes out during the process.
It has a reddish-yellow colour and onion-like smell, and stains the skin, paper, &e.
dark brown. It absorbs moisture from the air with avidity, and is decomposed by
water and by alcohol. From the aqueous solution the iodine is entirely precipi-
tated by argentic nitrate. It is dried and freed from ether by passing over it a
current of dry hydrogen while the flask containing it is placed on the water-bath.
Heated above 100° C. it decomposes, giving off free jodina, Analyses give per-
centages agreeing well with the formula C, N, H, I,.

A compound containing more H I than the above exists, but is exceedingly un-
stable, continually losing hydriodic acid at ordinary temperatures,

These substances were obtained while experimenting on the hydrogenation of
cyanogen by the action of metals on cyanogen and excess of hydriodic acid in
etherial solutions.

Note on the Distillation of Sulphuric Acid. By Tuomas Farruey, F.0.8.

In an attempt to obtain sulphuric anhydride by distilling sodium anhydrosulphate
with strong sulphuric acid, the author observed the great facility with which sul-
phuric acid boils and distils in the ane of alkaline sulphates. By heating sul-
phurie acid and some alkaline sulphate over an ordinary Bunsen rose-burner, in a
glass retort sheltered simply from draughts of cold air, quantities of pure sulphuric
acid may be readily obtained. Ifthe sulphuric acid contains acids of nitrogen, as it
should do when an acid free from arsenic is required, these come over first, along
with ca ited that may be present. Lead sulphate crystallizes out during the
process, but does not interfere till it has accumulated from repeated operations.

On the Purification of Sankey Brook. By Aurren E. Fiercune, 7.0.8.

The Sankey Brook flows through St. Helens, in Lancashire. Its chief impuri-
ties are free acid and sulphide of hydrogen.

The author proposes to allow the water to flow over beds of the old alkali waste,
which is to be found in immense quantities in the neighbourhood.

This, containing hyposulphite of calcium, would give off sulphurous acid when
dissolved in the acid water of the brook, and thus destroy the sulphide of hydrogen,
the two gases forming together sulphur and water; at the same time the lime
avould neutralize the free acid.

56 REPORT—1870,
Air-pollution from Chemical Works. By Atrnrp E, Frercurr, F.C.8.

On the Utilization of Sewage, with special reference to the Phosphate Process.
. By Davip Forzes, P.2.S.

It was stated that sewage irrigation was the only process which had as yet uti-
lized the entire liquid as well as the solid contents of the sewage. As, however,
there are many cases in which sewage irrigation is neither applicable nor advan-
tageous, it is desirable that some chemical process should be sought for by which
the sewage could be so far purified by precipitation that the supernatant water
could be allowed to run off directly into rivers without danger to health or animal
life, whilst the precipitate should be of so high a value as manure as to pay for its
transport toa distance for the use of the agriculturists. The experiments made
already on the London sewage by the phosphate process, and on the present occa-
sion successfully repeated on a small scale before the audience with Liverpool
sewage, appear to fulfil in a great measure these conditions. This process, brought
forward by the author in conjunction with Dr. A. Price, is based upon the fact
that certain mineral phosphates, when in a freshly precipitated state, eagerly com-
bine with both organic matter and ammonia in sewage. The process required
nothing beyond a reservoir containing the sewage, to which the phosphates (in
major part of alumina) are added, preferably in the state of solution in hydro-
chlorie or sulphuric acid, from which, by the addition of a little milk of lime
(just sufficient to neutralize the acid which holds them in solution), they are at
once precipitated, along with the organic matter and part of the ammonia in the
sewage. The deposit subsides rapidly, and leaves the water clear and colourless,
even if tinctorial substances of great power are present: in the experiments shown,
ink was added to the Liverpool sewage, but the colouring-matter was instantly
removed along with the precipitate. The effluent water obtained by this process
is, of course, not any thing like so rae as water ordinarily supplied for drinking-
purposes; still the water from the London sewage at Barking Creek, so purified,
could, as was shown, be drunk without repugnance, fishes could live in it, and it
had remained free from offensive smell for months, during the entire hot summer
of last year, without any tendency to’putrefy or emit any disagreeable odour. With
regard to the value of the precipitated manure, it was admitted that no known
chemical substances could precipitate from sewage the whole amount of substances
valuable for agriculture ; and it was only claimed that so much of them had been
extracted as to leave the effluent water innoxious, whilst one of the most impor-
tant features of the process, in which it differs from all the others, is, that all the
substances employed in the purification augment the agricultural value of the pre-
cipitated manure, and thus render it of such value as to enable it to bear the cost
Saaaapart to a distance.

On the Action of Sulphurous Acid, in Aqueous Solution, on Phosphates and
other Compounds. By Dr. B. W. Gurtanp.

Sulphurous acid in aqueous solution dissolves various phosphates without
decomposing them, even when the oxide forms with sulphurous acid an insoluble
compound. In this respect the tribasic phosphate of lime is particularly interest-
ing. By means of sulphurous acid a solution of 13 sp. gr. can be obtained. This
keeps very well in the cold; but a rise of the temperature to 19° determines the
gradual precipitation of sulphite of lime. If the solution is quickly heated, a com-
pound corresponding to the formula 3CO, PO,, SO,, 2HO is formed, which sepa-
rates as a white crystalline powder, and is characterized by great stability. Itis a
powerful disinfectant and an active manure. The solution gives dibasic phosphate
of lime by boiling under reduced pressure, by standing in vacuum, and by mixing
with alcohol.

The dibasic phosphate of lime is also easily dissolved by sulphurous acid. The
solution again re the original phosphate when the sulphurous acid is removed.

The phosphates of manganese and magnesia form strong solutions with sul-
phurous acid, from which the original phosphate can be again obtained. The phos-

.
|

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, af

phate-of-magnesia solution shows a great tendency to precipitate the dibasic
phosphate, even if the tribasic salt is in solution. Phosphate of magnesia-ammonia
1s decomposed when used in excess, so that dibasic phosphate of magnesia is left
in the residue.

The phosphate of copper is less soluble. The solution spontaneously deposits
tuby-coloured crystals, Cu, O SO,+CuO SO,+2HO; but when rapidly heated to
the boiling-point, pure phosphate of copper is again formed.

Phosphate of uranium is sparingly soluble in water charged with sulphurous acid ;
and when the solution is heated the phosphate is again precipitated, with its ori-
ginal composition.

The crystals of tribasic phosphate of soda, 3NaO, PO,+24HO, absorb a current
of SO, with great energy, heat is liberated, and the phosphate melts, After cool-
ing, acid sulphite of soda crystallizes ; and the remaining oily liquor is separated, by
mixing with alcohol, into two layers, the lower being principally an aqueous solu-
tion of acid phosphate of soda, and the upper one an alcoholic solution of acid
sulphite of soda. If the crystals of the phosphate are mixed with a little water
and then saturated hot with SO,, the clear solution separates, after standing, into
two distinct layers, which unite again by shaking.

The phosphates of baryta, lead, and silver are decomposed by sulphurous acid
into insoluble metallic sulphites and phosphoric acid, which is dissolved.

No other compound of sulphurous acid with a phosphate like the lime com-
pound has been obtained.

The phosphates of stannic oxide, metastannic oxide, and bismuthic oxide are not
acted on by sulphurous acid.

Arsenite of lime, prepared by precipitating ammoniacal solutions of arsenious
acid and chloride of calcium, treated, when suspended in water, with sulphurouss
acid, gives a solution containing 3 eq. CaO and 1 eq. AsO,, and arsenious acid is left
undissolved. By boiling, the solution is decomposed into sulphite of lime, and
arsenious acid remains in solution.

Vanadiate of copper forms a solution with water and sulphurous acid, which,
when boiled, forms beautiful yellow metallic scales, containing copper, a lower
oxide of vanadium, and sulphurous acid. They tarnish rapidly when exposed to
the air.

Oxalate of lime is very sparingly soluble in water charged with sulphurous acid,
and is deposited unchanged when the latter is driven out by heat.

Note on the Occurrence of Vanadium. By Dr. B. W. Gerranp.

The author's friend, Mr. Jon. Donn, discovered a large deposit of a sandstone,
the chemical analysis of which proved it to contain vanadiate of lead and copper,
beside a great number of other metals, also thallium in appreciable quantity.
The manufacture of vanadic acid from this ore is not difficult. The author has
prepared 5} Ibs. of pure vanadic acid from 1 cwt. of picked pieces of the sandstone.

Vanadic acid is likely to prove useful by its oxidizing property in both neutral
and acid solutions. As the lower oxide of vanadium formed in this process is apt
to take up oxygen from the air, the vanadic acid can play in solution the part of
nitrous acid in the vitriol-chambers. For instance, a solution of 30 etms. of
aniline in hydrochloric acid, mixed with 2 grms. ammonium vanadiate and much
water, deposited, after some time, a deep-blue substance, which increased in quan-
tity until all aniline had disappeared. The vanadiate was left in solution,

On Reciprocal Decomposition viewed with reference to Time.
By Joun H. Guansronz, F.R.S., F.0.8.

When solutions of two salts are mixed together, it has been found that they at
once begin to decompose one another; but if the new compounds are themselyes
soluble in water, the decomposition is never complete, but the four salts remain
together in solution in certain proportions, dependent on the strength of affinity of
each base for each salt-radical, and on the actual amount of each. If, however,
one of the new compounds is insoluble in water, it removes itself from the field of

58 ‘ REPORT—1870.

action, and a redistribution of the constituents takes place, until the whole of the
insoluble salt that can be formed is formed and precipitates. If one of the new
compounds is so sparingly soluble that it crystallizes out, it is inferred that a fur-
ther redistribution must also take place till the amount that the water holds in
solution is sufficient to balance what remains of the original compounds. This is
what has been termed “ reciprocal decomposition.”

In most cases that have been examined, this action takes place rapidly, the
balance being attained apparently as soon as the salts are thoroughly mixed; in
other cases, ‘however, the action will go on for minutes, hours, or even days.
Quantitative experiments had been made on the rate of formation of ferric meco-
nate, ferric ferrocyanide in oxalic acid, potassio-iodide of platinum, the sulphates
of barium, strontium, and calcium, oxalate of magnesium, and acid tartrate of
potassium. It was found that where all four compounds remain in solution, the
amount of new salt produced in equal periods of time becomes gradually less and
less till the limit is very slowly attained ; but where one of the new compounds
crystallizes out, the maximum of chemical change is not at the commencement of
the action but after a certain quantity of crystals have been already deposited. In
this latter case many circumstances of a mechanical nature affect the rate, which
do not influence the decomposition when all the compounds continue in solution ;
but a rise of temperature was found in both cases greatly to accelerate the chemical
action.

On the Soda Manufacture. By W. Gossacn.

This contribution was a supplement to a paper on the same subject read at Man-
chester in 1861, noticing various improvements connected with the processes of
“manufacturing soda during the lapse of nine years since that period, and giving
also some details of the increase which has taken place in the extent of this impor-
tant manufacture during that time. One of the most important events has been
the passing of ‘The Alkali Act, 1863,” rendering it imperative that manufacturers
decomposing common salt for the production of sulphate of soda, should condense
not less than 95 per cent. of the (diochlasta acid gas evolved by such decompo-
sition. In the former paper, the means the author had devised and carried into
successful operation in the year 1836, for effecting such condensation, were de-
scribed, these means being now adopted universally, and so successfully that, in
many instances, this condensation exceeds 99 per cent. The most important use
for the hydrochloric acid obtained by such condensation is the manufacture of hypo-
chlorite of lime, or bleaching powder, the demand for which has taken an extra-
ordinary development since the introduction of straw, Hsparto grass, and some
other substances than rags for the manufacture of paper. At the date of the pre-
vious papery the chlorine was obtained by the action of hydrochloric acid on per-
oxide of manganese, Recently Mr. Walter Weldon, of London, has perfected a
process by which peroxide of manganese is obtained from the chloride of man-
ganese prodnced by the action of hydrochloric acid on peroxide of manganese ;
and this process has been successfully carried into practice in this district, also in
that of Newcastle, and it has already been adopted by some of the largest manu-
facturers in both localities. Allusion was then made to Mr. Deacon’s very scien-
tific process for the manufacture of chlorine without the use of manganese. Mr,
James Hargreaves, of Widnes, has also devised means for producing chlorine with-
out the use of oxide of manganese. The iron slag is treated with hydrochloric
acid, and thereby protochloride of iron in solution is obtained as a by-product,
which is evaporated, producing dry protochloride ; and this, by slow application of
heat with access of atmospheric air, becomes perchloride, which undergoes decom-
position, yielding chlorine and peroxide of iron. In the former paper it was re-
marked that nearly all the sulphur used in this manufacture, the cost of which is
about equal to two fifths of the total cost of ‘materials required, was reobtained in
combination with calcium, forming what is expressively designated as “alkali-
waste ;” and it was noticed, also, that this presented a problem worthy of attention
for its solution, Mr. L. Mond has made a near approximation to the solution of
‘this problem. His process consists in causing atmospheric air to be brought into
intimate contact with the alkali-waste as this is left in the lixiviating vats after

0) Oe i ged 2 eae

eC le

Se ST

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 59

treatment with water. A very pure sulphur, almost absolutely free from arsenic,
is obtained by this mode of working, which has been carried out successfully by
various manufacturers; but the quantity of sulphur obtained is far short of that
contained in the waste, and the author considered the problem still remained as an
exercise for ingenuity and perseverance. The former mode of obtaining copper and
silver from the burnt residua of coppery pyrites which had been used for yielding
sulphur to manufacture sulphuric acid, has been superseded by a process devise
by Mr. Henderson, which consists in mixing a small proportion of salt with burnt

yrites, previously ground to a fine powder, exposing this mixture to a low red

eat, and passing through it a current of air. By these means the small portion of
sulphur which has escaped being consumed in the burnt pyrites becomes oxidized,
producing sulphate of iron, which decomposes common salt, yielding chloride of
copper and sulphate of soda, which are obtained in solution on lixiviating the pro-
duct with water. The copper is then precipitated from the solution by means of
iron, and is obtained in the metallic state.. A large quantity of oxide of iron is
obtained as a residuum from the lixiviation. This is sold to the iron-smelters for
the production of iron. These operations are carried out very extensively by the
Tharsis Metal Company at Glaszow, Newcastle, and Widnes; and at the Widnes
Metal Company, Mr. J. A. Phillips has carried out successfully a process invented
by Mz. Claudet, of London, for extracting gold, silver, and lead from the burnt
residua of coppery pyrites. In the year 1861, during the negotiation of the French
Treaty of Commerce, it was estimated that the total quantity of salt decomposed
in Great Britain for the production of soda was 260,000 tons per annum. Of this
quantity 125,000 tons were decomposed in what is called the Newcastle district,
and 135,000 tons in the Lancashire district. According to the returns of the Alkali-
Manufacturers’ Association for the year 1869, the total quantity of salt decomposed
for the manufacture of soda was 326,000 tons, thus showing an increase of 66,000
tons, or 25 per cent. on the total. Of this quantity the decomposition in the New-
castle district in 1869 was 142,000 tons, which, being compared with 125,000 tons
in 1861, shows an increase of 17,000 tons, or 13°6 per cent. The decomposition in
the Lancashire district is returned as 184,000 in 1869, against 135,000 tons in 1861,
showing an increase of 49,000 tons, or 36 per cent. "Thus the Lancashire district
in 1869 exceeds by 30 per cent. the total quantity decomposed in the Newcastle
district during the same year. One of the most important applications of soda to
other manufactures is that of the production of soap. In the year 1852, when the
excise duty was finally abolished, the total production in Great Britain was equal
to 1600 tons per week, less than one half of which was produced in the Lancashire
district. The present production in the Lancashire district is fully equal to the
total production in 1852. Regarding the immense number of manufactories at
work in Lancashire for the production of chemical substances to be used in bleach-
ing, dyeing, calico-printing, &c., the conclusion was arrived at that Lancashire is
the largest seat of chemical manufactures in this country.

On a Method for the Determination of Sulphur in Coal-gas.
By A. Vernon Harcourt, /.R.S.

This paper gave a description of a piece of apparatus, which was exhibited in
action, and an account of the results obtained with it. The apparatus consisted of
a small Bunsen burner, whose nozzle passed into a glass cylinder, closed at both
ends, through which air was drawn by an aspirator. The products of combustion
were washed with an ammoniacal solution of copper during their passage through
a system of bulbs. A Woulfe’s bottle, filled with fragments of pumice steeped in
amnioniacal solution of copper, served to purify the air at its entrance, and also to
charge it with ammonia.

The apparatus had been tested by passing through it carbonic acid mixed with
a known amount of sulphurous acid, and also by washing a second time the gases
leaving it. Satisfactory results had been obtained. Moreover two or thore ana-
lyses of the same sample of gas gave numbers which were closely concordant.

60 REPORT—1870,

On the Separation from Iron-Furnace Cinder of Phosphoric Acid for Manurial
Purposes. By James Harereaves.

On Artificial Stone and various kinds of Silica.
By the Rey. H. Hieuton, M.A,

Silica is found in various forms, more or less insoluble. Some kinds can only
be united with alkalies in the heat of a glass-furnace ; other kinds can be dissolved
under a high pressure, and after a considerable lapse of time, by solutions of al-
kalies ; other forms, again, to which the author particularly wished to call atten-
tion, can be dissolved under proper precautions even in the cold. Natural silica
of this kind was exhibited both from Germany and England.

By means of this soluble silica, artificial stone can be formed harder than any
natural stones, except the very hard granites and primitive rocks. The process is
as follows :—A concrete is made with any good hydraulic cement. hen this
is dry, it is steeped in an alkaline solution of silica, in which is placed a quantity
of free silica. ‘The following chemical process then takes place. The lime in the
concrete extracts the silica from the solution, leaving the alkali free, which im-
mediately attacks the free silica and conveys it in its turn to the concrete, This
process goes on continually till the lime in the concrete is saturated with silica.

By this process, within a week the strength of the concrete is increased from
50 to 150 per cent.; and by a longer continuation of the process the strength is
still more increased.

The following is the comparative resistance to a crushing-force of several kinds
of stone :—

lbs.
The silicated concrete, or patent Victoria stone, per square inch.. 6441
DUET ACCT TUBING Ls ante a's aisle c's mie ciples ses dase Bi stbeints sist nievecees 7770
Dartmoor pranite ........... ease Beate eit ates oa eee 6993
Peberheadsorpnite wars sielstaeas etaiaae se cis che state iotena clolete Abra) uy * 6216
Yorkshire landing ...... aitaiwie ata oNepllal ative ete/erd e pielarote as taht eRe TCE 5851
ROLAATOTS MOLTO MOTIGIC Meise ale fo fis te atodn p'eistere ig atolave ie cl bhecaiete onetnereee 4032
OMAN SONI «esas chs Oe spas ele oe ete ait Yates ere iota cates 2426
AtIMHMING ees beens by alee ie ss Lede sdase te ks eee 1244

The stone formed in this manner has been tried as a pavement in the busiest
part of Cheapside, and in many other parts of London, and for me oe lintels,
sills, &c., in many parts both of this kingdom and abroad, as well as in India.

The whole of the stone in the new warehouses, 27 St. Mary Axe, is made in
this manner.

As a cheap strong stone, when manufactured on a large scale, it is likely to su-
persede natural stone, except where the latter is very cheap and abundant.

In localities, as on the Thames, where there are facilities for obtaining good
hydraulic cement and hard broken stone, it can be manufactured at a much lower
cost than Yorkshire or other stone can be procured.

On the Time needed for the completion of Chemical Changes. By Dr. Hunter.

On the Prevention of Lead-poisoning in Water. By A. Gorvon.

Various substitutes for lead piping have been tried, but all are more or less open
to objection. The substitute recommended by the author was that invented by
Mr. Haines, C.E. It consists of a leaden pipe with an internal pipe of block tin,
both having been previously pressed together so as to form a homogeneous
whole. By this process the piping retained all the flexibility of lead, while
the inner tube of tin was strong and thick enough to prevent any access of water to
the exterior leaden pipe.

On the Estimation of Sulphur in Coal-gas. By W. Marrtorr.

tte

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 61

On the Typical Hydrocarbons, from Marsh-gas to Anthracene, with the
Oxidation of the latter into Anthroquinone and Alazarine. By Dr. Mac-
Vicar.

On Atmospheric Ozone. By T. Morvart, M.D., F.R.AS., F.GS.

The results in this er were deduced from observations extending over a
period of twenty years. The author stated that the maximum of ozone occurred
with the conditions of the equatorial current of the atmosphere, and the minimum
with those of the polar current. The quantity of ozone is greater in the night
than in the day. It varies with the seasons. With thunderstorms, the aurora, the
zodiacal light, hail, snow, and sleet, it is above or below the mean quantity, ac-
cording to the readings of the barometer. If the readings be increasing, ozone is
in minimum quantity; but if they be decreasing, it is in maximum quantity, with
these phenomena. The author does not consider that the electrolytic action of
the sunbeam upon water and vegetable essences produces ozone; it is, however,
he states, produced by the action of the sun’s rays upon turpentine. He believes
aang to be the chief source of atmospheric ozone; and from results

educed from a long series of observations on the phosphorescence of the sea in
connexion with ozone, he finds that the maximum of the latter takes place when
the sea is phosphorescent, and the minimum when it is not hosphorescent.
From observations taken during four passages over the North Atlantio, it would
appear, the author states, that the minimum of phosphorescence of the sea and
of ozone occur in the “ ice-track”’ and in the proximity of icebergs,

On the Quantity of Phosphoric Acid excreted from the System in connexion with
Atmospheric Conditions. By T. Morrart, M.D., .R.AS., F.GS.

The author mentions that in a paper of his on the above subject, read at
the Meeting of the British Association last year, he gave the results of ob-
servations for each month. These results showed that the maximum quantity of
phosphoric acid is excreted under the conditions of the equatorial current of the
atmosphere, and that the minimum takes place with those of the polar current.
Observations continued during the winter months of last year afford similar re-
sults, from which the author concludes that the quantity of phosphoric acid formed
in the system by the oxidation of the phosphorus in the protein and phosphorated
fat of the blood in the peripheral system, and in the lungs, is determined by the
pressure of the atmosphere, Just as phosphorus is oxidated out of the system,

On a New Theory respecting the Heating of Liquids,
By J. Brrxsecx Nevins, M.D.

On Artificial Alizarine, with Illustrations. By W. H. Perkins, .R.S., FCS.

Note on Claudet’s Process for the Extraction of Silver.
By J. AxntuHvuR PHILiies,

It has long been known to those engaged in copper-extraction by the wet
process that the precipitate produced not only contains a notable quantity of
silver, but also traces of gold. No attempt, however, to separate the precious
metals, and to turn them to profitable account, had been made up to the com-
mencement of the present year, when Mr. I’, Claudet patented a process for the
separation of silver from ordinary copper-liquors by the addition of a soluble
iodide.

The amount of silver present in burnt ore seldom exceeds 18 dwts.’per ton; and
as the whole of this is never obtained in solution, it follows that, in order to ob-
tain satisfactory commercial results, the process employed should be both cheap
and expeditious,

62 rEPORT—1870.

_ The yats in whieh the burnt ores which have been roasted with salts are lixi-
yiated, generally receive some eight or nine successiye washings, either with water
or with water acidulated by hydrochloric acid; and of these the first three only
contain a sufficient amount of silver to be worth working. ;

For the purpose of remoying the soluble salts, hot water is employed; and asa
large proportion of the chloride of sodium used remains undecomposed, it acts as a
solvent for the chloride of silver produced during the process of furnacing. iy

The several operations for the extraction of silver are conducted in the following
manner; and as the first three washings contain 95 per cent. of the total amount
of that metal dissolved, these alone are treated.

These liquors are first run into suitable wooden cisterns, each of the capacity of
about 2700 gallons, where they are allowed to settle. The yield of silver per
gallon is now ascertained by taking a measured quantity, to which are added hy-
drochloric acid, iodide of potassium, and a solution of acetate of lead. The precipi-
tate thus obtained is thrown upon a filter, and, after being dried, is fused with a
flux consisting of a mixture of carbonate of soda, borax, and lampblack. The
resulting argentiferous lead is passed to the cupel; and from the weight of the
button of silver obtained the amount of that metal in a gallon of the liquor is
estimated.

The liquor from the settling-vat is now allowed to flow into another, whilst at
the same time the exact amount of a soluble iodide necessary to precipitate the
silver present is run into it from a graduated tank, together with a quantity of
water equal to about one tenth of the volume of the copper-liquor, During the
filling of the second tank its contents are constantly stirred; and when filled, a
little lime-water is added, and it is allowed to settle during forty-eight hours.

The supernatant liquors are, after being assayed, run off, and the tank again
filled, whilst the precipitate collected at the bottom is, about once a fortnight,
washed into a vessel prepared for its reception.

This precipitate is chiefly composed of sulphate of lead, iodide of silyer, and
salts of copper, from which the latter are readily removed by washing with dilute
hydrochloric acid, Thus freed from salts of copper, the precipitate is decomposed,
by metallic zine, which reduces the iodide of silver completely, and, to a certain
extent, also the sulphate of lead, The result of this decomposition is ;—

Ist. Iodide of zine, which, after being standardized, is employed in subsequent
operations to precipitate further quantities of silver,

2nd. A precipitate rich in silver, and also containing a valuable amount of gold,

The results of six months’ experience of this process at the Widnes Metal-works
show that 4 an ounce of silver and 13 grain of gold may be extracted from each
ton of ore worked, at a total cost, including labour, loss of iodide, &c., of 8d. per
ton, or 1s. 4d. per oz. of silver produced. Tf from this be deducted Gd., the value
of the 3 grains of gold in each ounce of silver, the cost of production, per oz. of
silver, will be 10d., and the expense of working a ton of ore 5d.

On the Absorption of Hydrogen by Electro-deposited Iron.
By W. Cuanpirr Roserts, Chemist of the Mint.

The author reminded the Section of a paper read during the Meeting of the Bri-
tish Association at Exeter, by Dr. Jacobi of St. Petersburg, on the electro-deposi-
tion of iron, specimens of which were submitted for inspection.

The well-known experiments of Mr. Graham proved that palladium oe¢luded 900
times its volume of hydrogen ; and Dr. Jacobi considered that the electro-deposition
of iron was attended isi asimilar absorption of hydrogen, although to a less degree,

By submitting this idea to the test of experiment, the author found that the iron
contained at least 155 times its volume of hydrogen. The experiments were
effected by heating the iron i vacuo.

Similar results were also obtained by Lenz and Klein. :

Mr. Graham also proved that tubes of malleable iron, when heated to redness,
allowed hydrogen to penetrate their walls. The experiments were then attended by
unavoidable errors; but by employing a tube of iron electro-deposited on a rod of
wax, Mr. Roberts was enabled to confirm the results obtained by Mz, Graham,

—_— ==."

——————————eOorrr

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 63

On Vanadium, illustrated by Preparations of its Compounds,
By Prof. H, E. Roscon, F.2.S.

On the Chemical Composition of Cotton. By E. Scuuncx, Ph.D., F.RS.

It is generally supposed that cotton, when quite pure, consists entirely of woody
fibre or cellulose, and that its composition is consequently represented by the for-
mula C,., H,,, Ojo. It is certain, however, that in the raw state, as furnished by
commerce, it contains a number of other ingredients, some of which occur so con-
stantly that they must be considered essential constituents of cotton, viewed as a
vegetable product. The object of the bleaching process, to which most cotton
fabrics are subjected, is to deprive the fibre of these other ingredients, and leave the
cellulose behind in a state of purity. Notwithstanding the importance of an accu-
rate knowledge of every thing relating to cotton from an industrial point of view,
the substances contained in it along with cellulose have never been subjected to a
special chemical examination, and, consequently, very little is known about them.

he object which.the author had in view in undertaking -his investigation was to
endeavour to throw a little more light on the nature of these substances. All
foreign and extraneous matter introduced during the process of manufacture was
left entirely out of.consideration. The author further confined his attention to those
constituents of the fibre which are insoluble in water, but soluble in alkaline lye,
and are consequently. precipitated by acid from the alkaline solution.

The material employed by the author was cotton yarn, which he preferred to
unspun cotton .for several reasons, the principal being that yarn is comparatively
free from mechanical impurities (such as fragments of seed-vessels, &e.), while, on
the other hand, if proper care be taken, no impurity is added. during the process of
spinning to those previously existing. The yarn was boiled in.an ordinary Liondheas
keir for several hours, with a dilute solution of soda-ash. The resulting dark
brown liquor, after the yarn had been taken out, drained, and slightly washed, was

* removed from the. keir into appropriate vessels, and mixed with an excess of sul-

huric acid, which produced a copious light-brown floeculent precipitate, while the
iquid became colourless. This precipitate was allowed to settle, the liquid was
poured off; and after being washed with cold water to remove the sulphate of soda
and excess of acid, it was put on calico strainers and allowed to drain. A thick

pulp was thus obtained, which, when dried, assumed the appearance of a brown,

brittle, horn-like substance translucent at the edges, In one experiment 450 lbs, of
arn, made from East-Indian cotton, of the variety called ‘ Dhollerah,” yielded
"33 per cent. of the dried precipitate. In another experiment, made with 500 lbs.
of yarn spun from American cotton, of the kind called in commerce “ middling
Orleans,” 0°48 per cent, was obtained. The total loss sustained by yarn during the
bleaching process amounts to about 5 per cent. of its weight. Only a small portion,
therefore, of the matter lost is recovered by precipitation of the alkaline extract with
acid, This precipitate formed more especially the subject of the author’s inyesti-
gation, It was found to consist almost entirely of organic substances; and of these
the following were distinctly recognized :—
1, A species of vegetable wax, to which the name of “cotton wax’ may be

ven,

2, A tatty acid, identical with margaric acid.
’ 3 and 4, Brown resinous colouring-matters,

5. Pectic acid.

6. A trace of albuminous matter.

The author described the method employed by him for separating these sub-
stances from one another, and obtaining them in a state of purity ; and he then gave
an account of their properties and composition,

On the Phenomena of the Orystallization of a Double Salt.
: By J, Brrcrr Spence,

46 REPORT—1870.

On an Attempt to determine the Boiling-point of the Saturated Solutions of
various Salts by boiling with Steam of 100°C. By Pzrer Spence, F.C.8.
The author stated that he had been engaged in a series of experiments with the
view of determining the boiling-points of the saturated solutions of various salts,
by blowing into these solutions steam of 100° C., and taking the highest point
of temperature attainable by this means as the boiling-point of the saturated solu-
tion of the salt operated upon. This was following out into practical results the
discovery brought by the author before the Exeter Meeting, that steam of 100° C.
gives much higher temperatures than its own in such solutions. Several difficulties
were alluded to; but these the author hoped to overcome, and concluded by giving
a list of solutions that he believed are determined with an approach to accuracy.

oa lie Hes eCiue
Nitrate of potash. . . 1136 2365 Chloride of manganese . 1216 251
Sulphate of ammonium. 1086 2273 Acetate of barium » 1033 218
Nitrate ofsoda . . . 1188 2462 Chlorate of barium . . 1001 223
Chloride of ammonium. ‘1141 2375 Binoxalate of potash. . 105 221
Chloride of sodium . . 109'4 229 Carbolic acid . . . 1172 229

Chromate of potash . . 1066 224 Chromic acid 1283 263

Chloride of barium . . 1050 221 Nitrate of silver . . 119-4 247
Sulphate of copper . . 1052 221'5 Phosphate ofsoda . . 1047 2205
Sulphate of magnesia 1055 222 Sulphate of zine . . . 1047 2205
Carbonate of potash 129-4 265 Nitrate of baryta. . . 1022 216
Sulphate of soda . 104:4 220 Nitrate of strontia . . 107°7 226
105°5 222 Tungstate of soda . - 1077 226

Sulphate of potash
Oxalicacid. . .
Sulphate of alumina
Nitrate oflead . .
Bichloride of mercury
Chloride of potassium

Chlorate of potash . .
° 102°7 217 Ferrocyanide of potassium 1044 220
; 111-9 2335 Chloride of zine . . . 1722 342
105.221 Iodide of potassium . . 1155 240
104°7 2205 Sulphate ofnickel . . 1116 228
1005 213 Carbazoticacid . . . 1033 218
109'4 229

On the Discrimination of Fibres in Mixed Fabrics. By J. Srrutmr, F.C.S.

In the course of an experimental inquiry undertaken for the purpose of identify-
ing the fibres entering into the composition of mixed fabrics, the author was led to
the discovery of the fact that silk alone, of all the materials ordinarily used in the
production of textile fabrics, is soluble in concentrated hydrochloric acid. The
chemical properties of the silk solution so prepared were described, and a photo-
graphic application pointed out by the author, who exhibited in this connexion a
matt-paper print, which was stated to have been produced in a much shorter time
than that commonly required for an ordinary print on a plain salted paper. A
hydrochloric-acid solution of silk was used, which, being made as concentrated as
possible, and neutralized by addition of ammonia, furnished a new organic chloride,
particularly suitable for salting paper intended for solar camera enlargements. For
the purpose of identifying wool in the presence of cotton, flax, jute, &c., it is re-
commended to immerse the fabric or loosened fibres in a warm aqueous solution of
picric acid, which dyes the wool ofa bright yellow without imparting any colour to
cotton. Thus, by treating a mixed fabric successively with hydrochloric and picric
acids, valuable indications are afforded regarding its constitution.

On Marbles from the Island of Tyree.
By Envwarp C, C, Sranvorp, FCS.

The author exhibited some polished specimens of two kinds of marble from the
Island of Tyree, in Argyleshire. One of these is unknown elsewhere. It is a beau-
tiful pink marble with dark green spots, which are crystals of hornblende. The
pink colour is due to peroxide of iron, which is scarcely soluble in dilute hydro-
chloric acid, The other is a white compact magnesian limestone, containing suffi-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 65

cient silica to render it very hard and durable. The amount of silica varies in dif-
ferent specimens. The following analyses show the composition :—

Pink. White
Calcium carbonate ...... (O:80 Mie aelalote. cle 50°70
Calcium sulphate ........ trace
Magnesium carbonate .... 2°35 ...... -. 87:92
Peroxide ofiron ........ 3°40
Caletum phosphate! sy... 5 1s ue seleeten 0-80
iSite Same See ae J 5 CONOR eros Dac oo OPH

Hornblende ............ 23°40
Water, Iattata sr osarshetetaceters ojerete}. Liakafen latent

100-00 100-00
The proportion of hornblende in the pink marble is variable.

On the Retention of Organic Nitrogen by Charcoal.
By Enwarp C. C, Stanrorp, F.C.8.

This paper was a continuation of one read by the author at the Exeter Meeting
last year, entitled “ A Chemical Method of treating the Excreta of Towns.” In this
paper the value of the dry as opposed to the water-closet system was warmly advo-
cated. It was shown that the only two real disadvantages alleged against the appli-
cation of the dry system to large towns were :—

Ist. The large quantity of valueless material required to he carted in and out;
and
2nd. The difficulty of obtaining the necessary supply.

These two difficulties are at once removed by the process proposed by the author.
Instead of earth, X-charcoal, or charcoal derived from the carbonized excreta, is
used as the deodorizer; of this, in proportion to earth, only one-fourth of the
quantity is required, while the substance removed affords by reburning the neces-
sary supply. The daily increase of this is available for manure. So far, therefore,
from being applicable only to small towns, the system must pay best where the
population is the densest. The nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash are all re-
tained; and the expense of removal in proportion to that by water carriage is
intinitesmal.

Houses properly constructed are only visited once a-year, and the removal is less
in amount, and even less disagreeable, than that of the house ashes. All the malaria
and other evils of connexion with sewers are avoided, and health is ensured.
Twelve months’ experience on a large scale are stated to have fully demonstrated
all the advantages claimed for this process, and proved it an efficient solution of the
sewage difficulty. As, however, some chemists have assumed that the action of
charcoal on animal nitrogenous matter is to oxidize it into nitrates, this was made the
subject of a special investigation. The author showed in his former paper that
excreta being already an oxidized product, there was little foundation for this as-
sumption as far as regards this animal matter. Now he alsoshows that even meat
when dry is unaffected by either X-chareoal or seaweed chareoal. Mixtures of these
charcoals with meat and with solid and fluid excreta were allowed to become dry,
and then tested monthly for nitrogen for six months. It was found that there was
no loss of nitrogen, no oxidation, and no formation of nitrates. As this result is
contrary to the usual view, further experiments with other charcoals are promised,

Dust as a Ferment. By Cuarres R. C. Trcuzorne, 7.0.S., WRIA.

The author’s ye ae was an attempt to deal with the chemical activity of dusts as
actual ferments. He referred to his researches in 1866 (the cholera year), in which
he demonstrated that the organic portion of street dusts in large towns consisted of
stable manure finely ground. Such dust generally gives an acid reaction, but there
were some cases taken from the locality of cab-stands which presented traces of
ammonia. The following is one of the specimens given :—

1870.

66 REPORT—1870,
Dust from Grafton Street, Dublin (dried at 100°C.).

Inorranie mablersve sce cs as Hehe Melee ents «OCIS
Organic matter je se cuales, -reaihelelapateisieletedpetisialctaie eyes le
100:0

Such dusts act as active ferments.
_ Analyses of dusts taken from the principal public buildings in Dublin are given
in the paper, of which the subjoined is a synopsis :—
Inorganic Organic

matter. matter.

Top seats in Merrion Hall (the largest place of public
SOhes! 2) pete OOD HEH OTC 2-0. -n-o-ac OMOOOF diejaieceche( eke begMO tae? 32:1
Gallery of the Theatre Royal ......cseseeeeeueees 46°8 §3°2

- Ancient Concerts-room (ventilating space above the
RES) tao 4 ono udon as dooeds CBO OoogLa MD DuOUT .. =—664:3 85:7
Nelson’s Pillar (monument 134 feet high) ........ << (0'3 29°7

The large amount of iron in some of these dusts is peculiar; for instance, that
obtained from the “ Ancient Concerts-room”’ gave 21 per cent. as the amount of
peroxide in the inorganic matter. This probably proceeds from a slow combustion
of the gas-burners.

Some further experiments were then instituted to determine how far, and to what
extent, these dusts would operate as ferments, and a volumetric system of measu-
ring the intensity of any process of fermentation was contrived. The process is
‘based upon the reduction of a nitrate of any base to a nitrite in the presence of subs
stances undergoing putrefactive fermentation. In these experiments precautionary
measures were adopted, so that all the fermentations induced were proper to the
dusts used as ferments. A mixture of cane- and milk-sugar was the pabulum
used in conjunction with mineral substances, including a weighed portion of ni-
trate of potassium. These experiments, conducted in flasks closed with cotton-
wool, were kept at a temperature of 20° to 28°C. They were examined from day
to day in the flowiag manner :—5 cubic centimetres of the clear liquid were with-
drawn with a graduated pipette, and the level of the Saesege. liquid marked upon
the flask, so that it could be made up to the original level if there is any loss from
evaporation. The 5 cubic centimetres were then mixed with a little mucilage of
starch and iodide of potassium. On acidulating with sulphuric acid, blue iodide of
starch is at once formed in each case, representing the N, O, present, or the nitrate
reduced, A volumetric solution of hyposulphite of sodium was then used for the
estimation of iodide of starch found. It is rather a curious observation that, if the
nitrate of potassium did not exceed } of a grain to the ounce of fermenting liquid:
after the first 24 hours, all traces of nitrites disappear, although there is still nitrate
present. The results are different if we introduce 2 to 3 grains, It is probable
that, in the reduction of the nitrates preparatory to the assimilation of the nitrogen,
a nitrate is the first stage ; but that if the ferment bears a considerable proportion
to the nitrate present, the nitrogen will be assimilated in the form of some lower
compound of nitrogen. One point of importance is evident, that, in the examination
of potable waters, if nitrates are present, but if no nitrites, 1t is no proof that decom~
position is not actually proceeding at the time as regards the organic matter-
therein.

The different results are then given in detail as regards the dust examined, and
which were introduced as ferments. They conclusively proved the powers of these
dusts for this purpose ; they also seem to point to a curious phase of the subject,
viz. that dust taken at a great height, as from “ Nelson’s Pillar,” seems to have as
great or greater activity than that which would be obtained from a building which
is nightly crowded to suffocation, This may in some measure be due to the extreme
levity of the spores. There is probably an altitude of the maximum of activity

for all localities as regards dust

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 67

On the Action of Low Temperatures on Supersaturated Saline Solutions.
By C. Tomirmson, RS.

It is known that when a saline solution, saturated at a certain temperature, is
reduced in temperature, salt is deposited ; but in the case of certain salts their su-
persaturated solutions, contained in clean yessels, and protected from the action of
nuclei, do not by reduction of temperature deposit the normal salt, but a salt of a
modified character, and of a lower degree of hydration, as in the case of sodic sul-
phate, when a seven-watered salt is formed instead of the usual ten-atom hydrate.
Mr. Tomlinson, in some recent experiments, has shown that the supersaturated
solutions of certain salts may be reduced to near the temperature of zero without
any deposit of salt; but below this they form tetrahedral crystals, which increase
until the whole of the solution becomes solid. If, now, the tube be put into snow
and water at 32°, the solid melts rapidly, and the solution becomes clear, bright, and
supersaturated as before. This effect may be produced any number of times, pro-
vided the solution be preserved from the action of nuclei, or carriers of nuclei, such
as the air. The only precautions to this end are to use clean filtered solutions in
clean tubes, kept plugged with cotton-wool.

A supersaturated solution of the double salt, formed by the sulphates of zinc and
magnesia in atomic proportions, became solid at —10° F., that of the double sulphate
of cope and magnesia at —4°, that of sulphate of zine and potash alum at 0°, that
of sulphate of zinc and ammonia at 4°. Other examples are given in the paper, with
cases in which modified salts are formed and remain permanent when the tempera-
ture is raised.

If the cotton-wool be removed only for a few seconds, while the solution is solid,
it ee during the melting into the normal salt, thus showing the action of a
nucleus.

At these low temperatures the water of the solutions does not separate and
freeze, but combines with the saline molecules so as to form unstable hydrates. It
is remarkable that in so many cases the crystalline form of these hydrates should
be tetrahedral,

On a Salt invisible in its Mother Liquor. By C, Tomxrsoy, F.R.S.

Sir David Brewster has pointed out a method of examining precious stones in the
rough, for the purpose of determining their refractive density and freedom from
flaws without the trouble and expense of grinding and polishing them. For this

urpose the rough stone is put into a mixture of oil of cassia and olive-oil, so ad-
usted as to be of about the same refractive density as the stone, when the latter
ecomes invisible, or nearly so, while the flaws and defects start into view.

When a supersaturated solution of the double salt formed by mixing the sul-

hates of zinc and soda in atomic proportions with a small quantity of water, boil-
ing and filtering into clean tubes, is exposed to the temperature of about O° F., a
salt is formed, and is permanent for some days at ordinary temperatures, but it is
invisible on account of its having the same index of refraction as its mother liquor.
The latter is now only a saturated solution. On closing the tube with the thumb,
and inverting it so as to allow the mother liquor to drain off, air enters into the
cavities in the crystals; and on allowing the mother liquor to flow back, these
air-filled cavities, having a different refractive index, become visible, and have a
massive appearance.

On the Electro-deposition of Copper and Brass.
By W. H. Wateny, 2.C.8.

The present condition of the electro-deposition of copper and brass is put forward
in this paper with sufficient reference to the history of the subject to enable com-
paratively recent improvements to be well understood, but treating the process in a
practical manner, and with reference to some improvements and manipulations that
are adopted by the author.

Ordinarily, a solution containing the cyanides of copper and zinc, respectively
dissolved in a “solvent solution,” consisting of a mixture of potassic cyanide with

68 REPORT—1870.

a salt of ammonium, is employed to deposit brass. This solution, however, evolves
hydrogen copiously, and is only workable by means of two Grove’s cells. The au-
thor finds that the evolution of gas may be either totally stopped or much lessened
by dissolving as much of the metallic cyanides as the solution will take up, and
then further charging the solution with the copper and zinc oxides. The evolution
of gas may be totally stopped by the further addition of cupric ammonide, which
may possibly carry the combined oxygen to the cathode, according to the following
equation :—

At the cathode before chemical reaction. At the cathode after chemical reaction.
{Cu,0,4NH, + 4H,O}+ H, = Cu, + 4NH, + 5H,0,
Cupric ammonide. Hydrogen. Copper. Ammonia. Water.

Malaguti and Sarzeau’s formula for cupric ammonide being used,—that is to say,
before decomposition or chemical reaction takes place, the whole of the cupric am-
monide, together with the eliminated hydrogen, goes to the cathode ; after the de-
composition or chemical reaction has taken place, metallic copper is deposited, am-
monia is in solution, and water is formed.

In treating the ordinary cyanide copper solution for the prevention of the evolu-
tion of hydrogen, the zinc cyanides or oxides, mentioned in the instance of the brass
solution, are left out.

When the evolution of hydrogen has been stopped, a single Smee’s cell is suf-
ficient to deposit the alloy ; but, in practice, a single Grove’s cell, or equivalent
magneto-electric power, is employed, in order to shorten the time of immersion in
the electro-coating bath.

The author prefers to use potassic cyanides and neutral ammonium tartrate,
when mixed with water, to form the solvent solution for either brass or copper.
The quality of brass (yellow or red) depends upon the heat of the solution.

Acid solutions, in general, give a spreading or matted deposit, alkaline solutions
a bristling one. The contact of the coating is promoted by working the solution
hot. The article should be pickled, scrubbed with sand, washed, scrubbed with a
portion of the depositing solution, and then placed in the depositing trough. After
deposition, the article is washed and dried in hot mahogany sawdust. Com-
le protection from rust, and a satisfactory coating for any purpose, is given

y the use of the acid-depositing bath subsequent to that of the alkaline bath.

Specimens of electro-deposited brass, by the author’s processes, were exhibited.

On the Weldon Process for the Manufacture of Chlorine.
By Water Wetpon, £.C.8,

Communication respecting a Resolution of the Committee of Section B on the
proposed establishment of a New School of Applied Science by Government.
By Professor A. W. Witttamson, F.R.S.

Professor Williamson communicated to the Section a Resolution which had
been passed in identical terms by the Committees of three Sections, viz. those of
Physics, Mechanics, and Chemistry. It was to the following effect :—

“That in the opinion of this Committee it is inexpedient that new institutions
for the teaching of science, pure or applied, such as the proposed Engineering Col-
lege for India, should be established by Government, until the Royal Commission,
now holding an inquiry into the relation of the State to scientific instruction, shall
have issued their report.

“That the Council of the British Association be requested to consider this opi-
nion, and, should they see fit, to urge it upon the attention of Her Majesty’s
Government.”

It is well known that there are in the Universities and Colleges of the United
Kingdom complete and systematic courses of instruction in the yarious branches of
science required for engineering pursuits, and that young men do obtain through
them the needful scientific preparation for professional work in engineering. There

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69

are also special courses of instruction in engineering subjects given by men of the
greatest eminence.

In matters relating to the higher education, Government have taken action from
time to time, by establishing special schools, without first taking means to ascer-
tain what arrangements already existed for carrying out the object in view, or what
kind of arrangement had been proved by experience to be most effectual for the

urpose.
: Under these circumstances, the British Association urged upon Her Majesty’s
Government last session the desirability of appointing a Royal Commission for the
purpose of obtaining information respecting the existing arrangements for scientific
instruction in this country; and it is well known that a Commission has already
begun to take evidence on the subject.

There is reason to believe that the labours of the Commission will be of great
value to the cause of scientific education, and will prepare the way for the deve-
lopment of some system worthy of England, by showing what are the available
resources of the country for such a purpose, and what has been found by experience
to be the respective merits of the various methods in use.

Under these circumstances, it was with no small surprise that an announcement
was received to the effect that Government is about to establish an official engi-
neering college.

GEOLOGY.
On Newly discovered Species of Elephants*, By Dr. Lerrm AAs.

Notes of a recent Visit to the Great Tunnel through the Alps, and of several
points of Geological interest suggested by the condition of the Works in their
present nearly complete state. By D. T. Ansrep, M.A., FBS. Lor. Sec.

The author, referring to memoirs recently pnblished by Professors Sismonda and
M. Elie de Beaumont on the rocks met with during the construction of the tunnel,
directed attention to the fact that the tunnel will perforate the crest of the main
chain of the Alps at a point nearly midway between Mont Tabor and the Mont
Cenis, and directly under Mont Frejus, the height of the crest between these limits
varying from 7000 to 10,400 feet above the sea. The valleys on the two sides of
the crest being of very different levels, the determinatiou of the site for the tunnel
involved many difficulties, but was suggested by an Italian in 1841. The works
were commenced in 1857, and on the 31st of July there remained less than 2000 feet
out of 40,000 to pierce.

The rocks of the crest of the Savoy Alps are metamorphic schists alternating
with bands of quartzite, gypsum, and highly calcareous schist with masses of anthra-
cite. They are the middle and lower divisions of the mesozoic period, ranging
perhaps from the Jurassic to the Triassic periods. Near Moutiers they contain
characteristic fossils, chiefly liassic species.

The level of the valley of the Arc at Modena, near which town the tunnel works
commence, is more than 200 feet below the point on the hillside where the tunnel
enters. This latter point is 39463 feet above the sea. On the Italian side the
tunnel emerges near Bardonneche 43813 feet above the sea, or 435 feet higher.
‘The bearing of the tunnel is N. 14° W.-S. 14° E. The strike of the rocks per-
forated is nearly uniform, and is N.E.-S.W., the rocks having a mean dip of about
50° N.W. Being thus cut obliquely, the real thickness of rock is about three-fifths
the distance bored. The total length of the tunnel being about 40,000 feet, the
thickness of rock traversed is about 24,000 feet. There is no indication of fault in
any part.

* A communication ordered to be printed i extenso among the Reports.

70 rth a nigice swe

Specimens of the rocks traversed are preserved, On the French side the work
began by 420 feet of tunnelling through disintegrated and decomposed rock, repre-
senting an actual thickness of about 200 feet of weathered material. After this
there was 6000 feet of tunnelling (8600 feet of rock) through talcose and steatitic
schists, with carbonate of lime and magnesia, containing hyaline quartz and crystals
of calcite and dolomite. Among the rocks was a conglomerate, and at the bottom
coarse micaceous gritstone. Beyond these was 800 feet (actual thickness) of very
hard quartzite, and then 1800 feet of gypsum, crystalline limestone, and talcose
schist. All these belong to the upper and middle divisions of the anthracitiferous
rocks of the Alps, ranging from the Oxford clay to the lower oolites, both inclusive.
All the rest of the tunnel is through a vast series of schistose limestone and cal-
careous schists, often steatitic, at least 18,000 feet in actual thickness, representing
the Lias, the Rheetic rocks, and perhaps some Triassic rocks. Throughout these
are many instances of slickensides, and a few crystals of iron-pyrites and galena.

The author pointed out that the effect of pressure on these rocks was inappre-
ciable, except that they exhibited numerous small folds. There are very few
crevices and fissures; these were almost all partly filled with crystals.

Observations on temperature were made, but not very systematically, at dis-
tances of about 500 metres, by bore-holes put in laterally to a distance of about
three metres. At 6200 metres (20,342 feet), at a depth of more than 5000 feet,
the thermometer showed 27° C. This would show a rate of increment of one
degree Fahrenheit in upwards of 100 feet. This is confirmed by other observations
on the temperature of the rock, and also of the water met with in the various
fissures.

The quantity of water yielded during the tunnelling has been exceptionally small.
Except on two or three occasions, where ;small water-containing fissures were
tapped and water came off under pressure for a few hours, the general quantity has
hardly varied, and does not exceed 4 litres per second (say, 100,000 gallons per
day). The water contained oxide of iron and sulphates of lime and magnesia.

On the Matrix of the Gold in the Scottish Gold-fields.
By James Bryce, M.A., LL.D., F.GS.

Up to July of last year, the source of the gold of the alluvial workings in
Sutherland had not been determined. Many of the miners had been at other
diggings, where the gold occurred in quartz reefs, and accordingly their search was
constantly directed to the discovery of such reefs, but without success. Sir R. I.
Murchison, Rey. J. M. Joass, Mr. John F’. Campbell, and Mr. Cameron, in their
several papers, had all offered surmises on this point; but no definite information
had been made public. The author had directed his attention to the elucidation
of this point; he had not succeeded in detecting any quartz reef, but he had
found the gold in its native seat in another rock. The banks of the Suisgill burn
consisted of alternating coarse whitish granite and a highly crystalline mica-slate.
On crushing the granite and washing the sand, grains of gold were found in every
specimen. A similar result was obtained by crushing and washing specimens of
the mica-slate, but the gold was less abundant, and was absent from several spe-
cimens.

A structure very similar existed in the Kildonan burn, whose alluvia also yielded
gold; but the granite here was not tested by him. He would not be understood
to affirm that granite was the only seat of the gold; on the contrary, he thought it
highly probable that it was diffused through all the metamorphic rocks of the
district, as Sir R. I. Murchison had supposed. He did not think it necessary to call
in the aid of old ice-action, as Mr. J... Campbell had done; the existing cing
might be credited with the whole of the gold. The specimens of granite were
selected by himself, and washed for him by one of the men engaged in the diggings.

Early in the last winter gold-grains were found in considerable quantity in the
alluvia of the Errick and Nairn rivers towards their mouths, and were soon after
detected at various points far up the channels of these streams. The author had
examined the upper valleys of the Errick and Nairn, and found them to consist
of a great body of granite invading metamorphic slates, He was accompanied

= = — ~~ —

a oie oa

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 71

by Mr. W. M. M‘Gillivray, of Inverness, who had had much experience in gold-
washing ; and on handing over to him for examination certain specimens of granite
very similar to that of the Suisgill burn, Mr. M‘Gillivray found in them several
grains of gold. Further inquiry was needed, in order to ascertain whether the gold
existed here in remunerative quantity.

On the History and Affinities of the British Conifere.
By Wii114M Carrvuruers, /.L.S., F.GS.

Having pointed out the great divisions of this natural order, the author traced
the appearance and development of its numbers in the stratified rocks. The Arau-
carei@, of which there were fifteen living species, natives of the southern hemi-
sphere, made their appearance in the coal-measures, eight species haying been
determined from the structure of the wood. In the secondary rocks cones be-
longing to six species had been detected, all of them having close affinities with
the section Entacta of Araucaria, The Pimee,a large group living in the northern
hemisphere, first appeared in Devonian strata, were contained in the coal, and
greatly increased in number in the secondary rocks. The Tavxodiee, having fifteen
species, living chiefly near the shores of the North Pacific, appeared in the Stones-
field slate, and were continued by species of Sequoia through the Cretaceous and
Eocene periods. The Cupressee are known only from tertiary strata by fruits and
foliage. The Zaxinee, containing nearly 100 living species, have been determined
in the Carboniferous rocks from a fruit; several fiuits occur also in the Sheppy
beds of Eocene age.

On the Sporangia of Ferns from the Coal-measures.
By Wittiam Carrvutumrs, £.L.8., F.GLS.

The author had detected in calcareous nodules from the beds of coal at Bradford
several sporangia of Ferns belonging to the same species, and all characterized by
the presence of the elastic ring which is found in the Polypodiacee. The ring is
oblique and continuous round the sporangium, and these peculiarities, together
with the shortness of the pedicel, induced the author to refer them to a Hymeno-
phyllaceous genus. Some of the sporangia were filled with the roundish spores.

Remarks on the Fossils from the Railway Section at Huyton.
By Wri11am Carrvutusmrs, F.L.8., F.GS.

The great value of this collection, made by the Rev. H. Higgins, depended as
much upon the comparatively limited number of species met with as on the fine
state of preservation in which they occurred. It was possible to arrive at consi-
derable (in some cases absolute) certainty as to the different parts of the same
species. Of the four species of Calamites, the materials existed in the specimens
from Huyton for reconstructing the entire plant of at least one. The roots, long
considered to be a distinct plant under the name Pinnularia, were present in great
abundance. The species had a delicate fistular stem of the type described by Pro

fessor Williamson at a previous meeting of the Section, but of great size. The *
‘sears of the fallen branches were shown in several specimens as well as the

foliage, which was preserved in the early bud condition, as well as in its fully
developed state. Several fruits were found showing the structure of the cone,
described by the author under the name of Volkmannia Binneyi, but with differ-
ences that were at least of specific value. A cone having the structure of that
described by Professor Williamson probably belonged to Calamites longifolius, with
the foliage of which it was associated in these beds. Specimens of Sphenophyllum
were exhibited and referred to Calamites. The light thrown on the structure of
Lepdodendron by the specimens was then dwelt on, and especially two undescribed
cones—one long and slender, with a single sporangium on each scale, the other
short, and having two sporangia on each scale. The stem and foliage of Flabel-
laria (a palm-like Lycopodiaceous genus) occurred among the fossils, as well as
several species of beautitully preserved ferns. Two specimens of insect remains

72 ; REPORT—1870.

had also been found—the one by Messrs. Clementshaw and Smith, young gentle-
men whose interest in natural science was due to the revival of those studies in
our great schools, and whose personal efforts had largely contributed to its advance-

ment at Rugby.

Note on an Antholithes discovered by C. W. Peach.
By Witx1am Carrvtuers, F.L.S., F.GS.

Mr. Peach had discovered near Falkirk a fine series of Antholithes, which he
had submitted to the author. Several of them exhibited the fruits still attached,
and thus established the true nature of these fossils, which had been hitherto con-
sidered so anomalous. The fruits had been described by authors as species of
Cardiocarpum, :

On the Glacial Phenomena in the Central District of England.
By the Rev. H. W. Crossxey, F.G.S8.

On the Formation of Boulder-clays and Alternations of Level of Land and
Water. By the Rev. J. Guyn, M.A., F.GS.

The author observed that the boulder-clays have been regarded as indications
of a glacial epoch, whereas at the time of their deposit the land must have subsided
at least 500 feet beneath the present sea-level, and the greater extent of sea would
tend to raise the temperature, except so far as it would be lowered by the influx of
icebergs. That, in consequence of such depression, the perpetual snow-line would
be altered to the same amount, and an enormous quantity of ice would be gradually
disengaged and set floating from Greenland, for instance, by marine currents in a
southerly direetion ; icebergs would be the result, boulders would be dropped, and
the boulder-clay formed without the intervention of any glacial epoch. That
by the contrary process of the elevation of the land glaciers and other descriptions
of ice would be formed, and what is called a glacial epoch would ensue.

The effect of such alternate oscillations of level might be shown to be, in the
southern hemisphere, to cover the plains and leave the mountains in the form of
islands standing out above the sea, as exemplified in the Pacific; and in the
northern to produce the contrary result, as now exemplified in this coum The
author supported these changes on palsontographical evidence; and while attri-
buting them to oscillations of the level of land and water, expressed his inability
to ascertain the causes of such oscillations, and left the solution of their origin to
mathematicians and astronomers.

On the Glacial and Postglacial Deposits in the Neighbourhood of Llandudno,
By Hueu F, Hart, F.GS.

In the paper the author described a general section of the beds exposed at the
following places :—Gogarth, west side of the Little Orme, east side of the Little
Orme, Dygauwy, Rhos, Colwyn, and Llandulas.

The base bed taken was the mountain limestone. Above this there is exposed
at the Little Orme a bed 3 to 5 feet thick of mountain-limestone rubble, produced
probably by the action of frost during the earlier part of the erred p> breaking
the exposed rock into fragments. This again is covered by a bed, which in its
greatest development (at Llandulas) is 150 feet thick, of Boulder-clay, which he
regarded as the result of the grinding down of the subjacent strata by land-ice,
which probably at this period came down to the waters’ edge—in fact, the true
glacial period. He showed that this bed is invariably composed of the materials
which would result from the grinding down of the rocks in the immediate neigh-
bourhood, being at Rhos a very stiff bluish-grey clay, very full of small pebbles,
principally slate, all ice-scratched, with large blocks of mountain limestone, green-
stone, and volcanic grits, showing ice-grooves and smoothing. At Gogarth, again,
it varies in colour from dark brown to grey, very gritty and sandy, full of scratched
pebbles, and many chert fragments. At Dyganwy it is a low cliff of black clay,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 73

evidently derived from the grinding down of the slate. This is the best section
for the observation of ice-markings. In a hollow in this clay at the Orme there
is a deposit of 20 feet of stratitied grey clay, evidently a denudation bed from the
boulder-clay, showing, where opened by weathering, distinct ripple- and rain-marks,
A contemporaneous bed, the evidence of a shore condition during the depression
of the boulder-clay, of 20 feet of irregular and false-bedded sands and gravels
lies also above the boulder-clay.- At the Little Orme this bed is hardened by car-
bonate of lime into a conglomerate, to be seen in the cliff and in enormous fallen
masses on the shore.

The subsidence of the land still continuing the shore condition ceases, and a
continuous bed, common everywhere, of red clay, some 20 feet thick, overlies the
lower sands and gravels. Then an elevation seems to have taken place, and
another series of sands and gravels, upwards of 50 feet in thickness, shows another
shore condition, best seen in the ballast-pit at Colwyn. Lastly, the thin bed of
blue-black clay, without pebbles, is exposed in the Dyganwy section, the result of
a second denudation of the boulder-clay, after both the sands and gravels and the
red clay had been carried away. This being the sequence of the beds, the author
called attention to the following points :—

Ist. That colour is no criterion for deciding as to the F re bed, which at
Gogarth is dark brown and grey; at Dyganwy, almost black; Little Orme, dark
grey 5 Rhos, a lighter grey; Colwyn shore, blue; and Llandulas, red-brown: in

act the colour depends upon the materials of which the rocks zm the vicinity are
composed.

2nd. That the materials of which this clay is composed are always those found
in the immediate neighbourhood, and even the large boulders can generally be
traced to no great distance. Thus the Gogarth clay is evidently the result of the
grinding down of the mica-schists and limestones of Anglesey, and probably of the
millstone-grit, which is now entirely denuded from the district. The clay east and
west of the Little Orme and at Rhos shows the result of the passage of the ice
over the mountain limestone and Silurian beds, the latter supplying the adhesive
material which makes this clay so much stiffer. At Dyganwy the black clay is
from the underlying slates, and at Llandulas the reddish-brown is due to the
wearing of the Old Red Sandstone, which is still found inland, and many boulders
of which are seen on the shore.

3rd. The author conceived this clay to be the result of the pressure and passage
of land-ice, disintegrating the whole surface of the country which it capped ; and
he would confine the term boulder-clay to this one bed, believing it to be the only
true glacial clay.

4th. This bed is invariably denuded, rising in bosses all along the shore, and
having the superposed beds lying unconformably upon it.

5th. The red clay (D), which is invariable in colour and constituents, showed
an undoubted change of conditions in the land during the period of its deposition,
being, as he conceived, the result of extensive denudation in more northern regions,
spread over the sea-bottom by currents, the scratched pebbles and boulders being due
to melting or stranded icebergs.

The author argued that with such different constituents for these beds it is time
to adopt some more definite names than the general one of boulder-clay, which is
commonly applied to the series. He referred to the sections on the eastern coast
as confirmatory of his views, as illustrated by his personal observations in Holder-
ness, where as clearly distinct a series of beds occurs. ;

General Section of Drift in the Neighbourhood of Llandudno,
nM

Sand dunes.

B. Blue-black clay, without pebbles ........ 1 ft.
C. Sands and gravels, about .............- 50 ft.
D. Red clay, greatest development ........ 20 ft.
E. Sands and gravels, greatest development... 20 ft.
E?, Stratified grey clay..... 2... essence eens 20 ft.
F. Boulder-clay, greatest development ..... . 150%
G. Mountain-limestone rubble ............ 5 ft.
H. Bedded mountain limestone.

74 REPORT—1870.

On the Green Slates and Porphyries of the Lake-district.
By Prof. Harxyuss, /.R.S., and H. A. Nicnotson, D.Se., F.G.S.

The authors described the sequence of the rocks which in the Lake-country are
known as green slates and porphyries, as being made up of traps at the base, of a
middle series consisting of ashes, traps, amygdaloids, and trappean breccias, and
of an upper series consisting of hornstone porphyry.

The former is very persistent over the Lake-district, while the latter is by no
Means so uniform in its occurrence. The middle series varies much in mineral
character according to locality. The neighbourhood of Keswick and in Borrowdale
exhibits this series in its most typical form. West and north-west from Keswick
the ash-beds are less abundant, their place being occupied by a porphyry with
large crystals of felspar; and in the northern slopes of the Culcleckfells this por-
phyry is the sole representative of the middle pruen of the group, At Carrickfell
this porphyry is in contact with syenite ; and here its character has become greatly
modified, it appearing as a diorite: and at Roughtengill it has also undergone
changes from the influence of granite veins; for here it occurs as a hypersthene
rock.

The green slates and porphyries of the Lake-country represent the Upper
Llandeilo and a portion of the Caradoc rocks; and their average thickness does
not seem to be more than 5000 feet.

On Some Thermal Springs in the Fens of Cambridgeshire.
By ¥. W. Harmer, F.G.S.

- In several farm-yard wells near Chatteris in Gari eeaee of the depth of
from 10 to 14 feet, the author had found on the 14th of March, 1870, water of the
temperature of from 663° to 743° Fahr., that of the air being then but 37° in the
shade, and the water in Vermuden’s drain (one of the main arteries of the fen-
drainage, which is within 100 yards of one of the wells) haying at the same time
but 39° of heat, and being covered with thin ice.

At a subsequent visit to one of the localities on June 2nd, the temperature of
the air being in the shade 70°, and of the water in the neighbouring drains 712°,
the well showed 792° of heat.

An analysis of the water had been made by Mr. Francis Sutton, F.C.8., of
Norwich, but he had been unable to discover any reason for supposing that the heat
was generated locally by chemical causes.

The fen-district being below the sea-level, the ground is permanently saturated
with water at a short distance from the surface, and as this water at the slight depth
of 10 feet seems constantly to maintain, summer and winter, such an abnormal
temperature, its agricultural effects cannot be inconsiderable.

The author hoped that an endeavour would be made by local geologists to ascer-
tain whether these thermal springs extended beyond the area of about 10 to 15
square miles in which he had observed them, and also to determine in what way
and by how much the agriculture of the district was affected by them.

Mr. Judd, F.G.S., of the Ordnance Survey, had informed the author that the
secondary strata which underlie the alluvial deposits of the fens are in the adjoin-
ing counties considerably faulted and dislocated; but whether in this way the
water described may be in communication with the central heat of the earth, or
whether the matter is to be explained by chemical causes, he does not at present

- offer a decided opinion.

On the Extension of the Coal-fields beneath the newer Formations of England,
.and the successive Stratigraphical Changes to which the Carboniferous Rocks
have been subjected. By Prof. Eywarp Hutt, M.A., F.RS., F.GS,

The author commenced by referring to the paper which Sir R. I. Murchison had
laid before the British Association at Nottingham, “On the Parts of England and
Wales in which Coal may, or may not, be looked for,’ and expressed his gratifi-
cation that his own views, arrived at by a somewhat different process of reasoning,
coincided in the main with those of his respected chief. Especially was this the

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 75

case as regarded the absence of coal in the eastern and portions of the midland
counties, now overspread by Mesozoic formations. The author proceeded to show
that there was evidence that the coal-measures were originally deposited in two
continuous sheets, one to the north and the other to the south of a ridge of old
land, formed of Silurian rocks, which stretched eastward from Shropshire, and
ranged along the south of the Dudley coal-field. This dividing ridge, or barrier,
had probably never been altogether submerged beneath the waters in which the
coal-measures were deposited. Referring to the tract of coal-measures which lay
to the north of the central barrier, it was shown that towards the north the boun-
daries of the coal-formation were formed by the Cambro-Silurian rocks of North
Wales, the Lake-district, and portions of the “southern uplands” of Scotland.
The southern limits were formed by the barrier of old land, and over this inter-
yening area the coal-measures were spread in one continuous sheet, and attained
their greatest vertical dimensions towards the north-west. To the south of the
barrier, the strata were deposited in the greatest thickness towards the west or
south-west.

At the close of the coal-period, disturbances of strata (resulting probably from
lateral pressure acting from the north and ete took place over the whole Car-
boniferous area of the north of England, whereby the strata were thrown into a
series of folds, the axes of which ranged along approximately east and west lines,
These disturbances were accompanied and followed by enormous denudations, by
which the coal-measures were swept away over large tracts of the north of
England, and the northern limits of the Lancashire and Yorkshire coal-fields were
approximately determined.

Referring to the tract south of the central barrier, Professor Hull expressed his
un that the east and west flexures, being parallel to those of the north of

ngland, were referable to the same geological period, namely, post-Carboniferous
or pre-Permian). At this period the northern and southern limits of the South

ales coal-field, the axis of the Mendip Hills, and the easterly trend of the culm-
measures of Devonshire were determined. Denudation of strata on an enormous
scale accompanied these movements. After the deposition of the Permian beds
over the inclined and denuded edges of the Carboniferous rocks, disturbances
accompanied by extensive denudation took place along lines nearly at right angles
to those of the preceding period; that is, along north and south lines approxi-
mately. To this epoch, the axis of the Pennine chain and all north and south
trendings of the strata were to be referred. Some of the results brought about by
these movements were the disseverance of the Lancashire and Cheshire from the
Yorkshire and Derbyshire coal-fields, the determination of the western limits of
the Flintshire and Derbyshire coal-fields, the disseyerance of the Forest of Dean
coal-field from that of South Wales, and the uptilting of the Lower Carboniferous
rocks along the eastern margin of the Somersetshire coal-field, beneath the Jurassic
formations. From these considerations it seemed clear to the author that the
basin-shaped form of nearly all the coal-fields (the basins being sometimes partially
concealed by the Mesozoic rocks) was due to the denudations acting over areas of
elevation intersecting each other nearly at right angles, and corresponding to two
distinct epochs—the pre-Permian and pre-Triassic. Professor Hull then proceeded
to show that over these Carboniferous basins the Permian and Triassic rocks were
distributed according to a well-detined plan of south-easterly attenuation, or thinning
away towards the south-east; and he concluded by discussing the views of Sir R.
I, Murchison, Professor Ramsay, and Mr. Godwin-Austen, regarding the existence
or absence of coal under the Cretaceous or Tertiary strata of the south of England,

On the Red and Coralline Crags. By Cuaries JEcks.

_ The author suggested the following reasons, as rendering it probable that the
Red and Coralline are quite as nearly connected with each other as the Red and
Norwich Crags. If the paleontological difference between the Red and Norwich
Crags be about 20 per cent., and yet be considered synonymous, how is it that the
Coralline Crag, which only contains 10 per cent. fewer recent species than the Red,

76 , REPORT—1870,

should be held as distinct from it? When we find that 103 shells are common to
the Red and Coralline Crags which are not found in the Norwich Crag, whilst
only two are common to the Red and Norwich Crags, and are not found in the
Coralline, surely such a fact directly implies not only a connexion, but one almost
as close between the Coralline and Red as the Red and Norwich Crags. There
seems, indeed, every reason to believe that the transition from the Coralline to
the Red Crag was gradual; if there were now to be an elevation of sea-bottom,
including what we call the Coralline and Laminarian zones, the former would
naturally become Laminarian, while the latter would become a Littoral zone, and
this in all probability without any really sudden change in species, but by a slow pro-
cess of elevation ; nay, is there any sudden change now observable in the species
inhabiting these zones? do they not gradually commingle? and if this be so as
regards the Coralline and Laminarian zones of the present time, is it not quite as
likely to have been so with regard to the Coralline and Red Crags ?

Sir C. Lyell, in his sixth edition of the ‘Elements,’ seems distinctly to favour
the idea of the unity of the Crag, in the following extract :—‘“ The shells of the
Crag exhibit clear evidence of a gradual refrigeration of climate, which went on in
the area of England from the time of the older to that of the most modern Pliocene
strata.

With regard to the objection, that the denudation of the Coralline, as evinced
by the unconformability of deposition of certain parts of the Red Crag, shows a
certain break, as it were, in the continuity of the deposit, would it not be obviated,
in some measure at least, by the fact of there having been many changes in the
conditions of life in the Coralline Crag species owing perhaps to the intrusion of
other species and consequent disturbance in their mutual relations, so that in
course of time they would die out, together with a gradual, long continued, but
decided change in climatal conditions? Upon the whole, then, it seems probable
that the period from the commencement to the end of the Pliocene is one of
gradual transition, of which the Coralline, Red, and Norwich Crags represent so
many stages, not distinct and separate, but more or less connected together by
various changes in the relations of one organism to another, caused by variation
of species under natural selection, and also by changes in climatal conditions and
nature of sea-bottom.

Remarks on Newer Tertiary Fossils in Sicily and Calabria.
By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, F.R.S.

During the last deep-sea exploring expedition in H.M.S. ‘ Porcupine,’ in the Bay
of Biscay and along the Atlantic coasts of Spain and Portugal, Mr. Jeffreys pro-
cured at considerable depths, and especially from 994 fathoms, many species of
Mollusca in a living or recent state, some of which had been previously regarded
as fossil only, and extinct, and all of them belonging to the newer tertiaries of
Sicily and Calabria; and he believed that a record of the fact might lead to the
discovery of the geological phenomena which had caused the fossilization of such
species in that limited area. Several of these species inhabit northern and even
arctic seas; and among them are Terebratula cranium, T. septata, Pecten aratus,
P. vitreus, Lima excavata, Mytilus vitreus, Leda frigida, Limopsis aurita, L. borealis,
Dentalium abyssorum, Puncturella noachina, Hela tenella, and Pleurotoma carinata.
Other species now found in a living or recent state are Terebratula sphenoidea,
Tellina compressa, Verticordia acutecostata, V. granulata (the last two being Japan-
ese), two species of Fissurisepta, Trochus suturalis, Turbo filosus, Omphalus mono-
cingulatus, Scalaria pumila, Cyclostoma delicatum of Philippi (Reclusia?), and
Pleurotoma hispidula. One of the species in the second list or category (Fisswt-
septa papillosa) had been also dredged by Mr. Jeffreys last autumn at Drobak, in
Norway; and he was of opinion that our knowledge of the arctic marine inver-
tebrate fauna was very imperfect. The newer Tertiary fossils of Sicily and
Calabria had been to a great extent investigated by Dr. Philippi formerly of Cassel,
Prof. Seguenza of Messina, the Abbé Brugnone of Palermo, and Dr. Tiberi of
Resina near Naples; and their collections had been examined by Mr. Jeffreys,
Two suggestions or questions were submitted by the author of the present paper,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 77

viz. :—Ist. Have not all the deep-sea species of European Mollusca originated in the
north, and spread southwards in consequence of the great arctic current? 2nd.
Inasmuch as the Pliocene division of the Tertiary formation is now ascertained to
contain scarcely any extinct species, and future explorations may reduce the per-
centage of such species to mi, may not that artificial division hereafter merge in
the quaternary formation, and the Tertiaries be restricted to Eocene, Miocene, and
Oligocene ?

On the Age of the Wealden.
By Joun W. Jupp, F.GS., of the Geological Survey of England and Wales.

Unconformities between formations indicate, as Mr. Darwin, Prof. Ramsay, and
other geologists have argued, the lapse of enormous periods of time. Between the
Oolitic system, terminating with the Portlandian, and the true Cretaceous, com-
mencing with the Gault, there is not only an immense physical break, but a total
change in species. The researches of continental geologists have shown that, inter-
calated between these two systems, there exists two others, each in every way
worthy to rank with them, the Tithonian and the Neocomian ; these do not, how-
ever, entirely bridge over the interval, for the Cretaceous is almost everywhere
unconformable to the Neocomian.

The English Wealden consists of a mass of freshwater strata, probably not less
than 2000 feet thick, Forming its lower and upper members, however, are certain
fluviomarine strata, which form passages into the marine beds below and above
the Wealden. The lowest of these fluviomarine or passage series is the well-
known Purbeck formation, the marine beds of which contain Oolitic fossils. In
the Isle of Purbeck, the Isle of Wight, and elsewhere is found another series of
strata, less known, but not less important, which indicates the gradual passage up-
ward of the Wealden into the Upper Neocomian (Lower Greensand).

Of especial interest, from the large fauna which it yields, is the marine band of
Punfield, to which the attention of geologists was first directed by Mr. Godwin-
Austen in the year 1850. This bed is only 21 inches thick, and is situated 140
feet below the top of the Wealden; the author has found that it contains a series
of fossils (including many species and one genus quite new to this country) iden-
tical with those of the coal-bearing strata of Middle Neocomian age in Eastern
Spain, which are more than 1600 feet thick.

The Wealden presents every appearance of being a single continuous formation.
Tn its lower portion it contains marine beds with oolitic fossils, and graduates into
the Portlandian ; in its upper part it contains other marine beds with Middle Neo-
comian fossils, and graduates into the Upper Neocomian. We are thus led to the
conclusion that the great epoch of the Wealden commenced towards the close of
the Oolitic period, that it continued through the whole of the Tithonian and the
Lower and Middle Neocomian, and only came to an end at the beginning of the
Upper Neocomian.

n confirmation of these views as to the age of the Wealden, there exists much

alzontological evidence. Still further support is afforded to them by the manner

in which Wealden and Neocomian beds are found alternating with one another in
France, especially in the Pays de Bray and in the district of Champagne.

Professor Huxley has indicated the necessity of establishing a distinct classifi-
cation for freshwater and terrestrial formations, the breaks between which do not
correspond with those of the marine series. Of this necessity the Wealden, repre-
senting, like the “ Poikilitic,” several very distinct marine formations, is a very
striking illustration.

The author has before shown that the deposition of the Wealden strata of
Northern Germany commenced at the close of the Oolitic period, and had termi-
nated before the end of the Lower Neocomian. He concludes therefore that the
English and German Wealdens are not strictly contemporaneous, and that, the
areas being quite disconnected, they are probably the products of two different
rivers.

78 REPORT—1870.

On some Points in the Geology of Strath, Isle of Skye.
By Professors Kine and Rowney.

The authors entered into a minute description of a section of the east shore of
Loch Slappin. The rocks consist of syenite, overlaid by serpentinous marble or
ophite, and a number of unaltered stratified deposits following in consecutive order.
An unbroken passage was traced from the marble to the highest beds; the latter
are more or less charged with Liassic fossils. The following conclusions were
come to by the authors :—(1) That the ophite of Strath is an altered rock of the
Liassic period, as long ago maintained by Macculloch and Geikie; (2) that it
possesses the same microscopic features as those, supposed by some to be of organic
origin, which occur in a corresponding rock of earlier geological ages, known in
Canada, Connemarra, and elsewhere; (8) that igneous action, developing a gra-
nitic rock, and producing decided metamorphism in an adjacent deposit, has
operated at a later geological period in Skye than in any other part of the British
islands. Referring to their published memoirs in the ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’
yol, xxii. 1866, and the ‘ Proc. Roy. Irish Acad.’ vol. x. 1870, in which certain of
the above microscopic features in the Skye ophite were first made known, the
authors in the present paper announced their discovery of some others, which
completely identify this comparatively modern rock with the “eozoonal” marble
of Cisdz, belonging to the Laurentian system; and they maintained that the
repeated occurrence, so often pointed out by them, of “chamber casts” (grains of
serpentine, &c.), “canal system” (metaxite, &c.), and “nummuline layer” (chry-
sotile), in metamorphic or crystalline rocks only, proves in the simplest manner the
purely mineral origin of the so-called “ Eozoon Canadense.” Sections and numerous
specimens, including a large block of the Skye “eozoonal” marble, were exhibited,

On the Discovery of Upper Silurian Rocks in Roxburgh and Dumfriesshire.
By Cartes Larworru.

On the Tertiary Coal-field of Southern Ohile.
By G. A, Lezour, F.G.S. §c., and W. Munvrz, IZ.

The coal-formation of Chile occupies a marginal position along the western
coast of South America, extending from Talcahuano near Concession on the north,
to the Straits of Magellan on the south. It rests unconformably upon mica-schists
and other metamorphic rocks, which form the main geological feature of the country.

The coals are for the most part of an inferior description, mere lignites in fact.
The accompanying rocks are alternating sandstones (grey, white, and yellow), shales
and indurated clays, true underclays, and occasional bands of calcareous matter, A
detailed typical section of the strata at Coronel was given by the authors.

The fossils of these beds belong, some of them, to what in Europe would be un-
doubted secondary age ; for various reasons, which he will defer to another paper,
Mr. G. A. Lebour believes with Darwin that they indicate more probably a very
early Tertiary age.

The other portions of the paper referring to the mode of deposition &c. of the
beds in question cannot be written in short without the aid of figures.

On the Stratigraphical Distribution of the British Fossil Gasteropoda.
By J. L, Lostry, £.G.S.

On the Silurian Formations of the Centre of Belgium.
By Professor Consrantins Matatse (of Gembloux).

M. Malaise pointed out that the terrain ardoisier of D’Omalius d’Halloy (the
Ardennais and Rhénan formations of Dumont) are the representatives of the Cam-
brian, Silurian, and Devonian rocks of England. He has attempted to establish
the analogues in Belgium, where at first the references to English types were in-
correct.

— Tr ~

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79

The Belgian formations regarded as Silurian and Cambrian are found in the
Ardennes in Brabant, parallel to the Meuse and Sambre, and near Dour in Hainault.
The Silurian or Cambrian of the Ardennes rests unconformably on the Devonian.
The ill-preserved fossils that have been found do not sufficiently determine the age,
consisting only at present of Dictyonema and part of a Trilobite belonging to the
fenne Paradoxides, which would place it in the Cambrian. The true Belgian
ilurians} belong to part of the Rhénan series of Dumont, in which Silurian fossils
were found in 1860 by M. Gosselet.

The Brabant Silurian deposits extend over an area about 70 miles long, the

epee width being 16 miles. That of the Sambre and the Meuse is a strip about
0 miles long, and less than two miles wide.

The Brabant series is divided into four groups, the upper alone of which has
yielded fossils, and this alone is represented in the Sambre and Meuse district. The
following are the groups in descending order :—

1. Gembloux series (quartziferous schists).

2. Oisquezcq series (variegated and graphitic schists),
3. Tubise series (quartzites).

4, Blaumont (lower quartzites).

From the oe series 52 species have been obtained, several of which appear new;
they include Trilobites, Brachiopoda, and Graptolites, characteristic of the upper
members of the Lower Silurian, a second stage of M. Barrande, mixed with some
Upper Silurian species.

Synchronism and Foreign Equivalents.—With regard to the analogies of the Bel-
gian Silurians with those of other countries, the author agrees with M. Barrande
that his second stage, represented in the Bohemian district by quartzite, and also
represented in almost all Silurian districts, occurs in its ordinary state in Belgium.
In England it includes the Llandeilo and overlying Caradoc groups, and in Ireland
the recognized equivalents, while in France, Spain, Portugal, Thuringia, Sweden,
Norway, Russia, and North America it is known by various names. It is re-
presented in Belgium by the genera Illenus, Trinucleus, Ampyx, and others.

Species have also been found referred to Dalmanites, Cheirurus, Lichas, Caly-
menes, Acidaspis, Homalonotus, but to groups peculiar to the second stage. The
great development of Orthis common in England, Russia, and the United States
is also otek able in Belgium. Cystidea have also been met with.

On the Formation of Swallow-holes or Pits with Vertical Sides in Mountain
Limestone*, By L, C, Mraz.

The paper described two kinds of these cavities, one designated “ cavities of ero-
sion,’ and the other “cavities of subsidence.” A detailed account was given of a
singular excavation at the head of Swaledale, typical of the first species. Its pecu-
liarities were defined as consisting of vertical, fluted sides, and isolated pillars in
the centre of the pits. Falling water, aided by pebbles, was looked upon as the
source of excavation, and a thick surface-covering of drift, retentive of moisture,
was regarded as an essential feature, the spongy mass discharging the rainfall at
certain regular points. Those swallow-holes were next considered whose existence
is due to subsidence of an undermined crust ; and many examples were cited and
discussed, principally from the mountain-limestone district of Craven. The effects
of such subsidences upon superficial deposits (as of glacial drift) were adverted to
in conclusion,

On the Evidences of Recent Changes of Level on the Mediterranean Coastt.
By Grorce Maw, £.G8., F.LS., Fe.
The author in this paper pointed out, from personal observation, the various evi-
dences the Mediterranean coast presents of changes of level, both above and below
the existing shore-line.

* This paper is printed at length in the ‘ Geological Magazine’ for November 1870.
+ Printed in extenso in the ‘ Geological Magazine’ for December 1870.

£0 REPORT—1870.

Evidences of Depression.

(1) The general absence of cliffs, indicating that the sea had not been sufficiently
long at its existing level to excavate a high escarpment, implying a comparatively
recent change, probably of depression.

(2) The current setting in from the Atlantic. The author contended that eva-
poration could scarcely compensate for the great influx of water from the land-
drainage of more than a third of Europe and a portion of Africa: this accession
ought to produce an outflow through the straits. As the width of the straits bears so
small a proportion to the area of the sea, the current setting in might be due toa
general sinking of the bed now going on, and too slight to be perceptible on the
margin of the area subject to the depression.

(3) The extension below the present sea-margin at Mentone of limestone-caverns
and freshwater channels of subaérial origin.

Evidences of Upheaval.

(4) Ina uniform rise of about 25 feet in distant parts of the Mediterranean of an
older coast-line, exactly corresponding with the amount of emergence of the shell-
bored columns of the Temple of Serapis. Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys had observed at
Antibes a shell-bed containing recent Mediterranean species 25 feet above the ex-
isting water-line ; and to the north of Gibraltar another similar bed existed, imply-
ing an ancient littoral zone 24 feet higher than the neighbouring shore. The
Corsican marshes give evidence of a similar rise, the level flats being here and there
covered by delta-like ridges of alluvial drift; these could only have been deposited by
the streams which now flow at their base, when the marshes were submerged at
least 20 or 25 feet.

(5) The coast-deposits of Posttertiary age at Gibraltar, Tangier, and Cadiz in-
ee renaus higher levels at which the Mediterranean has stood, ranging from 40
to eet.

Some Remarks on the Denudation of the Oolites of the Bath District.
By W. Srernen Mircuer1, F.G.S.

On Geological Systems and Endemic Diseases.
By Tuomas Morrat, W.D., F.GS.

The writer showed that the soil has an influence on the composition of the
cereal plants grown upon it, and on the diseases to which the inhabitants are
subject. The district in which he practises consists geologically of the Car-
boniferous and New Red Sandstone or Cheshire Sandstone systems. The in-
habitants of the first are engaged in mining and agricultural occupations, those of
the latter in agriculture. Anemia, with goitre, is a very prevalent disease
amongst those living on the Carboniferous system, whilst it is almost un-
known among those living on the New Red Sandstone system; and consumption
is also more prevalent amongst the inhabitants of the former. As anemia is a
condition in which there is a deficiency of the oxide of iron which the blood na-
turally contains, the author was led to make an examination of the relative com-
position of the wheat grown on the soil of Cheshire sandstone, Carboniferous
limestone, Millstone-grit, and a transition-soil between Cheshire sandstone and the
grit. The result of the analysis shows that the wheat grown on the soil of the
Cheshire sandstone contains the largest quantity of ash, and that there is a larger
quantity of phosphoric acid in it than in the soils of the Carboniferous and Mill-
stone-grit systems; also a much larger quantity of oxide of iron than in either
of them. He has calculated that each inhabitant on the Cheshire sandstone, if he
consumes a pound of wheat daily, takes in nearly 5 grains per day of the sesqui-
oxide of iron more than the inhabitant of the Carboniferous system, and who
seems, therefore, to be subject to this great liability to anzemia in consequence of
the deficiency of iron and phosphoric acid in the food he consumes. It is not only
in the wheat grown upon the Carboniferous system that there is a deficiency in

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 81

the quantity of oxide of iron and the phosphates, says the author, but also in the
blood of the animals reared upon it ; so that the inhabitants upon that system take
in a minimum quantity of these constituents of the blood, compared with that taken
in by the inhabitants of the Cheshire sandstone. He stated that sheep were liable
to anzemia—a fact which he attributed to sheep-walks being upon trap and lime-
stone hills, in the soil of which there is but little, if any, iron.

On the Glaciated Condition of the Surface of the Triassic Sandstone around
Liverpool. By G. H. Morton, F.G.S.

The most recent progress in local geology has resulted from the examination of
the superficial or drift deposits which cover the country, and the discovery of the
glaciated condition of the surface of the sandstone beneath. These superficial ac-
cumulations haye been divided into Postglacial deposits (consisting of drift sand,
bluish silt or mud, submarine forests) and Glacial deposits (including upper drift
sand, boulder-clay, and lower drift sand). The latter subdivision is often absent ;
and, under these conditions, the Boulder-clay usually covers the surface. The
author explained that this clay is the dark red clay so extensively used in the
fieeeibotthood for the purpose of brick-making. It contains numerous pebbles
and boulders, varying in size from that of a pea to immense blocks 6 feet in dia-
meter, a large proportion of them being striated and ground flat on one or more
surfaces by the action of the ice, similar to the specimens of boulders and pebbles
brought from the glaciers of the Alps. In 1859 he described for the first time to
the Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool the evidences of the action of
ice on the sandstone in the neighbourhood. Having at that time only found such
indications in a single locality, he attributed the striated surface to the ground-
ing of an iceberg in the glacial sea. In 1866, having found several additional ex-
7g of this glaciation on both sides of the river, but at no great distance from
it, he began to entertain the opinion that a glacier had descended the valley of the
Mersey during the early part of the glacial period ; and he made a communica-
tion to that effect to the TF aerpbol Geological Society. Lately, however, he had
discovered similar evidences of ice-action at greater elevations, several miles from
the river, and consequently had been compelled to adopt a new theory, namely,
that a great sheet of ice once travelled over this part of the country from the
south-east to the north-west. The first striated surface discovered was between
Parkhill road and the Dingle, but had been destroyed by the erection of cottages
over the place. This surface is 120 feet above the sea, and the strata belong to
the pebble-beds of the Bunter formation. Two-thirds of a mile north the largest
surface occurs in the waste ground on the north-east of North Hill Street. It is
exposed at the present time, exhibiting several hundred square yards of ice-planed
sandstone, closely covered with fine lines and grooves, all perfectly straight and
uy with each other, and running in the direction of 35° W. of N. The sur-

e of the rock is 160 feet above the sea, and the strata belong to the pebble-beds
of the Bunter formation. Striated rock has also been found at Kirkdale, at Waver-
tree, and Thatto Heath, all places on the Lancashire side of the Mersey ; and at Ox-
ton and Flagbrick Hill on the Cheshire side of the river. The author assumed the
glaciation of the surface of the rock around Liverpool to have occurred before the
submergence of the land at the beginning of the Glacial period, and was after-
wards covered with Boulder-clay, which is partly the result of the waste of the land
and partly the débris deposited by icebergs during the period of subsidence. The
only alteration in the contour of the land seems to have been in the reduced ele-
vation of the low ranges of the hills which traverse the district in the same di-
rection as the ice seems to have done. It might appear a bold assertion to state
that the country around Liverpool was once covered with a great ice-sheet, at a
time when the land was some hundreds of feet higher than it is now; and that it

rwards subsided beneath the sea, when floating ice brought from the Lake-dis-
trict and Scotland débris which became scattered over the ice-ground rocks in the
form of Boulder-clay.

1870, — ; 6

82 REPORT—1870.

“On the Mountain Limestone of Flintshire and part of Denbighshire.
By G, H. Morton, F.G.S,

The author pointed out that in Flintshire, within fifteen miles from Liverpool,
there is a prominent ridge of Carboniferous or Mountain Limestone. It extends
continuously from Prestatyn on the coast of Wales to Llandegla, a few miles north
of Llangollen, the distance being twenty-one miles, and the strike of the limestone
N. by S8.E. and §. Instead of describing the formation generally, he had se-
lected what appeared to be the four most favourable localities as centres of obser-
vation—Mold, Holywell, Newmarket (Flintshire), and Llangollen. He alluded
to the country around or near these places, for neither Mold nor Holywell are
actually upon the Mountain Limestone. Llangollen was included because of the
grand section presented by the Eglwyseg rocks, about a mile from the town.
The distance of the localities from each other is as follows:—From the Llangollen
limestone district to that of Mold, eleyen miles; from the Mold limestone to that
of Holywell, six miles; and from the Holywell limestone to Newmarket, nine
miles, The Eglwyseg rocks present a magnificent section of the Mountain Lime-
stone, all the beds being exposed (except those at the base) at the western outcrop,
in a ravine with precipitous cliffs on each side. The highest strata are at the to
of the cliffs, half a mile to the west, at an elevation of 700 feet, the estimate
thickness of the limestone being 1200 feet. The Millstone-grit of the Geological
Survey succeeds the limestone, and is about 800 feet thick, coal being above it at
Tyfynuchaf. One mile and a half to the west of the town of Mold there is a fine
section of the Mountain Limestone. The vertical section of the strata at New-
market is compiled from three horizontal sections, which each show the thickness
of a subdivision, The upper, middle, and lower limestones are on the surface
disconnected by faults, but the relative geological position of each is obvious.
The lower grey and black limestones rest on Silurian strata, and are 750 feet thick
at Moel Hiraddug. The middle or white limestone, 350 feet thick, is very different
from any of the Hiraddug strata, as it is also from the upper black and grey lime-
stones and shales, 800 feet thick, which crop out from under the overlying shales
and sandstones of the Millstone-grit. In each of the four localities the Mountain
Limestone admits of division into an upper, a middle, and a lower subdivision,
each having distinct lithological and paleontological characters.

Appended to the paper was a list of 120 fossils found in the district de-
scribed. An analysis of the list showed some interesting results. Excluding
a few fish-teeth and scales and plants, all of which occur in the upper lime-
stone, it appeared that the lower limestone does not contain any species pecu-
liar to it, for some of them extend upwards into the white or middle limestone,
whilst others pass ap to the highest subdivisions. The earliest species, prin-
cipally found at the base of Moel Hiraddug, are Spirifera lineata and Syringo-
pora reticulata, and they continue upwards through the whole of the Mountain
Limestone. These two species, with a Lepidodendron and another plant, seem to
have been the first colonists that settled down in the Carboniferous sea of North
Wales. The middle or white limestone presents 28 species which are peculiar to
it (of course common species elsewhere) ; but of these, no less than 28 have only
been found in the limestone ridge at Axton, Newmarket. This assemblage of
species in such a limited area is extraordinary. In the upper limestone 23 species
haye been found to be peculiar to it; but they are all of rare occurrence, only single
specimens haying been found of about half of them. The common fossils haye a
considerable range, while those peculiar to certain subdivisions are mostly rare forms,

On some Future and Past Changes of the Earth’s Climate.
By R. A. PEacocx, C.L., Jersey.

These important changes, he believes, are due (1) to rain and rivers, (2) de-
nudations, (3) risings and sinkings of land, (4) the great range of temperature from
~58°F, in interplanetary space to +-150° and more on various parts of the earth’s
surface, even in temperate climates. These will account for a future warm and
afterwards for a cold period, and fora glacial and a coal-period in the past.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83

_ Sir Charles Lyell gives the annual discharge of sediment by the Ganges and
Brahmapootra as forty thousand millions of cubic feet, which are equal to a circle
surrounding the earth’s mean circumference two miles broad and one yard thick,
in 105 years and 50 days. This enormous denudation will in no long geological
eriod reduce the Himalayas down to the snow-line. All other mountains and
and in the world (except deserts) are also being denuded, year by year, by means of
rain and rivers, ayalanches, glaciers, earthquakes, and alternate frost and thaw.
For example, the river Pinder, an affluent of the Ganges, has a fall of 500 feet
per mile for 11 miles; its water is all white foam, and has force enough to carry
along large boulders, which, as well as the river’s bed, become broken, commi-
nuted, and abraded. For 16,000 feet in height of Mount Jawahir, there is a de-
tritus of loose rocks and stones, evidently fallen from the upper part of the moun-
tain. The like effects have been observed at the Matterhorn, in Tierra del Fuego,
the Chilian Andes, Australia, Spitzbergen, and some small English mountains,
Tn the Himalayas there are annual shocks of earthquakes, some of them severe,
which loosen and bring down rocks, Avalanches biting down masses of stone,
and glaciers conyey along lines of stones called “moraines ;” and alternate frost
and thaw split and comminute rocks and stones. In these ways mountains are
lowered, and in time there will be no mountain as high as the snow-line (unless
risings by subterranean action occur again), and then a warmer period will be the
consequence. And when the land is reduced to sea-level, the climate will be still
warmer; because the air is chiefly warmed by heat transmitted and radiated
from the earth, and land increases the cold by abstracting heat from the air in
high latitudes and where the land is high, and augments the heat by radiation
in low latitudes and where the ground is low; and water absorbs and retains
solar heat *. :

The latest glacial epoch seems to haye been in the Recent, post-Pliocene,
and Newer Pliocene periods. Older formations, as far back as the Permian in-
clusive, were warmer than at present, excepting some floating ice in the Cretaceous
and Permian. A difficulty has been felt about the Miocene strata of the Superga
Hill (Turin), how they became mixed up with erratics. It is now suggested
that the hill and its strata, being of a conical form, must have been uplifted; and
probably so in the Glacial period, whilst a glacier carrying the erratics rested upon
it. The like may be true of the “flysch” conglomerate of Eocene date in the
Alps. The largest part of Europe, the Sahara of Africa, and much of the basin of
the St. Lawrence have been submarine since the early Eocene periodt. And
these submergences apparently assisted to bring on the Glacial period, because
the sea above the submerged land would absorb and retain much solar heat; and
the uplifting of the mountains, now to be stated, must have added much to the
cold, Since the commencement of the Eocene period the Alps haye acquired 4000
and, in some places, more than 10,000 feet of their present height; and the Py-
renees have attained their present height, which in Mont Perduis 11,000 feet t+, The
Sierra Nevada, 11,000, and the Caucasus, 15,000 feet, had not then risen§. Prof.
E, Forbes stated that Sorata (Andes), 24,812 feet high, contains Tertiary fossils to
its summit, Mr. Darwin found chalk shells nearly 14,000 feet high in the Chi-
lian Andes, and Capt. Strachey found Oolitic fossils 18,400 feet high in the
Himalayas. All these mountains must have been upheaved since the Coal-
period, and consequently we have no proof that there were then any mountains
at all with summits as high as the snow-line; and they must have been higher
than now, and consequently colder, by just as much as they have been denuded.
But while lofty mountains have been eliminated as a source of cold in the Coal-
period, it can also be proved that there was then probably much more dry land in
the south to radiate heat, and produce a warm, equable, and humid climate which
the Coal period requires. The annual quantity of solar heat thrown upon the
earth during the geological period has probably been nearly uniform; but not
so its effects on the earth’s climate. Capt. Sturt found the sandy deserts of Aus-
tralia so hot that they were almost a molten surface, On the other hand, if the
site of Australia were now occupied even by comparatively shallow water, much

_ * Sir John Herschel, ‘ Outlines of Astronomy,’ p. 236,
t Sir C, Lyell’s ‘ Principles of Geology.’ t Ibid, § Ibid. Map, p. 251.
6*

84. REPORT—1870.

solar heat would be wholly lost. In the ‘Porcupine’ expedition seven surface-
temperatures of the sea averaged only 58°2 F., the extremes being 64° and
54°-3*, Mr. Wallace shows, by his map of the Indian and Australian zoological
provinces, that probably Celebes, New Guinea, Solomon Isles, and the interme-
diate islands were once united to Australia; and that Sumatra, Java, Borneo,
and the Philippines were probably united to India. But, further, Mr. Darwin
has shown that the Atolls and Barrier reefs of the Indian archipelago, and those
of the Indian Ocean extending from North-west Australia to the north of Mada-
gascar, as well as a very large tract of the Pacific archipelago (in the Torrid
Zone), are all regions of Gradual Depression. It is therefore very probable that
there were vast additional tracts of dry land on the south of Asia and in the
Pacific, which would at once account for coal-plants and coal having been found
as far north as 76°, as well as for the coal-plants and extinct mammals of Si-
beria, by reason of the extra heat radiated from the south and transmitted to
the north.

But we are not bound to believe that these vast geological changes must neces-
sarily date so far back as the Coal period. The uplifting of mountains took place
since the early Tertiary, and the sinkings of land probably date within the same
period, which was famous for upliftings and sinkings. If so, we can account for
the fossil mammalia and reptiles of the Siwalik Hills, for the fossil reptiles and
leaves of plants found at CEningen, for the bones of monkeys found at the foot of
the Pyrenees in France, for the tropical fossils of the Faluns of the Loire—all
these fossils being subtropical or tropical, and due to the absence of lofty
mountains and increased area of land in the south.

The future cold period will come on when the present land has been denuded
to below high water, and will probably be aided by natural sinkings of land, and
especially by the uplifting of mountains if such should recur, The present gra-
dual (or intermittent) rise of northern Europe and Asia will assist to produce
cold if it continues.

The Modern and Ancient Beaches of Portland.
By W. Prneriiy, RS., £.GS.

The author commenced by stating that the Modern and Anctent Beaches of Port-
land, to which he purposed calling attention, were respectively the Chesil Bank,
which connects the “island of Portland” with the mainland of Dorset, and the
raised beach at Portland Bill; and that his object was to describe the pebbles
which, during a recent careful search with Mr. W. Vicary, F.G.S., he had found in
each of them. In both cases they were such as to show that during the era of the
ancient beach, as well as at present, the direction in which materials were trans-
ported was up-channel, i. e. from west to east, and the prevalent winds were from
the south-west. To account for the flints which occur on, at least, almost all the
modern beaches of West Devon and Cornwall, he assumed the existence of sub-
marine outliers of flint-gravel, similar to, and probably of the same age as, the
supracretaceous accumulations which occur so abundantly in Devon, from the basin
of the Teign eastward ; and he mentioned several facts in proof of the occurrence
of such outliers near the Start, the Dodman, and Lundy feaiigs In conclusion,
he expressed the hope that ere long it might be part of the duty of the officers of
the Geological Survey to map the bottom of the British seas and channels,

Notes on a Merionethshire Gold Quartz Crystal, and some Stream Gold
recently found in the River Mawddach, By T. A. Reapwin, EGS.

The author exhibited a quartz crystal which he picked from a large heap of
quartz near Bala Lake, in 1863. At the time he said it was quite transparent,
though tinged slightly with golden yellow, yet under the microscope the colour
entirely disappeared, The crystal was put away in his cabinet, wit other gold-

* Proc. Roy. Soc. No. 121, p. 465.

TRANSACTIONS CF THE SECTIONS. 85

_association of interest, and lay there unnoticed till last year. It had then become
more opaque, and consequently of more interest to him. It has now all the ap-

earance of a solid crystal of gold, and for which it has frequently been taken.
The colour is pale, but he had observed that all gold found in quartz in that loca~
lity is light coloured, owing to the presence of a large percentage of silver, some-
times as much as 20 per cent.

He exhibited, also, some ounces of water-worn gold, some pieces weighing from
20 to 30 grains each, recently found in the Cain, a tributary of the River Mawd-
dach, north of Dolgelly, and also a very rich specimen, broken from a quartz-lode
at the Gwynfynnydd mine, adjoining the Cain and Mawddach rivers. He said he
brought before the Section as mineralogical facts:—that of the change of the
crystal, that the gold where the crystal was found is of 14 carats fine only, that
from the quartz-lode at Gwynfynydd 18 carats fine, and the water-worn gold
from the Cain and Mawddach 23 carats fine—giving them as facts open to a good
deal of interesting speculation.

On Sections of Strata between Huyton and St. Helen’s.
By Cuarres Ricxerts, MD., F.GS.

The exposures made in the formation of the new railway between Huyton and
St. Helen’s, whilst confirming the general accuracy of the maps of the Geological
Survey, have disclosed important features which would not otherwise have been
determined.

In the Lower Coal-measures or Gannister beds, a little north of, but somewhat
lower in the series than, those in Huyton Quarry, a succession of beds of sandstone,
shales, and clay was displayed, surmounted by a bed of coal a foot and a half thick,
probably the equivalent of the “ Mountain Mine” coal formerly worked at Knowsley.

As the line to the south of Prescot crosses the Upper Coal-measures, several
outcrops of coal are exposed, viz. “ the Bastions,” in the situation marked upon the
map; a bed called in the six-inch map “Little Delf,” and the “Sir John” coal,
about one hundred yards to the eastward of the places given from information as
the position of their outcrop; and at the site proposed for the Prescot Station, the
two beds constituting the “ Prescot Main” coal, a short distance beyond which,
and sixty yards from the Rainhill road, a considerable north and south fault
occurs, not marked upon the map, which throws down to the east purple and
mottled sandstones and shales of upper beds of the Coal-measures; these con-
tinue as far as the Survey boundary fault, by which the Lower Bunter is thrown
down to the east.

As on the formation of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway the presence of
Coal-measures was discovered near Whiston, so likewise in a situation marked
upon the maps as Lower Bunter, there occur two small areas of purple Coal-mea-
sure strata similar to those near the Rainhill road, having intervening beds of
Triassic sandstone, which have been thrown down by faults.

The boundary fault of the St. Helen’s Coal-field is seen at Thatto Heath, having
an intermediate step-fault on the west or downthrow; it has likewise caused a
considerable amount of fracture and displacement in the Pebble-beds or Middle
Bunter. The Sutton-Heath fault is crossed by the railway where the two beds
forming the “ Rayenhead” coal are cut off on its downthrow; a little below the
lower or “main” coal trees were seen im situ, and the Rey. H. H. Higgins has
obtained from the same locality numerous specimens of the stems, leaves, and
fruits of Calamites, and also of Lepidodendron, with ferns &c.; also a beautifully
preserved wing of an Orthopterous insect: these have been deposited in the Liver-
pool Museum.

At the entrance to the deep cutting in the Pebble-beds near Scholes Farm,
wherever the surface is covered with the sands and clays of the Boulder-clay period,
it remains beautifully planed, grooved, and striated, the strie being from south-
east to north-west.

In the Lower Bunter sandstone, previously alluded to, there are several fissures
without much displacement of the beds, the interstices being filled with a débris

86 REPORT—1870.

consisting of subangular and rounded fragments from the Coal-measures and the
Triassic sandstone, as well as liver-coloured and quartz pebbles from the Middle
Bunter, and likewise granite, porphyry, greenstone, and other pebbles derived from
the Boulder-clay, one of which affords an excellent example of glacial markings. It
may therefore be inferred that these fissures must have been formed during the recent
or at least the postglacial period.

Mr. C, Smith exhibited an Orthopterous insect,

—

On the recent Formation of Gravel-beds resembling Middle Drift.
By G. Jounstone Stoney, M/.A., F.LS.

~ On the east coast of Ireland, extending south of Dublin from Killiney to Bray
Head, and from Bray Head to Greystones in the county Wicklow, there are consi-
derable cliffs of Drift exposed to view. They consist of (1) masses of amorphous
glacial clay, usually containing an abundance of striated limestone boulders and
fragments of shells; (2) gravel, which is almost unstratified, containing a few stri-
ated boulders and fragments of shells ; and (8) stratified beds of gravel and sand,
without striated boulders and with but very few fragments of shells. . The strati-
fied beds have usually been regarded as Middle Drift, the other beds being treated
as Upper Glacial Dritt or Lower Glacial Drift, according to their position.

The author had carefully examined these formations from Bray Head to a little
south of Greystones, and had satisfied himself that the undoubtedly glacial deposits
are to the present day in process of being transformed into the stratified beds of
gravel and sand, which have been usually referred to Middle Drift.

The Drift rests directly on argillaceous slates of the Cambrian formation ; and the
first thing which attracted attention was that all the spring water of the neighhour-
hood is hard, containing an abundance of salts of lime. These could only have
been obtained from the limestones of the Drift, and consequently indicated that a
sensible amount of change is going on in it. This led the author to investigate
further, and he then found evidences of change everywhere and unmistakable.
But it will be most useful to confine this record to the appearances in two situa-
tions, which can be without difficulty identified by any person who may wish to re-
examine the ground.

Under the railway station at Greystones, which is built close to the shore, a cliff
of glacial clay with abundance of striated boulders will be found. It rests directly on
the Cambrian slates, which are also exposed to view. Immediately in front of the
railway station the clay reaches to the surface of the ground; but 80 or 100 yards
further south beds of stratified gravel will be found above it, the stratification being
usually oblique to the surface of contact of the gravel and clay. Here it will
be easy to see evidence that rain when it falls soaks quickly through the
gravel, and then travels along the upper surface of the clay. In doing so it
penetrates the clay to a certain distance, from 2 to 6 inches, altering its colour from
a dirty blue, which is the prevailing colour of the glacial clay at this spot, to a light
fawn colour. If this stratum of clay out of which the colour has been discharged
be dug into, the remains of limestone boulders will be found scattered through it,
which have also been attacked by the water. There usually remains either a
powdery mass of the insoluble matter of the boulder, or such a mass with a core
of some fantastic shape, which is the part of the limestone that has not yet been
dissolved away. In a few instances specimens were found in which one side of the
stone had been sheltered from the water, and still retained its glacial markings.
Moreover some of the clay is washed forwards when the water travels over it, for
wherever the water dribbles out at the surface of the cliff it carries clay out with it.
Here, then, we have an instance in which the so-called Lower Glacial Drift is being
in part corroded or washed away all over its upper surface ; and the portions that
remain are being added on to the lower surface of the overlying Middle Drift. The
part which is being converted into Middle Drift appears to consist principally of the
insoluble stones of the glacial clay, and of such central portions of the larger lime-
stones as may outlive the corroding process. f

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87

At this station, wherever the rock is exposed to view, water will bé found also,
oozing out here and there from the face of the cliff between the glacial clay and the
ae ing rock. Where this occurs, abundant specimens of the corroded limestones
are to be met with ; and no doubt if the passage of water were sufficiently pro-
longed, it would in time lead inevitably to the formation of gravel-beds between
the clay and the rock. But the percolation which was observed appears to be of
too modern a date. It probably begat after the existing cliff was formed by the
advance of the sea.

A case, however, in which Upper Glacial Drift has undoubtedly been con-
verted into Middle Drift, will be found at the south end of the Ladies’ Bathing-
place at Greystones. Here the upper part of the cliff consists of glacial
clay with a few striated boulders, and below it there are imperfectly stra-
tified beds of sand and gravel. These porous beds communicate with the surface-
soil by means of a chimney-like passage filled with gravel, which is exposed in the
cliff, and through which rain gained access to the beds below. These beds bear
evidence that, before they were cut across by the sea, they formed part of a sub-
terranean reservoir, in which slowly flowing water was confined between the rocks
beneath and the glacial clay above, the lowest layer of the glacial clay to the
depth of several inches having acquired a structure which is stratified parallel to
its under surface. This stratified structure is continued along the clay walls of the
passage by which the rain had access to the porous beds. In this case the corroding
and transporting action of the water upon the underside of the glacial drift has
probably been suspended since the subterranean reservoir was tapped by the en-
croachment of the sea; but the appearances clearly show that it had before that
time been going on, that the water in its passage had been corroding or carrying
away some constituents of the Upper Glacial Drift over its under surface, and that
the residue which remained became an accession to the underlying beds of gravel
and sand.

These particular spots have been pointed out, because they can be easily identified
by other observers ; and abundant confirmatory evidence will be found all along
the three miles of coast examined by the author. In some places isolated masses
of clay will be found in the gravel-beds, which may be presumed to be outstanding
portions of the glacial clay ; and in all places the ratio of the limestones to the
other kinds of stone is much less in the gravel-beds than in the glacial clays, which
is the state of things that would naturally arise if the gravel-beds have been wholly
formed out of glacial deposits by the prolonged action of the causes which we find
still in operation.

There is also evidence to show that the stratification of the gravel-beds is due to
causes still existing ; for in the places where there is the most unmistakable evi-
dence that Middle Drift is to this day being formed at the expense of glacial drift,
it was found that the stratification of the gravel-beds was continued almost into
contact with the glacial clay, and therefore through the parts most recently con-
verted. But this need present no difficulty. An old mill-race, with a mound along
one side of it, has lately been removed to make way for the extension of Dublin.
towards Sandymount. The mound when cut across presented as fully developed a
stratified structure as is usually seen in natural gravel-beds. And what made the
case conclusive was that the distribution of the materials was in most places wholly
different both in kind and degree from what the original piling of them together
could have occasioned. It must therefore have been produced subsequently, and
it was interesting to observe most of the main features of natural stratification re--
appearing in it, with their unconformable beds, separation of fine from coarse mate-
rials, and so on.

A very simple experiment will show how much may be effected even in a short
time by the percolation of water through gravel-beds. Pour a few cans of water
upon sand which consists of particles of various degrees of fineness, and if a little
cliff be then made in the wet sand, it will be found to be already stratified in a very
considerable degree,

88 REPORT—1870.

On the Physical Geology of the Bone-caves of the Wye.
By the Rey. W.8. Symonns, M.A., F.GS.

Fossil bones of the exinct mammalia have been discovered in “ King Arthur's
Cave,” situate in Great Doward Wood, on the right bank of the Wye, between
Whitechurch, near Ross, and Monmouth. They were forwarded to Prof. Owen,
and were determined by him to be molar teeth of L. primigenius, molar teeth of
Rhinoceros tichorhinus, gnawed astragalus and bones of R. tachorhinus, molar teeth
and bones of Equus fossilis, upper molar and astragalus of Bos primigenius, shed
antler of Reindeer (Cervus tarandus), right upper canine of Hyena spelea,

These fossil bones are from a cavern in a locality rich in caves in the mountain
limestone, now elevated to a considerable height above the river Wye, but in which
fossil bones of the extinct mammalia had not hitherto been found.

Arthur’s Cave has evidently been the den of the great Cave Hyena, as evinced
by the gnawed state of many of the bones, and the remains of that animal itself,
The physical geology of the district was described by the author of the paper.

On the Occurrence of Seams of Hard Sandstone in Middle Drift of East Anglia.
By J. H, Taytor,

A Census of the Marine Invertebrate Fauna of the Lias.
By Ratru Tate, F.GS,

On the Diamonds of South Africa. By J. Tennant, F.GS,.

On the Occurrence of Pebbles and Boulders of Granite in Schistose Rocks in
Islay, Scotland. By Jamxs THomson, F.G.S,

The author described the different rocks exhibited in a section across Islay, from
Port Nahaven on the west to Port Askaig on the east, which principally consist of
gneiss, chlorite and mica-schist, quartzites and limestone. There is a diversity of
opinion as to the proper position of these rocks ; some consider them of Laurentian,
while others think they are of Cambrian age. The author was inclined to think
they belonged to the latter period. At Port Askaig there is a precipitous cliff of
quartzite about 70 feet in height, made up of about one hundred thin bands varying

from 1 to 20 inches in thickness. Underlying this quartzite there is a mass of

arenaceous talcose schist, showing faint traces of stratification, containing frag-
ments, some angular but mostly rounded, of all sizes, from mere particles to great
boulders of granite, resembling the granite of the Island of Mull. Similar rocks
do not occur in the Island of lave and Mull being at a considerable distance to
the north, with a deep sea between the two islands, he suggested the probability
of the granite having been transported by the agency of ice.

These deposits resemble the boulder drifts of more recent times, in the following
respects :—first, in the absence of stratification in one part of the section, which in
another shows signs of regular deposition; secondly, in the close proximity of
fragments of far transported rock, varying in size from minute fragments to large
boulders ; the origin he ascribed to the mass having been deposited in a tranquil
sea of mud, sand, and blocks from melting drift-ice. The absence of stratification
in one part of the section while it is present in another, may be accounted for by
the disturbing action of icebergs, when stranded in the soft plastic mass, in parts
of the sea of limited depth. He also stated that pebbles of granite had long been
sought for in the conglomerates of the Old Red Sandstone ; but in no part of Scot-
land had it been found in rocks of that age, consequently it was inferred that
the granite of Scotland was posterior to the deposition of the rocks belonging
to that period. The discovery of fragments and boule of granite imbedded in
these deposits, furnish adequate proof that the age of granite cannot be restricted,
and that glacial action was not limited to any special geological period.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89

On a Diagram of the Earth’s Eccentricity and the Precession of the Equinowes,
illustrating their Relation to Geological Climate and the Rate of Organic
Change. By Aurrep R. Wattace, /.R.GS.

The author exhibited a diagram of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit and the
precession of the equinoxes, from which he deduced certain important views as to
the climates of past geological ages and the changes of organic life. During the
past three million years the eccentricity has been almost always much greater than
at present, on the average twice as great, and for long periods more than three
times as great. It was shown that when the eccentricity was greatest the heat
received from the sun at the greatest and least distances was as 3 to 4; and, owing
to the precession of the equinoxes, the winters of the northern hemisphere would
be pened intensely cold and much longer for periods of 10,500 years, while
during the alternate periods the winters would be mild and short, the summers cool
and long, leading to an almost perpetual spring. We thus have cold or glacial
epochs for about 10,000 years, alternating with mild epochs for the same period,
whenever the eccentricity was high, and this was the case for fully the half of the
last three million years; and, as such alternations must have occurred during every
glacial epoch, the fact of intercalated warm periods and the migrations con-
sequent on them, which have been detected by geologists, must be looked upon
as the normal condition of things. But during the last 60,000 years (probably the
whole time elapsed since the close of the last glacial epoch) the eccentricity has
been very small, and the alternations of climate and consequent migrations very
slight ; and as Mr. Darwin holds that alternations of climate are, by means of the
consequent migrations, the most powerful cause of modifications of species, there
must have been a comparative stability of species during that period of time, from
which alone we obtain our idea of the rate of specific change. This idea will
therefore be erroneous ; and the rate of change during past geological ages may have
heen, and probably was, much more rapid than has hitherto been thought possible.
During three million years before and one million after the recent epoch, no less
than 180 alternations of climate occurred (each of 10,000 years’ duration), when the
eccentricity was more than double what it is now; and these incessant changes were
thought, on Darwinian principles, to supply a vera causa for a rapid change of
species, and thus enable us peti detaify to reduce the duration of geologic
periods, which had heretofore been measured by data derived from the period of
organic stability since the last glacial epoch.

On the Organization of the Stems of Calamites.
By Professor W. C. Wittramson, F.R.S.

The author pointed out the unity of type observed amongst the British Calamites,
and the consequent improbability of the existence anywhere of two types (the one
Cryptogamic, the other Gymnospermous), as believed by Prof. Adolphe Brongniart.
He then described the various portions of the jointed stem, the centre of which is
a cellular ring of fistular pith, having transverse dissepiments at the nodes. Around
this is a woody zone, composed of wedges of barred and reticulated vessels. These
wedges are separated from each other by large medullary rays, and smaller rays
separate the constituent lamin of each wedge, which latter spring at their inner-
most angle from a longitudinal canal running from node to node. The organi-~
zation of these wedges, canals, and medullary rays was described in minute
detail, their variations in several species being noted, as well as the differences
between the arrangement at the nodes and at the internodes, which differences are
often very characteristic. The structure of the epidermal layer, or bark, was then
shown to be cellular; it consisted of an irregular parenchyma, with cells of variable
dimensions. Its exterior appears to have been smooth, unlike the exterior of the
woody groove zone, which, like the interior of the latter portion, was longitudinally
fluted, the longitudinal ridges and furrows of each internode usually alternating at
the nodes. The branches were shown to be of small size, being given off from the
woody wedges exactly opposite the centre of each node, whilst the roots were
described as originating from the lower extremity of each of the internodes at the

90 REPORT—1870.

base of the stem. The specimens with large branches sometimes met with, were
shown to belong to the subterranean rhizomes.

The author then demonstrated the nature of the arenaceous and argillaceous casts
found in the shales and sandstones of the coal-measures. He pointed out that
these were casts of medullary cavities, formed after an almost complete absorption of
the medullary cells had taken place. In one type, designated by the generic name
of Calamopitus, these cavities were prolonged through the woody zone to the bark,
in the shape of a verticil of narrow canals occupying the upper part of each inter-
node, but located below and distinct from the true branches. The parallel longi-
tudinal grooves seen in the common specimens indicate the positions of the longi-
tudinal canals, whilst the intermediate ridges correspond with those of the large
medullary rays separating the woody wedges. The carbonaceous covering usually
found adhering to these casts was described as throwing little or no light upon the
organization of these plants, and as being, consequently, a most treacherous guide
to their real nature and affinities. The general growth of the woody zone was
shown to be exogenous, corresponding closely with that seen in the shoot of the
first year of an ordinary gymnospermous exogen. But the fructification of these
plants was proved to be cryptogamic. Hence we have in them a combination of
which no perfect parallel is seen amongst living plants. The author recognized
the close affinities of the Calamites with the living Equisetacez, but urged that they
should be divided into two genera, Calamites and Calamopitus, and made into an
allied but distinct family of Calamitaceze, and not actually incorporated with the
Equisetacez.

On the Paleontological Aspects of the Middle Glacial Formation of the East
of Enyland, and on their bearing wpon the Age of the Middle Sands of
Lancashire. By Seartes VY. Woon, F.G.S., and F. W. Harmer, F.GS. —

The design of this paper was to caution the geologists of Lancashire against
too hastily correlating the sands termed the Middle Sands of Lancashire, in con-
sequence of their being intercalated between the upper and lower boulder-clays of
that county, with the deposits of East Anglia, for some time described under the
term Middle Glacial. It was shown that while in the Lancashire deposits, as at
present investigated, none but recent shells had been found, the Middle Glacial
deposits contained several extinct crag forms. Whilst abstaining from expressing
any decided opinion as to the exact age of the Lancashire beds, it was pointed out
that the evidence at present obtained would lead to the belief that they were much
more recent than the Middle Glacial of the east coast, and not improbably of the age
of the Hessle gravel of Yorkshire (the fossils of which occur at Paull and Kelsea
in Holderness), a postglacial deposit which is overlain by postglacial boulder-clay
called the ‘ Hessle clay.”” The shells of the middle sands at Blackpool Cliff, in
Lancashire, are very slightly fossilized, whereas those of the east of in land beds
are as thoroughly fossilized as those of the Crag. Two lists of species obtained by
the authors from the East-Anglian Middle Glacial were given,—one of certain iden-
tifications, and the other of identifications more or less doubtful from the fragmen-
tary condition of the specimens. The former list contained the following, viz.
Buccinum undatum, var. tenerum, Trophon muricatus, Fusus antiquus (dextral form),
F. scalariformis, Purpura lapillus, ditto var. incrassata, Nassa incrassata, N. granu-
lata, N. pusio (a new crag species), Mangelia turricula, M. exarata, M. linearis,
Natica clausa, N. catena, N. helicoides, N. Alderi, Scalaria Trevelyana, 8S. Gren-
landica, Turrttella incrassata (triplicata of Brocchi), T. terebra, Cerithium tricinctum,
Chemnitzia internodula, Odostomia unidentata, Rissoa inconspicua, Littorina litorea,
L. rudis, Margarita undulata, Capulus Hungaricus, Calyptrea sinensis, Dentahum
dentalis, Anomia ephippium, Pecten opercularis, P. pusio, P. varius, Mytilus edulis,
Pectunculus glycimeris, Limopsis pygmea, Nucula Cobboldie, N. nucleus, Leda limatula,
Cardium edule, Cardita scalaris, Loripes divaricatus, Lucina borealis, Astarte borealis,
A, sulcata, A. compressa, A. Burtinti, A. Omalii, Erycinella ovals, Tapes (either
virgineus or pullastra), Cytherea rudis, Cyprinaislandica, Venus fluctuosa, V. fusciata,
V, ovata, Tellina obliqua, T, Balthica, T. crassa, Scrobicularia piperata, Mactra

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91

ovata, Mya arenaria, Saxicava arctica, Pholas éerispata; Corbula nucleus, Pandora
mequivalvis, and three small species of Trophon and one of Mangelia that are new.
Of the above shells (70 in number) only two (exclusive of the Mangelia and of
the three small new Trophons) have not occurred in either the Coralline Red or
Norwich Crags, viz. Venus fluctuosa and Tellina Balthica ; while eight of them (ex-
clusive of the four new forms), viz. Purpura incrassata, Nassa granulata, N. pusio,
Certthium tricinctum, Astarte Burtinii, A. Omalii, Erycinella ovalis, and Tellina obli-
gua, are not known as living shells; and two, viz. Nucula Cobboldie and Cardita
scalaris, are, if living; confined to the Pacific.
~ The uncertain list comprised the following, viz. Trophon consocialis, Nassa reticost,
Trochus granulatus, T. zizyphinus, Astarte incrassata, A. gracilis, Cytherea chione,
Fissurella greca, Emarginula ?, Columbella sulcata, Margarita helicina, Tellina
lata, Mactra subtruncata, M. arcuata, Leda lanceolata, and Mya truncata, all Crag
shells, and five of them not known living. Especial attention was called to the
presence of such a shell as Erycinella ovalis, of which three specimens had been
obtained. Two Crag corals, viz. Sphenotrochus intermedius and Balanophyllia ealy-
meth had also oceurred. The character of the fauna was Southern rather than
orthern.

Notes on Fossil Crustacea. By Henry Woopwarn, F.G.S.

Mr. Woodward first called attention to the progress made in the investigation of
this class during the past year. He referred to the important discovery of legs
in Asaphus (made by Mr. E. Billings) as likely to decide the position of the Trilo-
bites to be near the Zsopoda, and not near the Phyllopoda, as heretofore supposed,

The progress of investigation of the larval stages of Limulus promises also to
throw important light on the older forms of this group, and also upon the relation
between the Limuli and Trilobite.

Mr. Woodward described the following new Crustacea, namely :—

1, A new species of Eurypterus (E. Brodie’) from the Upper Ludlow, Stoke-
Edith Purton, discovered by the Rev. P. B. Brodie, M.A., FS.

2. A new and gigantic Phyllopod (Ceratiocaris ludensis) from the same formation
near Ludlow, preserved in the Ludlow Museum.

3. A new Ceratiocaris (C. Oretonensis) from the Carboniferous limestone of Oreton;
Worcestershire,

4. Four new forms of Cyclus from the Carboniferous limestone of Ireland and
Yorkshire, namely, C. bilobatus, C. torosus, C. Wrightii, C. Harknessi. Mr. Wood-
ward remarked upon the singular mimetic resemblance between these shields and
the young larval land-crabs figured by Mr. Westwood in the Philosophical Trans-
actions, p. 311 (1835).

5. A new Isopod from the Lower Chalk of Dover, Luton, and Ely was described
under the name of Palega Carteri.

6, A second species of Seyllaridia (S. Bellii) was recorded from the London Clay
of Sheppey.

7. Lastly, Mr. Woodward described a new form fof Dithyrocaris (D. striatus), _
obtained by Principal Dawson, of Montreal, from the Middle Devonian Sandstone
of Gaspé, Canada.

BIOLOGY.

Address by Professor Roxteston, M.D., F.R.S., President of the Section.

Amonest the duties of a President of a Section the delivery of an Address has in
these latter days somehow come to be reckoned; and that I may interpose myself
for but as short a time as possible between your attention and the papers announced
_ to you for reading upon your list, I will begin what I have to say without any fur-
ther preface.

I wish first to make a few observations as to the kind of preparation which is

92 REPORT—1870.

indispensable, as it seems to me, as a preliminary to an adequate and intelligent
comprehension of the problems of biology; or, in other words, to an adequate and
intelligent comprehension of the discussions which will take place in this room
and in the two other rooms which will be assigned to, and occupied by, the de-
partment of Ethnology and Anthropology, and that of Physiology pure and pro-
per, with Anatomy.

Having made these observations, I propose, in the second place, to enumerate
the subjects which appear likely to occupy prominent places in our forthcoming
discussions ; and thirdly, I will, if your patience allows me, conclude with some
remarks as to certain of the benefits which may be expected, as haying been con-
stantly observed to flow from a due and full devotion to biological study.

In the first place, then, I wish to say that though the problems of biology have
much of what is called general interest (that is to say, of interest for all persons)
attaching to them,—as, indeed, how could they fail to have, including as they do
the natural history of our own and of all other species of living organisms, whether
animal or vegetable ?—some special preparation must be gone through if that gene-
ral interest is to be thoroughly and intelligently gratified. I would compare the
realm of biology to a vast landscape in a cultivated country of which extensive
views may be obtained from an eminence, but for the full and thorough appreci-
ation of which it is necessary that the gazer should himself have cultivated some
portion, however small, of the expanse at his feet. It is, of course, a matter of
regret to think that persons can be found who look upon an actual landscape with-
out any thought or knowledge as to how the various factors which make up its
complex beauty have come to cooperate, how the hand of man is recognizable
here, how the dip of the strata is visible there, and how their alternation is
detectable in another place as the potent agency in giving its distinctive features;
but I take it that real and permanent, however imperfect, pleasure may be drawn
from the contemplation of scenery by persons who are ignorant of all these things.
I do not think this is the case when we here deal with coup d’wil views of biology.
The amount of the special knowledge, the extent of the special training need not
necessarily be great ; but some such special knowledge and training there must be
if the problems and argumentations familiar to the professed biologist are to be
understood and grasped by persons whose whole lives are not devoted to the sub-
ject, so as to form for them acquisitions of real and vital knowledge.

The microscope has done very much (indeed I may say it has done almost all
that is necessary) for enabling all persons to obtain the necessary minimum of prac-
tical and personal acquaintance with the arrangements of the natural world of
which I am speaking. The glass trough used in Edinburgh, the invention of John
Goodsir, whose genius showed itself, as genius often does show itself, in simple in-
ventions, can be made into a miniature aquarium (I purposely use a word which
calls up the idea of an indoors apparatus, wishing thereby to show how the means I
recommend are within the reach of all persons) ; and in it, lying as it does horizon-
tally and underlain as it is by a condenser, animal and vegetable organisms can bo
observed at any and at all hours, and continuously, and with tolerably high mag-
nifying-powers even whilst undisturbed. Thus is gained an admirable field for the
self-discipline in question. The microscope which should be used by preference
for exploring and watching such an aquarium should be such a one as is figured in
Quekett’s work on the Microscope (p. 58, fig. 86), as consisting of a stem with a
stout steadying base, and of a horizontal arm some 9 inches long, which can carry
indifferently simple lenses or a compound body. I think of the two it is better
that the aquarium should be horizontal rather than the microscope ; and those who
think with me in this matter can nevertheless combine for themselves the adyan-
tages of the horizontal position of the instrument with those of the horizontal posi-
tion of the objects observed by modifying the eyepiece in the way figured by Quekett
(p. 381, fig. 266). It would be a long task to enumerate fully all the scientific
lessons which may be gathered, first, and all the educational agencies, secondly,
which may be set and kept in movement by a person who possesses himself of this
simple apparatus. The mutual interdependence of the animal and vegetable king-
doms, their solidarité as the French have called it, and as the Germans have called
1t too, copying herein the French, is one of the first lessons the observer has forced

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 93

upon him; the influence of physical and chemical agencies upon the growth and
development of living beings he soon finds strikingly illustrated ; the mysterious
process of development itself is readily observable in the eggs of the common
water-snails and in those of freshwater fish, so that the way in which the various
organs and system of organs are chiselled out, built up, and finally packed together
and stratified can be taken note of in these yet transparent representatives of these
great subkingdoms which all the while are undisturbed and at peace: and all these
points of large interest are but a few of many which these small means will enable
any one to master for himself in the concrete actuality, and thoroughly. The
necessity for carefulness and truthfulness in recording what is seen, the necessity
for keeping in such records what one observes quite distinct from what one infers,
the necessity for patience and punctuality, are lessons which, from having a moral
factor as well as a scientific one in their composition, I may specify as belonging to
the educational lessons which may be gathered from such a course of study.

Ihave been speaking of the microscope as an instrument of education, and I
wish before leaving the subject to utter one caution as to its use when this parti-
cular object of education is in view. If a subject is to act educationally, it must
be understood thoroughly ; and if a subject is to be understood thoroughly, it must
form one segment or stretch in a continuous chain of known facts. ’Apxréov dé
Tav yvopipev, said one of the greatest of educators; you must start from some

reviously existing basis of knowledge, and keep your communications with it un-
interrupted if your knowledge is not to be unreal. And my concrete application
of these generalities is contained in the advice that no sudden jump be made from
observations carried on with the naked eye to observations carried on with the
highest powers of the microscope. I am speaking of the course to be pursued by
beginners, and beginners we all were once; and if our places are to be filled (and
filled they will be), by better men, as we hope, than ourselves, they will have to be
filled, we also hope, by men who have yet to become beginners. It is in their
interest I have been speaking ; and I say that a beginner does not ordinarily get an
intelligent conception of the revelations of the microscope except in Bacon’s words,
Ascendendo continenter et gradatim, by progressing gradually from observations
with the naked eye through observations dependent upon dissecting-lenses, dou-
blets by preference, and the lower powers of the compound microscope, up to obser=
vations to be made with the‘higher and highest magnifying-powers. Unless he
ascends by gradations from organs and systems to structures and tissues and cells,
his wonder and admiration at the results of the ultimate microscope analysis, of
what he had but a moment before knowledge of only in the concrete and by the
naked eye, is likely to be but unintelligent.

There are three other agencies which can be set into activity with nearly as
little trouble and difficulty as the simple apparatus of which I have been just been
speaking, and which will, like it, secure for us the necessary preliminary discipline
or “ Propédeutik’’ for the rational comprehension of Biology. These are Local
Museums, Local Field Clubs, and Local Natural Histories. Local authorities,

ersons of local influence, should engage and interest themselves in the starting
into life of the two former of these agencies; and if some such person as Gilbert
White could be found in each county to write the Natural History of its Selborne,
I know not at what cost it would not be well to retain his services. As the world
is governed, upon each particular area of its surface there is to be found a certain
percentage of the population occupying it who have special calls for particular
lines of study. It is the interest of each country to have such means and such
institutions in being as will render it possible to detect the existence of persons
gifted with such special vocations, to give the talent thus entrusted to them fair
scope for development, and to render smaller the risk of their dying mute and in-
glorious. A young man who is possessed of a talent for Natural Science and Phy-
sical Inquiry generally, may have the knowledge of this predisposition made
known to himself and to others, for the first time, by his introduction to a well-
arranged Local Museum. In such an institution, either all at once, or gradually,
the conviction may spring up within him that the investigation of physical pro-
blems is the line of investigation to which he should be content to devote himself,
relinquishing the pursuit of other things; and then, if the museum in question

94 REPORT—1870.

really a well-arranged one, a recruit may be thereby won for the growing army of

hysical investigators, and one more man sayed from the misery of finding, when
fe has been taken into some other career, that he has, somehow or other, mistaken
his profession, and made of his career one life-long mistake.

Here comes the question, What is a well-arranged museum? The answer is,
a well-arranged museum, for the particular purpose of which we are speaking, is
one in which the natural objects which belong to the locality, and which have
already struck upon the eye of such a person as the one contemplated, are clearly
explained in a well-arranged catalogue. The curiosity which is the mother of
science is not awakened for the first time in the museum, but out of doors, in
the wood, by the side of the brook, on the hillside, by scarped cliff and quarried
stone; it is the function of the museum, by rendering possible the intellectual
pleasure, which grows out of the surprise with which a noyice first notes the
working of his faculty of inspiration, to prevent this curiosity from degenerating
into the mere woodman’s craft of the gamekeeper, or the rough empiricism of the
farmer. The first step to be taken in a course of natural instruction is the pro-
viding of means whereby the faculties of observation and of verification may be
called into activity; and the first exercise the student should be set down to is
that of recognizing, in the actual thing itself, the various properties and peculiari-
ties which some good book or some good catalogue tells him are obseryable in it.
This is the first step, and, as in some other matters, ce n’est gus le premier pas qui
cotite, And it need not cost much, There is a name familiar to Section D, and,
indeed, not likely for a long while to be forgotten by members of the British Asso-
ciation generally, extrinsic means as well as the intrinsic merits of the well-loved.
man conspiring to keep his memory fresh among us, and the bearer of that name,
Edward Forbes, has left it as his opinion that “It is to the development of the
provincial museums that, I believe, we must in future look for the extension of in-
tellectual pursuits throughout the land.”’ (Lecture ‘‘On the Educational Uses of
Museums,” delivered at the Museym of Practical 7 enkeny and published in 1863.
Cited by Toynbee, “ Hints on the Formation of Local Museums,” 1863, p. 46.)
With the words of Edward Forbes I might do well to end what I haye to say, but
I should like to say a word as to the policy of confining the contents of a local
museum to the natural-history specimens of the particular locality. No doubt the
first thing to be done is the collection of the local specimens, and this alike in the
interest of the potential Cuviers*and Hugh Millers who may be born in the dis-
trict, and in the interest of the man of science who may visit the place when on
his travels. But so long as a specimen from the antipodes or from whatever cor-
ner of our world be really valuable, and be duly catalogued before it is admitted
into the museum, so that the lesson it has to teach may be learnable, I do not see
my way towards advising that foreign specimens be excluded. It is to my mind
more important that all specimens should be catalogued as soon as received, than
that any should be rejected when offered,

I must not occupy your time further with this portion of my address, Let me
first say that a person who wishes to know what a Field-Club can do for its mem-
bers, and not for them only, but for the world at large, will do well to purchase
one, or any number more than one, of the Transactions of the Tyneside Naturalist’s
Field-Club ; and that if there be any person who thinks that White’s ‘Selborne’
relates to a time and place so far off that there can be no truth in the book, and
who yet would like to try upon himself the working of the fourth disciphngey
agencies of which I haye spoken, that, namely, of reading some local Natural

istory on the spot of which it treats, and comparing it with the things themselves
in situ, let him repair to Weymouth, and work and walk up and down its cliffs and
valleys with Mr. Damon’s book in his hands,

I shall not be suspected in this place and upon this occasion, nor, as I hope, upon
any other, of a wish to depreciate the value of scientific instruction as an engine for
training the mind ; but neither, on the other hand, should I wish to depreciate the
value of literary culture, my view of the relations of these two gymnastics of the
mind being the very simple, obyious, and natural one that they should be harmo-
niously combined—

Alterius sie
Altera sic poscit opem vis, et conjurat amice,

i a

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95

T know it may be said that there are difficulties in the way, and especially practi-
cal difficulties ; but I haye always observed that people who are good at finding out
difficulties, and especially practical difficulties, are like people who are good at
finding out excuses,—good at finding out very little else. ‘The yarious ways of
getting oyer these difficulties are obvious enough, and haye been hinted at or fully
expressed by several writers of greater or less authority on many occasions. It is,
however, of some consequence that I should here say what I believe has not been
said before, namely, that a purely and exclusively literary education, imperfect and
one sided as it is, is still a fein thing than a system of scientific instruction (to
abuse the use of the word for a moment) in which there should be no courses of
practical familiarizing with natural objects, verification, and experimentation. A
purely literary training, say, in dialectics, or what we are pleased to call logic, to
take a flagrant and glaring instance first, does confer certain lower advantages upon
the person who goes through it without any discipline in the practical investigation
of actual problems. By going through such a training attentively, a man with a
good memory and a little freedom from over-scrupulousness, can conyert his mind
into an arsenal of quips, quirks, retorts, and epigrams, out of which he can, at his
own pleasure, discharge a mtraille of chopped straw and chaff-like arguments,
against which no man of ordinary fairness of mind can, for the moment, make
head, It is true that such sophists gain this dexterity at the cost of losing, in every.
case, the power of fairly and fully appreciating or investigating truth, of losing in
many cases the faculty of sustaining and maintaining serious attention to any sub-
ject, and of losing in some cases even the power of writing, A well-known cha-
racter in an age happily, though only recently, gone by, who may be taken as a
Cesar worthy of such Antonies, used to speak of a pen as his torpedo, Still they
have their reward, they succeed now and then in conyincing juries, and they are
formidable at dinner-tables. It would not be fair, however, not to say that a purel
literary training can do much better things than this, By a purely classical edu-
cation a man, from being forced into seeing and feeling that other men could look
upon the world, moral, social, and physical, with other (even if not with larger)
cg than ours, attains a certain flexibility of mind which enables him to enter into
the thoughts of other and living men; and this is a very desirable attainment.
And, finally, though I should be sorry to hold with a French writer that the style
makes the man, the benefit of being early familiarized with writings which the
peculiar social condition of the classical times, so well pointed out by De Toc-
queville (De la Démocratie en Amérique, i. 15), conspired and contributed not a
little to make models of style, is not to be despised, Such a familiarity may not
confer the power of imitating or rivalling such compositions, but it may confer the
power of appreciating their excellences, the one power appearing to us to be ana-
logous to the power of the experimenter, and the other to that of the pure obser-
yer in Natural Science; and we should underyalue neither,

Masters of Science, it must be confessed, are not always masters of style; let
not the single instance of last night tempt you to generalize, it was but a single
instance, the writings of the man whom we in this Section are most of us likely
to look upon as our master in Science have been spoken of by our President in his
recently published volume as “intellectual pemmican ;” and if scientific reading
and teaching is to be divorced from scientific observation of natural objects and
processes, it is better that a man, young or old, should haye in his memory some-
thing which is perfect of its kind, entire and unmutilated, such as the openin
sentences of the ‘ Brutus’ of Cicero, which Tacitus, I think, must have had in his
memory when he wrote his obituary of Agricola, or as the opening sentences of
the ‘Republic’ of Plato, or the conclusion of the ‘ Ajax’ of Sophocles, than that he
should have his memory laden with a consignment of scientific phrases which,
ex hypothesi, have for him no yital reality. I have already said that I am strongly
of opinion that literary should always be combined with scientific instruction in a
perfect educational course; these somewhat lengthy remarks refer therefore only
to systems in which it is proposed that we should have not only a bifurcation but
a radical separation of studies and students ; and the moral of this may be summed
Bp by saying that a purely scientific education must be a thoroughly practical one,
familiarizing the student with actual things as well as with words and symbols,

96 REPORT—1870.

It was upon the solid ground that Antzeus learnt the art of wrestling; it was only
when he allowed himself to be lifted from it that he was strangled by Hercules.

Coming, now, to the second part of my address, I beg to say that the word Bio-
logy is at present used in two senses, one wider, the other more restricted. In this
latter sense the word becomes equivalent to the older, and till recently more cur-
rently used word “ Physiology.” It is in the wider sense that the word is used
when we speak of this as being the Section of Biology: and this wider sense is a
very wide one, for it comprehends, first, Animal and Vegetable Physiology and Ana-
tomy; secondly, Ethnology and Anthropology; and thirdly, Scientific Zoology
and Classificatory Botany, inclusively of the Distribution of Species. It may have
been possible in former times for a single individual of great powers of assimilation
to keep himself abreast of, and on a level with, the advance of knowledge along
all these various lines of investigation; but in those times knowledge was not,
and could not, owing to difficulties of intercommunication, the dearness of books,
the costliness or the non-existence of instruments, have been increased at the rate
at which it is now being, year by year, increased; and the entire mass of actually
existing and acquired knowledge was of course much smaller, though man’s power
of mastering it was no smaller than at present. It would now be an indication
of very great ignorance if any body should pretend that his own stock of infor-
mation could furnish him with something in each one of the several departments
of knowledge I have just mentioned, which should be worthy of being laid be-
fore such an assembly as this. As will have been eepeated E shall not presume
to do more than glance at the vegetable kingdom, large as is the space in the
landscape of life which it makes. What I do propose to do is merely to draw
your attention to a very few of the topics of leading interest, which are at the
present moment being, or rather will shortly begin to be, discussed by experts in
the Department of Physiology and Anatomy, in the Department of Ethnology
and Anthropology, and, thirdly, in the Department of Scientific Zoology.

Under the head and in the Department of Physiology proper and Anatomy, our
list of papers and, I am happy to add, the circle of faces around us suggest to us
the following subjects as being the topics of main interest for the present year :—
the questions of Spontaneous Generation ; that of the influence of organized parti-
cles in the production of disease; that of the influence of particular nervous and
chemical agencies upon functions; that of the localization of cerebral functions ;
that of the production and, indeed, of the entire rdle in the economy of creation of
such substances as fat and albumen; and, finally, that of the cost at which the
work of the animal machine is carried on.

The question of Spontaneous Generation touches upon certain susceptibilities
which lie outside the realm of science. In this place, however, we have to do only
with scientific arguments, and I trust that the Section will support the Committee
in their wish to exclude from our discussions all extraneous considerations. Truth
is one; all roads which really lead to it will assuredly converge sooner or later:
our business is to see that the one we are ourselyes concerned with is properly laid
out and metalled.

Upon this matter I am glad to be able to fortify myself by two authorities; and
first of these I will place an utterance of Archbishop Whately, which may be found
in the second volume of his Life, pp. 56-68, and appears to have been uttered by
him, et. 57, an. 1844. “A person possessing real faith will be fully convinced
that whatever suppressed physical fact appears to militate against his religion will
be proved by physical investigation either to be unreal or else reconcilable with
his religion. If I were to found a church, one of my articles would be that it is
not allowable to bring forward Scripture or any religious considerations at all to
prove or disprove any physical theory or any but religious and moral considera-
tions.” My second quotation shall be taken from the great work of one of the
first, as I apprehend, of living theologians, John Macleod Campbell, ‘The Nature
of the Atonement,’ pp. xxxii, xxxiii, Introd., and it runs thus :—There are “ other
minds whose habits of pure scientific investigation are to them a temptation to
approach the claim of the kingdom of God on our faith by a wrong path, causing
them to ask for a kind of evidence not proper to the subject, and so hindering their

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 97

weighing fairly what belongs to it. No scientific study of the phenomena which
imply a reign of law could ever have issued in the discovery of the kingdom of
God. But neither can it issue in any discovery which contradicts the existence of
that kingdom ; nor can any mind in the light of the kingdom of God hesitate to
conclude that if such seeming contradictions arise there is implied the presence of
error either as to facts or as to conclusions from the facts.” These are valuable words
and weighty testimonies. Butin a matter of this importance one must not forbear to
em out what may seem to be wanting even in the dicta of such men as the two

have quoted. Neither of them have allowed the possibility of error attaching
itself to the utterances of more than one of the two parties in such issues as those
contemplated. Neither appears to have thought of the cases in which religious
men, if not theologians, have brought woe on the world because of the offences
they have with ill-considered enunciations created. And whilst fully sympathi-
zing with all that the Archbishop and Mr. Campbell have said, I must say that
they appear to me to have left something unsaid ; and this something may be wrap-

ed up in the caution that there may be faults on both sides. But at any rate this
Hecticn cannot be considered a fit place for the correction of errors save of the phy-
sical kind ; and all other considerations are for this week and in this place extra-
neous. In some other week or in some other place it will be, if it has not already
been, our duty to give them our best attention.

To come, now, to the kind of considerations which are the proper business of
Section D: let me say that for the discussion of Spontaneous Generation very
refined means of observation, and, besides these, very refined means of experimen-
tation are necessary. And I shall act in the spirit of the advice I have already
alluded to as given to the world by one of her greatest teachers, if I put before
you a simple but a yet undecided question for the solution of which analogous
means of a far less delicate character would appear to be, but as yet have not
proved themselves to be, sufficient. Thus shall we come to see very plainly some
of the bearings, and a few of the difficulties, of the more difficult of the two
questions. What an uneducated person might acquiesce in hearing spoken of as
oe generation, takes place very constantly under our very eyes, when a
plot of ground which has for many years, or even generations, been devoted to
carrying some particular vegetable growth, whether grass or trees, has that parti-
cular growth removed from it. When such a clearing is effected, we often see a
rich or even a rank vegetation of a kind previously not growing on the spot spring
up upon it. The like phenomenon is often to be noted on other surfaces newly
exposed, as in railway-cuttings and other escarpments, and along the beds of canals
or streams, which are laid bare by the turning of the water out of its channel.
Fumitory, rocket, knotgrass or cowgrass (Polygonum aviculare), and other such
weeds, must often have been noted by every one of us here in England as coming into
and occupying such recently disturbed territories in force; whilst in America the
destruction of a forest of one kind of wood, such as the oak or the chestnut, has
often been observed to be followed by an upgrowth of young forest trees of quite
another kind, such as the white pine—albeit no such tree had heen seen for genera-
tions growing near enough to the spot to make the transport of its seeds to the spot
seem a likely thing. In one case referred to by Mr. Marsh, ‘Man and Nature,’
p- 289, the hickory, Carya porcina, a kind of walnut, was remarked as succeeding
a displaced and destroyed plantation of the white pine. Now the advocates of
spontaneous generation must not suspect me of hinting that there is any question,
except in the minds of the grossly ignorant, of the operation of any such agency
as spontaneous generation here ; no one would suggest that the seeds of the Poly-
gonum aviculare, to say nothing of those of the hickory, were produced sponta-
neously ; but what I do say is, that the question of how those seeds came there is
just the very analogue of the one which they and their opponents have to deal
with, And it is not definitely settled at this very moment. Let us glance at the
instructive historical parallel it offers. For the very gross and palpable facts of
which I have just spoken there are two explanations offered in works of consider-
able authority. The one which has perhaps the greatest currency and commands
the largest amount of acceptance is that which, in the words of De Candolle,
regards la couche de terre végétale d'un pays comme un magasin de graines, and sup-

98 REPORT—1870.

poses that in hot summers and autumns, such as the present, the fissures in the
ground, which have proved so fatal this year to the young partridges, swallow up
a multitude of seeds, which are restored again to life when the deep strata into
which they are thus introduced, and in which they are sealed up as the chasms
close up, come in any way to be laid open to the unimpeded action of the sun and
moisture. Squirrels, again, and some birds resembling herein the rodent mam-
malia, bury seeds and forget to dig them up again; and it is supposed that they
may bury them so deep as to be protected from the two physical agencies just
mentioned. Now germination cannot take place in the absence of oxygen; and I
would add that well-sinkers know to their cost how often the superficial strata of
the earth are surcharged with carbonic acid. The rival explanation and the less
popular (I do not say the less scientific) looks to the agency of transportation as
occurring constantly, and sufficing to explain the facts. By accepting this expla-
nation, we save ourselves from running counter to certain experiments, some of
which were carried out, if I mistake not, under the auspices of this Section (see
Brit. Assoc. Reports), and which appear to curtail considerably the time during
which seeds retain their vitality, and to multiply considerably the number of con-
ditions which must be in force to allow of such retention for periods far shorter
than those which have to be accounted for. A better instance of the expediency
of checking the interpretations based merely upon observations, however accurately
made, by putting into action experiments, cannot be furnished than by recording
the fact put on record by Mr. Bentham, when discussing this question in his last
year’s address to the Linnean Society.

“Hitherto direct observation has, as far as I am aware, only produced negative
results, of which a strong instance has been communicated to me by Dr. Hooker.
In deepening the lake in Kew Gardens they uncovered the bed of an old piece of
water, upon which there came up a plentiful crop of Typha, a plant not observed in
the immediate vicinity ; and it was therefore concluded that the seed must have been
in the soil. To try the question, Dr. Hooker had six Ward’s cases filled with some
of the soil remaining uncovered close to that which had produced the Typha, and
carefully watched; but not a single Typha came up in any one of them.” (Note
in President’s Address, May 24th, 1869, p. Ixxii of Linnean Society's Proceedings.)
* To this I would add that experiments with a positive result, and that positive
result in favour of the second hypothesis, if hypothesis it can be called, are being
constantly tried in our colonies for us, and ona large scale. I had taken and written
here of the Polygonum aviculare, the “knot” or “ cowgrass”—having learnt, on the
authority of Dr. Hooker and Mr. Travers (see Natural-History Réview, January
1864, p. 124, Oct. 1864, p. 619), that it abounds in New Zealand, along the roadside,
just as it does in England—as a glaring instance, and one which vbiile illustrate the
real yalue of the second explanation even to an unscientific man and to an unassisted
eye. But on Saturday last I received by post one of those evidences which make
an Englishman proud in thinking that whithersoever ships can float thither shall
the English language, English manners, and English science be carried, in the
shape of the second volume of the Transactions of the New-Zealand Institute,
full, like the first, from the beginning to its last page with thoroughly good mat-
ter. In that volume, having looked at the table of its contents, I turned toa
paper by Mr. T. Kirk on the Naturalized Plants of New Zealand, and in this, at

. 142, I find that Mr. T. Kirk prefers to regard the Polygonum aviculare of New
Ventana as indigenous in New Zealand. Hence that illustration which would have
been a good one falls from my hands. And I must in fairness add, that because
one agency is proved to be a vera causa, it is not thereby proved that no other can
by any possibility be competent simultaneously to produce the same effect, what-
ever the Schoolmen with the law of Parsimony ringing in their ears may have said
to the contrary. I have dwelt upon this subject at this length with the purpose of
showing how much difficulty may beset the settlement of even a comparatively
simple question which involves only the use of the unassisted eye, or at most of a
simple lens. The @ fortiort argument I leave you to draw for yourselves, with the
simple remark that the question of spontaneous generation is now at least one to
be decided by the microscope, and by the employment of its highest powers in
alliance with other apparatus of all but equal complexity,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 99

We come, in the second place, to say a word as to the extent of the influence
whieh organic and living particles, of microscopie minuteness but solid for all that,
have been supposed, and in some instances at least have been proved, to exercise
upon the genesis and genesiology of disease, and so upon the fortunes of our race,
and our means for bettering our condition, and that of our fellows. I need not
refer to Dr. Sanderson’s valuable Report (just published in the Privy Council’s
Medical Officer’s Blue Book, Twelfth Report, 1870, p. 229) upon those contagion
particles which he proposes to call by the convenient name, slightly modified from
‘one inyented by Professor Béchamp, of “ Microzymes;” for Dr. Sanderson is here
to refer to the matter for himself and for us; and when this meeting is over we
shall all do well to lay to heart what he may tell us here and now, and, besides
this, to study his already printed views upon the matter. It may be perhaps my
business to remind you that these views, so far as they are identical with Profes-
sor Halliers’s as to the importance of those most minute of living organisms, the
micrococcus of his nomenclature, the microzymes of Mr. Simon’s Blue Book, were
passed in review as to their botanical correctness by a predecessor of mine in this
honourable office—namely, by the Rev. J. M. Berkeley, at the Meeting held two
years ago at Norwich; and that some of the bearings of the theory and of the
facts, howsoever interpreted, upon the Theory of Evolution, were touched upon by
Dr. Child in his interesting volume of ‘ Physiological Essays,’ p. 148, published last
year. It would not perhaps be exactly my business to express my dissent from
any of these results or views put forward by any of these investigators I haye
mentioned ; but I wish to point out to the general public that none of these in-
quirers would affirm that the agencies shown by them to be potent in the causation
of certain diseases were types and models of the agencies which are, did we but
know it, could we but detect them, potent in the causation of all diseases, Many
diseases, though, possibly enough, not the majority of the strictly infectious dis-
eases, are due to material agents quite distinct in nature from any self-multiplyin
bodies, cytoid or colloid. To say nothing of the effects of certain elements ‘|
elements, it will be recollected, in their singleness and simple atomicity, have, as
the world happens to be constituted and governed, never been honoured with the
office of harbouring life) which when volatized, as mercury, arsenic, and phospho-
rus may be, or indeed which, when simply dissolved, may be most ruinous to life,
there are, I make no doubt, animal poisons produced in and by animals, and acting
upon animal bodies, which are neither organized nor living, neither cytoid nor col-
loid. Dr. Charlton Bastian is not likely to underrate the importance of such agents,
howsoever produced, in the economy, or rather in the waste, of Nature; yet from
his very careful record of his own very closely observed and personal experience
we can gather that he would not demur to conceding that non-vitalized, however
much animalized, exhalations may be only too powerful in producing attacks, and
those sudden and violent and fever-like attacks, of disease. Dr. Bastian tells us
(Phil. Trans. for 1866, vol. 196, pt. ii. pp. 583, 584) that whensoever he employed
himself in the dissection of a particular nematoid worm, the Ascaris megalocephala,
he found occasion to observe, and that in himself, and very closely, the genesiology
of a spasmodic and catarrhal affection, not unlike hay-fever as it seems to me, but
under circumstances which appear to preclude the possibility of any living organisms
being the cause of it as they have been supposed, and by no less an authority than
Helmholtz, to be of the malady just mentioned. For in Dr. Bastian’s case this
affection was produced, not only when the Ascaris megalocephala was dissected when
fresh, but ‘after it had been preserved tm methylated spirit for two years, and
even then macerated in a solution of chloride of lime for several howrs before tt was sub=_
mitted to examination.” Could any microzyme or megalozyme have survived such
an amount of antizymotic treatment—such a pickling as this? This is not exactly
a medical association, and I have entered upon this discussion not altogether with-
out a wish to show how subjects of apparently the most purely scientific and spe=
cial interest, as Mycology and Helminthology (the natural history, that is to
say, and the morphology of the lowest plants and of the lowest Vermes), may,
when we least expect it, come or be brought to bear upon matters of the most
immediate and pressing practical importance. And in this spirit I must say a
word upon the way in which the pathology of snake-bites bears upon he matters

100 ‘REPORT—1870.

I have been speaking of, and the extent of the debt which practical men owe to
such societies as our Ray Society, and to such publications as their colossal
volume on the snakes of India, in which Dr. Giinther’s views as to the real
history of the striking and terrible yet instructive phenomena alluded to are
combined (‘Reptiles of British India,’ Ray Society, 1864, p. 167). That the
snake-poison is an animal poison is plain enough; that it is fatal to men and
animals everybody knows; but I rather think that these two facts relative to
it are not equally notorious, rich in light though they be, viz. that the po-
tency of this particular animal poison varies in direct ratio to the quantity
imbibed or infused, just as though it were so much alcohol, or so much
alcoholic tincture of musk or cantharides; or secondly, that its potency varies
in direct ratio to another varying standard, viz. the size of the animal pro-
ducing it. Now the vaccine matter from the arm of a child is as potent
as the vaccine matter from the arm of any giant would be; and whether
a grain or a gramme of it be used will make no difference, so long as it be
used rightly. There is a contrast, indeed, between the modus operandi of
these two animal poisons. I would add that in the ‘ Edinburgh Monthly
Medical Journal’ for the present month there is a very valuable paper, one
of a series of papers, indeed, of the like character, by Dr. Fayrer, where at
page 247, among much of anatomical and other interest, I find the following
important statement :—“This poison may be diluted with water, or even am-
monia or alcohol, without destroying its deadly properties. It may be kept for
months or years, dried between slips of glass, and still retain its virulence. It is
capable of absorption through delicate membranes, and therefore it cannot be ap-
plied to any mucous surfaces, though no doubt its virulence is much diminished by
endosmosis*. It appears to act by a catalytic form ; that is, it kills by some occult
influence on the nerve centres.” There is such a thing as an ignorance which is
wiser than knowledge, for the time, of course, only; such an ignorance is wisely
confessed to in these words of Dr. Fayrer’s. An explanation may be true for
some, yet not thereby necessarily for all, the facts within even a single sphere of
study; even a true explanation may have,but a very limited application, as a tan-
gent cannot touch a circle at more than a single point. The memoirs published in
our own reports by Dr. R. W. Richardson, on the action of the nitrites, and those
published by Dr. A. Crum Brown and Dr. Fraser, there and elsewhere, on the con-
nexion between chemical constitution and physiological action, deserve especial
study as bearing on the other side of this discussion ; whilst Prof. Lister's papers
show how the reference of certain diseases to vitalistic agencies may become of
most vital importance in practice. There exists, as is well known, a tendency to
resolve all physiological into physico-chemical phenomena: undoubtedly many
have been, and some more may still remain to be, so resolved ; but the public may
rest assured that in the kingdom of Biology no desire for a rectification of frontiers
will ever be called out by any such attempts at, or successes in the way of, en-
croachment ; and that where physics and chemistry can show that physico-chemi-
cal agencies are sufficient to account for the phenomena, there their claim upon
the territory will be acceded to, as in the cases we have been glancing at; and
where such claims cannot be established and fail to come up to the quantitative
requirements of strict science, as in the cases of continuous and of discontinuous
development or self-multiplication of a contagious germ, and in some others, they
will be disallowed.

Pathology has of late made a return to Physiology for much service she has
received, and this in the following directions. Dr. W. Ogle has thrown much
light on the physiology of the cervical sympathetic nervous system by his record
of a pathological history to be found in the recently issued volume (vol. lii.) of the
‘Medico-Chirurgical Transactions.’ The rough and cruel experimentation of war
has had its vivisections utilized for the elucidation of the physiology of nerves,
and especially of their trophic function, in the valuable volume issued by the
American Sanitary Commission, under the editorship of Dr. Austin Flint. Dr.
Broadbent has done something towards elucidating the question of the localization

* Diapedesis may account for what virulence remains, and the poison may therefore pos-
sibly be a cytoid.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 101

of functions in particular parts of the cerebral convolutions, which was so exten-
sively and so very exhaustively discussed at Norwich, by his paper in our most
useful and comprehensive ‘Cambridge and Edinburgh Journal of Anatomy and
Physiology,’ May 1870, “On the Cerebral Convolutions of a Deaf and Dumb
Woman.’

I take this opportunity of mentioning two valuable papers on the very practical
— of the influence of the vagus upon the heart’s action. One of these is a

erman paper by a gentleman who is a zoologist and comparative anatomist as
well as a physiologist, Dr. A. B. Meyer; “ Das Hemmungsnerven-System des Her-
zens ” is the title of his memoir, a separate publication as I think: the other is an
abstract of a paper [I have not seen the paper published in extenso as yet] by Dr.
Rutherford, ‘On the Influence of the Vagus upon the Vascular System,” published
in the journal just referred to. Especially do I think Dr. Rutherford’s view as to
the vagus acting centrifugally as regards the stomach, and carrying stimulus, not
thither but thence, to the medulla oblongata, which stimulus is then radiated
downwards by a route formed distally by the splanchnic nerve, so as to produce
inhibitory vascular dilatation in the neighbourhood of the peptic cells, as worthy
of attention *.

A considerable number of the papers which will be read before this Section,
indeed a considerable part of the Section itself, will be devoted to the Natural
History of Man. Nothing, I apprehend, is more distinctive of the present phase
of that “proper study of mankind” than the now accomplished formation of a
close alliance between the students of archeology strict and proper and the
biologist with the express purpose of jointly occupying and cultivating that vast
territory. Literature and art and the products of the arts furnish each their
data to the ethnologist and anthropologist in addition to those which it is the
business of the anatomist, the physiologist, the paleontologist, and the phy-
sical geographer to be acquainted with; nor can any conclusion attained to by
following up any single one of those lines of investigation be considered as definitely
absolved from the condition of the provisional until it has been shown that it can
never be put into opposition with any conclusion legitimately arrived at along
any other of the routes specified. In political alliances the shortcomings of one
party necessarily hamper and check the advance of the other; a failure in the
means or in the perseverance of one party may bring the joint enterprise to a pre-
mature close ; mutual forbearance, not to dwell longer upon extreme cases, may
finally be as effectual in slackening progress as even mutual jealousies. No such
disadvantages attach themselves to the alliance of literature with science, as the
German ‘ Archiv fiir Anthropologie,’ issued to the world under the joint manage-
ment of Ecker the biologist and Lindenschmit the antiquarian, will show any one
who consults its pages, replete with many-sided but not superficial, multifarious
but never inaccurate, information.

The antiquary is a little prone, if he will allow me to say so, when left alone, to
make himself but a connoisseur; the historian, whilst striving to avoid the Scylla
of judicial dulness, slides into the Charybdis of political partisanship; and the
biologist not rarely shows himself a little cold to matters of moral and social in-
terest whilst absorbed in the enthusiasm of speciality. The combination of minds
varying in bent is found efficacious in correcting these aberrations ; and by this com-
bination we obtain that white and dry light which is so comforting to the eye of
the truth-loving student, to say nothing as to its being so much stronger than the
coloured rays which the work of one isolated student may sometimes have cast
upon it from the work of another. It would be invidious to speculate, and I
have forborne from suggesting whether the literary contingent in the conquering
though composite army has learnt more from observation of the methods and evo-
lutions of the scientific contingent, or the scientific more from the observation
of the literary; it is, however, neither invidious nor superfluous to congratulate
the general public upon the necessity which these, like other allies, have been re-

* Since writing as above I have seen, but have not read, a paper by Dr. Coats in Lud-
wig’s “ Arbeiten aus der physiologischen Anstalt zu Leipzig” for the present year, which
would seem to treat of this subject. The Wiirtzburg Physiological Laboratory Reports for
1867-68 contain, as is well known, a series of papers upon it.

102 REPORT—1870.

duced to, of adopting one common code of signals, and discarding the exclusive
use of their several and distinctive technicalities. Subjects of a universal in-
terest have thus come to be treated, and that by persons now amongst us, in a
language universally “ understanded of the people.” I have been careful to include
the paleontologist amongst the scientific specialists whose peculiar researches
have cast a helpful and indeed an indispensable light upon the history of the fates
and fortunes of our species. But it is not organic science only which anthropology
impresses into its service; and it would be the sheerest ingratitude to forget the
help which the mineralogist gives us in assigning the source whence the jade celt
has come or could come, or to omit an acknowledgment of the toil of the analytical
chemist, who has given the percentage of the tin in the bronze celt, or in the so-
called “leaden” and therefore Roman coffin.

T am very well aware that many persons who have honoured me by listening to
the last few sentences have been thinking that it is at least premature to attempt
to harmonize the two classes of evidence in question ; and that the best advice that
can be given to the two set of workers severally is, that they should work inde-
apne of each other. Craniography is said, and by irrefragable authority, to

e a most deceptive guide; works and articles on ethnology tell us stories of skulls
being labelled, even in museums of the first order of merit, with such Janus-like
tickets as “Etruscan Tyrol or Inca Peruvian;” and one of the most celebrated
anthropotomists of the day has been so impressed with the fact that Peruvian as
well as Javanese and Ethiopian skulls may be found on living shoulders within the
ee of a single German university town, that he has busied himself with

orming a pseudo-typieal ethnological series from the source and area just indi-
cated. Great has been the scandal thence accruing to craniography, and the col-
lector of skulls has thence come to be looked upon as a dilettante with singular
ghoul-like propensities, which are pardonable only because they relate only to savage
races of modern days, or to cemeteries several hundred years old, but which are not
to be regarded as being seriously scientific. Now to me the existence of such a
way of estimating such a work appears to argue a sad amount of ignorance of the
laws of the logic of practical life, or, indeed, of the chapters on “ approximate
generalizations,” which any man, however unpractical, can read in a treatise on
logic. A man’s features and physiognomy are instinctively and intuitively, or, if
you prefer so to put it, as a result of the accumulated social experiences of gene-
rations of men, taken as a more or less valuable and trustworthy indication of his
character; were this not so, photographers would not, as I apprehend, and hope
they do, make fortunes; yet the face is at least as often fallacious as an index of
the mind as the skull is fallacious as an index of race. The story of the miscon-
ception by a physiognomist of the character of Socrates is familiar to us, as I think,
from Lempriére’s Dictionary ; and it may serve to parallel the story which Blumen-
bach and Tilesius tell us of the exact correspondence of the proportions of a skull
from Nukahiva with those of the Apollo Belvidere. The living faces in a gaol,
again, to put the same argument upon other grounds, are as dangerous to judge
from as are the skulls in a museum; yet every detective is something like a pro-
fessor of physiognomy, and most of them could write a good commentary on Lava-
ter. The true state of the case may, perhaps, be represented thus :—A person who
has had a large series of crania through his hands, of the authenticity of which, as
to place and data, he has himself had evidence, might express himself, perhaps,
somewhat to the following effect if he were asked whether he had gathered from
his examination of such a series any confidence as to his power of referring to, or
excluding from, any such series any skull which he had not seen before. He
might say, “the human, like other highly organized types of life, admits of great
variety; aberrant forms arise, even in our own species, under conditions of the
greatest uniformity possible to humanity: amongst savages great variety exists
(see Bates, ‘ Naturalist on the Amazons,’ ii. p. 129), even though they all of them
may live the same ‘dull grey life’ and die the same ‘apathetic end; and conse-
quently it may never, except in the case of Australian or Esquimaux, and perhaps
a few other crania, be quite safe to pledge one’s self as to the nationality of a single
skull, Still there is such a thing as craniographical type ; and if half a dozen sets,
consisting of ten crania apiece, each assortment having been taken from the ceme-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 103

teries of some well-marked nationality, were set before me, I would venture to say,
after consultation and comparison, that it might be possible to show that unassisted
cranioscopy, if not invariably right, even under such favourable circumstances, was
nevertheless not wrong in a very large number of cases.” If it is true on the one
hand that in generalibus latet error, it is true on the other that security is given us
by the examination of large numbers for the accuracy and reliability of our averages,
a principle which Gratiolet informs us is thoroughly recognized in Chinese meta-
onli and which he has formulated in the following words :— L’invariabilité dans
e milieu s’applique 4 tout. La verité n’est point dans un seul fait mais dans tous
les faits; elle est dans les moyennes, c’est-a-dire dans une suite d’abstractions
formulées aprés le plus grand nombre d’observations possibles.”’ (Mémoire sur
les Plis cérébraux, p. 93). The natural-history sciences do not usually admit
of the strictness which says that an exception, so far from proving a rule, proves
it to be a bad one; rather are we wise in saying that in them at least the univer-
sality of assertion is in an inverse ratio to that of knowledge, and that the sweep-
ing statements dear, as Aristotle long ago remarked (Rhetoric, ii. 21.9 & 10;
ii. 22. 1), to a class which he contrasts with the educated, are abhorrent to the
mind of organic nature, It is true enough, as is sometimes said, that when
opinions and assertions are always hedged in by qualifications, the style becomes
embarrassed, and the meaning occasionally hard to be understood; but this diffi-
culty is one which lies in the very nature of the case, and the real excellence of
style does not consist in its lulling the attention and relieving the memory by
throwing an alliterative ring on to the ear, but in the furnishing a closely fitting
dress to thought, and an accurate representation of actual fact.

If we are told that the attempt to harmonize the results, not merely of cranio-
scopy, but of any and all natural-science investigation, with the results of literary
and linguistic research, is needless and even futile, this is simply equivalent to say-
ing that one or other of these methods is worthless. For as Truth is one, if two
routes purporting both alike to lead to it do not sooner or later converge and har-
monize, this can only be because one or other of them fails to impinge upon the
goal. It is true that by certain lines of investigation light is thrown upon a pro-
blem only at a single point, and that all further prosecution of investigation along
that line will but ised us off at a tangent. Still the throwing of even a single
ray upon a dark surface is an achievement with a value of its own; and it is a
cardinal rule in our sciences never to ignore the existence of seemingly contradic-
tory data, in whatsoever quarter they may show themselves. For what would be
said of an investigator of a subject such as physical geography, who should declare
that he would pay no attention except to a single set of data, when he was discus-
sing whether a particular archipelago had been formed by upheaval, or should be
held to be the fragments and remnants of a disrupted continent; and that if
geological evidence was in crying discord with his interpretation of the facts
of the distribution of species, it was not his business to reconcile them. He
would be held to have neglected his business, as you may see by a reference to
Mr. Bentham’s Address to the Linnean Society, May 24, 1869 (Linn. Soe. Proc.
for 1869, p. xcii *).

The argument from identity of customs and practices to identity of race is liable
to much the same objections and to much the same fallacies as is the argument
from identity of cranial conformation. The case may be found admirably stated
in Mr. Tylor’s work on the ‘Early History of Mankind,’ p. 276, ed. 2; and I may
say that the means of bringing the problem home to one’s self may be found by a
visit to any collection of flint implements. In such a collection, as Mr. Tylor has
pointed out, p. 205, we are very soon impressed with the marked uniformity which
characterizes these implements, whether modern or thousands of years old, whe-
ther found on this side of the world or the other. For example, a flint arrow-head

* The following references to passages of the kind referred to above as to the untrust-
worthiness of craniographical evidence may be useful :—Geographisches Jahrbuch, 1866,
p. 481. Hyrtl, Topograph. Anatomie, i. p.13. Henle, System. Anat.i.198. Krause, i. 2,
p- 251. Archiv fiir Anthropologie, Holder, idid. ii. 1, p. 60. See also Hisand Riitimeyer, and
Hicker in their systematic works severally, the ‘Crania Helvetica’ and the ‘ Crania Ger-
maniz meridionalis.’

104 REPORT—1870.

which came into my hands a short time back, through the kindness of Lord Antrim,
after having done duty in these iron times as a charm at the bottom of a water-tub
for cattle in Ireland, was pointed out or at to me by a very distinguished Canadian
naturalist, who was visiting Oxford the other day, as being closely similar to the
weapons manufactured by the Canadian Indians. Now after such an experience
one may do well to ask in Mr. Tylor’s words (‘ Karly History,’ p. 206) :—

“ How, then, is this remarkable uniformity to be explained? The principle that
man does the same thing under the same circumstances will account for much, but
it is very doubtful whether it can be stretched far enough to account for even the
greater proportion of the facts in question. The other side of the argument is, of
course, that resemblance is due to connexion, and the truth is made up of the two,
though in what proportions we do not know. It may be that, though the problem
is too obscure to be worked out alone, the uniformity of development in difierent
regions of the Stone age may some day be successfully brought in with other lines
of argument, based on deep-lying agreements in culture which tend to centralize
the early history of races of very unlike appearances, and living in widely distant
ages and countries.”

If the psychological identity of our species may explain the identity of certain
customs, its physiological identity may explain certain others. Some of this latter
class are of a curious kind, and relate not to matters of social or family, but to
matters of purely personal and individual interest, concerning as they do the sen-
sibility, and with it all the other functions of the living body. Such customs are
the wearing of labrets or lip-rings, nose-rings, and, if I may add itjwithout offence,
of certain other rings inserted in the wide region supplied by the fifth or trifacial
nerve*, A physiological explanation may lie at the base of these practices, which
appear to put at the disposal of the persons who adopt them a perennial means for
setting up an irritation, whence reflex consequences in the course of reflex nutrition
and reflex secretion, as of gastric juice, may flow. A curious book was written, or
at least published, on the subject of these practices, and others akin to them, in
1653, by Dr. John Bulwer, a benevolent doctor, who paid attention to the care of
the deaf and dumb previously, I think it is stated, to Dr. Wallis, and who conse-
quently, with proper pride, if this precedence really belongs to him, signs himself
«J. B, cognomento Chirosophus.”” The title of the book is ‘‘ Anthropometamor-
phosis; Man Transformed, or the Artificial Changeling.” I was made acquainted
with its existence by my friend Mr. Tomlinson, of Worcester College, from the li-
brary of which Society Iprocured a copy for consultation: the book is not rare I think,
but I think it is little known; it contains much that is curious, and it is, masmuch
as it was written more than 200 years ago, 67 dxnparos jv ere Aeiwov, from some,
though not from all points of view, the more valuable. It is, I apprehend, to some
of these customs, as well as to others, that Zimmermann (not the author of the work
on Solitude, but Zimmermann the zoologist) alludes in a rather amusing passage,
which may be found in the third volume of his larger work on the Distribution of
Species and on Zoology (see p. 257). I speak of the passage as amusing; it is
more than that, or I would not quote it; indeed you will not see that it is parti-
cularly amusing unless I tell you that volumes ii. and iii. are of date 1783, and are
dedicated to his own father, whilst volume i., of date 1778, is dedicated to “ His
Most Serene Highness and Lord, Ferdinand Duke of Brunswick, my Most Gracious
Lord.” Its quality of amusingness depends upon these dates, and the speculations
they set us to make as to how the Serene Ditea: his “ Most Gracious Lord,” had
offended the man of science in the interval between 1778 and 1783. It runs
thus :— If you argue from similarity of customs and ceremonies to identity of
origin of two tribes under comparison, you must first show that these customs are
not such as would naturally tend to the amelioration of the conditions of the in-
habitants in the two countries under consideration, and would probably therefore,
or can naturally, suggest themselves to each of the races in question. Or there may
be customs founded on innate folly and stupidity, and thus, for your argument to
be valid, you must show that of two peoples widely separated, each cannot by any
chance come into its own country to adopt the like foolish and stupid customs,
For whilst two wise heads are to make out, each independently of the other and

* See ‘ Medicine in Modern Times,’ p. 57.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 105

contemporaneously, a wise discovery or invention, it is much more likely on the
calculation of chances, and considering the much greater number of fools and
blockheads (‘Thoren und Dummko6pfen’), that in two countries widely apart
closely similar follies should be simultaneously invented. And then, if the invent-
ing fool happens to be a man of influence and consideration, which is, by the way,
an exceedingly frequent coincidence, both the nations are likely to adopt the same
foolish practice, and the historian and antiquarian, after the lapse of some cen-
turies, is likely to draw from this coincidence the conclusion that the two nations
both sprang from the same stock.” Judge and speculate for yourselves how the
spirit which breathes in this passage was excited, but note its scientific value too.

e must not forget that it is possible, in thought, at least, to dissociate the psy-
chological unity of man from his specific identity even; and that, as regards iden-
tity of race, it is only reasonable to expect that when similar needs are pressing,
similar means for meeting them are not unlikely to be devised independently by
members of two tribes who have for ages been separated from their original stocks.
The question to be asked is, does the contrivance about which we are speculating
combine, or does it not combine in itself so large a number of converging adapta-
tions as to render it upon the calculation of chances unlikely that it should have
been independently invented? Yet this very obvious principle has been neglected,
or Lindenschmit would not have found it necessary to say that, by laying too much
stress upon certain points of national identity in the stones used for the formation
of cromlechs or dolmens, the Hiinenvolk might be made out to have chosen to
settle only in those parts of Germany where erratic blocks of granite or other such
large stones could be found! (Archiv fiir Anthropologie, iii. p. 115, 1868).

Sir John Lubbock’s recently published work on ‘The Origin of Civilization’
may, I anticipate, cause the history and genealogy of manners and customs to enter
largely into the composition of our lists of papers. There is no need for me, as
the author of the book is here himself to speak, as announced, for himself, to occupy
your time in recommending his work; but I may be allowed to say that the utility
of such pursuits as those which Sir John Lubbock’s book treats of receives some
little illustration from the fact that, as we learn from him and from Mr. Tylor, the
human mind blunders and errs and deceives itself in these subjects in just the same
way as it does in the kindred, though more immediately arising, pressing, and im-
portant matters of social and political life. In these latter spheres of observation
we are apt occasionally to mistake one of those intermittent reactions of opinion,
produced as eddies are produced in a river by the deposit of sand and mud at an-
gles in its onward course, for a deliberate giving up of the principles upon which
all previous progress has been dependent. The straws which float upon the surface
of a backwater may be taken as proofs that the river is about to flow upwards, and
a feeble oarsman in a light boat may be deceived for some moments by the back-
ward drifting of his small craft. Now an analogous blunder is often made in mat-
ters of purely historical interest; and we may do well to learn from the experience
thus cheaply earned. “ The history of the human race has,” says Sir J. Lubbock,
p. 322, /.c., “I feel satisfied, on the whole been one of progress: I do not of course
mean to say that every race is necessarily advancing ; on the contrary, most of the
lower are almost stationary :” but Sir John’regards these as exceptional instances,
and points out that if the past history of man had been one of deterioration, we
have but a groundless expectation of future improvement ; whilst on the other, if
the past has been one of progress, we may fairly hope that the future will be so
also.

Mr. Tylor’s words are equally to the el ae though, as forming the end of a
chapter merely and not the end of a book, they are less enthusiastic in tone
(p. 198, Tylor, ‘ Early History of Mankind’). They run thus :—

“To judge from experience, it would seem that the world, when it has once got
a firmer grasp of new knowledge or a new art, is very loath to lose it altogether,
especially when it relates to matters important to man in general, for the conduct
of his daily life, and the satisfaction of his daily wants, things that come home to
men’s ‘business and bosoms.’ An inspection of the geographical distribution of
art and knowledge among mankind seems to give some grounds for the belief
that the history of the lower races, as of the higher, is not the, history of a course

106 REPORT—1870.

of degeneration or even of equal oscillations to and fro, but of a movement which,
in spite of frequent stops and relapses, has on the whole been forward ; that there
a beet from age to age a growth in man’s power over nature, which no degrad-
ing influences have been able permanently to check.”
must not trespass into the province of the botanist, but I should be glad to
say that no easier method of learning how the natural-history sciences can be made
to bear upon the history of man, as a whole, can be devised than that furnished by
the perusal of such memoirs as those of Unger’s upon the plants used for food by
man. The very heading and title of the paper I am specially referring to appears
to me to have an ambiguity about it which, in itself, is not a little instructive. In
that title, ‘ Botanische Streifziige auf dem Gebiete der Cultur-Geschichte,” the
latter word may be taken, I imagine, etymologically at least, to refer either to cul-
ture proper, or to floriculture, or to agriculture. At any rate, the paper itself
may be read in the Sitzungsberichte of the Vienna Academy for 1859; it has, I
suppose, superseded the interesting chapters in Link’s ‘Urwelt und Alterthum,’
of date 1821; and it is not unlikely, I apprehend, to be itself, in its turn, super-
seded also.
Coming, in the third place, to Zoology, I suppose I shall be justified in saying
that the largest issue which has been raised in the current year, an issue for the
examination of the data for deciding which the two months of July and Aueust
which are just past may have furnished persons now present with opportunities,
is the question of the kinship of the Ascidians to the Vertebrata. There is or
was nothing better established till the appearance of Kowalewsky’s paper, now
about four years ago, than the existence of a wide gulf between the two great
divisions of the animal kingdom, the Vertebrata and the Invertebrata: nothing
could be more revolutionary than the views which would obviously rise out of his
facts; and within the present year these facts have been abundantly confirmed by
Prof. Kupfer, whose very clearly written and beautifully illustrated paper has just
appeared in the current number of Schultze’s ‘ Archiv fiir microscopische Ana-
tomie.’ Kupfer’s researches have been carried on upon Ascidia canina; but they
more than confirm the accuracy of what Kowalewsky had stated to take place in
Ascidia mammiilata, and which may be summed up briefly thus :—In the larval
Ascidian we have in its caudal appendages an axis skeleton clearly analogous, if
not essentially homologous, to the chorda dorsalis of the vertebrate embryo, as con-
sisting, like it, of rows of internally placed cells, and giving insertion by its sheath
to muscles. We have further the nervous system and the digestive taking up in
such embryos much the same positions relatively to each other, and to this mol-
lusean chorda dorsalis, that are taken up by the confessedly homologous system in
the Vertebrata; we have the nervous system originating in the same fashion and
closing up like the vertebrate myelencephalon out of the early form of a lamellar
furrow into that of a closed tube; we have, finally, the respiratory and digestive
inlets holding the vertebrate relationship of continuity with, instead of the inver-
tebrate of dislocation and separation from, each other. Such are the facts; but I
am not convinced that they will bear the interpretation that has been put upon
them; though I must say the possession of this chorda dorsalis by the active loco-
motor larva of the Ascidian which one day settles down into such immobility
lends not a little probability to Mr. Herbert Spencer’s view of the genesis of the
_ segmented vertebral column in animals undoubtedly vertebrate. But on this view
I should not be inconsistent with myself, inasmuch as, to waive other considera-
tions, the chorda dorsalis in each case would be considered as an adaptive or teleo-
logical modification, not a sign of morphological kinship*. Much perplexity may
or must arise here; and whilst entertaining these views, I felt cape bound to ex-
amine myself strictly to find whether in not taking them up, I might not be giving
way to that reactionary reluctance to accept new ideas which advancing years so
frequently bring with them; but a recent paper, by Lacaze-Duthiers, published in
the ‘Comptes Rendus’ for May 30, 1870, and translated in the ‘Annals and Magazine
of Natural History’ for July 1870, would justify me, I think, in calling that reluc-
* See, however, Mr. Herbert Spencer’s Appendix D to his principles of Biology, pt. iv.

chap. xvi. This appendix was printed in 1865, but not published till December 1869. I
had not seen it when I wrote as above.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 107

tance by another name. For in that paper the renowned malacologist just men-
tioned has brought to light the fact that there is another sessile and solitary Asci-
dian, the Molgula tubulosa, which goes through no such tadpole-like stage as had
been supposed to be gone through by all Ascidians except the Salpz, which is
never active and never puts out the activity which is so remarkable in the other
Ascidians, but settles down and remains sedentary immediately after it is set free
from the ege-capsula, neither enjoying a Wanderjahr nor possessing a chorda dor=
salis. We are not surprised after this that M. Lacaze-Duthiers observes that
“although embryology may and must furnish valuable information by itself, it may
also, in some cases, lead us into the gravest errors.” Mr, Hancock, of Neweastle-
upon-Tyne, has sent us a paper upon this subject, which will be read duly and
duly noted by us.

Leaving Malacology, which has not in the United Kingdom obtained the same
hold as yet upon the public mind that it has on the Continent, where, like Ento-
mology, there and here, it has a periodical or two devoted to the recording of the
discoveries of its votaries, I haye much pleasure in directing attention to two short
papers by Siebold in the ‘ Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Zoologie’ (xx. 2, 1870), on
parthenogenesis in Polistes gallica y. diadema, ana on predogenesis in the Streps?-
ptera, In each of these short papers Siebold informs us that adequate room and
time could not be given them in the Innsbruck meeting held just a year ago, or in
the report of the meeting. It is to me a matter of difficulty to think what there
could have been of greater value than those papers in a section of Wissenschaftliche
Zoologie; it will be to all present a matter of congratulation to learn, from the
venerable professor’s papers, that he will shortly favour us with a new work on the
subject of parthenogenesis. A fresh instance of parthenogenesis in Diptera, viz. in
Chironomus, has just been put upon record in the St. Petersburg Imperial Academy’s
Memoirs (xv. 8, January 13, 1870).

The subject of the geographical distribution of the various forms of vegetable
and animal life over the surface of the globe, and in the various media, air, earth,
water, fresh and salt, whether deep or shallow, has always been, and will always
remain, one of the most interesting subsections of biology. It was the contempla-
tion of a simple case of geographical distribution in the Galapagos archipelago
which brought the author of the ‘Origin of Species’ face to face with the pro-
blem which the title of his work embodies; and it is impossible that sets of ana-
logous and of more complicated facts (many of which, be it recollected, such as
the combination now being effected between our own fauna and flora and those
of Australia and New Zealand, are patent to the observations of the least obsery-
ing) should not, since the appearance of that book, force the serious consideration
of the explanation it offers upon the thoughts of all who think at all. The won-
ders of the deep-sea fauna will, I apprehend, form one, the commensalism of
Professor Van Beneden another, subject of discussion, and furnish an opportunity for
receiving instruction to all of us. The one set of observations is a striking exem-
plification of the way in which organisms have become suited to inorganic environ-
ments ; the other is an all but equally striking exemplification of the way in which
organisms can fit and adapt themselves to each other. The current journals have’,
as was their duty, made us acquainted with what has been done in both of these
directions ; and 1 am happy to say that in the case of the deep-sea explorations, as
in that of parthenogenesis and spontaneous generation, a new work, giving a
connected and general view of the entire subject, is announced for publication.

One instance of the large proportions of the questions which the facts of geo-
graphical distribution bear upon, is furnished to us in the address recently delivered
before the Geological Society by its president, who is also our president, and who
may have forgotten to refer to his own work (see ‘ Nature,’ No. 24, 1870). Another
may be found in the demonstration which Dr. Giinther, contrary to our ordinaril
taught doctrines, has given us (Zool. Soc. Trans. vol. vi. pt. 7, 1868, p. 807) of the
partial identity of the fish-faunas of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of Central
America; many, thirdly, are furnished to us by Mr. Wallace’s works passim.

It would be superfluous, after introducing even thus hurriedly to your notice so

* See ‘ Nature,’ No. 39, July 28, 1870, and Royal Society’s Proceedings, August 1870, for
deep-sea explorations, and ‘ Academy,’ September 10, 1870, for commensalism.

108 REPORT—1870.

large a series of interesting and important subjects as being subjects with which
we shall forthwith begin to deal in this Section, to say any thing at length as to the
advantages which may reasonably be expected to accrue from the study of Biology.
I may put its claims before you in a rough way by saying that I should be rejoiced
indeed if, when money comes to be granted by the Association for the following up
the various lines of biological research upon which certain of its members are en-
gaged, we could hope to obtain a one hundredth, or I might say a thousandth part
of the amount of money which has in the past year been lost to the State and to
individuals through ignorance or disregard of biological laws now well established.
I need say nothing of the suffering or death which anti-sanitary conditions en-
tail, as surely as, though less palpably and rapidly than, a fire or a battle; and I
might, if there were time for it, take my stand simply upon what is measurable by
money. This I will not do, as it is less pleasant to speak of what has been lost
than of that which has been or may be gained. And of this latter let me speak
in a few words, and under two heads—the intellectual and the moral gains accruing
from a study of the Natural-History Sciences. As to the intellectual gains, the
real psychologist and the true logician know very well that the discourse on method
which comes from a man who is an actual investigator is worthy, even though it be
but short and packed away in an Introduction or an Appendix, or though it cover
but a couple of pages in the middle of a book, like the “ Regul Philosophandi”
of Newton, more than whole columns of the “ Sophistical Dialectic” of the ancient
Schoolman and his modern followers. “If you wish your son to become a logi-
cian,” said Johnson, “let him study Chillingworth”—meaning thereby that real
vital knowledge of the art and science can arise only out of the practice of reason-
ing; and as to the value of actual experimentation as a qualification for writing
about method, Claude Bernard and Berthelot are, and I trust will long remain,
living examples of what Descartes and Pascal, their fellow-countrymen, are illus-
trious departed examples. (See Janet, ‘Revue de deux Mondes,’ tome lxii. p. 910,
1866.

I oe on now to say a word on the working of natural-science studies upon the
faculty of attention, the faculty which has very often and very truly been spoken
of as forming the connecting-link between the intellectual and the moral elements
of our immaterial nature. I am able to illustrate their beneficial working in pro-
ducing carefulness and in enforcing perseverance, by a story turning upon the use
of, or rather upon the need for, a word. Von Baer, now the Nestor of biologists,
after a long argumentation (Mém. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Pétersbourg, 1859, p. 340)
of the value which characterizes his argumentations generally, as to the affinities of
certain oceanic races, proceeds to consider how it is that certain of his predecessors
in that sphere, or, rather, in that hemisphere, as Mr. Wallace has taught us Oceania
is very nearly, had so lamentably failed in attaining or coming anywhere near to
the truth. This failure is ascribed to something which he calls “ Ungenirtheit,” a
word which you will not find in a German dictionary, the thing itself not being,
Von Baer says, German either. I am happy not to be able to find an exact equi-
valent for this word in any single English vocable ; the opposite quality shows it-
self in facing conscientiously ‘‘the drudgery of details, without which drudgery,”
Dr. Temple tells us (Nine Schools Commission Report, vol. ii. p. 311), “nothing
worth doing was ever yet done.” Mr. Mill, I would add, speaks to the same effect,
and even more appositely, as far as our purpose and our vocations are concerned, in
his wise Inaugural Address at St. Andrews, p. 50. For the utter incompatibility of
an dtadaimepos (yTnots (these two words give a Thucydidean rendering of “ Un-
genirtheit””) with the successful investigation of natural problems, I would refer
any man of thought, even though he be not a biologist, to a consideration of the
way in which problems as simple at first sight as the question of the feeding or
non-feeding of the salmon in fresh water (see Dr. McIntosh, Linn. Soe. Proe. vii.
p. 148), or that of the agencies whereby certain mollusks and annelids bore their
way into wood, clay, or rocks, must be investigated. It is easy to gather from such
a consideration how severe are the requirements made by natural-science investi-
gations upon the liveliness and continuousness with which we must keep our
faculty of attention at work.

I shall speak of but one of the many purely moral benefits which may be rea-

:
%
j

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 109

sonably regarded either as the fruit of a devotion to or as a preliminary to success
in natural science. Of this I will speak in the words of Helmholtz, taking those
words from a report of them as spoken at the meeting of the German Association
for the Advancement of Science, which was held last year at Innsbruck. There
Professor Helmholtz, in speaking of the distinctive characteristics of German
scientific men, and of their truthfulness in particular, is reported to have used the
following words :—“ Es hat diesen Vorzug auch wesentlich zu verdanken der Sttten-
strenge und der uneigennutzige Begeisterung welche die Manner der Wissenschaft
beherrscht und beseelt hat, und welche sie nicht gekehrt hat an dussere Vortheile
und gesellschaftliche Meinungen.” These words are, I think, to the effect that the
characteristics in question are in reality to be ascribed to the severe sinwplicity of
manners and to the absence of a spirit of self-seeking;which form the guiding and
inspiring principles of their men of science, and prevent them from giving them-
selyes up to the pursuit of mere worldly advantages, and from paying undue homage
to the prejudices of society. I think Stttenstrenge may be considered as more or
less adequately rendered by the words severe simplicity of manners ; at any rate, as
things are known by their opposites, let me say that it is the exact contradictory
of that ‘ profound idleness and luxuriousness”’ which, we are told by an excellent
authority (the Rey. Mark Pattison, “Suggestions on Academie Organization,”
P. 241),—for whose accuracy I would vouch in this matter were there any need so to

0,—*‘ have corrupted the nature” of a large class of young men amongst ourselves ;
whilst the absence of a spirit of self-sceking is, in its turn, the contradictory of a cer-
tain character which Mr. Mill (/. c. p. 90) has said to be one of the commonest
amongst us adults, and to which Mr. Matthew Arnold has assigned the very con-
venient epithet of “ Philistine.” Investigation as to whether these undesirable
tendencies are really becoming more rife amongst us, might be carried on with
advantage in a place such as this, in the way of inquiries addressed to colonists
returning home after a successful sojourn abroad. Such persons are able to note
differences without prejudice, and, ex hypothesi, with unjaundiced eyes, which we
are apt to overlook, as they may have grown up gradually and slowly. But, per-
haps, researches of this kind are not quite precisely the particular kind of investi-
gation with which we should busy ourselves; neither would the leaders of fashion,
the persons with whom all the responsibility for this illimitable mischief rests, be
very likely to listen to any statistics of ours, their ears being filled with very dif-
ferent sounds from any that, as I hope, will ever come from Section D. Whether
men of science in England are more or less amenable to blame in this matter than
the rest of their countrymen, it does not become us to say; but it does become and
concern us to recollect that we have particular and special reasons, and those not
far to seek, nor dependent on authority alone, for believing and acting upon the be-
lief that real success in our course of life is incompatible with a spirit of self-seek-
ing and with habits of even refined self-indulgence.

Borany anp Zoonoey.

On the Effects of the Pollution of Rivers on the Supply of Fish.
By Colonel Sir James Avexanper, K.C.L.S.

Note on the Changes produced in Lotus corniculatus by Cultivation.
By Prof. T. C. Arcurr, F.R.S.EZ.

During a late visit to the Shetland Islands, my attention was called to a singu-
lar transformation produced by giving greenhouse cultivation to the hardy and
beautiful Lotus corniculatus so common in our fields.

_ One of the most agreeable spots in the Shetland Islands is that on which the
interesting garden and hospitable mansion of Miss Mowatt is situate on the south
side of the island of Bressay. The garden is especially interesting; for in it the

110 REPORT—1870.

triumph of genius over natural difficulties is constantly shown, in the unremitting
exertions of the fair proprietor to cultivate all the plants capable of introduc-
tion, and also the native plants which, with care, conduce to the beauty of the
astures.

? Amongst other familiar denizens of the hill-side, the Z. corniculatus has been
a favourite for pot-culture with Miss Mowatt, who has found a very remark+
able change to take place in that plant under cultivation in her greenhouse.
From being procumbent and herbaceous, the stems become erect and woody, rising
in the largest plant I saw to the height of something over 3 feet; the wood of
the stem ‘being extremely hard, approaching that of the Medicago arborea found
in Italy, whilst the leaflets are increased from the usual number of five to seven.
These shrubby plants, from all I could ascertain, are easily propagated by cuttings,
but do not bear seed. They are, however, valued as evergreen window-plants ;
and I saw several so cultivated in Lerwick, all derived from Miss Mowatt’s plants
iu Bressay.

On the Osteology of Chlamydophorus truncatus. By Epwarp Arxtyson, 7.L.8.

A fine male specimen of this little Edentate, now nearly extinct in its sole ha-
bitat (Mendoza, Argent. Rep. 8. A.), having been presented to the Philosophical
and Literary Society of Leeds, has afforded a rare op pamnunity for reviewing and
correcting the published accounts of its osteology. The adult animal is barely
5 inches in length.

Reference was made to its bibliography from Dr, Harlan, of Philadelphia
(1825), to Prof. Hyrtl, of Vienna (1855), and Dr. Gray (1865).

Head.—The general conformation of the head is very remarkable, differing from
all other Edentates in its relative dimensions, and excelling all its congeners both
in altitude and in breadth, as compared with length.

Lower jaw has pachydermatous characters, e. g. its great depth, perpendicular
ramus, rounded angle, and the shortness of its coronoid process as compared with
the condyloid; yet it bears a resemblance to the jaw of the insectivorous Ma-
croscelides, which has also a short coronoid.

Ear.—The external ear is unique in structure. There is no pinna; but a flat-
tened and ossified acoustic tube, analogous to the meatus auditorius externus, ex-
tends from the tympanic bulla for a length of 4 lines, ascending over the zygoma,
and terminating close to the eye by a delicate cup-like cartilaginous concha, which
is protected and concealed by the fur just below the overhanging chlamys.

Scapula.—The shoulder-blade differs in form from all the Kdentata, is curved
downwards to a sharp point like a pruning-hook, has its dorsal surface divided by
two spines into three nearly equal portions (as in Cholepus). The upper spine sup-
ports an enormously long acromion.

Sternum.—The manubrium and first mesosternal bone have a sharp crest or
keel, a vestige of a bird-like structure seen in a less degree in Cholepus and Dasy-
pus, and in the “interclavicle” of Ornithorhynchus. This feature, however, in
Chlamydophorus, taken together with the ribs, which are ossified in front and arti-
culated in the middle, is more ornithic than in either of these animals.

Pelvis—Anomalous in all its parts. The pubis is open in front, as in the Sloths
and the Shrews, but walle dae more than in either.

The spheroma, or bony pelvic shield, which forms the characteristic truncated
extremity of the body, is formed by the confluence of the tubera ischii, and
strengthened by bony buttresses from the sacrum. The structure of this mar-
vellous development was described in detail. It has no analogy to the cutaneous
skeleton in the Armadillos proper; for in these the bony plates are never united
to the pelvis or other normal parts of the skeleton by a true synostosis,

Dentition.— Ch. truncatus is a true homodont, with eight grinders on either side
of both maxilla and mandible. They are slightly curved, so that each tooth,
taken together with its antagonist, describes an arc of 25° with the conyexity for-
wards. The first tooth of the lower jaw has no opponent, and therefore no masti-
catory surface. The eighth upper tooth is also without an antagonist, but, unlike
its analogue in front, it has a double facet,

(Aare

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 111

Mode of gait.—From various considerations it seems probable that Chlamydo-
phorus, like Myrmecophaga jubata and Manis, walks on the back of its fore feet.
This is inferred partly from the worn dorsal aspect of the strongly flexed toes,
partly from the soft fur which clothes the radial half of the palm, but chiefly from
the remarkable development of the palmaris longus muscle and the connexions of
the palmar fascia.

Note on Pleuronema doliarium, a new Infusorium. By Joun Barker, M.D.

9g = rotoseor Van BENEDEN exhibited a species of Echinorhynchus lent by Dr. John
rker,

Sur les Parasites. Par Prof. Van Benepen.

....+,. On 4 souvent désigné a tort sous le nom de parasites, des animaux qui ne
demandent 4 leur voisin qu'un gite pour s’abriter, une place pour vivre plus &
Vaise. Ils ne vivent pas aux dépens de leur yoisin, et comme ils mangent sou-
vent en commun, puisant au méme plat, ils méritent plutét le nom de commensaux.
C’est ainsi que les Pinnathéres vivent dans les Moules, les Adamsia & cété des
Paguses, les Myriastomes sur les Comatules. Il y en a parmi eux qui renoncent
complétement & leur liberté, commes les Coronula ou les Tubicinella des Baleines ;
ce sont des Dikasites; d’autres conservent toujours leur liberté, comme les Pin-
nathéres que nous citons plus haut; ce sont des Coinosites. ;

Les parasites véritables se répartissent également en diverses catégories ; les uns

hantent passagérement leur hote, ne logent jamais que dans les organes les plus

éloignés, et sans communication avec l’extérieur; ce sont des Xenosites, Ils sont
colloqués dans une cellule comme des prisonniers ou des fous, et ne peuvent
songer aux soins de la famille. Comme les Cysticerques ils sont tous agames. Ls
sont installés chez leur voisin comme une marchandise de transit.

Les autres sont arrivés au terme de leur voyage, s’établissent dans des organes
ouverts, sur le passage des vivres, et s’occupent des soins de la reproduction: ce
sont les Distomes et les Cestoides. Ils ont cessé de passer de l’un hotel & autre,
et vivent en famille chez eux. On peut leur donner le nom de Nostosites.

Enfin il en a qui s’égarent en route sans espoir d’arriver au terme du voyage,
et que le hasard seul pourrait remettre sur le bon chemin; tels sont par exemple
les vers vésiculaires et agames qui vont se loger dans les chairs d’un carnassier; ce
sont les Planosites.

On Protandry and Protogyny in British Plants.
By Atrrep W. Bennurt, WA., B.Sc., F.LS.

That self-fertilization is the rule rather than the exception even in hermaphro-
dite plants, has been recently admitted by most botanists. This may be effected
either by the phenomena of dimorphism and trimorphism, by the fact that in the
same flower the pistil and the stamens arrive at maturity at different periods, or
by special contrivances for facilitating the carrying of the pollen by insects from
one flower to another. This paper was devoted to illustrations from common
British wild flowers of the second of these sets of phenomena, a number of in-
stances being described in which the pistil ripens before the stamens (protogyny),
the stamens before the pistil (protandry), and in which the two organs arrive at
maturity at nearly the same period (synacmy).

On some Hybrid Sphingide and other Lepidoptera. By Evwtyx Brrcewart..

The hybrid moths were produced by the union of Smerinthus ocellatus, 3, with
Smerinthus populi, 2. The larvee were barely distinguishable from those of Sme-

112 REPORT—-1870.

rinthus populi, and append healthy: but there must have been constitutional
weakness, for of 16 which assumed the pupa state, only 6 produced moths; of
these, 3 were males, 2 females, and 1 hermaphrodite.

In form and colouring the influence of the female parent predominates in all the
specimens, one only having the margin of the wings strongly denticulated, as in
S. ocellatus. In the hermaphrodite specimen the right antenna is pectinated, and
the whole of the right side of the insect presents the characters of S. ocellatus, the
male parent, whilst the left or female side*differs from an ordinary 2 S. populi
only by a little more brilliancy of colour. The generative organs are much dis-
torted, and there were no ova in the abdomen.

The author also exhibited a series of Hadena assimilis, Doubleday, taken
during the present summer in Scotland. This insect (possibly one of the forms of
Crymodes exulis, Guenée) is interesting as a cireumpolar species, found abundantly
in Lapland, Iceland, and Labrador; Scotland seems to be the southern limit of its
distribution. It is extremely variable, no less than 16 forms having received dis-
tinguishing names; and Dr. Staudinger states that out of 400 examples from Ice-
land and 20 from Greenland, in his possession, there were scarcely two alike. Only
the variety assimilis has yet been observed in the British Islands.

Dr. Staudinger has described a larva as that of Crymodes exulis in the ‘ Stettiner
entomologische Zeitung’ for July 1857, p. 238, which has also been figured in
Milliére’s ‘Iconographie.’ In its habits and structure, this larva resembles He-
amialus rather than one of the Hadenide; and as it is not clear that Crymodes
exulis was actually reared from it, the author thinks it probable some mistake has
occurred, and that we are still ignorant of the early stages of the insect.

On the Steypireyor Whale of the Icelanders. By Henry Brrp.

The Steypireyor of the Icelanders is identical with the Balenoptera Sibbaldii of
Gray, the Rorqual of the Norwegians, and the Sulphur-bottom of the Americans.

Its average size is about 85 feet long, and 12 feet to 15 feet diameter in the
thick part of the body; it frequently, however, attains greater proportions: one
was caught off Iceland in 1866, having a length of 110 feet. They have been
estimated to weigh upwards of 200 tons—about the weight of 3000 men. I have
seen a foetal whale webech weighed 1740 lbs., and measured 18 feet 13 inch long.

The colour of the Steypirey6r over the back and greater portion of the body is
black, the chest and under parts being marked with greyish-white streaks, which
sometimes incline to yellow. They are occasionally seen of a red colour, but this
is owing to a red slime that covers the skin; this slime washes off after death.
Such red whales are invariably very fat.

That part of the skin or blubber situated under the throat is divided into pecu-
liar folds or wrinkles, which run longitudinally from the front of the jaw to the
umbilicus. They reach in height to the top of the pectoral fin, and are eighty-
two in number. This folded blubber is called Rungi by the Icelanders.

The form of the Steypireyor is the very ideal of symmetry ; to compare it to that
of other whales, it is what a fine clipper vessel is to a mud-barge ; consequently
it is capable of great speed. In their respirations they “blow” four or five times
at each rising, and then dive for ten or fifteen minutes.

In sleeping, they float almost motionless on the water, breathing or spouting
feebly at regular intervals; when I have so seen them, they have been in pairs,
and invariably lying side by side, the head of one to the tail of the other, I
presume for protection.

The blubber is 6 or 8 inches in thickness, and that from a good whale will
contain 100 barrels of oil. It is a common error to suppose that this oily covering
acts the part of a blanket for preserving the animal heat, at least so far as regards
the oil, for oil is‘ a good conductor of heat. It is a significant fact bearing on
this point that the blubber of a mature foetal whale I examined did not contain
a trace of oil. Its real use, then, is as a storehouse capable of containing a vast
supply of food.

The following is, I consider, rather an interesting fact: I found the oil con-
tained in the blubber off the throat and tongue was nearly pure oleine, while that

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 113

from elsewhere contained 10 per cent. stearine. It is easy to imagine the effect
that would be produced had the oil from these parts been of similar character to
that from the rest of the body, they being so peculiarly exposed to the action of
cold; for, on the animal going into freezing water, they (the throat &c.) would
become so rigid as to cause it serious inconvenience, if not to endanger its life. I
think the fact above observed likely to be of practical value to whalers; I would
recommend them to keep the blubber from the afore-mentioned parts separate,
limpid oil being more valuable than thick.

Specific gravity of oil from throat Ke. ..... seen ee ielegn O2a7o
Ditto from other parts of the body ........sseecscccccoes 926-4
Average analysis of good blubber-oil......... cece ees sine 20
Dry gelatine, fibrine, &c........... pan bee pia jatoueieys seve tae) De
ETM eral cik’s piaceie pains «ih & Ras w'v'a:o/ 6 vince, 2) alle nite gato 26:5

100-0

In the spring, and also from the end of June to September, the Steypireyor is
to be seen in great numbers off the east coast of Iceland; but up to the last few
years “itt have never been hunted, as their capture was considered a matter of
considerable difficulty and danger, owing to their great swiftness and supposed
ferocity. They have generally been accredited with very murderous propensities,
and with the habit of attacking and smashing the boats of the whalers; but this
is a pure error: I have assisted in the capture of a large number, and they have in-
variably shown a timid and inoffensive disposition. The reason that they have
been accused of such malignity of character has, I think, arisen through several
accidents having occurred in consequence of their having been attacked with the
ordinary harpoon in mistake for the Greenland whale, when, on feeling its sting,
owing to their great strength and beautiful proportions, they are enabled to dive
with such velocity as frequently to drag boat and crew under water.

They are exceedingly fond of each other; when one of a family is wounded,
the others, perfectly regardless of their own danger, will remain by it until it
dies. I saw one cow whale behave in such an extraordinary manner after her calf
had been killed, that I concluded she had gone mad.

These whales are now captured by means of an implement termed a rocket-
harpoon. This weapon is fired from a kind of gun or tube which is balanced on
the shoulder of the harpoonsman: on its entering the whale, a shell with which it
is armed explodes, and, provided the rocket has been well-aimed, causes instant
death. ‘The shell contains a bursting-charge of one pound of gunpowder.

Notes on Brackish-water Foraminifera. By Henry B. Bravy, F.L.S., F.GS.

The Rhizopoda of thirty-two brackish localities, comprising river-estuaries and
lagoons at various portions of the British coast and the “ Broads,” “ Meres,” &c,
of the Eastern Counties, had been examined, and the following conclusions drawn
from the results :—

1, The different types of Foraminifera possess variable powers of accommodating
themselves to decreased salinity of the water.

Of the forty-four reputed genera constituting the British marine rhizopod-fauna,
only twelve are entirely absent from the brackish gatherings. Seven others
may be regarded as only accidentally present and not at home in subsaline
waters. Of the remaining twenty-five, seven, viz. Cornuspira, Cristellarta, Poly-
morphina, Globigerina, Textularia, and Patellina, have considerable adaptive power,
but brackish specimens are invariably small and thin-shelled; they do not
occur where the admixture of fresh water is very great. The genus Lagena is
abundant in such localities, together with Bulinuna (B. ovata), Planorbulina (P.
mediterranensis), and Discorbina (D. globularis and D. rosacea). Lastly, a number
of genera flourish in pools which at times contain only traces of saline constituents,
viz. Quingueloculina, Trochammina, Lituola, Truncatulina, Rotalia, Polystomella, and
Nonionina. Specimens of Polystomella striatopunctata and Nonionina depressula had
been found in fresh water.

1870. 8

114 REPORT—1870.

2. The living Foraminifera of the fens may be compared with their immediate
predecessors in point of time by the examination of the bed of clay underlying the
peat throughout the district. Out of forty-one specific and varietal forms found
subfossilized in the clay, twenty have survived the changes in the physical aspects
of the country ; no fresh type has appeared, and the few varieties which now exist,
not present in the clay, generally represent depauperated conditions of certain of
the older types.

5. Decreased salinity of water tends to produce certain changes in the characters
of the Rhizopoda, especially in the nature of their investment. This is chiefly
dependent on the deficiency of calcareous matter, Thus J/iliola (normally porcel-
lanous) and Trochammina (normally arenaceous) are represented in brackish water
by forms having a keratose investment, which is scarcely altered by treatment with
strong acids. In other genera the deficiency of mineral constituents causes thinning
of the shell-wall.

Some species, notably Wontonina depressula and Polystomella striatopunctata, are
often of a green colour when living in pools where the admixture of fresh water is
considerable ; and it was stated, under reserve, that there were indications that the
colouring-matter;might be chlorophyll.

4, Two species of Foraminifera hitherto undescribed are amongst the commonest
of brackish Rhizopoda, viz. Quingueloculina fusca and Trochammina macrescens*.

Eight species not before recorded from British localities had been found in the
brackish gatherings, viz.— Quinqueloculina Candeiana, D’Orb., Lagena Lyellit, Seg.,
Denialina guttifera, D’Orb., Marginulina glabra, D’Orb., Textularia globulosa, Ehrenb.,
Gaudryina pupoides, D’Orb., Verneuilina spinulosa, Reuss, and Bolivina plicata, D’Orb.

On the Terrestrial and Marine Fauna of the Strait of Magellan and Western
Patagonia. By Rozerr O, Cunninenam, V.D., F.L.S.

The author, after briefly adverting to the climate and physical features of the
above regions, made some remarks on the distribution of the classes, genera, and
species of the animals occurring therein, mentioning some of the more remarkable
facts observed by him. Beginning with the Mammalia, the existence of the puma
(Felis concolor), two species of ox, a Mephitis or skunk, an otter, the sea-lion
( Otaria jubata), the fur-seal (Arctocephalus falklandicus), the guanaco, a species of
deer, and a variety of Rodents were recorded from the Strait. No Marsupials
were met with in Patagonia proper, but a small opossum (Didelphis elegans) not
uncommon in the neighbourhood of Concepcion occurred in the island of Chiloe.
More than eighty species of birds were procured in the Strait of Magellan and on
the western coast of the continent as far north as Chiloe. The Raptores comprised
two species of Vulturide (the turkey-buzzard and the condor), seven species of
Falconde, and four of Strigide. Among the more interesting of the remaining
land-birds enumerated were a humming-bird, a paraquet, and two species of
woodpecker, In speaking of the water-fowl, some of the more remarkable breed-
ing-stations of these birds were pointed out ona coloured chart of the Strait, certain
of which had been observed by the old voyagers of the Elizabethan age. But one
true reptile, a small lizard (Ptygoderus pectinatus), was recorded from the Strait of
Magellan; but on the west coast of Patagonia Amphibia were found as far south as
lat. 51°, and these consisted of two species,—one, the Hylodes leptopus, discovered
by Mr. Darwin at Valdivia; and the other the type of a new genus named by Dr.
Ginther Naunnophryne. About twenty species of fish were obtained ; and of these,
seven were members of the family Trachinide, and representatives of the genera
Amphritis, Chenichthys, Eleginus, Notothenia, and Harpagifer. Reference was
made to two new genera, @, e. Maynea (family Lycodide), and Psammobatis (family
Raiad), The Inyertebrata were then passed in review, and the more interesting
forms remarked on. Regarded as a whole, the fauna of the Strait and Western
Patagonia appears to belong to the Chilian type.

* These have since been described and figured in the ‘ Annals of Natural History’ for
October 1870.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 115

Note on the Embryo of the Date-Palm. By Prof. Arexanprr Dickson, M.D.

On the Foundation of Zoological Stations. By Dr. Anton Donrn.

_ Dr. Dohrn gave an account of his exertions in Naples to construct a large
huilding close to the sea, containing waste aquariums, extensive laboratories, and
observatories, a scientific library, and whatever belonged to the practical pursuit
of marine zoology. He asked the moral assistance of the British Association for
overcoming some possible resistance at Naples, as the place for the establishment
was to be had only by cession of territory of the Villa Reale, the celebrated
park of the city of Naples.

_ He added remarks on the importance of zoological stations in other parts of
the world, and said that his scheme was worked out with the view of facilitating
the foundation of such stations.

On the Habits of the Indian Rock-snake (Python molurus).
By Sir Watrer Exttot, F.Z.S.

The Rock-snake (Python molurus, L.) inhabits the whole of India, but prefers
the dense forests clothing the base of the mountain-chains and extending, accordin
to Mr. Swinhoe, even to China, In these haunts it attains its greatest size; an
the statements made relative to its bulk and power of swallowing its prey, current
among the natives, require to be carefully scrutinized, and only received with the
greatest caution. Credible instances have been related by Capt. (afterwards Sir)
Murray Maxwell of a specimen on board the ‘ Alceste ’ which swallowed a goat, the
horns of which were seen distending the skin for many days afterwards. Lord
Walden, President of the Zoological Society (when Lord Arthur Hay), described,
in the ‘Madras Journal of Literature and Science,’ an individual 17 feet long
which had swallowed a gravid axis deer. The case which I wish now to mention
rests entirely on native testimony ; but it was carefully sifted and tested by a very
competent judge, the late Sir Mark Cabbon, K.C.B., Commissioner for the kingdom
of Mysore. A Parsi merchant whom he had long known as a contractor for the
commissariat when he (General Cabbon) was Commissary-General, called on him
at Bungalore in 1835 or 1836, and in course of conversation mentioned that on
landing at Coompta, from Bombay a few days before, on the Malabar coast, he had
seen a rock-snake that had just been killed, having swallowed a bison (Bos gaurus).
Although his informant was a person deserving of credit, the General determined
to investigate the matter fully, and sent for the evidence of the most respectable
eye-witnesses and who appeared most trustworthy. The sum of their testimony
showed that the snake had been upwards of 30 feet long, that it had swallowed a
young bison cow with the horns fully developed, and that it had been so completely
gorged in consequence, that it had been unable to retire to its lair, which led to its
discovery and easy destruction. The relation is given for what it is worth. It rests
on what is allowed to be a sufficient amount of evidence for the establishment of a
matter of fact, viz. the concurring testimony of a large number of eye-witnesses,
recorded with care immediately after the event.

A specimen 1] feet long, kept in captivity for several days, showed no fear of man,
It tried to seize fowls, dogs, &c. which approached it, but was checked by the rope
which confined it. When the cord was lengthened it used to glide perpendicularly
with the greatest ease up the smooth stem of a tamarind-tree near which it was
picketed, and lie all day coiled ona branch. At length, wishing to destroy it, the
basket in which it was secured at night was sunk for 36 hours in the river; but on
being taken out it was found to be as lively as ever. Duméril and Bibron, how-
eyer, state that all the Pythonide are aquatic in their habits, and P. molurus the
most so; but its continued vitality after such prolonged immersion shows it to be
amphibious.

Abnormal Petals on Flowers of Ranunculus aquatilis. By Tuomas Grzson.

A clump covering some 6 or 8 feet in diameter, showing from 150 to 200 full-
blown flowers, the principal part of which were beneath the surface, at depths
g*

116 REPORT—1870,

yarying from a few inches to a foot or more, was discovered in a pit. The water
was about 4 feet deep and quite clear, and gave full effect to the splendid array of
such very unusual flowers.

When the stem is cut and left in the water, the petals of flowers which blow on
the detached branch are not inflated, and are in form and size like those produced
by Ranunculus petalus-floribundus, being broader and shorter, and haying the nec-
tary much more produced than those of 2. heterophyllus.

It has no floating leaves, and its capillary or submerged ones are quite rigid, and
having the peduncle opposite on a stem which is rather slender, very hollow, of a
whitish-green colour, and semitransparent. The stipules are like those produced
by Ranunculus heterophyllus.

The author has paid great attention to this Ranunculus each year, and has found
abundance of flowers; but only a small portion of them with inflated petals, and
those generally under water and always without a calyx.

After studying the habits of this curious plant carefully for the last five sum-
mers, he has come to the conclusion that it is capable of making a great effort to
extricate itself when the water suddenly becomes too deep for it ; and so, just asa
man who had fallen into the deep would throw off his coat and his shoes to enable
him to keep his head above water, this little plant, when in like difficulty, throws
off its calyx and inflates its petals to enable it to reach the surface and there per-
form its usual functions in the sunshine in its usual way. ~

In 1865 there had been a heavy and rather sudden fall of rain, and the pit was
much fuller of water than usual, which fully accounts for the great number of in-
flated flowers which were to be seen at that time.

Parasitic Habits of Pyrola rotundifolia. By Taomas Grason.

During a few months’ residence at Southport in the summer of 1869, the author
spent some time and labour with a view of clearing up a difficulty respecting this
plant, some naturalists considering it to be a pace, while others hold the oppo-
site opinion. He examined a large number of roots, but failed to find any situation
where the Dwarf Willow (Salix repens) was not in company with the Pyrola, the
roots being frequently so matted together as to render it almost impossible to sepa-
rate them.

The long stoloniferous root of the Pyrola differs from the root of any other plant
which has come under the author’s notice. It is smooth, of a yellowish-white
colour, and about one line or the tenth of an inch in thickness; it runs underground
at from 2 to 3 inches below the surface, and threads its way amongst the roots of
other plants for yards together, throwing off at various distances others, which,
after threading their way for some distance, generally terminate by sending a
young plant to the surface ; the root-stock still proceeding and frequently making a
turn almost at right angles, especially where it comes in contact with the root of
Salix repens, the vicinity of which it never leaves.

Clumps of the Pyrola covering a piece of* ground were frequently found several
yards in circumference, which was evidently all growing from one underground
root-stock or stolon. This root-stock sent out at intervals on the underside little
tufts of small fibrous roots, of a dark but bright claret-colour, which contrasted
beautifully with the white stolon out of which they grew. The roots of the Dwarf
Willow are much thicker than those of the Pyrola, very woody, and of a light
brown colour. Out of these roots there also grew at various distances little tufts of
claret-coloured fibre, so like those which spring from the root-stock of the Pyrola,
both in colour, shape, and size, that it was impossible to find a difference even with
a good lens. These tufts of fibre, so much alike in both plants, were frequently
matted together in sucha manner as to render it almost impossible to separate them
without breaking either one or the other.

Only one instance was found where the two plants were in actual contact with
each other. One of the lateral shoots from the stolon of the Pyrola had penetrated
the root of the Willow and stuck fast init. The root was about the thickness ofa
good-sized office pencil, and in a state of decay. Whether that decay was caused
by the root of the Pyrola sucking the sap, and so causing the death of the plant, or

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ‘LEZ

whether its being in a state of decay, and of course soft, was the cause of the Pyrola
entering ; the author is inclined to think that the former was the case, and that for
three reasons :—

Ist. It had evidently been in contact some time, because the side shoot of the
Pyrola had attained the full thickness of the parent root, which is not usually the
case with the lateral shoots.

2nd. The white shoot, after entering the Willow, had become of the same brown
colour, and the two roots were so incorporated together that it was impossible to
say for a certainty where the one ended and the other began.

3rd. That the root did not go through the Willow, and so proceed on its way, as
in all probability it would have done had the Willow been soft with decay when
the Pyrola entered.

The author concludes that the two plants have a kind of sympathy for each
other; and if it does not amount to the Pyrola being a parasite on the Willow, it
certainly must have some mysterious affinity for it. He has found Orobanche
hedere with much less proximity to the Ivy than the disputed plants are to each
other, and has also seen Monotropa hypopitys with no appearance of parasitic habits,
and yet all naturalists believe these plants to be parasites.

Now, except it can be disproved by its habits and associations in localities which
he has not yet had the opportunity of studying, the author must conclude the
Pyrola to be a parasite upon the Willow.

On the Vegetable Products of Central Africa. By Col. J. A. Grant, FR.GS.
[For an abstract of this paper, see Appendix. |

Notes on the Whalebone- Whales of the Southern Hemisphere,
By Dr. J. BE. Gray, FBS.

[Printed in an extended form as the “Geographical Distribution of the Cetacea,” in
the ‘Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist.’ November 1870.]

On the Portuguese Globular Anchor-Sponge (Pheronema Grayi).
By Dr. J. E. Gray, FB.

[Printed zz eatenso in the ‘ Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ October 1870.]

On the Abnormal Growth of Ferns. By Townsarnv M, Hatt, GS.

Tn this communication the author gave some results of his observations with
reference to the increasing prevalence of abnormal structures amongst certain
species of ferns in the south-west of England, but especially in Devonshire. He
stated that his remarks did not in any way relate to the variations of ferns which
had been subjected to artificial treatment under cultivation, but simply to the
changes which appeared to have taken place during the last few years amongst
those commoner species which abound in every wood and hedge-row. rom the
profusion in which they grow in the south-west of England, there are several
species which may be looked upon as affording an excellent indication of that
change, which, whether it may be called development, or whether it be considered
retrogression, is so rapidly effecting an alteration amongst this tribe of plants.

Of the various species of ferns, the Scolopendrium vulgare appears to have been
amongst the first to assume bifid and multifid forms, and so rapidly have they
increased, either by sowing the spores or by inoculation, that there are now many
localities where plants bearing abnormal fronds are the rule instead of the excep-
tion. Other common forms of this fern are the crisped and crested, narrow and
ramose ; all showing, however, the marked tendency of the species to depart from
its normal structure. ;

Many other ferns, such as the following, haye also recently appeared in the De-
yonshire lanes with bifurcated leaves :—

118 REPORT—1870.

Polypodium vulgare(common polypody). Asplenium adiantum-nigrum (black

Lastrea filix-mas (male fern), spleenwort).

Pteris aquilina (brake fern). Asplenium trichomanes (wall spleen-
Blechnum boreale (hard fern). wort).

Polystichum angulare (shield fern). Osmunda regalis (royal fern).

Athyrium felix-feemina (lady fern).

The abnormal growth of several of the above-named ferns is by no means con-
stant; although under cultivation some of the variations of Lastrea filix-mas,
Polypodium vulgare, and Polystichum angulare may be not only retained, but also
improved upon. As an illustration of this the author mentioned a plant of Poly-
stichum angulare, which he transplanted from a neighbouring lane into his fernery
a few years ago, when it had only two or three fronds which were bifurcated, the
remaining leaves being in their normal condition. Within twelve months all the
fronds became bifurcated, and the succeeding year brought them out with a thickly
crested multifid termination ; whilst at the same time a fresh element of variation
appeared in the bifurcation of each of the pinnz or side leaves. In another season
the pinnze also had become crested, and so the whole plant has gone on, becoming
more and more divided and subdivided, until all its original character has passed
away; and the twenty-nine fronds of which the plant at present consists, and which
ought of course in a normal state to have only as many terminations, have now
become multiplied to such an extent that on the smallest and least crested of all
the fronds may be reckoned no less than 157 small but well-defined terminations,
whilst some of the larger leaves have upwards of double that number. During all
this time the plant had never been moved or meddled with in any way, and the
only attention it received was an occasional watering during the spring and whilst
the fronds were sprouting out.

The fern which, in its natural state, is at the present time undergoing the greatest
amount of change is the Plerts aquilina, or common brake. The observations of
the bifid and multifid forms of this species were said to date from five years ago;
up to which time the author knew of only one loeality where an abnormal plant
could be met with. Now the variations have increased to such an enormous ex-
tent that even in this short space of time this species bids fair to outstrip Scolopen-
drium vulgare in its race towards what, in strict botanical language, would perhaps
be called “ teratological metamorphosis.”

The warm and moist climate of the south-west of England and the corresponding
portion of Ireland appears more especially favourable to the growth of such ferns
as have a tendency to depart from their original and recognized type; whilst, on
the other hand, in the drier atmosphere of France and Italy, Spain and Switzerland,
it was noticed that the ferns did not seem to have reached an equally advanced
stage of abnormal growth. This question of geographical distribution was one of
considerable importance, and as such was deserving of a full investigation.

In conclusion, the author said that the change now taking place so extensively
amongst the Cryptogamia deserved to be especially observed, because it appeared to
be a change of comparatively recent date. As far as he was aware, no instance of
a fern with an abnormal growth had hitherto been noticed amongst the fossilized
remains of the Old Red Sandstone, or in the still more luxuriant and diverse flora
of the Carboniferous period, or even in any of the Mesozoic strata,—lower, middle,
or upper; whilst, advancing a step further into the recent period, it was remarked
that up to the time of De Candolle there was scarcely a botanist who had made
any investigations in this department of botanical science.

Note on the Larval State of Molgula, with Descriptions of several new Species
of simple Ascidians. By Aupany Hancock, F.L.S.

The author of this paper shows that in two members of the genus Molgula the
usual tadpole-like larva is developed, notwithstanding M. Lacaze-Duthier’s recent
discovery, that in a certain species stated to belong to this genus there is no such
tadpole-larva, but that the young on escaping from the egg is a comparatively
inactive Ameeba-like creature, There is some probability, however, that the

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 119

species examined by this distinguished foreign naturalist belongs to another genus.
Should this prove to be the case, the interest of his discovery will not be lessened
on that account, as it would seem to establish the fact that the tadpole-larva con-
dition is non-essential in the development of the Tunicata, and may have important
influence on the doctrine of Kowaleysky respecting the relationship of the Tunicata
to the Vertebrata.

The paper concludes with the description of two new genera, namely Coredla and
Bugyra, and nineteen new species of simple Ascidians.

On the relations of Penicillium, Torula, and Bacterium.
By Professor T. H. Huxtny, ZL.D., VRS.

On a Pentacrinus (P. Wyville-Thomsoni) from the Coasts of Spain and
Portugal. By J. Gwxn Jurrreys, F.RS.

During the recent deep-sea exploring expedition in H.M.S. ‘ Porcupine’ Mr.
Jeffreys dredged, at a depth of 795 fathoms, between Vigo and Lisbon, specimens
-of a fine Pentacrinus, about a foot long. Associated with it were Leda obtusa and
other arctic species of Mollusca, besides several kinds of simple and compound
Corals and Hydrozoa. The tentacles or arms of the same species of Pextacrinus
were afterwards taken by the dredge, in 364 fathoms, near the entrance to Cadiz
Bay. In the latter dredging the Mollusca were mostly of a southern character, but
included Verticordia acuticostata (a crag and Sicilian fossil, as well as living in the
Japanese sea) and a few northern species, such as Plewrotoma turricula and Trochus
amabilis, There were likewise some remarkable and apparently new Echinoderms,
Corals, and Hydrozoa. This was stated by the author to be the first instance of a
true Pentacrinus having been found in the European seas. Two species inhabit the
West Indies, viz. the well-known P. caput-medusa and P. Miilleri. The species
now exhibited had evidently not been attached at its base, which is quite regular
and free, although it was imbedded in sandy mud, with the lowermost cirri serving
to keep the Pentacrinus in an upright position, like the horizontal and spreading
roots of a fir tree.

On an existing Favositoid Coral*. By W. Savitte Kenr.

Tn this communication the author gave a description of an existing coral closely
allied to the Paleozoic genus Favosites, which he last year discovered among the
collection of Madrepores contained in the Paris Museum. Unfortunately no record
of the habitat of this interesting form has been preserved, though, at the same time,
its recent origin is undoubted. The author has proposed to distinguish this form
by the name of Favositipora Deshayesii. The author pointed out its close affi-
nities to Alveopora, an existing genus common throughout the Red and Eastern
seas, and from which it differed only in its possession of irregulary disposed, but
perfectly developed tabule. Through Koninckia, a coral of the Cretaceous forma-
tion, it is immediately allied to the Paleozoic genus Favosites; and he aifirmed to
haying recently discovered among the collection of fossil corals contained in the
British Museum a form having no history attached to it, but undoubtedly referable
to the American Devonian or Carboniferous deposits, in no way differing generi-
cally from the existing coral in the Paris Museum. He distinguishes this species
by the name of Favosttipora paleozoica. The author regarded the structure of F.
Deshayesii as strong evidence in refutation of the theory advocated by Professor
Agassiz, “that all the tabulate corals are to be referred to the Hydrozoa,” its near
ally Alveopora being such a well-known Actinozoon. He also expressed his
opinion that no septate coral could justifiably be referred to that lower group,—
septa being essentially intermesenteric developments, which could consequently be
possessed by Actinozoa alone.

The author likewise referred to this form as bearing out his opinion that the

__™* This coral is figured and fully described in the ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural
History’ for November 1870. : Ms ;

120 REPORT—1870.

corals of the Paleozoic epoch were as highly organized as those peopling the ex-
isting seas. As he had shown, a species generically the same existed at that remote
epoch, associated with members closely allied to Alveopora, but presenting a higher
type of organization in their constant possession of tabule. In the genus Favosites
the author also recognized an immediate connecting-link between the hitherto
presumed distinct sections of the Tabulata and Perforata,

The author exhibited diagrams illustrative of the structure of Favositipora
Deshayesii, and also pike Dia of the original specimens contained in the Paris
Museum, these latter having been prepared for him through the kind courtesy of
Professor Milne-Edwards.

Note on the Affinities of the Sponges to the Corals. Dy W. Savrtie Kenr,

On a Stock-form of the Parasitic Flatworm. By Ki. Ray Lanxesrer.

On Oligochetous Worms. By EB, Ray Lanxester.

Professor M. A. Lawson, M.A., F.L.S., distributed specimens of Ztzbes spicatum
(Robson) which he had found growing in great abundance near Waterstem in
Skye, and pointed out that the fruit-stalks were by no means always erect. He
also drew attention to the excessively thick tomentum with which the leayes were
covered.

On Abnormal Forms of Ferns. By HE. J. Lown, PRS, PLS, PGS.

This isa continuation of a paper read at Dundee. Wild varieties under cultivation
are less permanent than if plants are raised from the spores of their abnormal fronds.
It is possible to divide and subdivide a single frond into endless varieties of form,
and to change the character of their reproductive organs. The fifty illustrations
exhibited tell their own tale, and they are the result of the following experi-
ments :—

1st. Spores were sown from a normal frond, and every plant raised was normal.

2nd. Spores were sown from a normal frond in the same seed from and in equal
proportions with spores from an abnormal frond, and the result was that 90 per cent.
of the plants were abnormal.

8rd. Spores were sown in separate pans from remarkably formed fronds, the
result being plants like the parent from which they were gathered.

4th. Spores were sown from most singular-looking fronds, a dozen varieties
sown together, the result being a large number of remarkable varieties.

5th. Spores were taken from a dozen of these most remarkable seedling forms,
and they were mixed together, the result being even more extraordinary. In this
experiment 4000 plants were raised, of which no two were precisely alike, and not
one was of the normal form.

It has only been by mixing the spores of two or more varieties that the extraor-
dinary forms now exhibited have been obtained. It therefore seems to follow that
spores mixed together produce different varieties to those sown separately.

Report on the Testaceous Mollusca obtained during a Dredging-Excursion in the
Gulf of Suez during the months of February and March 1869. By
Rozrerr M‘Anprew, 2S.

The researches of the author occupied about six weeks, and extended throughout
the Gulf of Suez—from the city of that name at its head to the island of Jubal at
its entrance and Ras Mahommed, the point which separates it from the Gulf of
Akaba. He had the good fortune to enlist Mr. Edward Fielding as a companion,
and engaged the services of M, Susini as an assistant. The expedition was ac-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 121

complished in boats ; but being provided with tents &c., the party was enabled to
spend a few days at numerous stations on the shores, at distances varying from ten
to fifty miles apart.

The total number of species obtained, not including Nudibranchiates, amounted
to about 818, of which 619 have been identified or described. In the list of named
species about 355 were not previously recorded as inhabiting the Red Sea, of which
53, including 3 genera, are new to science.

in a recent work by Professor Issel, 640 species of Mollusca, including Nudi-
branchiates, are enumerated as the total number recorded from the Red Sea
Gincluding some doubtful), of which 191 were collected by himself in the Gulf of
Suez.

The extraordinary dissimilarity between the fauna of the Red Sea and of the
Mediterranean, which has been frequently noticed, appears to be confirmed by
further researches; and although it is remarked by Issel that some of the Suez
species seem to be so nearly related to their representatives in the Mediterranean
and Atlantic that they may easily be supposed to have been originally the same,
and that their distinguishing characters may have been acquired during the series
of ages through which they have been separated, such species compose but a small
percentage of the whole, and it is by no means certain that more remote localities,
such as Japan and Australia, especially the former, do not furnish about as many
examples of relationship to the European fauna.

The most important object of the report was to throw light upon the geographical
distribution of Mollusca ; but for this it would be required to publish at length the
list of the species with the other localities at which they are recorded to have been
found. It would then be shown that the number of Suez species common to Japan,
the Philippine Islands, Australia, the Sandwich Islands, &c., prove a much wider
distribution of the Mollusca of the Pacific and Indian Oceans than of those of the
Atlantic, where the shores of America possess but few species in common with the
coasts of Kurope and West Africa. The fact of a species in several instances having
been obtained from only two localities very remote from each other, such as Suez
and Japan, is a proof of the very small amount of knowledge we possess of the
fauna of the intervening seas.

Preliminary Report on certain Annelids dredged in the Expedition of H.MLS.
‘ Porcupine’ (1869). By W.C. M‘Intosn, W.D., F.LS.

The specimens were chiefly procured from water under 500 fathoms, off the coast
of Ireland. Amongst the few specimens of Nemerteans no new form occurs. The
Annelids are on the whole of a northern type, many of the race haying been pre-
viously procured by Mr. Jeflreys off the Shetland Islands, and well known in the
northern seas generally. There were several new and most interesting species,
including a Sthenelais, a form allied to Leanira, but probably requiring a new genus
for its reception, a Eunice, Nothria, and Chetogone. The Antinoé sarsi of Kinberg
and the Petta pusilla of Malmgren were, besides, added to our fauna,

On the ‘ Mortimer’ Ship-aquarium. By Tuomas J. Moorn.

On Rhinodon typicus, a rare Shark lately added_to the Free Museum, Liverpool,
By Tuomas J. Moors.

On work done by the Mercantile Marine of Liverpool in furtherance of Zoology.
By Tuomas J. Moone.

Exhibition of a remarkable hinged Fish-jaw and of a young Lamantin.,
By Tuomas J. Moors,

122 . , REPORT—1870.

On the Desert Flora of North America. By Dr. C. C. Parry.

The desert-tracts in North America, lying between 32° and 40° north latitude,
comprise a series of interior basins shut in by mountain-barriers from the moist
oceanic currents. These desert-districts, while varying somewhat in their physical
features, owing to differences of elevation or geological structure, are characterized
by an arid climate, scanty rains, and wide extremes of heat and cold, both annual
and diurnal.

In the lowest depressions the local drainage is collected in the form of salt lakes
or wide saline flats, the surplus water being lost by evaporation.

In the desert vegetation there is a marked distinction between the annual and
perennial plants, the former being of slight texture, evanescent, and rapidly matur-
ing, the latter exhibiting scanty foliage, frequent spinescent branches, and large
tap-roots; the leaves are frequently coated with a copious resinous varnish, or
clothed with a dense woolly tomentum, serving in either case to check growth.

The list pibentet to this paper contained 188 species, of which Dicotyledons are
represented by 169 species, included in 48 natural orders and 144 genera. Mono-
cotyledons include 19 species, comprised in 4 natural orders and 10 genera. The
natural order Composite is represented by the largest number of species (44),
nearly one-fourth of the whole. Leguminosz, which includes most of the dwarf
trees and larger shrubs, has 25 species.

On an Ebalia new to the British list. By C. W. Puacu, A.L.S.

The author stated that the Ebalia was dredged by Mr. Jeffreys off Unst, Shet-
land, in 1864, and that it differed from all the other British Zalias known to him,
and then described it as follows:—‘‘ The carapace is pale, with faint whitish-pink
blotches; the slightly raised pink tubercles are surrounded by white rings, giving
the carapace a mottled appearance. The first pair of legs are equal in length, short,
but very broad, the upper edges of the joints arched, with a sharp perfectly smooth
keel. The other feet are slender, faintly granulated, and, in addition, have on the
outer edges strong and long blunt spines; the upper joints have each a single row
of 6 or 7, the two next generally two rows each; the lowest joint pointed and
smooth. These spines on the smaller legs, with the very peculiar form of the
larger ones, are so marked that he felt justified in naming it Ebalia spinosa. Should
it have been found in the Scandinavian seas and described, this name must then be
considered only provisional.”

Notes on the Cuckoo-flower or Lady’s-Smock (Cardamine pratensis).
By Joun Price.

The leaves are, unlike those of other cresses, strictly compound, each leaflet being
jointed, and very apt to drop off without decay or fading. They then act as seeds,
producing one or more little plants, and, like seed-leaves proper, waste away as the
embryo thrives. The terminal leaflet often gives birth to four or five plants; in
one instance nine, in another ten were formed. This also takes place, without de-
tachment or extra moisture, even in the linear leaves high up the flowering stem.
The joints of the short petioles sometimes germinate too after the leaflets have
fallen. From observations without lens (‘‘by the azd of the naked eye,” Archer)
the radicle appears first, as a white thread on the upperside of the leaf, the plu-
mule being at first enclosed in a green transparent vesicle, which bursts like an
ege. The first plant always springs from the depression at the junction of the
leaflet with its petiole, and those on the midrib precede the others, none ever ap-
pearing, as in Bryophyllum, on the outer edge. With this exception, the whole of
the upper surface seems to bristle with life at every point, ready to break out under
favourable circumstances. The phenomena may be promoted, and easily observed,
by laying the leaves, in various postures, on wet blotting-paper, lint, moss, &c. in
a dish, which should be frequently sprinkled with water. A dried specimen of the
whole plant with many leaves germinating, found under the ice, was exhibited *.

* The author would be glad to furnish experimenters with good subjects. Address J8
Watergate Street, Chester, ,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 123

On certain Principles to be observed in the Establishment of a National Museum
of Natural History. By P. L. Scrarer, M.A., PRS.

Tt having been now finally determined that the natural-history collections of the
British Museum shall be removed from their present site to South Kensington, to
form the nucleus of a national museum of natural history *, it appears to me that
the principles upon which the proposed new institution are to be established and
conducted are well worthy of the special and most serious attention of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science. The inauguration ofa National Mu-
seum of Natural History by one of the nations that have contributed most largely
to the advancement of the natural sciences is an event that is not likely to recur
very often. If the opportunity thus presented be properly taken advantage of, and
the new institution started upon sound principles of administration and arrange-
ment, there can be no doubt that a most material impetus will be given to the pro-
egress of natural science in this country.

Under these circumstances I think I need hardly apologize for troubling the Sec-
tion with a few remarks upon certain points which appear to me to be most essen-
tial to be observed in the establishment of a National Museum of Natural History.
These, I trust, will at all events provoke discussion, and induce some of the many
distinguished naturalists present at this Meeting to turn their attention to this most
important subject.

The energies of our rulers, especially in these troubled times, are too fully occu-
pied with ordinary politics to allow them to bestow much care on such a matter,
and unless it be forced on their attention by the British Association, or in some
other authoritative manner, the result will be, I fear, that the system of adminis-
tration now followed in the British Museum as regards the Natural-History collec-
tions will be transplanted along with the collections themselves, and the excellent
- erg of a grand reform, which may never again present itself, will be utterly
wasted T.

The remarks which I propose to offer to the Section on this subject may be
divided into three heads. First, I will say a few words concerning what appears
to me to be the best mode of government of the proposed National Museum of
Natural History; secondly, I will speak of the form of building which in my
opinion ought to be adopted; and lastly of the arrangement of the collections
within that building.

I. Of the form of Government of the National Museum of Natural History.

On this part of my subject I shall make but few remarks, having regard to the
fact that, in common with many other of my fellow naturalists, I strongly com-
mitted myself on this point some years ago, and have in nowise changed my views
since that period. In the memorial, of which I hold a copy in my hands, and which
was presented to the Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1866, having been signed by
25 leading members of the Royal, Linnean, Geological, and Zoological Societies, it
will be found to be stated that in our opinion the chief administration of the Na-
tional Museum of Natural History should be entrusted to one officer, who shall be
immediately responsible to some member of the Government. Those who are ac-
quainted with the present mode of administration of the natural-history collections
in the British Museum will, I am sure, readily agree to this proposed reform. It
will be recollected that the government of the British Museum is vested by Act of

* On the 3rd of August last year a vote of £6000 was proposed in the House of Com-
mons by the Chancellor of the Exchequer to clear the ground “for the erection of a Natural-
History Museum ” on the site of the International Exhibition at South Kensington, and
carried, after a division.

t In the ‘bill to enable the Trustees of the British Museum to remove portions of their
collections,” prepared and brought in by the Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1862, it was
proposed to be enacted that the trustees might remove the natural-history collections to
South Kensington and certain pictures to the National Gallery. But, in a subsequent
clause, it was proposed to be added that “ except in so far as was therein before expressed, no-
thing therein contained should affect the rights, powers, duties, or obligations of the trustees of
the British Museum.” At that time, therefore, it was clearly intended to continue the rule
of the trustees over the natural-history collections when remoyed to South Kensington,

124, REPORT—1870.

Parliament in a body of fifty trustees, consisting principally of great officers of state
and of nominees of certain families whose ancestors have contributed to the hetero-
geneous contents of that building. Amongst these fifty trustees there are but two
or three that are in any wise interested in natural history, Their secretary and
chief executive officer is the present principal librarian, with whose great literary
qualifications for his position every one is well acquainted, but who would not, I
am sure, claim for himself in any sense the name of a naturalist. It will thus be
seen that the actual government of our natural-history collections is at present
vested in persons who have no special qualifications for the task. But, it may be
said, there is the superintendent of the natural-history collections, and the keepers
of the various departments into which they are divided—have they nothing to do
with the administration? To this I reply, very little indeed, unless their advice
is asked, or unless they choose to offer it. And, in the latter case, they can only
address the trustees through the secretary, who is the only official present at the
meetings of the trustees, and in whose hands, therefore, the administration of the
natural-history collections is practically vested. This objectionable form of govern-
ment, we think, ought to be replaced by appointing a director of the proposed new
institution, “immediately responsible to one of the Queen’s ministers.” This simple
form of administration has been most successful in other scientific institutions,
such as the Kew Gardens and Herbarium and the Royal Observatory, and we be-
lieve it would be the best in the present case. It might, however, be advisable to
give the director of the National Museum of Natural History a board of advice,
composed of the heads of the principal departments into which the Museum is
divided. Or another mode of softening the despotism would be to appoint a board
of visitors, consisting of distinguished naturalists. These might be delegates from
the principal scientific societies of the country, each of whom would be specially
bound to see that the particular branch of science to the advancement of which his
Society is devoted received its fair share of attention.

As regards the subordinate appointments in the National Museum of Natural
History, these ought to be made, if not on the nomination of the director, at least
not without his full sanction and approval. The director, being held responsible
for the well-doing of the whole establishment, should certainly be allowed to select
his own officers more or less directly. Itis well known that some of the appoint-
ments made by the trustees in the departments of natural history in the British
Museum have been, to say the least of them, in nowise felicitous, and that in one
case at least great public scandal has been caused by the notorious incompetence
of the person nominated. It is in vain to address remonstrances to a body of ir-
responsible trustees; but if the director is required to sanction every nomination,
we ep know to whom to apply in case of any appointment not being up to the
mark,

II. Of the form of Building of the National Museum of Natural History.

In discussing the form of building best adapted for a great National Museum of
Natural History, let us begin by considering the principal classes of persons for
whose accommodation it is or ought to be constructed. ‘These are :—

1. The public at large, who go there to get a more or less general notion of the
structure of natural objects and of their arrangement in the systema nature.

2. The student who uses the Museum for scientific purposes.

3. The officers of the institution, whose business it is to amass and arrange the
collections.

In the opinion of most members of parliament, apparently especially of those who
represent metropolitan constituencies, the first of these three classes is that whose
accommodation ought to be first considered in the present case. In my opinion,
and probably in that of most of those here present, the National Museum of Natural
History ought to be constructed primarily for the accommodation of the third of
the three classes; for, unless the officers of the institution have ample space and
opportunity to examine and arrange the collection, it is obvious that neither the
public nor the special student can be benefited thereby. At the same time I do
not think that the public ought to be utterly excluded from their Museum four
days in every week, as is now the case ; and I therefore put it forward as an axiom

——

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 125

that some system of construction of the new Museum should be adopted whereby
the public can be admitted all day and every day to view the collections without
interfering with the scientitic work of the establishment or with the special exami-
nation of objects by students. There is, so far as I know, only one plan by which
this object can be carried out—namely, by arranging the exhibited objects in large
wall-cases, to which access is obtainable from the back by doors opening into
work-rooms adjoining the exhibition-room. In this way any ordinary object can
be removed out of the series into the adjoining work-room, and returned to its
place without disturbing the public in front of the cases, just as any article can be
taken out of the shop windows in Regent Street without interfering with those
who are looking into them from the pavement outside. This system of exhibition
would be attended by the further very great advantage that the glass cases may be
hermetically sealed on the side towards the public, and the ingress of dirt and
dust thus prevented. Those who are acquainted with the filthy state of the speci-
mens in the public galleries of the British Museum, in spite of frequent cleansings
inflicted upon them, will readily appreciate the merit of this plan*.

This collocation of the exhibition galleries and corresponding working-rooms being
insisted upon as of primary importance, the general form of the building must de-

end somewhat upon the site on which it is to be placed. My own belief, however,
is that a hollow square, or something approaching that form, will in many ways be
most convenient for a National Museum of Natural History, and the sketches
which I now exhibit, which have been prepared for me by my accomplished friend
Mr. Osbert Salvin, will serve to show the general plan of arrangement which I
propose. The building might be of three or four stories, since, in the system of
exhibition which I advocate, it would not be necessary to have top-lights. The
basement, which might be partly below the surface, would be dedicated to taxi-
dermy and to rooms for unpacking, storage, and mechanical work of all sorts. In
the outer galleries running round the whole length of the ground story, I should
Pepeee to arrange the entire series of vertebrates from the highest mammal to the

owest fish. The specimens, according to the system already spoken of, would he

placed in iehetontts sealed glass cases along the inner walls of the galleries. The
Inner series of rooms surrounding the interior of the hollow square would be the
working-rooms for the officers of the Museum and the students of natural history,
and would communicate with the glass cases on the inner side of the outer galle-
ries. Hach set of working-rooms would, of course be in immediate apposition to
the glass cases containing the corresponding series of exhibited objects. The lights
to these working-rooms would be furnished from the imner sides of the hollow
square.

a the first story of the building I should propose to arrange the series of inver-
tebrate animals in exactly the same way, with the rooms for officers and students
immediately adjoining them on the inner side.

The third story might contain the botanical and mineralogical collections, and
perhaps certain others which it might not be possible to introduce into the general
series, unless room could be found for these collections in the second story.

In a circular building, the centre of the hollow square, I should propose to place
the library aboye and lecture-theatre below. The library might be connected by
light iron galleries with the different working-rooms, so that the students of every
department would have equally ready access to it.

Such is a slight outline of the kind of building I would propose for a National
Museum of Natural History. It is, of course, a mere sketch, and there would be
no doubt, many difficulties in the details to be surmounted, but none, I think, such
as an experienced architect would not be able to overcome. The advantages of
this plan would be :—

1, The Museum might be opened to the public every day, without interfering

* Tn an admirable article on this subject in ‘ Nature’ for May 26, 1870, Prof. Flower
has attributed the original invention of this mode of exhibition to myself, I having first
brought it under his notice. It appears, however, from a subsequent communication to
‘Nature’ by Prof. Flower (June 2, 1870), that the same plan had been already proposed by
Dr. Hooker in the ‘ Gardeners’ Chronicle’ for 1858, p.749. I can only, therefore, claim to
be an (not the) original inventor of this method of arrangement.

126 REPORT—1870.

with the scientific work of the establishment or of the students. Under the pre-

sent arrangement, the collections are only open two or three days in the week,

during which scientific work is suspended, as regards all objects in the public
alleries.

2. The exhibited specimens would be much betier protected from dirt and dust

than they are in cases Opening in front.

3. The exhibition of the whole series of organic beings in one continuous range
of galleries would be much more instructive to the public than any system in which
(as in the British Museum) they are dispersed about in different rooms.

4, The library, being in the centre, would be equally accessible from any one of
the working-rooms swrounding the interior of the hollow square *.

Ill. Of the Arrangement of the Collections in the National Museum of
Natural History,

The remarks which I have already made under the previous head will have
served to show the Section that Iam an advocate of what has been called the
“typical,” but what it would be better, perhaps, to call the “representative ”
system of arrangement of the natural-history collections. Nor am Table to under-
stand how any reasonable person can seriously maintain that every object in a
National Museum of Natural History ought to be exhibited to the indiscriminating
public. In accordance with the views of the memorialists of 1858, who may be
considered as having inaugurated the reform in our natural-history collections which
I hope to see shortly carried out, the collections should be primarily separated into
two series: (a) objects for public exhibition; (b) objects for private study. The
class a, which is to be arranged in the public galleries behind the hermetically
sealed glass cases, should embrace a very full and well-selected series of represen-
tatives of the principal forms of every class. In some cases it may be necessary to
place in this category examples of every species of a group, in others only a selec-
tion of each genus or of each family. Every specimen exhibiting the external form
in this series should be carefully prepared and mounted in a natural attitude. The
representative species of the group having been selected, specimens of both sexes
and of all ages should be placed in the series, as likewise examples of variation, if
any such are known. The skeleton and other preparations of the internal structure
should be added, as also the eggs and nests in the case of birds, and examples of
corresponding structures in other classes. In short, the utmost endeavours should
be made to illustrate, by preparations, models, and drawings, the life-history of the
selected ‘representative ” in as complete a manner as possible. To every exhi-
bited specimen should be attached a printed label, giving its scientific and popular
name, locality, and origin, and some short explanation regarding its chief peculia-
rities and most noticeable points of interest. There can, I think, be no doubt what-
ever that a small but well-selected series of any branch of the kingdom of nature,
arranged after this method, would be of much greater interest and much more in-
structive to the public at large than ten times the number of objects arranged ac-
cording to the present fashion of the British Museum.

On the other hand, the great mass of the collections (6) intended only for the
private examination of experts should be treated after a very different fashion. In
this division of the collections, the object is to arrange specimens in as small a
space as possible, and, at the same time, in the most convenient manner for easy
examination. ‘The work-rooms immediately adjoining the part of the public gal-
leries appropriated to division @ of any class, will, of course, be devoted to the re-

* A great deal has been said by those who have advocated the retention of the natural-
history collections in their present site, about the importance of keeping up their conjune-
tion with the National Library. It is, of course, obvious that their removal will necessi-
tate the acquisition of a special library of natural history for the new museum. I believe,
however, that a library of the kind, sufficiently comprehensive for all practical purposes,
can be got together without much difficulty and at a comparatively small cost, and that,
when formed, it will be of much greater use for those working at the collections than the
present overgrown establishment at the British Museum, It must be also recollected that
the library of the British Museum is only available for the use of the officers. The books
cannot be brought to the specimens nor the specimens to the books by ordinary students.

ay ~

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 127

ception of division 6 of the same class, so that the whole a and 4, being separated
only by the partition-wall at the back of the glazed cases,;which will be pierced by
frequent doors, will practically form but one collection. In these work-rooms,
moreover, should be assembled together the whole of the specimens relating to the
particular class to which they are devoted. In the British Museum, according to
the present system, the mounted specimens are in one room, the skins in a second,
the skeletons in a third, and the spirit-preparations in a fourth. So that, in order
to make a complete examination of a small mammal, for instance, it may be neces-
sary to go to four or five different parts of the building, ranging from the galleries
to the cellars, and from the extreme north-east corner of the former to the furthest
south-west corner of the latter. In the new National Museum of Natural History,
it is to be hoped, this inconvenience will be remedied by the entire amalgamation
of the various collections of skins, mounted specimens, spirit-specimens, and skele-
tons into one uniform series. Besides the greater convenience of this mode of
arrangement, another obvious advantage will be that the future student will be
induced to devote his attention rather to the whole structure of the organism than
to confine it to one particular part. If bird-cabinets were accompanied by skele-
tons and corresponding specimens in spirits, there can be no doubt that a much
more perfect system of ornithology than any that we have yet attained to would be
quickly arrived at. Our new National Museum must take the lead in this great
reform, and set an example to other collections. In the same way, as every natu-
ralist will allow, our conchological brethren will lose nothing by haying the soft
bodies of the mollusca close at hand to aid them in their investigations on the form
of the external shell. There may be, of course, some exceptional cases in which
it will be practically impossible to adopt this course; but, as a general rule, the
ane should be insisted upon that every specimen, of whatever nature it may

e, should be located in the rooms devoted to the reception of the class to which it
belongs, and should be placed as nearly as possible in immediate apposition to its
nearest natural allies.

To carry out these pratples to their legitimate issue, I do not hesitate to sup-
port the view put forward by Prof. Flower and other naturalists, that the palzon-
tological department of the British Museum, as at present constituted, ought to be
totally abolished, and its contents distributed amongst the zoological and botanical
collections, so that extinct forms may be studied in association with their nearest
living representatives. The arguments in favour of this plan are, I think, unas-
sailable ; and although some little difficulties may be met with in carrying it out,
there are none, in my opinion, that may not be overcome by judicious treatment.
There is no doubt, I believe, that the progress of paleontology and paleeophytology
has been much retarded by the neglect of the students of the extinct forms of animal
and vegetable life to make themselves sufficiently acquainted with the structure of
the corresponding forms now in existence. So long as fossils were looked upon
as the products of numerous successive and independent creations, there might _
have been some excuse for this mode of dealing with them; but now that we
regard animated nature, past, present, and future, as one and indivisible, now that
we acknowledge the stream of life, since its first appearance on this planet, to have
been unbroken and continuous, let us exhibit its products, whether existing or ex-
tinct, in one continuous and unbroken series. The structure of an extinct organism
can only be correctly understood after study of the nearest allies at present in ex-
istence. The best paleontologist must be he that has deduced his knowledge of
extinct beings from comparison of their remains with the corresponding parts of
those now alive. Those who appreciate these truths will not fail to allow that
the proposed amalgamation of the paleeontological collection with the general series
in the new Museum of Natural History will be a decided step in advance, and one
imperatively called for in the present state of natural science.

I have now, I think, touched upon some of the principal points on which changes
are required in our present system of treatment of the collections of natural history
belonging to the nation. It would he easy to go into further particulars in which
reforms are needed. Especially I might call attention to the inadequacy in point
of numbers of the present staff of officers in some of the natural-history depart-
ments of the British Museum, the insufficiency of the yearly sum allowed for ac-

128 REPORT—1870.

quisitions, the vexatious regulations concerning the examination of specimens, and
the miserably insufficient accommodation for private study; but all these things
we may well hope to see altered in a new institution, and [ will not take up time
by enlarging upon them. In conclusion, however, I will recapitulate the principal
topics touched on in the following propositions, which I trust the members of the
British Association will agree with me in putting forward as the “ platform” of
reforming naturalists.

1. The administration of the new Museum of Natural History should be vested
in a director, who should be immediately responsible to one of the Queen’s
ministers.

2. The collections should be primarily divided into two series,—those intended
for public exhibition, and those reserved for private study.

3. The collections for public exhibition should be arranged in their natural
order in one continuous series of galleries, so as to give the best possible general
idea of the principal forms of life and of their arrangement according to the natural
system.

4, The collections for private study should be arranged in rooms immediately
adjacent to the public galleries, in such a manner that the corresponding portions of
them should practically form but one series, and that the private student should
have access at all times to objects in the public galleries.

5. A complete library of natural history should be furnished for the special use
of the institution, and be placed in some central portion of the building, equally
accessible to all departments.

6. The collection of osteology, the spirit-preparations, the skins in store, the
series of British animals, the collection of “nests and nidamental structures,” and
all other subordinate collections should be amalgamated with the general series.

7. The collections of the paleontological department should likewise be amal-
gamated with the general series.

The. Natural History of Hainan. By Rosert Swrxnor, /.R.GS.

This is a sketch of the natural history of Hainan, based on the observations and
collections made by the author during his visit to the island, a narrative of which
was read before the Geographical Section. The botany, climate, and geology are
briefly touched upon; then follow remarks on the mammals, birds, insects, and
shells which were collected, the affinities of the two former suggesting a wider
separation in former times of the island from the Chinese main and its closer con-
nexion with Cochin China.

On Hyalonema and some other Vitreous Sponges.
By Professor Wrviitr Tuomson, LL.D., L.RS.

On some of the Echinoderms of the Expedition of H.M.S. ¢ Porewpine.’
By Professor Wrv1tte Tromson, LL.D., PRS.

Note on the Growth of Lodoicea Seychellarum, By Mr, Tyrrmay.

On the Structure of the Shell in the Pearly Nautilus.
By Huyry Woopwanrn, £.G.8., £.Z.8.

After referring to the great interest attaching to the Nawtilide on account of
-heir vast geological and geographical range, the author proceeded to describe the
shell with its septa and siphuncle, the latter being only found in the Cephalopoda,
and nearly confined to the Tetrabranchiata. The camerated structure, however, is
found in many mollusea (as Spondylus, Evomphalus, Vermetus, &c.). The author
suggested that if any incipient character could be found leading up, as it were, to
the siphuncle, we might fairly infer that it was only a more highly differentiated

soaked

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 129

form of shell-growth. Such incipient structure occurs in Ostrea, in which the
shell-muscle (in aged individuals) dips down from layer to layer, offering a rough
ee en to the siphuncle in Atria. Mr. Woodward described the structure
of the shell, and showed by actual dissection that no vascular system exists con-
necting the shell with the animal by means of the siphuncle. The siphuncle
proves upon examination only to be a thin pearly tube, within which is another,
composed of an extension of the periostracum, and quite destitute of structure.
Shell-structure proves, when once formed, to be dead matter destitute of change,
save where actually in contact with the mantle of the animal, which alone can add
to or repair the shelly covering.

_A Statement in reply to the two Objections of Professor Hualey relative to

certain Experiments. By H. Caarxron Bastian, M.D., PRS.

_ The objections raised by Prof. Huxley, in his Inaugural Address, against certain
experiments bearing on the possibility of the genesis of living things from not
living materials were two in number. One was an objection of a practical cha-

racter, and another purely theoretical. The former was to the effect that the very

fact of its being possible to preserve meats of all kinds for years, by adopting
almost exactly the same process as that which had been employed in these expe-
riments, was of itself evidence sufficiently strong to excite a doubt as to whether

there was not some source of error in these experiments, even though it had not

hitherto been detected. The results of some inquiries which the author has since
made show, however, that while the meats are subjected to a much higher tem-

‘perature than had been supposed (this, too, for a prolonged period), organisms

are to be met with even in provisions obtained from the most approved sources,
and sold as “‘ perfectly good” (see ‘Nature,’ Nos. 47 & 48). But although the

uality of the provisions may not be affected by the presence of these organisms,
the objection which was urged against such experiments as those of the author
must lose its value, especially when the fact is also borne in mind, and which
was freely confessed to him by one of the best preparers of these preserved meats,
that in a certain number of the failures which occur, the cause of the putrefaction

or mouldiness cannot be accounted for. In many cases the obyious failures are

due to defective closure of the tin case in which the provisions are enclosed ; but in
certain of the failures, of course few in number, neither this nor any other cause
of failure could be ascertained. The author then proceeded to consider the second
or theoretical objection which had been started. Does it not seem almost incredi-
ble, Prof. Huxley asks, that the living things which are now supposed to be

ae de novo, should be, in most cases, almost precisely similar to the lower

corms of life which are ordinarily met with in organic infusion? Theory seemed
at capable of being met by theory, and he claimed that in the consideration of
such a question as this, which was admitted to be still an open one, the advocates
of either of the two opposing views must not strongly urge an objection which,
though it might be good and valid if all the world thought with him, would turn

-out to be not valid at all if the views of his opponents were correct. The author

accordingly contended that although it might be extremely difficult, almost im-
possible, to explain the coincidence above referred to if every living thing did
really originate from a preexisting living thing, the objection, on the other hand,
so far from being an objection, was in reality only what might have been expected
if the views which he and others hold are really true. He then pointed out why
he thought that if living matter could arise independently of preexisting living
matter, it would be only reasonable to suppose that such new-born living matter
would not only be as plastic and modifiable as the lowest known living things are
now admitted to be, but capable of rapidly going through even greater changes
than are at present recognized. This being the case, from his point of view, a
similarity between the developmental forms resulting from new-born living matter
and the organisms usually met with in infusions was only what might have been
expected. Our present state of knowledge does not permit us to say which or

130 REPORT—1870.

what combination of the physical influences now existing is most potential in
bringing about the supposed transition from the not living to living modes of com-
bination ; and therefore it is impossible to say how far the apparent very great
difference in condition in certain of these experiments ought to have left its im-
pression upon the living things met with. If we could only be as sure of starting
with materials of precisely the same molecular composition, which, however, was
impossible, the author was inclined to believe that we might be able to procure
definite kinds of organisms, almost as surely as we could now produce different
kinds of crystals. He afterwards fully discussed the various possibilities of error
in his own experiments, and gave reasons why he thought that none of these
sources of fallacy had existed in four of his own experiments which were made in
concert with Dr, Frankland.

On the Theory of Natural Selection looked at from a Mathematical Point of
View. By Atrrup W, Beynetr, M.A., B.Sc., FLAS.

The author gave in his adhesion to that portion of the Darwinian theory which
maintains the evolution of species from a common ancestry, but held that that
part of the hypothesis which regards natural selection as the prime agent in Soin
ing about these changes rests on a much more debateable basis, The title of Mr.
Darwin’s great work, ‘The Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection,’ is
itself a misnomer, since it only attempts to account for the survival and perpe-
tuation of certain among a number of “ spontaneous” variations. Taking the re-
markable facts of mimetism, so largely insisted on by Darwinian writers as a
bulwark of their theory, the author maintained that this explanation really breaks
down at the outset. ‘Iwo points admitted by all advocates of the principle of na-
tural selection are, that it always acts with extreme slowness, and that every step
must be directly of advantage to the species which simulates the outward form of
some other species, or of some inanimate object. Proceeding on this basis, and apply-
ing mathematical calculation to the solution of the problem, it was attempted to be
shown that the earlier steps in the transformation cannot have occurred through
the operation of natural selection, because they must be entirely useless to the
individual, and that the chances against the accumulation of a sufficient approxi-
mation towards the species ultimately mimicked, on which the principle of na-
tural selection could operate, is something like ten millions to one, even when
every advantage is thrown into the scale of the natural selectionist. The author
then proceeds to show that even Mr. Darwin does not claim for the principle of
natural selection the origination of the tendency to variation which is the
foundation of all differentiation of species on the hypothesis of evolution. Since,
therefore, some other principle, at present unknown to us, originates these varia-
tions, what right have we to say that this principle then ceases to act, instead of
being the main agent in all the other subsequent changes? Of the laws of va-
riation, Mr. Darwin says, our ignorance is profound. The paper then points out
the remarkable analogy that exists between the exhibition of the phenomena of
mimetism and the development of instinct. Both faculties are absent in the
whole of the vegetable kingdom, very feebly apparent in the Protozoa and Ceelen-
terata, but slightly in the Mollusca, appear with extraordinary perfection in the
Insecta and Arachnida, are comparatively in abeyance among the Pisces and Rep-
tilia, and again strongly developed in the Aves. This parallelism would appear
to indicate a closer connexion between mimicry and instinct than has been
generally supposed. One of the founders of the theory of natural selection, Mr.
A. R. Wallace, displays, in his recently published volume of ‘ Contributions to the
Theory of Natural Selection,’ a strange want of faith in his own principle, by
denying its potency in the case of the evolution of man from the lower animals,
and even in producing the different races of mankind. The same laws, the writer
thinks, must be supposed to govern the whole organic world ; and if some other
principle, connected with man’s reasoning powers, must be looked for to account
for his raising himself from the brutes, the same principle, connected with the
instinct of animals, must be applied to account for sles power of developing new

SS See rea

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 13)

species adapted to the circumstances of their environments, In corclusion, the
author considered that although the discovery of the law of natural selection
marked an era in the history of natural science, and gave a wonderful impulse to
original research, the danger now is that the law will be pressed into services
which have no claim upon it, and that in the hands of injudicious partisans it will
become a hindrance rather than an aid to science, by closing the door against
further investigations into other laws which lie behind it.

On Protoplasm and the Germ Theories. By Giizerv W, Cum, M,A., F.L.S.

After an examination of the various germ theories which had been put forward,
the author said it appeared to him that abiogenesis in some form or another was a
necessary consequence of certain other theories which were gaining ground at the
present moment, by the Darwinian hypothesis and the theory of evolution, It
was hardly conceivable that we could theoretically hold that the original simple
forms from which the whole animal and vegetable world had been developed, had
sprung into existence out of the regular order of the evolution of the universe. What
was called the germ theory of disease threw an interesting light on the question.
Zymotic diseases were now generally believed to result from the multiplication and
reproduction of germs in the blood of the man or animal affected. The matter to
be accounted for was how the disease-germ appeared, disappeared, and afterwards
again cropped up in the same district at great intervals of time, If the old theories
were to be maintained in their entirety as to the fixity of species, every one of
these diseases must have existed somewhere from the beginning. That was a view
which was hardly credible, but it was held nevertheless, On the other hand, the
hypothesis of the evolution of these germs de novo, by abiogenesis, would
account for such phenomena in an intelligible manner. In conclusion, the writer
was far from thinking that abiogenesis is proved to take place at the present
time. His own experiments, published in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,’
1865, did not pretend to prove this, It is quite possible, and indeed probable,
that the small moving masses of protoplasm found by Dr. Beale and himself in
his experimental vessels might, as suggested by the President in his Address, have
resisted the boiling temperature to which the contents of those vessels had been
subjected. If this were so, it no doubt nullified the evidence of those experiments
so far as they tended towards the solution of the main question at issue; but if so,
it equally nullified the evidence of M. Pasteur’s researches, on which the opponents
of the doctrine of abiogenesis rested their case, The latter were therefore re-
duced to this dilemma, either these minute organisms which were found in the
experiments of the writer and others can withstand the boiling temperature, or
they cannot. In the former case, there is no evidence left on either side; in the
latter they must have been produced by abiogenesis.

On some of the more Important Facts of Succession in Relation to any Theory
of Continuity. By Dr, Connor, /.RS., PLS.

The author remarked that for several years past the Biological Section had per-
mitted, if it had not actually encouraged, the reading of papers on the theory of
natural selection. The facts he had here selected for exposition were such as
represented what might be termed the apparent chronology of the organic series,
or, in other words, the ascertained times of the coming and flourishing of the larger
animal groups. A true conception of what was or ought to be understood by the
expression “ equivalencies ”—hotanical, zoological, or geological—lay at the basis
of a correct appreciation of the significance of the records of animal, vegetable, or
sedimentary rock distribution throughout all time. Further, he ventured to assert
that the grandeur of the formative scheme of Nature, whether testifying to an
evolutionary method of production or to a series of creative acts, few or many in
number, could only be adequately realized by the naturalist whose powers of allo-
cation and grouping enabled him to grasp the import of those relations, He then

132 REPORT—1870.

proceeded to deal with the facts of succession, describing the various known groups,
and glancing at the times of origin and succession of the placental mammals, say-
ing the first thing that the record suggested was the rapidity with which the most
divergent groups made their appearance. Of course there was no real basis for an
assumption of coeval creation. It might be held, on zoological grounds, that we
ought not to separate men and monkeys, but retain them as one under the
ordinal title of Primates. He adopted the division of the placental series of
Mammalia into twelve groups, not from any rigid belief as to their separate
equivalencies, but because they were sufficiently distinctive for practical purposes,
and form on the whole perhaps the fairest expression of grouping which our
science could at present afford. After dwelling at great length upon the suc-
cession of the various groups, he stated that as regarded the highest of all, the
placental division, he would only say that, as he understood the doctrine, the
strictest demand of the development theory did not require, as was commonly sup-
posed, a lineal descent as between Bimana and Quadrumana; but it was certainly
held that either of these groups, as we now know them, might have been sepa-
rately evolved from more generalized primatal types, the intermediary terms being
possibly connected by a long antecedent and far more generalized common proge-
nitor. In that connexion the most advanced evolutionist must own that the as-
sumedly missing tertiary primatals constituted a great and natural bar to the
tee acceptance of the theory of descent by natural selection. On the other

and, a multitude of considerations seemed to him to outweigh all the data thrown
into the anti-continuity side of the balance.

On the Development of Germ-life. By Dr. F. Crace-Catyert, F.RS., FCS.

The author has been engaged during the last twelve months in a series of re~
searches with the view of determining if the germs of fermentation and putre-
faction can be carried any distance from their source of production by a current of
atmospheric air, and communicate their decomposing action to a fluid suscep-
tible of undergoing a similar change. To answer this question, he has made many
experiments, but will now only give the following details.

The first question was, what apparatus should be employed to deprive atmo-
spheric air of the germs it contains.

He passed slowly (during four hours) a gallon of air first through a tube 2 feet
in length, filled with cotton-wool, and then through another tube, 6 inches long,
filled with small fragments of pumice-stone heated to redness.

Secondly, air was passed through the same length of cotton-wool, and then
through 18 inches of red-hot pumice-stone. The two bulks of air thus purified
were made to bubble slowly into pure water, deprived of animal or vegetable
life. A drop of each of the fluids was examined under a microscope of 800
diameters, and the following results were obtained :—

Water through which air | Water through which air
of No. 1 experiment had | of No. 2 experiment

been passed. had passed.
After 1 hour...... No life. No life.
Two or three microzymes| .
9 . a
AN aes { were present in each drop. } None,

Considerable amount of | No life.

microzymes and vibrios.

» 14 days { Ah haga § quantity of \ No life.

One or two microzymes
observed in each drop.

Having thus found the method of depriving atmospheric air of its life, he em-
ployed the same purified air to ascertain if he could, as stated above, conyey by

4 nee

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 133

a current of it the germs produced in one mass of matter into another. To effect
this, the purified air was made to bubble through a pint of fluid in an active
state of alcoholic fermentation, one of acetic fermentation, one of butyric, and in
one containing putrid meat. The results were, that a very small quantity of life
was observed under the microscope after several hours in pure water, weak sugar
or albumen solution through which the air from the alcoholic or acetic fermentative
fluids had passed; but it was in large quantities in the albumen solutions, in which
the air had previously bubbled through the putrid fluid and butyric ferment,—
thus showing that the germs belonging to the vegetable kingdom cannot be con-
veyed any distance by air in motion, whilst those of the animal kingdom are easily
carried.

There are many experiments which the author intends publishing, but he
limits himself to record only one, in consequence of the light it throws on many of
the results published of late on spontaneous generation, viz. that if the albumen
of a newly laid egg is mixed with pure distilled water free from life, and the
whole exposed to the atmosphere for half an hour, life will be observed, and in an
hour or two mycrozyma and vibrios will be found in considerable quantities;
therefore no experiment as to the existence of life in fluids is of any value except
when air has been excluded, and that the fluid intended for examination has not
been exposed for a short time to the atmosphere.

The author hopes shortly to present to the Royal Society papers on the “ Te-
nacity of Microscopic Life,’ ‘The Special Germs of Putrefaction,” “Sponta-
neous Germination,” and, lastly, ““Qn the Germ Theories of Contagious and In-
fectious Diseases.”

On the Controversy on Spontancous Generation, with new Experiments.
By James SAMUELSON,

The author discussed at length the present position of the controversy on hetero-
enesis, or the supposed creation of the lowest form of plants and animals de novo.
e first referred to the theological bearing of the subject, which he believed to be
oyerrated. But the author expressed his opinion, resulting from experiments and
observations which extended oyer a long series of years, that those who prefer to
adopt the theory of the creation of living forms only from germs already in ex-
istence would eventually find their view to be correct. He then proceeded to con-
sider the recent experiments of Dr. Bastian, who believes that he has not only been
able to create “protoplasm” by the combination of inorganic materials, as it was
hinted possible some time since by Professor Huxley, but that under his hands
there had been spontaneously produced from inorganic materials, combined in a
manner circumstantially described by him, “truly organized plants and small ciliated
infusoria.” The author first criticized the terms in which Dr. Bastian had de-
scribed the results of his experiments, characterizing them as vague, and giving
instances of the vagueness. Then he showed how some of them were absolutely
adverse to Dr. Bastian’s own hypothesis; and finally he proceeded to describe at
length a number of experiments of his own, made in June, July, and August last,
and to compare them with notes of a series of experiments tried by him in 1863,
which left little doubt on his mind that the plant types (mildew or mould) believed
by Dr. Bastian to have been spontaneously produced in infusions, really spring from
atmospheric germs, which, in some instances, become developed in the open air
upon bare rocks and stones, but which the author showed to be present in rain-
water fallen from the clouds, and in distilled water exposed to the air. The result
of his experiments may be thus briefly epitomized :—In 1863 the author found the
same plant types (various stages of mildew) in infusions of orange-juice, cabbage-
juice, and pure distilled water exposed to the air; and during the past summer he
again found the identical types in infusion of orange-juice, and in water caught in a
shower of rain. At both periods, too, he found low animal types in the atmosphere.
The author concluded his paper as follows :—“ Here I leave to the judgment of
men of science the results of my experiments, which any boy possessed of a micro-
scope may repeat as effectually as I haye performed them, And if the believers in

184 REPORT—1870.

spontaneous generation still insist that their hypothesis has not been refuted, and
that, assuming my observations to be correct, their view of the case has not been
fully disproved, Iam not prepared to deny this; but, on the other hand, I must be
permitted to retort that their experiments have only proved, so far, their inability,
notwithstanding all their precautions, to exclude invisible germs from their infu-
sions. As to the mysterious appearance of these microscopical types on their solu-
tion in vacuo, what is it compared with the presence of some of the internal para-
sites of man and the lower animals? and who would have credited twenty years
since the story of the wanderings and metamorphoses which those forms undergo
before they find their way into the final habitat designed for them by nature ?
There is, however, very little chance of the controversy coming to an end at present.
It is fascinating and sensational, and so far quite in accordance with the spirit of the
age. Nor is it desirable that it should cease, for it is causing microscopical obser-
vers to direct their attention more and more to the beginnings of life and to the
development of these living types, which are visible only with the aid of the lens;
and I know of no subject more worthy of the consideration of biologists.”

—_—

On the Scientific Value of Physical Beauty. By Frepertc T. Morr, /.R.GS.

The purpose of this paper was to point out the connexion between the compara-
tive beauty of objects and their rank in the scale of nature ; to show that beauty is
not bestowed capriciously, but has always a scientific meaning ; that it is the index
of maturity, of climax, of perfected function, and ought to be taken into account as
such in every system of classification. The connexion between beauty and matu-
rity was illustrated by natural facts, and a theoretic reason for it was suggested.

On various Alterations of Nutrition due to Nervous Inflwence.
By Dr. Brown Séauarp, FBS,

On Apparent Transmission of Abnormal Conditions due to Accidental Causes.
By Dr. Brown Sfavarv, PLS.

Contribution to the Migration Theory. By Dr. Caton.

This paper contained the results of a series of experiments on the phenomena of
inflammation as seen in the transparent membranes of fishes and batrachians,
chiefly in reference to the migration of blood-cells from the vessels, described by
Addison and Waller, and more recently by Professor Cohnheim.

In the experiments on the frog the migration of colourless corpuscles was seen
to take place from the vessels of the mesentery, though not in every instance. In
the fish, notwithstanding close observation, the escape of blood-cells was never
seen. Pus-cells were apparently formed in the tissues during acute inflammation.
It was observed that venous congestion did not occur to the same extent as in
batrachians and mammals,—possibly accounted for by the venous character of the
heart in the fish. In the tadpole migration was seen to take place with the greatest
activity whenever any considerable congestion occurred. In fishes and batrachians
alike it was found that general fever caused the deposit of white blood-cells along
the walls of vessels; and if, as in batrachians, great congestion subsequently oc-
curred, the cells in contact with the wall were seen to migrate, the more readily if
the wall of the vessel were thin and delicate, as in the tadpole.

On the whole it seemed probable that congestion was the main cause of cell-
migration, and that the question whether red or white cells escaped depended
merely on the one or the other being in contact with the wall of the congested
vessel. Pus-cells appeared not to originate entirely from migrating blood-cor-
puscles; indeed it seemed possible that the two had no connexion with one another,
and were merely accidentally associated ; for in these experiments pus-cells had been

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TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 135

produced where there was no migration; and, on the other hand, blood-cells were
seen actively migrating where all local inflammation had been carefully avoided.

On the Physical Relations of Consciousness and the Seat of Sensation: a Theory
proposed*, By Professor Joun Crenanp, M.D.

On a rare and remarkable Parasite from the Collection of the Rev. W. Dallinger.
By Dr. Coszox, /.RS., PLS.

The author called attention to a microscopic preparation from Mr, Dallinger’s
cabinet marked “ Hydatid from the Human Brain.” It was clearly a cysticercus,
differing, however, as regards its hooks, from the ordinary measle infesting man
and the pig. At first sight its appearance reminded him of Dr. Weinland’s Cys-
ticercus acanthotrias, as giyen in his ‘ Beschreibung zweier neuer Teenioiden aus
dem Menschen,’ a communication published in 1851. A further examination
would be necessary before finally pronouncing upon this point; but he was in-
clined to regard Dr, Weinland’s triple-crowned cysticercus as a variety of a
hitherto undescribed tapeworm, of which this specimen was the true normal
representative in the larval state. At all events, it was a distinct form of armed
eysticercus from the human brain, having been originally sent to Mr. Dallinger by
a student at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital.

Remarks on the Heart of a Chinese Dog containing Hematozoa, received from
R. Swinhoe, Hsq., H.B.M. Consul, Amoy, China. By Dr. Cosson, h.R.S.,
PLS.

’ The author exhibited the heart in question, and gave an account of the zoological
position and affinities of its contained nematode parasites. He remarked on the
endemic character of the helminthiasis thus set up amongst the dogs of China,
adding that the animal in question had, according to Mr. Swinhoe, “died at
Shanghae in the month of April 1869, after three days of great suffering.” He
referred to similar preparations in the possession of Prof. Bennett of Edinburgh,
and the Curators of the Museum of the Army Medical School at Netley. He dis-
puted the question of its identity with M. Bohe Moreau’s so-called Spiroptera
sanguinolenta, showing also that it had no genetic relation to the Filaria papillosa
hematica of Messrs. Grube and Delafond. The author had already discussed the

robable nature of these latter heematozoa in his memoir “On the Prevalence of

ntozoa in the Dog,” first communicated to the Linnean Society.

Notice respecting the Embryonal Development of the Hematozoon Bilharzia.
By Dr. Connor, /.RS., PLS.

The author commenced by a reference to the researches of Bilharz, Griesinger,
Leuckart, Weinland, and Harley in reference to this parasite, and remarked upon
the severe endemics occasioned by its prevalence in Egypt, at the Cape, and at the
Mauritius. He himself had first discovered this parasite in England when dis-
secting an African monkey which had died at the Zoological Society’s menagerie,
Regent’s Park. The grounds on which he had altered the generic title (from
Distoma to Bilharzia) were recognized as just, both abroad and at home. He had
fully investigated the characters presented by the eggs, their contained embryos,
mode of egress, movements, alterations of form, rapid growth, structure, behaviour
under reagents, and various other particulars. e had likewise sought to rear
them in slugs, insect-larvee, Entomostraca, Gammari, and various fishes. From a
patient under his care the author procured at least 10,000 eges daily; and from
these he reared ciliated cone-shaped embryos not unlike those of the common fluke.
and showing a beautiful water-vascular system of vessels under high powers.

_ * Printed im extenso in the ‘Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,’ November 1] 870,

136 ; REPORT—1870.

On the Connexion of the Hyoid Arch with the Cranium.
By Professor W. H. Firowrr, /.R.S-

In the sheep, as is well known, the anterior arch or cornu of the hyoidean appa-
ratus is described as consisting of three bones, of which the uppermost is by far
the largest and most important, and has received the name of stylo-hyal. This
bone is lone, compressed, and at the proximal end enlarges and divides into two
short branches, by the anterior of which it is continued as a cartilaginous band to
the cranium: The upper end of this band is again ossified in the form of a curved
cylindrical plug of bone, with a truncated lower extremity, lying in a groove on
the side of the tympanic bone, the edges of which groove meet around it in adult
animals, and often become anchylosed with it; but this is only a secondary con-
nexion. The primary connexion is with the periotic or petro-mastoid bone, imme-
diately in front and to the inner side of the stylo-mastoid foramen. In embryonic
specimens it can be traced as a distinct band of cartilage lying to the anterior and
inner side of the lower end of the Fallopian aqueduct, and passing to the upper
and back part of the tympanic cavity, near to the spot from which the stapedius
muscle takes origin. This is, then, the true proximal extremity of the anterior arch
of the hyoidean apparatus, if we leave out of consideration the ee and incus,
which, there is reason to believe, are developed from the same rod of cartilage—a
question which is not discussed in the present communication. Whatever may be
the case with regard to the origin of the last-named parts, it is a subject of easy
demonstration that in the sheep there is an ossified portion of the upper end of the
hyoid arch, above and distinct from the stylo-hyal, which becomes firmly united
with the periotic, and which may ossify either from a separate centre, or by ex-
tension of bone from the periotic. Whether it should be considered as a process
of the periotic, or as a separate element, may still be a matter of opinion ; but the
existence of such a part as a distinct portion of the hyoid arch requires recognition,
It may be conveniently distinguished by the name of tympano-hyal, as it is always
in relation with the tympanic bone, and continues the hyoid arch up to the wall
of the cavity of the tympanum.

This portion of the skull can be distinctly recognized at the spot indicated (7. e.
to the anterior and inner side of the stylo-mastoid foramen) in almost all mammals,
though in yery different degrees of development, usually in accordance with the
size and amount of ossification of the remainder of the anterior arch, Thus, in
those of the Ungulata, as the ruminants, and especially the horse and rhinoceros,
in which the stylo-hyal is very largely developed, the tympano-hyal is most con-
spicuous ; but where, as in the pig, the anterior arch is little ossified, the tympano-
hyal is comparatively rudimentary. In the Cetacea it is quite distinct, though
small, and a fine band of cartilage can often be traced from the upper end of the
stylo-hyal into it, imbedded in the great ligamentous mass which attaches that
bone to the exoccipital and surrounding parts of the cranium, and which of course
is only a secondary connexion,

In man this bone or process is also quite distinct, although it seems to have
been generally confounded with the stylo-hyal. The so-called styloid process of
the temporal bone has long been known to have a separate centre of ossification,
and is also generally recognized as the homologue of the stylo-hyal of other mam-
mals, one of the main points of difference being, that whereas in all others it is an
independent bone not connected directly with the cranium, in man it is always
anchylosed to the “temporal,” and forms a process of the skull.

If a human skull at the period of birth is examined, a very small round piece
of bone surrounded by a deep groove can be seen exactly where the tympano-hyal
is found in the sheep, just behind the posterior limb of the inverted arch formed
by the tympanic bone, and in front and to the inner side of the stylo-mastoid
foramen. This increases somewhat in size as age advances, forming a distinct
process, supported and partly embraced in front by the vaginal process of the
tympanic. The true styloid or stylo-hyal at birth is a slender rod of cartilage,
often partially ossified in the centre, and invested by a strong fibrous sheath, from
which the stylo—hyoid, stylo-glossus, and stylo-pharyngeus muscles take origin.
Though it occasionally becomes anchylosed in the adult with the tympano-hyal, as

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 137

is the case with those skulls which have verv long styloid processes, this does not
occur so frequently as is described in most works on anatomy. In the large
majority of skulls, before middle age, the stylo-hyal is free, and is commonly lost
in maceration. The short process which is always present, and which is com-
monly considered as a rudimentary styloid process, is really a distinct portion of
the hyoid arch, corresponding with the tympano-hyal of the sheep.

The communication was illustrated by specimens and diagrams.

On the Correspondence between the Anterior and Posterior Extremity, and the
Modifications of the Position of the Limbs in the higher Vertebrata. By
Professor W. H. Frower, 2.8.

This communication was chiefly devoted to an exposition, by means of speci-
mens and diagrams, of the views held by most English anatomists of the serial
homologies of the different bones of the extremities, founded upon comparison
of the anterior, cephalic, or preaxial border of the one, in the primitive position,
with the same border of the other, which leads to results opposed to the views
of Wyman and other American anatomists, founded upon the principle of antero-
posterior symmetry. :

Comparison of the Thoracic and Pelvic Limbs in Mammalia.
By R. Garner, F.LS.

In this paper the author defended the teleological method of studying anatomy,
as haying led to many discoveries, and as the life-spring of much of its interest,
at the same time deprecating a ni-admirart mood in these researches, A teleo-
logical explanation is not ‘a pretty golden ball to divert the racer from his
course,” but rather a golden thread to be traced throughout. He considers it
legitimate to compare limbs &c. with an ideal exemplar, whether we adopt the
apophysal' origin for them or not. With respect to the latter theory he inquires,
it the anterior limb is a dependence of the occipital vertebra, of which particular
one is the posterior? He would rather refer a limb to several vertebre (to five,
perhaps), from their divisions and nerves of supply. He thinks the more multi-

lied rays of the fin of the skate but show a relationship to the Sepia; and, indeed,
in the mollusks generally there is more of a gradation to the vertebrate skeleton
than is commonly supposed. The abdominal fins of thoracic fishes are, however,
as much removed forwards as the fore limbs of mammalia are backwards on the
apophysis theory.

‘ew animals retain the most normal disposition of their limbs, the extensors all
external, the flexors all internal, or in human anatomy anterior; some climbing
animals, as the sloth or the seal, do so more than most; also man when he clasps
or climbs, or more imperfectly, in his hind limbs, when he sits in the oriental
fashion. An eyersion has commonly occurred in the upper or fore extremity, an
opposite inversion in the lower. In cursorial animals the former is compensated
for by a pronation in the lower part of the limb; a still greater pronation in the
mole causes the olecranon to point upwards, and the palm to be turned outwards,
as it is in man in swimming. Few animals below the monkeys probably can
supinate the hand; the squirrel does it from the wrist- and finger-joints. The
author is disposed to agree with those who make the iliac fossa to correspond
with the dorsum of the scapula, the external iliac surface with the subscapular
dorsum, the rectus of the thigh with the triceps of the arm, the former looking
more forwards and the latter more backwards than it should be: the humerus also
to be rotated inwards to bring the two limbs at all to correspond. The patella and
olecranon are variable in position &c., but homologues of each other ; the thumb,
radius, and external condyle preaxial and corresponding with the great toe, tibia,
and inner condyle of the femur; the vessels and nerves at the elbow and knee are
in the corresponding flexure surfaces ; the dorsum of the foot, the patella, and the
origin of the rectus in the lower extremity answer to the back of the hand, the ole-
cranon, and the origin of the triceps in the upper, but not the groin to the axilla.

138 REPORT—1870.

When we reflect on the situation of the arteries of the upper and lower extre-
mities, we notice that at first sight they disagree with the above views,—that is, in
the upper part of the limbs, the brachial artery being on the flexor, whilst the
femoral is on the extensor aspect. For the artery of the thigh to be analogous to
that of the upper arm, the popliteal should be a continuation of the ischiatic, and
not of the femoral; and it is so in the fowl: in man also the ischiatic passes
through the meshes of the lumbo-sacral as the brachial does through the brachial
plexus. For the representative of the femoral artery in the arm we must fix pro-
bably on the acromial or some other of the higher branches. The direction in
which the main vessels emerge from the trunk accounts for this.

MUvUSscLEs.

Thigh. Arm.

Psoas maenus, P. parvus, Iliacus.
fo) } ) -

Pectineus, Adductors.

Gracilis, Sartorius, Tensor vag., Femoris.

Gluteus maximus, Gl. medius, Gl. mi-
nimus.

Pyriformis, Abductores breves.

Rectus, Crureus, Vastus externus, V. in-

Levator ang. scapule, Supraspinatus,
Infraspinatus, Teres minor.

Pectoralis major, P. minor, Subclavius.

Deltoid.

Latissimus dorsi, Subscapularis, Teres
major.

Triceps, Anconzeus.

ternus. .
Semitendinosus, Semimemb., Biceps, Po-
_ pliteeus. :

Biceps, Coraco-brachialis, Brachialis in-
ternus.

The above is a plan of the supposed homologies in the upper muscles of the
limbs. The short abductors are only present in the lower extremity, and then
most developed when the cervix femoris is longest and abducting force required.
The deltoid is peculiar to the upper limb with the clavicle and acromion, this
muscle agreeing with the iliacus and psoas only in its insertion between the ex-
tensors and flexors, but rather to be considered as belonging to the same category
as the trapezius. This last is a protractor, whilst the lower parts of the latissimus
dorsi and pectoralis major, or those parts continuous with the inner portion of their
duplicated tendons, are its antagonists or retractors. The sartorius and gracilis
appear the sole representatives of the tripartite deltoid, their insertion distant, but
preaxial, between the flexors and extensors.

With respect to the innervation of the two limbs, it appears that each set of
muscles, flexors, or extensors is supplied by nerves corresponding—that is, that no
nerve to a flexor supplies an extensor. The median and ulnar nerves in the arm
are purely flexor, the musculo-spiral extensor. The flexors have their supply espe-
cially from the fore part of the brachial and great sciatic plexuses, the extensors
from the back, and pronators and adductors may be arranged with the former,
supinators and abductors with the latter; the extensor nerves also being mostly
given off high up, as are the origins of these muscles. The musculo-spiral in the
arm represents the anterior crural in the leg, plus what answers to the peroneal, or
part of it; in fact the musculo-spiral supplies all the extensors of the upper extre-
mity, the anterior crural only those of the thigh, the peroneal helping it out in the
leg, but sometimes arising high up in the plexus rather than in the middle of the
thigh. The peroneal muscles in man are but partially extensors, but their tendons
in some animals pass before the fibula. The pectoral nerves answer to the obtu--
rator, though the latter passes to its destination differently from what the pectorales
do—of necessity, from the suppression of the fore part of the shoulder-girdle.
Similar reasoning applies to the course of the musculo-spiral. The gluteal and
subscapular draw from all the roots of the plexus, and any difference is only
apparent. The several nerves of the latissimus dorsi and gluteus maximus also
correspond.

In many animals the resemblance between the front and hind limbs is greater
than in man; the differences are, as already in some measure shown, of an adaptive
nature, especially in the osseous and muscular parts. In the fore limb we have a
more varied volitional impulse, extensive pronation and supination, the opposable.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 139

thumb, a more intricate nervous plexus for the combination and separation of
nervous influence, more easy to suppose in its details than to prove; the general
arrangement of the body and the relations of trunk and limbs account for other
differences, as the course of the vessels. How these modifications in the instance
of limbs, and generally in nature, are brought about seems a mystery: it is allow-
able to doubt whether it is either by the gradual modifying action of external

“influences or by natural selection, or both together; and also allowable to believe
that a species remains for ever the same till destroyed by adverse circumstances,
and becoming the progenitor of other species by some unknown law of progression
or development, connected probably with reproduction, and causing their sudden
rather than gradual advent on the earth.

Albumen and its Transformation into Fibrin by the Agency of Water.
By Joun Goopman, M.D.

The author asserted that albumen is known as the pabulum vite, a substance into
which all foods are said to be transformed by the digestive process. Itis denominated
the “raw material” from which all organic animal structures are ultimately formed,
and abounds in the sanguineous and lymphatic systems. Yet albumen is not capable
of giving general nutriment unless it be first transformed into organized mate-
vial. Now that organized substance is fibrin. It is formed out of and at the
expense of the existing albumen, and composes the white corpuscles of the lymph-
and blood- and chyliferous vessels, and is found to constitute almost the entire
mass of the organism. It supplies waste of tissue, is employed in the nutrition,
growth, and reparation of the organism and in the reproduction of the species, and
is vitally necessary for the performance of all the functions of the body. The trans-
formation, therefore, of albumen into fibrin is a process of essential importance in
the sustentation and maintenance of vitality itself; as necessary, indeed, as is the
transformation of the inorganized substances of nature into the organized pro-.
ducts of the vegetable kingdom, for the supply and sustenance of man and animals.
Although this transformation is of such vital import, and these two substances are
evidently dissimilar in their appearance and character, hitherto chemical science
has been unable to discover any very clear and satisfactory distinction in their
elementary composition; nor can the most able physiologist more than guess at
the mode and means by which fibrin is developed in the animal organism.

Under a cognizance of these facts the author instituted some time ago a series
of experiments having a special bearing upon these important questions.

Exp. 1. A portion of albumen from the egg was suspended in ropes in a glass vessel
filled with pure water.

_ Exp. 2. Another similar portion was suspended in sea-water.

Exp. 3. The albumen was arranged in dilute alcohol.

Exp. 4. The albumen was suspended in the atmosphere; and in each instance the
substance was left to stand for a period of from twelve to twenty-four hours or
more.

In No. 4, after the period stated, the only observable change which had taken
place was the evaporation of the water of its fluidity, and the formation of a brittle
and still transparent rod.

In Nos. 2 and 3 a slight change only was perceptible, a very thin, flimsy, and
almost transparent veil being seen to surround the suspended albumen.

In No. 1, however, in a very short space of time, « beautiful opaque white veil
began to make its appearance upon the entire surface of the albumen, and bubbles
of gas were seen to be eliminated. Zhe albumen gradually exchanged its simple,
granular, transparent, and homogeneous appearance for that of air opaque white,
Jibrous, and organized formation, as seen by the aid of a microscope or powerful lens.
Beautiful fibrinous threads of the most delicate construction were seen shooting forth
in various directions and clinging to contiguous olyects ; and ultimately the entire sub-
stance under the microscope was found to consist vA striated bundles of threads or
Jibrilie, resembling spun glass. (Specimens were placed upon the table.)

- Any physiologist witnessing this product would be unable to pronounce it to be

140 REPORT—1870.

any thing else than a beautiful specimen of genuine organized fibrinous substance.
Hitherto we have not been able to collect enough of the gas to subject it to analysis.

These experiments, still being continued, appear to be fraught with incalculable
results as regards nutrition, growth, and reparation of tissue, &c. in the animal
economy, and the development of certain kinds of disease. Fibrin is of essential
value also in the arrest of hemorrhage and of the eruption of purulent matter
among the tissues of the body, and appears to be a chief and fundamental source
of all vital energy, strength, and function.

In No. 2 we have, as previously known, an illustration of the influence of neutral
salines in the prevention of the formation of fibrin ; and in No. 3, the reason why
the London draymen and others, who so extensively indulge in alcoholic drinks,
notoriously possess so little stamina and feeble constitutional vigour.

The water-dressing now so extensively employed in hospitals powerfully corro-
borates the results of exp. No. 1. We have often seen ulcers and sores of long
standing, although previously devoid of any tendency to cicatrization, when sub-
jected to the action of water in wet lint (covered by waterproof), in some twelve
to twenty-four hours they very frequently assume an opaque white and fibrinous
appearance, sometimes by a perfect bloom of the same covering the entire surface ;
or at other times by the formation of white edges, and little dots or islands of the
same appearing in various parts of the sore; water thus effecting in the living
tissues and fluids the same process, and repeating the experiment before us in the
living organism itself.

This experiment appears to unfold a new view of the functions of the lymphatic
and lacteal systems and absorbent veins. Excess of water cannot exist in the
sanguineous system; but it is in the absorbents that not only is albuminous matter
collected, but also water is absorbed from the circulatory system, the tissues, the
atmosphere by the skin, and other parts of the system, for the great and essentially
important purpose, the transformation of albumen into fibrin, by the admixture of
the former with that fluid in their parietes, and in the lymphatic and mesenteric

lands.
i Finally, the product herein formed cannot be albumen, which does not coagulate
at a temperature below 145° Fahrenheit, and this formation was produced in cold
water. Either, therefore, the product of these experiments must be accepted as
veritable fibrin, or some substance highly resembling the same, and not albumen;
or the coagulation of albumen must henceforth be admitted to take place sponta-
neously in water perfectly cold.

Remarks on Variation of Colouring in Animals. By T. B. Garerson, ID.

Variation in colour depends on modifications of albinoism in wild animals, and
these modifications, hereditary, give rise to strange variations, which were illus-
trated by the exhibition of a number of specimens. A tendency was also mentioned
of certain species to become black, illustrated by a number of specimens,

On the Antiseptic Treatment of Contagia as Illustrative of the Germ Theory
of Disease. By Wrturtam Horr, V.C.

On the Comparison of the Shoulder-bones and Muscles with the Hip-bones and
Muscles. By Professor G. M. Humenry, ID., FBS.

Referring to the view of rotation of the fore and hind limbs in opposite direc-
tions, propounded in his ‘Essay on the Limbs of Vertebrate Animals, and now
admitted by most anatomists, he was of opinion that the extension of the same
peace to the shoulder and pelvic girdles, suggested by Prof. Flower in the last

Vumber of the ‘ Journal of Anatomy,’ cannot be maintained. On the contrary, he
gave reasons for believing that the outer surface of the scapula, behind the spine,
together with the subscapularis and teres minor muscles, correspond with the outer
surface of the ilium together with the glutei muscles; that the spine of the sca-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 141

pula corresponds with the crest of the ilium, and the anterior edge of the scapula
with the linea ilio-pectinea; and that therefore the supraspinatus muscle corre-
sponds with the iliacus internus, and the hinder edge of the scapula with the
hinder edge of the ilium. This was followed by a detailed comparison of the
several muscles of the hip and the shoulder,

On the Homological Relations to one another of the Fins of Fishes.
By Professor G. M. Humpnury, W_D., F.B.S.

The object of this paper was to show that the so-called “median” and “ lateral’
fins of osseous fishes are in reality serially homologous. It was shown that the
“ median ” fins are, strictly speaking, double, each being formed by the coalescence
of two lateral elements, produced in the two lateral lamine (neural or hemal, as
the case may be) of the embryo. In the case of the ventral fins, the wider sepa-
ration of the lateral laminz being caused in this part by the presence of the
abdominal viscera, the coalescence of the lateral elements of the fins is prevented,
and each half remains as a distinct fin. ‘The similarity of structure and appearance
of the pelvic bones and their fin-rays to the interspinous bones and their fin-rays
was pointed out, and the connexion of the pelvic bones and the interspinous bones
with the rest of the vertebral skeleton was shown to correspond. The pectoral fins
being admitted on good grounds to be homologous with the ventral fins must, if
the view here taken is correct, be also serially homologous with the elements of
the anal fin.

——

On Blight in Man and in the Animal and Vegetable World.
By Ricuarp Kine, W.D., FES.

The author haying defined the terms Blight, Contagion, and Infection, according
to the acceptance of these terms by the best authorites, proceeded to illustrate his
paper on “ Blight in Man and in the Animal and Vegetable World.” He com-
menced with the fairy-rings, the eyesores in our parks and lawns, and he recog-
nized two distinct forms not hitherto noticed—the fairy-ring withered and the
fairy-ring luxuriant. In the fairy-ring withered grows the champignon in the
periphery of the ring, in the luxuriant ring grows the mushroom throughout its
entire ring. He then proceeded to the potato-disease, where he recognized two
distinct forms—the withered haulm and the blotched haulm. He then proceeded
to the rinderpest in the cow and the sheep, and he there recognized two forms
of disease—the mouth-disease and the foot-disease. In man he recognized two
distinct forms of disease—cholera and diarrhoea as well as fevers. He attri-
butes all these diseases of the animal and vegetable world to one cause under
two different circumstances, as gas passing out of the earth as a terrestrial gas
and coming back to the earth as a poisonous vapour,—the gas passing out of the
earth generating the withered fairy-ring, the withered haulm of the potato, and
cholera; the poisonous vapour falling upon the earth producing the luxuriant
fairy-ring, the blotched haulm of the potato, and diarrhea.

Cui bono? Plough up the luxuriant fairy-ring, cut off the blotched haulm of
the potato, and treat diarrhoea, all are amenable to treatment ; but the fairy-ring
withered, the potato-plant withered, cholera in man, and the rinderpest in the cow
and the sheep are not amenable to treatment. Drive out of the infected locality
man from his home, the cow from her shed, the glandered horse from his stable, and
the sheep from his walk, and you will save them; do not leave them in the infected
district to constantly inhale the poisonous gas which has produced the disease.

Note on Metheemoglobin. By E. Ray Lanxnusrer.

—_—_———

New Physiological Researches on the Effects of Carbonic Acid.
By B. W. Ricwarpson, M.D., FBS.

142 REPORT—1870.

On the Action of some Gases and Vapowrs on the Red Blood-corpuseles,
By HE, Ray Layxester,

Professor ALEXANDER MacaxisTER, M.D., exhibited a sketch of some varieties
of the Pronator quadratus. 2
On a new Method of studying the Capillary Circulation in Mammals. By
Dr. 8. Srricker, Professor of Experimental Pathology in Vienna, and
Burpon Sanperson, M.D., F.RS., Professor of Practical Physiology in
University College, London.

All conclusions as to the capillary circulation which are derived from obserya-
tions of cold-blooded animals are subject to the objection that their functions are
carried on under conditions considerably remote from those which exist in man.
It has therefore been long desirable to change the field of research to mammalia.
There is, however, no mammalian animal in which any external part is sufficiently
transparent for observation under the higher powers of the microscope. The me-
thod must therefore necessarily involve vivisection; so that an anesthetic is abso-
lutely necessary. Most happily chloral is found to be completely adapted to the
purpose. About three grains of chloral under the skin was found to be sufficient
to render a full-sized guineapig motionless and insensible for many hours.

One of us (Dr. Sanderson) was familiar with the remarkable structure of the
guineapig’s omentum, and had already described it in connexion with another
inquiry. The omentum of the guineapig is a membrane of extent relatively com-
parable to that of man, but its structure is entirely different. First, it is attached,
not to the transverse colon, but to the greater curvature of the stomach ; secondly,
it consists, not of four layers of membrane, but two; and lastly, it contains very
little fat, but in place of it a great quantity of cells, which are collected in a pecu-
liar way about the blood-vessels and in their neighbourhood, partly in the form of
perivascular sheaths, partly in the form of little collections or nodules consisting
of cells lying in the meshes of a plexus of capillaries, Hence, from the simplicity
of its anatomical relations, and particularly from its being attached on one side
only to the stomach (in which respect no membrane is comparable with it), from
its perfect transparency, from its abundant vascularity, and from its containing
not only vessels, but living cells, and these cells of two kinds, namely, epithelial
and parenchymatous, it is obvious that the omentum of the guineapig offers a
splendid field for observation.

For observation the membrane must be immersed; immersed, howeyer, not in
water, for water would at once irritate and kill the tissue, but in solution of
common salt of proper strength. Such a solution is what physiologists call an
indifferent fluid, because, when it comes in contact with living cells, it does not
appreciably interfere with their vital processes, Secondly, it cannot be in a natural
condition unless it retain the temperature of the living body, The arrangement
for securing this is somewhat complicated. The membrane is laid out in a glass
dish, which is supported on the stage of the microscope by a hollow brass plate,
through which a stream of water flows at a rate and temperature so regulated that
the dish and its contents are maintained at a temperature closely agreeing with
that of the body.

For commencing the observation this is all that is necessary. If, however, it is
continued, the obseryer soon encounters two difficulties, both of which must be
overcome. The one arises from the clouding of his objective when it is brought
near the warm surface of the saline solution; the other, ee the rapid evaporation
of the solution, and the consequent alteration of its density, and eventual desic-
cation of the membrane. The first difficulty is obviated by warming the objective ;
the second by providing for the renewal of the water contained in the bath
by the constant influx of fresh water at a rate corresponding to that at which
it wastes,

The operative procedure is extremely simple. The guineapig having been tho-
roughly chloralized, is laid on a support or block, the upper surface of which is in

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 143

the same horizontal plane with that of the microscope stage. An incision is made,
which extends for two inches at most from the outer edge of the left rectus muscle,
a little below (behind) the end of the ensiform cartilage horizontally outwards so
as to divide one or two costal cartilages. The muscles must next be divided and
the peritoneum carefully opened. ‘The stomach can then be drawn out of the
abdominal cavity without difficulty, especially if the additional precaution be
employed of first removing some of its contents. In doing this, vey little mani-
pulation is necessary, and special care must be taken to avoid touching the deli-
cate structure attached to its border which is to be subjected to observation, The
moment that the organ is fairly out of the abdomen, the membrane must be floated
into the warm bath prepared for it, and is then ready for examination. It is,
however, found very advantageous to cover those parts of it which do not lie
directly under the microscope with sheets of blotting-paper. This arrangement
has two advantages; the risk of evaporation is diminished, and the undulatory
movements of the water are prevented, so that the object is rendered much steadier
than it would otherwise be. The enlargements we have hitherto employed are
inconsiderable, the most useful objective being the quarter of Ross. We haye no
doubt, however, that we shall eventually be able to apply both air and immersion
objectives of higher magnifying-power.
he objects which present themselves to the observer in the omentum of the
guineapig are manifold. We content ourselves with barely enumerating them.
Veins and arteries may be studied of various diametérs, some of them surrounded
by sheaths containing fat-cells, some by similar sheaths containing the cells of
which mention has already been made, others so free that their structure can be
penriy studied. Labyrinths of capillaries of surpassing beauty can be studied
oth in the sheaths of the vessels and in the little nodules of tissue in their neigh-
bourhood; and finally the epithelial elements with their characteristic spheroidal
nuclei by which the wonderful connective-tissue network of the omentum is every-
where covered.
After the conclusion of the Meeting the method was exhibited to a large number
of medical gentlemen by the authors.

On Lefthandness, By Dr. P. H. Surrn.

On the Cranial Osteology of Polypterus Birchii.
By Professor Ramsay H. Traqvarr, M.D.

On the Intimate Structure of the Human Inng. By A. T. H. Waters, M.D.

On the Anthropology of Lancashire. By Joun Bevvor, M.D.

The author said that it had been supposed that the Teutonic character of the in-
habitants of South Lancashire might date from the occupation of Manchester, du-
ring the Roman period, by a cohort of Frisians. Possibly the blood of the Celtic
Britons, here as elsewhere, might have been somewhat affected by colonization of
this kind under Roman auspices; but it seemed more probable that the southern
part of Lancashire was not really Saxonized until the reign of Ethelfrith of Nor-
thumbria, who made great conquests in this direction. But the northern portions
of the county remained British much longer, and were not thoroughly Teutonized
until their colonization, in common with Cumberland and Westmoreland, by Scan-
dinavians from Ireland and Man. Certain Scandinavians also found their way into
South Lancashire, and thus a few local Danish names were found, such as Formby;
and in Domesday Book certain Drenghs appeared as holding lands at Warring-
ton, “‘drengage ” being a Scandinavian tenure, and the word “ drengh” being still
in use in Norway. Since the Norman Conquest no ethnological change worthy of
mention had occurred in the northern part of the county, and the physical type in

144 REPORT—1870.

that quarter was accordingly pretty distinct. The Norwegian element prevailed in
it over the Kymro-British.. The Anglian was weak and the Gaelic doubtful. The
stature was tall, the hair often light, and the features of Norse type. The evidence
of philology pointed in the same direction. In South Lancashire the original An-
glian type had been obscured by the prodigious extent of immigration ; moreover,
the stature had been degraded, and the type otherwise affected, by the results of
the recent great development of manufacturing industry. It was, however, still
distinguishable, and resembled that of Northern Mercia. The principal points in
the paper were supported by numerical tables.

On the Ottoman Turks. By Joux Beppor, M.D.

The observations of the author had led him to the conclusion that the physical
type of the Ottomans, at all events of the peasantry of Anatolia, had not, probably,
very much changed since the Turkish Conquest. At that time, no doubt, consi-
derable intermixture of blood had occurred between the Seljukian and Ottoman
Turks and the conquered people; but any subsequent crossing had been pretty
much confined to Rumelia and the towns; and a well-marked Turanian physiog-
nomy was still very prevalent among the Anatolian peasantry. The Turkomans
were most Turanian in aspect, and next to them came the pastoral tribes called
Yuruks, then the Anatolian peasantry, and, lastly, the Rumelians and the Mussul-
man population of the large towns, in whom the original Turkish element was ex-
tremely dilute. These differences of aspect corresponded to the known or probable
differences of blood; and it appeared unnecessary to invoke the aid of supposed
climatic influences to account for them.

On the Position of Australian Languages. By Dr. Bure.

The author traced certain analogies between the several Australian and Dravidian
languages, placing them all in Max Miiller’s great nomadic or Turanian class ; and
although the Australians have, with few exceptions, no grammatical distinctions of
gender, the author does not think that this necessarily excludes them from the sex-
denoting family. The use of suffixes and post-positions in the Australian languages
led him to infer that they have been derived from the more temperate zones. In-
deed the nations using suffix-pronominal languages ‘are found on the outskirts of
the Tropics, and in temperate and cold latitudes; while those speaking prefix-pro-
nominal tongues are restricted to the Tropics. And, again, the suffix-pronominal
class are addicted to sidereal worship, and the prefix-pronominal to ancestor-wor-
ship. The author, however, carefully showed that the physical descent of a race by
no means necessarily coincides with the descent of its language ; and, in conclusion,
expressed his belief, based on a study of the mythology and the present customs of
the Australians, that these have degenerated from a higher state of civilization.

New Views of Craniology. By F, Brrvers.

On the Village System in India. By G. Campnrtt, D.C.L.

A Note on the Distribution of the Names of Weapons in Prehistoric Times.
By Hypr Crarxe.

The author observed that weapons in various parts of the world, of prehistoric
date, were found to present extraordinary evidences of identity. He called atten-
tion to the possibility of finding evidences of identity of root-words in the names
of weapons, and, as an instance, called attention to a name forarrow. This among
the Sentals and Gonds of India is sa. The like form is to be found in many lan-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 145

ages of Central India and Northern Bengal. In the Dravidian group a form is

ound also of saralu, and in Sanskrit of sara: this is also found in Nepal. On the

Chinese frontier of Tibet it is selima. Crossing to East Africa, we have in Ki-
ginde, a member of the great Cafire group, musali, m being a suffix.

On Ancient Sculptures and Objects of Art from Irish Cairns.
By Everne Atrrep Conwett, LL.D., M.RLA.

If the early history of a country, at a period concerning which there are no
written records, can be best studied from the instructive memorials of bygone ages,
we have the advantage of possessing in Ireland some rare monuments of departed
splendour, in the form of cairns, or ancient tombs, which still happily survive the
ravages of time and decay.

The author’s present intention is not to treat of the well-Inown tumuli at Dowth
and New Grange, in the County of Meath ; these, among archzeologists, have had,
and deservedly so, a world-wide fame. In the same county, however, there exists
a much less known, and perhaps far more interesting series of cairns, which until
recently have escaped all notice and investigation. Remarkable as they are, and
reverenced and sacred as they must have been in former times, strange to say, these
cairns have not yet been identified with any description or historical allusion in the
ancient annals of the country.

During an excursion in June 1863 to the Loughcrew Hills, where these ancient
tombs are most conspicuously situated, about two miles south-east of the town of
Oldcastle, the author found the remains of thirty-one cairns, partially destroyed, no
allusion to which was inserted on the Ordnance Maps beyond a few dots, with the
word “stones” appended. The rural population of the neighbourhood believed
these heaps of stones to be the magical work of a witch, and had current among
them a legend to that effect. Hence the name given to the highest peak, Sliabh-
na-Caillighe, or “The Hag’s Mountain.”

After haying made some preliminary explorations in two of the cairns, he had
the good fortune to enlist the interest of the proprietor of the estate, the late James
Lenox William Naper, Esq., in having a thorough examination of the place
undertaken. It must, however, in justice, be stated here that, in securing his co-
operation and indispensable assistance in supplying labour &c., the author was
mainly indebted to the scientific tastes of his agent, Charles Wm. Hamilton, Esq.,
J.P., of Hamwood, who also communicated with Colonel Sir Henry James, R.E.,
as to the omission of these cairns on the Ordnance Maps; in consequence of which
a highly qualified Sapper, Mr. Thomas Pearson, was sent from the Ordnance De-
partment, Phcenix Park, with instructions to remeasure the hills, and to insert the
antiquities on a map 25°344 inches to a statute mile*.

In a paper which the author had the honour of reading before the Royal Irish
Academy on 26th February, 1866, he described these cairns, naming each by a letter
of the alphabet, in some cases with an index figure. Out of the remains of thirty-
one cairns, fourteen were found to contain parietal or chamber-stones, richly covered
with sculptures; in some cases the work having been punched, and in others clearly
and cleanly cut or engraved.

In each of the cairns careful drawings have been made of the devices upon these
stones, amounting to 115 in number, several of which were exhibited to the Section.
In the well-known cairn at Dowth there are eleven inscribed stones, and at the
celebrated tumulus of New Grange twenty ; while in Cairn T, at Loughcrew, as
many as thirty-one, no two being exactly alike; and many most elaborately
covered with devices, which afforded stronger evidence of their having been in-
tended as symbolic emblems than the (in many cases) evidently ornamental sculp-
tures at New Grange.

Cairn F.

The present remains of this cairn, which is 163 yards in diameter, rise only to

the height of 5 feet. In the south-western corner of the southern crypt in the in-

* A copy of this map was exhibited to the Section, zincographed copies of which can
be obtained from the Ordnance Publishers.

1870. 10

146 REPORT— 1870.

terior, and about a foot from the bottom, was found, imbedded among the clay and
stones which filled up the chambers, a well-rounded stone ball, 3 inches in dia-
meter ; material probably brownish-red hematite.

Carrn H.

The present remains of this cairn, the richest of all in its yield of prehistoric ob-
jects, are only between 5 and 6 feet higher than the adjoining ground, and 18 yards
in diameter. With the exception of about half a dozen large overlapping flags, the
covering- or roofing-stones of the interior chambers had long since disappeared,
leaving what remained of the original mound entirely overgrown with grass, and
exposed to the destructive influences of rains and frosts. The unroofed passage and
chambers in its interior were filled on top to a depth of about 18 inches with loose
stones and earth. Having removed these, the author found the passage itself, from
that to the bottom, a depth of about 3 feet more, completely packed with human
bones in a fragmentary state, and nearly all showing evidences of haying been burnt.
Several hundreds of these human bones were collected on the spot and preserved,
as they Brpesred to belong to persons of various ages and-sexes. Of these were
portions of skulls, shoulder-blades, limb-bones, &c. The three chambers of this
cairn were found filled with a very miscellaneous mixture of stones, broken bones,
and earth ; the latter in a soft, stiff, retentive state. These contents were removed
with great care ; and from them were obtained the following :—One end of a bone
bodkin ; one half of a bone ferrule; six pieces of bone-pins, of which one, 1# inch
long, and highly ornamented, still retains a metallic rivet, which apparently
fastened on a head; one tine of an antler, 3 inches long; fourteen fragments of very
rude pottery, being portions of urns; ten pieces of flint; upwards of 200 sea-shells,
principally limpet- and cockle-shells; some varieties of small lustrous or shining
stones; several hundred sea-pebbles, of various hues and sizes; a small brown
stone ball; one round bone-disk, such as is found inserted between the vertebree
in the skeleton of a whale.

Underneath the stone basin in the northern chamber were found, imbedded in
damp earth and mixed with small splinters of burnt bones, six stone balls, the
largest about an inch in diameter; but they were in so soft a state that they could
scarcely be touched without injuring them. Five of these appear to be white car-
bonate of lime, and the sixth a dark-coloured ball, probably made from a fossil, as
it exhibits root-like fibres. Chiefly in the southern chamber, and for the most
part imbedded in wet stiff clay, the author obtained the most remarkable collection
of bone implements, glass, amber, iron, and bronze which probably has ever been
found together under similar circumstances. In a few instances, where the bone
articles chanced to be protected by an overlying stone, and in other respects in a dry
position, the sound bone still retains its original polish, giving these articles all
the appearance of being quite modern. In all other cases they were found in such
a soft state that it was with difficulty they could be extracted from the tough clay
without breaking them. Of these bone implements (nearly 5000 specimens, some
in mere fragments), upwards of 100 are still perfect in form, and are of various shapes
and sizes, some resembling in contour the flint knives of Scandinavia; some are
perforated by a single hole near the end. Upwards of 500 of the fragments of these
bone objects are ornamented with rows of fine parallel transverse lines. Seventy-
three of them are engraved (twelve of these on both sides) in a very high order of
art, with circles, curves, ornamental puncturings, &c.; and on one, in cross-hatch
lines, is the representation of an antlered stag. Ten fragments of white and
polished bone combs, of various patterns, turned up, seven of which are engraved
on both sides, but the heads only and the roots of the teeth of the combs now re-
main. There is also a portion of another bone implement, highly ornamented,
resembling in shape the cardboard upon which ladies in the present day are accus-
tomed to wind silk thread.

Amber.—Four beads, the largest scarcely a quarter of an inch in diameter, and
four fragments of other amber beads. Glass.—Three small beads, two blue and one
green; two fragments, or broken pieces, of glass; one tapering piece of hollow glass
(apparently) 1 inch in length, and resembling a shark’s tooth or a Rupert’s drop.
Bronze.—Six open rings (that is, not closed into one solid piece), varying from } to

a a

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 147

8 inch in diameter ; a portion of another ring, which is hollow, and formed by over-
lapping a thin plate of bronze, besides seven broken portions of otherrings. Jron.—
Not lying together, but mixed up with the earth and débris which filled the
southern chamber, the author found :—seven specimens of iron objects; one is an
open ring, about 4 inch in diameter; one half of another ring, somewhat larger;
two pieces, each about 1 inch long, of uncertain use; one thin piece, } inch long
and 2 inch broad ; one piece, 14 inch long, presenting the appearance of being the
leg of a compass, a tool with which the bone implements were evidently inscribed
and ornamented. Lastly, an iron punch, or pick, 5 inches long, with flat point or
working end, with the head, or larger end, bearing evidences of being hammered,
and thus indicating its use.

Many of the devices or designs upon the sculptured stones in the cairns have
been executed in punched or picked work, in many cases each impact or stroke in
the line being still quite visible. The author has fitted the point of this instrument
to many of these punched patterns, and they afforded every appearance of having
been executed with such a tool as this. Ina later examination of the remains of
this cairn (June 1868), assisted by two men, the following were found :— Nine small
open bronze rings, of different sizes; one link, or ring, material probably steatite,
nearly worn across in use in one place, and which may have been used as part of
an ear-ring ; one flint nodule, sponge-shaped, well polished on upper surface ; one
segment of a small brown stone ball; one thin rectangular disk of stone, veined in
pink and blue shades of colour; two bone beads; two glass beads, one green and
the other blue, differing in shape; one “ double bead” of solid glass, about 3 inch
in length, and of a very soft green colour when held up to the light; fifteen por-
tions of bone flakes or implements, one: perforated, and five others engraved with
circles and other ornamentations.

Caren I.

In the compartment which exactly faces the east, on the surface of some finely
broken stones, and underneath a thin flag which formed the floor of the chamber,
the author found a bead and pendant, to all appearance portions of a necklace of stone.

Caren J.
A roughly finished brown stone ball, about 1 inch in diameter, was found near
the opening of the passage into the interior chambers.

Caren L,

From among the loose stones which filled up the unroofed chambers here, the
author collected upwards of 1000 portions of fens: two bone flakes, similar to
those found in Cairn H: 154 fragments of very rude pottery; one piece, about
3 inches square, being the upper portion of an urn, is very inartistically ornamented
with three slight ridges, and about an inch from the top there is a single per-
foration; another larger piece, ornamented with four slightly raised ridges, is per-
forated by two holes, one 13 inch below the other. When the interior chambers
were cleared of all the loose stones &c., on Tuesday evening, 19th September, 1865,
Mr. Naper, Mr. Hamilton, and Archbishop Errington were present at the raising
of the remarkable large oval stone basin which occupied the floor of the northern
compartment. Immediately underneath it were several splinters of charred,
blackened bones; and, imbedded in the stiff wet earth below, the author found :—
upwards of 900 pieces of charred bones, with about a dozen pieces of charcoal lying
in various directions ; forty-eight human teeth, in good preservation; the pointed
end of a bone pin, 5} inches long; a fragment, 1 inch long, of a similar bone pin ;
a syenite ball, perfectly rounded, and still preserving its original polish, nearly 27
inches in diameter; another perfectly atid stone ball, about 1 inch in diameter,
and streaked with white and purple layers; another brown stone ball, dashed with
dark spots ; a finely polished jet-like object, oval in shape, 14 inch in length, and
# inch broad; eight white stone balls, quite in a soft state.

Caren 8.
_ The apex of this cairn is completely gone, leaving exposed the tops of the up-
right stones forming the chambers. Outside the entrance to the passage was found,
10*

148 REPORT—1870.

in white flint, a perfect specimen of a leaf-shaped arrow-head, 14 inch long and
nearly # inch broad. Dr. Thurnam, who has seen it, pronounces it to be somewhat
larger than those of the same unbarbed type found by him in the Wiltshire barrows.
The two small compartments into which the passage itself is divided were filled
up to the height of 18 inches with charred bones, broken into small fragments. On
the top of these, in the first chamber, a piece of bent bone was found, 9 inches
long, tooled and rounded at one end, to all appearance being a broken portion of
abow. The most remarkable thing about it is that it has lain there so long that it
is now silicified. In the second chamber, and in a similar position (that is, on the
top of the charred bones which filled the compartment), the author found a roughly
finished bone dagger, 7 inches long and nearly 1 inch broad.

Caren T.

Among the loose stones at the bottom of the central chamber, and close to the
entrance to the northern crypt, was found a bronze pin, 23 inches long, with head
ornamented and stem slightly so, and still preserving the beautiful green polish
peculiar to bronze *.

The author does not propose offering any theories or opinions, contenting him-
self with the simple statement of facts, and leaving others to draw such conclusions
from them as their various judgments may suggest. One fact, however, appears to
him to be established, viz. that the cremation of the dead has been practised in
Sliabh-na-Caillighe up to a period when the people had become acquainted with
the use of articles made not only of stone and of bronze, but of iron, glass, amber,
and bone.

On the Discovery of Platycnemic Men in Denbighshire.
By W. Born Dawxuss, M.A., F.R.S., and Grorce Busx, F.R.S., PLS.

Mr. Boyd Dawkins described a refuse-heap at Perthi Chwareu in Denbighshire,
and a sepulchral cave which he discovered close by, containing from twenty to
twenty-five human skeletons, buried in the crouching posture, and, associated with
a flint flake, a few fragments of marine shells, the mussel, cockle, and Mya trun-
cata, and broken bones of animals. The latter were of the same species in both
cave and refuse-heap, viz. dog, fox, badger, marten, wild cat, pig, roe, red deer,
goat (Bos longifrons), Celtic short-horn, horse, water-rat, hare, and rabbit. The
two deposits are therefore of the same relative antiquity. The same group of ani-
mals occurred also in the cave at Cefn, near St. Asaph, in which human bones were
found along with flint flakes. The human skulls and bones also from a chambered
tomb near Cefn are of the same character; and therefore the refuse-heap, the in-
terments in the two caves, and the tumulus are probably of the same date. The
human skulls are of the ordinary type termed “ Ancient British,” and some of the
leg-bones present the peculiar character which is denoted by the term platycnemic,
while others are of the normal shape. This diversity destroys the value of platyc-
nemism as a character of race. It has not been observed before in any British ske-
letons. The presence of the flint flakes, coupled with the crouching posture of the
skeletons and the shape of the skulls, proves that some deposits are of Neolithic
age. Professor Busk pointed out the difference in the platycnemism of the Den-
bighshire skeletons and that in those which have been discovered in France and
Gibraltar; and maintained that the evidence in favour of its being a race-character
completely broke down. The remains found in Denbigh indicated a small race, ave-
raging from 5 to 5 feet 6 inches in stature.

Exploration of the Victoria Cave, Settle, Yorkshire.
By W. Boxy Dawxrns, M.A., FBS.

The following are the results of the labours of the Settle Cave Exploration
Committee up to the present date. In cutting a new entrance into the Victoria
Cave, this section was exposed :—

* A collection of the most interesting objects found, and a series of drawings of the in-
scribed stones from one cairn, were exhibited in a large glass case at the Soirée given in
St. George’s Hall.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 149

4, A talus of angular limestone fragments, fallen from the cliff, 2 feet thick

3. A stratum of dark earth, carbon, stones, Roman pottery, and coins, and
fibulz, broken bones, &c., 18 inches thick.

2. - talus of angular fragments of precisely the same character as that
above.

1. A zone at the base of this furnished remains of a gigantic brown bear, red
deer, horse, and Bos longifrons, a bone harpoon and flint flakes, and rested
on the clay, which is of unknown depth.

This section affords a rough measure of the difference in time between the two
periods of the occupation of the cave.

If we allow that for a considerable time past, immediately outside the historical
epoch, the disintegration of the cliff has been equal, in equal times, of two feet,—if,
then, in twelve hundred years, to put it at the lowest, only a thickness of twenty-
four inches has been accumulated, it would take three thousand six hundred years
for a deposit of six feet to be formed ; and thus the harpoon and flint stratum would
be about four thousand years old. The accuracy of this calculation is, indeed, in-
jured by the possibility that the winter cold was more intense and the splitting
action of the frost greater in pre- than in post-Roman times, Nevertheless the
change from the arctic severity of the postglacial winter to the climate which we
now enjoy in Britain has been so gradual, and spread over so long a period, that
it may be assumed to have been very small in so short a time as four or five
thousand years.

These two layers containing traces of man gradually coalesced as the excavation
oe into the cave, and at last became so confused together as not to be easily

istinguished at a few feet from the entrance. The remains of a gigantic bear,
which had been eaten probably, may be assigned to the lower horizon, which
furnished flint flakes and a bone harpoon in form resembling that used by the
natives of Nootka Sound. The upper or Romano-Celtic stratum continued to supply
evidence of the comparatively late date of its accumulation in barbarous imitations
of coins of Tetricus (A.D. 267-273). A portion of the ivory handle of a Roman
sword and a coin of Trajan have also been found, along with large quantities of the
bones of animals that had been used as food. Several spurs of cocks proved that
the inhabitants ate the domestic fowl, which was probably imported into this
country either directly or indirectly by the Romans. The most striking object,
however, is a beautiful sigmoid fibula made of bronze, and ornamented with a
beautiful pattern in red, yellow, green, and blue enamel. It is an admirable ex-
ample of the art of enamelling (‘‘ Britannicum opus ” ?) which seems to be peculiar
to the Celts.

On the Shadows of Genius. By W.C. Drnvy.

On the Geological Changes which have Occurred since the first Traces of Manin
Europe. By Professor P. Martin Duncan, I.D., P.RS., Sec. GS.

The Relation of the Ancient Moabites to Neighbouring Nations, as disclosed in
the newly discovered Moabite Stone*. By the Rev. C. D. Ginssure, LL.D.

The newly discovered Moabite stone discloses several important facts in the rela-
tion between the Moabites and the neighbouring nations which are material con-
tributions to ethnology, geography, and paleography, in celebrating on this
triumphal pillar the enfranchisement of Moab from the thraldom of Israel, by
successive victories which Mesha, king of Moab, gained over Omri, king of Israel
and his dynasty (circa B.c. 884) ; the new facts bearing upon these departments,
therein exhibited, may be stated as follows :—

1. The Moabites were an independent nation from the reign of Solomon; they
were resubjugated by Omri (B.c. 924), and Mesha regained the liberty of his
country ; and the land remained in the undisturbed possession of, the Moabites up

* This paper, including a commentary on the inscription, has been printed separately
in extenso.

150 REPORT—1870.

to the time when the “Burden of Moab” was pronounced (Isaiah, xv., xvi.),
B.C. 726.

2, In military prowess the Moabites under Mesha, whose country was not quite
as large as the County of Huntingdon, were superior to the Jews. This is evident
from the fact that the king of Israel was afraid to undertake the expedition against
Moab alone, that he solicited and obtained the aid of Jehoshaphat, king of Judah,
and of the king of Edom, that even these three allied armies, led by their re-
spective sovereigns in person, dared not to confront the Moabite army in a straight-
forward invasion, and that they were ultimately completely driven out of the
country. It is this victory which Mesha celebrates on the stone.

3. The ritual of the Moabites must have closely approximated that of the Jews ;
for the vessels of Jehovah were at once transferred from the sanctuary of the Jewish
service to the temple of the Moabite deity (lines 17,18). For other identical prac-
tices comp. line 17 with Numb. xxxi. 17, 18, 35, 40.

4, The Moabites were, moreover, superior to the Jews of that time in their
architectural skill. Immediately after Mesha gained the victories over the three
allied kings, he erected buildings which, as far as historical records are concerned,
have no parallel in the Jewish annals. This is evident from the building of
Korcha, with its parks, fortifications, towers, palaces, prisons, waterworks (lines
216 to 26a), the construction of the stupendous road across the Arnon (line 26),
and many other structures erected in the single reign of Mesha,

5. Its geographical importance cannot be overrated. It not only specifies thir-
teen out of the twenty names of the places in Moab mentioned in the Bible,—viz.
the Arnon (river), Aroer, Ataroth, Baal-meon, Beth Baal-meon, Beth Diblathaim,
Bezer, Dibon, Horonaim, Jahaz, Medeba, Nebo, Kirjathaim,—but gives four new
names of places, viz. Beth-Bamoth, Bikoran, Korcha, and Siran.

6. The language of the Moabites is almost identical with that of the Hebrews;
indeed it has preserved forms and phrases which have gradually been eliminated from
the Hebrew. Any one who can translate the Hebrew Pentateuch will be able to
understand the inscription on the Moabite stone. The characters are the so-called
Phoenician or Cadmean, and exhibit the primary source from which the original
forms of the Greek alphabet are derived.

Anthropological Note on Carved Stones recently discovered in Nithdale, Scot-
land. By T. B. Grierson, F.A.S.L.

Among the finest specimens of ancient stone crosses that have been met with in
the south of Scotland was one that had been found in Nithdale within the last
twelve months; it was covered with carving, representing animals and other
objects. Drawings were exhibited, and some of the ornamentation was very ela-
borate and beautiful. The stone cross, which is far from being perfect, when found
was doomed to destruction ; but it was fortunately rescued, and is now preserved
at T, B. Grierson’s Museum, Thornhill.

The Discovery of a Kitchen-midden at Balycotton in County Cork.
By Professor Harknuss, RS.

The author, after alluding to several kitchen-middens which have been dis-
covered on the coasts of Ireland, described one which had recently been met with
on the shore at Ballycotton in the County Cork. Here great quantities of the
shells of Purpura lapilus occur, and in the soil beneath those shells, bones of ox,
goat, and pig are found, the long bones of which have been broken for the marrow
contained in them.

The sea has for several years been making great inroads on the coast at Bally-
cotton ; and small knolls of peat, which rest upon the boulder-clay, are seen on
the shore between high- and low-water marks. Near the base of these peat knolls
bones of ox, goat, and pig are to be met with; and the long bones here haye also
been broken for the marrow. Associated with these are the bones of birds, which
belong to the crane, not now indigenous to Ireland, and the wild swan.

_A great thickness of peat formerly occupied a portion of the district which mar-
gins Ballycotton Bay on the west. This has, however, been in a great measure

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 151

removed for fuel, and the peat knolls are portions of the remains of this thick mass
of peat.
he vegetable matter composing the peat kmolls consisted principally of leaves of
oak, alder, and hazle.
A considerable subsidence must have taken place in this portion of the coast of
Treland, as the remains of the food of man and leaves of land-plants are now found
at a level considerably below that of the ordinary high tide.

Remark on the Anatomy of the Intellect. By Writt1am Hitcuman, M.D.

On some forms of Ancient Interment in County Antrim.
By T. Suyctarr Horven, M.D.

On the Massagete and Sace. By H. H. Howorrn.

The Chinese authors, translated by Stanislas Julien, and the ‘ History of the White
Huns,’ by Vivian St. Martin, were the author’s chief authorities. These enabled
him to identify the Massagetze of Herodotus and the Greeks with the Ta Yetha of
the Chinese writers and the Sacz with the Sai and Szu of the same authors and
the Sahs and Sakas of the Indian Epics, and to arrive at the very probable conclu-
sion that Massageta is the indigenous name of the tribes called Sacze by the Per-
sians; so that Massageta and Saca are in fact equivalent terms, and refer to at
most mere branches of one race.

This race has been declared by several competent authorities to be Turanian or
Arian; the Chinese writers enable him to describe it definitely as Thibetan.
The Khiang or Thibetans were, before the supremacy of the Turks, the dominant
race of central Asia. It is interesting to connect them with the subjects of To-
myris and the great enemies of Cyrus.

The evidence is overwhelming to show that the Massagetee were the ancestors of
the Indo-Scyths, who overran Bactria and destroyed the power of the Greeks in
Asia. So that we may also, the author considers, correlate the subjects of Kad-
phises, the great restorer of Buddhism, with the Thibetan race; these facts, in his
view, effectually disposing of the old notion that the Saxons had any thing to do
with the Sacz and the Massagetz with the Goths. It also disposes of the more
popular delusion that the Welsh are descended from the Cimmerians, Cimme-
rian (the Gimiri of the cuneiform inscriptions) is only a transcription of the name
Saka, and is equivalent to it, one being the Semitic, the other the Arian name of
the same race,

Pre-Turkish Frontagers of Persia. By H. H. Howorrn.

In a previous paper the author connected the Massagete and Sac with the
Khiang or Thibetan races, and, on the other hand, showed them to have been the
ancestors of the Indo-Scyths, who overthrew Bactria and the influence of the
Greeks in Asia. Continuing their history, we find that the Indo-Scyths were
divided into five kingdoms, of which Kouei chang was the chief, and that about
the year 16 a.p. Kouei chang destroyed the four other kingdoms, and became very
celebrated. It is constantly referred to both by the Armenian and Persian authors.
Its great heroes were Korsako (the Kadphises of numismatists) and Kanichka, who
was the regenerator of Buddhism, and who introduced that creed into Thibet
and China. Previously to his conversion his people had been sun-worshippers ;
and the author traced to them that form of Mithraism which was introduced at
Rome by Pompey, and which he brought from Parthia.

On the decay of the power of Kouei chang the nomades on the Persian frontier
are again found under the name of Yuetchi and Jatoi. V. St. Martin has iden-
tified them with the Haiathelah of the Persians and the Epthalite of the Greeks.

About the fourth century. the Avarian Huns overran Transoxiana and the coun-
try as far as the Indus, and in the pages of Procopius, Priscus, and Cosmas the topo-
grapher, the nomades are called White Huns, and their country Hunnia. These

152 REPORT—1870.

are the Huns and Avares of the Indian epics. They were simply Gete led by a
caste of Huns. Procopius describes them as very civilized and quite different to
the European Huns. These White Huns the author identified with the Khazars.

Now the Khazars, there are very strong reasons for believing, were Circassians ;
therefore the Circassians are the lineal descendants of the Massagetse of Herodotus.
That they have a very large Thibetan element among them has long ago been
shown by Mr. Hodgson, the best of all authorities on such asubject. This race
genealogy clears up a great many difficulties in the ethnography of the Persian
rontier.

On the Avares. By H. H. Howorrua.

The Lesghian tribes of the Caucasus have not received the attention they de-
serve. One of them is called Chundsag, another Avar. Since the days of Klaproth
it has been known that almost every name of a Hunnic and Avarian leader in
ancient times is still found as a familiar name among the Avars, the Chundsags, &c.
of Leghistan or Daghestan. The conclusion has, however, always been evaded
that both Avars and Huns were neither more nor less than the ancestors of these
Caucasian tribes, that they spoke the same language as the Lesghs in fact. The
author believed this identification to be consistent with every fact we know of the
Huns and Avares, and that it explained many difficulties.

Again, the Avares were the dominant race of Central Asia before the Turks;
they were the conquerors of the Epthalite, who were thenceforward known as
White Huns, and of the Hunnic invaders of India mentioned in the Indian epics.

De Guignes, in his ‘ History of the Huns,’ and in an interesting essay in the
25th volume of the ‘ Transactions of the French Academy,’ showed long ago that
the Avares were the same people whom the Chinese call Jouan-Jouan. It did
not suit his theory, however, to make the Huns and Avares the same people. He
preferred to identify the Huns with the Hiongnou, who have been most conclu-
sively shown to have been Turks by Klaproth, Remusat, and others. This identi-
fication is not trustworthy. Hun and Jouan-Jouan are so nearly alike in form
that it seems impossible for every writer to have overlooked the fact that they are
the same name; and yet, so far as the author knew, they have never been identified
as such before. The Avares and the Huns were the same folk, as we know from
the relation of Western writers. If the Avares were identical with the Jouan-
Jouan, the Huns must have been so too. The author postponed the interesting
questions that arise on this identification to his paper on the Huns, and concluded
by giving a history of the Avar invasions from Byzantine, Chinese, and Eastern
authorities, the latter made accessible by the labours of Stanislas Julien and
Vivian St. Martin.

This paper will be printed at length in the ‘ Ethnological Journal.’

On the Racial Aspects of Music. By J. Katnus, F.A.S.L.

The author, in a very brief glance at the characters of the music of the various
races of men on the globe, drew particular attention to a striking anthropological
fact ; namely, that the music of the peoples of the north-west of Europe, unlike
that of all the rest, was pervaded by a settled melancholy. He sought to account
for this phenomenon physically and psychically. He drew attention to the climatal
and general physical conditions under which the peoples of the north-west of
Europe live, and suggested that, in the constant war with Nature, and the endea-
vour to modify Nature’s laws, they acquired a gravity, awe, and sadness, of which
the peoples of the sunny south knew nothing, as their music showed, Nature having
used them more kindly. The author contrasted the biographies (as well as the
music) of the German and Italian composers, and showed that the men differed as
widely ; sadness and sorrow marking the one, brightness and gladness characterizin
the other. He commented upon the introspectiveness of the northern peoples, an
the iapt attention and morbid analysis they give to the great problems of Life,
Death, God, and Immortality ; and stated that the contemplation of these and such
sublime mysteries saddened and brightened by turns all their thoughts and impres-
sions, It was curious to note that even the dance-tunes and popular airs of the

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 153

Germans, Norwegians, and Swiss (as has been remarked by Mr. H. F. Chorley, the
eminent musical critic) were inaminorkey. “ Joyousness,” continued the author,
“is a plant that does not flourish in the bleak north. It flowers and blossoms
perennially in the south, because there the air is balmy and soft. There the skies
are always bright, and beneath man’s feet the earth is fruitful though untilled.
There Nature uses her children kindly, and even ‘prepares for them a table in the
wilderness.’” The author remarked incidentally that not music only, but the other
_ arts of expression (architecture, sculpture, and the mythologiesof the north of Europe)
were imbued by the same melancholy spirit. He concluded by a few observa-
tions on the character of ancient Roman, modern Anglican, and dissenting Church
music.

The Manx of the Isle of Man. By Ricuarp Kine, M.D., F.E.S.

The habitat of the Manx is the Isle of Man, and is situated in St. George’s
Channel, at nearly an equal distance from the shores of England, Ireland, and
Scotland. It is remarkable that so near home we should know so little of the
Manx.

The manufactures of the island, with which the Manx have little or nothing to
do, are inconsiderable ; but the principal source of its wealth, due to the Manx, is the
Herring-fishery, which brings in a return of upwards of £60,000 per annum.
More than 600 Manx boats are engaged in the Herring-, Cod-, and Ling-fisheries,
employing 3800 men and boys, and 3600 square yards of netting.

he Manx are robust, frank, hospitable, and enterprising, and, in common with
all the Celtic races, excessively superstitious. The language of the Manx is one of
the six Celtic dialects which philologists have shown to belong to the class of
Indo-European languages, and which are divided into high and low, the high being
the Welsh, Cornish, and Armorican, the low being the Erse division, or the Gaelic,
Trish, and Manx. As a spoken language the Manx is not unlikely to die out in
another generation, being rarely used in conversation except amongst the pea-
santry. In most of the parish churches tweny-five years ago it was used three
Sundays out of four, but it is now entirely discontinued.

The insular banks issue one pound and five pound notes. These notes are se-
cured by guarantees on land deposited in the Boll's Office. The currency of the
Isle of Man is now assimilated to that of England. The copper coinage has im-
pressed on the reverse the arms of the island—three armed legs and the motto
“ Quocunque jeceris stabit.” This device, which was the ancient symbol of Tri-
nacria or Sicily, according to some authors, was introduced into the island by the
Normans, according to others by Alexander the Third, King of Scotland ; still it
is a question whether the Manx did not originate the ancient symbol of three legs,

The zoology of the Isle of Man hardly if at all differs from that of the sur-
rounding countries. The animal which attracts the attention of zoologists is the
Manx Cat, the Stubbin or Rumpy, a tailless variety of the common Cat, Felis
catus. ‘Tradition asserts that the species was introduced at the time of the de-
struction of the Spanish Armada. According to Train, the Manx Rumpy resem-
bles somewhat in appearance the cats said by Sir Stamford Rafiles to be peculiar to
the Malayan archipelago. They are best seen in a wild state, when the caudal
vertebre are entirely wanting; but by admixture with the common cat they are
found with tails of all lengths. Tailless poultry are also common on the isle. “The
probability is, therefore, that the tailless cat and tailless poultry are peculiar to
the Isle of Man.

On the Builders of the Megalithic Monuments in Britain.
By Dr. A. 8. Lewis.

The author divided the inhabitants of Britain into three groups—the Kymric,
long-headed, dark-haired, and light-eyed ; the Iberian, dark-eyed and dark-haired ;
and the Teutonic, round-headed, light-haired, and light-eyed. He controverted
the idea that the Iberians were the original race, and that they were exclusively
the builders of the megalithic monuments which were found all over Britain; while
the Iberians were found in much smaller numbers in the north than in the south of

154 REPORT—1870.

Britain. The author attributed the megalithic monuments to both the Kymric and
Tberian divisions of the great Celtic race, and supported his views by a careful con-
sideration of the statistics of the physical characteristics of the inhabitants of Great
Britain collected by Dr. Beddoe, President of the Anthropological Society of
London, concluding by an appeal to those interested in the science to collect fur-
ther statistics.

Remarks on Stone Implements from Western Africa.
By Sir Joun Luszock, Bart., M.P., PRS.

Considering that at the present moment Africa is probably the most backward
in civilization of all the great continents, it is somewhat remarkable how deficient
it is in stone weapons; that being, no doubt, owing to the great abundance of
sands containing iron, and the facility with which that metal is obtained. This
infrequency and almost entire absence of stone implements has been alluded to on
various occasions by those who have felt it to be a difficulty with respect to the
theory that the use of stone in all cases pees the use of iron and other metals.
But although implements of stone are of rare occurrence in Africa, still they are by
no means altogether unknown. The first stone implements from the Cape of Good
Hope we owe to Mr. Busk. Others have been discovered by Mr. Dale, the Inspector
of Education in Cape Colony; and they are remarkably similar to the flakes and
spear-heads which are found in Europe and elsewhere. In Egypt, also, stone wea-
pons of a very simple character have been found; but from Southern Africa nothing
has yet been received that could be called an arrow-head. Sometimes small stone
implements are called arrows which are really not worthy of the name. The truth
is that a savage is very careful indeed in the manner in which he manufactures his
arrow-heads. It has probably taken him a day, or a day and a half, to get near his
game; and it would be very provoking to him to miss his aim from any deficiency
in the form of his weapon. It is therefore great economy of time on his part to
devote a considerable portion of it to the manufacture of arrows which will be
tolerably true. Therefore perhaps scarcely sufficient caution is used in calling
small stone implements arrow-heads. Again, a very common type of stone imple-
ment found in Europe, the scraper, does not appear to be abundant in Africa. Sir
John exhibited a specimen from the Cape of Good Hope, which he said was the
nearest approach to the type which has come from that part of the world without
being at all a typical specimen. Stone implements of rough flint have also been
found in Mount Sinai, and a specimen was shown, found by Mr. Freeman, at Wady
Ithm, in the Syrian district, on the road to Petra. But the specimens to which
Sir John principally desired to call attention were some which have been sent over
by Mr. Reade from Western Africa, that gentleman being engaged in scientific
research in Africa at the expense of an enlightened merchant, Mr. Swanzy. It is
true that implements of this character have been sent to Europe er but
they were very few, and did not attract much notice. Those now exhibited were
obtained at some feet underground, in sections exposed by the river near Accra.
‘There are several interesting points in Mr. Reade’s letter, which accompanied them,
one being the idea that these stones are thunderbolts. We lmow that is a notion
which exists almost all over the world—from Western Europe to the far distant
regions of Hindostan. That they may be employed as charms, and also as medi-
cine, is a very general notion. Neither the depth at which these stones were found
or the superstitious notions connected with them can be taken as evidence that
they were of great antiquity. One ofthe axes from the African collection was put
in contrast with a tray of other axes from all parts of the world, in order that at-
tention might be called to the extreme similarity of these primitive implements.
There were examples from New Zealand, North America, Chili, English, Irish, and
German specimens, from Spain, British Guiana, South America, fromthe river
Amazon, and from Australia. That common type, therefore, may truly be said to be
found all over the world. Besides the ordinary type, there was a wedge-shaped,
thick and very rounded form, not so widely distributed. The collection contained
also a quartz-pebble, which had a hole carefully drilled through it, and had been used
probably as an ornament. Considering the abundance of ores of iron in this African

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 155

district, and the facility with which they could be smelted and metal obtained,
Sir John thought it probable that these stone axes belong to a time before the
natives of this place became acquainted with the art of smelting iron.

On a recent Examination of British Tumuli and Monuments in the Hebrides
and on the Western Coast of Scotland, with suggestive Inferences, By J. 8.
Puent, 1.GS., FLR.GS., Member of the British Archeological Association.

The object with which the investigations had been conducted was the observ-
ance of natural physical circumstances of position in conjunction with the oldest
archeeological remains; more especially where the author had been so fortunate as
to meet with undisturbed relics of prehistoric art. The first object of interest to
which he directed attention was the tumulus in the larger Cumbrae, in the Firth
of Clyde, of the different parts of which photographs were exhibited. It contained
five stone cists, each formed of four slabs of red sandstone, with a large overlying
slab for a cover. Within the cists was a layer of fine white pebbles. The cists
were in an apparently studied position, the largest being placed nearly north and
south, and on each side one of smaller dimensions tending towards the east and
west; the two latter contained bones apparently burnt, with an incinerary arn of
one of the oldest types of British pottery in each. To the rear of the first was a
small cist containing the skull and bones of a child, and on the western side of that
one in which there were no remains. The first and largest cist contained the bones
of alarge man. In the small cist, with the bones of a child, were portions of a
broken urn, and in the western one a clean and empty urn only. There was a
uniformity about the whole mound which pointed clearly to the cists being of one
date, and that they represented one funereal operation. By the permission of the
Earl of Glasgow, he made a cutting through the tumulus, and found abundant proof
that the mound had been raised by art.

The position of the remains—the principal tomb having on each side one with
evidences of cremation, of persons, as the bones indicated, of less stature than the
occupant of the central cist, and therefore probably of women; that of the youth
at the rear, and the presence of the empty cist or cenotaph—suggested the idea,
admitted by Dr. Wilson in his ‘Prehistoric Annals of Scotland,’ of the custom
of immolation on the death of a chief or archpriest.

The next object to which the author called attention was a tumulus at the
northern end of Cantire, which is still under inyestigation, in which was discovered
an urn similar in design to the principal one from Cumbrae. Like results had
attended his researches in the vicinity of Cuff Hill in Ayrshire, of Berigonium in
Argyleshire, and in the island of Arran ; in each case pottery of the same type was
discovered.

Referring to the archzological indications, a similar repetition of memorials
occurred again in the direction of the Crinan Canal. Other discoveries were
referred to by the author, who stated that on the western coast and islands up to
Durness, by Cape Wrath, indications of a Pagan race were to be found; not
the least remarkable amongst which were some specimens of serpent mounds and
constructions, identical with those of Ohio and Wisconsin. His investigations had
so far terminated at the remarkable cruciform temple in the island of Lewis,
which he considered displayed striking indications of astronomical arrangement.

Contents of the Cumbrae tumulus, from examinations by Professor ALLEN THOMSON
and Dr. YounG, of the University of Glasgow.
Centre Tomb.

Right femur, 18} inches long, but wanting the head; with this it might be 191
inches. Adherent calcareous matter near the lower end. Adult male.

Portion of the lower jaw of a man, near the chin on the right side, containing
the canine, two premolar, and the anterior molar teeth ; the first three only slightly
worn, but the anterior molar worn down flat into the dentine. The sockets of the
middle molar and the outer incisor broken through ; the mental angle very pro-
minent. A remarkably strong jaw, 1? inch deep to the point of the canine
tooth.

156 REPORT—1870.

North Tomb,’
Anterior permanent molar of the two sides.
Posterior or large infantile molar of one side.
Upper half of the parietal bone. All of a child of about four or five years of age.
S.E. Tomb.
A large number of fragments of bones, probably of the human adult, viz. :—
Upper border of the right orbit, part of malar, small part of superior maxillary,
fragments of the parietal and other tabular bones of the cranium.
Parts of several dorsal and lumbar vertebree.
Fragment of the sacrum.
Very numerous small fragments of the long bones, especially of the femur, tibia,
and fibula; small part of an upper rib.
Some bones or fragments of the tarsus.
There are to be remarked conchoidal fractures across the compact parts of the
shafts of the long bones, and frequently also longitudinal fissures externally.
S.W. Tomb.
Numerous fragments of the bones of an adult, apparently not of large size.
Parts of the pterygoid process of the skull, part of the mastoid bone, and tabular
bones of the skull.
Processus dentatus and portion of the axis vertebra.
Fragments of the long bones, viz. femur, humerus, radius, ulna, tibia, fibula.
Fragment of the ischium (?).

On a Flint-flake Core found in the Upper Valley-gravel at Salford,
Manchester. By Joun Prant, GS.

The rivers Irwell and Mersey, from Manchester to Liverpool, flow down a wide
valley, eroded through beds of Keuper or Buntersandstone. The present river-bed
is of moderate width to Runcorn-gap, below which it becomes a wide estuary. In
earlier times this estuarine character may have extended inland even to Manchester,
for wide tracks of gravels, sands, and silt spread away from the river banks on either
side ; under these lie the Boulder-clays and sands of the Postpleiocene or glacial
drifts. The oldest sands and gravels of estuarine origin lie the highest and most dis-
tant from the river, except over places where the Bunter beds crop out in high banks,
in some places 200 feet above and a mile beyond the river; and from these beds
are a series of well-marked river-terraces, dropping inwards towards the river.
These are composed of old alluvium with smooth, flattened, and iron-stained pebbles
in layers of sand and fine silt. The lowest terrace is meadow land, at times deeply
flooded, and receiving new layers of silt. In the great flood of November 1866 three
inches were deposited in twenty-four hours. The oldest sands and gravels may pos-
sibly be related to the age of the high-level gravels of the river Somme, and to the
flint-weapon gravels of the south-east of England. Lancashire is a county almost
devoid of flints, either natural or artificial; and thus weapons of the palolithic
age are altogether absent from its drifts, and not more than a score of weapons of the
neolithic age have been to the present discovered in its drifts and cayve-deposits.
These later stone weapons are also poor in make, and have no racial peculiarities.
The only exception of a weapon with palolithic features is the one now described,
which fortunately was taken from the bed of drift in my presence, July 1869. It
was lying in a four-feet bed of laminated sandy silt, under six feet of river-gravel
and yellow clay, with rough gravels and the boulder-clays below. The excava-
tion was near the Ordsall Lane railway-station, about 1000 feet from the banks
of the river, and nearly 108 feet above the river level, the average level of the middle
terrace higher up the valley. The deposit where the flint-core lay probably repre-
sents the age of the river when it flowed over the middle terrace. The flint-core
bears the size and shape of a horse’s hoof; from the front curved face five fine flakes
have been struck, and smaller ones from other parts. The original surface is shown
in three places, and encrustations derived from the soil adhere very firmly on the
fractured parts, supplying a strong proof that, whatever may have been its origin,
it had long lain in its bed under the river-gravels.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 157

On a Wooden Implement found in Bidston Moss, near Birkenhead.
By Cuarwes Ricxerts, M.D., F.GS.

On certain remarkable Earthworks at Wainfleet, in Lincolnshire.
By the Rey. C. Sewrrt, M.A,

These works consist of a series of mounds, about forty yards long and twelve feet
high, lying parallel to the sea front, which is now two miles from them, but which
in Roman times came close up tothem. A Roman sea bank runs along their face,
and appears to take its shape from the contour of their front. The Roman station
of Vanonia, according to Camden and Stuckley, lies about a mile to their rear.
Traces of these mounds can be discovered over a mile and a half of ground. At the
north and south ends they have been much mutilated. A central piece, about 300
yards long, remains entire. This block of mounds is divided into five separate groups,
the divisions between them being marked by narrow watercourses running at
right angles to the general direction of the mounds, and terminating in well-marked
regular depressions, which, on the siepoaies of this being the site of dwellings,
might have been freshwater-tanks. The mounds at this point extend backwards
from the ancient shore-line a space of 400 yards, standing, with little interval
between them, one behind the other, as many as twelve or fourteen in number.

No traces of remains or human handiwork haye been observed in these mounds,
though they are being constantly dug down and removed for one purpose or
another. They are composed of the soil on which they stand, though there is an
account that some of them are of a black peaty soil, which, however, can be found
within a short distance. No mention has been made of these mounds either by
Camden or by Dugdale in his ‘ History of Draining,’ which treats largely of this
neighbourhood; but their antiquity is undoubted, if only on the evidence of their
local name—the Hilly Tofts. The popular account of their use is that they are the
remains of ancient salt-works, though the method by which salt was made upon
them by evaporation of sea-water is not very clearly made out. If this theory of
their use be the true one, they are interesting as being probably the source of supply
of salt to the Roman settlements all along the east of England. Another theory is
that the mounds are to be connected with the Danish invasions of England. It isa
plausible suggestion, but founded on no evidence, that the hollows between the
mounds were used as places to lay up the Danish ships while their crews made their
advance inland. The name Tofts points to some connexion with Danish occupiers ;
but if that name really indicates “an inhabited spot,” the Danes, whether they
used the mounds as dry docks or not, may have found them occupied by human
dwellings. In spite, therefore, of all absence of remains, it is possible that we
have here the site of an ancient British fen-village, raised on mounds, as the
Swiss lake-dwellings were on piles, above the watery waste around them.

On the Use of Opium among the Chinese. By G. Tain, M.D.

The Mental Characteristics of the Australian Aborigines.
By C. Sranizranp Wake, Dir. A.S.L.

The chief inference to be drawn from the mental characters exhibited by the
aborigines of Australia is that they are children whose intellect has, by the
exigencies of their situation, been continually exercised, and therefore become more
than ordinarily keen and active, while the moral nature has remained almost
wholly in abeyance. From the data furnished by the paper, it is evident that the
Australian aborigines occupy the lowest position in the scale of humanity, and that
they show what must have been the condition of mankind in primeval times,

The Physical Characters of the Australian Aborigines.
By C. Sranmuanp Wake, Dir. A.S.L.

The most striking peculiarities presented by the external physical characters of the

158 REPORT—1870.

aborigines of Australia are :—the great prominence of the brow, associated, among
some tribes, with shortness of the lower jaw; the wide expansion of the nostrils,
combined with great depression of the nose at the base; the extreme width of the
mouth; the absence, sometimes observable, of any difference between the incisor
and canine teeth ; the straightness and silkiness of the hair, except among certain
tribes in the north and north-west; and the hairiness of the entire body, which is
a phenomenon apparently not uncommon.

On an Implement of Quartz from St. George’s Sound.
By Hunry Woopwarn, £.G8., 7.2.8.

The author drew attention to a crystal of quartz, having its terminal planes
preserved at both ends, which was found by his colleague Mr. Thomas Davies
among a number of other minerals in the British Museum forming part of the old
Sloane collection. ils a

The interest attaching to the specimen is of two kinds: it is, first, of historic
interest, for upon close examination there was found inscribed upon it in ink (in
Capt. Cook’s writing), “St. George’s Sound, N.W. coast of America: Capt. Cook,”
thus proving it to have been brought home by that illustrious explorer; and,
eee it is of prehistoric interest, for the crystal had been employed to bore or
pick holes in the ice by the Esquimaux, as proved by the notches made in its sides
for fixing it securely in some handle of wood. Such implements are used at the
present day by the Esquimaux to bore holes in the ice to catch fish in winter.

GEOGRAPHY.

Address by Sir Rovrertcx Ipry Murcutson, Bart., K.0.B., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.RS., F.GS., President of the Section.

Wuitst wars have from time to time changed the political geography of foreign
states, we, who happily live in our sea-girt isle, possess frontiers which for many
long years have been preserved intact ; and now that we meet again, for the third
time, in this rich and enterprising seat of commerce, we may tranquilly take note
of any changes which may have been lately made in the boundaries of other king-
doms. But such changes in political geography, though specially to be delineated
on maps, need scarcely occupy attention at a Meeting of the British Association,
and we may hand them over to the politician, Our chief duties are to receive and
discuss all communications which reveal to us new discoveries in Physical Geo-
graphy and the affiliated branches of Science in all parts of the globe.

This Section E had for many years the title of Geography and Ethnology ; but
the latter term has recently been abstracted from us, Ethnology having been rele-
gated to the newly constituted comprehensive Section of Biology. Now, although
I have often presided over this Section when it possessed its double title, I admit
the value of the change, seeing that we are relieved from the duty of receiving and
discussing those anthropological memoirs which are intimately connected with
physiology and comparative anatomy. Such memoirs could not be adequately dis-
cussed by geographers, and they are now submitted to competent judges. At the
same time I earnestly hope that papers relating to Ethnography, including accounts
of the language and customs of distant peoples, and which is intimately bound
up with the physical geography of countries, will, as heretofore, flow into our hall,
and thus render our meetings on this occasion as successful and popular as they
have been during past years. In the course of the present Meeting a paper will be
read from that distinguished geographer Colonel Yule, which precisely illustrates
my meaning. It is on the analogies of manners between the Indo-Chinese races
and the races of the Indian archipelago ; and is exclusively written for our Section
by its learned author, who expresses, as you will learn, his astonishment that such

i
:

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 159
subjects, so inseparably connected with Geography, should ever be severed from it
in the proceedings of the British Association.

Geography in a broad sense is so closely allied to many researches, that, since
the foundation of the British Association, it has at times been coupled with different
sciences by our legislators. At first it was very naturally grouped with my own
peculiar subject, Geology, which may well be termed the Comparative Physical Geo-
graphy of byegone ages. But this union did not last long, because my brethren of
the hammer, ever producing more memoirs than could be discussed at any one
Meeting, the Geographers, who were desirous of having much time and attention
allotted to themselves, withdrew and no longer took part in Section C.

Tn those days Geography could not find a separate place in the list of sections;
for it was a canon in the constitution of the British Association, that the number
of sections was to be for ever limited to seven. But as time wore on, changes, of
necessity, occurred. The first of these took place in Section B, which began by
including Chemistry and Agriculture. But this connexion of a pure Science with
the practical objects of proprietors and farmers could not be permanent; and the
cultivators of the soil (finding no space for their exhibitions, and taking the British
Association as a model) established that most important national body, the Royal
Agricultural Society.

ext the medical men, finding that no adequate justice could be done in one
section to their diversified subjects, separated from us, and at the suggestion of my
lamented friend Sir Charles Hastings, founded the great Medical Association of
Britain,

Through this withdrawal of medical science, the Section denoted by the letter
E remained for some time a blank, without any scientific duties attached to it;
and it was only in the year 1851 that, on my own suggestion, and at the Ipswich
Meeting, the blank Section was refilled under the title of Bai and Ethno-
logy. Under this title I have read addresses to the Section at Leeds in 1858, at
Oxford in 1860, at Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1863, and at Bath in 1864.

Tn alluding to such written addresses, it is well to remind the younger members
of our body that during twenty-five years they formed no part of our Pro-
ceedings. These preludes to the business of each Section were for the first time
introduced in the year 1856, and the person who led the way in these useful and
now necessary parts of our duties was the present Earl of Derby, who then, as Lord
Stanley, presided over the Statistical Section at Cheltenham. I cannot advert to
this fact, so highly creditable to my noble friend, who is now a Vice-President of
our whole body, without reminding you that his illustrious father, whose name will
ever be revered in British history, and whose beneficent deeds will ever be grate-
fully remembered in Lancashire, was himself an admirer and patron of geogra-
phical explorers, and a Fellow of the Society over which I preside. I refer you to
my last Anniversary Address to the members of the Royal Geographical Society
for the expression of my admiration of his character.

Before I speak of some” few of the contributions which will, I trust, be brought
under our consideration, let me glance at the rapid progress of discovery in recent
years, and, first of all, at the great and important additions to pure Geography
which have been made in Central Asia both by Russian and British explorers.

With all the western portion of that vast region in which lie the Khanats of
Khiva, Bokhara, and Khokan, some of you may now be acquainted, through the
accounts of Russian observers, who have already fixed the correct positions of the
chief towns, mountains, and rivers of Western Turkistan. Proceeding eastwards
from the Sea of Aral, the Russians have, for the first time in history, rendered the
River Syr Daria (the Jaxartes of Alexander the Great) navigable by steam-vessels
of a limited size, and fixing military posts on its banks, have ascended towards its
sources and taken possession of the populous and flourishing city of Tashkent, a
great mart of caravan commerce.

Again, Russia has triumphed over the Khan of Bokhara, the savage ruler
who in years gone by barbarously put to death two British officers, Stoddart and
Conolly, and who has now met with a due humiliation. As peace has been con-
cluded between the Emperor of Russia and those turbulent chiefs, who have now
been rendered subordinate to a great civilized nation, we may hope that the

160 REPORT—1870.

blessings of commerce will restore this fine region to some portion, at least, of the
wealth and dignity which it held in those ages when its monarchs ruled over nee
one-half of the then civilized world. The crude and ill-founded apprehensions whic
once existed that these advances of Russia would prove highly prejudical to British
India, have, through due reflection, entirely evaporated from among British states-
men, who are now convinced that it is much better for the commerce and peace of
both nations that intermediate warring chiefs should be kept under by a strong
power. After all, between the great territories of Russian Turkistan and those of
British India, there lies the long, broad, and mountainous region of Affghanistan,
with whose present ruler we are on good terms.

But what about Eastern Turkistan? some of my hearers may say ; what about
those enormous tracts which lie immediately to the north of the north-western
mountains of British India, the Himalayas, and Cashmere? The answer which I
have given in my last Address to the Royal Geographical Society is the most satis-
factory explanation which can be offered, and I here give the pith of it. The
Russians have not advanced beyond the chain of the Thian Chan into any part of
those territories in which the cities of Kashgar, Yarkand, and others are situated.
These countries, which until a few years ago were held by the Chinese, and are
inserted in all old maps as an integral part of the Chinese empire, have entirely
extirpated their conquerors, and the mass of the natives, being Mahommedans, are
now under the rule of a brave soldier of their own faith, who, under the title of
the Ataligh Ghazee, or Leader of the Faithful, has brought the people into a state
of perfect order, after having been in the most tumultuous and insurrectionary state
0) fone as the Chinese vainly attempted to govern them.

The process by which an intercourse has been established between this Hastern
Turkistan and British India has been so eminently characteristic of the efforts of
a powerful trading nation like our own, that a very brief account of it may be
acceptable to some of my hearers in this great mart of commerce. Tea-plantations
having been successfully cultivated by our countrymen upon the southern and
lower slopes of the Himalayan Mountains, it occurred to a most able British civilian,
Mr. Douglas Forsyth, who was diplomatically employed in Cashmere, that the
pene of Eastern Turkistan having been so long accustomed to drink tea, and

aving been entirely deprived of it since all intercourse with China had ceased,
would gladly hail the reappearance of their favourite beverage, if a supply could
be brought to them from the south. Mr. Forsyth accordingly sent a small sample
(a horse-load only) of tea across the mountains, as a present to the great ruler of
this new kingdom. As this present was ‘‘ gratefully received,” one of our British
tea-cultivators at Kangra, Mr. Shaw, resolved to face all the difficulties of a pas-
sage through the lofty mountains of the Karakorum and Kuen Lun; and, fitting
out a caravan bearing tea, he conducted it himself in safety by Yarkand to Kashgar,
where he was well received by the Ataligh Ghazee. At first, indeed, things
looked unpropitious, for Mr. Shaw was proceeding fairly and simply as a British
merchant, when there arrived just at the same time a warlike-looking Englishman.
This was Mr. Hayward, late of the 72nd Regiment; and for a time both were
placed en surveillance, but most amicably treated. In fact Mr. Hayward had been
sent out by the Royal Geographical Society to explore, if possible, that great
desert plateau, the Pamir Land, occupied entirely by nomade Kirghis, in which
the rivers Oxus and Zerafshan have their rise ; but being unable to force his way
thither through certain disturbed tracts to the north-west of the Punjaub, he took a
route which led him to Yarkand. The arrival of the two Englishmen, which at
first seemed so unintelligible and suspicious, turned out to be in the end most ad-
vantageous to all parties concerned; for Mr. Hayward had it in his power to fix
the latitude and longitude of places never before visited by a geographer, whilst
Mr. Shaw, dona ferens, gratified the Ataligh Ghazee not only by his manners and
address, but particularly his packages of tea. After a year’s sojourn at Kashgar
and Yarkand, in Eastern Gieteten Mr. Shaw returned to British India, and the
Viceroy, the Earl of Mayo, seeing the prospect of establishing a profitable alliance
with this new sovereign, his Excellency not only received an envoy sent by the
Ataligh Ghazee to his Excellency and the Queen, but has recently sent a special
British mission to that great chief; and for this important mission he has wisely

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 161

selected Mr. Douglas Forsyth and Mr. Shaw, as negotiators in the establishment
of a treaty of commerce between the respective countries; a letter from Mr.
Forsyth to myself, written on the eve of his departure from Ladak, on the 2nd
of July last, and containing matter of great geographical interest, will be read in
the course of this meeting. It will be seen by this letter that, grand as are the
geographical discoveries made Captain Montgomerie and his pundits, a grander
and richer field than any yet described seems now to invite exploration. I may
add that I have received a letter from the Earl of Mayo, dated the 18th of July
last, in which he speaks hopefully of this important mission.

On our part, we have thus opened out a market for our Indian teas, and also for
many articles of British manufacture, in exchange for which we shall receive not
only specie, but also the fine silks and wools of Turkistan, and many mineral pro-
ducts of those mountains, some of the peaks of which rise to upwards of 24,000
feet, and many of whose level tracts and plateaus are 14,000 to 17,000 feet above
the sea. To obtain a full insight into the nature of this hitherto unknown region
and its remarkable ruler, I refer you to an admirably clear and telling memoir by
Mr. Shaw, published in the ‘Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society,’
June 7, 1870.
~ In making these observations, I would invite some of the enterprising merchants
of Liverpool, Manchester, and other places in this flourishing county of Lancaster
to transmit to Yarkand, via Bombay and the Punjaub, some of their gayest but
stoutest cloths and cottons; and I venture to prophesy that the Turkistan people
will rejoice in the arrival at the remote Yarkand of such British goods, for which
they will gladly exchange the products of their own country or pay in specie.

But, to return to Geography, Mr. Hayward, nothing daunted by his first failure,
is now endeavouring to explore the mysterious Pamir Land, which no European
has ever yet traversed, though Lieutenant Wood of the Indian Navy did, many
years ago, reach one extremity of it in an endeavour to determine the source of the
Oxus, as recorded in the tenth volume of the ‘ Journal of the Royal Geographical
Society.’ I earnestly hope that Mr. Hayward will be the first geographer who will
have described this lofty region, which the natives term, in their Hastern style,
“The Upper Floor of the World.” If he should traverse the Pamir Land, I have
learned, iy correspondence with the Russian Imperial Geographical Society, that
our countryman will then have a free passage granted to him through all Russian
Turkistan. It is thus that our Science makes its cultivators of every nation as
kindly and considerate to each other as Freemasons. Let me add that the Royal
Geographical Society has awarded its Founder’s Gold Medal to this brave and
energetic man; and we fervently hope that he will come home through Russia
before next year, to receive his well-merited reward.

Deep-Sea Soundings—The remarkable additions to Geographical and Natural-
History knowledge which have been made of late years by sounding and dredging
at great depths in the ocean, have excited the liveliest interest. The attention of
modern geographers was long ago directed to this subject by Parry, James Ross,
and Captain Denham, R.N. The last of these measured downwards in the ocean,
between South America and the Cape of Good Hope, to the great depth of 7706
fathoms, and thus enabled geographers to realize the aphorism of Alexander Hum-
boldt—that the greatest depths of the sea would be found to be at least equal to
the height of the loftiest mountains. Subsequently Dr. Wallich, who ably served
as the naturalist on board the ‘ Bulldog,’ commanded by Sir Leopold M‘Clintock,
enunciated the then novel and surprising truth that certain marine animals ~
(including starfish) lived at the depth of 1260 fathoms, and even preserved their
colours when brought to the surface.

More recently the scientific explorations of the deep sea to the north and west
of the British Isles, as conducted by Dr. W. Carpenter, Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, and
Professor Wyville Thomson, have thrown much new light on this attractive
subject. They have vastly extended our acquaintance with many submarine data,
including the temperature of the sea at various depths, and have proved that
currents of different temperatures (each containing a characteristic fauna) are
puming, as it were, alongside of each other, or in contiguity, beneath the surface
of the sea.

1870. 11

162 REPORT—1870.

These data, and a consideration of the various species of marine animals which
were found, are supposed to have had such material bearings on geological science,
that it would be a dereliction of my duty as an old geologist if I were not to
endeavour to disentangle the unquestionably true, novel, and even startling facts
which these researches have made known, from one of those speculations which
the eminent leader of this expedition has connected with them, and which, if acqui-
esced in, might seriously affect the inductions and belief of practical geologists.

Dr. W. Carpenter, in a lecture given in the Royal Institution, in summing up
his views as to the effects of the discoveries then made, thus spoke :—‘ The facts
which I have brought before you, yet still more the speculations which I have
ventured to connect with them, may seem to unsettle much that has been generally
accredited to geological science, and thus to diminish rather than to augment our
stock of positive knowledge; but this is the necessary result of the introduction of
a new idea into any department of scientific inquiry ” *.

To this statement I beg to demur. Sound practical geologists, whether they be
Uniformitarians, Catastrophists, or Evolutionists, like the great Naturalist who
now worthily presides over the British Association, are all agreed in the funda-
mental truths of this science as established by positive readings in the stone-books
of Nature. They are confident that undeniable proofs exist of an enormous
succession of deposits, which have been accumulated under the seas of former
periods, in each of which the physical geography of our planet, and with it the
orders of animals and plants, were very dissimilar from each other, and also differ
still more, as we examine backwards to the earlier deposits, from those of the
present day. We believe, upon the evidences presented to us, and, irrespective of
all theory, that the vast accumulations under the seas of those periods haye had
their relations to each other thoroughly and conclusively established by a clear
order of superposition. We further believe that the deposits so relatively placed
contain, each of them, organic remains, which are, in great measure, peculiar to
the one great group of strata which they occupy.

With these indisputable proofs of geological succession as established by clear
superposition of the formations, and the distinctive fossil characters of each, I
necessarily dissent from the suggestions of Dr. Carpenter and other naturalists,
that, inasmuch as the present deep-sea bottoms contain abundance of Gilobigerine,
with such animals as Terebratulide, both of which differ little from the forms
found fossil in the chalk formation, it may be inferred in a broad sense that we are
still in the Cretaceous period.

May we not, indeed, by a similar bold hypothesis, affirm that we still live in the
older Silurian period? for, albeit no bony fishes then existed, many Globigerine
and creatures of the lowest organization have been found in these old rocks and
associated with Terebratulide and Lingule, the generic forms of which still live.

Revering, as I do, those great naturalists who have shown abundant proofs of
the progress of creaticn, or, as others term it, of evolution, I hold to my opiiion,
matured by a long experience, whilst I dissent from the inferences of my friends
Dr, W. Carpenter and Professor Wyville Thomson, that the recent discoveries may,
or can, unsettle much which has been accredited to what I call sound geological
history; as established on absolute observations and separated from all theory.

The new ideas which have been introduced by the meritorious labours of
Carpenter and his associates do not, as he has suggested, diminish the amount of
positive knowledge; on the contrary, they augment it, though they do not
shake, in any way, the foundations of geological science. I willingly grant, how-
ever, that these new discoveries overthrow the theory that defines the depths in
the sea at which certain groups of fossil animals must have lived.

Whilst on this topic, I rejoice that, at this Meeting, we are to be furnished with
an excellent paper by my distinguished friend Captain Sherard Osborn, on the
whole subject of Ocean Deep-sea Sounding as pene out by the Admiralty, and in
which he will illustrate, by maps and sections, much of his own most energetic
operations in reference to submarine telegraphy.

In connexion with the interesting subject of the geography of the ocean, I may
call your attention to a little work of great merit which has lately appeared, under

* Lecture delivered at the Weekly Meeting of the Royal Institution, April 9, 1869,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. © 163

the title of ‘Physical Geography, in its Relation to the prevailing Winds and Cur-
rents,’ by Mr. J. K. Laughton. A perusal of this book will show how wide is the
field embraced by this important branch of geographical science, and at the same
time how much yet remains to be done before we attain to a satisfactory know-
ledge of those great movements of the ocean and atmosphere included under the
terms Gulf-stream, Equatorial current, Trade-winds, Monsoons, and so forth.
Mr. Laughton, in the book to which I allude, has called in question the accuracy
of the prevailing theories intended to explain these grand and, in some respects,
complex phenomena. The received hypothesis with regard to the trade-winds, for
example, first outlined by Halley towards the end of the seventeenth century, but
developed by Hadley about fifty years later, and modified a few yearsago by Maury,
he shows to be quite inadequate to explain all the facts of the case. This hypo-
thesis, as is well known, assumes that the lower strata of the atmosphere near the
equator, being overheated by the sun’s rays, expand and rise into the upper regions
of the aérial envelope, their place being taken by a cooler air, which rushes from
the higher latitudes of the north or south,as the case may be; and, moreover, that
the ascending heated air travels backwards, as an upper current, to the latitudes
where the cool wind originates, and then, descending again, the aérial circulation
is completed. One of the most striking objections made by Mr. Laughton to this
explanation is, that the equatorial zone is far from being the hottest part of tropical
and subtropical regions. He shows, as a matter of fact, in the North-Atlantic
basin, that the Great Desert of Sahara has a temperature from 20 to 50 degrees
hotter than the equatorial zone; yet, so far from a-cool current of air being drawn
in from the Atlantic towards this heated region, the north-east trades pass straight
onward in their southerly course without the slightest indraught towards the
African coast.. He also shows that there is no proof of a vertical movement of the
air at the equator, or in the latitudes where the upper currents are supposed to
descend again. A multitude of similar or parallel instances are adduced from other
parts of the earth; in fact nothing has more surprised me, in perusing the work,
than the great amount of reading and research the author has applied to the eluci-
dation of this and kindred problems.

Haying shown the untenability of the received hypothesis, he modestly advances
a new one of his own. This is difficult, perhaps, to explain in a brief manner;
but he shows, from the most varied evidence, that the general movement of the
atmosphere over the whole earth is from west to east, and that in regions where
the prevailing winds at the earth’s surface are not westerly, an upper and
strong westerly movement exists above the lower winds. The trade-winds, mon-
soons, and all other partial atmospheric movements, he shows to be chiefly eddies
and reflected currents of greater or less constancy; and he confirms this supposition
by an exhaustive examination of the laws of movement of air and other fluids. I
may say, in short, that even those who may not agree with the author’s reasonings
will find both pleasure and profit in studying the rich store of observation and lucid
argument contained in this little work,

Among the many interesting papers which will be read before you during the
— Meeting, I may announce two, on subjects of great general interest, by

eneral Sir Henry Rawlinson—one on the Site of Paradise, and the other on the
River Oxus ; both the fruits of long study and research, and sure to be listened to
with the attention that every thing emanating from so distinguished a geographer
and philologist so well deserves. An important communication from Dr. George
Campbell on the Physical Geography of British India is also expected, a subject
which has been for years a special study of the author, during his residence in a
high official position in India. Mr. T. T. Cooper, a traveller who has distinguished
himself by his persevering endeavours to traverse the difficult country between
Western China and our Indian possessions in Assam, will read a paper on Eastern
Thibet, in which he will dilate on the commerciai bearings of Pes explorations,
which were undertaken with a view to discover a route for an overland trade
between the populous and productive regions of the Yang-tsze-Kiang in China and
the equally rich and densely populated plains of British India.

With regard to Africa (that great continent which still continues the principal
field of geographical enterprise), I haye to announce that Mr. Winwoo Reade,
11

164 REPORT—1870.

who has recently returned from an exploration undertaken under the auspices of
the Royal Geographical Society, and at the cost of an enlightened merchant,
Mr. Andrew Swanzy, will communicate to the Section an account of his hazardous
journey to the Upper Waters of the Niger and to the Bouré country. Mr. Reade
explored a portion of the Niger not previously visited by any European traveller,
and opened up a tract of populous country, in which is situated the town of Fara-
bana, containing 10,000 inhabitants, previously unknown to geographers.

In respect to those portions of Central America with which many readers have
become acquainted through the descriptions of Stephens and Squier, I may inform
you that you will be interested in a communication from Captain J. Carmichael
upon countries occupied by the Indians of British Honduras and Yucatan. Ascribing
an Eastern and probably an Egyptian origin to the earlier buildings and temples
of the aboriginal American Indians and their idols, the author, who has explored
the region he describes, and speaks their language, endeavours to throw additional
light on the subject. He confesses, however, that in these mysterious monuments
he finds as much difficulty in assigning them definitely to any race of men as
British and other authors have had in fixing the origin of our own most ancient
monuments at home, such as Stonehenge and other Druidical remains, He differs
from Stephens and Squier and those authors who do not assign a great antiquity
to these-reliquis, and shows that when the Spaniards took possession of the
country several of the colossal buildings and temples had even thena very antique
appearance.

Captain Carmichael discusses with spirit the question of the former use of the
huge and lofty tumuli which abound, and suggests the probability that many of
the well-chiselled and beautifully formed stone buildings and ormaments were
fashioned into their present shapes by stone implements only, all the arrow- and
spear-heads which he found being made of obsidian. The Indian king of these

arts had a palace at Quiché which, according to Torquemada, rivalled that of
ontezuma in Mexico. The enthusiasm with which Captain Carmichael describes
these old ruins will, I hope, secure the attention of the Section.

Two of our Secretaries, Mr. Clements Markham and Mr. Major, will communicate
papers,—the first being an outline of an elaborate work he is preparing on the history
and progress of all the surveys in India; the latter on the long debated question of
the so-called Landfall of Columbus.

Governor William Gilpin, of Colorado, who has recently reached our shores
from that grand central region of North America, will, I trust, fayour us with a
sketch of that rich, metalliferous, mountainous country, which ten years ago he
thoroughly described, when he energetically advocated the execution of that
gigantic railroad which now happily connects the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans™*.

Geographical Education —A. strong desire on the part of the Council of the
Royal Geographical Society to induce the heads of our public schools to promote
the study of geography, on a plan prepared by Mr. Francis Galton, led us to offer
annually two medals, to be competed for in an examination directed by the Society.
It gratifies me to announce in this town that in the two years during which these
honours have been distributed, the medals adjudicated each year have been won
by young men in the public schools of Lancashire, viz. Liverpool College, and
Rossall School, near Fleetwood.

When we consider that all the leading schools of the United Kingdom were
invited to compete for these honours (and several of them did so compete), the fact
which I have just mentioned does great honour to this prosperous mercantile
county, which among its rising generation doubtless contains many a young
aspirant to win the fame of Raleigh.

I may conclude this Address by dwelling for a few moments on the topics
which, of all others, most interest myself, and I doubt not, the great majority of
my countrymen—the explorations of inner Equatorial Africa by Sir Samuel Baker,
and of Southern Africa by Dr. Livingstone.

Sir Samuel, being thoroughly well supported with those appliances which the

* See ‘The Central Gold Region of North America; with’some new views of its Phy-

sical Geography, and Observations on the Pacific Railroad.’ By Colonel William Gilpin.
Philadelphia and St, Louis, 1860.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 165

Viceroy of Egypt has so liberally afforded him, will surely add largely to our
acquaintance with the vast central and watery region on each side of the equator.
A letter which he wrote to me from Khartoum in March 1870, stated that, having
received in sections, on the backs of camels, all the vessels of his river and lake
flotilla from England, as prepared by Mr. Samuda, he was full of hope and confident
of success. Recently, I have received a longer and most interesting letter from him,
which will be read at the present Meeting, and which graphically details the diffi-
culties over which he has triumphed to the present time. We learn from this

etter that Baker, starting from his station on the White Nile, in lat. 9° 26', next
November, can only reach Gondokoro much later than he anticipated: we have
further to reflect upon the fact that after arriving at that place his great difficulties
would commence; for, in the Bari country, peopled by negroes who have been
rendered furious and wretched by cruel slave-dealers of various nations, he would
also have to transport all his vessels and materials along the right bank of the Nile,
where the great stream flows over granitic rapids. He has also to carry all his
goods over the Assua River, a great tributary of the Nile, by a wire or chain bridge,
which he had to construct. Having vanquished these obstacles, and having reached
that portion of the Nile in which his vessels could be launched, he would then sail
up the stream until he reached his own great lake, the Albert Nyanza. This
accomplished, and cheered by his charming and devoted wife, he would be
thoroughly master of a position wholly unprecedented in the history of African
discovery *.

As I have already alluded to a very barbarous tract through which he would have
to pass, and which was formerly traversed by Speke and Grant, I would observe that
it is specially to such tracts that Baker holds instructions from the Khedive to
extirpate the cruel slave-dealers who have brought about these horrors by the
robbery of their ivory from the natives and the capture of women and children.
I specially make this allusion, because a mistaken notion had arisen in Egypt that
Sir Samuel proceeded on a mission to abolish slavery altogether. Now, as every
Egyptian household contains slaves as their only domestic servants, we learnt from
our Associate, Lord Houghton, when he visited the Suez Canal, that the Egyptians
were much prejudiced against Sir Samuel. But no such Quixotic and, I might
say, impossible task has been assigned to Baker, for domestic slavery is ingrained in
all parts of Africa as a regular institution of the land. Atrocious and cruel slave-
dealing and robbery may, however, be thoroughly put an end to; and this my friend
has already commenced, through the agency of Egyptian soldiers. Of his energy
in these philanthropic measures you will have a pregnant proof in the letter which
will be read to you. In this way the poor African serf may be assured that when
he sows his grain he will reap a crop at a future day.

I can well imagine the delight with which Baker will define with his flotilla the
western boundary of his great lake, and delineate the course of those lofty moun-
tains on its western shore which he had only seen at a great distance in his former
journey. We may also picture to ourselves how he would rejoice in exploring wide
tracts of that vast unknown interior in which large bodies of water lie, which are
supposed to feed the Congo. The point of the compass, however, which will be
first sought by the intrepid voyager will, I doubt not, be the southernmost end of
the Albert Nyanza, because it is there that he hopes for the happiness of falling in
with and relieving his great contemporary Livingstone.

If, indeed, that indomitable missionary, who unquestionably stands at the head
of all African explorers, should succeed in tracing a connexion between the waters
of the Tanganyika Lake, where he was when we last heard from him, and the
south end of the Albert Nyanza, why then the meeting of these two remarkable
men will be the happiest consummation of our wishes. And if that should be
accomplished, Sir Samuel Baker himself will, I doubt not, cheerfully award the

eater share of glory to his fellow explorer, who will then have proved himself to

e the real discoverer of the ultimate southern sources of the Nile.

In waiting for the solution of this great problem I adhere, in the meantime, to

the opinion which I previously expressed, that if Livingstone be still at or near

* T communicated an outline of Sir S. Baker’s progress to ‘The Times’ of the 26th
August,

166 REPORT—1870.,

Ujiji on the Lake Tanganyika, to which place supplies have been sent to him, he
will at once proceed to determine that problem, and will not think of a return to
England until the grand desideratum is carried out.

Fadpihes indeed, from his own original observations respecting the course of
those rivers which take their rise in 8° to 9° S. lat., and believing as he did that
most of them flow by the western side of Lake Tanganyika and do not enter that
lake, it seems to follow that, in pursuing a N.N.-westerly direction, several of these
waters must feed the Congo and so issue on the west coast. If such should prove
to be the fact, why then this great traveller will have been the first to determine
the true sources of both the Nile and the Congo.

And here I would ask why any one who knows what Livingstone has undergone
should despair of his life simply because we have had no news from him during
the last fifteen months? Did not much more than that period elapse whilst he was
in the heart of Africa without our receiving a word of comfort respecting him ?
By the last accounts he was hospitably received by Arabs who are friendly to the
Sultan of Zanzibar, who is Livingstone’s patron and also a protector of the Negroes.

I had written thus far, and all was in type, when I received a letter from Dr.
Kirk at Zanzibar, dated 29th June, 1870, which has comforted me exceedingly ;
for, sanguine as I have been as to the safety and success of Livingstone, I am now
better supported than ever in my anticipation of his ultimate triumph. Dr, Kirk
thus writes :— :

“ News has reached me, by natives from the interior, that the road is now clear,
and that the cholera did not pass the town of Unyanyembe. Livingstone is there-
fore out of danger, and I hope the stores sent have now reached him. The rainy
season being at an end, Unyamwezi caravans are daily expected, and will no doubt
bring, if not letters from the Doctor himself, at least news of him from the Arab
Governor of Unyanyembe. The coast near Zanzibar is now healthy.”

Looking then, as I do, to the astonishing and enduring resolution of my friend,
and his thoroughly acclimatized constitution, remembering that he has already
gone successfully through privations under which even his attached negro youths
all succumbed, I still hold stoutly to the opinion that, by reaching the ‘Albert
Nyanza, he will determine the great problem of the watershed of South Africa, and
then return to embrace his children, to whom he is devotedly attached, and receive
the plaudits, not only of his admiring countrymen, but of all civilized men.

Should this happy finale be brought about, he will have the great additional
delight of finding here his venerable father-in-law, the Rev. Robert Moffat, who,
after half a century of successful missionary labours, is present at this Meeting
of the British Association.

In conclusion, I have the honest satisfaction of knowing that, as President of the
Royal Geographical Society, and as the sincere friend of Livingstone, I have, with
the warm aid of my deeply lamented friend the Earl of Clarendon, been successful
in urging our Government to relieve the great traveller who was gazetted as Her
Majesty’s Consul to all the kings and chiefs of the interior of Africa.

? have only to add that if diplomatists are recompensed according to the energy
and capacity with which they execute their duties, I confidently anticipate that,
on his return to Britain, this undaunted Envoy to unknown lands—this sound
geographer and zealous Christian missionary—will not only receive a becoming
pension, but will also be honoured by some distinction of the Crown, which
assuredly our beloved Queen will gladly confer upon him.

Letter from the White Nile. By Sir Samvuet Baxer, F.R.GS.

In this letter, addressed to Sir Roderick Murchison, Sir Samuel Baker described
the proceedings of his expedition up to the 15th June last, and gave an interesting
account of the present condition of the White Nile. Previous to his departure from
Khartum, he had been assured that the Great White Nile had ceased to be a navi-
gable river. It appeared that the floating rafts of marsh vegetation, which, in
1865, caused an cheeractiok in the river. between the mouths of the Ghazal and
Giraffe tributaries, having been neglected by the Khartum authorities, had in-
creased so much as to form now an impenetrable barrier. The vast masses of

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 167

floating islands continually brought down the stream had produced a new district
many miles in extent, beneath which flows the current of the river. The slave-
traders, thus shut out from direct communication with the field of their enterprise,
had, however, discovered a passage to the river beyond the barrier, by the Bahr
Giraffe, which proved therefore to ‘be an arm of the Nile, instead of an independent
stream like the Sobat. In leaving Khartum with his flotilla, Sir Samuel resolved
to ascend by this newly discovered passage. He entered the lower mouth of the
Giraffe on the 17th February, in N. lat. 9° 26’. The water was 19 feet deep, and
the current about 3} miles an hour, with a breadth, from bank to bank, of about
GO yards. At that time the river was about five feet below the high-water mark
of the flood-season.. The stream was winding, and had a mean course from the
south-west. Four small granitic hills formed good land-marks in the boundless
flats within 15 miles of the junction, and fine forests bordered the river for about
80 miles, diversified by plains of extremely fertile soil, As the expedition pro-
ceeded the woods ceased altogether, and the steamers depended on the supply of
fuel stored in the vessels in tow. Ata distance of about 180 miles up the Giraffe
the dry land disappeared, and they sailed through a boundless marsh; the river
narrowed, the current diminished, and at length progress was stopped altogether
by a dense growth of high grass. This was in lat. 7° 47' 46", and 272 miles by
dead reckoning from the mouth. As the guides assured him that a passage really
existed through this to the main Nile, Sir Samuel set 1000 men to work to cuta
channel through the obstruction ; and, after thirty-two days’ labour, a canal, eight
miles long, was made, but only to find the stream beyond too shallow to float his
steamers. He compared the marsh-grass to sugar-cane in thickness and tough~-
ness; and the tangled confusion of decaying vegetation beneath it, to a depth of
five or six feet, resembled a mixture of fishing-nets, ropes, mud, sailors’ swabs,
sponges, and canes, all compressed together in a firm mass, beneath which the
water was from ten to twelve feet deep; while grass, about nine feet high, covered
the surface as far as the eye could reach from the mast-head. In the clear river,
beyond the obstruction, dry land appeared on either bank, and forests within two
miles. Herds of antelopes and buffaloes were on the plains, and the rifles secured
a supply of meat, which was much needed. From the point where the vessels
erounded, Sir Samuel proceeded, with Lieutenant Baker, in a small rowing-boat,
hoping to find deep water further ahead; but he found the river impassable, and
concluded that the Giraffe was only practicable during the season of flood. The
whole flotilla of thirty-four vessels turned back the way they had come; and as
the rainy season had set in, putting an end to further progress, he established the
encampment, from which he wrote, at Towfikeeya, near the junction of the Giraffe
with the Nile. He intended to remain here till November, and then, with all his
force of 2000 men, cut a passage through the obstruction in the main river, on his
way to Gondokoro. He spoke cheerfully of his prospects; his stores were all
safely warehoused, and all his men in fair health. Since his settlement at Tow-
fikeeya he had liberated 305 slaves, who were being carried down the river by
slave-dealers; half of them the property of the Turkish Governor of one of the
Nile settlements.

On the Great Movements of the Atmosphere. By AtEXANDER Bucwan,

The author gaye the results of an examination of the mean pressure of the at-
mosphere and the prevailing winds over the globe, based on barometrical averages
calculated for 516 places, and on the mean direction of the wind calculated for 203
places. The broad results were these:—In each hemisphere pressures are highest
in winter and lowest in summer. In winter! the highest, and in summer the lowest
pressures are over the continents; and in winter very low pressures prevail in the
northern parts of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In Central Asia the summer
pressure is 0-900 inch less than in winter. This implies the removal in summer of
a stratum of atmosphere from the interior of Asia of about 900 feet in thickness.
Towards the regions where pressures were high, the winds flow from all directions,
not directly towards the centre, but at angles from about 60 to 80 degrees; and
from areas of high pressure the winds are found to flow out in every direction.

168 REPORT—1870.

The prevailing winds over the globe, therefore, at all seasons, obey Buys Ballot’s
“Law of the Winds” with reference to the distribution of atmospheric pressure.
The inflow and outflow of winds are reducible to the single principle of gravitation ;
and so marked is this, that if there be any other force or forces which put the winds
in motion, they must be altogether insignificant as compared with gravitation.
The author gave, as the well-digested results of numerous observations, that there
was no general flow of the surface-winds of the north temperate zone towards and
from the polar regions; the regions of high and low pressure were the true poles
of the winds.

On the Physical Geography and Races of British India,
By Gzorce Campsett, D.C.L.

On the Ruined Cities of Central America. By Captain Carmicart.

The author commenced by giving a general descriptive account of these ruined
cities, and stated that, in his opinion, formed on personal investigation, the
architecture of the Aboriginal Indians of Central America was but a diversified
reproduction of that of Eastern countries. He then pointed out a number of simi-
larities in their architecture, designs, customs, &c. to those of the East, and showed
how, as a general rule, it was very difficult to explore these ruins, owing to the
hostility of the existing tribes of Indians.

As regards their antiquity, he assigned to many of them an earlier foundation
than that accorded by Messrs. Stephens and Squier, and adduced some very con-
vincing if novel proofs in support of his theory, The picture he drew of the palace
of Quiché, in Guatemala, fully bore out the statement of Torquemada, that they
rivalled those of Montezuma; and he showed that if that city, whose foundation
has been authoritatively established as coeval with the commencement of a line of
sixteen reigns of kings from Nimaquiché, a king of Kichiquel, or, to speak briefly,
a city of some eight hundred years’ standing, was some fifty years ago in such
thorough repair that the Padre of a neighbouring Indian village, who walked
among its streets and palaces, imagined himself in Old Spain, what must be the
era of those numerous ruined cities compared to which Quiché was modern ?

He then pointed out their great length, and added that, in connexion with this, a
remarkable fact had seemingly been overlooked by most Central American writers,
viz. that the stone buildings whose ruins we now find extant were used as temples,
tera and public offices generally, the poorer inhabitants living in palm-thatched

1uts of a perishable nature, an arrangement which represented an almost incredible
amount of population.

The author then proceeded to analyze the various elements composing the archi-
tecture of the ruined buildings and monuments, and gave an account of the various
uses to which the teocali or tumuli were put by the Toltecan and Aztec priests,
viz. for sacrificial and burial purposes, to serve as beacons, as warlike defences, &c.
He then explained the relations between the temples and alcazars or palaces, and
offered a few hints as to the deciphering of the hieroglyphics, a subject to which
he has paid much attention, showing that they chiefly were the works of the
Indian priesthood, and above all were intended to ran Oe moral and religious
precepts, chronological events being made entirely subservient, and pointed out their
analogy to the stone tablets of Moses, on which were engraven the ten command-
ments,

The author referred briefly to the round towers which contained the estufas for
the sacred fire of Montezuma in connexion with the worship of the sun, and passed
on to explain the nature and significance of the various hideous idols to whom
human sacrifice was offered on the summit of the teocali, and stated it as his belief
that these idols, as well as all the planed stones, were carved with chay or flint
instruments. He remarked that he had often found flint and obsidian imple-
ments, but in no instance an instrument of metal. He gave a detailed account of
a ruined city called Xmul, in British Honduras, which he claims to have discovered ;
and concluded by expressing his firm conviction in the belief of the existence in

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 169

the present day of an Indian city yet to be discovered, whose inhabitants occupy
the same splendid palaces and temples as in the days of the Spanish Conquest, and
whose priests inscribe fresh precepts on their tablets and altars, and who would
then read to us their now mystical hieroglyphics. He supported this statement
by giving an account of certain explorations he had made having this object in
view. He left these facts in the hands of those interested in scientific discoveries ;
and should sufficient interest in the matter be awakened from what he had now
made known, it would be but another testimony to the valuable results derived
from these meetings of the British Association,

On Eastern Tibet. By T. T. Cooprr.

Holy Islands in the White Sea. By W. Herwortn Drxon.

Topographical Sketch of the Zerafshan Valley. By A, Fepcnenxo.

The author was employed during 1869 in a scientific exploration of the valley of
the Zerafshan river, in which is situated the city of Samarcand. He penetrated
up the valley as far as the Fan river, one of four streams which by their union,
according to the natives, form the Zerafshan. The Lake Iskander Kul lies in the
mountains, separating the Zerafshan from the Oxus, at an altitude of 7000 to 8000
feet. The river-valley is bordered by mountains of great elevation. Approaching
Samarcand the Zerafshan branches off into two channels, reuniting ten or twelve
miles lower down (below the city), near Khatyrchi, on the western frontier of the
new Russian province of Turkestan. The island thus formed is the richest and
most populous district of the entire valley. The country to the north of the river
is Steppe; but a considerable portion of it is cultivated, and the road from Tash-
Kupriak to Samarcand, a distance of twenty miles, passes almost entirely by gar-
dens and fields. The great volume of water diverted by canals of irrigation from
the Zerafshan abundantly satisfies the thirsty ground. The islands formed by the
arms of the river have an exceedingly rich soil, and every inch is cultivated with
cotton, wheat, barley, rice, millet, or lucerne; the villages are very numerous, and
all surrounded by gardens and irrigating canals. The river, rising in lofty, snow-
clad mountains, and haying a rapid current at certain seasons, fertilizes as well as
waters the whole lower district through which it flows, by bringing down a large
quantity of earthy sediment. The author gave a description of the various large
towns in the valley, and the fairs held in them. In his description of Samareand,
he stated that the city contained 1846 shops, 27 carayanserais, 7 baths, 86 Mesjids,
and 23 colleges ; the population is 30,000.

Letter on Eastern Turkestan. By T. D. Forsyrn.

Previous to his departure from Leh, on his present mission to the ruler of
Fastern Turkestan, the writer communicated to Sir Roderick Murchison some notes
on geographical problems requiring to be solved in this little-known region and the
country further to the East. The Yarkand envoy had informed him that the
precious stones supposed to come from Khotan were obtained from Kharkhand, a
place under the sovereignty of the Chief of Kashgar, but situated forty days’ march
to the east of Khotan. This place is not to be found in the best maps of the
Chinese Empire ; but it is mentioned by Marco Polo under the name of Charchan,
which the commentators had supposed to be the same as Karashahar. It appears,
however, to be a distinct place, of large size, and situated in a rich country to the
north of Lhassa. The road to it, according to the envoy, skirts the foot of a range
of mountains, and crosses a large plain, through which run twelve large streams
flowing into Lake Zok, for so he pronounced Lake Zob. The Yarkand and Kash-
gar rivers, according to the same authority, do not flow into this lake, but lose
themselves in the desert. The inhabitants of the shores of Lake Lok live on fish,

170 REPORT—1870.

and clothe themselves in dresses made of the bark of trees, The present inhabi-
tants of Kharkhand are Mohammedans.

On the Physical Geography of Colorado and adjacent Regions.
By Governor Giri.

On Lines for a Ship-Canal across the American Isthmus.
By General W. Heinz, U.S.A.

The author visited the Atlantic side of the isthmus early in the present year on
a mission intended to examine the correctness of the statements of M. Lacharme,
an engineer who explored the interval from the Tuyra River on the Pacific side
and the Cacarica branch of the Atrato on the Atlantic, and declared there were no
great obstacles to the construction of a canal at that point, the length to be cut
being only 52 miles, and the greatest elevation only 186 feet. The author was not
able to ascend the Atrato, but all he saw went to confirm M. Lacharme’s statements.
These he gave in detail, showing that they were founded on a conscientious survey,
with all necessary scientific instruments. From his own observations and those of
the recent United States Survey, the author demonstrated the utter impractica-
bility of any other part of the isthmus for the purposes of an interoceanic canal,
and insisted upon the necessity of a further survey by the line of the Atrato and
Cacarica.

On the Great Currents of the Atmosphere.
By Joun K, Laventon, WA., .RAS., PRG.

The author pointed out several geographical facts which were opposed to the
received theory of the trade-winds, known as Hadley’s theory. Heat does not
cause a wind towards any of the principal areas of greatest temperature; either
towards the Desert of Sahara, the Arabian Desert, the interior of Australia, the
Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, or even, when carefully traced, towards the Great
Prairie of North America. The effect attributed to the rotation of the earth also
is not consistent with numerous observed facts, such as the 8.E. wind in the Gulf
of Mexico, the N.W. wind on the coast of North Africa, between Cape Verde and
Cape Palmas, the N.W. gales in the North Atlantic, the 8.W. wind on the south
coast of Australia, and very many others; the idea, indeed, appeared to have been
formed in a temporary forgetfulness of the power of friction, which in the case
of air is very intense. Winds which, in accordance with Hadley’s theory, have
been very generally divided into polar and equatorial, seem more naturally to divide
themselves into easterly and westerly. As our experience grows larger, we learn
that the westerly winds have an extent and a power incompatible with the idea of
their secondary nature. They extend from 60° N. to 60° 8., interrupted only by
the trade-winds. The trade-winds are small in comparison, and of very limited
height, the westerly winds blowing above them as strongly as they do both above
and near the surface in temperate zones. The westerly are really the primary
winds, whilst the equable trade-winds, of very limited volume, are reflex streams
of air caused by the impact of the great westerly winds on the continental barriers,
whether against mountain-ranges or against the more sluggish air which lies over
the land. In the Atlantic we see the main westerly stream of air dividing, on
about the parallel of 45° N., and turning north as a'8.W. wind on our coasts, or
south as a N.W. and N. wind on the coast of Portugal. On the other hand, at the
extreme west, the westerly wind continually dragging away the air from the eastern
side of the Rocky Mountains, causes such a tendency towards a vacuum, that the
air from the south and north is induced towards it. It was impossible to say
definitely why the atmosphere should have this prevailing westerly motion, but the
author was inclined to seek its cause in the attraction of the heavenly bodies.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 171

The Landfall of Columbus. By R. H. Masor, F.S.A., Hon. Sec. B.GS.

It is surprising that after the lapse of nearly four centuries there should be any
doubt as to the spot in the New World which was first lighted on by Christopher
Columbus. In this paper the author set himself to show, not only that the name
which Columbus gave to that spot was for nearly two centuries applied to an
island to which it never belonged, but that among the advocates of various islands
for the honour of being the true landfall the very latest had to be confuted, while
the one who had adduced the best arguments in favour of the correct island had
been greatly at fault with respect to the point of anchorage. Columbus gave the
name of San Salvador to the island which he first discovered. Its Indian name
was Guanahani. In 1793 Juan Bautista Muiioz, in his ‘Historia del. Nuevo
Mundo,’ declared his belief that Guanahani was Watling’s Island, in contravention
of the maps which from the beginning of the eighteenth century had given the name
of San Salvador to Cat Island. In 1825 Navarrete, in his ‘ Coleccion de los Viages
y descubrimientos que hicieron por mar los Espamoles desde fin del siglo xv.,”
believed it to be Turk’s Island. In 1828 Washington Irving, in his ‘ Life of Co-
lumbus,’ decided in favour of Cat Island, relying mainly on Captain Slidell Mac-
kenzie’s interpretation of the ‘Diary of Columbus;’ and in 1837 this conclusion
received the weighty approval of the Baron Alexander von Humboldt in his
‘ Hxamen Critique de 1’ Histoire de la Géographie du nouveau Continent.’ In 1856
the claims of Watling’s Island found a fresh champion in Capt. Becher, of the
Hydrographic Office, in his work entitled the ‘ Landfall of Columbus ;’ but in 1864,
and again so late as 1869, Senhor de Varnhagen, in his ‘ Verdadera Guanahani de
Colon,’ has put in a claim for the island of Mayaguana. The author of the paper
first examined these respective claims by the light of the ‘ Diary of Columbus’ him-
self, the real fountain-head of information upon the-subject; and having shown
therefrom that the arguments in favour of Cat Island, Turk’s Island, and. Maya-
guana were untenable, proceeded to fix the identity of Guanahani with Watling’s
Island by a process which reduced the chances of error toa minimum. He pro-
duced a facsimile diagram of a map of the Bahamas published in 1601 by Herrera,
the official historiographer of the Indies in Spain, and laid down by him from the
original documents in the handwriting of Columbus and his contemporaries, which, in
his official position, he had under his special charge. The value of this authoritative
map was all the greater that it was constructed before any question was raised on
the point in dispute; it was new enough to contain all the islands in their approxi-
mately correct position, but old enough to contain, not only the name of Guanahani,
but a large proportion of ancient names identical with those at present existing.
Side by side with this was a diagram made from the Admiralty Survey, showing
these islands as now known, and with their modern names. Out of twenty-four
islands thus brought under comparison, ten retained, in the modern map, the same
names as they held in the old, thus affording valuable stations for accurate com-
parison. Of these ten, one was Senhor de Varnhagen’s Mayaguana itself, which was
represented, together with the island of Guanahani, on Herrera’s map; so that His
Excellency’s claim was completely neutralized, since by no possibility could two
islands be made identical which were so markedly distinct as to have several other
islands lying between them. The comparison between the two diagrams plainly
showed that Guanahani was Watling’s Island. But while thus demonstrating the
correctness of the conclusions of Mufioz and Capt. Becher on this head, the
author entirely disagreed with the latter as to the point where the Admiral first
anchored off that island, and also as to his movements while there. Capt. Becher
makes Columbus anchor a little to the south of the N.E. point of the island; and
when he tripped his anchor, makes him sail round the northern end of the island.
He also makes Columbus’s ship follow the boats in their reconnaissance. Not one
of these statements or conclusions is in accordance with the ‘ Diary,’ nor would such
a movement lead to the topographical discoveries recorded. The ‘ Diary’ says that
Columbus took the ship’s boat and the carayel’s barges and went along the island
ina N.N.E. direction to see the other part of the island to the eastward ; and as the
trending of the southern part of the east side of the island is itself N.N.I,, it is
clear that such a movement necessitates starting from a point on the 8.E. of the

172 RrEPORT—1870,

island. This very manifest fact is in accordance with the discoveries made by
Columbus on the island, and also with what took place when Columbus left his
moorings for the second island, for he then saw several islands, and was doubtful
which he should visit first. This would really be the case when starting from
the 8.E. point of Watling’s Island, but would not hold good if he started from the
anchorage assigned by Capt. Becher; so that the author has here, for the first
time, demonstrated that the first anchorage of Columbus in the New World was
off the south-east point of Watling’s Island.

—

On Railway Routes across North America and the Physical Aspects of the
Country. By Lord Minroy, M.P., F.BR.GS.

Journey into the Interior of Hadramaut. By Werner MunzincEr.

The author, after recovering from wounds received in Abyssinia, accompanied
Capt. Miles on an excursion eastward from Aden towards the interior of Arabia.
The region traversed abounded in Himyaritic inscriptions and in other vestiges of
remote civilization. The travellers went by sea as far as Bir Ali, and travelled
thence into the interior for a distance of about 300 miles, their furthest point
being a place called Habban, 3000 feet above the level of the sea. Their route
was laid down by compass bearings, and they took barometric observations for
height. From Bir Ali the country formed a plain with a gentle slope inland,
nearly covered by isolated hills and ridges of sandstone with flat tops, all of the
same height, about 1500 feet above the plain, and quite destitute of vegetation:
the very narrow strips of alluvial soil in the ravines, not one-tenth of the whole,
are alone capable of cultivation ; but these are generally well cared for, and yield
three and even four crops in the year, being irrigated by wells. These patches
form a number of oases with a dense population and towns of several thousand
inhabitants. The people cultivate dates, millet, wheat, and the Abyssinian grain
called tef. Water is generally met with, in boring, about fifty feet from the sur-
face. Beyond this region, and further inland, they came to what M. Munzinger
called a runic and metamorphic land, with rounded hills bounding several wide
plains. Here there was more vegetation, with some fine trees; and wild hogs,
gazelles and herds of cattle were met with. The people belonged to different
races, and the Himyaritic language was not entirely lost or forgotten, in spite of
1200 years of Islam. But all spoke Arabic, though in a very strange dialect;
there was an absence of religious feeling and of regular government, and civiliza-
tion was at a very low ebb, the only sign of it being the very large houses with
several stories, each of them a castle in itself. The travellers met with little hos-
pitality, but were not actually ill-treated. At Ghorab they were near the Desert
of Akhaf, described by Wrede, and the Bahr el Saffi, or Sea of Saffi, so called from
King Safli, who, in an attempt to cross the desert, disappeared with his entire army.
The desert was described as an immense sandy plain, covered with numberless un-
dulating hills, which gave it the appearance of a moving sea, and as lying 1000
feet below the level of the granitic land. On the desert are white patches formed
of impalpable powder, into which if a plummet with a sixty-fathom line is thrown,
the whole slowly disappears. In one of these quicksands the il-omened King
Safli and his host found a tomb. The whole region of Hadramaut and Yemen is
full of curious legends, and abounds in geographical and historical questions of the
deepest interest. The author confessed that the excursion of Capt. Miles and
himself formed but a small contribution to our knowledge of Arabian geography,
but hoped it would incite other travellers to explore this nearly unknown land.

Notes on the Site of the Terrestrial Paradise. By Major-Gen. Sir Heyry
Rawitson, K.C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.RS.*

Tn this paper the author propounded, as the result of his investigations of

Semitic antiquities and of the Cuneiform Tablets of Babylonia, a new hypothesis

4 at tye paper will be printed zx extenso in the Journal of the Royal Geographical
ociety.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 173

regarding the site of the traditional Garden of Eden of the Hebrews. He re-
marked, in the first place, that on examining the early traditions of nations, we
invariably found the Heaven-land, the abode of the gods, the connecting-link
between divinity and humanity, to lie in that region of the earth from which the
recording race took its intellectual origin. In illustration of this he need only
refer to the Olympus of the Greeks and the Merti of the Aryans, which latter had
three sites, according to the habitat of the three branches of the Aryan race; the
Persians, or Western Aryans, placing their Irén-vij in the Paropamisus, while the
Mert of the Central Aryans was in Pamir, and of the Eastern about the Sacred Lakes
in Thibet, and in each of these there were supposed to be four rivers flowing from
acommon centre. There was ground, then, for supposing the Paradise of the
Hebrews to lie in that region which was the cradle of the nation, namely, near
Ur of the Chaldees, which the author had been able to demonstrate, from cunei-
form inscriptions, to have been situated on the lower Euphrates, at the place now
called Muzheir. The name of ‘“ Hebrew ” was also derived from the same locality,
the zone, or belt, of alluvial land between the river and the tertiary formation
having the specific title among the Arabian geographers of Zbr, or “the bank ;” so
that Zbri was a perfectly correct ethnic title for the Abrahamic emigrants. Fur-
ther, the author suggested that Gan-eden, which we translate “ Garden of Eden,”
was nothing more than the Hebrew rendering of one of the old vernacular names
of Babylonia, which was G‘ana-duni (or, with the case-ending, Gana-duniyas),
Gana signifying apparently “an enclosure,” while Duni or Aduni was one of the
earliest gods worshipped in the country. Without, however, insisting on this
identification of the name of the country, he would rely mainly on the names and
attributes of the four rivers which watered the garden, and which were evidently
intended, as Kalish has remarked, to furnish an exact geographical description of
Eden. These rivers, as it is well known, were Pison, Gihon, Hiddekel, and
Euphrates. Now the land of Babylonia was constantly illustrated in the cunei-
form inscriptions by the names of four rivers, two of which answer to the Tigris
and the Euphrates, and the other two were named the Swrrapi and the Ukn. The
latter two were Assyrian terms, and their Babylonian equivalents had not yet been
identified. The Swrapi seemed, however, to answer partly to the Biblical Gihon,
and Ukni to the Pison, and they represented respectively the left hand, or eastern
arm of the Tigris, and the right hand, or western arm of the Euphrates.
Regarding the Pison, it is said in Genesis, “The name of the first is Pison,
that is it which compasseth the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold; and
the gold of that land is good: there is bdellium and the onyx stone.” The name
Pisun, coming from the Hebrew verb “to disperse,” signifies “the overflow ;” and
as in all ages there has been an outlet to the Kuphrates above Babylon, where the
flood drains off to the south-east, varying constantly in its course and name, and as
Ukni had been shown on independent grounds to mean “ the onyx,” or “ the onyx-
river” (though probably the term really refers to alabaster, quarries of which existed
just outside the Euphrates alluvium), the author considered there was good reason
for identifying the stream with the Pison of Genesis. Bdellium he considered to
mean “pearls” (Bedolat), which were obtained at the mouth of the river, from the
banks in the Persian Gulf; and the land of Havilah he believed to be the strip of
sandy desert which skirts the Arabian upland ; ZZaul signifying simply ‘“ sand.”
With regard to the Gihun, or the river “which compasseth the whole land
of Cush,” his theory was, that in very early times the left branch of the Euphrates,
which left the main river just above Babylon and ran due east to the Tigris, was
considered to be the same as the left arm of the Tigris itself, that arm being
prolonged in the same line to the eastward, while the night arm of the Tigris was
considered to be the true continuation of the upper course of the river following
the same general direction of south-east. Ina rough way, it might be said that the
left arm of the Euphrates thus crossed the Tigris and formed the Gihun. He justified
this theory on philological grounds, showing that the left arm of the Tigris had
retained the name of G'uhd, absolutely identical with the Hebrew reading of Gihon,
almost to the present day, and discussed the whole subject in some detail. As
to the description of the Gihun as “encompassing the whole land of Cush”
(which, by a very bold guess, our translators had rendered “ Ethiopia’), ‘ Cush,” or

174 REPORT—1870.

“ Kish,” was one of the primitive capitals of Babylonia, and it gaye its name
apparently to the whole country along the river. ‘ Kusiya” was mentioned in
that quarter among the possessions of Darius Hystaspes. Various other reasons
for this identification were adduced.

The third river offered fewer difficulties, as no one had ever doubted that the
Heddekel was the Tigris. The fourth river was Perat, or the Kuphrates. In the
inscriptions the word is often represented by the sign for “ water,” in the same
way as it is called in Scripture “ the great river ;” but usually the upper river has
the name of Purat, where we have probably a very ancient root, signifying “ to
abound” or “ fructify,”’ common to both the Aryan and Semitic tongues; the lower
river, below the Pison branch, is called in the inscriptions the river of Sippara,
from the town of that name.

Early Traditions regarding the River Owus.
By Major-Gen. Sir H. Rawirsoy, K.C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.RS., Se. :

Whether Bournouf was right or not in regarding the term Pémir (the region in
which the Oxus takes its rise) as a contraction of Updé Méru, “the country above
Mount Meru,” and in thus associating the name directly with the holiest spot in
the Brahmanical Cosmogony, the author of the paper thought it was certain that
the geographical indications of the Puranas all pointed to this quarter of Central
Asia as the site of the primeval Aryan Paradise. We were not, however, limited
to Sanscrit authorities in studying this subject; the Puranas were supplemented
by the traditions and travels of the Buddhists, and in these later sources of infor-
mation we often find evidence of so direct a nature as almost to meet the require-
ments of modern science, Thus, in regard to the four rivers of the Aryan Paradise,
which were named by the Brahmans, 1, the Sita; 2, the Alakananda; 3, the Vakh-
shu; and 4, the Bhadra, the Buddhists varied both the order and the nomenclature,
classing the four rivers as, 1, the Ganges; 2, the Indus; 3, the Oxus; and 4, the
Sita; and, further, deriving them from a great central lake, which was named
A-neou-ta, and one of the representatives of which was either the Kara-kul or the
Sarik-kul Lake of Pamir. The Buddhist traveller Hiouen-thsang in a.p, 644
recognized in the Tsung-ling, or Pamir chain, the Su-mert of his national cosmo-
graphy. Capt. Wood, in the account of his journey to the sources of the Oxus,
had furnished us with an explanation of the origin of the old legend of a four-
rivered Paradise. He observes that “ the hills and mountains which encircle Sir-
i-kul, give rise to some of the principal rivers in Asia. From the ridge at its
eastern end flows a branch of the Yarkand river, one of the largest streams that
waters Chinese Tartary, while from the low hills on the northern side rises the
Sirr, or River of Kokan, and from the snowy chain opposite, both forks of the Oxus
as well as a branch of the River Kuner are supplied.” Although the position of
these various streams is now known to be incorrect, we had a right to infer that
the many-rivered wealth of Pamir had so impressed the imagination of the primi-
tive Aryan colonists that in their subsequent migrations towards the south, and
with a more extended geographical knowledge, they transferred the physical
features of the fatherland to the abode of Brahma and the gods, precisely in the
same way as the Semitic Jews, after being transplanted to the coast of Syria,

reserved in their delineation of the terrestrial Paradise the memory traditionally
ania down of their old habitat in Babylonia between the Tigris and the Euphrates.
Another Aryan legend confirmed this presumed connexion between the head-
streams of the Oxus and the several rivers of Asia which were fabled to fall from
heaven upon Mount Meru, thence to flow to the surrounding world. One version of
the Puranie legend described the rivers flowing from Mount Meru as seven; and
this had its parallel in the popular geography of Pamir, for the region of the Upper
Oxus was known to the Ivanian division of the Aryan race by the name of the
Country of the Seven Rivers. The passage in the Vendidad to this effect was
confirmed by Abu Rihan El-Biruni, a very competent authority. The author
believed that a critical examination of the geography of the Puranas might lead to
some curious results as to the period and track of the various Aryan migrations.

”

> Se

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 175

Journey to the Upper Waters of the Niger. By W. Wr1nwoop Raanr.

In the course of his recent journey of exploration in the interior of Western
Africa, undertaken under the auspices of the Royal Geographical Society, and at
the cost of Mr. A. Swanzy, the author penetrated to Farabana, on the Upper Niger,
avd to Bouré, celebrated for its gold-tields, 450 miles from Sierra Leone. He
returned from Sierra Leone to Falaba, on his second attempt to reach the Niger, at
the end of June, 1869, and within a month of starting had the pleasure of beholding
the great river, at the large and previously unknown town of Farabana. The Niger
here was only 100 yards broad, and canoes for the passage of travellers were only
used during the rainy season. The Upper or Western Niger had been previously
visited by travellers at two points,—by Mungo Park at Segon and by Caillié con-
siderably higher up; but the point reached by the author was the highest yet
attained, and he claimed to have discovered the shortest and best route yet known
from Sierra Leone to the river—a discovery which would eventually lead to important
commercial results, and which established the singular fact of the rise of the river
within so short a distance of the sea into which it flows.

On the Basin of Lake Titicaca. By E. G. Sauter.

The author gave the result of his recent explorations, in company with Prof. A.
Raimondy, in the district of Lake Titicaca, in South Peru. The elevated plain in
which this lake, as well as that of Aullagas, is situated, forms a terrestrial basin,
termed by the author the Thibet of America. It hasan estimated length of between
500 and 600 miles, its width varying from 100 to 200 miles, the total area being
calculated at about 100,000 square miles. Its eastern border is bounded by the
loftiest part of the Andes, a vast unbroken, snow-crowned range, whose lowest peaks
rival Chimborazo in altitude, The slope of the Titicaca basin is gentle towards
the south, and the waters of the lake lie at the great elevation of 12,864 feet above
the level of the sea, Some of its tributaries are scarcely fordable even in the dry
season; and its waters are discharged through a broad, deep and swift, but not
turbulent stream, El Desaguadero, into Lake Aullagas; itis therefore a freshwater
lake. The Desaguadero is about 170 miles long, and has a fall of not far from 500
feet. OfLake Aullagas, which the author did not visit, almost nothing is known,
The maximum length of Titicaca is nearly 120 miles, and its greatest width between
40 and 50 miles. The lake had been explored by Mr. Pentland in 1827-28 and in
1837; and his chart, published by the Admiralty, was still the most trustworthy
guide to its geographical features. Messrs. Squier and Raimondy navigated it for
three weeks in an open boat, and the author of the paper bore testimony to the
general accuracy of Mr. Pentland’s observations. There were, however, some errors,
and these he had rectified in a map he (Mr. Squier) had published. The eastern,
or Bolivian shore of the lake is abrupt, but the western and southern shores are
relatively low; and the water in the bays and estuaries is grown up with reeds and
rushes, amid which myriads of water-fowl find shelter and support. The roads
across the marshes are stone causeways of Inca origin. It was easy to see that the
lake once covered a much larger area than it now occupies. In many places, aline
of 100 fathoms did not reach the bottom. The difference of level between the dry
and wet seasons amounted to from 8 to 5 feet. The dry season leaves bare a large
tract of land, coyered with a kind of tender lake weed, called in the Quichua lan-
guage UJlacta, and this supports herds of cattle at a time when the pasturage of the
drier country is withered. The lake never freezes over, but ice forms near its shores
and where the water is shallow. Its waters during the winter months are from
10° to 15° Fahr. warmer than the atmosphere, and therefore exert a favourable
influence over the climate of its shores and islands. The prevailing winds are from
the north-east, whence they often blow with great force; and severe storms are
notinfrequent. The efforts to place steamers on the lake have failed, chiefly owing

to the scarcity of fuel. The population of the neighbourhood eonsists chiefly of

Aymara Indians, between whom and the Quichuas there is physically a marked

difference.

—_—

176 nEPORT—1870.

On the South-African Gold-fields. By Captain Sir Joun Swrxsurye, Bart.

The part of South Africa treated of by the author was the district lying between
the Limpopo and the Zambesi rivers, and between 27° E. long. and the Indian
Ocean. The shortest practicable route to itis by way of Port Natal and Harrismith.
There is no public conveyance between Maritzburg and Harrismith, a distance of
150 miles, and the road is very bad, as all the rivers and valleys are crossed at right
angles. The Drakensberg is crossed on the road at an altitude of 5400 feet. From
Harrismith to Potchefstroom, a distance of 190 miles, the country is undulating
and almost destitute of wood. Seventy-five miles further Rustenburg is reached,
the last civilized place in the interior; hence to the Tati river is a march of 382
miles through the bush country, a monotonous, arid tract, wooded with stunted
trees rarely exceeding sixty feet in height. The mining settlement on the Tati is
situated in lat. 21° 27’ S. and 27° 40’ EK. long., at an elevation of 3200 feet above
the sea. The Southern Gold-fields, as far as the actual metal has been found,
extends from N.W. to 8.E., a distance of forty miles by fourteen miles broad.
There are five different mines within a mile of the settlement; two three miles to
the south-east, one thirteen miles north ; two twelve miles, and one thirty-five
miles up the river, to the north-west of the settlement; making a total of eleven
mines which have actually been worked and gold extracted. Besides these there
are numerous other reefs where gold has been discovered; but these have not
yet been worked. In most of the mines two shafts have been sunk to
an average depth of fifty feet, and all are upon the site of ancient workings.
The original miners appear to have worked the reefs more in the manner of
quarries than mines, leaving great holes or pits. There are two descriptions of
quartz,—one red and honeycombed, the other of a bluish-grey appearance, the gold
in the latter being coarser, but more easily discriminated than in the red ore. The
climate of the gold country is very healthy. From the end of April to October no
rain falls; the other months are subject to violent thunder-storms, but there is
scarcely a day without some hours of fine weather: the nights are always cold, in
June the thermometer falling as low as 38° Fahr. about an hour before sunrise,
while it ranges as high as 88° or 90° during the day. The prevailing wind for nine
months of the year is S.E., blowing strong during the day, and dying away at
sunset. The Northern Gold-fields lie 327 miles to the N.N.E. of the Tati, in the
Zambesi basin, their northern part being the Umfuli river (the Tole or Banyeka of
Livingstone’s map), and their southern boundary the Bembees. The latitude of
the principal workings is 18°11'S., and the longitude 30° 34’ E., and they are distant
205 miles from Tete, and 160 miles due south of Zumbo, on the Zambesi ; at present
they have not been very productive. The country is densely peopled by the Mes-
huna nation, industrious workers in iron and earthenware, and growing all kinds
of grain and pulse. The author, who visited these previously almost unknown
people, gave a sketch of their recent dealings with the invading Matabele Caffres,

The Island of Hainan. By R. Swinnor, F.R.G.S.

My. Swinhoe visited the island of Hainan on Government service in 1868, to
inquire into its commercial capabilities. He describes the island of Navchow,
near Hainan, which was first visited. The chief port (Hoihow) and the capital
of Hainan (Kiungchow) are then described, and an account is given of a visit to
the mountains of the interior, and an interview with the independent aborigines
called Le. Leaving the chief port, the gunboat ‘Algerine,’ Commander Domvyile,
which carried the expedition, cireumnayigated the island, calling at the most im-
portant harbours and places on the coast. Some account is given of each of these.

On the Harbours of Western India. By Capt. Taytor, (late) IN.

During his service in the late Indian navy of nineteen years’ duration, the author
has been employed in surveying various harbours hitherto unused on the western
coast of India; and as the results of these surveys, showing the existence of har-
bours of great capacity and excellence, had been published, he was naturally sur-

i ea i i

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 177

prised to learn last spring that “the Viceroy has applied to the Home Government
to send out a civil engineer, possessed of special experience, to be employed in’
examining the coast of India, with the view of discovering sites for ports.” Among
the ports surveyed by the late Indian Navy were, first, Poshetra and Seraia, or
Kambalia, situated at the entrance of the Gulf of Kutch, and sheltered from all
the prevailing winds. Hither of them is capable of receiving the largest iron-clad
of the navy. Seraia might be compared to the Mersey, and Poshetra was some-
thing between Cork Harbour and Milford Haven, without their hilly features, No
expensive breakwaters were needed, and they simply required lights and beacons
to guide vessels in and out, wharves for ships to le alongside, and roads in the
interior to bring down produce. Since the opening of the Suez Canal, the northern
position of these ports, which previously would have been a disadvantage, has
become one of their strongest recommendations. They are 300 miles to windward
of Bombay, 7. e. nearer to Aden, in the south-west monsoon, the season when the
fresh crops require carriage to Europe. Neither steamer nor large sailing-vessel
would find real difficulty in getting out of the Gulf of Kutch. The author found
that the strong winds of the south-west monsoon blew only for three or four days
at a time, and then abate for a day or two. The Mualims, or pilots of Kutch, are

a caste deservedly famous for skill and daring; many of them have quadrants and

nautical tables, and can determine the latitude by sun and pole-star, and their lon-
gitude by dead reckoning. Some of their boats are large, well built, and decked,

and carry a pair or two of carronades, Large native vessels coming from the Ma-
labar and African coasts can now, after the commencement of the south-west

monsoon, boldly run into the gulf. A third important harbour on the coast of
Katiawar was Chanch Bunder, formed by Shalbet Island, and surveyed by the late
Capt. R. Ethersay. Southward of Bombay there was the excellent harbour of the
Rajpuri, or Jinjera river, without the usual bar of sand that is found at most river~

mouths along this coast, but having 33 and 3] fathoms at low tide, and 43 fathoms
inside in mid-channel. Next to this, following a southerly direction, was the

Jyghur, or Shastri river, the principal channel to which has 3 fathoms at low tide,

Kalbadevi Bay, Viziadroog, Desghur, Sedashighur Tudri, or Mirjan river, and

various other ports capable of being made serviceable in our commerce with
India, were also described in some detail.

On Windward Great Circle Sailing. By Joun T. Towson, F.R.GS.

The author referred to the tables constructed by him, and published by the
Admiralty twenty-four years since, in which he pointed out the value of wind-
ward great circle sailing. The other modification of this sailing had been brought
into successful use; but windward sailing, although it appeared most simple, had
been generally misunderstood by practical men. Some had obtained charts having
great circle routes laid down. If they were driven from this track by adverse
winds, they returned as soon as the wind would permit them, not perceiving that
when they had quitted one great circle there was another great circle, which was
their nearest route. Others imagined that this sailing consisted in going a certain
number of miles to the northward. The rule was simple :—“ Find the great circle
course, and put the ship on that tack which is the nearest to the great circle
course.” In January last he was invited by Mr. Ashbury to prepare sailing-direc-
tions for the ‘Cambria’ yacht. The directions which he prepared were shown by
achart. It consisted of the great circle course, corrected for variation for every
part of the Atlantic that it was probable that a vessel should pass. All the ma-
riner had to do was to ascertain his approximate position, and then he would find
by inspection how to keep the ship’s head by compass. The distance from the

lace of destination was also given by another chart, containing the position of
both yachts at noon for each day. Mr. Towson showed that the ‘Cambria’ saved
the race by superior navigation. This sailing gaye the greatest advantage when
the distance of longitude was greatest; and thus the ‘Cambria’ attained all the
advantage that this sailing could afford in the first five days, which was about
110 miles; afterwards the superior power for an ocean race possessed by the
‘Dauntless’ prevailed, and reduced this advantage to a minimum.

70. 12

178 REPORT—1870.

The principal objection that of late has been raised against great circle sailing is
‘the series of ever-changing courses which a vessel must pursue.”’ This is correct
with regard to true courses; but it will be seen, by reference to the large chart,
that compass courses across the North Atlantic vary less than those on a rhumb
or on a parallel.

Notes on Analogies of Manners between the Indo-Chinese and the Races of the
Malay Archipelago. By Col. H. Yuuz, C.B. .

The author believed the Malayan race to be closely connected with the Indo-
Chinese, although their language, which is not one of monosyllables, marked a
ag present distinction. He had seen faces of natives from Java, on the one

and, and of natives of Burmah and of the mountains on the eastern frontiers of
Bengal on the other, as near identity as human faces ever are; whilst there are
many particulars common to the customs and peculiarities of the two regions
which seem to argue a close relationship. One of these common traits is the
aversion to the use of milk; in Bali, where alone among the islands the Vedas
still exist, a preparation from the cocoa-nut is substituted for ghee in the Hindoo
rites. Another is the wilful staining of the teeth; and the singular custom of
covering the teeth entirely with a case of gold, noticed by Marco Polo among a

eople of Western Yunnan, existed, at least recently, in Sumatra, Timor, and at
Tacaisar. The extravagant enlargement of the ear-lobe is also common to most
of the tribes of both regions. Another coincidence is an idiom of language of
remote origin, in which a term is added to a numeral in the enumeration of objects,
analogous to our word “head” in expressing a number of cattle, and of which
there are a large number of cases in the Malay language. Precisely the same
peculiarity is found in the Burmese, Siamese, and Chinese tongues; and the pro-
ensity may be referred to a dislike to abstract numbers. The savage mania of
unting for heads, generally by nocturnal ambuscade, and of treasuring them as
trophies, is found, with almost identical cireumstances, among the wild Dayaks
and Kayans of Borneo and Celebes, and the wild Kukis, Nagas, and Garos of the
eastern frontier of Bengal, A superstitious abstinence from certain articles of
diet, which is hereditary and binding among certain families only, is found here
and there with remarkably coincident circumstances among the tribes of both
regions. Another very notable custom is the association of the whole of the
families of one village or community in one or in several great houses or barracks.
This appears to be general among some of the Dayak tribes of Borneo and among
the rude natives of the Pigi islands, off the west coast of Sumatra. The very
same practice is found among the Singphos, north of Burmah, and among the
Mekirs and Mishmis of the Assam border. The practice of ordeal by water is
found, with singular exactness of agreement in the circumstances, at intervals over
both the regions compared. No one can doubt the common origin of the music
and musical instruments of Burmah and Java, vastly superior as they are in spirit
and in melody to any thing called music in India proper; there is also an extra-
ordinary similarity of dramatic entertainments in Burmah, Siam, and Java.

The author concluded by stating that these and many other coincidences which
he detailed were singly of no value as arguments for some original close bond of
kindred, as isolated coincidences occur between the practices of the most distant
tribes of the earth, but that their great number must be admitted to have great
weight, especially considering the contiguity of the two regions.

ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
Address by Professor W. Stantry Juvons, M.A., President of the Section.

Tux field of knowledge which we cultivate in this Section is so wide, that it would
be impossible, in any introductory remarks, to notice more than a few of the im-
portant questions which claim our attention at the present time.

————a

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 179

The name Statistics, in its true meaning, denotes all knowledge relating to the
condition of the State or people. Iam sorry to observe, indeed, that many persons
now use the word statistical as if it were synonymous with xwmerical; but it is a
mere accident of the information with which we deal, that it is often expressed
in a numerical or tabular form. As other sciences progress, they become more a
matter of quantity and number, and so does our science; but we must not suppose
that the occurrence of numerical statements is the mark of statistical information.

In order, however, that any subject can be fitly discussed by a Section of this As-
sociation, it should be capable of scientific treatment. We must not only have facts,
numerical or otherwise, but those facts must be analyzed, arranged, and explained
by inductive or deductive processes, as nearly as possible identical with those which
have led to undoubted success in other branches of science. I have always felt
great eratification that the founders of this Association did not in any narrow
spirit restrict its inquiries and discussions to the domain of physical science. The
existence of this Section is a standing recognition of the truth that the condition
of the people is governed by definite laws, however complicated and difficult of
discovery they maybe. Itis no valid reproach against us that we cannot measure,
and explain, and predict with the accuracy of a chemist or an astronomer. Diffi-
cult as may be the problems presented to the experimentalist in his investigation
of material nature, they are easy compared with the problems of human nature,
of which we must attempt the solution. I allow that our knowledge of the causes
in action is seldom sure and accurate, so as to present the appearance of true
science.

There is no one who occupies a less enviable position than the political econo-
mist. Cultivating the frontier regions between certain Inowledge and conjecture,
his efforts and advice are scorned and rejected onall hands. If he arrives at a sure
law of human nature, and points out the evils which arise from its neglect, he is
fallen upon by the large classes of people who think their own common sense suffi-
cient; he is charged with being too abstract in his speculations, with overlooking
the windings of the human heart, and with undervaluing the affections, However
humane his motives, he is lucky if he escape being set down on all sides as a heart-
less misanthrope. Such was actually the fate of one of the most humane and ex-
cellent of men, the late Mr. Malthus. On the other hand, it is only the enlightened
and wide-minded scientific men who treat the political economist with any cor-
diality. I much fear that, as physical philosophers become more and more suc-
cessful, they tend to become, like other conquerors, arrogant and selfish ; they forget
the absurd theories, the incredible errors, the long enduring debates out of which
their own knowledge has emerged, and look with scorn upon our economic science,
our statistics, or our still more vague body of knowledge called social science, be-
cause we are still struggling to overcome difficulties far greater than ever they
encountered. But, again, I regard the existence of this Section as a satisfactory
recognition of the absolute necessity of doing our best to cultivate economic sub-
jects in a scientific spirit.

The great and everlasting benefits which physical science has conferred upon the
human race are on every side acknowledged; yet they are only the smaller half of
what is wanted. It daily becomes more apparent that the highest successes in
the scientific arts and manufactures are compatible with deep and almost hopeless
poverty in the mass of the people. We subdue material nature, we spin and
weave, and melt and forge with a minimum of labour and a maximum of result;
but of what advantage is all this while human nature remains unsubdued, and a
large part of the population are too ignorant, careless, improyvident, or vicious to
appreciate or accumulate the wealth which science brings. Chemistry cannot
analyze the heart; it cannot show us how to temper the passions or mould the
habits. The social sciences are the necessary complement to the physical sciences,
for by their aid alone can the main body of the population be rendered honest,
temperate, provident, and intelligent.

In this kingdom during the last thirty or forty years we have tried a mighty
experiment, and to a great extent we have failed. The growth of the arts and
manufactures and the establishment of free trade have opened the widest means

of employment and brought an accession of wealth previously unknown; the fre-
; *

180 REPORT—1870,

quent remission of taxes has left the working classes in fuller enjoyment of their
wages; the poor laws have been reformed and administered with care, and the
emigration of millions might well have been expected to leave room for those that
remain. Nevertheless within the last few years we have seen pauperism almost ag
prevalent as ever, and the slightest relapse of trade throws whole towns and classes
of people into a state of destitution little short of famine. Such a melancholy fact
is not to be charged to the political economist; it is rather a verification of his
unheeded warnings ; it is precisely what Malthus would have predicted of a popu-
lation which, while supplied with easily earned wealth, is deprived of education
and bribed by the mistaken benevolence of the richer classes into a neglect of the
future. What can we expect while many still believe the proverb that “ Where
God sends mouths, He sends food,” and while a great many more still act upon it?

I am glad to say that, ic spite of all opponents, we have an education act. Three
centuries ago the State re ognized the principle that no person should be allowed
to perish for want of bread; for three centuries the State has allowed the
people to perish for want of mind and knowledge. Let us hope much from this
tardy recognition of the greatest social need, but let us not withdraw our attention
from many other causes of evil which still exist in full force. I wish especially to
point out that the wise precautions of the present poor law are to a great extent
counteracted by the mistaken humanity of charitable people. Could we sum up
the amount of aid which is, in one way or other, extended by the upper to the
lower classes, it would be almost of incredible amount, and would probably far
exceed the cost of poor-law relief. But I am sorry to believe that, however great
the good thus done, the evil results are probably greater. Nothing so surely as
indiscriminate charity tends to create ie perpetuate a class living in hopeless
poverty. It is well known that those towns where charitable institutions and
charitable people most abound are precisely those where the helpless poor are most
numerous. Itis even shown by Sir Charles Trevelyan, in a recent pamphlet, that
the casual paupers have their London season and their country season, following
the movements of those on whom they feed. Mr. Goschen and the poor-law au-
thorities have of late begun to perceive that all their care in the administration of
relief is frustrated by the over-abundant charity of private persons or religious so-
cieties. The same family often joins parish relief to the contributions of one or
more lady visitors and missionaries. Not only improvidence but gross fraud is
thus promoted, and cases are known to occur where visitors of the poor are duped
into assisting those who are secretly in possession of sufficient means of livelihood.

Far worse, however, than private charity are the innumerable small charities
established by the bequests of mistaken testators. Almost every parish church has
its tables of benefactions, holding up to everlasting gratitude those who have left a
small patch of land or an annual sum of money to be devoted to pauperizing the
population of the parish throughout all time. Blankets, coals, loaves, or money are
doled out once or twice a year, usually by the vicar and churchwardens. More or
less these parish charities act as a decoy to keep the most helpless part of the
population nominally within the fold of the Church. The Dissenters, where they
are strong enough, retaliate by competing for the possession of the poor by their
own missions, and thus the reproach of the Roman Catholic Church, that it fos-
tered mendicancy, holds far too true of our present sects. With private charity
no law can sitar ae, and we can do nothing but appeal to the discretion of indi-
viduals. With testamentary charities it is otherwise.

We are far yet from the time when so beneficial a measure will be possible, but
I trust that we are rapidly approaching the time when the whole of these pernicious
charities will be swept away. We have in this country carried respect to the
wishes of past generations to an extent simply irrational. The laws of property
are a purely human institution, and are just so far defensible as they conduce to
the good of society ; yet we maintain them to the extent of wasting and misusing
no inconsiderable fraction of the land and wealth of the country. It would be
well worthy, I think, of Mr. Goschen’s attention, whether all small parish charities
might not be transferred to the care of the guardians of the poor, so as to be
brought under the supervision of the Poor Law Board, and distributed in accord-
ance with sound principle, I should refuse to see in all such public endowments

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 181

any rights of private property; and the State which undertakes the ultimate sup-
ort of the poor is bound to present its own efforts to reduce pauperism from being
ustrated, as they are at present.

And while speaking of charities, it is impossible to avoid noticing the influence
of medical charities. No one could for a mement propose to abolish hospitals and
numerous institutions which are absolutely necessary for the relief of accidental
suffering. But there is a great difference between severe accidental disease or in-
jury and the ordinary illnesses which almost every one will suffer from at various
periods of his life. No working man is solvent unless he lay by so much of his
Wages as will meet the average amount of sickness falling to the lot of the man or
his family. If it be not easy to determine this amount, there are, or may be, sick
clubs which will average the inequalities of life. In so far as trades unions favour
the formation of such clubs, they manifest that spirit of self-reliance which is the
true remedy of pauperism.

But the wealthy classes are, with the best motives, doing all they can to coun-
teract the healthy tendencies of the artisans. They are continually increasing the
number and resources of the hospitals, which compete with each other in offering
the freest possible medical aid to all who come. ‘The claims of each hospital for
public support is measured by the number of patients it has attracted, so that,
without some general arrangement, a more sound system is impossible. Hospitals
need not be self-supporting, and in cases of really severe and unforeseen suffering
they may give the most lavish aid; but I conceive that they should not relieve
slight and ordinary disease without a contribution from those benefited. As
children are expected to bring their school pence, though it be insufficient to support
the school, and as Government has wisely refused to sanction the general establish-
ment of free schools, so I think that every medical institution should receive small
periodical contributions from the persons benefited. Arrangements of the kind are
far from uncommon, and there are many self-supporting dispensaries, but the com-
petition of free medical charities has, to a great extent, broken them down.

The importance of the subject with which I am dealing can only be estimated
by those who have studied the statistics of London charities prepared by Mr. Hicks
and published in the ‘Times’ of 11th February, 1869, It is much to be desired
that Mr. Hicks, or some other statistician, would extend a like inquiry to all parts
of the United Kingdom, and give us some notion of the amount of money expended
in the free relief of the poor.

Closely connected with this subject is that of the poor-law medical service.
Admirable efforts are being made to improve the quality of the medical aid which
all persons sufficiently poor can demand, and some unions have already erected
hospitals almost perfect in their comfort and salubrity. It will be conceded by
every one that those sick persons whose charge is undertaken by the public ought
to be treated with care and humanity. Where medical aid is given at all, it ought
to be good and sufficient. But the subject seems to me to be surrounded with dif-
ficulties, out of which I cannot find my way. The better we make the poor-law
medical service, the more we shall extend and deepen the conviction, already too
hm that the poor may make merry with their wages when well and strong,

ecause other people will take care of them when sick and old. We thus tend to
increase and perpetuate that want of self-reliance and providence which is the
crowning defect of the poorer classes. In this and many other cases it seems as
necessary as ever that our humane impulses should be guided by a stern regard to
the real results of our actions.

I now turn to a subject which must come prominently before our Section. I
mean the future financial policy of the kmgdom. We are now at a most peculiar
and happy epoch in our financial history. For thirty years or more a reform of the
tariff has been in progress, and it is only a year since the last relic of the protective
system was removed by Mr. Lowe’s repeal of the small corn-duty. One great
scheme is thus worked out and completed ; henceforth, if duties are remitted, it
must be on a wholly different ground—as simple remission of revenue, not as the
removal of protective duties which benefit some to the injury of others. It might
well be thought difficult to overlook the difference between a tax for revenue pur-
poses and one for protective purposes; and yet there are not a few who seem not

182 => =. - REPORT—1870.

to see the difference. We are still told that there is no such thing as free trade,
and that we shall not have it until all custom-houses are swept away. This doc-
trine rests, however, upon a new interpretation of the expression free trade, which
is quietly substituted for the old meaning. Cobden, however much he might be
in favour of direct taxation, took care to define exactly what he meant by free
trade. He said :—

« What is free trade? Not the pulling down of all custom-houses, as some of
our opponents try to persuade the agricultural labourers. Our children, or their
offspring, may be wise enough to dispense with custom-house duties; they may
think it prudent and economical to raise revenue by direct taxation; we do not
propose to do that. :

“ By free trade we mean the abolition of all protective duties.

“ We do not want to touch duties simply for revenue, but we want to prevent
certain parties from having a revenue which is to benefit themselves, but advantage
none else ; we seek the improvement of Her Majesty’s revenue.”

Let us, then, candidly acknowledge that in Cobden’s sense free trade is actually
achieved. Any one the least acquainted with our revenue system knows with what
skill our tariff has been adjusted by Peel, Gladstone, and Lowe, so that the articles
taxed should be of entirely foreign production, or else the customs duty should be
exactly balanced by an excise duty. We haye now a very large revenue of about
forty millions, raised by customs or excise duty on a small number of articles, with
the least possible interference with the trade of the country. <A very large part,
too, is raised upon spirituous liquors, the consumption of which we desire, on other
grounds, to reduce rather than encourage.

For the future, then, the remission of customs duties will be grounded on other
motives than it has often been in the past ; and it becomes an open question whether
there are not other branches of revenue far more deserving attention. It must not
be supposed that foreign trade is to be encouraged before everything else. The
internal trade and industry of the country is at least equally deserving of attention ;
and it may be that there are stamp-duties, licence-duties, rates, or other taxes which,
in proportion to the revenue they return, do far more injury than any customs duties
now remaining. It is impossible, for instance, to defend the heavy stamp-duty

aid by the articled clerks of attorneys on their admission; and, if I went into
etail, it would be easy to point out scores of cases where the attention of the
Chancellor of the Exchequer is needed.

I may point to local taxation especially as a subject requiring attention, even
more than any branch of the generalrevenue. Until within the last few years the
importance of the local rates was to a great extent overlooked, because there were
no adequate accounts of their amount. The returns recently obtained by the
Government are even now far from complete, but it becomes apparent that at least
one-fourth part of the whole revenue of the kingdom is raised by these neglected
rates and tolls. Their amount is more than equal to the whole of the customs
duties, upon the reform of which we have been engaged for thirty years. Never-
theless we continue to allow those rates to be levied substantially according to an
act passed in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Whole classes of property which were
unrated three centuries ago are unrated now, and it will bea matter of great diffi-
culty to redress in an equitable manner inequalities which have been so long tole-
rated. The subject is of the more importance because there is sure to be a continuous
increase of local taxation. We may hope for a reduction of the general expendi-
ture, and we shall expect rather to reduce than raise the weight of duties; but all
the more immediate needs of society, boards of health, medical officers, public
schools, reformatories, free libraries, highway boards, main-drainage schemes, water-
supplies, purification of rivers, improved police, better poor-law medical service—
these, and a score of other costly reforms, must be supported mainly out of the local
rates. Before the difficulties of the subject become even greater than they now
are, I think that the principles and machinery of local taxation should receive
thorough consideration. At present the complexity of the laws relating to poor
rates is something quite appalling, and it is the herculean nature of the reform
required which perhaps disinclines financial reformers from attacking it. Several
most able members of the Statistical Society have, however, treated the subject,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 183

especially Mr. Frederick Purdy, Professor J. E. T. Rogers, and Mr. Dudley Baxter.
The recent partial inquiry by a select committee has chiefly served to prove the
extent and difficulty of the reform which is needed.

We have considerable opposition raised to customs and excise duties, because
they are indirect taxes ; but the fact is, that, direct taxation is practically impossible,
Careful examination shows that it is difficult to draw any clear distinction between
taxes in this respect. There are few or no direct taxes borne only by those who
pay them. The incidence of the local rates, for instance, is an undecided question,

ut I do not doubt that they fall to a considerable extent indirectly. The incidence
of the stamp-duties is aimost wholly indirect, but defies investigation. The income-
tax no doubt approaches closely to the character of a direct tax, but it has the in-
superable inconvenience of being paid by the honest people and escaped by the
rogues. Iam inclined to look upon schemes of universal direct taxation as affording
much scope for interesting speculation, but as being, in practice, simply impossible.

I have another point to urge. Is not the time come when the remission of taxes,
whether of one kind or another, may properly cease to be a main object? The
surplus revenue of future years will doubtless be more than sufficient to enable the
Chancellor of the Exchequer to reform or abolish those small branches of internal
reyenue which occasion far more inconvenience and injury than they are worth.
There wili still, should war be happily avoided, remain a considerable surplus, and
the question presses upon us, Shall this revenue be relinquished, or shall it be
2 to the reduction of the national debt ?

In considering this subject, I may first point out that there probably exists no
grievous pressure of taxation, and no considerable inequality as regards the several
classes of the people. We are now able to estimate, with some ee to accu-
racy, the actual proportion of income which is paid by persons of different incomes.
The accounts now published by Government, and the labours of several eminent
statisticians, especially Professor Leone Levi and Mr. Dudley Baxter, permit us to
make this calculation. The most recent addition to our information 1s contained
in an elaborate paper read by Mr. Baxter before the Statistical Society in January
1869, and since published in the form of a volume. Mr. Baxter has, with great
industry and skill, collected a mass of information concerning the habits of persons
in different classes of society, which he combines with the published accounts of
the revenue and with the statistics of income previously estimated by himself and
Mr. Leone Leyi. Both he and Professor Levi come to the conclusion that the
working classes, so long as they make a temperate use of spirituous liquors and
tobacco, pay a distinctly less proportion of their income to the State, and even in-
temperance does not make their contribution proportionally greater than those of
more wealthy persons. f

It happens that, before I was aware of Mr. Baxter’s elaborate inquiries, I under-
took a similar inquiry on a much more limited scale, by investigating the taxes
paid by average families spending £40, £85, and £500 a year. My conclusions, as
might be expected, were not exactly coincident with those either of Mr. Baxter or
Professor Levi; yet there was no great discrepancy. I conceive that families of
the classes mentioned, consuming moderate quantities of tobacco and spirituous
liquors, all pay about 10 per cent. of their income in general or local taxation, al-
lowance being made for the recent reduction of the sugar-duty and the repeal of
the corn-duty. But thete is this distinction to be noticed, that the taxation of the
middle classes is mostly unavoidable, whereas at least half the taxation of the poorer
classes depends upon the amount of tobacco and spirituous liquors which they con-
sume. Families of artisans or labourers abstaining from the use of these stimu-
lants are taxed very lightly, probably not paying more than 4 or 5 per cent. of
their income. Now, while many men are total abstainers and many are intempe-
rate, I think we cannot regard the taxes upon stimulants as we do other taxes.
The payment of the tax is voluntary, and is, I believe, paid without reluctance.
‘The more we thus investigate the present incidence of taxation, the more it seems
inexpedient to proceed further in the reduction of the customs and excise duties.
The result would be to leave by far the larger mass of the people almost free from
any thing but local taxes, and to throw the whole cost of Government upon the
wealthier classes, and especially those who have tangible property.

184. REPORT—1870.

But I venture to raise another question. I doubt whether the remission of tax-
ation does as much good at the present day as it would at a future time. There
are comparatively few signs that the wages of the working classes, even when suf-
ficient, are saved and applied really to advance the condition of the recipients. All
is expended in a higher scale of living, so that little permanent benefit results ;
and when bad trade comes again, there is as much distress as ever. It is only with
the increase of education and temperance that the increase of wages will prove a
solid advantage. Thus, when the really hurtful taxes are removed, it by no means
follows that the further remission of taxes leads to the profitable expenditure of
income, The money may be spent in a way far more profitable to the whole nation
than it will be spent by those whose taxes are remitted.

I am glad, on this and many other accounts, that the propriety of reducing the
national debt is beginning to be very generally recognized. ‘The question was ably
raised by Mr. Lambert during the recent session, and, both in the House of Com-
mons and in the newspaper press, many strong opinions were expressed in fayour
of reduction. In fact, there was almost a general feeling that Mr. Lowe’s small
measure of reduction was altogether inconsiderable compared with our opportunities
and the greatness of the task before us. During every interval of peace we ought
to clear off the charges incurred during the previous war, otherwise we commit the
serious error of charging to capital that which should be borne by income. If a
railway company needs periodically to renew its works, and charges all the cost to
capital, it must eventually become insolvent; so if at intervals we require to main-
tain the safety and independence of this country or its possessions by war, and do
it all by borrowed money, we throw the whole cost of our advantage upon poste-
rity. If, indeed, one great war could free us from all future danger we might
capitalize the cost and leave it as a perpetual mortgage upon the property of the
country ; but if the effect of any war wears out, and we are liable to be involved
in new wars at intervals, then we cannot fairly or safely go adding perpe-
tually to the mortgage upon the national property. The wars at the commence-
ment of this century have secured for us fifty years or more of nearly unbroken
peace, and yet at the end of this period of ever-advancing wealth, the great debt
stands almost at the same figure as at the commencement. We enjoy the peace and
leaye our descendants to pay its cost.

If it be said that this country is now far wealthier and more able to endure the
annual charge of the debt than ever before, I would point out that the expense of
war is also greatly increased. If we consider the cost of the Abyssinian Hxpedi-
tion, or the vast debts which other nations have lately or are now incurring, it is
evident that we may have in a great war to incur hundreds of millions of debt, or
else relinquish our prominent position. Let us hope that such calamities will be
spared to us, but let us not suppose that we may avoid them by being negligent
and unprepared. It is not many months since Mr. Lowe declared that we must
maintain our system of taxation substantially as it is, in order to supply revenue
adequate to possible emergencies, The wisdom of his view is already apparent ; but
T hold that he should have gone further, and strengthened our hands by a measure
for the reduction of the debt worthy of his boldness and the surplus at his com-
mand. But the fact is, that little can be done in such a matter by any minister
unless he be supported by a strong public opinion.

The remarks which I most wished to make are now completed, and there only
remain one or two minor topics to which I will more briefly allude.

The excessive mortality in great towns seems to demand more close attention
than it has received. For many years Liverpool stood at or near the top of the
list as regards mortality, but by strenuous efforts it has been rendered more healthy.
Manchester, on the other hand, although often considered the best paved, best
watered, and in some other respects the best managed town in the country, has lately
taken a very high or even the highest place as regards mortality. In Salford, too,
the death-rate has steadily grown in recent years. It would seem as if we were
entirely at fault, and that all our officers of health, sanitary commissioners, and the
improvements of science and civilization cannot prevent nearly twice as many
people from dying as would die in a healthy and natural state of things,

Within the last few months attention has been drawn to this subject by a pro-

—>—_eeE__—— "*

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 185

longed discussion in the ‘Manchester Guardian.’ It was occasioned by Mr.
Baxendell, who brought before the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society
certain statistics tending to show that the mortality of Manchester was not due to
any peculiar excess in the rate of infantile mortality. It was an old opinion that
in a manufacturing town like Manchester, the children are neglected while the
mothers are employed at the mills; but Mr. Baxendell showed that the deaths of
infants under five years actually bear a less proportion to the whole number of
deaths than in any other of the large towns. ‘This conclusion was somewhat
severely criticized by the Medical Officer of Health for Salford, and by Dr. Ran-
some and Mr. Royston, of the Manchester Sanitary Association. The latter gen-
tlemen pointed out that the true mode of computation is to compare the deaths of
infants with the number of infants living, and the deaths of adults with the num-
ber of adults. But even when calculations are made in this manner it still turns
out that the adult mortality of Manchester is as excessive as the infantile mortality.
Manchester mothers are thus exonerated from the charge of neglect, but at the
same time a most important and mysterious problem is left wholly unsolved.

Our perplexity must be increased when we consider that Liverpool and Man-
chester, though both very unhealthy towns, are quite contrasted as regards situa-
tion and the kinds of employment they present. If we compare Liverpool with
other sea-ports, such as Bristol, Hull, and London, it is found to exceed them all
considerably in mortality. Bolton, Bury, Preston, Stockport and other towns have
more women employed than Manchester, comparatively speaking, yet they are
more healthy. The size of the town, again, is not the chief cause, for London,
though many times more populous than any other town, is decidedly healthy. The
sites of the towns do not give any better solution of the difficulty, London haying
probably as unhealthy a site as any of the other large towns.

I am surprised that more attention has not been drawn to the probable in-
fluence of a poor Irish population in raising the death-rate. It occurred to me
that the great towns which are most unhealthy agree in containing a large propor-
tion of Irish, and agree in nothing else which I can discover. To test this notion
I have calculated, from the census returns of 1861, the ratio of the Irish-born adult
population in all the larger towns of Great Britain. It then becomes apparent at
once that the unhealthy towns of Liverpool, Manchester, Salford, Glasgow, Dun-
dee, &c. are all distinguished by possessing a large population of Irish, whereas
the healthy towns of London, Birmingham, Bristol, Hull, Aberdeen, &c. have less
than 73 per cent. of adult Irish residents. Sheffield is the only remarkable excep-
tion to this induction. It might seem that, in order to confirm this conclusion, I
should show the death-rate in Dublin to be very high. On turning to the accounts
of the Irish Registrar-General, we find the Dublin rate to be low, but then we find
that the Dublin birth-rate is even lower in proportion. In fact the registry sys-
tem in Ireland gives results so much lower in every respect than those of Great
Britain, that we must either conclude the state of population to be utterly dif-
ferent there from what it is here, or we must suppose the registration to be very
incomplete. If after further investigation this suggestion should be found to ex-
La the high and mysterious mortality of many towns, it will, I think, relieve us

om some perplexity, give us more confidence in sanitary measures, and point out
exactly where most attention is needed.

The next two or three years will be a time of great interest to statisticians, on
account of the approaching census of 1871. We shall soon possess data which will
assist us in many investigations, and enable us surely to estimate many of the
changes in progress.

There is only one suggestion concerning the census which it occurs to me to
make, namely, that it ought to be taken in as nearly as possible a uniform manner
in all the three parts of the United Kingdom. It need hardly be pointed out that
the value of statistics almost entirely depends upon the accuracy and facility with
which comparisons can be made between different groups of facts, and a very slight
variation in the mode of making the enumerations of the census or tabulating the
results will lead to error, or else render comparison impossible.

Reasons, the force of which I cannot estimate, have led to the establishment of
distinct registry-offices in Edinburgh and Dublin. Not only are the ordinary re-

186 REPORT—1870.

ports concerning births, deaths, and marriages drawn up independently in the seve-
ral offices for England, Scotland, and [reland, but even the census is performed by
the separate authorities in the three kingdoms. Consequently we have really three
censuses and three reports, and at least in 1861 the tables were constructed to a
great extent in different modes in these reports. Thus there is a total want of that
unity and uniformity which, in a scientific point of view, is indispensable. If
there is one thing more than another which demands perfect unity and centraliza-
tion, it is the work of the census and the Register Office; but if we cannot have
one central office, let us hope that the several Registrar-Generals will cooperate so
as to produce the nearest approach to uniformity in the census. The different ter-
ritorial divisions and arrangements may require some modifications in the mode of
enumeration, but except in this respect, there should be perfect identity.

I should like to direct your attention for a moment to the very copious and ex-
cellent statistical publications with which we are now furnished by Government.
Owing partly to the prejudice against blue books, and partly probably to the in-
effective mode of publication, the public generally are not aware that for the sum
of 8d. any person can obtain the Statistical Abstract of the Board of Trade, con-
taining an admirable selection from the principal statistics of the country during
the preceding fifteen years. For a few shillings, again, may be had the ‘ Miscel-
laneous Statistics’ of the Board of Trade, furnishmg a wonderful compilation of
facts concerning three recent years, though I wish that this information could be
brought more nearly up to the time of publication.

By degrees a considerable amount of system has been introduced into our par-
liamentary papers. They have always been sufficiently copious—rather too copi-
ous in fact; but until the last twenty years they consisted mainly of disconnected
and accidental accounts, which were exceedingly troublesome to statisticians, and
often of no use whatever. It is from regular annual publications, carried on in a
uniform manner, that we derive the most useful information, that which is capable
of comparison and digestion, The annual reports which have for some years been
issued from various Government departments are the best source of statistics; and
I may suggest that there are several public departments (for instance the Mint)
which do not yet give any regular annual reports.

I would especially point, again, to the last report of the Inland Revenue Depart-
ment as a model of what we might desire from other departments. In addition to
the usual annual report, it contains an abstract of the previous reports for ten years
back, and, what is still more valuable, complete tables of all inland duties from
their first establishment, some of the tables going back to the beginning of last
century. We are thus provided with a complete history of the inland revenue. I
cannot but believe that in many other departments is much valuable information
which might be furnished to the public in like manner at a very slight cost.

Under other circumstances I should have had something to say to you concern-
ing international money. Just before the present unhappy war broke out, a Com-
mission in Paris had reported in a manner greatly facilitating the adoption of an
international money in the British Empire and in America; at the same time
a conference was about to be held in Berlin, which would probably have resulted in
some important measures as regards Prussia. Hverything, in short, was favourable
to the early adoption of a common money; but it need hardly be said that all
hope of such a great reform must be deferred until peace is once again firmly esta-
blished.

Since this Association last met, the great experiment of transferring the tele-
graphs to Government control has been carried out. The result has been to some
extent disappointing. The proprietors of the telegraphs, when negotiating with
Government, discovered that their property was about twice as valuable as they
had before considered it. The enormous profits which they made out of the sale
seem to me to throw immense difficulty in the way of any similar transfer in the
future. It becomes, for instance, simply chimerical to suppose that the Govern-
ment can purchase the railways, ae aS are about two hundred and fifty times as
valuable as the telegraphs, and which, if purchased in the same way, would cost
considerably more than the whole national debt. The working of the telegraphic
department, again, confirms the anticipation that we must not expect from it any

i ee el

Lee

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 187

such results as followed the establishment of the penny post. Many people already
look forward to the time when the uniform cost of a telegram will be 6d., but I
believe that they will be disappointed. They overlook the essential difference that
a great number of letters may be conveyed almost as cheaply as one letter, whereas
every telegram occupies the wires for a definite time, and requires to be delivered,
generally speaking, by a special messenger. Thus, if we are to have the rapid de-
livery without which telegrams seem to me nearly valueless, the property and staff,
and, of course, the expenses of the department, must expand nearly proportionally
to the business. A reduction of the rate to 6d., by bringing a great increase of
work, would greatly augment the expenses of the department, and inflict a loss
upon the nation.

On National Debts. By R. Duptey Baxver, M.A.

After enlarging on the importance of the subject, the author traced the history of
our National Debt, which was fairly started at the time of the Revolution in 1688,
when William III. brought over with him that new scientific invention. In 1763
it was £138,000,000. The American war raised it to £249,000,000, and the
French war to £861,000,000, from which point, with the interval of the Crimean
war, it was reduced, until now it stood at £749,000,000. He contrasted the cost
of a year’s war with the very small reductions of a year’s peace, averaging
£2,500,000. The French Debt, originated by Louis XIV. (with the interval of
the Revolution, when a great debt was raised and destroyed in a short time), stood
at £245,000,000 at the commencement of the Empire in 1852, whence it had risen
to £518,000,000. Under the second Empire the increase was £15,000,000 a year,
and there had never been a period of reduction. It must be borne in mind, how-
ever, that in the middle of the next century the French railways, now valued at
£300,000,000, would become national property. In the United States the debt
rose from £18,000,000 sterling on July 1, 1861, during four years of civil war, to
£551,000,000 on July 1, 1865; but it has been reduced on July 1, 1870, to
£477,000,000, or by £15,000,000 a year. He hardly knew which to wonder at
most, the increase or the decrease. He believed that the rate of reduction would
be continued. Austria, like France, was an empire of uninterrupted deficits. Her
debt was now £300,000,000. Russia was one of the States which had run most
recklessly and rapidly into debt. The amount was now £300,000,000. The debt
of Spain was now £257,000,000. Italy had gone into debt in the most headlong
manner, showing an average increase since 1861 of £19,000,000 per annum.
Prussia’s debt was the least of all the European nations. North Germany had
now a debt of £106,000,000, and South Germany £46,000,000, or only £150,000,000
for all Germany, including £15,000,000 on account of the present war; and her
costs in the present war were to be paid by France. The Dutch debt in 1869 was
£80,000,000, having been reduced for many years at the rate of £1,000,000 per
annum, equivalent to £10,000,000 in England. He argued from the whole, that
while the commercial countries had steadily reduced their debts, the non-commer-
cial nations had enormously increased theirs. England’s position now, compared
with that of 1815, was greatly improved compared with other nations. In 1815
she owed £860,000,000 against £600,000,000 united debt of all other countries,
whilst in 1870 she owed £749,000,000 against over £2,300,000,000, the combined.
debts of other countries. He also compared the burden per head of population of
the various debts. Germany’s debt was 2s. 9d. per head per annum against ours
(17s. 5d. per head per annum), and the United States debt per annum was much less
than ours; and these two nations were our great competitors. He therefore urged
a great and speedy reduction of our national debt, in order to lighten the pressure
on industry. Holland’s sinking fund was worthy of attention. They might appro-
priate certain taxes sacredly to the reduction of the debt; or they might adopt a
resolute taxation, like the United States, but without their protection errors. He
approved of terminable annuities as one agent, but did not deem it sufficient. In
conclusion he addressed a word of warning to the nations which had so long and
so recklessly increased their national burdens.

188 REPORT—1870.

Middle-Class Schools as they are, and as they ought to be.
By C. H. W. Brees, A. R.GS,

This paper contained a sketch of some of the failings, with suggestions for their
removal, which may be found in our so-called educational system. In reality we
have no middle class educational system, every man being at perfect liberty to
carry out his own ideas, whether they be good, bad, or indifferent. Many eminent
men of undoubted talent have advised the introduction into this country of sys-
tems similar to the most complete of those to be met with on the Continent, This
would never answer; for the system to be adopted in England must be adapted
to native circumstances and insular peculiarities, must be capable of expanding
with the growth of education, and of incorporating all that may hereafter be
proved beneficial.

Man is necessary to man, and every man ought to fill a sphere wherein he should
by his acts benefit the whole community as well as himself. This he will never
do whilst imperfectly educated; and although not able to attain perfection, we are
capable of aiming at it. One of the first objects of a community, of a nation,
should be to insist that the men engaged in educating the rising generation were
equal to their task. Whilst, however, the masters in our primary schools are
compelled to undergo a long and arduous training, both in the practical and theo-
retical parts of their profession, any one is allowed to become a teacher of the great
commercial class. Again, some means should be taken to ascertain whether the
instruction given was such as to fit the pupils for their future positions. This
could be best done by a system of Government supervision and examination, as no
other body would be equally unbiassed. An annual blue book could be issued,
containing the reports of such examinations, together with suggestions for better
achieving what is required. There ought to be some means provided whereby
talented students should not be compelled to leave their studies just at the time
when most progress was made, but should be able to get the best education the
country could give. Briefly, then, we require a system to train and ensure the
competency of the masters, and to ascertain that their duties are efficiently per-
formed.

On the Economy of Large and Small Farms. By Wii11am Borty,

First, as regarded the interest of the landed proprietor.

Secondly, as to that of the tenant.

Thirdly, with reference to that of the labourer; and

Fourthly, as to which are the most advantageous nationally.

After a tabular statement of the acreage, rent, buildings, capital, &c. of various
sized farms, with extracts from the survey of Belgium, by Dr. Voeleker and Mr.
H. M. Jenkins, F.G.S., also of Mr. Howard, M.P., and others, the author gave
his own, from personal observation in various parts of the United Kingdom,
France, &c.

In conclusion, the author observed that he was of opinion (though he would by
no means have farms all of one size) that large rather than small were most bene-
ficial to the landlord, tenant, labourer, and nation at large.

On the Duties of the Government of India and of the Merchants of England
in promoting Production in India. By Guorce Camppett, D.C.L.

The writer said that he fully recognized that it was the duty of the Government
in India, and of the collectors and other officers, to promote the productions of the
soil in India by every means in their power. The point to be aimed at was not so
much an increase in the area of production as in the productive powers of a given
area. In India the Government was the great head landlord, and the collectors
were the agents of the great State landlord, and ought to perform a landlord’s
duties. They had created native landlords, but to suppose that they would per-
form the duties of a landlord was one of the anachronisms which we English were
apt to cling to in the face of fact. The farmers (the ryots) were, in truth, good

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 189

farmers, but they were all on a small and humble scale, and they had not the
education or information to enable them to adopt scientific improvements. He
believed it to be wholly and absolutely incorrect to represent them as too conser-
vative to improve. Show them the means of raising better crops and they would
readily adopt them. It was, in his opinion, the duty of the collector of a district
to promote agricultural improvements in every way in his power. All that Govern-
ment had been able to do was to facilitate traffic, The secret of improving our
Indian cotton cultivation had not been discovered. Government had sent out
— Scotch gardeners, but he doubted if they would have very rapid success,

his opinion Government made a great mistake in ceasing to maintain a special
college for the education of the Indian civil servants. The present examinations
were a mistake ; the young men were crammed as for a literary examination, and
had yery little practical knowledge. He especially referred to their ignorance of
arithmetic. India, too, was too much overridden by the legal system. It was not
enough to administer India by a rigid system of law. The Indian civil servants
should be more trained for executive government, with a knowledge of agriculture
and other matters. He approved of a department of agriculture in India. He
would also advocate security of tenure in India, especially in the new settled dis-
tricts, many of which were well suited for agriculture, and which would lead to
their development. As to the management of the natives, they were much* more
easily led than driven.

On the Tobacco Trade of Liverpool. By J. 8. Campsett.

The writer traced the history of the trade from its commencement, which was
in the year 1665, and stated that by the year 1700 the tobacco trade with Virginia
had taken the lead of all the others, the principal merchants of the town being
then engaged in it. During 1770 the total imports of tobacco in Liverpool
amounted to 5447 hhds. In 1788 the first tobacco warehouse was built in Liver-

ool, on the east side of the King’s Dock, and was calculated to hold 7000 hhds.

he steady growth of the trade, however, soon rendered increased accommodation
necessary, and in 1814 a larger structure was built, which had since been enlarged
to twice its original size, and was calculated to contain 20,000 hhds. From
12,928 hhds. in 1823 the imports rose to 16,583 hhds. in 1869; the largest stock in
warehouse at any one time being at the end of 1865, when it reached 27,820 hhds.
Of the total hogsheads imported in Liverpool, about one-fourth (perhaps a little
more) was cleared for manufacture in the town, one-fourth was sent to Ireland,
one-fourth coastwise to various ports in England and Scotland, and the remainder
was ‘exported to various foreign ports. The above figures refer only to American
tobaccos ; of other growths there were imported in 1869, 3709 bales and packages.
Liverpool had fully one-half the stock of American tobacco in the United Kingdom,
and the business was at present in the hands of eight brokers and about seventy
importers.

e described the business as an exceedingly quiet and regular one, the brokers
and importers, as a rule, sticking to their fixed and antiquated practices, and ob-
stinately resisting any attempt at innovation.

The paper concluded with some remarks on the extent of tobacco manufacture
in Liverpool, and the desirability of a more extensive introduction of female labour
into this branch of industry.

Proposition for a Census of Local Names. By Hye Crarxz, F.S.S.

The object was to enumerate in each enumeration district all known names of
towns, hamlets, farms, fields, rivers, hills, commons, &c., in extension of the ma-
terials in the Indexes to the Censuses of 1841, 1851, and 1861, so as to give better
information as to the distribution of English names (with their forms of Frisian,
eg &c.), and of Celtic, with their forms of Welsh, Cornish, Irish, Erse, and

anx.

190 . REPORT—1870.

On the Decline of Small Farmers in Yorkshire and Lancashire, the Cause and
Effect. By J. Waxrer Etuis.

The decline in numbers may be traced to three causes, want of capital, high
rents, and dear labour, Farming, to be now successful, is a question of capital
and intelligence. Many farms in Yorkshire and Lancashire are now made into one,
three and four or five small farms being let as one farm, the buildings pulled down,
the fields made larger by removing many fences, so that machinery may be avail-
able; then a man with intelligence and capital takes it, and it is better farmed, pro-
duces more, and adds greater profit to the national weal by the use of machinery.
As land passes into commercial hands, the rents are in many cases nearly doubled,
as a commercial man expects higher interest for his money: often one of his
clerks or his cashier is appointed agent or steward over the estate, who has little
sympathy with the farmers; and invariably the smallest farmer feels the effects
first, and the consequence is he remoyes to the large towns, where he is well
paid for his labour (8s. 6d. to 4s. per day). Many labouring men have made
this summer, in towns and works near town, at Gd. per hour, as much as £2 10s.
per week. The author knows three, who were once small farmers, who have had
£2 per week in the neighbourhood of Bradford this summer, and whose families of
grown-up daughters make from 18s. to 25s. per week as weavers in the factories.
The small farmer is better off as a labourer in the town than the middle-size farmer
is in the country. The large towns are ready to absorb all the surplus labour
from the country, by the centralizing of works, the use of steam-power, and the
continual increasing producing power of the English manufacturer: and the cry is
for more labourers from the country, as the town labourers are being fast used up;
by imbibing the vices of the town they soon become as weak as the old residents
of the town.

Our Navy. By Franx P. Fettowss, F.S.A., F.S.S.

This paper pointed out that the supremacy of England on the sea was the means
of ensuring the freedom of all seas to all nations. Our holding Malta, Gibraltar,
and our numerous other foreign dockyards and stations, our fleets scattered through-
out the world, ensured the freedom of the Mediterranean, Black, and other inland
seas, and prevented their becoming the appanage of any great power; freed the
Indian archipelago, the Chinese, Japanese, and other seas from pirates; and, in
fact, caused all seas to be open to the ships of every nation without passport or
toll legally or illegally levied. Our present maritime position was therefore as
great a benefit to other nations as to England itself. Mr. Fellowes stated that a
national dockyard, in his opinion, should he, as it were, a little kingdom in itself,
in which (should it be cut off from the outer world) it could furnish men, materials,
and appliances to build, equip, repair, man, and provision ships.

The question as to where dockyards should be placed, and how many we should
have, was a political and national, rather than an economical question. These
points should be decided, therefore, on political and national grounds, and not from
an economical point of view. The question of economy comes afterwards; that is,
when we have already decided that it is wise and necessary to have a dockyard in
a certain position, and it is established, the question of economy properly com-
mences in the management and conduct of the operations of such dockyard.

In speaking of our numerous foreign naval establishments, the author showed
that our keeping up Malta, Gibraltar, and other foreign stations was in reali
economical, as otherwise we should have to maintain a much larger fleet to be as
powerful on the sea.

This paper entered minutely into the question as to the proportionate distribu-
tion of money to the various naval services that would ensure the greatest effective
force. We give an illustration. The annual expenditure in building new ships is
about £1,500,000; the annual total expenditure for all naval services is about
£10,000,000. If by doubling our expenditure of £1,500,000 for new ships we
could produce new first-rate iron-clad or other vessels, one of which in effective
power would be equal to two of the existing ships of similar tonnage and horse-
power, we practically double our naval effective force; that is, we are as efficient

-—_

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 191

and powerful as if we had expended an extra £1,500,000 in building similar ships
to those that exist, and £8,500,000. for the remaining current expenses of the navy,
such as paying officers and men, provisions, repair and maintenance of ships,
&c.; because if we double the effective power of each ship we double thereby the
ective power of each officer and sailor on board, and all the other current expen-
iture, such as provisions, wear and tear of ship, &c., for it costs no more to repair,
man, and victual a good and efficient vessel than to do the same for a bad and
ineflicient one. In the first case we double our effective power by an increased
expenditure of £1,500,000 annually; in the other we only do it by an increased
annual expenditure of £10,000,000. The author then pointed out that the judi-
cious distribution of the money was of much more importance in obtaining great
results by a small expenditure than mere cheese-paring of all the services without
regard to this important point. “It was with views similar to these that led Mr.
Seely and myself to devote our attention mainly to this element of expenditure
to make it effective, as otherwise all else is ineffective. The weapon of war,
whether a ship ora gun, should be the best that human foresight and ingenuity
can devise ; and expense on this head is, after all, but a secondary consideration.”
In evidence before Mr. Seely’s committee the author had given numerous in-
stances occurring in past years, in which the repairs of ships had cost as much or
more than similar new ships. Now it was a rough rule with shipbuilders, that an
old repaired ship when repaired was worth about half as much as a similar new
ship. Hence arose a very large and worse than useless expenditure. The plan
that is now adopted to obviate any such useless expenditure is, when a ship
requires repairs to have an estimate of the probable cost of such repairs, and it is
then decided whether it is wise to repair it at all; if not, she is sold or broken up,
it being wisely considered that the first loss is the least. By being careful on
these points the Admiralty has more money to expend on new and efficient ships

- without coming to Parliament for a grant, and we get money’s worth for the

money expended.

The paper then gave in detail an account of the working of Mr. Fellowes’s new
scheme of Admiralty accounts, by which, for the first time, the unification of all
the Admiralty accounts had been effected, so that the money as voted by Parlia-
ment, and disbursed by the Treasury, could be clearly traced into its appropriation
to ships and services and manufactures ; so that the given cost of such ships and
services and manufactures actually balanced the sums disbursed by the Treasury
from the votes as granted by the House of Commons.

The author then pointed out that formerly the whole of the dockyards at home
and abroad were treated as one great Establishment, so that a ship costing really,
say, £80,000 at Devonport, and a similar ship built in the same year at Portsmouth
costing £120,000, would each be given as costing £100,000; so that the economy
of one yard was made to pay for and to hide the extravagance of the other.

Under the author's system, each dockyard and each manufactory was now treated
in the Admiralty accounts as if it were the only dockyard or manufactory the ~
Goyernment possessed, and each had to account strictly. By these means com-
parisons were instituted which led both to economy and efficiency.

By these and similar means the present Admiralty had been enabled greatly to
reduce the annual expenditure for the navy without at all decreasing our naval
effective power.

The author concluded by recognizing the great efforts of Mr. Seely and other
members of the committee on naval monies and accounts, and by acknowledging
the aid and support he had received from Mr. Childers, Mr. Baxter, and Sir
Spencer Robinson in carrying out his plans and views.

On the Influence of Price wpon the Cultivation and Consumption of Cotton
during the past ten years, embracing the period of the American War and
Cotton Famine. By Witi1am B. Forwoop, Vice-Pres. Liverpool Chamber
of Commerce.

The author first drew attention to the position of our cotton supply in 1860, the
year antecedent to the American war, when our chief source of supply was America,

192 REPORT—1870.

which in that year produced a crop of 4,675,000 bales; and of our import that
year we derived from America 76 per cent., India 16 per cent., Egypt and Brazil
each 3 per cent., West India and Turkey under 3 per cent.

The Proalaag out of the American war in 1861 stopped the import of American
cotton, and caused an advance of 150 per cent. in value; and our import gradually
increased from sources other than America until, in 1865, it was 1,508,000 bales in
excess of 1860, the proportionate supply from various sources being as follows :—
America 16°77 per cent., Western India 37:73 per cent., Egypt 12:11 per cent.,
Brazil 12°35 per cent., West Indies 4°767 per cent., China 5:14 per cent., Bengal
and Madras 11:28 per cent, From this it will be seen how quick and how potent
was the effect of price in stimulating into activity the inhabitants of almost every
tropical country to gain part of the prize that was to be obtained by growing cot-
ton and shipping it to this country.

The author showed that the uncertainty in which the production of cotton in
America after the war was shrouded caused very high values to be maintained,
although our import in 1866 was only 181,862 bales of 400 Ibs. less than in 1860. And
to this high range of prices he attributed the wonderful rapidity with which Ame-
rica has been able to overcome the great difficulties arising from the effects of the
war, but above all from the abolition of slavery, so that she is now again our great
source of supply. He drew attention to the great success that had attended the
efforts of Government to extend and improve the cultivation of cotton in India,
and the rapid development of cotton-cultivation in Brazil; he showed that as ex-
tremes beget extremes, so it is quite probable that three or four years of high

rices having recouped the fixed capital embarked in cotton-planting, we may
in ten years from the date of the cotton famine have a supply of cotton from 10
per cent, to 15 per cent. larger than we received in 1860, notwithstanding that in
the meantime the whole system of cotton-cultivation, both in America and in
India, has been transformed. He pointed out that the high prices of 1866, by ar-
resting consumption, enabled a stock to be accumulated in Europe and America,
which has permitted the consumption of cotton for three years since to exceed
the production by a yearly average of 270,000 bales without seriously advancing
values. In turning to the question of the influence of price upon consumption, in
1860 every spindle in the country was fully employed; in 1863 not more than
one-third were in work. After reviewing the phases of our cotton-manufacturing
industry during the memorable years 1862-65, and of the growth of our other
textile manufactures, such as linen, worsted, and woollen, he went on to show
the causes of the bad state of trade in Lancashire, which may be summed up in
a consumptive power greatly in excess of the supply, while at the same time the
high price of cotton fabrics stopped their free consumption ; thus while the spindle-
power of this country is equal to a consumption of 54,153 bales of 4001b. weight
per week, the actual consumption in 1868 was 47,378 bales, and in 1869 45,268

ales of 400 Ib.; it was this deficiency in the supply as compared with the con-
sumptive power, combined with high prices, that produced all the mischief.

He took a very hopeful view of the future. He showed that whereas the spindle
power of Europe and the Northern States of America in 1860 was equal to a
weekly consumption of 102,676 bales of 400 Ibs., the supply in that year was
equal to 113,814 bales of 400 Ib. ; in 1870 the spindle-power is equal to a consump-
tion of 109,639 bales, and our probable supply equal to 102,557 bales of 400 Ib.,
so that we have at last brought the supply within 6°86 per cent. of the ‘spindle-
power, or 371,000 bales of 400 lb.; and the prospects are very fair that this defi-
ciency will be made up during the course of the next twelve months, when we
may look for a much lower average in price and the return of a full tide of pros-
perity to this district.

In conclusion the author drew attention to the value of the Cotton Statistics
Act, if the stock were once more adjusted and the quantity of cotton taken by
the trade was given weelily as well as the quantity exported and imported.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 193

A Proposed Rearrangement of the Registration Districts of England and
Wales, for the purpose of facilitating Scientific Inquiry. By Atrrep
HAVILAND.

The author commenced his paper by stating that the registration districts of
England and Wales were formed ue the general purposes of the Poor-Law Admi-
nistration, and therefore it could not be expected that they were planned with any
view of assisting science ; they had, however, done so when in their present crude
and artificial form, and it was generally believed among scientific men that if their
boundaries were determined on a natural system, the advantages to meteorology,
climatology, and other branches of science would be incalculable, and the expense
and confusion of constant alterations avoided. Messrs. Keith Johnston had lately
been engaged by him in the rectification and completion of the registration maps
of England and Wales, for the purpose of insuring extreme accuracy in his
basis map of the geographical distribution of disease in England and Wales. This
had inyolyed him in a considerable outlay, but through the recommendation of the
Registrar-General, the Treasury, seeing the necessity of the work, had expressed
their approval of a grant being paid to the author for the expenses incurred. He
urged that the artificial system adopted in defining the boundaries of the registration
districts had been the cause of all this extra work and expense, and that it had
nothing whatever to recommend its continuance; on the contrary, it was the
fruitful source of repeated alterations, and would continue to be so whilst it was
persevered in. On the other hand, the author showed that were a natural system
substituted for the present one, and our country divided into districts regulated by
its watershed and river system, we should then have in every district a focus of
scientific inquiry, whether it be as to the rainfall, temperature, prevalence or strength
of wind, agricultural statistics, the produce of our fields, our mines, or our rivers, or
for the purpose of registering the occupations, the diseases, or the deaths of the people.
Moreover, such a system would form the best basis map for every future census,
and yer once established upon a well-considered She natural plan, would do
away with the necessity of those eternal alterations which are now year by year
going on, to the utter confusion of the scientific student. In France the water-
shed system is adopted in defining and naming the departments; it is vastly supe-
rior to our own, and although its deficiencies are numerous, yet they will act as
beacons to us. The author was well aware that such a revolution could not be
accomplished under ten years, therefore he urged the necessity of commencing it at
once. Should the natural system be adopted before 1881, it would be ready for
the census of that year, by which time the Registrar-General will have completed
two more decades of mortuary records under the present system, and these, with
the one (1851-60) which the author had geographized, will form a most important
foundation for all future inquiry.

On the Aptitude of North-American Indians for Agriculture.
By James Heywoon, JLA., FBS.

The writer commenced by explaining how the aboriginal Indians in Oanada
were placed upon reservations, and how they were governed and controlled. He
referred more particularly to the settlement of the Six Nations—Indians in the
Tuscarora reserye on Grand River, in the province of Ontario, where the Indians
formed among themselves an agricultural society, supporting annual exhibitions of
stock and produce, which are assisted by grants from the New England Company,
an English corporation founded under Oliver Cromwell, and especially devoted at
the present day to the promotion of the welfare of Canadian Indians.

Reports to the Congress of the United States describe the condition of numerous
Indian tribes, among whom the Indian inhabitants of reservations near the Pacific
Ocean particularly manifest the results of successful agriculture.

On the Umatilla reservation in the north-eastern portion of Oregon, the Indians
pay much attention to raising horses and cattle, and are comparatively wealthy.
Their crops in 1864 comprised wheat, oats, Indian corn, potatoes, peas, and garden
yegetables,

1870, 13

194 REPORT—1870.

Similar proofs of farming industry were noticed in 1865 on the Yakama re-
servation, 70 miles north of the Columbia river. About 5000 Indians are located
in that neighbourhood, and 1200 acres of land are under Indian cultivation.

The Government have erected for these Indians a good grist- and saw-mill.

A farm is connected with the boys’ school, upon which the boys labour a certain
portion of their time; the proceeds of their labour are applied towards their sup-
port. Agent Willous, who has the charge of the Yakama reservation, neglects no
opportunity to give the Indians instruction of a practical character.

Among the inquiries of the Committee of Congress in 1865 respecting Indians,
the following question was asked of Brigadier-General James H. Carleton, of the
Head Quarters department of New Mexico, at Santa Fé :—

“ Ts it best that the Indian lands should be held in common or in severalty ? ”

General Carleton in reply gaye it as his opinion “ that the Indian land should
be held in severalty.”

“Surveys should be carefully made, and each family or head of a family should
have a part allotted to him.

“The human being, white, red, or black, who plants a tree or a vine, or builds
a house, or makes a field or garden, identifies himself with it—loyes it; his
children are born there, and the associations connected with all these things con-
stitute and give birth to what we call home love and home feeling.” ‘We have,”
observed General Carleton, “taken quite enough from the Indian, Let them
have and keep really a home.”

On the Statistics of the Contagious Diseases Acts.
By Brrxeiey Hir1, M.B., FRCS.

It was remarked that there are two chief points for statistical inquiry,—the
prevalence of these diseases, and the amount of control sanitary regulations exercise
over their propagation. The three main varieties of contagious diseases were then
briefly described, and the following facts mentioned to show the prevalence of the
most important form of these diseases. At Eye hospitals one-fifth of diseases of
the eye are from constitutional contagious disease. At the Throat hospital about
15 per cent. have similar origin. Taking the estimate of the medical officer of
the Privy Council that 33 per cent. of the sickness relieved gratuitously in the
metropolis is due to the constitutional form of contagious disease, an estimate the
author showed to be insuflicient, we have even then 28,000 of the working male
population of the metropolis alone constantly more or less incapacitated by the
constitutional form of disease. It was mentioned also that 16 out of every 1000
who offer themselves as recruits to the army have this form of the disease. A
comparison was then drawn between the number of persons who apply for relief
from these diseases at the general hospitals of London and that which is treated
at the same institutions of Paris; being 6-6 per cent. of those examined by the
agents of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council, even allowing a reduction
of one-fourth to be made for the proportion of sick persons relieved by the Poor-
Law Medical Officers, who do not treat this kind of sickness out of the work-
house. In Paris, of the total sick persons relieved by the general hospitals, the
portion with contagious disease was 33 per cent. In the Navy and Army the
amount of loss from contagious disease has been estimated with approach to exac-
titude, This loss, for some reason, declined slowly and steadily year by year from
1860 to 1866-67. Since that date the diminution has continued more rapidly where
the Contagious Diseases Acts operate, while, where they do not operate, the decrease
has been replaced by increase, so that the level of 1860 has been regained at nearly
all stations unprotected by the Acts; the entry at the stations protected by the
Acts being 58 per 1000 of mean strength of the soldiers, and at the unprotected
stations 111 per 1000 for the same form of disease. So, again, the average number
of soldiers constantly off duty in 1864, the year the first Contagious Diseases Act
was passed, was 19 per 1000 of strength ; in 1869 it has fallen in the protected dis-
trict to 12°6, Still this is more than the loss in the French Army, where it is
11-11 per 1000; the whole loss from these kinds of sickness being equal to 73
days of the English Army’s time, 4 days of the French Army’s, and slightly less

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 195

than three days of the Belgian Army’s services every year. With respect to the
soldiers and sailors at Portsmouth, the number of fresh cases in a single week of
May 1870 was 17; in the corresponding week of 1864 it was 60. The number of
days of sickness in the crews of the home station from contagious disease averaged
99,658 every year between 1861 and 1865, in 1867 it fell to 72,132, reducing the
annual money cost from £21,867 to £15,898. To prove that in the general deduc-
tion of contagious disease the true constitutional disease has also been lessened, it
was narrated that the period of treatment of this form has been greatly shortened
among the female patients from 125 to 66 days; and that the form of ulcer,
almost always, if not invariably, the prelude of constitutional disease, has been
reduced to one half its previous amount in the protected stations, and to one half
its present amount at the unprotected stations. That the civil population reaps
considerable benefit from these Acts appears from the number of contagious pa-
tients admitted into the three workhouses of the Plymouth district, which has
been reduced from 151 males and 705 females to 55 males and 167 females in the
same length of time ; also the percentage of such patients in the Devonport jail
was reduced from 4:06 to 1:89 per annum.

The effect of the Acts on the moral and social condition of the women subjected
to them was alluded to. The matron of the Portsmouth Home for abandoned
women stated that of 1114 such persons living in Portsmouth in 1869, 161 left the
district, 94 are now living with their friends, 43 have married, 30 have entered the
home, 10 are in service, 24 in the workhouses, 12 have died, 10 have returned to
their husbands, leaving 730 still in the town, or 384 less than last year. In the
report of the Commissioner of Metropolitan Police, it is stated that 7766 women
haye been brought under the Acts in various towns, of whom only 3016 remain ;
hence, to quote from Dr, Lyon Playfaix’s speech in the House of Commons, “4750
no longer practise their vocation in these towns; of the remainder, 107 have died,
385 have married, 451 have entered homes, and 1249 have been restored to their
friends. In short, 27 per cent. are known to have returned to a respectable life.
Thus 32 per cent. have left the stations, many doubtless to pursue their miserable
career elsewhere, but many also, as the police believe, and as in charity we are
bound to hope, to return to their own homes.” The places of resort of these per-
sons had likewise diminished in the Plymouth district from 358 in 1864 to 131 in
December 1869,

Intemperance, purely with reference to Liverpool. By the Rey. Joun Jonzs.

This was simply a statistical paper showing the varied ravages made by strong
drink upon a community, and contained the following facts :—Liverpool did not
owe its intemperance to its being a seaport, as in the year 1869, out of a total of
apprehensions for drunkenness amounting to 24,614, there were but. 1997 belonging
to the canal, the river, and the sea, leaving an excess of 18,617 for other ayocations.
The Hospitals and Dispensaries during the year 1869 had 72,278 cases, at an
expenditure of £22,088 7s. 1d. Three Dispensaries during thirty years received a
total of 1,250,000 patients, at a cost of about £100,000. The main source of all
this suffering is drunkenness—engendering disease, accidents, and poverty. Thus
the great bulk of cases in the Hospitals are tolerated as “ accidents ;” for example,
a Hospital with 3781 cases during the year had 2893 of these as accidents ; and it
has been computed that out of a total of accident cases amounting to 19,378, not
_ less than 12,030 of these were the result of intemperance.

Pauperism was thus shown. In Liverpool there are three workhouses having
a total of 4714 inmates, while outdoor relief was given to 9998 persons in one

week in one of the Unions, and to 22,183 persons and 2537 families respectively
during the year in the two other Unions; while medical relief was given in the
one Union at the rate of 100,000 cases per annum, and in the other Unions to 5864
_ eases and 1790 families respectively. In one of the Unions there were in a given
week 589 lunatics, 391 cases being admitted during the year. The expenditure
on behalf of all these paupers and lunatics amounts to upwards of £250,000 per
annum, which, but for intemperance, might nearly be altogether uncalled for. In
addition to parish relief, a Voluntary Society has, during the past six years, re~

13*

196 REPORT—1870.

lieved 120,638 cases of distress at a cost of £16,560 16s. 8d., together with nearly
1,000,000 quarts of soup; while 7000 dinners haye been provided weekly for
starving children in the several Ragged Schools.

Criminal intemperance was thus shown. During the past year 23,458 cases of
drunkenness passed through the hands of the police, the number haying doubled
as compared with the year 1861: 3343 men and 2300 women were tabulated as
‘habitual drunkards ;” some of whom were in custody during the year 15 and 18
times. Out of 2249 resident prostitutes there were 1867 cases of apprehension for
drunkenness, the “ social evil” and “strong drink” going hand in hand. The
majority of drunkards are Irish. Thus, while there were natives of Scotland only
882, of Wales 645, of foreign lands 512, of Ireland there were 7947. Among the
drunken there were 16,503 lodgers to 3166 householders,—housekeeping and
drunkenness unable to flourish together. In the town there were 1182 houses of
bad character, while 20 murders, 15 manslaughters, 106 cases of stabbing, &c.,
took place during the year. Out of 17,529 cases of drunkenness, 10,954 were more
or less educated. The year 1870 is the worst for drunkenness recorded in the
annals of the police. Out of 18,303 cases of drunkenness there are 8536 women.
The Borough Gaol, erected at a cost of £100,000, is become too small. The annual
cost to the Borough of intemperance is computed to be £375,000.

During a period of 36 years 21,300 cases of death were investigated in the Coro-
ners Court; 85 per cent. or 18,105 of these were attributed by the late coroner to
drink. The present average number is about 900 cases per annum, 300 of which
are children under 5 years, about 140 of these being annually suffocated by drunken

arents.
; There are, as accounting for all the foregoing, 3579 alcoholic establishments of
all sorts, to about 500 only of bakers’ shops. Out of 770 employes in one firm 499
were Scottish. One drunken case per day to each public house amounts to 195,000
per annum.

The paper advocated the rights of the people to put down all public houses by
a sufficient majority so deciding.

On the Impolicy, on economic grounds, of converting the National Debt into
LTerminable Annuities. By Dr. Taomas Dz Mescuin.

On the Compulsory Conversion of Substantial Leaseholds in Towns into
Frecholds. By Dr. Toomas Dr Muscury.

On the Policy and Provisions of a Patent-law. By R. M. Payxunvrsr, LL.D.

After stating and defining at length the two classes of objections to the policy
of a patent-law (viz. that protection to inventions is vicious and wrong; secondly,
that though some protection may be desirable, it ought not to be in the nature of a
legal protection), the author went on to state the considerations of gain which should
induce the creation of aright of property in inventions. They were, that inventions
might be more largely and rapidly made, become sooner and more thoroughly per-
fected, be speedily made and fully disclosed, be more energetically and successfully
brought into general use, and finally, after the legal right in them had been duly de-
termined, that they might become the common property of society. With regard
to definition of terms, an invention considered as a subject of legal protection was
an application of knowledge in general of the laws of nature, expressed in the form
of a new and useful process. A patent right in view of legal protection was the
creation of a limited right of property in a new and useful process. These, the
author submitted, were sufficient reasons. Upon the question of right, the whole
essence of the case lay here: Wasit the best way to promote invention and improve
manufactures to give the inventor a limited right of property in his invention? If
so, these objects were the reasons, the causes of the creation of the right of pro-
perty, but the source of the right itself was the act of the legislation. The objection
that a patent-law was a monopoly the author met by the argument that a patent-right

~~ al,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 197

was not a monopoly. A monopoly was a protection to an existing mode of manufac-
ture or industry, a means to keep in the possession of a few and to injuriously
limit existing property ; while a patent-right related to something before unknown,
but now called into existence and supplied for the use of man. ‘The views of Mr.
Macfie and others, who hold that inventors were the creditors of the nation, and
deserved national compensation, were next noticed; and he argued that such an
arrangement, though it might appropriately form a complement to a patent-law,
could never be fully regarded as a substitute for a patent-law. A patent-law,
while givine an adequate stimulus to inventions, also secured, during the period
over which the right of property existed, that it should be so limited by the terms of
its creation as to give the minimum of interference with the freedom of manufac-
tures with a maximum of advantage to inventors and the public. The speci-
fication by means of which were determined the questions of utility, novelty, and
invasion, next came under notice. This point went to the root of the essential
difficulties of a patent-law. Issues in patent causes were principally questions of
construction, and it was obvious that the instrument upon the true construction of
which the decision of these issues depended should be framed with the utmost care
and consideration. The practical evils of the present system were :—(1) the indis-
criminate granting of patents; (2) the want of accuracy in describing the nature
and limits of the rights secured by the patent ; (3) the cost, vexation, and unsatis-
factory character of the trials of patent causes. ‘The remedies which he suggested
were twofold,—suegestions for the eflicient working of the existing law, and the
introduction of additional provisions, both of constitution and administration. The
proposed remedies might be thus classified :—1, conditions precedent to the grant-
ing of patents; 2, provisions to secure accuracy of description and definition ;
8, conditions precedent to litigation; 4, provisions in regard to the trial of patent
causes. With regard to the first point, the present function of the law officers of
the Crown should be either absolutely abolished or essentially modified. Next, the
grant of a patent should be preceded by an examination by competent examining
officers. The result of that examination should be made in the form of a report,
and, if favourable, a grant should be at once made ; if unfavourable, there should be
the right of appeal. On the second point, the specification, which was the patentee’s
charter, should be reported upon by competent officers. On the third point, prior
to the institution of proceedings for infringement, the report of an examining-oflicer
should be obtained, based upon the statement of the applicant as to the precise
nature and extent of the infringement. On the fourth point, the trial of patent
causes should be conducted before a judge sitting with assessors. By such means
it was contended that the total amount of litigation would be lessened, and
simplicity and efficiency would be given to the administration of the patent-laws.
The creation of a limited right of property was expedient, for it was capable of pre-
cise determination : the duty of the public in regard to it was clearly ascertainable ;
on the discharge of the duty it was the basis of further improvement, and the time
of the cessor of the right was fully shown. ‘The giving to inventors a limited right
of property in their inventions would afford them the best security, while, with the
least practicable interference with free action, it would confer the greatest advan-

tage upon the public.

On Baths and Washhouses, By J. Parry.

Railway Accounts for 1868 just issued by the Board of Trade, with suggestions
for Railway Reform. By Joun Parrurson, President of the Liverpool
Chamber of Commerce for 1868.

Attention is first directed to the fact that accounts which might have been issued
in the spring of 1869 are not issued until after Parliament has risen this year,
and therefore fail in the object of supplying statistical guidance for legislation.
Nay, not even inthe spring of 1870, but only in this week ; so that for two sessions
the accounts are kept hidden, and the value of publicity is now more historical than
practical.

198 REPORT—1870.

The Report of the Royal Commission on Railways has unhappily failed to receive
the consideration from Her Majesty’s Government which might have been expected,
seeing it was prepared by such high authorities as the Duke of Devonshire, Lord
Stanley (Derby), Mr. Lowe, Mr. Glynn, Captain Galton, Mr. M‘Clean, and others,
It had a large representation of the railway interests ; but, notwithstanding, con-
tained many recommendations in the public interest, such as uniformity of classi-
fication of goods, definition of terminal charges, revision and reduction of charges
for parcels; these reforms to be accompanied by a power of inspection and inter-
vention in the public interest by the Board of Trade, where railways used their
powers oppressively. But the recommendations remain a dead letter, and practi-
cally, as regards goods and parcels, the railway monopoly charge as they please,
competition being prevented by combination and legislation ineffectual from its
want of knowledge.

The accounts now before us disclose that in December 1868 England and Wales
had 6566 miles of double and 3634 miles of single rails, together 10,200 miles in
length, or of single rails 16,766 miles, on which were carried up-passengers :—

£ 8. d.
27,374,061 Ist class, paying.... 3,366,830, average 2 5 2. each.
70,304,008 2nd 45 »-+. 4472,304 4» 1SdAG y
171,581,244 3rd 8 vb 0—, DOO ITO. gy) MT ee ane
107,173 Bae season-tickets aie

eee 10,717,300 ap saeeae oe 544028 , 10 ~ y
279,976,613 13,917,840
Carriages, horses, dogs, and luggage .. 1,812,630
Mails. wissisvivves sis FAV WSs gb » 403,626
£15,634,096

Miles travelled by passenger-trains 63,302,374 miles. Distance by each pas-
senger about 16 miles, lst class; 2nd class 12 miles; 3rd class 8 miles; season-
tickets 20 miles.

The charges authorized by multitudinous Acts of Parliament vary from 2d. to 3d.
per mile Ist class, 13d. to 2d. 2nd class, 1d. to 13d. third (once per day 1d.). Prac-
tically, charges are 1d. 3rd class, 13d. 2nd class, 2d. Ist class. These excessive
charges are somewhat mitigated abnormally and objectionably by—

Excursion-trains.—These are interpolated in masses, as at Whitsuntide, amongst
the ordinary traffic in carriages unfit for the safe and regular conveyance of passen-
gers paying the usual rates. Accidents occur so regularly as to identify the excur-
sion-season with the slaughter-season ; whilst the humble condition of the suf-
fevers and the limited intelligence of their surviving relatives minimize the claims
for damages, the payment of which is the dead fly in the pot of fragrant ointment
poured forth by the eloquent chairman at each railway-meeting.

Return-tickets form the main butter interposed between the grinding exactions of
railway companies and the public impatience. Economy of issue is not one penny
each, as that charge would amount to over £1,000,000, the whole traffic charges
being less than half that sum.

Free passes stand self-condemned; they are either discounts upon traffic to favoured
customers and so unjust to the non-favoured, or are frauds upon the proprietors.

The remedy is a fairly calculated remunerative scale of charges proportioned to
the accommodation aflorded, supplied regularly, and offering equal terms to all
comers, such as

1st class 1d. per mile and 2d. per ticket additional.
2nd ,, fd. ” Lid. ” ”
Brd ,, 3d. ” ld. ” ”

The ticket-charge covering all station-expenses and compensating for the frac-
tional cost extra which may attach to short as compared with long journeys.

Luggage, unless in the charge and at the risk of passengers, should be charged:
A, plus 100 1b., with luggage of value handled by porters, pays 2s. 6d.; B, plus
10 Ib. in his own hand, pays 2s. 6d. A should pay 3s. and B 2s.

Speed is fairly chargeable extra, ordinary trains 30 miles per hour being assumed

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 199

as a basis; 50 per cent. additional may be charged for 50 miles, and proportionately
for 40 miles &c., with reductions for delay.

Such charges should yield, the year after their adoption,—

s. d. £
40,000,000 Ist class 18 miles at 1 8 each .......... 3,833,333
BS OOUO00 2nd. Ia Oy Pins nagar A000 000
eR UCOOUU atm mie ONG) oon gear eas 5,000,000

Additional one-third passengers, Ist-class express... 555,555

os one-fourth —_,, 2nd of ..+. 260,000

if one-eighth _,, ord fe »... 156,250
Luggage not now charged—

MST CLASS 5, 5, 5 soi s}0, a0 ai 9,0 Strcip GSC nr HORE pie. aitehaLarenaene 333,999
ALG). ¢50 CE PEPPER On ea at Rael reese « - 200,000
Tile op eqn RISP BUTE RRA He SenGS 487 100,000
320,000,000 passengers would pay ........+s+0 .. .13,928,471
Whereas at present 280,000,000 pay ......... »... 13,917,840

Against the additional cost of carrying 40,000,000 persons may be set off :—

First, the greatly accelerated increase of travelling which would follow.

Second, goods-traflic which would accompany increase of travellers.

Third, the undoubtedly equitable claim for abolition of railway-duty amount-
ing # £448,000 for last year, but which must be imposed until fares are read-
justed.

. Goods-traffic now exceeds the passenger-traflic in income, having been in 1868 :—

£
33,934,393 tons merchandise paid*.,..11,760,614
72,698,825 tons minerals paid * ..,... 6,066,824
HoAyS Sickie ar vce Fare Br ebuate leas 618,946
18,446,384

Two companies dominating the Lancashire district carried 224 per cent. of the
weight 253 per cent. of the distance, and received 29} per cent. of the freight of goods
and minerals. The conformation of Lancashire explains this: 2,782,582 persons
only growing 41,535 acres of wheat, but although within an average distance of 25
miles from Liverpool, charged as if 75 or 100 miles from the Scheldt, are obliged
to pay the increased charge levied upon their food, nearly half the wheat imported
into England and Wales in the last cereal year having entered the Mersey; the
monopoly reigns unchecked. or example, Bristol to Birmingham is 94 miles,
wheat is charged 8s. 10d. ; Liverpool to Sheffield, 76 miles, the rate is 15s.

The monopoly power is argued for upon the ground of enabling railway com-
panies to compensate districts labouring under natural disadvantages; thus, by
charging persons near to Burton a higher rate ‘on beer, they are enabled to send
it long distances under cost. The terrestrial providence system may go with the
paternal government theory. The second argument is that goods are now carried
much more cheaply than before railways were made, to which the answer is
obvious; so they should, the cost of transport being reduced.

Again, the companies do not exceed their tariffs, and it is open to the public, or
was, to see they are reasonable. The answer is, the tariffs were formed in igno-
rance, and although intended to protect the public, signally fail; whilst Parlia-
ment has reserved to itself a right of revision, and these quasi corporations have no
other raison d’étre than public utility: already the courts of law will enforce the
concession of uniform charges to all persons, and places should be similarly treated.

The ereat argument for high rates is that the total capital shares and loans is
£425,161,506, gross receipts £35,226,866, and net receipts £18,092,091 is only 44
per cent. To this it may be replied, much of this money is borrowed at 4 per cent.
Secondly, no such amount of capital has been expended, fictitious shares, issues of
stock at 50, 60, and 80 per cent., bonds granted at their face value, but for

* In the accounts for 1869 these items are carefully omitted or confounded, so as to
withhold the needful information.

200 REPORT—1870.

£100,000 where £50,000 cash would have sufficed, the extra price being allowed
to contractors who took the bonds. Money expended upon or retained for the con-
struction of lines not yet opened for traffic all fall to be deducted, and would re-
duce the cost below £400,000,000. Of this sum, much has been expended upon
harbours, steam-packets, and other wasteful enterprises ; yet, after all, 43 per cent.
is divided *,

It is submitted that this dividend may be rather increased than reduced. Hun-
dreds of thousands of tons of goods are transported for which no return is made;
21 ewt. to 25 cwt. are called a ton, and the gross receipts are now understated, as
discounts allowed to certain favoured customers are suppressed ; statistical accuracy
is thus made impossible, whilst a wide door for frauds is opened.

The suggested remedy of purchase by the State involves a heavy probable spoli-
ation of the tax-payers; but the present system is intolerable, and unless the Board
of Trade is endowed by Parliament with additional powers, and vigorously orga-
nizes itself to action in the public interest, instead of as at present, and for the last
twenty years, interfering between a deeply dissatisfied public and the railway com-
panies, a cry will be raised for purchase. The law of supply and demand cannot
apply the remedy ; there is not, and in the nature of the case cannot be, competi-
tion. The lurid light of the Abergele holocaust has demonstrated that selfishness
cannot be relied upon as the safeguard of human life. The public health demands
greater facilities of locomotion, and Lancashire wants cheap bread.

On Mechanics’ Institutions and the Elementary Education Bill.
By Ki. Renats,

Although Mechanics’ Institutions had been established for more than a quarter
of a century, they had failed to enlist the sympathy of working men. This posi-
tion was maintained by the statistics which had been supplied to him from some of
the largest institutions in the kingdom,

With elementary schools scattered over the country in sufficient numbers to
meet the educational wants of the population, one great hindrance to the useful-
ness of Mechanics’ Institutions will be removed. ‘To render these institutions cen-
tres of education for working men four things were needed :—1, that the Science
Classes which are promoted by the Committee of Council on Education should
always be connected with Mechanics’ Institutions; 2, that each institution should
provide a technical library for the use of workmen; 5, that youths, on leaving
school to learn a trade, should be gradually brought into union with an institution
by haying free admission to a course of technical instruction bearing directly on the
employments which it is intended they should follow ; and 4, that a portion of
the managing body should be composed of working men. It was contended that, as
untrained labour was constantly being superseded by mechanical contrivances and
inventions, the technical and scientific education thus afforded by Mechanics’ In-
stitutions would prepare a larger number of operatives for higher grades of industry ;
and in this way the capacities of our producing-classes would he improved and ele-
vated,

On the Utilization of Fibrous Cotton-seed. By Tuomas Rose.

The author said that in such a utilitarian age as this it would be matter for sur-
prise that a vegetable production which should be valuable, and could be supplied
by the million of tons, was now wasted. The waste product was fibrous cotton-
seed. In America alone more than a million and a half tons of thisseed were yearly
wasted. Thisseed was composed of 50 per cent. kernel, which yielded about one-
third oil and 50 per cent. husk (shell with fibre adhering), of which the fibre would
be one-third. From this he gathered that the now wasted seeds would produce
250,000 tons pure cotton, 250,000 tons oil, and 500,000 tons of cattle-cake, the
value of which he estimated at £20,000,000. The husks could be taken to the

* ‘The accounts for 1869 (issued in January 1871) fail to distinguish capital raised for
unopened lines, although Companies are required by law to do so.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 201

paper-mill, and the cotton abstracted in such a state as to form a most valuable
material for paper. By a process which the speaker described at length, the cotton-
fibre could be completely separated from the shell. Compared with esparto grass,
the cotton-fibre presented many advantages, chief amongst which was the unfail-
ingsupply. He also referred to the value and use of the oil and cattle-cake which
the seed would yield.

On the Physical Geography of the United States of America as affecting Agri-
culture, with suggestions for the Increase of the Production of Cotton. By
Roserr T. Saunpers.

On the Effect which a Mint Charge has upon the value of Coins, to which is
added a Proposition for securing at once some of the advantages of Inter-
national Coinage. By G. Jounstonr Stoney, M.A., RS,

The value of a gold coin in no degree depends on the proportion of baser metals
which may be mixed with its gold; and in this communication when gold isspoken
of it is the fine gold which is to be understood, and not those alloys, varying from
one country to another, which are called standard gold.

Omitting fractions, the British sovereign contains when new 732 centigrams of
fine gold; whence it follows that each centigram of gold, each cent as it may be
called for brevity, represents about one-third of a penny, the exact equivalent
being that every 3:05 centigrams of the fine gold in a new sovereign are worth one

enny.

The 25-frane piece contains 725 centigrams of gold, and it has been suggested
that our sovereign should be identified with this piece by issuing coins containing
only 725 cents of gold; and it is alleged that the value of the new coins would be
maintained as high as the sovereign by imposing a mint charge of a little over two
pence as a substitute for the 7 cents of gold which are to be withheld. The advo-
cates of the proposal urge in support of their view that, whenever the wants of the
country require that more gold shall be coined, it will be necessary to bring to the
Mint exactly the same quantity of bar gold as now, in order to procure ten thou-
sand sovereigns.

On the other hand, other financiers are of opinion that the coinage could not be
thus treated without depressing its value; although, so far as the author of this
communication is aware, they have not pointed out wherein lies the fallacy of the
foregoing argument. An attempt is now made to supply this deficiency.

The fallacy seems to consist in regarding the upper limit of the value of a coin as
the same thing as the value of the com. A coin is not. a commodity of perfectly
fixed value, but one which fluctuates between certain limits. The upper limit in
London* is sufficiently defined by the weight of bar gold which will procure a
sovereign at the Bank}; and if there were no light gold in circulation, the lower
limit in London would at present be defined by the weight of bar gold remaining
in the sovereign when it just passes out of circulation through defect of weight.
It is convenient, though not quite exact in principle, to estimate the interval be-
tween these two limits in pence: and estimating it thus, we may say that if coins
did not wear, but retained through their whole existence the full weight they have
when issued from the Mint, they would have more purchasing power than at pre-
sent; and again, if they did not wear and had all of them the weight of coins just
before they go out of lawful circulation, they would (if there were no light coinin
circulation) haye less purchasing-power than at present; and that three-halfpence
is about the difference between the purchasing-powers of two such hypothetical
sovereigns. The purchasing-power of real sovereigns (where no light coin is al-

* In London, because at other stations the problem becomes complicated by fresh con-
siderations—such as the cost of the carriage of the coin from London, the cost of insuring
it during its transit, and the loss of interest for the time the transfer takes.

+ At the Bank, where coin can be procured for bar gold over the counter, rather than
at the Mint, where there would be a delay of about twelve days, the interest during which
would haye to be taken into account,

202 REPORT—1870.

lowed to remain in circulation) may be anywhere between these two limits, and in
fact differs in different transactions.

To make this clear, consider the case of a shopkeeper who receives_a certain
quantity of light gold in the year. This occasions him a certain loss, which he
looks upon as one of the expenses of carrying on his business, and he recoups him-
self for it by charging somewhere higher prices for his goods than would otherwise
be necessary. In other words, the purchasing-power of money has been lessened.

The effect of taking the seven centigrams of gold out of the sovereign and im-
posing an equivalent mint charge will now be evident. It would leave the upper
limit of the value of a sovereign almost the same as it now is, but depressthe lower
limit two-pence further down. It would thus produce two highly mischievous
effects: it would increase the range of fluctuation from three-halfpence to three-
pence halfpenny ; and it would lower the average purchasing-power of a sovereign

y about one penny. Neither of these effects could be tolerated: the increase of
the range of fluctuations of purchasing-power is one of the worst defects which
could be imparted to that commodity which is used to measure the values of other
commodities, and the decrease of the average purchasing-power of the sovereign
would cause it to cease to be a pound sterling.

‘We may learn two practical lessons from this discussion,—I1st, that the practice
of the mints of Great Britain, Russia, and Spain, of coinmg gold without charge,
is very much to be preferred to the practice of other countries in which a mintage
is charged, since the imposition of a mint charge increases the range of fluctuation
of the purchasing-power of coins: 2nd, that a nation which aims at honesty ought
to take effectual means to prevent light gold remaining in circulation; for when
light coins circulate it is easy to see that the same two mischievous effects ensue:
the range of fluctuation of the purchasing-power of coins is increased, and their
average purchasing-power is lowered.

To keep our ideas clear, we should carefully distinguish between three different
values of fine gold: 1st, the value of each centigram of gold in uncoined bar gold;
2nd, the value of each centigram of gold in new sovereigns; 3rd, the value of each
centigram of gold in the sovereign just before ceasing to be lawfully in circulation.
These values are in the ratio of the following sums of money, viz. Ist, £3 17s. 9d.,
which is the price the Bank gives for 11* oz. of gold in an ingot ; 2nd, £3 17s. 103d.,
which is the sum into which 14 oz. of gold is coined ; 3rd, £3 18s. 44d., which is
the sum into which 4+ oz. of gold would coin if the coins were made of the lightest
weight which is legally current.

Until lately the Bank gave only £3 17s. 6d. for 14 oz. of fine gold in light coins.
Recently the price has been raised, and the Bank now gives £3 17s. 9d., the same
price as for bar gold. But there is no reason why the gold of light sovereigns
should be treated as uncoined gold. It would be barely just to the holders of light
coin that the State should purchase it at £3 17s. 103d.; and it would be consistent
with justice for the State to give for it any sum between this and £3 18s. 43d. It
is clearly for the interest of the community that as large a price as is practicable
should be offered, because this will tend both to withdraw light gold from circula-
tion.and to diminish that range of fluctuation of purchasing-power to which money
is subject even when no light gold is allowed to remain in circulation. It may
be objected that there is a practical impediment to carrying the price beyond
£3 17s, 103d., as to do so tends to render the practice of sweating gold profitable ;
but the opportunity for this nefarious business would not be much greater than
at present.

Another consideration offers itself which is deserving of attention, since it points
out a way by which foreign transactions may be facilitated. It will be apparent
from the foregoing discussion that one effect of the imposition of a mintage is to
increase the average purchasing-power of each centigram of gold ina coin. Hence
a centigram of gold in one of our coins hasa somewhat less purchasing-power than
a centigram of gold in the coinage of a country which makes a mint charge.
Hence it would be a safe transaction for us to issue our own coins in exchange for
such of the coins of foreign countries as may be brought to England in the course
of trade, making the weights of fine gold they contain the basis of the exchange.

* Tn an ounce of the alloy called Standard gold there are 43 oz. of fine gold.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 2038

Thus, according to a return made by the late Master of the Mint to the Royal
Commission on International Coinage :—

Centigrams
Country. Gold coin. of |
| Soverei 5 "732 cents of fine gold
5 OVEFEIQN ..+esseeeeee-» Contains 732 cents of fine gold.
Great Britain .. ) Half-sovereign Miss slants re 366 ” ;
France,Belgium | 20-franc piece............ ” 580 ”
Switzerland, 10-franc piece.........46. is 290 ”
and Italy.... (5-frane piece .,.......... f 145 ”
United States of Egle of ee dollars ...... Pe tbs “
aamaxien':.’.. CHL ETE ved (eo ” 752 ”
Goldsdollats viel ec.esu0s.ctae 7 150 ¥
Prussia. ..ss.- Peel (Woy ao) a kts) " 603 a
: CHA SS fey pe ee 1000
Zollverein .... | Half iocne CS See » B00 e
PASGIID, 5 co s6s eats OL LEGO i ius ecanarsinions ¥ 344 is
ae .» Doubloon of 10 escudos.... 7 754 ”
Portugal...... Crown of 10,000 reis,..... re 1626 Fe
STAZI Hs,» «0's ... Ten mille reis piece ...... F 821 »
British India ... Gold mohur of 15 rupees .. 3 1062 ”
Denmark...... Christian d’or..........+. ‘3 594 x
LY Divo 9: 4.s10,2) 50 Fifty piastre piece ........ + 373 a
Greece......., Twenty drachmai piece.... + 519 “=
‘Susilerid Double William......... : ai 1211 ”
cinta WOUbLE CUCaE. , 5)5,2,0.9:0,00.05 i 687 9
Wit Cee Doppia or pistole ......., ” 707 9
SOMA 5 cisctaje ni.) LCD: SCUCL PICCO%s 5:5.9.9.0 5,90 » » 1560 +5
Bussia.......+ Half-Imperial of 5 roubles . ” 600 a5
Sweden ...... TNO Se ee ae ae ee ae 340 |;
Turkey ...... Lira of 100 piastres ...,.. nd 661 7

And if the Bank of England were required to exchange in London certain spe-
cified foreign gold coins (if within the limit of legal tender weight) for British
money, estimating them all by sucha table as the foregoing in cents of gold, a very
important part of the advantages of an International coinage would be at once at-
tained. And this great commercial convenience would be secured without. our
being in the least made dependent on the honesty of other nations; since the table
of equivalents would be founded, not on the statements of foreign governments, but
upon analyses and weighings made from time to time by our own Mint authorities.
There would be no special difficulty in weighing the variety of coins which would
be presented at the Bank; a very simple modification of the existing automatic
machinery would accomplish this. Neither would there be any objectionable ac-
cumulation of foreign coins; the outgoings would go far to balance the incomings,
and whatever surplus was in the Bank at any time would be estimated as part of
the reserve which the Bank is bound to hold.

Another advantage would attend the carrying out of this proposal: it would
contribute towards the establishment of the cent of fine gold as the unit of money
of account; and this would be accompanied by all the advantages which group
themselves round the fact that it is the Natural Unit.

On Immigration and Emigration, as affecting the increase of Population in
England and Wales. By Tuomas A, Wetton.

The two censuses of birthplaces of 1851 and 1861, with the tables of registered
births and deaths annually made public, and the available statistics of emigration,
furnish the means of calculating with some degree of accuracy the net loss and gain
in every single district by migration into and from it of natives of each county and
of other countries.

Two ingredients in the calculation require to be estimated, viz. the numbers of

204, REPORT—1870.

unregistered births, and those of deaths among residents not natives of the counties
in which the respective districts are situate.

The number of births unregistered in 1851-60 has been estimated by the writer
at 18,000 per annum, or nearly three to every 100 registered, on the grounds, (1)
that by adopting such an estimate the population ascertained at the census of 1851,
plus natural increase and computed immigration, but minus emigrants of English
birth, gives a result which agrees closely with the population actually enumerated
in 1861; and (2) that by applying such a correction there is deduced from the
records of births and deaths in the years just preceding 1861, a number of children
who should then have been enumerated at ages under five years, exceeding the
number actually returned to as great an extent as could reasonably be expected,
having regard to the probability that many children in their fifth year are errone-
ously returned as fully five years of age.

The annual ratio of deaths among persons not living in their native counties has
been assumed to range between 15 and 20 per thousand persons, except in the case
of the poorer class of Irish, who experience undoubtedly a much heayier rate of
mortality.

Tables were appended to the paper, founded on these assumptions, showing not only
the numbers of persons who in the ten years (1851-61) would appear to have removed
from the Registration Division in which they were born to either of the other ten
English divisions, but also the numbers of natives of other countries added to the
population of each division, and (as a final arithmetical result of considerable in-
terest) the numbers of natives of each of the eleven divisions respectively who must
have been included amongst the emigrants to America and elsewhere.

In every case the numbers thus represented as having emigrated or immigrated
are the balances resulting from setting arrivals against departures, and show the
final outcome rather than the steps by which it was attained.

The net reduction of the natural increase of population in England and Wales
occasioned by migrations in the ten years (1851-61) appears to have been about
267,222 males and 35,098 females, such loss arising from an emigration of natives
of England and Wales amounting to 662,578, partly counterbalanced by an immi-
gration of Scotch, Irish, foreigners, &c., amounting to 360,258; net loss, 302,320.

We may infer, from the numbers of immigrants actually enumerated, that the
above figure, 360,258, was pretty equally divided between the sexes; hence we
must conclude that the emigration was composed of about 457,000 males and
205,000 females.

There is good reason for the belief that a vast proportion of the immigrants on
their arrival here were under twenty years of age. There are still stronger grounds
for coming to the same conclusion with reference to 1,013,451 natives of England
and Wales computed to have removed from their native division to one of the other
ten divisions during the same period of time.

The imperfect returns* which we possess as to the numbers of English absent
from home in 1861, show that the total, embracing soldiers, sailors, and travellers
as well as residents abroad, was not far short of 1,350,000, viz. 900,000 males and
450,000 females.

This shows the number of persons of English birth in existence at that time to
have been nearly such as would have resulted had the birth-rate in 1801-40 aye-
raged as high as 37 per thousand inhabitants, and had it in subsequent years been
such as is shown by the Registrar-General’s returns, plus six per cent, for omissions
in 1841-50, and three per cent. for omissions in 1851-60, the death-rate being
assumed throughout to be the same as that shown in Dr. Farr’s ‘English Lite
Table No. 3,’ But the surviving females are decidedly more numerous than the
result of such a calculation would show. Consequently we are led to the conclu-
sion that the life-table in question does not represent female longevity as com-
pared with that of males in a sufficiently Girdureble light.

It also appears that the census of ages taken in 1841 must needs have been very
inaccurate, and that, although the birth-rate in the first thirty years of the century
may have exceeded 37 per thousand, it was in 1831-40 somewhat lower than that

* Returns showing the age, sex, and county of birth of persons of British origin absent
from home on the Census day would be valuable.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 205

figure. When we take into consideration the fact that the corrected birth-rates in
subsequent years have been: in 1841-50 about 343, in 1851-60 about 35, and in
1861-70 about 36 per thousand, we are perhaps entitled to infer that an appreci-
able abatement in the rate was brought about through the operation of the new
Poor Law.

Similar calculations with reference to the south-western counties, from whence
the emigration has been largest, show that the birth-rate in that division in 1801-40
was probably near 35 per thousand, against 32 per thousand in the succeeding
twenty years. The exodus from this division has been such that, for more than
700,000 natives aged 20-40 surviving in 1861, less than 500,000 persons were
enumerated as resident, of course inclusive of strangers.

Other calculations show that the death-rate amongst natives of London is pro-
bably much higher than the observed mortality amongst residents would lead us to
anticipate. It is desirable that returns should be obtained showing the place of
nativity of the dying, the effect of which would be to disturb very materially the
current ideas as to the significance of local death-rates.

_ Finally, it may be useful to state summarily the following results of this
inquiry :—

1. Whilst the net loss by the emigration of natives of England and Wales
amounted in the twenty years 1841-1861 to about 1,130,000 persons, the net gain
by the immigration of persons born elsewhere amounted to about 740,000 persons,
so that the average annual loss of population caused by migrations in those twenty
years did not exceed 20,000 persons; and the loss by the same cause in 1861-70
has probably not exceeded 40,000 persons annually.

2. That more than 15 per cent. of the male natives of England and Wales aged
20-50 were absent in 1861 from their country.

3. That the census of England and Wales about to be taken will probably show
the population to be nearly 22,500,000, and the excess of females to be nearly
700,000. The first of these figures is a quarter of a million larger, the second about
oan smaller, than the estimates published by the Registration Office would
indicate.

On Decimal Money and a Common International Unit.
By Witr1am Westearru.

1st. Our arithmetical basis is decimal; that is, we count by tens. Must that
therefore be the system in our money, weights, and measures, in all that concerns
numbers, or are we free for any other counting? 2nd. The greatest diversity of
national units, from the Spanish real of about 23d. up to our own pound, shows
that accident first and habit afterwards must have largely shared in the creation of
such a family. Are some more suitable than others? and how does this appear ?
rd. Is the international arrangement really important ?

Decimal Money.—Ten is not the best number, and probably never came into arith-
metical use by design; eight and twelve, as more divisible, are better. Cannot we
therefore alter our basis? The reply at this time of day is, that in whatever way
ten-counting reached us, the world is now practically decimal, and will remain so.
Then what is the effect of nonconformity to our basis? Try, for example, to con-
vert 1,527,643 farthings into pounds, shillings, pence, and farthings; or to reduce
10,253 tons,.9 cwts., 3 qrs., 7 lbs., 8 oz., 6 dwts., 5 grains, into grains, With much
time and trouble to all, a large proportion would for certain commit one or more
mistakes in the process ; and some might never get through at all, in the weights
and measures at least, unless they could refresh their memories as to some part or
other of the unsystematic medley. Such being our present nonconformity system,
how are these puzzles dealt with decimally ? Simply by pointing off the successive
grades, or conversely, by erasing the decimal points. The two questions are thus
instantaneously answered : £1,527 .6. 4.3, and 10,253,937,865 grains. The answer
is not worked, it is simply read. Of course every one has not such long caleula-
tions as these to go through; but every one has something, more or less, of this
kind daily and hourly in ordinary or business life, and wanting the decimal
facility, all the multiplication and division becomes a superfluous toil. In short

206 REPORT—1870.

the disadvantage in all that relates to numbers in quitting our arithmetical basis is
manifest, continuous, and universal. That basis stands as the common figure,
while money, weights, and measures are, as it were, so many varieties of its
clothing. The latter must be adapted to the former and not left to other forms,
even if in the abstract superior. As well might a tailor cut his suits from some
model Apollo instead of his customer’s own shape; nor would the customer feel much
more comfortable even if convinced that Apollo’s figure was the better of the two.

An International Unit.—The gyand test of suitability must be general use. Thus
tried, we find a middle region of fairly suitable units from a franc to a dollar.
Lower values, as the real and the piastre, provoke the substitution of a higher unit
when large amounts are dealt with, The Turks, for instance, whose piastre is only
1id., tell up their revenues or debt by “purses,” while a Frenchman is loyal to his
franc even up to “ milliards,” and an American to his dollar in thousand millions,
Our pound is of course the most convenient of all in such high-value regions, but
it entirely fails elsewhere. The trading classes ignore it to a very great extent, as
their shops and stalls everywhere testify, by such ticketed prices as 25s., 50s., 100s.,
even 120s. upwards, instead of pounds. The vast mass of the poorer classes is still
further from the pound. Probably more than half the money dealings of all classes
together are for values under a pound. What does this mean, and what its dis-
advantage? No less than this, that of all this everlasting business of society the
greater part is done in fractions instead of integers, which is much as though a
traveller took one part of his journey in the usual forward motion and the other
part backwards. The disadvantage is not felt in each individual step or even in a
hundred, it isin the huge collective total of the journey. It is like the minute frac-
tion of extra cost that seemed quite unworthy of attention, until we could realize
that even the hundredth of a penny was important in millions of yards.

The franc, then, seems the lowest, as the dollar seems the highest, value that
experience indicates as suitable by the test of general use. The other principal
units are all under the dollar, our solitary and anomalous pound excepted. Perhaps
the special well-being of America assists a rather high unit, thus confirming the
view of its extreme position; but the scale of modern finance requires the highest
value—the dollar rather than the franc. But, again, authority and habit cannot be
ignored in this question, and the franc is backed by eighty millions of people com-
prised in the successful International League of 1865, The choice is perhaps re-
stricted to one or other of these two units; either of them is greatly more suitable
to us than the pound.

The Decimal Association has decided on a ten-frane unit. By the foregoing data
this is proved obviously too high. The countless users of a franc unit will not,
indeed cannot, rise toaten-franc, The Association is a great authority; but another
no less, the Paris International Conference of 1867, preferred the five-franc, that is,
the dollar value. Our present moneys, the Association contend, could be readily
adapted to the ten-franc unit: true, but so they could to the five-franc, and even
more readily; for with the small alteration suggested last year by Mr. Lowe, the
new coinage would be fifths of a pound (the new unit) and double pounds, or ten
times the unit. The subsidiary silver and copper money would, with their allow-
able margin of seigniorage, be as easily dealt with. Here he would remark that,
to carry out decimals in their integrity, there should be no intermediate coins; most
countries, indeed all countries, decimal as well as non-decimal, are inveterate in
this practice, which violates all decimal simplicity.

Of what importance is the International Arrangement ?—Persons not undistin-
guished have answered in effect, ‘‘ None;” little more than a convenience to excur-
sionists. Such views seem incredible. There are certain great barriers to general
intercourse—the foreign element, the different language, and the different moneys
and measures. An international monetary and metric system would entirely sweep
away the last, not perhaps the least, of these barriers.

Statistics on Tobacco, its Use and Abuses. By R. Wrtxtson, L.C.P.

The main object of this paper was to show that the use of tobacco in its various
forms tended to weaken the vital functions of the body, to interrupt the uniform ity

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 207

of their action, to rob life of much of its natural enjoyment, and to shorten the
period of its duration.

In commenting on the diversity of opinion amongst the most eminent surgeons
on this subject, the author argued that if pharmacy be really a science, its prin-
ciples should not be less definite, nor their operation less uniform in their results
than in ordinary sciences.

By careful compilers it is ascertained that in Great Britain there is an annual
increase of consumption of tobacco of about 750,000 lbs. weight. In 1861, the
quantity imported into this country was 34,828,441 Ibs. The number of the male
population at that time, aged fifteen years and upwards, was eight millions; and
supposing only half of them to be smokers, it would give more than eight pounds
to each smoker! Cigars and snuff do not come into this calculation.

With respect to the revenue from this source, the following particulars may be
relied on, as they are copied from Government returns :—“ In 1839, the duty was
£3,587,663 ; 1847, £4,278,893 ; 1857, £5,272,470; 1859, £6,542,000.”

These figures do not give the actual cost of smoking, snufting, and chewing ; we
must add, the whole paraphernalia of snuff-boxes and pipes of all descriptions,
numberless and nameless, the construction of which has taxed the ingenuity of
craftsmen ; and by these additions we shall realize as much more as the duty, and
thus produce the startling fact that £13,000,000 sterling of national wealth, and
much industry that might have been better employed, are worse than wasted.

On Local Taxation. By O. Wit1tAMs.

A report was presented to parliament last Session by a Committee of the House
of Commons recommending that a moiety of the local taxation now paid by tenants
should be transferred to owners of property. Mr. Williams maintains that this
change would be so very far short of the requirements of the case as not to be
worth the while to make it. - He suggests that the area of payers should be very
much enlarged, and maintains that the reasons for collecting the local taxes upon
the same principle and by the same machinery as the income- and property-tax are
yery much the same. In his paper he shows that the poor-rate is a personal and
not a property-tax ; that all other local taxation is based upon the poor-rate assess-
ments; and that, when the rent of property was originally fixed upon as the mea-
sure of the ability of each to pay according to his means, then the measure was
much more just than under present circumstances, because the great bulk of in-
come was derived from land, very little from foreign commerce. As immense
profits are now made from trade, the writer urges that those profits should con-
tribute, along with all kinds of house and other property, as for national taxation
in the property-tax. He shows that, at present, owners pay all local taxes in large
towns, where the great bulk of the population reside, upon property let at the net
yearly rent of £15 and under; that if the recommendation of the Committee were
earried out, owners would still have to pay all taxes on this very large class of
property; and that the change practically would reach houses rented above £13
per annum net, the gross rental of which would range between £18 and £20 per
annum. Shift half of the taxation from tenants to owners of such houses, and the
owners will at once increase the rentals by the same amount. What matter to
the tenants whether they pay to the tax-collector or the landlord? It is expanding
commerce which necessitates wide, long, and good roads, brings into existence
quite an army of police to protect its products, requires hundreds of thousands of
hands to work it, and, surely, commerce should contribute directly towards all
local taxation, After the payment of the interest upon the national debt, the great
bulk of the remainder is expended upon the army and navy. And how are they
employed? Mainly in protecting the lives of Her Majesty’s subjects. In times
of war those who have most property do not object to contribute most towards the
expense of protecting it, and why should they not do so in times of peace. The
army protects life and property, and so do the police force; the navy is similarly
engaged on the seas; how are our river-police employed? the difference is not
great, Then a glance should be taken at the paving, improvement, and lighting
yates, All personalty should contribute towards them. Good wide roads are

208 REPORT—1870.

greatly for the convenience of commerce; were roads narrow and in bad repair,
wealth would not accumulate so very rapidly, nor would property or commercial
products be as safe in banks and warehouses if streets were badly lighted. And
the wear and tear of the roads, in the main arteries, is enormous by the grinding,
crushing, and heavy loads drawn over them. Narrow streets have constantly to
be widened by the growing demands of commerce, and it should be compelled
to contribute towards the expense, which it would do through a property- and
income-tax.

Then commerce should contribute towards the expense of an abundant water-
supply, 2. e. according to the value of products protected, as by insurance, not by a
mere rate ona warehouse. A property-and income-tax would be an approximation.

Prevention is better than cure. Commerce should contribute towards the
Library, Museum, and Education Rates, because property is safer in the midst of
the educated. Mr, Williams shows that 1d. in the pound for the Library and Mu-
seum or poor-rate yields about £6300 per annum within the parliamentary borough
of Liverpool; that 1d. in the pound for the property- and income-tax yields about
£39,000 within the same area; and that a rate, on the principle of the property-
and income-tax, of about 3d. in the pouud would yield as much money as the pre-
sent excessive rates of over 6s. in the pound.

He advocates that national and local taxes should be collected by the same col-
lectors; that on the face of the tax-bills should be printed in two Hnes, National
Taxes and Local Taxes; that the collectors should pay to the Government the
national and to the local authorities the local taxes collected. And he suggests
that the poor-rate authorities, the watch, education, sanitary, water, improvement,
indeed that all committees should send into the mayors of the several boroughs the
sums required by each for the next year; that they, respectively, should be required
to send the amount required to the Chancellor of the Exchequer, who, again, would
fix the rate to yield the amounts required and to be collected with, but separate
from, the Government taxes. In this way the same local authorities as at present
would have the expending of our taxation, maintaining the golden feature that those
who pay shall expend their money through their representatives. Exceptional
legislation is recommended, instead of a national bill, as the writer believes that
iY would be much easier to get a local bill than a general measure through the

ouse.

MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
On a New Steam-power Meter. By Messrs. Aston and Srorny.

[Ordered to be printed im extenso among the Reports, see page 151.]

On the unprotected state of Liverpool.
By Admiral Sir Epwarp Bercusr, A.C.B., F.R.GS.

On a New Heat-Engine. By A. W. Bicxnrron, I.C.8.

The engine is intended to be worked by the expansion of crude nitrogen or
common air, under the influence of heat. The air is heated in a serpentine system
of tubes passing up and down inside a flue which surrounds the fireplace: the fire
itself does not come in contact with the tubes; but as they entirely surround the
fireplace, loss by radiation and conduction is prevented. The air to be heated is
compressed and forced into the tubes at the end most distant from the fire, and as
it travels forward it is gradually heated; so that the air to be heated is travelling
towards, and the products of combustion away from the fire: in this way the heat
is almost all abstracted from the products of combustion and given to the air, thus
preventing the loss that usually occurs by the hot gases passing up the chimney.
The air that has been expanded is allowed to pass out of the tubes from the end

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 209

nearest the fire, and to act upon a piston under full pressure through part of its
stroke ; it is then cut off and allowed to expand until the pressure is a little above
that of the air, but it is still much hotter than the air; it then enters an air-cham-
ber, and part of it is used for the blast of the fire, which is in a firebrick chamber
without bars, the ashes fusing and flaming off as slag: the remainder of the spent
air not used as a blast is mixed with the products of combustion immediately above
the fire and before they enter the flue, thus diminishing the intensity of the heat
and preventing its injuring the tubes, and also using up the heat of the spent air in
helping to heat a fresh supply.

The complete cycle consists of the following steps :—Air is compressed, is forced
into tubes, is then heated, then acts upon a piston, and a part of the spent air, which
still retains considerable heat, is used as the blast and the rest in heating a fresh
supply; thus the real work at our disposal is the ditterence between the compres-
sing and working cylinders.

The above description applies to an engine where air is used ; when nitrogen is
used, the same gas 1s used over and over again, and slight modifications are neces-
sary, but the general principle is the same.

By these means it is hoped that a considerable amount of the loss of heat that
must accompany the use of steam may be avoided, especially that which passes
up the chimney and that which passes away with the water that becomes heated
in condensing the steam, an amount many times that which is converted into work
in the steam-engine.

On a New System of Testing the Quality of the Malleable Metals and Alloys,
with Eeperimental Illustrations. By Gustay Brscnor, Jun.

Superior qualities of malleable metals and alloys are characterized by their being
able permanently to extend in all directions by rolling or hammering without rup-
ture, whilst inferior qualities break before reaching the maximum of extension
which the former can endure. The cause of this is the difference of the cohesive
power in different qualities of the same metal or alloy. From this it must be con-
cluded that if different qualities of the same metal or alloy have been rolled in
exactly the same manner, the better their quality the oftener they can, after roll-
ing, be bent in reverse directions at a certain angle without breaking. Upon this
principle my test is based.

The to-and-fro movements which, for instance, pure zinc, the best and the most
inferior quality of commercial zine hitherto tested, withstood without breaking,
under the conditions presently described, were respectively in the ratio of 100, 54,
and 19; for a good quality of steel, charcoal iron prepared by puddling, and ordi-
nary bar iron the ratio was 100, 43, and 26; for different qualities of commercial
copper between 100 and 19; for different qualities of commercial tin between 100
and 16, &c. It is obvious that once having such figures as standards, any other
figure obtained in testing metals or alloys will indicate their quality in reference to
the quality of the standard, the method being the more reliable, as properties
which are essential for practical purposes form the criterion.

The accuracy and saving of time and labour through this test will be estimated
from the fact, that, for instance, the deteriorating effect of as little as 1 part of tin
upon 10 million parts of pure zine, or of 1 part of cadmium upon 250,000 parts of

ure zinc, can be detected with certainty in less than one hour, whilst such traces
would probably escape the notice of a chemist if he spent a fortnight in analyzing.

As the rolling of samples for comparative tests must always be effected under
the same circumstances, the shape of the different samples must be alike before
the rolling is commenced. Metals which do not, or not materially, alter in quality
through fusion, are melted and poured into iron moulds of the required size, whilst
metals which alter in quality through fusion are cut into bars of the required size.
These bars are then, with or without annealing, according to the nature of the
metal or alloy, rolled in a test rolling-mill until they have a standard weight.

To the central screw of the rolling-mill which actuates the two screws which
press upon the upper roller a dial-plate with pointer is attached, enabling one to

. 1870.

210 REPORT—1870.

regulate the gradual pressure. The annealing, if required, is effected in tubes of
fireclay heated externally. ; ‘ ff. :

As metals sometimes become jagged through rolling, strips 7 millims. wide are
cut out of the middle of the samples after they have been rolled to nearly the re-
quired thickness, after which the rolling is continued until they have the standard
weight.

The apparatus for bending the test-strips, which is termed a “ metallometer,”
contains two essential points,—one or more vices @
for fixing the test-strips, m, and a guide, b, through
which the strips pass. The guide is capable of
oscillating upon two axles, c, c, which rest in bear-
ings fixed to the vice. The weights, d, d, which are
connected with the guide by means of rods, 7, 7,
always keep the guide in a vertical position when
an oscillating motion to the right or left is imparted
to the vice. Thus the guide forms an angle with
the vice at each to-and-fro movement, and the
test-strips, which are passed through the guide and
fixed by the vices, are also bent alternatively to the
right and left, by preference to an angle of 67} de-
grees to the vertical line, until they break, where-
upon the parts severed are caused to fall off by
means of the small weights (y,g) attached to them.
The motive power (by preference clock-worlk)
which actuates the metallometer has a dial-plate ==
with pointer which marks the number of to-and-
fro movements which the sample withstood before
breaking off.

As no metal or alloy is quite homogeneous, it is
necessary to make a series of tests in order to ar-
rive at an average result.

The metallometer which was exhibited had five
vices, each for two test-strips. Its working was
illustrated by testing copper. The test-mark (or
figure indicated on the dial of the clock-work) of
a sample of commercial copper, which had been
tested previously, was stated to be 51. A corre=
sponding sample of the same copper, which was tested in the presence of the Meet-
ing, gave on the average 52:5, showing that the same quality is indicated by the
same, or at least closely the same, test-mark.

Next, a sample of the same copper as above, which, however, had been heated a
short time in a current of hydrogen, was tested. It is evident that the latter
treatment must impair the toughness. The test-mark obtained in this experiment,
being only about } of that obtained in the former, proved how extremely sensitive
the metallometric indications are.

Other samples of brass, steel, iron, tin,
could not be tested for want of time.

zinc, and lead, which had been prepared,

On Bowater's Patent for Manufacturing Railway-aeles.
By Atrrep Bowater.

A machine for manufacturing iron or steel bars at one operation into axles.
These axles will be of a superior quality, more uniform in size, and cheaper and
more quickly produced than those generally in use,

Under the present system of manufacturing axles, a bar or billet of iron or
steel is first heated at one end and then shaped under the forge-hammer, and after-
wards similarly heated and shaped at the other end, an operation of some time.

Under the above patent a bar or billet of the desired length and quality, made
a little larger in diameter than the thickest portion of the finished axle, is heated

EeE

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 211

bodily, and placed in the machine, which reduces it at one operation to the required
size and shape. The rolls of the machine are geared together so as to rotate in the
‘same direction; the iron is placed between the working rolls, which are brought to
bear upon the bar by powerful screws gradually pressing the rolls nearer together
and reducing the bar to the required dimensions. The part of the rolls which form
the tournals press upon the bar, reducing its diameter at that point, afterward bear-
ing upon the middle of the bar, and by degrees along its whole length. As the bar
becomes reduced in diameter it becomes extended in length 14 to 18 inches; to
allow for this elongation, those parts of the rolls which form the tournals are ar-
ranged to slide laterally with the axle, while the rolls are screwed closer together
until the finished axle is produced, and which, by the greater uniformity of the
rolling pressure, gives the direction to the fibre best calculated to increase the

strength of the axle.

Hydraulic Machinery for Steering, Stopping, and Working Heavy Steam-
engines discharging Cargo. By Anprew Berts Brown.

The chief feature of novelty in the invention, as set forth in this paper, is in an
apparatus called a ‘steam-accumulator,”’ by which a reservoir of water at a pres-
sure of 1000 Ibs. per square inch and upwards is obtained on board ship. Having
this pressure, a steering-gear of light construction and great power is made use of
possessing certain relief valves, or other expedients by which perfect elasticity in
the rudder may be obtained.

In a similar manner, by the use of hydraulic cylinders and rams, the same pump-
ine-machinery and “steam-accumulator” which works the rudder at sea is made
available in port for the discharge of a ship’s cargo, as well as, on entering a port,
to start, stop, and reverse heavy marine engines,

On Appliances for the production of Heavy Forging.
By Lieut.-Colonel Cray.

On the Purification of Public Thoroughfares. By W. J. Cooper.
[For an abstract of this paper see Section B, page 53. ]

On the Efficiency of Furnaces and Mechanical Firing.
By Groxen F, Deacon, C.F.

In opening this subject, the author referred to one of the very numerous expe-
riments of the late Mr. C. Wye Williams, in which air was admitted to the vola-
tile products of combustion of the carbon through holes in an arched plate, divid-
ing the fuel from end to end of the furnace. Mr. Williams firmly believed that
such a system was capable of producing perfect combustion, and he strenuously
opposed the idea that any advantage was to be gained by making use of air for the
combustion of the inflammable gases which had been raised in tenrperature by
heat abstracted from the furnace in which they were produced. The well-known
experiments of Professor Tyndall and Dr. Frankland, by which it was clearly shown
that, owing to the greater inability of the atoms of rarefied air, the energy of
combustion was within wide limits independent of the density of the air, went far
to overturn the arguments with which Mr. Williams upheld his opinions.

Arrangements similar in form to the perforated arched plate had been tried by
the author ; but in a series of careful experiments on a large scale only those which
had included means for heating the inflowing air had been found efficient in pro-
ducing perfect combustion of the gases. Transverse arched bars 7 or 8 inches
hich, presenting to the rising air extensive heating-surfaces, had been substituted
for the bent plate, the heat for raising the temperature of the air having been ob-
tained, both by radiation and conduction, from the incandescent wag
1

912 rEPORT—1870.

The results of the author's experiments may be summed up as follows :—

1st. The admission of could air above the fuel in quantities sufficient for the com-
plete combustion of the inflammable gases is in most cases attended with loss of
efliciency, even if such admission takes place in jets over the whole surface of the
fuel. Smoke, however, is considerably reduced.

2nd. By the motion of the air over heated surfaces, and its consequent rarefac-
tion and increase of velocity when issuing from orifices in the arched bars, much
more perfect chemical union with the inflammable gases is insured; the flame is
rendered less luminous, but its temperature is increased ; the radiation of heat is
diminished, and the furnace door becomes less hot. Smoke is almost entirely
prevented, and a higher rate of efficiency is attained.

The author then proceeded to explain the great difficulties in the way of work-
ing furnaces economically by hand firing, and stated that Stanley’s patent machine
for supplying coal to furnaces by means of horizontal fans, well known twenty
or thirty years ago, but now limited in its application to a few manufactories in
Yorkshire, was probably the first apparatus for mechanical firing ever made. It
was difficult to understand why this machine, which with all its imperfections had
been used in almost every mill in Lancashire until the new system of boilers was
introduced, should be found in Leeds still at work in the crude form in which the
original inventor had left it. This being the only feeder which rained down the
fuel evenly on every part of the furnace, involved a principle which was clearly cor-
rect ; but to render it efficient it required provision to be made for the combustion
of the gases thus uniformly set free. Such desideratum the author stated had been
supplied by combining with it the central arched bars. This arrangement, and
the improvements made upon the machine itself, had given the following satisfactory
results. The entire apparatus, consisting of a self-feeding furnace emitting no
smoke, comprised considerably fewer working parts than any of the old machines.
It had now assumed a form capable of being manufactured at less than one-half
the cost of those mechanical stokers in which the fuel had a progressive motion
towards the back, and the imperfections of which were principally attributable to
the difficulty of regulating the admission of air through the bars at the back of the
furnace.

The efficiency of the combined apparatus.above that of the arched bar furnace
when fired by hand had been found by careful evaporative trials to be 9°696 per cent.

In conclusion the author stated that a-feeder and furnace constructed on the
principles advocated had been in successful operation day and night for nearly five
months at the works of Messrs. Earles and Jing in Liverpool.

Some Remarivs on the extent to which existing Works and Practice militate
against the Profitable Utihzation of Sewaye. By Joun Battuy Denton,
M. Inst. C.E., LGN.

This paper points out that although the sewers of towns were not designedly
made leaky, they were not constructed of a material and in a manner to secure
their being water-tight, while in many cases the subsoil-water was intentionally
admitted. The original “General Board of Health” recommended that all sewers
should be water-tight, and that there should be a separate system of pervious
channels for the removal of subsoil-water, which, it was stated, could be readily
made to discharge their contents into the sewers when required for flushing or
dilution. The consideration of these very important points is of little ayail in
those numerous towns where a complete system of sewerage works have been
carried out, as the difficulty and expense of altering them would negative any such
proposition; but it will be of great value in influencing the character of works yet
to be performed in small towns and villages where no systematic provision exists,
and in places where an alteration of existing sewers is practicable at a moderate
cost.

To show to what extent existing leaky sewers, admitting subsoil-water, will
allow of the passage of sewage out of them into the surrounding soil is most difli-
cult; but the fact must commend itself to all, that, under certain conditions, a

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 213

fluid existing inside a sewer may pass as rapidly out of it into the surrounding
ground as the subsoil-water may pass from that ground into the sewer. This effect
will be conceded when the height and pressure of the one exceeds the height and
pressure of the other. Though the difficulty of ascertaining the quantity of sewage
which escapes is great, and the facts will only become apparent when disease
becomes localized in the neighbourhood of leaky sewers, there exists no difficulty
in determining the extent to which the influx of subsoil-water takes place. The
greatest increase from the infiltration of subsoil-water known to the writer is at
Tring and Hertford. In the first case, although the sewers are only connected
with 30 houses, and the whole influx of sewage does not amount to 1000 galls. per
diem, the dry-weather discharge from the main sewer amounts to upwards of
1,000,000 galls. per diem. The effect of this abstraction of water from the subsoil
has been to lower all the springs in the neighbourhood, and to lay nearly dry the
head of the silk-mill in the town, from whence the Grand Junction Canal Com-
pany obtained a supply of water at a summit level. In the case of Hertford, the
discharge from the sewers is more than nine times the water-supply. At Black-
pool, for instance, with a standing population of 7000, the water-supply is about
a quarter of a million gallons daily, and the discharge from the sewers about
1,000,000 gallons. There is, therefore, an infiltration of water from some source of
three-quarters of a million gallons, and no effort is made to keep the sewage on
the flow when the tides rise above the sewers. In the town of Dover, with a
standing population of about 25,000, where the water-supply is upwards of
1,000,000 galls. daily, the ordinary dry-weather discharge from the sewers amounts

‘to nearly 3,500,000. Here, in order to keep the sewage “on the flow,” pumping

is resorted to for two hours before and two hours after each high tide; and it is
possible that by such means the escape of sewage is in some measure reduced by
ayoiding the extreme pressure of maximum accumulation. Under any circum-
stances it will be observed that the expense of pumping is increased by the influx
of subterranean water in the proportion of 1 to 33, and, as a natural consequence,
that £350 is spent when about £100 would suflice if the sewage alone was dealt
with. If the returns of mortality in these places could be brought to bear, it
would doubtless be found that certain epidemics are localized in the low parts of
the town, while other diseases prevail in the higher parts, caused by the pent-up
gases generated by detention finding their way upwards. This periodical condi-
tion of surcharged sewers is not confined to seaboard towns. In cases where the
sewage is lifted, the sewer authorities may allow the sewage to accumulate in the
sewers in order to avoid the expense of pumping at night, when precisely the
same effect is produced as in dealenrd towns under tidal influence. In many of
the Lancashire towns, such as Bolton, Liverpool, Oldham, and Warrington, the
ageregate daily excess due to subsoil-water in these four towns alone reaches, I
have reason to believe, something between 20 and 25 millions of gallons, which, if
lifted 100 feet, would cost, at 20s. per million gallons, upwards of £8000 a year.
At Cardiff, in South Wales, the increase is 1,500,000, without any advantage in
the way of flushing and cleansing (which, it has been stated, always accompanies
the influx of water), for there the inflowing subsoil-water brings in with it a share
of the sand, which deposits itself in the sewers, and is likely to become an in-
creasing source of impediment and difficulty. In many instances of both seaboard
and inland towns the sewage has been more than doubled; and wherever it
becomes necessary, on the ground of health and economy, to lift the sewage by
mechanical power (as we may safely assume will be the case in all towns, without
exception, where the sewers have not a free flow), the difficulty and cost of dealing
with such an increased quantity will become proportionately greater. These
observations are made with a full recognition of the difficulty, almost amounting
to an impossibility, of making ordinary sewers completely water-tight, and of the
truth that water finding its way into sewers sometimes acts beneficially in flushing
them, and that at certain seasons the dilution of sewage applied to irrigation is
advantageous. It is to the evil of indiscriminately admitting a largely dispropor-
tionate quantity of water, without any power to regulate the time and extent of
dilution, to which attention should be called with a view to determine future
proceedings.

214 REPORT—1870.

Turning from sewage works to the utilization of sewage by irrigation, which
the Rivers Pollution Commissioners have recommended as the only plan of dealing
with the sewage difficulty at present known, a very strong opinion has prevailed,
and has been acted upon up to the present time, that it is only necessary to run
the sewage over a surface of land covered with growing vegetation to extract from
it all that is fertilizing, and to render the effluent liquid perfectly harmless. It has
not been considered necessary that sewage should pass through, as well as over,
the soil. The Rivers Pollution Commissioners themselves appear to haye con-
sidered filtration, both downward and upward, separately from irrigation, and to
have reported upon each as distinct operations; for, after advising a trial of inter-
mittent downward filtration on a large scale, they add that in all practicable cases
they would strongly recommend “ the adoption of irrigation in preference to filtra-
tion,” evidently considering that irrigation can be properly adopted without filtra-
tion. It is to this very important recommendation, as one likely to mislead if
not at once set right, that attention is called; for by those who have made agricul-
ture a study, and have traced the effects of irrigation in England, Lombardy, and
elsewhere, it is considered that no irrigation is perfect unless it be accompanied by
filtration, and that if purification of the sewage is to accompany its profitable
application to land, it is absolutely necessary that no liquid whatever should pass
off the surface, but that the whole should go through the soil as well as over it.
In no case where the sewage has uniformly filtered through a sufficient depth of
soil has failure oceurred. In one case (Walton Convalescent Hospital) within my
own practice, the effluent water from a small area of land receiving the sewage of
upwards of 300 people, having been subjected last year to a properly devised mode
of natural filtration, in conjunction with irrigation, was analyzed by Dr. Odling,
and declared to be “unexceptionable potable water.” In this case the soil is free
and porous, though it was excessively wet before it was drained. The sewage
haying satisfied the growing vegetation is absorbed by the soil, and passing down-
wards by filtration (naturally incident to under-drainage) is mixed with a constant
and copious flow of subsoil-water, the level of which is maintained by the under
drains. At Briton’s Farm, near Romford, Mr. William Hope, V.C., has dealt
with a somewhat different description of land, though of similar porosity. He
has had the whole drained at a minimum depth of 5 feet, and the effluent water
from the under drains, though not equal in purity to that just referred to, shows
very distinctly the superiority of irrigation in connexion with filtration over irri-
gation simply. At Briton’s (as at Walton) not a drop of water passes off the land.

Though the instances are few in which irrigation and natural filtration haye
been associated in executed works of sewage utilization, they are sufficient to sup-
port the conclusion that no irrigation should be adopted in which filtration does
not form a part of the system. At Penrith, Carlisle, and Bedford, the whole of
the sewage is absorbed at the surface and discharged in different ways from the
subsoil, and the amount of nitrogen and ammonia existing in the effluent water is
stated, in the report of the Rivers Pollution Commission, to be as follows :—

Ty Parts or 100,000.

Organic nitrogen. Ammonia.
Penrith a: iy ie 108 si 001
Carlisle a 204 ie A 025

Bedion oS ERE nie 2 Terre aN Nae ee

In the first two cases there appears to be no nitrogen as nitrates and nitrites,
but in the last they are represented as ‘505. With complete pulyerization of soil
sewage farms may be established with security in any part of the country, inas-
much as natural downward filtration, which is only another term for subsoil-drain-
age, is not only a sure means of purifying liquid sewage, as shown by the Rivers
Pollution Commissioners, but it is equally sure to free the atmosphere of those
noxious gases which several high medical authorities have feared may he eyolved
from the surfaces irrigated with sewage matter.

oe i eee

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 215

On certain Economical Improvements in obtaining Motive Power.
By Ricwarp Eaton,

The paper recalled to mind the description given at Exeter of the Warsop aero-
steam-engine, and the promise to communicate results of further trials of the
system, which haye now been made in several places, A well-known Lancashire
firm had built one of the engines for use in their own works, and had found a fuel-
consumption of 60 cwt. per week with the air, as against 86 cwt. per week when
the air was shut off. Without the air-injection an average pressure of 333 lbs.
was shown, whilst with it a pressure of 47 lbs. was kept up. An engine of the
best construction, built for himself in London, showed, with the air-injection, a
gain of 243 per cent. in work done at ordinary speed, and of 333 per cent. at a
higher speed. The consumption of ordinary Welsh engine-coal was, with steam
only, 5°88 lbs. per actual horse-power per hour; with steam and air 4:72 lbs., or a
gain of 1:16 1b. per horse-power per hour—a very valuable economy. Experiments
with locomotiye-engines were referred to, and experiments with condensing-engines,
made at the suggestion of Professor Rankine, showed the vacuum to be very
slightly interfered with, contrary to expectation, and that the extra steam generated
counterbalanced the loss of vacuum, while the fuel-consumption was alike under
the two principles. The inyentor has improved and simplified the condensing-
engine proper to an extent that will prove an invaluable boon to all owners of
steam-vessels.

Repeated and varied experiments proved that the air-injection prevented scaling
in stationary and locomotive-boilers, and saline incrustation in marine boilers, and
thus added to their durability and diminished the risk of explosion, whilst priming
was prevented in all cases,

On the Gauge for Railways of the Future. By R. F. Farnum, CE.

The object of this paper was to advance a new argument in favour of the use of
a narrow gauge in the construction of railways, founded upon a comparison of
the amount of weight hauled for the same amount of paying traffic over a railway
of 3-ft. gauge and a railway of the English “narrow” or 4ft. 83-in. gauge.
Although maintaining that the principle of his argument applied to passenger-traftic,
and that the cost of working a railway, or, in other words, the proportion of
non-paying to paying weight (as far as this is independant of management), is
increased exactly in proportion as the rails are further apart, because a ton of
materials disposed upon a narrow gauge is stronger as regards its carrying-power
than the same weight when spread over a wider basis, the author on the present
occasion went into detail only with regard to the conveyance of goods; and he
selected the London and North-Western Railway as his illustration of the effects
of the 4-ft. 83-in. gauge, on the ground that its management is so good that the
defects in its working must be wholly traceable to its construction. He undertook
to show that this line, if made on a 3-ft. gauge, would accommodate the whole of
its present goods-traflic as well as at present, and would do so at half the present
cost with half the present tonnage and motive power, and with half the present
wear and tear of rails, so that the expense now being incurred for the construction
of a third line would be rendered unnecessary, Assuming that the present goods-
traffic, independently of minerals, amounts to ten millions of tons per annum, and
that the non-paying weight of trucks by which these goods are hauled amounts to
the low estimate of 40 millions of tons more (70 millions being nearer the truth),
there results a total gross weight hauled by the locomotives of 50 millions of
tons, at an average speed of 25 miles an hour. The earnings for the goods-traflic
on this line are 6s. 3d. per train mile, which, at an average rate all round of lid,
per ton per mile, would give about 50 tons as the paying weight, and 250 tons as
the gross weight hauled per train mile; dividing this 250 tons into the 50 millions
gives 200,000 trains, which, being divided over the 313 working days of a year,
gives 639 merchandize trains over all parts of the North-Western Railway in the
24 hours. The Company’s balance-sheet shows that each net ton produces about
4s, 8d., which, at 13d. per ton per mile, makes the average distance by each ton

216 REPORT—1870.

to be about 38 miles; so that as each ton of the total weight hauled runs 38 miles,
and the entire leneth of line worked is 1432 miles, it follows that there must be
on an average 37 merchandize trains distributed over the total length. This
number, divided into the total number of trains per day of 24 hours, gives an
average of over 17 trains per day running on each mile of the line. Tlaying
reached this conclusion, it becomes possible to see how it would affect the question
if the gauge of the line were 3 ft. instead of 4 ft. 8} in. In the first place, the
same or a greater speed could be maintained, say, up to 35 or 40 miles an hour.
On the 4-ft. 83-in. gauge the proportion of paying to non-paying has been taken at
1 to 4, although it has proved largely in excess of this. The waggons employed
average 4 tons in weight, so that on this reckoning each wageon carries 1 ton for
every mile it runs. The waggons for a line of 3-ft. gauge weigh each 1 ton, and
carry a maximum load of 3 tons. Supposing that the same number of waggons
and trains were run on the narrow gauge as on the broad, it follows that the
average one ton of merchandize now taken could easily be taken in a waggon
weighing | ton instead of 4 tons, and that the gross load passing over the line for
one year would be only 25,000,000 of tons instead of 50,000,000, while the same
amount of paying weight would be carried in either case ; that is, the small waggons,
which are capable of carrying three times the weight of goods now actually carried
in a 4-ton waggon, would only have to carry one-third of that quantity, and would
produce the same paying load as the heavier waggons; and as the haulage is pre-
cisely the same whether the tons hauled consist of paying or non-paying load, it
follows that this expense would be reduced to two-fifths of what it now is. If
the same number of trains were to run per day, the weight of each would be
reduced from 250 tons to 102 tons; or if the same gross weight of train was em-
ployed, the number of trains per day would be reduced from 639 to 250. If there
should be sufficient traffic to load the narrow-gauge waggons in such a way as to
require the same number and weight of trains that are now worked, the result
would be that, without increasing by one penny the cost of haulage and the per-
manent way expenses, the 3-ft. gauge would carry a paying of 25 millions of tons
as against the 10 millions now carried. Here, then, we have established the fact
that, so far as capacity goes, the narrow gauge is superior to the broad one; the
former can produce 25 millions net out of a gross tonnage of 50 millions, while
the latter, to produce the same result, if continued to be worked as it now is,
would require that 125 million tons should be hauled, and that at an increased
cost in the same proportion of 125 millions to 50 millions. The rest of the paper
was devoted to an application of these figures to the question of the best gauge
for Indian and Colonial railways, and to the argument that such railways mieht
be made cheaply and efliciently on a 3-ft. gauge, so as to charge a reasonable tariff
and to afford a satisfactory return.

On the Application of the Centre-Rail System to a Railway in Brazil and to
other Mountain Lines ; also on the Advantages of Narrow-Gauge Railways,
By J. B. Few, CL.

The author said that since the opening of the Mont-Cenis Railway in June 1868,
other mountain lines on the centre-rail system have been under consideration in
different parts of the world. One of these lines now being constructed is in Brazil ;
it commences at the terminus of the Canta-Gallo Railway, crosses the Serra at an
elevation of 3000 feet above the Canta-Gallo line, and terminates at the town of
Novo Friburgo, a distance of 20 miles. In some of its principal features this rail-
way resembles the summit line of the Mont-Cenis, the gradients for the passage of
the Serra, over a distance of ten miles, being principally from 1 in 20 to 1 in 12,
and the curves by which the line winds round the spurs or counter forts of the
mountain being, for a considerable portion of it, from 40 to 100 metres radius.
The narrow gauge of 1:10 metre has also been adopted. In other features, how-
ever, there is an important difference between these two centre-rail lines. The
concession for the Mont-Cenis was but temporary, terminating at the completion
of the great tunnel, and the railway is laid cn the existing public road, whereas

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 217

the Canta-Gallo line will be permanent, and the works will be so constructed as
to be specially adapted to its requirements. It will not have to contend with the
difficulties of an Alpine climate, and, profiting by the experience of two years’
working on the Mont-Cenis, it will have the advantage of important improvements
which have been made in the engines, carriages, and permanent way during that
period. Consequently the Canta-Gallo and other similar lines now being or about
to be commenced haye the interest of marking an important development of the
capabilities and advantages of the centre-rail system as applied to the construc-
tion and working of mountain railways. It may be useful here to record what
has already been accomplished in the task of carrying railways over mountain-
passes hitherto inaccessible to the locomotive, and of giving it the power of safely
carrying trains of passengers and goods upon gradients and curves which would
previously have been considered most perilous, and, indeed, impracticable. The
Mont-Cenis Railway has now been open for traffic two years and three months,
and during that period the trains have run a distance of more than 200,000 miles,
have carried between France and Italy over 100,000 passengers without injury to
any one of them, and has effected the transport of a considerable quantity of mer-
chandize. Since the month of September last it has carried the accelerated Indian
mail, and by the service thus established the delivery of the Indian mail in London
vid Marseilles has been anticipated by the Brindisi and Mont-Cenis route by about
thirty hours. The ordinary mails between France and Italy have been carried by
the Mont-Cenis Railway since its opening, and one night of travelling has been
cut off the journey between Paris and Turin. Although the Mont-Cenis Railway
cannot be taken as a type of the best or most approved application of the centre-
rail system, it has had the effect of proving its mechanical practicability and safety
when put to the most crucial test to which any new principle could be submitted.
There have been mechanical defects in the construction of the engines which have
added unnecessarily to the cost of traction, and these defects can and will be
removed in the engines about to be built for the Brazilian and for future centre-
rail lines. The cost of traction, as might be expected under the circumstances,
has hitherto been high (about 3 f. per train kilometre); but there can be no doubt
that with improved engines and good management the cost of traction may be
reduced to it 50c. per train kilometre. The Semmering incline in Austria fur-
nishes an example of the economy that may be effected by improved machinery
and management, the cost of locomotive-power having been reduced from 2°85 f.
in 1860 to 2-15f. in 1863, 1:70f. in 1865, and 1:-49f. in 1866, In the four new
engines last built for the Mont-Cenis a considerable saving has been made in
the cost of repairs by using four cylinders in place of two. By this arrange=
ment the inside and outside mechanisms are discunnected, and any contention
between the two is avoided. The adhesion, however, is not equal to the two-
cylinder engines, and the power is transmitted from the inside cylinders to the
vertical axles by means of a train of toothed wheels. In the new engines for the
Canta-Gallo line it is proposed to dispense with the toothed wheels and substitute
for them a system of direct driving by connecting-rods. The power of adhesion
will also be considerably increased. These new engines will have the advantage
of being able to run at a speed of from 20 to 30 miles an hour upon the ordinary
gradients of the line, and of talking their loads up the mountain-section at a
diminished speed of from eight to ten miles an hour. In an economic point of
view the result of the application of the centre-rail system to the Canta-Gallo
Railway will be as follows. The cost of construction, assuming it to be, as esti-
mated, about £300,000, would be at least doubled if made on gradients upon
which ordinary engines could work. In this case the costs of traction and main-
tenance for a centre-rail line will not be ereater than for a line with ordinary
gradients passing over the same country. The clear saving, therefore, effected by
employing the centre-rail system is at least £300,000, and the construction of a
valuable line of railway has been rendered possible, which would otherwise have
been commercially and financially impracticable. A somewhat similar line of
railway is under consideration by the Indian Government, from the port of
Karwar to Hooble, in the Southern Mahratta country, both by way of the Arbyle
and the Kyga Ghats. The distance is 90 miles, and it is proposed to employ

’

218 rEPORT—1870.

the centre rail for a length of about 10 miles upon gradients of 1 in 20 for the pas-
sage of the Ghat, by which a saving would he effected of about £500,000. The
cost at the present time of the transport of cotton and other produce over the 90
miles is stated to be £235,000 per annum, and there is, in addition, the disad-
vantage of not being able to convey the whole crop to the port of shipment before
the rainy season sets in; a large portion of it has consequently to be housed and
kept until that is over. Negotiations are going on with the Government local
authorities and people interested for the construction of centre-rail lines in Italy
from the Adriatic to Macerata and crossing the Apennines to Folieno from Florence
to Faenza, and for three branch railways in the Neapolitan States; in France, from
Chambery to St. André du Gaz and Lyons direct, crossing the Col de l’Epine;
in Switzerland, for the passage of the Simplon; and in Spain, for lines from Leon
to Corunna and Gion. The concession for the Mont-Cenis Railway expires on the
opening of the tunnel line; and when that period arrives, it has been proposed to
remove it to one of the neighbouring mountain-passes, where it would have a per-
manent life. At the time the concessions were granted it was considered that the
line would be worked for ten, or at least seven years; the progress of the great
tunnel has, however, been so much accelerated, that it is stated the tunnel line
may possibly be opened for traffic by the end of 1871. In that case, and taking
into account the difficulties of all kinds with which the enterprise has had to con-
tend, the Mont-Cenis Railway can only be regarded as an experimental line, and
the pioneer of a system destined to confer the benefits of cheap and safe communi-
cation between many countries separated by mountain-ranges hitherto impassable
by railways and locomotive-engines, and the promoters must look to the future for
the reward of their labours and the anxieties of the past. Drawings were exhi-
bited of a new system of narrow-gauge or suspension railways, an example of
which has recently been constructed as a branch line for earrying iron-ore from
the Park-house Mines to the Furness Railway in North Lancashire. The gauge
of this line is eight inches, and the length about. one mile. It is carried at various
elevations, from 3 to 20 feet, over an undulating country, passing over the fences,
roads, and watercourses without requiring the construction of earthworks or
masonry. The structure consists of a double beam of wood, it a at intervals
on a single row of pillars. The narrow gauge is practically made equivalent to a
broader one by the steadying-power of guide-rails fixed on the sides of the beam
and below the carrying-rails. The bodies of the waggons are suspended from the
axles, and by this means the centre of gravity is brought low. They are also fur-
nished with horizontal wheels, which run upon the guide-bars, and thus maintain
the equilibrium of the carriages, and render it almost impossible for them to leaye
the rails. The Park-house line will have a traffic of 50,000 tons per annum. The
cost has been £1000 per mile without stations or rolling stock. It was worked by
a stationary engine and endless wire rope. The saving effected in the cost of
transport will be at least 6d. per ton upon the distance of one mile. In Switzer-
land, application has been made to the Government of the Canton Vaud for a
panes line on this principle, from the town of Lausanne to the Lake of Geneva.

*lans have also been laid before the War Office for accelerating military transport
in foreign countries, and before the Governor-General of India for the construction
of cheap branches from the trunk lines in that country. The gauge of these rail-
ways may be from 6 to 18 inches. They may be made of wood or iron, or of the
two combined, and may be worked by either stationary engines or by locomotives
of a form specially designed for the purpose. They have the advantages of being
economical in both construction and working; they occupy but little land and
eause no severance ; they may be erected with great rapidity, and, being portable,
may be removed when no longer required and reerected in another locality. Before
the war commenced an offer was made to the French Government to construct one
of these portable railways to supply their army with from 1000 to 3000 tons of
ammunition and provisions per day. The work would have been undertaken by a
gentleman in Paris, who, with a force of 2500 men, would have constructed from
four to five miles of railway per day, following the advance of the army into
prot The result has, however, shown how little such a provision was
neede

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 219

On the North-China and Japan Submarine Cables. By Witutam Hoover,

On the History of the Shell that won the Battle of Sedan. By W. Horr, V.C,

On Frictional Screw Motions. By G, Lavonn, CLL.

On Hammering and Stone-dressing Machinery. By J, H. Luoxp, M.D.

On the Defence of Liverpool by Floating Forts, By Ssworn J, Mackte, C.Z.

Liverpool, the second commercial port in Great Britain, is at this time totally
undefended, and cannot be protected by shore-forts. The proposed new forts and
the proposed fleet of small unarmed one-gun boats might defend, but could not
protect, either the town or the docks from injury by an enemy’s fire. There is
only one way of effectually securing for the ports and shipping of the Mersey im-
munity from bombardment, namely, the closing of the two great shipways, the
Queen’s and the Horse channels, and thus keeping the hostile guns beyond their
range, the carrying, in fact, the sea-fight ten or twelve miles away from the mouth
of the river, Ships and shore-forts cannot accomplish this; and it can be effected
only by floating forts of proper and suitable construction. One broadside-ship is
at best only good against two others; one turret-ship could only fight one other.
The defences of Liverpool must be prepared to meet a fleet. Any number of un-
armoured yessels could not effect this vital end. Unprotected vessels carrying
single guns would be certain, sooner or later, to be hit and sunk. Our heaviest
guns, the 600-pounders, would just pierce the battery-armour of the‘ Hercules,’
but would not penetrate her water-line belt at 150 yards, Our first-class iron-
clads would be perfectly safe at two miles; but any one of the projectiles from
their armaments would sink an unarmoured gun-boat at five miles, indeed where-
eyer it could hit her. The unarmoured vessel, however, could not keep out of
harm’s way: she must come within 3000 yards to attack any iron-clad, for her guns
must punch the armour of her adversary to do any injury at all; and there would
be no chance of sinking the iron-clad until her belt was ruptured. It is not right
to assumné that gun-boats would not be hit, small and active though they be. In
practice made at Shoeburyness in 1868 the bull’s-eye of a target painted to repre-
sent the port-hole of a ship had three shots put into it by a 250-pounder gun out
of nine rounds, all the rest being within 2 feet of the mark. The running-target,
6 feet by 6 feet, is repeatedly hit by the officers and men of the School of Gunnery.
The smallest vessels being then so much larger than these objects, there are no sub-
stantial grounds for the idea that they should be able to attack with impunity iron-
clad men-of-war.

What is really wanted for the protection of Liverpool is at least two impregnable
iron floating forts, capable, even if by any disaster or by design they should be sunk,
of fighting some of their guns above water. _ Such forts can be made, and the prin-
ciple of construction advocated has already passed the bounds of mere hypothesis.
Any fort, however strongly built, must get injured by the terrific blows of modern

rojectiles ; and as water finds access only too readily through cracks and fissures,
it is right to providea resource against the last emergency. Another consideration
is that the battery afloat might be in danger of being overpowered by ramming,
which could be avoided by voluntary submergence on a shoal or on the sea-bed in
sufficiently shallow water. Rifled guns (in other words, weapons of precision) re-
quire, above all things, a perfectly steady and stable platform. Accurate aim is the
primary consideration in their use. Ships are adapted for sailing, not for gun-
carriages. The proper lively motion of a ship is absolutely antagonistic to
steadiness of platform. Masts are not required in a floating fort; steam-power
applied as hydraulic propulsion can give all the propulsion required.

The four-rayed forts proposed by Mr. Moody, an able and most experienced
captain in the merchant-service, have perfectly all the qualities required. In prin-

220 REPORT—1870.

ciple they are double pendulums, the swing of which is absolute in two direc-
tions at right angles to each other. The centre of gravity is vertically over or
coincident with the centre of the mass. The oscillation is reduced to a minimum ;
the draught of water is light. In turret-ships the longitudinal oscillation limits
the sites of the turrets to two points atsuch distances from the middle of the vessel
as within which the motion is not too extensive to permit of the training of the guns.
In the four-rayed forts guns can be mounted all round the circumference of a
circle drawn continuously at the same distance from the central point of least or no
motion. Thus the practical arming of the floating fort, as compared to that of a
ship, could be as 8 to 4. The fort is flat-bottomed and buoyant throughout ; sta-
bility and steadiness are essential qualities. If sunk it would not heel over, and
when grounded it would remain upright, and in the shoal water of Liverpool
Bay would still keep its port-cills above water, so that the guns in its batteries
could be worked effectively. A model vessel of this form, 40 feet across, has
been built, and sailed with the greatest success and under circumstances proving
the value and the safety of the invention, details and illustrations of which were
given. The class of Moody floating forts proposed would be not less than 200 feet
from ray to ray, plated over the central battery with 9-inch armour backed by
hollow stringers of not less than 10 inches in depth, and infilled with teak. The
euns should be protected by a low vertical parapet with 14 or 15-inch plating.
The main battery should contain at least eight 600-pounders, and it might be
well to have a turret above this containing four 35-ton guns or 700-pounders to
ensure gun-power above water if the battery should be submerged, even at the top
of spring-tides. The height of the port-cills of the ‘Hercules,’ which are very
lofty, is 11 feet above the water. The height of the port-cills of the proposed
battery, when afloat, would be 12 feet, whilst the height of the turret-guns would
be 26 feet ; so that those guns would sweep and fire down upon the decks of the
finest turret-ships and iron-clads.

Against ramming, these forts would be absolutely secure, the strength of their
structure being enormous; and as all the beams and girders radiate from the
centre, they give direct resistance in every direction to the blow. From the splay
over of the horizontal rim of the battery it would not be possible for any attack-
ing ship to get upon a ray to upset the fort, as has been most absurdly suggested ;
the real tendency of the battery when struck would be to gyrate out of the way.
Taking the proposed fort as fighting against a ship of the ‘ Hercules’ class, we
should have for it a superiority of armour, and this superiority further increased
by the angle at which the armour is inclined—an angle calculated to deflect the
shot and not to permit its penetration; a superiority in guns; in stability and
steadiness of platform; with no difficulty of opening ports and firing in any wea-
ther; and, finally, the advantage of being able to fight as a fixed fort after being
sunk. The ship in action would be encumbered with fallen masts and spars and
ropes entangling her screws, whilst the fort, moved by hydraulic power, would
be completely free from those most serious troubles. Moreover, such deep-draught
vessels as the ‘Hercules’ and our iron-clads generally could not follow an
enemy's gun-boats over the shoals; but the battery, if necessary, could, whilst,
on the other hand, if itself pressed hard, it could retire into shoal water.

The best means of protecting Liverpool and securing the immunity of its
wealth are the placing of one of these powerful floating forts on or near Taylor's
bank to command the junction of the Crosby and Formby channels leading into
the long deep pool the Mersey makes at low water in Liverpool Bay; and another
floating battery on or near the extremity of the East Hoyle Bank, to command
the entrance to the Horse channel. By this disposition of the floating batterics
the fight with an hostile fleet would be forced on at nine miles away from the
town and docks, or, in other words, Liverpool and Birkenhead with their ware-
houses and shipping would be preserved from the reach of the heaviest guns.
The waterways of the Victoria and Queen’s and Old and New Formby chan-
nels could be planted with torpedoes, which would be protected by the guns of
the floating forts; and the like could be done with the long pool of the Mersey
meandering through the shoals in the bay, as also along the Horse and Roc
channels under similar protection, Some few swift little steamers with Com-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 221

mander Harvey’s towing-torpedoes would, in addition, be useful to sweep the
deeper waters.

On the Martini-Henvy and Westley-Richards Rifles.
By Wivtram P, Marswatz, CLE.

The author stated that more than five years had elapsed since a Government
Commission reported unanimously in favour of arming the whole British infantry
with breech-loading guns; and in 1865 a Government advertisement invited pat-
terns for the proposed arm. A committee of investigation examined the patterns
sent in, and at the end of 1868 they recommended the adoption of the Martini
breech mechanism, with the Henry rifling and the Boxer ammunition. The breech-
closing arrangements in this combination were considered by practical men to be
mechanically defective, but the bore of the barrel, the turn of the rifling, and the
weight of the projectile gave excellent results as regards accuracy, trajectory, pe-
netration, and rapidity of fire. In the breech-action the principle of the falling-
block for opening the breech when loading, which was a previous American inyen-
tion, was generally admitted to be the best that had been suggested, and so far the
arm justified the decision of the committee; but the faults said to exist in it were
in the striking-spring, the mode of lifting the falling-block, the arrangement of the
trigger and locking-bolt, and the mode of attachment to the stock. All these were
said to be so defective in principle, that they could not answer when made in large

uantities, although a few rifles might be so made that no great fault should be

etected in a limited trial, while the arms were new; and it was urged, conse-
quently, that to adopt such a rifle would not be a mechanical credit to the country.
Since the end of 1868 the committee has been endeavouring to perfect the arm, and
several different patterns of it have been made at Enfield; but it still retains its in-
herent defects and objectionable features. In the Westley-Richards rifle, however,
while all the approved points of the Martini-Henry rifle were retained, these defects
in the lock mechanism had been removed by a very ingenious and simple applica-
tion of the ordinary principles of construction of a gun-lock that have been con-
firmed by the long experience of previous arms. The barrel of both being satis-
factory, the question was as to the lock; and the author considered that it was very
desirable that further investigation should be made before the Government finally
adopted any rifle for our army. In the Martini-Henry the most important defect
was, that the falling-block was lifted by a lever acting near the centre of motion,
which was mechanically objectionable, whereas in the Westley-Richards the
falling-block was lifted by a longer lever acting at the extremity of the block,
at the greatest distance from the centre of motion. In the Westley-Itichards
the striker for firing the cartridge was actuated by a long flat spring, and had
1 inch length of stroke, giving a sharp blow on the rear of the cartridge; but
in the Martini-Henry a short stiff spiral spring was employed, giving only
3} inch length of stroke to the striker, which was objectionable mechanically,
and not so certain in firing, nor so durable as the other arrangement. The above
views of the respective merits of the two rifles were confirmed by some of our
most eminent mechanical engineers, Messrs. Hick, Penn, Barlow, and Greenwood.
Tlaving stated these facts, the author went on to argue that, as the two kinds of
rifle appeared to admit of equally safe and expeditious handling, and to be of equal
shooting-power, the question between them resolved itself into one of mechanical
construction. The military members of the committee had done their work well;
the distinctive military requirements were satisfied by either weapon, and accuracy
of shooting had probably reached its limit, as the results of the prize-shooting had
not improved in the recent year’s competitions, What was wanted was a fresh
and independent committee, containing some experienced mechanical engineers, for
the purpose of determining points of mechanism only. There was, however, an-
other question of almost equal importance, and that was the ammunition. The
first pattern of Boxer cartridge recommended by the committee had been with-
drawn, and another, that was as defective, had been substituted for it. This had
a case larger than was required to contain the proper charge, and consequently re-

R22 REPORT—1870.

quired an unnecessary enlargement of the breech-chamber; and the common solid
brass cartridge-case now in general use in America and other countries would in
many respects be preferable to it, especially because it can be readily obtained in
large quantities, because its adoption would leave the chamber of the rifle of a
minimum size, capable of being made larger if need should ever arise, and because
the case was not destroyed in firing, and can he filled over and over again, and its
use would thus be a source of great pecuniary saving to volunteers in their practice.

On Boiler-Explosions. By EH. B. Martuy, CZ.

At the Exeter Meeting it was suggested, in a report of a select committee, that
inquests on boiler-explosions should be improved by making it compulsory that
coroners should have scientific witnesses to assist the juries to a&certain the causes
of explosions. From considerable experience in such investigations, the writer
concluded that much more good would result from publishing independent reports
to the Government by competent engineers, without interference with the ancient
and useful coroner’s inquest ; and that the public would benefit more by the reports
themselves than by the verdicts founded on them by juries, who, although well
able to decide whether any one was criminally liable for a death, would be quite
incompetent to discriminate between conflicting scientific opinion as to the causes
of boiler-explosions. fale
On the Construction of Sewers in Running Sand.
By Messrs. Reape and Goonrson, C.L., Liverpool.

The authors related their experience in the construction of sewers at various
places lying on the coast between Liverpool and Southport, a district mostly con-
sisting of sand from 10 to 20 feet deep, thoroughly permeated with water and rest-
ing on a bed of moss and marl. In some places in the driest seasons the water-
level is only a few feet below the surface. The difficulty of laying the inverts of
the sewer true is immensely increased by the low gradients demanded by the
general flatness of the country. They generally use fireclay pipe-sewers, from
motives of economy and other reasons ; and the jointing of these is very difficult in
reaming sand, in consequence of the cement, even when covered with a clay lute,
getting washed into the sewers before it has time to set. To overcome these
difficulties they have introduced a subsoil-dvain and pipe-rest (manufactured by
Messrs. Brooke and Sons of Huddersfield) of the form of the letter e, which is
laid first in the bottom of the trench and jointed with clay like an ordinary pipe-
sewer. This has the effect of lowering the subsoil-water, so that the sewer proper
can be laid upon the moveable saddles or rests (fitting the curvature of the drains
and the sewers) undisturbed by water or reaming sand. By these means the
cement joints can be made perfect all round, and have time to set before the trench
is filled up. True gradients are insured, as the pipes can be leisurely laid; and as
the pipes are jointed over the middle of the subdrain a continuous foundation is
secured, A more perfect drainage of the subsoil is also found to result, the gene-
ral level of the water being reduced to nearly the level of the invert of the sewer,
They have begun to use the subsoil-drains in the sewerage works they are carrying
out at Birkdale, which includes a length of 10,000 yards of pipe-sewers. Methods
for flushing the sewers with the subsoil-water were also described, and all the ap-
paratus used by the authors in similar sanitary works.

On an Oblique Propeller. By Professor Osnorne Reynoxps,

Paddles for propelling ocean-steamers have been displaced by the serew; the
great advantage of which is that it does not interfere with the sailing-qualities of
the ship to the same extent as paddles do. It has, however, many disadvantages,
as is shown by the frequent accidents which happen to screw-steamers. These are
all due to its position at the end of the boat. Thus, it interferes with the action of
the rudder, it makes the ship vibrate, it will not act when the ship is pitching,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 293

and the long shaft is a source of endless trouble. It is with the hope to obviate
these evils that the new propeller is proposed. This propeller is, in fact, an attempt
to transfer the action of the screw to the middle of the ship, Prior attempts have
been made to do this and have failed, not on their intrinsic merits, but inciden-
tally through weakening the ship or requiring special and peculiar forms of ships.

Whatever demerits the proposed propeller may have, it must necessarily have
the following merits :—

. It is in the middle of the ship, and its action is not affected by pitching.
. Its action cannot be affected by the rolling of the ship.

. It will not interfere with the action of the rudder.

It will not interfere with the sailing-qualities of the ship.

It can be applied to ships of any form of section.

Itsimmersion will not be much altered by the lading of the ship.

For sailing, the propeller or the blades can be easily removed,

. If applied to rams, they could strike with either end.

The experiments which have been made with the model, which is 5 feet long,
haye been very successful. It will steam at about two miles an hour, and it appears
to go quite as well in rough water as it does in smooth. It goes quite straight
without any rudder, and does not heel over from the effect of the propeller.

Description of the Propeller.—The plates which act on the water are fastened
obliquely on to a flat endless chain, which is made so that it cannot be twisted. This
chain passes round the middle of the ship, or it may pass across under the deck
and then through the sides and down outside, and so under the bottom. In this
way the chain will under-gird the ship in her middle, and the blades will act on all
the water which comes within their length of the bottom or sides amidship. The
draft of the ship will be increased by the length of the blades, which will be about
one-seventh the entire draft. The chain is kept in its position by drums, which

roject a short distance beyond the skin of the ship. These drums must be so
incased as to keep the water from getting into the ship. The chain is connected
with the engines by means of one of these drums. Flanges on the drums prevent
the chain working off them. In order to ascertain as far as possible the compara-
tive merits of this propeller and the screw, one was designed for a large ship, the
drawings of which are given in Scott Russell’s ‘ Naval Architecture,’ the size of all
the parts being very carefully calculated, and then it was compared with the screw.
The results of the comparison are given in the adjoining Table.

GO 51> Ov Go BO

Dimensions of the Ship taken from Scott Russell's ‘Naval Architecture.’

Length on load water-line .........4.. io+. O14 ff, Gin,
Breadth, extreme ...... TES Ce Rr 42 ,, 8,;
Depth Gi s1d6 crisis cceees vidi ivissateaa. BL 8 55
Tonnage, builder’s measurement ...... Peace. 2780 tons
Draft when ladeti vis. e.escseeiie shade ecis 22 ft.
Nominal horse-power .......ssseseeeeeees 600
Indicated fee 8 ASE reed be as 2500
Speed in miles per hour ........es.eec050s 13°75
Dimensions of existing Machinery.

Length of screw-shaft ........ bestsriers Lil ft.
Diameter of screw-shaft ........00ccebeeee 1 ft. 6 in,
Pitch: of screw ss eseee wha Uedebavectes 1. «84 ft.
Number of blades isiccicsessiasecvese rire oe
Pidineter af SSW ives cis kev een es PEA « 19 ft.
Number of revolutions per minute ....., vies 46
Ship in miles per hour... ccseccccccaveevass 4
Approximate weight of screw and screw-shaft.. 50 tons
Friction arising from thrust-blocks is equiva=] ¢.9~

lent to an additional thrust of ............ fo apron
Ditto weight of shaft and screw ..... beaeve’ 05 5;

Thrust of shipiss vsevs diss bvtMe scenes ; 23 tons
Total increase of thrust equivalent to friction .; 0°75 ton

224 REPORT—1870.

Dimensions of proposed Machinery.

Leneth of chain ........... (oteenct BROOK vee Azo ft
Width..... AP RRC CNe) ci Be fadie pichuicta diaucne - Ott.
Diameter of pins ......... Ravatetavetct ats. tie ener . Oft.22in.
Aric olor DIAdES!S se. scale ae vec ve ielelsniele's ous
Number of blades ......... ido shoe ae taco til
Diameter of driving-pulley .............. ys to
Number of revolutions per minute ......... . o4
Length of blades ......... “deseo cakes 4S0locn- 5 ft. 7 in.
Thickness of chain......... 5 oO SeCR ERC Os one
Slip in miles per hour... 1.0.4. one sop awa 3
Tension of chain where greatest ........ .... 23 tons

4 34 TERSGSS eats ees Faroe LU op
Weight iofcham<....<-- ees LerLOns

+ [HERES sotag acai ob OCH aa

- pulleys and shafts ........ 20

”
Weight to be compared with screw and screw-shaft 35 yy
The friction arising from the motion of the pins
as they pass round the drums if added to} 680 lbs,

SHAG ONTNSt ais ele ee «+ se 2 ei0 TS Og*
Ditto pressure of the drums on their bearings 500 ,,
NTGEG GATUSE= BLOCKS. '.t oiclte slave's 4s 'ele aist tiers 290 ;;

Total increase in thrust equivalent to friction ., 0-64 ton

On Ocean Telegraphy. By Captain Rowert.

On the Ash-pit System of Manchester, By Alderman R, Rumnry.

What is the best method of dealing with the excrementitious matters of large
towns is a question of difficult solution. It has been discussed annually at the
British Association, not surely without benefit, but certainly without arriving at
any general agreement.

As a contribution towards a solution of this question, a brief description of the
method adopted in Manchester may not be without interest, and may serve either
as an example or warning to other large towns similarly situated. When attention
was first directed to the sanitary condition of towns, Manchester had scarcely any
water-closets, but to every large house, and in every street, serving one family or
many, were privies and open ash-pits of large dimensions situated at the back of
the house, the privy-door opening into a yard very near the back door of the house,
an ash-pit opening immediately behind, with a door opening into a passage forming
the boundary between the streets or rows of houses, and through which door the
refuse or contents of the ash-pit were from time to time emptied. These ash-pits
received the rainfall and all the refuse of the house. The gases eliminated from
the decomposing materials passed off at a low altitude, and might enter the yard
or upper rooms of the house without difficulty.

The authorities of Manchester have at all times objected to the general use of
water-closets in cottage-dwellings. In the first place, because they believed that
in the limited space available in houses occupied by the working classes they would
prove a greater nuisance than the privy and ash-pit outside; secondly, because of
the loss of valuable manure which would be occasioned; and thirdly, because,
looking at the rapid increase of population in the district and the limited area of
the watershed, the time would come when all the water available would be re-
quired for domestic and manufacturing purposes, and could not be wasted in water-
closets. Adhering, then, to the dry in opposition to the wet system, the corpora-
tion has for some time been engaged in the attempt to improve the existing
privies and ash-pits, and to discover the best form to be adopted in all new pro-
perty erected within the city. In 1868 the city council appointed a health-
committee and officer of health, and placed the construction of privies and ash-pits

— -@

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 225

under the superintendence of this committee. At the same time the Artisans’
Dwellings Act came into operation, and the provisions of this Act, with powers
possessed by local Acts, have furnished the committee with the necessary autho-
rity for altering the old ash-pit and enforcing the construction of new ones ac-
cording to the plans which have been adopted. In the construction of ash-pits the
object of the committee was to prevent as far as possible the decomposition of
the excreta, and consequent generation of gases passing off into the surrounding
atmosphere; and as decomposition is accelerated by moisture, they determined
that all ash-pits should be made dry, excluding the rainfall by covering them over,
and the drainage from the yard by requiring the floor and walls to be made
water-tight ; they required also that the ashes from the pit should be placed daily
in the ash-pit for the purpose of condensing, as far as possible, the ammoniacal
and other gases, and preventing organic matter impregnating the air in the im-
mediate vicinity. In addition to these arrangements it was foreseen that in summer
time, when decomposition is most vigorous and the supply of neutralizing ashes
most scanty, a closed ash-pit might become a greater nuisance than an open one;
and a ventilating-shaft or chimney was determined upon, to be carried from
the top of the ash-pit up to the side of, and a little above, the eaves of the
house for the purpose of carrying off all the gases and light vapours and allow-
ing them to mix with the surrounding atmosphere at an elevation which would
not injuriously affect the inmates of the dwelling.

In attempting these improvements the committee met with considerable im-
pediments—the covered ash-pit and flue hada hard struggle for existence; the
council was sceptical, especially on the efficacy of the flue. It was to little pur-
pose to assure the members that as the emanations from the ash-pit would, trom
the warm ashes of the kitchen and the fecal matter, be of a higher tempera-
ture than the surrounding air, they must necessarily ascend and pass off at the
highest point of egress, and, if there was no opening but the flue, then up the flue.
The reply was, they might not do so. A flue had been connected with a covered
ash-pit for a considerable time, and was found to be most effective; and it was
urged that all other flues under similar circumstances would also be efficient, just
as surely as heated air ascending one chimney would ascend all chimneys. ‘The
evidence was not deemed sufficient. The committee was authorized and required
to have a number erected, and meanwhile the enforcement of the regulation was
suspended. When at length the council, satisfied by the evidence adduced, autho-
nized the committee to: proceed, another obstacle presented itself. The property
owners (that is, the owners of cottage property), having chiefly formed themselves
into an association, rose in arms against the change; they declared that the cost of
making the alteration would be £8 to £10, and that the rents must be advanced 1s.
per week to carry out this new plan of the committee. They declared that, in the
opinion of practical and scientific men, the ventilating-flue would be perfectly use-
less, that the noxious gases would not escape through the flue, but would overflow
into the back yard, producing greater evils than any it was intended to remedy;
and in a report of the executive committee of the “Associated Property Owners’
Association,” issued in December last, it is declared that, after nearly twelve months’
experience and from consultations with gentlemen well able to form an opinion,
they are more than ever convinced of its uselessness ; and they promise at an early
date to have the opinion of scientific men put in an official form in the nature of a
report, which would he submitted to the health committee. What the opinion of
these scientific men, upon which the property owners rest their case, may be can-
not be ascertained, as no report has ever been presented; but it is worthy of re-
mark, as illustrating the complexity of our legal procedure, that with all the powers
possessed by the corporation in its many local Acts, and the stringent clauses of the
Artisans’ Dwellings Act, some of these property owners have succeeded in delay-
ing the reconstruction of privies and ash-pits in connexion with dwellings de-
clared by the officer of health to be unfit for human habitation for a period of
nearly twelve months. Notwithstanding these obstructions, the committee has
continued its operations. Every new house erected in the city is required to pro-
yide a water-tight covered ash-pit with ventilating-flue; and, taking the worst of
the old ones, just about 270 haye been reconstructed on the new plan, or as near

1870. 15

/
¥ |

296 - REPORT—1870. ~*~

it as practicable. The results have been most satisfactory. I quote from a report
of the health committee, giving to the council the result of an inspection of a num-
ber erected as a trial by the committee :—“ It was found that the yards at the back
of the houses, and the privies themselyes, were entirely free from any offensive
odours.”

The, contents of the ash-pits were dry; the surfaces of the yards were clean:
When the hand was placed in the opening of the seat a current of air was percep-
tible ; when a piece of brown paper was lighted and then blown out, so as to pro-
duce considerable smoke, and the paper then held over the grid in the wall of the
privy, the smoke was strongly drawn down into the ash-pit; the same when ap-
plied to the seat of the privy. No smoke escaped at the opening of the seat, but
all passed up the flue and mixed with the atmosphere above the roof of the house:
The information from the occupants of the houses was most interesting. Some of
them stated that whereas before the alterations were made they never opened
the windows of the back bedroom in consequence of the stench that came into the
room from the privies and ash-pits below, they now opened them daily, and got
the rooms ventilated, and that, although formerly they were scarcely conscious of
the disagreeable stench from their neighbours’ premises, now their own were cleaner
these feecal smells affected them. ‘The officer of health in his report, and as the
result of careful inquiries, states that where the new form of ash-pit has been
adopted, whether in old or new houses, there was not last summer a single case of
diarrhoea or fever in the families of any of the occupants, although the former
disease prevailed to a considerable extent in neighbouring families; the testimony
of many house-owners is to the same effect. It is found that in new dwellings the
cost of the new privy amd ash-pit is less than the old one; while in the recon-
struction in old property it is much less than, in their fears, they had anticipated.

In the appendix to the report of the medical officer of the Privy Council just

rinted, Dr. Buchanan and Mr. Radcliffe made the following remarks on the
Micichoster system :— We inspected a midden-closet arranged on this plan in
a position where the advantage of careful superintendence was secured for it,
built according to the requirements of the corporation—roofed, drained, and
ventilated by a shaft carried up above the eaves of the adjoining building. The
closet or privy used by a single family only opens into a small yard, 8 ft. 2 in.
across at the widest part, and faces the living room of the cottage occupied by the
family. A urine catch-pan was fixed beneath the privy-seat ; the midden was two-
thirds full of ashes and refuse, the latter cast in beneath the hinged seat, and no
excrement was exposed to sight. As it contained fifteen months’ accumulation of
excrement, ashes, and house-refuse, its condition might not unfairly be regarded as
similar to that of a closet emptied more frequently, but used by several families,
There was no smell of excrement, nor, indeed, any marked odour about the privy,
though on the same day (during a frost) in unimproved eas about the town there
was notable stink. A current of air, as we determined by experiment, passed down
through the aperture of the seat and upwards through the yentilating-shaft. The
occupants of the house averred that no foul smell was at any time experienced by
them from the closet. The removal of the contents of the ash-pits has been
managed by the corporation since 1845, There are about 38,000 ash-pits of all
sizes in the city, some large ones st bes to be emptied only once or twice a
year; on an average, the contents will not be removed oftener than from two to
three times in the course of a year. In the newly constructed ones, the size being
so much reduced, the contents require to be removed more frequently ; but the
health-committee, regarding the matter in a sanitary point of view, not in an eco-
nomical one, consider eyen the size of the new ones too large, and are gradually
aiming at a size that will necessitate the removal of the contents every two or three
weeks; but it is difficult to effect great changes all at once. Many people object
to the emptying of the ash-pits frequently, or until they are filled with ashes, ex-
crement, and refuse, and frequent removal can only ke effected by limiting the
space in which this refuse matter is contained. The ultimate aim, then, of the
health-committee is to provide for every cottage a privy and small ash-pit, not
sunk deep in the ground and perfectly water-tight, excluding the water from the yard
and slops from the house, and covered over to exclude the rainfall—excluding also,

Ee ——

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 297

if possible, all refuse matter except the small ashes from the fire, and securing that
these ashes shall be placed upon the excrement daily. In every case the ash-pit is

laced as far from the entrance-door of the house as possible; and as in all new

ouses a yard-space of considerable size is required, generally the privy and ash-pit
will not join up to the walls of the house, and in every case where it does so a
strong flag is placed between the wall and the privy; and as the floor is sunk be-
neath the level of the floor of the dwelling, percolation will be entirely prevented.
In addition, a ventilating-shaft must be carried up to the eaves of the house, the
horizontal portion of which may form the coping of the separating wall between
the two houses, and the area of this shaft must not be less than eighty-one square
inches. A drain and grid are also required in the yard to carry off the water and
slops of the house into the street sewers. Already upwards of 1500 have been
erected under the supervision of the committee ; the occupants are perfectly satis-
fied, and are constantly expressing their approval. The opposition of the property
owners is subsiding ; and although it will take many years to alter and improve
the 30,000 old ones in the city, the committee and the officer of health feel confi-
dent that every step in this direction will tend to reduce the death rate and improve
thé health of the inhabitants,”

Pneumatic Dispatch.—On Pneumatic Transmission through Tunnels and Pipes*.
By Rosert Sasre,

’ The author, after giving the result of investigations into the motions of bodies
through tubes for this purpose, and the formula which he had arrived at, said that
these would show that small pneumatic tubes could be worked more advantage-.
ously than large ones. The great convenience of and practical facilities fur work-
ing small letter-carrying tubes have been amply proved by the extensive systems
already laid down, in Paris, Berlin, London, and in other towns, as adjuncts to
the telegraph services. Tubes of somewhat larger diameter, such as those pro-
posed some years ago by Mr. A. E, Cowper for the more speedy distribution of
metropolitan letters. to the branch post-offices, would undoubtedly work satisfac-
torily. Even still larger tubes, if of moderate lengths, might also be found useful,
for a variety of special applications ; for instance, in the transport of light materials
between the different parts of a factory supplied with steam-power. He did not
believe that a pneumatic line working through a long tunnel could, for passenger-
traffic, ever compete in point of economy with locomotive railways. A pneumatic
railway is essentially a rope railway. Its rope is elastic, it is true, but it is not
light. Every yard run of it, in a tunnel large enough to carry passengers, would
weigh more than } cwt. And a rope, too, which has to be moved against con-
siderable friction, in being compressed and moyed wastes power by its liberation
of heat. In a pneumatic tunnel, such as that proposed between England and
France, in order to move a goods-train of 250 tons through at the rate of 25 miles
an hour, it would be necessary to employ simultaneously a pressure of 12 lb, per
square inch at one end, and a vacuum of 13 lb. per square inch at the other. The
mechanical effect obtained with these conn ula (pressure and vacuum) would be.
consumed as follows :—

In accelerating the air...... 29

In accelerating the train .... | 12( millions of

By friction of the air ...... 5721({ —foot-pounds.
By friction of the train,...,. 330

The resistance of the air, therefore, upon the walls of the tunnel would alone
amount to 93 per cent. of the total mechanical effect employable for the transmis-
sion, while the really useful work would be only about 5: per cent. of it. And to
compress and exhaust the air to supply the above items of expenditure of mecha-
nical effect, engines would have to exert over 2000 horse-power at each end during
the transmission, even on the supposition that the blowing-machinery returned
an equivalent of mechanical effect such as has never yet been obtained. ‘This

* Published x extenso in ‘ Engineering,’ Sept. 23, 1870.
15*

228 REPORtT—1870.

would not be an economical way of burning coals. It is desirable, nevertheless,
from an engineering point of view, that the merits and demerits of pneumatic par-
cels-lines and pneumatic passenger-lines, which have been repeatedly suggested
during the past half century, should be thoroughly investigated. The works of
the Pneumatic Company in London, which are approaching completion, will hap-
pily settle the question as regards parcel-tubes ; whilst the pneumatic passenger-
railway, which, he was told, is in rapid course of construction under the streets of
New York, will very soon either inaugurate a new era for city railways, or be
written in the long list of unsuccessful experiments.

On a Submarine Ram and Gun. By Micwarn Scorr.

On Ships of War of moderate dimensions. By Micuagn Scorr.

On the Machinery and Working of Submarine Guns. By Micwarn Scorr.

On the Sewage of Liverpool and the Neighbourhood.
By James N. Suoorsrep, C.L.

Liverpool at present contains about 520,000 inhabitants, and the suburban dis-
tricts round it about 80,000 more; in all 600,000.

Of these by far the greatest number reside on a strip of land of no great breadth,
running along the river Mersey and its estuary, and sloping gently down to them.

The close proximity of this rapid tidal stream, as well as the great facility af-
forded by it for the ready disposal of sewage and other refuse, will account for the
predilection already shown for the water-closet over the privy system ; and which
predilection is annually becoming still more manifest. There are at present about
40,000 water-closets against 30,000 privies in the district.

The borough of Liverpool has expended about £900,000 in drainage and sewer-
age works. Of this, £300,000 may be set down as necessary for the conveyance of
the contents of the water-closets. If this sum is capitalized, and a large allowance
made for deterioration, then an annual amount of £60,000, or about 2s. 4d. per head
of the population, may be taken as the cost of getting rid of the wet sewage of the
town.

The midden, or dry sewage, together with the contents of the ash-pits attached
to the houses having water-closets, amounts within the borough to about 140,000
tons in the year. ‘I'his is removed by rail and by canal, and disposed of at a cost of
about £21,000, while the amount realized by the sale of the refuse is only £8000;
thus causing an annual loss to Liverpool of £13,000, or about 6d. per head of the
population, in order to dispose of its dry sewage.

Several propositions have from time to time been made, especially since 1866, to
utilize the wet sewage of the town by irrigation over some light soil about 10 miles
distant to the northward, and near to the sea-coast; the land is of yery considerable
extent, and favourably situated for the purpose. r

However, nothing as yet, beyond a trial experiment, so far successful, has been
effected, and that upon a very small scale. Further steps with the same object,
but in a different suburban district, are,.it.is understood, about to be taken.

The ready market which Liverpool in itself affords for the sale of the vegetable
proceeds of this irrigation, and consequently for its success, is a further stimulus
to reduce hy this means the present annual cost to Liverpool in getting rid of its
sewage and refuse.

Liverpool may, however, be said even now to be much favoured by nature in this
matter ; inasmuch as the burden falls much more lightly upon it than upon many
other large towns, which haye enforced against them by the arm of the law the
unpleasant consequences this question may sometimes bring with it,

in sal Pl

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 229

On Mechanical Stoking. By Jars Suite,

On a New Safety-lamp. By W.¥. Teas,

——_—-

Description of the Hydraulic Bucketting-engine for the Herculaneum
Graving-dock, Liverpool. By Percy Wesrmacort, C.E.

The application of hydraulic power to gates and capstans &c. having already been
decided upon for these docks, it was considered expedient to contrive the emptying of
the graving-docks in conjunction with this same system, and thus save the erection
of another steam-engine and plant for this special service,and at the same time secure
a ready means of applying power at all times, especially to severe leaks. Some ar-
rangement, too, was required that would overcome the inconveniences experienced
in dealing with water charged with rubbish from graving-docks. The result was the
construction of a machine upon a principle of bucketting large quantities of water
at a time—devoid of clack-valves, gratings, or other parts liable to choking or in-
jury by floating matter, and that could be lifted clean out of the water to give free
access to all parts when required. By this principle the same weight of water is
discharged at each stroke, and thus no undue loss arises from the application of a
constant hydraulic pressure ; nor does the strain upon the parts or the conditions in
working vary with the fall of water in the dock. A scooped-shaped bucket at-
tached to a piston-rod is plunged at an angle of slight resistance into the water, and
by a self-acting arrangement is turned round at the proper level, filled, raised, and
discharged over anapron. The bucket holds 143 tons of water. Two discharging-
levels are provided.

It will be seen that when the bucket is up all essential working parts are out
of the water, and therefore quite free of access.

The minimum lift at the high-level discharge is 7 ft., and the maximum 23 ft.

The usual average speed of the bucket in plunging or lifting is about 3 ft. per
second,

The coefficient of effect obtained by this engine is as follows:—At 7 ft. (mini-
mum) lift -4; at 23 ft. (maximum) lift ‘6; average ‘54. The loss occasioned by
the choking of passages and gagging of valves or paddles is altogether avoided by
this system, which, for this reason, is peculiarly well adapted for sewerage purposes.

On Street Management. By F, Wuson,

APPENDIX.

On the Vegetable Products of Central Africa.
By Lieut.-Colonel J. A. Grant, C.B., PLS.

The country embraced in the remarks made by the author comprises that tra-
versed by the late Captain Speke in his journey to the sources of the Nile, 1860-63,
The plants collected were made over to the Royal Herbarium, Kew, and were
classified there by Dr. T. Thomson. They are to be described in the ‘African
Flora’ by Professors Oliver, Lawson, Masters, and others. Notes and drawings
of the majority of the specimens were made on the spot, and from these notes the
author had compiled this paper. He described, in the first place, the forests of
the low lands, which consist of trees which are commercially of small importance.
The species are numerous, and for nearly all of them the natives seem to have
names. The author then described at considerable length the uses made by the
natives of the roots, bark, leaves, fruits, seeds, and grains of numerous trees, shrubs,

and plants as medicines, foods, household utensils, fishing-implements, and the

like.

—————eE——<—

INDEX I.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Ops ECTS and rules of the Association,
Xvii.

Places and times of meeting, with names
of officers from commencement, xx.
List of former Presidents and Secretaries

of the Sections, xxvi.
List of evening lectures, xxxv.
Lectures to the Operative Classes, xxxvii.
Table showing the attendance and re-
ceipts at the Annual Meetings, xxxviil.
Treasurer’s account, xl.
Officers and Council for 1870-71, xli.
Officers of Sectional Committees, xlii.

Report of Council to the General Com- |

mittee at Liverpool, xliii.
Report of the Kew Committee, 1869-70,

xly.

Accounts of the Kew Committee, 1869-
70, lvii.

Recommendations adopted by the Ge-
neral Committee at Liverpool:—invol-
ving grants of money, lviii; applica-
tions for reports and researches, 1xi;
application to Government, lxii ; com-
munications to be printed in extenso,
lxii; resolutions referred to the
Council by the General Committee,
1xiii.

Synopsis of grants of money appropriated |
| Belcher (Admiral Sir E.) on tidal ob-

to scientific purposes, xiii.

General statement of sums which have
been paid on account of grants for
scientific purposes, lxy.

Extracts from resolutions of the General
Comunittee, 1xxi.

Arrangement of General Meetings,
lxxil.

Address by the President, Professor
Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S., Lxxiii.

Abel (F. A.) on the chemical nature of
_ east iron, 13, -

Adams (Prof. J. C.) on tidal observa-
tions, 120; on the rainfall of the Bri-
tish Isles, 170.

| Adderley (Rt. Hon. C. B.) on a uni-

formity of weights and measures, 232.

Aérolites, 91.

Air, experiments on the, in sewers and
drains, 72.

—, microscopical examination of the,
in sewers and drains, 74.

Amery (F.), observations of underground
temperature, 33.

Arterialization, Dr. A. Gamgee on the
heat generated in the blood in the
process of, 228. 4

Ashton (Messrs.) and Storey, on a new
steam-power meter, 151.

Astronomer Royal (The) on tidal obser-
vations, 120. __

Barnes (the Rey. H.) on the practica-
bility of establishing ‘‘a close time ”
for the protection of indigenous ani-
mais, 15.

Bateman (J. F.) on tidal observations,
120; on the rainfall of the British
Isles, 170.

Buzalgette (J. V. N.) on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 232,

servations, 120.

Beyer (Charles F,) on steam-boiler ex-
plosions, 1.

Bidder (G, P.) on the stability, propul-
sion, and sea-going qualities of ships,

Binney (EK. W.) on the rate of increase
of underground temperature, 29,

Blood, Dr, A. Gamgee on the heat
generated in the, in the process of
arterialization, 228. . -

Boiler- exp!osions,report ofthe committee

232

appointed to consider and report on
the various plans proposed for legis-
lating on the subject of, with a view
to their prevention, 1.

Bowring (Sir John) on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 252.

Bramwell (F. J.) on steam-boiler explo-
sions, l.

Bright (Sir Charles) on standards of
electrical resistance, 14.

British Isles, report on the rainfall of
the, 170.

Bromide of ethyle, physiological action
of, 165.

Brooke (Charles) on luminous meteors,
76; onthe rainfall of the British Isles,
170.

Brown (Samuel) on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 232.

Bryham (W.) observations of under-
ground temperature, 30.

Bunt (T. G.) on tidal observations,
120.

Burdwood (Staff-Commander) on tidal
observations, 120.

Bury, on the treatment of sewage in,
59.

Busk (George) on the exploration of
Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, 16.

Bryce (Dr. J.) on earthquakes in Scot-
land, 48.

Cambridge, on the treatment of sewage
in, 58.

Cast iron, report of the committee on
the chemical nature of, 13.

Chloral hydrate, on the physiological
action of, 159.

“Close time ” for the protection of indi-
genous animals, report on the practi-
cability of establishing a, 13.

Cooke (M. C.) on the treatment and
utilization of sewage, 49 ; microsco-
pical examination of the air in sewers
and drains, 7-4.

Corfield (Prof.) on the treatment and
utilization of sewage, 49; on the treat-
ment of the sewage of Bury, 57; of
Cambridge, GO.

Corals, Mountain-limestone, report of the
committee appointed to get cut and
prepared sections of, for photcgraph-
ing, 41.

Dawkins (W. Boyd) on the exploration

_ of Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, 16.

Le La Rue (Warren) on tidal observa-
tions, 120.

Denton (J. Bailey) on the treatment and
utilization of sewage, 49,

REPORT—-1870.

Dircks (H.) on a uniformity of weights
and measures, 232,

Drains, experiments on the air in sewers
and, 72; microscopical examination of
the air in sewers and, 74.

Dresser (H. E.) on the practicability of
establishing “a close time” for the
protection of indigenous animals, 13.

Duncan (Prof.) on cutting and preparing
sections of mountain-limestone corals
for photographing, 41.

Earthquakes in Scotland, report of the
committee on, 48.

Electrical resistance, report of the com-
mittee on standards of, 14.

Elliptic and hyperelliptic functions, re-
port on recent progress in, 102.

England, monthly tables of the rainfall
in 1868 and 1869, 178.

Ethyls, new research on the, 165,

Evans (John) on the exploration of
Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, 16.

Everett (Prof.) on the rate of increase
of underground temperature, 29.

Fairbairn (Sir W., Bart.) on steam-
boiler explosions, 1; on underground
temperature, 31; on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 232.

Farr (Dr.) on a uniformity of weights and
measures, 232.

Fellowes (Frank P.) on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 252.

Field (Roger) on the rainfall of the
British Isles, 170.

Fischer (Prof.) on tidal observations,
120.

Fletcher (Lavington E.) on steam-boiler
explosions, 1.

Forbes (D.) on the chemical nature of
cast iron, 13.

Foster (Prof. G. C.) on standards of
electrical resistance, 14.

Frankland (Prof.) on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 232.

Froude (W.) on the stability, propul-
sion, and sea-going qualities of ships,
44,

Fuller (Prof.) on tidal observations, 120,

Galton (T’.) on the stability, propulsion,
and sea-going qualities of ships, 44.
Galton (Capt. Douglas) on the stability,
propulsion, and sea-going qualities of

ships, 44.

Gamgee (Dr. Arthur) on the heat genc-
rated in the blood in the process of
arterialization, 228.

Gassiot (J. P.) on tidal observations, 120,

INDEX I,

Geikie (A.) on the rate of increase of
underground temperature, 29,

Glaisher (James) on the rate of increase
of underground temperature, 29; on
luminous meteors, 76; on the rain-
fall of the British Isles, 170.

Glover (Dr. George) on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 232.

Godwin-Austen (R. A. C.) on the im-
portance of completing, without de-
lay, the valuable investigation into
the composition and geological distri-
bution of the hematite iron-ores of
Great Britain and Ireland, 9.

Graham (Rey. Dr.) on the rate of in-
crease of underground temperature,
29

Grantham (R. B.) on the treatment and
utilization of sewage, 49 ; on the treat-
ment of the sewage of Bury, 57; of
Cambridge, 60.

Greg (R. P.) on luminous meteors, 76.

Hematite iron-ores of Great Britain and
Treland, report of the committee on
the importance of completing, without
delay, the valuable investigation into
the composition and geological distri-
bution of the, 9.

Harkness (Prof.) on the importance of
completing, without delay, the valu-
able investigation into the composi-
tion and geological distribution of the
hzematite iron-ores of Great Britain
and Ireland, 9; on cutting and pre-
paring sections of mountain-limestone
corals for photographing, 41.

Harrison (J. H.) on the treatment and
utilization of sewage, 49.

Harting (J. EK.) on the practicability of
establishing “a close time” for the
protection of indigenous animals, 13.

Haughton (Prof.) on tidal observations,
120

Hawksley (T.) on the rainfall of the
British Isles, 170.

Hennessy (Prof.) on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 232.

Herschel (A. 8.) on luminous meteors, 76,

Heywood (James) on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 232.

Hind (J. R.) on tidal observations, 120.

Hockin (C.) on standards of electrical
resistance, 14.

Tlope (William) on the treatment and
utilization of sewage, 49; on the treat-
ment of the sewage of Bury, 57; of
Cambridge, 60.

Hull (E.) on underground temperature,
wie

233

Hydride of caproyl or hexyl, on the
physiological action of, 160.

Hydride of cenanthyl or heptyl, on the
physiological action of, 160,

Hyperelliptic functions, report on re-
cent progress in elliptic and, 102.

Indigenous animals, report on the prac-
ticability of establishing “a close
time ” for the protection of, 13.

Ireland, monthly tables of the rainfall in
1868 and 1869, 198.

Tron, cast, report of the committee on
the chemical nature of, 13.

ores, hematite, report on the im-

portance of completing, without de-
lay, the valuable investigation into
the composition and geological distri-
bution of the, of Great Britain and
Ireland, 9.

Iselin (J. F.) on tidal observations, 120.

Jenkin (Prof. Fleeming) on standards of
electrical resistance, 14.

Joule (Dr.) on standards of electrical
resistance, 14,

Kane (Sir Robert) on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 232.

Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, report of the
committee for exploring, 16,

La Touche (Rev. J. D.) on the sedimen-
tary deposits of the river Onny, 11.
Lebour (G. A.), observations of under-

ground temperature, 33.

Levi (Prof. Leone) on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 232.

Lubbock (Sir John, Bart.) on the explo-
ration of Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire,
16; on the treatment and utilization
of sewage, 49.

Lyell (Sir C., Bart.) on the exploration of
Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, 16; on the
rate of increase of underground tem-
perature, 29,

Macfarlane (P.) on earthquakes in Scot-
land, 48.

Mackie (S. J.) on the rate of increase of
underground temperature, 29.

Marshall (Prof.) on the treatment and
utilization of sewage, 49.

Mason (Hugh) on steam-boiler explo-
sions, 1,

Matthiessen (A.) on the chemical na-
ture of cast iron, 13; on standards of
electrical resistance, 14.

Maw (George) on the rate of increase of
underground temperature, 29,

204

Maxwell (J. C.) on standards of elec-
trical resistance, 14; on the rate of
_ increase of underground temperature,

Merrifield (C. W.) on the stability, pro-
pulsion, and sea-going qualities of
ships, 44.

Meteoric showers, 97; radiant-points of,
obtained by Professor Schiaparelli, 98.

Meteors, report of the committee on
luminous, 76; doubly observed, 78 ;
large, 87; number of, from a.p, 1500-
1870, 94, 96.

Methyl and allied series, Dr. B. W.

- Richardson on the action of the, 155,

Methylic ether, physiological action of,
157.

Microscopical examination of the air in
drains and sewers, 74.

Miller (Prof. W. A.) on standards of
. electrical resistance, 14; on a unifor-
mity of weights and measures, 232.
Milnme-Home (D.) on earthquakes in

Scotland, 48.
Moriarty (Staff-Commander) on tidal
observations, 120. 4
Mountain-limestone corals for photo-
‘ graphing, report of the committee
appointed to get cut and prepared
. Sections of, 41,
Mylne (R. W.) on the rainfall of the
British Isles, 170.

Napier (J. R.) ona uniformity of weights
and measures, 232.

Newton (Prof.) on the practicability of
establishing “a close time” for the
protection of indigenous animals, 13.

Nitrate of amyl, physiological action of,
156, j

Oldham (J.) on tidal observations, 120.

Onny, Rey. J. D. La Touche on the
sedimentary deposits of the river,

ele

Parkes (W.) on tidal observations, 120.

Paul (Dr. B. H.) on the treatment and
utilization of sewage, 49.

Pengelly (William) on the exploration
of Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, 16; on
the rate of increase of underground
temperature, 29.

Penn (John) on steam-boiler explosions,
1

Phillips (Prof.) on the exploration of
Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, 16; on
the rate of.increase of underground
temperature, 29; on the rainfall of the
British Isles, 170.

REPORT—1870.

Pole om ‘on the rainfall-of the British:
Isles, 170

Potassium and sodium alcohols, practical,
uses of, 162.

Pay (Prof, B.) on tidal observations,
12

Pritchard (Rey. C,) on tidal observations,
120.

Propulsion, and sea-going qualities of
ships, report on the existing know-
ledge on the stability, 44.

Rainfall committee, report of the, 170.

Rain-gauges, examination of, 210.

Ramsay (Prof.) on the rate of increase
of underground temperature, 29.

Rankine (Prof.) on the stability, pro-
pulsion, and sea-going qualities of
ships, 44; on tidal observations, 120 ;
on a uniformity of weights and mea-
sures, 252.

Richards (Capt.) on tidal observations,
120 t

Richardson (Dr. B. W.), report on the
action of the methyl and allied series,
155.

Rigby (Samuel) on steam-boiler explo-
sions, 1.

Robinson (Dr.) on tidal observations,
120.

Robinson (John) on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 232.

Romford, treatment of sewage at, 61.

Rose Bridge Collieries, section of strata
sunk through at, 37.

Russell (W. H. L.), report on recent
progress in elliptic and hyperelliptic
functions, 102.

Russell (Dr. W, J.), experiments on the
air in sewers and drains, 72. E

Sabine (General Sir E.) on tidal obser-
vations, 120. ‘i

Sanford (W. A.) on the exploration of
Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, 16.

Scavenging, on the cost of, in various
towns, 59. E

Schofield (Thomas) on steam-boiler ex-
plosions, 1.

Scotland, report of the committee on
earthquakes in, 48; monthly tables of
the rainfall in 1868 and 1869, 191.

Sea-going qualities of ships, report on
the existing knowledge on the sta-
bility, propulsion, and, 44.

Sedimentary deposits of the river Onny,
the Rey. J. D. La Touche on, 11.

Sewage, report of the committee on the
treatment and utilization of, 49; dis-
posal of, 55; treatment of, in Bury,

INDEX I,

55; treatment of, in Cambridge, 58 ;
treatment of, in Romford, 61.

Sewers, experiments on the air in, 72;
oo examination of the air
in, 74,

Ships, report on the existing knowledge
on the stability, propulsion, and sea-
going qualities of, 44,

Shooting-stars,radiant-pointsof meteoric
showers obtained by Prof. Schiaparelli
from-observations of, at Bergamo, 98.

Siemens (C. W.) on standards of elec-

trical resistance, 14; on a uniformity |

of weights and measures, 232,
Sissons (W.) on tidal observations, 120.
Smith (W.) on a uniformity of weights

and measures, 252.

Sodium and potassium alcohols, practi-
cal uses of, 162.

Stability, propulsion, and sea-going qua-
lities of ships, report on the existing
knowledge on the, 44,

Steam-boiler explosions, report of the
committee appointed to consider and
report on the various plans proposed
for legislating on the subject of, with
a view to their prevention, 1.

Steam-power meter, Messrs, Ashton and

_ Storey on a new, 151.

Stewart (Prof. Balfour) on standards of
electrical resistance, 14; on the rate
of increase of underground tempera-
ture, 29.

Stokes (Prof.) on the importance of com=
pleting, without delay, the valuable in-
vestigation into the composition and
geological distribution of the hama-

_ tite iron-ores of Great Britain and Ire-
land, 9; on tidal observations, 120,

Stonefalls, number of, from A.D, 1800 to

_ 1870, 94, 96.

Storey (Messrs.) and Ashton on a new

_ steam-power meter, 151.

Sulphur alcohol, mercaptan, on the phy-
siological action of, 163.

Sykes (Colonel) on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 232,

Sylvester (Prof.) on the rainfall of the
British Isles, 170,

Symons (G. J.) on the rate of increase of
underground temperature, 29; on the
rainfall of the British Isles, 170.

Thermometer designed by Sir William
Thomson for the underground tempe-
rature committee, 37.

Thomson (James) on cutting and pre-
paring sections of mountain-limestone

_. corals for photographing, 41.

Thomson (Prof. Sir W.) on standards of

235.

electrical resistance, 14; on the rate
of inerease of underground tempera-
ture, 29; on earthquakes in Scotland,
48 ; on tidal observations, 120.

Tidal observations, report of the com-
mittee on the extension, improvement,
and harmonic analysis of, 120,

Tomlinson (C.) on the rainfall of the
British Isles, 170.

Triethylic and trimethylic ethers, phy-
siological action of, 166. :

Tristram (the Rey. Dr.) on the practica-
bility of establishing “a close time ”
for the protection of indigenous ani-
mals, 13, :

Underground temperature, on the rate of
increase of, downwards in various lo-
calities of dry land and under water, 29:

Utilization of sewage, report of the
committee on the treatment and, 49.

Varley (C. F.) on standards of electrical
resistance, 14,

Vivian (Edward) on the exploration of
Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, 16.

Wales, monthly tables of the rainfall in
1868 and 1869,190. -

Wanklyn (Prof.) on the treatment and
utilization of sewage, 49.

Water, analysis of, supplied to the town
of Bury for domestic use, 57.

, on the rate of increase of under

ground temperature downwards in ya-

rious localities of dry land and under,

Webster (Thomas) on steam-boiler ex-
wees 1; on tidal observations, 120.
Veights and measures, report on. the

best means of providing for a unifor-
mity of, with reference to the interests
of science, 232.

Wheatstone (Prof. Sir Charles) on stan=
dards of electrical resistance, 14.

Whitworth (Sir J., Bart.) on steam-
boiler explosions, 1; on a uniformity
of weights and measures, 232, q

Williamson (Prof.) on standards of elec-
trical resistance, 14; on the treatment
and utilization of sewage, 49; on the
treatment of the sewage of Bury, 57;
of Cambridge, 60; on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 232,

Woodward (Henry) on cutting and pre-
paring sections of mountain-limestone
corals for photographing, 41,

Yates (James) on a uniformity of
weights and measures, 232, bie

236

REPoRT—1870.,

INDEX II,

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE
SECTIONS,

[An asterisk (*) signifies that no abstract of the communication is given. ]

*Abnormal conditions due to accidental
causes, Dr. Brown Séquard on the ap-
parent transmission of, 134.

*Acid, phosphoric, J. Hargreaves on the
separation from iron-furnace cinder of,
for manurial purposes, 60.

, Phosphoric, Dr. Moffatt on the

quantity of, excreted from the system

in connexion with atmospheric condi-

tions, 61.

, sulphuric, Thomas Fairley on the

distillation of, 55.

, sulphurous, Dr. Gerland on the
action of, in aqueous solution, on phos-
phates and other compounds, 56.

*Adams, Dr. Leith on newly discovered
species of elephants, 69.

futher, queries respecting, by Charles
Brooke, 36.

Africa, Central, Colonel Grant on the
vegetable products of, 117, 229,

*—_.,, South, Prof. J. Tennant on the
diamonds of, 88.

—, Western, Sir John Lubbock on
stone implements from, 154.

African, South, gold-fields, Sir J. Swin-
burne on the, 176.

Age of the Wealden, John W. Judd on
the, 77.

Air, James Glaisher on the temperature
of the, at 4 ft., 22 ft., and 50 ft. above
the ground, 33.

*—_— pollution from chemical works,
A. Js. Fletcher on, 56.

Albumen, Dr. Goodman on, and its
transformation into fibrine by the
agency of water, 139.

*Alexander (Colonel Sir James) on the
effects of the pollution of rivers on the
supply of fish, 109.

*Alizarine, artificial, W. H. Perkins on,

Allen (J. Fenwick) on the alloys of cop-
per, tin, zinc, lead, and other metals
with manganese, 50,

Alps, D. T. Ansted on the great tunnel
through the, 69.

America, Central, Captain Carmichael
on the ruined cities of, 168.

3 , North, Lord Milton on railway-
routes across, and the physical aspects
of the country, 172.

, North, Dr. C. C. Parry on the de-
sert flora of, 122,

American isthmus, General W. Heine
Hs lines for a ship-canal across the,

70.

*Anchor-sponge, Dr. J. E. Gray on the
Portuguese, 117.

Anemometer, J. J. Hall on a new elec-
tro-magnetic, and the mode of using
it in registering the velocity and pres-
sure of the wind, 35.

Animals, Dr. Grierson on variation of
colouring in, 140,

Annelids, Dr. MIntosh on certain,
dredged in the expedition of H.M.S,
‘ Porcupine’ (1869), 121,

Ansted (D, T.), notes of a recent visit to
the great tunnel through the Alps, and
of several points of eckasatit inte-
rest suggested by the condition of the
works in their present nearly complete
state, 69.

Antholithes, W. Carruthers on an, dis-
covered by C. W. Peach, 72.

Anthropology of Lancashire, Dr. John
Beddoe on the, 143.

Applied science, communication respect-
ing a resolution of the committee of
Section B on the proposed school of,
by Government, 68.

*Aquarium, T. J. Moore on the ‘ Morti-
mer’ ship, 121,

INDEX II.

Archer (Prof. T. C.) on the changes pro-
duced in Lotus corniculatus by cultiva-
tion, 109.

*Artificial alizarine, W. H. Perkins on,

stone, Rey. H. Highton on, and
various kinds of silica, 60.

Ascidians, A. Hancock on the larval
state of Molgula, with descriptions of
several new species of simple, 118.

Ash-pit system of Manchester, Alderman
R. Rumney on the, 224.

Atkinson (Edward) on the osteology of
Chlamydophorus truncatus, 110.

Atmosphere, A. Buchan on the great
movements of the, 169,

, J. K. Laughton on the great cur-
rents of the, 170.

Australian aborigines, C. S. Wake on the
physical and mental characteristics of
the, 157.

languages, Dr. Bleek on the posi-
tion of the, 144.

Ayares, H. H. Howorth on the, 152.

Baker (Sir Samuel), letter from the
White Nile, 166.

Ball (Prof. R. Stawell) on the small
oscillations of a particle and a rigid
body, 10.

Barker (Dr. John) on the immersion
method of illumination of the micro-
scope, 39.

——,, note on Pleuronema doliarium, a
new infusorium, 111.

Barometric predictions of the weather,

¥. Galton on, 31.

Bastian (Dr. H. Charlton), a statement
in reply to the two objections of Prof.
Huxley relative to certain experiments,
129.

*Baths and washhouses, J. Parry on,
197.

Battery, constant, I’. H. Varley on a, 26.

Baxter (R. Dudley) on national debts,
187.

Beaches, ancient and modern, W. Pen-
gelly on the, of Portland, 84.

Beauty, F. J. Mott on the scientific value
of physical, 134.

Becker (C.) on Faure’s battery, 24.

Beddoe (Dr. John) on the anthropology
of Lancashire, 143; on the Ottoman
Turks, 144.

*Belcher (Admiral Sir E.) on the un-
protected state of Liverpool, 208.

Belgium, Prof. C. Malaise on the Silu-
rian formations of the centre of, 78.

Beneden (Prof. van) sur les parasites,111.

Bennett (Alfred W.) on protandry and

237

protogyny in British plants, 111; on
the theory of natural selection looked
at from a mathematical point of view,
130.

Bickerton (A. W.) on a new heat-engine,
208

Biggs (C. H. W.), middle-class schools
as they are and as they ought to be,
188.

Bilharzia, Dr. Cobbold on the embryonal
development of the hzematozoon, 135.

Biological Section, Prof. Rolleston’s Ad-
dress to the, 91.

Birchall (Edwin) on some hybrid Sphin-
gidee and other Lepidoptera, 111.

Bird (Henry) on the Steypireyér whale
of the Icelanders, 112.

Birt (W. R.) on the present state of the
question relative to lunar activity or
quiescence, 20.

Bischof (Gustav) on a new system of
testing the quality of the malleable
metals and alloys, 209.

Bleek (Dr.) on the position of the
Australian languages, 144.

Blight, Dr. R. King on, in man and in
the animal and vegetable world, 141.

Boiler-explosions, EK. B, Marten on,
222.

Bone-caves of the Wye, the Rev. W. S.
Symonds on the physical geology of
the, 88.

Bones of general paralytics, J. Camp-
bell Brown on the chemical composi-
tion of the, 51.

Boole’s ‘ Laws of Thought,’ the late R.
Leslie Ellis on, 12; Rey. R. Harley
on, 14.

Botly (William) on the economy of
large and small farms, 188.

Boulder-clays, Rev. J. Gunn on the
formation of, and alterations of level
of land and water, 72.

Boulders, James Thomson on the oceur-
rence of pebbles and, of granite in
schistose rocks in Islay, 88.

Bowater (Alfred) on Bowater’s patent
for manufacturing railway-axles, 210,

Brackish-water Foraminifera, H. B,
Brady on, 113.

Brady (Henry B.), notes on brackish-
water Foraminifera, 113.

Brass, W. H. Walenn on the electro-

deposition of copper and, 67.

"Bridges (¥.), new views of craniology,
144,

British tumuli, J. 8. Phené on a recent
examination of, and monuments in the
Hebrides, and on the western coast of
Scotland, 155,

238

Brooke (Charles), queries respecting
zether, 36.

Brown (A. B.) on hydraulic machinery
for steering, stopping, and working

. heavy steam-engines, 211,

Brown (J. Campbell) on the chemical

- composition of the bones of general
paralytics, 51.

Browning, John, on an induction-coil

especially arranged for use in spec-
trum analysis, 25; on a spectroscope

~ in which the prisms are automatically
adjusted for the minimum angle of

- deviation for the particular ray under
examination, 52.

*Brown Séquard (Dr.) on various alter-
ations of nutrition due to nervous in-
fluence, 134; on apparent transmission

’ of abnormal conditions due to acci-
dental causes, 134,

Bryce (Dr. James) on the matrix of the
gold found in the Scottish gold-fields,
70.

Buchan (Alexander) on the great move~
ments of the atmosphere, 167.

Busk (George) and W. Boyd Dawkins
on the discovery of platyenemic men
in Denbighshire, 148,

Calabria, J. Gwyn Jeffreys on newer
- tertiary fossils in Sicily and, 76.
Calamites, Prof. W. C. Williamson on
- the organization of the stems of, 89.
Cambridgeshire, F. W. Harmer on some

thermal springs in the Fens of, 74.
*Campbell (Dr. G.) on the village

system in India, 144; on the physical
_ geography and races of British India,
- 168,

on the duties of the Government
of India and of the merchants of
England in promoting production in
India, 188.

Campbell (J.8.) on the tobacco trade of
Liverpool, 189.

Capillary circulation in mammals, Dr. 8.
Stricker and Burdon Sanderson on a
new method of studying the, 142.

Carbon, W. M. Watts on two spectra of,
existing at the same temperature, 44,

*Carbonie acid, Dr. Richardson on new
physiological researches on the effects

~ of, 141,

Carboniferous rocks, Prof. Hull on the
extension of the coal-fields beneath
the newer formations of England and
the successive stratigraphical changes
to which the, haye been subjected, 74.

Carmichael (Capt.) on the ruined cities
of Central America, 168,

REPORT—1870.

*Carpenter (W. Lant) on the examina-
tion of. sea-water on board H.M.S.
‘Porcupine,’ in July 1870, for dis-
solving gases and yarying proportions
of chlorine, 53, ’

Carruthers (William) on the history and
affinities of the British Conifer, 71;
on the sporangia of ferns from the-
coal-measures, 71; remarks on the
fossils from the railway-section at
Huyton, 71; note on an Antholithes-
discovered by C. W. Peach, 72.

Carved stones, T. B. Grierson on, recently
discovered in Nithdale, Scotland, 150,

Caton (Dr.), contributions to the migra+
tion theory, 134.

Cayley (Prof: A.) on the problem of the
in-and-circumscribed triangle, 9; on
a correspondence of points and lines-
in space, 10,

Centre-rail system, J. B. Fell on the ap-
plication of the, to-a railway in Brazit
and to other mountain lines, 216.

Chambers (Charles) on rainfall, its vari-
ation with elevation of the gauge, 30,

Changes of level on the Mediterranean
coast, G. Maw on the evidences of re-
cent, 79.

Chemical composition of cotton, FE,
Schunck on the, 63.

Section, Prof. Roscoe’s Address to

~ the, 44,

3 works, A. E. Fletcher on air-pol-
lution from, 56.

Child (Dr. Gilbert W.) on protoplasm
and the germ theory, 131.

Chile, Southern, G. A. Lebour and W.
Mundle on the tertiary coal-field of,78.

*Chinese, Dr. G. Thin on the use of
opium among the, 157.

Chlamydophorus truncatus, E. Atkinson
on the osteology of, 110.

Chlorides, W. J. Cooper on the purifi-
cation of public thorcughfares by the
application of deliquescent, 53.

Chlorine process, Henry Deacon on a
new, without manganese, 54,

* , W. Weldon on the Weldon pro-
cess for the manufacture of, 68.

*Church (A. H.), contributions to mine-
ralogical chemistry, 53; experiments
on the preservation of stone, 53.

Circle sailing, John T, Towson on wind-
ward great, 177.

Clarke (Hyde), a note on the distribution
of names of weapons in prehistoric
times, 144; proposition for a census of
local names, 189,

Claudet’s process for the extraction of
silver, J, Arthur Phillips on, 61.

4NDEXII.. ~ 939

*Clay (Lieut.-Col.) on appliances for the
. production of heavy ferging; 211.
Clelland (Prof.) on the ‘physical rela-
* tions of consciousness and the seat of
sensation ; a theory proposed, 155.
*Clifford (Ww. K.) on an unexplained
' contradiction in geometry, 12.
Climate, geological, A. R. Wallace on
the earth’s eccentricity and the pre-
cession of the equinoxes, illustrating
their relation to, and the rate of or-
- ganic change, 89.
—, R. A. Peacock on some future and
_ past changes of the earth’s, 82.
Coal-field of Southern Chile, G. A. Le-
‘a and W. Mundle on the tertiary,

Coalfields Prof. E. Hull on the exten-

’ sion of the, beneath the newer forma-
tions of England and the successive
stratigraphical changes to which the

earboniferous rocks have been sub-
jected, 74.

Coal-gas, A. Vernon Harcourt on a me-
thod for the determination of sulphur
in, 59.

* , W. Marriott on the estimation
of sulphur in, 60,

Coal-measures, W. Carruthers on the
sporangia of ferns from the, 71.

Cobbold (Dr.) on some of the more im-
portant facts of succession in relation
to any theory of continuity, 131; on
a rare and remarkable parasite from

’ the collection of the Rev. W. Dallin-
ger, 135; on the heart of a Chinese
dog containing heematozoa, 135 ; no-
tice respecting the embryonal deve-
lopment of the heematozoon Bilharzia,
135.

Coins, G. J. Stoney on the effect which
a mint charge has upon the value of,
to which is added a proposition for
securing at once some of the adven-
tages of International coinage, 201.

*Colorado, Governor Gilpin on the phy-
sical geography of, and the adjacent

regions, 170.

Colour, the Hon. J. W. Strutt’s experi-
ments on, 43.

Colour-vision, J. Clerk Maxwell on, at
different points of the retina, 40.

ge R Hi. Major on the landfall
of, 171

Cometic perihelia, A. 8. Davis on the
distribution of, 22.

- Compass committee, report of the Liver-
pool, 19.

Coniferze, British, W. Carruthers on the
history and affinities of the, 71,

*Cons¢ciousness,:- Prof. Clelland on the
physical relations of, and the seat of
sensation; a theory proposed, 135.

Constant battery, F. H. Varley on a, 26.

Contagious Diseases Acts, Dr. Berkeley
Hill on the statistics of the, 194.

Continuity, theory of, Dr. Cobbold on
some of the more important facts of
succession in relation to any, 131.

Conwell (Eugene A.) on ancient sculp-
tures and objects of art from Irish
cairns, 145,

Cook (H. Whiteside) on certain objec-
tions to the dynamic ‘theory of heat,
38.

Cooper (T. T.) on Eastern Tibet, 169.

Cooper (W. J.) on the purification of
public thoroughfares by the applica-
tion ef deliquescent chlorides, 53.

Copper, alloys of, tin, zine, lead, and:
other metals with manganese, J. Fen-
wick Allen on, 50,

——, W. H. Walenn on the electro-
deposition of brass and, 69.

Gotal, favositoid, W. S. Kent on an
existing, 119.

*Corals, W. 5. Kent on the affinities of
the sponges to the, 120.

Cotton, E. Schunck on the chemical
_ composition of, 63.

pra Saunders on the physical
peography of the United States of
America as affecting agriculture, with
suggestions for the increase of the
production of, 201.

——, W. B. Forwood on the influence.
of | price upon the cultivation and con-
a of, during the past ten years,

Cotton-seed, Thomas Rose on the utili-
zation of fibrous, 200.

Crace-Calvert (Dr. F.) on the develop-
ment of germ-life, 152.

Crags, C. Jecks on the red and coralline,
75.

Cranium, Prof. Flower on the connexion
of the hyoid arch with the, 136,

*Crosskey (Rev. H. W.) on the glacial
phenomena in the central district of
England, 72.

*Crystallization of a double salt, J. Ber-
ger Spence on the phenomena of the,

63.

Cuckoo-flower (Cardamine pratensis),
John Price on the, 122.

Cultivation, changes produced in Lotus
corniculatus by, 109.

Cunningham (R. O.) on the terrestrial
and marine fauna of Magellan’ and
Western Patagonia, 114,

240

Cyanogen, Thomas Fairley on, 54.

Dales, J. Clerk Maxwell on hills and,
17.

*Date-palm, Prof. A. Dickson on the
embryo of the, 115.

Davis (A. 8.) on the distribution of
cometic perihelia, 22,

Dawkins (W. Boyd) and G. Busk on the
discovery of platycnemic men in Den-
bighshire, 148; on the exploration of
the Victoria Cave, Settle, Yorkshire,
148.

Deacon (George F’.) on the efficiency of
furnaces and mechanical firing, 211.
Deacon (Henry) on a new chlorine pro-

cess without manganese, 54.

Decimal money, W. Westgarth on, and
a common international unit, 205.

Decomposition, reciprocal, J. H. Glad-
stone on, viewed with reference to
time, 57.

*De Meschin (Dr. Thomas) on the impo-
licy, on economic grounds, of convert-
ing the national debt into terminable
annuities, 196; on the compulsory
conversion of substantial leaseholds in
towns into freeholds, 196.

Denbighshire, G. H. Morton on the
mountain limestone of Flintshire and
part of, 82.

——., W. B. Dawkins and G. Busk on
the discovery of platyenemic men in,
148,

“eney (W.C.) on the shadows of genius,

49,

Denton (J. Bailey), some remarks on the
extent to which existing works and
practice militate against the profitable
utilization of sewage, 212.

Desert flora of North America, Dr, C. C.
Parry on the, 122.

*Dewar (James) on thermal equivalents
—1. Fermentation; 2, Oxides of chlo-
rine, 54.

*Diamonds of South Africa, Prof. J.
Tennant on the, 88.

*Dickson (Prof. Alexander) on the em-
bryo of the date-palm, 115.

Dip-circle, Dr. J. P, Joule on a new,
D5

*Dixon (W. Hepworth) on the Holy
Islands in the White Sea, 169.

Dohrn (Dr. Anton) on the foundation
of zoological stations, 115,

*Duncan (Prof. P, M.) on the geologi-
cal changes which have occurred since
the first traces of man in Europe, 149.

Dus as aferment, C, R, C, Tichborne on,

REPORT—1870.

Dynamic theory of heat, H. Whiteside
Cook on certain objections to the, 38.

Earth’s climate, R. A. Peacock on some
future and past changes in the, 82.
eccentricity, Alfred R. Wallace
on the, and the precession of the
equinoxes, illustrating their relation
to geological climate and the rate of

organic change, 89.

Earthworks at Waintleet, Lincolnshire,
the Rey. C. Sewell on certain remark-
able, 157.

Eaton (Richard) on certain economical
improvements in obtaining motive
power, 215.

Ebalia, C. W. Peach on an, new to the
British list, 122.

*Echinoderms, Prof. Wyville Thomson
on some of the, of the expedition of
H.M.S. £ Porcupine,’ 128.

Economical and Statistical Section,
Prof. Jevons’s Address to the, 178.
Electric light, W. Ladd on an improved
lantern for lecture demonstrations

with, 26.

time-signal at Port Elizabeth, S.
Alfred Varley on the, 27.

Electro-deposition of copper and brass,
W. H. Walenn on the, 67.

Electro-magnetic anemometer, John J.
Hall on a new, and the mode of using
it in registering the velocity and pres-
sure of the wind, 35.

*Electrometer, Prof. Sir W. Thomson on
a new absolute, 26.

Elementary Education Rill, E. Renals on
mechanics’ institutions and the, 200.
Elephants, Dr. Leith Adams on newly

discovered species of, 69.

Elliot (Sir Walter) on the habits of the

Indian rock-snake (Python molurus),

115.

Ellis (J. Walter) on the decline of small
farmers in Yorkshire and Lancashire,
the cause and effect, 190.

Ellis (the late R. Leslie) on Boole’s
‘ Laws of Thought,’ 12.

Emigration, T, A. Welton on immigra-
tion and, as affecting the increase of
population in England and Wales,
203.

Endemic diseases, Dr. T. Moffat on geo-
logical systems and, 80.

England, east of, S. V. Wood and F, W.
Harmer on the paleontological aspects
of the middle glacial formation of the,
and their bearing upon the age of the
middle sands of Lancashire, 90.

Equinoxes, precession of the, A. R.

INDEX Ii.

Wallace on the earth’s eccentricity
and the, illustrating their relation to
geological climate and the rate of
organic change, 89.

*Kurope, Prof. Duncan on the geologi-

- eal changes which have occurred since
the first traces of man in, 149.

Kverett (Prof. J. D.) on a scale for com-
puting humidity, 31.

Fabrics, J. Spiller on the discrimination
of fibres in mixed, 64,
Fairley (Thomas) on cyanogen, 54; on
the distillation of sulphuric acid, 55.
Fairlie (R. F.) on the gauge of the rail-
ways of the future, 215.

Farmers, J. W. Ellis on the decline of
small,in Yorkshireand Lancashire, 190.

Farms, W. Botly on the economy of
large and small, 188.

Fauna of Magellan and Western Pata-
gonia, R. O. Cunningham on the

’ terrestrial and marine, 114.

Faure’s battery, C. Becker on, 24,

Fedchenko (A.), topographical sketch of
the Zerafshan valley, 169.

ell (J. B.) on the application of the

- centre-rail system to a railway in
Brazil and to other mountain lines;
also on the advantages of narrow-

~ gauge railways, 216.

Fellowes (Frank P.), our navy, 190.
Fens of Cambridgeshire, F. W. Harmer
on some thermal springs in the, 74.
Ferment, C, R. C. Tichborne on dust as

a, 65.

Ferns, J, E, Lowe on abnormal forms of,
120.

——,, T. M. Hall on the abnormal growth
of, 117.

Fibres in mixed fabrics, J. Spiller on
the discrimination of, 64,

Fibrin, Dr. Goodman on albumen and
its transformation into, by the agency
of water, 139.

Fins of fish, Prof. Humphry on the ho-
mological relation to one another of
the, 141.

Firing, mechanical, G. F. Deacon on the
efficiency of furnaces and, 211.

*Fish, Colonel Sir J. Alexander on the
effects of the pollution of rivers on the
supply of, 109.

Fletcher (Alfred E.) on the purification
of Sankey Brook, 55.

*——.,, on air-pollution from chemical
works, 56.

Piint-flake core, John Plant on a, found
in the upper valley-grayel at Salford,
156.

241

Flintshire, G. H. Morton on the moun-
tain limestone of, 82.

Floating forts, S. J. Mackie on the de-
fence of Liverpool by, 219.

Flower (Prof. W. H.) on the connexion
of the hyoid arch with the cranium,
136; on the correspondence between
the anterior and posterior extremity,
and the modifications of the positions
i fhe limbs in the higher vertebrata,

Foraminifera, H. B. Brady on brackish-
water, 113.

Forbes (David) on the utilization of
sewage, with special reference to the
phosphate process, 56.

*Forging, Lieut.-Colonel Clay on appli-
aie for the production of heavy,

toa (T. D.) on eastern Turkestan,

Forwood (William B.) on the influence
of price upon the cultivation and con-
sumption of cotton during the past
ten years, 191.

Fossils from the railway section at
Huyton, remarks by W. Carruthers
on the, 71,

*Freeholds, Dr: De Meschin on the
compulsory conversion of substantial
leaseholds in towns into, 196.

*Frictional screw motions, G. Lauder
on, 219.

Furnaces, G. F. Deacon on the efficiency
of, and mechanical firing, 211.

Galton (Francis) on barometric predic-
tions of the weather, 51.

Galvanic battery, H. Highton on the
maximum amount of magnetic power
beg: can be developed by a given,

Garner (R.), comparison of the thoracic
and pelvic limbs in mammalia, 137.
Gases, G. J. Stoney on the cause of the
interrupted spectra of, 41.

*Gasteropoda, British fossil, J. L. Lobley
on the stratigraphical distribution of
the, 78.

Generation, spontaneous, J. Samuelson
on the controversy on, 133.

*Genius, W. C. Dendy on the shadows
of, 149.

Geographical Section, Address by Sir
k. I. Murchison, Bart., to the, 158.
*Geological changes, Prof.Duncan on the,

which have occurred since the first
traces of man in Europe, 149.
systems and endemic diseases, Dr.
Thomas Moffat on, 80, ;
1

242

*Geometry, W. K. Clifford on an unex-
plained contradiction in, 12.

Gerland (Dr. B. W.) on the action of
sulphurous acid, in aqueous solution,
on phosphates and other compounds,
56; on the occurrence of vanadium,

57.

Germ-life, Dr. F. Crace-Calvert on the
development of, 152.

Germ theory, Dr. Child on protoplasm
and the, 151.

*Germ theory of disease, W. Hope on

the antiseptic treatment of contagia
as illustrated by the, 140.

Gibson (Thomas) on abnormal petals on
flowers of Ranunculus aquatilis, 115;
on the parasitic habits of Pyrola rotun-

. difola, 116.

*Gilpin (Governor) on the physical geo-
graphy of Colorado and the adjacent
regions, 170.

Ginsburg (the Rey. Dr.) on the relation
of the ancient Moabites to neighbour-
ing nations, as disclosed in the newly
discovered Moabite stone, 149,

Glacial and postglacial deposits, H. F.
Hall on the, in the ceraidocmsiicedl of
Llandudno, 72.

——, middle, formation of the east of
England, 8S. V. Wood and F. W.
Harmer on the paleontological as-
pects of the, and their bearing upon
the age of the middle sands of Lanca-
shire, 90,

*—_ phenomena in the central district
of Enaland, Rey. H. W. Crosskey on

~. the, 72:

Gladstone (John H.) on reciprocal de-

~ composition viewed with reference to
time, 57.

Glaisher (James) on the temperature of
the air at 4 feet, 22 feet, and 50 feet
above the ground, 33.

Gold, Dr. J. Bryce on the matrix of the,
found in the Scottish gold-fields, 70.

Gold-fields, Sir J. Swinburne on the
South-African, 176,

Gold-quartz erystal, T, A. Readwin on a
Merionethshire, and on some stream
gold recently found in the river Mawd-
dach, 84,

Goodman (Dr. John) on albumen and its
transformation into fibrin by the
agency of water, 159.

Gordon (A.) on the prevention of lead-
poisoning in water, 60.

Gossage ve on.soda manufacture, 58.

Granite, James Thomson on the occur-
rence of pebbles and boulders of, in
schistose rocks in Islay, 88,

REPORT—1870.

Grant. (Colonel J, A) ‘on the vegetable
products of Central Africa, 117, 229.
Gravel-beds, G. J. Stoney on the recent
formation of, resembling middle drift,
86. ‘°
*Gray (Dr. J. E.) on the whalebone-
whales of the southern hemisphere,
117; on the Portuguese anchor-sponge

(Pheronema Gray), 117.

Green slates, Prof. Harkness and H. A.
Nicholson on the, and porphyries from
the lake-district, 74.

Grierson (Dr.) on variation of colouring
in animals, 140; on carved stones re-
cently discovered in Nithdale, Scot-
land, 150.

Gunn (Rey. J.) on the formation of
boulder-clays and alterations of level

of land and water, 72. tt prercal

Hadramaut, W. Munzinger on a journey
into the interior of, 172.

Hematozoa, Dr. Cobbold on the heart
of a Chinese dog containing, 135.

Hainan, R. Swinhoe on the natural his-
tory of, 128. .

——, R. Swinhoe on the island of, 176.

Hall (Hugh F.) on the glacial and post-
glacial deposits in the neighbourhood
of Llandudno, 72.

Hall (John J.) on a new electro-magne-
tic anemometer and the mode of using
it in registering the pressure and yelo-
city of the wind, 35.

Hall (T. M.) on the abnormal growth of
ferns, 117.

*Hammering and stone-dressing maz
chinery, Dr. J. H. Lloyd on, 219.

Hancock (Albany) on the laryal state of
Molgula, with descriptions of several
new species of simple Ascidians, 118.

Harcourt (A. Vernon) on a method for
the determination of sulphur in coal-
gras, 59.

*Haregreaves (James) on the separation
from iron-furnace cinder of phosphorie
acid for manurial purposes, 60.

Harkness (Prof.) and H. A,.Nicholson
on the green. slates and porphyries of
the lake-district, 74.

Harkness (Prof.) on the discovery of
kitchen-midden at Balycotton, in co.
Cork, 150.

Harley (the Rey. R:) on Boole’s ‘ Laws
of Thought,’ 14.

Harmer (I'. W.) on some thermal springs
in the fens of Cambridgeshire, 74.

—— and 8. V. Wood on the paleonto-
logical aspects of the middle glacial
formation of the east of England and

INDEX II. : 243

their bearing upon the age of the
middle sands of Lancashire, 90.
Haviland (Alfred) on a proposed re-
- arrangement of the registration dis-
. tricts of England and Wales, for the
purpose of facilitating scientific in-
- quiry, 193.
Heat, Dr. Henry Hudson on the wave
: theory of, 39.
, H. Whiteside Cook on certain
objections to the dynamic theory of,
38.

Heat-engine, A. W. Bickerton on a new,

Hebrides, J. 8. Phené on a recent exa-

mination of British tumuli and monu-
’ ments in the, and on the western coast
of Scotland, 155.

Heine (General W.) on lines for a ship-
canal across the American isthmus,
170.

*Henry (Prof. J.) on the rainfall of the

- United States, 36.

Heywood (James) on the aptitude of
North-American Indians for agricul-

. ture, 193.

Highton (H.) on the maximum amount

. of magnetic power which can be de-
veloped by a given galvanic battery,

- 25; on artificial stone and various
kinds of silica, 60,

Hill (Dr. Berkeley) on the statistics of

- the contagious diseases acts, 194.

Hills and dales, J. Clerk Maxwell on,

ees

Hip-bones and muscles, Prof. Humphry
on the comparison of the shoulder-
- bones and muscles with the, 140.
*Hitchman (Dr. W.) on the anatomy of
- the intellect, 151.
*Holden (Dr. T. Sinclair) on some forms
- of interment in co. Antrim, 161.
Holmes (8.) on the new binocular mi-
croscope, 39.
*Hooper (William) on the North-China
and Japan submarine cables, 219.
*Hope (William) on the antiseptic treat-
ment of contagia as illustrated by the
germ-theory of disease, 140; on the
- history of the shell that won the battle
of Sedan, 219.
Howlett (Rev. F.) on solar spots ob-
- served during the past eleven years,
23

Howorth (H. H.) on the Massagete and
Sacze, 151; on the pre-Turkish Fron-
tagers of Persia, 151; on the Avares,

~ 152.
Hudson (Dr. Henry) on the wave theory
’ of light, heat, &c., 39,

Hull es Edward) on the extension
of the coal-fields beneath the newer
formations of England and the succes-
sive stratigraphical changes to which
the carboniferous rocks have been sub-
jected, 74. ;

Humidity, Prof. J. D, Everett on a scale
for computing, 31.

Humphry (Prot.) on the comparison of
the shoulder-bones and muscles with
the hip-bones and muscles, 140; on
the homological relation to one an-
other of the fins of fish, 141.

*Hurter (Dr.) on the time needed for
the completion of chemical change,60.

*Huxley (Prof.) on the relations of Pe-
nicillium, Torula, and Bacterium, 119.

——,, a statement in reply to the two
objections of, relative to certain ex-
periments, 129.

Huyton, Charles Ricketts on sections of
strata between St. Helen’s and, 85.

, remarks by W. Carruthers on the
fossils from the railway section at, 71.

*Hyalonema, Prof. Wyville Thomson on,
and some other vitreous sponges, 128.

Hydraulic bucketting-engine for the
Herculaneum graving-dock, Liverpool,
description of the, by Percy Westma-

* cott, 229.

“Hydrocarbons, Dr. MacVicar on the
typical, from marsh-gas to anthracene,
with the oxidation of the latter into
anthroquinone and alizarine, 61.

Hydrogen, W. Chandler Roberts on the
absorption of, by electro-deposited
iron, 62, :

Hyoid arch, Prof. Flower on the. con-

nexion of the, with the cranium, 136,

Immersion method of illumination of the
microscope, Dr. J. Barker on the, 39.

Immigration and emigration, T. A, Wel-
ton on, as affecting the increase of
population in England and Wales,
203

India, Dr. Campbell on the duties of the
Government of India and the mer-
chants of England in promoting pro-
duction in, 188.

*—_. Dr. G. Campbell on the village
system in, 144.

*__., British, Dr. G. Campbell on the
physical geography and races of, 168.

, W. Parkes on non-tidal variations
of the sea-level on the coast of, 19.

——, Western, Capt. Taylor on the har-
bours of, 176.

Indians, North-American, J. Heywood
on the aptitude of, for pa a 193,

244

Indo-Chinese, Colonel Yule on analogies
of manners between the, and the races
of the Malay Archipelago, 178.

Induction-coil, John Browning on an,
especially arranged for use in spectrum
analysis, 25.

*Intellect, Dr. Hitchman on the anatomy
of the, 151.

Intemperance, Rey. J. Jones on, purely
with reference to Liverpool, 195.

*Interment in co. Antrim, Dr. T. Sin-
clair Holden on some forms of, 151.

International coinage, G. J. Stoney on
the effect which a mint charge has
upon the value of coins, to which is
added a proposition for securing at
once some of the advantages of, 201.

*Invertebrate, marine, fauna of the lias,
a census of the, by R. Tate, 88.

Trish cairns, HE. A. Conwell on ancient
sculptures and objects of art from,
145.

Tron, W. Chandler Roberts on the ab-
_ sorption of hydrogen by electro-de-
. posited, 62.

Islay, Scotland, J. Thomson on the oc-

currence of pebbles and boulders of
granite in schistose rocks in, 88.

Jecks (Charles) on the red and coralline
‘crags, 75.

Jeffreys (J. Gwyn), remarks on newer
tertiary fossils in Sicily and Calabria,
76; on a Pentacrinus from the coasts
of Portugal and Spain, 119.

Jevons (Prof. W. Stanley), Address to
the Economical andStatisticalSection,

- 178.

Jones (Rey. John) on intemperance,
purely with reference to Liverpool, 195.

Joule (Dr. James P.) on a new dip-
circle, 25.

Judd (John W.) on the age of the
Wealden, 77.

Kaines (J.) on the racial aspects of
music, 152,

Kent (W. 8.) on an existing favositoid
coral, 119,

on the affinities of the sponges to
the corals, 120.

King (Prof.) and Prof. Rowney on some
points in the geology of Strath, Isle
of Skye, 78.

King (Dr. R.) on blight in man and in
the animal and vegetable world, 141;

_ on the Manx of the Isle of Man; 153.

Kitchen-midden, Prof, Harkness on the

discovery. of a, at Balycotton in co.
. Cork, 150,

REPORT—1870.

Ladd (William) on an improved lantern
for lecture demonstrations with elec-
tric light, 26.

Lake-district, Prof. Harkness and H. A.
Nicholson on the green slates and
porphyries of the, 74,

Lancashire, Dr. J. Beddoe on the an-

thropology of, 143.

; g. V. Wood and F’, W. Harmer on
the palontological aspects of the
middle glacial formation of the east of
England and their bearing upon the
age of the middle sands of, 90.

Land and water, Rev. J. Gunn on the
formation of boulder-clays and altera-
tion of level of, 72.

Landfall of Columbus, R. H. Major on
the, 171.

*Lankester (E. Ray) on a stock-form of
the parasitic flatworm, 120; on oligo-
cheetous worms, 120; note on methe-
moglobin, 141; on the action of some
gases and yapours on the red blood-
corpuscles, 142.

*Lapworth — on the discovery of
upper Silurian rocks in Roxburgh and

umfriesshire, 78.
*Lauder (G.) on frictional screw motions,
1

Laughton (John K.) on the great cur-
rents of the atmosphere, 170.

‘Laws of Thought,’ Boole’s, the late R.
Leslie Ellis on, 12; the Rev. R. Har-
ley on, 14.

Lawson (Prof. M. A.), note on Ribes
spicatum, 120.

Lead, alloys of, copper, tin, zinc, and
other metals with manganese, J. Fen-
wick Allen on, 50.

Lead-poisoning, A. Gordon the preven-
tion of, in water, 60.

Lebour (G. A.) and W. Mundle on the
tertiary coal-field of Southern Chile,
78

*Lefthandness, Dr. P. H. Smith on,
143.

Lepidoptera, E, Birchall on some hy-
brid Sphingidee and other, 111,

Lewis (A. 8.) on the builders of the
megalithic monuments of Britain,
153.

*Lias, a census of the marine inyerte-
brate fauna of the, by Ralph Tate,

88.

Light, electric, W. Ladd on an improyed
lantern for lecture demonstrations
with, 26.

, Dr. Henry Hudson on the wave-

theory of, 39.

Lightning, 8. A, Varley on the mode. of

- INDEX II.

action of, on telegraphs, and on a new
method of constructing telegraph-
coils, 28.
Limbs in mammalia, comparison of the
eg and pelvic, by R. Garner,
—— in the higher vertebrata, Prof.
Flower on the correspondence between
the anterior and posterior extremity,
and the modifications in the, 137.
Limestone, mountain, L. C. Miall on the
formation of swallow-holes or pits
- with vertical sides in, 79.
, mountain, G. H. Morton on the,
of Flintshire and part of Denbighshire,
82

Linear differential equations, W. H. L.
Russell on, 16.

Lines in space, Prof. A. Cayley on a
correspondence of points and, 10.

*Liquids, Dr. Nevins on a new theory
respecting the heating of, 61.

*Liverpool, Admiral Sir E. Belcher on
the unprotected state of, 208.

Liverpool, J. S. Campbell on the tobacco
trade of, 189.

, Rey. J. Jones on intemperance,
purely with reference to, 195.

——, Samuel J. Mackie on the defence
of, by floating forts, 219.

, G. H. Morton on the glaciated
condition of the surface of the triassic
sandstone around, 81.

, J. N. Shoolbred on the sewage
of, and the neighbourhood, 228.

Llandudno, H. F. Hall on the glacial
and postglacial deposits in the neigh-
bourhood of, 72.

*Lloyd (Dr. J. H.) on hammering and
stone-dressing machinery, 219.

*Lobley (J. L.) on the stratigraphical
distribution of the British fossil Gas-
teropoda, 78.

Local names, proposition by H. Clarke
for a census of, 189.

taxation, O. Williams on, 207.

*Zodoicea Seychellarum, Mr, Tyerman
on the growth of the, 128.

Lotus corniculatus, Prof. T. C. Archer on
the changes produced in, by cultiva-
tion, 109.

Lowe (J. E.) on abnormal forms of
ferns, 120.

Lubbock (Sir John), remarks on stone
implements from Western Africa, 154.

Lunar activity or quiescence, W. R. Birt
on the present state of the question

- relative to, 20.

*Lung, human, Dr. Waters on the inti-

mate structure of the, 145,

eos

245

Macalister (Prof. Alexander), exhibiticn
of a sketch of some varieties of the
Pronator quadratus, 142.

M‘Andrew (Robert) on the testaceous
mollusca obtained during a dredging-
excursion in the Gulf of Suez, 120.

M‘Intosh (Dr. W. C.) on certain Anne-
lids dredged in the expedition of
H.M.S. ‘ Poreupine’ (1869), 121.

Mackie (Samuel J.) on the defence of
Liverpool by floating forts, 219.

*MacVicar (Dr.) on the typical hydro-
carbons, from marsh-gas to anthracene,
with the oxidation of the latter into
anthroquinone and alizarine, 61.

Magellan, R. O. Cunningham on the
terrestrial and marine fauna of, 114.

Magnetic paradox, 8. Alfred Varley on
a, 27.

power, H. Highton on the maxi-

mum amount of, which can be deve-

loped by a given galvanic battery, 25.

research, F, H. Varley on a new
field of, 26.

Main (Rey. R.) on shooting-stars, 24.

Major (R. H.) on the landfall of Colum-
bus, 171.

Malaise rib Constantine) on the Si-
lurian formations of the centre of Bel-
gium, 78.

Malay archipelago, Colonel Yule on ana-
logies of manners between the Indo-
Chinese and the races of the, 178.

Mammalia, comparison of the thoracic
and pelvic limbs in, by R. Garner,
137

Manchester, Alderman R. Rumney on
the ash-pit system of, 224.

Manganese, J. Fenwick Allen on the
alloys of tin, zine, lead, copper, and
other metals with, 50.

——, Henry Deacon on a new chlorine
process without, 54.

Manx of the Isle of Man, Dr. King on
the, 153.

Marbles, E. C. C. Stanford on, from the
Island of Tyree, 64.

*Marriott (W.) on the estimation of sul-
phur in coal-gas, 60,

Marshall (William P.) on the Martini-
Henry and Westley-Richards_ rifles,
221.

Marten (E. B.) on boiler-explosions, 222,

Martini-Henry and Westley-Richards
rifles, W. P. Marshall on, 221.

Massagetee and Sace, H. H. Howorth
on the, 151.

Mathematical and Physical Section, J
Clerk Maxwell’s Address to the, 1.

Mathematical theory of combined

246
“(Sa J. W. M. Rankine on the,

Maw ' (George) on the evidences of re-

cent changes of level on the Mediter-.

ranean coast, 79.

Maxwell (J. Clerk), Address to the
Mathematical and Physical Section,
1; on hills and dales, 7; on colour-
vision at different points of the retina,
40,

*Mechanical stoking, James Smith on,
229.

Mechanics’ institutions, EH. Renals on,
and the Elementary Education Bill,
200.

Mediterranean coast, G. Maw on the
evidences of recent changes of level
on the, 79

Megalithic monuments of Britain, A. 8.
Lewis on the builders of the, 153.

Metals, malleable, and alloys, Gustav
Bischof on a new system of testing
the quality of the, 209.

*Methemoglobin, note on, by HE. Ray
Lankester, 141.

Miall (L..C.) on the formation of swal-
low-holes or pits with vertical sides
in mountain limestone, 79.

Microscope, Dr. John Barker on the im-
mersion method of illumination of
the, 39,

——, 5. Holmes on a new binocular, 39.

Middle drift, G. J. Stoney on the recent
formations of gravel-heds resembling,
86.

*—__ —— of East Anglia, J. EK. Taylor
on the occurrence of seams of hard
sandstone in the, 88.

Migration theory, Dr. Caton on the, 134.

*Milton (Lord) on railway-routes across
North America, and the physical as-
pects of the country, 172,

Mint charge, G. J. Stoney on the effect
which a, has upon the value of coins,
to which is added a proposition for
securing at once some of the advan-
tages of international coinage, 201.

*Mitchell (W.S8.), some remarks on the
denudation of the oolites of the Bath
district, 80.

Moabite stone, the Rev. Dr. Ginsburg
on the relation of the ancient Moa-
bites to neighbouring nations as dis-
closed in the newly discovered, 149.

Moffatt (Dr. T.) on atmospheric ozone,
61; on the quantity of phosphoric
acid excreted from the system in con-
nexion with atmospheric conditions,
G1; on geological systems and ende-
mic diseases, 80,

REPORT—1870,

Molgula, A, Hancock on the larval state
of, 118

Mollusca, testaceous, R. M‘Andrew on

the, obtained during a dredging-excur=_

sion in the Gulf of | Suez, 120,
*Moore (Thomas J.) on the ‘ Mortimer’

ship-aquarium, 121; on Rhinodon ty=-

picus, a rare shark lately added to the
Free Museum, Liverpool, 121; on
work done by the mercantile marine
of Liverpool in furtherance of zoology,
121; exhibition of a remarkable hin-
ged fish—jaw and of a young Laman-
tin, 121,

Morton (G, H.) on the glaciated condi-

tion of the surface of the triassic
sandstone around Liverpool, 81; on
the mountain limestone of Flintshire
and part of Denbighshire, 82.

Motive power, R. Eaton on certain eco-
nomical improvements in obtaining,
215.

Mott (F. J.) on the scientific value of
physical beauty, 134,

Mountain limestone, G. H. Morton on
the, of Flintshire and part of Den-
bighshir e, 82.

Mundle (W.) and G. A. Lebour on the
tertiary coal- field of Southern Chile,.

78.

Munzinger (Werner) on a journey into.

the interior of Hadramaut, 172.

Murchison (Sir R. L, Bart. “§ Address to
the Geographical Section, 158.

Museum, national, of natural history,
P. L. Sclater on certain principles to’
be observed in the establishment of a,
123.

Music, J. Kaines on the racial aspects
of, 152.

*Musical intervals, W. Spottiswoode on,
15,

*National debt, Dr. D. Meschin on the

impolicy on economic grounds, of con-

verting the, into terminable annuities,.

196,

National debts, R. Dudley Baxter on, 187.
Natural history, P. L. Sclater on certain.

principles to he observed in the esta-
blishment of a national museum of,123.

Natural selection, A. W. Bennett onthe

theory of, looked at from a mathema-
tical point of view, 180,

Nautilus, pearly, H. Woodward on rhe

structure of the shell in the, 128.
Navy, Frank P. Fellowes on the, 190.
*Nevins (Dr. J. Birkbeck) on a new

theory respecting the Babe of li-

quids, 61, .

INDEX II.

247

Nicholson (H. A.) and Prof, Harkness on | Pebbles, James Thomson on the occur=

the green slates and porphyries from
the lake-district, 74.

Niger, W. W. Reade on a journey to
the upper waters of the, 175.

Numerical theorem, W. H. Walenn on
.a, with practical applications, 16,

*Nutrition, Dr. Brown Séquard on va-
vious alterations of, due to nervous
influence, 134,

Oblique . propeller, Prof. Osborne Rey-

- nolds on an, 222,

on telegraphy, Capt. Rowett on,

*Oligocheetous worms, E, R. Lankester
on, 120.

*Oolites of the Bath district, W. 8.
Mitchell on the denudation of, 80.

*Opium, Dr. G. Thin on the use of,
among the Chinese, 157,

Oscillations of a particle and a rigid body,
Prof. R. S. Ball on the small, 20,

Oxus, Sir Henry Rawlinson on the early
traditions of the river, 174.

Ozone, Dr. Moffatt on atmospheric, 61,

Pankhurst (Dr. R. M.) on the poliey and
provisions of a patent law, 196,

Paradise, Sir H. Ne cineca, on the site

’ of the terrestrial, 172.

Paralytics, J. Campbell Brown on the

_ chemical. composition of the bones of
general, 51.

Parasite, Dr, Cobbold on a remarkable,
135.

Parasites, Prof, van Beneden sur les, 111,

*Parasitic flatworm, EK. R, Lankester
on a stock-form of the, 120.

Parkes (W.) on non-tidal variations of

. _ the sea-level on the coast of India, 19.
Parry (Dr. C.C.) on the desert- flora of
North America, 122, —

Pany (1 (J.) on baths and washhouses,

Patagonia, Western, R. O. Cunningham
on the terrestrial and marine fauna of,
114.

Patent law, Dr, Pankhurst on the policy
and provisions of a, 196.

Patterson (John) on the railway accounts
_ for 1868 just issued by the Board of
Trade, with suggestions for railway
reform, 197.

Peach (C.. W.), W. Carruthers on an.
antholithes discovered by, 72.
2 OP Ebalia new to. the British

_ golist, 122.

Peacock (R. A.) on some future and past

changes in the earth’s climate, 82,

rence of, and boulders of granite in
schistose rocks in Islay, 88.

Pengelly (W.) on the modern and ancient
beaches of Portland, 85,

Pentacrinus, J. Gwyn Jeffreys on a,
from the coasts of Spain and Portu-,
gal, 119,

*Perkins (W. H.) on artificial alizarine,

Persia, H. H. Howorth on the pre-Turk-
ish frontagers of, 151. :

Phené (J. S.) on a recent examination
of British tumuli and monuments in
the Hebrides and on the western
coast of Scotland, 155,

Phillips (J. Arthur) on Claudet’s pro-
cess for the extraction of silver, 61, _

Phosphate process, David Forbes on the
utilization of sewage, with special re-
ference to the, 56.

Phosphates, Dr. Gerland on the action of
sulphurous acid, in aqueous solution,
on, and other compounds, 56, :

*Phosphoric acid, J. Hargreaves on the
separation from iron-furnace cinder of,
for manurial purposes, 60.

, Dr. Moffatt on the quantity of, ex-
creted from the system in connexion
with atmospheric condition, 61.

Plant (John) on a flint-flake core found
in the upper valley-gravel at Salford,
156,

Platycnemic men, W. B. Dawkins and
G. Busk on the discovery of, in Den-
bighshire, 148.

Pneumatic transmission through tunnels
and pipes, R. Sabine on, 227.

Points and lines in space, Prof. A, Cay-
ley on a correspondence of, 10.

* Polypterus Birchii, Prof. R. H, Traquair
on the osteology “of, 143.

Porphyries of the lake- district, Prof.
Harkness and H. A. Nicholson on the
green slates and, 74.

Portland, W. Pengelly on the modern
and ancient beaches of, 83,

Pre-Turkish frontagers of Persia, H. He
Howorth on the, 161.

Price (John) on the Cuckoo-flower or

Bis -smock (Cardamine pratensis),

Proctor (R. A.) on the laws of star-

9
grouping, 24,

Propel er, oblique, Prof. Osborne Rey-

nolds on an, 222.
Protandry and protogyny in British
plants, A. W. Bennett on, 111.
Protopaam and the germ pei Dry
Child on, 131,

248

Public thoroughfares, W. J. Cooper on
the purification of, by the application
of deliquescent chlorides, 53.

Pyrola rotundifolia, T. Gibson on the
parasitic habits of, 116.

Quartz implement from St. George’s
Sound, Henry Woodward on a, 158,

Railway-axles, on Bowater’s patent for
manufacturing, 210.

reform, John Patterson on the rail-
way accounts for 1868 just issued by
the Board of Trade, with suggestions
for, 197.

Railways of the future, R. F. Fairlie on
the gauge of the, 215.

, narrow-gauge, J. B, Fell on the
advantages of, 216.

Rainfall, its variation with elevation of
the gauge, C. Chambers on, 30.

° of the United States, Prof. J.
Henry on the, 36.

Rankine (J. W. M.), an investigation of
the mathematical theory of combined
streams, 18; on the thermodynamic
acceleration and retardation of streams,
18.

Ranunculus aquatilis, T. Gibson on ab-
normal petals on flowers of, 115.

Rawlinson (Major-General Sir H.) on
the site of the terrestrial paradise, 172;
early traditions regarding the river
Oxus, 174.

Reade (Messrs.) and Goodison on the
construction of sewers in running-
sand, 222.

Reade (W. Winwood) on a journey to
the upper waters of the Niger, 175.
Readwin (T. A.) on a Merionethshire
gold-quartz crystal, and on some
stream gold recently found in the

river Mawddach, 84.

Reciprocal decomposition, J. H. Glad-
stone on, viewed with reference to
time, 57.

Registration districts of England and
Wales, A. Haviland on a proposed
rearrangement of, for the purpose of
facilitating scientific inquiry, 193.

Renals (i.) on mechanics’ institutions
ae the Elementary Education Bill,

Retardation of streams, J. W. M. Ran-
kine on the thermodynamic accele-
ration and, 18.

Retina, J. Olerk Maxwell on colour-
vision at different points of the, 40.
Reynolds (Prof. Osborne) on an oblique

propeller, 222, ee

REPORT—1870.

*Rhinodon typicus, T. J. Moore on, a-
rare shark lately added to the Frev
Museum, Liverpool, 121.

ae spicatum, Prof. M. A, Lawson on,

*Richardson (Dr. B. W.), new physio-
logical researches on the eflects of
carbonic acid, 141.

Ricketts (Charles) on sections of strata
between Huyton and St. Helens, 85.
on a wooden implement found in

Bidston Moss, near Birkenhead, 157. -

Rifles, W. P. Marshall on the Martini-
Henry and Westley-Richards, 221.

Roberts (W. Chandler) on the absorp-
tion of hydrogen by electro-deposited
iron, 62.

Rock-snake, Indian, Sir W. Elliot on
the habits of the, 115.

Rolleston (Prof.), Address to the Biolo-
gical Section, 91.

Roscoe (Prof. H. E.), Address to the
Chemical Section, 44.

. on vanadium, illustrated by pre-
parations of its compounds, 63.

Rose (Thomas) on the utilization of
fibrous cotton-seed, 200.

*Rowett (Capt.) on ocean telegraphy,
224

Rowney (Prof.) and Prof. King on somo
points in the geology of Strath, Isle of
Skye, 78.

Ruined cities of Central America, Capt.
Carmichael on the, 168.

Rumney (Alderman R.) on the ash-pit
system of Manchester, 224.

Russell (W. H. L.) on linear differential
equations, 16.

Sabine (Robert) on pneumatic trans-
mission through tunnels and pipes,

227.
*Safety-lamp, W. E. Teale on a new,
229.

Sailing, J. T. Towson on windward great
circle, 177.

St. Helens, Charles Ricketts on sections
of strata between Huyton and, 85.

Saline solutions, C. Tomlinson on the
action of low temperatures on super-
saturated, 67.

*Salt, double, J. B. Spence on the phe-
nomena of the crystallization of a,
63.

, C. Tomlinson on a, invisible in its
mother-liquor, 67.

Salts, Peter Spence on an attempt to
determine the boiling point of the
saturated solutions of various, by boil-
ing with steam of 100° C., 64, ’

INDEX II.

Samuelson (James) on the controversy
on spontaneous generation, with new
experiments, 133.

Sanderson (Dr. Burdon) and Dr. 8.
Stricker on a new method of studying
the capillary circulation in mammals,

42,

Sands, middle, of Lancashire, 8. V. Wood

- on the paleontological aspects of the
middle glacial formation of the east of

- England, and their bearing upon the
age of the, 90.

Sandstone, triassic, G. H. Morton on the
glaciated condition of the surface of
the, around Liverpool, 81.

- , J. E. Taylor on the occurrence of
seams of hard, in the middle drift of
East Anglia, 88.

Sankey Brook, A. E. Fletcher on the
purification of, 55.

*Saunders (Robert T.) on the physical
geography of the United States of
America as affecting agriculture, with

- suggestions for the increase of the

roduction of cotton, 201.

Schistose rocks, James Thomson on the
occurrence of pebbles and boulders of
granite in, in Islay, Scotland, 88.

Schools, C. H. W. Biggs on middle-class,

= re are and as they ought to be,
88.

Schunck (E.) on the chemical compo-
sition of cotton, 63.

Sclater (P. L.) on certain principles to
be observed in the establishment of a
uel museum of natural history,

*Scott (Michael) on a submarine ram
and gun, 228; on ship of war of mo-

. derate dimensions, 228 ; on the machi-
vod and working of submarine guns,

~ 228.

Scottish gold-fields, Dr. J. Bryce on the

- matrix of the gold found in the, 70.

Sculptures, ancient, EK. A. Conwell on,
objects of art from Irish cairns,

Sea-level, W. Parkes on non-tidal ysria-
tions of the, on the coast of India, 19.

*Sedan, battle of, W. Hope on the
history of the shell that won the, 219.

Sewage, David Forbes on the utilization
of, with special reference to the phos-
phate process, 56.

, J. Bailey Denton on the extent to
which existing works and practice
wwilitate against the profitable utili-
zation of, 212.

— of Liverpool, J. N. Shoolbred on
the, and the neighbourhood, 228,

249

Sewell (the Rey. C.) on certain remark-
able earthworks at Wainfleet, in Lin-
colnshire, 157.

Sewers, Messrs. Reade and Goodison on
the construction of, in running sand,
222.

*Ships of war, M. Scott on, of moderate
dimensions, 228.

Shoolbred (James N.) on the sewage of
Liverpool and the neighbourhood,
228.

Shooting-stars, the Rev. R. Main on, 24.

Shoulder-bones, Prof. Humphry on the
comparison of the, and muscles with
hip-bones and muscles, 140.

Sicily, J. Gwyn Jeffreys on newer ter-
tiary fossils in Calabria and, 76.

Silica, Rev. H. Highton on artificial
stone and various kinds of, 60.

Silurian formations of the centre of Bel-
gium, Prof. C. Malaise on the, 78.

*Silurian, upper, rocks, C. Lapworth on
the discovery of, in Roxburgh and
Dumfriesshire, 78.

Silver, J. A. Phillips on Claudet’s pro-
cess for the extraction of, 61.
Skye, isle of, Prof. King and Prof. Row-
ney on some points in the geology of

Strath, 78.

*Smith (James) on mechanical stoking,

229

*Smith (Dr. P. H.) on lefthandness,
143.

Soda manufacture, W. Gossage on, 58.
Solar. spots, Rev. F. Howlett on the,
observed during the past eleven years,

23.

Space, Prof. A. Cayley on @ correspon-
dence of points and lines in, 10.

Spectra of carbon, W. M. Watts on two,
existing at the same temperature, 44.

—— of gases, G. J. Stoney on the cause
of the interrupted, 41,

Spectroscope, J. Browning on a, in which
the prisms are automatically adjusted
for the minimum angle of deviation
for the particular ray under exami-
nation, 52.

Spectrum-analysis, John Browning on
an induction-coil especially arranged
for use in, 25.

*Spence (J. Berger) on the phenomena
of the crystallization of a double salt,
63.

Spence (Peter) on an attempt to deter-
mine the bbiling-point of the saturated
solutions of various salts by boiling
with steam of 100° C., 64.

Sphingide, E. Birchall on some hybrid,
and other Lepidoptera, 111,

230.

eon (J ohn) on the discrimination of
fibres in mixed fabrics, 64.

*Sponges, W. 8. Kent on the affinities
of the, to the corals, 120.

Spontaneous generation, J. Samuelson
on the controversy on, with new ex-
periments, 135.

Sporangia of ferns from the coal-mea-
sures, W. Carruthers on the, 71.

*Spottiswoode (W.) on musical inter-
vals, 15.

Squier (HK. G.) on the basin of Lake
Titicaca, 175.

Stanford (Edward C. C.) on marbles
from the island of Tyree, 64; on the
retention of nitrogen by charcoal, 65,

Star-grouping, R. “A. Proctor on. the
laws of, 24.

Steam-engines, A. B. Brown on hy-
draulic machinery for iperingy stop-
ping, and working heavy, 211.

*Stone, A. H. Church on the preser-
vation of, 53.

, artificial, Rev. H. Highton on, and

- various kinds of silica, 60.

implements, Sir John Lubbock on,
from Western Africa, 154.

Stoney (G. Johnstone) on the cause of

the interrupted spectra of gases, 41 ;

on the recent formation of gravel-
beds resembling middle drift, 86; on

. the effect which a mint charge has
upon the yalue of coins, to which is
added a proposition for securing at
once some of the advantages of inter-
national coinage, 201.

Strata between Huyton and St. Helens,
Charles Ricketts on sections of, 85,
Strath, Isle of Skye, Prof. King and
Prof. Rowney on some points in the

geology of, 78,

Stream gold, T, A. Readwin on some,
recently found in the river Mawddach,
84. °

Streams, J. W. M. Rankine on the ma-
thematical theory of combined, 18;
on the thermodynamic acceleration
and retardation of, 28.

Stricker (Dr. S.) and Dr. Sanderson on
anew method of studying the capiller 'y
circulation in mammals, 142.

Strutt (the Hon. J. W.), experiments on
colour, 43.

*Submarine guns, M. Scott on the ma-
chinery and working of, 228.
basis ram and gun, ”M. Scott on a,
228,
Suez, Gulf of, R. M‘Andrew on’ the
_ testaceous mollusea obtained during
a dredging-excursion i in the, 120,

RERORT—1870.

Sulphur, A. Vernon Harcourt’ on @&
method for the determination of, in
coal-gas, 59,

) W. Marriott on the estimation:
of, in coal-gas, 60.

Sulphuric acid, Thomas Fairley on the
distillation of, 55.

Sulphurous acid, Dr. Gerland on the
action of, in aqueous solution, on phos-
phates and other compounds, 56.

Swinburne (Sir John) on the South-
African gold-fields, 176.

Swinhoe, Robert, on the natural history
of Hainan, 128; on the island of
Hainan, 176.

Symonds (the Rey. W. 8.) on the
physical geclogy of the bone-cayes of
the Wye, 88.

*Tate (Ralph), a census of the marine
invertebrate fauna of the lias, 88. *

Taxation, local, O. Williams on, 207.

*Taylor (J.E.) on the occurrence of seams
of hard sandstone in the middle drift
of Kast Anglia, 88.

Taylor (Capt.) on the harbours of western
India, 176

*Teale (W. E.) on a new safety-lamp,
229.

Telegraph-coils, 8. A. Varley on a new
method of construction, 28.

Telegraphs, 8. A. Varley on the mode
of action of lightning on, 28,

Temperature of the air at 4 feet, 22 feet,
and 50 feet above the ground, James
Glaisher on the, 33,

*Tennant (J.) on the diamonds of South
Africa, 88.

Tertiary coal-field of Southern Chile, G
A. Lebour and W. Mundle on the,
78.

Tertiary fossils, J. Gwyn Jeffreys on
newer, in Sicily and Calabria, 76,

*Thermal equivalents :—1, Fermenta-
tion; 2. Oxides of chlorine, James De-
war on, 54.:

Thermal springs, F. W. Harmer on some,
in the fens of Cambridgeshire, 74.

Thermodynamic acceleration and re-
tardation of igbauiy J. W; M. Ran-
kine on the, 18.

*Thin (Dr. G.) on the use of opium:
among the Chinese, 157.

Thomson (Prof. Allen), contents of the
Cumbrae ‘tumulus, from examination
by, and Dr, Young, 155, :

Thomson (James) on the occurrence -of
pebbles and boulders of granite .in

schistose rocks in Isley, Beofland,

INDEX II.

*Thomson (Prof. Sir W.) on a new
absolute electrometer, 26.

*Thomson (Prof. Wyville) on Hyalo-

nema and some other vitreous sponges,
-128; on some of the Echinoderms of
the expedition of H.M.S. ‘ Porcupine,’

- 128,

Thoracic and pelvic limbs in mammalia,
comparison of the, by R, Garner, 137.

Thought, Boole’s Laws of, the late R.
‘Leslie Ellis on, 12; the Rey. R. Har-

. ley on, 14.

Tichborne (Charles R. C.) on dust as a
ferment, 64.

*Tibet, eastern, T. T. Cooper on, 169.

Time, J. H. Gladstone on reciprocal de-
composition with reference to, 57.

, Dr. Hurter on the, needed for the
completion of chemical change, 60.
Time-signal, electric, at Port Elizabeth,
description of, by S. A. Varley, 27.
Tin, alloys of, copper, zinc, lead, and

other metals with manganese, J, Fen-

. wick Allen on, 50.

Titicaca, E.G. Squier on the basin of
Lake, 175.

Tobacco-trade of Liverpool, J. S. Camp-
bell on the, 189.

Tomlinson (C.) on the action of low
temperatures on supersaturated saline
solutions, 67 ; on a salt invisible in its
mother liquor, 67.

Towson (John T.), report of the Liver-
pool compass committee, 19; on wind-
ward great circle sailing, 177.

*Traquair (Prof. R. H.) on the cranial
osteology of Polypterus Birchi, 143.

Triangle, Prof. A. Cayley on the problem
of the in-and-cireumscribed, 9.

Triassic sandstone, G. H. Morton on the
glaciated condition of the surface of
the, around Liverpool, 81.

Tumuli, British, J.S. Phené on a recent
examination of, and monuments in the
Hebrides and on the western coast of
Scotland, 155.

Tunnel through the Alps, D. T. Ansted
on the great, 69.

Turkestan, eastern, T. D. Forsyth on, 169,

Turks, Dr. Beddoe on the Ottoman, 144.

*Tyerman (Mr.) on the growth of Lo-
doicea Seychellarum, 128.

Tyree, island of, E. C. C. Stanford on
marbles from, 64.

*United States, Prof. J. Henry on the
rainfall of the, 36.

Vanadium, Dr. Gerland on the occur-
rence of, 57.

251

*Vanadium, Prof. Roscoe on, illustrated
by preparations of its compounds, 63.

Varley (Frederick H.) on'a new field of
magnetic research, 26; on a constant
battery, 26.

Varley (8. Alfred) on a magnetic pa-
radox, 27; description of the electric
time-signal at Port Elizabeth, Cape
of Good Hope, 27; on the mode of
action of lightning on telegraphs, and
on anew mode of constructing tele-
graph-coils, 28.

Vertebrata, Prof. Flower on the corre-
spondence between the anterior and
posterior extremity, and the modifica-
tions in the limbs in the higher, 137.

Victoria cave, Settle, Yorkshire, W.
Boyd Dawkins on the exploration of
the, 148.

Wake (C. 8.) on the mental charac-
teristic of the Australian aborigines,
157; on the physical characters of the
Australian aborigines, 157.

Walenn (W. H.) on a numerical theo-
rem, with practical applications, 16 ;
on the electro-deposition of copper and
brass, 67,

Wallace (Alfred R.) on a diagram of the
earth’s eccentricity and the precession
of the equinoxes, illustrating their re-
lation to geological climate and the
rate of organic change, 89.

Water, Dr. Goodman on albumen and
its transformation into fibrin by the
agency of, 139.

, A. Gordon on the prevention of
lead-poisoning in, 60.

*Waters (Dr. A. T. H.) on the intimate
structure of the human lung, 143.

Watts (W. M.) on two spectra of carbon
existing at the same temperature, 44.

Wave-theory of light, heat, &c., Dr.
Henry Hudson on the, 39.

Wealden, J. W. Judd on the age of the,
Oth

Weapons in prehistoric times, Hyde
Clarke on the distribution of names of,
144.

Weather, F. Galton on barometric pre-
dictions of the, 31.

*Weldon (Walter) on the Weldon pro-
cess for the manufacture of chlorine,
68.

Welton (Thomas A.) on immigration and
emigration as affecting the increase of
population in England and Wales,
203.

Westgarth (William) on decimal money
and a common international unit, 205,

252

Westley-Richards rifles, W. P. Mar-
shall on the Martini-Ilenry and, 221.

Westmacott (Percy), description of the
hydraulic bucketting-engine for the
herculaneum graying-dock, Liverpool,
229.

Whale, steypireyér, II. Bird on the, 112.

*Whalebone-whale of the southern he-
misphere, Dr. J, E. Gray on the, 117.

White Nile, letter from the, by Sir
Samuel Baker, 166.

White Sea, W. H. Dixon on the Holy
Islands in the, 169.

Williams (O.) on local taxation, 207,

Williamson (Prof. A. W.), communica-
tion respecting a resolution of the
Committee of Section B on the pro-
posed establishment of a new school
of applied science by Government, 68.

Williamson (Prof. W. C.) on the orga-
nization of the stems of Calamites, 89.

*Wilson (Frederick) on street manage-
ment, 229.

Wind, J. J. Hall on a new electro-mag-
netic anemometer, and the mode of
using it in registering the velocity and
pressure of the, 35.

Wood (Searles V.) and I’. W. Harmer
on the paleontological aspects of the

REPoRT—1870.

middle glacial formation of the east of
England, and their bearing upon the
age of the middle sands of Lancashire,
90.

Woodward (Henry) on fossil crustacca,
91; on the structure of the shell in
the Pearly Nautilus, 128; on an im-
plement of quartz from St, George’s
Sound, 158.

Young (Dr.), contents of the Cumbrae
tumulus, from examination by Prof,
Allen Thomson and, 156,

Yule (Col. H.), notes on analogies of
manners between the Indo-Chinese
and the races of the Malay archipe-
lago, 178.

Zerafshan valley, topographical sketch
of the, by A. edchenko, 169.

| Zine, ailoys of, copper, tin, lead, and

other metals with manganese, J. Fen-

wick Allen on, 50,

| Zoological stations, Dr. Anton Dohrn on
the foundation of, 115.

*Zoology, T. J. Moore on the work done
by the mercantile marine of Liver-
pool in furtherance of, 121.

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254

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‘255

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Report on the subject of a series of Resolutions adopted by the British Association at. their
Meeting in August 1838, at Newcastle ;—R. Owen, Report on British Fossil Reptiles;—E.
Forbes, Report on the Distribution of Pulmoniferous Mollusca in the British Isles; —W. S.
Harris, Third Report on the Progress of the Hourly Meteorological Register at Plymouth
Dockyard. ‘

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue TENTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 1840,
Published at 15s. (Out of Print.)

© Contents :—Rev. B. Powell, Report on the recent Progress of discovery relative to Radiant
Heat, supplementary to a former Report on the same subject inserted in the first volume of the
Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of Science ;—J. D. Forbes, Supple-
mentary Report on Meteorology ;—W. S. Harris, Report on Prof. Whewell’s Anemometer,
now in operation at Plymouth ;—Report on ‘‘ The Motion and Sounds of the Heart,’ by the
London Committee of the British Association, for 1839-40 ;—Prof. Schonbein, an Account of
Researches in Electro-Chemistry ;—R. Mallet, Second Report upon the Action of Air and
Water, whether fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at various temperatures, upon Cast Iron,
Wrought Iron and Steel ;—R. W. Fox, Report on some Observations on Subterranean Tem-
perature ;—A.F. Osler, Report on the Observations recorded during the years 1837, 1838, 1839,
and 1840, by the Self-registering Anemometer erected at the Philosophical Institution, Bir-
mingham ;—Sir D. Brewster, Report respecting the two Series of Hourly Meteorological Ob-
servations kept at Inverness and Kingussie, from Nov. Ist, 1838 to Nov. 1st, 1839 ;—W.
Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Vertebrata ;—C. J. B. Williams, M.D.,
Report of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs and Air-Tubes ;—Rev. J. S. Henslow,;
Report of the Committee on the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances.

. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison and Majer E. Sabine’s
Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

wi PROCEEDINGS or ture ELEVENTH MEETING, at Plymouth,
1841, Published at 13s. 6d.

_ConTENTS :—Rev. P. Kelland, on the Present state of our Theoretical and Experimentai
Knowledge of the Laws of Conduction of Heat ;—G. L. Roupell, M.D., Report on Poisons ;—
T. G. Bunt, Report on Discussions of Bristol Tides, under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell;
-—D. Ross, Report on the Discussions of Leith Tide Observations, under the direction of the
Rev. W. Whewell ;—W. S. Harris, upon the working of Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymouth
during the past year ;—Report of a Committee appointed for the purpose of superintend-
ing the scientific cooperation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Obser-
vations in Terrestrial Magnetism and Meteorology ;—Reports of Committees appointed to pro-
vide Meteorological Instruments for the use of M. Agassiz and Mr, M‘Cord ;—Report of a Com-

256

mittee to superintend the reduction of Meteorological Observations ;—Report of a Coms
mittee for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Report of a Committee for obtaining In-
struments and Registers to record Shocks and Earthquakes in Scotland and Ireland ;—Report of
a Committee on the Preservation of Vegetative Powers in Seeds ;—Dr. Hodgkin, on Inquiries
into the Races of Man ;—Report of the Committee appointed to report how far the Desiderata
in our knowledge of the Condition of the Upper Strata of the Atmosphere may be supplied by
means of Ascents in Balloons or otherwise, to ascertain the probable expense of such Experi-
ments, and to draw up Directions for Observers in such circumstances ;—R. Owen, Report
on British Fossil Reptiles ;—Reports on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway
Constants ;—-D. Lardner, LL.D., Second and concluding Report on the Determination of the
Mean Value of Railway Constants;—E. Woods, Report on Railway Constants ;—Report of a
Committee on the Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-Engines.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Whewell’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or toe TWELFTH MEETING, at Manchester,
1842, Published at 10s. 6d.

ConTENTS :—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the cooperation of the British
Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—
J. Richardson, M.D., Report on the present State of the Ichthyology of New Zealand ;—
W.S. Harris, Report on the Progress of Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Second
Report of a Committee appointed to make Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;
—C. Vignoles, Report of the Committee on Railway Sections ;—lReport of the Committee
for the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances ;—Lyon Playfair, M.D., Abstract
of Prof. Liebig’s Report on Organic Chemistry applied to Physiology and Pathology ;—
R. Owen, Report on the British Fossil Mammalia, Part I.;—R. Hunt, Researches on the
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;—L. Agassiz, Report
on the Fossil Fishes of the Devonian System or Old Red Sandstone ;—W. Fairbairn, Ap-
pendix to a Report on the Strength and other Properties of Cast Iron obtained from the Hot
and Cold Blast ;—D. Milne, Report of the Committee for Registering Shocks of Earthquakes
in Great Britain ;—Report of a Committee on the construction of a Constant Indicator for
Steam-Engines, and for the determination of the Velocity of the Piston of the Self-acting En-
gine at different periods of the Stroke ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Committee on the Form of
Ships ;—Report of a Committee appointed ‘to consider of the Rules by which the Nomencla-
ture of Zoology may be established on a uniform and permanent basis ;’”—Report of a Com-
mittee on the Vital Statistics of large Towns in Scotland ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices
of Progress in special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Francis Egerton’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTEENTH MEETING, at Cork,
1843, Published at 12s.

ConTENTs:—Robert Mallet, Third Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether
fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at Various Temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and
Steel;—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the cooperation of the British As-
sociation in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Sir
J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., Report of the Committee appointed for the Reduction of Meteoro-
logical Observations ;—Report of the Committee appointed for Experiments on Steam-
Engines ;—Report of the Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality
of Seeds ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Series of Observations on the Tides of the Frith of
Forth and the East Coast of Scotland ;—J. S. Russell, Notice of a Report of the Committee
on the Form of Ships;—J. Blake, Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines; —Report
of the Committee on Zoological Nomenclature ;—Report of the Committee for Registering
the Shocks of Earthquakes, and making such Meteorological Observations as may appear to
them desirable ;—Report of the Committee for conducting Experiments with Captive Balloons;
—Prof. Wheatstone, Appendix to the Report;—Report of the Committee for the Translation
and Publication of Foreign Scientific Memoirs ;—C. W. Peach, on the Habits of the Marine
Testacea ;—E, Forbes, Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the AEgean Sea, and on their
distribution, considered as bearing on Geology ;—L. Agassiz, Synoptical Table of British
Fossil Fishes, arranged in the order of the Geological Formations ;—R. Owen, Report on the
British Fossil Mammalia, Part IJ.;—E. W. Binney, Report on the excavation made at the
junction of the Lower New Red Sandstone with the Coal Measures at Collyhurst ;—W.

257

Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Invertebrata ;—Provisional Reports, and
Notices of Progress in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Earl of Rosse’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue FOURTEENTH MEETING, at York, 1844,
Published at £1.

ConTENTS :—W. B. Carpenter, on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—J. Alder and A,
Hancock, Report on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca;—R. Hunt, Researches on the
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;—Report of a
Committee appointed by the British Association in 1840, for revising the Nomenclature of the
Stars ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on the Meteorology of Toronto in Canada ;—J. Blackwall, Report
on some recent researches into the Structure, Functions, and Economy of the Araneidea
made in Great Britain ;—Earl of Rosse, on the Construction of large Reflecting Telescopes ;
—Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on a Gas-furnace for Experiments on Vitrifaction and other
Applications of High Heat in the Laboratory ;—Report of the Committee for Registering
Earthquake Shocks in Scotland ;—Report of a Committee for Experiments on Steam-Engines;
—Report of the Committee to investigate the Varieties of the Human Race ;—Fourth Report
of a Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds ;—W. Fair-
bairn, on the Consumption of Fuel and the Prevention of Smoke ;—F. Ronalds, Report con-
cerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew ;—Sixth Report of the Committee
appointed to conduct the Cooperation of the British Association in the System of Simulta-
neous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Prof. Forchhammer on the influence
of Fucoidal Plants upon the Formations of the Earth, on Metamorphism in general, and par-
ticularly the Metamorphosis of the Scandinavian Alum Slate ;—H. E. Strickland, Report on
the recent Progress and Present State of Ornithology ;—T. Oldham, Report of Committee
appointed to conduct Observations on Subterranean Temperature in Ireland ;—Prof. Owen,
Report on the Extinct Mammals of Australia, with descriptions of certain Fossils indicative
of the former existence in that continent of large Marsupial Representatives of the Order
Pachydermata ;—W. S. Harris, Report on the working of Whewell and Osler’s Anemometers
at Plymouth, for the years 1841, 1842, 1843 ;—W. R. Birt, Report on Atmospheric Waves;
=—L. Agassiz, Rapport sur les Poissons Fossiles de l’Argile de Londres, with translation ;—J.
S. Russell, Report on Waves ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Re-
searches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dean of Ely’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe FIFTEENTH MEETING, at Cambridge,
1845, Published at 12s.

ConTENTS:—Seventh Report of a Committee appointed to conduct the Cooperation of the”
British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observa-
tions ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on some points in the Meteorology of Bombay ;—J. Blake, Report
on the Physiological Actions of Medicines ;—Dr. Von Boguslawski, on the Comet of 1843;
—R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—Prof. Schénbein, on Ozone ;—Prof, Erman, on
the Influence of Friction upon Thermo-Electricity;—Baron Senftenberg, on the Seif-
Registering Meteorological Instruments employed in the Observatory at Senftenberg ;—
W. R. Birt, Second Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress and Pre-
sent Extent of Savings’ Banks in the United Kingdom ;—Prof. Bunsen and Dr. Playfair,
Report on the Gases evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the Theory of Smelting
of Iron ;—Dr. Richardson, Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan ;—
Report of the Committee on the Registration of Periodical Phenomena of Animals and Vege-
tables ;—Fifth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Appendix, &c.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir J. F. W. Herschel’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tur SIXTEENTH MEETING, at Southampton,
1846, Published at 15s.

ConTENTS :—G, G. Stokes, Report on Recent Researches in Hydrodynamics ;—Sixth
Report of the Committee on the Vitality uf Seeds ;—Dr. Schunck, on the Colouring Matters of
Madder ;—J. Blake, on the Physiological Action of Medicines;—R. Hunt, Report on the Ac-
‘tinograph ;—R. Hunt, Notices on the Influence of Light on the Growth of Plants ;—R. L.
Ellis, on the Recent Progress of Analysis ;—Prof. Forchhammer, on Comparative Analytical

1870.

258

Researches on Sea Water ;—A. Erman, on the Calculation of the Gaussian Constants for
1829;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress, present Amount, and probable future Condition of the
Iron Manufacture in Great Britain ;—W. R. Birt, Third Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—
Prof. Owen, Report on the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton ;—
J. Phillips, on Anemometry ;—J. Percy, M.D., Report on the Crystalline Flags ;—Addenda
to Mr. Birt’s Report on Atmospheric Waves.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir R. I. Murchison’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or tue SEVENTEENTH MEETING, at Oxford,
1847, Published at 18s.

ConTENTsS :—Prof. Langberg, on the Specific Gravity of Sulphuric Acid at different de-
grees of dilution, and on the relation which exists between the Development of Heat and the
coincident contraction of Volume in Sulphuric Acid when mixed with Water ;—R. Hunt,
Researches on the Influence of the Solar Rays on the Growth of Plants ;—R. Mallet, on
the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Prof. Nilsson, on the Primitive Inhabitants of Scan-
dinavia ;—W. Hopkins, Report on the Geological Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes;
—Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Report on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—Rev. W. Whewell and
Sir James C. Ross, Report upon the Recommendation of an Expedition for the purpose of
completing our knowledge of the Tides ;—Dr. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—Seventh Re-
port of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. Glynn, on the Turbine or Horizontal
Water-Wheel of France and Germany ;—Dr. R. G. Latham} on the present state and recent
progress of Ethnographical Philology ;—Dr. J. C. Prichard, on the various methods of Research
which contribute to the Advancement of Ethnology, and of the relations of that Science to
other branches of Knowledge ;—Dr. C. C. J. Bunsen, on the results of the recent Egyptian
researches in reference to Asiatic and African Ethnology, and the Classification of Languages ;
—Dr. C. Meyer, on the Importance of the Study of the Celtic Language as exhibited by the
Modern Celtic Dialects still extant;—Dr. Max Miller, on the Relation of the Bengali to the
Arian and Aboriginal Languages of India;—W. R. Birt, Fourth Report on Atmospheric
Waves ;—Prof. W. H. Dove, Temperature Tables, with Introductory Remarks by Lieut.-Col.
I. Sabine ;—A. Erman and H. Petersen, Third Report on the Calculation of the Gaussian Con-
stants for 1829.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Robert Harry Inglis’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or toe EIGHTEENTH MEETING, at Swansea,
1848, Published at 9s.

ConTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—
J. Glynn on Water-pressure Engines ;—R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns ;—Eighth
Report of Committee on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—W. R. Birt, Fifth Report on At-
mospheric Waves ;—E. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—J. P. Budd, on the advantageous use
made of the gaseous escape from the Blast Furnaces at the Ystalyfera Iron Works;—R. Hunt,
Report of progress in the investigation of the Action of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of
Plants allied to those of the Coal Formations ;—Prof. H. W. Dove, Supplement to the Tem-
perature Tables printed in the Report of the British Association for 1847 ;—Remarks by Prof.
Dove on his recently constructed Maps of the Monthly Isothermal Lines of the Globe, and on
some of the principal Conclusions in regard to Climatology deducible from them; with an in-
troductory Notice by Lt.-Col. E. Sabine ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the progress of the investigation
on the Influence of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Ferns;—J. Phillips, Notice of further
progress in Anemometrical Researches ;—Mr. Mallet’s Letter to the Assistant-General Secre-
tary ;—A. Erman, Second Report on the Gaussian Constants ;—Report of a Committee
relative to the expediency of recommending the continuance of the Toronto Magnetical and
Meteorological Observatory until December 1850.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Marquis of Northampton’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. .

PROCEEDINGS or tue NINETEENTH MEETING, at Birmingham,
1849, Published at 10s.

Contents :—Rev. Prof. Poweil, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Earl
of Rosse, Notice of Nebule lately observed in the Six-feet Reflector ;—Prof. Daubeny, on the
Influence of Carbonic Acid Gas on the health of Plants, especially of those allied to the Fossil
Remains found in the Coal Formation ;—Dr. Andrews, Report on the Heat of Combination ;
—Report of the Committee on the Registration of the Periodic Phenomena of Plants and

259

Animals ;—Ninth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;
—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from
Aug. 9, 1848 to Sept. 12, 1849 ;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experimental Inquiry on Railway
Bar Corrosion ;—W. R. Birt, Report on the Discussion of the Electrical Observations at Kew.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. T. R. Robinson’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or toe TWENTIETH MEETING, at Edinburgh,
1850, Published at 15s. (Out of Print.)

Contents :—R. Mallet, First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Rev. Prof,
Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors;—Dr. T. Williams, on the Structure and
History of the British Annelida;—T. C. Hunt, Results of Meteorological Observations taken
at St. Michael’s from the Ist of January, 1840 to the 31st of December, 1849;—R. Hunt, on
the present State of our Knowledge of the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Tenth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Major-Gen.
Briggs, Report on the Aboriginal Tribes of India;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Ob-
servatory of the British Association at Kew ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Investigation of British
Marine Zoology by means of the Dredge ;—R. MacAndrew, Notes on the Distribution and
Range in depth of Mollusca and other Marine Animals, observed on the coasts of Spain, Por-
tugal, Barbary, Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849 ;—Prof. Allman, on the Present State of
our Knowledge of the Freshwater Polyzoa ;—Registration of the Periodical Phenomena of
Plants and Animals ;—Suggestions to Astronomers for the Observation of the Total Eclipse
of the Sun on July 28, 185].

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir David Brewster’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTY-FIRST MEETING, at Ipswich,
1851, Published at 16s. 6d.

ConTENTs :—Rev. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Eleventh Re-
port of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. J. Drew, on
the Climate of Southampton ;—Dr. R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns: Action of
Porous Strata, Water and Organic Matter ;—Report of the Committee appointed to consider
the probable Effects in an Economical and Physical Point of View of the Destruction of Tro-
pical Forests ;—A. Henfrey, on the Reproduction and supposed Existence of Sexual Organs
in the Higher Cryptogamous Plants ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the Nomenclature of Organic Com-
pounds ;—Reyv. Dr. Donaldson, on two unsolved Problems in Indo-German Philology ;—
Dr. T. Williams, Report on the British Annelida;—R. Mallet, Second Report on the Facts of
Earthquake Phenomena ;—Letter from Prof. Henry to Col. Sabine, on the System of Meteoro-
logical Observations proposed to be established in the United States ;—Col. Sabine, Report
on the Kew Magnetographs ;—J. Welsh, Report on the Performance of his three Magneto-
graphs during the Experimental Trial at the Kew Observatory ;—F. Ronalds, Report concern-
ing the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from September 12, 1850 to July 31,
1851 ;—Ordnance Survey of Scotland.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof, Airy’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or trot TWENTY-SECOND MEETING, at Belfast,
1852, Published at 15s.

ConTENTs :—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Twelfth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;—Rev. Prof,
Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1851-52 ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the In-
fluence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants ;—A Manual of Ethnological
Inquiry ;—Col. Sykes, Mean Temperature of the Day, and Monthly Fall of Rain at 127 Sta-
tions under the Bengal Presidency ;—Prof. J. D. Forbes, on Experiments on the Laws of the
Conduction of Heat;—R. Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Dr. Hodges,
on the Composition and Economy of the Flax Plant;—W. Thompson, on the Freshwater
Fishes of Ulster;—W. Thompson, Supplementary Report on the Fauna of Ireland;—W., Wills,
onthe Meteorology of Birmingham;—J. Thomson, on the Vortex-Water- Wheel ;—J. B. Lawes
and Dr. Gilbert, on the Composition of Foods in relation to Respiration and the Feeding of
Animals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Colonel Sabine’s Address, and Recom=
mendations of the Association and its Committees,

Li*

260

PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTY-THIRD MEETING, at Hull,
1853, Published at 10s. 6d.

ConTENTs :—Rey, Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1852-53;
—James Oldham, on the Physical Features of the Humber ;—James Oldham, on the Rise,
Progress, and Present Position of Steam Navigation in Hull;—William Fairbairn, Experi-
mental Researches to determine the Strength of Locomotive Boilers, and the causes which
lead to Explosion ;—J. J. Sylvester, Provisional Report on the Theory of Determinants ;—
Professor Hodges, M.D., Report on the Gases evolved in Steeping Flax, and on the Composition
and Economy of the Flax Plant ;—Thirteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the
Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Robert Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations;
—John P. Bell, M.D., Observations on the Character and Measurements of Degradation of the
Yorkshire Coast; First Report of Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Sur-
face, as compared with that of the Earth ;—R. Mallet, Provisional Report on Earthquake
Wave-Transits; and on Seismometrical Instruments ;—William Fairbairn, on the Mechanical
Properties of Metals as derived from repeated Meltings, exhibiting the maximum point of
strength and the causes of deterioration ;—Robert Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earth-
quake Phenomena (continued).

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Hopkins’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or toe TWENTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Liver-
pool, 1854, Published at 18s.

ConTENTS:—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena (continued) ;
—Major-General Chesney, on the Construction and General Use of Efficient Life-Boats;—Rev.
Prof. Powell, Third Report on the present State of our Knowledge of Radiant Heat ;—Colonel
Sabine, on some of the results obtained at the British Colonial Magnetic Observatories ;—
Colonel Portlock, Report of the Committee on Earthquakes, with their proceedings respecting
Seismometers ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers
of Plants, Part 2;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1853-54;
—Second Report of the Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Surface ;—W. G.
Armstrong, on the Application of Water-Pressure Machinery ;—J. B. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert,
on the Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food ;—Archibald Smith, on the Deviations of the
Compass in Wooden and Iron Ships ;—Fourteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on
the Growth and Vitality of Seeds.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Earl of Harrowby’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or trHozE TWENTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Glasgow,
1855, Published at 15s.

ConTENTS :—T. Dobson, Report on the Relation between Explosions in Coal-Mines and
Revolving Storms;—Dr. Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers
of Plants growing under different Atmospheric Conditions, Part 3;—C. Spence Bate, on the
British Edriophthalma ;—J. F, Bateman, on the present state of our knowledge on the Supply
of Water to Towns ;—Fifteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and
Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1854-55 ;
—Report of Committee appointed to inquire into the best means of ascertaining those pro-
perties of Metals and effects of various modes of treating them which are of importance to the
durability and efficiency of Artillery ;—Rev. Prof. Henslow, Report on Typical Objects in
Natural History ;—A. Follett Osler, Account of the Self-Registering Anemometer and Rain-
Gauge at the Liverpool Observatory ;—Provisional Reports.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Duke of Argyll’s Address, and Recom=
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Chel-
tenham, 1856, Published at 18s.

Contents :—Report from the Committee appointed to investigate and report upon the
effects produced upon the Channels of the Mersey by the alterations which within the last
fifty years have been made in its Banks;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on progress in Re-
searches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;—Dredging Report, Frith of Clyde,
1856 ;—Rev. B. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1855-1856 ;—Prof..
Bunsen and Dr. H. E. Roscoe, Photochemical Researches ;—Rev. James Booth, on the Trigo-
nometry of the Parabola, and the Geometrical Origin of Logarithms ;—R. MacAndrew, Report:

261

on the Marine Testaceous Mollusca of the North-east Atlantic and Neighbouring Seas, and
the physical conditions affecting their development ;—P. P. Carpenter, Report on the present
state of our knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North America ;—
T. C. Eyton, Abstract of First Report on the Oyster Beds and Oysters of the British Shores;
—Prof. Phillips, Report on Cleavage and Foliation in Rocks, and on the Theoretical Expla-
nations of these Phenomena: Part I. ;--Dr. T. Wright on the Stratigraphical Distribution of
the Oolitic Echinodermata ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Tensile Strength of Wrought Iron at various
Temperatures ;—C. Atherton, on Mercantile Steam Transport Economy ;—J.S. Bowerbank, on
the Vital Powers of the Spongiadz;—-Report of a Committee upon the Experiments conducted
at Stormontfield, near Perth, for the artificial propagation of Salmon ;—Provisional Report on
the Measurement of Ships for Tonnage ;—On Typical Forms of Minerals, Plants and Animals
for Museums ;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on Progress in Researches on the Measure-
ment of Water by Weir Boards;——-R. Mallet, on Observations with the Seismometer ;—A.
Cayley, on the Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Report of a Committee appointed to con-
sider the formation of a Catalogue of Philosophical Memoirs.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Daubeny’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at
Dublin, 1857, Published at 15s.

ConTEnTs :—A. Cayley, Report on the Recent Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Six-
teenth and final Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;
—James Oldham, C.E., continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull;—Report of a
Committee on the Defects of the present methods of Measuring and Registering the Tonnage
of Shipping, as also of Marine Engine-Power, and to frame more perfect rules, in order that
a correct and uniform principle may be adopted to estimate the Actual Carrying Capabilities
and Working-Power of Steam Ships;—Robert Were Fox, Report on the Temperature of
some Deep Mines in Cornwall ;—Dr. G. Plarr, De quelques Transformations de la Somme
=e gtltigetige+1
eal

0 Jet 1 yei+} et +’
est exprimable par une combinaison de factorielles, la notation atl+1 désignant le produit des
t facteurs a (a+1) (a+2) &c....(a-+-¢—1);—G. Dickie, M.D., Report on the Marine Zoology
of Strangford Lough, County Down, and corresponding part of the Irish Channel ;—Charles
Atherton, Suggestions for Statistical Inquiry into the extent to which Mercantile Steam Trans-
port Economy is affected by the Constructive Type of Shipping, as respects the Proportions of
Length, Breadth, and Depth ;—J. S. Bowerbank, Further Report on the Vitality of the Spon-
giadz ;—Jobn P. Hodges, M.D., on Flax ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of the Committee
on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of
Luminous Meteors, 1856-57 ;—C. Vignoles, C.E., on the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to
sustain the passage of Railway Trains ;—Professor W. A. Miller, M.D., on Electro-Chemistry ;
—John Simpson, R.N., Results of Thermometrical Observations made at the ‘ Plover’s’”
Wintering-place, Point Barrow, latitude 71° 21’ N., long. 156° 17’ W., in 1852-54 ;—Charles
James Hargreave, LL.D., on the Algebraic Couple; and on the Equivalents of Indeterminate
Expressions ;—Thomas Grubb, Report on the Improvement of Telescope and Equatorial
Mountings ;—Professor James Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots in the Botanical
Garden of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester ;—William Fairbairn on the Resistance
of Tubes to Collapse ;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Proceedings of the Belfast Dredging
Committee ;—Peter W. Barlow, on the Mechanical Effect of combining Girders and Suspen-
sion Chains, and a Comparison of the Weight of Metal in Ordinary and Suspension Girders,
to produce equal deflections with a given load ;—J. Park Harrison, M.A., Evidences of Lunar
Influence on Temperature ;—Report on the Animal and Vegetable Products imported into
Liverpool from the year 1851 to 1855 (inclusive) ;—Andrew Henderson, Report on the Sta-
tistics of Life-boats and Fishing-boats on the Coasts of the United Kingdom. ;

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. H. Lloyd’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHE TWENTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Leeds;
September 1858, Published at 20s.

ConTENTS:—R. Mallet, Fourth Report upon the Facts and Theory of Earthquake Phe-
nomena ;— Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1857-58 ;—R. H.
Meade, on some Points in the Anatomy of the Araneidea or true Spiders, especially on the
internal structure of their Spinning Organs ;—W. Fairbairn, Report of the Committee on the
Patent Laws ;—S. Eddy, on the J.ead Mining Districts of Yorkshire ;—W. Fairbairn, on the

a étant entier négatif, et de quelques cas dans lesquels cette somme

262

Collapse of Glass Globes and Cylinders ;—Dr. E. Perceval Wright and Prof. J. Reay Greene,
Report on the Marine Fauna of the South and West Coasts of Ireland ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on
Experiments on the Measurement of Water by Triangular Notches in Weir Boards ;—Major-
General Sabine, Report of the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain ;—Michael
Connal and William Keddie, Report on Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Substances imported
from Foreign Countries into the Clyde (including the Ports of Glasgow, Greenock, and Port
Glasgow) in the years 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, and 1857 ;—Report of the Cominittee on Ship-
ping Statistics ;—Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., Notice of the Instruments employed in the Mag-
netic Survey of Ireland, with some of the Results;—Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin
Dredging Committee, appointed 1857-58 ;—Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Report on Crustacea of Dub-
lin District ;—Andrew Henderson, on River Steamers, their Form, Construction, and Fittings,
with reference to the necessity fur improving the present means of Shallow-Water Navigation
on the Rivers of British India;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Com-
mittee ;—Appendix to Mr. Vignoles’s paper “ On the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to sus-
tain the passage of Railway Trains;”—Report of the Joint Committee of the Royal Society and
the British Association, for procuring a continuance of the Magnetic and Meteorological Ob-
servatories ;—R. Beckley, Description of a Self-recording Anemometer.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Owen’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or rue TWENTY-NINTH MEETING, at Aberdeen,
September 1859, Published at 15s.

ConTENTS :—George C, Foster, Preliminary Report on the Recent Progress and Present
State of Organic Chemistry ;—Protessor Buckman, Report on the Growth of Plants in the
Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Dr. A. Voelcker, Report on Field
Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to cultivated
Crops ;—A. Thomson, Esq. of Banchory, Report on the Aberdeen Industrial Feeding Schools ;
—On the Upper Silurians of Lesmahago, Lanarkshire ;—Alphonse Gages, Report on the Re-
sults obtained by the Mechanico-Chemical Examination of Rocks and Minerals ;—William
Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Efficiency of Continuous and Self-acting Breaks for
Railway Trains ;—Professor J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee for
1858—59 ;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors for 1858-59 ;
—Professor Owen, Report on a Series of Skulls of various Tribes of Mankind inhabiting
Nepal, collected, and presented to the British Museum, by Bryan H. Hodgson, Esq., late Re-
sident in Nepal, &c. &c. ;—Messrs. Maskelyne, Hadow, Hardwich, and Llewelyn, Report on
the Present State of our Knowledge regarding the Photographic Image ;—G. C. Hyndman,
Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee for 1859 ;—James Oldham, Continuation of Report
of the Progress of Steam Navigation at Hull;—Charles Atherton, Mercantile Steam Trans
port Economy as affected by the Consumption of Coals;—Warren de la Rue, Report on the
present state of Celestial Photography in England ;—Professor Owen, on the Orders of Fossil
and Recent Reptilia, and their Distribution in Time ;—Balfour Stewart, on some Results of the
Magnetic Survey of Scotland in the years 1857 and 1858, undertaken, at the request of the
British Association, by the late John Welsh, Esq., F.R.S.;—W. Fairbairn, The Patent Laws:
Report of Committee on the Patent Laws;—J. Park Harrison, Lunar Influence on the Tem-
perature of the Air;—Balfour Stewart, an Account of the Construction of the Self-recording
Magnetographs at present in operation at the Kew Observatory of the British Association ;—
Prof. H. J. Stephen Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part I.;—Report of the
Committee on Steamship performance ;—Report of the Proceedings of the Balloon Committee
of the British Association appointed at the Meeting at Leeds ;—Prof. William K. Sullivan,
Preliminary Report on the Solubility of Salts at Temperatures above 100° Cent., and on the
Mutual Action of Salts in Solution.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prince Albert’s Address, and Recommendae
tions of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tut THIRTIETH MEETING, at Oxford, June
and July 1860, Published at 15s.

ConTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1859-60 ;—
J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee ;—Rev. J. Anderson, Report on
the Excavations in Dura Den ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots in the
Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Rev. R. Walker, Report of
the Committee on Balloon Ascents ;—Prof. W. Thomson, Report of Committee appointed to
prepare a Self-recording Atmospheric Electrometer for Kew, and Portable Apparatus for ob-
serving Atmospheric Electricity ;—William Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Effect of

263

Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon Wrought-iron Girders ;—R. P.
Greg, Catalogue of Meteorites and Fireballs. from a.p. 2 to a.p. 1860 ;—Prof. H. J. S. Smith,
Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part II.;—Vice-Admiral Moorsom, on the Performance of
Steam-vessels, the Functions of the Screw, and the Relations of its Diameter and Pitch to the
Form of the Vessel;—Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on the Effects of long-continued Heat,
illustrative of Geological Phenomena ;—Second Report of the Committee on Steamship Per-
formance ;—Interim Report on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches ;—List of the
British Marine Invertebrate Fauna.

Together with the ‘I'ransactions of the Sections, Lord Wrottesley’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe THIRTY-FIRST MEETING, at Manches-
ter, September 1861, Published at £1.

ConTENTS:—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Dr. E.
Smith, Report on the Action of Prison Diet and Discipline on the Bodily Functions of Pri-
soners, Part I.;—Charles Atherton, on Freight as affected by Differences in the Dynamic
Properties of Steamships ;—Warren De la Rue, Report on the Progress of Celestial Photo-
graphy since the Aberdeen Meeting ;—B. Stewart, on the Theory of Exchanges, and its re-
cent extension ;—Drs. E. Schunck, R. Angus Smith, and H. E. Roscoe, on the Recent Pro-
gress and Present Condition of Manufacturing Chemistry in the South Lancashire District ;—
Dr. J. Hunt, on Ethno-Climatology ; or, the Acclimatization of Man ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on
Experiments on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches ;—Dr. A. Voelcker, Report on
Field Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to
cultivated Crops ;—Prot. H. Hennessy, Provisional Report on the Present State of our Know-
ledge respecting the Transmission of Sound-signals during Fogs at Sea;—Dr. P. L. Sclater
and F. von Hochstetter, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Birds of the
Genus Apterysz living in New Zealand ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Results of Deep-sea
Dredging in Zetland, with a Notice of several Species of Mollusca new to Science or to the
British Isles ;—Prof. J. Phillips, Contributions to a Report on the Physical Aspect of the
Moon ;—W. R. Birt, Contribution to a Report on the Physical Aspect of the Moon ;—Dr.
Collingwood and Mr. Byerley, Preliminary Report of the Dredging Committee of the Mersey
and Dee ;—Third Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance ;—J. G. Jeffreys,
Preliminary Report on the Best Mode of preventing the Ravages of Teredo and other Animals
in our Ships and Harbours;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experiments made at Holyhead to
ascertain the Transit-Velocity of Waves, analogous to Earthquake Waves, through the local
Rock Formations ;—T, Dobson, on the Explosions in British Coal-Mines during the year 1859;
—4J. Oldham, Continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull ;—Professor G. Dickie,
Brief Summary of a Report on the Flora of the North of Ireland ;—Professor Owen, on the
Psychical and Physical Characters of thle Mincopies, or Natives of the Andaman Islands, and
on the Relations thereby indicated to other Races of Mankind ;—Colonel Sykes, Report of the
Balloon Committee ;—Major-General Sabine, Report on the Repetition of the Magnetic Sur-
vey of England ;—Interim Report of the Committee for Dredging on the North and East
Coasts of Scotland ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Resistance of Iron Plates to Statical Pressure and
the Force of Impact by Projectiles at High Velocities ;—W. Fairbairn, Continuation of Report
to determine the effect of Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon
Wrought-Iron Girders ;—Report of the Committee on the Law of Patents ;—Prof. H, J. S.
Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part III.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Fairbairn’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTY-SECOND MEETING, at Cam-
bridge, October 1862, Published at £1.

ConTEnTs :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1861—62 ;-—
G. B. Airy, on the Strains in the Interior of Beams ;—Archibald Smith and F. J. Evans,
Report on the three Reports of the Liverpool Compass Committee ;—Report on Tidal Ob-
servations on the Number ;—T. Aston, on Rifled Guns and Projectiles adapted for Attacking
Armour-plate Defences ;—Extracts, relating to the Observatory at Kew, from a Report
presented to the Portuguese Government, by Dr. J. A. de Souza;—H. T. Mennell, Report
on the Dredging of the Northumberland Coast and Dogger Bank ;—Dr. Cuthbert Colling-
wood, Report upon the best means of advancing Science through the agency of the Mercan-
tile Marine ;—Messrs. Williamson, Wheatstone, Thomson, Miller, Matthiessen, and Jenkin,
Provisional Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—Preliminary Report of the Com-
mittee for investigating the Chemical and Mineralogical Composition of the Granites of Do-

264:

negal ;—Prof. H. Hennessy, on the Vertical Movements of the Atmosphere considered in
connexion with Storms and Changes of Weather ;—Report of Committee on the application
of Gauss’s General Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism to the Magnetic Variations ;—Fleeming
Jenkin, on Thermo-electric Currents in Circuits of one Metal ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Me-
chanical Properties of Iron Projectiles at High Velocities ;—A. Cayley, Report on the Pro-
gress of the Solution of certain Special Problems of Dynamics ;—Prof. G. G. Stokes, Report
on Double Refraction ;—Fourth Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance ;—
G. J. Symons, on the Fall of Rain in the British Isles in 1860 and 1861 ;—J. Ball, on Ther-
mometric Observations in the Alps ;—J.G. Jeffreys, Report of the Committee for Dredging
on the N. and E. Coasts of Scotland ;—Report of the Committee on Technical and Scientific
Evidence in Courts of Law ;—James Glaisher, Account of Eight Balloon Ascents in 1862 ;—
Prof. H. J. S. Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part IV.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. Prof. R. Willis’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTY-THIRD MEETING, at New-
castle-upon-Tyne, August and September 1563, Published at £1 5s.

Contents :—Report of the Committee on the Application of Gun-cotton to Warlike Pur-
poses ;—A. Matthiessen, Report on the Chemical Nature of Alloys ;—Report of the Com-
mittee on the Chemical and Mineralogical Constitution of the Granites of Donegal, and of
the Rocks associated with them ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Committee appointed for
Exploring the Coasts of Shetland by means of the Dredge;—G. D. Gibb, Report on the
Physiological Effects of the Bromide of Ammonium ;—C. K. Aken, on the Transmutation of
Spectral Rays, Part I.:—Dr. Robinson, Report of the Committee on Fog Signals ;—Report
of the Committee on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—E. Smith, Abstract of Report by
the Indian Government on the Foods used by the Free and Jail Populations in India ;—A.
Gages, Synthetical Researches on the Formation of Minerals, &c.;—R. Mallet, Preliminary
Report on the Experimental Determination of the Temperatures of Volcanic Foci, and of the
Temperature, State of Saturation, and Velocity of the issuing Gases and Vapours ;—Report
of the Committee on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Fifth Report of the Committee
on Steamship Performance; G. J. Allman, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge
of the Reproductive System in the Hydroida ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Five Balloon Ascents
made in 1863;— P. P. Carpenter, Supplementary Report on the Present State of our Know-
ledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North America ;—Professor Airy,
Report on Steam-boiler Explosions;—C. W. Siemens, Observations on the Electrical Resist-
ance and Electrification of some Insulating Materials under Pressures up to 300 Atmo-
spheres ;—C. M. Palmer, on the Construction of Iron Ships and the Progress of Iren Ship-
building on the Tyne, Wear, and Tes ;—Messrs. Richardson, Stevenson, and Clapham, on
the Chemical Manufactures of the Northern Districts ;—Messrs. Sopwith and Richardson,
on the Local Manufacture of Lead, Copper, Zinc, Antimony, &c. ;—Messrs. Daglish and
Forster, on the Magnesian Limestone of Durham ;—I. L. Bell, on the Manufacture of Iron
in connexion with the Northumberland and Durham Coal-field ;—T. Spencer, on the Manu-
facture of Steel in the Northern District ;—H. J. 8. Smith, Report on the Theory of Num-
bers, Part V.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir William Armstrong’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or rue THIRTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Bath,
September 1864. Published at 18s.

Contents :—Report of the Committee for Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Report
of the Committee on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Mea-
sures ;—T. S. Cobbold, Report of Experiments respecting the Development and Migration
of the Entozoa ;—B. W. Richardson, Report on the Physiological Action of Nitrite of Amy];
—J. Oldham, Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations ;—G. S. Brady, Report on
deep-sea Dredging on the Coasts of Northumberland and Durham in 1864 ;—J. Glaisher,
Account of Nine Balloon Ascents made in 1863 and 1864 ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Further Report
on Shetland Dredgings ;—Report of the Committee on the Distribution of the Organic
Remains of the North Staffordshire Coal-field;—Report of the Committee on Standards of
Electrical Resistance ;—G. J. Symons, on the Fall of Rain in the British Isles in 1862 and
1863 ;—W. Fairbairn, Preliminary Investigation of the Mechanical Properties of the pro-
posed Atlantic Cable.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Charles Lyell’s Address, and Recom
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

265

PROCEEDINGS or true THIRTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Birming-
ham, September 1865, Published at £1 5s.

Contents :—J. G. Jeffreys, Report on Dredging among the Channel Isles ;—F. Buckland
Report on the Cultivation of Oysters by Natural and Artificial Methods ;—Report of the
Committee for exploring Kent’s Cavern ;—Report of the Committee on Zoological Nomen-
clature ;—Report on the Distribution of the Organic Remains of the North Staffordshire
Coal-field ;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of the South Coast of Devon and Corn-
wall ;—Interim Report on the Resistance of Water to Floating and Immersed Bodies ;—Re-
port on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;— Report on Dredging on the Coast of Aberdeen-
shire ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Three Balloon Ascents ;—Interim Report on the Transmis-
sion of Sound under Water ;—G. J. Symons, on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—W. Fair-
bairn, on the Strength of Materials considered in relation to the Construction of Iron Ships ;
—Report of the Gun-Cotton Committee ;—A. F. Osler, on the Horary and Diurnal Variations
in the Direction and Motion of the Air at Wrottesley, Liverpool, and Birmingham ;—B. W.
Richardson, Second Report on the Physiological Action of certain of the Amyl Compounds ;
—Report on further Researches in the Lingula-flags of South Wales ;—Report of the Lunar
Committee for Mapping the Surface of the Moon ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Re-
sistance ;—Report of the Committee appointed to communicate with the Russian Govern-
ment respecting Magnetical Observations at Tiflis ;—Appendix to Report on the Distribution
of the Vertebrate Remains from the North Staffordshire Coal-field ;—H. Woodward, First
Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—H. J. S. Smith, Report
on the Theory of Numbers, Part VI.;—Report on the best means of providing for a Unifor-
mity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the interests of Science ;—A. G. Findlay,
on the Bed of the Ocean;—Professor A. W. Williamson, on the Composition of Gases
evolved by the Bath Spring called King’s Bath.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Professor Phillips’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or ruz THIRTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Notting-
ham, August 1866, Published at £1 4s.

Conrents :—Second Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire ;—A. Matthiessen, Preliminary
Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;
—W. S. Mitchell, Report on the Alum Bay Leaf-bed;—Report on the Resistance of Water
to Floating and Immersed Bodies;—Dr. Norris, Report on Muscular Irritability ;—Dr.
Richardson, Report on the Physiological Action of certain compounds of Amyl and Ethyl ;—
H. Woodward, Second Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossjl Crustacea ;—
Second Report on the “ Menevian Group,” and the other Formations at St. David’s, Pem-
brokeshire ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report on Dredging among the Hebrides ;—Rev. A. M. Norman,
Report on the Coasts of the Hebrides, Part 1I.;—J. Alder, Notices of some Invertebrata, in
connexion with Mr. Jeffreys’s Report ;—G. 8. Brady, Report on the Ostracoda dredged
amongst the Hebrides ;—Report on Dredging in the Moray Firth ;—Report on the Transmis-
sion of Sound-Signals under Water ;—Report of the Lunar Committee ;—Report of the
Rainfall Committee ;—Report on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights
and Measures, with reference to the Interests of Science ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Three Bal-
loon Ascents ;—Report on the Extinct Birds of the Mascarene Islands ;— Report on the pene-
tration of Iron-clad Ships by Steel Shot ;—J. A. Wanklyn, Report on Isomerism among the
Alcohols ;—Report on Scientific Evidence in Courts of Law ;—A. L. Adams, Second Report

on Maltese Fossiliferous Caves, &c.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Grove’s Address, and Recommendations

of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at
Dundee, September 1867, Published at £1 6s.

Contents :—Report of the Committee for Mapping the Surface of the Moon ;—Third
Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire;—On the present State of the Manufacture of Iron:
in Great Britain ;—Third Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;
—Report on the Physiological Action of the Methyl Compounds ;—Preliminary Report on
the Exploration of the Plant-Beds of North Greenland ;—Report of the Steamship Perform-
ance Committee ;—On the Meteorology of Port Louis in the Island of Mauritius ;—On the
Construction and Works of the Highland Railway ;—Experimental Researches on the Me-

1870. 18

266

chanical Properties of Steel ;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of the South Coast of
Devon and Cornwall ;—Supplement to a Report on the Extinct Didine Birds of the Masca-
rene Islands ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Fourth Report on Dredging
among the Shetland Isles ;—Preliminary Report on the Crustacea, &c., procured by the
Shetland Dredging Committee in 1867 ;—Report on the Foraminifera obtained in the Shet-
land Seas;—Second Report of the Rainfall Committee ;--Report on the best means of
providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the Interests of
Science ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the Association
and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Nor-
wich, August 1868, Published at £1 5s.

ConrEnts :—Report of the Lunar Committee;—Fourth Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devon-
shire ;—On Puddling Iron ;—Fourth Report on the Structure and Classification of the
Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on British Fossil Corals;—Report on Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances;— Report of Steamship Performance Committee ;—Spectrum Analysis
of the Heavenly Bodies;—On Stellar Spectrometry ;—Report on the Physiological Action of
the Methyl and allied Compounds ;—Report on the Action of Mercury on the Biliary
Secretion ;—Last Report on Dredging among the Shetland Isles;—Reports on the Crustacea,
&c., and on the Annelida and Foraminifera from the Shetland Dredgings ;— Report on the
Chemical Nature of Cast Iron, Part I.;—Interim Report on the Safety of Merchant Ships
and their Passengers ;—Reyport on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Preliminary Report
on Mineral Veins containing Organic Remains ;—Report on the desirability of Explorations
between India and China;—Report of Rainfall Committee ;—Report on Synthetical Re-
searches on Organic Acids ;—Report on Uniformity of Weights and Measures ; —Report of the
Committee on Tidal Observations ;—Report of the Committee on Underground Temperature;
—Changes of the Moon’s Surface ;—Report on Polyatomic Cyanides.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Hooker’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or raz THIRTY-NINTH MEETING, at Exeter, Au-
gust 1869, Published at £1 2s.

Contents :—Report on the Plant-beds of North Greenland ;—Report on the existing
knowledge on the Stability, Propulsion, aud Sea-going Qualities of Ships ;—Report on
Steam-boiler Explosions ;—Preliminary Report on the Determination of the Gases existing
in Solution in Well-waters;—The Pressure of Taxation on Real Property ;—On the Che-
mical Reactions of Light discovered by Prof. Tyndall;—On Fossils obtained at Kiltorkan
Quarry, co. Kilkenny ;—Report of the Lunar Committee ;—Report on the Chemical Na-
ture of Cast Iron;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of the south coast of Devon
and Cornwall ;—Report on the Practibility of establishing ‘‘a Close Time” for the Protec-
tion of Indigenous Animals ;—Experimental Researches on the Mechanical Properties of
Steel ;—Second Report on British Fossil Corals ;—Report of the Committee appointed to
get cut and prepared Sections of Mountain-limestone Corals for Photographing ;—Report on
the rate of Increase of Underground Temperature ;—Fifth Report on Kent’s Cavern, De-
vonshire ;—Report on the Connexion between Chemical Constitution and Physiological
Action ;—On Emission, Absorption, and Reflection of Obscure Heat ;—Report on Obser-
vations of Luminous Meteors ;—Report on Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;—Report on
the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Supplement to Second Report of the Steam-
ship-Pevformance Committee ;—Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hyperelliptic
Functions ;—Report on Mineral Veins in Carboniferous Limestone and their Organic Con-
tents ;—Notes on the Foraminifera of Mineral Veins and the Adjacent Strata ;—Report of
the Rainfall Committee ;—Interim Report on the Laws of the Flow and Action of Water
containing Solid Matter in Suspension;—Interim Report on Agricultural Machinery ;—
Report on the Physiological Action of Methyl and Allied Series ;—On the Influence of
Form considered in Relation to the Strength of Railway-axles and other portions of Machi-
nery subjected to Rapid Alterations of Strain ;—On the Penetration of Armour-plates with
Long Shells of Large Capacity fired obliquely ;—Report on Standardsof Electrical Resistance.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Stokes’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

Printed by Taylor and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOR

THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND MEMBERS.

CORRECTED TO MARCH 1871.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1870-71.

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

Sir RopERIcK I. Murcutson, Bart., K.C.B., G.C.St.S., D.C.L., F.R.S.
General Sir Epwarp SaBInE, K.C.B., R.A., D.C.L., Pres. B.S.
Sir PHILIP DE M. GrEY EGERTON, Bart., M.P., F.B.S.

PRESIDENT. :
Tt. H, HUXLEY, LL.D., F.R.8., F.L.S., F.G.S8., Professor of Natural History in the Royal School of
Mines.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

The Right Hon. Lorp DEergy, LL.D., F.R.8. 8. R. GRAVES, Esq., M.P.

The Right Hon. W. E. GLapsroner, D.C.L., M.P. | James P. Jour, Esq., LL.D., D.C.L.,
Sir Puruip DE M. GREY EGERTON, Bart., M.P. JOSEPH MAYER, Esq., F.S.A., F.R.G.S.
Sir Josepa WHIT WwoRTH,Bart.,LL.D.,D.C.L.,F.R.8.

PRESIDENT ELECT.

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.8.L. & E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
the University of Glasgow.

. VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
His Grace The DUKE oF BuccLEUCH, K.G., D.C.L.,| Sir RopERick I. Murcuison, Bart., K.C.B.,
F.R.S. G.C.87.8., D.C.L., F.R.S.
The Right Hon. The Lorp Provost of Edinburgh. | Sir CHARLES LYELL, Bart., D.C.L., res F.G.8.

The Right Hon. Jonny Inauis, D.C.L., Lu.D., Lord | Dr. Lyon PLayrarr, M.P., C.B., F.R.S.
Justice General of Scotland, Professor CHRISTISON, M.D., D.C.L, Pres, R,S.E.
Sir ALEXANDER GRANT, Bart., M.A., Principal of
the University of Edinburgh.
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT EDINBURCH.
- Professor A. CkUuM Brown, M.D., F.R.S.B.
J. D. Marwick, Esq., F.R.S.E.
LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT EDINBURCH.
Davip Sm17u, Esq., Treas. R.S.E.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
BavEMAN, J. F., Esq., F.R.S. NEWMARCH, WILLIAM, Esq., F.R.S.
Brppor, JOHN, M.D. NoRTHCOTE,Rt,Hon.Sir STAFFORDH.,Bt.,M.P.
Busk, GEORGE, Eagq., F.R.8. Ramsay, Professor, F.R.S.
Desus, Dr. H., F.R.S. RANKINE, Professor W. J. M., F.R.S.
De La RUE, WARREN, Esq., F.R.S. SHARPEY, WILLIAM, M.D., Sec. R.S.
EVANS, JOHN, Esq., F.R.S. Simon, Joun, D.C.L., F.R.8.
GaLTon, Capt. Douatas, C.B., R.E., F.R.8. STRANGE, Lieut.-Colonel A., F.R.S.
GALTON, FRANCIS, Esq., F.R.8. SyYKEs, Colonel, M.P., F.R.S.
GassioT, J. P., Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S. TITE, Sir W., M.P., F.R.S.
Gopwin-AusTEn, R. A. C., Esq., F.R.8. TYNDALL, Professor, LL.D., F.R.8.
Hovueuton, Right Hon. Lord, DOL, F.R.S. WALLACE, A. R., Esq., F.R.G.8. ~
Hueains, WILLIAM, Esgq., F.R.S. WHEATSTONE, Professor Sir C., F.R.S.
LUBBOCK, Sir JoHN, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. WILLI4 MS0N, Professor A. W., F.R.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

The President and President Elect, the Vice-Presidents and Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and
Assistant General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presidents of former

years, viz. :—

Rey. Professor Sedgwick. General Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B. Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D.
The Duke of Devonshire. | The Earl of Harrowby. Sir Chas. ig) Bart., M.A., LL.D.
Rey. W. V. Harcourt. The Duke of Argyll. Professor Phillips, M.A., D.C.L.
Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. | The Rey. H. Lloyd, D.D. William R. Grove, Esq., F.R.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart., K.C.B. | Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. The Duke of Buccleuch, K.B.

The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Sir W. Fairbairn, Bart., LL.D. Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, D.C.L.
G. B. Airy,Esq.,AstronomerRoyal. | The Rey. Professor Willis, F.R.8.| Professor Stokes, D.C.L.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.

Dr. T. ARCHER Hirst, F.R.S.,F.R.A.8., The Atheneum Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W.
Dr. THomas THomson, F.R.8., F.L.S., The Athenseum Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
GEORGE GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Harrow.

GENERAL TREASURER.
WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE, Hsq., M.A., F.R.S8., F.R.G.8., 50 Grosvenor Place, London, 8.W.

AUDITORS.
G@. Busk, Esq., F.R.S. Professor M. Foster, M.D., F.L.S8. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq., F.R.S.

LIST OF MEMBERS
OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.

Set.

* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report.
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report.
} indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names without any mark before them are Life Members not
entitled to the Annual Report.
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known
are in ttalics,

Notice of changes of Residence should be sent to the Assistant General Secretary,
22 Albemarle Street, London, W,

Year of
Election.
Abbatt, Richard, F.R.A.S. Marlborough-house, Woodberry Down,
Stoke Newington, London, N.
1866, {Abbott, George J., United States Consul, Sheffield and Nottingham.
1863. *Abel, Frederick Augustus, F.R.S., F.C.S., Director of the Chemical
Establishment of the WarDepartment, Royal Arsenal, Woolwich.
1856, tAbercrombie, John, M.D. 13 Sutfolk-square, Cheltenham.
1863. *Abernethy, James. 2 Delahay-street, Westminster, London, 8.W.
1860. §Abernethy, Robert. Ferry-hill, Aberdeen.
1854, {Abraham, John. 87 Bold-street, Liverpool.
1869, {Acland, Charles T. D. Sprydoncote, Exeter.
Acland, Henry W. D., M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S8., Regius
Professor of Medicine in the University of Oxford. Broad-street,
Oxford.
Acland, Sir Thomas Dyke, Bart., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S. JGllerton, Devon.
1860. {Acland, Thomas Dyke, M.A., D.C.L., M.P. Sprydoncote, Exeter
and Atheneum Club, London, 8.W.
Adair, John. 13 Merrion-square North, Dublin.
*Adair, Colonel Sir Robert A. Shafto, F.R.S, 7 Audley-square, Lon-
don, W.
*Adams, John Couch, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of
the Observatory and Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and
Geometry in the University of Cambridge, The Observatory,
Cambridge,
B

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Dlection.

1869.

1869,
1865.
1845.

1864.

1842,
1859.

1855.

1861.
1862.
1861.

1857.
1859,

1858.
1850.
1851.
1869.
1867.
1865.
1859.
1862.

1861.
1852.
1863.

1868.
1866.
1844.

1855.

1855.
1850.
1852.
1855.
1850.
1859,

*Adams, William Grylls, M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Natural Philo-
sophy and Astronomy in King’s College, London, W.C.

Adderley, The Right Hon. Sir Charles Bowyer, M.P. Hams-hall
Coleshill, Warwickshire.

Adelaide, Augustus Short, D.D., Bishop of. South Australia.

*Adie, Patrick. Grove Cottage, Barnes, London, 8. W.

*Adkins, Henry. The Firs, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

tAinslie, Rey. G., D.D., Master of Pembroke College. Pembroke
Lodge, Cambridge.

*Ainsworth, David. The Flosh, Cleator, Whitehaven.

Ainsworth, Peter. Smithills Hall, Bolton.

*Ainsworth, Thomas. The Flosh, Cleator, Whitehaven.

fAirlie, The Right Hon. The Earl of, K.T. Holly Lodge, Campden
Hill, London, W. ; and Airlie Castle, Forfarshire.

Airy, George Biddell, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Astro-
nomer Royal. The Royal Observatory, Greenwich.

tAitkin, John, M.D. 21 Blythswood-square, Glasgow.

Alvoyd, Edward, M.P. Banlkfield, Halifax.

*Alcock, Ralph. 47 Nelson-street, Oxford-street, Manchester.
tAlcock, Sir Rutherford. The Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, London.
tAlecock, Thomas, M.D. Side Brook, Salemoor, Manchester.
*Aldam, William. Frickley Hall, near Doncaster.

Alderson, Sir James, M.A., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Pres. Roy. Coll.
Physicians, Consulting Physician to St. Mary’s Hospital. 17
Berkeley-square, London, W.

fAldridge, John, M.D. 20 Ranelagh-road, Dublin.

fAlexander, Colonel Sir James Hdward, K.C.L.S., F.R.A.S., FLR.G.S.

Westerton, Bridge of Allan, N. B.

tAlexander, William, M.D. Halifax.

fAlexander, William Lindsay, D.D., F.R.S.E. Edinburgh.
tAlexander, W.H. Bank-street, Ipswich.

tAlger, T. L.

fAlison, George L. C. Dundee.

tAllan, Miss. Bridge-street, Worcester.

fAllan, Alexander. Scottish Central Railway, Perth.

tAllan, James, M.A., Ph.D. School of Practical Science, Sheffield.
Allan, William. 22 Carlton-place, Glasgow.

fAllen, Richard. Didsbury, near Manchester.

Allen, William. 50 Henry-street, Dublin.

*Allen, William J. C., Secretary to the Royal Belfast Academical
Institution. Ulster Bank, Belfast.

tAllhusen, C. Elswick Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Allis, Thomas, F.L.S. Osbaldwick Hall, near York.

*Allman, George J., M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., M.R.LA., 20 Gloucester
Road, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.

tAllon, Rev. H.

fAllsopp, Alexander. The Park, Nottingham.

*Ambler, Henry. The Granges, near Halifax.

*Amery, John, F.S.A. Manor House, Eckington, Pershore.

eee Alexander D., M.D, 159 St. Vincent-street, Edin-
ureh,

tAnderson, Andrew. 2 Woodside-crescent, Glasgow.
tAnderson, Charles William. Cleadon, South Shields.
tAnderson, Sir James. Glasgow.

tAnderson, James. Springfield Blantyre, Glasgow.
tAnderson, John. 31 St. Bernard’s-crescent, Edinburgh.
tAnderson, Patrick, 15 King-street, Dundee,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 3

Year of
Election.

1850.
1870.
1853.

1857.
1859,

fAnderson, Thomas, M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of
Glasgow.
§Anderson, Thomas Darnley. West Dingle, Liverpool.

*Anderson, William (Yr.). Linktown, Kirkcaldy, Scotland.
*Andrews, Thomas, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.C.8., Vice-President of,
and Professor of Chemistry in, Queen’s College, Belfast.

tAndrews, William. The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
fAngus, John. Town House, Aberdeen.
*Ansted, David Thomas, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.8S. 33 Bruns-
wick-square, London, W.C.
Anthony, John, M.D. Caius College, Cambridge.
fAnstie, Francis E., M.D, 16 Wimpole-street, London, W.
Apjohn, James, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Professor of Chemistry,
Trinity College, Dublin. 52 Lower Bagot-street, Dublin.
tAppleby,C.J. Emerson-street, Bankside, Southwark, London, 8.E.

. Arbuthnot, C. T.
. §Archer, Francis, jun. 8 Brunswick-street, Liverpool.

*Archer, Thomas C., F.R.S.E., Director of the Museum of Science
and Art. 9 Argyll-place, Edinburgh.

. tArgyll, The Duke of, K.T., LL.D., PRS. L. & E., F.G.S. Argyll

Lodge, Kensington, London; and Inverary, Argyllshire.
tArmitage, J. W., M.D. 9 Huntriss-row, Scarborough.

§Armitage, William. 7 Meal-street, Mosley-street, Manchester.

*Armitstead, George, M.P. Errol Park, Errol, by Dundee.

Armstrong, Thomas. Higher Broughton, Manchester.

*Armstrong, Sir William George, C.B., LL.D.,D.C.L., F.R.S. 8 Great
aa London, 8.W.; and Elswick Works, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.

Bicdiakrone William Jones, M.A. Mount Irwin, Tynna, Co. Armagh.

tArnold, Edward. . Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.

Arnott, Neil, M.D., I’.R.S., F.G.S. 2 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s
Park, London, N. W.

§Arnott, Thomas Reid. 2 Church Road, Seaforth, Liverpool.

§Arrowsmith, John, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. 35 Hereford-square, South
Kensington, London, 8. W.

*Arthur, Rey. William, M.A. Methodist College, Belfast.

*Ash, Linnington. Holsworthy, North Devon.

*Ashton, Thomas, M.D. ' 8 Royal Wells-terrace, Cheltenham.

Ashton, Thomas. Ford Bank, Didsbury, Manchester.
tAshwell, Henry. Mount-street, New Basford, Nottingham.
*Ashworth, Edmund. Egerton Hall, Turton, near Bolton.
Ashworth, Henry. Turton, near Bolton.
tAspland, Alfred. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.
siaccget Algernon Sydney. Glamorgan House, Durdham Down,
ristol.

§Asquith, J. R. Infirmary-street, Leeds.

tAston, Thomas. 4 Elm-court, Temple, London, E.C.

tAtherton, Charles. Sandover, Isle of Wight.

§Atherton, J. H., F.C.8. Long-row, Nottingham.

tAtkin, Alfred. Griffin’s-hill, Birmingham.

tAtkin, Eli. Newton Heath, Manchester.

*Atkinson, Edmund, F.C.8. 7 The Terrace, Sandhurst, Farnborough
Station.

*Atkinson, G. Clayton. Wylam Hall, Northumberland.

. *Atkinson, John Hastings. 14 East Parade, Leeds.

*Atkinson, Joseph Beavington. Stratford House, 13 Carlisle-terrace,
Kensington, London, W.

4 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1861. tAtkinson, Rey. J. A. Longsight Rectory, near Manchester.

1858, *Atkinson, J. R. W. 387 Upper George-street, Bryanstone-square,
London, W.

Atkinson, William. Ashton Hayes, near Chester.

1863. *Attfield, Dr. J. 17 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C.

* Auldjo, John, F.G.S.

1859. { Austin, Alfred.

1860, *Austin-Gourlay, Rey. William E. C., M.A. Stoke Abbott Rectory,
Beaminster, Dorset.

1865. *Avery, Thomas. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1865. *Avery, William Henry. Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1867. §Avison. Thomas, F.S.A. Fulwood Park, Liverpool.

1853. *Ayrton, W.S., F.S.A. Saltburn-by-the-Sea.

Babbage, B. H. 1 Dorset-street, Manchester-square, London, W.

*Babbage, Charles, M.A., F.R.S. L. & E., Hon. M.R.LA., F.R.AS.
1 Dorset-street, Manchester-square, London, W.

*Babington, Charles Cardale, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor
of Botany in the University of Cambridge. 5 Trumpington-
road, Cambridge.

Bache, Rey. Samuel. 44 Frederick-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1845. {Back, Rear-Admiral Sir George, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S, 109
Gloucester-place, Portman-square, London, W.

1867, *Bagg, Stanley Clark. Fairmount Villa, Montreal, Canada.

Backhouse, Hdmund. Darlington.

1863, {Backhouse, J. W. Sunderland.

Backhouse, Thomas James. Sunderland.

*Baddeley, Captain Frederick H., R.E. 10 Sutherland Place, West-
bourne Grove, Bayswater.

1870, §Bailey, F. J. 51 Grove-street, Liverpool.

Bailey, Samuel. Sheffield.

1865. {Bailey, Samuel, F.G.8. The Peck, Walsall.

1855. {Bailey, William. Horseley Fields Chemical Works, Wolverhampton.

1866. {Baillon, Andrew. St. Mary’s Gate, Nottingham.

1866. {Baillon, L. St. Mary’s Gate, Nottingham.

1857. {Baily, William Hellier, F.L.S., F.G.S., Acting Paleontologist to the
Geological Survey of Ireland. 51 Stephen’s Green, and 24
Kenilworth-square North, Dublin.

*Bain, Richard. Care of Williams, Foster, & Co., St. Clement’s
House, Clement’s-lane, London, F.C.

1865, {Bain, Rey. W. J. Wellingborough.

*Bainbridge, Robert Walton. Middleton House, Middleton-in-Tees-
dale, by Darlington.

*Baines, Edward, M.P. 28 Grosyenor-street West, London, S.W. ;
and Headingley Lodge, Leeds.

1858. {Baines, Frederick. Burley, near Leeds.

1865. §Baines, Thomas, F.R.G.S._ 35 Austen-street, King’s Lynn, Norfolk.

1858. {Baines, T. Blackburn. ‘Mercury’ Office, Leeds.

1866, §Baker, Francis B. Arboretum Street, Nottingham.

1858. *Baker, Henry Granville. Bellevue, Horsforth, near Leeds.

1865. {Baker, James P. Wolverhampton.

1861. *Baker, John. Gatley-hill, Cheadle, Cheshire.

1861. *Baker, John. (R. Brooks & Co., St. Peter’s Chambers, Cornhill,
London, C.E.) ;

1865, {Baker, Robert I. Barham House, Leamington.

1847. {Baker, Thomas B. Lloyd. Hardwick-court, Gloucester.

1849. *Baker, William. 63 Gloucester-place, Hyde Park, London, W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 5.
Year of
Election.
1863. §Baker, William. 6 Taptonville, Sheffield.
1845, {Bakewell, Frederick. 6 Haverstock-terrace, Hampstead, London,
N.W.
1860. §Balding, James, M.R.C.S. Barkway, Royston, Hertfordshire.
1851, *Baldwin, The Hon. Robert, H.M, Attorney-General. Spadina, Co.

1866,
1863.

1870.
1869,

1852.
1861,

1870.
1866.
1861.
1859,

1855,
1852,
1860.
1868,
1863.
1860.
1857.

1865.
1870.

1857,
1861,

1864.
1868,

1859.

1861.
1860.

York, Upper Canada.

*Balfour, John Hutton, M.D., M.A., F.R.S. L. & E., F.L.S., Professor
of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. 27 Inverleith-row,
Edinburgh.

*Ball, John, F.R.S., F.L.S., M.R.LA. 24 St. George’s Road, Eccles-
ton Square, London, 8.W.

*Ball, Robert Stawell, M.A., Professor of Applied Mathematics and
Mechanies in the Royal College of Science of Ireland. 47 Wel-
lington-place, Upper Leeson-street, Dublin.

tBall, Thomas. Bramcote, Nottingham.

*Ball, William. Bruce-grove, Tottenham, London, N.; and Rydall,
Ambleside, Westmoreland.

§Balmain, W. H. Spring Cottage, Great St. Helens.

{Bamber, Henry K. 5 Westminster Chambers, Victoria-street, West-
minster, S. W.

{Bangor, Viscount. Castleward, Co. Down, Ireland.

{Bannerman, James Alexander. Limefield House, Higher Broughton,
near Manchester,

§Banister, Rey. William, B.A. St. James’s Mount, Liverpool,

tBarber, John. Long-row, Nottingham.

*Barbour, George. Hdge Hall, Malpas, Chester.

{Barbour, George IF. Bouskeid, Edinburgh.

*Barbour, Robert. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester.

tBarclay, Andrew. Kilmarnock, Scotland.

Barclay, Charles, F.S.A., M.R.A.S. Bury-hill, Dorking.
Barclay, James. Catrine, Ayrshire.

*Barclay, J. Gurney. Walthamstow, Essex.

*Barclay, Robert. Oak Hall, Wanstead, Essex.

*Barclay, W. L. Knott’s Green, Leyton, Hssex.

*Barford, James Gale. Wellington College, Berkshire.

*Barker, Rey. Arthur Alcock, B.D. Hast Bridgeford Rectory, Notts.

{Barker, John, M.D., Curator of the Royal College of Surgeons of
Ireland. Waterloo Road, Dublin.

{Barker, Stephen. 30 Frederick-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Barkly, Sir Henry, K.C.B., F.R.S. Bath.

Barlow, Lieut.-Col. Maurice (14th Regt. of Foot). 5 Great George-
street, Dublin. :
Barlow, Peter. 5 Great George-street, Dublin.

{Barlow, Peter William, F.R.S., F.G.S. 8 Eliott-place, Blackheath,

S.E

*Barnard, Major R. Cary, F.L.S, Bartlow, Leckhampton, Chelten-
ham.

*Barneby, John H. Brockhampton Park, Worcester.

§Barnes, Richard H. 40 Kensington Park Gardens, London, W.

*Barnes, Thomas, M.D., F.R.S.E. Bunker’s Hill, Carlisle.

Barnes, Thomas Addison. 40 Chester Street, Wrexham.

*Barnett, Richard, M.R.C.S. Avon-side, Coten End, Warwick-
shire,

{Barr, Major-General, Bombay Army. Culter House, near Aberdeen.
(Messrs. Forbes, Forbes & Co., 9 King William-street, London.)

*Barr, William R. Heaton Lodge, Heaton Mersey, near Manchester,

tBarrett, T. B, High-street, Welshpool, Montgomery,

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1852.
1866.
1858,

1862,

1858.
1855.
1858.
1868.
1857.

1852.

1864.
1870.
1858.

1861.
1866.
1866.
1869.
1848.
1868.

1842.
1864.

1852.
1851.
1863.
1869.

1863.
1861.
1867.
1867.
1867.
1870.

1867.
1851.
1866.
1854.

1868.

1860.

1835.
1861.
1870.
1866.

{Barrington, Edward. Fassaroe Bray, Co. Wicklow.

tBarron, William. Elvaston Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby.

{Barry, Rev. A., D.D., D.C.L., Principal of King’s College, London,
W.C.

*Barry, Charles. Lapswood, Sydenham-hill, Kent, 8.E.
Barstow, Thomas. Garrow-hill, near York.
*Bartholomew, Charles. Broxholme, Doncaster.
tBartholomew, Hugh. New Gas-worls, Glasgow.
*Bartholomew, William Hamond. Albion Villa, Spencer-place, Leeds.
*Barton, Edward (27th: Inniskillens). Clonelly, Ireland,
tBarton, Folloit W. Clonelly, Co. Fermanagh. —
{Barton, James. Farndreg, Dundalk.
*Barton, John. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.
{Bartrum, John 8. 41 Gay-street, Bath.
§Baruchson, Arnold. Blundell Sands, near Liverpool.
*Barwick, John Marshall. Albion-place, Leeds; and Glenview,
Shipley, near Leeds.
*Bashforth, Rey. Francis, B.D. 15 Campbell-terrace, Plumstead,
Kent, S.E.
{Bass, John H., F.G.S. 287 Camden-road, London, N.
*Bassett, Henry. 12 South-crescent, Bedford-square, London, W.C.
{Bassett, Richard. Pelham-street, Nottingham.
{Bastard, S. 8. Summerland-place, Exeter.
{Bate, C. Spence, F.R.S., F.L.S. 8 Mulgrave-place, Plymouth,
{Bateman, Frederick, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
Bateman, James, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., FHS. Biddulph Grange,
near Congleton, Staffordshire.
*Bateman, John Frederic, C.E., F.R.S., F.G.8. 16 Great George-
street, London, 8.W.
§Bates, ee eta Assist.-Sec. R.G.S. 15 Whitehall-place, Lon-
don, S.W.
{Bateson, Sir Robert, Bart. Belvoir Park, Belfast.
{Bath and Wells, Lord Arthur Hervey, Lord Bishop of.
*Bathurst, Rev. W. H. Lydney, Gloucestershire.
tBatten, John Winterbotham. 85 Palace Gardens-terrace, Kensing-
ton, London, 8. W.
§Bauerman, Henry, I'.G.S. 22 Acre-lane, Brixton, London, 8. W.
{Baxendell, Joseph, F.R.A.S. 108 Stock-street, Manchester.
*Baxter, Sir David, Bart. Kilmaron, Cupar, Fifeshire.
tBaxter, Edward. Hazel Hall, Dundee.
{Baxter, John B. Craig Tay House, Dundee.
§Baxter, R. Dudley, M.A. 6 Victoria-street, Westminster, 8.W., and
Hampstead.
{Baxter, William Edward, M.P. Ashcliffe, Dundee.
*Bayley, George. 2Cowper’s-court, Cornhill, London, E.C.
{Bayley, Thomas. Lenton, Nottingham.
tBaylis, C.O,., M.D. 22 Devonshire Road, Claughton, Birkenhead.
Bayly, John. 1 Brunswick-terrace, Plymouth.
{Bayes, William, M.D. Brunswick Lodge, Newmarket-road, Norwich.
*Beale, Lionel 8., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology and of Gene-
ral and Morbid Anatomy in King’s College, London. 61 Gros-
venor-street, London, W.
*Beamish, Richard, F.R.S. Woolston Lawn, Woolston, Southampton.
§Bean, William. Alfreton, Derbyshire.
§Beard, Rey. Charles. 13 South Hill Road, Toxteth Park, Liverpool.
*Beardmore, Nathaniel, C.E.,F.G.S. 80GreatGeorge-st., London,S. W.
*Beatson, William. Chemical Works, Rotherham.

LIST OF MEMBERS. i

Year of
Election.

1855,

1861.
1871.

1859,
1851.
1864.
1860,

1866.
1870.
1854.
1846.

1865,

1847.
1850.

1859.
1860.
1855.
1862.
1870.
1853.
1859.
1864.

1863.

1867.

1842.
1854.

1866,

1864,
1870.

1850.

1870.
1870.
1852.
1857.

1848.
1870.
1863.
1848.

1842.

*Beaufort, William Morris, F.R.G.S., M.R.A.S, Oriental Club,
Hanover-square, London, W.

*Beaumont, Rey. Thomas George. Chelmondiston Rectory, Ipswich.

*Beazley, Capt. George G, Army and Navy Club, Pall Mall, Lon-

don, S.W.

*Beck, Joseph, F.R.A.S, 31 Cornhill, London, E.C.

{Becker, Ernest, Ph.D. Darmstadt.

§Becker, Miss Lydia E. 28 Jackson’s-row, Albert Sq., Manchester.

{Beckles, ae i, F.R.S.,F.G.8, 9Grand Parade, St. Leonards-
on-Sea.

{Beddard, James. Derby-road, Nottingham,

§Beddoe, John, M.D. Clifton, Bristol.

{ Bedford, James, Ph.D.

{Beke, Charles T., Ph.D., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. ~Bekesbourne House,
near Canterbury, Kent,

*Belavenetz, I., Captain of the Russian Imperial Navy, F.R.1.G.S8.,
M.S.C.M.A., Superintendent of the Compass Observatory,
Cronstadt. (Care of Messrs, Baring Brothers, Bishopsgate-
street, London, H.C.)

*Belcher, Vice-Admiral Sir Edward, K.C.B., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S,
22a Connaught-square, London, W.

}Bell, Charles, M.D. 3 St- Colme-street, Edinburgh.

Bell, Frederick John. Woodlands, near Maldon, Essex,

tBell, George. Windsor-buildings, Dumbarton.

}Bell, Rev. George Charles, M.A. Christ’s Hospital, London, EC.

{Bell, Capt. Henry. Chalfont Lodge, Cheltenham.

*Bell, Isaac Lowthian. The Hall, Washington, Co. Durham,

§Bell, J. Carter. Gilda Brooth, Eccles, Manchester.

{Bell, John Pearson, M.D. Waverley House, Hull,

{Bell, Robert, jun. 38 Airlie-place, Dundee.

{Bell, R. Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada.

Bell, Thomas, F.R.S., F.L.S., F°.G.8., Professor of Zoology, King’s
College, London. The Wakes, Selborne, near Alton, Hants,

*Bell, Thomas. The Minories, Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Bell, Thomas. Belmont, Dundee,

Bellhouse, Edward Taylor. Hagle Foundry, Manchester.

{Bellhouse, William Dawson. 1] Park-street, Leeds.

Bellingham, Sir Alan. Castle Bellingham, Ireland.

*Belper, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S, 88
Eaton-square, London, 8.W. ; and Kingston Hall, Derby.

*Bendyshe, T. The Library, King’s College, Cambridge,

§Bennett, Alfred W., M.A., B.Sc, F.LS, 3 Park Village East,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W. ;

{Bennett, John Hughes, M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Institutes of
Medicine in the University of Edinburgh. 1 Glentinlas-strect,
Edinburgh.

*Bennett, William. Heyshem Tower, Lancaster.

*Bennett, William, jun. Sir Thomas’s Buildings, Liverpool.

*Bennoch, Francis. The Knoll, Blackheath, Kent, S.E.

{Benson, Charles. 11 Fitzwilliam-square West, Dublin.

Benson, Robert, jun. Fairfield, Manchester,

{Benson, Starling, F.G.S. Gloucester-place, Swansea,

§Benson, W. Alresford, Hants.

{Benson, William. Fourstones Court, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Bentham, George, F.R.S., Pres. L.S, 25 Wilton-place, Knightsbridge.
London, 8.W.

Bentley, John. 9 Portland-place, London, W.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1863,

1868.
1863.
1848.
1866.
1870.
1862.
1865,
1858.

1859,
1863,

1870.
1868,

1863.
1864,
1855.

1842,

1866,

1842,
1861.
1841,

1868.
1866.
1863.
1869,

1859.
1855.
1870.

1863.
1863,
1849
1846.

1845.
1861.

1868.
1869.

§Bentley, Robert, F.L.S., Professor of Botany in King’s College.
55 Clifton-road, St. John’s-wood, London, N.W.
tBerkeley, Rey. M. J., M.A., F.L.S. Sibbertoft, Market Harborough.
tBerkley, C. Marley Hill, Gateshead, Durham.
tBerrington, Arthur V. D. Woodlands Castle, near Swansea.
§Berry, Rey. ArthurGeorge. Monyash Parsonage, Bakewell,Derbyshire.
§Berwick, George, M.D. 36 Fawcett-street, Sunderland.
{Besant, William Henry, M.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
*Bessemer, Henry. Denmark-hill, Camberwell, London, 8.E.
tBest, William. lLeydon-terrace, Leeds.
Bethune, Rear-Admiral, C.B., F.R.G.8. Balfour, Fifeshire.
{Beveridge, Robert, M.B. 20 Union-street, Aberdeen.
tBewick, Thomas John, F.G.S. Haydon Bridge, Northumberland.
*Bickerdike, Rev. John, M.A. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Leeds.
§Bickerton, A. W.,F.C.S. Oak House, Belle View Road, Southampton.
{Bidder, George Parker, C.E., F.R.G.S. 24 Great George-street,
Westminster, S. W.
tBigger, Benjamin. Gateshead, Durham.
tBigegs, Robert. 17 Charles-street, Bath.
{Billings, Robert William. 4St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, London, N,
Bilton, Rey. William, M.A., F.G.S. United University Club, Suffolk-
street, London, 8.W.; and Chislehurst, Kent.
Binney, Edward William, F.R.S., F.G.S. 40 Cross-street, Manchester.
Birchall, Edwin. College-house, Bradford.
Birchall, Henry. Airedale Cliff, Newley, Leeds.
*Birkin, Richard, jun. The Park, Nottingham.
*Birks, Rev. Thomas Rawson. ‘Trinity College, Cambridge.
*Birley, Richard. Seedley, Pendleton, Manchester.
{Birley, Thomas Thorneley.
*Birt, William Radcliff, F.R.A.S. Cynthia-villa, Clarendon-road,
Walthamstow, London, N.E.
{Bishop, John. Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich.
{Bishop, Thomas. Bramcote, Nottingham.
{Black, William. South Shields.
{Blackall, Thomas. 13 Southernhay, Exeter.
Blackburne, Rey. John, M.A. Yarmouth, Isle of Wight.
wena Rey. John, jun., M.A. Rectory, Horton, near Chip-
enham.
tBlackie, John Stewart, Professor of Greek, Edinburgh.
*Blackie, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S. 1 Belhayven-terrace, Glasgow.
§Blackmore, W. Founder’s Court, Lothbury, London, E.C.
*Blackwall, Rey. John, F.L.S. Hendre House, near Llanrwst, Den-
bighshire. |
{Bladen, Charles. Jarrow Iron Company, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
tBlake, C. Carter, Ph.D., F.G.S. 170 South Lambeth-road, Lon-

don, 8. W.

*Blake, Henry Wollaston, M.A., F.R.S. 8 Devonshire-place, Portland-
place, London, W.

*Blake, William. Bridge House, South Petherton, Somerset.

{Blakesley, Rev. J. W., B.D. Ware Vicarage, Hertfordshire.

§Blakiston, Matthew. Mobberley, Knutsford.

Resa te Peyton, M.D., F.R.S. Warrior-square, St. Leonard’s-
on-Sea.

{Blanc, Henry, M.D. 9 Bedford-street, Bedford-square, London, W.C.

{Blandford, W. T., F.G.S., Geological Survey of India, Calcutta, (12
Keppel-street, Russell-square, London, W.C.)

Blanshard, William. Redcar. EP

LIST OF MEMBERS.

io)

Year of
Election.

1870.

1859.
1859,

1850.

1858.

1870.

1845.
1864,
1866,
1859,

1859,

1849,
1866.
1863.

1866.
1861
1835.

1861,
1861
1861,
1849,
1863,

1867.

1858.
1868,

1850.
1870.

1866.
1858.
1868.
1870.
1867.
1846.

1856.
1863,

1869.

Blore, Edward, F.S.A. 4 Manchester-square, London, W.
§Blundell, Thomas Weld. Ince Blundell Hall, Great Crosby, Lan-
cashire.
{Blunt, Sir Charles, Bart. Heathfield Park, Sussex.
{Blunt, Capt. Richard. Bretlands, Chertsey, Surrey.
Blyth, B. Hall. 135 George-street, Edinburgh.
{Blyth, John, M.D., Professor of Chemistry in Queen’s College, Cork.
*Blythe, William. Holland Bank, near Accrington.
§Boardman, Edward. Queen-street, Norwich.
Boase, C. W. Royal Bank, Dundee.
{Bodmer, Rodolphe. Newport, Monmouthshire.
{Boge, J. Louth, Lincolnshire.
§Boge, Thomas Wemyss. Louth, Lincolnshire.
*Bohn, Henry G., F.LS., F.R.AS., F.R.G.S. North Enda House,
Twickenham, London, 8. W.
{Bolster, Rey. Prebendary John A. Cork.
Bolton, R. L, Laurel Mount, Aigburth-road, Liverpool.
{Bolton, Thomas. Hyde House, near Stourbridge.
{Bond, Banks. Low Pavement, Nottingham.
{Bond, Francis T., M.D. Hartley Institution, Southampton.
Bond, Henry John Hayes, M.D. Cambridge.
Bonomi, Ignatius. 386 Blandford-square, London, N.W.
aay oseph. Soane’s Museum, 15 Lincoln’s-Inn-fields, London,
W v

tBooker, W. H. Cromwell-terrace, Nottingham.

§Booth, James. Castlemere, Rochdale.

tBooth, Rey. James, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S, The Vicarage, Stone,
near Aylesbury.

*Booth, John. Greenbank, Monton, near Manchester.

*Booth, William. Holybank, Cornbrook, Manchester.

*Borchardt, Dr. Louis. Oxford Chambers, Oxford-street, Manchester.

{Boreham, William W., F.R.A.S. The Mount, Haverhill, Newmarket.

tBorries, Theodore. Lovaine-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Bossey, Francis, M.D. Oxford-road, Red Hill, Surrey.

Bosworth, Rey. Joseph, LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A., M.R.LA., Professor

of Anglo-Saxon in the University of Oxford. Oxford.

§Botly, William, F.S.A. Salisbury Villa, Hamlet-road, Upper Nor-
wood, London, 8.E.

{Botterill, John. Burley, near Leeds.

{Bottle, J.T. 28 Nelson-road, Great Yarmouth.

Bottomley, William. TF orbreda, Belfast.
tBouch, Thomas, C.E. 1 South Hanoyer-street, Edinburgh.
§Boult, Swinton. 1 Dale-street, Liverpool.

Bourne, Lieut.- Colonel J. D.

§Bourne, Stephen. Abberley Lodge, Iludstone-drive, Harrow, N.W.

tBousfield, Charles. Roundhay, near Leeds.

{Boulton, W.S. Norwich.

§Bower, Anthony. Bowerdale, Seaforth, Liverpool.

{Bower, Dr. John. Perth.

*Bowerbank, James Scott, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.LS., F.R.A.S.
2 Hast Ascent, St. Leonard’s-on-Sea.

*Bowlby, Miss F. E. 27 Lansdown-crescent, Cheltenham.

{Bowman, R. Benson. Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Bowman, William, F.R.S. 5 Clifford-street, London, W.
§Bowring, Charles T. Elmsleigh, Princes’ Park, Liverpool.
tBowring, Sir John, LL.D., F.R.S. Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall,

London, 5. W.; and Claremont, Exeter.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1869.
1863.
1863.

1865.

1869.

1870,

1864.
1861.

1842.

1857.

1863.
1862.

1858.
1864.

1870.

1864.
1865.

1867.
1861.

1852.

1857.
1869.

1859,

1859,
1867,

1868.
1869.
1860.

1854.

1866.
1865.

1867.
1870.
1870.
1866.

1870.
1866.
1863.

1870.

{Bowring, J.C. Larkbeare, Exeter.

{Bowron, James. South Stockton-on-Tees,

§Boyd, Edward Fenwick. Moor House, near Durham.
Boyle, Alexander, M.R.I.A. 35 College Green, Dublin.

tBoyle, Rev. G. D. Soho House, Handsworth, Birmingham.
Brabant, R. H., M.D. Bath.

*Braby, Frederick, F.G.S., F.C.S. Mount Henley, Sydenham Hill,

S.E

§Brace, Edmund. 17 Water-street, Liverpool.
Bracebridge, Charles Holt, F.R.G.S. The Hall, Atherstone, War-
wickshire.
§ Bradbury, Thomas. Longroyde, Brighouse.
*Bradshaw, William. 35 Mosley-street, Manchester.
*Brady, Sir Antonio, F.G.S. Maryland Point, Stratford, Essex.
*Brady, Cheyne, M.R.LA. Four Courts, Co. Dublin,
Brady, Daniel F., M.D. 5 Gardiner’s Row, Dublin.
tBrady, George 8. 22 Fawcett-street, Sunderland.
§Brady, Henry Bowman, F'.L.8., F.G.5. 40 Mosley-street, Newcastle-
on-T'yne.
TBrae, Andrew Edmund. 29 Park-square, Leeds.
§Braham, Philip. 6 George-street, Bath.
§Braidwood, Dr. Delemere Terrace, Birkenhead.
§Braikenridge, Rev. George Weare, M.A.,F.L.S. Clevedon, Somerset.
§Bramwell, Frederick J.,C.E. 37 Great George-street, London, 8. W.
Brancker, Rey. Thomas, M.A. Limington, Somerset.
{Brand, William. Milnefield, Dundee.
*Brandreth, Henry. 19 Finsbury-circus, London, B.C,
Brandreth, John Moss. Preston, Lancashire.
tBrazier, James 8. Professor of Chemistry in Marischal College and
University of Aberdeen.
tBrazill, Thomas. 12 Holles-street, Dublin.
*Breadalbane, The Right Hon. Karlof. Taymouth Castle, N.B.; and
Carlton Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W.
a somata C. Audit Office, Somerset House, London,
W.

*Brebner, James. Moss Villa, Hlgin, N.B.
{Brechin, The Right Rev. Alexander Penrose Forbes, Lord Bishop
of, D.C.L. Castlehill, Dundee.

§Bremridge, Elias. 17 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C.

{Brent, Colonel Robert. Woodbury, Hxeter.

tBrett, G. Salford.

*Brett, Henry Watkins.

{Brettell, Thomas (Mine Agent), Dudley.

§Brewin, William. Cirencester.

§Bridgman, William Kenceley. 69 St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

*Bridson, Joseph R. Belle Isle, Windermere.

§Brierley, Joseph, C.E. Newmarket-street, Blackburn.

*Briges, Arthur, Hon. Sec. Phil. Soc., Bradford, Yorkshire.

*Briggs, General John, F.R.S., M.R.A.S., F.G.S. 2 Tenterden-sireet,

ondon, W.

*Brigg, John. Keighley, Yorkshire.

§Briges, Joseph. Ulverstone, Lancashire. :

*Bright, Sir Charles Tilston, C.E., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S. 69
Lancaster Gate, W.; and 6 Westminster Chambers, Victoria-
street, London, 8. W.

§Bright, H. A., M.A., F.R.G.S. Ashfield, Knotty Ash.

Bright, The Right Hon, John, M.P. Rochdale, Lancashire.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 1l

Year of
Election.
1868. {Brine, Commander Lindesay, Army and Navy Club, Pall Mall,
London, 8. W.
1863. {Brivit, Henri.
1842, Broadbent, Thomas. Marsden-square, Manchester.
1859, {Brodhurst, Bernard Edwin. 20 Grosyenor-street, Grosvenor-square,
London, W.
1847. {Brodie, Sir Benjamin C., Bart., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry
in the University of Oxford. Cowley House, Oxford.
1834. {Brodie, Rey. James. Monimail, Fifeshire.
1865. {Brodie, Rev. Peter Bellenger, M.A., F.G.S. Rowington Vicarage,
near Warwick.
1853, {Bromby, J. H., M.A. The Charter House, Hull.
Bromilow, Henry G. Merton Bank, Southport, Lancashire.
*Brooke, Charles, M.A., F.R.S. 16 Fitzroy-square, London, W.
1855. {Brooke, Edward. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.
1864. *Brooke, Rey. J. Ingham. Thornhill Rectory, Drewsbury.
1855. {Brooke, Peter William. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.
1863. §Brooks, John Crosse. Wallsend, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1846, *Brooks, Thomas. Cranshaw Hall, Rawstenstall, Manchester.
Brooks, William. Ordfall-hill, East Retford, Nottinghamshire.
1847. {Broome, C. Edward, F.L.S. Elmhurst, Batheaston, near Bath.
1863. *Brough, Lionel H., F.G.S., one of Her Majesty’s Inspectors of Coal-
ines. 11 West Mall, Clifton, Bristol.
1867, =o John Cargill. London Institution, Finsbury Circus, London,

*Broun, John Allan, F.R.S., Late Astronomer to His Highness the
Rajah of Travancore.
1869. {Brown, Mrs, 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, London, W.
1863, {Brown, Alexander Crum, M.D.,I'.R.S.E., Professor of Chemistry in
the University of Edinbugh. 8 Belgrave-crescent, Edinburgh.
Brown, Charles Edward.
1867. {Brown, Charles Gage, M.D. 88 Sloane-street, London, 8.W.
1855. {Brown, Colin. 38 Mansfield-place, Glasgow.
1863. *Brown, Rey. Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Carlisle.
1858. §Brown, Alderman Henry. Bradford.
1865. §Brown, Edwin, F.G.S. Burton-upon-Trent.
1870. §Brown, Horace T, The Bank, Burton-on-Trent.
Brown, Hugh. Broadstone, Ayrshire,
1858. {Brown, John. Barnsley.
1870. hae J. Sore guey D.Sc. Royal Infirmary School of Medicine,
iverpool.
1859. {Brown, J bin Crombie, LL.D., F.L.S. Haddington, Scotland.
1863. {Brown, John H. 29 Sandhill, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1863. {Brown, Ralph. Lambton’s Bank, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1856. *Brown, Samuel, F.S.8., F.R.G.S. The Elms, 42 Larkhall Rise,
Clapham, London, 8. W.
1868. {Brown, Samuel. Grafton House, Swindon, Wilts.
*Brown, Thomas. Lower Hardwick, Chepstow.
*Brown, William. 11 Maiden-terrace, York-road, Upper Holloway,
t London, N.
1855. {Brown, William. 11 AlbanyPlace, Glasgow.
1850. {Brown, William, F.R.S.E. 25 Dublin-street, Edinburgh.
1865. {Brown, William. 41a New-street, Birmingham,
1863. [Browne, B. Chapman. Tynemouth.
1866. *Browne, Rey. J. H. Lowdham Vicarage, Nottingham.
1862. *Browne, Robert Clayton, jun., B.A. Browne’s Hill, Carlow, Ireland.
1865. *Browne, William. The Friary, Lichfield,

LIST OF MEMBER .

Year of
Election.

1865.
1855,

1853.
1852.
1863.
1863.
1868.
1859.
1861.

§Browning, John, F.R.A.S. 111 Minories, London, E.
§Brownlee, James, Jun. 173 St. George’s-road, Glasgow.
Brownlie, Archibald. Glasgow.

tBrownlow, William B. Villa-place, Hull.

{Bruce, Rey. William. Belfast.

*Brunel, H. M. 18 Duke-street, Westminster, S.W.

{Brunel, J. 18 Duke-street, Westminster, S.W.

tBrunton, T. L. Eastfield, St. Boswell’s, Edinburgh.

{Bryant, Arthur C.

{Bryce, James.. York Place, Higher Broughton, Manchester.

Bryce, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.8. High School, Glasgow,
and Bowes Hill, Blantyre, by Glargow.
Bryce, Rey. R. J., LL.D., Principal of Belfast Academy. Belfast.

{Bryson, Alexander, F.R.S.E. Hawkhill, Edinburgh.

{Bryson, William Gillespie. Cullen, Aberdeen.

§Buccleuch and Queensberry, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., D.C.L.,
FERS. L. & E., F.S.L. Whitehall Gardens, London, 8.W.; and
Dalkeith Palace, Edinburgh.

tBuchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee.

Buchanan, Andrew, M.D. Glasgow.
Buchanan, Archibald. Catrine, Ayrshire.
Buchanan, D. C. Poulton cum Seacombe, Cheshire.

*Buck, George Watson. Ramsay, Isle of Man.

§Buckle, Rey. George, M.A. Twerton Vicarage, Bath. ;

*Buckley. Henry. 29 Calthorpe-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Buckman, James, F.L.S., F.G.S. Bradford Abbas, Sherbourne, Dor-

setshire.

tBucknill, J. Hillmorton Hall, Exeter.

*Buckton, George Bowdler, F.R.S., F.L.S. Weycombe, Haslemere,
Surrey.

*Budd, James Palmer. Ystalyfera Iron Works, Swansea.

*Bunbury, Sir Charles James Fox, Bart., F.R.S., F.LS., F.GS.,
F.R.G.S. Barton Hall, Bury St. Edmunds.

. Bunbury, Edward H., M.A., F.G.8. 35 St. James’s-street, London,
S.W

aye
tBunce, John Mackray. ‘ Journal Office,’ New-street, Birmingham.
Bunch, Rey. Robert James, B.D. Emanuel Rectory, Loughborough.
§Bunning, T. Wood. 34 Grey-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Bunt, Thomas G. Nugent-place, Bristol.
*Burd, John. 387 Jewin-street, Aldersgate-street, London, E.C.
{Burdett-Coutts, Miss. Stratton-street, Piccadilly, London, W.
Burgoyne, Sir John F., Bart., G.C.B., Field Marshal, D.C.L., F.R.S.
8 Gloucester-gardens, London, W.
tBurk, J. Lardner, LL.D. 2 North Great George-strect, Dublin.
tBurke, Luke. 4 Albert-terrace, Acton, London, W.
*Burnell, Arthur Coke. Sidmouth, South Devon.
tBurnett, Newell. Belmont-street, Aberdeen.
{Burrows, Montague, M.A., Commander R.N. Oxford.
*Burton, Frederick M. Highfield, Gainshorough.
tBush, W. 7 Circus, Bath.
Bushell, Christopher. Royal Assurance-buildings, Liverpool.

. *Busk, George, F.R.S., V.P. L.S., F.G.S., Examiner in Comparative

Anatomy in the University of London, 32 Harley-street, Cayen-
dish-square, London, W.

{Butt, Isaac, Q.C. 4 Henrietta-street, Dublin.

*Buttery, Alexander W. Monkland Iron and Steel Company, Cardar-
roch, near Airdrie. ;

LIST OF MEMBERS. 13

Year of
Election.

1870.

1868.
1854,

1852,

1858.
1863.
1854,
1858.
1863.
1861.

1855.
1857.
1868,
1868.
1857.

1842.
1853.
1857.
1870.
1859.
1857.

1855.

1852.
1859.
1862.
1853.

1868.
1861.

1867.
1867,

1854.
1845.

1849.
1842.

1861.

§Buxton, David, Principal of the Liverpool Deaf and Dumb Institu-
tion, Oxford-street, Liverpool.
Buxton, Edward North.
{Buxton, 8. Gurney. Catton Hall, Norwich.
}Byerley, Isaac, ELS. Seacombe, Liverpool.
Byng, William Bateman. Orwell Works House, Ipswich.
{Byme, Very Rev. James. Ergenagh Rectory, Omagh, Armagh.

Cabbell, Benjamin Bond, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. 1 Brick-
court, Temple, E.C.; and 52 Portland-place, London, W.
§Cail, John. Stokesley, Yorkshire.
{Cail, Richard. The Fell, Gateshead.
§Caine, Nathaniel. Broughton Hall, Broughton-in-Furness.
*Caine, Rey. William, M.A. Ducie-grove, Oxford-road, Manchester.
{Caird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire.
*Caird, James Key. Finnart on Loch Long, by Helensburgh,
Glasgow.
*Caird, James T. Greenock.
tCairnes, Professor. Queen’s College, Galway.
tCaley, A. J. Norwich.
tCaley, W. Norwich.
aoe aah N. J., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Maynooth
ollege.

Callender, W. R._ The Elms, Didsbury, Manchester.
tCalver, KE. K., R.N. 21 Norfolk-street, Sunderland.
tCameron, Charles A., M.D. 17 Ely-place, Dublin.
§Cameron, John, M.D. 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
t{Campbell, Rey. C. P., Principal of King’s College, Aberdeen.
a hee Dugald, F.C.S. 7 Quality-court, Chancery-lane, London,

tCampbell, Dugald, M.D. 186 Sauchiehall-street, Glaseow.
Campbell, Sir Hugh P. H., Bart. 10 Hill-street, Berkeley-square,
London, W. ; and Marchmont House, near Dunse, Berwickshire.

*Campbell, Sir James. 29 Ingram-street, Glasgow.

Campbell, John Archibald, F.R.S.E. Albyn-place, Edinburgh,

{Campbell, William. Donegal-Square West, Belfast.

tCampbell, William. Dunmore, Argyllshire.

*Campion, Rev. William M. Queen’s College, Cambridge.

t{Camps, William, M.D., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 84 Park-street, Grosvenor-
square, London, W.

*Cann, William. 9 Southernhay, Exeter.

*Carew, William Henry Pole. Antony, Torpoint, Devonport.

Carlisle, Harvey Goodwin, D.D., Lord Bishop of. Carlisle.
tCarlton, James. Mosley-street, Manchester.

Carmichael, David (Engineer). Dundee.

§Carmichael, George. 11 Dudhope-terrace, Dundee.

Carmichael, H. 18 Hume-street, Dublin.
Carmichael, John T. C. Messrs. Todd & Co., Cork.

*Carpenter, Philip Pearsall, B.A., Ph.D. Montreal, Canada.

{Carpenter, Rev. R. Lant, B.A. Bridport.

{Carpenter, William B., M.D., F.B.S., F.LS., F.G.S., Registrar of
ee of London. 56 Regent’s Park Road, London,
N.W. :

{Carr, William. Gomersal, Leeds.

*Carr, ee M.D., F.LS., F.R.C.S. Lee Grove, Blackheath,
Ss

*Carrick, Thomas. 5 Clarence-street, Manchester,

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1867.

1861.
1857.
1868.
1870.
1866.
1855,

1262.

1870.
1868.
1866.
1842.

1853.
1859.
1866.

1849.
1860.

1870.
1858.
1860.
1842.
1842.
1842.
1859,
1861,

1859.
1865.
1868.
1842.

1868,
1865.

1865.
1865.
1861.
1850.
1866,

1861.
1866.
1854.
1836,

§Carruthers, William, F.L.S., F.G.S. British Museum, London, W.C.
*Carson, Rey. Joseph, D.D., M.R.L.A. 18 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
{Carte, Alexander, M.D. Royal Dublin Society, Dublin.

§Carteighe, Michael, F.C.S. 172 New Bond-street, London, W.

§Carter, Dr. William. 69 Elizabeth-street, Liverpool.

{Carter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham.

{Carter, Richard, C.E. Long Carr, Barnsley, Yorkshire.

*Cartmell, Rev. James, D.D., F.G.S., Master of Christ’s College.

‘Christ College Lodge, Cambridge.
Cartmell, Joseph, M.D. Carlisle.

tCarulla, Facundo, F.A.S.L. Care of Messrs. Daglish and Co., 8 Har-
rington-street, Liverpool.

§Cartwright, Joseph. 70 King-street, Dunkinfield.

{Cary, Joseph Henry. Newmarket-road, Norwich.

{Casella, L. P., F.R.A.S. South Grove, Highgate, London, N

*Cassels, Rey. Andrew, M.A. Batley, near Leeds.

Castle, Charles. Clifton, Bristol.

{Cator, John B., Commander R.N. 1 Adelaide-street, Hull.

{Catto, Robert. 44 King-street, Aberdeen.

tCatton, Alfred R., M.A., F.R.S.E. Dundonnell House, Ding-
wall, N.B.

{Cawley, Charles Edward. The Heath, Kirsall, Manchester.

tCayley, Arthur, LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S., Sadlerian Professor of
Mathematics in the University of Cambridge. Garden House,
Cambridge.

Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborough.
Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet. Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire.

§Chadburn, C. H. Lord-street, Liverpool.

*Chadwick, Charles, M.D, 35 Park-square, Leeds.

§Chadwick, David, M.P.

Chadwick, Edwin, C.B. Richmond, Surrey.
Chadwick, Elias, M.A. Pudleston-court, near Leominster.
Chadwick, John. Broadfield, Rochdale.

{Chadwick, Robert. Highbank, Manchester.

{Chadwick, Thomas. Wilmslow Grange, Cheshire.

*Challis, Rev. James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Plumian Professor of
Astronomy in the University of Cambridge. 13 Trumpington-
street, Cambridge.

t{Chalmers, John Inglis. Aldbar, Aberdeen.

{Chamberlain, J. H. Christ Church-buildings, Birmingham.

{Chamberlin, Robert. Catton, Norwich.

Chambers, George. High Green, Sheffield.
Chambers, John. Ridgefield, Manchester.

t{Chambers, W. O. Lowestoft, Suffolk.

*Champney, Henry Nelson. The Mount, York.

tChance, A. M. Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Chance, James Simmers. Handsworth, Birmingham.

§Chance, Robert Lucas. Chad Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Chapman, Edward, M.A. Frewen Hall, Oxford.

{Chapman, Prof. E. J. 4 Addison-terrace, Kensington, London, W.

t{Chapman, Ernest T., F.C.S, 21 London-villas, Deyonport-road
Shepherd’s Bush, London, W.

*Chapman, John. Hill End Mottram, Manchester.

{Chapman, William. The Park, Nottingham.

{ Chapple, Frederick.

Charlesworth, Edward, F.G.8. Whittington Club, Arundel-street,
London, W.C.

we ee

LIST OF MEMBERS. 15

Year of

Election.

1863, tCharlton, Edward, M.D. 7 Eldon-square, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1863. { Charlton, F.

1866, {Charnock, Richard Stephen, Ph.D., F.S.A.,F.R.G.8. 8 Gray’s Inn-

1867.
1864.

1842.
1853.

1865,

1842.
1863.
1859.
1861.

1870.
1860.

1857.
1868.
1863.
1863.

1855,

1858.
1869.

1857.

1859.

1846.
1861.
1855.
1865.

1861.
1842.
1851,

1861.

1856.
1866.
1857.
1850.

1859,

square, London, W.C.
Chatto, W. J. P. Union Club, Trafalgar-square, London, 8.W.

*Chatwood, Samuel. 2 Wentworth-place, Bolton.

tCheadle, W. B., M.A., M.D., F.R.G.S. 6 Hyde Park-place, Cum-
berland Gate, London, W. .

*Cheetham, David. 12 Camden-crescent, Bath.

*Chesney, Major-General Francis Rawdon, R.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.,

F.R.G.S. Ballyardle, Newry, Kilkeel, Co. Down.

*Chevallier, Rev. Temple, B.D., F.R.A.S., Professor of Mathematics
and Astronomy in the University of Durham. ‘The College,
Durham.

§Child, Gilbert W., M.A., M.D., F.L.S. Elmhurst, Great Missenden,
Bucks.

*Chiswell, Thomas. 17 Lincoln-grove, Manchester,

{Cholmeley, Rey. C. H. Dinton Rectory, Salisbury.

tChristie, John, M.D. 46 School-hill, Aberdeen.

{Christie, Professor R. C., M.A. 7 St. James’s-square, Manchester.

Christison, Robert, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.E., Professor of Dietetics,
Materia Medica, and Pharmacy in the University of Edinburgh. -
Edinburgh.

§Church, A. H., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Agricul-

tural College, Cirencester.

EP a Selby, M.A. 1 Harcourt Buildings, Temple, London,

{Churchill F., M.D. 15 Stephen’s Green, Dublin,

{Clabburn, W. H. Thorpe, Norwich.

{Clapham, A. 38 Oxford-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

TClapham, Henry. 5 Summerhill-grove, Newcastle-on-Tyne. -
§Clapham, Robert Calvert. Wincomblee, Walker, Newcastle-on-

e.
iephen, Samuel. 17 Park-place, Leeds.
§Clapp, Frederick. 44 Maedalen-street, Exeter.
tClarendon, Frederick Villiers. 11 Blessington-street, Dublin.
*Clark, Rev. Charles, M.A.
Clark, Courtney K. Haugh End, Halifax.
tClark, David. Coupar Angus, Fifeshire.
Clark, G. T. Bombay; and Athenzeum Club, London, 8.W.
*Clark, Henry, M.D, 4 Upper Moira-place, Southampton.
tClark, Latimer. 1 Victoria-street, Westminster, London, S.W.
tClark, Rev. William, M.A. Barrhead, near Glasgow.
{Clarke, Rev. Charles. Charlotte-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Clarke, George. Mosley-street, Manchester.
*Clarke, J. H. 5 Shakespeare-street, Ardwick, Manchester.
Clarke, Joseph. Waddington Glebe, Lincoln.
{Clarke, Joshua, F.L.S. Fairycroft, Saffron Walden.
Clarke, Thomas, M.A. Knedlington Manor, Howden, Yorkshire,
tClay, Charles, M.D. 101 Piccadilly, Manchester.
*Clay, Joseph Travis, F.G.S. _Rastrick, near Brighouse, Yorkshire.
*Clay, Lieut.-Col. William. Park-hill House, The Dingle, Liverpool.
{Clayden, Rey. P. W. Clarendon-street, Nottingham.
*Clayton, David Shaw. Norbury, Stockport, Cheshire.
{Cleghorn, Hugh, M.D., F.L.8., late Conservator of Forests, Madras.
Stravithy, St. Andrews, Scotland.
tCleghorn, John, Wick.

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1861.
1857,

§Cleland, John, M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in
Queen’s College, Galway.
tClements, Henry. Dromin, Listowel, Ireland.
tClerk, Rev. D. M. Deverill, Warminster, Wiltshire.
Clerke, Rey. C. C., D.D., Archdeacon of Oxford and Canon of Christ
Church, Oxford. Milton Rectory, Abingdon, Berkshire.

. tClibborn, Edward. Royal Irish Academy, Dublin.

. §Clifford, Willliam Kingdon, Trinity College, Cambridge.

. {Clift, John E., C.E. Redditch, Bromsgrove, near Birmingham.

. *Clifton, R. Bellamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi-

mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Portland
Lodge, Park Town, Oxford.
Clonbrock, Lord Robert. Clonbrock, Galway.

. tClose, The Very Rey. Francis, M.A. Carlisle.
. §Close, Thomas, F.S.A. St. James’s-street, Nottingham.

Clough, Rey. Alfred B., B.D. Brandeston, Northamptonshire.
tClouston, Rey. Charles. Sandwick, Orkney.

. *Clouston, Peter. 1 Park-terrace, Glasgow.
. §Clutterbuck, Thomas. Warkworth, Acklington.

{Coaks, J. B. Thorpe, Norwich.

. *Coats, Sir Peter. Woodside, Paisley.
. *Coats, Thomas. Fergeslie House, Paisley.

Cobb, Edward. South Bank, Weston, near Bath.

- *Cobbold, John Chevallier, M.P. Holywells, Ipswich; and Athe-

neum Club, London, 8.W.

. §Cobbold, T. Spencer, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Lecturer on Zoology and

Comparative Anatomy at the Middlesex Hospital. 84 Wimpole-
street, Cavendish-square, London, W.

. tCockey, William. 38 Burnbank Gardens, Glasgow.

. *Coe, Rey. Charles C. Seymour House, Seymour-street, Leicester.

. *Cochrane, James Henry. Woodside, Carrigrohane, Co, Cork.

. {Coghill, H. Newcastle-under-Lyme.

. tColchester, William, F.G.S. Grundesburgh Hall, Ipswich.

. {Colchester, W. P. Bassingbourn, Royston.

. {Cole, Edward. 11 Hyde Park-square, London, W.

59. *Cole, Henry Warwick, Q.C. 2Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, Lon-

don, W.C.

. {Coleman, J. J., F.C.S.

. *Colfox, William, B.A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire.

. {Colles, William, M.D. 21 Stephen’s Green, Dublin.

. *Collie, Alexander. 12 Kensington Palace Gardens, London, W.

. §Collier, F. W. Woodtown, Horrabridge, South Devon,

. {Collinge, John.

. $Collingwood, Cuthbert, M.A., M.B., F.L.S. Fair Mile, Henley-on-

Thames,

- *Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. Anthropological Society, 4 St.

Martin’s-place, London, W.C.

. *Collins, James Tertius. Churchfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

Collis, Stephen Edward. Listowel, Ireland.

. *Colman, J. J., M.P. Carrow House, Norwich; and 105 Cannon-

street, London, E.C.

. §Coltart, Robert. Devonshire-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

Colthurst, John. Clifton, Bristol.

. [Colvill, W. H.
: *Combe, Thomas, M.A. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

*Compton, The Rey. Lord Alwyn. Castle Ashby, Northamptonshire,

. *Compton, Lord William. 145 Piccadilly, London, W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 17

Year of
Election.

1852.

1858.
1864,
1859.
1861.
1863,

1868,

1868.

1859.

1865.

1862.
1863.

1869.
1850,
1868.
1846,
1868.
1863.
1842.
1842.
1855.

1870,

1860.

1857.

1855.
1864,

1869.
1865.

1834.

1863.
1863.

1860.
1867.

1867.
1867,

{Connal, Michael. 16 Lynedock-terrace, Glasgow.
{Conybeare, Henry. 20 Duke-street, Westminster, S.W.
*Conwell, Eugene Alfred, M.R.I.A. Trim, Co. Meath, Ireland.
tCook, E. R. Stamford-Hill, London, N.
* Cook, Henry. das
tCooke, Edward William, R.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. Glen Andred,
ee Sussex; and Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, Lon-
don, 8. W.
tCooke, Rev. George H. The Parsonage, Thorpe, Norwich.
Cooke, James R., M.A. 73 Blessineton-street, Dublin.
Cooke, J. B. Cavendish Road, Birkenhead.
§Cooke, M. C. 2 Junction-villas, Upper Holloway, London, N.
Cooke, Rev. T. L., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.
Cooke, Sir William Fothergill, Telegraph Office, Lothbury, London,

E.C.

*Cooke, William Henry, M.A., Q.C., F.S.A. 42 Wimpole-street,
London, W.

t{Cooksey, Joseph. West Bromwich, Birmingham.

*Cookson, Rey. H. W., D.D. St. Peter’s College Lodge, Cambridge.

tCookson, N.C. Benwell Tower, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Cooling, Edwin. Mile Ash, Derby.

tCooper, Sir Henry, M.D. 7 Charlotte-street, Hull.

Cooper, James. 58 Pembridge Villas, Bayswater, London, W.
Cooper, W. J. 95 St. George’s-road, Belgravia, London, S.W.
{Cooper, William White. 19 Berkeley-square, London, W.
{tCopeman, Edward, M.D. Upper King-street, Norwich.

{Coppin, John. North Shields.
*Corbet, Richard. Headington-hill, Oxford.

Corbett, Edward. Ravenoak, Cheadle-hulme, Cheshire.
tCorbett, Joseph Henry, M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology,

Queen’s College, Cork.
*Corfield, W. H., M.A., M.B., Professor of Hygiéne and Public Health
in University College, London, W.C.
dag e John Rose, M.D.,F.R.S.E. 5 Bedford-square, London,

t Corner, C. Tinsley.
Cory, Rev. Robert, B.D., F.C.P.S. Stanground, Peterborough.
Cottam, George. 2 Winsley-street, London, W.

{Cottam, Samuel. Brazennose-street, Manchester.
Cotter, John.

{Cotterill, Rev. Henry, Bishop of Grahamstown.

§Cotton, General Frederick C, Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, London,

S.W

tCotton, William. Pennsylvania, Exeter.
*Cotton, Rev. William Charles, M.A. Vicarage, Frodsham, Cheshire.
fCourtald, Samuel, F.R.A.S. 76 Lancaster Gate, London; and
Gosfield Hall, Essex.
tCowan, Charles. Mount Grange, 29 Hope-terrace, Mdinburgh.
Cowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Edinburgh.
tCowan, John A. Blaydon Burn, Durham.
{Cowan, Joseph, jun. Blaydon, Durham.
Cowie, Rey. Benjamin Morgan, M.A. 42 Upper Harley-street,
Cavendish-square, London, W.
fCowper, Edward Alfred, M.LC.E. 6 Great George-street, West-
minster, London, S.W.
*Cox, Edward. Clement Park, Dundee.
*Cox, George Addison. Beechwood, Dundee.
{Cox, James. Clement Park Lochee, Dundee,

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1870.
1850,

1867.
1866.
1867.
1854.

1859.
1857.

1858.
1852.
1857.
1870.

1865.
1858,

1859.
1857.
1855.

1866.

1870.
1865,

1855.
1870.
1859.
1870.
1870.
1861.
1868.
1867,

1853.
1870.
1866.
1865.
186].
1863.
1863.
1860.
1859.
1859.
1851.

1859.

1861.
1861,

*Cox, James. 8 Fallmer-square, Livezpool.

{Cox, John. Georgie Mills, Edinburgh.

Cox, Robert. 26 Rutland-street, Edinburgh.

*Cox, Thomas Hunter. 1 Meadow-place, Dundee.

§Cox, William. 50 Newhall-street, Birmingham.

tCox, William. Fogeley, Lochee, by Dundee,

§Crace- Calvert, Frederick, Ph.D., F.RS., F.C.S., Honorary Beckessan
of Chemistry to the Manchester Royal Institution. Royal In-
stitute, Manchester.

Craig, J. T. Gibson, F.R.S.E. Edinburgh,
tCraig, 8. Clayhill, Enfield, Middlesex.
{Crampton, Rey. Josiah. MRE.LA. The ‘Bectory, Florence-court, Co.
Fermanagh, Treland.

t{Cranage, Edward, Ph.D. The Old Hall, Wellington, Shropshire.

{Crawford, Alexander, jun. Mount Prospect, Belfast.

tCrawford, George Arthur, M.A.

*Crawshay, Mrs. Cyfartha Castle, Merthyr Tydvil.

Creyke, The Venerable Archdeacon. Beeford Rectory, Driffield.

*Crichton, William. 17 India-street, Glasgow.

{Crocker, Edwi in, F.C.S. 76 Hungerford Road, Holloway, London, N.

Croft, Rev. John, M.A., F.C.P.S.

tCrofts, John. Hillary: place, Leeds.

Croker, Charles Phillips, M.D., M.R.I.A. 7 Merrion-square West,
Dublin.

tCroll, A. A. 10 Coleman-street, London, E.C.

{Crolly, Rey. George. May nooth College, Ireland.

{Crompton, Charles, M.A. 22 Hyde Park-square, London, W.

*Crompton, Rey. Joseph, M.A. Bracondale, Norwich.

{Cronin, William. 4 Brunel-terrace, Nottingham.

Crook, William Henry, LL.D.
§Crookes, Joseph. Brook Green, Hammersmith, London.
§Crookes, William, F.R.S., F.G8. 20 Mornington-road, Regent’s
Park, London, N.W.
{Cropper, Rey. John. Wareham, Dosetshire.

eae ield, C. J. 5 Alexander Drive, Princes Park, Liverpool.

tCrosfield, John. Rothay Bank, Ambleside.

*Crosfield, William,jun. 5 Alexander Driv e, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

§Crosfield, William, sen. Annesley, Aigburth, Liverpool.

tCross, Rey. John Edward, M.A. Appleby Vi icarage, near Brige.

{Crosse, Thomas William. St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

§Crosskey, Rev. H. W., F.G.S. 28 George Street, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

{Crosskill, William, C.E. Beverley, Yorkshire.

*Crossley, Edward. Park Road, Halifax.

*Crossley, Louis J., F.M.S. Willow Hall, near Halifax.

tCrotch, George Robert. 8 Pearl- street, Cambridge.

§Crowley, Hemry. Smedley New Hall, Cheetham, Manchester.

§Crowther, Benjamin. Wakefield.

{Cruddas, George. Elswick Engine Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

tCruickshank, John. City of Glasgow Bank, Aberdeen. ae

{Cruickshank, Provost. Macduff, Aberdeen.

tCrum, James. Busby. Glasgow.

{Cull, Richard, F.R.S., FR. G.S. 13 Tay istock-street, acs
London, "W.C.

Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.

{Cumming, Sir A. P. Gordon, Bart. Altyre.

*Cunliffe, ‘Edward Thomas. Handforth, Manchester.

*Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. Handforth, Manchester.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 19

Year of
Election.

1850

1852.

1869

1850.
1855.

1850.
1866,

1867.

1857,
1866.

. ¢{Cunningham, James, F.R.S.E. 50 Queen-street, Edinburgh.

{Cunningham, John. Macedon, near Belfast.

. §Cunningham, Robert O., M.D. The Free Church Manse, Prestonpans,
Scotland.

tCunningham, Rey. William, D.D. 17 Salisbury-road, Edinburgh.

f{Cunningham, William A, Manchester and Liverpool District Bank,
Manchester.

{Cunningham, Rey. W. B. Prestonpans, Scotland. ’

{Cunnington, John, 68 Oakley-square, Bedford New Town, London,
N.W

*Cursetjee, Manockjee, F.R.S.A., Judge of Bombay. Villa-Byculla,
Bombay.

tCurtis, Professor Arthur Hill, LL.D. 6 Trinity College, Dublin.

{Cusins, Rey. F. L. 26 Addison-street, Nottingham.

1834, *Cuthbert, John Richmond. 40 Chapel-street, Liverpool.

1863.
1854.
1863.
1853.
1865.
1867.

1867.

1870.
1850.
1859.
1859.
1867.
1859.
1862.
1859.
1847,
1849.

1859.
1861.

1852.

1848,
1859,

Cuthbertson, Allan. Gilasgow.

tDaglish, John. Hetton, Durham.
{Daglish, Robert, C.E. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan.
{Dale, J. B. South Shields.
{Dale, Rev. P. Steele, M.A. Hollingfare, Warrineton.
{Dale, Rey. R. W. 12 Calthorpe-street, Birmingham.
TDalgleish, Dr.O. Newport, Dundee.
{Dalgleish, W. Dundee.
§Dallinger, Rey. W. H. Greenfield-road, Stoneycroft, Liverpool.
Dalmahoy, James, F.R.S.E. 9 Forres-street; Edinburgh.
{Dalmahoy, Patrick. 69 Queen-street, Edinburgh.
{Dalrymple, Charles Hiptistone. West Hall, Aberdeenshire.
{Dalrymple, Colonel. Troup, Scotland.
*Dalrymple, Donald, M.D., M.P., F.R.G.S. Thorpe Lodge, Norwich.
Dalton, Edward, LL.D., F.S.A. Dunkirk House, Nailswerth.
*Dalton, Rey. James Edward, B.D. Seagrave, Loughborough.
{ Daly, Lieut.-Colonel H. D.
Dalziel, John, M.D. Holm of Drumlanrig, Thornhill, Dumfriesshire,
tDanby, T. W. Downing Collge, Cambridge.
{Dancer, J. B., F.R.A.S. Old Manor House, Ardwick, Manchester.
{Danson, J. Towne. 12 Fitzclarence-street, Liverpool.
*Danson, Joseph, F.C.S. 6 Shaw-street, Liverpool.
Danson, William. 6 Shaw-street, Liverpool.
tDarbishire, Charles James. Rivington, near Chorley, Lancashire,
*Darbishire, Robert Dukinfield, B.A., F.G.S. 26 George-street, Man-
chester.
{Darby, Rev. Jonathan L.
Darwin, Charles R., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8., Hon. F.R.S.E., and
M.R.1.A., Down, near Bromley, Kent.
{Da Silva, Johnson. Burntwood, Wandsworth Conimon, London,
Ss

Ww.
-{Daun, Robert, M.D., Deputy Inspector-General of Hospitals. The
Priory, Aberdeen.
Davey, Richard, F.G.S. Redruth, Cornwall.

1870. §Davidson, Alexander, M.D, 8 Peel-street, Toxteth Park, Liverpool.
1859. {Davidson, Charles. Grove House, Auchmull, Aberdeen.

1859. {Davidson, Patrick. Inchmarlo, near Aberdeen.

1868. {Davie, Rey. W. C. Cringleford, Norwich.

1863,
1870.

1842,

{Davies, Griffith. 17 Cloudesley-street, Islington, London, N.
§Davies, Edward, F.C.S. Royal Institution, Liverpool.
Davies, John Birt, M.D. The Laurels, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Davies-Colley, Dr. Thomas. 40 Whitefriars, Chester
c2

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1870.
1864,

1856.
1859.
1859.
1864.
1887.

1869.

1869

1854.
1859.

1860.
1864.
1865.
1855.

1859.
1865.
1870.
1861.
1870.
1859,
1861.
1854.
1870.

1866.

1869,

*Davis, A. S. Roundhay Vicarage, Leeds.
§Davis, Charles E., F.S.A. 55 Pulteney-street, Bath.
Davis, Rey. David, B.A. Lancaster.
*Davis, Sir John Francis, Bart., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Hollywood,
Westbury by Bristol.
tDavis, J. Barnard, M.D., F.R.S., F.S.A. Shelton, Staffordshire.
*Davis, Richard, F.L.S. 9 St. Helen’s-place, London, I..C,
§Davison, Richard. Great Driffield, Yorkshire. :
tDavy, Edmund W., M.D. Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, near
Dublin.
t{Daw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter.
tDaw, R. M. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
*Dawbarn, William. Elmswood, Aighburth, Liverpool.
tDe-ves, Captain (Adjutant R.A. Highlanders).
Dawes, John Samuel, F.G.S. Smethwick House, near Birmingham.
*Dawes, Tohn T., jun. Smethwick Hall, Smethwick, near Birming-
ham.
{Dawkins, W. Boyd, M.A., F.R.S.,F.G.S. Birchview, Norman-road,
Rusholme, Manchester.
t{Dawson, George, M.A. Shenstone, Lichfield.
*Dawson, Henry. 14 St. James’s-road, Liverpool.
{Dawson, John W., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Principal of M‘Gill College,
Montreal, Canada.
Dawson, John. Barley House, Exeter.
*Dawson, Captain William G. Plumstead Common-road, Kent, 5.E.
{Day, Edward Charles H.
§Deacon,G. F. Rock Ferry, Liverpool.
tDeacon, Henry. Appleton House, near Warrington.
§Deacon, Henry Wade. Appleton House, near Warrington.
t{Dean, David. Banchory, Aberdeen.
t{Dean, Henry. Colne, Lancashire.
§Deane, Henry, F.L.S. Clapham Common, London, 8. W.
*Deane, Rey. Dr. The Chestnuts, Moseley-road, Manchester.
*Deane, Sir Thomas. 26 Longford-terrace, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
tDebus, Heinrich, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Lecturer on Chemistry
at Guy’s Hospital.
*De Grey and Ripon, George Frederick, Earl, D.C.L., F.R.8., ¥.L.8.,
F.R.G.S. 1 Carlton-gardens, London, S.W.

. *De La Rue, Warren, D.C.L., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.R.A.S. Cran-

ford, Middlesex; and Reform Club, London, 8. W.

; §De Meshin, Thomas. 6 Fig Tree-court, Temple, London, I.C.

Denchar, John. Morningside, Edinburgh.
Denison, Sir William Thomas, K.C.B., Col. R.E., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.,
East Brent, Weston-super-Mare, Somerset.
*Dent, Joseph. Ribston Hall, Wetherby.
Dent, William Yerbury. Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, S.E.

. *Denton, J. Bailey. 22 Whitehall-place, London, S.W.
. *Derby, The Right Hon. The Earl of, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 23 St.

James’s-square, London, S.W.; and Knowsley, near Liverpool.
De Saumarez, Rey. Havilland, M.A. St. Peter’s Rectory, North-
ampton.

70. §Desmond, Dr. 44 Irvine-street, Edge Hill, Liverpool.
G8. §Dessé, Etheldred, M.B., F.R.C.S. 48 Kensington Gardens-square,

Bayswater, London, W.
De ert George, Lord, F.Z.S. Tabley House, Knutsford, Che-
shire.

tDevon, The Right Hon, The Earl of. Powderham Castle, near
Exeter,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 21

Year of
Election.

*Devonshire, William, Duke of, K.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.,

F.R.G.S., Chancellor of the University of Cambridge. Devon-
"a House, Piccadilly, London, W.; and Chatsworth, Derby-
shire.

1868. {Dewar, James. Chemical Laboratory, The University, Edinburgh.

- 1858. {Dibb, Thomas Townend. Little Woodhouse, Leeds.

1870. §Dickens, Colonel C. H. Lord-~street, Liverpool.

1852. tDickie, George, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in tho
University of Aberdeen.

1864, *Dickinson, F. H. Kingweston, Somerton, Taunton; and 119 St.
George’s-square, London, S.W

1863. {Dickinson, G. T, Claremont-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1861. *Dickinson, William Leeson 1 St. James’s-street, Manchester.

1867. §Dickson, Alexander, M.D., Professor of Botany in the University of
Glasgow. The College, Glasgow.

1868. {Dickson, J. Thompson. 33 Harley-street, London, W.

1863. *Dickson, William, F.S.A., Clerk of the Peace for Northumberland.
Alnwick, Northumberland.

1862, *Dilke, Sir tee Wentworth, Bart., M.P. 76 Sloane-street, Lon-
don, 8. W.

1848, oe? Lewis Llewelyn, M.P., F.L.S., F.G.S. Parkwern, near

wansea.

1869. §Dingle, Edward. 19 King Street, Tavistock.

1859. *Dinele, Rey. J. Lanchester Vicarage, Durham.

1837, toa air C.E., LL.D., F.C.S. 48 Charing Cross, London,

1868. {Dittmar, W. The University, Edinburgh.
1853. {Dixon, Edward, M.Inst.C.E. Wilton House, Southampton.
1865. {Dixon, L. Hooton, Cheshire.
1858. {Divon, Isaiah.
1861. {Dixon, W. Hepworth, F.S.A., F.R.G.S. 6 St. James’s Terrace,
London, N.W.
1859. {Dixon, William Smith.
*Dobbin, Leonard, M.R.I.A. 27 Gardiner’s-place, Dublin.
1851. {Dobbin, Orlando T., LL.D., M.R.I.A. Ballivor, Kells, Co. Meath.
1860. *Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A. Richmond-road, Ealing, Mid-
dlesex.
1864. *Dobson, William. Oakwood, Bathwick-hill, Bath.
Dockray, Benjamin. Lancaster.
1870. *Dodd, John. 30 Canning-place, Liverpool.
1857. {Dodds, Thomas W., C.E. Rotherham.
*Dodsworth, Benjamin. Burton Croft, York.
*Dodsworth, George. Clifton-grove, near York.
Dolphin, John. Delves House, Berry Edge, near Gateshead.
1851. {Domvile, William C., F.Z.S. Thorn-hill, Bray, Dublin.
1867. {Don, John. The Lodge, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
1867. {Don, William G. St. Margaret’s, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
*Donisthorpe, George Edmund. Belvedere, Harrowgate, Yorkshire.
1869. {Donisthorpe, G. T. St. David’s Hill, Exeter.
1861. {Donnelly, Captain, R.E. South Kensington Museum, London,
W

1857. *Donnelly, William, C.B., Registrar-General for Ireland. 5 Henrietta-
street, Dublin.

1857. {Donovan, M., M.R.I.A. Clare-street, Dublin.

1863. {Doubleday, Thomas. 25 Ridley-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1867. tDougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotscraig, Tayport, Fifeshire.

1863. *Doughty, C. Montagu. 5 Gloucester-place, Portman-square, Lon-
don, W.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1855.
1870.

1857.

1865.
1869.

1868.
1869.
1865.

1858.
1859.
1866.
1863.
1856,

1870.
1867.

1852.
1859.
1859.
1866.
1867.
1853.

1865.
1862.

§Dove, Hector. Rose Cottage, Trinity, near Edinburgh.
§Dowie, J. M. Walstones, West Kirby, Liverpool.
Downall, Rey. John. Okehampton, Devon.

¢ Downing, S., LL.D., Professor of Civil Engineering in the University
of Dublin. Dublin.

*Dowson, E. Theodore. Geldestone, near Beccles, Suffolk.

{Drake, Francis, F.G.S._ Teign House, Hinckley, Leicester.

Drennan, William, M.R.LA. 35 North Cumberland-street, Dublin.

§Dresser, Henry E. The Firs, South Norwood, Surrey.

§Drew, Joseph, F.G.8. Weymouth.

t{Drew, Robert A. 6 Stanley-place, Duke-street, Broughton, Man-
chester.

Drummond, H. Home, F.R.S.E. Blair Drummond, Stirling.
t{Drummond, James. Greenock.

t{Drummond, Robert. 17 Stratton-street, London, W.

*Dry, Thomas. 23 Gloucester-road, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.

{Dryden, James. South Benwell, Northumberland.

*Ducie, Henry John Reynolds Moreton, Earl of, F.R.S._ 1 Belgrave-
square, London, 8.W.; and Tortworth-court, Wotton-under-
Edge.

§Duckworth, Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S, 5 Cook-street, Liverpool.

*Duff, Mounstuart Ephinstone Grant-, LL.B., M.P. 4 Queen’s Gate-
ardens, South Kensington, London, W.; and Eden, near Banff,
cotland.

{Dufferin, The Rt. Hon. Lord. Highgate, London,N. ; and Clandeboye,
Belfast.

*Duncan, Alexander. 7 Princes Gate, London,

{Duncan, Charles. 52 Union-place, Aberdeen.

*Duncan, James. 5 Highbury Hill, London, N.

Duncan, J. F., M.D. 8 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.

§Duncan, Peter Martin, M.D., F’.R.S., Sec. G.S., Professor of Geology

in King’s College, London. 40 Blessington-road, Lee, 8.E. —
Dunlop, Alexander. Clober, Milngavie, near Glasgow.

*Dunlop, William Henry. Annan-hill, Kilmarnock, Ayrshire.

§Dunn, David. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B.

§Dunn, Robert, F.R.C.S. 31 Norfolk-street, Strand, London W.C.

sh Ny Rey. Joseph, M.A., F.C.P.S. Thicket Hall,
ork.

{Du Noyer, George V. 51 Stephen’s Green, Dublin.

*Dunraven, Edwin, Earl of, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. Adare
Manor, Co. Limerick; and Dunraven Castle, Glamorganshire.

{Duns, Rev. John, F. RSL.

{Dunyille, William. Richmond Lodge, Belfast.

{Duprey, Perry. Woodbury Down, Stoke Newington, London, N.

tD'Urban, W. S. M., F.LS. 4 Queen-terrace, Mount Radford,
Exeter.

. {Durham, Arthur Edward, F.R.C.S., F.L.S., Demonstrator of Ana-

tomy, Guy’s Hospital. 82 Brook-street, Grosvenor-square, Lon-
don, W.
Durnford, Rey. R. Middleton, Lancashire.

. {Dwyer, Henry L., M.A., M.B. 67 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin.

Dykes, Robert. Kilmorie, Torquay, Devon.
§Dymond, Edward E. Oaklands, Aspland Guise, Woburn.
§Dysdale, Dr. 36.4 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

tEade, Peter, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
tEadson, Richard. 13 Hyde-road, Manchester.
fEarle, Rev, A. Rectory, Monkton Farleigh, Bath.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 23

Year of
Election.

1863.
1870.
1867.

1861:
1858.

Earle, Charles, F.GS.
*Earnshaw, Rey. Samuel, M.A. Broomfield, Sheffield.
§Easton, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham
Eaton, Rev. George, M.A. The Pole, Northwich.
§Eaton, Richard. Nottingham.
Ebden, Rev. James Collett, M.A., F.R.A.S, Great Stukeley Vicarage,
Huntingdonshire.
{Kckersley, James. Leith Walk, Edinburgh.
tEcroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley.
*Hddison, Francis. North Laiths, Ollerton, Notts.
*Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S. Carleton Grange, Skipton.
Eden, Thomas. Talbot-road, Oxton.
*Kdgeworth, Michael P., F.L.S.,F.R.A.S. Mastrim House, Anerley,
London, 8.E.

. {Edmiston, Robert. Elmbanlk-crescent, Glasgow.

. {Edmond, James. Cardens Haugh, Aberdeen.

. *Edmonds, F. B, 7 York-place, Northam, Southampton.
. *Edward, Allan. Farington Hall, Dundee.

. §Edward, Charles. Chambers, 8 Bank-street, Dundee.

. §Edward, James. Balruddery, Dundee.

Edwards, John. Halifax.

. *Edwards, J. Baker, Ph.D. Montreal, Canada.
. §Edwards, William. 70 Princes-street, Dundee.
. *Eddison, John Edwin. Park-square, Leeds.

*Eegerton, Sir ae, de Malpas Grey, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S,
Oulton Park, Tarporley, Cheshire.

. *Eisdale. David A., M.A. 38 Dublin-street, Edinburgh.
. tElder, David. 19 Paterson-street, Glaszow.

. fElder, John. Elm Park, Govan-road, Glasgow.

. §Elger, Thomas Gwyn Empy. St. Mary, Bedford.

Ellacombe, Rey. H. T., F.S.A. Clyst, St. George, Topsham, Devon.

. tElenberger, J. L. Worksop.

. §Elliot, Robert. Wolfelee, Hawick, N. B.

. §Elliott, Frederick Henry, M.A. .449 Strand, London, W.C.

Elliott, Juhn Fogg. Elvet-hill, Durham.

. TEllis, Henry 8.; F.R.A.S. Fair Park, Exeter.
. {Ellis, Hercules. Lisnaroc, Clones, Ireland.
. *Ellis, Alexander John, B.A., F.R.S. 25 Argyll-road, Kensington,

London, W.

. *Ellis, Joseph. Hampton Lodge, Brighton.
. §Ellis, J. Walter. High House, Thornwaite, Ripley, Yorkshire..

*Ellis, Rev. Robert, A.M. The Institute, St. Saviour’s Gate, York,

. §Ellis, William Horton. Pennsylvania, Exeter.

Elliman, Rey. E. B. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex.

. {Elphinstone, H. W., M.A., F.L.8. Cadogan-place, London, 8. W.

Eltoft, William. Care of J. Thompson, Esq., 30 New Cannon-street,
Manchester.

. {Embleton, Dennis, M.D. Northumberland-street, Newcastle-on-

Tyne,

. {Emery, Rev. W., B.D. Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.

. {Empson, Christopher. Headingley, near Leeds.

. (Enfield, Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham.

. tEnfield, William. Low Pavement, Nottingham.

. jen Edgar Wilkins. Yorkshire Banking Company, Lowgate,
ull i

§English, J.T. Wothorpe House, Stamford,

24 LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of

Election.

Enniskillen, William Willoughby, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S., M.R.LA.,
FE.G.8. 26 Eaton-place, London, §.W.; and Florence Court,
Fermanagh, Ireland.

1869. {Ensor, Thomas. St. Leonards, Exeter.

1869, *Enys, John Davis. Canterbury, New Zealand. (Care of J. 8, Enys,
Esq., Enys, Penryn, Cornwall.)

*Enys, John Samuel, F.G.S. Enys, Penryn, Cornwall.
1864, *Eskrigge, R. A., F.G.S. Batayvia-buildings, Liverpool.
1862, *Esson, William, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S. Merton College, Oxford.
Estcourt, Rey. W. J. B. Long Newton, Tetbury.

1869, {Etheridge, Robert, F.R.S.E., F'.G.S., Paleeontologist to the Geolo-
gical Survey of Great Britain. Museum of Practical Geology,
eo alae and 19 Halsey-street, Cadogan-place, London,

1870. *Eyans, Arthur John, Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.

1865. *Evans, Rey. Charles, M.A. King Edward’s School, Birmingham,

1849. *Evans, George Fabian, M.D. 14 Temple-row, Birmingham.

1848. {Evans, Griffith F. D., M.D. Trewern, near Welshpool, Montgomery-
shire.

1869. *Evans, H. Saville W. Jorde Abbey, Chard.

1861. *Eyans, John, F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S. 65 Old Bailey, London, E.C. ;

and Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.

1865. {Evans, Sebastian, M.A., LL.D. Highgate, near Birmingham,

1866, {Evans, Thomas, F.G.S. Belper, Derbyshire.

1865, *Evans, William, Ellerslie, Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

Evanson, R. T., M.D. Holme Hurst, Torquay.

1868, *Everett, J. D., D.C.L., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Queen’s
College, Belfast. Rushmere Malone-road, Belfast.

1865, *Eyeritt, George Allen, K.L., K.H., F.R.G.S, Knowle Hall, War-
wickshire.

1859. *Ewing, Archibald Orr. Ballikinrain, Killearn, by Glasgow.

1855. *Ewing, William. 209 West George-street, Glasgow.

1846, *Eyre, George Edward, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 59 Lowndes-square,
Knightsbridge, London ; and Warren’s, near Lyndhurst, Hants.

1866, tEyre, Major-General Sir Vincent, F.R.G.S. Athenzeum Club, Pall
Mall, London, 8.W,

Eyton, Charles. Hendred House, Abingdon,

1849, {Eyton, T, C, Eyton, near Wellington, Salop.

1842, Fairbairn, Thomas. Manchester.

*Fairbairn, Sir William, Bart., C.E., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
Manchester.

1866. { Fairbank, F. R., MA.

1865. {Fairley, Thomas. Chapel Allerton, Leeds.

1870, §Fairlie, Robert, C.E. Clapham Common, London, 8,W.

1864, {Fallmer, F. H. Lyncombe, Bath.

Fannin, John, M.A. 41 Grafton-street, Dublin.

1859, {Farquharson, Robert O. Houghton, Aberdeen.

1861. §Farr, William, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Superintendent of the Statis-
intel Department, General Registry Office. Southlands, Bickley,

Cent.

1866, *Farrar, Rev. Frederick William, M.A., F.R.S. Marlborough,

1857. {Farrelly, Rev. Thomas. Royal College, Maynooth.

1869, *Faulconer, R. 8. Fairlawn, Clarence-road, Clapham Park, London.

1869, {Faulding, Joseph. 340 Euston-road, London, N.W,

1869, {Faulding, W. F. Didsbury College, Manchester.

1859, *Faullmer, Charles, F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S, Museum, Deddingten,

Oxon,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 25

Year of

Election.

1859, *Fawcett, Henry, M.P., Professor of Political Economy in the Univer-

sity of Cambridge. 42 Bessborough-gardens, Pimlico, London,
S.W.; and Trinity Hall, Cambridge.

1863. {Fawcus, George. Alma-place, North Shields.

1833. Fearon, John Peter. Cuclfield, Sussex.

1845, {Felkin, William, F.L.S. The Park, Nottingham.

Fell, John B. Spark’s Bridge, Ulverston, Lancashire.
1864. §Fellowes, Frank P., F.S.A., F.S.5. 8 The Green, Hampstead, Lon-
don, N.W.

1852. {Fenton, 8. Greame. 9 College-square, and Keswick, near Belfast.

1855. {Ferguson, James. Gas Coal-works, Lesmahago, Glasgow.

1859. {Ferguson, John. Cove, Nigg, Inverness.

1855. { Ferguson, Peter.

1867. §Ferguson, Robert M., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. 8 Queen-street, Edinburgh.

1857. {Ferguson, Samuel. 20 North Great George-street, Dublin.

1854, {Ferguson, William, F.L.S., F.G.S. 2 St.Aiden’s-terrace, Birkenhead.

1867. *Fergusson, H. B. 13 Airlie-place, Dundee.

1863. *Fernie, John. 3 Moorland-terrace, Leeds.

1862. {Ferrers, Rev. N. M., M.A. Caius College, Cambridge.

1868. {Field, Edward. Norwich.

Field, Edwin W. 36 Lincoln’s Inn Fields, London, W.C.

1869, *Field, Roger. 6 Cannon-row, Westminster, S.W. °
Fielding, G. H., M.D. Tunbridge, Kent.

1864, {Finch, Frederick George, B.A., F.G.S. Fern House, Myrtle-place,

Blackheath, London, S.E.
Finch, John. Bridge Work, Chepstow.
Finch, John, jun. Bridge Work, Chepstow.
1859. {Findlay, Alexander George, F.R.G.S. 53 Fleet-street, London,
E.C.; Dulwich Wood Park, Surrey.
1863. {Finney, Samuel. Sheriff-hill Hall, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1868. {Firth,G. W. W. St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
Firth, Thomas. Northwick.

1851. *Fischer, William L. F., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor Mathematics

in the University of St. Andrews, Scotland.

1858, {Fishbourne, Captain E. G., R.N. 6 Welamere-terrace, Padding-

tun, London, W.

1869. {Fisher, Rey. Osmond, M.A., F.G.S. Harlston Rectory, near Cam-

bridge.

1858. {F ishwick, Henry. Carr-hill, Rochdale.

1868, {Fitch, Robert, F.G.S., F.S.A. Norwich.

1857, {Fitzgerald, The Right Hon. Lord Otho, M.P. 183 Dominick-strect,

ublin.

1857, {Fitzpatrick, Thomas, M.D. 31 Lower Bagot-street, Dublin.
Fitzwilliam, Hon. George Wentworth, M.P., F.R.G.S. 19 Grosve-

nor-square, London, 8. W.; and Wentworth House, Rotherham.

1865. {Fleetwood, D. J. 45 George Street, St. Paul’s, Birmingham.
Fleetwood, Sir Peter Hesketh, Bart. Rossall Hall, Fleetwood,

Lancashire.

1850. {Fleming, Professor Alexander, M.D. 20 Temple-row, Birmingham.
Fleming, Christopher, M.D. Merrion-square North, Dublin.
Fleming, John G., M.D. 155 Bath-street, Glasgow.

*Fleming, William, M.D. Rowton Grange, near Chester.

1867. §Fletcher, Alfred E. 21 Overton-street, Liverpool,

1870. §Fletcher, B. Edgington. Norwich.

1853. {Fletcher, Isaac, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S, Tarn Bank, Workington.

1869, §Fletcher, Lavington E., C.E, 41 Cooperation-street, Manchester.

‘ Fletcher, T. B. E., M.D. 7 Waterloo-street, Birmingham,

Flood, Rev, James Charles.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1862.

1846,

tFlower, William Henry, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.C.S.; Hunterian
Professor of Comparative Anatomy, and Conservator of the
Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. Royal College of
Surgeons, Lincoln’s Inn-fields, London, W.C.

. tFlowers, John W., F.G.S. Park Hill, Croydon, Surrey.

. [Foggie, William. OW. oodville, Maryfield, Dundee.

*Forbes, David, F.R.S., EGS, FCS. 711 York-place, Portman-
square, London, W.
Forbes, George, FRSE.

55. {Forbes, Rey. John. Symington Manse, Bigear, Scotland.
55. {Forbes, Rey. John, D.D. 150 West Recent-street, Glasgow.

Ford, H. R. Moreceribe Lodge, Yealand Congers, Lancashire.

7 {Ford, William. Hartsdown Villa, Kensington Park Gardens East,

London, W.
*Forrest, William Hutton. The Terrace, Stirling.
. §Forster, Anthony. Newsham Grange, W. inston, Darlington.
. *Forster, Thomas Emerson. 7 Ellison-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
“Forster, William. Ballynure, Clones, Ireland.
. Forster, William Edward. Burley, Otley, near Leeds.

54. *Fort, Richard. 24 Queen’s Gate-gardens, London, W.; and Read

"Hall, Whalley, Lancashire.

. §Forwood, William B. Hopeton House, Seaforth, Liverpool.

. Foster, Balthazar W., M.D. 4 Old Square, Birmingham.

. *Foster, Clement Le Neve, D.Se., F.G.S8. East Hill, Wandsworth,
London, 8.W.

57. *Foster, George C., BAY F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Experimental

Physics i in University College, London, W.C. 16 King Henry’ ny s-
road, London, N.W.
*Foster, Rey. Ji ohn, M.A. The Oaks Parsonage, Loughborough.

5. tFoster, John N. Sandy Place, Sandy, Bedfordshire.

. *Foster, Michael, M.D., F.L.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

| §Foster, Peter Le Nev * "MLA. Society of Arts, ‘Adelphi, London, W.C.

. {Foster, Robert. 30 Rye- -hill, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.

. *Foster, 8. Lloyd. Old Park Hall, Walsall, Staffordshire,

Fothergill, Benjamin. 10 The Grov e Boltons, West Brompton,
London.

. §Foulger, Edward. 55 Kirkdale-road, Liverpool.

3. §Fowler, George. 56 Clarendon Street, Nottingham,

8. {Fowler, G. G. Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk.

. {Fowler, Rey. Hugh, M.A. College-gardens, Gloucester.

. *Fowler, Robert: Nicholas, M.A. SMP, “F.R.G.S. 36 Cav endish-square,
London, W.

Fox, Alfred. Penjerrick, Falmouth.

. {Fox, Colonel A. Lane, F.G.S.,F.S.A. 10 Upper Phillimore-gardens,

Kensington, London, 8. W.

2. *Fox, Charles. Trebah, Falmouth.

*Fox, Rev. Edward, M.A. The Vicarage, Romford, Essex.

*Fox, Joseph Hayland. The Cleve, Wellington, Somerset.

. {Fox, Joseph John. Church-row, Stoke } Newington, London, N.
Fox, Robert Were, F.R.S. Falmouth.

. *Francis,G. B. 8 Nelson- -terrace, Stoke Newington, London, N.
: { Francis, George Grant, F.S.A. Burrows Lodge, Swansea.

Francis, William, Ph.D., F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Red Lion-court,
Fleet-street, ’ London, E.C.; and 1’ Matson Villas, Marsh-gate,
Richmond, Surrey.

{Frankland, Edward, D.C.L., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Che-
aw the Royal School of Mines, 14 Lancaster Gate, Lon-
on

LIST OF MEMBERS. 27

Year of
Election.
*Frankland, Rey. Marmaduke Charles. Chowbent, near Manchester.
Franks, Rey. J. C., M.A. Whittlesea, near Peterborough.
1859. {Fraser, George B. 3 Aizlie-place, Dundee.
Fraser, James. 25 Westland-row, Dublin.
Fraser, James William. 8a Kensington Palace-gardens, London,

Wi
1865. *Fraser, John, M.A., M.D. Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton.
1859. *Frazer, Daniel. 113 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
1860. {Freeborn, Richard Fernandez. 38 Broad-street, Oxford.
1847. *F ee Humphrey William, F.G.S. West-street, Chichester,
uSSeX.
1865, {Freeman, James. 15 Francis-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1869, §Frere, Sir Bartle, F.R.G.S. 22 Princes-gardens, London.
1869, {frere, Rey. William Edward. The Rectory, Bilton, near Bristol.
Frere, George Edward, F.R.S. Royden Hall, Diss, Norfolk.
1856. *Frerichs, John Andrew. 1 Keynsham Bank, Cheltenham.
Fripp, George D., M.D. Barnfield Hill, Southampton.
1857. *Frith, Richard Hastings, C.E. 48 Summer Hill, Dublin.
1863. *Frith, William. Burley Wood, near Leeds.
1869. {Frodsham, Charles. 26 Upper Bedford-place, Russell-square, Lon-
don, W.C.
Frost, Charles, F.S.A. Hull. :
1847. {Frost, William, F.R.A.S. Wentworth Lodge, Upper Tulse-hill,
London, 8. W.
1860, *Froude, William, C.E., F.R.S. Chelston Cross, Torquay.
Fry, Francis. Cotham, Bristol.
Fry, Richard. Cotham Lawn, Bristol.
Fry, Robert. Tockington, Gloucestershire.
1863. {Fryar, Mark. Eaton Moor Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1859. {Fuller, Frederick, M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University and
King’s College, Aberdeen.
1869. §Fyller, George, C.E., Professor of Engineering in University College,
London. Argyll-road, Kensington, London, W.
1852. {Furguson, Professor John C., M.A., M.B. Queen’s College, Belfast.
Furlong, Rey. Thomas, M.A. 10 Sydney-place, Bath.
1864, *Furneaux, Rey. Alan. St. Germain’s Parsonage, Cornwall,

*Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A. Ewell Castle, Surrey.
1857. {Gages, Alphonse, M.R.LA. Museum of Irish Industry, Dublin.
1863. *Gainsford, W. D. Handsworth Grange, near Sheffield.
1850. {Gairdner, W. F., M.D. 18 Hill-street, Edinburgh.
1861. {Galbraith, Andrew. Glascow.
Galbraith, Rev. J. A.. M.R.LA. Trinity College, Dublin.
1867. {Gale, James M. 25 Miller-street, Glasgow.
1863. {Gale, Samuel, F.C.S. 338 Oxford-street, London, W.
1861. {Galloway, Charles John. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.
1859. {Galloway, James. Calcutta.
1861. {Galloway, John, jun. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.
Galloway, S. H. Linbach, Austria.
1860. *Galton, Captain Douglas, C.B., R.E., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
12 Chester-street, Grosvenor-place, London, 8. W.
1860, *Galton, Francis, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 42 Rutland-gate, Knights-
bridge, London, S.W.
1869, §Galton, John C., M.A., F.L.S, 15 Margaret-street, Cayendish-square,
London, W.
1870. §Gamble, D. St. Helens, Lancashire.
1870. §Gamble, J.C. St. Helens, Lancashire.
1868. {Gamgee, Arthur, M.D, 27 Alva-street, Edinburgh.

28 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year ot
Election.
1862. §Garner, Robert, F.L.S. Stoke-upon-Trent.
1865. §Garner, Mrs. Robert. _Stoke-upon-Trent.
1842. Garnett, Jeremiah. Warren-street, Manchester.
1870. §Gaskell, Holbrook. Woolton Wood, Liverpool.
1870. *Gaskell, Holbrook, jun. Woolton Wood, Liverpool.
1847. *Gaskell, Samuel. Windham Club, St. James’s-square, London, S. W.
1842. Gaskell, Rey. William, M.A. Plymouth-erove, Manchester.
1846. §Gassiot, J oe Peter, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.C.S. Clapham Common, Lon-
don, S.W.
1862. *Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. Felbridge Park, East
Grinsted, Sussex.
1859. {Geddes, William D., M.A., Professor of Greek, King’s College, Old
Aberdeen.
1854, {Gee, Robert, M.D. Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
1870. §Gee, Robert, M.D. 5 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
1867, §Geikie, Archibald, F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the Geological Survey
e Scotland. Geological Survey Office, Victoria-street, Edin-
ureh,
1855. {Gemmell, Andrew. 38 Queen-street, Glasgow.
1855. {Gemmell, Thomas.
1854. §Gerard, Henry. 184 Rumford-place, Liverpool.
1870. §Gerstl, R. University College, London, W.C.
1856. *Gething, George Barkley. Springfield, Newport, Monmouthshire.
Gibb, Duncan. Strand-street, Liverpool.
1863. *Gibb, Sir George Duncan, Bart., M.D., M.A.. LL.D., F.G.S. 1
Bryanston-street, London, W.; and Falkland, Fife.
Gibbins, Joseph.
Gibbins, Thomas.
1865. {Gibbins, William. Battery Works, Digbeth, Birmingham.
1868, {Gibson, C. M. Bethel-street, Norwich.
Gibson, Edward. Hull.
*Gibson, George Stacey. Saffron Walden, Essex. ’
1852. {Gibson, James. 35 Mountjoy-square, Dublin. ‘
1870. §Gibson, R.E. Sankey Mills, Earlestown, near Newton-le- Willows.
1859. {Gibson, William Sidney, M.A., F.S.A., F.G.S, Tynemouth.
1870, §Gibson, Thomas. 51 Oxford-street, Liverpool.
1870, §Gibson, Thomas, jun. 19 Parkfield-road, Princes Park, Liverpool.
1867. {Gibson, W. L., M.D. Tay-street, Dundee.
1849. {Gifford, Rev. E. H. Birmingham.
1842. eee oseph Henry, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Harpenden, near &t.
Albans.
1857. t{Gilbert, J. T., M.R.L.A. Blackrock, Dublin.
1859. *Gilchrist, James, M.D. Crichton Royal Institution, Dumfries.
Gilderdale, Rev. John, M.A. Walthamstow, Essex.
Giles, Rey. William. Netherleigh House, near Chester.
1868, {Gill, Joseph. Palermo, Scilly (care of W. I. Gill, Esq., General
Post Office, St. Martin’s-le-Grand, E.C.).
1864, {Gill, Thomas. 4 Sydney-place, Bath.
1850. {Gillespie, Alexander, M.D. Edinburgh.
1861. *Gilroy, George. Hindley House, Wigan.
1867. {Gilroy, Robert. Craigie, by Dundee.
1867. §Ginsburg, Rev. C. D., LL.D. Binfield, Bracknell, Berkshire.
1869, {Girdlestone, Rev. Canon E., M.A. Halberton Vicarage, Tiverton.
1850. *Gladstone, George, F.C0.8., F.R.G.S. Care of Henry Strut, Esq.,
Clapham Common, London, 8.W.
1849. *Gladstone, John Hall, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Pembridge-square,
Hyde Park, London, W.
1861, *Gladstone, Murray. Broughton House, Manchester.

— ees te De Ott eh >

LIST OF MEMBERS. 29

Year of
Election.

1852.
1861.

1853.
1870.
1859.
1867,

1870,
1852.
1846.

{ Gladstone, Thomas Murray.
*Glaisher, James, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 1 Dartmouth-place, Bla ckheath
Kent.
tGleadon, Thomas Ward. Moira-buildings, Hull.
§Glen, David C. 14 Annfield-place, Glasgow.
tGlennie, J.S. Stuart. 6 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
TGloag, John A. L. Inverleith-row, Edinburgh.
Glover, George. Ranelagh-road, Pimlico, London, 8. W.
§Glynn, Thomas R. 1 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
tGodwin, John. Wood House, Rostrevor, Belfast.
tGodwin-Austen, Robert A.C., B.A., F.R.S.,F.G.S. Chilworth Manor,
Guildford.
Goldsmid, Sir Francis Henry, Bart., M.P. St. John’s Lodge, Regent’s
Park, London, N.W.
Gouch, Thomas L. Team Lodge, Saltwell, Gateshead.
tGood, John. 50 City Quay, Dublin.
{tGoodbody, Jonathan. Clare, King’s County, Ireland.
§Goodison, George William, C.E. Gateacre, Liverpool.
*Goodman, John, M.D. Leicester-street, Southport.
tGoodman, J. D. Minories, Birmingham.
§Goodman, Neville. Peterhouse, Cambridge.
*Goodwin, Rey. Henry Albert, M.A., F.R.A.S. Westhall Vicarage,
Waneford. :
tGordon, H. G.
§Gordon, Rey. Alexander. 49 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool.
tGordon, Samuel, M.D. 11 Hume-street, Dublin.
{Gore, George, F.R.S. 50 Islington-row, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
§Gossage, William. Winwood, Woolton, Liverpool.
*Gotch, Rey. Frederick William, LL.D. Stokes Croft, Bristol.
*Gotch, Thomas Henry. Kettering.
tGough, The Hon. Frederick. Perry Hall, Birmingham.
tGough, The Hon. G. 8. _ Rathronan House, Clonmel.
§Gould, Rey. George. Unthank-road, Norwich.
Gould, John, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. 26 Charlotte-street,
Bedford-square, London, W.C.
tGourlay, Daniel De la C., M.D. Tollington Park, Hornsey-road,
London, N.
tGourley, Henry (Engineer). Dundee.
Gowland, James. London-wall, London, E.C.
tGrafton, Frederick W. Park-road, Whalley Range, Manchester.
*Graham, Cyril, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 9 Cleveland-row, St. James's,
London, 8. W.
Graham, Lieutenant David. Mecklewood, Stirlingshire.
§Graham, R. Hills. 4 Bentley-road, Princes Park, Liverpool.
*Grainger, John.
Grainger, Richard.

. §Grant, Colonel J. A., C.B., F.LS., F.R.G.S. 7 Park-square West,

London, N.W.

tGrant, Hon. James. Cluny Cottage, Forres.

*Grant, Robert, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Regius Professor of
Astronomy in the University of Glasgow. ‘he Observatory,
Glasgow.

tGrantham, Richard F, 22 Whitehall-place, London, S.W.

Be ie ea Richard B., C.E., F.G.S. 22 Whitehall-place, London,

WwW

Granville, Augustus Bozzi, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.I.A. 5 Cornwall-
terrace, Warwick-square, Pimlico, London, 8. W.
*Grayes, Rev. Richard Hastings,D.D. Brigown Glebe House, Michel-
stown, Co. Cork.

LIST OF MEMBERS

Year of

Election.

1870.3§Gray, C. B. 5 Rumford-place, Liverpool.

1864. *Gray, Rey. Charles. The Vicarage, Mast Retford.

1865.
1857.

1864.
1859.
1870.
1861.
1854.
1866.
1869.

1858.
1863.
1862.

1849,
1861,
1860.
1868.

1861,

1869,

1866,
1865.
1859.
1870.

1859,

1868.
1870.
1870.

1847,

1870.
1842,

{Gray, Charles. Swan-bank, Bilston.

tGray, Sir John, M.D. Rathgar, Dublin.

*Gray, John.

*Gray, John Edward, Ph.D., F.R.S., Keeper of the Zoological Col-
lations of the British Museum. British Museum, London,

tGray, Jonathan. Summerhill-house, Bath.

tGray, Rev. J. H. Bolsover Castle, Derbyshire.

§Gray, T. Macfarlane. 12 Montenotte, Cork.

*Gray, William, F.G.S. Minster Yard, York.

*Gray, Lt.-Colonel William, M.P. 26 Princes’s-gardens, London,
We

pecans ae Henry, jun. Clent Grove, near Stourbidge, Worcester-
shire.

§Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 13 Wardwick, Derby.
§Greayes, William. Wellington-circus, Nottingham.

Green, Rey. Henry, M.A. Heathfield, Knttsford, Cheshire.
*Greenaway, Edward. 91 Lansdowne-road, Notting Hill, London, W.
*Greenhaleh, Thomas. Sharples, near Bolton-le-Moors.
tGreenwell, G. E. Poynton, Cheshire.

*Greenwood, Henry. 82 Castle-street, and 37 Falkner-square, Livyer-

pool.
tGreenwood, William. Stones, Todmorden.
*Greg, Robert Philips, F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Outwood Lodge, Prestwich,
Manchester.
Gregg, T. H. 22 Ironmonger-lane, Cheapside, London, E.C.
tGregor, Rev. Walter, M.A. Pitsligo, Rosehearty, Aberdeenshire.

t{Gregory, Charles Hutton, C.E. 1 Delahay-street, Westminster,
S.W.

§Gregson, Samuel Leigh. Aighurth-road, Liverpool.
Gresham, Thomas M. Raheny, Dublin.
*Greswell, Rey. Richard, B.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 39 St. Giles’s-street,

Oxford.

Grey, Captain The Hon. Frederick William. Howick, Northum-
berland.

tGrey, Sir George, F.R.G.S. Belgrave-mansions, Grosyenor-gardens,
London, S.W.

tGrey, Rey. William Hewett C. North Sherwood, Nottingham.
tGrey, W.S. Norton, Stockton-on-Tees.
tGrierson, Thomas Boyle, M.D. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.
§Grieve, John, M.D, 21 Lynedock-street, Glasgow.
*Griffin, John Joseph, F.C.8. 22 Garrick-street, London, W.C.
Griffith, Rey. C. T., D.D. Elm, near Frome, Somerset.
*Griffith, George, M.A., F.C.S. (Assistant GENERAL SECRETARY.)
Harrow.
Griffith, George R. Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
tGriffith, Rev. John, M.A. The College, Brighton.
§Griffith,N. R. The Coppa, Mold, North Wales.
§Griffith, Rev. Professor. Bowden, Cheshire.
*Griffith, Sir Richard John, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S.E., M.R.LA., F.G.S.
2 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
{Griffith, Thomas. Bradford-street, Birmingham.
Griffith, Walter H., M.A.
Griffiths, Rey. John, M.A. 63 St. Giles’s, Oxford.
§Grimsdale, T. F., M.D. 29 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
Grimshaw, Samuel, M.A. Errwod, Buxton.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 3l

Year of
lection.
1864. ase pe Charles Ottley, F.G.S. 20 Maryland-road, Harrow-
road, London, N.W.

1869. §Grote, Arthur. Cambridge-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
‘Grove, William Robert, Q.C., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S. 115 Harley-
street, W; and 5 Crown Office-row, Temple, London, E.C.
1863. Be Ovee, Thomas B., F.C.8. 80 St. Mary’s-street, Weymouth,
; orset.
1869. {Grubb, Howard. Rathmines, Dublin.
1857. {Grubb, Thomas, F.R.S., M.R.LA. 141 Leinster-road, Dublin.
Guest, Edwin, LL.D., M.A., F.R.S., F.LS., F.R.A.S., Master of
Caius College, Cambridge. Caius Lodge, Cambridge; and Sand-
ford-park, Oxfordshire.
1867. {Guild, John. Bayfield, West Ferry, Dundee.
Guinness, Henry. 17 College Green, Dublin.
1842. Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College Green, Dublin.
1856. *Guise, Sir William Vernon, Bart., F.G.S., F.L.S. Elmore-court, near
Gloucester.
1862. {Gunn, Rey. John, M.A., F.G.S. Ivstedd Rectory, Norwich.
1866. ppieiben Albert C. L. G., M.D., F.R.S. British Museum, London,

1868. *Gurney, John, Earlham Hall, Norwich. :
1860. *Gurney, Samuel, M.P., F.L.S., .R.G.S. 20 Hanover-terrace, Re-
gent’s Park, London, N.W.

*Gutch, John James. Blake-street, York.
1859. { Guthrie, Frederick.
1864. §Guyon, George. South Cliff Cottage, Ventnor, Isle of Wight.
1870. §Guyton, Joseph. 5 Derwent-road, Stoneycroft, Liverpool.
1857. {Gwynne, Rey. John. Tullyaguish, Letterkenny, Strabane, Ireland.

Hackett, Michael. Brooklawn, Chapelizod, Dublin.
1865. §Hackney, William. Siemens-Steel Works, Landore, Swansea.
1865. tHaden, W. H. Cawney Bank Cottage, Dudley.
1866. *Hadden, Frederick J. The Park, Nottingham.
1862. {Haddon, Frederick William. 12 St. James’s-square, London, 8.W.
1866. {Haddon, Henry. Lenton Field, Nottingham.
Haden, G. N. Trowbridge, Wiltshire.
1842. Hadfield, George. Victoria-park, Manchester.
1870. §Hadivan, Isaac. 3 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
1848, {Hadland, William Jenkins. Banbury, Oxfordshire.
1870. §Haigh, George. Waterloo, Liverpool.
*Hailstone, Edward, F.S.A. Horton Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1869, t{Hake, R.C. Grasmere Lodge, Addison-road, Kensington, London,
W

1870. §Halhead, W. B. 7 Parkfield-road, Liverpool.
Halifax, The Right Hon. Viscount. 10 Belgrave-square, London,
.W.; and Hickleston Hall, Doneaster.
1854. *Hall, Hugh Fergie. Greenheys, Wallasey, Birkenhead.
1859. {Hall, John Frederic. Ellerker House, Richmond, Surrey.
Hall, John R. Sutton, Surrey.
1863. {Hall, Thomas Y. Eldon-square, Neweastle-on-Tyne.
*Hall, Thomas B. Australia (care of J. P, Hall, Esq., Crane House,
Great Yarmouth). d
1866. *Hall, Townshend M., F.G.S. Pilton, Barnstaple.
1860. §Hall, Walter. 10 Pier-road, Erith.
1868, *Hallett, William Henry, F.L.S. The Manor House, Kemp Town,
Brighton.
1861. {Halliday, James. Whalley Court, Whalley Range, Manchester.
1857. {Halpin, George, C.E. Rathgar, near Dublin.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1858.

1866.
1857.
1865.

1869.
1840.
1869.
1864,
1851.
1863.

1863.
1850.
1861.
1857.
1847,
1865,

1867,
1859.
1853.

1865.
1869.
1869,
1864,

1858.
1853.
1862.

1862.
1861.

1868,

1863.

1862.

Halsall, Edward. 4 Somerset-street, Kingsdown, Bristol.
Halswell, Edmund S., M.A.
*Hambly, Charles Hambly Burbridge, F.G.S. 96 London-road, Lei-
cester.
§Hamilton, Archibald, F.G.S. South Barrow, Bromley, Kent.
tHamilton, Charles W. 40 Dominick-street, Dublin.
§Hamilton, Gilbert. Leicester House, Kenilworth Road, Leamington.
Hamilton, The Very Rev. Henry Parr, Dean of Salisbury, M.A.,
E.RS. L. & E., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Salisbury.
tHamilton, John, F.G.S. Fyne Court, Bridgewater.
*Hamilton, Mathie, M.D. 22 Warwick-street, Lauriston, Glasgow.
§Hamilton, Roland. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London, W.
t Hamilton, Rev. S. R., M.A. Hinton Lodge, Bournemouth.
tHammond, C. C. Lower Brook-street, Ipswich.
tHancock, Albany, F.L.S. 4 St. Mary’s-terrace, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne

tHancock, John. 4 St. Mary’s-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

tHancock, John. Manor House, Lurgan, Co. Armagh.

tHancock, Walker. 10 Upper Chadwell-street, Pentonville, London.

tHancock, William J. 74 Lower Gardiner-street, Dublin.

tHancock, W. Nelson, LL.D. 74 Lower Gardiner-street, Dublin.
tHands, M. Coventry.

Handyside, P. D., M.D., F.R.S.E. 11 Hope-street, Edinburgh.
tHannah, Rey. John, D.C.L. Trinity College, Glenalmond.
{Hannay, John. Montcoffer House, Aberdeen.
tHansell, Thomas T. 2 Charlotte-street, Sculcoates, Hull.
Pewee A. G. Vernon, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S. | Christ Church,

xford.

Harcourt, Rey. C. G. Vernon, M.A. Rothbury, Northumberland.

ear ee Egerton V. Vernon, M.A., F.G.S. Whitwell Hall, York-
shire.

tHarding, Charles. Harborne Heath, Birmingham.

tHarding, Joseph. Hill’s Court, Exeter.

tHarding, William D. Kings Lynn, Norfolk.

§Hardwicke, Robert, F.L.S. 192 Piccadilly, London, W.

*Hare, Charles John, M.D., Professor of Clinical Medicine in Uni-
versity College, London. 57 Brook-street, Grosyenor-square,
London, W.

Harford, Summers. Haverfordwest.

{Hargrave, James. Burley, near Leeds.

§Harkness, Robert, F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in
Queen’s College, Cork.

Harkworth, Timothy. Soho Shilden, Darlington.

*Harley, George, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Medical Jurisprudence
in University College, London. 25 Harley-street, London, W.

*Harley, John. Ross Hall, near Shrewsbury.

*Harley, Rey. Robert, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Lanceaster-place, Leicester.

tHarman, H. W., C.E. 16 Booth-street, Manchester.

*Harmer, F. W., F.G.S. Heigham Grove, Norwich.

*Harris, Alfred. Sleningford Park, near Ripon.

*Harris, Alfred, jun. Ashfield, Bingley, Yorkshire.

tHarris, Charles. 6 Somerset-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Harris, The Hon. and Right Rey. Charles, Lord Bishop of Gibraltar,
F.G.S. Care of A. Martineau, Esq., 61 Westbourne-terrace,
London, W.

*Harris, Henry. Longwood, near Bingley.

tHarris, T. W. Grange, Middleshorough-on-Tees.

-{Harris, William Harry, F.C.S. 33 Gold-street, Northampton.

Year o

LIST OF MEMBERS. 33
f

Election.

1860,
1864,
1858. .
1870.
1853.
1863.

1853.
1849.

1859,
1861.
1842.
1856.

1864.

1868.
1853.
1863.
1859.
1861.

1858.
1867.
1857.
1870.
1869.
1856.
1858.
1851,
1869.
1869,

tHarrison, Rey. Francis, M.A. Oriel College, Oxford.
§Harrison, George. Barnsley, Yorkshire.

*Harrison, James Park, M.A. Garlands, Ewhurst, Surrey.
§Harrison, Reginald. 51 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
tHarrison, Robert. 36 George-street, Hull.

tHarrison, T. E. Engineers’ Office, Central Station, Newcastle-on-
'yne.
*Harrison, William, F.S.A., F.G.S. | Samlesbury Hall, near Preston,
Lancashire.

tHarrowby, The Earl of, K.G.,D.C.L.,F.R.S.,F.R.G.S. 39 Grosvenor-
square, London, 8.W. ; and Sandon Hall, Lichfield.
*Hart, Charles. 54 Wych-street, Strand, London, W.C.
*Harter, J. Collier. Chapel Walks, Manchester.
*Harter, William. Hope Hall, Manchester.
tHartland, F. Dixon, F.S.A., F.R.G.S. The Oaklands, near Chel-
tenham.
Hartley, James. Sunderland.
Hartly, J. B. Bootle, near Liverpool.

» §Hartnup, John, F.R.A.S. Liverpool Observatory, Bidston, Birken-

head.

. tHarvey, Alexander. 4 South Wellington-place, Glasgow.
. §Harvey, Enoch. Riversdale-road, Aigburth, Liverpool.

*Harvey, Joseph Charles. Knockrea House, Cork.
Harvey, J. R., M.D. St. Patrick’s-place, Cork.

- *Harwood, John, jun. Woodside Mills, Bolton-le-moors.

{Hassall, Arthur Hill, 8 Bennett-street, St. James’s, London, 8.W.
Hastings, Rev. H.S. Martley Rectory, Worcester.

- “Hatton, James. Richmond House, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
. tHatton, James W. Old Lodge, Old Trafford, Manchester.

Haughton, James, M.R.D.S. 34 Eccles-street, Dublin.

57. tHaughton, Rey. Samuel, M.D., M.A., F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.G.S., Pro-

fessor of Geology in the University of Dublin. Trinity College,
Dublin.

. [ Haughton, S. Wilfred. Grand Canal-street, Dublin.

*Haughton, William. 28 City Quay, Dublin.
Hawkins, John Heywood, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Bignor Park, Pet-

worth, Sussex.

*Hawkins, Thomas, F.GS.

*Hawkshaw, John, F.R.S., F.G.S. 43 Eaton-place, and 33 Great
George-street, London, S.W.

*Hawkshaw, John Clarke, M.A., F.G.S. 43 Eaton-place, London,
W

§Hawksley, Thomas, C.E. 30 Great George-street, Westminster, S.W.

tHaworth, Benjamin. Hull Bank House, near Hull.

tHawthorn, William. The Cottage, Benwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tHay, Sir Andrew Leith, Bart. Rannes, Aberdeenshire.

*Hay, Rear-Admiral Sir John C. D., Bart., M.P., F.R.S. 108 St.
George’s-square, London, 8. W.

tHay, Samuel. Albion-place, Leeds.

tHay, William. 21 Magdalen Yard-road, Dundee.

tHayden, Thomas, M.D. 30 Harcourt-street, Dublin.

§Hayden, Walter Percy. Halifax.

tHayward, J. High-street, Exeter.

{tHayward, J. Curtis. Quedgeley, near Gloucester.

*Hayward, Robert Baldwin, M.A. Harrow-on-the-hill.

§Head, Jeremiah. Middlesborough, Yorkshire.

tHead, R. T. The Briars, Alphington, Exeter.

tHead, W. R. Bedford-circus, Exeter.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1861
1863
1861
1865

1866.
1863.
1861.

1865.
1858.
1865.
1833.
1863.
1855.

1867.

1869.
1863.
1862.
1857.

1867.
1845.
1866.
1856.

1857.

1870.

1855.
1855.

1856.

1852.
1866,

1861.
1865.
1863.
1832.

1866.

1866.
1861.

1861.

*Heald, James. Parr’s Wood, Didsbury, near Manchester,

{Heald, Joseph. 22 Leazes-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Heape, Benjamin. Northwood, Prestwich, near Manchester.

§Hearder, William. Victoria Parade, Torquay.

tHeath, Rev. D. J. Esher, Surrey.

tHeath, G. Y., M.D. Westgate-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Heathfield, W. E., F.C.8., F.R.G.S., F.R.S.E. 20 King-street, St.
James’s, London, 8. W.

tHeaton, Harry. Warstone, Birmingham.

*Heaton, John Deakin, M.D. Claremont, Leeds.

tHeaton, Ralph. Harborne Lodge, near Birmingham.

{Heaviside, Rev. Canon J. W. L., M.A. The Close, Norwich.

{Heckels, Richard.

tHector, James, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Geological Survey
of Otago. Wellington, New Zealand.

§Heddle, M. Foster, M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of
St. Andrew’s, N. B.

tHedgeland, Rev. W. J. 21 Mount Radford, Exeter.

tHedley, Thomas. Cox Lodge, near Newcastle-on-Tyne.

tHelm, George F. 58 Trumpington-street, Cambridge.

*Hemans, George William,C.E., M.R.I.A.. 1 Westminster Chambers,
Victoria-street, London, 8.W.

tHenderson, Alexander. Dundee.

{Henderson, Andrew. 120 Gloucester-place, Portman-square, London.

tHenderson, James, jun. Dundee.

tHennessy, Henry G., F.R.S., M.R.LA. 86 St. Stephen’s Green,
Dublin.

tHennessy, John Pope. Inner Temple, London, E.C.

Henry, Franklin, Portland-street, Manchester.

Henry, J. Snowdon. East Dene, Bonchurch, Isle of Wight.

Henry, Mitchell. Stratheden House, Hyde Park, London, W.
*Henry, William Charles, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Haffield,

near Ledbury, Herefordshire.
§Henty, William. Norfolk-terrace, Brighton.

Henwood, William Jory, F.R.S., F.G.8. 3 Clarence-place, Penzance
*Hepbun, J. Gotch. Sidceup-place, near Foot’s Clay, Kent.
}Hepburn, Robert. 70 Portland-place, London, W.

Hepburn, Thomas. Clapham, London, 8.W.

Hepworth, John Mason. Ackworth, Yorkshire.
tHepworth, Rey. Robert. 2 St. James’s-square, Cheltenham.
*Herbert, Thomas.. The Park, Nottingham.

{Herdman, John. 9 Wellington-place, Belfast.
§Herrick, Perry. Bean Manor Park, Loughborough.

Herschel, Sir John Frederick William, Bart., K.H., M.A., D.C.L.,
FE.R.S. L. & E., Hon. M.R.LA., F.G8., F.R.A.S. Collingwood,
near Hawkhurst, Kent.

{ Hertz, James. Sedgley-park, Prestwich, near Manchester.
tHeslop, Dr. Birmingham.

tHeslop, Joseph. Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tHewitson, William C. Oatlands, Surrey.

Hey, Rev. William, M.A., F.C.P.8. Clifton, York.
*Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire.
tHeymann, L. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire.
*Heywood, Arthur Henry. The How, Prestwich, Manchester.
*Heywood, James, F.R.S., F.G.8., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. 26 Palace-gardens,

Kensington, London, W.
*Heywood, Oliver. Claremont, Manchester.
Heywood, Thomas Percival. Claremont, Manchester.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 35

Year of
Election.

1864,
1854,

1861. *

1866,
1861.
1854.
1861.
1870.
1842.

1870.

1862.

1857.

1864.
1863.
1858.

1870.
1852.

1865.
1863.
1861.
1858,
1861.

1856.
1860.
1870.

1864,

_ 1864.
1864,

1863,
1866.

1852.

1863.
1863.
1863.

1839,

tHigeinbottom, John. Nottingham.

tHiggins, George. Mount House, Higher Broughton, Manchester.

tHiggins, Bey. Henry H., M.A. The Asylum, Rainhill, Liverpool.

*Higgins, James. Stocks House, Cheetham, Manchester.

§Higginson, Alfred. 44 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool.

*Higson, Peter, F.G.S., H.M. Inspector of Mines, The Brooklands,
Swinton, near Marchester.

§Highton, Rey. H. 2 The Cedars, Putney, S.W.

Hildyard, Rey. James, B.D., F.CP.S. Ingoldsby, near Grantham,

Lincolnshire. f

*Hiley, Rey. Simeon. Liland, near Halifax.

Hill, Arthur. Bruce Castle, Tottenham, London, N.

*Hill, Rey. Edward, M.A., F.G.S. Sheering Rectory, Harlow.

{Hill, John. Tullamore, Ireland.

*Hill, Sir Rowland, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Hampstead,
London, N.W.

Hill, William. Combe Hay, Bristol.

tHills, F, C. Chemical Works, Deptford, Kent, 8.E.

{Hincks, Rey. Thomas, B.A, Mountside, Leeds,

Hincks, Rey. William, F.L.S., Professor of Natural History in Uni-

_ versity College, Toronto, Canada West.

§Hinde, G. J. Buenos Ayres,

Hindley, Rey. H. J. Edlington, Lincolnshire.

*Hindmarsh, Prodan, F.G.8., F.R.GS. 4 New Inn, Strand, Lon-
don, W.C.

*Hindmarsh, Luke, Alnbank House, Alnbank.

{Hinds, James, M.D. Queen’s College, Birmingham.

tHinds, William, M.D, Parade, Birmingham.

*Hinmers, William, Cleveland House, Birkdale, Southport.

§Hirst, John, jun. Dobcross, near Manchester.

*Hirst, T. echan Ph.D,, F.R.S, F.R.A.S. (GENERAL SECRETARY).
The University of London, Burlington Gardens, W., and Athe-
nzeum Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.

tHitch, Samuel, M.D. Sandywell Park, Gloucestershire.

tHitchman, John. Leamington.

§Hitchman, William, M.D. 29 Erskine-street, Liverpool.

*Hoare, Rev. George Tooker, Godstone Rectory, Redhill.

Hoare, J. Gurney. Hampstead, London, N.W,

tHobhouse, Arthur Fane. 24 Cadogan-place, London, 8.W.

{Hobhouse, Charles Parry. 24 Cadogan-place, London, 8,W.

tHobhouse, Henry William. 24 Cadogan-place, London, 8.W.

§Hobson, A,8., F.C.S. 3 Upper Heathfield-terrace, Turnham Green,
London, W.

tHockin, Charles, M.D. 8 Avenue-road, St. John’s Wood, London.

THodges, John F., M.D., Professor of Agriculture in Queen’s College,
Belfast. 23 Queen-street, Belfast.

*Hodgkin, Thomas. Benwell Dene, Newcastle-on-Tyne,

{Hodgson, Robert. Whitburn, Sunderland.

{Hodgson, R. W. North Dene, Gateshead.

Hodgson, Thomas, Market-street, York.
tHodgson, W, B., LL.D,, F.R.A.S, 41 Grove End-road, St. John’s
‘Wood, London, N.W.
v2

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1860. {Hogan, Rev. A. R., M.A.
1865. *Hofmann, Augustus William, LL.D, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 10 Doro-

1861.

1854.
1856.
1858.

1865.

1866.
187

1858.
1847.

1865.
1861.
1856.
1842,

1869.
1865.
1870.
1858.

1864.
1858.

1854.
1856.

1868.
1859,

1858.

1859.
1863.
1857.
1868

1868.
1865.

1863.
1863.
1854.
1870.
1855.
1842,

theen Strasse, Berlin.
Hogan, William, M.A., M.R.I.A. Haddington-terrace, Kingstown,

near Dublin.

tHoleroft, George, C.E. Red Lion-court, St. Ann’s-square, Man-
chester.

*Holeroft, George. Byron’s Court, St. Mary’s Gate, Manchester.

tHolland, Henry. Dumbleton, Evesham.

§Holland, Loton, F.R.G.S. 6 Queen’s-villas, Windsor.

*Holland, Philip H. 8 Richmond-terrace, Whitehall, London, 8S. W-

tHolliday, William. New Street, Birmingham.

*Hollingsworth, John. Maidenstone House, Maidenstone Hill, Green-
wich, Kent, S.E.

*Holmes, Charles. London-road, Derby.

. §Holt, William D. 23 Edge-lane, Liverpool.

*Hone, Nathaniel, M.R.LA. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.
tHook, The Very Rey. W. F., D.D., Dean of Chichester. Chichester.
{Hooker, Joseph Dalton, C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.LS.
F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Royal Gardens, Kew.
*Hooper, John P. The Hut, Mitcham Common, Surrey.
§Hooper, William. 7 Pall Mall East, London, S.W.
tHooton, Jonathan. 80 Great Ducie-street, Manchester.
Hope, Thomas Arthur. Stanton, Bebington, Cheshire.
Hope, William. Wavertree, Liverpool,
§Hope, William, V.C. Barking, Hssex.
tHopkins, J. 8. Jesmond Grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Hopkinson, F. 12 Dyke-place, Oxford-road, Manchester.
tHopkinson, Joseph, jun. Britannia Works, Huddersfield.
Hornby, Hugh. Sandown, Liverpool.
*Horner, Rev. J. J. H. Mells Rectory, Frome.
*Horsfall, Abraham. 17 Park-row, Leeds.
Horsfall, Charles. Everton, Liverpool.
tHorsfall, Thomas Berry. Bellamour Park, Rugeley.
tHorsley, John H. 389 High-street, Cheltenham.
Hotham, Rey. Charles, M.A., F.L.S. Roos, Patrington, Yorkshire.
§Hotson, W. C. Upper King-street, Norwich.
{Hough, Joseph. rottesley, near Wolverhampton.
Houghton, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 16 Upper
Brook-street, London, W.
Houghton, James. 84 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
tHounsfield, James. Hemsworth, Pontefract.
Hovenden, W. F., M.A. Bath.
tHoward, Captain John Henry, R.N. The Deanery, Lichfield.
tHoward, Philip Henry. Corby Castle, Carlisle.
t{Howell, Henry H., F.G.S. Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn-
street, London, 8. W.
tHowell, Rey. Canon Hinds. Drayton Rectory, near Norwich.
tHowes, Edward, M.P. Morningthorpe, Long Stratton.
*Howlett, Rev. Frederick, F.R.A.S. Hast Tisted Rectory, Alton,
Hants.
§Howorth, H. H. Derby House, Eccles, Manchester.
tHowse, R. South Shields.
tHowson, Very Rey. J. S., Dean of Chester. Chester.
§Hubback, Joseph. 1 Brunswick-street, Liverpool.
*Hudson, Henry, M.D., M.R.LA. Glenville, Fermoy, Co. Cork.
pete Robert, F.R.S., F.G.8., F.L.8, Clapham Common, London,

LIST OF MEMBERS, oF

Year of

Election.

1867,

1858.
1857.

1870.
1868.
1863.
1865.

1867.

1861.

1856.
1856.
1862.

1863,

1865.
1840.

1864,

1868.
1867,
1870.
1869.
1859.
1855.
1863.
1869.
1861.

1868,
1863.
1864,
1857.
1861.
1852.

1846,

1847.

tHudson, William H. H., M.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

*Huggins, William, D.C.L., Oxon., LL.D. Camb., F\R.S,, F.R.A.S.
Upper Tulse-hill, Brixton, London, 8. W.

§Huggon, William. 380 Park-row, Leeds.

Hughes, D. Abraham. 9 Grays Inn-square, London, W.C,
Hughes, Frederick Robert.

§Hughes, Lewis. 38 St. Domingo-grove, Liverpool.

§Hughes, T. M‘K., M.A., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, 8.W.

tHughes, T. W. 4 Hawthorn-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

tHughes, W. R., F.L.S., Treasurer of the Borough of Birmingham,

Hull, Arthur H. 18 Norfolk-road, Brighton.

§Hull, Edward, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Director of the Geological Sur-
vey of Ireland, and Professor of Geclogy in the Royal College
of Science. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.

*Hull, William Darley, F.G.S, 36 Queen’s Gate-terrace, South
Kensington, London, W.

*Hulse, Sir Edward, Bart., D.C.L, 51 Portland-place, London, W.;
and Breamore House, Salisbury.

{Hume, Rey. Abraham, D.C.L., LL.D,, F.S.A. All Soul’s Rectory,
Rupert-lane, Liverpool.

{t Humphreys, E. R., LL.D.

tHumphries, David James. 1 Keynsham-parade, Cheltenham.

*Humphry, George Murray, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in
the University of Cambridge. The Leys, Cambridge.

*Hunt, Augustus H., M.A., Ph.D, Birtley House, Chester-le-Street,
Fence Houses, Co. Durham.

tHunt, J. P, Gospel Oak Works, Tipton.

tHunt, Robert, F.R.S,, Keeper of the Mining Records. Museum of
Practical Geology, Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.

tHunt, W. 72 Pulteney-street, Bath.

Hunter, Andrew G. Denholm, Hawick.
tHunter, Christopher. Alliance Insurance Office, North Shields.
{tHunter, Dayid. Blackness, Dundee.
§Hunter, F. Appleton, Widnes.
*Hunter, Rey. Robert, F.G.8. 9 Mecklenburg-street, London, W.C,
{ Hunter, Dr. Thomas, Deputy Inspector- General of Army Hospitals.
*Hunter, Thomas O, 24 Forsyth-street, Greenock.
tHuntsman, Benjaman. West Retford Hall, Retford.
§Hurst, George. Bedford.
*Hurst, Wm. John. Drumaness Mills, Ballynahinch, Lisburn, Ireland,
Husband, William Dalla. Coney-street, York.

*Hutchison, Robert. 29 Chester-street, Edinburgh.

tHutt, The Right Hon. Sir W., K.C.B., M.P. Gibside, Gateshead.
Hutton, Crompton. Putney-park, Surrey, 8. W.
Hutton, Daniel. 4 Lower Dominick-street, Dublin.

pain, Darnton. Care of Arthur Lupton, Msq., Headingley, near

eeds.

tHutton, Henry D. 10 Lower Mountjoy-street, Dublin.

*Hutton, Robert, M.R.LA., F.G.8. Putney Park, Surrey.

{Hutton, T. Maxwell. Summerhill, Dublin.

tHuxley, Thomas Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. (Prer-
SIDENT), Professor of Natural History in the Royal School of

Mines. 26 Abbey Place, St. John’s Wood, London.
tHuxtable, Rev. Anthony. Sutton Waldron, near Blandford.
Hyde, Edward. Dukinfield, near Manchester.
Hyett, William Henry, F.R.S. Painswick, near Stroud, Gloucester-
shire.
tHyndman, George C. 5 Howard-street, Belfast.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of :
Election. 3
Thne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg.
1861. {Iles, Rey. J. H. Rectory, Wolverhampton.

1858.
1858.
1852.

1854,
1870.
1856.

1853.

1870.
1862.

1868.
1842.
1870,
1856.
1855.
1867.
1861,

tIngham, Henry. Wortley, near Leeds.
*Ingram, Hugo Francis Meynell. Temple Newsam, Leeds.
tIngram, J. K., LL.D., M.R.LA., Regius Professor of Greek. Trinity
College, Dublin.
*Inman, Thomas, M.D. 12 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
*Inman, William. Upton Manor, Liverpool.
tInvararity, J. D. Bombay.
Treland, R. 8., M.D. 121 Stephen’s Green, Dublin.

57. {Irvine, Hans, M.A., M.B. 1 Rutland-square, Dublin.

Irwin, Rev. Alexander, M.A. Armagh, Ireland.
tIselin, J. F., M.A., F.G.S. 52 Stockwell Park-road, London, S.W.
*Ivory, Thomas. 9 Ainslie-place, Edinburgh.

tJabet, George. Wellington-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.
§Jack, James. 26 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
§Jack, John, M.A. Belhelvie by Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire.
*Jackson-Gwilt, Mrs. H. 24 Hereford-square, Gloucester-road, Old
Brompton, London, S,W.

{Jackson, Edwin.
tJackson, Edwin W.
§Jackson, H. W. Springfield, Tooting, Surrey, 8. W.
§Jackson, Moses. The Vale, Ramsgate.

Jackson, Professor Thomas, LL.D. St. Andrew’s, Scotland.
tJackson, Rev. William, M.A.

Jacob, Arthur, M.D. 28 Ely-place, Dublin.
tJacobs, Bethel. 40 George-street, Hull.

. *Jaffe, David Joseph. edi Jaffe Brothers) Belfast.
aily

*Jaffray, John. ‘ ost’ Office, New-street, Birmingham,
{James, Edward. 9 Gascoyne-terrace, Plymouth.
{James, Edward H. 9 Gascoyne-terrace, Plymouth.
James, Colonel Sir Henry, R.E., F.R.S., F.G.8., M.R.LA. Ord-
nance Survey Office, Southampton.
*James, Sir Walter. 6 Whitehall-gardens, London, 8.W.
tJames, William C. 9 Gascoyne-terrace, Plymouth.
tJameson, John Henry. 10 Catherine-terrace, Gateshead.
*Jamieson, Thomas F., F.G.S. Ellon, Aberdeenshire.
tJardine, Alexander. Jardine Hall, Lockerby, Dumfriesshire.

. §Jardine, Edward. Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.

Jardine, James, C.E., F.R.A.S. Edinburgh.
*Jardine, Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.L.& E., F.L.S, Jardine Hall,
Applegarth by Lockerby, Dumfriesshire.
tli eel Rey. Canon J., M.A. North Cave, near Brough, York-
shire.
Jarrett, Rev. Thomas, M.A., Professor of Arabic in the University of
Cambridge. Trunch, Norfolk.
§Jarrold, J.J. London-street, Norwich.
fJeakes, Rev. James, M.A. 54 Argyll-road, Kensington, W.
Jebb, Rey. John. Peterstow Rectory, Ross, Herefordshire.
§Jecks, Charles. Billing-road, Northampton.
*Jee, Alfred 8.
§Jeffery, F. J. Woolton Hall, near Liverpool.
tJeffery, Henry, M.A. 438 High-street, Cheltenham.
*Jeftray, John. 193 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
{tJeffreys, Howell. Balliol College, Oxford. ;
*Jeffreys, J. Gwyn, F.RS., F.LS., F.G.S8., F.R.G.S. 25 Devon-
shire-place, Portland-place, London, W.

—_—

LIST OF MEMBERS. 39

Year of
Election.

1852.

1842,
1864.

1862.

1864.

1852.
1861.

1870.
1870.

1870.

1865.
1866.
1866.
1868.
1868.
1863.
1861.
1870.

1864.

1861.
1849.

1859.
1864,

1859.
1864.

1864.

1864,
1849.
1856.

1858.

1854.
1854.
1864.
1865.

1854.
1847,

fJellett, Rev. John H., M.A., M.R.LA., Professor of Natural Philo-
aes in Trinity College, Dublin. 64 Upper Leeson-stzeet,
ublin.
Jellicorse, John. Chaseley, near Rugeley, Staffordshire.
fJelly, Dr. W. Paston Hall, near Peterborough.
§Jenkin, H. C. Fleeming, F.R.S., Professor of Civil Engineering in the
University of Edinburgh. 5 Fettes-row, Edinburgh.
§Jenkins, Captain Griffith, C.B., F.R.G.S. Derwin, Welshpool.
*Jenkyns, Rey. Henry, D.D. The College, Durham.
Jennette, Matthew. 106 Conway-street, Birkenhead.
§Jennings, Francis M., F.G.S., M.R.LA. Brown-street, Cork.
tJennings, Thomas. Cork.
*Jenyns, Rev. Leonard, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 19 Belmont, Bath.
§Jerdon, T.C. Care of Mr. H. 8. King, 45 Pall Mall, London, S.W.
§Jervons, Walter 8.,M.D. Ashburton, Devon.
*Jerram, Rey. S. John, M.A. Chobham Vicarage, Farnborough Sta-
tion.
Jessop, William, jun. Butterley Hall, Derbyshire.
*Jevons, W. Stanley, M.A., Professor of Political Economy in Owens
College, Manchester. Writhineton, Manchester.
*Johnson, G. J. 2453 Hagley-road, Birmingham,
§Johnson, John. Low Pavement, Nottingham.
§Johnson, John G. 18a Basinghall-street, London, E.C.
{Johnson, J. Godwin. St. Giles’s-Street, Norwich.
{Johnson, Randall J. Sandown-villa, Harrow.
tJohnson, R.S. Hanwell, Fence Houses, Durham.
tJohnson, Richard. 27 Dale-street, Manchester.
§Johnson, Richard C. Warren Side, Blundell Sands, Liverpool.
*Johnson, Thomas. The Hermitage, Frodsham, Cheshire.
fJohnson, Thomas. 30 Belgrave-street, Commercial-road, London, E.
J te William. The Wynds Point, Colwall, Malvern, Worcester-
shire.
tJohnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrincham.
jJohnston, Alexander Keith, LL.D., F.R.S.E., I.G.8., F.R.G.S. 4St.
Andrew-square, Edinburgh.
Johnston, Alexander Robert, F.R.S. The Grove, Yoxford, Suffolk.
tJohnston, David, M.D. hie
tJohnston, David. 13 Marlborough-buildings, Bath.
Johnston, Edward. Field House, Chester.
{Johnston, James. Newmill, Elgin, N. B.
tJohnston, James. Manor House, Northend, Hampstead, London, N.
*Johnstone, James. Aloa House, by Stirling.
tJohnstone, John. 1 Barnard-villas, Bath.
Jollie, Walter. Edinburgh.
tJolly, Thomas. Park View-villas, Bath.
tJones, Baynham. Selkirk Villa, Cheltenham.
{Jones, C. W. 7 Grosyenor-place, Cheltenham.
Jones, Rev. Harry Longueville.
tJones, Henry Bence, M.A., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Hon. Sec. to the
Royal Institution. 84 Brook-street, London, W.
tJones, Rev. Henry H. Cemetery, Manchester.
{Jones, John. 70 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
§Jones, John, F.G.S. Royal Exchange, Middlesborough,
tJones, John. 49 Union-passage, Birmingham,
*Jones, Robert. 2 Castle-street, Liverpool.
*Jones, R. L. 6 Sunnyside, Princes Park, Liverpool.
{Jones, Thomas Rymer, Professor of Comparative Anatomy in King’s
College. 59 Cornwall-road, Westbourne-park, London, W.

40 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1860, {Jones, T. oe F.G.8., Professor of Geology and Mineralogy,
Royal Military College, Sandhurst. 5 College-terrace, York
Town, Surrey.
1864, §Jones, Sir Willoughby, Bart, F.R.G.S. Cranmer Hall, Fakenham,
Norfolk.
1851. {Josselyn, G. Tower-street, Ipswich.
*Joule, Benjamin St. John B. 28 Leicester-street, Southport, Lan-
cashire, :
1842, *Joule, James Prescott, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 5 Cliff Point, Higher
Broughton, Manchester.
1848, *Joy, Rev. Charles Ashfield. Grove Parsonage, near Wantage, Berl-
shire.
Joy, Henry Holmes, LL.D., Q.C., M.R.LA. 17 Mountjoy-square
East, Dublin.
Joy, William B., M.D. 48 Leeson-street, Dublin.
1847. {Jowett, Rev. B., M.A., Regius Professor of Greek in the University
of Oxford. Ballicl College, Oxford.
1858. tJowett, John, jun. Leeds.

*Jubb, Abraham. Halifax.

. §Judd, John Wesley, F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-strcet,

London, S.W.
tJukes, Rey. Andrew. Spring Bank, Hull.

*Kaines, Joseph, F.A.S.L. 8 Osborne-road, Stroud Green-lane,

Hornsey.
Kane, Sir Robert, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Principal of the Royal
College of Cork. 51 Stephen’s Green, Dublin.
{Kavanagh, James W. Grenville, Rathgar, Ireland.
{Kay, David, F.R.G.S. 19 Upper Phillimore-place, Kensington.
Kay, John Cunliffi Fairfield Hall, near Skipton. u
*Kay, John Robinson. Walmersley House, Bury, Lancashire.
Kay, Robert. Haugh Bank, Bolton-le-Moors.

*Kay, Rey. William, D.D. Great Leighs Rectory, Chelmsford.

{Kay-Shuttleworth, Sir James, Bart. Gawthorpe, Burnley.

{Kaye, Robert. Mill Brae, Moodies Burn, by Glasgow.

tKeddie, William. 15 North-street, Mungo-street, Glasgow.

{Keene, Alfred. Eastnoor House, Leamington.

{Kelland, Rev. Philip, M.A., F.R.S.L. & E-., Professor of Mathematics
in the University of Ndinburgh. 20 Clarendon Crescent, Edin-
burgh.

{Kelly, John, C.E. 88 Mount Pleasant-square, Dublin.

tKelly, John J. 88 Mount Pleasant-square, Dublin.

*Kelly, W. M., M.D. 11 The Crescent, Taunton, Somerset. -

Kelsall, J. Rochdale, Lancashire.

*Kemble, Rey. Charles, M.A. Vellore, Bath.

{Kemp, Rev. Henry William, B.A. The Charter House, Hull.

{Kemplay, Christopher. Leeds.

fKennedy, Lieut-Colonel John Pitt. 20 Torrington-square, Blooms-
bury, London, W.C.

Kenny, Matthias, M.D. 38 Clifton-terrace, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
Kenrick, Rev. George.

. {Kenrick, William. Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

Kent, J. C. Levant Lodge, Earl’s Croome, Worcester.
{Kent, William T., M.R.D.S. 51 Rutland-square, Dublin.
{Kenworth, James Ryley. 7 Pembroke-place, Liverpool.

- *Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland.
» *Ker, Robert. Auchinraith, by Hamilton, Scotland.
. *Kerr, William D., M.D., R.N. Bonnyrigg, Edinburgh.

Oe Pr ams.

2 gerd x

LIST OF MEMBERS, 41

Year of
Election.

1868,
1869.
1869.
1861.
1865.
1860.

1858.
1855.

1855.
1870.

1864.

1860.
1842.

{Kerrison, Roger. Crown Bank, Norwich.
*Kesselmeyer, Charles A. 1 Peter-street, Manchester.
*Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. 1 Peter-street, Manchester.
*Keymer, John. Parker-street, Manchester.
*Kinahan, Edward Hudson. 11 Merrion-square North, Dublin.
{Kinahan, G. Henry, M.R.LA. Geological Survey of Ireland, 51
Stephen’s Green, Dublin,
tKincaid, Henry Ellis, M.A. 8 Lyddon-terrace, Leeds.
{King, Alfred, jun. Everton, Liverpool.
tKing, James. Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow.
§King, John Thomson, C.K. 4 Clayton-square, Liverpool.
King, Joseph. Blundell Sands, Liverpool.
§King, Kelburne, M.D. 27 George Street, and Royal Institution,
ull.
*King, Mervyn Kersteman. Avonside, Clifton Down, Bristol.
King, Richard, M.D. 12 Bulstrode-street, London, W.
King, Rey. Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. St. Aubins, Jersey.

. §King, William. 13 Adelaide-terrace, Waterloo, Liverpool.

King, William Poole, F.G.S. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.
{Kingdon, B. Rose Hill, Exeter.
tKingdon, K. Taddiford, Exeter.
{iingsley, Rey. Canon Charles, M.A., F.L.S.,F.G.S. Eversley Rec-
tory, Winchfield.

{Kingsley, John. 30 St. Ann’s-street, Manchester.
tKingsley, Rey. W. T. South Kelvington, Thirsk.

Kingstone, A. John, M.A. Mosstown, Longford, Ireland.
{Kinloch, Colonel. Kirriemuir, Logie, Scotland.
§Kinsman, William R. Bank of England, Liverpool.

*Kinnaird, The Hon. Arthur Fitzgerald, M.P. 1 Pall Mall East,
London, §8.W.; and Rossie Priory, Inchture, Perthshire.
{Kinnaird, The Right Hon. Lord., K.T., F.G.S. Rossie Priory, Inch-

ture, Perthshire.
Kinnear, J. G., F.R.S.E. Glasgow.
{Kirkaldy, David. 28 Bartholomew-road North, London, N.W.
{Kirkman, Rey. Thomas P., M.A., F.R.S. Croft Rectory, near War-
rington.
Kirkpatrick,; Rev. W. B., D.D. 48 North Great George-street,
whlin.

. {Kirkwood, Anderson. 151 West George-street, Glasgow.

{Kirshaw, John William, F.G.S. Warwick.
§Kirwan, Rey. Richard, M.A. Gittesham Rectory, near Honiton.
§Kitchener, Frank KE. Rugby.
tKitson, James. Leeds.
{Knapman, Edward. The Vineyard, Castle-street, Exeter.
§Kneeshaw, Henry. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool,

Knight, Sir A. J., M.D.

Knipe, J. A. Botcherby, Carlisle.

Knowles, John. Old Trafford Bank House, Old Trafford, Manchester.

. §Knowles, Rey. J. L. Grove Villa, Bushey, Herts.

Knox, Rey. H. B., M.A., M.R.LA. Deanery, Hadleigh, Suffolk.
*Killmann, Mac.

. §Kynaston, Josiah W. St. Helens, Lancashire.
._[{Kynnersley, J.C. S, The Leyeretts, Handsworth, Birmingham,

Lace, Ambrose.
§Lace, Francis John. Stone Gapp, Cross-hill, Leeds.
tLackerstein, Dr. (Care of Messrs. Smith and Elder, 15 Waterloo-
place, London, 8. W.)

42 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1859. §Ladd, William, F.R.A.S, 11 & 18 Beak-street, Regent-street, Lon-
on, W.
1850. {Laing, David, F.S.A. Scotl. Signet Library, Edinburgh.
1870, §Laird, H.H. Birkenhead.
Laird, John; M.P. Hamilton-square, Birkenhead.
1870. §Laird, John, jun. Grosvenor-road, Claughton, Birkenhead.
1859. {Lalor, John Joseph, M.R.LA. 2 Longford-terrace, Monkstown, Co.
Dublin.
Lambert, Richard.
1846. *Laming, Richard. 10 Gloucester-place, Brighton.
1870. §Lamport, C. Upper Norwood, Surrey.
1859. {Lang, Rev. John Marshall. I*yvie, Aberdeen.
1864, §Lang, Robert. Hallen Lodge, Henbury, Bristol.
1870. §Langton, Charies. Barkhill, Aigburth, Liverpool.
*Langton, William. Manchester.
1840. {Lankester, Edwin, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.LS. 23 Great Marl-
borough-street, London, W.
1865. §Lankester, E. Ray. Melton House, Hampstead, London, N. W.
*Larcom, Major-General Sir Thomas Aiskew, K.C.B., R.E., F.R.S.,
M.R.LA. Heathfield House, Faveham, Hants.
Lassell, William, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Ray Lodge, Maidenhead.
1860. {Zassell, William, jun. The Brook, near Liverpool.
1861. *Latham, Arthur G. 24 Cross-street, Manchester.
1845, {Latham, Robert G., M.A., M.D., F.R.S. 96 Disraeli-road, Putney,
S.W
*La Touche, David Charles, M.R.I.A. Castle-street, Dublin.
1870. §Laughton, John Knox, M.A., I’.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. Royal Naval
College, Portsmouth.
1870. *Law, Channell. 5 Champion Park, Camberwell, London, §.E.
1857. {Law, Hugh. 4 Great Denmark-street, Dublin.
1862. {Law, Rev. James Edmund, M.A. Little Shelford, Cambridgeshire.
Law, Rev. William, I.A.
Lawley, The Hon. Francis Charles. Escrick Park, near York.
Lawley, The Hon. Stephen Willoughby. Escrick Park, near York.
1870. §Lawrence, Edward. Aigburth, Liverpool.
1869. {Lawson, Henry. 8 Nottingham-place, London, W.
1857. {Lawson, James A., LL.D., M.R.IA. 27 Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin.
1855. {Lawson, John. Mountain Blue Works, Camlachie.
1868. *Lawson, M. Alexander, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Uni-
versity of Oxford. Botanic Gardens, Oxford.
1858. {Zawson, Samuel. Kirkstall, near Leeds.
1863. {Lawton, Benjamin C. Neville Chambers, 44 Westgate-street,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1853. {Lawton, William. 8 Manor House-street, Hull.
Laycock, Thomas, M.D., Professor of the Practice of Physic in the
University of Edinburgh. 4 Rutland-street, Edinburgh.
1865. tLea, Henry. 35 Paradise-street, Birmingham.
1857. {Leach, Capt. R. E. Mountjoy, Phoenix Park, Dublin.
7 Leadbetter, John. Glasgow.
1870. *Leaf, Charles John, F'.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. Old Change, London
E.C.; and Harrow.
1870. *Leatham, Baldwin. 7 Westminster Chambers, Westminster, S.W.
1847, *Leatham, Edward Aldam, M.P. Whitley Hall, Huddersfield.
1858, {Leather, George. Knostrop, near Leeds.
*Leather, John Towlerton. Leventhorpe Hall, near Leeds.
1858. {Leather, John W. Newton Green, Leeds.
1863. tLeavers, J. W. The Park, Nottingham,
1858, *Le Cappelain, John, Wood-lane, Highgate, London, N.

_—

LIST OF MEMBERS.. 43

Year of
Election.

1858,
1842.
1861.
1853.

1850.

1859,

1869.
1868.
1856.

1861.
1870.

1867,

1870.

1859.
1860.
1863.

1867.
1861.

1861.
1856.
1852.

1859.
1846,

1866.

1870.

1853.

1860,
1855.

1859.

1864,

1862.

ne William. Potter Newton, near Leeds.
Lee, Daniel. Springfield House, Pendlebury, Manchester.
tLee, Henry. Irwell House, Lower Broughton, Manchester.
Lee, Henry, M.D. _Weatheroak, Alve Church, near Bromsgrove.
*Lee, John Edward, F.G.S., FS. A. The Priory,’ Caerleon, Monmouth-
’ shire.
tLees, George, LL.D. Rillbank, Edinburgh.
{Lees, William. 5 Meadow Bank, Edinburgh.
*Leese, Joseph. Glenfield, Altrincham, near Manchester.
*Leeson, Henry B., M.A., "MD., F.R.S., F.C.S The Maples, Bon-
church, Isle of Wicht.
*Lefroy, J. Henry, Major- General, RA., F.R.S., F-R.G.S., Director-
General of Ordnance. 82 Queen’ 8 ‘Gate, London, W.
*Legh, George Cornwall, M.P. High Legh Hall, Cheshire; and 6
St. James's- place, St. James’s- -street, London, S.W.
§Le Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance.
tLeicester, The Right Hon. The Earl of. Holkham, Norfolk.
tLeigh, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L. 37 Portman-square, London,
W.; and Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth.
*Leigh, Henry. Moorfield, Swinton, near Manchester.
§Leighton, Andrew. 35 Hich Park-street, Liverpool.
* Leinster, Augustus Frederick, Duke of, M.R.LA. 6 Carlton House-
terrace, London, S.W.; and Carton, Maynooth, Ireland.
§Leishman, James. Gateacre Hall, Liv erat.
§Leister, G. F. see House, Liverpool.
tLeith, Alexander. Glenkindie, Inverkindie, N. B.
{tLempriere, Charles, D. C.L. St. John’s College, Oxford.
*Lendy, Capt. Auguste Frederic, F.L.S., F.G.8. Sunbury House,
Sunbury, M iddlesex, S.W.
tLeng, J anit «Advertiser ” Office, Dundee.
tLennox, A. C. W. 7 Beaufort-gardens, Brompton, London, 8.W.
Lentaigne, John, M.D. Tallaght House, Co. Dublin; and 14 Great
Dominick-street, Dublin.
Lentaigne, Joseph. ‘12 Great Denmark-street, Dublin.
{Leppoc, Henry Julius. Kersal Crag, near Manchester.
{tLeslie, Colonel J. Forbes. Bothiekorman, Aberdeenshire.
tLeslie, T. KE. Cliffe, LL.B., Professor of Jurisprudence and Political
Economy, Queen’s College, Belfast.
tLeslie, William. Warthill, Aberdeenshire.
tLetheby, Henry, M.B., F.L.S., Medical Officer to the City of London,
41 Vinsbury- square, London, E.C,
§Leyi, Dr. Leone, F.S.A., F.8.8., Professor of Commercial Law in
King’s College, London. 10 Farrar ’s-building, Temple, London,

E.C. :
§Lewis, Alfred Lionel. 45 Church-road, De Beauvoir-square, Lon-
don, N.
tLiddell, George William Moore. Sutton House, near Hull,
{Liddell, The Very Rey. H. G., D.D., Dean of Christ Church, Oxford.
{Liddell, John. 8 Clelland- street, Glasgow.
tLigertwood, George. Blair by Summerhill, Aberdeen.
§Lightbody, Robert, F.G.8. Ludlow, Salop.
tLilford, The Right Hon. Lord, F.L.S. Lilford Hall, Oundle, North-
amptonshire.
*Limerick, Charles Graves, D.D., M.R.LA., Lord Bishop of. . The
Palace, Henry- -street, Limerick. §
*Lindsay, Charles. Ridge- aa Lanark.
*Lindsay, Henry L., C LRA, 1 ge pdr ed ich West,
Montreal, Canada.

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1855,

1870.
1842,

*Lindsay, John H. Care of James Jarvie, Esq., 7 Steven-street,
Glasgow.

§Lindsay, Thomas. 288 Renfrew-strect, Glasgow.

*Lingard, John R., I.G.8, Mayfield, Shortlands, by Bromley,
Kent.

Lingwood, Robert M., M.A.,F.L.S., F.G.S. Cowley House, Exeter.
Lister, James. Liverpool Union Bank, Liverpool.

. §Lister, Thomas. Post Office, Barnsley.

Littledale, Harold. Liscard Hall, Cheshire.
*Liveing, G, D., M.A., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Univer-
sity of Cambridge. Newnham, Cambridge.
§Livesay, J. G. Cromarty House, Ventnor, Isle of Wight.
{Livingstone, Rey. Thomas Gott, Minor Canon of Carlisle Cathe-
dral.
Lloyd, Rev. A. R. Hengold, near Oswestry.
Lloyd, Rey. C., M.A. Whittington, Oswestry.
Lloyd, Edward, King-street, Manchester.
tLloyd, G. B. Wellington-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
*Lloyd, George, M.D., F.G.S. Birmingham Heath, Birmingham.
§Lloyd, James. 150 Chatham-street, Liverpool.
§Lloyd, J. B.
§Lloyd, J. H., M.D, Anglesea.
*Lloyd, Rev. Humphrey, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S, L. & E., M.R.LA.,
Provost of Trinity College, Dublin.
tLloyd, John. Queen’s College, Birmingham.
Lloyd, Rev. Rees Lewis. Belper, Derbyshire.
*Lloyd, Wilson. Moor Hall, Sutton Coldfield, near Birmingham.
*Lobley, James Logan, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 50 Lansdowne-rvad, Ken-
sington Park, London, W.
*Locke, John. Care of J. Robertson, Esq., 3 Grafton-street, Dublin.
*Locke, John. 83 Addison-road, Kensington, London, W.
fLockyer, J. Norman, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 24 Victoria-road, Finchley-
road, London, N.W.

. {Loft, John. 17 Albion-street, Hull.

*Loftus, William Kennett, F.GS. Calcutta.
*Logan, Sir William Edmond, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.B.G.S.,
Director of the Geological Survey of Canada. Montreal, Canada.
ee Thomas, C.E., F.R.S.E. 1 Leamington-villas, Weston-super-
ere.
{Long, Andrew, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.
{Long, William, F.G.S. Hurts Hall, Saxmundham, Suffolk,
§Longdon, F. Derby.
{Lonegfield, Rey. George, D.D. 25 Trinity College, Dublin.
Longfield, Mountifort, LL.D., M.R.LA., Regius Professor of Feudal
and English Law in the University of Dublin. 47 Fitzwilliam-
square, Dublin.
*Longman, William, I’.G.S. 36 Hyde Park-square, London, W.
tLongmuir, Rey. John, M.A., LL.D. 14 Silver-street, Aberdeen.
Longridge, W. 8. Oakhurst, Ambergate, Derbyshire.

. *Longsdon, Robert. Church House, Bromley, Kent.

*Lord, Edward. Adamroyd, Todmorden,
tLosh, W. 8. Wreay Syke, Carlisle.

. §Low, James F, Monifieth, by Dundee.
- *Lowe, Major Arthur 8, H., F.R.A.S. 76 Lancaster Gate, London.
. “Lowe, Edward Joseph, F.R.S., F.R.AS., F.LS., F.G.8., FMS.

Highfield House Observatory, near Nottingham.
Lowe, George, F.R.S,, F.G.S., F.R.A.S, 9 St. John’s-wood Park,
London, N.W.

:
:
}

LIST OF MEMBERS. 45

Year of
Election.
1870. §Lowe, G.C. 67 Cecil-street, Greenheys, Manchester.
1868. {Lowe, John, M.D. King’s Lynn.
1850, {Lowe, William Henry, M.D., F.R.S.E. Balgreen, Slateford, Edin-'

1853.

. *Lupton, Darnton, Jun. The

burgh.
Lowndes, Matthew D.

*Lubbock, Sir John, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.L.S.,F.G.8. High Elms,
Farnborough, Kent.

. §Lubbock, Montague. High Elms, Farnborough, Kent.

. “Luckcock, Howard. Oak-hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. *Luis, John Henry. Cidhmore, Dundee.

. *Lund, Charles. Market-street, Bradford.

. *Lundie, Cornelius. Tweed Lodge, Cardiff.

tLunn, William Joseph, M.D. 23 Charlotte-street, Hull.

fe}

. “Lupton, Arthur. ae near Leeds.

arehills, Leeds.

§Lycett, Sir Francis. 18 Highbury-grove, London, N.

*Lyell, Sir Charles, Bart., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.LS.,
V.P.G.S., Hon. M.R.S.Ed. 73 Harley-street, London, W.

. fLlyne, Francis. (Care of Sydney Smith, Esq., Charlotte-row, Mansion

House, London, E.C.)

- TLyons, Robert D. 31 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.
. “Lyte, Maxwell F., F.C.S. Bagnéres de Bigorre, France.
. fLyttelton, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L., F.R.S. 12 Stratton-street,

London, W.

. {Mabson, John. Heyning, Westmoreland.

. {MacAdam, James, jun. Beavor Hall, Belfast.

- [MacAdam, Robert. 18 College-square Kast, Belfast.

» *Macadam, Stevenson, Ph.D., I.R.S.E., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry.

Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh.

. {Macalister, Alexander, M.D., Professor of Zoology in the University

of Dublin. 13 Adelaide-road, Dublin.

. {M‘Allan, W. A. Norwich.

*M‘Andrew, Robert, F.R.S, Isleworth House, Isleworth, Middle-
sex.
*M‘Arthur, A. Raleigh Hall, Brixton Rise, London, 8.W.

5. {M Arthur, Richard, W. J.

Macaulay, James, M.D, 22 Cambridge-road, Kilburne, London,
Biv : ;

tMacauley, James William.

*“MacBrayne, Robert. Messrs. Black and Wingate, 9 Exchange-
square, Glasgow.

tM‘Callan, Rev. J. F., M.A. Basford, near Nottineham.

{M‘Callum, Archibald K., M.A. House of Refuge, Duke-strect,
Glasgow.

: {M‘Calmont, Robert. Gatton Park, Reigate.

. $M‘Cann, James, F.G.S. Holmfrith, Yorkshire.

- [M‘Causland, Dominick. 12 Fitzgibbon-street, Dublin.

» *M‘Clean, John Robinson, F.R.S., F.G.S. 2 Park-street, Westmin-

ster, S.W.
M‘Clelland, James. 82 Pembridge Square, London, W.

f $M Clelland, John. Calcutta.

{M‘Clintock, Captain Sir Francis L., R.N., F.R.S.,F.R.G.S8. United
Service Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.
*MConnel, James. The Furze, Esher, Surrey.

. *M‘ Connell, David C., F.GS.
. {M‘Connell, J. E. Woodlands, Great Missenden,

tM‘Cosh, Rey, James, M.A, Canada.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1851.

1850.
1859.
1855.
1854,

1867.
1852.

1855.
1855.
1855.

1859,
1855.
1859.
1867.
1854.
1865.
1865.
1855.

1850.
1865,
1859,
1867,

1867,
1850.
1860.

1864.
1855,
1859.

1862,
1868,

1855.
1861.

1862.
1870,
1867,

1850.
1859.

1852.

tM‘Coy, Frederick, F.G.S., Professor of Zoology and Natural Bison
in the University of Melbourne, Australia.
MM’ Cullagh, John, A. B.
M‘Culloch, George, M.D. Cincinnati, United States.
Macdonald, Wilham, M.D., F.R.S.1., F.L.8., F.G.8., Professor of
Civil and Natural History. St, Andrews, N. B.
MacDonnell, Hercules H. G. 2 Kildare-place, Dublin.
M‘Ewan, J ohn, 20 Royal Crescent, Glasgow.
Macfarlan, John Fletcher. Park-place, Edinburgh,
Macfarlane, Alexander. 73 Bon Accord-street, Aberdeen.
MFarlane, Walter. Saracen Foundry, Glasgow.
Macfie, Robert Andrew, M.P. Ashfield Hall, Neston, near
_ Chester.
*M‘Gavin, Robert. Ballumbie, Dundee.
*M‘Gee, William, M.D. 10 College-square North, Belfast.
tMacGeorge, Andrew, j jun. 21 St. Vincent-place, ’Glasgow.
{M‘Gregor, Alexander Bennett. 19 Woodside-crescent, Glasgow.
{MacGregor James Watt. Wallace-grove, Glasgow.
{M‘Hardy, Dayid. 54 Netherkinkgate, Aberdeen.
{M‘Ilwraith, H. Greenock.
tMacintosh, John. Middlefield House, Woodside, Aberdeen.
*M‘Tutosh, W. C., M.D,, F.L.S. Murthly, Perthshire.
*Maclver, Charles. Water-street, Liverpool.
{Mackeson, H. B.
{Mackintosh, Daniel, F.G.S. Chichester.
{M‘Kenzie, Alexander, ‘89 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
*Mackenzie, James. Glentore, by Glasgow.
{Mackenzie, J. W. 16 Royal Cireus, Edinbur oh.
{
{

Kt et #

Mackenzie, Kenneth Robert Henderson, FS.A., , FAL

Mackie, David. Mitchell-place, Aberdeen.

¢Mackie, Samuel Joseph, F,G,8, 84 Kensington Park-road, London,

*Mackinlay, David. Pollokshields, Glasgow.

§Mackson, H. G, 25 Cliff Road, Waocdhonee, Leeds.

{Maclagan, Douglas, M.D., F.R. S.E. 28 Heriot Row, Edinburgh.

tMaclaren, Archibald. Summertown, Oxfordshire.

§MacLaren, Duncan, M.P. Newington House, Edinburgh.

t MacLaren, John.

{Maclear, Sir Thomas, F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.AAS., late Astronomer
Royal at the Cape of Good Hope.

tMacleod, Henry Dunning. 17 Gloucester-terrace, Camden-hill-road ,
London, W.

ele, Herbert. Royal College of Chemistry, Oxford-street, Lon-

on,

{IL Lintock, William.

*Maclure, John William, 2 Bond-street, Manchester.

tMacmillan, Alexander. Seratheen- lane, Upper Tooting, Surrey.

§Macnaught, John, M.D, 50 Bedford-street, Liverpool.

§M‘Neill, John. Balhousie House, Perth.

MacNeill, The Right Hon. Sir John, G.C.B., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S
Granton House, Edinburgh.
MacNeill, Sir John, LL.D., FE RS., M.R.LA., Professor of Civil

Engineering in Trinity College, Dublin. Mount Pleasant, '

Dundalk.
tMacnight, Alexander, 12 London-street, Edinburgh.
{Macpherson, Rey. W, Kilmuir Easter, Scotland.
Macredie, P, B, Mure, F.R.8.E, Irvine, Ayrshire,
*Macrory, Adam J: ohn. _Duneairn, Belfast.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 47

Year of
Election.

1855.
1855.
1857.
1868.

1869.

~ 1869.
1866.

ey, Edmund, M.A. 40 Leinster-square, Bayswater, London,

etre William, M.D. Maybole, Ayrshire.

tMacvicar, Rey. John Gibson, D.D., LL.D. Moffat, N.B,

tMadden, Richard R.

{Magnay, F. A. Drayton, near Norwich.

Magor, J. B. Redruth, Cornwall.

§Main, Rey. R., F.RB.S., BRA, S., Director of the Radcliffe Observa-
tory, Oxford.

{Main, Robert. Admiralty, Somerset House, W.C.

§Major, yeaa H., F.S.A., F.R.G.8, British Museum, London,

+ Malahide, Talbot de, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., F.R.S8., F,.G.S.,
F.S.A. Malahide Castle, Co. Dublin.

. tMalan, John. Holmpton, Holderness,

*Malcolm, Frederick. Mordon College, Blackheath, London, S.E.

. {Malcolm, R. B., M.D., F.R.S.E. 126 George-street, Edinburgh.
. *Malcolm, Sir James, Bart. The Priory, St. Michael's Hamlet,

Aigburth, Liverpool.

. {Maling, C. T. Lovaine-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Mallet, Robert, Ph.D., F.R.S., E.G. S., M.R.LA. The Groye, Clap-
ham-road, Clapham, London, S.W.

. Mallet, Dr. Ji ohn William, University of Alabama, U.S,
; earl Shake, F.R.S., F.G.S. 24 Great George-street, ‘nian,

- tMancine, Count de, Italian Consul.
. §Mann, Robert James, M.D., F.R.A.S. 6 Duke-street, Adelphi, Lon-

London, W.C.; and 4 Belmont-villas, Surbiton Hill,
Manning, The Right Rev. H.

. {Manning, John. Waverley-street, Nottingham.

. §Manifold, W.H. 45 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

. TMansel, J. C. Long Thorns, Blandford.

. {March, I. F.. Fairfield House, Warrington,

F §Marcoartu, Senor Don Arturo de. Madrid.

. }Markham, Clements R., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 21 Eccleston-square,

Pimlico, London, 8. W.

. {Marley, John. Mining Office, Darlington.

*Marling, Samuel S., MP. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire,
Marriott, John. Allerton, Liverpool.

: §Marriott, William. Grafton-place, Huddersfield.
: {Marriott, William Thomas. Wakefield.

Marsden, Richard. Norfolk-street, Manchester.

. tMarsh, Dr. J. C. L. Park-row, Nottingham.

: §Marsh, John. Rann Lea, Rainhill, Liverpool.

5 {Marsh, M. H. Wilbury Park, Wilts.

. t{Marsh, Thomas Edward Miller. 37 Grosvenor-place, Bath.

Marshall, James. Headingly, near Leeds.

: tMarshall, James D. Holywood, Belfast.
. {Marshall, Reginald Dylics Adel, near Leeds.

*Marshall, James Garth, M.A., F. GS. Headlingley House, Leeds.

; *Marshall, William P. 6 Portland-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. §Marten, Edward Bindon. 13 High-street, Stourbridge,

tMartin, Henry D. 4 Imperial Circus, Cheltenham. fies

, §Martin, Robert, M.D. 120 Upper Brook-street, Manchester.

Martin, Studley. 177 Bedford-street South, Liverpool.

*Martin, William, Jun. Leafield-place, Dundee.

*Martindale, Nicholas. 12 Gomwall-tensaae, 3 Regent’s Park, London, °
N.W,

48 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

*Martineau, Rey. James. 10 Gordon-street, Gordon-square, London,

1865. {Martineau, R. F. Highfield-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1865. {Martineau, Thomas. 7 Canuon-street, Birmingham.
1847. {Maskelyne, Nevil Story, F.R.S.,M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Mineralogy
in the University of Oxford. British Museum, London, W.C.
1861. *Mason, Hugh. Groby Lodge, Ashton-under-Lyne.
Massey, Hugh, Lord. Hermitage, Castleconnel, Co. Limerick.
1870. §Massey, Thomas. 5 Gray’s-Inn-square, London, W.C.
1870. §Massy, Frederick. 50 George-street, Liverpool.
1868. §Mason, J ree Wood, F.G.S. 1 Glebe-place, Stoke Newington, Lon-
don, N.
1863, *Mather, Joseph. Beech Grove, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1865. *Mathews, G. 8. 15 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
1861, *Mathews, William, jun., M.A., F.G.S. 51 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
1859. Matthew, Alexander C. 3 Canal-terrace, Aberdeen.
1865. {Matthews, C. E. Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
1858. {Matthews, F.C. Mandre Works, Driffield, Yorkshire.
*Matthews, Henry, F.C.S. 60 Gower-street, London, W.C.
1860. ae ef Rey. Richard Brown. Shalford Vicarage, near Guild-
ord.
1863. {Maughan, Rev. W. Benwell Parsonage, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1855. {Maule, Rey. Thomas, M.A. Partick, near Glasgow.
1865. *Maw, George, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A, Benthall Hall, Broseley, Shrop-
shire.
1864, *Maxwell, Francis. Speddock, near Dumfries.
*Maxwell, James Clerk, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., L. & E. Professor of
Experimental Physics in the University of Cambridge. Glenlair,
Dalbeattie, N.B.
1852. {Mazwell, John Waring. Finnebrogue, Downpatrick, Ireland.
*Maxwell, Robert Perceval. Groomsport House, Belfast.
1865. *May, Walter. Elmley Lodge, Harborne, Birmingham.
1868. §Mayall, J. E. Hove-place House, Brighton.
*Mayne, Rev. Charles, M.R.I.A. Jillaloe, Co, Clare, Ireland.
1857. {Mayne, William Annesley.
1863. §Mease, George D. Bylton Villa, South Shields.
1863. tMease, Solomon. Cleveland House, North Shields.
sige er Butcher, D.D., Lord Bishop of. Ardbracean, Co.
Meath.
1861. {Medcalf, William. 20 Bridgewater-place, Manchester.
1867. {Meldrum, Charles. Mauritius.
1866. {Mello, Rey. J. M. St. Thomas’s Rectory, Brampton, Chesterfield.
1854, {Melly, Charles Pierre. 11 Rumford-street, Liverpool.
1847, {Melville, Professor Alexander Gordon, M.D. Queen’sCollege, Galway.
1863. {Melvin, Alexander. 42 Buccleuch-place, Edinburgh.
1862. §Mennell, Henry J. St. Dunstan’s-buildings, Great Tower-street,
London, E.C.
1868. §Merrifield, Charles W., F.R.S., Principal of the Royal Sehool of
Naval Architecture, Superintendent of the Naval Museum at
South Kensington, Hon. Sec. ILN.A. 23 Scarsdale-villas, Ken-
sington, London, 8S.W.
1863. §Messent, P. T. 4 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth.
1869. §Miall, Louis C. Bradford, Yorkshire.
1847, *Michell, Rey. Richard, D.D., Principal of Magdalen Hall, Oxford.
1865. {Michie, Alexander. 26 Austin Friars, London, E.C. ’
1865. §Middlemore, William. Edgbaston, Birmingham,
1866. {Midgley, John. Colne, Lancashire.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 49

Year of
Election.

1867.
1855.

1857.
1859.
1863,

1859.
1865.

1861.
1863.

1868.

1842.
1868,

1867,

1854.
1864,

1865.
1855.
1859.
1863.
1855.
1870.
1868.
1862.

1855.
1854.

1864.
1866.
1855.
1861.

1852,
1865.
1853.

1860.

1853.
1857.
1859.
1857.

{Midgley, Robert. Colne, Lancashire.
ange Rey. Charles P., M.D. 58 Brompton-crescent, London,
.W.

tMillar, George M.

{Millar, John. Lisburn, Ireland,

aes J oe a ,F.LS., F.G.S. Bethnal House, Cambridge-road,
ondon, N.E.

Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Perth.

tMiller, James, jun. Greenock.

tMiller, Rey. J. C., D.D. The Vicarage, Greenwich, London, 8.E.

*Miller, Patrick, M.D. The Grove, Mount Radford, Exeter.

*Miller, Robert. Whalley Range, Manchester.

{Miller, Thomas. Righill Hall, Durham.

Miller, William Hallows, M.A., LL.D., For. Sec. R.S., F.G.S., Pro-
fessor of Mineralogy in the University of Cambridge. 7 Scroope-
terrace, Cambridge.

*Milligan, Joseph, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S... 15 Northum-
erland-street, Strand, London, W.C.
Milligan, Robert. Acacia in Randon, Leeds.
came ae zy 12 Pemberton-terrace, St. John’s Wood Park,
ondon, N.W.
*Mills, John Robert. Bootham, York.
tMilne, James. Murie House, Errol, by Dundee.
Milne, Rear-Admiral Sir Alexander, K.C.B., F.R.S.E. Mussel-
borough, Edinburgh.
Ao er ki M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.8. Paxton House, Ber-
wick, N.B.
*Milner, William. Phcenix Safe Works, Liverpool.
*Milton, The Right Hon. Lord, M.P., F.R.G.S. 17 Grosyenor-street,
London, W.; and Wentworth, Yorkshire.
{Minton, Samuel, F.G.S. Oakham House, near Dudley.
tMirlees, James Buchanan. 128 West-street, Tradeston, Glasgow.
{Mitchell, Alexander, M.D. Old Rain, Aberdeen.
{Mitchell, C. Walker, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
{ Mitchell, George. Glasgow.
§Mitchell, John.. York House, Clitheroe.
§Mitchell, John, jun. Pole Park House, Dundee.
*Mitchell, William Stephen, LL.B., F.L.S., F.G.8. Caius College,
: Cambridge.

Moffat, John, C.E. Ardrossan, Scotland.

§Moffat, Thomas, M.D., F.G.8., F.R.A.S., F.M.S. Hawarden,
Chester.

tMoge, John Rees. High Littleton House, near Bristol.

§Mogeridge, Matthew, F.G.S. 3 Park-villas, Richmond, Surrey.

§Moir, James. 174 Gallogate, Glascow.

tMolesworth, Rev. W. N., M.A. Spotland, Rochdale.

Mollan, John, M.D. 8 Fitzwilliam-square North, Dublin,

{Molony, William, LL.D. Carrickfergus,

§Molyneux, William, F.G.S. Manor House, Burton-upon-Trent.

tMonday, William, Hon. Sec. Hull Lit. and Phil. Soc. 6 Jarratt-

street, Hull. ‘ :

§Monk, Rey. William, M.A., F.R.A.S. Wymington Rectory, Higham,

Ferrers, Northamptonshire.

Monroe, Henry, M.D. 10 North-street, Sculcoates, Hull.
Moore, Arthur. Cradley House, Clifton, Bristol.

Moore, Charles, F.G.S. 6 Cambridge-terrace, Bath.
Moore, Rey. John, D.D. Clontarf, Dublin.

Moore, John, 2 Meridian-place, Clifton, Bristol.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1866.
1854.
1835.
1857.
1861.

1868.
1849.

1863.
1865.

1861,

1861.
1867.
1863,
1865.
1869.
1857.
1858.
1847,
1868.
1857.
1862.

1870.
1853.
1864,

1869.
1865.
1866.
1862.
1856,
1865,
1861,

1850.
1855.

1857,

1866.
1864,

1864.
1864,

*Moore, John Carrick, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8. 118 Eaton-street, London,
S.W.; and Oorswall, Wigtonshire.
*Moore, Thomas, F.L.S. Botanic Gardens, Chelsea, London, S.W.
t{Moore, Thomas John, Cor.M.Z.S. Free Public Museum, Liverpool.
Moore, William D., M.D. 40 Fitzwilliam-square West, Dublin.
*Moore, Rey. William Prior. The Royal School, Cavan, Ireland.
t{Morewood, Edmund. Cheam, Surrey.
Morgan, Captain Evan, R.A.
t{Morgan, Thomas H. Oakhurst, Hastings.
tMorgan, William, 87 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
Morley, George. Park-place, Leeds.
{Morley, Samuel, M.P. Lenton-groye, Nottingham.
ns aig Colonel Robert. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London,
V

*Morris, David. Royal Exchange, Manchester.
*Morris, Rey. Francis Orpen, B.A. Nunburnholme Rectory, Hayton,

ork.
Morris, Samuel, M.R.D.S. Fortview, Clontarf, near Dublin.
Morris, William. ‘The Grange, Salford.
Morrison, William R. Dundee,
Morrow, R. J. Bentick Villas, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Mortimer, J. R. Fimber, Malton.
Mortimer, William. Bedford-cireus, Exeter.
Morton, George H., F.G.8. 21 West Derby-street, Liverpool.
Morton, Henry Joseph. Garforth House, West Garforth, near Leeds.
Moseley, Rev. Henry, M.A., F.R.S. Olveston Vicarage, near Bristol.
Moseley, H. N. Olveston, Bristol.
Moses, Mareus. 4 Westmoreland-street, Dublin.
{Mosheimer, Joseph.
Mosley, Sir Oswald, Bart., D.C.L., F.L.S., F.G.8. Rolleston Hall,
Burton-upon-Trent, Staffordshire.
Moss, John. Otterspool, near Liverpool.
§Moss, John Miles. Springbank, Waterloo, Liverpool.
*Moss, William Henry, Kingston-terrace, Hull.
§Mosse, J. R. (H.8. King & Co., 65 Cornhill, London, E.C.) Gen-
eral Manager’s Office, Mauritius Railway, Port Louis, Mauritius.
§Mott, A. J. Sandfield, Waterloo, Liverpool.
§Mott, Charles Grey. The Park, Birkenhead.
§Mott, Frederick. 1 De Montfort-street, Leicester.
*Mouat, Frederick John, M.D., Inspector-General of Prisons, Bengal.
{Mould, Rey. J. G., B.D. 21 Camden-crescent, Bath.
{tMounsey, Edward. Sunderland.
Mounsey, John. Sunderland.
*Mountcastle, William Robert. 7 Market-street, Manchester.
Mowbray, James. Combus, Clackmannan, Scotland.
tMowbray, J.T. 27 Dundas-street, Edinburgh.
tMuir, William. 10 St. John-street, Adelphi, London, W.C.
Muirhead, James. 90 Buchanan-street, Glaszow.
Eo Bernard, M.A., C.E. 1 Vitzwilliam-square South,
Dublin.
Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig-tree-court, Temple, London, F.C.
tMundella, A. J., M.P., F.R.G.S. The Park, Nottingham. .
*Munro, Major-General William, C.B., F.L.S. United Service Club,
ee Mall, London, 8.W.; and Mapperton Lodge, Farnborough,
ants.
§Murch, Jerom. Cranwells, Bath. -
*Murchison, John Henry, F.G.S. Surbiton-hill, Kingston,
*Murchison, K. R. 10 Victoria-park, Dover.

HH FH HH

LIST OF MEMBERS. 51

Year of
Election.

*Murchison, Sir Roderick Impey, Bart., K.C.B., M.A., D.C.L. Oxon.,
LL.D, Camb., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S., Hon. Mem. R.S.Ed. &
R.1.A., Director-General of the Geological Survey of the United
Kangdom. 16 Belevave-square, London, 8.W.
1864, teenie Captain R. M. Caerbaden House, Cleveland-walk,
ath.
1855. {Murdock, James B. 195 Bath-street, Glasgow.
1858. {Murgatroyd, William. Bank Field, Bingley.
Murley, Rey. C. HH. South Petherton, Lminster,
1852. {Murney, Henry, M.D. 10 Chichester-street, Belfast.
1852. {Murphy, Joseph John. Old Forge, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim.
1869. §Murray, Adam. 4 Westhourne-crescent, Hyde Park, London, W.
1850. oy a F.L.S. 67 Bedford Gardens, Kensington, Lon-
on, W.
Murray, John, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 50 Albemarle-street, London, W. ;
and Newsted, Wimbledon, Surrey.
1859. {Mwray, John, M.D. Forres, Scotland.
*Muiray, John, C.K. 11 Great Queen-street, Westminster, S.W.
tMurray, Rey. John. Morton, near Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.
1863, {Murray, William. 34 Clayton-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Murton, James. Silverdale, near Carnforth, Lancaster.
Musgrave, The Venerable Charles, D.D., Archdeacon of Craven.
‘Halifax.
1861. {Musgrove, John, jun. Bolton.
1870. *Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.
*Muspratt, James Sheridan, M.D., Ph.D., F.C.S. College of Chemistry,
Liverpool.
1865. {Myers, Rev. E., F.G.S. 17 Summerhill-terrace, Birmingham.
1859, §Mylne, Robert William, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. 21 Whitehall-place,
London, 8. W.
1850. {Myrtle, J. Y., M.D. 113 Princes-street, Edinburgh.

1850, {Nachot, H. W., Ph.D. 59 George-street, Edinburgh.
1842. Nadin, Joseph. Manchester.
1855. *Napier, James R., F.R.S. 22 Blythwood-square, Glasgow.
1839, *Napier, Right Hon. Sir Joseph, Bart. 4 Merrion-square, Dublin,
*Napier, Captain Johnstone. Tavistock House, Salisbury.

1855. {Napier, Robert. West Chandon, Gareloch, Glasgow.

Napper, James William L. Loughcrew, Oldcastle., Co. Meath.
1866. {Nash, Davyd W., F.S.A., F.L.8. 10 Imperial-square, Cheltenham.
1850. *Nasmyth, James. Penshurst, Tunbridge.
1864, {Natal, William Colenso, Lord Bishop of.
1860. t{Neate, Charles, M.A. Oriel College, Oxford.
1867. §Neaves, The Right Hon. Lord. 7 Charlotte-square, Edinburgh.
1845. {Nedld, Arthur. Ollernshaw, Whaleybridge, by Stockport.
1853. {Neill, William, Governor of Hull Jail. Hull.

Neilson, Robert.
1855. {Neilson, Walter. 172 West George-street, Glasgow.
1865, {Neilson, W. Montgomerie. Glasgow.

Ness, John. Helmsley, near York.
1868. {Nevill, Rev. H. R. Great Yarmouth,
1866. *Nevill, Rey. Samuel Tarratt, B.A., F.L.S. Shelton Rectory, near

Stoke-upon-Trent.
1861. {Nevill, Thomas Henry. 17 George-street, Manchester.
1857. {Neville, John, C.E., M.R.LA. Dundalk, Ireland.
1852. {Neville, Parke, C.E. Town Hall, Dublin,
1869. §Nevins, John Birkbeck, M.D. 3 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
1842, New, Herbert. Evesham, Worcestershire.
E2

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1867.
1866.
1854.

1842,

1863.
1866.
1858.
1860.
1865.
1867.
1848.
1866,

1861.
1867,

1850.

1851,
1867.

1864.
1863.

1870.
1860.

1859.

1868,
1863.

1865.
1866.

1869,

1868,

Newall, Henry. Hare-hill, Littleborough, Lancashire.

*Newall, Robert Stirling. Ferndene, Gateshead-upon-Tyne.

§Newbegin, James. Norwich.

*Newdegate, Albert L. 14 Dover-street, Piccadilly, London, W.

*Newlands, James, C.E. 88 Chatham-street, Abercromby-square,

Liverpool.

*Newman, Professor Francis William. 1 Dover-place, Clifton,
Bristol.

*Newman, William. Darley Hall, near Barnsley, Yorkshire.

*Newmarch, William, F.R.S. Heath View, West-side, Clapham Com-

mon, London, S.W

*Newmarch, William Thomas. 4 Huntington-place, Tynemouth.

{Newsome, Thomas. Park-road, Leeds.

*Newton, Alfred, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology and Com-
parative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. Magdalen
College, Cambridge.

tNewton, Thomas Henry Goodwin. Clopton House, near Stratford-
on-Ayon.

tNicholl, Dean of Guild. Dundee.

Nicholl, Iltyd, F.L.S. Uske, Monmouthshire.

tNicholl, W. H. The Ham, Cowbridge, Glamorganshire.

§Nicholson, Sir Charles, Bart., D.C.L., LL.D., M.D.,F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
26 Devonshire Place, Portland-place, London, W.

*Nicholson, Cornelius, F.G.S. Welfield, Muswell-hill, London, N.

*Nicholson, Edward. 88 Mosley-street, Manchester.

tNicholson, Henry Alleyne, D.Sc., 1°.G.8. Newhaven Park, New-
haven, near Edinburgh.

*Nicholson, John A., A.M., M.B., Lic. Med., M.R.LA. Balrath Burry,
Kells, Co. Meath.

{Nicol, James, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of Natural History in
Marischal College, Aberdeen. :

{ Nicolay, Rev. C. Gi. King’s College, London.

{Nimmo, Dr. Matthew, L.R.C.8.1. Nethergate, Dundee.

Niven, Ninian. Clonturk Lodge, Drumcondra, Dublin.

tNoad, Henry M., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 72 Hereford-road, Bays-
water, London, W.

*Noble, Captain William R. Elswick Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Nolan, Joseph. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.

*Nolloth, Matthew S., Captain R.N., F.R.G.S. United Service Club,
S.W.; and 13 North-terrace, Camberwell, London, 8.E.
{Norfolk, Richard. Messrs. W. Rutherford and Co., 14 Canada Dock ,

Liverpool.
tNorgate, William. Newmarket-road, Norwich.
§Norman, “Rev. Alfred Merle, M.A. Houghton-le-Spring, Co, Dur-

ham.

Norreys, Sir Denham Jephson, Bart. Mallow Castle, Co. Cork.

Norris, Charles. St. John’s House, Halifax.

{Norris, Richard, M.D. 2 Walsall-road, Birchfield, Birmingham.

tNorth, Thomas. Cinder Hill, Nottingham. ;

Northampton, Charles Douglas, The Right Hon. Marquis of. 145
seh London, W.; and Castle Ashby, Northampton-
shire.

§Northcote, Right Hon. Sir Stafford H., Bart., C.B.,M.P. Pynes,
Exeter; and 42 Harley-street, London, W.

*Northwick, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A. 22 Park-street, Grosyenor-
square, London, W.

}Nowyvich, The Hon. and Right Rey. J. T, Pelham, D.D., Lord Bishop
of, Norwich.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 53

Year of
Election.

1861.

1869,
1859,

1858.

1858,

1857,
1870.
1866.
1859.

1863.
1863,
1863.

1859,
1837.
1862.
1857.
1853.

1857.

1860.
1863,

1867.
1842.
1861.

1858.

1854.
1865.

1865.
1869.

1854,

1870.

1857.

1863.
1869.

{Noton, Thomas. Priory House, Oldham,

Nowell, John. Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield.
§Noyes, H. C. Victoria-terrace, Heavitree, Exeter.
{Nuttall, James. Wellfield House, Todmorden.

O’ Beirne, James, M.D, 11 Lower Gardiner-street, Dublin.

O’Brien, Baron Lucius. Dromoland, Newmarket-on-l’ergus, Ireland.

O'Callaghan, George. Tallas, Co. Clare.

*O’Callaghan, Patrick, LL.D., D.C.L. 16 Clarendon-square, Lea-
mington.

Odgers, Rev. William James. Sion-hill, Bath.

*Odline, William, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.8., Fullerian Professor of Che-
mistry in the Royal Institution, London. Sydenham-road,
Croydon, Surrey.

{O’Donnavan, William John. Portarlington, Ireland.

§O’Donnell, J. O., M.D. 34 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

{tOgden, James. Woodhouse, Loughborough.

tOgilvie, C. W. Norman. Baldovan House, Dundee.

*Ovilvie, George, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine in
Marischal College, Aberdeen. 29 Union-place, Aberdeen.

{Ogilvy,G. R. Inverquharity, N. B.

{Ogilvy, Sir John, Bart. Inyerquharity, N. B.

Ogle, Rev. E. C.

*Ogle, William, M.D., M.A. 98 Friar Gate, Derby.

{Ogston, Francis, M.D. 18 Adelphi-court, Aberdeen.

{O’Hagan, John. 20 Kildare-street, Dublin.

{O’Kelly, Joseph, M.A. 51 Stephen’s Green, Dublin.

{O’Kelly, Matthias J. Dalkey, Ireland.

§Oldham, James, C.H. Austrian Chambers, Hull.

*Oldham, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., M.R.LA., Director
of the Geological Survey of India. 1 Hastings-street, Calcutta.

{O’Leary, Professor Purcell, M.A. Sydney-place, Cork.

tOhver, D. Royal Gardens, Kew.

*Ommanney, Erasmus, Rear-Admiral, C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,F.R.G.S.
6 Talbot-square, Hyde-park, London, W.; and United Service
Ciub, Pall Mall, London, 8.W.

tOrchar, James G. 9 William-street, Forebank, Dundee.

Ormerod, George Wareing, M.A., F.G.S._ Brookbank, Teignmouth.

tOrmerod, Henry Mere. Clarence-street, Manchester; and 11 Wood-
land-terrace, Cheetham-hill, Manchester.

t{Ormerod, T. T. Brighouse, near Halifax.

Orpen, John H., LL.D., M.R.I.A. 58 Stephen’s Green, Dublin,

tOrr, Sir Andrew. Blythwood-square, Glasgow.

{Osborne, E. C. Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Osler, A. Follett, F.R.S. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Osler, Henry F. 50 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Osler, Sidney F. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Outram, Thomas. Greetland, near Halifax.

Overstone, Samuel Jones Lloyd, Lord, F.G.S. 22 Norfolk-street,
Park-lane, London, W.; and Wickham Park, Bromley.

§Owen, Harold. Tue Brook Villa, Liverpool.

tOwen, James H. Park House, Sandymount, Co. Dublin.

Owen, Richard, M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Hon.
M.R.S.E., Director of the Natural History Department, British
Museum. Sheen Lodge, Mortlake, Surrey, 8.W.

*Ower, Charles, C.E. 11 Craigie-terrace, Dundee.

*Owst-Atkinson, A., M.A. Quay Chambers, Hull; and New Uni-
yersity Club, London, S.W.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1859.

1863.
1870.
1863.
1866.

1866.

1854.
1857.
1863.
1863.

1865.
1853.
1861.
1865.
1864.
1859.
1863.
1862.

1865,
1855.
1861.
1863.
1867.
1839.
1863.
1863.
1867.
1864.
1863.
1863,

1864.
1851.
1866.
1847.
1868.
1863.

1853.
1870.

1863,

tPage, David, LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 44 Gilmore-place, Idin-
burgh.

tPaget, Chatlas, Ruddington Grange, near Nottingham.

§Palgrave, R. H. Inglis. 11 Britannia-terrace, Great Yarmouth.

{Palmer, C. M. Whitley Park, near Newcastle-on-Tyne,

§Palmer, H. 76 Goldsmith-street, Nottingham.

* Palmer, Sir William, Bart.

§Palmer, William. Jron Foundry, Canal-street, Nottingham.

Palmes, Rev. William Lindsay, M.A. The Vicarage, Hornsea,
Hull.

tPare, William, F.S.S. Seville Iron Works, Dublin.

*Parker, Alexander, M.R.I.A.. William-street, Dublin.

{Parker, Henry. Low Elswick, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Parker, Rey. Henry. Idlerton Rectory, Low Elswick, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.

Parkers Joseph, F.G.8. Upton Chaney, Bitton, near Bristol.

Parker, Richard. Dunscombe, Cork.

Parker, Rev. William. Saham, Norfolk.

*Parker, Walter Mantel. Warren-corner House, near Farnham, Surrey.
tParker, William. Thornton-le-Moor, Lincolnshire,

{ Parkes, Alexander.

*Parkes, Samuel Hickling. 5 St. Mary’s-row, Birmingham.

§Parkes, William. 14 Park-street, Westminster, 5. W.

{Parlinson, Robert, Ph.D. Bradford, Yorkshire. ¥

{Parland, Captain. Stokes Hall, Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
*Parnell, John, M.A. Hadham House, Upper Clapton, London, N.E.

Parnell, Richard, M.D., F.R.S.E. Gattonside Villa, Melrose, N. B.

Partington, James Edge.

Partridge, Richard, F.R.S8., Professor of Anatomy to the Royal
Academy of Arts, and to King’s College, London. 17 New-
street, Spring-gardens, London, 8. W.

*Parsons, Charles Thomas. 8 Portland-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

}Paterson, William. 100 Brunswick-street, Glascow.

{Patterson, Andrew. Deafand Dumb School, Old Trafford, Manchester.

{Patterson, H. L. Scott’s House, near Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Patterson, James. Kinnettles, Dundee.

*Patterson, Robert, F.R.S. 59 High-street, Belfast.

{Pattinson, John. 75 The Side, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Pattinson, William. Felling, near Newcastle-on-Tyne.

}Pattison, Samuel R., F.G.S. 50 Lombard-street, London, I.C.

{Pattison, Dr. T. H. London-street, Edinburgh.

§Paul, Benjamin H., Ph.D. 1 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.

{Pavy, Frederick William, M.D., F,R.S., Lecturer on Physiology and
Comparative Anatomy and Zoology at Guy’s Hospital, 35
Grosyenor-street, London, W.

{Payne, Edward Turner. 3 Sydney-place, Bath.

{Payne, Joseph. 4 Kildare Gardens, Bayswater, London, W.

§Payne, Dr. Joseph F. 4 Kildare-gardens, Bayswater, London, W.

§Peach, Charles W, 30 Haddington-place, Leith-walk, Edinburgh.

tPeacock, Ebenezer. 32 University-street, London, W.C.

§Peacock, Richard Atkinson. St, Heliers, Jersey.

*Pearsall, Thomas John, F.C.S. Birkbeck Literary and Scientific Insti-
tution, Southampton-buildings, Chancery-lane, London, E.C.

Pearson, Charles. 10 Torrington-square, London, W.C.

{ Pearson, Robert H. 1 Prospect House, Hull.

§Pearson, Rey. Samuel. 3 Greenheys-road, Prince’s-park, Liverpool.

Pearson, Rev, Thomas, M.A.

§Pease, H. F. Brinkhurn, Darlington.

|
.
3
Pe

LIST OF MEMBERS. 58

Year of
Election.

1852.
1865,

1863,

1858.
1855.

1861,
1861.
1865,
1861.
1868.
1856,

1845,

1868.
1861.

1854.
1867.
1861.

1870.
1861.

1887,

1857.
1845,
1863,

1870.
1853.
1853.

1863.
1856.
1859.
1862.
1870.

1859.
1868.
1868,

{Pease, Joseph Robinson. Hesslewood.

*Pease, Joseph W., M.P. Hutton Hall, Guisborough.

tPease, J. W. Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Pease, Thomas, F.G.8. Cote Bank, Westbury-on-Trym, near Bristol.

Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire.

*Peckover, Alexander, F.R.G.S. Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire.

*Peckover, Algernon, F.L.S. Harecroft House, Wisbeach, Cambridge-
shire,

*Peckover, William, F.S.A. Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire,

*Peel, George. Soho Iron Works, Manchester.

*Peile, George, jun. Shotley Bridge, Co. Durham.

*Peiser, John. Barnfield House, 491 Oxford-street, Manchester.

tPemberton, Oliver. 18 Temple-row, Birmingham.

*Pender, John. Mount-street, Manchester.

§Pendergast, Thomas. Lancetield, Cheltenham.

§Pengelly, William, F.R.S., F.G.S. Lamorna, Torquay.

{Percy, John, M.D,, F.R.S., F.G.8., Professor of Metallurgy in the
Government School of Mines. Museum of Practical Geology,
Jermyn-street, S.W.; and 1 Gloucester-crescent, Hyde-park,
London.

*Perkin, William Henry, F.R.S., F.C.S. Seymour Villa, Sudbury, N. W.

{Perkins, Rev. George. St. James’s View, Dickenson-road, Rusholme,
near Manchester.

Perkins, Rev. R. B., D.C.L. Wotton-under-Hdge, Gloucestershire.

*Perkins, V. R. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.

{Perkins, William. 6 Russell-place, Fitzroy-square, London, W.

tPerring, John Shae. 104 King-street, Manchester.

Perry, The Right Rey. Charles, M.A., Bishop of Melbourne, Aus-
tralia.

*Perry, Rev. 8. G. F., M.A. Tottington Parsonage, near Bury.

sPerry, Rey. 8. J. Stonyhurst College Observatory, Whalley, Black-
urn.

*Petrie, John. South-street, Rochdale.

Pett, Samuel, F.G.S. 7 Albert-road, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.

Peyton, Abel. Oakhurst, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

tPhayre, Colonel Sir Arthur. East India United Service Club, St.
James’s Square, London, 8. W.

{Phayre, George.

tPhelps, Rey. Robert, D.D. Cambridge.

*Phené, John Samuel, F.G.S., F.R.G.8. 5 Carlton-terrace, Oakley-
street, Chelsea, London, 8.W.

§Philip, T. D. 51 South Castle-street, Liverpool.

*Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.

*Philips, Herbert. 35 Church-street, Manchester.

*Philips, Mark. Snitterfield, Stratford-on-Avon.

Philips, Rob. N. The Park, Manchester.

{Philipson, Dr. 1 Saville Row, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Phillipps, Sir Thomas, Bart., M.A., F.RS., F.G.8. Thirlestaine

ouse, Cheltenham.

*Phillips, Major-General Sir Frowell. 1 Vere-street, Cavendish-
square, London, W.

tPhillips, Rev. George, D.D., Queen’s College, Cambridge.

§Phillips, J. Arthur. Cressington-park, Aigburth, Liverpool.

*Phillips, John, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Geology in the University of Oxford. Museum House, Oxford.

{Phillips, Major J. Scott.

{Phipson, R. M., F.8.A. Surrey-street, Norwich.

{Phipson, T, L., Ph.D. 4 The Cedars, Putney, Surrey.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1864.
1861.
1870.
1856.
1870.

1865.
1864.

1857.
1865,

1861.

1868.

1859.
1866.

1864.
1869.
1865.

1863.
1867.
1842,

1857.

1861.
1846,

1862.
1854.

1868,

1868.

1866.

1863.

1842.

1863,
1857,

1857.
1867,
1859,
1855,
1864,

1869,
1864,

tPickering, William. Oak View, Clevedon.
{Pickstone, William. Radcliff Bridge, near Manchester.
§Picton, J. Allanson, F.S.A. Sandyknowe, Wavertree, Liverpool.
tPierson, Charles. 3 Blenheim-parade, Cheltenham.
§Pigot, Rev. E. V. Malpas, Cheshire.
Pigott, J. H, Smith.
tPike, L. Owen. 25 Carlton-villas, Maida Vale, London, W.
*Pike, Ebenezer. Besborough, Cork.
tPilditch, Thomas. Portway House, Frome.
{Pilkington, Henry M., M.A., Q.C. 35 Gardiner’s-place, Dublin.
*Pim, Captain Bedford C. T., R.N., F.R.G.S. 11 Belsize-square,
Hampstead, London, N.W.
Pim, George, M.R.LA. Brennan’s Town, Cabinteely, Dublin.
Pim, Jonathan. Harold’s Cross, Dublin.
Pim, William H. Monkstown, Dublin.
tPincoffs, Simon. Crumpsall Lodge, Cheetham-hill, Manchester.
{Pinder, T. R. St. Andrews, Norwich.
{Pirrie, William, M.D. 238 Union-street West, Aberdeen.
{Pitcaim, David. Dudhope House, Dundee.
{Pitt, R. 5 Widcomb-terrace, Bath.
§Plant, James. Leicester.
tPlant, Thomas L. Camp-hill, and 33 Union-street, Birmingham.
*Platt, John, M.P. Werneth Park, Oldham, Lancashire.
}Playfair, Lieut.-Colonel, H.M. Consul, Algeria.
Playfair, Lyon, C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., M.P., F.RS. L. & E., FCS.
4 Queensberry Place, South Kensington, London, 8.W.
tPlunkett, Thomas. Ballybrophy House, Borrs-iin-Ossory, Iveland.
*Pochin, Henry Davis, M.P., F.C.S. Broughton Old Hall, Manchester.
tPole, William, Mus. Doc., F.R.S. The Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall,
London,,S.W.
*Pollexfen, Rev. John Hutton, M.A., Rector of St. Runwald’s. 6 St.
Mary’s-terrace, Colchester.
Pollock, A. 52 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin.
*Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.8. Polwhele, Truro,
Cornwall.
{Poole, Braithwaite. Birkenhead.
eet A., B.Se, South Side, Clapham-common, London,

tPortal, Wyndham 8. Malsanger, Basingstoke.
Porter, Rev. Charles, D.D.
*Porter, Henry J. Ker, M.R.LA. 91 Dean-street, Soho, London, W.
§Porter, R. Beeston, Nottingham.
Porter, Rey. T. H., D.D. Desertcreat, Co. Armagh.
tPotter, D. M. Cramlington, near Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Potter, Edmund, M.P., F.R.S. Camfield-place, Hatfield, Herts.
Potter, Thomas. George-street, Manchester.
Potter, Wilkiam.
tPotts, James. 523 Quayside, Newcastle-on-Tyne, %
*Pounden, Captain Londsdale, F.R.G.S. Junior United Service Club,
St. James’s-sq., London, 8.W.; and Brownswood, Co. Wexford
tPower, Sir James, Bart. Edermine, Enniscorthy, Ireland. _
tPowrie, James. Reswallie, Forfar.
tPoynter, John. Glasgow.
*Poynter, John E. Clyde Neuck, Uddingstone, Hamilton, Scotland.
tPrangley, Arthur. 2 Burlington-buildings, Redland, Bristol.
Pratt, Archdeacon, M.A., F.C.PS. Calcutta.
*Preece, William Henry. Grosvenor House, Southampton.
*Prentice, Mauning. Violet Hill, Stowmarket, Suffolk.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 57

Year of
Election.

1856.

1870.

1865.
1864,

1865.
1835.
1846,

1863,

1858.
1863.
1865.
1865.
1864.
1859.
1867.
1867.
1842.

1869.
1852.
1860,

1866.
1860,
1861.
1868.
1870.
1860.
1870.

1861.
1854.

1870.

1859.
1855.
1864.

1863.

Prest, The Venerable Archdeacon Edward. The College, Durham.
Prest, John. Blossom-street, York.

*Prestwich, Joseph, F.R.S., Pres. G.S. 69 Mark-lane, London, E.C.;
and Shoreham, near Sevenoaks.

*Price, Rey. Bartholomew, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Sedleian Professor
of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford, 11 St.
Giles’s-street, Oxford.

§Price, Captain E. W., M.P. Tibberton Court, Gloucestershire.

Price, J.T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire.

tPrideaux, J. Symes. 209 Piccadilly, London, W.

*Prior, R. C.A., M.D. 48 Yorlk-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
NAVY

*Prichard, Thomas, M.D. Abington Abbey, Northampton.
*Pritchard, Andrew. 87 St. Paul’s-road, Canonbury, London, N.
*Pritchard, Rey. Charles, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S., Professor
of Astronomy, Oxford.
tProcter, R.S. Summerhill-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Proctor, Thomas. Elmsdale House, Clifton Down, Bristol.
Proctor, William. 108 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.
§Proctor, William, M.D., F.C.S. 24 Petergate, York.
*Prosser, Thomas. West Boldon, Co, Durham.
tProud, Joseph. South Hetton, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
§Prowse, Albert P. Whitchurch Villa, Mannamead, Plymouth,
t{Pugh, John. Aberdovey, Shrewsbury.
t{Pugh, William. Coalport, Shropshire.
tPullar, John. 4 Leonard Bank, Perth.
§Pullar, Robert. 6 Leonard Bank, Perth. ‘
*Pumphrey, Charles. . 33; Frederick-street, Edgbaston, Birming-
h

am.
Punnett, Rey. John, M.A., F.C.P.S. St. Earth, Cornwall.
t{Purchas, Rev. W. H. St. James’s, Gloucester.

{Purdon, Thomas Henry, M.D. Belfast.

{Purdy, Frederick, F.S.8., Principal of the Statistical Department of
the Poor Law Board, Whitehall, London. Victoria-road, Ken-
sington, London, W.

tPurser, John. Queen’s College, Belfast.

*Pusey, 8. E. Bouverie. 7 Green-street, London, W.; and Pusey,

Farringdon.

*Pyne, Joseph John. Hope House, Heald Grove, Rusholme, Man-
chester.

§Pye-Smith, P. H., M.D. Finsbury-square, E.C., and Guy’s Hospital,
London, 8.E.

§Rabbits, W.T. Forest-hill, London, 8.E.

{Radcliffe, Charles Bland, M.D. 4 Henvrietta-street, Cayendish-square,
London, W.

§Radcliffe, D. R. Phcenix Safe-works, Windsor, Liverpool.

*Radford, William, M.D. Sidmount, Sidmouth.

{Rafferty, Thomas. 153 Monmouth-terrace, Rusholme, Manchester.

tRaffles, Thomas Stamford. 13 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.

§Raffles, William Winter. Sunnyside, Prince’s-park, Liverpool.

tRainey, George, M.D. 17 Golden-square, Aberdeen.

tRainey, Harry, M.D. 10 Moore-place, Glasgow.

tRainey, James T. 8 Widcomb-crescent, Bath.

Rake, Joseph. Charlotte-street, Bristol.

§Ramsay, Alexander, jun., F.G.S. 45 Norland-square, Notting Hill,
London, W.

‘d8

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1845,

fRamsay, Andrew Crombie, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the
Geological Survey of Great Britain, Professor of Geology in the
Royal School of Mines. Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn-
street, London, 8. W.

. {Ramsay, D. R. Wallsend, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

. {Ramsay, James, Jun. Dundee.

. {Ramsay, John. Kildalton, Argyleshire.

- *Ramsay, W. F., M.D. 15 Somerset-street, Portman-square, London,

. *Rance, Henry (Solicitor). Cambridge.
. *Rance, H. W. Henniker. Cambridge.

Rand, John. Wheatley-hill, Bradford, Yorkshire.

. {Randel, J. 50 Vittoria-street,"Birmingham.

. Randall, Thomas. Grandepoint House, Oxford.

. Randolph, Charles. Pollockshiels, Glasgow.

. *Randolph, Rey. Herbert, M.A. Marcham, near Abingdon,

Ranelagh, the Right Hon. Lord. 7 New Burlington-street, Regent-
street, London, W.

. §Rankine, William John Macquorn, LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., Regius

Professor of Civil Engineering and Mechanics in the University
of Glasgow. 59 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

. §Ransome, Arthur, M.A. Bowdon, Manchester.

Ransome, Thomas. 34 Princess-street, Manchester.

. §Ransom, William Henry, M.D., F.R.S. Low Pavement, Nottiaz-

ham.

. *Ranson, Edwin. Kempstone, near Bedford.

Rashleigh, Jonathan. 3 COumberland-terrace, Regent's Paik,
London, N. W.

. {Rassam, Hormuzed.

*Ratcliff, Colonel Charles, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. Wyd-
drington, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

. §Rate, Rev. John, M.A. Lapley Vicarage, Penkridge, Staffordshire.
. §Rathbone, Benson. Exchange-buildings, Liverpool.

. §Rathbone, Philip H. Greenbank Cottage, Wavertree, Liverpool.

. §Rathbone, R.R. 11 Rumford-street, Liverpool.

. {Rattray, W. St. Clement’s Chemical Works, Aberdeen.

Rawdon, William Frederick M.D. Bootham, York.

. §Rawlins, G.W. The Hollies, Rainhill, Liverpool.

*Rawlins, John. Llewesog Hall, near Denbigh.

» “Rawlinson, George, M.A., Camden Professor of Ancient History in

the University of Oxford. 53 Broad-street, Oxford.

. “Rawlinson, Major-General Sir Henry C., K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S.,

F.R.G.S, 21 Charles-street, Berkeley-square, London, W.
Rawson, Rawson William, F.R.GLS.

. §Rayner, Henry. Liverpool-road, Chester.

. §Rayner, Joseph (Town Clerk). Liverpool.

. Read, Thomas, M.D. Donegal-square West, Belfast.
. TRead, William. Albion House, Epworth, Bawtry.

*Read, W. H. Rudstone, M.A., F.L.S. Blake-street, York.

. §Reade, Thomas M. Blundell Sands, Liverpool.
- *Readwin, Thomas Allison, F.G.8S. 12 Wynne-road, Brixton-road,

London, 8. W.

. “Redfern, Professor Peter, M.D. 4 Lower-crescent, Belfast.
. {Redmayne, Giles, 20 New Bond-street, London, W.
. {Redmayne, R. R. 12 Victoria-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Redwood, Isaac. Cae Wern, near Neath, South Wales.

. *Reé, H. P. 27 Faulkner-street, Manchester.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 59

Year of
Election.

1861. {Reed, Edward J., Vice-President of the Institute of Naval Archi-
tects. Chorlton-street, Manchester.
1869. {Reid, J. Wyatt. 40 Great Western-terrace, Bayswater, London, W.
1850. {Reid, William, M.D. Cuivie, Cupar, Fife.
1863. §Renals, E. ‘Nottingham Express’ Office, Nottingham.
1863, {Rendel, G. Benwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Rennie, Sir John, Knt., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. 7 Lowndes-
square, London, 8. W.
1860. {Rennison, Rev. Thomas, M.A. Queen’s College, Oxford.
*Renny, Lieutenant H. L., R.E. Montreal.
1867. {Renny, W. W. 8 Douglas-terrace, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
1869. {Révy, J. J. 16 Great George-street, Westminster, 8.W.
1870. *Reynolds, Osborne, Professor of Engineering in Owens Cullege,
Manchester.
1858. §Reynolds, Richard, F.C.S. 15 Briggate, Leeds.
Reynolds, William, M.D. Coeddu, near Mold, Flintshire.
1850. {Rhind, William. 121 Princes-street, Edinburgh.
1858. *Rhodes, John. 18 Albion-street, Leeds.
1868, §Richards, Rear-Admiral George H., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., Hydrographer
to the Admiralty. The Admiralty, Whitehall, London, S.W.
1863. §Richardson, Benjamin Ward, M.A., M.D., F.R.S, 12 Hinde-street,
Manchester-square, London, W.
1861. §Richardson, Charles. Almondbury, Bristol.
1869, *Richardson, Charles. West End, Abingdon, Berks.
1863. *Richardson, Edward, jun. 3 Lovaine-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1868. *Richardson, George. 4 Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham.
1870. §Richardson, J.H. 3 Arundel-terrace, Cork.
1868. §Richardson, James C. Glanrafon, near Swansea.
1863. {Richardson, John W. South Ashfield, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1870. §Richardson, Ralph. 16 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.
Richardson, Thomas. Montpelier-hill, Dublin.
Richardson, William. Micklegate, York.
1861. §Richardson, William. 4 Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham.
1861. {Richson, Rev. Canon, M.A. Shakespeare-street, Ardwick, Man-
chester.
1863. {Richter, Otto, Ph.D. 7 India-street, Edinburgh.
1870. §Rickards, Dr. 36 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool.
1868. §Ricketts, Charles, M.D., F.G.S. 22 Argyle-street, Birkenhead. *
*Riddell, Major-General Charles J. Buchanan, C.B., F.R.S. Athe-
neum Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W.
1861. *Riddell, H. B. Whitefield House, Rothbury, Morpeth.
1859. {Riddell, Rev. John. Moffat by Beatlock, N. B.
1861. *Rideout, William J. 51 Charles-street, Berkeley-square, London, W.
1862. {Ridgway, Henry Akroyd, B.A. Bank Field, Halifax.
1861. §Ridley, John. 19 Belsize-park, Hanspstead, London, N.W.
1863. {Ridley, Samuel. 7 Regent’s-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1863. *Rigby, Samuel. Bruche Hall, Warrington.
*Rinder, Miss.
1860. {Ritchie, George Robert. 4 Watlyn-Terrace, Coldharbour-lane,
Camberwell, London.
1867. {Ritchie, John. Fleuchar Craig, Dundee.
1855. {Ritchie, Robert, C.E. 14 Hill-street, Edinburgh.
1867. {Ritchie, William. Emslea, Dundee.
1853. {Rivay, John V.C. 19 Cowley-street, London, 8.W.
1869. *Rivington, John. 14 Porchester-terrace, Hyde Park, London, W.
1854. {Robberds, Rev. John, B.A. Ashlar House, Battledown, Cheltenham. .
1869, *Robbins, J. 872 Oxford-street, London, W
1855. {Roberton, James. Gorbals Foundry, Glasgow.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1859.
1859,
1870.
1857.

1868.
1859.
1866.

1867.
1870.
1866.
1865.
1861.
1852.
1864.
1859.
1860.

1866.
1861.
1865.
1855.
1860.

1863,
1870.
1870.
1863.

1855.
1845.
1851,

1866.
1846,
1861.
1869,
1860,

1867,
1870,
1859,

1866.
1863.
1845.
1846,
1869.
1865.

1861.
1861,

1863.
1857,

Roberton, John, Oxford-road, Manchester.
tRoberts, George Christopher. Hull.
{Roberts, Henry, F.S.A. Athenzeum Club, London, 8. W.
*Roberts, Isaac. 26 Rock-park, Rock Ferry, Cheshire.
tRoberts, Michael, M.A. Trinity College, Dublin.
*Roberts, William P. 388 Red Lion-square, London, W.C.
§Roberts, W. Chandler, F.G.8., F.C.S. Royal Mint, London, E.C.
tRobertson, Dr. Andrew. Indego, Aberdeen.
§Robertson, Alister Stuart, M.D., F.R.G.S. Tlorwich, Bolton, Lan-
cashire.
§Robertson, David. Union Grove, Dundee.
*Robertson, John. Oxford-road, Manchester.
tRobertson, William Tindal, M.D. Nottingham.
t Robinson, Dr.
§Robinson, Enoch. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.
tRobinson, Rey. George. Tartaragham Glebe, Loughgall, Ireland.
{ Robinson, George Augustus.
{Robinson, Hardy. 156 Union-street, Aberdeen.
{ Robinson, Professor H. D.
*Robinson, H. Oliver. 194 West George-street, Glasgow.
{tRobinson, John. Museum, Oxford.
{Robinson, John. Atlas Works, Manchester.
{Robinson, J. H. Cumberland-row, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{Robinson, M. E. 116 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow. ;
{Robinson, Admiral Robert Spencer. 61 Eaton-place, London, 8.W.
Robinson, Rey. Thomas Romney, D.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., MARLA.,
Director of the Armagh Observatory. Armagh.
tRobinson, T. W. U. Houghton-le-Spring, Durham.
§Robinson, William. 40 Smithdown-road, Liverpool.
*Robson, E.R. 17 Fallkner-square, Liverpool.
*Robson, James.
*Robson, Rey. John, M.A., D.D 2 Queen’s-crescent, Glasgow.
tRobson, Neil, C.E. 127 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
{Rocow, Tattersall Thomas.
{Rodwell, William. Woodlands, Holbrook, Ipswich.
Roe, Henry, M.R.LA. 2 Fitzwilliam-square East, Dublin.
tRoe, Thomas. Grove Villas, Sitchurch.
tRoe, William Henry. Portland-terrace, Southampton.
§Rofe, John, F.G.S. 7 Queen-street, Lancaster.
*Rogers, Nathaniel, M.D. 34 Paul-street, Exeter.
tRogers, James E. Thorold, Professor of Economic Science and Sti-
tistics in King’s College, London. Beaumont-street, Oxford.
tRogers, James 8. Rosemill, by Dundee.
§Rogers, T. L., M.D. Rainhill, Liverpool.
}Rolleston, George, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Anatomy
and Physiology in the University of Oxford. The Park, Oxford.
{Rolph, George Frederick. War Office, Horse Guards, London, 8. W.
ftRomilly, Edward. 14 Hyde Park-terrace, London, W.
tRonalds, Sir Francis, F.R.S. 9 St. Mary’s-villas, Battle, Sussex.
{Ronalds, Edmund, Ph.D. Stewartfield, Bonnington, Edinburgh.
{Roper, C. H. Magdalen-street, Exeter.
+ Hepen 8., F.G.8. Cwmbrae Iron Works, Newport, Monmouth-
shire.
*Roscoe, Henry Enfield, B.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.8., Professor of
Chemistry in Owens College, Manchester.
tRose, C. B., F.G.S. 25 King-street, Great Yarmouth, Norfolk.
{Roseby, John. Haverholme House, Brigg, Lincolnshire.
tRoss, David, LL.D, Drumbrain Cottage, Newbliss, Ireland.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 61

Year of
Election.

1859,

1861,
1842,
1869,

1855.
1865.
1849,
1847,
1861.
1861.
1855.
1865.
1855.

1862.
1861.

1859,
1869.
1861.
1856,
1847.

1857.
1855.
1865.
1859.

1852.
1863.
1852.

1862.
1865.

1852.

1865.
1853.
1861.

1865.
1866.

1848.

aaa Rev. James Coulman. Dorchester Manor House, Walling-

ord.

*Ross, Thomas. 7 Wigmore-street, Cavendish-square, London, W.

Ross, William. Pendleton, Manchester.

*Rosse, The Right Hon. The Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Birr
Castle, Parsonstown, Ireland.

tRoth, Dr. Matthias. 164 Old Cavendish-street, London, W.

*Rothera, George Bell. 17 Waverley-street, Nottingham.

§Round, Daniel G. Hange Colliery, near Tipton, Staffordshire.

tRouse, William, 16 Canterbury Villas, Maida Vale, London, W.

tRouth, Edward J., M.A. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge.

tRowan, David. St. Vincent Crescent, Glasgow.

TRowand, Alexander. Linthouse, near Glasgow.

§Rowe, Rey. John. Beaufort-villas, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Rowney, Thomas H., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
Queen’s College, Galway.

*Rowntree, Joseph. Leeds.

tRowsell, Rev. Evan Edward, M.A. Hambledon Rectory, Godalming.

*Royle, Peter, M.D., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. 27 Lever-street, Man-
chester.

tRuland, C. H.

§Rudler, F. W., F.G.S. 6 Pond-street, Hampstead, London, N.W.

*Rumney, Robert, F.C.S. Springfield, Whalley Range, Manchester.

tRumsay, Henry Wildbore. Gloucester Lodge, Cheltenham.

tRuskin, John, M.A., F.G.S., Slade Professor of Fine Arts in the
University of Oxford. Denmark-hill, London, 8.E.

tRussell, Rev. C. W., D.D. Maynooth College.

{Russell, James, jun. Falkirk.

tRussell, James, M.D. 91 Newhall-street, Birmingham.

tRussell, John, the Right Hon. Earl, K.G., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 37
Chesham-place, Belgrave-square, London, 8.W.

Russell, John. 15 Middle Gardiner’s-street, Dublin.
Russell, John Scott, M.A., F.R.S. L. & E. Sydenham; and 5 West-
minster Chambers, London, 8.W.

*Russell, Norman Scott. 5 Westminster Chambers, London, 8. W.

tRussell, Robert. Gosforth Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Russell, William J., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry, St. Bartholo-
mew’s Medical College. 34 Upper Hamilton-terrace, St. John’s
Wood, London.

§Russell, W. H. L., A.B., F.R.S. 5 The Grove, Highgate, London, N.

tRust, Rev. James, M.A. Manse of Slains, Ellon, N. B.

Rutson, William. Newby Wiske, Northallerton, Yorkshire.

{ Ryan, John, MD.

*Ryland, Arthur. The Linthurst, Broomsgrove, near Birmingham.

tRyland, Thomas. The Redlands, Erdington, Birmingham,

TRylands, Joseph. 9 Charlotte-street, Hull.

*Rylands, Thomas Glazebrook, F.L.S., F.G.S. Heath House, War-
rington.

*Sabine, General Sir Edward, K.C.B., R.A., LL.D., D.C.L., Presi-
dent of the Royal Society, F.R.A.S., F.LS., F.R.G.S. 13
Ashley-place, Westminster, 8. W.

{Sabine, Robert. 3 Delahay-street, London, S.W.

*St. Albans, His Grace the Duke of. Bestwood Lodge, Arnold, near
Nottingham.

{St. Davids, The Right Rey. Connop Thirlwall, D.D., F.G.S., Lord
Bishop of. Abergwili, Carmarthen.

Salkeld, Joseph. Penrith, Cumberland.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1857.

1864,
1858.
1842.
1861.

1867.
1870.
1861.
1857,

1864.
1854.
1864.
1865.

1861.
1868.
1846,
1864.
1860.
1865.
1868.
1857.
1850.
1868.

1842.
1842.

1847,

1861,
1867.
1847,

1849,
1867.
1865.

1859,
1855.
1857,

1861.

1864.
1858.
1869.
1864.
1869,
1859,

{Salmon, Rev. George, D.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Regius Professor of
Divinity in the University of Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin.
{Salmon, Henry C., F.GS., FCS.
*Salt, Sir Titus, Bart. Methley Park, near Leeds.
Sambrooke, T. G. 32 Eaton-place, London, S.W.
*Samson, Henry. Messrs. Samson and Leppoe, 6 St. Peter’s-square,
Manchester.
{Samuelson, Edward. Roby, near Liverpool.
§Samuelson, James. St. Domingo-grove, Everton, Liverpool.
*Sandeman, Archibald, M.A. Tulloch, Perth.
{Sanders, Gilbert. The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
*Sanders, William, F.R.S., F.G.S. Hanbury Lodge, The Avenue,
Clifton, Bristol.
Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co. Kerry.
{Sandford, William. 9 Springfield-place, Bath.
{Sandon, Right Hon. Lord, M.P. 389 Gloucester-square, London, W.
tSanford, William A. Nynehead Court, Wellington, Somersetshire.
tSargant, W. L. Edmund-street, Birmingham.
Satterfield, Joshua. Alderley Edge.
{Saul, Charles J. Smedley-lane, Cheetham-hill, Manchester.
tSaunders, A., C.E. King’s Lynn.
{Saunders, Trelawney W. India Office, London, S.W.
{Saunders, T. W., Recorder of Bath. 1 Priory-place, Bath.
*Saunders, William. 3 Gladstone-terrace, Brighton.
tSavory, Valentine. Cleckheaton, near Leeds.
§Sawyer, John Robert. Groye-terrace, Thorpe Hamlet, Morwieh.
{Scallan, James Joseph. 77 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
{Scarth, Pillans. 28 Barnard-street, Leith.
§Schacht, G. F. 7 Regent’s-place, Clifton, Bristol.
*Schemman, J. C. Hamburg.
*Schlick, Count Benj. Quai Voltaire, Paris.
Schofield, J ‘ga Stubley Hall, Littleborough, Lancashire.
Schotield, W. FE. Madehurst Vicarage, Arundel.
*Scholes, T. Seddon, Inlam Lodge, Warwick-place, Leamington.
Bi = William Stephenson, M.A. Freemantle Lodge, Bath-road,
eading.
Schunck, Bidens F.R.S., F.C.S. Oaklands, Kersall Moor, Man-
chester.
*Schwabe, Edmund Salis. Rhodes House, near Manchester.
tSchwendler, Louis.
{Sclater, Philip Lutley, M.A, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., See. Zool. Soe,
11 Hanover-square, London, W.
tScoffern, John, M.B. Barnard’s Inn, London; and Ilford, Essex.
tScott, Alexander. Clydesdale Bank, Dundee.
§Scott, Major-General, Royal Bengal Artillery. Treledan Hall, Welsh-
pool, Montgomeryshire.
tScott, Captain Fitzmaurice. Forfar Artillery.
tScott, Montague D., B.A. Hove, Sussex.
§Scott, Robert He M. A., E.R.S., F. G.S., Director of the Meteorolo-
gical Office, 116 Victoria-street, London, S.W.
§Scott, Rev. Robert Selkirk, D.D. 14 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill,
Glasgow.
t Scott, Wentworth Lascelles.
tScott, William. Holbeck, near Leeds.
§Scott, William Bower. Chudleigh, Devon.
{Scott, William Robson, Ph.D. St. Leonards, Exeter.
§Searle, Francis Furlong. 5 Cathedral Yard, Exeter.
fSeaton, John Love, Hull,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 63

Year of
Election.

1870,

1853.
1861.
1855.

1858.
1870.
1868.

1861.
1853.

1867,
1861.

1869.
1858.
1854,
1870.
1858,
1865.
1870.
1845,

1861.
1858.
1853.

1870.
1863.

1869.
1869.
1851.
1866.
1867.

1864.
1870.

1842,
1866,

§Seaton, Joseph, M.D. Halliford House, Sandbury.

*Sedewick, Rey. Adam, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Hon. M.R.LA., F.G.S.,
FE.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., Woodwardian Professor of Geology in the
University of Cambridge, and Canon of Norwich. Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge.

tSedewick, Rev. James. Scalby Vicarage, Scarborough.

*Seeley, Harry Govier, F.G.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

tSeligman, H. L. 135 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.

*Selwyn, Rey. Canon William, M.A., D.D., F.R.S., Margaret Professor
of Divinity in the University of Cambridge. Vine Cottage,
Cambridge.

*Senior, George, F.S.8. Rose Hill, Dodsworth, near Barnsley.

*Sephton, Rey. J. Liverpool Institute, Mount-street, Liverpool.

tSewell, Philip E. Catton, Norwich.

Seymour, George Hicks, Stonegate, York.

*Seymour, Henry D. Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W.

Seymour, John. 21 Bootham, York.

{Shackles, G. L. 6 Albion-street, Hull.

*Shaen, William, 15 Upper Phillimore-gardens, Kensington, Lon-
don, S.W.

§Shanks, James. Den Iron Works, Arbroath, N, B.

Sharp, Rey. John, B.A. Horbury, Wakefield.

{Sharp, Samuel, F.G.S., F.8.A. Dallington Hall, near Northampton.

*Sharp, William, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.8. Horton House, Rugby.

Sharp, Rey. William, B.A. Mareham Rectory, near’Boston, Lincoln-
shire.

Sharpey, William, M.D., LL.D,, Sec. R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Anatomy and Physiology in University College, Lawnbank,
Hampstead, London, N.W.

*Shapter, Lewis. The Barnfield, Exeter.

*Shaw, Bentley. Woodfield House, Huddersfield,

*Shaw, Charles Wright. 3 Windsor-terrace, Douglas, Isle of Man,

§Shaw, Duncan. Cordova, Spain.

tShaw, Edward W.

{Shaw, George. Cannon-street, Birmingham.

§Shaw, John. 24 Great George-place, Liverpool.

pees se8e, M.D., F.L.8., F.G.S. Hop House, Boston, Lincoln-
shire.

*Shaw, John. City-road, Hulme, Manchester.

tShaw, John Hope. Headingley, Leeds.

tShaw, Norton, M.D. St. Croix, West Indies,

Shepard, John. Nelson-square, Bradford, Yorkshire,

§Shephard, Joseph, 29 Everton-crescent, Liverpool.

pee, A.B. New University Club, St. James’-street, London,

Sheppard, Rey. Henry W., B.A. The Parsonage, Emsworth, Hants.

*Shepperd, Alfred Bayard. Torquay.

{Sherard, Rey. S. H. Newton Abbot, Devon.

tShewell, John T. Rushmere, Ipswich.

tShilton, Samuel Richard Parr. Sneinton House, Nottingham.

§Shinn, William C. (AssisranT GENERAL TREASURER). Her Ma-
jesty’s Printing Office, near Fetter-lane, London, E.C.

[Showers, Lieut.-Colonel Charles L. Cox's Hotel, Jermyn-street, Lon-=
don, S.W.

§Shoolbred, James N. York-buildings, Dale-street, Liverpool.
Shuttleworth, John. Wilton Polygon, Cheetham-hill, Manchester,
tSibson, Francis, M.D., F.R.S. 59 Brook-street, Grosyenor-square,

London, W.

G4 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1861. *Sidebotham, Joseph. 19 George-street, Manchester.
1861. *Sidebottom, James. Mersey Bank, Heaton Mersey, Manchester.
1857. {Sidney, Frederick John. 19 Herbert-street, Dublin.
Sidney, M. J. F. Cowpen, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1856, eee C. William, D.C.L., F.R.S. 3 Great George-street, London,
W

*Sillar, Se M.D. Bath House, Laurie Park, Sydenham, Lon-
don, S.E.
1859. {Sim, John. Hardgate, Aberdeen.
1855, {Sim, William. Furnace, near Inverary.
1865. §Simkiss, T. M. Wolverhampton.
1862, {Simms, James. 138 Fleet-street, London, E.C.
1852. {Simms, William. Albion-place, Belfast.
1847, {Simon, John. King’s College, London, W.C.
1866. {Simons, George. The Park, Nottingham.
1867. {Simpson, G. B. Seafield, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
1859. {Simpson, John. Marykirk, Kincardineshire.
1863. §Simpson, J. B., F.G.S, Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.
1857. {Simpson, Maxwell, M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 1 Brougham-place, Dublin.
*Simpson, Rey. Samuel. Greaves House, near Lancaster.
Simpson, Thomas. Blake-street, York.
Simpson, William. Bradmore House, Hammersmith, London, W.
1859, {Sinclair, Alexander. 133 George-street, Edinburgh.
1850. {Sinclair, Rev. William. Leeds.
1870, *Sinclair, W. P. 32 Devonshire-roads, Prince’s-park, Liverpool.
1864, *Sircar, Baboo Mohendro Lall, M.D. 1344 San Kany, Tollah-street,
Calcutta, per Messrs. Harrenden & Co., 3 Chaple-place, Poultry,
London, he.
1865. §Sissons, William. 92 Park-street, Hull.
1850, {Skae, David, M.D, Royal Asylum, Edinburgh.
1859. {Skinner, James.
1870. §Slater, W.B. 28 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead.
1842. *Slater, William. 75 Princes-street, Manchester.
1853. §Sleddon, Francis. 2 Kingston-terrace, Hull.
1849, §Sloper, George Edgar, jun. Devizes.
1849, {Sloper, Samuel W. Devizes.
1860. §Sloper, 8. Elgar. Winterton, near Southampton.
1867. {Small, David. Gray House, Dundee.
1867. tSmall, William. Dundee.
1858. {Smeeton, G. H. Commercial-street, Leeds.
1867. {Smeiton, John G. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
1867. {Smeiton, Thomas A. 55 Cowgate, Dundee.
1868. §Smith, Augustus. Northwood House, Church-road, Upper Norwood,
Surrey.
1857, {Smith, ajuiies M.D., M.R.LA. 121 Lower Bagot-street, Dublin.
Smith, Archibald, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.L. & E. River-bank, Putney;
and 3 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
Smith, Rev. B., FSA,
1861, *Smith, Charles Edward, F.R.A.S. St. Margaret’s, Beulah Hill,
Upper Norwood, London, 8.E.
1865. §Smith, David, F.R.A.S. 4 Cherry-street, Birmingham.
1853. {Smith, Edmund. Ferriby, near Hull.
1859, {Smith, Edward, M.D., LL.B., F.R.S. 140 Harley-street, London,

W.
1865. {Smith, Frederick. The Priory, Dudley.
1866. *Smith, F. C., M.P. Bank, Nottingham.
1855. {Smith, George. Port Dundas, Glascow.
1855. {Smith, George Cruickshank. 19 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 65

Year of
Election.

1859.

1860.

1865.
1870.
1842,
1855.
1850.
1853.
1858.
1867.

1864.
1852.
1861.

1860.

1837.
1847,

1870.
1866.
1867.
1867.
1859.
1852.
1857.

1850.
1870.
1870.
1857.

1868.
1864.

1854,

1853.

1859,
1361,

*Smith, Rey. George Sidney, D.D., M.R.LA., Professor of Biblical
Greek in the University of Dublin. Riverland, Omagh, Ireland.

tSmith, Henry A. 5 East Craibstone-street, Aberdeen.

*Smith, Henry John Stephen, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.8., Savilian Pro-
fessor of Geometry in the University of Oxford. 64 St. Giles’s,
Oxford.

*Smith, Heywood, M.A., M.B. 42 Park-stxeet, Grosvenor-square,
London, W.

tSmith, Isaac. 26 Lancaster-street, Birmingham.

§Smith, James. 146 Bedford-street South, Liverpool.

*Smith, James. Berkeley House, Seaforth, near Liverpool.

tSmith, James. St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

LSmith, John, M.D.

{Smith, John. York City and County Bank, Malton, Yorkshire.

*Smith, John Metcalf. Old Bank, Leeds.

§Smith, John P., C.E. 67 Renfield-street, Glasgow.

Smith, John Peter George. Spring Bank, Anfield, Liverpool.

§Smith, John S. Sydney Lodge, Wimbledon, Surrey.

*Smith, Rey. Joseph Denham. Bellevue, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

{Smith, Professor J., M.D. University of Sydney, Australia.

Pag ee B.A. 4 Cambridge-terrace, Junction-road, London,

*Smith, Protheroe, M.D. 42 Park-street, Grosvenor-square, London,
W.

Smith, Richard Bryan. Villa Nova, Shrewsbury.

§Smith, Robert Angus, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.~ 22 Devonshire-street,
Manchester.

*Smith, Robert Mackay. 4 Bellevue-crescent, Edinburgh.

§Smith, Samuel. Bank of Liverpool, Liverpool.

§Smith, Samuel. 33 Compton-street, Goswell-road, London, F.C.

{Smith, Thomas (Sheriff). Dundee.

§Smith, Thomas. Pole Park Works, Dundee.

{Smith, Thomas James, F.G.S., F.C.S. Hessle, near Hull.

tSmith, William. Keglinton Engine Works, Glasgow.

§Smith, William, C.E., F.G.S.,F.R.G.S, 19 Salisbury-street, Adelphi,
London, W.C.

*Smyth, Charles Piazzi, F.R.S. L. & E., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal
for Scotland, Professor of Practical Astronomy in the University
of Edinburgh. 15 Royal-terrace, Edinburgh.

§Smyth, Colonel H. A., R.A.

§Smyth, H. L. Crabwall Hall, Cheshire.

seas Cary, jun., M.A., M.LC.E1., F.M.S. Milltown, Banbridge,

reland.

{Smyth, Rey. J. D. Hurst. 13 Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

{Smyth, Warington W., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Lecturer
on Mining and Mineralogy at the Royal School of Mines, and
Inspector of the Mineral Property of the Crown. 18 Victoria-
street, London, 8. W.

tSmythe, Colonel W. J., R.A., F.R.S. Bombay.

Soden, John. Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.

{Sollitt, J. D., Head Master of the Grammar School, Hull.

pools Seg FERS. F.LS., F.G.S., F.S.A. Sandecotes, near

oole

*Sopwith, Thomas, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 103 Victoria-
street, Westminster, S.W.

Sorbey, Alfred. The Rookery, Ashford, Bakewell.
*Sorby, H. Clifton, F.R.S., ROS, Broomfield, Sheffield.
{Sorensen, Le Chevalier B. Norway.

Year o

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Flection.

1865.
1859.
1856.
1863.
1863.
1859.

1869.
1854,

1861.
1861.
1865.
1855.
1864,

1864,
1847.
1868.
1864,

1846,

1864,
1854,

1853.

1859.
1857.
1858.

1851.

1858.
1865,

1866,
1850.
1865.

1857.
1863.
1861,

1870.
1861.
1863.
1870.
1861.

1863.
1850.

*Southall, John Tertius. Leominster.
tSouthall, Norman. 44 Cannon-street West, London, E.C.
tSouthwood, Rey. T. A. Cheltenham College.
TSowerby, John. Shipcote House, Gateshead, Durham.
*Spark, H. Kine. Greenbank, Darlington.
{tSpence, Rey. James, D.D. 6 Clapton-square, London, N.E.
*Spence, Joseph. 60 Holgate Hill, York.
*Spence, J. Berger. Hrlington House, Manchester.
§Spence, Peter. Pendleton Alum Works, Newton Heath; and Smedley
Hall, near Manchester.
§Spencer, John Frederick. 28 Great George-street, London, 8.W.
*Spencer, Joseph. 27 Brown-street, Manchester.
*Spencer, Thomas. The Grove Ruban, near Blaydon-on-Tyne.
tSpens, William. 78 St. Vincent-street, Glascow.
*Spicer, Henry, jun., F.G.S. 22 Hiechbury-crescent; and 19 New
Bridge-street, Blackfriars, London, EC.
Spicer, Thomas Trevetham, M.A., LL.D.
§Spicer, Wiluam R. 19 New Bridge-street, Blackfriars, London, E.C.
*Spiers, Richard James, F.S.A. 14 St. Giles’s-street, Oxford.
*Spiller, Edmund Pim. 3 Iurnival’s Inn, London, E.C.
*Spiller, John, F.C.8. 35 Grosvenor-road, Highbury New Park,
London, N.
*Spottiswoode, William, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. (GENERAL
TREASURER). 50 Grosyenor-place, London, 8.W.
*Spottiswoode, W. Hugh. 50 Grosyenor-place, London, 8. W.
‘Barents Thomas Bond. 4 Lansdowne-place, Blackheath, London,
{Spratt, Joseph James. West Parade, Hull.
Square, Joseph Elliot, F.G.S. 24 Portland-place, Plymouth.
*Squire, Lovell. The Observatory, Falmouth.
{Stables, William Alexander. Cawdor Castle, Nairn, N.B.
{Stack, Rev. Thomas. Dublin.
*Stainton, Henry T., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8. Mountsfield, Lewisham,
Kent. ‘
*Stainton, James Joseph, F.L.S., F.C.8. Meadoweroft, Lewisham,
London, 8.E.
{Stanfield, Alfred W. Wakefield.
§Stanford, Edward C. C. Edinbarnet, Dumbartonshire.
Stanley, The Very Rey. Arthur Penrhyn, D.D., F.R.S., Dean of
Westminster. The Deanery, Westminster, London, 8.W.
Stapleton, H. M. 1 Mountjoy-place, Dublin.
§Starey, Thomas R. Daybrook House, Nottingham.
{Stark, James, M.D., F.R.S.E, 21 Rutland-street, Edinburgh.
{Stark, Richard M. Hull.
Staveley, T. I. Ripon, Yorkshire.
{Steel, William Edward, M.D. 15 Hatch-street, Dublin.
§Steele, Rev. Dr. 2 Bathwick-terrace, Bath.
{Steinthal, H. M. Hollywood, Fallowfield, near Manchester.
Stenhouse, John, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Rodney-street, Penton-
ville, London, N.
§Stearn, C.H. 5 Elden-terrace, Rock Ferry, Liverpool.
*Stern, 8. J. Rusholme House, Manchester.
§Sterriker, John. Driffield.
*Stevens, Miss Anna Maria. Wiley, near Salisbury.
kaues 5 Henry, F.S.A., F.R.G.S. 4 Trafalear-square, London,
V

{Stevenson, Archibald. South Shields.
{Stevenson, David. & Forth-street, Edinburgh.

ae a

LIST OF MEMBERS. G7

Year of
Election.
Stevenson, Rev. Edward, M.A.
1868. {Stevenson, Henry, F.L.S. 10 Unthank-road, Norwich.
1863. *Stevenson, James C. Westoe, South Shields.
1855. Stewart, Balfour, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S:, Professor of Natural Philo-
sophy in Owen’s College, Manchester, Superintendent of the
Kew Observatory of the British Association. Owen’s College,
Manchester.
1864, {Stewart, Charles, F.L.S. 19 Princess Square, Plymouth.
1856, *Stewart, Henry Hutchinson, M.D., M.R.L.A. 71 Eccles-street,
Dublin. ‘
1869. §Stewart, J. L. East India United Service Club, 14 St. James’s-
square, London, 8. W.
Stewart, Robert. Glasgow.
1847. {Stewart, Robert, M.D. The Asylum, Belfast.
1867. {Stirling, Dr. D. Perth.
1868, §Stirling, Edward. 34 Queen’s-gardens, Hyde Park, London, W.
1867. *Stirrup, Mark. 2 Harwood-place, Old Trafford, Manchester.
1865. *Stock, Joseph S. Showell Green, Spark Hill, near Birmingham.
1862. {Stockil, William. 5 Church Meadows, Sydenham, London, 8.E.
Stoddart, George. 11 Russell-square, London, W.C.
1864, §Stoddart, William Walter, F.G.S., F.0.S. 7 King-square, Bristol.
1854, {Stoess, Le Chevalier, Ch. de W. (Bavarian Consul). _ Liverpool.
*Stokes, George Gabriel, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec. R.S., Lucasian
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambrdge. Lens-
field Cottage, Lensfield-road, Cambridge.
1845. {Stokes, Rev. William H., M.A.,F.G.S. Cambridge.
1862. {Stone, Edward James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal at
at the Cape of Good Hope. Cape Town.
1859. {Stone, Dr. William H. 13 Vigo-street, London, W.
1857. {Stoney, Bindon B., M.R.I.A., Engineer of the Port of Dublin, 42
Wellington-road, Dublin.
1861. *Stoney, George Johnstone, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Secretary to the
Queen’s University, Ireland. 40 Wellington-road, Dublin.
1854. {Store, George. Prospect House, Fairfield, Liverpool.
1867, §Storrar, John, M.D. Heathview, Hampstead, London, N.W.
1859. §Story, James. 17 Bryanston-square, London, W.
1859. {Strachan, Patrick.
1863. {Strachan, T. Y. Lovaine-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1863. {Straker, John. Wellington House, Durham.
1868. §Strange, Lieut.-Colonel A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S, India Stores,
Belvedere-road, Lambeth, London, §.E.
*Strickland, Charles. Loughelyn House, Castherea, Ireland.
Strickland, William. French-park, Roscommon, Ireland.
1859. {Stronach, William, R.E. Ardmellie, Banff.
1867. §Stronner, D. 14 Princess-street, Dundee.
1866. *Strutt, The Hon. Arthur, F.G.S. Duffield, near Derby.
1868. *Strutt, The Hon. John W. Terling-place, Witham, Essex.
1861. {Stuart, W. D. Philadelphia.
1859. {Stuart, William Eenry.
1866. {Stubbins, Henry.
1864. {Style, Sir Charles, Bart. 102 New Sydney-place, Bath.
1857. {Sullivan, William K., Ph.D., M.R.LA. Museum of Irish Industry ;
and 53 Upper Leeson-road, Dublin.
1863. {Sutherland, Benjamin John. 10 Oxford-street, Neweastle-on-Tyne.
1862, *Sutherland, George Granville William, Duke of, K.G., F.R.G.S.
Stafford House, London, 8.W.
1855, {Sutton, Edwin. 44 Winchester-street, Pimlico, London, 8.W.
1863, §Sutton, Francis, F.C.S, Bank Plain, Norwich,
¥2

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1861.
1862.

1862.

1870.
1863.
1863.
1870.
1859.
1847.
1862.

1847,

1870.
1856.
1859.

1860,
1859.
1855.

1865.
1867,

1867.

1866.

1861.
1856.

1864.

1857.
1863.
1870.
1865.

1858.
1864.
1867.

1861,
1863,
1863.
1865,

*Swan, Patrick Don 8. Kirkaldy, N.B.
*Swan, William, LL.D., F.R.S.K., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of St. Andrews. 2 Hope-street, St. Andrews,
N. B.
*Swann, Rey. 8. Kirke. Gedling, near Nottingham.
Sweetman, Walter, M.A.,M.R.I.A. 4Mountjoy-square North, Dublin.
*Swinburn, Sir John. Capheaton, Newcastle-on-'Tyne.
§Swindell, J. 8. E. Summerhill, Kingswinford, Dudley.
t{Swinhoe, Robert, F.R.G.S. Oriental Club, London, W.
§Swinhoe, Robert. 33 Oakley-square, London, 8.W.
{Sykes, Alfred. Leeds.
tSykes, H. P. 47 Albion-street, Hyde Park, London, W.
{Sykes, Thomas. Cleckheaton, near Leeds.
*Sykes, Colonel William Henry, M.P., F.R.S., Hon, M.R.LA., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S. 47 Albion-street, Hyde Park, London, W.
tSykes, Captain W. H. F. 47 Albion-street, Hyde Park, London. W.
Sylvester, James Joseph, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,60 Maddox-street, W.,
and Athenzeum Club, London, 8.W.
§Symes, R.G. Dublin.
*Symonds, Frederick, F.R.C.S. 35 Beaumont-street, Oxford.
{Symonds, Captain Thomas Edward, R.N. 10 Adam-street, Adelphi,
London, W.C.
t{Symonds, Rey. W.S., M.A.,F.G.S. Pendock Rectory, Worcestershire.
§Symons, G. J., F.M.S. 62 Camden-square, London, N.W.
*Symons, William, F'.C.S. 26 Joy-street, Barnstaple.
Synge, Rev. Alexander. St. Peter’s, Ipswich. .
Synge, Francis. Glanmore, Ashford, Co. Wicklow.
Synge, John Hatch. Glanmore, Ashford, Co, Wicklow.

{Tailyour, Colonel Renny, R.E. Newmanswalls, Montrose, N. B.
{Tait, P. M., F.R.G.S. 26 Adelaide Road, N.; and Oriental Club,
Hanover-square, London, W.
§Talbot, William Hawkshead. Hartwood Hall, Chorley, Lancashire.
Talbot, William Henry Fox, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.5. Lacock
Abbey, near Chippenham.
*Tanner, Thomas Hawkes, M.D., F.L.S. 9 Henrietta-street, Cayen-
dish-square, London, W.
Taprell, William. 7 Westbourne-crescent, Hyde Park, London, W.
tTarbottom, Marrott Ogle, M.I.C.E., F.G.8. Newstead-groye, Not-
tingham.
*Tarratt, Henry W. Bushbury Lodge, Leamington.
{Tartt, William Macdonald, F.S.8. Sandford-place, Cheltenham.
t Tasker, Rev. J. C. W.
*Tate, Alexander. 2 Queen’s Elms, Belfast.
Tate, John. Alnmouth, near Alnwick, Northumberland.
§Tate, Norman A. 7 Nivell Chambers, Fazackerley-street, Liverpool.
{Tate, Thomas. White Horse Hill, Chislehurst, Kent.
*Tatham, George. Springfield Mount, Leeds.
*Tawney, Edward B., F.G.8. Ashbury Dale, Torquay.
tTaylor, Rev. Andrew. Dundee. 7
Taylor, Frederick. Messrs. Taylor, Potter §- Co., Liverpool.
*Taylor, James. Culverlands, near Reading.
*Taylor, John, F.G.S. 6 Queen-street-place, Upper Thames-street,
London, E.C.
*Taylor, John, jun. Sandycroft, Chester.
{Taylor, John. Earsdon, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{Taylor, John. Lovaine-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tTaylor, Joseph. 99 Constitution-hill, Birmingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 69

Year of
Election.

1848.
1869.
1869.

1863.
1858.
1859.
1870.

1861.
1864.
1853.
1863.
1867.
1855.

1867.
1852.

1855.
1850.

1868.

1863.
1865.

1850.

1847.

1870,

*Taylor, Vice-Adnural J. N., CB.
Taylor, Captain P. Meadows, in the Service of His Highness tho
Nizam. Harold Cross, Dublin.
*Taylor, Richard, F.G.8, 6 Queen-street-place, Upper Thames-strect,
London, E.C.

. §Taylor, Thomas. Aston Rowant, Tetsworth, Oxon.

Taylor, Rev. William, F.R.S., F-R.A.S. Thornloe, Worcester.
*Taylor, William Edward. Millfield House, Enfield, near Accrington.

. {Teale, Joseph. Leeds.
. {Teale, Thomas Pridgin, jun. 20 Park-row, Leeds.

Teather, John. Alstonley, Cumberland.

. Teesdale, C.S. M. Pennsylvannia, Exeter.
. {Tennant, Henry. Saltwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Tennant, James, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Mineralogy in King’s
College. 149 Strand, London, W.C.

. {Tennison, Ndward King. Kildare-street Club House, Dublin.
. {Teschemacher, E. F. Highbury-park North, London, N,

. {Thackeray, J. L. Arno Vale, Nottingham.

. {Thain, Rev. Alexander. New Machar, Aberdeen.

. [Thodey, Rev. S. Rodborough, Gloucestershire.

Thom, John. Messrs. M°Naughton & Co., Moseley-street, Manchester,

. §Thom, Robert Wilson. Lark Hill, Chorley, Lancashire.

Thomas, George. Brislington, Bristol.

*Thomas, George John, M.A.

{Thomas, H. D. Fore-street, Exeter.

§Thomas, J. Henwood, F.R.G.S. Custom: House, London, E.C,

*Thompson, Corden, M.D. Norfolk-street, Sheffield.

{Thompson, Rey. Francis. St. Giles’s, Durham.

*Thompson, Frederick. South Parade, Wakefield.

§Thompson, George, jun. Pidsmedden, Aberdeen.

§Thomson, Sir Henry. 35 Wimpole-street, London. W.

Thompson, Harry Stephen. Kirby Hall, Great Ouseburn, Yorkshire.

Thompson, Henry Stafford. Fairtield, near York.

*Thompson, Joseph. Woodlands, Wilmslow, near Manchester.

§Thompson, Rev. Joseph Hesselgrave, B.A. Cradley, near Brierley-hill,

Thompson, Leonard. Sheriff-Hutton Park, Yorkshire.

{Thompson, Thomas (Austrian Consul). Hull.

Thompson, Thomas (Town Clerk). Tull.

{Thompson, William. 1] North-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Thoms, William. Magdalen Yard-road, Dundee.

{Thomson, Allen, M.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University of
Glasgow.

tThomson, Francis Hay, M.D. Glasgow.

tThomson, Gordon A. Bedeque House, Belfast.

Thomson, Guy. Oxford.

{Thomson, James. 82 West Nile-street, Glasgow.

*Thomson, Professor James, M.A., C.E. 17 University-square,
Belfast.

§Thomson, James, F.G.S. 276 Eelington-street, Glasgow.

*Thomson, James Gibson. 14 York-place, Edinburgh.

tThomson, M. 8 Meadow-place, Edinburgh. :

tThomson, R. W., C.E., F.R.S.E. 3 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

{Thomson, Thomas, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Genrrat SECRETARY).
16 Horbury-crescent, Notting-hill, London, W.

*Thomson, Sir William, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. L. & E., Prest-
DENT ELECT, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University
of Glasgow. The College, Glasgow.

§Thomson, W.C., M.D. 7 Domingo Vale, Everton, Liverpool.

70 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.
1850. {Thomson, Wyville T. C., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Regius Professor of
Natural History in ‘the University of Edinbureh.
1852. {Thorburn, Rey. William Reid, M.A. Starkies, Bury, Lancashire.
1865. *Thornley, 8. Gilbertstone House, Bickenhill, near Birmingham.
1866. {Thornton, James. Edwalton, Nottingham.
*Thornton, Samuel. Oakfield, Moseley, near Birmingham.
1867. {Thornton, Thomas. Dundee.
1845. {Thorp, Dr. Disney. Suffolk Laun, Cheltenham.
*Thorp, The Venerable Thomas, B.D., F.G.S., Archdeacon of Bristol.
Kemerton, near Tewkesbury.
1864. *Thorp, William, jun., F.C.S. 39 Sandringham-road, West Hackney,
nite N.E.
1868. {Thuillier, Colonel. 27 Lower Seymour-street, Portman-square, Lon-
don, W.
Thurnam, John, M.D. Devizes.
1856. {Tibbs, Somerset. 58 Rezent-street, Cheltenham.
1870. §Tichborne, Charles R. S,, F.C.S. Apothecaries’ Hall of Ireland,
Dublin.
1865. §Timmins, Samuel. Elvetham-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Tinker, Ebenezer. Mealhill, near Huddersfield.
*Tinné, John A., F.R.G.S. Briarly, Aigburth, Liverpool.
Tite, Sir William, M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S., ESA. 42 Lovwndes-square,
London, 8. W.
Tobin, Rev. John. Liscard, Cheshire. ,
1859, {Todd, Thomas. Mary Culter House, Aberdeen.
1861. *Todhunter, Isaac, M.A., F.R.S. Principal Mathematical Lecturer of
St. John’s College, Cambridge. Bourne House, Cambridge.
Todhunter, J, 3 College Green, ‘Dublin.
1857. {Tombe, Rey. H. J. Ballyfree, Ashford, Co. Wicklow.
1856. {Tomes, Robert Fisher. Welford, Stratford-on-A von.
1866. §Tomlin, J. R. Stoke Field, Newark.
1864. *Tomlinson, Charles, F.R.S. VF. C.S. 8 Ridgmount-terrace, Highgate,
London, N.
1863. {Tone, John F. Jesmond Villas, Neweastle-on-Tyne.
1865. §Tonks, Edmund, B.O.L. Packwood Grange, Knowle, eet fee she
1865. §Tonks, William Henry. A Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1861, *Topham, John, A.LC.E. High Elms, Hackney, London, N.E.
1863. {Torr, F. 8. 38 Bedford-row, London, W.C.
1863. {Torrens, R. R., M.P. 2 Gloucester-place, Hyde Park, London, W.
1859, {Torry, Very Rey. John, Dean of St. Andrews. Coupar Angus, N.B.
Towgood, Edward. St. Neots, Huntingdonshire.
1860. {Townsend, John. 11 Burlington-street, Bath.
1857. {Townsend, Rey. Richard, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philo-
sophy in the University of Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin.
1861. {Townsend, William. Attleborough Hall, near Nuneaton.
1854. {'Towson, John Thomas, F.R.G.S. 47 Upper Parliament-street, Liver-
pool; and Local Marine Board, Liverpool.
1859. {Trail, Rey. Robert, M.A. Boyndie, Banff.
1859. {Trail, Samuel, D.D., LL.D. The Manse, Hayay, Orkney.
1870. §Traill, William A, 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
1868, § Traquair, Ramsay H., M.D., Professor of Zoology, Royal College of
Science, Dublin.
1865. {Travers, William, F.R.C.S. 1 Bath-place, Kensington, London, W.
1859. {Trefusis, The Hon. C.
Tregelles, Nathaniel. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire.
1868. $Trehane, ‘John. Exe View Lawn, Exeter.
1869. {Trehane, John, jun. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
1870. §Trench, Dr. Municipal Offices, Duke-street, Liverpool.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 71

Year of
Election.

Trench, F. A. Newlands House, Clondalkin, Ireland.
*Trevelyan, Arthur. ‘Tyneholme Tranent, Haddingdonshire.
Trevelyan, Sir Walter Calverley, Bart., M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., F.S.A.,
F.R.G.S. Athenzeum Club, London, 8.W.; Wallington, North-
umberland; and Nettlecombe, Somerset.

. §Tristram, Rev. Henry Baker, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Greatham

ee near Stockton-on-Tees.
{Troyte, C. A. W. Huntsham Court, Bampton, Devon.

. {Traell, Robert. Ballyhenry, Ashford, Co. Wicklow.
. {Tucker, Charles. Marlands, Exeter.
. *Tuckett, Francis Fox. 10 Balwin-street, Bristol.

Tuckett, Frederick. 4 Mortimer-street, Cavendish-square, London,W.
Tuke, J. H. Bank, Hitchen.

. {Tulloch, The Very Rey. Principal, D.D. St. Andrews, Fifeshire.
. §Turbervile, H. Pilton, Barnstaple.

. tTurnbull, James, M.D. 86 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

5. §Turnbull, John. 37 West George-street, Glasgow.

. {Turnbull, Rey. J.C. 8 Bays-hill Villas, Cheltenham.

*Turnbull, Rev. Thomas Smith, M.A., F.RS., F.G.S., F.R.G.S,
Blofield, Norfolk.
Turner, Thomas, M.D. 31 Curzon-street, May Fair, London, W.

. {Turner, William, M.B., F.R.S.E., Professor of Anatomy in the Uni-

versity of Edinbugh. The University, Edinburgh,
Twamley, Charles, F.G.S. 11 Regent’s Park-road, London, N.W.

{Twining, H. R.. Grove Lodge, Clapham, London, 8.W.
. {Twiss, Sir Travers, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., Regius Professor of

Civil Law in the University of Oxford, and Chancellor of the
Diocese of London. 19 Park-lane, London, W.

. {Tylor, Alfred, F.G.S. Warwick-lane, London, H.C.
. §Tylor, Edward Burnett. Lindon, Wellington, Somerset.
. *Tyndall, John, LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of. Natural

Philosophy in the Royal Institution. Royal Institution, Albe-
marle-street, London, W.

. *Tysoe, John, Seedley-road, Pendleton, near Manchester.

Upton, Rev. James Samuel, M.A., F.GS.

5. {Ure, John. 114 Montrose-street, Glasgow.
. {Urquhart, Rey. Alexander. Tarbat, Ross-shire.
. {Urquhart, W. Pollard. Craigston Castle, N. B.; and Castlepollard,

Treland.

. §Urquhart, William W. Springfield House, Dundee.
. §Vale, H. H. 42 Prospect Vale, Fairfield, Liverpool.

t{Vale, James Theodorich. Hamuilton-square, Birkenhead.
*Vallack, Rey. Benjamin W. 5. St. Budeaux, near Plymouth.
*Vance, Rey. Robert. 24 Blackhall-street, Dublin.

. {Vandoni, le Commandeur Comte de, Chargé d’Affaires de 8S. M.

Tunisienne, Geneva.

. §Varley, Cornelius. 837 Kentish Town-road, London, N.W.
. t Varley, Cromwell F. Fleetwood House, Beckenham, Kent.
. §Varley, Frederick H., F.R.A.S. Mildmay Park Works, Mildmay

Avenue, Stoke Newineton, London, N.

. *Varley, 8. Alfred. 66 Roman-road, ilolloway, London, N.

. §Varley, Mrs.8. A. 66 Roman-road, Holloway-road, London, N.

. {Varwell, P. Alphineton-street, Exeter.

. {Vauvert, de Mean A., Vice-Consul for France. Tynemouth. _.

. *Vaux, Frederick. Central Telegraph Office, Adelaide, South Au-

stralia,

’

72 LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

Verney, Sir Harry, Bart., M.P. Lower Claydon, Buckinghamshire.
1866. {Vernon, Rey. E. H. Harcourt. Cotgrave Rectory, near Nottingham,
Vernon, George John, Lord. 82 Curzon-street, London, W.; and
Sudbury Hall, Derbyshire.
1854, *Vernon, George V., F.R.A.S. 1 Osborne-place, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.
1854, *Vernon, John. Gateacre, Liverpool.
1864, *Vicary, William, I'.G.S8. The Priory, Colleton-cresent, Exeter.
1854, *Vignoles, Charles B., C.E., F.R.S., M.R.LA., FVR.AS., V.P.LC.E.
21 Duke-street, Westminster, S. W.
1868. {Vincent, Rey. William. Postwick Rectory, near Norwich.
1856. {Vivian, Edward, B.A. Woodfield, Torquay.
*Vivian, H. Hussey, M.P., F.G.S. Park Wern, Swansea; and 7
Belgrave-square, London, 8.W.
1856, §Voelcker, J. Ch. Augustus, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Che-
mistry to the Royal Agricultural Society of England. 89 Argyll-
road, Kensington, London, W.
t{Vose, Dr. James. Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.

1860. §Waddingham, John. Guiting Grange, Winchcombe, Gloucestershire.
1859. {Waddington, John. New Dock Works, Leeds.
1855. *Waldegrave, The Hon. Granville. 26 Portland-place, London, W.
1870. §Waley, Jacob. 20 Wimpole-street, London, W.
1869. *Walford, Cornelius. Little Park, Enfield.
1870. §Wake, Charles Staniland. 4 St. Martin’s-place, Trafalgar-square,
London, W.C.
1863. { Walker, Alfred O.
1849, §Walker, Charles V., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Fernside Villa, Redhill, near
Reigate.
Walker, Sir Edward 8. Berry Hill, Mansfield.
Walker, Francis, F.L.8., F.G.8. Elm Hall, George-lane, Wanstead,
London, N.
Walker, Frederick John. Alltyr Odyn, Llandyssil, Carmarthen.
1866. {Walker, H. Westwood, Newport, by Dundee.
1859. {Walker, James. 16 Norfolk-crescent, London, W.
1855. {Walker, John. 1 Exchange-court, Glasgow.
1842. *Walker, John. Thornclitte, New Kenilworth-road, Leamington.
1855. { Walker, John James, M.A. 2 Trinity College, Dublin.
1866, *Walker, J. F. Sidney College, Cambridge.
1867. *Walker, Peter G. Dundee.
1866. {Walker, 8. D. 388 Hampden-street, Nottingham.
1869. *Walker, Thomas F. W., M.A., F.R.G.S. 6 Broclk-street, Bath.
Walker, William. 47 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
1869, {Walkey, J. E.C. High-street, Exeter.
Wall, Rev. R. H., M.A. 6 Hume-street, Dublin.
1863. §Wallace, Alfred R., F.R.G.S. Holly House, Barking, Essex.

1859. {Wallace, William, Ph.D., F.C.S. Chemical Laboratory, 3 Bath- .

street, Glasgow.
1857. {Waller, Edward. Lisenderry, Aughnacloy, Ireland.
1862. {Wallich, George Charles, M.D.,F.L.8, 11 Karls-terrace, Kensington,
London, W
Wallinger, Rey. William. Hastings.
Walmsley, Sir Joshua, Knt. *
1862. sabe The Right Hon. Spencer Horatio, M.A., D.C.L., M.P.,
-R.S. Ealing, near London.
1857. { Walsh, Albert Jasper. 89 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
Walsh, John (Prussian Consul). 1 Sir John’s Quay, Dublin.
1863, {Walters, Robert. Eldon-square, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 73°

Year of
Election.

Walton, Thomas Todd. Mortimer House, Clifton, Bristol.

63. {Wanklyn, James Alfred, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. London Institution,

Finsbury-circus, London, B.C.

» {Ward, John 8. Prospect-hill, Lisburn, Ireland.

Ward, Rey. Richard, M.A. 12 Eaton-place, London, S.W.
{Ward, Robert. Dean-street, N eweastle-on-Tyne.
“Ward, William Sykes, F.C.S. 12 Bank-street, and Denison Hall,
Leeds.
Wardell, William. Chester.
{Warden, Alexander J. Dundee.
{Wardle, Thomas. Leek Brook, Leek, Staffordshire.
re Edward John, M.D., F.L.S. 55 Parliament-street, London,
.W.
“Warner, Edward. 49 Grosvenor-place, London, S.W.
{Warner, Thomas H. Lee. Tiberton Court, Hereford.
§Warren, James L. Letterfrack, Galway.
*Warren, Edward P., L.D.S. 13 Old-square, Birmingham.
Warwick, William Atkinson. Wyddrington House, Cheltenham.
{ Washbourne, Buchanan, M.D. Gloucester.
“Waterhouse, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.AS. Wellhead, Halifax,
Yorkshire,
{Waterhouse Nicholas. 5 Rake-lane, Liverpool.
§Waters, A. T. H.,M.D. 29 Hope-street, Liverpool.
{Watson, Rev. Archibald, D.D, The Manse, Dundee.
{Watson, Ebenezer. 16 Abereromby-place, Glasgow.
{ Watson, Frederick Edwin. Thickthorn House, Crin eleford, Norwich.
*Watson, Henry Hough, F.C.S. 227 The F olds, Bolton-le-Moors,
Watson, Hewett Cottrell. Thames Ditton, Surrey.
{Watson, James, M.D. 152 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
aca, ohn Forbes, M.A., M.D., F.L.S. India Museum, London,

» [Watson, Joseph. Bensham Grove, near Gateshead-on-Tyne.

{Watson, R.S. 101 Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
§Watson, Thomas D. 18 a Basinghall-street, London, E.C,
tWatson, William. Biiton House, Harrogate.

tWatt, Robert B. E. Ashby-avenue, Belfast.

{Watts, Sir James. Abney Hall, Cheadle, near Manchester.
§Watts, John King, F.R.G.S. St. Ives, Huntingdonshire.

. §Watts, William. Corporation Waterworks, Swineshaw, Staleybridge.
» }Waud, Major E. Manston Hall, near Leeds.

Waud, Rey. S. W., M.A., F.R.A.S., F-.C.B.S. Rettenden, near
Wickford, Essex.

§Waugh, Major-General Sir Andrew Scott, R.E., E.R.S., F.R.AS.,
F.R.G.S., late Surveyor-General of India, and Superintendent
of the Great Trigonometrical Survey. 7 Petersham-terrace,
Queen’s Gate-gardens, London, W.

tWaugh, Edwin. Sager-street; Manchester.

*Way, J. Thomas, F.C.S., 9 Russell-road, Kensington, London, 8. W.

tWay, Samuel James. Adelaide, South Australia.

*Webb, Rey. Thomas William, M.A., F.R.A.S. Hardwick Parsonage,
Hay, South Wales.

*Webb, William Frederick, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Newstead Abbey, near
Nottingham.

tWebster, J rocks Hatherley Court, Cheltenham.

{ Webster, John. 42 King-street, Aberdeen. _

{Webster, John. Broomhall Park, and St. J: ames’s-row, Sheffield.

{ Webster, John Henry, M.D. Northampton.

§ Webster, John, Belyoir-terrace, Sneinton, N ottingham,

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1845.

1854.
1865.

1867.
1850.

1864.
1865.
1855.
1870.
1853.
1855.
1851.
1870.
1842,

1842.

1857.
1863.
1860.
12864.
1860.

1853.

1866.
1847.

1853.
1859.

1866,

1864,
1837.

1859.
1865.
“1869.
1859.
1861.
1858.
1861.
1861.
1855.

Ra Thomas, M.A., F.R.S. 2 Pump Court, Temple, London,

tWedgewood, Hensleigh. 17 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park,
London, N.

t Weightman, William Henry. Farn Lea, Seaforth, Liverpool.

in hristopher, M.A. University Club, Pall Mall Kast, London,

§Weldon, Walter.~ Park-villa, West Hill, Highgate, London, N.
tWemyss, Alexander Watson, M.D. St. Andrews, N.B.
Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near
Barnsley, Yorkshire.
*Were, Anthony Berwick. Whitehaven, Cumberland.
Wesley, William Henry. 31 Clayland-road, Clapham, London, 8. W.
{ West, Alfred. Holderness-road, Hull.
§ West, Captain E.W. Bombay.
{West, Leonard. Summergangs Cottage, Hull.
tWest, Stephen. Hessle Grange, near Hull.
*Western, Sir T. B., Bart. Felix Hall, Kelvedon, Essex.
§Westgarth, William. 28 Cornhill, London, F.C.

Westhead, Edward. Chorlton-on-Medlock, near Manchester.

Westhead, John. Manchester.

*Westhead, Joshua Proctor Brown. Lea Castle, near Kidderminster,
Scotland.

*Westley, William. 24 Regent-street, London, 5.W.

t{Westmacott, Perey. Whickham, Gateshead, Durham.

§Weston, James Woods. Seedley House, Pendleton, Manchester.

§ Westropp, W. H.8., M.R.LA. 2 Idrone-terrace, Blackrock, Dublin.

{ Westwood, John O., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in the Uni-
versity of Oxford. Oxford.

tWheatley, E. B. Cote Wall, Merfield, Yorkshire.

Wheatstone, Sir Charles, D.C.L., F.R.S., Hon. M.R.LA., Professor
of Experimental Philosophy in King’s College, London. 19 Park-
crescent, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.

{Wheatstone, Charles C, 19 Park-crescent, Regent’s Park, London.

{Wheeler, Edmund, F.R.A.S. 48 Tollington-road, Holloway,
London, N.

{Whitaker, Charles. Milton Hill, near Hull.

*Whitaker, William, B.A., F'.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 28
Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.

§White, Charles, F.R.G.S. Barnesfield House, near Dartford, Kent;
and 10:Lime-street, London, E.C.

§White, Edmund. Victoria Villa, Batheaston, Bath.

{White, James, M.P., F.G.S. 14 Chichester-terrace, Kemp Town,
Brighton.

White, John. 80 Wilson-street, Glasgow.

{White, John Forbes. 16 Bon Accord-square, Aberdeen.

{White, Joseph. Regent’s-street, Nottingham.

§White, Laban. St. Catherine’s College, Cambridge.

t+White, Thomas Henry. Tandragee, Ireland.

{Whitehead, James, M.D. 87 Mosley-street, Manchester.

tWhitehead, J. H. Southsyde, Saddleworth.

*Whitehead, John B. Ashday Lea, Rawtenstall, Manchester.

*Whitehead, Peter Ormerod. Belmont, Rawtenstall, Manchester.

*Whitehouse, Wildeman W. O. Roslyn House Hill, Pilgrim-lane,
Hampstead, London, N.

Whitehouse, William. 10 Queen-street, Rhyl.

*Whiteside, James, M.A., LL.D.,D.C.L., Lord Chief Justice of Ireland.
» 2 Mountjoy-square, Dublin. :

LIST OF MEMBERS, 75

Year of
Election.

1866.

1861.

1852.

1865.
1870.
1857.

1863.

1870.
1865.
1863.
1854.
1860.
1852.

1855.
1857.
1861.
1859.
1869.

1859.
1870,

1861,
1864.

1861.
1857.

1870.

1861.

1869,

1855.

1850.

1857.
1863.

1865.
1857.
1859,

§ Whitfield, Samuel. Golden Hillock, Small Heath, Birmingham,

fWhitford, J. Grecian-terrace, Harrington, Cumberland.

{Whitla, Valenfine, Beneden, Belfast.

Whitley, Rev. Charles Thomas, M.A., F.R.A.S., Reader in Natural

Philosophy in the University of Durham. Bedlington, Morpeth,

tWhittern, lave Sibley. Wyken Colliery, Coventry.

§Whittern, James Sibley. Walgrave, near Coventry.

“Whitty, John Inwine, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., O.E. 94 Bageot-street,
Dublin.

*Whitwell, Thomas. Thornaby Iron Works, Stockton-on-Tees.

*Whitworth, Sir Joseph, Bart., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S, The F irs,

Manchester; and Stancliffe Hall, Derbyshire.

§Whitworth, Rey. W, Allen, M.A. 185 Islington, Liverpool.

{Wiggin, Henry, Metchley Grange, Harbourne, Birmingham,

tWrgham, John. Dublin,

§Wight, Robert, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Grazeley Lodge, Reading.

tWilde, Henry. 2 St. Ann’s-place, Manchester,

tWilde, Sir William Robert, M.D., M.R.ILA. 1 Merrion-square
North, Dublin.

{Wilkie, John. 46 George-square, Glasgow.

{Wilkinson, George. Monkstown, Ireland,

*Wilkinson, M. A. Eason-, M.D, Greenheys, Manchester.

§ Wilkinson, Robert. Lincoln Lodge, Totteridge, Hertfordshire.

§ Wilks, George Augustus Frederick, M.D. Stanbury, Torquay

*Willert, Paul Ferdinand. Booth-street, Manchester.

{Willet, John, C.E. 35 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

§ William, G. F. Copley Mount, Springfield, Liverpool.

*Williams, Caleb, M.D. 73 Micklegate, York.

Williams, Charles James B,, M.D., F.R.S. 49 Upper Brook-street,

Grosvenor-square, London, W.

* Williams, Charles Theodore, M.A., M.B. 78 Park-street, London, W.

*Williams, Frederick M., M.P.,F.G.S. | Goonvrea, Perranarworthal,
Cornwall.

“Williams, Harry Samuel. 49 Upper Brook-street, Grosvenor-square,
London, W.

{ Williams, Rey. James. Llanfairinghornwy, Holyhead,
§ Williams, John. 6 New Cayendish-street, London, W,
Williams, Robert, M.A. Bridehead, Dorset.
tWithams, R. Price. 22 Ardwick Green, Manchester.
§Williams, Stephen, Stonyhurst College, Whalley, Blackburn.
Williams, Walter. St. Alban’s House, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
Williams, William M. The Celyn, Caergwele, near Wrevham.
“Williamson, Alexander William, Ph.D., F.R.S., F .C.8., Professor
of Chemistry, and of Practical Chemistry, Universit College,
London. 12 Fellows-road, Haverstock-hill, London, NW,
{Williamson, Benjamin. Trinity College, Dublin.
t Williamson, John. South Shields.
*Williamson, Rey. William, B.D. Datchworth Rectory, Welwyn,
Hertfordshire.
Williamson, W, C., Professor of Natural History in Owen’s College,
Manchester. Fallowfield, Manchester.
Willis, Rey. Robert, M.A., F.R.S., Jacksonian Professor of Natural
and_ Experimental Philosophy in the University of Cambridge.
23 York-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.; and 5 Park-
terrace, Cambridge.
*Willmott, Henry. Hatherley Lawn, Cheltenham.
{Willock, Rey. W. N., D.D. Cleenish, Enniskillen, Ireland.
“Wills, Alfred. 43 Queen’s Gardens, Bayswater, London, W.

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1865,
1859.

1850.
1863.
1847.

1863.
1869.
1861.
1855.
1847.
1857.
1858.

1865.

1847.

1859.
1865.
1861.
1867.
1870.
1847.

1861.

1866.

1868.
1865.
1856.

1863.
1863.
1861.
1860.
1861.
1870.
1856.

1864,
1861.
1850.

1858.
1865.
1861.

18653,

{ Wills, Arthur W. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Wills, W. R. Edgbaston, Birmingham. ‘
§ Wilson, Alexander Stephen, C.E. North Kinmundy, Summerhill, .
by Aberdeen.
t Wilson, Dr. Daniel. Toronto, Upper Canada.
{ Wilson, Frederic R. Alnwick, Northumberland.
*Wilson, Frederick. 814 Newman-street, Oxford-street, London, W.
Wilson, George. 40 Ardwick-green, Manchester.
tWilson, George. Hawick.
Wilson, George. Knaphill, Woking, Surrey.
{Wilson, George Daniel. 24 Ardwick Green, Manchester.
{Wilson, Hugh. 75 Glassford-street, Glasgow.
t Wilson, James Hewetson. The Grange, Worth, Sussex.
{ Wilson, James Moncrieff. 9 College Green, Dublin.
*Wilson, John. Seacroft Hall, near Leeds.
*Wilson, John. 52 Bootham, York.
Wilson, J. M., M.A. Hiillmorton-road, Rugby.
Wilson, Professor John, F.G.S., F.R.S.E. Geological Museum,
Jermyn-street, London, 8.W.
*Wilson, Rey. Sumner. Preston Candover, Micheldever Station.
*Wilson, Thomas, M.A. 2 Hilary-place, Leeds.
t Wilson, Thomas. Tunbridge Wells.
*Wilson, Thomas. Shotley Hall, Gateshead, Durham.
{ Wilson, Thomas Bright. 24 Ardwick Green, Manchester.
t Wilson, Rey. William. Free St. Paul’s, Dundee.
§ Wilson, William Henry. 31 Grove-park, Liverpool.
*Wilson, William Parkinson, M.A., Professor of Pure and Applied
Mathematics in the University of Melbourne.
}Wiltshire, Rev. Thomas, M.A.,F.G.S.,F.L.S.,F.R.A.S. 13 Granville-
park, Lewisham, London, §.E.
Winchester, Samuel Wilberforce, Lord Bishop of, D.D., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. 26 Pall Mall, London, 8. W.
*Windley, W. Mapperley Plains, Nottingham.
*Winsor, F. A. 60 Lincoln’s Inn Fields, London, W.C.
{Winter, C. J. W. 22 Bethel-street, Norwich.
*Winwood, Rey. H. H., M.A., F.G.8. 11 Cavendish-crescent, Bath.
{Witts, Rev. E. I. Upper Slaughter, Cheltenham.
*Wollaston, Thomas Vernon, M.A., F.L.S. 1 Barnpark-terrace, Teign-
mouth.
*Wood, Collingwood L. Howlish Hall, Bishop Auckland.
tWood, Edward, F.G.S. Richmond, Yorkshire.
*Wood, Edward T. Blackhurst, Brinscall, Chorley, Lancashire.
t Wood, George, M.A.
*Wood, George B., M.D. Philadelphia, United States.
§ Wood, George T. Northfield-terrace, Wavertree, Liverpool.
*Wood, Rey. H. H., M.A., F.G.8. Holwell Rectory, Sherborne,
Dorset.
*Wood, John. The Mount, York.
tWood, Richard, M.D. Driffield, Yorkshire.
§ Wood, Samuel, F.S.A. St. Mary’s Court, Shrewsbury.
tWood, Rey. Walter. Elie, Fife.
Wood, William. Edge Lane, Liverpool.
*Wood, William. Monkhill House, Pontefract.
*Wood, William, M.D. 99 Harley-street, London, W.
t{ Wood, William Rayner. Singleton Lodge, near Manchester.
*Wood, Rey. William Spicer, M.A., D.D. Oakham, Rutlandshire.
*Woodall, Major John Woodall, M.A., F.G.S. St. Nicholas House,
Scarborough.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 0

Year of

Election.

1850. *Woodd, Charles H. L., F.G.S. Roslyn House, Hampstead, London,
N.W.

1865.
1866.
1869,

1870.
1866.

1870.

1869.

1857.
1856.

1863.
1855,

1856.

1857.
1861.
1857.

1866.
1858.
1865,

1855.

1865.
1867.

1866.
1863.

1867.
1862,

1865.
1865.

§Woodhill, J.C. Pakenham House, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Woodhouse, John Thomas, C.E., F'.G.S. Midland-road, Derby.
§ Woodman, William Robert, M.D. Vittoria-villa, Stoke Newington,
London, 8.W.
*Woods, Edward. 3 Story’s Gate, Westminster, London, S.W.
Woods, Samuel. 8 Copthall Buildings, Angel-court, London., E.C.
§Woodburn, Thomas. Rock Ferry, Liverpool.
§Woodward, Henry, F.G.S. British Museum, London, W.C.
§ Woodward, Horace B., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
. _ London, 8. W.
§Woodward, J. C. Midland Institute, Birmingham.
Woolgar, J. W., F.R.A.S. Lewes, Sussex.
Woolley, John. Staleybridge, Manchester.
tWoolley, Rey. J., LL.D. Her Majesty’s Dockyard, Portsmouth.
§Woolley, Thomas Smith, jun. South Collingham, Newark.
Worcester, The Right Rev. Henry Philpott, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
Worcester.
*Wormald, Richard. 35 Bolton-road, St. John’s Wood, London, N. W.
*Worsley, P. John. 1 Codrington-place, Clifton, Bristol.
“Worthington, Rey. Alfred William, B.A. Old Meeting Parsonage,
Mansfield.
Worthington, Archibald. Whitchurch, Salop.
Worthington, James. Sale Hall, Ashton-on-Mersey.
Worthington, William. Brockhurst Hall, Northwich, Cheshire.
§Worthy, George S. 2 Arlington-terrace, Mornington-crescent, Hamp-
stead-road, London, N.W.
Wray, John. 6 Suffolk-place, Pall Mall, London, S.W.
fWright, Edward, LL.D. 23 The Boltons, West Brompton, London,
S.W.

*Wright, E. Abbot. Castle Park, Frodsham, Cheshire.

§Wright, E. Perceval, A.M., M.D., F.L.S., M.R.LA., Professor of
Botany, and Director of the Museum, Dublin University. 5
Trinity College, Dublin.

{Wright, G. H. Mapperley, Nottingham.

{Wright, Henry. Statlord House, London, 8.W.

{Wright, J.S. 168 Brearley-street West, Birmingham.

“Wright, Robert Francis. Hinton Blewett, ‘Temple-Cloud, near
Bristol.

tWright, Thomas, F.S.A. 14Sydney-street, Brompton, London, 8.W.

Wright, T.G., M.D. Wakefield.

fWrightson, Francis, Ph.D. Ivy House, Kingsnorton.

{Wiinsch, Edward Alfred., Vice-Pres. Geol. Soc. Glasgow. 3 Eaton-
terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.

§Wyatt, James, F.G.S. Bedford.

Wyld, James, F.R.G.S. Charing Cross, London, W.C.

*Wyley, Andrew. 21 Barker-street, Handsworth, Birmingham.

tWylie, Andrew. Prinlaws, Fifeshire.

f Wynne, Arthur Beevor, F.G.S., of the Geological Survey of India.
Bombay.

*Yarborough, George Cook, Camp’s Mount, Doncaster.
t Yates, Edwin.
{Yates, Henry. Emscote Villa, Aston Manor, Birmingham.
Yates, James. Carr House, Rotherham, Yorkshire.
Yates, James, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.L.S. Lauderdale House, High-
gate, London, N.

78 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.
1845, {Yates, John Aston. 53 Bryanston-square, London, W.
1867. TYeaman, James. Dundee.
1855. { Yeats, John, LL.D.,F.R.G.S. Clayton-place, Peckham, London, S8.F.
*Yorke, Colonel Phillip, F.R.S., F.R.G.8. 89 Eaton-place, Belgrave-
_ square, London, 8.W.
Young, James. South Shields.
Young, James. Limefield, West Calder, Midlothian.
Young, John. Taunton, Somersetshire.
Young, John. Hope Villa, Woodhouse-lane, Leeds.
1870. *Young, Kelly, jun. Wemyss Bay, Greenock.
Younge, Robert, F.L.S. Greystoness, near Greenock, N.B.
*Younge, Robert, M.D. Greystones, near Sheffield.
1868. ¢Youngs, John. Richmond Hill, Norwich.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1857.

1868.
1852.
1866,

1870.
1861.

1857.
1852.
1846.
1868.
1864.

1861.
1864.

1870.

1855.
1866.
1862.

1870.
1845,

1862.

1862.
1866.
1861.
1868,
1856,

M. Antoine d’Abbadie.
Louis Agassiz, M.D., Ph.D., Professor of Natural History. Cambridge,
US

M. D’Avesac, Mem de l'Institut de France. 42 Rue du Bae, Paris.

M. Babinet. Paris.

Captain I. Belavenetz, R.ILN., F.R.LG.S., M.S.C.M.A., Superin-
tendent of the Compass Observatory, Cronstadt, Russia.

Professor Van Beneden. Belgium.

Dr. Bergsma, Director of the Magnetic Survey of the Indian Archi-
pelago. Utrecht, Holland.

Professor Dr. T. Bolzani. Kasan, Russia.

G. P. Bond. Observatory, Cambridge, U.S.

M. Boutigny (d’Evreux).

Professor Broca. Paris. ;

Dr. H. D. Buys-Ballot, Superintendent of the Royal Meteorological
Institute of the Netherlands. Utrecht, Holland.

Dr. Carus. Leipzig.

M. Des Cloizeaux. Paris.

J. M. Crafts, M.D. United States,

Dr. Ferdinand Cohn. Breslau, Prussia.

Geheimrath von Dechen. Bonn.

Wilhelm Delffs, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Heidel-
berg.

Dr. Anton Dohrn. University of Jena.

Heinrich Doye, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of
Berlin.

Professor Dumas. Paris.

Professor Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, M.D., Secretary of the Royal
Academy, Berlin.

. Dr. Eisenlohr. Carlsruhe, Baden.

. Dr. A. Erman. Berlin.

. Professor Esmark. Christiania,

. Professor A. Fayre. Geneva.

. Professor HE. Frémy. Paris.

. M. Frisiani. Milan.

. Dr. Gaudry, Pres. Geol. Soc. of France. Paris.

. Dr. Geinitz, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology. Dresden.
. Goyenor Gilpin. Colorado, United States,

. Professor Asa Gray. Cambridge, U.S.

. Professor Edward Grube, Ph.D.

. Dr. D. Bierens de Haan, Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences,

Amsterdam. Leiden, Holland.

. Professor E. Hébert. The Sorbonne, Paris.

Professor Henry. Washington, U.S,

. M. A. Heynsius. Leyden.

Dr. Hochstetter. Vienna.

. M. Jacobi, Member of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg.
1867.

Janssen, Dr. 21 Rue Labat (18° Arrondissement), Paris.

Charles Jessen, Med. et Phil. Dr., Professor of Botany in the Univer«
sity of Greifswald, and Lecturer of Natural History and Librarian
at the Royal Agricultural Academy, Eldena, Prussia.

Aug. Kekulé, Professor of Chemistry. Ghent, Belgium.

Dr. Henry Kiepert, Professor of Geography. Berlin.

M. Khanikof. 11 Rue de Londé, Paris.

Professor Karl Koch. Berlin.

Professor A. Koélliker. Wurzburg, Bavaria.

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1356.

1862.
1846,
1857.
1869.
1868.
1867.
1867.

1862.
1846.
1848.
1855.
1864.
1868.
1856,

1866.

1864.
1869.
1848.
1856.
1861.
1857.
1870.

1868.

1866.
1850.
1857.

1857.
1868.
1861.
1849.
1862.

1864.
1866.
1845.
1870.
1852.

1864,
1864,
1861.
1848.
1868,

1842.
1868.
1864,

Laurent-Guillaame De Koninck, M.D., Professor of Chemistry and
Paleontology in the University of Liége, Belgium.

Dr. Lamont. Munich.

Baron von Liebig. Munich.

Professor A. Escher von der Linth. Zurich, Switzerland.

Baron de Selys-Longchamps. Liége, Belgium.

Professor Loomis. New York.

Professor C.S. Lyman. Yale College, New Haven, United States.

Baron von Miidler. Dorpat, Russia.

Professor Mannheim. Paris.

ed Ch. Martins, Director of the Jardin des Plants. Montpellier,

rance.

Professor P. Merian. Bale, Switzerland.

Professor von Middendortf. St. Petersburg.

Professor J. Milne-Hdwards. Paris.

M. VAbbé Moigno. Paris.

Dr. Arnold Moritz. Tiflis, Russia.

Professor Aug. Morren, Doyen de la Faculté de Sciences, Marsailles.

Edouard Morren, Professeur de Botanique &1’Université de Liége, Bel-

ium.

Chevalier C. Negri, President of the Italian Geographical Society,
Florence, Italy.

Herr Neumayer, Frankenthal, Bavaria.

Professor H. A. Newton. Yale College, New Haven, United States.

Professor Nilsson. Sweden.

M. E. Peligot, Memb. de l'Institut, Paris.

Professor Benjamin Pierce. Cambridge, U.S.

Gustav Plarr. Strasburg, France.

Professor Felix Plateau. Bruges, Belgium.

M. Quetelet. Brussels.

Professor L. Radlkofer. Munich.

M. De la Rive. Geneva.

Dr. F. Romer, Professor of Geology. Berlin.

Professor W. B. Rogers. Boston, U.S.

Baron Herman de Schlagintweit-Sakiinliinski. Jaegersbure Castle,
near Forchheim, Bavaria.

Professor Robert Schlagintweit. Giessen.

Padre Secchi, Director of the Observatory at Rome.

M. Werner Siemens. Berlin.

Dr. Siljestrom. Stockholm.

J. A. de Souza, Professor of Physics in the University of Coimbra,
Portugal.

Adolph Steen, Professor of Mathematics, Copenhagen.

Professor Steenstrup. Copenhagen.

Dr. Svanbere. Stockholm.

Professor Tchebichef. Membre de l’Academie de St. Petersburg,

M. Pierre de Tchihatchef, Corresponding Member of the Institut de
France. Care of Messrs. HattingueretComp.,17 Rue Bergére, Paris,

Dr. Otto Torell. University of Lund, Sweden.

Professor A. Vambéry. Pesth, Hungary.

M. de Verneuil, Memb. de l'Institut, Paris.

M. Le Verrier. Paris.

Professor Voet. Geneva.

Baron Sartorius von Waltershausen. Gittingen, Hanover.

Professor Wartmann. Geneva.

Dr. H. A. Weddell. Poitiers; France.

Dr. Frederick Welwitsch. Lisbon.

LIST OF SOCIETIES AND INSTITUTIONS.

LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS

TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. ~—

Admiralty, Library of.

Arts, Society of.

Asiatic Society (Royal).

Astronomical Society (Royal).

Belfast, Queen’s College.

Birmingham, Institute of Mechanical
Engineers.

Midland Institute.

Bristol Philosophical Institution.

Cambridge Philosophical Society.

Cornwall, Royal Geological Society of.

Dublin Geological Society.

, Royal Irish Academy.

——,, Royal Society of.

East India Library.

Edinburgh, Royal Society of.

— Royal Medical Society of.

, Scottish Society of Arts.

Enniskillen, Public Library.

Engineers, Institute of Civil.

Ethnological Society.

= aan See Memorial ante
eographical Society (Royal).

eatagical ancee on

Geology, Museum of Practical.

Greenwich, Royal Observatory.

Kew Observatory.

Leeds, Literary and Philosophical So-
ciety of,

Leeds, Mechanics’ Institute.

Linnean Society.

Liverpool, Free Public Library and
Museum.

——, Royal Institution.

London Institution.

Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society. ‘
——, Mechanics’ Institute.
Newcastle-upon-Tyne Literary and

Philosophical Society.
Nottingham, The Free Library.
Oxford, Ashmolean Society.

——, Radcliffe Observatory.

Plymouth Institution.

Physicians, Royal College of.

Royal Institution.

Society.

Salford Royal Museum and Library.

Statistical Society.

Stonyhurst College Observatory.

Surgeons, Royal College of.

Trade, Board of (Meteorological De-
partment).

United Service Institution.

War Office, Library of the.

Wales (South) Royal Institution of.’

Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

Zoological Society. ?

EUROPE.

Alten, Lapland. Literary and Philoso-
phical Society.

Altona ...... Royal Observatory.

PENT 965/08) 0.0% 2 Der Kaiserlichen Ake-
demie der Wissen-
chaften.

cet) Sa ately » Royal Academy of

ciences.

Breslau ...... Silesian Patriotic So-
ciety.

(34) 1 ee University Library.

Brussels ...... Royal Academy of

Sciences.

Charkow...... University Library.

Copenhagen ..Royal Society of
Sciences.

Dorpat, Russia. University Library.

Frankfort ....Natural Hiatees So-

ciety.

Geneva erect: Natural History So-
ciety.

‘Gottingen ....University Library.

Heidelberg ....University Library.
Helsingfors . .. . University Library.
Harlem ...... Société Holludess
des Sciences,
G

82 LIST OF SOCIETIES AND INSTITUTIONS.

Kasan, Russia . University Library.

IRGC yagie rs aie aee University Library.

Lausanne ....The Academy.

Leyden ...... University Library.

IB pata ook University Library.

Msbon een Academia Real des
Sciences.

Malan setereencrept: The Institute.

aerahict Geographical Society.
Siege wae ed Geological Society.
rechiiconbi one Royal Academy of

Sciences.
denies School of Mines.
Pulkova ...... Imperial Observatory.
OMG irae. Academia dei Lyncei.
Ad Sora Collegio Romano.

Modena ...... The Italian Society of | St. Petersburg. . University Library.

Sciences. Sa Sea Imperial Observatory.
Moscow ...... Society of Naturalists. | Stockholm ....Royal Academy.
—— eee University Library. AUIS tS Ee Soot Royal Academy of
Munch 7, ter University Library. Sciences.
Naples........ Royal Academy of | Utrecht ...... University Library.

Sciences. Vienna........ The Imperial Library.
Nicolaieff ....University Library. AOTICH ee. sinker General Swiss Society.

ASIA,

ACTA”. snes The College. Calcutta... Hindoo College.
Bombay ...... Elphinstone Institu- | —— ........ Hoogly College.

tion. —— saeeeees Medical College.
ee ti ald Hes Grant Medical Col- | Madras ...... The Observatory.

lege. ie aiees University Library.
Calcutta ...... Asiatic Society.

AFRICA.
Cape of Good Hope ....The Observatory.
St. oleae... The Observatory.
AMERICA.

Albany’ 55% The Institute. Philadelphia .. American Philosophi-
Boston ...... American Academy of cal Society.

Arts and Sciences. Toronto ...... The Observatory.
Cambridge ....Harvard University | Washington ..Smithsonian Institu-

Library. tion.
New York ....Lyceum of Natural

History.

AUSTRALIA.
Adelaide...... The Colonial Government.
WACEOTIB 6.0.05. The Colonial Government.

Printed by TAYLOR and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Strect.

ALBEMARLE STREET,
March, 1871.

MR. MURRAY’S
LIST OF WORKS NOW READY.

THE WORKS OF ALEXANDER POPE,

A NEW EDITION, COLLECTED IN PART BY THE LATE
RIGHT HON. J. W. CROKER.
WITH INTRODUCTIONS AND NOTES.

By REV. WHITWELL ELWIN.
With Portraits. Vols, I. to III. 8vo. 10s. 6d, each.

“ There is not, we think, a poet in the language whose works are so difficult to edit as the
works of Pope. They demand such a profound knowledge of the times, and of the man,
they contain so many enigmas, they exact so much critical sagacity, they so often lead one off
the main thoroughfares into by-paths and intricate labyrinths, out of which it is hard to find
the way, that the editor who can do justice to them must be blessed with consummate patience,
and endowed with no ordinary qualifications. It would be premature perhaps to judge
decisively of Mr. Elwin’s editorial capacity from a single volume of an extensive publication ;
but since in this preliminary volume the mystery of the correspondence, which is by far the
most difficult of all the Pope mysteries, is elaborately discussed, and, to our thinking, satis-
factorily explained, we are justified in anticipating that the work as it progresses will fulfil
the promise of its opening pages,.... The best notes of former editors are retained, and
Mr. Elwin adds his own, which strike us as lucid and judicious.’’—Atheneum.

‘One of the most valuable contributions to English literary history which has ever
appeared, and we predict a wide circulation and an extensive popularity forit. ‘The materials
were collected in the first instance by the late Mr. Croker, whose habit it was to write out his
notes in full as he prepared them, and the present editor has thus at his disposal a rich mine
of most valuable information. He has also had access to Lord Oxford’s papers, preserved at
Longleat, which throw much light on Pope’s character and conduct. The Caryll papers now

resented to the British Museum, have also been most useful; and the services which the late
r. Dilke has rendered to the editor, not only in reference to these papers, which he had so
carefully annotated, but also by the advice and assistance which he has privately afforded, are
gratefully acknowledged. From these and other sources have accumulated a mass of un-
ublished letters more numerous than those collected by Warburton, Warton, Bowles, and
scoe combined,”’—John Bull.

“We congratulate the admirers of Pope on the appearance of this first volume of a new
edition of his works, which will do justice to the poet and credit to English scholarship. ... .
We cannot follow Mr. Elwin in his judicious exposure of the errors and defects of his pre-
decessors. It was doubtless the recognition of these that prompted Mr. Croker to undertake
the task of purging the dross from the existing commentaries and to employ his extraordinary
power of penetrating the mysteries of our personal, political, and social history to the
elucidation of the many obscure allusions scattered through the poet’s writings, and the result
_* was a yast accumulation of curious materials.’’—Votes and Queries.

2 Mh. MURRAY’S LIST OF WORKS NOW READY.

A VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD WITH THE
ORLEANIST PRINCES.

TOUCHING AT AUSTRALIA, JAVA, SIAM, CANTON, &.
By THE MARQUIS DE BEAUVOIR.

Translated from the French under the superintendence of the Author.

2 Vols. Post 8vo. 18s.

“This voyage round the world is almost a model book of travels for the million: not
faultless certainly either in style or matter, but singularly free from the faults that are apt to
irritate or mislead, The book is light and lively. The traveller touches in his flight on just
those salient points where most men care to settle. He does not commit the folly of assuming
that we have all of us marked and inwardly digested the numerous books of travel we may
have read before ; yet he does not dwell at wearisome length on subjects he may reasonably
presume to be hackneyed. He has a Frenchman’s grace of style, a Frenchman’s eye for
scenic effect, and perhaps a Frenchman’s weakness for dramatic exaggeration.

. | We trust we have said enough to send our readers to one of the most lively books of travel
it has ever been our fortune to meet with.” —Pall Mall Gazette.

LIFE IN THE LIGHT OF GOD’S WORD,
By THE LORD ARCHBISHOP OF YORK.

New and enlarged Edition. Post 8vo. 5s.

SOME ACCOUNT OF THE

tnx

MUTINEERS of the BOUNTY, & THEIR DESCENDANTS ;

IN PITCAIRN AND NORFOLK ISLANDS, DOWN TO 1870.

By LADY BELCHER.

With Illustrations. Post 8vo. 12s.

“The tale of the mutiny of the Bounty has been told in various forms, and yet, old as it
is, it gains in interest the more frequently it is repeated and the better its details become
known. Taken as a whole, there is probably no chain of occurrences in history more replete
with romance. ... Lady Belcher possesses peculiar advantages for her task, as the step-
daughter of the late Capt. Heywood, one of the midshipmen in the Bounty. Hence many
details have come to her knowledge from personal sources and from family manuscripts, and in
particular the very important Diary of James Morrison, a petty officer of the Bounty. The
work contains also the history of the descendants of the mutineers during the later years of
their residence in Pitcairn Island, and since their removal to Norfolk Island, down to the
present year.’’— Atheneum.

THE IRISH CHURCH AND ITS FORMULARIES ;

A LETTER TO THE LORD PRIMATE OF ALL IRELAND.
By A. J. B. BERESFORD-HOPE, M.P.

8vo. Is.

MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF WORKS NOW READY. 3

A RIDE THROUGH THE
DISTURBED DISTRICTS OF NEW ZEALAND

AT THE TIME OF THE REBELLION ;
WITH NOTES OF A CRUISE AMONG THE SOUTH SEA ISLANDS.

FROM THE JOURNALS OF THE LATE

HON. HERBERT MEADE, Lt. R.N.

EDITED BY HIS BROTHER.

With Maps and Illustrations. Medium 8vo. 14s.

“The modest title chosen by the editor scarcely describes the work. Lieut. Meade was
riding through one of the loveliest countries of the earth, one scarcely known to white men;
he was beholding such strange and incredible developments and outburstings of volcanic action
as are nowhere else to be beheld; he was living with a brave, honest race of savages, intelli-
gent and clever beyond all others; and what he saw and heard he tells in simple, hearty
fashion. The most striking part of his book treats of the great geysers, or boiling fountains,
which abound in the lake district of the southern island. Never were such lovely scenes
imagined by fairy-tale teller as he saw. Fountains of boiling water, blue, and emerald-green,
and scarlet, and brightest yellow, throwing up their volume of spray a hundred feet into the
air, and pouring their surplus waters over giant terraces regularly posed one above another, as
if in scorn of man’s feebler work.”’—Odserver.

THE STUDENT'S ELEMENTS OF GEOLOGY.
By SIR CHARLES LYELL, Barr, F.RS.,

Author of ‘‘ Principles of Geology ;” ‘‘ The Antiquity of Man,” &c.

With 600 Woodcuts. Post 8vo. Qs.

“* Notwithstanding the difficulty of reconciling brevity with the copiousness of illustration,
I have endeavoured to abridge the work, so as to place it within the reach of many to whom it
was before inaccessible.’’— Author's Preface.

SAVONAROLA, ERASMUS & OTHER LITERARY ESSAYS.
By HENRY HART MILMAN, D.D.,

Late Dean of St. Paul’s.

8vo. 15s.

“These essays will be read with great interest, not only because they are from the pen of
Dean Milman and exhibit the brilliancy and power which characterize his style, but also on
account of the nature of the subjects of which they treat.’’—Atheneum.

HISTORY OF THE REIGN OF QUEEN -ANNE UNTIL
THE PEACE OF UTRECHT.

1701—1713.
By EARL STANHOPE.

Second Edition revised. 8yo. 16s.

4 MR. MURRAYS LIST OF WORKS NOW READY.

THE CHURCH AND THE AGE.

ESSAYS ON THE PRINCIPLES AND PRESENT POSITION OF THE
ANGLICAN CHURCH. BY VARIOUS WRITERS.

CONTENTS.

Anglican Principles.— DEAN OF CHICHESTER.

Modern Religious Thought. —BisHor oF GLOUCESTER and BRISTOL.

The State, Church, and Synods.— Rev, Dr, Irons,

Religious Use of Taste.—Rev. R. St. Joon TyRWHITT.

Place of the Laity.—Professor Burrows,

The Parish Priest.—Revy. WALsHAM How.

Divines of 16th and 17th Centuries.—Rev. A. W. HADDAN.

Liturgies and Ritual.—Rey. M. F. SADLER.

The Church and Education.— Rey. Dr. BARRY.

Progress of Christian Missions in India.—Sir BARTLE FRERE.

The Church and the People.—Rev. W. D. MACLAGAN.

Conciliation and Comprehension.—Rey. A. WEIR.

Second Edition. 8vo. 14s.

THE REVOLT of the PROTESTANTS in the CEVENNES,

WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF
THE HUGUENOTS IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.

By MRS. BRAY,

Author of ‘‘The Good St. Louis,” &, &.

Post 8vo. 10s. 6d.

“Mrs. Bray has given in this little volume, a very full and interesting account of the civil
war in the Cevennes, popularly known as the Camisard revolt. The book is agreeably written. —
The revolt of the Cevennes, though unimportant in its effects on the general course of history,
has a dramatic unity which gives it an interest of its own. It is a singularly representative
type, in a circumscribed space, of the revolt against political and religious oppression, with all —
the characteristic features of such warfare strongly marked.”’— Literary Churchman.

THE STUDENT'S ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE EAST.

FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE CONQUEST OF
ALEXANDER THE GREAT.

INCLUDING EGYPT, ASSYRIA, BABYLONIA, MEDIA, PERSIA, ASIA MINOR, and PHGNICLA.

iby, PHILIP SMPH, BA,

Author of the “ History of the World.”

With Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.

‘«The work is based on an independent study of the ancient writers, and a careful use of
the best modern authorities. The object has not been to draw up a mere skeleton or epitome,
but a narrative full and circumstantial enough to possess life and interest, and to leave that
impression on the memory which mere outlines can never produce. In fine, an earnest effort
has been made to produce a mannal, both for the student and the general reader, of the present
state of our knowledge on a subject the interest of which is daily growing, its bounds enlarging,
and its details becoming more definite and certain by the progress of inquiry.’’—Preface.

MR. MURRAYS LIST OF WORKS NOW READY. 5

THE JUDGES OF ENGLAND.

ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED,

FROM THE CONQUEST TO THE PRESENT TIME, 1066—1870.
By EDWARD FOSS, F.S.A.

(800 pp.) Medium 8yvo. 21s.

“Tt was a happy thought on the part of the author to remodel his great work, and eliminat-
ing the mere historical portion to reproduce the Biographies of the Judges, abridged in a few
cases, and with all necessary corrections, and instead of the chronological arrangement, that
somewhat interferes with felicity of reference, throwing them into alphabetical order and
printing them in one volume of convenient size as a ‘ Biographical Dictionary of the Judges of
England.’ Our readers will probably be surprised to find that these Lives are sixteen hundred
in number, so that the work is one calculated not only to give completeness to every legal
library, but to form @ necessary supplement to all our other BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARIES.’ —
Notes and Queries.

A MEMOIR OF SIR C. LOCK EASTLAKE, R.A,,

LATE PRESIDENT OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY.

WITH SELECTIONS FROM HIS CORRESPONDENCE.
By LADY EASTLAKE.
TO WHICH ARE ADDED HIS CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE LITERATURE OF THE FINE ARTS.

CONTENTS.
The Fine Arts. | Painting suited to the Decoration of Public
Scriptural and Legendary Subjects of the Buildings.
Middle Ages. Life of Raphael.

Modern German School of Fresco Painting. | Paintings in the Capella Sistina.
State and Prospects of the English School. | Goethe’s Theory of Colours.
Representation as distinguished from De- | Decoration of a Villa.

scription. Philosophy of the Fine Arts.
Sculpture. How to Observe.
Basso-Rilievo. Difference between Language and Art.

The Formative Arts and Descriptive Poetry.
Two Vols. 8vo. 24s.

THE FAMILIAR LETTERS OF SIR CHARLES BELL,

With Portrait. Crown 8vo. 12s.

“Few people will read this book without pleasure, or lay it down without regret. In it
Sir Charles Bell tells the story of his life, and traces minutely every eventful step in his
career in letters thrown off during his leisure moments, in which he gives expression to all his
thoughts, feelings, and aspirations. The whole inner and outer life of the man stands revealed
before us, and it is impossible not to admire his honest, ingenuous, noble character, which to
the very last was perfectly child-like in its simplicity. We have a vast fund of interesting
anecdotes, and numerous glimpses of some of the most distinguished men who were giants
among their contemporaries during the first quarter of this century.’’—Standard.

6 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF WORKS NOW READY.

THE METALLURGY OF LEAD,

INCLUDING DESILVERIZATION AND CUPELLATION.
By JOHN PERCY, M.D., F.RS.,

Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Royal School of Mines.

With numerous Illustrations. 8yvo. 30s.

OLD DECCAN DAYS; Or, Hindoo Fairy Legends, —

CURRENT IN SOUTHERN INDIA. COLLECTED FROM ORAL TRADITION,

By M. FRERE. ;
With an Inrropucrion and Norrs by SIR BARTLE FRERE.

New Edition. With Illustrations. Small 8yvo. 6s.

“Miss Frere has executed her task with judgment and skill, and has made a pleasing ;
selection of original fables and ancient legends. The style is simple but effective. The intro-
duction and notes by Sir Bartle Frere contain much valuable information respecting the
ancient traditions, usages, and mythology of the tribes of Southern India.’’—Zwaminer.

ESSAYS RELATING TO CHURCH AND STATE.

1850-70.
By ARTHUR P. STANLEY, D.D.,

Dean of Westminster.

8vo. 16s.

A HISTORY OF MODERN EUROPE;

FROM THE TAKING OF CONSTANTINOPLE BY THE TURKS,
TO THE CLOSE OF THE WAR IN THE CRIMEA, 1453-1857.

By THOMAS H. DYER, LL.D.

Author of the “‘ History of the City of Rome,” “The Ruins of Pompeii,” ‘‘The Kings of Rome,” &c.

CoMPLETE, WITH INDEX. 4 Vols. 8yvo. 42s., strongly bound.

“ Dyer’s History is a valuable sequel to that of Gibbon, whom he has evidently studied as
a node one ult.’

“ Dyer’s * History of Modern Europe’ is the only good work of its kind extant in English.
The work was a difficult one, from the vast wealth of matter to tell and the constant tempta-
tion to dwell at disproportionate length upon certain passages, as well as generally upon the
affairs of England, but he has arranged and proportioned his narrative admirably well; it is
really of Europe that he tells the Modern History. His style is clear and close, and the work
has a thoroughly good index.” —Examiner.

MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF WORKS NOW READY. 7

EUROPE DURING THE FRENCH REVOLUTION,
(1789—-1795.)

CHIEFLY FROM THE SECRET ARCHIVES OF AUSTRIA, PRUSSIA, &c.
By PROFESSOR VON SYBEL.

Translated from the Third German Edition, with much new matter,

By WALTER C. PERRY, LL.D.

CoMPLETE, WITH INDEX. 4 Vols. 8yo. 48s.

RESEARCHES into the EARLY HISTORY of MANKIND,

AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF CIVILISATION.

By E. B. TYLOR.
Second Edition. With Illustrations. S8vo. 12s.

GROTE’S HISTORY OF GREECE:

FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE CLOSE OF THE GENERATION
CONTEMPORARY WITH ALEXANDER THE GREAT.

Fifth and Cheaper Edition. With Portrait and Plans. Twelve Vols.
Post 8vo. 6s. each.

MISSIONARY TRAVELS IN LITTLE KNOWN PARTS
OF ASIA MINOR,

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE AND
DISCOVERIES IN ARCHAOLOGY.

By REV. HENRY J. VAN LENNEP, D.D.
With Maps and Illustrations. 2 Vols. Post 8vo, 24s,

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
By MRS. SOMERVILLE.
Sixth Edition, Revised by H. W. Bares, F.R.G.S. With Portrait. Post 8yo. 9s.

8 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF WORKS NOW READY.

A POCKET EDITION OF THE POETICAL WORKS OF
LORD BYRON.

8 Vols., 24mo, Bound, andina CASE. 21s.

“This capital little library of gift books! Neat binding, in a casc, type large, paper good,
and volumes small enough for easy handling, or for pocket or portmanteau.” — Examiner.

ANNALS OF ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL,
By DEAN MILMAN,

Second Edition. Portrait and Illustrations. 8vo. 18s.

VOYAGE OF THE “FOX” IN THE ARCTIC SEAS,

AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE FATE OF SIR JOHN FRANKLIN
AND HIS COMPANIONS.

By SIR LEOPOLD M‘CLINTOCK.
Third Edition. With Map and Illustrations. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.

THE ROB ROY ON THE JORDAN,

THE NILE, RED SEA, LAKE OF GENNESARETH, &c.
A CANOE CRUISE IN PALESTINE, EGYPT, AND THE WATERS OF DAMASCUS.
By JOHN MACGREGOR, M.A.

Eighth Thousand. With 8 Maps and 70 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 12s.

STORIES FOR DARLINGS,
A BOOK FOR YOUNG PEOPLE.

With numerous Illustrations. Square 16mo. 5s.

CONTENTS.
The Midnight Adventure. Tottie.
Baby Zack. The Guardian Angel,
The Three Sisters. The Fairies’ Ball.
The King of the Hartz Mountains. The Autumn Primrose.
The Sister of Mercy ; or, Little Mary, Parting Words.

“We will not profess to have read every page of it, but what we have read impels us to say
that it is very superior to the general run of yarns for children, nor is it its least merit that
here and there in it is to be found a judicious allusion to higher and holier things than the
pleasures of this world,””—Znglish Churchman.

MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF WORKS NOW READY. 9

A HANDBOOK FOR YOUNG PAINTERS,
By CHARLES ROBERT LESLIE, R.A.,

Author of “Life of Constable,” &c,

New Edition. With 20 Illustrations. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.

“ Mr, Leslie’s Handbook is a thoroughly readable book, written in an agreeable and modest
style, without either pretension or pedantry ; and like most men who have made real experi-
ment in the difficulties of their profession, and given a whole life to their study, Mr. Leslie
makes little assertion of superior wisdom. An eminent painter, indeed, is seldom an unkindly
critic. Mr. Leslie’s book belongs to the scientific rather than the light literature of art. It is
not in reality a handbook, but a course of lectures, well considered and worthy productions, to
which any ee of students might be glad to listen.” —Blackwood’s Magazine:

A COPIOUS & CRITICAL ENGLISH-LATIN DICTIONARY.

COMPILED FROM ORIGINAL SOURCES
By WM. SMITH, D.C.L., & THEOPHILUS D. HALL, M.A.

Medium 8vo, 21s., and square 12mo, 7s. 6d.

A SMALLER SCRIPTURE HISTORY.

I.—OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY ; II.—CONNECTION OF OLD AND NEW
TESTAMENTS; I1I].—NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY TO a.p. 70.

Epirep sy WILLIAM SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D.

With Illustrations... 16mo. 3s. 6d.

TREES AND SHRUBS FOR ENGLISH PLANTATIONS,

A SELECTION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE MOST ORNAMENTAL KIND, NATIVE AND
FOREIGN, WHICH WILL FLOURISH IN THE OPEN AIR IN OUR CLIMATE;

With Classified Lists of the several Species under the heads of Soil, Aspect, Form, Colour
of Foliage, Season of Blooming, &c., &c., for the purposes of Practical Application.

By AUGUSTUS MONGREDIEN.

With 30 Illustrations. 8vo. 16s

10 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF WORKS NOW READY.

HISTORICAL MEMORIALS OF WESTMINSTER ABBEY.
By DEAN STANLEY.

Third Edition. With many Illustrations. 8yvo. 21s.

A MEMOIR OF THE LIFE AND WORKS OF THE LATE
SIR CHARLES BARRY, R.A,,

ARCHITECT OF THE HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT, &c.

By uts Son, ALFRED BARRY, D.D.,

Principal of King’s College, London.
Second Edition. With Portrait, and 40 Illustrations. 8vo. 15s.

LIST OF SOME OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS.

Portrait of Sir Charles Barry. Cliefden House.

The Travellers’ Club, Birmingham Grammar School.
Reform Club. Canford Manor.

Bridgewater House. Gawthorpe Hall.

Halifax Town Hall. | New Palace of Westminster.
College of Surgeons, | Victoria Tower.

Walton House. Clumber House.

Highclere House. Crystal Palace.

Board of Trade. Pall Mall Continuation.
Trentham Hall. | New Palace Yard.
Shrubland Park and Gardens. Westminster Improvements.

“The memoir is something more than a mere record of professional labours, with their
accompanying struggles, successes and failures. It is a thoroughly attractive history of a man
of strongly marked individual character, battling with the realities of life, and winning
successes as striking as were the drawbacks which accompanied them.’’—Pall Mall Gazette.

ALPINE FLOWERS FOR ENGLISH GARDENS,

AN EXPLANATION OF THE PRINCIPLES ON WHICH THE EXQUISITE
FLORA OF ALPINE COUNTRIES MAY BE GROWN TO PERFECTION
IN ALL PARTS OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS.

By W. ROBINSON, F.LS.,

Author of ‘‘ The Parks, Promenades, and Gardens of Paris,”

With 70 Illustrations. Crown 8yo. 12s.

MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF WORKS NOW READY. 11

THE WILD GARDEN ;

Or, OUR GROVES AND SHRUBBERIES MADE BEAUTIFUL BY THE
NATURALIZATION OF HARDY EXOTIC PLANTS.

WITH A CHAPTER ON THE GARDEN OF BRITISH. WILD FLOWERS.

By W. ROBINSON, F.LS.,

Author of ‘The Parks and Gardens of Paris.”

With Frontispiece. Small 8vo. 6s.

BRITTANY AND ITS BYEWAYS,

WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF ITS INHABITANTS AND ANTIQUITIES ;
WRITTEN DURING A RESIDENCE IN THAT COUNTRY.

By MRS. BURY PALLISER,

Author of the ‘‘ History of Lace.”

With numerous Illustrations. Post 8vo. 12s.

TRAVELS IN THE HIGHLANDS OF TURKEY.

IN PARTS LITTLE VISITED OF ALBANIA, MONTENEGRO, &c.

WITH NOTES ON THE CLASSICAL SUPERSTITIONS OF THE MODERN GREEK.

By REV. HENRY FANSHAWE TOZER, M.A.,

Tutor and late Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford.

With Map and Illustrations, 2 Vols. Crown 8vo. 24s.

ANCIENT SPANISH BALLADS,

HISTORICAL AND ROMANTIC.
TRANSLATED, witH Norss, spy J. G. LOCKHART,

Author of the ‘‘ Life of Sir Walter Scott.”

New Edition. With Portrait of the Author by Pickersgill, and numerous Illustrations,
Crown 8yvo. 5s.

“The reader who is not already familiar with these charming ballads should make their
acquaintance in the present form. They are full of that blended romance of the Kast and
of the West which forms the special attraction of old Spanish history, literature, and legend.
‘The champions of the Crescent and the knights of the Cross do battle in these ringing stanzas ;
and the superstitions of Saracen and Christian mingle their varied hues in a hundred glancing
lights of faney.”—Daily News.

12 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF WORKS NOW READY.

CHINA.

A PERSONAL NARRATIVE OF EVENTS DURING LORD ELGIN’S
SECOND EMBASSY.

By HENRY BROUGHAM LOCH,

Private Secretary to the Earl of Elgin.

Second Edition. With Map and Illustrations. Post 8vo. 9s.

HISTORY & CONSTITUTION OF THE BRITISH ARMY ;

ITS ADMINISTRATION AND GOVERNMENT FROM THE
REVOLUTION OF 1688 TO THE PRESENT DAY.

By CHARLES M. CLODE.

Two Vols. 8vo. 21s. each.

THE CHACE—THE TURF—AND THE ROAD,

A SERIES OF DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS.

By C. J. APPERLEY (NIMROD).

New Edition. With Portrait of the Author by Maclise, and numerous IIlustrations by
LKEN. Crown 8vo. 5s. ; or coloured, 7s. 6d.

“When reading these pages, and dwelling on the reminiscences of former days how many
an old stager will fancy he once more lives in the old coaching days, when the brisk horn
heralded the approach of the ‘ Highflyer,’ or ‘Comet.’ How many an old squire, who years
ago has laid down his whip and hung up his scarlet, will think he once more hears the burst
of music at the coverside, which tells the dogs have found.’”—Army and Navy Gazette.

“ That capital work, ‘The Chace, the Turf, and the Road,’ by ‘ Nimrod,’ needs no recom-
mendation. It is one that should be in every gentleman’s library.”—John Bull.

OUR IRON-CLAD SHIPS;
THEIR QUALITIES, PERFORMANCES, AND COST.

INCLUDING CHAPTERS ON TURRET SHIPS, IRON-CLAD RAMS, &c.

By E. J. REED, C.B.,

Author of ‘‘ A Treatise on Shipbuilding in Iron and Steel.”

With Illustrations. 8vo. 12s.

MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF WORKS NOW READY. 13

THE

NAUTICAL ALMANAC & ASTRONOMICAL EPHEMERIS,

FOR THE YEAR 1874.

WitH AN APPENDIX, CONTAINING ELEMENTS AND EPHEMERIDES OF CERES, PALLAS
JuNO, VESTA, AND ASTRHA,

And the Particulars of the Transit of Venus over the Sun’s Disc at the Stations
selected for Observation.

(By Order of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty.)
8vo. 2s. 6d.

MATTHIA’S GREEK GRAMMAR FOR SCHOOLS.

ABRIDGED BY THE LATE BISHOP BLOMFIELD.

AN ENTIRELY NEW AND ENLARGED EDITION.

By E. 8. CROOKH, B.A.,

Formerly Assistant-Master in Marlborough College.

Post 8vo. 4s.

*¢ Matthiw’s ‘ Greek Grammar’ is well known to scholars. It was originally abridged by
Bishop Blomfield, and the abridgment has gone through several editions. The latest of these
is edited by Mr. Crooke, formerly one of the assistant-masters at Marlborough, who seems to
have performed his task in an able and scholarly manner. He has made considerable alterations,
most of them for the better, and claims to have introduced a large body of supplementary
matter, and to have corrected some of the anomalies which his predecessors had allowed to

remain.’”’—John Bull.

THE ROYAL ENGINEER,

AND THE ROYAL ESTABLISHMENTS AT WOOLWICH AND CHATHAM.
By tue Ricur Hon. Sir FRANCIS B. HEAD, Barr.

With Illustrations. 8vo. 12s.

THE MUSIC OF THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS:

PARTICULARLY OF THE ASSYRIANS, EGYPTIANS, AND
HEBREWS ;

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE DISCOVERIES IN WESTERN ASIA AND EGYPT.

By CARL ENGEL.

Second Edition, with 100 Illustrations. S8vo. 10s. 6d.

“Mr. Engel’s work is the most valuable addition to the history of music that we have had
for along time, The author has for many years devoted his attention to the peculiar charac-
teristics of the music of both civilised and barbarous nations, and the result is the present work,
which is as interesting to the general reader as a sensation novel.’ —Orchestra.

14 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF WORKS NOW READY.

A CONCISE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE
FOR FAMILIES AND STUDENTS:

ITS ANTIQUITIES, BIOGRAPHY, GEOGRAPHY, AND NATURAL
HISTORY.

Condensed from the larger Work.

Epitrep sy WM. SMITH, D.C.L.

New Edition. With Maps and 300 Illustrations. Medium 8yvo. 21s.

«¢ An invaluable service has been rendered to students in this condensation; the work has
been done as only a careful and intelligent scholar could do it, which preserves to us the
essential scholarship and value of each article. It has been condensed, and not amputated.
The result is a dictionary of exceeding value,—a great boon to hundreds of students.” —British
Quarterly Reveiw.

PROFESSOR CURTIUS.

ELUCIDATIONS of the STUDENT'S GREEK GRAMMAR.

Translated from the German, with the Authov’s aid and sanction,

By EVELYN ABBOT.

Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.

‘The present work will greatly add to the usefulness of Curtius’ Greek Grammar, by bring-
ing clearly before those who teach from it many important questions of principle and detail
on which Modern Philology has thrown new light. This book ought to be in the hands of
every teacher and every real student of Greek.””—Athenewn.

BENEDICITE ; or the SONG of the THREE CHILDREN,

BEING ILLLUSTRATIONS OF THE POWER, BENEFICENCE, AND
DESIGN MANIFESTED BY THE CREATOR IN HIS WORKS.

By G. C. CHAPLIN CHILD, M.D.
8th Thousand. Small 8vo. 6s.

“¢ Such books raise and ennoble the mind of the reader by familiarising it with the wonders
of the earth and heavens, and imbuing his whole spirit with the glory of the Architect by
whose Almighty word they were called into existence.” —Quarterly Review.

ALBEMARLE STREET,
March, 1871,

MR. MURRAY’S
Hist of dorks in Areparation,

THE NEW BIBLE COMMENTARY.

THE HOLY BIBLE,

ACCORDING TO THE AUTHORIZED VERSION, A.D. 1611.

With an Explanatory and Critical Commentary and a Revision of the
Translation,
BY BISHOPS AND OTHER CLERGY OF THE ANGLICAN CHURCH.
EDITED BY
F. C. COOK, M.A., Canon or Exeter,

Preacher at Lincoln’s Inn, and Chaplain in Ordinary to the Queen.

Vol. I—THE PENTATEUCH (in Two Parts), Medium 8yo. 30s.

ye want of a plain Hxplanatory Commentary on the Bible more com-

plete and accurate than any now accessible to English readers has been long felt
by men of education. In 1863 the Speaker of the House of Commons consulted some of
the Bishops as to the best way of supplying the deficiency ; and the Archbishop of York
undertook to organise a plan for producing such a work, by the co-operation of several
Scholars selected for their Biblical learning.

The great object of such a Commentary must be to put the general reader in full
possession of whatever information may be requisite to enable him to understand the
Holy Scriptures, to give him, as far as possible, the same advantages as the Scholar,
and to supply him with satisfactory answers to objections resting upon misrepresenta-
tion of the Text.

Special care is taken to furnish in all cases amended translations of passages proved to
be incorrect in our Version ; but the Comment will be chiefly explanatory, presenting,
in a concise and readable form, the results of learned investigations, carried on in this
and other countries during the last half century.

VOL. I1.—THE PENTATEUCH.
GENESIS—Bisnop or Ezy.

Part I. EXODUS—Cawnon Cook anp Rey, SAMUEL CLARK.
LEVITICUS—Rev. Samurt Crark.
Part II. NUMBERS— Rry. T. E. Esern AND

DEUTERONOMY— Rey. J. F. Turvupr.

16 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF WORKS IN PREPARATION.

The Descent of Man,

AND ON SELECTION IN RELATION TO SEX.

By CHARLES DARWIN, F.RB.S.,
Author of ‘‘ The Variation of Animals and Plants,” &c. &e.

5th Thousand. With Illustrations. 2 Vols. Crown 8vo. 24s. (Ready.)

—_——_@____—_

The Travels of Marco Polo.

A NEW ENGLISH VERSION.
ILLUSTRATED BY THE LIGHT OF ORIENTAL WRITERS AND MODERN TRAVELS.
By COL. HENRY YULE, C.B., M.R.G.S.
With original Maps and other Illustrations. 2 Vols. Medium 8vo.

———_@_____

The Handwriting of Junius.

PROFESSIONALLY INVESTIGATED.
By MR. CHARLES CHABOT, Expert.

With Preface and Collateral Evidence

By the HON. EDWARD TWISLETON.

With Facsimiles and Woodcuts. 4to.

———$o—__

The Talmud.

By EMANUEL DEUTSCH.

8vo.

Visit to High Tartary, Yarkand, dé: Kashgar,

(FORMERLY CHINESE TARTARY,)
AND RETURN JOURNEY OVER THE KARAKORUM PASS,
BY ROBERT SHAW.

With Map and Illustrations. 8vo.

MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF WORKS IN PREPARATION. 17

Prumitiwe Culture ;

RESEARCHES INTO THE DEVELOPMENT OF MYTHOLOGY,
PHILOSOPHY, RELIGION, ART, AND CUSTOM.

By E. B. TYLOR,
Author of the ‘* Early History of Mankind.”

2Vols. 8vo. (Ready.)

o——

Travels of a Pioneer of Commerce in a
Pigtail and a Petticoat,
OR, AN OVERLAND JOURNEY FROM CHINA TOWARDS INDIA.
By T. T. COOPER.

With Map and Illustrations. 8yo,

Lord Byron.

A CONDENSED BIOGRAPHY; WITH CRITICAL ESSAY ON BYRON’S
PLACE IN LITERATURE.

By CARL ELZE.

Translated from the German, with the Author’s aid, and edited with Notes,

8vo.

Scrambles among the Alps.

1860-69.

INCLUDING THE FIRST ASCENT OF THE MATTERHORN, AND THE ATTEMPTS
WHICH PRECEDED IT,

And Observations on GLACIAL PHENOMENA ON THE ALPS AND IN GREENLAND.
By EDWARD WHYMPER.
With Maps and 100 Illustrations. Medium 8yo. 21s,

18 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF WORKS IN PREPARATION.

Correspondence of the Late Earl of Elgin.

Edited by THEODORE WALROND.

8vo.

An Account of the Manners and Customs
of the Modern Egyptians.

By E. J. LANE.

A New Edition, with Woodcuts.

2 vols. Post 8vo.

Uniform with ‘‘ Wilkinson’s Ancient Egyptians.”

History of the Christian Church.

By JAMES C. ROBERTSON, M.A,,

Canon of Canterbury, and Professor of Ecclesiastical History in King’s College, London.

Vou. [VY.—From the Death of Boniface VIII. to the End of the Fifth Council of The

Lateran. 1303—1517.
8vo.
——_—__>—_—_.

History of Painting in North Italy,

VENICE, PADUA, VICENZA, VERONA, FERRARA, MILAN,
FRIULI, BRESCHIA.

[14th to 16th Centuries. ]

Drawn up from New Materials, and from Personal Inspection of the Works of Art.

By J. A. CROWE and G. B. CAVALCASELLE,
Authors of ‘‘ The Early Flemish Painters.”

CONTENTS :—

The Early Venetian painters, the Vi-
varini, the Bellini, and their Disciples ;
Carpaccio, Bastiani, Mansuelo, Diana,
Marziale, Cima, Catena, Basaiti, Prevatali,
and Bissolo ; the Paduan Schools, Squar-
cione, Mantegna, and his pupils, Monta-
gnana, the Canozzi, the Vicentines, Verlas,
Montagna, Buonconsiglio, and Fogolino, the
Veronese, from Pisano to Torbido, the Fer-
rarese, from Galasso to the Grandis, Fran-

With Illustrations.

cia and Costa, the Parmeso, ending with
Cotignola. Then come the Milanese with
Bramantino, Foppa, and their School,
Antonello and his School, Giorgione, the
Friulani, Pellegrino, Morto, Pordenone,
and their Disciples ; Sebastian del Piombo,
the Brescians, Romanino, Moretto, and
Savaldo, and their followers, Palma Verchio,
Lotto, and Cariani.

2 Vols. 8vo.

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Longevity of Man; tts Facts & its Fictions.

INCLUDING

OBSERVATIONS ON THE MORE REMARKABLE INSTANCES, AND
HINTS FOR TESTING REPUTED CASES.

By WILLIAM J. THOMS, F.S.A.

Post 8vo,

The Gallican Church.

SKETCHES OF CHURCH HISTORY IN FRANCE, FROM THE CONCORDAT
OF BOLOGNA, 1516, TO THE REVOLUTION.

WITH AN INTRODUCTION,

By W. HENLEY JERVIS, M.A.,
Prebendary of Heytesbury, Author of ‘‘The Student’s History of France.’

2 Vols. 8vo,

——»>———_

A Dictionary of
Christian Antiquities and Biography.
FROM THE TIMES OF THE APOSTLES TO THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE.
BY VARIOUS AUTHORS.

Edited by WM. SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D.
With Illustrations. 2 Vols. Medium 8vo.

On the Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron,

WITH EVERY DETAIL OF THE PROCESS ILLUSTRATED,

By JOHN PERCY, M.D., F.RS.,

Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Government School of Mines.

With Illustrations. 8vo.

20 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF WORKS IN PREPARATION.

The Poems and Fragments of Catullus.

TRANSLATED IN THE METRES OF THE ORIGINAL.
By ROBINSON ELLIS, M.A.,

Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford ; Professor of Latin in University College, London.

Small 8vo. 5s. (Ready.)

Student's Europe in the Middle Ages.

By HENRY HALLAM, LL.D.

Including the Supplemental Notes and the Author’s latest corrections,

Edited by WM. SMITH, LL.D.

One Volume. Post 8vo.

Student's Constitutional History of England.

By HENRY HALLAM, LL.D.
Including the Author's latest Corrections and Additions,

One Volume. Post 8vo.

=. —— a

The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient
World ;

Or, THE HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY, AND ANTIQUITIES OF ASSYRIA,
BABYLONIA, CHALDAA, MEDIA, AND PERSIA.

By GEORGE RAWLINSON, M™.A.,

Camden Professor of History at Oxford.

Second Edition, revised, with Maps and Illustrations. 8 Vols. 8vo.

‘* Professor Rawlinson has now completed his great literary task. It will take its place as
a standard work in English literature—indeed, in the historical literature of Europe, as well as
of that new Europe which is springing into gigantic life, on the other side of the Atlantic. It
is the most thorough work in ancient history that has eyer been given to the world. Owing to
the remote antiquity of the empires of which it treats, the number of works bearing on the
subject are few in number, considering the long poet in the world’s history (nearly 2000
years) which it embraces; but never yet have the materials of history been so patiently
studied and so carefully used. Every page of Professor Rawlinson’s work bristles with
authorities, every statement—even those relating to matters of minor detail—is supported by a
reference to the work or works upon which it is founded.”’—British Quarterly Review.

MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF WORKS IN PREPARATION. 21

Metallurgy of Gold, Silver, and Mercury.

By JOHN PERCY, M.D., F.R.S.,
Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Royal School of Mines,

With numerous Illustrations. 8vo.

———_—_> — ——

The Metallurgy of Platinum, Tin, Nickel,
Cobalt, Antimony, Bismuth, Arsemc,

AND OTHER METALS.
By JOHN PERCY, M.D., F.R.S.,

Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Government School of Mines.

With Illustrations. 8vo.

Handbook to the Environs of London,

INCLUDING A RADIUS OF TWENTY MILES ROUND THE METROPOLIS.

Post 8vo.

Constitution and Practice of Courts Martial,

WITH A SUMMARY OF THE LAW OF EVIDENCE, &c.

By Captain T. F. SIMMONS, R.A.
Sixth Edition, embodying the latest Alterations in the Law. 8vo.

A Copious English Grammar.

A METHODICAL, ANALYTICAL, AND HISTORICAL TREATISE ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY,
PROSODY, INFLECTIONS, AND SYNTAX OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE.

With numerous Authorities, cited in the order of Historical development.

From the German of
PROFESSOR MAETZNER, of Berlin.

3 Vols. 8vo.

22 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF WORKS IN PREPARATION.

A Manual of Scientific Enquiry,

FOR THE USE OF OFFICERS ON FOREIGN SERVICE, AND TRAVELLERS
IN GENERAL,

BY VARIOUS WRITERS.
Edited by SIR J. F. HERSCHEL, Bart.
Fourth Edition, revised by Rey. ROBERT MAIN, M.A., Radcliffe Observer.
(By authority of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty.)

Post 8vo.

A Medeval Latin-English Dictionary.

FOUNDED ON THE GREAT WORK OF DUCANGE.

Comprising all matter of importance therein contained : but illustrated and enlarged by
numerous additions, derived from Patristic and Scholastic Authors, from the works
of writers published by the Record Commission of Government, from Medieval
Histories, Charters, Glossaries, and Dictionaries, and from various other Archxo-
logical sources, ancient and modern.

By E. A. DAYMAN, B.D.,

Late Fellow and Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford; Rector of Shillingstone, Dorset ;
Prebendary of Sarum.

Small 4to.

Classical and Biblical Atlas.

Edited by DR. WILLIAM SMITH.

Part I.—GREECE, and THE ISLANDS OF THE AGEAN.
Part IJ.—THE HOLY LAND AND COUNTRIES OF THE BIBLE.

Folio.

Handbook for Travellers in Denmark,
Norway, Sweden, and Iceland.

New and revised Edition. Maps and Plans. Post 8vo.

MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF WORKS IN PREPARATION. 23

The Gentleman’s House ;

Or, HOW TO PLAN ENGLISH RESIDENCES FROM THE PARSONAGE
TO THE PALACE.

WITH TABLES OF ACCOMMODATION AND OOST, AND A SERIES OF SELECTED PLANS.

By ROBERT KERR, Architect,

Professor of the Arts of Coustruction in King’s College, London.

Third Edition, with Plans. 8yvo. 24s. (Ready.)

“The volume contains a number of valuable suggestions which all will do well to consider
and to attend to in any house they may hereafter build, if only they can find an architect able
and willing to carry them all out.’ —Churehman.

“‘ Professor Kerr’s volume is a practical treatise that every man should study who is about
to build himself a house.’’— Examiner.

‘A most valuable contribution to the literature of our profession. It is a work of great

importance to students, and it will become a text-book for those who are more advanced.’’—
Builder.

Handbook for Constantinople,
the Bosphorus, Dardanelles, Brousa, and Plain of Troy,

WITH GENERAL HINTS FOR TRAVELLERS IN TURKEY.
New and Revised Edition. Maps and Plans. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d. (Ready.)

>—__—_

A Smaller Ancient History of the East,

FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE CONQUEST OF
ALEXANDER THE GREAT.

INCLUDING EGYPT, ASSYRIA, BABYLONIA, MEDIA, PERSIA, ASIA MINOR, AND PH@NICIA,
Edited by WILLIAM SMITH, D.C.L.

With Woodcuts. 16mo.
———_—>——_-

Blackstone’s Commentaries on the Laws
of England.

A NEW EDITION, ADAPTED TO THE PRESENT STATE OF THE LAW.

By ROBERT MALCOLM KERR,

Barrister-at-Law.

Third and Revised Edition. Four Vols. 8vo,

24 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF WORKS IN PREPARATION.

Principles and Practice of Modern Artillery,

IncLtupine ARTILLERY MATERIAL, GUNNERY, AND ORGANIZATION AND USE
oF ARTILLERY IN WARFARE.

By LIEUT.-COL. C. H. OWEN, R.A.,
Professor of Artillery R.M. Academy, Woolwich.

With numerous Illustrations. 8vo. 15s. (Ready.)

ee <

Letters on Military Organization.

By LORD ELCHO, M.P.
With an Appendix. Post 8vo. 3s. 6d. (Ready.)

“ Solon said well to Croesus, ‘Sir, if any other come that hath better iron than you, he will
be master of all this gold.’ ”’—Bacon’s Essays.

——>—_

Village Communities in the East and West.

SIX LECTURES DELIVERED AT OXFORD.

By H. S. MAINE, Author of ‘‘ Ancient Law.”

Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence in the University, and formerly Law Member of the
Supreme Government of India. ,

8vo. (Ready.)

London—Past and Present:

BEING THE ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED ‘‘ HANDBOOK” OF THE
LATE PETER CUNNINGHAM.
REVISED, EXPANDED, AND CONTINUED

By LIEUT.-COLONEL FRANCIS CUNNINGHAM.

Tn order to render this history of our old streets and public buildings as perfect as
possible, communications (addressed to the Editor) are solicited from any readers of the
former Editions who may have noticed errors or omissions.

New and revised Edition. 3 Vols. 8vo.

‘af BRADBURY, EVANS, AND CO,, PRINTERS, WHITEFK1ARS.

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